Spee Morty b 66800080 LOZ € | | 4D3ITIOO §, TAVHOIN ‘1S SO ALISHSAINN THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY FOUNDED BY JAMES LOEB, LL.D. e EDITED BY | ¢T. E. PAGE, c.u., urrr.p. E. CAPPS, px.p., 1.p. W. H. D. ROUSE, rirr.p. L. A. POST, ».a. E. H. WARMINGTON, ».a. ar pe, ‘\ ARISTOTLE GENERATION OF ANIMALS PLAMI“A FOS i ARISTOTLE GENERATION OF ANIMALS WITH AN ENGLISH TRANSLATION BY A. L. PECK, M.A., Pu.D. FELLOW OF CHRIST'S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, AND UNIVERSITY LECTURER IN CLASSICS LONDON CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS MCMXLUI | Va HOUTA ae HRY nes x ‘ . ¥ A : a al > ye J er es, See Pa ie fe a ks Pay OF a) ois ‘ at - = wl ‘ PZ 4 i. a a ae = e a, 8 Ao ; : } 5 + 2 5 a ‘ a 2 %. 7 e , { 5, Fi e's 4 : . vous ; t ' “T Oft ORAMEAIT ORE VERE REA OT ERNE: eed YP aiavIey AE ot Printed én'G@réat Britain } : we "5 ae PREFACE In reviewing Karl Bitterauf’s book? in 1914, H. Stad- ler ® described the Generation of Animals as “ this still inadequately appreciated work of Aristotle’s,’’ and it must be confessed that his description is not yet out of date. It has, perhaps, been more appreciated by men of science than by scholars and philosophers ; but it has a strong interest for both classes of students. Its neglect by scholars and philosophers ° is the more surprising, since it may, I think, be justly claimed that in this treatise Aristotle’s thought is to be seen integrated as it is nowhere else ; for in reproduction, as understood by Aristotle, not only the individual is concerned but the cosmos at large : it is a business in which the powers of the universe are concentrated and united; and it is the means whereby that eternity, with which, if he could have done it, God would have filled the whole creation from one end to the other, is attained so far as is possible by the creatures that are subject to decay ;. indeed, these very beings, animals and plants,’ have in Aristotle’s view the best claim to the title of “ being” (ovc‘a), a much better claim than the lifeless things out of © which they are composed, or the objects made by human art; and therefore they merit to an excep- tional degree the attention of the student of reality. ® Der Schlussteil der aristotelischen Biologie; see below, p. XXv. ® In Berliner Philologische Wochenschrift (1914), p. 833. * Among the less learned, however, the outstanding achievement of Aristotle in this branch of study has been for at least the last three centuries acknowledged by the title of the popular handbook known as Aristotle’s Master- ce. @ Aristotle’s strong interest in plants is shown by the large number of references to them in G.A.; see Index. v Aristotle’s zoological works. ARISTOTLE Perhaps philosophers, like the visitors who came to call on Heracleitus and found him in the kitchen, have felt embarrassed at finding Aristotle in his laboratory, and have thought it more dignified to wait until he came out; failing to perceive that ‘there too gods are present.” * And where the gods are, there too is beauty, however mean and however. small the creature may be which is the ‘subject of study—greater beauty than is to be found in the products of human skill ; for these are the workman- ship of Nature, who does nothing idly or without purpose ; and in them too is to be found the activity of Soul, working through its instrument pneuma, which is the terrestrial counterpart of the celestial “ quintessence,”’ aither, the divine constituent of the heavenly spheres and of the stars ; in them, therefore, Form at its highest and Matter at its highest are seen operating in unison. For men of science, the Genera- tion of Animals has a special interest, in that it is the first systematic treatise on animal reproduction and embryology, containing records of observations, marking out schemes of classification, and suggesting methods of dealing with problems, much of which has proved of permanent value ; indeed, Aristotle’s work was not resumed until after the lapse of nearly two thousand years, and some of his observations were not repeated until comparatively recent times. Of this I shall have more to say presently. ARISTOTLE’s EMBRYOLOGY The De generatione animalium is the culminating @ See P.A. I, 645 a 20 ff. GENERATION OF ANIMALS portion of Aristotle’s zoological works, of which the scheme may be exhibited as follows : I. ‘Record of observations. Historia animalium. II. Theory based upon observations (including. also many observational data). . .. “2 _.. (De partibus treating of the “ matter.” _ of ( , | animalium animals and the way in which it De incessu is arranged to subserve their animalium various , purposes 5 i.e., their i “parts,” excluding those used MP? in reproduction. (b) De anima treating of the “ form ”’ of animals hit —i.e., Soul, padbiitedTi parted’ se functions. - deg rps naturatia y eating of the functions “ common (c) + De mot to body and Soul,”. excluding | eeteaviisth | reproduction. (d) Degeneratione treating of the “parts”’ used in animalium reproduction, and of the repro- ductive’ functions (which are common to body and Soul). The section (5) is necessary to the completeness of the scheme, but as it has given rise to a whole depart- ment of study, it is usually treated apart from the rest. Thus the main bulk of the zoological and biological works may be taken to consist of the three great treatises H.A., P.A. and G.A.* It was these which, through Latin translations made from the Arabic, were restored to the West by those who revived scientific studies at the beginning of ‘the 13th century. It is generally held that the zoological works were Date of written during the second period of Aristotle’s £27?" s tion. * For abbreviations, see p. lxxvi. Vii ARISTOTLE residence at Athens, when he was engaged in organiz- ing systematic observation and specialized research, which produced, among other results, the collection of 158 constitutions of states (of which the Constitution of Athens, recovered at the end of the 19th century, is one), as well as the Historia animalium.* The zoological works have not been subjected to such minute criticism as, for instance, the Metaphysics and Politics, but, according to Jaeger, the H.A. shows clear traces of different authors, and he suggests that the work of observation was distributed among several persons from the outset. It is probable that some collection of material was madéby Aristotle himself ? _ between the two periods of his residence at Athens. Aristotle's method. But the real importance of these works is that they represent the first attempt in Europe to observe and describe in a scientific way the individual living object. , . Aristotle’s method may be described as substanti- ally the same as that of modern scientific workers : it is inductive-deductive, as opposed on the one hand to earlier (and later) methods of pure deduction from a priori premisses, and on the other hand to the Baconian method of almost exclusive induction. Aristotle often complains that his predecessors’ work was marred by insufficient observation, and the importance which he himself attached to careful and thorough observation is apparent throughout the zoological treatises. Of particular interest in this connexion are his observations of the viviparous dog- fish (Mustelus laevis), observations not repeated in “ See W. D. Ross, Aristotle, and W. W. Jaeger, Aristotle. » See D. W. Thompson, prefatory note to translation of H.A.,, p. vii. viii | ete RY eS CM mame: See p. 565. ix Aristotle's contribu- tions to embryo- logy. ARISTOTLE erroneous. As examples of this we may quote his discussions and conclusions upon preformation and epigenesis and upon the time of sex-determination in the embryo.? bed The main contributions of Aristotle to embryology, as judged from the viewpoint of a modern embryo- logist,’ may be stated as follows : . | Litt 1. Following the lead of men like the author of the Hippocratic treatise 7. yovjs, Aristotle greatly extended the field of careful and accurate obser- vation, and was thereby enabled to introduce for the first time the comparative method into embryology, and so to arrange the available data in an orderly wav This is expressed, e.g., by his classification of animals according to their methods of embryonic development. ' 2. He stated in the clearest terms the two rival theories of preformation and epigenesis, and _ decided in favour of the latter. He also laid down that the sex of the embryo was deter- mined at the very beginning of its development. 3. He clearly stated that generic characteristics precede specific characteristics in embryonic development, and, by his theory that the various faculties of Soul developed successively in the embryo, foreshadowed the modern theory of “ recapitulation.” By his observation that the “upper ”’ parts of the embryo develop more rapidly than the “ lower ”’ parts he foreshadowed * For a useful general estimate of Aristotle’s work, see E.S. Russell, The Interpretation of Development and Heredity (1930), pp. 11-24. » Boe. e.g., J. Needham, A History of Embryology (1934), pp. 36 ff. x GENERATION OF ANIMALS ~ the modern doctrine of “ axial gradients ”’ (see ' 741 b 28, n.). 4. He correctly understood the functions of the ‘placenta and the umbilical cord and 5. He prefigured (see 772 b 13 ff.) with wnstidetbel insight the cell-streams or morphogenetic move- ments which are fundamental in embryonic development during the period when the germ- layers are taking up their definitive positions.* His dynamic view of the origin both of normal structures and of monstrous deviations can be fully appreciated only in the light of modern knowledge of the great part played by move- ment, migration of cells, etc., in early embryonic development. ’ On the contrary side we must range such mistakes as these : 1. The insect larva, which Aristotle regarded as the earlier stage of an egg, “ an egg laid too soon,” has in fact passed the embryonic stage. 2. Observations of newly-castrated animals led him to regard the testes as of secondary importance. With regard to his famous doctrine that the male theory ot supplies the Form and the female the Matter of the form snd embryo (see 729 a 11), some misunderstanding may repro- easily arise. And also, with regard to his insistence ““““°™ upon the importance of the Final Cause, we find that modern scientific opinion, following the. lead of Francis Bacon, who led the attack upon Formal and Final Causes, often tends to consider Aristotle’s talk * See J. Needham, Biochemistry and Morphogenesis (1942), where also the most modern views on the origin of monsters will be found. On this subject, C. Dareste’s Production artificielle des monstruosités (1877) i is still the classical work. xi ARISTOTLE about these Causes as inferior to what he has to say on other matters. It is, however, open to question whether Aristotle would in fact have reached some of his most valyable conclusions apart from his insist- ence upon the pre-eminence of the Final Cause (any more than Harvey might have discovered the circula- tion of the blood unless he had tried to discover what was the Final Cause of the valves in the veins) ; and although Aristotle was of course ignorant of the existence of spermatozoa and of the mammalian ovum, and although he considered that the menstrual fluid was the ‘“‘ matter ”’ out of which the embryo was formed, it is not so certain that he was quite as wrong-headed as he is often said to be. Before coming to a conclusion, we must consider what exactly Aristotle meant by Form and Matter in this connexion. In the first place, we must realize that the Form is not bare Form, nor is the Matter bare Matter : this, indeed, is a fundamental doctrine of Aristotle. Form is not found apart from Matter (that was a Platonic view)! nor is Matter found which is not to some extent “informed”; and Aristotle can say (end of Met. H) that Matter in its ultimate stage is identical with Form (see Introd. § 17). At any rate, the Matter with which we are concerned in the generation of animals is far from being “ un- informed.” Like the “ residue ’’ contributed by the male, the “ residue ” contributed by the female is ** coneocted blood ” ; and, since blood is the “ ulti- mate nourishment’ which maintains the upkeep of * Discovered by K. E. von Baer; there is a complete facsimile of his fundamental memoir De ovi mammalium et hominis genesi (Leipzig, 1827) in Sarton’s Isis, XVI (1931), 315 ff. xii GENERATION OF ANIMALS the body and its parts, both “ residues ” are potentially the body of a living creature of the same kind as that which produced them. Indeed, the only important difference between them is one of the degree of “concoction ’’ which they have undergone, for the female; whose vital heat is weaker, cannot carry the * concoction ” of blood as far as the male can. But the female’s “ residue ’’ (viz., the menstrual fluid) is, potentially, all the parts of the body ; and hence, too, it is, or contains, Soul potentially (this is merely another way of saying the same thing, because just as any actual living body must possess Soul, which is its Form, actually, so a potential living body must Soul potentially). That the female’s “ re- sidue ” does in fact possess Soul potentially is shown, says Aristotle, by the occurrence of wind-eggs in birds : these possess nutritive Soul, and up to a point grow and “are fertile... The Matter, therefore, is “ informed” to a high degree ; and the only part of the Form which it lacks is sentient Soul. Hence, the meaning of the statement that “ the male sup- plies the Form ”’ can only be that the male supplies that part of the Form known as sentient Soul : every- thing else, including nutritive Soul, can be, and is, supplied by the female. We may now go on to consider the “ residue ” contributed bythe male. Aristotle, as we saw, held that Form is not normally found apart from Matter (t.e., body) of some sort,* and besides that, according ® See Introd. § 42. An exception is rational Soul, which is not the Form of any body (§ 44), but this is a separate question, and in any case affects man only. We must also except the 55 immaterial unmoved movers, which Aristotle posits in the Metaphysics (1074 a) to account for the moye- ments of the planets. eas ARISTOTLE to him, action can only be exerted, change can only be brought about, by something that can come into contact with another thing. Therefore in any case something corporeal must be supplied by the male as well as Form, and this is of course the substance which carries the (potential) Form : it is the substance with which the sort of Form known as Soul is specially and regularly connected, and in which it resides, viz., connate pneuma. This pneuma, which is thus present in the semen, is charged with the “ movements ”’ - proper to Soul, including (in the case of the male) the ““ movements ”’ proper to sentient Soul; and these “movements,” when given the right material to work upon (viz., material which is potentially an animal of the right kind) and the right conditions, are able to produce an animal of the same kind as that which they would have produced or maintained in the male parent even if the blood in which they were originally present had not undergone the further stage of being concocted into semen. Hence it is clear that fundamentally the oontriba: tions of both parents in generation are identical ; both are potentially a living animal of a certain kind, and this involves that both possess the living animal’s Form, viz., its Soul, potentially ; and the only differ- ence between them is that the male’s contribution possesses also sentient Soul potentially. At the same time, this is an important difference, and makes itself apparent in the difference of bulk between the two: the female’s is large in bulk, the male’s is small. And this difference of bulk is accounted for by the fact that the female’s is less “ concocted ” than the male’s—it is less concentrated. Further, the only Matter that the semen need con- Xiv GENERATION OF ANIMALS tain is a sufficient amount to transmit the “ move- ments ”’ to the female’s residue, and once this has been done—that is to say, once the embryo or rather its heart has been “ constituted,’ once. it has been given its “ principle ’’ and has the power to grow— then the “ body ”’ of the semen can “ evaporate,’ for the Matter which provides the embryo with its wherewithal for growth is of course supplied by the female parent. 3 : As a final word on the subject we may recall that, in addition to what we have already found Aristotle saying about the identity of Matter and Form in the long run, he finds no greater difficulty in identifying - vos with Matter than he does in identifying it with Form or with the Motive Cause and the Final Cause (see Introd. § 14, end); and when all the attributes have been ascribed to Matter which Aristotle ascribes to it in spontaneous generation (see App. B § 17, additional note), there is very little more left for it to desire. I have not thought it necessary to call attention to scope of all Aristotle’s mistakes, partly because of lack of ‘s edition. space, but chiefly because it would serve no really useful purpose. Nor have I given an account of modern embryological theory. My main object has been to ensure that the reader shall be able to find out what Aristotle said, and to secure that Aristotle shall get neither credit nor discredit for things which he did not say. Ina treatise such as G.4., this means that fairly copious footnotes are necessary,? and as a further help to the reader I have provided not only a full account of Aristotle’s technical terms (which gives an opportunity for explaining a good deal of the @ See also p. xxxiv. b XV ARISTOTLE framework of his thought), but also, in the Appendix, accounts of his theory of the universe and movement (without which parts of Books II and IV cannot be understood) and of the functions of Lvurov Ivedpa,* an essential factor in his doctrine of generation. On Aristotle the principle that, for the most part, Aristotle is his his own . F interpreter, OWN best interpreter, these accounts are compiled almost entirely from passages taken direct from Aristotle’s own treatises. 1 Aristotle’ | _In reading Aristotle’s scientific works, it is important predeces- : sors, NOt only to recognize how great were the advances which he himself made in natural history, both in practical observation and in theory, but also to re- member that his work was a continuation and an expansion of what had been begun by previous scientific workers. Those to whom he most fre- quently refers by name are three: Anaxagoras, Empedocles, and Democritus, besides several refer- ences to theories which can be traced in the Hippocratic treatises ©; and the fact that he often quotes them in order to disagree with them should not lead us to underrate their achievement. It is not possible here to give any adequate account of these predecessors of his, and for details about them the reader must be referred to the standard works on @ The doctrine of XII was older than Aristotle (see Jaeger ; references given Introd. § 46, n.), but in this volume I am concerned only with Aristotle’s presentation of it. » Aristotle calls them collectively dvoxoi or gduaoddyor, ‘“* physiologers,” i.¢., writers on ‘ Nature,” “ natural” scientists. See 741 b 10, n. © There are also, of course, references to theories stated by Plato, to which attention is called in the notes ; but Plato is not mentioned by name. See also K. Prachter, Platon Prdformist ? in Philologus, LX XXIII (1927), 18-30. Xvi GENERATION OF ANIMALS the early scientists and philosophers and to other works of reference. Alcmeon, to whom also he - refers, is an important figure, since it was he, ap- parently, who originated the famous doctrine of “ passages ”’ (or “ pores,’ zopor) in connexion with sensation, and held that the brain was the common sensorium, in which belief he was followed by Hippo- crates and Plato, whereas Empedocles and Aristotle reverted to the older view that the heart is the central organ of sensation. Alcmeon also treated systematic- ally of the special senses, in particular that of sight. Other theories of his mentioned by Aristotle may be found by reference to the Index. Anaxagoras of Clazomenae, the last great name in the Ionian philosophic succession of Asia Minor, is well known for his theory that vois is responsible for the order of the universe as a whole, just as it is for the order which is to be discerned in living creatures, and for his remarkable theory of matter, which he constructed specially with a view to accounting for generation and growth. I have treated fully of this elsewhere.” _ Empedocles of Acragas, a striking figure, was a _ slightly younger contemporary of Anaxagoras, and _ was renowned as a politician, religious teacher, _ rhetorician, philosopher, and physician: he was the * e.g., J. Burnet, Early Greek Philosophy; see also for _Hippoerates, W. H. S. Jones (Loeb ed.); for Alcmeon, J. Wachtler, De Alemaeone Crotoniata (1896); and M. | Wellmann, Die Schrift x. ips vosoou, in Archiv f. Gesch. der Med. XXII (1929), 290-312. For a conspectus of ancient embryology, H. Balss, Die Zeugungslehre u. Embryologie in _ der Antike, in Queillen u. Studien zur Gesch. der Naturw. u. der Med. V (1936), 193-274. > €.Q. XXV (1931), 27 ff., 112 ff.; see also G.A. 723 a 7. Xvii ARISTOTLE founder of the “ Italian ” school of medicine. Con- ‘ siderable portions of his poems on Nature and Purifica- Dates. tions are extant. He adopted, perhaps formulated, the doctrine of the four Elements, which really means (see w. dpyains intprx7s, chh. 13 ff.) that he selected, as especially important, four out of the many sub- stances already recognized as fundamental in tradi- tional Greek medical theory (see Introd. § 24). Democritus of Abdera, the follower of Leucippus, is best known for his advancement of the atomic theory originated by his master. Abdera is not far from Aristotle’s birthplace, Stageira, and Aristotle seems to have been specially interested in Democritus.” The following table will indicate roughly the dates of these early scientists : . Alemeon of Crotona, probably a Pythagorean and a pupil of Pythagoras himself (he was “ a young man in Pythagoras’ old age’). Pythagoras is said to have gone to Italy in 529 n.c. and to have lived at Crotona for twenty years. Alemeon was probably active, therefore, about 510-480. Anaxagoras of Clazomenae. Born about 500 B.c., died 428. Lived at Athens c. 480-450, and was a friend of Pericles. Mentioned by Socrates in a well-known passage in Plato’s Phaedo. Empedocles of Acragas (Agrigentum) in Sicily ; c. 494-434. Democritus of Abdera in Thrace ; ¢. 460-370. 4 For further details about Democritus, see C. Bailey, The Greek Atomists and Epicurus. » According to W. A. Heidel, however, Hippocratic Medi- cine (1941), 43, and American Journal of Philology, UX1 (1940), 3 ff., Alemeon’s floruit should be put considerably later, say at 450 B.c. XViii GENERATION OF ANIMALS It is not possible to assign exact dates for all the treatises in the Hippocratic collection ; indeed they cannot all be ascribed to a single author, but one of the most important, the 7. dpyains intpixijs, refers to Empedocles as having introduced new-fangled ideas into the long established science of medicine (ch. 20). Other treatises relevant to our subject are the z. dépwv dddrwv térwv, the 7. diaitys, and the z. yov7js kai 7. dvows waidiov. All of these are most in- teresting and will repay study. The last named in particular is the work of a most active’ and enter- prising man, always ready to experiment and to record his results and to make use of them. It should of course be remembered that although Aristotle introduced much new technical terminology and sometimes gave new content to what already existed, many of the terms which he uses were the common property of scientific writers, among them being such important ones as the following :_divvayus, Kpaois, TYVTHY "a, TvppeTpla, efdos, rvedua and the like. I have attempted to trace the development of one such term in my account of Svvapes (Introd. §§ 23 ff.). It is not possible here to say much about Aristotle’s successors, but it is necessary to say enough to emphasize the important influence which they have had in the history of science. Hieronymus Fabricius ab Aquapendente (1537-1619) knew and admired Aristotle’s work on embryology, and what is more, himself carried out further important observations on the same subject. His brilliant successor, William Harvey (1578-1657), was a student of Aristotle, and much of his inspiration came from Aristotle’s works. Harvey was indeed the first to make any sub- stantial advance in embryology since Aristotle him- xix Termino- logy. Aristotle's successors, ARISTOTLE self. In other departments of study, however, during the 17th century, the authority of Aristotle and the scholastic doctrine with which he was identified were being combated in the name of “ freedom,” and so it came about that the zoological works too, which had been brought to light by the “ dark ” ages, were allowed to pass back into oblivion by the age of enlightenment. It was not until the end of the 18th century that they were rediscovered for the second time by Cuvier (1769-1832) and mem- bers of the Saint-Hilaire family. Earty TRANSLATORS Karly Lack of space forbids reprinting here the account translators. which I gave in the Introduction to P.A. of the fascinating history of the early translators of Aris- totle’s zoological works, and I must be allowed to ° refer the reader to that volume (pp. 39 ff.) for details and other references. A mere list of the four most important translations must here suffice : (1) The physician Ibn al-Batriq translated the H.A., P.A. and G.A. into Arabic at Bagdad during the time of the Caliphate of al-Mamun (813-833), son of Harun al-Rashid. There is a os. of an Arabic translation, probably Ibn al-Batriq’s, in the British Museum ¢ ; and there « B.M. Add. 7511, 13th-14th century (=Steinschneider B.M. 437). Ihave seenthis ms. Judging from the passages which Dr. R. Levy kindly read for me in this ms., Scot's Latin version is a close translation from the Arabic. This is confirmed by the fact that the contents-preface which is found prefixed to Scot’s translation corresponds exactly with the pre- face which precedes the Arabic version in this ms. (see B.M. Catalogus codicum manuscriptorum orientalium, p. 215). XX GENERATION OF ANIMALS can be little doubt that this is the translation from which Michael Scot made his Latin version. (2) Michael Scot translated H.A., P.A. and G.A. ‘into Latin from the Arabic at Toledo. This translation was finished before 1217. (3) William of Moerbeke translated the zoological - works into Latin from the Greek, at Thebes, in or before 1260. (4) Theodore of Gaza began at Rome in 1450 to make translations of Aristotle and other Greek authors. His translation of the zoological works of Aristotle is dedicated to Pope Sixtus IV, and this soon became the standard Latin version. It is printed in the Berlin edition of Aristotle. Tue Text It soon became clear that for the purpose of transla- Method. tion it was necessary to make a working version of _ the Greek text, and to this end I made my first draft _ with the Berlin edition, Aubert and Wimmer’s edition, and Platt’s translation and textual emendations be- fore me. Next, I transcribed suspected passages with _ their contexts from the mss. of Scot’s version, in order _ to give them fuller consideration. Then, having in- _ corporated a large number of changes into the text, some of them my own, I took into consideration the _ work of Bitterauf and others. In some cases I found _ that the same emendation had been proposed by two _or more scholars independently, and also that some of these emendations were confirmed by Scot. Finally, I found it necessary to transcribe further portions of Scot’s version. pa Xxi_ Apparatus criticus. Arrange- ment, 4 Manu- scripts : (a) Greek text. ARISTOTLE I do not wish to claim more for the text here-offered than that it is a better text than any hitherto avail- able. I have done my best with the data at my disposal, but I am well aware that many passages yet remain to which I have not been able to offer any satisfactory solution. When I have accepted the reading of Bekker’s edition, I have not normally given the yss. variants. These will be found in Bekker’s apparatus. Corrected reports of mss. readings as given by Susemihl and Bitterauf I have distinguished by an asterisk; the other readings are as reported by Bekker ¢ (some- times confirmed by Bitterauf). Every departure from Bekker’s text is recorded. The text has been reparagraphed throughout, and in many places the punctuation has been corrected. The following manuscripts ° are cited for the Greek text : Oxoniensis Collegii Corporis Christi W.A. 2. 7 (=Coxe 108). Late 12th century. Presented to the College by Henry Parry, Fellow, in 1623. It contains P.A., I.A., G.A., some of the Parva Naturalia, and De spiritu. G.A. begins f. 747, and ends f. 161", but this page is identical with 62°. The ms. is confusedly bound, and some passages it has lost altogether.° Laurentianus Mediceus 81, 1. Written in differ- ent hands, some of the 12th, some of the 13th * A few (for m and E) are as reported by Bussemaker. > For further details, see Bitterauf (below, p. xxv), Ditt- meyer, H.A. (Introd.), Jaeger, M.A. and I.A. (Introd.), ete. © 738 b 1 BeAz[iovos . . . 740 a7 70] yevopevov; and 760a 13 mws [) yeveots . . . 760 b 27 pev| eAarrw, the latter passage having been supplied by a later hand. xXxXill GENERATION OF ANIMALS century. G.A. is written in a 12th century hand. P Vaticanus graecus 1339. Great variation of - opinion upon the date of this manuscript has been expressed by various scholars. Some date it 12th century, others 15th. Y Vaticanus graecus 261. 14th century (Btf.). The following are cited for a few places only : m Parisinus 1921. 14th century. In this ms. G.A. is accompanied by the commentary of Michael of Ephesus. OP Riccardianus 13. Late 14th century. E Parisinus regius 1853. Written in various hands, from 10th to 15th century. G.4. is in a 15th century hand. The following manuscripts of Michael Scot's trans- () Michael lation are to be found in this country : ce Cambridge, University Library li. 3. 16. Cambridge, University Library Dd. 4. 30. Cambridge, Gonville and Caius College 109. Oxford, Merton College 278. Oxford, Balliol College 252. London, British Museum Royal 12. C. XV. London, British Museum Harl. 4970. All these are of the 13th or 14th century. I have seen all these mss. of Scot’s translation, but chiefly owing to present conditions I have worked with the two first mentioned only.* The chief mss. cited by Bekker for G.A. (namely, The text: _ PSYZ) are identical with four of the six cited by him {),Bek¥ers ® Lists of mss. of William of Moerbeke’s translation will be found in G. Rudberg, Textstudien zur Tiergeschichte des Aristoteles (1908), and L. Dittmeyer (see below, p. xxix). xxiii ARISTOTLE for P.A.t Some years ago, when working on P.A. for the Loeb edition, my examination of the ms. Z at several places led me to state (P.A. Introd. p. 46) that a more reliable collation of the chief mss. than Bekker’s apparatus criticus afforded was clearly needed. This view is amply confirmed by K. E. Bitterauf, who has in fact undertaken such a collation for G.A. (see below), and he shows that there are several errors and misleading reports on every page in Bekker’s apparatus. ()the A comparison of the text of P.A. exhibited by our manus PY Greek mss. with the translation of Michael Scot showed me that the former had all suffered identical corruptions or losses (or both) in certain passages (e.g., P.A. 684 b 22 ff.), by which the Greek ms. from which Scot’s Arabic original was translated had not been affected ; and I found exactly the same when I came to work on G.4A. (see, e.g., 722 a 20, 766 b 35). My conclusion about the common origin of our Greek mss. is also supported by Bitterauf, who comes in- dependently to the conclusion, based exclusively upon a study of the Greek mss., that they are all derived from a single archetype, which, in his opinion, contained a number of variant readings. Modern ‘This brings us to a consideration of the ms. tradition work on of G.A. After the publication of Bekker’s Berlin edition in 1831, very little work was done on the mss. of G.A. for about eighty years. Bussemaker, who edited G.A. in the Didot edition (Paris, 1854), cites many readings from the two Paris mss. E and m, and several times quotes the authority of William of Moerbeke, less frequently that of Michael Scot, and @ Of the other two, U does not contain G.A., and in E G.A. is written in a later hand. XXiv GENERATION OF ANIMALS in a few cases quotes their Latin versions. Aubert and Wimmer, in their Leipzig edition published in 1860, took into account throughout the commentary of Michael of Ephesus and Gaza’s Latin translation, but they too relied upon Bekker for the ss. readings. The first to go back again direct to the mss. was F. _ Susemihl,* at whose request in 1885 Bywater and _ Vitelli inspected a number of selected places in _ Aristotle’s zoological works in the ss. Z and S respect- ively, and of these fourteen are places in G.A. The majority of these, however, are of minor importance. _ Areally serious attempt to revise the text throughout on the basis of a new collation of the Mss. was made _ about 1913 by K. E. Bitterauf in preparation for a _ new Teubner edition, which however was never _ published.’ In all, Bitterauf enumerates 31 Mss. containing G.A., and of these he collated three in full himself from photographs (Z, Y and E), and a single _ selected Book (not the same Book in each case) in eight more (of which m was one). He also had at _ his disposal collations of seven others, of which five were apparently collated direct by Hugo Tschierschky * Kritische Studien zu den zoologischen Schriften des Aristoteles, in Rhein. Mus. XL (1885), 563 ff., and a very convenient summary of his proposals there made in Bursian, 4 XLII, 245 f. _® But he published some of his results in two preliminary , Brepect : (1) Der Schlussteil der aristotelischen Biologie : eitrdge zur Textgeschichte und Textkritik der Schrift ** De ‘ Sencrabone animalium.”’ (Wissenschaftliche Beilage zum ahresbericht des kg]. humanistischen Gymnasiums Kempten fiir das Schuljahr 1912/13). Kempten im Allgiu, 1913. (2) Nene Textstudien zum Schlussteil der aristotelischen Bio- logie. (Ibid., 1913/14.) Kempten im Allgau, 1914, These are the source of the readings recorded throughout the text _where they differ from Bekker’s apparatus. xXXV ARISTOTLE (these include S and O?, and another ms. called 8 which contains only a very small part of the begin- ning of G.A.) and the remaining two (one of which is P) were collated by L. Dittmeyer from photographs. Five others were collated (apparently from photo- graphs) by Bitterauf sufficiently to establish their character ; of the remaining eight he gives no report on the character of their text. The upshot of Bitterauf’s work is to show that Bekker was right in basing the text upon PSYZ, and that although the most faithful witness to the original text is Z, with P a good second, no as. has a monopoly of the truth, since their common descent gives them all a fair chance of preserving a good reading, just as it has un- doubtedly ensured, as I mentioned above, that they have all failed to preserve the text in certain passages. With regard to the defective nature of Bekker’s apparatus, the corrections which Bitterauf gives are of value primarily in determining the comparative trustworthiness of the mss. rather than in yielding substantial improvements of the text*; but there are a good many places where they do make an improvement possible, and all the suggestions which Bitterauf makes for so doing I have carefully con- sidered, and many I have adopted. When the changes indicated are of a minor character, for « Examples are: 718 a 36, Bekker’s app. atrais Z, actually atrais SZ; 719 a 31, Bekker’s app. évrds, 7a 8 €xrds Y, but actually PZ. Bitterauf had access to Bekker’s own copy of the Basel Aristotle (1550), and shows that some of Bekker’s errors are due to his having used one set of symbols for the mss. in his collation and another set in his apparatus. ® It should be remembered that Bitterauf’s pamphlets are merely “ foretastes *’ of his projected edition, and therefore the list of passages dealt with by him cannot be treated as exhaustive. XXVI GENERATION OF ANIMALS instance those affecting merely the order of words, I have not always felt it necessary to alter Bekker’s text, though it might be held that ceteris paribus Z’s _ reading should be preferred. Bitterauf does not appear, at any rate from what he has published, to have envisaged the existence of » deep-seated corruptions or serious losses from the text. The furthest he ventures along this path is to suggest that aiva and cdp€ should be written twice instead of once at 722 b 34, and that «ai @owv has dropped out at 746 a 34; but the latter suggestion, which is certainly right, is taken over from Busse- maker. However, that loss of phrases.and corrup- tion of the text have occurred is sometimes clear from intrinsic evidence, and loss can sometimes be proved by the survival of the original words in M. Scot’s translation. Apart from re-examination of the mss., proposals to Conjectural improve the text by conjectural emendation have *™™s##"- been made by the following : (1) Wimmer, who was responsible for the textual work in Aubert and Wimmer’s edition of 1860, made a number of conjectures, some of which he incorporated in the text and others he printed in the footnotes. Many of them are undoubtedly correct, and some I have found are supported by Scot (though I have no reason to think that Wimmer himself was aware of this). (2) F. Susemihl,* beside the work which he did on the Mss., dealt with the question of duplicate recen- sions in the text, and also that of interpolations ® Rhein. Mus. XL (1885), 563 ff. XXVvii ARISTOTLE by commentators, and made a number of con- jectural emendations. | (3) Arthur Platt, in his translation of G.A. in the Oxford Translations of Aristotle, published 1910, suggests a number of emendations, many of which have been adopted in the present text ; and some of these, again, I have found to be confirmed by Scot’s translation, though Platt himself was un- aware of this. Platt also detected many corrupt places and misplaced passages or interpolations. (4) Bitterauf himself puts forward about ten con- jectural emendations in addition to his other suggestions for improving the text, but few of them are of major importance. A few suggestions for emendation were made by : (5) H. Bonitz,* en passant, as asides to his treatment of passages in other works of Aristotle, and by (6) H. Richards ®; some of these will be found re- corded in their proper places. Single small emendations are proposed by M. Hayduek ° and E. Zeller. A few are proposed by H. Diels and one by W. Kranz.*° J. G. Schneider, too, in his edition of H.A. (1811) made some sugges- tions for improving the text of G.A. based partly on the Latin versions, but most of his work is superseded by Bekker’s edition, Some passages are also dis- cussed by J. Zahlfleisch./ « Aristot. Studien (1866), IV. 363, 378, 413. > J. of Philology, XXXIV (1918), 254. ° Emendationes Aristoteleae, in Neue Jahrbiicher f. Philol. u. Paédagog. CXIX (1879), 111. 4 Phil. der Gr. If. 2°, 569-5701. ¢ Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker (5th edn., ed. Kranz, 1934-1937). ? Philologus, LIII (1894), 39-44. XXVili GENERATION OF ANIMALS Platt seems to have known nothing of Bonitz’ or Susemihl’s work, and Bitterauf seems to have known nothing of Platt’s work. Bitterauf refers to and quotes Susemihl’s article, but puts forward as an original conjecture one which Susemihl had already made (756 a_24). Several emendations have been put forward by various scholars, beginning with Schneider, on the strength of Gaza’s Latin version, others on that of William of Moerbeke. As a contribution to the pro- jected Teubner edition of G.A., Dittmeyer ¢ published in 1915 the first part of William’s version (up to 737 b 5)... Although this version gives support to two small emendations already adopted in my present text (at 733 b 34 and 734 b 18), and at 775 a 11 ff. (teste Schneider) preserves a passage which our Greek mss. have lost, in general it does not yield anything that is independent of our existing Greek mss. and is, as Dittmeyer himself agreed, of little value for the restoration of the text.” The case is far different with Michael Scot’s version. This was made about 1217, not from a Greek text, but from an Arabic translation, itself made at the beginning of the 9th century, and hence the Greek text involved must have been considerably older than any of our present mss. and a priori may have repre- sented an independent tradition of the text ; indeed, my examination of Scot’s version has proved this to be so. Dittmeyer quotes Schneider’s opinion (IV. xxxvii) that Scot’s version is of little value for restor- * Guilelmi Moerbekensis translatio commentationis Aris- totelicae De generatione animalium. Edidit Leonardus Dittmeyer. Programm des K. humanistischen Gymnasiums Dillingen a. D. fiir das Schuljahr 1914/15. » See also P.A. (Loeb ed.), p. 47. XXix William of Moerbeke’s translation. Michael Scot's translation. ARISTOTLE ing the text, but it is obvious that neither he nor Bitterauf* had troubled to read Scot’s version of G.A. beyond the tiny fragments ( frustula, Dittmeyer’s own word) quoted by previous scholars. Against this we have the opinion of G. Rudberg,’ who had made a considerable study of it in connexion with H.A. and published its version of H.A. X in extenso, that there is no doubt of its critical value for rectifying the text ; and this judgement I can confirm from my own experience. Naturally, the circumstances dictate that proper safeguards must be adopted in using it for correcting the Greek text ; and what these are can be learnt only by fairly wide experience of the version itself; any judgement given,° either for or against, without this experience as a foundation is worse than useless. My own method has involved the transcription of a large number of continuous passages from the mss. of Scot’s version, containing places which some previous editor or I myself had already felt for some reason to be doubtful ; and the pertinent parts of these, where they have anything to contribute, I have given in the apparatus. Scot's version sometimes confirms conjectures previously made, sometimes it confirms the suspected corruption of the text either through glosses or otherwise, and in these cases may suggest means for remedying the trouble. Often it clearly confirms the existing text ; sometimes it gives no clear indication, and sometimes 2 Bitterauf quotes Scot only once, and that quotation is taken from Bussemaker. » Kleinere Aristotelesfragen, in Hranos, IX (1909), 92 ff. ; see also Zum so-genannten 10. Buch der Tiergeschichte, Up- sala, 1911. ° eg., D. W. Thompson, C.R. LIT (1938), 15 ** the dubious aid of an Arabic version *’; see also ibid., p. 89. xXXX GENERATION OF ANIMALS it simply omits the passage. I consider the time and trouble spent upon Scot’s version as well spent. The Greek commentary of Michael of Ephesus Comment (formerly attributed to Johannes Philoponus), 11— 37.0%.) of 12th century a.p., has been edited by Michael Ephesus. Hayduck (Berlin, 1903), but it is of little use for textual criticism. Apart from manuscript errors of the usual kind, tterpola- and losses of words or phrases due to homoioteleuton, “°?® °° ete., which will be found noted in their places where they can be detected, the chief points of note in the text of G.A. may be classed as follows : A. Paragraphs, occasionally sentences only, which obviously interrupt the line of argument or are superfluous to it. Of these, some seem to be (a) genuine Aristotelian material, but misplaced, perhaps incorporated at the wrong place, or perhaps originally supplementary notes never intended to stand in the text ; (6) alternative versions of matter already in the text ; (c) extraneous matter, derived from commentators’ remarks and wrongly incorporated in the text (e.g... 724 b 12-23, 726 b 25-30). These are often found at the beginning or end of a section, which suggests that they were originally appended in the margin. There is no need to give a full list of these passages, but a list of (a) and (b) may be useful. They are: 715 b 26-30 ; 718 a 27-34; 726 a 16-25; 732 a 12- 23; 737 a 35-b7; 760 a 26-27 ; 760 b 2-8; 760 b 33— 761 a2; 781 a 21-b6. B. Short passages, often only a few words, derived Xxxi ARISTOTLE from glosses which have either (a) supplanted the text or (b) been incorporated into it. There are a great many short interpolations, and I have frequently omitted them from the translation. Mopern EpITIons 1. The Berlin edition of Aristotle, by Immanuel Bekker. Vol. I includes G.A., pages 715-789 (by the columns and lines of which the work is normally cited). Berlin, 1831. la. The Oxford edition (a reprint of the preceding). Vol. V includes G.A. Oxford, 1837. 2. One-volume edition of Aristotle’s works, by C. H. Weise.* Leipzig, 1843. 3. The Didot edition. Edited by Bussemaker. Vol. III includes G.A. Paris, 1854. 4. The Leipzig edition. Vol. III contains G.4., edited and translated into German by H. Aubert and Fr. Wimmer. Leipzig, 1860. Contains a useful introduction, table of animals, and Greek index. TransLatTions ON ty ? 5. Thomas Taylor. English translation of Aristotle in ten volumes. Vol. IV contains G.A. (pp. 243 ff.). London, 1808. 6. J. Barthélemy -Saint- Hilaire. Introduction, * The text of this edition is the pre-Bekker vulgata, founded on Sylburg and Casaubon. » The publication of a Spanish translation of the complete works of Aristotle was begun in 1931, but I have been unable to discover whether G.A. has yet appeared in it. ¢ Saint-Hilaire argues (I. cclix ff.) that Book V of G.A. does not belong with the rest of the treatise, but goes rather XXxii ~ GENERATION OF ANIMALS French translation of G!A. and notes. In two volumes. Paris, 1887. 7. Arthur Platt. Inthe Oxford series of translations of Aristotle. Vol. V contains Platt’s translation of G.A., with notes. Oxford, 1910. Tue TRANSLATION In translating G.A. I have followed two main principles principles, with the aim of presenting Aristotle as of f=" faithfully as possible to the English reader : (1) Ihave attempted to translate G.A. into English, and therefore I have not felt obliged to write in Aristotelian, or even in Greek, idiom. Hence, for ex- ample, I have not uniformly translated yap by “ for,” kai by “and,” or 6€ by “but”: unfortunately, it is still necessary to point out, even to learned reviewers, that there is a better way than that of *“ stock ” translations ; and a translator is not auto- matically a traitor if he sometimes omits yap—as the most idiomatic way of translating it. (2) Technical terms, on the other hand, must whenever possible be uniformly represented by an invariable term in the English. Sometimes this rule must be broken, either (a) because the original term has a variety of meanings (e.g., divayus), sometimes (6) because there is no English word which will do (e.g., cvvictdvar). I have avoided modernizing Aris- totle’s terms, so as to avoid misleading any modern with P.A. The same suggestion, unknown to him, had been made by Weise (p. xxix) in 1843. Saint-Hilaire thinks that its inclusion with G.A. dates from the time of Andronicus of Rhodes, head of the Peripatetic School at Rome, who edited Aristotle’s works from the mss. belonging to Apellicon’s library brought to Rome by Sulla in 84 B.c. —— of annota- tion ; ARISTOTLE readers who may have but little Greek ; and on the positive side I have given a full account of many of these terms in the Introduction. In my opinion, it is essential that the Introduction be read before undertaking any study of the treatise itself. The purpose I have had in mind, therefore, is to ensure so far as possible, that the reader shall not have the unnecessary difficulty of “ translators’ English ” to overcome, but shall be able to give his full attention to Aristotle’s thought and argument : this is especially necessary in the present case, where we are dealing primarily with a scientific treatise. My aim has not been to paraphrase Aristotle or to ‘“‘ improve ” upon him, but to represent what he says as closely and as faithfully as possible in English. Since, however, G.A. is not intelligible, even to a Greek scholar, without some familiarity with Aris- totle’s general thought and some of his main doctrines, I have provided an outline of these in the Introduction and in the Appendix ; and in the footnotes I have given many cross-references to other passages in G.A. and other treatises ; attention is also called to points of special interest. One of these, which I think has not hitherto been noticed, may be mentioned here : the possibility that there is an allusion at 735 b 17 to an early process of oil-flotation in ore-dressing. The Index is not intended to be exhaustive, but forms a supplement to the Contents-Summary (p. lxxi) and the Introduction. Particular attention is given to certain key-phrases and ideas. It covers the Preface, Introduction, footnotes and Appendix as well as the translation. ; A glance through the Index may help a reader with special interests to find the passages most XXXiV GENERATION OF ANIMALS releyant to his subject: e.g., the entry “ causation, mechanical ” gives a reference to the passage, speci- ally interesting to modern readers, which compares the development of the embryo to the action of automatic puppets. A number of books which the student of Aristotle’s additional zoological works will find useful are mentioned in the DiQUO footnotes throughout the volume; to them may be added the following : F. J. Cole, Early Theories of Sexual Generation, Oxford, 1930. C. H. Haskins, Studies in the History of Medieval Science, ed. 2, Cambridge, Mass., 1927. T. E. Lones, Aristotle’s Researches in Natural Science, London, 1912. A. W. Meyer, The Rise of Embryology, Stanford, , Calif., 1939. C. Singer, Studies in the History and Method of Science, Oxford, 1921. C. Singer, Greek Biology and Greek Medicine, Oxford, 1922. H. B. Torrey and F. Felin, Was Aristotle an Evolu- - ttonist? in Qu. Rev. of Biology (Baltimore), XII (1937), 1-18. : D’Arcy W. Thompson, Essay on “‘ Natural Science ” in The Legacy of Greece, Oxford, 1924. S. D. Wingate, The Medieval Latin Versions of the Aristotelian Scientific Corpus, London, 1931.* In addition to Ross’s Aristotle and Jaeger’s Aristotle (English translation by R. Robinson) and Diokles von Karystos, which are of special importance, the fol- * For other works on the early translations, see my edition of P.A. (Loeb Library). XXXV ARISTOTLE lowing bear upon certain subjects dealt with in Gils: P. Bochert, Aristoteles’ Erdkunde von Asien und takyen) 1908, and H. Diller, Wanderarst und Aitiologe,. 1934 (for the effects of climate, etc.). H. Meyer, Das Vererbungsproblem bei Aristoteles, in Philologus, LXXV (1919), 323 ff. M. Wellmann, Fragmentsammlung der sikelischen Arste, 1901. The following more general technical works may also be mentioned : J. S. Huxley and G. R. de Beer, The Elements of Experimental Embryology, Cambridge, 1934. H. G. Miiller-Hess, Die Lehre von der Menstruation vom Beginn der Neuzeit bis sur Begriindung der Zellenlehre, Abhandl. z. Gesch. d. Naturm. u. Med., 1938, no. 27. Aute Richards, Outline of Comparative Embryology, New York, 1931. D’Arcy W. Thompson, Growth and Form, Cambridge, 1917 (new ed., 1942). P. Weiss, Principles of Development, New York, 1939. The standard work on its subject is Geschlecht und Geschlechter im Tierreiche, by Johannes Meisenheimer (1921). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It is a great pleasure to acknowledge here the help which I have received from many friends in many ways, and above all to thank them for their continuous interest and encouragement. First I thank Dr. W.H.D. Rouse, my old teacher and present colleague, XXXVi 72 GENERATION OF ANIMALS to whom I owe, among many other things, the oppor- tunity of undertaking this translation. The whole of the translation has been read through by my col- leagues Mr. H. Rackham and Dr. F. H. A. Marshall, F.R.S., and also by Dr. Sydney Smith ; for valuable help with some difficult passages in the Greek I am indebted to Professor R. Hackforth, and to Mr. Hugh Tredennick, who has also read part of the translation ; for much assistance in biological matters I am in- debted to Dr. Marshall, to Dr.. Joseph Needham, F.R.S., to Dr. Smith, and to Miss M. E. Brown. Professor A. S. Pease of Harvard University has placed me under a great obligation by most courte- ously securing for me microfilms of Bitterauf’s two pamphlets and of Dittmeyer’s edition of Moerbeke’s translation, none of which I could find in this country. It is a special pleasure to acknowledge this help from America. I am indebted to the staff of Cambridge University Library for excellent arrangements made for me to read the microfilms and also the Scot manuscripts. Dr. P. J. Durrant suggested to me that the mention of oil in connexion with lead-ore (see Bk. II. 735 b 17) might indicate an early process of flotation. Finally but not least I should like to express my appreciation of the kind- ness of Mr. R. Elmhirst, Director of the Marine Biological Station at Millport, Great Cumbrae, who gave me a room in which to work at my translation during a visit to Millport in the summer of 1938 and also included me in an expedition to Loch Goil for collecting marine animals closely allied to those often mentioned by Aristotle. ont hee Easter Eve, 1942 XXXVii INTRODUCTION The “‘ Causes” The four (1) Aristotle begins and ends the G.A. with a or Causes. about Causes 7; and indeed Causes are at the founda- tion of all his thought, especially of his theories about animal reproduction and development. To know, says Aristotle, is to know by means of Causes (see Anal. Post. 94 a 20). A thing is explained when you know its Causes.. And a Cause is that which is responsible, in any of four modes, for a thing’s exist- ence. The four Causes are: ' (1) The Final Cause, the End or Object towards which a formative process advances, and for the sake of which it advances—the logos,” the rational purpose. * (2) The Motive (or Efficient) Cause, the agent which is responsible for having set the process going; it is _ that by which the thing is made. (3) The Formal Cause, or Form, which is responsible - for the character of the course which the process follows (this also is described as the logos,” as express- ing what the thing is, or is to be). (4) The Material Cause, or Matter, out of which the thing is made. (2) As an illustration of the theory of Causes the following will serve. Suppose the thing to be explained is a dog. The chronological order of the Causes is different from their logical order. (1) The Motive Cause: the male parent which supplied ~ the ** movement” that set the process of develop- ment going. (2) The Material Cause: the menstrual fluid and the nourishment supplied by the female parent and other nourishment taken after birth. (3) The Formal Cause. The embryo and the puppy as it grew into a dog followed a process of de- velopment which had the special character proper to dogs. « In the translation I have retained the traditional rendering “‘ cause ’’ for airia, although perhaps in some contexts “‘ reason ’”’ or “ explana- tion ’’ might have been a closer rendering; but a variation in the English term might well produce more obscurity than clarity. » See § 10 below. XXXViii GENERATION OF ANIMALS (4) The Final Cause : the end towards which the process was directed, the perfect and full-grown dog. A fagdlar set of examples could be constructed to suit _ the case of artificial objects, though some adjustments would have to be made. In both ‘cases the Formal Cause comes from the same source as the Motive Cause, but with a difference : in the case of natural objects, the t already possesses the Form fully realized in himself : in the case of artificial objects, the craftsman possesses the Form “ in his Soul.” Both the parent and the craftsman normally employ “* instruments ”’ to deal _ with the “ material’; these are not mentioned in the _— given above, but will be dealt with in Appendix §$ 9 ff. (3) Very often the Final and Motive Causes tend naturally to coalesce with the Formal Cause, in opposition to the Material Cause; and this opposition is found in G.A. (e.g., Book II, init.), where Aristotle regards the male (which possesses the Form and which supplies the ** movement ”’ and therefore acts as a Motive Cause) as — and more “‘ divine” than the female (which pplies the raw material for the embryo, i.¢., supplies the Material Cause). At the same time, we shall find (below, §§ 6, 7) that the Motive and Material Causes are often together contrasted with the Final Cause, just as Necessity is contrasted with the Good. (4) In modern parlance the term Cause has become gener- ally limited to Motive (Efficient) Causes, as is shown by the common phrase “ cause and effect *’; and hence when Aristotle is concerned especially with the opera- tion of Motive Causes (as ¢.g. at 734 b 9 ff.) his words have a more modern and familiar ring than when he is Hor Ar king of Final Causes. (5) Aristotle himself, however, it is the Final Cause, the “ Teleo- nd, which is of paramount importance and which logy.’ Roane every process. This is abundantly clear in the P.A., where Aristotle endeavours throughout to provide a Final Cause which will explain the existence and structure of the various parts; and it is no less clear in the G.A., where the whole process of develop- ment of the embryo from start to finish is subservient to the Final Cause: the course of the process is deter- % XXxXixX ** Internal finality ”: but modified in various ways: (a) perpetu- ation of species ; (o) human societies ; xl ARISTOTLE ; mined by the nature of the product which is to result from it, not the other way round: things yiyvera as they do because they are what they are.* We are therefore justified in describing Aristotle’s outlook as “ teleological * ; but we must not read too much into this description. ‘‘ Nature does nothing without a purpose”; but if we ask what that purpose is, we may find that the answer is not quite what we had ex E that the purpose is not so grand as we had hoped. Aristotle seems to be satisfied when the réAos has been realized in each individual’s full development ; and this is because for him Form is not normally independent of , Matter (as it is for Plato); Form must be embodied in matter, that is, in individuals. Each complete and perfect embodiment and realization of Form in Matter is therefore for him the crowning achievement of the efforts of the four Causes—it is the End towards which they were directed. We might, then, describe this “teleology ’ in Bergson’s phrase as a doctrine of “internal finality ’’: each individual is ‘* complete ” in itself.’ Aristotle does, however, maintain that the “most natural” thing for an animal to do is to pro- duce another one like itself, and hence the species is implicated in so far as it is the individual’s business to perpetuate it (see App. A §§ 15 ff.). We must also remember that the continuity of yéveois, one de- partment of which is the continuous succession of generations of animals, is, for Aristotle, ‘* necessary ” (App. A § 14); and it is also part of the general purpose of “‘ God,’’ who always aims at ‘‘ the better,” and who, because he was unable to fill the whole universe from circumference to centre with eternal “ being,” filled up the central region of it with the next best available, viz., continuous yéveois.° In another connexion, too, in the Ethics, we find that Aristotle looks further than the individual, at any rate so far as man is concerned, for there he tells us that man cannot attain his réAos in the fullest sense—the ** good life *’—except in association (76 ov¢#v) with other men « Of. quotation from hore aveneee xx. 78, on p. 1. e For further details see App. A § 12, GENERATION OF ANIMALS in a wéXs. But this seems to be due exclusively to the fact that man possesses Reason; and so far as other animals are concerned, Aristotle does not appear to have envisaged any such widening of the 7édos.* From yet another point of view, however, when discuss- (c) sub- ing the subject of property and household management ordination at the beginning of the Politics (1256 b 15), Aristotle Pf animals says that just as Nature provides sustenance for animals ar from the very beginning of their existence in the larva, in the egg, or in the uterus, so we must hold that after birth as well Nature provides plants for the sake of animals, and also that she provides animals other than man for the sake 4 men, for food and service: And if we are right in holding that Nature makes nothing without a purpose (dreAés) or pointlessly, we must of necessity say that ‘‘ Nature has made all the animals for the sake of men.” (6) As Aristotle says at the beginning of G.A. I, the two Grouping of Causes with which he is chiefly concerned in this treatise the Causes. are (1) the Motive (or Efficient) Cause, with which he had not dealt in P.A., and (2) the Material Cause. In zoology, of course, the Material Cause is represented by the “ parts ’ of the body of an animal, and all of these except the generative “* parts’ ® he had dealt with in P.A.; hence in G.A. the Material Cause is represented chiefly by the parts concerned in generation—those, in fact, through which and upon which the Motive Cause operates. At the beginning of Books II and V and at the end of Book V we have further discussions about Causes, and here we find these two Causes identified with “ that which is of necessity ”’ (éé avdyxns) ; while Necessity on the other side and contrasted with them is the Final versus the Cause (the Cause “‘ for the sake of which *’), which is Better- equated with ro tov or tayabov (cf. Met. A 983 a 33, etc.). Indeed, this contrast of Necessity and the Better is continually confronting us throughout the G.A. For instance (717 a 15 ff.), whatever Nature does or makes is done or made either 8a 76 dvayxaiov or dia 76 BéArvov ; one or other of these will account for every « Perhaps Aristotle would have been willing to include Bees, which possess some “ divine ’’ ingredient (see 761 a 5). ® It should be remembered that “ parts ”’ includes semen, milk, etc. See §§ 18 ff. xli Necessity : (i) ‘*con- ditional *’ ; (ii) ‘‘ ab- solute,” ARISTOTLE phenomenon in the realm of Nature. The whole of Book V is devoted to those features—* conditions ” (2d@) as Aristotle calls them—in animals which are in no way due to a Final Cause but are due purely to Necessity, 7.e., to Material and Motive Causes, . (7) We must, however, distinguish two sorts of Necessity (the second of which will be the one just described) : (1) (2) The first isthat which elsewhere (¢.9., P..A. 642 a7 ff., a 32 ff.; cf. 639 b 25 ff, Phys. 199 b 33 ff.) Aristotle describes as ‘‘ conditional” (€ taofécews) Necessity ; that is to say, assuming that some end or purpose is to be achieved, certain means are necessary in order to achieve it. In other words, this is the sort of Necessity which is implied by the Final Cause being what it is. Thus, if a piece of wood is to be split, an axe or some such instrument is necessary, and the axe must, owing to the nature of the circumstances, be hard and sharp, hence of necessity bronze or iron must be used to make it. The same sort of Necessity is obviously involved in the construction by Nature of the living body and its various parts : certain materials must of necessity be used and certain processes gone through if this or that living body is to be produced. The other sort of Necessity is that which Aristotle (Phys. 199 b 33 et al.) calls ** simple ” or “* absolute ”’ Necessity (a7A@s). This applies in cases (a) where the presence of a material object or set of objects (i.e, a Material Cause), and the fact that their nature is what it is, entails as a necessary con- sequence a certain result or set of results ; (b) where the nature of the ‘‘ movement ” set up by an activat- ing agent (a Motive Cause) similarly entails certain results. This ‘‘ simple’ or ‘‘ absolute’. Necessity may therefore be regarded as the sort of Necessity involved in the Material and Motive Causes—as a reassertion of themselves by these Causes against the Final Cause (GA. 778 b 1) and against Nature as she advances towards her achievement of it. ‘In the field of natural objects, Necessity is what «, Thus even this Necessity can be said to be located “‘ in the matter ”’ (Phys. 200 a 15). © xlii GENERATION OF ANIMALS we call matter and the xwiyces of matter’ (Phys. 202 a -32).% (8) Aristotle, however, is continually drawing our attention used by to the adroitness of Nature in employing the results of Nature to _ this latter sort of Necessity in order to serve her purpose, pocktohed ; H in order to achieve her end. For example (738 a 33 ff.), f the production of ‘* residue ” by females is €€ dvayxns, $ simply because the female is not hot enough to effect A complete concoction; but Nature makes use of this eaithie to provide the material out of which the embryo -is to be formed. Other instances of things which, though occurring ¢é dvdéyxns, are nevertheless employed ‘by Nature &exd twos, will be found at, ¢.g., 739 b 28, 743 a 36 ff., 755 a 22, 776 a 15 ff.,b 33. See also P.A. 642 a 31, 663 b 13, b 20 ff. On the other hand, Nature cannot always manage to do this, and what results then is a useless residue (¢.g., excrements), or a “ colliques- cence’ (P.A. 677 a 12 ff.).. These by-products, how- ever, may still be regarded as “* natural,” ® because they are of general occurrence (that is one definition of what is‘ natural’’; see GA. 727 b 29, 770 b 10 ff., 777 a 20 ff., P.A. 663 b 28). When, however, Nature is more seriously thwarted by the indeterminateness or the unevenness of matter (G.A. 778 a7; ef. App. A § 11), we find unnatural results occurring, such as monstrosi- ties and deformities (see G.A. IV. 766 a 18 ef passim).° (9) The “ simple” or “ absolute” Necessity described in (iii) “ab- the preceding paragraphs refers only to the limited field ao ee of some particular yuyvopevor, i.e., to the process by repay a fer means of which some particular natural object is pro- as a whole. duced and to the Causes therein concerned. But there is a wider and more universal meaning of “ simple ” or “absolute * Necessity (which we may, if we like, consider as being an extension by Aristotle of the narrower meaning of Necessity as applied to the yéveais of individual things, though it is really on a different @ The verb ovpBaivecy (sometimes in the phrase cupBaiver é& avayKys) is frequently used with reference to the results of this sort of Necessity, as being facts which merely “ occur ”’ and are not designed to forward any purpose. - ® A “ colliquescence *” may be an unnatural by-product; see G.A. 724 b 26-29 and § 67 below. ¢ For further notes on “ Nature,”’ see §§ 12 ff. xiii ae (10) ARISTOTLE plane)—a Necessity which embraces the whole field of yeveots in the universe at large, i.¢., the whole process of the seasonal and cyclic transformations of the “‘ ele- ments,” and the whole process of the cyclical generation ef animals and plants (see App. A §§ 12 ff.) ; and which even further still (ibid. ; and see P.A. 639 b 24) includes those things which do not pass through a process of formation (yéveors) at all, but persist eternal and immut- able. In this context Aristotle lays down an & C. 337 b 35) that e€ dvdyxns and dei coincide; thus ‘* eternity ’’—whether it be individual eternity, as of the stars, or specific eternity, as of plants and animals—and Necessity are mutually interconnected (see App. A § 14) ; thus, that which always is or always yiyvera, is, or ylyvera, of necessity; that which is, or yiyvera, of necessity, is, or ytyvera, always. This meaning o * absolute ’’ Necessity, however, does not enter directly into the G.A., though it is once touched upon in ing (at 770 b 12; ef. 742 b 26 ff.), and it is incidentally implied to some extent in the passages of Books II and vod NOB oe to and supplemented in the Appendix, A an a Aéyos Frequently in the translation, rather than represent Adyos by an inadequate or misleading word, I have transliterated it by logos.” This serves the useful pur- pose of reminding the reader that we have here a term of wide and varied application, with which a number of correlated conceptions are associated, one or other of which may be uppermost in a particular case. The fundamental idea of Adyos, as its connexion with Aéyew shows, is that of something spoken or uttered, more especially a rational utterance or rational explanation, expressing a thing’s nature and the plan of it; hence Adyos can denote the defining formula, the definition of a thing’s essence, of its essential being (as often in the phrase Adyos ris odoias), expressing the structure or character of the object to be defined. See also § 1 above. a Other modes of Necessity not relevant to G.A. are here omitted. + The less technical meanings are translated in the normal way. xliv Sern a RRR ENS - GENERATION OF ANIMALS | Apxy ~ (11) For want of a better term, and in order to preserve the - line of Aristotle’s thought, I have usually translated dpyj by “ principle,’ or “ first principle.’ There is, -how- ever, really but little difficulty about this term, for the context will usually indicate what its connotation is. A few examples of its use may be given. (1) Often, as at 715 a 6, it is a principle or source of “* movement ” (dpy7) THs Kwhoews). Hence, obviously, (2) the Motive Cause may be described as an dpyy, and so too may the other Causes (¢.g., 716 a 5 ff., 778 a 7), including Matter; and for the same reasons the sexes also are dpyai; so is semen. (3) An dpyy is something which though small in itself is of great importance and influence as being the source or starting-point upon which other things depend, and which causes great changes (xujcecs) in them (cf. 716 b 3, 763 b 23 ff, 766 a 14 #f.). An apxy may, of course, be of greater or. less fundamental importance; and the ultimate dpy7 of an animal is its heart (¢.g., 766 a 35), though there are also dpyaé that are external to the animal, ¢.g., the sun and moon (777 b 24). Pics, Tipwpa (12) IIjpwpa, dvamynpia, and cognate words occur several “ Deforma- times in G.A., and for convenience I have translated tion.” them “ deformation ” or “‘ deformity.” Other possible renderings, none of which fully brings out the meaning of the Greek word, are given in the note on 737 a 25. The underlying notion is that ¢dvas has not succeeded in achieving her proper zéAos ; and this close connexion of mipwpa with a falling short of natural completeness is clearly brought out by the reasons given at 724 b 33 why semen cannot be a m7jpwya, viz., because it is found in all individuals (for that which is “ general” is “ natural,” see § 8), and because 7 dvais yiyvera: out of semen, (13) Perhaps the most striking instance of Aristotle’s applica- The female » tion of this idea is his statement (775 a 15) that female- 4 “de- ness (@nAvrns) is “ as it were a natural dvamnpia.” Here rmity- we have two conceptions of Nature asserting themselves xlv Nature versus Nature. Nature: as purpose ; comparable to an artist. Nature as Soul, ARISTOTLE in Aristotle’s mind + (1) that the male represents the full development of which Nature is jaime it is hotter than the femdle, and more “ able” té effect concoction, etc. ; but at the same time (2) the female is so universal and regular an occurrence that it cannot be dismissed out of hand as “ unnatural’’; besides, the female is essential for generation, which is a typically ‘“‘ natural ”’ process (see § 5). : (14) This opposition of “* Nature ” to “* Nature ” is, however, not unique, for it is found elsewhere in Aristotle; ¢.g., at G.A. 770 b 20 he can say that 7d wapa ddow is in a way xara dvow, viz., when 7 Kara 70 eldos dias has not mastered 7 Kara tiv vAnv divas; and at P.A. 663 b 22 he speaks of 7 xara tov Aoyor dvors making use of the products of 4 avayxaia dvois in order to serve a purpose (cf. also P.A. 641 a 26, 642 a 17; at Phys. 199 a 31 Aristotle distinguishes dvats &s tA and dvars as popd7}, the latter being a réAos and 7 airia 7 od Evexa. Cf. 729 a 34, n.). ‘ (15) It is impossible and unnecessary to provide here a full account of what Aristotle intended by the term dvats, since a proper understanding of it can best be obtained by rallies Aristotle’s works themselves, and for this G.A, is one of the most useful, because it is pervaded by references to dvais. A few remarks may however be made here about dva:s in its highest manifestation. (16) By Aristotle, dvovs and the products of dvois are con- stantly compared with réyvn and the products of réyvy: dvois works to produce a finished product, a 7éAos, a as the artist or craftsman does“; and vos, again like the artist, uses “ instruments,” charged with a specific ‘** movement,” in order to bring these products to fulfil-- ment. And the most typical of the products of dvows are, of course, living creatures; indeed, Aristotle can speak of the dvats of. each living thing as being identical with nutritive Soul (741 a 1, where see note, and eéf. P.A. 641 b 9), the Soul which generates and fashions it and promotes its growth ; and again (De caelo 301 b 17), dvats is to be regarded as a principle of movement in the « dacs is also compared (744 b 16) to a careful housekeeper, who throws away nothing that is useful; or to a cook (743 a 31; of 767 a 17 ff.), tempering the heat of her stove so that the food she is preparing may be done toa turn, See also Supperpia, § 39. xvi GENERATION OF ANIMALS thing itself. An artist, then, at work—yes, but in each several thing ; and it is doubtful whether Aristotle had, or intended to have, any idea of Nature over and above, _ outside, the individual things * which he described as her “ works.’ In fact, he goes so far as to say (P.A. 641 » 11) that no abstraction can be the object of study for Natural science, because Nature makes all that she makes to serve some purpose (évexd tov). Nature aims always at producing a réAos in the sense of a completely formed individual, and that is the Final Cause in each case, for that is what has the best claim to be called a “ being” (odeia).” There is, says Aristotle, more beauty (to 08 €vexa «ai 76 KaAdv) to be found in the works of Nature than in those of art (P.A. 639 b 20). (17) Nevertheless, we must remember that Nature is not, in Nature as Aristotle’s view, a term to be exclusively reserved for the matter. Final Cause, with which are associated the Formal and often the Motive Causes; it may be applied also, as we saw just now (§ 14), to the Material Cause; and in this connexion we may recall that, for Aristotle, Matter and _ Form themselves pervade all the strata of existence, for even the simplest sort of Matter is to some extent * in- _ formed,” and Matter in its highest phase is identical” with Form (see 729 a 34, n.). i Mépuov, pépos, “ part” : (18) The term “ part,” which occurs in the title of the treatise Meaning. De partibus animalium, epi Céwv popiaw (or, as Aristotle himself calls it at G.A. 782 a 21, “ the treatise Of the Causes of the Parts of Animals ”’), includes considerably more than is normally included by the English “ part of the body.” For instance, we should not normally call blood a “ part,” but Aristotle applies the term pdpcov to all the constituent substances of the body as well as to the limbs and organs. For him, blood is one of the Céwv popa (see P.A. 648 a 2; and note on GA. 720 b 31). Since, however, all the “ parts ” are either “ uniform ” or “non-uniform,” a detailed description of them will be more appropriate in the following paragraphs. @ See however § 5 above. ® See App. A § 18. c xlvii Two sorts of ‘ parts.” Relation between them. (19) (20) (21) ARISTOTLE o Ta opovopepy popio, the “uniform parts” Ta dvopovopepy popra, the “non-uniform parts” At G.A, 724 b 23 ff., Aristotle classifies the substances found in the body into five divisions, one of which is ‘“natural parts,’’ * and this division he subdivides into “uniform parts’ and “non-uniform parts.” As examples of “* uniform parts ” he cites (P.A. 647 b 10 ff.) blood, serum, lard, suet, marrow, semen, bile, milk, flesh » (these are soft and “ fluid ’’ © ones); also bone, fish-spine, sinew, blood-vessel (these are hard and ‘*‘ solid”? ones). And although in some cases the same name is applied to the substance out of which the whole is made and to the whole that is made out of it,® this is not true in all cases. Examples of “ non-uniform ” arts are (P.A. 640 b 20) face, hand, foot. he relation of the “ uniform ” to the “ non-uniform ” parts Aristotle describes as follows (P.A. 647 b 22 ff.): (a) some of the uniform parts are the material out of which the non-uniform are made (i.¢., each instru- mental part is made out of bones, sinews, flesh, etc.) ; (b) some, viz., “‘ fluid’ ones, serve as nourishment for those in class (a), since all growth is derived from fluid matter ; (c) some are ‘ residues ’’ ¢ from those in class (6), e.9., faeces, urine. Thus it is not possible to equate this division into uni- form and non-uniform parts with the more modern division into tissues and organs; for instance, blood, though a uniform part, is not a tissue. The term ‘* organs,’’ on the other hand, corresponds closely with Aristotle’s own description of the non-uniform parts (P.A. 647 b 23) as 7a dpyarxa wépy; ‘* the instrumental arts,” The fundamental difference between the two sorts of ‘*‘ parts ’’ is that each of the uniform parts has its own definite character as a substance (in the modern sense), a This must not be taken to imply the existence of unnatural “* parts.”’ » Some of these are also ‘‘ residues ’’ ; see below, § 65 e For the meaning of “‘ fluid ’’ and “ solid,”’ see below, § 38. d ¢.g., we speak of “ bone ”’ and ‘‘a bone ’’; Aristotle’s own example is ** blood-vessel.”’ ¢ See § 65. xviii ~ GENERATION OF ANIMALS while each of the non-uniform parts has its own definite character as a conformation or organ. The heart is the only “ part”? which belongs to both classes (P.A. 647 a 25 ff.): it is made out of one uniform part only, _ but at the same time it has essentially a definite con- ion or shape, and thus it is a non-uniform part. (22) The four stages or “* degrees of composition,” so far as The stages _ biology is concerned, are thus enumerated by Aristotle of com- (G.A. 715 a 10 ff. ; cf. PuA. 646 a 13 ff.) : poms. (1) The four “ Elements,” Fire, Air, Water, Earth ¢ ; 3 the uniform parts ; 3) the non-uniform parts ; _ (4) the animal organism as a whole. We thus begin from the simplest sorts of matter (Aris- totle calls the four Elements ‘‘ simple bodies *’) and proceed upwards by stages until the most organized or most “ informed ”’ sort of matter is reached : each stage is the “ material ’’ for the stage next above it (G.A. 715 a9 ff). 7 Avvapis (23) This term has a number of different, though related, ‘meanings, and it is not always easy to determine pre- cisely which one Aristotle has uppermost in mind. 5 8 nlike some other terms, therefore, this one cannot always be represented by the same term in English, and sometimes it is best left untranslated. (24) (A) To begin with, we will examine the pre-Aristotelian Dynameis meaning of dvvaycs, as found for instance in the Hippo- 45 ae cratic corpus and in Plato’s Timaeus. Advvayus was the po eerie old technical term for the simplest sorts of matter, i.¢., : for what came later to be called crotyeia (“‘ elements ”’). Avvayzs was however applied exclusively to substances of a particular class, viz., 76 dypév, 76 Enpdv, 76 Beppdv, To puxpoy, TO mKpov, TO yAvKU, TO Spyuv, etc., ete. In the ippocratic treatise wepi dpyains inrpixfs (The Ancient and Genuine Art of Medicine) these substances are regarded as being the constituents both of the body and @ Tn the P.A. passage Aristotle says it might be better to substitute for these “‘ the évvdyers,”’ or rather four of them ; see below, § 24. Fire, Air, Water, Earth are of course the constituents of non-living things as well; see App. A § 2. RG TA EES A aE xlix Earth, Air, Water, Fire, resolvable into dynameis. Origin of this usage. ARISTOTEE) {A420 ~ of its foods. The duvdayets are referred to by Aristotle at ef beginning of P.d. II (see § 22, note), where he speaks “* the ‘ elements * as they are called, viz... Earth, Air, fice Water, and Fire were “* Freer es 24.85, that res Pair the simplest states of matter actually found in the world as we know it, yet theoretically hah of them could be resolved into a pair of duvdpes: thus Fire is ¢ and énpov, Air Oeppov and dypov, Water v and typov, Earth ypuypdry and énpov (G. & C. $30 a 90 ff), each of them being characterized by one constituent par excel- lence, ein by Oepudv, Air by dypév, Water by pvxpor, Earth by énpov. Accord ing to Aristotle, all other physical “ differences ” are consequent erg these four fundamental ones. (25) The meaning implied in this use of Sdvapus naeenihe have been “ substance of a specific character ’ (perhaps the adjective ‘‘ strong ” should be prefixed: this would of course be very poe to Suvdyers such as 76 Spyst, 76 mxpdv, etc.). But originally, no doubt, the term was an item in the Pythagorean political metaphor terminology, as would appear for instance from the theory held by Alemeon ¢ that bodily health was main- tained by the icovopia ray Suvdpewr, and that the “monarchy ” of any one of them produced disease. It is important to notice that there is no notion here of the substance having power in the sense of power to produce a specific effect» upona body, though this was ‘a meaning « See Aétius v. 30. 1 (Diels, Dexoarsaes, Graeci 44 442). > e.g., causing stomach-ache. In P s Timaeus we find this ex- tended meaning of dvvayis (i.e., power e sgh Soe a conte: effect) side by side with the old meaning of specific substance ; and it is frequent* in x. é:aizms. Clearly, this marks a change over from the medical theory originally associated with the political me taphor terminology and we find that, as é¥vapis takes on the meaning of power to produce a specific effect, ” the term “* humour ” comes in to denote the s substances to. which Svvapis Was OFi lly applied, Thus = (apud Galen vi. 455) can argue against doctors win hold that er things which possess similar ‘* humours’’ also possess the same évva. rae of producing specific effects on the body), ¢.g., are laxative, There is no space to say more here on this development, Which I acti with fully in my ace, Pseudo-Hippocrates Philosophus (1928). Studies lv GENERATION OF ANIMALS _ which developed later. A dvvajus is rather a substance _. which is a power, which can assert itself, and by the simple act of asserting itself, by being too strong, stro than the others, can cause trouble. The remedy in such a case is to deprive it of some of its strength, until it again takes its proper place among its peers, or, in the language of medicine, to ‘‘ concoct ”’ it or otherwise bring it into a harmless condition by “ blending ” * it with the other substances. (26) (B) As each of the substances known as duvdpers had its Dynameis as own specific and peculiar character, sharply marked off substances from the others, it was easy for the meaning “ peculiar eee: and distinctive character * to become closely associated acter, with the term dvvayis, quite apart from any reference to these particular substances. In fact, it almost comes to mean any “ substance of a distinctive quality ”; and in this sense it is found in G.A., for instance at 720 b 32 (@\An tis S¥vayss) and 736 a 21 (Aphrodite was called after “ this dvvayis,” sc. ddpds, foam). From this it is an easy step to “ distinctive physical quality,” or simply “* distinctive character "’ (as, ¢.g., at 731 b 19, where it is joined with Adyos 77s odcias ; at 751 a 33, where it refers to the distinctive character of the yolk and white of an- egg respectively °; and cf. 733 b 15 €yea dStvayw dod— it has the distinctive character of an egg, it is equivalent to anegg; and 780 b 8, 784 b 15); or“ characteristic ” (applied to the sexes at 756 a 1, 763 b 23; cf. 760-a 19). (27) In the sense of “* (substance of) distinctive character ”’ it can be used practically as an alternative to ddois, or in conjunction with duos (as indeed it often is in Hippo- erates and Plato), and this seems to be the use of it in P.A. 655 b 12 -€€ dvdyxns 3€ tadra mavra yewdn Kai orepeay éxee tiv dvow GmAov yap atry Svvams (cf. P.A.651 b 21). | (28) (C) From this usage it is not far to the idiomatic, pleo- Idiomatic nastic usage, ¢.g., 7 Tav évrépwy Sdvayis (almost=7va Usage. évrepa P.A. 678 a 13); 4 rev amrepav Sivas (=Ta wrEpa, 682 b 15); and this is-paralleled by the similar usage le terme Sivayuss dans les dialogues de Platon, Paris, 1919, and A. Keus, Uber philosophische Begriffe u. Theorien in den hippokratischen Schriften, eg ety pp. 46 ff. a § 40. » vos is used in a similar context at 753 a 35. li Dynamis in generation. Associated with - **move- ment.” ARISTOTLE of duats, ¢.9., 7) Tv darpaKxodéppww dias (G4. 761 b 24), % Tob aidoiov ddas (717 b 183 cf. also 755 a 20), Trav mrepav dda (749 b 7, a striking instance, because gvais is used in an entirely different sense, “* Nature,” in the very next line); and even overaats is sometimes used in a similarly weakened Sense, €.9., a TOv Opxewy avorans (GA. T17 a 15), q TOY KaTapyvioy adoracs (G.A. 727 b 33); and ovcracis appears in two manu- scripts as a variant for dda at G.A. 717 b 20. (29) (D) In the passages dealing with the réle of the. male parent in generation we find phrases such as “‘ the dvvauis in the semen,”’ “ the dvvayis in the male ”’ (e.g., 726 b 19,4 727 b 14, 729 b 27, 730 a 3, a 14, 736 a 27, etc.). The meaning of Sdvopus here would appear to be fundamentally the same as that dealt with in § 26 above, i.e., ddvayus here is the physical substance by means of which impregnation is effected; and the distinctive physical characteristic with which we find this Svvapus closely associated by Aristotle is ** vital heat ” or “* Soul- heat.” ° The most distinctive characteristic, however, of this substance is that it is charged with a i “movement,” capable of constituting and developing an embryo out of the matter supplied by the female ; and hence we also find a close association of d¥vayus with xivnois.° ‘This is the most important extension of dvvayis in its ancient sense made by Aristotle, for it links up the old sense of the term with the typically and peculiarly Aristotelian sense of 5vvayus=‘* potentiality ” (see §§ 34 ff. below). (30) (E) Under the same category comes the use of dSvvayus and ddvvapia as applied to male and female respectively (G.A. 765 b 9 ff., 766 a 32 ff.), for these are explained - by Aristotle as the ability and inability respectively to effect ‘‘ concoction ” of the ultimate nourishment (blood) into semen, and this is directly dependent upon the pos- session of sufficient “* natural heat.” « An interesting example, because dovayer (= potentially) occurs in the previous line. 8 . Pipes ot to be confused with the ordinary Sivayis “Oepusy ’’; see App. B 18, ec References for 8¥vayis associated with “‘ vital heat’’ and xivnots, e.g., 726 b 19 ff., 729 b 6 ff., 738 b 12, 739 b 24, 740 b 30 ff., 767 b 17 ff. (cf. 755 a 20 “‘ the vous of the Soul-heat’’). See also xivnois, § 50. lii GENERATION OF ANIMALS (31) (F) Under the same category too must be placed the use of the term 8dvajius in the remarkable discussion on heredity in Book IV. | This is admittedly a particular- ized use of the term,* and Aristotle carefully explains its ~- meaning when he first introduces it (767 b 23 ff., q.v.). But here too it is applied to special and distinctive char- acteristics, be it those of genus, species, or individual, --and therefore this use of it stands in the same line of “suecession as the meaning already described in §§ 24 ff. As for the way in which Aristotle conceived these ‘dvvapers to operate, it is clear that, as they were present both in the semen and in the menstrual fluid (see /oc. eit.) and gave rise to xwjces (767 b 36), they must have been ter Veet associated with Soul and inherent in its instrument pneuma. (32) It may be noted here that the physical substance con- " cemed t the theory of generation is pneuma substance “ analogous to aither, 5 the “ fifth element,” ti the ** element of the stars ”’), with which Soul is “ associ- ated”; and it is this pneuma which Soul charges with a specific “ movement ’’ and uses as its “ instrument ” in generation just as it does in locomotion, and as an ___ artist uses his instruments, to which he imparts ‘* move- _ ment,” in order to create his works of art. (For fuller details about pnewma, see App. B, and ef. § 45.) _ (33) Thus 8dvayis, even at its most glorified, still retains the marks of its descent from the historic 3vvayis of the early medicine, for, although Soul-heat is something different from the old @epudév and superior to it, neverthe- less it is still Pepucv. And there is another respect in which its descent is still to be seen, though this time it may be fortuitous and perhaps no more than a verbal eoincidence. This physical substance is the vehicle for the activity of Form () is described as “ growth- promoting,”” and causes increase of bulk. In the development of the embryo, it is the leavings of the first-grade nourishment, or “ nutritive residue,” left over after the ‘“‘ supreme parts *—flesh and the other sense-organs—have been provided for, which are used to form the bones and sinews; the second-grade, inferior, nourishment (which is taken in by way of supplement from the mother or from outside) is used to form nails, hair, horns, etc. The latter is more “ earthy ” 715 b 24, n.). Indeed, the processes are regarded by Aristotle as being fundamentally identical, (Cf. 743 a 31 ff.) It is also applied by him to the ‘‘ maturing ’’ of the embryo (719 a 34). lxiv GENERATION OF ANIMALS than the former; indeed, with such residue in mind, _ Aristotle can say (745 b 19) that “ residue is unconcocted substance, and the most unconcocted substance in the body is earthy substance ” ; see also § 66 below. (65) Generally, then, more blood is produced than is required Residues : for the purposes mentioned at the end of § 63, and the lus may then undergo a further stage of concoction, Nature is often able to turn it to some useful purpose (ef. § 8 above).. These are the useful ‘‘ residues,” and (a) useful ; ature has provided each with its proper place (G.4. 725 b 1); indeed, it is only in its proper place that each “residue” is formed (739 a 2). Examples of useful residues are semen, menstrual fluid, milk. Marrow, _ which gives the backbone coherence and elasticity, is produced when “ the surplus of bloodlike nourishment is shut up in the bones’ and concocted by their heat (P.A. 652 a 5,a 20). Sometimes, when the nourishment is particularly abundant, the surplus blood is concocted _into fat, such as lard and suet (651 a 20).. Also, some _ of the blood, reaching the extremities of the vessels in which it is carried, makes its way out in the form of _ nails, claws or hair.* (66) Residues may appear at various stages (725 a 13) ; they (0) ambigu- may appear before, as well as after, the nourishment ous; has been turned into blood ; and then they are residues _of “ nourishment at its first stage”; thus (653 a 2, ef. 458 a 1 ff.), after a meal, the nourishment rises as vapour through the vessels to the brain, where it is-cooled, and then condenses into phlegma and ichor (serum). But both of these, it seems, may also be useless résidues, for at 677 b 8 phlegma is mentioned in company with “ the sediment from the stomach,” though perhaps it is most often a residue of the useful nourishment (725 a 14). Ichor, too, the “‘ watery part of the blood,” is sometimes unconcocted blood, sometimes corrupted blood (653 a 2 ; cf. 458 a 1 ff., 651 a 15; no doubt ef tt d\Xo tovodrov at G.A, 725 a 15 refers to iehor). (67) Residues, then, are “ the surplus of the nourishment ” () useless ; @ The Aristotelian doctrine of “‘ residues ’’ came down to Shakespeare, as is shown by the passage in Hamlet (III. Iv), where the Queen says to Hamlet: ** Your bedded haire, like life in excrements, Start up, and stand an end.”’ -" oe lxv (d) un- natural : Colliques- cence. Generative residues. Source of ARISTOTLE (724 b 26); but there are useless as well as useful residues, for residue may come either from the useful or the useless nourishment (725 a 4). Useless nourish- ment is “ that which can contribute nothing further to the natural organism, and if too much of it is consumed it causes very great injury to it” (725 a 5 ff.). Among the useless residues are the excrements; these are natural useless residues ; but there are also some un- natural ones, as has already been hinted. Among them perhaps should be included bile, which serves no useful nachaps whatever. It is a residue produced by the iver (677 b 1), it is the residue of blood in those animals which are made out of less pure blood ; it is merely a “necessary ’’ product, an “‘ offscouring,”’ a ‘* colliques- cence.” Colliquescence (ovrrnypa, avvrngis) is defined at 724 b 26 ff. as that which is produced as an aaéxpiois from the material that supplies growth, as the result of decomposition proceeding contrary to Nature” (70 droxplev ex rod avéjparos bmd THs mapa dvow avadicews). Colliquescence, then, is an unnatural residue,* and therefore there is no proper place set apart for it by Nature (725 a 1); it just runs about wherever it can in the body. (See also 726 a 11 ff.) Colliquescence is a very common term in the Hippocratic treatise zepi dcairns, where its effect is said to be the production of an unhealthy dzoxpcis (abscession), and both there and in Aristotle daéxpics is specially associated with re- sidues, useful, or useless, or even harmful ones. A great deal of 7. dvairys is taken up with suggestions for getting rid of harmful dzoxpices. (68) ‘The most important residues so far as G.A. is concerned are of course semen and menstrual fluid { natural and useful residues, for which Nature has set apart special places in the body. The difference between them is one of degree of concoction : semen is a residue of the final stage of useful nourishment (726 a 26); so is menstrual fluid (738 a 36), but the female has not sufficient natural heat to carry the concoction far enough to duce semen. Hence, the difference between male and female « It seems however that a “ colliquescence *’ may sometimes be a natural residue, for at P.A. 677 a 13 bile is said to be ‘‘ a residue or a colliquescence,”’ and it is classed with the sediment in the stomach and intestines. See also P.A. (Loeb ed.), pp. 38 f. lxvi GENERATION OF ANIMALS is to be traced back to the innermost source of the sex-differ- organism, viz., the heart; the sexual organs may serve Pace is the as an outward expression of the difference, but the “* difference is not due to them. Like the blood, of which it is a more fully concocted form, semen derives its character primarily from the heart; where the blood is pneumatized and charged with the requisite specific * movements ” (see § 63 and G.A. 737 a 19). Semen, therefore, like blood, is the vehicle of “ Soul,” and especially so in virtue of the Xvudurov Ivedua which it contains, for Xy; ov Ilvedua is the physical sub- stance with which Soul is most intimately “‘ associated.” In terms of Soul, the difference between semen and menstrual fluid is that semen possesses the principle of _ sentient Soul, menstrual fluid possesses only nutritive Soul (potentially): the fluid has not been charged with the “*‘ movement” proper to sentient Soul owing to deficiency of heat in the female. The other “ move- ments” in these generative residues are a most important factor in the determination of generic, specific, sexual, and even individual characteristics: see the discussion in G.A, IV. 766 a 13 ff., 767 b 15 ff. (69) It should be noted that the heat both of blood and of Heat of semen (the concocted residue of blood) is not inherent, blood and but is acquired from a source other than themselves. 0fseme" The logos of blood, it is true, includes the term “ hot,”’ herent but but only in the same sense that the logos of “* boiling ‘acquired.’ water” (if we had one word for that as we have for blood) would include the term “ hot.’ In other words, ' the permanent substratum of blood is not hot; and thus, although in one way blood is “ essentially ” hot, in another way it is not “ essentially * hot (P.A. 649 b 21 ff.). Similarly, the “ matter ’ of semen is “ watery ” (i.e., the substratum of it is the Element Water; cf. 736 a 1 and preceding passage); and its heat is a supplementary acquisition (érixrnros: G.A. 747 a 18, cf. 750 a 9, 10). The explanation of these statements, as will be obvious from the preceding sections, is that blood is produced by the heat of the heart out of the fluid matter supplied by the stomach from the food (§ 63), and semen of course has to undergo still further Gee by the vital heat in the appropriate parts § 62). lxvii ARISTOTLE Two modes of diff erence ; Blood ; Classification of Animals (1) ‘The (70) Differences “* by the more and less,” or “* of exceks and more and less.” deficiency differences of degree, as we should say, are minor differences such as are found as between different species of one and the same genus or of any iss er group. Thus (P.A. 6444.19, 692 b 24) the parts irds differ in this way, some having long legs, or oe ee others short ones ; somea ae tongue, others a narrow one, Again, the male will have the same defensive or offensive organ as the female, but “‘ to a greater degree,’’ and this sometimes holds good of organs essential for food and nutrition * (661 5 28 ff.). Difference “* by the more and less ” can also be applied to skin, blood-vessel, membrane, sinew: these are substances. which. differ among themselves in this way (G.A. 737 b 4; of. 739 b 32). @) (71) Where the divergence i is wider, as for instance between ** Counte ea og (72) different groups of animals such as birds and fishes, the difference is no longer 7@ paAdov Kai #rrov, but 7d dvédoyov (P.A. 644 a 21): the corresponding. parts, e.g., the feathers of birds, the scales of fishes, and the scales of reptiles, differ ‘‘ by analogy,” i.e., they are merely the ‘‘ counterparts,’ the ‘‘ opposite numbers ” of each other, as indeed the large groups of animals themselves may be (see G.A..761.a 27-and context ; ef. also 784 b 16 ff., and 737 b 4, n.). Many examples of this usage occur in G.A.; we find mention of 70 dvdAoyov of the heart ; of the blood, and of the menstrual fluid, in bloodless creatures ; of teeth ; of flesh; of fat; of hair ; of sinew. Menstrual fluid in females is avaAoyov to semen in males (727 a 3); we might have expected this difference to be only a differ- ence “ by the more and less,” but no doubt the reason why it is a wider divergence is that menstrual fluid lacks sentient Soul (see § 68). The most frequent references to 70. avaAoyov in G.A. are the counterparts of the heart and of the blood. And the most important of all the counterparts is of course “ the substance in the pneuwma,” a Cf. the view that the female is a “* deformity,”’ § 13, lxviii a, eae ama GENERATION OF ANIMALS caer aba papeclanaptinenityroaciegmetl 736 b 37 nob. It should be noted that by “* blood *’ Aristotle means red blood only, and he makes a division of animals into ** blooded * (€aua) and “* bloodless ” (dvarza). These two classes do not quite coincide with vertebrates and invertebrates, for there are some invertebrates which have red blood, e.g., molluses (Planorbis), insect larvae (Chironomus), and worms (Arenicola). In other invertebrates the blood may be blue (Crustacea and most molluscs) or green (Sabellid worms), or there may be no respiratory pigment at all (most Insects). (74) — following table shows how Aristotle’s division out: Blooded animals Bloodless animals Man. Crustacea. Viviparous quadrupeds. Cephalopods. Oviparous quadrupeds and I footless animals (=re Testacea. tiles and amphibians). Birds. Fishes. It may be convenient to give here the Greek names used by Aristotle for the four classes of Bloodless animals, together with their literal translation and the terms which I have used to translate them: im padaxdorpaxa soft-shelled animals Crustacea. softies Cephalopods. Ta &vropa ‘insected animals Insects. Ta dorpaxddeppa shell-skinned animals Testacea.* Blood. ——_ Bloodless animals, (75) The Testacea were a source of considerable embarrass- The ment to Aristotle, who considered them to be inter- Testacea. mediate between animals proper and plants. Nor, according to him, did they uce sexually, but arose from spontaneous generation. In his treatise on the Progression of Animals, he defers mention of them to # In using “ Testacea’’ to translate ra sexpaxétcoue (“the animals with earthenware skins *’) I use it in the old-fashioned sense, so as to include a number of shelled invertebrates, comprising Gasteropods, Lamellibranchs, and some Echinoderms. Modern zoologists ee eee the — Testacea to the Foraminifera, which are shelled Protozoa. term Ostracoderms (a transliteration of Aristotle’s word) is now aes by zoologists to a group of primitive fossil fishes. Ixix Classifica- (76) tion according to method of reproduc- tion. ** Perfect animals. Distinction (77) of ‘* per- fect’ and “imperfect” eggs. Distinction of egg and larva. Ixx- ARISTOTLE the very end and then says that strictly speaking they ought not to move about at all, yet in fact we see them moving : anyway, their movement is “‘ contrary to nature,’’ because they “ have no right and left .” (The mechanism of their movement can be detected only by the microscope, and is known as ciliary.) — In G.A., however, although Aristotle adheres to his classification into Blooded and Bloodless animals, per- haps a more important classification is that which i based upon their method of reproduction. This classi- fication will be found in the Contents-Summary, pp. lxii ff. And in this connexion we must notice that the list is headed by the Viviparous animals, of which the first is Man: these are the “ most perfect animals,” and therefore they produce their offspring in the most perfected condition. And by “ most perfect ”’ (732 b 29) Aristotle means the animals which are “ in their nature hotter and more fluid (dypdrepa), and are not earthy ”’ ; and, as the test of natural heat is the presence of the lung, and further, a lung well supplied with blood, no animal can be internally viviparous unless it respires. (See the whole passage 732 a 26—733 b 16.) It should be noted that Aristotle clearly distinguishes between what he calls ‘ perfect ’’ and ‘ imperfect ” eggs, that is to say between eggs which do not and those which do increase in size after deposition. This is the basis of the modern distinction between cleidoic and non-cleidoic eggs (see 718 b 7, n.). He also clearly distinguishes between an egg and a larva: .an egg is that from part of which the young creature is formed, the remainder serving as nourishment for it; a larva is something of which the whole is used to form the young animal. . (See 732 a 29 and note, and 758 b 10 ff.) The fact that Aristotle drew these distinctions so clearly is particularly noteworthy. ._ He was, of course, unaware of the existence of the mammalian ovum, which cannot be detected without the aid of the microscope. It should also be noted that Aristotle compares the growth of a non-cleidoic egg with the action of yeast in fermenta- tion ; see 755.a 18. 2 10 12 17 CONTENTS-SUMMARY of Baraca The uvitea! The Motive and Material Caucn of animals _, are the main theme of G@.4. The Sexes (a ) Distinction of sexes not universal. They are (a) found in f blooded animals, and in Cephalopods and Crustacea, in all Insects ; (b) not found in Testacea. ©) Betiniton of male and female :_ they are the “ principles ”’ of generation, the fala: Scarier the motive agent and the female the material. Hence a corresponding differ- ence in the sexual parts, which vary in the various animals, but are always double. 1—Sexrual Parts in Blooded Animals ig The of testes. 8 () Sexual oe parts in 2 pele purpose 3 Ovipara laying apverute eggs. ; 2) Ovipara laying perfect eggs (3) Trapipars (Selachia a vipers). 4 (ce) pd vivipara remarks on position of sexual organs. 2—Copulation of Bloodless Animals ) Crustacea. '(b) Cephalopods ember ged reference to the hectocotylized arm of the Octopus (c) Insects : some Cy ae soueretod by copulation, copulate, uce some (2) are omematall spontaneously, copulate, and produce larvae ; sat @) are generated spontaneously and do } includes sade senies: spiders, wasps, ants ; fleas, flies, can’ tharides ®) gnats, mosquitoes, etc,” 3—Theory of Sexual Generation (A) What is the nature of semen ? (a) Theory of “ pangenesis*’ examined and refuted by ous arguments. (5) Definition of semen : it is that “ from ** which natural objects are produced. It is one of the “ residues ’’—a residue of useful nourishment in its final form— not a ym ggg (B) Beerul fluid. _This also is a residue, similar to semen, ut less concocted. It is the matter for generation. Since oe prod provides the form, several offspring may be originated by one semen. (C) (a) Elaboration of the theory of generation. lexi ABISTOTLE |! TY) CH. Be ee (b) The female cannot generate alone because it cannot provide the form (viz., sentient Soul). Semen is the “instrument ’’ used by Nature, charged the “movement ’’ which conveys the form. - ; 23 (c) Comparison and contrast of animals and plants. Sexes are not separate in plants because reproduction is almost their only function. II. 1 (D) The Frnat Cavss of the existence of the Sexes. They sub- serve generation, the perpetuation of the species, and this is the way by which “ perishable ’’ things are able to partake in eternal “‘ being.’’ ‘ ~ Classification of the various methods of Generation Note on the difference between an and a larva. The classes (Vivipara, Ovovivipara, Ovipara laying perfect egg, Ovipara laying imperfect egg, Larvipara) do not correspond to differences in the organs of locomotion, but to the degrees of ‘ perfection ’’ of the animals concerned, the most perfect being those which are hot, as is shown by the fact that they breathe. (1) es that are hot and fluid. Viviparous. Man, ete. (2) Animals that are cold and fluid. Ovoviviparous. Selachia and vipers. : (3) Animals that are hot and solid. Oviparous (perfect egg). Birds and scaly animals. (4) lve a id bape Bes 95 pele (im- perfect egg). Fishes, Crustacea, Ce i) F (5) i i that are coldest of all. Larvi parous.® nsects. 3 (resumed)—Theory of Sexual Generation (a) What is the agent that fashions the embryo? Preforma- tion versus epigenesis. It is the male parent, or rather the semen in which the parent’s “ movement ”’ is trans- mitted, which fashions the embryo, Thus the material (provided by the female), which is potentially a living body of a particular kind, is gradually actualized. The of the body—and of the Soul—are actualized successively : first the heart and nutritive Soul. 2 (b) The physical character of semen. It is a foam, a com- pn of Water and pneuma. ; 3 (ce) Does semen contain Soul? Yes—potentially; all the sorts of Soul which act through a body must be present first of all potentially. The problem of the entry of rational Soul. (d) The physical substance in which Soul is carried is pneuma, a “divine ’’ substance analogous to aither, the fifth element. ‘ (e) Menstrual fluid contains all the parts of the body poten- tially, but it lacks sentient Soul. @ The larva represents a stage previous to that of the egg, for, according to Aristotle, the larva develops into an egg-like object. lxxii GENERATION OF ANIMALS Generation in Blooded Animals—I. Vivipara nid “rf gh net a lip ane (a) The secretion of the generative residues. Semen is not @ eee by all male animals. male—either by means of semen or directly —“ sets ”’ ” he purest portion of the female’s residue and so produces tion. (e) Te development of the fetation. The heart is formed first, as being the seat of nutritive Soul. (d@) Theory of the action of the male factor on soe female. 5 (e) The female cannot generate alone because it pth a sentient = (in some animals, however, the sexes are not separ- ). 6 (f) Sate Goxekopeeas of the fetation. The upper parts develop first (but not so in Insects and Cephalopods). (g) oad diterentiation of the parts is effected by means of (Oar The ander ot of development of the parts. ek epee if tena the ‘‘uniform’’ parts; nails, etc. ; and G) Heating and pee ee are employed as instruments in the development of the fetation. Necessity and purpose. (k) The beptn.; the eyes. (Dd ete. ' (m) Two moting of nourishment : “ nutritive’ and * growth- . (nm) 7. (0) Froctcn of the umbilicus and cotyledons. (p) Hybrids ; sterility ; mules ; deformed animals. Generation in Blooded Animals—II. Ovipara (laying perfect eggs) Ill. 1 Birds and Quadrupeds. (a) General. (b) Wind-eggs (e) Difference between yolk and white : the white is hot and . is the seat of the Scapeneine. 2 (d) Shape of the egg. (e) Growth, of the egg. (f) ee by pares animal (not needed for quadrupeds’ (9) Ponawiour of white and yolk during incubation. (hk) Description of the umbilical cords, etc. Generation i in Blooded. Animals—I/I. Ovovivipara (laying perfect eggs) 3 Fishes (A) Selachia. (a) Description of the development of the embryo. (6) Differences as between Birds and Selachia (including reference to Mustelus laevis). lxxiii ARISTOTLE = Generation in Blooded Animals—IV. Ovipara see imperfect eggs) . : BK. TI. Pig Fishes (B) Fishes other than Selachia. (a) Growth of the egg: a process comparable with fermenta- tion 5 (db) Erroneous theories : (1) h are not oviparous and have no sex distinction ; (2) swallo of mi 6 (3) apocrypha methods of copulation in birds ; (4) stories about trochos and hyen 7 Method of action of male birds and emt fishes upon the eggs contrasted. Generation in Bloodless Animals 7 8 (A) Cephalopods and Crustacea. 9 (B) Insects. (a) The larva is comparable to the earliest bye of an egg. All Insects, whether formed as a result of copulation or by spontaneous generation, originate from larvae. - (b) Development of the larva. (c) Bees. Hornets and Wasps. iL (C) Testacea: intermediate between animals nad ante Various animals proper to the various Elemen Moon- and Fire-animals. (a) Side-shoot (quasi-seminal) propagation, re (b) Spontaneous generation: the action of ma. The theory expounded. Traditional view of the origin of animals. The process of development resembles that of larvae. Examples of spontaneous generation. Origin of Sex-differentiation in the Individual and Inheritance Vit ae by dei theories : Anaxagoras, Episeiacles, Woaaoetlind, eophanes (b) The Pamaanbatal distinction between male and female is that the male can concoct and discharge sem the female cannot concoct or discharge semen, but can beoghed it: the difference of the sex-organs is consequent upon this distinction, and therefore the sex of the coves embryo is so too. Thus the ultimate source of sex- tion is the heart, which provides the vital heat Pecans for concoction. Further statement on the difference of formation of the sexual organs. 2 (ce) Facts cited to. support theory (d) Imp rtance of eonnesPiy both internally and externally (“ blend ”’ of climate 3 (e) Resemblance to parents. Theory of inheritance. (f) Fallings away from type: Male changes over to female. Father changes over to mother. Ixxiv - if ) J Father to grandfather, then to Ss cieceatina tiie. ete. Mother to grandmother, then to greatgrandmother, ete. This is applicable to the parts as well as to the whole body. ) Further departures : unevenly develo individuals se ee ee r ists) io a} fancied resemblance to animals ; ee 2) with redundant parts ; ) eeyear g Ear see Gy Connexion of this ‘with the miniatier? of young produced. th i Beason for the redundance of pars formations. Vi GEBERB TION OF ASME CH. 3 Varia aon In human beings, more males born deformed than fe- The f femaie itself is a deformity, though a natural ormity. 7 The mola uteri. 8. Milk. The heart controls the production of milk, as _.. \\» does the production of the voice. Milk is concocted blood. ee Animals are born head first. 0 Length of gestation-period. The periods of animals are cosmic periods. Perea a Degree of perfection of the young at birth. males governed by Secondary Characteristics 1 Introductory. This part of the work is concerned with characteristics which are due entirely to Necessity (i.e., the pool and Material Causes), and in no way to the Final use. (a) Embryos are mostly asleep. (b) Colour of eyes. (ec) Keenness of sight, due (1) to the amount of fluid in the eyes ; (2) to the condition of the skin on the pupil. uait aim two anes oF “kneneens” *: ability to see at a distance ; ability to distinguish colours. (d) Keenness of smell and hearing. Digression on the inner mechanism of the senses. (e) spas thickness, curliness, rigidity, baldness and mo (f) Colour of hair, in man, and in other animals. (g) Coloration of animals. Colour of tongue. Seasonal ecolour-changes. General remarks on colour. (h) Voice. (i) Teeth: order of growth, e (j) The relation of the Matovict and Motive Causes (Necessity) to the Final Cause. ay at Ww Ww Ixxv ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THIS VOLUME ; H.A. te. G.A, IA. M.A. L.'& S. Worxs or ARISTOTLE Historia animalium De partibus anima- lium De generatione ani- malium De incessu anima- lium De motu animaliuwm Phys. Physica Met. Metaphysica Meteor. Meteorologica Pol. Politica ELN. Ethica Nicomachea Cat. Categoriae Dean. De anima De resp. De respiratione G. & C. De generatione et corruptione Oruer Works Liddell and Scott’s Greek-English Lexicon (1925-1940) Diels, Vorsokr. Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, by Her- mann Diels, fifth ed., edited by W. ae C.Q. C.R. Ixxvi 1934-1937 Classical Quarterly Classical Review Other abbreviations are self-explanatory. CONTENTS PAGE . PREFACE ‘ ' beatin at 4 ; ; v Aristotle’s Embryology . i : eae | Early Translations . : : ; oo) x The Text . : : S : . > ei Modern Editions ? , : a . XXxXii The Translation : array : - xxxiii Acknowledgements . : ; XXxvi INTRODUCTION ; ; : a : XXXViii Conrents-Summary or Dz GENERATIONE ANIMALIUM._... ; : . : . lxxi ABBREVIATIONS d , d ; “> lxxvi SIGLa . r ’ : : : . lxxviii TExT anD TRANSLATION : : . . 2 TasiLe or Birps . é : : : . 3868 DiacrRaM or Empryonic MEMBRANES . 369 AppITIONAL NoTres ON THE TEXT . - . 562 AppiTionaL Notes on Supsect-MatTrer . 565 APPENDIX A : : : : : . 567 Appenpix B : . : ; : . 576 INDEX j , ; ; ¢ ‘ . 504 lxxvii SIGLA Manuscripts cited throughout ¢ (AAS - Oxoniensis Collegii Corporis Christi W.A. 2. i Bree, Laurentianus Mediceus 81, 1. Vaticanus graecus 1339. Vaticanus graecus 261. “on N Manuscripts occasionally cited Parisinus 1921. OD Riceardianus 13. Es Parisinus 1853. All ss. readings are as reported by Bekker (by Busdemmalcet for EK at 723 b 5 and 769 b 34, and for m at 723 b 5 and 768 b 36) except that * denotes corrected or additional reports of readings as given by Bitterauf (and twice only, for Z at 768 b 36 and 786 a 3, as given by Susemihl). Readings and emendations D> Michael Scot’s Latin translation (either its actual words, or the original Greek reading clearly implied), from my own transcription. Gul. William of Moerbeke’s Latin translation. Aldus The Aldine editio princeps, Venice, 1497. vulg. The usual reading, as in the Berlin edition. Buss. Bussemaker, in the Didot edition. A.-W. Wimmer, in Aubert and Wimmer’s edition. Sus. Susemihl. Bt. Bitterauf. Rackham Suggestions in private communications to me y Mr. H. Rackham. Emendations fee proposals by other scholars are attributed to them by name (for references see pp. xxvii f.). { ] Denote words wrongly placed or incorporated into the text. < > Denote (a) in the Greek text, words or parts of words supplied conjecturally ; (6) in the English, either the translation of words sup- plied in the Greek, or words required to complete the sense. a 7}, Z*, etc.=first hand, second hand, of Z, etc. lxxviii ZVOAAVOTZS & ee: EMMOIGN MIG a édiventa. — aie 4. casa cosa ell. . i. ye aol as credence GSW IGA sO - TIPLE 1. @tit 5 . : Phe hod id ay MGTSDAS ei Tsy Ganley, qari “es ae . ar * : “Te 1O7 OK rN Eis whe Daas | aod ’ j 7 s e oe Yo : “4 Gngah 4073 43.. MIWA. as ee int SLBA. ior ¥ I : J 7 t LT FIR_ HOT. “4 APIS TOTEAOTS ITEP] ZQION TENESEOS A > ‘ ~ nn 715a I “Enel d€ mepi rév dd\Awy popiwy elpnrar Trav ev a 4 ~ tois Cwous Kai Kowh Kai Kal? Exaotov yévos zepl ~ 07 * Tav idiwy xwpis, tiva tpdmov Sia THY ToLvadTHY airiav €otiv exaoTov, Aéyw dé radryv Thy evekd Tov’ vmdKewTat yap airiat TérTrapes, TO TE OD evexa ws Tédos, Kal 6 Adyos THs odcias (radra A s e a ‘ e a“ A / 5 ev odv Ws Ev TL cyedov brodaPety Set), Tpirov \ \ / ¢€ WA A ¢ e > A ~ 4 dé Kal Téraprov 7 vAn Kai dev 4 apyxi) TAS KW)- ~ ‘ cews—trepl ev otv TOV GAAwy eipynta (6 TE yap Ao \ \ ee ¢£ c / > / \ A oyos Kal TO od Evexa ws TéAos TadTov, Kal VA 10 Tots Cw@ous Ta pépyn, TavTi pev TH GAw Ta av- opoLopmeph, Tots 5’ avopovopepéor TA Opovopmeph, @ 4.e., in the De partibus animalium. ® See Introd. § 18. ; ¢ 7.e., the Final Cause appropriate to each part, either gua part belonging to all animals, or gua part belonging to some special group of animals, 4 See Introd. §§ 1 ff. ® See Introd. § 10. t See Introd. § 11. 9 See Introd. §§ 19 ff. 2 ARI STOTLE "GENERATION OF ANIMALS BOOK I _ Wrrx one exception we have now® spoken about I all the parts ® that are present in animals, both gener- [produe- _ ally concerning them, and also taking them group by group and dealing separately with the parts peculiar _ to each, and have shown in what way each part exists on account of the Cause which is of a corresponding kind: I refer to the Cause which is “ that for the sake of which ” a thing exists. As we know, there are four basic Causes 4: (1) “ that for the sake of which ” the thing exists, considered as its “ End ”’ ; (2) the logos’ of the thing’s essence (really these first two should be taken as being almost one and the same) ; (3) the matter of the thing, and (4) that from which comes the principle / of the thing’s movement. And with one exception I have already spoken about all of these Causes, since the logos of a thing and “that for the sake of which ”’ it exists, considered as its End, are the same; and, for animals, the matter of them is their parts (the non-uniform ’ parts are _the matter for the animal as a whole in each case ; the uniform parts are the matter for the non-uniform 3 715 a ARISTOTLE tovTos d5é Ta KaAovpeva oToiyeia THY GwydTwr), Aowrov S5é€ THY pev popiwy Ta pos THY yEeveow ovvtedAobvra Tots (wou, mept dv ovPev Siu@dprorar mpoTepov, Tept aitias 5é THs Kwovons, Tis avTn. To S€ mept ravTys oKomeivy Kal TO TEpl Tis 15 yevéoews THs ExdoTOV TpoOTOV Twa TabToV éoTLY Sudmep 6 Adyos eis Ev ovvnyaye, Tov pev mrept 7a, Heopta. TeAcvTata Tabra, Tov d€ mepl YEveews THY apynv exouevnv TOUT rdgas. Tay on) Cope Ta pev ek ovvdvacpod yiverat OjAcos Kal appevos, ev daois yéeveot TOY Cwwy eort ~ ~ > 20 70 OAV Kal TO dppev: od yap ev maciv eotw, aA > \ a > / ” x\/7 oy A A ev prev Tots evaipos e€w orlywv damace TO -pev ” \ \ a” / > an > > / dppev To d€ OFdv TeAcwwhev éom, TOV 8 avaipwv ~ ¢ = Ta pev exer TO OHAV Kal TO Gppev, WaTE TA COMoyEevh yevvav, Ta Se yevva pév, od pevTor TA ye Opoyeviy: To.atra 8° €or doa yiverat pt) ek Cawv ovvdvalo- a / pevwv, GAN ex ys onmopévns Kal mepirTwparav.* Ws S€ KaTa TavTos eimeiv, doa fev KaTa Td7TOV petaPAntixa TOv Cadwv éori® Ta pev vevoTiuKa TA 1 huc procul dubio transferenda vy. 715 b 25-30 €ori 8€ . . « iéds, quae ibi aliena, hic congrua. 2 éo7i Peck: évra vulg.: locus hie corruptus. * Elements: ovorxeta. The term is a metaphor taken from “‘ letters of the alphabet, ” the original meaning of the term, In the physical sense, ‘‘element’’ may be defined as ef od ovyKEtTaL mpwrov éevuTapyxorToS GSiacpérov TO etdeu els Erepov eiSos (Met. 1014 a 26). See Introd. § 24. » 4.e., after the De partibus and the De incessu animaliwm. ¢ See Introd. § 74. 4 The exceptions are the erythrinus and. the channa: see 741 a 35, 755 b 21; cf. 760 a8. ¢ See Introd. § 67. Here probably=excrements: ef. H.A.551a6. See however 737 a 4, 762 a 3 ff. 4 b t GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. 1. parts ; and the corporeal “ elements,” * as they are called, are the matter for the uniform parts). Con- sequently, of the parts it remains to describe those which subserve animals for the purpose of genera- tion, about which I have so far said nothing definite, and of Causes we still have the Motive Cause to deal with, and to explain what it is. And, in a way, consideration of this Cause and consideration of the generation of each animal comes to the same thing : and that is why our treatise has brought the two together, by placing these parts at the end of our account of the parts,? and by putting the begin- ning of the account of generation immediately after them. Now of course some animals are formed as a result of the copulation of male and female, namely, animals belonging to those groups in which there exist both male and female, for we must remember that not ‘all groups have both male and female. Among the blooded © animals, with a few exceptions,’ the indi- vidual when completely formed is either male or female ; but among the bloodless animals, while some groups have both male and female and hence gener- ate offspring which are identical in kind with their parents, there are other groups which, although they generate, do not generate offspring identical with their parents. Such are the creatures which come into being not as the result of the copulation of living animals, but out of putrescent soil and out of resi- dues. ‘Speaking generally, however, we may say that (a) in the case of all those animals which have the power of locomotion, whether they are adapted _ / The passage 715 b 25-30 should be inserted here, if anywhere. 5 Distinction of sexes not universal. V15a 715 b ARISTOTLE) } 8 5 409 dé ara Ta de melevriKd tois odpacw,: ‘ev 7AGt Tobrous eoTt' 7O OAV Kal TO dippev, ob spover? 30 Tots evaipors, aAAa eéviows Kal dvaipous* Kal ToUTwY Tots bev Ka?’ GAov 7d yevos, ofov tots padaxtous Kal Tots padaxoorpdrots’ € ev 5é TO Tov evTOpeny yevet 7a TAciota. Tovtwy 8 adrav doa peev €k ovyduacpob yiverou TOV ouyyevaav Ldbwv, Kat ata yerva KaTa THY ovyyeverav? doa’ de, pH 5 eK Cov aan’ ex onmropevns vis dns, Tatra dé verve pev erepov be yévos, Kal TO yeyvopevov oUTe OAAY € €oTW OUTE dppev. Towdra 8° éoriv ena TOV evropav. Kal TooTO ovpBeBnrev evAdyus" et “yap doa 7) ylyveTau eK foun, €K ToUTey eyivero Coa ovvdvalopeveny, ei pev Opovoyerij,. kal 10 om ef apxAs TOLAUTHY ede TOY TeKvwodvTwv civae yéveow (robro S evAdyus aévoduev" paiverat yap ovpBaivov otrws émi tev aGAAwv Cobwv): € S° avépow pev dvvdweva dé ovvdvdleoPar, maAw €k ToUTwV erépa Tus av eyivero pvors, Kat aahy an Tis ek TovTwY, Kal TOOT emropever” dv els 15 daretpov. 9 Se dvais pevyer TO diretpov" TO pev yap daretpov atedés, n d¢ duos det fnret rédos. doa O€ 47) mopevTuKd, Kabdmep Ta doTpakddeppa Tav Cow Kal ra COvta 7TH TpooTreducéevar, did TO TapamAnciav atr&@v clvar thy odotay ois dutois, Wamep odd év é€xeivois, odd ev Tovrous 1 &y maou tovros eoti Z*: & éviows pev ToUTeY dav 70 yevos exer Vulg. * povov SZ povov ev vulg. ; | Re PZ: GAdAa Kai TGv dvaipwv & row vulg. 4 ouoyern PZ**. * See Introd. § 74. GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. 1. _ to be swimmers, or fliers, or walkers, male and female _ are found ; and this applies not only to the blooded animals but to some of the bloodless ones as well. And among the latter, in some cases it holds good of a whole group, as for instance the Cephalopods and the Crustacea*; and it holds good of most of the Insects. Among animals of this class, those whieh are formed as the result of the copulation of animals of the same kind, themselves generate in turn after their own kind; those, however, which arise not from living animals but from putrescent matter, although they generate, produce something that is different in kind, and the product is neither male nor _ female. Some of the Insects are like this.? And this is what we should expect; for supposing that creatures which are produced otherwise than from living animals copulated and produced living animals: if these products were similar in kind to their parents, then the manner of their parents’ original generation should have been like theirs. This we may reason- ably claim, because it is evident that this is so with all other animals. If, on the other hand, the pro- ducts were dissimilar from their parents, and yet able to copulate, we should then get arising from them yet another different manner of creature, and out of their progeny yet another, and so it would go on ad infinitum. Nature, however, avoids what is infinite, because the infinite lacks completion and finality, whereas this is what Nature always seeks. (6) The ereatures which cannot move about, like the Tes- _ tacea and those which live by being attached to some surface, are in their essence similar to plants, and therefore, as in plants, so also in them, male and > See 732 a 25 ff., 758 b 6 ff. 7 715 b 20 ARISTOTLE — AG) €orl TO Orv Kat’ 70 appev, GAN 78n Kal? opor- TnTa Kal Kaz’ dvadoyiav Aéyerau* puKpav yap Twa Tovadryy exet Svapopav. kal yap év Tots purots dmdpxeu TA pev Kapmopépa. Svdpa Tob adtod yevous, TA 8° avTa prev ov dépet KapTov, avppdadrerar S€ rots dépovor mpos TO méTTEW, Olov 25 ovpBaiver tepi THY OvKAV Kal TOV €ptvEdV. | 30 ‘(Eon d€ Kal emi TOV puray TOV avrov Tpdrov- Ta pev yap é€K onépparos yiverau, Ta, 8 Gorep adroparilovons Tijs pdoews: yiverau yap % Tis yas onmoperns iY popiooy TWaVv ev tots porots: evi yap avra pe ov ovviotatar Kal” ada xwpis,” ev €Tépois 8 eyyiveras dévdpeow, oloy 6 ids.| _ 1 quae sequuntur vv, 25-30 plane huc aliunde tralata, hic enim iamdudum de plantis sermo. transferenda censeo ad 715 a 25 post mepurtwpdrwr. 2 xwpis ex ys ZE. “ The concoction referred to here is that which produces the ripening of fruit. See Introd. § 62. The use of the same word zérrew both for the fruit of plants and for the semen of animals is appropriate, in that both, according to Aristotle, are produced out of “ nourishment” by a process of ‘‘ concoction.” fas > See 755 b 10, and H.A. 557 b 31. The tree com- monly cultivated in S. Europe is Ficus carica. ‘This species includes two kinds of individual trees : (1) those whose in- florescences contain fully-developed female flowers only ; (2) those whose inflorescences contain male flowers near the opening, and lower down aborted female flowers known as “ gall-flowers ” owing to their being specially prepared to receive the eggs of the fig-wasp (Blastophaga grossorum), which turns the ovary of the flower into a “ gall.” The latter trees are known as Caprificus. The female wasps, after impregnation by the male wasps within the gall, emerge from it and get dusted with pollen from the male 8 — GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. 1. female are not found, although they are called male and female just by way of similarity and analogy, since they exhibit a slight difference of this sort. Thus among plants also we find that in one and the same kind some individual trees bear fruit, while some, although they do not bear any themselves, assist in the concocting* of that which is borne by the others: -An instance of this is the fig and the caprifig.? y ¢{The same sort of thing is found in plants too: some are formed out of seed, others as it might be by some spontaneous activity of Nature—they are formed when either the soil or certain parts? in plants become putrescent, since some of them do not take shape * independently on their own, but grow upon other trees, as for instance the mistletoe flowers as they leave the inflorescence, and then pollinate female flowers elsewhere. Caprification is the name given to the artificial assistance of this process by hanging in- florescences of the caprifig on to trees of class (1). The growers believe that the fruit of the Ficus is improved by the wasps; but in fact excellent fruit is produced by these trees without pollination, though of course no fertile seeds. Hence caprification must be a traditional usage dating from the time when fertile seeds were required for propagation, which is now done by means of cuttings. See Kerner and Oliver, Natural History of Plants, ii. 160-162 ; H. Miller, Fertiliza- tion of Flowers, tr. p. 521 and bibliography. Cf. H.A. 557 b 26 ff., where the wasp is mentioned. © The following sentence is obviously out of place here, as is shown (a) by the opening words, which must mark the beginning of a reference to plants, whereas here plants are already being discussed; and (4) by its inappropriateness to the particular point under discussion. It would be releyant if transferred to 715a25. Cf. H.A. 539 a 16 ff. 2 Cf. 762 b 19. * See Introd. § 54. ARISTOTLE!) 716 a Tlepi pev obv duTav, abra Kal adra. _ xeopis emioKkemtTéov. . II Tlepi dé THY dAwy Cawv Tis yevéoews pert Kara TOV emiPddrovra Adyov kal? ExaoTov aire, amo, TaV elpnpevay guvelpovras. aBdmep yap 5 cimopev, Ths YEvegews apyas av THs ovy qKwora Oetn TO OfAw Kal TO dppev, 73 bev dppev ws Tijs KWATEWS Kal THs yevecews Exov ™Y apxyv, Td dé OAV ws dAns. tobto be pdduor® dv Tis morevaete Dewpav mas yiverau TO oméppia, Kat mdBev: ek TOUTOU pev yap Ta. pvoet yevdpeva ouviorarat, ToOTO 10 8€ m@s amo Tod Oreos kal Tod dppevos cvpBatver ylyvesbar, Set pur) AavOdvew: TO yap amoxpivecBat TO TOLODTOV pOpLov aro TOD OyAEos Kal TOD appevos, Kal év TovTois THY amoKpLoww elvat Kal eK TOUTwWY, — dua TOOTO TO Oirv Kal TO Gppev apyat ris yeveoe@s | elow. appev pey yap Aéyomev C@ov TO els aNKo 15 verve, OAAv Sé 76 eis add: 810 Kal ev TA Aw TH Tis viis poow ws OnAv Kal pnrépa svopdCovow," ovpavoy dé Kal Wrvov 7 7 Tt TOV dAAwy THv TowdvTwv ws yevvavras Kal marepas mpocayopevovow. int To & appev Kat To OAAv diadeper KaTa. HEV TOV Adyov 7TH Stvacbar Erepov Exdrepov, KATA ais ™7y i ei 1 6vopatovow Z: vopilovow vel * Tt is impossible to represent the force of the Greek neuter in English. ’ See note on Causes, Introd. §§ 1 ff. This statement, here unexplained and unjustified, will be fully dealt with later on. © See Introd. § 54. 10 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. 1-m. ~ Still, plants will have to be considered indepen- dently all by themselves. As far as animals are concerned, we must describe II __ their generation just as we find the theme requires Detnitio for each several kind as we go along, linking our and female. account on to what has already been said. As we mentioned, we may safely set down as the chief principles of generation the male (factor) ? and the female (factor) ; the male as possessing the principle of movement and of generation, the female as possess- ing that of matter.” One is most likely to be con- vineed of this by considering how the semen is formed and whence it comes ; for although the things that are formed in the course of Nature no doubt take their rise © out of semen,? we-must not fail to notice how the semen itself is formed from the male and the female, since it is because this part ¢ is secreted from the male and the female, and because its secretion takes place in them and out of them, that the male and the female are the principles of generation. By a “male” animal we mean one which generates in another, by “ female ’’one which generates in itself. This is why in cosmology too they speak of the nature of the Earth as something female and call it “ mother,” while they give to the heaven and . the sun and anything else of that kind the title of “ generator,” and “* father.” Now male and female differ in respect of their The sexual logos,f in that the power or faculty possessed by the P*"*s: one differs from that possessed by the other; but they differ,also to bodily sense, in respect of certain * Cf. the definition given at 724 a 17 ff., and also 721 b 6. * See Introd. § 18. * See Introd. § 10... With this passage cf. 766 a 18 ff. il 716 a 716 b 20 25 30 ARISTOTLE AAS aioOnow popios til, Kata pev tov Adyov 7H appev prev elvar 70 Suvdpevov yevvav eis Erepov, Kabdmep ehexOn mporepov, TO O€ OnAv TO €is adrd, Kal ef ob yivera evuTdpxov ev Ta yearns TO yevvaywevov. emel Se duvaper Sucbpuaras Kat epyy Twi, deirar 5é mpos méoav epyaoiav opydvev, opyava d€ rats Suvdpeot Ta, pEpn Too odparos; avayKatov elvat Kal mpos THY TéEKVWOW Kal TOV ouvdvacpov popia, Kal Tadra Suapepovr’ aMirov, Ka0o To appev dSioice: Tob O7/Acos. el yap Kal KaQ? ddov A€yerar Tod Lehov Tod pev 7d OFAv Tod Sé 76 La > > > A ~ Al > Ae a * A dppev, aAX’ od Kara wav ye {ro} adro OAAv Kat ” > , > \ 4 4, \ Pie, dppev eotiv, adAAa Katd tia Sdvapw Kal Kata Tt Hoptov, Womep Kal” dpaTiKoV Kal TopeuTLKOV, O7TEp Kat daivera Kata THY atoOnow. Tovadra dé Tvy- ; , x a A , ¢ , Xaver popia ovra Tod pev OyAcos at Kadovpevar doTépat, Tod 5° appevos Ta TEpl TOUS Opxeus Kal TOUS mepweous ev maou Tols evatpows* Ta fev yap Opxels Ly > A s \ ‘ 4 / 23 Ky \ 35 €xet adT@v, Ta 5€ Tods ToOLoUTOUS TdOpous. The term aidoiov seems to be used inclusively by Aris- totle for any genital organs; often it means “ penis,” but obviously it cannot mean this here. Cf, H.A. 509 b 27-29. ¢ For the 66s, one of the Selachia or cartilaginous fishes, ef. H.A. 540 b 17 ff., 566b 4, It is probably either Noti- danus griseus, which has very large eyes, or Cophatontera giorna (= Dicerobatis g.), the “ ox-ray. This reference to Bdes is excised from the text by Platt, who 16 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. m1 the Vivipara, however, have their testicles in front,* though some of them have them inside by the end of the abdomen—e.g., the dolphin—and have no pass- es, but a sexual duct® which leads from them to outside, as the ox-fish® have ; while some have the testicles outside, and of these some are pendent (as in man), others fastened by the fundament (as in swine). I have given.a more accurate account of these in the Researches upon Animals.¢ The uterus ° is always double without exception, just as in males there are always two testes without exception. In some animals the uterus is by the pudenda (as it is in women and in all animals that are Viviparous internally as well as externally, and such of the fishes as lay their eggs visibly); in other animals the uterus is up towards the diaphragm / (as it is in all birds and in the viviparous fishes). The Crustacea, too, and the Cephalopods have a double uterus, since the membranes which surround their “eggs 9 as they are called are uterine in nature. e uterus is particularly indistinct in the Octo- puses, so that it appears to be single.* The reason for this is that the whole bulk of the creature’s body is of similar consistency throughout. In the large aoe Boes here to be “oxen.” A.-W. translate “ wie die ere.” # See H.A. Bk. III, ch. 1. * It should be noted, once for all, that this term includes what are now known as oviducts. ? Aristotle does not confine his use of this term to mam- mals, which alone have a diaphragm in the usual sense of that term, and hence it must be understood to refer also to the corresponding position in lower animals, as in the present passage; cf. also De respiratione 475 a 8, where the trdlwpa of wasps, crickets, etc., is mentioned. 9 See H.A. Bk. V, ch. 18. » Cf. 158 a 8. 17 T17a ARISTOTLE?! 3 4a) at T&V evropusy etoly év rots peyebos ‘€xovow ev dé Tots eAXdrroow adndor di. Thy pexpdryra 10 Tov odparos. Ta pev oby elpnyieva, dpa Tots Sous Toorov exel TOV TpoTrov" Loa IV Tlept de Ths ev Tots dippeot Stagopas TOV / onep- paruc@y opydvay, et Tes perrer Dewproew Tas airtas bu as clow, dvayicn AaBeiv mpOTov, Tivos 15 evekev i) TOV Opxecv €oTt ovoraots. et oy) mav 2 gvors 7 7) dua TO dvayKatov Trovet a dia. 70, BéArtov, Kav Tobro TO pepiov et) dia Toure Odrepov. ore per Toivuv ovK divayKatov mos Th yéeveow, ¢a- vepov' maou yap av dripye tois yerv@at, viv & ov of des Exovow dpyets of of tyOves* Gppevor 20 yap «iat ovvdvaldpevor Kal tAnpers Exovtes Dopod TOUS mopous. NeizeTrar roivvy Bedriovds Twos xapw. €oTr d€ TOV pev mArciotwv Cobwv epyov oxedov oder dAXo ahiy o waTrep Tv duty ore pia Kat Kapmos. womep 8 €v Tots mept THY Tpopiyy Td. edbvevrepa. AaBporepa mpos TH éxBopiav THY 25 rhs Tpopiis, ovr Kal Ta LN EXOVTA Opyets mopous d€ pLovov, 7 EXOVTO pev evtos 8 €xovta, mavTa TAXUTEPA TpOSs TIV evépyetav THV cuvdvacpav. a d¢ det owdpoveotepa elvat, domep eet ovK €d4u- evrept, kai evTat@’ edAucas exovew of TMOpou ™mpos TO ue AdBpov pnde Taxetav elvar TH emOupiay. 30 of 5°’ dpyeis «lol mpds TodTO peunyavnevor’ TOD me @ The Final Cause. > See Introd. § 6. © Of. the reason given in Plato, Timaeus 73 a, for the coil- ing of the intestines. See also P.A. 675 a 19 ff., 675 b 23 ff. @ See below, 718 a 15. 18 a GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. u1-1v. Insects too the uterus is double, whereas in the smaller ones it is indistinct on account of the small- ness of the creatures’ body. This describes the arrangement of those parts of animals which [ have mentioned. _ Returning to the subject of the difference of the IV seminal organs in various groups of male animals OE If we are to consider the causes to which this is due, #nimais : we must first of all understand the purpose for the #3" sake of which ? testes exist. If we agree that every- ™Je: thing which Nature does is done either because it is necessary or else because it is better,” we should expect to find that this part, like the rest, exists for one or the other of these two reasons. Now it is evident that it is not necessary for generation, otherwise all animals that generate would have it, whereas | actually neither Serpents nor Fishes have testes, and these do in fact generate, because they have been _ observed copulating, with their passages full of milt. The other reason then remains : testes exist for some purpose—because it is better that they should exist. Now the business of most animals may be summed up pretty much as that of plants is—viz., seed and fruit; and, just as (to take a parallel case) animals which have straight intestines are more violent in their desire for food,° so here also, animals which have no testes but passages only, or which have testes but not external ones, are all quicker with the business of _ copulation. Those, however, which have to be more sober (a) in the case of feeding, have not straight intestines, and (6) in the case of copulation, have passages which are twisted,’ so that their desire shall not be violent or speedy. This then is the object for which the testes have been contrived: they make 19 17a 717 b 35 5 10 8 15 ‘ARISTOTLE: O1V AAV) yap omeppatiKod \ TmEpitTwmparos oTracywrépav mower THY Kivnow, ev pev tots CwortdKors, ofov immous TE Kal Tots dAAows Tots TotovTois Kal. ev avOpwrrois, odlovres Thy émavadimAwow (dv Sé Tpd7rov exer avtyn, ek TaV toTopidv TV TEpt Ta oa: det Dewpetv): od8ev ydp eior rdpiov TAY mopwv of Opxels, dAAa mpdcKewrat, kabdmep Tas Aauds mpogamroucty at dpaivovoas Tots iorois- depaupov- pevwy yap adt@v dvacn@vras of mopot evtds, WoT od Svvavrar yevvay Ta exrepvdpeva, émel €t pay avedTrewro, edvvavTo av, Kal 70n Tadpds Tis pera Thy eKTOMAY evléws dyevoas em\ijpace bua 70 pjmw Todvs Tdépous aveotrdcbar. Tots O° dpvict Kal a > , ~ A Tols MOTOKOLS THY TeTpaTrddwy SéxovTar THY OTEp- parveny’ mepitTwow, wore Apadyrépay elvar TH efodov! 7 7 Tots ixPdow. gpavepov 8 émt rdv ikea’ mepl yap Tas oxeltas moXd pethous,, loxovar’ Tovs Opxels, Kal doa ye T&v dpvéwy Kal? wpay pay dyxever, GTav 6 xpdvos obTos TrapéAOn, odTw jLLKpOdS ” v \ > / A A \ €xovow worTe ayedov adijAovs elvar, wept Se-THV > , , , a \ Plies Fr oxelav ofddpa peydAous. Oarrov pev ody dxevovat Ta €vTOs €xovTa: Kal yap Ta e€KTOS ExXOVTA OU TpoTEepov TO oTrépua adinor mpiv avaomdoat Tods dpxets. ” A 1 » A \ ‘ ‘ ‘ Eri 5€ 70 Cpyavov 7d ‘mpos Tov quvtoas ace Te bev Tepamroda exet” evdexXeT AL yap avrois exewy: tots 8 dpvuct Kal Tots dmoow obK evdéxeTat Sid TO 1 SreFodov PZ. 2 gxovar PSY. 20 . GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. r1v.-v. the movement of the seminal, residue more steady. (1) In the Vivipara, as for instance in horses and other such animals, and also in man, they do this by maintaining in position the doubling-back of the passages (for a description of this reference must be made to the Researches upon Animals),* since the testes are no integral part of the passages : they are merely attached thereto, just like the stone weights which women hang on their looms when they are weaving.’ When the testes are removed, the passages are drawn up within; this is why castrated animals cannot generate, whereas if the passages were not so drawn up they would be able todoso. A bull im- mediately after castration has been known to mount a cow and effect impregnation,” because the passages had not yet been drawn up. (2) In Birds and in the . oviparous quadrupeds the testes receive the seminal residue, so that its emission is slower than it is in the case of Fishes.’ This is clearly to be seen in Birds : their testes are much larger at the time of copula- tion. Those birds which copulate at one season only of the year have such tiny testes when this period is over that they are almost indistinguishable, whereas during the breeding season they are very big. So then the animals whose testes are internal accom- plish their copulation more quickly, since in fact those with external testes do not emit the semen until the testes have been drawn up. Another point. » The organ for copulation is present V in the quadrupeds because it is possible for them to have it, whereas it is not possible for birds and foot- * H.A. 510 a 20 ff., and 718 a 15 below. > Of. 187, b-26. © Cf. H.A. 510 b 3. ¢ Which have no “ testes ” in Aristotle’s sense. © Cf. H.A. 509 b 35 ff. 21 ARISTOTLE (17) yap 717 b ~ A \ , ¢ \ / g \ Y Tov pev Ta oKeAn bd peony elvar Ti yaorépa, ta 8° GAws aoKedR elvar, TH 8€ Tob aidotov diow HpTncba evrebbev Kat TH Oécev KetaOor evradba. 510 Kat ev TH dpAla 7 ovvtacis yiverar TOV oKe- 20 Adv: , \ ” at iwi le teak | @v' 70 TE yap Gpyavov veupMdes Kat 4 vous TOV aKked@v veupaions. dor’ Emel TOUT ovK ev déxerau € Exew, dvdyKn Kal Opxeus 7 Ha exew ore) evrad? exew" Tois yap €xovow oa béais apporépwv adbTav. iy "Ett 5€ Tots ye Tovs Opxets €xovow co 81d Tis KATES Gepprawvopevov Tod aidoiov _Tpoépxerat TO 25 omépua auvabpo.cbev, add’ ody ws €Touov dv evOds Oyobow, womep Tots ixOvaw. _ Ildvra & eyes ta CwordKa tods dpyes ev TH , ” ” 2 \ es i a. \ ‘ rite. apoabev [7 €&w],” mAjv éxivov- obros dé mpos TH > , / \ \ > \ : p17, e dagut pLovos, dia. THY adrhy airiay BV Fvrep Kal ot opvilles, Taxydv yap avayKatov yiveoBar Tov ovv- \ Sith la* > \ g : Vay 4 yi! 30 Svacpov abtav*: od yap wWomep ta adAda* TeTpa- 700a emt Ta Tpav emBatver, GAA’ opHoi plyvyvrar dua Tas axavOas. . Av’ jv pev obv airiay Exovor Ta ExovTa Spyets, ” \ ae oF \ \ » Bie eipnrat, Kal du’ Hv airiay Ta pev €€w Ta 8 evTds. 3 avoraats SZ. 2 aut 7) é£w secludenda (om. &), aut <} évrds> addenda (Platt). 3 Sa . . . adrdy fortasse secludenda ; sed ef. 769 b 34 seqq. 4 @Aa Z: om. vulg, @ But the goose has a penis, H.A. 509 b 30. * Cf. 718 a 5, 739 a 10. c Omit, or read ‘‘ either outside or inside.” 4 Inside, of course. 22 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. v. less animals. It is impossible for birds * because their legs are under the middle of the abdomen. It is impossible for the, other creatures because they have no legs at all, and that is the place where the penis is always suspended and that is the position for it. (This also is the reason why there is strain on the legs during sexual intercourse : both the organ itself and the legs are by their nature sinewy.) And so, since it is impossible for them to have this organ, they must of necessity have no testes either, or else not have them in that place, since in those animals which possess both penis and testes the situation of both is one and the same. Another point. As far as the animals with external testes are concerned, as the penis is set in movement and gets heated, the semen first collects itself to- gether, and then advances : it is not ready immedi- ately contact is established, as it is in fishes.” All the Vivipara have their testes in front, [or out- side,°] except the hedgehog. This is the only one that has them by the loin,? and the reason is the same as for the birds,’ since they must of necessity ac- complish their copulation quickly, for they do not mount on the back as the other quadrupeds do, but on account of their spines stand upright for inter- course. We have now said why those animals which have testes have them, and why some have them outside ¢ This remark, if it remains in the text, obviously cannot refer to the only reason so far given for birds at 717 b 15-17 ; if taken as referring to the reason which immediately follows, this will roughly correspond to the statement in H.A. 539 b 34 that some birds copulate quickly. But no doubt the reason Aristotle. has in mind is thé one mentioned below at 719 b 11 ff., viz., that the skin is too hard. 23 717 b 718 a VI 35 or 10 15 ARISTOTLE doa be [7 Exel, Kabdarep etpnrau, did Te 70 D pny i) aAAd. TO dvayKatov povov ovK Exel TOUTO TO poptov, kal dua TO dvayKatov elvat Taxetav yiveoOat THY dxetav ToavTn eorly a) TOV iXQdov vats Kal 7] Tov pew. ot prev yap iyQves 6 dxedovor Tapamimrovres Kal dmohvovra ,Taxews. aorrep yap emt TOV ay- Opebrreny Kat TavTwY TOV TovoUTiy dvdyien KaTa- oxovras TO TvedLa mpotecBan Thy youn, TooTo 8 eicetvois ovpBaiver pa) Sexopevors THY Addarrav, cial de evplapror TobTo pa mo.obvres, ovKour. det ev T@ ovvdvacu@ TO omépua méTTEW avTous, Borrep Ta mela Kal wordka, aN’ b7r0 Thy Gpav" To omépya TTETTELLLEVOV dOpdov Exovouw, WOTE [11 ev TO Ouyydvew aA Acov TETTEW,” aaAAa mpoteoBa memreppevov. S10 dpxeis odK Exovow, GAN edbets Kal amAobds rods mépous, olov joucpov [optov Tots TETpaTToow dmdpyer Tept Tovs Opxets” THS yap emravadimAdcews Tob mopov TO ev €valpLov HEpos éorl TO 8° avatpov, 6 d€xeTat Kal dv ob 707 omépjia. ov Topevera, oof éray evrabia EAOn 7 yor", Taxeia Kal ToUToUs yiverat 7 dmdAvors. ois si TowodTos 6 TOpos mas éeaTlv olos emi TAY imo THY pav A. -W., ef. H.A. 509 b 20, 35: T™po THs wpas Salomon Platt: bao tis dpas vulg. 2 nérrew A.-W., digestio X: moveiv vulg. @ See ch. 4, init. For necessity, see Introd. § 6. > This appears to be the meaning ; Michael Scot renders eiciunt sperma velociter: cf. the English phrase “ relieve themselves.” Also at 718 a 14. ¢ Viz., all that breathe. 4 This, according to Aristotle, corresponds to breathing ; it is their method of self-refrigeration: see De respiratione 476 a1 ff. 24 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. v.—v1. and others inside. And as for those which have no VI testes, they lack this part, as we have said, because such absence is not good, but necessary merely * ; and also because it is necessary that their copula- tion should be accomplished quickly. Fishes and serpents come under this class. Fishes copulate by placing themselves alongside each other and quickly ejaculate.” Just as men and all such animals ¢ in order to emit the semen must of necessity hold their breath, so fishes must refrain from taking in the seawater,’ and when they omit to do this they easily come to grief. On this account they are bound to ayoid concocting * the semen during the act of copula- tion (which is what the viviparous land-animals do) ; instead, they have their semen ready concocted and collected at the proper time, so that they do not con- coct it while in contact with each other, but emit it already concocted. For this reason they have no testes, but passages which are straight and simple. In the testes of quadrupeds there is a small portion of a similar character : L refer to the latter portion of that length of the passage which is doubled back.’ One portion of this length has blood in it and one has not, and by the time the fluid enters this latter por- tion and passes through it, it is already semen; so that when it arrives there, ejaculation quickly takes place? in these animals too. In Fishes the whole of the passage is of the same character as this latter * Cf. T17 b 25 above. * The vas deferens; cf. above 717 a 33; and H.A. 510 a 23 ff. 9 Cf. above, 718 a1; Scot’s Arabic original seems to have been extremely cautious and to have given both possible meanings of dzoAvois; for Scot has eius exitus est velox, et cum exit sperma separantur mas et femina. 25 ARISTOTLE ATA 718 a av perry Kat tv Tovodtwv Cowr Kara TO sine ) fiepos THs eravabinhdoews. VI Of be opets dxevovrar TepleAuTTopevor aN ois, ovK €xover 0° Opxets oud" aidotov, aomrep elpnra mporepor, aidotov fev OTL ovde oKedn, 0, Opxets dé Sia 20 To pijKos, ada. mOpous, aomep ot ixOves: oud yap TO «€lvou adray TMpopapen TH dvow, «i ert emi- oraous eyiyvero Tept Tovs dpxets, exdyer dv 7 you") dea Tv Bpadvrijra. Omep cvpPaiver Kat emi TOV peya TO atdotov € €xovreny: dyyoverepor yap Peck, vel fortasse fwordKa <évTa>. MW (pou 2 <év> Peck, unumovum Xd. év supplendum esse suapicen erant A.-W. (collato H.A. 510 b 24), Schneider. : ¥ * Selachia: the cartilaginous fishes, including the Sharks. The “‘ fishing-frog ’’ is not viviparous (see 754 a 26, m.). |. ® The observation of Aristotle that the eggs of many organisms swell during their development, though unap- preciated for many centuries, is the basis of the modern distinction between cleidoic and non-cleidoic eggs. The walls of a cleidoic egg are permeable only to matter in the gaseous state (¢.g., the hen’s egg). Most aquatic animals, however, lay non-cleidoic eggs, 1.¢., eggs which, though they have a sufficiency of organic material (such as proteins, fats, 28 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. vit. oceur. To begin with, not all the Vivipara have the same arrangement. All that are land-animals, in- cluding human beings, have the uterus placed low down by the pudenda, whereas the viviparous Selachia * have it higher up by the diaphragm. And then again, the Ovipara show the same variations. Fishes have the uterus low down like human beings and the viviparous quadrupeds, whereas birds have it higher up, and so do the oviparous quadrupeds. Nevertheless, there is rhyme and reason even in these contradictory phenomena. First of all, the egg- laying animals have different ways of laying their eggs. (a) Some creatures’ eggs are imperfect when laid—e.g., those of fishes, which become perfected, 2.€., grow, outside the creature which produces them.? The reason is that these animals are very prolific and this is their function,* as it is that of plants ; so that if they brought the eggs to a state of perfection inside their bodies, the eggs would of necessity be few in number, whereas in actual fact they produce so many that each uterus seems to be just one mass of egg, at any rate in the very small fishes, which are the most prolific of all. The same is true both of those plants and of those animals which are of a corresponding nature? in their own classes ; what — carbohydrates, etc.) to make each an embryo, are insuffi- iia supplied with water and inorganic materials; these they have to absorb from their environment. Hence their swelling. Though the main bulk of this is due to .water- intake, it is interesting that the greater part of the copper, for example, which is present in the respiratory ble pigment of the octopus at the time of hatching is derived, not from the egg as laid, but from the surrounding sea-water. See also 732 b 5, ete. = Cf. 117 4 22. 4 i.2., small. 29 718 b ARISTOTLE ‘\* AAD 15 peyeBous avénous Tpémerau «is TO omeppa. Tovrots. ot 8 opvibles Kal Ta terpdmoda TOV WoToKwv TéAcia wa tikrovow, a det mpos TO odleoBat o)npddeppa elvat (padaxddepya yap ews av av Enow €xyn €or), To 8 CoTpaKov. yiverau b70 Oepporntos efucpalovons TO dypov €K Tob yeddous. 20 avayKatov obv Deppov elvau Tov TOmOY €v @ ToOTO avpPyoerar. tovwodros 8° 6 mepi TO idle’ Kal yap TV Tpopny meTTEL obros. ef otv Ta wa dvdyKen ev TH dorépa elvas, Kat TIHV dorépay dvdeyren mpos TO drolapart elvat tots renee Ta Wa Ti- KTovot, Tots 8 ateAq Katw° mpo 6808 yap ‘obrws 25 €oTat. Kal TEpUKE d€ waAdAov 7 vorépa Kata elvae 7) avo, Szov Ha Tt epmodiLen Er epov pyar Tis dvccws* KdtTw yap adris Kal TO mépas eotiv: Omov d€ TO mépas, Kai’ TO Epyov: avtn* 8 od TO Epyov. IX “Eyee d€ Kai ta CwortoKxodvra mpdos ddAnAa d1a- fopav. Ta pev yap od podvov' Bvpale CworoKet 30 ada Kal ev adrois, ofoy dvO parrot Te Kat trot kal KUves Kal mdavra 7a tpixas ExovTa, Kal TOV evddpenv deAdives te kai Pddawar Kai Ta Tovadra K7}TN. X Ta Se oeddxn Kal ot €xets pale ev Levo- Tokobow, év avrois 5 woroKodc. mp@rov. wo- Tokova. de TéAcLov wdv- odTws yap yevvaraL eK 1 «at Z: om. vulg. 2 airy PSYZ*: adr) vulg. * j,e., do not increase in size after being laid. » j.¢., Without first producing an egg internally. ‘Aristotle knew nothing of the existence of the mammalian egg, which is a single cell of microscopic size. 30 i GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. vit.—x. would have produced increase of size is in them diverted to form seed. (6) Birds, however, and quadrupedal Ovipara lay eggs that are perfect,* and these eggs for safety’s sake are bound to have a hard skin (while they are still growing, they have a soft skin), and the shell is formed by heat, which evapor- ates the fluid from the earthy substance ; hence the place where this is to be done must of necessity be hot—a condition which is fulfilled by the region round the diaphragm, as the fact that it concocts the food ' shows. So, if the eggs must of necessity be within the uterus, the uterus must of necessity be alongside the diaphragm in those animals whose eggs are in a perfected condition when laid, while it must be low down in those whose eggs are imperfect when laid 3, it will be advantageous so. Further, it is more natural that the uterus should be low down than high up. (unless there is some other business of Nature’s which prevents it), since its conclusion is down below too; and where the conclusion is, there also the function is ; thus the uterus is where the function is. Similarly, the Vivipara differ from one another. IX Some of them bring forth their young alive not externally only but also within themselves,’ as for instance, human beings, horses, dogs and all haired animals, also such water-animals as dolphins, whales and such cetacea.° Selachia and vipers, though they bring forth their X young alive externally, first of all produce eggs internally. And the egg they produce is a perfected one, for thus only is an animal generated from the * Cf. H.A. 566 b 2, where Aristotle explains this to mean _ those creatures which have no gills, but a blowhole. 31 ARISTOTLE 718 b ; 35 rod Wot 70 C@ov, €& aredods dé obbev. Odpale 5é ovK @otoKobor dia 7d yuxpa tiv ddaw etvar Kat XI obx ws Ttwés hac Oepud. padaxodepia yoov ra x A ~ \ \ A > /, s @a yevvOow: oud yap To elvaw oAvydeppa. od En- paiver adta@v pdows TO EoyaTov. Oia pev odv 719 a TO tbuypa «lvar padaxddeppa yevv@or, dua S€ TO padaxodepua od Ovpale- SiepBeipero yap av. “Orav d€ To* C@ov ex Tob wWod yiyvyTaL, Tov avToV Tpomov Ta mAcioTa ylyverat dvaep ev ToIS Opviaw" KataPaiver yap Katw,” Kal yiyverar C@a mpos Tots 5 apOpas, kabdmep Kal év® Tois €€ apyfs addunt. p 8} q 3 S.d7ep seclusi. 4 unde. . . Sepwarixjv secludunt A.-W. * Not in the Generation of Animals ; but see 717 b 29. 86 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I xu. cannot provide, being easily injured and cold. The testicles, however, are inside in some animals but outside in others: since, however, they also need shelter and covering to keep them safe and to secure concoction for the semen (for if they have been exposed to cold and rendered stiff they cannot be drawn up and emit the semen), those animals whose testes are in the open have a covering of skin over them known asthescrotum; while those animals the nature of whose skin is so hard that it is not amenable to this arrangement, and cannot be used for a wrapping and is not soft or like ordinary skin (e.g., animals whose skin is like that of fish, and those whose skin is made of horny scales)—they must of necessity have their testes inside.. On this account the dolphins and those cetacea which possess testes have them inside ; so do those horny-scaled animals which are oyiparous and four-footed. Birds, too, have hard skin, which will not accommodate itself to the size of the testes and make a wrapping for them, and this makes another reason why in all these cases the testes are inside in addition to the reasons (previously mentioned) due. to the necessary exigencies of copulation. And for this selfsame reason the testes are also inside in the elephant and in the hedgehog ; the skin of these two animals, as of the others, is not well adapted for having the protective part separate. *(Contrary positions of the uterus are found in those animals which are internally viviparous and in those which are externally oviparous ; and again in some of the latter class it is placed low down, in others by the diaphragm, as for instance in fishes on the one ® The following paragraph is simply a hash-up of parts of __ the preceding chapters. 37 719 b 25 XIII 30 35 720 a or . “| A TADARISTOSLE MITAAAARD ixOvou.mpds TE zovs dpvibas Kal Ta @oToKa TOV TeTpamrddav, Kal Tots Kat dpporépovs tods Tp6- Tous yerv@ow, €v éavrois pev" poroKodow, “els dé TO pavepov woroKodow. 70. bev yap Eyes ToKObVTA. Kat év abrots Kai €KTOS ETL ris “yaorpos Exel Tas: dotépas, olov dvOpwros wal “Bods Kal KUwV. Kal TaN TO. Tovabra: mpos yap Thy Tav eu Bpduv owrnpiav Kat avénow “ouppeper pnder emreivat Bdpos € ent Tats voTepats. fae “Eo d€ Kal Erepos oO TOpos bu 06 ih re Enpa Tepitrwors efépxerar Kal | be ob ue dypa Tovrous, maow. Oud € exovow aidota Ta Tovabra TdvTa. Kat ira appeva kai Ta O7jAca, Kal? a? exxpivera TO TEpiT- TWA TO Uypov Kal Tots Lev appeot TO: oTrépya, TOTS d€ OnAeou TO KUna.® obdtos 8 erdva Kal ev Tots mpooBiou dmdpxeu 6 Tépos (rob)* Tis Enpas Tpophs. 5 [60a 8 wotoKkel pev drehes oe Dov, olov ooou Tov ixOvdav @orokobow, obra. 8° ony bad TH yaar i aAAG Tpdos TH dogve exovat TAS vorépas: ovre ‘yap eumrodiler a) Tob wood _avénats, dua TO ef Tehet- opobar Kal mpotevar TO avtavojevor. | O TE Topos 6 autos cor [rat €v Tots A) EXOUTE YEevynTuKov aidoiov TO" Tijs Enpas tpodbijs, maau Tots @oToKoLs Kal Tots exovau avrav KvoTW, olov Tats xeAcvaus- THs yevéecews yap evekev, od THs Tod bypod TEpitT- TWpPATOS eKKpiaews, Elol SiTTol ot mopour Sua de To dypav ecivan thy dvow Tob oTEeppaTos Kal 7 THs: 4 KEWTAL « 4 barépais secludit Platt, 2 aEm: 6 vulg. 3 7a katapjva A.-W. * <¢rod> Aldus, A.-W. 5 60a 8 .. . avfavopevov secludit Platt. : 8 Kai sec]. A.-W. ? 7@Z: 6 vulg. 38, ’ : GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. xi—xm. _hand as against birds and oviparous quadrupeds on the other; and then again it is different in those animals which produce their young by both of the two methods, viz., which are internally oviparous and out- wardly. viviparous. Those animals which are both roel pol and externally viviparous have their uterus the abdomen, as for instance man, ox, ae and | other such animals, since it is expedient for the safety and growth of the embryo that no weight should be put upon the uterus. ] In all these animals the passage through which the XIII solid residue issues is other than that through which the fluid issues. “ On this account all such animals, both male and female, have pudenda by which the fluid residue is voided, and thereby too in males the semen passes out and in the females the fetation.* e is situated higher up than the passage for the solid nourishment and in front of it. ° [Those animals which lay eggs, but lay imperfect ones, e.g., the oviparous fishes, have their uterus not under the abdomen but by the loin, since the growth of the egg causes no obstruction, because the growing object fom to its perfection and makes its advance outside e animal.} In all those animals which have no pudendum which serves for generation, this passage is the same as that for the solid nourishment, viz., in all the’ Ovipara, including those Ovipara which have a bladder, e.g., the tortoises. The existence of two passages, it must be remembered, is for the sake of generation, not for the sake of voiding the fluid residue, and it is only because the semen is fluid in ® See Introd. § 56. ® This sentence is a continuation of the previous inter- ‘Polation. 39 720 a 15 ovpBaivery, Tots pev Cwordicous dua Ta euBpva. é ev \ARISTOTEE orn, kv ¢ i : ~ , ) : ~ ~ bypas tpodis mepittwois KexowedvyKe Tod adTod 10 76pov. dijAov dé Tobro €x Tob omrepyia. pev Travra. pépew Ta C@a, wepitrwpa dé pay Taot isk bypov. fosne ‘Evret obv Set Kal tods TtaV ape -mopovs Tods “omreppariKods epnpetoBae | Kal a) mAavacBai, kat Tots GjAeor Tas dorépas, Tobro 8 ava Kato tov q ™pos Ta mpdoobua TOO Gwpatos 7) m™pos Ta. Tpava Tots mpooBiors aut dorEpar, Tots 5° @oroKors, Tpos Th dogve Kal Tots Tpaveow: doa. 3” qo oxrjoavra év adrois wororel extos, TadTa 8. dpporépurs Exe dia TO pererAnpevar apport Epa kal. elvar, Kal CwordKa ka @ordoKa: Ta. bev yap dw Ths 20 dorépas, Kal 4 ylyverat Ta a; bo TO brdlwpa mpos TH dopts €oti Kai Tois mpaveor, mpotodaa* dé KaTW ETL TH yaoTpl’ TavTn yap CwoToKE 7dn. 6 d€ mopos eis Kal TovTos THs Te Enpas TEepiTTwoEWSs: Kal THs oxelas: obfev yap exet ToUTiy aidotov, 25 Kabdzrep etpy Ta TpOoTEpov, darnprnpievov. _ Spotws oi exovar Kat ot Tav dppeverv Topo, Kal Tv exov- TwY Kal TOV BA eXOVT@V Opxets, Tats THY @oToKwy dorepais: Tact yap T™pos Tots Tpaveat mpoarrepv- Kao Kal KaTa TOV TOTOV TOV” THS paxews* Sel pev yap 7) mAavecbas GAN édpatous elvan, Towodros 5 30 6 omobev TOTS" obros yap 7 70 ouvexes TapExe Kal THY ordow. Tots pev ody evT0s exovar TOUS Opxeus evdus € Epnpetapevot elow [apa Tots mopots |,* Kat Tots 1 szpoiotca Platt, rpotovons vulg.: cf. 719 a7, HA. 51l a7 seqq.: mpotovons d¢ <7a> xdtw Sus. 2 sov Z: om. vulg. 3 dua tois mopas secl. Platt. 40 i i GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. xi. nature that the residue from the fluid nourishment shares the use of the same passage. This is clear from the fact that although all animals produce semen, fluid residue is not formed in all of them. Now in males the seminal passages must have a fixed position and. not stray about, and the same is true of the uterus in females ; and this fixed position must of necessity be either towards the front or the back of the body. Hence, (a) in the Vivipara the uterus is in front, on account of the embryo; (5) in the Ovipara it is by the loin and at the back ; (c) in _ those animals which begin by producing eggs within themselves and later bring their young forth exter- nally, both positions are found combined, because the animals share the characteristics of both classes ; they are viviparous and oviparous alike; thus, the ' upper portion of the uterus, in which the eggs are formed, is below the diaphragm by the loin, and towards the back; but its continuation is lower down, by the abdomen, for from this point. onwards the production of live young begins. In these animals also there is one passage only for the solid residue and for copulation; none of them has a pudendum projecting from the body, as has been said before. What is true of the uterus in Ovipara is true also of the passages in the males, both those which have testes and those which havenot. © In all of them the passages are fastened towards the back near the region. of the spine; fastened, because they may not stray about, but must have a settled position, which is just what the back part of the body provides; it gives continuity and stability. Indeed, in those animals which have their testes inside, the passages acquire their fixed position at 41 ARISTOTLE TANI AND 720 a extos 8 opolus: clr dmavt@ow eis €v mpos TOV rob aidoiov TOTOV. Opois dé Kal Tois deAdiow ot TrOpoL exovow: aNd. TOUS Opxets €xovat KeKpvpl- 35 jLevovs bro TO mepl Thy yaorepa KUTOS. Ids pev odv exovar TH Oécer Tept 7a. popia TO. 720 b ovvrehodyra 7 pos THY yéveow, Kal bua Tivas. bikie elpnrar. XIV Téy 8 aAdwv Coe TOV dvatueov ody é ee TpoTos TMV popiey Tov T™pos Thy yeveow ouv- tehowvreoy oUTE Tots evaipLous ou8! éavrois. €ott be 5 yevn TéTTApa TA Aourd,' € ev pev TO TOY pahaxoo- TpaKev, dedTEpov dé TO TOV poAaKiwy, TpiTov dé TO TOV EvTOUWV, Kal TéTApTOV TO TOV doTpaKodépmwr (rovtwr 5é mrepi ev mdvtwy adnAov; Ta Sé mActoTA ore ov" ovvdudlerae pavepov twa dé ovviorarat TpoTrov, dorepov AeKréov). 7a dé padaKdorpaka, 10 ovvdvdlerar jeev aomep Ta Orvaboupyrird, dTav TO pev Unrov TO be mpaves eraddd En Ta ovpata* Tots yap tarious m™pos Ta mpavi emBatvew eprrodile: Ta ovpata paxpay €yovrTa Tv amdpTnow Tov mTE- pvylwy. €xouvor 5° of pev appeves AerrTovs wdpous Bopixovs, ai dé OnAcar torépas tuevwders mapa 15 TO evtepov, evOev Kat evbev. €oxiapevas, ev als ey- XV ylverar TO ov. Ta dé padrdKua ovpmTAdKETaL prev KaTa TO oTdpa, avTepeidovTa Kat dtamrirrovra Tas mexravas, ovpméxerat be Tov Tpomov tobrov. e€ dvdyKens” a yap dvots mapa TO OTéma Tv TE= Acura Tod TEpiTTopwaros ouvijyaye Kdpapaoa, Kab- 20 dep elpynras mpdotepov [ev Tols Tept ‘T@v popiwv 1 ob yulg., 2: om. PY, Platt. ay tarel @ Snails are the exception (762 a 33). 42 > GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. xm.—xv. the very outset [at the same time as the passages]; and similarly in those animals whose testes. are ex- ternal. Afterwards they meet and unite .towards the region of the pudendum. The arrangement of the passages is the same as this in dolphins, although their testes are hidden below the abdominal cavity. _ We have now described the situation of the parts which are concerned with generation in the blooded animals and have stated the causes. “In the other class of animals, yiz., the bloodless XIV ones, the manner of the parts concerned with genera- (i) 7) tion is quite different from what it is in the blooded animals. ones; and what is more they differ among them- selves. We have here four groups still left to deal with: (1) Crustacea, (2) Cephalopods, (3) Insects, (4) Testacea (with regard to all of these the facts are obscure, but it is plain that most of them do not copulate*; as for the manner in which they arise, we must describe this later on).? (1) The (). Cres- Crustacea copulate as the retromingent animals do : “°* one lies prone and the other supine and they fit their tail-parts one tp the other. The males are prevented from mounting the females belly to back by their tail-parts which have long flaps attached to them. The males have narrow seminal passages, and the females have a membranous uterus by the side of the gut, divided on either side, and in this the egg is formed. (2) The Cephalopods copulate by thexy - mouth, pushing against each other and intertwining Sa their tentacles. This manner of copulation is due to Z necessity, because nature has bent the end of the residual passage so as to bring it round by the side of the mouth, as I have previously said [in the treatise ® Book III, ch. 11, 43 720 b | ARISTOTLE OLY ANAM) Adyous|. A EXEL o° 4) Onjeva juev dorepiKov Héptov pavepas €v éxdoTw Tovtwr Tdv Caiwy* dov yap loxe TO pev Tp@Tov ddidptorov, Sreura Svaxpe- vdjLevov yiverat 7roAdd, Kat darorixrey Exaoroy TOUTWY areXes, Kabdrep Kat ot @oroxobyres TOV 25 iXPvov. 6 bé. mpos 3 avres Tod TEpuTTeparos Kat Tob vaTepuKcod Hoptov eat Tots pL axoo7pdxous Kai ToUToLs" leo7i yap 7) Tov Bopay adinar Si Too mdpou: |* Toro" 8 éotw év tots darrtous TOU ow- paros, h TO Kédugos apéoTnKe Kad ui Odédarra eloepxer au. bud 6 avvdvagpos Kara TobTo yiverau 30 TO dippeve mpos THY OnAevav: ‘ivayKatov yap, Of. Tis.b,11. ¢ Cf. P.A. 684 a 17 ff. @ See Introd. § 18. .‘* Part” does not necessarily’ itaphy a limb, and the fact. that it, is mentioned here: between! semen and dynamis suggests that “limb.”’ is not the: mean- ing here (cf. P.A. 648 a 2, where blood is described as a ““part’’). All the same, Aristotle may here be intending to use *‘ part”? in the sense of limb, for in three genera of the Octopoda the hectocotylized arm, (see note below, on 1. 32) becomes detached from the male and remains within the 44 ee eee nani ieee — we GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. xv. on The Parts of Animals).* The female of each of these animals has a part like a uterus, which is plain to be seen ; it contains an egg which at first is indis- tinet,? but later divides up and is formed into a num- ber of eggs, each of which the creature deposits in an imperfect state, just as the oviparous fishes do. In ‘these animals as well as in the Crustacea the issage which serves for the residue and connects with the uterus-like part, is one and. the same (it is on the under surface of the body, where the “ mantle” lies open and the sea water enters in®). Hence it is through this that the male effects copulation with the female, since if the male discharges anything, be it semen, or some part,? or some other substance,® he must of necessity unite with the female through the passage which leads to the uterus. In the case of the Octopuses, the male inserts his tentacle through the funnel of the female, and the fishermen allege that copulation is effected by means of this tentacle but its purpose is really to link the two creatures together; it has no instrumental use so far as generation is concerned, because it is outside the passage (of the male) and outside his body.’ mantle of the female. Aristotle however does not explicitly mention this detaching of the arm, * Dynamis ; see Introd. §§ 23 ff. * This refers to the remarkable phenomenon in_ the Dibranchiata of the ‘ hectocotylization ” of one of the arms of the male, by means of which copulation is effected, as is stated in H.A. 524 a 5 ff., 541b9, 544a8ff. Here, however, Aristotle denies that the arm is so used, and his argument is not unreasonable, for it is not yet known how the arm be- comes charged with the spermatophores. For details and diagrams see P. Pelseneer, Mollusca (tr. G. Bourne), 323 ff. 9 i.2., not a part of the main bulk of the body and not directly connected with the seminal passage. 45 720 b 721a XVI 10 _ their name is common and the logos. o ARISTOTLE (6011) ’Eviote de owvdudlovrat Kal ent 70. Tmpavy Ta paddxea TOT Epov be yeveoews xdpw 7 ov aXny airiav, ovbev & Onral Tw. Tdv 8 evropey 7a prev ovvdvalerar, Kal 7 yé- veous avT@v €otiv ek Cow ouvwvdpwv, ake emi TOV evaipov, olov ai te axpides Kat ot Tér- 5 Tuyes Kal Ta haddyyia Kat ot opines Kal ot pup pnkes, Ta de owvdudlerau pev Kal yevv@ow, obx opoyerh 8’ abvrots adda oKadnKas pedvov, ovde ylyvovrat ék Caw arr ék onjmojeveny dypav, Ta de Enpav, olov al TE pian Kal at putas Kal vas kavOapises: ta 8 ovr ek Lawyv yivovrau ovte ovvdudlovrar, Kabldzep epmiBes TE Kal KwVvwTES Kat moAAd tovatra yev7. Tov dé ovvdvaloueve ev tois mActotows Ta OyjAca peilw tev dppéeveiv €oriv. mopous dé Ta appeva Oopixods od daiverat exyovra. adhinor S€ ws emt TO mA€lorov Etmely Td appev eis TO OAAv oddev pdpiov, GAA 7d OAAV eis TO appev KdTwHev aGvw. TeDedpnrat Sé TodTO emt TOMAGY, [Kal wept Tod avaBaivey WoadTws,| Tod- vavtiov 5° én’ dXdiywv: wore dé yever Sichetr, ovmTw ovvediparar. oxedov dé TobTO Kal ET Tov @o- ToKwv ixQdwv TeV mAetoroy cori, Kal emi tdv TeTpamodwy Kal @oToKwy: Ta yap Oijrca peeihen TOV appévwv €ort Sud 76 ovppéepe® mpos Tov eRe 2 ‘seclusi. 2 cupdepew PZ: undipas vulg. * See Categ. 1a 5 “ Things are called * ae * when the essence. cor- responding to the name, is the same.” For ‘Spavepor, see note on 726 b 24. A useful mnemonic is: ovra@vupov is same 46 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. xv.—xvr. _ Sometimes too Cephalopods copulate while: both creatures are lying prone, but it has not yet been observed whether this is done for the purpose. of generation or for some other cause. (8) As regards Insects, some of them copulate, and XVI in those cases the young are generated from animals © ™s***- which are of the same name ® and nature as them- selves, just as happens in the blooded creatures ; instances of this are locusts, cicadas, spiders, wasps, ants. Others, although they copulate and generate, . generate not creatures of the same kind as them- selves but only larvae ®; and these insects moreover are not produced out of animals at all but out of putrefying fluids (in some cases, solids) ; instances. of this are fleas, flies, cantharides. Others neither are — produced out of animals nor do they copulate ; such are gnats, mosquitoes © and many similar kinds of insects. In most of the sorts which copulate the females are larger than the males ; and the males do not seem to have any seminal passages. Speaking generally, the male does not insert any part into the female ; but the female does so into the male up- wards from below: this has been observed in many instances, [and similarly as concerris mounting,] the opposite in a few; but we have not yet enough observations to enable us to classify them distinctly. We find that the females are larger than the males not only in Insects but also in most of the oviparous fishes, and likewise in those quadrupeds which are oviparous ; the reason being that the size is an advan- tage to them when a great bulk is produced inside in name and same in nature ; dyevupor is same in name but not in nature. > See Introd. § 77. * It is not possible to say exactly what insects are meant. 47 ; ARISTOTLE | — 721 a fe Lar) poe eee oe Se F pevov attois io THV @aV GyKoV.ev TH KUACEL. tots dé OnjAcow avTaV TO Tabs dorepaus dvdAoyov Hoptov OX WEVOV eoTt Tapa TO évrepov, domep Kat Tots: aMous, ev @ eyylyverat Td. kujjpara. dfjAov dé Tobiro emi te TOV aKkpidwy, Kal doa pe 25 yeGos avTa@v EXEL, owvdudleobar meduxdrony” Ta. yap mAciora pupa Alay TOV evTdpuwv eoriv. — Ta pev odv rept tiv yéveow opyava trois Cwous, mrepl av ovK eAexOn mporepov, TodTov exeu TOV TpOmrov- Tov 3S ouovopLepa@y dareheipOn mrept Yyovis Kal ydraxros, mrepl @v Katpds €orww etme iv, mepl 30 ev yovijs 77, mept dé ydAaKTos ev Tots Exopevors. xvull Ta pev yap mpoterau pavepas oméppa" TOY Cwwv, olov doa atrav evaya tiv dvow €ori, Ta 8 evropa Kat Ta paddkia toTépws, adyrov. wore tobro Jewpyréov, méTEpov TavTa mMpoleTar oTéppa. Ta Gppeva 7) o8 mdvTa, Kal et pt) mdvTa, dia tiv” 35 aitiav Ta pev Ta 8 ov Kal Ta OnjAea dé mOTEpov 721 b ovpBadreras oTépua Te 7 ov, Kal €l [1 OTEpya, mOrepoy ove aXXo over, i) ovppaderar pe Tt, od omeppa O€. ett dé Kal Ta Tpoldueva omeppa Ti ouppdArerat Sia Tod omépyatos mpos THY yeveow oKETTEOV, Kal OAws Tis €oTw 7) TOO omépparos puous 5 Kal yi Trav KaAoupevay Karapnviov, éoa TavTnv tiv bypoTnTa mpolerar TOY Edu. Aoket 5€ mavrayiveobar €k aomépatos, TO be 1 onéppa om. SY*. @ It will be noticed that Aristotle omits to describe the Testacea, which would naturally follow at this point. The 48 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. xvi.—xvu. them by the eggs at the time of breeding. In the females the part that answers to the uterus is divided and extends alongside the gut, as in other animals ; this is where the fetations are formed. This can be clearly seen in locusts and in any insect whose nature it is to copulate, provided it is large enough ; most insects however are too small.* Such is the manner of animals’ instrumental paris connected with generation, which I had not dealt with in my previous treatise.’ Of the “‘ uniform.”’ ¢ parts, semen.and milk were there left undescribed, and the time has now come to speak of these. We will deal with semen without delay, and with milk in the chapters which are to follow.? Some animals discharge semen plainly, for instance XVII those which are by nature blooded animals; but it 5°™* is not clear in which way Insects and Cephalopods do so. Here then is a point we must consider : Do all male animals discharge semen, or not all of them ? and if not all, why is it that some do and some do not ? and further, Do females contribute any semen, or not? and if they contribute no semen, is there no other substance at all which they contribute, or is there something else which is not semen? And there is a further question which we must consider : What is it which those animals that discharge semen contribute towards generation, by means of it? and generally, what is the nature of semen, and (in the case of those animals which discharge this fluid) what is the nature of the menstrual discharge ? Tt is generally held that all things are formed and Theory. reason is that, according to him, they do not copulate: see 731 b 8 ff. > De partibus. * See Introd. § 19. @ Book LV, ch. 8. 49 : ARISTOTLE “O11 AHIM AO 721 b Ray Valea : ee = onéppa ek TeV yervevrey. 00 tod adtod Adyou €ori, 7OTEpoy Kal TO OAAD Kal TO dppev mpotevras* dupo 7 7) Odrepov Lovoy, Kat TOT Epov amo mavros 10 dmépxeTat Tob odparos. 7 ovK amo mravros: ev- Aoyor yap, el p47) G70 TAVTOS, Hd” Gat * dpporépwr TOV YEVVOVTWDV. Sidmep, € emuaKemTEOV, emreud7) pact 5 \ ‘ TWES ATO TAVTOS ATrLévaL TOD. CaaTos, aepl TOVTOV TOS EXEL mparrov. €or. 0€ oxedov, ois av Tis xpm- Gato TeKpnptors ws ag’ Exdorov TAV pope 15 amidvtos Tob _omeppiaros,” TETTApA, THPATOV pev agpodporns Ths ndovys: paddov yap. 78d m)éov TAUTO yewopevov 7dBos, m€éov 8€ 70 maou Tos Hopious } TO. €vi } dAtyos ovpPatvov abray. er To €k KoAoBdv KodoBa yivecbar- dia pev yap TO Tob popiov evdees elvar od Badilew oméppa ev- 20 red0ev dacw; dev 8? av a eAOn, TOOTO ovpPaivew pay yivectau. mpos d€ Tovrots ai Opovornres: pos Tovs yevyjgavras: yivovrat yap couxdres, OoTrep® Kat OAov 70 oda, Kal pdpia peopiows* ciep obv Kal T@ Grey" aiTvov THs. OpoudryTos TO age Sov eAbciv To. oTeppa, Kal Tots popiors altuov av ein TO a mpotevrat PSZ*: zpotera vulg, 2 ds. . . onépparos om. PZ. * darep om. P, hisihrre: 4 7G dAw Z: 708, dAov vulg. ; or juyk 4 This is a view which is found in the remarkable Hippo- cratic treatise 7. yovfjs xrA..3 and 8 (vii. 474 and 480 Littré), and seems also to have been held by Democritus (see Diels, forsokr.’ 68 A 141 and 68. B 32). It closely resembles the hypothesis (“ pangenesis *) which was put forward by Darwin, that every unit of an organism contributes its share to the germ of the future offspring ; in other words, that the 50 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, 1. xvn. come to be out of semen, and semen comes from the parents. *And so one and the same inquiry will include the two questions : (1) Do both the male and the female discharge semen, or only one of them? and (2) Is the semen drawn from the whole of the parent's body? or not ?—since it is reasonable to hold that if it is not drawn from the whole of the body it is not drawn from both the parents either.? There are some who assert that the semen is drawn from of ‘* pan- genesis” examined. the whole of the body, and so we must consider the © facts about this first of all. There are really four lines of argument which may be used to prove that the semen is drawn from each of the parts of the body. The first is, the intensity of the pleasure involved ; it is argued that any emotion, when its scope is widened, is more pleasant thanthe same emotion When its scope is less wide ; and obviously an emotion _ which affects all the parts of the body has a wider ~ seope than one which affects a single part of a few parts only, The sécond argument is that mutilated parents produce mutilated offspring, and it is alleged that because the parent is deficient in some one part ho semen comes from that part, and that the part from which no semen comes does not get formed in the offspring. The third argument is the resem- blances shown by the young to their parents: the offspring which are produced are like their parents not only in respect of their body as a’ whole, but part for part too; hence, if the reason for the resemblance of the whole is that the semen is drawn from the carriers of heredity move centripetally from all the parts of the body to the germ, thus involving the inheritance of ac- uired characteristics (for which inheritance, however, there is no evidence).—See also Hippocrates, wept dépwv sdarwv Tomwv 16. > Cf. 724 a 9-10. 51 r ARISTOTLERD | TAS MNO 721 b ad’ éxdotov tt TOV popiwv €dOeiv. ere Sé Kai 25 eiAoyov av evar ddoferev, ORE Kat rot ddov eer Tt 3 ob vives POT, otrw Kat Tov Hopiony eKAORD Ud aor €t exeivov onépya, Kat TOV pope éxdorov ein av Tt siden op idvov. mBava dé Kal Ta To.adra paptupia tavrais Tats Bdgais: od yap Moyov 7a avpduTa. TPOMEOHERT yivovras Tois ‘yo- 30 vebow ot mraides, aAAa Kal 7a emikrnTa: odAds Te yap ats gi Tov er iforeey: non TwWes if ous ev Tots avtots Témois THY ek ova Tov TUToOv 7A ovis, Kal eTeyHe ExovTOS ev 7a Bpaxiove Too matpos emeonunvey ev Xadxnddu Ta Téxvw avy bic ea pverat Kal ob ha ed gin cio TO ypdppya. 35 ore HEY obv amo TavTos EPKE TO TO OTTEp[La, oxedov 722 a ex ToUTWY ep MLOTEVOUGL TWES. ‘ fa XVIIIl @Maiverar 8 e€eralovor Tov igs pvr: fe padrov: td Te yap eipnueva Adew od xaderdv, Kal mpos TovTos dAAa ovpBaiver Aéyew addvara. mp@- Tov pev odv ote ovfev onpeiov 7 opovdtns Tod 5 dmuévar ao TavTés, 6Tt Kat Pwryny Kal ovuyas Kal Tpixas Spoor ylyvovrat Kat TH Know, ad dv obbev dmépyerar. ea 8 odk exovel mw Stray yer- v@ow, olov tpiywow moddy 7 yeveiov. ere Tots dvwbev yovedow €oikacw, ad’ dv ovev anfdOer- : . @ It will be seen that this translation, in spite of its sound of modernity, is a close representation of the original. 52 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. xvu.—xvut1. whole; theh the reason for the resemblance of the parts is surely that something is drawn from each of the parts. Fourthly, it would seem reasonable to hold that just as there is some original thing out of which the whole creature is formed,.so also it is with each of the parts; and hence if there is a semen which gives rise to the whole, there must be a special semen which gives rise to each of the parts. And ‘these opinions derive plausibility from such evidence as the following : Children are born which resemble their parents in respect not only of congenital character- istics but also of acquired ones * ;. for instance, there have been casés of children which have-had:the out- line of a scar in the same places where their parents had sears, and there was a case at Chalcedon of a man who was branded on his arm, and the same letter, though somewhat confused and indistinct, appeared marked on his child. These are the main pieces of evidence which give some people ground for believing that the semen is drawn from the whole of the body. » Upon examination of the subject, however, the XVIII opposite seems more likely to be true; indeed, it is not difficult to refute these arguments, and besides that, they involve making further assertions which are impossible. First of all, then, resemblance is no proof that the semen is drawn from the whole of the body, because children resemble their parents in voice; nails, and hair and even in the way they move; | but nothing whatever is drawn from these things; and there are some characteristics which a parent does not yet possess at the time when the child is generated, such as grey hair or beard. _ Further, children rgsemble their remoter ancestors, from whom nothing has been drawn for the semen. Resemblances 53 ARISTOTLE | (LaMiaie) 722 a P :* a ' ; amrodidacr yap dud. ToAAGY yevedv ai dpotdrytes, 10 ofov Kat ev “HAids 4 7G AlBiome ovyyevopéevy od yap % Ouvydryp éyévero, GAN 6 é« tadryns Aiioy. Kal emt Tov yigesees dé 6 adros Adyos* anes yap ore Kal tovTols amo mdvTwy av TOV peer TO" arrephia ylyvoito. moAAa d€ ra pev ovK Exel, Ta 8é Kat ( adédor tis av, ta dé mpoodvera. ert odd’ azo 15 TOV hs nin fe pili bio kairo. Kal TabTa yl VeTaL THY ATI FXOW ES Hopdiy. rth eaito "Ere peo amo Tov sap ge nae a am épxetar ad’ éxdorov, olov amd capkos Kal daTod Kal vevpov, 7) Kal amo T@v dvopovopepav, otov Tpoowmov. Kal yeipds; et pev yap am exeivav 29 fovov, CeouKkevar ede ekeiva povov:> éeoikact Be paArov tadra Tots yovetor {Ta dvopovojeph |,” olov mpoowrov | Kal xetpas Kal 7odas" lar oov pnde tabra 7G amd mavros azeNbeiv, ri kwAdver pnd’ éxeiva TH ad mavtos ameADeiv 6 SHO eclvat, aAAa dt? adAAnv airiav; «i 5’ dao 7@v avopo.o- pep@v povov, ovK apa amd TavTwr. MpoorKer 25 5¢ paddov dm’ exelvwv: mpdtepa yap ékeiva, Kal ovyKELTOL TA avomovopeph e€ €xeivwv, Kal womTep mpdcwmov Kat xeipas ylyvovras eouxdres, obtw Kal 1 <éoixevau edeu éexeiva povov"> Peck 5 monuerant A: -W.> intellegi debere, e.g., det exeiva jrdvov €orxévar. 2 ra avopo.opeph secludenda, nam radra hoc significats 5%, GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. xvi. of ‘this. sort recur after many generations, asthe following instance shows, There was at Elisa woman who had intercourse with a blackamoor; her daughter was not a black, but ‘that daughter’s’ son was. And the same argument will hold for plants. . We should «° have to say that the seed was drawn from the whole of the plant, just as in animals. But many plants = certain’ parts you can‘if you wish pull some’ of Ws Paste arts off, and some parts grow on afterwards. er, nothing is drawn from the pericarp to con- Ebhie to the seed, yet péricarp is formed in the new plant and it has the same fashion: as chant in the old one., Here is a further question. Is ‘the semen drawn énly frond each’ of the “ uniform ” parts of the body, such as flesh, bone; sinew, or is it drawn from-the “non-uniform ” parts as well, such as face and hand ? Consider the possibilities : (1) The semen may be drawn from the uniform *parts only. If’so, (then children. ought to resemble their parents in respect of these only,) but the resemblance occurs rather in the non-uniform parts such as face, hands: and feet. Therefore if even these resemblances in the non-uniform parts are not due to the semen being drawn from the whole body, why must the resem- blances in the uniform parts be due to that and not to'some other cause? (2) The.semen may be drawn from the non-uniform parts only: This means that it is not drawn from all the parts. Yet it is more in keeping that it should be drawn from the uniform parts, because they are prior to the non-uniform, and the non-imiform are constructed out of them ;. and just as children are born resembling their parents in face and hands, so they resemble them in flésh and 55 ARISTOTLE WAAR AS 722 a La Vy @ > > FD, > 7, t < capkas Kal ovyyas. €t 8 am’ audotépwr, tis 6 / ps. ” ~ / : TpoTros av €ln Tis yevécews; ovyKerTar yap ek ~ c ~ a 3 TOY OL“oLlomEep@v TA avopLoLoLEepH, WOTE TO GTO 30 ToUTwWY amevaL TO am eKxeivwy av ein amévar Kal Tis ovvlécews: wWorep Kav Ei amd TOD yeypap- / ‘ ‘ fL€vov Gvopmatos amper TL,' EL ev amd. TaVTOS, KAY amo Tav avAAaBdv éxdorns, ei 8 aro ToUTwY, amd ~ / a ; ns ie TOV OTOLXElwY Kal THs ovvOecews. WoT EimEp eK Tupos Kal TMV ToLwovTwY odpKeEs Kal daTa avveoTa= > A ~ U 5) ww 4 2 > \ \ 35 Olv, ATO TWVY OTOLYELWY av ElN fLOVOY’* amo yap 722b = rs avvOécews Tas evdexeTar;, GAAG pV dvev ye uA > ba) wv Ld , > ww tavTns odK av ein opowa. radrnv 8 et ru Sype- oupyet vaTEepov, TobT av Ein TO THs dpororyTos ” > > > ‘ > ~ > A la \ ) aitiov, add’ od ro ameAOciv amo mavTds. "Rh 92 6N § , A 2 +3 a (gay TL et ev SteoTacpEeva Ta MEepyn ev TH oTreppate, . 1 ange te P, dain 7 Z: om. vulg. : 2 povov Z: paArov vulg. * The point of the argument is this. There is no addi- tional material in the non-uniform parts beyond what there was in the uniform ones; the only additional factor is the assemblage (composition, combination, arrangement) of the uniform parts so as to make the non-uniform ones (¢.g., of flesh, bone, blood, sinew, etc.,.so as to make a face or an arm).. And as the assemblage, the fact that the uniform parts are arranged in a particular manner, is not a material thing, obviously nothing can be drawn from it as an ingredient for the semen. The argument can be carried a stage further still, as Aristotle points out, for the uniform parts themselves are merely assemblages of the elementary forms of matter, Earth, Air, Fire, Water. (See Introd. § 24, and 715 a 10 ff.) 56 - GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. xvi. nails. . (3) The semen may be drawn from both uni- form and non-uniform parts. The question then arises : What can be the manner in which generation takes place ? The non-uniform parts are constructed out of uniform ones assembled together ; so that being drawn from the non-uniform parts would come to the same thing as being drawn from the uniform parts plus the assemblage of them.* (It is just like the case of a word written down on paper: if there were anything drawn from the whole of the word, it would be drawn from each of the syllables also,’ and this of course means that it would be drawn from the . letters plus the assemblage of them together.) Now flesh and bones, we should agree, are constructed out of fire and the like substances ©; which means that the semen would be drawn from the elements only, because how can it possibly be drawn from the assemblage of them? And yet without this assem- blage the parts would not have the resemblance ; so if there is something which sets to work later on to bring this assemblage about, then surely this some- thing, and not, the drawing of the semen from the whole of the body, will be the cause of the resemblance. Further, if the parts of the body are scattered about Hence, the theory boils down to an assertion that the semen is drawn from the simplest forms of matter, and as this excludes any distinctive characteristics, the theory loses all meaning. ® Contrast the interesting theory examined in Plato, Theae- tetus 201 p ff., that ‘elements ” (crovyeta), whether physical elements or “letters”? of the alphabet, are“ ddoya * and cannot be known, until they are assembled into a “ syllable,” _ which is an entity over and above its components, and “* has -a Noyos,”’ and so can be known.—See also 715 a 12, n. * The “ elements” ; see Introd. § 24. 57 ARISTOTLE (11/14 45 722 b Se. Hie 2 Qh Pe Penns eek , Nas Ns 5 TOs CH; et be DENT) rang Gietyp phere Kal TH TOV aidoiwy MOS 5 od ‘yap ‘Opovov TO daridv amo Too GPPSHOS Kal Tod GrjAcos.. at oy pled cata "Eu €é: erdarepdes Spots amo mdvTwv dm épyerat, do yiyverar CaHa- aah i yap dmavra eer. 80 Kat ’EpmedonAns eoucev, ctrep ore Aexréov, pddvora A€yew dpoloyovpeva Toure 7 10 Adyw [7d ye Tooobrov, GAN wna érépa 7, 0d Karas |": got Yap ev TO pope Kal TO Ai iid avpBorov. évetvar, dAov 8 aa’ pon crsth g dmvévat, GAAd di€oractat pedcwv pois, 1 pev ey ‘dv- SPs. <1 , A / \ \ / > ~ 2 e ~ ow > \ dua Ti yap Ta Oyrea od yea &€ abtav, etrEp aro , 2s iy 25 The pea) > mavros ‘Te, airepxerat, Kal, exer DHOoO PS GAA 15 Ws €ovkev 7) OK ATAAXSTRM amo. TavTos, 7 ouTws womep exeivos A€yet, od TabTa adh’ Exarepov, 510 Kat déovrar THs aAdjAwY ovvovolas. adAa Kat a> 997 ¢ \ \ , vo» 397) TOUT advvaTov. WoTep yap Kal weydAa ovr? adv- ” vatov deoTacpeva owleoba Kal. euvya elvas, 1. seclusi. y neh 4 * j.¢., which generative organs is the offspring to have~ male or female ones ? » Se., in this respect, though it may be identical in respett of hand, nose, eyes, ete. ais Nature” seems to mean here, as often, “‘ natant substance,” or ‘‘ substance.”’ 4 BE mped. fr. 63 (Diels,, Vorsokr.*) ; it probably continued, ; | e.g., ** Seed, and the other portion is in woman’s,” : 58 u ; GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. xvi. _ within the semen, how do they live ? If on the other hand they are connected with each other, then surely _ they would be a tiny animal. And what about the generative organs ?® because that which comes from the male ‘will be different from that which comes from the female.? _ Further, if the semen is drawn from all the parts of both parents alike, we shall have two animals _ formed, for the semen will contain all the parts of each of them. If this sort of view is to be adopted, the statement most closely in accord with it ap- _ pears to be that of Empedocles [at any rate up to a point; if we take any other view, he appears wrong]. Empedocles says that in the male and in the female there is as it might be a tally—a half of something—and that the whole is not drawn from either of the parents. “ But’ (I quote his words) torn asunder stands The substance ° of the limbs; part is in man’s. . .7 Otherwise the question arises, why is it that female animals do not generate out of themselves, if so be that the semen is drawn from the whole body and a receptacle for it is at hand?» No; so far as we can see, either the semen is not drawn from the whole body, or if it is, it happens in the way described by Empedocles—the two parents do not both supply the same portions, and that is why they need intercourse with each other. But even Empedocles’ explana- tion is impossible. The parts cannot remain sound and living if “torn asunder’”’ from each other when small, any more than they can. when they are fully grown. Empedocles, however, implies that they 59 . | AWRISTOTLE 017 24a 722 b kaOdtrep "EpmedonNis, yen’ em ris: ‘pirdsryros; 20 Aéywy : 7 moAAat pev Kopoa. avattyeves a danpadie, re el?” ovTws oupipveobat prow. ToOTO be avepov OTe advvatov* oUvUTE yap pa poyny € EXOT ovre pa Cony Twa Svvait av odleabar, otre Bomep (Ga ovra mr«ciw, ovppveadar dor «iva. addy & ev. 25 GAA pv tobrov Tov Tpdrov aupBaiver A€yew Tois amo mavTos amiévar ddoxovoiv, womep TOTE ev Th YH emt Tihs proryros, ovTw tovrous ey TO cwmpat.. dadvvatov yap ouvext TO. pdpia ylyve- ofa, Kal dmevan eis €va TOTOv ovviovTa. €tTa ms Kal ‘ dSidonacra.”’ Ta. dvw Kal Karo tad defua Kal apiotepa Kai mpdobia Kal dmiobun:; 30 TavTa yap TadTa. hoya € eoTW. . "Erte Ta pepn Ta pev duvduer Ta Sé wabeor did- prorat, TO puev dvopo.opepi T@ SvvacGai te movetiv, olov yA@rtra Kal xetp, Ta 8 Cuovopeph oxhnpornte Kal padaxornre Kat Tots Mors. Tots TovovTots mabeow. ov mdvrws ovv éxov alfua ob8¢ odpé.! 35 SHAov Toivuy dt. advvarov TO ameABov evar ovv- 1 od... odp£om. &: alwa obd€ oapé Bt... * According to Empedocles, there were alternating periods during which Love and Strife respectively gained the mas- tery; for details see Burnet, Early Greek si sc pa 231 ff. oa Emped. fr. 57 (Diels). © See Introd. §§ 41. ff. 4 Viz., in the formation of the embryo. ¢: Cf. below, 723 b 14 ff, 729 a 7 ff. 60 4 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. xvi. can when he says in his account of their generation during the “ Reign of Love,”* There many neckless heads sprang up and grew *; later on, he says, they grew on to each other. This is clearly impossible : on the one hand, if they had not Soul® or life of some sort in them they could not remain safe and sound ; and on the other hand, _ if they were a number of separate living animals, as one might ‘say, they could not grow on to each other so as to become’ one’ animal-again. Yet this is actually the kind of thing which those people _ have to say who allege that the semen is drawn _ from the whole of the body: just as it was in the _ beginning in the earth in the Reign of Love, so it is, according to them, in the. living body.? Of course it is impossible that the parts should become | _ connected, z.e., come off from the parents so that they go together into one place.’ Besides, in any case, how were the upper and lower parts, the right and _ left, the front and the back, “sundered’’? All _ these ideas are fantastic. © Further, among the parts, some are distinguished by some faculty they possess, others by having cer- tain physical qualities /: thus, the non-uniform parts (such as the tongue or the hand) are distinguished by possessing the faculty to perform certain actions, the uniform parts by hardness or softness or other such qualities. Unless, therefore, it possesses certain Special qualities, a substance is not blood or flesh ; and hence it is plain that the substance which is _ 7 One of the definitions of dos given at Met. 1022 b 15 is “a quality (wowdrys) in virtue of which a thing may be _ altered, ¢.g., whiteness, blackness, heaviness, lightness, etc.” 61 ARISTOTLEOW! £c0TAD 723 a cvupov: Tots pépeoww, ofov alpa amo aiparos 7, a dpa dro oapKos. aAAa pays ev y ef €TEepou Twos ovTos ala yiveran, ov av THs OporeTyTos, airvov > a . 30 ovpyeTpov 7) GovppeTpov ‘ > / a! A > + \ vaikos Kal TOO avdpos amv, 7 Kal dv adAnv Twa TovavTnv aitiav. ShAov toivuv, «i tobro Oyjcopev 4 a > ~ > ral > / . 4 ~ ov > oUTws, Tt od TO aTreADetv. amd Twos TO OAAV, WoT 1 un pote Z: peeve vulg. ai PY : om. vulg. * Emped. fr. 65 (Diels). Cf. 764 a 1 ff., 765 a 8. 64 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. xvi. ‘unless the substance that is added changes? If how- ever it is admitted that this added substance can change, why not admit straight away that the semen at the outset is such that out of it blood and flesh can be formed, instead of maintaining that the semen is itself both blood and flesh ? They might try to argue that jt grows at a later stage by admixture; just as wine is increased in bulk by pouring in water; but even this line of argument proves impossible, because if that were so, then it would surely be at the outset that each of the parts was its own proper self, before it was mixed, whereas in actual fact it is at a later stage that this occurs (I refer of course to flesh and bone and every one of the rest of them). And the assertion that some of the semen is sinew and bone is quite beyond us, as the saying goes. Here is another objection. Suppose it is true that the differentiation between male and female takes place during conception, as Empedocles says * : Into clean vessels were they pouréd forth ; Some spring up to be women, if so be They meet with cold... . Anyway, both men and women are observed to change: not only do the infertile become fertile, but also those who have borne females bear males ; which suggests that the cause is not that the semen is or is not drawn from the whole of the parents, but depends upon whether or not that which is drawn from the man and from the woman stand in the right proportional relation to each other.® Or else it is due to some other cause of this sort. Thus, if we are to assume this as true, viz., that the same semen is > Cf. 767 a 16, 772'a 17, and Introd. § 39.. D 65 723 a 723 b (ARISTOTLE | (PAS 499 ovde TO Hépos 6 exeu tWuov 6 TE dppev Kat To O7Av, elmep TO avTO ome pha. Kal Orv Kal dppev dvvarat 35 yiyveoBan ws ovK ovros TOU jeopion + ev TQ onéppart. Tt ovv Suapeper € emt Tovrou eye 7 i) emt TOV Mov popieo ; a yap pnd? dro Tis borépas. onépp.a. yiverat, 6 adtos Adyos Kal émi TOV on Dan @ el Hopiwv. on si "Eru eva yiverar Tov farm our’ » sbi dieaty di ovTe TH yever Siahodpwv, ofov at pviar Kat Ta yevn 5 Tv kadovjieverr puaray. ex 5é Tovrwr yiveran prev CHa, odKére 5° opowa THY poow, aNd. yevos Tt oKwAnieny. d7Aov_odv ore ovK amo mayros Mépous daridvTos yiyvovras oo. eTEpOyevi}’ Spowa yap, dy 7s elmep Tob amo TavTos amevat onyetov eoTW %} Opmovorns. i "Eru amd puds ovvovolas Kal tov Cdwv ena 10 yevva ToAAd, Ta Se duTa Kal mavTamacw: SHAov yap OTL amd pds Kwhoews TOV eméTeLoy TavTa déper kaproév. Kaito. mHs Svvardv, ei amo TavTos amekpiveTo TO oméppa; pilav yap amdoKpiow amo puds avayKatov yiveobar cuvovatas Kal pds SvaKkpi- cews. ev d€ Tats daTépats xwpilectar aovvaTtov" 1 yYodav Em, Aldus, Buss.; A.-W. ‘Platt: pwrav SZ + on vulg.; cf. 721 a8 supra. « And that the differentiation takes place in the uterus. > This does not of course imply a belief in plant fertiliza- tion; but the precise meaning of the remark is not clear. On comparison with 728 b 35 ff., it appears that the product of the ‘‘ one act of coition ” in "animals corresponds to the “ seed ” of plants, which also is a ‘‘ fetation,” in which male and female are not separate, just as male and female are 66 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. xvin. able to be formed into either male or female 4% (imply- ing that the sexual part is not present in the semen), it is clear that it is not the semen’s being drawn from some one part which causes the offspring to be female, nor, in consequence, is it responsible for the special physical part which is peculiar to the two sexes. And what can be asserted about the sexual part can equally well be asserted about the other parts ; since if no-semen comes even from the uterus, the same willsurely hold good. of the other parts as well. Further, some animals are formed neither from ereatures of the same kind as themselves nor from creatures of a different kind ;, examples are: flies and the various kinds of fleas as they are called. Animals are formed from these, it is true, but in these eases they are not similar in character to their parents ; instead we get a class of larvae. Thus in these creatures which differ in kind from their parents we clearly have animals which are not formed out of semen drawn from every part of the body, for if resemblance is held to be a sure sign that this has occurred, then they would resemble their parents. Further, even among the animals there are some which generate numerous offspring from one act of coition, a phenomenon which is, indeed, universal with plants ; these, as is manifest, produce a whole season’s fruit as the result of one single movement.? Now how is this possible on the supposition that the semen is secreted from the whole body? One act of coition, and one effort of segregation, ought neces- sarily to give rise to one secretion and no more. That it should get divided up in the uterus is impossible, combined in the “ fetation ” ofan animal. See also 728 a 27, 7ilal. 67 P ARISTOTLE!) 7 A504 90 723 b 15 707 yap domep amo véov dutod 7 Show: wi cri [LaTOS ety’ H Staxeprots. "Ere 7a amogpurevdjieva a dm abrod déper ore ppc." dmpov obv oT. Kal amply arropurev Ova amo 708 avTod peyeBous" epepe TOV KapTov, Kat ovK dao qTavTos Tob duTod aarnet TO omepy.a.. Meyworov de rovray TEK EMPLOY reBewoprixapey 20 ixav@s emi ta&v evrépwv. Kal yap et pr) ev maow, adn’ emi tOv mrclotwv ev TH oxela TO Of Ay cis TO appev puépos Tt adrToo azroretver [8x0 Kal THV dxelav, Kabldmep elmopev mporepov, ovUTW ToLobvTaL|** Ta yap Katwhev eis Ta avw dhalverar evadievta, odK ev maow, add’ év tots mAcioros TOV. TeVewpy- / @ ‘ n ww hid 299 & he , 25 PEVWV. WOTE davepov av €ty) OTL ovd 000 TpoLleTat yoviy T&v appevwv, od TO Amo TaVvTOS amlevat TIS / ” / 2 > > » SX yes rat yevéoews aitidv eotw, add’ aAdAov twa TpdToV, mept ob oKerréov Vorepov. Kal yap eimep TO A710 LA mavTos amrLevat ovveBawvev, worep pact, ovbev ede amo mavTwV dgvoby dmeva, adAd pdvov amo 30 To0 Snuoupyodvros, olov dad tod TékTovos GAAd ~ ~. 4 fq) Gro THs UAns. vov 8 dpovov Aéyovow. womep ~ o¢ Kav et amo THv drodnpdtwv: axeddov yap 6 djovos* vios TH TaTpl Guowa dopet. ite > a ¢ / "Or. 8 7S0v7) ofodpa yiverau ev TH dmiAta TH 1 dnd. . . etn) awd Chou oréppa rovet Z, sim. E. 2 wépovs coni. Bonitz. 3 seclusi: om. X. | 4 6 dpoos P : duos tus Vulg.: dpotos Z. * The text is probably corrupt; for the sense ef. 729 a 6 ff. > Ch. 16. 68 es GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. xvnt. for by that time the division would be made as it were from a new plant or animal, not of semen.* Further, transplanted cuttings bear seed—derived, of course, from themselves; which is proof positive that the fruit they bore before they were trans- planted was derived from that identical amount of the plant which is now the cutting, and that the seed was not drawn from the whole of the plant. The weightiest proof of all, however, we have sufficiently established by our observations of Insects. Perhaps not in all Insects, but certainly in most, during copulation the female extends a part of itself into the male [so, as we said earlier,” this is actually the .way in which they effect copulation]: the females can be seen inserting something into the males upwards from below. ‘This does not apply to all Insects, but to most of those which have been observed. Hence surely it is clear that even in the ease of those males which discharge semen genera- tion is not caused by the semen’s being drawn from the whole of the body, but it is brought about in some other way, which we must consider later‘on. And indeed, if it were really true that the semen is drawn from the whole body, as these people say, there would still be no call for them to assert that it is drawn from all the parts ; they need only say itis drawn from the creative part which does the fashioning—from the artificer, in other words, not from the material which he fashions. . As it is, they talk as though even the shoes which the parent wears were included _ among the sources from which the semen is drawn, for on the whole a son who resembles his father wears shoes that resemble his... It is true that there is intense pleasure in sexual 6 ARISTOTLE.) 5 6) 723 b ayy Oe T&v adbpodiwiwv, od TO amd TAaVTOS amvévaL atTLov, 35 GAN’ Gru Kvnopes eat ioxupds: 816 Kal ef mroANdus 724a aupBaiver % djudAa avry, Frrov yiveras 76. xaipew rots mAnoidlovow. ere mpos TO TéAeL xapd- eeu dé ev éxdoTe TaV popiwr, Kal pa aye) adr & eh ba zee Tod 8 éx KodroBay yivecOau Kodopa % adr) alria jeev TOUS ™pOTEpov év de Tots Sarepov. 5 kat dia Tt Gpota Tots yovedow. yiverar Se Kal od KoroBa ex KodroPdv, wamep. Kal dydpova. rahe en Kvadoacw* rept dv borepov Tv airtay Pewpnréov: TO yap mpoPAnya Tobd7’ exeivors Tabtov eoTw. th "Ere ef 70 OFAv ph mpoterat omrépjia., Too abrob Adyou pyS dad wavtds dmevar. Kav eb py amd 10 mavros amépyeTat, obbev aAoyov TO pnd? amo rob OnAcos, aA aAdov twa Tporov. altLov elvat 76 OnAv Tis yevéoews. mept od 87 exopevov €orw emoxewsacbar, émed1) havepov OTe OK G70 mdvrev amoxkpiverar TO OTépua TOV popiwy. f ’"Apx?) S€ Kal ravTys THs oKdbews Kal TOV éro- 15 évwv mpOrov AaBeiv wept omépparos ti €or: ovTw yap Kal Tepl TOY épywy abrod Kal Tov Trept adro cupPavovrwv éorar wadAov ededpnrov. Bov- Aerar Sé Tovodrov tiv dvow clvar TO o7éppa, e& we. GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. xvin. intercourse. The cause of this however is not that the semen is drawn from the whole body, but that - there is violent stimulation ; and that of course is why those who indulge often in such intercourse. de- rive less pleasure from it. Moreover, the pleasure in fact comes at the end, but according to the theory it should occur (a) in every one of the parts, and (6) not simultaneously, but esslier in some and later in _ others. | As. for mutilated offspring being produced by mutilated parents, the cause is the same as that which makes pe resemble their parents.. And any- way, not all offspring of mutilated parents are muti- lated, any more than all offspring resemble their ents. The cause of these things we must consider _ later*; the problem in both cases is the same. | Moreover, if the female does not discharge any semen, then it is consistent to say that the semen is not drawn from the whole body either; or again, if it is not drawn from the whole body, there is nothing inconsistent in saying that it is not drawn from the female either,’ but that the female is responsible for generation in some other way than this. This, in fact, will be the next subject for us to investigate, now that it is clear that the semen is not secreted from all the parts of the body. We must begin this investigation and those which Definition are to follow by discovering first of all what semen is ; ° “°""" this will enable us to consider more easily its func- tions and everything connected with it. Now the aim of semen is to be, in its nature, the sort of stuff from which the things that take their rise in the realm @ Bk, IV, chh. 3f. > Of. 721 b 10. 71 ARISTOTLE rad 124 a eA \ , 4 Pap at Cee, od Ta Kara dvow ovviordpeva yiverar mpwrov [od T@ €€ €xeivov T1 elvat TO Tovdy, olov Tod avOpadrrov- ‘ | FG RR re wee : 20 ylyveras yap €k TovTOv, O71 TOOTS €aTt Td oTépual*. es Mr A r ” 96 yy ep t f eet Sé todays yiyverac dAdo é€ GAA ov—€TEpoy yap Tpotov, ws €€ juépas paper vvE yiyverar Kat > 5c mae cy s§ \ 4 aw Se , Ex TaLd0s avip, OTe TOE peTa TOdE* GAAoV. dé Tpd- Tov, ws eK xaAdKob avdpias Kal ex EvAov KAwn, \ > 7 ¢ >? LA / \ / - 25 Kat TaAAa doa ws e& Ans ylyvecBar Ta yryvdpeva Aéyouev, ex Twos evuTdpyovTos Kal oxnpari- 4 ‘ Ld > / 7 - \ / c. : abévros TO GAov eariv. Erepov S€ Tpdmov Ws eK fovotKod apovoos Kal ws e& byvots Kdpvwv, Kal ~ . : 7 f . 4 GAws ws TO evavtiov €k Tod evayTiov. é7t de Tapa Tatra, ws ’Emixappos, moved Thy €mouKod0- > a a ¢ , > i Ao. pnow, ex Tis SvaBoAfjs 7 AowWopia, ex Se ravTns 307) paxn: Tatra dé mavta €K Twos %° apyxt) THs KwHoews, TOV dé TowovTw eviwy pev ev adrois Se ee i eta, 1 seclusi: od 7@ e& exetvou twos, olov ex Tod avOpwov, ore rovrou ti €oTt 76 oméppa: émecd)) S¢ etc. Aldus: alia alii edd. vide et not. Anglice seriptam. | un 2 4 Platt: 7 vulg. ® With this definition, ¢f. 716 a 7 ff., 721 b 6, and Phys. — 190 b 3-5.—At this point in the Greek text there follow some unintelligible phrases which I have omitted from the translation. The version of them given in the ed. princeps — differs considerably from that in the Berlin edition, and they may be fragments of some annotation upon the definition (founded perhaps on some such passage as 765 b 12; 13 (q.v.) or, more probably, on Il. 724 b 2-4, where cf. note and refer- — ence to Physics ; dv@pwzos is there used as an illustration and — there may have been a similar illustration here, which has — been corrupted), Actually any addition to the definition, — as apart from an illustration of it, at this point is inappro- priate, as Aristotle is here giving the simplest and basic definition, from which he builds up his final definition ; this 72 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. xvii. _ of Nature are originally formed.* There are, how- _ ever, numerous senses in which one thing is formed ; or comes into being “ from ”’ another >: (1) as we say 1 “from day comes night,” and ‘ ‘ from boy comes _ man,” meaning that the one comes after the other ; _ (2) as a statue is formed from bronze, or a bedstead from wood, and all those cases where we describe ‘5 as being formed from some material ; here the finished whole has been fashioned into a certain shape from something which was there to begin with; (3) as a person may become uncultured from being cultured or ailing from healthy, 7.e., all cases of a contrary coming from. its contrary; (4) as in a “cumulative ’’ passage in Epicharmus¢: e.g., from slander comes abuse, from abuse a fight; in all _ these cases “‘ from so-and-so’ means that so-and-so is the source of the movement,“ and in some instances is also abundantly clear from the argument which immedi- ately follows. - _ OF. the similar discussion, with some of the same _ examples, on the meaning of “ from ” in Met. 1023 a 26 ff. ; , also a daar icharmus of Sicily (Aristot. Poet. 1448 a 33) was the | chief Dorian comic poet. Aristotle may have in mind a of his similar to that quoted by Athenaeus (ii. 36 c, d), and Suidas, which G. Kaibel (Comicorum Graecorum Frag- menta, I. i. p. 118) prints as follows, with the Doric vowels restored and with the emendations of various scholars : A. &x pev Buacias Boiva, éx S€ Ooivas soars, eyévero. B. xapier, as y (epi (Soxe?). A. ex 3€ mdav0s waxKos, ek pebKou ” évyével?’ davia, €x & davias (Sika. . ., €x dixas SS xara)dixa, ex S€ xatadixas médar te Kal adadds xai Capia. See also A. Lorenz (Leben uw. Schriften des Koers Epicharmos, p. 271). Cf. Aristot. Met. 1023 a 30, 1013 a 10, Rhet: 1365 a 16. 4 i.e., the “* Efficient ’’ or ‘‘ Motive’? Cause: 73 ARISTOTLE iT) 1: 724 a ey 3 A a , , 2 ; : 1. <9 a x gt ecg ees olov Kat ev Tots viv eipnprevors (H€pos yap Te BiaBoryy ras aréons Srey Tapayys eotiv), eviwy 8 €éw, ofov at réxvan Tay On puoupyoupeveny Kat 6 _ dixvos as ats 35 OiKias. ss To dé ore pps dase’ OTe Sibi! es Ba Tépw eoriv" 7 yap ws ee Bs adroo 12 os ek api 724b TOU Kuoavros, €OTL TO YivO_EVOY. ob. yap. 3) abs Tdd€ peta THd¢, olov ex TOv. Ilavabnvaiwy. 6 mods, ovo ws ef evavTiov" POerpopevov TE mabe. yiyveras TO evavtiov €k Tob évavTiov, Kat Erepoy ote Bet broxetabar e€ ob Eorat mpdirov evuTdpxovros. Tov 5 bvoiv 57) Anerréov ev TOTEPP Qergov tO omepia, moTepov ws vAnVY Kal mdcxov 7 ds «ldds TL Kai movody, H Kal dpper. dpa. yap lows dfjAov Earas Kat TAs 77 < evavTiwy yevecis Omdpxer! mdot Tots €k Too oméppiaros’ puouct) yap Kal i éK« TOV evavTiov yeveots” TO. pev yap ef evar ieti yeyeras 10 dppevos Kal Onreos, Ta 8 € €vos povov, olov Ta. | te pura Kal Trev Gdieow Evid, €v Ooows [Ly €ort Suwpioprevov TO SPP Kat To OAAv > xeopis. 14 Z: om. . vulg. ® i.¢., either (2) or (4) above. Of. the discussion on the meaning of piiwtlgts and seed é« twos in Phys. 190 a 5 ff. ‘These contraries are merely attributes of something else, something which has being (odoia), is a concrete existing thing, and. is the * sub- strate *’ : Kal yap TOGOY Kal TroLtoy. . - yiveran dmoKetp évou tuvds(190a35). If wesay thata man “ becomes ” ” cultured * from ” being uncultured, it is “ man ” that persists through- 74 2 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. xvut. this sort the source of the movement is within the things themselves, as in the ones just quoted (where slander is actually one part of the whole ‘0-do) ; in others it is external to them ; e.g., crafts- mans of every kind is external to the works v the’ craftsman produces, and the torch is | f Bcciat to the house which is set on fire. ‘one or other of these two senses*: the onepeiny is formed “from” it either (a) as “ from ” material, or (6) as“ from ” a prime mover (a source of move- 'ment). It is definitely not an instance of (1) above, where “from” means “ after,” e.g., “ from the ' Panathenaean festival comes the sea-voyage”’; nor (3), .e., of coming into being “from ”’ a contrary ; for the one contrary is destroyed as the other comes into being from it, and so there must be present besides them some primary substrate, from which she new contrary is: to come into being.” Thus we now have to discover in which of the two classes "Semen is to be placed : Is it to be regarded as matter, .e., as something which is acted upon, or as a form, |i.e., as something which acts of ‘itself—or even as both ? for perhaps at the same time it will also be 'place in all things that arise from semen. (After ll, formation from contraries as well as the other Sethods of formation is found in nature ; some ani- nals are formed from contraries—male and female, hough some are formed from one parent only, as are jlants and certain of the animals in which there is no ‘definite separation of male and female.) mt the change. Clearly, says Aristotle, this is not the | Meaning of yiyvecfa: required here. 75 ANRISTOFLEOTTS Tae 4b. [P Ovi) pev ody TO amd ‘TOO yewavros: Karetrav amov,” doa ovvdvdlecBau mépue, TO mp@rov éxov apxny yeverews, oméeppia Sé TO €€ duporepaw “ras 15 apxas eXoV Tov owvdvacbévra, lov” 7a TE TO putav Kad evi Coa, ev ois pa) pia ph TO Ondv Kal TO dippev,” warrep TO YUYVOLLEVOY €K OiAcos Kat GPPEVOS, Tp@Tov piypa, olov KUNG. TL Ov i wov"* Kab yap Tatra, 707 € exeu TO €& duporv. Dan Liméppa de Kat Ka,p7ros Sade per TO ee Kab 20 mporepov' Kapm0s yey yap TO e& dM ov elvan, o7éppia. de T@ €K TOUTOV iMo, érret a had ye Travrov’ €oTwW. ratty ‘H dé rod Neyopévou omdpparos diowss yi nek mdAw Aexréa Tis €or. “Avdynn 67) 7é&v,'O av NapBdoeoyrer ev TO ob part, 4 fepos elvat TOV KaTa piow, kat TOOTO 7) 25 TOV dvopovopLepayy 7 TOV dpLovope pv, 7 TOv mapa gvow, olov dopa, 7 Te plrTe|Lo. 7 ovvrny po. i) Tpopny. Adyen dé TepirTwfea Bev TO 77s zpopiis imdAcypa, ovvTnypa dé. 76. dmoKpilev ek TOO" Livy. 12-22 inepta seclusi. ¥e Be 2 amov P: cuit Xs aizov.vulg.., ot ° olov.. . ».appev seclusenat Platt. ih 4 3év Wimmer, sicut ovum =: Cov vulg. ¥ 5 fortasse 706 adrod scribendum. Ses 8 &s yovns addit Z. MrTor 7 é« tobd| éxadorov PSZ. Zhen - * The following paragraphs seem to be an interpolation. They interrupt the argument; further definitions are here inappropriate, and one of those here given is incorrect. Besides, Aristotle does not in the Generation of Animals make the distinction between yov and omépya. These definitions seem to have been put in here because the fol- lowing passage contains some definitions. 76 ° GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. xvun. _ *[Seminal fluid is. the name given to that which comes from the generating parent, in the case of those _ animals whose nature it is to copulate, and it is that "in which a generative principle is first found. Semen peru the name given to that which contains the es derived om both the. parents which have . (254 as in the case of the plants and certain Goirtials in which male and female are not separate, jai oe Best mixture which i is formed from the male from both parents. ~ Semen (eed) and fruit differ by the “prior and ; posterior >”: fruit (is posterior) in that it is.derived from something else, whereas seed {is prior) in that Something else is derived from it, since in fact. they are both one and the same thing. | __ We must-now resume and state what ig the primary nature of semen, as it is called.] __ _ _ Now every substance, whatever it may be, that we find in the body, must of necessity be one of the | following: (1) one of the parts which are there in _ accordance with nature, in which case it will be one of the uniform or non-uniform parts ; (2) one which is there contrary to nature, e.g.,a tumour; (3) re- a due“; (4) colliquescence a, a) nourishment. By _ residue . mean that, which is left over as surplus from the nourishment ; | by colliquescence that which is given off as an ahsceieion’ from the material that |» The meaning of these terms is. discussed in Met, 018 b 9 ff. __ * See Introd. §§ 65 ff. ' # See Introd. § 67: also 725 a 27 ff. and De somno et ig. 456 b 34 ff. * See Introd. § 67. 77 ARISTOTLE iit Am 724 b ) / ¢ A on A 4 Ld « avenparos 70 Tis Tapa vow dvahioews. OTe pev oby odie dv ely [L€pos, pavepov" Oprovojtepes 30 jLev yap cor, ex be ToUTou odfev avyKerat, @oTEp eK vevpou Kal oapKos. ru 8¢ odde Ke- | Xewpiopevor, Ta & adda Tavera pépn. a AAd. py 4 ovde tay" Tapa prow, ovde Ti pwpa* ev dmact TE yap vmdapyel, Kal 7) pvous eK TouTou ylyveran. 4 dé Tpod) pavepas eTTELOaKTOV. aor’ dvd: en) 9 35 owvTnyLa 1 UE TeplTT}La. elvan. ob ev oby apxator : | colkacw oloprevois elvar ovvTny pa 70 yap amd TAVTOS dmrvevat pdvar dud. THY Geppornta tH amo | 725 a THs KWHoEwWs ouvTHypaTos exer Svayw. TO de — awTnyya” tav Tapa dvow tL, €k d€ TAY Tapa vow odfev yiverar Tav Kata dvow, avdyKyn apa Tepirrwpa elvar. aAAd. pay mepirrapd ye Trav 7) 5 dxprjorou tpophs €oTrw 7 xenowns: dxpnorov ev obv Aéyw ad” Hs pynPev Er. ovvredActrat eis THY pow, aN’ dvahoKopevov mA€ovos padora Kom kodrat, Thy dé xpnoiunv THY évayriav. OTL pev 31) Towdrov mepitTwpa ovK av ein, davepdv’ Tots 1 od ray Z: oddé vulg.: correxerunt A.-W. 2 76 8€ otvrnypa S*: ra dé cvvtyypara vulg. @ And therefore would have to be reckoned as one of the uniform parts. > Viz., the non-uniform parts, for the construction of which the uniform parts act as the “ material.” ie | ¢ This may mean that it is not present continuously as such, but has to be “ concocted ” and “ collected ” on each — occasion for which it is required: see 717 b 25. 4 See Introd. § 12 and 737 a 26, n. : * e.g., Hippocrates, 7. yovfs 1 (vii. 470 Littré), where this } statement occurs. Aristotle’ s equation of this view with the | belief that semen is a ovvrnypa is hardly fair, in face of the | context, q.v. Compare, é.g., the statement 7 5é yov7 . 78 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. xvmt. supplies growth, as the result of decomposition pro- ceeding contrary;to nature. Now it is clear that semén cannot possibly be (1) one of the parts ; since although it is uniform,? it does not serve as, the material out of which any other parts ” are composed, as sinew. and flesh do ; nor again is it separate and distinct,’ whereas all the other parts are. Nor (2) is it something contrary to nature, or a deformation,@ a) because it is present in every single individual, and (6) because the natural organism develops out of it. As for (5) nourishment, obviously this is introduced into the body from without. It must therefore be _ either (4) a colliquescence’ or (3) a residue. The early thinkers appear to\ have supposed it was a colliquescence, because to say that it is drawn from the whole body in virtue of the heat which the move- ment produces,’ is equivalent, to saying that the semen is a colliquescence.. But. colliquescence be- longs to the class of things that are contrary to nature, and from such things nothing that is in accordance with nature is ever formed. Therefore the semen must of necessity be a residue. Very well. Every residue results either from useful or from useless nourishment. By “useless nourishment” I mean that which contributes nothing further to the natural organism and which if too much of it is consumed causes very great injury to the organism; “ useful nourishment ” is the opposite of this. It is obvious that semen cannot be a residue resulting from useless nourishment, for while residue of that sort is found in Epxetas amo mavTos Tod Uypod Tod ev TH odiari eovros TO -icxv- porarov amoxpilév- tovrou dé iardpiov Tdd€, Gre amoKpiverau TO toxupétarov, ott emi. Aayvedooper apixpov ovTw ebevtes, dobevees ywopue8a with Aristotle’s own statement at 725 b 6-8. 79 ARISTOTLE fe) : 725 a yap KdK.oTa Brareynevors bv TAuciav 1) vooovs mhetorov evuapxer TowdTov, omrépjua. de HKvora." ‘yap ohus ovK éxovow 7 od ydvutov dud 76 pui- 10 youoGau dxpnorov mepirra.a Kal voonpariKdy. ae Xpyoipov dpa TEpurTéaros Hépos Te €oTl TO o7Trepjia. Xpyoywararor d€ TO €axarov Kal & ob 707, yiverat EKaOTOV TOV Hopiov. éoru yap TO ev ‘TpoTepov To 8 vorepov. Tis Lev odv mparns 15 Tpodijs TEpiTT@pLa. préypa kal et Tt dAdo Towodrov: Kal yap TO preypa Tis. xpnolpou tpobhs meptr- Twud ect: onetov 5 OTe pryvdpevov Tpodh Ka- Gapa tpéper Kal movodo. KatavadioxeTa. TO de teXevtaiov €x mAciorns Tpodiis dAtyvotov.® evvoeiv dé Set dru puxp@ adfaverar Ta CHa Kai Ta dura 20 7@* Kal?’ Auepav: tappiKpod® yap av mpoorWemevov T® abt@® trepéBadre? ro péyeHos. Todvavriov dpa 7) ot apxator éAeyov Aekréov. of pev yap TO amo TOVTOS amd, Tipets dé TO pos day iévat mepuKos ome €povpev, Kal ot pev cvvTnypa, paiverar dé mepitrwya paddov. €d- 25 NoyuiTtepov yap Gpouov elvat TO TpooLoV EaxaToV Kal TO TEpLTTOV. ywopevov TOD ToLOvTOV, Olov Tots ypahedar tod avdpeéAov moAAdKis mrepuyiveTau ee es 1 yooov } eéw Z. 2 evundpye. PZ: dndpxer vulg. 3 yiyvera add. PZ*, 7@ PY: vo vulg. |. 5 qrappuxpod A.-W.: mav- puxpod vulg. : locus hic corruptus. 6 +@ adr Platt: rod adrod vulg. 7 SmepéBadre PY: tzepéBade vulg. : SmepPador Platt. @ See Introd. § 66. > Cf. 728 a 31, n © Cf. 165 b 29 ff. @ Because it is the concocted residue of blood, the ‘* ulti- mate nourishment ” distributed to all the parts of the body. 80 ree nag Oe een ws) Bsa ae. eee GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. xvii. considerable quantities in those who through age or disease are in a very bad state of health, the same is not true of semen ; such persons either have none at all, or if they lrave, it is infertile because of the useless and diseased residue that gets mixed with it. Hence, semen is part of a useful residue ; and the most useful of the residues is that which is produced last, that from which each of the parts of the body is directly formed. I said “last,” for of course some of the residues are produced earlier, some later. Nourishment in its first stage yiélds as its residue phlegma and any other such stuff.* Yes, phlegma too is a residue from the useful nourishment, as is shown by the fact that when it is mixed with pure nourish- ment it nourishes the body,’ and that the body con- sumes it in cases of disease. The residue which comes last, however, is very small in bulk though the nourishment which yields it is very large* ; but we must bear in mind that it requires very little to supply the growth of animals and plants from day to day, since the continual addition of a very small amount to the same thing would make its size excessive. Our own statement therefore must be the opposite of what the early people said. They said the semen is that which was drawn from the whole of the body ; we are going to say the semen is that whose nature _ it is to be distributed to the whole of the body.? And whereas they said it was a colliquescence, we see it is _ more correct to call it a residue. | After all, it is more reasonable to suppose that the surplus residue of the final nourishment which is distributed all over the Semen a ‘** residue.” body resembles that nourishment, just as (to take a - _ common instance) the paint left over on an artist’s 81 = ARISTOTLE a 725 a e Hae Gpovov TH avadwhévrr. avvrnkdpevov S€ Pbeiperar nav Kat e€iorarar THs dvcews. TeKprpiov dé Tod - py obdvTnypa elvat ddAa tepitrwya paddrov, TO 30 7a peydAa Tav Cobwv ddvyoréKa elvat, TA SE piKpa Tmoddyova. avrvTnypya pev yap mA€ov dvayKatov elvar Tots peydAois, mepirrwpa 8° eAartov: els yap TO oGya péya ov avadioxetat Td mAcioTov THs tpopis, war dXdtyov yiverau TO TEpitTwpya. Tt Tom0s auvTiypat. pev ovbels dmodéSoTa: Karta 35 dvow, adda pet omov av ebodijon Tod owparos, 725 b tots d€ Kata Piow mepiTTwmpacr Taow, olov THs tpodis tis Enpas 7 Kdtw Koirla Kal THs dypas 9 KUoTIs Kal THs xpnoiuns 7 dvw KotAla, Kal Tots omeppatiKois’ voTepat Kat aidota Kal pacrot eis rovtous yap a0poilerar Kal ovppe?. Kal papripia 57a ovpPatvovra 6te TO eipnuevov omépya eariv: Tatra d€ ovpPaiver dia 7d tiv ddow elvat Tod TEpiTTwpaTos TovavTnY® 4 Te yap EeKAvois eda- xlotov ameddvros rovtov yiverar émidndos, ws OTEPLOKOMEVA TA GWUATA TOD EK THS Tpopis ywo- puevov teAovs. (dXrlyous 5€é Tiow ev puLKP@ xpdve 10 kata Tas HAcKias Koudiler Tobr’ amudv, dtrav mA¢o- vaon, Kaldarep 7) mpwtyn tpody, av dmrepBadAn TH TAnGe: Kai yap tadrys amiovens TA oupaT €d- S eae ee a 1 trois omepuaticois PSZ: ris omepparixgs vulg. 2 Oru. . . Tovadrny forbisse sectatenda (RW), vel drt 76 onéppa mepittwud €or xxpjoyov scribendum; vertit =X et accidentia quae accidunt testificantur quod sperma est super- fluum quo indigetur ad iuvamentum. * For éfiotacba ris dicews, see 768 a 2, n. » i.e, the large intestine. © 4.e., the small intestine. —_— 2 i ey RS GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. xvn. palette resembles that which he has actually used ; whereas everything that undergoes colliquescence ets destroyed and departs from its proper nature.* fee is a piece of evidence to show that semen is not a colliquescence but a residue: the large animals produce but few young, while the small ones are prolific. Now in the large animals there must of necessity be more colliquescence and. less residue, because most. of the nourishment is used up to maintain the large bulk of their body, so that but little residue is produced. Further, no. place has been assigned by Nature for colliquescence, but it runs about in the body wherever it can find a clear way for itself ; whereas there is a proper place for all the natural residues—e.g-, the lower intestine ? is set apart for the residue from the solid nourishment, the bladder for that from the fluid, the upper intestine ° . for that from the useful nourishment, the uterus, pudenda, and breasts for the seminal residues—they run into these places and collect there. As evidence of the truth of our statement about what semen is we can quote the actual facts, facts which directly re- sult from this residue’s being of the nature described by us. Thus (1) though only a very small quantity of semen be emitted, the exhaustion which follows is quite conspicuous,? which suggests that the body is being deprived of the final product formed out of the nourishment, (There are, 1 know, a few who for a short peridd: during the. heat .of youth derive relief from the emission of the semen when it is super- abundant. The same is true also of nourishment in its first stage, if there is an excessive quantity of it ; * Cf. Hippocrates, 7. yor7s 1 (vii. 470 Littré), quoted in note on 725 a 1. 83 725 b ARTSTOTLEOIMY ASSAYED npepe? pGAdAov. ere Grav ovvarin aGAda TepitTa- para od yap povov omépa TO ii GAAa Kal erepat prepry preva Suvdpers TOUTW" ouvamepxovTat, 15 adrau dé vacddets, 510 eviwy ye Kal dyovev MOTE yiverau TO atroxwpody dia TO ddiyor €, Exe. TO omep parikov. dAAa tots mAcloTos Kal ws emi Td TOAD cizreiv ovpBaiver €k tdv adpodiwacuav exdAvors Kal dduvapia paNAov dua THY elpnpcevny airiav.) eTL ov evuTrapyet oméppia. OUT ev TH morn WAucig 20 ovr” ev TD ype. ovr ev Tals dppworias, ev pev TO Kapvew dia THY advvapiay, ev d€ TO ynpa Sia TO pa méTTEW TO tKaVvOV ry dvaw, véois 8 odat dua mill avenour pbdver yap dvadvoxdpevov av" ev €reou yap eve oxeddv ent ye Ta avOpebrreay " Hpuoy AapPdvew doKel TO capa Tob peyelovs Tob 25 ev T® GAAw xpdove yuyvopEvou dmavros. [loAAois 82 ovpPaiver Kat C@ous Kal porois Kal yéveot pos yevn Siadopa wept Taira Kav TO yévet T® abT@ Tots dpoedéor mpds aAAnAa, olov avOparra mpos avOpwirov Kai apméAw mpos apimedov. Ta pev yap troAvoTeppa ta 8° dAvydomepud €oTL, Ta 30 & doepya mapmrav, od du aobeverav, add’ eviois ye dua* todvartiov: KaravanrioxeTar yap » Or, muscle. 84 a a GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. xvi. the body is more comfortable for having got rid of it. Relief is obtained too when other residues are got rid of in company with the semen: in such cases what is emitted is not merely semen, but there are other substances which come away at the same time mixed up with it, and these are morbid. This explains why at certain times with some persons the emission is infertile : it contains so small an amount of actual epee However, speaking generally for the major- of men, the sequel to sexual intercourse is ex- flasstion and weakness rather than relief, and the cause is as I have described.) Besides (2), semen is absent during childhood, old age, and infirmity ; absent during infirmity on account of the weakness of the body, during old age because the organism does not concoct a sufficient amount *; during child- hood because the body is growing, and the concocted matter is all used up so soon that there is none left over : it is usually held that in about five years human beings, at any rate, grow to one-half of the complete size that they will attain in the rest of their lifetime. In respect of semen we find that with many animals and plants one group differs from another group, and even within one and the same group individuals of the same kind differ from each other, e.g., one man from another, and one grape-vine from another. Some individuals have much semen, some little, some none at all; and this is not due to any bodily weak- ness, but in some cases, at any rate, it is due to the opposite : the available supply gets used up to benefit the body ; as an example of this we have men in sound health putting on rather a lot of flesh® and getting a bit fat: these emit less semen and have less desire for sexual intercourse than is normal. Cf. P.A. 678 a8 . ° Dynamis : see below, b 19. 4 And concocted into semen. Cf. also 725'a 25 ff. e Introd. § 36. ¥ See Introd. §§ 26 ff. This is an im rtant. passage for the meaning of dynamis in this particular connexion, Cf, 727 b 14, and ch. 21. 90 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. xr. bloodless animals _ the .analogous. substance. . And since semen also is a residue from nourishment—from sowrelapest its final form, surely it follows that semen either blood or the analogous substance, or something formed out of these. Now every one of the parts * is formed out of the blood as it becomes concocted and in some way divided up into portions ; * and though semen which has been concocted is by © the time of its secretion from it considerably different in character from blood, yet unconcocted semen, and semen emitted» under strain due to excessively frequent intercourse, has been known in some cases to have a bloodlike appearance when discharged ; and this shows that semen is pretty certainly a residue from that nourishment which is in the form of blood and which,:as being the final form of nourishment, is distributed to.the various parts of the body.? This, of course, is the reason why semen has great potency ° —the loss of it from the system is just as exhausting as the loss of pure healthy blood—and this, too, is why we should expect children to resemble their parents : because there is a resemblance between that which is distributed to the various parts of the body and that which is left over.? Thus, the semen of the hand or of the face or of the whole animal really is hand or face or a whole animal though in. an un- differentiated. way ; in other words, what each of those ‘is in actuality; such the semen is potentially,’ whether in respect of its own proper bulk, or because it has some dynamis 4 within itself (I mention both alternatives because from what we have said so far it is not clear which is the correct one,’ t.e., whether 9 This will be settled seam; the remaining part of the Book ; see especially ch 91 726 b 30 mept ev TovTwY Steupiobes TOV TpOTrOV, Totton: |) ARISTOTLE oda TOO onepparrés €ort 70 altiov THs ideo exer Twa eb Kal apy7v Kuoears “yervyrucy)* ovoe yap, 4 xelp 00d dAdo TeV popicy oddey a avev yuxiis" nH addns. TwWds Sumdpiedis: €a7e xelp ned pdptov obbév, aAXa ‘povov Opmeovupov. He 25 ‘[Pavepor’ d€ Kal Tt daots aprngis yiverat we . | paTiKyn, Kal TodTO TEPTTOUG, €oTW. coupe Jalven d€ ToUTO. 6Tav avaddnrar els TO mpocdder,? aoTrep érav anoméon To evarerpbev* rob Kovidwaros edOds* . TavTOV yap €ort 76 ameMov 7H mpdtw mpoo- teDevtt. Tov avTov TpOTTOV Kab TO TeAevratoy, me- pirrapa TO mpary ovurity part radrév eorw.® rat . "Exei 8 dvaykatov Kai T@ dobeveorépw yiyve- aba Treptrronpia. mAciov Kal Hrrov TETTE[LLEVOV 5 TowbvTov © dv avayKatoy elvar atwatwdous bypo-— tntos Anos, aabevéotepov dé | 7d €AdTTOVOs 1 duyixis PSY. 2 vv. 24-30 secluserunt A.-W., Sus., Platt. © 3 apocdOor Z, mpocedPov vulg.: in primo disedlottur xy all et valde diversa hic: habet. * €varoAadbev YZ: confer to mpoceAfov . . . « brodeupOérre supra, vv. 14, 15. " 5 gore) 70 amreADOv') s « radrov éorw| €ort TO pie 4 (reAevtaiov om. P) mepirtrwpa TH mpcdbrew mepitTepare PSY. * eis. See definition in Met. 1022 b A: oloy evépyerd 71s. TOD ExovTos kal exopevov, aomep mpagis TLS 7 Kivqats: orav ye ) TO pev movf 7d S€ mrovHrat, Eat. Toinots peratd. — i » See Introd. §§ 41 ff. aj es ¢ Aristotle often repeats this in the Generation of Animals and the Parts of Animals; see also Met. 1035 b 24, For dpdvupov, cf. Cat. 1 a 1 dpovupa Aéyerar dv dvopa 92 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. xix. the physical substance of the semen is the cause of generation, or whether it contains some disposition ¢ and some principle of movement which effects gen- eration), since neither.a hand nor any other part of the body whatsoever is a hand or any other part of the body if it lacks Soul? or some other dynamis; it has the same name,° but that is all.¢ _ €{It is clear also that in cases where seminal colliquescence occurs, this too is a residue ; and _this happens when (a fresh secretion) is decomposed into that which preceded it ; just as when a (fresh) layer of plaster spread on a wall immediately drops away, the reason being that the stuff which comes away is identical with that which was applied in the first instance. In just the same way, the final residue is identical with the original colliquescence. Such then are the lines on which we treat that-subject.] _ Now (1) the weaker creature too must of neces- sity produce a residue, greater in amount and less thoroughly concocted ; and (2) this, if such is its character, must of necessity be a volume of bloodlike fluid.’ (3) That which by nature has a smaller share kowdv, 6 S€ Kata Tovvoya Adyos Tis odaias Erepos. In this case, the ovcia required to-be present is Soul (see following note, and reference to De anima given in note on 738 b 26); but itis absent. For cuvdvvpor, see note on 721 a3. _ * Because Soul is the essence of any particular body (or of any eee of it). Cf. 738 b 26 and note there. ~-* This von eae seems to be a continuation of the pre- interpolation, 726 a 25. There are variations in the : Thus, the mss. PSY replace “stuff which ... colliquescence ” by “final residue is the same as the first residue.”” Some of the words seem to echo lines 14 and 15 above. * Semen of course has undergone a further stage of con- ion, and has lost its bloodlike appearance, 93 726 b 727 a 35 ToLoDTOV Eelpyrat mporepov, avaykatov Kal’ ry ev 5 eipn Tat, onpeta TO. ovpBaivovra mepl abrd. Kara 10 yervav, tats 8é Ta Korapeyve. -éru 8€ Kal Ta 15 pous yiyvovtar ai Kabdpoes ws peOvoraperns” eis 20 eAdrrous elvat TOV CWUATWV Tots Oijrcow 7 1 TOU ARISTOTLE ITAA AGO Oeppdrnros Kowevody Kara gvow, 70 8 OAD. bre TO O7ew yevopevny aiparesdn dardkepiow mrepir- Twa evar. yiverau de rowavrn 9 TOV Kadovpeveor Karapnvioy EKKPLOLS. > 10. noe otapl Jt ¥ Yhod "Ort peev ovv €oTl Ta Karapojvea mepirTapia, Kat Ort dvdAoyov ws tois appeow: 1 youn) ouUTw Tots Oijreor TO. Karapnvd, pavepov. déte 8 dp0ds yap 77)V adriy WAuciay Tots ev dppeow dp: eral eyyiveoBau youn Kal diroxpiverau, trois Sé 6 pai. payverat Td. Karapvea Kal perry, TE peraBdn Kal emuonpaiver Ta TEpt TOUS pagrovs. Kal, rav~ eTau Tijs HAuKkias Aqyovons Tois peeve TO) bvvacbau ToLdde onpeta Ort mepirroyd cor adn ay ex Kptots Tots OijAcow, ws yap em To OND ov0? aipoppotdes yivovrat tals yovativ obr” ek Tay purav puous aiparos ore Tu aAXo 27) TOV Karan pnviwy torapevwv: éeav te ovpBH Te TovTwY, xeEl- Tatra tis amoKpicews, ere Se ovTeE pArcBebd opoiws yAaduparrepa Te kal AewdTepa Ta Orie a TOV dppevov €oTt dia TO ovvercpiverbar Thy €ls TabrTa TepitTwoW ev Tots Karapmviors. 76 8 abrd tooTo Set vopiter atriov elvac Kal Tob TOS’ OyKon 15 dppeow ev tots Cwotoxodew' ev Tovrows yap 7 eiorapévns PZ: dvadtcxopévns vulg.” 5 preps, Peck, dAcBwdas vulg. 8 drpiydrepa Z. 04 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IL. xix. of heat is weaker ; and (4) the female answers to this description, as we have said already. From which we conclude that the bloodlike secretion which occurs in the female must of necessity be a residue just as much (as the secretion in the male). Of such a. character is the discharge of what is called the men- strual fluid. — i - Thus much then is evident : the menstrual fluid is a residue, and it is the analogous thing in females to the semen in males. Its behaviour shows that this statement is correct. At the same time of life that semen begins to appear in males and is emitted, the menstrual discharge begins to flow in females, their voice changes and their breasts begin to become conspicuous ; and similarly, in the decline of life the power to generate ceases in males and the menstrual discharge ceases in females. Here are still further indications that this secretion which females produce is a residue. Speaking generally, unless the men- strual discharge is suspended, women are not troubled by haemorrhoids or bleeding from the nose or any other such discharge, and if it happens that they are, then the evacuations fall off in quantity, which sug- gests that the substance secreted is being drawn off to the other discharges. Again, their blood-vessels are not so prominent as those of males ; and females are more neatly made* and smoother than males, because the residue which goes to produce those characteristics in males is in females discharged together with the menstrual fluid. We are bound to hold, in addition, that for the same cause the bulk of the body in female Vivipara is smaller than that of the males, as of course it is only in Vivipara that the 4 Also implying “ hairless,” “ delicate,” ‘ dainty.” 95 “I; ARISTOTLE TAS IAT sian Trav KaTrapynvicoy yiverau puous Ovpale prdvots, Kat Toure emdnAdrara ev rats yovagiv> | mActorny yap adinow dm K pow yor" TOV pur. ~ 8udzrEp emdyrordrws det expov Té eort Kat “BB dbdAeBor, 25 kal THVv €AAeubiv mpos Tods dppevas EXEL TOO ot) paros pavepdy. ‘Erret be Toor” €oTlw 6 yiyverat Tots Ofrcoud' a as 7 yorn Tots appeowy, So ouK evdexerar omep- parucas dpa yiveoba daroKpicets, davepoy ore 78 OnAv ov ovpBaderar oméppa ets Ty yeveow. a pev yap O7ré ppc. HV; KaTapnven’ ovK dv iv: vov 30 dé dua TO TabTa yiyveoOas éxeivo odK CoTW. _ Acért pev ovr, | Gomep TO oTrépua, Kal Ta kara- perjvea. mepirrapd cory, etpy Tau AdBou 8 ay Tus eis TobTo flapripia evi TOv ovpBawovrev ois” Cesous. Ta TE yap mova Hrrov éort omreppariKa Tov darypeduy, @omep elpnta mpdtepov. atrvov 35 3 ore Kal 1) med) TepirTwpa €oTe’ xabdarep TO o7repyia, Kal TETTELEVOV afya, GAN’ od Tov abrov TpoTov TD OTepware. wor evo yus eis THY Tr 727 b pedry dum Awperns THs TEpiTTwBEWS eMetzret Ta mepl THY yovnv, olov Tov Te avaipeoy Ta. paAdxua kal Ta HadacdoTpasa mept THY Know eorw apt- ora. Sud TO dvayia, yap «lvat Kal aa) yivecbas 5 muyLedry € ev abrois, TO dvddoyov avrois TH myrehy dmoxpiverat eis 70 TepirT@pa 70 oTrepparucoy. onpetov 8° ore od ToLwdvTo omreppa aTpoteTat 70 OAAv ofov TO dppev, obde [vyvupevay dpupotv yi- VeTal, WOTTEP Tweés gaow, 6Tt TroAAaKes 70 OAndv ovAapBdver od yevonéevns adri ris ev TH opdia 1 xatrapyva P: 7a Karapyva vulg. 2 trois dAAos PZ. 3 727 a 31-b 6 seel. Sus. 96 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. x:x. _ menstrual discharge flows externally, and most con- _ spicuously of all in women, who discharge a greater - amount than any other female animals. On this _ account it is always very noticeable that the female is pale, and the blood-yessels are not prominent, and there is an obvious deficiency in physique as compared _ with males. | Now it is impossible that any creature,should pro- duce two, seminal secretions at once, and as the secretion in females which answers to semen in males is the menstrual fluid, it obviously follows that the female does not contribute any semen to generation ; for if there were semen, there would be no menstrual fluid ; but as menstrual fluid is in fact formed, there- fore there is no semen. We have said why it is that the menstrual fluid as well as semen is a residue. In support of this, there are a number of facts concerning animals which may be adduced. (1) Fat animals produce less semen than lean ones, as we said before, and the reason is that fat is a residue just as semen is, .e., it is blood that has been concocted, only not in the same way as semen. Hence it is not surprising that when the residue has been consumed to make fat the semen is deficient. Take a parallel from the bloodless animals : Cephalopods and Crustacea are in their finest con- dition at the breeding season. Why? Because, being bloodless, they produce no fat ; hence, what in _ them corresponds to fat is at this period secreted into the seminal residue. (2) Here is an indication that the female does not discharge semen of the same kind as the male, and that the offspring is not formed from a mixture of two semens, as some allege. Very often the female conceives although she has derived E 97 727 b ARISTOTLE) (T/A AR VO ndovijs* Kal yuyvouevns mdAw obdev Arrov, Kal 10 vibe ae [mapa]? Tob appevos Kal 708 7jAeos, ov yevrG,: €av 1) Bu) TOV Kadovpevenv Karapnvia ixpas dmdpxn OMpETpOS. Sid ovte Gdws 1) YUyvopLeven adtay yeuvg 70 OfAv, ove yuyvopevany orav e€ixpaln ws emt 7d modd¥, GAAa peta TIV KdBapow. dre pev yap odk exec tpodiy odd’ 15 vAnv e€ Fs Suvicerar cvorioa to C@ov 7 amo Tod dppevos evuTTdpxovoa ev TH yovh Svvapis, dre dé ouvexxAvlerar dia TO AROS. Otay dé yevo- pévwv aérOn, 76 dbrodedbev cuvicrata. sdoat dé 2) yeyvopevanv TOV Karapnviay avd ap Ba- vovow, 7 peerage yeyvopeveny dorepov § dé py}, atrvov 20 OTe Tais ev TooavTn yiverat ixpas 6 don peTa Thy Kdbapow db7oAcimetas Tats yovijous, mAciwv 8 ov ylyverat tepitrwois wote Kat Odpale azedbetv, tais 6€ peta THY. Kdbapow cupper TO oTdua TOV dorepSv. dtrav obv moAd pev TO ameAndAvbos 7, ert 5é ylyynrar pev Kabapors, 7) Tooadryn Sé Hore 25 ovvetixudlew*® To oréeppa, Tore TANoLalovoa avA- AapBdvovar madw.* ovdev dé dromov ro avvetdAn- dvias ért ylyvecbar Kal yap vorepov péxpt Twos poira Ta KaTapnvia, ddAiya dé Kat od dude Tae 4 seclusit Platt: ro mapa Z. 2 yee A.-W.: yiyverar vulg.: yiyverar Bef. 3 guveétxudlew Z : ebucudlew vulg. 4 zadtw om. PS. @ See above, 726 b 19. ’ This really means ordinary individuals in which the — menstrual discharge takes place. 98 a GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. xix. no pleasure from the act of coitus ; and, on the con- trary side, when the female derives as much pleasure as the male, and they both keep the same pace, the female does not bear—unless there is a proper amount of menstrual liquid (as it is called) present. Thus, the female does not bear (a) if the menstrual fluid is completely absent, (6) if it is present and the dis- charge of moisture is in progress (in most instances) ; but only (c) after the evacuation is over. The reason is that in one case (a) the female has no nourishment, no material, for the dynamis* supplied by the male in the semen to draw upon and so to cause the living creature to take shape from it; in the other case (6) it is washed right away owing to the volume of the menstrual fluid: When, however, (c) the dis- charge is over and most of it has passed off, then what remains begins to take shape as a fetus. There are instances of women who conceive without the occurrence of menstrual discharge ; others conceive during its occurrence but not after it. The reasons are these. The former produce only just so much liquid as remains in fertile individuals ® after the * evacuation is over, and there is no surplus residue to be dischargéd externally ; in the latter, the mouth of the uterus closes up after the evacuation is over. Therefore, when there has been a plentiful discharge - and yet the evacuation still continues, though not so copiously that the discharge of moisture carries the semen away with it, that is the time when if they have intercourse women can conceive again. There is nothing odd about the menstrual fluid’s continuing to flow after conception has taken place ; indeed it actually recurs afterwards up to a point, but it is scanty and does not last throughout gestation. How- 99 727 b 728 a ARISTOTLE | (avs aAAd tobro ev voonparades, Sudzrep ohtyaus Kat dAvyaKis oupBaiver: Ta 8 ws emt ro word yovdpeva 30 paAvora Kara, pvow €oriv. “Ort pev ody ovpPddAcrat 70 OAXdv eis Tih ye- veow Thy dhny, Tobro & éoriv év TH TOV KaTa- pnvioy avotace, Ta d€ Karapjvia repirrwya, d7jAov. XX No olovrat TWES oTrepia. ovpBadrcobae ev 35 TH cvvovoig 7d OAAu Sud TO ywerbae TapamAn- oiay Te xapav eviore avrais Th tev _dppevev Kal apa, bypav doKpiow, ovK €oTW 7, dypacta atrn oTrEppLaTuct) dAAa Tob Témov ios € éxdorats. €oTe yap T@v toTep@v ExKkpiois, Kal Tails pev ylyverat Tais 5 ov. ylyverau pev yap’ Tats AeuKoxpdots Kal OndrvKais ws emi TO TOAD eizetv, od yiverar dé Tals peAaivas Kal appevwrots. to dé TADS, ais yi- 5 yverar, eviore od KaTAa oTéppuaTos TpdEeciv éeoTwW, GAAG 70Ad brepBadrAc. Eri d€ Kal ed€opata erepa 1 yap SZ: om. vulg. « Aristotle’s notion that the menstrual blood is the sub- stance from which the embryo is formed? reigned un- questioned for many centuries. (It appears in the Wisdom of Solomon, vii. 2, “‘ In the womb of a mother was I moulded into flesh in the time of ten months, being compacted in blood of the seed of man and the pleasure that came with sleep.) It can be seen pictured in 16th century obstetrical books such as the De conceptu et generatione hominis of Jacob Rueff (1554). Its falsity was decisively demonstrated by William Harvey, who in his Hxercitationes de generatione animalium (1651) describes his dissections of the uteri of does in King Charles the First’s forests, at different stages after coitus. The expected mass of blood and seed was never found; a source of great perplexity to Haryey himself, since the mammalian egg was not discovered until ; Mags after 100 — GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. xrx.—xx. ever, this is a morbid condition, and that is why it only occurs infrequently and in few subjects. It is what occurs generally that, is most in accord with the course of Nature. By now it is plain that the contribution which the female makes to generation is the matter used therein, that this is to be found in the substance constituting the menstrual fluid,* and finally that the menstrual fluid is a residue, There are some who think that the female con- XX tributes semen ® during coition because women some- times derive pleasure from it comparable to that of the male and also produce a fluid secretion: This fluid, however, is not seminal ; it is peculiar to the part from which it comes in each several individual ; there is a discharge from the uterus, which though it happens in some women does not in others. Speak- ing generally, this happens in fair-skinned women @ who are typically feminine, and not in dark women of a masculine appearance. Where it occurs, this discharge is sometimes on quite a different scale from the semen discharged by the male, and greatly ex- ceeds it in bulk. Furthermore, differences of food his death. We know now that the menstrual bleeding is a phase in the sexual cycle, this phase being usually succeeded by the periodica] liberation of the egg from the ovary, and by its attachment (if fertilized) to the wall of the uterus. > The view that the female also contributed semen was apparently adopted by the Epicureans; see Lucretius iv. 1229 semper enim partus duplici de semine constat; of. 1247, 1257-1258. ¢ This apparently refers to the so-called vaginal discharge, which is a natural secretion (cf. 739 a 37); but the latter sg of the paragraph seems to describe leucorrhoea, which is pathological. The two have apparently been confused. Cf. H.A. 583 a 11. 101 728 a ARISTOTLE OVA SVMS érepwy moved ToAAjy © “Stapopav Too viyveodau: TV ExKplow ) eAdtrw 7 TAciw Ti Tourn, olov évia TOV Spysewy emidSnAov Trove ets aAiOos ry amToKpiow. 10 To dé oupBaivew Borin ¢ €v Th ouvovala. ob ydvov TOO omépuatos mpoieevov eotiv, adAa Kat mvev- jearos, e€ ob ovvearapevou anmoomepparilet. sian S emt tOv maidwv TOV paren Suvapieveny | mpoteoOar eyyds S€ THs MArkias ovrey, Kal tov aydv dvdpav: yiveTau yap maou Tovrous 7iBov7) Eide 15 Kal Tois ye Suehlappevors THY yéveow €oTw ore avadtovras at KotAiar dua TO amoKpivecbar mepit- TwWELA Els THY KotAiav od Suvdpevov agg Kal yeverbar o7épya. ny "Eouce 5€ Kal 77 _ Hopgiy yuvarkt’ mats, ai €oTw i yuv7) aomep dppev. ayovoy: ddvvapia yap TWt TO OAAv €oTl, TO ‘al ddvacbar mérTew. €K Tis 20 Tpodiis onéppa tis tordrns (tobro 8 €otw 7 alfa i TO avdAoyov ev Tots dvaipots) dia ibvypornra. ris dvcews. Warep obv ev rais KotAlats did THY a \ 9 dzrepiay yiveTau Sudppowa, oUTws ev Tais Preypiv at ¢ 7 aAAau aipoppoides Kal uv TOV Karapinvicy prors* Kal. yap arn: aiwoppois €otw, GAN’ éxeivou ani dud 25 vooov, avTy de PvOLKT). “Qote Pavepov 6 OTe evidyws yiverat eK rovrou 7 yéveois. €oTt yap Ta KaTapHvia oTeppa OB Ka- ‘ > ‘ , > , ¢ y “A lan A Bapov adda Sedpuevov epyacias, wamep ev TH TEpt 1 yovaxt Z: yor) Kol vulg. é 2 4 Tay K. pvows Y: af Tav K. vulg. 102 ae a om TT L GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. xx. cause a t difference in the amount of this dis- charge tia is produced : ¢.g.,some pungent foods Sates a noticeable increase in the amount. _ The pleasure which accompanies copulation is due _ to the fact that not only semen but also preuma * is _ emitted : it is from this pneuma as it collects together _ that the emission of the semen results. This is plain in the case of boys who cannot yet emit semen, _ though they are not far from the age for it, and in _ infertile men, because all of them derive pleasure from attrition. Indeed, men whose generative organs have been destroyed sometimes suffer from looseness of the bowels caused residue which cannot be concocted and converted into semen wt secreted into the intestine.- Further, a boy actually eieninles a woman: jin _ physique, and a woman is as it were an infertile male ; the female, in fact, is female on account of inability? of a sort, viz, it lacks the power to concoct semen out of the final state of the nourishment ‘(this is either blood, or its counterpart in bloodless animals) because of the coldness of its nature. Thus, just as lack of concoction produces in the bowels diarrhoea, ‘so in the blood-vessels it produces discharges of blood of various sorts, and especially the menstrual dis- charge (which has to be classed as.a discharge of _blood, though it is a natural discharge, and the rest _are morbid ones). _ Hence, plainly, it is reasonable to hold that genera- ‘tion takes place from this process ; for, as we see, the "menstrual fluid is semen, not. indeed semen in a pure ‘condition, but needing still.to be acted upon» It * See 718 a 4, 738 a 1, etc. aD > Cf. 765 b 9: 103 ARISTOTLE AM 728 a Tovs KapTrovs yeveoet, OTav a pare Pee 2 EveoTe [ev 7 Tpodr}, detrau 8” epyacias mpos 7 30 xdBapow, dio Kal peyvyern exe pev TH yori avtn dé Kabapa Tpoh, 7 peev yea, 2) Se TpE pel. mpetov de Tob To OAAv pun) mpoteobat OTrepp Kal 70 yireobau ev TH opunria TY Bovny. TH agi Kara TOV avrov TOTTOV Tots appeow" Katrou ov Tpotevrat TH ixpudda, TaUraY evredbev. Te e ov 35 7Got yivera Tots OjAeow atrn 7 Exxplors, ¢ Tots aiarucois, Kal ovoe TovToLS. maow, aan’ dowy at dorépae Ha) mpos_ TB broldparé eto BS wo- 728 b ToKobaw, ere 0 ode Tots atua pa} ‘€xovow Gana TO dvdAoyov 6 orrep yap ev €keivois® TO aipa, ev Tov Tos €Tépa Umapyet ovyKpLots. Tod be pre Tovrous | yiyveobau xdbapow pajre TOV aipa €xovrew Tots : etpnpevots, Tois KaTw exovor Kal. 47) WoToKoDaW; atria u] Enporns Tov owparov, dhiyor Nefmovea TO TepirriwLa., Kal Togobrov Goov «is Thy yéveow ieavev _pévov, €Ew Sé 2) mpoteoBat. doa de Leo- TOKA avev WoToKias (rabra So cory dvOpewros kat Tov rerpanddiv 6 doa Kdparre Ta omiabva oneAn év- 10 TOS" TavTG. pev yap maura. Lworoxet a aveu @oroxta rovrois Sé ylyverar pev maou, my el Te memhpw- Or 1 SinOnuévn Bonitz: Sen7rnpéevn Z, A.-W.: Senrnnevy vulg. : cibus hdd imcompletus x cf. indicem Aristot. 9 2 & exeivois Platt: evios vulg. year ote 3 toils KaTw . . . woToKodaw om. Z. ; * éxrés Z}, Platt: ra éxros Y. ; ? Cf. Pol. 1281 b 37 y] TH) xabapa Tpody pera THs KaBapas THY waaay Trove? xpyownmrépav THs dAtyns.—For the two ce Tpopr}, see 744 b 32 ff. Cf. 725 a 17. > Of. 739 b 15. . ° i.e., the extremity of the bent limb is moved towards th 104 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. xx. is the same with fruit when it is forming... The _ nourishment is present right enough,.even before it has been strained off, but it stands in need of being acted upon in order to purify it. That is why when - the former is mixed with the semen, and when the latter is mixed with pure nourishment,* the one effects generation, and the other effects nutrition. An indication that the female emits no semen is actually afforded by the fact that in intercourse the pleasure is produced in the same place as in the male by contact, yet this is not the place from which the liquid is emitted.’ Further, this discharge does not oceur in: all females, but only in those which are blooded, and not in all of them, but only in those whose uterus is not close by the diaphragm and which are not oviparous ; nor again in those which have an analogous .substance. instead of blood (they have another composition which is for them what blood is for the others). Dryness of the body is the cause why neither these animals nor the blooded ones I men- tioned (viz., those whose uterus is low down and which are not oviparous) produce this evacuation; their dryness leaves over but little residue, only enough in fact for generation, not enough to be emitted exter- nally. Take next the animals which are viviparous but not previously oviparous : this means man, and those quadrupeds which bend their hind legs in- wards.° The menstrual discharge occurs in all of _ these ; though if they are deformed 4 in any respect main bulk of the body and not away from it, so that the _ angle of the bent joint points away from the body. “In- _ wards” thus has no reference to ““knock knees.” See J.A. 704 a 19 ff., 711 a 8 ff.; H.A. 498 a 3 ff. ; and my diagram in Parts of Animals (Loeb), p. 433. 4 See Introd: § 12. 105 ARISTOTEE | PAs 440 728 b > ~ / > 4 a Rs 3.5 : TAL Ev TH yeveoet, olov dpeds, od piv emumoAdlovat ye at Kabdpoes worep avOpdrros. Sv akpiBelas dé, mds ovpBaiver Tadra Tept €kacTov Tdav CHwv, yéypanras ev tais rept ra Ca ioropiaus. mAelorn 15 € yiverat Kdbapois TOv Coswv tats yuvarti, Kat Tois appear TmAcioTn Tob oméppatos mpdeos KaTa Adyov Tod peyeBovs. aitwv 8’ 4 Tob awparos avoracis vypa Kal Jeput) odca: dvayKaiov yap €v T@ ToLOvTw yivecOa TAEcioTHY TEpitTwow. Ere Be ovde Ta ToLabr exer ev TO cwpare pepyn cis a 20 TpETMETAL 1. TEpitTwWOLS, WomEp ev Tots GAAois* Od yap €xet ovTe Tpiydv TAHOos Kara TO GGpa, ovre ooT@v Kal Kepdtwv Kal oddvTwY exKpioeis. 9) ~ Lnpetov 8 Gru ev rots KaTapnviors 7d o7épya €oriv' dua yap, worep eipnrar mporepov, Tots ap- peau yiverat TO Treplrrwpa TotTo Kat rots OjXect 257 KaTapHvia emonpaiver ev TH adTH wHAukia,’ ds Kal dpa duoTapévwy tov témav Tov SexTiK@v éxarépov Tod TepiTtT@patos: Kat , dparoupevwy exatépwv T&v mAnciov Torwv eavbel 4 TAS HBys tpixwots. peAAdvrwy dé diulctacbar of TOmoL ayv- ovdovaw b70 TOU mvEevpaTos, TOIs ev Appeow emt- dyAdTepov epi Tovs Opyeis, emLonpaiver’ Se Kai 30 TEpt tovs paatovs, Tois dé OyAcou mepi Tods pa- atovs padAdov-, 6tav yap Svo daktuAovs: apbaat, TOTE yiveTaL TA KaTapHVvia' Tats mAEioTais.* 9» "Ev 6 ev ovv TOv Cwny exdvrTwy' jit) KEe- v ogols [Lev OVV TWY CWIV EX py) xwptorae TO OFAU Kali. Td, dppev, TovToLs) ev TO ahrme 1 yy. 22-32 secl. Sus.0n zed) atin? abies @ See Book II, ch. 8. LAL 819 b 99 fF: 106 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. xx. in their formation, as, e.g., the mule,* the evacuation is not as obvious as it is in human beings. An exact account of this matter, as it concerns every sort of animal, is to be found in the Researches upon Animals.” A larger amount of evacuation is produced by women than by any other animal, and a larger amount of semen in proportion to their size is emitted by men ; the_reason being that the composition of the human body is fluid and warm, and that is just the sort of erganism which of necessity produces the greatest amount of residue ; further, the human body does not possess the sort of parts to which the residue gets diverted, as other animals-do: it has no great coat of hair all over the body,° and no secretions in the form of bones, horns and tusks. ' Here is an indication that the semen resides in the menstrual discharge. As I said before, this residue is formed in males at the same time of life as the menstrual discharge becomes noticeable in females ; which suggests that the places which are the recep- tacles of these residues also become differentiated at the same time in each sex ;_ and as the neighbouring places in each sex become less firm in their con- sistency, the pubic hair grows up too. Just before these places receive their differentiation, they are swelled up by the pneuma: in males, this is clearer in regard to the testes, but it is also to be noticed in the breasts ; whereas in females it is clearer in the breasts: it is when the breasts have risen a couple fof fingers’ breadth that the menstrual discharge begins in most women. Now in those living creatures where male and female are not separate, the semen (seed) is as it © Or, in proportion 'to the size of the body. 107 728 b 729 a ARISTOTLE)! 1? ff AAD o7répj.at olov Kednpd corw. eyo be. Kono TO 35 mp@rov jetypia” OnjAeos” Kal dppevos. Bud Kal. €& évos _oTrépparos ev oda yiverar, ofov’ e€? évos mupod els mb ui, womep Ge €vds @od ev Cov (ra yap didvupa TOV wOv do od cori). év daots be Tov yevOv Sidsprorat 76 OfAv Kai 76 hs ev rov- TOUS ag’ €vos oT epyaros. EvoexXETAL 70 yiveoBa ta, ws Svadépovros Th pvoe Too ome pa TOS ev Tots utois TE Kal Seo, onpetov dé, and as 5 yap dxelas mela yiverat ev Tots Theiw _ Suvapevors yevvay eves. a Kal dijrov 67u ovK dd ; mavTos” epxerau y) you" ovTE yap dy KEXWpLOpevaL amo Tob avdrod Hépous evOds arexpivero, ovre apa. eAbovra ets Tas voTépas exe? Seywpileror dAAa oupBaiver 10 Wo7rep evAoyov, ered) TO pLev dppev mrapéxerat TO Te eldos Kat Thy apxynyv Tis KUMEWS, To b€ OAAv TO odpa Kal wi ohny, ofov ev TH 708 ydAaKros meu TO jeev copa TO yaa eorty, 6 3 omds 7H 7" mutta, TO THY apy eXov THY ovvioTaoay, ovT@ TO amo rob appevos ev TH Ore pepelopevor. 8C 15 iy 8 airiav pepilerau e0a pev eis Trcion 0a & aie eis €Adtrw évba S€ povaxdas, ETEpOS €oTat diese GAAd Sua 76 pnblev ye diaddpew ro elder, GAN’ edv ed 1 é« add. PSY; om, vulg., Z*. s et YZ*, oo vulg SevZ: ev 8¢ vulg..: év 8) Y. GST 4 4 Platt, Btf. : 3 Lai 4 vulg. lang Sat @ See Introd. §§ 56 ff. > Cf..123 b 10, 198 agt ¢ Cf. above, 722 'b'28, 723 b 14. i 4 The ‘ Formal” Cause, and the “‘ Motive” ( if Efficient ’ * Cause, i.é., sentient Soul, ¢ The “ Material’ Cause... See Introd. Sl f,. With thi passage cf. Met. 1044 a 34 avOpeirou ris aitia ws wh pat katapnvia;\7i 8 ds Kwodv; dpa To o7éppa; , 108 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, lI. xx. “were a fetation.* (By fetation I mean the, primary “mixture. of male and female.) This explains inci- dentally why one body only is formed from one ‘seed—e. g., one stalk from one grain of corn, just like one animal from one egg (double-yolked eggs of course count as two eggs). In those groups, however, where male and female are distinct, many animals may be formed from one semen, which suggests that the nature of semen in animals differs from that in plants.’ We have as a proof of this those animals which are able to produce more offspring than one at a time, where more than one are formed as the result of one act of coitus. This shows also that the semen is not drawn from the whole body; because we eannot suppose (a) that at the moment of discharge’ it contains a number of separate portions from one and the same part of the body ; nor (6) that these Bertions all enter the uterus dogether and separate emselves out when they have got there.‘ No; what happens is what one would expect to happen. The male provides the “ form” and the “ principle of the movement,” ? the female provides the body, in other words, the material.¢ Compare the coagula- tion of milk. Here, the milk is the body, and the fig-juice or the rennet contains the principle which causes it to set.’ The semen of the male acts in the same way as it gets divided up into portions within the female. (Another part of the. treatise? will explain the Cause why in some cases it gets divided into many portions; in others into few, while in others it is not divided up at all.) But as this semen which gets divided up exhibits no difference in kind, all that f Of. 739 b 23. ¢77i1b 14 ff. 109 ARISTOTLENTASHKO | 729 a ‘Wes. povov ovppeTpov 7h’ To Svarpoujrevov mpos THY vANV, Kal _ Majre édarrov aore pn mértew pnde ovv- voTdvat, pajre mAeiov wore &npavar, mAciad ovTW 20 yervarat. ex 8¢ rob ovviaTavros ‘Tpostov, ef sit non ev yiverat [Lovov. “Ore pev obv TO OAAv els TIHV yéveow yoviyy ey ob oup Barrera, ovpBadrer ar d¢ Tl, Kat Toor” eoriy a Tav Karapavicy avoraats Ka TO avar ov ev tots avaipous, éx Te TOV elpnuevwy Sidov. kal Kara TOV Adyov KxaBorov OKOTOULEVOLS. a | 25 yap elvae TO yerv@v Kal (ro) e& e€ 0b, Kal Tad 2 ay Kat év 7, TO ye eidev Suadepew Kal T@ TOV Adyov abtay elva Erepov, ev 8é Tois Kexwpropevas éxover Tas Suvdpets Kal Ta Cwpara Kat Ty dvow érépav elvan Too Te TrovobvTos Kat Tob TAOXOVTOS. el ovv TO dppev eorly ws woody Kat Trowoby, 7 Se OAAv, 30 oR bAXv,* as TabnriKov, els THY TOU dppevos youn TO Ondy a dv avpBdAdoitro od youny aA’ vAny.. Orep Kal paiverar oupBaivov: Kara yap THY TpaTny BAnv* eotiv 7) TOV KaTapnviwy dvais. t <76> Rackham. Ty one 2 radr7’ Peck: rod7’ vulg. i wel sin Bijdv fort. secl. (ex 729 b 12 insertum 2). Kava . . . vAnr] } yap mpwrn VAn Z. * Cf. 772 a 12. > In one individual. ° j.¢., specifically, in ‘* form.” 4 See Introd. § 10. ¢ At Met. 1015 a 8 (cf. 1014 b 27) Aristotle speaks of “‘ prime matter ” in two senses: ¢@.g., in the case of bronze articles (a) the prime matter relatively to them is bronze, bu (b) generally it is water (because all things that can be melted according to Aristotle, consist of water). And “ prime matter” is one of the meanings of pvous, both according t Met. (loc, cit.) and Phys, 193 a 28: “ one meaning of $y is 7 mpwrn éxdoTrw broKxeméevn DAN TaV exdvTwv ev adrois ap 110 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. xx. is required.in order to produce numerous offspring is that there should be the right amount of it to suit i 4 the material, available—neither so little that it fails to concoct it or even to set it, nor so much that it dries it'up.* If on the other hand this semen which causes) the: original setting remains single and un- divided,. ‘then one single offspring, (only is formed from it. The foregoing discussion will’ bave page it clear that the female, though it does not contribute any semen to generation, yet contributes something, viz., the substance’ constituting the menstrual fluid (or the corresponding | substance in bloodless animals), But e same is apparent if we consider the matter gener- ally, from the theoretical standpoint. Thus: there must be that which generates, and that out of which ppeeerstany and even if these two be united. in one,” at any rate they must differ in kind,’ and in: that the logos? of each of them is distinct. In those animals in which these two faculties are separate, the body—that is to say the physical nature—of the active partner‘and of the passive must be different. Thus, if the male is the active partner, the one which ig eens the movement, and the female qua female € passive one, surely what the female contributes to the semen of the male will be not ‘semen but material. And ‘this is in fact what *we find happen ing; forthe natural substance of the menstrual fluid is to be classed as‘‘‘ prime matter.’’ ¢ €ws Kai weraBoAjs.”” In its lowest phase, “‘ prime matter” SA which, united with the prime contrarieties (hot, cold, solid, fluid), produces the “elements”? Earth, Air, Fire, Water; but, as the term “prime ” itself suggests, ‘* matter ” is altogether a relative conception, and in its ‘highest phase matter is one and the same as “ form ” (Met. 1045 b 18). 111 ARISTOTLE (¢) 049 729 a : xx1I Kai rept pev Tovtwv Suvpicbw Tov agai Too- 35 Tov. dpa 8 €x rodtwv havepov, Trepl dv eXOnEvOy 729b = €or emvoxeyiagtat, 7@S TOTE oupBddrerar « els Thy yeveow TO appev, Kal THs aitiov €oT. TOD ywo- pévov TO OT€ppLa TO amo TOD Appevos, TOTEPOV ws evuTrdpyov Kat pdpiov dv ebOds Tod yivopevov aw- patos, puyvipevov TH vAn TH mapa Tod OyAeos, 7 570 pev cpa odfev Kowwvel Tod omépparos, 4 8 ev ait@ Svvayuis Kal Kivnois: ad7n pev yap €otw 7 rrowdou, TO dé ovvicrdpevov Kal Aap Bavov Thy popdny TO TOU ev TH OjAee TEpUTT@paTOS ‘Aouzrov, KaTad Te 51) TOV Ayo ovTw haiveTar Kat emt THY épywv. Kaldodrov te yap é€moKxototow od paiverat 10 yuyvopevov €v €x Tob TabytiKob Kal Tob movobvTos ws evuTdpxovTos ev TH ywopéevw Tod ToLodvTos, ovo ddAws 87) €K TOO Kiwovpéevov Kal KwWodvTOS. GMa py td ye OAAv, H OAAv, taOnTidv, 7d 8 Gppev,’ 7) appev, mountixov Kal Olev 7 apxt Tis kwiocws. ‘wore dv AndbH Ta dxpa Exatépwv, F 15 TO pev TrountiKov Kal Kwodv, TO d€ mabyTiKOY Kal KWOULLEVOV, OUK EaTW Ek TOUTWY TO yLyVOLEVOV. EV, GAN’ 7) ovTws ws ex Tot TéKTovos Kai EvAov 7 Kvn, 7) Os ek Tob KNpod Kal Tod «idous 4 opaipa. ShAov dpa dtu ovr avayKn amevat Tt * Aristotle now comes to grips with deciding yes the alternatives stated at 726 b 18 ff. > 4.e., that portion of the menstrual fluid) which i is not dis charged externally. ¢ Cf. 116 a 27 ff. 112 7 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. xxt. These then are the lines upon, which that subject it should be treated. “And what we have said indicates gencrstion. piso Se i time how wwe are to answer the : ch we next have to considex, viz., how iti is that nay male makes its contribution to genera- tion, and how the semen produced by the male is the cause of the offspring ; that is to say, Is the semen inside the offspring to start with, from the outset a _ part of the body which is formed, and mingling with _ the material provided by the female ; ; or does the _ physical part of the semen have 'no share nor lot in the business, only the dynamis and movement contained in it? %» This, anyway, is the active and efficient ingredient ; whereas the ingredient which: gets set _ and given shape is the remnant? of the residue in the female animal.. The second suggestion is clearly the _ right one, as_is shown both by reasoning and by _ observed fact. (a) If we consider the matter on } general grounds, we see that when some one thing is formed from the conjunction of ‘an active partner _ with a passive one, the active partner is not situated _ within the thing which is being formed ; and we may _ generalize this ‘still further by substituting ““mov- ‘and “moved” for “active? and “ passive.” Now of course the female, gua female,‘ is passive, and _ the male, qua male, is active—it is that whence the _ principle of movement comes. Taking, then, the widest formulation of each of these two opposites, '_viz., regarding the male qua active and causing move- ment, and the female qua passive and being set in _ movement, we see that the one thing which is formed __ is formed from them only in the sense in which a bed- _ stead is formed from the carpenter and-the wood, or _ a ball from the wax and'the form. It is plain, then, 113 729 b 730 a ARISTOTLE)! 7/310 4.0 amo rob dippevos ovr" el Tt amépxerat; Sid robo 20 €K TovTou ws evuTdpxovTos TO yeyvopevev €or, GAN’ as ek Kwi}oayTos Kal TOO €tdous, ds Kal’ dard THS tar puns 6 dyvacbets. ovpBalver a Sporoyos- peva TQ Aoyw Kal ext trav épywv. Sid todro ya, Evia, Trav appévwv Kal ovrdvalopevan Tots Bioe ovoe Hopiov odbev patverat mpote eva. cis TO Ov, 25 dAAd TovvayTiov TO OAjAv els 78 Gppev, 6 ovpBaiver eviois TOV eVTOHOV. 6 yap Tots mpolepevors an- epyalera TO oméppa ev TO O7jAev, rodTous® 7 €v T® CLdw atT@ Depporns® Kal dvvapus dmepyaerat, 4 / , i. peta Taba dxevnTar, prjmw pretaBeBAnKoros Tov - if ~ ~ , Wod €k TOD Wxpov GAov eivat eis TO AcvKaiveoBau, , / > A ¢ 7 77 c > c..— yoviysa yiverat avril dayvepiwv: edv te Bh Erépov > / 1 \» > Pe WE er , @yYevpevyn (7})' Kal €rt Wypod OvTos, KaTa TOV VoTEpoV dyevoarvtTa TO yévos atoBaiver Tay TO TV veoTTOV. 10 510 vor TodTov Tov TpdTOv TV Tepi Tas dpvilas A / / ~ 4 Tas yevvaias omovdalovtwv movoda., weraPaAdovres Ta mpO@ta oxeia Kal Ta VoTEpa, Ws od ovppeyvd- \ > / 50° > ‘A a 2rA6 A peevov Kal évurrdpyov, od” amd mavrds €AOdov To / > > > a A a“ vO a J t 0 oméppa: am apdoiv yap av iAdev, war elyev av A b) A 7, > A ~ 4 A ~ »” dis tadra pepy. aAAa TH Suvdper TO TOD appevos 15 / \ > ~ 6 aN DX A dn if onépua thy ev TO Onder vAnv Kat Tpodjy Tovdy Twa KaTaoKkevaler. Tobto yap evdéyerar mrovetv TO Borepov éemevoeAOov ex Tod Oepydvar Kai rrépar* / A A \ + ea a an“ > 4 AapBaver yap tpodiy To wov ews av ad&avnras. ~ 4 To & atro cupBaiver Kal rept thy tev ixQdiwv yéeveoty THY @oToKOUpLevwv. STav yap amoTEeKY \ » Mes" ¢€ a] sr. ¢ »v > / A 0. tA P 2074 wa 7 Ordreva, 6 appv emippaiver Tov Bopov: \ e A n”~ > , , ~ , A Kal @v pev av edarynrar, yovuia Tadra yiwerat Ta ‘ wa, @v & dv pH, dyova, ws ovK €is TO TOGO a ~ > > > avpBadropevov tots Caos tod dppevos, add’ - eis TO TrOLV. . 7 \ Ss AS 2 > A x > , \ "Ort pév obv ovr? amd mavrTos amépyeTar TO 25 omé€pya Tots mpoiewevors omépua TOV Cwwv, ovTE 1 Peck. @ See below, 757 b 2 f. 116 evil > GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. xxt. we said happened with those insects where the female inserts a part into the male). Here is the evidence. Supposing a hen bird is in process of pro- ducing wind-eggs, and then that she is trodden by the cock while the egg is still completely yellow and has not yet started to whiten : the result is that the eggs are not wind-eggs but fertile ones. And supposing the hen has been trodden by another cock while the egg is still yellow,? then the whole brood of chickens when hatched out takes after the second cock. Some breeders who specialize in first-class strains act upon this, and change the cock for the second treading. The implication is (a) that the semen is not situated inside the egg and mixed up with it, and (6) that it is not drawn from the whole of the body of the male : if it were in this case, it would be drawn from both males, so the offspring would have every part twice over. No; the semen of the male acts otherwise ; in virtue of the dynamis which it contains it causes the material and nourishment in the female to take on a particular character ; and this can be done by that semen which is introduced at a later stage, working through heating and concoction, since the egg takes in nourishment so long as it is growing. The same thing occurs in the generation of ovi- parous fishes. When the female fish has laid her eggs, the male sprinkles his milt over them’; the eggs which it touches become fertile, but the others are infertile, which seems to imply that the contribution which the male makes to the young has to do not with bulk but with specifie character. What has been said makes it clear that, in the case of animals which emit semen, the semen is not drawn from the whole of the body, and also that in genera- 117 ARISTOTLE PAD 730 a \ i : \ \ / mu : / : a. To OAAv poser yevEOWw Maat oupPéderar: rots ouvioTaperots ws TO appev, aAAa TO pev aippev apxnv Keagews, TO O€ Onde THY dAqy, Soy. eK Tov eipnuévwv. dia yap tobro ovr’ atro Kal? aito yea to Ondv, Setrae yap apxiis ‘Kal Tod 30 i fed ood Kal Siapiobyros (aAx° éviois. ye TaV Caiwv, ofov Tots Opviot, EXPL TWOS 7 dvous Svvarat yevvav’ atta, yap ovviotao.u pev, atedy, 8é ow- aot « ‘ , ¢ , 7 ¢ ‘ XXII tordou Ta KaAovpeva d7yvepia Wa), 7} TE yEeveots ev TO Bynes oupPaiver TOV piopeneay, GAN’ odK eis TO dppev ovr adTo TO" dppev mpoterar THY Yorn 35 OUTE TO Pade, GAN’ dppes ets TO OAV oupBddrovrat 730b TO Tap adT@v yuyvopevov, dia,Td ev TH Onder etvar THv vAnv e€ Fs €ort TO SyHucovpyovpevov. Kat ed0ds tiv pev aOpoov brapyew avayKaiov €€ Hs ouviorarat TO KUnUa TO Tp@Tov, THv O Emt- , > \2 Eo La 7 > 1¢ / ‘ 4 3 yiveobar aev® ris dAns, tv’ ab&dvnrat TO KvOvpEVOV. Ld > > / > ~ /; € a ‘ A 5 wor avayKn ev TO Onder dadpyew Tov Té6KOV" Kat yap mpos TO EvAw 6 TéKTWY Kal Tpds TO THAD 6 Kepapevs, Kal dAws mAoa. 7) epyacia Kal 4 Kivnows % eaxdTn mpos TH vAy, olov 7% oiKoddpunots ev ToIs > / / > * > v4 \ oikodopoupevois. AdBor 8 av tis €k ToUTWY Kal A »” ~ / \_» \ SS, > A TO appev TAs ovpPddreTar mpos THY yEeveaw~ ovdE 10 yap. TO Gppev admav mpolerat omepua, doa Te : dppev ovr’ atv 76 Buss.- Platt (al odk ard ro Z): dpper oir’ ab vo vulg. ( ov7” Sus.). det SY : de? vulg. 3 xvovpevov SZ: xudpevov vulg. « This is explained in the passage which follows (730 b 15 ff.). 118 == GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. xx1.—xxn. tion the contribution which the female makes to the embryos when they are being.“ set ’’ and constituted is on different lines from that of the male; in other words, the male contributes the principle of move- ment ® and the female contributes the material. This is why (a) on the one hand the female does not gener- ate on its own: it needs some source or principle to supply the material with movement and to determine its character (though in some (female) animals, as in birds, Nature can generate up to a point : the females _ of these species. ¢ do actually “set” a fetation, but what they “set ” is imperfect, viz., what are known as wind-eggs) ; (6) on the other hand, the formation XXII of the young does in fact take place in the female, whereas neither the male himself nor the female emits semen into the male, but they both deposit _ together what they have to contribute in the female _ it is because that is where the material is out of _ which the creature that is being fashioned is made. And as regards this material, a good quantity of it x must of necessity be available immediately, out of _which the fetation is “‘ set” and constituted in the first place, and after that fresh supplies of it must be continually arriving to make its growth possible. _Henée, of necessity, it is in the female that parturi- _ tion takes place. After all, the carpenter is close by his timber, and the potter close by his clay ; and to put it in general terms, the working or treatment of any material, and the ultimate movement? which _acts upon it, is in all cases close by the material, e:g., the location of the activity of house-building is in the houses which are being built. These instances may help us to understand how the male makes its con- tribution to generation; for not every male emits 119 Ee ee Le Se —<—- Ce LP » ee 730 b 15 20 25 30 XXIII ARISTOTEE VOLT ANMY: mpoterat TOV appévwv, ‘ob8ey pidpiov Tobr’ é€otl TOO | yryvopévov KUNHATOS, womep odd amd rob TEKTOVOS _mpos 7p TOV Edw ohn our’ dmépxerat ovfev ovre Hoptov ovdey eoTw ev. 78. yeyvopLerys THS TEKTOVUKTS, aAn’ u) Hop) Kat TO. eldos an excelvou eyyivera dua THS KWIGEWS ev Th DAg,, Kat n pe pox ev 7) TO eldos Kal 1) emor nya Kwovat Tas. xetipas n Tt _pepiov ETEpov Towdy Twa. ivgow, éTépav pep ag’ dv 70 yeyvopevov €rEpov, Thy abriy d¢ ad’ dv ro adbré, at be xetpes ra opyava ta 8 opyava Thy OXnv. dpotens dé Kal 7) puois® Oo dppeve TOV oméppa mpolepeveny Xpirae TO ‘onéppare ws opydvep Kal €xovrs Kivow evepyeta,. aoTep ray Tots Kara TEXunY yeropevous Ta Opyava, KuwetTaL ev €KElvols yap TwWS 7 KiVyoS THs -TéEXVNS.) Coa pev ovv mpoterau oTrepyas ovpBdrrerae Tobrov TOV TpoTrov eis THY yeveow" 6 doa de pa TpoteTau OmrEeppia., aan’ evaginar TO One eis TO dppev TOV abrod Tt i pLopiov, Gpowov EOLKE Trovodyrt @omep av et zy BAnv Kopioere TUS mpos Tov Snpuoupyov. be do- Oévevay yap TOV TowovTwy appevwv ovbev. bv éTépwy ola TE movelv uy) Pvous,, ada, pors avris mpoo- edpevotons laxyvovow at KwHoes, Kal €ouKe Tois mharrovow, od tots TEKTOLVOMEVOLS od yap je ETEépov Oyydvovea Snpuoupyet TO curnrrpeniits GAN’ abr?) tots abrijs jeopious. : { "Ev pev ‘odv rots Cahou wot Tots mropevtiKors 5 1 sic Z: at dé yxeipes Kat Ta opyava THY faqy vulg. . 2 dvaus Z: dios 7 vulg. iL «Of. P.A. 639 b 16-—641 a 14. ve 120 \ GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. xxm.—xxm. -semen, and in the case of those which do, this semen is not.a part. of the fetation as it develops. In the same way, nothing passes from the carpenter into the pieces timber, which are Ais material, and there is no part of the art of carpentry present in the object which is being fashioned ; it is the shape and the form which pass from the carpenter, and they come into being by means of the movement in the material. It is his soul, wherein is the “‘ form,” and his knowledge, which cause his hands (or some other part of his body) to move in a particular way (different: ways for differ- ent products, and always the same way for any one - Se ‘ product) his hands move his tools and his tools move material.¢ In a similar way to this, Nature acting in the male of semen-emitting animals uses the semen as a tool, as something that has movement in actu- ality ; just as when objects are being produced by any art the tools are’ in movement, because the movement which belongs to the art is, in a way, _ situated in them. Males, then; that emit semen _ contribute to generation in the manner described. Those which emit no semen, males into which the female inserts one of its parts, may be compared to a craftsman who has his material brought to him. Males of this sort are so weak that Nature is unable __ to accomplish anything at all through intermediaries : _ indeed, their movements are only just strong enough _ when Nature herself sits watching over the business; the result is that here Nature resembles a modeller _ in clay rather than a carpenter; she does not rely “upon contact exerted at second hand when fashioning the object which is being given shape, but uses the parts of her own very self to handle it. In all animals which can’ move about, male and XXIII 121 Conclusion. whe , ARISTOTLE ViOiT ASEM 730 b KEYWpLoTaL TO Orv Tob dppevos, sida) dir. €repov 35 C@ov O7Av Kal erépov appev, TO be elden TavTor, 731a —otov avOpwros 7] 7 tars" dppdrepa* é ev be ots purots jepeypevat abdrar at Suvdprets eiot, Kai ob KeXe~ prorat TO Orv To8 dppevos. 510 kal YE. aire, e€ abdtav, kal Tpoterat ob youny GAAa KUnA Ta Kadodpeva oméppara. Kat TovTO eaten Adyet 5 SBE ODIs Townoas ouTw O° @otoKel pakpa Sesipedan pci Doidaid iM, TO TE yap. ov Kon pd €oTt, Kal &k Twos: abrod ylyverar TO ‘Gov, TO be Aourrov Tpody},, Kal Tob oméppatos €k* Hépous ylyvera TO pudpevor, TO Aowrov* Tpodi) ylyverau TO Praore i TH ply 10 7H TPT]. TpOTrov dé Twa, TavTa® atver Kal €v Tois KeXwpiapevov EXOVGL Sous TO Shite Kal TO dipper. orev yap denon yevvay, yiver au axepuoroy, aomep ev Tots dutois, Kat Bowrerau 7 7 dvors adtayv €v yivecbau 6 omep eudaiverar KaTa THY Oxy pLyvE- pévwv Kal owvdvalopevan [ev te C@ov ge e€ dudoir |.* 15. Kal ra pev HA) mpoigweva. orp moNby xpdvov oven ea mreduKev, Ews av jovornon TO Konia, olov Ta ovrdvaldpeva Tov evTopv® ra 8, ews dav darorrépuly Te Tay emeradKk Tov avrod _Hopiov, x ovoTroet 70 Kenpo ev mAciove xpove, olov éml T@v evaiuwv. Td pev yap Ajrépas Te udpiov auvéexeTar, * ip immos LE: om. vulg.. 2 A.-W,:,70d PSY: Kal ex rob vulg. 3 é« A.-W., Diels: eK (non kat) Z*: Kal €« vulg. . 4 & aire addit Z. 5 ravra Y: tatro A.-W.: radra vulg. - § secl. Rackham. * Empedocles, fr. 79 (Diels). 122 ‘GENERATION (OF ANIMALS, I. xx. le are separate; one animal is male and another emale, though they are identical in species, just as men and women are both human beings, and stallion nd mare are’ both horses. __ In plants, however, these culties are mingled together; the female is not parate from the male ; and that is why they gener- ate out of themselves, ee produce not semen but a fétation—what we.call their “.seeds.’”” _Empedocles uts this well in his poem, when he says %: BR; So the great trees lay eggs; the olives first . because. just as, the egg is a fetation from part. of which | » the creature. is formed while the remainder ae DORIS NEE, so from part of the seed is formed the | lant, ‘while the remainder is nourishment for the shoot and the first root. And in a sort of way ‘thé same happens even in those animals where male _and female are separate ; for when they have need )to,generate they cease to be separate and are united as they are in plants ; their nature desires that they “ame become one. And this is plain to see when they are uni and copulating [that one animal is pected out of the two of them]. > The natural practice of those\animals which emit mo semen is to remain united for a long time, until mpoé-— preva" 8é TO ToLodrov dmoderar. Kal arexvas Eouce 7a la dorep dura elvar Svaiperd, ofov et tis Kakeiva, OTe oméppa efeveyKerev, Siaddcere Kal Xwpicerev eis TO evuTTapxov OFA Kal. dppev. ; Kat ratra mdvra edaAdyws 4 dvdous Snuoupyet. 25 THs pev yap TOv dut@v ovoeias odfev eatw aAdro- Epyov ovde mpa&is oddeula mAnv 7% TOD omépparos yeveots, WoT ere TodTO did Tod OxAcos Perel Kat Tod dppevos ovvdedvacpevwy, pigaca ne Si€OnKe pret? adAjAwv- 810 ev Tois dutois axdpr- otov TO Ofdv Kal TO dppev. GAAA epi pev duTav 30 ev étépois eméokemTaL, ToD Sé Cov ov povov TO yevvyjoa. epyov (Tobro pev yap Kowov Tov Cwovtwv mdvTwv), dAAd Kal yrwoews Twos TAVTA fLeTEXOVOL, Ta pev TAciovos, Ta 8 eAdTTOVos, TA Sé TMaprav pukpas. aticbnow yap Eéxovow, 7 8 aicbnas yr@ois tis. tTavrns d€ TO Tiwwov Kal adTYyLov TOAD 35 Suaddper axotrotar pos Ppdvnow Kal mpos TO TH axbdywv yévos. mpos pev yap 76 dpoveiv worrep ovdev eivat Soxel TO Kowwveiv ads Kal yedoews udvov, mpos dé dvaobyotav® BéArvoTov: ayamnrov yap av ddfece Kat tavrns Tvyeiv THs yvwoew GAAa pn Ketcbar TeOveds Kal px ov.. Siadéper & 1 zpoéueva coniecit Platt: zpoigueva vulg. 2 dvarobnaiav| durdv 7 ABov Z, unde durod 7 Aiov addunt A.-W.3 pro mpos . . . BéArvorov inter ergo istud animal et ne est differentia mirabilis X (@avpdovov pro BéAtvorov Z*). @ Cf. above, 717 a 20. 124 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, I. xxi. for a fair part of a day ; whereas semen takes several days to “ set ” fetations, and when the creatures have emitted this they free themselves. Indeed, animals seem to be just like divided plants: as though you were to pull a plant to pieces when it was bearing its ‘seed and separate it into the male and female present in it. _ Inall her workmanship herein Nature acts in every particular as reason would expect. A plant, in its essence, has no function or activity to perform other than the production of its seed”; and since this is roduced as the result of the union of male with female, Nature has mixed the two and placed them together, so that in plants male and female are not separate. Plants, however, have been dealt with in another treatise ; here we are concerned with animals, and generation is not the only function which an animal has—that is a function common to all things living. All animals have, in addition, some measure of knowledge of a sort (some have more, some less, some very little indeed), because they have sense- perception,” and sense-perception is, of course, a sort of knowledge. The value we attach to this know- ‘Bledge varies greatly according as we judge it by the standard of human intelligence or the class of lifeless objects. Compared with the intelligence possessed “@by man, it seems as nothing to possess the two senses of touch and taste only ; but compared with entire absence of sensibility it seems a very fine thing indeed. We should much prefer to have even this sort of knowledge to a state of death and non-exist- ence. Now it is by sense-perception that animals > See 732 a 13, n. With this passage (731 a 29-b 3) ef. the whole Protrepticus passage there referred to. 125 : A UA ARESTOTLE OFF ASIA pte atobijoet 7a (Ga tev Covrwv pdvov. Byes oe dvdiyen kat Civ, éav* tov, oray Berjoy derorenety TO TOO Cdvros. épyov, TOTE. ovvdud era eo youre, Kal. ylyverau. domepavel gurov, _ Kabdarep el7ropiev. . it Fi atievatya Bru ; base Ta & dorpaxdBepua TOV i Sibeor perakd dvra TOV Cebeov Kal tv duTav, ws ev dpporepors ee rots 10 yeveaw, ovderepwy Tout 70 epyov" dis pev yap dutov* ovr éyer tO OFAV Kal TO dppev K Kal i ob yer eis _ Erepor; @s dé Ldov od depen _abrob KaprroVv Bomep Td. gurd, dAAa ovviorara Kai yewwarar EK Twos ovordcews yeoeidods Kal bypas. GANG repli’ ev THs TovTwr yeveoews ett Aexréov. é: oP 1 éav| 6 av A.-W. 2 durov Z: dori al * i.e., to reproduce itself, because TO Operrixin eh TO Alor bit re 126 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, L. xx. _ differ from the creatures which are merely alive ; since, however, if it be an animal, its attributes must of necessity include that of being alive, when the time comes for it to accomplish the function proper to that which is alive,* then it copulates and unites and becomes as it were a plant, just as we have said. The Testacea stand midway between animals and plants and so, as being in both groups, perform the function of neither : as plants, they do not have male and female and so they do not generate by pairing ; as animals they bear no fruit externally like that borne by plants ; but they take shape and are gener- ~ ated out of a certain earthy and fluid coagulation. . The manner of generation of these creatures, how- cers set be described later.” must POSSESS, is also 7a rer érépov olov one ay al7 me In Bk. TIE, ch 127 731 b18 1 20 25 B fx ry heey 4 ij t ’ * hd a To de OfjAv Kal TO dppev ote pe elow dpyat . YEvErewrs eipiyrat | mporepov, kal tis 7 Sdvapies kal Mik O Adyos THs ovotas avta@v: dua TL be yeeros Kal €oTt TO pev OfAv 70 8 dppev, ws pev e& avdynns mpwtov Kwodvros Kal o7oias tAns* mpoidvra merpaobar det ppalewv Tov Adyov, ws Se — dua TO BéArvov Kai Tih airiay ri evend. iraness F avaber® exet THY dpx7y" erel ydp eate Ta pev 4 aidta Kal beta TOV dvTwv, Ta 8 evdexdpeva Kal \ Al Kat TOU ; 4 elvas Kat p17) elvar, TO S€ Kadov Kai*To Beiov aitvov > 4 \ \ ¢ ~ / ~ , > cal aet KaTa THY adTod pvaw Tod BeATioves ev Tots © > / A A \ bas > / / > \ evdexopevois, TO Se iyi: aidvov ee €or. Kal 1 s fortasse secludenda. Tage (=dvw6ev). ‘ab eee. TO TOO Z. 3 amo Tob TmavTos “adit BoA » See Introd. § 10. _ not the syntax, of the @ See Introd. §§ 25, 30, ete. * © The sense, though perha following sentence is clear. causes €€ avayK s (7. e., mechanical causes, viz., the “* and “* material ” duction of male and female individuals Aristotle describes in detail in Bk. [V. 765 b 5—766 b 26; ef. 767 a 36—768 b 36); and (6) the “ final” cause, the better purpose or ‘“‘end” for motive ”’ the sake of which male and female individuals are produced, : @ See Introd. § 7 (ii). 128 SS he contrast is between (a) q causes, the operation of which in the pro-— Se re BOOK II IT nave already said that the male and the female are “principles ”’ of generation, and I have also said what is their dynamis * and the logos ° of their essence. © As for the reason why one comes to be formed, and is, male, and another female, (a) in so far as this results from necessity,* i.e., from the proximate “motive cause and from what sort of matter, our argument as it proceeds must endeavour to explain ; (6) in so far as this occurs on account of what. is better, i.e., on account of the final cause (the Cause “for the sake of which ’’), the principle is derived from the upper cosmos.¢ What I mean is this. Of | the things which are, some are eternal and divine, others admit alike of being and not-being, and the _ beautiful and the divine acts always, in virtue of its | own nature, as a cause which produces that which is better in the things which admit of it’; while _ ¢ And this principle Aristotle proceeds to explain at once, _ since it is really beyond the normal scope of the present | treatise which is concerned chiefly with the ‘‘ motive ’’ and _ “ material ” causes of generation. dvwev (cf. ro dvw odpa, App. B §26)= via the “ heavens’ from the Unmoved Mover, “God.” The best commentary on the passage which follows | is afforded by Aristotle’s own statements in other treatises, ‘of which the pertinent passages will be found in App. A 7 Cf. Met. 1013 a 22 roAAav yap cai rob yravar Kal tis Kivyoews apx7 Tayabov Kal to Kaddv. “ F 129 I Why the sexes exist. 731 b 732. a d ARISTOTLE elvau (kal jut) elvat)' Kat peradAapPBavew Kat rod xEtpovos Kat Tod BeAtiovos, BéAriov 8é vy pev cwpatos, To 8 Eepuibvyov Tob aydyou bia Ti 30 kuyriv, Kal TO elvar Tob pun elvae Kal ro Civ Tod pn Civ, dua tadvras tas aitias yéveows Lewy éeotiv: > A \ > 4 ¢ / ~ ta f evel yap advvatos 7 dvois Tod ToLvovTou yevous — aidtos elvar, kal?’ dv evdéxerar TpotoV, KaTa TODTOV €oTw aidiov TO ywopevov. apiOud péev obv adv- vatov, 7) yap ovata TOY dvrwy ev TO kal? Exacrov: — ~ : 9? > | 35 towodTov 8° clzep Hv, aidvoy dv wv- elder 8 ev-— SZ \ i. od. tas , , da ON Sy ot ety éxeTat. d10 yevos act avOpirwy Kal Caw €oti ~ > a A kal puTa@y. eet dé€ rovTwv apyn TO OAAv Kal TO ” ? et ’ 0 ” 1. Ae tee dppev, evexa THs yevécews av ein TO OHAV Kai TO dppev ev tots odow éxadrepov tovtwy.” PBeAtiovos 1 supplevit Platt. . : 2 éxatepov tovTwy Z: om. vulg. * i.é., this is the Final Cause, which can be equated with “the better,” as opposed to the mere mechanical sort of © causation, See above 731 b 23. e fu » The reader may at first .be confused in this passage owing to the fact that Aristotlé uses aiévos in two senses: (a) in the true and full sense, as applicable to the d¢é@apra and Geta, as in line 731 b 25, in which sense it can be applied only to the things which od« évddéyerar eivar Kai ui) elvat, i.e.. which always are; but then he goes on to use it ina modified sense (6), and applies it to that which évdéyera: efvac Kai 7) elvat, 7.€., to To yeyvopuevor, and says that 76 yiyvopevov is didiov in the way which is open to it. (Aristotle seems to regard this extension of the use of diécos as justifiable, since, as he states in the passage of De anima quoted in App. A ($ 17), 7a yeyvoueva, although they are not eternal, do partake im eternity.) ‘These two modes of being didwv he then describes more exactly as didiov dpbud (the eternity of: individual identity) and didcov eidec (the eternity of specific 130 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. 1. that which is not eternal admits of being (and not- being), and of aepeing a share both in the better ‘and in the worse 3, als Soul is better than body, and a thing w hich has Soul in it is better than one which has not, in virtue of that Soul; and being is better than not-being, and living. than. not living. These are the causes om account of which generation of animals takes place,* because since the nature of a class of this sort is unable to be eternal, that which comes into being is eternal in thé manner that is open to it. Now it is impossible for it to be so numerically, since the “being” of’ things is to be found in the particular, and if it really were so, then it would be eternal’; it is, however, open to ‘it to be so specifically... That» is why there is always a _ elass' of men, of animals, of plants ;\ and since the _ principle of these is “the male.’ and “the female,” it will surely be. for the sake of-generation that “the male ”’ and “ the female,” are present in the , individuals which are male and female. And as the form). Hence, in the present sentence 7oodrov means dpibpo _ discov; and. the sense of the statement is. that if an animal really were apiOud didsov, its oteia would be aéduos, i.¢., a¢@apros ; in other words, it would no longer be a d8aprov or a yeyvopevov. The translation might be expanded as _ follows to bring out the meanin, ** Now it is impossible _ for it to beso, numerically, since t ie being ” of things is in _ the particular ;' and if it _ really were so, then it would be eternal ; it is, however, open to it to be: eternal : ifically.” It is useful to note that at Met. 999 b 33 : Esto Sita Nene there is no persia ae ape the terms 3 and xa®? €xacrov (70 apiOuad ev} 7 Exacrtov Aéyew serra ovdév).—See further, App. A $$ 15-18. 131 732 a ARISTOTLE)! 5) 5) 5) dé Kat Devorépas Tay dvdow ovons Ths atrias Tis 5 Kwovons Tpwrns, H 6 Adyost bmdpyee Kab TO. €id0s, Tijs dns, PéXArvov Kai 70 KEX icbar TO kpetrrov Tod XElpovos. dua Toor’ év daots evdexerau Kat Kal? dcov evdexeTat, KEeX@pLoTat tod OyXeos 76 dppev- BeArtov yap Kal Devdrepov fi’ apy) THs Kuyoews [7) appev dmdpxer) Tots “yevopevors* ohn 10 be To" OAAv. OUVEpXETL dé Kal petyvurae _mpos THY epyaciay Tis yevecews 7H OyAer 70 dppev: avTn ‘yap Kon) Guporepors. ‘(Kara peév odv TO perexew Tod Bidcoe. Kal. 700 dppevos fH, did Kat ta puta perexer lwijs- Kara d€ Tv atcbnow To TOV Cowv €or, yevos, ToUTwY dé oxedov ev ada. Tois TopevTiKOs KEXwpLOTaL TO 15 OfAv Kal To dppev bia Tas elpnuéevas aitias* Kat ToUTwY TO per, WoTrep eA€x On, mpoteTat oméepiia., ; A a : : >? Ta, oe od mpotera év TO ovvovacp. tovtov 8 altvov ore ra. TYULOTEPA Kal avTapKéaTEpa THY pvow eoriv, wore peyelovs pererhndéva, Touro 5° ovk dvev Beppotntos yuyiKis: avayKy yap TO 20 petlov stro Tetovos Kwetoban durdpews, To bé Deppov Kwytikov. didmep, ws emt To wav Bre- » o Peck : @ vulg. 2 om. S. 7o Y: 70 } yulg.: dAns 4.76 OAAv coni. A.-W., 76 i Ofdu Bif.: sed fortasse haec verba secludenda. ser. Platt 70 dppev brdpxer Tots ywouevors 7) } OAn F 76 Orv. 4 vy. 11-23 secludenda. * Of. 716 a 5, iP » i.e., the Material Cause. Cf. 716 a 5. ; & See Introd. §§ 1) ff., 10, 50. 4 This paragraph seems to be out of place, cance of various remarks which are irrelevant here. Cf. 715 a18 ff., and parts of Bk. I, ch. 23. 132 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. 1. proximate motive cause,? to which belong the logos and the Form, is better and more divine in its nature than the Matter,” it is better also that the superior one should be separate from the inferior one. That is why wherever possible and so far as possible the male is separate from the female, since it is some- thing better and more divine in that it is the principle of movement ¢ for generated things, while the female serves as their matter. The male, however, comes - together with the female and mingles with it for the _ business of generation, because this is something that concerns both of them. ~O _ 4[Thus things are alive in virtue of having in them _ a share of the male and of the female, and that is why _ even plants have life. The class of animals, however, _ is) (what it is) in virtue of its power of sense-per- _ ception.’ In practically all animals which can move _ about the male and the female are found separate, _ and the causes are the ones which have been stated ; and, as was said,’ some of them emit semen during "copulation, some do not. The reason for this is that the higher animals are more self-sufficient in their _hature, and so are large in size: this cannot be so without heat of Soul, since of necessity the larger a _ thing is, the greater the power required to move it, _and heat acts as a motive power. Hence, if we take | ¢ Cf. P.A, 666 a 34 76 pev yap (Gov aicOjyce wpiora, and 651 b 4, 653'b 22. Aristotle seems to have perceived early _the importance of this point, as it occurred in his early work Protrepticus. See Iamblichus, Protrepticus 7 (44. 9 Pistelli; 37. 9 Walzer, Aristot. Dial. Frag.), a passage which accord- ing to Jaeger ( Aristotle, 69) comes from Aristotle’s Protrep- ticus : GAa pi 76 ye Civ Th aicbdvecBa Scaxpiverat Tod pH Civ, and with that whole passage cf. 731 a 29—-b 3 above. ~ 7 Bk. I, ch. 17. 133 * ARISTOTLE ()) 1400 732 a . povras ciety, TO | Braye peilw tdv a TO ‘aopevtiKd TOV poviwv bde- _darep epic ] oméppa did ae Oepudrara Kal TO } jeyeBos.| : Kai rept pev dippevos Kal Oi Acos, 80 iv airlay ' 25 eoTiv EKATEPOV, elpn Tae. ef olyea Tay 8é Caro TH [Lev reAcowoupyet ‘Kab eeepc TEL Obpale Spovov €avT@, otov éca Cporoet eis Tobppares, 7a € ddidpOparov € exTikTel Kal ObK am- ewAngos THY adToo popdiy. Tov O€ Towodreay 7a prev evaia @otoKel, Ta O° avai. a @oroKet oxwAnKoroKel. Srapéper 8 wov eal oKddng: gov 30 HEV, yap eoTtw €& ov yiverat TO _Yevopevoy. eK [Lepous, TO Se Aowndy €or. Tpop?), TH yur yen, oxwAng & &€& ob TO ywopevov drov dor. yiera. T&v dé eis TO davepov Spovov atoteAovvTwy C@ov Kat CworoKovvTwv Ta. pev ev0ds év atbrots two- . ToKel, olov avOpwios Kat immos Kal Bods: Kal 7 TOV 35 Oadarriay de? dehdis kat Tada Ta To.bra, Ta 732b oO eV adrois poroxnoayra Tp@Tov obrw Lqoroket Opace, olov Ta _ oehaxn Kahovpeva. rv ry (@o- ToKoUvTwy Ta: pev ,TéAcLOV. TpOleTaL TO WOV, OLov dpvilles Kai God TeTpdTr0da wMoTOKEl Kal doa a7r00a, olov cadpar Kal yeAGvat Kai Tv Ohewv TO TA€iaTOV syevos (ta yap To’Twy wa Grav e€APn, ovdKeETL AapBaver avenow), 7a 8° dred, ofov ot 7 ixBves » Platt. &' 62 oni: PSYI08 @ See Introd. 8§ 74 ff. > Cf. 152.2..27, T58 b 10 ff., and H.A. 489 b 6 ff. The distinction which "Aristotle makes here is that between the utilization of yolk as the raw material of embryonic develop- 134 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. 1. a general view, we may say that blooded animals are larger than bloodless, and mobile ones larger than stationary ; and they are the ones which emit semen on account of their heat and their size.] _ We have now stated the Cause why each of the two, male and female, is Some animals bring their young to perfection, and The various bring forth externally a creature similar to them- Soestbe. _selves—e.g., those which are externally viviparous ; _ others produce something which is unarticulated and has not yet assumed its proper shape. In the latter class those which are blooded lay eggs, those which t are bloodless produce (either eggs or) larvae.*_ The _ difference between an egg and a larva is this: an egg is something from part of which the new creature i is formed, while the remainder is nourishment for it ; whereas in the case of the larva, the whole of it is used _ to form the whole of the offspring.” Of the animals _ which produce externally a perfected creature similar ' to themselves, i.e., the Vivipara, some are internally 1 -_Viviparous from the outset (as man, horse, ox; and _ of sea-creatures, the dolphin and the other animals _ of that sort), others are internally oviparous at the first stage, and thereafter are externally viviparous _ (as what are called Selachia). Of oviparous animals, some lay their eggs in a perfected state (as: birds, _Oviparous quadrupeds and footless animals, e.g., - lizards and tortoises, and the great majority of the "serpents *\—eggs which onée they are laid do not grow any more ; others lay their eggs in an imper- ment, and the utilization of tissue-disintegration products in metamorphosis. The embryo feeds upon its yolk, but the pupa feeds upon itself. * The viper is the exception ; see below, line 21. 135 ARISTOTLE wits 732 b Kat To. padaxdorpaKa kat Ta pLaddKua KaAovjeva* ToUTWwY ‘yap 7a wa avédverau e&eOdvra. Ilavra be Ta. Cworoxodvra [%) poroKobyra) & evoupad coTw, Kal TO. evauia. 7 Cworonet 7 v] @orokel, ooa : 10 7) GAws ayova coTw. TOV 8 avaiwwy 7a evTopa oxwAnkoroxel, 60a y) eK ovvdvacpod | yiverau a) avrd ouvdudlerar. €oTL yap Evia, TowatTa Ta evTOLOV a yiverat bev abrouata, €oTL be Oijrea Kal _appeva., Kal €k ovvdvalopeveny yiverat. (Te avrav, dredes pevrou 70 yeyvopnevov: » 8 atria eipntat mpoTEpov ev ETEpots. 15 ZupBatver dé mon dnd ahs Tots yeveow. ovUTe yap Ta diroda mTdvTa SworoKet (ot yap opvides @oroKobat) ovr” @oroxel mavra (6 yap dvopwros Cworoxel), ovTe Ta TeTpdTOba TavTAa WoToKel (ios yap Kal Bods kal ada pupto. Cworoke?) ovre CworoKel ravra (catpo.*? yap Kal KporddetAou 20 Kal dMa mona @otoxodaw). ovd ev T@ mO0das ExXEW 7 7) Exeuw Suadeper- Kal yap daroba Cworoxel, olov ot exes Kal Ta oEeAdyn, Ta 5’ WoToKe?, olov \ ~ > /, La \ \ ~ ” + 70 TOV ixfiwy yévos Kal TO TOV GAAwY dew: kal TOV mddas é€xdvTwY. Kal woToKEel ToAAa Kai Cwortokel, oiov ta cipnueva teTpdaroda. Kal ev ec a A a \ / ” »” 25 adrois 5¢ CwotoKke?l Kal mddas exovTa, olov avOpw-— \ » e , \ , ‘ mos, Kal amoda, olov darawa Kat deAdis... TadTn \ > > ” 8 r A 35° ” ~ 8 ~ pev obv ovK Eo7e duedciv, 088’ airiov THs Siadopas 1 seclusit Platt (idem Sus.). 2 catdpo. PSYZ*: cadpa O», vulg. * Of. 718 b 8 and note there. > See 721 a 3:-ff. ¢ Aristotle may have in mind the method of dichotomy, against which he inveighs elsewhere (see P.A. 642 b 5 ff., 136 ‘GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. 1. fect state, as the Fishes, and the Crustacea and the Cephalopods as they are called, whose eggs do grow in size after they are laid.” All animals that are viviparous [or oviparous] are _ blooded, and animals that are blooded are either viviparous or oviparous, apart from those which are completely infertile. Of bloodless animals, Insects produce a larva ; this holds good both for those which are formed as a result of copulation and those which themselves copulate.’ (A note of explanation : there are certain Insects which, although formed by spon- taneous generation, nevertheless are male and female, and as a result of their copulation something is formed, though it is imperfect : the cause of this has already been stated elsewhere.) Actually there is a good deal of overlapping be- Classifica- tween the various classes. Bipeds are not all vivi- {2 of parous (birds are oviparous) nor all oviparous (man is viviparous) ; quadrupeds are not all oviparous (the horse and ox and heaps of others are viviparous), nor all viviparous (lizards and crocediles and many others are oviparous). Nor does the difference lie even in having or not having feet : some footless animals are viviparous (as vipers, and the Selachia), some are oviparous (as the class of fishes, and the rest of the serpents) ; and of the footed animals many are ovi- parous, many viviparous (e.g., the quadrupeds already mentioned). There are footed animals which are internally viviparous (as man), and footless ones also (as the whale and dolphin). So we find no means here _ for making a division ©: the cause of this difference aay 2 ee and my note there), as used, though for a different purpose, by Plato in Sophist and Politicus (e.g., the division into 76 melov and 70 vevatixéy at Sophist 220 a). 137 ARISTOTLE |) /. 14489 732 b . 2 tavrTns obfev T&v mopeuTiuKav dpydvwv, adAa Cwo- ToKel per’ Ta TeAewWTEpa my dvow tov Cawv Kat 30 werexovra Kaapwrépas d dpyiis: odbev yap Lworonet ev adT@, p22) Sexopevor TO med. Kal dvamvéoy. TeAcdbrepa dé Ta Oeppdtepa tiv dvow Kal byporepa Kal Ba) yewsdn. 7Hjs de Depudrnros THS quouris Spos 6 TAcUpLwv, 6owv evaiupids eoTw: dAws Hey yap TO. exovra merous TOV pn) exovroy Depudrepa., 35 ToUTwy O° abt&v Ta p71) coudov ExovTa punde oTt- 733 a ppov pnd? oAtyatwov GAN’ Evayplov kat puadaxdv. Homep d€ TO pev C@ov réAevov,” 6 d€ akwAnk Kal TO Wov ateA€s, oUTWs TO TEAELOV eK TOD Tehevorépov yivecbas néduxev, Ta Sé Oepudstepa pev Sia TO exe mAcvpova, Enporepa dé Thy iow, 7 Ta yv- 5 Xporepa pev byporepa dé, Ta prev WoroKel TédELov pov, Ta 5 poronoavra CworoKkel ev adrois. ot per yap opviles Kal Ta hodidwra Sia pev Bep- pornta teAeavoupyotar, dua dé EnpdtnTa wWoro- Kodot, Ta Oe oehaxy Oeppa. pev Arrov Tovrey, dypa de paMov, a WOTE perexet dpporepern” Kat yap 10 WoToKet Kai Cworoket ev abrois, @oToKet Hey OTL uxpd, Cworoxet &° ote tbypa: Ceorundy yap. TO dy pov troppivrd:res Sé Tod epabdyou to Enpov. emet 8 ovTe mTEpwrda ovUTE pohibarra otre Aemdwrd cotw, & onjweta Enpas waddov Kal yeddous ddcews, 1 py avrois add. Z*. 2 réMecov PSY : 7éAcov vulg. @ See Introd. § 38. > Not a living creature. 138 ——— GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. 1. does not lie in any of the organs of locomotion. No; those animals are viviparous which are more perfect in their nature, which partake of a purer * principle * ; in other words, no animal is internally viviparous unless it draws in breath—respires. The more perfect animals are those which are by their nature hotter and more fluid and are not earthy. (The test of natural heat is the presence of the lung, provided it has blood in it. Speaking generally, animals which have a lung are hotter than those that have none, and of the former those are hotter whose lung is not spongy nor compact nor poorly sup- plied with blood, but well supplied with blood and soft.) And since an actual animal is something per- fect whereas larvae and eggs are something imperfect, Nature’s rule is that the perfect offspring shall be produced by the more perfect sort of parent. Those animals which are hotter (as their having a lung indi- cates), though of a more solid* consistency, or are colder but more fluid, either (a) are oviparous and lay a perfect egg, or (5) first lay an egg and then are viviparous internally. Thus, birds and the animals with horny scales, on account of their heat, produce something perfect, but on account of their solidity it is an egg only’; the Selachia are less hot than - these are, but more fluid ; hence they share in the characteristics of both—they are oviparous because they are cold creatures, and internally viviparous because they are fluid (the reason being.that fluid _ matter is conducive to life, whereas solid matter and the living organism are at opposite poles); and as they have neither feathers nor horny plates nor _ scales, which are signs of a constitution that tends to _ be solid and earthy, the egg which they produce is 139 733 a . 16 ad7@, 0b" év TO OO €rumorAdle TO vyenpov. Kat 733 b 20 30 (2.1) MARISPORUDIT ARG padarov TO @ov yevvOow" dorep yap odd” ev dua TodTO ets avre @oroxet Ovpale yap dv tov due rage te TO WOv, ovK éxov mpoBoAry. Sha Sika 2 puxpa Kal Enpa padrov wotoxet “per, arelés, Be TO @ov, Kat onpdd_ppoy Se. ba TO yenpa. elvan Kat areAes mpoteabar, iva, aus Tau dvdaxny € exov TO dorpaxddes. ‘ot prev ody ixddes AemOwrtoi 6 ovres Kal TO. padakcorpaKa yenpae OvTa. oxAnpodeppa TA wa yervé. Td. be paddKua, womep abra yrAicxpa. TY Too oesparas €oru pvow, ovTws i ole areAg mpoiepeva Ta Wa? mpoterau “yAc- oxpornra. mepl TO Konia. modi. Ta 8" evropa mavra oKwAnkoroKel. €oTt 8 dmavra divautj1a. Ta. evropia., 50 Kal® okwAnKoToKobyra Ovpate. 7a 8 avatpa od Tava oxwAnKoroKel amas hs oe TOUGL yap ddAnAows [ra 7” évrojia Ta. oxwAnKo- ToKobvTa: Kal Ta GateAes TiKTOVTa. TO @ov, olov oT ix Oves ot AemBwrot Kat Td. padaxdorpara Kal To paAdicvo.. TOUTWY pev yap To oa oK@- Anco) eorly (avénouv yap Aap Barer Apate), EKO dof oKwAnkes yivovrau mpotovTes @o- \ > > \ vy - \ Kal Ud Twos Kai TL. €€ 08 pev ody eortly BAN, Av evia prev Ca exer mpwitynv ev adrots, AaBdvra® ex Tod OyAcos, ofov doa pr) Cworoketrar aAAa oKwAnko- ToKelTaL 7) WoToKeiTar, Ta Sé expt TOppwW EK TOD 30 OxjAcos AapBdver dia 7d AnAdlew, dorep doa Cwo- ~ \ / >? \ > \ hai / > A TOKELTAL p17) LOvov eKTOS GAAG Kal evTds. e& OD pev > / ¢ 4 oe > id aA \ obv yiverat, 7 Tovadtn VAn eoriv: Cynreirar be viv > > e 2 2, (£2; Fa = i \ / ” ‘\ ovk €€ ob GAN’ dd’ od yiverar Ta popia. Frov yap ~ ” a nn > / ~ \ Tov cEwhev rt Trove, 7 evuTrapxov" Tt ev TH youn Kal / \ a> > ‘ / a nn oméppati: Kal Todr é€otly 4 pépos tt puyhs 7 CM Le 5) ” / ~ \ on an uxt) 7) €xov av ein puynv. Tav pev odv e€whev a ¢ wo ed 9 r a Saar Tl Toeiy EkacTov 7) TOV oTAdyyvwrv 7 TOV GAAwY pep@v adoyov av ddkeuev: Kweily Te yap pa) am- TOMEVOY GdVVATOV Kal [L1) KWobYTOS TAaaxEW TL DITO 4 > > ~ ” a / > ah 5 TOUTOV. EV aUT@ apa TH KUNmaT. EevuTTapyYer Te ” v4 > Aa , ” , Worn x 787 7° adrod pdpiov 7) Kexwpiopevov. TO [Lev odD 1 -év dutav Z: 76 durov vulg. 2 daBorvra S: AapBavovra vulg. evurdpxov Peck: éevumapye vulg. 4 78n 4 Y: } 87 vulg. 3 2 The discussion which follows shows that Aristotle fully appreciated the greatest problem of embryological theory, a problem which gave rise to centuries of controversy. Does the embryo contain all its parts in little from the beginning, unfolding like a Japanese paper flower in water (‘‘ pre- formation ’”’), or is there a true formation of new structures as it develops (“‘ epigenesis’’)? Aristotle was an epigenesist, but he was not vindicated till the time of C. F. Wolff and K. E. von Baer, at the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century. The history of the controversy will be found in J. Needham’s History of Embryology and A. W. 144 — oe ee ee +n i it 4 P \ GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. 1 puzzle.* How, we ask, is any plant formed out of the embryo, _ seed, or any animal out of the semen? That which is formed by means of a process must of necessity be formed (a) out of something (6) by something (c) into something. “Out of something.” is of course is the material or matter. Some animals have their _ primary matter? within themselves, having derived it from the female parent, e.g., those animals which are produced not viviparously but out. of larvae or eggs. Others derive it from the mother for a considerable time by being suckled. These are the animals which are produced viviparously not exter- nally only but also internally.” So then, that “ out of which” the parts are formed is material of this sort. The problem now. before us however is not _ Out of what, but, By what, are they formed? Either something external fashions them, or else something present in the semen or seminal fluid; and this is either some part of Soul, or Soul, or something which _ possesses Soul. Now it would appear unreasonable _to suppose that anything external fashions all the individual parts, whether they be the viscera or any others, because unless it is in contact? it cannot set up any movement, and unless it sets up a “movement no effect can be produced upon any- thing by it. Hence it follows that there must be something already present inside the fetation itself, which is either a part of it or separate from it. “Meyer's The Rise of Embryology. Like many erroneous ries, preformationism contained some truth, for we ‘know to-day that the course of the embryo’s development is predetermined by its genetic constitution. _ © Cf. 729 a 33 note. © This excludes the Selachia. # Cf. Bk. |. 730 b 5 ff., and see App. B § 22, n. 145 734 a ii ARISTOTLE i re A dAdo re elvat Kex@propevov dhoyov" yer bevros yap Tod Caov méTEpov PUeiperae 7) by eppever; aan’ oudev ToLovTOV paiverat € evov 0 ov Ldptov Tod OXov i) purod 7 7 Cqov € coriv. GAG pay Kal TO $Beipeabai 10 ye moufoay eire mavTa Ta pepy €lTE TWA aTOTOV* 7a Aoura yap Ti TroVAT Et, iy nee yap exeivo pev TH Kapdiay, elr’ éedOapn, avr S° ErEpor, Tod adtob Adyou 7 TavTa : Pbetpeobax 1) 7 mdr peeve. adilerat dpa. avtod apa HOpiov eoTw, 6 evOds evuTdpyet ev T@ omeppart, el dé 67) Ha €oTt THs. youxtis i 15 pnbev 6 6 py Tob owpares, €oTw ev TwWt Hopi, Kal epapuxor dv tu ein popiov eddus. sty Ta ody aAAa meds 5 } yap Tol dua mavra yly- veTar Ta Hopia., otov Kapdia TAcvpoov imap og- Barwos Kal trav G\Awv Exactov, 7 edeéfs, Womep év trois Kadovpévors "Opdéws emecw: exe? yap 20 dpoiws dyoi yiyvecbar tO Cov tH Tod Suxrdou mAoKH. ste pev odv ody dpa, Kal TH alcOjoe eoti davepov' Ta pev yap gaivera evovTa 78% TOV popiwy, Ta 8 ov. dtu 8 od bua puKpornTa | ov paiverat, d7jAov- pete yap To péyebos adv 6 TVEvpLWV THs Kapdlas VoTepov daiverar THs Kapdias 25 ev TH e& apyfs yevéoer. mel S€ TO ev TpOTEpov 76 8 borepov, mérepov Odrepov move? Odrepov, Kai @ It would be inconsistent to say that the disappearan was arrested at some arbitrary stage in the process. » Apart from rational Soul, the connexion is reciprocal ; and Aristotle often remarks that there is no part of the body which has no Soul in it; see 726 b 22 and 735 a 6 ff. 146 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. 1. To suppose it is some other thing, and separate from it, is not reasonable. . If it were, the question arises: When the animal’s generation is completed, does this something disappear, or does it remain within the animal? We cannot detect any such thing, some-— thing which is in the plant or the animal and yet is no part of the organism as a whole. And again, to say that it fashions all the parts or some parts of the organism and then disappears is ridiculous. If it fashions only some of the parts, what will fashion the rest? Supposing it fashions the heart, and then disappears, and the heart fashions some other part : to be consistent we must say that either all the parts disappear or all the parts remain.* -It must, then, _ persist. And.therefore it must be a part nf the whole, existing in the semen from the outset. And if it is true that there is no part of the Soul which is - notin some part.of the body,’ then it must also be _ a part which contains Soul from the outset. How, then, are the other parts formed? Either they are all formed simultaneously—heart, lung, liver, eye, and the rest of them—or successively, as we read in the poems ascribed to Orpheus, where he says that the process by which an animal is formed _ resembles the plaiting of a net. As for simultaneous formation. of the parts, our senses tell us plainly that , _ this does not happen: some of the parts are clearly -to be seen present in the embryo while others are not. And our failure to see them is not because they _ are too small ;, this is certain, because although the lung is larger insize than the heart it makes its appear- ance later in the original process of formation. Since one part, then, comes earlier and another later, is it the case that A. fashions B and that it is there on 147 734 a 734 b |) VARISTOTLENTANAV SO €or. dud TO eyopevor, 7 emi peta rode yiverat TOOE; A€yoo 8 ofov pee 7 Kapdia Sips ws! rrovet TO Hmap, TooToo ETE pOH, Tl, dAAd, 708¢ pera. 76 Se, foseaes peta TO. Tats sage vyiverat), adv’ ody. to. 30 €xelvov. édyos 8 rodrov, re bo To evrehexely OVTOS TO Sumayer..2 ov VIVES, &y tots dooce 7 7) Ten eishcicen) Gare S¢ou dx; -7i€lSos/ixab, ry popdayy ev exeiv eivat, oie ev wc) Kapdia TO Tod Brink i Kal dAAws 8 dtomos Kal mracparias 6 18 Aébyos. aAXa. pay Kat 76 év T@ o7réppare evOds evuTdpyew 35 Te pdpiov Tod Caov 7 asia ra ii eire Syaer-yoy movciy TaAAa elite jun, GdUvaTov, et may eK leanip teats Kal yovijs ylyverat, Onion: yap 6 bru bd7d Tod TO o7épya. eb iia be 2 “éyéveto, €lrep edOds eVUNSR XE GAAd. oréppa Set yevéeobau Tpo- TEpov, Kal TOOT epyov TOU yEevv@vTos. obbev apa olov Te Loptov brdpyew. odK dpa. éyeu TO Tovoby Td. HOpia ev ait@. adda py ov8” ew a avayien | be Tovtwy eva Oarepov. 13a EE gina am, rabra Adew" tows yap Tu ray clpnucver early ody dmdoby, olov m@s Tore 76 Tob e€w odK sudexene ld EoTt Mev vép ws evdexerat, €or. 8 ws ov.’ 7d pev oov 70 oneppia 1 acted 5 ; velit aattatlees Platt. @ As argued already, 734 a 2 ff. 148 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. 1. - aecount of B which jis next to it, or is it rather the ease that B is formed. after A? ~I mean, for instance, not that the heart, once it is formed, fashions the liver, and then the liver fashions something. else ; _ but that the one is formed after the other [just as a man is formed after a child], not by it. The reason _ of this is that, so far as the things formed by nature or by human art are concerned, the formation of that which is potentially is brought. about by that _ which is i actuality; so that the Form, or con- formation, of B would have to be contained in Ay e.g., the Form of the liver would have to be in the heart—which is absurd.' And there are other ways too in which the theory is absurd and fondly in- vented. But besides, for any part of the animal or plant to be present from the outset ready formed within the semen or seed, whether it has the power to fashion the other parts or not—even this is impos- sible if everything is formed out of semen or seed ; because it is plain that it was formed by that which | fashioned the semen if it is present within the semen from the outset ; but semen must be formed before {any part), and that is the business of the parent. _ Therefore no part can be present within the semen. Therefore it does not contain in itself that which fashions the parts. And yet this cannot be external to the semen either*: ‘and it must be either ex- ternal to it or inside it. __ Well, we must endeavour to solve this difficulty. “Maybe there is some:statement of ours, made without qualification, which ought to be qualified : ¢.g., if we ask, in what sense exactly is it impossible for the parts to be formed by something external? we see that ‘in one sense it is possible, though in another it is not. 4 149 | 2) A NARISTOTLE) rasa 734 b Aéyew 7 i ad’ od 70 ome ppiary: odbev diageper exer al Kimow ev €avT® Hv exetvo exives. tie OTrav. Tt Koon, TOV "Bates ise pa vexeuavor yeyveras! evepyei. @orrep’ obv® ev Tots adroparos, TpoTov ev Tia eKeivo KwVeEt ovx amTopevov viv 15 oudevds, dupa juevov Herron, opotws (Be) wat &r6)° ad’ ob TO oméepua i TO movjoay TO omeppa, Gif pLevov pe TLWOS,. odx dmrropevoy. 3° éru- Tpdmov be Twa 2 evodca Kivysis, WomTEp 7) ehh het = hia oiktavy i uae | “Ore pev obv gore Tu 6 move, obx oes 88 . as Tdd€ TL, odd’ evuTdpxor* ais teredcopevov To mp@tov, SiAov. 20 Ilds dé more Exacrov yiyvetan, ured ey Bes AaBeiv, apynv tromoapévovs mp@rov mer ott doa 1 xuweira coni. A.-W. Ppa = ® xabamep PS, om. Z. *' secl. ‘ASW.’ 4 Peck: 7 6 sic A.-W.: obSe drapyov P: 088’ evumapye vulg. * Tt will be noticed that the passage which follows sounds surprisingly modern ; this is largely due to the great emphasis which Aristotle here gives to the réle played by the Efficient (or Motive) Cause.—See however App. B § 5. > Cf. 74169; and G. & C. II, chh. 10 and 11.” At Mech. 848 a, there is a description of the mechanism bys which these may have been worked. ; © xwetra (** is set in movement ”’) has been s ested for ylyverar (“comes to be’’). But ,perhaps ylyve au evepy is the ,inceptive form of ¢efvac evepyeia, as in the ire ovros evepyeia, line 21 below. 150 ; GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. 1. ENow it makes no difference whether we say “ the . semen ” or “ that from which the semen comes,” in so far as the semen has within itself the movement which the generator set going. “And it is possible _that A should move B, and B move C, and that the process should be like that of the “ miraculous ”’ automatic puppets ’: the parts of these automatons, even while at rest, have in them somehow or other a potentiality, and ‘when some external agency sets _the first part in movement, then immediately the adjacent part comes to be‘ im actuality. The cases then are parallel: just as with the automaton (1)-in one way it is the external agency which is causing the thing’s movement—viz., not by being in contact with it anywhere now, but by having at one: time been in contact with it, so too that from which the semen originally came, or that which fashioned the semen, (causes the embryo’s movement) ¢—viz., not by being in contact with it still, but by having once been in contact with it at some point ; (2) in another way, it is the movement resident within (which causes it to move), just as the activity of building | causes the house to get built.¢ It is clear by now that there is something which fashions the parts of the embryo, but that this agent is not by way of being a definite individual thing,’ nor is it present in the semen as something already perfected to begin with. __ To answer the question, How exactly is each of the parts formed? we must take first of all as our ' * i.¢., development ; see Introd. §§ 47 ff. _ * Cf. above, 730 b 8. f rode 71: cf. Met. 1030 a 7 76 rd8€ 7 Tails ovotas priexee povov. A 7dde zt is often equated with an odoia. Also ef. P.A. 641 b 31 yévecis pév yap 76 oépya, odcia 8é 76 7édos. 151 ‘(ARISTOTEE)) 44 Svat) 734 b poe. ylyverat 7) TEXYD, or evepyeia dvros yiveras ex Too Suvdyie, TowovTov. TO pev ody o7éppa TowovTov, Kal axe Kijow Kal apyny Touadray, Wore Tavoperns' Tihs Kwhoews yivecbau EKacTov 25 TOV “ popiew Kat ewbyov. od yap eoTu ‘mpéoworrov ju) €xov ubuynv, odde adpé, aAAa Plapevre Opeve- pws AexOjoer ar TO Hey elvat mpooumor, 70. be odpé, dorep Kav €t éyiyvero Awa. 7; U7 Edhwa. apa. dé Ta Cuovopeph yiverau Kal Ta dan fe Kal @omep ovd’ av méAexvv ovd" a\Xo Spyavov pr- cayev av movjoat TO Tp povoy, ovTWws © ote 7054 30 odde xetpa. Tov avTov dé TpdTTOV OvdE apne Kal yap TavTns épyov Ti é€otw. okdAnpa prev odv Kal padakda Kal yAloypa Kat Kpadpa, Kal 60a adda to.abra® wdOn brdpye. Tots epupdyous poptots, bep- pots Kat wvypdrns Toujcevev av, Tov. de Adyov @ ey TO [Lev capt 70 5° daTobv, ovKETL, GAN’ 7 Kimous 35 ) a0 TOO ETE. Too Evrehexeiey’ évros 6 éort duvaper TO* €& ob yiveTal, Wamrep Kal emi TOV ywo- 1 quieverit 5: Avopévys coni. Platt. | 2 rovadra P, om. 373. Y: 4 vulg.: om. P, A.-W,, Platt. iw « Cf. below, 734 b 36 and 735 a 4. Also see Introd. §§ 34 ff. » i.e, the principle of movement. uM} © If the text is sound, this can only refer to the original ‘movement’ imparted by the generating parent whi Mess roc the semen; and this would be comparable with the initial movement imparted to the automaton mentior aboye. 152 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. 1. starting-point this principle. Whatever is formed either by Nature or by human Art, say X, is formed by something which is X in actuality out of something which is X potentially. Now semen, and the move- ment and principle ? which it contains, are such that, as the moyement ceases® each one of the parts gets formed and acquires Soul. (I add “ acquires Soul,” because there is no such thing as face, or flesh either, without Soul in it ; and though they are still said to be “face”’ and “ flesh”’ after they are dead, these terms will be names merely (“ homonyms ”’),? just as if the things were to turn into stone or wooden ones.) And the formation of the “uniform” parts® and of the instrumental parts goes on simul- taneously. And as in speaking of an axe or any other instrument, we should not say that it was made solely by fire, so we should not say this about a foot or a hand (in the embryo), nor, similarly, of flesh either, because this too is an instrument with a function to perform. As for hardness, softness, toughness, brittleness and the rest of such qualities which belong to the parts that have Soul in them —heat and cold may very well produce these, but they certainly do not produce the logos’ in direct consequence of which one thing is flesh and another _ bone; this is done by the movement which derives from the generating parent, who is in actuality what _ the material out of which the offspring is formed is _ potentially.. Exactly the same happens with things # See note on 726 b 24 (and 721 a 3). They have merely the name in common with the living face and flesh, but not the essential nature. Cf. line 34 below. * See Introd. § 19. Note that the non-uniform parts are here called the instrumental parts. 7 See Introd. § 10. 153 \/ARISTOTLE ! T AR VAD 734 b pevev Kata TEéexvnv- oKAnpov pev yap Kat ‘padaxov 735 a TOV GHD pee Tovet TO Bepudy Kal TO “poxpov, ada Eigos 7 y share, 4 TOV geyanany, éxovea, Néyov Tov Ths TeXUNS. 7 yep neni apxy Kat €ldos Tod Pit eile adn’ év ohn 7" S€ Tis ag pete ev avT® ad étépas ovoa guoews Ths éxovons 76 5 eldos é€ sepyitial motepov 5° age poy TO oTéppa 7) ov; 6 adros Adyos Kal arept TOY po. obre yap pox ev dAAw DPOSEED EOTOL ay ev exeivyp 0d y° €arlv, odte pdpiov ora pr) petéxov GAX’ 7 ioc meet Sop TeOve@ros plaids. ” tps oby dru Kat exer Kal €o7e Suvdper. eyyvtépw Se 10 Kal Toppwrépw ado adrob evdéxerar elvar Suvder, — donep 5 Kabediwv yewpéerpys tod eypnyopdros: Toppwrépw, Kat obtos TOO Oewpobvros. Tadrns pev obv ovfev pdpiov. aitiov Tis yevéoews, aAda TO mparov kwihcav ewhev. od0ev yap abrd éavro yerva: drav Se yévnta, adfer 4dn adro éavtd. 15 OudmEep. Tp@rov Te nipnlerags Kal ody se mdavTa. TobTo dé Apia gta mp@rov, oO wen Soha apyny part: Eire yap dutov elite C@ov, 6 onaiass TORRE maow wrdpye. TO. Opentixdy. tobro 8’ €att TO @ See Introd. § 11. ®» See above, 734 b 25. © See note, 726 b 24. @ The argument now resumes from line 4 above... ¢ Of. De anima 416 b 16, and context, 154 [ GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. 1. formed by the processes of the arts. Heat and cold soften and harden the iron, but they do not produce the sword; this is done by the moyement of the instruments employed, which contains the logos of the Art; since the Art is both the principle 7 and Form of the thing which is produced; but it is located elsewhere than in that thing, whereas Nature’s movement is located in the thing itself which is produced, and it is derived from another natural _ organism which possesses the Form zn actuality. As for the question whether the semen possesses Soul or not, the same argument? holds as for the parts of the body, viz.. (a) no Soul will be present elsewhere than in that of which it is the Soul; (6) no part of the body will be such in more than name unless it has some Soul in it (e.g., the eye of a dead person). Hence it is clear both that semen possesses Soul, and that it is Soul, potentially...And there are varying degrees in which it may be potentially that which it is capable of being—it may be nearer to it or further removed from it (just as a sleeping geometer is at a further remove than one who is awake, and a waking one than one who is busy at his studies). So? then, the cause of this process of formation is not any part of the body, but the external agent which first set _ the movement going—for of course nothing gener- ates itself,* though as soon as it has been formed a _thing makes itself grow. That is why one part is formed first, not all the parts simultaneously. And the part which must of necessity be formed first is the one which possesses the principle of growth : be they plants or animals, this, the nutritive, faculty is present in all of them alike (this also is the faculty t Cf. below, 735 a 22, 740 a 19 ff. 155 ot. ARISTOTLE ||) * 0. 0) = yevynTiKov erepoe ofov adrd* TobTo yap mavros dvce. Tedetov & Spyov kat Cov Kat durod. i dvdy a 20 dé dua. 7dde, OTe Gray Te WEIS abédvecbar avd- yen. eyeévynoe pev Toivuy TO ouvevupov, olov avOpwrros abo ptparov): ee ert dé bv éav7o8. avTo! ” ” or 2 ord) Sate | dpa Tt ov avfe.” tf 89 & tM Kal TobTO, mparov,: TooTo dvdiyacy Li ai mpAtov. Gar’ i Kapdia T™p@Tov €v Tet cepts ylyverat, ev Be! rots e pave 25 gated TO Tavtn avddoyov, éK radrys av «¢ ely, 4 “xn Tots XIN tots 6° dAdo €x, Tod dvddoyor. Tt. pev obv eotiv aitiov as 4px) Tijs wept Exa- oTov Yeveseias, Kwodv mp@tov Kat Srpwovpyody, eipynTar mpos TA Supronnsyrs, mpoTepov;, II 30. Ilepi dé, Tis Tod onéppatros dvccws. dmophoevev av Tis. TO yap oT€éppa eEépyerar mev Ek TOD tdou sh kat Nevkov, yuxdpevov Se yiveras bypov woTrep vdwp, KL TO Xpopa VOaTOS. aromov Sy) a ay 7 syisghd Se 1 €avro Peck : auto vulg.. apa 2 €aurd . . . avfer| é €orw dpa te 6 avbter Ze say, 3 ap@rovom. PS: A.-W. coni. & 7 Tod70, wana snap ® Of. De anima 415 a 26 ff., and for identity of nutritive and generative faculty, 416 a 18 ff., and note on brs si ~ below. > See note on 721 a 3. ¢ This seems to be the meaning of this phrase : : ef. the twice-repeated remark above, that once a thing has brought into being, it makes itself grow : Aristotle now says, now that it is making itself grow, it is something—but what ? Some one thing—it is so far just that one thing whi is able to cause lies which contains the principle of 156 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. 1-1. of generating another creature like itself, since this _ is a function which belongs to every animal and plant _ that is perfect in its nature). The reason why this _ must of necessity be so is that once a thing has been formed, it must of necessity grow. And though it _ was generated by another thing bearing the same name ® (e.g.,a man is generated by a man), it grows by means of itself. So then, since it makes itself _ grow, it is something °: and if indeed.it is some one thing, and if it is this first.of all, then this must of hecessity be formed first. Thus, if the heart is formed first in certain animals (or the part analogous to the heart, in those animals which have no heart), we may suppose that it is the heart (or its analogue) which supplies the principle.? The queries raised earlier have now been dealt with. We have answered the question, What is the cause (in the sense of principle) of the generation of each individual—what is that which first sets it in movement and fashions it ? _» A puzzle which may now be propounded is, What II is the nature of Semen? Semen when it leaves the semen. animal is thick and white, but when it cools it becomes fluid like water and is of the colour of water. This nutritive Soul, viz., the heart’ And that is why the heart is the first,thing to be formed.” Cf. 740 a 21 (where. there is no need to alter the text). steal a e process of formation or generation (of which the py is the agent), goes on gradually—thus, the first part ‘the Soul to be formed, generated, or realized, is the part which produces growth (76 @pezzixév), and with it the part of the body in which that part of the Soul resides, viz., the heart. (See 763 b 25, n.) 157 ARISTOFLE OF PASH AND 735 , * Bde evev* 0d yap taxtverat vdwp Oepud, Tro 8 owblev ex Ocpyod e&dpyerar maxv, puxspevor be vee Dypen: katro. miyvural ye ta dSaTabSq: 35 TO 5€ omépya ov coring rity) év Tots ma&yous d7aiOpiov, adn’ Higa hth cs b1d Tob évayriov maxuvlév. GAAd pay ob8’ dro Bepyod rraxsvecbat 735 b rity names doa yap yijs wheiov exer, Tatra ovv- ioratar cal maydverau éfdpeva, ofov Kal 70 ydAa. Edel. OvV puxpusvon ORR ASRD TAG, vov 8 odbev vee nic gird aAAa mév gre bdwp. a at obv amopla avrn éorlv. «i aes yap ddwp, TO vdwp 50d dpaiverar PRXGEVON id Tod Oeppod, 6 > e€épyerau Seay Kal ri ks Kal ék eee Tod owpatos: et 8 eK ys’ 7 pucrov vijs Kat Baros, obk eer bypov wav yivecOar Kal Bwp. 7H ov TavTa TO. srg sce hill plaamre= 5 od yap bannge Ss To e€ bOaTos Kal bec ast vis shy 10 dypov, GAAd Kal To €€ VdaTos Kai TUSHAR TOR: oiov Kai 6 adpos yiverar maxvrepos Kat AevKds, Kal dow av éAarrovs Kat adnAdrepae at icity @ot, TOGOUTW. Kal AguNeaSpnS Kal anidipeir spas 6 OyKOS is beh 76 8 avro Kal To €Aatov mdoxer fi grr ha yap T@ siphon og pps 800 Kat 15 70 saiundcraariags maxvrepov yiverar, Tod €vdvTos ddatrwdouvs bd Tod Oeppob Svaxpwopévou Kal y- 1 ei 3 yas P, A.-W. 158 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. nm. _ may seem strange, because water is not thickened by heat, yet semen is thick when it leaves the inside of the animal, which is hot, and becomes fluid when it cools. Moreover, watery substances freeze, but semen does not freeze when exposed to frost in the open air; it becomes fluid, which suggests that it was heat that thickened it. And yet itis not very probable that it is thickened by heat, because it is substances that contain a large proportion of earth which “ set ” and thicken when boiled—milk, for example ; hence ‘it ought to solidify when it cools, but in fact it does not solidify at all; the whole of it becomes fluid like water. This thenis the puzzle. Suppose that semen is water. _ Water is never observed to be thickened by heat; whereas semen is both thick and hot, and the body _ it comes from is hot. Or suppose it.consists of earth, _ or is a mixture of earth and water. In that case the , , _ whole of it ought not to become fluid and turn to _ water. Perhaps then after all we have not. distin- guished all the cases that occur. Other fluids thicken _ beside those which are composed of water and earthy ames matter, viz., those composed of water and pneuma,? _ for instance, foam, which becomes thicker, and white ; and the’smaller and more microscopic the bubbles are, the whiter and more compact is the appearance of the bulk. Oil behaves in the same way; it thickens when it gets mixed with pneuma; and that ‘is why AetrreTae yap TO Bowp Kal el Tt puucpov yedes, donep év préypare, Kal ev 7@ oTmEpLare Enpawvopevy. < 736 a "Kort pev ovv TO omepjia Kowvov TVvevLaTos Kat vdaTos, TO dé mvedud €oTu Fepuos ap: bud Aa ad f TH pvouw, OTL ef ddaros. Kraotas yap 6 vi- tos a TeEpl TOO omépyatos TOV hepevren. ele pyKe, pavepos eoTw eevopevos. dno yap ovrw 5 oKAnpiveatar Enpauvopevov wore yivecbau Tce pep dprovov. Tobro 8 od yiveras: paAdov pe yap ETEpoV érépou oTépa. yewdéoTepov avayKatov elvan, Kal pddvora, Tovobrov doous o0Ad yeddes dmdpxeu KaTd TOV oyKov TOV TOO GwWpaTos. maxd d€ Kal AevKov dia TO pepiyOar veda. Kal yap / ? A / / ¢€ \ } 10 Aeukdv eort TO oTépya mavrwv “Hpddoros yap ovie dAnOA Aéyer, pdokev péAawvay elvat TH TOV Aiforwy yov7y, worrep avayKatov oy TOV Ty xpoav peAdveny elvan mdvra péAava, Kat rade? Opav Kat Tods oddvtas adT@v ovtas A€evKoUs. aitvov be ths AevKoTHTOs TOD aTéppwatos Ott eaTiv 7» youn 15 adpos, 6 5 adpos AevKdv, Kai pddvta TO €& 1 efeOov Peck: e&eAPovros vulg. @ See 725 a 15 ff. » Ktesias of Knidos in Caria, a eionitetiiisolay? of Xeno ri belonged to an old medical family, and was physician to the Persiari king Artaxerxes Mnemon (405-362 B.c.). His chief work was his Ilepouxd, in 23 books, containing the history of the East down to 398-397 3B.c. Most of his zoological matter, however, seems to have been contained in his *Ivécxa, judging from this reference and three others in the History of Animals. \Abridgements of both these works by Photius are extant. © Herodotus IIT. 101.) — 4 The view that semen was foam was held by Diogenes of 162 a GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. n. Later, when: it has lost its heat by ‘evaporation and the air has cooled, it becomes fluid and. dark, because the water and whatever tiny quantity of earthy matter it may contain stay behind in. the, semen as it solidifies, just as happens with phlegma.*. . Semen, then, is a compound of preuma and water Carcass being hot air), and that is why it is fluid in nature ; it is made of water. Ktesias of Knidos ” ia is obviously mistaken in his statement about the semen of elephants: he says that it gets so hard when it solidifies that it becomes like amber. It does not. It is, of course, true that one semen must of necessity be earthier than another, and the earthiest will be in those animals which, for their bodily bulk, - contain a large amount of earthy matter ; but semen . is thick and white because there is pneuma mixed with it. .Whatis more, it is white in alleases:, Herodotus ‘ is incorrect when he says that the semen of Ethiopians is black, as though everything about a person, with a black skin were bound to be. black—and this too in spite of their teeth being white, as he could see for himself. The cause of the whiteness of semen is that it is foam,’ and foam is white, the whitest being that Apollonia ; see Vindicianys, $ 1°(Diels, Vorsokr.s 64 B. 6) Alexander. -Amator veri (=DXadrnOms) .. . « libro, primo De semine spumam sanguinis eius essentiam dixit Diogenis placitis consentiens; and cf. § 3. See Jaeger’s discussion of the subject in Diokles von Karystos, 198-211. Cf. also Hippocrates, 2. yovijs xrA. 1 (vii. 470 Littré) dwoxpivera: a6 Tod Ms adpedvros 76 tcxuporarov. In modern times a Similar idea has been put forward, ¢.g., by Biitschli ( Untersuchungen iiber a a Schiumeund das Protoplasma, Leipzig, 1892), who “ thought of protoplasm as a foam, or rather as an emulsion composed of two liquids, one in the form of drop- lets, the other as lamellae [7.¢., films] between the droplets ” (Heilbrunn, An Outline of General Physiology, 1938, p. 25). 163 ~ a f (ARISTOTLE) | PASIMNO 736 a > / 7 / ‘ M4 ~ ohuyioreny jovykeipevov popiwy Kal otra pKxpav womep éxdorns aopdrou Tijs moppodvyos ovons, Orrep ovpBatver Kal emi Tod BdaTos Kal TOD eda puyvupevwy Kal i ei Kabdzrep' are On) TpOTeEpov. "Eouxe be ovde TOUS dpxatous AavOdvew , dpbdns 207) Tod OTEppLaTos oboa pda: TH yoov kupiav Geov Tijs pews amd ris duvdpews Tavrns ™poonyopevoay. mt renee “H pev oby aitia THs Acxfetons a droptas elpyTa, pavepov d€ dte dia TodT’ ovde TOT 6 yap anp darnkros. Il Tovrov. & EXO[EvOV €orw" dmopfoa Kab eineiy, 25 et TOV mpoieweverv els TO Ondv younv pnBev popuor éore TO etoeAGov Tob yeyvopevov KunpaTos, 7700" TpémEeTaAl TO owparddes abrod, elmep epyalerat TH duvapet TH evodon ev adre. Svopioat be det md- TEpov peraAap Paver TO OUVLOTaLEVOV ev TO Orher amo Tob eioeAPovros Tt 7) obbev, Kat mept 30 Kal” av Aéyerau Céov (CHov 8 earl Kara To ‘peprov THs wWuyis TO aicOnruxdy) mOrepov _eveTidpxet 7 oTreppare Kal TO. KUNLATL 7 ov, kal 70ev. ouTE yap ws ayfuxov av ein Tus 70 Kina. KOTO. mdvra. TpOTov €oTEpnLevov is ovdev yap “rrov rd. Te 1 éorw xai PSY, Galen. not Btf. * * 8€P: re vule * Lit., “called after this substance (dynamis), é Aphrodite, after aphros, Cf. Galen, 7. onépparos I. 5 (iv. 531 Kiihn) ; and Clem, Paedag. I. 6, 48 (Diels, Vorsokr.? 64 A 24) tues be kal 70 oméppa tod Cwov adpov elvat tod aipatos Kat’ o ciav bnoriBevra..... evredber yap 6 ’Aro\Mwwarns Avoyévns 74 adpodiova xexAjoba Bovderat, Cf. preceding note.) j ® See note on meaning of «vnua, Introd. § 56. 5. 164 —— —— GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. u.-111. which consists of the tiniest particles, so small that each individual bubble cannot be detected by the eye. An instance of such a foam, mentioned earlier, is that uced by the mechanical mixing of water and oi - ‘That the natural substance of semen is foam-like was, so it seems, not unknown even in early days ; at any rate, the goddess who is supreme in matters of sexual intercourse was called after foam.* We have now given the reason which solves the puzzle that was stated. And this also shows, inci- dentally, why semen does not freeze : it is because air is impervious to frost. “The next puzzle to be stated and solved is this. III Take the ‘case of those groups of animals in which Sem +n4 semen is emitted into the female by the male. Sup: posing it is true that the:semen which is so intro- duced is not an ingredient in the fetation ° which is formed, but performs its function simply by means , of the dynamis © which it contains. Very well; if.so, what becomes of the physical part of it ? First of all we shall have to decide (a) whether that which takes shape within the female does or does not incorporate into itself any portion of that which was introduced (from the male) ; and (6) whether Soul—and it is in virtue of Soul that an animal has the name of “animal”: it is in fact in virtue of the sentient part? of Soul that it is an animal *—whether Soul is or is not in the semen and in the fetation to begin _ with, and if so where it comes from. No one, of course, would maintain that the fetation is quite without Soul, completely devoid of life in every sense, ® See also 726 b 18 ff., 727 b 15, 16, 738 b 12, and Bk. I, ch. 21. -# See Introd. § 43. ¢ See 732 a 13, n. 165 736 a 736 b ARISTOPLE ())) 6) 440 o7méppara Kal Ta KUHMOTE tov Cow Ci rv * 35 puray, Kal yovysa, péxpe Twos eoTw. Sri pev obv THY Openruiy éxovat proxy, pavepov (60° bru Be TavTnv Tp@Tov dvaryraisy € éort AaBeiv, é« TOY 7 rept puxiis Suwpuopeveny ev dMous pavepov)* mpoidyra dé, Kal rv atoOnricny, Kal? jv C@ov.. od yap apa. yiverau Cov, Kal dvOpemos. obde (Gov Kai trmos, opotwns dé Kal emi TOV adAwv Sper dorarov' yap yiverat 70 Téos, 708? iidv €oTL TO éxdoTou 'f Tis 5 yevéoews TéAOS. 810 Kal rept vob, more eal 70s perahayBdver Kal m0bev Ta, peTexovTa tadrns. THIS apis, for an explanation of why nutritive Soul must of necessity be acquired first). It is while they develop that they acquire sentient Soul as well, in virtue of which an animal is an animal—lI say, “ while they develop,” for it is not the fact that when an animal is formed at that same moment a human being, or a horse, or any other particular sort of animal is formed, because the end or completion is formed last of all, and that which is peculiar to each thing is the end of its process of formation.° That, is why it is a very great puzzle to answer another question, concerning Reason. At what. moment, and in what manner, do those creatures which have this principle of Reason acquire their share in it, and where does it come from? This is a very difficult problem which we must endeavour to solve, so far as it may be solved, to the best of our power. _ As regards nutritive Soul, then,? it is clear that we must posit that semens and fetations which are not separated (from the parent) possess it potentially, though not in actuality—t.e., not until they begin to draw the nourishment to themselves and perform the function of nutritive Soul, as fetations which get separated * (from the parent) do; for to begin with it seems that all things of this sort live the life of a Uber Entwicklungsgesch ichte der Thiere, Beobachtung und Reflewion (1828), i. 224, Scholion V (1) Dass.das Gemeinsame einer gréssern Thiergruppe sich friiher im Embryo bildet, als das Besondere, et seqq.) # The solution begins by resuming the argument from 736 a 32-34. * e.g., seeds of plants. 167 . ’ ARISTOTLE)! PAD 736 b dutod Biov. €éopevws dé SijAov ort Kal rept THs aicOnrucijs AcKréov poxiis Kal mepl TIS vonTuctis” 15 méoas yap dvayKaiov Suvdper mpoTepov exe 7 evepycta.. dvayxaiov be HTOL [1 ovoas mporepov eyyivecBae méoas, i) maoas , ot Sa ee Tas prev. Tas Oe La}, Kal eyyiveoBau va DAN fe “pa etaeAfovoas €v T@ TOU dppevos oirepbarty y €v- Tabla pev éxeiBev eAfovoas, ev d€ 7 CPR ERE a 20 Oipabev eyywopevas dmdoas 7 pndepiay 7 7). Tas pe Tas be PH.) OTe He Totyyy ovx. olov Te TaGas mpoimapxew, pavepov € eoTw ek TOV TowodTwv. dowry yap éorw dpyav" H evépyea owpatiKy, SfAov ort TavTas dvev owpLaTos addvarov dmdpxew, olov. Ba- dilew dvev modav: dare Kat Ovpabev elovevan 25 advvarov: ovre yap avras Kal? adras €lovévat ofdv re dxwpiorovs oveas, or’ ev oopare elovevau hip 1 apafewv coniecerunt A,-W. | rt ty lage ® This elaborate scheme of possibilities i is not ahs so over- — whelming as it looks, though the argument would haye been more lucid if Aristotle had explicitly named the several sorts — of Soul involved. It will be seen, however, that of the first three possibilities, the last, (c), is the operative one; in fact, it is nutritive Soul, which the cnatertal ae the female (more specifically, the fetation) possesses (see 736 a 32 ff., 737 a 23 ff); thus it remains for the other two, sentient and rational Souls, to be supplied by the male (Aristotle explains in ch. 5 below that the reason why a fetation can grow yet is unable to develop fully into an animal is that it lacks sentient. Soul, which only the male can supply). Hence in the second series of possibilities it is again the last one, (¢), which is the operative one: sentient Soul is present inside the male (7.¢., the semen), and it remains that rational Soul comes into being imside the male (i.¢., the semen) from some outside source, for it alone is not affected by thé two considerations which preclude the entry from outside of the other parts of Soul, whose activity © 168 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. 1m. plant. And it is clear we should follow a similar line also in our statements about sentient Soul and rational Soul, since a thing must of necessity possess every one of the sorts of Soul potentially before it possesses them im actuality. And necessity requires either (a) that none of them exists previously, and that they all come to be formed in (the fetation) ; or (6) that they are all there beforehand ; or (c) that some of them are there and some are not; and further, that they come to be formed in the material supplied by the female either (a) without having entered in the semen of the male or (6) after having so entered—that is, having come from the male, and if so, then that either (a) all of them or (6) none of them or (c) some of them come to be formed within the male from some outside source.* _Now the follow- ing considerations plainly show that they cannot all be present beforehand. Clearly, those principles whose activity is physical cannot be present without a physical body—there can, for example, be no walking without feet? ; and this also rules out the possibility of their entering from outside, since it is impossible either that they enter by themselves, because they are inseparable (from a physical body), or that they enter by transmission in some body, because the is essentially physical (see also below, 737 a 9 f.). Thus, sentient Soul, and a fortiori rational Soul, are supplied by the male, through the semen, to the material provided by _ the female. Aristotle does not, however, give any fuller solution than this to his own “very difficult puzzle’? how _and when rational Soul, which is thus supplied in a potential state by the male, is actualized in the offspring. » Aristotle takes the “ locomotive Soul,” the highest of the _ “ parts *’ or “ faculties ” of Soul apart from “ rational Soul,” and shows that this cannot enter by itself ; @ fortiori therefore none of the lower “ parts * can do so. 169 | ARISTOTLE) Th AU 4a 736 b TO yap. ome ppuas. Trepitrwpa petapaddovons ie Tpopis € éoriv. Aeizerat 87)" Tov vody [.0vor | en evrevovevat Kat Oetov etvau povov" 0b8ey yap p at adrod Th evepyetg. KOWWVEL CWLATLKT) evepyeta. whet in tie 30, Ildons pev obdv oxi Sdvapis | eTepov ouparos €oiKe KeKowwrynKevar Kal Oevorépov tTOv Kadov- peeveay orouxeleoy" Ws 8 Siapépovor Teese Te at dvyal Kal arysia adaray, obras Kat 4a Towadrn Suagéper puars. TAVTOV bey yap év To onéppart evuTsdpxet, OmEp Trovet yovepa, elvau 7a, OTepLara., 35 TO Kadovpevor, Deppor. Totro 8 od mip odde . TOLAUTY Sdvapis eotw, aAAa TO eprrepthapBavd- pevov ev TO oméppare Kat év TO dbpdider media Kal 7 ev TO medpware pvots, avddoyor oboa - TO 737 a TOV GoTpwV oToLyelw. d10 Trp Hey obBev ERY, ma C@ov,, ovde paiverar ouvioTdevov. éev* TUPOVPLEVOLS ovr’ ev dypots ovr ev Enpois odfev> 7%) dé Tob HAtov fepporns Kat » TOV Cawv od eit 1 SPL 1 $1) Platt, Zeller, Btf.: S€ vulg. aw P: om. ae @ i.¢,, it is not-a body possessing . the parts . necessary in order to give effect to the activities involved, such as legs for walking. Cf. P.A. 641, b 31 yéveous pev yap 7d gee top: odota dé 70. TEAos. > Of. De anima 413.a 4 ff. iy ¢ -Cf,, 762 a20. 4 See 736 a 131 ff. vith ¢ This is the so-called. ‘ fifth element,” (é.¢., over and — above the four “ elements ”’ found in the sublunary regions, viz., earth, air, fire, and water), though Aristotle’s own name for it is “the first of the elements ” (rs mp&rov t&v arotxeto, De. caelo 298 b 6, 76 mpa@rov ada, 270 b 21), owing to its pre-eminent qualities. The arguments for its existence will be found in De caelo, Bk. 1; it is ungenerated, indestruct- 170 ———. = GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. m1. semen is a residue of the nourishment that is under- going change.* It remains, then, that Reason alone enters in, as an additional factor, from outside; and that it alone is divine, because physical activity has nothing whatever to do with the activity of Reason.? _Now so far as we can see, the faculty of Soul of every kind has to do with some physical substance which is different from the so-called “ elements ” and _ more divine than they are; and as the varieties of Soul differ from one another in the scale of value, so do the various substances concerned with them differ in their nature. Im all cases the semen contains within itself that which causes it to be fertile—what is known as “hot ”’ substance,° which is not fire nor any similar substance, but the pneuma which is en- closed within the semen or foam-like stuff,? and the natural substance which is in the pneuma ; and. this substance is analogous to the element which belongs to the stars. That is why fire does not generate any animal,’ and we find no animal taking shape either in fluid or solid substances while they are under the influence of fire; whereas the heat of the sun? does effect generation, and so does the heat of animals, ible, a, divine (269 a 31 ff., 270.a 12 ff., 270 b 10 ff), Aris- totle claims that it was vaguely recognized by the. ancients, as is suggested by the name (aither) they gave to * * the upper- most ace” (70d 16 ff.) : amo Tob Dety ael Tov aidciov xpévov Oguevor THY exwvupiay ate. (Cf. Hippocrates, 7. capxav 2 (viii. 584 Littré) Boxéet dé por 6 Kanéopev Geppdv, abdvarov TE b - ; Toro ow we eLexipnoe eis THY avwrdTw 7E dopiy Kal atré pot doxée aif€pa tots maAaois i.é., as appears later, sentient Soul (ch. 5), ° i.@., as above (Il. 23-25), potentially. 174 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IT. m1. contains. all the parts of the body potentially, though none in actuality; and “all” includes those parts which distinguish the two.sexes.. Just as it some- times. happens that deformed ¢ offspring are produced by d deformed ‘parents, and sometimes not; so the off- | spring produced by a female are sometimes female, sometimes. not, but male. The reason is that the _ female is as it’ were a deformed male; and the menstrual discharge is semen, though in an impure condition ; 7.e., it lacks one constituent, and one only, the principle of Soul.” ‘This explains why, in the case of the: wind-eggs produced by some animals, the egg which takes shape contains the parts of both sexes;® but it has not this principle, and therefore it does not become a living thing with Soul in it; this principle has to be supplied by the semen of the male, and it is when the female’s. residue secures this principle that a fetation is formed.4 [When substances which are fluid but also cor- poreal are heated, an outer layer forms round them, just as we find a solid layer forming round things that have been boiled, as they cool. ‘All bodies depend on something glutinous to hold them together ; and as their development proceeds and they become larger, this glutinous character is acquired by the substance known as. sinew, which holds the parts of animals together (in. some it is actual sinew ‘which does this, in others its counterpart).’ Skin, blood-vessels, membrane and all that class of substances are of the _ # Or, “it becomes a fetation,” i.¢., a perfect fetation ; see | Tia 10. _ °* The following paragraph, which consists partly of re- . marks taken from elsewhere, i is irrelevant here. * Sometimes, as here, “‘ counterpart” could be repre- _ sented by the modern term:‘‘ analogue ” ;~ ef. P.A. 653 b 36. 175 737 b ARISTOTLE) / 1) 4) TO. TOLODTOV yevos” Sade per yap Tatra TO Kat Hrrov Kal ohers" drrepox Kal Meier] Iv. Tér be Cow Ta pev areAcotépav ExovTa ry dvow, orav yévntrar’ KUnua. TéAevov CGov de pare, 10 TéXevov, Ovpale mpotera: bv’ ds. 3 airias etpnrat TpOTepov. téAevov 8° 7709 TOT” corlv, orav TO eV dppev ii. TO Se OyjAv TOV KuTpdrov, ev daous éotly atrn a Svadopa TOV ywropevany’ eva yap ovre OAv yerve OUT appev, doa. und? adra yiverar ek OrjAeos Kat dippevos, pnd eK Coewy puyvupevon Kal Trept 15 pev THS TOUTWY yeveoews UoTEpov epovpev* Ta dé CworoKodvra. ev abrois Ta. TéXeva TOV Cow, [expe mep av ob yevvnon Sdov Kal Ovpate exmepaby, exet avpdues ev avbtois® To yuyvopevov C@ov. “Ooa dé Ovpale pev Cworoxe?, ev atrois 5° wo- ToKet TO ™parTov, oTav yevv7jon TO ov TéAeLov, 20 roUTwv eviwy pev dmohverau TO WOv worep TOV Opale @oroKowvTwy, Kal TO Leov €k TOU @od yiverat ev T@ Onde, eviwy 8 drav KaravadwOH 7 ek TOD Wov Tpody, TeAcLodTaL amo THs DoTEpas, Kal Sud TOTO ovK dmohverac TO Mov dao Tijs vaTépas. TavTnv So Exoust THY Svadopay ot cedaxywders ¢ ix: 25 Ques, Tepe. cv daTEpov Kal? ara Aexréov. Niv 8 azo tOv mpwrwv apxréov mp@tov. €ort 1 GAws PS: cAws ev vulg. 2 adrois Rackham: atré vulg. « Of. P.A, 644 a 17, and note there; also Introd. § 70. > For ithe meaning of “ perfect”’ animals, see below, 737 b 15, 16, and the fuller definition given at 732 b 28 ff. © i.e, a “perfect” egg; for another sense, see 776 b 1. 4 For Selachia, see Bk. III, ch. 3. 176 EN a ah al GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. m1.-1. _ Stamp 5 they differ only by the “smore and ess, or putting it generally, by excess and de- iseees]| rham So far as those aukpals ‘whaise naiate sa cmoke im- IV oe are concerned,” as soon as a perfect fetation ° has been formed, though it is not so far a perfect animal, they expel it. The reasons for this I have already | stated. A fetation is perfect by the time it ‘is either male or female. (This applies to those animals whose offspring have this distinction of sex, for there are’ some ‘which generate offspring ‘that aré neither male nor female; these are the animals which are not themselves produced by male and female parents—not produced in fact as the result _of the copulation of a pair ofanimals.. We will speak later of the way in which these are generated.) The perfect animals, the ones which are internally viviparous, retain within themselves the animal which is forming, and it remains joined to them until it is. A to birth and expelled. With regard to those which are internally ovi- -parous in ‘the first stage although they are externally viviparous, the egg, when it has been perfectly formed, in some cases (a) is released, just as it is in the externally oviparous animals, and the animal is _ produced out of the egg inside the female : ; in other cases (6); when the nourishment in the egg has been ‘used up, the supply for the creature’s perfecting is derived from the uterus; and that is why the egg _is not released from the uterus... This distinguishing “feature belongs to the Selachian fishes, which will have to receive special mention. later.? _ For the present, however, we must begin first of Generation _all with the animals that come first. These are the ™ Y'?*"* 177 | ARISDOTLEYVOITARAKAO 4 737 b de ra TéAEva loa mpOra, To.adra dé To Cporo- ) Koovray Kat TovTa avOpwrros mp@rov. ‘H pev obv dardKpuats yiverat aot Tob oméppa~ TOS aomep dAAov Twos mepurTaparos. déperar | yap €xaoTov eis TOV olKelov Té7TOV odBev droBua- 30 Cowevov tod mvEvLaTOS, 088" aAAns aizrias Towaurns | avayKalovons, Wamep Twes gacw, eAkew * ra aidota fpdckovres Borep Tas ouvas, TO Te TVEdpare Bra- Copeveny, WoTEp evOeXOLEvOY dMobi Tov mopev- Ofivaw ma) Bracapevev ny Tavrynv TH TmepitTwow n° TI Ths vypas 7 Enpas Tpopijs, 6 OTL TAS: €fd8ous : 35 adTav, 7Opoiopevw TH TvedpaTu cvvekKpivovow. totro S€é Kowov Kata TavtTwv doa det Kwa, dud 738 a yap Tod To mvedpa Karacxedy 7 loxds éyyiverat: emrel Kal dvev TAUvTNS THS Bias € exKpiverat Ta mepit" Topare Kal kabevdovor, a av dverot TE Kat mrjpers TMEpUTT patos ot TOTFOL TUXwow ovres. - Spovov 8e Kav él ‘tis pain tois dutots bo Tod mvevpaTos 5 éxdorore Ta oméppara dmroxpiveaba mpos TOUS TomoUS mpos ods ciwe pepe TOV KapTor, Gada Tovrou rev aitiov, wor7rep elpyrat, TO maow elvar Hopea. SeKTLKa TOLS TEPLTTOpLAGL Tos T axpijorors (Kad, Tots xXpneyLors)” [otov 7H te Enpa Kal TH by pa, Kat TO ) aipare Tas Kkadovpevas, prcBas]. nia 10 ‘Tots pev odv. O7jAcou mept Tov TOY BoTepav TOTO, ee avabev. tTHv. bdo phere: THS TE pe 14 P: om. vulg. * 4 P: om. yulg, = supplevi, cetera seclusi; vid. p. 562, infra. d « Cf. Hippocrates, a. apy. inrpixis 22 (i. 626-628 Littré), : where the action of the bladder, the head and the uterus in ; drawing fluid to themselves is compared to the action of oukvat. 178 oo “4 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. tv. rer animals, which means the vinipers ones ; nd the first of thesé.is, Man, In all of them the semen is secreted in precisely the (a) The same way as any other residue. Each of the residues is carried to,its proper place. without the exertion of any force from the: pneuma and without compulsion by any other cause ‘of that sort, although some people assert this, alleging that the sexual parts draw the residue like cupping-glasses * and that we exert force by means of the pneuma, as though it were possible for the séminal residue or for the residue of the liquid or of the solid nourishment to take any other course unless such force were exerted. The reason given for this view'is that our discharge of these residues is accompanied by the collecting of the pneuma (the holding: of the hecathi. But this is a- phenomenon which is common to.all. cases where something has to be moved, because holding the breath is the way in which the required strength is obtained. Besides, even without the exertion of this force residues are actually discharged during sleep, if the places con- cerned are relaxed and full of residue. Such state- ments are on a par with saying that the seeds of plants aré on each occasion secreted to the places where they commonly bear their fruit by’ means of pneuma. No, the real reason for this; as has been said, is that‘in all animals there are ‘parts for the reception of the residues, both for the useless (and for the useful ones)-[e.g., both.for the solid:and the fluid ; and for the blood there are the blood-vessels as they are called].? The region of the uterus in females.—Higher up _ in the body the two blood-vessels, the Great Blood- » This phrase is‘an interpolation. See p. 562. 179 738 a JARISTOTLE)) 0) yaAns Kat Tijs doprijs, moat Kal Aertat prdBes tehevT@ow els TAS borépas, ov Se ee ek Ths tTpodhs, Kal Tis pices de a. tl TeTTEew ob Suvapievys, exkpiverat Oud error 15 dAcBav eis Tas dorépas, od Suvapevww dud es orevoxewplav dexecbar THY ‘UrrepBohny Tob miBous, Kat yivera TO 700s olov atwoppois. - dxpiBas per ody 1) meptodos ob TéraKTau Tals yuvauge, Bovrerau de POwovrev yivecbar TOV _beqvev edAdyers” pu- Xporepa yap Ta owpaTa Tayv fdow 6 oray Kal TO 20 mepiexov oupBaivy ytyveabar _ToLobrov, ai de tTav pynv@v advvodor puxpat bua THY THs. ochivys amo- Acupw, Sudmrep Kat Xetpepious oupBatver Tas ovy- ddovs ‘elvas TeV pnvay peadAov 7) nH Tas peodrnTas. jreraBeBAnKdros ev oby eis ata Too TEpuTTaLaros BodArerat yiyveobar Ta Karapyvee kard THY etpn- 25 pevnv Treplodoy, [ik [7 TTETTE[LPLEVOU dé KaTa puuk pov Get Tt dmrokpiverar~ 810 7a AevKa puKpois et Kal’ maL- dtors ovat yiverar Tots OyjAcow. petpidlovea peev oov dpporepac adTat at amoxpices TOV TrepirTw- pdteov Ta odpara oa Covow, dre yeyvopevns Kab- dpoews TOV TEpiTT@pATOY , a Tod vooeiv area 30 Tots Cwpacw* 17 yeropeviny be 7 q TrAcrdveoy yeyvo- pevwv Brdrret: move? yap 7) vocous } TOV owpmatwv Kabaipeow, 510. Kal Ta AeuKa cuvexDs ywwopeva Kal mAcovalovra tiv avénow adatpetrar TOV madiwv. "EE avdyrns pev odv 7) mepitrwors adrn yiverat ~ ; 1 wixpois rc] puxpa onueta Z. 9 i.e, the vena cava and, the whole venous systeras and the aorta and the whole arterial system. * The moon has ho real connexion with menstruation. Various notions on this subject will be found in’ H. M. Fox, 180 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. 1. vessel and the Aorta,* branch out into»many -fine blood-vessels, which terminate in the uterus. _When these are overfull of nourishment (which owing to its own coldness the female system is unable to concoct), it passes through these extremely fine_blood-vessels into the uterus ; but owing to their being so narrow they cannot hold the excessive quantity of it, and so a sort of haemorrhage takes place. In women the period is not accurately fixed, but it tends to happen when the moon is waning,” which is what we should expect, since the bodies of animals are colder when their environment is colder, and the time of new moon is a cold time on account of the disappear- ance ° of the moon: the same thing explains why the end >of the month is stormier than the middle-4 When the residue has changed into blood, the men- strual discharge tends to occur in accordance. with the period just mentioned’; but. when the residue has not been concocted, small quantities are secreted from time to time, and’ this is why “ whites ’’ occur in females, even while they are still quite small children. These two secretions of residue; if moder- ate in amount, keep the body in a sound condition, because they constitute an evacuation of the residues which cause disease. If they fail to occur, or occur too plenteously, they are injurious, producing either ' diseasés or a lowering of the body ; and ‘that is why ‘continuous and abundant discharge of “ whites ” _ prevents young girls from. growing. Thus the production of this residue by females is, Selene. For other references see F,.H. A. Marshall, “‘ Sexual Periodicity,” in Phil. Trans. Royal, Soc. (B), ~CCXXVI (No. 539), p. 442, n. © i.é, complete waning. 4 See 777 b 35, n. . 181 738 a 738 b “1 ARISTOTLE)! t/t Tots Onder dua Tas etpnpcévas. airtas’ pa Suvapievys 35 Te yap merrew THS piocws avdyKn TEepitrTapa iy yreobat [4] povov THs axpiorov tpodhs, aAAa Kat ev tats pAeiv, brrepBaAAew TE An Gvovra” Kara. Tas Aemroraras prAeBas. eveka dé 708 BeXriovos Kal To TéAOUS 7) vats KATAX PHT AL mpos TOV TOTOV Tobrov Tijs yeveoews xapw, ¢ Gres ofov ejeMe Towvrov yevyr ae ETEpov" 709 yap drdpyer Suvdpiet ye ov TOLObTOV olov 7p €oTt Taparos dardxprots. Tots peev, obv Oijdeow a draco, avaryicatov yiyveot au TepiTTwpa, Tots jev atwarucois mhetov,, Kal TOUT@Y avOpwmw meiorov: dvdyKn be Kab Tots dois abpoileabat TWO. avoraow eis Tov doTepiKov Tém0V. To 8 airtov, ote Tots 8 aipariKots: mAcfov. Kat ToUrw ott mA€eiotov Tots irc saree + tetpenet TpoOTEpov. Tod & év pev tots Orfdeou Taow dmdpyew nepir~ Twa ToLobToV, ev be Tois dppeot pa méaow, €via yap od mpoterae youn, GAN Bore Ta Tmpoteweva* TH ev TH yor} KWHOEL Snjoupyet 70 auprordjevov ek Tijs ev Tots OnAcow drs, ovUTw ra Tovadra fev}? TH supplevi. 2 seclusi. @ See Bk. I. 718 a 10 ff. > Cf. Hippocrates, a. gapkav 13 (viii. 600 Littré) 9 Tpodn émevdav adixnrat és Exactov, TovavTnv amédwKe THV A Ya | ExdoTou: SKola TEP Hv: ° The “ concoction’ of the semen in viviparous. land- animals takes place actually.during copulation (see 717 b 24 186 - a —S— —— GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. rw. the soil provides the material—i.e., the physical body _—for the seeds, ‘And on. this account the. part. in _ females which receives the semen is not a passage, _ but i it—te., the uterus—is fairly wide, whereas the pak that emit semen have passages only, and these ve no blood in them.* , as ce only when it occupies its own proper place each of the residues becomes that particular wage ; before that time none of them can do so _ without great violence exerted contrary to nature. _ >» We have now given the reason for the secretion of _ the generative residues in animals. _ «Im those species which emit semen, when’ the _ semen from the male has entered, it causes the purest pe _of the residue to “set "—I say “ purest por- tion,” because the most part of the menstrual dis- _ charge is useless, being fluid, just as the most. fluid portion of the male semen is, and in most cases the earlier. discharge during any one emission is less fertile than the later, because it has less soul-heat owing to its being unconcocted, whereas that which “has ‘been concocted ‘is ‘thicker and has more body in it.° In those cases (whether women or other female animals) where there is no external discharge (due'to there being no large amount of useless residue in the generative secretion), the amount of stuff which is produced within them corresponds in quantity to _ that which remains behind in those animals which discharge externally. This stuff gets “set ” by the dynamis of the male (a) present in the semen which and. 718 a 5 above), which explains the phenomenon here _ mentioned. In fishes and serpents the semen is already con- _ cocted before the time of copulation (ibid.). 187 739 a 739 b ARISTOTLE TAI 480 TO dmroxpwopevey, a, els) FO" dppev’ €. Adovros rod dvddoyov popiov ‘rats ‘torépais, aomep & éy riot rv 20 evr opeov paiverar oupBatvov. sy Bee “Ort 8 yevopeevn byporns pera Tis forts sath dijAcow oveev ovpBdrdrcrat eis TO Une, eipyTau TpOTEpov. pddiora & dv Sdéctev, & ore, Kabdzrep tots appest, ylyverau Kal Tats yous wuKT@p é Vaud ow eLoverpwsrrety. ddA, TobTo onciov ovbev: yi- 25 vera yap Kal Tots véous TOV | Gppeveov Tots péAdovar pev pnbev. dé TRIS EROS 7 Tots ru" eines 2 dyovov. » atl “Avev pev ody THs Tob Spc mpotoews ev. Th ovvovoia advvarov souraBetv, Kal dvev Ths TOV yovaucetov TepiTTacews }) Odpale mpoeAPovons H evros ikavits ovons. od cvpBawovens évTot THS 30 etwOvias yiyveobat Tots O)Aeow ovis trept mp opuidiay TV rovavray ovAAapBadvovow, dy TU 6 totros is. observed to take place in certain insects).@ | Lhaye e said already ” that the fluid which is pro- _ duced in females and accompanies sexual excitement _ contributes nothing at all to the fetation. The | strongest reason for believing that it does is that the | phenomenon of night effusions occurs in women just } as in mén; but this is no proof at all, because it | oceurs with young men who come almost to the point _ but in fact emit nothing, and also tania those who as | yet emit infertile semen. _. Conception cannot occur without (a) : an emission | from the male during copulation and. without (6) the | resence of the menstrual. residue either externally harged or available in sufficient quantity inter- nally.. Conception takes place, however, even if the pleasure which women usually experience during ‘sexual intercourse fails to occur, if the part concerned | happens to be in heat and the uterus has descended within. Generally, however, pleasure does occur, _ because when the secretion, which is usually accom- panied by pleasure in man and woman alike, takes | place; the os wtert has not closed, and‘in these con- _ ditions a ‘better passage is: meee: ott the semen of areer The. discharge does: nat (as some suppose) nae Belanc within the uterus, because the os uteri is narrow. _ The discharge of the male takes place in front of it, at precisely the same spot where the female dis- charges _ the moisture which is produced in some instances. Sometimes it remains in this_ place, Cf, 738 b 12. > Bk. I, ch. 20 © Cf 127 b 33 ff. 189 ARISTOTLE) 9/0) re Toorop éxov" TOV TOrov,* ore bé, ay dyn “oup- beéTpwos exovoa Kal Beppu dua Ty xdBapow qe 5 orépa, elow od. onpetov dé* Kal yap TO mpdabera® dypa mpoorebévra _adatpetrar Enpa. ert ‘Se oa TOV Sow Tpos 7@ drolapart Exel TOS jorépas, Kabdzep Opvis kal TOV ixPdeov ot woroobvres, advvatov €Kel 147) omdobar TO OT Eppa, GA’ adebev eAbeiv. eAicer de THY ‘younv 6 Toros Sud. tap Gep- 10 pornra THY tmdpxovoay. Kal 7 TOV KaTapNviwv be exKepiols Kal ovvdbpovors eptrupever Oeppornra ev 7@ popiyy Toure, [wore|* Kabarep Ta KwriKa® Tay dyyeiwv, ray Bepud dvaxhvobh, ond 70 dap eis ada KaTaarpepopevov TOU oréparos. | Kat ToOTov ev TOV Tpomov ylyverat ondots, ws 8 Twe 15 Aéyouot, Tots opyavuxots ™pos Thy avvovotay po~ plows od yiverau Kat’ ov0éva TpomTov. dvdrahuy be oupBaiver kat Tots A€youar mpotecbar Kal THY vatka o7épya. Tpoiepevars yap | ea oupBaiver Tais dorépats mdAw clow omar, cirep. puxOjoera TH Yoh TH Too appevos. To d ovTe ytyveoOar 20 TEptepyov, 7 Oe puous ovdev mrovet meplepyov. Fete tir Tav 6€ ovorh 4 ev rats dorépais, dndxpuots tod OnXeos bo Tijs 708 dppevos YOvAS, Tapa m)xjovov movovons aorep emi Too _ydranros: THs qmuetias: Kal yap: UT] mueria yaha €orl Deppornra Cwrikny €xov, 7) To Spiovov eis €v dyer Kal owviornar, 1 éyov Y : €xovra vulg, 2 zémov Platt : : zpémov. vulg. 3 mpocbera P: apdobev vulg. 4 Sore seclusi. 5 kava Platt: dxéura vulg.: vas quod non est plenum x (=keva ?). @ Of. 128 a 31 ff. 190 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IT. rv. metimes, if the uterus happens to be in a suitable Fabadition and hot owing to the evacuation of the -menses, the uterus draws it in. Evidence ag pages is e fact that pessaries though wet when applied are i bs ede removed. se as animals (such as birds and viviparous fishes) whose uterus is close ‘by the diaphragm there is no alternative: the semen must be drawn in ; it cannot enter at the moment of discharge. This region, in virtue of the heat present in it (the discharge and aggregation of the menstrual fluid also produce fiery heat in this part) draws up the _semen-in the same way that conical vessels which have been washed out with something warm. draw water up into themselves when they are turned mouth downwards. And that is the way in which the semen is drawn in; it is certainly not done, as some allege, by the parts that are instrumental in tion. We find the situation reversed in the theory that the woman as well as the» man emits semen, since if the uterus emits any semen outside itself, it will have to draw it back inside again if it is to mingle with the semen of the male. Such a performance is superfluous, and Nature does nothing which i is superfluous. - The action of the semen of the male in “ setting ” _ the female’s secretion in the uterus is similar to that | of rennet upon milk.’ Rennet is milk which contains _ vital heat, as semen does, and this integrates the homogencous substance and makes it “set.” As the _ * Cf. 755.a 18. This is a remarkable intuition of the "essential rdle played by ferment action in embryonic develop- | ment. Cf. also Job x. 10 “ Hast thou not poured me out as milk, and curdled me like cheese ? Thou hast clothed me _ with skin and flesh, and knit me together with bones and _ Sinews ” (R.V.). 191 739 b 140 a 25 30 or ARISTOTLE) FT? 174 Kal. 2) ‘you mpos ry TOV Karapnviaw dvow Tabro" mérovlev" 7) yap adr pvois €eort yddaxros Kat Karapaviwy. ovvidvros wi 700 cwparwdous eK- KpiveTat TO Dypov, | Kal Tmepiioravran Kd«Aw Enpawwo- peveoy TOV YENpay | bpeves, Kal e& dvdyens Kat evekd Twos" Kat yap Oeppawopeven EnpaivecBau dvaryicatoy 7a, eoxara Kal uxyouevwr, Kat det p42), ev vyp@ To Cov elvat adda Keywpiopevov.. Ka- Aobvrau S€ TovTwv of pev dpeves Ta dé ydpia, Suapépovra TO padrov Kat iyrrov: 6 opotws 8 hip xovow év Te Tots WoTdKols TabTa Kal Tots C@o- TOKots. * "“Orav dé ovoTi TO Kono 789, rene movel Tots O7ELpo}LEvoLs.. 7 Hey yep apx7, al ev Tots a7réppacw ev avtois eat 7 mporn: dra. ° attn amoxpilf évodca duvajer mpoTEepov, amo Tav- TIS. apierat 6 te BAaords Kai 7 pita. avTn 8 eotlv h TIHV Tpodiyy AapBaver: Setran yap’ adéjoews 70 purer. ovUTw Kal ev TH KUHpATL tpéTrov Twa mavTwv evovreoy TOV feopiwy Suvdpet. a) dpx7 7pe 6000 pddvora € evuTrdpXet. 510 dmroxpiverat m™p@Tov % Kapdia evepyeia. Kal TodTo ob povov emi Tijs aicbijcews djAov (ovpBaiver yap ovTws), GAA Kab emt TOU Aoyou. orav yap am daudoitv daroxpu0 fj, det adro atito duoiKety TO yevouevov, Kaldaep am- ravTo P: roéro vulg. 2 67 A.-W., Ob* : dé vulg. rs 1 @ dvats, as Often, refers specially to the substance of the. thing. The substance of milk and the menstrual fluid is identical, because they are both residues of the useful nourishment, 192 * GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. wv. nature * of milk and the menstrual fluid is one and the same, the action of the semen upon the substance of the menstrual fluid is the same as that of rennet upon milk. Thus when the “setting” is effected, 2.e., when the bulky portion * sets,” the fluid portion comes off; and as the earthy portion solidifies mem- branes form all round its outer surface. _ (This is the result of necessity ; but also it is to.serve rpose : @) Necessity ordains that the extreme shittace of a ‘should solidify when heated as well as when abate? j (6) it is requisite that the young animal should not be situated in fluid but well away from it.) Some of these are called membranes ; some choria®: and they differ by the “ more and less.” ¢ They are found in Ovipara and Vivipara alike. ' Once the fetation has “ set,”’ it behaves like seeds ® — sown in the ground. . The first principle of growth) Senter is present in the seeds themselves too, and as soon te embryo. as this, which at first was present potentially, has become distinct, a shoot-and a root are thrown out from it, the root being the channel by which nourishment is obtained, for of course the plant , needs material for growth. So too in the fetation, in a way all the parts are present potentially, but the first principle has made the most headway, and on. that account the first to become distinct in actuality is the heart. This is plain. not, only ‘to Heart. the senses (for after all it isa matter of fact), but also to the reason. Once the fetation which has been formed is separate and distinct from both the parents, it must manage for itself, just like a son who has’ set up a house of his own independently of his > See also H.A. Bk. VI, che 3. © See 737 b 7, n..-and Introd. § 70. H 193 ARISTOTLED!T ATH 740 a ovxiabev TEKVOV amr marpos. wore det apxny €, éyew, ag’ Hs Kal verepov Svakdopnots Tod odparos ylverat Tots Caous. et yap e€wlev mor’ éorae kat dorepov evecopevn, od [ovov Svamroprjcecev av Tus TO 70TE, ay ore dvdyKn, OTay EkacrTov xopilyrat tay popiy, Tavrny dmdpxew mp@rov, e€ js Kat 7) avénots dmrdpyet Kal 7) Kiros tots dAXous. [40- plots. OvdTrep doo. A€yovow, wore Anékptros, TO elu T™parrov duaxpivecbar TaV SOO, dorepov 15 be TA EVTOS,. OUK ophas A€yovow, aorrep gvdtvey 7) AcBivesv Cepuv. TH pev yap Touadr” (ovK €xEL apyny ohus, Ta d¢ la mdvr exer Kal evros. EXEL. S10 mp@tov 1} _Kapdia paivera Suapuopern maou Tots evaipows* apx7) ‘yap. avTH Kal TOV Opovojep@v Kal Tov dvopovopepav. 770 yap apxyy Tadrny 20 a€tov axodcat Tob C@ov Kal Tod ovoThwatos, 6Tav dénrar Tpodijs* TO yap 57) ov’ av&dverar. Tpopn) de Ceov 7 a7 eoxarn ala Kat To dvdhoyov. TOUTWY 8° ayyetov at préBes: 51d 7 Kapdia Kat | Tobraw 1 dv} Gov Y. srela' 1 o * See Diels, Vorsokr.® 68 A 145, » See Introd. § 19. ¢ The point is that by this time the fetation is definitel constituted—it is an individual—it exists, ‘and that any exists can correctly be said to have an dapyy. Also, that which exists needs nourishment, and in animals nourishment means blood, of which the heart is the apy7. (As Aristotle says elsewhere, 735 a, the heart supplies the pine of growth, and the nutritive faculty of Soul operates through the heart.) This, then, is why, as soon as the fetation is definitely constituted, the heart is formed—otherwise no growth could take place. 4 Tt is unnecessary to read {Gov for dv: dv gives better point to the argument, with which compare the passage 194 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. rv. father. That is why it must have a first principle, ' from which also the subsequent ordering of the _ animal’s body is derived. Otherwise, supposing this _ principle is to come in at some moment from outside | and take up its position inside later on, then we may | well be puzzled at what moment this is to happen, _ and also we may point out that of necessity the first principle must be present at the outset, at the time when each of the parts is being separated from the | rest, since the growth and movement of the other parts are derived from it. That is why those people | are wrong who, like Democritus,* hold that the external ‘parts of animals become distinct first, and _ then the internal ones. They might be speaking of animals carved out of wood or stone, the sort of things which have no first principle at all, whereas living animals \all have. such a principle, and it is. inside them. .On this.aceount in all blooded animals. it is the heart which. can first be seen as something. dis- tinct, as this is the first principle-both of the “ uni- _ form ” and of the “ non-uniform ”’ parts ’—since this is justifiably designated as first principle of the animal or organism from the moment when it begins to need _ nourishment,’ for of course that which exists grows,? and, for an animal, the ultimate form of nourish- ' ment is blood or its counterpart. Of these fluids _ the blood-vessels are the receptacle,’ and therefore 735 a 13-26 (where again the reading with év should be kept _ in 735 a 22). Here the point is clearly made that, once a _ thing has come into being (yévyrar), it must of necessity grow. _ See also note on 744 b 36. ¢ The blood-vessels distribute the ‘* ultimate nourishment ” _ to the parts of the body, which, as Aristotle says (743 a 1), are _ moulded round them like a wax figure round a core or foundation, and are formed out of them. “s 195 ARISTOTLE) 1 1! 740 a > px. SiAov dé ToiTo €x T&v toTropiav Kal TOY dvaropaw. vide rine *Ezret dé Suvdpet pev 797) EGov aredes b€, adA- 25 Aobev dvayKatov AapBavevw Ty Tpogy" 510 pee TH botépa Kat TH exovon, womep yi durov » TOO ite tpodyv, Ews av rehew ij Tos TO Rt 7 oH) C@ov dvvdper TOPEVTUKOY. Sid ek Tis Kapd as Tas dvo préBas mp@rov" 7 pou dméypaspev" dad" dé tovtwrv hréBia aarnpTyTAL m7 pos Thy v oTépay 3 30 xadovpevos opparos. €oTu yap. ry dpudadds prep, Tots fev pula, Tots dé mAclovs THY Low. Tepl | TavTas Kédugos Sepparucoy fr) Kadovpevos pte Aos|? Sua 70 SeicBat cwryplas Kal oKémns THY TOV preBav dobéveray. at dé preBes otov pilac Tos 35 TI tborépav ovvdrrovar, be ov AapBavee TO Kina TH Tpopipy ToUTOU yap xydpw ev tais torépais prever tO Cov, adr’ odx ws Anpoxperos | oyow, iva Suamhérrnran Ta jeopta. Karo 7a pLopia Tis exovons. 740 b ToOTO yap emt TOV @oroKowyrwy davepov: exeiva yap €v Tots ots AapBdver TH Sudkpiow, Kexwopt- opeva Tis LaTpas. ’Amropyaete 5° av TUS, el TO aiya bev Tpody) € eoTw, un dé Kapdia TpParn yiverar évaysos odoa, [ro 8 aipa Tpody} |" n Oe tpopy Ovpaber, dev cio AOev 5%) mpwrm tpody;, 7) Tobr odk adnfes, ws maca 1 npwras P. seclusit Bekker. 3 secluserunt A.-W.; pro 76 8 alua . . . Ovpaber et sanguis est ex extrinseco d. *@ HA. Bk. U1, ch. 3. ' » Or, ‘sketches in,” ‘‘ traces out.’ Cf. 743 b 20, and a different metaphor at 743 a 2. © Cf. 145 b 25 ff. 4 See Diels, Vorsokr5.68 A 144. 196 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. 1. the heart is the first principle of them as well. This is clearly brought out in the Researches * and in the Di. e fi — 7 _ Now since the fetation is already an animal potenti- | ally, though an imperfect one, it mist get its nourish- : ae from elsewhere; and that is why it makes use | of the uterus, z.e., of the mother, just as a plant makes _ use of the earth, in order to get its nourishment, until such time as it is sufficiently perfected to be a potenti- ally locomotive animal. That is why Nature pre- scribes ® first of all the two blood-vessels that run _ from the heart ; and attached to these are some small | blood-vessels which run to the uterus, forming what’ | | is known as the umbilicus; the umbilicus © being of ' course a blood-vessel—a single blood-vessel in some _ animals, and consisting of more numerous ones in _ others. Round these blood-vessels there is a skin- like integument, because the blood-vessels being | weak need a protective covering to keep them safe _ and sound. The blood-vessels join on to the uterus _ as though they were roots, and through them the _ fetation gets its nourishment. And that of course _ is the reason why the young animal stays in the | uterus (not as Democritus @ alleges, in order that its | parts may be moulded after the fashion of the parts _ of its mother). This is manifest in the case of the ' Ovipara, whose parts become distinct in the egg, 2.€., _ after they have been separated from the matrix. _ __Here is a puzzle which may be raised. If (1) the _ blood is nourishment, (2) the heart is the first thing _to be formed, and when formed contains blood, and _ (8) the nourishment comes from outside, from whence did the first nourishment* enter? Well, perhaps * i.e, the blood which is in the heart to begin with. 197 ARISTOTLE })') 5% Oipaber, arr dbOds, womep ev Tots Tov puTav o7éppaow eveoti Te Towbrov TO Patvdopevov mpd-= tov yaAaxT@des, ovrw Kai ev TH tAn Tov Cowv TO TEpiTTWLA THs CvoTdcews Tpody eaTW. ~ /, : _ A ‘H perv obv ad&nows TH Kkvujpare yiverar Sia Tod > a \ eX , 54 VISES 3) tiated .€y t 10 oppadod tov adrov Tpdrov oymep 61a TOY pildv a a A . : - sy Fat ae) tots utois [kat tots Caos avtois; Stay amo- r x P * Cs iiaetil To veer Avodow, é« Tis ev abrots tpodhs|"* wept civ voTEpov AeKréov Kara. Tods oixetous THY Adyar Katpovs. 7 de Sidkpiois yiyverar THY popiwy ody ws TwWeES 4 BARES droAapPavovor, dia TO medvKevar depecbar To 15 Gpovov. mpos TO Spovov (pds yap moAAais. a. e c / e ” sb ais 6 Adyos otros exer Svayxepetas, cvpBaiver xXwpis Exaotov yiveobar TOV popiwy tBv opmovo- pep@v, olov dora Kal? atta Kat vedpa, Kat tas a > ey ” > a ; , | adpxas Kal’ abrds, et tis drodeEairo Tadtyy Thy airtav), add’ dre TO mepirrwua 7d Tod OiAEos / af D5 e / \ ee) a vs 20 duvdpec ToLwodrév eoriw olov dvae To C@ov, Kat ” , \ , > , > itu yt 8 A éveott Suvduer Ta propia, evepyeia 8° opbev, Sid TavTny THY aitlay yiveTar ExacTov adT@v, Kal OTL TO TounTiKOV Kal TO TabnTiKOV, Gtav Olywow, dv TpOTroy €oTi TO ev TouTiKOV TO Se mabyTiKdy (Tov ‘ A dé tpdmov A€yw TO Ws Kat ob} Kal dt), EvOdS TO a ati | 25 ev Trove TO O€ Taoxer. VAnY pev Odv TAapeyeL TO 1 seclusi: suspicatus est Platt: tov adrov . . . tpodqs Om. ee * This phrase seems to be an interpolation, connected perhaps with ll. 29-31 below. > This commonplace of thought in Greek philosophy and medicine is a pseudo-scientific form of a proverbial maxim (cf. “birds of a feather ’’), specially alluring to the Greeks, Cf. especially Hippocrates, 7. dvovos zaidiov, ch. 17 init. and Jin. (vii. 496-498 Littré). See quotation in note on 742 a 1. 198 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. rv. after all it is not true to say that all the nourishment _ comes from outside. In the seeds of plants there is some nutritive matter, which at first has a milky appearance ; and it may be that in the same way, in the material of the animal, the residue left over from its construction is present as nourishment for it from the outset. . » So then, the fetation’s growth is supplied through the umbilicus in the same way that a plant’s growth is supplied through its roots [and also as that of animals is, when they have been separated, from the nourishment which is in themselves].* Of these matters we shall have to speak later.at the appropriate occasions in our discussions. As for the differentia- tion of the various parts: this is not due, as some Loe det any natural law that “like makes its way to-like.”® - This theory involves quite a number of difficulties, one being that if you accept it as stating a valid reason, it follows that each of the “ uniform ”’ parts, such as bones, and sinews, and flesh, is formed separately, each one all on its own. . The true reason why each of these parts is formed is that the residue provided by the female is potentially the same in character as the future animal will be, according to its nature ; and although none of ‘the parts is present in, actuality in that residue, they are all there, potenti- ally. A further reason is this.. When a pair of factors, the one active and the other passive, come into contact in the way in which one is active and the other passive (by “ way’ I mean the manner, the _ place, and the time of the contact), then immediately __ both are brought into play, the one acting, the other _ being acted upon. In this case, it is the female which ‘ ¥ provides the matter, and the male which provides the 199 740 b 741 a 30 35 5 V ARISTOTLE (Pe ov OnAv, TY Oi apxny THS KWTEWS TO |appev. ‘WoTrep de ta bd Ths Téxvns ywopeva yiverar Sid TOV opydvew, €oTt 8° ddnbearepov eimrety dua Tis Koy cews avr av, avrn 8° €or evépyera THS TEXYNS, 7 de Téxvy jLopdy) TOV ywopevwy av adAw, ovrws 7 Tis Open ruts puxtis dvvapius, | aorep wad ev avrois Tots fous Kal Tots gurois DoTEpov eK THS tpodpis zrovet my avénow, Xpwpevn ofov Spydvous Depuornre Kat puxpornre (ev yap tovro.s 7 omots exelyns, Kal Ady Twi EKaoToV yiverat), obras Kal ef apyijs auviornot TO dice yeyvopevov Hh yap abty €otw An 7h avEdverau Kat €€ as ovviorarat TO mp@rov, OTE Kal 7) movoboa Suvapus 7 TadTo [re ef dpxiis: peilay de avrn cori)": obyv. avTn eoTiv uv Opener) bux, adrn €oTt Kal 7) yewaoa: Kal Tob’ éotiv u poous 7) €KdoTov, evuTdpxovoa KaL ev purois Kal eév Cdous Tmaow. Ta e Gada Hedpea Ths yuxis Tots pev dbrdpyer rots oe _obX dmdpxet TOV Cabvreov. ‘Ey pev ovv Tos purots ov KEXUpLOT aL 70 OAAv Tob appevos: ev d€ Tots L@ous ev ols REX PLOT AL, mpoodeita TO OHA Tod appevos,*| KaiTo. Tis amo-= * séclusi. | peilov .. . éoriv Secl. A.-W., qui et rab76" 7@ e€ apyns yervicarti €orw: Btf. rH €€ dpyfs [p- The production of sentient Soul. 202 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. v. to what cause this is due. Granted that the female possesses the same Soul (as the male) and that the residue provided by the female is the material (for the fetation), why has the female any need of the male in addition? Why does not the female accom- plish generation all by itself and from itself? The reason is that there is a difference between animal and plant: the animal possesses sense-perception.* It is impossible for any part of the body whatever (face, hand, flesh, etc.) to exist unless sentient Soul is present in it, whether i actuality or potentially, whether in some qualified sense or without qualifica- tion. Otherwise what we have will be on a. par with a dead body or a dead limb. Thus, if the male is the factor which produces the sentient Soul in cases where male and female are separate, it is impossible for the female all by itself and from itself to generate an animal; because the faculty just mentioned’ is the essence of what is meant by “male.” Still, it is not at all unreasonable to raise the puzzle we have stated, as is shown by the instance of those birds which lay wind-eggs: this proves that up to a point the female is able to generate. But there is a puzzle here too: In what sense are we to say that these eggs are alive? We cannot say that they are alive in the same sense as fertile eggs, for in that case an actual living creature would hatch out from them; nor are they on a par with wood and stone, because these eggs go bad just as fertile ones do, and this seems to indicate that to start with they were in some way alive. Hence it is clear that potentially they possess Soul of a sort. What sort, then? The lowest, it must be, obviously; and+this is nutritive Soul, because this it is which is present 203 741 a 741 b ARISTOTLE! | 6/100 yap drdpxet maow opolws Cdous TE kat urois. dua Ti odv ovK amorehet, Ta popia Kal TO Gov; ore det aloOnrucny abrd exew pox: od yap corw aarrep gutToo Ta Hopta. TOV Saun. duo Setrau Tis Tod dppevos Kowwvias* KEK pLOTAL yap. ev ToUTous 30 To dppev. O7rep at oupBaiver: TO. yap darnve pia. yiverat yovyna, édy év Tove KaLpg TO dppev €70- xevon. GAdd mepl pev THS TOUTWY aiTias. lian Suoprabjcerar. Ee 8 €oTe Te yevos 6 OfAv pev eorw, FP 8d my exel KEXWPLOMEVOY, evoexXEeTat robro! C@ov e€€ abtobd yevvav. Omep akioTictws pev od avv@rrat 35 expe ye Tod Kbv, Trove dé Svordlew (évea)® 3 ev TO / yever TH TOV ixOev- Tv yap KaAoupevey épu- Opivey a appnv pev odbeis aarat 77, OjAevat dé Kal KunpdTwv mAnpers. GAAd TOUTWY Lev OUTW TeEipay »” > /, td \ 7 yy +” ‘ exopev agvomugrov, oure be OnjAea ovre dppeva, Kat ev 7@ Tov tyOdwv yever corly, ofov ai 7 éyxeAes Kal yevos Tt KEOTPEwV Trepl TOUS TeAwarvaious 770- Tapous. ev doors. be KEXG PLOT at 7o OAXv Kat ‘70 dppev, advvatov avTo Kal’ atto 70 OAAv yevvay eis 1 dvev dxeias addit P. 2 <éa> Hackforth. ¢ See 750 b 3 ff., 757 b 1 ff., also 730 a 5 ff. and H.A, 539 b 1. > Probably some species of Serranus, perhaps S. sith (a sea-perch). Cf. H.A, 538. a 21, 567 a 27. _ Actually the majority of species of Serranus are hermaphrodite (see E. S. Goodrich, Cyclostomes and Fishes, 430), as was discovered by Cavolini in the latter part of the 18th cent. See A.-W., Introduction, pp. 32 ff. ©: 414.5 ;T0e. 4 Fels do not develop generative organs except in deep water, whither they go in order to breed. This is taken to 204 i 7 ‘ GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. v. alike in all animals and plants. Why then does this Soul fail to bring the parts to their completion and so produce an animal? Because the parts of an animal are bound to possess sentient Soul, since they are not on a par with those of a plant ; and that is why the male is required to take its share in the business (the male being separate from the female in such animals). The facts bear this out: wind-eggs become fertile if the male treads the female within a certain period. However, the cause of these things will be fully deter- mined later on.* If there is any class.of animal which is female and has no separate male, it is possible that this generates offspring from itself...This has not so far been reliably observed, it is true, but some instances in the class of fishes give cause to suspect. that it may be the case. Thus, of the fish known as erythrinus? not a single male specimen has so far been ob- seryed, whereas female ones have been, full of fetations.©’ But although with regard to these we have no reliable proof so. far, there are ‘also in the class of fishes some which are neither male nor fe- male: e.g., eels,? and one sort of cestreus * which frequents marshland rivers. In all animals, how- ever, where the male and female are separate, the female is unable by itself to generate offspring indieate that they are descended from an original deep- water fish. See additional note, p. 565. : © This cannot be the grey mullet ( Mugil capito, Cuv.), but is probably a species of Muraena or Gymnotus. In PA. 696 a 5, Aristotle speaks of a cestreus found in the lake at Siphae in Boeotia, on the south coast, near Thespiae (now Tipha). Cf. also the reference at 763 b 1 to Pyrrha, where there was a lagoon which was apparently one of Aristotle’s favourite spots for studying animals. 205 ARISTOTLE | Cra) 741 b téXos* 70 yap dppev pany av Ys H 5é pdous oddev 5 moet pdrny. Ovdrrep € €v Tois Tovovrous ael TO Gppev emiTeAet T7)V yeveow. epirovet yap TOUTO TH ai- | oPyruciy puy7y, 7 80 adrod 7 bia Tis yovijs. evuTapyovT@ 5” ev TH vAn Svvdper TOV Hopiwy, OTav apy? yevnrat KUjoEws, Gomep ev Tots avto- parows Gavpacr, guveiperat TO epetiis: Kal 6 Bos- 10 Aovras Adyew Ties TOV puaikay, TO " $épea8 ‘au ets 70 dpovov,’ Aexréov ody os TOTFOV peraBddovra Ta popia kwetobar, aAXa pevovra Kat aMovovpeva padaxornre Kal oxAnpornte Kal xpwpacr Kal Tats ddAaus Tais Tay Spovopep@v Svadopais, ywopeva 15 evepyeia a dmrhpxev evra. Suvdpeet mporepov. yly- veTau be mp@rov U apy. avrn S° eoriv 7) ta. Tots evaipos, Tots 8’ aNous 70 avddoyov, worep eipntar aoAAdKis. Kal todro davepdy od pdvov Kata Thv atcOnow, ore yiverar mp@tov, adAa Kal mept THY TeAcvTHV: azroAcimer yap TO Chv evrebOev 20 reAevraiov, ovPaiver 8° emi mavrwy TO TeAevTatov ywopevov" mpOrov aoAcimew, TO 5€ mp@rov TeAev- tatov, womep THs gvoews SiavAodpopovens Kal 1 yevopevov P. * j.¢., the matter provided by the female. > See note on 734 b 10. ° dvaixoi, sometimes dvovodAdyor, a term used by Aristotle to describe the early writers on dvovs, 7.¢., nature, or the nature (stuff) of the universe and its contents. They include the so-called ‘“‘ early philosophers,” and apparently also Hippocrates, as here (see note on 740 b 14). Several of the pre-Socratic philosophers had made use of this principle in various connexions.—See also pp. xvi f. @ Of. above, 740 b 14. & See Introd. § 48. f See App. B §§ 4-6, 9-10. 206 q ey GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. v. and bring it to completion: if it could, the exist- ence of the male would have no purpose, and Nature does nothing which lacks purpose. Hence in such animals the male always completes the business of generation—it implants sentient Soul, either acting by itself directly or by means of semen. As the’ parts of the animal ‘to be formed are present poten- tially in ‘the matter,* once the principle of move- ment has been supplied, one thing follows on after another without interruption, just as it does in the “ miraculous ’’ automatic puppets.? And the mean- ing of the statement, made by some of the physio- lo ers,” about like “‘ making its way to like,” ¢ must be taken to be not that the parts of the body “ move ” in the sense of changing their position, but that while remaining in the same position they undergo “ altera- tion "4 as regards softness, hardness, colour, and the other differences which belong to. the uniform parts ; that is, they become im. actuality what previously all along they had been potentially. The first to be formed is the “ principle,” which in blooded animals is the heart and in the others the counterpart of the heart, as I have said many times over. There can be no doubt about this, because our senses tell us that it is the first thing formed ; but the truth of it is con- firmed by what happens when the creature dies : the heart is the place where life fails last of all; and we find universally that what is the last to be formed is the first to fail, and the first to be formed is the last to fail.’ Itis as though Nature were a runner, coyer- ing a double course there and back, and retracing her 2 Cor primum vivens ultimum moriens: cf. Ebstein et al., Mitt. zur Gesch. der Medizin und Naturw. 19 (1920), 102, 219, 305. 207 741 b VI 25 ARISTOTLE i) dvedurropevns € él ry apxny bev 7Abev. » €ore ‘yap Wy pev yevenrs eK TOO 1) ovros ets 70 dv, 7) de plopa ex Tod ovTos mad els TO BY ov. Tiverau dé pera. THY apxnv, woTep eAexOn, Ta evTos mporepov Tav extos. galverat Se - “mporepa Ta. peyebos. € EXOVTA TAY eharrovav, ovd éma yuy- vojeva. TpOTEpov. m™p@rov dé ta avw Siaphpodras Too Sualaparos, Kat duadeper meyer To S€ KaTw Kat €Aarrov Kal ddiopvordrepov. Kat TobTo ‘ylyve- 30 Tat év maow, doors TO avw KaL TO karen Sudbpiorar, TAnv év Tots eVTOHOLS* Toure 8° ev Tots oKwAnko- TOKOUHLEVOUS eml TO avw % avénois yiverau: 70 yap ava €€ drapxijs eAarTov. dduopraTov d€ Kal TO dvw Kad TO Karen Tois padaxkious Tay smopeu- TiK@Y pLovois. TO dé AcyOev cupBaiver Kai emi TOV puT@v, TO mpotepeiv TH yeveoes TO advw KUTOS TOD Kdtwhev: ras yap pilas mpdrepov adiaou Ta o7ép- para t&v mropbwy. Avopi€erat 5€ Ta pépn Tv Cawv mvedpari, od pevToL oUTE TH THS yevvwons ovTe TH abrod,, * See 740 a 12 ff. » Aristotle’s observations are quite correct. Cf. the theories of C. M. Child on axial gradients, physiological dominance (ef. Aristotle’s own use of xdpios, 742 a 34 below), etc., conveniently discussed by J. Huxley and G. R. de Beer in Hlements of Experimental Embryology. See also 742 b 14. * According to Aristotle (J. 4. 705 a 29 ff.), the distinction between the upper and lower portions of animals and plants is determined by function, and not by position relative to the earth and the sky. The “ upper ” portion is that from which is received the distribution of nourishment and material for growth; and the extremity towards which the nourishment and growth penetrate is the “‘ lower’ extremity. Thus, as 208 _ ___ GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. v.-v1. steps towards the starting-point whence she set out. The process of formation, genesis, starts from not- being and advances till it reaches being; that of _ decay starts from being and goes back again till it _~~reaches not-being. _. After the“ principle ” is formed, the other parts VI are formed, the internal ones earlier than the exter- @ Develop: nal, as I have said.*. The larger parts become. visible, embryo however, earlier than the smaller ones, although some Craneedy of them are not in fact formed earlier. First the parts above the diaphragm become articulated, and _ these are larger in size, whereas that which is below _ is smaller and less clearly defined.’ This happens in _ all cases where the upper and the lower portions ° are definite and distinct, except Insects: in those Insects which are produced as larvae, the increase occurs towards the upper part, as this is smaller to begin with. The only locomotive animals in which there is no definite distinction between the upper and lower portions are the Cephalopods.? What has been said here applies to plants as well: the forma- tion of the upper portion precedes that of the lower : seeds send out their roots before their shoots.@ Now the parts of animals are differentiated by means of pneuma’; but this is not the pneuma of the mother, nor that of the creature itself, as some of he says (705 b 6), in plants, the roots are the “ upper” portion, since it is through their roots that plants get their nourishment, just as animals do through the mouth. Cf. the end of the present paragraph, 741 b 34 ff.; also the passage in P.A. 686 b 21 ff. 4 Because (720 b 18, P.A. 684 b 15, 685 a 1) their back- part is drawn up on to the front-part, their tail-end is bent right over to meet the front, and in consequence the residual vent is brought close to the mouth. : * See note on 741 b 30. * See’App. B §§ 7 ff. 209 742a or 10 15 / ARISTOELE OFT AS AMD Kabanep tTiwes tOv dvorkdv daciv. davepov de TOUTO emt TMV dpvibwy Kal t&v iyOvav Kal TOv 3 ion i miele bess Send evTOM@Vv. Ta pev yap xwpicbevta THs yevvar , pie > ee ee A Re pet GE yer bh TA Sc yiwerat €€ @od, ev & AapBdve ry diaplpwow: Ta 3° dAws od« avarvel tav Cwv, oxwdAnkoroxeirat 5é \ > a ‘ > > Pind ae = o Kal @oTroKketra Ta 8 avarvéovra Kal év TH pirpa AapBdvorra thy SiapOpwow odk avarvel mplv 7 6 TAcKpuew AdBy rédos* StapOpobrar Sé Kat obros Kal , : Far + (Se 5. Ta. €umpootey popia mpw avamvetv, ert i doa. 7 pil i Gait ; 3 Has heey moAvexid4, TeV TeTpaTddwy, olov xkiwr A€wy AdKOS dAcharng Gus, ravra tupAa yea, Kat Suierarat. TO ‘ M4 7 Fond . Brédapov yevouevwy torepov, wore SHAov ore Tov adrov tpdrov Kai ev tots dAdo mGot, KaBdrep Kai : i Ty ‘Sk JiGTSs Oe. EES TO ToLoV, Kal TO TOGOV yiveTat SuVapLEt TpoUTapXor, evepyeia 8 vatepov, b1o Tdy ad’tav aitiwy. tb @vrep Kal Td movyv Stopilerat, Kal yiyverar duo. eé evds. veda 8 brdpyew avayKatov, ort bypov Kat Bepprov, Tod pev Trovodvros, ToD S€ maoyYovTos.’ a > 3 / \ Xj efi) Aw , Tév & dpyaiwy twes dvovordywv Ti fuera Ti yiyvetat TOV popiwy ererpdbncav A€yew, od Atav eEuTreipiK@s €xovTes, TOV ovpPawevtwy.. TOY. yap ieee 1 $¢ P: yap vulg. “ See note on 741,.b.10.. @g., Hippocrates, 2. ¢dvdovs madiou 17 (vii. 496-498 Littré) 7 d€. cape: adéopevn, bo, 700 mvevparos apOpodrar, Kal Epyerau ev adrtén Exacrov TO dpowv ws TO Gpovov . . . SvapOpodrar bd THs mvofs Exacta, dvowpeva yap duiorara: £bp7avra Kata cvyyéverav.. Cf. also ch, 19, Accord- ing to this treatise the embryo both received nourishment and breathed through, the umbilicus (cf. chh, 13,)15). » Viz., birds. © Viz., fishes and insects, 4 Viz:,/Vivipara. 210 q GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. vr. : the physiologers * allege. This. point is clear in the ease of birds, fishes, and insects: thus, some” of these are formed out of an egg, after separation from the mother, and it is in the egg that they get their articulation ; and some animals ° do not breathe at all, but are produced as larvae or as eggs ; others,” which both breathe and get their articulation within the uterus, do not however breathe until their lungs. have reached completion : with them, both the lungs and the preceding parts become articulated before they breathe. Further, the polydactylous quadru- peds (such as the dog, the lion, the wolf, the fox and the jackal) all bring forth their young blind, and the eyelid: does not separate until some time after birth. Hence it is clear that, with regard to all the other parts as well, the-same holds. just as the characteristics of quality are there potentially to begin with and later on are formed in actuality, so too those of quantity are formed—by the same causes as those by which the characteristics of quality are differentiated, and two things are formed out of a _ single one.’ © As for pneuma, its presence is the result of necessity, because liquid substance and hot sub- stance are present, one being ‘active and the other being acted upon.’ Some of the early physiologers endeavoured to describe the order in which the various parts are formed, but they were none too well acquainted with what actually happens. As with everything else, so * e.g., twoeyelids ; an example of a potential duality being actualized.—See also App. B § 7, n. i H ? i.¢., the pneuma is not éreicaxrov, but adpdurov, derived from within, and hence can serve as an “ instrument” (see 789 b 3 ff.) charged with a specific “‘ movement’ (see Introd. § 68, and App. B, esp. § 32). 211 ARISTOTLE 742 4 s i Me ak oh Ay Lopiwy, domep Kal emt THv GAwv, wépuKev Erepov 20 €répov mpdtepov. Td d€ mpdTepov dn ToAAaXas eoTv. Td TE yap 00 EveKa Kal TO ToUTOV EveKa duadeper, Kal TO pev TH yeveoe. mpdTepov adtav €oTt, TO d€ TH ovata. Svo S€ diadopas exer Kal TO ToUTOU' éveKa* TO pev yap eoTw dev 7 KiVyats, TO Sé @ XpHrat TO od evexa. A€yw 8 olov TO TE 25 yevynTikov Kal TO OpyaviKoV TO yevvapevey’* TOUTWY yap TO wev vrdpyew Set mpdTepov, TO TOLNTLKOY, olov ro diddéav*® tod pavOdvoytos, tods 8’ adAovds votepov Tod avOdvovtos adrciv: mEeplepyov yap Ha) émuoTtapevois avdreiv dmdpyew addovs. TpLa@v dvtwv, évos prev Tod TéAous, d Aéyouev elvar od évexa, Sevtépov 8€ ta&v TovToU Eveka THs apxis 30 Tis KWYTUAS Kal yervntiKns (TO yap mMoinTUKOV Kal yevvntiKdv, fh TowdTa, mpos TO TroLovpeEVvoV ore Kal yervebjevov), tplrov S€ tod xpyoipov Kal @ xpira 7 TéAos, mpOtov pev drdpxew avayKatov fi pdpiov ev @ 1 apy) THS Kwhoews (Kal yap ev0ds tTotto' pdpidv €ott Tov TéAoUs EV Kal KU- 35 pudTarov), éerta peta TobTO TO OAov Kal TO TEAoS, tpirov Sé Kat teAcuraioy Ta dpyaviKa rovrous Hepn \ : ES / a > w ~ mpos évias xpyoeis. wor el Te TOLOUTOY EOTLY, 1 zodrou PS: ob vulg. 0 2 verrwperw L: yevouéev vulg. ) 2’ §.Ségor Richards. 4 fort. rodro 76 (Z1*) scribendum, et mox év. @ Of. Met. 1035 b 18 ff. > This will be modified in a moment, when Aristotle sub- divides this heading. Some of the things which are for the sake of the End are posterior to it in point of formation. ¢ By this, as appears from 742 b 13, 14 below, is meant the ‘* upper portion,” the head and trunk. 212 i eee Se Eee ——————————— GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IL. vt. _ with the parts of the body : one is, by nature, prior to another.* But the term “prior” at once com- prises a variety of meanings. £.g., take the differ- ence between (a) that for the sake of which a thing is, and (6) that thing which is for its sake: of these, one (6) is prior in point of formation,” while the other (a) is prior in point of being or reality. Further, “‘ that which is for the sake of the End” comprises two divisions : (i) that whence the move- ment is derived and (ii) that which is employed by the End ; ; or, in other words, (i) something which generates, and (ii) something which serves as an instrument for what is generated. Of the two, the productive factor must exist prior to the other: e.g-, a teacher must exist prior to a learner, while pipes are posterior to the person who is learning to play them : it is superfluous for people who cannot play pipes to possess them. So we have these three things : (1) the End, which we describe as being that Sor the sake of which (other things are) ; (2) the things which are for the sake of the End, .viz., the activat- ing and generative principle (second, because the existence of that which is productive and generative, qua such, is relative to what it produces and gener- ates); (3) the things which are serviceable, which can be and are employed by the End. Thus, first of all there must of necessity exist some part in which the principle of movement resides (for of course this is a part of the End, and the supreme con- trolling part of it); after that comes the animal as a _ whole, z.e.,the End¢; third and last of all come the _ parts which serve these % as instruments for various employments. _ Ifit is true, then, that there is a part # Or perhaps “ this,” referring only to the “ End.” 213 742 b ARISTOTLE ome p dvayKatov Darcie ev tots Caois, ro\mdons exov THs dvoews a dpxny Kal thos, TOURe yiveoBau TPHTOY avaykatov, 7} fev KWyTUKOY, mp@rovs H be Hiptoy Tov tédXovs, Here Tod Odov.. wore TOV [opiwy' TOV sitet es 600 Hey €ort Li Singin eid 5 i ie ael TPOmEOOE det B prdépycas avrd (dAov yap EVEKG. EoTW ws’, apxy), doa de: pa) TOLadTAa. TOV aAXov eveca, sailed 510 od pdd.ov dveAetv dectaee TmpoTepa TOV Hppieae, doa aAdov Evexa, " od® évexa WALID Tava. OPERAETAS! yap Ta KWYTUKA THY poplav A ati ath ovTa 7H parece Tob téAovs, Ta Se Sh 10 TiKa mpds TA Bp yoaltiee dieAciv od stam Katrot KaTa Nae” TV Heneeor det tnreiv. rt yiveran pera Ti: TO yap TéAos eviwy ev vorepov, eviwv dé mpo- repon! Kat 81a’ TooTO pach pev 0 exov T7v OPXUP, reayae poplor, er” exo HEC, TO dva KUTOS. 810, TA mreph Thy, Kepaadny. Kal TA oppara peywora 15 kat’ dapyas ponents Trois epBpvois, Ta de KATH Too an an tel otov Ta K@da, mes Tod yap ave Ta Kdrw evexev, Kal obre pdpia Tod Tédovs ovTeE yevvynriKa avTod. {f Od Kadds 5é€ Adyovow O88 TOO Bid af THY L ds P: cs 9 vulg. 2 0d] dv P. 1 @ 46., generative | of other parts, as the heart is. ‘ ¥ Or, reading 7 dpx7, “just as the first principle is for the sake of the End.” 214 ———— Xk elt GENERATION OF ‘ANIMALS, Il. vi. _ of this kind—a part which contains the first principle and the End of the animal’s whole nature—which , must of necessity be present.in an animal, then this part must of necessity be formed first of all_formed first, qua activating, though formed along with the whole creature, qua being a part of the End. Thus, those instrumental parts which are in, their nature generative * must always be there themselves prior to. the rest, because they are for the sake of something else, as being a first: principle ® ; ‘those’ parts which, although’ they are for the sake of something else, are te generative, come later, .That. is. why it, is not y to determine whether those parts are “ prior ” which are for the sake of something else, or that part for whose sake these others are present. The activat- ing parts intrude themselves into the picture, because in formation they are prior to the End.;, and it is not easy to determine as between the activating and the instrumental parts. Still, this is the line we must follow in trying to find out the order in which they are formed ; for the End, though it comes after some of them, is prior to others. And on this aecount the part which contains the first principle is the first to be formed; then follows the upper portion of the body ; and that is why in embryos we see that the parts round the head and eyes are, the, largest at the outset, while. the parts below the umbilicus, for instance the legs, are small. The reason is that the lower portions are for the sake of the upper portion, and they are not parts,of the End* nor are they concerned in generating it... * People who say, like Democritus < Abdeta, that ¢ See above,.742 a 35, 743 b 13, 1h Rare are merely useful adjuncts, enabling it to move ‘about, etc 215 ARISTOTLE |) (004 742 b ‘ audyKy, 6oou A€yovow 67 obtws Gael viverauy! Kal 20 ravTnv elvae vopilovaw dpxiy ev adrots, womep AupoKprTgs r) “ABonpirns, ort TOO bev [det rea]! drreipov ovK €oTw 4pxns 76 8é Sud. ri dpxn, TO 8° dei dmeipov, Wate TO epwrdv TO bid Ti mEpL TeV TOLWUTWY TWOS TO oyreiv elvat highs Tob iGiretpou apyynv. Kaito. Kata TodTov TOV Aoyov, | Kal? dv 25 dgvobat 70 Sua Ti pr) Lyreiv, odBevos drddeuets €oTat TOV aidiwv: paiverar 8 otaa moar, TOV Lev ywouevwv det trav & dvtwv, eel Kal TO Tpi- ywvov éxew Svow dpbais toas det Kat Td TH Suduetpov daovppetpov elvat mpos tiv mAevpav aidvov, GAN’ Guws eotiv abtadv airy te Kal amo- 30 detkts. 70 prev odv pu) TavTwv akvobv Cyreiv apynv Aeyerat KAAS, TO b€ TOV OvTwWY adel Kal yoyo peavey mavrav ov Kan@e, ann’ doa THY adic dpyat Tuyxdvougiy otvoat" THs yap dpxiis ddAn yuaous Kab ovK amdderéis. apyn 5 €v pev Tois axwiyrois TO 1 secl. Platt. @ Cf. Met. 1011 a 13 dmodeiéews yap apy?) otk amddekis corw. Also Anal. Post. 90 b 24 ff. at apyai trav amobeifecv Gpropot, cy OTL OvK EgovTat drrodetfeus dedeuxrar ™parepov: 4 Eoovrat at dpxat dmroderxral Kal TOY ap Ov ap at + 8s opiopos pev yap Tod Ti é€art Kal ovaias. See also 72 20 ff.; also ‘Met. 1013 a 15 (one of the definitions of apy) ere oBev yewoTov 76 mpayya mpdrov, kal avtn apy?) Aéyerar Tod mpdy- paros, olov Tay asrodelE ew ai drobéoeis. In #th. N. 1142 a 26 it is said to be “‘ intelligence ” (vods) which apprehends de- finitions that cannot be proved by reasoning. Aristotle also speaks there of “the sort of intuition ’’ (aio@no1s) where- 216 EEE GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IT. vr. “this is how they are always formed,” and regard this as a starting-point (first principle) in these cases, make a mistake, nor do they even succeed in stating the necessity involved in the cause. Their argument is this: What is limitless has no starting-point ; but the éause is a starting-point, and what is always is limit- less ; therefore (says Democritus) to ask for a cause in connexion with anything of this kind (sc., anything that always is) is the same as trying to discover a starting-point in something that is limitless. Yet on this line of argument, on the strength of which they undertake to dispense with trying to discover the cause, there will be no demonstration of any single one of the “ eternal ”’ things. It is obvious, however, that demonstrations of many of these (some of them things which always come to be, some things which always are) do in fact exist. For instance, the angles of a triangle are always equal to two right angles, and the diagonal of a square is always incommensur- able with the side ; in both of these cases we have something “ eternal,’ yet there is a cause for them and they are demonstrable. Thus it is right to say that we cannot undertake to try to discover a starting- point (a first principle) in all things and everything ; but it is not right to deny the possibility in the case of all the things that always are and that always come to be ; it is impossible only with the first principles of the eternal things, for of course the first principle does not admit of demonstration, but is apprehended by another mode of cognition. Now with those things that are “immutable,” the first principle is by we perceive that the ultimate figure in mathematics is a _ triangle. Again (1143 b 1) in demonstrations, voids appre- hends the immutable (dxivnra) and primary definitions. 217 742 b 743 a (ARISTOTLE)! PA 8050 Ti eat, ev dé ToIs ywvopievors: 789 aetous, Tpomov > 35 8 GAAov Kat od maou Tov ‘abrov Gv pia’ rév dpiOdv, bev 7 Kivnots or. 80d ndvra Th Evora Kapdiav EXEL TPOTOV, donep. een Kear” apxyds* €v dé tots dAdo TO sHcAnON yiveTaL TH Kapdia mpa@rtov. oid 23 neal "Ek Se ris Kapdias at dAeBes Suaréravrae! wal darep ot Tods KavdBous ypdpovres” ev rots Totxous: Ta yap Hep? Tepe Tavras cotiv, dre “yuwoper ya. Lee Tuy eK ToUTwy. 1 de. yeveois corw [ex? 7a Spow- 5 Hepav b70 ween kat Geppornros: avvioraras yap Kab mhyverat Ta poev. poxpe TO. 5: epud. rept dé THs TovTwy diadopas elpyrat mporepov ev ETEPOLS, mrota Auta. dyp@ Kal Tupi, ‘Kal rota dura dyp@ Kal drnkra mupi. 8a perv obv Tadv _ bAcBav Kal T@V ev exdorols Tropwy Svamdvovaa tpody), 10 Kabdmep € ev Tots cots Kepaystous TO vdwp, yivovrat 1 Peck : dvarerapevar yulg. he ; 2'om. SX, Platt: # coni, A -W. oF I is ® The. term “immutable” is often, used by Aristotle in connexion with mathematics, as here.‘ Essence,” lit., “ the ‘what is it?’,” the essential definition or nature of the ‘thing. Cf. quotation from Anal. Post. in preceding note, and Phys. 198 a 16 f. “in the case of the immutable things, é. mathematics, where ultimately all is referred back to tant tions, 7d 8a zi (‘ why ’) i is referred back to 76 ri éore (‘ what,’ the essence of the thing).”” The’essence is directly perceived, not demonstrated. (See previous note.) > This is one of the definitions given in Met. 1013 a 4— that from which, being present within it, a thing first comes into being (d0ev mp@rov yiyveras IL © He has repeated it almost continuously. 218 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. vz. the essence ? ; but as soon as we begin to deal with those things that come into being through a process of formation, we find there are several first principles —principles, however, of a different kind and not all of the same kind. Among them the source whence the movement comes? must be reckoned as one, and that is why the heart is the first part which all blooded animals have, as I said at the beginning °; in the other animals it is the counterpart of the heart that is formed first. _ Beginning at the heart, the blood-vesséls extend all over the body. They may be compared to the skeleton models which are traced out on the walls of buildings,? since the parts are situated around the blood-yessels, because they are formed out of them. The formation of the uniform parts is effected by the The agency of cooling and heat ; some things are “ set ” uniform and solidified by the cold and some by the hot. I have spoken previously elsewhere ¢ of the difference between these, and I have stated what sort of things are dissoluble by fluid and by fire, and what sorts are not dissoluble by fluid and cannot be melted by fire. Resuming then: As the nourishment oozes through the blood-vessels and the passages in the several parts (just as water does when it stands in unbaked 4 Cf. H.A.515a35. Hesychius’s and Photius’s definitions of xdvaBou describe them as the woodwork around which modellers, when they begin their modelling, mould the wax or plaster. There is a similar passage in Parts of Animals, though without mention of this term (654 b 29); there “Aristotle speaks of a ‘‘hard and solid. core or foundation ” round which the figure is modelled; though in that case he is speaking of the bones. There seems to be no justification for interpreting xava8o. as a mere outline or sketch; nor would such a meaning fit the passage. Cf. 764 b 31. * Meteordlogica, Bk. 1V, chh. 7-10. Of. also 762 a 31. 219 parts. ARISTOTLE)! i (1 408e 743 a ' cdpkes 7 TO Tavrats avddoyov, bo Tod svxpod ovviordpieva, 51d kal Avovrat b7d Trupos. doa dé yenpa. Alay t&v dvareAdAdvtwv, odlyny exovTa by- poTnTa Kat Deppornra.s Tatra dé puxepeva. e€arpt- lovros Tod bypod peta Tot Oeppob yiverar oxAnpa ‘ 7 \ / ” ‘ Is f 15 kai yewdn tiv popdyv, olov dvuyes Kal Képara Kal e \ & 614 \ , \ EA rey: omAal Kai poyxn: 810 paddrrerat prev mropt, THKET aL > ) ovbev, GAN eva trois typois, olov Ta Ria. TOV Wav. Ay ‘Yd 88 Ths evtos Oepuornros Ta. TE vedpa. Kal Ta OoTa yiveras, Enpawoperyns THs bypoTnTos. 810 \ ” 4 > A > ~ < \ ~ / - i Kal Gdutd éort Ta Cota bd TOO mupes, Kabarep 20 KEpapios” olov yap ev Kapiva), omTneva éotly" 70 THs ev TH yeveoe: Depudryrtos. mfhd 6€ ovTE 6 TL ervye Trovel odpka 7) daTody, 086 Smov* Eruxev, ov” omote ervyev,® GAAd TO TepuKods Kal ob* méduKe Kal Ld , »” \ ‘ La vn ec ‘ ~ ote mépuKev. ovTE yap TO Suvdper Ov bd TOD ur Thy evépyevav ExovTos KWyTLKOD EoTaL, OUTE TO THV 25 évépyevav Exov Toujoer eK Tod TuUXdVTOS, WoTrEp ovre KiBwrov pn) ex EVAov O TEKTWY TOLNCELEV AY, > » , ct > A Foals ovT dvev TovTov KiBwros eoTar ex Tov EvAwY. ‘H 8S€ Oepudrns evuTdpyer ev TH oTeppatiK@ TEepitTmpat. TocavTyv Kal TovadTyY €xovoa THY Kijow Kal THY evépyevar, don ovpperpos _ els Exagrov Tav popiwy. Kal’ doov 5’ ay éMeizry | ”“ c / ” 30 7) brepBadAn, 7} xelpov amoreAct 7 dvdarnpov TO ywopevov, TapaTAnciws Tots e€w oavveoTtapevors 1 éo7iv P: om. vulg. 2 Grou Ps dan vulg. 3 080’ éndre Ervyev P: om. vulg. 408 me 9 vulg. 220 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. v1. earthenware), flesh, or its counterpart, is formed : it is the cold which “‘ sets” the flesh, and that is why fire dissolves it. As the nourishment wells up, the excessively earthy stuff in it, which contains but little fluidity and heat, becomes cooled while the fluid is evaporating together with the hot substance, and is formed into parts that are hard and earthy in appear- “ance, e.g., nails, horns, hoofs and bills ; hence, these Nails, ete. can be softened, but not one of them can be melted, by fire; ‘though some, ¢.g., eggshell, can be melted es fluids.» we The sinews and: bones are formed, as the fluidity sinews and solidifies, by the agency of the internal heat; hence °™**- bones (like earthenware) cannot be dissolved by fire ; they have been baked as it were in an oven by the heat present at,their formation. This heat, however, to produce flesh, or bone, does not work on some casual material in some casual place at some casual time; material, place and time must be those ordained by Nature : that which is potentially will not be brought into being by a motive agent which lacks the appropriate actuality; so, equally, that which possesses the actuality will not produce the article out of any casual material. No more could a carpenter _ produce a chest out of anything but wood; and, equally, without the carpenter no chest will be pro- duced out of the wood. | This heat resides in the seminal residue, and: the __. movement and the activity which it possesses are in amount and character correctly proportioned to suit each several part. If they are at all deficient or excessive, to that extent they cause the forming pro- duct to be inferior or deformed. The same is true of things that are “ set” by heat elsewhere than in 221 743 a 743 b ARISTOTLE dua Tijs epyjoews mpos Tpophs dmohavow 7 7 hia adAnv épyaciav. adn’ evrabda. pev nets THY Oepyornros OUpLETpiav ets THY Koow TApackerc Cope, exel b€ S®wow 7 pvous uy) ToD yevv@vros. 35 Tots dé avroudarus ywopevols 7) THS wpas atria Kino. Kal Bepyorns. ¢ H de Wwvéus orepnots Bepporytds € éorw. xpirae S dporépous 7) puous exovar (per Sivapuey | e€ dvdyans WaTE TO pev Took TO Sé 708i mroveiv, ev fevrTou Tois ywvouevois Eeverd Twos ovpPaivet TO \ / ? ~ \ A / \ , pev idyew adta@v to dé Oeppaivew, Kat yiveoBar TOV joptey €xaorTov, rip pev odpKa, paracny 7H) prev &€ dvdyens TOLOUVTWY Tovavrny TH. 8 vera 5 Twos, TO be vedpov Enpov Kal éAkrov, To 8 dotoby Enpov kal Opavoror. To 6€ Seppo. Enpawouerns Ths capkos yiveran, Kabdaep emt tots eprpacw v) KaAoupevn ypads. od peovov S€ Sia TO eoxaroy oupBatver avToo 7 yeveors, aAAa Kat Sidre. ém- TrohdLet TO yAiaxpov dud 70 py) Svvacbar eLarpilew. 10 ev prev obv Tots dMous avypnpov TO _vAtoxpoy (10 OOTpAKOdEp}La. Kal padacdorpara. Td. eoxard €oTt Tov dvainwv Cabwv), év S€ Tots évaipous 70 yAio- ypov Aurapwrepov €oTw. Kal TOUTWY doa 1) yewdy \ 4 a / > / 4 ~ ¢€ \ thy dvow exer Aiav, GOpoileras TO myeA@des bro THY TOO Sépuatos oKérnv, ws Tod Sépuaros yr 15 vowevov ex THs Tovadrns yAucxpoTynTos: exe yap / A / / A lod twa yAwoxpoTnta TO Aimapov. mavra dé Tadra, / ” / / a Rene i212 Kaddmep / ~ > > > > 4 > > @ 4 f - avayKns TH S odK €€ avdyKys add’ Evexd, Twos. ‘ Ch. 767 a 17 ff. » i.¢., the change required to be effected ; see Introd. § 48, Kivyots. © See Introd. § 8. 222 - GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. vz. the-uterus ; ¢.g-, things which we boil to make them _ pleasant for food, or for any other practical purpose. The only-difference is that in this case the correct ,, proportion of heat? to suit the movement? is supplied by us, whereas in the other, it is supplied by, the nature of t e generating parent. With those animals that are formed spontaneously the cause responsible is the movement and heat of the climatic conditions. Heat and cooling (which is deprivation of heat) are both employed by Nature. Each has the faculty, : din necessity, of making one thing into this and another thing into that ; but in ‘the case of the forming of the embryo it is for a purpose that their power of heating and cooling is exerted and. that each. of the parts is formed, flesh being made soft—as Flesh. heating and cooling make. it. such, partly owing to. - necessity, partly for a purpose,—sinew solid and elastic, bone solid and brittle. Skin is formed as the flesh skin. solidifies, just as scum or “ mother ”’ forms on boiled liquids. Its formation is due not merely to its being on the outside, but also to the fact that glutinous substance remains on the surface because it cannot evaporate. In blooded animals the glutinous’ sub- stance is more fatty than‘in bloodless ones, in which it is dry, and on this account the outer parts of the latter are testaceous or crustaceous. In those blooded animals whose nature is not excessively earthy, the fat collects.under the protective covering, the skin, which seems to indicate that the skin is formed out of this.sort of glutinous substance, since of course grease is to some extent glutinous, We are to say, then, as already stated, that all these things are formed partly as\a result of necessity, partly also not of necessity but for a purpose.° 223 743 b 744a ARISTOTLE || 1 Hparov poev oby TO diven Kiros apopilerar Kara THY yeveow, 70 be Kedron _mpotovros Tod ‘xpdvov 20 AapBaver tiv aveEnow ev rots evai}ors. dmavra dé Tats Tmeprypagats Stopilerat mporepor, votepov de AapBaver Ta. Xpopara Kal Tas padaxornras: ct Tas oxAnpornras, aTexv@s Borrep | av bro wypad Tijs pvoews Snpwoupyovpeva.” Kat yap of y Umoypaibavres Tats ypappats ovTws fon 25 Tots Xpwopaor TO f@ov. oe Aca oev ovv TO THY. apxiVy ev TH capdia. TOV aicthicewy elvas Kad Tob Leou mavros avrn yiverat mp@rov: dua Se TI beppdryra TV Tabrns, v7) TeAcuT@aw: at _preBes avo, TO puxpov ouviornow avtiorpopov Th Deppornre TH mept THhv Kapdlav Tov 30 eyepador, Sud7rep TO mepl Thy Kedadrjy AapBaver ovvEexh THY yeveow peta THY Kapdiay, Kat peyeBer Trav dw diadhéeper- odds yap Kal bypos e€ apxis 6 eyepadros. "Exe. 8° amopiay To rept TOUS ogpbadwovs oun Batvov trav Cowv. HEyvoTou pev yap e& dpxiis gaivovTa. Kal meLlots Kal mAwrots Kal _mTvois, 35 TeAevraior dé ylvovrat TOV pmoplwy: ev 7@ perago yap xpovw ovuminrovew. aitiov, 6’) 6Te TO. TOV odbaAuav aiaOnriprov €oTl pevy womep. Kal TO. adda aicOyripia," emt mopwv' adr TO pev Tijs adijs Kal yevoews evs eoTw 7) c@pa 4 Tod odparos Tt Tav Caowv, 4 8S dodpnots Kal 7) aKon mépot ovvanrovTes Tmpos TOV aépa Tov Ovpabev, mAnpets ovpdvrov mvetuatos, mepaivovres 8é mpos Ta * domep... aicOyrypia fort. secludenda ; ; suspic. est Platt. pev éeorw 7, pro €ott pev 3 troAAa P pro ta gin, 224 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. vz. _ Now the upper portion of the body is the first to be marked off in the course of the embryo’s formation; the lower portion receives its growth as time goes on. (This applies to the blooded animals.) In the early stages the parts are all traced out in outline ; later on they get their various colours and softnesses and hardnesses, for all the world as if a painter were at work on them, the painter being Nature. Painters, as we know, first of all sketch in® the figure of the animal in outline, and after that go on to apply the colours. _ As the source of the sensations is in the heart, the heart is the first part of the whole animal to be formed ; and, on account of the heat of the heart, and to provide a corrective to it, the cold causes the brain to “set,” where the blood-vessels terminate above. That is why the regions around the head begin to form immediately after the heart and are bigger than the other parts, the brain being large and fluid from the outset. The development of the eyes is something of a puzzle to the student. In birds, beasts, and fishes alike, the eyes are from the outset very large in appearance, yet they are the last of all the parts to be completely formed, since they shrink up in the meantime.’ The reason is that the sense-organ of the eyes is indeed, like the other sense-organs, set upon passages ; but whereas the sense-organ of touch and of taste is just the animal’s body or some portion of the body, and smell and hearing are passages full of connate pneuma,° connecting with the outer air and terminating at the small blood-vessels around 2 Cf. note, 740 a 28. > Cf. H.A. 561 a 19 ff. © See App. B §§ 26 ff. ; I 225 ¢ Brain. Eyes. 744a ARISTOTLE | AS prcBia ta mept tov eykédadov reivovta amd THs 5 Kapdias* 6 8 opbadpos oda pdvov touov EXEL TOV aioOnrnpiov. éott 8’ bypov Kat puxpov, Kal ov mpoumdpxov €v T) TOT Kabdrep Kal To didAa Hopia duvapet, emeiTa evepyeia yeropeva. Sorepoy: aA amo Tis wept Tov eyKéedadov bypoTyTos azo- 10 Kpiverat TO Kafapararov dud Tov mopay ot pai- VOVTaL $épovres am adta@v mpos TH pajvuyya TI repl TOV eyepahov. tovtov Sé TEKpNpLoV™ -ovTe yap daAXo HOpwoy bypov Kal puxpov eoTw ev TH Kepadf mapa TOV eyKeparor, TOT Opupa yuxpov Kal dypov. e€ avayKns ovy 6 TOTm0s AapBaver 15 peyebos TO TpO@tov, oupminre. 8 voTEpov. Kat yap mrept TOV eyxepahoy ovpPaiver Tov avdtov Tpd- mov’ TO mpa@tov bypos Kal mods, amomveovros be Kal weTTopévov owparodrat te waAXov Kal ouvp- ? sf) eys2 t \ \ , my) Vous minrer Kal 6 eyKépados [kal Ta odparal Kal TO peyefos 76 TOV Oppdtwv. e€€ apyns dé dua pev Tov 20 eyxepadrov 7) Kehadn peyiorn, dia S€ TO bypov To > Ane atte | \ , amt ev Tois Oupacw ot ddfadpnot peydAo daivovrat. a \ / / \ A ‘ \ terevtaion 5€ AapBdvovar tédos Sua TO Kal TOV > fs / / > A A / a eyxedarov ovviotacba pdrts* oe yap averar THS yuypdotyntos Kai THs bypdéTyTos €nl mavTwy wev TOV > / 2 + ary = ~ > 4 ‘ Ah 7 exovTwr,” uddvota 8° emi tav avOpamwv. dia yap 25 ToOUTO Kal TO Bpéypa Tav ooT@y yiverar TeAev- tatov: 70) yap yeyevnuevwy Ovpale tav euBpdwyr 1 om. S, seclusit Bekker: «ai 7a dupara Platt, om. «ai 70 peyebos To TOV Opparwr. 2 rav éexovrwy P: habentibus magnum cerebrum X: om. vulg. 226 r GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. vr. the brain which extend thither from the heart, the eye, by way of contrast, is the only one of the sense-organs which has a special “body ”’ of its own.. It is fluid and cold; and, unlike the other parts, which are present in their places potentially to in with and later on come to be formed im actuality, this one is not there at the start,* but it is produced by the purest part of the liquid around the brain being secreted off through those passages ” which are to be observed leading from the eyes to the membrane around the brain. A sure sign of this is that beside the brain there is no part in the head except the eye which is cold and fluid. “Hence it is due to necessity that this region gets large at first but shrinks later on; because the same happens to the brain: at first this is fluid and large, but as evaporation and concoction proceed it- becomes more solid and shrinks; so does the size of the eyes. . From the outset the head is very large, on account of the brain, and the eyes, as we see, are large on account of the fluid in them. But the eyes are the last of all to reach their completion, because the brain (on which they depend) does not “set ” at all easily ; it is quite late before it ceases to be so cold and fluid ; and this is true of all animals that have a brain, especially of man. That is why the bregma® is the last of the bones to be formed : even after the embryos are brought to birth, this * Aristotle’s knowledge that the eye is an offshoot from the brain, and does not originate in the position which it finally oceupies, is indeed remarkable. ® These are no doubt the optic nerves. © Cf. P.A. 653 a 34 and H.A. 491431. This is the bone ' which finally grows over the space at the top of the skull known as the “ anterior fontanelle.”’ 227 ARISTOTLE HAWS) 144 a eo - The ‘ y padarov ca7t Tobro 7d daToby Tois mawdtos.* airiov. de Tob pada’ ext TOV. apa: tobTo ovpBatvew, OTL TOV eynépanor dyporaroy | exovat Kal mAciorov tav Cawv, TovTou 8° aitiov ott Kal 30 T7)V ev TH Kapota beppdryta Kabapwrdryv. Snot de TI _edKpaciav 7 Sidvora* Ppovepairaroy yap €oTl TOV Cpeoy dvOpuros. dkparh dé Kal Td. mra.dla EXPL aroppu THS Kepahis €or dua TO Bapos TO Tepe TOV eynepadov. opotws: be Kal Tov fopiwy doa Set Kuwelv- } yap dipx7) THs KwToews oype Kparet T@v dvenbev Kal TeAev- 35 Tailor, Gowv 4 Kivnots [1 ouviipranras mpos avriv, woTep TOV Koha. To.obrov 6 €oTl pdpiov TO BAépapov. émet 8 odfev srovet mepiepyov obde / ¢ tA ~ ¢ #Q>) 97 29\ a parny 1 pvors, dijAov ws ov vorepoy : odde mpo- TEpov" eora yap TO yeyovos 7H? parny 7) mreptepyov. 744 b aol? ape avdyen Ta Brépapa SuaxwpileoBad Te Kat dvvacba Kuveiv. oye pev obv dia TO mAHOOS Tis mepi tov eyKédadov trépews TeAevobrat 7a Oupata Tots Ceous, tedevraia dé Sid To opddpa Kparovons THS Kwijoews: elvat TO Kuvely Kal TA 5 oUTws méppw Ths apyfns Kat amebuypeva Tav popiwy. dndot dé ta BAedapa TovadTnv ExovTa THY dvaw: av yap Kal dtogovoby Bapos yevyrat mepi \ \ > Ad ”“ / bd + ~ Thy Kepadny uv tmvov % peOnv 7 dAdo Te TaV TotovTwy, o0 Svvducba ta BAddapa aipew, ovTw Bdpos atrav éexydvTwy piKpov. 1 +zois maidios P: r&v matdiwv vulg. 24 P: om. vulg. ® re PS: om. vulg. * ebxpacia. For xpaois see Introd. § 40; and ef. P.A. 673 b 26 and Hippocrates, a. dvairns I. 35. » See Introd. §§ 11, 51. 228 ~ GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. v1. ‘bone is still soft in the case of children. The reason why this occurs especially in man is that in man _the brain is more fluid and greater in volume than in any other animal, and the reason of this, in its turn, is that the heat in the heart is purest in man. The fineness of the blend ¢ in man is shown by his © _ possession of intellect : there is no other animal which so intelligent. Even children however for a con- siderable period lack full control over their heads. _ This is due to the weight of the brain, and the same may be said of those parts of the body which Irave to be moved. It is quite late before the principle of -movement gets control over the upper parts; and _ its control over those parts (such as the legs) whose "movement is not closely connected with it is achieved last of all. Another such part is the eyelid. Now, as Nature does nothing that is superfluous or pointless, _ it is plain that she will not do anything too late or too soon, for in that case what was done would be either pointless or superfluous. Therefore the separation of the eyelids and the ability to move them must “coincide in time. Thus the completion of the forma- tion of the eyes comes late, because of the large “amount of concoction required by the brain, and it ‘comes last, after all the other parts, because the “movement ® must be very strong and powerful in Beds to move parts which are so far away from the first principle,° and so much subjected to cold. That ‘such is the nature of the eyelids is shown by the fact that even if a very little heaviness affects the head through sleep or intoxication or anything of that sort, we are unable to raise the eyelids although their weight is very slight. © Viz., of movement, i.e. the heart. 229 10 Ilept prev obv opbahy av elipnrar Tas ywovrat Kal bu’ 6 7, Kal dia tiv’ aitiay rehevratay AapBdvovar THv Sudplpwow. Téav & dAAwv yiverat joptov ‘Exaotoy ek Tis Tpopijs, TO pv TYLUTOTO, Kal pereAndéra THS KU- pusrarns dpxijs eK THs TeTE [LEVIS Kal Kkabapwrd- 7™7s Kal TPWTNS TPOPNS, 7a 8 dvarya ata HopLa. Kal 15 TOUTE evekev €K Tijs Xelpovos Kal TOV SaroAcup- patwv Kal TEpiTTMpaTo. woTEp yap olicovdjios ayabas, Kat x puous ovdev dmoBdNew cleoBev € av €or Touijoat 7 xXpnorov. ev de rats otKo- vopiats Tis ywopevns Tpopis 7 pev Bedriorn TEé- TaKToL Tots eAevbépors, a d¢€ xelpwv Kal TO TeE- 20 pirrepa tadrys (rots) olkérais, Ta O€ Yelptora Kal Tots ovvTpepopevous SiSdaor Coots.” Kabdaep obv ets Thy avenow o re) Ovpaber Tabra motel vods, obtws ev Tots ywopevos avrois Ul vats eK pev THS Kab- apwrarns oAns odpKas Kal Trav aAAwv _aianrn- picov TO odpara ouviornaw, ex b€, TOV Tepir- 25 TwpdrTov do7d. Kal vetpa Kal Tpixas, évt 8 Ovuxas Kat omAds Kal mdvra 7a Towbra: 510 TeAevrata radra AapBdver tiv ovotacw, drav dn ylyvntas TepirT apa Tijs picews., ‘H per obv Tav orev vows &v Th TpPwTH Ov- oTdoet “yiverau rev _poptov éx Tijs omepparucts 30 mepiTTwocws, Kal TOV Coeur avfavowevwv eK THs : guouctis Tpodijs AapPdver Hy avenow, e€ HoTeEp TO pdpia Ta KUpia, TadTns pévTo. adtis TA dit0- 1 supplevit Richards. 2 i.¢., blood. > Cf. the regular distinction between “ the better” and “* necessity.” * The sense-organ of touch. 230 | : GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. v1. . This concludes our discussion about the eyes. We have. said how they are formed, and why, and what is the reason that they are the last of all the parts to be articulated. Each of the remaining parts is formed out of the nourishment. The most honourable ones, those which have a share in the supreme controlling prin- ciple, are formed out of the first of the nourishment,” which has been concocted and is purest ; the “ neces- sary ” parts,” which exist for the sake of those just mentioned, are formed out of inferior nourishment, out of the leavings and the residues. Like a good housekeeper, Nature is not accustomed to throw anything away if something useful can be made out ofit: In housekeeping the best of the food available . is reserved for the freemen; the residue left over from this as well as the inferior food goes to the servants, and the worst of all goes to the domestic animals. Here thenis aninstance of a mind, external to them, acting so as to provide for their growth. In the same way Nature is at work within the creatures themselves that are being formed, and constructs flesh * and the bodily parts of the other sense-organs out of the purest of the material, whereas out of the residues she constructs bones and sinews and hair, and also nails and hoofs and all such things, which means that they have to wait till Nature has some residue to hand, and that is why they are the last to be constructed. _. The bones, then, are formed during the first stage of construction out of the seminal residue, and as the animal grows they grow too. Their growth i is derived from the natural nourishment, which is the same as that which supplies the supreme parts ; only they 231 Bones, ete. 744 b 745 a or 10 ARISTOTLE 34a Acippara Kal Td. TepiTTwparicd. yiveras yap ev mavrt TO. ™p@Tov Kal To Sevtepov ris" Tpopijs TO pev Opemrucov To 8 abéyriKov, Spenrucov pev O TO elvat TapeXeT at T@ Te OAw Kal Tots proptots, avenTuKcov 8é 76 eis péyebos moody rv emiboouw’ rept av vorepov Sopiotéov HaMov. Tov adrov be Tpomrov Tots darois kal Ta vebpa ouviorarat Kat eK TOV avUT@V, EK Tis’ oTepparuchs TEpliTTTEws Kal Ths OpentiKfs. ovuxes d€ Kal Tplyes Kal omAal Kal KépaTa Kal pvyyn Kal Ta TARKTpa TOV Op- vidwy, Kat et TL TOLodTOV ETEpoY €aTL LOPLOV, EK TAS ETLKTHTOV TpOPpHs Kal THs avlynTiKHs, WV TE Tapa Tob OjAcos emiKTarat Kai [ris |? bUpabev. dua TobTO Ta pev cota péxpt twos AapPdver thy avenow: €oTt yap Ti maou Tois Cw@ous mépas Tod peyebous, 610 Kal Tis TOY doTav adv&yjoews. et yap tadr elyev av€now del, kat TOv Cawv doa Exer GoTobv 9 TO avddoyov, nv&dver av Ews €ln- Too yap peyebous Opos earl tatra trois Cao. 80 av pev obv aitiav odK det AapBavovow _adbénow Aexréov TRE, tpixes 5€ Kal Ta ovyyevh ToUTOLs, Ews av Lirias Z: Kal THS vulg. 2 seclusi. * The functions of “‘ nutritive Soul” (see above, 735 a 17, and De anima 415 a 25) are to generate, and to make use of nourishment; it is the same Svvayus of the Soul which generates and which nourishes (De anima 416 a 19). In the passage which there follows, a distinction is made between being nourished (rpépecBar) and growing (adédveoBax). At 416 b11, Aristotle says that ‘ nourishment” is not identical with ‘*‘ that which is growth-promoting ’’; thus, in so far as the living thing (the creature ‘‘ with Soul in it”) is of a certain quantity, the food is “* growth-promoting ”’ (7.¢., increases its quantity) ; but in so far as the creature is a particular thing, an individual “ being,” the food is ‘* nourishment,” because 232 __ ous spines of Selachia (sharks, etc.) (P.A. 654 a 20, 655 a 23). st GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. vz. get merely the leavings and the residues of it. In every instance, of course, there is nourishment of two grades present: (1) “ nutritive,” that is to say, which provides both the whole and the parts with _ being ; (2) “ growth-promoting,” that is to say, which causes increase of bulk. These will have to be more particularly distinguished later on.* The sinews are _ constructed in the same way as the bones, and out _ of the same materials, viz., the seminal or “‘ nutri- _ tive’ residue. As for nails, hair, hoofs, horns, bills, cocks’ spurs and any other such part, these are formed out of the supplementary or “ growth-promoting ” nourishment, this additional nourishment being _ obtained from the female, and from outside. On this _ account, the bones continue growing only up to a certain point, for as all animals have a limit to their size, this involves a limit to the growth of the bones. If the bones continued growing for ever, then every animal which contains any bone or the counterpart of bone” would go on growing as long as it lived, because the bones set the limit for an animal’s size. We shall have to explain later on why the bones do not continue growing for ever. Hair and similar things, on the other hand, continue growing so long it maintains the creature's being. And it is also “* productive of generation-’’—not, of course, of the generation of the creature which is getting the nourishment, for its “* being ” __ is already there, but of another creature similar to it (416 b 15- _ 17). It thus appears that the business of “ nutrition” is concerned with the maintenance of a liying creature’s being, and with the generation of new ones’ being; “ growth-pro- motion” is concerned with increasing the bulk of that which already has being—and this is precisely the distinction which Aristotle employs in the present passage. ® ¢.g., the os sepiae, the “pen” of calamaries, the cartilagin- 745 a 15 / 20 30 ARISTOTLE)! 790) brdpywow, adfdvovrat, Kat waddAov €v vdoors Kal TOV CwWLaTOW YNpaoKovrov Kal POvdvrev Sidi “70 ActmeaBau TEpiTTWLA. mhetov eAdrrovos ets “7a KUpua Samavepevov dua TO yapas Kal Tas vdoous, €7rel x oray Smorelrn Kal TobTo Sud Thy ruta, Kal at TpIXEs b7roAcizovaw. 7a & dora Tobvavrloy” oupdbiver yep TO odpare Kat Tots HEpeow. ao- Sdvovrau 3 at TpIXES Kat TeOvedirwv, ov (pevrou ylwovtal y’ €€ b drapx7s. beat Hepi 5 dddvrwn a drrophaevey av TIS. cial yap Thy fev pvow TY avray €xovrTes Tots dorots, Kai ye vovTat €K TAY ooTaV, OvUxES. dé Kat tpixes Kat KépaTa Kal Ta ToLadTa €K ToD Sepyaros, ‘8d..Kad ovpperaBadrovor TO Sepyare Tas xpoas* AevKd. TE yap kai péAava yivovras Kal TavTodaTa KaTa. THY ToD Sépyaros Xpoav, ot 8° oddvres obbev: ex yap Tav doTtév eiow, doa TaV Codbwv € exet ‘dddvTas Kal 5 00Tad. av&dvovrar dé dia Biou pevot Ttav aAAwv doTa@v> totro dé dijAov em TOV Tapaxduvdvreay dddvTwr. Thy adyy THY arAjAwv. aitiov dé THs avéijoews, ws pev everd Tov, dua TO Epyov: TaXD yap av KatetpiBovto pr) ywopevns Twos émuppv- sews, eel Kal vov éviois ynpacKover, Tots Bpw- TuKots fev 22) Heyddovs &’ éyovat, Kararpipovrat maprrav: mAeiove yap Ady Kafoupodvras Tis av Ejoews. 810 Kal todro \ >. a / / ‘ \ > \ eis TA OOTA SiadiwWoperyns yiwovTar, Sid THY adTHV* ” / a; / LA > a ” ww éxovar dow, Kai Tore Grav exeiva Exn On TOV > \ \ rie oe A \ > + zat ‘Pia apiOuov Tov aitav. ta pev odv adda Ca Exovra yiverat OddvTas Kal 7d avdAoyov Tots ddofoty, eav py Te ylyvynTra Tapa pvow, dia TO atroAvecOan THs , , x, Jo r a ¢ 99 yevécews TeTEAcopeva TOD avOpwrov paddrov: 6 5 avOpwros, av un Te ovpP mapa dvow, ovK exwr. du qv 8 airiay ot pev yivovrar TOv dddvTwy Kal exmimtovow, ot 8 odk éexmimtrovaw, boTEepov Ae- xOnoerar. : Avért 8 ek TEpLTTeLLaTOS €or TA ToLadra TOY propiwy, dua ToT dvOpwros yuAdTaTdv Te Kata TO cGpa tav lawv mdvrwy eoti Kal dvuxas. eAayxi- otous éxes Ws Kara péyeOos: eAdyioTov yap, Exet 1 airiv Bekker, per typothetae errorem. @ Bk. V, ch. 8. > i.e. hair, nails, ete. 236 J GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. vz. an excellent device to suit the case, in making the failure of the teeth coincide with the time of old age and the close of life. If life went on for 10,000 or even 1000 years, the teeth would have had to be quite enormous to begin with, and they would have had to grow afresh many times over ; not even continuous growth would have sufficed to prevent them being ground down and becoming useless for their work. We have now described the purpose for the sake of which the teeth grow. And yet as a matter of fact the teeth do not possess the same nature as the rest of the bones, because the bones, without exception, are all formed during the first stage of the embryo’s construction, whereas the teeth are formed later; and that, too, is why a fresh set of teeth is able to grow after the old ones have fallen out: although they are in touch with the bones, they are not all of a piece with them. Still, they are formed out of the nourishment which is distributed to the bones (which is why they possess the same nature), and at a time when the bones have already attained their full complement. All the animals except man already have their teeth (or the counterpart of teeth) when they are born—unless it be that something unnatural occurs—because when they are released from their process of formation they are more fully perfected than man ; man however when born has no teeth— unless something unnatural occurs. We shall explain later on* why some of the teeth are formed and fall out and why some do not fall out. The reason why man’s body is more naked than that of any single one of the other animals, and why he has the smallest nails in proportion to his size, is this. Parts of this sort ° are made of residue ; now 237 ‘ARISTOTLE? fy a} 745 b - be ” \ , x TepitTwpa yeddes, Cott S€ mepirTwpa pev TO 20 dmenrov, to 5€ yenpov ev Tois owpac. mavTwY , “+ isle Fotes dmentorarov. Ilds pev obv ExaGTOV ovviorarat TOV Hoptwy, eipnTat, Kal re THS YEVvETEWS alriov. Vil "Eyer S€ tiv ad&gow 7a Cworoxovpeva tov euBptwv, wamep eAexOn TpoTepov, dua THs. rob oudhadod Tpoogucews. emel yap éveotw ev Tots 25 Cwous Kad a) Openrurt) dvvapus THS puxiis, adinow edOds olov pilav Tov oudadocv «is. THY dorépay, €oTt dé 6 opdadds ev Keddder ddréeBes, Tots mev pretloot Aeious, ofov Bot Kat tots TovovTois, Tots dé pécors dvo, pia de Tots eoxdrous. Sud de tovrov AapBaver Thy Ttpodry aiparucny, at yap borépae 30 7épara preBav mohéiv ciow. Ta pev ovv | duposdovra mara, Kal TOV dppwddvrer owv 7 borépa p) piav $AcBa. peyaAnv ever Siaretvovoay GAN avti pds muKvas moAAds, tadta ev tats dorepais exet Tas Kadoupevas KorvAnddvas, mpos ds' 6 opupards ovvaTret Kal Tpoorre ukev" aTroTe- Tayrau yap ai drAcBes at dud TOO dpparod évbev kal évOev Kal oxilovra mavTn KaTa THY doTEpav: 7 d€ mepaivovor, TavTn ylyvovtar at KotvAnddves,” TO pev mepipepes Exovoa® mpos THY boTEpav, TO 35 5€ KotAov mpos TO €uBpvov. perakd dé Tis toTépas 746a Kat Tod euBptov ro xdpiov Kal of bpueves cioiv. at 1 ds Platt, OP* : aP. 2 mpos as 6 Gupadrds . . . ylyvovrat ai KorvAndoves POY*E: om. vulg. éxyovoa Z et corr. P: éexovoas vulg. @ See 740 a 24 ff. » Not quite the same as the modern use of the term. Aristotle uses it to mean the pits in the modified wall of the 238 Ta ) GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. v1.-vit. it is unconcocted substance which constitutes residue, and the most unconcocted substance in animals’ bodies is the earthy substance, and man has a smaller amount of earthy residue than the other animals. ateare now described how each of the parts takes shape, and what is the cause of their formation. | _ In viviparous animals, as stated earlier,*the embryo VII __ _. obtains its growth through the umbilical attachment. © Nutr _ Since the nutritive faculty of the Soul, as well as the embryo. others, is present in animals, it immediately sends off the umbilicus, like a root, to the uterus. The umbili- eus ‘consists of \blood-vessels in a sheath. In the larger animals, such as the ox and the like, it contains | numerous blood-vessels, in medium-sized animals, two, and in the smallest, one. Through this the embryo gets its nourishment, z.e., blood; the uterus being the terminus of many blood-vessels. The cotyledons ° (as they are called) are present in the uterus (a) of al] those animals which have no front teeth in the upper jaw, and (6) of those which have teeth in both jaws and also have a cluster of blood- vessels running right through the uterus instead of a single large one. The umbilicus is connected up to these’ cotyledons and firmly attached to them ; for the blood-vessels which pass through the umbilicus extend in both directions and branch out all over the uterus, and it is at their terminal points that the coty- ledons are formed. Their convex side is towards the uterus, their hollow side towards the embryo. Be- _ tween the uterus and the embryo are the chorion and the membranes. As the embryo grows and uterus into which the villi of the outer membrane of the embryo fit. For the meaning attached to the term by _ Diocles, see Wellmann, reference in note on 746 a 19 below. 239 ARISTOTLE 746 a : > A dé Korudn doves av&avopevov Kal TeAcoupévov Tob eu.Bpvov yivovrar éAdrrovs, Ka TéAos adavilovrat TeAewbévros. els To0TO yap mpoexriferar Tots euBpvors a) priors Thy atparucny Tpopiyy Ths baré- pas Bomrep els _Hacrous, Kal ua TO dbpoile- ofa Kara’ HLucpov ex ToMAdv olov e€dvOnwa Kal preypacta yiverau TO capa. TO THS KoTvAnddvos. ews pev av odv EAatTov 7 TO euBpvov, ov Surdprevor moAAnv AapPdvew Tpopiy, d7jAat eiou Kal neiloves, avéndevros d¢ ouprinrovaw. a de TOAAG TAV KoAoBav Cee Kal BPA I 10 odK éyet KoTvAnddvas* €v rais dotépas, GAN 6 oudardos cis drA€Ba reiver piav, adryn dé Téraras dud. THs tborépas €xyovoa péyeOos. emet S€ Ta pev poovoréka ta dé modAuTdKa T&v TowovTwv €oTi Caiwv, Kai ra TrAciw TOv eBpdwy Tov abrov Exe Tpotov TH evi. Set 5€ Tadra Oewpety Ex Te TOV 15 Tapaderypdrov TOV ev Tats avatopats Kal av év Tats foropiats YEYpappevoov. meptKace yap Ta laa. éx Tob Ouparod, 6 68 opdadros € ex THs prcBos, edhetfs _addnhors, worrepavel Tap” oyeTOV TIV dréBa péovoav: epi dé Exaorov Tov euPptwv ot duéves Kal TO yopedv eorw. Ot dé Aéyovtes tpéfecOar Ta matdia ev ais 20 dorépats Sua TOD capKididv tr BddAAEW odK dpO@s or 1 kata P: Kat xara vulg. 2 xorvAnSdévas P: xorvAnddva vulg. * Here seems to mean “ hornless.” > Aétius ascribes a similar theory to Democritus and Epicurus (Aét. 5. 16; see Diels, Vorsokr.6 68 A 144); Censorinus (De die natali 6. 3; Diels 38 A 17) to Diogenes and Hippocrates. Cf. Hippocrates, aw. oapkav 6 (viii. 592 240 —————-- — a GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. vi. approaches its completion the cotyledons become smaller, and finally. when it is completed they dis- appear. Nature lays in a store of the blood-like nourishment for the embryos in this part of the uterus, as it were into breasts, and the body of the cotyledon becomes as it were an eruption or an inflammation owing to the fact that the numerous: cotyledons gradually get compacted together. While the embryo is fairly small, and unable to take much nourishment, they are large and plainly visible, but when it has grown they shrink up. - The great majority of the “ stunted’? animals, and of those that have front teeth in both jaws, have no cotyledons in their uterus, but the umbilicus extends to meet a single blood-vessel, which is a large one and extends throughout the uterus. Some of these animals produce one at a birth, others several ; but what occurs when there is only one embryo occurs also when-there are more. All this should be studied with the help of the. illustrative diagrams given in the Dissections and Researches. The embryos are attached each to its umbilicus, and the umbilicus is attached to the blood-vessel ; they are arranged one after the other along the stream of the blood- vessel as it might be along a runnel in the garden ; and there are membranes and a chorion around each embryo. Those people ® who say that children are nourished in the uterus by means of sucking a bit of flesh are Littré). The view that the embryo sucked the “ cotyledons” was held by Diocles of Carystus (Wellmann, Fragmentsamm- lung der sikelischen Arzte, Diocles fr. 27, 10 ff.); and accord- ing to Jaeger (Diokles von Karystos, 166), Aristotle’s detailed treatment of the subject of cotyledons here is due to the fact that Diocles was associated with him in the Lyceum. 241 ARISTOTLE) 114090 746 a / TS A ~ »* VA f A Aéyovow: eri te yap 7t&v dAwv Caw tadrov ovveBawer av, viv 8 od daiverat (Dewpijoar yap TobTO pdd.vov Sud Tov avaropiv)- Kal mept a7ravTo Ta eBpva Kal Ta TTHVA Kal 7a mura kal Ta TOV mel@v opotins Aerrot Tepiexovow bpeves Xo- 25 pilovres a a8. Te THs dorépas Kal TOV eyywopevav dypav, €v ols ovr adrois eveore Tovobrov. over, ovte dud TOUT OW ovdevos evdexerau mrovetoBan THY amo\avew: Ta 8 @moroKovpeva TavTa OTe Aap Bave my avénow xwpiolévta THs heel so, avEpov. Diverae be 6 ovvdvacpes Tots Leaks Kare. & didow 30 pev tois Spoyevéow, od pay GAAd Kab Tots jev ovveyyus? TV pow éxyovow, ovK ddvaddpors be TO eter, eav Ta TE peyeln TapamAjova 7 Kat ot xpovor ico Mow THs Kuyocews. ondvia peev oby yiverat Ta. Toadra emi TOV aMwv, yiverat 5é Kat emi Kuv@v Kat dAwirEeKav kal AdKwv (Kat Odwv)*: 35 KaL OL “Tv8xot de Kives ex Onpiov Twos Kuva@dovs 746 b YervavT at Kal Kuvos.. Kal emt TOV opvibay be 7 TOV OXEVTUCY @rTat ToUTO ovpBaivoy, olov emi TEP Succov Kat dAexropidy: Kal. TOV yapupevxcav ot igépakes Soxobow ot Suadeportes T@ cde piyvu- G0a mpos aAAjAous: Kal én Nab Se TWwV 5 opvewy exer TOV adTov TpdTov. emt de Tav Padar- tiwy ovfev a€idrAoyov éwparar, doKodat dé panels - 1 7eP: om. vulg. 2 auveyyus SZ* : eyyis ve 3. Bif.; vids p. 568. ® Of. H.A. 607 a 4 ff. “‘ they say too that the ‘ Indian dog’ is the offspring of a tiger and a bitch ; not the first cross, but the offspring at the third generation.” There seems to 242 Ee ee . GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. vu. mistaken. If this were true, the same would occur in the other animals, but it is not found to do so, as _ can be easily observed by means of dissections. Also, all embryos alike, whether they be of animals that fly or swim or walk, have round them fine membranes _ which separate them from the uterus and from the _ fluids which are formed there ; and there is nothing of the sort in these membranes nor can the embryos get the benefit of anything whatever through them. _ As for embryos that are produced by means of eggs, it is of course obvious that in all cases their growth takes place outside the uterus, after they have been separated from it. The partners in copulation are naturally and ordi- Hybrids, narily, animals of the same kind; ‘but beside that, animals that are closely allied in their nature, and are not very different in species, copulate, if they are comparable in size and if their periods of gestation are equal in length. Although such crossing is in- , frequent among the majority of animals, it occurs among dogs, foxes, wolves (and jackals) ; the Indian dog * also.is produced from the union of a dog with some wild doglike beast. It has also been observed to occur among those birds that are salacious, e.g., partridges and common fowls. A case among’ the crook-taloned birds is that of the hawks, different species of which copulate, as it appears; and the same occurs among certain other birds. We have no trustworthy observation of its occurrence among _ sea-animals; but there is a strong suspicion that _ the rhinobates as it is called is produced by the copu- _ be no general agreement as to what this animal was; see Platt’s note, C.Q. III (1909), 241 ff. Cf. too the ** Laconian hound,” 738 b 31. 243 746 b ARISTOTLE age ot pwoBdrar Kadovpevor yiveoBar ex pins Kal Barou ovvdvalopevwy. éyeraur Se Kat TO. rept THs ABdns Trapouralopevor, as del Te THs AcBins tTpepovens Kawov, bia TO piyvvobar ‘Kal 10 7a 7) onda. aAdAnjAots Acx Piva TovTo- dua. yap TH omdvu Tou vdaTos dmavravra TavTa 7mpos oXtyous TOmoUS Tovs €yovTas vdpaTa piyruabat Kal TO pa) Opoyer?. Ta ev obv dAAa Tov ex Tovadrns pikews ywo- pevey ovvdvalopeva, paiverar T7daAuy ddArjAows Kat peyvi eva. Kat duvdpeva TO TE OjAv Kat 70. dippev 15 yea, ot 8° dpeis dyovot pOvou Tov TOLOUTWY" OUTE yap €€ aAAj ACY ovr addAous peyvopevou yevv@ow. éort de ro 7 poBAnpa kaborov pe, dia riy’ aitiay d-yovov 7 dppev 7 OFAV € eorw: eiol yap Kat yovaires Kal avdpes ayovor, Kal Tav aGAkwv Cobwy ev Tots yéveow éxdorots, olov ev immo Kal mpoBarors. 20 ddd. TOTO 70 yévos oXov dyovev €oTt, TO TOV 7pLvovenv. ta 8 airia THs. dyovias emt pev TOV adAwy mAciw oupBaiver Kal yap eK YEveTys, drav mmpwbaoar TOUS Tomous TOUS TpOs Thy pl€w ypyai- povs, dyovor ylvovrat Kal yovatxes Kat _dvopes, dare Tas pev 7) 7)Bav Tovs d€ 41) yeverdy, aan’ 25 edvovxias SuareAciv ovTas* Tots de mpoiovons THS AAkias Tadrov ovpBaiver mdoxew, ore pev bu edtpodiav TOY cwyudtwv (Tails per yap morépats * The batos is a flat-fish (P.A. 695 b 27, 696 a 26), called by Thompson (translation of H.A. 566 a 97 ) the ‘‘ skate,” by Platt, a‘“‘ray.” The rhine is called by Thompson the “ angel- fish * (note on H.A. 540 b 11), by Platt, a * shark. = ae H.A. 566 a 27 ff. Aristotle again refers to the “rhinobates as a cross between these two fishes, and says that it has the head and foreparts of the bates and the hindparts of the rhine. 244 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. vu. lation of the rhine and the batos.* Also, the origin of the proverb about Libya, to the effect that * Libya is always bringing forth something new,” ? is said to be that there animals of different species unite, since owing to the fact that as there is very little water they all meet together at the few places where springs are to be found, and so animals of _ different species unite. It is known that with one exception all the animals _ which are produced as a result of such unions copulate with each other and unite in their turn and are able to produce young of both sexes. Mules are the one exception. They are sterile and do nat generate either by union with each other or with other animals. It is, of course, a-general problem why any particular _male or female is sterile : there are men and women _ who are sterile, and there are instances in the several kinds of animals, e.g., horses and sheep. But with the mules we have a whole race which is sterile. Leaving _ this exception for the moment : elsewhere the causes _ of sterility are numerous. (a) Men and women alike are sterile from birth if they are deformed in the regions employed for copulation ; as a result, the men do not grow a beard but remain as eunuchs, | while the women do not reach puberty ; (6) others become sterile as they advance in age, sometimes _ (i) because they have put on too much flesh : in men _ Platt thinks the rhinobates is the angel-fish; Thompson offers the opinion that it is “‘ probably the modern genus Rhinobatus ~ ; Platt says ** it certainly did not belong to the _ modern genus of that name.” ® For this proverb: and its explanation, cf. the similar passage H.A. 606 b 19 ff. Platt suggests that a mutilated passage in Hippocrates, 7. dépwv vdarwy tomwv 12 fin., con- _ tained a statement on this subject. 245 . 746 b 747 a ARISTOTLE)! 1/11) ywomevais Tots 8° eVEKTUKWTEpOLS els TO o@pa KaravadioKera TO TEpiTTwWUA TO omepparicdv, Kat Tats jev ov yiverat Karapived, tois dé your), ore 30 5€ Sa vdcor ot pev dypov Kal evypov mpotevrat, tats dé yovady at xabdpoes padrar Kat aAipets voonparuccy TEepiTTwOmaTO Toots Se Kal TroA- Aais Kal dud Tmpopara T00TO oupBaiver TO mdBos mepl. TA [ope Kal Tovs TOTOUS, TOUS rept Ty opudAtay XPNSYLOVS. yweras d€ Ta ev lara Tad? dviara TOV TOLOUTM”, pddvore. (Be StareAodow 35 dyova. (ray Kara THY Tparny ovoTaow ‘Tovavra. yevopeva* yivovTas yap yuvaies Te appevetrot Kat avdpes OnAvKot, Ka Tats prev ov: yiverau Ta KaTa- pyvia, tots d€ 70 omépya A|emrov Kal puxpov. did7rep edaAdyars Bacavilerat Tais metpats 78 ye TOV dvdpav, et dyovov, ey TQ Boat Tayv yap 5 Sayetrar 70 Nerrov Kal buxpov enurroAjs, TO “be yovuLov eis BuBov xeoper- Beppo bev yap’ TO mre~ TE [L[LEVOV €oTl, mememtat b€ TO OVVEOTHIOS | Kal TAXOS EXOV. Tas de yuvatkas Bacavilovar 7 Tots Te mpooberors, eav SuKva@vrar at dopa Tpos TO mvedpa TO Ovpale KaTwhev dvw, Kai Tois €yxpi- 10 ctas «is Todvs ofadyods xpwHpacw, av xpwyari- {wou To ev TO oTopart mruehov. Taira yap od ovpBatvovra dno TO c@pa Tovs TOpous be dv dmoxpiverau TO TepirTwn[.a. ouyKexupevous exew Kal ovpmepuKotas. 6 TE yap Tept Tovs dd0adpods Tomo0s TOV TEpt THY KEehadny oTEeppaTiKwTaTOS 1 sa supplevi: post ovoracw P. * And therefore might be expected to rise. 246 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. vu. who are too well fed and in women who are too fat the seminal residue is used up for. the benefit of the bodily system, so that no semen is formed in the men and no menstrual discharge in the women; some- times (ii) because of disease ; the semen which the men emit is fluid and cold, and the discharges of the women are poor and full of morbid residues. But in very many cases, in both sexes, this drawback is due to deformities in the parts and regions employed for intercourse. Some of these deformities are cur- ‘able, some are not ; those, however, who have become deformed during the original constitution ‘of the embryo, have a special tendency to remain infertile throughout; thus, masculine-looking» women. are produced in whom-the menstrual discharges do not oecur, and effeminate. men whose semen is thin and cold, On this account the water-test is quite a fair one for infertility in the male semen, because the thin, cold semen quickly diffuses itself on the surface, whereas the fertile semen sinks to the bottom ; for though it is true that a substance which has been concocted is hot,* yet that which has been set and compacted and possesses’ thickness » has certainly undergone conéoction.’ Women are tested (a) by means of pessaries ? the test is whether the scent of the pessary penetrates upwards from below to the breath which is exhaled from the mouth ; (6) by means of colours rubbed on to the eyes, the test being whether they colour the saliva. If the required result is not forthcoming, it is proved that the passages of the body through which the residue is secreted have got obstructed and have closed up, for of all the regions in the head the eyes are the most seminal, > As is shown by-its sinking. Cf. 765 b 2. 247 747 a VII 747 b ARISTOTLE — 45a) 15 €orw. Sndot 9° ev’ tais opudtaus peracynparils- flevos emvdijAws povos, Kal Tots xpwpevors mActo- ow ddpodiatots evdiddacr Ta oppara pavep@s. aituov 6° 6tt % THs ‘yovns puous opotws exer TH Tob eyxedddov: darwdns yap eorw a) BAN abrijs, 7 .0€ Depporns eTUKTNTOS. Kal at oTrepparuKat 20 Kabdpoes a amo TOO brolwpares elow, 1) yap ap THS. picews evredley, aore Suxvetobar Tos Tov Duspaxa Tas KUTELS and tav dpbpwr: al 8 ek Too Fespaxos dcpal mootow aicbnow Sid THs dvamvoris. "Ev pev ovv Tots dvOpeirrous Kal Tots - dMos yéveow, WomTep elpnTat mpdTEpov, KATA pEepos 7 25 TotavTn ovpPaiver mipwo, TO dé TOV Furovev yévos oAov dyovdv €oTw. rept S€ THS alrias, ws jeev Aéyovow "EprredoKAfs Kat Anpoxptros, Aéywv 6 pep ov oagas, Anpoxpitos de yropipas LaMov, ov Kahas elpyKacw. Aéyouor yep emi mévrey opoiws TH. amddeEw THY Tropa. Thy ouyyéeverav 30 ovvdvalopever. AnyoKputos pe yap pyr. bu epbapbat Tovs mOpous” TOV TpLoveny ev Tats bore pas dud TO pe) EK ovyyev@v yiveoBat THY cpxny av foun. oupBaiver 8 d° ef? érépwv Sou TOTO pev drrdpyxew, yevvay dé pndev rrov: Kairoe xpHy, eiep aittov Tobr Hv, ayova Kal TaA\’ See Introd. § 69. © See 719 a 14. # See Diels, Vorsokr= 68 A 151. © Diels, Vorsokr.* 31 B92; cf. 91; and 31 A 82. 249 747 b 5 10 20 ARISTOTLE ©) aPC a RG © ex 5€ Tv ToLovTwv yivecBar €k padakdy oxAnpor, dorep TO Kartirépw puybévta tov yadkov, Aéywv our él Tob yaAKob Kal Tod KaTTiTEpov THY aitiav > a ” ST fae a , 0, Pug siass opbds (eipnrar 8° ev rdis mpoBAjpact Tepi avdTa@yv) > / / \ ov? dAws ek yrwpiwy Tovovpevos Tas apxds. Ta Cal ‘ ~ yap KotAa Kal Ta oTEped apdTrovTa aAAjAoLs TOs mrovet THY plEw olov olvov Kal bdaros; Tobro yap brép has eort To Acydpevov: THs yap det AaPetv a A lol S34) ae rEES Ta KotAa Tod olvov Kal Tov vdaTos, Alay éoTL Tapa \ ” ” Sl \ , e243} viv aicbnow. er 8. ered) ovpBaive. Kat e€ a / a \ > ww + \ > inmwv yiveoOar immov Kal €&€ dvwy. dvov Kal e€ immov Kat Ovov hylovov, apdotépws appevos Kal OnAeos Strorepovoty évTos, bia Ti eK pev ToUTwY : , ylveTau TUKVOY OUTWS WoT” dyovoy elvat TO yevo- pevov, ek 98 Ummov OnjAcos Kal appevos 7 dvov Ojrcos Kal dppevos ov yiver a dyovov;, KaUTOL padakov Kal TO TOD \appevos Ummou €oTl, Kal TO ~ / / \ \ c a a ¢ tod OxA€eos, piyvurar 5€ Kal 6 OfAvs tmmos Kal 6 appnv TO ov, Kal TO Appeve Kal TO OnjAet. Kal 51a. TOOTO yivovra dyova e€ dudorépw, ws dyoiv, ore €€ dyipoty €v TL yiveTau CrUKvOP),: pahaxay évTwy TaV oTepuatwv. ede. obv Kal TO €€ immou dppevos Kai OyAcos ywopevov. ei ev yap Odtepov epiyvuTo povov, eviv av A€yew ote Odrepov aitiov A ~ lo ~ a > TOO jn) yevvav avopovov dv* TH TOD dvou yoy: viv d olatep ovon ekeivn pilyvuTat, TovavTH Kal TH TOO 1 zuxvev supplevi (zuxvev ze pro &v re Platt): d7u. . . omep- pare om. x. ° dvdpovov év Platt (non assimilatur =X): dpoov yulg.: dpovov dv P (yervay 7tovov coniecerunt A.-W.). 250 a GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. vin. such circumstances two softs give rise to one hard, just as bronze mixed nith tin does. In the first place, he has got the reason wrong in the case of bronze and tin (see what I have written about this in the Problems), and further, to put the objection generally, the ples from which he starts his argument are not intelligible. ® How do the hollows and solids by Fe fitting on to one another” produce “ the mixture as of wine and water”? This saying of his is over our heads ; it is quite beyond our perception what we are to understand by the “ hollows ”’ of wine and water. Further, in point of fact, a horse is the off- spring of two horses, an ass of two asses, a mule of a horse and an ass—+.e., its sire is a horse and its dam an ass Or vice versa. Why i is it then that a horse and an ass produce something so “ dense ” that the off- spring formed is infertile, whereas the offspring resulting from a male and female horse or from a male and female ass is not infertile? After all, the. secretion of both the male and of the female horse is * soft,” and both sexes of the horse unite with asses of the opposite sex. The reason why in both these cases the offspring produced is infertile, according to Empedocles, is because the one product of the two soft “ seeds ” is something (“ dense’). But then so it ought to be when the two seeds originate from two horses. If only one sex of the horse united with the ass, it would be open to Empedocles to say that the cause of the mule’s infertility was the dissimilarity of that one sex to the semen of the ass. In fact, how- ever, there is no difference in quality between the seed of the ass with which it unites (to form a mule) * No such reference can be found. » Cf. Anal. Post. 100 b 9. 251 ARISTOTLE ot 747 b ~ ” , PR \ > , Dr ny ond ws - . ouyyevods. -éru 8 iho amddetkis KaT dporepay Elpnrat opoles Kal* Tob OrjAcos Kal Tod ippevos, 25 yevrva 8° 6 dppny EmTaeTyNS wv pioves,” ws daoty: adn’ 7 On Aeva. dyovos orws,* Kal avira 7 Ha) €K- tpépew eis TéAos, ezel aon Kina eoxev jptovos. "lows 5é parXov dv ddc€erev addekis elvar mbar TOv eipnevwv Aoyixy. A€yw Se oyuKny dua TodTo, 6Tt dom Kalddov padAov, Ttoppwréepw 30 rOv olkeiwy eotiv apy@v. €ote 5€ TovavTn TIS. > A > < ~ »” ‘ / ¢ . \. ei yap €€ dpocidav dppevos kat OnAcos opoeides pocount mépuce Tots yevvyjoagwy dppev 9 One, olov €K KUVvOS dppevos Kal OmAcos. KU@VY appnvy 7 Orireva, Kal e& érépwv TH cider Erepov TH elder, oiov «i KUwyv €repov A€ovTos, Kal ex KUVOS dppevas 35 kat Adovros OjArcos € eTepov Kat ex éovTos dppevos 748 a Kat Kuvos O7Acos ErEepov: wor ered) asain € / ” \ ~ > / jutovos appnv Kat OyAus adiddhopor ovres* TH ow > / / > > a \ » ig / elder aAArjAots, yiverat 8° €& immov Kai dvov jyLi- ovos, eTepa 8° oti TH elder Tabra Kal ot Hpiovor, advvatov yeveoBar e& ‘utovwv: erepov yap yevos — > er \ 4? § »” \ / A 5 ovx oldv Te Sia TO €€ appevos Kal OyAcos TAY e ~ 2 ek Ud ~ ” ¢ / af Opocd@v TavTo yivecBar TH cider, Hytovos 8 rt * «atom. P, A.-W.: dpotms hic om. A.-W., qui post dppevos inserunt, secuti cod. P, qui ibi opoiws iterum, sed dp0as ees 2 jysiovos Peck : pdvos vulg.: Platt omisso (cum S$) pdvos seribit mox OjAcva . 3 dAws eK mavTds 4 correxi: advaddpwv dvrwv vulg. * They are both “ soft,’ according to Empedocles. 252 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. vit. and the seed of an animal of its own species.* Further, Empedocles. applies his argument equally to the male and the female. . But, people say, the male mule does generate at the age of seven years; it is the female which is totally infertile and that is simply because’ she fails to bring the nourishing of the fetation’ to its completion (as instances of fetations | in mules have been known to occur). Still, perhaps.an abstract argument might be con- sidered more convincing than those which we have already mentioned. I call it an abstract one, because in so far as it is a more general argument it is further removed from those principles which belong to this particular subject. It goes somewhat like this. In the normal course of nature the offspring which a male and a female of the same species produce is a male or female of that same species—for instance, the offspring of a male dog and a female dog is a male dog or a female dog. Two animals which differ in species produce offspring which differs in species ; for instance, a dog differs in species from a lion, and the offspring of a male dog and a female lion is differ- ent in species ; so is the offspring of a male lion and a female dog. This being so, it follows that as both male and female mules are produced, which of course | do not differ in species, and as a mule is the offspring produced by a horse and an ass, both of which are different in species from the mule, it is impossible for any offspring to be produced by mules ; the reason being : (a) no offspring of a different species can be produced by them, because the offspring of two animals male and female of the same species belongs itself to that species, nor (6) can a mule be pro- duced, because that is the offspring of a horse and an 253 748 a ARISTOTLE | 7 e€ immov Kal dvov yiverau érépww ovTwv TO cider [ex dé Tay eTepwv TO cide € Etepov ereOn yiveoau C@or]. ; obros pev obv 6 Adyos Kaborov Alav Kat Kev0s, ot yap pn eK Tay oikelwy apy@v Adyou Kevol, ada Soxotow elvar TOV Tpaypatoy ovK 10 Ovres. 08 yap ek TaV apxYa@v TOV YEwpeTpLK@v / ¢ / A \ > \ ~ EA 7 ‘ \ YEwpeTpicot, dpoiws S€é Kai emi Tav GAAwv: TO Se \ a A / »” > > / >. > \ kevov Soxkel prev elvai Tt, Eore 5’ odfév. odK adn bes 0€, Ort TrodAa, Tav py na ” \ \ \ A eo» 4 axodovboivres. ere dé yvypdv to Cov [6 dvos| a ~ / os €or, Sudmep ev rots yeyepwois od OéAcu yiveoBar \ 25 Toros Sia TO SUapvyov elvar THY Pow, olov Trepi A XKvbas Kal THv Guopov ywpav, obde wept KeArods ~ ‘ \ ‘ MA 4 tovs b7méep THs “[Bypias: puypa yap Kal avTn 7 ex S€ . . . Cov vulg. : eicit Platt. 2 ae 8 seclusit Platt: habet vulg., &. 4 seclusit Btf. * Of. H.A. 517 a 23. 254 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. vin. ass, two animals which differ in species [and it. was laid down. that an animal of a different species is produced by two animals that differ in species]. Now this argument is too general; there is wpe 25 it, because there is nothing in any argument which does not start from the first principles belonging to the particular subject. Such arguments may appear to be relevant, but in fact they are not. . For a geo- inetrical argument, you must start from geometrical principles, and the same applies elsewhere ; that which is empty, which has nothing in it, may appear _ to be somewhat but in fact is nothing at all. But also, this argument is false, because many of the animals that are produced from parents of differing ' species are fertile, as I have said earlier. No; this - method of inquiry is as wrong in natural science as it is elsewhere. We shall be more likely to discover the reason we are looking for if we consider the actual _ facts with regard to the two species, horse and ass. _ First, then, both horse and. ass, when mated with _ their own kind, produce only one at a birth; secondly, the females do not on every occasion conceive when covered by the male, and that is why breeders after an interval put the horse to the mare again [because _ the mare cannot bear it continuously]. Mares do _ not produce a large amount of menstrual discharge ; _ indeed they discharge less than any other quadruped ; _ she-asses too do not admit the impregnation, but pass _ the semen out with their urine ; and that is why people follow behind, flogging them.? Further, the animal is a cold subject; and as it is by nature so ' sensitive to cold, it is not readily produced in wintry regions, such as Seythia and the neighbouring parts, _ or the Keltic country beyond Iberia, which is also a 255 . ARISTOTLE.) 748 a / PY \ 4 \ A Dat 4 ‘A ee “a xwpa. dia Tadrnv dé Ti airiay Kal Ta dyeta > , mith > ¢ a ¢ ; > emtBaAdovat Tots dvois oby Womep Trois immdls KaT > / > \ \ \ , b Mics yee > tonpeptav, aAAd mepit tpomds Oepwas, Smas ev é > ~ 7 ov ») , ~ A 30 dAcewh yinra dpa ta mwdrla (ev rH adtH yap yiverar ev H av dyxevOR: enavtov yap Kver Kal immos Kat dvos). ovtos 8 womep cipnrar yuypood Thy pvow, Kal TIv yovny dvayKatov elvar Tod TowovTov yuxpdv. (onpelov S€ rovTov: dia TodTC yap, €ay pev intros dvaBh emt wyevpevnv td évov, od diadpbeiper tiv Tod dvou oxetav, 6 8’ dvos 2A > ~ / A ~ o \ 35 €av eravaBh, Siapbeipe tiv tod immov dia 7, \ ~ / if - 748 b puxpoTynTa THV Tod omepparos.) oTav jrev ovv > 7 ~ ra \ \ GAA nAots pux8Gou, odleras dua tHhv Oar€épov Gep- pornta, Oepudorepov yap TO amo Tod immov azo- Kpwopevov' 7 bev yap Tob dvov yuypa Kat 4 BAH Kal 7 youn, 4 Sé€ Tod immov Oepporepa. Grav oe ON \ 2 A Wore A 24 cul 5 x09 7 Oeppov emi puypov 7 pvxpov emt Oeppov, ovpPaiver adro per TO ex ToUTwWY KUNA ‘yevdopevov" 4 \ a> > > 7 > / owlea0a Kai radr’ e& ddAdAjAwy elvar yovrpa, TO 8 €k rovTwy pnréte yovysov addr dyovov eis TeActoyoviar. “Odws 8 timdpxovtos éxarepov edpvobis mpos ayoviav, T@ Te yap ovw bmdpxyer TA GAAa Ta €ipy- 10 peva,, Kat €av pr peta tov Bddov tov mp@tov apénrar yevvav, ovKére yevva TO Tapdmay: ovTws emt” puuKpod exeTat TOO dyovov eivar TO GOpa TOV é6vv. dpoiws S€ Kal 6 immos: eddhuijs yap mpos 1 yev- PSYZ*: yw- vulg. 2 éni om. Z. 3 rod P, Platt: 76 vulg. * i.e.,a mare; cf. H.A. 577 a 13, 28, » According to H.A. 577 a 18, this happens at the age of 23 years; see also 545 b 20. 256 OL GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. vin. cold quarter. For this reason they do not put the jack- asses to the females at the equinox, as is done with horses, but at the time of the.summer solstice, so that the asses’ foals may be born when the weather is warm. (Since the period of gestation in both horse and ass is a year, the young are born at the same season as that when impregnation takes place.) As has been said, the ass is by nature cold ; and a cold animal's semen is, of necessity, cold like itself. (Here is a proof of it. If a horse mounts a female * which has been impregnated by an ass, he does not destroy the ass’s impregnation; but if an ass mounts ‘her after a horse has done so, he does destroy the horse’s impregnation—because of the coldness of his, own semen.) Thus when they unite with each other, the impregnation remains intact by reason of the heat resident in one of the two, viz., that of the horse, whose secretion is the hotter. “Both the semen from the male and the matter supplied by the female are hotter in the case of the horse ; with the ass, both are cold. So when they unite—either the hot one added to the cold, or the cold added to the hot—the result is (a) that the fetation which is formed by them continues intact, i.e., these two animals are fertile when crosséd: with’ each other, but (6) the animal formed by them i is not itself fertile, and ‘cannot: pro- duce perfect. Besides, both horse ‘and ass’have a general natural disposition to be infertile. I have already mentioned several points about the ass, and another is that unless it begins to generate after the first shedding of teeth,” it never generates at all ; so close does the ass come to being infertile. It is the same with the horse ; it is naturally disposed to be infertile ; all K 257 ARISTOTLE OFFA TARO 7H dyoviav, Kat Tooodrov Neier TOO dyovos elvav door TO yeveoBat TO €k TOUTOU Yuxporepov: TOore d¢ yiverau, orav pix0n TH TOD Ovov dmoxpicet. Kat 15 6 dvos dé doatrus puKpod deiv kara Tov otketov ourdvacpor a diyovov yevrGs, Wore OTav TMpooyernrat TO Tapa poow, ei TéTE évds pOAus YEvVTTUKOY, ef dN} de Hv, TO eK TovTwWY ETL paNov ayovov Kat Tapa puow obfevos Sejoer Tob dyovoy elvar, day’ e€ avaykns éora dyovoy, . tes 20 MupBaiver dé Kal ra, owpara, Ta TOV ‘hpuedveny peydAa yivecbar dia TO THY amdKpiow THY es TA Karapnvia tpérecOar eis thy avénow. °émet 3” eviatatos 6 ToKETOS TOV Tovodrony, od povov avA-~ AaBety Set rH Tiplovoy ° ‘aAAa Kal exOperpat: Toot 8 advvatov Ha) yivopevwv Karapnvicy Tats e 25 Hpovois ov syiverou, GAAd TO pey dxpnorav pete TOO TEpiTTwpaTos TOD EK THs KUaTEWS eKKpiveTat (Sidzrep odd€ TaV-dpOpwv ot ryiovor of .dppeves dadpaivovtar TaV Onrerav, wotep TaAAa Ta jLco~ vUXa, GAN’ avroo Tob TEpLTTONarOR, Ta 5” aa, TpemET aL eis THY TOD owparos! avénow Kal 7d péyebos. ore ovdAdrafeiv pev evdéxerat wore Ty 30 OnjAevav, dmep Hdn daiverar yeyoves, excbpeypat bé Kal efeveyneiy ets ‘téAos advvarov. 6 8 dppny ' moTe ‘yevynoeev av Sid Te TO Bepporepov elvat Tod OjAeos dice TO appev, Kal Sia TO pr) ovpPdA- 1 tod cwpatos P, Platt: om. vulg. * These two statements are of course of general validity, 258 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. vit. that is wanting to make it such is that its secretion should be colder, and this occurs when it is united. with that of the ass. In the same way the ass comes: within an ace of generating infertile offspring even whoo ys mates with its own kind ; so that when there e additional factor of unnatural mating beside the difficulty it has in producing even a single young one in the normal way, the resultant offspring is still more ‘infertile and unnatural; in‘fact, it will lack nothing to make it completely infertile, ‘and will be infertile of necessity. Furthermore, female mules grow large in size. This is because the secretion intended for the men- _ strual flow is diverted to produce growth. And since the period of gestation in such animals lasts a year, the female mule not only has to conceive but has to nourish the embryo all that time ;. and this is impossible unless menstrual flow is being produced. None is produced in mules: the unserviceable part of the nourishment is passed out together with the residue that comes from the bladder (which explains why male mules do not smell at the pudenda of the females as the other solid-hoofed animals do, but at the residue itself); the rest of the nourishment is diverted to growth of the body and to size. Hence although it is possible for the female to conceive occasionally—and indeed the fact is established that this has happened—it is impossible for her to nourish an embryo for the full period and bring it to the birth. The male may occasionally generate (a) because ¢ the male is by nature hotter than the female, and (6) because the male does not contribute any corporeal and are cited here to explain how the male mule may be able to generate. 259 748 b 749 a ARISTOTLE (3) 74 4NWED Acobau mpos THY pig odpa pindev TO Gppev. (7d e dmoreheabev yiveraw yirvos. tobTo 8 €oriv 35 Tptovos dvdanpos* Kal yap eK TOO immov Kal To ovov ylvovrat yirvo, dray voonon TO Konya ev TH borépa. core” yap 6 yivvos dorep- Ta. perdxoupa ev Tots xolpois: Kal yap exet To mmpwbev ey * : dorépa Kaeirae perdxotpov. yiverat be Towbros ds av TUXD TOV Xotpwv. Opoiws dé yivovrat, Kat 5 ot Tuypatoe Kal yap. ovTOL Tpowvra Th hts P?. Kal 70 péyebos €V TH KU?I)COEL, Kal low Gaonep peTaxoupa Kal yivvot. } 54. quran a iT; cr en “ According to H.A. 577 b 21, a ginnos is the offspring of a mule and a mare; and there, as here,.a ginnos is also said to be the diseased offspring of a mare, and is eek shades with dwarfs and metachoira. — Aristotle thus compares t of the union of mule and mare with the diseased or ifovaad wnt ft : 260 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, II. vin. ingredient to the mixture. The final result which is produced is a ginnos.* This is a deformed mule, for ginnoi are produced also from the horse and the ass when the fetation gets diseased in the uterus, the ginnos being comparable to the metachoiron which occurs among swine, since in that case too it is the offspring which has been deformed in the uterus that is called a metachoiron: any pig may happen to be born thus deformed. Human dwarfs too are formed in a similar way :_ they too become deformed in their parts and stunted in size during the time of gestation, and thus are comparable with metachoira _-and ginnot. offspring which sometimes result from the union of male and Gaile of. one and the same species. For metachoira see also 70b 7. 261 j i¢ SOT? HA ix) fyi )- of deothovracti bonthoi 5, SOMERTD, Posad 2: runt pt atte 749 a 10 I epi pe obv THs TOV Hprdviny drexvias Binakcc Kal rept TOV SwotoKxodvtww Kat Ovpale Kat ev abvrois+ év de Tots @orokotat TOV evatpicay Th pep TapanAnotws: €, exeL Ta mept Tas ‘yevécers abrois TE Kal Tots meCois Kat tavtov Tt AaBety ort wept mavrov, TH oe EXEL duadopas Kal mpos GAN Aa. Kal 15 pos Ta mela tov Cobwy. _yiveran pev ob: dard ovvdvacpob_ mdvra ddws, Kal mpotepevov yoviyy ets To OAAv ToD appevos* TOV oe @oroKovvTwv at pev opvibes mpotevrat TéAcvov @ov Kal onhnpodeppov, €av pu) Te 7NpwOAR Sia vocov, Kal mdvra dixpoa Ta TOV opvibeov eorly, Tov & ixPdeov ot pev oehaxes- 20 Seis, Womep cipynrar moAAdKus, ev airois @oToK?- cavres CwotoKotot, pweraotdvtos Tob wWod e€ adAov ToTov THs voTtépas «is dAAov, padaKkddepjov Se TO @ov Kal Ouoxpwr éotlvy abtadv. eis dé jLdvos od lworoKet THY TowovTwy ev adt@, 6 Kadovpevos Bdrpaxos: mept ob tiv aitiav totepov AeKréov. ot 25 d€ dAAou Goourep WoToKobat TOV iyOdwr, wovdypwv * Although most Ovipara are flying or swimming animals, some of course are mela, but by wea Aristotle here means viviparous animals only. > 7.é., an egg which does not increase in size after deposi- tion ; see below, 1. 25. ° i.e., there is no difference of yolk and white. 262 a BOOK TIT We. naie ‘iepakes about fi. scerility of mnths, amd I about the animals which are viviparous both exter- |. Blooded nally and internally. We now pass on to those (continued). blooded animals which are oviparous.. The pheno- °"?*"° mena of generation here are on the one hand similar to those which obtain in the animals that walk,” so that the same statement will serve for all of them ; ; on the other hand, these animals exhibit certain © differences not only as between themselves, but also when’ compared with the animals that walk. Their generation. isthe result of copulation, 7.e., of the emission of semen into the female by the male : : this applies to all of them, of course. But beyond that there are variations : (a) Birds produce a perfect ° egg with a hard shell (unless it be deformed by disease). All birds’ eggs are of two colours. (5) The Selachian fishes, as I have often repeated, are inter- nally oviparous but bring forth their young alive, after the egg has moved from one position in the uterus to another. | Their egg is soft-shelled and of one colour only.*- The fish known.as the fishing- frog“ is the only one in this class that is not internally viviparous. »The cause of this. will have to be stated later. (c) All other fishes that are oviparous pro- * Probably Lophius piscatorius ; see 754 a 26, n. * At 754 a 25-31. 263 ARISTOTLE 749 a : x a ae ee eee SS , peév mpotevrat 70 cov, atedés 5€ TobTo- AapBaver yap efw Ty avenow, dua T7V adriy airiay ov nvmep Kal Ta €ow TeAcvovpeva TOV par. Ilepi pev odv r&v torepOv, tivas Exovor Sa- gopas Kai dia Tivas airias, elpnrar mpdrepov. Kat yap Tav CwotoKovvTwy,7a fev ava mpos TO 30 broldpare ever Tas borépas, Ta S€ KaTw mpds tois apOpos, avw pev ta ceAaywddn, Kdtw dé.7Ta ‘Kal év abrois Cqoroxobvra: KaL Odpale, olov av- Operrros Kal immos Kal tOv dd\Awv Exaorov. TOv TowovTwV. Kal TOY potoKowyrav Ta piv Karo, Kabazep TGV ixwv of dorokobvres, Ta 8 ave, Kabamep ot opyibles. ) ated eit 35 Loviorarat prev ody Kujpara rots _dpviot ‘Kat 749 b adropara, a Kadotow ob Save pv kal Leddpud. twes, ywera de Tatra Tots pa) mrnTtiKots nde yapuped- vot. Tdv. dpvidwr, adAd Tots wodvydvois, dua TO TOAD mepirreyptt Tar exew (rots d€ yapibavvew ets Tas mrépuyas Kal Ta mrEpa TperecBat TP 5 rovadtyy dmroKprow, TO be gOpa jpucpov éxew Kal Enpov. Te Kal Depysr’), Tv 8° amoKprow THY Kara pQvwwdy. Kal. THY youre mepit ropa elvac’ emel ov Kal 7) TOV. mTEp@v dvous, Kal yy TOO oTEpuatos yiverau €k mepitTwoEws, ov Svvaran 77 pvars en apxperepa| moAuxoetv. bua Thy auray dé radray 10 airiav® TO pev yapipeovuxa our’ eaves corty lL acutum =... |?) Kai post aiziay coda : del. Platt. * 7.€., the cause wees controls the growth of the egg to perfection. 264 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. 1. uce an egg of one'colour only, but this egg isimper- ect—its growth takes place away from the parent, and the Cause concerned * is just the,same as for * e eggs which are perfected within the parent. ih polite already spoken about the uterus of these I have said what are the differences they , show, ea kk are the Causes. Thus, some of the viviparous animals (the Selachian, fishes) have the uterus high up towards the diaphragm,’ others (the adicaate which are both internally and externally viviparous, such as man, horse, and all such animals) have it down by the pudenda. And of the oviparous animals some (such as the oviparous fishes) have it ae down, others (such as the birds) have it high up. Fetations ‘arise in‘ birds spontaneously as well (as (:.) Biras. ‘in‘the normal way) ; some people call them: wind- eggs or zephyria.°. They occur in those birds. which are neither good fliers nor crook-taloned but which are prolific.*. The reason is :. (a) these have a great . deal of residue, whereas in the crook-taloned birds secretion is diyerted to produce wings and wing feathers and_their body is small’ and solid and hot; nd (6) the menstrual secretion and the male semen are residue ; ; therefore, as both feathers and semen alike are formed out of residue, Nature cannot provide a large supply for both purposes. And it is for this ‘same cause that the crook-taloned birds do not padulge much in ae on are not rine prolific, : > See note on 717 a 2. © See note on 753.a 22. @ See table of birds, p. 368. * i.€., produce a large number of eggs (or young). I use * prolific ” throughout to translate zoAvyovos and zoduréxos. 4 For the smallness of the body of crook-taloned birds he from their wings), ef. P.A. 694 a 8 f. 265 749 b ARISTOTLE TUM . ovtTe troddyova, Ta dé Bapéa Kat TOV aTHATiKaV dowv Ta owmara dyKosdn, xabdrep TmepioTepas Kal TOV Towdrwv. Tots pev yap Bapéor Kat p24) mrariKois, ofov dAcKropior Kal mepouge ‘Kal Tots adAAows Tots Towovrots, TrOAd yiverat 1 irrepa 15 TOLodToV- 510 Tad Te Gppeva avr@v OXEUTUKa Kal Ta O7jA€ea mpoterau mohAny DAnv, Kat TikTer TOV Towv- TWV TA [eV moAAd Ta Oe ToMdxis, ToMd pev ofov aAeKtopis Kal mépoué Kal otpovbles 6 6 AiBoxds, Ta. dé TEpioTepwon moAAa [ev ov, ToMd.cus oe: _peragd yap eort tadra Tov yappuviywy Kat Tov Bapewy- 20 mTNTLKG per yap €or womep ra yapupesvoya., Anon s° EXEL Too oaw.aros damep 7a’ Papéa, wore | dua pev TO TTHTUKG elvaw Kal évradba Tpereabau TO mepitrwpa oAlya tikrovor, dia dé TO TAHVOS TOD ow@patos Kal Sud To Deppay exyew oy xowdiav Kal TenTiKWTaTHY, mpos de rovrou Kat dua TO padiws | 25 mopilecbar THv Tpodyy, Ta dé yapspwovuxa xarer Os, ToAAdkis. "Oxevruxa dé Kat moNbyova, Kal Ta. ‘pupa. roy opvewy éort, Kabarep evlore Kal TOV puta ay yap eis TO GOp.a av[énars ylverau TepiTT@pa omep- patiKov. 810 Kal TOV dAcxropiSev at *ASpuavucad mohuToKwrarat etour: dud, yap puKpoTnTa. Tob ow- 30 Paros els. THY TEKYWOW KaTavaNigKeT at .TpodT}. Kal at dyevveis Tey yevvatov moAvroKarepa: 4 bypoTepa yap Ta owpara THvde Kai’ ae _—— Ov . 1 -Hvde kai vulg.: radv S€ Y: adradv ray d€ PZ: a xat A.-W. } avy “| 2: Mentioned also at Hid. 558 b 17. Thompson (Glossary? 2, aAextpvwv) considers them as a kind of bantam. 4 266 | GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. 1. whereas the heavy birds and those fliers which have poly bodies (such as pigeons and the like) do so. ose birds which are heavy and are_not fliers, such as common fowls, partridges, and the like, a ed ‘deal ‘of this résidue is formed, and that is why eir males copulate frequently and their females emit a great. deal of matter ; ‘also, some birds of this sort lay many eggs, some lay many times thus the common fowl, the partridge and >the ostrich lay a large number ; whereas the pigeon family do not lay a large number, but lay many times, the reason being that the last-named stand midway between the crook-taloned birds and the heavy birds ; they are fliers, like the former, and have a bulky body, like the latter. The result is +. (1) As they are fliers, the residue is diverted to their wings ; hence they lay but few eggs; (2) they are bulky in build, their stomach is hot,and very good at-con- coction, and, in addition, they can easily get..their food, whereas the crook-taloned birds haye. difficulty in getting it ; hence they lay often. Small birds, too, copulate frequently and are very prolific, just as some small plants are : the material which might produce increase of bulk turns into seminal residue. On this account the Adrianic fowls * are extremely prolific ; ; as they are small in size, the nourishment is used up for the production of offspring. Also, low-bred birds are more prolific than high-bred ones,° because their. bodies are more » Thompson’s terms (Joc. cit.). The definition of yevvatos is given at H.A. 488 b 18 ff. : ebyeves pev yap €oTt 76 eg ayabot yévous, yervaioy S€ 7o pH efvoTdpevov €k Tis avrov gucews, whence it appears that yewaios =‘ REESE i as Thompson there translates it. 267 ARISTOTLE © Cts 749 b Tepa, TOV dé é loxvdrepa kat Enporepa: 6 yap 6 yevvaios ev Tots TovovTous yiveTat odpace ov. 35 €rt O€ Kal TOV oKeddy Aemrorns Kai dob ever ovpBdMerat mpos TO THY dvow TeV Tovosrany 750 a OxevTUCHY elvar Kal moAsyovor, Kabdmep Kal ént TOV avOposmeny: 4 yap eis Ta KOAa Tpopt TpemreT at tots TovovTots eis TEpiTTWLA OTTEpULaTLKOV* 6 yap exeidev adaipel 7) vais, mpootiOnow evradba. 5 8é yapipevuxa THY Baow loxupay éxes Kal Ta ~ oxedy maxos exovra. dud Tov Biov- ore bua. ndoas TavTas Tas airias ovr OxeuTiKd €oTw ovTE 770- Abyova. pddora, d¢ 7 KEY XplS. moAbyovov". pdvoy yap oxedov TobTo Kal mivee TOV yapseovixeoy, C7] & dyporns Kal 7. ovpdutos Kal 1 €maxtos omep- 10 pasruKov pera. Tijs drapxovons avTh Deppdrntos. tixrer 8° ovd° airy roAAa Atay, AAG, Terrapa| TO mAeiorov. | “O 8€ KéKkv€ dAvyotoKov eotiv odk Ov jibe xos, ote uypos tiv dvow eoriv (Snrot F 7 SerAia Tob opvéov), 70 S€ ameppatiKov C@ov det Beppuov Kat vypov elvac. ote dé devdov, davepov- bo TE 15 yap Tv Spvewy SubKeTae TaVTWY Kal EV Weenies TIKTEL veoTTLals. . Ta oe Treptorepwon dvo- ws 7a moAAa TiKTeEw elw0ev' ovte yap povordiKot etoly (ov0eis yap povordKos opvis ahi 6 KoKKvE, Kal obTOS evioTe — duToKet) atte ToAAG Tikrovow, GAAa mroAAdKis dvo 1 atrn Peck: atr7 vulg. @ For “ solid ’”’ and “‘ fluid ” see Introd. § 38. > Cf. the remarks on the chameleon at P.A. 692 a 22 ff. ; 268 on + as GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. 1. fluid and more bulky, whereas those of the high- bred birds are leaner and more solid,” this being the kind of body in which a thoroughbred and high- spirited temper tends rather to make its appear- ance; also the thinness and weakness of their legs contribute towards making these birds prone to copulation and prolific—and this applies also to human beings: the nourishment which was intended’ for the legs is im such cases diverted to the seminal residue : what Nature takes away from one place she puts on’at the other. The crook-taloned birds, on the other hand, have strong feet, and their legs are thick :' this is due to their manner of life; thus on account of all these causes they do not copulate much nor aré they very prolific. The kestrel is the most prolific of them, for this is practically the only one © of the crook-taloned ‘birds which drinks, and the fluid, both that which is innate and that which it gets from without, is productive of semen when combined with the heat which is present in it. Even this bird does not lay many eggs ; four at the most. The cuckoo lays but few eggs although it is not a crook-taloned bird, because it is cold by nature (as its cowardice ° clearly shows), whereas an animal that is abundant in semen must be hot and fluid. That it is cowardly is shown by the fact that all other birds chase it and that it lays its eggs in other birds’ nests. Most birds of the pigeon kind usually lay a couple of eggs. . They are neither one-egg birds (there is no one-egg bird beside the cuckoo, and this sometimes _ lays two), nor do they lay a large number ; but they also 650 b 28 (6 yap dd6Bos karapiyer) and 667 a 17 ff., where a large heart is-said to produce cowardice because the heart is so large that the heat is lost in so large a space. 269 750 a 750 b 20 bo or 30 5 | 2LAWRAISTOTIED ITA TAH 7) tpia Ta mdetora yerv@or,' ra dé moAAG B¥o- odTou yap ot apipot peta&d Tod Evdos Kat 7oMABv. “Oru d€ Tots Trodvyévois Tpemerat eis TO o7réppia Tpody, pavepov ek T&V ovupPawdvtwy. TeV TE yap devdpwv. 7a TroMa ToAuKapmyrayTa. Alav ef 3 avaivera pera THY Popav, 6 OTaV [L1) drohepbi TO odpart tpody, Kat Ta emérea tadro mdéoxew wv P| \ ‘ £ ~ \ €oukev, olov Ta TE xedpoma Kal 6 otros Kal TéAXa TA TOUATA* THY yap Tpopryy avaXioxovow eis TO orepjia maoav €oTt yap ToAvorreppiov TO yevos abta@v. Kal TOV dAexropibuv € eviae mrodvroKnoagar Niav ottws Hote Kai dvo reKkelv ev THEpt, peta Tv moAuTokiay ameé0avov. dmrépwvor yap yivovras Kal ot Opvides Kal. Ta pura: TobTo S €orl TO 7dbos direpBodr) mEpiTTwmpatos €xKpicews. aitvov d€ TO Towbttov mabos Kai 7 A€ovt. THs ayovias THs! : / 4 f ” Lid VorEepov TO ev yap mpdTepov Tikrer mévrTe 7 EE, ctra TO dorepy eres térTapas, mdAw de Tpets oKdpvous, eira TOV €XO[LEVvOV dpiiov € pots évds, el?’ oubev, ws e€avadioxopevov Tod TEPITTwpATOS Kat dpa THs HwAcckias Anyovons POivovtos Tob azép- faros. Td A > / \ ¢ / ~ > ‘0 tou pev obv yiverat rd dernvepwa TOv opvilev, ert O€ moiou Trodbyovor Kat odvydyovot ten Kal da rivas airias, clpyrau. . v Tiverar 5€ ra darynvépia, Kabdrep etpyrat sei r4 \ \ ¢ 4 > ~ 4, : v ov mpotepov, dia TO brdpyew ev TH Onder THY DAnY Thv omeppatiKny, Tots 8 dpveos x7) yiveoBar THY Tay KaTapyviwy amrdkpiow wonep Tots CwordKois Tots evaipous mou yap TovTois yivera, Tots jLev 270 ae a é ee GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. 1. lay often, producing two, or three at the most, gener- ally two, as these numbers are intermediate between one and many. - _ The actual facts make it Abie that in the prolific birds the nourishment is diverted to the semen. Most trees, if they have borne an excessive. amount of fruit, wither away when the*crop is over, when no nourishment is left over for themselves; annual plants, as it seems, have the same experience, é.g., leguminous plants, corn, and the rest of that sort. The reason is that, as they belong to a kind which produces a great deal of seed, they use up all their nourishment for semen (seed). Some fowls,’ too, after having laid excessively—as many as two eggs in a day—have died after performing the feat. The birds and plants alike become completely exhausted, and this condition is simply one of excessive evacua- tion of residue. It is responsible for the sterility which besets the lion in the latter part of its life, To begin with, the lion * will produce five or six cubs in a litter, then four the next. year, next time three, then two, after that one, and then none at all, which suggests that the residue is being used up and that the semen is diminishing as the prime of life abates, We have now said which are the birds that produce wind-eggs, and what sorts of birds are prolific and not prolific, together with the causes thereof. Why are wind-eggs formed? As has been said earlier, their formation is due to the fact that though seminal matter is present in the female, with birds no discharge of the menstrual fluid take place as it does with the blooded Vivipara ; ; in all of the last-named it does take place, and it is greater in some, smaller ® Cf. 760 b 23. 271 Wind-eggs. 750 b ARISTOTLE!) A545) mein, Tots 3° eAdrra, Tots de TooaUTy : TO) AR bos Ware Ooov ye emuonpuaivery. “Opotws 8° ode Tots ixBvou, Kabdaep" Tois opviow" duo Kat Tovrous 10 yiverau pev _ dvev oxeias © ovoTaois KUN ITWV, [dpolws Kal Tois opviow, |* troy 8 edie! pvyporépa yap 9 pvots adTav. 7 be yorop.ery Tots CworoKors dmdKptots Tov Karapnvicy ovviorarae Tots Opvict KaTa TOUS iicvoupevous ‘xpovous Tod TEPITTOMATOS, Kal dua TO TOV TomoV elvaL Ocppov 15 TOV Tpos: T@ Sualaopare TeAcrobrat Tots peybeow, mpos de ay yeveow dedi} Ka ratra Kal 7a Tay ixQvov Opotas avev Tis Tob dppevos youns”, ) Ss aitia ToUTWwY cipnTar mpdoTEpov. ov yiverau Se Ta. brnvemwa Tots arTytikois THv dpvidwy Sia Thy adrny airiav dv Avrep ovde TodvTOKEl TA ToLadTa*: Tois yap yaprpuvw ddtyov TO wepitrwpa, Kal 20 mpoodéovrat Tob dppevos mpos TV Oppay iris Tov Trepirresparos® exkptoews. mreiw dé Ta Sanvepa yiverat tov yovtpiesy wav,’ eAdrren d€ TO peyebos dia peiay airiav Kal Thy adriy: dua pev yap TO ateAn eivar eAdtTw To peyebos, dia be TO TO péye- 25 Bos eAarrov mew TOV ap ov. Kal HrTov dé Hoea > Sud TO aTENTOTEPA elvan: €v Tact yap TO TET EL [evov yAv«drepor. “Ori pev ody ovte Ta, TOV épvidea 0 ovTE Ta Tay 1 fort. supplendum. 2 secl. A.-W.: dpoiws om. S, dpvcw om. Z. 3 hic lacunam statuit. Platt. A TEPLTTPATOS PSYX, A.-W., Platt : owéppatos vulg. ° yovipey adv A, -W.., ovis convenientibus generationi X: yorm yryvopevwy Z*, vulg. : yovav yey. PSY. 4 7,¢,, to mark that it belongs to a class which exhibits the 272 rn GENERATION OF ANIMALS, It. I. in others, and in.some just enough to serve as an indication.* Similarly, there i is no discharge i in fishes, any more than i in birds : and therefore in fishes too, {just as in birds, _fetations arise without previous copitiison thoug they are less obvious ; that is because their nature is colder. What corresponds to the seeretion of the menstrual fluid which occurs in viviparous animals arises in’ birds at the times proper for that residue, and as the region: by the diaphragm is hot these fetations reach perfection in respect of size, though for the purpose of generation they are imperfect, both in birds and fishes, without * the semen of the male. The cause of these things has been given earlier. . Wind-eggs’ are not formed in the birds that are fliers ; the reason why this is so and why birds of this sort aré not very prolific layers is one and the same >: inthe crook-taloned birds the residue is scanty, and they. need the male to give the impulse for the discharge of the residue. » wind-eggs, are formed in larger, numbers than the ones which are fertile but, they are smaller in size; both facts are due to one and the same cause : they are smaller in sizé because they are imperfect, and they are more in number because their size is smaller. They are less pleasant to eat because they are more unconcocted, for that which has been con- | cocted ° always makes the more tasty morsel. Now it, has. been- sufficiently. established by ‘ob- phenomenon, ‘A’ similar remark is’ made’ at* 'P-A. 689 b 5 about the stumpy tail of certain animals. > Platt’s assumption of a lacuna here is .unnecessary Although aryrixe and yopupavuxa are not simply conmeriiles all yapwavexa are aryteKd, and clearly Aristotle is here think- ing of them as especially good examples of fliers. © The Greek word also connotes.** matured,”’ “* ripened.” 273 ARISTOTLE say vi ; pee iyOvwv" TeAevodrat _mpos THY yéveow davev TaV dppéevenv, iKavas drrat, mept dé Tob ‘yiveoBat Kal ev rots ixOvou KUnpaTa dvev TOV dppevenv, 30 odx opoiws, pdAvora 8 emi THv ToTapiwv écbparat [mept TOUS _ pudpivors | ~ a Wi Badroy @xpod. Tots pev ovv THY paw Oepuoréepas TeV 7 / 4 \ > Cepeov SuaKe pirat xwpis e€ ob TE 1) apx7) yiverat Kat €€ od tTpéperar, Kal TO pev AcvKdV eoTL TO O 10 wxpov, Kal. mAgov det 7d) AcvKOV Kai Kabapov. tod wxpod Kal yewdous: Tots 8’ Arrov, Ceppots Kat bypoTepois TO WyYpoV TA€ov Kal bypdorepov.| OmEp ovpPaiver emt TOv Aywvaiwy dpvewy: byporepor yap Thv dtow Kal vypdérepor tav melevdvTwy eioiv > , Ld \ Aa ~ 4 \ ” Opvewy, WATE KAL TA WA TOV TOLOVTWY ee EXEL \ 0 t \ bey (43? Nai@yal oN 15 THv KaAovpevnv A€KiGov Kai rrov Wypav' dua To Hrrov amoKxekpioba: To AevKOV. Ta O° 7799 Kal ys poypa tHv dvow TOV woToKovvTwy Kal ett bypa padov (rotodtov § éart 7rd ra&v ixOdwv yévos) ovd amoxekpysevov exer TO AevKoV did TE [UKPO- TyTa Kat dua TO TARVOS Tod yuxpot Kai yewdous- , / , A ~ > , } 20 dudwep yiverar povoxpoa mavTa ta THY, ixOiwy, 1 secl. A.-W., Platt. fet pee * The white ; because hot substance has to do with Soul ; see immediately below, and 762 a 18 ff. and P.A. 652 b 7 ff. >» See 744-b 32 ff. and note. ¢ For the two sorts of zpo¢y see 744 b 32 ff. Both yolk and white are now known to be nourishment; Harvey demonstrated the unreality of the distinction here made.— Aristotle of course knew nothing of the germinal area on the © 278 ] GENERATION OF ANIMALS, TH: 1. [(no bloodless. animal lays eggs)], the blood, as I have often stated, being the matter for animal organ- isms. One part of the egg, the hot part, is closer to the form of the developing creatures ; the other, the more earthy part, supplies the wherewithal for building up the bodily frame and is further removed from the form.’ That is why in the case of all double- coloured eggs the young animal gets its “ principle ” of generation from the white, because hot substance is the place where the soul-principle is to be found, while it gets its nourishment from the yolk.* With those animals, therefore, whose nature tends to be hotter than others we find there is a clear distinction between the part from which the “ principle ” is formed and the part from which the nourishment is derived the one is white, the other yellow, and there is always more of the pure, white part than there is of the earthy, yellow part... With the animals that are less hot and more fluid, there is more yolk in the egg and it is more fluid. This occurs in the case of the marsh-birds, since they are more fluid and colder in their nature than the land-birds, so that the eggs of such birds contain a great deal of what is called yelk (lékithos) and it is less yellow, because the white is less distinctly separated from it. _ Pass on a further stage to those oviparous animals which are cold in their nature and also still more fluid (the fish tribe answers to this description), and im their eggs the white is not distinct at all; this is due to their small size and to the abundance of the cold and earthy matter. And that is why all fishes’ eggs are single- yolk; and it was again Harvey who demonstrated that the “‘cicatricula ’ was the point of origin of the embryo, “the first Principle of the Egge.” 279 751 b 752 a 25 30 or - ARISTOTYE!! Ff htt kal’ wes pev OXpa Acuna; ws b€ Aevia aypa. 7d dé TOV opveay Kal TO Drrqvepua. exeu rade rip dixpovay; Exel yap Ca 0b. éxdrepov, €oTar Tov popiar, kal d0ev.7 apyn Kat obev a Tpodthy. aaa Taor’ aren Kat mpoodedpeva, Tob Gppevos-yiveras yap Ta Virapejies yovijia, eav ey tive Kaip@ dxev6 tO TOU dppevos. ouk €oTt Oe vAs Sixpocas atrvoy TO Gppev Kal. To Ojdv, ws tod He AevKod dvtos ano Tob dppevos, 700 5’ wypot amo Tob BrjAeos’ GAN Gpipeo yiverat amo Tod Oy Aeos,. adda Td" ev ipoxpov 10 6 Beppov, ev ba0us ev ody ‘earl moNd 70 Oepudv, drroKpiveT at, ev dcas & odtyor,, od ddvarau:.d10 povexpoa ta Kunuata, Kabarep €ipyn- rae; Ta TOV TOLOUTWY. 7 dé your; ovviaTNnot* pwovov* Kal dia Tobro ‘Td pe mp@rov paiverat Aevkov Kai puukpov TO KUNG ev TOS pyar, Tpotov Se @Xxpov amav, ovpyuyvupevov. acl mAelovos aiwarwdous: tédos 8? amoKxpwvopevov. Tod Oepyod KvKAw' TeEpt- lorarau TO ‘AevKdv, Warep bypod 'Céovros, dpoiws mdvTn TO yap Aevkov dae ev Sypov, ever SY ev ait@ thy Oeppornra thy yuxuxrnv: 80 KvKAw amokpiverar, TO, 5° wypov Kal ye@bes EvTds.. , KaY TOAAa Guvepdoas Tis wa els KUOTW 4 TL TOLOdTOV edn aupt pa Odrrova rovotvTe tiv Tob Beppod 1 guviornot Peck: cvvéornae vulg. : cvvéorn dé S. ) 2 uy om. Z. ® It is of course the hot substance which constitutes the white. 280 4 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. 1. coloured—they are white, judged by the colour of . yolk ; yellow, judged by ordinary white. Not. only the eggs but also the wind-eggs of birds have this double colouring, because they contain that out of which each of the two parts is to come (the part, from which the “principle ”” arises and that from. which the nourishment is derived), although they are imperfect, ‘i.e., they lack the male factor ; since, as we know, wind-epgs become fertile if they are im- pregnated by the male within a certain time. The ‘causé of the double colouring is not the two different sexes (as if the white were derived from the male and the yolk from the female); both alike are derived from the female, and the real difference is that one is cold and the other hot. So then, in cases where a good deal of the hot constituent is present, the hot substance is separated from the cold ; but if there is not much of it this cannot occur ; and that is why the fetations of such animals. are single-coloured, as I _ have said. All that the semen does is to “ set ’’ the _ fetations, and that is why in birds the fetation is small and white in appearance at first, but completely yellow as it advances and more bloodlike matter is continually being mixed in with it ; finally, as the hot substance separates off, the white takes up its posi- _ tion around on the outside @ evenly in every direction, just as when a liquid boils. animals,” ¢ This is a reference to the chalazae, the function and development of which are obscure: ci 284 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. nu. what means do, eggs get theirs? (The possibility __ that they are themselves their own means of growth, as larvae are,* may be ruled out.) If there is some- thing by means of which the egg is fastened on, what happens to it when the egg has reached its perfec- tion? It does not come out along with the egg, as the umbilical cord does in the case of animals,” because when the egg has reached perfection, the shell is formed which envelops it. Well, this is a question which it is quite right to ask ; but those who ask it fail to notice that the shell as it forms is at first a soft membrane, and that it is only. when the egg has been perfected that it becomes hard and brittle ; and this adjustment is so well timed that it is still soft when it leaves the bird (otherwise it would be painful to lay), but as soon as it has left the bird it cools, and that. makes it set hard, for the fluid part quickly evaporates, being very small in quantity, while the earthy part remains behind. Now at the outset a portion of this membrane, at the pointed end of an egg; is like an umbilical cord, and while the egg is still small, it sticks out like apipe. It can be clearly seen in small, aborted eggs: if the hen is drenched {with cold water) or chilled in some other way and so drops (the fetation) before its time, the fetation _ still has a blood-like appearance and has a small _ tail, like an umbilical cord, running through it; as _ the fetation gets larger, this tail gets twisted round more and becomes smaller; when (the fetation) has. reached its complete development, this terminus finishes up as the pointed end of the egg. Under- neath this is the inner membrane, which acts as a _ boundary between it on the one side and the white _ and the yolk on the other. When the development 285 (ARISTOTLE 11 A 84480 752 b ob} paiverar evAdywws Oo ojupards” avrod yap éeort ToD €aydTov TO dk pov. J4 ara Crit aaat “H 8° é£080s todvayriov yiverat Tots dois A ris Cworoxoupevous: Tots [ev yap emt Kepadny Kal Ty apxmys TOS OD viverra 7 eodos olov emi 7ddas. 15 rovrov 8 aitiov 70 See 744 b 32 fF. 3 ¢ See pp. xvii. f. @ See 1514, 1. 286 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. 1. f the fetation is complete, the whole egg is released, and, as we should expect, nothing is:to be seen of the umbilical cord, because it is the tip of, the. crerenit end of the egg. s and the yo - of vi viviparous animals come out fa posite ways; the latter come out with the Rae cree the “ ditudiple ” first *; the egg comes out as it were feet first. And the reason I have stated : it-is because the egg is fastened at the pice where the “‘ principle ” is. _. The formation. of birds out of the egg is effected by the mother’s sitting on the eggs and. helping to concoct them. One part of the egg yields the sub- stance out of which the animal is constituted,. the remaining part provides the substance whereby it grows and is perfected ; Nature puts both in the egg —the material for making the animal; and sufficient nourishment for its growth,’ since the hen cannot bring the young to perfection within herself, and therefore when she lays an egg she lays the creature's nourishment in it as well.. The nourishment for the young of viviparous animals, what we call milk, is formed in the breasts, a different part of the body | altogether ; but for birds Nature provides this inside |their eggs. The truth about it, however, is the reverse of what is commonly supposed and what is asserted by Alemeon of Crotona.° It is not the white of the egg that-is:the milk, but the yolk, because. it is the yolk that is the nourishment for the chicks. These people suppose that the white is, owing to ithe similarity of colour.? ~ The formation of the chick, then, as I have said, is Jeffected by the mother-bird’s sitting upon the egg ; motwithstanding, if the climate is Seitienzeea ae 287 Incubation. ARISTOTLE )) 1) (p> 752 b } eUKparos i) 6 Tomo: dAcewos ev @ dv Keipweva TvyXdvaow, exrérreTan Kal Ta TOY dpvibav Kal 74 Tov TeTpamddwv kal @oToKwv (advra yap eis TH viv EKTIKTEL, Kat oupmerrovrat bro Ths & , ™H YN Deppornros- doa 8° empater Porro. TOV 35 @oTOKWY Kai TeTpamddwv, Taira mrovet HaNo ov. dvrakijs xdpw). 753 a Tov adrov 5€ tpdzov ylverau rd te TOV. épvibeow @a Kat ta TOV Cdwv TOV TeT parody: Kal ‘yap oxmpdd_ppa Kal dixpoa, Kal mpos Td Staldpare ovviorarat Kabarep Kal Ta TOV dpvibeov, Kal ‘7aMa! Tatra advra oupBaiver Kal évros Kal eKrOs, Wore 57) abry Dewpia TEpt THS airias earl mavrwv. adda Ta pev TOY TeTparrodwy 8 loxydy éxmérteTaL Kal b70 THs wpas, Ta S€ TOV Opvewy emiKnpdTEpa, Kal deirae Tis Tekovons. Coie dé Kat 7 dvots Bovre-. ofa tadv' téxvwv alcbyow éemipedAntiKny trapa- oxevdlew: adda Tots pev yeipoot Todt’ eumrove? 10 Léexpt TOO TeKEly pdvov, Tots be Kal mrept Thy TE- Aéwow, doa Sé dpovipwrepa, Kat Trepl Ti extpogry. Tots & 787°? pddvora Kowwvotar ppovricews Kal mpos teAdAewhevta ‘yiverau oun beva Kal diAta, Kaldarep Tots TE dvOpsrrous Kal TOV rerpamdbev éeviois, Tois 8 dpvice péxpt TOO yevvijcau Kal. éK-. 15 Opéipau> Sudeep Kal pr emwmdlovear ai OyAcvar, drav. 1 rev PZ: tiv rev vulg, 2 § j3n Z: 8¢ 34 vulg. * (Cf. H.A. 559 a 1 ff, where * ‘ non-fliers ’’ such as part- ridges and quails are said to “lay their eggs on the ground _ and to cover them over.” Another ‘ non-flier,” the ostrich, — was believed by the author of Job (xxxix. 14) to behave in a 288 } = a GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. x. the situation where they happen to be is sunny, the eggs of birds ¢ as well as of oviparous quadrupeds get concocted without incubation (for all these quadrupeds. Tay their eggs on the ground, and they get concocted | by the heat in the earth; any ovi- parous quadrup eds which visit their eggs and sit'on them do so rather for the sake ‘of prokecsins them than for any other reason). . The eggs of quadrupeds are formed in the same way as’ birds’ eggs... They are hard-shelled, and double-coloured, take shape up ‘towards. the. dia- phragm (as birds’»eggs do), and present. the same features in every other respect. both externally and internally ; so that studying the cause of any of them is the same as studying the cause of them all, Only, whereas the eggs of quadrupeds, being so strong, get fully concocted by the agency of the climate, birds’ eggs, being more fragile, need the mother-bird. It looks as though Nature herself desires to provide that theré shall be a feeling of attention and care for the young offspring. In the inferior animals this feel- ing which she implants lasts only until the moment of birth; in others, until the offspring reaches its perfect development ; and in those that have more intelligence, until its upbringing is completed. Those which are endowed with most intelligence show intimacy and attachment towards their offspring even after they have reachedtheir perfect development (human beings and. some .of the quadrupeds. are examples of this); birds show it until they have produced their chicks and brought them: up.;-and on this account hen birds which have laid eggs but omit similar way :, “she leayeth her eggs on the earth, and warmeth them in the dust ” (R.V,). L 289 il “lA MPISTOFUR TTAAN ARO 753 a Téxkwor, Siatibevrat ‘yelpov, “Bomep \ Evds’ Twos OTEpLOKOMEVaL TOV ovpdurov. EE APT Tedcobrac 8 €v Tois Wois TA boa Oarrov ev wee dAcewais Tpepats: ouvepydterat yap, 1. Epa’ ‘kal yap. oy mets. Gepporns Tis? cory. 4 Te yap yh 20 UpTETTEL ™H Oeppornrt, | al, q enpalovo tabro TobTo dpa: mpoceyxet™ yap, 73 i, avTh. Geppov, Kal Svadbetperan d€ Ta Wa Kal yiveran 7a KaAoUp ovpta, paiAAov Kara, THY, Oeppay. pay: dAdywns: dorep yap Kat ot olvou ev tats dAeas, oftvovra dvarpeTopévys THs iAvos (r0Gr0 « “yap airvov, tis 25 diab bopas), Kal ev Tos @ots 4) A€KWos: TodTO yap ev dudorépors TO yeddes, 506 wal avaborobrat' 6 olvos Heyvuperns tis iAvos, Kat Ta Pin eae wa THS AexiBov. : Tots peév ody moAurdkots eafupalseet 76 TotodTov edAdyws (0d yap pddiov Thy Spporroveay maaw amTodLodvat Oeppaciar, aAAd. Tois prev €AAetrrew Tots 30 Sé mAcovatlew, Kat avaborobyv oloy oifmovaay), Tots Sé yopupavoty dhuyoroKots ovou, opdey TOV ovpPaiver tobro: modus [ev yap Kat Tow. dvory Odrépov ovpiov yiverat, 76 5€ rplrov, es, €izetv. det: 2 feppa yap ovra TV dow oloy drephety movet zy 35 bypornra Ti ev tois ois, €xet yap 87) Kat TH piow evayriav 76 TE cbypov Kat To: NevKdv. TO 753 b pev “yap expov ev Tos 7a&yous miyyvurat, Deppaws- prevov de dypaiverac: S10 Kal a ci oh ev! ig 1) Peppornros coni..AwnWe bin oo) 2 mpooexer SY, ig = @ According 6 H.A. 560 a 5 ff., ouria is a name given to wind-eggs produced chiefly in summer, zephyria (seé 749 b 1) to those produced in spring. °° °' Of. 135 a'34 ff. 290 ' GENERATION OF ‘ANIMALS, III. 1. to sit on them, deteriorate in their condition, as though they were being deprived of one of their natural endowments... . SET HO 1A SO. ONS _ Animals reach their’ perfect development in the eggs quicker when the days are sunny, for then the climate takes a share in the work, concoction being a form of heat: the earth helps‘in concocting them with its heat, and the sitting bird does exactly the same—she infuses her own heat into them as well. Eggs get spoilt. and, ourta* (as they are called) are produced in the hot season more often than at any other, as-is to be expected. In hot, sunny weather wines turn sour because the sediment gets stirred up —this is what is really responsible for their being spoilt—and the same happens with the yolk in eggs. Sediment and yolk are the earthy part in each respec- tively; and as a result of this earthiness wine becomes turbid -when the sediment mixes up with it, and these spoilt eggs also become turbid when the yolk does the same. ve It is only to be expected that this should happen in the case of prolific animals, because it is not éasy to provide all the éggs with their proper amount of heat ;*some will get too little, and some too much ; and too much heat will make them turbid, by causing them to putrefy, as it were. Nevertheless, the same thing occurs with the crook-taloned birds, although they lay but few eggs; out of two eggs, one will often turn rotten (ourion), and pretty well always one out of three. They are hot in their nature, and they eause the fluid in the eggs as it were to boil over. The yolk and the white, of course, are of an opposite nature to each other. Yolk congeals in frosty weather,? and becomes fluid when heated ; hence it 291 Develop- ment during incubation. 753 b ARISTOTLE 1/1410 yn 1) bd Tod éemwalew bypaivera, Kal ‘Towdrov ov yiverat Tpodr) Tots ovvierapevors Caous. Trepou- 5 prevov 6€ Kal d7Tupevov od yiverau ox)npov Sud. TO elvat THY diow yeddSes obrws dorep Knpos* “Kal dua. ToOTO. Oepwawepeva, paddrov, [eay, qh Hi), x3 dypod TeEpitTparos, ) Seopodrat Kal yiverat oupta. 70 5é AcvKdv bro pev TAY Taywv od TiyyvuTat, adn’ dypaiverat pLaAAov (70 8 atruov elpyrau mpo- TEpov), TUpowpevov d€ yivera orepedv: 810 Kal 10 TeTTOpevov Tept TH yeveoww TOV Caiwv maxbverat. \ 7 oie .) ty eK TovUTov yap de Ad TO Céov, TO Exper Tpogy) yiwerat, Kat Tois. del guveoTapLevous TOV popioy evretler 7) uy) avénos. 16. Kal Subpiorae 7d TE Wxpov Kal TO AevKOV. xwpis dpeow OS) €xovTa A , a Ty pvow €répay. be axpiBetas pev ovr, ov Tpdmov 15 Exovat TadTA mpos ania Kar’ apxas TE TAS ye- veoews Kal cunorap evi TOV Coww, ert de mept TE bpuevwv Kal trepl” 6upadrddv, ek Tav ev Tats loroptais YEypappeveoy Set Oewpetv: mpos Sé Ty. Tapodaay oKepuy iKavov pavepov elvae Tocobrov, OTL Ov- oTdons mpwrns THs Kapdias, Kal THs peydAns 20 hAreBos amd tavrns adopiobeions, dvo0 6udadoi amo 1 secl. Platt, sed fortasse sanandum: et propter hoe fit molle (ueraxdy scribendum pro paAor?) quando. calejit. cum ergo acciderit e femigitas ex superfluitate humiditatum corrumpetur &. * arepi codd.*; om. Bekker. * Aristotle’s observation that the yolk liquefies is quite correct. ‘The white loses water, partly by evaporation through the shell, and partly to the growing embryo via the yolk-sae and the yolk. » Perhaps this should be emended to read “ when it is 292 . ; ; k g GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. u. _ becomes fluid when it is concocted in the earth or by _ means of incubation,? and in that condition it becomes nourishment for the animals that are taking shape. When subjected to fire, or roasted; it does not become hard, because it is by its nature earthy in the same way that wax is; and that is the reason why, when eggs are overheated, [unless they are from a liquid residue] they become serous, and turn rotten (ouria). The white, on the other hand, does not congeal as a result of frost, but tends rather to become fluid (I have given the reason earlier) ; and when subjected to fire, it becomes solid. This is why, when it is concocted in connexion with the generation of the young animals, it thickens ; for it is the white out of which the animal forms and develops, while the yolk becomes nourishment for it, and is the source from which the parts as they are formed at the various stages derive their growth. That, too, is why the yolk and the white are kept distinct and separate from each other by membranes, as having a different nature from each other. For an exact account of how these stand to one another both at the beginning of the process of generation and during the process of the young animals’ formation, also for an account of the membranes and umbilical cords, what is written in the Researches ° should be studied ; for our present inquiry it is sufficient that thus much should be clear, viz., that once the heart has been formed (this comes first of all) and the Great Blood-vessel has been marked off from it, two umbilical cords extend from . “heated, it becomes soft; and so when it is subjected to fluid, _ it turns rotten owing to the excess of fluidity ” (cf. 753 a 34, above). ¢ H.A. 561 a 3—562 b 2: but the description there is no fuller. 293 (ARISTOPUB)!'T Ai TAY 753 b THs prcBos Tetvovow, 6 pev eis Tov Opeva TOV TEpiexovTa TO ax pov, 68 Erepos ets TOV’ bpeva TOV Xoproed7," és Kido Trepuexer TO lov: €or 8° obros mepi Tov bueva Tov Tob doTpaxov. bua i oby Oarépov AauBaver Thy ek Tod cxpod Tpo 2570 8 xX pov ylverau Théov- dyporepov yap Piet Oepyawopevor, det yap TH Tpopiy gaparodn ovoav dypav elvat Kkabdmrep Tos gurois, Hh Se 70 Tparov Kal Ta €v TOis ots yryvoueva Kal TA ev tots Lwots putoo Biov: TO mepunevar yap é TWOS happPaver THY T™puTny avénow Kal Tpopyy. 63° 30 ETEpos oppaddos Tetver cis TO TrEpLEXOV. xdptov. det yap drodaBeivy ra WoroKodpeva tav Cawv mpos peev TO @Xpov ovrws éxew [rov veotrov |? caomep mpos THY payrépa Ta Lworoxodpeva euBpva, dray ev TH pntpl'y, émel yap odK extpépovrat ve ev TH pnrpt Ta @oToKovpeva, exAapBaver TL [Lepos 35 avris: mpos dé Tov eLwrdres bpeva Tov aiparady 754 a os mpos my dorépay. GpLa. be Tept Te TO cyxpov Kal TO Xoptov TO avdadoyov TH dorepa TO OOTpAkoV TOO wou TepuTepuxer, Oorep dy et TLS mepillet TEpl TE TO euBpvov avo aut TEpt THY ENTE po. oAny. Exel 5 ovTus, dudTt det 70 euBpvov ev TH voTEpa elvau Kal TpOs Th pnTpe. ev bev. obv tois Lwo- TOKOUpLEVoLs 7) DATEpa €v TH pnTplLieatw, ev dé ToIs ! or 1 yopoed7 vulg. * seclusit Sus. 7 @ Aristotle’s two umbilical cords here are (1) the yolk-sac stalk and (2) the allantois, See figure, p. 369. : > See above, 753 b 2, n. ° Cf. Harvey, “* An egge is, as it were, an exposed womb ; wherein there is a substance concluded, as the Representative and Substitute or Vicar of the breasts. ‘s ‘ 294 — GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. u. this blood-vessel, one to the membrane which sur- rounds the yolk, the other to the chorion-like mem- brane which surrounds the animal,on all sides ;_ this one goes round inside the membrane-of the shell.* Through one of these cords the embryo receives the nourishment from the yolk ; and the yolk increases in bulk, becoming more fluid as it is heated,® since the nourishment, being corporeal, must be avail- able in fluid form, just as it must for plants, and the embryos that are’ in process of formation, either within the egg or within the uterus, are to begin with living the life of a’ plant, since their first growth and nourishment they obtain through being fastened on to something. . The other umbilical. cord. extends to the chorion-which surrounds the embryo.. In the . ease of the animals that are produced. ovipar- ously, we should think of them (a) as having the same relationship to the yolk as the viviparously formed embryos have to the mother, so long as they are within the mother ; for since the nourish- ment of the oviparously formed embryos is not completed within the mother, when they leave her they take. a part of her out with them ; (6) as having the same. relationship to the outermost—the. blood- like—-membrane as the other embryos have to the uterus.’ Also, the eggshell which encloses the yolk and the chorion gives the egg an envelope \ana- logous to the uterus: it is as though you were to envelop both a viviparously produced embryo itself and its mother entire.° The reason why this is so is that the embryo must be in the uterus, 7.e., in contact with the mother. Very well fhen: in the case of the viviparously produced animals, the uterus is in the mother ; but with the oviparously produced ones 295 154 a IARISTOPLEO!T AST Aas) POTOKOUPLEVOLS avarrad, dorep a ay et ris elton Thy unrépa ev 7H borépa loin 76 yap amo ris EN Tpos yevopevov [7 Tpop7 |" xe) ox pov, €oTw. airiov 3° Ore . 1 extpody odK ev TH pntpe cor. ae: 10 Adgavopeven be Tporepov 6 oppadds ov ities 6 mpos TO Xoptor,, dude TaUrp, det TO Cor . € ena, 70 be Aounov Too expod Kal 6, oudadds 6 ets 70 eax poy dorepov: dei yap eExew Tpodiy edbds (70 yevopevor: ovTe yap amd. THs unTpos rerbeverat, de adtod te otk edOds Svvarat mopileobar Thy 15 tpodijv: Sidz7€p evtos cioepxeTas TO @ypov pera Tod oppahod, Kal mepupterau | u] vodp§. | vntsthant pe Ta pev obv €k Tév Tehetwv @av yuvdpeva Odpale Tobrov ylyverau Tov Tporrov emi Te TOV opvibeow Kal Tt@v Terpanddwv, 6a Wotokel Td (ov TO oK)npodepp.ov. SuddyAa dé Tatra paNdov € éml TOV perloveny’ ev yap Tots eAdrroow apa bua pu 20 KpoTnTa Ta OyKav. earl. Wl, "Ere 8 éoriv @oToKoy TO TOV ixOdov, yevos. ue Torey d¢ Td. prev EXOVTE, KaTO THY vorépav drehes @ov TiKTEL Ova THY mpOTEpov ctpnjLevny airiav, Ta de KaAovpeva oehdyn) Tov ixQvwv ev 25 abrois: pev @oroxet TéAevov wov €&w. de Cworoxel, aay évos OV kadobar Bdrpaxov- obros 8 @oroKel Aupale TéAevov ov poovos. atria 8.4) Tob oaparos dvots TH TE yap kehadjnv troAAamAaciay exer TOO Aoirob Gdparos, Kal ratrnv aKavdadn Kai ofddpa 1 seclusit Sus. ¢ See 718 b 23. » Lophius piscatorius does not conform. to the habits. of the Sclachiata because it is not in fact a Selachian ; Aristotle wrongly includes it among them. 296 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. 1-11. itis the other way round—the mother isin the uterus, as you: might say, because in this case that which ) comes.from the mother [the nourishment) is the yolk. The reason is that the embryo’s period of nourishment does not reach completion within the mother. AS. the embryos grow, the first of the’ umbilical cords to collapse is the one which connects to the chorion, because that is the point at which the young animal will have to make its way out ; the rest of the yolk and the cord which connects to it collapse later, — because the young animal must have nourishment immediately it is hatched, as it is neither nursed by its mother nor able immediately to get_nourishment by, means of itself. . That is why the yolk goes inside. it together with the umbilical cord and the flesh grows round it. Such is the manner in which ‘animals which’ are brought to birth out of perfect eggs are produced in the ease of those birds and fishes which lay a hard- shelled egg. The points mentioned are tobe seen amore clearly in the larger animals ; in the, smaller ones they are not so obvious ewing to the small bulk of the animals. _, Another member of the Ovipara is the tribe of III fishes. Gi.) Fishes : » Those fishes whose uterus is low down iy, an imper- fect egg. The cause of this I have stated previously.* ‘The Selachian’ fishes as” they are called: produce «a (a) Selachia perfect egg internally; though they. are. externally Eavipspous; except for one which they call the fishing- g°; this is the only one that lays a perfect egg xternally. The cause of this is the nature of its y- lts head is several times as large as the rest its body, and, besides that, spiny and extremely 3 207 | ARISTOTLE O) 1 AMD 754 a cal a 1 / : > 4 Tpaxeiav: wore’ dvdmep | 00d’. vorepov. etad€exerau 30 Tods: veorrous;: odd? €& apis CwortoKel” TO yap peyeBos Kal 7) tpaxdrns THs Kedadis @orep Kai éioeADeiv kahve, etre Kat efeABeiv. “Carel ‘Be padaKkddeppov €ort TO @ov 70 TOV oehaydy (od > yap Odvayrat ox)npovew Kat Enpatven* 78, repie> be Xporepot yap Tov opvibeoy elotv), 70 tov Batpaxwy “ov povov orepedy €oTL Kal aTuppov pos. Thy eu 35 owrnpiav, Ta dé TOY GAAwv' bypa Kat padaa, ov 754 b pow: oxeTralerat yap cures ios TO Tis exovars. ' (<4 . Sinnysiin “H 8€ yeveois &k Tob God Tots Te rrpitgots ees TeAevoupievors Kal Tots evros uy) abrh, 7 tovros 8 Kal Tots TOV opvibeov Th fev opola TH Sé Bude ops 5 €orw. mparov fev, yap. ovK éxover, Tov Excpov opparov Tov €is TO XOpuoy TEWOUTA, 6.€ €oTw, ond TO TepueXov doTpaxov, rovtou & alr: Ot TO. mépik doTpaKov ovK Exovow" oddev yap adrois XpHotpove oKendlet yap n barnp, To 8 dorpardy ‘eat. Tots | EKTLKTOMEVOLS ots aewpa mpos Tas ” ‘Oipaber PAdBas.. erreB 7 yeveats €f aKpou pév ‘eort TOO 10 @od Kat TOUTOLS, aad’ odx ul mpoarepuke mpos Thy borépay: ot yap, opyibles ek Tob. of€os yivovran, | Tavry oe ap 7 TO, wod mpdapuars. airvoy 8 674 TO pev TOV opvibeay xwpikerar rijs darépas; rTOv Se TovovTwy od mavTwv aAAd) TOY mAciorun mpos TH 1 dare PL: om. vals aie 2 Kal Enpatver PZ: om. vig. ia 4 @ In several of the Selachia the young have ‘at habit of swimming into the mouth of the parent for shelter. © TI 298 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. um. rough ; so that the reason why it does not take its young ones in afterwards ¢ is also the reason why it «| does not produce, them aliye.at the outset : just as the size and roughness of its head prevents them from going in, so also it prevents them from coming out. Since, then, the egg of the Selachia has a soft shell (because they cannot make the envelope hard and solid, being colder:creatures than birds are), the egg of the fishing-frog is the only one that.is hard and stout, so as to keep it safe in the outside world ; the others’ eggs are liquid and soft in nature, because they are inside the mother and get their shelter from her body. a The process of generation out of the egg is the same Develop- both forthe fishing-frogs, which are perfected exter- Wept ™° nally, and, for, those Selachia. which are perfected - internally ; and as between the latter and the birds, it is partly similar, partly dissimilar. First of all, they lack the second umbilical cord which extends to the chorion under the surrounding shell, and the reason for this is that they have not got this shell round them, as it is no use to them, their shelter being pro- vided by the mother ; whereas for eggs that are laid externally the shell is there to act as a protection , against injury from without.. Secondly, with these, as with birds, the process of generation originates from the extremity of the egg, though not at the place where it is attached to the uterus. A bird’s development begins from the pointed end, which is the place where the egg was attached, the reason being that a bird’s egg becomes separated from the uterus, whereas the eggs of most, though not all, may be the foundation of this remark; cf. also H.A. 565 b 24 ff. 299 ARISTOTLE 754 b torépa mpooméduKe TO mov téAcvov Cov).* em” 15 dxpep dé yuyvopevov Tod Cwov Karavadioxerar TO wov, dorep Kal emt TOV opvideov Kal TOv doy (eavy" Tav amoXchupévwv, Kal tédos mpos TH vorEpy 6 ouparos _Tpoomepuce TOV 799 TeAetwy. opoiws 8° Exel Kal oowv dmrohehurau Ta Wa THIS dorépas® eviows yap avdT@v, drav TéAewov yevnrat TO @ov, amoWerat. 20 *Amopjoeev av obdv tis Sua Ti dvadéepovow at yeveoeis Tols Opyviat KaTa TOdTO Kal Tots ixOvow. aittov 8 oTe Ta prev TMV dpvilwy Keywpiapevov »” ‘ A ‘ \ > / \ \ ~ > v4 éxet TO AevKOv Kal TO wWypdov, TA dé TaV iyOdwv provdxpoa, Kal mdvTn pEpLypevoy TO ToLOdTOV, WaT ovbev KwAver e& evavtias exew THY apxyv> od yap / \ A / , > a > ‘ - A 25 povov Kara Tiv mpoadvaiv eott TowodTov adda Kai KaTavTuKpH, Thy de TPOPHY pgdtov’® eAkew ék THIS ‘ doTépas mOpots Tialy. amo radras TAs. dpxiis. diAov 8 eri TaV py arroAvopevwy @av: €v* eviots yap Tav ocdaydv odK aroAveTas THs borépas TO wov, GAN éydpmevov petaywpel KdTw mpds THY / > \ \ ~ A 30 Cworokiav, év ols tedewHev to C@ov exer Tov é oudadrov ex THs voTépas avynAwpevov Tod mod. davepov ovdv OTL Kal mpdTEpov ETEWov ot mdpot 1 <6v) coni. Platt. 2 (dav) Peck ; cf. infra v. 27 ubi adv om. Z. 3 pddiov Y, leviter X: paov vulg. * & om. Z. @ As in the “ smooth dogfish”’; see note on 754 b 34, below. » Excluding, of course, the statement immediately pre- 800 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. m1. fishes of this class remain attached to the uterus even when they are perfect. As the young animal develops at the extremity, the egg gets used up (just as in the case of birds and the other eggs that have been released from the uterus), and at the final stage, by which the animal has reached its perfect development, the umbilical cord remains attached to the uterus. The like ® holds good in the case of those Selachia whose eggs have been re- leased from the uterus, there being some whose egg is released as soon as it is perfected.° In view of what has been said, the puzzle may be pitterences raised why the processes of generation in birds and $8 between fishes differ in this respect. The reason is that in Selachia. birds’ eggs the white and the yolk are separate, whereas fishes’ eggs are single-coloured, the contents being mixed up together throughout, so that there is nothing to prevent the “ principle ” in them being at the opposite end; the egg is of similar composi- tion both at the end where it is fastened and at the opposite end, and it is easy for it to draw the nourish- ment out of the uterus by means of passages which lead from this principle. This can clearly be seen in those eggs which do not get released, for in the case of some of the Selachia the egg does not get released from the uterus, but remains connected as it proceeds downwards to produce the young alive. In these cases, the young animal, after it has reached its perfect development, retains its umbilical cord joined to the uterus when the egg has been consumed. Thus it is plain that during the earlier stages also, while ceding. He means the embryo develops at the extremity. The process is similar (‘‘ like ’’), not identical. * That of the “ fishing-frog ; but see 754 a 26, n.”’ 301 ARISTOTLE) § 45 144 754 b TOD Wod Er dvTos TeEpi eKEtvo mpos THY dorépay. totto dé ovpBaiver, Kabdrep elope, ev tots yareois Tots Actows. Avadéper pev obv 7, yeveaus Kara, TadTa Tov 35 ixOdav Tois Opvict, Kal bud Tas, etpnpevas airias: 755 a ta 8’ dda ovpBaiver Tov. avTov Tpomov., TOV TE yap, opdanroy € Exouar Tov eTEpov doatrws,, damep ot opvibles: mpos TO @xpov, ovrws ot iyOves mpos 70. Odov @ov (od ydp éorw adrod 70 pev AevKov To 8 axpov, GAA. povdypwv Trav), Kal tpepovrat 5 €k rovrouv, _KaravadvoKopevov Te emepxEeTaL Kal Tepupuerau 7) v) caps © Spoiws. > Tlepi pev obv Tav év adrois per oroxovvray TéA€vov ov Ovpate dé CeworoKxouvrey TOUTOV.. EXEL IV rov TpoTrov o) YEVEOIS ot S€é mAcioror Trav aAAwy ixyOvwv exrds WotoKodaw, atehés 8 wWov aves mAiy Barpayou: mept S€ rodTov TO aiTiov ‘eipyrat 10 TpOTeEpoy. eipnrar dé Kal mrEpt - TOV bite TiKTov- TwY TO aiTLov. Pied ‘H be yEveots Kal TOUTE 7. pev €x Tod Wood Tov avTov ExEt TpOTrOV ovirep Kad TOV ochaxev TOV evros @oroKxotvtwr, mAjv H y’ avenow Taxeta Kat ek jukp@v, Kal TO EaxaTov TOO Wod oKAnpdrepov. 157) 5€ Tod Wot avEgnows dpoia Trois oxadAn€v eorw: Kal yap Ta okwAjKoroKobvra Tov Cow piKkpov drorikrer TO mp@rov, TobTo 8 abtdverat bv adtod * The Mustelus laevis. The remarkable desthptiod of the placentoid structure in the embryo of this species will be found in H.A. 565 b 2 ff. The structure is similar both in form and function:to the placenta ofa mammal, although its origin is not the same. It was rediscovered by Johannes 302 GENERATION: OF ANIMALS, III. m1-v. the’ creature’ was still enveloped in the egg, the passages extended to the uterus. “This vaape eta = havesaid, in the smooth dogfish.* I have now mentioned. the respects in absab the process jof: generation , of fishes differs. from that of birds, and also the causes thereof. Otherwise, they both follow the same course. _ The fishes have one of the two umbilical cords, just as the birds have (in birds it connects with the yolk, in fishes with the “entire eg gg, because the fish’s egg is all single-coloured and lacks the distinction into white and yolk), and they obtain their nourishment by means of this ; as it gets consumed the flesh in like manner ‘encroaches upon it‘and grows round it. -oT have now described the manner of Fortin tiers of those: fishes: which produce»a perfect. “Be: internally and are: viviparous: externally. ‘The majority of the remaining fishes are: externally IV oviparous ; and all of them except the fishing-frog (Other produce an imperfect egg. . The reason for this excep- tion I have given earlier.» I have. also given the reason why the others produce imperfect eggs.° So far as the process of formation is concerned, the development from the egg follows the same lines as the internally oviparous Selachia, except that they start very small and grow very quickly, and the out- side of the egg is harder. The growth of the egg is like (that of) larvae, for those animals which produce larvae produce something small to start with, which Miiller m the 19th century (see J. Miiller, Uber den glatten Hai des Aristoteles, Berlin, 1842 ; paper read Apr. 1839 and Aug. 1840). An account of the discovery, with Miiller’s letters, is given by W. Haberling, Archiv f. Gesch. der Math., der Naturw. und der Technik, 10 (1927), 166-184. > At 754 a 26. “" © At 718 b 8. 303 755 a 755 b JIL 2&PARISTOTLEY OT ASIKAD Kal od dud) mpoaguow, ovdepiav..., 70.8) _alrvov TapaAjovov 6 Omép emits copys Kab, yap. Hy Bum eK puKkpas peyddn ywerau TOO ev oTepewréepov dypawvopevov, Tob) e by pod ‘mvEevwaroupevov. ne 20 puroupyet 6é TobTO. 1) 700 apoxuKod: Deppod' vats ev tots Cébows,” ev 8é rats pats’ 7 4 Tod yvpos Tob avyxpabéyros epporns. eh ea . He ssi" 7a @a ef. dvayKns pev, bud. tov Th airtay (exe yap TepirTapa., Cupa8es),. xdpw 58 tod BeAriov 2v0S* ev Tats, voTEepais. yap. aSdvarov “aibrots haupivers 25 dAny TH avenow bud, Thy, TOV. Lean mohuroxtay TovTwy. Oa TobTO yap Kat pukpa TATA drroxpi- veTat Kal Taxetav AapBaver Thy,.av Now, pKa, ev dia 70 oTevoxoph Ty porépay. elvat pos TO AROS tov wor, Tad 8. dmws) py Xpourlovresy €v 7H YEveceL Tept THY avénow pleipnraw TO ‘yevos,: ert 30 Kal. vOv Ta: OANA POEiperas: tv EKTURTOMEDEOY Kunpdroov. Sudmrep mohbyovev ‘€oTt TO: yevos! TO rOv ixbdav dvapaxerat yap 7 pois TO” mdiBet Tv pbopay. elot d€ TwWeEs ot’ dvap jyvovrat Tay ixQbev, olov a ‘xaNoupevn Beddvm, dia. TO peyeBos A Toy @av- avTy, yap. avTt Tov mOAAd, eye, 1 To 35 KUyaTa Loxet: Too yap TriBous 7 7), pbous ROP URE mpooebyke ™mpos TO peyebos.. “Ore. Hey, oby avgdverat Te Kal Be ip. pS a Ta TOLAdTA TOV, Wav, €lpyTar. veersrt| Cine desta deal { HTICL SAVIB i 1 gots coni. Platt. : @ Such as an umbilical cord. Or “ becoming inflated with: pneuma,” Cf Fea a 19. é Lit., “‘of the natural substance of. the soul-heat”. ic per iphrasis). 4 Cf. 739 b 23, Ne * Cf. H.A, 567 b 23. One of the “ pipe-fishes,” “perhaps 304 GENERATION OFANIMALS, III. w. by. eure , means, apd tin virtue of any attachmen e Shgpedias for. this. is on a par with n. vy yest grows. . east, like” these, i is small in bulk tO start with abil get¥ Tatwet + thts “is due to ts tore said portion turning’ fluid, “anid tbe tsk tinning? inte: ypmeuma:?. This) isthe © handiwork of the soul-heat ¢in:thé case of animals; of the heat of the humour blent with itn the.case of the any ‘Eggs thus grow of necessity on,account.of this ako the -€.-they fit sae a git ven bet ) for it is ‘impc ane for them ie “ob ei fie SEE thy in impossbe rus owing to the prolific habit of hee animals. ”' That is tat the eggs are “quite small when they are discharged’ and why they grow" quickly ¢ they are small because, the-uterus is not roomy enough to hold so large a number of eggs;.and they-grow quickly to prevent, the, destruction .of their, kind-which would gnents asa xesult of, their, spendimg.a long time over _, e growing period of their formation. Even as it is, the majority of the fetations that are laid externally get destroyed. That is why the fish tribe is prolific : Nature makes good the destruction by sheer weight of numbers. ..There are also some. fishes, such as, the one known as beloné,? which burst asunder owing to the size'of the eggs, the fetations \ this’ fish ‘being - large instead of numetous 5 “here” atiire’ has taken away from, their number and.added to their, size... _ (L-have nowodescribed the’ growth: “ eggs’ bal ae sort and: have: ‘stated'the ‘Cause of it, S hus. I this g of .w rgai) egozeivo ey Fee an his group, (e : is incubates the oats me a brood pouch forced by the. pelvic fins. “Aristotle. cor- tates at, HA, HOE Git. theta tne sia is pone, the worse ig its “bursting asunder,”’; .., "$05 ) 0) ARISTOTLE! itAdO 755 b V "Ore & dorokodei Kal obrod’ of tyOves, onpie TO Kal Tous CworoKobras tav tyOswv, olov 7a aehdxn, WoToKeiVv ev aprots mprov. Bidov yap OTL. TO yévos Aov. €ariv, wordxov TO THY ixO wv, 5 TéAOS HévToL odbev AapBdver TOV. towtrow bar, dowry éorl TO pev OipAw: 7o 8 dppev Kal yiyvovrau e& oxelas, edv pay: emuppavy 6 dppny tov Oopov. iat d€ twes of dacv mdvras elvar rods iyOvas* Ondrcis ew TOV oedaydv, ovK dp0ds’ Aéyovres. Bi yap Sapepery TOV vopitopeveny appevay Tovs 10 OjAes_ adrav Gorep TOV purer ev. ogous 70 sie Kaprropopet 70 8 dicarpTroy, cor, olov € aia. wai KOTWOS KGL ouK Kat Sus,, Btf.; pro «av és oxelas . . . odlera. et cum mas eiecerit sperma super ipsa “reign virtutem suam et fiunt convenientia generation (= yovua) & 3 See note, 718 a 2. 313 756 b \ARISTOTLE) 6.69) peevov, ovmrep Kat ‘Hpddoros 6 poboddyos,. cbs KvioKopevay’ TOV ixPdeov eK TOO dvardarew Tov Bopdv, ov ovvopavres ott TOOT cory aBivarov. yap mopos 6 dia Tod oTparos low els Hi 10 Kodiav PEpEt, GAN’ odK «is Tas dorépas: Kal. Td piev ets THY KotAlay €dOov avd yen Tpodny ylvecBau (karamerrerat yap), at 8° dorépar patvovrar: aiojpers dav, & 7d0ev etonAder ;} . att tet Nien ‘Opotws d€ Kal zeEpt Ty TOV Opribeov yeveow exe. €lol yap TwEs ot Aeyougt Kad TO. ordpa 15 plyvvcbau Tos TE Kopaxas Kal Thy (Bur, Kat T@v retpardowy tikrew Kata TO oTdua..ThY yadhr. ~ \ a / tN ~ a A Tatra yap Kal "Avataydpas Kal t@v GAAwy Twes dvoikdv éyovor, Aiav amA@s kal aoKxéentws Xe- \ \ > an 2, 4h > ; ca O08 Che yovres, Tept pLev odv TOV opvidwv éx avdAdoyiopiod Svazsevddpevor TH THV fev oxelav dAvydKis dpacbar 20 rv. TOV Kopdkwv, THY Se Tois pUyxeot pos GAAnAG Kowwviav ToAAaKis, Nv TavTa ToLEtTaL Ta KOpA- Kwon TOV dpvéewv: ShAov S€ TobTo emi Tav TiOa- cevojLeveny KoAo@v. To 8 abrto Tobro movet Kat TO TOV TEploTEep@v yEvos: rN, dia 7 Kat dxev- Opeva. paivertar, Sua. TooTo. TavTHS ov TETUXTKAGL 25 THs dypns. TO Sé Kopak@des yévos ovK EoTW > / ” \ ~ > / > adpodiovactikov (€or. yap Tav odvyoydvwv), €m- = 2) WS. 2 \ * > , ‘ gai \ ‘ Orrat § 7d? Kal Tobro dxyevdmevov. to de dq py auMoyilecbat 7s «is Tas doTépas adikvetrat TO 1 sic interpunx. A.-W.; ¢iofOAev. vulg.; fortasse a 7ofev etanAdev. scribendum. 2 exwnra & 7dn L: eet Sarai y’ 7dy vulg. (ye 57 SY). 314 re ee GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. v.—vt. by Herodotus * the fable-teller, to the effect that fish conceive by swallowing the milt.. It never. strikes them t this. is impossible, but of course it is, because the passage whose entrance is through the mouth passes down into the stomach, not into the uterus, and: whatever. goes down into the stomach must of necessity be turned into nourishment, because it undergoes concoction. The uterus, however, as Bemeeth we raihor eee so we ask, how did they find their way there ? f It is the-same with the zeae this of biel. Thus VI there are those who say that ravens and ibises unite Brroncous by the mouth, and that one of the quadrupeds, the about weasel, brings forth its young by the mouth: This is, $?Ritg." in fact, alleged by Anaxagoras and some of the other ete. ph logers ; but, their verdict is based on insuffi- cient evidence and inadequate consideration of the matter. (1) So far as the birds are concerned, they ‘ have reasoned themselves into an erroneous con- elusion, since the copulation of ravens is seldom witnessed, whereas they are frequently observed uniting with each other by their beaks, which is something that all birds of the raven family do, as is plain for everyone to see in the case of domesticated jackdaws. Precisely the same thing is done by birds of the pigeon family; but as their copulation is plainly observable as well, they have not succeeded in. qualifying for the heroes’ part in this amazing story. Actually, birds of the raven group are not unduly sexual: it is one of the groups that produce but few young; still, like other birds, they have been observed in the act of copulation. It is odd, however, that our friends do not reason out how the * Hdt. If. 93. \ 315 756 b 757 a 30 10 ARISTOTDE“ OTT AA MAD oméppa dua Tis Kowlas stenroduns del TO eyywvd- fiavee, ett i pHi Tpogiy, aromov, dorépas es éxovot Kal Tadrta Ta Opves kat @d datverar pos Tots SoG cost Kal 7 peasy prise TaAAa verpuron Tov avrov PH ies exer exeivous Tas dorépas: e€ dv eis TO oT oe ra ‘aBietras TO éuBpvov; GAAd Sid. 7d tlikrew mdpmav juKpa THY yaniv, realiarep Kat TaAAa Ta oyild7ro0da, mrept By BoTEpov peptic? TH de orpuars mOAAGKIs peTa- dhéepew Tovs veotTovs, TAUTHV TmETOInKE Ta (5éEar. EdnOixds dé Kal Aiav dvepevopevow: Kat of mept a ctcak , ‘ A Ndr > Sri Tpoxov Kal daivys déyovres. daci yap THY pev of s ‘ A s ¢ , AS / Bawav 7oAAol, Tov 5é tpdyov ‘Hpddwpos 6 “Hpa- lA 4 > A ” + A , : . ‘ KAewTns, dUo aidoia exew, appevos Kat OnAcos, Kat Tov pev Tpdxov abrov adbrov dxevetv, er & vawav Gavel, Kal oxevecbar igs €ros. @mra. yap 7 vawa €v €xovaa aidoiov: év €vious yop ToToLs ov ondvis THs Oewpias: aA Exovow at vawat do \ , © / \ a ~ / > Gy Tv KepKov Gpolav ypayprjv TH Tod OyAeos aidoiw. éyovor pev odv Kal of dppeves Kal at OxAcvaL TO a a 2\)> ¢y/ © » i eee TomvToY onetoy, adn’ adickovrat ot Appaues Hii Nov: 510 Tots ex mapddov Pewpodor TavTHv emroinge Thy do€av. * In Bk. IV. > This animal cannot be identified. It must be distin: guished from the genus now called Trochus, which are shell- fish. No species of mammal is normally hermaphrodite. © See also H.A. 579 b 15 ff. 316 d 7. GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. v1. semen manages to pass through the stomach and arrive in the uterus, in view of the fact that the ; ome concocts everything that gets into it, as it the nourishment. Besides, these birds have a” uterus, just like other birds, and eggs can plainly be seen up towards’ the diaphragm. (2) The weasel, too, like other quadrupeds, has a uterus of exactly the same mae bi as theirs; and how is the _embryo : eetes in its ee » (8), There is. another silly and extremely wrong- headed story which is told about the trochos ® and the hyena;° to the effect that they haye two pudenda, male a | fernale (there are. many who assert this of the hyena ; Herodorus of Heraclea @ asserts it of the trochos), and that whereas the trochos impregnates itself, the hyena mounts and is mounted in alternate years.’ In some localities, however, there is ample opportunity for inspection, and the hyena has been observed to possess one pudendum only ; but hyenas have under ..the tail a line similar to the female pudendum. | Both male and female ones have this mark, but as the males are captured more frequently, casual pee bas given rise to this erroneous idea.° * Heraclea Pontica, a colony of Megara, on the south shore of the Black. Sea, about 100 miles east of the Bosporus. |. Herodorus (fl. c. 400 B.c.) was the father of the sophist Bryson (both are mentioned at H.A. 563 a 7 and 61549). He wrote a History of Heracles, which seems to have contained a great _ variety of matter. * See add. note, p. 565. 317 757 a 757 b ‘ARISTOTLE )!'' Aca Ada mepl jeep rovrioy dds Ta eipneva. VIL [epi 8€ tis Tov ixOvov yeveoews drropriaete av 15 Tus dua Tia ToTEe aitiavy TOV yey oedax wddv oul at Onprcvau.. Td. KUnpaATa. oul” of dappeves drroppai- vOvTES, Op@vray Tov Aopev; rn; de yay. Lwordruw Kal at OjAcor Ta wa Kal ot \appeves Tov, Popov. altiov 8S’ dru To yévos od Tohborreppov OAws 76 TOV oehaxwddy- Kat ért’ al ye Oiprcvar mpos- TO 20 Sialapare Tas dorépas exovow. Ta yap appeva gih) TaV appevwy Kal Ta OyAea TOV. Oijdear* 6 Opotws Siadépovar: ddvyoxavarepot yap mpos Thy yori ot gedaxeddees ciciv. to 8 dppev YHOS. €v Tots pordKors, Kabdrep at OijAevau Tawa dia’ mdVos dmorixrovow, odrws eKEvoL dmroppaivovow mrEiw 25 yap exovar ‘Oopdv 7) cov mpos’ TH dxetay tkapdv- LaMov yap Povrerat i) poor Samravay Tov Bopsy 7pos TO ouvavtew Td. a, Orav amoréKy Or, leva, 7) mpos Thy ef dpxiis ovoTacw. kabdrrep yap. & Te Tos avw Kai Tois imoyvous elpyrae Adyous, Taf pev Tav opvéwy wa TeAcobrar évrdés, ta Be TOV 30 ix Oder exTOs. TpOmov yap Tia €otke Tots oxwXnKo- ToKovow: eT yap ‘drehéorepov mpoteTat TO olla Ta oxwAnKoroKa Tov Caowv. dudorépors. (be 77) TeAciwow Kal Tous TOV opriber, wots, kal Tots oid ixOdev Tout TO dppev, GAAa Tois pev TOV épvibew evr os (reAeodrau yap evtds),. tots d€ tay. iyOdwv 35 éxTOs bua TO €€w mpoteoBau dredés, Emel ovpBadrer ye em apdhotépwy Tadtov. ebitesll 1 Grn Y. 2 Oitrewv E, Btfe: Opredv vulgy 318 . GENERATIATION OF ANIMALS, III. vu. » Thaye now Saind-eggs become fertile,? and e- With regard to Atenoted by the wWecadirgceiof exstzle may be, raised, what, the Cause, can possibly be why aetther: . females of Selachian fishes are, seen Vil Various points. shedding, (th eir fetations nor the males their milt, . m whereas the males and females are observed so doing in the ‘case ‘of non-viviparous fishes. The reason is that in general the class of the Selachians is not rich in ‘semén’;' and ‘also in the females the uterus is up towards the diaphragm.* Of course males of one class differ from, males of ‘another, and females similarly ; the fact is that the Selachians yield less: semen than most, With the oviparous fishes, the males hed their milt, just as the females lay their eggs, een there’ is such an abundance of both ;, the males have more milt than the amount which suffices for copulation, because Nature prefers to éxpend the milt in helping to enlarge’the eggs ‘after the female has laid them, rather than in constituting the eggs at the outset.» This remark is explained by what has been said both in-our earlier discussion and also not long ago, viz., the eggs of birds are perfected inside the parent, but the eggs of fish outside. In a way, fish resemble the larva-producing animals, for the latter deposit a fetation which is even more imperfect still. The perfecting in both cases, birds’ eggs and fishes’, is accomplished by the male. With birds this is done within the’ parent animal, because a bird’s egg is perfected inside ; with fishes, outside, because the egg is in an imperfect state when it is deposited outside. The upshot however is the same in both cases. . ’ ® And therefore the eggs are brought to perfection inside the parent. zh 319 757 b on 10 15 ARISTOTLE UTAIT ARAVIND "AXAG sept jeev rovtwv dds Th eternvepua. plverar Ove! 1S ea wpe Adan nrevege” érépov’ yevous TOV dippevosv peraBadrer 77 dpvow els Tov vorepov oxevovTa’ Kal Ta olkEta dé," dvavéqra® évra ay SiaAtarn" TH dxelav, orav dxedon?” md, rout Tayetav Aap Save TV avtnow: ov ‘pérrou Kara Tavera, TOV xpdvov, ard’ edvmep mporepov yernra, ie . oxela Tp petaBaneiv® eis. TH Tod AevKod dad Kpiow, Tots d€ Tov ixOdwv odfev wprorar’ ToLod- Tov, GAAa mpos TO cwleobar Tayéws émippaivovaw* ot dppeves. aitvov 8° 6re od 8ixpoa Tadra: Sidmep ovy @plioTa ToLodTos KaLpos ToUTOLS olos emt tov dpvibw. tobro bé oopPeBnicey edAdyus Srav yap TO Aevkov ddupiopevoy Kal TO @xpov am” aA- Andov,, € Exel On THY amo TOD | dppevos Sexy [ets] : Tavray yap ovpBadrerat TO appev. Ta. peV ovy Darvepia. Aap Baver THY yEeveow HExpt TOU eBexo- pevov. advrois. tehewsOijvat pev yap eis Cov advvarov (det ‘yap aicbijoews), TH be Opemruchy ouvapH THs buyfs €xeu kal Ta On rea Kal 74 arent a l hic addit © quando femina coierit existentibus illis ovis in matrice. < OH PSY. fort. ayevpeva | d¢ scribendum, te potius | licot | Ta dxeia Sé, av avavé_ #74 wa dia re dvadcimew KrA. | avavén LZ: dvavéjcda S et om. dvra. ; Seadtary Platt : diarcizn vulg. dxevon Platt: dyevO7 vulg.: & éyev07 PSY. peraBaneiv P: peraBaddew vulg. a ouviararas Z. emppaivovaw Z: daroppaivovow vulg. abies ie lacunam hic statuit Platt. . 10 cis om. S; seclusi: eis rodro coni, A.-W. et per hune modum erit conveniencia spermatis maris, &. | fortasse aicOnow scribendum, vel om & GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. vu. In birds, wind-eggs become fertile, and eggs Wind-eggs. previously impregnated by the treading of one sort of cock change their nature to that of the cock which treads the hen later ®; and also, where one and the _ same cock is concerned,¢ if he has left off treading _ the hen and the eggs are not growing on that account, he makes them grow quickly when he re- sumes the treating. This however cannot happen _ at any and every period: the treading must take _ place before the change occurs when the white of the egg becomes separate. In the case of fishes’ eggs there is no such point fixed, but the males sprinkle #hem without delay to keep them in sound condi- tion. The reason is that fishes’ eggs are not double- coloured: that is why in their case there is no such fixed time as there is for birds’ eggs. This situation is what we should expect, for once the white and the yolk have been distinctly separated from each other, they already @ possess the principle that comes from the male,’ since the male contributes [towards] this. Thus wind-eggs attain to generation in so far as it is possible for them to do so. It is impossible for them to be perfected to the point of producing an animal, because sense-perception * is required for that ; the nutritive faculty of the Soul, however, is possessed by females as well as by males and by all a i li * Probably there should here be inserted “* if the hen is trodden by the male while they are in the uterus.” > This is qualified below, 757 b 27 ff. © The force of oixeia seems to be that the eggs are the _ cock’s “ own ” in the sense that he and not some other cock originally impregnated them. But see critical note. # And therefore cannot be altered by another cock. * See 767 b 17 ff., and references there given in note. * Which is supplied by the male. M 321 “7b 758 a ARISTOTLE ‘ , \ ~ / y 4, Kat mdvra 7a Cavra, _kabdzep elpnrau TroAAdKis* Oudzrep adro" TO WOV Ws pev purod Kona TEAcvov 20 €orTw, os de Cqov dredés. el pev ovv [11 evi dppev ev TO yevet avrav, eylyver” av domep Kal ert Tov ixOdov, etrep eort TL ToLodTOV yevos ofov dvev appevos yevvav: etpyrau be mepl adt@v Kal mpo- TEpov, OTL ob Tw dara ixavds. vov 8 eorly ev maou Tots Opvucr TO pev OAV To 8 dppev, wol? F 25 pev gurdv, Terehewkev (Svd7rep ov peraBader 7aAw peTa THY dxelav),” 7 Sd od purer,” ov TeTeAEwKer, ov amoBaiver Be avrod éerepov ovbév- ote yap ws dutov amAds ovl? ws C@ov' ex cvovdvacpe yéyovev. Ta 8 e& dxelas pev yevoueva wd, dva- KEKPULEVe. 5° eis 70 Aevkov, yiverau Kard 70 m™p@rov 30 6xedoav: exel yap dpuporépas 75 Tas apyds. Tov adrov be TpoTrov Kal 7a. paAdicva movetrau TOV TOKOV, olov onriat Kal Ta Towabra., Kal Ta. padaxdorpaka, olov xdpaBor Kal Ta ovyyevy ToU- TOUS" TiKTEL yap ef 0 dxelas Kal Tatra, Kal ovvovalo- 35 peVvov TO appev TH OrAreu moAAdKis WrraL. Sid7rEep ov ictopik@s ovdé TavTn daivovtar A€yovTes ot ddoKxovres tovs ixybds mavtas elvar Andres Kal 1 giro Platt: adrod vulg. 2 haec verba ad finem cap. transtulit Platt, recte, nisi omnino omittenda. > quia non sunt animalia X. 4 dutov .. . Cov Platt: duTrod . . . fwov vulg. @ At 741 a 34 ff. » Platt transposes these words to the end of the chapter. ¢ See 731 a 9,'3. 4 Nutritive soul and sensitive soul, the latter being supplied by “ the principle of the male.” 322 ie et i GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. vi—vin. living things, as has been said repeatedly ; hence the egg itself, regarded as the fetation of a plant, is perfect, but regarded as the fetation of an animal it is imperfect. If there were no such thing as a male _ in the class of birds, the egg would have been formed as it is in fishes, supposing there really is some species which generates without a male ; though I mentioned _ earlier * in this connexion that this has not yet been _ sufficiently observed. Actually, however, both sexes _ exist in all species of birds ; so that, qua plant, the _ wind-egg has reached perfection (and that is why it _ does not change any more after impregnation),” qua non-plant, on the other hand, it has not reached per- fection, and nothing else results from it, since it has _ been formed neither as a plant simply and directly ¢ nor as an animal by means of copulation. As for _ eggs which are the result of copulation, however, but which have”been distinguished into white and yolk, these are formed according to the male which impreg- nated them first, since by that time they possess both _ the required principles.? _. The production of their young is accomplished in VIII the same manner by the Cephalopods—sepias and {1 Blood. _the like—and by the Crustacea—caraboi’ and the (i) Repro- © creatures akin to them. They too lay eggs as a rw ala result of copulation; many instances have been pods and observed of the male uniting with the female. So “™“°* _ here we have another score on which we can convict _ of a lack of scientific accuracy those who allege that _all fish are female and produce eggs without copula- _ * At P.A. 683 b 25 Aristotle makes four main groups of _ of Crustacea : (1) caraboi, (2) astacoi, (3) carides, (4) carcinoi, corresponding roughly to (1) lobsters, (2) crayfish, (3) prawns and shrimps, (4) crabs. 323 758 a ARISTOTLE / e) > > , > A \ a A er > t Tiktew ovK €€ dxElas: TO yap Tadra pev e€ dxelas otecOau, exeiva dé ale Bavpacror el te TobT ehedrfet, onpeiov drretpias. yiverau be 6 ovvdva- 5 opos TOUTWwY Xpoveairepos mavreu, @orep Tov evTopey, evr\dyws avayia yap e€ort, Sudmep voxed TV puow. Tais pev. odv onmiaus Kat tats tevbior Sto TO. wa patverar Sia TO SinpOpGoba tiv sorépay Kal / / \ \ ~ / a OIF 5 daivecbar Siuxpdav: To S€ Tv troAuTddwv Ev wov, w > e \ tA A sO 7 ‘ aitvov 8° 7 pop) otpoyytAn tiv idéav odca Kat 10 ofatpoerdys* 1) yap axiows addnAos mAnpwhetons €otiv. diuxpoa d¢ Kal 7) TOv KapaBwv eorlv boTEpa. amotixrovot dé TO Kina ateAés Kal Tabra mavTa dua THv adriy airiav. Ta pev ody Kapapwon Ta OjAea mpos atta Tovetrat Tov TéKOV (Sidzrep u Sz , vey KATA TO TTPOGUVLOV* TAVUTY) Yap EVOEXETAL [LOVOV exet / \ ‘ yap povov emt tavTo TO omtichiov pépos Kal TO @ See also 717 a 5 ff. > See 720 b 20. 324 copulation, but fish without copulation! Or alterna- GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. vm. tion. What an extraordinary thing, to hold that Cephalopods and Crustacea lay eggs as a result of tively, if they were not already aware that the other creatures copulate, then it just shows how ignorant they are. The copulation of all these creatures takes _ quite a long time, just as that of insects does, which is not surprising, because they are bloodless, and _ therefore cold in their nature. In the sepias and calamaries the eggs appear to be two in number, because the uterus is divided and _ appears to be double. The octopuses appear to have _a single egg; the reason is that the shape of the uterus is round and spherical in form, and when it is full the cleavage is not obvious.* The caraboi also _have a double uterus. All these animals as well _ deposit the fetation in an imperfect condition, and _ for the same cause. Females of the caraboid group deposit their eggs on to themselves; that is why they have larger flaps than the males—in order to protect the eggs; the Cephalopods lay their eggs clear of themselves. The male Cephalopods sprinkle their milt over the females, just as male fishes do over the eggs, and it becomes a glutinous mass. _ Nothing of the kind has been observed to occur with the caraboids, nor should we expect it, because the _ fetation is situated under the female and is hard= skinned, and both these eggs and those of the Cepha- lopods pursue their growth after they have left the parent, just as the eggs of fishes do. The sepia while in process of formation is fastened to the egg by its front part, which is the only possible place, because its front and back parts face in the ‘same direction ° (in this respect it is unique). Fora . 325 ARISTOTLE ©» [ty 758 a mpoatior. To d€ oxjpa Tis bécews dv Exeu yuyve~ 25 eva Tpérrov, dei Oewpetv ex Tav toropidv. Tlepi pey obv tTav dAdwv fpr THS yevéoews IX elpnra, kat melOv Kal mrnvav Kal mAwrav: epi d€ TOV evTopwv Kai TV dorpaKodéppiov NexTéov © KaTa T7V donynwermy pebodov. eimwpev be mp arioe dy Tept TOV nih gtd 30. “Ort bev otv Ta pev e€ O oxelas ylverau TOV Tot ovtrwv Ta 8° abropara, mporepov €AéxOn, mpos de ~ TovTois OTe okwAnKoToKel Kal dia Tiv’ airiav ~ ‘ A ” / . Jf aokwAnkoToKel. oaxedov yap €ouke mdvTa TpoTrOV TWa okwAnKoTOKEly TO’ mpHTov- TO yap dredéora~ Tov KUNA ToLoUTOV eoTW, ev maou Se Kal Tots Cwo- 35 ToKObGL Kal Tots WoTOKODaL TéAcLOY ov TO KUHUA \ ~ > 7 nv / \ ” TO mp@tov adidprotov dv AapBdver riv avEnow- , me LY ¢ ~ / r , ; P §e to.avTn 8 eatly 7 ToD oKw@AnKos PUois. peta BE ~ a > TOOTO Ta peV WMoTOKE. TO KUNA TEAcLov, TA O 758 b aterés, €€w Sé ylyverar TéActov, Kabdmep emi TOV > 4 ” 4 \ > > ¢ a ixOvwv elipnrar todAaKis. Ta 5° ev adrots Cworo- KobvTa TpoTOV TIWa PETA TO GVOTHUA TO €€ apyis iret hie @oewdées yiverat: mepiexeTar yap TO bypov bpeve Aenr@, Kkabdamep av el Tus—apenor TO TOV WOv 5 GoTpakov: S10 Kal Kadodor Tas TOTE hie eas TOV KUN Larow plopas exptoeis. Ta & évrowa Kal yerva Ta yervOvta oxwdAnxas, ‘ \ Lé \ > > / > > b] . ae ? Kal Ta yuyvopeva pun du’ oxelas aAX’ adTopaTa ex TouavTys ylyveTar mp@tov ovordcews. det yap : 176 PZ: om. vulg. 326 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. vut1-—tx. figure showing the way in which it is situated during the process of formation, the Researches * should be consulted. We have now spoken about the generation of the _ animals that walk, fly and swim. Following the IX _ plan we have laid down, there remain the Insects _ and the Testacea to be discussed. We will deal with _ the Insects first. : I said earlier that some Insects are formed by Gi.) Repro- means of copulation, others spontaneously ; further, ener that they produce a larva, and I stated the cause of their so doing. In a way, it looks as though practi- cally all animals produce a larva to begin with, for the fetation in its most imperfect state is something of this sort; and in all the Vivipara and all the Ovipara that produce a perfect egg, the fetation in — __ its earliest stage is still undifferentiated and is grow- _ ing, and this is just the sort of thing a larva is. At the next step, some of the Ovipara produce their fetation as a perfect egg, some as an imperfect one which reaches its perfection after it has left the parent, as I have often stated with regard to fish. In the case of the internally viviparous animals, the fetation, after it has been constituted at the outset, in a way becomes egglike : its fluid content becomes enclosed in a fine membrane—like an egg with its shell taken off—and that is why a fetation aborted at this stage is known as an “ efflux.””? Those Insects which generate, generate larvae ; (a) Larvae. and those Insects also which are formed spontane- ously and not by means of copulation are, to begin _ with, formed from an organism of this sort. This is’ * See H.A. 550 a 10 ff. > Of. H.A. 583 b 12. CO 327 ARISTOTLE 758 b Kal Tas Kdptras «dds Te TiWévar oxw@AnKos, Kal ai: pe path iheg , , te a. 1 IEE Be 10 Ta THY apaxviov. Katror ddevev av ois eouxevar dia THY TOD oyTHpaTos Trepip€perav Kai TovTwWY Evia. Kal ToAAa THv dAAwy: GAN od TO oxHpate Aektéov 224 a ; \ , \ \ ovde TH padakdTyT. Kat oKAnpoTnTt (Kal yap okAnpa Ta KUjpata ylyverar eviwv) adAAd TO GAov / ‘ \ > / ‘ / A petaBaAAew Kai pt) €k popiov Twos yivecBar To 15 (Gov. mpoedAPdvra S€ mavTa Ta oKwAnKwdyH Kal Tod peyéDovs AaBdvra réAos ofov wov yiyverat’ , , \ \ et. \ : Rear okAnpuvetat Te yap mept atta To KéAvdos, Kal akwnrilovet Kata Tobrov Tov Katpov. SfAov de a a a ‘ ety totto év Tots aoxwAnk. trois TOv pedittav Kal a ‘ a , , aie cy € ofnk@v Kal Tats Kdpmais. tovtov 8° aitiov ort 4 © ‘ \ ” > tal \ \ 20 vos WOTTEPAaVEL TPO WPAaS WOTOKEL dua THY wt tig \ co a € * ~ ¢ ” > atéAcav THY adTIs, Ws OvTos TOD GKw@ANnKOS ETL EV 2e Ts > A a \ isa \ , ; \ avéyoe wWod padakod. tov atrov d€ Tpdmov Kat a= ¢ ~ 4 / / ~ \2 > > rf emi TOv GAAwy ovpPaiver mavTwv TOV pn? e€ dxelas "4 > rds ” »” / A yryvopevwy ev €piois 7 Traw aAAous ToLvovTos, Kat ~ a / \ x ‘ \ tp T@V ev Tois VdacW. TavTa yap peTa THY TOO & 7 > /, ‘ ~ / 25 okwWAnKos vow aKwyTticavTa, Kal Tod KeAddous : 7 / ¢ /, mepienpavOevtos, peta Tatta TovTov payevTos ~ ~ > A ae e€épyetar Kabdmep €€ wod C@ov émiredcobev emi 17 P: om. vulg. 2 uy om. PSZ. ¢ This apparently means the eggs from which they are 328 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. 1x. correct, for we are bound to reckon caterpillars * and the product of spiders as a form of larva. True, some of these, and many belonging to other Insects, would appear to resemble eggs on account of their circular shape ; but our decision must not be determined by their shape nor yet by their softness or hardness (the _ fetations of some of these creatures are hard), but by the fact that the whole of the object undergoes change —the animal is formed out of the whole of it and not some part of it.” All these larva-like objects, when they have advanced and reached their full size, become as it were an egg: the shell around them _ gets hard, and they remain motionless during this period. This is clearly to be seen with the larvae of bees and wasps, and with caterpillars. The reason for this is that their Nature, owing to its own imper- fection, deposits the eggs as it were before their time, which suggests that the larva, while it is yet in growth, is a soft egg. A comparable thing occurs in the case of all other creatures which are formed independently of copulation in wool® and other such material and in water. All of these first have the nature of a larva, then they remain motionless once the covering has solidified round them ; after that the covering bursts and there emerges, as from an egg, an animal which, at this its third genesis,‘ is at last produced. Aristotle however calls them larvae, and not eggs, at this stage, because according to him the stage which really corresponds to the egg-stage is not reached until later, when the creature becomes immobilized as a “‘ pupa.” ® The distinction which Aristotle makes here is an import- ant one. See note on 732 a 32. © See H.A. 557 b 2; the dustier your clothes are, the more moths’are produced. 4 The stages are: larva, pupa, imago. 329 ARISTOTLE THs Tpityns VEvevews” dv ta [dciora}. irvepeorre, Tav melOv (uellw) eoriv. Kara Adyov dé ovpBaiver Kai To Oavpacbev av ‘s 4 ‘ ~- 7 A /, / ducatws imo ToAA@v, at Te yap Kdprrar AapBa- 30 vovoat TO mp@tov Ttpodiyy peta Tatra ovKETL / > > > ‘ e , AapBdvovow, GAN dkwnyrilovow ai Kadovpevar ¢ ‘ U ‘ ~ ~ € / bo Twwv xpvoadXibes, Kal TOV ognKav ot oKw- Ankes Kat TOV pedutTav pera Tabra at RGACUE SEE vippas yivovras, [Kat Towodrov oddev €xovow | kat yap TOV wav dvows drav AdBy téNos, dvavérs 35 €oTl, TO 5€ mp@rov advédverar Kai AapBaver tpodyy, o ” ~ ‘ / / 77 A ews av diopicbA Kal yévntras TéAciov @dv. TAav de oKWAnKwY Ob fev Exovol ev EavTOois TO TOLODTOV / 759 a bev tpepopevois emiylyverar [towdrov|* mepit- 4 ~ ~ \ ~ ¢ Twa, olov ot* t&v peditt@v Kai aodynk@v: of be AapBavover Ovpabev, womep al Te KdpTraL Kal TOV aAAwy tives oKayhi Kam. : Avére pev obv Tpuyevi Te ylyveTaL TA rowira, Kat de hv airiay ek Kwovpevwy axwnyriler madw, Belpnrar’ ylyverau b€ Ta prev e€& oyelas adrav, Kabdmep ot te opviles Kal ta CwordoKa Kal TOV > 7, ¢ a \ > ° / /, ” ixQdwv ot mAcioTo1, Ta 8° adropara, Kabamep eva Tav dvopevwv. 1 correxi (cf. 763 a 23). &X vertit et volatilia ex eis sunt maiora quam ambulantia. 2 ante haec verba lacunam plurimorum vv. statuit Platt - (rpodiv pro tovodrov coni. A.-W., cf. 759 a 1); ego seclusi; fort. transferenda ad 759 a 1-2 et ita scribendum of de odde Tovodrov Exovow (aAAa) AapBavovow xrA. cf. infra 763 a 12 sqq. 330 - _- GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. rx. perfected. Of these creatures, the winged ones are larger than those that walk. _ Another occurrence, which may well cause surprise to many people, is really quite regular and normal. Caterpillars at first take nourishment, but afterwards they cease doing so, the chrysalis (as some call it) being motionless; so too the larvae of wasps and bees afterwards turn into pupae as they are called {and have nothing of the sort]. This is not abnormal, for an egg also, when it has reached the perfection of its nature, does not grow, whereas to begin with © it does grow and takes nourishment, until its differentiation is effected and it has become a perfect egg. Some larvae contain in themselves material from which as they feed on it residue is _ produced,* e.g., those of bees and wasps; others get the material from without, as caterpillars and some other larvae do. I have now stated why it is that it takes a threefold generation ° to produce creatures of this sort, and the cause which, after they have begun as mobile crea- tures, makes them become immobile again. Also, some of them are formed in consequence of copula- __ tion, just as birds, Vivipara and the majority of fishes are; others are formed spontaneously, as certain _ plants ° are. * Cf. H.A. 551 a 29 ff. “the larvae of bees . . . and } wasps, while they are young, take nourishment and are seen _ to have excrement ” ; cf. also ibid. a 25. > See above, 758 a 28 et praeced. © ¢.g., the mistletoe, 715 b 28. 7 om. Z: rovodro 7 tp0d7 S: habent in se id quo cibantur | et eiciunt superfluitatem cibi =. 4 olov ot Peck (sieut Z): of re vulg. 331 759 a ARISTOTLE TAAN HAO X ‘H 6€ Ov pedirrdv yéveots éxev TAA astopiav: ; ~~ 7. ae < elmep' ydp eat. Kal mepl Tods tyis TovavTy ms pty KD CO POH 10 yeveois eviwy wor dvev dxelas yevvav, TobTo cupPaivew €ouKe Kai mepl Tas pcAitTas eK TOV / 2s ‘ ” y =a ae pawvonevwv. avdykn yap arow dépew adras > , ‘ re 7 . ‘ , toNve svurast adAdbev tov yovov, wortep twés daor, Kat ‘TooTov 7 pvdmevov adréuarov 7 aAAov twos Caov Tik- *” ~ eae, * \ Zz UAE AREAS TovTos, 7) yevvay adtas, 7 Tov pev Pépew Tov de 15 yervdy (kal yap todto Adyouvai twes, Ws TOV TOV Kndjvav pdvav épovot ydvor), Kal’ yervav 7 — oxXevopievas 7} avoxetrous, Kal dxevopévas yevvav y ’ 7 Lat i ty ty nro exaaTov yevos Kal” aire } ev Te adrav Tada 7 ovvdvaldopuevoy dAdo yévos adAw, Aéyw 8 ofov peXrras pev yiyverar ex pedutra@v avvdvalo- t a 24 > / \ A 3 f A” 20 pevwv, Knpivas 8 ex Kyndyvwv Kal Ttods BactAeis ex Tv BaciAdwr, ) mavra TaAAa e€ Evos otov €K Tav KaAoupevwv Baciréwy Kal yyepovwy, 7) eK TOV Kndyvwy Kal TOV peditTa@v: hac yap Twes TOUS 1 cimep Z: énei vulg. * The facts about bees, so far as they are known, are these. There are three sorts of bees : (1) the Queen, which is a fully developed female; (2) the worker, which is a_ partially developed female ; and (3) the drone, whichis a male, Eg are laid by the Queen, and it is generally agreed that the unfertilized eggs produce drones and the fertilized eggs Queens or workers. When a hive becomes over-populated, ‘““swarming ” takes place, and after the colony has settled down in its new home, the Queen takes the “ marriage flight,” followed by a number of males ; copulation takes place in mid-air, and the Queen returns to the nest. At the end of the summer the drones are ejected by the workers. Queens 332 ‘GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. x. _ The generation of bees is a great* puzzle. If it X is a fact that certain fishes are generated without ®°* copulation, the same probably occurs among bees as well—or so it seems from appearances. The pos- sible methods are these: Bees must either (a) fetch the offspring ® from elsewhere (some hold this view) ; in which case the offspring will either have sprung into being spontaneously or have been produced by some other animal ; or (6) generate the young them- selves ; or (ec) fetch some and generate some (this, too, is a view held by certain people, who maintain that the young of the drones only are fetched). If they generate the young themselves, this must be done either with or without copulation; if with copulation, then either (i) each kind generates its own kind,° or (ii) one of the three kinds generates the others, or (iii) one kind unites with another kind. What I mean is, e.g., either (i) “ bees ” are formed from the union of “ bees,” drones from the union of drones, kings from the union of kings ; or (ii) all the rest are generated by one kind only : e.g., by the kings or leaders as they are called; or (iii) by the union of drones and “ bees ” (some people of course and workers are produced from similar eggs, though the queen-cells are larger; but the larva of a Queen is fed on “royal jelly ” (a special food produced by the workers) throughout its development, whereas those of workers are fed on this for a short time (3 or 4 days) only, and for the remainder of the time on honey and digested pollen. It is thought that in rare cases the workers may produce Queens and other workers from unfertilized . A ‘worker’s _ development is completed in 3 weeks ; a Gueehi's in 16 days ~ and a drone’s in 24 days. ® The larvae. ¢ The three “kinds” are: “kings” or “leaders.” (i.e., queens) ; “* bees ” (i.e., workers) ; and drones. 333 759 a 759 b ARISTOTLE hh) prev dppevas elvae Tous dé Ores, of Sé* Tas prev peAitras dppevas Tovs de Kndhvas O7Aeas. 25 Tatra & €or ravra advvara ovMoyiLopevors Ta pev ex TOV ovpBawovray idia mepi Tas peirras, Ta 8 €k T&Y KoworTépwv Tots aAAows Cwors. TE yap p17) Tixtovaa. dépovow aAdobev, eu ylyvecOat peXirras Kal pn depovodv trav pedurr@v ev Tots tomois €€ dv’ TO aéppa pépovow. bia ri yap 30 perevexPevros pev E€orat, Exel 8’ odK EoTaL; mpoo- HKet yap ovdev Arrov, cite ghudpevov ev Tots avOeow avTouarov €lTE C@ov Twos TIKTOVTOS. Kav et ye Caov Twos éTEpou TO o7reppa. HV, éxeivo edet ylyveobau e€ avtod, adda. 41) HeHie ne ere S€é To pev peru Kopilew evAoyov (spo) yap),° To d€ TOV 35 yovov ehAdrpror dvTa Kal pr Tpodyv arotov. Tivos yap xdpw;* mavrTa yap doa mpaypareverat mepl Ta TéKva, Tepl Tov Pawdpevov oixetov Sdia- TovetTal yovov. "AAAa pv odde Tas pev peAritras Andr«Eias ivan ‘rovs d€ Kypivas appevas evAoyov: oddevi yap TO mpos aAknv dmAov Tav OnrcLHv arodibiwow 1 7 > 8” e A ~ »” ¢c be dvots, eiot ot pev Kndjves akevrpor, at dé 5 méeAurTaL Taca KévTpov Exovow. ovde TovVaYTIOV evAoyov, Tas pwev peAitTas appevas Tods 5é KndHvas OyAcus®- oddev yap T&Vv appévwr eiwle dvaTrovetabar mepl Ta TéeKva, vov 8’ ai pedutrau TobTO movodow. o > > \ / c A ~ ¢ / dAws 8° ezred7) haiverar 6 pev TOV KHdHVwWY yovos 1 of 8€ PSYZ: ofov vulg. 2 &y Tots Tomas e€ wv L: ex Tod Tomov ef od vulg, 3 zpodr) yap om. SY. 4 zivos yap xapw om. SZ. ® Ayres P: Ondctas SZ: OjAeas vulg. 334 a a —_— ae oo a OO ee a a oe = 4 “a oe. ae GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. x. _ say that drones are male and “ bees ” female ; others that “ bees ’ are male and drones female). We have only to bring before our minds the special and particular facts concerning bees, on the one side, and on the other the facts more generally applicable to other animals, to see that all of these theories are _ impossible. Suppose they do not generate offspring themselves but fetch them from elsewhere. In that _ case bees ought to be formed, even if the,bees failed to fetch them away, in those places whence they fetch the seed (semen). For why should a bee be pro- duced if the seed is fetched away, and not if it is left where itis? Surely it ought to be produced none the _ less, no matter whether it springs spontaneously to _ life in the blossoms or whether some animal generates it. Also, if the seed were that of some other animal, _ then that animal ought to be formed out of it, and _ not bees. Further, it is reasonable enough that bees _ should collect honey, for honey is their food ; but it _ is absurd that they should collect offspring which (a) is produced by some animal other than themselves, and (6) is not food. After all, why should they? All creatures which concern themselves about young _ ones take that trouble over what appears to them to __ be their own proper offspring. ' Nor is it reasonable to hold that “‘ bees ”’ are female and drones male ; because Nature does not assign _ defensive weapons to any female creature ; yet while _ drones are without a sting, all “ bees” have one. _ Nor is the converse view reasonable, that ‘‘ bees ”’ are _ male and drones female, because no male creatures make a habit of taking trouble over their young, whereas in fact “ bees’ do. But generally, since it _ is apparent that the brood of the drones is produced 335 ARISTOTLE 759 b ee, \ se a ‘ egy on eyywopevos Kat pnfevos dvtos Kndivos, 6 b€ TaV 10 peAitTav obK eyywopevos dvev THv Baciréwv (810 Kat gaci Twes Tov TaV Kndyvwv dépecbar pdvor), d7Aov ws odk* €€ dxeias yivovrat, ovr’ €& Exatrépov ~ tA > ~ fe - ,- S > Tod yévous adrod att@ ovvdvalopevov, ovr ek A \ , , a phot as pedit7TOv Kai Kndyvwv. Td TE ToOTOV Pépew povov dud Te TA,elpnueva advvatov, Kal odK eUAOyoV }41) 15 TWepl wav TO yévos adTa@v spoiv te ovpPaivew mdBos. aAda pry odd’ atras tas peAittas €v- déyeras Tas pev appevas elvar Tas dé OndAEias* ev mao. yap Siadeper tots yeveow TO OAAV Kal TO + a“ > / > \ e / ~ 8° > lA dppev. Kav eyévvwy avtal attds: viv 8 od dai- veTal ‘yuyvopevos 6 yovos adT@v, e€av pt) Ev@ow ot € , © / ‘ A ria | \ A > 20 Hyyeoves, ws gaciv. Kowdv 5€ Kal mpos THY €& > / / ‘ A \ > ~ ta aAAjAwy yéveow Kal mpos THY eK TOV KHdHVwV, Kal xwpis Kal pet aAAjAwY, TO pndémoTe HPOat > 7 \ 7 A > > > 3 a A A dxevopmevov pnbev abrdv: «i. 8 Hv ev adbrois TO pev OjAv to 8 dppev, modAAdKis av todro ovveBatvev. - Xr / 8’ ” 2€ > / / \ B tr a eletas 8’, eimep €€ dyelas ylyverat, Tods Paowrets 25 yevvav ovvdvalopevous. add oi Kndives Paivovrat — ” yryvopevor Kal pn evdvTwy yye“ovwv, Bv ovTE . dépew oidv Te Tov yovov Tas pedAiTTas ovTE yevvay — a > lA / p>) / 0 / is adras dyevopevas. Aeizera 54, kabdrep haiverar 1 otk Z: ovr’ vulg. * Cf. above, 755 b 3, n. 336 i in el in oe = Si, Rill nae OS ae a es es GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. x. even when there is no drone present to start with, whereas young “bees” are produced only if the kings are present (and this is why some people say that the brood of the drones are the only ones they fetch from away), it is plain that they are not formed as a result of copulation, either (1) of “ bee ” with “ bee ” or drone with drone, or (2) of “ bee” with drone. And anyway, not only is it impossible that drones are the only ones they fetch in, for the reasons stated, but also it is unreasonable to suppose that a similar thing does not happen in respect of the whole tribe of them.* Again, it is impossible that some of the * bees themselves ” should be male and some female, since in all kinds of animals the male and the female are different. And besides, if it were so, “‘ bees ”’ by themselves would generate “ bees,”’ but in actual fact we see that the brood of “‘ bees”’ is not formed unless, as they say, “the kings are within.” And here is a point which strikes at either theory (that they are produced (a) by the union of “bees” with one another, and (6) by their union with the drones, 7.e., by one kind apart from the other, or by the two kinds together with one another): none of them has ever been seen in the act of copulation, whereas if there had been male and female among them this would often be occurring. The remaining possibility, assum- ing that they are generated by means of copulation at — all, is that the kings unite and so generate them. But, as against this, the drones, as we see, are formed even if no “leaders”’ are “ within”; and as it is im- ible that the “bees” should either fetch in the brood of drones from away or generate them by copulation themselves,’ plainly the only possibility > Proved already. 337 759 b 760 a ARISTOTLE a > F > tA ‘ , ” aupPaivoy emi twwy ixOdwv, tas peditras dvev > / a ~ ~ ~ oxelas yevvay tos Kndhvas, TH pev yevvay ovoas 30 Onrcias, exovcas 8 ev abrais, domep Ta puta, Kat nn 10 To OAAv Kal TO dppev, 610 Kal Td mpos Thy aAKiy Exovow Opyavov: od yap det OAV eaiely ©, @ dppev a €OTL KEXWpLopEevov. Ei 8 exit t&v xngivev TOTO faivera ovpBatvor Kat yuyvopevor pn e€ oxelas, 4On Kal KaTa TOV 5 mehitT@v Kat THv Bacwdwy tov adrov avayKatov / \ \ cod 2 > , Dittery elvat Adyov Kai pu) yevvdoOar e€ dyeias. «t pev Ss ” ~ , > 7 > > /, c otv avev tav Baorléwv edaiver’ eyywopevos oO yovos TOv pelitT@v, Kav Tas peAitTas avayKatov > > € ~ wv > 7 / 0. ~ 8 > \ hv e€ adtav dvev oyxeias yiyveoOar. viv d° ened) ~ 4 a“ Totr ov dacw oi epi THv Oepareiav todtwv TOV a \ Caiwv ovres, Aelwetar tods Baoreis Kai adrovs yevvay Kal Tas peAirras. ” \1 ~ lon / \ du ~ ~ Ovtos 57)' mepittob Tod yévous Kat idiov TOD TAY ~ ~ / peditT@v, Kal 7 yéveois adr@v dios elvor faiverar. ~ ww TO ev yap yevvav tas peditras dvev dyeias ein av ~ ‘ A kat én” GAAwy Caiwv ovpBatvov, aAAa To pq TO” avTo yévos yevvay diov- of yap epubpivor yervOow > epulpivovs Kat ai yavvar yavvas. aitiov 8 ort 7 e Kal avral yevv@vrar at peéAutrar ody WoTEp at ~ A bs ~ ~ VA > > > e / pviar Kal Ta TowadTa Tov Cawv, addr €€ érépov : 3 Rackham : de vulg. 2 76 wy To corr. Z: 76 ya) P: pa) ro vulg. * ¢.9., erythrinus and channa (below, 760 a 9); see slic 762 b 23, and H.A. 569 a 17, 570 a 2 (cestreus and eel). >. See above, 759 b 4. They are as much male as female ; hence it is not irregular for them to possess a sting. 338 ee ———— i iis ~~ oe GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. x. remaining is something parallel to what we find _ occurs in certain fishes *: the “ bees” generate the drones without copulation, i.e., although so far as generating is concerned they are female, yet they contain in themselves the male as well as the female (factor), just as plants do; and this also is why they possess the organ for self-defence,? for of course it is _ wrong to apply the term “female” to creatures _ where no separate male exists. ___ We find then that this is what occurs in the case of _ the drones : they are formed independently of copula- _ tion. And if this is so, then surely the same argu- ment must apply to the “bees” and the kings ; _ they too must be generated independently of copu- lation. Now if we were sure that the brood of the _ “bees” made their appearance without the kings _ being there, then it would follow of necessity that _ the “ bees ” as well as the drones are produced from _ “bees” without copulation. This however is denied _ by those whose business it is to look after these creatures. Hence the only possibility left is that the kings generate their own kind and the “ bees” as well. _ We see then that the manner in which bees are ' generated appears to be peculiar, in keeping with _ their extraordinary and peculiar character. Bees’ generating without copulation might be paralleled by the behaviour of other animals, but their generat- _ ing some different kind of creature is peculiar and unique, for even erythrinot and channae generate creatures of the same kind as themselves. The _ reason is that the “ bees themselves ”’ are not gener- _ ated in the same way as flies and other such creatures, _ but from a kind which though different is akin to 339 ARISTOTLE)! ¢0'" 760 a peev ovyyevovs dé “yevous: ylyvovrat yap ex TOV Tye Hoven. dud Kal éxet dvdoyov TWS 7 yeveots avray- Tot pev yap ayEpoves peyeBer pev dpovot elou Tots KN PHC, T@ d€ Kevtpov €- exe rats ped ir- 15 Tais* at pev obv pedurrae Kara TOUT’ coikaow avrois, ot b€ Kndives Kara, TO péyebos’] dvdyKn yap Te tapadAdrrew, €f Ha det del TO adTo yévos e€ éxdotov yivecOa. totto 8 advvarov: may. yap av TO yevos NyEpLoves Hoar. at jev obv pedurras Kata tiv Sdvapuv adrois dpoiwvrat [kat 7a” 20 Tikrew |, oi be Knives Kara TO péyeos: [et Ss elyov Kal KevTpov, Tiyepoves: av joav. viv d€ Todo Acimerat? Tis dmopias*: ot yap Tyepoves ddorepous €oikacw €v T@ avT@ Tols yeveor, TO ev KevTpov éyew Tats pedirras, T@ S€ peyeVer trois Knpjow.|’ avaykatov d€ Kal Tods tyyenovas yiveoBar Ex Twos. 25 eel odv ovT ex Tav pedtTTaV ovr eK TOV Kn pTVov, avrois dvayKatoy Kat adrovs yevvay. [ytvovras 8 emt téAx ot KUTTapot abTr@v Kal od moAAot Tov apiOudv.|® wore ovpPaiver Tods pev . 1 in seqq. plurima irrepsisse videntur. af pév odv . péyeBos om. &. 76 Y : tod coni. A.-W.; Kai 7@ rixrew seclusi. 2 \éAvras coni. Platt. 4 * hic addit Y kai 7 Aéhuraue 7a ppbietphpibve yap 7 sick THs damopias. 5 secl. A.-W. 6 haec verba hic aliena. * The full explanation of this statement comes at ll. 27 ff. below, but owing to a number of interpolations in the text the | clarity of the passage has become obscured. The dvadoyia is: Kings can generate two kinds, their own and anothies (viz., kings and *‘ bees *’); 340 ~~ GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. x. them—they are, of course, generated from the “ leaders.””. Hence their manner of generation is in fact arranged in a sort of proportionate series *; thus, the leaders are similar to the drones in size, ut similar to the “bees” in possessing a sting ; therefore the “‘ bees” are similar to them in this respect, but the drones are similar to them in size,] _ for of course the three kinds must of necessity fail to coincide in some respect, unless the same kind is always going to be bound to be generated from each, and this is impossible, because then the whole tribe of them would be “ leaders.”’. Therefore the “ bees ” _ have been made similar to them in respect of char- _ acteristic properties.” [7.e., in virtue of generating - young, ] while the drones have been made similar to Se a them in respect of size [and if they had a sting as _well, they would be “leaders.” As it is, this portion _ of the puzzle remains, since the leaders resemble _ both kinds at the same time, the bees in possessing _ a sting, the drones in size.]* But the leaders too _ must be generated from something ; and since they are generated neither from the bees nor from the _ drones, they must of necessity generate their own _kind as well. [And their cells are the last to be _ formed, and are not many in number.}? So it turns “* Bees” can generate one kind, i.¢., a kind other than their own (viz., drones) ; Drones can generate no kind. This is the wépas of the dvadoyia (see 760 a 33). » Dynamis: referring to the special and distinctive char- _ acteristic, viz., ability to generate, as the gloss explains. © I have tentatively bracketed the passages which seem to _ have been interpolated. The main argument is about the a power to generate, not about size or sting. # This sentence seems to have been misplaced ; it is more releyant if moved to 760 b 27 below. 541 760 a 760 b 30 35 10 ARISTOTLE $f Se Hyewovas yevvay pev Kal adrovs, yevvav Se Kal aAXo te yévos (robTo 8 éeotl To TV pehirray), Tas de pechirras GAAo pév Te yevvay, Tovs Kndjvas, abras dé pnwere yervay, ana Toor’ adnpicbar abtav. eel d° det TO KaTa pow € exet rdew, dua TobTO Tav Kydyvev dvayrcatov Kat To dAdo TL yevos yevvay adnphobar. Omep Kal daiverar ovp- Baivov: avrot bev yap yiyvovrat, do oe ovfley yervaow, GAN’ ev TO Tpit apie mépas €axev u} yeveais. Kal ovTw 3) ovveornke Th pvoer Karas wor aiet Suapevew évTa Ta yévn Kal pndev éA- Neimew, pq) TAavTwV yerveavrenv. [evAoyov de ie ToUTo ovpPaivew, ev pev Tats evernpiats peru kat Kneyvas yiveoOau ToMous, ev O¢€ Talis eropBpiars oAws yovov moAvy. at pev yap dypornres mepir- Twa ToLobat mAciov €v Tots cwpace TOV TIYEHOVOOY, ai 5S’ ederynpia ev tots TOV peAitTa@v: EharTw yap évra' T@ peyeBer Seirar THs evernpias wGAdrov.|? «d dé Kal TO ods Baothets woTrep TeTrounpLevous emt TEKVWOW €ow evel, dperrevovs TOV avayicatoy épywv, Kal peyeBos dé EXE, Bomrep emt TeKVO- Touav auotavtos Tob awpatos atta@v: tovs TE Kndavas apyovs ar ovdev éxovtas SmAov mpos TO SiapayeoOar mepi THs Tpodis, Kai dia THY Bpadv- THTa THY TOO oWpatos. [at de peAuTrar pea” TO péyebds eiow apdotv (xpjoyat* yap odtw mpds THY 1 eharrw yap ovra P: €Xarrov yap év vulg. 2 aliena hic. * Hetous coni. Btf.; 70 wéyeos del. Sus. 4 ypjoa P: xpyjoor vulg. « This passage also seems to be out of place. 342 Ve : 2 OE ST OT, SI a a ey ae a GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. x. out that the leaders generate their own kind, and another kind as well (viz., the “ bees ’’); while the “ bees ” generate another kind (the drones), but zot their own kind; this they have been deprived of doing. And since any business of Nature’s always has an orderly arrangement, on that account necessity requires that the drones shall have been deprived even of generating some other kind. And this is what is found to be the case in actual fact: they are generated themselves, but generate no other creature ; thus the progression of generation reaches its limit at the third term of the series. And this arrangement has been so well constituted by Nature that the three kinds continue ever in existence and none of them fails, though not all of them generate. [Another point about them, which is in accord with what we should expect, is this. In fine seasons, much honey and a large number of drones is produced, in rainy seasons a large number of offspring generally. The reason is that wet conditions produce more . residue in the bodies of the leaders, whereas fine seasons do the same in those of the bees, for being smaller in size they have greater need of fine weather.|* Besides, it is well that the kings, who have, as it were, been made specially for the purpose of procreation, should stay within, released from the drudgery that has got to be done by somebody ; and that they should be large, since their body has been constituted as it were for procreation, and that the drones should be idle, as they have no weapon for engaging in combat to secure their food, and also on account of the slowness of their bodies. [The bees, however, are as regards size midway between the two, for thus they are serviceable for active work, 343 760 b 15 20 25 30 ARISTOTLE epyaciay), Kal epydtides ws Kal Téxva tpedovaat ‘ , 1 € , ov! 9 Vi Ba Kat Tarépas.|' dpodoyovpevov 8° éotl Kal TO ém- axodovbeiv trois Bacwedou TH THhv yéveow ex TOv- Twv elvar THY TOV peAiTTAV (Et yap punbev ToLodToVv dmipxev, odK elye Aeyov Ta. cup Patvovre mept ray HyEpoviav avr ay), Kal TO Tods ev edv pnbev € ef: yalonevovs oi ws yoveis, tovs d€ Kndivas KONE RE ws Téxva* KdAMov yap Ta TéKVa KoAdLEew Kat dv unbev €oTw epyov. Td dé Tas peditTas yevvav moAAds , adrovs ovtas dAliyous Tods ryendovas TrapamAjovov coke ovpPaivew TH yeveoes TH THY AedvTWwY, Ot TO TpO@rov Téevte yevvnoavtes YoTepov eAdtTw yev- ~ \ / o > LANA ¢ 2) ait / \ v@ou Kat téAos ev, clr’ oddév. of 8° ayepdves TO \ ~ ARO a 8 AC c 4 fev mp@tov mAA00s, totrepov 8 dXrtyous atrovs, kakelvwv” ev eAdtTw Tov yovov, atta@v 8 eémet Tob. T7AjOous adeire, TO°® péeyebos adtots* amédwxev 7 pais. "Ek pev ody rod Aéeyou Ta Tepl iid yéveou TOV pekittav tobrov éyew daiverat tov tpdmov, Kal ex TOV ovpPaivew SoxovvTwy Tepi avtds* ov pV Ww / \ La € ~ > + RS pe ciAnnrat ye TA GupPaivovra, tkavas, add’ édv tote a / ~ > / ~ ~ / Andb4, TéTE TH aicOyjoe waAdAov Tav Adywv morTev- a monent corrupta esse A.-W.: pro T™pos THV . . « matépas creationi pullorum & (=mpos tiv réxvwow). unde et credo leg. esse v. 17 (ras pedirras) tots Baciredou . . . [rH TOV peherrav). 5 KaKetvor PS. 3 adetre 70] adethero YZ. it” adrots ne ° atrovs . . . dvais] quoniam diminuuntur superfluitates que sunt in corpore X. 344 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. x. and they are workers inasmuch as they support and feed their children and fathers alike.]}¢ Other facts which fit in well are these : (a) the bees attend upon the kings—because the bees are generated from the kings ; since, if nothing of this kind were the case, the facts about their leadership would be lacking in reason ; (5) they allow the leaders to do no work, as being their parents, and they punish the drones, _as being their children, because it is a finer thing _ to punish children and those who have no function to perform.” The fact that the leaders, though few themselves in number, generate a large number of bees looks like a parallel phenomenon to the genera- tion of lions. Lions * to begin with generate five, then fewer, finally one, then none at all. The “leaders ’”’ generate a multitude to begin with, and later on a few—these are of their own kind,’ and though the brood of these is smaller in number, _ Nature, because she has taken away from their numbers makes up for it by giving them more in the way of size. This, then, appears to be the state of affairs with regard to the generation of bees, so far as theory can _ take us, supplemented by what are thought to be the facts about their behaviour. But the facts have not been sufficiently ascertained ; and if at any future time they are ascertained, then credence must be _ given to the direct evidence of the senses more than * Part of this sentence is inconsistent with what has already been said about the comparative sizes of the three _ kinds, and part anticipates what is to be said in the next sentence. * I suppose attention should be called to this statement. © See 750 a 31 ff. * The statement at 760 a 26 above seems relevant here. 345 fn eae « <_- are ee aa) Wr ARISTOTLE 760 b Téov, Kal Tots Adyous, eav dpodAoyovpmeva Secvdwor Tots Pawvopevors. [Tpos dé TO pu) €& oyelas yiveoBat onpciov Ka TO Tov yovov daivecBar piKpov ev Tots TOD Knpiov 35 KuTTaptots’ doa 8° e& dyelas THY evTouwy yevvarat, 61a ovvdvaletar prev moAdv xpdvov, TikTer S€ Taxews Kal péyebos exov axwAnkoedés.|* Tlepi dé riv yéveow tiv T&v ovyyevav Cawv abratis, olov avOpnvav te Kai odynk@v, tpdmov Tw’ exer TapatrAnciws maow, adypyrar dé TO mepirTov 5 edAdyws: od} yap exovow odfev Oeiov, wamep TO yEevos TO TOV pedirray. yervor pev yap at Hijrpae KaAovpevar, Kal Ta mpara ovpmAdrrovat TOV Knpiwv, Oxevomevau dé yerv@ow br” dMijrwv: dara. yap modAdKis 6 6 ouvdvacpos avTov. mooas oo exovar Svadopas 7 7 mpos adAnAa tav Tovodrwy 10 yev@v Exaorov 2) 7pos Tas peXrras, ex TOV epi Tas toropias avayeypaypevwr Set Oewpeiv. Kai epi pev Tv evTdpwv Tis yeveoews eipnrat TavTwr, Tept d€ TOV doTpaKodéppwy AeKTéov. xI “Exeu 5€ Kai trovtwy ta mepl Thy yeveow TH bev 15 dpotws TH S ody Opoiws Tots dAAois. Kal TOOT’ evAdyws cvupBaiver: mpos pev yap Ta laa gutois €oikact, mpos d€ Ta duTa Caos, WoTEe TpdTOV [EV Twa amo oneppatos paiveoBar ywopeva, Tpdtrov & aAdov ovK amo omépuatos, Kal TH pev avdropara 1 haec non proprio loco sita. * The most important principle announced in this para- graph deserves very special attention. » This is another misplaced paragraph. 346 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. x.-x1. to theories,—and to theories too provided that the re- sults which they show agree with what is observed.* - [Another piece of evidence which goes to show _ that bees are generated without copulation is that the brood appears to be quite small in the cells of the : comb, whereas those insects which are generated by _ means of copulation (a) spend a long time in inter- _ course, and (6) quickly bring forth their offspring, _ which is of the nature of a larva and of considerable size.] ° With regard to the generation of the animals that Hornets are akin to bees, such as hornets and wasps,° the nad wasps. situation is in a way similar in all of them, but the extraordinary features are lacking, and this is what we should expect, because they contain no divine ingredient as the tribe of bees does. Although the “ mother-wasps ”’ as they are called do indeed gener- ate, and mould the first of the cells, it is by copulation with one another that they generate, as their copula- tion has often been observed. To find out the various differences between each of these kinds of creatures, and between them and bees, the records given in the Researches * should be studied. We have now described the generation of all the Insects, and we have next to describe the Testacea. The circumstances of the generation of these XI - animals also is to some extent similar, to some extent ae ee dissimilar, to those of the others. And this is what Testacea. we should expect, for compared with animals, they resemble plants, compared with plants, they re- semble animals, so that in a way it seems that they are generated from semen, but in another way not ; © See H.A. 627 b 23 ff., 628 b 32 ff. 2 At H.A., loce. cit. 347 761 a 761 b . ARISTOTLE! 1) .50te TH S ag? abdtOv, 7) Ta pev ovres | Ta 8” exetvors. 20 dua Sé 7d Tots gurots dvriorpodov €. exew Thy dvow, Sia Tobro ev pev TH Yh tev dorpaxodéppnv odbev H _pucpov Tt ylyverau yévos, olov TO TOV koyhav Kav 7 Tt TowodTov Erepov pev omdvuov dé, € ev d€ TH Daddrry Kal Tots dpolows bypots, : TroAAd, Kal mavTo- Samy € €xovra popdyv. 76 Se tav durav yévos év 25 pev Th Baddrrn Kal Tots. TOLOUTOLS* peucpov Kat mdyurray wos etreiv oder, ev d€ TH YH Ta {Towatra yiveran TavTa: THY yap dow dvddoyov € EXEL; Kat dueornKev, oow” Correxedtepov TO bypov TOO Enpod Kal vis” BSwp, Tooobrov 7 TOV ooTpak éppoy dvots Tis TOV puTav, emrel BodArcrat ye Os Ta 30 pura Tpos THY via, otrws exe TO GoTpaKddepj.a. mpos TO dypov, Ws OvTa Ta peev dura dorrep doTpea xepoaia, Ta d€ doTpea wWomepavel pura evvdpa. Ava Towavrny 5 airlay Kal Tod poppa 7 év T® byp@ paadrdv éorr Tov ev TH va TO TE yap dypov eUmrAaoTorépay € EXEL THV piow THS yas Kal fis vill 35 KV ov TOME Prrov, Kal pddvora Ta ev TH O Toadra: TO pev yap morysov yAvKD pev Kat mrorapois Z. 2 gow 8¢ PSY. 1 2 The scheme which Aristotle has in mind is ; Place: Earth Water Air Creature: Plants Testacea Land-animals. (From the passage 761 b 16-23 (see n., p. 352) we may add a fourth pair, Fire, and Moon-animals; but it is not essential to Aristotle’s main argument, and Aristotle himself does not seem too sure of the existence of such creatures.) Aristotle holds that water supports life better than earth (I. 27); and also that the more “ perfect ’’ animals are those which breathe, i.e., which live in the air (see 732 b 28 ff.); hence the three 348 - GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. x1. and in one sense that they are spontaneously gener- ated, in another that they are generated from them- selves, or some by the one method, some by the other. In virtue of the Testacea being in their nature the correlative of plants,* no part, or only a small part, of this tribe comes into being in the earth (examples are snails, and any such species there may be besides, but there are not many), whereas many species, of all kinds of shapes, live in the sea and similar watery places. The plant tribe, on the other hand, makes very little show—practically none at all, in fact—in the sea and such places, but-all members of this tribe grow in the earth. The reason is that in respect of their nature the two tribes stand in a correlative position ®: the nature of Testacea is removed from that of plants by an interval corre- sponding to that by which water and fluid matter are __ better able to support life than earth and solid matter, - since Testacea aim at being so related to the water as plants are related to the earth: it is as though plants were a sort of land-shellfish, and shellfish a sort of water-plant. And it is for some such cause as this that the things which grow in the water are more various in shape than those which grow in the earth. It is because a fluid substance is in its nature more plastic than earth, and not much less substantial ; and this is a characteristic possessed to a marked degree by the creatures in the sea, since fresh water, though sweet stages are in order of increasing “‘ perfection.”” We thus get the dvadoyia (1. 27): Testacea : Water : : Plants : Earth, or Testacea : Plants : : Water : Earth. ® Or, “* proportionate relationship.” 349 Various animals proper to various - Elements. 761 b 5 10 ARISTOTLE |i) ):i 44 TPOPtHov irrov dé owparddes Kal puxpov eoTw. Stomrep doa dvayia Kat pr) Oepud tiv poow, ve yierat ev tats Aiuvais odd€ TOV ddvpav ev Tots ToT mur épous GAN’ Ayrrov, olov Ta dorpaxddeppa ) Kal Ta paAdicca kal Ta padaxdorpaxa (wdvro, yap avayia Kal puypa ratra Wid pvow goriv), év dé Tats Apvobahdrrais Kal mpos Tais éxBolais TOV Totapav yivovrau: Cntodar yap dua tiv 7° dAcav ‘ \ / ¢€ A / € / Ns Kal THY Tpodyv, % dé OdAatTa bypa Te Kal ow- parwdns 7oAAG paGAAov tod motipov Kai Depp Thv dvow ori, Kal KexowdvnKke TdavTwY TaV ~ ~ , ‘ : Hopiwy, bypod Kal mvevpatos Kal ys, woTe Kal TdvTwv peTéxew TOV Kal? ExacTov ywopévwy [ev a t , 1 \ \ \ \ ’ ” Tois Toros Cawv).’ ra ev yap puta Gein tis av ~ 55 \ A \ \ \ , \ yijs, Udatos S€ ta Evvdpa, Ta 5€ mela depos: TO A ~ \ @ 2 4 \ 4 dé waAAov Kal #rrov Kal éyy’TEepov Kal ToppwTepov \ in \ \ 7 2 1 Oo. ToAAnv movet Kal Oavpaoriy diadopav.2 To dé Téraptov yévos ovK emi TovUTwy TaVv ToTwY Set 1 seclusit Platt, dere cai . . . Cwv om. &. 2 haec sensu carere monet Platt. post TOppwrepov addit Z de? 710€van, et pro zrovet PZ habent zoveiy. * Aristotle apparently did much of his zoological work in lakes and lagoons; he refers to the lake at Siphae, P.A. 696 a6, 7.A. 708 a5, H.A, 504 b 32. The difference between a lake and a lagoon, as distinguished in the present passage, is that the former is fresh, the latter salt. For lagoons ef. H.A. 598 a 20; the whole passage is apposite. Cf. also 763 a 29, 763 b 2. » It is now known that the blood serum (the fluid part of the blood remaining after the cellular portion has been removed by clotting) of both sea- and land-vertebrates has 350 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IIT. x1. (palatable) and nutritious, is less substantial and is cold. Hence, those animals which are bloodless and not hot by nature are not produced in lakes nor in. _ the fresher of brackish waters, except to a somewhat small extent—such as the Testacea, Cephalopods and Crustacea, all of which are bloodless and cold by nature—whereas in lagoons * and near the mouths of rivers they are produced.” The reason is that they _ seek both warmth and food together ; and sea-water is fluid and much more substantial than fresh water and it is hot by nature,° and it contains a quota of all the parts “—of fluid, of pneuma, and of earth—so _ that it also contains a quota of all the creatures which grow in each of them, because we may say that plants belong to the earth, aquatic creatures to the water, and land-animals to the air, but the more and less and nearer and further make a surprisingly great differ- ence.’ As for the fourth tribe, we must not look for Fire- animals, a composition closely approximating to that of sea-water, which suggests that all vertebrates originated in the sea; and this receives support from comparative anatomical and embryological studies. Anaximander had asserted that human beings originated in fishes; see Plut. Symp. viii. 8. 4, P. 730 © & ixOvow eyyevécbar 76 mp&rov avOpwmous . . . womTep oi yaAcoi [waAaioi Mss.| (see note, 754 b 32). © The rest of the paragraph from this point is obscure, and other passages do not help much in its elucidation. For eer theory of the structure of the universe, see App. A §§ 2 ff. * As Platt says, the sea ae shares’ in all three, earth, water, and air: it is fluid; it is cwparixév, and so contains earthy matter; and it has pneuma in it, being warm—for mvedpa is ““ hot air” (736 a 1), and also, as Aristotle says at 762 a 19 ff., the things which are produced spontaneously in water are produced mainly in virtue of the pneuma in it, which contains Soul. © It is difficult to attach any meaning to this statement. 351 ARISTOTLE 761 b cal / 4, / , A \ los ‘ (ynreiv: Kaitou BovAeral yé te Kata THY TOD TUpOS elvar T&Ew* Tobro yap TerapTov aprOpeirou TOV owpareov. adda TO peev Top del Paiverar THY 20 popdiy ouK iSiav EXOV, dA’ ev érépw TOV ow pear: vy) yap arp 7, Kamvos oh vq paiverat TO TETUPU|LEVOY. ddrAa 6 et To ToLovTov ‘yéevos Cyrety emt THS oehnvns atrn yap paiverar Kowwvodoa THs Terdprys a amooTdcews. aAAd mepi pev TOUTWY adAXos av ein Adyos. ‘H d€ t&v dotpaxodépywv ovviorara dvois TOV 25 wev adtoudtws, eviwy d€ mpoicewevwy twa Svvapuv ad’ attav, moAAdkis 5€ ywopevwy Kal TovTwWY a7O ovotdcews adtoparns. Set 517)’ AaPetv ras yevéoets Tas TOV duTa@v. TovTwy yap yiverar TA fev amo onéppatos, Ta 8 amo omapaypatwy amoduTevo- peeve, éva d€ TO trapaPAaordvew, olov To Tv 30 Kpopptev yévos. TodToVv pev obv ot pes yivovrat Tov TpdTov: Tapadvovta yap €AdrTous del Tapa 1 81) Peck, coll. 762 b 6: de vulg. : * According to Aristotle, the ‘‘ heavens’ and the heavenly bodies were composed of the “ fifth element,” aither, whose natural movement is circular (see 736 b 35 ff. and n., and App. A §2). As fire is the outermost of the sublunary elements and is therefore in contact with the “heaven ” which is nearest to the earth, and as this “ heaven ”’ carries the moon, it follows that the moon can be said to “ have a share in the fourth degree of remove,” viz., fire. Aither must be clearly distinguished from fire; and, according to G.A. 737 a1 (ef. Meteor. 382 a 7), fire generates no animal, whereas aither, the ‘“‘ element of the stars,” is a form of Geppov which can produce living creatures (moe? yovpa 7a onépnara; see 736 b 30-35). But at H.A. 552 b 10 Aristotle speaks of a creature which is engendered in the fire in places where ore is smelted; and also mentions 352 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. x1. it in these regions, although there wants to be a kind corresponding to the position of fire * in the series, since fire is reckoned as the fourth of the corporeal substances. But always, as we see, the shape and appearance which fire has is not its own; on the contrary, fire is always in some other one of the sub- stances, for the object which is on fire appears either as air or smoke or earth.2 No; this fourth tribe must be looked for on the moon, since the moon, as it appears, has a share’in the fourth degree of remove. However, these matters should form the subject of another treatise. With regard to the Testacea,° then : some of them (@) Side- take shape spontaneously, others by means of the eet st emission of some special substance from themselves, though these too are often formed from a sponta- neous composition. We must here apprehend the ways in which plants are generated. Some plants are formed from seed, some from slips planted out, others by sideshoots (e.g., the onion tribe). Now the last-named is the method by which mussels are formed ; small ones are always growing up by the the salamander, which cannot be destroyed by fire; the History of Animals passage is, however, excised by A.-W. There is a long discussion in Jaeger, Aristotle, 144-148, in which the doctrine of fire-animals is involved. Jaeger tries to prove that the doctrine that there were animals that were ed in fire must have come in one of Aristotle’s dialogues (On Philosophy), and by a curious blunder states that it does not come in History of Animals (loc. cit., to which he actually refers) ; but in fact Aristotle’s words are yivera Onpia €v tS mvpi. Jaeger makes no reference at all to the present passage. » Of. P.A. 11. 649 a 22 ff., G. & C. 11. 331 b 25, Meteor. I, cbh. 3, 4, etc. ; © Lit., the nature, i.¢., the physical structure; of the Testacea. See Introd. §§ 26, 27. N 353 ARISTOTLE «© |” 761 b > , A ‘ ’ Ares 44 THY apyyv. KihpuKes dé Kal mropdipar Kal Ta Acyopeva Kypidlev olov ard OTEpLaTLKAS picews mpolevrau pvEddeis byporntras (oméppa & odfev Tovra det vopilecv, dAAG KaTa TOV elpny.evov 35 Tpomov. perexew THs djLoLoTnTos Tots purois: dud Kat ylverau 7AjOos Tov TOLOUTWY orav dag 762a ~-yeévnral TL, mavTa pev yap TavTa Kal abrépara. ovpPaiver yiveoba, Kata Adyov dé Kal trapEavrwv ovviracbat paMov). meptylyveabau yap Tt meEpit- TWA TpOs EKdOTW THS apxAs eVAoyov, ap’ is. 5 mapaBAacraver Trav Tapapvopevay € €xaoTov. emt d€ mapamAnoiav exer THY S¥vapyw 7 Tpody Kal TO TauTys TepitTwpa, (TO) TOV KypialdvTwy Gpotov® eikds €or elvar TH €€ apyfs* overdo [odciay]* dvd7rep edAoyov yiveoOat Kai €x ravrns. . “Ooa de pajre mapaPAaordver pare enprdtet, Tovrewy € mayro yéveots avropares ‘€oTw. 10 mdvra be Ta. ovuvioTdpmeva TOV TpoTrov ToOroy Kal ev yh Kal ev vdaTe patverat ywopeva. pera onpews Kal puyvupevou Too opBpiov vdaTos* dtroKpwo- pevov yap Tob yAvréos els THY OUYLOTAMEVHV dipx7y TO TrEepiTTevov ToLavTyHV AapBaver popdyv. ‘yiveTar & odvfév onmopevoy adAd meTrropevov 7 dé anys we ob Platt. 2 (70) Peck. ® duoor Peck : éuotav vulg. * fort. rijs dpxijs. leg. 5 odciav om. Z, secl. A.-W.: pro odveiav coni. Platt zi rrapdpuow, 8 repryiyveocOas (a 3). . . Tavrns.om. X. * The ‘‘honeycombs” are really the eggs of these Gastropods, and Aristotle rightly recognizes their nature, as against later scientists who regarded them as distinct species of animals. > As against none, in the case of spontaneous generation. 354 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. xz. side of the original one. The whelks and purpuras | _and those which, as the phrase goes, are “ honey- _combers ”’¢ emit quantities of slimy fluid emanating as it were from some seminal substance. (We must not, however, consider any of these substances as being semen proper ; instead, we should regard them as sharing in the resemblance to plants in the way already mentioned._And that is why a large number ..- of such creatures is produced when once one has been produced, since, as all these creatures are in fact pro- duced spontaneously as well, pro rata more of them arise if there are actually some” present to start with.) After all, it is reasonable to suppose that _ there is a surplus portion of residue close by each of the original stock, from which each of the sideshoots ‘springs up.. And since the residue is a substance _ possessing one and the same character as the nourish- ment of which it is the residue, it is probable that : the stuff produced by the “* honeycombers ”’ is similar _ to the substance out of which they were originally _ constituted ; hence it is reasonable to suppose that ; _it too ° gives rise to young ones. __ All which neither produce sideshoots nor make () spon- A “honeycombs ” reproduce by spontaneous genera- 200s Stic * amt all which arise in this nalitiag wHisther Seepaersese 5 _ land or in the water come to be formed, as can be _ seen, to the accompaniment of putrefaction and ad- _ mixture of rainwater: as the sweet ingredients are ; separated off into the principle which is taking form, that which remains over assumes a putrefying aspect.4 Nothing, however, is formed by a process of putrefac- _ tion, but by a process of concoction : the putrefaction SS Ame a ae © i.e., as well as residues such as semen. 4 i.¢., putrefies. 355 ae ae 762 a ARISTOTLE 15 Kal TO onmTov Tepitrwua Tod mebbévtos €oriv: od0ev yap ex mavros yiverat, Ka0drep odd’ ev Tots b70 THs Texvns Snpvoupyoupevors* odbev yap ay ede. moveiv? viv dé TO pev } TEXVN TOV axpnoT@Y adaupet, TO 8” a pros. Tiverau 3° ev vi Kal ev dyp@ TO. loa Kal Ta 20 pura did TO ev yh pev Bdwp v dmdpxew, ev & vdare mebua, év d€ rovTw mavti Deppdryta xuyxuKiy, Wore TpoTov Twa Tavra YuyAs elvas mAjpn* 606 ovvloTarar Taxéws, OrdoTay eurepiAngOy. €pmrept- AapPdverar d5€ Kai yiverar Oeppawoudvwv tav cwpaTiKav byp@v olov adpwdns moudddAv€. at 25 ev odv Siadopai Tod Tiidtepov elvat TO ‘yevos Kal diripdrepov TO Graney ev TH mrepidripet Tis dpxiis THS Puxucts elow.' TovTov® dé Kai ot TOMOL. alTioL Kal TO odp.a TO mepthayBavdpevov. ev d€ 77H Oaddtrn odd TO ye@des Eveotiw: SidTEp eK Ths ToLavTNS GvoTdcews 7) TOV doTpaKodépuwV 30 yiwerar dois, KUKAw@ pev TOO yedwdSous oKAnpuVvo- pevou Kal mnyvupevou av adriy mew tois oarois Kat Tots Képact (upt yap drnKra. TaorT coriy), evTos de wepiAapBavouevov. Tob tiv Cwhv ExovTo owpLaros. " “sae Movov 5€ tdv Tovovrwv ovvdvaldpevov Ewparat TO TGV KoxAdv yévos. et 8° Ex To’ svvdvacpod liciow Peck: éorw vulg. 2 rovrwr P. @ This of course is not intended to cover the developmen of a larva once it has been constituted. » Cf. above, 736 b 35 ff., and App. B §§ 13-17. 356 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. x1. and the putrefied matter are a residue of that which has been concocted, for no creature’s formation uses up the whole of the material,* any more than in the case of objects fashioned by the agency of art, other- wise there would be no need to make anything at all, whereas what happens in actual fact is that the use- less material is removed in the one case by art and _in the other by Nature. Animals and plants are formed in the earth and in the water because in earth water is present, and in water pneuma is present, and in all pneuma soul-heat is present,” so that in a way all things are full of Soul ; and that is why they quickly take shape once it has _been enclosed. Now it gets enclosed as the liquids containing corporeal matter © become heated, and there is formed as it were a frothy bubble. The _ object which thus takes shape may be more valuable in kind or less valuable ; and the differences herein depend upon the envelope which encloses the soul- _ principle ; and the causes which determine this are _ the situations where the process takes place and the _ physical substance which is enclosed. Now in the sea earthy substance is plentiful, and that is why the Testacea? are formed and constructed out of a _ composition which is earthy in character : the earthy _ substance hardens all round and congeals in the same _ way that bones and horns do (since these cannot be _ melted by fire), while within it the physical substance _ that contains the life becomes enclosed. _ Of such creatures the only tribe which has been _ observed to copulate is that of the snails ; but whether _ * Sea-water is such a liquid ; see above, 761 b 9 and im- _ mediately below, 1.27. Also App. B §§ 13-17. _ # Lit., the nature of the Testacea; cf. above, 761 b 24. 357 ARISTOTLE © ia Men 3 7 yévects abra@v cor i Pm oteen owrrat ixavas. ae darripesse S° av tis Foudspenos boas. tnreiv,, a 762 b TO KaTa THY BALKIY apxnv ovvioTdpevov eoTw ev Tots TowovToLs. ev pev yap Tots OjAeou repitrapd tt Tob Cwou robr’ éoriv, 6 7) mapa Tod appevos apy?) Kwodca, Svvdjer Towodrov dv olov ad’ obmep HAdev, dmoreAet 76 Cov, evradOa Se ri Set Aéyew 576 rovdrov, Kal mébev Kal tis ) Kwodoa apxi) 7 Kata 76 dppev; Set 81) AaBeivy Sti Kai ev Tots Lou trois yerrdow ex Tis eiovodons tpopas ev T® Caw Oepyotyns amoKxpivovea Kal oupmértovea mou TO maeene TV épxiv Too pats, ai ees, dé Kai ev dutois, whi ev pev TovTots Kal 10 €v tiot TOV Cabwy obbev mpoodeiras Tis TO dppevos apxns (exer yap ev adrois peuypevynv), To de TOV mrciotwr Caw repitrwpa mpocdeirar. tpody 5° éotl tois pev vdwp Kal yh, Tois 5é Ta ex TOUTwY, ~ dof drep 7 ev Tots Cobois Depporyns ex THs Tpopfs amepydlerar, TOO” 1 THs Wpas ev TH meprexovTe 15 Oepporns €x Oaddtrns Kal yas ovyKpive. TéTTOVES Kat eet irik TO 8 évamroAapBavdmevov 7) azo wie pee ev T@ mvevpatt THs puxucts exis KUN LO. TOLEL Kal Kkivnow evtiOnow. 7 peev oov TOV @ See note, 767 b 17. 358 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. xt. _ or not their generation is the result of such copulation _ has not so far been adequately observed. Anyone who wishes to follow the right line of in- Theory of quiry might well inquire what it is which, as it takes Gmatien. shape, corresponds in the case of these creatures to the “ material principle.’ In females of course _ this is a residue produced by the animal, a residue which potentially is such as the parent is from which it came, and which is perfected into an animal by the _ principle from the male * imparting movement to it. _ In the present case, however, what are we to describe as holding this sort of position ? and whence comes _ the principle that imparts movement, corresponding to _ the male, and what is it? Now we must apprehend ' that, even in the case of those animals which generate, itis thei incoming nourishment that is the material out _ of which the heat residing in the animal produces the residue—the “ principle”’ of the fetation—by setting it apart and concocting it. Similarly with . plants, except that with them and certain of the _ animals there is no need of the principle of the male _ ever and above that, because they contain in eae _ selves this principle mixed (with the female) ; ' most animals, however, the residue does need this _ principle. Of the one set, the nourishment is water _and earth; of the other, it is the things that are _ formed out of these ; so that in their case the seasonal _ heat present in their environment causes to accumu- ' late and to take shape by means of concoction out _ of sea-water and earth that which in the case of _ animals the heat present in them produces out of the nourishment. And that portion of the soul-principle _ which gets enclosed or separated off within the pneuma _ makes a fetation and implants movement init. Now 359 ARISTOPLE lt / ASANO 762 b gutav TtOv amo Tavropdrov Raptors te odorants OpoeLOys €oTw: EK Twos yap popliov yiverat, kal 2070 prev apyn TO Sé€ Tpodi) yiverar 7 mpaitn Tots > t 1 \ \ A , ; ; fae sitar expuopevos.' ta dé t&v Cawy oKxwAnKoroxetrat Kal TOV avaiwwv doa jt) aro ev hive" Kal f} WwW Tov evayuwv, olov yevos TL KeoTpéwy Ka ToTapiov ixOdwv, ére 5€ TO TOV. eyxeheww yevos: t+ 25 dmavra yap Tara, Kaimep dAtyayov ExovTa TIV dvow, duws evaysd €or, Kal Kapdiav Exovar TV apxiv Tv T@v poplwy atwarucny. ta dé Kadov-— preva ys évrepa axwAnkos exer Pda, €v ois ey- / ‘ a! SB Pee Si tani fd . yiveTat TO Cpa TO THY eyyeAewv. 810 Kal TeEpt Tis T&v avOpwmwy Kal teTpaTddwyv yeverews c 4 yw ” i ryan / 7 : jairl broAdBo. Tis av, elmep eylyvovTd mote ynyevels, ¢ , , t , . bir 30 Womep pact twes, dvo TpdTMVY TovTwY* yiweaIaL A 7 ” \ e / iy) TOV ETEpov’ 7) yap ws oKwAnKos auViaTapévov TO ~ w >? 2A > A \ * > ¢ ms mp@tov 7 €€ wav, avayKaiov yap 7) ev abtrots exew THVv Tpodny eis THY avenow (ro Se Towodrov KUnpa oKw@AnE €otiv) 7 AapBavew ddAdAobev, Toro 1 hic lacunam statuit Platt. 2 rovtwv PZ, istorum X: om. vulg. « Cf. 715 b 27 “ they are formed when - + « certain par ts in plants become putrescent . . . as for instance the mistletoe.” ®° See above, 741 b 1. 360 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. xt. _ as for plants, the manner in which those plants take _ shape which are generated spontaneously is uniform : they are formed from a part ? of something, and some of it forms into the “ principle,’ some into the first _ nourishment of the germinating plants. As for the _ animals, however, some of them are brought forth as larvae, both the bloodless ones that are not formed from living animals, and some blooded ones (examples are a kind of cestreus® and other river fishes, also the eel tribe): all of these, although by _ nature they have but little blood, nevertheless are blooded animals and have a heart, which is the _“ principle” of the parts and bloodlike in constitu- tion. The “ earth’s-guts ” as they are called have _ the nature of a larva; the body of the eels forms _ within them.° Hence, too, with regard to the genera- _ tion of human beings and quadrupeds, if once upon _ a time they were “ earthborn”’ as some allege,’ one _ might assume them to be formed in one of these two _ ways—either it would be by a larva taking shape to _ begin with, or else they were formed out of eggs, _ since of necessity they must either contain the _ nourishment for their growth within themselves (and a fetation of this sort is a larva) or they must _ get it from elsewhere, and that means either from * The “ earth’s-guts *’ are apparently the round-worm _ Gordius. Cf. H.A. 570 a 15 ff., where they are said to be _ “formed spontaneously in mud and humid ground . . . for _ it is by the water’s edge that the heat of the sun is strong and _ causes putrefaction.” See note on eels, p. 565. _. # This was an old and traditional belief; ¢f. Plato, Politi- _ cus 269 8; in Hat. VIII. 55 there is a reference to *‘ Erechtheus, _ who is said to have been ynyejs”: cf. also Empedocles, _ Diels, Vorsokr.* 31 B 62 “ First whole-natured forms sprang _ up from the earth, having a portion both of water and fire” ; _ and ibid. B 57; 96; 98. And above, G.A. 722 b 20 ff. 361 Traditional view of the origin of man and animals. 762 b 763 a 35 5 10 15 ARISTOFPLE )) 1 41a a0 8 7) ex Tis yerrwons 7) ex: popiov Tob KUnpaTos* 7 > ro / > 4 > tal : a ~ wot «i Odrepov adtvarov, emippeiv eK THs yAs- womep év Tois' Cwous ek THS pNTpos, avayKatov EK optov AapBdvew Tod Kunpatos* THv Sé Tovad > > ~ i vA 7) bi TT A et : e€ wod A€yopev elvar yeveow. Stu pev odv, ElTrEp = > \ As , -~ a , ope : ’ iW Tis apy?) THs yeveoews TAar Tots Cyows, evAoyov toiv Svoiy Tovrow elvar Ti éTépav, avepov: ArTov &° eyes Adyov ek TOV Wav: ovbevds yap TovadTnV Cc aA 7 / > \ \ a. v ~ J op@puev Cwou yéveow, adda Thy érépav, Kat TOV — evaiwwy Tov pnbévtwv Kal THY avaiwwv. Towadtra & éoti trav 7 evTropwv eva Kal Ta doTpaKddepua TEpt @v O Adyos: ov yap €k poplov yivovTat Twos, Gonep Ta WoToKovpeva, TovodvTar Sé Kal THV avénow cpolws tois oxwAnéw: emi Ta avw yap Kal TIv apxnv advédvovra. ot oxwAnKess ev TO KaTw yap 1) Tpod) Tois dvw. Kal TOOTS ye dpolws éxet Tots ex TOV WAV, TAHV exeiva pev KaTava- Nioker wav, ev S€ Tots axwAnKoToKoUpEevols, OTAaV av&On éx Tis év TH Kdtw popiw avoTtdcews TO dvw pdpiov, ovtws ek Tod broAoimouv SiapOpodrat To KaTwbev. airiov &° dtu Kai Borepov 7) TpoP7 EV T@ popiw T@ bro To trdlwya ywera Taow. Tt S€ TodTov Tov TpdmOV ToLEeiTAL TA OKWANKWOSN THY 1 G\dows post ois vulg.: om. PZ, * i.e., in the uterus. > j.¢., the egg. Thus the three possibilities are—produc- tion as larvae; viviparously ; oviparously. . It should not be supposed that Aristotle seriously envisages the possibility of this sort of ‘‘ evolution’; but in view of the popular — nature of the belief he thinks fit to show by which of the three modes. of generation these “ earthborn ’’ men would have — been produced, if they had been produced. ¢ Spontaneous generation from eggs. 362 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. x1. the female parent * or from part of the fetation ° ; so that if the former way is impossible (¢.e., if it cannot flow to them out of the earth as it. flows to _ animals from the mother), of necessity they must get it from part of the fetation, and generation of this sort we call generation from an egg. Thus much, therefore, is plain: if there were a “ principle’ of _ their generation in the case of all animals, we should reasonably expect it to be one or other of these two, larva or egg. Itis, however, less reasonable to hold that their generation would take place out of eggs, because in the case of no animal do we observe this sort of generation to occur, whereas we do see the other, in the case both of the blooded animals I mentioned 7 and the bloodless ones. Under this _ latter heading come certain of the Insects, and also the Testacea with which our discussion is concerned : they are not formed out of a part of something as are the creatures produced from eggs, and further, they effect their growth in a similar way to larvae, for larvae grow towards the upper part, towards the “ pxinciple,” the nourishment for the upper parts being in the lower part. In this respect they re- semble the creatures that are produced from eggs, except that the latter use up the whole of the egg, whereas, in the case of those produced from larvae, when the upper part has grown by drawing on the substance in the lower part, then the lower part becomes articulated out of what remains. The reason for this is that {not only in the early stages but) afterwards as well * the nourishment is produced in the part below the diaphragm in all animals. That the larva-like creatures effect their growth in @ Cestreus and eels. ¢ When they are fully grown. 363 763 a 763 b ARISTOTLE AUSAG avénow, dijrov emt Tav pehurr@v Kat T@Vv ToOLOU- Tw? Kar dpxas yap TO bev KaTw pSpov peya 20 €xovat, TO 8” ava) eAatrov. Kal é ent Tov dorpaKo- dépuwy Sé tov adrov TpoTrov exet Ta Tepl TV avénow. pavepov de Kal Toor’ emit TaY oTpoupw- dav Cf..436 a 13 i. ¢ 7.e., when there is only mud and no water in the lagoon ; cf. H.A. V1, ch..15. 364 a a tailed eats Ral at ~ GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. x1. this manner is plain in the case of bees and insects of that sort, as their lower part is Iarge to start with and the upper part smaller. The arrangements for growth in the Testacea are on the same lines. This is shown in the convolutions of the spiral-shelled creatures, which as they gréw always become larger towards the front and the “ head ” as it is called. - This practically completes our description of the manner of generation of these animals and of the -others that are generated spontaneously. The fact that all* the Testacea take shape spon- taneously is shown by considerations like the follow- ing: They form on the side of boats when the frothy slime” putrefies; and also, in many places where nothing of the kind had been present previously, after a time when the place has become muddy owing to lack of water,* lagoon-oysters,’ as they are called, a kind of testaceous animal, have been formed; for example, on an occasion when a naval squadron east anchor off Rhodes, some earthenware pots were thrown out into the sea, and as time went on and mud had collected round them, oysters were con- tinually found inside them. Here is a piece of evidence to show that animals of this kind emit no generative substance : people from Chios transported some live oysters across from Pyrrha in Lesbos,’ 4 Cf. H.A. 547 b 11. Apparently barnacles, which are, however, Crustacea, not Testacea. ¢ The lagoon at Pyrrha seems, as D’Arcy Thompson (prefatory note to translation of H.A.) suggests, to have been one of the chief places where Aristotle carried on his researches. The strait leading to it is mentioned again at P.A. 680 b 1 (a passage where also the “ eggs” of sea- urchins and oysters are discussed), and several times in H.A. Cf. 761 b 4. 365 Examples of spontaneous generation. ARISTOTLE ange 763 b is — laévra Kai eis témovs Twas Tis Badarrns edpt- modes Kal Opoppous' adeioav, TAciw pev TO , : Mies xpovw oddev eyéveto, TO dé péyeBos cis avénow 5 émédwKe TOA. Ta dé Aeyopeva wa odPev cupBad- Aerau mpos tiv yeveow, GAd eotiv edrpopias A > a > e , ey onpetov, olov ev Tots evaiors 4 mudTHS* dio Kat ‘ \ > \ id a \ hae ? ‘ mpos TiHv edwoiy yiverar edyvpua KaTa TOdS KaLpOUS TovTovs. onpeiov S Sr. Ta Towabra adel Exovow, ofov ai mivar Kal of KipuKes Kal at mopdupar, 7Arv Con \ t dyes $key Pe ” att is ST bop 10 6ré prev preilw oré 8° eAdtTw. eva 8 ovK ael, a“ = GANG Tod pev Eapos Exovat, mpoBawvovons Se Pbiver Fae \ D 2 / , ‘ i ¢ Ths dpas, Kat réAos adavilerar mdptrav, ofov ot / \ c 4 \ \ 4 “ Te KTEévES Kal of pes Kal TA KaAOUpEVa ApvdoTpEa* € \ C7] ” t a eters | , wae 7 yap wpa avrn ovpdeper tois oapacw adrav. Tots 5€ avpPaiver Tovodrov ovdev émidnAov, olov 15 trois TnAJois. Ta dé Kal” Exacta mept ToUTwWY, Kal ev ols yivovrat TomoLs, ek THS Lotopias Oewpeicbw. fy 1 Sudppous Platt: dudpovs Z: dpotovs vulg. pas « The characteristic of a edpuzos is the force and violence of the currents sweeping through it ; hence there is no oppor- tunity for mud to collect and so for any Testacea to arise. Platt’s conjecture dydppous is also supported by the use of the 366 : _ GENERATION OF ANIMALS, III. xz. and deposited them in some sea-straits where the currents met.* As time passed the oysters did not increase at all in number, but they grew greatly in size. As for their “ eggs,’’® as they are called, _ these contribute nothing to generation; they are just a sign of good nourishment, like fat in blooded _ animals, and that too is why they are tasty to eat at these seasons. A proof of this is that these creatures —e.g., pinnae, whelks and purpurae—have such _ “ eggs” as these always, only sometimes they are larger, sometimes smaller. Others—e.g., pectens, _ mussels and the lagoon-oysters as they are called— do not have them always, but only in the spring ; as _ the season advances they wane, and finally disappear _ altogether ; the reason being that the spring-season is favourable to their physical condition. In others _ —e.g., the seasquirts—nothing of the kind is to be _ detected. For an account dealing with these in- _ dividually, and the places where they. grow, the _ student Should consult the Researches. _ verb pém elsewhere in connexion with edpimos, e.g. E.N. 1167 bT péver 7a BovAedwara kai ob perappet dowep evpimos: _ ef. Prob. 940 b 16 of evpimor péovow, and De somno et vig. _ 456b21. Gaza’s translation luto similia seems to imply the _ reading BopBopwdas, which is entirely against the sense. > See note on 763 b I. , 367 ‘ang ‘spaiq ‘Jo UORBOYISSE|D Ployooryy B ORUE, =i Se auras ROWE GS-1 4 6FL IV pe I oe me Pd) syavasey is a Se Mores ‘moureds ‘Avf : Ds — - SYoor ‘MOTD FY SEALE SplIq-10? AA Prue © ye poureu spaiq- - SaAOPeT}ANy * Yorsyso SS. Boe : yews pue s[Moj DluelIpy ‘sedopSuls ‘suoesig ‘sospiyaed ‘spmoj “O-7 re +3 : u9jo ~ >. pyrpoad jon ; ay oyyorg ynq ‘moj Avy * mous soso Auvul ‘oyT[O1g » SIOYPeIZ -. puP SSULA 0} ONprIsay _ enptsat yonyy SSULM 0} ONPIsey eS (39% $69 "F'd) ae “(sour woaj ved) [peur .: yews satpog Ay[ng sotpoq Ay[nq ‘Lavozy (peuopes-O0%D) Sat] (Fd) SIT SIIT] VT SL9IJ-UON : a ' qd 6 V (uoynnipssnjo Yfyuarss D SP-aNjvA OU SHY IT “spa fo ns apeceiee 820s ey fo burpnas ayy 0} pi un sv fijaj08 pe,on.ysU0d Sey SDY 0190} SLY.T) Saduld JO WIAVL WE a es ne a Te xtra embryo, . coelom extra-embryonic coelom - SIMPLIFIED DIAGRAM (LONGITUDINAL SECTION) TO ILLUS- TRATE THE MEMBRANES OF THE CHICK EMBRYO The dotted lines represent mesoblast. The diagram shows the state of development after about ten days. The embryo itself is in the central part of the diagram. Immediately above the gut is the noto- chord (shown in black), and immediately above that is the nerve-cord, of which the right end is the brain. The two “ umbilical cords’ mentioned by Aristotle (III. 753 b 20° ff.) are shown : (a) the yolk-sac stalk, (5) the stalk of the allantois. To begin with, the embryo is a sort of thin plate on top of the yolk ; and as time goes on, both the amniotic cavity (which encloses the embryo) and the allantois (which acts as a respiratory organ and as a receptacle for excreta) progressively encircle the yolk, which finally becomes enclosed in the embryo (as Aristotle says). The chorion and coalesce after a period, and the resulting chorio-allantois then corresponds to the fetal placenta of mammals. The chorion is really the outer layer of the amnion. The extra-embryonic coelom, which is lined with mesoblast, is an extension of the coelom proper (the main body-cavity), which is also lined with mesoblast. 369 A 763b201 Ilepi pev odv ris yevécews ths Tv Cawy elipynrar Kal Kowh Kal ywpls tepl mavTwy. met 8° ev Tois , > A 2 Hy \ a \ An we tehewrdtos atta@v eoti to OAV Kai TO dppev / ‘ 4 \ / > aA KEXWPLOMEVOV, KAL TAUVTAS Tas duvdeus apxas dapev elvar ravtTwv Kai Cow Kat dutdv, adda ra 25 wev adtas aywpiotovs exer Ta S€ Keywpiopevas, Aekréov Tepi THs yevéeoews THs TovTwWY TpP@ToV- ETL yap ateA@v dvtwy ev TH yéver Stopilera ro OjAv Kat TO adppev. mdTepov Sé Kal piv SHAnv \ § eid \ \ ” ¢ A ‘ \ THhv Svadopay elvar mpos thy aicbnow yyav TO bev ~ ‘ > ” > / > ~ ‘ / A OfjAv ro 8 dppev eotiv, ev TH pntpl AaBdovta rHv 30 Suadopav 7 mpdrepov, audioByreirar. acl yap ot pev ev Tots oneppacw elvar tavrny THY evay- tiwow ed0ds, olov "Avagaydpas Kal €repor tev duovordywr: yivesbai te yap é€x Tod dppevos Td 2 See Introd. § 76. > See Introd. § 26. © See Introd. § 11. ¢ The first microscopically visible signs of sex-differentia- tion occur about the fifth day in the chick. Aristotle was quite justified in his belief that sex-differentiation occurs early. We know to-day that sex is determined genetically from the moment of fertilization, since some animals have two kinds of sperm and others have two kinds of egg. 370 ¥ BOOK IV _ Tue formation of animals, both in general and as con- - cerns all of them separately, has now been dealt with. Since, however, in the most perfect * of them the male and the female are separate, and we hold that these characteristics are “ principles”’ ¢ of all animals and all plants alike (the only difference being that in some these “principles” are inseparable while in others they are separate), we must deal. with the _ formation of these first of all, for male and female become distinct while animals are still imperfect in kind.? It is however not agreed whether one is male and another female even before the difference is plain to our senses, the difference being acquired _ by them either within the mother or earlier. Thus, some people, such as Anaxagoras and certain other _ physiologers,’ say that this opposition exists right _ back in the semens,/ alleging that the semen comes __ Aristotle’s view will be found in the passage below, 766.2 30- b3._. The heart is the first thing to be formed in the embryo, _ because it is the seat of 76 @ tKov, the nutritive part of the _ Soul; and ro O@pemrixor is a uxov (see 735 a 17 ff., 744 b 36, n.). Salocus/ tas Uneaeeheran en beck to she heart, which, as also containing the principle of vital heat, _ is the source of concoction, upon which ability to produce _ semen, etc., depends. * See pp. xvif. ? This is an example of the view that the difference is : acquired ‘‘ earlier *’ than in the mother. 371 I Origin of sex-differ- entiation. Various theories : Anaxagoras, ARISTOTLE 763 b . o7épua, TO dé OAAV Tapéxew Tov ToTOV, Kal elvat TO ev Gppev ex Tov deEi@v To dé OAAV ex TaV dpiotep@v [kal THs boTépas TA pev appeva ev Tots 764 a defvois elvae Ta 5é Ojdrea ev Tois dprorepois |." of 8 ev TH wyjtpa, Kkabdrep "Eprredoxdjjs" Ta pev yap eis Deppny eAPovra Tv borépay dppeva yiveobat pyar 7a 8 eis puxpay OjAea, THs de Deppornros 5 kal Tis uxporntos THY T@v Kkarapnviey airiay elvar p pvow, 7 uxporépay ovoay 7) Oepporéepay, Kal 7) maAatorepay 7) 7 Tpooparwrépay. Anpskpitos be 6 >AP8npirns ev pev tH pntpl yiveoOai dyno THv diadopay Tod OjAcos Kal Tod dppevos, od pevTou dua Deppornra ye Kal yuxpornra TO pev yiyveatau 10 Of Av TO 6° dppev, GAN _ OmroTEpou dy Kpation TO oméppa Td amd Tod popiov €Afov @ Sdiadepovow dA Aw To OAV Kal TO appev. TodTo yap as adAnbas "EpredoxAjjs. pabvporepov dreiAnger, old~ pLevos puxpornre kal Deppornre diadepeww _pevov aAAjAwY, op@v dAa Ta pope. pHeydAny €xovra 15 Svadopay Thy Te TOV aidolwy Kal THY Tis dorépas. el yap TetAacpevwr Tav Cawyv, Tod pev TA pLOpta 1 seclusi, nam argumento aliena ;. cf. 765 a 22. 4 This is a view put forward also in the Humenides of ‘Aeschylus (658 ff.) by Apollo, who cites the apposite example of Athena standing by his side: ovK €oTL pyTHp TOD KeKAnpEevov TEKVvOU toKeus, Tpodos S¢ KUparos veoomdpov. tixter 8 6 Opwcxwy, etc. (rod in the first line is Headlam’s emendation for 7.) In his commentary, ii, 293-294, G. Thomson gives references to a similar belief among the Egyptians and primitive peoples in Australia and South America ; the reference which he gives 372 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. r. int® being from the male, while the female provides the space for it,* and that the male comes from the right side” and the female from the left [and, as regards the uterus, that the males are in the right side and the female in the left]. Others, like Empedocles, hold that the opposition begins in the womb ; according to him, the semens which enter a hot womb become males, those which enter a cold one, females*; and that the cause of this heat and cold is the menstrual flow, according as it is hotter or colder, older or more recent.’ Democritus of Abdera holds that the difference of male and female is pro- duced in the womb, certainly, but denies that it is on account of heat and cold that one becomes male and another female ; this is determined, he asserts, according to which of the two parents’ semen prevails, the semen, that is to say, which has come from the part wherein male and female differ from one another.’ After all, Empedocles was really rather slipshod in his assumption, in supposing that the two differ from each other merely in virtue of heat and cold, when he could see that the whole of the parts concerned— the male pudenda and the uterus—exhibit a great difference; for supposing that once the animals have been fashioned, and one has got all the parts of the for the Pythagoreans is, however, to a different doctrine from this. See also G. Thomson, Aeschylus and Athens (1941), and for other references to such views and their social con- sequences, J. Needham, History of Embryology, 25 ff. i.e., the right testis. ¢ ‘These words must be an interpolation, as they are incon- sistent with the view just described. Cf. 765 a 22. @ See quotation, 723 a 24. ¢ These terms, as Platt suggests, may echo Empedocles’ own words. The hotter will of course be the more recent. * See note on the theory of “‘ pangenesis,”’ 721 b 9. 373 Empedocles nd a Democritus. 764 a ARISTOTLE (¢ 4) €xovros Ta TOD OijAcos TavrTa., 708 dé Ta Tod Bp- pevos, kabdrep els Kd putvov eis 77 dorépay rebein, TO peev exov toréepav eis Deppny, TO O€ By ets puxpay, € EoTaL OAdv TO ovK €xoV barépay Kat dppev 20 TO EXOV. totto 8 aédvvarov. adore Tourn ye BeArvov & av Aéyou Anudxpiros’ Eyre? yap TavTns ais yevéoews ry Sadopav" Kal TEe~paTat Aéyew P 7’ 2 et PSYZ: 7 vulg. ; exit 3 sovrois Peck : rodro . ; 4 $e Platt: ve vulg. 5 ov) coni. Platt. _ * Viz., primarily testes and uterus, not the parts employed in intercourse ; these are mentioned separately, ll. 30-32 below. See also 716 a 25-b 8. * Empedocles’. Aristotle seems to assume all through this discussion that according to Empedocles the fi mental difference between male and female was one of heat 374 ae GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. 1. male and the other all the parts of the female, they were to be put into the uterus as though it were into an oven, the one which has a uterus into a hot oven, and the one which has no uterus into a cold one, then it follows that the one that has no uterus will turn out a female and the one that has a uterus a male. And this is impossible. So that we may allow that in this respect Democritus’s statement is the better of the two, because he is trying to find out what is the difference inherent in this process of formation of male and female, and endeavouring to state it, though whether he is right or not is another matter. Yet indeed, if heat and cold were the cause of the differ- ence of the actual parts,* then those who hold the other view ® ought to have stated this, because, one might say, this is tantamount to making a statement about the process of formation of male and female, since it is in these parts that the evident difference between the two lies. And also, if you start from this principle,* you have your work cut out to prove the cause of the process of formation of these parts, and to show that it necessarily follows that when the animal is cooled the part called the uterus is formed in it, but that when it is heated it is not formed. The same may be said about the parts which serve for intercourse, since these too differ, as has already been stated. Further, male and female twins are often formed together in the same part of the uterus. This has - and cold (see above, 1. 13), and that this had little or nothing to do with the difference of the sexual organs. But it seems- impossible that Empedocles could have meant anything else than that heat and cold were the cause of the difference of the sexes, including that of the distinctive organs. © i.@., of heat and cold. 375 ARISTOTLE Life 764 a ; ain 35 ixavads TeBewprKapyev ex TOY tan ar a — rots Lwotokodar, Kal ev rots melois Kal ev ‘rots - iyOvow: mepl av et He ta) ouvewpdrcet, edAdyws 764 b ensieg: dig THY aitiay etry, et & éwpakds, dromov 76 ért vomilew airiay elvar oat 7HS. bordpas Copearyse. wuxpornta’ audw yap av eyivero 7 Ondrea 7 dppeva, viv S€ todr’ Wats besiuids Lev ovpBaivor. st hasebar Aéyovti re Ta a Svcomacban Tod ‘yu oe 5 (ra pev yap ev TO appevi dnow elvar Ta ay T@ Ojrer, 86 Kat THs GAAjAwv dpiAlas enubrpctr) Sereeeie Kal THv TovovTwY Sinpjabat TO péyeBos Kat yiveaar avvodov, add’ od dia Ew 7 a pla GAAG mrepi pev THs Tovadrns airias [Tod rile Tax’ ay ein TroAAd A€yew* 6AwWSs yap eoiKev 3 ‘Tpdm0s 10 THs airlas mAacpaTwSys clvar. et 8 gor TmeEpt oméppatos ovTws €xov wortep big orgs \ ~ / a of a\y./ 7 4 \ eyyds TOV vikwvTwY, WoTe dua OAAY 7 av Hv Kat Th payrpt cous, 7 dppev Kal T@ Tatpl. ert drorroy kal TO pdvov rabr otecba Sdeiv yiyveoton TA popia, Kal p47) TO GvvoAov peTaBeBAnKEvae ip 1 +00 omépparos velit secludere Platt. 4 See above, note on HEyebos, Ls % » Perhaps ‘‘ of the semen * should be deleted. ° Of, 722 b 12. 4 This is Democritus’s view. | Empedocles had said that each parent supplied only half the tale of the parts; Democritus said that each parent supplied a full tale of parts. See also note on pangenesis, 721 b 9. ® i.e,, one sexual part over the other; see 764 a 10, 11. i,e., the conformation of the ei employed i in intercourse as well as the conformation of the uterus: in all cases they both exhibit a difference from the corresponding basti in males, the penis and the testes respectively. 9 ¢.g., why no individual is found having uterus and. penis. 378 ; + GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. 1. that the physical substance * of the semen ® exists “torn asunder,’ one part in the male and the other in the female, as Empedocles alleges— But torn asunder waits _. The substance of the limbs; part is in man’s .. . ° and (6) it is impossible that a complete tale? of parts is secreted off from each of the parents and that a male or female embryo is formed according as one part prevails over another part.’ Considering the matter generally : To hold that the superiority of one part prevails and that this is what makes the embryo female is certainly better than saying that heat alone is the cause without having stopped to think about it ; but the fact that at the same time the conforma- tion of the pudendum as well / is different requires an explanation to show why these parts are always of a piece with each other.’ If the answer is “‘ Because they are in close proximity,’ then every one of the remaining parts ought to be all of a piece as well,” since while the parts are gaining the mastery * any one of them is close to any other, so that on that showing all the characteristics should go together, i.e., the offspring, if female, should also take after its mother, and if male after its father.’ Besides, it is fantastic to imagine that these parts alone can be formed, without the whole body also having under- *® i.e., as well as the sexual parts; ¢.g., if the offspring has sexual parts resembling those of its father—i.e., male ones— then it ought to resemble its father in all its other parts too. * This refers to the “* prevailing ’’ mentioned above, |. 21, etc. y i i.e., the offspring should take after the parent whose sex has determined its own, and take after it not only in respect of sexual parts but in all other respects as well. But of course this is not borne out by the facts. 379 764 b 765 a 30 35 ARISTOTLE | | | Kal _padora Kat mp@rov TAS preBas, mept_ ds ws mepl droypagiy TO odpa mepixerrat TO TOV cap- K@v. ds ov dia THY dorépav eVAoyov yeveoBa TOUS Twas, adda. paAAov bv eéxeivas THhv boTépav* drr050x7) yap aipards TWOS Exdrepov, TMporepo. s 7 TeV prcBav. thv S€é Kiwodcav apyiv dvayKatov ael _Tporépav elvac Kal THs yeveoewus airday TO mou elvai Twa. ovpPaiver pev obv 4 diadpopa TOV pep@v to’twy mpos adAnAa Tots OyAeou Kat Tots dppeow, GAN’ odk apxny oinréov ove” airiay Ht i0 elvat TavTnY, an’ érépav, Kav et pen Bev” droKpi- verat omépj.a. pare amo tod OyjXeos nt” amo TOO dppevos, GAN’ drrws 84 more ovvioratat [Td omréppa} TO yeyvopevov. ¢ > / ‘ ‘ vs / ¢ bq O 6 avros Adyos Kat pos Tovs A€yovras TO juev dppev amo Tav belvav eite Kal ovuPaAreTar, Kabdrep haciv, opolws avay- Kaiov dmavrav Kal ™mpos Tov ’Erredoxddous Adyor, os Sropiler TO OAAv Tos TO dippev Oeppornre Kal pou- xXporyre THS dorépas. ot 5€ 76 adTo TOOT” mrovobot, tois deEvois Kai Tots apiorepots dpilovres, dp@vTes 1 secl. Platt: 7d xdnua coni. A.-W. . 2 rodro PSYZ*, om. Bekker per errorem. @ See 716 b 2 ff. and 766 a 24 ff. > Cf. 743 a 2, n. ° This is the statement of the general rule of which the foregoing is an example; Aristotle makes a similar criticism (of Empedocles) for putting the cart before the horse at RAG 640 a 20 ff., e.9., ayvoay . . « OTL 70 TOLoay TpOTEpoV BrApxev: the whole context is apposite. @ oupBaiver: it happens xara cvpBeBnkds, not xa’ adro: it 380 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. 1. gone a change,* and first and foremost the. blood- ' vessels, on to which the fleshy structure of the body has been applied all round, as on to a framework.” And it is reasonable to suppose not that the blood- vessels have been formed to be of a particular charac- ter on account of the uterus, but rather that the uterus has been so formed on account of them, since although each is a receptacle of blood in some form, the blood-vessels are prior to the uterus; and the motive principle must of necessity be prior always and be the cause of the process of formation in virtue of possessing a particular character.‘ So then, this difference of the sexual parts as between males and females is a contingent phenomenon “: we must not look upon it as being a “ principle ”’ or a cause : this function is fulfilled by something else, even though no semen at all is discharged either by the female or by the male and whatever the manner may really be by which the forming creature takes shape. ‘The same argument which we used against Empe- docles and Democritus holds good against those -who allege that the male comes from the right side and the female from the left *: thus if the male con- tributes no material at all, then those who take this view are of course talking nonsense ; if on the other hand it does contribute something, as they assert, we have to counter them in the same way that we ' countered Empedocles’ argument which draws the line as between male and female by reference to the heat and coldness of the uterus. They make the same mistake as he does, i drawing the line by is an “‘ accidental,”’ not an *‘ essential,’’ characteristic.. For the sentiment, see 766 b 2 ff. * e.g., Anaxagoras ; see 763 b 33. 381 765 a ARISTOTLE 1D Svapepovra TO OAAv kal TO dppev Kal Hopiots dhous, dv bia Tu” airiav draptev Tois €K TOV apiorepav, Tots 8 eK TOV oebeay ovx dmrdpter TO o@pa TO 15 THs dorépas ; av yap EADn peev pi (oxa de tobTo TO HOpLov, eorar OFjAv ovk éxov borépav Kal Gppev exov, av ton: [ere 5° drrep elpyra Kal mporepov, ara al Ondo € ev TO debi Héper Tijs dorépas Kal dppev ev TO dprorep@ kat dudw ev TO avr@ Hépet, 20 Kal Toot ody 6 OTL drag adda. meovdis, 7 7 TO dppev pev év tots defvots, TO OAAv S ev Tots _apiorepois- ovx ATToOv Sé auddrepa yivera ev Tos defvois]. : TapamAnotiws b€ TWes TETELOLEVOL TOUTOLS etal Kal Agyovow as Tov de€vov Opyw amodovpevois H TOV apiorepov ovpBaiver Tots dxevovow appevoroKetv 25 7 Ondvtoxeiv: oUTwW yap Kad ANewpdvns edeyev. emi Te TOV EKTEMVOLEVEY Tov erepov dpxw TO avbTo TobTo cupPaivew Twes paow, odK adAnOA A€yovres, aAAa pravTevdpevot TO OvpPnodpevov ex THV eiKo- Twv, Kal mpoAapBdavovtes ws ovTws exov mpi ywopevov oUTWS Weiv, ért 8 dyvoodvres ws ober 30 ovpBdrrcerat mpos Thy yeveow Tis dppevoyovias Kal OnAvyovias TO. pope Tadra Tots Cwous. tovrov dé onpetov ott moAAa THV Cawv adra te OnAea Kai dppeva €or, Kal yevva Ta prev OyArea Ta 8 appeva, 1 i 70 dppev. . . yiverar &v Tots deEvois secl. Platt; om. x; credo equidem etiam ér 8 é7ep huc usque secl., nam argumento aliena ; cf. 764 a 1. * Lit., “* body of the uterus,’ drawing special attention to the fact of its physical existence: ef. uéyebos above, 764 b 7. ®’ This sentence, which has nothing to do with the argu- | ment, must be deleted. © Leophanes is quoted by Theophrastus, De caus. plant. I1. 382 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. 1. reference to right and left, although they can see for themselves that male and female differ in fact by _ the entirety of the parts concerned. By what cause, then, will the uterus* be present in those which come from the left side but not in those which come from the right? Supposing dne comes (from the left) without having got this part, there will be a female without a uterus—or if it so chance, a male with one! [Again, as has in fact been said before, a female embryo has actually been observed in the right part of the uterus, and a male one in the left _ part, and both male and female in the self-same part, _and that not once but several times over; or the male one on the right side, and the female on the left, and no less both are formed on the right side}.° There are some who are firmly convinced of a similar _ view to this, and maintain that males who copulate with the right or left testicle tied up produce male or female offspring respectively : this used in fact to be maintained by Leophanes.‘ Some allege that the same occurs in the case of those who have one testis excised. This statement is untrue, and is a mere piece of guesswork on their part. They start from probabilities and guess what will occur ; they prejudge that it is so before they see it happen. Added to which they do not know that these parts of animals contribute nothing at all to generation so far as producing male and female offspring is con- cerned; and a proof that this is so is that many animals, although they are themselves male and female and generate male and female offspring, 4.11; and the fact that in Aétius’ Placita V. 7.5 (Dozogr. 420 a 7) he comes between Anaxagoras and Leucippus may give a rough indication of his date. 383 ARISTOTLE) ft § FAS set Opxets ovK exovra., Kabdmep To. Pa exovra. m08as, olov 76 TE Tay ixObwv yévos Kal TO TOV Ohewv. — 35 To pev obv Deppornra Kal buxpdéryta a tan ole Bar TOO dppevos Kat tod OxjAeos, Kal TO mai 765 b dmdiprow dé trav Se€v yivecOar 7 Ov dapi- oTEpav, exer Twa Aoyor: Deppdrepa yap ah 5 cEud, Too oedparos TOV dpiorep@v, Kal TO onepya. 76 ETE LLEVOV Oeppdrepor, ToLodrov 5€ TO ouveotds, YOVYLESTEpOV dé 7d ovveotos padov. — dAAa. Xiav 5 TO Aéyew ottawa méoppwhev eorw drrecbau Ti airias, det 8” Sre pahiora mpoodiyew ex Tov évdexe pLevev eyes T@y pur ay aitiwv. ee ae Tlepl pev oby dou Te Tob ow LaTos. kai “TOV popiwv, tt TE EKaOTOV, €oTl Kal Sud. ru * airiay, el para mporepov ev €répois. aA’ émrel TO appev Kat 10 70 OFjAv Si@piorar Suvdper rwi Kai advvapia (rd pev yap Suvdpevov mérrew Kal ovmotavas Te Kal ekkpivew omépua €xov THY apxnV TOO eldovs appev dey s dipx7y od TH Touadrny €€ Hs domep v i T™pwrnv, eav T ev alt@ éav 7 ev dary Toor. 15 duvnrat Troveiv: TO Se Sexdpevov HF dSvvarody 3 yi te PY: om. vulg. . ® See 716 b 14 f. > Thus the semen which comes from the iat side will be hotter. ¢ Cf. above, 747 a 5 ff 24 And therefore, of course, capable of producing bial ¢ Compare the method described in Physics, 184 a 10 ff. — * In the Parts of Animals and in the first book of the Generation of Animals. 9 Dynamis: see Introd. § 30. ‘ , oi 384 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. 1. possess no testes—as is the case with the animals that have no feet, e.g., the tribes of fishes and serpents.* _ Now the opinion that the cause of male and female is heat and cold, and that the difference depends upon whether the secretion comes from the right side or | from the left, has a modicum of reason in it, because the right side of the body is hotter than the left ° ; hotter semen is semen which has been concocted ; the fact that it has been coneocted means that it has been set and compacted,° and the more compacted semen is, the more fertile it is.¢ All the same, to state the matter in this way is attempting to lay hold of the cause from too great a distance, and we ought to come as closely to grips as we possibly can with the primary causes.° ~ We have dealt already elsewhere * with the body as Tne funda- a whole and with its several parts, and have stated 72. what each one is, and on account of what cause it is between so. But that is not all, for (1) the male and the p222"° female are distinguished by a certain ability 9 and . inability... Male is that which is able to concoct, to cause to take shape, and to discharge, semen‘ possessing the “ principle *’ of the “form ” ; and by “ principle ” I do not mean that sort of principle out of-which, as out of matter, an offspring is formed belonging to the same kind as its parent, but I mean the first motive principle, whether it is able to act thus / in itself or in something else. Female is that which receives the semen, but is unable to cause ® Thus much has already been stated at 716 a 18 ff., but Aristotle now develops it more fully. * With this passage ef. the discussion at 724 a 29 ff. i i.¢., act as the cause of movement. ° 385 765 b VY 21 AVARISTOTIE PATIO ovuvioravar Kal exxpivew OAAv), ére €t' waca més epyalerat Oepud, avayKn [kat trav Cpe Ta Gppeva Tav OnAéwv Oeppdorepa eivar: Sud yap puxpsrnra Kal advvapiav mroAvaupiet Kara _ToTous Twas 70 : O7Av paMov. Kal €oTw avrTo robvavriov, onpetov 7) 20 80 nvirEep airiav olovrai tiwes TO Oajrv Gepydrepov elvat Tod. Gppevos, dua THY TOV KaTapnviewy mpoeow~ TO pev yap afua Oeppov, 70 Sé mAeiov exov paQov. drrodapBdvovor 8¢ toro ylvecbar 76 dbos 8° 7 drrepBoAnv aipwaros Kat Geppornros, dorep eWexé- HEvov, ala elvar av dpolws, dviep pLovov dypov — 257 Kal THY xpdav aipar@des, Kal od, €dAarroy, ywopevov Kai Kabapdtepov tois edrpodotow. oi S Bomep TO KaTa THY KowWlav mepirrwya, TO mAetov Tod eAdrrovos olovTat onpelov elvat ep, As poaews HaMov. Kaito. Tovvaytiov €aTiv. waTeEp yap Kal ek TAs mparrns Tpogiis €k ToMAGjs oXiyov 30 dmoxpiverat TO XpHoyLov ev TaAis mepl Tos: kaprrovs. epyaciais, Kal tédos odfev Hépos TO coxarov mpos TO mp@tov ARVs e€oTw, ovTw mdAw Kal ev TO cwpat. Siadexopeva Ta pepn Tals epyaciais, TO TeAevTaiov mdymrav puuKpoy e€ amdons yiverau? Tis TpPOPAs. Tobto d€ ev pev Tiow alud €or, €v 8é 35 TLL TO dvdAoyov. X, ord "Eel 5€ TO pev Siveitan ove: B) aemaied exp 1 rei 5€ Coni. Platt ; fort. ér ézei scribendum. ? secl. Platt. 3 éxxpive. Bf. @ Cf. 725 a 17 f. 386 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. 1. semen to take shape or to discharge it. And (2) all concoction works by means of heat... Assuming the truth of these two statements, it follows of necessity that (3) male animals are hotter than female ones, since it is on account of coldness and inability that the female is more abundant in blood in certain regions of the body. And this abundance of blood is _a piece of evidence which goes to prove the opposite of the view held by some people, who suppose that the female must be hotter than the male, on account of the discharge of menstrual fluid: blood, they _ argue, is hot, so that which has more blood in it is hotter. ‘They suppose, however, that this condition oceurs owing to excess of blood and heat, as though | it were possible for anything and-everything to be equally blood if only it is fluid and bloodlike in colour, without, allowing for the possibility of its becoming _ less in quantity and purer in animals that are well- nourished. They apply the same standard here as they do to the residue in the intestine : if there is _ more of it they imagine that is a sign of a hotter nature. Yet in fact the opposite is the truth. Take _ a parallel case, that of fruit. Here the nourishment in its first.stage is large in quantity,* but the useful _ product resulting from it through the various stages _ of its treatment is small, and in the end the final result is nothing in proportion compared with the original bulk. So too in the body, the various parts _ receive the nourishment in turn at the different _ stages of its treatment, and the final product result- _ ing from all that amount of nourishment, is quite _ small. In some, this is blood; in others, its counter- part. Now as the one sex is able and the other is unable petermina- tion of sex 387 ™ ARISTOTLE |) 0515 765 b Ha , , 4 F \ ” vau' 70 Tepitr@pa Kabapdv, dmdon dé Suvduer Gpya- , At? ‘ a a > oA 4 ‘ 166a -vov Ti €oTl, Kal TH xEipov amoredoven TadTO Kal TH Bédrwov, 7d 5€ OFAV Kat TO dppev, TAcovaxds Aeyouevov tod Svvaro6 Kal tod aduvarov, Tod- Tov avTikeita. TOV TpdTov, avdykn apa* Kal TO rile f isonet oan Ojrer Kal TH dppeve elvas dpyavov*- 7H pev o ein a ~ 3° G wll sy pe 1 Se Fe Pts 52) voTepa TH O mepwweds eoTw. dpa do pvos tiv Te Stvayw amodiiwow EKdoTw Kat , » , \ Ca A VER fe ena | TO, Opyavov BéAtiov yap ovTws. 610 ExagTor ot TOTOL Ga Tals eKKpiocor yivovrar Kal Tats duvd- ¢ ¥ 34 x cml Vl ta yw > peow, Wwomep ovr’, opis avev od0adluadv ovr” opbaruos TeActobrar avev dyews, Kal Koiria Kal 10 KUoTis Ga TH SUvacba Ta TrepirTwpata yiveoOar. + \ ~ 2 ya / : A mv ovros 5€ tod adrod e& ob Te yiwerat Kai av€erat, tobro 8 éorlv 7%) tpody, Exaorov av yivoito THV poplwy ex rovadryns vAns ts Sextikdv €or, Kal TOLOUTOU TEpiTTwpaTos. ET. dé yiverar madAW, Ws dapev, eK Tod evavtiov Tws. Tpitov dé mpos Tov- 15 Tos Anmréov Stu elzep 7) POopa eis Todvavtiov, Kal TO PL) Kpatovjievov bo TOO Snpoupyobvros avayr petapdAAew *): exxpiverac PSYZ (exit X): yiveoOa coni. Btf.: 76 secl. A.-W. . 2 dpa quod conieceram O” exhibet* (ergo XZ): yap E*, vulg., seclusit Platt: od» Aldus, A.-W. (sed dvayxatov coni. A.-W.). 3 dpyavov PSYZ*; dpyava E*, vulg. 4 ov7’ P: ov@’ 4 vulg. @ j:e,, here *‘ able’? means ‘can do it better,”’ “ unable” means ‘‘ can do it less well.” 12 > Cf. 116.a 23 ff. ¢ Of. 716 a 32, and H.A. 493 b 9 “‘the part between the thigh and the buttock is the perineos.” 388 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. 1. to secrete the residue in a pure condition ; and as in the there is an instrument for every ability or faculty, for °™""” the one which yields its product in a more finished condition and for the one which yields the same pro-. duct in a less finished condition ; and as male and female stand opposed in this way (“able ” and “ un- able ” being used in more senses than one ®) ; there- fore of necessity there must be an instrument ” both for the male and for the female ; hence the male has the perineos ° and the female has the uterus. Nature gives each one its instrument simultaneously with its ability, since it is better done thus. Hence each of these regions of the body gets formed simultaneously with the corresponding secretions and abilities, just as the ability to see does not get. perfected without eyes, nor the eye without the ability to see, and just as the gut and the bladder are perfected simul- taneously with the ability to form the residues. Now as the stuff out of which the parts are formed is the same as that from which they derive their growth,? namely the nourishment, we should expect each of the parts to be formed out of that sort of material and that sort of residue which it is fitted to receive. Secondly, and on the contrary, it is, as we hold, formed in a way out of its opposite. Thirdly, in addition, it must be laid down that, assuming the ex- tinction of a thing means its passing into its opposite condition, then also that which does not get mastered by the agent which is fashioning it must of necessity change over into its opposite condition. With these @ For this distinction between the grades of nourishment, see 744 b 32 ff. * Thisis explained at length at 768 a1 ff. The whole of the present passage should be read in conjunction with the later and fuller discussion. See also 766 b 15 ff. 389 ARISTOTLE! !'1/ 11490 hg peeve lows av 789 padrov ein pavepov- be ip airiav yiverat 70 pe BAA 70 8 dppev. drav yap ‘pn KpaTH 7 dpx7), pnde Surqrat mépar ov evdecay 20 Bepporntos pnd aydyy ets TO iBvov elSos 76 adrod, ddd. tabrp rr OH, avdyKn eis ‘robvavriov th Badrew. evayTiov d€ TO dppeve TO OnAv, Kal TAY i] TO Hey appev 70 de OAdv. énel. 8° exer Hinge > €v Th Suvdpet, € exes Kal TO Opyavov Suadepor: wor els TOLovTOV petaBadrer, évos Se poptov erixalpov 25 wetaBdaAAovros ohn 4 avaTacts rob Cepov, Trohd TO tt 5 A” UAE RS 35 Aoyov, TOUTOV O€ TO GALTLOV EV TH APXN KGL TW popiw 7T@ €xovtTe ‘thv THs vos Pepyorntos apy7v, avayKatov dpa ev Tots évaipous ovvioracbae /, Vn ” ‘ Qn &, & eA 5 Kapdiav, Kat H appev Eoeabar 7 OFAV TO ywopevov, év 8€ Tots dAAais yéveow Cofs) brdpyes TO BRAD Kat \ o¥ des: Pate dee Ve: € \ ek TO appev TO TH Kapdia avdAoyov. 7 pev odv apxT ~ / y' ” \ < red 4 AA > tod OynAcos Kal adppevos Kal 7% aitia avrn Kai ev TovTw eoriv. OnAv S 7dn Kal dppev early drav éxyn Kal Ta pdpia ols Siadheper Td HAV Tod appevos- ~ ay POND ov yap Kal? dt.otv pepos appev odde OAV, womTep 00d op@v Kat axodov. Lanntiwel ’AvadaBovres Sé mdAw Adyopev® Ot. TO peV i ¢ / / int bal Sa Mix omépia w7oKeiTa TepitTwUA Tpodis ov TO Eaxa- tov. (€syatov d€ Aéyw TO mpds EKaaTov Pepopevov. 10 5 ‘ \ om” K 4 A ~ / ‘ Ae LO Kal €ouKe TO yevrva@jrevov TO yevvyncavte’ ovlev ‘ / > > ¢e / ~ Ul > ~ bal yap Suahéper ad’ éxdorov THv popiwv asmeAbeiv 7 mpos ExacTov mpoceAbeiv, dpOdrepov 8° ovtws.) dia- déper 5€ TO TOD appevos oméppa; Ort EXEL ‘apxnv 1 fois) Platt, P*. 2 réywpuev P. @ The bloodless animals. of » Cf. note on 763b 25. This extremely important para- graph gives Aristotle’s view on the seat of the distinction of sex, and its main conclusions must be borne in mind through- out his discussion of this subject. It also serves to elucidate the apparent contradictions in his statements elsewhere (¢.g., 716 a 28, 764 b 36, 766 a 28) as to whether or not the sexual parts are to be considered “ principles.” 392 - GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. 1. _ concoction of the ultimate nourishment (in blooded animals this is known as blood, in the bloodless ones it is the counterpart of blood) ;. (4) that the reason for this lies in the “‘ principle,” ze., in the part of the body which possesses the principle of the natural heat. From this it follows of necessity that, in the blooded animals, a heart must take shape and that the creature formed is to be either male or female, and, in the other kinds * which have male and female sexes, the counterpart of the heart. As far, then, as the principle and the cause of male and female is concerned, this is what it is and where it is situated ; a creature, however, really is male or female only from the time when it has got the parts by which female differs from male, because it is not in virtue of some casual part that it is male or female, any more. than it is in virtue of some casual part. that it can see or hear.? To resume then‘*: We repeat that semen has been Consequent posited to be the ultimate residue of the nourish- ?iterenee im ment. (By “ultimate” I mean that which gets car- of sexual ried to each part of the body—and that too is why *™* the offspring begotten takes after the parent which has begotten it, since it comes to exactly the same thing whether we speak of being drawn from every one of the parts or passing into every one of the parts, though the latter is more correct.?) The semen of the male, however, exhibits a difference, * The following paragraph is a short recapitulation, with additions, of the main points of the preceding argument, 765 b 8—766 b7. (For the use of ééxerra with participle, cf. 778 b 17 rodvde Cdov txdxerrat dv.) # See Bk. I. 721 b 13 ff., and especially the conclusion of that discussion, 725 a 21 ff. 393 766 b ARISTOTLE (}ci0 4s) ev €avT@ Tovavrny olay Kweiv [Kat év TO Cow} Kat Svamérrew Thy eoxdryy Tpopiy, TO be 700 Oipreos 15 UAnv pdvov. Kparijoav pev obv eis abro— ayet, Kparn bev 8 els TobvavTiov peTaBdrAer %) ets : POopdy. eva tov dé TH dippeve TO OAAv- Ondy 8€ TH a Ae ; 7 8 Kal Th, poxpornrt THs aiparuchs pane vous éxdory TOV TEPLTTLATOY ar Swor 70 dEKTLKOV Hoptov. TO O€ omepya, TepiTTwpia, Todro 20 be Tots peev Oepporépots Ka dppect. Trav. evatpienv eVoyKov TO An ber, 610 To Sexrucd Hepa. TOpot TavUTNS THS MepitTwaEds €ioL Tots dppeow Tots dé. O7Acou 80 dmresioy. mj Oos. OtLaTUKOV (dearép- yaorov yap), wore Kal Hoptoy dekTLKOV dvayaiov elvat Tl, Kal elvau Tobro dvdpovov Kal HEyebos 25 exe. ite) Tis borépas Touadry 7 pou €ortv. TOUTW be TO OAAv Suadéper TO popien Tod dppevos. Aud Tiva pev obv airiay yiverau TO pev bai TO eS dippev, eipnrar. exppta de Ta ovpPatvovra tots ecipypevors. Ta Te yap véa OnduTéKa paGAAov Tav axpalovrwy, I — lL xal v7ted léw et mox 70 d¢ Tob OxjAcos Aqv povov suspicati sunt A.-W. ; pro kai ev 7 Caw coni, A.-W, ev 7 OijAer, secl. Btf. ; pro 76 8¢ rod OxjAeos GAnv pdvov habet E et Sacere ipsum (sc. ultimum cibum) transire ad matricem feminae. in femina autem est creatio embrionis. cf. 765 b 10 seqq. uf a * The passage following has been corrupted. It should probably read: ‘a principle of such a kind as to set in movement and to concoct thoroughly the ultimate nourish- ment, and to cause it to pass into the uterus of the female ; whereas the formation of the embryo takes place in the female.” Cf. the parallel passage above, 765 b 10. ® There is no subject to this verb in the Greek ; at 766 a 18 it is ‘‘ the principle”; at 767 b 17 it is “ the movement derived from the male ’’—where also Aristotle explains that 394 4 Te GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. 1-n. inasmuch as the male possesses in itself a. principle of such a kind ¢ as to set up movement [in the animal as well] and thoroughly to concoct the ultimate nourishment, whereas the female’s semen contains material only. If {the male semen) gains® the mastery, it brings (the material) over to itself ; but if it gets mastered, it changes over either into its opposite or else into extinction. And the opposite of the male is the female, which is female in virtue of its inability to effect concoction, and of the coldness of its bloodlike nourishment. And Nature assigns to each of the residues the part which is fitted to receive it. Now the semen is a residue, and in the hotter of the blooded animals, ?.e.,the males, this is manageable in size and amount,° and therefore in males the parts which receive this residual product are passages; in females, however, on account of their failure to effect concoction, this residue is a considerable volume of bloodlike substance, because it has not been matured; hence there must of necessity be here too some part fitted to receive it, different from that in the male, and of a fair size. That is why the uterus has these characteristics; and that is the part wherein ‘the female differs from the male.¢ We have now stated the catise why some creatures are formed as males, others as females. And our statements are borne out by the facts. II Thus : Young parents, and those which are older too, Te theory rted tend to produce female offspring rather than parents by the it is all one whether we say “‘ the semen,” or ‘‘ the movement which causes the growth of each of the parts,” or “* the move- ment which originally sets and constitutes the fetation.” Cf. 771 b 19 ff. © Because it is more compact ; see aboye, 765 b 3. @ Cf. 738 b 35 ff. 395 ARISTOTLE | 14) 766 b 30 Kai TO. mpeaPirepa* Tots Lev yap ovmw téevov TO Deppov, tois 8° droXeime. Kat TA Lev dypdTepa Tav owpdrov Kal yuvarcucdrepa OnAvydva wor, Kat TO. oréppara Td. Oy pa. TOV ouveoTnKOT@. mdvra yap Tatra yivera 80 évdevay bepporntos puoikns. 35. Kai 70 Bopetous dppevoroKety, HaMov 7 a voriows {Sia Tadro _ cup Baiver: byporepa yap TO. oopara votiots,)* ware KQL TEPLTTWLATLKWTEPA. TO be metov TepirT@pa Suomen rorepov" dio Tots pev 767 a dppeow bypérepov TO oméppa, Tais de yuvaréiv 7 TOV Karapnviey Exkpuots. Kai 70 yiverdau d€ Ta KaTapynvia Kara® dvow Plivovrwy TOV pnvav padov Sud nv avTiy airiay ovpBaiver. ux porepos yap 0 xpdovos obros Too 5 pnvos Kal dyporepos Sud ay pbiow Kal THY a70- Acupuv Tis oehnvns: 6 pev yap Twos ev ody TO eviauT@ mrovet Xepava Kad B€pos, 7 7 dé oehnvn € ev TO uyvi. [rodro 8 ob Sid Tas Tpomds,. aAAd, TO bev ad- Eavopevov ovpBaiver Tob dwTds, TO be dbivovtos.|* dact dé Kai of vopets diadepew mpos OndAvyoviav 10 Kal appevoyoviay od p.dvoy eav oupBaivn THY oxelav yiveobar Bopeiots 7) vorious, aAAa Kav dxXevopeva 1 +a mpeoBitepa P: ynpdoxovra waAdor vulg. 2 supplevi; quia corpora sunt humida quando ventus movetur meridionalis X. 3 xara P: 7a xara vulg. 4 seclusi; om. £: ovpBaiver om. SY, pnvos pro dwrds S. * Cf. H.A. 573 b 34. ” Cf. the effects of the south wind described in Hippo- crates, 7. ipis vovcou 13, 7. -dépwv bddrwv témwy 3. © See 777 b 24 ff. ¢ This explanation sounds like a gloss. Its meaning is 396 eee a ES GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. n. which are in their prime ; the reason being that in the young their heat is not yet perfected, in the older, it is failing. Also, parents which are more fluid of body and feminine tend to produce females ; this is true also of fluid semen as opposed to that which has “set”; all these things are due to a deficiency of natural heat. _ Also, the fact that when the wind is in the north? male offspring tend to be engendered rather than when it is in the south (is due to the same cause : animals’ bodies are more fluid’ when the wind is in the south) so that they are more abundant in residue as well. And the more residue there is, the more difficulty they have in concocting it; hence the semen of the males and the menstrual discharge of the women is more fluid. Also, the fact that the menstrual discharge in the natural course tends to take place when the moon is waning ° is due to the same cause. That time of month is colder and more fluid on account of the waning and failure of the moon (since the- moon makes a summer and winter in the course of a month just as the sun does in the course of the whole year. [This is not due to its turning at the tropics ; no, the one occurs when the moon’s light is increasing, the other when it is waning.*}). Also, shepherds say that it makes a difference so far as the gen- eration of males and females is concerned not only whether copulation occurs when the wind is in the north or in the south, but also whether that whereas summer and winter result from the “ turnings ” of the sun, viz., the solstices, the ‘‘ summer” and “ winter ”’ of the moon are not due to the moon’s “ turnings,” but to its waxings and wanings, which are completely independent of its ““ turnings.” 397 767 a ARISTOTLE Barer mpos voTov 7 Bopéav: ovTw juKpav eviore pomy aitiay yiveoOar tis puxpdtnros Kal Dep- poTnTos, Tadra dé Tis VEverews. Atéornke peev ovv ohws pos adAna TO TE OAdv 15 Kal TO dppev mpos THY appevoyoviay Kat OnAvyoviav dua Tas eipnyévas airias, od pHv aAAd Kal det oupypetpias mpos GAAnAa: mdévTa yap Ta ywopmeva Kata téxvnv }) pvow Adyw Twi e€otw, TO dé Oeppov Alay pev Kparodv Enpaiver ta bypd, odd Se ed- Aetrov od auvicrnow, Gadd det mpos 70 Snpsoupyov- 20 pevov Exew TodTOV Tov’ TO péaov Adyov: «i Sé 7), Kabdmep év tots efouevous mpockder fev TO TAciov mop, ody eer 5€ TO EAaTTov, apdorépws 8€ cup- Baiver pr) TeAciodobar TO ywopevov, ovrw Kal ev Th TOO appevos piker Kal Tod Ondreos Set THs cup- petpias. Kat Sida tobro. moAois Kai modAais 25 ovpPaiver wer’ adrAjAwY pev 7) yevvay, dvalevx Petar d€ yervdv, Kal dré pev véois ore 5€ mpecBurépots ovat tavtas yiveoBar ras trevavtidceis, opolws wept Te yeveow Kal ayoviay Kal appevoyoviay Kal Ondrvyoviay. Ssuadeper S5é€ Kal xywpa ywpas eis Tatra Kal vdwp vdatos dia Tas avras aitias: 30 Towa yap tis 7) Tpody yiverar pddvora Kal Tod cdpatos 7 Sidfeows did Te THY KpGow Tod Tept- 1 rodrov tov PZ1* : robrov om. vulg. * Cf. H.A. 574. a 2. ® Cf. 723 a 30, 772 a 17, 777 b 25, and Introd. §§ 39 f, y With the following passage, ef. Hippocrates, 7. aépwy bddrwv Térwy, Chh, 1-8 (ii. 12 ff. Littré), id. a. dvairns LI. 37-39. 398 ee se Se ee GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. nu. the animals face north or south while they are copulating *; such a small thing thrown in on one _ side or the other (so they say) acts as the cause of _ heat and cold, and these in turn act as the cause * of generation’ . Male and female, then, differ generally with regard Importance to each other in respect of the generation of male and % _ female offspring on account of the causes which have been stated. At the same time, they must stand in a right proportional relationship to one another,? _ since everything that is formed either by art or by nature exists in virtue of some due proportion. Now if “ the hot ”’ is too powerful it dries up fluid things ; if it is very deficient it fails to make them “ set ” ; what it must have in relation to the object which is being fashioned, is the mean proportional, and unless it has that, the case will be the same as what happens when. you are cooking ; if there is too much fire it burns up your meat, if there is too little it will not cook it—either way what you are trying to pro- duce fails to reach completion. The same applies to the mixture of the male and the female : they require the right proportional relationship, and that is the reason why it happens that many couples fail to effect generation with one another, but if they change partners they succeed ;' and also that these opposi- tions occur sometimes. in young people, sometimes among those who are older, both with regard to failure and success in generation and also with regard to the generation of male and female offspring. ¢ Also, one country differs. from another in these Effect of respects, and one water from another, on account of “™**- the same causes, for the quality of the nourishment especially and of the bodily condition of a person 399 0 Tuppmerpia. ./ ARISTOTLE Ii 767 a é eoT@tos aépos Kal Tv elowvrwr, péAvora de dud THY Tod BdaTos Tpopny toto yap meiarov clopepovrat, Kal ev mdoiv €ott Tpopr) TOUTO, Kal év tois Enpots. 86 Kat Ta atépapva Bara Kal — ‘ \ Axel 3 ’ A ek Sh s a 35 uypa Ta pev arexviay moved TA Sé OndAvToKiav. Wl Ai & adral airiaw Kal tod ra pev eoukoTa ‘yive- o8at Tots rexvebcact Ta SE 27) coukdra., Kai Ta. PRY 767 b marpl 7a de Lntp, Kata Te OAov TO oopa Kat Kara jLoptov Exagror, Kat paddAov. adrois ue Tois mpoydvors, Kal tovrous j tots Tuxobo1, Kal Ta pev appeva wadXrov TO mrarpt Ta 5€ OyjAea TH parpi, TO 58 oddevi TOV ouyyevany, dpws 8° avOparw ve TWh, Ta.8 od avOpdirw. tiv idéav' GAN dn Tépare. Kal yap 6. #9) €ouK@s Tots vyoveBiow 707 Tpomtov Twa 7épas €oriv" mrapeKBEBKRe yap 4 gvous év TOUTOLS EK TOD yevous TpOmov Twa. apx7 de mpi 76 OfAv yivecba® Kai pr dppev. GA avdrn pev > / fond , a A 4 A ta ~ avaykaia TH pdoer, Set yap odlecbar To yevos THY a \ A =~ ‘ \ ” > 10 Keywpiopevwy Kata TO OAV Kal TO appev* ev- Sexyouevov dé pz) Kparetvy more TO appev® 7 dia , “a ond n” ya ‘ a 7 4, 4 veoTnTa 7) yhpas 7 Sv aAAnv twa airiay Tovadrny, 1 nv idéav] rut SX * yiveoBa P: yevéoba vulg. 3 76 dppev Rackham : rod dppevos vulg. * See Introd. §§ 39 f., and Hippocrates, z. diairns I. passim. For another reference to kpGovs in connexion with the “ sur- rounding air,” see 777 b 7. » Cf. Hippocrates, 7. dépwy tddrwv tomwv, ch. 4 (ii. 22, 2 ff. Littré). ¢ Cf. 775 a 15: the female is a ‘“‘ deformity,” though one 400 a GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. un. depends upon the blend ¢ of the surrounding air and of the foods which the body takes up, and especially upon the nourishment supplied by the water, since this is what we take most of, water being present as nourishment in everything, even in solid substances as well. Hence hard, cold water in some cases causes barrenness, in others the birth of females.” The following things are due to these same causes. III Some offspring take after their parents and some Besem- | do not; some after their father, some after their parents and mother, as well in respect of the body as a whole as “*°?*"* in respect of each of the parts, and they take after their parents more than after their earlier ancestors, and after their ancestors more than after any casual persons. Males take after their father more than their mother, females after their mother. Some take after none of their kindred, although they take after some human being at any rate ; others do not take after a human being at all in their appearance, but have gone so far that they resemble a monstrosity, and, for the matter of that, anyone who does not take after his parents is really in a way a mon- strosity, since in these cases Nature has in a way strayed from the generic type. The first beginning of this deviation is when a female is formed instead of a male, though (a) this indeed is a necessity required by Nature,’ since the race of creatures which are separated into male and female has got to be kept in being*; and (6) since it is possible for the male sometimes not to gain the mastery either on account of youth or age or some othgr such cause, female oduced in the normal course of nature (@ozep dvamnpi cooucy). See Introd. § 13. : A Scone # This is an instance of a necessity required by the Final Cause ; see 731 b 25—732 a 3. 401 767 b : ‘ARISTOTLE (311 / ARO dvdiyien yiveoBau OnAvroxiay év Tois S@ous. 70 8 Tépas ovK dvayKatoy 7pos my EVEKA TOV kal np Too 7éAous airiay, ava Kara ovpBeBnkds. dvay- 15 Kaiov, emrel aiy x apxiy evredev Set AapBdvew. edmémToU meV yap ovons Tis. TepiTTmaEws €v ToIs Karapnviots TAs omepparruchs, Kal” adriy Toujoet THY popdry » q) TOO Gppevos Kivnots. \(r0° yap yordyy Aéyew 7 Kivnow Thy avgovoay é ExaoTov TOV poplov 20 odfev Suaheper, ovde Hv avovoay 7) Thy ovvioTaoay ef a apxis” 6 yap | avTos Adyos Tis KUTEws. ) aore Kparodoa’ pev appev Te moujoes Kal od OAAv, Kal EOLKOS TO year GAN’ od TH pr pe: pi) Kparnoaca® dé, Kal” dmoiav ay a Kparion dvvapiiv, Thy ér- Aewbiv move? Kar’ adriy. dey eS éxaorny Sivapuy TOVOE TOV Tpomov: TO yevv@y eotiv od _bovoy. dppev 25 d\Ad Kal roiov dppev, ofov Kopiaxos 7) Lwxparys, Kal od pdovov Kopioxos €oriv adda Kal dv pwrros. ; Kal TOOTOV 57) TOV TpOTrov Ta pev eyydtepov Ta Be Troppdrrepov drrdpxet TO yervavre, Kao YEWITIKOY, aAN’ od Kara, ovpBeBniés, otov «i Yeap pares. 6 30 yervav 7 vyelTwv tivds. del 8 ioxder mpos THY / A rey \ \ Ye c vyeveow pGAAov 70. dtov. Kal To) Ka’ ExacTov. 6 yap Kopicxos Kal avOpwrds éoti Kal igor aan’ 4 Kparoboa Peck : Kparovans vulg. ® xparijcaca Peck : xparjoav vulg. * This is an instance ofta necessity enforced by the nature of the Matter; see below, 768 a 2—b 33. For these two modes of necessity (here distinguished as €vexa rov and xara | ovpBeBnxés), cf. P.A. 642 a 33, and Introd. §§ 6 ff. > Cf. 766 a 18, 766 b 15, 771 b 22, 772 b 32. 402 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. um. offspring must of necessity be produced by animals.? As for monstrosities, they are not necessary so far as the purposive or final cause is concerned, yet per accidens they are necessary, since we must take it that their origin at any rate is located here. Thus: If the seminal residue in the menstrual fluid is well- concocted, the movement derived from the male will make. the shape after its own pattern.’ (It comes - sey same thing whether we say “ the semen * “the movement which makes each of the parts ‘grow ” ; or whether we say “makes them grow’ or “constitutes and ‘sets * them from the beginning *—because the logos of the movement is the same either way.) So that if this movement © gains the mastery it will make a male and not a female, and a male which takes after its father, not after its mother; if however it fails to gain the mastery, whatever be the “ faculty "in redpect of which it has not gained the mastery, in that’ “faculty ”’ it makes the offspring deficient. _“ Faculty,’ as applied to each instance, I use in the following sense. The generative parent is not merely male, but in addition a male with certain. characteristics, e.g., Coriscus or Socrates ; and it is not merely Coriscus, but in addition a human being. And it is of course in this sense that, of the characteristics belonging to the generating parent, some are more closely, some more remotely his, qua procreator (not qua anything else he may be per accidens, e.g., suppos- ing he were a good scholar or somebody’ s next-door neighbour); and where generation is concerned, it is always the peculiar and individual characteristic that exerts the stronger influence. Thus: Coriscus is both a human being and an animal; but the 403 767 b 768 a 35 5 10 ARISTOTLE eyyurepov Tob idiov TO * avOpasros 7) 7) TO Te yerva Se Kal TO Kal? Exaorov Kat TO yévos, adra paMov TO Kal! Exaorov" Tobro yap oT ovoia* Kal? TO ywoprevov yiverar peev Kal Trouov Te, dpa (be° 708¢€ Tt, kal Too?” 7 odaia. Sidrrep. amo Tov Suvd, ‘cov mdpxovow at KW}GELS ev Tots Omreppacr TavT@v TOV TOLOUTWY, Suvdyer be Kat TOV mpoysveav, paAdov dé Tod éyyuTepov ael Tov Kal? Exaorov TWOS" A€yw Se Kal? EKaOTOV. TOV Kopioxoy wal TOV Lewxparny. érrel ro eClorarat may ovK cis. TO TUXOV, aAN’ eis TO VTUKELMEVOV, Kal TO ev TH yevéoet ya) KpaTovpevoy dvaryKatov efioraobat Kal yiveoBae TO avTikeiwevoy Kal? ip Sdvapuy ovK exparnoe TO yevvav kal Kwobv. €av pev obv 7%) appev, OyjAv ylverat, eav dé 7 Kopioxos 7 y Lwxpdrns, ob TO marpl eguKds aAAa TH pnrpl yiverat* avrikerras yap @omep TO odws* marpt paATHp, Kal TO al? ExaoTov yervavtt 7 Kal Exaotov yervaoa. spoiws dé Kal KaTa Tas €xopevas Suvdpers’ del yap els Tov éxo- frevoy pretaPaiver padAdAov tHv mpoyovwv, Kai émt 1 70-P: 6 vulg., om. S. * kai P: Kal ydp vulg. 3 dua d¢€ Rackham: dAda vulg. 4 ddws P, totaliter X: ddAw vulg. 4 Cf. 731 b 34, and below 768 a 1; and see the definition of ovcia given in Cat. 2 a 11, and the examples cited, 6 zis avOpwros, 6 Tis tmmos. There are of course other usages and meanings of odaia. Cf. Introd. § 16, App. A § 18. > Viz., individual, human being, animal, etc. ° Loses and alters its character ; degenerates. The force of efioracfa can be seen from the phrase efiornar cal dbeiper zi dvow (Eth. Nic. 1119 a 23) 5 of. G. & C. 323 b 28, Phys. 261 a 20 (ris dvcews, Tis ovoias, efiorac8a), and 725 a 28 above. 2 Cf. above, 766 a 15. 404 ee a — : ton Jagat Sq. pened. t : A fh ¥ i : E . p ee a” ae GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. m former characteristic stands closer to what is peculiar to him than the latter does. Now both the indi- vidual.and the genus to which it belongs are at work in the act of generation; but of the two the individual takes the leading part, because this is the really existent thing *; the offspring also which is formed, though of course it is formed so as to possess the generic characteristics, at the same time comes to be a particular indiyidual—and this, again, is the really existent thing. Therefore, it is from the “faculties” of all such things as these® that the movements which are present in the semens are derived, potentially even from (the faculties) of earlier ancestors, but more specially of that which on each oceasion stands closer to some individual ; and by individual I mean Coriscus, or Socrates. Now everything, when it departs from type,’ passes not into any casual thing but into its own opposite ; thus, applying this to the process of generation, the (substance) which does not get mastered must of necessity depart from type and become the opposite? in respect of that “ faculty ’ wherein the generative and motive agent has failed to gain the mastery. Hence, if this is the “ faculty ” in virtue of which the agent is male, then the offspring formed is female ; if it is that in virtue of which the agent is Coriscus or Socrates, then the offspring formed does not take after its father but after its mother, since, just as “ mother ” is the opposite of “ father” as a general term, so also the individual mother is the opposite of the individual father. The same applies to the ** faculties ”’ that stand next in order, since the off- spring always tends to shift over to that one of its ancestors which stands next, both on the father’s side 405 768 a \ ARISTOTLE! S94 aS marépeov Kat ert’ pnrépov. everot 8 ai pev ép- epyeta TOV KUnoEov, at dé duvdper, ae fo pev at TOO yevrv@vros Kal t&v Kaborov, ofov avOperrov Kat Cobov, Suvdper de at Tod OyAEos Kai T@v Tpoyovev. 15 peraBdArer puev ouv efvordpevoy — pos Ta dvrucet- jeva, Avovrat dé at Kujoers at yi nite eis Tas eyys, olov 7 Too YevvOvTos av 2 fi Kinots, eAaxlorn Svadopa peraBaiver els Ty 700 TaTpos, SevrEpov S eis THY 708 mdamou: Kat todrov 81) TOV TpdTrov [Kat emi Tov cippevev Kal emt rev. Ondevdv} 20 7), THs yevvesons ets Ty THs LITPOS, eav de pa tb or eis Tabrny; eis tHhv THs THONS: Sup cos d€ Kai emt TOV dvaibev. MdAtora pev obv mépuxev 4 dppev kat F rarip dua Kparetv Kal Kparetobau puKpa yap 1) dvadopa, wot ovK epyov ajLa. oup Privat dupdrepa 6 yap LexKparns avijp Towode Ts.) S10 « as ‘éml TO TOAD 5 Ta pev dppeva 7 marpt eoucey, Ta be Oreo 7H pytpl, Gua yap ets apdw exoraas eyéveto, avri- emt P: om. th ; 2 secl. A.-W. 6 yap... 7s secl, A.-W.: dvip om, S. a Aristotle now introduces the distinction between ¢&icra- ofa Kai peraBdAdrew (“departing from type and changing over ”’) and Avecda (™ relapsing ”): as will be seen, the result of the former process is that the embryo acquires a characteristic opposite to that of the original movement (this process has been clearly described already); the result of the latter process (not so far described) is that the embryo acquires a characteristic which belonged to one of its ancestors. (The ‘explanation of these two processes is given below at 768, b.15 ff.) » The semen, the movement derived from the male parent. Cf. 766 a 17. ¢ See 768 a 2 above. 4 406 —=— ee ee ee ( H t if { Set ~ egg a oO ee or; re ow - GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. 11. and the mother’s. Some of the movements (those of the male parent and those of general kinds, e.g., of human being and animal) are present in {the semen) in actuality, others (those of the female and those of ancestors) are present potentially. * Now when (a) it ® departs from type,’ it changes over into its opposites ; but when (6) the movements which are fashioning the embryo relapse, they relapse into those which stand quite near them; for example, if the move- ment. of the male parent relapses, it shifts over to that of his father—a very small difference—and in the second instance to that of his grandfather. And in this way too [not only on the male side but also on the female] the movement of the female parent shifts over to that of her mother, and if not to that, then to that of her grandmother ; and so on with the more remote ancestors. » . (1) Usually the natural course of events is that when (the movement of the male parent)? gains the mastery—and when it is mastered—it will do so both gua male and qua individual father,’ since the difference between the two (faculties) is a small one, and so there is no difficulty in their both coinciding (for Socrates is a man who, while (a) he: has the characteristics of a class,f (6) is also an individual). Hence for the most part males. take after their father—and females after their mother, since a de- parture from type takes place in both directions ’ # See above, 766 b 15. ¢ Care must be taken to distinguish the use of “‘ father ” eat (a) to the male parent qua a particular individual, and (6) to the father of the male parent. 4 i.2.,is ‘‘ male.” For rowade, rovocdi, cf. Met. 1077 b 20 ff. 2 7.2., from “‘ male’ into “‘ female,” and from “ father ” into ‘‘ mother.” 407 768 a 768 b 30 35 nr ARISTOTLE 6 KeUTaL dé 7 peev dppevt. to Ondrv TH de marpt u] LATNP, 7 3 exoTaous els TAVTUREL LEVEL. édy & 7 pev amo TOO dippevos Kparnon Knots, 4 8 aa Tob Lwxpdrous L) Kpatynon, 7) airy pev exe, be nae TOTE oupPaiver yivectau Gppeva TE. patel eouxdTa Kai OjAcea matpi.. eav d¢ AVOGow ai Kwy- ces, Kal i) poev dppev pein, 7. d€ Tod Uwkpdrovs Av0h, Kai oatdpov paiverar TO mpdawrrov.|" 769 a Ava Tiva pev obv airiav OjAca Kal appeva yiverat, Kal Ta pev eoukdta Tois yovedor, OnAred te Orjreor Kat dppeva appear, Ta 8 dvdrradw, Onred Te TO maTpt Kal appeva TH pntpl, Kat dhws TO. pev Tots Tpoyovors courdra” Ta 8 ovbevi, Kal Tatra Kat Kal” dAov TO oGpa Kat TOv popiwy Exaorov, Sidpiorat mepl wavTwv. Eipjcaoe dé TWeS Tov duavordyev Kat _ erepa” mepl TouTwy, dia Tiv’ aitiav Spo, Kal avopou yiyveran Tois yovedow, dvo 57) TpoToUs Aéyover Ths aitias. €vio pev yap pacw, ad’ OPERA on 1 Savéuew S, Aldus, Platt: Scapevew vulg. 2 duoiws E: opotay vulg. ® zpodny E, Aldus : popdjy vulg. * eis ra Aldus. 5 rod beiciv} dddov Ldov O>*m, A.-W. in textu: Caov tov coni. A.-W.;. tov fort. Z1, dAov corr. fort. ipse Z+, dAdov rec. Z*. cf. Pol. 1302 b 39. § corrupta et fort. secludenda; pro Kal yap . . . mpdcwrov quoniam accidit ex [con|descensu ad membrum maris cum vento generato ex cibo indigesto X. 4 €ouxdra P: éowxe vulg. 8 grepa Platt, quod causae . . . sunt aliae %: erepov uP: erepot vulg. 412 SE 2 coe SR kam email ait Y sins GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. in. taking shape to turn out diversiform. This is just what happens to athletes through eating an excess- ive amount; in their case, owing to the great bulk of nourishment there is, Nature cannot gain the mastery over it so as to bring about well-proportioned growth and distribute the nourishment evenly throughout ; the result is that the parts turn out ill-assorted, and sometimes even bear hardly any resemblance at all to what they were like before. Similar to this is the disease which is known as satyriasis ; [in this too, a large bulk of unconcocted flux or pneuma finds its way into-parts of the face of the animal, and in consequence the face actually appears like that of a satyr.]* ‘We have now expounded the cause of all the follow- ing : why male and female offspring are formed ; why some take after their parents, female after female and male after male, and others the other way round, females taking after their father and males after their mother; and generally why some take after their ancestors and some after none of them, in respect both of the body as a whole and of each of its parts. Certain of the physiologers, however, have treated of these matters on different lines, explaining other- wise the cause why offspring are formed similar and dissimilar to their parents. The cause is presented by them in two ways. (1) Some say that the off- spring which is formed takes more closely after that * This sentence is probably a marginal note which has crept into the text; in any case it is corrupt, and “ uncon- cocted pneuma”’ is meaningless. Scot has no mention of animal or face; see critical note. The disease seems to be elephantiasis.— With b 30-37 however cf. Pol. 1302 b 35 ff. 413 769 a ARISTOTLE rary 10 av erOn ome ppt mov, TOUT ‘vlyveoBas' paMov cotkds, opoiws mavtTi Te wav Kal Héper Bépos, ds amudvrtos ad’ éxaoTov TOV popiwy omépparos: av & icov €rAOn ad’ EKaTepov,, TobTo 5° ovderépy / Ld ylyvecBar dpouov. ei dé Todr’ eoti peidos Kal jar) amo tTavTos dmrepyeras, SijAov ds odde Tis" Opowe- 15 THTOS Kal dyopo.drnros aitiov av el TO Nexbev. evs b€ 71H aya Onhy pay matpt éouxds dppev dé pntpt €oukds, odk edmopws Svvavrar, Siopilew- of \ \ ¢ > lod / wn 4 fev yap womep >EpumedoxAfjs Aéyovres 7 Anpo- KptiTos mept Tob OyjAcos Kal dppevos THY aitiay aAAov TpOmoV advvara Acyouat: ot d€ TH metov 20 7) EAarrov amdvar amo Tob dppevos 7 OrjAeos, Kat d:a TOdTO yiyvecOar 7 pwev OHAV TO 8 appev, odK yiyy pev OF ippev n” ” > a / “ec / } ~ av EXOUe? dmodets at Tiva TACIT 76 Te Orv TO marpl €ouKos €oTat Kal TO appev TH pyTpl dua yap ¢Abety mAgov am dppor ep, advvatov. €Tt dé dua TW” aitiav €ouKds yiverau Tois mpoydvors ws Tome \ YW \ a > \ >, 19 9. oe 25 él TO 7oAd' Kal Tots dzofev; od yap am’ €kewwv y ameAnAvber odBev Tob adppatos. dAdAa paAAov of Tov Aewmdopevov Tpomov A€yovtes TEpt THS OpoLd- \ > , \ = , Pn TnTos Kat TaAAa BéATLov Kai TodTO A€yovow. «tot yap twes ot dao tiv yovny piay obdcav olov mavoreppiav etval Twa ToAADv* wWorrep ovv* et Tis 1 ds émi ro woAd fort. secludendum. 2 > nan ovr] av S. ® See 764 a—765 a. » ¢.g., Alemeon; see Diels 24 A 14. 414 . GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. m1. _ parent from which the larger portion of the semen . comes, and. that the whole of the offspring takes after _ the whole of the parent, and part after part (this _ assumes that semen is drawn from each of the parts) ; _ if the same amount comes from each of the two, then, _ they say, the offspring formed resembles neither. _ But if this is untrue (as it is), z.e., if the semen is not _ drawn from the whole of the body, then, clearly, the _ reason they give for the similarity and dissimilarity _ of the offspring cannot be true either. Further, they _ eannot explain with any ease how it is that at the same time a female offspring takes after the father and a male offspring after the mother ;- for those who state the cause of male and female as ‘Empedocles or Democritus state it, make statements which on an- other score are impossible; while those who maintain that it all depends upon whether more or less semen comes from either the male or the female, and that this is why one offspring is formed as a male, and another as a female, these people, I am sure, are not in a position to show how the female is going to take after the father and the male after the mother, since it is impossible for more semen to come from both parents at one and the same time.. And further, for what cause is it that the offspring for the most part takes after its ancestors, even distant ones? Surely no portion at all of the semen has come from them, anyway. . (2) One more type of explanation of the resemblance remains to be mentioned, and those who adopt it make a better show all round, including this particular question. There are some who hold that the semen, though a unity, is as it were a “ seed- aggregate’ consisting of a large number of in- gredients ; it is as though someone were to mix and 415 769 a 769 b 30 35 Or 10 ARISTOTLE”: TPA AZAD Kepdcete moAAods xupods eis ev dy pons “Kare” evreb0ev AapBavor, [xat|' Sdvair” ay AapBdve ‘py igov Gael ag éxdotov, adW’ ore fev TOU “Towde mAgov OTe S€ TOD TOLOddE, OTE SE TOD. Ha AaBetv Tod dé unbev AaBeiv—robro oupPaivent Kal -emt Tis yovijs mroAupyods ovons” ag’ ob yap ay tov yevvesvToy mAciorov € eyyernrat, ToUTw yiveoBau 7 my popdry é€ouxds. odtos Sé 6 Adyos od aadjs perv kal mAacparias earl moAAayy, BovAerar Sé Kal BéArtov Aéyew pu) evepyeta dmrdpxew, adAa Kara dvvapuv, HV Aeyet mavoTreppiav> eKxeivas ig yap advvatov, ovTws dé Suvarov: Anigatl Od pqgdiov de obde TpOrrov eva. rijs airias dao- duddvtas Tas airias elmetvy wept mdvrwy, Tod TE yiveoBar Orv Kai appev, Kal bia Ti tO rev OFjAv- ~ ‘ 4, ¢ A > LA ~ P , T@ Tatpt 7oAAdKis Gpovov TO 8 appev TH HTP, Kal mdAw Tihs mpos TOvs mpoydvous OpoLoTyToS, »” x A 43> PBad eX \ A \ f. éru 5€ dia Ti’ aitiay 6ré pev avOpwros Lev TOUTWY > ’ \ , €2. O14 a’ ” . 5° ovfevi mpocdpowos, oTé 5€ mpotov ovrws ' TéAos ovde avOpwros adAa CHdov te povov dpatverar To yeyvopevov, & 81) Kal Aéyerar Tépara. Kai yap éyopevov tay cipnuevwy €or elmeiv mEept TOV TowovtTwv Tas aitias. TéAos yap THY juev Kujcewv Avowévwv, THs S bAns od Kparoupevys, / ‘ / / ~ > > A aa lat pever TO KabdAov pddAvota: TodTo 8° e€aTi TO CHov. 1 secl. A.-W. 2 cupBaive. PSYZ. * Because it can be restated in Aristotelian terminology, as he goes on to show. 416 a. _s ‘ eel & GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. mm blend together a large number of juices into one fluid, ‘and then take off some of this mixture ; in doing so __ he could take off not always an equal amount of each- i juice, but sometimés more of this one, sometimes _ more of that, and sometimes he might take some of one and nothing at all of another: So, they say, it is with the semen, which is a mixture of a large number t of ingredients ; and in appearance the offspring takes _ after that parent from whom the largest amount is derived. This theory is obscure, and at many points a sheer fabrication. At the same time, it aims at a more satisfactory * statement, viz., that this “ seed- _ aggregate ” is something that exists not in actuality, _ but only potentially, since it cannot exist in actuality, - whereas it can exist po Stillit is not easy, b y stating a single mode of cause, to explain the causes y of everything,_{1) why male and female are formed, (2) why female offspring often resembles the father and male offspring the mother, and again (3) the resemblance borne to ancestors, and further (4) what is the cause why sometimes the off- spring is a human being yet bears no resemblance to any ancestor, sometimes it has reached such a point that in the end it no longer has the appearance of a human being at all, but that of an animal only—it belongs to the class of monstrosities, as they are called. And indeed this is what comes next to be tieated Monstrosi, after what we have already dealt with—the causes of “* monstrosities, for in the end, when the movements {that came from the male) relapse and the material {that came from the female) does not get mastered, what remains is that which is most “ general,” and this is the (merely) “ animal.” People say that the P 417 2 ST al 769 b ARISTOTLEO TAS TAI TO dé yuyvopevov Kpiod Kedadjy daow 7 Bods Exew, 15 Kal év Tots GAAois opoiws érépov Cobov, poayov ‘mrados Kepadiv 7 mpoBarov Bods. tadra dé mdvTa oupBaiver pev dia Tas mpoeipnuevas airias, €oTe S’ ovfev dv éyovow, add’, éoukdTa. wovov:. O7Ep ylyverat Kal p47) TeTnpwuevwv. 810 moAAdKis ot oxwntovres cikalovot TOV py) KAA@V eviovs rods 20 pev alyl dvodvri mop, Tous 8 ott Kupirrovte. dvovoyvopwv S€ Tis aviyye macas' eis Sto 7 Tprav Cobwv* dypers, Kal ovverePe mroAAdKis A€ywv. OTt 5° early advvarov ylyvecbar tépas Tovwwodrov, €Tepov ev érépw CHov, dnAotow of ypdvor THs KUncEws TroNd Siagepovres avOpwrrov Kai mpoBarov Kal 25 KUvos Kal Bods: advvarov 8° exaotov yeveobar 7) KaTa TOUS oixelous xpovors. Ta pev ody todrov tov tpomov Aéyerat TaY Tepdtwv, Ta S€ TH. TroAvpEepH THY Popov exe; moAvroda Kal moduKépada yerdpevas Ildpeyyus 8° of Adyou THS airias kal mapamdyfovot TpoTov Twa elow ol TE Tepl TOY TEepdtwy Kal ot 30 mepl TOV dvarnpeoy Cawv- Kal yap To tte avamnpia tis €oTiv. IV AnpoKpiros pev ovv “pajoe vyiyveoBau TO. répara Sua TO S¥0 yovas timrew,® THY Ev TmpOTEpoY Sp[Ly- cacav* tHv 8 vorepov, tKal® radrnv e€eAPodcar* mavras P. } tprav Cawy Ps Cébwv 7 rpidy vulg. (oup)ainrew Diels. 4 et non egredientem add. Gul. 5 id’ Hs kal P (a quo et hanc egredientem Gul., teste Busse- maker). ® éeAodcay Diels. 418 1 2 3 ee” a a ee ee Oe GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. ut.-1v. offspring which is formed has the head of a ram or an ox; and similarly with other creatures, that one has the head of another, e.g., a calf has a child’s head or a sheep an ox’s head. e occurrence of all these things is due to the causes I have named; at the same time, in no case are they what they are alleged to be, but resemblances only, and this of course comes about even when there is no deformation involved. Thus, humorists often compare those whose strong point is not good looks in some cases with a fire- spouting-goat, in others with a butting ram; and there was a physiognomist who in his lectures used to show how all people’s faces could be reduced to those: of two or three animals, and very often he carried conviction with his audience. It is however impossible for a monstrosity of this type to be formed (.e., one animal within another), as is shown by the gestation-periods of man, sheep, dog, and ox, which are widely different, and none of these animals can possibly be formed except in its own proper period. This, then, is one sort of “ monstrosity ” we hear spoken of. There are others which qualify for the name in virtue of having additional parts to their body, being formed with extra feet or extra heads. The account of the cause of monstrosities is very close and in a way similar to that of the cause of deformed animals, since a monstrosity is really a sort of deformity. Now Democritus * explained the formation of IV monstrosities thus. Two semens fall into the uterus, a one of them having started forth earlier and the other parts. later, fand the second when it has gone out goes @ See Diels, Vorsokr.® 68 A 146. 419 769 b 770 a ARISTOTLE 4009 8S eAbeiv’ cis THY botépavt* Wore oupddecbar Kat émaA- Adrrew Ta opie. [rats e Opveow émet ovpPaiver 35 Taxetav yiveoBae THv dxelay acl, TA T Oa Kal 5 10 THY xpoay | abrav emaAAdrrew dnow. Se ‘OUp- Baiver ef év0s oméppatos TAciw yiveoBat Kal pods ouvovatas, OTTEp paiverar, BéXrvov [47) KbKre TEpl- Levan TApevTas THY ovvTopov Tois yap Touovrous padvor dvayKatov TOOTO. ovpBaiver orav, Siaxpuldow GAN dua Td. oméppara 2\Owow. vet bev obv airdoaobae det iy amo TOO appevos yovny, ToOrov dy Tov Tpdzrov ety . Aexréov" Sdws dé v Thv aitiav oinréov ev TH UAn Kal Tots ovviora- uevois Kujpaow elvat. 810 Kal yivovrat Ta TOLAdTA TOV Tepatwy ev pev Tots povordKois omdvia maprav, ev 5€ Tots troAvTéKots aGAAov, Kal padvor’ ev opvict, Tav 8° dpvibwy év rais adexropiow: avtTat yap moAuvToKotow, o¥ povov T@ TroAAdKis TiKTEW WOTEp TO TOV TEpLoTEepa@Y yevos, GAAd Kal T®@ mod\Ad dua exew Kuyjpata Kal maocav wpav > 7 / ‘ ‘ , ’ dyevecOar. Sdiudmep Kai moAAa Sidvpa tixrovow: 1 edds pro eAbeiv BE. * loc. corrupt. monet Platt. quia duo spermata cadunt in matricem, et prius cadit unum sperma et permansit et nor exivit (et non egredientem habet Gul. vers.), deinde con- tinuatur cum secundo spermate remanente etiam in matrice, et sic, etc. X. 3 seclusi. locum sensu carere monet Platt. pro dei Aldus habet adetie. credo haec de avibus dicta ex adnot. quae ad 770 a 9 seqq., al. locc., spectaverit irrepsisse; con eras 717 b 29. * This sentence, as Platt points out, is corrupt. The general sense is clear. I have given Scot’s translation in the apparatus eriticus. 420 ———— GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. tv. into the uterus,j* with the result that the parts grow on to one another and get thrown into disorder. [In the case of birds, since copulation is a quick business with them always, the eggs and their colour as well, he says, get thrown into disorder.]® But if it is a fact that several offspring are formed from one semen and from one act of copulation, as is evidently the case, we should do better not to neglect the shortest route and go a long way round, since in cases of this sort it is absolutely necessary that this should happen when the semens have not been separated but proceed together.“ Now if we are really obliged to refer the cause to the semen that comes from the male, then, I suppose these are the lines on which we should make our explanation ; but from every point of view we ought preferably to hold that the seat of the cause is the material* and in the fetations as they take shape. And that too explains why mon- strosities of this sort, while they occur very seldom in animals that produce one offspring only, occur oftener in those that are prolific, and most of all in birds, and specially in the common fowl.’ This species is prolific, not only in laying eggs frequently, as the pigeon tribe does, but also in carrying many fetations at once and in copulating at every season of the year. Hence also fowls lay many twin-eggs, ® This sentence (which may be a note on 770 a 15 ff.) seems to be from the same author as the interpolation at 717 b 29: the speed of birds’ copulation obviously was a favourite point with him, but it has nothing to do either with this passage or with that in Bk. I. In the present passage, birds are introduced later by Aristotle (a 10). ¢ And this is a contingency for which Democritus’s ex- planation does not allow. @ Supplied by the female. * For monstrosities, see references, p. xi. 421 770 a 2 AJARISTOPLE SITAR AMO) 15 ouppverau yap da TO mAnoiov dA Awy elvac Ta Kunpara., Kabdaep evlore moAAa TOV TEpiKapmiov. tovtwr 8€ dowy pev av at A€KBou (Svopilovrat KaTa TOV dpéva, dvo yivovrat VEOTTOL Kexewptapevor, TepiTTov ovdev € EXOVTES” Oowv be cuvexeis KaL jun dveipyer pnbev, €Ky ToUTiy ot vEoTTOL | ylovrat 20 Teparwodeis, oOo, pev Kal kepahiy peta EXOVTES; oxéAn dé TérTapa Kat mrépuyas, dia TO Ta pev avwlev €x Tob AevKod yiveofar Kal mpdrepor, Tapuevopmerns eK Tis AeKxifov Tis Tpodiis avtois, TO 5€ KaTw }Sptov vorepilew pier, Thy be Tpopiy elvar play Kal adiopiorov. "Hy be Kat opis. OUT AL Sucéhbaros Bud Tp 25 abray aitlav’ WoToKEl yap Kat modvroxet Kal TobTo TO yevos. orravuarepov 8¢. 70 tepar@des én atra@v dia TO oxhua Ths borépas: orouxndov yap KeiTaL TO 7Anbos Tov @av dia TO pAKos adbris. Kal mépl Tas wedrras Kal rods odjKas ovdev yiverat ToLodTov’ év KEexwpltopevols ‘yap KUTTaptoLs 30 6 TOKOS eoTl avTav. rept d€ Tas _ddexropibas tovvavtiov ovpPéePnkev, 4 Kai S7jAov ws ev TH bry THY aitiay bet vopilew TOV towovTwr: Kat yap tav. dAdwy év tos moAuTéKoLs parAdrjov. 80 ev avOpmimw FArtov- ws yap emt TO odd povoTdKoV €oTl Kal TeAcvoydvor, eel Kai ToUTwWY ev ols TOTOLS 35 ToAvyovot alt yuvaikes eior, ToUTO oupPaiver paA- * i.e., yolk only, not white as well; and as there are two yolks these parts are formed double. For the distinction between “‘nutritive”’ (i.e., formative) and * ‘ growth-promot- ing ” nourishment, see 744 b 32 ff. Cf. also 751 b 2 ff, » Not huddled up together.” 422 on GENERATION OF: ANIMALS, IV. wv. since the fetations, on account of being situated close to each other, grow on to. each other, just as many fruits sometimes do. . Of these twin-eggs, those in which the yolks are kept apart by the membrane develop into two separate chicks, and there is nothing extraordinary about them ; those in which the yolks are continuous, with nothing to hold them apart, give rise to chicks that are monstrosities : they have one body and one head, but four legs and ings, the reason for which is that the upper parts of the body are formed out of the white and before the rest, the nourishment being dispensed to them from the store in the yolk, whereas the lower part (a) is formed afterwards, (6) its nourishment is uni- form and homogeneous.* A snake, too, has been seen with two heads, and the cause is the same—this also is a class of animal which lays eggs and is prolific. Monstrosities occur less frequently, however, with snakes owing to the shape of their uterus, in which, on account of ‘its length, the numerous eggs lie one after another in a row.’ Nothing of this kind occurs with bees and wasps, because their offspring are laid in separate cells. With the common fowl, however, the opposite is the case—a fact which clearly goes to show that we are bound to hold that the cause of such things is in the material,° since with other animals too they occur more frequently in those that are prolific. Hence they occur less frequently in human beings, for the offspring which these produce is as a rule one in number, and it is perfected by the time of birth, since even in this species the occurrence of monstrosities is more common in those regions where the women are ¢ Not in the semen. 423 \ARISTOTLE) FP A144 aD 770 a ” > A LA > ‘ cal Aov, ofov mepl Atyurrov. ev dé Tais aifi Kai Tots mpoParors yiveran pGAXov: todvToKwrepa yap éorw. ere O€ paMov € ev ols mrohuaxiBeow moAuToKa ‘yap 770 b €oTt Ta Touabra’ tov Cobwy. Kal, ov TeAevoy sve, _ Kabarep 7 uD KUwv: Ta yap ToAAG TiKTEL Tupha TOU- twv. 80 Hw 8 \airiay Tobto cupPaiver Kab dv ay aitiay toAvToKotow, vorepov AeKTéov. aAAG Tpo- @domoinrar TH pvoet [mpos}* TO TeparoroKet ty’ Te 5 a yevva opova dua thy aréAevav: eat Oe Kal 70 Tepas Tov dvopolay.. Ovdzrep emaMdrret : TooTo TO CUUTT WUE Tots: Tovobrous ray. dow. év yap tov- . Tow padvora yiverar Kal Ta peTaxYoLpa KaAovpEVa. tadra § €oti Kata ti merovOdTa TepaTra@des* 70 yap éxAeimew 7) mpoceivat TU Tepar des. €or 10 70 Tépas TOV mapa pug [74], * jrapa. pow s od mécav .aAAa Thy ws emt TO TOV: Tepl yap THY del Kat THY €€ avayKns odbev yiveras mapa piow, GAN ev tots ws emi TO TOAD ev OVTW ywopevots, evdexopievors dé Kal das, emel Kal Tovrew ev daots oupPaiver Tapa TV Tagiy pe Tabryy, del 15 pevTow a TUXOVTWS, HtTov elvar doKet Tepas, Sud TO Kal TO Tapa dvow clvar tTpdmov TWA. KaTa 1 sic PSYZ*: gor yap 7a 7. 7. vulg. 2 secl. Btf. 37 A.-W.: tw Y: 7o vulg. * 70m.’ PL 1t : 1 CF. HLA. 584 b 7, 31; the passage in Hippocrates, cm dépwv vddrew romwyv 12 (ii. ‘54 Littré) rd re xrqvea tixrew TE muxvotata Kal exrpépew xadAdora may refer to Egypt and Libya > Ch. 6 below. ° 771 a 18 ff. e Vie. which produce imperfect oS ‘See 149a2. 1 Cf. 772 a 35, etc. 9% See Introd. § 9. 424 = aa GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. wv. prolific—in Egypt, for instance.*.. Monstrosities occur more frequently in goats and sheep, because they are more prolific ; and still more frequently in the i animals, because animals of this sort are prolific and the offspring is not perfected when born (e.g., the dog)—most of these creatures’ young, of course, are born blind. The cause why this occurs? and the cause why they are prolific ° must be stated later. But the way to the production of monstrosities has been already prepared for Nature by the fact that they generate offspring which, owing to its imperfect state, is unlike its parents -—for monstrosities come under the class of offspring which is unlike its parents. And that is why this particular accident extends its range to affect animals of that nature,? and, to bear this out, it is among these animals especially that metachoira® as they are called occur. These meta- choira are creatures which have in some respect undergone some “monstrous’’ affection, since the lack of any part or the presence of an extra part is such an affection. A monstrosity. of course, belongs to the class of “* things contrary to Nature,” although it is contrary not to Nature in her entirety but only to Nature in the generality of cases‘ So far as con- cerns the Nature which is always? and is by necessity, nothing occurs contrary to that; no; unnatural occurrences are found only among those things which occur as they do in the generality of cases, but which may occur otherwise. Why. even in those instances of the phenomena we are considering, what occurs is contrary to this particular order, certainly, but it never happens in a merely random fashion ; and therefore it seems less of a monstrosity because even that which is contrary to Nature is, in a 425 770 b ARISTOTLE iit piow, drav [en Kparnon THY KaTa THY oAnv 7 Kara. To eldos ‘pvais. SvdTep ovTe Ta Tolubra Tépata Aéyovow, ot’ év Tots dAAous ev doois eiwhé TU yiveobat, Kabdarep ev Tots mepucapTiots. © €ore 20 yap Tis aptreAos HV Kadobat TwWes Kdaveov, nV," dy eveyKn preAavas Borpvas,” od Kpivovot Tépas Oud TO mevoTaxts etwhevau TaUTAY Tobro Tovey. airvov 8 ore peerage Acuxijs € €otl THY pvaw Kal cAaivys, wot ov Tmoppwbev 7 bet aBaows ovd’ womepavel mapa dvow: ob yap eis adAny iow, 25 °Ev 5d€ tots modutoKos ratra® ovpBaiver Sua! TO THY ToAvToKiay: eumodilew® Tas TeAEWMoes adAnAwy Kal Tas KUWoELS TAS ‘YyevynTLiKdS. |) | Ilepi 5€ tHs toAvToKias Kat Tob 7Acovacpod Tob TOv pep@v, kal tis dAvyotokias Kal jroverokias 30 kal Tis evdelas TOV pepOv, atropyjociev av Tis. yiverau yap éviore Ta pev mAelovs ExovTa SaKTv- Aovs, Ta 8’ eva jLovov, Kal mepi Ta GAda HEpn TOV avrov Tpomov" Kal yap mAcovaler cal Koopa yiverat, 7a, b€ Kal duo € exovTa. aidora, TO [Lev dppevos TO d€ O7jAeos, Kad ev dvOpurrous Kal pdAora mepl 35 Tas alyas. yivovTat yap ds KaAdoda. Tpayaivas dua TO OyAeos Kal dppevos EXEL aisoiov: 787. S€ Kal Képas al€ €yovoa eyéeveTo mpos TH oxeAet. 4 Sus. * Bérpuas PZ: Bérpus vulg. 4 mera A,-W. (radra ve Aldus): h ravrd. TE vulg. : : Te OM. ds Tépara coni, A.-W, dua Zs: Kai dua 5 76 suprascr. Z}*: om. vulg. = eurrodiver re “ce * As it can be represented as a case of one ee failing to control another * nature,” it can be termed * accordance with nature.” See Introd. § j4. > Cf. Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. 11. 3. 2, where it iectated that the pdvres do not consider the vagaries of this plant 426 ——F GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. tv. way,in accordance with Nature (i.e., whenever the “formal” nature has not gained control, over the “ material’ nature).? Hence, people do_ not, call things of this sort monstrosities any more than they do in the other cases where something occurs habitu- ally—as happens with fruit. ‘Thus, there is a certain sort of vine—‘‘ smoky ”® is the name some people give it ;—and if it bears black grapes they do not reckon it as a monstrosity, because it often and habitually does this. The reason is that it is inter- mediate in its nature between white and black, and so the alteration is quite small and not really contrary to nature, because it is not an alteration to a different nature. .~ These things, then, occur in the case of the animals which produce, numerous young, because the numer- ous offspring which are produced hamper each other's being brought to perfection and also the movements which effect generation. . A puzzle may be raised about this production of Relation of numerous offspring and the redundance of parts, and Ma"asna the production of few or one offspring and. the ency of deficiency of parts: sometimes animals are born pipet SE having too many toes, some having one only ; and rg es the same with the other parts : Some have too many ; stances some are mutilated ; some actually have two organs “4 of generation, one male and the other female. This happens with human beings, and with goats especi- ally. Goats are born which are called tragainai ° on account of their possessing both male and female organs of generation. We have also had an instance of a goat being born that had a horn on its leg. Altera- to be sufficiently unusual or unnatural to be-of any terato- logical significance. 5 © Hermap ites. A427 771 a or 10 15 20 ARISTOTLE)! 61) 14%0 yivovrat de peraBodat Kal mpedaets Kal arepi Ta evros [opra., TO 7 pe) exew evra 7 kexodoBapeva eyew kal mAeiw Kal pebeor@ra ‘Tovs TOTovs. Kapdiay frev odv odbev mosToTe eyevero C@ov ovK exov, onAjva 5S ovK Exov, Kal 8vo éyov, Kat vedpov eva." rap 8 ovK EXOV pev ovbev, ody Bove €xyov. Tatra dé mavra ev tots TeAcwbetor Kal {a@ow. evpioxerar Kal yoAjyv ovK éxovTa, Tepu- Kota éxew: Ta dé mAclovs exovTa judas. dn o eyeveto Kal peleotyKOTa KaTa TOTOV, TO [LEV AaTaAp ev Tots apiotepois, 6 Sé omAnv ev tois Se€tois. Kal Taira ev ev ye TeTeheopevors @rrau tots Caous, WomTeEp etpyrac- ev 5€ Tots TURTOPEVOLS™ éxovra mony Kal mavrobariy Tapaxynv. Ta je ovv puKpov trapexBaivovra tiv dvow Civ eiwhev, Ta dé A€iov od Civ, étav ev tots Kuptiois Tod Cav yevnrar TO Tapa pow. ‘H dé oKeypus eoTl 7) mepl ToUT@ mOTE pov Thy avriy airiav Se vopilew THhS povoroKias | Kal THS €v- deias Tav Lsp@v Kal Too mAcovacpod Kal THs TOAU- ToKlas 7) [27 THY abray. IIpa&rov pev obv dua Tt Ta pev eot. modvTOKa Ta O€ povoToKa, TodT av Tis ddgevev edvAdyws / A \ / ~ "4 Gavpacew. 7a yap péywoTa. povoToKa tov Caw eativ, olov eAdpas KapnAos immos Kal Ta povuyxa: TouTwy b€ Ta pev peilw Tav ddAwv, Ta Se Todd 1 sic Bekker: yevvwpévors O marg.* : in filiis &: eipnpevos PSYZ. * j.¢., have passed beyond the embryonic stage, have reached the end of their period of development. » For a discussion of this see P. A. Bk. IV, ch. 2, 428 ———— GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. 1 tions and deformations occur in respect of the inward parts too; animals either lack certain parts, or have them in a mutilated form, or have too many of them, or in the wrong places: No animal, it is true, has ever been born without a heart, but ete have been animals without a spleen, and with two spleens, and with one kidney ; none without any liver at all, but certainly with an incomplete one. These phenomena are found in animals that are perfect * and living. We find, also, animals with no gall-bladder which naturally should have one’; others with more than one. Instances have occurred of organs in the wrong places: the liver on the left side and the spleen on the right. These things, as I said, have been observed among animals which have reached perfect growth; among newly born animals in- stances have been seen exhibiting great and varied confusion: Those which depart only slightly from the natural usually live; these which depart more than that do not—.e., when their unnatural con- formation lies in the parts that control the creature’s life. The point about these which we have to consider is the following. Ought we to hold that one and the same cause is responsible for the production of a single offspring and the deficiency in the parts, and also for the production of many offspring and the redundancy in the parts, or not ? To begin, then, first of all, with the fact that some @) Number animals produce many offspring, others a single one ° “Prins: only. Surely surprise at this is very reasonable, as it is the largest of the animals which produce one only, e.g., the elephant, the camel, the horse and those with uncloven hoofs ; of these, some are larger than 429 771 a 771 b ARISTOTLE T0001) Svadeper Kata TO ie be Ktvwv 8€ Kat XbKos Kal TO. modvoxidy TavTa ox moAuréKa,! ‘Kal Th puKpa TOY ToLovTwv, olov 7d THY pvav yévos.. Ta dé duyndAa édiyordKed mAjv dds" pe (be rap 25 moAuTéKwv €otiv. evAoyov yap Ta [ev peydAa tAciw S¥vacban yervdv Kat oméppa dépetv mAciov. attvov 8° adtd ro Bavpaldopevov Tob ju) Oavpdlew- dud yap To péyeBos od rodvToKobow: 7) yap tpod?) Katavahioxerar Tots genie eis THY avténow Tob odpatos: tots 8 eddrroow dé Tod peydbous 1 30 pvois adedobca® mpos TO eEpitrwpua tmpooriPnot TO oTEppatiKoV THY DrEepoynv. ert dé TO yervncay omépia mAciov pev TO TOD peilovos avayKatoy elvar, puxpov dé to Trav edarrévwv. ToAAa pev obv® puKpa yévour’ av ev TabT@, peydAa S€ oda / a \ /, / \ ; i : xarerov. [rots dé pécos peyeeot TO pecov 35 amédwkev 1) ptois. Tob pev ody Ta pev elvat peydAa TOV Cowy ta 8 edXdtTw Ta dé peoa Tpd- aere \ s"c> z e Stiles TEpov cipjKapev THY aitiav> povotoKa dé, Ta 8 ddvyoroKa, Ta 5€ ToAUTOKA TOV Caw éoriv.}* ds vs HE aha, Mia SP aN \ r 7 *BS . ox pev él TO TOAD Ta pev pwovuxa povoTéKa, Ta de duynAd OAvyotéKa, ta S€ TmoAvoyidh ToAvTOKA. , oor ¢ e atin \ \ \ u tovtov 8 aitiov dt. ws emi TO ToAD Ta peyeln 1 oa. P: x. 0. vulg. * adedodoa PS: ddaipotca vulg. 3 ody PSY: odv xai vulg. * seclusi: om. &. 430 eS CT GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. rv. the other animals, some are really outstanding in respect of size. The dog, on the other hand, and the wolf, and practically all the fissipede animals produce many ap ean ; even small animals of this class do so, such as the mouse family. The cloven-hoofed animals produce few offspring, except the pig, which is among those that produce many. As I said, this is surprising, because we might have expected the large animals to be able to generate more offspring and to produce more semen. But the very thing that sur- prises us is the reason why we should not be surprised. Their size is the very reason why they do not produce many offspring, because in animals of this sort the nourishment gets used up to supply the growth of the body, whereas in the case of the smaller animals, Nature takes away from their size and adds the sur- plus on to the seminal residue. Further, the genera- tive semen of a larger animal must of necessity be greater in bulk,* and that of the lesser ones small. Also, though many small ones may very well be formed in one place, it is difficult for many large ones to be. [To the intermediate sizes Nature has allotted the intermediate number. As for the fact that some animals are large, some smaller, and some intermediate, we have stated the cause of this earlier.]}® For the most part it is the solid- hoofed animals which produce a single offspring, the cloyen-hoofed animals which produce few, and the fissipede animals which produce many. The reason for this is that for the most part the distinction of 4 But this pro rata merely ; so that a large animal has no net advantage over a small one in this respect. ® The preceding words seem to be irrelevant ; those which follow immediately in the Greek cannot be construed, and I have omitted them from the translation. 431 ARISTOTLE. YictE) 771 b 5 , \ \ \ , ce, ee 5 Sudpiorar Kara Tas Siadopas Tavras. ov pany exer > ¢ > \ 4, ” A O, 4 +7 y ovtws emt mdvrwv aitiov yap péyebos Kai puKporns TOV owpdrey THs dhuyoroKias kal 7roAv- ToKias, add’ od To pdbvuxov i. mohvaxdes 7 u duyndov elvat TO vEevos. tovtov d€ wapTupiov: 6 yap ehédas péeyiotov tTa&v Caw, €ote 5é modvayides, TE / \ ~ ~ / ” 10 KdunAos SuynAcov trav AourGv péyvorov ov. od povov &’ ev trois melots adAa Kat ev tots mrnvois Kat ev Tots mAwTois Ta pev peydra ddvyoroKa Spl €oTl Ta de puKpa moAuToKa, dia THY adr ay, airtay, dpolws d5é Kal tov duta@v od Ta péeyrora Peper mAetorov Kapmoy. 15 Ava ti pev ody Tar Cae Ta pev oro ihebiedt Ta s ddvyordKa. Ta be HovordKa" THY pvow corly, elpntar Ths de vov pybeions drropias padXov av Tis evAdyws* Javpdoeey emi TeV ToAuroKouvrenr, emrevo1). faiverat ToAAdKis amo pds dxElas KviCKd- peva Ta Toadra tov Cawv. Oo Se omépya Td Too dppevos, elite ovpPdAdrerar mpos THY vAnV 20 popiov ‘ywopevov TOD KuApaTos Kal T@ TOD OyXEos oméppatt puyvuevov, elite Kal pq) TOUTOV TOV , 2>\)}? e 5) , Ey TpoTov, GAN dorep Payev auvdyov. Kat dy- puoupyouv Thy vAnv thy ev T@ OyrAee Kal TO TEpitTwUA TO oTreppatiKdy, KaNdmEep 6 OTOS TV bypotnta Tob ydAaKros, dia tiva tor aitiav ody 25 €v amoteAet Cov péyelos exov, domep evradla ¢,. 2_ rg 2\\>2 2? , ‘a ‘ ’ 6 O705, aoe ev ToUTw T@ TepitTmpart mAclw 1 +a b€ jiovordka P: om. vulg. 2 edAdoyws P: om. vulg. 8 domep .. . O70s “yee secludenda. 432 GENERATION OF ‘ANIMALS, IV. vw. sizes corresponds to these differences. At the same time, this does not hold good of all of them, because the reason for their producing few or many offspring is the size, great or small, of their bodies, not the fact that that particular kind of animal is cloven- or solid-hoofed or is fissipede. Here is a proof of this. The elephant is the biggest of the animals, but it is fissipede ; the camel, which is the next. biggest, is cloven-hoofed. And it is not only among the animals that walk but also among those that fly. and swim that the big ones produce few offspring and the small ones produce many; and the cause is the same. Similarly, too, it is not the biggest plants that.bear the most fruit. We have stated why the nature of some animals is to produce many offspring, that of others to produce few, that of others to produce one only. So far as the puzzle which has now been mentioned is concerned, one might rather be justifiably surprised in the case of those animals which produce many offspring, in view of the fact that animals of this sort, as we see, often conceive as the result of one act of copulation. Now it may be that the semen of the male contributes to the material (in the female) by becoming part of the fetation and by mixing with the semen of the female ; or it may be that it does not act in this way, but, as we hold, acts by concentrating and fashioning ¢ the material in the female, z.e., the seminal residue, just as fig-juice ® acts upon the fluid portion of the milk ; but whichever of these views is right, what on earth is the cause why the semen does not turn out one single animal of a fair size, just as the fig-juice acts in our example, (but that instead several off- ® Cf. 767 b 17, 772 b 32. > See 737 a 15. 433 ! IARISTOPLE ITALIA: 771 b pst » ‘fos KeXepiorat T@ ovvieravai® moody ° aAv’ Sowrep av els metov EAOn Kai Tetov, TOGOUTW TO TI yVEpevov €OTL peiloy |’ 70 perv odv eAKew odvas Tovs TOTOUS THS. dorépas 70 oméppia, Kat dia TobTO TAciw yiveoBas, dua TO THY TOmwWY Af 90s Kal Tas korvndovas® ovx év ovoas,” odbev 30 €orw* ev TadT@ yap yivovrat ‘TOT THs borépas dvo mroAAdkis, ev S€ Tots molurdKois, 6 orav mAnpwO) TOV eHBpdor, edeéijs Keiieva. daiverar. todro 8¢ d7jAov ex TH, avarou@v €otw. aAd worep Kai Tercovpevwy tav Cdbwv €orw éxdotov Tt péyeBos , ee A a \ : eat Ar, T 8 MD Kal émt TO peilov Kal emt 7d EAarTov, dv ovr’ av 35 petlov yévorto ovr Eharrov, aGAW ev 7H perakd diaorHwate TOD peyeBouvs AapPdavover mpos aAAnda ee \ yo wy ore , 772a tiv drepoxyny Kal THY eAAcupw, Kal yiverar peilwy € 9g? 27 * " a »” / 6 8 éddrrwy avOpwros Kai Tav GAAwy Cadwyv étioby, ovTw Kali €& js yiverau HAns omeppatiKis, odK €oTW aopioros: ovr é€mi TO mA€iov ovr emt 7d éharrov, wor e€ dmoona0bv yiveobat T@ TAGE. 5 doa obv TOV Cou bud THY elpnpevny aittay mA¢iov mpoleTrar Tepittwpa 7 els evos Cov apynv, odK 1 talia desideraverat Platt, ego supplevi (sed generantur in illa materia et superfluitate multi filii X). 2 +@ (sic) ovveoravas PZ, om. Y. 3 zvom. SZ. 4 procul dubio secludenda (cf. 772 a 22): om. &. 5 Aéyovow addunt YS. ® ovxevovoas Z. credo etiam da 70 +.» Ovoas secludenda. * The words supplied are necessary to complete the argu- ment, as Platt points,out; and they are in fact preserved in Scot’s version (see app. crit.). They were no doubt ousted — from the Greek text by the additional remarks about fig- 434 3 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. trv. are formed out of that residue)?* [It is not divided up owing to its causing a certain quantity of milk to set, but the more the amount of milk into which it is put and the more fig-juice there is, so much the greater is the amount that gets eurdled.]' It is sometimes said that the regions of the uterus draw the semen, and on that account several offspring are formed, because these regions are several in number and because the cotyledons? are not a unity. This theory, however, has nothing in it, because often two embryos are formed in the same region of the uterus, and in the case of animals which produce many offspring, when the uterus is full of erat they can be seen lying in a row. This is clear from dissections. -No; what happens is this. When animals are being perfected, there is a certain size for each, a limit of bigger and smaller ; none will be formed either bigger or smaller than these sizes, but the excess or deficiency of size which they acquire as compared with one another lie within this interval between the two limits, and thus it is that one human being (or any other animal) is formed bigger and another smaller. In precisely the same way, the seminal material out of which (the embryo) is formed is not unlimited in either direction—the amount of it can be neither bigger nor smaller than certain limits ; the embryo cannot be formed out of any casual amount of it. Thus, in the case of those animals which (on account of the cause stated) dis- charge more residue than is requisite for the principle juice, which appear to have formed part of a marginal note (cf. below 772 a 22 ff., with which passage they are obviously connected). > For the cotyledons, see above, Bk. I. 745 b end. 435 T72a - ARISTOTLE Ago evdexerar ex tatryns ev yiveoBar mans, adda Tooatra doa Tots peyeDeow Bpiorat ois ixvou- pevors. ovd€ TO TOD appevos o7épyia 7 UI dvvapus H ev TO omeppare ovbev ovornger! mA€ov 7) €Aarrov 10 Tod mepukéros. Opoiws 7° ef mA€ov oméppa apinaw TO dppev 7) Suvdpeis mAciovs ev Siarpoupevw TO , 7M / val \ a bet ic’ oméppatt, odfev troujoer petlov 7d mAeiorov, GAda Kal TobvayTioV dcapbepet karagnpaivoy. ovde yap TO Tip Deppaiver TO pap paMov, Sowmep av 7 mAéov, GAN’ €oTw dopos Tus" Tis Deppornros, hs bn- 15 apxovons eav avén tis TO mop, Oeppov yey odKeTL yiverat paMov, efarpiver dé paMov, Kal téAos adavilerat Kal yiverar Enpdv. érel dé daiverau / a , \. »* , ray ovpetplas Setobai twos mpds GAAnAa 76 TE TeEpiT- A lon / \ \ A ~ a ” Twpa 70 70d OxjAcos Kal To mapd Tob dppevos, doa mpolerat omépa TOV appéevwv, Ta ToAUTOKA ~ 4 b) \ > # - ‘ \ + ; / 20 Trav Cwwv edlds adinor 7d ev adppev Suvapevov tAciw cuviotavat wepildpevov, Td dé OAV Tooodrov Ad / / /, A > ‘ _- wore tAciovs yiveobat ovotdcets. (TO 8’ emt Tob 4 , \ > a , oo e ydAakros tapddevypa AexBev ody Gpordy eoTi* 7 bev yap Tod omépyatos Bepudotrns od povov cuv- / 4 > \ \ ae ¢ > > ~ > ~ iornot moaov adda Kat movdv® tL, 7 8 ev TH OT@ 25 Kal TH mueTia TO ToGOV pdvov.) TO pev ody ToAAa 1 ovotnoe PY : ouvicrna vulg. 2 75 P: om. vulg. 3 ouov aGAda Kal moaov P. * See Bk. I, ch. 21 and Introd. §§ 26 ff. > Cf. 729 a 18. ¢ Cf. 723 a 30, 767 a 16. @ See 737 a 15; 771 b 24. ¢ I suspect that this parenthesis may have come from a marginal annotation ; ¢f. 771 b 24 above. 436 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. ww. of a single animal, it is not possible that the entirety of this should be used to form one embryo; on the wontrary, as many are formed as is determined by the sizes Propet to those animals. Nor again will the semen of the male or the dynamis® residing in the semen put into shape anything that is greater or less than the natural size. Similarly, if the male emits more semen, or more dynameis in the semen (in cases where the semen gets divided up), the greatest possible amount will not make anything bigger (than the natural size), but on the contrary will dry the material up ® and destroy it. The parallel case of fire and water shows this. An increase in the amount of fire does not mean that the fire increases the heat of the water in the same ratio ; on the contrary, there is a limit to the heat, and when that has been reached, you may increase the amount of fire, but the water does not continue to get hotter; instead it evapor- ates more, and finally disappears and dries up. Now since, as it seems, there must be some proportional relationship ° between the residue of the female and that which comes from the male (this applies where = the males emit semen), in the case of those animals which produce many offspring the male at the outset emits semen which is able, when divided up into portions, to give shape to a number of fetations, while the female contributes enough material so that a number of fetations can take shape out of it. (The parallel instance of milk, which was cited,? is not com- parable, since, in the case of that which the semen’s heat causes to take shape; not only quantity is in- volved but also quality, whereas in the case of the heat in the fig-juice and the rennet, quantity alone is involved.)* This, then, is the reason why in those 437 772 a 172 b 59 35 5 ARISTOTLE 5) yivecOat Ta KUnpiaTa Kal 1) ouvexes év ek mav- Tov év Tots Trodurdxous Toor! airvov, Ste obK ee dmrogovoby yiverac KnLa., ‘GAN éedv Te ddiyov Fp ov €OTal, edy TE TOAD Aiav: copiorac yap Silene Kal Tob mdaXovTos Kat THs. Depusrytos. THS. Trowov- ons. opotes Oe kat ev Tots HovoroKots K Kal jLe- yaAous TeV Epa od moMa ylyvetat €K _TrOMob TEPLTTU[LATOS” Kal yap ev exetvous eK 70008. Twos moodv TL TO épyalopevov eoTw. od mpoterat pev oby m«ten Tovadrny vAnv bua THY Tpoeipnyevny airiay: yy dé mpoterat, Tooavrn Kara gpvow €or e€ is Ev yiverat dnp povov. €ayv dé mote mAciov erOn; dvroKel TOTE. 516 kal doKet Teparwdn Td Towabr” elvat paMov, OTe yiverat Tapa TO ws em TO TOAD Kal TO clos. 6 de dvOpwmos érrapipore- pile. maou Tots yeveow" Kal yap pLovoToKel Kal TohvroKet TOTE Kal dduyoroKel, padvora 5€ jLovo- TOKOV THY prow earl, did peev THY bypornra Tob owp.aTos Kal Deppornra moAuToKor, | TOO yap omep-. [aTos 7) pvars v by pa. Kal Bepun, | Sia De re péyeBos oduyoToKov Kat }LovoroKov. d1a 5€ TodTo Kal Tovds THS KUnTEWS Xpovous pove Tay Cawv dvapiddous civat ovpBepnxer. rois pev yap aAdous els €or 6 xpoves, Tots oe dvOpesrots, metous: Kab) yap enTanva Kal Sexdunva “yerv@vrau xal Kara Tovs 10 peTra&d xpovous: kat yap 7a oxTdpnva. CH per, hrrov S€. TO 8 airiwov ek Tdv viv A|exbevTwr 1 zot7’ P: rodr’ adro yulg. 2 wore hic P, post oAvyoroxeé vulg. 3 rod. . . Oepyy secl. Platt. @ Of. 776 a 22. 438 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. tv. animals which produce many offspring the fetations are many in number and a single continuous one does not result instead of many—viz., a fetation is not formed out of any casual quantity: if there is too little or too much, none will be formed, because there is a definite limit set both to the dynamis of the material which is acted upon and to that of the heat which acts upon it. Similarly also in the case of those animals which are large and produce one offspring only, a large amount of residue does not give rise to a large number of offspring, for the same holds good : here ‘too, the amount of the material and of that which works upon it are definite. So then they do not emit a larger amount of such material, owing to the cause already mentioned ; and the material which they do emit is, in the natural course, just sufficient in amount to proyide for a single fetation only. If ever more of it is supplied, then twins are produced. And hence, also, such creatures seem rather to be monstrosities, because their formation is contrary to the general rule and to what is usual. Man, how- ever, has a footing in all the classes, producing one offspring, or on occasion, many, or few, though most naturally and normally one is the ‘number: the production of many offspring is due to fluidity of the body and to heat, [since the nature of semen is fluid and hot ;] of few or of one, to the size of the body. And to this it is due also that in man alone among the animals is the period of gestation of variable length*: other animals have a single period, but with man there are several: children are born at seven months and ten months and at intermediate times, and indeed eight months’ babies live, though less often than the others. The reason may be 439 ARISTOTLE !1 PA 11450 a ovvidot zis av, €ipyrat be mepl eters ev -rois mpoBArjpaoww. a Kai wept pev rodtwv Swpicbw TOV TporTrov TOOTOV. Tév oe mAcovalovTa popiwv mapa dvow 70 avTo atrvov Kal THs Sudupotokias. 79 yep. €v 15 Tots KUNAL ovpBatver ro airvov, eay TAetwy a) ovoTh 7 kara Te Too Hoplov vow Tore yap ovpPaiver., pev }optov peilov Tav adAwy € EXEW, otov Saxrvdov 9 7) xeipa. 7) 700a 7% TL TOV dMwy akpw- Thpiwv 7) perv, 7 oxvabevros. Too KUT} MATOS Tete yiveodar, Kabdrep €v Tots morapois at Stvae* Kat 20 yap ev ToUToLS 70 pepopevov bypov kat Kijow €xov av Cri)” dyriKpovon ; dvo €& €vos ‘ylvovrat ovordoets, exovoat Ty avray Kivnow: Tov ad d€ Tpdzrov Kal emt TOV Kunpdrey ovpPaiver. mpoo- pverau be pdAvora pev mAngtov dj Awy, eviore de Kal moppw Sia TV yeyvopevny ev TO Kunpart Kivnow, pddvora d€ dua TO THY Tijs ons brrepoxTy : 25 dbev adnpéOn exet amodidovar, To 8° eldos Exew olev émAcdvacer. 7 A / ~ @ , ae Oca dé ovpBaiver trowatra. wore Svo €xew aidota, [ro pev appevos TO 5é Oyreos,|* ai wev TOV mAcovalovrwy yiverar TO ev KUptov Td 8° aKupov 1 qAciwy vAn ovor# coni. Platt, cui consentit & sustentatur multa materia : mew BAnv ovotyen vulg. 2 dv tur Peck: ay vulg. 3 seclusit Platt. * This cannot be traced. > Of. Bk. I, chh. 21, 22; 767 b 18, ete. ° ¢.9., the excessive ’ material is drawn from X ;_ it petition at Y, and therefore begins to take the form of Y during the process of development ; but as there are enough Y already, 440 - GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. 1. perceived from what has just been said; a discus- sion ofthese matters is also to. be found in the Problems.* - : ) This, then, may be taken as the way in which we _ With regard. to the redundance of parts which () Reason occurs contrary to Nature, the cause of this is the “+ same as that of the production of twins, since the cause occurs right back in the fetations, whenever more material gets ‘‘set”’ than the nature of the part requires : the result then is that the embryo has some part larger than the others, e.g., a finger or a hand or a foot, or some other extremity or limb; or, if the fetation has been split up, several come to be formed—just as eddies are formed in rivers ; here too, if the fluid which is being carried along and is in movement meets with any resistance, two self- contained eddies are formed out of the original one, both of which have the same movement.’ What happens in the case of the fetations is on the same lines. The normal part and the redundant one are usually attached quite close to one another, although sometimes they are farther away because of the movement which arises in the fetation, and above all because (a) the excess of material recurs again at the place from which it was originally drawn off, and (6) the form which it has is derived from the part where it developed as a redundancy.° Some creatures develop in such a way that they have two generative organs [one male, the other female]... Always, when this redundancy happens, one of the two is operative and the other inoperative; it goes back to where it came from, viz., X; thus a Y is - formed at X. 441 772 b 773 a 30 ARISTOTLE)! )AH4448) T@ Kara, THY Tpopiy dé dpravpodobar dre mapa giow 6 ov, tmpoorepuke 5° worrep TO. popara Kal yop. Taira AapBaver Tpopiy, Kaitep ovTa bore yer Kal Tapa pvow. _ yiverou dé Kparfoavros es TOD Snpwoupyobyros Spore, dvo Kal Kpa i odes av, de Th pev KpaTnon a) de Kparndi plev OAjdv 70 de dippev" oddev yap Siadeper TobTo Aéyew emt TOV bopiov 7 emt 700 oAov, be Ty 35 aitiav yiverar, TO ev OAAv TO 8 dppev. 000, | or eMetrrovra. yiverat TOV ToLwovTwv Hopiwv, “2 v aKpwrnpiov Twos 7) TOV doy, peddr, THY aairny det vopilew aitiay jvmep Kal eay dAov' 70. yuope- vov duPrwOh, apPrdces d€ yivovrar moAAat Tav KUNLaTwV. [Avagepovor 3 at pev Tapapvces THIS rohwroxtas Tov elpynuevov Tpdtrov, Ta Sé TépaTa TovTwWY Ta moAAd elvan avdrav* ovppvow. | Arr ~ A TIO BOrr PEWOLENED "TOP Rev aOerae Slap. ware THs vAns peOiorapevs. év 8° elvar to C@ov To Tepar des 7) mAciw oupmepunora Set vomilew Kara THY apy, 10 olov. ef Towodrdv eoTw 1) Kapdia [optov, TO fev pulav €xov Kapdiav ev CHov, ta dé mAcovalovta popia mapadices, Ta dé mAciw exovra. dvo prev elvar, ovpmedukevar dé dia tiv Tav Konpdrov ovvaryuw. LupPaiver S¢ modAdnis Kal. trav od Soxovyrww dvamrnpeov elvat Coswv mroAXois 75m TereAcvopevors 15 rovs pev ouparepureva Tov Topwv todvs d€ Tap- exrerpapbas. Kal yap O7Aeci Tiow Sn TO ordpa TOV borepav oupuTepuKos duereAevev, 789 8 dpas ovons TOV Karapnviay Kal mOvwv emuyuyvopeveny® tais pev adrouatov eppayn, tats 0° dbo latpav SunpeOn: tas dé diapbapiva ovverecev 7 Praias* 20 yevomevns THs prgews 7 yeveobar pr) Svvapevys. kal Tdv Taidwy éeviots od} KaTa TO avTO ouVéemeEcE ~ / \ , ‘ TO Tépas TOO aidoiov Kal 6 mdpos H SiepyeTat TO \ > a / > > / TEpiTTWUA TO EK Ths KUoTEwWs, GAN’ broKdtwhev: / ~ ~ \ » > duo Kal Kabypevor otpotor, Tav S5é Opyewv ave- / ” a a ” 7 / omacpevwv avw doKxodar Tots damobev org OnAcos 25 €xew aidotov Kal dppevos. 70m dé Kal 6 THs Enpas Tpopys* Topos auptrepuKas € emi TLWV Cabwv YEVENS : Tapert pemopeveav Ps 2 énvyryvonevwy Ps yeyvouevwy vulg. 3 Biaias P: Big. vulg. 4 fort. supplendum: exitum superfluitatis siece dX. : 444: GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. wv. kidneys. Also, there are instances of the parts changing their position, due to diversion of the “ movements ”’ and change of position of the material. Whether an animal which is a monstrosity is to be reckoned as one or as several grown together depends upon its “ principle ” ; thus, assuming that the heart is a part answering to this description,* a creature which ‘possesses one heart will be one animal, and any supernumerary parts will be merely redundant growths ; those, however, which have more than one heart we shall reckon as being two, which have grown together owing to the conjoining of the fetations. It often happens, even with many animals that do (@ Other not appear to be deformed and have actually reached formations. complete development, that some of their passages have grown together, and that others have been diverted. We know of instances of women in whom the os uteri was grown together and continued so until the time arrived for the menstrual discharge to begin and pain came on ; in some, the passage burst open of its own accord, in others, it was separated by physicians ; and in some cases, where the opening either was forcibly made or could not be made at all, the patients succumbed. There have been in- stances of boys in whom the termination of the penis has not, coincided with the passage through which the residue from the bladder passes out, so that the passage came too low; and on this account they sit in order to pass water, and when the testes are drawn up they seem from a distance to have. both male and female generative organs. There have also been instances in certain animals, sheep and others too, where the passage (for the * Viz., the ** principle.” 445 ARISTOTLE ; AH twiwig? 773 a Kal TpoPdtwv Kat aNewv, € érei Kai Bods ev [lepivbw eyeveto F Sia Tis KVoTEWS Aenrn Sin foupern tpodi Sieywper, Kal dvarpnbévros Tod apxod taxd addy avvepvero , Kal oUK émeKpaTouV Suaipodvres. Pe 30 Tlept bev odv odvyoToKias Kal ToAvtoias | Kal mepi ‘pdoews Tav mAcovalovTwy 7 eMdeurdvreov* popiwy, ére dé mrepl TOV Teparwday, elpyrat. viet vi V Tév 8 Cwv Ta pev 6AwWS OdK emiKvioKETaL TA oe emuKviokerat, Kal TOV emruKvioKopevenv Ta [Lev 35 SUvarau Ta Kunpara extpepew, Ta dé more pev mote & ov. Tob dé en emucvioxesbae ¢ aiizvoy ort 773 b povoToKa €oTiv. Td TE yap peovoxa ‘obK. em: KviokeTar Kal Ta TovTwv peilova: dia yap. TO péyebos TO mepirrwpa dvaAioKerat eis TO Konya. méou yap dmapxer péyebos ToUTOLS GwWpaTos, TOV de peyddoy Kat Ta eEuBpva peydAa Kata Adyov €or: b10 Kal to Ta&v eAcddvtwy euBpvov HAiKov HOaxos eoTly. Ta d€ moduToKa emikviokerar Bia TO Kal TOY TAcLovwr® 708 évos. eivau Barépy Ad-repov emikdnua. Tovtwy d doa pev péyebos exer, Kab- ; darep dvOpwros, €av pev 7) érépa dxela THs érTépas 10 yevnyra mapeyyes, eKTpepet TO emucunbev" 787 yap @rrat TO Tovwdrov _ cup BeBnKes. aittov 8€ 76 nc datas Kal yap ev TH pd ovvovata meiov” 70 or 1 repi dvcews scripsi: dispositionem X: mapa ¥ tabi Btf.: TEpt Tapapvoews P: mapadicews vulg. 24 eMeumovreny om. 3 Kal TOv mAevovwr P, ALWit ra metova vulg. ; ; sed propter parvitatem corporis filii & pro dia . . . em«dnpa. * Superfetation is a very abnormal occurrence. It happens when a later ovum is fertilized as a result of coitus during 446 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. tv.-v. residue) of the solid nourishment was grown to- gether ; in fact, in Perinthus a cow was born which used to pass finely-sifted nourishment through the bladder. They cut its anus open, but it quickly grew together again, and they did not succeed in keeping it apart. We have now discussed the production of few off- spring and many, the nature of supernumerary or deficient parts, and also monstrosities. In some animals superfetation * does not occur at V all, in others it does ; and among the latter some are able to complete the nourishing of the fetations, others can sometimes do it and sometimes not. The reason why in some animals superfetation does not occur is that they produce one offspring only. Thus, it does not occur in solid-hoofed animals and in larger animals than these, because on account of their size the residue goes to the fetation and gets used up. _ All of these have large bodies, and large animals have large embryos, proportionate to their size ; that is why the embryo of an elephant is as big as a calf. Superfeta- tion, however, does occur in animals which produce numerous offspring at a birth, because where there are more than a single offspring one is really a super- fetation upon another. Of these animals, those that are large, such as man, complete the nourishing of the second fetation, if the second copulation has taken place not long after the first; such an occurrence has in fact been observed. The reason is as already stated : Even in a single act of intercourse the semen pregnancy. The young resulting from the second coitus are usually born at the same time as those resulting from the first coitus, but are: smaller. See F. H. A. Marshall, Physi- ology of Reproduction® (1922), 154. 447 Super- fetation. ARISTOTLE: Oi TANYA amiov €or. omépya, 6 pepioev tovet oAvToKelv, dv vorepile: Oatepov.' drav 8 709 rod Kuiporos ménpevou oupph yiveotat THY dxelay, ETUKULOKETOL 15 ev mote, oAvydkis pévtor bua TO THY voTEpay ouppwew ws Ta TOAAG pexpe TOV Kuau/lenanherte yovakiv. av dé ovpBhh moré (Kal yap Tod7’ Pm yéeyovev), od Stvarau TeAevodv, aAAa Kuqpar ék- Tepe TapatAnova Tots KaAoupevois eKTPwWLAOW. 7 ‘ > ‘& ~ / \ ‘ / na woTrep yap emt Tv povoToKwv dua TO peyebos eis 20 76 Tpotimdpyov TO TEpitTwLA TpéTEeTAL TGV, OTW x / \ > / \ > , Zire > Kat TovTois, ANY ékelvois pev EevOUsS, TovToIs 8 ~ , otav avéybA to EuBpvov: tore yap €xovor mapa- aA Ul TAnoiws Tots povoToKois. dpoiws dé dia TO TOV avOpwrov dtoct todutéKov elvar, Kat mepieivail Tt TH peyeler ris dorépas Kal TOO MEpUrrth ars, al 25 LevTOL TODOUTOV WaTE ETEPOV eKTpEpEL”, pepo, TOV Cobwv oyelav éemidéyovras KvobvTa yuri) Kal timmos, ¢ \ A \ > 4 a s of 8 7 8 / pev Oia TIV etpnuevnv airiav, 4 8 tmmos Bud coal / ‘ my yt Te Thy THs Pdcews oTEppdTnTa® Kal TO mepLEtval Ti THS baTépas pweyeOos, tA€ov prev 7) TH Evi, EAaT- , a of ” > h , me, tov d€ 7 wote dAdo emKvioxeafar Tédevov. ore 30 dé dvoet dppob.ovacuKoy dua. TO TabTo tetovbévat Tois atTeppots: ekeivd Te yap rowabr eoti dud TO 4 1 gv... Oarepov haud sanum videtur. 2 éxnéurmer P: exminre vulg. = j PSY oTEpedTyTa ‘ @ Viz., those which produce more than one offspring. » See 748 a 15 ff. 448 eS ee ee GENERATION OF: ANIMALS, IV“V. discharged is more than sufficient, and this when divided up into portions causes the production of numerous offspring, one of which is later than another. When, however, the fetation is already advanced in its growth before the copulation takes place, super- fetation sometimes occurs, but infrequently, because in ‘women the uterus generally closes up during the time of pregnancy. But if ever it does happen (as in fact it has been. Jenawel to. do), the mother) cannot bring second one. to completion, but ejects feta- tions that are very similar to what are known as abortions. The situation is comparable with that in the one-offspring animals, in which, on account of their size, all the residue is directed to the already existing embryo. So too it happens in these animals,* except that in the former it happens straight away, whereas*in these it happens when the embryo is already advanced in growth, because then their con- dition is similar to that of the one-offspring animals, Similarly, because man is by nature an animal which produces numerous offspring, and because there is something over and to.spare as regards the size both of the uterus and of the residue (though not enough to bring the nourishing of a second embryo to com- pletion), women and mares are the only animals which admit copulation while they are with young. / In . Women it is due.to the reason already stated; in mares it is due to the barrenness of their nature,? and because the size of their uterus has something over and to spare—there is more than enough room for one, but not sufficient for a second fetation to be brought to completion. Also, mares are by nature prone to sexual intercourse because they are in the same predicament.as females which. are. barren— Q 449 773 b 7744 ARISTOTLE § 3). 14 p23) yivecBaw Kd0apow (robito 8 €or’ @omep_a Tots appear TO _appodiardoa) kal immo at Frprevat qcvora mpotevrat KdBapow. ev maou d€ Tots Swo- ToKODL TA OTEPpA TOV OnAéwy ddpodiaagrixd dia. 70 mapamAnotas, exewv Tots dppeaw, OTav 35 ovveeypevov bev.) TO omrépya, on dtoxpwdpevov d€.. Tots yap DijAcow 7 Tov Karapnvio: KdBbapars omépparos €€0d0s éeotw: oT. yap Ta KaTapHvia o7réppia amenTov, aomep elpyrau mporepov. hte) Kal TOV yovark dv doa Tpds THY Opircay ‘axpareis THY rovavrny, OTay TrodvroKnawar, mavovrai This 5 TTONTEWS’ JexkeKpypevn yap 7) OTEppLaTiKy repit- TwOLS, ovKETL. TLOLEL Tis opArias Tavrys jemPopiay. év d€ Tols dpyicw. at OrjAcvaw TaY dppévery AtTOv elow ddpodioiactixal dua TO pds TH brrolw@pare Tas borépas Exel, Ta 8 dppeva Tobvaytiov av coro pevovs yap éyet Tovs Opyeis evTds, WoT” av 104 7c yevos. T@v ToLovTwv [opvideov |? dvoet o7rep- pariKoy, ael detoBat THS OptAtas TavTNS. Tots pev ovv Oyreoe 70 KaTw KaraBatvew Tas dorépas, Tots 5 appeot TO dvacmacba Tovs Opxets Puneet 7po0 6800 mpos Thy oxelav. Av. a pev ovv aitiay Ta peey ovK emuxvloKerau 15 mavTeAds, Ta 8? emixvioxerat pévy 7a S€ Kuypara > 4 ¢ \ \ e«.\ ie a \ 8 A 49> 3. f EKTPEPEL OTE [Lev OTE Ov, KaL OLA TLV aiTiaY Ta pev dppodioiaoriKd Ta 8 ovK appodioracriicd T@V TOLOUTWY eoTiV, ElpynTat. 1 7 Platt: vo vulg. 2 seclusi ; opvideoy tovrwy P, fortasse scribendum ore bid TO Tobro 70 yevos elvar dice. orepparikdv KTA. (et indigent miulto coitu propter multitudinem spermatis naturaliter X.) 450 a GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. v since this also is a condition due to there being no evacuation (which corresponds to the emission of semen in the. male), and mares discharge extremely little evacuation. Further, in all the Vivipara. those females which are barren. are_prone to sexual in- tm whe they are in a similar condition when their, semen is ready, collected together,? but is not being emitted, the evacuation of the menstrual fluid in females being the emission of semen, since, as has been stated earlier, the menstrual fluid is “semen that “is unconcocted. © Hence, tod, those ‘women who are incontinent in “the matter of*'sexual intércourse, cease from their passionate excitement when they have’ borne several children, because once the seminal residue has been expelled from the body it no longer pro- duces the desire for this intercourse. Among birds the females are less sexually excitable than the males because their uterus is close up. by. the diaphragm, whereas the males, on the contrary, have their testes drawn up internally,? so that if any class of such creatures tends naturally to abound in semen, they are always wanting to have sexual intercourse. Thus in females it is the descent of the uterus which encourages copulation, whereas in males itis the abawinis up of the testicles. ~ We have'now stated the cause on account of which superfetation does not occur at all in some animals, why it does occur in others, and why these can some- times bring the nourishing of the fetation to comple- tion, sometimes not ;. and what is the cause why of such animals some are prone to sexual intercourse and others not. * Cf. T17 b 25, 718 a 6 ff. ' ® See 717 b.10 ff. 451 TT4 a 774 b ARISTOTLE) 1} A 1480 "Evia b€ Trav emuxvioKopevav Kab mohov xpovov Svadevrovons Ths dxelas dvvarat TH Kur Lara. extpepew, 6 oowv OTE p[LATUKOV TE TO ‘yevos €orl Kal 20 p17) TO CGpa peyeBos Eyer Kal t@v ToAvToKwY cori: dia puev yap TO ToAvTOKEV edpyywpiav exer TiS | vorépas, dia 5€ TO omeppatiKov elvat’ odd mpoterat Tepitrwpa Tis Kabdpoews: dia dé TO pa) TO o@pa peyebos EXE, dAAd. mciovt Ady THY kdbapow drrepBadrcw THS cis. TO KUNLO Tpodips, 25 SUvaTai. TE guviardvan" Coa xal Borepov Kat TadT” exTpeper. ert 0 at dorépae TOV ToLovre. ov ouppepvKacr id Td Tmeptetvae, epitTmpa, Tihs Kkabdpoews. toto dé Kau emt yuvarKkay 787 ovpBeBnxev: yiverau yap TLOL Kvovoais «dapors Kal dia réAovs. aAAa Tatrais pev mapa dvow 30 (810 BAdmres tO KUynpa), Tots S€ ToLOvTOIs TOV Ciwv Kata dvow cttw yap TO cBpua cvvéornKev e€ apyfs, olov ro TOv SacuTddav* Tobro yap emt- Kuioxerat TO CHov* ovTE yap Tov peydAwy eri modvToKov TE (modvayidés yap, Ta de mrohvoxwOyj mroAvToKa,) Kat OTEppariKdy.. dnAot o 7 Sacvrns: 35 drrepBaMer yap TOU TPLXBPATOS TO NAbos: Kat yap bro TOUS sm08as Kal. €vTOos Tay ydbwy tob7 exel tpixas povov TaV dur. a) dé Sagvrns on- petov mAnOovs mepittw@patos €or, S10, Kal TeV 1 cunotdava A.-W.: avvicracba vulg... * T use (a), (6), and (ce) to mark respectively the same characteristic all through this passage for clarity of reference. @ Lit., ‘is seminal’’; 7.¢e., the males abound in semen and the females in menstrual fluid (which is unconcocted semen). » i.e., the embryos produced by way of superfetation. 452 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. v. Some of those animals in which superfetation occurs are able to bring to completion the nourishing of their fetations even when there is a long interval between the copulations ; these are animals which (a)* belong to some kind which is abundant in semen,* (6) are not large in bodily size,:and (c) are among those which produce numerous offspring ; the reason being that (c)* because they produce numerous off- spring their uterus is roomy, (a) because they are abundant in semen they discharge a great deal of residue by way of evacuation, (b) because they are not large in bodily size; but the evacuation exceeds by a larger measure the nourishment which goes to the fetation, they are able to cause young animals to take shape at the later stage too® and to bring their nourishing to completion. Also, in such animals the uterus does not close up; because there is a surplus amount of residue by way of evacuation. This has occurred to our knowledge in the case of women: in some women evacuation continues throughout the time of pregnancy. In them, however, it is contrary to nature (that is why it injures the fetation) ; but in the animals we are discussing it is natural, because that is the way in which their body took shape from the beginning. The hare is an example of this. This is an animal in which superfetation occurs, for (6)* it is not one of the large animals, (c) it produces numerous offspring (since it is fissipede, and fissipede animals produce numerous offspring), and (a) it is abundant in semen. This is shown by its hairiness. It has an excessive amount of hair ; indeed, it has hair under the feet and inside the jaws, and is the only animal which does so, This hairiness is a sign that it has a large amount of residue ; and for this 453 774b VI 5 f 4 1ADARISTOTLE IT ANII“AD avOpuirrwv ot daceis tideh padternorrsncbt Kal moAv- Bireppiot peaddov etot TOV Aelwy. “6 ev odv Saaowous 0. pev Tay Kunudtov aren TodAdKes. hey a d€ mpoterat TereReLanpeva, TOV TEKVWV. Tév d€ Cwordkwy Ta psy amen aTpoterau, toa Ta S€ rereAcwpéva, TA ev povuxa rereAewupeve Kal Ta Sixnrd, Tav be moAvaxiBOv dteAq 7a" moNAd. Tovrou 8° aitwov OTL Ta pev MeVUXA MovOTOKE éort, Ta, de Suynrd j oT] Sat i] ketvat ere 7, mont, 10 pddiov S€ 7a dAiya exrpédew. | Tav 5é ToAvoyiddv doa areAh tikret, mdvra TodvTéKa* S10 véa pev ovta SvvaTat TO Kunpara Tpepew,” bray. 8 adtnO Kat AdBy péyebos, ov duvapévou 700 -ow@paros extpédew, mpoterar Kabarep Ta cKWANKOTOKA TOV Cdiwv. Kai yap rovtwv Td pev adiapOpwra oxedov 15 yerva, Kabdmep addy dpxtos A€wv, mapamAy- a k 2 1f. STADES? aiws 8 eva Kal tov dw: tudda de ava / e “~ / \ ” "4 uA hy , ; axed0v, olov raira te Kal ru Kbwy AvKos Adds. poovov dé) moduréKov dv 1% bs TeAcLoTOKEl, Kat 2 G A rigs : A pee ae fee emaAAdtTret TodTo jidvov: moAvToKe? pev yap ws Ta ToAvaxiOy,” SuxnAdov 8 €ati Kat pavuxov: ciot KON: EXR uv“ +} 20 yap mov pwvuxes tes. . ToAvTOKEL ev odv bia TO 7a. P: om. vulg. m dua PS: exrpepew vulg. 3 ds todvexidA LZ: as brodveysien PY. @ But see the proviso at 771 b 5 ff. > i.e., in an eager condition. ° See H.A. 499 b 12. The solid-hoofed is the more un- usual variety. 454 7 - GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. v.-vr. same reason, too,.men that are hairy are more prone to sexual intercourse and have more semen than men that are smooth. As for the hare, often some.of its fetations are. imperfect ; others of its offspring, however, it brings to birth in a perfected state. Among the Vivipara, some bring their young to VI birth in a perfect, some in an imperfect, state. To nepal the former. class belong the solid-hoofed and the at birth. cloven-hoofed animals, to the latter most of the fissipede animals.’ The reason for this'is thatthe solid- hoofed animals produce one at:a birth, the cloven- hoofed animals produce either one or two, in general, and it is an easy matter to bring the nourishing of a few to completion. . Those fissipede animals which produce their offspring in an imperfect.state, all pro- duce numerous offspring, and on that account while the fetations are quite young they are able to nourish them, but once they haye advanced in growth and have attained some size their bodies are unable to bring the nourishing of them to completion, and so discharge them just as the larva-producing animals do,? for indeed their young, like the larvae, are practi- cally unarticulated when born, e .g., those of the fox, the bear, the lion, and similarly with some of the others ; moreover, practically all of them are blind, e.g., the ones just mentioned, and in addition those of the dog, the wolf, and the jackal. The only animal which produces numerous offspring that are perfectly formed is the pig ; thus it is the only one which has a footing in both classes : (a) it produces numerous off- spring, as the fissipede animals do, but (0) it is a species which is cloven-hoofed and solid-hoofed—for solid- hoofed pigs exist, as we know.* It produces numer- ous offspring because the nourishment available for 455 ‘NRISTOTDEL OFT UDI AO TIV eis TO péyeBos tpopny eig THY oTEppwariKny drroxpiveoBat Tepitrmow* TOTO yap. se fisdogy dv" ovK Exet péyeos. dua be Kal padov , Bomrep dppoByroby TH poe TH Trav Havixer, Ben ddy COTW, Sud. pev obv TOTO Kal povoToKeEl ToTE. Kal 25 Siroxet. Kai modvutoKet Ta TA€iora,. excrpe per & Ls els TéAos dua THY TOO oeparos ebBootar: EXEL yap “os mleipa, yn puTots t beavyy Kal Sayedt Tpopyy. Veils Téerovor 8 dteAq Kal Tuprd Kal Tay. opvibeow TWES, , Ogot mohvtoKovow avray, pay oopdrey exovTes peyebos, olov Kopavn KiTTa. or. yeAuddves, Kal TOV ddvyoroKovwrwy (6 6oa pr SaiprH 30 Tpodiy OUVERTIKTEL Tots TEKVOUS, olov parra Kal Tpvyav Kal Tmepworepa. Kal dia TobTo Ta yert~ Sovev eav Tig ert vewv oYTw prion 7 opparra, - Taw dyidlovrat” ywopevav yap ara nip eee peeveny pbetpovran,” didmep pdovrat Kal n 35 vovow €& dpx7s. dAws de mpotepet Lev Tis Te- Aevoyovias Sua THv aSuvaplav rod exrpédew, atedH 774 b 1 dy P: om. vulg. 2 wore P: om. wulg. 3 dOctpovrar Y : dbetpovor P': dbeiperat vulg. <4 @ The distinction which Aristotle makes here psastisiMe to the distinction now made between nidicolous birds (those here described) and nidifugous birds. The former are born blind, the latter can see at birth. e Or; magpie. ¢ See table of birds, Pi - 368.) ‘ 4 i.e., not enough yolk, * The origin of this story is not clear. It cannot be true if ‘‘ put out” means “ removed,” but lesser degrees of injur might be followed by repair and recovery of function. iN somewhat similar phenomenon is the well-known “‘ Wolftian regeneration ’’ in amphibia, where after removal of the lens of the eye a new lens) regenerates from the margin of the. iris, i.e., from a place other than that of its normal origin, 456 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. v1. increase of size is secreted to yield seminal residue— since, for a solid-hoofed animal, the pig is not large in size ; atthe same time and more commonly, it is cloyen- -hoofed, as though it were at odds with the nature of the solid-hoofed animals. On account of this, then, it not only produces sometimes one off- spring, and two, but also and for the most part it produces numerous offspring, and it brings’ their nourishing to completion because of its fine physical condition: it is like a rich soil which can provide plants, with sufficient and indeed abundant nourish- ment. _ The offspring of some. of the. birds aed are ¢ hatched in an imperfect state, and blind*; viz.,of those which lay numerous eggs although they themselves are small in physique—e. .g-, the crow, the jay, sparrows, and swallows ®; and of those birds which lay few eggs and yet do not provide inthe egg abundant nourishment ¢ for the chick—e.g., the ring-dove, the turtle-dove, and the pigeon. And-on this account, if the eyes of a swallow are deliberately put out while the bird is still young, they recover, because the injury is inflicted during the process of their forma- tion and not after its completion ; that is why they grow and spring up afresh.’ In general, then, the reason why offspring are born early before their formation is perfected, is because of inability to bring their nourishing to completion ; and the reason why they are born in an imperfect state is because they viz., the young skin. This may happen many times in succession if the experiment is repeated. The connexion between regeneration and embryonic growth is well grasped by Aristotle, but there are of course some animals, such as the newts, where the power of regeneration is retained throughout adult life (ef. H.A. 508 b 4 ff.). 457 | A VARISTOBLED 7 (1499 774 b : dé yiverau dia 7d mpotepeiv. SiAov S€ TobTo Kat 75a ent Taviénrapjvwv: di yap TO aed ‘elvar moA- AdKus Evia adbrdv yiverar obd€ Tods We pabs éxovra ma dinpOpwyevovs, -olov’ Wrwv kal’ pe Kernpeny, GAN’ eravéavopuevors is gt Kat Biodor TOA, TOV TowvTwr. : ni Diverau de dudorpa paNov ey. tots dvOpdrous 5 7a Gppeva, Tay Onréwy, év 6 Tots dAdo, ovbev paArov. airvov 3 dre €v tots’ avOpctrors r0Ad diaheper TO dppev Tod OjAeos Hh Deppdrnre THs picews, 510 KUNTUKET Epa €oTt Kvovpeva Ta GppEva. tov Onréwr: bud 6€ 70 Kwvetoban Ppaderen t paMov- edpOaprov" yap 76, véov Sud. riy dobeverav. Sia > : ¥ 10 THY avrny dé radrny airiay Kal zehevodrat 7a Orca, Tots dppeaw ovx opoiws: at yap torépae ~ adra@y ovx Opoiws €xovow: | ev Oe Tois), adAots labous dpotws TeAcodTau: ovdev yap dorepet’ ms Odea TOV dippeveov @omepy" ev tais’’ ev pev yap TH penrtpt ev mA€iove xpoven buaxpiveras TO OAAv Tod dppevos, eEeADobar' 8e mdvra mpo- TEpov emireAcirat, ofoy mBq Kal aKpn Kal yipas, tots @jAcow 7 Tois appeow: “atherottee vee 1 edpBaprov PZ: edOpaveror vulg. 2 supplevi; quoniam. matrices earum sunt otumdiuak modum divisum (leg. diversum 3) v,1. sunt diversae sec. modum eorum). in aliis autem animalibus non apparet diversitas in complemento creationis feminarum et masculorum quoniam non est in feminis diminutio a maribus X :. in aliis,autem animalibus similiter; nichil- enim tardat femella plus mas- culo, sicut_in mulieribus. Gul.. Moerb. teste, Bussemaker ; similia ex Gul. vers. suppleverat Schneider, ed. H,A. vol. iy. 443, 3 eéeModar Peck: e&eABdvra PSYZ: e&eAPdvTww Bekker. 458 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. v1. are born early. This is plain, indeed, in the case of seven months’ children: in some of them, when they are born, because they are imperfect, even the pass- es (e.g., those of the ears and nostrils) are often not yet fully. articulated ; as the child grows, however, they become articulated. Many such individuals survive. | In human beings, more males are born deformed than females; in other animals, there is no pre- ponderance either way. The reason is that in human beings the male is much hotter in its nature than the female, On that account male eal eits tend to move about more than female ones,’ and owing to their moving about they get broken more, since a young creature can easily be destroyed owing to its weakness.’ And it is due to this self-same cause that the perfecting of female embryos is inferior to that of male ones, (since their uterus is inferior in con- dition.» In other animals, however, the perfecting of female embryos is not inferior to that of male ones: they are not any later in developing than the males, as they are)° in women, for while still within the mother, the female takes longer to develop than the male does*; though once birth has taken place everything reaches its perfection sooner in females than in males—e.g., puberty, maturity, old age—because females’ are weaker and colder in * Cf. HLA. 584 a 26 ff. .» i.e. it is colder, because the nature of women is colder than that of other female animals, as is stated immediately above, and below; cf. also 776 a 10, where women are said to be alone in suffering from uterine affections, again owin to lack of heat, resulting in inability to concoct; an 775 a 30 ff. © See app. crit. # Cf. H.-A. 583 b 22 ff. 459 775 a ARISTOTLE! i! / 3!) 40 15 €ore Kal Puxporepa Ta Orydea TH guow, ‘kat det drohapBavew & Gomep. avarrn play ‘aa TH Onddrara Vier PuoLKyy éow ev ody Siaxpiverau bua THY pe : xpornra Bpadews (7) yap Suakpeats. mehis . €oti, metre. 5° %) Oepudorns, evremrov d€ TO Yepporepov), > ‘ \ \ \ > / ‘ / ure extos be did 7H. acbévevav TAX) ouvamres -mpos 20 THY dcpeny Kal TO yipas: mavra yap. Ta, Adrrw ™pos 70, TéAOs epxerat Dorror, Gomep Kal. ev. Tots Kata Téxvynv Epyots, Kal ev-rois tro dvaews ovv- werapevors. dia TO ‘eipnpevov 8 airwov Kai év pev tots avOpwmois Ta Siduporokoupeva OFAv kat appev ATTOv ouheras, ev d€ Tots dMors obbev 25 Yrtev: Tots pev yap Tapa puow TO icodpapieiv, odK ev icous Xpovois yevoperns rhs dvaxpicews, aAN’ avayken TO appev verepey 9H TO OnAv- mpo- TIPS ev d€ Tois aAAots ov Tapa. puow. ovpBaives d¢ Kai Siahopa repli Tas KUnGEIS emi TE TOV av- Opdimwv Kat emt tov ddAwv Cawv Ta pev yap 30 edOnvet GAAov Tots owpact Tov mAcoToV xpovor, Tov dé yuvask ay at moAAat Suapopovot wept TH Kuno. gore pv. ody airiyte,tovrov' Kat dia tov Biov: édpaiar yap obcav mdAciovos. yépovet TEpLTTWpPATOS, Emel Ev ols EOveo. TovNTLKOS 6 TOV yuvairav Bios, ov8? % Kdnows Spotws éenidndéds 35 €o7l, TikTOVal Te padiws KaKel Kal mavTayoD at 1 rovrov Platt: rovrwv vulg. * Of. 767 b 9, and see Introd. § 13.- 460 i i ile es ee CC GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. vt. their nature; and we should look upon the female state as being as it were a deformity, though one which occurs in the ordinary course of nature.?_ While it is within the mother, then, it develops slowly on account of its coldness, since development is.a sort of concoction, concoction is effected by heat, and if a is hotter its concoction is easy; when, however, it is free from the mother, on,account of its weakness it quickly approaches its maturity and_old age, since inferior things all reach their end more quickly, and this applies to those which take their shape under the hand of Nature just as much as to the products of the arts and crafts. The reason which I have just stated aceounts also for the fact that (a) in human beings twins survive less well if-one is male and the other female, but (5) in other animals they survive just as well: in human beings it is contrary to nature for the two sexes to keep pace with each other, male and’ female requiring unequal periods for their develop- ment to take place ; the male is bound to be late or the female early ; whereas in the other animals equal speed is not contrary to nature. There is also a difference between human beings and the other animals with regard to gestation. Other animals are most of the time in better physical condition, whereas the majority of women suffer discomfort in connexion with gestation. Now the cause of this is to some ~ extent attributable to their manner of life, which is sedentary, and this means that they are full of resi- due ; they have more of it than the other animals. This is borne out by the case of those tribes where the women live a life of hard work. With such women gestation is not so obyious, and they find delivery an easy business, And so do women eyerywhere who 461 VWARISTOTLE) PT Aji Ag 775 a . . . | r eiwOviat movely: avadloKer “yap. 6 mdvos 7a \EptT- Tobpara, rats s eOpaiais € evuTrdpyer 7oAAG Toudra dud ay drroviay Kal TO yi, yiveoBae i poets 175 b Kvovaais; % Te @dis emizovds. €oTW: 6 mdvos yopwater TO med pa wore Svvacbau Kar EXEW, ev @ TO TikTew €oTi pydios 7 q xadet@s. ore pen, oov, ’ Morep eipyrat, Kai Tadra ovpPadrAopeva mpods Tv - 6tadhopav tod madous Tots dAAows Cpois Kat tats 5 yuvarki, pdduota 6° ort Tots pev adrav dAlyr ylverat Kd0apots, Tots. 8’ odK émidm)os. dAws, Tais dé yovaug mAcloTn TeV Sun, wore Ha) yivoperns THs erekpioews dud. Thy Konow tais pev Tapaxnv Tape et: Kal yap pn Kvovoats, OTav ai Kabdpoets }2) ylyveyr ar, vocot cupBatvovaw* Kat 70 mp@rov 10 d€. Taparrovrat guMaBodoar' paddrov at. mdetorat TOY yuvakav: 76 yap. Kina kaddew per. Sivarar — ras Kabdpoes, Sia puxpdtyra dé oddev avadtoKer TAHV0s Tob Trepirreparos TO Tp@tov, vorepov’ Se Koupilet peraAapBdvov: ev d€ Tots dMous Lepots ud 15 TO oAtyov elvas oUppeTpov yiverat TPs Thy abénow TOV euBpdwr, Kal dvadokopeveny TOV TEpLTTW- pdtv TOv eumodilovtwy Thy Tpopny ednpepel Tots owpact paddov. Kal ev tots evddpors Tov adrov TpoTov Kal ev Tots dpyiow. dn dé peyddAwy ywonevwy TOV Kunudtwv, doous pnkéet. ovpPaiver 1 ovAdaPotoa P: Pse eaaergee “_ * Cf. H.A, 587 a1 ff., and see De somno et vig. 456 a 16 “ strength is required for causing ‘ movement,’ and strength 462 | GENERATION: OF ANIMALS, IV. vr. are used to hard work. The reason is that the effort of working uses up the residues, whereas sedentary women have a great deal of such matter in their bodies owing to the absence of effort, as well as, to the cessation. of the menstrual discharges during gestation; and they find the pains of delivery severe. Hard work, on the other hand, gives the breath (pneuma) exercise, so that they can hold it ¢; and it is this which determines whether delivery is easy or difficult. All these things, then, as we have said, are in their way factors producing the difference in gesta- tion as between women and the other animals ; but the chiéf one is that whereas in some animals there is but little: menstrual evacuation, and in others no visible evacuation at all; in women it is greater in‘ « volume than in any other animal; ; and the result of this is that when it is not being discharged owing to pregnancy it causes them trouble (and indeed even apart from pregnancy, when the menstrual discharge fails to take place diseases are the result) ; and most women are troubled in this way rather more at the begi , Just after they have conceived, because although the fetation is able to prevent the evacua- tion, yet as it is so small it does not at first use up any amount of the residue ; afterwards, when it does take up some of it, it relieves the trouble. In the other animals, however, as there is but little of it, its amount is just right for the growth of the embryos ; and as the residues which obstruct the nourishment get used up, the animals are in better physical condition. The same applies to water-animals and to birds. The reason why some animals are no longer in good is supplied by the holding of the breath.” Cf. also’ M.A. 703 a 18,9; P.A. 659 b 18, 667 a 29; and App. B §§ 22 ff. 463 (ARISTOTLE |) 775 b 20 This reference cannot be found. 465 176 a ARISTOTLE’ OV ASA AD varetv Kal od dvvacbat Tedevoat 0d enbetvar 5 TH yeveoe mépas" 810 al ovykataynpdoker 4 Tro Eepever xXpdvov" ovre yap ws Tetecopevov" 080” cs mdpaay aAAdr prov exeu THY iow): Tis yap oKAnporntos x arreypia aitia: drepia ydp THs KaL 1 pedhuvats* €oTw. Atroptay oS Exel, dud. tt mor’ ev Tots d Mors oid 10 yiverar Caous, et oy TL dprrav AdAnOev. aitov de VIII 15 20 det vopilew dtu povov dsarepikdv eat yur) TOV dAAwy Cwowv, Kat mept tas Kabdpoeis mAcovdler Kat od dvvatau mérrew adrds* orav obv ex dvo- mémrov ikpuados ovorh TO KUNA, TOTE yiveran 7) Kadovpevn pan ev tats yovarelv edrAdyws 7) paint 7) povats’. To dé yaha yiverau trois OiAcow doa Lusnrdet ev adrots XprjouLov pev ets Tov Xpovov ‘Tov TOO tOKOU, Tijs yap tpodiis xdpw | Avro Tis Odpale erroinaev 1 pvous Tots S@ous, WoT ovr éMetrrew avTo ev TO xpovep rovTw odbev ov? drrepBdMew odbev: OTrEp. Kal daiverar oupntaroy, av, yevnra Tapa vow. Tots pev ov dois ie dud TO TOV xpovov eva. THs. KUnTEWS: elvat, mpos TobTov amav7ad Tov Katpov 7 mé{us adrod: Tots & avOpwrrots €rret TrAcious oi ypdovol, KaTa TOV TPA@TOV avayKaiov vmdapyew: 10 mpo Tav. énta pnvadv dxpynorov To ydAa rais yuvoréi, Tore S dH yiverar 1 rerekeopevoy P: tereAcuwpevov vulg. z pod. codd. 59 . * xpjoyov pév, because although it serves a purpose, it is also (ll. 25 ff.) due to necessity in the sense that its forma- tion follows. inevitably from the circumstances, as Aristotle explains. > See 772 b 5 ff. and H.A. 584 a 33. 466 ——__. = +. >. GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. vo.—viit. some inability, and is unable to. complete her work and to bring the process of formation to its consum- mation ; that is why the mola lasts on into old age or at any rate for a considerable time, for in its nature it is neither a finished product nor yet something wholly alien); since the cause of its hardness is the lack of concoction, just as underdone ‘meat is another instance of lack of concoction.» But there is a puzzle here... Why is it that this phenomenon.does not occur in the other animals ? (unless of course it does, but has entirely escaped observation). We must take the reason to be that alone of all animals women are liable to uterine affec- tions’; they produce an excess of menstrual evacua- tions and eannot concoct them ; and so, when the © fetation has been “ set,” formed out of a liquid which ' is difficult to concoct; then what is called the mola is produced ; and thus.it is not surprising that this takes place chiefly in women if not exclusively in them. . Milk is produced towards the time of parturition VIII in those female animals which are internally vivipar- “"*: ous, and it is (1) of a useful and serviceable quality,” for Nature has provided animals with it so that they may nourish their young externally, and she has so arranged that it is neither deficient. nor excessive in any way at that time; this we actually observe to obtain unless some accident contrary’ to nature occurs. In the case of the other animals, as there is but a single period of gestation, the concoction of the milk coineides with that ; in man, however, as there are more periods than one,” the milk must of neces- sity be available at the earliest of the possible dates ; hence in women the milk, which is useless until seven months are up, at that point becomes useful and 467 776 b ARISTOTLE 25 Xprjotpov. evAdyws dé ovpBaiver Kat dua tiv e€€ dvdyrens airiav TTETEHLEVOV els TOUS tehevraiovs xXpovous' TO pev yap mp@tov % Tod Tovovrov TEPLTTWLATOS Grr OK plots els THY Tav eu Bptwy avaXiokerat yevegu: mdvrwv 8 % Tpopiy TO yAvadrarov Kal TTETEULEVOV, aor’ adarpouperns 30 THs Tovadrys Suvdpews avayKn TO Aowrov dAwupov yivesBau Kai S8oxvpov. TeAcovpevwy Sé TOV KvN- pdtwv mAréov TO Tepirrwpa Td Trepuywopevov ( > ~ / ~ ’ / 5 A€yerar dia THv €€ apyns Ta€w THs ovoTdoews. ~ \ id ~ TO pev yap avw Tod trolwparos TO KUpLov TOU ~ lod ‘ ~ faov® eori, TO 5€ KdTw TOTS THs Tpodhs Kal TOO ~ > TEp\TTwMMATOS, OTWS doa TopevTiKa TOV Cawy ev * sic interpunxit Bussemaker, 2 pro ov yap éru. . . xpyomov 776 b 3 habet & quoniam non indigetur ea. non ergo accipitur in illo tempore Soc avciptebatur ante ex lacte. vide 777 a 22-27. 8 ris Cwis coni. Btf. 4 rémos P: om. vulg. ® Of. P.A. 676 a 35. ® Aristotle here notes correctly that growth proceeds long after differentiation has ceased. ¢ 4,¢., as well as a creature which has reached an indepen- 468 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. vut. serviceable. But the fact that it is fully concocted at the final stages is due also (2) to another cause— the necessary cause, which is what we should expect, for, to begin with, the secretion of this particular residue is used up for the formation of the embryos ; arid in every animal the nourishment is the sweetest _ ingredient they possess and the. most concocted, so that when this sweet substance is drawn off, what remains is bound to be briny and ill-sayoured.? When, however, the fetations are,approaching their completion, then there is more surplus. residue, because less of it is being used up, and it is sweeter, since the well-concocted residue is no longer being drawn off to the same extent: it is no longer being expended upon the moulding of the embryo, but upon the small growth which it is making,” as though the embryo had by now, being completed, reached a stationary point (since a fetation, too, has its point of completion.)° That is why it makes its way out, and changes over to anether process of formation as now possessing all that belongs to it, and it no longer takes what does not belong to it?; and that is the time when the milk becomes serviceable. The milk collects in the upper part of the body, in the breasts, and this is accounted for by the original order of the body’s construction. The part of the body above the diaphragm is the controlling part of the animal. (The part below is the place for the nourishment and the residue, in order that those animals which move about may haye within them a dent state of existence ; and even the wind has its yéveo.s and d0ics (778 a 2), where see note; and also cf. 737 b 9. * This remark is obscure, and the sentence may be an interpolation. See the parallel passage, 777 a 22 ff. 469 776 b ARISTOTLE 106) > avrois éxovra THY THs Tpophs adrdprevay _peera~ Badr rods Témovs. evTedev Sé Kal'% omEpparict) 10 mepirrmots drroKpiverat dea TH elpnyevny “airiay ev Tots Kar’ dpxas Adyats, fore. be 78 Te Ov dppevioy TEepitTwUA Kal Td. Korrapapyec. Tots, Orpeow aipaructis dvcews. | TovTou 8°. aipxm Kal Ta@v prcBav 1 7 Kapdia* adrn 8 €v Tots poptous tovrous. S10 mp@trov evradéa' dvaryKatoy “ylyveoBau Thy 15 peraBohiy ertdnrov THs TovadTys mepirrdboews. Svomep at re dwyal petaBdMovar Kal TeV dppévav kat tav Onde@v, dTav dpywvTar ‘onéppa. pépew () yap apx7 THs paivijs evred0ev: aAdoia dé yiverat aAXoiov yevopevou Too Kwoovros) Kal Ta TrEpt TOUS pacrovds alperau Kal Tois dppeow emdiros, [dv 20 8€. tots O7Acow: d1d yap TO KATO Thy Exxpow yiveoBau mohAny. Kevos 6 TOmosS syivera Oo TOV pacta@v avrais Kat,.copudds. dpoiws dé Kal Tots KdTw Tovs pacTods exovow. yiverar pev odv eridnros Kal 7 pwvr) Kal Ta TEpl TOUS aoTOdS Kal ev Tots aMois Caos Tots eprelpois mepl exaoTov 25 VEVOS emt d¢, TOV aviparany Suadéper mActorov. airuoy d¢ 70 mActornv. In the actual birth of the young. ania we head another instance of good timing. _ When the nourish- ment that passes through the umbilical cord. is no longer sufficient for the fetus, owing to its size; at that same time the milk is becoming serviceable, and when no nourishment is entering by way of the umbilical cord, then the blood-vessels to which the cord acts as a sheath collapse ; and for these reasons and at that time the exit of the fetus takes place. The natural manner of birth for all animals is head IX first, because they have a larger bulk above the Amms , umbilical cord than below it, so that they are sus- foremost. pended from it, as it might be in a balance, and the heavier side (z.e., the larger parts) goes down. The period of gestation is of a definite length for X each of the animals, and normally the periods are joneti.e! proportionate to the animals’ span of life ; after all, period. we should expect those which have a longer life- span to take longer over their formation than others. 5 hic in Z spatium xi vel xii litterarum. 5 xpoumrépwv P: ypoviww vulg. ~ 475 i ARISTOTLE “O10 A ATA atrtov, adn’ os el TO 70ND Tobro oupB Kev" Ta yap peilw Kat TeAevdrepa Tov vat” ov Kat l@or moddv Xpovov, ob ov Ta preily mrdn paspoBusrepa. TaVTWV yap dvOpurtos wha eee xpovov, anv eAepavros, dow. d&udmaorov 2’ 5 THY Tretpav: éAarror. 0 €or 78. “yévos Hogs ud dvOpurray, 7) 7) TO Tov. Aopovpey Kal moda { airvov. dé Tob pev elvar paxpéBiov oruoby » TO Kexpdobar mapamdnotis mpos TOV, TEPLEXOVTA GEpa, Kai 80 Ga oupmTTpar arta, pvoucd, mept dy Sorepov épodmev, tay dé xpoveov TOV. trept Ty : 10 Know TO péyeBos TOV yevvenpeveov ov yap pa- duov év odiyen Xpove AapeBdvewv ay redetwow tas jeyddas ovoTdcets ove Sao ote TOV GAAwY' ds etreiv ovBevds. Sid7rep tm7tot eat Ta ovyyerh Or Tovrous eAdrras Cavra Xpovoy KBev meta) © Tov fev yap eveatatos 0 0 TOKOS, tv de Sei pnvo a 156 mAetoros. dud THY avray 3° aitiay 70 ABI Kal 6 TOV erepdvrav €ott TOKos* SueT7)5° yap. q KUnoLs Oia THY drrepBodny Tob HeyeBous. rae EdAdyws Sé mdvrwy of ypdvor Kal T&v KYjoEwv Kal? yevéoewv kal. trav Blav perpetcba, Bov- Aovras Kata pvow Bie * Ady dé ar 1 zeiotov P: mAclw wus. sat £4 PZ*; Kal, Ta vulg. aus & Leo | : @ This he 2 parently a popular term meaning “ bushy- tailed ”’ ; fess 4,491 a1 where “ the pe as they are ealled ”’ ae ihe horse, the ass, the mule, ete, of. 755 b 19.) > Cf. 767 a 30 ff., and Hippocrates, m7. dépuv vddrwv TémWYV, chh. 1-6; and for “ blend,” adem, 7. dcairns I. 32, and Ifitrod, § 40. Of. 777 b 28, n. © See De long. et bree. vit. 466 a.15 ff.,.P.A. 677 a 35 ff. 476 — ‘GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. x. Still, this is not the reason for it ; only, this is what in fact normaliy occurs. The larger and more per- fect of the blooded animals do certainly live a long time, but not all the larger ones are also longer-lived. Man is the longest-lived of them all. except the elephant, so far as we have any reliable experience ; but human beings are smaller than the lophouroi * and many others. The reason why any animal is long- lived really is that its “blend” is about the same in comparison’ with the air which is around it,’ and there are other contributory factors inherent in its nature, which will be mentioned later on.° The reason for the various times of gestation is the size of the creatures which are generated. It is not easy. for any large structure, be it an animal or anything else, almost, to reach its perfection in a short time. Hence horses and kindred animals, though they live a shorter time than men, have a longer time of gestation: in horses birth occurs at the end of a year, in the others, generally, after ten months. And for the same reason it-takes a long time in elephants, whose gestation lasts two years owing to their excessive size. #In all cases, as we should expect, the times of Periods of gestation and formation’ and of lifespan aim, ac- pessene cording to nature,’ at being measured by “ periods.” by cosmic By a “ period ” I mean day and night and month and ?*"'** ¢ The. following important paragraph is not fully intel- ligible without reference to Aristotle’s theory of the universe and of movement...A collection of passages from other treatises relevant to this will be found in App. A and App. B § 11, which will provide the best commentary on the present e. ¢ Or * birth.” _? But Nature cannet always succeed in her aim: see ~ 978 a 5 below. 477 ’ VARISTOTLE PTAA 777 b ae sod ala eile Macaca tain Héepav Kal viKTa Kai piva Kat evvavrov Kal rods 20 xpovous Tods peTpovpévovs Tovrots, ert Se Tas THs aeAnvyns mepiddous. etal be mreplodar _ceAivn: mavaéeAnves Te Kai POicis’ Kal TOV perakd xP vey yi Paige “ye it iy rt we y TiS if. at dixoTopiau Kara yap TavTas ovpBdAdAe TPS TOV mALoV" 6.yap pets Kow?) meptodds éorw. D= ; ” \ / > *; STEN Pye tty = , Tépwv. €or. de 7 ceAjvyn apy? dia THY mpos TOV 25 HAvov Kowwviay Kal Thy peraAnbw Thy TOO dwrds- / A LA ” ae 9 La x \ ywerar yap womep adAdos 7Awos éAdtrwy: 810 ovpPdArerat eis mdoas Tas yeveoeis Kal TeACLMOELS. 1) mavoédnvds te Kai dOicis Ps mavoéAqvoi te kal POicas Wilg.* * i.e., full moon, new moon, first. quarter and last quart r. The meaning of ovpfdde is obscure. The word occur twice in Meteor., once (345 b 6) in an astronomical context, and once (376 b 24) in connexion with the rainbow, but neither passage helps to elucidate the present “at tha the must, however, have some reference to the fact t at the month is a “ joint period ” of moon and sun na note belo so the rendering I have given may’ be offered as atVany ' rate not inapproprfate. ‘The importance here attached to the “ bisections ”. of the times is found again in. Theophr. De signis 6, where it is said that times and seasons (¢.9., th year, the month, the day) are delimited by their ‘bisections (ai Suyoropiar SvopiLovor tas wpas), the bisections of the month being the full moons, the eighth days and the fourth days (rov pva Exacrov .. . Stxoropodar . . . al re wavoéAnvor kal ai oydda Kai ai terpddes, § 8); and changes of weather tend to coincide with these divisions (§ 9). ot 4 ge > Periodos is really a circuit or cycle. | OLE BG * This phrase, which he translates “ the month being a period common to both,”’ is excised by Platt on the ground © that it gives no sense, and that “a period common to both sun and moon would be’ one which contained both the solar and lunar periods exactly.”” The phrase is,’ however, in Scot; and, as it can be satisfactorily explained in view of the context, it must be retained. The explanation is this: the month, taken in the sense of a lunation, i.¢., the period from one new moon to another, or the time required by the 478 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. x. _ year and the times which are measured by these ; also the moon’s “ periods ” which are: full moon and waning moon, and. the bisections of the intervening .. times,* since these are the points at which it-stands ina. definite “aspect’’ with the sun, the month -being a joint period ® of both moon and sun.° The _ moon is a “principle’’ on account of its associa- tion with the sun and its participation in the sun’s light, being as it were a second and lesser sun,? and therefore is a contributory factor in all processes of moon to go through all its phases once, is, literally and properly speaking, not a private pone of the moon’s, but, as Aristotle Says, a joint period of the moon and sun, since it is the moon’s position relative to the sun which determines how much of the moon’s disk is illuminated. If the moon were self-luminous, there would be no phases, and therefore there could be no “ phase-period.”” This is made even more clear if we consider that the moon does in fact possess a “* period ” ae ge to itself, pertaining to the moon’s own actual motion, not to the mere illumination of its surface by another body, and it is a period which differs in length from the lunation or “ phase-period **—a fact which was probably better known to Aristotle than to some moderns. This is the period. known. in astronomy as the “* sidereal period,” i.¢., the,time taken by the moon to-return again to its same apparent position among the stars—not to return into con- junction.with the sun. The duration of this period is roughly 27 days 8 hours, as against an average of 29 days 13 hours for the “* phase-period.” Aristotle is therefore quite correct in stating that the *‘. month,” by which, as the context clearly shows, he means the “ phase-period,” is a joint period of the sun and the moon. (I should, perhaps, apologize to astro- nomers for the un-astronomical term “* phase-period,” which I have used instead of “‘synodie period ’*.in order to emphasize. the point that phases are an incidental pheno- menon, and not an essential concomitant of a synodic period.) 4 This statement reappears in Theophr. De vent..17 4 oe Ajvn . . . otov doberys Buos €or, and ef. id. De signis temp. 5, where the moon is described as “ the sun of the night.” 479 7T77b 178 a 30 35 or ARISTOTLE!) AH YARD at* yap Bepusrires Kat dees MEXpL oupperpias TWOS Toda TOS yevecers, pera be. rabra: Tas plopas: TovtTwr 8° exovor TO mépas Kal ris apxijs Kal THs tedevtis at ToUTwY Kunjoets TOV aoTpwr. dorep yap Kal Addarray Kal méoav OpOpev tiv TOV bypayv _piow lorapevny Kal peraBdMovoay Kara THY Trav mvevpdrov Kinow Kal ordow, Tov & dépa Kat Ta TVEVMATE. KaTa THY 700 JiAlov kat THs oedijvns Tepiodov,, oUTW Kal Ta eK rovrwy pudpeva. Kal Ta ev TovTols dxodovbeiv dvarykatov- Kara Adyov yap axodovbeiv Kai ras tev ducupo- Tépwv meptddous tats Tav KUpLOTEpeOV. Bios yap Tis, Kal Tvevparos €oTt Kal yéeveois Kat, hoses Tis be TOV dorpwv tovrav Trepupopas Tax’ erepat TWeES elev dpxai. Bovrerar ev odv 7 ‘bois Tos TOUTWY dpibwois apiOpetv Tas yeveoets kal Tas mainte we ovk axpiPot b€ dud TE Ti TAS ‘ys ai P: «al vulg. 2 savras Ss, @. OF. Phys. 246 b 4 Tas pev yap Tod cajaros, cola Sybiet kal evegiav, ev kpdoet Kai ouppeTpia Deppav Kat puxpav Tibepev ) abtdv mpos ada Tay évTos 7 mpos 76 areprexov (of. 1717 b 7, and 767 a 30 ff.)- dpotws 8€.'. . Kal ras GAAas dperas kai xaxias. The language used in the context of this ° Passage is very similar to that of Hth. Nic. Bk. II (dealing with doctrine of ‘the mean’), where it is stated that the moral dperai also are produced and preserved by 7é ovpperpa (1104 a 18), whereas they are destroyed by excess and defect, just as the corresponding physical aperai arewin 3 “ Cf. Meteor. 339 a 21 €ort 8 && avayKns nie nus ofros [i.e., 6 mrepi Ti viv KOGLOS, the sublunary world} rats dvw popais, Wore macav avrod ad Sivapew KvBepvacbae exeiBev- Sit a aore Tay ovpBawdvremv mept avrov Op bev s kai yhv Kal ta ovyyev Tovrous ws év dAns eibet TeV yeyvowevan airva xen vopilew, Le 7o 8 obrws airvov ds. 60ev H Tis Kwhoews apxn Thy Tav del kwovupevay aitvaréov Sdvapw. 480 ; GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. x. generation and perfecting. As we know, it is heat and cooling in their various manifestations which up to a certain due proportion® bring about the generation of things, and beyond that point their dissolution ; and the limits of these processes, both as regards their beginning and their end, are con- trolled by the movements of these heavenly bodies.” Just as we observe that the sea and whatever is of a fluid nature remains settled or is on the move accord- ing as the winds are at rest or in motion, while the behaviour of the air and the winds in turn depends upon the period of the sun and moon,° so too the things which grow out of them and are in them are bound to follow suit (as it is only reasonable that the periods of things of inferior standing should follow those which belong to things of higher standing) since even the wind has a sort of lifespan¢—a genera- tion and a decline. And as for the revolution of these heavenly bodies, there may very well be other principles which lie behind them.’ Nature’s aim, then, is to measure the generations and endings of things by the measures of these bodies, but she . ¢ Cf.738 a 20: the times about new moon (ai tv pnvav atvodor) are cold because of the failing of the moon, and for the same reason they are stormier than the middle points of the month ; a precisely similar statement, using exactly the same terminology that Aristotle uses, is found twice in Theophr. De ventis 17 and De signis 5: in the latter passage the cause given is that the moon’s light “ fails ” (dsoAcizer) from the fourth day of the waning moon until the fourth day of the new moon, and this apparently is the time covered by ai avvedo. tv pnvav. The way in which the sun determines the weather is discussed at Meteor. 359 b 26 ff. 4 Cf. above, 776 b 1, and Plato, Timaeus 91 B, c, where the course of a disease is compared with the lifespan of a living organism. ® See, e.g., De caelo |, Il. R 481 ARISTOTLE) |! 611) 410 778 a dopioriav Kat dia TO yiveoBau TohAas dpxds, at Tas yevéoets Tas Kara vow Kal Tas POopas € €pro- dilovoar ToAAdKus alrvat TOV Tapa pvow Cup TUTTOVTDV etotv. 10 Tlept bev odv THIS eowbev Tpopys. Tay Lgov Kal Tis Ovpace yeveoews elpyrat, Kal xwpis epi EKGdOTOV Kal KoW) TEepl TavTwV. a mrept_ dé (re Y) Tay dradopaiv ais (as Z, at Y) babipwoe 7a Hopia Tay Coiwy, Kal \oTa TO TOLODTO (rosstinor P) oy, mepi Tous avOpeirous addunt PYZ: : ,amplius YZ éoa (ev obv Z) éxovor popia ta La mavra Kal TOY evTds Kal TAY €xTOs. totum vertit X, et 778 a 10 initium facit libri insequentis.. 482 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, IV. x. cannot bring this about exactly on account of the indeterminateness of matter and the existence of a plurality of principles which impede the natural pro- cesses of generation and dissolution and so are often the causes of things occurring contrary to Nature. Very well: we have now spoken of the nourish- ment of animals within the parent, and of their birth and exit into the outer world; and we have dealt with each kind separately as well as generally with them all.* * Some mss. have an addition here, for which see opposite. 483 : E 778a161 Tlepi d€ t&v mabnudrwv ofs Svaddpovar Ta popia Tv Cawv Oewpynréov viv. Aéyw 8é Ta Towuitrta Trabjpata tav popiwy, olov yAavKdrynra oupdtwv Kal pedaviav, kat dwvns o€0rnTa Kal 20 Bapirynra, Kat xpwparos [7 ow@paros| Kat Tpixydv 7 mTepav Siadopds.’ tuyydver S€ THv TovwovTwv evita ev Odows* brdpyovta Tois yeveow, évia® 3 Omws etvxev, olov pddior emt trav avOpwmwv todro oupBéBynkev. ere 5€ Kata Tas TOV HAKiaY* petaBoAds Ta pev maow dpoiws trdpyet Tots 25 Cawous, Ta 8 drrevavtiws, womep Tept Te hwvas Kal TrEpt Tpix@v xpdav: Ta ev yap od moAvodrat T™pos TO yipas émdjAws, 6 8 avOpwmos padre toiTo mdcaxe TOV GAAwv Cadwv. Kal Ta pev edOdS — aKorovbe? yevopevors, Ta 5€ mpoiovons THs HAuKias — yiwera Sida Kal ynpackdvrwy. epi de> TovTwv 30 Kal T@V ToLOUTwWY TavTwY odKETL TOV adTOY TpdTFOV Set vouilew elvar tis aitias. doa yap 1 THS pv- sews [epya|’ Kow7yj’ pnd tia Tod yévous éExaorou, 4 4 1 7 cwparos secl. Bekker, xpaparos 7 S€pparos coni. Platt ; fortasse scribendum xpaparos peraBoAds (alterationem coloris x). mox xal rrepdv SY ; diadopds P, d:adopay vulg. 2 driyos P. 3 éxa Peck (idem Richards) : évios vulg. 4 ray HAKidv PZ* : rijs jAckias vulg.: jAKias SY. 5 8 P. ® om. Z; secl. A.-W. 7 xowa Btf. 484 BOOK V We must now study the “conditions” in respect I of which the parts of animals differ. I mean such conditions of the parts as the following: blue and = dark colour of the eyes, high and deep @ pitch of the “ voice, and differences of colour and of hair or feathers. Some of these conditions are found throughout cer- tain classes of animals ; some occur irregularly, and a striking instance of this is afforded by the human species. Further, there are some conditions, accom- panying the changes in the times of life, which occur in all animals alike, but there are others which are divergent in different animals, as, e.g., those which have to do with the voice and the colour of the hair : thus, some animals do not go noticeably grey towards old age, whereas man is affected by this condition more than any other animal. Again, some of these conditions come on immediately after birth, others make themselves noticed as age advances, or in old e. When we come to consider these conditions and all others like them, we must not suppose that _ the same sort of cause is operative as before, for there are certain conditions which are not character- _ istics belonging to Nature in general, nor peculiarities proper to this or that particular class of animal ; and whatever the quality of such conditions may be, in * See 787 b 1, n. 485 abo te ay ristics). 778 a 35 778 b 5 10 ARISTOTLE TovTwy ovfev everd Tov Tovdbrov ovr’ €oTw ovUTE yiverar. dpbahwos pev yap evekd Tov, yAavicds 8° od» evexa Tov, mAny a dy ivov 7 708 yevous TOUTO TO mabos. ovte & em eviwv mpos Tov Adyov ovvretver Tov Tijs ovoias, aA’ cs e€ dvayKns yeyvopevenv ets TY vAnv Kal THY Kujoagav apxny dvaxréov Tas airias. Womrep yap erexOn Kat dpyas ev Tots T™pwrois Adyors, od dua TO yiyvectat EKQOTOV Troudv Th, Sud. Tobro Towv Tu €oTiv, doa TETOAY EVA. KL epopeva. epya THs, ddaecds rorovde here= dparuxdv or opbaruov € éxov; to use the termi- nology of a few lines above, To anon elvac ev 7® Adyw evuTapxet TH TOD Codov. ¢ And since the animal tadxerrar to be e.9. Oparixor, the sort of necessity which requires it to be dpatixdv is neces- sity ¢€€ tro8écews (see Introd. § 7), the necessity which is implied by the Final Cause. For dzoxe:rar see also 766 b 8. 488 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, V. 1. while as regards their process of formation, all those characteristics which are contained in its logos, or are subservient to some end, or are an end in themselves —these come to be formed on account of this Cause @ as well as the remaining Causes. Other character- istics, however, are formed during the process which do not fall under the headings just given, and the eause of them is to be looked for in the movement, i.e., the process of formation—we must assume that they acquire their differences within the actual pro- cess of construction. Thus (to take an example) X will of necessity possess an eye (because that characteristic? is included in the essence of the animal as posited),° and it will—also of necessity— possess a particular sort of eye, but the latter is a different mode of necessity from the former,’ and is derived from the fact that it is naturally constituted to act and to be acted upon in this or that way.’ Having settled these points we may proceed to Sleep. those which immediately follow. First then: the habit of the young of all animals, especially those of animals which bring forth their young imperfect, once they have been born, is to sleep, because they are in fact continually asleep within the parent from the time that they first acquire sensation. There is, however, a puzzle concerning their original forma- tion, which is this : which state exists first in animals, sleep or waking? From the fact that, as we see, they become more awake the older they get, it seems reasonable to suppose that the opposite state, sleep, is the one that exists at the beginning of their forma- tion—and also from the fact that the transition from * i.¢., the necessity implied by the Motive and Material Causes. See Introd. § 7. * Cf. App. B §§ 8 ff. 489 778 b 30 35 779 a ou 10 ARISTOTLE — iva To elvae dua Tod peTakd yiveobar: 6 8 dmvos elvar doe? TV dvow Tadv Tovovbrw, otov Tod 58 Lay wal ‘rod pny Civ peBopiov, Kal ovre BN elvan mravTehas 6 Kabevdwv our’ elvac. TO yap eypnyopevan 70 Civ pad? bmdpxet dud. Ty atoOnow. el s corlv dvayKatoy éxew alaOnow 70 Cov, Kal TOTE mparsy cor Lov dorav alabynos yévntar mpa@tov, T7)v pev e€ apxis dudbeow ody Umvov aad’ dpoov dave det vopilew, olavrep Exer Kal TO THY duT@y yévos* Kal yap ovuBéBnKe Kara todrov ‘Tov Xpovov Ta {da durod Biov Civ. Tots de purots dmdpxew Umrvov advvatov: ovfeis yap Umvos dvéyepros, 70 (8€ Tay puTo@v 7d8os 70 dvdAoyov TO omy dvéyeprov, Kabevdew HEV oby Ta (da TOV mets xXpovoy. avay- Katov dua TO THY avénow Kal TO Bépos emucetobau Tois, ave TomoUs (cipnxapev dé TH airiay Tob Kabevdew TovatTny odoav ev éré pots)" aad’ Guws evyerpopieva paiverat kal ev Th EAT PE (d9Aov" de yiverat Toro év tais avatopats Kal €v Tots wo- tokovow),* ir’ evbds Kabevdovat Kal karadépovrat maAw. Sid7ep Kat e&eAOovta tov modAdv Siayer xpovov xafevdovra. Kai éypnyopota pev od yeAa 7a Tratdia, Kabed- ovra d€ Kai Saxpver Kat yeAd. aupPaivovor yap Kat Kkabevdovow aidOnces Tots Cawous, od povoy 1 > Ed Sf WOTOKOULEVOLS L, @ Of. De somno et vig. 457 a3 ff. See also P.A. 686 b 2 ff., G.A. 741 b 28 ff. > See P.A. 653 a 10 ff., De somno et vig. 455 b 28 ff., especially 456 b 17 ff. Sleep is caused by the upper 490 -- =e GENERATION OF ANIMALS, V. 1. not-being to being is effected through the inter- mediate state, and sleep would appear to be by its nature a state of this sort, being as it were a border- land between living and not living : a person who is asleep would appear to be neither completely non- existent nor completely existent : for of course it is to the waking state par excellence that life pertains, and that in virtue of sensation. On the other hand, assuming it is necessary that an animal should possess sensation, and that it is first an animal at the moment it has first acquired sensation, we ought to regard its original state not as being sleep but something re- sembling sleep—the sort of state that plants also are in; indeed the fact is that at this stage animals are living the life of a plant. Sleep, however, cannot possibly pertain to plants, because there is no sleep from which there is not an awaking, and there is no awaking from the condition in plants which is ana- logous to sleep. Anyway, young animals must of necessity sleep for the greater part of the time be- cause the burden of their growth and the consequent weight is laid upon the upper regions of the body.* (We have explained elsewhere’ that such is the eause of sleep.) All the same, animals are clearly found to wake even within the uterus, as is shown by dissections and by the case of the Ovipara ; after- wards they immediately drop off and fall asleep again. That is why after birth as well they spend most of their time asleep. Infants do not laugh while they are awake, but they both laugh and weep while they are asleep, for of course sensations occur in animals during sleep as regions of the body becoming weighed down by various hot - substances which are carried up to them. 491 779 a 15 20 25 30 ARISTOTLE — Ta KaAovpeva € evirvia, GAA Kal Tapa TO evirrviov, Kabdmep Tots dvvorapevous Kabevdovor Kal Troha. mpatrew dvev Tod evurrud en. etal ydp Twes ot ape Pea avioravTat Kat mopevovrat Prérovres womep ot eypnyopdtes. TovTois yap yiverar TOV ovpBavovtwr aicOnos, otk éypyyopdo. pév, od pevrou ws evdrviov. Ta dé maidia eolkacw, womep dvemloTnwova Too eypnyopevat, dud ovv7ifevay ev T@ KabevdSew aicbavecbar Kat Civ. potsyros dé Tod xpdvov, Kal THs adéjoews «is Ta” KdTW pmETA- / > / / ~ ” A \ Bawovons, éyelpovrai te padAdov dn, Kat Tov TAciw xpdvov otTw Sudtyovow. paddov € Trav GArAwy Caowy ev trvw 7d mp@tov SiaTeAovow-: ateAdorata yap yevvarat TOV TereAeopevenv, real THY avénow €xovTa pdadoTa emi TO dvw pepos TOO owpatos. /, \ \ »” ~ / 279% TDAavkdrepa S€ ta oppata tov tradiwv edOds / 3 > ‘ / MA PS) A rp AA yevonevwr® oti mdvtwv, torepov dé petaBdAAer mpos THhv d1dpyew péAAovoay dvaw adtois: eri d€ TOV GAAwv Cauv ov oupBaiver TOOT emdij dws. ToUTOU [LEV OvV aiTLOV TO }ovdxpoa Ta Oupara THY dAAwv elvar paddov, olov ot Bdes pedavdgbadnor, To d€ t&v mpoBatrwv sdapés mavTwv, Tav de 4 hud A , nn ,- A > > / xXapotrov ddrov 70 yévos 7 yAavKov, ena 8 aiywra, Kabamep Kal TO TV alydv adro mwARBos. ta Se TOv avOpditwv oppyata moddxpoa ovuPePnkev 1 of om. PZ. 2 7a PSYZ*; zo Bekker per errorem. > 3 yevonevwy P: yervwyévwr vulg. 2 Man produces his young “‘ perfect ’’ (see 770 a 33); the 492 ——. Se GENERATION OF ANIMALS, V. 1. well as in waking hours, and this includes not only what we call dreams but something more besides ; thus persons who get up while they are asleep do uite a number of things without dreaming at all. There are those who get up while asleep and walk about and can see as well as anyone awake. The reason is that they are aware through their senses of what is going on, and though they are not awake, still this awareness is different from that of a dream. Infants, it would seem, have not yet acquired the art of being awake, if we may put it so, and thus both their sensations and their life go on during their sleep by force of habit. As time wears on, and the scene of their growth shifts its ground to the lower parts of the body, at this stage they wake up more and spend the greater part of their time awake. To begin with, howeyer, infants spend more time asleep than any other animal, because they are born in a more imperfect condition than any other perfected ¢ animal and have made their advance in growth chiefly in the upper part of the body. The eyes of all infants are bluish immediately after Colour of birth ; later on they change over to the colour which "* is going to be their natural colour for life. In the other animals this does not occur noticeably, and the reason is that their eyes exhibit more singleness of colour : thus, cattle have dark eyes ; all sheep have pallid ® eyes; another class of animal will all have - greyish-blue, or blue, eyes; some have. “ goat’s- eyes,’ ° as indeed the majority of goats themselves have. The eyes of human beings, however, show fissipede animals, such as the dog, produce them “ imper- fect,” ¢.g., they are born blind. > Lit. * watery.” © i.2., yellow. | 493 ARISTOTLE AMke 779 a 35 elvau- Kal yap yAavxot Kat _ Xaporrot Kab jichav- 779 b opbahuoi Ties ciow, ot 8 atywmol. wore Ta pev Ma @ aorep! ovo’ aMndev diadépovow, obras ovd” aura abray: ov yap TEepuKe mAelous peas pi xpoas.” pddvora dé Tav ddAwv Cee ¢ im7mos ToAU- Xpwv €or’ Kal yap érepoyhavKot TWES abray 5 ylwovrat. Tobro be THY pev dMAwy ovbev mdaxer Coowy emdijAws, avOpwrot Sé yivovtai twes éTEpo- yAavkot. Tod pev odv radda Ca véa dvra Kat mpeopdrepa pnbev emidnrov peraBaddAew, emi dé tav mradiov ToOTo ovpBaivew, teaviyy olnréov aitiay elvac Kat 10 TavrnY, ort TOV pev povoxpwv Ta&v be moNdX peov TO popiov €or Too d€ yAavKdrepa Kat pa) Xpoav GAAny és toxew aitiov ore _dobevéorepa Ta popea TOV vewv, aabevera S€ Tis 7) ) yAavKdrns. Act de AaBety iaBdrov mepl Tijs Siadopas | Tov Ompator, dua Ti airiav Ta pev yAauied, Ta. (be 15 Xapoma Ta, 8 aiywra Ta be peAavopupar’ eoTiv. TO pev ody vroAauPdavew. Ta pev yAavKa mupwdn, Kabdmep “EpmedoxdAjs gyot, 7a de péAava mActov Udatos € Exel 7 Tupos, Kal Oia TOUTO TA MEV Hmepas ovK 0&0 Brerrew, Ta yAavkd, 0 evdevav vdaTos, barepa. be vdKTap bu’ evdevav mupos, od A€yerat 20 KaADs; €lzrep p47) TUpOs THY OY Oeréov aA vdatos * dare Ta pev dAAa du6zrep (Gomep Z*) Z%,; aud @atrep Y: 0 dAAa womep A.-W.: 8&0 kal womep VU vd sic Platt, Btf.: arhelos puds taxew xpdas (vel xpoas) PZ: mAciw puas ioxew vulg. @ 7.¢., they do not vary at different times. Or it may mean, “are not odd-coloured.” > Lit., “‘ blue in one eye.” 4.04 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, V. 1. in practice a multiplicity of colour ; some are blue, some greyish-blue, some dark, some yellow.. Hence in the case of the other animals, just as the individuals of any class do not differ from each other, so they do not differ from themselves,* the reason in both cases being that they are not naturally constituted to have more than one colour. The greatest multiplicity of colour, however, among the other animals is found in the horse ; indeed in some horses the two eyes are of odd colours.’ No other animal is noticeably affected in this way, though some human beings are. Well, then, for the fact that in the other animals, young or old, no noticeable change occurs, whereas in infants a change does occur, we must consider simply this to be a sufficient cause, viz., that in animals this part is single-coloured, in human beings multicoloured ; while for the fact that the young have bluish eyes and not some other colour, the reason is that their parts are weaker than those of adults, and blueness is a form of weakness. We must now’ determine the general question of why eyes differ, and what is the cause why some are blue, some greyish-blue, some yellow, some dark. There is a theory, stated by Empedocles, that blue eyes are fiery in composition, while dark ones contain more water than fire, and that therefore blue eyes are not keen-sighted in the daytime owing to their deficiency of water, and the other ones suffer in the same way at night owing to their deficiency of fire. But if we ought in point of fact ° to posit that the sight,? in all cases, consists of water, not of fire, then ¢ This is Aristotle’s own theory ; see De anima 425 a4; De sensu 438 a 5, 13 ff.,b 5. For details, see App. B § 28. @ i.e., the organ of sight, as often in this discussion. 495 ARISTOTLE Kipry 779 b ~ »” Fi om / ; ~ , A ” méow. eT. 8 evdéxeTar TOV XpwuadTwv TH atriav amodobvat Kal Kat’ aAdov Tpdmov: add’ elzrep eotiv womep eéxOn mpdtepov ev Tots mrepl Tas aicOrycets Kal ToUTwY ETL TpdTEpov ev Tots Tepl wuyhs Siw- propevors, Kal OTe ddaros, Kal du Hv airiav vdaros 25 GAN’ odK depos 7) Tupos TO atonripioy Toor’ eorl, radray aitiav dmohnmréov elvas TOV eipmpevev. ot pev yap €xovor TOV opbaAyav aAéov dypov, ot & éAarrov Tis oUpperpou KuvoEws, ot de oper por. Ta pev obv €xovTa TOV oppdtwv ToAd 7d dbypov peAavoupatda e€otr dia TO pr eddiom7’ elvar Ta 30 7oMd, yAavka dé Ta ddiyor, Kabdaep paiverar Kal eri tis Oaddrrns: TO pev yap eddiomTov aurijs yAavKov daiverar, to 8’ Hrrov ddarddes, To de pe Suwpropevov Sid, BdBos péAav Kat KvavoeidSés. 7a dé peragd TOV oupdtwv Tov’Twy TA et a 787 duadéper Kat iyrrov.. 35. Tv 8 adrny airiav oinréov Kal Too Ta pev yAavKa pi) evar ofvwma THs jpepas, Ta Se 780a peAavoppiara Ths VUKTOS. Ta pev yap yAavid be oduyornTa: TOU dypob KuvetraL paMov bo Tob putds Kat TOV oparay, ? dypov Kai 7} Sragaves. €o7t 5° 1% TovTov Tod popiov Kivynois dpacis 7 5 duadaves, add’ ody 7 dypov. Ta dé peAavdmpata da 7AH00s Tot bypob Arrov Kweirar. dobeves @ See references already given in a previous note, a few lines above. > The meaning of this will be seen later, ¢.g., 780 a1 ff., b 24. See also App. B §§ 26 ff. 496 ee GENERATION OF ANIMALS, V. 1. Empedocles’ statement is incorrect. And besides, another method is open for explaining the cause of the colours. But assuming the correctness of what was said earlier in the treatise Of the Senses, and before that in the treatise Of the Soul,* i.e., that the sense-organ of sight is composed of water, and also the correctness of the cause there assigned for its being composed of water and not of air or of fire, then we should take it that the following is the cause responsible for the phenomena just described. Some eyes contain too much fluid, some too little, to suit the right movement,’ others contain just the right amount ; and so those eyes which contain a large amount of fluid are dark, because large volumes of fluid are not transparent; those which contain a small amount are blue. (Sea-water is a parallel instance. Transparent sea-water appears blue, the less transparent appears pallid, and water so deep that its depth is undetermined is dark or dark blue.) Eyes intermediate between these two extremes differ merely by “ the more and less.”’ ° We ought to suppose that to the same cause is due Keenness the fact that, blue eyes are not keen-sighted during * ™8"* the daytime nor dark eyes at night. Blue eyes, on account of the small amount of fluid in them, are unduly set in movement by the light and by visible objects, in respect both of fluidity and of trans- parency. Itis, however, the setting in movement of this part in respect of its transparency that consti- tutes sight, not in respect of its fluidity. Dark eyes are set in movement less owing to the amount of © See Introd. § 70. 4 For the details of Aristotle’s theory of vision, see App. B §§ 26 ff. 4907 780 a ARISTOTLE yap TO vuKTepwov das* dpa yap Kal dvoKkivyrov ev TH vuKTi dAws yiyvetar 7d tbypdv. det dé ovTE p47) Kwetoba abo ovTe pa\Aov 7 Suadaves” €K- Kpovet yap 7) loxuporépa Kino Thy aobeveort wobeX. 10 810 Kal amo TOV toyupa@v Xpoparav PET Ves Aovres ovx opaot, Kat eK Tob sWrtou eis TO oKOTOS idvrTes* ioxupa yap ovoa 1 evuTdpxovoa Kivno.s 4, A / Vw @# »” / ” Kwdver THY Opabev, Kal GAws ote abevovca ovTE > \ + \ A 4 c a \ \ aoberns ois ta Aapmpa Svvarar opadv dia TO ‘ : a \ A © 1 , ~ mdoxew Tt UGAAov Kal Kweicba TO bypdv. SyAot \ \ \ > / a ” ¢ / \ 15 6€ Kal Ta appwoTHpata Ths owews ExaTépas. TO pev yap yAavkwya yiverar uaAdov Tots yAavKois, ot dé vuKtdAwmes Kadovpervor Tots weAavodbaApors. €ott 5€ TO prev yAatvKwpa Enpodrns Tis [paAAov|? Tov oppdrwv, 8d Kal ovpBaiver paddAov* ynpd- okovow: Enpaiverat ydp, Womep Kal TO aAAo cpa, Kal Tadra Td popia mpds TO yhpas 6 de vuKTdAwis bypoTyntTos mAcovacpds, 510 Tots vewrTépois ‘yiveTau padrov: byporepos yap. 6 eyKépados 0 TovTwr. 7 S€ eon Tob moAAob Kal Tod dAiyou bypod BeA-- 14Z: 7H vulg. 2 secl. A.-W. § yaArov.om. Z. * The movement already in progress in the eye is so strong that it precludes any fresh movement that comes from out- side from making itself felt in the eye. » Dark eyes have so much fluid in them that the weakness of the light at night cannot set them in movement (780 a 5). —Night-blindnéss is also the sense of the word as defined by Galen; but the term seems to haye been used in opposite senses in ancient times; ¢.g. *» in Hippocrates, Prorrh. (ix. 64 Littré) voxrddures = of Tis vuKros dpavres (though one Ms. apparently reads ody dparres); and see L. & S. ¢ But he has said above (779 a 28 and 779 b 11; repeated below 780 b 1) that the eyes of new-born infants and young 498 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, V. 1. fluid which they contain, for the light is weak during the night, and, in addition to that, fluid generally is not easily set in movement at night. To obtain the best results, it must avoid both (a) not being set in movement at all and also (6) being set in movement too much in respect of its transparency, because the stronger movement ousts the weaker.* That is why people who have been looking at strong, brilliant colours, or who go out of the sunlight into the dark, cannot see: the movement which is already present in their eyes is so strong that it precludes the move- ment which comes from without. And in general, neither strong sight nor weak sight-can see bright things because the action undergone by the fluid in the eye is unduly intense—+.e., the fluid is set in movement unduly. This is borne out by the ailments besetting either kind of sight. -Cataract tends to attack the blue-eyed more than the dark-eyed, night- blindness’? as it is called attacks the latter. , Cataract is a sort of dryness of the eyes, and that is why it occurs oftener in the ageing, as these parts (the eyes), like the rest of the body, become dry towards oldage. Night-blindness is superabundance of fluid, and that is why it tends to attack younger people : their brain is more fluid.© The best sight of all is that which is midway between a large amount and a children are bluish; and the reason given for blueness at 780 b.1 (and 779 b 29) is the small amount of fluid. At 779 b 11, however, the reason given for blueness is weakness (weakness is explained at 780 b 7 as being due to lack of concoction of the fluid); and at 780 b 8 undue thinness of fluid is said to “‘ be equivalent”’ (rv atria exer Svvapyuv) to a small amount of fluid. We may deduce, therefore, that a large amount of thin fluid is equivalent to a small amount of fluid ; at any rate, this seems to be the only way of reconciling Aristotle’s apparently contradictory statements. 499 ARISTOTLE 780 a / + ” \ e x\7 > ‘ \ , tioTn ous ore yap ws dAlyn odoa Sia TO TAapaT- reoae _epmodiles TH TOV Xpwudtwv Kivnow, oUTE 25 Sua TO" mAiGos TApEXEL Svoxunotay. Od pdvov S¢ Ta cipypieva. aitia Tob duBro 7 at. 3&d opay, aAAa Kal 4 Tob d€pparos vous Too emt TH Kopn, Kaovpery. det yap avro Siadaves elvat, ToLodrov om dvayKatov elvat TO Aemrov Kai AevKOV Kal dpaArdv, Aemrov pev omws 7 Ovpabev ed0uTroph 30 Kivyats, opadov & domws pa emoxialy puridov- pevov (Kat yap bua Tobd" ot yépovres ovK 0d opdow: woTep yap Kal TO do dépua, Kat To Tov Oppatros puTiotral te Kal TaxUrepov yiverau ynpdoxovow), AcuKov dé Oud TO TO peAav p27) elvan diadavés: adto yap tobT’ éort TO péAav, TO [A 35 Stapaivopevor. Sudmrep ovd” of Aaparhpes Svvavrat paivew eav dow eK sTowovrov d€épparos. ai 1 780 b "Ev pev obv TH ynpa Kal Tals vooors dua Tavras Tas aitias ovK ogd BAéovar, ta dé mroudia bv? oAvyéTHTA TOO dypod yAavKa paiverat TO mp@rov. érepoyhavKor dé yivovrat pddvora oi dvOpwrrou Kal of immo. Sia THY abrny airiay du’ jvrep O ev 5 dvOpwros TroAvodrau povov,, tov & dey inmos . povov emdnAws ynpackwy AcuKaiverat Tas Tpixas. y] TE yap ToALdT NS dobevera Tis €or Tod vypod Tod | ev TO eykepadw Kal amreibia kat 7 yAavKorns: TO yap Alav Aerrov 7) 7 Atav max THY avrny exet bv- vapw TO pev TO OAlyw TO S€ TH TOAAD vype. Ee =” 1 76 Z*, Aldus; om. vulg. 2 yovov Aldus, codd.*: pdvos Bekker. ee ee * And therefore weak-sighted. > 4.e., unconcocted. 500 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, V. 1 small amount of fluid, because: on the one hand it is not so small in volume that it gets disturbed and so hampers the movement produced by the colours, nor’ on the other hand is it so large in volume that its movement is rendered difficult. These are not the only causes of dullness and keen- ness of sight. In addition to them we must mention ‘the nature of the skin upon what is known as the pupil. This skin should be transparent, a condition which must of necessity be satisfied by skin that is thin, and white, and even—thin, in order that the movement that comes from without may take a straight course ; even, so that its wrinkles shall not produce a shadow (the reason why old people do not have keen vision is that the skin in the eyes, like that elsewhere, gets wrinkled and thicker in old age) ; white, because that which is black is not transparent, non-transparency being precisely what blackness is ; and that too is why lanterns cannot give any light if they are made of black skin. In old age and disease, then, these are the causes owing to which the sight is not keen; in children, however, it is the small volume of fluid which makes the eyes appear blue to begin with.* And odd- coloured eyes occur more often in human beings and horses than other animals for the same cause that human beings are the only animals that go grey and the horse is the only one of the remainder whose hairs noticeably whiten in old age :—Greyness is a weak- ness, viz., a lack of concoction, of the fluid in the brain ; so is blueness of the eyes ; since unduly thin ® fluid and unduly thick fluid are the equivalent © re- spectively of a small amount and a large amount of © For exe: divaywy, cf. 733 b 15 784 b 14, and Introd. § 26. 501 780 b ; ARISTOTLE 900) 1 10 orav obv pn Suvyrae dmapricat a) gous dpolws 7 mrépaca To év dyuporépous vypov 7) p12) Trépaca, ada TO pev 7d Se pH, TOTE oupBaiver vyiverGau érepoyAatous. Tlepi d€ rob Ta jer” dfvwrna elvat TOV Caw Ta “8€ pr, do TpoToL THs airias clowv. ix yap 15 A€yera TO O€d oxedov, Kat Trept TO. akoveww Kat TO dadpaiveobar opotws ToT €xeL. A€yerat yap ogo opay Ev pev TO _Tmoppabev dvvacbar opav, ev dé TO Tas Svagopas OTL pddvora, diatcbdveobar TaV Opwpevenv. tabra 5S ody dpa ovpBatver Tots avrois. 6 yap adros emmAvyacdpevos" THY xElpa 20 7) dv’ avhod Baézewy TAS [Lev Svadopas ovfev padAov ovo" ATTOV Kpwet® Tay Xpwparev, dyperau d€ mrop- porepov. of yoov eK TOV (opyypareny Kal ppedrav eviore aorTépas opBow. wor el Tt TOV ldo € exet jeev mpoBodny Tob Opparos mroAdiy, ro 8 ey TH KOpy) Sypov 7) Kaapov finde avppetpov TH Kujoet 25 TH Dvpabev, pnde TO emumoAis déppya AewTOv, TOOTO mept pev Tas Svadopas ovK dicpiBosoer TOV xpo- patwv, toppwbev d eorau Oparucdy (wo7rep et Kal eyyvbev)® wadAov t&v TO ev bypov Kabapov éxov- TwY Kal TO oKeTACLA avTod, pn exovTwy 8 Emt- oKvviov 7pd0 T&V oupdtrwv pnbev. Tod pev yap 30 ovTus ov pay wore SiarobdvecBar Tas Svagopds, év are TO Oppart éorw 7 airia: WoTeEp yap ev iuari Kabap@ Kat at puxpat xndjSes evdnAor , emMAvyacdpevos P: -yo- vulg. * xpwet Peck (idem Sus., Richards): xpivec vulg. 4 Gomep . . eyybev secl. A, -W., om. &: dowzep YZ pro woTrep aa Kal. * Chiefly, as will shortly appear, the differences of colour. 502 — GENERATION OF ANIMALS, V. 1 fluid ; therefore, whenever Nature cannot make the fluid in both eyes tally, either by concocting it or by not concocting it in both, but instead of that concocts it in one and not in the other, the result is odd-coloured eyes. The fact that some animals are keen-sighted and Two senses others not is due to two sets of causes, for ““ keen ” anes = here has practically two meanings (so it has when applied to hearing and smelling). Thus, keen sight means (a) ability to see from a distance, (6) distin- guishing as accurately as possible the differences * of the objects which are seen ; and these faculties do not oecur together in the same persons. The man who shades his eye with his hand or looks through a tube will not distinguish any more or any less the differences of colours, but he will see further ; at any rate, people in pits and wells sometimes see the stars. So that if any animal has a considerable projection over his eyes, while the fluid in his pupils is not pure nor suitably proportionate to the movement coming from without, and if the skin on the surface of them is not thin, then that animal will not have accuracy of vision in so far as differences of colours are concerned, but he will be able to see from a distance (just as he would from close quarters) better than animals which though they have pure fluid in their eyes and a pure covering round it, yet have no projecting brow at all in front of their eyes. The reason is that (a) the cause of being keen-sighted enough to distinguish the differences (of colour) lies in the eye itself, since just as quite small stains are plain and distinct on a pure, clean shirt, so quite small movements are plain and 503 ARISTOTLE 780 b “ ylwovra, odtws Kal ev TH Kabapa oper Kal ai puxpal Kwjoeis SHAaL Kal tovotow atobnow. Tod dé Ta moppwlev Spav Kal Thy amd TOV Tdéppwlev 35 dpaT@v apuxvetobat Kivnow 9 Géous airia Tay odbaduav> Ta pev yap e€dp0aAua ovK edwrd. 781 a moppuev, 7a 8 evros Exovra Ta Oppara, ev KoiAw Keijeva OpatiKa TOv moppaobev dua To THY Kivnow HM oxedavvvabas eis dxaves GAN’ etumopeiv.. ovbev yap Suageper To Aéyew opay, Somrep TwWes past, TO THY ow e€vévan (av yap al] TL mpo TV Cupido, SiacKedavvypevny avayKn eAdrre ™poa- mintew Tots opwpuevois Kal ArTov Ta TroppwHev opav), TO Th amo Ta&v Opwpevov KujoeL opav. opoiws yap dvdyen Kal Te oof TH Kw7joee Spay. pddvora peev ovv éwparo av Ta 7oppailev, el azo Ths oews edOds cuveyts iv mpos TO dpebpevov > /, b) ‘ bal /, ¢ Ld c > ‘ 10 ofov addAds: od yap av duveAvero 7 Kivnows 7 azo a, & A > O\ Pe | A. | le s > fs md TOv oparOv: ei dé pj, Gowmep av emt mA€ov éexéx7, TocovTw axpiBéaTepov Ta TOppwHev Spay avayKn. Kat ris pev Tdv oupdrav diadopas eotrwoav abrat ai airiar. \ . oe \ / »” ‘ ‘ A > A Il Tov adrov 5€ tpdmov exer Kat wept THY aKonv 15 kal THY dodpnow: év pev yap €otTe Tod axpiBas > 4 ‘ > /, \ ‘ \ ~ akovew Kal oodpaivesbar to Tas Siadopas Tav brokeysevwv aicOnrav ott pddiora aicbavecBau or 1 énéyn Platt: dréyn vulg.: én Z. @ 7,¢., the substance of the eye. > This theory is put forward by Timaeus in Plato, Timaeus 45s ff. A similar theory seems to have been held by Em- pedocles. 504 on GENERATION OF ANIMALS, V. 1-n. distinct in a pure, clean sight * and they give rise to sense-perception. As for (6) the ability to see things at a distance, and the fact that the movement coming from objects at a distance succeeds in reaching into the eyes, the cause of this is the position of the eyes. Animals with prominent eyes do not see well from a distance, but those with sunken eyes placed in a hollowed recess are able to see things at a distance, because the movement does not get scattered into space but follows a straight course. It makes no difference to this which of the two theories of sight we adopt. Thus, if we say, as some people do, that seeing is effected “ by the sight issuing forth,”? then on this theory, unless there is something pro- jecting in front of the eyes, the “sight”’ of necessity gets scattered and so less of it strikes the object, with the result that distant objects are less well seen. If we say that seeing is effected “ by a movement derived from the visible object,’’ then on this theory, the clarity with which the sight sees will of necessity vary directly as the clarity of the movement: dis- tant objects would be ‘seen best of all if there were a sort of continuous tube extending straight from the sight to that which is seen, for then the movement which proceeds from the visible objects would not get dissipated ; failing that, the further the tube extends, the greater is bound to be the accuracy with which distant objects are seen. These, then, shall be the causes which we assign to explain the different sorts of eyes. The same situation is found in connexion. with II two other senses—hearing and smell—as with sight. Keenness of To hear and to smell “ accurately ’’ means (a) to Hearing. perceive as well as possible all the differences in the 505 ARISTOTLE EASED > 781 a / a \ ‘ /, ‘ > Ps 9 ‘ 5 macas, €v de TO moppubev Kal aKovew Kal do- ppaiverbar. Too jev oby Tas dwadopas Kpivew Kars TO aioPnrnprov altwov, worrep emt Tis 20 oyews, av i] xabapov avTo TE Kal 7 mept avTo pieyé. ‘Lot yap TOpou Tov alcOnrnpiwv mdvTev, domep elpnra ev Tots Trepl aicOjicews, Tetvovat mpos THY Kapotav, Tots dé pa) exovar Kapotav mpos TO avadoyov. O° puev ovv Ths dicorjs, émret €oTt TO atobyri prov aépos, q TO mvebpa TO ovppuroy 25 Toveirau eviois ev TIHV opuew Tots be nv dva- TVvOnV [Kat etomvony |, * raurn mepaiver’ - 81d Kal 3 pdOnous yiverau TOV _Aevyopevev aor avribbéy- yeo0ar TO axovobév: oia yap 7 Kivnots / > \ Ad ¢ Tatra méppwhev aicbyrixd €orw. 810 Gowv ot 10 LuKTHpes pakpol, olov Trav Aakwuikav Kkvvidior, | dodpartika: avw yap dvtos Tob aicOyrnpiov at moppwbev Kuyjoets® od Suaoma@vrat adr’ evBur0- podow, @omep Tots emmAvyalopevous" 7po Tov oppatwv. odpoiws dé Kal daots Ta. Ora paKpa kat dmoyeyercowpeva. Toppaber, ola € exovow eva TOV 15 TeTpamodwy, Kal €ow THY €EAiKHY paxpav: Kal yap TavTa €K mohob AapBdavovra THY Kiyo amro- didwot mpos TO aicOyrrpiov. Tr pev odv méppwlev axpiBevay TOv aicbjoewv 1 seclusi: om. =. 2 rod odparos addit Z (corporis post douav b 3 addit X), 3 lacunam statuit Platt. y 4 sic Platt: 77 apy rod mvevpatixod témov vulg.: & vertit et implentur aures secundum quod opilatur spiritus propter principium instrumenti in quo est |spiritus|. 5 aut haec secludenda (om. Z), aut (docente Platt) a d€ (7a peév) aicbdvecOau scribendum. 5 ab in. x. Platt: a. ai x. vulg. 7? énndvyalopevas P: -yC- vulg. 508 . ae GENERATION OF ANIMALS, V. nu. “movement while it is causing movement]. The same condition occurs during damp seasons and in damp climates,? and the ears appear to get filled with pneuma, because the principle is situated close by the region that is concerned with the pneuma. Thus, accuracy in distinguishing the differences both of sounds and smells depends upon the purity of the sense-organ and of the membrane upon its surface, for all the movements turn out plain and distinct in such eases also, just as in the ease of sight.] (6) Per- ception from a distance, too, [and failure to perceive from a distance] occurs in the same way.as in the case of sight. Thus, animals which have as it were channels passing through the parts concerned and projecting well out in front of the sense-organs can perceive from a distance ; and that is why animals which have long nostrils, like the Laconian hounds,? are keen-scented: the sense-organ is set well back’ in the interior, and therefore the movements which come from a distance do not get scattered but take a straight course, which is just what happens when we shade our eyes with the hand. Another similar case is that of those animals which have ears that are long and jut well out like the cornice of a house ‘“—some quadrupeds have ears of this sort—and a long internal spiral passage ; these long ears, like the long noses, catch. the movement a long way off and transmit it to the sense-organ. Accuracy of perception by the senses when exer- * Lit., “ blends”; ef. 767 a 31, 777 b 7. > There is a long passage about Laconian hounds in H.A. 574 a 16 ff. © Cf. P.A. 658 b 16. 509 ARISTOTLE ttd 781 b o eg eta to ¥ ‘ ee jKtoTa Gs etrety dvO perros exet ws Kara peyeBos tov Cow, riv' dé mepl Tas Siapopas padvora 20 mavTwv evaicbnrov. aitiov 8 ott TO aiaOnrijpiov Kaapov Kal yKLoTAO yeades Kal cuparades, Kal pvoeu Aerrrodepporaroy Tov Cawy ws Kara peyebos avOpwrds €orw. Edhdyus S dmeipyacrau u] pvous Kal Ta mepl Thy dwKynv TeTpdmovv yap dv Kal CwordKov odx éyes @ra adda wdpous pidvov. altvov 8 Gru ev 25 byp@ atth 6 Bios: ro Sé€ TaV wrwv pdpiov mpockettar Tois mdpois mpos TO awlew THY TOD mroppublev depos Kiqoty: ovbev odv XPHoyov éoTw abti, adda Kai todbvavriov amepydloir” dv, dexo- preva eis atta vypod mrAjOos. Kai zepi pev dyews Kal axofs Kal SPP nei > U ee: ~ > s peva. pddvora 8€ Tobr’ éemtdnAov emi tav avOpw- Twv' Kat yap Sactverar paddov mpecBvrepa yeyvopeva, kal dadakpodvrat TAS Kepadns evo. Ta mpocbev. Kal aides pev dvtes od ylyvovrat 7“ r a SA 4 padaxpot, 038° ai yuvaikes: of 8 avdpes mpotovons 709 THs AAcKias. “Kal modobyrar de tas Kepadas yynpdcKovtes of avOpwra. tav 8 dddAwy Cawv > A af? ¢ > an , > tA / ovfevi Tod0” ws eimeiv. yiverar éemidnrov, pddvora 8 innw trav dw. Kai dadaxpodvrar perv ot ~ “~ : ‘ \ avOpwro. Ta eumpoober tis Kepadfs, modvol dé ~ ~ > mp@Tov yivovrar tods Kpotdpouvs: dadakpodrar 8 ovdeis ovte TovTous ovTe TA Omria0EV THs KEepadfs. bid ‘ ~ 4 A ” / > ‘ A > 4 dca dé TOV Caw ph exer tpiyas aAAa TO avadoyov abrais, olov dpvifes ev mrepad, TO S€ Tv ixOdwv yeévos Aerridas, Kal TovUTOLs oupBaiver THY ToLOvTwY TaQnudtwy évia Kata Tov avrov Adyov. ~ col ¢ 5 ERs Tivos pev obv evexa TO TV TpiyOv 7H dvots a ” > - erroinae yévos Tois Cwous, elpytat mpoTepov ev Tals a ~ F > aitliaus tTais mept Ta péepn TOV Caw: Ttivwy 8 7 / dmapyovTwy Kai dua Tivas avayKas ovpPaiver TovTwy exacTov, SnAdca Tis peodov THs viv €orTlv. , \ a \ , oie Ss 4 Ilayvrnros pev obv Kal AemTOTHTOS aiTLov EoTt A a A / pdAwora To S€py.a: Tots pev yap maxd Tots dé AeTTOv, A = > wv \ Kal Tots pev pavov Tots dé muKvov éotw. eri de 1 xat kata P: nat S: Kara vulg. 2 +e PZ, om. vulg. 5 évias P et corr. Z: éevias vulg. * €or. PZ*: om. vulg. 512 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, V. 1. scanty ; beside this, it also shows differences of colour : it may be white or black or any shade be- tween these two. Some of these differences are also _ exhibited by the hair according to the various times of life, youth and more advanced age. This is noticeable chiefly in the case of human beings. Thus the hair gets shaggier as age advances, and some people go bald in front. Children do not go bald, nor do women ; men do, however, when they begin to get on in years. In human beings, the hair on the head turns white as age approaches ; in other animals, however, this does not noticeably occur : the horse is the one which shows it-most. Human beings go bald on the front of the head, but they go grey first on the temples; none however goes bald either here or at the back of the head. As for those animals which have no hair but the counterpart of hair instead (thus, birds have feathers, and the fish tribe have scales)—in them some conditions of the kind described occur in a corresponding way. We have already stated in the treatise on the Causes of the Parts of Animals * the purpose for the sake of which Nature has made hair in general and provided animals withit. The business of our present investigation is to show what are the pre-existing circumstances, what are the factors of necessity, on account of which the particular sorts of hair occur. The chief cause, then, of its thickness and thinness is the skin ; which in some animals is thick, in others thin ; looseknit in some, compact in others. A con- * P.A. 658 a 18; viz., for the sake of shelter and protec- tion. s 513 782 a 782 b ARISTOTLE me / \ > > 4 € , ¢ 4 cuvaitiov Kal Tihs evotons bypornros 7 Svapopa- a \ ‘ ¢ 4, ae: aA > ec 4 Tois plev yap wrdpye. Avrapa Tois 5’ ddaTwdys. OAws prev yap 1% Tod dSépuaros dvois broKevraL 30 yewdns* emumoAjs yap ovoa e€atpilovtros tod € ~ \ / ‘ A ¢ \ Ld ‘ bypod oreped yiverar kal yewdns, ai d€ Tpiyes Kat TO avdAoyov avrais odK eK THs capKos yivovTat > a> ~ / > / \ 3 GAN €x tod Sépparos [eEatpiloytos Kai avabupuw- a ~ “A \ a \ > févov év avtois Tod vypod. 10 mayeiar pev eK Tob maxéos, Aemtal Sé° ex tod Aexrot Séppatos , 2 ” \ > \ , , \ 35 ylvovrat|.” av pev obv 7 TO Sépua pavorepoy Kat tA ~ / A ~ ~ / TaxUTEpov, TaxEeias Sud TE TO TARVOS TOD yewdous Kal dia TO péyeBos TOv. mépwv eiaiv: av se muKvorepov, AerTal dua THY GTEvOTHTA THY TOPwV. ” > bal > c > \ e / ‘ > ert 8 dv 7 7 tkpas ddaTwdns, Tayd avaEnpawo- / 3 4 / c / i pévns od AapBavovor péyeBos ai tpixes, av de 4, ? / e) \ > , \ / 5 Aurapa, Tobvavriov: od} yap ed&jpavrov To Autrapov. did7ep OAws pev Ta TaxvdepudTrepa TayuTpLYw- tepa TOV Cawv, od pévro. Ta pdAvota pGAdov, Sua Tas elpnuevas aitias, olov To Tv bav yévos mpos TO TOV Body mémovbe Kai mpos eAddavra Kat 13 X A ” \ \ > \ > gtry mpos* ToAAa Tv dAAwv. dia THY adriy 8 airiav 10 Kal at ev TH Kehadh Tpixes Tots avOpwrots maxv- Tata: TOO yap Sépyaros Toro maxvratov Kal emt mAreloTn vypornte, ere 8 Eyer pavdtnta mroAAjv. aitiov d€ Kal Tod paxpas [7n Bpaxelas|’ ras tpixas elvat TO pr) evEHpavTov elvar TO eEatpilov dypov. rob dé put) . 514 ~ GENERATION OF ANIMALS, V. m1. tributory cause is the difference of the fluid present in it: in some this is greasy, in others watery. In general, of course, the fundamental nature of the skin is earthy in substance : being on the surface of the body it becomes solid and earthy as the fluid evaporates off. Now the hair and its counterparts © are formed not out of the flesh but out of the skin [as the fluid in them evaporates and exhales ; thus thick hair is formed out of thick skin and thin hair out of thin skin]}.* If, then, the skin tends to be looseknit and thick, the hair is thick both on account of the large amount of earthy matter and on account of the size of the passages; but if the skin tends to be compact, the hair is thin on account of the narrowness of the passages. Further, if the moisture is watery, it quickly dries off and the hair does not attain to any size, though it does if the moisture is greasy, because greasy matter does not readily dry off. Thus, gener- ally speaking, thick-skinned animals have thick hair? ; but it is not true that the thickest-skinned have thicker hair than (the others in the same category), for the causes mentioned, an example being afforded by the pig tribe when compared with that of oxen, or with the elephant and many other animals. For the same cause, too, our hair is thickest on the head : the skin there is thickest and situated over the largest amount of fluid,’ and besides that it is very loosely knit. And the reason why the hair is long [or short] is that the fluid which evaporates is not easily dried off. There are two causes which prevent it being easily dried off: one is its quantity, the other its * These words are deleted by Platt as partly unintelligible and as not fitting in with what follows. ® But see 783 a 2. © Viz., the brain. 515 782 b ARISTOTLE 15 Kal TO qroLov" av Te yap mod i] TO by pov, obK evénpavTov, wal av Aurapov. Kai dua tobTo Tots dvOpedrots at eK Tijs kepadjjs Tpixes paKporaras 6 yap eyKepados bypos Kat ibvypos @v mroAAjv trapéxer Saryirevav Tob bypod. Evddrpiya d€ Kal ovAdrpixa yiverat dud. TIV ev 20 Tats Opibty dvabupiacw. av pev yap 7} Kamvosdns, Deppn ovcoa Kal Enpa. ovAnv THv Tpixa Tovet. KaPMTET OL yap Sia To do péepeoban popds: TO pev yap yeades KatTw, TO d€ Oepuov avw ge- peTau. eV dpTTOU 8 ovons’ dv dobéverav oTpe- perau ToOTO 8’ éorlv ovdAdrns Tpixos. evdexeTau pev ovv ovTw Aafeiv tiv airiav, evddyerar dé Kai 25 Sua TO dAlyov €xew TO bypdv, odd bé TO ye@des, t7o Tod mepiexovtos Enpawopéevas ovordobat. Kdpnrerar yap To €v0¥, éav e€atpilnra, Kal auvTpéexet worTrep emt Tod updos Kaopevn Opié,” ws ovons THs obAdTyTos ovoTdcews bv Evderav bypobd bro THs Tod mEpiexovtos OYeppdrntos. oan- 30 petov & ore Kal oxAnporepar ai ovAa tpiyes TOV evbevéav eioiv: TO yap Enpov oxAnpov. ev0vrpiya d€ dca bypornt Exel mohAny: peov yap aN’ ob aralov TpoepxeTat ev TavTaIs TO Dypov. Kal dud TobTO ot pev €v TO Tlovrw LKvdar Kal Opaxes ev0Urpixes’ Kal yap avdTol vypol Kal 6 TeEptexwv 1 ovens Peck : dvros vulg. 2 Opié PZ, A.-W.: 7 Opié vulg. 2 For this and other subjects dealt with in Book V, see H. Diller, Wanderarzt und Aitiologe, pp. 115 ff., cf. 50 ff. et passim. * According to Aristotle, there were two sorts of “ ex- 516 — ————_ GENERATION OF ANIMALS, V. m1. quality. Thus, if there is a great deal of the fluid, and also if it is greasy, it does not easily dry off. And that is why the hair on our heads is the longest : the brain, being fluid and cold, provides fluid in large abundance. Straight hair and curly hair? is due to the exhala- tion in it: if this exhalation is smoky,” being hot and dry it makes the hair curly; for the hair gets bent because it is subjected to the impulse of two directional motions—the earthy constituent urges its way downwards, the hot constituent upwards ; and as the hair will easily bend on account of its weakness, it gets twisted ; that is what curliness of the hair really is. Well, that is one cause that may be assigned for it: here is another. It may equally well be that, owing to its containing but little fluid as against a great deal of earthy matter, the hair gets dried by its environment and so contracts. Any- thing that is straight bends if its vapour is drawn off, and shrinks up like a hair burning on the fire, which would imply that the curliness of hair is a contraction due to lack of fluid caused by the heat of its environ- ment. In favour of this is the fact that curly hair is also harder than straight hair, and of course anything dry is hard. Animals that contain a great deal of fluid have straight hair, because in their hair the fluid advances in a continuous stream and not drop by drop. That is why the Scythians by the Black Sea and the Thracians have straight hair : both their constitution and the environing air are fluid (moist). halation”: the “smoky,” a compound of Air and Earth, which is hot and dry; and the “aqueous,” which is cold and moist. For further details see De sensu 443 a 21 ff., Meteor. 360 a 22 ff., cf. G.A. 784 b 10. / 517 782 b 783 a ARISTOTLE 35 a’Trods anp vypos: Aibiores d€ Kal of ev Tots Depots ovAdrpixes: Enpot yap ot éyKképador Kat 6 anp 6 TepLexony "Eort 8° eva tav Tayvdeppwv AerTOTpLya S.a Tiv eipnuevnv aitiav mpoTepov: Gow yap av AeTTO- TEpPOL OL TOpaL Wa, TodO’TW AemTOTEpas avayKatov 5 yweoOar Tas Ttpixas. 810 TO THY TpoPdtwy yevos TovavTas €xe Tas Tpixas TO yap Epiov Tpiy@v ag’ bd a > at , “a \ TAHV6s €otw. EoTt 8 Era Tdv Cow & padaKyy pev exer THY Tpixa, HrTov dé AerTHv, olov TO TOV SacuTddwv mpos TO THY mpoBdtwr témovbev. TaV yap Towovtwy emimoAns 7) OptE rod Sépyatos. S10 10 ujKos odK loxer, GAAd ovpBaiver maparrAjovov wo- 1. Pk PS Wes Wy 2 , \ \ a mep TA amo THY’ Aivwr* Evdpeva Kal yap Tadra. pnKos pev ov0ev tayer, padakda 8 €ori Kat ov déyerar wAoKHY. Ta 8° ev Tots puxpois mpdéBara tobvavtiov mémovle Tois avOpdéois- ot pev yap XKvOar padrakdrpiyes, TA 5é mpoPata Ta Lavpo- 15 parucd oKAnporpixe. toutov 8 aituov TavTo Kal él TaV dy pic mavTwv. % yap ibuxporns oKAn- puver dua TO Enpaivew mnyvvovoa: exOABomevov yap 700 Oepnod ovveEatpiler TO bypov, Kal yivovTat Kat ai tpiyes Kal To S€pya yeddes Kal oxAnpdv. airvov Sé Tois pev aypios 7) BupavdAia, Tots 8 6 Tdémos lot ” ~ \ \ \ > 3% ~ / 20 ToLtodTos wv. anpelov dé Kal TO El THY TOVTLWY exivwv ovpBatvov, ois xp@vrar mpos Tas aTpay- youpias. Kal yap ovTo. dua TO ev yuypaG elvat “a / \ \ / > ¢ / \ \ Th Oadrdrrn dia To Babos (kal éEjKovTa yap Kat 1 -@v PSYZ*: om. Bekker per errorem. 2 wv fortasse scrib. monet Platt, 518 * GENERATION OF ANIMALS, V. m1. On the other hand, Ethiopians and people who live in hot regions have curly hair, because both their brain and the environing air are dry. Some, however, of the thick-skinned animals have - fine hair owing to the cause previously mentioned ¢ : the finer the passages are, the finer of necessity must the hairs be. That is why all sheep have fine hair, wool being just a very large number of hairs. There are some animals whose hair is soft, yet not so fine ; this is true of hares, for instance, in comparison with sheep. In such animals the hair is on the surface of the skin ; and so it is not long, but turns out to be very much on a par with the scrapings that come off linen cloth, which have no length worth mentioning, but are soft and cannot be used for weaving. In cold climates sheep and human beings exhibit opposite “ conditions *’ from each other: thus the Scythians have soft hair, but Sarmatian ® sheep have hard hair, the reason for which is the same as it is in all wild animals. The cold congeals them and so dries them, and this makes them hard: in other words, the fluid evaporates at the same time as the heat is expelled, and both hair and skin become earthy and hard. Thus with wild animals the reason is that they live in the open air ; but in other cases it is the nature of their situation which is responsible. This is shown by what occurs in the case of the sea-urchins which are used as a remedy for cases of strangury. These creatures, although small in themselves, have long, hard spines, because the seawater they live in is cold on account of its being so deep (60 fathoms or even * See 782 b 1. > Sarmatia is the territory between the Vistula and the Don, part of modern Poland and Russia: 519 783 a 25 30 or ARISTOTLE ere mAcidvwv ylyvovtTat opyviay), avrot pev juuKpot, tas de axdvbas peydAas exovar Kal oxAnpds, peydAdas pev dia TO evrabdOa TV Tod osparos retpapbat avéynow (dAvydbeppou yap ovtTes Kal ov TETTOVTES TV Tpopiy TOAD TepiTTwOpa exovow, ai o axavOar Kai at tpiyes Kat Ta Towabra yivovrat ek TMEPLTTUPLATOS) o«Anpas be Kal AcABapevas Sud. THY uxpornra Kal Tov m&yov. Tov abrov de Tpomov Kat TaAAa Ta dudpeva oxnpotepa oupl~ Baiver ylvecba Kat yewReorepa Kal Aswdeorepa TO ev Tos mpooPdppots" T@V Tmpos vorov Kab Td. Tpoonveua Tav év Koidos: yYdyeTar yap mavTa pardrov, Kai eEarpiler to bypdv. oKAnptver pev obv Kat TO Deppov Kal 7 pvypov- e€arpilecbas yap tm audotrépwv ovpBaiver TO bypdv; b7o pw Tod Oepynod Kal? ab76, bo be Tob yvypod Kara ovpBeBnxds | (nera Tob Geppod yap ouvefépxera: ovbev yap dypov avev Oeppod). adda. TO pev yuxpov od povov oxAnpdver adAd Kal mUKVOL, TO d¢ Gepuov pavdrepov mrovei. Aca thv adtny 8 airiav Kai mpeaButépwv yuyvo- pévwv Tots ev Tpixas €xovor okAnporepas ylyvov- Tat at Tpixes, Tois 5€ mrepwrois Kat Aemidwrois TA TTEPA KAaL at Aemrides. Ta yap Séppara yiwerat oxnpdrepa Kat Taxbrepa mpeoBurépav yeyvo- even: Enpaiverat yap, Kal TO yinpds €oTt Kara, Tovvopa yenpov dud TO atroXcimew TO Oepyov Kat a avTod TO bypov. 1 zpooBdppots A.-W.: apooBdépos PSZ: mpos Boppav vulg. * This is an important statement, and should be noted in connexion with Aristotle’s theories of the part played by fluid and, heat both in fourishment and in spontaneous 520 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, V. m1. more is the depth at which they are found). Their spines are long because the growth of the body is diverted to them, since, as the creatures possess but little heat, they cannot concoct the nourishment, and so contain a great deal of residue ; ‘and it is out of residue that spines and hair and the like are formed. Their spines are hard and petrified on account of the cold and its congealing effect. And in the same way plants, too, are harder, and earthier, and more petrified if they grow where the aspect is northerly, or in a windy situation, than if they grow where the aspect is southerly, or in a sheltered spot. It is because they all get more chilled, and their fluid evaporates. Hardening, then, is brought about by both cold and heat : the effect of both is to cause the fluid to evaporate: it is evaporated by heat per se, but by cold per accidens—in the latter case the fluid accompanies the heat when it makes its exit, as there is no fluid withoutits heat.*¢ There is this difference, however : cold causes compression as well as harden- ing, whereas heat lightens a thing’s consistency.” For the same cause hair, feathers and scales in the various animals respectively become harder as they get on in years : it is because their skins grow harder and thicker then, and that is due to their drying up, and old age or to “ get on in years ” is something earthy (as the similarity of the word with yearth, the old form of “ earth,’”’ shows),° and this is due to the fact that the heat is failing and with it the fluid. generation. See also P.4. 652 b 8 ff. and App. B § 11 and § 17 and note. » This hardly agrees with Aristotle’s statements elsewhere (¢.9-» 765 b 1 ff.) about the thickening effects of concoction. © This is a piece of * etymology * comparable with that of the original Greek : géras (old age), géé@ron (earthy). 521 783 b ARISTOTLE Dadraxpodvra 8 éemdrjrAws of dvOpwror pddvora 10 TOv Cdwv. eote dé tt KaldAov 7d ToLvobrov mabos- Kat yap Tov duTdv Ta prev deidvdda ra Se dvdA- AoBore?, Kal TOV dpvibeov of dwAevovres diro~ BadAdAovat Ta mTEpa. Tovobrov d€ Tt maBos Kal 7 dadakporns €oTiv emt Trev dvOpimev, 6 doous oUpee Baiver paraKpobobac Kar. Epos pev yap dmoppet 15 Kal Ta guia Tots purois maou Kal TA TE pa Kal at Tpixes Tots EXOVaW, orav Ss | dbpoov yevnrar To 7alos, Aap Baver Tas etpnyievas erreanvy pias * paraxpotobat Te yap réyerau Kal dvdXoppoeiv. alrvov dé tod mdfovs evdeva bypornros Oeppas, Towobrov de padora T&v byp@v To Amapdv: b10 200Kal tav duT@v ra Aumapa deidvdAa paGdAdAov. ddd mept pev ToUTaW ev dAAous 70 altiov Aekréov- Kal yap aAAa ovvairia ToUTOU Too mabous avrots. ylverat 5€ Tots pev gutois ev TO Xeypave TO mdos (abry yap % ~=pretaBoAy Kupunrepa Tijs jAucias) Kal Tots pwrevovar de Tov Cow (Kal 25 yap TabTa ATTOV Tay avOpurwyv bypa Kat Deppea. THY pvow cory)’ ol &° avOpwror Tats HAuKias Xeyeava Kal Ogpos adyovow. 610 mply agdpodiovd- few od yiverat dadakpos ovdeis: Tore be Tots TovovTas THY pvow padov. poe yap €oTw 6 eykéhados ypuypdtatov Tod OupaTos, 6 8 adpo- 30 Sustacpos Katadyer: Kalapds yap Kat dvourijs + {kai arepoppoeiv) addunt A.-W., Bekkerum secuti; melius mT €poppuely Btf.; om. codd.; fort. dvddo ppueiv scrib. 2 zovrov tod ZL rod Tovovrov vulg. « The Gk. has “ shedding of leaves,” but as there is no one English word for this, and as all three are referred to in 522 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, V. 1. Of all animals human beings are the ones which Baldness. go bald most noticeably ; but still baldness is a general and widespread condition. Thus, although some plants are evergreen, others shed their leaves, and birds which hibernate shed their feathers. Bald- ness, in those human beings whom it affects, is a com- parable condition to these. Of course, a partial and gradual shedding of leaves takes place in all plants, and of feathers and hair in those animals that have them ; but it is when the shedding affects the whole of the hair, feathers, etc., at once that the condition is described by the terms already mentioned (baldness, moulting,® etc.). The cause of this condition is a deficiency of hot fluid, the chief hot fluid being greasy fluid, and that is why greasy plants tend more to be evergreen than others. However, we shall have to deal with the cause of this condition so far as plants are concerned in another treatise, since in their case there are other contributory causes of it. Now in plants this condition occurs in winter : this seasonal change overrides in importance the change in the time of life. The same is true of the hibernat- ing animals ; they too are in their nature less fluid and less hot than human beings. For human beings, however, it is the seasons of life which play the part of summer and winter ; and that is why no one goes bald before the time of sexual intercourse, and also why that is the time when those who are naturally prone to intercourse go bald. The reason is that the effect of sexual intercourse is to cool, as it is the excretion of some of the pure, natural heat, and the the context, I have kept the point by substituting ‘* moult- ing”: the Berlin edition and others actually insert the word for “‘ moulting ” into the Gk. text. 523 ARISTOTLE 783 b (4) 4 > , / > > /, Ss € EppoTnTos amoKpiois eotw. edvdAdyws obv Oo eyképados aicbdverar mpOtov: 7a yap aobevh Kat pavrdws Eyovra puKpds airias Kal poms eorw. wor’ dv tis dvadoylanra Stu abrds te ddvydbeppos ¢ > / wv > > ~ \ / / 0 é€yképados, ett 8 advayKaiov to mépié Sépya 35 Tovobrov elvar wGAdov, Kai TovTov Thy TaV TpLYaV / if a > / > /, nn / dow, dow mAcloTov adéornKer, edAdyws av ddEEL€ Tots OTEpLaTiKots Tept TaUTHV THY HAukiav OUpL- U a \ \ aes > t Baivew dadaxpotoba. dia tiv adryy 8 airiav \ ~ ~ \ 4 / 7 784 a Kat THs Kepadfs 76 mpdcbiov pdvov yivovtrar da- Aakpot Kai trav Cabwv ot dvOpwror povor, TO pev /, ae > ~ ¢ > 4, ~ A 4 mpoabuov, ore evradla 6 eyxéedados, av de Cowy / 7 \ a ” > , \ feovov, Ott TroAd mAciotov exer eyKédadov Kai uddvora vypov 6 avOpwros. Kat at yuvaikes od 5 hadaxpobvra mapamAnoia yap % dvows TH TOV Tradl: dyova yap omeppatiuKns exKpicews apudd- Tepa. Kal evvobyos od yiverat dadakpos dua TO > ‘ - 4 ‘ A e ~ ets TO OfAv petaBddrew. Kal Tas vorTEpoyeveis 4, * > / “ > /, n” ta Tpixas 7 ov dvovow 7 amoBdAdovow, dv TUywow ~ ~ ¢ Exovtes of edvodyor, mARVY THS Bys* Kal yap at 10 yuvaikes Tas prev odK E€xovar, Tas 8 emi TH HPN pvovow. 1 Se mHpwots avrTn ek Tod appevos eis To OAAv peraBodAn éorw. ) Tob d5€ ta prev dwdrcvovta madrw SactvecBar Kat Ta dvddoBoAjcavra mddw dew dvAAa, Tois Se dadakpots pr) dvadvecOar mdaAw, alrvov bre Tots 15 wev at @pat tpomai eiot too owpatos paAdrov, wor emel petaBddAovow adrar, petaBaAdrer Kal ‘ / A A > 4 A \ \ \ TO dvew Kat TO amoBdAdkew Tods péev Ta ATEpPA 1 6 Z*: om. vulg. 524 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, V. 1m. brain is by its nature the coldest part of the body ; thus, as we should expect, it is the first part to feel the effect : anything that is weak and poorly needs only a slight cause, a slight momentum, to make it react. So that if you reckon up (a) that the brain itself has very little heat, (6) that the skin surrounding it must of necessity have even less, and (c) that the hair, being the furthest off of the three, must have even less still, you will expect persons who are plenti- ful in semen to go bald at about this time of life. And it is owing to the same cause that it is on the front part of the head only that human beings go bald, and that they are the only animals which do so at all; ¢.e., they go bald in front because the brain is there,* and they alone do so, because they have by far the largest brain of all and the most fluid. Women do not go bald because their nature is similar to that of children : both are incapable of producing seminal secretion. Eunuchs, too, do not go bald, because of their transition into the female state, and the hair that comes at a later stage they fail to grow at all, or if they already have it, they lose it, except for the pubic hair: similarly, women do not have the later hair, though they do grow the pubic hair. This deformity constitutes a change from the male state to the female. The reason why the hair does not grow again in eases of baldness, although hair and feathers grow again on hibernating animals and leaves on deciduous trees, is that in the case of the animals and trees the seasons are the turning-points of their lives more {than in the case of man), and so when there is a change of season, then they follow suit and grow or * See P.A. 656 b 12. 525 784 a 784 b ARISTOTLE © Kat tas tpixas, Ta dé dvAAa Ta duTd. Tois 8 avOpwrois KaTa THY HAtKiay yiveror yetpav Kal Oépos Kal €ap Kal peTomwpov, wor emretB7)" at 20 HAukiat o8 pretaBdAAovow, ovdé Ta maby Ta dia ravras petaBdAde, Kaimep Tis aitias opoias A ovans. Kai wept pev rad\Aa 7d0n Ta TOV Tpriy@v ayedov ” elpnras. IV Tap dé Xpopdrov altvov Tots pev aAAots Coos, Kal ToO povdxpoa elvar Kal Tob mouKiAa, 7) TOO 25 S€pyatos pvas: tots 8° avOpwrois oddev mAQV TeV Today od Tav dia yipas adda Tov bua vooov: ev yap TH Kkaovpevy Acvxn AevKai yivovrau at tpixes’ eav 8 at Tpixes wot Acvxat, ovK aKo- Aovbe? 7H Sépuare 7 AevKdTyHsS. aitov 8 dru at Tpixes ek Tot Sépparos dvovra ek vevoonkdoTos 30 obv Kal AevKOD Tod Séppatos Kal 7 Opié ovvvocei, voaos dé Tpixos TroAudTns eoriv. 7 Sé dv HAcKiav TOv tpry@v modotyns yiverar dv aocbeveray Kal évderav Oepudtntos. Kal yap HAukia maoa pézet dmoxAivovros To owpuatos, Kal ev TO ynpds emi ywEw* TO yap yhpas puxpov Kal Enpdv é eoTw. det 35 de voroae TV els EKAOTOV _Hopiov aducvovpevny Tpopiy OTe TéTTEL Lev 7 EV EKdOTwW” oiKeia Deppo- Tns, advvatovons Sé Pleiperas Kal mHpwors yiveTar 7) vocos. axpiBéotepov dS€ mept THs ToLvadTys aitlas vorepov AekTéov €v Tois mepi ad&joews Kal Tpodijs. 1 ered Z: émet vulg. 2 &v exdorw PZ: om. vulg. @ Cf. 783. b 7, and De long. et brev. vit. 466 a 21; but according to Hippocrates, m. dvairns I. 33 (vi. 512 Littré), the aged are wuypoi Kal dypol. 526 ae GENERATION OF ANIMALS, V. u1.—1v. shed their feathers or hair or leaves. In man, how- . ever, the spring, summer, autumn and winter of his life are not seasons according to the calendar but seasons of his own age ; so that, as these do not go through the cycle of change, neither do the conditions which depend on them ; although the cause which controls the change of conditions is a similar one in his case too. I think we have now diectised all the conditions that affect hair, except that of colour. In the rest. of the animals, the reason for the IV various colours of the hair, and for its being single- foio"r of coloured or variegated, is the nature of the skin. In man, however, this reason operates only in the case of the greyness of the hair due to disease (as when the hair becomes white during leprosy), not that due to old age, and if the hair is white, the whiteness does not derive from the skin. The reason is that the hair grows out of the skin, and thus when the skin out of __ which it grows is diseased and white the hair is itself _- affected by disease, and disease of hair is greyness. : On the other hand, the greyness which is due to age Greyness. is the result of weakness and deficiency of heat. Eyery age of life tends to gravitate into chilliness when the body’s vigour declines, and especially when this happens in old age, since old age is cold and dry.* We must bear in mind that the nourishment which reaches each part of the body is concocted by the heat in each part proper to it; and if this heat is unable to do its work the part suffers damage, and deformity or disease is the result. A more detailed account of this cause will have to be given in the treatise Of Growth and Nutrition.” In those persons > Not extant. 527 784 b 10 15 20 bo or ARISTOTLE id doots obv TOV avOpwirrwv ddydbeppds eotw % TOV Tpix@v pvots Kai mAElwy 1) elovotca byporns éori, THS oikelas Oeppornros dduvarovons TETTEW O7)- meTat v70 THs ev TH TEeptexovte Beppornros. yiverau dé onus b b770 Beppdrnros pev mdoa, ov THs cuudirou dé, womep cipntrar ev érépois. ott & 9 ofiis Kal vdaTos Kal ys Kal TOV cwpatiK@v Tavrwv Tv ToLovTwr, 50 Kal THs yewdous ar- dos, ofov 6 Aeydopevos edpws: Kal yap 6 edpus €oTt oampoTyns yewdous atpidos. wate Kal 7 ev tais OpiEi ‘rovadtn ovea tpody od meTTomeryn onmeTal, Kal yiverar 7 KaAovpévn mroAud. AevK?) dé, dtu Kal 6 edpws povov TaV caTpav ws eimety Aevkdv éorw. airiov 5€ rovrov dri moAdy exet dépa Tdoa yap 1) yeddns a atpis aépos éxet Sdvapuy TAXES. Bomep yap dvTEOTpapevov Th maxyy 6 evpws €oTw: av pev yap mayh 7 aviodoa aris, , , 2 \ a a \ ‘ TIAXKVAH YLVETAL, EGY de oamTy, Eeupws. 310 KQL - > ~ > \ ” c \ > ‘ > ~ \ emumoAns eativ dudw- 7 yap atpis emimodfs. Kal ed 87) of mownral ev tails Kwpmdias peTrapéepovart okwmtovtTes, Tas TOMAS KaAodvTES yhpws edpOra Kal maxvnv. TO pev yap TO yever TO be TH cider ~ > TavTov €oTW, 7) pev TaxXvN TH yever (atpIs yap ~ lo »” apdw), 6 S€ edpws TO cider (ofyus yap audw). a ~ > onpetov 8 dtu Tovwobrdév €oTw* Kal yap eK voowv a A > / A 8° € 0. a moAAois modat avépveav, voTEepov byracbetar > ~ > péAawat avti TovTwv. aitiov 8 ore ev TH appw- @ At Meteor. 379 a 16 ff. See App. B § 11, add. note. » See 782 b 20, note. 528 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, V. tv. where the nature of the hair has but little heat and the fluid which enters it is unduly plentiful, the heat proper to the hair is unable to do its work and the hair is putrefied by the heat present in the environ- ment. All putrefaction, of course, is caused by heat, but not by the innate heat. This has been stated elsewhere.* Water and earth and all such corporeal bodies are liable to putrefaction, and therefore the earthy vapour ® is liable to it as well; an example of this is what is called mould: mould is in fact the putrefaction of earthy vapour. So too the nourish- ment in the hair, being of this kind, putrefies if it does not get concocted, and what is called greyness results. It is white, because mould too is: white. This is practically the only putrefied substance which is white, and the reason for that is that it contains a good deal of air: actually all earthy vapour is the equivalent ° of thick air. In fact, mould is as it were the “opposite number ”’ of hoar-frost, since if the vapour which rises up gets congealed, hoar-frost is the result ; if it gets putrefied, mould. And that is why both occur on the surface, because vapour is on the surface. So we see that the poets use a good metaphor in their comedies when they jokingly call white hairs the “ mould ” and “ hoar-frost of age”: one of them is generically, the other specifically, the same as greyness : hoar-frost is the same generically (both being vapour), mould is the same specifically (both being putrefactions). Here is a sure sign that this is its character: there are many instances of people having grown grey hair as an aftermath of disease, but later on when they were restored to health dark hair took its place. The reason is that © For exer divapuw ef. 780 b 9, and Introd. § 26. 529 ARISTOTLE 784 b / 7 ‘ \ 5A ry ~ > > Ps) / ~ oTia, WoTep Kal TO Aov' cHpa ev evdeia duoikis Beppdornrds cor, ovrw Kal T@v [aAXeov |? popiwv Kal 7a 7Tavv pLuKpa [eText Ths dppworias TAUTNS, TrepiTT@pa be mroAd eyyiverau ev Tols owpact Kal 30 €v* trois popious- Sidmep 7 ev Tais capélv arrexpia mou Tas ToAids. wvyidvavtes d€ Kal loydoavres mdAw petaBdarAovar, Kal yivovTa, Womep eK ye- povTrwy véou' S10 Kal Ta man ovppetabardovow. opbds 8 exer Kal A€yew THv pev vocov yipas emikTyTOV, TO S€ yhpas vocov dvaikyv: mrowdar yobv véoot Twes TadTa amep Kal TO yhpas. 35 Tovds 5€ kpotrddous todotvra: mp@tov. Ta pev 785a yap omabev Keve. bypdéTnrdés €orTt dua TO a exe eynedadrov, TO be Bpéypa mroAXiy exer bypoTrynra* TO be Todd ovK evonmtTov. ai 8 év Tots kpotdgous tpixes 00’ ottTws dAliyov Exovow bypov wate TéT- Tew, ote TOAD WoTE 1) anmecaL* pecos yap wv 56 Tomos audotépwy extos apdotépwv Tav Talav > €or. Ilepi prev ov ris tev avOpmmwv moddTHTOS ” A ” elpnTat TO aiTLov. V_. Tots 8 dAAows Sdous Too 1) yiveoBar Sud TI ipAuxtay TAVTHVY THV petaBodny emdiAws TO avdTo altvov Orrep elpyrae Kal emt Tis. padaxporntos: 10 dAiyov yap €xovor Kai <#rTov)* bypov Tov éyKé- dadov, wore py) e€advvareiv TO Oeppov mpos THV 1 Sdov Em*, Aldus, A.-W.: ado vulg.; ef. 780 a 19. 2 dMwyv secl. Btf. 3 & PZ: om. vulg.: xai ev om. S. 4 frrov coni. Bekker, ut videtur ; om. PSYZ. 4 See 784 a 35, b 6, 786 a 20, and Introd. § 62. >’ See 784 a 2, n, 530 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, V. tv.—v during a period of infirmity just as the whole body is afflicted by a deficiency of natural heat,’ so the parts, including even the very small ones, share in this infirmity; also, a great deal of residue is formed in the body and in its parts: hence the lack of con- coction in the flesh produces grey hairs. But when health and strength is restored, people accomplish a change, as it might be old men renewing their youth, and, in consequence, the conditions also accomplish a corresponding change. In fact, we might justifi- ably go so far as to describe disease as * ‘ adventitious old age ’’ and old age as “natural disease ” ; at any rate, some diseases produce the same effects as old age does. The temples are the first part to go grey, and the reason is this. The back of the head, since it contains no brain,” is empty of fluid. The bregma‘ contains a great deal; but a large volume of fluid does not easily putrefy. On the other hand, the hair on the temples has neither a small enough amount of fluid to secure concoction for it, nor a large enough amount for it to avoid putrefaction, as this region of the head is intermediate between the two extremes, and therefore stands outside both of these two conditions. We have now given the reason for greyness so far as man is concerned. The reason why this change does not noticeably V occur on account of age in the other animals is the same as the one already given in the case of baldness : their brain is small and (less) fluid,? thus the heat does not become completely unable to effect concoc- © See 744 a 25, n. # The insertion of “ less * is necessary to the sense: man’s brain is the most fluid of all (see 784 a 4). 531 785 a 15 20 bo or ARISTOTLE méfuv. tots &° immous [adr@v}' emvonpaiver pddvora dv iopev Cwwyv, drt AenTéTaTov TO daTOby Ws KATA / 0 ” \2 \ \ > / ~ ” pLéyeBos Exovor 70° TrEepi Tov eyKédadrov THY GAAwv. , > , ¢ 13? \ gis Tekpnpvov 8° ott Kaiplos 7%) mAnyi® €is Tov TOTO ~ / > a A \ 7 M4 Tobrov yiverar adrois: 810 Kai “Opnpos ottws eTroinaev iva‘ re mp@rax tpixes immwyv / >? 4 Ul > Kpaviw eumedvaor, uddAvora de Kaipidv eorww. padiws obv emippeovons Ths bypornros dua TH AertoTnTa Tod ooTod, Tis dé Depyornros €dAAc- movens dua THY HAkiav, emimoAobyvra ai Tpixes atta. Kal af muppat dé Oarrov modobvrar Tpixes ta&v perAawav €or. yap Kal 1 muppdryns warrep dppwortia tpiyds, Ta 8 aobevn ynpdoKcer mavTa Oarrov. pedavtépas S€ yiveobat ynpacKovoas Aéyerat Tas yepdvous. altiov 8° av ein Tod maBovs To dvoe vypotepar® adrav clvar THY THY TTEp@v dvow, mAgov Te ynpackovTwy elvar TO Uypov ev Tois MTEpois 7) WoTE eVonTTOV® elvaL. "Ore Sé ylyverar 7) Toda oniper Twi, Kal OTL ODK €oTW, WoTEp olovTai TWes, avavois, ONpElov TOD mpotépov pybévtos’ To Tas oKxeTralopevas Tpixas mirows 7) KaAvppaor TroAodcba. Oarrov (ra yap 1 secl. Bekker: adrdv PSY et Z* (non aro): todro coni. A.-W.; causa autem proprie apparet in equis X, unde yidetur olim aiziov émonpuaivew scriptum fuisse. 7o Z*: om. vulg. % wAny? PZ: 4 mAny7 H vulg. o@ text. Hom. bypotépay A.-W.: Aevxorépay vulg.: Aerrorépay Btf. evonnrov Platt: evonmrérepov vulg. Tod mporépov pnbév7os secl. A.-W., om. &. - cw sao oO 532 — GENERATION OF ANIMALS, V. v. tion. Of all the animals known to us, it is most marked in the horse, the reason being that in the horse the bone which surrounds the brain is, in pro- portion to the animal’s size, thinner than that of any other animal. A proof of this is that a blow delivered on this spot is fatal to a horse. Homer’s lines ¢ fit in with this too : Where on a horse’s skull his hairs first grow And where he suffers his most fell and fatal blow. Therefore, since the thinness of the bone makes it easy for the stream of fluid to flow to the hair at this place, and as the heat begins to fail on account of age, the result is that this hair goes grey. Reddish hair goes grey more quickly than black, as redness too is a sort of infirmity of the hair, and everything that is weak ages more quickly.” Cranes, however, so it is alleged, go darker as they get older. If this allegation is true, the reason for this condition would be that the nature of their feathers is more fluid, and that as the birds grow old the fluid in their feathers is too plentiful to putrefy easily.° Here are proofs (a) that. greyness is produced by putrefaction of some sort, and (6) that it is not, as some people imagine, a process of withering. Proof of (a). Hair that is protected by hats or other cover- ings goes grey more quickly, the reason being that the effect of the wind blowing is to prevent putrefac- * Iliad VIII. 83-84 » See 775 a 19 ff. © See above, 785 a 2. 533 785 a 785 b 30 35 5 10 “ARISTOTLE _ , 4 \ a c \ / 7 mvevpata KwAvet THY of, 7 Sé oKemn amvolav a \ \ A \ a” \ a~ & mrovct), Kal TO Bonbeiv rHv dAcusuw tiv Tob Bdaros Kal Tod €Aalov puyvupevwv. TO pev yap vowp 7 A + eS , , / pdyer, TO 8 EAasov pryvdpevov KwAver EnpaiveoBar Taxews' TO yap vdwp edv&jpavrov. dott 8 ovK €oTw avavois, 00d woTrep 1) 7rda adavojevy ev-= / ” \ € / a o he tN KaiveTat, ovTwW Kal 1 OpiE, onpetov dt. pvovras edléws eviat troAvai': advov 8 odfev dverar. Aev- Kaivovtat 5€ Kal em’ adKpov moAAai: ev yap Tots eoxatos Kat AerroTdTois €haxiorn Oepporns ey- yiveTau. Tots 8 adAdows Cdbous Gaows yivovrar AevKat at / , > > > / t / tpixes, pvcer add’ od wafer ovpBaiver yiveoBar TobTo. aituov d€ TOV xpwudrwv To Sépya Tots ” ral \ \ nl \ / ~ aAdos* THY pev yap AevKdv AcvKov TO Sepa, TOV dé peAdvwy pédav, TOv S€é TmoikiAwy Kal yuyvonevwv ex ovupyl€ews TH mev AevKov TH S5é péAav daiverar Bld 2 A \ a > 4 > \ ” \ , ov. emt de TOV avOpwrewv odbev airiov To déppa* \ \ c \ f. Ud ” ” Kal yap ot AevKot ofddpa pcdaivas Exovow. altvov 8’ éte Aemrorarov tavtwv déppa 6° avOpwios exer ws Kata péyebos, Sudtrep odfev iayver mpds TV ~ ~ / > \ \ A > v4 \ TaV TpiyOv petaPodAjy, adda bia THY acbéveray TO déppa Kai freraBdAAe adro tiv ypdav, Kal yiverat tO jNAiwy Kal mvevpaTwy peAdvTEpov: at 5é Tpixes > \ / > A cal + A ovlev cuppetaBddrrAovow. év dé Tots aAdAows TO dépua ywpas exer Svvapw dia TO maxos* B10 at 1 Guat wodvai conieceram, quod et ipsi codd.* habent: éviot toot Bekker (per errorem, ut vid.*). 26 Z: om. vulg. 534 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, V. v. tion, and the protection keeps off the wind. Also, it is an assistance if the hair is anointed with a mixture of oil and water. This is because, although the water cools it, the oil which is mixed with it prevents the hair from drying off quickly, water being easily dried off. (6) The following proves that greyness is not a form of withering, and that when hair goes white it is not due to withering, as it is in the case of grass. Some hairs are grey from the very beginning of their growth, and nothing begins its growth in a withered condition. In many instances, too, hairs go white at the tip; this is because very little heat gets into parts which are at the extreme end and very thin. In certain of the other animals white ‘hairs make their appearance ; but this is natural and not due to any affection. The reason of the colours in these other animals is the skin: thus, if they are white, the skin is white; if black, the skin is black; if piebald, made up of a mixture of colour, the skin is, we find, white in some places and black in others. In the case of human beings, however, the skin has nothing whatever to do with it, for even people with white skin have intensely black hair. The reason for this is that, for his size, man has the thinnest skin of all animals, and on that account it has no power at all to effect any change in the hair ; instead of that, the skin, by reason of its own weakness, changes its colour itself, and also is darkened by the action of the sun and the wind, while the hair undergoes no simultaneous change at all. With the other animals, the skin, on account of its thickness, possesses the character of the region in which the animal lives ; and that is why the hair changes in accordance with 535 785 b ARISTOTLE — + prev Tpixes KaTa Ta d€ppara peraBddAovar, Ta de 15 déppara obBev Kata Ta mvedpara Kal TOV HALoV. VI Tév d€ Caw ra pév ear povdxpoa (Aéyw dé [Lovoxpoa wv TO yevos dAov Ev ypOua Eyer, olov Aéovres muppot mavtes’ Kal TobTo. Kat én’ dpviwv Kad em ixOvuv cork Kat TOV GAAwy Cobwv opotws) 20 ra Se Tord Xpow puev, OAdxpoa dé (Adéyew d€ dv TO o@pa oAov ry abriy €xet xpoay, olov Bots éortv GAos AevKOS Kai GAos péAas), Ta DE TOLKiAa. TodTO de duyds, TA prev TO yéver, wWorrep mapdardis Kal Taws, Kal TOV lyOdwv evo, olov at KadAovpevar Opatra.- tav S€ TO ev yévos amav ov motkidoy, ywovra dé mouxiror, ofov Boes Kai atyes, Kal ev Tots Opvicwv, olov at mepiorepat: Kal ddAa dé yevn TO atvTo maoxer TOV dpvidwv. petaBddAAn dé Ta OAdxpoa 7oAA@ pGAAov THY povoypdwyv, Kai Ets THVv aAAjAwy xpdav thy andjv, otov ex AevKav péAava Kal ex peAdvewv AevKd, Kal peptypeva e& 30 dudotépwrv, dia TO dAw TO yever dmdpyew ev TH dvcer TO py pilav exew xpdav: edKivnTov yap bmdpye. em duddtepa TO yévos, WoTE Kal Els aAAnda peraBdardAew Kat mouxiAA\eoBar paddov. Ta d€ povdypoa tobvavtiov: od yap peTtaBadAn, ay pi) Sia aos, Kai TobTo omdviov: ydn yap @mrae Kat mépdvé AevK7) Kal Kopagé Kal otpovbds Kai apKTos. ovpBaive. 5€ Tabra, drav ev TH yevéeoer bo or oo or * A fish called thritta is mentioned at H.A. 621 b 16 (and fragment 285, 1528 a 40), which is supposed to be the shad. Aristotle’s diagnosis is essentially correct. . Albinism is not “‘ natural,’’ but an “ affection ’’ due to absence of pig- ment. ; 536 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, V. v.—v1. the skin in the various instances, whereas the skin does not change at all in accordance with the winds and the sun. Of the animals, some are single-coloured (by which I mean that the whole class has a single colour only, e.g., all lions are tawny ; and a similar thing VI Colour- changes obtains in the case of birds, fish, and the other — animals) ; others are many-coloured, yet at the same time whole-coloured (by which I mean that the whole body is of the same colour, e.g., an ox is white all over, or dark all over); others still are variegated. “ Variegated ” has two meanings : (a) as referred to a class of animals—like the leopard, and peacock, and certain fishes, for instance the thratta,? as it is called ; (b) sometimes the class as a whole is not variegated, but variegated individuals are found : examples are, oxen and goats, and certain birds, e.g., pigeons, and there are other classes of birds where this same condition is found. Change of colour is much com- moner among the whole-coloured animals than among the single-coloured, both (a) the reciprocal change between the individual colours (found in the class), z.e., one simple colour changes into another, e.g., white animals produce black ones and black ones white ; and also (6) the change which results in a mixture of the two. The reason for this is that it is a natural attri- bute of the whole class not to have one single colour : the class is mobile in both directions, and so provides more examples of interchange of colours and also of variegation. The single-coloured animals behave in the opposite way to this : they do not change, unless owing to some affection, and then but rarely ; thus, cases have been observed of a white partridge,® raven, sparrow, and bear. These results occur when the 537 786 a ARISTOTLE Svaorpadi: eUpOaprov yap Kal edKivn TOV TO pa- Kpov, TO dé yuyvojtevov ToLovToV* ev jUuKP@ yap 1 apx7) Tots yuyvopevots. tora Se petaBadovor Kal Ta pvoet 6Adxpoa" jeev 6 ovra, TO yéver dé ToXdXpoa,, dua Td. vdara: Td. 5 ev yap Bepud Aeveeny Trovet TIP Tpixa, Ta. de buxpa peAatvay, aomep Kal emt TOV gutav. alTvov o Ort 7a Bepua mvedpatos mA€ov exer 3 vdaTos, 6 S dnp diadawvopevos Aevkornra mrovel, xabdrrep Kal Tov adpov. Sdiadeper pev odv, dorrep Kal Ta déppata ta dia aos AcvKa THv. dia THv dvow, wa \ > cal \ iA \ / nn ‘ 10 obrw Kat ev Tats Opi€iv 4 Te Sua vocov H Kas *pckiav Kal i) dua pvow Aeudrns Trav Tpix@v TO TO aiTLov eTepov elvae* 7as pev yap 1 vou Depporns Trove? Acunds, Tas 8 u) aAAotpia. TO de Aevkov 6 drpudadns anp TapeXeTau eyKaraxAc~ pevos ev maow. 510 Kal doa 1) povexpod €or, Ta bro TH yaorepa mdvra Acuxdrepd €orw. Kal yap Oepporepa Kal TOvKpewrepa mdvra TO. Aeviea ws eimety e€oti dud THY avriv airtay: 7) bev yap Treypus yAvKéa Trovel, THv Oe mew TO Beppov. 7 o avT? aitia Kal TOV [Lovoxpowy per, peAdvey AcvKav: Depporns yap Kal puxporns airta Tis picews Too dépparos Kal TOV Tpix@v- exe yap ExaoTov T@V popiwy DepudryTa olkeiav. 1 6Adxypoa Z?*m (non E*), Aldus, A.-W.: ovdxpoa Z?, vulg.: et alteratio colorum generum animalium que sunt na- turaliter multorum colorum erit multociens propter etc, X. 2 Cf t75 a 9. > Cf, 735 b 8—736 a 20. © See 784 b 7, n. @ Cf. 784 a 34, b 6, 27, and Introd. § 62. 538 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, V. vr. creature suffers some distortion during the process of its formation, for, since the beginning of things that pass through such a process is on a small scale, they are small at that time, and what is small can easily be given a_different turn and spoilt.* The ones that change most are those which, though whole-coloured by nature, belong to a class which is many-coloured. This is due to the varieties of water involved. Hot water makes the hair white, cold water makes it dark, which is exactly what happens in the case of plants. The reason is that the hot ones contain more preuma than they do water, and it is the air shining through that causes the whiteness, just as it makes froth white.? Therefore, just as there is a _ difference between skins that are white by nature and those that are white owing to some affection, so there is a difference between the whiteness of hair which is due to nature and that which is due to disease or age—and the difference lies in the fact that the cause is different. In the former case, the whiteness is caused by the natural heat, in the latter, by ex- traneous heat.° It is the vaporous air shut up inside them which produces whiteness in all things; and that, too, is why those animals which are not single- coloured are all whiter under the belly than else- where. Thus too practically all white animals are hotter and tastier for the same cause: their good flavour is produced by concoction, and concoction is produced by heat. And the same cause holds also in the case of those animals which, being single- coloured, are either dark or white ; since it is heat and cold which are the cause of the nature of the skin and of the hair, each of the parts of the body having its own proper heat.? 539 ARISTOTLE I es “Ere 8 at yrAarra Svapépovor TOv amrOv te Kal TroukiAwy Kat Tov atv pev Siadepdvrow dé, olov AevKav Kal peAdvwv. aitiov 5é TO etpnpevov Tporepoy, OTL TA Séppara ToukiAa TOV Troucihwy, 25 Kal TOV Aevicorpixwy Kal TOV peAavorpixev TOV pev AevKa Tv be pédava.. THY d€ yA@rrav Set broAaBeiv Worep Ev pdpiov TOV eEwrepiKa@v etvar, ra Ott ev TO oropare oxeTalerat, aN’ olov xelpa 7 78a" aor e7rel Tav moukiAwy To dépua ov povexpwv, Kai TOO emt TH yAwTTn Sépyatros TobT airwov. 30 MeraBddAdrova dé ra xpwpara Kai Tov opvibwr TWWes Kal THY TeTpaTOdWY TOY aypiwy eva KaTa Tas Wpas. altiov 8 dt. wWomep ot avOpwmor KaTa TIV iAuciav peraBadMovor, Toor” exeivots ovpBai- vel Kara Tas wpas* pile yap diadopa airy Tis KaTa TV jAukiav Tpomis. 35 Eiot 5€ kai ta Trapdaywrepa troiiArdtrepa ws emi to mAciotov" eimeiv edAdyws, olov at péAtT- 786 b Tat provdxpoa paddov 7 at avOphvat Kat ofijKes: el yap at tpodai airiar tHs petaBoAjs, evAdoyws at mouxidar tpodai mavTrodatwrépas modo. Tas Kwhoes Kal Ta TEepiTTwMpaTa THS Tpodys, €€ av 5 Kal Tpixes Kal mTEpa” Kal dépuara yiverac. Kai zepi pev xpwudtwr® Kai tpixy@v diwpicbw TOV TpOTrOV TOUTOV. Vil Ilepi dé dwvijs, 67e Ta ev Baptdwva tov Caowv 1 areiorov Z: wAROos vulg. 2 wrepa Z: arida vulg. 3 ypdpatos YZ: Sepudtrwy P: Sepudrwy xpwparos coni. A.-W. « This apparently means the same as “ whole-colour 540 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, V. vi.-vi. Further, the tongues of animals differ: those of the simple-coloured * animals, those of the variegated ones, and those of the ones which, though simple- coloured yet differ among themselves (as, e.g., dark and white)—the tongues of these are all different. The reason is that which has been stated already, viz., that the skins of variegated animals are varie- gated, the skins of white-haired ones are white and of dark ones dark. The tongue we should look upon as being, as it were, one of the external parts of the body, comparable, e.g., with the hand or foot, dis- regarding the fact that it is being covered in by the mouth. So that, as the skin of the variegated animals is not single-coloured, this will be the reason respon- sible for the skin on the tongue as well. Some birds and some wild quadrupeds change their seasonal colour according to the seasons of the year. The hiner of reason is that, just as human beings change according to their age, so these change according to the seasons, because this constitutes a greater difference so far as they are concerned than the change according to age. peaking generally, the more omnivorous animals Erfect of are more variegated, as we should expect (for in- “45% stance, bees are more single-coloured than hornets and wasps), for of course if the various sorts of nourishment they take are the causes of the change, we shall expect to find that variegated kinds of nourishment make the movements which the nourish- ment undergoes and the residues which result from it more variegated, and it is out of the residues that hair, feathers, and skin are formed. This concludes our account of the various colours, and the various kinds of hair. With regard to the voice: some animals have a VII Voice. 541 786 b : ARISTOTLE’ earl, Ta 8 d€0dwva, Ta S evrova Kal mpds apdo- Tépas €xovTa Tas brrepBohas. OULPLETPWS, ére de 10 Ta bev peyadoduva Ta dé pucpopova., Kat AevoTynTe Kal Tpay’rnT. Kal cdxapupia Kal dcapupig, bua- pépovra dMijAwr, eTLOKETTEOV dua Tivas airias pee Sa ToUTWwY EKaGTOV. TeEpl ev ov O€UTHTOS Bapirnros THY adray aitiay olnréov civat fireep emt THS peraBorjs 7) ay peraBadrer véa ovTa 15 Kal mpeopvTepa. Ta pev yap aAAa mavra vecTepa ovta o€vrepov pbéyyerar, Tav dé Body ot pooyot Bapurepov. 7o 8 avdro ovpPaivee kai ent tav appévwv Kai Onrc@v- év pev yap Tots dAdo yévest TO OfAv o€drepov dbéyyeras tod appevos (udAwora 8 émidnAov emt tv avOpdrwv tobtro- 20 pdAvora yap TovTos Tadrqy TH Sdvapuy amro- dédwkev 7) y pvas dua TO Ady xpiaba povous Tov Cour, Too Oe Adyou bAnv elvar ri porn), emt Sé ray Bodv robvavriov: Bapdtrepov yap at OyAevat dléyyovrar tav tavpwv. Tivos pev obv Eevexa dwviy exer Ta CHa, Kal ti €ott dwvt) Kal GAws oO 25 pogos, TO [ev ev Tois mrepi aiaOycews elpyTa, Ta oy ev Tots Tepi puxis- evet S€ Bapvd pev eoTw ev TO Bpadetay elvau TH Kivnow, of) 8 ev TO Taxeiav, ToD! Bpadéws 7 7 Taxéws TOTEPOV TO KWwoby airvov 7 TO Kwovpevor, exe Tuva amropiav. dact yap Twes To pev moAd Bpadéws | Kuvetobau TO 5° 30 oAiyov Taxéws, Kat Tavrny airiav elvat Too Ta pev Bapidwva » See 446 b 5 ff. 542 _ whi be ee & GENERATION OF ANIMALS, V. vu. deep * voice, others a high-pitched voice, others a well-pitched voice, suitably proportionate between the two extremes ; some, too, have big voices, others small ones; also they differ in respect of being smooth, or rough, flexible and inflexible. So we must consider what are the causes to which each of these is due. With regard to the pitch, the same eause is to be held responsible as that which controls - the change which they undergo in passing from youth to age. All animals when younger have a higher voice, except calves, which have a deeper one. The same occurs as between male and female as well: in all animals (except cattle) the female has a higher voice than the male, and this is especially noticeable in human beings, for Nature has given them this faculty in an exceptional degree because they alone among the animals use the voice for rational speech, of which the voice is the “ material.” In cattle the reverse obtains: cows have a deeper voice than bulls. We have explained partly in the treatise Of Sensation,” partly in that Of the Soul,° for what purpose animals have a voice, and what “ voice ”’ is, and generally what sound is. But since deepness of pitch consists in the movement being slow, and height of pitch in its being fast, the question is whether the speed is caused by that which initiates or that which experiences the movement, and this is somewhat puzzling. Some people hold that the movement of a large volume is slow and that of a small volume fast, and that this is the cause why some animals have deep voices and others high ones. Up to a point this statement is satisfactory, but not completely so. It is, of course, correct to say that, © See 419 b 3—420 b 23. 543 786 b 787 a ARISTOTLE yéver opbds eouxe A€yeobar 7d Bapd ev peyeler twit elvat Tob Kwvoupevov. ei yap TodTo, Kal jLLKpOV kat Bapd dbéyEacbar od pddiov, dpotws dé oddé 35 péya’ Kai o€3. Kal Soxet yevvaorépas elvar , ¢ , \ > ~ / A \ dvoews 7) Bapudwria, kat ev tots péAco TO Bapv Ta@v auvTdvwey BéAtiov: TO yap BéATiov ev brepoyy, ¢ \ / ¢ / > > > 7 > » Se Bapdtns trepoyy tis. GAN ered} eorw 4 \ \ \ ek > ~ , Erepov 76 Bapd Kat og ev puvf peyadodwrias kal puxpopavias (€ore yap Kal d€ddwva peyadd- 5 pura, kal puxpoparva Bapipava doadrws), opoiws d€ Kal Kata Tov puécov Tovov ToUTWwY: TEpl wv rive dv tis dAAw Siopiceser (Aéyw Sé peyadodwviay Kat puxpodwriav) 7) mAjnder Kal oAvyornte Tod Kiwvovpevov; ¢i ody Kata Tov AEeydouevoy éoTar Suoptopov TO 0&0 Kal Bap, ovpByoerar Ta adra 10 elvar Baptdwva Kal peyadddwva Kal d€ddwva Kal / ~ \ ~ ” > \ pukpopwva. Todro dé yeddos. aitiov 8 dru TO péya Kal TO puKpoV Kal TO TOAD Kal TO OGAlyov Ta prev atrA@s A€yerar, TA 5€ pos aAAnAa. peyado- dwva pev obv €otiv év TH TOAD amA@s elvan TO 4 / \ ~ x\7 4 Kwovpevov, pikpddwva d€ TO dAiyov, Bapidwva 15 d€ Kal d€dwva ev TH pos aAAnAa TadrTynv Exew \ / 3A \ \ € / \ tA Thv diadopav. éay pev yap brepéyn TO Kwovpevov Tihs Tod KwodvTos ioxtos, avayKn Bpadéws Pépe- afar To hepopevov, av 8 drepexyntar, Tayews. TO 1 péya coni. A.-W.: vociferatio votis magne acute est in- possibilis X: Bapd vulg. : * This, as appears from the next sentence, means the amount producing the movement as compared with the amount undergoing it. 544 Ae Se a. ee GENERATION OF ANIMALS, V. vu. in general, deepness depends upon a certain size of that which is set in movement; but if the statement were wholly true, it would not be easy to utter a noise simultaneously small and deep, nor, similarly, large and high. Further, a deep voice seems to be the mark of a nobler nature, and in melodies, too, that which is deep-pitched is better than the high- pitched, since deepness is a form of superiority, and it is in superiority that betterness resides. In fact, however, deep and high pitch of the voice is a different matter from largeness and smallness of the voice, for some animals which have high-pitched voices are large-voiced, and in the same way some which have deep-pitched voices are small-voiced ; and the same applies to the intermediate pitch between the two. And what other means is there for defining large- ness and smallness of voice apart from the volume of that which is set in movement ? So then, if high and deep pitch are to be distinguished according to the definition mentioned above, the result will be that any animal which has a deep voice will also have a large one, and any which has_a high voice will also have a small one. And this is not true. The reason is that the terms “ large,” “small,” and “large amount,’ “ small amount ” are sometimes used in an absolute sense, sometimes relatively to each other. If an animal has a large voice, this is because the amount of that which is set in movement is large absolutely, if small, the amount is small absolutely ; whereas high pitch and low pitch are due to the amounts ¢ involved being large and small relatively to each other. Thus, if that which is set moving exceeds the strength of that which sets it moving, then that which is pro- pelled is bound to go slowly; if it is exceeded, it T 545 787 a 787 b ARISTOTLE a 5 ~ ~ &° iaxdov dia tHv ioydy été pév odd Kwodv Bpa- a a \ / € \ ; a detav movet tiv Kivnow, oré dé did TO Kparetv 20 Taxelav. Kata Tov adrov dé Adyov Kal T@v Kwovv- A > ~ ~ ~ Twv Ta aobevi Ta pev mAciw KwodvTa THs Suva- flews Ppadeiav moved tHv Kivnow, ta Se 8 acbévevav ehiyon KwobvTa 5 TONERG . ¢ At per obv aitias TOv evayTiacewy adtar, TOO 7, pnre tavra Ta véa d€ddwva eivar pyntre Bapddwva, / A , / \ ” \ 4 25 unte Ta mpeaBUrepa, pte Ta Appeva Kal OyAca, \ A F mpos O€ TovTOLS Kal TOD Tos KadpvovTas o&D pléyyecbar Kai tods «db TO oHpa exovras, ett dé Kal yépovtras ywopevouvs paAAov o€udwvoréepous UJ ~ a ~ yiwecbar, THs HAiKias evavTias ovens TH TAY vewr. A \ s a 4 + ‘ /, > Ta pev obv mAciora vedtepa ovta Kal Ondea de > / s\/ ~ .7 > / 4 > i 30 aduvapiay dArAlyov Kwodvra aépa d€idwvd eorww: \ \ ¢ 3\7 / \ A AY LP ant a Taxv yap 6 dAlyos dépetar, TO dé Tayd ofd ev ~ c \ 7 ‘ ¢ / ¢€ P = dwvy. ot d€ pooxor Kai at Boes at OyjAcvaL, oF A \ \ e / ¢ ‘A \ \ , ~ pev dia THV HAtKiav, at dé dia THY dvow THs OnrdTHTOS, ovK ioyupov ExovOL TO OpLoV @ KWodaL, \ A ~ / / > \ A A moAd dé Kwotvta Bapidboyyd éorw: Bapd yap To / / ¢ \ A >\ , Bpadéws depopevov, 6 Sé€. modds aip pepeTat Bpadéws. aodAdy S€ Kwoto. radra, Ta 6°’ GAN 2,7 \ \ \ > A > e ~ , - dXiyov, Sua TO TO ayyetov bu” of mp@rov déperat a wi hid TO Tveda, ToUTOLS prev SudoTHM Exew peya Kal * The Greek word includes both meanings; and_ this circumstance explains a good deal of what Aristotle says in the present discussion. 546 See GENERATION OF ANIMALS, V. vu. will travel quickly. So then,the movement which a strong agent produces is sometimes slow (é.e., when, in virtue of its strength, it is moving a large amount), and sometimes fast (é.e., when the agent has the upper hand). In accordance with the same line of argument, in some cases the moyement which a weak agent produces is slow (2.e., when the agent is setting ' in movement an amount which is too large for its strength), in other cases the movement is fast (2.e., when owing to the agent’s weakness the amount which it sets moving is small). Such, then, are the causes to which these. con- trarieties are due. We have shown (a) why neither young, nor old, nor male nor female animals all have high-pitched voices or all have deep voices ; (6) why sick and healthy alike speak in a high-pitched voice ; and (c) why, as men reach old age, the pitch of*their voice rises, although old age is the opposite of youth. On account of their debility, most animals when young, and most females, set but a small amount of air in movement and therefore have high-pitched voices, because a small amount is propelled at a fast speed, and where the voice is concerned fast means high. In calves, however, owing to their age, and in cows, owing to the nature of femininity, the part by means of which they set (the air) in movement is not strong, and as they set a large amount of it in move- ment, they have deep voices, for a large amount of air travels slowly, and anything that travels slowly is heavy (deep).* A large amount (of air) is set in movement by these animals, but only a small amount by the others, the reason being that in the former the vessel through which their breath first travels has a large opening and is therefore forced to set a large 547 ARISTOTLE 787 b ; 5 ToAdy avayKkdaleobar dépa Kweiv, tots 8 aAdows edrapievtov elvat. mpotovons dé Tis AAKias ioxveu HaMov TOOTO TO }Optov TO Kivobv ev EKd- oTOLs, wore petaBaddrAovow eis sTovvavriov, Kal Ta pev d€idwrva Bapudwvdtepa yiverat aura avTa@v, 7a 5€ Bapidwra d&vdwvdtepa Sidtep ot Tadpo. 10 o€vpwvdrepor TOV pooywv Kal TOV Ondrevv Bodv. €oTt pev ovv maow 1 loxyds év Tots vedpous, S10 Kat Ta akpalovta ioyver paAdov. davap$pa yap Ta véa paAdrov Kal dvevpa. ert dé Trois pev vous ovmw emirératat, Tots 5€ yeynpaKdow" Hon avetrav” % ovvrovias 810 audw dobevi Kal advvara mpos 15 TV Kkivnow. pddora 8° of _Tabpor veupudets, kal uv) Kapoia®: diomEp ovvTovoy Exovat TOOTO TO HSpuov a) Kavodar TO Tvedpua, aomep xopony TeTapLevny veupivnv. OndAot dé tovadrn tiv dvow ovoa 7 Kapdia TOv Body TO Kal dotodv eyyiveoBar ev eviais abt@v: 7a.8° dora Cnret thy Tod vevpov vow. 20 "Exrepropeva dé 7avra els TO Ody peraBdMer, kal dua TO aviecBar Thy toydv THY veupwon ev TH dpxf opolav apinor poviyy Tots Sircow, 97 8 gvecis TapamrAnota yiverau aomep av et Tis Yoponv Katateivas avvTovoy moujoee TH e€cufau Te Bapos, olov. 81) mowotow at tods totods bdaivovea Kat 25 yap abras Tov oTHMova KaTaTEivoveL mpoodmToVaaL Tas Kadovpévas Aads. otTw yap Kal 7 TeV +] yeynpaxcow Z, A.-W.: ynpaoxovow vulg. 1 dvetrae PZ, A.-W.: dvierm vulg. 3 «at 4 Kapdia seclusit Btf. Xtamen vertit at tauri proprie sunt fortiorum nervorum et cordis. 548 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, V. vu. amount of air in movement, whereas in the latter the breath is under better control. In every animal, as age advances, this part which sets (the air) in move- _ ment becomes stronger, so that a change-over*® to the opposite is effected: high-pitched voices become deeper than they were, and deep-pitched ones higher. That is why bulls have higher-pitched voices than calves and cows. Now in all animals their strength lies in their sinews, and that actually is why animals in their prime are stronger than the others: young ones are less well articulated and less well supplied with sinews, and furthermore, their sinews have not yet become taut, whereas in ones that are aged their tautness has slackened off. Hence both young and old are weak and powerless so far as producing move- ment is concerned. Bulls however, being especially sinewy, have especially sinewy hearts; hence this part, by which they set the breath in movement, is taut, just like a sinewy string stretched tight. Bull’s hearts are shown to be sinewy by the fact that in some of them a bone? actually occurs, and bones seek the nature of sinew.° All animals when castrated change over to the female state, and as their sinewy strength is slackened at its source they emit a voice similar to that of females. This slackening may be illustrated in the following way. It is as though you were to stretch a cord and make it taut by hanging some weight on to it, just as women do who weave at the loom; they stretch the warp by hanging stone weights ¢ on to it. * For peraBadrew s * 5 ff. Scace ris #05 Bee A 17 ff., 768 a 15 ff. © This is a literal translation of the Greek. See 744 b 25, 36 ff., and Introd. § 64. # Cf. 717 a 35. Lit., “* what are called ‘ laiai ’ (stones).” 549 787 b 788 a 30 or 10 15 ARISTOTLE te) Opxewy pvats TMpoonpryrar ‘mpos TOUS omeppare- Kos Topous, odTo. 5° ek Tis preBos is apx7 €K Tis Kapdias Tpos avT@ TA Kwoodvre chy pwvyp. d.udTrEp" Ka TOV OTEPHATUKaY TOpwv peTaBad- Advrey mpos my qAuktay ev H dy Svvavrae To omépua exKpivew, ouppetaBadAder Kal rotro To foptov. tovtov dé jeraBdddAovtos Kal 1 pwvr) petaBdAXrer, uaAdov pev rots dppeow, ovpPaiver S€ tadro Kai emt tdv Ondewv, adr adnAdrepov, Kal yiverat 6 Kadoboi Ties Tpayilew, oTav dy wparos 7 i) 7 Porn. peta Se TabTa Kkabiorarar els THY THs €muovons jAucias Bapéryra 7 up dfupwviay. dpaupoupeveny be TOV Opxewy dvierat a Tdous TOV TOpwv, WomTEp amd THs yopdns Kal Tod aTHmoVvoS adatpoupevov tod PBdpovs. Tovtov 8 avriepéevov Kal 7) apy?) 7) Kwotoa tiv dwviv exAdveTar Kara tov avrov Adyov. bia pev odv Tav’rnv Thy airiav Ta eKTELLVOHEVO peraBdAre eis To Onrv THV TE duviy Kat tiv adAnv popdyv, dia TO ovpBaivew avicoOar Tih aipxny e€ Hs brapyer TH owpate 7 auvtovia, GAN ody wormep Ties droAapBdvovow avTovs Tovs Opxeis elvar ovvappa ToAA@Y apyOv- aAAa puxpat peTaoTdoets peydAwy atriat yivovrat, od Ov abrds, adn’ orav ovpBaivy apxny oUppeTa~ BddAew. at yap dpxat peyeber ovoat puxpal Th Suva pret peydrau eloiv: TodTo yap €oT. TO aipx7y elvat, TO adrny pev airiav elvat modAADv, TavTHs & dddo dvwbev pnber. 1 Somep P: 86 vulg. * Cf. 776 b 17, 781 a 27 ff. 550 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, V. vu. This is the way in which the testes are attached to the seminal passages, which in their turn are attached to the blood-vessel which has its starting-point at the heart near the part which sets the voice in movement. And so, as the seminal passages undergo a change at the approach of the age when they can secrete semen, this part undergoes a simultaneous change. And as this changes, so too does the voice—to a greater extent in males, but the same happens with females as well, though the change there is less obvious ; and one result of this is that, as we say, the voice “ is breaking ” ° during the time that it is uneven. After that, it settles down into the deep or high pitch belonging to the age of life which is to succeed. If the testes are removed, the tautness of the passages is slackened, just as when the weight is removed from the cord or from the warp ; and as this slackens, the source (or principle) which sets the voice in movement is correspondingly loosened. This then is the cause on account of which castrated animals change over to the female condition both as regards the voice and the rest of their form : it is because the principle from which the tautness of the body is derived is slackened. The reason is not, as some people suppose, that the testes themselves are a ganglion of many principles. No ; small alterations are the causes of big ones, not in virtue of themselves, but when it happens that a principle changes at the same time.* The principles, though small in size, are great in power: that is what it means to be a principle—something which is itself a cause of many things, while there is nothing more ultimate which is the cause of it. ® Lit., “ ‘ bleating like a goat’ as some people call it.” © Cf. 716 b 3, ete. 551 ARISTOTLE ae To* be dvoe Ta pev Tovadra ovvioraabax TOV lbw ore Bapiduva elvar, Ta 5 ogidwva,, oupBdrrera Kal 7 Deppdrns TOO TOTOU Kal 7) puxporns. To wev yap Oeppov mvedua Sid maxv- 20 THTA ToLeEt Bapudwviay, To Oe puxpov dua Xe- MTOTHTA TovvavTiov. d7jAov de TobTo Kal emt Tov avrdy: of yap Jeppotépw TO TVEULATL Xpopevor, Kal TOLOUTOV mpotepevor ofov of aidlovres, apv- tépov advrAotow. Tis dé Tpaxupavias atttov, eat Tod Aciav elvar THv wry, Kal mdons THs Tovav’TNs 25 avwyadias, TO TO pdopiov Kat TO Opyavov bu od pépeTrat 7% Pwr Tpaxd 7) Aciov elvau 7 oAws opadov 7 dvespaNov (d7)Aov oe érav dyporns as bmdpxn TEpl TV aprnpiav 7) Tpaxdrns yevnTar tad twos mafous: tTéTe yap Kal a pwv7) yiverau av- wpados): tis 8 evxapipias,” dy padaKov 7) oKAnpov 3077 TO Opyavovy To pev yap padaKov Svvarau TapuevecOar Kal mavTodamov yiveoBau, TO de oxAnpov od dvvarar. Kal TO pev padaKov Kat wy ov L péya Pbéyyecbar, 510 Kai o€d puxpov dSvvatat Kali péya Pbéyy ; kat Bapv- TapueveTar yap padiws Tod mvevparTos, Kal avTo yevopevov padiws péya Kat puKpov: 7 de orAnporns draplevTov. 788 b Tlepi pev otv dwvis doa pa) TpoTepov ev Tots mepi aicbyjcews Subprorar Kal ev Tois Tept uyqs, TooatT \ ‘ 57a pev Sia THY Tpodyy, TA dé Kal Tmpos GAK}V Kat 1 +@ Aldus: vod Bekker, per typothetae errorem, ut videtur. 2 Bonitz. @ P.A. 655 b 8 ff, 661 b 1 ff. 552 - GENERATION OF ANIMALS, V. vit.—vin. _ The heat and cold of their place of habitation is another factor contributing to the fact that the natural construction of some animals is such that the have deep voices, and of others, that they have hi h voices. Breath that is hot produces deepness (heavi- ness) of voice, owing to its thickness ; breath that is cold produces the opposite result, owing to its thin- ness. This is plain in the case of musical pipes as well: people who blow comparatively hot breath into the pipe—.e., if they breathe it out as though they were saying “ Ah! ’—play a deeper note. The reason for roughness and smoothness of voice and all unevenness of that sort is that the part or organ through which the voice travels is rough, or smooth, or, to put it generally, is even or uneven. This is apparent when there is any fluid about in the trachea, or if there is any roughness due to an affection: in such circumstances the voice becomes uneven too. Flexibility depends upon whether the organ is soft or hard, since anything that is soft can be controlled and made to assume all sorts of shapes, whereas anything _hard cannot. Thus this organ if it is soft can utter a small sound or a large one, and therefore a high one or a deep one as well, because it controls the breath easily, as it easily becomes large or small itself. Hardness on the other hand cannot (so) be controlled. This will be a sufficient account of those points concerning the voice which we have not already settled in the treatises Of Sensation and Of the Soul. We have already said,* on the subject of the VIII teeth, that their existence is not for one purpose Tet only, nor do they exist for the same purpose in all animals : some have teeth on account of nourish- ment, some for self-defence and (some) for rational 553 788 b ARISTOTLE. mpos TOV eV TH puri Aoyor, eipnrat mporepov: dude 8 ot pev mpoodtot yivovras TMpOTEpov ob dé oppor Borepov, Kal oOTOL [LEV ODK exTinTovaly exeivor 8 exninrovar Kat dvovrar méAw, Tois Tepl yevéecews Adyous THY atriay ovyyevi det vopilew, vat 10 KipnKe pev obv rept avTav Kal. Anpoxpitos, od Karas 8 eipnkev. od yap emi mavtwv oxeisdpevos /, / \ > 7 ‘ ‘ 52 / : Kabodov Aéyet Thy atria. pyar yap eK7imrew prev dia TO m™po Bpas yivecbat Tots Caous: aKpa- Covrwy yap ws elzretv pveoBas kaTd ye vow. Tod dS€ mpo wpas yiveodau TO Ondrdlew. airuér au. 15 xairou OndAdler ye Kai bs, odK éxBdArer dé Tods > / ” \ \ /, / A ddovtas: ete Sé€ Ta KapyapddovTa OAnrAdler pev 7 b] >? / > ” > ~ \ \ mavra, odK eKBddAer 8 evia adtadv mAjv Tods KuvddovTas, olov ot A€ovTes. ToOTO bev OdV HapTE / / > / A ~ SLs 8 KabdAov Aéywv, od oKedpevos TO GvpPatvorv emt mavtwv. Set S€ TobTo Toveiy: avayKn yap TOV / / / ‘ / > ‘ A 20 A€yovra KaldAov tu Aéyew TEept mavTwv. Emel OE \ , ¢ , ? @ fon ei , tiv vow tbroriéucba, e& dv dpdpmev brotWe- pevot, oT €AXeizovaay ovTe dtavov odbfev moLod- cav TV evdexouevwv mEpl EKacToV, avdyen, de Tois peAXovor Aap Baveu Tpodnyy pera TP Too yddarros amoAavow exew opyava mpos 77 €p- 25 yaciav Ths tTpodys—el odv ouveBawev, ws Eekeivos A€yer, ampos Bnv, eveAeutev av 4 vos Tov evoexouevwy avTh Te Tovey, Kal TO THS PvdEews « This is repeated from H.A. 501 b-4, but it is incorrect. > Lit., ‘‘ which are saw-toothed.” See P.A. 661 b 19. ‘Also stated at H.A.579 b 11. Other animals’ habits in iaaaitcnedding are noticed at H.A. 501 b 1 ff., 575 a 5. 554 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, V. vin. speech. But why are the front teeth formed first and the molars afterwards ?. And why are the molars not. shed, whereas the front teeth are, and grow again? We must take it to be appropriate to examine the cause of these things in a treatise on™ Generation. Now Democritus has treated of these matters, but his treatment is not correct, because he assigns a cause to apply generally although he has not under- taken an exhaustive invéstigation of the facts: He says that the reason why animals shed their teeth is that they are formed prematurely, since it is when animals are in their prime or thereabouts that they grow their teeth according to nature. Suckling is the cause he names for their being formed prematurely. Still, the pig suckles, yet does not shed its teeth ¢ ; and so do all the animals with sharp interfitting teeth, but some of them (e.g., the lion °) do not shed any teeth except the canine ones. Democritus, then, made this mistake because he made a general state- ment without investigating the facts in all cases ; but this is precisely what we ought to do, because whenever anyone makes a general statement it must apply to all cases. Now the assumption we make— and it is an assumption founded upon what we observe —is that Nature neither defaults nor does anything idly in respect of the things that are possible in every case ; and further, if an animal is going to get any nourishment after the period of its suckling is over, it must of necessity possess instruments with which to deal with its nourishment. So that if this took place, as Democritus says, about the time of maturity, Nature would be defaulting in one of the things which it is possible for her to do, and we should have Nature 555 788 b 789 a ARISTOTLE )) 5 619) Epyov eylyveT av rapa diow. To yap. Bia Tapa vow, Bia dé pou _oupPaivery Thy yéveow TeV oddvrwy. OTL pev odv TObT’ ovK adn Bes, one eK ToUTWY Kal ToLOVTwWY Mov. Pivovrat dé _TpoTepov otro. TOV mAaréwy T™p@Tov bev ort Kal TO €pyov TO TOUTWwY TpoTEpoy. (mpérepov yap €oTt TOO Acdvau TO SueAciv, elat 5° exetvou pev emit TH Aeaivew, odror 8 emi. tH Siarpetv), ere!” 6Tt TO EAaTToV, Kav dpa SpunbH, Oarrov yivecBar mépuxe Tod peilovos. etal 8’ €datrous obra. TH peyeDer TOV youpiov, T® TO ooTodv THs ata- yovos exel juev mrard elvat, mpos be TO orouare orevov. €K pLev oby TOO peiLovos Thelen avayKatov emippetv Tpodyv, ex S€ TOO oTevwrépov eAdtTw.” To de OnAdlew adro pev odfev cupBardAerar, 7) 5 dé Tob ydAaktos Oepuotns trove? Oarrov BAaoTavew Tovs oddvTas. onuetov 8 Ott Kal adtav Ttav Onralovrwy ta Oepporépw yddakre ypwpeva TOV / > ~ a > \ A : A madiwv ddovrodvet Oarrov: adb&nriKov yap TO Oeppov. ’"Exzrimrovoy S€ yevduevor tod pev® BeAtiovos 10 xapw, OTt TAXD apPrAdvverau' TO o€v- det ody éTépous t \ 1» a \ oi > diadéyeoOar mpos TO Epyov. Tay de mAaTéwv ovK ” > 4 ~ > \ A , 4 / éotw apPaAvrns, adda TO xpovw TpiBdpevor Acai- iid ~ vovrat ovov. €€ avayKns 8° éxmimrovow, ott TOV ~ ~ ~ ¢ prev ev mAateia TH ovaydve Kal ioyup@ ooT@ at 17 76 Platt: kat 7@ ro coni. A.-W. (xai 7é 7d Paris. © Suppl. Gr. 333%) : : kat To vulg, S. SiC Platt : : ex be TOO. éAdrrovos orevewTépay vulg. A a 3 yevopevor Tod pev| y’ Evor ToUTwy Tod Z: y? enor prev Tod 1) 556 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, V. vin. working contrary to Nature * (because he says that the formation of the teeth is brought about by force, and “ by force” means “contrary to Nature”). So then it is apparent, both from these considerations and others like them, that this view is untrue. The teeth of which we are speaking are formed earlier than the flat teeth (1) because the work they have to perform comes earlier: breaking up (which is the purpose of these teeth) comes before grinding (which is the business of the flat ones) ; (2) because a smaller thing naturally forms more quickly than a larger one, even if they both start off together, and these teeth are smaller in size than the molars, because the jawbone at that point is flat, whereas it is narrow by the mouth ; and, of necessity, a larger amount of nourishment will flow out from the larger part, and a smaller amount from the narrower.” _ Suckling, in itself, contributes nothing to the: formation of the teeth, though the warmth of the milk makes them come through more quickly. A proof of this is that within the actual class of those which suckle, those. young ones which get hotter milk grow their teeth quicker, because that which is hot tends to promote growth. After having been formed, these teeth are shed (a) for the sake of the better, the reason being that anything sharp quickly gets blunted, and so a fresh relay of teeth is needed to carry on the work. (The flat ones, on the other hand, cannot get blunted ; they only get worn down in the course of time by friction.) They are shed also (6) as a result of necessity, because, whereas the roots of the grinders are situ- ated in the wide part of the jaw and upon good strong * But see Introd. § 14. > i.e, orm the teeth. 557 ARISTOTLE © | 789 a pie. eloi, THv 5€ tpocbiwy ev den, 51d dobevels 15 kal edicivytor. dvovras S¢ mdAw, Sr ev duoperey ETL T@ COTA 7) €KBoA} yiveras Kat Ete Wpas ovens yiveobat oddvras. tovrov bé te ott Kal ot mAarets acne ek mroAby xpevor’ ot yap TeAevrHtoE avaréAAovat TEpY Ta €lKooW EM éviois 8° 715y Kai yupdonequos yeyevnvrat ot scat: rath es 20 TO 7roAAny eivat apg © év TH edpvywpia Tod dato. 789b Oo de TPSoReoR dud THY hearts soe AapBdver tédos, Kal od yiverat wepitnine ev whip és dW eis THY ab—now avadioxera % Tpodi TIV olketav. , \ \ eo > < / iv pis’ 9m Anpoxpitos b€ TO od eveka ape Aéyew, mavTa > / > > / ~ , A avdyer eis avayKny ols xpirae 7 pvdous, odor pev 5 TolovToLs, ov pv GAN Evexd Twos odcL, KaL TOD Vier , , oe , ; < mept Exaotov PeATiovos ydpw. wore yiveoBar pev > \ 7 ud ‘ > / > > > \ ov0ev KwAver otTw Kal eéxminrew, aAX od ba ~ > \ \ \ / ~ > e ~ ratra, adda dua to rédos: Tabra 8 ws KwotvTa 1» ge ” ” F505i8 \ \ ai Kal Opyava kal ws bAn aria, éemel Kal TO TO , > / ‘\ A > ‘ e > 4, mvevpat. epyaleabar Ta TroAdka EiKos Ws opyave* tag ah \ \ 10 oiov yap eva moddypyoTa.€oT. THY TEpt Tas TeXvaS, asia ev *H xipce eee odvpa Kal 6 dkpmwv, OUTWS KaL TO che in e€v Tots aioe ouv- cot@ow. dporov 8 €ouxe TO A€yew Ta airia €€ @ ** The ‘ for the sake of which.’ ” > See Introd. § 6. © i.e, “of necessity,” a result of mere mechanical causation. 4 Cf. above, 741 b 37, 742 a 16, and App. B §§ 7 ff. 558 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, V. vi. bone, those of the front teeth are in a thin part, and in consequence the teeth are weak and can easily be removed. They grow a second time, because they are shed while the bone is still growing and while the age for growing teeth is still going on. A proof of this is that even the flat teeth take a long time _ growing: the last of them are cut at about twenty years of age; in fact, some people have been quite aged before their last teeth finished growing. The reason for this is that there is a great deal of nourish- ment in the wide part of the bones. The front part, however, quickly reaches its completion owing to its thinness, and no residue finds a place in it ; instead of that, the nourishment is consumed to supply that part’s own growth. Democritus, however, omitted to mention the Final Cause,* and so all the things which Nature employs he refers to necessity. It is of course true that they are determined by necessity, but at the same time they are for the sake of some purpose, some Final Cause, and for the sake of that which is better in each case.” And so there is nothing to prevent the teeth being formed and being shed in the way he says © ; but it is not on that account that it happens, but on account of the Final Cause, the End; those other factors are causes gua causing movement, gua instruments, and qua material, since in fact it is probable that Nature makes the majority of her productions by means of pneuma4 used as an instrument. Pneuma serves many uses in the things constructed by Nature, just as certain objects do in the arts and crafts, e.g., the hammer and anvil of the smith. But to allege that the causes are of the necessary type is on a par with 559 Necessity and the Final Cause. ARISTOTLE > ALS 789 b a, ar MG - avayKns Kav et tis dia TO payaiptov olotTo TO vdwp erent g ope Tots a at faa C3 15 od dia TO Byaivery od Eveka TO HOXSEEMS STL, ~~ pev ody dddvrwv, didTt of pev exmimrovar iv” : Kal yivovtra mdAw, oi 8 ov, Kat dAws Sud Tw aitiay yivovrat, elpntat. elpnrar dé Kal mepl wend 20 ddwy T&v Kata Ta popLa nabnpdrov, éoa ree aba ou aiver MM évexd Tov add’ e& avdynns Kat dua Tv airiay THY KWHTUKY. (Shp ar 560 GENERATION OF ANIMALS, V. vit. supposing that when water has been drawn off from a dropsical patient the reason for which it has been done is the lancet, and not the patient’s health, for the sake of which the lancet made the incision. We have now dealt with the subject of the teeth, and we haye stated why some of them are shed and grow a second time and why some of them do not, and generally, to what cause their being formed is due. We have also dealt with the other conditions which affect the parts of the body, conditions which occur not for the sake of any Final Cause but of necessity and on account of the Motive Cause. 561 ARISTOTLE ek AppITionaL Notes ON THE TEXT I add here four textual annotations for which there was no room in the body of the work. I. 719a2ff. Thess. and editions. have various readings, and several proposals have been made for emendation. Bekker has: —_rov adrov Tpomov Ta mAcioTa ylyverat OvTEep & Tots Opmow oe SYZ): xaraBaiver yap KaTw, Kal t. Zs ease lta ‘évnep . . . kal KaraBaiver KaTW . : P; _ yeyvepevor ovrep .. . KaTaPaiver Karo . S: . ylyverar Womrep ... ". karaBalvet KaTW... (Hence. Y must, be the authority for yap.) Aldus : ylyverat OvTep . - dpriBiors xaraBatver KaTW . A.-W. coni.: (i TeAciwots) yiverat ies év Tots opvictv tia @a) karaBaiver KdTw .. Susemihl coni.: . . . dpmow (7 reAciwots: Ta i 8° @a) xaraBaiver KaTw. If loss of this sort is likely, which I doubt, a more probable emendation would be xaraBaiver yap xdtw {ra wa), Kat... But I suspect that the corruption is more serious, for Scot reads: et similiter multis ovis avium ; descendunt ad partem inferiorem apud iuncturas et exit ab eis animal sicut accidit animalibus ge- nerantibus animalia ex prima creatione. The Greek original of the words in brackets has disappeared from our text: Il. 738 a 8 ORE | suspect that the original reading here was Tois mEpiTTmpacr Tois T axphoros (Kal Tots xpyoipots), and that the rest of our present text is part of a gloss, for Te. . . bypa cannot be construed, and the reference to bl seems to consider blood as a “ residue,’’ which is incorrect. If my suggestion is right, the gloss will have ousted the reference to useful residues from our text, and the reference to useless ones from Scot’s ultimate original, for Scot reads omnia ista habent membra recipiencia superfluitatem qua indigent (his regular equivalent for xpjoupos) sicut sanguis qui habet locum in venis ; ergo ipse vadit in ea sicut in vasa. Clearly, too, Scot incorporates more of the latter part of the 562 GENERATION OF ANIMALS gloss than the Greek text does, and the reference to vasa — (=dyyeta) leads me to think that the gloss was founded on a misunderstanding of the passage at P.A. 650 a 33 (q.v.). The blood-vessels are often described as dyyeia in P.A.; of. G.A. TA0 a 23. ?; . IL. 746 a 32. Here Bitterauf, following the suggestion of 3ussemaker, proposes to insert (cai @wwv) after cai Adcwv on the strength of William’s and Scot’s versions. The latter reads in canibus et vulpibus et lupis et in genere quod dicitur ee comez (Buss. and Btf. give comex). This is supported y the fact that at 774 b 17 Scot translates ciwv dAvKos Bas canis et lupus et animal quod dicitur grece noz. (Such variation in the spelling of proper and other unusual names is not infrequent in Scot.) At 742 a9 @ds is not represented in Scot’s version. (According to A.-W., 9s, usually translated ‘‘ jackal,” is most probably the civet or genet: .see D. W. Thompson, H.A. 580 a 29, n.) V. 781.410 of yap mopo . . . 781 b 5 cvpBaivovaw. The main arguments against this passage being an original and genuine part of the text may be stated as follows : (1) The introductory yap introduces no real explanation or expansion of the preceding statement. The passage is in fact completely extraneous to the argument. (2) The reference to De sensu at 781 a 21 is incorrect, as A.-W. point out. There is no such clear statement in De sensu; at 439 a 1 the aic&yrjpiov of touch and taste is said to be apés 7H xapdia, but nothing is said to suggest that sight and smell have any further connexion beyond their connexion with the brain. At P.A. 656 a 29, on the other hand, there is a more exact reference to De sensu: ** The correct view, that the dpyy of the senses is the region around the heart, has airehdy | been defined in the treatise Of Sensation, where also I show why it is that two of the senses, touch and taste, are evidently (davepas) connected to the heart." Shortly before (656 a 20 ff.) Aristotle has stated that the brain is not the cause of any of the sensations ; it is avaic@yros. (3) The passage is concerned exclusively with that part of the mechanism of hearing which is internal, not with the superficial sense-organ, whereas the reason given for accuracy of hearing and smelling is concerned only with the super- ficial sense-organ (just as the similar argument for sight, 563 ARISTOTLE which is referred to, is concerned only with the eye itself and the skin on it). (4) The passage has nothing whatever to say about smell. (5) It concludes with a mere repetition of 781 a 18-20, to the effect that accuracy depends upon the purity of the organ and its membrane, ignoring the whole of the intervening discussion about the internal mechanism. _ F . (6) The reference to a place where the connate pneu causes “in some ” pulsation and “in others ”’ respiration an: inspiration is, as Platt points out, meaningless, for no animal respires unless it has a heart. The inference would appear to be that the passage, though probably of Aristotelian origin, has been corrupted, and that, so far as Book V is concerned, it began as a marginal annota- tion, intended to supply an account of the inner mechanism of sensation, etc., which would supplement the account of the mechanism of the superficial sense-organs of hearing and smell which no doubt originally stood here in the text. No such account, however, is there now ; and it seems reasonable to suppose that it has been ousted and supplanted by the passage which now stands there. ) To understand the background of the passage, the reader may find it useful to refer to the account of Aristotle’s theory of hearing in App. B §§ 29 ff., which I have compiled from various passages here and elsewhere in his works. I have suggested in the critical note some corrections, based on Scot’s Latin version, which may help to bring the text into agreement with Aristotle’s doctrine as ascertained from these other passages. ° For the sake of completeness, I give the remainder of Scot’s translation between the two passages already quoted in the app. crit.: |et] propter hoc addiscuntur res per (y.l. propter) sensum auditus, quoniam sicut sermo intrat per sensum auditus, ita exit per linguam |{et| per motum vocis. manifestum est ergo quod homo dicit (y.l. discit) quod audit. et cum homo gannit debilitatur auditus, quoniam principium instrumenti sensus istius est positum super membrum in quo est spiritus, et movetur cum eo quando spiritus movebitur instrumento in quo est. et hoc accidens accidit temporibus humide complexionis. The passage is discussed at considerable length by F. Susemihl, Rhein. Mus. XL (1885), 583 ff. 564 GENERATION OF ANIMALS Apprri0naL Nore ror II. 741 b 2, III. 762 b 24 ff. The first modern work on the breeding migration of the European eel (Anguilla vulgaris) is that of Grassi * and Calandruccio, who, following some previous work on the reproductive i pew made observations of eels in the Mediterranean, and showed that Leptocephalus, already known and described as a different animal, was the larval form of the eel. The whole subject has been fully worked out by Schmidt in recent years. The facts are these. During the time when eels live in fresh water, their repro- ductive organs do not reach maturity, as Aristotle pointed out; but after a number of years, which may vary from five to twenty, the body takes on a metallic sheen (“ silver eels”) and the fish set out on their migration to.their-breeding-places inthe deep waters between the West Indies and Bermudas. The eggs float in the sea, and the larvae are carried by the ocean currents eastwards across the Atlantic: upon arrival at the Continental shelf two and a half years later they meta- morphose into elvers, and these then move up into the estuaries and rivers of Europe, sometimes passing over damp grass to isolated pools. During the period of growth which follows, they are yellowish and greenish in colour (‘* yellow eels”). The old eels never return to fresh waters. The story (mentioned by Aristotle) of the development of eels out of horsehair worms was current until recent times. AppitronaL Nore ror III. 757 a 2 ff. Aristotle discusses the hyena both here and at H.A. VI. 579 b 15 ff. An important piece of research on the spotted hyena recently carried out in Tanganyika Territory by L. Harrison Matthews * has established that externally the female of « G. B. Grassi, Proc. Roy. Soe. LX (1897), 260-271. : >’ J. Schmidt (of Copenhagen), The Breeding Places of the Eel, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (B) CCXI (1922), 179-208; see also id., Nature, CXI (1923), 51-54, C (1924), 12; and W. Heape, Emigration, Migration, and Nomadism, 1931. . © Reproduction in the S Hyena (Crocuta crocuta), in Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (B) CCX XX (1939), 1-78. 565 The Common Eel. The Hyena. “I VARISTOTLEs AMMAD the spotted hyena closely resembles the male: it has a peniform clitoris, similar in form and position to the ] of the male, and scrotal pouches closely simulating those of the male. Indeed the male and non-parous female are indistinguishable externally. Matthews points out. ae Aristotle did not distinguish between spotted and. stri hyenas: the legend “relates to the spotted hyena, Aristotle’s refutation of it to the striped, e genital anatomy of which he correctly describes ’? (Matthews refers to the description in) H.A.). Of 103 specimens collected by Matthews, 63 were males; this is a lower percentage | than that given by the hunter with whom Aristotle discussed the subject: he found ten out of eleven were sonsenae but these may have been striped a en i gob atin , « TSM ‘ey Teyiustt || » et 566 APPENDIX A MOVEMENT IN THE UPPER COSMOS AND IN THE LOWER COSMOS ;: THE HEAVENLY BODIES; yéveors AND ¢fopa ; TIME, PERIODS, CYCLES (Supritement to Boox II, init. anv Boox IV, fin.) It will be seen that the terminology of the two passages above mentioned reappears in the following account, much of which is taken verbatim from the several passages to which reference is given. I have not thought it necessary to draw attention to all the parallels, as these will be obvious to the reader who has the passages of G.A. before him. (1) Met. A 1069 a 30 ff. Thereare three kinds of odoia: Three kinds { (a) eternal (aédcos) ; beans (1) sensible (aio@n77) | (b) perishable (¢@aprés), ¢.g., | animals and plants ; (2) immutable (dxivyros). Immutable ovaia is the ovcia of the unmoved mover (see below, § 3) ; sensible and eternal ovcia belongs to the “‘ heaven” - and the heavenly bodies (the stars and planets, including the Sun and Moon) ; sensible and pefishable odaia belongs to the things of the sublunary world (Earth, Air, etc., and the organisms made out of them, animals, plants, etc.).* (2) De caelo, e.g., 268-269, 289 a, 300 a 20 ff., etc. There are Five five natural substances which compose the physica] elements. _ universe : Aither, whose nature it is to move eternally in a circle ; this is the substance out of which the whole of the Upper Cosmos is made, viz., the “ first heaven ”’ (the outermost shell or sphere) in which the stars are @ See also App. A § 18. 567 APPENDIX A fixed, and also the planetary “‘ heavens” together . with the planets themselves which they carry ;__ Fire, Air, Water and Earth, whose natural movement is rectilinear (¢.g., Air moves naturally outwards from the ceritre, Earth moves naturally towards the ‘centre; hence they would if left to themselves @ arrange themselves in concentric strata, with Fire outermost, next to the innermost “‘ heaven’; after that Air, then Water, and Earth at the centre). These are the substances out of which all the Lower Cosmos, the sublunary world, is composed. — The (3) Met. A 1072 a, b. The ultimate source of all move- sate ment is the Unmoved Mover, which is pure, self-thin the gopd of | thought, or God ; and since the “ actuality ” of thought the First is life, we can say that {wi Kai aidw ovvexjs Kai didios Heaven. indpxe..T@ Oe. ‘This “ first principle’ causes meyement without itself being in movement ; it is therein analogous to objects of desire or of thought, which «wet od «wov- va; in fact, it xwet ws epwpevoy (it causes movement »y being an object of loye).° Upon this first principle the Heaven and Nature depend. What it first sets in movement is the mpdrov xwovpevorv, the primum mobile, viz., the “first heaven.”’ or outermost sphere ; and since this. movement is an unceasing movement, so the first heaven will be aiésos. This movement, then, is one and eternal; it is simple dopa, simple uniform circular movement, Movement (4) All other things beside the Unmoved Mover which pro- in the duce movement do so in virtue of being themselves Poet Se in movement (xwovpeva 7dA\a wet). ‘Thus the “first - ” “ * heaven communicates movement to the inner *‘ heavens,” the whole system of concentric spheres, which are in contact with each other ; and the movements -of these, although still continuous and eternal, are no longer uniform, because they are the resultants of more revolutions than one.? « As in fact they are not (see § 12; ef. § 9). Nor, according to Aristotle, are the elements occupying their ‘‘ proper’’ places when acting as the components of living bodies (De caelo II. 288 b 17 ff.). » Cf. App. B § 1. ¢ Cf. Dante, Paradiso, vers. ult., l’ amor che move il sole e Il’ altre stelle. ¢ Tt is not necessary here to give details of the system of spheres as worked out by Aristotle, based on the mathematical theories of Eudoxus and Callippus. 568 APPENDIX A (5) In the “ region about the centre,” 7.¢., the Lower Cosmos or (6) (7) sublunary world, there is no circular movement at all -as such. The form in which movement is found here is in the “ movements,” i.¢., transformations of the four sublunary “ simple ’’ bodies, Fire, Air, Water, Earth, and Meteor. 1. 339 a 28. Weshould regard Fire, Earth, etc., as the “* material *’ causes of phenomena in the sublunary world ; but the cause in the sense of the origin of move- ment (the “ motive ” cause) is to be found in the dynamis of the eternally moving bodies.’ Ibid. 340 b, 341 a. The “ first element” (alias the “ fifth element,’’ viz., aither; see 737 a 4, n.) and the Movement in the Lower Cosmos. The ** Causes of things in the Lower Cosmos. The heavenly bodies in it revolve in a circle, and as they do so, that °% portion of the Lower Cosmos which is next to the aither gets inflamed and produces heat. Thus, although not made of Fire, and although not themselves hot, the heavenly bodies produce heat by their mere movement. Aristotle explains this more fully at De caelo I. 289 a 29, when he says that the heat and light which proceed from them are produced by the friction set up in the Air by their dopa (cf. § 9 fin. below). The Sun, which is con- sidered to be the hottest of them all, is really white (Aevxés), not fiery in colour. The Sun’s ¢opa is sufficient to produce warmth and heat: it is fast enough and near enough, whereas the dopa of the stars though fast is distant, and the Moon’s though near is slow (ef. De caelo II. 289 a 20-34). (8) Ibid. 346 b, 359 b. Rain and winds are explained as being caused by the Sun’s approaching and receding in its dopa. When it approaches it draws up the moist exhalation ; when it retires this vapour cools and congeals again into water ; hence there is more rain during winter and during the night. It also draws up the dry exhala- tion, and this is the substance which makes the winds. bodies ; heat. Rain and winds, — (9) It is pointed out in De caelo II. 286 b 2 that in order to Function @ See Introd. §§ 47 ff., «ivynocs. >’ Quoted in Greek at 777 b 31, n. 569 of the other APPENDIX A heavenly account for the transformations of the four “‘ elements ” dopai in Fire Air Water Earth, i.¢., for the yéveous of them ou causing —_ of one another, some additional dopé or dopai beside that (2) perverts’; of the *‘ Whole” (or the apdrov xwotpevor) is ired : if this were the only dopa, no transformation would take place aa the te prises oar ees otiee on otal ri And with regard to the yéveas iving things, Aris- totle describes in other treatises more stakcitapeepaael ae fuller detail than he does in G.A. the important part ps ed by these other dopai (i.¢., those of the heavenly odies) Thus in Phys. II. 194 b 13 we read dv@pwzos dOpwrov yew kai HAcos*; and at Met. A 1071 a 13 ff. the “‘ causes ’’ of a man are listed as (a) the ‘* elements,” viz., (i) his matter (Fire and Earth), and (ii) his own form (iStov efSos); also (6) something external, viz., his father ; and besides these (c) the Sun and the circle of the ecliptic (6 Aogés xvKAos)—and these last stand to him neither as matter, nor as form, nor as privation, nor as being identi- cal with him in form, but as xwodvra, i.¢., ‘‘ efficient” or ‘“* motive ” causes (ef. §§ 5 and 6 above). | Cf. also G.A. II. 737 a 3: the heat of the Sun and the heat of animals as contained in semen is able to cause generation, whereas Fire cannot. (b) yeveors (10) The whole question of yéveors and Popa is more full and $8opa. discussed at the end of the treatise G. & C. (II. chh. 10 and 11), where the meaning of the statements about the Sun and the ecliptic is explained. Here Aristotle states that yéveots is continuous because the circular revolution of the ‘‘ first heaven” is eternal (4 xara ri dopav Kivnars is didios); and this dopa produces yéveois by bringing 76 yervnrixdy (the generative agent, viz., the Sun) nearer and by taking it further away. This dopa however is a single movement (as we saw above, § 3), and therefore will only explain yéveo.s ; it will not also ex- a This would not, however, have sounded so strange to a Greek ; cf. G.A. 716 a 17 ovpavoy 62 Kai HALoy . . . ws yevv@yTas Kal Tarépas mpoo- ayopevovory.—lt is a statement which caught the fancy of the Middle Ages, and is quoted by Dante (from the Latin translation of Physies 11) in his De monarchia 1. 9 init. ; cf. Paradiso XXII. 116 quegli ch’ é padre d@’ ogni mortal vita, » Aristotle regularly takes these two as the elements par excellence, standing for all four (see De caelo III. 298 a 29, 298 b 8)—because Fire “has not heaviness ’’ and Earth ‘ has not lightness ’’ (IV. 311 b 27). Cf. App. B §§ 20, 22, 23, 570 APPENDIX A plain ¢fopd. Thus yéveors-and-g6opa is to be explained not as being due to the primary ¢opd (i.¢., the dopa of the “* first heaven °’), but as being due to the dopa Kara tov Aokov K¥xAov—the movement along the circle of the ecliptic, which is tilted. This, like the other, possesses - continuity ; but also it is double, not single. Thus we (11) (12) may say that the continuity is caused by the dopa of “the Whole” (i.e., the “ first heaven ’’; the primary dopa), while the alternation is produced by the inclina- tion of the ecliptic, which makes the Sun alternately ap roach and retreat. When the Sun approaches it cause yéveors, when it retreats it will cause $8opa. ah in consequence of this, natural (xara dvaw) yéeveas and ¢8opd occupy equal times for their accomplishment. Hence both the times and the lives of all several things = have a“* number” and by that number they are delimited -. .and every life and time is measured by a period . Sor some, this period is the year ; for others, the Debio. which is the measure, is greater, for others, ‘smaller (dco Kal of xpdvor Kai of Bioe | éxaoTwv apcBov Exovor Kat Toure Siopilovra: . . . Kal mas Bios «ai xpdvos BeTpeirat Teprody . .* Tots bev yap o eviautos, Tots dé pei- fev, trois 5€ hers 7 meptodds € ne 76 pérpov). He then repeats that natural yéveois and ¢dfopa occupy an equal time ; but, he adds, in point of fact things often d@eipera ia a shorter time than this; for since matter is uneven avaéparos; cf. his statement in G.A. 1V jin. about its tie ai innest? *), the yeréces of things are uneven too, some being quicker and some slower than they should be; and as a result of this the d@opa of other things is affected, because the yéveors of one set of things is the ¢@opa of another. (See also App. B §§ 7-11.) Tevecis-and-¢@opa is continuous, and shall never fail. The reason is that Nature always strives after 7d BéArwyv, and being is better than not-being; but since being cannot be possessed by all things because they are too far away from the dpy7 (i.¢., from God, the Unmoved Mover), God “ filled in ne the Whole i in the manner that ‘remained open, viz., by making yéveais continuous; that was the way to ensure that as far as possible ‘there should be an unbroken chain of “ being * throughout the universe, for the next best thing to “* being ” is that 571 ahr and d@opa governed by ** periods.” Continuous yeveots a second-best to eternal being. APPENDIX A - : yéveots Should be continually going on (76 yiveoBa det Thy yéveow); and the cause of this is the circular dopa ; for this is the only continuous form of movement. Hence also the things which get transformed into each other (viz., the “simple bodies,” such as Water, Air, Fire) imitate the circular dopad: Water is transformed into Air, Air into Fire, Fire into Water, and we say that their yéveors has come round a full “ cirele.”” (So, too, rectilinear ¢opd is continuous in virtue of its imitating circular dopa.) And this also provides a solution of the problem, Why is it that the “ simple bodies,” in spite of their natural tendency to make each for its own proper place in the universe, have not during the enor- mous stretches of time which have passed become separated out each into its own proper place, into con- centric layers (see § 2)? ~The reason is that they are continually being transformed to and fro one into the other, and the cause of their transformations is the dopa —i.¢., the double dopa. Measure- (13) Phys. [V. 219 b 3 ff. We cognize movement by means ment of of some body which is in movement; so too we cognize SPR asks gopd by means of some body which is depduevov: that meat of is how we cognize the “‘ before-and-after ” factor in time. movement, for it is the ‘‘now”’ (i.¢., the moment at which the body is observed to be at some particular point in its course) which is ‘‘ most cognizable.”” And just as dopa and the depouevov are thus closely allied, so too are the dpuOuds * of the dopa and the dpiOyos of the depopevov. Now time is the dpiOuds of the dopa. We see then that time is not movement, but it is “‘ the as of movement whereby movement has an dpiOyds,”’ i.¢., the aspect of movement whereby movement can be numerated or counted (4 dpuOucv exer % Kivnos): time is that which is counted, not that by which we count (70. dpBpovpevor, not @ apiOuoduev); time is an dpiOpds which is counted, not an dpi0uos which we use as a means for counting (220 b 8). Time is the dpiOuds of continuous movement generally (223 b1; ef. G. & C. II. 337 a 23), not of any movement in particular ; neverthe- less, what we usually mean by time, and what really « This meaning of api6uds is of course quite distinct from that in §§ 15-17 below. ; 572 APPENDIX A - has the best claim to the name, is the dpiBuds of the _circular movement(7 «ixAw dopa), because the dpifuds of this even, uniform, circular revolution is “‘ most cogniz- _ able’ (223 b). And as everything is measured by some s (14) rd which is cognate to it (¢.g., horses are measured or counted by the unit “ a horse,”’ see 220 b and 223 b), so time is measured by “ a time,” viz., by a determinate length of time ; and the time taken by the sphere of the universe to revolve is the “ measure” par excellence: _all other movements are measured by that movement, and time too is measured by that movement (ef. De caelo 11. 287 a 23 ff., Phys. VIII. 265 b 8 ff.). Hence human affairs and all other things which have a natural movement and yéveois and dfopa are spoken of as bein a “cycle”: they are all discriminated by time, an _ their beginning and their end occur as it were according to some “period ’’ (223 b). And further;-since a move- ment may be the same over and over again, so too may time, ¢.g., year, spring, autumn (220 b 12). G. & C. 11. 338 a1 ff. Ifa thing’s “ being ”’ is “‘ neces- sary” (i.¢., absolutely necessary ; see Introd. §§ 7-9), then it is eternal (aid.os); and if it is eternal, then its “being” is “‘ necessary.“ And also, if a thing’s yéve- aus is “‘ necessary,” then its yéveors is eternal; and if its yéveous is eternal, ‘‘ necessary.”” Thus, if a thing’s yeveats is absolutely, not conditionally, *‘ necessary,” its yéveoits must of necessity be cyclical and return upon itself (dvaxuxAety Kai dvaxaprrev). [Proof of this.— Tears must be either limited or not limited. We agree it not limited. If it is not limited, it must be either rectilinear or cyclical. If it is to be eternal, it cannot be rectilinear ; hence it must be cyclical.] Thus it is in circular movement and in Pe yeveots that we find absolute necessity. This fits in with the doctrine (proved on other and independent grounds) that circular move- ment (i.¢., the movement of the Heavens) is eternal ; for it is the movements which belong to this eternal move- ment, and the movements which are caused by it, which yivovra: and Air Water ; cloud entails rain, rain entails cloud. Ibid. So far, so good. Why then do not men and animals apparently show this cyclical movement ? Why do they not return upon themselves, so that the same individual yiverat a second time ? In other words, why is it not ‘“‘ necessary ” that you should yivecOa if your father does, although it is necessary that if you do, he should? This looks like rectilinear, not cyaliel yeveats. Well, we must make a distinction and say that there are two ways in which things “ return upon themselves ” : some (a) do it numerically (dpiOud, i.e. the individual is numerically identical) ; others (6) do it specifically only (cideu pdvor, i.¢., the specific form, not the individual, is identical). The difference depends upon the character of the ovoia (see § 1) which is experiencing the “* move- ment”: if (a) their ovcia is ‘‘ imperishable,” then obviously they will be the same dpiOud as well as which they in fact have, when it so happens that the one is active and the other passive, and neither of them lacks any of the ingredients included in its logos, then immedi- ately the one acts and the other is acted upon, and we get simultaneously, ¢.g.; the thought “‘ I must walk’”’ and the movement of the limbs in walking—because the imagina- tion produces the desire, the desire produces the affections, and these suitably prepare the instrumental parts. (9) Now we must remember that the “ organ’ or “‘ instru- Instru- ment.” of movement, that which bridges the gap between mental the immaterial dpeéis on the one hand and the material oe of limbs of the body on the other, is the XII (§ 6) ; it is this pnewma which gives actual physical effect to the dpeéis. dpefis (a) in desire; thus, as Aristotle says, stands to the limbs in the relation @ This means that the same causes produce both the “ uniform parts ”’ (flesh, sinew, etc.) and also the “ non-uniform parts’’ (face, hand, leg, etc.). 579 APPENDIX B of zow.iy to macxor, Kiwodv to Kwovpevor ; but so does the XII too (§6). In fact, it is the ZI which brings about the ‘preparation of the instrumental parts by’ in them the dAAoiwors of which they are capable : it a izes their potentialities of changing from soft to hard, etc. (0) in (10) Returning now to the passage of G.A., it would appear —— o that in the developing embryo also the XII plays a embryo. similar réle. It will be the XII which gives effect to the formal cause in the semen so as to produce an —- of a particular kind, just as in the other case it | effect to the: formal cause (viz., dpeéis) and p rs movement of the limbs; here, too, then it will actualize the latent potentiality of the material, bringing about | in it (741 b 12 ff.) the dAdolwars of which it is capable— making it soft, hard, ete. Connate (11) With this in mind we can go on and nterores the rest of PE reir the passage which follows in G.A. II. 742-743. (1) The ment of heart must be formed first, because it is the seat of the generative XII.* (2) The prePes extend from the heart all over the _ Soul. body, and thus can act as channels for the blood (which is the * matter ”) and for the XII % (which is the vehicle of the “‘ form,”’ 729 b 20)——because (De mt 480 a 10) ® all the dAéBes ‘pulsate simultaneously with the heart, and this pulsation is the pneumatization of the fluid as it gets heated in the heart. (3) Some of the “ uniform parts ” (by which term Aristotle means such things as flesh, nail, horn, sinew, bone) are formed by heat, others by cold ; ; and (740 b 18) the reasons why they are formed are (a) that the female’s “‘ residue ” is potslistalispetat the fully-formed animal itself is :' all the parts are present potentially in the residue; and (6) that ea the very similar passage referring to Opexrext Yu dot ae oted in § 8 above) when “the active factor” “the passive factor ’’ come into contact “ in that + way in which the one is active and the other passive ” (which means in the — right manner, in the right place and at the right time), then immediately the one acts and the other is acted a These italicized phrases do not actually occur in the passage G.A. 742-743, but they are to be supplied from the doctrine of other passages — here examined (see below, § 32) ; and we must realize that they repre- sent perhaps the chief consideration, though unexpressed, in Anistotle’s mind as he writes the present passage. » See § 31 below. 580 APPENDIX B » upon; the male supplying the dpyj of “ movement,” the female supplying the pantdelal, «Bt is Operrixy Yvy7 which is the source of this movement (just as in the other case it was dpexrixy yvyy which was the source of the movement)—it brings about both generation and movement is “in” them. (This last sentence serves to emphasize the dual nature of XII, dealt with in §§ 20 ff. below ; for of course XII is the primary “ instrument ”’ Of Operrixy yux7.) : Further important statements on these subjects are din Meteor. IV. Hot substance and cold sub- stance, says Aristotle, are * active’’ (because they bring things together, are ovyxpir:xd), solid. substance and fluid substance are “passive.” Teévecis, i.¢., natural is the work of these dynameis; so is natural (xara dvow). df0pa; these processes occur in plants, animals, and their parts, and are brought about by hot and cold substance, when those éywar Adyov (ef. G.A. 777 b 28), out of the substrate matter underlying each natural thing, viz., out of the “* passive’ dynameis. If hot and cold fail to gain the mastery over the matter, azepia results. Apart from destruction by force, the end of all natural objects is putrefaction: it may be defined as the dopa of the proper and natural (xara ) heat in any fluid thing by the agency of alien eat (that of the environment), due*to lack of proper heat, i.¢., owing to cold; hence hot and cold are the causes of putrefaction as they are of yéveois. Animals are generated in putrefying substances because the heat that was secreted in these substances is natural and is able cvnoravas (see Introd. § 54). Cf. the whole Book, especially 390 b 2 ff.] (12) G.A. Il. 743.420. It is not any chance material which Requisites gets made into flesh or bone, nor does it get made in any for forma- ce manner or at any chance time, but only the Seton material ordained by Nature, and in the manner and at ; the time ordained by Nature: that which is potentially X will not be made, actualized, into X by any motive agent other than one which possesses the actuality ; nor : 581 Connate pneuma analogous to aither: both are generative. APPENDIX B will a motive agent which possesses the actuality make an X out of any chance material. Heat is present in the seminal residue, possessing the right movement and actuality (évépyeca) to suit each of the parts ; and in the case of spontaneous generation the heat and movement of the season fulfil this same function.* (13) G.A. I]. 736 b 30 ff. Every faculty of yvy7 is connected with ° a physical substance more divine than any of the four ‘‘ elements’ Fire, Air, Water, Earth, and this sub- stance differs according to the degree of value of the yuxy concerned. There is present in the semen of every animal and in “ the foam-like stuff” ° the so- called ‘‘ hot substance,” which causes the semen to be generative: this is not of course Fire, but it is the pneuma which the semen contains, *‘ the substance in the pneuma,” * which is ‘* analogous to the element of the heavenly bodies,” viz., the aither. That is why the heat of the Sun (cf. App. A §§ 9, 10) and the heat of animals (as contained in semen or any ather such ‘‘ residue ’’) is able to generate, whereas Fire cannot : the Sun, as we know already, consists of aither, and ~ here we are told that there is in semen ‘‘ something analogous ”’ to aither. wt (14) It is now possible to see what Aristotle means when he says (737 a 17): ‘* It has now been determined in what way fetations and semen have yuyy: they “have it potentially, but not in actuality.” ‘This pnewma or vital heat is not in actuality pvyn; but semen xwetrar with a movement that is identical with that which moves the animal’s body when the body is growing out of the | ‘‘ ultimate nourishment ” (blood), and therefore when the semen gets into the uterus it sets in movement the « See further, § 17 and additional note appended there. > gouxe kexowwwrvyKevar, & usefully vague term ; but at any rate it must be intended to denote a close relationship. e might express it per- haps by saying that this substance (viz., the pneuma, or more precisely “the substance in the pneuma’’) with which yWwv7 is thus associated is the physical vehicle par excellence of yvx7y ; anyway, itis the first physical substance to give expression to the movements of ux; it is its immediate instrument. e Perhaps intended to include the “ frothy bubble ’’ concerned in spontaneous generation ; see §§ 17, 19 below. « Cf. the substance which is “‘in’’ Air, Water, etc., which is also “in”? aither, and which makes Air, Water, etc., transparent (§ 26). 582 : - APPENDIX B female’s “ residue ’’ with the same movement as that by » which it «veirar itself. (15) Thus we have an exact parallel with the action of dpexri«?) Three already examined above, § 6: dpexrixi yuyy sets parallel in movement the pneuma, the pneuma sets in movement *heories. the limbs ; @perrixi (= yervntix?)) Yvyy} sets in movement _ the pneuma in the semen, the pnewma in the semen sets in movement the material supplied by the female. _ There is also a close parallel with the art of the carpenter _ (730 b 15 ff.): the carpenter, in whose yy} is the _ “ form ” of the chair, moves his hands and instruments with a movement appropriate to the object that is to be made, and they in turn move the material so as to produce the chair.* In all three cases no material part passes from the motive agent to the material on which it is working, but the agent imparts the‘ form ” to the ial by means of the movement whith it sets wp in the instrument. (16) We have thus satisfied the requirement that only what Heart is X in actuality can produce another X out of material formed which is potentially X : the parent which is X én actuality ™** uces another X out of the female’s residue which is potentially, but there is an intermediary, viz., the pneuma in the semen, which is an instrument possessing the requisite movement, a movement which is identical throughout, in parent, semen, and embryo (see also 734 b). The semen thus is yvyq potentially (735 a 8); and the first thi which it produces ‘in actuality are wuyy and the physical seat thereof, viz., the heart. Later it produces in actuality sensitive yvyj as well. (Rational yYvy7, having no connexion with any physical substance at all, comes in independently from without ; 736 b). (17) A similar situation obtains in the case of spontaneous Spontane- - generation (762 a 18). Animals and plants are formed ous genera- in earth and in fluid because there is water in earth, and “- there is pneuma in water, and there is Soul-heat (deppyorns yvxixyH) in all pnewma ; so that “‘ in a way all things are full of yvx7.”” Hence plants and animals quickly form once this gets enclosed; and when this enclosing @ For another such reference to pneuma as an instrument used by Nature, see G.A. 789 b 8 ff. 583 APPENDIX B > happens, when the corporeal liquids get heated, a sort of “frothy bubble” is formed. Now the differences between the various creatures which are produced in this way are due to the stuff which makes up the envelo around the Soul-dpy7 (ef. also 738 b 34: foreign seeds pro- duce plants varying according to the soil in which they are sown, for it is the soil that provides them with their material and their body). We can now answer the question, What corresponds in cases of ntaneous generation to the ‘‘ residue” of the female and the semen of the male in cases of sexual generation? Just as in sexual generation the female by means of its heat concocts the “ residue ’’ (the menstrual fluid) out of the nourishment, so here the heat of the season by a similar process of concoction puts into shape a substance out — of the seawater and the earth (762 b 14). That which corresponds here to the male principle in sexual genera- tion is ‘‘ that portion of the Soul-apy% which is enclosed in the pneuma” as described above ; this, just as the semen does, makes a fetation out of the material and implants movement in it.* (ited [Note.—It is, however, not clear in what sense there is anything in the case of spontaneous generation which is X in actuality (i.e., which possesses the ‘‘ form” of X) com- parable to the parent in ordinary sexual generation. The relationship of agent and material here would appear to resemble rather that of carpenter and timber (for which see § 15); but even so, granted that the requisite ‘‘ movement ” is present, it is difficult to see whence its specific character is derived ; for the Sun, ete., are “ motive,” not ‘ formal,” causes (App. A § 9). In the case of the carpenter, of course, the “ form ”’ is in the carpenter’s vxy (§ 15). From the passage referred to in § 17 it looks as though Aristotle falls back on the surprising explanation that it is the material only that determines what sort of creature is to be formed. If so, then we must assume that, given the agents, or “‘motive”’ causes, viz., yvx7}, pneuma, and the movement therein contained, though they are of no specific quality, the matter is formed by them into whatever creature it happens potentially to be. « Cf. § 12 above. 584 APPENDIX B . But in fact Aristotle himself is prepared to go even further than this. At Met. Z 1034 b 5 ff. he actually asserts that in the case of spontaneous generation of natural objects their matter can be set in movement by itself: it can supply itself with ee She bos movement as that — the semen supplies (Gow divarat Kai bd adris Kweioba Tavrny TH Kivnow iv 76 omépya Kwet). That is to oat it can supply itself with everything that in the normal way would have to be supplied by “form ”’ in the parent creature which is already X in actuality, or (in the case of artefacta) by the “* form ” in the 7 of the craftsman. erhaps Aristotle felt that this startling admission was in some degree justified by the notion that even “ that out of which.” animals are generated is in a sense dvats (the €é od as well as the xa’ 6 and the i¢’ od of their generation is “ dvas,” Met. Z 1032 a 24)*; and, as we know, diors-never acts idly but always has a réAos in view. Regarded in this way, ““ matter,” the ¢€ od of living things, might be looked upon as considerably more than mere lifeless, inert material; and in G.A. Aristotle does in fact ascribe even the possession of yxy to it, as we have seen. Thus, to classify the statements he makes in G.A.: (1) The case of Testacea, which arise in sea-water. Water contains pnewma, and pneuma contains Soul-heat (§ 17). (2) The case of animals and _ plants spontaneously formed out of putrefying matter. Mistletoe and similar plants are formed when either the soil or certain pene in plants or trees become putrescent (715 b 27 ff.). ow (i) Earth contains Water (§ 17), and, as we saw just now (ibid.), Water contains pneuma, which contains Soul- heat. And Soul is obviously present already in the plants and trees upon which mistletoe, etc., grow. (ii) As stated in § 13 above (G.A. 737 a 3 ff.), the heat of the Sun and of animals can effect generation, and not only the heat of animals which operates through semen, but also any other natural residue which there may be has within it a principle of life. This is no doubt intended to cover putrefying animal and vegetable matter (expressly mentioned at HA. 539 a 23 and 551 a 1 ff.), out of which some insects were supposed by Aristotle to arise, and “‘ putrefying soil ” as well, which would also qualify under (i) above. A further palliative might perhaps be found in the con- @ See also the passages quoted at 741 a 1, n. 585 Semen contains pnewma. Pnewma contains Soul-heat. APPENDIX B sideration that in the case of animals it is sentient Soul alone which has to be supplied by the male parent, and for plants no sentient Soul is required. Testacea, too, were considered by Aristotle to be plant-like (see 715 b 17, 731 b 8 ff., 761 a 12 ff.).] 9 ‘ (18) (19) 586 Ill. THE NATURE AND PROPERTIES OF ry Xvpudurov Ivedua To repeat first what we have heard so far of the nature of XII (736 b 30 ff. ; see § 13 above): There is in the semen of all animals the so-called Beppov, which cas the semen to be generative. This Oepydy is not Fire, for Fire cannot generate any animal, but the heat of the Sun and of animals (the heat that operates through their semen or some other residue) can do so: for this does contain a vital principle (w7i«7 dpyj). This substance which is contained in the semen is pnewma, and it is “analogous to the element of the stars,” viz., aither. One obvious way in which it is analogous to aither is that it is generative, for the Sun, which is of aither, is generative (see App. A §§ 9, 10). We shall find other points of analogy later on (§ 25). In the passage 735 a 29—736 a 20 we are told that semen when it leaves the body is thick and white, because it has in it much hot pneuma owing to the animal's internal heat ; when the heat in the semen has evaporated and the Air has cooled, then it turns liquid and becomes dark in colour. Thus semen is a combination of pneuma (here described as “‘ hot Air”) and water (xowov mved- patos Kai DSaros, To b€ mvedud €or Oepyos dnp, 736 a1); in fact, it is a foam, a mass of tiny bubbles. Similarly (762 a 20 ff.) in the case of spontaneous generation we have “a sort of frothy bubble ” formed, and this too contains pnewma, which contains Soul-heat (see § 17) ; cf. too the reference to “ the foam-like stuff ” (736 b 36) in which, as in the semen, there is enclosed pneuma, and in the pneuma a substance analogous to the aither. Thus pneuma is closely associated with heat—a special sort of heat, not the heat of Fire; and at 762 a 20 we read that ‘‘ there is Soul-heat in all pnewma.” APPENDIX B (20) Now although in all these passages the heat seems to Dual take the chief place, as it alas sees to take the leading character part in the formation of embryos, Aristotle says more °! ?™™™4- ‘than once that the embryo is formed by means of cold as well as heat (see § 11 above; 743 a, 762 b 15, etc.). And it would seem that pnewma really has a dual nature. This is true of it when functioning as the instrument of dpexrixy Yvy7, and also when it is functioning as the instrument of yevynrixy pvyy (see § 10 above). Thus (M.A. 702 a 10) the instrumental parts of the body can change from solid to fluid, soft to hard, and vice versa, and it is pnewma which brings about these changes. Aristotle tells us (703 a 22) that pnewma contracts and expands, and “ has heaviness compared with fiery thin and lightness compared with the opposite things ”’ ; and that this power of contracting and expanding is . indispensable to it in view of the functions it has to _ perform, because the actions of movement are pushing and pulling. (21) De anima III. 433'b 18 ff. With further reference to Pnewma pushing and pulling, Aristotle in a brief reference in the effects anima to the De motu states that “ the instrument peat used by dpeéis in causing movement ”’ is to be found and pulling. where a beginning and an end coincide, ¢.g., at a ball- and-socket joint: one remains at rest and the other is moved : and the two though separable in definition are : not separable spatially ; for everything gets moved : _ pushing and pulling. (See also Phys. VII. 243 a 12 ff.) | Compare too M.A. 703 a 12: The IT stands in a similar relation to the Soul-apy7 as the point in a joint (which kwe? xwodpevov) stands to that which is unmoved. (22) There is a passage in the De caelo (IV. 301 b 20 ff.), sirasan where again Aristotle is discussing the way in which instrument movement is brought about, and although he is talking for effecting here of Air (xp) and not specifically of the kind of Air ™°Y*™e"* known as pneuma, the passage is apposite to our present subject. Now of course according to Aristotle, some of the movement which takes place in the sublunary world can be accounted for by his theory that the “simple natural substances’ Fire, Air, Water, Earth have a “ natural’ movement (see App. A § 2). But - movement is also caused forcibly ; and force can either 587 APPENDIX B accelerate natural movement (¢.g., itcan make a stone go downwards more quickly than it would do naturally) or it can produce movement contrary to Nature (e.g., it can make a stone go upwards) ; it is in fact the sole source of unnatural moyement. And in either case it uses Air as its instrument (@orep dpyav@ xpirar TO dé€pr), because Air is naturally constituted to be light and heavy (rédvxe kai Koddos elvar kal Bapis) ; the Air, qua light, will cause an object to be carried upwards, for the Air gets pushed and receives the apy} from the force which is exerti itself; qua heavy, it will cause the object to be carrie downwards: the force ‘‘as it were hitches the movement on to (évapayaca) the Air’ and so transmits it to the object in either case. Hence an object which is set moving forcibly (i.e, contrary to Nature) continues travelling although that which set it moving does not follow it up; and if there were no such physical sub- stance as Air there could be no such thing as enforced movement.* In the same way, says Aristotle, Air gives a fair wind to (cuverovpiter), helps on, natural movement. Dual char- (23) This dual nature of Air is not really so surprising as it acter of Air. sounds at first hearing, for (De caelo IV. 311 b 5 ff.) all the physical substances possess heaviness except Fire, and they all possess lightness except Earth. Jn its own place, each possesses heaviness, even Air; thus, except in Water and Earth, Air possesses heaviness. At 312.a 12 ff. Aristotle lays down that the distinction of “form ”’ and.“‘ matter ’’ is to be found in the categor of ** place’ as well as in the categories of ‘‘ quality ” and ‘“‘ quantity”: thus, ré dvw belongs to the deter- minate, 76 xdé7w belongs to “‘ matter.” And taking the special instance of the “‘ matter” of ‘‘ the heavy and light,”’ gua potentially X it is the matter of the heavy, qua potentially Y it is the matter of the light: it is the same ‘ matter,” but its efva: is not the same (ef. 310 b, 311.a). (24) For the important réle of Air as a medium between the objects which give rise to sensations and the sense-organ, « It should be remembered that according to Aristotle nothing can exert any effect upon (“‘move’’) another thing unless it is in contact with it; see Phys. If. 244 a, b, and G.A, II. 734a3. That is why the movement must be “‘hitched on” to the Air; ef. H.A. VII. 586 a17 ovdéy yap purretrar wéppw avev Bias mvevpatiKys. 588 APPENDIX B and for importance of the réle of pnewma in conveying the effects made upon the sense-organ to the heart and so to the yvx7, see below, §§ 26 ff. od (25) We may now notice two other ways in which pneuma Pnewna , is “ analogous’ to aither. (a) We noted above (§ 6) 2nd aither _ that pneuma causes “ movement” (both dddoiwars and *2#!gous. spatial saat 1) eoneeens ae _— itself under- going any qualitative change. In this respect it is at similar to aither, for this too is not liable to any sort of “ movement ”’ (except circular ¢opa) ; Aristotle express! says that aither is not subject to adddoiwas (De eaelo ‘s 270 a 14 ff.), and he even goes so far as to suggest that it is “ divine’ (270 b 10). (6) Pneuma, like aither, acts as an intermediary between an immaterial mover and material objects. As we have seen, the unmoved mover moves the Heaven and the heavenly bodies which are made of aither, and the heavenly bodies in turn “move ” sublunary bodies, viz., they bring about the transformation of the elements into one another, and also they bring about yéveais and ¢@opd. So too the - immaterial Yvy7 moves pneuma, and pnewma in’ turn causes ddAoiwais, thereby (i) moving the limbs of the body or (ii) causing the *‘ movement” which is the _deyelopment of the embryo. IV. THE FUNCTION OF Swyudvrov ITvedpa IN SENSATION The following outline of Aristotle’s theory of Sensation will indicate the important part played in it by Air and pneuma. it will be seen that just as pneuma transmits to the parts of the body the movements caused by ywvy7j and thereby produces dAAoiwors and movement, so in the reverse direction it apparently transmits to yvy7} the movement of the dAAoiwois caused in the sense-organs by the movements of external stimuli. It will be convenient to divide this account into two parts : A. dealing with what goes on outside the sentient body ; B. dealing with what goes on inside the sentient body. 589 Vision, (26) APPENDIX B A Visim.—Vision is effected in the following way (De anima II. 418 a 27 ff.). There are three main factors : Colour, the medium, and the sense-organ. ** Colour ’”? means “‘ that which has the power to:set in movement that which is actually transparent” (rd Kar’ evépyecav diadaves), and the latter acts as the medium. The medium extends continuously from the object to the sense-organ, and in its turn sets the sense-organ in movement. The medium is indispensable, because - colour cannot set the sense-organ in movement direct. Hearing. (27) According to GA. V. 780 b 34 ff., accuracy in seeing distant objects depends upon the movement of the medium not being dissipated, but “ getting a direct passage ”” (ed@uzopeiv) ; indeed, the best results would be obtained if there were a continuous tube between the object and the eye (781 a 9). Compare the case of Hearing, § 27. be Examples of transparent media are Air, Water, and ‘certain solids. Their transparency is due not to them- selves, but to the fact that they contain a certain sub- stance which is also found in the “* eternal substance of the Upper Cosmos ” (ev 7@ dudiw 7O dvw owdparr), t.é., in the aither. Of this substance the actualization is Light ; and its actualization is brought about by the agency of Fire or something of a similar kind.as the substance of the Upper Cosmos—for this selfsame substance is present in both.? Thus Light is essential if vision is to take place, because it is only when the substance in the medium is actually (not merely potentially) transparent that it can be set in movement by colour. In the case of the other senses too a medium is indis- pensable ; one example may suffice. In Hearing there are again three main factors: the sounding object, the Air, and the sense-organ. ** A sounding object ”’ (yodn7i«dv) means “ an object which can set in movement a continuous volume of Air as far as the dxoj”’ (the organ of hearing), and the movement of the Air constitutes sound only when the « The obscurity of this sentence is due to Aristotle’s text, not to my presentation of it. 590 APPENDIX B Air is thus set in movement as one continuous entity and is prevented from being dissipated. (This require- ment necessitates that the object struck should have a smooth surface, otherwise the Air cannot be moved as a unity.) Hence here too the medium must be continuous between the sounding object and the sense-organ ; and its movement in turn sets in movement the Air in the ear (De anima II. 420). ~ B __ (28) Since (De sensu 438 b 7) there must be light within the Vision. eye as well as in the external medium, the eye also will have to be transparent ; hence the eye, or rather that part of the eye which sees, viz., the xépy or pupil, is made of Water (H.4A. I. 491 b 20, De sensu 438 a 13 ff., P.A. ~ Il. 656 b 1, G.A. V. 779 b 23 ff.). Thus the external medium and the internal constituent are both trans- parent. The substance used for the eye is Water and not Air because Water is more easily kept in a confined s than Air (De sensu 438 a 15; P.A.II. 656 b 2). nd it is of course the movement of this part gua trans- parent, not qua fluid, that constitutes sight (G.A. V. 780 a 4; cf. De sensu 438 a 13 ff.). If the fluid in the eye is already in violent movement owing to some earlier stimulus, it cannot respond to a fresh movement from without (G.4. V. 780 a 8 ff. ; ef. a 23). (29) The sense-organ of Hearing is of Air (De anima ILI. Hearing, 425a4; cf. P.A.11.656b17; GA. V. 781 a 23); and “the Air in the ear is built into a chamber (éyxatwxodé6- #yrat) in order to keep it free from disturbance (zpés 76 axivnros eivac), so that it may take up the movements conveyed to it from without, é7ws dxpiBds aicPdyyra mdaas Tas dvadopas tis kwycews (De anima II. 420 a 10; cf. the very similar phrase frequently used in G.A. V. 779 b—781 b). This Air in the ear is also described as “ connate "’ (cupdujs; De anima II. 420 a 12); and it is this Air with which we hear. It is itself always in movement with a proper movement of its own (oixeia Kamas); sound, however, is of course not this proper movement, but a movement derived from something else (aAAdrpios). 591 APPENDIX B nang (30) Now rg arises from the ae _ of ar fl TUK} } (%) atcPnots azo Tis ias; P.A. IL. 656 b 24 ; conte «of. 656 a 28, III. 666 a 12, also II. 647 a 25 and @.A. II. paces. 743 b 25), for no bloodless part has the power of sensa- tion, nor has blood itself; the power resides in “ one of the parts that are made out of blood” (P.A. ILI. 666 a 17, II. 656 b 19). Hence the movement in the sense-organ must somehow be conveyed to the heart. Now it is evident that the senses of touch and taste are connected to the heart (P.A. Il. 656 a 29; ef. De sensu 439 a 1); so are the others, though perhaps not so obviously and directly. Thus, from the eyes “ pass- ages *’ (wdpor) run to the ¢AéBes around the brain, and similarly from the ears a “* passage” connects to the back of the head (P.A. II. 656 b 17). This is confirmed and amplified by G.A. Il. 744 a 2, where smell and hearing are said to be “‘ passages ” full of XII, connect- ing with the external Air, and terminating at the ¢Aefra which come from the heart and extend around the brain. #A€Bes con- (31) In the passage of G.A. V. 781 a 23 ff., which is perhaps nected to * : ; out of place and possibly slightly corrupt, some import- bh pected ant statements are fortunately clear. We read there the connate that the ** passage ’’ of the organ of hearing terminates in pneuma.. the region where the XII produces the pulsation (deriv- ing, as will be seen, from the heart); and we also read of the “‘ movement ” which comes through the sense- organ of hearing (presumably to its destination in the heart) being reproduced again through the voice; at any rate, it is clear that the heart is the dpyy of the voice (IV. 776 b 12; ef. V. 787 b—788 a). Further details about the pulsation are given-in De resp. 479 b 30 ff. Pulsation, says Aristotle, is similar to boiling, which occurs when fluid substance is pneumatized by 76 Oepuov: the fluid rises up owing to increase of bulk. Pulsation is produced in the heart by the in- crease of bulk, caused by heat, of the fluid which is continually being supplied to the heart from the nourish- ment. This action goes on continuously, because the blood is fashioned first of all in the heart, and the inflow of the fluid out of which the blood is produced goes on continuously. And all the Pe pulsate too, simul- taneously with each other, because they are all — 592 APPENDIX B connected to the heart. Pulsation is, in fact, “‘ the = agpomammagrag of the fluid as it gets heated.” (32) This seems to give us the key to the theory of sensation Continuity as well as the explanation of the upkeep of the [II. The °f com fluid, as it gets heated and thereby concocted and turned Preima into blood, is “* pneumatized.”” This no doubt implies from sense- that the pnewma which is already present in the fluid (as organ to it is in any fluid; see § 17 above), and which contains »®** Soul-heat, acquires some special character or rather “movement ” by being brought into contact with the heart, and with the Soul which has its seat there and whose “ instrument ” the pneuwma is destined to become ; — we pei seas this, paneer semen contains © pneuma which possesses the specific “‘ movement ™ that is to fashion the embryo (§§ 9, 14 above), and it is from blood that semen is made by further concoction. Hence blood will contain DI, and we may say that all the ¢AéBes are instinct with XII as well as with blood. Hence there is continuity of DI (or of “‘ the substance Similar to aither,” if this is really to be distinguished from II) from the sense-organ, through the “ passages” and then the ¢AcBes, right up to the heart. We have Aristotle’s explicit statement that the ‘“ passages” of * smell and hearing, which are full of XII, terminate at the ¢A¢€8ia which come from the heart, and that the “ passage ” from the eyes does so too. And the ¢A¢Bes of course pulsate owing to the “ pneumatizing ” action set up in the heart. (33) As Beare says on the last page of his book, Greek Conclusion. Theories of Elementary Cognition (p. 336), “ if we could discover all the properties and functions of =I, we should have penetrated to the inmost secrets of sense- perception’ as envisaged by Aristotle; for “ the XII was profoundest cause and the most intimate sus- taining agency from the beginning to end of life and sensory power.” 593 Ue INDEX Tue Index is to be regarded as supplementary to the Con- tents-Summary on pp. lxxi ff.; see also the Introduction and Appendix. The method of reference is this : ; Roman numerals refer to p. es of the Preface. I denotes paragraphs of the Introduction. +) A and B denote paragraphs of Appendix A and B. The numbers 15a to 89b (standing for 715a to 789b) refer to the pages and columns of the Berlin edition which are printed at the top of each page of the Greek text. The lines are referred to in units of five lines: thus 17al=717al—4 ! 17b5=717b5-9 : f, ff= following section(s) of five lines, following page(s) etc., as the case may*be. In the text references, each entry is separated from the preceding one by a dash (/), unless they both have the same Berlin page-number. equa se ceagoagic throughout include footnotes. ly to the entries which refer to the Greek text. (This applies For example the mention of W. W. Jaeger in the footnote to 719al11 is listed as 19a10.) abortion 73al, b15 “ abscession ” I 67 / 24b25 per accidens, etc. 64b35 / 67b10, 25 | 83a35 Acquapendente, Fabrizio of : see Fabricius ; _ acquired characteristics 21b30; — fluid 50a5; — heat I 69 / 47al5 594 active and passive 29a25 f, b5 ff / 40b20f / 42a15 | 68b15 ff / 72a25 / B7 ff actual and potential I 34 ff, 50 / 26b15 / 34a30, b10, 20, 35 | 35a5f | 36b5 fF | 37a15f | 38b1 | 39b35f / 40a20 f, b20 f / 41a10, 20, b5 ff / 42a10 / 43a20 | ‘ INDEX 44a5 / 62b1 | 68al0, bi | 69b1 / B 7, 10, 11,12, 14, 16, 26 Adrianic fowls 49b25 Aeschylus 63b30 age 83b5 / 84a30, b30 / 87b5 air 81a20 / 84b10 f / 86a5 ff / B 22, 23, 26 ff aither 1 32, 45 / 36b35 | 61b15/ A 2,7; B13, 18, 25, 26 albinism 85b30 f Alemeon xvii f / I 25,40 / '52b25 / 69220 Alkmaion: see Alemeon allantois 53b20 ion (d\oiwors) I 48 | 5, 6, 8, 10, 25 — (peraBody) Tial | 73al analogous ”’ I 71 ff 15b20 / 26b1 | 275 | 28a20, bl / 35a25 / 36b35 / S37b1 / 38b15 / 39al5 / 40a20 | 41b15 / 42b35 / 43a10 | 45a5, b10 / 54al / 60a10 ff / 61a25 | 65b30 / 66a30, bl / 68b30 79al / 81a20 / 82al5, 30 / 84b15 / B 13, 18, 19, 25 Anaxagoras xviif / 23a5f / 56b15 | 63b30 | 65a5 Anaximander 61b5 Andronicus of Rhodes xxxiii animals 36a30 / 38b20 / 40a15 / 41al0 ff / 57b15 / A 15-18 — blooded and bloodless I 74 | 15a20 ff / 32a20 — classification of lxxii / I 74 ff ( 32025 fF — higher 32a15 — made for man I 5 ect I 76 / 32b30 ff / 33b1 / 37b5, 15, 25 / 63b20 / T7bl aorta 38a10 Apellicon xxxiii Aphrodite 36a20 Ardaillon, E. 36b15 Aristotle's Masterpiece v Aristotle’s Dissections : see dissection — method viii ff — Protrepticus 31a30 | 32a10 — zoological works vi ff apes A 14-13 apiua A 15-17 16 / 34b20, 35 f / 40b25 / 62a15 | 75a20 Artaxerxes Mnemon 36al articulation 41b35 ff ass 48a15 ff atomism xviii automatic puppets 34b10 / 41b5 axial gradients xi / 41b25 Baconian method viii, xi Bailey, C. xviii baldness 8245 ff / 83b5 ff Balss, H. xvii barnacles 63a30 barrenness 67a35 / 73b25 f batos 46b5 bear 74b15 / 85b35 Beare, J. I. 1 46 bees ix / 59al—6lal / 63a15 / 70a25 ! 86b1 “* being ” (ovata) v / 1 47, 52 | 24bt / 31b380 / 38b25 / 67b30 f / 78a35 f/ A 1, 12, 15, 16,18 595 beloné 55a30 * better,” the 17a15 ff, b 30 / 38b1 / 65a5 / A 123 see also necessity bile I 67 * biogenetic law ” 36b1 birds 49a35 ff / p.368 / T4a5, b 25ff — nidicolous and nidifugous 74b25 Bitterauf, K. E. v, xxiv ff Black Sea 82b30 blend I 25, 39 f / 44a30 / 52b30 | 55a20 | 67a30 | 77b5 / 81a30 — blood I 63 ff, 69, 73. f / 26b1 ff / 28a20 / 51b1 / 65b20 / 66a30 / 76b10 / B 30-32 blood-serum 61b5 blood-vessel 38a25, 35 40a20 f / 43al f, b25 / 44al | 64b30 | 76b10 | 77a5 / B11, 30 ff — — Great 38a10 blooded and bloodless ani- mals I 74 boiling 52a1 f / 53a30 / B 31 bones 43a15 f / 62a30 / 87b15 Bonitz, H. xxviii brain 43b25 ff / 47a15 / 80a20 / 82b10 f / 83b25 f breath, holding of 18al / 28a10 / 38al / 75b1 bregma 44a25 | 85al Broken Hill 35b15 bronze 47b1 Bryson 57al bubble 62a20 / B 17 bull 87b5 ff Burnet, J. xvii Bussemaker xxiv, xxvii Biitschli, O. 36a10 596 camel 71a20, b5 ; caprification 15b25 / 55b10_ carpenter 29b15 / 30b5 ff _ castration 16b5 / I7bAi t 87b20 ff . cataract (eye) s0als caterpillar 58b5 ff causation, mechanical 34b5 ff / 41b5 / BS Causes, the Four xi ff / I 1 ff / 15al ff / 17a10 fF / 31b20 ff / 42a20 ff / 65b5 f / 78a30 ff / 89b1 ff) A18 Cavolini 41a35 Cephalopods 20b15 /. s1b30 / 55b30 | 57b30 fF / Cephaloptera éb2s cestreus 41b1 /62b20 chalazae 52b5 gests itt Chalcedon 21b80. chameleon 50a10 change: see movement, al- teration oe over’ ’ 66a15 ff / 68a15 ff / 87b5, 20, 30 ff channa 15a20 | 55b20 / 56a25 | 60a5 channel 81b5 Charles, King 27b30 Child, C. M. 41b25 Chios 63b1 « * chorion 39b30 / 45al, 18 oe 53b20-—54a10 chrysalis 33b10 / 58b30. cicatricula 51b5 climate 52b30 / 53a5, 15) f / 60b1 f / 62b10 / 63b10 / 67a25 ff | 77a5 / $1a30 f | 83a10 / 88al5 / B12, 17 Cnidos 36a1 | INDEX col cooling 48435 ff / T7b25 sone onto a P8595 6¢e_/ ff | 2520 ff | 26a10, 20, b25 colour 80b20 ff / B 26 — of eyes 79a25 ff — of hair 84a20 ff completion (telos) 15a15 / $4b15 / 35al5 / 41b1 conception 39a25 concoction I 8, 25, 30, 62 ff / 50b25 / 52b15, 30 / 53al5 / 75al5 | 86a15 | et passim — of embryo 19a30 / 29a15 / 30a15 / 44b1 | 75al5 — of fruit 15b20 — of nourishment and semen 18a5 / 19bl / 25b20 / 26a5, b30 / 28a15 / 38al0 / 39a10 | 62b5 / 65b1 ff / 66a30 / 84a35 / B 32 and see above congenital: see connate conical vessels 39b10 connate oem: congenital) 21b25 / 50a5 / B 29; see also pneuma contact 30b5 ff, 30 / 34al,. bi ff / B 20 ff controlling (xpos) 44b10 / 71lal0 / 72b25 / 73a5 | 76b5 | 78al / 83b20 cooking 67a20 copaitation: of fish 56a30 ff: of birds, erroneous theories 56b10 f cornice 81b10 cotyledons (uterus) 45b30 ff / 71b25 ; (plants) 52a20 counterpart : see “ analogy ”’ cowardice 50a10 cranes 85a20 crocodile 32b15 crooked talons 46b1 / 49b1 ff crow 74b25 Crustacea 20b5 f / 55b30 / 57b30 ff / 61b5 cuckoo 50a10 f cupping-glasses 37b30 curly hair 82b15 ff current 63b1 Cuvier xx cycles A passim Dante I 5 {-p. 1 / 78b1 / A3,9 : Dareste, C. xi deciduoma 75b25 decoys 51lal5 defensive weapon 59bi, 30 *‘ deformation” I 12 f / 24b30 / 28b10 / 37a25 / 43a30 / 46b30 f / 47a25 / 48b35 f / 49a15 / 66a25 / 67a35 / 69b30 / Tlal / 73a10 / 75al, 15 /$4a10, bl Democritus xviii / 21b10 / 40a10, 35 / 42b20 /-46a15 / 47a25 f | 64a5, 20 ff / 69al5, b30 / 88b10 ff demonstration 42b25 f departure from its nature 25a25 ] 49b30 / 68al, 25, b5, 25 diaphragm 17al / 18b1, 20 / 19a5, 15 f / 38b15 / 41b25 / 47a20 | 49a30 / 76b5 f Diocles 45b30 ff Diogenes of Apollonia 36a10, 20 | 46a15 dissection, Dissections 19a10 | 597 INDEX 40a20 / 46a15 f | 64a35 | 79a5 Dittmeyer, L. xxvi, xxix divine I 3, 45 / 31b25 / 36b30 / 37a10 / 6la5 / B25 dog 38b30 / 42a5 | 46a30 / 70b1 / 71a20 / T4b15; see also Laconian hound — Indian 46a30 dogfish, smooth : telus laevis dolphin 32b25 / 56b1 dominance, physiological 41b25; see also control dove 74630 dream 79al10 f Duprat, G. L. I 46 dwarf 49al1 dynamis | 23-27, 60 / 16a20 f / 20b30 | 22b30 / 25al / 26a10 ff | 27b15 | 29a25, bd, 25 f / 30a1, 10 / Slal, b15 / 33b15 / 36a20 f, b35 / 38b20 / 39al5 / 40b30 f / 51a30 / 56al / 60a15 | 63b20 / 65b10 f, 35 ff / 66a20, 30 | 67b20 fF / 68b25 / 72a5 f, 25 | 80b5 / 84b15 / 85b10 see Mus- earth: see Elements Earth, the 16a15 earth-born 22b20 / 62b25 earthenware 43a15 “* earth’s-guts ” 62b25 ecliptic A 9 f eddies 72b15 f eel ix / 41b1 / 62b20F / p. 565 * efflux ’”? 58b5 egg, definition of 31a5 / 32a25 f / 63a10 eggs 18b30 ff, see also ovum 598 — perfect and imperfect (cleidoic and non-cleidoic) I 56, 77 | 18b5 ff / 32b5 | 33al5 fF / 49al5 | 51a25 / 54al5 ff / 55b25 f / 56a20 / 57a25 f | 58a30 fF — of trees 31a5 ¢ ‘““eggs”’ of Crustacea, te. 17a5 / 63b1 fF > eggshell 52a30 Egypt 70a35 Element, fifth 36b35 | A 2; see aither . Elements, the four I 22, 24 / 15al0 / 22a35/ 29a30 / 36b30 / 61a30 ff / A 2,9, 12 elements of man A 9 > elephant 19b15 / 71a20, bd / 73b5 / 77b1, 15 | 82b5. elephantiasis 68b35 Elis 22a10 iad Elmore brothers 35b15 Us a growth of 23910 f / — diagram of menibfanes of © chick p. 369 ; Empedocles xvii ff / 18b35 } 22b5 ff | 23a20 f / 31a5 / 47a25 ff | 62b30 / 64al— 65a10 / 69al5 | Tia5 | 79b15 ; Ephesus, Michael of xxv, xxxi Epicharmus 24a25 Epicureans 27b35 Epicurus 46a15 epigenesis ” x / 33b20 ff Erechtheus 62b30 erythrinus 15a20 | 41a35 / 55b5, 20 | 56a25 | 60a5 essence 42b30; see being eternal 31b25 ff | 42b25 t / A 14-17 INDEX Ethiopian 2210 / 36a10 / déficiency I 39 / 37b5 | 71b30 ff / 76a15 eyelid 42a10 / 44a35 ff Sree Sane) ff 19225: Fabricius, H.. Reece | ates ashe feathers 49b5 female passim — a deformation I 13 / 37a25 | 67a35, bd / 75al5 fetation I 56 ff / 24b15 J ab Aquapen- ere 7 eaten. jab a35 | 50b25 / 57b15 / 58a30 / 6705; 15, 50/7601 /'B.1T / et passim — (egg) 37b5 | 52b5 — (=roe) 41a35 juice 29a10 / 37al5 / 71b20 f / 72a20 fig-tree 15b25 / 37a15 / 55b10 / 71b20 ity, internal I 5, 16 fire 37al / 61b15f / B 13, 19, 26: see also Elements fire-animals 61b15 f fish 51a30, b15 f / 54a20 ff fishermen 56a30 f fishing-frog 49a20 / 54a25 ff / 55b30 fissipede animals 56b30, etc. fleas 21a5 / 23b1 flies 21a5 / 23b1 / 60a10 flogging 48a20 flotation 35b15 “ fluid * matter I 38 — — conducive to life 33a10 / 61a25 fF — — contains heat 83a35 / B17 flute: see pipe flux 68b35 foam 35b10-36a20 / 36b35 / 62a20 / 63a25 / 86a5 / B13, 17, 19 fontanelle 44a25 force I 37 / 37b30 fF / 39al / 88b25 / B 22 fowl 38b30 / 46b2 / 49b10f / 50a25 / 70al0 f, 30 fox 38b30 /-42a5 / 46a34 / T4b15 Fox, H. M. 38a15 framework 40a20 / 43al / “from,” meanings of 24a20 ff / 29b15 froth: see foam galena 35b15 gall-bladder 71a5 Gastropods 61b30 Gaza, Theodore of xxi, xxv generation, methods gf 32a25 ff — reasons for 31b20 ff: see also yéveats — spontaneous 15a20, b25 / ~31b10 / 32b10 / 43a35 | 57a30, b20 / 58a5 / 59a5 / 61a15, b20 f / 62a5—63a30 / Bi7 genes 33b20 / 63b25 / 78a30 yeveots (and dfopa) I 5, 9, 47 f, 52 f / 41b20 / 42b25 f / 599 INDEX 66a15, bid / 76b1 / 77b15 ff / 78alf/ A passim; B25 gestation, time of 69b20 / 72b5 | 76a20 | 77a25 ff ginnos 48b30 ff Glasdir 35b15 gnats 21al0 goat 70b30 f / 79a30 | 85b25 Gody/15/A 3, 12 Goodrich, E. S. 41a35 goose 71b15 Gordius 62b25 grape-vine 70b20 grass 85a30 Grassi, G. B. p. 565 greyness 80b5 / 84a25 ff Gymnotus 41a35 Haberling, W. 54630 hair 81b30 ff hare 74a30 / 83a5 Harun al-Raschid xx Harvey, William xii, xix / 27b30 | 51b5 | 54al hat 85a25 Haynes, William 35b15 Heape, W. p. 565 hearing 81al0 ff / B 27 ff heart I 11, 21, 51, 63 / 35a20 / 38b15 / 40al ff / 41b15 / 42b35 | 43b25 / 44030 / 66b1 / 73al0 / 76b10 f / 81a20 | B passim heat 29b25 / 30a15 / 32a20 / 37al f / 43a30 ff / 44030 — of Soul or vital heat I 29-f, 62 | 32a15 | 39al0 | cf. 39b20 / 51b5 | 52al / 55a20 | 62a20 | 66a35, b30 / 83b30 / 84a35, b5, 25 | 86a10, 20 / B 17, 19, 32 600 — proper to each body I 62 / sa35, bb, 26 86a20 heavents s), the isenss 61b15 / 1 heavenly bodies TTb1s. f / A passim ; B13 — hectocotylized arm ix spel 20b30 £ hee 17b25 / 19bi5 s= Heidel, W. A. xviii — Heilbrunn, L. V. 36a10 hemorrh 38al5 hemorrhoids 27a10 Heracleitus vi Bete: “ 31 / 21b30 re essere it TOb35 — Herodorus 57al Herodotus 36a10 / 56b5 — e€is 26b20 hibernation 83b10, 20 “high - bred ” birds (thorough-bred) 30a10 / 49b30 Hippocrates and Hippocratic treatises x, xvi f, xviii f / I 24, 27, 33, 40, 67 /21b10/ 24b35 | 25b5 | 36al10, b35. / 37b30. | 39al / 40b15 / 42a1 | 44a30. | 46a15 / 66a20 / 67a25 ff / 70a35_ | 76b30 / 77b5 | 80al5 hoar-frost 84b15 f Homer 84al5 © ‘homonyms ” 2lal / 26b20 / 34b25 | 35a5 ‘* honeycombers ” 61b30 ff hornets 6lal ff / 86b1 horns 62a30 INDEX en ff / 71a20 / 73b25 / 7T7b10 / 79b1 / 80b5 / 82a10 / $5al0 f yo ohne rial 565 46229 ff hyena ix / 57al ff / pp. 565 f Iberia 48a25 ibis 56b15 Ibn al-Batriq xx ichor 1 66 / 25a15 incubation 52b15 ff Indian dog 46a30 , Nature avoids 15b15 Insects 21al ff / 23b20 / 58a30 fF instrument (tool, organ) I 2, 31 f, 42, 45, 50°/ 16a20 / 30b15 ff / $4b25 | 38b25 / 40b30 | 42a15 / 65b35 ff / 66a20 | 88225, b20 / 89b5 f / B 6, 9, 10, 11, 15, 16, 20, nsdn en also parts, (0 ag teased label fekaetiinet straight and twisted 17a20 f intuition 42b30 jackdaw 56b20 Jaeger, W. W. viii / 1 46 / 19a10 / 36a10 / 46al5 / 61b15 jay 74b25 Job 39b20 / 52b30 Jones, W. H. S. xvii juices 69a30 Kelts 48a25 kestrel 50a5 Knidos 36al knowledge 31a30 ff / 56a30 Ktesias 36al Laconian hound 38b30 / 46a30 / 81b10 lagoon 61b5 / 63b1 ] m-oysters 63a30, b10 e 61b1 larvae I 77 / 23b5 / 29b30 / 32a30, b10 33a25 f,; bi0 f / 52a25 | 55al5, bi / 58a30 ff / 62b30 ff laughter 79210 Laurium 35bi5 lead ore 35b15 leopard 85b10 Leophanes 65a25 tocephalus p. 565 Lesbos 63b1 leucorrhea 28al Levy, R. xx Libya 46b5 / 70a35 (Libyan) ostrich 49b15 ** like to like ” 40b15 / 41b10 linen 83a10 lion 42a5 / 50a30 / 60b20 f / T4b15 / 88b15 liquefaction of yolk 53b1, 25 “ little-endian ” 52a15 lizard 32b1, 15 locust 21a20 logos 1 1, 10, 69 / 15al f / 16a15 f / 26b20 / 29a25 / 31b15 / 32a5 / 34b30 35al | 40b30 / 67b20 78a30, b10/ B8 loom 17a35 | 87b20 / 88al Lophius piscatorius : see fishing-frog _— 601 INDEX lophouroi 55b15 | T7b5 Lucretius 27b35 lung 32b30 male and female xi ff / I 68 / l5al5 ff / 16a5 ff, b15 ff / 24b10 | 29a10, bd ff / 31b15 ff / 38b20 / 40b25 | 4lal ff / 55b5 / 62b1 ff / 63b20 ff / 65b5 fF / 75a5 fF — — — contrasted 27a15 ff / 28al5 -— provides Form, etc. xi ff / 29b5 ff / 30a25 / 38b25 / 64b10 / 65al / 7ib15 f man 45b10 f / 62b25 / 70a30 / 72b1 | 73b5, 25 | 74a25 / 75a25 | 76b20 f / 77b1 f | 80b5 / 81b15 f / 82a5 fF / 83b5 ff / 85b5 “mantle” of 7s Pari 20b25 marsh 41b1 marsh-birds 51b10 Marshall, F. H. A. 38a15 I 73a30 ** mastering ”’ 66a15 ff / 67b10 ff / 72b80 Matter, levels of I 14 ff / 29a30 | 33b25 — unevenness of I 8 / 78a5 — and Form xi ff / 24b5 / 29al0 | 32a5 — of generation 27b30 / 29a10, 30 Matthews, L. Harrison pp. 565 f meat, cooking of 76al f membranes 39b30 / 46a1, 15 / 53b10, b15—54al / 58b1 | 81a20 602 menstrual discharge metachoiron 49al f | 70b5 | metamorphosis 32a30 Meyer, A. W. 33b20 Ru milk 39b25 / 52 b20f [Weald ff milt 30a20 / 55b5. : nee - I 57al5 f mistletoe 15b30 — AV modellers 43al Moerbeke, William. mth xxix mola uteri 75b25 ff monstrosity xi / 676, 15 i 69b10 fF / 72a85 moon I 11, 51 / 38al5 | 61b20 / 77b20 fF moon-animals 61b20 more-and-less I 70 ff / sibs / 39b30 / 61b15 / ropa ta morphogenesis xi nae (fungus) 84b10 ff moulting 83b10 ff mouse 71a20 Y ‘movement ” xiv / I 2, 3, %, 11, 29, 32, 34 f, 45, 47 ff, 55, 63, 68 / 29b5 ff 30b5 ff / 34b5 f / 37a20 / 40625 f | 41b10 / 43a30 / 66b10 / A and B passim: movers, unmoved xiii / A Sf, 12’: (B 1,.2326 mule 28b10 /46b10 f/ 47220- 4 48b30 Miiller, J. ix / 54b30 Muraena 41a35 mussel 61b30 / 63b10 Mustelus laevis viii | 54b15, 30 mutilated offspring 21b15 / — Q4al f —. INDEX natural=general or normal 18, 12 f / 27b25 | 7Cb10 ff / 72a35 / Tial5 f — science 48a10 ; see also ph Nature, natural I 8, 12 ff / 24b20 ff / 41al / 44b20 / 52b15 | 53a5 | 65a5 | 70b10 | 76al / 77b15 fF / 81b20 / A 12 / et passim —=prime matter 29a30 — and Art 34620 / 35al / 62a15 / 75a20 — compared to a carpenter 30b15 | 43a25 — — clay-modeller 30b25 — — cook 76al f — — craftsman 31a20 / 89b1 ff — — housekeeper 44b15 — — painter 43b20 — — runner 41b20 — does nothing idly 39b20 / 41b1 | 44a35 | 88b20 f vy, necessary I 5 ff / 17al5- f / 17b35 / 42a15 | 44a10, b10 / 67b10 / A 14 —versus Better I 5 ff / 31b20f / 38a30 ff / 39b25 / 43435 ff / 55a20 / 76al5 ff, b30 / 78a30 ff, b15 / 82420 / 89a5 f, b1 ff Needham, J. x, xi / 33b20 / 63b30 net 34a20 night-blindness 80a15 f north and south 67a10 / 83a30 Notidanus griseus 16625 * nourishment ” 24b25 ff / 40a25 ff | 76a25, b5 / 77a / 86b1 — fluid 53b25 / 67a30 — grades of I 64 / 28a30 / 40b30 f / 44b10 ff / 51b5, 20 | 52b15 / 53b10 / 62b15 f / 66a10 / 70a20 / 77a5 — stages of I 61 ff / 25a10 ff, b10 / 26b1 ff / 28a15 / 40a20 / 65b25 f / 66a30, b5 f / 76a25 f / $4a35 / 86b1 / B31 * number * 78a5 / A 11-13 observation, importance of viii / 60b30 / 88b10 ff Octopus 17a5 / 20b30 ff offspring, miitilated 21b15 / 24al f — same or different in kind as parents 15a20ff / 23b1 f oil 35b10 ff / 85a30 oil-flotation 35b15 olive and oleaster 55b10 onion 61b30 opposites (contraries) 24b1 / 66a10 optic nerves 44a10 ore 35b15 / 61b15 organ: see instrument ** organizers * I 55 Orpheus 34a15 os uteri 39a30 f / T3al5 ostrich 49b15 / 52b30 ourion 53a20, 30, b5 oviducts : see uterus Ovovivipara 18b30 / 20a15 ovum, mammalian xii / I 77 / 27b30 ox 79a30 / 85b20 f ox-fish 16b25 oysters 63a30 f 603 INDEX ye: painters 43b20 ** pangenesis ” 21b10 / 64a10 ff / 66b10 / 69a10 panspermia 69a25, b1 parental care 53a5 ff parents, resemblance to, and identity in kind with 15a20 partridge 38b30 / 46b1 / 49b10 f / 51al5 / 85b35 “parts” I 6, 18 ff / l5al / 16a10, b25 / 20b30 / 26b5 | Slal5 — instrumental 21a25 / 34b25 / 39b15 / 42a35 ff — uniform and non-uniform I 19 ff / 15a10 / 21a25 / 22a15 ff, b30 fF / 24b25 / 34b25 / 40a15, b15 / 43al1 / B a ““ passages ”’ xvii / 43b35 ff / 66b20 / 75al | 76b30 / 81a20 f, b20 f / 82b1 / 83al / B 30 ff — seminal 16b15 / 20a10, b10 / 21a10 / 87b25 ff mabos 1 6 / 22b30 / 34b30 / 43b20 | 78a15 ff peacock 85b20 pecten 63b10 Pelseneer, P. 20b30 perfect 32b30 f; see also animal; egg pericarp 22a15 perineos 16a30 | 66a5 Perinthus 73a25 ** period ’’ 38a15f / 77b15 fF / A1KASS pessary 39b5 phlegma I 66 / 25a15 | 35b35 dopa A passim Le nc RE 69b20 604 physiologers xvi / 41b10/ 42a15 | 56b15 | 63b30 / 69a5 / 78b5 Big / sa / 56620) 74b30 | 85 pinna 63b5 pipe 42a25 /88a20 pipe-fish 55a30 a placenta xi / 54b30. plaiting of net 34a20 plants v / I 5, 9, 52, 60 / 17a20 / 18b10 | 22a10 / 23b10 f | 24b15 | 25a20, b25 ff / 28a25, b35 f / 32a10 / 35a15 / 38al, b30 / 39b35 / 40b10, 30 / 41al f, 25, b35 / 50a20 ff 52a15 f / 53b25 / 55b10 / 57b15 ff / 59a5, b30 / 6lal5 ff, b25 f / 62a5, 15 f / 63b20 / 65b30 / 70b15 f / 71b10 / 74b25 / 78b35 f / 83a30, b10 f / 85a30/ A 1, 18; B17 andn. — have no sexes 15b20 7 3lal—b10 — parasitic 15b25 / B uM, n. plaster 26b25 Plato xii, xvi; xviii, xe LS | 17a20 | 8ial Platt, Arthur xxviii, xxxii pneuma (incl. connate pneu- ma and breath) vi, xiv, xvi / I 31 f, 45, 46, 57, 63, 68, 72 | 28a10, b25/ 35b10- 36a15 | 37b30 / 38al / 41b35-42a15 | 44al 55a15 / 61b10 / 62a20, b15 / 68b35 / 75b1 / 81a20 fF / 86a5 / 89b5 f / B passim pneumatization I 63, 68 / Bi g3i, 323 INDEX = eae ”~T11, 51 / 16bi1, ‘10 / 40al ff / 41b15, 25 / 42b1 ff / 51b5, 20 / 52a10 ff / 62a25, b15 / 63b20 f / 65b10 / 66a15, 25 f / 78a5 / 88a10 f / et pas- sim — of male 57b10 — of movement 15a5 / _, 3420 / 42b35 / 44230 “* prior,’ ceeerne e sonee tt 36a10 pulsation 81a25 / B 31 pupa 58b30 papel 34b10 / 41b5 ~ purpura 61b30 / 63b5 pus 77al0 pushing and pulling B 20 f 15a20, b25 21a5 | 53a30 / 62a10, b25 / 77al0 / 84b5 fF pygmies 49al Pyrrha 63b1 quadrupeds, eggs of ovi- parous 52b30 ff qualitative change: see “ alteration ” quintessence vi; see also aither ; fifth element rain A 8 raven 56b15 ff / 85b35 reason I 44; see Soul, ra- tional * recapitulation ” x redundance of parts 70b25 ff regeneration 74b30 “ relapsing” 68a15 ff rennet I 54 / 29a10 / 39b20 f / 72a20 reproduction A 17 resemblance to parents 21b20 ff / 22a15 ff / 26a10 / 38b30 / 64b25 / 66b10 / 67a35 ff / 69a5 ff / TOb5 “residue” I 8, 20, 64 ff / 15a20 / 19b30 / 24b25 ff / 28b15 ff / 37al, b25 fF / 39b1 / 43a25 / 45b15 f / 49b1 ff / 62al f, bl ff / 76b10 / 83a25 / B 13 respiration 81225 rhine 46b5 rhinobates 46b5 Rhodes 63a30 Richards, H. xxviii Rickard, T. A. 35b15 right hotter than left 65b1 Rose, V. 19a10 Ross, W. D. viii Rudberg, G. xxiii, xxx Rueff, Jacob 27b30 sy ie ere J. Barthélemy- xxxii f Saint-Hilaire family xx salamander 61b15 Sarmatia 83a10 satyriasis 68b35 Schmidt, J. p. 565 Schneider, J. G. xxviii f Scot, Michael xxi, xxiii f, xxix ff Seythia 48a25 / 82b30 / 83al10 605 INDEX sea 77b30 seal (animal) 81b20 seasonal change of colour 86a30 seasons 83b20 ff / A 14 seasquirt 63b15 sea-urchin 83a20 seed-aggregate 69a25, b1 Selachia 18b1, 30 / 19a5 f / 32b1, 20 / 37b20 / 49al5, 30 | 54020 fF / 55al0 / 57al15 ff semen I 68 f / 16a5 f / 21a30 ff | 24a10 fF / 26b1 fF / 34b5 | 35a30 fF / 36a25 ff, b25 / 47a15, 35 ff | 66b5 / et passim — “collecting ” of 17b25 / 18a5 / 73b35 sense-perception 31a30 ff / 32a10 / 36a30 / 41a10 ff / 43a25 | 57b15 / 78b30 / B 26 ff serpents 18a15 ff / 32b1 serranus 41a35 and see ery- thrinus and channa “set” fetation, ete. I 54 / 29b31 / 30a30 ff / 3lal5 f / 33b20 / 37a20 / 39a5 sex, origin of 63b25 ff / 66a30 ff sex-characters, distinction be- tween primary and second- ary 16b5 / 78a25 ff sex-differentiation 63b20 ff sex-hormones 16b5 sexual parts 66b10 ff Shakespeare I 65 sheep 83a10 ** shift over ” shiny 35b25 shoes 23b30 606 68a10 f sideshoots 61b30 ff sight, keenness of 79b35. aa fj — theory of, 79b20 ff / | 8lal / B28... sinew 37b1 / 43al15 /. 87b10 f Siphae 41b1 / 61b5 ip skin 43b5 ff / 80a25 / 81b20 / 82a25 fF / 85b1 fF |. sleep 78b20 fF sleep-walking 799al15. smell 81a10 : net ** smoky ” vine 70b20 snails 20b5 / 61a20 / 62a30 snakes 70a20 f Solomon, Wisdom of 27b30 solstice 48a25 t Soul I 16, 41 ff 51, 68 if 22b20 | 26b20_ iam ve / 34al, 10 f, b25 ff. 35a5 ff / 36a25-37al5. / 37a25 f / 38b20 f / 39a10 / 40b30-41b5 ‘b1b5 | 57b15 / 62a20, b15 / sin 17; B passim r — nutritive= generative, 7 35al5 / 63b25 rr — rational 36b5-25 / 37a10 sparrow 74b25 / 85b35 spiders 58b5* spiral 81b15 — shells 63a20 ‘ spontaneous eggs 56a15; see also wind-eggs — generation: see genera- tion Stadler, H. v stars 37al / 61a15 / 80b20; see also heavenly bolton Steno, N. ix strangury 83a20 sublunary world 61b15 / A, 2 ff ; - INDEX emapenies wth of teeth growth o 88b10 ff Sun 85b10 © — as generator I 11, 51 / 16al5 / 37al / 62b25 / 77b20 ff / A 5 ff, 14; B13 ating of milt 56a5, b1 ff swallows 74b25 f sweet substance 76a25 f swine 49al / 71a20 / 74b15 ff / Gabe / S81 + setts symmetria I 39 19b10 23a30 / 27b10 / 29a15 | 39b1 / 42b25 / 43a25 f / 67al5 ff | 72a15 ff / 75b15 | Tikes / 79b25 | 80b20 / Synamats acus 55a30 54 f rps ae a os 2lal / 22b35f/_ 35a20 taste 44a1 / B 30 teeth 45a15 ff / 48b10 / 8Sbi ff ir oa see also terminalogs xix, xxxiii / I 40 et passim Testacea I 74 f / 6lal5— 63b15 / B 17, n. — have no sexes 15b15 / 20b5 / 31b5 testes 17a10 ff / 19a30 ff / 65a25 f / 87b25 ff Thompson, D. W. viii, xxx / 49b25 f / 63b1 Thomson, G. 63b30 Thrace 82b30 thratta 85b10 time A 13 tin 47b1 Tipha 41a35 tissue-disintegration 32a30 tongue 86a20 f tortoise 20a5 / 32b1 touch 44al / B 30 tragaina T0b35 ' trees: see plants trochos 57al £ Truscott, S. J. 35b15 Tschierschky, H. xxv tumour 24b25 twins 64a30 ff / 72a35, b10 / 75a20 - umbilicus 40a30 / 45b20 ff / 5la5 | 52a25 ff | 53b15—- 55al / 77a20 f / p. 369 unevenness 72b5 / 78a5 / 88a1, 25 / A 11 unlimited 42b20 upper and lower 41b25 ff / 42b10 f / 43b15 uterus (including oviducts) 16b30 ff / 18a35 ff | 45b25 ff et passim vaginal discharge 28al vas deferens 18a10 vena cava 38al0 vine 25b25 f / 70b20 violence : see force vipers 18b30 Vivipara 18b25 / 28a5 voice 76b15 / 81a25 / 86b5 fF / 87b25 / B 31 — breaking of 88a1 von Baer, K. E. xii / 33b20/ 36b1 607 INDEX Wachtler, J. xv wasps 59al jead ff / 70825 | 86b1 water 62a10, 20, b10 f / 67a25 f / 86al f / B va wax 53b5 weasel 56b15, 30 weather: see climate, wind Wellmann, M. xvii, xxxvi / 46a15 whale 32b25_ whelk 61b30 / 63b5 ‘* whites ” 38a25 f willow 26a5° Wimmer, F. xxvii wind 67a10 | 77b30 / 83a30 | A8 wind-eggs I 58 / 30a5, 30 / 37a30 | 41a15 ff | 50b1 fF / 51b25 / 57b1 spa wine 53a25 withering 85a25 ff wolf 42a5 / 46a30 / 71020 [ - 7T4b15 Wolff, C. F. 33b20 iF Wolffian regeneration 74b30 women, manner of life 75a30 f yawning 81a30 yeast 177 / 55al5f yolk, liquefaction of during incubation 53b1, 25 eo — and white 51a30-52a5 [ 53a35 | 54b20 ff yolk-sae stalk 53b20 / p. 369 zephyrion 49b1 Printed in Great Britain by R. & R. CrarK, Limrrep, Edinburgh, THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY VOLUMES ALREADY PUBLISHED LATIN AUTHORS AMMIANUS MARCELLINUS. J.C. Rolfe. 3 Vols, APULEIUS. THE GOLDEN. ASS (METAMOR- PHOSES). W. Adlington (1566). Revised by S. Gase- lee. (6th Imp. Sr. AUGUSTINE, CONFESSIONS OF.‘ W. Watts (1631). 2 Vols. (Vol. I. 5th Imp., Vol. II. 4th Imp.) ST. AUGUSTINE, SELECT LETTERS. J. H. Baxter. AUSONIUS. H.G. Evelyn White. 2 Vols. BEDE. J. E. oa, 2 Vols. BOETHIUS: ACTS ayy DE CONSOLATIONE PHILOSOPHIAE. Rev. H. F. Stewart and E. K. Rand. (3rd Imp.) CAESAR: CIVIL WARS. A. G. Peskett. (4th Jmp.) CAESAR: GALLIC WAR. H. J. Edwards. (8¢h Imp.) CATO anv VARRO: DE RE RUSTICA. H. B. Ash and W. D. Hooper. (2nd Imp.) CATULLUS. F. W. Cornish ; TIBULLUS. J. B. ve aypj PERVIGILIUM VENERIS. J. W. M il. (11th Imp.) CELSUS: DE MEDICINA. W. G. Spencer. 3 Vols. (Vol. I. 2nd Imp. revised.) CICERO: BRUTUS ann ORATOR. G. L. Hendrickson and H. M. Hubbell. (2nd Imp.) CICERO: DE FATO; PARADOXA STOICORUM; x 1 THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY DE PARTITIONE ORATORIA. H. Rackham. (With De Oratore, Vol. II.) CICERO: DE FINIBUS. H. Rackham. (3rd~ Imp. revised.) CICERO: DE NATURA DEORUM anv ACADEMICA. H. Rackham. CICERO: DE OFFICIIS. Walter Miller. (4¢h Imp.) CICERO: DE ORATORE. E. W. Sutton and H. Rackham. 2 Vols. CICERO: DE REPUBLICA ann DE LEGIBUS. Clin- ton W. Keyes. (2nd Imp.) CICERO: DE SENECTUTE, DE ig a DE DIVINATIONE. W.A. Falconer. (4th Imp.) CICERO: IN CATILINAM, PRO MURENA, PRO SULLA, PRO FLACCO. Louis E. Lord. CICERO: LETTERS TO ATTICUS. E. O. Winstedt. 3 Vols. (Vol. I. 5th Imp., Vol. Il. 3rd Imp. and Vol. III. 2nd Imp.) CICERO: LETTERS TO HIS FRIENDS. Mh Glynn Williams. 3 Vols. (Vols. I. and IL. 2nd Imp. CICERO: PHILIPPICS. W.C. A. Ker. Qe CICERO: PRO ARCHIA, POST REDITU DOMO, DE HARUSPICUM RESPONSIS, * PRO PLANCIO. N.H. Watts. (2nd Imp.) CICERO: PRO CAECINA, PRO EGE MANILIA, Cop rgnehiary PRO RABIRIO. H. Grose Hodge. (2nd Lm CICERO: PRO MILONE, IN PISONEM, PRO SCAURO, PRO FONTEIO, PRO RABIRIO POS- TUMO, PRO MARCELLO, PRO LIGARIO, PRO REGE DEIOTARO. N. H. Watts. CICERO: PRO QUINCTIO, PRO ROSCIO AMERINO, PRO ROSCIO COMOEDO, CONTRA RULLUM. J. H. Freese. CICERO: TUSCULAN DISPUTATIONS. J. E. King. 2nd Imp.) CICERO VERRINE ORATIONS. L. H.. G. Green- wood. 2 Vols. CLAUDIAN. M. Platnauer. 2 Vols. COLUMELLA: DE RE RUSTICA. H. B. Ash. 2 Vols. Vol. I. Books I.-IV. FLORUS. E. S. Forster; and CORNELIUS NEPOS. J.C. Rolfe. 2 ———— THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY FRONTINUS: STRATAGEMS ayn AQUEDUCTS. C. E. Bennett and M. B. McElwain. FRONTO: CORRESPONDENCE. C. R. Haines. 2 Vols. GELLIUS. J.C. Rolfe. 3 Vols. HORACE: aeere and EPODES. C. E. Bennett. (11th HORACE: § aTIRES, EPISTLES, ARS POETICA. ( JEROME: S CT LETTERS. F. A. Wright. JUVENAL axp PERSIUS. G.G. Ramsay. (6th Imp.) LIVY. B. O. Foster, F.G. Moore, Evan T. Sage and A. C. Schlesinger. 13 Vols. Vols. I.-VII., IX.-XII. (Vol. I. 3rd Imp., Vols. U1., III. and IX. 2nd Imp. revised.) LUCAN. J.D. Duff. (2nd Imp.) LUCRETIUS. W.H. D. Rouse. (5th Imp. — MARTIAL. W.C. A. Ker. 2 Vols. Vol. I. 4th Imp., Vol. II. 3rd Imp. revised.) MINOR LATIN POETS: from Pustirus Syrvus to Routmivs Namatianvs, including Grarrius, Catpurnius Sicutus, Nemesranys, Avranus, with “Aetna,” “ Phoenix” a ee) poems. J. Wight Duff and Arnold M. Duff. OVID: ithe ART OF LOVE axpv OTHER POEMS. J.H. Mozley. (2nd Imp.) OVID: FASTI. Sir James G. Frazer. OVID: HEROIDES axp AMORES. Grant Showerman. (3rd Imp.) OVID: METAMORPHOSES. F. J. Miller. 2 Vols. (Vol. 1. 7th Imp., Vol. Il. 6th Imp.) OVID: TRIST IA ayp EX PONTO. A. L. Wheeler. (2nd Imp.) ‘ PETRONIUS. M. Heseltine; SENECA: APOCOLO- CYNTOSIS. W.H.D. Rouse. (7th Imp. revised.) PLAUTUS. Paul Nixon. 5 Vols. (Vol. Il. 4th Imp., Vols. Il. and III. 3rd Imp.) PLINY: LETTERS. Melmoth’s Translation revised W. M. L. Hutchinson. 2 Vols. (Vol. I. 5th Imp., vol Il. 4th Imp.) PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY. H. Rackham and W.H.S. Jones. 10 Vols. Vols. I, I. and UL PROPERTIUS. H. E. Butler. (5th Imp.) QUINTILIAN. H.E. Butler. 4 Vols. (2nd Jmp.) 3 THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY REMAINS OF OLD LATIN. E. H. Warmington. 4 Vols. Vol. I. (Ennius and Caecilius). Vol. II. (Livius, Naevius, Pacuvius, Accius). Vol. III. (Lucilius, Laws of the XII Tables). Vol. IV. (Archaic Inscriptions). SALLUST. J.C. Rolfe. (2nd Imp. revised.) SCRIPTORES HISTORIAE AUGUSTAE. D. Magie. 3 Vols. (Vol. I. 2nd Imp. revised.) SENECA: APOCOLOCYNTOSIS. Cf. PETRONIUS SENECA: EPISTULAE MORALES. R. M. Gummere. 3 Vols. (Vol. I. 3rd Imp., Vols. II. and III. 2nd Imp, revised.) SENECA: MORAL ESSAYS. J. W. Basore. 3 Vols. (Vol. II. 2nd Imp. revised.) SENECA: TRAGEDIES. F.J. Miller. 2Vols. (Vol. I. 3rd Imp., Vol. II. 2nd Imp. revised.) SIDONIUS: POEMS AND LETTERS. W. B. Anderson, 2 Vols. Vol. I. SILIUS ITALICUS. J.D. Duff. 2 Vols. (Vol. II. 2nd Imp.) STATIUS. J.H. Mozley. 2 Vols. SUETONIUS. J.C. Rolfe. 2 Vols, (5th Imp. revised.) TACITUS: DIALOGUS. Sir Wm. Peterson ; and AGRI- COLA anny GERMANIA. Maurice Hutton. = Imp.) TACITUS: HISTORIES ann ANNALS. C. H. Moore and J. Jackson. 4 Vols. (Vols. I. and II. 2nd Imp.) TERENCE. John Sargeaunt. 2 Vols. (Vol. I. 6th Imp., Vol. Il. 5th Imp.) TERTULLIAN: APOLOGIA ann DE SPECTACULIS. T. R. Glover; MINUCIUS FELIX. G, H. Rendall. VALERIUS FLACCUS, J.H. Mozley. (2nd Imp. revised.) VARRO: DE LINGUA LATINA. R.G. Kent. 2 Vols. VELLEIUS PATERCULUS ann RES GESTAE DIVI AUGUSTI. F. W. Shipley. VIRGIL. H. R. Fairclough. 2 Vols. (Vol. I. 15th Imp., Vol. Il. 12th Imp. revised.) VITRUVIUS: DE ARCHITECTURA. F. Granger. 2 Vols. eee 0 tii THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY GREEK AUTHORS ACHILLES TATIUS. S. Gaselee. AENEAS TACTICUS, ASCLEPIODOTUS ann ONA- SANDER. The Illinois Greek Club. AESCHINES. C. D. Adams. AESCHYLUS. H. Weir Smyth. 2 Vols. (Vol. I. 4¢h Imp., Vol. II. 3rd Jmp.) APOLLODORUS. Sir James G. Frazer. 2 Vols. (Vol. [. APOLLONIUS RHODIUS. R.C. Seaton. (4th Imp. THE APOSTOLIC FATHERS. Kirsopp Lake.- 2 (Vol. I. 5th Jmp., Vol. Il. 4th Imp.) APPIAN’S ROMAN HISTORY. Horace White. 4 Vols. ol. I. iy , Vols. II., III. and IV. 2nd Imp.) TUS. 4 Of CALLIMACHUS. — 3 Vo ARISTOPHANES. Benjamin Bickley Rogers. (Vols. 1. and II. “4th Imp., Vol. Il. rd Imp.) Verse trans. ARISTOTLE: ART OF RHETORIC. J. H. Freese. (2nd Im: A : ATHENIAN CONSTITUTION, EUDE- SASS ETHICS, VIRTUES anv VICES. H. Rackham. (2 ) ARISTOTLE: GENERATION OF ANIMALS. A. L. P. pe aber METAPHYSICS. H. Tredennick. 2 Vols. akisre VE: MINOR WORKS. W. S. Hett. On Cotourns, On Tuiycs Hearp, Puxysiocnomics, On Ox Manrvettous Turses Hearp, Mecuanicat Prostems, On Inprvistste Loxes, Srruations anp Names or Wixps, On Metissus, XENopHANES, AND GorcIAs. ARISTOTLE: NICOMACHEAN ETHICS. H. Rack- ham. (3rd Imp. revised.) ARISTOTLE: OBCONOMICA anp MAGNA MORALIA. G.C. Armstrong. (With Metaphysics, Vol.II.) (2nd Jmp.) ARISTOTLE: ON THE HEAVENS. W. K. C. Guthrie. ARISTOTLE: ON THE SOUL, PARVA NATURALIA, ON BREATH. W.S. Hett. (2nd Imp. revised.) ARISTOTLE: ORGANON. H. P. Cooke and H. Tre- dennick. 3 Vols. Vol. I. 6 THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY ARISTOTLE: PARTS OF ANIMALS. A. L. Peck; MOTION AND PROGRESSION OF ANIMALS. E.S Forster. ARISTOTLE: PHYSICS. Rev. P. Wicksteed and F. M. Cornford. 2 Vols. te II. 2nd Imp.) ARISTOTLE: POETICS anp LONGINUS. W. Hamil- ton Fyfe; DEMETRIUS ON STYLE. W. Rhys Roberts. (4¢h Imp. revised.) ARISTOTLE: POLITICS. H. Rackham. ARISTOTLE: PROBLEMS. W.S. Hett. 2 Vols. ARISTOTLE: RHETORICA AD ALEXANDRUM. H. Rackham. (With Problems, Vol. IT.) ARRIAN: HISTORY OF ALEXANDER anv INDICA, Rev. E. Iliffe Robson. 2 Vols. ATHENAEUS: DEIPNOSOPHISTAE. C. B. Guliok. 7 Vols. (Vol. V. 2nd Imp.) ST. BASIL: LETTERS, R. J. Deferrari.. 4 Vols. CALLIMACHUS ayn LYCOPHRON. A. W. Mair; ARATUS. G. R. Mair. CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA. Rev. G. W. Butterworth. (2nd Imp.) COLLUTHUS. Cf. OPPIAN. @ DEMOSTHENES: DE CORONA anv DE FALSA LEGATIONE. C. A. Vince and J. H. Vince. (2nd Imp. revised.) DEMOSTHENES: MEIDIAS, ANDROTION, ARISTO- CRATES, TIMOCRATES, ARISTOGEITON. J. H. Vince. DEMOSTHENES: OLYNTHIACS, PHILIPPICS anp MINOR ORATIONS: I.-XVII. ann XX. J. H. Vince. DEMOSTHENES: PRIVATE ORATIONS. A. T. Mur- ray. 3 Vols. DIO CASSIUS: ROMAN HISTORY. Es. 9 Vols, (Vols. I. and II. 2nd Imp.) DIO CHRYSOSTOM. 5 Vols. Vols. I. and Il. J. W. Cohoon. Vol. III. J. W. Cohoon and H. Lamar Crosby. ant: SICULUS. C. H. Oldfather. 12 Vols Vols. I.-ITI. DIOGENES LAERTIUS. R. D. Hicks. 2 Vols. (Vol. I. 3rd Imp., Vol. Il. 2nd Imp.) DIONYSIUS OF HALICARNASSUS: ROMAN ANTI- QUITIES. Spelman’s translation revised by E. Cary. 7 Vols. Vols, I.-IV. 6 a gidee —— ~s THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY EPICTETUS. W. A. Oldfather. 2 Vols. EURIPIDES. A. S. Way. 4 Vols. (Vols. I. and II. 6th ee Vol. III. 4th Imp., Vol. IV. 5th Imp.) Verse EUSEBIUS: ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. Kirsopp Lake and J. E. L. Oulton. 2 Vols. (Vol. Il. 3rd /mp.) eer me THE NATURAL FACULTIES. A. J. THE ip GREEK EK ANTHOLOGY. W. R. Paton. 5 Vols. . (Vol. I. 4th Imp., Vol. Il.-3rd Imp., Vols. III. and IV. 2nd Imp.) THE GREEK BUCOLIC POETS (THEOCRITUS, ‘etl MOSCHUS). J. M. Edmonds. (6th Imp. revised.) GREEK ELEGY AND IAMBUS wrira tar ANACRE- ONTEA. J. M. Edmonds. 2 Vols. -(Vol. I. 2nd Imp.) GREEK MATHEMATICAL WORKS.» Ivor Thomas. 2 Vols. HERODES. sae ee CHARACTERS. HERODOTUS. Godley. 4 Vols. (Vols, I.-III. 8rd Imp., Vol. Vv For Imp.) HESIOD axpy THE HOMERIC HYMNS. UH. G. Evelyn White. (6th Imp. revised and enlarged.) HIPPOCRATES axyp tHe FRAGMENTS OF HERA- CLEITUS. W.H.S.Jonesand E. T. Withington. 4 Vols. (Vols. I., Il. and IV. 2nd Imp.) HOMER: ILIAD. A.T. Murray. 2 Vols. (Vol. I. 5th Imp., Vol. II. 4th Imp.) HOMER: ODYSSEY. A. T. Murray. 2 Vols. (Vol. I. 5th Imp., Vol. U1. 6th Imp.) ISAEUS. E.S. Forster. (2nd Imp.) ISOCRATES. George Norlin and La Rue Van Hook. $3 Vols. Vols. I. and II. ST. JOHN DAMASCENE: BARLAAM AND IOA- SAPH. Rev. G. R. Woodward and Harold Mattingly. (2nd Imp. revised.) JOSEPHUS. H. St. J. Thackeray and Ralph Marcus. 9 Vols. Vols. I.-VII. (Vol. V. 2nd Imp.) JULIAN. Wiimer Cave Wright. 3 Vols. (Vols. L. and IL. 2nd Imp.) LONGUS: DAPHNIS anny CHLOE. Thornley’s Trans- lation revised by J. M. Edmonds; anp PARTHENIUS. S. Gaselee. (3rd Imp.) ~ 7 THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY LUCIAN. A. M. og pe 8 Vols. Vols. I.-V. (Vols. I. and II. 3rd Im LLG LYCOPHRON. af CALLIMACHUS. LYRA GRAECA. J. M. Edmonds. 3 Vols. (Vol. I. 3rd Imp., Vol. Il. 2nd Ed. revised and enlarged, Vol. LIL. 2nd Imp. revised.) ; LYSIAS. W.R.M. Lamb. (2nd Imp.) MANETHO. W. G. Waddell. PTOLEMY: TETRA- BIBLOS._ F. E. Robbins. MARCUS AURELIUS. C.R. Haines. (8rd Imp. revised.) MENANDER. F.G. Allinson. (2nd Imp. revised.) MINOR ATTIC ORATORS. 2 Vols. Vol. I. ANTI- PHON, ANDOCIDES. K. J. Maidment. NONNOS: DIONYSIACA. W. H. D. Rouse. 3 Vols. (Vol. III. 2nd Imp.) pa va COLLUTHUS, TRYPHIODORUS. A. W air. PAPYRI. NON-LITERARY SELECTIONS. A. S. Hunt and C. C. Edgar. 2 Vols. LITERARY SELEC- TIONS. Vol. I. (Poetry). D. L. Page. (2nd Imp.) PARTHENIUS. Cf. DAPHNIS awn CHLOE, PAUSANIAS: DESCRIPTION OF GREECE. W.H.S. Jones. 5 Vols. and Companion Vol. arranged by R. E. Wycherley. (Vols. I. and III. 2nd Imp.) PHILO. 11 Vols. Vols. L.-V. F. H. Colson and Rev. G. H. Whitaker; Vols. VI.-IX. F. H. Colson. (Vol. IV. 2nd Imp. revised.) PHILOSTRATUS: THE LIFE OF APOLLONIUS OF TYANA. F.C. Conybeare. 2 Vols. (Vol. I. 3rd Imp., Vol. II. 2nd Imp.) PHILOSTRATUS: IMAGINES; CALLISTRATUS: DESCRIPTIONS. A. Fairbanks. PHILOSTRATUS ann EUNAPIUS: LIVES OF THE SOPHISTS. Wilmer Cave Wright. PINDAR. Sir J. E. Sandys. (6th Imp. revised.) PLATO: CHARMIDES, ALCIBIADES, HIPPARCHUS, THE LOVERS, THEAGES, MINOS anv EPINOMIS. W. R. M. Lamb. PLATO: CRATYLUS, PARMENIDES, GREATER HIPPIAS, LESSER HIPPIAS. H. N. Fowler. (3rd Imp.) PLATO: EUTHYPHRO, APOLOGY, CRITO, PHAE- DO,PHAEDRUS. H. N. Fowler. (9th Imp.) 8 THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY PLATO: LACHES, PROTAGORAS, MENO, EUTHY- DEMUS. W.R. M. Lamb. (2nd Imp. revised.) PLATO: LAWS. Rev. R.G. Bury. 2 Vols. (2nd Imp.} age ina aa GORGIAS. W. R. M. PLATO: GeeUBLIC Pe Paul Shorey. 2 Vols. (2nd Imp.) PLATO:. STATESMAN, PHILEBUS. H. N. Fowler; ION. W.R. M. Lamb. (3rd Imp.) i eyes iain eet anv SOPHIST. H. N. Fowler. 3rd Imp. PLATO: TIMAEUS, CRITIAS, CLITOPHO,MENEXE- NUS, EPIST ULAE. Rev. RB. G. Bury. (2nd Imp.) PLUTARCH: MORALIA. 14 Vols. Vols. [.-V. F. C. ath Vol. VI. W. C. Helmbold ; Vol. X. H. N. owler. PLUTARCH: THE PARALLEL LIVES. B. Perrin. 11 Vols. (Vols. I., I1., III., VI., VII. and XI. 2nd Imp.) POLYBIUS. W.R. Paton. 6 Vols. PROCOPIUS: HISTORY OF THE WARS. H. B. . 7 Vols. (Vol. I. 2nd Imp.) PTOLEMY: TETRABIBLOS. Cf..MANETHO. QUINTUS SMYRNAEUS. A. S. Way. Verse trans. (2nd Imp.) SEXTUS EMPIRICUS. Rey. R. G. Bury. 3 Vols. (Vol. I. 2nd Imp.) SOPHOCLES. FF. Storr. 2 Vols. (Vol. I. 7th Imp., Vol Il. 5th Imp.) Verse trans. STRABO: GEOGRAPHY. Horace L. Jones. 8 Vols. (Vols. I., V. and VIII. 2nd Imp.) THEOPHRASTUS: CHARACTERS. J. M. Edmonds: HERODES, etc. A. D. Knox. THEOPHRASTUS: ENQUIRY INTO PLANTS. Sir Arthur Hort. 2 Vols. THUCYDIDES. C.F. Smith. 4Vols. (Vol. I. 3rd Imp., Vols. IL., III. and IV. 2nd Imp. revised.) TRYPHIODORUS. Cf. OPPIAN. XENOPHON : CYROPAEDIA. Walter Miller. 2 Vols. ' (Vol. I. 2nd Imp., Vol. Il. 3rd Imp.) XENOPHON: HELLENICA, ANABASIS, APOLOGY. anpj SYMPOSIUM. C. L. Brownson and O. J. Todd 3 Vols. (2nd Imp.) 9 211052 THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY XENOPHON: MEMORABILIA ann OECONOMICUS. E. C. Marchant. (2nd Imp.) XENOPHON: SCRIPTA MINORA. E. C. Marchant. — VOLUMES IN PREPARATION GREEK AUTHORS ALCIPHRON. A. R. Benner and F. H. Fobes. ARISTOTLE: DE MUNDO, ete. W. K. C. Guthrie. ARISTOTLE: HISTORY OF ANIMALS. A. L. Peck. ARISTOTLE: METEOROLOGICA. H. D. P. Lee. at ae al EPISTLES, etc. N. W. and N. J. itt. LATIN AUTHORS S. AUGUSTINE: CITY OF GOD. J. H. Baxter, CICERO :] AD HERENNIUM. _H. Caplan. ICERO: PRO SESTIO, IN VATINIUM, PRO CAELIO, DE PROVINCIS CONSULARIBUS, PRO BALBO. J. H. Freese and R. Gardner. CURTIUS, Q.: HISTORY OF ALEXANDER. J. C. Rolfe. PRUDENTIUS. . H. J. Thomson. DESCRIPTIVE PROSPECTUS ON APPLICATION LONDON CAMBRIDGE, MASS. WILLIAM HEINEMANN LTD HARVARD UNIV. PRESS Cloth 10s. Cloth $2.50 FA 2OIZ7 AP ori ARISTOTLE. GENERATION OF ANIMALS, WITH AN ENGLISH AKK-9441 (AB) iy Fazer, sod Ngrayiee relents . Setyven te ? aah it merit mp a Ns Bact ey tht ue tis 3 ptmiecepar teed ESOL OAEM SS ae wai | Gee ne reek ub reeaea uty “ eee aH “iy ve be er ats ts 294 i hennee Ghat eG tee iene 4 Bin Bs a . cue igi alate Bn uy etn + Pea ad ete tear, tay Peasttelr : aay ' saat friday 4 Piatiae fe ares cay diie i) ath vw ue sheath ye Ea he nde Shs Ghani yayte aslghersSe 1G Brig erty tcismabhe Ve nmE HLY pa Hoy ‘ HS ae rs ty _ a $ t ae suki ol 1setys? fant tapiveit i i as ts ue uate eH ot ifs ra pute nt ean et ae a ey vee HES ‘ at si Hess 5 ett pone urs. : aly rie sc ee aa at ies nih fie ees ene Sh a i oe a “f vg! a . ete ot nud Ren ‘ tet hat ny iets at hs ie Teeny sas 4 git ate th nota shyt a a aH » sort fA aes eas we et aie Wis va ae ius sine ¥ tae pata ih ' sialyl rie BP gy oe GALLEN AE goby any wel Ae ae ete ’ aR ste siveareet we rae oer band Shee uy Wd rte fie a brqae re TAMU atria Are us keno tas punt gt ca oae h ieee thai 5 Son iu , syed es fe vet r tenn is gated s 1 tH, oe Se aie rr BOeee a pe ee ster rerney Ma rae als ete ite raat apek et she wh eyed Pereira tise a Ayeig io arts a > te WER Tene SANS saute fie ve “a etal! Waist SS Santis as 4 4s hs Syrah, nah Brttt ty wtp Van ieveey a t ton Raiigett Fastiy aun eee 43h raya ae } stat Pre ae ne Otani A se pirerot cone Terves 3 ar RSL Neal carey ‘i Di traeiistacatas 4 ay oe Tey hes: otis a tet tee ro i pit 4 tad) tI ies et: Pies unemattieeed ei ne Vie } have ae grits wes. haere! nine ay a AL ARIEE Aah on Saal “ . © A " ol ad wee iets y ot