Wea ner Flor beaies lefere to have al hese heais fon Girenty bokis -elad in blak ar rev Of Aristotle & his philosa- Chan robis ruche or fedele or gav sautric ivy SN at a ue, iy | | I; es BLN Vatic ional Atasenm| | ne ry NU yy Day & (Limited) Lith LA Antechinus minutissimus. B. PLACENTAL. Mus delicatulus ay THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION MAMMALS. BY ANDREW MURRAY. LONDON. DAY AND SON, LIMITED, LITHOGRAPHERS AND PUBLISHERS, GATE STREET, LINCOLN’S INN FIELDS. 1866. » rr LONDON SPRANGEWAYS anv WatvEN, 28 Castle Surect, Leicester Square. RR I AAO f ca fi eau Uiny ra = MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. TO FACE PAGE Frontispiece —Figures of Antechinus minutissimus and Mus delicatulus. r Diagram of Geological Formations Showing approximately the 100-Fathom line of Soundings Showing the approximate effect of a Depression of the Land, 600 feet Showing approximately what is known of the Tertiary and Quaternary formations, and generally the Land, including Mountain-ranges, which was probably under Water during the Tertiary, or not long before the Glacial Epoch . Showing the portions of the Earth where marks of Glacial action have been observed or are on strong grounds, believed to occur Showing approximately the rising and falling Land at the present day . Sargassum Seas Distribution of Man . Monkeys Anthropoid Apes) Baboons se Prehensile-tailed Monkeys Lemuride and Gasetitis| Places where remains of Carnivora have been observed in formations prior to Glacial Epoch Lion ! Tiger ) Leopards and Jaguars | Puma F : Fossil Hyzenas Existing Hyznas | 80 86 92 98 102 viil Map MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. Viverridsee—Civet Cats, Ichneumons, Paradoxuri | Wolves . ; : : : : : \ Canidze : : Canis fulvus. Red Fox | Otters . : a. 0] Mustelida—W easels, &e. ; : Skunks—Mephitis—Mydaus and eal Bears 5 i : , : : 5 : Racoons—Coati-Mundis—Kinkajou and Soma Seals : Walrus and Rhytina Hippopotamus—Fossil and Living Swine Tragulidee and Moschidee ) Deer—Reindeer ) Antelopes Goats Sheep. - F ; Musk Ox—Living and F a Boyidee | Buffaloes { Camelopards Camels \ Horses and Asses Do. Living and Extinct Anoplotherium | Tapir and Paleotherium ( Hyrax . : : : 64) Rhinoceros—Living and Extinct ( Mastodons and Elephants in Lower Miocene Epoch Do. Upper Miocene Epoch | Do. Pliocene Epoch | Elephants—Existing : : : \ Sirenia Right and Sperm Whales To FACE PAGE 104 106 108 114 118 122 128 164 150 146 142 140 136 134 168 172 178 182 198 206 CHAPTER I, Il. Ill. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. CONTENTS. Classification adopted in this volume, and Dates of Appearance of Families of Mammals in Geological Time Introduction Preliminary Inquiries—Origin of Syed ahdeite € Centres Preliminary Inquiries continued— Modes of Dispersal of Species Geography of the Globe since the Secondary Epoch—Subsidence in Southern and Elevation in Northern Hemispheres— Coral Reefs—Bands of Elevation and Depression . Past Geography of the Globe continwed— Miocene Atlantis— Glacial Epoch Glacial Epoch continued Mammars—Classification and Mutual Affinities Distribution of Man— Black and White Races Distribution of Man continwed—Hill Tribes of India—Rank and Priority of Black and White Races Monkeys— Extinct and Living Lemuridee— Fauna of Madagascar Carnivora—Affinities—Extinct Feline Species—Origin and Distribution— Bone-caves in Brazil—Mauvaises Terres Carnivora continued— Existing Feline Species—Their Distribution in Borneo Carnivora continued— Dogs and Foxes Carnivora continued— W easels — Polecats— Otters— Badgers Carnivora continued—Arctocyonidee Carnivora continued— Bears Carnivora continued —Seals— Extinct Species — Existing Species—Seals in Caspian Sea and Lake Baikal— Walrus PAGE iv CHAPTER XVI. XIX. XX. XxXI. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. XXV. XXVI. XXVII. XXVIII. XXIX. XXX. XXXII. XXXIT, XXXII. XXXIV. XXXV. XXXVI. XXXVITI. XXXVITI. XXXIX. XL. XLII. XLII. XLII. APPENDIX. iis Il. ul. CONTENTS. Hoofed-mammals (Ungulata) —Classification Hoofed-mammals continued — Horses Hoofed-mammals continued —Ruminants— Camels —Oxen . Ruminants continued-—Sheep and Goats — Antelopes—Camelopards Ruminants continued — Deer — Reindeer — Inquiry into their Origin in North America, Greenland, Spitzbergen Ruminants continued —Musk-deer—Chevrotains— Anoplotheride Artiodactylian Non-Ruminants—Swine— Peccary — Hippopotamus Multungula Multungula continwed— Rhinoceros Paleeotheridee Nesodontidee — Macrauchenia— Tapirs Multungula continwed— Extinct Elephants —Mastodon— Mammoth zt Multungula continued—Existing Elephants—Question as to Distinetness of Su- matran Species— Elephants in Borneo Multungula continued —Sirenia—Dinotherium— Manatee— Dugong—Rhytina Cetacea— Classification—W hales and Dolphins—Zeuglodon —Platanista Kdentata—Classification— Extinct Species—Date and Range of Megatheroid Species in North America— Existing Species Tnsectivora— Classification —Moles—Shrews —Tupaias—Hedgehogs . Insectivora continued—Bats— Frugivorous Bats—Insectivorous Bats (Leaf-bear- ing and not Leaf-bearing) Rodents— Classification —Toxodon Rodents continued — Hystricidee — Capybara — Cavies — Chinchillas— Octodons — Echimyina— A goutis — Porcupine 5 Rodents continued —Hyrax Rodents continwed—Pikas— Hares Rodents continued —Dormice — Squirrels—Marmots Rodents continued— Beavers— Voles—Rats— Mice Marsupials — Classification — Entomophaya — Sarcophaga —Volitantia —Rhizo- phaga— Poephaga—Linguales . Monotremes—Ornithorhynchus— Echidna Regional Distribution of Mammals Great and Minor Mammalian Regions Systems of Classification of Mammals proposed by different Authors of eminence Different Classifications of the Insectivora Synonymic List of Species of Mammals and their Localities LN VI. CONTENTS. Mammals of Special Districts Table of Geographical Distribution of the Lagothricinz Families or Characteristic Forms of Living Non-Marine Mammals peculiar to ba Special Districts, viz :— . Families or Characteristic Forms present both in Africa south of the Sahara, and the Indian region, and found nowhere else . : : Families or Characteristic Forms present in Africa south of the Sahar a, fa not in the Indian region ; and in the Indian region and not in the African Families or Characteristic Forms present in Europe or Asia north of the Himma- layahs, and found neither in Africa south of the Sahara, nor. in the Indian region . Families or Characteristic Forms found in uepe and not in Asia; or vice versa : : ; : ; , : Families or Characteristic Forms found in the Nor fee half of North America and the Europeo-Asiatic region, and nowhere else : ‘ Families or Characteristic Forms peculiar to the New World, and found in both South and North America 5 ; ? é . Families or Characteristic New World Forms found in South eee a, el not in North America; and in North America and not in South vu. Letter from Mr. Palgrave as to the relations of Arabia (received too late to be INDEX embodied in the work) 409 409 MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 1X Map To FACE PaGE 53. Whale-bone Whales ; : : F : : 3 : 3 j P = Pays! 54. Finner—Meegaptera longimana gap g | 210 5d. Fossil Cetacea, including Zeuglodon ) 56. Grampus, Porpoise, &c. (Phocwena)) 57. Delphinide—Dolphins . . J a 58. Edentata—Fossil 59. Do. Existing ae 60. Anteaters—Orycteropus—Manis—Armadillos \ oe Clamsloths ee a eee ee 62. Insectivora | . . . 3ag 63. Moles 3 pre 64. Shrews 65. Macroscelides and Tupaias ae 66. Hedgehogs—European 7. | . 54 67. Pteropi—Frugivorous Bats 68. Istiophora—Leaf-nosed Bats . . | Ser 69. Bats—Vespertilios . , ; 70. Lagomys a : Ae 0: eae eee, ee Se i 72. Hystricidee | aye 73. Cavies \ 74. Chinchillas | 75. Echimyina | i 76. Poreupines | oie i ah : : : : : : , : : : : : : 78. Pouched Rats . : : : ‘ , : ; ; 9 79. Rats and Mice—Exclusive of semi-domesticated Species 80. Jumping Mice—Meriones and Hapalotis | 979 81. Gophers . ; ; f : : J ; ; ‘ , ; , 82. Jerboas, &e. | 989 83. Spalacini } j ; ; , , , , er heal Sw ay 5 MEO ee Be wee 85. Lemmings \ 86. Musk Rat | ; ; F . a 264: 87. Dormice MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. Spermophilus—Ground Squirrel : : F Spermophilus Parryi and Spermophilus Eversmanni Marmot ; Tamias—Striped Squirrel } Xerus—Bristly Squirrel | Squirrel . . «3 Flying Squirrels and Petaurus . Marsupials Opossums and Kangaroos Marsupial Carnivora Myrmecobius and Tarsipes—Ornithorhynchus and Echidna Vermilingual Species Great Mammalian Regions Minor Subdivisions of Great Mammalian Regions To FACE PAGE 260 258 254 256 286 288 292 304 308 fees lil, PERIOD Fauatia, DRIFT OR BOULDER CLAY" = PLEISTOCENE FORMATIONS — = =PUOCENE ~FORMATIONS ~ ENUMERATION & SECTION OF GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS. = 4 > ss - _ ‘ ia Ld , 5 : , ts \ TGA, OPS — = 7. Wwe i mae Gr il % iz 0 pe SovTx ATLANTIC White race . BSE Black rece | | | ae MAP VI SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF DISTRIBUTION OF MAN. 57 Taking the East of Bhering’s Straits, and passing southwards into America, we see the Esqui- maux imperceptibly changed into the North American Indians. The Chinooks, and other northern tribes nearest the Esquimaux, cannot be distinguished from them; and the tribes next to them on the south again pass insensibly into the red-skinned tribes of middle North America. These pass into the digger tribes of California, which have in their turn many of the characteristics of the tribes of Central and South America, and all attempts to elevate the tribes of South American Indians into separate races, have long since been abandoned. In short, it is now universally acknowledged, that the whole of both North and South America, from the Arctic Sea to Tierra del Fuego, has been peopled by one race. The physical characters, the traditions, the linguistic affinities of the different tribes, white, red, yellow, copper, and brown skins, all bear one stamp. We are compelled, therefore, to receive them as one, and that one identical with the inhabitants of the Arctic regions. Returning to Bhering’s Straits again, and turning westward, we find the Esquimaux amal- gamated with the Samoiédes and Tunguseans of North-Eastern Asia, who in their turn pass into the Mongolians on the south; and so strong is the affinity of the Esquimaux with these tribes, that not long since, apropos to two North American Esquimaux who visited the United States, and were the subject of examination and ethnological speculation, Dr. Pickering, whom no one will accuse of an undue tendency to diminish the number of races, stated that there could not be a doubt that they were Mongolian.* If the American Indian is an Esquimaux, and the Esquimaux is a Mongolian, the Mongol must be an American Indian too. Additional confirmation of this view is furnished by the Mongol features cropping up in other unexpected places in America; for example, in Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego.t But to proceed further. Tartars into more than a tribe of the Mongolians ? Does any one propose to erect the No :—and it is only when, in passing westward, we reach the Caucasus, that ethnologists have seen evidences of a distinet—the European—race. And what are these?—not linguistic peculiarities, for the Sanscrit is the root of all the languages of Europe and Northern Asia; as little physical structure, for the beautiful Georgian, whose almond-shaped and somewhat oblique eye proclaims descent from the Mongols, can scarcely be separated from the Circassian of the neighbouring mountains. The Laps and Fins are Esquimaux according to some, Mongols according to others; they are both, and Caucasians into the bargain. The Tartarian extraction of the Russian peasant is scarcely disputed, “ Gratte: le Russe,” Napoleon, “ et vous en trouveres le Tartar !” neither is there any room to raise up a wall of division between the Russian and the Pole, or the Russian and Slavonian. said In fact, there is no point at which a line can be drawn, separating the Englishman from the Tartar, as types of great races. Not as tribes, families, or sections; there is no difficulty in distinguishing these, any more than there is in distinguishing between the Scotsman and the Englishman—the Gael and the Lowlander— * “Dr. Pickering referred to two Esquimaux now on exhibition in this city. From their low stature, florid complexion, broad, flat countenance, with the profile very slightly projecting, one would be disposed to reject the idea of affinity with the general aboriginal population of this continent. But the sea-going tribes of north-west America, of which he had seen the Chinooks, are inter- mediate in aspect, having very generally a lighter com- plexion and less prominence of profile than the interior or hunting tribes, In addition to his published opinion, that, with one minor exception, America was originayll peopled from the north-west by the sea-going tribes following the coast, personal inspection now satisfied him that the Es- quimaux are Mongolians, and that there is no distinct physical race of man in the Arctic regions.” ings of the Boston Society of Natural Sistory, vol. ix. p. 182. (April, 1863.) + See the portraits of a Patagonian in “ Wilkes’ Voyage,” and of “ Jemmy Button,” (especially that in sailor’s dress), in Fitzroy’s “ Voyage of the Beagle.” —Procee d- 58 MAMMALS. the Irishman and the Kentish yeoman. All are tribes which have acquired, from force of cha- racter, locality, physical conditions of life, or other circumstances, features or dispositions, to a certain extent, distinctive; but as great original races, they cannot be distinguished one from the other. Next to the Mongol tribes, we have the Chinese and Japanese, which have no claims to more than tribal distinction ; distinct races they are not. Of the Hindoos, Major-General Briggs truly says :—‘ The Hinds are universally acknowledged to be of that branch of the human family denominated by Blumenbach Caucasian, and they believe they invaded India from the north-west.” * Neither are the Affehans and Persians any thing more than tribes, and as little are the Greeks, Turks, Egyptians, and Arabs of the shores of the Mediterranean. The Malays, or brown tribes of the Indian Archipelago, are farther separated than any of the rest from the other inhabitants of the continents of Asia and Europe ; and if any third race, besides the whites and the blacks, is to be admitted, it should be the Malays. Still, there are points of affinity between them and the Chinese and other Mongolian tribes which prevent their being so received. There is as much difference between the South American Indian of the Amazons, and many of the tribes of North American Indians, as there is between the Malay and the Chinese; and if we retain the two former as one, in defiance of their physical dissimilarity, on what parity of reasoning can we separate the two latter? I regard the Malays as merely one of the many offshoots or tributaries of the great white race. Now there is one thing to be observed regarding all the lands and people over which we have cast our eyes, viz. that they are conterminous and continuous; and not only so now, but if we “suppose the northern hemisphere to be sunk one hundred fathoms (as shown in Map 2), even then there is easy communication between all the unsunk portions of this great extent of land. The Straits of Bhering are sufficiently near to furnish such a people as the Esquimaux with an easy” means of transit from one continent to the other at any time; and there is no other physical barrier of any kind to interrupt the progress of man from Cape Horn to Singapore. No doubt Ceylon is separated from India ; and Sumatra, Java, and Borneo, all of which are inhabited by the Malay stock, are separated from Siam and China by straits and seas; but these are narrow, and would form no obstacle to the passage of a moderately maritime people, and in addition, a rise of the land to the extent of 100 fathoms would unite the whole of these islands with the continent (see Map 1). As already said, however, in the East, after we reach the south-eastern extremity of Borneo, the shallow seas give place to an unfathomable ocean, out of which spring lands, which, although comparatively near in point of distance, and without geological distinction, bear a different fauna, a different flora, and a different race of men. These two regions are separated from each other by the Straits of Macassar and the Straits of Lombock; Borneo, Java, Sumatra, and the Malayan Archipelago, lying on the one hand; Celebes, Gilolo, New Guinea, and Australia, on the other. It seems a reasonable inference from these facts, that Borneo, Java, and Sumatra, have been connected at some former period with each other and the mainland, while Celebes, New Guinea, and the neighbouring islands, have never been connected with them, or at least have been separated from them for a long period. The former countries, says Mr. Wallace in a recent paper on the subject, “are, in fact, still connected, and that so completely, that an * Briaas on the Aboriginal Tribes of India, in “ Reports of British Assoc.” 1850, p. 160. DISTRIBUTION OF MAN. 59 elevation of only 300 feet would nearly double the extent of tropical Asia. Over the whole of the Java Sea, the Straits of Malacca, the Gulf of Siam, and the southern part of the China sea, ships can anchor in less than fifty fathoms. A vast submarine plain unites together the apparently disjointed parts of the Indian zoological region, and abruptly terminates exactly at its limits in an unfathomable ocean. The deep sea of the Moluccas comes up to the very coasts of Northern Borneo, to the Strait of Lombock in the south, and to near the middle of the Strait of Macassar.* May we not, therefore, from these facts very fairly conclude that, according to the system of alternate bands of elevation and depression, which seems very generally to prevail, the last great rising movement of the voleanic range of Java and Sumatra was accompanied by the depression that now separates them from Borneo, and from the Continent ?” + The fauna and flora of the Malayan islands, too, is closely allied to the fauna of the neigh- bouring continent. Southern Asia. which are found on these islands, are also to be met with on the continent. The elephant, rhinoceros, and tapir, found in Sumatra, are also found in Every family, most of the genera and many of the species of birds and insects, On the other hand, the species found in New Guinea, Celebes, and the islands to the east and south, are of a totally different type, in many respects distinct and peculiar to themselves, but in others showing Australian affinities. Reasoning from these facts, geologists have conceived that while Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and the Philippine Islands, are parts of Asia separated from it at no distant period, Celebes, Timor, the Moluccas, New Guinea, and Australia, are remnants of a vast submerged continent, traces of the existence of which appear in the coral islands of the Pacific Ocean, and in the affinities * It is perhaps right to say that it is not to be considered as absolutely settled, that the Straits of Mac- ussar are of great depth all through. The western or Malayan side is shallow all along the coast of Borneo. The soundings which have been taken show great depth on the east, both to the north and south, but in the centre an equal depth is not so well ascertained. In the largest and most detailed map of soundings which has been published, viz. that by Jacob Swartz, the soundings taken at the middle of the straits gradually increase on the western side from fourteen to thirty-five fathoms, and a few scattered soundings in mid-channel are noted where the depth varies from twenty to forty fathoms: these are continued until within about ten miles of the coast of Celebes, when no more are recorded. One is apt to suppose on seeing this, that a bank of from twenty to forty fathoms in depth extends across the middle part of the straits; but in the first place the want of soundings for ten miles across on the side where we know the water to be deepest, and where a little to the north and south no soundings are to be had with a hundred-fathom line, prevent us assuming this ; and in the next place, on personal inquiry at Mr. Wal- lace, he assures me of his firm conviction that there is deep water there as well as on each side of it, and informs me that the scattered soundings to waich I have referred are not to be taken as indicating the general depth around the spot marked, but merely the depth at the particu- lar spot, usually a reef or a sand-bank, where they occur He had met with residents who remembered the taking of these soundings, and they informed him that the way in which the officer who was charged with the duty pro- ceeded was this: he allowed his vessel to drift about during the night with a light anchor attached to a forty- fathom cable hanging overboard, and when this caught upon a bank or reef, then soundings were taken and registered, but his forty-fathom anchor might have been swinging about all around, without touching the ground. With this information to guide us in estimating the value of the soundings in Jacob Swartz’s map, it is clear that they are worth nothing for our purpose, unless where numerous and close together. I therefore have adopted Mr. Wallace’s view, and assumed that the water on the eastern side of the Straits of Macassar is throughout of very great depth. + See paper by Mr. Watnacr in Linn. Soe. Proc., Feb. 1860. See also a communication by Mr. Waxtace in the Ibis for October 1859. On this last point I am not pre- pared at once to go unreservedly along with Mr. Wallace. It may be that the surrounding depression was due to a more extensive general previous sinking, and that the area in question has been again raised by the volcanic action referred to by Mr. Wallace, stretching through or run- ning across the general depression. The theory of alter- nate bands of elevation and depression may be pushed too far. 60 MAMMALS. which can be traced between some of the plants and animals inhabiting widely separated por- tions of the supposed continent. On this subject Professor Owen says, “Certain it was that geologists had conceived that the islands on the south of the present great Continent of Asia might be remnants of some antecedent very distinct group of land, and naturalists (and he would more especially mention Sir J. Emerson Tennent, who had paid so great attention to the fauna of Ceylon), had brought to their knowledge a host of facts confirmatory of the idea that Ceylon was not a dismemberment of India, but part of a distinct and antecedent continent. In confirmation of that idea, they had the result of the geological researches of Cautley, Falconer, and others in India, which seemed to show that the Himmalayahs had risen, lifting up the fossiliferous beds on their present slopes within comparatively recent geographical time, proving that India had been the site of one of the latest of these greatest systems of upheaving forces that resulted in the formation of new continents.” * We find, in the islands and coral islets surrounded by this unfathomable ocean, a race which will in no respect harmonise with, and by no ingenuity can be made to fit into, the brown tribes of the Malayan Peninsula and Islands, and still less the white races of Asia: this race is that known as the Papuans, or Negritos. It is a new and distinct race, the like of which we have not previously met with. We shall find its like, however, if we turn to Africa, to the south of that point where a barrier as effective as the deep sea of Celebes has interrupted the continuity of the land, viz. the Desert of Sahara. It does not much matter whether we look upon that barrier as consisting of the present arid desert or a broad sea occupying its place. Hither barrier would probably be sufficient to stop the extension of the northern race into Africa south of the desert. Be that as it may, certain it is that something has isolated South Africa from North Africa, for north of the desert we have one fauna and flora, and south of it another; and as to man, north of the Sahara we have the Arabs—undoubtedly a por- tion of the white northern race—while south of it we have a new race, the Negro, as distinet from them as at the other barrier the Papuans and surrounding nations are distinct from the Malays and Chinese. And strange, too, both of these new races lying on the south side of these respective barriers have much in common. Both are black, both have their hair frizzled or woolly, both have broad noses, thick and prominent lips, receding foreheads and chins, and what should be the white of the eye of a turbid yellow, or, as a recent writer phrases it when speaking of the aborigines of Fraser’s or Great Sandy Island, near Brisbane in Australia, ‘“‘ They appear to be very bilious, for what ought to be the white of the eye is a dirty yellow.”’+ Both have broad shoulders and deep chests, both are inferior in the make of their lower extremities, having long lanky legs, splay feet, and curved shins, and of both it may be said, “‘ From every pore of him a perfume falls.”” Two distinctions have been attempted to be drawn between them,—the one that the colour of the African is black over brown, while that of the Papuans is blue over black, or black with a bluish tinge, but this is now known to be a mistake. The blue black of the Papuans is due to some artificial application, “ pro- * Owen, in “ Proceedings of Geographical Society,” vol. that peninsula, than belonging to Sumatra or the Malayan vi. p. 44, 1862. As we goalong,I think we shall seereason Peninsula. to doubt the sufficiency of Sir J. Emerson Tennent’s + “Narrative of a Trip from Sydney to Peak Downs, arguments against the appurtenancy of Ceylon to India, Queensland, and back,” by E. S. H., London, 1864, p. 4. and rather to look upon it as a dismembered portion of DISTRIBUTION OF MAN. 61 bably the decoction of the bark of a tree, possibly the ‘rosamala’ of commerce.”’* The other that the hair of the African spreads over the whole surface of the head, while that of the Papuan grows in small tufts, each of which is separate from the rest. But there are African tribes, the Hot- tentots and Bushmen, for example, which have the hair growing in this same tufty fashion; and I see that M. Du Chaillu observed the same thing in the pigmy race, which he met with in his last expedition into the interior of West Africa—a race which may possibly be a tribe of the Bushman variety of the African race. Such distinctions, moreover, even although well founded, are only of minor significance, and point to a distinction of tribes, not of races. So far as physical character goes then, the Papuans and Africans are clearly allied. How far the languages are so is a point which is not yet settled, but in one respect they certainly have an affinity. Some of the African tribes make a peculiar clucking noise in their speech. This is a much more remarkable character than those who have not heard it have any idea of. I remember on one occasion dining in company with some missionaries destined for Caffirland, one of whom was a Caffir who had been brought to this country in early youth, and had been educated as a divinity student in order to go back as a missionary to his native land. He gave us examples of the Caffir language, talking in his native tongue, and the clucking was so like the drawing of corks and pouring liquid out of a bottle, that on one of the English missionaries who was to accompany him saying that he meant to take lessons from him in the language in his cabin on the way out, one of the guests cautioned him that the sound of so many corks being drawn would destroy their character for temperance with the rest of the passengers. But this clucking would appear to be a character of the language of some of the Oriental as well as the African black tribes. Mr. Earl, m speaking of the North Australians who have a certain affinity to the Papuans, says :—‘“In the Croker Island dialect a cluck occasionally occurs in the middle of a word, which is effected by striking the tongue against the roof of the mouth.” This illustra- tion shows that there ae grounds for looking for proof of relationship between the African and the Oriental negroes in their linguistic affinities as well as in their physical attributes. I do not in any way go along with the bold conjecture hazarded by Professor Agassiz that “the lan- guages of ‘different races of men were neither more different nor more similar than the sounds characteristic of animals of the same genus, and their analogy can no more be fully accounted for on any hypothesis of transmission or tradition than in the case of birds of the same genus uttering similar notes in Europe and in America.” + On the contrary, I think that the structure and roots of language preserve decided evidence of the intellect of man, and furnish valuable aid in tracing the affinities of nations. To meet the requirements of the hypothesis of a common origin for the languages of the African negro, Oriental negro, and Australian, it is only necessary that the radical structure of all the languages should be the same; the languages themselves may be widely different and wholly unintelligible to the different tribes. A few remote connexions with the main staple of the language are. probably all that could be expected, in countries so Jong and so widely separated ; but each country, according to the hypothesis, should have one type to itself, and each should, in * “Ethnographical Library,’ vol. i. “The Native + EArt, op. cit., p. 222. Races of the Indian Archipelago—Papuans,” by GEORGE t Aaassiz, in “Proceed. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci- Winpsor Earz. London, 1863. P. 47. ences,” vol. iii. p. 7. 1857. 62 ; MAMMALS. some way, however faint, be connected with the other. That each has a common type to itself, we know to be the case. The Australian languages are all referable to one type. So are the African (those north of the Sahara always excepted). Mr. Burton* says of one of the tribes on the Cameroon Mountains on the west coast of Africa:—‘‘ Their dialect is a branch of the great South African family whose type is the Kaffir tongue.’ And Dr. Kirk informs me that the same thing is the case with the languages of the Zambesians and those of the tribes stretching across Africa. The Papuan language in like manner has many dialects. The inquiry leaves an alternative problem for the philologist to solve, viz., either to point out the presence of some common elements of structure showing connexion between the languages of all three countries,—Africa, Papua, and Australia, or else to show some discrepancy wholly inconsistent with it. They have this basis to start from—that the foundation and structure of these languages is different from that of the tribes north of the barriers aboye mentioned. Let us now see what peoples and countries may be referred to this black stock. Taking Africa by itself, it is scarcely necessary to go into any argument to prove that all the tribes on that continent south of the Saharan barrier belong to the same race. That may be safely assumed as proved. Nearest to Africa, and, only separated from it by a comparatively shallow connecting sub- merged neck of land, lies Madagascar. The present state of its population requires to be sub- jected to qualification before it can be admitted as relevant to this inquiry—a considerable portion of it bearing strong evidence of colonization by the Malays. This is of comparatively recent date, probably within, or not much beyond our own historic times, and of course cannot be taken into account in speculating on the aboriginal population of the island. The result of this immigration is not only a certain amount of Malay element among a portion of the Malagese, but the oe- currence in their language of a considerable body of Malayan and Javanese words. That such a colonization should have taken place is the more remarkable when we look at the great dis- tance (3000 miles) from Madagascar to Java and the Malay peninsula. Ethnologists have attempted to account for these peculiarities by supposing that a fleet of Malay pirates had been tempest- driven on the coast of Madagascar, and, unable to find their way back, had at first been able to protect and establish themselves, and afterwards becoming absorbed in the general population by intermarriage, had, besides communicating a portion of their blood, imparted some of their knowledge, cultiyation, and language. Mr. Crawford, speaking on this subject,t says: ‘‘ The peopie of Madagascar (that is, the aboriginal people) are not Malays, nor do they bear any resem- blance to them. They are, in fact, negroes; but negroes of a particular description. They are negroes in the same sense that Portuguese, and Laps, and Englishmen, Germans and Spaniards, are European, and in no other.’ ‘This is exactly what may be said not only of the Malagese, but of all the other black tribes spread over the islands of the Southern Ocean. The Mauritius and Bourbon Islands may be dismissed as islands which were probably not inhabited at the time of the original peopling of the other lands of which I speak. The Dodo would never have survived to furnish eyen a solitary specimen or two to our museums had the islands on which it lived been peopled by savages, whether black or white, or, I should rather say, had they been peopled at all. Next, looking farther eastward, it will scarcely be disputed that, whatever objections there may * Burton, in “ Proceedings of Geog. Soc.” p. 241. (1862.) + CRAWFORD, in “ Proc. Geog. Soc.” vol. ii. pp. 69, 70. (1862, 1863.) DISTRIBUTION OF MAN. 63 be to ranking the Oriental negroes with the African negroes, all the New Guinea blacks are of one race, whether natives of Papua itself, or of any of the numerous islands lying around it. Some authors, doubtless led astray by the apparently parallel, but really most distinct case of the Hill tribes in India, &e., have attempted to make a distinction between the natives of the hills and those of the coast, in Papua and other islands. This distinction is shown by the most trustworthy authors* to be without foundation, except so far as we have in our own lands a population differing somewhat according to the nature of their occupation and localities. In like manner, the negritos of the Phi- lippine Islands cannot be separated from the other Papuan blacks; and if it be true that there are negritos in Formosa, (which Mr. Swinhoe’s recent observations gives us reason to question), they also without doubt belong to the same race ;+ and, lastly, there is an overwhelming weight of testimony that all the oceanic tribes of Polynesia belong to the same race. The natives of the different groups of islands, no doubt, have each some peculiar characters of their own, but all belong to one type, and that type, the black Papuan. Some of the islands, such as New Zealand, are indeed sup- posed to have been colonized only very recently, and within the historical epoch ; but if so, they have been colonized from the original black stock. There is, perhaps, more difference when we come to estimate the discrepancies and resemblances between the Papuans and Australians. In doing so, there are various collateral points to be taken into consideration. In the first place, we must remember that although the Papuan Islands, or ‘“Austro-Malayan region and the Polynesian have numerous plants and animals peculiar to themselves, both their faunas and floras have, to a considerable extent, an Australian character. In mammals, for example, while the Indian region, including Borneo, Java, Sumatra, &c., possesses no marsupials, but abounds in forms of the most highly developed mammals, the Austro-Malayan or Papuan region does not, but has several marsupials; and Polynesia so far accords with it, that its only mammals belong to an order also found in Australia—the bats. In birds, as Dr. Sclater and Mr. Wallace have shown, although the actual number of species common both to Australia and Papua be not great (about twenty-five out of one hundred and eighty-six) there is a great affinity in many remarkable genera, and the resemblance extends not only to genera which have been found in both, but also to those which are absent in both, although present in strong force in the neighbouring Indian district. Dr. Giinther has come to similar conclusions as regards the Reptiles and Batrachians. In Ento- mology, Australian relations also occur, some of which (in the Hymenoptera) have been pointed out by Mr. Frederick Smith of the British Museum,§ and similar connexions occur in other groups. The botany of Australia and Papua, so far as the latter is known (which is not much), has similar points of resemblance. The inference to be drawn from these facts is, that as a connexion subsists between the other animals of Papua and those of Australia, there may be one between their human inha- bitants also. Professor Agassiz holds that the distribution of man will be found in the main to coincide with the regional distribution of other animals; and so far as man’s tribal distribution goes, the idea is not without warrant. For example, the Arctic fauna and flora is nearly homo- * Modera, “ Verhaal van eene Reize naar de Zuid-West t+ Reckoned from “Catalogue of the Mammalia and Kust van Niew-Guinea.” Haarlem, 1830. art, op. Birds of New Guinea, in the Collection of the British cit. p. 61. Museum,” 1859. + SwinHor, in “Proc. Geog. Soc,” vol. viii. p. 26. § F. Smrrx, in “ Proc. Linn. Soc.” vol. v. p. 93, et seq (1863-64). 1861. 64 MAMMALS. geneous ;— so, one tribe of man, the Esquimaux, inhabits the same region. The Mediterranean district has a sub-fauna and sub-flora of its own, composed of a mixture of European and North African species; the African coast having the preponderance of African, the European of European types. We see something like this in the human inhabitants of the same district; the Europeans (Spaniards, Italians, Greeks, and Turks) are more swarthy and liker the Arabs than their more northerly brethren. Other instances of tribes of men corresponding more or less to the zoological districts in which they live might be quoted. We may thus fairly use the analogy of such correspondence, between the regional distribution of man and the other animals, as an argument, valeat quantum, for holding that there is such a relation between the human tribes of Papua and Australia, because we find a similar relation between their other animals. Another circumstance which has an important bearing on the probable affinity of the Papuans and Australians is, that a rise of land of no more than two or three hundred feet would unite Papua to Australia. We have already seen that while a rise of the same amount would unite Java, Borneo, and Sumatra with the Indian continent, it would still- leave them separated from the Papuan region by a deep channel. The probability of the connexion of Papua and Australia, and the fact of their marked separation from the Indian continent being thus established, we may be more disposed to admit the force of such resemblances as can be traced between their respective peoples. There is no doubt considerable difference in their appearance. Most of the Australians have long, unfrizzled hair, and their hollow cheeks and starved countenances give them less of the features of the African negro. We have been so long accustomed to think of them as a race by themselves, that any proposition which tends to destroy their theoretical position goes against our preconceptions. But examined abstractedly, we must abate our preconceived notions considerably. First, the homogeneousness of the Australians is not absolute. Considerable variation occurs in their form. They have not all lank, straight hair. The aborigines of Van Dieman’s land on the one hand, and some of the tribes on the north coast and in the interior of Northern Australia on the other, have frizzled hair, Papuan features, and other negritan characters. So much so, that Mr. Earl* sets himself to work to devise some theory of Polynesians or Papuans having engrafted Papuan blood on Australian stock; ‘‘for many circumstances,” says he, ‘which I shall have to state more distinctly below, would induce the supposition that the aboriginal inhabitants of this part of Australia very closely resembled the Papuans of New Guinea, or, what is almost the same thing, the aborigines of Van Dieman’s Land.” If any one part of Australia is once admitted to be peopled by the same race as the Papuans, the general character of the race and their geographical position would lead to the inference that the whole must be so too. The Nicobar Islanders and the Andaman Islanders are other isolated items of the great black race. Without attempting to find relations for these, Professor Owen puts very clearly the negative position that the latter do not belong to any of the neighbouring peoples (that is, the Hindoo, Burmese, or Malay). He says:—‘ Why should ethnologists when they come to study the natives of an insulated group of people like the Andamaners deem it necessary to determine to what contem- poraneous people they were allied, on the assumption that they had been derived from some existing * Kart, in “Journ. Geograph. Soc.” xvi. 239. DISTRIBUTION OF MAN. "G5 and neighbouring land? Geological science had established the fact of continuous and progressive, though extremely slow mutations of land and sea, and had taught them that the continents of modern geography were only the last phases of those mutations. How long the human species had existed and how far they had been. contemporaneous with such mutations were the preliminary questions which presented themselves in grappling with the problem suggested by a peculiar insular race like the Mincopies. . . . Was it not possible that the Andamaners might have come from nowhere, that is to say, from no actual contiguous and separate land, but might be the representatives of an old race belonging to a former continent that had almost disappeared ?’’* * Owen, in “ Proc. Geograph. Soc.,” 1862, p. 82. 66 CHAPTER VIII. DISTRIBUTION OF MAN continucd—HILL TRIBES OF INDIA—-RANK AND PRIORITY OF BLACK AND WHITE RACES. Tuere still remains undisposed of one other peculiar type of human beings which seems to be very much in pari casu with the Andamaners, except that the latter have their place of abode surrounded by the sea, while the former are surrounded by dry land-and a sea of strange people. It is what are called the Hill tribes of India. and described as the most degraded specimens of humanity on the face of the earth, are found in the A number of isolated tribes, each speaking a language of their own, fastnesses of the mountains of India and some of the Malayan Islands, and of the adjoining continent. They exist in one or two parts of Borneo ;* they are not found in Sumatra,} nor in Java, at least now ;{ but they occur in the Malay Peninsula,§ in Siam, and, it was said, in Burmah; they are also said to be found in parts of Cochin China,|| and even in China itself. They are not found, or perhaps it would be safer to say not now found, in Ceylon,§ but they still remain in a good many of the moun- tainous parts of India in all the three Presidencies, where they are known under the name of Tudas or Todars, Badagars, Koters, Kurumbers, Bheels, Kulis,** &. The more general opinion regarding these Hill tribes is that they formerly occupied the land round about their present fastnesses, and that they had been gradually encroached upon by the other nations which now occupy the country * Hart, op. cit. 144; and Darron in Moor’s “ Notices of the Indian Archip.” 1831, p. 49. + Hart, op. cit., 175. ~ Remains of some ancient race, which had used spear- heads similar to those used by the present inhabitants of North Australia, are described as having been found in Java, in the “ Natuurkundige Tydschrift voor Nederlandsch Indie,” 1850. § A woolly-haired race called Lemanys. See ANDER- son, in “Journal of Indian Archip.” iv., 425, 1838. || A savage race of people, very black, and resembling in their features, the Caftres. CHapman’s “Report to the Bengal Government of a Diplomatic Mission to Cochin China. in 1778,” in Parliamentary Papers relating to India. {| The Veddahs of Ceylon seem only what may be called a feral tribe of the other Cingalese. ** Muijor-General Brizgs gives the following as the names of some of these tribes, adding that there are many others of which he has not sufficient details, viz. “ Minas, Mérs, Bhils, Dhiro Kolies, Mhars, Mangs or Mans, Béders, Dhérs, Gowlies, Barka, Tallary, Carumba, Cherumars, Morawa, Collary, Pully, Pariah, Yenedy, Chenchy, Gond, Kond, Sawara, Banderwa, Cheru, Bengy, Kooki, Garro, Kassia, Hajin, Bhar, Dhanuk and Dhome.” And he adds, “ Among these tribes the etymologist may, without diffi- culty, trace the names of many of the territorial divisions which have been assigned to several portions of India by the Hindfis. Thus, Kolwan, from the Koles; Bhilwan and Bhilwara, from the Bhils; Mbhar-rashtra, by contrac- tion Mharatta, from the Mhars ; Man Désa, from the Mans or Mangs ; the city of Beder, from the Beders ; Gondwara, from the Gonds; Oria-Desa, or Orissa, from the Orias ; Kolwan and Koliwara, from the Koles.” Doubtless, many of these may be mere sub-races of the Hindoos ; my argument applies only to those whose phy- sical and other characters approach those of the Negritos. See “Report onthe Aboriginal Tribes of India,” by Major- General John Briggs, in Reports of the British Association. 1850, p. 159. HILL TRIBES OF INDIA. 67 around them, and driven into the hills or retreated to them for shelter.* Others, as Mr. Crawford, believe that ‘they are no other than natives of the country, mere mountaineers who had escaped from the bondage, and hence from the civilization, of the plains.” The accounts which we read of their physical attributes, of the low scale of their intellectual and moral perceptions, and the degraded level which they occupy in the scale of humanity, forbid us, I think, to accept Mr. Crawford’s explanation. The more generally received view is less open to objection, but there is usually a hypothesis appended to it which does not appear to me to meet the facts of the case, viz. that the tribes of which we speak are of Tartar or Thibetan extraction. * The following data, quoted from Major-General Briggs’ report above cited, support the view that these aboriginal tribes were in possession of the whole of India prior to the incursion of the Hindoos, and that they had been gradually driven into their present fastnesses by their en- croachments. “About twenty-seven centuries ago, according to the Vedas or Holy Scriptures of the Hindfis, it would appear that the Hindtis had not yet penetrated further south than the twenty-second parallel of north latitude, beyond which (the work states) there then existed “extensive forests, inhabited by a wild and impure race speaking barbarous tongues.” “At what precise period the Hind@ invasion from the west first occurred it is impossible to say, byt the geo- graphy of India indicates at once that that race neces- sarily came through Afghanistan and the Punjaub ere it turned the borders of the Great Desert and penetrated in the direction of Dehli. There is every reason to believe that the Hind@ race gradually overspread the territory of Upper India east and west between the Himalaya Moun- tains and the Great Desert, without penetrating to the south for many centuries ; that it enslaved the aboriginal races as it subdued them, compelling them to till their own lands as serfs, and took from the latter the whole produce, except what was actually required as food for the tillers of the soil. “The historical as well as the religious works of the Hindtis, of a comparatively modern date, together with monumental remains existing in sculptured edifices and rock caves, all tend to show that no portion of the Penin- sula of India was subdued by them anterior to the fifth century of the Christian era. About that time it is sup- posed that the Peninsula became gradually overspread by the Bramanical race. They seem to have entered in two directions ; the one from Guzerat eradually extending over Khandeish and Berar till they reached to the forests which fringe the banks of the river Wurda, where it meets with the Godavery ; the other invasion, according to tradition, occurred about the same time. It passed from she valley of the Ganges and penetrated southward along the line of coast of the Bay of Bengal, keeping within the range of mountains on the east and the ocean, till after reaching the embouchures of the Godavery and the Major-General Briggs Kistna the invaders spread out over the plains and pro- cceded southward. “Tt has been assumed that about the same period, the Bhudists, a peculiar sect of the Hinds, reached the shores of Ceylon and Southern India from the opposite coast, and thence procecding northward, spread their religious doctrines among the aborigines. About the ninth or tenth century the Bhudists and Bramans appear to have met from opposite directions, which led to deadly conflicts, and ended in the Bramans putting down the Bhudist tenets. : “We have historical proof that the island of Bombay was not subjugated to the Hindd rule till the fourteenth cen- tury ; and that in the beginning of the next century the Mahommedans found princes of the aboriginal race oc- cupying in force several strongholds not far from Poona. The town and district of Sorapoor, lying between Hydra- bad and the western mountains, is still held by an abori- ginal chief with a portion of his tribe; and within the memory of man the kingdom of Mysore contained several principalities of the Béder race. “Further south, the Morawas and Collars obtained cele- brity in modern times by their adhesion to one or other of the European belligerent powers (France or England). and evinced fidelity, and even devotion, to the cause of the party which each espoused. “The aboriginal races differ, one and all, in every respect from the Hinds. Their government is strictly patri- archal ; all crimes are punished and disputes settled by the award of the elders or heads of tribes assembled. They have no prejudices against animal food of any kind, whether the animal be slaughtered or die a natural death. In those parts still unsubdued, such as a great part of Gondwana and the contiguous tracts of Goomser and Bustar, and in some portion of the country lying farther eastward among the Assam Hills, they continue to make human sacrifices; a practice to which these races have been prone, according to Hindfi records, from the earliest ages. They also worship power in every shape to avert danger ; hence all beasts of prey, such as tigers, bears and leopards, venomous serpents and other reptiles; as also the elephant and rhinoceros in a wild state.”— Brieas, op. cit. p. 169. 68 MAMMALS. says that their domestic habits and institutions have a strong affinity to those of the great Tartar family ; they may serve as a specimen of the whole race. In some parts both men and women bore their ears, and wear heavy rings to extend the lower lobe. Captain Newbold, of the Madras army, who has written on the Chenchies of the Nalla Malla, or Black Mountains, represents those he saw as having long bushy hair, thick lips, high cheek-bones, and small piercing eyes.* Sir Richard Jenkins and Colonel Agnew confirm this description in speaking of the Gonds; and I believe no instance will be found of those residing entirely on the hills having the aquiline nose or the delicacy of feature of the Caucasian family. General Briggs thinks that they partake rather of the Tartar or Thibetan physiognomy, than of the Hindu. He adds, however, a sort of apolo- getic explanation which does not show great faith in their Tartar parentage: ‘The remote period of their settlement in India, and the possibility of an occasional intermixture with the Hindis, may, in some cases, have somewhat changed their physiognomy from that of their ancestors, so as to render it doubtful whether or not they are derived from that branch of the human family, though in their habits and institutions they certainly bear a strong affinity to the Tartar branch.”+ The view which has occurred to me as most reconcilable with facts is, that, like the Andamaners, these tribes are remnants of the inhabitants of the great submerged continent above alluded to by Pro- fessor Owen. This continent at some time er other, not all at one time, or in the same direction, but from time to time, and with breaches of continuity which interrupted communication between various parts of it, probably included all the oceanic Archipelagoes, Papua, Australia, Africa south of the Sahara, East India south of the Himmalayahs, the Indian Ocean, the Bay of Bengal, Burmah, Siam, the Malay Peninsula, Cochin China, part of China, and the whole of the Philippine Islands, Borneo, Java, and Sumatra. That all this vast space was at any one time a united continent I do not suppose nor maintain ; on the contrary, there is everything to lead to a different conclusion ; there appear to have been at least two continents; as now we see the very same area of the southern hemisphere rising im some parts and falling in others, no doubt this happened in former times also, and its size and configuration would constantly vary. Opportunity of access might thus be given for one type to traverse and penetrate every part of this vast area; but by long interruptions and suspension of communication, many might never be able to avail themselves of it, and these long lapses of time might give opportunity for the development of new species or varieties from others which had only reached half way, as it were, on their journey, and who, while the way was still open to them to penetrate deeper and spread themselves further in one direction, had perhaps their retreat cut off by a subsidence of the continent behind them, and no opportunity of spreading their off- spring of newly developed forms in the direction from which they came. Lastly, I assume that these continents were peopled by a black race of many tribes, of which the Negritans are the descendants; that as the Chagos Bank, the Laccadive Islands and Maldive Islands have sunk, so did Ceylon and India; so did the land in the Bay of Bengal; so did the other lands in which Hill tribes are found ; in fact, that the whole or certain parts of the supposed land sunk more or less gradually; we know that almost the whole of Africa and Madagascar, and a * Can the clucking sound in the language of the Ne- without difficulty by any but a native of the province in groes have anything to do with a palatal peculiarity in which the language containing them is spoken.’ He adds, the speech of these aboriginal tribes? Dr. Reinhold Rost “These sounds are unknown in Sanscrit.” of Berlin, remarks, “ that the palatal sounds of the letters + Briaas, op. cit. pp. 172, 173. r, d,j, t, are confined to India, and caunot be pronounced HILL TRIBES OF INDIA. 69 portion of Australia, were not submerged; but the most of the rest, at. one time or other, was. As under the gradual sinking of the land, which I suppose to have taken place, the ocean encroached upon the great tracts submerged there would be a deluge and a loss of life, such as we can only faintly imagine; something to which we have no parallel. It may perhaps have been the Noachian deluge, which still dwells in the traditions of every race or tribe on the face of the earth. As the ocean slowly and gradually invaded the plains, the inhabitants must have retreated to the high mountain-tops,— become Hill tribes, in fact. Doubtless great tracts of this supposed continent, as is the case in all other continents, consisted of vast plains, which, gradually converted into muddy marshes, may have taken thousands of years to sink beyond the depth of man; and when this was the case, he must have there died off by hardship, exposure, and want of food, long before the sea rose so high as actually to drown him; but where there were mountains, hills, or even trifling elevations, a small remnant would be saved, but not without enduring great hardships. On the mountains, so long as other animals, which may have shared the refuge, lasted, they would have a precarious supply of food; but as the space, and with it the food diminished, bloody struggles must have taken place for space and means of life; and if we could delve into the heart of some of the atolls we might perhaps find there mute evidence of the strength and despair of the combatants, in mutilated relics of humanity. Let us assume that all were not so cut off; that before the last familv on the islet was extir- pated, the gradual downward motion ceased, over a portion of the district of which we have spoken ; that voleanoes and earthquakes spoke of change, and that by-and-bye the land began to rise, or, as the poor inhabitants would think, the sea began to fall, and their lives were saved to puzzle the brains of another race with their affinity and descent. As the land rose above the sea, and the fertile ooze of these tropical seas becarhe rich in verdure, the inhabitants would descend and take possession of the land: but by-and-bye, when the northern hemisphere rose in its turn, and was peopled with a fauna, flora, and human in- habitants of its own, the events indicated by General Briggs probably took place. A portion of these northern Asiatics (that is, the Hindoos) invaded India. Now what would be the effect of such an invasion upon the aboriginal inhabitants who had been previously in very much the same position as that in which the Andamaners are now left? Let us try to realize it by applying the test to them. Suppose the Indian Ocean to be raised, so as to unite the Andaman and the Nicobar Islands to the mainland on both sides and throw open the plains which were but lately at the bottom of the Bay of Bengal, and now were rich in vegetation, to the grasp of the Hindoo and Burmese—I shall say nothing, of the European, for what would happen were he, with his civilization and knowledge of science and arts, to come in contact with a tribe of savages, furnishes no fair parallel to what would take place with a less highly endowed people. Let us turn loose the aboriginal Hindoos and Burmese in millions to compete with the few Andamaners for the possession of the rich bottoms of the Indian Ocean. The contest would not be long. The fertile plains would soon be seized and appropriated by their more numerous, stronger, and comparatively more intelligent competitors. The Andamaners would be driven back to their old fastnesses—their original mountain-tops. And what would happen then ? would the Hindoos try to exterminate the Andamaners in order to seize what would be the impregnable tops of the Andaman mountains, or would they allow their inhabitants to live as the Hill tribes now do, still, as on an island in the midst of the sea, surrounded by a sea 70 MAMMALS. of new people, not increasing, perhaps gradually diminishing, but for long preserving the memory of a different and bygone state of things? 1 imagine they would neither covet their fastnesses nor seek to deprive them of them. The labour of toiling to the top of mountains is distasteful to these races, not to speak of the aimless warfare they would have to encounter, and the black races would be allowed to enjoy their sterile fastnesses unmolested. Such is the fate which I believe has befallen the Hill tribes; and these are the grounds on which I think that if there is nothing but their geographical distribution to prevent us referring them to the great black race on the ground of their physical attributes, we may venture to follow that course. There are other facts founded on the distribution of animals and plants, in India and the Austra- lian region, which give support to the explanation of the position of the Hill tribes which I have above suggested. From the fact of a large proportion of the animals which are found in Borneo, Java, and Sumatra, being identical with these found on the mainland, there is little or no doubt that these Ane ane at some former period have been united to it; so that it appears that before the present upward movement, which these are now undergoing, there must have been a down- ward one, and before that again an upward one, as we have seen is probably the case with other countries. The islands must have been first united with the mainland to allow the inter- communication of species. A subsidence must then have taken place to throw them into something like their present configuration, and there is now again a gradual rise reuniting them slowly to the mainland. Now, Dr. Joseph Hooker, in his Flora of Australia,* gives a list of nearly 500 plants found in that country, which are either identical, or very nearly so, with continental or insular Indian species; but, on the other hand, he states that there is scarcely a single Australian type to be found in India, and the few that occur are in Eastern India. It would appear as if there had been*no reciprocity, that all the mutual types have been borrowed from India, and that Australia had given none in return (for 10, which is the number, against 500 can scarcely be called reciprocity). Now, this is quite in accordance with the course of events, which I have supposed to have oceurred. If Australia and India were united for a time, a mutual communication of their respective floras must have followed, as a necessary consequence. If, when India sunk, the tops of the mountains, where the Hill tribes still exist, were not submerged, a certain proportion of the flora would be there preserved. When, long afterwards, India again emerged from below the waters, a new Indian flora would gradually be developed out of the remnant left on the tops of the mountains to supply the new lands: but as the new emergence went no further south than Ceylon, the new types could not find their way to Australia. There appear to have been only ten Australian plants which have found their way by flotsam and jetsam from Australia to India, against 500 Indian plants which remain in Australia by ancient continuity. If there is any foundation for the above speculation, the connexion between India and Australia must have been very ancient, and at a time when one or other of them was not m a condition to supply the other with mammals, although it could with plants. I must not occupy the time of the reader here with botanical speculations, ook will come better when we reach that branch of our subject, but I cannot refrain from citing one instructive instance in favour of the existence of the connexion already indicated between Africa and south- west Australia. It is long since a connexion between the vegetation of these countries has been * “Plora of Australia,” by Jos. D. Hookers. Introductory Essay, p. xlti. (1859). RANK AND PRIORITY OF BLACK AND WHITE RACES. ll surmised. Lambert, in his “Genus Pinus,” forty years ago, said of Popocarpus Sanicna, that it afforded one of many examples of coincidence between the vegetation of Chile with that of New Holland, and the southern extremity of Africa;* and Dr. Hooker, in the essay above quoted, mentions various botanical facts confirmative and indicative of an ancient communication between south-west Australia and South Africa. Besides great differences in the genera and species of south- east and south-west Australia; he found many new forms, and types, and curious analogies between the flora of the latter and that of South Africa. On this Dr. Hooker remarks, “There is another way of viewing the whole question, but one.so purely speculative, that I hesitate to put it forward. It is, that the anteccdents.of the peculiar Australian Flora may have inhabited an area to the westward of the present Australian continent, and that the curious analogies which the latter presents with the South African flora, and which are so much more conspicuous in the south-west quarter, may be connected with such a prior state of things.”* Here, too, the relationship between many of the plants in the south-west of Australia and the Cape of Good Hope does not extend to the mammals. Therefore, it is not illogical to infer that the former continuity of land by which these African types found their way to Australia must have existed before mammals in Africa had appeared there, at all events, in any numbers, or it would have contributed them too. The period of continuity must therefore have been very ancient. Africa here contributed types; Australia, few or none. If it contributed none, then another inference follows, viz., that the connecting land could not have been united with both at the same time. The bridge must have been begun on the African side, and by the time the in- vaders had reached a certain distance on their way, it must have been broken down behind them ; but as it continued to be formed or to rise from the ocean in the direction of Australia until it reached its south-west corner they completed the passage, and their descendants have remained there after the land which formed the passage has sunk out of sight. There still remain one or two accessory points of great difficulty regarding the distribution of man which had better be here disposed of. First. What is the rank of the two races?—the blacks and the whites. Are they to be reckoned as species, or are they merely tribes, in the same way, although better defined and more widely separated from each other than the tribes into which they themselves branch off? The difficulty of separating species increases as we ascend the scale of life. Professor Agassiz has drawn attention to this in monkeys, in the lion, the bear, and other highly organised vertebrata, and it seems to reach its culminating point in man. It would appear as if the action of the developing power had, in its long course, undergone some change, not in nature but in degree, some modification such as we sce typified in the actual growth and life of man and his fellow-creatures ; its steps were wider apart and more decided in earlier days, and its ideas, so to speak, simpler and less matured : in age its action has become more precise and more important, and as the creatures developed have acquired a higher and higher grade, the steps in advance have been shorter and more frequent. It may be, for example, that had the influence of development, or creation, to which we owe the two races of man, or any of the doubtful species of monkey, been exercised on less highly organised animals, the product would have been more absolutely distinct species. I incline to regard the two races not as the result merely of ordinary generation and variation, but of the * Lanpert, “ Genus Pinus,” 2nd edition, 1832, ii. No. 71. + Hookers, op. cit. p. lv. 72 MAMMALS. action of the law of development through which new species are derived; and I account for the product being something less than what would be reckoned a species in other orders by the high organisation of the creature developed. Still in whatever light we regard them, or by whatever means we attempt to account for the difference between the two, we must trace the one to the other; and two other questions arise—viz. Which race is descended from the other, that is, which is the oldest? and through which of its known tribes, supposing us to know them all, (which, by the way, we can scarcely suppose that we do,) did the other draw its origin ? These are questions which we have not sufficient data to enable us to answer. Such as we have, however, seem rather to point to the white race drawing its origin from the black, than the black from the white. In the first place, it is in the direction of progress. In the next place, according to the alternations of elevation and subsidence on which we have been speculating, while the great continent of the southern hemisphere was in its prime and peopled by the black race, the northern continents were almost wholly under water, and possibly without human inha- bitants. (See Maps 2 and 3.) The second question is not less dificult: Where has the passage from the one race to the other been made? We may coast along the barrier line, and try everywhere for a point of resemblance which may guide us in saying, ‘“ Here is the point where the crossing took place,” but we can find absolutely none; the line is everywhere clear and defined; and this is another reason for thinking that here there has been an exercise of the developing power similar to what we see in the case of new species. Where nature really takes a step from one species to another she leaves no trace of her passage; and this, as the reader knows, is the recalcitrant fact which, by refusing to be backed into the line of Mr. Darwin’s argument, chiefly disarranges its array ; we seek in vain for the passage from an elephant to a rhinoceros, or from a monkey to a man; as Prof. Huxley says, ‘“ The fossil remains of man, hitherto discovered, do not seem to take us apparently nearer to that lower Pithecoid form by the modification of which he has probably become what he is ;”* no such transitional forms appear ever to have existed, and if so of course none can be found. The only indication which occurs to me as likely to lead to even an approximation to the truth, is perhaps to be looked for in the habits of tribes. Where two tribes of the different races have similar habits or weapons, that fact may perhaps be taken as evidence of proximity or acquaintance at some period long since gone by; for instance, the sumpitan, or blow-pipe, is used by some of the tribes of New Guinea, and also by those of the Amazons and Orinocko, and by no other race in the whole world. It is rather a peculiar weapon, not one likely to occur independently to two minds; may they not both have derived it from a common source? Dr. Daniel Wilson on other grounds supports the conclusion to which this would lead,—he says that “many analogies confirm the probability of some portion of the North American stock having entered the continent from Asia;” but that “while theoretically the northern passage seems so easy, yet so far as any direct proof goes, the Polynesian entrance into the south across the wide barrier of the Pacific is the one most readily sustained.”+ Another point not to be overlooked is, that at some pericd in the past history of these regions, South America was most probably united to Australia, if we may draw any inference from the presence of allied forms of life common to both. * Huxtiey’s “ Evidence as to Man’s Place in Nature,” Civilisation in the Old and New World,” by DANIEL 1863. Witson, L.L.D. T Prehistoric man—* Researches into the Origin of & SESE SIoivasW MIN ‘a wamalanya | Cy ae f SAE = w 3 < = x yiowausny | drawou’ Riva D0 | Pt ome | Ea t H1no8 ; \ Va! RB eH HNL: | A 4 NWIaNnit Moray o vas NVONTS AMVIYVL 4ANZON3dBONI | | | | | Nk 920 O1ENVILW HLAOS Jusoorade ) jo atdoay, i | } | *) OMWIMOYy, hovenb | { | | | | Se sauory “""“3agmwg| go ardoay NV 23.0 DILNVILV HLYON 1 ane 220 vy, jon "My, | | «| | oe voUDstPUODILE IFPDILY SIDI JO IQUE AIDS! BOM ie Ne Om CAS clave NWVADVO ODVYATIVaA WINOS qa 6. 5 woo %,* eriec Sb ot as so ma Tey 0S On) 0 Ol | MolmonwR Q.-} 02 + N Va) 0 og] yam Be Kn ec N HL UO on Sit HaANOONYA a1 10S wot i dX Spa & Wn py | woruawy NyIsSeoy La ant a A re ~l oo CHAPTER IX. MONKEYS— EXTINCT AND LIVING. Tur kind and extent of the distinction between Man and the higher Apes, has formed the subject of much discussion of late years, especially upon some premises laid down by Professor Owen. The Professor, while admitting that the distinction between Man and the Apes could not be considered as “other than a difference in degree,” maintains that the difference in degree is so great that Man must form a separate and independent section of equal importance to the other great sub-classes into which zoologists have divided the animal kingdom. In support of this he adduced certain anatomical peculiarities which he thought he had discovered in the brain of Man, sufficient to distinguish it in character from that of the nearest Apes.* His views have been controverted by Professor Huxley; and other eminent zoologists ; and the general verdict of anato- mists would seem to be that the differences mentioned by Owen either do not exist or are not of the importance he supposed, and consequently that the distinction is not well founded, so far as it rests on them; and Professor Huxley has, I think, satisfactorily shown that Man (considered purely as an animal, which is all that the zoologist has to do with) cannot be regarded as more widely separated from the Apes, than the different families of them are from each other. The first quadrumanous fossil which has been discovered was found in the Himmalayahs by Lieuts. Baker and Durand in 1836.t It has proved to belong, like subsequently discovered quadru- manous fossils in the same district (the Sewalik (Miocene) tertiaries), to the Indian genus SEMNOPI- tHEcus. The next discovery was made by Wiliam Colchester, in 1839, in a bed of whitish sand, beneath a stratum of tenacious blue clay situated by the side of the river Deben, about a mile from Weodbridge in the parish of Kingston, in Suffolk. This deposit is referred by all geologists to the eocene period, and the fossils were determined by Professor Owen to belong to a genus of Monkeys which he called Eorrruecus, and which had its nearest affinities with Macacus. Since then, however, he has (1862) retracted this opinion, and with more ample materials at his command has pronounced it to belong to the genus Hyracornertum, an animal allied to the PaLmoruerium. This is a very important correction, for “there is now no eocene Monkey known to paleontologists, unless M. Riitimeyer is right in referring to this family a small fragment of a jaw with three molar teeth found in the upper eocene strata of the Swiss Jura.” § * Owen, on “The Characters, Principles of Division, + For an account of the various discoveries of the and Primary Groups of the Class Mammalian.” In “Linn, fossil remains of Monkeys, see a paper by Prof. Owen on Soc. Proc.” 1857. the Gorilla in “ Proc. Zool. Soc.,” 1859, p. 18. + Huxiey in “ Nat. Hist. Rev.” Jan. 1861, ct seq., § “Elements of Geology.” By Sir Cartes LYELL. Sixth and “Evidences as to the Man’s place in Nature.” By Edition, London, 1865. p. 292. Tuomas Henry Huxtey. London, 1863. 74. MAMMALS. A monkey’s molar tooth was taken from the pliocene beds of Essex, which has been determined to be most closely allied to the Macacus Sryicus (a common species in captivity, whence doubt has been thrown on the authenticity of the fossil, but it is believed by Owen to be perfectly genuine). The remains of a monkey of gigantic size (four feet in height) were. discovered in 1839, with other bones, by Dr. Lund, in a bone-cave in limestone in Brazil. Its molar dentition showed it to belong to the platyrrhine family now peculiar to South America; the New-world monkeys having four more teeth than the Old- world, a supernumerary molar in each side of each jaw. It was described as a new genus under the name of Proroprruxcus. This belonged to the pliocene period. The lower jaw and teeth of a small quadrumane was discovered by M. Lartet in a miocene bed in the south of France, and described by him and De Blainville. These remains are so closely allied to those of the Gibbons, as scarcely to justify the generic separation which has been made for the genus to which it belonged under the name of PLiopirHecus. A portion of a lower jaw with teeth, and the shaft of a humerus of a quadrumanous animal (Dryorrrnecus), equalling the size of those bones in man, have been discovered by M. Fontan of-Saint-Gaudens, in a marly bed of upper miocene age, forming the base of the plateau on which that town is built. From this species, certain inferences have been drawn to the effect that this was a transition form between the Chimpanzee and Man, but on this point Professor Owen says : “There is no law of correlation, by which, from the portion with teeth of the Dryorrrnecus, can be deduced the shape of the cranial characters determinative of affinity to man. All those characters which do determine the closer resemblance and affinity of the genus TroGLopyres to man, and of the genus Hytosares to the tailed monkeys, are at present unknown in respect of the Dryoprruxcus. The statement by Sir C. Lyell, that the parts of the skeleton of Dryoprrnecus as yet known, ‘are sufficient to show that in anatomical structure, as well as stature, it came nearer to man than any quadrumanous species, living or fossil, before known to zoologists,’ is without the support of any adequate fact, and in contravention of most of those to be deduced from M. Lartet’s figures of the fossils. Those parts of the DryorrrHecus merely show—and the humerus in a striking manner —its nearer approach to the Gibbons; the most probable conjecture being that it bore to them, in regard to size, the like relations which Dr. Lund’s Prororiruncus bore to the existing Mycrrss.” Mr. Albert Gaudry conducted some government excavations in Greece, which produced no less than twenty skulls of Monkeys, several jaws, and bones from different parts of the body sufficient to enable him to make a drawing of the whole skeleton. This Grecian Monkey belongs to the genus MesorirHecus. It resembles in its skull the Semnoprruecus, but in its limbs the Macacus, and is thus an intermediate form between these genera. Whether it was a transitional type, as Mr. Gaudry seems to think, is another thing altogether. All that I say is that the two are by no means synonymous. Besides these, ten other supposed species have been recorded, but all upon very imperfect materials. Such as they are, two species are from South America, three from Asia, and five from Europe.* With reference to this, Dr. Vogt says :—‘‘ Twenty years ago fossil Monkeys were unknown, now we have nearly a dozen: who.can tell that we may not in a few years know fifty? | | ined pala = | : | Jao) yo ordoay, Wien St ee ee Nv a20 , NY 29.0 DILNVILV i lotarovvd NYAS! wv Hoaw aSaNit HO { | AU VLIW | VITOONONW | | | ANIGNIAdRON oS | < | + i | > yen a a es xjnvwin EXTINCT FELINE SPECIES. 87 North and South America, there is, of course, no difficulty in explaining the presence of the same type of early Carnivora in all three countries in that epoch. Fretipe—Great Cats, Lions, Tierrs, Leoparps, &e. (Maps 12-16.) The Grear Cars are so eminent members of this family, that I may be excused for treating of them separately —not as objects to which more human interest as a zoological section, distinct from the small cats, but attaches than to their smaller and less dangerous cousins. Extixcr Specres.—The Cave Lion or Cave Tiger, Frris Sprima, whose remains have been found in almost every bone-cave in Europe, differed in little but size from the living tiger or lion; and even in size the difference is not great. By some it has been supposed to be the species of tiger still living in Asia; by others, it is thought to have been the existing lion.* De Blainville attributed to it a mixture of the characters of the Lion and Tiger. Owen, in his “ British Fossil Mammals,” named it the Cave Tiger, having at that time had only imperfect specimens to examine ; the maxillary bones, the most essential materials for the inquiry, not having then come into his hands. He pointed out, however, that the comparative prolongation of the nasal processes of the maxillary bones was a good character for distinguishing the skull of the existing lion from the tiger, as well as from the jaguar and its allies. The nasal processes of the superior maxillary bones extend as far back as the nasal bones in the lion, but not so far in the tiger. On the examination of perfect specimens of the Cave animal subsequently obtained, he found that they did extend as far back, and he thence concluded that the animal was not a tiger. This opinion is, however, not universal. Dr. Giebel stiil (1859) speaks of it as the “Cave Tiger, falsely called the Cave Lion.” ‘ Although,” says he, “this Cave Tiger has a most decided affinity to the tiger in skull, skeleton, and dentition, and more widely remote from the lion than the living tiger; still it has, even in the latest times, been falsely given out by Gervais, Pictet, Quenstedt, and others, as a Cave Lion.” The range of the living tiger is certainly more akin to that of the deceased animal, than is that of the lion. Notwithstanding this, it has even been doubted whether it might not have been a leopard, a spotted cat instead of a striped one. Shorter processes of the maxillary bones are present in the skull of the jaguar as well as the tiger, but Cuvier speaks of the Cave species resembling the leopard more than the tiger or lion, in the uniform and gentle curve of the skull. The animal was no doubt suited to a cold climate. Its remains have been found in abundance in England, and our climate in its days must have been even more severe than that which we now have. We infer this, not only from the very ample protection against cold, with which the mammoth, in whose times it lived, was provided, but from the reindeer and musk-ox having been contemporaneous inhabitants with it of England. Its other associates are either extinct, without leaving us the means of judging what climate was best suited to them, or they were of that accom- modating habit which can bear considerable extremes of heat and cold, and consequently furnish by their presence no indication, either one way or other. But the same species of musk-ox and reindeer which then furnished food for the Cave Lion, still survive, although the former is now confined to the Arctic regions, and the latter only thrives in scarcely less northern lands, while it will not live at all in our menageries. Their presence, therefore, infers a considerably volder climate in England than we now possess. * “The great Frris of the British cave deposits is now believed to be no other than F. Lro.” Bryn, op. cit, 53. 88 MAMMALS. Some authors, indeed, have attempted to distinguish the fossil reindecr from that now living in the North of Europe and Asia, and have supposed that it was a species peculiar to Central Kurope, and separated from the Northern species by a geographical lacune. This view is not adopted, however, by the majority of paleontologists. Greater variation exists between different individuals of the existing reindeer than between them and the fossil species; and as to the geographical lacune in their distribution, M. Lartet* points out that nearly a century ago, when Pallas travelled in the south of Russia, he found them advancing southwards along the Ural mountains, and speaks of them being killed every year near Mount Caucasus. Besides, this objection does not apply to the still stronger case of the musk-ox. On this subject it is not irrelevant to state my belief, that whatever may be the cause, the climate has improved, and in a general way still continues to do so, ever since the days of the glacial epoch (always excepting occasional, perhaps cyclical, variations which may have been due to general causes affecting the whole globe). The glaciers in Switzerland, with some oscil- lations, are retreating on the whole. The accounts which Tacitus, Cesar, and other ancient writers, give of Germany, France, and Britain (Ireland is spoken of as “frozen Erin”’)+ suggest a less favourable climate than these countries now possess. There seems to be a diminution, too, in the energy of the people of Southern Europe, since the days when their ancestors carried all before them; and we know that energy and the vis victrix are the attributes of climates with a certain degree of cold. Heat relaxes the human machinery, not only in those born in cold climates, but still more in the natives of warm ones; cold braces it up. That conquering power has gone forth from the Greeks and the Romans, the Moors and the Spaniards, and migrated to more northerly people. It is a fair and an open question, though all too large for discussion here, and there is no lack of arguments on the other side, such as that the temples and buildings left by these nations are all conformable to such climates as now subsist in their countries, that wine was formerly made from the grape grown in the open air in the south of England, and that corn grew in Iceland; but, as at present advised, I incline to think these exceptions are capable of being explained away, and that the arguments in favour of a continued amelioration of climate are strongest. Besides the above-mentioned animals, the Cave lion lived contemporaneously, probably, with all the following species, viz. with the Cave bear, the Cave hyena, the mammoth, the so-called woolly- haired rhinoceros, a large hippopotamus, the Irish elk, and various smaller animals. M. Lartet divides the recent or quaternary epoch into four periods, each characterised by these animals, thus,— 1. The period of the Cave bear, which he thinks appeared first, and became extinct first. 2. The period of the mammoth and rhinoceros. 3. The period of the reindeer ; and 4, That of the aurochs. Remains of the Caye lion have been found in caves associated with remains of the animals which lived in all the three first periods. It appears, also, to have continued alive in Europe until a comparatively recent period, although * Larter’s “ Annales des Soc.,” 1841. Tes Maduerunt Saxone fuso Orcades, incaluit Pictorum sanguine Thule, Scotorum cumulos flevit glacialis Terne.”—CLAUDIAN. FELINE SPECIES. 89 whether down to the age of the Aurochs and Urus is not so clear, but probably subsequent to the appearance of man there; for Messrs. Christy and Lartet record a metacarpal bone of the species found in the cave of Les Eyzies, bearing evident marks of knives (flint), which marks they imply were produced by cutting off the meat from the bones. It has left evidences of its presence in England, Belgium, Germany, Russia, France, Italy, Sicily, and Greece. It is not proved that it extended into Asia; according to my view it must have come thence. Still earlier than its appearance in Europe, the Tiger, before referred to (F. cristata), about the same size as the living tiger, already existed in Asia, remains of which have been discovered by Falconer and Cautley in the miocene formation of the Sivalik Hills.* Remains of a still older miocene Tiger (F. apHanisra Kaup) have been met with in the tertiary sands of Epplesheim. Some very imperfect remains of an animal about the size and habit of a panther have been found in the miocene beds at Sansans, in the south of France. It was described by Gervuis under the name of Psrup#LURUS QUADRIDENTATUS. tT Another feline animal, perhaps of even more destructive character than the Caye Lion, belong- ing to an allied but distinct and yery remarkable genus named Macwarropus, lived in Europe in the miocene epoch, and not long before the Cave species, and has also left traces in America. The most distinguishing feature in the structure of the animals of this genus was the enormous development of the upper canine teeth, which were much longer than those of the lion or tiger, more compressed, and flattened like a sabre, whence their name. The remains of European species have been found chiefly in caves. So have those of one of the American species, a most extraordinary animal, with some resemblance to the hyena, but larger, discovered by Lund in cayerns in Brazil, and named Macuarropus Nrocmus or Smitopon. In it the upper canines are nearly as long as the entire lower jaw, and, as suggested by Professor Owen, are an instance of the mutual cor- relation of the structure (for offence and defence) of animals inhabiting the same region — the powerful jaws and enormous upper canines of this animal being apparently purposely adapted for tearing up the large Armadillos (Grypropon), whose carapaces are found in the superficial deposits of South America of the same age, which, on the other hand, are provided with an almost im- penetrable tortoise-like armour. The Jaguar, which in these countries now fills the place and performs the destructive task of the Macuarropus Smimopon, has a less difficult labour to perform. Humboldt, in his “ Per- sonal Narrative,” says, “We were shown large shells of turtles emptied by the Jaguars. These animals follow the Arraus towards the beaches, when the laying of eggs is to take place. They surprise them on the sand, and, in order to devour them at their ease, turn them in such a manner that the under shell is uppermost. In this situation the turtles cannot rise, and as the Jaguar turns many more than he can eat in one night, the Indians often avail themselves of his cunning and malignant avidity. When we reflect on the difficulty that the naturalist finds in getting out the body of the turtle without separating the upper and under shells, we cannot enough admire the suppleness of the tiger’s paw, which empties the double armour of the Arrau, as if the adhering parts of the muscles had been cut by means of a surgical instrument.” Mr. Wallace speaks in similar terms of the clean and perfect manner in which the whole of the interior is scooped out.§ * Fatc. and Caurtt. “ Asiatic Researches,” xix. a 135. { Humporpt’s “ Personal Narrative,” iv. p. 492. + Gervals, “Zool. Pal. Fr.” p. 127. § Watiace, ALFRED, “ Travels in Brazil.” N 90 MAMMALS. In the Jaguar the instrument used is the paw, but we may fairly assume that the canine teeth, half a foot in length, would take their part along with the paw, when the Smmopon came to play at such a game, One inference from this supposed similarity of function may be that the Jaguar is a legitimate descendant of the Smilodon, and that the latter was a great spotted cat. The caverns and deposits in which Dr. Lund found remains of these, and many other most interesting animals, are situated in the mountain-chains between the Rio das Velhas and the Rio Paraopeba. This country forms an elevated plain 2000 feet above the level of the sea, and is traversed in its centre by a chain of mountains 300 to 700 feet in height, which is formed of secondary limestone stratified in horizontal beds, and possessing all the characters of the Zechstein or Hohlen Kalkstein (cavern limestone) of the Germans. It is entirely perforated with caverns, and traversed in all directions by fissures, which are more or less filled with red earth, identical with that forming the superficial stratum of the district. This bed, which varies from ten to fifty feet in thickness, covers indiscriminately, and without interruption, the plains, valleys, hills, and even the gentle slopes of the mountains. It consists principally of clay, containing subordinate strata of gravel and quartz pebbles, and is frequently ferruginous to such a degree that the particles of iron are converted into pistholitie iron ore, resembling that which fills the fissures of the Jura. The soil which fills the caverns has undergone some modifications, arising from its introduction and sojourn in them. It contains angulose, or rounded fragments of limestone. It is also hardened by the particles of lime deposited in its interior by the waters charged with this substance filtrating through the fissures of rock, and it is impregnated with saltpetre, and is on this account explored by the inhabitants of the country.* It is in this soil that the fossil bones are found; they are deposited pell-mell, are fragile, very white in their fracture, and adhere strongly to the tongue. Frequently they are petrified, more often converted into calcareous spar. In general they are broken or mutilated, and, lastly, they frequently bear the impressions of teeth, leaving no doubt that the animals to which they belonged had been dragged into these caverns by ferocious animals then inhabiting them. The larger ones have been introduced by various carnivorous mammifera, and the smaller ones probably by a diurnal bird. At the present day not a single ferocious animal of the mammifera sojourns in these caverns, and none accumulate masses of bones comparable to those which are found in the diluvial deposits. At the utmost, all that is found in the modern excavations are bones of small animals scattered at the surface, which had served as prey to a nocturnal bird, the Terror (Effraie) of Brazil (Srrtx PERLATA). Of these caverns, that called Sappa Nova de Marguiné, in the Sierra de Marguiné, is one of the most remarkable. The mountain consists of clay-slate, flinty-slate, and transition limestone, in which last is the principal cavern. Its total length from north to south is 1440 feet, the height being from thirty to forty feet, and the breadth from fifty to sixty. It is separated by masses of stalactite into twelve divisions, of which only three were known before Dr. Lund explored them. The others, especially the innermost, were of such extraordinary beauty, that his attendants fell on their knees and expressed the greatest astonishment. Lund examined nineteen caverns in all, in three of which he found the remains which have thrown so much light upon the ancient forms of life in Brazil. An interesting fact relating to these caves is mentioned by Dr. Mantell as having been commu- nicated to him by Mr. Waterhouse. M. Clausen, from whom, as well as Dr. Lund, many of the remains from the caves now preserved in the British Museum were obtained, in the course of his * “Comptes Rendus,” No. 15, Avril, 1839. BONE- CAVES. 9] researches discovered a cavern the stalagmitic floor of which was entire. On penetrating the sparry crust he found the usual ossiferous bed, but pressing engagements compelled him to leave the deposit unexplored. After an interval of some years, M. Clausen again visited the cavern, and found the excavation he had made completely filled up with stalagmite, the floor being as entire as on his first entrance. On breaking through this newly-formed incrustation, it was found to be distinctly marked with lines of dark-coloured sediment alternating with the crystalline stalactite. Reasoning on the probable cause of this appearance, M. Clausen sagaciously concluded that it arose from the alternation of the wet and dry seasons. During the drought of summer the sand and dust of the parched land were wafted into the caves and fissures, and this earthly layer was covered during the rainy season by stalagmite, from the water that percolated through the limestone and deposited cale-spar on the floor. The number of alternate layers of spar and sediment tallied with the years that had elapsed since his first visit; and, on breaking up the ancient bed of stalagmite, he found the same natural register of the annual variation of the seasons. Every layer dug through presented a uniform alternation of sediment and spar ; and as the botanist ascertains the age of an ancient dicotyledonous tree from the annual circles of growth, in like manner the geologist attempted to calculate the period that had elapsed since the commencement of these ossiferous deposits of the cave; and, although the inference, from want of time and means to conduct the inquiry with precision, can only be accepted as a rough calculation, yet it is interesting to learn that the time indicated by this natural chronometer, since the extinct mammalian forms were interred amounted to many thousand years.* The age of the remains found in the eaves is the same as that of those found in the bone- caves of Britain, namely, the later pliocene, that i&, subsequent to the glacial epoch. It is remarkable that all the bone breccias and bone caves throughout the world belong to the same period. They may be called phenomena of the glacial epoch. How or why none have been discovered ayplicable to the miocene epoch is not easy to account for. The deposit of bone breccias is doubtless still going on in various parts, where rivers disappear in limestone countries ; but I cannot help thinking that the manufactory is less flourishing than it was in times nearer to the height of the glacial epoch. It would be a convenience, in considering questions relating to this period of geological history, if geologists would—instead of their older and newer Pliocene and Pleistocene formations— give us a nomenclature bearing direct reference to the progress of the glacial epoch—one phrase to indicate its access, another its establishment, and a third its recess. At present its access (although not less important than its recess, seeing that during it the chief changes from miocene to modern types of form probably took place) is scarcely recognised as part of the epoch at all. The locality in North America which has supplied the greatest amount of evidence of the former existence there of species of the genus of which we have been speaking, as well as of many other extraordmary extinct animals, is the band of tertiary deposits extending, with interrup- tions, in the line ofthe Missouri and Mississippi, from the northern shore of the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean. The most prolific portion lies along the river Missouri, and is known as the *‘Mauvaises Terres,” or Bad Lands of the hunters. These occur at irregular intervals all along the Missouri, more especially on the Nebraska or Platte River, and the Niobrara and others of its tributaries, and in some places are of great extent. They are composed mainly of a soft half- formed sandstone or mud stone, which crumbles under a slight pressure, and is washed by the rains * Manrtent, G. A., “Petrifactions and their Teachings ; or, a Hand-book to the Gallery of Organic Remains in the British Museum.” London, 1851. p. 481. 92 MAMMALS. into the most fantastic shapes, and as it is washed away discovers fossils and lignites of a large size, and is sometimes heard falling in large masses, with a dull, muffled sound. The accounts given of these singular districts. and of the columnar and grotesque forms of the more indurated portions which have withstood the denuding action of the weather, might be used as descriptions, on a small scale, of the scenery which we might expect would be seen were the coral islands of the Pacific raised above the level of the sea. The following description of them is taken from Dr. Evans’ account of them in Owen’s ‘“‘ Geological Survey of Wisconsin : ” — “To the surrounding country, however, the Mauvaises Terres present the most striking contrast. From the uniform, monotonous open prairie, the traveller suddenly descends one or two hundred feet into a valley that looks as if it sunk away from the surrounding world, leaving standing all over it thousands of abrupt, irregular, prismatic, and columnar masses, frequently capped with irregular pyramids, and stretching up to a height of from one to two hundred feet or more. So thickly are these natural towers studded over the surface of this extraordinary region, that the traveller threads his way through deep, confined labyrinthine passages—not unlike the narrow, irregular streets and lanes of some quaint old town of the European continent. Viewed in the distance, indeed, these rocky piles, in their endless succession, assume the appearance of massive artificial structures, decked out with all the accessories of buttress and turret, arched doorway, and clustered shaft, pmmnacle, and finial and tapering spire. One might almost imagine oneself approaching some magnificent city of the dead, where the labour and genius of forgotten nations had left behind them a multitude of monuments of art and skill. “On descending from the heights, however, and inspecting in detail its deep intricate recesses, the realities of the scene soon dissipate the illusions of the distance. The castellated forms which fancy had conjured up had vanished, and around one on every side is bleak and barren desolation. Then, too, if the exploration is made in midsummer, the scorching rays of the sun pouring down in the hundred defiles that conduct the wayfarer through this pathless waste, are reflected back from the white or ash-coloured walls that rise around, unmitigated by a breath of air or the shelter of a solitary shrub. “The drooping spirits of the scorched geologist are not, however, permitted to flag. The fossil treasures of the way well repay its dullness and fatigue.” * These beds have been denominated the White River Group by Mr. Meek and Mr. Hayden,t ina paper on the Nebraska deposits. They belong to the older deposits of the lower miocene. It is in another series of beds called by them the Loup River Beds, which have been deposited after the upper surface of the White River group had been worn into ravines, that remains of species of the genus Frxis oceur, which they consider to be very closely allied to recent species. These beds probbaly belong to the more recent period of the upper miocene. These prolific beds have been deposited in the lakes or freshwater estuaries into which the remains of animals living on the neighbouring lands were washed, and deposited and preserved. No marine estuary deposits have been found anywhere on or near the flanks of the Rocky Mountains. The range of these extinct feline animals in North America probably extended for a consider- uble space along each side of the long tertiary belt in the middle of North America and eastwards to the Atlantic sea-board. No remains of true, or rather non-marsupial Carnivora have been found in Australia. * Owen’s “ Geological Survey of Wisconsin,” p. 196. + “Proc. Acad. Nat. Soc. Philad. 1861,” p. 445. “NORTH PCA. C iv ZC I ONCE ee a ATLANTIC | Tropic of Cancer __ scorsanoly-@ inncanol } ey LEE OCEAN | os AUSTRALIZA > ee WAP XT. LION. ESQUIMAUN yoo TD: RUSSIAN AMERICA Dh | ATLANTIC | bee | OCEAN | | Tropic of Canctr __ INDIAN OCEAN MAP XIV. UNG 12 15% CHAPTER XII. CARNTVORA continued—EXISTING FELINE SPECIES— THEIR DISTRIBUTION IN BORNEO. Existine Sprcires.—(Frnis Leo) (Map 13.) The Lion, the chief of the existing Carnivora, is now confined to Africa and the south-west of Asia, extending as far eastward as Guzerat. It is rare in most of Asia, and in some parts of Africa, and has wholly disappeared from many districts where it was formerly a resident. Within the historic period it existed in Europe. Aristotle (no doubt on the authority of Herodotus) states that the lions of Thessaly attacked the beasts of burden attached to the army of Xerxes, and mentions the circumstance as occurring between the Achelous and the Nestus. Within the present century, it was distributed over much of Central, West, and North- west India. It is now almost confined in that country to the peninsula of Guzerat. Blyth says, that there is reason to believe that it formerly inhabited the plains of Upper India generally, if not also the table-land of the peninsula. In the early part of the sixteenth century, Baber mentions that it inhabited the Benares district. It was extirpated at Hurriana in 1824. A female was killed at Rhyli, in the Dumaoh district, Sagur and Nerbudda territories, so late as in the cold season of 1847-48, and about the same time a few still remained in the valley of the Scinde river in Central India. The species would appear to be now exterminated in that district, unless a remnant still maintains a lingering existence in certain particularly inaccessible haunts in the neighbouring district of Bundelkund, which Mr. Blyth (in 1863) mentions that he had received recent intelligence was the case.* It does not occur to the northward or eastward of the north-west provinces of the Bengal Presidency. It is plentiful in some parts of Persia, and not rare in Asia Minor. In Africa it is almost entirely extirpated from the more populous parts of Egypt and the shores of the Mediterranean. It is still in tolerable numbers on the Mount Atlas range, but does not penetrate into the Sahara, although a straggler from the Tunisian Mountains may occasionally be met with on its northern boundary. It does not now occur in the Gaboon and Niger districts, and is driven far back into the interior from the Cape of Good Hope ; but in the other parts of the Continent of Africa it is more than sufficiently abundant. At one time or other it must have ranged into every part of Africa; for, as I am informed by Dr. Kirk, he knows of no nation or tribe which has not a name for it. Slight differences exist in the appearance or characters of individuals from these various districts, or at least some of them; differences sufficient to have led naturalists to hold that there is more than one species. Thus the maneless Lion of Guzerat, and the Gambian Lion, have been described as * Bryrn, “Catalogue of Mammalia in Museum of Asiatic Society,” 1863, p. 54 and 65. 94 MAMMALS. separate and distinct from the common African Lion ;* but the supposed blacker mane of the Gambian variety is not a specific character, but merely due to age or individual peculiarity, and the absence of a mane in the Guzerat variety is not constant, nor is that peculiarity confined to the individuals from that quarter. This is another illustration of Agassiz’s view, that the more highly organised a family or genus But while the facts support him in this observation, I think they give an intelligible qualification or restriction to another is, the shorter are the steps between the different forms which compose it. of his too sweeping propositions,—viz. that most animals and plants must have originated primi- tively over the whole extent of their natural distribution; that, for instance, Lions, which occur over almost the whole of Africa, over extensive parts of Southern Asia, and were formerly found even over Asia Minor and Greece, must have originated primitively over the whole range of these limits of their distribution.+ Now, while I agree with him that species have been developed simultaneously over a considerable extent of country, I do not think that the present extent of their distribution is an absolute gauge of that of their original starting-point. I hold, on the contrary, that it may spread from its original field, and yet retain its general specific character, Agassiz assumes that the species has always kept within its original bounds. provided the conditions of the new field are materially different from those of the old; but that whenever it does so spread, such extension of its mits is marked by some degree of alteration in its minor characters; for the qualities of condition of life are so subtle that the constitution of few animals are sufficiently blunt to allow them to pass into a new territory without being sensible of them, and having the impulse to change of species brought more or less into action through them. Wherever, therefore, we see varieties of a species, I think we may at once lay it down as probable that here the species has wandered beyond the limits of its original specific centre. Now, we have already seen that there are geological grounds for holding that the original specific centre of the carnivora was the northern hemisphere, neither the Cave Lion nor what was doubtless its descendant, the modern Lion, having appeared until the retreat of the glacial epoch had commenced,t and Africa and India having been until then disunited from Europe and Asia. By the time our Lion appeared, Europe was disunited from America, and united to Africa and Asia, and the way was free to pass from the former into the latter. I have already explained my grounds for thinking that at the height of the glacial epoch almost the whole of Europe was covered either by ice or water, and organic life destroyed from off its face, with the exception of a few miocene species which may have still survived in its extreme south, where not submerged and beyond the influence of the cold. When the ice retreated, and the land began to be raised, Europe must have been re-peopled from Asia, in which the previous flora and fauna had found refuge, doubtless in the nearest habitable part, which might perhaps be Persia. Thus much premised, I imagine * Mr. Blyth says that the Guzerat lion is fully maned, of Asiatic Society, 1863, p. 58. The mane is certainly and not a nearly maneless vanity, as stated by Captain Smee, whose figure represents an immature animal. Mane- less individuals, however, whether or not constituting a particular race, occur also in Mesopotamia, and even in Africa. Vide “Barth’s Travels,” ]. 482, vy. 971, 270. Wherever found the species appears to be subject to much individual variation of colouring of mane and general aspect. ce Blyth’s “ Catalogue of Mammalia,” in Museum sometimes absent in the Guzerat variety. I have seen the skin of a full-grown male maneless specimen brought by a friend from that country. + AGASSIZ, op. cit. p. 10. {£ Ido not adopt the common phrase, the close of the glacial epoch, although I may sometimes, from habitude, be betrayed into using it: for I do net think we have reached the close of it yet. rod TIGER. 95 the genealogy of the Lion to have been this :—At the commencement of the cold,* the Macnatropus, or some other Carnivore, has been changed into the Cave Lion; and when mild weather began to return, the Cave Lion became the common Lion. At this time life had not returned to Europe, and the specific centre of the new animal was probably in Asia ; thence it would spread into Europe and Africa. Ticker: Frnis tierts (Map 14). The Tiger begins to appear where the lion begins to die out. It has been observed that two large species of the same family of animals are rarely found in the same district, and those who are fond of referring everything to laws have inferred a law of distribution antagonistic to their co-existence in the same area. I have no great favour for the practice of referring to the operation of special laws phenomena which can be equally well accounted for by the ordinary working of general laws, and in one sense, and that, perhaps, the sense in which the supposed law is most commonly understood, this may be said to be the case with the present fact. Looked at merely as a question why two large nearly allied species rarely, if ever, co-exist in the same area, it seems only one of the ordinary results of the struggle for life, the stronger driving the weaker before them, and in time extinguishing them. But looked at a little deeper, the struggle for life will not explain everything. How did the struggle for life ever allow a second species to get to such a head as to need to be driven out? Being allied, the one species most probably was derived from the other. How came the weak one ever to get a footing at all? The hypothesis by which I have attempted to explain the stability of established species, the origin of new species, and the existence of special faunas in special provinces in many cases explains this. The second species cannot take its origin in the same district as the first, because it is only by the species undergoing change of condition that it can be developed into a new species. sprung the one from the other. This applies to two species which have In other cases as the present, where two neighbouring species may have originated in different regions, from a common ancestor, and from different points of its range, and come in contact by extending their limits, the ordinary effect of the struggle for life will come into operation, and the stronger will destroy or dispossess the weaker. The common notion, with regard to the Tiger, is, that it is a tropical animal which requires a warm climate to live in. The researches of late explorers reveal a very different state of things. Beginning at lofty Ararat and the frosty Caucasus on the west, and ending at the island of Saghalien on the east, its range stretches across the whole of Asia, with the exception of the high Thibetan table-land of Central Asia. Turkish Georgia. Mr. Blyth mentions that a few are annually killed in It is found in greater numbers in the Elburz mountains, south of the Caspian Sea (the ancient Hyrcania). North of the Hindu Kosh it occurs in Bokhara, and proved troublesome to the Russian Surveying Expedition on the shores of the Aral in mid-winter.f It is also found on the Irtisch and in the Altai region, and thence, eastward to Amur-land, where it is very destructive to cattle, and so round, by China and Indo-China, to India, southward of the Himmalayahs ; * The reader will bear in mind that it is part of my theory that all changes in form take place soon after the alteration in condition is experienced. I hold that we must look for all changes at the commencement of a period of alteration ; not after it has been some time in operation. Of course, when I say soon, I do not mean in the twinkling of an eye; but what, in comparison to the time of which we treat, is not much larger—say a few hundred, or thousand years. Such a speck as leaves no trace in time, but long enough to allow the medicine to operate. During the whole of the glacial epoch, however, as the cold advanced or retreated, perhaps oftener than once, and subjected new subjects to a change of one kind or other, there must have been a succession of change as the alteration successively reached new individuals ; but that does not interfere with the general principle that the alteration of species must always take place compa- ratively shortly after the change of condition. + Biyra, op. cit., p. 182. 96 MAMMALS. but it does not extend into Ceylon, although Humboldt, probably per incuriam, speaks of it as found there.* It inhabits the Malayan Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, and Bali, but is not met with in Borneo.t Although thus found on every side of the high Thibetan region of Central Asia, it does not penetrate into it; but occasionally it visits its margin, speedily retreating, however, into the The Rev. Mr. Everestt says that he met with the tracks of the Tiger on the snow near his house, above the valley of the Dehra Doon in the Himmalayahs, 6800 feet above the sea, and whilst shooting in the oak forest around it, had one of his people carried away by one. warmer wooded valleys and ravines by which it came. The few comparisons: which have been made between the individuals from different parts of this vast area show considerable differences, but like those of the lions, rather of the nature of climatal variation than specific characters. Herr Radde§ informs us that the Amourian individuals are paler in colour, having more white on the under part of the body, and less red above; and he has compared skulls of examples from the Amour, from India, and from the Caucasus, and found those of the Indian animals considerably larger than the others, and the Caucasian specimen (he had only one) remarkable for the small size of its upper canines. There is no doubt, however, that the species attains its greatest size, beauty, and ferocity,—in other words, is Blyth says, that he has reason to believe that the stature of the largest tigers considerably exceeds that of the largest lions. most highly developed, in the East Indian region. An experienced lion-hunter in South Africa assured him that he never saw a lion-skull approaching in magnitude to the largest tiger-skulls in the Asiatic Society’s Museum at Calcutta.|| The absence of the Tiger in Ceylon may be due to one class of causes; its absence in Borneo to another; probably, some cause specially applicable to that island. We shall find, as we go along, that these are not the only large animals which make Borneo remarkable by their absence. A greater interval no doubt exists between it and the nearest land than between the other islands where they are found, but scarcely sufficient to account for the difference, especially if we suppose, as can hardly be doubted, that Borneo, as well as Java and Sumatra, was united to the mainland at a time subsequent to the appearance of these animals, and that it was before the separation of Java and Sumatra from the continent, that they became domiciled in them. This separation there is every reason to believe was a comparatively recent event. The geological events affecting Borneo must have been of the same date as those of Java and Sumatra, and these islands possess the animals which are absent in Borneo. The cause of their absence from Borneo is perhaps to be sought for in some peculiarity in the condition of that island when the land sunk so as to separate it from the mainland. If we imagine the island to have sunk so much as to have become an impassable morass, covered with an impenetrable thicket of trees growing in the mud, such as is to be seen now on some parts of the coast of New Guinea, it would perhaps explain the absence of large animals. * Humeporpr, “ Asie Centrale,” i. 340 ; edit. 1843. + “At one place two rocks were pointed out to me in the stream, about thirty feet apart, called the Tiger’s Leap. I made many inquiries about these animals. They insist that eight came to their country,-——that they were not tiger cats as I had suggested. If such animals were ever here, they might have escaped from cages in the capital, as it was a common custom among the far Eastern Princes to keep these ferocious creatures, though I never heard of Bornean princes doing so. I have read somewhere that formerly there were a few tigers on the North-east coast, probably let loose by strangers, as the ancestors of the elephants were.”—Sr. Joun’s Life in the Forests of the Far East, ii. 115. + Everest, in “Annals of Natural History,” vol. viii. p- 327. 1842. § Gustav Rappg, “Reisen im Suden Von Ost-Siberien in den Jahren 1855-59.” St. Petersburg, 1862. || Bryra, op. cit., p. 55. BORNEAN MAMMALS. 97 Mr. Windsor Earl thus describes this character of the New Guinea Coast: ‘The sea-coasts of alluvial regions are invariably lined by belts of mangroves, which sometimes extend into the sea for miles beyond the level of high water; and in New Guinea, as well as on the northern coasts of Australia, the mangroves assume the character of forest trees about the upper parts, while the lower consists of a network of strong fibrous roots, which is absolutely impenetrable without the aid of the axe, and even then it is impossible to proceed unless the mud has sufficient consistency to support the weight of the body, which is rarely the case, except at dead low water. As the coast tribes, who derive their chief sustenance from the sea, have to cross this belt almost daily, they naturally prefer scrambling through the upper branches, which are strong enough to afford secure footing, while at the same time they entertwine with each other in so peculiar a manner, that with a little practice this singular mode of travelling can even be adopted by Europeans. Indeed, the writer on more than one occasion has seen a file of marines, with muskets on their shoulders, steadily making their way over mangrove swamps in this manner, although they certainly did not display the monkey-like agility that M. Modera has so graphically described.” The graphic account by M. Modera to which Mr. Earl refers, is as follows: “On the afternoon of the day in which the encounter took place, the naturalists, well armed, returned to the creek at high water, and saw a spectacle which was also witnessed by those on board with the aid of telescopes: namely, the trees full of natives of both sexes, who, with weapons on their backs, sprang from branch to branch like monkeys, making the same gestures as in the morning, and shouting and laughing in like manner, without our people being able to tempt them out of the trees by throwing presents towards them, so that they returned on board again.” * Although there are lofty mountains in Borneo (probably all volcanic), the greater part of that immense island is low and flat, and the mountains may have risen too late to have saved from extinction the animals which required solid footing and dry land for their existence. An examination of the Mammalian fauna of Borneo shows, that, with a very few exceptions (which may perhaps be capable of individual explanation), the mammals are either arboreal in their habits, or amphibious, or flying, or in some way or other capable of subsisting in a half-drowned land. On analysing its Fauna I find nine monkeys, all arboreal; three lemurs, all arboreal; twenty-seven bats, which may also be called all arboreal, at least none of them terrestrial; four Cladobates, small insectivorous animals which live like squirrels, and are known by the same name (Tupaias) by the Malays (also arboreal); one shrew-mouse; the Prinocercus Lowi and Hytomys Surmuuvs, the latter small insectivorous animals, found about 1500 or 2000 feet above the sea, are arboreal; the Bornean bear (arboreal); one polecat (also arboreal) ; two otters (amphibious) ; a Cynocatx (web- footed and amphibious); either the leopard or a small panther,t and one or two small felines that Schmarda is wrong in omitting it. Mr. Sr. JoHN, op. cit. ii. p. 252, mentions a small Panther among the prin- * “Verhaal van eene Reize naar de Zuid-west Kust van Niew-Guinea,” door I. Moprra. Haarlem, 1830. + Scumarpa, in his “Geographische Verbreitung der Thiere,” vol. ii. p. 504, does not mention the Leopard as one of the Bornean felines, and before I looked particularly into the question I trusted to his authority, and supposed that my hypothesis was at fault so far as regarded it ; forit is an expert climber, and resorts to the branches of trees either in pursuit of game or when it is itself pursued,—in fact, passes much of its life on the branches of trees ; conse- quently there was no reason why it should be excluded like the Tiger, which cannot climb. It turns out, however, cipal animals which frequent the forests of Borneo, and gives something like circumstantial evidence of its pre- sence. “I never saw,” says he, “the Tree Tiger in its wild state; but, as I have before noticed, its skin is large enough to form a fighting jacket for a man. The Tiger Cat and other felines are not uncommon.” Mr. Blyth quotes a paper in the “Singapore Chronicle,” for December, 1824, in which it is stated that “a species of Leopard, but not the royal Tiger,” is found in the northern peninsula of the Island. 98 MAMMALS. (arboreal) ; two civet cats and two Parapoxurt, allied animals, which, like most of the cat tribe, are at least good climbers, and so may be regarded as arboreal; one dog, which may have been introduced by man, and afterwards become wild; eleven squirrels and flying squirrels (arboreal) ; one porcupine; one manis (arboreal); one elephant (introduced and disputed as aboriginal) ; one rhinoceros (disputed) ; one tapir (disputed and half amphibious) ; one sow (possibly introduced and degenerated into a wild variety) ; one musk deer ; three small deer, and one ox (probably introduced). We have here eighty-two species, of which sixty-six are arboreal, and four amphibious, leaving only ten terrestrial animals, of which two are disputed, and four probably introduced, so that there remain only four small deer, a porcupine, and a shrew, which can be said not be to independent of actual dry land. Deducting the doubtful (disputed or imtroduced) species, we have thus only to account for the presence of six small animals, four of which have the lightest tread for their size of any order of animals, and might be able to skip over quaking bogs or shaking swamps which would not support heavier creatures, and none of which would require any great space of solid land for their preservation. It is different with the large Pachyderms, the elephant, rhinoceros, and tapir. If these really did exist there, large tracts of country would be required for their sustenance, and my hypothesis would have its feet knocked from under it. But their presence is disputed or capable of explanation. It is not, indeed, disputed that the Indian elephant is now found there, but it is known to have been introduced, and it is more than doubtful whether it was ever aboriginal, and the same doubt extends both to the rhinoceros and the tapir. The arguments for and against their aboriginal existence in Borneo, &c., will be found in the chapter which treats of the distribution of these animals. The sow is the only one of the larger animals which is not recorded as being found in some of the neighbouring islands, and this in itself is an argument for its being a wild variety of the domestic kind, which may have been introduced, especially as, with two exceptions, the different species of sow described as found in the various islands of the Indian Archipelago may all be varieties of one species descended from escaped individuals of the domestic sow of these countries. The inquiry suggests a comparison of the proportion between the arboreal and terrestrial species of Borneo with that of the neighbouring islands, as well as the mainland of India, but — as these countries also may have originally undergone something of the same phase which I suppose Borneo to have passed through before it acquired its present form, a further comparison with some other countries which are not liable to this objection is necessary to obtain a fair view of the relative character of their inhabitants. The following table shows this approximatively :— * 4 Occasionally Total NE Terrestrial, = ermanently Arboreal or te oreorless}| pot dis- roportion of Terrestrial Aateneeit. Bats. of Doubtful prtoneel or Aquatic. matedion Total. Couche tahales Habits. i introduced. BorNEO 32 27 7 66 4 6 76 |One-thirteenth. SUMATRA Q4 27 9 57 2 20 82 |One-fourth. JAVA 17 35 3 60 21 77 |One-fourth. Kast Inpis ain = e 2 ( Four-sevenths, or 33 17 11 57 85 148 |) morethanone-half, West AFRICA m= 5 : ] = ( Five-elevenths, or 4] 15 61 53 114 \ morethan one-half. Mippite and as : pe Thirteen-sixteenths, ‘ 9 18 2 99 2 128 159 or more than Souta AFRICA three-fourths. aie a aa BAY = s 7 ¢ esquimauxsf a a 7 OP Russian ~) AMERICA 5 paws = 2 tees e BAPFIN SOUTH PACIELC — pearay ay —— Oe MAP XV. LEOPARDS & JAGUARS ee Leepards Jaguars —souTin— ATLIANTIC INDLAN 1. OCEAN AUSTRAL SouTH 2S caf ESQUimaury PACIFIC OCE AN ss BAnowich I+ SOUTH PACIFIC OCEAN _ MAP, OV. PUMA OR AMERICAN PANTHER. wo ~ NORTH. ATLANTIC OCEAN | Tropic of Cancer TARTARY — it N37 CHINESE AN PERSIA yonae THI BE us TA Arcanceran! i Sw \ Tropic of Capricorn souTir =e fico ATLIANT IC wt BAN NDLIAN Fel MONGOLIA OCEAN — a ‘AUSTR AL Tha \ we _ _ Sewn | Lanwted) Lash Day&s LEOPARDS. 99 The most striking thing in this table is, not the greater number of arboreal and aerial forms in 3orneo, for that we see is quite equalled in India and West Africa, but the absence of terrestrial species. Whilst the terrestrial species form only a thirteenth of the whole in Borneo, and a fourth in Java and Sumatra (which, by the way, shows that these islands have been subjected, in a certain degree, to the same controlling influences as Borneo), in India and West Africa, they amount to a half, and in Middle and South Africa to more than three-fourths of the whole. It is as if the number of arboreal species had not been increased beyond what would appear to be the normal proportion under similar conditions (as why should it ?), but that the number of the terrestrial species was diminished ; swept away or never gained a footing. Lroparps (Map 15). The great Spotted Cats have an especial interest from the existence of living representatives in the New as well as in the Old World. The Old-world Leopard or Panther has many varieties, there being no fewer than nie synonyms attached to its name; there are, however, only two now recognised as sufficiently distinct to merit separation,—the Leopard and the Panther, the former being supposed to range over Africa, India, the Malayan region, Java and Sumatra, the latter to be confined to the Asiatic districts, and not to be found in Africa; and the opinion of many naturalists is that there is in reality only one species. The chief character relied on by those who admit two species is the relative length of the tail. The distribution of both Qf they be two) is general throughout Southern Asia, and in the Indian region is almost the same as that of the Tiger. Unlike the Tiger, it inhabits Ceylon and Borneo. A distinct species of Leopard is said by Mr. Swinhoe to be found in the island of Formosa. Remains which cannot be distinguished from those of the common leopard have been found in the diluvium of Middle Europe. Feuis Insis. The Ounce or Snow Leopard represents the Leopard in the high regions of Thibet, being, along with Frnis Manun and Canis Corsac, the most characteristic animals of the district. It extends into Amourland, but is not so common there as the Tiger. It is also found in the island of Saghalien. Herr Radde states that it is rather abundant in Western Siberia. It is less so in Eastern Siberia, although occasionally met with in the Bureja Mountains. Feris Onca (Map 15). The Jacuan is the representative of the Leopard in America, and their physical resemblance to each other is too great to allow any one to doubt that they have been derived either from a common ancestor or one from the other. How, then, are we to account for their being found on opposite sides of the Atlantic or Pacific! The closeness of their resemblance naturally suggests a recent divergence from the common stock, and we might expect that their distribution is due to the ancestors of the one or the other having found their way across from Europe to America, or from America to Europe, after the retreat of the glacial cold, and before the bridge afforded by the miocene Atlantis had been broken down. But unfortunately for this view we know that this bridge was severed before mammals had become established sufficiently far north to avail themselves of it. It is only northern plants and insects which have found their way from Europe to America after the return of warmth. If it had been open for the Leopard, it was also open for the Cave Lion and the Cave Hyena; and their absence in America is a strong presumption against such a bridge being then open. We are thus driven to refer the origin of these Leopards, in both hemispheres, to a period antecedent to the glacial epoch. Lund referred one or two of the bones found by him in the Caves of Brazil to the Jaguar. This determination has been questioned, but if true, it would not affect the question, as the bone deposits in these caves are of pliocene date, that is, post-glacial. 100 MAMMALS. Ferris Concotor. (Map 16.) I notice the Puma here on account of its size, although it is, perhaps, more nearly related to the Lynx than to the Lion, Tiger, or Leopard, and forms the passage between the large cats and lynxes. extensive, reaching from the the line of the mountains.* It has been recorded as It is confined to the New World, but its range there is Straits of Magellan to about 50° or 60° north latitude, especially in also extending into Tierra del Fuego.t But although there seems no reason why it should not, I can find no trustworthy record of its haying been actually found there. Most of the larger Cats swim across rivers, or arms of the sea, with ease. readily to the water; and Tigers have often been taken by the Amazon; the Leopard takes The Jaguar crosses the fishermen at Singapore, entangled in their nets while swimming across during the night. Fruts supata. The Curran, or Cheetah, is found in Syria, Arabia, Mesopotamia, Persia, South Siberia, West and South India. not. distinctly state that the Cheetah is not found in any part of Ceylon. * “United States General Report on the Zoology in the Explorations for a Railroad Route from the Missis- sippi to the Pacific,” vol. viii. p. 84. 1857. + Captain Fitzroy, in his “Voyage of the Beagle,” re- fers to the following passage from Byron’s “Loss of the Wager,” as proving that the Puma inhabits Tierra del Fuego: “Tn one of my walks, seeing a very large bird of prey upon an eminence, I endeavoured to come upon it unper- ceived with my gun, by means of the woods which lay at the back of that eminence: but when Ihad proceeded so far in the wood as to think I was ina line with it, I heard a growling close by me, which made me think it advisable to retire as soon as possible. The woods were so gloomy I could see nothing; but as I retired this noise followed me close till I had got out of them. Some of our men did assure me that they had seen a very large beast in the woods; but their description of it was too imperfect to be relied on.” “ As this tent was not large enough to contain us all, I proposed to four of the people to go to the end of the bay, about two miles distant from the bell-tent, to occupy the skeleton of an old Indian wigwam which I had dis- covered in a walk that way upon our first landing. This we covered to windward with sea-weed; and, lighting a fire, laid ourselves down in hopes of finding a remedy for our hunger in sleep: but we had not long composed our- selves before.one of our company was disturbed by the blowing of some animal at his face, and upon opening his eyes was not a little astonished to see, by the glimmering of the fire, a large beast standing over him. “He had presence of mind enough to snatch a brand from the fire, which was now very low, and thrust it at the nose of the animal, who thereupon made off... . In the morning we were not a little anxious to know how It is a moot question whether the Cheetah is found in Ceylon or Kelaart+ and Sir E. Tennent§ say no; the Panther is there known by that name, but they Baker, again,|| speaks of our companion had fared, and this anxiety was increased upon our tracing the footsteps of the beast in the sand in a direction towards the bell-tent. The impression was deep and plain of a large round foot, well furnished with claws. Upon acquainting the people in the tent with the circumstances of our story, we found that they too had been visited by the same unwelcome guest, which they had driven away by much the same expedient.”— Byron's Narrative of the Loss of the Wager. This reference, however, gives no support to the notion of the animal alluded to having been a Puma. In fact, the description of its footprints, which I have italicized, clearly shows that the animal could not have been a Puma. None of the Cat tribe leave any trace of a claw in their footprints. The claws being retractile, are furled back out of all risk of being blunted when the animal walks, and are only extended when used as weapons of offence. The Dogs, on the other hand, leave a very well-defined claw- mark. The Hyznas, which partake of the characters of both Dogs and Cats, and are transitional between them, leave a very faint trace. Dr. Kirk, by whose great experi- ence in Africa I have desired to fortify my abstract opinion, tells me that “it is well known to old hunters that the onty distinction between the spoor of a Lion and Hyzena is to be found in the mark of claws. The two are of the same size (nearly); but the Hyena shows to the skilled eye the imprint of a claw, which the Lion never does.” Commodore Byron and his party, therefore, had suf- fered a false alarm. The creature which had disturbed them was, doubtless, one of the harmless domestic dogs of the natives. ~ Keraarzt, “ Prodromus Faune Zeylanice,” 1852. § Tennent, Sir J. E., “ Ceylon.” || Baker, “ Hight Years’ Wanderings in Ceylon,” 1855. LYNXES. 101 both, and Blyth thinks that he clearly distinguishes between them.* It is either found also in Africa, or represented there by an almost identical species (FELIS GurraTa), which is found in Abyssinia and Senegal, and to the south of both. It has been made into a separate genus under the name of CyNnaILurRus. Smaier Cats,—Ocerorts, Serva, Lynxxs, &c. The smaller Cats are nearly equally distributed between Southern Asia and South America. In the former they assume much of the appearance of the common domestic Cat, which probably took its origin in Nepaul, and are doubtless the relations of the Leopard, while the Ocelots are equally clearly connected with the Jaguar. The Ocelots are all from tropical America, some species reaching as far north as Texas. The Cats, with the exception of the Serval, which is found in Africa, are from tropical Asia, extending through the islands of the Malayan Archipelago as far as Timor. Remains of some species about the size of the Panther have been found in the miocene and pliocene beds of Europe. Lynx. The Lynxes are, with three or four North American exceptions, all Old-world species. There are three European species; the more common of which is found in all the northern parts of the Old World; and there is difference of opinion as to whether the European species is the same as the Canadian or not, and to which the latter should be referred, supposing it to be the same as one of them. Thunberg’s Scandinavian species, F. Borzauis, has been thought to be it, but the preponderance of opinions seems opposed to this. If it is the same as any, it is with F. crrvanrta, the larger and not the commonest, that it should be amalgamated. In the time of the Romans the Lynx appears to have been tolerably frequent in France, whence considerable numbers were brought for the games of the Circus at Rome. Nowadays it is very rare, if not extinct there; it is said, indeed, that it may still be met with in the Alps and the Pyrenees, whence it some- times descends- into the southern departments of France. It likewise occurs in Spain, but is commoner in Germany, and still more so in the countries of the north, where its fur forms an article of commerce. It also inhabits the forests of Caucasus and Asia. The third and rarer species (F. parprna) is found in the warmer countries of Europe, such as Portugal, Spain, Sicily, Sardinia, Turkey, &e. There are four species of Lynx in North America. The large Lynx CaNnapeEnsis ranges across the whole of the north of that continent ; then a smaller species, the Bay Lynx (L. rurus) stretches from the Atlantic to the Pacific, throughout nearly the whole latitude of the United States, and is re- placed in Oregon and Washington territory by the Red Cat (L. rascrarus) ; a more southerly band of territory, reaching from Texas to Southern California, is inhabited by another species, the Texas Wild Cat (LL. macutatus), which however may prove to be only a variety of the Bay Lynx. No lynx has been found in South America. The Caracan and the Cuaus are found in South Asia and Africa. Two species, F. MANUL and F. isaBeLiina, inhabit Thibet. Hy#nas. (Maps 17 and 18.) As the Hyzna has points of resemblance both with the Dogs and the Cats they were for long bandied about from the one to the other, but Mr. Waterhouse’s determination, by which he places them next the Civet Cats, is that most generally adopted. Like the other carnivores, the Hyzna, although now confined to the warm regions of Africa and * Buiytu on Asiatic Felide, in “Proc. Zool. Soc.,” 1863, p. 182. 102 MAMMALS. Asia, had a much more northern range during the earlier recess of the glacial epoch. The remains of a large Cave species, Hymna sPELma, are found often in England, France, and Germany, in the same caves as those of the Cave Tiger or Lion, and the other extinct animals associated with it. It was most nearly allied to the fierce Spotted Hyzna (Hymna crocura) of the Cape, and there- fore may, like it, have been a spotted one. It seems not to have extended further south than the middle of Europe. The two species now living in Africa, the Striped Hyena (H. vurearis) and the Spotted Hyena (H. crocura), are supposed to have inhabited Europe at that time; some fossil remains found in the Pyrenees, and also in Auvergne, having been referred with doubt to the former; and the latter advanced probably as far north as the south flank of the Pyrenees. Fossil remains of it have been found in Sicily and Algiers. There is nothing in the climate of the south of Europe to prevent it living there now. This would give a range of the existing Hynas south of the Pyrenees and Alps, leaving the more northern parts of Europe for the cave species ; according to some paleontologists many extinct species have existed in Europe, but on a rigid examina- tion they have by others been reduced to three. It therefore was probably unknown in Africa proper until after the elevation of the Sahara. Lund found bones which he referred to this genus in the caverns of Brazil, but this is now ascertained to have been an erroneous determination. With this exception (which is no exception) IT am not aware of any statement of the Hyena having been found in the New World. It does not occur amongst the extinct species which have been detected in the Nebraska and Nio- brara Miocene deposits; remains of the Hymnopon, indeed, have been found in the Niobrara deposits as well as in Europe, but that is an animal which, although it bears a name akin to the Hyena, has no more relation to it than to any other feline or carnivorous species of the same size, if it even belongs to them at all. De Blainville classed it among the dogs; but the opinion of Cuvier and Laurillard was, that it was rather allied to the opossums. Remains of a fossil species of Hyaena have also been discovered in the Himmalayahs. All trace of the Cave Hyzena and Cave Lion disappears in the upper deposits of diluyium ; as M. Lartet points out, none are cited by M. Desnoyers among the bones of the Reindeer, the Spermophiles, the Hamster, and Lagomys, which he collected in the wells around Paris. Deducting varieties or doubtful species there are only three existing species of Hyena. Of these the Striped Hyena ranges through India, Persia, Turkey, Abyssinia, Egypt, Nubia, Libya, Algeria, Barbary, West Africa, and the Cape of Good Hope. In Johnston’s “ Physical Atlas,” the range of this Hyena is made to extend far up into Independent Tartary, on the east of the Caspian, but not to reach India. I cannot find any evidence of its being found so far to the north as it is there represented, and it is certainly found everywhere in India, with the exception of the lower part of Bengal, near Calcutta, which it now rarely reaches.* It is even found in the Himmalayahs, although very rarely. Mr. Everest mentions that he met with it there. The other two, the Brown and the Spotted Hyznas, are both from the Cape of Good Hope. There is an animal (Prorenes cristatus, or Lananpti), the Aard Wolf, or Earth Wolf of the Cape Colonists, whose proper place seems to be here. It is an aberrant form, which partakes of the characters both of the Civets and the Hyznas. It looks like a small Hyzena, with the teeth * Bryru, “ Catalogue of Mammalia,” in Museum of Asiatic Society, 1863, p. 44. WSK rh \ no™, DAY ESQUimaur acortanaf rece i] - we MONCOLIA NORTH | NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN er i 1 = iN yisee 7) UNDLAN OGEAS f ee _ Tropic of = Map| ie = — | Z, aif ees) eee 2 SsoUTH prow Wee y AT LIAN DT 1G | tw Ne eh oy MAP XVII. ~- ag CER DISTRIBUTIGN OF | call — FOSSIL HYANAS. : ey: ae os ee IE wows Cave Hyanas s @ | « we FT Eve ky ‘a; oc is A oN BRB Striped: (H. Striata/) i WO Spotted, (1. Gocuta/) = ¢ + ' : + wo) BE 7 Siveclensis — i = | Ke | 150 pau) 20 oO 30 oO ED E60 ae 90 120. 150 =} ean f Ne Bo Gee er: Sel) MONGOLIA 4 oy tae Sav sow sl ats NORTH NORTH ¥. "Sea | CHINESE EmMPIR ATLANTIC | —_\— OCEAN’ | Tropic of Canete rpuwan TH I BET — ine Banowich It PACIFIC reer (Ga) Se 10) fF m. f xhusraaua/ od } SOUTH PACLFIC OCEAN 4 2+} a) f MAP XVIII. EXISTING HYANAS. The Striped’ Hyana bef » Spotted Nvanw | mmf, DEL the’ brown z =a ps = (Mvana L Protedes Latandia | 10 cD ea So CIVET CATS. 103 of a Civet, and Dr. Gray, consequently places it with the Viverripm.* It inhabits the Cape, Natal, and other parts of South Africa. The Lycaon picrus or Venaticus, which occupies an intermediate position between the Hyenas and Dogs, I place among the Dogs. Viverripa—Crver Cars, Ionneumons, &c. (Map 19.) With one solitary exception, the Civets are confined to the Old World. The exception is, the Cacomixle, Bassaris asrura of Lichstenstein, from Mexico, which has been placed by most naturalists among the Viverripm. It is a puzzling aberrant form, and being the only Viverra found in the New World, its right to a place in that family has been viewed with suspicion by naturalists. There is, however, little doubt that it truly belongs to it. Its feline character is recognised by the American miners, who call it the “ Civet” and Mexican or Ring-tailed Cat. “This beautiful animal,” says Dr. Newberry, “which was formerly supposed to be peculiar to Texas and Mexico, has since been found somewhat abundantly in California. The district in which it occurs, if not exclusively, certainly most abundantly, is that including the foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada, on the eastern side of the great trough of the San Joaquin and Sacramento. In this half- wooded region, the home of the gold-hunter, it is well known. The miner calls it the ‘mountain cat ;’ it frequently enters his tent, and plunders his provision bag. When caught, as it often is, it becomes so familiar and amusing, and does so much to relieve the monotony of the miner’s life, that it is highly valued and commands quite a large price. “The Bassaris is, perhaps, equally efficient as a mouser with the common cat, is much more playful, and, to a large number of the members of every community who are cat-haters, might be a desirable substitute.” + Putting aside this animal there is not a single Civet in the New World, while of Weasels and Martens there are plenty. Dr. Gray has lately published a careful revision of the Viverrids,+ containing the result of much study and observation, the group having for long been a favourite one with him. He divides it into no fewer than thirty-six genera; but for our present purposes it will be sufficient to divide them into two groups, which Dr. Gray distinguishes as cat-footed and dog-footed. The former contains the Civets, best known from the perfume secreted by one or two of them, from ‘Which the whole group has been named, and the Parapoxuri, so named in reference to their habit of cxrrying the tail curled up, which justifies the meaning of its derivation, ‘“ unexpected-tailed ;” and the latter the IcHNrumons, celebrated for their exploits in destroying venomous snakes and the egos of crocodiles. Fossil remains of both groups have been found in miocene strata in the south of France. The living species are nearly equally divided between Asia and Africa, but no species is found in both, unless the animal called the Tunga, which is common on the island of Anjuan, one of the Commoro Islands, near Madagascar, should prove to be the same as the Javan Viverra Rasse of Dr. Horsfield, which Dr. Gray mentions that Dr. Peters, of Berlin, considers probable.§ Dr. Peters observes that the fauna of these islands agrees more with that of Madagascar and India than with that of * Gray, in “ Proc. Zoolog. Soc.,” 1864, p. 507. { Gray, in “Zoological Society’s Proceedings,” 1864, + Newsrrry’s “ Report on Mammals, in U. S. Pacific p. 502. Railroad Exploration,” vol. vi. pp. 40, 41. § Ibid. p. 515. 104 MAMMALS. Continental Africa.* So far as regards the neighbouring Commoro Islands and Madagascar, it does not appear that there is any such preponderance in favour of India. They seem to be equally allied to India and Africa. A strong current certainly runs from India to the Commoro Islands, and east coast of Africa, and, as might be expected, a number of Indian plants are found there which are undoubtedly due to this source; individual specimens of one sex only, and growing solitary on the sea-shore, being sometimes the sole examples found.t The presence of such fragments of the Indian flora can of course be only accounted for by colonization from India. But so far as regards the Mammals, with one exception (the Indian and Australian Fox-bat, Prrropus Epwarpsit), which is found in the Commoro Islands and Madagascar, and not on the Continent of Africa, the affinities of all the types are as much African as Indian. The locality of the true Civet is the north of Africa, extending as far south and west as Fernando Po. With the exception of it, all the true Civets inhabit India, China, and the Malayan Archipelago. The other African Civets belong to the section called Genettes, and they are met with from the Cape of Good Hope to Egypt, occurring in Abyssinia on the east and Gambia on the west. Genettes are not found in Asia, and only one species, G. rELINA, occurs in Europe. The CynoGatz is a web-footed, amphibious, otter-like Civet, found in Borneo. . An animal from the Gabon, first doubtfully referred by M. Du Chaillu to this genus, proves to be a new Insectivore. Two genera, Gaxipicris and Gatip1a, which have been thought to belong to the Pole-cats, but are now properly included by Dr. Gray in this family, are confined to Madagascar. Four species of these are all that are yet known. The Parapoxurt are, with one exception from West Africa (P. Brnorarus), entirely Asiatic, and limited to India, China, and the Malayan Peninsula and Archipelago; some six are confined to continent of India. The Herrrsres, or Ichneumons, have the same distribution, as the Civets, upwards of forty occur in Africa, and of these more than thirty are only recorded as having been met with in East and South Africa and Madagascar. To the African portion of them no doubt belongs a small species, a straggler into Andalusia (H. Wipprincroni). The remainder are distributed over the Indo-Malayan region, with the exception of two which reach Persia and Cashmere. The well-known species (H. IcHnEuMoN), which destroys the eggs of the crocodile, is found in Egypt and the north of Africa. The enemy of the Cobra (H. Grisnus) is found from Nepaul to the south of Hindostan. * Prrmrs, “Reise Nach. Mozamb.—Mammaiia,” 113. he said), all females, growing on the shore near the mouth + Dr. Kirk, for example, mentioned to me the in- of the Zambesi, and no males. stance of four solitary trees of an Indian Cycas (I think | | | | = | | | Be? > 4 nd warren b GREENLAND § | — eee ij Lk np -- ESQUIMAUX ra OCEAN © eee eee NORTH J ATLANTIC | INDEPENDENT a % TARTARY CHINE SIE EMPIRE? puwan TH 1 B ET | a 0 INDLAWN O@EAN sour PACIFIC OCEAN | TRALTA i | if | mea MAP XTX te 1 Et scarica | | | 7a| v4 WA ae RE ee | vanoitone Hof ee Ss — | t i ti | » Givets, — Ichnewmons | lx H |B R wN | Ou (eee nN | , Paradoxurv ke: | | | | | | | Note: The intensity of colour represents the ——— = ES ee 2) | es | es eee a greater preponderance ot specves. | | | | : | | 1 = | | | | } 90 “60. 30. o SUS (ae SS aee es 1 Day & Son{Cimicedj Lich = seorsanch 2 OR | x ORTH — | ATLANTIC | OCEAN _| Tropic of Cancer MAP XX (Gia RQUreEN)) INDIAN OCEAN x ~~ SAusTR 3" re \ TALS LESS ALTA SourM i rh: \ 4 Day & Son( Limited) Lith > ae an * 7 — 9 r 2 dagen 6, ¥)* + i . aD A 105 CHAPTER XIII. DOGS AND FOXES, EXTINCT AND LIVING. Cantipm: (Maps 20-23).—Exrincr sprcies. Fossil remains of animals belonging to this family have for nearly one hundred years been known to exist, Esper having first recognised them in remains from the caverns of Franconia in 1772. But it is at a much more recent date that the remains of genera have been distinguished. The skeletons of the Dog and the Wolf ~ are so nearly alike, that it is scarcely p¢,sible in dealing with remains belonging to an unknown canine species to say to which of them | 4 belongs. It has, however, been pretty satisfactorily established by M. Schmerling, that certain bewes belonging to an animal weaker than the Wolf and larger than the Fox, which were found in caves in the neighbourhood of Liege, belonged to the domestic Dog; and this determination is of the more yalue that it was made in 1838, long before the present views regarding the antiquity of man had begun to be accepted. The domestic Dog so discovered was at that time supposed to be a wild animal from which the “ friend of man” was afterwards derived. A different signification is now placed on its occurrence. It is now supposed to have been a specimen of our existing Dog,—a domestic Dog belonging to the savage man of the period ; and its presence is adduced as one of the proofs of the then existence of man, as it is assumed that where the domestic Dog was, its master, man, would not be far off. But the separa- tion of the Dog from the Wolf is not the only difficulty which paleontologists have had to overcome in dealing with the fossil remains of this family. When certain bones were recognised as belonging to the Wolf they were at first referred to an extinct species, which was named C. spELmus, or the Cave Wolf, but more careful examination has since shown that they do not differ from those of the existing Wolf. That animal was therefore already in existence at that period, a circumstance which strengthens the probability of the Dog, too, being the same as the existing Dog. It is a remarkable circumstance that none of our truly domestic animals have ever been found but in company with man; it is as if they have not appeared until he was ready for them, and that when they did appear they came endowed with such a craving for his society that the process of domestication was short and easy. Probably no objection will be taken by any one to the assumption that in whatever way the domestic breeds have come under the control of man, a certain amount of modification has been its result. But the chief point on which a difference of opinion will occur is whether the original progenitor of the modern animal was a distinct species, or is merely a captured and tamed indi- vidual of one of the wild species which are still in existence. So far as regards the Dog, the authorities in favour of its being a tame variety of the Wolf or the Jackal chiefly depend on the numerous peculiarities which are common to both, and on their coupling together and having fertile progeny. The authors who have taken an P 106 MAMMALS, opposite view are divided in opinion as to whether all are the descendants of one species, or whether they have not been derived from several. Their variability, their universal commixture, the perfect fertility of the produce of the most widely separated varieties, are arguments in favour of their being only one species. The remarkable difference between some of the varieties is the argument usually most relied on for the plurality of stocks. Remains of the Dog have been discovered by Lund in the caverns of Brazil, and it is interesting to find that the extinct species (SpEorHos Pactvorus) to which they belong has much analogy to species now living in the same country, viz., C. cancrivorus and C, primavus,—not the Nepalese C. prrmayus of Hodgson, which, by the way, on the strength of native traditions, he thinks, may be the original from which the domestic Dog has descended. Extstinc Dogs anp Wotves. The distribution of existing species is pretty equally divided between Asia, North America, and South America: Africa has fewer, and Europe least of all. The difference of cpinion as to what constitutes species in this family is so great that it is not easy to make a fair estimate of their number. But, according to my reckoning, Asia possesses fifteen ; North America, ten; South America, nine; and Africa, eight. And a number of these species are found in more than one of these countries. Europe hay five, four of which are also found either in Asia, Africa, or America. Australia has only one, the Dingo, which, being the sole placental animal of any size in that country, has been supposed to have been introduced by man ;—not an untenable proposition, if we admit the existence of a great Pacific Continent peopled by men far back in geological time; it is thoroughly wild, but approaches the domestic Dog, and is probably more nearly allied to the Jackal of India and the Indian Archipelago than any other species. It, or a variety of it, is also found in New Zealand; and, according to Polack (i. 320), “it has been an inhabitant there some two or three centuries;”’ but it is said to have been introduced from Australia. ‘The Dog of the natives,” says Dieffenbach, ‘is not the Australian Dingo, but a much smaller variety, resembling the Jackal, and of a dirty yellowish colour. It is now rarely met with, as almost the whole race of the island has become a mongrel breed.” * Professor M‘Coy, in a recent comparison between the ancient and modern natural history of Victoria, + states that he had identified remains of the Canis Dineo in the bone caverns lately opened beneath the basalt flows at Mount Macedon. They were found associated with those of Macrorus Tiran, and of recent species of Hypstprymnus and Hypromys. He infers from this and’ other arguments that the Dingo is an indigenous animal. But, as Mr. Falconer says, there is no evidence that man may not then have been an inhabitant of Australia, and the Dingo introduced along with him, long anterior to the eruptions at Mount Macedon. + The range of the Wolves stretches quite across Europe and Asia, from the German Ocean to the Pacific. 'Temminck describes a species in Japan as distinct under the name C. HopopHYLAX, but it will, no doubt, be also found in Eastern Asia. The true Wolves are confined to the northern portion of the northern hemisphere. The common Wolf (C. Lupus) was, until a comparatively late period, a denizen of the forests in England. In the early history of England there are various laws relating to them which testify * Dimrrenvacd, “Travels in New Zealand,” p. 184. pp. 145, 147. + M‘Coy on “Ancient and Modern Natural History, t Fatconer, in “Natural History Review,” January 1860,” in Ann. “Nat. Hist.” 3rd Series, 1862; vol. ix. 1863, p. 96. pT (pavmnry) wos a Kor 091 0s 0% anti fan 0 OT 02 OS OOL oO ag) 0% 0% VTA | | ONW14095 { = ete IE NVILV | ‘es LYON savory 08 ool iyai OF O9L 720 yy, au 7 bi Ma, dat) Jo o1dowy, —— Nvaoo AVE Niddavue Fast PUNDS 210 YOR MPV SIOPOI Bg) REN “VON | | | mes hug wz soapoy-bog 08) Katz mrp amas soap PT YY | oe ay ile} Nps) a TS dvi | | ‘ = | NW¥aD0O OTaToVva Win0s 08 | | =| aes . = | _ he |, | = i° | 1 - ol j Hivernaars F er aaa ce a oe al ave xosanH WOLVES. 107 not only to their number, but also to the injury which they inflicted on the inhabitants. King Edgar commuted the punishment of various crimes into the delivery of ‘a certain number of wolves’ skins; and he cleared Wales of them by commuting a tax of gold and silver imposed on the Welsh princes by Athelstane, into an annual tribute of 300 wolves’ heads. They must have been felt to be a serious scourge before this step would have been taken, and we are through it enabled to ascertain how many wolves go to make a serious scourge, for in four years they were all rooted out; therefore there must then have been 1200 Wolves in Wales. I suspect a less number turned loose in the ‘principality nowadays would be thought a very sufficient scourge. In England, however, they flourished for long afterwards. In Edward I.’s reign they were so bad that a wolf-hunter-general was appointed; and it would appear that the counties which were most overrun with them were Gloucester, Worcester, Hereford, Salop, and Stafford; for, on the 14th May, 1281, a mandamus was issued commanding all bailiffs in those counties to assist “ Peter Corbet,” the wolf-hunter-general, in their destruction. Various estates are still held on the tenure of hunting and keeping the neighbouring districts free of Wolves; Wormhill in Derbyshire, and Harbottle Castle, and Otterburne, in the north, are so specified. In the reign of Athelstane they had so abounded in Yorkshire that a retreat was built at Flixton in that county, “to defend passengers from the Wolves that they should not be devoured by them.” The date of their final extirpation in England is not known, but they still infested Sherwood Forest in the reign of Henry VL., for in the eleventh year of his reign Sir Robert Plumpton obtained a bovate of land called Wolf-hunt Land, in the county of Nottingham, “by service of winding a horn and chasing or frightening the Wolves in the forest of Sherwood.” The last Wolf in Scotland was killed by Sir Ewen Cameron of Lochiel, in 1680. They also inhabited Ireland, and seemed to have lingered longer there than in cither England or Scotland. The last presentment for killing them in the county of Cork was made in 1710. Whether the European Wolf is the same as the North American Wolf is a much-vexed question. The preponderance of opinion in former times was rather in favour of their identity, while nowadays the opposite view prevails. The same difficulty occurs with regard to all the Wolves found in North America. There is no middle ground between considering them all distinct species or all varieties of one species. There is the pure white Wolf of the Upper Missouri; the dusky, blackish, plumbeous Wolf of the Missouri; the entirely black Wolf of Florida and the Southern States; and the entirely red or rufous Wolf of Texas, all varying in shape as well as in colour, the more southern ones appearing usually more slender and standing higher on the legs, partly perhaps in consequence of the comparative shortness and compactness of their fur. These, however, are local in their distribution, the more common and generally distributed colour being grey, which is found all over North America, from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic regions. How far it’ extends into Mexico we do not exactly know. Dr. Spencer Baird is of opinion that, putting aside the Prairie Wolf cor Coyote, which he thinks intermediate between the Wolf and the Fox, there is only one species of Welf in North America, and that distinct from the European Wolf.* The whole of the South American Canin belong to the Dogs and not to the Foxes, as some naturalists have thought. This is proved, not only by their not possessing the foxy smell of the latter, but by anatomical distinctions, such as the conformation of the post-orbital process of the frontal bone, pointed out by Burmeister as one of the most characteristic differences between the Wolves and the Foxes. Like the Wolves, too, they have the pupil of the eye circular, while in the Fox it is * Barrp in “ United States’ Pacific Railroad Exploration,” 1857 vol. viii. p. 105. 108 MAMMALS. elliptical. On the other hand, they have the character of tail of the Foxes, their tails bemg even longer than theirs, but this is not a point of importance as a character, many of our domestic Dogs haying bushy, long, fox-like tails. Of the South American species the C. supara of Brazil is the largest and fiercest. It is provided with a mane, and has points of resemblance to the Hyzna. Burmeister* describes a new dog C. ENTRERIANUS, of the section Lycalopex, apparently peculiar to the province of Entre Rios, isolated in form as in position by the two great rivers which form the natural boundaries of that After passing the southern tropic we find a new form of Dog—the Antarctic Wolf, It is found province. C. MacEeiianircus—which lives in holes like a fox, and subsists chiefly on birds. throughout Patagonia and in the Falkland Islands. The Jackals range over the whole of Africa and the southern parts of Asia. It is to this section, too, that any species of Dog found in the Indian Archipelago are to be referred. To it also belongs the Australian Dingo. Doc-Hymna: Lycaon venaticus or prcrus. This is a very remarkable animal, which inhabits South Africa, and partakes of the characters both of the Hyana and the Dog, but, as already It has the teeth of a Dog with the feet of a Hyzena, four toes on both anterior and posterior legs, instead of five on the anterior and four on the posterior It has the Hyzena’s taste for foul feeding as well as the Dog’s for fresh game. said, approaches most nearly to the Dog. asin the Dog. It hunts by the scent like Dogs, and in packs like Wolves.t They have more than one cry—one It has the ears and the transversely-striped coloration of the Hyzna, and a similar remarkable admixture of the The advocates of the formation of species by hybridization could not find a more satisfactory illustration like the bark of a Dog, and another like the laughing chatter of the Hyzna.t characters of the two animals in other respects. They live in holes in desolate open plains. for their purpose; while those who, like myself, do not admit hybridization as a direct instrument in the formation of species, will see in this animal one of those instances which are occasionally, but not often, to be met with, where a species seems to stand exactly midway between animals which are still existing. * Burmeister, “ Reise durch die La Plata staaten mit besonderen Riicksight auf die Physische Beschaffenheit und die Culturzustand der Argentinischen Republik-aus- gefiihrt in den Jahren 1857-1860,” 2 vols. 8vo. Halle, 1861. 7 “These animals invariably hunt together in large organized packs, varying in number from ten to sixty, and by their extraordinary powers of endurance and mode of mutual assistance, they are enabled to run into the swiftest, or overcome the largest and most powerful antelope. Their pace is a long, never tiring gallop, and in the chase they relieve one another, the leading hounds falling to the rear when fatigued, when others, who have been husbanding their strength, come up and relieve them. Having suc- ceeded in bringing their quarry to bay they all surround him, and he is immediately dragged to the ground, and in a few moments torn to pieces and consumed.”—Gorpon Cummine, A Hunter's Life in South Africa, vol. i. p. 169. The description might also do for an account of the doings of a pack of hungry Wolves. It does not follow that it is the descendant of the one and the parent of the { “Their voice consists of three different kinds of cry, each being used on special occasions. One of their cries is a sharp angry bark, usually uttered when they suddenly behold an object which they cannot make out. Another resembles a number of monkeys chattering together, or men conversing when their teeth are chattering violently from cold. This ery is emitted at night, when large numbers of them are together, and they are excited by any particular occurrence, such as being barked at by domestic dogs. The third ery, and the one most commonly uttered by them, is a sort of rallying note to bring the various members of the pack together when they have been scat- tered in following several individuals of a troop of ante- lopes. It is a peculiarly soft and melodious ery, yet nevertheless may be distinguished at a great distance. It very much resembles the second note uttered by the cuckoo, which visits our island during the summer months ; and when heard on a calm morning echoing through the distant woodlands it has a very pleasing effvct.”—Gorpon CUMMING, op. cit. vol. i. p. 170. | it pe: | | e inp L- BP vf ares } CREENLAND § i RUSSIAN = S “Ef america > 5 DEPENDENT ps” | goer woncotia Le CY raRTaRY pk CHINESE EMPIRE S4 rowan TH I BET amt as. wR igo Songcas SEA NDIAN OCEAXK ATLANTIC rhe A NH y INEAS oXeXeLT. | ALLeceD DISTRIBUTION OF __J AMERICAN RED FOX Cc. FULVUS = Timited) Lith | ATLANTLC | OCEAN Se aan _| ee of f CenefE _ 9 : 4 a Dk , BENGAL BSE MARQUEGAS I¥ NDIAN OGEAN MAP XXIII. - OTTERS Tatra vulgaria Banas Other spectes - Day & San! Commed) Lith FOXES. 109 others. The homologies of an allied species may be reproduced along with the qualities of the direct progenitors of the species. Foxss. The Foxes are a well-marked section of this family, differing from the Wolves and Jackals No All the stories as to crosses between Dogs and in various characters, but always at once recognisable by the peculiar odour which they emit. Dog ever has the foxy smell, no Fox is without it. Foxes I believe to be unfounded. The range of the Foxes is very similar to that of the common Wolf; in fact, it is the same, with the addition of a more southerly extension, which, in the Old World, does not go further south than the Mediterranean district, including North Africa, and in the New not beyond Central America. The Arctic fox is found in the boreal or arctic regions of Europe, Asia, and America, being one of the very few circumpolar animals whose characters are everywhere identical. It occurs in Spitz- bergen and in Iceland,* as well as upon all the Arctic mainlands. This and the Leeming are the only mammals which can be considered aboriginal in Iceland, but it is fully as likely that they may have crossed from Greenland by means of sea-floes or icebergs. A doubt similar to that entertained regarding the Wolves exists as to the identity of the common red Fox of Eastern North America with the common Fox of Europe. Dr. Giebel con- siders them the same,t but in this family, perhaps, even more than in others, I think he carries the suppression of species to an excessive extent. posed species. He throws together no less than twenty sup- Some from the lofty Himmalayahs and the frozen Steppes of Central Asia, and others from Nubia and Durfour. I cannot agree with him in this. Such differences in localities are almost sure to be attended with a difference in character; and although in some families the distinction of characters is slighter than in others, when we know that they are so we must make corresponding allowances. As to the American Red Fox, for instance, although very much alike, there are, certainly, appreciable differences between it and our common species. In the American Fox, the texture of the fur is longer, softer, and silkier; its tail is more bushy, and its longest hairs are three inches instead of two inches long; its colour is brighter, and has more of a golden hue, which gives the American species much beauty; the muzzle is shorter, and the eyes closer set, and there are a number of other distinctions of about the same value. Wagner refuses to admit the distinction of species, and asserts that the differences are owing to the climate, the specimens which he examined having been boreal; but the distinctions, such as they are, are found in examples from all latitudes, and it is always easy to separate the American from European specimens. Notwithstanding this, so close are the two species, that there is a prevalent impression that the American species is the descendant of individuals of the European red Fox, imported into America many years ago, and allowed to run wild and overspread the country; an impression which receives unexpected support from the fact that there have been as yet no remains of the red Fox detected among the fossils derived from the Carlisle and other bone-caves. The grey Fox is abundantly represented there, but not a trace of the other.¢ ° * Mr. Newton makes the following remark upon the colour of the Arctic Fox in Iceland :—“I have never seen it remarked, though it is unquestionably the case, that nearly all the Icelandic examples of Canis lugopus are blue’ foxes; that is to say, their winter coat is. nearly the same colour as their summer coat. This fact, I think, must be taken in connexion with the comparatively mild climate which Iceland enjoys in winter, and if so, is analogous to the circumstance of the Alpine hare (Lepus timidus Linn. non auct.), always becoming white in winter in Scandinavia, generally so in Scotland, but seldom in Treland.”— Atrrep Newmon, in “ Proc. Zool. Soc.” Dee. 1864, p. 497. + GIEBEL, “Saugethiere,” 1859, p. 827. t General Report on Zoology in “ United States’ Pacific Railroad Exploration,” vol. viii. p. 180, Washington, 1867. 110 MAMMALS. Dr. Newberry mentions some other facts regarding the distribution of these two species. He says, “that in Ohio, Kentucky, and Michigan, the most densely wooded of the middle States, the pioneer settler found only the grey Fox, or at least that species occupied the territory so nearly exclusively that they considered any others as, like themselves, interlopers. As the forest gradually fell before the axe of the woodman, and broad and continuous stretches of waving grain replaced the thickly-set trunks of oak, ash, and hickory, the grey Fox became gradually more rare, while the swifter, stronger, and more cunning red Fox by degrees almost entirely usurped its piace. Hence the farmers supposed they had themselves introduced this farm-yard pest, and that it had been the companion of their migration from the east; and as it was then confounded with the common Fox of Europe (V. vulgaris) it was supposed to be an importation, which ultimately would drive off its weaker relative and possess the continent. “Since, however, the red Fox has been found in various places in the Far West, and spread over all the region west of the Rocky Mountains, and the red Fox of America has been pronounced different from the red Fox of Europe, this theory falls to the ground, and we must look for some other cause to account for the usurpation of the habitat of the grey Fox by the red. “The grey Fox is evidently best fitted by nature for the occupation of a wooded country ; he even has to a certain degree the power of climbing trees not possessed by the Red Fox, while he rarely or never forms burrows, having no cover but such as the forest furnishes, and thus is comparatively unprotected in an open country, where the red Fox would be quite at home. To these differences of habit, rather than to any other cause, I would attribute the change of distribution noticed in the two species.” * On the subject of the red Fox being possibly of recent introduction, Dr. Baird remarks that the fact of their present abundance ahd extent of distribution is no barrier to the reception of this idea, as the same has been the case with horses brought over and set at liberty by the Spaniards, after the discovery of America. As is well known the immense herds of these animals in Mexico, Texas, and the Western plains, are the lineal descendants of the imported horse. Nor is there any serious difficulty to be met with in the different characteristics of the American animal, as the finer fur, brighter colour, narrower and more delicate head, sharper muzzle, &c., as it is in precisely such peculiaritics that the Anglo-American race differs from its English stock. The establishment and spread of the common brown rat, wherever man has gone, might be cited as another instance of rapid colonisation, but neither of them is quite a parallel case. It is not as if there were no other North American species similar to our Fox, from which the American spevies might have been derived. There is another species very closely allied to it, which is found in Central America, and is not imagined by Dr. Baird to be other than a good native species. He calls it a magnificent Fox, “the finest species known,” but so like the common species “that it is difficult to describe it intelligibly except by comparison with the other species.” Another difficulty is that C. runvus, the species supposed to be derived from the English Fox, is said to be.also found in Japan, where certainly the English Fox was never imported nor turned loose. It may be that the determination of the Japanese species by Temminck is erroneous, the rather that he records it under the name of C. arcunrzus (which is that of the silvery variety of the American Fox), and moreover specifies the common English Fox as * NEWBERRY, Report, in op. cit. vol. vi. p. 39. FOXES. 111 also found in Japan. It is proper to add,. however, that while the fact of the same species being found in Japan is not entirely free from doubt, a similar doubt, although one of greatly less weight, applies to its absence on the west coast of America. Lewis and Clarke, who, however trustworthy as explorers, can scarcely be cited as authorities in natural history, do state that the red Fox is found on the coast region of Oregon. Dr. Baird, however, has satisfied himself that the species to which they refer is different. There is another American fox which possesses some interest in regard to distribution—the small Kit Fox, C. venox, from nearly the very centre of North America, viz. the region about the Nebraska and Missouri district. Its peculiar habitat is the dry desert-like country lying on either side of the Rocky Mountains, extending to the Cascade range on the west, and to the timbered lands of the lower Missouri on the east. In the basin of the Upper Columbia it is more common than It is said to be possessed of great swiftness, whence its name, but this is now It is no swifter, indeed it is not so swift as the red or grey any other species. found to have been greatly exaggerated. Foxes.* This is the nearest approach to the Jackals which occurs in either North or South America. It is, however, a true Fox. Its analogue in the Jackals is the Corsaec or Adive, which inhabits similarly elevated regions in Central Asia. and is a very handsome animal, so that in the reign of Charles IX. of France it was the It is not quite so large as the domestic cat, but a little larger than a stoat, fashion for the Parisian ladies to make a pet of it instead of little dogs;+ and it is said to have been then common in Paris, although brought from Asia at great expense. The American C. Vrrox is a little larger, being about two feet in length. If the central position on highlands in the heart of the two great continents were anything more than an analogical resemblance, we might apply the phenomena of the glacial epoch to explain their occurrence, but it is not The distinction between the Dogs (that is to say, the Dogs, Wolves, and Jackals) and the Foxes, is too well marked to allow of the circumstance being regarded as more than a co- called for. incidence. To this section belongs the Zerda or Fennec from North Africa, which My. Tristram describes as an amiable and interesting pet.t Prince Charles Lucian Bonaparte described a Fox from Italy, under the name of Canis MELANOGASTER. He considered it to resemble the American C. ruLVUS more nearly than any other The limits of its habitat are not yet very exactly defined, but would appear to comprise the northern half of the Fox, || but it is not generally accepted as more than a variety of our common Fox. * NEWBERRY, in “ United States’ Pacific Railroad Ex- ploration,” 1856. + Cuenur, “Encycl. d’ Hist. Nat.” Carniv. vol. ii. p. 75. 1853. { “This little animal burrows throughout the whole of the rolling sand deserts which extend from Waregla to Souf, in the north of Africa. We used to see them brought into market by the Arab boys at Waregla, Tuggurt, and Souf. I had two for some months which became very tame, and nestled every night by my side. No pet can rival the Fennec in grace and interest. Notabove half the size of a cat, it has all the wiles and actions of a fox; and when alarmed by the sight of a stranger will run under a chair or into a corner, and vociferously give forth its tiny bark. My little favourites were fed on milk and morsels of meat, but showed great fondness for dates. The large ears and long bushy tail of this lovely creature give it somewhat the appearance of a squirrel.’— Tristram, H. B., The Great Sahara, p. 383, 1860. || “Iconographia della Fauna Italica,” di Carlo Luciano Bonaparte, Principe de Musignano, Fol. Rome, 1837. 2 MAMMALS. Mediterranean district, viz. Italy south of the Apennines, Greece, the south of Spain, and the islands of the Mediterranean. It might have been expected that, as is the case with many other animals, it should, seeing it extends over so much of the Mediterranean district, have also ranged over the whole; but this is not the case, for C. Nmoricus of the French Institute takes its place on the south of the Mediterranean. That species, although very like it, differs from it in the osteology of the head. 113 CHAPTER XIV. CARNIVORA continucd—MUSTELIDZ—WEASELS, POLECATS, OTTERS, BADGERS. Iv has been proposed to divide this family into various sections, which, when limited to the more marked species, are excellent divisions, but when other (transition) species are taken into account will not answer, as the transition species fill up the intervals between the proposed sections so completely as to destroy the characters on which they are founded. De Blainville, for instance, proposed to separate the Badgers, the Polecats and Weasels, under the name of Subursint, or little Bears. This looks very natural, the Badger having much more resemblance to a Bear than a Weasel, but then, by means of the genus Mepuiris, or the Skunks, the Badgers glide imperceptibly into the Polecats, so that it becomes a better arrangement to keep them all in one group. That group for our present purposes, however, may be conveniently divided into the Otters, the Weasels, the Polecats, the Skunks, the Badgers, and the Wolverenes or Gluttons. About half of this family is found in North and South America; a sixth in Southern Asia, that is to say, in India, Malacca, and the Indian Archipelago; a ninth is found in Europe and North Asia, or Asia and North America; another ninth is confined to North Asia; and the remaining ninth belongs to Africa and the Mediterranean district. None are peculiar to Europe alone; but about nine species are spread over the whole extent of the north of Kurope and Asia. One species is found both in Europe and North America, and two in both America and Asia. The family is better represented in cold and temperate climates than in warmer countries, and eyen in the latter many of the tropical species are only found in moun- tainous districts or at high elevations, or in some way or other indicate that they are not naturally tropical in their character. Fossil remains of extinct species have been found in recent deposits both in the Old and New World in the same districts as are now inhabited by existing species. Orrers. (Map 23.) The common English Otter is found all over Europe and the north of Asia as far as Japan, but is becoming scarce, it being much sought after for its fur; a good skin is worth as much as 8/. or 4/. on the spot. It must have abounded in former times in Ireland, as we read of their skins being an article of commerce, felting forming a large part of the exports of Ireland in very early times.* Besides the common Otter and the Sea Ctter, Enuypris MARINA, which is * “Tn 1408 we find John, son of Dermod, charged with This, which is the last entry accessible relative to the two otters’ skins for his rent of Radon (Rathdown) for family of Gillamocholmog, is recorded in an unpublished the same year ; five otters’ skins for the two ycars and a__ Pipe Roll of 10 Henry 1V.”—See the “ History of Dublin,” half preceding; and one hundred and sixty-two otters’ by J.T. Gilbert, quoted in a paper by Mr. Wilde, on the skins for the arrears of their rent for many years then past, Unmanufactured Animal Remains belonging to the Aca- making a total of one hundred and sixty-nine otters’ skins. demy, in “Transactions of Royal Irish A cademy,” May, 1859. Q 114 MAMMALS. confined to the northern shores of Asia and North America, there are five or six species from China, India, or the Indian Archipelago (one, if not two, of which are from Sumatra and Borneo), three from Africa, two good species from North America, and eight, some of which are doubtful, from Central or South America. We know of none from New Guinea, and, of course, none from Australia; but some years ago Mr. Walter Mantell called attention to the possibility of an indigenous quadruped called by the natives ‘‘Kaurcke,” which he supposed to be either a badger or an otter, existing in New Zealand; and a naturalist in that country lately announced the fact that although he had not seen the animal in question, he had observed certain tracks on the mud flats near the source of the River Ashburton, which exactly resembled those of the Otter of Kurope, and which he considered to afford indications that such an animal existed im the Alpine lakes and rivers of New Zealand.* Such a discovery would be of the greatest interest. As yet no terrestrial mammals have been found in New Zealand with the exception of a small rodent ; and in whatever direction the affinity of this other animal might lead, it would be sure to throw light on the past history of that quarter of the globe. It would be especially interesting if it should confirm some of the deductions, already drawn from peculiarities in the fauna and flora of New Zealand; if, for instance, it should be found most nearly allied to one of the Peruvian or other South American Otters. That it should turn out to be a Badger is opposed to all probabilities, the Badger being confined to the north of Europe, Asia, and America. Waasets, Potecats. (Map 24.) Of the genus Musreta, the Weasels are the most northerly section. The common Weasel of this country is found all the way to the Amour, although in fewer numbers on the high Steppes, but has not been noticed in Japan. It formerly inhabited Ireland, but is no longer found there. The Stoat, or Erminu, has the same range, but is not found to the south of the. Middle Amour. Whether it extends into North America or not has been a question. Dr. Baird+ says that none of the specimens collected in America and sent to the Smithsonian Institution were of this species, and he doubts whether it is found in America even in the highest latitudes. The Polecats, although they also inhabit high latitudes, have a greater number of tropical or sub-tropical species than the Weasels. This, however, is more the case in the Old World than in the New. The Polecats in tropical America are mostly, if not all, mountain species. Six different species stretch across the whole of Europe and Asia, and there are about as many more that are found in Asia and not in Europe. The European Polecat has been supposed not to extend entirely across the Asiatic continent, but to be replaced in southern Russia and the Caucasus by a species named by Lichtenstem M. Eversmanni, and further on, in eastern Siberia, by another brighter- coloured species; but Rapper} maintains them both to be mere climatal varicties of the common species. His inclination, however, appears to be to swamp all species which approach closely to each other, and to treat them as varieties. Knowing his proclivity, we understand what we have to deal with, and looking at species as they are regarded by nine-tenths of living naturalists, we should hold the species of Polecat which he has here suppressed as distinct species * Haast Juxius, “Report of a Topographical and Geo- States Pacific Railroad Explorations and Surveys.” Wash- logical Exploration of the Western Districts of the Nelson ington, 1857, p. 166. Province, New Zealand.” Nelson, 1861. Cited in “Nat- t+ Gustave Rappg, “Reisen im Siiden von Ost-Sibe- ural History Review,” January 1864, p. 30. rien.” St. Petersburg, 1862. tf Batrp in “Report on the Zoology of the United It. GCREENLAHO Wes le , a = =~ ro ae | ATLANTIC | OCEAN | _Tropie of Canctr___ SAHARA) DESER For SANDWICH }* | | Lf il (aay A ee ae | ATLIANTIC MAP XXIV. we oe Eas MeO SialiokeD ASE POLE CATS, WEASELS, OTTERS &c. Note. Intensity of Colour denotes preponderance! cf Species. MONGOLIA TARTARY CHINESE EMPIRE pusaa TH | BET ae eee | sour eee OCEAN | Mephitis My ee eictis Day & Son (Limited) Lich . Mt de ea. y Sie a-0s per 7 , “ee a 4 oy BADGERS. 115 and not varieties. It is not altogether a matter of no importance; for we shall find, more than once, that it depends upon how we regard this point, whether the same species inhabits both Asia and America or not. The Sable and two other species are confined to the limits of Eastern Siberia, where a considerable number of skins are annually taken by the hunters: Radde says 6000 to 8000 of the Sable alone. In North America the place of the Sable is supplied to the furrier by the Mink, M. Vison, and by what is reckoned its more valuable congener the little black Mink, M. nigrescens ; which, however, according to Mr. Bernard Ross, is nothing but the young of M. Vison ;* whichever it be, however, there is no fur which approaches so near to that of the famed Russian Sable as it does. A good skin yields the hunter from twenty to twenty-five shillings. Although, however, the Minks replace in North America the Sable of the Old World, so far as the fur is concerned, they are not its true substitute in point of affinity, that bemg M. Lurreora, (which owes its name to its resemblance to a small otter), a European species which is exceedingly rare, in marked contrast to the American species, which in North America, from its numbers and depredations, is well known to every farmer as the pest of his existence. Nepal, India, and the Indian Archipelago, possess seven or eight species of Polecat. The Mediterranean and Nile district have two, but Africa proper, that is, south of the Sahara, none. There is a peculiar form (RuappoGaLe or Zorinia) found in Africa which there supplies the place of the Musrera ; only two or three species of it are known. The genera Gauipicris and Garipra have been thought to replace them in Madagascar; but, as has been already said, these rather belong to the Viverrip%. Sanp Brars. (Map 25.) The Sand Bears, composing the genera Heicris and Mypavus, are peculiar to India and the Indian Archipelago. They have some connexion with the Badger, in the form of the head and nails, as well as the style of coloration, and the nature of the hair; but their teeth and other characters show greater affinity with the Polecats. They are placed by Van der Hoeven as the transition between them and the Badgers. Geoffroy St. Hilaire, who first described the genus with care, considers that it has some analogy with the Coatis, a genus restricted to South America. Skunks. (Map 25.) The genus Mepuitis, which has the bad pre-eminence of emitting pro- bably the worst and most fetid odour of any beast in all the earth, is entirely confined to the New World, and is represented in North America and South America in nearly equal numbers,— eight in the North and ten in the South. Their appearance sufficiently indicates that they have relations both with the Badgers and the Polecat. They are found all through South America down to the southern extremity of Patagonia, but they do not appear to have crossed the Straits of Magellan into Tierra del Fuego. Baverrs. There are three species of Badger now known, possibly five. There is the European Badger, whose range extends from the Atlantic, through Europe and Asia, to the Pacific; and there are two species in North America, which, although outwardly almost identical im appearance with the Old-world Badger, differ so materially in dentition from it that a new genus, TAXIDEA, has been established for their reception. Besides the European form of the Old-world Badger, * B. Ross, in “Nat. Hist. Rev.,” 1862, p. 273. 116 MAMMALS. there is in Eastern Siberia a larger variety ; it is confined to the high Steppes, while the common species, also found in Siberia, is restricted to the woodlands.* This larger variety may perhaps be a distinct species. There is another in Japan, which Temminck+ has described under the name of Metres AnAkumA. The figure given of it looks distinct, but both Schrenck and Radde are of opinion that it is only another variety. It has been supposed by others to be nearer the North American species. This, however, can hardly be the case, for, if so, the fact could have been at once determined by examination of the teeth, the distinction being sufficiently marked. Of the two American species, one (the Carcajou) occurs in the northern parts reaching from the Atlantic on the east to Wisconsin on the west, extending far to the north, but not further south than Texas, or latitude 35°, where it is replaced by the other species, the Mexican Badger. The Rarer, which is in many respects allied to the Badger, extends along the eastern coast of Africa, and through Arabia and Persia, from the Cape of Good Hope to the north of India. Guro. The Griurron, or Wolverene, is generally believed to be found in all the three con- tinents of Europe, Asia, and America, although there are still some authors who are disinclined to admit the identity of the Old-world and the New-world specimens. It is a boreal, almost an arctic animal, coming in the category of those which compose the circumpolar zone of life, and yet its remains have been found in the caves of Gaylenreuth, Liege, and Voidon,+ near Joyeuse (Ardéche), and in the caverns of Germany.§ These remains have been supposed to belong to an extinct species (G. spELauS), but both Baron Cuvier and De Blainyille were of opinion that they were those of the existing species. Another extinct species has been described by Kaup from Epplesheim, under the name of G. ANTEDILUVIANUS, but it may belong to the living species. If they belonged to the present species we cannot escape from the inference that either it has changed its nature so far as to require now a colder climate than it did formerly, or else that the climate of Europe was much colder when the individuals whose bones are found in the caves in question roamed through France and Germany, than it is now. * Rappg, Gustav, “ Reisen im Siiden von Ost-Siberien,” + Scumertina, “Oss. Foss.” ii. 167. Geryvats, “ Zool. 1862. ScHReNcK, Lrop. von, “Reisen, &c. im Amur- and Palwont. Franc.,” 1859, p. 117 ; and Matzos in “ Bull. lande,” 1858. Soc. Geol. Fr.,” t. x., p. 360. { Stppotp and Twmainck, “Fauna Japonica,” 1833. § BLaINvVILLE, “ Osteog.” G. Mustela, pl. 14. CHAPTER XV. CARNIVORA continued — ARCTOCYONID ®. Tus is a smal] group of extinct animals, partaking (as its name indicates) of the characters of the dog and the bear. They have all, with one exception, been found in the miocene beds of Europe—the exception being from the Sevalik miocene formations—and, as conjectured of the Feline Carnivores, may have been brought into the Sevalik beds from their northern side. The most characteristic member of this family is the genus Ampuicyon. It occurs with the remains of the Marsupial (?) Hynopon in the miocene deposits of the south of France, and Pro- fessor Owen regards it as the forerunner of the plantigrade family; and something more of its nature may be guessed at from another smaller species from the miocene at Epplesheim, having been first referred to the Wolverene genus, under the name of Guio piapHorus Kaup. It hada long tail, therefore probably was more allied to the Wolverene and the Badger than the Bear. 118 CHAPTER, XVil- CARNIVORA continucd—BEARS. Ursips. As already said, the place of the Bears in a natural arrangement has been the subject of considerable difference of opinion. The resemblance of their plantigrade feet to the pedimanous limbs of the Quadrumana, in virtue of which they have in most systems been placed at the head of the Carnivora, and immediately after the Monkeys, is, however, more of the nature of an analogy than an indication of affinity, and, as was pointed out by Professor Owen in his paper on the Classification of Mammals, their affinities are clearly greater with the Seals than with any of the other Digitigrades. In particular, the resemblances in their renal and genital organs, the form of their under jaw, and their broad flat foot, which is nearer to the flippers of the Seal than is the more perfect retractile-clawed, long and narrow hind foot of the feline quadruped.* On physiological grounds, therefore, the removal of the Bears from the head of the Carnivora to a position between the Badgers, Skunks, Otters on the one hand, and the Seals on the other, seems aa. improvement. We have seen that the Ampuicyon and other members of the dog-bear family lived in the miocene epoch, and it is not improbable that they may have been the source whence the Bears were derived. Like the Cave Lion and other boreal forms, whose development I attribute to the glacial cold, the Bears themselves did not begin to appear until the pliocene epoch. During that period they flourished in great numbers. One species, known as the Great Cave Bear (U. speLmus), was especially abundant in Central Europe and South Russia. Some of the heads in the British Museum are of very great dimensions, and show that it must have been an enormous beast, con- siderably larger than the present Polar Bear. It and the Cave Hyaena (H. sprima) have also been cited as found in the caverns of Tcharych and of Khankhara in the government of Tomsk in Siberia. It has been thought that these identifications may require to be verified, for, according to some paleontologists, these species appear to have been absent in the yast region intermediate between Germany and Northern Asia. Asa very great part of this space was then under water, there seems to be a very good apology for their absence. Remains of the Bear, however, are men- tioned by Nilsson as found in a gravel bed below a peat deposit in Scania. A small number of fossil remains of Bears, obtained from Spain, belong to a different species, and one nearer the present Bear of the Pyrenees. The existing species are generally divided into two sections, the common Bears (Ursus), and the Arboreal, or Sun Bears (Henarcros) ; but it is difficult to find good characters for this separation, especially when we come to the most nearly allied species of each. The former extends all over Europe, the north of Asia, North America, and the Cordilleras of the Andes. The latter is almost * Owen, in “Linn. Soc. Proce.,” ii. p. 32, 1857. ? d ? BAFFIN a BAY ATLANTIC | OCEAN | 1 _Tropic of Ca MAP XOX I. BETAUR Se Polar bear Pani Black’ £ brewn bears Cm Day & Sen{Tamited) Lith BAFPIN /ATLANTIC) OCEAN _Tropic of Cancer 5 4 : ; i a 7a || | | | i MAP XX VI. Bsr | = | a |e | ile nal | Day & Sev Lamited) Lith BEARS. 19 confined to the Indian region, including the Philippine Islands and the Indian Archipelago, Formosa, China, and Japan ; but a species from Hungary, one from Mount Atlas, and another from the Cordillera of the Andes, Sweden, have also been reckoned Sun Bears, so that no geo- graphical limit can be given for them different from that of the other Bears. If close affinity of species be a mark of high organization, the Bears must stand high, and they furnish illustrations more suited for Mr. Darwin’s views of gradual change by variation than any others which occur to us. If the same consolidation of species which some authors practise in plants were carried out in animals, we should have but one species for the whole northern hemisphere. On the other hand, authors who have a different constitution of mind have multiplied instead of diminishing the number of species. Dr. Gray, in a recent monograph of the Bears, has not only preserved Ursus arcros as distinct from the American brown Bear, but has recorded four named varieties and eight named sub-varieties of it, an evidence of instability in the species which certainly, at least, cannot be said to be unfavourable to the other view. But while admitting the Brown, Black, Norwegian, Pyrenean, Polish, and Siberian Bears, to be mere varieties, Dr. Gray has gone still further in the opposite direction, for he has adopted the views of Eversmann,* who held that there were two species of Bear confounded under the name Ursvs arcros,—the Carrion Bear, feeding much on flesh, and the Ant Bear, feeding chiefly on insects; and has divided them into two separate genera,—the old genus, Ursus, for the Carrion Bear, and a new genus, Mymanxctos, for the Ant Bear. The differential characters, as stated by Eversmann and Gray, are drawn entirely from the skull; and one is rather surprised at finding the doctor give somuch weight to them after the caution he gives us at the commencement of his monograph to distrust such characters. He says, ‘The examination of the series of skulls of Bears in the Museum, like the examination of the series of bones of the Viverridie, has strongly impressed me with the uncertainty that must always attend the determination of fossil bones, or indeed of bones of all animals, when we have only the skulls or other bones of the body to compare with one another. There can be no doubt that the study and comparison of the bones of the different species is very important ;—that the skull and teeth afford some of the best characters for the distinction of genera and species ; but few zoologists and ‘paleontologists have made sufficient allowance for the variations that the bones of the same species assume. In the Bears I have observed that there is often more difference between the skulls of Bears of the same species from the same locality than between the skulls of two undoubted species from very different habitats and with very different habits.” And he adds, as an illustration of the caution which should be used in dealing with such characters, ‘‘the fact that M. de Blainyille considers the Californian Grizzly Bear, after a very careful study and comparison of its bones, to-be only a variety of the common European Bear, shows how a most experienced and accurate osteologist may be misled by placing too much confidence in a single branch of study.”+ But other naturalists, who are not open to the objection of being solely devoted to a single branch of study, say the same thing as De Blainville. Middendorf does so. According to him the species found in Europe and Northern Asia and the Grizzly Bear of North America are all varieties of the Ursus arcros; and he gives a series of minute measure- ments and comparisons in support of his conclusion. And although Dr. Gray rather disables his judgment because he has not distinguished between the Ant Bear and the Carrion Bear, I * Eversmann, in “ Bullet. de 1a Soc. Imp. des Nat.,” 1840, p. 8. + Gray, in “Proc. Zoolog. Soc.” 1864, p. 684. 120 MAMMALS. cannot go along with him in doing so, for to me it is plain that he has distinguished between them, because he has given figures of both as sub-varieties; and his error, if any, has been in estimating the differences as of less value than Dr. Gray thinks they deserve, rather than not perceiving them at all. As to the distinctions between the Ant Bear and the Carrion Bear, without going so far as Pallas, who long ago noticed the supposed distinction, and disposed of it briefly as being supported “ nedlo solido argumento,’ * I should prefer to reserve my judgment. Fortunately no immediate decision is called for on the question. We understand the nature of the differences, and how we name them 1s of less consequence. Similar difficulties occur with regard to several of the other species. Many naturalists look upon the Syrian Bear and the Ursus IsaBELLINUS as mere yarieties of each other. They are nearly identical in appearance, but the skull is different. So perhaps may the Thibet Bear (Ursts rorquatus) and the Japan Bear (Ursus Japonicus) prove to be. If we might judge of the ex- treme Kast from what we see in the extreme West of the great European and Asiatic continent, we should have little hesitation in supposing the species not to be distinct. Japan lies on the east very much to the mainland as Britain les on the west, and we know that, in all probability, there is not a single species of any animal found in Britain which is not also found in greater plenty on the Continent; and the same may be said of plants, with the exception of one or two extraordinary instances of American species, whose presence gives rise to such speculations as those we have already described. Trrrao Scoricus, Primuta Scorrca, and other species, so specifically named under the supposition that they were peculiar to Scotland, are now known to be mis- nomers; and any species which have been found in Britain and not on the Continent are minute minims which in all probability have merely not yet been detected there. Whether the case is the same with Japan and its adjoining continent is not known. There may be some specialty in its ancient connexions and separations which have produced a different state of things. Tem- minck and Siebold’s work on the fauna and flora of Japan discloses a number of undescribed species ; but I lay no great stress upon that, because these may all yet be found in the neighbouring continental regions when they are sufficiently explored. Some of them, however, have an affinity with American types; in the case before us, Dr. Sclater, dealing only with it descriptively, remarks that “the Japanese Bear seems almost intermediate between Ursus rorquatus (the Indian species) and Ursus AMERICANUS.’’ + Temminck records, apparently without hesitation, the Grizzly Bear (Ursus FrRox) as inhabiting Jezo and Krafto, the northern islands of Japan. a oo remmath ATLAN®PiIC | - - OcRAXK _% ae oo ta ae MAP XXVIII. i SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF SA Ls. ! a5 me Pheca Karlees Seals WR Craria ko! Fared: Seals | ME Beth together — a ee tJ =. CHAPTER XYVII. CARNIVORA continued —SEALS— EXTINCT SPECIES— EXISTING SPECIES—SEALS IN CASPIAN SEA AND LAKE BAIKAL— WALRUS. Puocip#.—Srats. (Map 28.) The origin of marine mammals by descent, in other words their derivation or parentage, has always appeared to me one of the most difficult problems to solve. How a terrestrial animal could ever give birth to a Seal or a Whale,—how it could ever nurse it or feed it, naturally makes us pause and wonder. The very first and most essential qualification, of a common medium in which to live, seems wanting. The solution undoubtedly is to be arrived at through those terrestrial animals which are amphibious. When we come, however, to think of the steps and processes by which this creation may have been effected we find ourselves wholly at sea without compass or rudder. We do not even know at which end to commence our speculation. Were the aquatic animals descended from the terrestrial or the terrestrial from the aquatic ? Although the probabilities seem in favour of the former, there is no fact known which wholly shuts out the possibility of the Seals having been in existence before the other carnivora. If they really were so, we might have to reverse the most natural theory, and make them the parents, instead of the descendants, of the land carnivora. The latter is the more natural theory, because it seems to stand to reason that the exceptional form should be derived from the normal rather than the reverse; although if pressed for a reason why one should be considered more normal than the other, I must candidly confess that I have none to give, except the very lame one that now the one is more numerous in species than the other. I scarcely think it necessary to discuss the possibility of the Seals being allied to the Whales, although they are placed by many authors together.* Their plan of structure seems too decidedly distinct to allow us to regard them as belonging to the same stock. The first thing to guide us to a true understanding of the matter is to ascertain when the particular aquatic mammals inquired after first appeared on the face of the globe. If before other mammals related to them, the probability would be increased that they were the progenitors of their relations on dry land. But in the Seals we have not sufficient information to enable us to start even from this point. In the secondary formations mammals appear to have been merely starting into life; afew small marsupials in the Purbeck beds and trias being all that are known. And in the immense chalk deposits which succeeded these formations it is usually said that no mammalian remains have ever been found, and it is not easy to see how any remains of terrestrial mammals ever could have been found. These formations are all marine deposits, not even estuaries, but beds deposited out at sea in blue water. It would surely be a most extraordinary chance by which a terrestrial animal should be preserved in such circumstances ; and a still more extraordinary chance that should allow us to lay our fingers upon such a waif. Seals, Whales, and Sirenia, are the only mammals whose remains we might (if these animals were in being at that epoch) reasonably expect to find traces of ; and curiously enough the two former are the only two, remains of which have been ascribed to the secondary formations. A vertebra of a Dolphin and a tooth of a Seal are re- * GrepeL, “ Die Saugethiere,” &c. Sce Systems of Classification in the Appendix, No. I. 124 MAMMALS. ported to have been found in the secondary greensand of New Jersey, in North America. Both are attended with very grave doubt, the specimen of the tooth of the Seal having gone a-missing ; and the authentication of the locality of the other having been questioned, apparently on good grounds. The former was described and figured by Dr. Leidy under the name of SrenorHyNcHUs VETUs, not from personal inspection but from a drawing of Conrad’s.* The fossil was found by Samuel R. Wetherill, Esq., in the greensand, a mile and a half south-east of Burlington. Sir Chas. Lyell+ tells us that that gentleman related to him and Mr. Conrad, in 1853, the circumstances under which he met withit, associated with Ammonites placenta, Ammonites Delawarensis, Trigonia thoracica, &c.; and he adds that although the tooth had been mislaid, it was not so until it had excited much interest, and been carefully examined by good zoologists. The doubt in the case of the cetacean applied to the locality where it was found, not to the determination. Here it is the reverse. There seems no reason to doubt that the tooth was found where Mr. Wetherill said it was, nor is there any question here of misplaced labels, but there is certainly room for doubting its determination, because we see where and how an error might easily enough have arisen. In the first place, it is referred to a living genus of mammals, and we know of no genus which has subsisted through so many cycles. The presumption is therefore against it on that score. In the next place, there is a certain resemblance between the teeth of Sharks and some Seals, and it is precisely in the genus SrenorHyncuus that the resemblance is most marked. Figs. 1 and 2 represent the teeth of Sharks Figs. 1 and 2.—Shark’s Teeth. Figs. 3 and 4.—Seal’s Teeth. from the chalk; and figs. 8 and 4, teeth of the living SrenoruyNncuus Lepronyx. Those of which I speak both have the molars compressed, with the crown divided into three conical spikes, of which the middle one is the largest. It is possible, therefore, that the supposed Seal’s tooth may have been a very much rubbed and worn Shark’s tooth; and although Lyell says it was care- fully examined by good zoologists, the only one of known competence whom he mentions as having had to do with it is Dr. Leidy, who did not see it, but described it from a drawing. The objections to the supposed mesozoic Seal’s tooth, therefore, appear to be too well founded to require us to devote much time to a speculation founded upon its authenticity. The next most ancient deposit in which the remains of Seals have been found is the miocene. Assuming, then, that the genus dates from these more recent beds, we may adopt, as a starting-point, that the Seals have descended from terrestrial carnivora. From which then? From animals that are already half aquatic, or from others that are not so? Our first inclination certainly would be to look to species which had already performed the journey half-way from terrestrial to ma- rine. There are two other carnivora which are in this position ;—the Otter and the Polar Bear are amphibious, and we can easily conceive of either nourishing and bringing up an aquatic family. The claims of the Otter, although it bears some slight facial resemblance to a Seal, need not occupy so long. It is a modified Polecat, and to develope it into a Seal, we should require not merely to alter its habits of life, but to effect other modifications in its structure and, what also appears to me of importance in these questions, in its size. Size is an element in determining affinities which, although tacitly allowed a good deal of weight, is, I think, scarcely sufficiently recognised. As a rule giants do not beget dwarfs nor dwarfs giants. We would rather go to Brobdignag than to Lilliput to look * See “Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia,’ 1853, p. 377. + Lyei’s “ Elements of Geology,” sixth edition, London, 1865, p. 336. SEALS. 125 for the family circle of a Goliath. A mouse with the form and structure of an elephant would be an anomaly in nature. The machinery would not be adapted to the work to be done. The course of nature would have to be reversed, and a new flora developed to suit such an animal, instead of the animal having been modified to suit the flora. Bulk, therefore, may fairly be admitted to go for something in weighing affinities. What amphibious carnivora have we then of bulk approaching the Seal? None but the Bear. The Seal has been compared to the Dog; but we must remember that it is only the smallest species of Seal that we are familiar with. The Walrus and the majority of Seals are far beyond the dimensions of any dog. In addition, we have the resemblance in the various structural peculiarities already glanced at in alluding to Professor Owen’s classification of the Bears and Seals. But, on the other hand, remains of Seals have been found in miocene formations, whereas those of the true Bears have not been found antecedent to the pliocene. No doubt the supposed ancestor need not have actually been a Bear. It may have been another animal allied to them, such as the Ampuicyon, which dates back in geological history at least as far as the Seal. Although I have not refrained from hazarding a suggestion on this point, it is only as a speculative fancy, that I have done so; for, as already mentioned, the fossil remains hitherto found give us little information on the subject. They are scarce, and confined to the miocene and plocene deposits. Six or eight extinct species are said to have been found, but, as is often the case, some of them may prove on closer examination not to be distinct. Dr. Mantell mentions that considerable numbers of bones and teeth of two species of Seal have been found in the superficial ornithic bone- beds of the north and middle island of New Zealand, which, although not examined by com- petent authorities are probably the remains of the two species SrENORHYNCHUS LEPTONYX and PHoca LEONINA, which now frequent the coasts of the islands,+ in the same way that remains of the com- mon Seal of our own seas, PHoca viruLINa, occur in various recent local beds in Britain. It is rather remarkable that the tooth of a species named Pu. occrrana by Gervais, which has been found in the pliocene marine sands of Montpelier, bears most analogy to the corresponding tooth of this same 8. Lepronyx of the Southern Seas. The number of existing species is also fey—not exceeding thirty in all—which have been divided by Dr. J. E. Gray* into thirteen genera. With the exception of two species that have been found in the West Indian Seas, the whole are confined to the colder regions of the globe. With one or two doubtful exceptions, those found in the southern hemisphere are different from those of the northern, and they are not only of different species, but belong to different sections. For our purposes, the following subdivision will suffice—Ist. The Walrus, an aberrant form with semi- herbivorous habits.t Then the remainder may be divided into two sections—those with visible ears and those without them; the former being confined to the southern hemisphere and the northern Pacific; the latter to the Arctic regions and the Atlantic and European seas, with one or two out- liers extending through Bhering’s Straits and down by Kamschatka to Japan, and three or four forms peculiar to the Antarctic Seas, along with which, however, falls to be placed a species (Mon- ACHUS ALBIVENTER) found in the Mediterranean, or rather in the Adriatic. * Manrext, G. A.,“ Petrifactions and their Teachings,” shrimps, and of the shells of clams and cockles. I be- 1851, p. 113. lieve they also eat sub-marine alge or sea-weeds ; and + Gray, J. E., “Catalogue of Mammalia in British Scoresby mentions having found the remains of young Museum,” 1850, ii. Seals. Seals in their stomachs.”— Lamont, Seasons with Sea- t “1 have frequently opened the stomachs of Walruses horses, 1861, p. 142. and found their food to consist of sand-worms, star-fish, 126 MAMMALS. Perhaps the most interesting circumstance in the distribution of the Seals is the existence of a species in the Caspian Sea, and another in Lake Baikal, notwithstanding that the latter is wholly fresh water, and that the former does not contain one-fourth of the usual saline contents of sea-water. The species in the Caspian (Poca Caspica) is described as very nearly allied to our common Puoca virunina, and that in Lake Baikal as equally close to PHoca rama (Ph. annellata, Nilss.), a species found in the North Atlantic; and but for their geographical position, no one would think of separating them from these species. and the other the Poca ra:ripa. In fact, the one is the PHoca viruLINa, Nilsson and Gray no doubt both consider them distinct, but I do not apprehend that either of them does so from actual observation, and it is scarcely possible to doubt that the peculiarity of the locality must have had some influence on their minds. On the other hand, Pallas, Gmelin, Fischer, and Radde, regard them as belonging to the two species they resemble, and Radde’s personal experience must outweigh any foregone conclusion arrived at by others who have not had the advantage of seeing the animals themselves. One’s first impression is so much opposed to the possibility of such an occurrence as a marine animal inhabiting permanently a fresh-water lake, that we naturally expect that there must be some mistake about it, and that it may turn out that the animal is an otter, or some unknown species; but there is no room for doubt about the matter; it is notorious as a commercial fact, and your ledger is a sore destroyer of your theoretical assumptions. A regular seal-fishery has for long been carried on in both waters, and in Pallas’ time the Baikal seal-fishery was of great importance, and, although much diminished since then, still, so late as 1859, forty individuals were killed at one village; and, to crown all, Herr Radde brought home with him a specimen from The only difference is that it is of a uniform grey colour, instead of being more or less spotted. This variation, however, is also found in specimens from the North Atlantic. Similar instances of other marine animals accommodating themselves to fresh water might be cited. There are species of Dolphins (essentially a marine genus) peculiar to fresh water. There is a species which is confined to the Ganges and another to the Indus, both wholly fresh-water rivers ; another inhabits the Amazons; and the DELpHinarrerus Leucas ascends the Amour regularly on the breaking up of the ice, and penetrates to a distance of 400 miles up the stream. St. John mentions a similar fact as occurring with the Shark.* it; and no specific differences can be discovered between it and PHocA ANNELLATA. Mr. Spencer Although the Seals are marine animals, they are not so absolutely so, as to render it abstractly The common Seal has been taken in the Firth of Forth above Alloa, where the water is no longer salt, and also far up in the estuary of the Tay. Another Seal, CaLLocepHaLus NUMMULARIS, which is found in the North Pacific, ascends the mouth of the Amour. Dr. Bennett speaks of a SreNORHYNCHUS LEPTONYX having been killed in 1859, in the fresh-water of Shoalhaven River in Australia, several miles above the influence of the salt water.t The Hanicua@rus GrypHus, or Grey Seal, is found in the improbable that they might accommodate themselves to a life in fresh water. Baltic, as well as in the Northern Seas; and I have already noted the existence of a peculiar * “Tt is a curious fact, that far as we are above the influence of the flood-tide, and with so many rapids below us, yet sharks are found here in fresh water. I call ita fact, because native testimony is unanimous, I remember hearing Mr. Crookshank say to the Datu Patinggi, the principal native chief, that he considered it a very curious thing that a fish supposed to live only in the sea should frequent these interior waters. ‘ Not at all,’ answered the Datu; ‘not more curious than seeing you English abandon your own country to come so far and live among us Malays.””—Sprncer Sr. Jouy, “ Life in the Forests ot the Far East.” Second Edition, 1863, i. p. 147. + Bennerr, Georce, “ Gatherings in Australia,” 1860, p. 167. SEALS OF THE CASPIAN SEA AND LAKE BAIKAL. 1S species in one part of the Mediterranean. We have thus instances in the Seals of species living in all the gradations between ordinary sea water and fresh water; first, those in the Atlantic itself where the water is wholly salt; next, one in the Mediterranean, where it is scarcely less so; then another in the Baltic, a sea much less salt than the Northern Ocean outside the Cattegat; then one in the Caspian, which is still less salt; and, lastly, one in Lake Baikal, which is wholly fresh. The inference which one can hardly fail to draw from this, is that Lake Baikal and the Caspian were formerly bays of the Arctic Sea ;* and that by an elevation of the land these bays were cut off from the open sea and converted into inland lakes, in which were respectively shut up the Common Seal and the Pu. rarima, the one without any communication at all with the sea, the other with an outlet for its waters, but with barriers preventing the escape of the Seals. When these salt-water bays were thus converted, that which had an outlet (Lake Baikal) must have continued salt until, in the course of time, from the constant inpouring of fresh water by streams and rivers falling into it, the water must have become fresher and fresher, until it has become what it now is; but the process has been so gradual, and the change from salt to fresh so imperceptible, and spread over so immense a period of time, that the animals have undergone a change in physical condition of life without ever being aware of it, or being affected by it, and they have become fitted for their new medium as imperceptibly, and by as slow degrees, as it itself Had the change been more rapid, according to my view, we should have The process in the Caspian, which has no outlet, has come into existence. had a new species instead of merely the old one. must have been still simpler, because the water continues salt, although somewhat altered in its chemical constituents,t and greatly fresher than the sea. If the reader will look at the Map 2, which shows the countries that would be submerged by a depression of the land to the extent of 600 feet, he will observe how completely the Caspian Sea and Lake Baikal would in that event be continuous with the Arctic Ocean; and if by the rise of the land which is now going on in Denmark and Sweden, the Cattegat should be obliterated, and the Baltic turned into an inland lake, there might then be a repetition of what has taken place in Lake Baikal and the Caspian, and the Haricuxrus Grypuus be turned into a fresh-water specimen of the marine species. The geographical distribution of the Seals is somewhat complicated by the fact that some, if not all of them, make periodical migrations, returning year after year, like birds, to their former abode. Speaking of a species of Orarta, or Sea Lion, common near San Francisco, Dr. Newberry mentions having identified one, by a bullet found in it when killed, which had been shot at it the previous year at the same place. Periodical migration thus takes place in these mammals as well as in birds ; besides the Seals, Brcue’s “ Researches in Theoretical Geology.” 1834, p. 14. t “This specimen is of interest as illustrating, in one particular, the habits of these animals. The left zygo- matic arch has been perforated by a bullet, and the lower part of the left inferior maxillary bone shattered by an- other ; both these injuries having been received so long * It is but fair to point out that so high an authority as the late Dr. Falconer looks with doubt on such a con- nexion. He says, “It still remains to be proved that the Arctic Ocean of the glacial period ever invaded the Aralo- Caspian province, of which the Sea of Azof was a part. We have the authority of Woodward for the fact that the Aralo-Caspian basin contains only a single species (Car- DIUM EDULE, var. RUSTICUM), common to it and the White Sea.” (Manual of Mollusca, p. 431.) See Fatconer in “Nat. Hist. Rev.” No. 9, Jan. 1863, p. 75. + M. Eichwald states that sulphate of magnesia is a common salt in the waters of the Caspian Sea.—Dr La since that the action of the absorbents has almost smoothed the splintered edges of the bones. Inside of the wound of the zygoma was found the piece of lead which had caused it, and which was at once recognised, from certain peculiarities of form, as one which had been fired, without fatal effect, at a Sea Lion, on the same rocks, in the sum- 128 MAMMALS. it occurs also in the American Bison, in the Lemming and some Rats. How far the phenomena are at all of the same nature in mammals as in birds we do not know; that of the Seal seems likest to the migration of birds, but its migrations, like that of the others, may be a mere matter of commissiariat. Watrus (Map 28 « ).—The Walrus is an animal essentially peculiar to the regions of the North Pole. Ithas never been seen alive further south than 60° N.L. ; and 804° N.L. is believed to be their highest latitude. Hamburg is the most southerly point on any part of the coast of the Atlantic where fossil remains of it have yet been found. Near that city these have been found in superficial deposits. It must have reached further south on the other side of the Atlantic, for remains have been obtained in New Jersey, Virginia, and Massachusetts. It has been said to have occurred in beds anterior to the present epoch, and Baron Cuvier has given to that last assertion the authority of his name in his great work: “After a fresh examination of the bones found at Angers, I have myself re- cognised a rib and a vertebra of a Walrus,” &c.* But Gervaist has pointed out that there is reason to doubt this, as the only portion of these remains which is still accessible has been found to belong, not to the Walrus, but to the Hauirueritum (an extinct form of Sirenian). It is one of the animals which, like the Rhytina and the Dodo, seem doomed to extinction at the hands of man; and, according to all appearance, the execution of the doom will not be long delayed. In former times its numbers in the localities which it frequented seem to have been very great. We learn from the voyage of Ohthere, which was performed about a thousand years ago, that the Walrus then abounded on the coast of Finmarken itself; it has, however, abandoned that coast for some centuries, although individual stragglers have been occasionally captured there up to within the last thirty years. After they left the Finmarken coast, Bear Island + became the principal scene of their destruction, but it in its turn was deserted, and none have been found there — for upwards of thirty years; and now the Thousand Islands (south-east of Spitzbergen), Hope Island (a little further north, but still in the south-east corner), and Ryk Yse Island (still further north, but not half way to the northern extremity of the Islands), in their turn, after being fre- quented for years, have become very inferior hunting ground to the banks and skerries lying to the north of Spitzbergen. Witsen mentions that in the year 1690 “Steuerman Iwanow (Steersman or Pilot,—I suppose equivalent to Captain Ivanoff) suffered shipwreck on the Schaparow Bank, in 71° N.L., near the coast of the peninsula which is bordered on the west by the Gulf of Obi, and was compelled to remain with his crew a year on the bank. They killed so many Walruses that their bodies formed a pile of 630 English feet in length, and as much broad, and six feet high; and they got 160 pounds weight of teeth from them.’’§ mer of 1854. We have thus a demonstration that these huge Seals return, in some instances at least, year after year to the same localities. They leave the Farallones in November and return in May, being absent about six months. How far they migrate during that interval, we have, at present, no means of determining. NErEWBERRY’s “Report United States Pacific Railroad Exploration,” vol. vi.; Zoology, p. 51. 1857. * Cuvinr, “ Ossem. Foss.” + Gervais, “Zool. and Paleeont. Frangais,” 1859. t Bear, or Cherie, or Cherry Island, is a diamond- shaped island, about ten miles long, composed of secondary rocks, principally sandstone and limestone, lying about 280 miles north of the North Cape. Its names are said to be due to some of the early Dutch navigators, on their way to China, once having seen a bear here, and to an English expedition sent out by Alderman Cherie, of Lon- don, afterwards erroneously fancying that they were the discoverers of the island, naming it after their patron. § Witsen, “Noord en Oost Tartarye,” pp. 913, 915. VaTv us ” "A fs a 4 Reoeae = fenvausnvt HLNOS | i Ni 7 Ha One” Bea | aes Pec UMALAn? NV 42.0 | LNVTLV HLoOoSs nidowy, VNILAHY t | ee sTITAXX SNYlTVM dVW OYATIVA HENOS he | vas Nviav | AUvieyL AN3QNadBaNI I al doom) Jo ovloay, NVa90 DTLNVTLY | HLUON | Nidadave ieee y at MOIMONNS a- | ww a 9 0 Q9TaLZI9 vad (iebrera en ING nviseny xOvWwIindosd WALRUS. 129 Kotzebue records that he saw thousands at the East Cape, in 51° N.L.* Cook saw “an inconceivable number on the ice.” In Purchas “ His Pilgrims,” it is mentioned in an account of the voyage of the ship “God Speed,” in 1608, to Bear Island, that they were found there “lying like hogges upon heaps.” Mr. Lamont’s account of a pack of them on ice shows how true a description of them this is: “13. At 3 a.m. this morning we were aroused by the cheery cry of ‘Hvalruus paa Ysen’ (Walruses on the ice!). We both got up immediately, and from the deck a curious and exciting spectacle met our admiring gaze! Four large flat icebergs were so densely packed with Walruses, that they were sunk almost awash with the water, and had the appearance of being solid islands of Walruses. . . . The monsters lay with their heads reclining on one another’s backs and sterns, just as I have seen rhinoceroses laying asleep in the African forests, or, to use a more familiar simile, like a lot of fat hogs in a British straw-yard. I should think there were about eighty or a hundred on the ice, and many more swam grunting and sporting around, and tried to clamber up among their friends, who, like surly people in a full omnibus, grunted at them angrily, as if to say, ‘Confound you! don’t you see that we are full?’”’+ On another occasion he says, “ There cannot have been less than three hundred in sight at once.” + These crowds of animals are, however, the mere ordinary herds in which they habitually congregate, and doubtless they are much thinned from what they were in former times; but towards the end of the summer they pack like grouse. About the end of August, Mr. Lamont says, they usually congregate together in vast herds, sometimes to the number of several thousands, and all lie down in a mass in some secluded bay, or some rocky island, and there they remain in a semi-torpid sort of state for weeks together, without feeding or moving. I am tempted to quote a passage from Mr. Lamont’s work, which gives one a better idea of their immense numbers than anything I have met with elsewhere, but it is too long, and I must refer the reader to the work itself. It will well repay perusal. It is the account of a massacre of one of these packs by two sloops’ crews a few years ago. It appears that a pack of between three and four thousand Walruses—fancy three thousand or four thousand animals, as large as elephants, lying crowded along the beach !—had gathered together in a protected corner, in the south-westernmost island of the Thousand Islands. The two sloops found them there, got between them and the sea, and the crew deliberately set to work to slaughter them. They attacked them with lances, and after a long day’s murderous work, they had killed nine hundred of them. It was wanton slaughter, because the two ships could not have carried away the produce of so many; but during the night, heavy ice made its appearance, cutting them off from the shore, which prevented their securing more than about two hundred. Seven hundred were lost, and their carcasses left on the beach. There they rotted, and there their bones still le, and notwithstanding the distance of time, there the smell still lingers. Mr. Lamont says it would be a good speculation to freight a vessel for the bones. Mr. Lamont calculates that about a thousand Walruses, and twice that number of bearded Seals, are annually captured in the seas about Spitzbergen, exclusive of those which sink or die of their wounds; so, he adds, it is clear that they are undergoing a rapid diminution of numbers, and also that they are gradually receding into more and more inaccessible regions farther north. * Korzesur, “ Entdeckangsreise in die Sud See.” I. S. 157. + Lanont’s “Seasons with Sea-horses,” 1861, p. 74. t Thid. p. 66. 130 MAMMALS. Mr. Alfred Newton, who has visited Spitzbergen still more recently, states that their numbers continue to decrease with woeful rapidity, bemg now almost confined to Spitzbergen and the Archipelago of Islands about it. ‘“ Now they are hemmed in by the packed ice on the one side, and their merciless enemies on the other. The result cannot admit of a doubt.”* ‘“ Fortunately for the persecuted Walruses, however,’ says Mr. Lamont, “these latter districts (those to the north of Spitzbergen) are only accessible in open seasons, or perhaps once in every three or four summers, so that they get a little breathing time there to breed and replenish their numbers, or undoubtedly the next twenty or thirty years would witness the total extinction of Rosmarus Trichechus on the coasts of the islands of Northern Europe.” He adds that there is no doubt that many of the Seals and Sea-horses frequenting the east part of the Spitzbergen coast come down from the north-east, and I have often suspected that Gillies’ Land (a hilly country like Spitzbergen, which les sixty or seventy miles to the north-east of Spitzbergen), or some other unknown country in that direction, must be the grand emporium which supplies them. A great many are known to exist about the north-east corner of Spitzbergen, which is rarely accessible. No vessel has ever succeeded in cireumnavigating Spitzbergen; and although separate voyages have been made which overlap each other in this direction, still very little indeed is known about those parts of the Spitzbergen Archipelago marked in the charts as Nord ost Land and New Friesland.+ Like other Seals the Walrus migrates each year. Little is known as to the course of their migration, beyond that it is to the north in summer, and to the south in winter. The most remarkable fact regarding their distribution is that it is not cireumpolar. It isa common belief that the animal inhabits all the northern coasts. It is not so, however. Von Baer, who made a minute inquiry into the subject, and published the result? with a chart noticing every spot where they had been found (from which I have borrowed the map of their distribution—Map 28 x ), showed that they have two habitats widely separated from each other. Speaking roughly, these habitats are the part of the Arctic Sea north of the Atlantic, and the part of it north of the Pacific, leaving two great blanks, one on the north of Asia, and the other on the north of America. They are met with in the north of Hudson’s Bay and in Baffin’s Bay, and at the eastern entrance to Lancaster Sound, but they do not appear ever to make the north-west passage, or to penetrate by it to the northern shores of North America. No one has ever seen them there. They occur rather sparingly on the east and west coasts of Greenland. They are not found in Iceland, although an occasional wanderer has sometimes come to it as a guest. They never come near the north coast of Europe now. Bear Island knows them no more. We have seen how far they still frequent Spitzbergen and its islands. They are found, also, all along the western, or rather north-western, coast of Nova Zembla, but not on its inner or south-eastern shores ; but, what is curious enough, they have penetrated round the south of the island, and occur along the northern coast of Asia, facing the south-eastern exposure of Nova Zembla, where, however, they are not met with. They do not follow this coast, however, further than the River Jenesei; beyond that there is an immense tract without them. They reappear, however, at the East Cape, or Cape Vostotchni, near Bhering’s Straits and facing Point Barrow (the two Capes, Cape Vostotchni and Point Barrow forming respectively the eastern and western door-posts of Bhering’s Straits on the north), and are there found occupying * NeEwron, in “ Proc. Zool. Soc.,” 1864. p. 500. ~ Von Barr, in “St. Petersburg Mem. Acad. Scient. + Lamont, op. cit. pp. 177, 182. Imp. 6th Ser. vol. iv. WALRUS. 131 the straits and the shores between these capes, as well as the shores to the south of the Straits, as far as the Aleutian Islands. Their numbers are perhaps greater about Bhering’s Straits now than anywhere else, as they appear to form the chief resource of the inhabitants from Point Barrow to Bhering’s Straits. They do not resort to the Aleutian Islands themselves, they having been there—at least on those of the islands next to Asia—replaced by the Ruyrina; and although that Sea Cow has ceased to exist, the Walrus seems to have respected former boundaries, and not to have intruded on its neighbour’s territories, although the proprietor could never again come to main- tain his rights or resist encroachment, a respect for the rights of property not always found in animals higher in the scale of life. 132 CHAPTER XVIII. HOOFED-MAMMALS— (UNGULATA).—CLASSIFICATION. Tue old-fashioned classification of the hoofed animals with which the older reader is familiar is— 1. the Pactyprrms, including Elephant, Rhinoceros, Tapir, Hippopotamus, Sow, &c.; 2. the Soxi- pDUNGULA, or Horses; and 5. the Ruminanrs. Professor Owen, following the idea originally ex- pressed by Cuvier, and confirmed by De Blainyille, has in his new classification considerably modified this arrangement. He has in it separated those which have an odd number of toes and nineteen dorso-lumbar vertebrae from those with an even number of toes and a greater number of dorso-lumbar vertebree than nineteen. The latter he styles Arriopacryta, and the former PERISSODACTYLA, —equivalent to Cuvier’s Paripiarrata and Imparrpicrrara. As an artificial arrangement nothing could be better. It combines simplicity and clearness to such a degree that any one who is sufficiently advanced in arithmetic to be able to count two, or to know odd from even, may range every species in the section allotted to it the moment he sees its feet. The result of the arrangement is to separate the aberrant forms of Pachyderms (the Hippopo- tamus, Peccary, and Sow), from the typical (the Elephant, Tapir, Rhinoceros, and Horse), and to unite them to the Ruminants through the Chevrotains and Camels. This seems in accordance with Nature, but when Professor Owen in subdividing the Artio- dactyles commences with what he calls the Omnivora (the Swine and Hippopotamus),—a qualifi- cation (omnivorous), by the way, quite inappropriate to the Hippopotamus, which is in no respect omnivorous, but entirely vegetarian,—he separates by the intercalation of the Ruminants two closely allied groups; his arrangement being thus, Hippopotamus, Ruminants, Horse, Rhinoceros, Elephants, &c. The points of relationship which the Omnivora have to the Ruminants, however important, are not more numerous nor important than those with the true Pachyderms; and it is with reluctance that I see the Hippopotamus, Peccary, and Sow, carried away to a distance from the Rhinoceros and Tapir. affinity. not the rule. * Such a superficial ad-captandwm resemblance is a monstrosity which is not uncommon in Swine, and which is very suggestive of affinity between the Proboscidean pachyderms and the Sow. In it the snout is separated from the face, and grows out from the forehead immedi- ately above the eyes, somewhat like an elephant’s trunk. It absorbs the skin between the eyes, which thus stand hideously goggling close to each other without separation, I have considerable faith in outward appearance as a guide to No doubt appearances are often deceptive; but it is the exception when they are so, For once that they deceive, they hundreds of times tell the truth. * I cannot or sometimes become united into one, making the poor beast a cyclops. Although a physiological monstrosity which, for aught that appears, might occur equally well in the human foetus, or any other animal, it does not happen to any that I know of but the Sow: and I have observed that such an illustration as this impresses the mind of the non-scientific observer with greater conviction of affinity than more legitimate physiological reascns, HOOFED-MAMMALS— CLASSIFICATION. 11833) make up my mind to separate these so-called Omnivora from the rest of the old Pachyderms. But if I escape from Scylla (this difficulty), by reversing the order in which Owen has placed the Artiodactyles, and putting the Ruminants at their head instead of the Hippopotamus, taking them in the order of Ruminants, Hippopotamus, Rhinoceros, Elephant, Horse, I fall into Charybdis (another difficulty with the Horse), which ought not to be separated far from the Ruminants. Owen escapes Charybdis by placing the Horse at the head of the Pachyderms, as above noticed, and the Ruminants at the end of the Artiodactyles, by which means he brings these two families (Horses and Ruminants) together, but then the result of doing so is that he separates the two tribes of Pachyderms. I see no way of escape from this dilemma but by reverting to the old arrangement, and keeping the Horse as a separate and distinct family of equal value to the Ruminants. It is to be remembered that we are at the commencement of a new thread, and are not hampered by the necessity of reconciling anything to the past. Between the Seals and the hoofed-mammals there is an absolute break. We may therefore commence with what we please, and I have taken that group which I think gives the best and most uninterrupted connexion with those which follow. The arrangement which I adopt is the following, viz.:— UNGULATA. 3. MULTUNGULA. 1. MonopacryLa—(Solidungula) Horses, &e. 1. Palewotheride. 2. ARTIODACTYLA. . Nesodontide. 1. Ruminants — Camels —Oxen — Sheep — . Tapiride. Antelopes — Cameleopards — Deer — . Nasicornia. Musk-Deer and Chevrotains. . Proboscidea. 2. Anoplotheride. 3. Non-Ruminants—Swine—Hippopotamus. oe Wb 154 CHAPTER XIX. HOOFED-MAMMALS continued — HORSES. First Group.—Monopactyia.— Horses ann Asses (SotmpuncuLa).—(Maps 41 and 42.) Some authors (as Col. H. Smith) maintain that there still remains sufficient authority for the presence of wild Horses in a state of nature, under one or other of their primeval forms, eastwards from the south and west of Europe, where they assume in their characteristics the same preference for opposite habitations in plains or in woody mountains, which we now perceive to be the leading distinction of the Zebra and the Dauw.* He himself, however, admits that some of the accounts on which he depends as a warrant for the accuracy of his statement refer to the Wild Ass; others to the Koomrah; and the whole seems too misty for any reliable conclusion to be drawn from it. The general opinion no doubt is, that the Horse is of African or Arabian parentage, although, as Col. H. Smith says, it is strange, if that be the case, that none are noticed in Morocco, Arabia, Persia, or India. The truth is, that the origin of the Horse, like that of every other domesticated animal, is involved in obscurity. We know that Horses existed in the Old and the New World both previous and subsequent to the glacial epoch; but neither physical resemblance, nor past history, warrant us in pointing to one race more than another of these tertiary species as the origin of the existing Horse. Setting aside the domestic Horse, and looking at the various other species of the genus, inclusive of the extinct fossil species, we find that the only parts of the world where Horses or their re- mains have not been found, are Australia and the Oceanic Islands. Extinct species are known belonging to three genera of Horses (Hipparton, Hippornerium, and Equus). Two of these are confined to the tertiary strata; and the third, containing species which approach most to the living Horse, is found in the drift or post-glacial deposits of a recent period. Three extinct species of Equus, E. Namapicus, E. Srvaensis, and a third not distinguish- able (according to Giebel) from HiprornHertum GRACcILE, have been found in the miocene Sevalik deposits by Falconer and Cautley. With regard to the genus HipporHertum, Professor Owen remarks, “that it links on Pato- PLOTHERIUM with Equus.” + The post-glacial species have been described under many names; as Equus Fosstuis, H. Apa- miticus, E. priscus, EK. previrostris, E. prisrrnus, EK. maanus, E. suviniaceus. But Dr. Giebel states, that after a careful comparison of very rich materials,f{ he had become perfectly convinced, * Ham. Smiru, in “ Naturalists’ Library.” + Owen’s “Paleontology,” p. 344. { Gieper, D. C. G. “ Die Saugethiere,” p. 382. Leipzig, 1859. Cu cad 2 = ae eet. ee Se i we “RUSSIAN Bie . AMERICA sconnanoh =) ss) | ATLANTIC “OCEAN Tropic of € MARQUESAS IP SOUTH PACLFIC OCEAN _ 3 ATLIANT IC MAP XUI. (ae pales ree see HORSES & ASSES. Waa Ass = C omumne4n Hermerns: Zeke Gherkar OM Krang past 5 —— pe Ce a 7h Fen disc Laepian a tie Circle _ ae 7 NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN, 4 ——~ f\ pout § pers - = = sAUST RAL Sour NDEAN OCEAS souTH PACIFIC OCEAN SsoUuTH a i ATLIAN TIC OE ADS ———- =—=34- = —— == MAP XLUIL HORSES & ASSES. BOTH LIVING & EXTINCT. a tare ' s o|u © H |B HH B® O GAEDE Extinct’ Specues a Tuving Specves SER im. a Fina A prs] | | HORSES. 135 that not only all these supposed species belonged to one and the same, but that that one was the common domestic Horse. The occurrence of distinct species in America is very interesting, considering their subsequent extinction, and the rehabilitation of the common species by man both in South and North America. More than one species has been described, but at least one lived, both in North and South America. The first trace of it was discovered by Darwin. In his “ Journal of a Naturalist,’ he mentions having discovered, in the Pampean deposit at Bajada, one tooth of a Horse in the same stained and decayed state as the remains of a Mastodon and Toxodon, as well as of a gigantic armadillo-like animal. This tooth greatly interested him, for it was well established that no Horse was living in America at the time of Columbus, and no remains of any had previously been found; and he was not then aware that amongst some other fossils which he had himself procured at Bahia Blanca, there was a Horse’s tooth in the matrix; nor was it then known that the remains of Horses are common in North America. Mr. Lyell (now Sir Charles) had, however, then lately brought from the United States a tooth of a Horse; and it is an interesting fact, that Prof. Owen could find in no species, either fossil or recent, a slight but peculiar curvature characterizing it, until he thought of com- paring it with Mr. Darwin’s specimen from the Pampas,—when he found the two to correspond. He named this American Horse Equus curviens. Certainly, as Mr. Darwin says, it is a mar- vellous fact in the history of the Mammalia, that in South America a native Horse should have lived and disappeared, to be succeeded in after ages by countless herds, descended from the few introduced by the Spanish colonists. Certainly it is so; but that is not the only noteworthy thing about it. It is remarkable that it should be found in North America, and is one of the proofs that there must not always have been such a barrier against the mutual intercommunication of species north and south of Mexico as appears to have at one time existed. The history of the species interred in the Mauvaises Terres cemetery have already taught us to expect this, and the Horse is only one of many other instances proving it. Another curious fact, looking to the South American habitat of the Equus curvIDENS, is, that the nearest existing species to it, after the domestic Horse, is the Quagga, which inhabits the most southern parts of South Africa. More than one instance of affinity between species found in the south of South America and the Cape of Good Hope, have already made us think of how the space between them could be best bridged over. In addition to the Equus curvipEens above mentioned, there is an E. Amertcanus, and Lund discovered in the caverns of Brazil remains of two species, E. princrpatis and E. NEoGEus, and a doubtful one. The number of the living species of this family is very limited. Besides the domestic Horse Gicbel allows only five species; but Mr. Edward Blyth, who has paid much attention to the family, gives pretty strong arguments for admitting seven,* besides the domestic Horse. Without going into the grounds on which he rests his opinions, I shall simply recapitulate the results at which he has arrived, and the limits which he assigns to the range of each, adding another species not noticed by him, which was discovered by Henglin in Abyssinia. 1. Equus Quacca. The Quagga from South Africa, searcely found northwards of the Gariep or Orange river; but still in great herds southwards, associating with the white-tailed Gnu, as * Brytu, Ed., “On the different animals known as Wild Asses,” in “Journal of Asiatic Society,” vol. 28, 1860, p. 229. 136 MAMMALS. the next species does with the brindled Gnu, and both with Ostriches (as in Xenophon’s time the AsInus HEMIPPUS did in Mesopotamia.) 2. Eauus Burcueiru, Gray, may be called the Zebra of the plains, in contradistinction to the next, which is a mountain species. Extensively diffused over Africa, even to Abyssinia and to Congo, and southward to the Gariep river. 3. Equus Zesra, Auct. The Zebra of modern nomenclature, more properly the Mountain Zebra, and more completely striped than any of the rest—known only to inhabit South Africa. 4. Equus vunearis, Gray. The Trur OnaceEr, or aboriginal Wild Ass. Indigenous to North- East Africa, if not also to the southern parts of Arabia, and Island of Socotra. 5. Equus uemippus, Js. St. Hil. The Hemionus or Hemippus of the ancients; inhabits the deserts of Syria, Mesopotamia, and the northern parts of Arabia. 6. Equus onacer, Pall. The Koulau or Ghorkur. Inhabits West Asia from 48° North Lat. southwards to Persia, Beloochistan, and West India. 7. Equus Hemionvs, Pall. The Dshiggetai or Kiang. It inhabits Thibet, and thence northwards through the Gobi Desert into Mongolia and Southern Siberia, and as far eastwards as the Sea of Japan. Major W. E. Kay * states that they are to be met with in all the level country between Ladak and Lassa, or in the valleys between the various ranges. He himself saw them only north of the Himmalayah range, first upon the Rupcher plains, and in the neighbourhood of the salt lakes, often in company with the Ovis Ammon. They affect plains and undulating hills at from 15,000 to 16,500 feet above the sea; if found in steeper country they have been driven there. 8. Equus Tanntopus, Heng/. Abyssinia and the highlands of Eastern Africa. 9. Equus caBaLius, Auct. Domesticated everywhere. * “Proc. Zool. Society,” 1859, p. 354. D0 Ey ED wo 30 To iso ] SH Ss 7 } A R Ce v oa: N oe se ra ay fe t rat Qn = 3 ‘ : own = haut sarees GREENLAND f a moot | We BAY of 8 \ 4 2 OCEAN —~~—________adonzn. NORTH vin ATLANTIC OCEAN MAP XXXTX Living Specs a lool Fatincl’ Spectres MEAS: oe | CAME JE © PA RDS ——soutrnrt = ATLIAN TIC —6€-E = mAh a PEA = Asean es minor a % \ \ ARABIAN aca SEA ak SAUISTEVAUETEA Tp) uu] eeu wi 1, 150 120 Raed AMERICA “Gl he ——- juste I Ken ae ATLANTIC 20) | SOUTH PAC a +—OCEAN Tropic of Cz AUSTRIA SOUL — + = = = + — f20) ARABIAN | OBEXGAL tr A | SEA SKA, A 3 4 3 10 —4|0 | 1 wo = = sh ‘ —t nen seowens L, =z ] red ae ey bat ee SAUSTRAL yA \ 4 peer i 2 eat ATLAS T Le Ae vn ky = MAP > -€-E-AN—— - ——— —— a ial a XL. , i varoiteey Ai CAMELS. 7 7 | | : Pree res eee |||! Extinct Saies per: ta ace s o|u «© HIB R F Oe |=? AS 60} Existing Spectes ES ee ee — : —— — — t — P 150 zy wo 3 o =a OU ST ees 2 ZO. 150 | { I if fa, = ' ow = \ ry i} nS LAY a pee eg ESQUIMAU NORTH | PACIFIC OCEAN "NORTH ~ | ATLANTLC OCEAN CHINESE runing TH I eH INDIAN OCEAN fim. EEE) MAP XXX VIL. | = _ SOUTH PACIFIC OCEAN 1 1s} Coy WY LV [ay = sai mame Bertang a Gacur wel Gayal Sou=m: € Mish Ox! eal Brson/ Aarech j Bosbrachy cervs.. = 25 120 = z pai [seers Sane [oe ‘opie _ of Canefe_ & ro — aamowicn je coon I |p, SOUTH PACTELE OCEAN _ 10h he SOX IIL. SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF BORA LOE S: (incLubiNnG THE YAK ) Cape’ Butiale Ges Indian Batiate (origanad habitat) = DS spread by untreduction © att ATLANTIC MOEPENDENT TARTARY ABABLAN SEA INDIAN AUSTR Sour Tap Su} AR popauoea TaREACT AN eG OXEN. 141 seem to indicate that the Cascades present a more formidable barrier for the limitation of species than the Rocky Mountain chain.’’* A closely allied fossil species, B. Bompirrons, has been found in the post-glacial and recent deposits on the Ohio. The Old-world representative of this species—the Urus or Avrocu,— formerly extended all over Middle Europe, the Caucasus and the Carpathian Mountains, but is now restricted to a district in Lithuania, where its existence is prolonged solely by the care of the Russian Government. A fossil species allied to this (Bos priscus), and intermediate between it and the American Bison (perhaps the ancestor of both), has been found in various localities in the post-glacial deposits of the North of Europe and Siberia. Information as to its existence in Eastern Siberiais wanted. There is a wide gap between the habitats of the two living species. 3rd Section. Burrators (Busawus). (Map 38.) The Buffalo belongs to the Africano-Indian region, there being two African and two Indian species, and the intimate connexion between those known as the Cape and Indian Buffaloes, is a powerful argument in favour of there haying been a former connexion between these two countries. Iypran Burraro.— Although now to be met with in various other parts of Asia, the Buffalo is believed to have originated in India, according to Mr. Blyth, in the sub-Himmalayan forests, whence he thinks it has spread into other suitable localities, such as the great swampy jungles of India. I do not know the ground on which he rests this opinion, nor do I see why it may not as well have spread from the swampy jungles of the Peninsula into the sub-Himmalayan districts. Its present (secondary) distribution, chiefly by domestication, now extends into China, Thibet, Persia, Armenia, even to the Caspian and Black Sea, over Arabia, Syria, and the whole of the North of Africa. Carr Burrato.—This species inhabits South Africa, reaching as far north as Abyssinia on the one side of the Continent, and Guinea on the other. It by no means falls behind its Indian brother in size, and much exceeds it in ferocity, being one of the most dangerous animals to hunt (probably the most dangerous), on the face of the earth. Its habits, as well as its form, correspond closely with those of the Indian species. Like it, it delights in water and marshy places; but the Cape species is irreclaimably wild, at least has never been tamed, while the Indian is a valuable domestic animal; and the coarse, lean flesh of the Cape species beats anything but the undiscriminating appetite of a Hottentot to swallow it, while the flesh of the Indian species furnishes good food. Bos Bracuycerus.—This is a West African species, found from Senegal to the Gaboon. It has two or three rings or wrinkles on the base of its horns, which remind us of its Bubaline connexion as well as of the connexion between the Oxen and wrinkle-horned Antelopes. Yax.—(Bos Grunnrens.) I have some hesitation in following Dr. Giebel in including the Yak among the Buffaloes. Still if it owes its peculiar form (which it probably does) to change of condition from the swampy jungles of the Peninsula of India to the neighbourhood of the eternal snows of the loftiest mountains of Thibet, when these mountains were gradually raised, it is reasonable to expect that some extraordinary modification would be produced. It is spread over Upper Ladak, Thibet, Northern China, Mongolia, and the Himmalayahs, at an elevation of from 10,000 to 17,000 feet above the level of the sea. * NEWBERRY, op. cit. vol. vi. p. 72. 142 MAMMALS. 4th Section. Oxern (Bos.) (Map 37.) Common Ox—(Bos tTaurvus.)—Like all domestic animals, the domesticated Ox has many varieties ; the extreme steps of which, if unconnected by transition links, might readily be considered distinct species. The humped Zebu of India, which is found in many of the warmer parts of Asia, and also on the east coast of Africa, looks very distinct from our common Ox, and by some is regarded as a distinct species; but there is no osteological difference, and we can trace steps of transition through other breeds; for example, the Italian breed is something like it in colour, and in it a thickening on the shoulders, indicating a tendency to a hump, begins to show itself. Bantene (Bos Sonpatcus).—Through the observations of Mr. Blyth, this species is now known to be found all through the Malayan Peninsula, from Singapore northwards into Birma; it oceurs also in Cambodia, Siam, and Cochin China. It is not found in Sumatra, but occurs in Java, Borneo, Bali, and Lombok, and would appear to be extensively domesticated in Bali. Its general domestication is one reason why I think it may have been introduced into Borneo, although now found there in a feral state. Gaour and Gayavut (Bos Gaurus, and Bos rronratis).—Two Indian species which are considered by many authors to be the same, or at the utmost merely varieties. The Gaour is found over most of the Peninsula of India, wherever a suitable habitat occurs. It also extends into the Indo-Chinese region and throughout the Malayan, but its range does not extend to the Great Eastern Islands. The Gayaul is confined to the Hill regions east of the Brahmaputra, and extends thence north- wards to the sub-Himmalayan districts, and southwards into the Tennasserim provinces. An extinct species, B. primicEntvs, inhabited Europe during the post-glacial epoch, and from its close resemblance in size and strength to the strongest races of the domestic Ox, is reckoned to have been the original stock from which the latter sprung. Its remains have been found in many places in England, France, Germany, Italy, &c., both in the drift and in peat-bogs. With this was associated in Britain and Ireland another extinct species (Bos LonGrFRONS, Owen)> which continued to exist until the historical period, and, according to Professor Owen, was probably the source of the domesticated cattle of the Celtic races before the Roman invasion. 0 30 Ea 90 120 ea] parerx h Ds % RUBBIAN AMERICA | ATLANTIC | OCEAN = Se ea ae | A , iu 7 Trépic of Capen pe | Ss ar a) MeAIP XOX V- aaa | (iene hae a al | | vano page | Iw Sb jade 9 0° § eS ee ee es == ee ee ee = 3}! 6) | Ss) 10) | ea ec EL uy Ol) Ge ye: A es ae Tragelaphus = - = eas | eee ae ee a (tee [tee alee : » - | | | | —_— L Me L ae) SO 120 30 oo 30 o —_ wo wo 0] a 150 = CREENLAND NORTH | ATLANTIC are [SOGEANS |i = busses Seces -Tropic_of Cancer _ = eet a eee -— —— oro — 7 ‘\ Ks os DAI AKABIAN © \ BENGAL XS 0) cau € 7 i 5 sEA PSEA, | | ae 0 —! | "Tropic of Capricor SOUTH PACIFIC GCEAN 1 —_sprrn ATLIANT LC MAP XXXVI SHEWING PROBABLE DISTRIBUTION OF BOTH FOSSIL & LIVING MUSK Of 143 CHAPTER XXI. RUMINANTS continued —SHEEP AND GOATS—ANTELOPES — CAMELOPARDS. (Caprip&.)—SuEEp and Goats.—It may be a question whether it would not have been better to have begun the Ruminants with the Sheep and Goats, instead of the Oxen, so as to have allowed the latter to come before the Bovine Antelopes, instead of being separated from them by the Sheep and Goats, but this is a difficulty that cannot be overcome by any mode of arrangement, for although we should not wish to separate them from the Bovine Antelopes, we should like as little to have the Caprine animals, such as the Ibex and the Chamois, separated from the true Antelopes by the interpolation of the Buffaloes. It will be sufficient always to bear in mind that the different families of the Antelopes diverge at different points and in different directions, so as to render a correct linear arrangement impossible. The Sheep and Goats may be well separated as genera, but it is impossible to break them into two families. Surrr.—(Map 35.) There is some difficulty in arriving at the real number of species of Sheep. Mr. Edward Blyth published, in 1841, a paper giving an account of the different species with which he was acquainted. These amounted to fifteen. Dr. Giebel, on the other hand, in his “Saugethiere,” diminishes these perhaps unduly. He does not allow more than five, considering the characters relied on by Mr. Blyth to be too insignificant to constitute species. It matters little to us, however, which view be adopted, because Mr. Blyth’s additional species, with one exception, which he is doubtful about himself, all come from the same districts as the already recognised species. According to Giebel, his five species are thus distributed: one (the Mouflon, or Mustmon) is European, or rather Mediterranean, (being found in Corsica, Sardinia, Cyprus, the Grecian Archi- pelago, Macedonia, Servia, and the Persian Mountains. Another (O. TRAGELAPHUS), (almost gen- erically distinct) to North Africa. Another (the Arcatr) belongs to Middle North Asia; a fourth (O. Burruet) to the Himmalayahs; a fifth (the Big-horn, or O. monrana) to the Rocky Mountain range. Mr. Blyth’s additional supposed species come from Bokhara, Thibet, Caucasus, Armenia, Cyprus, &e. The greatest interest attaches to the distribution of the North American and the Asiatic species. We have seen that the ruminants are most sparingly represented in North America. Eight deers, two antelopes, one sheep, and two oxen, are all that are now found in that country. Whether any of these are also found in the Old World is a point in dispute. In Map 35 I have shown what I consider the distribution of the European Mouflon, the Asiatic Argali and the American Big-horn; but there is a mountain sheep found in Kamschatka (O. Nivicota of 144 MAMMALS. Eschscholtz), which from Eschscholtz’s description would appear to be a variety of the Argali. Cuvier conjectured that the North American species might be an Argali which had wandered over the ice to North America. I shall consider the probability of this migration by and bye, when we come to still closer affinities, as in the Spermophiles. Dr. Giebel remarks that they certainly come very close to each other. ‘Two other species of Sheep,” says he, ‘have lately been distinguished : O. Catirornica Douglas and O. nrvyicoLa Esch. The latter certainly, through its abode in Kamschatka, would appear to mix the Siberian with the American species. The distinction of both lies in the peculiar smallness of the horns, the colour, and the larger proportions.” * J think Dr. Spencer Baird has arrived at a juster conclusion. After pointing out the differences between them which he regards as specific, and which are chiefly differences in the spiral of the horns, and their greater divergence at the tip—thirty-six inches in the Argali and only eighteen in the Big-horn—he continues, ‘While considering the Big-horn as distinct from the Argali, I am far from considering it the same with the Kamschatkan Ovis nivicona of Eschscholtz, as asserted by most authors. It is with the Argali that the latter is to be compared, both haying the same peculiarity of an excessive twist outwards and upwards of the ends of the horns, which also curve over a greater number of degrees. Judging from the figures of Eschscholtz, the tips of the horns must be at least three feet apart, instead of the twenty inches of our species. All these peculiarities are those of the Argali; and without pretending to decide whether the Kamschatkan or Siberian species are the same, I will only state that they are so considered by Pallas, who gives the measurement, description, and figure of a young ram from Kamschatka in the work noted below.t+ The same remarks will apply in great measure to the supposed horn of O. montana, figured and described by Middendorf, from the Sea of Okotsk. Iam far from admitting that any of our North American Mammals occur in Eastern Asia, unless it be the Spermopuitus Parry, although some authors have attempted to prove an identity for the beaver, the brown bear, the sable, the large marmot, as well as the large sheep.” $ On the whole, my inclination would be to go along with Dr. Baird in his latter proposition, as well as the former, were its terms a little less sweeping. He has forgotten the white bear, the walrus, the seals, the lmming—not to speak of the more doubtful cases of the lynx, moose, glutton, &e. Schrenck agrees with Middendorf in looking upon the Argali or its northern form (O. NIvIcoLA Esch.) as the same as Ovis montana, for he regards the Mountain Sheep of Amourland as that species. § On this point a well-informed writer in the “ Natural History Review ” makes the following remarks : “We are very much disposed to question the fact of this Ovis being identical with the Ovis montana of North America. It is Ovis nivicola of Eschscholtz. Middendorf gives the Spruce partridge of Canada (Tetrao Canadensis) as occurring in Northern Asia; but his examples, on further investigation, were proved to belong to quite a different species (Tetrao falcipennis). The forms of the higher northern latitudes of the eastern and western hemispheres, though very similar, are, except in the Polar regions, usually specifically distinct.” || It will go near to be thought so shortly. The range of the Big-horn extends from the region of the Upper Missouri and Yellow Stone to * Giebel, “ Saugethiere,” i. 282 (Note), 1859. Railroad Explorations and Surveys,” vol. vill. p. 678. 1857. + Pauuas, “ Naturgeschichte merkwiirdiger Thiere,” § ScureNncK (Dr. Von Leopotp) “ Reisen und Forschun- Samml. xi. 1779, p. 1. Tab. i. ii. gen im Amurland.” Band I. 1858. { Barn, “ Report on Zoology in United States, Pacific || “ Natural History Review” (Jan. 1861), I. p. 1. GOATS. 145 the Rocky Mountains, and the high grounds adjacent to them on the eastern slope as far south as the Rio Grande. They are said to be abundant on the Mauvaises Terres, but are not found to any considerable distance east of the Black hills. Westward they extend as far as the Cascade and coast ranges of Washington, Oregon, and California, and follow the high lands of the mountains some distance into Mexico. A supposed species, O. Sisrrica JMeyen, which inhabits the Altai range, is disallowed by Giebcl, who regards it asa synonym of the Argali, but Radde has recently given full descriptions which show that it is a distinct species.* No extinct species have been satisfactorily determined. Goats.—(Capra.) (Map 34.) These are usually divided into Ibexes and Goats proper, both of which are confined to the Old World. I have added to the group the Caprine Antelopes, or Chamois. These occur in Europe, Asia, and North America, but not in Africa or India. Their habitat is thus opposed to their being regarded as Antelopes, which are essentially an African and Indian .form ; and various other, more or less important, characters,t confirm the view that they do not properly belong to them. The family is almost wholly composed of mountain animals. Of the Ibexes there are eight species, chiefly belonging to the European district, although species also extend into Syria and Abyssinia, as well as into the Caucasus and Siberia. The species found on the Alps is different from that found on the Pyrenees, which, again, is different from another which lives in the mountains of Andalusia. There are two species in the Caucasus, one in Siberia, one in Syria, and another in the mountains of Abyssinia. A fossil species has been found in the caves of the Cevennes, and it comes nearest to its living neighbour, the Pyrenean species. The Goats proper are few-in number. Besides the domestic Goat, which is very variable in appearance, we know only two from the Himmalayahs and one from the Caucasus. The Chamois or Caprine Antelopes are eight in number. One species occurs in Europe, one in North America east of the Rocky Mountains, one on both sides of the Rocky Mountains, one in Japan, one in Formosa, two in Nepaul, and one in Sumatra. The two species found in North America are the American Antelope (AnTrLocAPRA AMERICANA) and the Mountain Goat (ArLocerus monraNnus). The latter is not distantly allied to the Chamois. The former, although further removed, is still nearer to it than to anything else; and a cir- cumstance to be noted, is, that the European Chamois, so far as regards structure, stands between these two American species, and that American species which lives more nearly under the same conditions of life as the latter, is nearest to it in organization, while that which differs most in organization is also further removed from it in habits and conditions of existence. The Mountain Goat (ApLoceRUs MoNTANUS), which may without impropriety be called the American Chamois, lives in the most inaccessible and rocky parts of the Rocky Mountains, while the American Antelope lives in the valley of the Missouri and other more level and accessible places. Anteores. (AntILopip®.) (Map 33.) The number of AnTELores is very great, no less than one hundred and fifty-two species having been described, which, however, are reduced by Giebel in his ‘“Saugethiere”’ (edition, 1859) to the more manageable number of fifty-five species. The resemblance which certain groups of them bear to Deer, Oxen, or Horses, have led to their being divided into corresponding sections,—as Cervine Antelopes (the Oryx), Equine Antelopes (the Gnu), and Bovine Antelopes (the Eland). * RappE (Gusrav,) “ Reisen im Suden von Ost-Siberien.’’ Barrp, I. 1862. + The hair of these Caprine Antelopes is not that of the Antelope, but of the Deer. 146 MAMMALS. The family is essentially African, five-sixths of the species composing it being natives of that country, and more than two-thirds coming from parts of it lying to the south of the Sahara. After Africa the Indian district has most species. All not found in Africa south of the Sahara, with the exception of a few species in North Africa, and three from trans-Himmalayan Asia belong to the Indo-Malayan region. Strictly speaking, there is no recent European species of Antelope. The Anritopr Sata, which is found in some of the eastern parts of Europe, being rather an Asiatic species which has overflowed into Russia than a European extending into Asia. It is a true Gazelle, but a larger and less attractive animal than the gentle, graceful, little, dark-eyed beauty of Arabian poetry. Looked at solely by the light derived from the distribution of the existing species, it would appear that Africa was the birth-place of this family; that they had come into existence before the ancient connexion between Africa and India was wholly cut off, but after it had been considerably restricted; that after a communication had been opened between North and South Africa by the elevation of the Sahara, and between India and northern Asia by the rise of the Himmalayahs, and obliteration of the barrier of the Sevalik Sea, the species now found in North Africa and Asia had made their way into these districts. As at present recorded, fossil remains have been found in various parts of France, in the fahluns of Touraine, the caverns in the department of L’ Aude, in the miocene deposits of Auvergne, and at Sansans, all, I believe, in the most recent part of the upper miocene deposits, suggesting the idea that it was only at the termination of this epoch that the Antelopes found their way into Europe. It is always to be remembered that the determination of Antelopes, especially from imperfect frag- ments of bone, which is all that we have had to rest on, is very difficult and uncertain. Another important fact, if well founded, is the discovery in America, where no Antelopes are now found, of a species (Anritopr Mariquensts) in the bone-caves of Brazil by M. Lund, and in the Mau- vaises Terres by Dr. Leidy,—at least of fragments which are referred to this family. I do not venture to dispute the correctness of the determination, by such eminent authorities, of the fossil remains referred to Antelopes from the deposits of Europe and America, merely because they run counter to my anticipations ; but I may be allowed to be so far sceptical as to beg those paleontologists who may have the opportunity, to subject the remains to the severest scrutiny, and withal not to assume that similarity to the Chamois is identity with the Antelope ; and I may add that if this is done I shall be in no way surprised to learn that no fossil Antelopine remains whatever have yet been found in either of these countries. On a review of the whole species as separated into sections by Giebel,* whose arrangement, or I should rather say, the contents of whose sections are very much the same as those of Dr. Gray and other authors who have made a special study of the family, we find the affinities of the species to correspond pretty nearly with the localities whence they come; that is, the members of each section are, for the most part, inhabitants of the same district. For example,— Group 1. Bovrya.—There are two species in this group,—one (ANOA DEPRESSICORNIS, Smith) found in Celebes, the other (Damatis Oreas, Pallas) in South Africa. This is a remarkable * Although I here for convenience sake adopt, without None of these, however, seem to affect any general con- qualification, Giebel’s determination of the species, it will clusion which may be drawn from the smaller number be seen from the synonymic list in the Appendix, that I accepted by Giebel. admit a greater number as good species than he does. Bee ESQUIMAU® ota Se eS fences Be eed Stk ata Ie & | | ATLANTIC a T OCEAN | | Tropic of Cancer MARQUESAS | On aoe Sty 4 + Bret cooks 13) boll SOUTH PACIFIC OC! | + 4 le ¢ i MAP XXL Ree Neate Etta .OlsrarS nS | Preponderance of Species tactica ced ty intensity of Color 4 | | 150 [3] oo a DD oO 0 oo cD 20 Be Day & San{Tamited) Lith ite, Sa MO ies oi \ : EA} rR -O PLE ; Rau SS Ip a cn: PACIFIC [OTe a AN | SoucuTH ATELIAN TIC SOUTH PACIFIC OC EAN MAP XXXIV. GLOiGAST US Americar Antelope Cuamois & Ibex Shex atone Goatfearctasiy of the \ Focuiavter Domestic goat { ¥ ito. SF ee roe a : : 1 ¥ ys . be 4k r W ag ee ca Seo } he ee : i) : ra) ae : ‘at oa vee 7 > ee he oe > ey Cer) eh aa boss Ate i i ~~ nt a . ma ‘yo & sf ? a ee a a ee Tey, Be Get tees ie JEG a yee qe jie 7 ' Ls Ama ate aR 2 ’. : ” s SETS) Ot 5 Sane ad “, - i * ‘ rs aa: % @ = a oo : -_ me i a ¥ - i) ro ‘a ‘ye aa PUP hy a - cy ¢ Es : if» wh . > Dist — : “rotates eel 4 ah y re a met yt y , 7 yak ate ae ANTELOPES. 147 instance of closely allied species occurring in two of the most widely separated portions of the former great Africano-Indian continent. Group 2. Carospiepas.—Two species. The two Guus, both South African. Group 3. Busatus.—Four species. Two peculiar to North Africa, one to East Africa (Mo- zambique) and two to South Africa. Group 4. Oryx.—Four species. Two of them are found in the Nile district, one of which extends eastwards into Arabia and Persia, and the other southwards to the Cape of Good Hope ; the two others are also African, one being found in Senegal and the other in South Africa. Group 5. GazeLia.—EKight species. These, like the last group, belong to the district con- necting Asia and Africa, and are found partly in both; one is Persian, two are Arabian, three belong to the Nile district, Nubia, Sennaar, and Abyssinia, and two to South Africa. This distribution may have been the result of an extension of species from South Africa, subsequent to the land and water having assumed their present configuration. Group 6. TraGcELApHus.—Four species. Two in the Nile district, two pretty generally dis- tributed from Abyssinia to the Cape, one of them also in Guinea, and another species peculiar to West Africa. Group 7. AntiLopr.—Five species. These, with one exception, are Asiatic species; one being Indian; two Thibetan or Chinese, and the range of another already mentioned (A. Sates), extending from Poland to Altai and Irkutsk. There is, however, one species from South Africa (Bechuanaland) (A. mMeLampus, Licht), whose presence there is anomalous. Group 8. Repunca.—Nine species, strictly African, and chiefly south and east African. The east coast of Africa seems to have had much more unrestricted communication with the Cape than the west coast, at any rate, greater affinity exists between the species of the two. In all classes the majority of species which are found at the Cape extend their range up to Natal, Mozambique, and even further, while on the west coast it is the exception to find them reaching Gaboon, Guinea, or Senegal. It is so in this group. One species is found in Senegal, and another extends across the Continent, and is found both in Senegal and Abyssinia, while, on the other hand, there are four Cape species, and four Abyssinian, including the species which is also found in Senegal. Group 9. Ornorracus.*—Three species. All from the Cape and referred to three genera,— OreEorracus, TrAGuLUs, and CaLorraaus. Group 10. CrruatroLornus.—Twelve species. This is a group, composed chiefly of diminutive species peculiar to Africa, and remarkable frem their a good deal resembling not only in their external appearance, but also in having a long extensile tongue, the Munvsacs and Curvrorams of south-east Asia. Blyth thinks that the resemblance extends to the American Rodent Agoutis, if not also to the smaller fossil Pachyderms, of the genus Loputopon ; and there undoubtedly is a certain similarity in the pig-like form and short, slender limbs, which probably may indicate affinity with the Lophiodons ; but if there is any with the Agoutis, it must be very distant and through the Pachyderms themselves. The type is West African, six of the twelve species being found in Guinea, Senegal, and Fernando Po, three on the east coast of Africa, viz. Abyssinia, Mozambique, and Natal, two in South Africa, and one (the Nylghau), (which should perhaps searcely be placed in the same group as the smaller species) in North India. This, again, is another instance of au African form being found in the Indian district. * GIEBEL uses the name TraguLus for this section, employed for the Curvrorars, I have taken another of being that of one of the genera ; but as that name isalso the genera (OrEorRAGUS) for the type of the group. 148 MAMMALS. Group 11. Trrracerus.—One species, inhabiting Nepal, Bengal, &e. Cametoparps. (CAMELOPARDALID®.) (Map 39.) The only existing representative of this family is the well-known Giraffe, which ranges from Nubia and Abyssinia on the east, and Senegal on the west, southwards through Central Africa, avoiding the highlands on the east, until it meets the dutposts of the white colonists at the Cape of Good Hope. I can find no account of its ever having extended so far south as the Cape itself, and the mountainous nature of much of the old settled country would probably act as a barrier against its progress if the climate did not. Sparrman, about 1772, speaks of it as inhabiting the interior in the north-west.* M. Duvernoy has discovered fossil remains of what he considers a well-marked extinct species at Issoudun, in the department of Indre in France, and a tooth was also found in Switzerland by M. Agassiz. Remains of two extinct species of a remarkable colossal genus named StvaTHERIUM, and nearly allied to the Camelopard, have been found by Falconer and Cautley in the Sevalik formations in the Himmalayahs. I do not know whether M. Duvernoy’s and Agassiz’ determinations of the European remains have received the endorsement of other paleontologists, but it is a case where careful inquiry seems more than usually required. The genus is African and allied to the Antelopes, and is not one whose existence in Europe should be readily admitted, while we should feel as little disposed to question its having lived on the southern bank of the Sevalik Sea. Nothing at all similar to the Giraffe has been found, either living or fossil, on the American Continent. * SPARRMAN, ANDREW, “ Travels in Africa,” 1787. 149 CHAPTER XXII. RUMINAN'S continued > DEER—REINDEER—INQUIRY INTO THEIR ORIGIN IN NORTH AMERICA, GREENLAND, SPITZBERGEN, &e. Crervin®. Derr. (Map 32.) The fossil remains of Deer are numerous. Upwards of sixty species, including one or two extinct genera, of Deer, haye been described, but a very large de- duction must be made from this number for double, treble, and quadruple employment of the same species. The oldest remains are from the fresh-water miocene in the department of Loiret, and nearly correspond with the Muntjac of the Sunda Archipelago; but although some remains have been found in the miocene formations, it is in more recent deposits that the greatest number have been discovered. Lund discovered remains of a species in the caves of Brazil, and the caves of Europe have yielded abundant remains of different species, among which those of the Red Deer the Fallow-deer, the Roebuck, the Moose, and the Reindeer, are most frequent. Of the latter in particular, numerous bones have been found in Europe as far south as the south of France, in post-glacial deposits of an age contemporaneous with man. In Austria remains have been found of a large deer somewhat similar to the Reindeer, but different from it in not haying a brow antler,—and Owen supposes it to have been intermediate between the Reindeer and the Elk (Moose). Two other extinct species also, without the brow antler, but in which the antler is not palmate, have been described by Gervais from beds of voleanic alluvium in the south of France. The existing species of Deer are chiefly confined to the northern hemisphere, and most of them frequent forests. There are none in Australia, nor are any found in Africa Proper, 7.c. south of the Sahara. The Fallow Deer, indeed, is found in North Africa in the Mediterranean District, but that cannot be reckoned anything but a part of Europe located in Africa. There are nine in South America; North America has eight or nine; Europe and Northern Asia, six; and the East Indies and the Indian Archipelago, nineteen or twenty (Java two, Sumatra three, and Borneo three). In these three islands, too, is found the Muntjac, a small deer with largely developed upper canines, which forms the natural passage from the true Decr to the Musk-Deer. Tris Evx. (Cervus Mrcacrros.) This extinct species was probably the finest cervine animal that ever existed. Its horns have been found to measure ten feet apart from tip to tip. Not- withstanding its name, it is not peculiar to Ireland, but is found in England as well as on the Continent. - It is now very generally believed, although good authorities still demur to it, that whether the former inhabitants of Ireland actually came in contact with it or not, it lived at a time when man was already in existence. It may be, nevertheless, and. probably was the case, that if it was a contemporary of man, it had become extinct before the Irish had a knowledge of letters ; at any rate, they have not left us the only indication of their acquaintance with it which we could 150 MAMMALS. expect, viz., a name for it. Singularly enough, notwithstanding this, Mr. Wilde tells us that, while the opinion of naturalists is unfavourable to its co-existence with man, that of antiquarians is favourable. : Its primitive origin seems to have been European; at least its remains have not been found beyond the limits of Europe. IfI am right in supposing nearly the whole animal and vegetable life of Europe to have been extinguished by the glacial epoch, and to have been replaced by immigration from Asia, it is possibly a modified descendant of one of the Asiatic species. From the appearance of the horns, we should most readily look to the Reindeer or Fallow-deer for its relatives; it is not an Elk, but a true deer, intermediate between the Fallow and the Reindeer, and, according to Owen, is most closely related to the latter, both it and the Irish Elk having more developed brow snags than any other species.* In Ireland remains have been obtained from the counties of Fermanagh, Cavan, Leitrim, Monaghan, Roscommon, Meath, and from the Shannon. They have usually been found in one of two kinds of localities, either in peat-bogs, or in a blue clay or a marl below the peat, and it has been observed that the largest specimens have all come from the latter, leading to the inference that this animal had been degenerating and diminishing in size as it approached our times. Professor Owent recognises a bone of the left antler of this deer among some mammalian remains from the red clay of Suffolk, which he considered of modern date. This is a solitary instance, and may not be well founded. Moosr. (Cervus Atces.) The Moose, or Elk, is found in the North of Europe, the North of Asia, and the North of America; so is the Reindeer, and as regards both we are met by the old difficulty, viz. that of determining whether the individuals found in the Old World are of the same species as those found in the New or not. It is well ascertained that the Elks found in Europe and Asia are the same, and whether the Old and New-world animals are actually distinct or not, they are undoubtedly very close to each other; but the impression seems gaining ground that they are distinct. Sir John Richardson has instituted a very elaborate comparison between them,t and finds among other specialties that the breadth of the face is greater in the European than in the-American indi- viduals. Remains of this species, as well as of the Reindeer, are found in Iveland. Fartow Drzr. (Cervus pAma.) The native habitat of this beautiful little ornament of many of our English parks is the Mediterranean district,—Spain, Sardinia, Italy, Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, North Africa. Pennant says that it was introduced into this country by James I. from Norway, where he passed some time when he visited his intended bride, Anne of Denmark; and that he brought it first to Scotland, and thence to Epping Forest and Enfield Chase, to be near his favourite palace Theobalds. But seeing that its native country is so far removed from Norway, it is probable that if it was introduced by James I., it must have been from some other country than Norway. No fossil remains of this species have been found in Ireland or England. Remnpeer. (TaAraAnpus RANGIVER.) Fossil remains of the Reindeer are found throughout the whole of mid Europe. As I have mentioned in speaking of the Cave Lion, some authorities think the fossil Rein different from the living. The remains, however, correspond very closely, and there seems no sufficient reason for doubting their identity. That remains of the fossil species have been * Owen’s “ Paleontology,” p. 373. { RicHarpson on the Fossil Mammals in the “ Zoology + Owen in “Proc. Lond. Geol. Soc.” vol. xii. of the Herald,” 1854. Ta 4 esquimaux PACIFIC OCR AN te sampwice | ei Eeee SOUTH PACIFIC OCEAN tee MAP XxXXT. TRAGULIDA AND MOSCHIDA INDLAN OGEAN sum: = t ~SAUSTRALIgA \_ meted a eS sey A Ae Se 5 = (MUSK DEER, kc.) = } = a iS ———- so) : = : Bie OMe eo ae eu os O) epalma SAGNEN Moschus Meschaterus Traguiide 4 es Ae. ett ee a a i b 1 ee eee ea Hvemeschus Iso oy) 30 ro 5 aT) wo oO a0 To. = ba Lh . 20 30 Gi} Dw oO } TA — ¢ Gis < : 1 2 CPS pare BAPEIE Dee Nica bi 2 § 5 ATLANTIC _3woRTH Fs OCEAN [566 “Sagan SOUTH PACIFIC OCEAN i | il MAP! SGxox0T DEER all the coloured part REINDEER. ae AMERICAN REINDEER Si - o ey w INDIAN OCEAN nw. f > Kustaau n/t fe, NS nee sean i Se aati len emer Aa ete }— — \ Y VAN t/ S 4 5 Day & Son{Lamared! Lath REINDEERS. 151 chiefly, if not entirely, found in mid Europe, is probably due rather to the more favourable location for preserving and finding them, than to the extinct species not having also lived more to the north, as it does now. It now inhabits the whole of the boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Its southern limit is very nearly the isothermal line of 32° Fahr. more frequently extending a few degrees to the south of it, than to the north. Its most southerly limit now is 50° N.L. viz. the southern point of Kamtschatka, and its most northern is probably Spitzbergen. It is also a native of Greenland, and used to be, and probably still is, plentiful there,— both on the east and west coast. Otho Fabricius especially mentions it as an inhabitant of the island of Disco, far up on the west coast. It is also found in Iceland, but not as an aboriginal inhabitant. Sir G. Mackenzie informs us that in the year 1773 thirteen Reindeer were exported from Norway for Iceland, only three of which reached the island. These were turned loose into the mountains of Guldbringe Syssel, where they multiplied so greatly in the course of forty years, that in various districts it was not uncommon to meet with herds consisting of from forty to one hundred.* f TARTARY ATLANTIC. OCEAN PACIFIC a0: cE AN —_ | | | See ci BIA) SEA aii INDIAN seete al | SOUTH PACIFIC oneal a | i i , EE NEST BG oe EAN <= MAP XLV. logo a | i HY RA X a Tiel ; a ‘ x s o|u T H-E R E} Jk L je | oo = == — BAFTIN BAY CREENLAND £ o “ im) S 3k | INDEPENDENT TARTARY MONGOLIA ae CHINESE pumae TH | BET SOUTH PACLELC _ OCEAN | = <3 AL So ATLIANT IC MAP XLVI RHINOCEROS. Living spectes ae Fixtinet ,, SSS oeeeee eee ere enon Dav & Son{Tamed) Les, RHINOCEROS. ie ~ regard to another species of Rhinoceros said by Sir Stamford Raffles to exist in the forests of Sumatra. “There is,” says Sir Stamford, “ however, another animal in the forests of Sumatra never yet noticed, which in size and character nearly resembles the Rhinoceros, and which is said to bear a single horn. This animal is distinguished by having a narrow whitish belt encircling the body, and is known to the natives of the interior by the name of Zennu. It has been seen at several places, and the descrip- tions given of it by people quite unconnected with each other coincide so nearly that no doubt can be entertained of the existence of such an animal. It is said to resemble in some particulars the Buffalo, and in others the Badah or Rhinoceros. A specimen has not yet been procured, but I have several persons on the look out, and have little doubt of soon being able to forward a more accurate descrip- tion from actual examination. It should be remarked that the native name Jenny has until lately been understood to belong to the Tapir. It is so applied at Malacca and by some of the people at Bencoolen. In the interior, however, where the animals are best known, the white-banded Rhino- ceros is called Tennu, and the Tapir Gindo/, and by some Babi-alu,” &c. May. Blyth sets himself to work to account for this animal never yet having been found, but it never seems to have occurred to him to question its existence or to doubt Sir Stamford’s judgment on the subject, and yet what does his statement come to? That in Sumatra there is an animal something between a Buffalo and a Rhinoceros, with a band of white round the body, and called by the natives a Tapir. Why, what on earth should it be but a Tapir? One is surprised at Sir Stamford Raffles accepting the fable, and still more at Mr. Blyth following his example. All the three Asiatic species are shown by Mr. Blyth to possess two typical forms or characters, a broad and a narrow-skulled variety ; and it is to the existence of these two varieties that he ascribes the misapprehensions as to the range of the true Ru. Iyprcus and Ru. Sonparcus. However that may be (and his inferences seem very fair), I draw attention to this variation in their characters for another purpose. He suggests, seeing the amount of variation which exists in the living species, extending into other points besides the breadth or narrowness of the head, as, for example, the horns —the remarkable horn in the British Museum on which Dr. Gray had founded his species Ru. Cross, turning out to be merely a magnificently-developed specimen of the anterior horn of Ru. Sumarranus—that probably a// the fossil species may not be good species, and that possibly the enormous remains found by Falconer and Cautley in the Sivalik formations may in point of fact be the vestiges of “magnificently-developed”’ individuals of the still living Indian and Sumatran species. He says, “The affinity of the extinct European species with Ru. Sumarranus has been long ago remarked by Cuvier and Owen. The Sevalik Ru. pLraryrutnus of Cautley and Falconer is just Ru. SUMATRANUS enormously magnified ; and the Ru. SrvaALensts of the same naturalists comes exceed- ingly close to the existing INpicus with the narrow form of skull, and their Ru. pararprcus to the same with the broad form of skull. Can it be the identical species which has lived down to the present time? The discrepancy is, at least, not greater than subsists between Bison priscus and the modern Zubr, which are considered by Owen to be one and the same.’’* Besides the fossil species found by Cautley and Falconer in the Sivalik formations, remains of the fossil Rhinoceros have been found in vast numbers all over Europe and Asia. No other animal, unless perhaps the Mammoth, has left so many traces of its existence. From the Siberian shores of the Ley Sea, southward to the Sevalik Hills, they have been found in greater or less abundance, as well as from the Straits of Gibraltar on the east, at least as far as the banks of the Lena, on * Blyth op. cit. Dp: 7 — S| — MAMMALS. the west. Mr. Dawkins, in an article in the “ Natural History Review” (July, 1865), while in the text he gives 72° N. Lat. as the northern limit of these remains, seems disposed in a note to admit that their range probably extended, as I have put it, to the actual shores of the Polar Sea, wherever that might be; for we must remember that in the days we are speaking of, it rested probably more to the south of its present limit. He says, “Probably also in the higher northern latitudes of the islands of New Siberia and the Liichow group, the remains of the Tichorhine Rhinoceros are to be found in the vast accumulation of organic remains, of which, as the energetic Russian explorer Sannikow writes, the hole soil of the first of the Liichow Islands appears to consist. The occurrence of large quantities of the bones and skulls of Oxen, Buffaloes, Horses, and Sheep, associated with the Mammoth on the hills of the interior of New Siberia (Lat. 75°°6), led him to infer that, at the time when the island supported such vast herds of these animals, the climate must have been much milder than at present, when the icy wilderness produces nothing that could afford them nourishment. See Wrangel’s ‘Siberia and Polar Sea,’ 1840. Edit. Major Sabine. Introduction.’’* Whether there may have been a warmer climate in these icy regions at some former period or not is a question on which these heaps of bones throw no light, for it is plain that they are not the quiet graveyard of parishioners who lived and died upon the spot, but accumulations brought from elsewhere by ice and rivers or floods. The very vastness of the accumulations composing the whole soil forbids the idea of their being remains of the animals that lived and fed where they died, and the fact that frozen carcasses have been found in these places of deposit, shows that since the animal died no material change can have taken place in the climate, because the flesh has kept all that time locked up in ribs of ice. On such a supposition the change from heat to cold must have followed death within a few hours; and had we only one to deal with, we might admit that, however impro- bable it might be, such a sudden change was at least possible. But in these regions there are more carcasses than one in the same condition, and at different depths; these could not have all died on the same day; but as they are preserved alike, the cold must have been permanent and continuous. In 1771 (thirty years before the discovery of the Mammoth by Adams, which did not take place until 1801), a carcass of the extinct Rhinoceros, since called the woolly-haired Rhinoceros (Ru. TIcHorINus), was found on the banks of the Vilni, a branch of the Lena. Fortunately, Pallas heard of it, and by his exertions the head and feet were secured, and have been preserved in the Museum of St. Petersburg; and these have been latterly carefully examined and described by Brandt. When found, it was considerably advanced towards decay, imbedded in a sandy bank, six feet above the water. It measured about eleven fect in length and ten feet and a half in height. The carcass of the animal, in all its bulk, was still covered with skin; but it was so far gone that only the head and feet could be removed. “TI saw the parts,” says Pallas, “at Irkutsk, and at the first glance perceived that they belonged to a Rhinoceros fully grown; the head especially was easily distinguished, since it was covered with the hide, which had preserved its organisation, many short hairs remaining upon it. The country watered by the Vilni,” he adds, “is mountainous, and the strata horizontal: they consist of sandy and calcareous schists and beds of clay, mixed with great quantities of pyrites. Near the spot, and close to the river, there is a little hillock of about ninety feet elevation, and which, though sandy, contains beds of grind or millstone. The body of the Rhinoceros was buried in a coarse sandy gravel near this hillock; and the nature of the soil, , * Mr. Boyp Dawkins on the Dentition of Rhinoceros megarhinus in the “Natural History Reyiew,” No. xix. p. 899, July, 1865. ~] o RHINOCEROS. 1 which is always frozen, must have preserved it. The ground is never thawed to any great depth near the river. In the valleys, where the soil is half sand and half clay, it is still frozen at the close of summer two feet below the surface. Had it not been for these circumstances, the skin and other soft parts could not have been so long preserved.” It would be unfair to quote his further speculations as to this animal having been necessarily transported from the torrid zone to the frozen regions at the time of the Deluge. They correspond to the ideas of his time, and, where erroneous, his age is more in fault than he. His description is what we have really to do with. From Brandt’s examination,* if appears that the dried skin is of a dirty yellowish colour. He gives a fac-simile coloured figure of it with his paper, which is extremely interesting. The flesh of the muscles is reddish. The eyes are lost (dried out); the lids beset with short. stiff bristles; the ear-muscles are entirely gone; and the whole of the anterior part of the snout is unfortunately so much injured, that the form of the nostrils and of the anterior margins of the lips cannot be ascertained, so that we cannot tell whether it had a prehensile snout or not, one fitted for browsing or grazing. The skin does not form callous folds on the head. The mouth is much smaller than in the living species. The skin is of considerable thickness, about half-an-inch deep at the throat; its surface smooth, granulated at the lips; densely covered all over with reticulated or roundish pores, arranged quincunxially. The head and feet are clothed with hair. The hairs stand closely together in tufts im these pores; some are long, stiff bristles; others are softer and shorter; without any peculiar microscopic structure. The single horns which have been found in Siberia have the structure of the horns of the living species. Their length does not appear to exceed three feet. The auditory passage is clad with short fine hairs. The muscles found on the head show neither in their arrangement nor in their intimate structure any deviation from those of the living species, nor has any peculiarity worthy of notice been observed in the vessels or nerves. The food appears to have consisted principally of the leaves and young shoots of pine-trees. Brandt extracted from the pits of the molar teeth of Pallas’ frozen specimen part of the albuminous seed of a polygonous plant, portions of pine-leaves, and minute fragments of coniferous wood, characterized by the distinctive porous cells.+ This Rhinoceros lived during the post-glacial epoch in the middle and North of Europe and North Asia. It was, with the Mammoth, one of the commonest pachyderms of our part ef the world. Its bones, teeth, and even entire skeletons, have been found in Siberia, also in Russia, in Europe, in Poland, Germany, England, and France. In the bone-layers of Seveckenberges, near Quedlinburg, alone, the remains of upwards of a hundred individuals have been collected. It does not follow, however, from the extensive district over which the bones of this animal are found that it lived over the whole of it at the same time. I imagine it to have. been a boreal animal, always hanging upon the outskirts of the Arctic regions as the Reindeer and Elk do now, and that its remains left in countries whose climate is now mild are only proofs that at the time the animal died, the glacial cold had not retreated farther north than that latitude. Ru. LeprorHINuUS, Cuv., is another extinct species, whose remains occur all over Europe — in the more recent tertiaries of the South of France, Italy, England—more particularly at Montpelier, Pisa, the Issoire, &e. Another species, Ru. MEGARHINUS of De Christol (al_e.ed to Ru. Lerroruinus), has been found * BRANDT, in ‘‘Mem. Acad. St. Petersb.” 6th ser. tom. vii. 1849. + LeonHarp and Broyy’s “ Jahrbuch,” 1846, p. 378 ; and Brony’s “ Lethea Geognostica,” IIT., p. 855, 1851. — =] MAMMALS. in the tertiaries of Montpelier, but is distinguished by its larger size and the enormous development of its nasal bones, whence it may be supposed to have had a nose approaching the dimensions of a small trunk. It comes nearer in structure to the unicorn Ru. Sonparicus and the bicorn Rx. Sumarranus, than any other living species. Remains of a species, supposed to be without a horn, Ru. reistvus, Cue., have been found in the middle tertiary deposits at Sansan, in the South of France ; at Eppelsheim, Georgensmund, and other localities in Mid Europe. Multitudes of other extinct species have been described, but on so slight grounds, that De Blainville was at last driven to exclaim that the authors “seemed to consider the bones as mineral masses without biological or physiological relations; so that species were created by them, so ** Species so described are mere names; Vow et preeterea nihil: and as such to speak, by the compass.’ may without impropriety be disregarded. Until the discovery of the extinct animals in the Nebraska beds of the Mauvaises Terres, it was supposed that the Rhinoceros was peculiar to the Old World. Palwontologists and zoologists reasoned upon the fact, and many a false theory was propped up by it, and many a sound argument perilled. But by all the fact was accepted as beyond dispute. It was, therefore, with no ordinary interest that the scientific world learned about 1831 (twenty years before Nebraska was heard of), that a fragment of a jaw, containing two incisor teeth, of an animal closely allied to the Rhinoceros, had been found in Pennsylvania. This had ‘ nothing of the nature of bone about it except its form, the whole substance, teeth included, being constituted of an aggregate of quartzose particles, and presenting the appearance, not of a gradual substitution by mineral infiltration to osseous matter, but of a cast of part of a jaw and teeth formed of small quartzose grit, and giving a semi-translucency to the teeth, which is wanting to the more opaque jaw.” + The American geologists received it with some doubt. Dr. Harlan regarded it as in all probability a mere Jusus nature of the mineral kingdom, having a very close resemblance to a portion of the animal skele- ton.{ Dr. J. Haysand Mr. J. Lea regarded it as a mere mineral fragment.§ The specimen was sent to London, and the geologists who there examined it considered it of too doubtful a character to be admitted as a fossil remnant. Lastly, when it came under the penetrating investigation of De Blainville, he spoke out. “This is not the place,” says he, “to discuss this at least very questionable point ; but as the specimen now forms part of the collections of the museum” (I presume the Museum of the Jardin des Plantes), “we can give our assurance that it does not resemble the least in the world a fragment of the jaw of a Rhinoceros, neither as regards the body of the bone, nor the pretended teeth. It is without doubt an artificial piece, a gross cheat. It is, therefore, truly to be regretted that the expression of the thought has been hazarded, and that all the Catalogues of Paleontology have recorded a species of fossil Rhinoceros from America without even a mark of doubt.’’ | The regret need no longer be felt. We have now two species of extinct Rhinoceros from America, of whose authenticity and correctness of determination no doubt can be entertained. (Ru. occipENTALIS and Ri. Nesrascensis, both deseribed by Dr. Leidy.) Both are from the Nebraska beds. They were smaller than the Old-World species, the largest * Dr Buarnvitie, “ Osteographie,’ Osteo. Gen. Rhi- t Harran, “Med. and Phys. Researches,” p. 268, noceros, p. 212, 1845-54. 1855. + FeaTHEerstoNHAUGH, in “ Monthly Americ. Journ. § Lerpy, © Extinct Fauna of Nebraska,” p. 29. 1852. Geology,” 1831, p. 10. || BLAINVILLE, op. cit. p. 212. ~l ~ RHINOCEROS. 1 being about three-fourths the size of the Ru. Ixptcus, that is, about the size of Cuvier’s Ru. Mrxutus, which is regarded by De Blainville as a small variety of the Ru. 1ncistvus. The other was less than two-thirds the size of the former species, and is much the smallest Rhinoceros which has yet been discovered. I have adopted the division of the genus into two groups (which prove respectively African and Asiatic), according to their possessing or not possessing permanent incisors in the upper jaw. The reader may wish to know how this applies to extinct species, and more especially to the new-found American ones. No particular inferences can be drawn from this character as regards them, for at the epoch when they existed (the upper eocene or lower miocene), all the species of Rhinoceros appear to have had incisors in the upper jaw, and so had the Nebraska species. It is only when we come to more recent times, to the period of the drift and diluvium, when the woolly- haired Rhinoceros (RH. TICHORHINUS) flourished, that the type now peculiar to Africa begins to appear. The Ru. ticHorHinus belongs to it, as well as numerous so-called species of the same epoch, and found over the same ground, which probably are only varieties or individuals of that species. No remains of any species have been fourid in America in deposits subsequent to the glacial epoch. A remarkable extinct animal, the EnasmorHertum of Fischer (E. Fiscuert, Meyer), should be here noticed. It is placed by Cuvier between the Horse and the Rhinoceros, and has been found in the Siberian drift. The lower jaw was two feet in length, and four inches high. AA 178 CHAPTER XXVII. MULTUNGULA continued—PROBOSCIDEA—EXTINCT ELEPHANTS—MASTODON—MAMMOTH, ETC. So far as can be gathered from their fossil remains, the Proboscideans entered on existence at the earlier miocene epoch; no particular form can be said to have taken precedence of the rest, for in the oldest beds where their remains have been found, evidence of the existence of species of the Mastodon and of the Elephant has alike been discovered. Masropon (Maps 47, 48, and 49).—The Mastodon was an enormous Elephant-like animal with less complex grinding teeth than the true Elephants, and with small projecting straight tusks in the lower jaw in some (if not all the species), as well as with tusks, straight in some, curved in others, and as large as those of the Elephant in the upper jaw. The projecting tusks in the lower jaw remind us of those of the Hippopotamus, and still more of an enlarged type of the Kangaroo form of incisor in the Dreroropon. Nor is this resemblance limited to the tusks or incisors; it extends to the molars and other parts of the skeleton. Prof. Owen first referred the femur of the Diproropon to the Mastodon, and, in speaking of the molars observed, “The analogy of the close mutual similarity which exists in the molar teeth of the Tapir, Dinothere, Manatee, and Kangaroo, suggests the surmise, that the mastodontal type of molar teeth might also have been repeated in a gigantic Marsupial genus, which has now become extinct; and such an idea naturally arose in my mind after having received evidence of the marsupial character of the Diproropon and Norornertum, two extinct Australian genera, with the tapiroid type of molars represented by species as large as Rhinoceros.”’* The best characters for distinguishing the Mastodon from the Elephant are derived from the teeth, which are more durable and more frequently met with than the other bones. The tusks in the lower jaw, although not so useful for sectional characters as the molars, are perhaps the most interesting and remarkable part of their structure. It was not until the year 1830, that any suspicion appears to have been entertained, that the Mastodons more than the Elephants possessed tusks in the lower jaw, but early in that year a memoir by Dr. Godman was read to the American Philosophie Society, upon a mastodontoid lower jaw with two small tusks, which he described as characterizing a distinct proboscidean genus named by him Trrracaunropon. That name has not been adopted, because it was afterwards found that this character belonged to all Mastodons, or at any rate was as constant a character in them as the possession of tusks in the upper jaw is in Elephants. In some Mastodons these tusks in the lower jaw are absent, and in others only one is strongly developed; but this appearance or absence is a sexual, an individual, or at most a specific, and not a generic character. On its first discovery, however, it gave rise to much * “Annals Nat. Hist.” xiv. p. 271, 1844. Pf dc ESQUImAUsy ScorLano| a y : CHINESE EMPIR EM may) PERSIA 7 aan. puwaa TH I er A SASS hay cil Vale ele pee = ~ Le [ATLANTIC | OCEAN al PACIFIc ; mp O AC ZEA AGN ae toe SANDWICH I ——+ t if 7 | Gee Go Poulin SaUw Clean ; AUSTR AL we a mie = (anoard ectar | ; . eee by SOUNESEAeEEEe OCEAN Aya : 2 We ae AT LIAN TLC | | | a | | i fF MAP XLVII oes ——}— jp | 22 teed : ee s | MASTODONS & ELEPHANTS = {Sf | | | | cs oy IN THE LOWER MIOCENE. ye rpram te —— (ia | Es rg Con | 8 | | LI | ' | | L == ll a | 150, io 90 ry 30 0 Day 4 Son! Limited) Lith re, 150 20 am. BAFFIN eee H ow ae a os CHINES/E EMPIREX Vy ~ EGG THIBET | Een Ee Sell \ ete To ss me = AAA iy fs _. BRXGA (Ay Ye) cues. % - ae: ly ana at ! | Se | IN we jcuanes ial =a ae re INDLAN O@GEAN vn t A . phim) ae fe sain by = bal MAP XLVIII MASTODONS & ELEPHANTS | IN UPPER MIOCENE Day # Son(Lumord) Leds PROBOSCIDE. 179 discussion both in America and England; and the true nature of the osteology of the Mastodon was not known until ten years later, 1841, when Koch made a public exhibition of the entire skeleton and other remains of the North American Mastodon, which has since been bought for the British Museum, and is now preserved there. The ingenious exhibitor had contrived a fanciful reconstruction of the skeleton, inconsistent with the principles of animal mechanics; the huge tusks, instead of being placed with their points directed upward, as in the Elephant, or downwards as had formerly been suggested by Mr. Rembrandt Peale,* were spread out horizontally, with diverging curves, so as to resemble two great sickles. Other corresponding extravagances were exhibited in the opposition of the limbs, and for the grotesque form so constructed, Mr. Koch proposed a distinct generic place under the name Missourium. These blunders have been rectified since the specimen passed into the national collection, and with their removal the genus Missourtum has disappeared too. The molar teeth have prominent mammill, or colliculi, as Dr. Falconer designated them, while the molars of the Elephant are characterized by parallel lamellx, or plates. This character, although apparently a very marked one, does not serve for all species. While it is scarcely possible to see any resemblance between the molars of the extreme species, the characters become imperceptibly less defined as the species approach, until it is almost impossible to say of some which have been raised into a sub-genus, under the name of Srecopon, whether they are Mastodons or Elephants. If we suppose the molar teeth of the Mastodon to be compressible, and their substance to be pressed between front and back, and so that the colliculi are squeezed thin and flat, we should convert the teeth of the Mastodon into teeth of the Elephant, only much shorter, and having fewer lamella; but the number of these colliculi differ in different species. In the simplest form, they bear a series of double rows of three mammill, separated from each other by a hollow with a ridge in the middle. In the next stage, they have a series of four mammillz in a double row. Then we come to a series of five in adouble row. At next stage, the hollow between the two rows begins to disappear, so that, instead of each two mammille being separated by a hollow, they are turned into single transverse ridges ; and we have then the sub-genus Srrcopon, with a series of six and more rows, forming the transition to the Elephants. Dr. Falconer has well monographed the species of Mastodon and Elephant, and has appended to his paper a useful synoptical table of species; according to this, there are thirteen species of Mastodon,+ and fifteen Elephants, including the two living species of the latter. Dr. Giebel reckons only seven Mastodons and eleven Elephants. Other authors have made as many as nineteen Mastodons and thirty-four Elephants. Probably the true number lies between Dr. Falconer and Dr. Giebel. Dr. Falconer recognises six Mastodons as having lived in Europe (five of them in France), three at one time in the upper miocene, and two at another in the plocene ; four in India, one of which has only been found in North India (Sivalik Hills), and three in South India, two of which also inhabited Burmah ; one from North America, and two from South America (the Andes). Bones and teeth of the Mastodon are, according to Humboldt, so abundant in a locality near Santa Fé de Bogota, in Columbia, that it bore the name of “the field of giants.” * Cuvier, “Oss. Foss.” i. 239. species were very different, as the differential marks : P' J ? + Fatconer, in “Geolog. Soc. Quarterly Journal,” vol. pointed out by him are now known to indicate nothing xii. p. 319, 1857. more than the individual and sexual varieties of the t While the material was still greatly inferior in same species. amount, Prof. Grant also made thirteen species, but his 180 MAMMALS. Although it is now generally admitted, that all the remains found in recent deposits in North America belong to one species (the M. Gicanrrus, o/im M. Ontoricus, Blum.), remains have been brought from the miocene beds of the Mauvaises Terres, which there cannot be a doubt will prove distinct. The common species extends as far south at least as Honduras, for Dr. Leconte found that the bones in a Mastodon bed there, near the village of Tambla, in a pass leading to the Pacific, belonged to that species. In South America the Mastodon ranged along the whole line of the Andes, from 5° N.L. to 40° S.L. It has been found at great elevations; im 34°8.L. at the height of 1400 feet above the level of the sea; and at Quito, Humboldt found it at the height of 7200 feet; Mr. Darwin says it has appeared on the limits of perpetual snow. In that case the land may have been elevated since the deposition of the remains. A tooth has also been found at Shanghai, and it was described by Prof. Owen at the meeting of the British Association at Cambridge in 1862. For long (that is, ever since 1845) it has been accepted as a fact, that the Mastodon also lived in Australia, but this belief is now abandoned, or at all events judgment is held in abeyance upon it until further evidence be procured. It originated with Count Strzlecki, who, after having travelled over North America, South America, Australia, and the Indian Archipelago, and made collections in all these places, on his arrival in England in 1844, placed in Prof. Owen’s hands the tooth of a Mastodon, which he stated he had purchased from a native near the Wellington Valley caves in Australia, the well-known locality from which so many extraordinary fossil remains have been obtained. Prof. Owen described it, and at various times has dwelt at greater or less length, on the inferences which such a discovery suggests; and, notwithstanding that various objections had been taken to its authenticity, he maintained it down to 1862, when at the meeting of the British Association at Cambridge, the repetition of his belief in it met with so much dissent, that he surrendered to the general expression of opinion, and acknowledged that until further evidence appeared it must be held that some error had taken place in regard to the place whence the tooth came. The reader will find a full and interesting account of the whole circumstances connected with the reputed Australian origin of this tooth, in a paper by Dr. Falconer, in the “ Natural History Review,” January 1863. The gist of it is, that the tooth has all the characters of one of the species from the Andes; that the matrix has none of the character of the Wellington Valley bones; the latter having a reddish ferrugineous colour, which Dr. Falconer mentions that this has not;* and that there is every reason to believe that some misplacing of labels had taken place, Count Strzlecki having to all appearance put into Prof. Owen’s hands a specimen from South America instead of one from Australia. Count Strzlecki’s own account of how he procured the specimen adds probability to the idea of there haying been some mistake. He speaks of the native having brought him a bone, and saying that darger bones were to be had in the interior; language which is less applicable to a tooth than to a bone from some other part of the body. The & priori arguments against this large animal haying been found solitary and alone of all placental mammals (except a few small rats, and the probably introduced dingo), in the country of Marsupials, are strengthened by the impro- bability, that if they then existed, not a trace of any other elephantine remains should ever have been found since 1843 to the present time, notwithstanding that the district where it was supposed * Linay add from personal examination of the speci- resemble the Wellington Valley matrix, but has a whitish men, that the matrix in which it has lain does not at all grey calcareous appearance. MASTODON. 181 to be found has been more completely settled since then, and that where the remains of Probosci- deans do occur, they are generally found in abundance. The absence of Proboscidean remains in Australia gives us an additional date for its separation from the Indian Continent. Proboscideans first appeared in the miocene epoch, therefore Australia has remained separated from the continent at least ever since then. For how much longer before that date we have a good guess from other sourees. To the great numbers of bones and teeth which have been collected of these extinct giants (believed by our ancestors to be Goliaths of our own species), we owe a more perfect knowledge of the Probos- cideans than of any other extinct animal. But our knowledge has not been wholly derived from piece- meal discoveries of separate bones. Like the woolly-haired Rhinoceros, carcasses of the Mammoth, centuries,— nay, perhaps thousands of years old,— possibly millions, have been found preserved in, and obtained from, the frozen sandy river-banks of Siberia, and thus furnished materials for scientific examination. It is true that no discovery of the carcass of the Mastodon, preserved in that way, has ever been made (it was, perhaps, a less boreal animal); but discoveries of no small interest regarding it, too, have been made notwithstanding. In North America, in draining or digging out marl or fertilizing mud from small ponds, which, in the days of the Mastodons, were, no doubt, quaking marshes, remains of several entire skeletons have been found undisturbed, lying in the attitudes in which they died; they had undoubtedly become mired in the bogs, and had perished miserably. The most perfect of these are described by Dr. Warren in his monograph of the Mastodon of North America.* In Warren County, New Jersey, no less than six were found at about six feet below the surface; one specimen found in the town of Newbury, New York, was twenty-five feet in length, and twelve feet high, and with tusks tenefeet long. Fancy six of these stupendous creatures; huddled together in the sinking mire. Imagine their trumpeting and shrieking, their bewildered dismay, their unwieldy efforts to move their limbs, only to sink deeper after every fresh exertion; their terror—marked by five of the six having been found quite close together (the sixth was at about ten feet distant); they had rushed together for mutual support only to add to their danger by concentrating the weight on one spot. They had struggled long, no doubt, and died hard. The attitude of one of them is described as having the legs spread abroad, and with the fore-legs in the position of making an effort to raise itself. Of course, all the soft parts had long since disappeared, their being no ice to protect them. But there was found what both Pallas and Adams overlooked in their ice-bound specimens,—the contents of the stomach. In one of these American examples, there was taken from the clay in the interior, within the ribs, where the stomach must have lain, no less than seven bushels of vegetable matter, consisting of leaves and small twigs more or less bruised and comminuted, which have been ascertained by microscopical examination to belong to a coniferous plant, probably the white cedar (THuyA occiDENTALIs), one of the North American cypresses. These elephantine animals there- fore browsed upon the common conifers of the country, in the same way as the woolly-haired Rhinoceros did on conifers in Siberia ; evidence that they, like it and the Mammoth, and the trees on which they fed, were all adapted for a cold or temperate climate. Such an adaptation seems to have been common to the whole section of Mastodons to which they belong. The remains of the trilophodont species are, with one imperfectly known exception (M. Panpronts), all found in the northern countries or regions, which we know to have been cold. One, or perhaps two —we have two names and two descriptions—have been found on the Andes in South * Warren, J. C., ‘* Description of the Skeleton of the Mastodon Giganteus,” 1855. 182 MAMMALS. America. These, from their position, may reasonably be supposed to have been adapted to cold climates; and as the remains are found only on the range of the Andes, it does not seem improbable, that, when the glacial epoch advanced in North America, it forced the M. GicAnrrus or some other species south before it, driving it along the ridges of the Mexican mountains to the Andes. Many a bitter freeze and sore extremity they may have borne before they left their pine-covered land, but ere trees and vegetation had quite disappeared before the advancing ice, they must have turned their broad backs to the blinding snow and heavy drift and, crashing through the mountain forests of Mexico, have made their way southwards. Was their way taken through unwonted timber, and did they taste strange food on the road, or did their native woods migrate with them, and accompany them, pari passu, southwards in the slow progress of their journey,— a journey not of days or years, but of centuries and ages? Probably both. Probably the pine found itself growing side by side with the aloes, so long as the temperature allowed them to live; and we have now in the numerous pines and firs, which clothe the Mexican mountains the descendants of those North American species, which were driven with the Mastodon before the glacial cold; and both, after undergoing modification by process of development and altered con- ditions, have left evidence of their stay there, the Mastodon in the remains of M. Anpium and M. Humsoipru, now found on the range of the Cordillera, and the conifers in the Lisoceprt and SAXEGOTHEAS. The other section of Mastodons (Tetralophodonts) were apparently suited to a warmer climate, at least they are chiefly found in India, Ava, &e. Some, however, inhabited Europe,—more especially the southern countries. Mammotu —The Mammoth is, on many accounts, the most interesting of the Elephants, whether living or extinct. It inhabited the northern hemisphere, and apparently our own land long after man had taken his place in creation—occasionally furnishing, there is little doubt, a hard-won meal to our savage and hungry ancestors. Alongside its remains, and in _ beds proclaiming their simultaneous deposit, flint-knives, hatchets, bone bodkins and needles, obviously the work of man, have been found, and the fact of the co-existence of man and the Mammoth has now almost ceased to be matter of dispute. It is now felt that the old traditions of the Red Indians of America as to the existence of an enormous animal, with a snout like an arm, may not be idle tales, but the genuine traditions of what actually had been seen by the predecessors of the present race (it would be too bold to say ances- tors, for many races may have been conquered, and enslaved, died out and been replaced, since a living man in these lands looked on a living Mammoth). The Chinese records too, according to M. Boitard, speak of an animal living to the north, in extreme cold, shaped like a rat, but as large as an Elephant, furnishing excellent ivory; and other nations have similar traditions. Moreover, not only have their scattered bones, and even their perfect skeletons, been found, but the carcasses of individuals have been found congealed in ice in Nature’s larder in the frozen regions of Siberia. It is no wonder, therefore, that a special halo of interest surrounds the Mammoth. Thanks to the discovery of the frozen carcasses, we have a tolerably complete knowledge both of the outward form of this animal, and of its internal organs and structure. Every one knows that the first carcass was discovered by a Tongause fisherman in 1799, in a mass of ice near the place where Pallas’ Rhinoceros had been found; and the bones and skin of that specimen, or at “ATLANTIC ON | a) UNDLIAN OCEAN SIR | i peed ss Saf Beenie of Captor _SOUTH PACIBEIC OCEAN - o/s — —— ATLANTIC | ce MAP XLIX. SS Se aaa a ae ae ELEPHANTS & MASTODONS | | IN PLIOCENE EPOCH. Se SSS SSS SS SSS F | | SO; fea oF Oo Tinown fosstl remains Zz! H | | | } 3) P| ae wo 0 SSS SS = == a F — , a ay 20 90 a) 30 0 30 ' | Wy ¢ A ‘ ue sie, { i as | ie = q 3 a al BAFFIN > GReercation:> tf co. BAY \ ay N Ss 2 x ot ——— ee ae rane =a Se : Be ESQUIMAUP) 2s ay | 2 ba Waa! WC sha boee pe ~~ === 46 Bans 3h 2 bes 2s RUSSIAN a Ise =3, A <—t i ~ NORTH PA CTIEIC -— OCEKS | ATLANTIC | ——_| _ocEAr ee rinlh TAnomce Ht >| SOUTH PACTEIC OCEAN ATLANTIC dl MAP L EXISTING SPECIES OF ELEPHANTS WHERE EXTIRPATED, LIVING & INTRODUCED Indian Species RA African», eo Se ee Ee a Introduced Extorpated MONGOLIA CHINESE Sen ae pusng TH 8 [So = Day & Son! Lareend) Lath, 4 : - y, “ea een Le ng Coe MAMMOTH. 183 least sc much of them as was left by the wolves and white bears, were, when liberated by the thawing of the ice (which it took seven of the short summers of that country to effect), secured by Adams, and deposited in the Museum of St. Petersburg. But the depredations of these beasts of prey had left it imperfect, and some part of the skeleton, as put up, is composed of wooden substitutes for the bones. In fact, so important a point as the number of dorsal vertebra is even yet attended with doubt, although it is recorded that the spine, a shoulder-blade, the pelvis, and three legs, were still held together by the ligaments to the skin, when the carcass was taken possession of. Full details of what is known on this point will be found in Dr. Falconer’s paper, already referred to.* A pleasant writer on Natural History in the present day (Rev. J. G. Wood) tells us that “ opinions differ as to the manner in which the animal (Mr. Adams’ Mammoth) got into the ice; and the question appears to have puzzled the savants, much as the apple dumpling puzzled George the Third. The general opinion (!) appears to be that the creature must have fallen into a cleft in a glacier, and so have been at once frozen up.” Que diable allait il faire dans cette galére? We can hardly imagine a Mammoth capering like a chamois over glaciers from peak to peak. Another entire specimen of the Mammoth was found by Sarstscuew on the banks of the Alascia, which falls into the Arctic Sea to the east of Indigirsha, and had been disengaged from the bank by the action of the river. It stood erect and was still covered with its skin. There are also preserved in the Museum of Paris a morsel of skin and matted hair, and locks of wool, belonging to a third individual, found whole on the banks of the Arctic Sea. More than one similar fresh carcass has since been met with in Siberia, one of which was discovered about 1846, and its soft parts were transmitted to St. Petersburg, and made the subject of careful histological study by Glebow, who published an account of them.t His examination showed nothing new, as why should -it? The fibres and cells of the tissues presented the same anatomical characters as those of living bodies to the most minute degree. M. Glebow says,—‘ One never ceases wondering at the elementary anatomical parts of the tissues of all the soft parts, without even excepting the brain having been preserved in such a degree of in- tegrity, that it is impossible to distinguish them from the same parts of the fresh tissues of living animals. And we see with admiration that a time so prolonged, which ruins the most durable objects, and destroys the most solid things, as metal and granite, has spared the tissues of the animal organism, so tender and delicate, and in their nature so perishable, as the fibres of the brain, the cells of the epithelium, &e.” From the above materials we know that the Mammoth was of stupendous size, covered with an enormous quantity of long black hair, mixed at its roots with a thick fleece of reddish wool, not unlike cow’s hair. At the removal of Adams’ specimen, thirty pounds weight of finer hair, and coarse long hair like horse-hair, was dug up out of the moist soil, into which it had been trodden by the feet of the white bears and wolves when devouring the flesh. It had a great mane, and the ears bore each a long tuft of hair. The tusks of the upper jaw were of tremendous magnitude, but there were none in the under jaw. The geographical range of this animal extended from Bhering’s Straits, through Arctie Siberia * Farconer, “Nat. Hist. Rev.” Jan. 1863, p. 92. + Rev. J. G. Woop, “ Sketches and Anecdotes of Animal Life,” 1855, p. 82. { Grexow in “ Bulletin of the Imperial Society of Moscow,” tome xix. p. 109. 184 MAMMALS. to the west of Europe; and in some of the isles in the Arctic Sea situated near the mouths of the rivers where the carcasses have been met with, their remains occur in such quantity that the soil is a mixture of sand, ice, and Mammoth bones. It stretched across the steppes of Russia, through Germany and France, to England. Its remains have also been found in Italy, although much more sparingly south of the Alps than to the north of them. The great accumulations on the shore of the Arctic Sea are doubtless the result of carcasses having been floated by floods from the higher lands down the rivers. It is usually said that it flourished in as great numbers in North America, but Dr. Leidy, and some American palzontologists, have thought that it was a different species which existed there, and that the Old-world Mammoth was confined to Europe and Asia. At any rate plentiful remains of a species of Mammoth are found all over North America, and in especial numbers on its Polar shores, in similar conditions and places to those in Siberia, where the other species occurs. Most other paleontologists, however, think the species identical, Dr. Falconer,* admitting that there is a sufficient difference (although a very trifling one) to enable him to distinguish American specimens from those of Europe or Asia. It is interesting to see that the same causes which have have produced the variation between closely allied North American and European existing species were already in action in the time of the Mammoth. The bridge at Bhering’s Straits must have been already sunk. One of these differences is the comparative closeness of the laminze of the molar teeth. Dr. Falconer gives an interesting comparison of the food used by the different species, and the adaptation of their teeth to its consumption, which suggests an additional argument for the formation of new species in new countries where the food may differ from that in the country whence they first eame. Their molar teeth consist of broad tables composed of parallel transverse vertical plates consisting of successive layers of cement, enamel, and ivory—each of different degrees of hard- ness ; and different degrees of power are given to these implements by the number of plates in each tooth, and by the extent of each tooth which is brought into operation at the same time; the greater the number of plates working, the more powerful the triturating surfaces. Estimated according to this principle, the African Elephant has less powerful grinders than the Indian Elephant and the Mammoth. The number of plates in the teeth of these two are the same (sixty-four ridges), while in the African species they are only half as many (thirty-two ridges), and the Mammoth, although it has the same number of ridges, has them thinner, straighter, and more regular. As the powers of trituration are feeblest in the African species, so its food is, in point of fact, softest, consisting partly of roots and in a great measure of succulent plants, such as the Portu- LACARIA A¥RA or Spekboom. The food of the Indian Elephant consists more of branches, and is more siliceous, often containing a greater proportion of foreign matter, as sand about the roots of grasses, and young bamboos (SaccHaruM SPONTANEUM) ; and its molars are the most powerful grinding instruments of any. The difference between its teeth and those of the Mammoth is that between a strong coarse file and a fine one. The food of the Mammoth, again, was probably the young twigs of soft-wooded Conifers, and required a less powerful apparatus. Falconer * «The result of my observation is that the ancient paratively modern Mammoth of the superficial bogs of Mammoth of the pre-glacial ‘forest bed’ of the Norfolk North America, which I regard as being only a slight coast differs less from the later form occurring on the geographical variety of the same species.”—FALCONER, op. banks of the Lena, than does the latter from the com- cit. p. 79. MAMMOTH. 185 maintains that we do not yet know what its food was; but although it has not been actually demonstrated, as in the Mastodon, there can be little or no doubt that it was much the same as the food of that animal, only probably consisting of the smaller and more tender twigs of the same trees as it fed on. It would not do, therefore, to suppose that an Elephant might be trans- planted from any one country into another if only the climate suited it. The climate of Africa might suit the Indian Elephant, but still it might not be able to thrive in it. The molar teeth are not adapted to its food. It may be said that this might be true of the African Elephant if transported to India, as its teeth might not have been sufficiently strong to suit the harder food it would have to chew there, but that it would not apply to the Indian Elephant coming to a country where the food was more succulent than it required, and where of course there would be an excess of power instead of a deficiency. But the maxim that the greater includes the less will not always apply to the adaptations of nature any more than to those of machinery. The very thing here supposed has been tried. The Indian species has not, indeed, been transported to and turned loose in Africa, but it has been made to live upon more succulent and softer food than is natural to it. This is to a certain extent done when it is domesticated in India, but most so when in captivity in menageries in this country, where it is fed upon carrots and turnips, corn and hay, instead of upon hard branchlets and silicious grasses. The result is that the grinders fall out of repair. The cement or setting in which the enamel rests is not worn away, and instead of being like a coarse rough file, the tooth degenerates into a smooth surface like polished marble. The anterior portion of the tooth is not worn away as it should be; the next tooth presses forwards at the rate of growth allotted to it, and which corresponds to the normal detrition of the tooth before it, each lamina of which breaks off and falls out as it reaches the front of the jaw, but as that has been unnaturally retarded, the capsule of the back tooth, instead of remaining distinct, becomes united with the uncalcified back portion of the capsule of the tooth in action, and the two separate molars are fused into one unwieldy mass covered by a continuous shell of cement. Of course disease and its attendant death follow in the train. Speedy extinction, instead of wide extension, would be the result of introducing an animal to a new country under such circumstances, whether the teeth were too powerful or not sufficiently so, unless nature had the power contended for, of remedying the defect by altering her machinery; that is, by developing all the individuals exposed to the new condition into a new species. The Mammoth is said to have. lived in two epochs (and to have been the only one of the family which did so, whence the name proposed for it by Geoffrey St. Hilaire, Dicycrornerrum— beast of two cycles—i.e. before the glacial epoch and after it; and notwithstanding that Dr. Falconer thinks this a happy appellation, “one of the bright inspirations of his (St. Hilaire’s) later years,” I shall venture to question its fitness. M. Lartet argues that it occupied different countries during the two cycles, and that it was an Asiatic animal in Asia before the glacial epoch —a European after. Tertiary (that is, pliocene), in the one—Quaternary in the other. But in the pliocene the glacial epoch had already commenced, and its occurrence in England, in the forest bed of Norfolk, below the drift shows that it had found its way into England before that land was wrapped in its winding-sheet of ice. The reader, however, will sce that the idea of its entrance into Europe from Asia after the glacial epoch corresponds well with my explanation of the course of action subsequent to that epoch. Dr. Falconer thus sums up what is known of the geographical distribution of the Mam- moth. BB 186 MAMMALS. “The state of our exact knowledge, at the present time, regarding the duration, geographical range, climate, habits, and food of the Mammoth, appears to be thus: “The species existed before the glacial period in Europe, and survived long after it in Europe or America. The constitutional flexibility, which is implied by its dicyclotherian term in time, is equally evinced in its vast geographical range of habitat ; extending from the valley of the Tiber to the Lena, and from Eschscholtz Bay to the shores of the Gulf of Mexico. Making due allowance for the interference of the glacial phenomena, the extremes of north and south latitude, in which undoubted remains of this ancient Elephant have been found, necessarily imply, that his constitutional flexibility was like that of man, capable of adaptation to very great differences of climate. In Siberia, he was enveloped in a shaggy, thick covering of fur, like the Musk-ox, impenetrable to rain or cold. But we are not obliged to suppose, that in his southern habitat he was thus clad. The dermal appendages are very variable, and adaptive according to climate. The fine silky fleece, from which the Cashmere shawls are woven, is abundantly developed at the roots of the long hairs of the domestic goat in the plains of Tibet, at, and upwards of, 16,000 feet above the level of our sea, where a highly rarified atmosphere is combined with severe winter cold. It grows, also, on the Kiang, the Yak, Cervus Wallichii, the Brown Bear of high elevations in Himalayah, and on the Mastiff Dog of Thibet. But it disappears entirely from the same Goat, and from the Dog, in the Valley of Cashmere. The short, crisp wool, of the Siberian Mammoth, which seems to have been the most protective portion of his fur, may, in like manner, have disappeared from the variety that lived in the Valley of the Tiber, while the bristles and long coarse hair were more or less retained; and it is in the highest degree probable, that the species presented varieties of external form, dependent on the nature of the dermal clothing, far exceeding those which are seen in existing Elephants. That the Siberian Mammoth migrated periodically from the more southern forests, towards the Polar sea, during summer, as his surviving contemporaries the Musk-ox and Reindeer now do, is also highly probable ; but we have no grounds to believe that the Mammoth of Southern Europe ever made migrations to the north of the Alps.” There are one or two points in this view which seem to me open to question. In the first place, as to the migration of the Mammoth from the southern forests to the Polar seas in summer; if Mr. Falconer meant no more than is implied in the migrations of the species which he cites in illustration —the Musk-ox and Reindeer—perhaps a couple of hundred miles—I have nothing to say, but if, as the context implies, he imagines a migration of such extent that a dying Mammoth would in summer leave his bones on the shores of the Arctic Sea, and in winter in the Valley of Cashmere—that he wore in winter the coat we wot of, while in summer he was bare as my hand, then I should wish to express my dissent. Neither do I think that the facts warrant the assertion that his constitutional flexibility was like that of Man, capable of adaptation to very great differences of climate, or the attribute of a vast geographical range of habitat accorded to it, so far as that implies a simultaneous range through many degrees of latitude. I attribute the occurrence of his bones over the vast extent of latitude through which we find them to a different cause. No one disputes that the retreat and advance of the glacial epoch were gradual, and I imagine the occurrence of the bones of the Mammoth and its usual contemporaries—the Musk-ox, the Reindeer, and Cave Bear—in localities where the climate is now mild to have been due to the climate haying been polar there when the bones were deposited. T think all these were cireumpolar animals, that is, all habitually living, like the Reindeer, at or a little to the south of the margin of the Aretic Circle, for as regards this point the Arctic Circle might * Fanconer, op. cit. p. 112. ; MAMMOTH. 187 be at the Equator if the cold were great enough. When the Arctic Circle stood in the latitude of Paris, the bones of the Mammoth would be left over a little to the south of that latitude; when the Arctic Circle had moved on to Brussels, the band on which the bones would be left would be shifted northwards in a corresponding degree ; so when it reached Copenhagen, or Hammerfest, a successive adyance would be made by the animals that lived in its temperature. This is, I think, the general principle on which the dispersion of the remains of these animals is to be accounted for. Next I demur to the term “dicyclotherian.” It is perhaps true to the letter, but I do not think it is true in spirit. If I ask a man to dinner, and he comes in time for the soup and stays until after the dessert, he has no doubt been with me both before and after dinner; but no one would say that it was a bond fide account of his visit so to express it. He was with me at dinner-time, not before dinner, nor after dinner. It was so with the Mammoth. Elephants existed in the miocene time, but polar Elephants were not known until the glacial epoch brought them into existence. Their cycle was the glacial epoch. So far from their constitution being flexible and capable of adaptation to great differences of climate, I imagine it to have been the very reverse. They came in with the extreme cold and have gone out with the extreme cold. They did not “by a miracle of Providence ” survive the two epochs. The glacial cycle is a cycle itself, not a line separating two cycles. They are essentially “Monocyclotherian,” and were strictly “Monothermal.” The law which has presided over the creation of species of Mammals remains undisturbed. There is still no well-established instance of any species of Mammal having lived in two epochs. There seems, how- ever, no physical necessity that it should be so. It is only that a new cycle implies a change of condition, and consequent change of form in species. If the change in condition were only partial on the globe, or trifling, we should have plenty of “ dicyclotherian” species, and a proof of it is that in the depths of the sea, where the changes of condition going on above, are of course less telt, we have dicyclotherian animals. ° As to the clothing of the Mammoth varying we of course can only indulge in conjecture. Bishop Heber, indeed, mentions seeing a young Elephant in the Himmalayahs as shaggy as a poodle, but this does not go far. We do not find the full-grown Elephant putting on a shaggy coat on ascending the Himmalayahs, and putting it off again when it comes down. The instances given by Mr. Falconer are not pertinent. A Thibet dog taken into the Vale of Cashmere does not at once discard his fur. It is only after a course of years that the difference of climate begins to tell. It is especially noteworthy that the same slight degree of difference which we see in existing semi-circumpolar animals in their different countries also occur in this extinct species. It lived undoubtedly for a very extended period, and yet the American species deviated as little from the Old-World form as does the existing Spermoruitus Parryr from $8. EvErsmMannt. This, I think, shows—Ist. That it was an Arctic species, always living in a boreal land; 2nd. That, as already mentioned, during the latter part of the life of the species (that is, subsequent to the return of warmth), the conformation of America and its relations to the Old World were not materially dif- ferent from what they are now, because we see the Mammoth had an American type as the reindeer, moose, polar hare, and marmots have now; 8rd. That the change consequent upon exposure to different conditions of life having been once effected, no further alteration takes place through mere lapse of time, but the species remains persistent through future ages, so long as the conditions continue the same. Orner Extincr Errpuants.—South of the Alps in Europe, a species named ELEPHAS MERIDION- 188 MAMMALS. ALIS, becomes the more usual representative of the Mammoth, although remains of that species are sometimes found there too. South of the Apalachian range in North America, another species, EK. Coiumsr, Fule. acts the same part in that continent. Dr. Falconer thus describes the country which seems to have been the chief abode of this more southern species: his description will be of use in relation to other families as well as this :— Between the Apalachian Mountains and the Atlantic there is a wide stretch of horizontal tertiary strata forming three terraces, each about twenty miles wide. The lowermost or littoral platform rises from ten to forty feet above the level of the sea, and stretches at least 400 miles northward to Newbern and the Neuse, in Carolina. The deposit is fluvio-marine resting upon eocene strata. Although mainly marine, it contains beds of fresh-water origin, in which the Mammalian remains occur. Lyell considers it to be very analogous to the great Pampean formation of South America, as described by Darwin, and to be of pleistocene age. The bones are found between four and six feet below the surface, imbedded in clay, resting on yellow sand, and belonged to Megatherium, Mylodon, Mastodon, Elephant, &c. * The E. Cotumsr extends from Mexico to Georgia, including 18° of longitude and 12° of latitude between the parallels of 20° and 32° N., and Falconer adds that there are grounds for suspecting that it ranged into South America. No other species of the more recent epoch have been found in America, but a fragment of a stupendous tooth, obtained from the upper miocene beds of Niobrara, has enabled Dr. Leidy to announce another somewhat older species under the name of E. mrprrator, which, although the fragment is insufficient for description, Dr. Leidy, with perfect warrant I think, assumes to be distinct from the Mammoth, on the strength of the locality and deposit where found. No Elephant has been found in any part of South America, except perhaps in Guiana, where remains of E. Corumsr are thought to have been found. In the Old World the great metropolis of their kind has been India; no less than eight species being reckoned as discovered in it by Falconer, and all (except the existing species and one other) belonging to the early miocene. Except a Mastodon from the Mauvaises Terres, we know of no other species of Proboscidean but the Indian ones belonging to the lower miocene. And, with one exception, we have not yet obtained evidence that any of these survived, down to the upper miocene or pliocene. When the rigour of the glacial epoch had passed and Europe had thrown off her shroud, the Proboscideans returned from Asia into Europe. In Europe alone Dr. Falconer reckons six Mastodons and five Elephants, probably most of them Arctic. All these species may not be good; but even, although they were restricted in number, sufficient would remain to show the extension into Europe of several species. It is natural that the great size of these most remarkable animals should add to the interest with which we view them, and equally natural that when we have once got immense size fully established in our minds as the typical character of the race, we should feel no less interest in meeting with a species contradicting its normal attributes, and while still an Elephant, possessing in mature age no greater size than a young one. Remains of a pigmy of this kind have recently been found. Dr. Falconer, in his paper on Fossil Elephants, to which I have already repeatedly referred, gave a short notice of it under the name of E. Mr.irensis. This pigmy * FALconer, op. cit. p. 60, EXTINCT ELEPHANTS. 189 species was obtained not long since by Capt. Spratt in the ossiferous caves of Malta. In size it stood between a large Tapir and the small unicorned Rhinoceros of Java. To show that there is no error in the case, such as mistaking a young one for an old one, he tells us, that the remains he discovered of numerous individuals, which included nearly the entire dentition, from the new- born calf up to the adult animal.* It falls into the section to which the existing African Elephant belongs. Another species, not much larger than the E. Metrrensts (neither of them exceeding five feet in height), and from the same source in Malta, has since been described by Mr. Busk under the name of E. Fatconert, in commemoration of the highly honoured and much-lamented naturalist, from whose labours I have drawn so largely. I may shortly say that Dr. Falconer divides the Elephants into three sections, according to the number and closeness of the lamelle of the molar teeth. First, the sub-genus Srrcopon, with few and broad lamellie, forming, as already said, the transition between the Elephant and the Mastodon. Second, Loxovon, the type of which is the existing African species ; it has molars half-way between those of the Indian Elephant and Srecopoy. And lastly, Evrternas, with narrow and numercus lamella, of which the Mammoth and existing Indian species are the types. When and whence did Africa receive its species? We may assume that it was not before the miocene epoch, as no evidence of the existence of any prior to that period has anywhere been found. If at the miocene period, then there must have been some other connexion between Africa and other Continents than what now subsists —for at that time there were Elephants also both in North America and India; and the idea of three separate centres of creation for an animal is out of the question. It follows that a connexion between Africa and some other country, where Pachyderms were, must have subsisted to allow of their appearance there; and as, for many reasons, a connexion of Africa with India seems more probable than one with any country, the Pachyderms furnish additional confirmation of the hypothesis of a former connexion with it. Dr. Falconer’s views correspond with this in referring to India as the nursery of the European forms both of African and Indian type. He says, that if the asserted facts be correct they seem clearly to indicate that the older Elephants of Europe, such as E. mertpronaxis (of the African type) and E. anriquus (of the Indian type) were not the stocks from which the later species, E. prrwicentus and E. Arricanus, spring, and that we must look elsewhere for their origin; and that the nearest affinity, and that a very close one, of the European E. mERrpDIoNALis is with the miocene E. pLantrrons of India; and of E. prricentus with the existing Indian species. + That E. prruicentus may have sprung from the present or some extinct Indian species seems extremely probable. As to E. MERmDIONALIS, We must remember that if it is near to E. PLANIFRONS, so is E. Arricanvs, all three belonging to the same section, and E. pLantrrons being the only Indian one with the African type. Another problem still more difficult of solution is the derivation of the Elephant (E. mrriricus Lcidy), in the miocene beds of Nebraska, of the same type (the Tetralophodont), and of even an older date than the Sevalik beds. Although we may not have fallen upon any older specimens in India than the Nebraska one, still the greater number of species found there suggests that India may have possessed them first. If, then, we assume that the original centre of creation of the Elephant * FALCONER, op. cit. p. 87. + FALconeER, op. cit, p. 80. 190 MAMMALS. in India or its neighbourhood, by what route can this species have reached Nebraska? At the miocene epoch we know of no other species except in India. How can the gulf between these two distant regions be bridged over? By Peru, and thence northwards? No; the species found on the Andes belong not to the Elephant, but to the Mastodon, and to its more recent and northern type, and they are more probably the result of migration from the north under the cold of the glacial epoch. No miocene remains of any Proboscidean have been found in South Ame- rica. By Bhering’s Straits or the Aleutian Isles from Asia? By a direct land connexion between China and California, v/@ the Sandwich Islands? By a continental union between Europe and America? ‘There is little to guide us to a choice between these or other similar contrivances by which an ingenious mind might seek to unite the two lands in question, and it would not be difficult to find arguments in favour of every one of them. 191 CHAPTER XXVIII. MULTUNGULA continwed—EXISTING ELEPHANTS— QUESTION AS TO DISTINCTNESS OF SUMATRAN SPECIES — ELEPHANTS IN BORNEO, Existinc ELepHants.—(Map 50.) The natural history and distribution of the existing species are not less interesting than those of the fossil. It has been ascertained that the African species was not only represented in Europe by the small Malta species, E. Menrrensts, but that remains of the existing African species itself (E. Arricanus) have been found both in Spain (near Madrid) and at more than one place in Sicily. The identity of the Spanish remains with the African species is given by M. Lartet with some doubt, but there is none as to that of the Sicilian, which is vouched for by Dr. Falconer himself. Although that species is no longer found wild in Africa north of the Sahara, its absence there is due to man. In former times it undoubtedly extended over the whole of the habitable parts of the Continent. The Romans and Carthaginians got their Elephants from the north of Africa and numerous coins and medals prove that their domesticated species was the African one, the form and size of the ears being a sure indication of the species. Schlegel suggests that there may be more than one species confounded under the present African form—a north and a south breed. As he says, most animals from the two chief divisions of Africa differ specifically from one another, or at least show differences in size, &e., as, for example, is the case with the Ostrich of Algeria and that of South Africa. This is scarcely a parallel case, however, for the most northerly Elephants are not north of the Sahara; and in any view we must take them as only one until proved to be more. If the existing African species extended into Europe there is reason also to believe that the existing Indian species did so likewise—one or two teeth, undistinguishable from those of the Indian species, having been found at the Bosphorus and in Italy. It is an interesting point to be kept in view in future observations, but the evidence in its favour is still too slight to allow this extension of the range of the E. Iyprcus to be received as more than a possible supposition. The existing range of that species also furnishes matter for inquiry. If only one species is found in Asia, then that species extends through the East Indies, Assam, Burmah, Tennasserim, the Malayan Peninsula, Siam, Cochin China, and Sumatra. It is not a native of Java, and, although found in Borneo, it is more than doubtful whether it is aboriginal in that island or not. Until lately it has always been understood and admitted that there was only one Asiatic Elephant, the E. Ixpicus; but an attempt has recently been made to separate the Asiatic species into two; and before discussing the question of distribution, it will be as well to see our way clearly as to what distribution we are speaking of. The two supposed species are, 1, the insular, that is, the 192 MAMMALS. animals found in Ceylon and Sumatra, and perhaps in the trans-Gangetic countries; and 2, the continental, limited to those in continental India. It is the eminent Dutch naturalist, Professor Schlegel, who has first attempted to show that there are two species. He brought the idea forward in a paper read before the Royal Academy of Sciences in Holland, in 1861,* in which he tells us that in August 1845 he had obtained several examples of the Sumatran Elephant for the Royal Museum at Leyden from the dis- trict of Palanbang, in Sumatra. ‘As I was unpacking them, it appeared to me that they differed in several respects from the Elephant of Bengal. I occupied myself therefore with drawing up the characters of these two animals, compared with those of the African Elephant, and gave the results to Herr Temminck, which he afterwards published in the ‘Coup d’cil sur les possessions Neder- landaises dans les Indes Orientales,’ calling the new species by the name of ELEpHas SuMATRANUs.” The character of most importance on which Professor Schlegel rests his distinction of species, is the number of the dorsal vertebrae. The ErepHas AFRICANUS, according to him, has twenty-one; the E. Sumarranus, twenty; and the E. Inpicus, or Bengal Elephant, only nineteen. He thinks that he can point out other differences—more particularly differences in the teeth of the two latter, but they are very slight ; and if the difference in the numbers of dorsal vertebra could be explained away, the grounds for separating the Sumatran from the Indian Elephants would disappear, for a specific difference could hardly be maintained on the strength of such distinctions as that the Ceylonese Elephant has higher fore quarters, and a smaller and lighter head, which is carried more elevated, and a larger terminal fringe to the tail, while the Elephant of the Sal forests has sometimes five nails on his hinder feet ; characters the most of which were pointed out by Mr. Hodgson many years ago,t and which differ in different individuals from either locality. Dr. Falconer, however, in his papert to which I have so often had occasion to refer, passes the conclusion arrived at by Professor Schlegel under careful examination, and arrives at the con- clusion that there are not two species. I need not follow him in his exposition of the fallacy or irrelevancy of the minor evidences adduced by Schlegel, Temminck, and others who have taken up their views. It will be sufficient to say in regard to the number of the dorsal vertebra, that he shows that instead of their number in the African species being twenty-one, they vary from twenty to twenty-one; and instead of being in the Indian species nineteen, they vary from nineteen to twenty, and probably it will be found that the Ceylonese animal varies in like manner, but materials for determining this point are still wanting. It follows that the number of dorsal vertebrae is no sure indication of the species. Specimens of all three supposed species can be shown with twenty vertebra, and as the other characters are insufficient, there seem no adequate grounds to warrant the separation of the species into two. The settlement of this question by Dr. Falconer helps to extinguish ‘a doubtful speculation as to Ceylon and Sumatra having been formerly continuous, which was brought forward by Sir Emerson Tennent, and adopted by Professor Schlegel. Referring to the supposed identity of the two Ele- phants, and the differences between the fauna of Ceylon and Southern India, such as the Monkeys being all, or mostly all, different, he suggests the possibility of the former continuity of the islands. A * Bijdrage tot de Geschiedenis van Elephanten-voor- + Hopeson in “ Zoological Soc. Proceedings,” 1834, namelijk ELePHAS Suma?TRANus, “ Verslagen en Mededeelin- _ p. 96. gen der koninklijke Academie van Wetenschappen Afd. t “Nat. Hist. Rev.” Jan. 1862, p. 81. Natuurkunde,” 1861, p. 101, translated by Dr. P. L. Sclater in “Natural History Rev.” ii. p. 72. ELEPHANTS. 193 former communication may haye existed, but it must have been long before the last adjustment of the relations between land and earth. As Dr. Falconer well says, the range of low hills which forms the spine of the Malay Peninsula, and which is separated by a narrow interval only from the islands of the Archipelago, can be traced north, increasing in height and development till it joins on with the Himmalayah. While Ceylon, as has been often remarked, presents all the physical characters of being a severed portion of the distinct mountain-chain of the Western Ghauts. With certain exceptions, the mammalian fauna, as a general rule, confirms this view, as do also recent investigations on the flora of the mountainous regions of the adjoining Indian Peninsula near to its extremity. That a connexion formerly, and at no very remote period, existed between the the Malay Archipelago and the continuous mainland, is clearly indicated by the species of large Mammalia common to both.* In fact their fauna is the same. Such a former connexion recalls the consideration of the peculiarities of the fauna of Borneo already partially discussed in speaking of the Great Carnivora, and the reader will remember that I suggested the hypothesis that that island, in its alternations of submergence and elevation, may have had its last submergence, previous to its elevation to its present state, arrested before the actual destruction of all its former inhabitants had been completed, but so very near such a time, that it was only those animals which were more or less independent of dy land, (such as arboreal, aerial, or aquatic animals), that did survive. In the enumeration of the exceptions to this fact, I showed that the only large mammals whose existence in the island is beyond question, are the Bos Sonparcus and the Elephant. The statement that the Rhinoceros and Tapir also inhabit Borneo depends on unsupported allegation. No person can be pointed out or referred to who had actually seen them, and I therefore think I am entitled until some evidence is brought forward in proof of their occurrence there, to reject them as natives of Borneo. The Sunda Ox is a domesticated animal, and is more likely to have been introduced than to be aboriginal. Once introduced, it may easily in such a jungle have escaped and become wild. There, therefore, only remains the Elephant, and, so far as can be ascertained, there seem strong grounds for believing it to have been introduced too. Professor Schegel has so little doubt on the subject that he commences his paper on the distinctness of the insular from the continental Elephants of Asia in these words: ‘It is well known that Sumatra is the only island of the Indian Archipelago where Elephants are found wild. Magelhaens has informed us that the Elephants which he saw in Borneo were introduced there, and that the animal is as little indigenous to that island as to Java.’ + As already said, however, Mr. Blyth, also well entitled to speak, takes the opposite view, and maintains that the Elephants now,found in Borneo are aboriginal. Mr. Spencer St. John, in his “ Life-in the Forests of the far East,” says, ‘“ Among the principal animals which frequent the forests of Borneo may be mentioned the Elephant, Rhinoceros, the Tapir, wild cattle, Deer, Swine, Bears, a small Panther, Otters, and a variety of felines. The first three have not been seen by Europeans. When ascending the River Baram in the north-west coast, one of the guides I had with me said he had frequently traded in the country where Elephants abounded, and that was in the direction of the Kina Batahgan River on the north-east coast. My favourite follower Musa, when pulling up the great River of Kina Batangan, steered close in shore * FALCONER, op. cit. p. 95. + SCHLEGEL, op. cit. supra. Sclater’s translation “ Nat. Hist. Rev.” 1. 72 194 MAMMALS. to avoid the strength of the current, and looking up to find what was moving near, saw a noble tusked Elephant above him, with his proboscis stretched over the boat to pick fruit beyond. ‘The paddle dropped from my hand,’ said he, ‘life left me, but the canoe drifted back out of danger.’ “When we went round to look for that district we failed to find the entrance of the river, so my personal knowledge of the Elephant is limited to noticing their traces on the beach, though I have met dozens of men who have themselves seen these animals wandering in herds, and I have often had their tusks brought to me for sale at Labuan and Sulu; one I measured was six feet two inches in length, including that portion which is set in the head, and this was purchased by Mr. Scott, the Governor of Natal. “Tt is generally believed that above a hundred years ago the Hast India Company sent to the Sultan of Sulu a present of some Elephants; that the Sultan said these great creatures would certainly eat up the whole produce of his little island, and asked the donors to land them at Cape Unsang, on the north-east coast of Borneo, where his people would take care of them. But it is contrary to the nature of the Malay to take care of any animal that requires much trouble, so the Elephants sought their own food in the woods, and soon became wild. Hundreds now wander about and constantly break into the plantations, doing much damage; but the natives sally out with huge flaming torches, and drive the startled beasts back to the woods. “The ivory of Bornean commerce is generally procured from the dead bodies found in the forests, but there is now living a man who drives a profitable trade in fresh ivory. He sallies out on dark nights with simply a waistcloth and a short sharp spear; he crawls up to a herd of Elephants, and selecting a large one drives his spear into the animal’s belly. In a moment the whole herd is on the move, frightened by the bellowing of their wounded companion, which rushes to and fro, until the panic spreads, and they tear headlong through the jungle crushing before them all the smaller vegetation. The hunter’s peril at that moment is great, but fortune has favoured him yet, as he has escaped being trampled to death. “In the morning he follows the traces of the herd, and carefully examining the soil, detects the spots of blood that have fallen from the wounded Elephant. He often finds him so weakened by loss of blood as to be unable to keep up with the rest of the herd, and a new wound is soon inflicted. Patiently pursuing this practice the hunter has secured many of those princes of the forest.” * IT am afraid I am of a sceptical turn of mind, but I cannot help saying before I begin to test the real import of Mr. St. John’s information, that I find this hunter’s tale very indigestible. This, however, is by the way, and it does not affect the fact of Elephants being there to operate upon, that we doubt the truth of the modus operandi. Mr. Blyth doubts the possibility of the few individuals put ashore by the order of the Sultan of Sulu, little more than a century ago, having increased to such an extent as to form the large herds which are spoken of as existing in the north-east Peninsula of Borneo. I beg the reader to note, in passing, that these great herds are only spoken of, nobody has seen them but the natives. Mr. St. John no doubt says that he has seen “many tusks brought to Labuan for sale,” but ‘many ” is a word of such diversity of acceptation that it conveys almost no information. Some men might think a dozen many, others might think a ship-load few; and I rather read “many tusks brought io Labuan for sale” as meaning “tusks brought at many times to Labuan for sale.” But let me not be hypereritical,—I only wish to put the drag on our imaginations to prevent us attaching a * Sr. Joun’s “ Life in the Forests of the Far East,’ ii, p. 224. London, 1862. ELEPHANTS. 195 larger meaning to the numbers of the Elephants than is really intended. Mr. Blyth disallows Mr. Darwin’s calculation of the probable minimum rate of the natural increase of the Elephant, by which he reckoned that in five centuries the increase of a single pair would exceed 15,000,000 ; but it was not necessary for his argument to take this objection, because it is all at the end of the centuries that the rapidity of the increase takes place; at the 120th year, according to Darwin’s datum of three pair of births in each Elephant’s lifetime, the increase of one pair would not have reached 500 individuals; or, supposing three pairs of Elephants to have been turned loose, the in- crease would not have reached 1500, but another thirty years or two make a great difference, the increase then goes on with giant strides; Mr. Darwin’s rate of increase also is probably much too low; supposing the female to produce one calf only at a time (and she has sometimes two), his rate would give only one birth in fifteen years. It would not seem too much to double this, in which case at 120 years after the introduction of three pair they might be 20,000 in number, or if we take 150 years then 60,000, a sufficient number to make some very respectable herds even after making allowance for the patriarchs dying off. Another objection of Mr. Blyth’s to the common account is that the remnant of a wild race of Elephants existed in Sulu within the memory of people now living.* That a remnant of Elephants existed there may be true, but there is no evidence that they were a wild race. The following information on the subject is given by Mr. St. John, in his notice of Sulu:—* Remem- bering Forest’s statement that Elephants were found in his time in the forests which clothed so much of the soil of the island, I asked Dater Daniel about it; his answer was, that even within the remembrance of the oldest men then alive, there were still a few Elephants left in the woods, but finding that they committed so much damage to the plantations the villagers had combined and hunted the beasts until they were all killed; I was pleased to find the old traveller’s account confirmed.” + Mr. Blyth asks why since there were wild Elephants already on the island, should the few tame Elephants presented to the Sultan of Sulu be landed in Borneo. I would answer his inquiry (Scotice) by another, Why should they have ever been presented to him at all if the Elephant was already a native of his own island? The more natural supposition seems to be that he did not dismiss the present of Elephants to Borneo before he had seen them and tried them. Until he had done so, he could scarcely estimate the extent of their appetite, and that it was only after he found it too large for his revenue that he despatched them to Borneo, and that even then he did not send all. It is in accordance with human nature that he should keep one or two as a toy to show. These may very probably have been the progenitors of the Elephants destroyed by the villagers, while those now wild in Borneo are the representatives of the greater number turned loose there. The probability of the Bornean terrestrial fauna having been at one time entirely arboreal, does not therefore thus far appear to be affected by any of the instances of non-arboreal animals said to occur there. The Elephant is not now met with in any of the other islands in the Indian Archipelago except Java and Sumatra. It is aboriginal in the latter, but not in the former. In former times, however, it must have been an inhabitant of the Philippine Islands, as the names Gadya (Elephant) and Nangagadya (Elephant-hunting), are preserved in the Tagal language.t * BryrH in “Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,” 1862. t Bownrna, Sir Joun, “ A Visit to the Philippine + Sr. Jomn, op. cit. ii. 243. a Tslands,” 1859. 196 CHAPTER XXIX. MULTUNGULA continued —SIRENIA — DINOTHERUM— MANATEE— DUGONG RHYTINA. Fottow1ne Professor Owen’s classification, which is in this respect that of Cuvier, I should now pass on to a new section which he designates “ Murimarva,’’ and which is composed of the SrrentA and Crracea. But the affinity of the Strenta to the Pachydermata appears to me so much greater than to the Crracea that I exercise the option I reserved to myself of following a different arrangement from his in cases where my own convictions were very decidedly opposed to the arrangement he adopted. In this case I cannot say that my convictions are opposed to his, because he has in many places* stated that he had arrived at the conclusion that the Srrenza constitute an order of mammals quite distinct from the Cetacea, and in some characters more nearly allied to the Pachyderms; notwithstanding which, he, in his well-considered system of arrange- ment, removes them from the Pachyderms and places them in the same section as the Whales. In one sense, it may be said that the matter is not of much importanée, because, if we bring the Cetacea after the Pachydermata, and place the Sirenia at the head of the former, their position in the arrangement is the same in either view. In another sense, however, it is of very consi- derable importance, because there is involved in it the question whether they are more nearly allied to the one or the other; to speak in a general way whether they are modified Whales or modified Elephants. I think they are modified Elephants. Moreover, although we may place the Whales after the Elephants, it cannot be said that that is on account any close affinity between them. The Creracra form a group apart. The thread breaks when we come to them, and we must begin a new piece; but with the Srrenta it is not so, the thread between the Elephants and them is still continuous. The mal-association in Professor Owen’s arrangement is due to greater weight being given to the form and purpose of the structure of the animal than to the plan of the structure. On this point the ideas of Agassiz seem right in principle. The form and purpose to which they are to be put are subordinate to the great plan of the work, and affinities founded upon the congruity of the former should certainly give way to those founded upon the analogy of the latter. Not to speak of more widely separated organisms, the form of the Whale and the purpose for which its form is given is the same as that of a fish, namely, to live in water instead of air, but the plan of their structure is different. The purpose of the structure of the bat is the same as that of the bird, but its plan is different. Agassiz, in stating his views of the position of classes, orders, and families, takes the plan of structure as the character for distinguishing the great divisions of the organic kingdom, called by * OweEN in “ Proc. Zool. Soc.” 1838, p. 45, &e. SIRENIA. 197 him types or branches; the combination of structure, as the test for defining classes ; the complication of structure, as evidenced in the degree of organisation, as that for orders; form as the character of families; ultimate structural peculiarities as those of genera; relation of parts to each other and to the world around them, as those of species.* Although I quote this, I do not mean that I agree with all that Agassiz lays down on the subject; on the contrary, I dissent from the most of it. He believes in the existence of all these subdivisions in nature. I do not. I see that organised beings exist in groups, but I see no two groups bearing the same rank; and no two equally well defined. It appears to me, therefore, that the practice of naturalists of which Agassiz complains, of using the terms class, order and family, loosely, and often interchangeably or indiscriminately, is quite natural. How can one use a term precisely for things which are never precise, but always irregular and uncertain ? But at the same time, I think that most of his propositions, though not founded on nature, will at least prove useful for artificial arrangement. For instance, plan of structure is plainly at the base of all arrangement, and the more nearly the plan on which different organic beings are constructed corresponds, the nearer ought to be their place to each other; such identity of plan is the consequence of nearness of derivation from which all similarity of structure proceeds ; and although the difference between combination of structure and complication of structure, savours more of refinement on words than of precise meaning, there can be little doubt that the general principle involved in all his propositions is correct, viz., that before we come to employ the subor- dinate objects or parts of structure, the more important modifications of its plan ought to be taken into account. We should go against this principle if we placed the Sirenia in the same section as the Cetacea, instead of with the Pachyderms, because we should then give weight to form in preference to plan of structure. Because it is a swimming fish-shaped mammal, with the anterior limbs turned into fins, and the pesterior limbs absent, we should place it beside another swimming fish-shaped mammal, similarly situated as regards limbs. It is the same mistake that used to be made long ago, when the Seals, for the same reason, were placed in the same group; and the parallel to that ornithological arrangement, objected to by many ornithologists, by which the water birds are placed all by them- selves instead of being distributed among their congeners, according to their plan of structure—the Gulls beside the Raptores, and so on. There are, no doubt, one or two other indications of affinity which may have weighed with Cuvier and Owen in inducing them to give the preference to the Cetaceous group as that to which the Sirenia should be referred, such as, that the Ruyrrna, one of the StrentA, instead of having teeth has horny plates on the palate, suggestive of the whalebone of the whale ; that the cervical vertebrae are only six in the Manatee, so far supplying an apparent coincidence with the Whales, which, sometimes from the effects of anchylosis, usually appear to have fewer cervical vertebre than seven ; and that all the Strenta have a broad transverse tail-fin like that of the Whales. On the other hand, the nostrils are not placed as in the Whales, nor do they serve as blow- holes as in them, but they occupy the usual position in front of the muzzle. The larynx is that of the Elephant, not that of the Whale. With the exception of the Rhytina, the form, structure, and number of the teeth, are as in terrestrial pachyderms, and not as in the Whales, which have them conical, numerous, and unlike those of any other mammals; further, in the Sirenia, the molar teeth * Aaassz, L., “Contributions to the Natural History of the United States,” vol. i. p. 137, et seq, Boston, 1857. 198 MAMMALS. are bilophodont (two-ridged), a structure peculiar to some of the Pachyderms, Edentates, and Mar- supials, ¢.g., the Tapir, Megatherium, Diprotodon, and Kangaroo; as in the Elephant, they are packed in a sort of inner case, or matrix, within the bone; and as in it they advance continuously from behind forwards, the foremost dropping out, and the vacant alveoli being gradually absorbed suc- eessively, and the roots of the teeth themselves being gradually absorbed as they come to the front, so that they drop readily out.* Their ear-bones are large, like cetolites, but any inference favourable tu their cetaceous character which might be drawn from that fact, is negatived by their still greater resemblance to those of the Hippopotamus ;+ and as in the Pachyderms, the anterior part of the head of the first mb articulates with a fovea on the seventh cervical vertebra. Their generative and renal systems are those of the Pachyderms. The teats are placed on the breast as in the Elephant, and not far back on the belly as in the Whales. They have a neck which the Whales They have thick fleshy lips, and, like the Elephant, the skin carries more or less The coat in which the Rhytina is inclosed is a close agglomeration have not. numerous hairs or bristles. of hairs or horny tubes, so hard as to resist the blows of an axe, reminding us of the horn of the Rhinoceros. The bones, too, are dense and heavy, while those of the Whales are light and spongy. Dinornertum. Every one must remember the figure of this animal as restored, reposing on the bank of a tranquil lake, with good sturdy Elephant-like limbs ingeniously tucked up beneath it, but with the termination of one which could not be well got out of the way, modestly concealed by a tuft of grass; with enormous tusks in its lower jaw bent downwards like the upper tusks of the Walrus, and clothed in flesh, all but the points, like an old lady’s fingers in mittens with the tips cut off; and finished off with a double-chinned proboscis flourishing about in the air in an insane-looking manner. One is happy to think that it was a human artist, not-nature, that devised this curiosity. Professor Owen, resting chiefly on the close relation manifested by this extinct genus to the Mastodon in its molar teeth and its inferior tusks, placed it among the Proboscideans; another proof, by the way, of the pachydermatous relations of this family. He believed it to be a quadrupedal and terrestrial Pachyderm, with thick and stout extremities adapted to the support and progression of the massive frame which characterizes the known Proboscidean Pachyderms. ¢ But De Blainville and Geoffroy St. Hilaire, from a consideration of the whole cranial and and dental system, came to the conclusion, that it did not possess a proboscis, and, from the resemblance of the fore part of the head to that of the Manatee, that it was an aquatic animal * Cuvier figures the African Manatee with six molars were obtained from the Dju-dju of a native chief; the in each jaw on each side, and the American with nine, which are never all in use at one time, the greatest num- ber being seven so in use. Vogel gives the numbers in the Ajah as five, which Owen thinks may be due to the animal being young. J possess two fine heads of M. Snnrca- LENSIS, from Old Calabar, which I owe to the kindness of my friend the Rev. W.C. Thomson, of the United Pres- byterian Mission there. These two differ in the dentition, having respectively nine and ten teeth on each side of each jaw ; the teeth fully exposed and in use on the different sides of the jaw are unequal in number—nine and ten in the one, and eight and nine in the other There are still two or three undeveloped teeth stowed away in the rear in the matrix or case which holds them. My specimens Manatee being, like the sturgeon with ourselves, a perqui- site of royalty. + So great is their resemblance to those of the Hippo- potamus, that Dr. Kirk, seeing a pair of these bones lying on my table, from one of the two heads above spoken of, from the Old Calabar river, took them up with the remark, “ Hippopotamus’ ear-bones?” with which, of course, he was familiar. It was he who drew my attention to the mode of the loss of the anterior teeth — the absorption of the alveoli and of the roots (the posterior roots being absorbed first, leaving the anterior to hold the tooth in its place so long as required). t Owen in “ Ann, Nat. Hist.” vol. xi. 329, 1843. NWIQN{T | | + i | Waootideg 4 va 30 LNVITILW Laos DIY) OLA GE 22907 0b0w9 ME 90.2707 serv It avin STAID Va eC hyAst a AW a Dara an 2 SZaNi|tHO -}--- oh dearer BAY XX T lf nose = c FES ESQUimMAUx ane -~~---}~----4h8 Se RUSBIAN 7, 7D AMERICA = Sf u ee NORTH ATLANTIC PERSIA EAN puwag TH I B “Ascubwustan a mu CIFIC ae MAP LIV. FINNER. MEGAPTERA LONGIMANA. 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Day & Son| Limited) Leh ARMADILLOS— ANT-EATERS. 227 studied on the spot the mammals both of Brazil and La Plata; and in his works on these districts he has enumerated the different species found in them, and out of twelve species of Armadillo found in these two regions, he did not find one both in Brazil and La Plata.* The Dasypvus Presa, or nine-banded Armadillo, from Central America, has been stated to be an exception. It occurs in Brazil, and in Guiana, and is said to be common in Mexico, and not uncommon near the lower shores of the Rio Grande in Texas; but it turns out that the Brazilian and the Texan species are different.t I would preserve the name, D. Nnovemcrncrus, for the Brazilian species, and Prpa for the Texan. On the other hand, the great Ant-eater (MyrmecopHaGa JUBATA) is found throughout the whole of South America, east of the Andes and down to La Plata, wherever there is wood. No doubt it may be said that the physical condition of a wooded country is greatly more homogeneous than one not entirely wooded, and less change is felt in passing from one part of it to another. But the fact that there are only two species of Ant-eater as opposed to a dozen of Armadillos, over the same extent of country, shows, I think, that the one must be more susceptible to the changes which induce modification of form than the other. The curious little mole-like CHLamyporHorus TRuNcATUS, the Pichyciego, or blind Armadillo of the natives, is found in the neighbourhood of Mendoza; but it does not extend across the Andes into Chili, although Chili is usually given as its habitat. Neither it nor any other Armadillo occurs on the western side of the Andes, until we reach Guyaquil. Burmeister has lately found a second species of this curious animal, also in that district, which he has named C. rerusus.t The Armadillos have been divided into various sub-genera. Two sections seem sufficiently distinguished ; some haying the fore-feet provided only with four toes, while others have the fore-feet five-toed. But these distinctions do not seem to have any geographical import. The Texan species (Dasypus Prsa) belongs to the four-toed section ; but that section goes as far south as the five-toed. Some of each being found in all parts of their range. TIT. Ant-raters. (1.)—Manis. (Map 60.) The Pangolins inhabit the Indian Archipelago and the land surrounding the Bay of Bengal, also the east coast of Africa from Sennaar to the Cape, and the west coast from Senegal to the Niger. I do not find any record of its occurrence on the south-west coast between the Cape and the Niger, its place there being seemingly occupied by the Orycrrrorus, for which the arid, sandy country is more adapted. Focillon, in a review of the genus (Mants)§ divides them into long-tailed and short-tailed species. These have not much geographical significance, however ; the long-tailed, to be sure, is only found in Africa, but the short-tailed is found both in Africa and the East. (2.) OryerErorr. (Map 60.) Wholly African, and found on the west coast of Africa and South of Nubia, near the White Nile. Owen observes that of all Edentata the Orycrrrorus most nearly resembles the extinct genus SceLrporHERtUM (one of the Megatheroid South American forms) in the form of its cranium ; and next to it in this comparison, the great Armadillo (Dasypus G1Gas.)|| Although burrowers, and on that account classed by some with the Dasyrt, they are, as already mentioned, entomophagous, and most nearly allied to the Ant-eaters. * Burmeister, H., “Systematic Uebersicht der thiere t Burmeister in “Abh. d. Nat. Gesellsch. zu Halle,” Brazils,” 1864. Burmetster, H., “ Erlauterung zur Fauna — Vil. Brasiliens,” 1856. Burnetsrrer, H., “Reise durch die La § Focrtrton, Ad. in “ Rey. et Mag. de Zool.” Sept. 1850, Plata Staaten,” 1861. p- 465. + Barrp, on “U.S, Pac., R. R., Repub.,” Vol. viii., || Owen, in “ Zoology of the Beagle.” 624, 1857. MAMMALS. i) le ioe) (3.) Myrmecopuaca. (Map 60.) The Anv-Earers occupy the whole of South America east of the Andes, and north of La Plata, wherever there is wood. Burmeister did not find them in La Plata, although they are said to be found in the wooded northern parts of that country. The females of these animals appear to be more frequently met with than the males. mentions that he several times procured females of the Ant-bear and never males, ai it could be substantiated that the number of males is considerably smaller than females, in that circumstance would rest an additional ground for supposing that the extinction of its species like those of the Edentata in general is determined upon.”* It is to be hoped not; for in our own race the number of males is smaller than that of the females, and we should be sorry to Schomburek Say Sisps cult that of the inagine that on that account an edict for our extinction had gone forth. + “ Ann. of Nat. Hist.” iv. 206. 1840. CHAPTER XXXII. INSECTIVORA—MOLES, SHREWS, TUPAIAS, HEDGEHOGS. In winding up our skein of Mammals, as we experience some difficulty in disentangling a knot in which the Edentates, Monotremes, and Marsupials, are mixed up together, I shall leave that end of the thread, and, seeking out another free end, begin of new, and try to reach the Monotremes on their other side. I shall take the Insectivora. The most intimate relations of the Inscctivores are with the Rodents, and I have already re- marked on the repetition of the same typical forms in this order as are met with both-in the Rodents and in the Marsupials. The Mice being represented by the Shrews; the Jerboas by the Ma- CROSCELIDES; the Squirrels by the Tuparas; and the Porcupines by the Hedgehogs. The most noteworthy point in their distribution is, that they are not found at all in South America nor in Australia. One genus, of difficult location, Solenodon, is found in Cuba and St. Domingo; and the North American Shrews descend into Mexico; but no animal belonging to this order has yet been found in either of the Marsupial countries. It has been suggested that perhaps the presence of the one (the Marsupials) doing insectivorous duty may have something to do with the absence of the other by whom that work is usually performed elsewhere, but I do not look upon this as more than a coincidence. The real cause is to be sought for in their derivation, and it seems not an unreasonable inference, that their original starting-point or specific centre must be looked for in other lands than these, and probably at a distance from them; and neither their insectivorous function, nor the analogy of some of their forms to Marsupial types, ought to militate against this ; for it is to be observed that there is no point of resemblance which can be traced between them and some of the Insectivorous Marsupials, such as between the Shrews and the Awrecutnt. the Macrosce- LIDES and the PuascoGaLEs or PreramMELEs, which does not also occur in the Rodents in a more marked degree. Thus, if there is a similarity between a Shrew and an AnrecuiNus, the resemblance is still greater between the Mouse and the Anrecuinus (see Frontispiece) ; and the same with any others showing indications of resemblance. The Rodent steps in between the Mar- supial and the Insectivore, in every instance of similarity, and can show greater resemblance to both than either can to the other. To the Rodents then we must look for the derivation of the Insectivora, in preference, at least, to the Marsupials. Small as the Insectivora are, their remains form a very important chapter, if not in Pala- ontology, at least in Paleontological literature. We have already seen that the first traces of Mammals found by geologists belonged to the insectivorous Marsupials ; but remains which have been referred by some to the true Insectivora have also been found at a very early date,—as, for example, the SrerzoaNaruus, from the Stonesfield beds, which is claimed by some for this order, 230 MAMMALS. although by others it is referred to the Ruminants. It was the lower jaw of a small so-called insectivorous animal, SpALACOTHERIUM TRICUSPIDENS, found in the Purbeck beds, which has proved the existence of Mammalia about midway between the older oolitic and the older tertiary periods. Professor Owen* says that the particular modification of the pointed cusps, as to number, propor- tion, and relative position, resembles in some degree the Cape Mole—CurysocHLora AUREA ; but» both in these respects and in the number of Molars, accords more closely with that of the pre- viously existing AmpuirHERtIumM, which had been referred to the insectivorous Marsupials. The insectivorous nature of these species receives a certain amount of confirmation from the fact, that in the beds where they have been found, especially in the Purbeck beds, plentiful indications of insect life are also met with. In the tertiary beds numerous remains of Insectivora occur, which have received the generic names of Druyius, Grorrypus, Hyporysrus, Panaospanax, &e. Dr. Wagner + includes the GatroprrHEcus amongst the Insectivora, an arrangement which seems unsound for reasons already mentioned. In other respects, his arrangement of them is very natural, viz., into CrApopares, or Squirrel-like species; Shrews; Moles; and Hedgehogs. Ano- ther arrangement, including both fossil and living species, had been previously proposed by M. Pomel, in an article on the distribution of the order.t And more recently, Professor Peters, of Berlin, has proposed another, adopting some of Wagner’s suggestions, more especially the reception of GaALEopirHEcus into the order.§ The zoologist may like to compare these different systems of classification. I have therefore contrasted them in a table in the Appendix. The arrangement which seems to me best is, 1. Moles; 2. Shrews, including Macroscelides; 3. Tupaias; 4. Hedgehogs. Moxes.—(Map 63.) The Moles are distributed over the whole Northern hemisphere. A genus of them is also found in South Africa, but none have been met with in the intertropical parts of the World, nor in South America nor Australia. There are three types of form which are peculiar, respectively, one (Tatra) to Europe and Asia; another (Scators) to North America; and the third (Curysocntoris) to South Africa,—all very limited in number of species. The European Mole extends eastwards in the temperate latitudes from Ireland (where it has erroneously been said not to exist) through Europe and Asia, until it passes the Altai Mountains. It is there replaced by another species (TI. Wocara) first described by Temminck, from Japanese specimens, but since found by Radde to extend as far westwards as Irkutsk. A new genus (Urorrt- cus) has been found in Japan, and no doubt will also be met with on the mainland. The most interesting fact regarding it is, that another species of the same genus has lately been found in California. Mr. Lord says he can perceive no difference between the Japanese and Californian species ; || but Dr. Baird, who describes the latter, seems to have entertained no doubt that they were distinct, and, moreover, mentions that the eye and ear cannot be perceived, whereas in the Japanese species they are only said to be very minute. * Owen, “ Paleontology,” p. 317. § Prrers, iieber die Saugethiere-gattung Solenodon in + WaaNER, in Scurnper’s “Saugethiere,” Supplement, “ Abhand. Ak. Wissen,” 1863. Vol. v. || Lorn, in “ Proc. Zool. Soc,” 1864, p. 161, t “Bulletin de la Société Géol. de France,” Second “1 Bate, op. cit. viii., 76. Series, VI., Nov., 1848-56. | } | | | (ny ces = es ew S al CREENLAND - BAY | ATLANTIC | OCEAN _ cooks te ee SOUTH Selene OCEAN ] PNAC ea Xaili | INSECTIVORA. eile je BAFFIN BAY MaAUx was wort fo | ATLANTIC | =| — OCEAN — Tropic of Canctr_ MONcOL MAP XII MOLES. Earvupvan Mole Talpa Wogara » Insalaris Speeces of Scadops = eee ae ea ATLIANTIC jason ele =|) 2 | IgA MOLES— SHREWS. Doi It was for long thought that the Mole was found in North America as well as in Europe. This was a mistake, owing to the extreme similarity of the American Scators to our Mole. In fact, until the naturalist takes them in hand and points out the differences, they would be passed by any moderately observant person as identical. They are found in nearly every portion of North America as far south as Mexico. One rather remarkable form constituting the genus ConpyLura, the Star- nosed Mole, which is characterised by the point of the nose being star-shaped, inhabits the northern parts of the United States from the Atlantic to the Pacific. One species of Scalops, perhaps two, is restricted to the Pacific coast, one to the Atlantic. One is found sparingly in New York, Massa- chusetts, and Ohio, and another on the prairies of Michigan, Illinois, and the west. The genus Urorricuus has hitherto been found only on the west side of the Cascade Mountains, Washington Territory, California.* The Cape or Gilded Mole, Curysocutorts, so called from the greenish golden gloss of its fur, is wholly South African. It differs somewhat in its structure from the true Moles, having, for example, only three fingers developed in the fore-paws instead of five. The number of teeth is smaller; but its general appearance and habits are the same as those of the Mole, their galleries, perhaps, being only somewhat deeper. Three species are known to belong to it; one from the Cape, another from Natal, and a third from Mozambique. I know of no fossil remains of the Mole. Surews.— (Map 64.) The Soricry# first make their appearance in small number of species during the miocene period, and continue through the glacial epoch to the present time, without material change of form or size. Although they have been divided into many sections it will be sufficient, for the purpose of showing their distribution, to separate them into three. The long-tailed Shrews (Sorex, AMPHI- SOREX, and Crossopus), which are found in the northern part of both hemispheres, extending all across Europe, Asia, and North America; the short-tailed Shrews (BLarina), which are confined to North America ; and the section Crocrpura, whose habitat is in the tropical part of the Old World, with a few species which extend a little beyond the tropic of Cancer into Europe and Asia. The last are chiefly distinguished from the other Shrews by their dentition. In outward appearance they do not materially differ from them. The Desman (MyocaLr) is a Shrew with a naked, more or less compressed tail, of which one species is found in the south-east of Russia, and another on the banks of the streams at the foot of the Pyrenees. Its bare and laterally compressed tail, like that of the Musk Rat in North America, shows another point of affinity in this order to the Rodents. Remains of an extinct species of Desman have been found in the miocene beds at Sansans, in the south of France. Sotenopon. Until lately, this singular genus was only known from a description, by Professor Brandt, of St. Petersburg, of a species found in St. Domingo, five-and-twenty years ago,t of which there were only two specimens known, one in the St. Petersburg Museum, and another (imperfect) formerly in the collection of the Zoological Society, now in the British Museum. It is about the size of a Rat, with a tail nearly as long as itself; has a snout like a Shrew, but a number of affinities * Bairp, in “ United States Pacific Railroad Explora- Genere, “ Mem. Acad. St. Petersburg,” ii. p. 459, 1836; and tion,” 1857, vol. viii. “Mammal. Exoticor, Descriptiones et Icones,” pp. 1-20. + Branpt, De Solenodonte, Novo Mammalium Tab. 1, 2, 1835. 232, MAMMALS. with different members of the Insectivora, and has been a stumbling-block to naturalists on account of the difficulty of finding its proper place. No other specimen was found until 1863, when Senor Poey, of Hayannah, obtained a second species in the mountains of Bayamo, in Cuba.* This example came into the hands of Professor Peters, of Berlin, and he has carefully examined and described it,t and has come to the conclusion that although it presents various points of affinity with the North American Moles (Scatops) and the Shrews and the Desman of Russia, and in some respects with the Hedgehog, it must be placed in the same group as the Madagascar genera, CentetEs, ErtcuLus and EcuinoGate (a group which usually, although not by Dr. Peters, is placed in the same family as the Hedgehogs.) Dr. Peters parallels this most remarkable geographical location by some other instances. He remarks that Madagascar is the only island where, if we except the BracnyLopuus Fascratus of New Guinea and the East Indies, iguanoid lizards with the Pleurodont character, occur out of America, and the same island alone in the Old World furnishes examples of the American Colubrine forms Xiphosoma and Heterodon. It is true that one or two remarkable instances of resemblance between species from Madagascar and America do stand recorded in our books; but they all require careful sifting, not only as regards their affinities, but also the authority for the locality. It is part of my business for the purposes of this work to do so, as we successively encounter them; and as regards the present instance, the SorEnopon, I have to say that the grounds for referring it to the Madagascar type appear to me to be insufficient. That it has more outward resemblance to the Shrews than to the CenreTip® cannot be disputed ; that it has many points in its anatomy corresponding with that of the Shrews is admitted; and that the judging between their value and number is a nice and difficult operation is also not denied. Therefore, even although the Madagascar element did seem to prevail in its physiological relations, I confess that I should still prefer to question Dr. Peters’ decision, and to trust to the superficial resemblance, and the other admitted affinities nearer home, rather than to the balance of physiological relations struck by him. A fair estimate of these, however, by no means leaves the same impression on me as they have on Dr. Peters. Where modifications of an abstract type occur in exactly the same number and degree, in important organs and in less im- portant ones, it may be that he awards the greater value as indicative of affinity to what he considers accordance in the more important ones. On that footing these in the Solenodon may possibly bring it nearest the Madagascar type. But this principle of valuation is, I think, erro- neous. On the principle laid down by Agassiz, I hold that deviations on the more important structures ought rather to refer to the larger divisions of the order than to the minor sections. At first sight it may appear otherwise; for it seems a natural inference that the more important the organs in which correspondence occurs the more nearly allied should be the animals in which such correspondence appears. But these are the organs which go farthest back in time, and indicate the general source from which the whole family sprung. Modifications on them speak of remote affinity, whereas resemblances in the less important and less vital characters, such as outward appearance, colouring, hair, and anything not relating to what I may call the foundation or great beams of the house, indicate more recent affinity. I, therefore, place Sonr- NODON next its nearest neighbours in geographical position, and those likest it in external appearance,— the Shrews. * See for an account of its habits “ Memorias sobra la + Prrers, “Ueber die sauge-thier-gattung Solenodcn. Historia Natural de Ja Isla de Cuba:” Par Felix Poey, Abh. Ak. Wiss. Berlin. 1863. Habana, 1861. HEDGEHOGS. 233 MacrosceLtpes.—(Map 65.) These are the representatives in the Insectivora of the Jerboas in the Rodents and of PrRAMELES among the Marsupials, with the latter of which they have, in addition to a general resemblance, an agreement in the imperfect ossification of the palate, it being perforated by many holes. The group is very limited in number (six species being all that are known). If we contrast their distribution with that of their Rodent analogues, the Jerboas, it will be found that their districts are not the same, but lie next each other, the one, rather belonging to the northern hemisphere, the other to the African region. To them probably belongs the genus Ruyncwocyon, from Mozambique, although it has also affinity with Gymnura, in next Section. Turata. (Map 65.) The Insectivora possess no analogues to the Flying Squirrels, or to the Marsupial Prravrr; but the Craponares, including the old genus Tupata, represent the ordinary form of Squirrels, although more slender and with a more elongated muzzle, which gives them what may be called, without a pun, a more shrewish cast of countenance. They have also the same habits and food, and are called by the natives by the same name—Tupaja. They are confined to the Malay and Burmese districts, reaching from the Khasia Hills on the north and west, to Java and Borneo on the south and east. Only six species are known, all arboreal. The Hytomys Surmxvs, found in Java, Sumatra, and Borneo, at a height of from 1200 to 2000 feet above the sea, likewise belongs to the same group. It also is arboreal. Priocercus Lowi, also a Bornean rat-like animal with a pinnated tail, is another form of Tupata. The genus Gymnura, from Malacca and Sumatra, although bandied about from place to place, seems properly to belong to this group, apparently differing most in not being arboreal. The tail is scaly, and Van der Hoven thinks it resembles in external appearance the American Opossum. It has something the look of a Hedge- hog, and has long bristles scattered among the hairs of its back. The Madagascar genus Evpieres used to be placed here, but it is now properly removed by Dr. Gray to the Genetts, with which its outward appearance and dentition best correspond. CentettvA.—Mapacascar Hepernocs. (Map 66.) This family is composed of three animals from Madagascar and Mauritius, bearing the spines and prickles of Hedgehogs, and resembling them a good deal in appearance, but without the power of rolling themselves up im a ball. Three genera— Centeres, Errcunus, and Ecu1nocatr,—have been made for the reception of the three species. As above mentioned, Professor Peters wishes to add the Sorenopon from Cuba as a fourth. Hepcrnocs.—(Map 66.) From the fossil remains which have been found of this genus, it appears to have been pretty widely spread in middle Europe, both in the miocene and post-glacial epoch. Bones of the existing European Hedgehog (Ertnacrus Evropaus) have been found in deposits of the latter date. It now extends all over Europe and across the northern half of Asia. In the southern half it is replaced by another species with longer ears (E. aurrrus). Various other species are found in Asia — two or three occur in India, and about the same number in Africa. These, with the exception of one at the Cape of Good Hope, are found in the north of Africa, and one of them which inhabits the Desert of Sahara, like many other animals, is clothed by nature with a dress scarcely distinguishable from the prevailing hue of the soil on which it lives. None have yet been found in West or Central Africa; but, doubtless, links will be found connecting the solitary Cape species with some of the other African forms. H 234 CHAPTER XXXIII. CHEIROPTERA—BATS—FRUGIVOROUS BATS—INSECTIVOROUS BATS—(LEAF-BEARING, AND NOT LEAF-BEARING.) “THe CHEIROPTERA,” says Professor Owen, “ with the exception of the modification of their digits, for supporting the large webs that serve as wings, repeat the chief characters of the Insectivora ;””* and so they do with some few exceptions, such as the pectoral mammal. That modification in itself is of little importance. It is to be regarded merely as an ‘ accidental”? element in their structure, consequent on the mode in which they are to procure their food; and, therefore, not calling for their removal from an order to which they otherwise belong, any more than their flippers require the removal of the Seals from the Carnivorous Mammals; or their deprivation of limbs, the sepa- ration of the Sirenia from their Pachydermatous allies. But whilst they are clearly Insectivora, an inquiry into the past history of the order suggests doubts of their being modifications of the terrestrial species. It is rather the latter that are to be looked on as modified CuErroprera ; for, according to all appearance, the Bats can trace the most distant parentage of the two. Looking back into the past geological formations, it is impossible to avoid being struck by the extraordinary resemblance which they bear to the Pterodactyles, or flying Lizards, of the oolitie period. The first impression which would undoubtedly strike any one unacquainted with anatomy would be that they belonged to the same class of animals. The form of the head; the relative proportion of the limbs; the processless vertebra; the general idea of the wing; the disproportion in the length of the digits; the dermal wing-membrane, of which fine traces are still preserved in the Solenhofen specimens of Pterodactyles, are all repeated in the Bat. Fig. 1, representing the wing of the Pterodactyle; Fig. 2, that of the Bat; Fig. 3,+ that of a Bird, show the comparative affinity of the Bat to the Pterodactyle more strongly than any words can do; and although the anatomist comes and disillusionizes us by pointing out that the vertebrae of the Pterodactyle are articulated after the Reptilian plan; that the dentition is Reptilian; that the cranium, pelvis, and other parts of the skeleton, are so likewise ; and that even the microscopical structure of the bones is Reptilian, we find it impossible to believe that the two creatures have not something to do with each other. How strongly, for example, did the discovery of marks of feathers on the ARcHAEOPTERYX add to the conviction of its affinity to a bird? and shall we deal a different measure when we find impressions of a leathern wing, like that of the Bat, left among the wing-bones of the Pterodactyle ? It is incredible that two animals so identical in plan could have been repeated by chance. And we * Owen, in “ Proc. Linn. Soc.” ii. p. 28, 1857. published in the Royal Soziety’s “ Philosophical Transac- ft These figures are copied from Professor Owen’sdraw- tions,” vol. ctu, part 1, 1863, p. 33. ings in his paper on ARCHAEOPPERYX LITHOGRAPHICUM, 7 if re ESQUIMAUx a __Adonts had ATLANTIC) OCEAN —| UNDLAN OGEA® 20 SOUTH PACIFIC OCEAN _ a z PLaTAY ATLANTIC | eee eee | MAP LXVI. * HEDGEHOGS.....__.. esc | EUROPEAN HEDGEHOG s 0 | CENTETES — az Do 0 _ or oC ESQUiMAUxX %S ied RUSSIAN EPL cyan’ SS me AMERICA fy a | VA oN CH INES/E EMPIR = puwas TH I BET are - re {| Tropic of Cancer __ BENGAL SEA INDIAN OCEAN 4 AUSTRAL Ty | soure, & Jow-T tr +——-— —-—_ — t \ Fe ns aes AT LANTIC ; OCEAN —---———- . ---- Ht MAP LXVII FRUGIVOROUS BATS (PTEROP!) | = t Note Proponderance of: Species shown by intensity of colours Se = = ia m2 0 = ru See o wo wm 20 __20 Dixy & Sow Tiimated) Lith BATS. 235 refer the Bat back to the Pterodactyle as its progenitor, whether it has been derived directly from the Reptilian type, or its elements have been filtered through the Birds. In either view it seems more likely that the terrestrial Insectivores may be derived from, or be a modification of the Bats, than the Bats a modification of them. Bats are found all over the world. Some groups are confined to the Old and some to the New World, whilst others are cosmopolitan ; but although the same genera are sometimes found both in 1e Old and the New World, there is no instance of the same species being so found. They are very numerous ; nearly 400 species having been described ; and they are all so similar to each other that the greatest difficulty has been found in discovering generic characters, by which to enable the Fig. 1. Pterodactyle. Fig. 2. Bat. Fig. 3. Bird. naturalist to classify them. This has been done by the combination of characters which, in other orders, would not be considered of more than specific value; and in many of the genera the specific characters have been reduced to the size of the animal, and the quality and colour of the fur. Frvervorous Bats. (Prerort.) (Map 67.) The frugivorous Bats have been named Flying Foxes, from many of the species in India being of the colour of the fox, with a head somewhat like a fox, and, when their wings are expanded, looking nearly as large. About forty species of Pteropine Bats are known, but one genus is sufficient to contain the whole, with the exception of about a dozen peculiar species, for which special genera have been established. One species is found in New Holland and Van Dieman’s Land. One or two on the different islands scattered about in the Pacific and Indian Ocean. In some instances species occur peculiar to the individual group of islands on which they are found,—as at the Andaman, the Nicobar, and the Marianne Islands; but generally both in this group and in the insectivorous Bats the species have an extensive rdnge; one, for instance, which has been taken at the Samoa Islands, is 236 MAMMALS. also found at Timor, Amboyna; another, Preropus Epwarpst, ranges from the Indian and Austra- lian districts, to Madagascar and the Commoro Islands, although it has not been recorded as reaching Africa. The great focus of this family is India, the Malayan region, and the Indian Archipelago, Sumatra possessing more species than any other island. They are not found either in Europe or America. Some imperfect remains found in the Solenhofen lithographic stone (oolitic) had been referred by M. Kruger to an extinct species of Preropus. There is little doubt, however, that they belonged to some one or other of the species of Pterodactyle which are found in that formation. No extinct Pteropine Bat has hitherto been discovered, but it is very probable that they may yet be detected in the countries which they still inhabit, as in the bone-caves of Borneo (deposits full of promise, which have not yet been examined). Iysecrivorous Bars. If no extinct Pteropine Bats have yet been discovered, it is not so with the Insectivorous Bats. Although their remains are no doubt often overlooked, a sufficiency has been discovered to settle definitively that they existed during the upper eocene epoch, and have con- tinued through all the subsequent periods in very much the same form as at present. They have been found in the Paris gypsum, in the London clay, and in bone-caves and post-glacial deposits in all parts of Europe. Cuvier obtained a tolerably complete skeleton of a species from the gypsum of Mont- martre, which he named Vrsrrertriiio Paristensis. De Blainyille considered it very close to, if not identical with, the living species, V.srRorrna. The other remains showed similarly close resemblances, and he thence inferred that the physical condition of Europe was not then materially different from what’ it now is; a conclusion which, although probably true, is scarcely warranted by that fact, for at the present day many species rahge through the most dissimilar climates, as the Ru1NoLopHus FERRUM-EQUINUM, which ranges from England to the Cape of Good Hope. The Insectivorous Bats are divided into two easily distinguished sections. The one (the Vrs- PERIIMIONID®), with their nose and lips not differmg from those of other quadrupeds,—whence one of their sectional names, GymNoruinm®; the other having the upper lip or nose expanded into diversi- form prolongations, usually membranous, and bearing resemblance to leaves and other objects,—whence their names, Payiiosroma, RurnoLopnus, IstropHora, &e. It is only the former of these (the VespeRtTivIoNID®) that have left fossil remains in Europe; but of the latter, which are largely represented in the Tropics both of the Old and the New World, remains of six fossil species have been discovered by Lund in the bone-caves of Brazil. One, if not more of these, has been referred to a species still living in Brazil. Whether justly or not may be a question. Nasat-Lear—Brarine Bars. (IsriopHora.) (Map 68.)—This section contains some of the most bizarre and curious-looking head-pieces that exist on the face of the earth. What the use of the extraordinary processes by which the face of these bats is furnished —(we ought not to say disfigured, but still less can we say adorned) is not known with certainty; but it is supposed rather to be connected with increased delicacy in the sense of touch than that of smell (which is the supposition which most naturally occurs to one), for the leaf-processes are mere re-dupli- cations of the skin, not supplied by any branches of the olfactory nerve. As I have just said, they are largely represented in the Tropics, both in the Old and New Worlds, and more feebly the farther we remove from them. And we have a repetition here of what takes place in the Monkeys. They are divided into two great groups,—the RuivotopHt and the Puyiiostomara ; the former peculiar to the Old World, and the latter to the New. 5 | = aes o | NORTH | | ATLANTIC) OCEAN GAeSinets: ‘aa MAP LXVIITI LEAF NOSED BATS ISTIOPHORA (PHYLLOSTOMATA &C.) Note: Preponderance of species indicated: by intensity of colours | | | L 1 rea) saa S0m BAFFIN aS BAY 404} —— =. NORTH PA CIETC SMONCEEGAUN a rs a — - [ e | : __angupsse io | lls: ar Se An j 2c + of = —— + : eee hee 4 ») I SOUTH PACIELE OCEAN | a 7 Bes alte. el r ACT LAN is Ae! | MAP LXIxX Be ana sa BATS. GYMNORHINA€ (VESPERTILIO) ARABIAN y + DENGAL - Tek | SEA’ INDIAN O@EAN NEW WEDRIORS bo| dol, a BATS. 237 Rurxororpnt. The most northerly species of this group are the RutNoLopHUs FERRUM-EQUINUM, and Ru. urppostprros, which are found in the south of England (the latter also in Ireland) and extend across the whole of Middle and South Europe. The former ranges also oyer the whole of Africa. There are many species in India and the Malayan Peninsula and Indian Archipelago. The Indian district is the chief focus of this section. We do not know so many from Africa, although from the number found by Professor Peters in Mozambique it is probable that other parts of it, if as well searched, would be equally productive. One or two are now known on the eastern coast of New Holland. We have no record of species found in Arabia and Persia ; but there is no doubt that many of the species found on their borders will also be found within their territory. The same remark applies to China. Puytiostomata. These are the Vampires, or Blood-sucking Bats, so well known in story. They are not, however, all blood-suckers. Some, which might be supposed more especially sanguinary from the admirable organisation of their lips for sucking, are wholly innocent of offence; they suck nothing worse than ripe, fleshy fruits.* The family is confined to South America, the West Indian Islands, and Central America. A single species (MrcapermMA CALirornica) is found in California; but it is obviously a mere advanced sentinel of the main body from the south, and is, moreover, closely allied to a West Indian species. None are found in the south-eastern states of North America, notwithstanding that this is usually laid down in Physical Atlas Maps. Besides this, another species of Bat has been found in California (AnrRrozous PALLipus)- belonging to the section without nasal appendages, but with a dentition closely approaching to that of the Vampire Bats, in their most constant character (four incisors in the lower jaw) as well as with enormously developed ears, which is another of their characteristics,— being in both respects the only North American species so endowed, and apparently indicating a transition between the leaf-bearing Bats and the GymNnoruHIN% ;+ a transition which has a bearing on the view entertained by some naturalists that the leaf-nose is not a character of essential importance ; for some species which bear it, differ from others in their general appearance and in their flight, which is a good, although not easily definable character, while in these respects they correspond with species which have no nasal leaf. The fact, however, of those bearing them being confined to a special province, seems to me in itself sufficient to show that the character is not of the indifferent systematic nature implied in this idea. The Vampire, par excellence, is the species named Pu. specrrum ; but it is no better entitled to a pre-eminence in blood-thirstiness than many other species which have similar habitudes. It and they extend over the whole of tropical South America, as far south as La Plata. They are not, however, found in that district. Nota single specimen of Phyllostomatous Bat was found by Dr. Burmeister during his three years’ sojourn there. Indeed, the whole family is most poorly represented in that naked land; there being only four species known in it, while thirty-one are described from the neighbouring territory of South-east Brazil. The absence of anything on which to hang or rest themselves after the Bat fashion, is in itself sufficient reason why few should be found there. Bars wirnour Nasau-Lear Appenpacrs. (GymNnoruin®.) (Map 69.)—The greatest part of this group consists of the Vesprerriiionmpx, which may all be treated, geographically, as one large genus. There are a very few—the Nocriziontpx—which, like, ANrRozous, are transi- * Bares, in “ Proc. Zool. Soc.” 1860, p. 99. America,’ Smithsonian Institute Collection, 1864. p. f Aunen, Dr. H., “Monograph of the Bats of North 68. 238 MAMMALS. tional between the Leaf-bearers and the true Vespertilios. One of these Noctilios (N. LEPoRTNUs) fills the anomalous position of a fishing Bat. Mr. Fraser, who observed its peculiar habit in its native country (Ecuador), describes it as skimming along the bank of the river, every now and then making a dash at, and, actually striking the water, catching the minute shrimps as they pass up stream, and adds that it had a very fishy smell.* Dr. Shortt has subsequently recorded similar fishing propensities of the Pteropus of India the prey there being small fishes. The statement occurs quoted by Mr. Tomes, in an account which he gives of the mammals collected by Mr. Fraser at Hcuador, and it suggests the following reflection to him: “From the great resemblance which exists between the fur of the New Zealand mysractna, and that of the Water Shrews, and, indeed, that of other mammalia with similar aquatic habits, I had long ago been led to suspect that that Bat might be aquatic in its mode of life, but I could never gather direct evidence on the subject. Certainly I never suspected that this Noctilio took its food in the manner noticed by Mr. Fraser.” The identity of the structure of the hair of the V. mysractna with that of the Shrews is to my mind evidence not of a similar teleological purpose, but of a common descent. The same peculiar structure of hair occurs inter alia in the Moles, the House and other Mice, the Shrews, and some Bats ; and as the structure is very peculiar and not found in other families, the circumstance certainly seems suggestive of a common origin. I am one of those who think there is no evidence equal to circumstantial evidence. And if I were a hanging man, to borrow the phraseology of the betting ring, (which I am not—not from any soft-hearted, humanitarian weakness, but solely on thinking as I do that I could put the hangee to a better use); but if I were a hanging man, I would hang a man without remorse on circumstantial evidence, where I would not touch a hair of his head on direct testimony. An identity of structure between the hair of a Bat and that of these other animals is circumstantial evidence of a strong kind; for it is in trifling matters of an unlooked-for kind, that circumstantial evidence is most pregnant in its bearing. The reader will remember that the hair of the different orders of animals differs materially in its micro- scopic appearance and structure.t principles of economy: To this group belong the great majority of cur English and European Bats. It is divided into two large sections, the Scoropuim1 and the VrspERTILioNnEs,— both tolerably well marked. The distinction between these is chiefly in the wing-membranes, and the thickness of the ear; and, although difficult to describe, is easily recognised when once pointed out. The difference extends to their facial expression. As Mr. Allen describes it,§ the difference may be compared to that between a mastiff and a terrier dog. The former (the Scoropuii1) massive, with broad head, pendular lips, and wide ears; the latter more slender, with a narrower face, and delicate, upright ears. A very large number of species, however, stand in scientific works under the genus Vrsprrtit1o, which cannot be satisfactorily allotted to the one or the other, for want of sufficient information. In the list which I have given in the Appendix, such species are included under Vespertilio as the more general head. The Pipistrelle and the V. Nocruna, perhaps our best known European Bats, occur all over Europe north of North Italy, and over North Asia, north of the Caspian, from Sweden to Spain and Greece, and from Russia to Japan. It is recorded as found fossil in a bone-caye at Antibes, near Nice. The Barbastelle has only been found beyond Europe in the Himmalayah. The Prxcorus * Tomrs, “ Proceedings Zoological Society,” 1860. scopic character of Hair, in “Proc. Liter. and Philos. © { SHorr?, in “Proc. Zool. Soc.,” 1863, p. 438. Soc. of Liverpool,” No. vii. 1854, p. 83. ~ Sce Inman, Dr. T., On the Natural History and Micro- § AcxeEn, D. H. op. cit. p. 27. BATS. 239 Auritus, or Long-eared Bat, has the same, but a slightly more extended range, reaching into North Africa, and is also found in the Caucasus, Georgia, &c. . In the Leaf-bearing Bats, the same genera are never found in both the Old and New Worlds. In this section the same genera sometimes occur in both, but the same species never. The countries most numerously supplied with species are India and the Malayan districts in the Old World, and Brazil in the New. The range is indeed very much the same as that of the leaf-nosed Bats, except that they have a wider and more northerly range; and that, unlike them, they occur in North America. A good many are found in Australia. These are chiefly of the form of the European Pipistrelle. Mr. Tomes remarks, apropos to Nycropuitus unicotor, that all the species of , Bats which he had seen from Van Dieman’s Land, “ differ remarkably from those of the mainland, in having all the fur everywhere short and cottony, and perfectly devoid of lustre and uni-coloured.” He says elsewhere, however, that “he has often been surprised that Australia does not furnish a single form among the Bats that is not common to nearly all the world besides; indeed many of the species are found in the Indian islands, and, curiously enough, in China.’ This, however, chiefly applies to typical form ; it indeed also applies to a few of the actual species, but the majority of those found in Australia are limited to that country. One or two peculiar species occur in New Zealand. None in either this or last section are recorded from Madagascar; but this may be owing to deficient information. There are several oceanic species, and the Nicobar Islands, which possess peculiar species both of the frugivorous and leaf-nosed Bats, have an endemic species of this group also. Of Bats in general, the Novara Expedition* has produced no fewer than four new endemic species from these islands alone. Considerable variety exists in the size and colour of some of the Indian species of Bats, as happens in the Squirrels and some other mammals, those which inhabit South India and Ceylon being smaller and darker in colour than those living more to the northward, and species intermediate in size and colour being found at. intermediate localities. This does not hold with all, however, and I am not aware that it extends beyond the territory of the Indian region. * “Die Ausbeute der Oesterreichischen Naturforscher gelung Sr. Majestiit Fregatte Novara,’ von D. L. J. an Saugethieren und Reptilien wahrend der Weltumse- Fitzinger, 1861. CHAPTER XXXIV: RODENTS—TOXODON. THE Rodents should follow the Pachyderms and precede the Marsupials. If I had so arranged them, we should have been left without a place for the Whales, Bats, and Insectivora; and I have introduced these orders between the Pachyderms and Rodents rather as a necessary digression than as a natural connexion. I beg the reader now to revert to the Pachyderms, and suppose that we have only just finished them off, and that we are now to adjust the Rodents in continuation of them as satisfactorily as we can. Mr. Waterhouse has studied the Rodents with much care and success, and his works have greatly lightened the labour and cleared the path for any one who wishes to acquire a knowledge of the order. In his first essay* on the subject he divided the order into three great families,—the Mice, the Porcupines, and the Hares. In his subsequent works on the subject,t he added a family for the Squirrels, and first proposed a sub-family, or separate group, for the reception of the Rats with external cheek-pouches. That group has been adopted by others, and raised by Baird to the rank of an independent family. It appears to me that Waterhouse is right throughout ; and Baird and those who adopt his view wrong in this step. I shall explain why I think so when we come to the Pouched Rats. In the same way I think that Brandt and Giebel err in establishing the families SpaLacrnt and Drroprnt for other sections of Rats. I look upon them merely as subsections of the other Rats and Mice. So far as relates to these members of the Rodent family, therefore, I adopt Mr. Water- house’s main arrangement, pure and simple, subject to some modifications in the details of the dif- ferent families. But I add to the order two genera, or families, which Mr. Waterhouse excluded, the Hyrax and Toxopon. These have usually been included among the Pachyderms. They seem to me, however, to be too essentially rodent in their characters to be so treated, and their admission here necessitates some modification of Mr. Waterhouse’s arrangement, to allow them to fit in properly. The last of the Pachyderms were the aquatic section, SrreNtA. I begin the Rodents with the Toxopon, an extinct water Rodent, or gigantic Capyspara. Its affinity to the Capybara requires that animal to follow it, and that brings with it the whole of the Hysrricipm, or Cavies, and Poreupines. Next to them I place the genus Hyrax, which, on the one hand, is also connected with the Capybaras, and, on the other, with the Hares and Pikas. I then get back again into Mr. Waterhouse’s groove, which I follow without any great deviation, except transposing the Mice and * Warernouss, “On the Arrangement of the Rodentia,’ vol. iv. 1858 ; and “ Table of Rodents,” in Keith Johnston’s in Charlesworth’s Magazine of Nat. Hist., 1839, p. 90. “Physical Atlas.” + Warernouse, “ Natural History of the Mammalia,” =~ RODENTS—— TOXODONTID&. 941 Squirrels. My classification will thus stand: 1. The Toxopontipm. 2. The Hysrricrp®, Cavies, the Porcupines, &e. 3. The Hyracipm. 4. The Lerorrpm, Hares. 5. The Scrurip®, Squirrels, &e. 6. The Murip, Mice. Mr. Waterhouse’s arrangement is supposed to be in an ascending order, the Hares being lowest, and the Squirrels most advanced in organisation. I pay no attention to this: it is not advancement—but affinity which is my guide. Therefore I content myself with placing those next the Marsupials, which appear most nearly allied to the members of that order. ; The Rodents are found in every quarter of the world, but their metropolis is South America. Next to it in preponderance of species comes North America. The two together counting nearly as many species as are to be found in the whole of the rest of the globe. No species is found both in South and North America; no species both in South America and Africa. None aboriginal in Aus- tralia are found anywhere else. No species are found both in the Old World and the New. Some authors make a few exceptions to this, but we shall presently see that even these are doubtful. Africa, Asia, and Europe, have species which are found in all three. In what I have above said I of course do not take account of introduced species, house Rats and Mice, and such small deer. The exceptions above alluded to are five or six boreal species, regarding which it is doubtful whether those found in the north of Europe and Asia are or are not the same as those inhabiting the north of America. These doubtful species are the Polar Hare, the Beaver, the Musk Rat, the Lemming, and SpermopHitus Parryit. With these exceptions, which may be determined either way, according to the ideas which each individual may entertain of what constitutes a species, there are no two species common both to the Old World and the New. Toxopontipm. — When speaking of the Nrsoponrip®, I mentioned the circumstances under which the bones of it and of this genus were found by Mr. Darwin. They were discovered in South America, near Bahia Blanca. Unfortunately all that were procured were imperfect portions of skulls, which, however, were so remarkable as greatly to add to the disappointment that more complete specimens had not been found. D’Orbigny since then has added the descrip- tion of the fore-arm of a second species of Toxopon. But that is, I believe, all that is yet known of the genus. It may well be supposed that with such scanty materials even the order to which these genera belong is a matter of doubt, and it is only provisionally that they are placed here. That they were animals of great size is apparent from the dimensions of the skull, that of Toxopon PLarensts being two feet four inches in length, and one foot four inches in breadth; but whether they are Rodents, Pachyderms, Ruminants or Sirenians, to all which they have been referred, or whether they were aquatic or terrestrial, whether they had legs or fins, was all unknown when Professor Owen described them, and is not much better known yet. The Toxopon Piarensts had incisors like the hare; a very small one behind a very large one in each maxillary bone; it had no canines, but a large vacant space between the incisors and molars, as in Rodents; the molars, seven on each side, diminishing in size as they advance to the anterior part of each jaw, as in the Pachyderms, and also as in the Capybara, which, in this respect, as well as in other peculiarities, shows affinity to the Pachyderms. In Professor Owen’s words, the dentition closely resembled the rodent type, but manifested it on a gigantic scale, and tended to complete the chain of affinities which link the Pachydermatous with the Rodent and Cetaceous orders. The masticating and temporal muscles must have been I 242 MAMMALS. both large, and Professor Owen presumed that the great incisors were used like the canines of the Hippopotamus, to divide or tear up the roots of aquatic plants. The osseous parts per- , taining to the senses of sight and hearing resembled those of the aquatic Rodentia and Pachydermata. The aspect of the nostrils is placed upwards, as in the Sirenia, but they differ in having narrow canals of intercommunication between the nasal passages and the frontal sinus. The articulating condyles of the cranium were thought by Owen to indicate that when the body of the Toxodon was submerged (for Owen appears soon to have come to the conclusion that it must have been a “submerged” animal) the head could be raised so as to form an angle with the neck, and bring the snout to the surface of the water, without the necessity of any corresponding inflexion of the spine. When Owen wrote his description there was no evidence to determine the character of the extremities, whether they were ungulate, unguiculate, or pinnate, while the structure of the nostrils suggested that the habits of the animal were not so strictly aquatic as to warrant the sup- position that the under extremities were altogether wanting. D’Orbigny’s discovery of the fore- arm of another species of this genus (T. Paranensis), has proved that it is not a pinnate animal, but has limbs not unlike the Tapir or Capybara. It is to the latter that it seems to me to have most affinity; it moreover inhabited the continent which is par evcellence the country of Rodents; and I have accordingly preferred to place it here among the Rodents, instead of to follow Professor Owen, and place it among the Pachydermata. The Capybara, however, reaches a size of no more than fhree or four feet, whereas, judging by the proportions of the head, the Toxopon must have been at least twelve or sixteen feet in length. ed es | BAY | ice ‘s | — ees 10) Org 37 e he eseatiNtie tse Seer cae aia 2 SOUTH PactEre OCEAN INDIAN O@EAN MAP LXXxXITI HY SiR! IC 1 DAR. WHOLE FAMILY. i. Note: Intensity of volour tnalicates preponiorance of Spectes ] % T 1 ATLIANTIC > ———_—_—v/€-5-A-¥ 4 ; | a | mS | Dy ha outs | in Lan Day & Som({Limited) Lith \ SE Ea \ PACIFIC MONGOLIA OCEAN pee neiseas|iaas ooo 0 Bawounicn |e A ERIC \ MAP LXXIII CAV IES: Dolichotis Patagonicrs 7 Hvdrichurus Capylara.. 7 ATLANTIC —_61€ AS Co 243 CHAPTER XXXV. RODENTS continued—HYSTRICIDA—CAPYBARA—CA VIES—CHINCHILLAS—OCTODONS—ECHIM YIN A— AGOUTIS—PORCUPINES, Tue Hysrrictom (Map 72) take their name from the Porcupines; but by much the larger portion of them is composed of other ingredients. Besides*the Porcupines, the family contains the Cayies or Guinea-Pigs, the Chinchillas, the Chilian Squirrels or Octodons, the Spiny Rats or KEchimyina, and the Pacas and Agoutis, or Dasyproctide. All these are South-American forms ; and, with the exception of the Porcupines, so entirely so, that only two species belonging to them are found anywhere else than in the New World, and only five or six out of South America. The Por- cupines are different. They are found in all the four quarters of the world, but are divided into two well-marked groups; one peculiar to the New World, and the other to the Old. Caviss. (Cavint.) (Map 73.) I take the Cavies first, and first of the family I take the puzzling Capybara as having most affinity to the Toxodon. This animal may be called a Pachyder- matous Rodent. Eyen its outward appearance indicates this double relationship. When viewed at a distance, from its manner of walking as well as from its colour, it resembles a pig; when seated on its haunches, and attentively watching any object with one eye, it reassumes the appearance of its congeners, Cavies and Rabbits.* It has. more of the Pachyderm in its con- stitution, however, than merely a resemblance to a pig. It has the body of its molar teeth com- pletely traversed by nine or ten plates of enamel, reminding us of the plates of which the Elephant’s tooth is composed, and which also are united by cement somewhat in a similar manner. Other analogies with the Pachyderms, even in their habits, can be traced, indicating a certain amount of connexion between the two orders. For example, when the animal is swimming in the water, and has young ones, they are said to sit on its back, as the young of the Hippopotamus do on its back. Apropos to this species, Mr. Waterhouse says, “As in the class Mammalia, the largest known species are aquatic, so in the minor divisions of the class we find, as a general rule, the the largest species have aquatic habits. Few species of the order Rodentia attain a size approaching to that of the Beaver or Coypu, whilst in the Capybara we have presented to us by far the largest species of the group,—a gigantic Water Cavy.’’+ If Waterhouse had thought of the Toxodon as a Rodent he would have had a still stronger case in point. But although the speculation is ingenious, and receives support from some cases, on a view of the whole class it applies in too few instances to allow us to regard it as a normal law * Darwiy, “Journal ofa Naturalist,” p. 50. + WATERHOUSE, Op. cit. 244 MAMMALS. of nature. The Gorilla is the largest of the Quadrumana; it has not aquatic habits. The Lion is the largest of the Felide; it has not aquatic habits. The Wolf is the largest of the Dogs; it has not aquatic habits. The Mammoth was the largest of the Pachyderms ; it had not aquatic habits. And so on with all except some half-dozen. ~ If he intended to say, that when any species had aquatic habits it was one of the largest of its order or group, it would be more just. The Polar Bear probably attains a greater size than any other Bear, it is aquatic; there are few Polecats larger than the Otter, it is aquatic; the Hippopotamus is a good-sized Pachyderm, if it be a Pachyderm, and larger than a Sow, if we reckon it and the Swine as sole members of the omnivorous family; in the Rodents the rule seems to hold well; the Toxodon beats every thing else; even abstracting it the Capybara is the largest of the Guinea-pigs; and the Beaver of the Squirrels, if it is a Squirrel, or of the Voles, if it is a Vole. The Capybara extends over the whole of South America east of the Andes, and north of the Rio de la Plata, wherever there is water. Mr. Darwin says that it occasionally frequents the islands in the mouth of the Plata, where the water is quite salt, but is more abundant on the borders of the fresh-water lakes and rivers. He never heard of its being found south of the Plata ; but as he sees in a map that there is a Laguna del Carpincho (the local name for the Capybara) high up on the Rio Salado, he supposes such must have occurred. And why not? Such a stream as the Plata might be an effectual barrier against the passage of a land Cavy, as the Uruguay has been against the migration of the Viscacha; but against a water Cavy it would be an invitation instead of a deterrent. ' Still the fact appears to be that they now keep on the north side of it. Fossil remains, apparently belonging to the existing Capybara, and some bones which he refers to a second species, have been found by Dr. Lund in the bone-caves of Brazil. Four other fossil Cavies are also enumerated by him as having left their bones in the same caves. Waterhouse speaks of them as evidently nearly allied to existing species, although more than one of them are probably distinct. The Cavies have to mourn or rejoice in (as they take it) the absence of a tail. Doubtless they rejoice in it, because if they required it, or could have used it to advantage, it would have been given them. But to us, who do not see behind the scenes, it gives them an unfinished sort of look, as if by some accident a portion of the rump had been cut off, and Nature had healed it up as it was, without taking the trouble to replace the amputated portion. Some of them have a certain resemblance to the Hares, both in outward appearance and some parts of their structure. The Patagonian Cavy (Doticnoris Paraconica) is like a long-legged Hare. It has comparatively long ears for a Cavy, or rather, I should say, it has ears; most of the Cavies seeming to have lost them at the same time as their tails. It has an apology for a tail, curled up like that of a Rabbit. The colour is that of a Hare; and in size it is merely a little larger ; its palate is perforated like the Hare’s, and its teeth short like its; but, for all that, it is a Cavy still. It inhabits the desolate parts of Patagonia, which is about equivalent to saying it inhabits the whole of it, north of 48° 30/8. L. Mr. Darwin says, “The Patagonian Cavy is found only where the country has a desert character. It is a common feature in the landscape of Patagonia to see in the distance two or three of these Cavies hopping one after the other in a straight line over the gravelly plains, thinly clothed by a few thorny bushes and a withered herbage. Near the coast of the Atlantic the northern limit of the species is formed by the Sierra Tapal- guen, in S. L. 37° 30’, where the plains rather suddenly become greener and more humid. The limit certainly depends upon this change, since near Mendoza (33° 20’), four degrees further ATLANTIC 7) CCEAN, 7 : essa "SAHARA, OSSERT SOUTIT PACIFIC OCEAN “(ie MAP LXXIV CHINCHILLAS. Alpine Chinchillas, 7% | 1 | ah 150 LO s of < ESQUIMAUX ~--4 RUSBIAN > AMERICA se | f NORTH Ww MS, PA CIIEIC SIP NY MAP LXXvV. RATS ECHIMYINA PNDIAN O¢E Day & Son{Dimind) Lich \ GREENLAND puwan TH! BE _ Vw ARABIAN (BENGAL | ‘ea \ 3 SEA PERSIA TH eT i eee : plew C44 \ nAStR S| a7 | SoA SEA NW ATLANTIC 7) OCEAN Tropic of Cancer INDLAN OCEAN : sett Se el on SOUTH PACIFIC OCEAN amis -sovTm — eal by a oe pe ace El ae i | ATLIANTIC | oes Ed BS 0 ee Ax = oo a mere on | MAP XCIl. | Mt 7 I ' BRISTLY SQUIRRELS. Hite es i 2 A s (XERUS) t09, F ; | Bo Oi he oS as p ell == 2 | | ! Jas ie | ee Cum =D 0 BO. a *) CQ 30 = RS | } ; a — Pee = 6 Cf ESQUimAUX monty 9 0 | PACIFIC : ATLANTIC. ; [OCEAN =| INDLAN OCEAN Pane! Tropic of Capricord SanT BME me ee ii ee souTEr = th ; ATLANTIC | fab x ; = OeRAN + + 4 ; ore RAGE) MAP XCIII. oi ae vawoitmen oe soy SQUIRRELS. | J es | | | } - | He (SCIURUS) " i Ss oj|v T HIE R W oO .c Ez: AS oF | ° | i - — ae ~t pe 2 wu 6p 30 o 30 0 E = to Be ‘ CHAPTER XXXVIII. RODENTS continued —DORMICE— SQUIRRELS — MARMOTS. Dormovsr (Myoxinus).—(Map 87.) This family is confined to the Old World, where it has been in existence since the Miocene epoch. Remains of three extinct species have been found in France, two of them in the gypsum of Montmartre, and one in the middle tertiary beds of Sansans, in the south of France. The living species are few in number, and are confined to the Old World. The commonest, our small English species, (MuscarpINUS AVELLANARIUS), is found throughout temperate and northern Europe, and a nearly allied species, still smaller and prettier, is found in Japan. The Guis vuLGARIS (Seven-sleeper of the Germans) has a more southerly range, living in the south of ° Europe, as far east as the Wolga, and extending into Georgia. It is it that the ancients so highly prized as a dainty, and fed for the table in separate hutches, as we do turkeys now. It comes nearer to the squirrels than any other member of this family. Of the remaining genera, Exromys extends from the south of Europe into Africa and Arabia, and Grapuiurus inhabits the Cape of Good Hope. corresponds very nearly to terrestrial and arboreal Squirrels. The terrestrial Squirrels consist of the Marmot (Arcromys), the Prairie Dog (Cynomys), and the Spermophile (SpeRMopHILus). The genus Tamtas is also terrestrial, but in structure and affinity belongs to the arboreal section, which, besides it, contains the true Squirrels (Scrurus), the Spiny Squirrels (Xervus), and the Flying Squirrels (Preromys). Like the Hamsters, and some other Rodents, a considerable pro- portion of the Squirrels possess cheek-pouches. All the species of SperMopHitus and Tamias have largely developed internal cheek-pouches, and Arcromys has traces of them. he only fossil remains of Squirrels are of recent date. An Arcromys has been found in the alluvium of Auvergne, and remains of another animal allied to the Marmot (PLEstarcromys Gerrvaisit) haye been met with in the recent fresh-water calcareous deposits of Apt near the mouth of the Rhone. Remains of the living species of Squirrels have also been found in bone-caves, but nothing indicating its presence in Europe, or indeed anywhere else at a more ancient date. In a family containing such an army of species as the Squirrels, one is glad to be able to break 256 MAMMALS. it up into brigades. After separating from them the Marmots, Ground Squirrels, and Flying Squirrels, we have a very homogeneous section, the Squirrels proper, which peculiarly require further subdivision, but for which it is scarcely possible to find good sectional characters. One small section may, indeed, without inconvenience be subtracted from it, viz. :— Bristiy Squrrress. (Xert.) (Map. 92.) These are Squirrels with bristles or spines in their fur ; they are confined to Africa, south of the Sahara. The Map shows their range, but only those places where the genus has been actually taken, and these, it will be seen, extend along the coast almost all round the continent,—Senegal, Fernando Po, Congo, South Africa, Somali-land, Abyssinia, and Senaar. We may, therefore, expect that it will be found all over it, but until it has been ascertained to be so, I have refrained from assuming it. Scrurus. (Map 93.) The remaining Squirrels, even thus restricted, are still a numerous genus. There are about one hundred and eighty species, standing described in systematic works, of which, however, at least the half are synonymes; and.I have little doubt that if the remainder were subjected to the same stringent scrutiny’ that Audubon and Bachman’s North American species* have undergone at the hands of Dr. Baird, and with the same advantages of materials collected by Government explorations, they would be correspondingly reduced. The great accumulation of synonymes and doubtful species is due to the variability of most of the species both in size and colour. Speaking of the Indian species, Sc. Maxruus, Mr. Blyth, who perhaps has had more experience of Indian species than any other naturalist, says, “It exhibits permanent varieties of colouring, each peculiar to a certain range of distribution; and in some instances the size is more or less reduced, e.g., Sc. HyPoLEUCos and Sc. AuBipEs. It is difficult to conceive of the whole series as other than permanent varieties of one species; and the same remark applies to the races of PreRomys, and to at least some of those of ScrurorrEerus, as also to various named Scrurr.”+ And not to speak of varieties and local races, from time to time indicated by Mr. Blyth, he says of the whole of the group of medium-sized Squirrels with grizzled fur, proper to south-east Asia and its Archipelago: “ Extraordinarily developed in the Indo-Chinese countries, and Malayan Peninsula, where the species or permanent races would seem to be almost endless, differing more or less in size and colouring.”~ Dr. Baird makes similar remarks upon the North American species: “The determination of the species of Squirrels of North America has always been a matter of great difficulty. Owing to many different reasons, the species themselves exhibit an unusual tendency to run into varieties of colours, among which red, grey and black, are the pre- dominating ones with all possible intermediate shades; these varieties are sometimes more or less constant in particular localities, sometimes changing with every litter. I am not aware that there is any material difference of colour at different seasons or ages in the same animal.” Mr. Blyth found the Indian varieties also constant to their localities: “The next four races,” says he, ‘“ with probably others, are also very closely akin, but inhabit different localities, from which they are respectively true to the details of their colouring.”|| Another source of perplexity, noticed by Dr. Baird, is the alteration in the average size with the latitude. ‘“ Many of our animals,” he says, “become smaller as we proceed southwards, until on the sea-coast of Georgia, Florida, and the Gulf, * Sir Charles Lyell tells us of the remonstrance of —Lyn’s “Second Visit to the United States,” vol. i. a subscriber to Audubon and Bachman’s Quadzupeds p- 802. 1850. of North America on this subject: “If you describe + Buyrn, Cat., p. 98. { Ipm. p. 101. so many squirrels I cannot go on taking in your book.” § Bargp, op. cit. || Inrp. p. 101, Up] (PSMMUT) US 7% ACT } nanos vIT00NOW | + | NvVIaNnt | Nw a oo JI UNvVTL HLaos | ‘a0 atade 3) ap Sidoay, | SNA AT spaernbs: Birr ) of POULNSADYY APY PID OD SIVUIY YO SLI PLIST) SAUMOL3}) 7 spotsra hs hurd pump ‘“ATIOX dVW NVA00O ODYATIVA AINOS a a We ace fe MAR UDOS ‘ | NSS aa la) +1 eePadowen vzs nVvONr ae eyrnnd | AuUViUVL ana | nvisinwHDay | vis¥ad 1 aNadaant + OMIM vIS¥ = wavi3 7 Aa S 50.4 Sowa . ot wotmouvd daviney| yo ardoay. <8; NvVdo0 DILNVILW OTHLIY Wd mee NHiHON sayory a Dee HIANSONYA aS i ra Niaavea ~~ I VER i Set} Neeee GQNviNaa4yuD | 03) 08} SQUIRRELS. 257 they reach their minimum. This is very strikingly seen in the Common Deer, which on the Sea Islands of Georgia is so small as to be readily lifted and thrown across a horse with perfect ease by aman of ordinary strength. It is in the Sciuride, next to the Deer, we find this law to prevail most decidedly. Nearly all the species of extensive North and South range will be found, on careful examination, to substantiate this position.” It appears also that, as with the Foxes, the smaller species of Squirrel assume the black fur to the greatest extent in the more northern portions of the United States. Dr. Baird also made this observation, that as a general rule where a Squirrel exhibits any annulation of the fur on the throat or belly, it is a variety of some species, typical examples of which have the under parts either uniformly white or reddish to the roots, and the annulation is usually accompanied by a duskier colour of the fur. The tendency to annulation below is strongest in the Squirrels of the Mississippi Valley, and applies both to grey and fox-coloured species. But Dr. Baird had met with no instances of annulation among the Squirrels west of the Rocky Mountains. There is another curious peculiarity in some of the North American Squirrels, which may give a hint for testing varieties or species in other instances. It illustrates the proverb “that what is bred in the bone will come out in the flesh;” here it should be “the fur.” The bones of the Fox Squirrels, which have rusty-coloured bellies, are red ; those of the white-bellied varieties are white. This is not an isolated case of colour penetrating to the bones. fowl has always black bones. A variety or species of domestic Frying Squrrrets. These are divided into two sections, readily distinguishable, the one by having the fur of its tail divided distichously, and smoothed off to each side (ScturorrErvs) ; the other (PrEromys) by the tail being bushy all round. Both have their representatives in the Marsupial Prraurt and Acropara, in Australia the former corresponding to Pteromys, the latter to Sciuropterus. Scruroprerus. (Map 94.) This section has much the same distribution as the true Squirrels, — that is, the preponderance of species inhabits the Indian Archipelago,—then about a third of the whole are North American, and a single species (Sc. voLANS) is found in north-east Europe and north-west Siberia, not extending eastwards beyond the Lena. According to Audubon, the Scruroprerus voLucELLA is far more numerous in North America than it is supposed to be. He frequently caught it in traps set for the smaller Rodentia in localities where he had never seen it.* It is met with in all the Atlantic States, and Audubon obtained specimens in Upper Canada, within a mile of the Falls of Niagara. But there is reason to believe There are fifteen species in all. * T can readily imagine this. With permission of the hundred of them every evening for several weeks near authorities I once turned loose a living specimen of this American species into the large palm-house in the Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh. The moment it was released from its little cage, it flewup the nearest tree like a shot. We saw it for a short time, high up, clasped to the trunk, until it made another dart, when it vanished from our sight ; and the eager searching of many keen eyes was ever after unavailing to obtain a glimpse of it. Sir Charles Lyell bears similar testimony. He tells us that at Charles- ton he expressed his regret to Dr. Bachman that he had not yet seen the Flying Squirrel in motion, “and was sur- prised to hear that Dr. Bachman had observed about a Philadelphia, on two tall oaks, in the autumn when acorns and chestnuts were abundant, and when they had spare time to play. They were amusing themselves by passing from one tree to another, throwing themselves off from the top of one of the oaks and descending at a considerable angle to near the base of the other ; then inclining the head upwards just before reaching the ground, so as to turn and alight on the trunk, which they immediately climbed up to repeat the same manceuvre. In this way there was an almost continuous flight of them crossing each other in the air between the two trees.”—LYELL’s “Second Visit to the United States,” vol. i. 303. 1850. LL 258 MAMMALS. that it does not exist much to the north of the great lakes. He also found specimens in Florida and Texas. Lichtenstein found it in Mexico, and it is in M. Salvin’s list of species found in Guatemala. Besides it three other species are found in North America. A larger species (P. SABRINUS) replacing it in Lower Canada. Neither it nor any other species, however, is found in South America. None are found in Africa or Southern Europe. Preromys. (Map 80.) This section is confined to India, chiefly the Nepaul, Sikkim, and other Timmalayan districts, and to Java and the rest of the Indian Archipelago. It numbers only six or seven species. The numerical proportion of the species of Squirrels and Flying Squirrels in the different quarters of the world, may perhaps furnish some data for determining the site of their original birth-place, or specific centre, and the course of their subsequent dispersion. These have a more uncertain basis than they would otherwise have had, owing to the variable character of many of the species, and our consequent ignorance of their true numbers ; still we can make out something from them even here. Generally speaking, I do not attach great weight to numerical statistics of this nature: in the first place, because I know that they must be wrong; the estimate of what a species is being constantly inconstant, and invariably varying according to the bias of the author who describes it. In this instance, North America, on the one hand, has had her lists purged of half her species by Baird, and India on the other has had hers doubled by Hodgson and Blyth. Had both been dealt with by the same men the proportion would have been preserved, but here the balance is quite upset. In the next place I regard them less, because we can never tell to what cause the pre- ponderance of species is due. The presence of species is something; it is a positive fact; their absence is nothing, or at best only half something. The species may have been present, where it is now absent, and in greater numbers than any others elsewhere ; but a flood, or a sinking of the land for four-and-twenty hours, or a famine, or a pestilence,—a rinderpest, may have swept them all away. It is therefore only when they are very marked that numerical statistics can be at all trusted to, and even then they must be used with great caution. Notwithstanding what I have above said they are still well marked in the Squirrels, and the following facts stand out suffi- ciently clear and positive to allow us to reason from them. We have the positive fact that they are found in every region of the world, except Australia and Madagascar. It may be assumed as proved, too, that a greater number of species is found in India and the Malayan Archipelago than anywhere else ; and the reader will remember that that is the region nearest to the land of their equivalents the Marsupial Preraurr. Probably the half of them are found there; a third may inhabit North America; Africa and South America may each have about a ninth or a tenth; and Europe and Northern Asia are limited to the single species found in Britain. The Indian Archipelago seems, therefore, to have most right to be considered the starting- point, or specific centre of the family ; and if so, it is plain that a swarm must have been thrown off from thence, which, somehow or other, has reached North America. How can they have got there? Can the transition have been made by Scrvroprerus votans, the European and Asiatic species, drawing its origin from India, extending to America, by the Bhering Straits route, or some neighbouring passage, and then becoming changed into Sc. votucerta? It is against this idea that Sc. voLans is not found east of the Lena nor west of the Gulf of Finland. It rather looks as if i# were an offshoot from some of the Himmalayan species going north- wards, and spreading a little to the right hand and to the left. In speculating on this we 160 120 20 BO 30 —— = —— T X | et oe | Po } U AoE es 4 er Re warVvin N IRIE ESRI OLDIE AE Se -—~ ae WAY ? 7 Pr Mies 1S t Sq Nic . i 70 BS ~ i <3} as v j er Ses, sea) “ esQuimaury I ep eres Se itd EX Ww > L- 4worensp F —— -= RUSBIAN OY es \ NORTH PA CIFIC OCEAN SANDWICH IF x Adonis NORTH ¥. ATLANTLC OCEAN Fi Tropic of Cancer Fetic Circle vw MARQUESAS IF — wettong, cooks 15! SOUTH PACLELC MNP XC. MARMOT (ARCTOMYS.) oo Eg z “Tropic of Capricoind AUSTRALIA SOUTH Ca 30. a - 120 150 7 WORTH ATLANTIC ' OCEAW 7 pumas TH | B ET a> az ATLANTIC INDIAN OCEAN ® Sem{ Limited) Lath OC RAN 4 MPAC Xe Cle aiteal val TAMIAS. - |50 (STRIPED SQUIRREL) s o RC | ee oe Coy fe EK A N 160 uF ~ + 60) E = = a E 15 320 30_ co 30 0 Bo = 7 To 1 SQUIRRELS. 259 must remember that our date is confined to the period subsequent to the glacial epoch, for the cold of that epoch cleared off almost everything both from Europe and North America, and conse- quently no use can be made of any old bridge which may have subsisted between Europe and America prior to the glacial epoch. The above inference as to the course of the distribution of species extends to the true Squirrels as well as to the Flying Squirrels. What has taken place in Preromys and ScruroprErws is obviously repeated in Scrurus in every point, although the contrasts are less marked, there being a much larger number of species. Africa seems to have little connexion with the Indian Squirrels, from which I look for the distribution of the rest. Can the communication have been by South America ? No doubt there are several indications of a very ancient connexion between New Zealand and Peru, especially in plants and insects. It may have included the submerged continent now buoyed off by the Pacific Islands, and by that route the Squirrels may have reached North America. On the other hand, we have seen that there are no Flying Squirrels in South America at all. And as the true Squirrels were what is called “in the same boat”’ as the flying ones, the specialties of their distribution being merely an exaggerated repetition of the facts relating to the latter, we can hardly avail ourselves of the presence of two or three true Squirrels in South America, to explain their passage to the north. It must therefore have been by North America that the family established itself in the New World. We may assume it as certain that there was such a connection between Asia and North America by Bhering’s Straits, or a little to the south of it. But the Indian Squirrel was a tropical creature, and there is an absence of Squirrels in the north-east of Asia. These considera- tions seem to point to another more southerly connection between Asia‘and North America, by Japan and California, or stretching from China to California, in the line of the Sandwich Isles. From the comparative rarity of the Squirrels in South America, and their abundance in Mexico and North America, we may perhaps infer that the gap which at one time existed between North and South America was present when the Squirrels established themselves in North America. That gap seems to have been open and closed up more than once. Srripep Grounn-Squrrret. (Tamras.) (Map 91.) The Striped Ground-Squirrels stand between the true Squirrels and the Spermophiles. Like the latter they possess internal cheek-pouches, and the form of the skull is similar in a certain portion of therh. They have all a black stripe down the middle of the back, and usually two others on each side; a disposition of colouring which also appears in some of the Mice, as Mus pumin1o. Two species occur in Europe and Asia; the remainder, consisting of four or five species, are American, one ranging from Canada to Columbia ; another from the Missouri to Oregon ; one is peculiar to California, and another to New Mexico. For long, one species known by the name of TamrAs striatus was thought to be common to both Siberia and North America. More recently naturalists have come to the conclusion that there are two different species, one peculiar to each continent, and Dr. Baird has named the Siberian species T. Pariasn. The American animal is the larger of the two, and has the shortest tail, which is more bushy and cylindrical. The colour also differs somewhat, the light tints being pale yellow ochre in the Siberian, and rusty brownish red, mingled with grey, in the American; and the black stripes on the back are arranged at different distances. This is Wagner’s account ;* * Waaner, “Supp. Schreber Saugethiere,” iii. 233. 260 MAMMALS. but we can hardly trust to it, for Baird, on the other hand, says that the Old-World species is the largest; “in fact, fully twice the size.’ In truth, there seems to be little on which to found a species beyond size, colour, and length of tail—in other words, in those very characters in which ordinary variation chiefly occurs. But here the important point is, that the distinctive peculiarities on these points seem to be constant on each side of the Pacific. Similar constant differences, however, occur between the individuals in different districts elsewhere. Baird noticed them in all the specimens of Taras QuaprRivirratus from a particular district in North America. He says, ‘In all the specimens from the Upper Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers there is a constant difference from the preceding description, in the much greater lightness of colour. The dark stripes have much less black in them, &e. These are smaller, and the tail longer. The tail is also much lighter-coloured,” &c. &c.* The difference in the proportions of these Yellowstone River specimens too is of the same character as in those of the Siberian specimens of SperMopHitus Parryt, as well as of TamtAs Patnastt. Increase of size is accompanied with shortening of the tail, and diminution of size with an increase in its length. It is as if the tail remained the same, and seemed only relatively longer or shorter according to the increase or diminution of size in the other parts of the body. It would be interesting, by a series of measurements both of Old-world and New-world individuals, to ascertain whether this is the case; and if so, where the increase really takes place. Those given by Dr. Baird in his work sufficiently supply this for the American species; all that is wanted is similar and equally careful data for the European and Asiatic species. Spermopuitus. (Map 88.). These Ground-Squirrels closely resemble ordinary Squirrels in appear- ance, the easiest point of distinction being their possession of cheek-pouches. There are twenty five species known, of which one is extinct and has left traces in the bone breccias of France and Germany. Of the other two dozen, nine are Old-World (European and Siberian), and fifteen North-American species. None are found to the south of the temperate latitudes of the northern hemisphere. Those found in the Old World are chiefly Siberian: only two occur in Europe, 8. crrintus in Austria, Hungary, Poland, Silesia, and Bohemia, and probably also in Russia and Siberia; and 8. Gurrarus in Volhynia, Bessarabia, and Russia between the Don and the Wolga. The Ural, Altaic, Caucasian, and Kamtschatkan Mountains, the Irtisch and Kirghis Steppes, and eastern Siberia, are the habitats of the .Asiatic species. In America a considerable number of species belong to a sub-genus proposed by Brandt (OrosPERMOPHILUS), with long ears, in contrast to the other species, which have very short ears. These are not found in the Old World. None of the Spermophiles of either section are met with, or perhaps I should say, are now met with, on the eastern board of North America. Three are found in the central districts, three in the Rocky Mountains, three in California, and five in Texas, Sonora, and New Mexico, and on the borders of Mexico. The most interesting of the Spermophiles are those known as 8. Eversmanni, and S. Parryt, the former of which inhabits the eastern half of northern Siberia, from the Altaic Mountains to Bhering’s Straits, where it meets the North American form, 8. Parry1, which has as wide a range eastward of the Straits, see Map 89. Brandt and the Russian zoologists generally consider these species as identical. At the same time they can always be readily distinguished from each other, S. Parryr being the larger of the two, and having a shorter and more bushy tail. * BarrD, op. cit. p. 298. | HAPRIN 1 PACIFIC ————— | OCE INDIAN 0 €8ax ath \ r SOUTH PACIFIC Bae n ste te ==} == ee MAP UXXXVIII. SPERMOPHILUS. ee eee (GROUND SQUIRREL.) | Nowe: Preponderance of, Species trdiuwated ly intonsily of alee | wt. 4 —— LO 50 | Fait) Lath SG sae 30 cD 30 20 10 = Bo oO 0 ca = = \ | | uv | 5 wr 4nd parrix 30. T | | ? CREENLAND oF = CHINESE puwas TH | BET — 7 N L aes A eee: S CHINE MARQUESAS Ip SOUTH PACIFIC OCEAN MAP ULXXXIX. Spermophius Parrye ime > Eversmanni ATLANTIC Oe EAS Supposed bv some to be the same. sae OGEAN SQUIRRELS. 261 Two questions of interest arise out of the close resemblance of this and other species similarly circumstanced, such as Tamtas srrratus and T, Patiasi. The one is, whether they are identical or not; and the other, to what cause their extreme resemblance or identity is due. As to the first question, that is a matter of opinion, which every one will answer according to his own views of what constitutes a species; they hover on the borders between a species and a variety. As to the second question, the explanation of their supposed identity is generally assumed to be, that in- dividuals have crossed over from the one continent to the other by Bhering’s Straits, when the sea there was frozen over in winter. Dr. Baird says, and I suspect the majority of naturalists would concur in the remark, that “there is nothing to prevent the mammalia of the north-western portions of the American continent from passing over to Asia, as the strait intervening is frozen solid every winter.’’* Now I think we may sometimes stretch this idea too far. It is perfectly true as regards some animals, but I am not so sure that it is equally applicable to all. The quotations which I have already given from Captain M‘Clintock’s Diary show that apparently the whole of Polar animal life is migratory, and swarms across the ice as freely as over the land. But I have some difficulty in beheving that non-Polar animals would equally avail themselves of the same means of transit. Certainly the fact seems to have been that these Spermophiles do not avail themselves of this yearly bridge, for neither of them extend their range beyond their respective continents, but come up close to the Straits, $8. Parryr being found in the island of Aricamtchitchi at the Straits, and the other on the Kamtschatkan shore. If it were not so—if the time when they crossed from one continent to the other was not distant, why are they not absolutely identical? If 8. Parryz could take a run across to see its cousin S. EversMANNI every winter, or S. Eversmannt in like manner come over to America, why should a// the American specimens be bigger? and why should they all, and always, have shorter and bushier tails? Some distinctive difference occurs in every species with which I am acquainted, which is represented both in North America and the Old World. There is constantly a perceptible distinction, although it be slight. On this ground it seems to me plain that the journey across Bhering’s Straits is not a thing which “there is nothing to prevent.” In one sense (the physical one) there is nothing to prevent it. So there was nothing to prevent any one before Columbus sailing from Europe to America ; and if a Squirrel had the intelligence, ambition, and perseverance of Columbus, it no doubt would soon cross the Straits. But not having them, what is there to induce it to leave the land where its food is, and to start on a journey of sixty miles across a frozen sea?t nay, nof across, but, to all its perception, on an illimitable horizon of ice, without bourne, and without object or inducement, but opposed to everything of the kind. And let the reader think for a moment what sixty miles is. He is, perhaps, a good walker, and when in fair training will walk his thirty miles a day. It would take him two days to cross the Straits, sleeping one night on the ice; but.if he only made out ten miles, which would probably be enough for the energy of a Spermophile, then he must *sleep another night and walk another day; and again, and again, and again, and yet again, before he reached the opposite shore. It is not as if they were in a boat, which, once set adrift, might be blown hundreds of miles without effort on the part of those in it. They must set out * Bairp, op. cit. p. 324. to find a reliable statement of their width, but the mea- + Sir Charles Lyell says that Bhering’s Straits do not surement by scale on our maps gives sixty miles. exceed in width the Straits of Dover. I have been unable 262 MAMMALS. with an intention, and an intention to do a disagreeable thing, against their present interests and inclinations for a future, distant, and problematical advantage ; a thing which, I imagine, no beast ever yet did, and few men. Of course I except Polar and migratory animals which are moved by their instinct to travel in a particular direction. I therefore do not adopt the idea of Bhering’s Straits when frozen being a serviceable bridge for non-Polar animals to cross by. I need scarcely repeat that I account for the occurrence of so many plants, insects, and other animals in North America, which, although recognisable as American varieties of species also found in Europe or Asia, cannot be separated from them as distinct species, by the hypothesis that, at some not very distant geological period, the New and the Old World were united at their northern extremity, and that a bridge existed not only across the Atlantic but across the Pacific. Prarriz Doc. (Cynomys.) As the Spermophiles are the inhabitants of mountainous and rocky places, so the Prairie Dogs are inhabitants of plaims; they are intermediate between the Marmots and Spermophiles, and have, by different authors, been placed in each. Two species have been described, but there are probably one or two more. They are North American, and their range is extensive. The common Prairie Dog is found over the entire extent of the region between the Missouri River and the Rocky Mountains. It has not hitherto been recorded as occurring north of the United States lines. Southwards it extends to the Rio Grande, as far as the Presidio del Norte, in 80° N. Lat. It is not probable, however, that it goes so far south as Matamoras, as it is not noticed by Dr. Berlandier in his notes on the zoology of that region. Marmor. (Arcromys.) (Map. 90.) These are the largest of the Squirrel family, some of them being not very far behind the Beaver in‘size. The number of species does not exceed seven, three of them inhabiting the Old World, the rest the New. The Arcromys nosac of Europe and Asia, and A. monax of North America, are the best known; the range of the former stretches from Switzerland to Kamtschatka, and that of the latter across North America, from the Atlantic to the Pacific, or rather almost to the Pacific. Such a space as lies between Switzerland and the Atlantic in Europe also separates A. Monax from the Pacific in America, its place there being taken by A. FLAvIveNTER. Another species, A. pRUINOsUS, which occurs on a small tract of country lying on the borders of the Rocky Mountains, between the Columbia and Fraser’s River, may perhaps also be found in Asia. Middendorff* says that a large species in Kamtschatka exactly corresponds with it, and Baird seems inclined to adopt his view.t Fossil remains of an extinct species have been found in the volcanic alluvium of Auvergne. The Spermophiles and Marmots would, according to my - hypothesis, be still more recent descendants from the Squirrels. They are entirely northern species, and as they are more largely represented in America than in the Old World, the chances are in favour of their having come into existence in North America, and spread from thence into the Old World by Asia. * Mippenporrr, “ Siberische Reise.” * + Barr, loc. cit. p. 347. CHAPTER XXXIX. RODENTS continued —MURIDH—BEAVERS—VOLES—RATS—MICE. Muripx. Tue various groups of this family, which seem entitled to rank as sub-families, are—1. The Casrorint, or Beavers; 2. The Arvicotinm, or Voles; 3. The Drroprn1,or Jerboas; 4. The Sparacrnt, or Mole Rats ; 5. The Saccomyrnt, or Gophers; and 6. The Murrni, or true Rats and Mice. CasTorInI. Artopontia. Dr. Baird includes the Sewellel (ApLopontIA LEPoRINA of Richardson) among the Beavers.* Giebel places it amongst the Sparactni.t It is probably intermediate between the Marmot and the Beaver, or the Marmot and the Gopher. Being that I sway in doubt, I follow the line suggested by Baird. Its habits are scarcely at all known. It is said to be about the size of, and yery like, the Musk-Rat in appearance. Its feet are not webbed; so we may assume that it is not aquatic. It varies in colour from brown to black. It is confined to a narrow region in Washington territory, on the north-west coast of North America, extending from the coast to the Rocky Mountains. It is doubtful whether it will be found either on the coast range in the Williamette Valley or on the Cascade Mountains. Bravers.—(Map 77.) Naturalists have been much puzzled where to place the Beaver in their systematic arrangements, and it occupies very different places in different systems. Dr. Baird main- tains that it is an aquatic Squirrel, as the Marmots are burrowing Squirrels. It certainly has a good deal in common with the Squirrel, but it seems to me to have still more to do with the Arvicotinm; I consider it a gigantic Vole. The skull, perhaps, is more akin to that of the Squirrel, but there are other characters which show greater affinity with the Muri. It has the aquatic habits of many of the Voles, and the scaly tail of the Rat has become a flattened oar in the Beaver as well as the Musk-Rat; in the former with the blade placed horizontally, and working as in the whale, in the latter placed vertically and working as in fishes. It was for long a question whether the Old-world and the New-world Beavers were distinct species or not. This has now been settled in the affirmative, chiefly on the strength of anatomical differences.¢ In outward appearance there is scarcely any appreciable difference ; but amongst others the same test,—the difference in the relative proportion of the nasal bones,—which distinguishes the skull of a lion from that of a tiger, is found also to distinguish these species of Beaver. Pro- * Bair, op. cit. p. 353. “British Fossil Mamm. and Birds:” 196. Owen, { GIEBEL, op. cit. p. 527. “ Catal. Osteol. Ser. Royal College Surgeons,” ii. 1853. No. t Cuvier, “Ossemens fossiles,” viii. 112. Owen, 2162. 264 MAMMALS. fessor Brandt, of St. Petersburg, has carefully worked out the subject, and the reader will find full details in his work on Russian Mammals.* Our Castor FIBER, the Old-world Beaver, formerly inhabited the whole of Europe and Western Asia. It is now almost extinguished from the former, a few only still remaining in some parts of Germany, and perhaps on the Rhéne, in France. The race, although so nearly extinct, has been preseryed in Austria by the Austrian Emperor, in at least one of his extensive parks on the banks of the Danube. It is now probably extinguished in Sweden and Norway. Blyth records a specimen obtained from Norway in 1844, as being one of only two which had been killed in that country during the preceding twenty years. Some still survive in Poland and Russia. It is not found in the south of Europe, or on the Mediterranean or Black Sea, but still exists in considerable numbers in the streams of the Ural Mountains, and in those of the Caspian Sea, extending into Tartary. It is not found in Eastern Siberia, neither Herr Radde nor Schrenck having found any trace of it, or learning anything to lead to the belief that it had ever lived in that district, or Amourland; with the single exception that “it is said” that the Russo-American Fur Company obtained a skin in 1853-4, at their temporary station at the south end of Saghalien. Such an exception, unaccompanied as it is by any tangible fact, is very tantalismg. The skin might have been an American one, or one brought by some far-travelled hunter from West Siberia. In ignorance of these points, nay, in uncertainty whether if was a Beayer’s skin at all, the statement only serves to throw a haze of doubt on any conclusions drawn from the absence of the Beaver in that part of Asia. Casror Canapensis. The American Beaver has a very wide distribution through North America. It formerly extended over the whole continent, from sea to sea, but it is now very rare east of the Missouri. A few are still found in the Adirondac region of New York; in the Alleghanies of Pennsylvania, Virginia, North Carolina, and even Alabama. They extend from the Arctic Circle to the Tropic of Cancer (68° to 26° N. lat.) They are found in the Gila and the Rio Grande, and reach the mouth of that river (in 26° N. lat.) In former times it was extremely abundant, but the great demand for, and high price of, its fur for hats, induced an extensive trade in it, which caused it rapidly to diminish. The substitution of silk in the manufacture of hats, and the introduc- tion of the fur of the Nurria (American Otter) and Coypu (Myororamus Coypus) of South America, has, however, reduced its price so much (they were offered to Dr. Newberry’s party by the bale, at 25 cents each), that, according to Dr. Baird, beaver-fur now scarcely pays the expenses of the systematic and laborious pursuit on the part of the trapper which is required to obtain it ; and, in consequence, the animal is again multiplying rapidly, and the western streams becoming well stocked. Numerous fossil remains of both the living species have been found; those of the Old World in England and other parts of Europe; those of the New World in especial abundance in the bone-caves of Pennsylvania, showing that they must have lived there formerly in great numbers. Two remarkable animals of the Beaver tribe, but considerably larger, formerly inhabited Europe and North America, respectively,—the TrocontuEriuM and Casroroipes. They are both now extinct, but seem to have been contemporary with the Beaver. Their remains have been discovered in peat- bogs and lacustrine deposits posterior to the drift. The American genus, CasrororpEs, was much * Branpt, Prof. “ Beitriige zur nihern Kentnniss der in “Mémoires Mathém. Phys. et Natur. de PAcad. Se. St. Sdugethiere Russiands St. Petersburg.” 1855. 4to. And Petersburg.” vol. vii. BD | if GREENLAND iS WAFEIN INDEPENDENT aa CHINE S\E rows THB ET zn ay SOUTH PACIFIC OCEAN MAP LXXXVI MUSK RAT ATLIANT Ic ——9/€- Aw ———_| ss , | | | FIBER ZIBETHICUS | | | | | ; oo es ie at oe ee 2 | | | | | | | | | { I Hf | ! 150, Tea) 30 co = oO 30, 60 390 20 10 Day & Son {Tmited) Lath 150 120 90 7 we ED) 30 0 90. 120 150 2 20 l = - =e = it | aAnowicy he | u peae 5 age iN CREENLAND m5 P ‘ Auer 2 ~— eile ee aoe f fy i moncowia > i : Boy as nr Ac BAAy b— | NontH ¥. ise te ia } | CHINESE “ATLANTIC pune TH! BET OCEAN | Fa Tropic. of Caucte a ede aeeenen | nu i DORMICE. (MYOXINI) MAP LXXXVII1. a +6 \ abn aagauas bo} SAUSTRAL a i Dssy & Son! Limite!) bath VOLES. 265 the larger of the two. It was more than twice the size of the Beaver (the length of its skull, for example, was nine inches, while that of the Beaver is only four). The Troconruerium, again, was only about a fifth larger than the Beaver. Arvicotin®. (Map 84.) The lower-jaw bones of two or three species of fossil Arvico.m have been found in the bone breccia of Goslar. Musk Rar. (Fiser Zrserurcus.) (Map 86.) Although unquestionably one of the ArvicoLin», there is a good deal in the Musk Rat which reminds us of the Beaver. Its fur is similar, it passes the most of its time in the water; its tail also is naked and scaly, only narrow instead of broad, and placed vertically instead of horizontally. It inhabits the whole of North America, from the Atlantic to the Pacifie and from the Rio Grande to the Barren Grounds of Arctic America. It is abundant in Washington territory, and to the north of that district on to Bhering’s Straits, and in the north of the Rocky Mountains, but has not yet been met with in California. Dr. Newberry says: “ In the Sacramento valley, in the Klamath Lake region, in the basin of the Des Chutes,—places apparently fitted by nature to be paradises of Musk-Rats; shallow, rush-grown lakes, and rush- bordered, canal-like streams, just where, in the Eastern states, Musk-rats would abound,—though I looked carefully I never saw the animal, his track, his habitations, nor even his characteristic heaps of emptied shells of Unio and Anodonta. I therefore concluded that in all this region the Musk-Rat does not exist.”* Mr. Lord+ describes a second species, Finer Osoyoosensis, as found in the Rocky Mountains and at Cascade Mountains, but the distinctions taken by him scarcely seem specific. It was at one time supposed that the Musk-Rat was found on the Asiatic side of Bhering’s Straits, but it appears now to be ascertained that the skins obtained from the Tschucktchis of Kamts- chatka are procured from the tribes on the American side of the Straits. Vorrs.— (Map 84.) The Field-mice, or Voles, are numerous in species, which are spread over the northern hemisphere through America, Europe, and Asia, and in number of individuals they probably far exceed any other mammal. Inhabiting very nearly the same territories as the true Mice and Rats, they each have a tendency in an opposite direction. The true Mice rather affect the warmer parts of the temperate zone, the Field-mice prefer the colder; as in plants we see species occupying successive bands of latitude—the spruce-fir, for example, stretching in a broad band across the north of Europe, and the silver-fir doing the same in the middle of Europe, so these two families repeat something of the same sort in the animal kingdom, but so mixed to- gether that it is not easy to prove it otherwise than by pointing to the fact that the extreme northern and cold districts have Field-mice, and no true Mice; and the southern and warmer districts have true Mice and no Field-mice. Thus we have no true Mice in Greenland and the circumpolar region, but we have the Lemmings, a genus of Field-mouse. So at the equator, and in the tropics, we have true Mice, but no Field-mice. On the cold and lofty steppes of Mongolia and Central Asia true Mice. are absent, and their place is supplied by Field-mice. Two species occur at some elevation on the southern slope of the Himmalayahs, stragglers from Europe and Central Asia. In the deserts of Sahara Field-mice are unknown, but true Mice oceur * Newserry, “Report in U.S. Pac. Railroad Expl.,” vol. vi. p. 22. + Lorp in “ Proc. Zool. Soc.” 1863. MM 266 MAMMALS. In the intermediate regions between the tropics and the Arctic circle both occur indiscriminately. Field-mice do not occur in South America, South Africa, or Australia. The Field-mice are distributed very uniformly wherever they occur, different species being allotted to the different kinds of locality to which they are suited. Some species inhabiting the water, others the dry lands, while others, again, frequent rocky elevated regions, or Alpine mountain heights. The thick moss and swamps of sphagnum in the Arctic regions are said to swarm with species both of Field-mice and Lemming to an extraordinary degree, and to be the starting-point of the armies of Lemmings which from time to time have overrun the northern regions in incon- all through it. ceivable numbers. The southern boundary of the Field-mice is not well defined ; but that they extend at least as far south as Rome is too well authenticated by the mischief which the ARvicoLa TERRESTRIS (Bonap.) does to the gardens and vineyards there, by gnawing the young shoots, and by burrowing in and destroying the embankments in the neighbourhood of Leghorn. So great is the injury done by it, and by the foxes, in scratching up the ground in gardens to get at it, that the price paid for its destruction at Rome is one half more than for the Mole. At least three species are found in Italy,— A. TERRESTRIS, A. AMPHTBIUS, and A. ARVALIS. It is interesting to find the migratory instincts showing themselves in the southern species as well as in the northern, when occasion calls it forth. Prince Bonaparte* mentions that it appears to change its liabitat according to the rains, leaving the low country when it is inundated, and gradually advancing as the waters subside. In the year 1837, four-fifths of the entire harvest in the province of Piombina, in Italy, were devastated by the Field-mice, which had been driven to the high grounds by heavy floods in the meadows. In a single province in Germany, in 1822, 1,570,000 Mice were captured in fourteen days, as shown by official reports.” In like manner, the injury done by them to young trees and shrubs in America has sometimes proved excessive. The long-tailed Field-mouse is scattered over almost the whole of the temperate regions of Europe, and does considerable mischief by its economical habits. It lays up an astonishing amount (“vast magazines,” according to Pennant?) of acorns, nuts, corn, and various seeds, or even roots, as a store for winter, as Virgil says :— “Saepe exiguus mus Sub terris posuitque domos atque horrea fecit.” The house and granary alluded to by Virgil is formed under ground, either in holes excavated by itself, or more frequently in small natural excavations under the trunks or roots of trees enlarged by themselves, or in the deserted runs of the mole.§ The Field-mice are divisible into two sections, ArvicoLa proper and Hyrupxus, the former distinguished by the molar teeth being without roots, the latter by their having two roots; and by the former having the ears more or less concealed, while in the latter they are distinct and well developed. Dr. Baird, who has studied them carefully, says, in regard to the Old and New-World species : * Asa whole, the skulls of American Arvico:® differ from the European, as in only one species, (Arvicota aGrestis, from Sweden) have I found an accordance in every general respect with the * Bonaparte, “ Iconographia della Fauna Italica.” t Pennant, THomas, ‘British Zoology,” 1812, vol. i. + Barrp, “General Report U.S. Pacif. Railroad Explo- _p. 148. ration,” vol. viii. 510. § Bett, THomas “History of British Quadrupeds,” 1837, p. 306. Ausbiass AMER ICH amt ame S| ‘ ed Ceimese cur: ATLANTIC _ | Czar = as sat Tb i —4 = mate 72 4-t ae = SSeS Es - =a 4 MER rea: fei we) A INDIAN OCEAE BOUTH PACIFIC OCEANS ae cl Sa el a \ amp ATLANTIC MAP LXXXIV. Pit 3 i ae ARVICOLINE : 17 ae ao a a= : i eee FIELD MICE OR VOLES a j Pe te SA ae 2 (EXCLUSIVE OF LEMMINGS) Note. Preponderanee of Speats shewnly inteneity cf colour ' Say § tee ie atcwcae oS fee a : l ase > NORTH PacIPric OCEAS> To ie rf ie 80 UT's; __Waecket -AMERICA¢ INDIAN OCEAS flat te if Ataf zi mh - —— -— p= f = = oe po me AUSTRAL GA if OS: eres ay i187. ee Oe "Ls. ‘ ATLAS TIC i MAP LXXXV. — an : i == Sue ! LEMMINGS. ~ 7 = wa Ag _ eee ~ | (MYODES) S$ ote = £ {ie KB Sf oc ez « ; ; SSS | —_ . on = 2 ee ee J a 4 = 7 : eed ee LEMMINGS. 267 American. An exception must, however, be made for the species of Hypupmus, in which there is a close concordance.”’* Of these, there is only one species in America; it constitutes the connecting link between the Arvicoline Hrsprromys and Stamopon, and the ArvicoL® proper. Lemuine (Myoprs). (Map 85.) The Lemmings can easily be distinguished from the Field-mice by their feet having hairy soles, and by having their claws sickle-shaped and adapted for digging. They are confined to the Arctic portion of the northern hemisphere. The most northerly species is that best known by the name of Myoprs Granianpicus, which might have been more appropriately named, for although it is found in Greenland, that country is not its head-quarters. It was first described, and the specific name affixed, by Dr. Traill, from individuals procured by Capt. Scoresby on the east coast of Greenland, but it is not mentioned in Fabricius’ “ Fauna Groenlandica,”’ and its more especial habitat is the extreme northern shores of Asia and America. In Capt. Parry’s second expedition a considerable number were caught in Repulse Bay. Mr. Goodwin (although he did not himself see them, not haying landed) speaks of what must have been this Lemming, occurring in great numbers on the west side of Baffin’s Bay, about lat. 70° near Agnes monument.+ Mid- dendorfft has shown that this species has been described under seyeral names, and that the name entitled to adoption on the ground of priority is M. rorauarus of Pallas. One variety found on the shores of Hudson’s Bay, distinguished by having the two middle fore-claws very large and much compressed, with the extremities blunt and divided by a terminal notch into two points, one above the other, seemed to have good claim to be considered distinct, and was described and known under the name M. Hunsonius; but it now turns out that exactly the same peculiarities are observed in Asiatic specimens, which were described by Baer as LemMUs UNGULATUS. In speaking above of the long-tailed Field-mouse, I reminded the reader of the nature of its habitation with some exactness, because it is the only guide we have to enable us to determine whether that species does or does not exist in Iceland, or whether, as I suppose, it is the Lemming which has been mistaken for it there—a fact which, as the reader knows, must have rather an important bearing on the past geological history of that part of the northern hemisphere. Let us see how far the habits recorded of the Iceland species agree with those of Mus syLvaticus. I only know of three authorities who speak of its occurrence in Iceland with any- thing of a personal knowledge of the subject, and none of the three saw it themselves. The testimony of two of them, however, is so strong as to leave little doubt that something of the mouse kind does occur there. The three authorities are: 1, Olafsen and Povelsen, who, while they speak of it as only a variety of the domestic mouse, narrate an anecdote of its habits which is inconsistent with this supposition. 2. Sir William Hooker, who laughs at the anecdote, and states that the Mus syivaricus is not, to his knowledge, found in Iceland; and 8. Ebenezer Henderson, who corroborates Olafsen and Povelsen’s statement apparently on good grounds. The account given by Olafsen and Povelsen is as follows :§—‘ There is but a small number of Mice in Iceland, and the white Mouse of the woods (Mus syLvaricus) appears to be only a variety of the domestie Mouse. The instinct of this little animal induces it to collect a quantity of grain for its winter provender; and its magazines may be frequently discovered in the woods and out- skirts. We were assured that these Mice undertake long journeys, and even cross rivers, on which occasion they have the sagacity to pass the water in a diagonal line; they use pieces of dry cow- * Barr, loe. cit. p. 511. . 1853, pp, 87-108. fT Goopwm, R. A., “ Arctic Voyage,” 1850, p. 114. § OLarsEN and PoyeEtsen, “Travels in Iceland,” 1805, t Mippenporrr, “ Siberische Reise,’ 11. Wirbelthiere, i. p. 117, English translation, 1806, p. 58. 268 MAMMALS. dung for rafts, which they load with grain on their return. The number attached to one of these rafts is from four to ten, and each of them assists in launching it. It is also curious that they swim on each side, and their faces are opposite, while their tails serve for rudders. These voyages are not always successful, for sometimes their boats sink, when they save themselves by swimming with wonderful ingenuity. These curious circumstances were detailed to us by persons of credit, who had had ocular demonstration of the fact.” Pennant takes up this statement, and in his “Arctic Zoology,’ says that ‘there is a species in Iceland, allied, as Dr. Pallas imagines, to the economic Mouse ; for, ’ probably on its authority, like that, it lays in a great magazine of berries, by way of winter stores. This species is particularly plentiful in the wood of Husafels. In a country where berries are but thinly dispersed, these little animals are obliged to cross rivers to make their distant forages. In their return with the booty to the magazines they are obliged to repass the stream of which Mr. Olafsen gives the fol- lowing account.”—He then quotes Olafsen’s statement, and adds, ‘‘ When I consider the wonderful sagacity of beavers, and think of the management of the squirrels, which, in cases of similar necessity, make a piece of bark their boat, and their tail the sail, I no longer hesitate to credit the relation.” * Sir William Hooker (then Mr. Hooker), shortly after his return from Iceland, takes exception to Pennant’s view of the matter. “Iam sorry,” says he, “such a ridiculous story should have been believed by a British zoologist. Iceland certaimly possesses no species of Mus which our country does not possess, and the Mice that are found there are not likely to be futnished with any instinct or faculties superior to those of our own Mice. The cireumstance above is laughed at by the more sensible Icelanders, and the species that performs these extraordinary feats which, according to Povelsen, is the Mus SYLVATIOUS of Linnzeus, is not, to my knowledge, found in that country.” + Mr. Henderson, however, being cognisant of Hooker’s scepticism on the point, took advantage of the opportunities which a residence on the island for some time, gave him to get as much in- formation about it as he could. He appears not to have seen it himself, but he says, “‘ There is nothing about Husafell deserving of notice except its Mouse, the history of which has rendered it more famous than other parts of the island where the same zoological phenomenon has not presented itself. : : : Having been apprised of the doubts that were entertained on this subject, before setting out on my second excursion, I made a point of inquiring of different individuals as to the reality of the account, and I am happy in being able to say that it is now established as an impor- tant fact in natural history, by the testimony of two eye-witnesses of unquestionable veracity, the clergyman of Briamslaek, and Madame Benedictson of Stickesholm: both of whom assured me that they had seen the expedition performed repeatedly. Madame Benedictson in particular recollected haying spent a whole afternoon, in her younger days, at the margin of a small lake on which these skilful navigators had embarked, and amused herself and her companions by driving them away from the sides of the lake as they approached them. I was also informed that they make use of dried mushrooms as sacks in which they convey their provisions to the river and thence to their homes. Nor is the structure of their nests less remarkable. From the surface of the ground a long passage runs into the earth, similar to that of the Icelandie houses, and terminates in a large and deep hole, intended to receive any water that may find its way through the passage, and serving, at the same time, as a place for their dung. About two-thirds of the passage in, two diagonal roads lead to their sleeping apartment and the magazine, which they always contrive to keep free from wet.t * PENNANT, THomas, “ Arctic Zoology,” Introduction, t+ Henperson, Esenezer, “Journal of a Residence in p- lxx. Iceland, in the years 1814, 1815, 1818,” il. 186. + Hooxrr, W. J. “Tour in Iceland,” 1813, i. p. 52. LEMMINGS. 269 Now I by no means participate in the unbelief of Sir W. Hooker; and I feel very sure that had his “ Tour in Iceland” been written in 1865 instead of 1818, the sceptical passage would not have been found there. That an economic rodent lives in Iceland is, I think, established ; but the account given of its runs and granaries makes it not less clear that it is not Mus sytvaricus. There is no European Mouse that makes a nest in the manner described by Henderson. But there is an animal very like a Mouse (the Lemming) which does make extensive burrows. It is provided with powerful sickle-shaped claws specially adapted for digging, and although I have not met with any account of the plan on which their burrows are constructed, there is abundant evidence that they do make them. Captain M‘Clintock says in his diary of the expedition of the “ Fox : ’—“ Hare-tracks are pretty common along the shore, and upon the sides of steep hills; they make burrows under the snow, but we have never found them in the earth like those of the Fox and Lemming.” Von Baer says that in Nova Zembla gentle declivities are frequently burrowed through in every direction by them. In fact, the habit is notorious. Another point in favour of the Iceland animal being a Lemming is, that Olafsen speaks of it as often white. Now although the Mus synvaricus sometimes may be found white, when such a thing occurs it is only a case of albinism, and rare. But the Lemming in America is said regularly to become white in winter, although not so completely so as the Weasels. Both in Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla a little white animal has been observed. MM. Pachtissow and Ziwolka, during their winter stay in Nova Zembla, saw a little white animal in their hut which they, in their journal, call a Mouse. According to Mr. Ziwolka it was larger than a common domes- tic Mouse, and therefore could not have been a white individual of that species. It was doubtless a Lemming. According to Von Baer there are two species of Lemming found in Nova Zembla, one of which he considered identical with the Myoprs Hupsontus. As the Lemming is an Arctic animal, it must pass a longer night of winter than ordinary torpidity could survive. Some arrangement for a winter supply is therefore plainly necessary, and it is scarcely possible to conceive anything better adapted to the purpose than that described by Henderson. I have, therefore, no doubt in my own mind that the economic Mouse of Iceland is a Lemming ; and as Greenland is the nearest point where Lemmings have been found, I think it a fair conjecture, until rebutted by direct evidence, that the species found there is the American Lemming Myoprs Hupsontus. Five species of Lemming have been described as North American, and, with the exception of the Greenland species, they have been thought peculiar to the New World. Middendorff reduces them to two, both found in the Old World as well as in the New. If he is right in this, the Lemmings supply two of the very few mammals which are found on both sides of the Atlantic. In addition to these there are three species found in Europe and Asia. One, M. LEmMus, inhabiting the western part, Norway and Sweden; a second, M. racurus, the middle part about the Ural River; and the third, M. scutsticotor, which has been found both in Norway and on the west coast of the Sea of Ochotsk. SPALACINT. Morr Rats. (Map 83.) sent Oy = | a f ceeer H g naan) a | \ eet | ane 7 ? [a ——______-_—vaaorr tts oP ———— Let 1g CHINESE punsam TH | BET | ATLANTIC | a PACIFIC OCEAN . ~ OCEAN 7 fated = fF — STRAL == SOUTH PACIFIC OCEAN aus RAL 2 ae = | MAP LXXXITI. SPALACINI|. 2 er [ea] 283 CHAPTER XL. MARSUPIALS. Marsurrars. (Map 95.) I have been obliged to anticipate most of what I had to say regarding the geological relations of the Marsupials. The reader knows that the oldest mammalian remains yet met with have been found in the secondary rocks of England; they are all insectivorous, and they haye, almost without exception, been proved to be marsupial. The oldest (Muicro- LESTES) Delongs to the trias, and it is marsupial. The next oldest is from the oolite (PHasco- LOTHERIUM), and it, too, is marsupial. Other marsupial remains have been found in the Purbeck beds; and it is more than doubtful if anything but marsupial animals have been discovered up to the close of the secondary epoch. The doubt is not from contrary evidence, but from a deficiency of complete evidence owing to the insufficiency of materials and the imperfect state of the bones discovered. At any rate, the remains have sufficed to establish this, that if they are not Marsupial, then they belong to the Insectivora.* The other orders do not begin to show themselves until the commencement of the eocene period. 'The marsupials were, therefore, so far as these records show, the reigning, if not the sole, mammals in existence at the oolitie epoch. The nearest living relation of any of them is the Myrmecosius of South-West Australia. The reader is also aware that such types of general structure of insectivorous Marsupialia exist nowhere now on the face of the earth except in Australia and South America, and that these remains have been found in the secondary epoch accompanied by myriads of marine shells of the genus Trigonia, a genus not now existing in any other than the Australian seas, where four species of it are not uncommon. The oolitic and eocene flora of Europe has still more marked relations to the present flora of Australia. We thence infer that at the close of the secondary epoch the fauna and flora of Europe extended to Australia, where its type has remained to a certain extent unaltered, although it has been replaced by another in Europe. There are no secondary rocks in Australia. There are paleozoic and tertiary strata, but a gap where the secondary rocks should be. It is, therefore, a natural, and, if our data are sufficiently extended, a legitimate conclusion, that during the secondary period—viz. the period when Marsupials appear to have been the sole mammals on the face of the earth—Australia existed as dry land, and that it was inhabited by the Marsupials then in existence. These conclusions have recently (1862) been challenged as unsound by Professor M‘Coy of Victoria. He says, referring to the class of facts above noticed, “Such facts are very commonly * “The doubt when it has existed,” says Professor also low in the class according to cerebral characters.” — Owen, “lies between this and the insectivorous order, Paleontology, p. 407. 284 MAMMALS. received as indicating a continuance to the present day in Australia of the fauna which disappeared in all the rest of the world with the close of the mesozoic period ; and this again carries with it the belief that Australia was the most ancient country in existence, having remained as dry land above the level of the sea for a period corresponding to that in which all the mesozoic and cainozoic for- mations of the rest of the world were being deposited. I am enabled to state that there is no sufficient foundation for this theory, from the great quantity of fossils which I have lately examined as Palzontologist to the Geological Survey of Victoria ; and from evidence of this kind I can offer a sketch of the ancient successive changes of organic life in this country.’”’* He had found that the plants and animals in Australia have gone through exactly the same phases as those of Europe, both before and subsequent to the oolitic period. First, the palwozoic plants and shells of Australia are proved by organic remains to have been formed on the same type as those of Britain. Next, at the oolitic period the whole facies of the fauna of the sea and flora of the land had undergone just such changes as marked the geologically corresponding creations in India, Yorkshire, Germany, and America. Lastly, in Australia, as in Europe, the greater part of the country sank under the sea during the tertiary period; and every trace of the previous creations of plants and animals was destroyed and replaced by a new set both of plants and animals more nearly relating to those now occupying the land and sea of the country.t And these species were the antitypes of those now existing,—as the Diproropon of the Wombat, the Macrorus Arias of the Kangaroos, and so on. Do these facts, separated from his inferences, bear out the conclusions arrived at by Brora M‘Coy? Not in themselves, I think. He tells us that Australia during the oolitie period had undergone changes similar to those which we know took place in britain. I presume that no marsupial remains have been found, or we should have heard of them. Professor M‘Coy tells us that no Tricontas have been found; but the inference from the similarity spoken of by him is, that they may be expected to have lived during that epoch: and if we may assume that, the position of the inquiry then is, that as in Britain marsupial mammals then existed, so in Australia, or some part of the southern hemisphere, they did so also. The whole of Australia was not afterwards sub- merged: some parts of it were. Some parts of it did remain above water, and on them the ancient marsupials may have lived, and their descendants developed new species of the same type down to the present time, each successive age gradually approximating them more to the existing species. There seems nothing in the Professor’s facts inconsistent with this, nor opposed to the old and generally received belief. Notwithstanding his protest, therefore, I still regard the inhabitants of Australia as the least changed descendants of the faunas of a tertiary or secondary age. I need not recapitulate the reasons for believing in the existence of a continent or continents, in the South Pacific, at least as old as Australia and Africa, and older than any other of our present continents. Nor need I argue that the oldest land is the place where the least changed forms of life are likely to be found, and that the oldest forms are likely to be the least highly organised; nor will it be necessary to do more in order to show that the Marsupials ought to be so considered, than to hint at the evidences of inferior organisation, shown by such reptilian characters as the permanent separation of the bones of the skull, the imperfection of the palatine portion of the skull—the longer continuance * M‘Coy, in “ Annals of Natural History,” 1862, p. 138. + M‘Coy, op. cit. p. 144. MARSUDPIALS. 285 of growth of the animals,*—the tipped or barbed tongue of the Opossum,—the resemblances to birds of the allied Monotremes,—and the structure of the sternum and shoulder, both in the Echidna and the Ornithorhynchus, which, although bearing a considerable resemblance to these parts in birds, have a still greater coincidence with those of the Lizards and Ichthyosauri. These facts are all evidences of the Marsupials holding the lowest place in organisation in mammals, and hence, presumably, the source, or one of the sources, from which the placental animals proceeded. Although named from their bearing a marsupium, or pouch, for the reception of their early born young, they do not all possess either the marsupium itself or the marsupial bones which usually accompany it. The Monotremes have it not, neither has the Myrmeconius, which is allied in many respects to the Ecuipya. Most of the Puascocates and Anrecuini are destitute of a pouch, and one large section of the Opossums is also without it. In others, as Tuynactnus, the pouch is present, but the marsupial bones are absent. Professor Owen has suggested the following ingenious explanation of the teleological purposes of this structure:—“I have always connected with the long droughts in Australia—with the extensive tracts where there are no waters—with the difficulty of obtaining that necessary element of life, the singular peculiarity of organization which prevails among the Mammalian quadrupeds of Australia, viz. the possession of a soft, warm, well-lined, portable nursery pocket or perambulator. Take the case of one of our wild quadrupeds—suppose a fox or wild cat; they make their nest; they have their litter. Suppose it should happen that they must travel one or two hundred miles to get a drink of water, impelled by the peculiar thirsty condition of a nursing mother, but obliged to leave the little family at home, where would that family be when the parent returned from its hundred miles’ journey—the poor little blind deserted litter? Why! starved to death. In order that quadrupeds should be fitted to exist in a great continent like Australia, where the meteoric conditions are such as to produce the dilemma I have instanced, those quadrupeds must possess an organization suited to such peculiar and climatal conditions. And so it is. That form of mammalian quadruped in this great continent native to it, and born so as to make their migrations to obtain that necessity of life, has the superadded pouch and genetic peculiarities, enabling them to carry their young ones wherever they go. And since we find that marsupial animals have lived in Australia from a very remote period, so may we infer that its peculiar climate has prevailed during as vast a lapse of time.” The fancy is ingenious, but will not bear much handling. The young litter would be still better protected by remaining unborn, as in the placental animals, until they are nearly ready to care for themselves, instead of being prematurely disclosed and placed in the perambulator. Besides this, purely desert animals are able to live without water. If such an apparatus were necessary for desert animals, those inhabiting the Sahara have more need of it than those in Australia. Moreover, although Australia is subject to periodical droughts, and in some parts is desert, that is by no means its general character. Lastly, if it is a true explanation, it should follow that the whole earth in the eocene and oolitic epoch was as dry and thirsty as Australia now is; a supposition inconsistent with the known luxuriance of the vegetation of these times. In examining into the distribution of the Marsupials we must remember that Australia has, in * Gould says, “I have observed this to occur with all Like the rogue Elephants of Ceylon, these patriarchs Marsupials, but especially with Kangaroos. The great are often solitary, and are generally very savage.” GouLp’s herds of the grey species, Macrorus Magor, are frequently | “Mammals of Australia, Introduction.” headed by an enormous male or boomer, as he is called. 286 MAMMALS. all probability, formerly consisted of three large islands,—the north, the east, and the south- west. This is the inference from the geological data. There are these three isolated masses of land more or less surrounded by tertiary deposits which of course must have been under water when deposited. Let us see how the zoological data correspond with the geological. The chief groups or genera into which the Marsupials are divided, may be taken in the follow- ing order: 1. The Antechini; 2. The Phascogales; 38. The Dasyuri; 4. The Opossums; 5. The Phalangers; 6. The Petaurists or Flying Phalangers; 7. The Wombat; 8. The Kangaroos and Hypsiprymni; 9. The Peramelide; 10. Tarsipes; and 11. Myrmecobius, leading to the next order, the Monotremes. Antecuint. I have already drawn attention to the perfect outward resemblance which these insectivorous marsupials bear to the common Mice, Rats, and Jerboas. (See Frontispiece.) The majority are found in the eastern district (seven in New South Wales, and four in Van Dieman’s Land), one is found in New Guinea in extension of this range. Five species occur in Western Australia ; but not one of these species is found on the other side of the Continent. Three, however, which are found in South Australia, belong also either to the east or to the west. Puascocate. These, although insectivorous and usually considered equivalents of some of the placental Insectivora, have fully more external resemblance to the Rats and Mice, although this is more markedly the case with the last genus, Anrecuinus, which Waterhouse considers only a part of it;—an opinion, however, which is not shared by Mr. Gould, who thinks that they have no connexion with each other. We only know three species of the restricted PHascocatn. The genus especially affects the interior, and the species have been found respectively on the outskirts of New South Wales, South Australia, and West Australia. Dasyurus AND TuyLactnus.—TAsMAntAn Devits, Ticers, &c. (Map 97.)—Van Dieman’s Land is the stronghold of these carnivorous marsupials, four out of six being found there, and three being peculiar to it. Another is peculiar to the northern district of Australia. The other two extend into New South Wales, and one of them ranges both through it and South Australia and West Australia. Remains of an extinct Dasyurus and an extinct THynacinus have been found in the bone-caves of Wellington Valley. Opossums. (Map 96.) The Opossums seem to come most naturally next to the Phascogales. They are a very homogeneous group, alien to Australia. They all belong to the New World, and their range is very extensive, both in North and South America. In South America the genus occurs in much the greatest abundance in Brazil, two-thirds of the whole being found there, or twenty-two out of thirty-two. None are found in Patagonia, the La Plata river forming their southern boundary ; one occurs in Chili, and seven in Peru (three of which are on the west side of the Andes), six in Paraguay, seven in Guiana, two in Mexico, one of which extends into California, and one in the Eastern United States of North America, but not further east than the Hudson. Not one of the species met with on the one side of the Andes occurs also on the other. Not that the height of the Cordillera in itself presents an absolute barrier to the passage of Opossums from the one side to the other, because Tschudi mentions one species (DipeLpHys AzAR®) which was killed at an elevation of 12,500 feet above the level of the sea, and although that species is not suited to the hot and wooded valleys, it might be the progenitor of species that were. Only two OOL Oz 94 280 o Wy, “ ne “ Sremite | aes, | o # Cit NY a3 0 DILNVILV HLAOS | Varn | &) NvASINWHDSW visHad VITOONOW | acest yo ordoay - NW a3 0 DILNWILV HLUON saeetleteeol Yl Niaava \ beceram SS tnoj02, jo suorp DIP Puasaypyp AY AP UMS 7 stip) 0: va4POp ayy saapavuraigy 7) word srrv8ds Pirie, S2PIASN] 8.038740 OU} J9 OULDS TJ UTULULTD SHIA ANDY 7179 I | Pun DIYS ULITSS gy Isa {- YPNIS” THOS! isn 9M and fa Pun bursa) Von L0d OD SEYDITPIN Papoys SLY OI UALS YY [0 Bt TOM HY, SOUT, qopuds YHOU SLEUYOD FUP MINIT P FY, “IONE “VIIWHASNY NI 3H3HMAHSAR GNNOS WNIDTNA VLSIONVIVHd 40 SAISMIDXS “STWIdNSYVW 40 3ONVY ADK dVN NV 300 OFATIVaA HINOS at woiMours vyoOlaany nyiseoy ont \xavewinosd Se een 5 ay = (5 MARSUPIALS. 287 aberrant genera are known, each having a single species, the one Hyracopon, from Ecuador, and the other a web-footed aquatic animal about the size of a large brown rat, Cutronecres (the Yapok) from Guiana, which, strange to say, is said to be possessed of large cheek-pouches; at least is so described by Mr. Ogilby, although Wagner, probably with justice, questions the accuracy of his observation. That the origin of the Opossum belongs to the same period as that of the other Marsupials, appears a reasonable assumption ; and its geographical position in a country nearest to the abode of the other Marsupials, suggests a derivation of the one from the other by a connection between these lands. At the same time, we are by no means shut up to this as the sole hypothesis which will meet the facts. As at the eocene epoch Marsupial, if not the only, seems at least to have been the principal form of Mammalian life over the whole globe, South America may have received and retained her Opossums from the general stock from the northern hemisphere, or some other quarter, without having had any communication with Australia. The fossil remains do not oppose such an hypothesis. Numerous remains of species have been found in the bone-caves of Brazil, and are preserved in the British Museum. But Mr. Waterhouse remarks that he has not found any, the size and proportions of which would lead him to suspect that they belonged to species which are not known to exist at the present day in Brazil.* No trace of any species has been met with indicating anything closer or other than a general Marsupial affinity with Australian species, The fossil remains which come nearest to the osteology of the Opossums is the well-known specimen discovered by Cuvier in the eocene beds of the Paris basin, and named Diperpuys Cuvier by Fischer. But although it is clearly marsupial and insectivorous, apparently identical with the Opossums, it cannot be said to have been one beyond all doubt. Had it been found in a country of Opossums (the Brazilian caves for example), we should have accepted it as such without hesitation ; but the absence or imperfect condition of the incisors and premolars leaves it an open question. Other remains of marsupial insectivora which constitute the genus THyLAcorHERIUM (SPALACO- rTHERIUM of Owen) have been found in Europe, and some of them in much older formations (the Stonesfield slate). PHALANGERS.—PuaLancista. In the Placental species, a passage between the Mice and the Squirrels can be made through the Dormice. A similar passage occurs in the Marsupials, from the Phascogales on the one hand, to the Petauri and the Phalangers on the other, through a Dormouse- like group named Dromicta. There are three species of them found in the east and south-west divisions of the continent: their habitats being, respectively, New South Wales, Van Dieman’s Land, and West Australia. The Phalangers proper, which are regarded by Waterhouse and Owen as the equivalents of the small Quadrumana, are all to be met with in the eastern region. Two of them, indeed, have not been observed as occurring in New South Wales, but these are met with in Van Dieman’s Land or Victoria, which are both, geologically, parts of the eastern region of Australia. Two of them are also found in Western or rather South-western Australia, and one, PHALANGISTA VULPINA, occurs everywhere throughout the continent, and of course also in Northern Australia, although, indeed, the identity of the specimens found in the northern region (Port Essington) with the Pu. vunrrna of the rest of the continent is not absolutely certain. Waterhouse says he * Warrrnouse’s “ Nat. Hist. of Mammals,” vol. i. p. 529, 1846. 288 MAMMALS. could perceive no points of difference of the least importance, although its fur was rather more dense and crisp; but Gould says that he observes that specimens from the northern coast are larger than those obtained elsewhere, and “a doubt exists in his mind as to their identity.”* Closely allied to the Phalangers, and by many placed in the same genus, are a few species which are found in New Guinea and some of the adjoining islands. One, and only one, is also found in Australia, at its extreme northern point (Cape York). These form the genus or sub-genus Cuscus. And along with them may be reckoned two allied forms Dacryiorstia and Myorcris, of Gray, both found in New Guinea. Of all, four are found in New Guinea, four in Amboyna, two in Celebes, two in other islands of the New Guinea group, one in New Ireland (an interesting proof of the extension of a former submerged continent in these seas), and one, as already mentioned, at Cape York. The Fryrvc Puatancers or Prraurt. (Map 94.) The range of the Prraurt extends from the north coast of Australia along the east to Victoria in the south. There are six species, five of which correspond to the placental sub-genus Prrromys in having the tail bushy all round, and the feet not distichously disposed, and the other to the sub-genus Sciuroprerus, where the fur of the tail is distichously disposed. This is Acropara pyamma, a lovely little thing, the tiniest pet in the world perhaps. It may truly be said of it that it could be bounded in a nut-shell. Gould kept one which made its nest in a pill-box in the corner of a drawer, and counted itself king of infinite space in his waistcoat-pocket. This is an additional instance, besides those already given, of an independent type of similar form to Placental species occurring among Marsupials. The Prrauri represent the Prrromyprs; the Acropara, the Scruroprert, which are found, not only in the Indian Archipelago, India, and the Himmalayahs, but also in North America, and in Europe and Asia, although only a single species occurs there. The Acrobat comes from New South Wales, and used to be exceedingly common about Port Jackson. Of the other flying Phalangers one is peculiar to the north coast, being found in the Cobourg Peninsula, —one to Victoria,—and three are found both in New South Wales and Victoria. None have been found on the west coast or the south-west, or the western part of the south coast. Womsat.—Puascotomys. Although South Australia has rarely any independent features, it being generally a mere debateable ground between New South Wales and Western Australia, in which the species from both intermingle and overlap each other, it has in the Wombat an important and remarkable feature almost peculiar to itself. Out of four species now known, three of them are peculiar to South Australia; the fourth (the best known one) is also found there, although it more properly belongs to the south-eastern part of Australia, being found in New South Wales, Van Dieman’s Land, and some of the islands in Bass’s Strait. It is to be kept in mind, however, in estimating the weight of these localities as indicating any thing special in the Fauna of South Australia, that little more than single specimens of each of the rarer Wombats have yet been found. : The gigantic allied extinct animals, Diproropon and Norornrrium, lived at no great dis- tance from the habitat of these Wombats, viz. Wellington Valley and Liverpool Plains. The first glimpse of these most remarkable animals was obtained from the ossiferous caves of Wellington Valley district, by Sir Thomas Mitchell, in the course of his expeditions into the * Gounp, J. “Mammals of Australia.” 120 90 NORTH | PACIFIC | i, LONGkE AGN. eae 60 30 30 ED 90 120 150 y F . oy \ rf 4 Ni § j } G ) o% A RK Cc T L « A °o Cc N a oY oe NY, in 2 ee ae 1 a les “a \ 3 7 (ar e ry ef ahs ve BAN a at : eS aoe invepenvent = | : | MONGOLIA ey — are ee NORTH ATLANTIC | CHINESE i pumas TH | B ET ——ire SANDWICH IF as 4 : SOUTH PACIFIC OCEAN = MAP XCVI OPOSSUMS & KANGAROOS. at | | peaeel Lae ae =i | | + - Opessams South Ancrican aa a NaorthAmerican) Kangaroes if Tree Kangaroos - asa l Note Intensity cf colour denotes preponderance of Spettes i 7) pea) 30 Oia 30 oO 150 120 ait Day & Son{Limited) Lith af agen ia I f esauimaur roa RUBBIAN wh 2 AMERICA : a a NORTH “NORTH ¥. INDEPENDENT TARTARY Le MONGOLIA ATLANTIC | | os CHINE SE pumas TH | BET MAP XCVII. MARSUPIAL CARNIVORA, Dasyurns hallacatas wy breotiryt AT LIAN T 1c Or EAN) | 4 /Teepic of Capricora_ i a | i \ OS a > INDLIAN » ” | P ursinus & z j t ii | | Thylacinas cynocephalus | | E = oa a0 == ED w us wo z ra — a Be MARSUPIALS. 289 interior of Australia.* At first they were supposed to have been extinct pachyderms; but subse- quent acquisitions established their true marsupial character, and their near affinity to the Kangaroo, but with an osculant relationship with the herbivorous Wombat. They were of gigantic size; the head alone being larger than the whole body of the Wombat, and exceeding in dimensions that of the largest Rhinoceros. Professor Owen says, ‘ Like the contemporary gigantic sloth in South America, the Diprotodon of Australia, while retaming the dental formula of its living homologue, shows great and remarkable modifications of its limbs. The hind pair were much shortened and The fore pair were lengthened as well as strengthened. Yet in the case of the Megatherium the ulna and radius were maintained free; and strengthened, compared with those of the Kangaroo. so articulated, as to give the fore-paw the rotatory actions. These in Diprotodon would be needed, as in the herbivorous Kangaroo, by the economy of the marsupial pouch.”+ Almost the entire skeleton is known from numerous remains which have been found in a lacustrine deposit, intersected by creeks in the plains of Darlmg Downs. Other specimens have been obtained from the alluvial deposits in the beds of the Condamine River, westward of Moreton Bay, and from the Melbourne district of Port Phillip. The genus, Nororuertum, also found in the same formation, combined the characters of the Kangaroo and of the Kaola. It, too, was a herbivorous animal, of large size, although somewhat inferior to that of the Diprotodon. It is supposed to have been of the size of a Rhinoceros. There was also a Wombat as large as a Tapir belonging to the same period, and found in the same deposits. Kancaroos anp Kancaroo Rats :—Macroprus, anp Hypstprymnus, &. (Map 96.) The Kan- garoo, as it is the first discovered and best known of Australian mammals, is also the most numerous in species and the most widely distributed. It is found in every part of the continent which has been yet explored. Some are peculiar to the east, some to the south, some to the west, and some to the north; some are adapted for living in the scrubs, others for the deserts, others again for rocky precipices and steep mountains, and others for living in trees, viz., the species peculiar to the tangled forest belts surrounding New Guinea, which, if they could not: lead an arboreal life, could not live in the parts in which they are found at all. Their fore-legs are almost as long as the hind, and are fitted with long curved claws, suitable to the animal’s mode of life. Mr. Gould+ has divided the Kangaroos into ten sections, an amount of subdivision which seems more than is needed, and which at any rate is more than I have been able to profit by. His first section, Macropus proper, is not found in the north; but that district possesses more than an equal proportion of his second section, OSPHRANTER. ruRus is found all round the coasts as well as in the interior; so is PErrocatr. Two species of the Tree Kangaroo, DeENDROLAGUS (URSINUS and INUsTUs) are found in the mangrove shore-belts of New Guinea, and one on the north coast of Australia.§ HALMA- These are remarkable adaptations of a type fitted for one condition of life, to another when compelled by circumstances to adopt it. The Macrorvus, which may be taken as the type, is fitted for plains; the Prrrocaty for precipitous * MircHeLt, Sir Taomas, “Three Expeditions into Australia,” vol. ii. p. 359. 1838. + Owen, R. “Paleontology,” pp. 394, 395. t Gouxp, Jonny, “Mammals of Australia.” § I have unfortunately mislaid the reference to my authority for saying that a species of DENDROLAGUS occurs on the northern Australian Coast, and I cannot recall to raind whether it was one of the known New Guinea species or a new Denpronaaus. I have, however, every confi- dence that the statement is correct. I noted it at the time I met with it, which I should not have done without comment, had I entertained any doubt of its authenticity. The occurrence on the north coast of Australia of a Cuscus (a New Guinea form of Phalanger inhabiting the same dis- trict and existing under the same condition as the Denpro- LAGUS) supplies a well-autbenticated parallel instance. PP 290 MAMMALS. and rocky mountains, and the Drnproiacus for a residence in trees. An adaptation for a life in trees could only be necessary where the soil on which they grow, like the half-drowned coast of New Guinea, afforded no rest to the sole of their foot. Another Kangaroo, not arboreal, Macropus Brunt (Dorcopsts Brunt of Gould) or the Filander, is found -in the Island of Aru, near New Guinea. Some say that it is found in New Guinea itself. This species is noted in Johnston’s “ Physical Atlas,” as found in Java, which, if true, would indicate that island as part of the Australian group or system. It is a mistake, however; no marsupial animal is found in Java or any of the islands west of the Straits of Macassar, and the error no doubt originated in the first example that was met with, and ¢hat the first Kangaroo ever seen by Europeans, having been observed by Le Brun at Batavia, and inferentially supposed to be an inhabitant of the land where he saw it. It appears from his narrative, however, that the animal which he saw was not wild but in captivity. He says, “Being at the country house of,our general (at Batavia), I saw a certain animal called Filander, which was somewhat remarkable. There were many individuals with full freedom,’ (he would not have said that if they had been wild,) “running with some rabbits which had their holes under a little hillock encircled by a balustrade.”* This species, although without the arboreal characters of the Drnprotaci, has yet some points of affinity with them, as in the character of its fur, Ke. : Another of Gould’s sub-genera (OntcHoGALEA) has three species, one from the north-east, and the other two from the interior of the east and the west. The Kangaroo Rats (sub-genera Lacorcuesres, Berroneia, and Hypsreprymnus of Gould) number about sixteen, of which only two (LAGorcHEsTEs) are found on the north or north-west coast, the rest in East, South, and West Australia, in nearly equal proportions, the south sharing two of the species found in the west. Peramevips. This is an insectivorous group, numerous in species, and universally dispersed over Australia and Van Dieman’s Land, which passes less easily from Hypstrprymnus than it does by Tarsiprs into Myrmecostus, and the Monotremes. It contains one species from New Guinea and the neighbouring isles, one from North Australia, three from West Australia, three from New South Wales, and one from Van Dieman’s Land, and one of them is found in all the districts except the north. Following these are three most remarkable genera, each consisting of only one species and perfectly unique in type,—the Cu#mropus cAsTaNnotis, TARSIPES ROsTRATUS, and Myrmercosrus Fasciatus. These are all from the Swan River district of South-west Australia, apparently the most ancient and peculiar part of the Australian continent. The last has spread a little into South Australia, that is, one or two specimens have been found in that direction. TarstpEs and Myrmecosius both have long extensile tongues. Myrmecosrus uses its tongue for catching ants, as the ant-eater does. Tarstprs, not unlike a small harvest mouse, is said to use its tongue in the same way as the humming-bird for extracting honey from flowers, although it also eats insects; but it does not seem that because the same implement is applied to different purposes, our faith should be shaken in it as an evidence of the affinity of the animals that possess it. In the dentition and absence of the marsupial pouch of Myrmecobius, there is a marked approach to the Monotremes, and more especially Echidna, which again on the other side holds out a hand to the ant-eater section of the Edentata. * Lu Bron, “Voyage par la Moscovie en Perse et aux Indes Orientales,” vol. ii. p. 347, fig. 213. MARSUPIALS. 291 If we summarize the facts relating to the distribution of Marsupials which we have just re- corded, we shall find that the following inferences may be drawn from them. First, that the north is thoroughly isolated, and distinct from the rest of the continent. With the solitary exception of PHALANGISTA VULPINA, which may have reached it by overland migration, not a single species inhabits it which is known elsewhere. At the same time, unlike the south-west, it has no un- known types of life. It has merely a collection of new species of genera already well known as inhabiting New South Wales, although most of them are so distinct as.to indicate a long period of separation, only one (Peraurus ArieL), besides the Phalangista, being near any of the New South Wales species. Next, it appears plain that the south-west corner, viz., that part of the continent stretching from Shark’s Bay southwards, and round past Perth and Swan River, is a peculiar district. This, although possessing fewer endemic species than the north, has more of special organization. Here haye been found those species of which no other similar creature has yet been found in any part of the world. As to actually distinct species, although not distinct forms, we find twenty- eight species out of thirty-nine (that is, about three-fourths) peculiar to itself. Four are common to it and the country to the north of it (North-west Australia), but are not found in South Australia, with which, however, it shares six. The difference between it and North Australia seems to be this, that although both equally isolated at some former period, the one (the south- west) has been so at a more ancient date, and for a longer period; and when the space between was raised out of the sea, and the intermediate regions turned into dry land, the character of the district surrounding North Australia has been of a more desolate, inhospitable character than that between South-west Australia and New South Wales, the communication between which, although difficult, has not been impracticable, as seems to have been the case with the north ; from which it may perhaps be inferred in the absence of any special peculiarities in its condition, that the north has been last raised, and that the upheaved bottom of the sea to the south is more desolate from haying had less time to become clothed with a productive soil. New South Wales stands nearly in the same position as South-west Australia as an isolated region. It has forty species, of which twenty-nine are peculiar (or forty-one out of sixty, if Van Dieman’s Land be taken along with it). Eleyen of these are found in South Australia, and five in West Australia. Van Dieman’s Land, although belonging to the same division of the continent as New South Wales, has an unusually large number of endemic species. Out of twenty species, twelve, that is, rather more than the half, are peculiar to itself, and amongst them are more of the Marsupial Carnivora than are found in any other part of the continent, one of them being the Trynacryvs, which is a peculiar type found nowhere else. The general strain, however, of the species found in Van Dieman’s Land is that of Néw South Wales. They are, with the exception of the THy- LAcINUS, all species of genera also existing in that region. Notwithstanding its large proportion of endemic species, therefore, it is not entitled to be regarded as a distinct and independent zoological province in the same sense, or at least in the same degree, that the north and south- west are; nor does this disproportion tell us anything about the length of time for which Van Dieman’s Land has been separated from the mainland. I have already explained that I do not think that time has anything to do with the increase of species, except as giving greater opportunity for the occurrence of physical changes in the conditions of life, through which change in species may be induced. 292 MAMMALS. Lastly, South Australia has twenty-eight species, of which only four or one-seventh (the smallest proportion of any) are peculiar. It has thirteen in common with New South Wales, and the same number common to Western Australia, and of these there are five common to all three. Only two are common to the south-west corner. It has obviously little claim to be considered a zoological province. It is the mere highway between the east and the west, as it was formerly the ditch or barrier separating them. The country between North and South-west Australia is chiefly indebted for its inhabitants to the countries bordering it to the south and east. The number of species as yet found in it is thirty-three. Of these ten, or about one-third or one-fourth, are endemic. The rest have found their way from the south-west or from New South Wales. Vora’ BAY BAFEIN ~--------4" RUSBIAN oa eee NORTH ve ATLANTIC | INDEPENDE NT MONGOLIA TARTARY OCEAN Se (ese tne nce é 4 Pumiam TH £ Ste re & Pe _sourn a rFre MAP XCVIII Myrmecobiusd Tarsipes See Onitorlanhustk chidna Te Note Vhekchtinwhas also been met with aS. WeAustralia but verviarely | ATLIANTIC —O- EAN 1 C3) | sles i) BAFFIN | a on FINLAKO yal epee oss ATLANTIC Bai feet OCEAN Tropic of EMPIRES SOUTH PACIFIC OCEAN P Tropic of Capricor -souTH 1 2 ATLIANTIC 0 MAP XCIX. Say OCEAN oe qe? : : ; ose | Showing localities of the animals zp E32 i wih ant-eating tongues Wheher ay PS aa =a Ue Marsupiat or not Vermiinguia) ton, 5 | Rated oo SS === | ; | Mn | ! t ‘ | s sO TO, 30 ro 30 o 30 — oo ra fo 130 CHAPTER XLI. - MONOTREMES— ORNITHORHYNCHUS— ECHIDNA. For such a very limited family—consisting of only three species, and these noways remarkable for the number of their individuals, but the reverse—and restricted to a small corner of a distant land, the Monotremes have made a great noise in the world. They have given rise to more speculation, and it is only fair to say, have thrown more light upon the past history of species, than any other animal of the same number of species or individuals: The three species known, are—two species of Ecuipna, and the OrNITHORHYNCHUS ANATINUS or PARADOXUS, or Duck-billed Platypus (PLarypus anatrNus having been the first name given to it, although the generic name has since been disused, in consequence of its having been previously applied to a genus of insects.) Ecuipna. (Map 98.) Putting out of view the tendency to Marsupial organization, the Echidna has affinity with the true Edentata. Like the Fodientia of that Order, it burrows rapidly. Messrs. Quoy and Gaimard having placed a specimen in a large case full of earth containing plants, it worked its way to the bottom in less than two minutes. Like the Ant-eaters, its food consists of by the tongue, which in both instances is very protractile, very long, nearly cylindrical, slender and flexible, and is kept constantly lubricated with a viscous secretion to which the ants adhere. It, as well as the Orni- thorhynchus, is wholly without teeth of the ordinary consistency, but the Duck-bill has two horny teeth in the jaw behind the bill, and the Echidna has horny papille on the palate. It bears spines or quills, more or less mixed with fur, on its back, like the hedgehog or porcupine. The two species of Ecuipna are very close to each other, and are merely distinguished by the comparative length and quantities of their fur and spines, the one (EK. uystrrx) having long spines, and short hair, the other (E. srrosus) short spines and long hair, the spines being almost concealed by the fur. The former is found on the Continent and in one of the islands in Bass’s Straits, the latter only in Van Dieman’s Land. It is in all other respects so identical with the spiny species, that it has been supposed by some to be merely a variety of it modified by climate. Mr. Gould says, ‘The more southern position and colder climate of that island may have had the effect of giving it a warmer coat, whiter spines, and of altering its general appearance.”* An opinion in which I do not concur, if it implies that the animal, notwithstanding these changes, still continued ants, and these are captured in the same way that they procure their prey, * GouLp, “ Mammals of Australia.” 294 MAMMALS. the same species as the other. The former is almost entirely confined to the east coast of New South Wales; but it (or at least a species) has also been taken at Swan River.* The ant-eating structure seems so special an adaptation,’ that it is difficult to conceive that all the animals in which it occurs have not sprung from one and the same source. A supposition which receives support from the horny clothing which many of them possess,—whether it takes the form of quills, as in the Ecurpya,—scales, as in the Manis,—or harsh wiry bristles, as in the Ant-eater. To show how that corresponds with the distribution of the species possessing it, I have given a map pointing this out (Map 99). In endeavouring to trace the connexion of the species with this property, it may perhaps be more natural, seeing that the MonorrrmEs and Myrmecopius are confined to the south of Australia, to look for their communication with the others rather by Africa than by New Guinea and the Indian Archipelago. But the light we have to go by from living species is not much, and we derive almost none from fossils. OrnitHorHyncHus. The long extensile glutinous tongue of the Echidna is not shared by the OrnirHorHyncHus, or Duck-bill. It has a small flat tongue, but in other points its affinities with the Echidna are sufficiently numerous. It is found in New South Wales, Van Dieman’s Land, Victoria, and South Australia, but not in Northern or Western Australia. Like the Echidna, it is a great burrower, its burrows extending for along distance into the banks where they make them. One that was opened by Mr. Bennett terminated at a distance of thirty-five feet from the entrance,t and some have been found to extend as far as fifty feet in length. The geographical position of the Monotremes, not less than their tendency to Marsupial organization and their affinity with Myrmecostus, leave little doubt that their proper station is alongside the Marsupials. Those who, like Giebel, however, place them with the Edentata,t have no lack of arguments by which to support their opinion. In fact, it seems scarcely possible to dispute that they are allied to both. It is an interesting subject for speculation to endeavour to ascertain which preceded the other. Is the Monotreme the parent stock of both, or is it intermediate between the Marsupials and the Edentata,—the child of the former and the parent of the latter. Has the Marsupial been “born of the brooding of Echidna base’’—or has it given birth to it, and it in its turn given birth to the Ant-eaters? On the one hand, we have the Monotreme so far departing from the Marsupial organization, and thus seeming to take a step towards the placental ; on the other hand, the organization of the Monotremes is apparently of a lower type than that of the others, corresponding in more points with that of birds and reptiles, and so more likely to have first appeared. But unless we are prepared to accept the Monotremes as the connecting link between birds and mammals, which, seeing the wide gulph of separation between them, I imagine few would be prepared to do, we are not much further advaneed. . We know nothing mammalian nearer the Birds than the Monotremes; but this is no proof whatever, scarcely an indication, that this was the route by which the mammalian element entered into existence, or even that the Mammals were derived from the Birds at all. They may have come from the Reptiles. As was remarked by Waterhouse, one of the most interesting features in the skull of the Marsupials, consists in the permanent separation of the bones: these do not anchylose in the adult and old animals, as do many of the bones (especially those of the cranial portion of the skull) * WarrruousE, “Natural History of the Mammalia.” + Beynett, G., “ Wanderings in New South Wales.” Vol. I. Marsupiata. London, 1846, p. 42. t GiEBeEL, “ Die Saugethiere,” 1859, 389. MONOTREMES. 295 in the placental series: the temporal bone generally presents a permanent separation of the squamous, petrous and tympanic elements. And Professor Owen observed this condition of the bone in the mature skulls of an ursine Dasyure, a Virginian Opossum, a Perameles, in different species of Potoroo (or Kangaroo Rats), and Kangaroo, in the Wombat and the Kaola. These characters are fully more reptilian than ornithic, although some of them are shared by both, and other characters leading in a similar direction could easily be cited. The sense of our feebleness and inability to follow up the indications which such affinities suggest oppresses us, and makes us, with greater and greater humility, the more we study them, acknowledge that “such knowledge is too wonderful for us; it is high, we cannot attain unto it.” CHAPTER XLII. REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF MAMMALS. Havine completed our survey of the range of the different groups of Mammals, let us now briefly see what light the facts throw on their regional distribution. Most of my views on this subject have been anticipated; a brief summary of the results therefore is all that will be acquired. Before stating my own conclusions, however, as each branch of organic life reflects ight upon the others, it will, no doubt, be satisfactory to the reader to be reminded of those which have been arrived at by others, not only regarding the mammals, but also in the other branches of zoology and in botany. Various authors have endeavoured to embody the differences beween the Faunas and Floras of the different regions of the globe, into some kind of system; but, although I shall not occupy the time of the reader with a recapitulation of the opinions of any but the most eminent men in recent times who have paid attention to the subject, it will be seen that even they, with one or two exceptions, haye worked upon no definite principle, and the result has been a mere catalogue of regions which possess peculiarities without distinguishing their relative importance, or their relation to each other. The authors whose opinions I shall cite are, Schmarda for General Zoology, Sclater for Birds, Woodward for Molluscs, and Schow, Meyen, Decandolle, and Hooker, for Botany ; limiting, however, my notice to the mere geographical extent of their proposed regions. Schmarda divides the dry land into the following twenty-one zoological regions :— The Polar land, or the region of fur-bearing animals and aquatic birds. Mid-Europe region : the country of Insectivores, Carabide, and Staphylinide. The Caspian Steppes: region of the Saiga Antelope, and of the Spalflax and Siphneus. Central Upper Asia: region of Horses. Mediterranean district : region of Heteromera. China: region of Pheasants. Japan : region of terrestrial Salamanders. North America: region of Rodents and Conirostres. The Sahara: region of the Melasomata and the African Ostrich. West Africa: region of the Catarrhine Monkeys and the Termites. . Upper Africa: region of the Ruminants and Pachydermata. . Madagascar: region of the Lemuride. . India: region of the Carnivora and Pigeons. a ES) CO CD IS te) I eee WwW we REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION. 297 14. Sunda district : region of the Serpents and Bats. 15. Australia: region of the Marsupials, the Monotremata, and Honey-sucking Birds. 16. Central America: region of the Land-crabs. 17. Brazil: region of the Edentata and the Platyrrhine Monkeys. 18. The Peruvian and Chilian district : country of Lamas and Condors. 19. Pampas. Region of the Lagostomide and Harpalidae. 20. Patagonia: region of the Guanaco and the Rhea. 21. Polynesia: region of the Nymphalidz and Apteryx.* His Marine regions are,— 1. The Arctic Sea: region of marine mammals and Amphipoda. (ws) . Antarctic Sea: region of marine mammals and the Impennes. North-Atlantic Ocean : region of Cod and Herring. South-European, Mediterranean : region of Labridie. Northern Pacific Ocean: region of Cataphractide. Tropical part of Atlantic Ocean: region of the Manatee, the Plectognathide, and Pteropoda. Indian Ocean: region of the Hydride and Buccinide. Tropical Pacific Ocean: region of Corals and Holothuridie. Southern part of Atlantic Ocean. 10. Southern part of Pacific Ocean.* Bu SD An te © Dr. Sclater’s well-known plan of distribution of birds is as follows :— 1. Palearctic region: including Africa north of the Atlas, Europe, Asia Minor, Persia, and Asia generally north of the Himmalayan range, upper part of the Himmalayan range, northern China, Japan, and the Aleutian Islands. 2. Aithiopian, or western Palzotropical region: including Africa south of the Atlas range, Madagascar, Bourbon, Mauritius, Socotra, and probably Arabia up to the Persian Gulf, south of 30° north latitude. 3. Indian, or middle Palearctic region: including India and Asia generally south of the Himmalayahs, Ceylon, Burmah, Malacca, and southern China, Philippines, Borneo, Java, Sumatra, and adjacent islands. 4. Australian, or western Palwotropical region: including Papua and adjacent islands, Aus- tralia, Tasmania, and Pacific Islands. 5, Nearctic, or North American region: including Greenland and North America down to the centre of Mexico. 6. Neotropical, or South American region : including the West India Islands, Southern Mexico, Central America, and whole of South America, Galapagos Islands, and Falkland Islands. Mr. Wallace adopts Dr. Sclater’s ideas generally regarding the distribution of birds; and Dr. Gunther’s views upon the distribution of reptiles are also merely a corroboration or adoption of the same. * Scumarpa, “ Geographische Verbreitung der thiere,” + Waxuace in “Ibis,” October, 1859; in “Journal 1853. Proc. Linn. Soc.,” Feb. 1860; in “ Nat. Hist. Review,” + Scbarer, in “ Proceedings Linn. Soc.,” vol. ii. p. 180, Jan. 1864. 1857. QQ 298 MAMMALS. The late Mr. Woodward’s great knowledge of his subject has given us a valuable con- tribution towards the adjustment of the regions of the Mollusca, but it also is open to the same objection which, I think, applies to Schmarda’s,—too much subdivision, and a want of some guiding principle in estimating the value of the different peculiarities which mark his regions. The great landmark is the past rather than the present geography of the world; and although Mr. Wood- ward must have been fully alive to this, I think he has scarcely made sufficient use of it in adjusting the limits of his regions. The following is his distribution of the Mollusca :— I. Land regions. Germanic region: (Europe and Siberia.) 2. Lusitanian region : (Mediterranean Islands, Madeira, Azores, Canaries, Cape de Verdes, Ascension, St. Helena, Tristan d’Acunha.) * 3. African region: (Tropical West Africa.) Cape region. 5. Yemen: Madagascar, Comoro Islands, Seychelles, Mauritius, Bourbon, Rodriguez, Kergue- len land. 6. Indian region : Ceylon. 7. China and Japan. 8. Philippine Islands. 9. Java. 10. Borneo. 11. Papua and New Ireland. 12. Australian region. 13. South Australia and Tasmania. 14. New Zealand. 15. Polynesian region : Salomons, New Hebrides, New Caledonia, F eejees, Friendly, Navigators’, Society Islands, Low Coral Islands, Sandwich Islands. 16. Canadian region and New England. 17. Atlantic States. 18. American region. 19. Oregon and California, 20. Mexican region, 21. Antilles. 22. Columbian region and Galapagos. 23. Brazilian region. 24. Peruvian region. 25. Argentine region. 26. Chilian region and Juan Fernandez. 27. Patagonian region, Tierra del Fuego, and Falkland Islands. * The collocation of the three last with the Mediterranean district is very suggestive of extended speculation to the believers in an ancient Atlantic Continent. 10(. fC ie 18. REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION. _ 299 Marine provinces. Arctic province. Boreal province : Norway, New England. Celtic province: Britain, Denmark. Lusitanian province: Portugal, Canaries, Madeira, Azores, Mediterranean, Black Sea. Aralo-Caspian province. West-African province. South-African province. Indo-Pacific province: Red Sea, Persian Gulf. Australo-Islandie province: New South Wales, Tasmania, New Zealand. Japonic province. Aleutian province: Ochotsk, Sitka. Californian province. Panamic province : Galapagos. Peruvian province. Magellanic province: Falkland Islands. Patagonian province. Caribbean province. Transatlantic province.* In Botany, I need not refer to the older attempts at regional distribution of plants made by Willdenow and Treviranus. The following are Schow’s Phyto geographical regions :— 1. Alpine Arctic region: consisting of the Arctic and boreal regions of the Northern Hemi- sphere and the Alpine heights of more southern mountains. 2. Mid Europe, and Asia as far as the Caucasian and Altaic Mountains. 3. Mediterranean district, including Asia Minor, North Africa, and the Canaries and Azores. 4. Eastern North America. 5. Southern North America. 6. Japanese region. 7. East India and Ceylon (exclusive of the Alpine region south of the Himmalayah). 8. Emodic region, or mountains of India (consisting of the Alpine region south of the Him- malayah). 9. Asiatic Islands, or mountainous districts of the islands between South-eastern Peninsula and Australia, to the height of 5500 feet above the sea. 10. Upper Java, mountainous regions in Java, and neighbouring islands to the above height. 11. Polynesian region. 12. Persia and Arabia. 13. Desert region, the Sahara. 14. Tropical Africa. 15. Mexico, New Grenada, Guiana, and Peru. 16. Highlands of Mexico. * Woopwarp, “Recent and Fossil Shells.” 1851, part iii. p. xiii. 300 MAMMALS. 17. Cordilleras of the Andes, from 5500 to 9000 feet above the sea. 18. Andian region, above 9600 feet of elevation, 19. West Indian region. 20. Brazilian district. 21. La Plata, and Northern Patagonia. 22. Antarctic region, South Patagonia, Tierra del Fuego, Falkland Isles, &e. 23. South Africa. 24. Temperate Australia and Van Dieman’s Land. 25. New Zealand. Meyen, on the other hand, divides his regions by zones. He takes the three recognised zones,— the torrid, the temperate, and the frigid—and subdivides each hemisphere into eight smaller zones, V1Z.,— 1. Equatorial. 2. Tropical. 3. Subtropical. 4. Warmer temperate. 5. Colder temperate. 6. Sub-aretie. @. Arctic. 8. Polar. As this is based entirely upon a principle (temperature) which I only admit as an accessory in the distribution of species, I may dismiss Meyen’s zones without going into any details as to their limits, and without considering his vertical zones, the details of which, although very interesting in themselves, have not much bearing upon the limits of the Regional distribution of Mammals. Decandolle, in his admirable work on “Geographic Botany,’ does not actually give us his own views regarding botanical regions. He treats of the regions of species, of genera, and of families; but from his enumeration of the following ‘grandes regions,’ in relation to families, we may infer that he looks upon them as special; they are, Temperate North America. Temperate regions of the Old-world. Intertropical America. oN Intertropical Africa. OR ol Intertropical Asia. New Holland. The Cape, or extra-tropical South Africa. 8. Chil, Buenos Ayres, South Brazil. Elsewhere he adds from other regions to these. viz. 1, the Arctic Regions; 2, Intertropical Polynesia, New Zealand, Norfolk, Brougham, Auckland, and Campbell ; 8, Kerguelen Isles, Am- sterdam, St. Paul, Prince Edward, Tristran d’Acunha ; 4, Patagonia and Falkland Islands.* SD * Decanboue, “ Géographic Botanique raisonnée,” 1855, p. 1255. REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION. 301 His minor Regions, as drawn from the areas occupied by species, are ‘as follows,— . Arctic region: comprised between the Polar and Arctic circles in Europe, Asia, and America. . The temperate regions of Europe (being Europe minus Lapland, Spain and Portugal, Lan- guedoe province, Italy, the shore of the Adriatic, Greece, Roumelia, and the Crimea). . Region of the Mediterranean Sea (being the circumference of that sea without Egypt, and comprising Portugal). fo} to} . Canary Islands, Madeira, Azores. . Senegambia, Cape de Verd Islands, Sahara. . Guinea, north of the Equator, and Soudan. . Central Guinea (Congo, Benguela, towards the centre of the Continent). Islands of St. Helena and Ascension. Cape of Good Hope (extra-tropical South Africa). . Tristan @’ Acunha. . Prince Edward’s Islands, Kerguelen, and St. Paul’s. ; 2. Madagascar, Mauritius, Bourbon, Seychelles, and Comoro Islands. . Mozambique and Zanzibar, almost to the centre of the Continent. . Region of the Red Sea (Abyssinia, Cordofan, Nubia, Egypt, Arabia Occidental). . Persia: region of the Euphrates and Oriental Arabia. =~ . Caucasus, Crimea, Armenia. . Tartary (the lower region to the east of the Caspian Sea). . Siberia, from the Ural Mountains to Kamtschatka, and from the Polar Circle to the Altai Mountains. . Central Asia, between the Altais and the Himmalayahs. . Cashmere, Cabool, Affghanistan, to the mouths of the Indus. . Himmalayahs (on the south side), being Nepaul, Bhotan. . China and Japan. . Philippine Islands. . Cochin-China (Annam, Cochin-China, Tonquin, Bankok). . Birman Empire and Assam. . Bengal and the Ganges. . Indian Peninsula and Ceylon. 28. Indian Archipelago, States of Malacca (Sunda Isles, the Moluccas, Borneo, Timor, New Guinea, New Ireland). 9. New Holland, Van Dieman’s Land, New Zealand, New Caledonia, Norfolk. . Feejee Islands, Friendly, Society, Marquesas, and Easter Islands. . Marion, Caroline, Mulgrave Islands. . Sandwich Islands. . The Aleutian Isles, and the North-west of America, Oregon, Rocky Mountains, and New California. . United States (minus Texas and Oregon), Canada, Labrador, Newfoundland, Bermudas. . Mexico, Texas, California proper, Guatemala, Yucatan. . Antilles (Cuba and Bahamas, as far as Trinity). 302 MAMMALS. 37. Venezuela. 38. New Granada. 389. Peru. 40. Galapagos Islands. 41. Bolivia. 42. Guiana. 43. Course of the Amazons and Rios Negro, and Madeira. 44. North-east of Brazil (Maranham, Goyaz, Piauhy, Bahia, and Ceara). 45. Western Brazil and Paraguay (Mato-grosso, Cuyaba, Paraguay, Chaco). 46. South-east of Brazil (Minas, Rio, Saint Paul, Saint Catharine, Saint Pierre). 47. Uruguay and Plata (Banda Oriental, Buenos Ayres as far as Chili). 48. Chili and Juan Fernandez. 49. Patagonia, Tierra del Fuego, and the Falkland Isles. 50. The Antarctic Archipelago of the Shetland Isles, Georgia, the Southern Sandwich Isles, &c.* If we are to regard the eight regions first above mentioned as truly representing Decandolle’s idea of the regional distribution of plants (of which, however, I am by no means sure), then I would with the greatest deference venture to demur to his conclusions. The idea embraced in them is not very different from the system proposed by Meyer and adopted in Johnston’s “ Physical Atlas,’ where the earth is separated into provinces, according to latitude and longitude. Although Dr. Joseph Hooker has perhaps done more than any other living Botanist for the science of Geographical Botany, especially in the way of supplying original material, I am not aware that he has anywhere expressed a definite opinion upon the great Botanical Regions, or their limits. The nearest approach to this which I am acquainted with in his writings is an incidental comparison in his Indian Flora of the plants of that country with the typical floras of other regions.t+ In this he notices the following types as characteristic of the regions in which they occur; viz. 1. The Australian type. 2. The Malayan Archipelago type. 3. The China and Japan type. 4. The Siberian type. 5. The European type. 6. The Egyptian type. 7. The Tropical African type. 8. The American type. It does not appear whether these are all the regions into which he would divide the world; nor whether he regards them as all of equal value, but I think we may assume it to represent pretty nearly the main ideas which he entertains on the subject. So regarding it, it appears to me that of all the above authors, or any others that I have met with, Dr. Sclater and he take the most comprehensive and philosophical view of the subject; and although I differ to a certain * DECANDOLLE, op. cit, p. 478. + Hooker’s “Indian Flora.” i. p. 103. REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION. 503 extent from both, it is not so much in principle as in the estimate of the value of the different divisions, and in the boundaries and extent to be allotted to each. Their distribution no doubt refers to different branches of organic life in my present subject, Mammals, but I believe the extent of difference to be attributed to that score is very trifling. From Dr. Hooker I differ in company with Dr. Slater, as to the value to be given to the Siberian, Egyptian, European, and Chinese types. If North and South America are to go together as one, then surely these Old-world provinces should in lke manner only form part of the great Europzo- Asiatic region. From Dr. Sclater again I differ, whether in company with Dr. Hooker or not, I am not sure, in reckoning North and South America as one great region. I differ from both in thinking that in estimating the great regions of the earth, we ought to include the Indo-Malayan region along with Africa, south of the Sahara. In some other minor points I have also come to different conclusions from them. TI shall, however, best indicate the points of divergence by stating separately my own views on the subject. 304 CHAPTER XLIII. GREAT AND MINOR MAMMALIAN REGIONS. Ir appears to me that the whole mammalian fauna now on the globe naturally divides itself into four great primary provinces of nearly equal value, each of which is subdivisible into two or more sections. These are :— 1. The Europxo-Asiatic, embracing 1. The Scandinavian district; 2. The Mediterranean dis- trict; 3. The Mongolian district. 2. The Africano-Indian, including 1. Africa, south of the Sahara; 2. The Indo-Malayan district. 3. The Australian, including 1. Australia; 2. New Guinea; 3. Polynesia. 4. 'Fhe American, including 1. North America; 2. South America. I. Tue Evropmo-Astatic Recion.—This consists of Europe, North Africa, as far south as the southern limits of the Sahara, the northern half of Arabia, Syria, Asia Minor, Persia, and all Asia (including Japan, &c.) north of the southern slope of the Himmalayan range. This corresponds with Dr. Sclater’s Palearctic region, with some exceptions. It carries the Mediterranean district considerably further south into Africa than he does. He stops at Mount Atlas, only including that portion of Africa which is north of that range. I look upon the barrier between ANthiopia and North Africa to be the Sahara, and not Mount Atlas. And not only so, but that the boundary line lies not on the north of the Sahara nor yet in the middle, but along its southern margin. Its inhabitants, although many of them are peculiar to itself, are decidedly of northern forms. Species of Hedgehog, Jerboa, the northern type of Shrews, Weasel, &e., all indicate a northern affinity. It would appear, that on the Sahara being raised from the bottom of the sea into its present position, it had been colonised from the north rather than from the south, and this is quite in accordance with the physical geography of the country. No one, now-a-days, will imagine that the bed of the Sahara was all raised simultaneously —at one shot, as it were. It must have been by degrees; and as the seat of elevation is shown by the inclination of the strata along the southern flanks of Mount Atlas, to have been in that range, it follows that the first part of the desert raised would be that nearest to it, the north, and the last the south: hence the Saharan Lake or Sea would be always diminished from the north, and the last remnants of it would be that most to the south ; so, too, the colonisation would always be from the north, until the whole elevation was completed. Then it would, no doubt, be open to the animals from Sta 7 | songa ATLANTIC ;——eenan-—t —|-_ole x4 x—|—_t Pople of Canen Anthadeue ao Ss See”. me Ty DrAN OGzap | [ 4 ==}—_+—_+_+ if Tropic !of Capticons aces T | AEs Rey accel Pee | Sv0vUTH t + — | | TSOUTH | PACIFIC OCEAN | ATLANTiIc (a hea 2] ie ie MAP C. io) GREAT MAMMALIAN REGIONS MAMMALIAN REGIONS. 305 the south to enter it, too; but they would find the ground occupied by other animals fitted for the conditions of life of the desert, and in the struggle for life would be defeated. The attempt to refer Arabia to its proper place is attended with peculiar difficulty, partly on account of its relations both to the Mediterranean district and Africa, and still more from the insufficiency of our information regarding its geological structure, its mammalian inhabitants, and the limits of their range; in fact, there are few countries of which we have scantier details, or as to which we more require information, than Arabia and Beloochistan. From the imperfect notices which we possess, we know that a double element is present in Arabia. To the north, the animals are of the Mediterranean type. To the south, the African element prevails. The conclusion to which I have arrived is, that in Arabia there has been a repetition or extension of the same phenomenon which occurs in Africa, viz., that until the recent epoch, the south has been separated from the north by a great sea, similarly situated to the Sahara, and that while this subsisted the southern part was united to Africa. The features of the country harmonize with this view. Palgrave describes the whole of it as consisting of a central district, surrounded on every side by deserts, of which that lying to the south (Rhoba el Khali) is much the largest. It is this which I think formed the original boundary between the northern regions and the Africano-Indian continent now submerged. It sweeps round the south of Central or Inner Arabia in an immense semi-circle, reaching almost to the sea-shore, except on the south-east and south-west corners, that is, Oman and Yemen. This great desert is obviously a prolongation of the old Saharan sea, interrupted by the raised land of Nubia, Abyssinia, and Yemen, and the part lying to the south of it (Hadramaut) must have had its lot thrown in with the Africano-Indian continent; for it, or at least that portion of it which has been examined, must have been above water since the early tertiary epoch, for its geological form- ation is nummulitic and eocene. How far this formation extends into Oman and northwards from Aden through Yemen, is not, I believe, yet known. That there is a considerable amount of African element of life in Arabia is shown by the following facts. The whole of the district of Hadramaut is inhabited by a race which is distinct from the northern Arabs, and more nearly allied to the Negro than they are. ‘The Kahtance race,” says Mr. Palgrave, “furnishes the link between the Arab and the Abyssinian.” . . . “They are, so to speak, nearer related to the Negro than the Ismaelitie tribes, and hence more readily admit Africans to fellowship, intermarriage, and civil rights, nay even to government—a fact which has not escaped the discerning eye of Nicbuhr.’”* He adds that “Kahtan, or in the Hebrew orthography Jektan, is acknowledged by all Arabs for the first founder and author of their race and nationality, while his residence is no less unanimously fixed in Yemen.” + To this I attach no weight, further than as an indication that this, perhaps, may have been the first district peopled; but the idiosyncratical facts mentioned by him are cf more importance. “The influence, the black slave population imported from Africa exerts on this part of Ardbia, (Oman at the mouth of the Persian Gulf) is hardly to be understood by unamalgamating Anglo- Saxons; but deeply felt and indeed extended among the more impressible Kahtanee population. I say Kahtanee, not Arab, in contradistinction to the northern and central races, both of which, * Psrarave, “Journey in Central and Mastern Arabia,” 1865, p, 453. + PALGRAVE, op. cit. p. 455. 306 MAMMALS. but especially the former, have a large admixture of that iron fibre which renders the European, and above all the Saxon machine (to borrow Hamlet’s phrase), so remarkably independent of impressions from without. Hence among the Arabs of Shomer, and even of Nejid, Negroes, whatever their number, hardly weigh for more in the scale of national habits and feelings than they would in Norfolk or Yorkshire. But in Oman the case is very different.’’* Then, monkeys are numerous in some of the southern portions of Arabia, and the species so far as known are the same as those found in Abyssinia and Nubia, such as CyNocEPHALUS HAMA- pryas. What the exact extent of their range may be we do not know, but they are found abun- dantly in the south-west corner. Niebuhr tells us that in the woods of Yemen they occur in great numbers, although he somewhat laughingly treats as exaggerated the statement of a former English traveller that he had seen them in tens of thousands. Next, great numbers of gazelles and antelopes are found in Arabia. Niebuhr speaks of their numbers in Yemen, and Palgrave bears testimony to their abundance in Central Arabia as an article of food; any species which have been recorded from Arabia are also found in Nubia and Abyssinia. Ostriches range over almost the whole of the plains of Arabia, at least as far north as almost 30° N.L. This, however, is less significant, for they formerly ranged through countries still further to the north. It is mentioned by old travellers as common on the Isthmus of Suez down to the middle of the seventeenth century, and appears to have frequented Syria and Asia Minor, &e., at earlier periods. Palgrave mentions a locust in Central Arabia from a gastronomical point of view, which so far as can be judged from the description of a non-entomological writer,t is of an African type, while the kinds he speaks of as found more to the north, are clearly of the northern type. In the face of such instances it is impossible to dispute that an African element does exist in Arabia, and everything—geographical position, geological structure, and dispersion of the animals—goes to show that it has proceeded from the south. The question then comes to be, how far it extends north? Schmarda, in his map, includes almost the whole country south of ' the Peninsula of Sinai, along with Nubia, Abyssinia, and South Africa, as one region. This, I think, takes the line too far to the north. If it were taken as at the time when the present Rhoba el Khali desert ceased to be sea; then, I apprehend, the true limit of the African region would be a line along the southern margin of that desert, that is, along the north of Hadramaut, leaving only a narrow strip of land next the Arabian Sea; and if the elevation of the desert had taken place in consequence of the rise of land in the north, then it would still have been the proper limit; for a rise from the north would produce a repetition of what we find in the Sahara, viz. that the desert had been peopled on the side which first emerged, in its case the north. But it is not so clear that it was so in the present instance. The Kahtanee Arabs are no doubt confined to the Hadramaut, but the monkeys extend at least considerably to the north in Yemen, and the antelopes and locusts go as far north as Central Arabia and the ostriches beyond it. I am inclined to think that this implies that the invasion of the new territory disclosed on the raising of the beds of the deserts, took place from the direction of Africa (that is, the south-east) viz. by * PaLGRAVeE’s “Journey through Central and Eastern that he is innocent of entomology. My opinion is formed Arabia,” p. 272. from his reporting, and apparently believing, that like + I trust I do Mr. PALGRAVE no wrong in assuming bees, these locusts have queens. MAMMALIAN REGIONS. 307 the elevation of the highlands of Abyssinia. This, no doubt, is mere conjecture, founded on the distribution of the animals. Subsequent geological observations may show that the fact was not so, but in the meantime, as we have no better guide to go by, I have followed the dis- tribution of the majority of species so far as we know it, leaving a little margin to the north for wandering species, such as the ostriches, to spread over, and placed the limit of the African portion of Arabia to the north of the southern desert instead of to the south of it, as in the case of the Sahara. From the north of the Europeo-Asiatie region I exclude Greenland and Spitzbergen, on the strength of the American character of the Reindeer, the Polar Hare, and the Hudson’s Bay Lemming, which are almost the only Greenland cireumpolar mammals in which attempts have been successfully made to distinguish the American from the Old-world type. I also provisionally exclude Iceland, because I believe that the only aboriginal animal, the economic Mus syLyesrRis, of Olafsen and Henderson, will prove to be the American Lemming. I am silent as regards the Aleutian Islands, for the only mammals which I know of as haying been found there are the Rhytina, the Walrus, various Seals, and other marine animals, which range along both sides of the Northern Pacific. This enormous region, covering, as stated by Dr. Sclater, a space of not less than fourteen millions of square miles, has a very homogeneous, although by no means numerous mammalian fauna, but is, notwithstanding, separable into three minor provinces, nearly equivalent to Dr. Hooker’s European, Siberian, and Egyptian types. The first is the Scandinavian, which includes north and mid Europe, and Asia north of the Caspian and west of the Lena. The mammals of Great Britain ‘furnish a fair illustration of the mammalia found this region. The next province is what is now called the Mediterranean region, and consists of the lands which surround that sea; viz. Spain, Italy, Greece, and generally what is known as the South of Europe; Asia Minor; Syria; North Arabia; Egypt; North Africa; and the Sahara. The most difficult points in relation to this district are Nubia and Abyssinia, and the south of Arabia. To this province belong the Azores and Canary Islands. It has a more African facies than the Scandinavian; the Jackal, the Zorilla, the Genet, the Leopard, Lion, and other felines, making their appearance in it. The last remaining province consists of the high steppes of Central Asia, extending from Cashmir through Mongolia to Japan, and apparently including the non-arctic northern regions lying to the east of the Lena. Irkutsk seems to be about the point where the eastern and the western species overlap each other. This province is characterised not so much by different genera as different species of the animals which inhabit the Scandinavian district. A list of the genera common to these different districts and of those absent from them is given in2the Appendix. I have the more confidence in the view entertained by Dr. Sclater and myself of the unity of Europe and Asia, north of the Himmalayahs, as a great province of life, in that it is consistent with the course of events which I believe to have occurred in these continents during and subseqent to the glacial epoch, and which I have explained at length in discussing the theory of a Miocene Atlantis. The comparative paucity of species in this region is, I think, evidence of its having received its population more recently than other regions where the inhabitants are more numerous. 508 MAMMALS. Il. Tue Arricano-InpiAn Recion. This includes Africa, south of the Saharan desert, the South of Arabia, and the Indo-Malayan and Indo-Chinese regions. I have already explained the geological grounds on which I consider India to have been united to Africa during the miocene epoch. These are supported by the affinities of the two faunas. If we put aside a few instances where species have wandered a little beyond their natural bounds, Africa and India have a large number of points in common, and that not only in what they possess but also in what they do not. Among many others they possess the following mamma- lian forms in common, and alone possess them. ‘To them are confined the whole tribe of Old-world Monkeys (Cararruini). In them are found species of Anthropoid Apes, and this remarkable type occurs nowhere else. Hach of them has Baboons,:no other region has. The Lemurs are found in both, and nowhere else. Both ave the countries of the Jackals. The Buffaloes are denizens of both. Africa is the great centre of the Antelopes, but a few are also found in the Indian region, and they are almost absent from every other. Camelopards, although now confined to Africa, in former times also lived in India. The true Shrews are found in neither country, although plentifully in Europe and Northern Asia; but the tropical Shrews (Crocrpura) occur in both, and nowhere else. More instances might be cited, but enough has been done for my purpose. In like manner, the most of the species found in Europe and North Asia are absent from India and Africa. The Elephant and Rhinoceros are usually cited as indications of the former union of Africa and India. They undoubtedly are so, but their presence solely in these two countries now cannot be cited as instances of a special fauna inhabiting both. Their occurrence in Europe, Asia, and America, during the miocene period, shows that they were not peculiar to the Africano-Indian region. So the Hippopotamus was formerly European. If Africa is, par excellence, the land of the heavy Pachyderms now, it was not so always. The specialty of these faunas rests on other grounds. In the Appendix will be found a list of the genera present in, and absent from, both of these lands. If, in defiance of these concurrences, we separate India from Africa, we must alter the standard of our regions; we must separate North America from South America, New Guinea from New Holland, and Polynesia from both, and perhaps establish other provinces, such as the Mediterranean, the Scandinavian, and the Mongolian. But although India and Africa form one great region, equivalent in size and homogencous- ness to the Europxo-Asiatic, their subdivision into two very important and well-marked regions is equally clear—the African and the Indo-Malayan. The Indian portion of this region consists of India south of the southern ridge of the Himmalayah, Ceylon, the Indo-Chinese region, viz. Burmah, Cochin China, Siam, part of China, the Malayan Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and the neighbouring islands west of the Straits of Macassar. The Philippine Islands also belong to this district and Formosa, and the other islands adjoining the coast of Southern China. Formosa, in addition to the Chinese types of Mammals, possesses also a trace of the Himmalayan element. It is, in fact, the termination of that range. These mountains after crossing China here sink into the sea. Mr. Swinhoe mentions that the species which are identical with those of China are darker and of more lively tints, and those that differ more nearly resemble Himmalayan forms than those of the plains of China. Dr. Sclater reckons Mauritius as an appurtenance of Africa, which its proximity would seem to confirm, but its Coleoptera are certainly Indian (Proraria macutaTa would condemn it for Indian in any court in Europe). The only mammals that I can find recorded as inhabiting Mauritius, besides the domestic animals (including Na in — S| E | | : CHI coor = [Tropic jof Capricorn SO ta ATLANTIC OCEKN | =i 8 ; SsouTx MAE OT. MINOR SUBDIVISIONS OF GREAT MAMMALIAN REGIONS. jf mm ue no w acm. Lad 7 MAMMALIAN REGIONS. 309 the Rat), are a Malayan Monkey and an Indian Hare, viz. Macacus cynomoraus, the organ-boys’ favourite, and Lepus nicricon.is; both, however, are said by Mr. Blyth to have been introduced. The African province is divisible into several distinct’ districts. There is, first, one in West Africa, composed of Senegambia and Guinea, or the whole West-African country south of the Sahara and north of the Niger. This is, par excellence, the district of Monkeys, especially of the Crrcorirurct. Next, there is the country between the Niger and the Congo. Great rivers, we have already seen, form effective barriers to restrain the spread of species, but they must be long enough not to be easily turned. We have a good illustration of this in the province in question.’ On the north it has the Niger, which is too long to be turned, and it consequently forms a tolerably effective barrier. Next come the Old and New Calabar rivers, and the Gabon, which are broad rivers, but not of great length. They can be turned ; and we see a general provincial resemblance between the faunas of these different rivers, although each has a lesser local fauna of its own also. To the south is another barrier river, the Congo, which can be turned, but not so easily as the others. It seems sufficiently large and long to act as a barrier, although not so effective a one as the Niger. Beyond the Congo we come to the Angola district, in which the Cape element begins to predo- minate; and when we cross the Orange River we are in a new province, which extends southwards to the Cape, thence northwards to Natal and Mozambique, and with little change on to Abyssinia. Whereas the west coast has four tolerably distinct provinces south of the Sahara, the east coast seems to have only one. A change occurs about Mozambique which becomes more decided when we reach Zambesia, and probably reaches its height in Somali Land. When we reach Abyssinia we pass into a new country, a sort of debateable land,— in fact, we seem to enter on the old barrier between Africa south of the Sahara, and the northern regions: Its affinities, when they are not with the the north, which they chiefly are, are more with the west than with the south. The gradual passage from the south to the north, and the break at Abyssinia, are well illus- trated by a comparative table, given by Dr. Sclater, of the species of Antelope found by Captain Speke in East Africa, contrasted with those found by Riippell in Abyssinia and by Peters in Mozambique :— “ ApyssIni ( Riippell). Scopophorus montanus Heleotragus bohor? E. Arrrca (Speke). Antilope melampus Calotragus melanotis Scopophorus montanus Nesotragus moschatus Heleotragus reduncus Kobus ellipsiprymnus », sing-sing >, leucotis A goceros lencopheus BS niger Catoblepas gorgon Boselaphus sp. Tragelaphus Spekei e sylvaticus Oreas Livingstonii Strepsiceros kudu Mozambique (Peters). Antilope melampus Calotragus melanotis Nesotragus moschatus Kobus ellipsiprymnus A goceros niger Catoblepas gorgon Boselaphus Lichtensteinii Tragelaphus sylvaticus Oreas canna ? Strepsiceros kudu” * In what I have here said, however, I should observe that I have drawn my conclusions not * Scrater, in “ Proc. Zool. Soc.” 1864, 99. 510 MAMMALS. entirely from the mammals, but from a general view of all the classes of its inhabitants with which I am acquainted. Madagascar, with an African type, is thoroughly peculiar, and there is reason to expect that its complete examination will present some very interesting results. This we know already, hat while some parts of it teem with the most extraordinary and beautiful creations, others are in no respects particularly remarkable, and contain many of the species already known from the opposite coast of Africa. I have already noticed the chief points in the geographical distri- bution of its Mammals in speaking of the Lemurs, which are its most remarkable mammalian inhabitants. The Indian region has not the same marked provinces which exist in West Africa. It is in this respect, like the east of Africa, pretty homogeneous throughout. The continent of India might be divided into the Himmalayan or mountain district, and the plain. Ceylon may form another district, and the Indian Archipelago another. Perhaps the most noteworthy points are those which I have already discussed regarding the mammalian fauna of Borneo, and the cause of its peculiar constitution. I have already said that I do not believe that the concurrent presence of species in Sumatra and Ceylon, rested on by Sir Emerson Tennent as proof of the former continuity of the latter with the former, instead of with India, is anything more than a proof of the common origin of the Malayan and Indian faunas. F The characters of the Mammalian fauna of Africa haye given rise to a class of speculation which I notice only to avoid the appearance of having neglected or ignored it; for I do not think that they have much useful bearing upon, or relation to, geographical distribution. M. Pucheran, for example, draws attention to the following particulars as characteristic of the mammals of Africa, viz., the predominance of terrestrial over aquatic species; the prevalence of fawn-coloured fur; a tendency to modification in the proportion of the limbs of the animals (of which the Hyzena, the Giraffe and the Buffalo are examples), by which the anterior limbs are increased in size apparently at the expense of the posterior; and the Macroscelides, Helomys, and Dendromys, _of the reverse; a tendency to unusual development of the ears (a character already noticed by Geoffroy St. Hilaire as common in desert animals, and by De Blainville in southern animals) ; and the existence of a genus of rodents peculiar to itself in each of four zones into which he divides the continent. I do not say that each of these peculiarities may not furnish interesting subjects of inquiry, but as they are the result of affinity, and the conditions of the country, they have only a secondary and reflected relation to geographical distribution. II. Tre Avsrrarian Recton contains Australia, Van Dieman’s Land, Papua and adjacent islands east of the Straits of Macassar and Lombok, Polynesia, and New Zealand. Similar reasons to those which induce me to unite Africa to India on the great scale, justify the union of New Guinea with Australia. Like them, their past geological history indicates that the straits and seas which now separate them did not always exist. Like them, too, their faunas have a certain affinity together, and also many joint points of dissimilarity from others. Dr. Sclater says of them, “New Guinea is in some respects so peculiar in its ornithology, as far as we are acquainted with it, that it would at first sight appear as if it ought to form a zoological region of itself; but there are certainly many genera common to it and Australia, and for the present I am inclined to retain it as part of the Australian region. Both New Zealand and the Pacifie Islands MAMMALIAN REGIONS. sili have also some claims to stand alone as separate regions, their forms of ornithic life being in many cases peculiar and local. If they can be attached anywhere, however, it is to Australia.”’* So far as the Pacific Islands are concerned a few Bats are the only mammals found on them, and, therefore, much on either side cannot be inferred from their presence, especially as they belong to types which extend to India and China as well as to Australia. Still, the inferences from their belonging to forms also found in Australia do not, so far as they go, contradict any indications in this direction which can be drawn from other classes of organised beings. These, however, are but few and indistinct. The distribution of Mammals in New Guinea and Australia teaches us something regarding the disjunction of the lands, and also something regarding the origin of species, confirmatory, as Tread it, of change of condition playing an important part in the process of development. The point of resemblance between them in Mammals is the occurrence of marsupial animals in New Guinea as well as in Australia. But the New-Guinea forms are mostly, as already mentioned, of peculiar types, usually so distinct as not to fit into any of the old genera, so that new genera have to be made for their reception. There are Kangaroos; but with one exception (the Filander) they are Tree Kangaroos (DENpRoLAGUS). There are Phalangers, but they are of the genus Cuscus. For long, these forms were supposed to be confined to New Guinea. The number of species known has gradually increased, but they always came from New Guinea or its dependencies. But, latterly, it has been ascertained that they are not absolutely confined to that district, and that species are also found in the nearest points of Australia. A Tree Kangaroo has been found in North Australia, and a Cuscus on Cape York, the north-east point of Australia. The occurrence of these species there seems to prove that the disjunction of the two countries must haye been pretty long a-doing, and that the country between the two passed through the same half-drowned condition as that of the present coast of New Guinea, where the DENDRoLAGUS is now found. If New Guinea had been summarily divorced from Australia, and new species had sprung up in it, the new forms would have been confined to it. They could only be found in Australia by the animal floating or swimming across, which I may be permitted to say is at least not a likely mode of progression for a Kangaroo. But if we suppose the disjunction to have proceeded at a slow pace, and the peculiar conditions of the land (whatever they may have been) to have existed ‘long enough to have allowed the production of new species before the final separation was actually consummated, we should then have a simple explanation of the presence of those New-Guinea forms in Australia. That they are rare probably shows that the disjunction must have been nearly completed by the time they had begun to appear, and that they are still confined to the points of Australian land nearest to New Guinea seems to warrant one of two inferences ; either that species are slow to leave their country, or that when they do so and get into lands with new conditions of life they are transformed into other species, or die off. Having been so recently engaged in discussing the different provinces into which Australia is divided, I shall merely refer the reader back to the two last chapters for information on that point. The occurrence of one or more Papuan Marsupials in the New Hebrides shows that that group belongs to the New-Guinea district, and not to the Polynesian. IV. Tue American Rucion.—The whole of the American Continent, both North and South, * SCLATER, op. cit. p. 141. ile, MAMMALS. seems to me to belong to one zoological region, in the same way as the other large regions of which we have been speaking. No doubt the boreal extremity of North America is tinged with a Europeo-Asiatic admixture; but this is an extraneous element grafted upon the genuine stock, and easily eliminated from it. Regarded from the same extended poimt of view from which we have regarded the others, I can see no ground for separating the South from the North. In Mammals, the chief character warranting separation is the occurrence of extinct and existing Hdentata, and yet it is not so long ago (speaking geologically) since they existed in North as well as in South America. We have seen that it is a moot point whether the Megatherium did not survive the glacial epoch on North-American soil; and one or two small members of the edentate family do still survive in its southern parts to this day. Wherever there is a typical difference between the families of the Old and New World, it extends equally to those of North as of South Amercia, as in the case of the Vesper Mice and Cotton Rats. The largest carnivora are common to both; and the Opossam wanders as far north as the Dasypus. On the other hand, the great tribe of Platyrrhine Monkeys, although it extends into Mexico, does not enter North America proper, but no inference unfavourable to the unity of the whole American Continent can be drawn from this fact, because in no country are the Mon- keys found much beyond the line of the tropics. That is their limit, and they do penetrate into North America as far as the tropic of Cancer. They go as far as the temperature they require will allow them. The Phyllostomatous Bats also do not advance into North America beyond that tropic. But there are other fotms of mammalian life which are limited to South America, as the Tapir, the only living representative of the American Pachydermata, the Llamas, the Cavies, Chinchillas, and other Rodents. Still, there is generally a New-world facies, which distinguishes the life of both North and South America from that of the Old World; in the same way as there is an Old-world facies applicable alike to European and Asiatic species. The same principles which we have applied to the partition of the Old World seem, therefore, when applied to the New, to call for the recognition of North and South America as one single distinct, great zoological region. It is, however, divisible, like the preceding regions, into two very distinct halves —North and South America. As to the former, the chief points calling for notice here are its northern and southern limits. Are we to consider Greenland a part of it, or not? We have seen that, judged by its earlier life (plants and insects), it should go along with Europe; estimated by its later life (birds an? mammals), it belongs to America. We must, therefore, regard it as American or European, according to the date when it is spoken of. It is like a young lady who has been married. If we are asked whether she is Miss Europe or Mrs. America, we reply that she is both; but as by custom she bears the name due to her later condition, I think we must reckon Greenland as now American, although formerly European; the exact date of the dissolution of her connexion with Europe we cannot tell, but it was subsequent to the deposit of the peat-bogs in Shetland and Orkney. The same remarks apply to Iceland and Spitzbergen. The facts which lead to these conclusions seem equally to show that North America must have received the Europeo-Asiatic element, which prevails over the whole of its northern half, not from Europe but from Asia, by a former union of the two Continents at Bhering’s Straits, or some equivalent line of transit. The North-American continent is divisible into several provinces. The most northerly, or Arctic region, viz. the country lying north of the latitude of Slave Lake, has been divided into two, that east of Mackenzie’s River and that west of it; and the former of these, if not also the latter, REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION. 313 has been divided into two smaller, north and south, districts — that bearing wood, and that (the more northern, called the Barren-Ground region) too desolate and cold for wood to grow upon. South of these northern districts the fauna indicates a tripartite longitudinal division ; and each of these stripes is capable of further local subdivision, according to its latitude and climate. We should expect the Rocky Mountain range to form the chief longitudinal line of separation, but, as already said, it only separates species in a minor degree. The actual mountain barrier appears to be the Cascade range on the west side of the Rocky Mountains, separating Oregon and California from the rest of North America; and the dividing limit between the two other regions seems to be the Nebraska country, in which le the Mauvaises Terres, and Nebraska and Niobrara beds, on this side of the Rocky Mountains, —the line of separation, in fact, being marked by the site of the ancient tertiary sea in which these beds had been deposited. These longitudinal sections reach as far south as Texas and New Mexico, when a new province commences, which continues through Mexico and Central America to the Isthmus of Panama. As to the southern boundary of the whole North American region I have already, when speaking of the Vesper Mice, given my reasons for preferring Panama to a more northerly point. Although South American species extend to the north of this limit, few, if any, North American species pass to the south of it; and this distribution concurs with the physical features of the country in pointing out the narrowest and lowest neck of land as that most likely to have been the place where a barrier between the two continents existed at some former period, which allowed the shells of the Pacific to penetrate into the Gulf of Mexico. Dr. Sclater has carried the ornithic limit between the two regions up into the heart of Mexico, but not without hesitation. Even more than in the Mammals, Central America is a sort of debateable ground, in which the species of birds both from the south and the north meet and overlap each other. The same difficulty occurs with regard to the West Indian Islands. Do they belong to the north or south? They have something of both in their character, besides a good deal that is peculiar to themselves. But, in the first place, a preponderance of essentially South-American forms occurs in them, more especially the Phyllostomatous Bats; and in the next place, if we look at Map 2, which shows the effect of a depression of land to the extent of 600 feet, (an amount which must have been greatly exceeded before a marine channel separating North from South America could haye been formed,) we see that although they now le so near North America a great part of the southern extremity of that continent, viz. Florida, Georgia, Ala- bama, South Carolina, &c., must then have been beneath the waves. This would place a much greater distance between North America and these islands than there is now, while their present relations, so far as regards size and distance from South America, would remain comparatively unchanged. The same is the case with Central America. It would still have stood then as now; and the configuration of the land and water in that region, under such a depression, gives a great temptation to suppose the connexion of the West Indian Islands to have been with Central America on the one hand, and Venezuela on the other: but the distribution of the mammals does not seem to sanction this, and I rather incline to think, that when North and South America were disjoined it was by a strait at Panama, which turned up along the eastern coast of Guatemala, and passed to the north of Cuba and Haiti, leaving them and the other West Indian Islands connected with Venezuela on the east and south. The South-American half of the New World consists of the whole of South America, the West Indian Islands, Tierra del Fuego, the Falkland Islands, and Galapagos. 314 MAMMALS. Whilst these are the regions, I think, which the distribution of Mammals (aided by some slight collateral help, drawn by anticipation from that of other classes) shows to exist, there are some facts in distribution which indicate a more extended connexion of the different lands. A former northerly land communication between the western coast of North America and Northern Asia, by which such animals as the Spermophiles, Moose, Reindeer, and Glacial Hares, may have passed, seems clear beyond doubt; but a more southerly one (probably at an earlier date) may also have existed. The occurrence of the Japanese Mole Urorricuus, both in Japan and on the opposite shore of California, is additional testimony in favour of this view. It cannot be expected that in such doubtful cases any great number of instances should be found among Mammals. They are comparatively so few in number, that a single instance should have more weight than many examples drawn from classes of animals which are more numerous in species. But we shall by-and-bye find that other similar instances are to be met with amongst these too. In like manner, there are affinities indicating former continuity between South America and the Indian Archipelago, subsisting, perhaps or ever the Andes had begun to rise above the level of the surrounding land. It is difficult to explain the occurrence of the Tapir in both in any other way, or the use of the blow-pipe by the natives of New Guinea and the tribes of the Amazons on any other footing. The facies of the Fauna of the Galapago Islands speaks of the former extension of the continent at least as far as these Islands. To the same period and same access may be referable the origin of the Monkeys in South America. Besides the argument from opportunity of passage, the New-world Monkeys have rather more resemblance to the Indian than the African species. There are also some affinities between the species of Western Africa and the coast of Brazil which point to some such continuity between these countries. There is the remarkable instance of what may almost be called a South-American Old-world Porcupine (AuLAcopus SWINDERIANUS) in West Africa; of the Prrromys rypicus, another Rodent, belonging to the South-American type, in South Africa; and of the Ant-eater and Orycteropus, the Manis and Dasypus, found respectively in these countries. I have elsewhere given some striking instances of new species of Coleoptera from Old Calabar, very closely allied to Brazilian species.* Mr. Fry has detected other instances of a like nature in species from Lagos; and Mr. Bates informs me that he is satisfied that similar affinities exist in some of the Lepidoptera of the two opposite countries. It is difficult to imagine how these coincidences can be accounted for in any other way than by continuity of land, or con- tiguity so near as to be equivalent to continuity at some former time. There are other topics which, if they had not been already discussed in the progress of this volume, ought to have been treated of here, but to do so would merely be to occupy the reader’s time with a twice-told tale. With my views on the submerged Pacific Continent ; on the separation of the Indian region from the Australian; the divisions of Australia; the submerged Africano-Indian Continent ; the former junction of Madagascar to Africa; the possible existence of land between South-west Australia and the Cape of Good Hope, the Miocene Atlantis and kindred topics, the reader who has followed me thus far is familiar. * “Trans. Linn. Soe.” xxiv. p. 449. 1862. APPENDIX. No. I.—CuassrricATIoN OF MAMMALS PROPOSED BY DIFFERENT AUTHORS OF CUVIER’S CLASSIFICATION (First System). 1800. Order. 1. MAN 2. QUADRUMANA Monkeys, (including Lemurs, but not Galeopitheci) CARNIVORA 1. Bats (including Galeopitheci) 2. Insectivora Hedgehogs, Shrews, Moles 3. Carnivora proper 1. Bears, Badgers, &c. 3. 2. Polecats, Otters, Dogs, Hyenas, Cats 3. Seals 4. MARSUPIALS 1. Opossums, Thylacinus (Austra- lian Tiger), Dasyurus (Devil), and Perameles . Phalangers—Flying Petaurus . Hypsiprymni . Kangaroos . Koala - Wombats 5. RODENTS Squirrels, Aye-Aye, Rats, Mar- mots, Beavers, Porcupines, Hares, Cavies, Agoutis, Damans 6. EDENTATA 1. Sloths 2. Armadillos, Ant-eaters, &c. 3. Monotremata 7. PACHYDERMATA 1. Proboscidea—Elephants 2. Pachydermata proper—Hippo- potamus, Hog, Peccari, Rhino- ceros, Hyrax, Tapir 3. Solipedes—Horse 8. RUMINANTS Camels, Musk-deer, Camelopard, Antelopes, Goats, Sheep, Oxen aoe ot EMINENCE. CUVIER’S CLASSIFICATION, con- tinued :— Order. 9. CETACEA 1. Herbivorous Cetacea — Mana- tees, &c. 2. Cetacea proper 1. Dolphins 2. Whales MILNE EDWARDS’ CLASSIFICA- TION. 1855. . Bimana . Quadrumana . Cheiroptera . Insectivora . Rodentia . Edentata . Carnivora . Amphibia . Pachydermata . Ruminantia . Cetacea - Marsupialia . Monotremata OOOO wr VAN DER HOEVEN’S CLASSIFICA- TION. 1858. (reversed) Order. 1. BIMANA Man 2. QUADRUMANA 1. Monkeys 2. Lemurs 3. PTENOPLEURA Galeopitheci VAN DER HOEVEN’S CLASSIFICA- TION, continued :— Order. 4, CHEIROPTERA 1, Frugivorous Bats—Pterotocyna 2. Insectivorous Bats—Nycterina 5. FER . Erinaceina—Hedgehogs . Soricina—Shrews . Talpina—Moles Ursina—Bears . Mustelina—Pole Cats . Canina—Dogs . Viverrina—Civet Cats . Felina—Cats . Pinnipedia—Seals COnOoR OMe 6. Gurres (RopENTS) 1. Sciurina—Squirrels . Dipoda—Jerboas . Eriomyina—Chinchillas - Muriformia—Petromys . Cunicularia—Georhychi - Murina—Rats and Mice . Palmipedia—Beavers - Aculeata—Porcupines . Subungulata—Cavies . Duplicidentata—Hares _ SUE ONOAU Rw 7. EDENTATA 1. Tardigrada —Sloths 2. Effodientia—Armadillos, Manis, Ant-eaters 8. RUMINANTS 1, Cavicornia— Ox, Sheep, Goat, Antelope 2. Elaphii—Deer 3. Tylopoda—Llama, Camel 9. PACHYDERMATA 1. Artiodactyla 1. Hippopotamina—Hippopo- tamus 2. Suina—Sow 316 VAN DER HOEVEN’S CLASSIFICA- TION, continued :— Order. 9. 2. Perissodactyla 1. Solidungula—Horse 2. Tapirina—Tapir 3. Lamnungia—Hyrax 4. Nasicornia—Rhinoceros 3. Proboscidea 1. Elephantina—Elephants 10. CETACEA 1. Sirenia—Manatee, Dugong 2. Cetacea—Whales, Dolphins 11. MARSUPIALS 1. Pedimana—Opossum 2. Dasyurina— Devil and Tiger 3. Peramelina—Perameles, Tarsi- pes 4. Phalangistee — Flying Petaurus 5. Macropoda—Kangaroos 6. Glirina—Wombat 12. MONOTREMATA Echidna—Ornithorhynchus OWEN’S CLASSIFICATION. 1857. Sub-Class. 1. ARCHENCEPHALA (ruling-brain- 2. GYRENCEPHALA (folded-brained) 1. UneGuicuLaTa 1. Quadrumana 1. Catarrhina — old world Monkeys 2. Platyrhina — new - world Monkeys 3. Strepsirhina— Lemurs 2. Carnivora 1. Digitigrada—CatsandDogs 2. Plantigrada—Bears 3. Pinnigrada—Seals 2. UNGULATA 1. Artiodactyla (even-toed) 1. Hog, Peccari, Hippopotamus 2. Cattle, Sheep, Goats, Ante- lopes, Deer, Camels 2. Perissodactyla (odd-toed) 1. Horse 2. Rhinoceros, Tapir, Hyrax 3. Proboscidea 1. Elephant 2. Dinotherium 4. Toxodontia (fossil) 1. Toxodon 2. Nesodon 3. MuriLata 1. Sirenia 1. Manatee 2. Dugong 2. Cetacea 1. Dolphins 2. Whales 3. LISSENCEPHALA (smooth-brained) 1. Bruta 1. Sloths 2. Armadillos 3. Ant-eaters APPENDIX. OWEN’S CLASSIFICATION, con- tinued :— Sub-class 2. Cheiroptera—Bats 1. Frugivorous Bats 2. Insectivorous Bats 3. Insectivora 1. Moles 2. Hedgehogs 3. Shrews 4. Rodentia 1. Non-claviculata Damans, &c.) 2. Claviculata (Squirrels, Rats, Marmots, Beavers, Porcupines) 4. LYENCEPHALA brained) 1. Marsupialia 1. Rhizophaga(root-eating)— Wombat 2. Poéphaga (grass-eating )— Kangaroos 3. Carpophaga (seed-eating) —Flying Opossums, Petau- rus 4. Entomophaga (insect-eat- ing) Perameles 2, Monotremata 1. Echidna 2. Ornithorhynchus (Cavies, (disconnected- GIEBEL’S ARRANGEMENT. 1859. (reyersed.) UNGUICULATA I. QUADRUMANA Snowe 1. Fam. Simie Catarrhine Pithecus Hylobates Semnopithecus Cercopithecus Tnnuus Cynocephalus 2. Fam. Simie Platyrrhine Mycetes Ateles Lagothrix Cebus Pithecia Brachyurus Nyctipithecus Callithrix Chrysothrix Hapale Prosimi& 3. Fam. Lemures Lichanotus Propithecus Lemur Lepidilemur Chirogaleus Stenops Pterodicticus Microcebus Otolicnus Tarsius GIEBEL'S ARRANGEMENT, continued :— Il. CHEIROPTERA 4, Fam. Dermoptera Galeopithecus 5. Fam. Frugivora Pteropus Macroglossus Harpyia Hypoderma 6. Fam. Istiophora Diphylla Desmodus Phyllorhina Rhinolophus Megaderma Nyetophilus Nycteris Phyllostoma Glossophaga Rhinopoma Braehyphylla Stenoderma 7. Fam. Gymnorhina Ill. FER Mormops Chilonycteris Taphozous Noctilio Emballonura Diclidurus Dysopes Thyroptera Vespertilio Nyeticejus Furia INSECTIVORA 6. Fam. Aculeate Erinaceus Echinogale Ericulus Centetes 9. Fam. Soricine Eupleres Gymnura Hylomys Ptilocereus Cladobates Rhynchocyon Macroscelides Myogale Solenodon Sorex 10. Fam. Talpine Urotrichus Spalacotherium Sealops Palseospalax Hyporyssus Geotrypus Dimylus Talpa Condylura Chrysochloris CARNIVORE 11. Fam. Feline Felis Cyneelurus Machairodus Pseudeelurus GIEBEL'S ARRANGEMENT, continued :— 12. Fam. Hyenine Proteles Hyena 13. Fam. Canine Hynodon Speothos Protocyon Canis Cynodon Otoeyon 14. Fam. Viverrine Galidia Crossarchus Rhyzena Herpestes Galidictis 15. Fam. Musteline Enhydris Pterura Lutra Gulo Icticyon Mustela Rhabdogale Galictis Ratelus Helictis Mephitis Mydaus Meles OMNIVORE 16. Fam. Arctocyonine Amphicyon Palwocyon Agriotherium 17. Fam. Ursine Ailurus Arctitis Cercoleptes Nasua Procyon Ursus IV. MARSUPIALIA 18. Creatophaga Thylacinus Dasyurus Phascologale Phascolotherium Thylacotherium Myrmecobius 19. Fam. Entomophaga Cheeropus Perameles Didelphis Cheironectes Tarsipes 20, Fam. Carpophaga Petaurus Phalangista Phascolarctos 21. Fam. Poephaga Nototherium Diprotodon Hypsiprymnus Dendrolagus . Macropus 22. Fem. Rhizophaga Phascolomys CLASSIFICATION OF MAMMALS. GIEBEL’S ARRANGEMENT, continued ;— V. GLIRES 23. Fam. Chiromyini Chiromys 24. Fam. Sciurini Seiurus Pteromys Tamias Spermophilus Plesiarctomys Aretomys we on - Fam. Myoxini Graphiurus Eliomys Muscardinus Glis 26. Fam. Castorini Castor 27. Fam. Arvicolini Fiber Arvicola Myodes 28. Fam. Dipodide Pedetes Dipodomys Macrocolus Jaculus Alactaga Dipus 29. Fam. Merionides Otomys Mystromys Meriones 30. Fam. Murini Hapalotis Phleomys Hydromys Cricetus Cricetomys Saccostomus Perognathus Saccomys Drymomys Anodon Dendromys Pseudomys Steatomys Mus Hesperomys Neotoma Sigmodon Reithrodon Sminthus Acomys 81. Fam. Sciurospalacini Geomys 32. Fam. Spalacini Ellobius Haplodon Heliophobius Georychus Bathyerges Siphneus Spalax Heterocephalus Rhizomys 317 GIEBEL'S ARRANGEMENT, continued :— 33. Fam. Chinchillide Archreomys Chinchilla Lagidium Lagostomus 34. Fam. Muriformes Spalacopus Schizodon Ctenodactylus Octodon Petromys Ctenomys Loncheres Aulacodus Carterodon Cercomys Dactylomys Habrocoma Mesomys Echinomys Plagiodontia Capromys Myopotamus 35. Fam. Hystrices Anomalurus Theridomys Artherura Hystrix Erethizon Cercolabes Chietomys 36. Fam. Cavini Dasyprocta Ceelogenys Hydrocherus Dolichotis Kerodon Cavia 37. Fam. Leporina Titanomys Lagomys Lepus VI. EDENTATA 38. Fam. Tardigrada Choleepus Bradypus 39. Fam. Gravigrada Scelidotherium Mylodon Megalonyx Megatherium 40. Fam. Fodientia Chlamydotherium Glyptodon Heterodon Euryodon Dasypus Glossotherium Orycteropus 41. Fam. Vermilinguia Myrmecophaga Manis 42. Fam. Monotremata Echidna Ornithorhynchus 318 GIEBEL’S ARRANGEMENT, continued :— UNGULATA I. SOLIDUNGULA 1, Fam. Equina Equus Hippotherium Hipparion I. BISULCA 2. Fam. Tylopoda Camelus Auchenia 3. Fam. Camelopardalide Sivatherium Camelopardalis 4. Fam. Cervina Dorcatherium Cervus Moschus 5. Fam. Cavicornia Antilope Capra Ovis Bos Ill, MULTUNGULA 6. Fam. Anoplotheride Dichobune Xiphodon Anoplotherium Dichodon Chalicotherium Hoplotherium 7. Fam. Toxodontide Nesodon Toxodon APPENDIX. GIEBEL’S ARRANGEMENT, continued :— 8. Fam. Suina Adapis Hyotherium Hyracotherium Hippohyus Hyopotamus Cheropotamus Enttelodon Paleocherus Phacochsrus Dicotyles Poreus Sus 9. Fam. Genuina Merycopotamus Hippopotamus Hyrax Elasmotherium Rhinocerus Anthracotherium Lophiodon Anchitherium Paleotherium Tapirus 10. Fam. Proboscidea Mastodon Elephas PINNIPEDIA 1. Fam. Zeuglodontide Squalodon Zeuglodon 2. Fam. Phocina Otaria GIEBEL'S ARRANGEMENT, continued :— Cystophora Leptonyx Phoca Halicherus 3. Fam. Trichechide Trichechus IV. PINNATA SmENIA 4, Fam. Sirenia Dinotherium Halitherium Manatus Halicore Rhytina CETE 5. Fam. Monodonta Monodon 6. Fam. Delphinodea Delphinopterus Ziphius Berardius Hyperoodon Platinista Inia Delphinus Phocrena Physeter 7, Fam. Balenodea Balenoptera Balena 319 II. DirrrrENT CLASSIFICATIONS OF THE POMEL'S ARRANGEMENT. 1848. 1, SPALACOGALID.E 1. TaLprIne Talpa. Evrops, Asta. Wogara. Japan. Geotrypus (FOsst1). Astromycter. N. Amer. Galeospalax (Foss). Hyporyssus (Fosst). Sealops. Mex., N. AMER. Scapanus. N. Amer. 2. Mycarma Chrysochloris. S. Arrrca. Solenodon. West Inp1a. Mygale. Evropr. Plesiosorex (Fosstt). Mysarachne (Fosst.) Urotrichus. JAPAN, CALIFORNIA. 3. SORICINE Talpasorex. N. Amer. Sorex. Inp., Eur., Arr., N. AMER. Corsira. N. AMER. Blarina. N. Amer. Otisorex. N. Amer. Hydrogale. N. Amer. Galemys Brachysorex. N. Amer. Crossopus. Eur., Inn. Pachyura. O1~p Worx. Musaraneus Cryptotis, N. Amer. Myosorex. Arr. Crocidura. Op Wortp. 2. GALECHINID 1. GrisoriciIn= A. Hylogale Sorexglis. O1np Wort. Oxygomphius. O1p Wortp. B. Dipogales Macroscelides. Arr. 2. Ecurmocanine A. Anachantes Echinogale. Map. Hylomys. Java. Galerix. Java. Gymnura. E. Inp. B. Erinacine Erinaceus. Eur. anp Asta. 3. CENTETINE Echinops. Ericulus. Centetes. Echinodes, Map. Map. Map. Map. WAGNER'S ARRANGEMENT. 1855. 1, DeRMOPTERA. Galeopithecus. Inv. Arcr. 2. ScANDENTIA. Cladobates. Ptilocereus. Hylomys. Inp. Borneo. JAVA. 3. Sorrcipx. Rhyneocyon. Mosams. Gymnura. E. Inp. Macrosceloides. Arr. Sorex. Onp Wortp anp N. AMER. Crossopus. Eur. AND ASIA. Brachysorex. N. AMER. Anotus. N. Amer. Crocidura. Arr. AND IND. Mysorex. Arr. Solenodon. Sr. Dom. anp Cupa. Myogale. E. anp W. Eur. 4, TaLpipe. Urotrichus. Jap., anp CAtir. Sealops. N. Amer. Rhinaster. N, Amer. Talpa. Eur. AnD AMER. Chrysochloris. S. AFR. 5. ACULEATA. Centetes. Mapac, Ericulus. Map. Echinogale. Map. Erinaceus. Eur. anp Asta. INSECTIVORA. PETERS’ ARRANGEMENT. 1863. 1. With a cecum. 1, GaLEoPITHECt Galeopithecus. Inn. ArcH. 2. Tupayz Cladobates. Phlocercus. Hylomys. INDIA. Borneo. JAVA. 3. MacroscELIDEs. Mosamps. AFR. Rhynchocyon. Macroscelides. 2. Without a cecum. 4, CENTETINA Solenodon. Centetes. Mapac, Ericulus. Mapac. Echinogale. Mapac. W. Inp. 5. ERINACEI Erinaceus. Gymnura. Evr. and ASIA, E. Inv. 6, Tavprna Myogale. Eur. Urotrichus. Jap. AND Carir. Condylura. N. AMER. Scalops. N. Amer. Talpa. Eur. anp Asta. Chrysochlora. S, Arr. be J . SORICES Sorex. O1p WoriD anp N, AMER. 320 III. Synonymic List or Species or MamMaAts AND THEIR LOCALITIES.* Notr.—The extinct species are printed in Italics. QUADRUMANA. ANTHROPINI. Homo sapiens Linn. var. albus. Eur., Asta, JAvA, Sum., Born., Norru Arrica, N. anp S. AMERICA. var. niger. Arr., S. or Samara, Hits in Invi, Ausrt., New Guinea, Potynesta. CATARRHINI. Simia Abelii ? Fisch. Mias Rambi. Sumatran Orang. Sum. Born. bicolor? Geoff. Sumarra. morio ? Owen. Mias Kassar. Satyrus Linn—(Agrias Schreber). NEO, SUMATRA. Wurmbii? Kuhl. Mias Pappan. Borneo. Troglodytes Gorilla Sav. and Wym. Ganoon. niger Geoff.—(Calvus, and Koolu Kamba, De Chaillu. Tschego Duvernoy.)+ Chimpanzee. W. Arr., Gaxoon, &c., from 10° N. long., to 10° S. Lat. vellerosus ? Gray. CAMEROON Mountains, W. Arr. Hylobates (Siamanga) syndactyla Raffles. Java AND SuMATRA. Lar Linn.—(longimana Schr. albimanus Vigors. Entel- loides Geoff.) Matacca. leuciscus Schreb.—(Moloch Awd. Mulleri and funereus Geoff. Hulock and concolor Harlan. choromandus and leucogenys Ogilby.) Java, Maxacca, Borneo, Soto, Cuina, East Inpies, Matapar, BENGAL, ARRACAN, ASSAM. variegatus AKuh/.—(agilis and Lar F. Cuv. Rafflesii Geoff.) East Inpres, Matacca, SUMATRA. Protopithecus antiquus Lartet.— (Pithecus antiquus De Blainy. Pliopethecus antiquus Gerv.) M1ocene.—San- sans, S. FRANCE. Mesopithecus Pentelicus Wagn. FroM THE PENTELIKON. GREECE. Dryopithecus sp. St. GAUDENS, S. FRANCE. Semnopithecus (Presbytes) auratus Desm.—(chrysomelas and Sumatranus Mull. femoralis Horsf.) Sumatra, Borneo, Morvucca. Borneo. Orang Outang. Bor- Semnopithecus comatus Desm.—(mitrata Esch. Siamensis. Schleg, nigrimanus Geoff.) Sumatra, JAvA, SIAM. cucullatus Geoff—(Johnii, jubatus Schr.) Nrt- GHERRIES AND GHATS. MADRAS. Entellus Dufresne.—(albipes Geoff. Anchises and Priamus? Blyth. Nepalensis, petrophilus, and schistaceus Hodg. Thersites? Blyth.) BomBay, Mapr., Nep., CEYLON. fascicularis? Raffles. SuMATRA. frontatus Muli. Borneo. hypoleucus Blyth.—(Dussumieri Geoff. Johni Mar- tin.) Marasar, TRAVANCORE. 7 leucoprymnus Desm.—(cephalopterus Zimm. Nestor Benn. latibarbatus Geoff.) Cryton. maurus Schreb.— (cristatus Raffles. pruinosus Desm.) SumatRA, Borneo. melalophus Cuv.—(flavimanus Geoff. rubicundus Muli. nobilis Gray.) Java, Sumatra, Bor- NEO. Monspessulanus Gery. MonvrPeE.ikER. nasicus Schreb.—(nasalis Shaw. rostrata Blum. Kahau Wurmbd.larvatus Geoff. recurvus Vigors.) Tertiary SLATES AT BoRNEO. Nemeus Linn.— (Douc Buff. pygarthrix Geof.) Cocuin CuINna. : obscurus Reid.—(leucomystax Mull. halonifer Can- tor. Barbei, Phairei, and albocinereus Blyth.) SrinGaporEt, MALAYAN ISLANDS. pileatus Blyth. CurirraGonG. Pyrrhus? Horsf. Cina. subhimalayanus De Blainv. SuBaIMALAYAN Di1s- TRICT. sp. Miocene Beps, Srvarix Hiss. Sp. ” ” ” ursinus ? Blyth. CryLon. * To give a complete list of all the authorities by whose works IJ have profited in compiling this list, would be almost to repeat the name of every recent writer on the subject; but I cannot refrain from specially mentioning those of Dr. Giebel, Dr. Baird, Dr. Gray, and Mr. Blyth, as those to whom I am most indebted. Next to these, I would acknowledge my obligations to Blasius, Bonaparte, Burmeister, Gay, Gervais, Keyserling, Leidy, Middendorf, Miiller, Nilsson, Pictet, Radde, Schreber, Schinz, Sclater, A. Smith, Schrenck, Tschudi, Wagner, and Waterhouse. t+ Dr. Gray has, I think, satisfactorily shown (‘“ Proc. Zool. Soc.” Dec. 1861, p. 273) that the species described by De Chaillu (“ Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist.” vii. 296 et seq.), under the names of T. Catvus and T. Kootoo Kampa, are not distinct from the Chimpanzee, T. n1GeR. The same conclusion should probably be come to with the supposed species, T. TscurGo, described by Duvernoy (Archiv. Mus. d’Hist. Nat.” vill. 1). The figures there given of its skeleton correspond with the skeleton of the Chimpanzee, and the very name which he has preserved for its specific designation is almost identical with the native name of the Chimpanzee; for Mr. Bowdich, in his account of his mission to Ashantee in 1817, p. 440, informs us that its name is INcHEGO. He speaks of two distinct kinds, the Znchego (Chimpanzee) and Ingena (Gorilla), and tells some curious tales, a mixture of truth and fable, of the habits, strength, and ferocity of the latter. SYNONYMIC LIST OF SPECIES OF MAMMALS. Cercopithecus albigena Gray.—(Presbytes albigena Gray.) Gan. albigularis Sy/es.—(monoides Geoff.) ZANGUEBAR. Campbelli? Waterhk. West Arrica. capillatus Geoff. Wrst Arrica? Cephus Eral.—(erythrotis Waterh.) W. Arnica, Fern. Po. cynosurus Geof—(Faunus Linn. Sabea Wolf. tephrops Bennett.) Wrst Arrica. Diana Linn.—(palatinus Wagn. Roloway Geoff.) West Arrica. erythrarchus Peters. MozamMBique. Erxlebenii Dalb.—(nigripes Du Chaillu.) Wrst Arrica, GABOON. flavidus Peters. Mosams. griseo-viridis Desm.—(engythithia Herm. cano- viridis Rupp. sub-viridis F. Cuv. cinereo-viridis Temm.) Anyss., Nite Districts. labiatus Geoff.—(Samango Sund.) Mozamsraur, ANGOLA. Lalandii Geoff—(pygerythrus? F. Cuv. pusillus Desm.) Soutu Arr., Cape G. Hore. leucampyx Jart.—(diadematus Geoff. Diana F. Cuv.) West Arrica. mona Eraxl.—(monacha Schr.) GamBra, SENEGAL. nictitans Ervl.—(Martini Waterh.) West Arrica, Fern. Po. ochraceus Peters. MozAMBIQUE. Petaurista Era/.—(Ascanius Schr. melanogenys and ludio Gray.) Guinea, ANGOLA, Conco. Pluto? Gray. ANGoLA. pogonias Bennett.—(Burnettii Gray.) Fer. Po. ruber F. Cuv.—(patas) and rufa Schreb. pyrrho- notus Hhrenb.) Nite District, SENAAR, NuBIA, KorporFan. rufo-viridis? Geoff. Eral. W.Arrica. Sabzeus Linn.—(callitrichus Geoff. griseus F. Cuv. chrysurus Blyth. Tantalus Ogilb. viridis Herm.) West Arrica, Carpe pr VERDE ISLANDS. talapoin Eral—(pileatus and capillatus Geoff. melarhinus Schinz.) Wrst Arrica. Werneri Geoff.? W. Arrica. Cercocebus Athiops Cuv.—(collaris Gray.) SENEGAMBIA ? fuliginosus Cuv.—(Aithiops Linn. Atys Aud.) W. Arr. Colobus Angolensis Sclater. ANGOLA. ferrugineus Wagn.—(fuliginosus Ogilb. Temminckii Kuhl. Pennantii Waterh. rufoniger Martin verus? Van Bened. olivaceus Schr.) Gamat, Fern. Po. Guereza Ruppell. West Arrica, S. W. Apyss. polycomus Geoff.—(leucomeros Ogilby. vellerosus Geof’. bicolor Wesm.) W.Arrica, GAMBIA, Satanas Waterh. Frrn. Po. ursinus Ogild. Sierra LEONE. Innuus (Macacus) arctoides. Geoff. Cocnin Cuina. Cyclopis Swink. Formosa. cynomolgus Desm.—(Aygula and cynocephalus Linn. mulatta Shaw. carbonarius and irus F. Cuv. aureus, Philippensis and palpebrosus Geoff. fascicularis Raffles.) East Inpres, Borneo, Java, Sumatra, Manacca, CrLenes, Banka, Timor, AND oTHER Maayan Is- LANDS. CaAFFRARIA, 321 Innuus ecaudatus Geoff.—(sylvanus Linn. pithecus Geoff.) Gis- RALTAR, NorTH AFRICA. eocenus Owen. SwuFFOLK. fusco-ater Schinz. CELEBES. Nemestrinus Desm.—(platypygus Schr. leoninus Blyth. libidinosus Geoff. carpolegos Raffes.) E. Inpies, Bor- NEO, SUMATRA. pileatus Geoff.—(Sinicus F. Cuv.) Cryton. plioceanus Owen. Upper Tertiary tn Essex. Rhesus Desm.—(erythreus Schreber. Nepalensis, oinops, and Pelops Hodg. Assamensis McClelland.) BenGat, NEPAL. Silenus Linn.—(veter Linn. senex Temm. vetulus Era.) CEYLON. Sinicus Desm.—(radiatus Geoff.) or MALABAR. speciosus F. Cuv.—(melanotus Oyilby.) JAran, Kiusvu, Nippon, Sixox, not further north than 35° N. Lat. Cynopithecus niger Bennett. Crises, Moiuccas. nigrescens? Temm. PHILIPPINES. Cynocephalus Babouin Desm.—(Anubis F. Cuvv. antiquorum Schreb.) Nire District, Apyss. ANGOLA. Doguera Puch. and Schimp. ApyssiNia. Gelada Wagn.— (Theropithecus niger Geoff.) Moountarns In Asyss., 7000 To 8000 FEET HIGH, PALESTINE. Hamadryas Desm.— (ASgyptiaca Hassel. Wagleri Agass. Thoth Ogilby.) Apyssini\, SENEGAL, ARABIA. leucopheus Desm.—(Drill F. Cuv. brachyurus Temm.) W.ArFRICcA. Mormon Jilig—(mandrill Buff. mantegar Tyson.) West AFRICA. olivaceus ? Geoff. GutNEA. porcarius Desm.—(comata Sehr. Sphingiola Herm. ursinus Wagn.) Sourn Arrica. Sphinx Iilig.—(papio Desm., choras Ogilb.) Gut- NEA. East Inpies, Coast PLATYRRHINI. Ateles ater F. Cuv. VENEz., GUIANA. Belzebuth Briss —(Brissonii Fisch. Marimonda and Aru Humb.) Brazir, Eavapor, VENEZ., GUIANA. Geoffroyi Kuhl—(fuliginosus Kul. frontatus Gray. varie- gatus Nat/erer. melanochir Desm. ) Bottv., S. BraziL, Cusa, Mexico. hybridus Geoff. Norru Brazin, Perv. marginatus Geoff.—(frontalis Bennett. albifrons Schinz. Chuva Humb.) S. Braziy, Peru. paniscus Linn. GuIANA, Brazit, Nort or THE AMA- ZON, AND EAST oF Rio NeGro ; not to the South. pentadactylus Geof—(Chameck Humb. subpentadacty- lus Desm.) Brachyteles arachnoides Geoff.— (hypoxanthus Desm. macro- tarsus Spia. tuberifer Geoff. hemidactylus Geof.) S. Brazib. Lagothrix Humboldtii Geof—(eana Humd. lagothrica Humb. infumatus and olivaceus Spia. Capparo Less. Cas- telnaui Geoff. Péppigii Schinz. Tschudii and Geoffroyi Puch.) Bortv., Perv, Eavap., VENEZ. PERv. TT 322 Mycetes Beelzebul Linn.—(rufimanus Kwhl. discolor Spix-.villo- sus Gray.) BraziL, Sourn or THE LOWER AMAZON —not on the North. niger Geoff—(straminea Geoff. Caraya Humb. barbata Spix.) Boxrvia, Paracuay, N. Pampas, Brazit, Perv. palliatus Gray.—(Beelzebul Schott.) New Grenapa, NIcaRaGua. seniculus Linn.—(chrysura Geoff. laniger Gray. auratus Gray.) N. Brazit, Eavap., New Gren., VENEZ., GUIANA. ursinus Geof.—(fuscus Zig. flavicaudata and Guariba Humb. bicolor? Gray.) N. Brazit, New Gren., Eavuapor, Perv. Cebus capucinus Linn.—(flavus, albus, and barbatus Geoff. libi- dinosus aud gracilis Spia. fulvus Desm. olivaceus Schomb. nigroyvittatus Wagn. versicolor Puch. cucullatus Spix. chrysopus F. Cuv. albifrons Humb.?) Throughout Tropica, Soura America, Costa Rica, Cotumsra, N. Gren., Guiana, VENEZ., PERU. cirrifer Wied.—(niger Geoff. cristatus F. Cuv.) Banta, PERNAMBUCO. fatuellus Linn.—(Apella Linn. lunatus and frontatus Kuhl. niger, elegans, and vellerosus Geoff. Azarae Regn.) Brazit, New Gren., Venez. Guiana, N. Pampas. hypoleucus Geof. CrntraL AMERICA. macrocephalus Spia.—(unicolor Spiv. castaneus Geoff.) GuraNa, AND To THE N.E, or THE Peruv. Cori. macrognathus Lund. Bone Caves tN Brasin. monachus Cuv.—(macrocephalus F. Cuv. xanthosternus Wied. xanthocephalus Spiv.) S. Braziz, From Rio JANeErRo To St. PAu. robustus Wied.—(variegata and cirrifera Hwmb. cirrifer Geof.) Brazii, Peru. Pithecia albicans Gray. Upper AMAZON. leucocephala Geoff.—(nocturna and adusta Zig. irrorata Olfers. rufibarbata Kuhl. capillamentosa’ Spia. pogo- nias Gray.albinasa, chrysocephala, and rufiventer Geoff.) Gu1ana, VENEz., N. Braziu. Miriquoina Geoff. Para. monachus Geoff.—(inusta and hirsuta Spix. irrorata Gray.) Brazit, S. of the Amazon, and E. Perv. nigra—F, Cuv. EauarortaL AMERICA. Brachyurus calvus Geoff. Brazriu, N. of the Upper Amazons, W. of Japura; not to the South. melanocephalus Hwmb.—(ouakary Syiv. ouakaria Gray.) Gu1ana, New Gren., N.W. Braziv. rubicundus Geoff. Brazir, North of the Upper Ama- zon, West of JApurA; not to the South. Sr. Pau’s. Satanas Hoffm., Humb.—(chiropotes Humb. Israelita Spix. sugulata Mill. Couxio Less.) Brazir, North of the Amazon, and East of Rio Necro, Guiana, Banks or ORINOCO. Nyctipithecus felinus Spiv.—(Commersonii Vigors. trivirgatus Cav. Azarae Humb. Humboldtii Schinz. Oseryi Geoff.) New Gren., Guiana, Brazit, Boriv., Perv. vociferans Spiv.—(lemurinus Geoff.) New Gren., AND ON THE BRAZILIAN AND PERUV. BORDER. APPENDIX. Callithrix caligata Wagn.—(brunnea Wagn.) Norra-Wesr BRAZIL. chlorocnomis Lund. Boner Caves or BRAZIL. cuprea Spix. Norru-West Braziu. donacophila D’Orb. Boriv.? Perv. Moloch Geoff.—(sakir Spiv. infulata Kuhl. discolor Geoff.) Norta-East Brazit. nigrifrons Spia.—(cinerascens and gigot Spix. melano- chir Wied.) Souts Braziu. personata Geoff. East anp Souru Brazit, Peru. primaeva Lund. Bone Caves or BRAZIL. torquata Geoff— (lugens and amictus Geoff.) New Gren., West BRAzIL. Chrysothrix sciurea Linn.—(leucopis Herm. Boliviensis, entomo- phagus and ustus Geoff. nigrivittatus Wagn.) Costa Rica, Corumpra, N. Gren., GUIANA, VeENeEz., BRAZIL. Hapale aurita Geoff. New Braziv. bicolor Spiv. Brazit, North of the AMAzon. chrysoleucus Wagn. Norrau-West Brazi. chrysomelas Pr. Max. Brazit, Perv. chrysopyga Wagn. Sourn Brazit. Devillei Geof.—(rufoniger Geoff.) Peru. flavifrons Geoff. Prrv. Geoffroy Pucheran. PANAMA. humeralifer Geof. Brazir. Iacchus Linn.—(vulgaris Geof.) BRAZIL. labiata Geof—(nigricollis Spix. fuscicollis Spia. and mystax Spiv.) N.Gren., Eauap., N.W. and W. Brazit, Perv. leonina Wagn. East. slope of Corp., Purumayo, Ca- QUETA. leucocephala Geoff. All Braztu. melanura Geoff. Norra-West Brazit. Midas Linn.—(rufimanus Geoff.) Gurana, VENEz., N. and N.W. Brazit, Perv. nigrifrons Geoff.—(Illigeri Puch.) Cotumpia? nitida. Perv. (dipus Geoff.—(Titi Less.) Eavap., GuIANA, VENEZ. penicillata Geof. S. Brazi. pileata Geoff. S. AmEricA. pygmea Wagn. Brazrit and Perv. rosalia Linn.—(marikina Less.) S. Brazi. Gu1ana, VENEZ., E. Darien, New GREN., rufiventer. Mexico. tamarin Link.—(ursula Geoff.) Brazit, 8. of the Lower AMAZON. ursula Wagn. Guiana, PARAGUAY. Weddelii Deville. Boutvra. LeMuURID. Indris albus Vinson. Manpac. brevicaudatus Geoff.—(Indri Sonn.) Mapac. Propithecus diadema Bennet. Manpac. Varecia leucomystax Bartlett. Manac. nigra Geoff. Mapac. rubra Geoff. Manage. varia Geoff.—(macaco Linn.) Mapa. Lemur Catta Linn. Mapac. SYNONYMIC LIST OF SPECIES OF MAMMALS. Prosimia albifrons Geoff. Mapaa. albimana Audeb. Manpac. Anjuanensis Geoff. Mapac., Commoro Istanps, AN- JOANA ISLE. collaris Geoff.—(fulvus Geoff. brunneus Van der Hoeven.) Manac. — @ coronata Gray. Mapac. melanocephala Gray. Mapac. mongoz Linn. Manpaa. nigrifrons Gray. Manag. rubriventer Geoff.—(flaviventer Geoff. ) rufifrons Bennet.—(chrysampyx Geoff.) xanthomystax Gray. Manage. Otolemur Agisambanus Cog. ZaAnziBar. Otogale crassicaudata Peters. East and West Arrica, NarTat, MozampBiquE, Garnettii Ogilby. Porr Nara. pallida Gray. Frrnanpvo Po. Microrhynchus laniger Gmel.—(lanatus Schreb, longicaudatus Geoff. Awahis Jourd.) MapagG. Hapalemur griseus Geoff. Mavac. olivaceus Geoff. Mapa. Cheirogaleus Milii Geof—(typus Cuv.) Mapac. Smithii Gray. Manpaa. typicus A. Smith. Manac. Lepilemur (Microcebus) furcifer Blainv. Mapac. murinus Miller.—(Madagascariensis and pusillus Geoff. rufus Schinz.) Mapac. mustelinus Geof Mapaa. myoxinus Peters. Eastern Mapac., Mozamp. (?) Callotus Monteiri Gray. West Arrica. Galago Allenii Waterh. West Arrica, Gapoon, Fer. Po. conspicillatus Geoff. Porr NaTat. Demidoffii Fisch. W. Arr., GaBoon- Madagascariensis Geof. Mapaa. Maholi A. Smith.—(Senegalensis? Peters.) S. Arrica, Mozams. murinus Murr. Oxp CaLaBar. Peli Temm. GuINEA. Senegalensis Geof?.—( Cuvieri and Geoffroyii Fisch. Galago Wagn.) W. Arrica, SENEGAL, GAMBIA. Senegalensis Ruppel. Sennariensis Gray. SENNAAR. Teng Sundev. NILE pisrricr. Nycticebus Javanicus Geoff. Java. tardigradus Van d’ Hoev.—(Bengalensis Geoff.) Bor- NEO and Sumar, S. of Cuina. Do. (var. B. Blyth. Maayan PENIN. Loris gracilis Linn.—(Ceylanicus Fisch.) CryLon, PonDICHERRY. Perodicticus Potto Gmelin.—(Geoffroyi Benn. Guineensis Desm.) Srerra LEONE. Arctocebus Calabariensis J. A. Smith. Outp CaLapar. Tarsius spectrum Pall,—(macrotarsus Nau. Daubentonii Fisch. Bancanus Horsf.) Borneo, CeLeses, Banca, SuMa- TRA. Fischeri Desm.—(fuscus s. fuscomanus Fisch.) Borneo, CevesEes, BANCA. Mapaa. Mapaa. ABYSSINIA. Inpia, Suma., 328 CHEIROMYINA. Cheiromys (Daubentonia) Madagascariensis* Gmelin.—(psilo- dactylus Schreb.) Manag. GALEOPITHECID®. Galeopithecus Philippensis Waterh.—(macrourus? Temm.) Put. Istes, Coast or New GUINEA. volans Linn.—(Temminckii Waterh. marmoratus Temm. Ternatensis Geoff. rufus Temm. variegatus Geoff. undatus Linn.) Java, Borneo, Siam, SUMATRA, CARNIVORA. FeLipa. Machairodus cultridens Gerv.—(Etruscus Cuvy. cultridens Ar- vernensis and megantereon Croiz and Job. Sain- zelli Aym. maritimus Gerv.) PLIocENE BEDS OF AUVERGNE AND Monte ier. latidens Owen.—(cultridens Blainy.) Bone Cave 1N Kent, Dituvium ar Puys. neogeus Lund.—(Smilodon Blain. populator Lund.) Bone Caves my Brazin. palmidens Blainv. (brevidens Pomel.) Miocene BEDS AT SANSANS. primevus Leidy. Lower Mrocenre or NeprasKa. Felis antediluviana Karstens. DarmsTaprt. antiqua Cuy. Perhaps the living Leopard—(Issiodorensis and brevirostris, Croiz and Job.) Dituvium Mip. Europe. aphanista Kaup. Miocene SAnps at EppLesHeim. atrox Leidy. Mrocenr Mavuvatses Terres, Missouri. aurata Temm.—(Moormensis Hodg. nigrescens Hodg. Tem- minckii Vigors.) Fire Cat of Burma. S.E. HimMMat., Burma, Maayan Pen., Sum., Born. ? Bengalensis Desm.—(Javanensis and Sumatrensis Horsf. minuta Temm. pardichrous Hodg. Reevesii Gray. rubi- ginosa Geoff. servalinus Gray. Temminckii Vigors undata Desm. wndulata Schinz. Wagati Hiliot.) S.E. Asta, from Turset to Java, Timor, SuMaTRA, Borneo ? brachyura Swinhoe. Formosa. caligata Temm.—(Lybica Oliv. obscura and Caffra Desm. erythrotis Hody. nigripes Burch. Jacquemonti Geoff.) W. Arr., S. Arr., Eeyprt, Inpra, S. Asta. Canadensis Desm.—(borealis Temm.) Canada Lynx. Norru- ERN REGIONS OF NortH AMERICA. Caracal—Sehreler.—(chrysothrix Temm. melanotis Gray.) N. and S. Arr., Asyss., Nite Dist., Inp., CENTRAL Inpia. Catus Linn. Wild cat. MrppLe anp Sourn Evropre, Wrest Asta. cervaria Temm.—(virgata Nilss.) Sourn Siperia, East ASIA. Charltoni Gray. Uvr. Assam, SikKrm, Buoran. * This is doubtless the Sciurus Madagascariensis of Shaw. 4 APPENDIX. Felis Chaus Guldens.—(affinis Gray. catolynx Pall. Dongolensis Hemp. and Ehrenb. Kutas Pears. Ruppelii Brandt.) Egyptian Cat. N.E. Arr., Ecyet, Asyss., Nive Disr., S. Arrica, S.W. Asta, Mesoporamia, S. SIBERIA, Inp1a, BenGat, ARAKAN. Christoli Gervy. PLiocENE BEDS oF MonTPELIER. colocola F. Cuv.—(strigillata Wagn.) Gurana, SuRINAM. concolor Linn.—(discolor Schreber.) Puma. Norru and S. Amer., from CANADA to TIERRA DEL FUEGO. cristata Fale. MioceN& BEDS OF THE SEVALIK HILLs. domestica Brisson. Domestic Cat. EVERYWHERE. Dosul Hodg.—(Duvancellii ? Hodg.) Nepar, THIBET. elata ? Bray. Mtocenr serps S. FRANCE ? Enghioliensis Blainv. BritGian Bone Caves. exilis Lund. Boner Caves IN Brasin. eyra Desm.—(unicolor Traill.) Gu1ana, Br. N. Pampas. fasciata Raf. American Red Cat. N. America, Mis- souRI, WASHINGTON TERRITORY. Geoffroyi Gerv. Pampas, Parag. grisea Gray.—(armillata F. Cuv.) Tropr. AMER. (Cynailurus) guttata Herm.—(venatica A. Smith.) SENE- GAL, Korporan, ABYSSINIA. Hernandesii Gray. Mazarian, Mextco. Irbis Ehrb. Ounce or Snow Leopard. (uncia Schreb. Par- dus Pall,) Hicu recions or Mipp.e Asta, SIBERIA. Isabellina Blyth.—(Thibetanus Hodg.) Thibet Lynx. Turn, Jacobita Cornalis. HiGHLANvs or Bottvia. Japonensis? Gray. Japan ?* (Cynailurus) jubata Schreber. Cheetah. West anp S. Inpia, Syria, Arabia, Persta, Mesopor., S. SrBer., between Casp. AND ARAL, CEYLON Juvillacea? Bray. Mutocene Beps S. FRANCE. Leo Linn.—(Asiaticus Auct. Barbarus Fisch. Capensis Auct. Gambianus Mam. Lith. Goojeratensis Smee. Persicus Swain. Senegalensis Fisch.) All Arr., S.E. Asta, Guz- ERAT in INDIA. leptorhina? Bray.—(leptorhyncha Brav.) MrocenE BEDS S. FRANCE. lynx Linn.—(lyncuta Nilss. Kattlo Schrenk.) N. and W. Eur., S. Srperra. macroscelis Temm.—(macrosceloides Hodg. nebulosa Gri- pith.) Turs., Mountatns in S.E. Asta, Sum., Born. macrura Wied.—(Wiedii Schinz. elegans Less.) Trop. 8. Am., Braz., ParaG., Peru. maniculata Rupp.—(pulchella Gray.) N. A¥r. Manul Pallas.—(nigripectus Hodg.) Tuiver, E. Asta, AMURLAND. margarita Loche. ALGIEeRs. marmorata Martin.—(Diardii Jard. Ogilbii Hody.) Matac., JAVA. megalotis Temm. Trmor. melanura Ball? Trop. AMER. minuta Wayn. Bony Cave RABENSTEIN, mitis #. Cuv. (Brasiliensis F. Cuv. pardalis Wied. Mara- caya Wagn.) Braziu. neglecta’ Gray. (servalina Ogilby. Senegalensis Less. ?) GAMBIA. * Mr. Swinhoe writes to Dr. Gray, 27th July, 1864, ‘‘ I strongly suspect that the animal you procured with a Japanese stamp, was Felis Onca Linn.—(Panthera Schreb. Mexicana Herm.) Trop, N. and S. America. ornata Gray.—(Huttoni Blyth. inconspicua Gray. Serva- lina Jard.) Desert reGcion or N.W. Inp1a, DuKKuN, Hazara Country. pajeros Desm. Pampas, ParaGc. ro StRArTS OF MAGELLAN. pardalis Linn. Ocelot. (armillata #. Cuv. Griffithii Jard: catenata Griff. pardaloides Bruno.) Trop. N. Amen., Mexico, TrinipAp, Brazil, Peru, Paraconia, N. Pampas. Pardina Temm. Southern Lynx. S. Eurorr, PorruGat, Spain, Sarpin., Sicity, GREECE, TURKEY. Pardoides Owen. Rep Crac NEwBourRNn. Pardus Linn.—(antiquorum Griff. chalybeata Herm. fusca Meyer. longicaudata F. Cuv. Leopardus Schreber. melas Peron. Nimr. Ehrenb. panthera Eral. poecilura Valen- ciennes. variegata Wagn. Chinensis, Ellioti and Hors- fieldi Gray. Ogilbyi Hodg. Nepalensis Horsf. varia Schreber.) Leopard or Panther. ALL ArricA AND S. Asta, Sum., Borneo. PrrRHApPS FOSSIL IN DituvyiuM In Mippie Evrore. perniger ? Hodg. Nerpaut. pictus Gray. Trop. AMER. planiceps Vigors. Penins. or Inp., CoROMANDEL SIDE, Borneo ? protopanther Lund. Bone Caves in Braziv. pseudopardalis H. Smith. Bay or CAMPEACHY. rufa Guldens,—(montanus Harl. maculata 17g. fasciatus, Floridanus and aureus Rajin.) Bay Lynx. West Coasr or N. Am., Mexico. rutila? Waterh. Wuxst Arrica. Serval Schreb.—(Capensis Forst. Galeopardus Desm.) Se- negalensis Less.) S. Arrica, speleaa Gold.—(pardinensis and Arvernensis Croiz. and Job.) Bone Caves 1x Mippie Europe, QuEDLINGBURG, EGELN, GayLenrevuTH, LUNEVILLE, KirKDALE IN YORKSHIRE. tigrina Linn. The Margay. (tigrinoides Gray. Mexicana Sauss.) Tropica, Amer., Mexico, BraziL, VENEZ. tigris Linn. Inpra, Java, Sum., Burma, Cuina, NE- PAL, S. SrpeR1A, AMURLAND. torquata F. Cuv. hybrid between common Cat and F. Ben- galensis. viverrina Bennett,—(Himalayana Warw. celidogaster Temm, viverriceps Hodg.) Inp1a, Cryton, Burma, TEeNas- sERIM, Lower VALLEYS oF Himat., Maracca, For- mosa. (Erroneously said by Temminck to be American.) Yaguarandi Desm.—(Darwinii Martin.) Guiana, Braz., Trop. N. Am., Peru, Parac., Pamvas. Pseudailurus quadridentalus Gery. (tetradon Blainv.) Muiocenr BEDS AT SANSANS. VIVERRID&. Viverra antiqua De Blain.—(primeva Pom.) MroceNr BEDS IN THE DEPARTMENT OF ALLIER. Ashtoni Swink. Foocnow, Cuina. Civetta Schreb.—( Poortmanni Puch.) W. Arrica, GuIN., Fern. Po, Gasoon, Nite Disr., Abyss. askin procured by the Japanese at their trading stations. No Leopard is said by the Japanese to inhabit the islands of Japan.” SYNONYMIC LIST OF SPECIES OF MAMMALS. Viverra felina Thund.—(rubiginosa ? Puch.) S. Arr. JSerreo-jurassica Jig. fossa Schreb. (Daubentonii Gray.) Manpac. Genetta Linn.—(vulgaris and maculata Gray. afra F. Cuv. Bonapartei Locke.) S. Eur., ALL Ara. W. Asta, Mr. CarMet. gracilis Miil/—(Hardwickii Lesson. Linsang Hardw. pre- hensilis Schinz.) Inp1a, Java? Sum.? Matacca ? Sram ? incerta? Gerv. SANSANS. Malaccensis Gmel.—(Gunda Ham. Rasse Horsf. Indica Geoff. Leveriana Shaw. Bengalensis Gray. fasciata Schreb. Manillensis Eydoux. pallida Gray. tunga Peters.) Invta, Ner., Burm., Cryton, Maracca, Java, Sumatra, Cura, Formosa, Ansuan Is. pardicolor Hodg.—(perdicator Schinz.) Nrpau. pardina Geoff. (Poensis Waterh. Genettoides Temm. Fieldiana Du Chaill. Servalina Puch.) W. Arrica, F. Po., Senec., Guin., Gas. pardochrous Hodg. Nera. Richardsoni Tiomps.—(Poensis jun. Waterh., genettoides Temm.) W. AFR. Sansanensis Lart. Miocene Beps, SANSANS, S. FRANCE. Senegalensis Fisch.—(Aubryana Puch.) N. Arr., W, Arrica, SeneGAL, Gapoon, E. Arrica, ABYSSINIA, Doneora. Simorrensis Gerv.—SAanSans. Tangalunga Gray. Sumarra, Borneo, CELEBEs, AMB., Mat. Pen. tigrina Schreber. Musk Cat.— (vulgaris, Amer. and Abyssinica Rupp. genetta Peters.) Care or Goop Hore, Natat, MosamsBrave, AByss. Zibetha Linn.—(zibethica Linn. undulata Gray. civet- toides, melanurus, and orientalis Hodg.) Inv., TeNas., Matay, Pen., Maracca, Java, Sum., Corina, Born., CrveBes, AMBoyNA, Formosa. Bassaris astuta Licht.—(fulvescens Gray.) Mexico. Do. var. Sumichrasti Sauss. Mrxico. Galidia concolor Geoff.—(unicolor Geoff.) Mapac. elegans Geof. Manaa. olivacea Geoff. Manpac. Hemigalea Boiei Mul/.—(Hardwickii, Derbyanus, and Zebra Gray, Philippensis Schinz.) Borneo, Matacca. Arctitis Binturong Raffi.—(penicillatus Temm. aureus, albifrons, and ater F. Cuv.) Matacca, Sum., Java, TENass., Arracan, ASSAM, NEP. Cynogale Bennettii Gray.—(Lamictis Carchanas Blainv. Pota- mophilus barbatus Mill.) Borneo. Paradoxurus binotatus Gray—( Hamiltonii Gray. annulatus Wagn.) Frernanpo Po., W. Arr., ASHANTEE, GUINEA. Bondar Gray.—(Pennantii Gray. hirsutus Hodg.) Guryea, Nep. N. Benar. crassiceps Puch. Arrica? Crossii Gray. Invi. dubius Gray. Java. fasciatus Desm.—(Geoffroyi Fisch. musanga Raff. quadriscriptus Hodg., setosus Homb. and Jacq., Pallasii ? Finlaysonii? quinquelineatus? musan- goides ? and Jourdanii Gray. «uratus De Blainv. leucopus Ogilb. var. Javanicus Horsf. typus var. 325 Sumatranus Fisch.) Nep., Inv, Mara., Java, Sum. Borneo. Paradoxurus Grayi Benn.—ileucopus Qgilb. Nipalensis Hodg., auratus De Blainv.) Inp. Nep. laniger? Hodg. Nev. larvatus Temm. CuHina. leucomystax Gray.—(Ogilbyii Fraser. Jourdanii and Jeucocephalus Gray.) Sum., BorNEo. leucotis Blyth. Trnass., ARRACAN. macrodus Gray? Not known. nigrifrons Gray. Inv. Philippensis Camell.—(aureus Waterh.) Puri. IsLes. prehensilis Gray. Matay Ist. stigmaticus Temm. Borneo. strictus Hodg. Inv. trivirgatus Gray. Matacca, Java, Sum., Tenass. typus F. Cuv.—(niger Desm. hermaphroditus Pall. Pallasii Of/o.) Inp., Bencar, Mapras, Ke Ist. near Aru. Zeylanicus Schred. (Zeylonica Pall. Ceylonensis Bodd. aureus F. Cuv. typicus De Blainy.) CeYLon. Cryptoprocta ferox Bennelt.—(typicus A. Smith.) Manpagas. Galidictis vittata Gray. Mapac. striata Geoff. Manage. Herpestes Adailensis Heugl. Apai Coast Arr. albescens Geoff. E. Arr., SENAAR. albicaudus Geoff—(albicaudatus A. Smith.) S. Arr., Natat, SenrG., GABON. apiculatus Gray.—(pulverulentus Wagn.) S. Arr. badius A. Smith.—(ratlamuchi and Cawii A. Smith.) S. Arr., GUINEA? Bennettii Gray. Mapac. brachyurus De Blainv. Maracca, Borneo. Caffer Gmel.—(Pharaonis Ver. not Geoff.) S. Arr., Nata. cancrivorus Hodg.—(urva Hodg.) Nepau in Caverns, ARAKAN, AFFGHAN. crassicauda Peters. E. Arr., Tete, Boror. dorsalis Gray.—(Pharaonis, var. A. Smith.) Edwardsii ? Geof. Eeyrr. exilis Eydoux. Trenasserim, Burma, Maracca. fasciatus Desm—(Zebra Rupp. suricata Child. ich- neumon Schred. mungo Fisch.) W. Arr., CENTRAL Arr., LAKE Tscuap, Care or G. Hore, Apyss., Nite Dist. fimbriatus Temm. Inpta ? fuscus Waterh.—(Smithii Gray, rubiginosus Kelaart, Ellioti Blyth.) S. Inp., Mapras, CeyLon. Gambianus Ogilby. W. Arr. gracilis Geoj.—(nigricaudatus Geoff.) Axyss. Grantii Gray. E. Arr. griseus Gm. (pallidus Schinz.) Nepv., Inp., Sum. Ichneumon Linn.—(Pharaonis Geoff. gypti Tiedem. Edwardsii Geoff. Plinii Shaw.) N. Arr., Nive Distr. SENEGAL. Javanicus Horsfi—(mangusta Temm.) Java, SuM., Matay Pen. Jerdonii Gray. Manpras. jodoprymnus Heuyl. E. ApysstNia. S. Arr. 326 Herpestes Lefebrii Des Murs. and Prev, N.E. Arrica. lepturus Smith. S. Arnica. leucurus Ehren. Nive Dist., Nusra, Doneora. loempo Temm. GurNEA. Maccarthrie Gray—(fulvescens Kelaart.) CrYLon. Madagascariensis A. Smith. Mavaa. major? Geoff. Eoyrr? Malaccensis 7. Cuv.—(Frederici Desm. Leschenaultii and pallidus var. Schinz.) Mavacca. melanurus Martin. W. Arr., Srerra LEONE, DAMARA- LAND. Melleri Gray. E. Arrica. mutgigella Rupp. Apyss. Nepalensis Gray.—(auropunctatus.Javanicus and griseus Hodg. pallipes Blyth.) Inp1a, Nepau, Assam, AFF- _ GHANISTAN. nigricauda Puch. SENEGAL. nigripes Puch. GABoon. Numidianus F. Cuv. Nomipra. nyula Hodg.—(nigula Hody.) Nep. ochraceus Gerrard. E. Arrica. Ogilbyi A. Smith. S. Arnica. ornatus Peters. E. Arrica. paludosus Cuv.—(urinatrix A. Smith. palustris Rupp. paludinosus Peters, atylax Schinz.) S. ArFr., Quiumanr, E. Arr., GuINEA, parvulus Sundev, S. Arr. penicillata Cuv.—(Levaillantii A. Smith. albescens Geoff. Stedmanni Ogilby. typicus A. Smith. ruber Geoff.) S. Arr. Persicus Gray, Prrsta. Pluto Temm. Gutnea, W. Arr., BE. Arr. puisus Pelers. E. Arr. punctatissimus Temm. CENTRAL AND E. Arr. punctulatus Gray.— (badius var. 2 Temm.) Narat. robustus Gray. Wuuite NILE. rutilus Gray. CamBocia. sanguineus Rupp. ABYSSINTA. semitorquatus Gray. tenionotus A. Smith. thysanurus Wagn. Inv., CASHMERE. undulatus Pefers. E. Arr., Mosams. Vansire F. Cuv.—(galera Eravl.) Mapac. venaticus Gray.—(badius var. Gray.) E. Arr. vitticollis Bennett. Inp., MapRas. Widdringtonii Gray. S. Eur., Spain. Crossarchus obscurus Geoff.—(typicus A. Smith, dubius F. Cuv.) W. Arr., E. Arr.? rubiginosus Wagn. Inv. Eupleures Goudotii Doy. Tamatave In Mapac. Rhyzena suricata Eral.—(Zenick Gray. tetradactyla Pallas. typicus A. Smith. viverrina Desm. Capensis Desm.) S. Arrica. Borneo. S. Arr., NATAL. Hy 2n1p&. Hyena crocuta Erxvl.—(maculata Gray. Capensis Desm.) W. Arr., 8S. Arr., Asyss., NILE Dist. brunnea Thunb.—(fusca Geoff. villosa Smith.) S. Arrrca. hipparionum Gerv. PutoceNr FRESHWATER BEDS AT VAUCLUSE. APPENDIX. Hyena prisca Serr. (Montispessulana and Perrierensis, Croiz. and Job, brevirostris, Gerv.) Boner Caves at Lune- VILLE. spelea Goldf.—(crocuta fossilis Cuy. spelea major Goldf. intermedia Serr. gigantea Holl. Arvernensis and dubia Croiz and Job.) Bone Caves 1n Mrppe Europe. striata Linn.—(virgata Hodg. vulgaris Cuv.) N. AFR., Nite Dist., Mesopor., Inp1a. Proteles Lalandii Geoff.—(cristatus Sparm. hyznoides Desm. typicus A. Smith.) S. Arr. Canip&. Cynodon palustre Aym. FresHwater Marts or Puy. Parisiense Cuv.—(viverroides De Blainy. lacustre Gerv.) Parts GYPSUM, LIGNITE NEAR APT, velaunum Aym. Lower FRESHWATER Marts oF Puy. Protocyon troglodotes Lund. Bone Caves IN Brazit, validus Lund. Bone Caves 1N Brazin. Speothos pacivorus Lund. Bone Caves, BRAzIL. Paleonictis gigantea De Blainv. LiGNirE oF Sorssons. Soricictis elegans ? Pomel. Miocene BepS IN AUVERGNE. leptorhyncha ? Pomel. Miocene BEDS IN AUVERGNE. Elocyon martrides ? Aym. FRESHWATER MARLS OF Puy. Abathmodon, sp. Lund. Bone Caves, Brazit. Hyenodon (Pterodon) brachyrhynchus Blainv. From RABENSTEIN AND THE BANKS OF THE TARN. (Pterodon) dasyuroides Blainv. Eocene BEps, PARIS GYPSUM. leptorhynchus Laiz and Par. oF COURNAN AND Puy. : (Taxotherium) Parisensis Lauriell. (Cuvieri Pom.) Eocene, Paris GyPSuM. Requienii Gerv. (minor Gery.) FRESHWATER LIME- STONE NEAR ApT AND ALAIS. Otocyon megalotis Cuv. (Caffer Licht. Lalandii Desm.) S. Arr., ZAMBESIA. Canis alpinus Pallas. Srper. antarcticus Shaw. ParaG., FALKLAND ISLEs. aureus Linn.—(adustus Sund. Algirensis Geoff. anthus Rupp. Dalmatinus Fitz. lupaster Ehrb. mesomelas Sehreb. mi- crurus Reichb. Syriacus Erhb. variegatus Rupp. Indicus C. H. Smith.) Sovurn Evrors, N. Arrica, Nusta, Nive District, E. Asta, Inpia, NEPAL. Azarae Wied.—(Brasiliensis, fulvicaudus, fulvipes ? Waterh. melanostomus Wagn. Aguarachai Azar. melampus Wagn.) Brazit, Peru, Pampas, Paraa. Bengalensis Gray.—(Kokree Sykes. Indicus Hodg. rufescens, dorsalis, xanthurus, and chrysurus Gray. pallipes Sykes. pallidus and famelicus Rupp. Sabbar Ehrb.) From Inpta westward to Sivar, Nite Dist., Korporan, DonGoas AND Darrour, SENEGAL. cancrivorus Desm. Caama A. Smith. corsac Linn. Lower MioceneE BEDS Mountain or Siberian Red Wolf. Aura, VENEZz., GUIANA. S. Arrica, Namaqua LAnp. Hicu Steppes iy Cenrrat Asta, MeEso- POTAMTA, from the WoiGa and Caspian Sea, to LAKE Baikat, Moneoia, and Tu1Ber. Dingo Blum.—(Australasie Desm.) AusTRALIA, NEW ZEALAND (introduced. ) Entrerianus Burm. Entre Rios, La Prata. SYNONYMIC LIST OF SPECIES OF MAMMALS. 327 Canis familiaris Linn. Domestic Dog. (Sinensis Rupp.) Evrry- WHERE. Do. var. fossilis, viz.— brevirostris Croiz. \ Issiodorensis Croiz. juvillaceus Brav. medius Brav. Neschersensis Croiz. propagator Kaup. gracilis Burm. S. AMER. Grayiformis Hodg. Nepau. hodophylax ? Temm. Japan. incertus D'Orb. From the bank of the PARANA. jubatus Desm.—(campestris Wied.) Brazix, Pampas, PATAGONIA. laniger Hodg. Turper. latrans Say.—(ochropus Esch. frustror Woodhouse.) Prairie Wolf. W. Norra Amer. littoralis Baird. IsLanp or SAN MiIGuEL, CALIFORNIA. lupus Linn. Wolf. Eurorr, Nova ZemMBLa, SIBERIA, Upper AsIA. Do. var. speleus Goldf.—(speleus minor Wagn.) In piLu- vium and bone caves and bone breccias in Europe. Magellanicus Gray.—(griseus Gray.) Paraconta, STRAITS or MAGELLAN. macrourus Baird.—(Utah Aud. and Bach.) CrntrauN. AMER. megamastoides Pom. Tertiary beds of Issorre. occidentalis Awct.—American Wolf. (griseus Sad. albus Sab. variabilis Wied. gigas Towns.) OreGcon, Upper Mis- SOURI. Do. var. nubilus Say. W. America, NEBRASKA, PUGET’S Sounp. var. Mexicanus Gm. Mexico. var. ater Rich. SouTHERN STATES. var. rufus Aud. and Bach. TExas. pallipes ? Sykes. Plains of the Deccan, [ypta. palustris Meyer.—(Galecynus Oceningensis Owen.) Ter- tiary beds of OENINGENS. primaevus Hodg.—(Himalayensis Less. Dukhunensis Sykes. rutilans Mil/. Javanicus Cuv. Sumatrensis Hardw ) Inp., Nepat, Mapras, Sram, JavA, SUMATRA, Borneo. Procyonoides Gray.—(viverrinus Temm.) AMURLAND, Matacca, Curna, Japan. protalopexr Tund. Bone-caves of BRAzIL. robustior Lund. Bone-caves of Braziu. venaticus Burch.—(Lycaon Burch. hyenoides Cuv. pic- tus Temm. tricolor Brooks. typicus A. Smith.) Hyzena- dog. S. Arrica. vetulus Lund. Brazir, Perv. Diluvium and Bone caves, and Tbreccias in MrppLe and Soutu Europe. Vulpesferrilatus Hodg. NeEpau. flavescens Gray.—(Nipalensis Gray. montanus Hodg. not Pears Griffithii Blyth). N.W. Himmat., Perstra. fuliginosus ? Hody. NeEpat. fulvus Desm. Common American Red Fox. East Coast or N. Amer., Mexico, JAPAN. var. decussatus—Desm. East N. Am. var. argentatus—Shaw. East N. Am. gypsorum Cuvy. Eocene Beps, Paris GypsuM. lagopus Linn.—(fuliginosus Shaw. Isatis Gmel. Karagau Pall.) N. Eurore, Nova Zempia, Srperia, N. or Norru AMERICA. Vulpesleucopus Blyth. Desert regions N.W. Inp1a. montanus Pears—(Himalaicus Ogilby.) N.W.Hrma.. Parisiensis? Cuy. EocrNnr BEeps, Parts Gypsum. pusillus Blyth. Punsap Sart Rance. velox Say.—(cinereo-argentatus Schreb. microtus Reich.) N. AMERICA. Virginianus Lral. Kit Fox. (cinereo-argentatus Eral., Schreb. griseus Bodd. tricolor Geoff.) N. America, from PENNSYLVANTA to CALIFORNTA. vulgaris Linn.—(alba Pall. alopex Linn. Anubis Efhrd. Aegyptiacus Sonn. cruciata Pall. crucigera Briss. Hodg- soni Gray. melanotus Pall. niger Scheff. Niloticus Desm. vulpecula Ehrb. variegatus Rupp. variegatoides Smith.) Mip. anp S. Europe, Turan., Steppes S. Srperra, N. AFRICA. var. melanogaster Bonap. Iraty, TuRKEY, GREECE. var. fossilis Cuv. In Diruvium and Bone-caves and speleus Cuv. {breccia over the greatest part of Eur. Zerda Zimm. The Fennec. (Zaarensis Skiold. fennecus Less. Saharensis Leuck. pygmeus Leuck. Arabicus Sonn. Brucei Desm. aurita Blum.) N. Arr,, Nite D1st., SAHARA, MusvTeELip&. Enhydris marina Stel/.—(Lutris Linn. Stelleri Fisch.) NorTHERN Astra, KamrscuatKa, JAPAN, W. Coast N. AMERICA, CALIFORNIA. Pterura Sanbachi Gray. Demerara. Latax Canadensis Sab.—(Brasiliensis Harl. Hudsonica F. Cuv. lataxina F. Cuv. insularis 7. Cuv. enudris F. Cuv. mollis Gray. destructor Barnst.) N. America, ANTILLES. Californica Baird. not Gray, Cauir. Aonyx aurobrunnea Hodg. NeEpatu. Calabarica Murr. Oxtp CaLapar. indigitata Hodg.—(Sikimensis Hodg.) Nera. inunguis F. Cuv.— (Lalandii v. Delalandii Less. Capensis Schinz. Gambianus Gray. Poensis? Waterh.) Souru Arrica, Mozamps. Carer or G. Hope, FERNANDO Po. leptonyx Horsf—(cinerea Iilig. Semul Raffi. perspicillata Geoff. Hodg. Horsfieldii Gray. fusca Desch.) Java, Sum., Borneo. Lutra antigua Meyer. Bonr-caves, Europe. aterrima Sehrenck. SeEA or OcHotsK, AMOURLAND. aurobrunnea Hodg. Nepau. barang F. Cuv. Sumatra, Maracca. Brasiliensis Cuv.—(Brasiliana Shaw.) BRraziu. Bravardi Pom.—(elaveris Croiz.) Pumice-stone alluvium AUVERGNE. Chilensis Bennett. brachydactyla Wagn. (Californica Gray. felina Mol. Platensis Waterh. Peruviensis Gerv.) Peru, Cuitor, W. Trop. S. Amer., Guatem., CAtir., SrreaMs or La Piatra, KamMTscHaTKA. ferreo-jurassica Jig. Bone breccia and caves, EvRoPE. maculicollis Licht.—(Grayi Verr.) S. Arrica. montana Tschudi. Peru. monticola Hodg. Nrpat. Nair F. Cuv—(Chinensis and Indica Gray. Tarayensis Hodg.) N. Inp1a, Formosa, Cutna. 328 Lutra Nepalensis Gray. Nepau. nudipes ? Melchior. DENMARK, SEA-COAST. Paraguensis Jeng. PARAGUAY. Zalletoni Geoft.—(Clermontensis Blainy. Mombachensis v. Meyer. robusta Nordm. incerta Gerv.) Sansans, S. FRANCE. vulgaris Hrx!.—(Roensis Ogilb.) M. anv S. Eur., Tur., Srepe. S. Srs., Corina, Mesop., E. Asta, JAPAN. Icticyon venaticus Lund.—{Melictis Beskii.) Braztu. Mustela Africana Desm. Eoyrr, Nive District. agilis Tschudi. PrruyrAn CorDILLERAsS. albinucha Gray.—(Zorilla albinucha Gray.) ANGOLA. alpina Fisch.—(Altaica Pall.) Tse HIGH STEPPES OF E. Srperra, ALTAr Mountains. aureoventris Gray. EaQuapor. boccamela Bonap. — (subpalmata Swnd.) Meopir. Dist., Nrre Dist. Brasiliensis Sewast. — (frenata Licht. Gray.) Braziv, Mex., CaAuir. canigula Hodg.—(Hodgsonii Gray.) NeEpAu. Cicognanii Bonap.— (fusca Aud. and Bach.) Unir. St., West Coast or N. Am. Miocene beds, SAnsans, S. FR. Pliocene beds at MonTPELIER. elegans Pom. Miocene beds, ALLIER. erminea Linn. Stoat or Ermine. N. anp M. Europrg, N. Arrica, Srs., Tur. Srerr., W. Asta, NeEp., Amour. (not in N. Am.) Eversmannii Less. S. Russra, Caucasus. genetioides Blainv. Miocene beds, Sansans. Horsfieldii Gray.—(Italsi Verr.) Baoran, JAPAN ? Javanica Sebr.—(leucogenys Schinz?) Java? longicauda Bonap. Centre or N. Amer., Missourt, NeEsBRASKA, YELLOWSTONE, Rocky Mountains. lutreola Linn.—(minor Eral.) Eur., Sts. Kanei Baird. Arctic aNp Norra Paciric Coast or N. Amer., S18., BHERING’s Straits, KamtTscuH. Kathia Hodg.—(auriventer Hodg.) NeEpau. nigrescens Aud. and Bach. Eastern Unitep Srares, Massacu., New York, Onto. nigripes Aud. and Bach. N. Amer., Pratte Reeion. Noveboracensis Dekay. East or N. America (not north of Massachussets nor west of Wisconsin. ) nudipes F. Cuv. Sum., Borneo, MALAYAN Pen. Patagonica De Blainv. Para. plesictes Laiz and Par.—(Croizeti Pom.) Freshwater calcareous beds at Puy pe Domr. pusilla Dek.—(vulgaris and cicognani Rich.) N. Amer,, Unitep Sr., West Coast or Amer. putoria Linn.—(foetidus Klein. typus F. Cuv. communis Cuv. vulgaris Gray.) Pole Cat. Min. ann S, Evr., SIBERIA. Do. var. Furo Linn. Ferret. Evrore. Richardsonii Bonap. — (agilis Aud. and Bach., not Tschudi.) Wor or N. Amer. Sarmatica Pall.—(peregusna Guld. precincta Ranz.) Russia 1nN Eur., TURANIAN Sterres, W. Asta. Sibirica Pa/l—(italsi and Natsi Temm.) S1s., AMour- LAND, NEPAL. Sinuensis? Humb. S. Eur., aureoventris ? N. Am., dubia Blainy. elongata Gerv. CoLuMBIA. APPENDIX. Mustela strigidorsa Hodg. Sixx. subhemachalana Hodg.—(humeralis Blyth.) Nepat. taxodon Gerv.—( Sansansensis Lart.) SANSANS. Toufaeus Hody. Turper. vison Briss. — (lutreola Forst. lutreocephala Harl. Canadensis Erx/. Winingus Barton. minx Ord.) Mink. N.Am., Canapa, Unirep States, VANCOUVER’S Ist., NEBRASKA. vulgaris Linn.—(nivalis Schreb.) The Weasel. M. ann S. Eur., S. Siz., W. Asta, Amour. Fossil in Bone- cavesin France, BeteGium, AND ENGLAND. xanthogenys ? Gray. Ca.ir. zorilloides Lart. Miocene beds, SANSANS. Martes abietum Ray.— (pinetorum Ray. vulgaris Gray. sylves- tris Gesn. sylvatica Nilss. var. Altaica Pall.) Pine Marten. Europe, ENcitanp, Francr, TURANIAN Steppes, W. Asra, ALTAI Mountains. Americana Turt.—(vulpina Raf. leucopus Kuhl. huro F. Cuv.) American Sable. Canapa anp U. Srates, N.W. Amer. ? brachyura Temm. Japan. Canadensis Schreb.—(Pennantii Eral. piscatoria Less. melanorhyncha Bodd. nigra Turt. Godmani Fisch. castaneus and ferrugineus H. Smith.) Woodshock. N. Amer., From E. to W. Coast. ’ flavigula Hodg.—(Hardwickii Horsf. Henricii Westerm. lasiotis Temm. quadricolor Shaw. leucotis H. Smith. gwatkinsii and chrysogaster.Jard.) Inp1a, NEpaAt, Java, Sum. Borneo. . foina Briss.—(fagorum Ray. domestica Geoff.) Beech Marten. M. anv S. Eur., W. Asra, Tur. Stepp. melanopus Temm. JAPAN. Zibellina Ray. The Sable. Norra Europe, S. Sr. Amour. Plesiogale angustifrons Gerv.—(Pomeli Laur. plesictes Blainv. minuta Gerv.) Miocene beds, Department of ALLIER. ardea Brav.—(lutroides Pomel.) AUVERGNE. sectoria Gery. Freshwater calcareous beds of Lrmorne. Arctonyx collaris F. Cuv. Sand Bear. Inp1a, Smrnet, Nepat, Assam, CuHiTTaAGonG, ARAKAN. Mydaus meliceps F. Cuv.— Javanensis Desm.) Java, Sum. taxoides Blyth. Assam, ARAKAN. Helictis Nipalensis Hodg. Nepat, Java. orientalis Horsf—(fusca Geoff. macrurus Temm.) Nep., Java. personata Geoff.—(moschata Gray.) Maxac., CHina. Sinensis Swinh. CuHtna. ; subaurantiaca Swink. Formosa. Galictis barbara Linn.—(canescens Iilig. gulina Wied. galera Erxl. barbata Retz. vulpecula Schreb. poliocephala Traill. subfusca Bron.) Tropicat N. AMEr., Mexico, Gurana, Brazit, Paraguay, Perv. vittata Schreb — (Allamandi Bell, quiqui and Cuja Molina.) The Grison. Pampas, PataG., CuHILt, Gu1ana, Braziu. Zorilla frenata Sund.—(multivitta? Wagn.) SENAAR. striata Shaw. (mustelina Wagn. Africana Licht. leacomelas F. Cuv. Capensis Walerh. Lybica Ehr.) Au AFR., Nus., Asyss., As1A Minor. Vaillantii Loebe. AtcGerta. SYNONYMIC LIST OF SPECIES OF MAMMALS. 329 Conepatus nasuta Gray.—(mesoleuca and leuconota Licht. Mar- putio Gmel. intermedia Sauss. longicaudata Tomes. Chingu Molina.) Mexico, New Grenapva, Bocora, CaLiForRNia. Do. var. Humboldtii Gray.—(Patagonica Licht. Wes- termannii Reinh. conepate Desm.)—MaG. Srrairs. Do. var. Chilensis Licht.—(Amazonicus Gray. furca- tus Wagn. suffocans /lig. Quitensis Humb.) Curt, S. or MAGELLAN. Do. var. Lichtenstenii Gray. Tropica AMER. Do. var. Gumille Licht. Mouths of the Apuro, OrRINOKo. Mephitis bicolor Gray.—(Zorilla Licht. interrupta Raf.) Cauir., Texas, Miss. = castaneus D’Orb. Southern parts of Sour America, Fenillei Gerv. Monre Vipeo. macroura Licht (not Aud. and Bach.)—(Mexicana Gray.) Western range of mountains in Mextco. mephitica Shaw.—(Chinga Tied. Americana Desm. varians Gray. mesomelas Licht. occidentalis Baird.) Skunk. N. Mip. anp CentTrat parts or N. AMER. Cauir. Moline ? Licht. Curt. myotis? Fisch. N. Amer., Lovistana. vittata Licht.—(varians Gray. macroura Aud. and Bach.) South-west coast of Mexico, Texas. Westermanni Reinh. Paleomephitis Steinheimensis Jager. of STEINHEIM. Taxidea Americana Bodd.—(Labradoria Gm. Jeffersonii Hari.) Carcajou or American Badger. British AMER., AND West. Un. States From Wisconsin, ILLINOIS, AND Iowa To THE Paciric OcEAN. Berlandieri Baird. Texas, Mex., Caurr. Meles anakuma Temm. JAvAn. (antediluvianius Schmerl. antiguus Munst.) Bone-caves in Europe. Morreni Laur. Ciery. vulgaris Linn.—(taxus Blumenb. Europeus Desm. leucu- rus Hodg. albogularis? Blyth.) Badger. Evur., W. Asta, Turset, S. Sr. Melliyora ratel Sparm.—(Capensis Gm.) The Ratel. S. Arr., Mosamps., ZamMBeEsta, Nite Dist. Indicus Bent.—(inauritus Hodg.) N. Inpta, Meso- POTAMIA ? Gulo antediluvianus? Kaup. ErrLesneim. luscus Linn.—(borealis Nilss. leucurus Hedenb. Sibiricus Pall. vulgaris Gray. arcticus Desm.) The Wolverene. N. Evr., Lapz., Finu., Greeny., N. Asta, Norru or N. Amer, speleus Goldf. Bone-caves at GAYLENREUTH, LincE. Freshwater calcareous beds ARCTOCYONIDZ. Agriotherium (Hyenarctos) hemicyon Gerv.—(Sansanensis Lart.) Miocene beds of Sansans, 8S. FRANCE. insigne Gerv. Tertiary marme sand of Monrrevier. Sivalense Cautley and Fale. Miocene beds of the Stvatik Hits. ~ Paleocyon (Arctocyon) primevus Blainy. Lower eocene, Fresh- water sandstone near La Ferre in the Department of Asner, France. Amphicyon brevirostris Pict. Cirrmont, Puy pe Dome. dominans ? v. Meyer. WetsENAv. elaverensis Gerv.—(gracilis Pomel.) BouRBoNNAts, Axxier Department. Eseri ? Plein. Um. giganteus Laur.—(major and minor Blainv. Blainvillei Gerv. Lemanensis Pomel.) Sansans, AucH, AVARAY, and CHEVILLy. intermedius ? Plein. Basin of Mayencr. Tylodon Hombresi ? Gery. Awats. PLANTIGRADA. Cercoleptes caudivolvulus Zlig—(flavus Tied. megalotis Mart. brachyotis Mart.) The Kinkajou. Gurana, N. Gra- NADA, Peru AND Mexico, ANTILLES, TROP. PART or S. AMER. Ailurus fulgens #. Cuv.—(ochraceus Hodg.) Nev. Nasua Brasiliensis Lund. Bone caves, BRaztu. monticola Tschudi. Prru. Narica Linn.—(obfuseata I/lig. quasie Gmel. fusca Desm. leucorypha Tschudi.) Troe. AMER., SURINAM. socialis Wied.—(rufa Desm. Nasua Linn. annulata Desm. striata Shaw.) Coati. Mex., N.W. or S. Am., Peru, N. Pampas. solitaria Wied.—(nocturna Wied.) Gu1ANA, Brazit, SANTA Fr pe Bogota, Procyon cancrivorus I/lig. Gur1aNa, Brazit, Trop. AMER. var. psora? Gray. Cauir. Lotor Linn.—(obscurus Wiegm. vulgaris Tied. nivea Gray. alba Briss. brachyurus Weigm. gularis Smith.) Racoon. Att Norra AMERICA, FROM THE AN- TILLES To N. CANADA, AND FROM ATLANTIC TO Paciric. var. Hernandezii Wagl. Mexico, N. Am., Texas. var. Mexicana Baird. Mexico. priscus Lec. Pliocene, ILt1Nots, N. AMER. Ursus (Sub-gen. Thalassarctos) maritimus Linn.—j(marinus Pall. polaris Shaw. albus Briss.) N. Eur., Nova ZEemBia, N. Siz., GREENL., N. Am. (sub-gen. Euarctos) amblyceps Baird. W. Amer. Americanus Pall.— (niger-Americanus Schinz. Geoff.) N. AMER. var. fossilis Leidy. Pliocene. N. AMER. amplidens Leidy. Pliocene. N. AMER. (Sub-gen. Ursus). arctos Linn.—(fuscus Alvert. cadaverinus Evers.) N., Miv., ann S. Eur., Sis., E. Asia, CrentrRat Asta. var. collaris F. Cuv. JAPAN. var. grandis Gray. N. Europe. var. Ildgeesdjur Worm. Norway. var. meridionalis Midden. Caucasus. var. niger Albert. SweEDEN. var. Polonicus Gray. PoLanp. var. priscus Goldfuss. Evrorr. var. Pyrenaicus 7’. Cuv. Pyrenres. Russia. gularis KAmTscHATKA, AMOURLAND, var. Rossicus Gray. 330 Ursus var. Scandinavicus Gray. Swerpen. var. Sibiricus Gray. St. var. stenorostris ? Gray. PoLaNnp. arctoideus Blum. Bone-caves, Europe. Arvernensis Croiz—(minimus Devez.) Puy pr poME, Au- VERGNE. cinnamomeus Bachm.—-(luteolus H. Smith.) Mexico. ferox Lewis and Clark.—(cinereus Desm. griseus Desm. horribilis Ord. candescens H. Smith.) Grizzly Bear. W. HALF or N. Amur, Formosanus? Swink. Formosa. horriaceus Baird. New Mexico, Sonora. inornatus ? Puch. Cryton. Isabellinus Linn. Nev., N. Crrcass., Syrra, Tarset, CASHMERE. Japonicus Sclat.—(Tibetanus Temm.) JAPAN. Leodiensis ? Schmerl. Bone-caves in Eur. speleus Rosenm.—(dentifricius Meyer. ferreojurassicus Jag. formicatus Schmerl. giganteus Schmerl. metopo- leianus Serr. Metoposcairnus Serr. Neschersensis, Croiz. Pittorrii Serr.) Bone-caves in Evrors. Syriacus Hemp. and Ehrenb. Syrta. torquatus Schinz.— (isabella Gray. Tibetanus F. Cuv. Malayanus Horsf. non Auct.) Higa Cenrrat Asta, Nepat, Smaer, N. Inpia, E. Sreerta. (Notwith- standing Cuvier’s name, not found in Thibet, fide Hodg- son.) var. arboreus Gray. DARJEELING. (Sub-gen. Myrmarctos) formicarius Eversm.— (longirostris Eversm. Eyersmanni Gray. Beringiana Middend. Norve- gicus F, Cuv.) Ant-bear. Norway. (Sub-gen. Helarctos) Crowtheri Schinz. N. W. Arrica, Mountainous regions in Morocco, Teruan. euryrhinus Nilss. HunGary. frugilegus Tschudi. ANnpEs or Prrv. Malayanus Raffles.—(euryspilos Horsf.) Matay Dis- trict, Matayan Peninsuna, Sumarra, Borneo, Java. ornatus F. Cuv. Corpmurras, S. AMER. minutus Gerv. Marine beds of MonrrE.ier. (Sub-gen. Melursus) labiatus Desm.—(longirostris Tied. ursinus Shaw. ursiformis Shaw. Lybius Meyer.) In- Dia, Sours Mawrarra Country, Nepan, Benares, Deccan. PINNIGRADA, Lobodon carcinophaga Homb. and Jacq.—(serridens Owen. antare- tica Peale.) ANTARcTIc OcEAN. Stenorhynchus leptonyx Blainv.—(Homei Less.) ANTARcTIc Oc. Leptonyx Weddellii Lesson. Antarctic Oc. leopardina Wagn. Fatxianp Istanps, S. Grorera, Macauarrie. Monachus albiventer Bodd.—(Atlantica Gray. leporina Verr. leu- cogaster Per. Hermanni Less. Mediterraneus Niliss.) Meprr., Maperra. Ommatophoca Rossii Gray. Antarctic OcrAN. Callocephalus annellatus Nilss.—(foetidus Miill. hispidus Fad. non F. Cuv. equestris Pail. discolor F. Cuv. Frederici Less. octonotata and undulata Kutong.) Norru Sra. APPENDIX. Callocephalus Do. var. Lake BarKat. hispidus F. Cuv. N. Sea. Largha Pall.—(nummularis Schl.) N. Pacirtc, Javan, E. sHore or KamrscuarKa, Moura or Amour, occitana Serres. MonvTpre ier. vitulinus Linn.—(communis Linn. canina Pall. lit- torea Thien. variegata Nilss. Linnzi Less.) Com- mon Seal. N. Sea, GREENLAND, both sides of ATLANTIC. Do. fossil in Tertiary beds at OSNABRUCK. Do, var. ? Capsicus Nilss. Caspian Sra. Halicyon Richardii Cray. Frasrr’s River, and VANCOUVER’S ISLAND. Pagophilus Groenlandicus Miil/.—(oceanica Lepech. semilunaris Bodd. dorsata Pall. Mulleri Less. lagurus F. Cuv. albicauda Desm. Pilayi Less.) N. Sea. Phoca barbata Fab.—(Parsonii Less. albigena Pall. leporina Le- pech. Lepechinii Less.) N. Sea, Mourn or Amour, JAPAN? Lachtak ? Stell. tropicalis ? Gray? Jamaica. Wymani Leidy. Miocene deposits, N. AMER. Phocodon Sp. Agass. Miocene deposits, N. AMER. Halicheerus Grypus Nilss.—(Ochotensis Pall. griseus Nilss. scopu- licolus and Thienemanni Less.) N. Coast or Evr., TRELAND, ScorLtanp, Norway, ETc. Trichechus Rosmarus Linn.—(arcticus Pall. obesus and divergens Iilig.) SrirzperGen, GREENLAND, ZEMBLA, BHERING’S STRAITS. Virginianus Dekay. Pliocene, Vireinta, N. AMER. Morunga elephantina Gray.—(leonina Linn. Ansonii Desm. pro- boscidea Nilss. dubia Fisch. Patagonica Gray. Pata- chonicus Brookes.) S. Oc., Anrarcric Oc., Care or G. Horr. Cystophora Antillarum Gray. W. Inv. cristata Hra/.—(mitrata Cuv. leonina Linn. borealis Nilss. cucullata Bodd. dimidiata Cretzsch. leucopla Thien.) N. ATLANTIC. Arctocephalus australis Quoy. and Gaim. KinG GrorGe’s Sounp. Chilensis Mill.—(Ulloe Tschudi.) Cui11. cinereus Peron.—(albicollis Peron.) S. Coast or AUSTRALIA. Delalandii F. Cuv. C. or Goop Horr. Falklandicus Shaw.—(Forsteri, Shawii, Uraniz, Hauvillei, and Molinzi Less. parva Bodd. pusilla Schreb. Peronii, and porcina Desm. flavescens and longicollis Shaw.) AnTarcric Ocran, Farkianp Istanps, New Groraia, Sours Orkney, S. SHETLAND, C. or Goop Hore, Buerine’s STRAITS. S. Coast or Aust., Cait. Gillespii McBain. Caxir. Hookeri Gray. Fatxianp Istanps, Carr Horn. lobatus Gray.—(Stelleri Temm.) N.W.Coast or Aust., Porr Esstneron, Hourman’s AB- ROLHOS. Monteriensis Gray. Carr. nigrescens Gray. FALKLAND ISLANDs. SYNONYMIC LIST OF SPECIES OF MAMMALS. Callorhinus ursinus Fal.—(marinus Stel/. Fabricii and Krachen- ninikovii Less.) N. Pactric, KAmTscHar., KURILE Istanps, Mourn or Amour. Otaria leonina Blainv.—(Pernettii Less. jubata Schreb. Byronii Blainv. platyrhynchus Miill. molossina Less.) W. Coast or S. Amer., S. Paciric, Parac. : Stelleri Less.—(marinus Stell. jubata Gmel. Californiana Less.) N. Pactrte Oc. UNGULATA. Monopacty.a. SoLmuUNGULA. Equus Americanus Leidy. Pliocene deposits, Misstssrrri. asinus Zinn. Nupra, Upper Eayrr, ARABIA, Socotra. Burchellii Gray—(zebra Burch. montanus F. Cuv. fes- tivus Wagn.) Plains in SourH Arrtca. Do. var. Chapmanni Layard. S. Arrica, 200 miles in the interior from WatwicH Bay, caballus Linn.—( fossilis, Adamiticus, priscus, brevirostris, Piscenensis, pristinus, magnus, and juvillaceus Cuv.) Domesticated EVERYWHERE ; introduced and become wild in SourH and Norra America, Pampas, Pata- conta, La Puara, and Paracuay, Texas, and along the base of the Rocky Mounvrarns, South of Russra in Evrorr, and thence to the Sea or Japan, also Fossil in Diluvial beds throughout Europe. curvidens Owen. In Pliocene Deposits in S. and N. AMERICA. hemionus Pall.—(Kiang Moorcro/t. equioides and poly- odon Hodg.) THrentan Reaton, and East TurKIsran. hemippus? Geoff. Syrta, Mesopotamia, and NorrH ARABIA. Namadicus Fale. and Cautl. Srvatrk Hits. neogeus Lund. Braz. onager Pall. The Ghorkhur. Sandy deserts north-west of Inpra. plicidens Owen. Cave at Preston, ENGLAND. principalis Lund. Brazin. Quagga Gmel.—(Isabellinus H. Smith.) Sivalensis Fale. and Cautl. Hits. teeniopus Heuglin. ApysstntA, East AFRrica. zebra Linn.—(antiquorum H. Smith. montanus Burch.) Mountainous and sandy districts in Sourm Arrica. Elasmotherium Fischeri Meyer.—(Stereocerus Galli Duy.) St- BERTA, and in the diluvium of the Rurne. Keyserlingt Fisch. Kireuts Steppes near the Caspian Sra. Hipparion diplostylum? Gery. In the Miocene beds of the SoutH AFRICA. Miocene beds of the SrvarrK Freshwater marl of Cucuron, at VAUCLUSE. mesostylum ? Gery. Freshwater marl, Cucuron, Vau- CLUSE. prostylum Gery. Freshwater marl, Cucuron, Vau CLUSE. venustum Leidy. Pliocene, N. Amertca. 331 Hippotherium antilopinum Fale. and Caut. Srvanrk beds. gracile Kaup. Middle tertiary beds of the Menrz basin, at Bonnerz, in the Swapran Axes, and at the PENTELICON in GREECE. Anchitherium Aurelianense Blainy.—(Ezquirrae y. Meyer. Mons pessulanum Cuy. equinum Lart. hippoides Blainy.) MonrTrELier. Bairdii Leidy. NEBRASKA. Dumasii Gery. Eocene formations, France. ARCTIODACTYLA. RUMINANTIA. CaMELIDE. Camelus Bactrianus Erzi. Only known in domesticity. Tanr- tary, Moncorra, Cura, and SourH Sierra, to the Sea or Barxat. dromedarius Linn.—(Arabieus Desm. vulgaris Forsk. monotophus Walther.) Only known in domesticity, and spread over Arabia, Syrra, Banynonra, Ecyer, AND ABYSSINIA, into SENEGAMBIA. Sivalensis Cautl. and Fale. Miocene beds of the Srvanrk Hrs. Merycotherium Sibiricum Bojan. Siperran drift. Oreodon (Merycoidodon) Culbertsonii Leidy.—(priscus and Cory- lops speciosa Leidy.) Lower Miocene, NrprasKa. gracilis Leidy. Nrpraska. Miocene beds. major Leidy. NeprasKka. Miocene beds. Eucrotaphus auritus Leidy. Nerpraska, Miocene beds. Jacksoni Leidy. Nepraska. Miocene beds. Agriocherus antiquus Leidy. Neprasxa. Miocene beds, sp. Lund. Bone-caves of Braz. Procamelus sp. MiocENE BEDS, NEBRASKA. Camelops sp. MtocrNE BEDS, NEBRASKA. Leptauchenia sp. MtocrNr BEDS, NEBRASKA. Auchenia guanaco H. Smith. From the Equator to TIERRA DEL the Anpgs, in Peru, Borrvra, and Cui, Paraconra, the eastern islands of Trzrra DEL Furco. Llama Brandt—(Peruana Desm.) Norra Perv, on the mountains near ABANGARA, at an elevation of about 3000 feet high. Paco Desm. Middle of Botry1a to middle of Peru, at an elevation of about 8000 feet high. Vicuna Fisch. Prru, southern part of the Repupric or Ecuapor, to the middle of Bottyra, not less than 13,000 feet high. Bovis. Bos Americanus Gmel.—(Bison Auct.) On the Prairies and eastern base of the Rocky Mountarns. bombifrons (Bootherium) Harl. In Diluvium and recent deposits in N. America. brachycerus Gray. W. Arrica, GABoon. bubalus Linn.—(var. macroceros and speiroceros Hodg. arni Pall.) Originally from East Inpres and the Ma- tAyAN District, now spread over most of Astra, and North of Arrica, Cutna, Tureet, Persta, AnMeNTA, to the Caspran and Brack Seas, Arapra, Syrra, and whole north of Arrica. Caffer Sparrm. From S. Arrica to Guinea on the west, and AByssrINIA on the east. 332 Bos cavifrons (Bootherium) Leidy. Plocene; N. America. frontalis ZLamb.—(gaveus Colebr. Sylhetanus F. Cuv.) Gayal, both wild and domesticated. Ivyp1a, Hill regions west of Branmapurra River, Assam to THIBET. gaurus Traill—(aculeatus Wayl. asseel Horsf. subhe- machalus and cayifrons Hodg.) Inp1A, and formerly Cry- ton, Assam, Burma, and Marayan Prninsuna, but not the Islands. grunniens Zinn.—(poephagus H. Smith.) Lapax, THIBET, north of Cains, MoneGont, and in the HimanayaH to an elevation of from 10 and 17,000 feet. Indicus Zinn.—(gibbosus H. Smith.) Domestic. Tropical Asta, Inpra, and part of Arnica. longifrons Owen. Diluyium in TRELAND. latifrons Leidy. Pliocene N. America. moschatus (Ovibos) Gmel. N. E. of Norra AMERTOA Pallasei (Ovibos) Dekay. Diluvium in Norrm Americ, Srperta, and into Mippie Europe. pegasus? H. Smith. CoNnco anp ANGOLA. primigenius Bojan—(velaunus Robert, giganteus and interme- dius Croiz.) Peat-bogs and diluvium throughout Evropr. priscus Boj. Peat-bogs and diluvium throughout EuRoPE and Srperr, more to the north than B. primiyenius. reclinis ? Blyth.—(Atlantinus Blyth.) N.W. Arnica. Sondaicus Mii//—(Banteng Rafi. leucoprymnos Quoy and Gaim. Urus Jayvanicus Wagn.) Java, Batt (Borneo, perhaps introduced). taurus Linn. Domesticated EVERYWHERE; become wild in La Prara, Paraguay, &e. trochocerus y. Meyer. Diluvium at Sienna. urus Linn. Formerly over all the wooded districts of Eurore, now confined to protected ground in Lirnvanra, to the Caucasus, the south of Russa in Asta, and perhaps the CarpaTatan Mounrarns. Capripm. Ovis argali Bodd.—(ammon Linn. Hodgsonii Blyth. ammonoides Hodg.) Vutsur, Norra and Mippie Asta aries Linn.—(longipes, Guineensis, steatopygos, platyura, strepsiceros, brachyura, polycerata, and recurvicauda Auct.) Domesticated EVERYWHERE. burrhel Blyth—(nahura Hodg. cylindricornis Blyth.) Glacier region of the Hmrmarayans, 15,000 feet above the sea, Nevaut and Tureer, Caucasus. cycloceros ? Hutton.—(Vignei Blyth, pars.) A¥GHANISTAN, Atrinr Punyaus (represented in Nineveh sculptures), LADAR. mammilaris? Hildreth. Pliocene. Nort Ampnrica. montana Cuv.—(Ammon Harl. pygargus H. Smith. Cer- vina Desm. Californiana Dongl.) Rocky Mounrats. musimon Schreb.—(Vignei Blyth. pars. orientalis Gmel. Gmelini Blyth. Cyprius Blas. Ophion Blyth.) Mountains ; Cors., Sarp. (formerly Sparn and Batgeartco Istes), Greece and the Ceraunran Mounrtatns of Pursta. nivicola Esch, N, E. Steer. Polii? Blyth. Pass of Pamm, Sua of Tureer. tragelaphus Desm. Mountains of N. Avrrca. Capra egagra Gmel. West, Middle and North Astra, Caucasus, and Taurus. APPENDIX. Capra Beden Wagn.—(Arabica Rupp. Tela Griff. Sinaitica Ehrenb.) Mountain district of middle Eeypr, Syria, and Arapra Perraa, chiefly from Srnaz. Caucasica Gould. Caucasus. Cebennarum Gery. Bone-caye of Mrater, between ALAIs and ANDUZE. hireus Linn. Domesticated throughout the Worip. hispanica Schimp. Srerra Neyapa, and Srmrra of Ronpa. hylocrius Ogilb.—(warryato Gray.) Ixpta, NEILGHERRIES S. Manapar. ibex Zinn. Formerly throughout the whole chain of the Atps, now scarce. Jemlaica H, Smith.—(jhazal and quadrimammis Hodg.) HimMatayaH. megaceros Hutton.—(Falconeri Hugel.) Lesser Tarrary, and the higher mountain district between the Inpus and the Hrypoo Kuscu, AFFGHANISTAN, KasHMir. Pyrenaica Schinz. Pyrenrns, almost exterminated on the French side of the mountains. Rozeti? Pomel. Puy pp Domn. Sibirica Pall.—(Pallasii Schinz. Sakeen and Himmalay- ana Blyth.) Mountains of Srperta, Tartary, and KamrscuatKa, KasHMir. Walei Rupp. Arysstntan Mounratns, borders of perpetual snow. Haplocerus (Nemorhadus) bubalinus Hodg.—(thar Wagn.) NEPAL. Christoli Serres. Bone-caves of Brze in depart- ment of AUDE, FRANCE. crispus Zemm. Istanps or Nippon AND SIKOK, IN JAPAN. dichotoma Gery. MDiluyial sand in the depart- ment of Gers, FRANCE. Goral Hardw.—(Duvaucelii H. Smith.) Nepar. rubidus? Blyth. Anraxan His. Sumatrensis Shaw.— (interscapularis Mountains of Sumatra. Swinhoii Gray. Formosa. taxicolor Hodg. Misumi1 Hits, Assam. Antilocapra Americanus Ord.—(hamatus Blainv. fureifer H. Smith. palmata Smith. anteflexa? Gray.) N. America, southwards from the SaskATCHEWAN Raver, in 53° N.L. into Mexico, and westward from Missourr River across Rocky Moun- TArNs to CascapDE Rance of Carirornia and OREGON. montanus Rich. — (Americana Blainv. lanigera H. Smith, Columbiana Desm.) Higher portions of Rocxy Mounrarns, and Cascapr RanGEs. rupicapra Hral. Chamois. Pyrenean and Swiss Atps, formerly more widely distributed. Goldf.) ANTILOPID&. Leptotherium major Lund. Bone-cayes, Brazrt. minor Lund. Bone-caves, Brazin. Antilope clavata Gerv. Middle tertiary of Sansans. Cordieri_ Christol.—(recticornis Serres.) Marine sand of MontTrrLien. deperdita Gery. Cucuron. SYNONYMIC LIST OF SPECIES OF MAMMALS. Antilope major Jager. WURTEMBERG. maquinensis Lund. Bone-cayes, Brazin. minor Jager. WURTEMBURG. Bovina. (Anoa) depressicornis Smith. CErLEBEs. (Damalis) oreas Pall.—(canna Griff.) The Eland. S. Arr. var. Derbianus Gray. Gampta. Livingstonii Sclater. E. Arrica. (Catoblepas) Gnu Zimm. S. Arrican Prars. taurina Smith.—(gorgon Griff. Brooksii Smith.) 8. Arrica, northwards from the OrancE RIvEer. (Bubalus) addax Licht—(suturosa Otto. gibbosa Savi. naso-ma- eulata Blainv. mytilopes Smith.) Sandy steppes of Nuestra, Eaypr, ARABIA. bubalis Pall.—(Mauritanica Sund.) N. Arrrca, the Desert or Sawara, and up to Eeyrr, Caama Cuv. The Hartebeeste. Sourm Arnica. Lichtenstenii Peters. Grassy plains in Mosamprque. lunatus Smith.—(Kobai Erzl. Senegalensis Cuv.) S. Arrica, Becuuana Lanp. (Oryx) gazella? Pall. Gemsbok. Srnncat, E. Arrica (perhaps not distinct from O. oryx.) leucoryx Pall.—(ensicornis Hemp. and Ely. algazella Ehrb. eleotragus Schreb. Tao Smith.) Arapta, Persia, UPPER Nite to Corporan and SEnaar. oryx Pall.—(bezoartica Pall. Capensis Harris. beisa Rupp. Beatrix ? Gray.) From the coast of the Rep Sra to the Carr or Goop Horr, (Aegoceros) equinus Desm.—(glauca Forst. Osanne Geoff. barbata Griff. Truteri Fisch. Aethiopica Schinz.) Souru AFRICA. leucopheus Pall. Supposed to be extinct, but found by Capt. Speke. E. Arnica. niger Harris. S. Arrica. (Gazella) Arabica Zhrb.—(cora H. Smith. Cuvieri Ogilb.) Nortu Arnica, ARABIA, PERSIA. Bennettii Sykes.—(Christii Gray. hazenna Geoff.) Inv. dama Cuv.—(ruficollis H, Smith. addra Bennett.) Steppes of S—naar, Nupra, and Korpovan. var. mohrr. Benn. Morocco. var. nanguer Benn, SENEGAL. doreas Pull—(corinna Cuv. Kevel Buff. Isidis Sund. Tsabella Gray. rufifrons Gray. levipes Sund.) Whole of Norra Arrica and ARABIA. var. leptoceros? F. Cuv. SENAAR. euchore Forst.—(marsupialis Zimm. dorsata and saliens Lacep. saltatrix Link.) TheSpringbok. S. Arrica. picticaudata Hodg. Tuber. pygarga Pall—(personata Wood. albifrons Harris.) The Bontebok. Interior of Sour Arrica. Sommeringii Riipp. AByssINrIA. Spekei Blyth. Somati Lanp. subgutturosa Giild. Western Ast, as far west as Con- STANTINOPLE, south as Ispanan, and east as BocHana, AFFGHANISTAN. (Tragelaphus) Angassii. E. Arrica. : decula Riipp. Apyssrnza. seripta Pall,—(phalerata H. Smith. maculata Thunb.) Middle part of West Arnica. 333 (Tragelaphus) strepsiceros Pal/.—( Kudu Gray. tendal and chora Riipp. Capensis A. Smith. excelsus Sund. eury- cerus and doria Oyilb. zebra Gray. albovittatus Du Chaill.) The Koodoo. Absyss., E. Arr, Mosamp., 8S. Arr., S. Leone, Guin. Spekii Sclater. E. Arrtca. sylvaticus Sparrm. S.and 8. BE. Arrica, Carrranta, Mosampique. Tianyane Livingst. Crnrran Arrrca. (Antilope) adenota H. Smith. W. Arrica. cervicapra Pall. (bilineata Temm.) E. Inpra. forfax H. Smith—(annulipes Gray.) W. Arrica, gutturosa Pall. Daurta, Moncorra, and the deserts between Tuipet and Curina. Hodgsoni Abel—(Kemas H. Smith. chiru Less.) Uprer Tuer, and Northern Hmmatayan. melampus Licht. BrcHuana Lanp. saiga Pall. W. Asta, from the borders of Potanp to the Inriscu and ALTat. (Redunea) capreolus Licht.—(lanata Desm. villosa H. Smith.) Carr or Goop Horr. eleotragus Lichtst.—(fulvo-rufula 4fz. subellina Afz. arundinacea Shaw. Lalandii Desm. acuticornis and grandicornis Blainv.) Carr or Goop Horr. ellipsiprymna Ogilb. SourH Arrica. hastata Peters. Mosampique. leucotis Licht. and Pet. E. A¥rica. montana Cretz. High plains of Apyssrnia, redunca Pall—(bohor Riipp.) SeneGan and Apys- SINIA. scoparia Schreb.—(melanura Bechst. ouralis F. Cuv.) Care oF Goop Horr. Singsing Gray.—(defassa Riipp.) WESTERN ABYSSINIA, southwards from Srnaar and in CorDovan. unctuosa Laur. SENEGAL. n. sp. fide Sclater. The Ndjezza. E. Arnica. (Oreotragus) melanotis Forst—(grisea Smith, rubro-albescens Desm., subulata H. Smith.) Care or Goop Horr. saltatrix Bodd.—(oreotragus Forst.) CAPE or Goon Horr. tragulus Forst.—(rufescens, pallida, and rupestris H, Smith. pediotragus Afz. campestris Thunb. fulvo-rubescens Desm.) Carr or Goop Horr. (Cephalolophus) altifrons Peters——(coronatus Gray.) Mosam- BIQUE. bicolor Gray. Navan. Friderici Laur.—(pygmea F. Cuv. Maxwellii H. Smith. philantomba H. Smith. punctulatus Gray.) SENEGAL. grimmia Pall.—(mergens Blainv. Burchellii, platous, and ptox H. Smith. nictitans Thunb. ocularis Peters. Campbellie Gray. rufilatus Gray. Madoqua Riipp.) S, Arrica, Guinea, ABYSSINIA. Hemprichanus Zhrb.—(saltiana, grimmia, Ma- doka, and Hemprichi Rupp.) Anyssry1a, Cua- PANI, near ZANGUEBAR. longiceps Gray. Ganon. monticola Thunb.—(pygmea Pall. perpusilla and cerulea H. Smith.) 334 APPENDIX. (Cephalolophus) moschatus Duben. Conan Tstanp, Soman Lanp. Natalensis 4. Smith. Pont Narat. Ogilbyi Waterh, Frrnanpo Po. quadriscopa H. Smith. SrNneGaA. spinigerus Zemm. GUINEA. sylvicultrix 4fz. Srerra LEONE. Whitfieldii. S. Arrtca. Portax picta Pall.(tragocamelus Pall. albipes Eral. risia H. Smith.) Nylghau. Inpra, not Cryion. (Tetracerus) quadricornis Blainv.—(chikara Hardw. striati- cornis Leach. subulata and acuticornis Blainv. albipes F. Cuv. subquadraticornis Elliot. iodes and paccerois Hodg.) Continent of Inpra, not CEYLON. CAMELOPARDALIDE. Camelopardalis biturigum Duv. Clay slate, of doubtful age, near Issoupun. giraffa Gmel—(Senaariensis and Capensis Geoff.) From the borders of the Carr Conony, north- wards to Nunta, excepting the mountainous regions. Sivatherium giganteum Cautl, Fale. Miocene beds of the Srvari« Huts. CERVIDE. Extinct species of doubtful place among the sections, Cervus Bertholdi Kaup. Middle tertiary, Grrmany. curtoceros? Kaup. EPpLeEsHEIM. dicranocerus ? Kaup. EprnesHEerM. dicrocerus Gery. FRANCE. elegans Lart. Miocene. SAnsans. grandis Lart. Miocene. Sansans. Larteti Gieb. Miocene. Sansans. nanus Kaup. Middle tertiary. Gurrmany. Partschii Kaup. Middle tertiary. Grrmany. pygmaeus Pict.—(parvus Gieb.) France. trigonoceros? Kaup. EppLesHErM. (Platycerus) dama Linn.—(platyceros Ray. vulgaris Gesm.) MEpITERRANEAN Disv., Spary, Sarpinza, Iraty, Greece, Asta Minor, and Tunts. Somonensis Desm.—(Dama giganteus Laur. Dama Po- lignacus Robert.) Diluvial deposits near ABBEVILLE, GERGOYIA, GERMANY, ETC. (Alce) Alces Linn. European Elk. Norru Evropr, Prus- sta, Pozanp, Lirauanta, Russta, Caucasus, Si- BERIA, Tartary, and the deserts of Awrar and Barkan. antiquorum, resupinatus, and Sabinus Rouill. Diluvium in Europe. Americanus Jard.—(machlis Ogilb. malchis Gray. ori- nal Reich, lobatus Agass. muswa Rich.) Moose. N. Awer., from the ATnantric to the Pactric, on the eastern side from 65° N.L. through Canapa to Maine, New Hampsnrre, Vermont, and northern parts of New York, on the west coast from the shores of the Arctic Ocran, nearly to Conumpra River, fossil in pliocene deposits in the N. Amertca. (Alce) megacerus Hart.—(euryceros Aldr. giganteus Blum. is- landicus Blainy. Hibernicus Owen.) Peat-bogs, di- luvium in Eneuanp, Irenanp, Franck, GERMANY. (Rangifer) Caribou Kerr—(hastalis Agass.) N. Amerrca, south of Hupson’s Bay, to Lake SuPERtoR. arcticus Baird. Barren Grounds, north-east corner of N. Amer., along the Pornar Sra, bounded on the west by Suave Lace, and Coppermine River, and to the south by Cuurcuii1t River. Do. var, Greenlandicus Kerr. GREENLAND. Do. var. Spitzbergensis Murr, SprrzBERGEN. tarandus Linn. —(platyrhynchus Vrolick.) All the north of Hurore and Astra, along the Iey Sea from . Norway to the Lena, as far north as 70° N.L., intro- duced into IcrLanp. Do. var. Sibiricus Murr. Steer, Karson. Guettardi Desm. tarandoides Bray. leptoceros Eichw. and Bucklandi Owen. In diluvium and bone-caves throughout middle and south Evrorr. (Elaphus) affinis Hodg. E. Tare. Antisiensis D'Orb. CorprmiLERA or Perv, and ANDES. Aristotelis Cuv.—(hippelaphus, equinus, and Les- chenaultii Cuv. Malaccensis F, Cuv. Kuhli Mull. lepidus Sund. maximus and niger Blainv. Bengalen- sis Schinz. russa §. Mill. Pennantii Gray. unicolor Schreb. Larai Hodg.) The Samur. Iypra, Marazar, CoRoMANDEL, BENGAL, SyLHET, NEPAL, on the Inpus, Matacca, Borneo ? Arvernensis Croiz. Miocene beds, AUVERGNE. auritus ? Gray. Bnrazin. axis Hral.—(maculatus Gray. major, minor, porci- nus Hody. pseudaxis Gerv. nudipalpebra Ogilb.) Iypr4 anD Crynon, not east of Brncan, Cuna. campestris Cuv.—(leucogaster Goldf.) Wide open plains from Brazm to the River Necro in Para- GONIA. Canadensis Briss—— (strongyloceros Schreb. Wapiti Leach. major Ord. occidentalis Smith.) NortH Anmrtca, from ArLantic to Pactric, and as far north as 57° N.L. Do. fossilis Harl. Diluyium, N. Amer. Chilensis? Molina. CorpitLera, CHI. cariacus Sauss. Mexico. Columbianus Rich.—(Lewisii Peale. macrotis Rich. punctulatus Gray.) OREGON AND CALIFORNIA. Duvaucelii Cuv.—(euryceros Knowsley Menagerie. ela- phoides and bahraiya Hodgs.) Upper Brneat, VatLEy oF Nepan, AssAM, Nrerpuppa TERRITORY, E. SuNDERBAN. elaphus Zinn.—(vulgaris Zinn. nobilis Klein. Ger- manicus Briss. Mediterraneus Blain. Corsicanus, Wagn.) All Evrorg, and across Asta to Lake Bar- KAL and the Lena. Do. (primigenius, priscus, Bresciensis, fossilis, interme- dius, coronatus, antiquus, Destremii, Reboulii, pseudo-virginius, Dumasii, Costrizensis, diluvi- anus, Auct.) The same distribution as the existing species, in diluvium, peat-bogs, bone-cayes, and ~ bone-breccias. Do. var, barbarus Bennett. Tunts. SYNONYMIC LIST OF SPECIES OF MAMMALS. (Elaphus) Do. var. Corsicanus Wagn. Corsica. Eldi Guthrie — (frontalis M‘LZell. dimorphus Hodg. Smithii? acuticornis, and platyceros Gray. lyratus Schinz.) From Var~ry or Munnirore to Peau, Sram, Meraut, Cocmin CHIna. etuearium Croiz. and Job. Miocene. Goudoti? Gerv. New GRENADA. gymnotis Wiegm. CayENNE, Bocora, ORINOKO. leucotis Gray. Pataconra. leucurus Dougl. N. America, Uprrr Missourr and Uprer Prartr, along eastern plains of Rocky Mountamss into Texas. macrotis Say.— (auritus Warden. macropus? H. Smith.) Head-waters of the Arkansas, Upper Mis- sourt, and SasKaTcHEWAN, head of the Drs CHuTES River Orecon? (doubtful if the species from the Des Cures is the same.) Mantchuricus Swinh. NrwcuHwanc, MANTCHURIA. Marianus Desm.—(Philippinus Fisch. albipes F, Cuv.) Tue Marranne Istanps. Mexicanus Gmel. Sonora, and southwards to beyond the Crty or Mexico. paludosus Desmar.—(palustris Desm. dichotomus Jilig. comosus Wagn.) Brazi, Paracuay, Bonryra, Ar- GENTINE REPUBLIC, PATAGONTA. pardinensis Croiz. and Job. Miocene, AUYERGNE. Philippinus H. Smith, Put. Istes. poreinus Gmel.—(pumilio H. Smith. dodur? Royle. Oryzeus Kelaart.) Buneat, Nrpat, Assam, Inpo- CuryesE Countries, Deyra Doon, SrnpH, SoutH Maxapar, CEYLON. punctulatus? Gray. Brazm. Sartorii Sauss. Mexico. savyannarum ? Caban and Schomb. Schomburgki Blyth. Sram. Sika Schleg.—(Japonica Gray.) Japan. spinosus? Gerv. CAYENNE. superciliaris Gray. Brazr.. AUVERGNE. and on the BritisH GuIANA. Swinhoei Sclater. Formosa. Taivanus Blyth. Formosa. Toltecus Sauss. Mexico. tunjue Vigors.—(Peronii Cuv. rusa Mull, Moluccen- sis Quoy. Timoriensis Leyd. Mus.) Java, Trmor, Burv, Ampoyna, not Borneo or SuMATRA. Virginianus Bodd.—(strongylocerus Autenreithin Schrb. ramosicornis Blainv. clavatus H. Smith. macrurus ? Fisch. similis? Puch.) Norra America, east of Missovrt, and south of Maryn, N. York, PEnnsyt- VANIA, MaryLanb, Virarnta, and States to the south. Wallichii Cuv.—(elaphus of Asta Pall. Caspianus and and Cashmiriensis Fale. affinis and Nareyanus Hodg.) Nepat and Smet. (Capreolus) capreolus Linn.—(pygargus Pall. Europeus Sund. caprea Gray.) Roe Deer. All Evrops,in the north, and absent in the greatest part of Russra. Do. Australis Serres (Tournalii Serres. cusanus Croiz. Cauvieri and Tolozani Christ. Solilhacus Robert.) In peat-bogs, bone-breccias and caves, and in diluvyium and fresh-water deposits. 335 (Subulo) nemorivagus F. Cuv.—(simplicicornis Wagn. nemo- ralis Desm.) CAYENNE, Brazit, Paracuay, PEru, both in plains and mountains, Pudu Gay Molini—(humilis Benn.) Cunt. rufus F, Cuv.—(simplicicornis H. Smith. dolichurus Wagn. rufinus Puch.) Plains and mountains in Guyana, Braziu, Paracuay, Perv, Quito. (Stylocerus) anoceros Kaup. EppLesHEm. Cambojensis Gray. CAMBOGIA. Muntjac Zimm.—(vaginalis Bodd. aureus H. Smith. moschatus and subeornutus Blainv. moschus Desm.) Inp1a, Crynon, Iypo-CHineseE region, Manayan Prn- INSULA, SUMATRA, JAVA, BoRNEO, PHILIPPINES. Reevesii Ogilb. Crna, Formosa. stylocerus? Wagn.—(ratwa Hodg. albipes Wagler. melas Ogilb.) Inpta. CorDILLERA, Moscuip. Moschus moschiferus Linn.—(chrysogaster, leucogaster, and saturatus Hodg.) Crnrrat Asta, from the Aura, to basin of the Amour, Tarrary, Moneortia, CasH- mir, THIBET, and interior of Stam. Dremotherium Feignouxii Geoff. Fresh-water limestone of Av- VERGNE. nanum Geoff. Fresh-water limestone of AUVERGNE. Poébrotherium Wilsonii Leidy. Lower miocene, NEBRASKA. Dorcatherium Guntianum Kaup. Molasse of GuNsBURG. Nani Kaup, EppiesHem. Vindobonense Kaup., Vrenna beds. Xiphodon Gelyense Gerv. MONTPELIER. gracile Cuy.—(Dichobune obliquum Cuv.) gypsum and freshwater limestone near Apr. Eocene, ENGLAND. Paris Dichobune cervinum Owen. leporinum Cuy. Paris gypsum. murinum Cay. Parts basin. Robertanum? Gery. FRANCE. suillum? Gery. FRANCE. Acotherulum saturninum Gery. APT. Aphelotherium Duvernoyi Gery. Apt. TRAGULIDE. Tragulus Bengalensis Pent. BENGAL. Javanicus Pall.—(Indicus Gmel. affinis Gray.) Ma- LAYAN Pentysuna, SumMATRA, Java, BoRNEO. var. fuscatus Blyth.—(Malaccensis? Gray.) Java, SINGAPORE. var. Napu Ff. Cuv. Sumatra. var. Stanleyanus Gray. Matacca and Cryton. var. Pelandoec Raff. SUMATRA. meminna Eral.—(Indica Gray. mimenoides Hodg. ecaudatus Sund.) Inpra, CEYLon. Meyeri Goldf. Lignite, Seven Mountains near Rorr, pygmeus Linn.—(Kanchil Rafi. fulviventer Gray.) TrnasseRiM, Manayan PEntNsunLA, Sumatra, Java, Borneo ? Hyomoschus aquatieus Ogilb. W. Arr., from SENEGAL to Garon. crassus Lart. Miocene formations of SANSANs. Paleomeryx ardeus? Croiz. and Job. Puy pp Dome. aurelianensis Cuy. Miocene. GERMAN¢ 336 Paleomeryx Bojani y. Meyer. Miocene. GERMANY. Cusanus? Croiz. and Job, Puy pr Dome. eminens v. Meyer. Miocene. GrrRMANY. Puy pE Dome. Puy pe Dome. GERMANY. GERMANY. Gergovianus ? Croiz. and Job, Tssiodorensis ? Croiz. and Job. medius y. Meyer. Miocene. minimus v. Meyer. Miocene. minor y. Meyer. Miocene. GERMANY. Nicolati y. Meyer. Miocene. GERMANY. Pierrieri ? Croiz. and Job. Puy pr Dome. pygmeus vy. Meyer. Miocene. GERMANY. ramosus ? Croiz. and Job, Puy DE Dome. Scheuchzerii y. Meyer. Miocene, SwitTZERLAND. ANOPLOTHERIDE. Hoplotherium (Hyegulus) collotarsus Pomel. Middle tertiary AUVERGNE. (Cainotherium) commune Bray. Puy pE Dome. (Microtherium) concinnumy. Meyer. From WEt- SENAU. (Microtherium) Curonense Brayard. From WEt- SENAU. (Cainotherium) elegans Pom. AUVERGNE. (Cainotherium) gracile Pom. AUVERGNE. (Cyclognathus) laticurvatum Geoff. Indusial lime- stone of AUVERGNE. leptognathum Laiz. and Par. Tertiary sandstone in AUVERGNE. (Cainotherium) medium Bray. WrISENAU. (Cyclognathus) metapius Pom. Middle tertiary, AUVERGNE. (Cainotherium) minimum Bray. Puy pre Dome. (Hyegulus) murinus Pom. VERGNE. (Microtherium) Renggeri v. Meyer. AARAU. Chalicotherium antiquum Kaup. Middle tertiary, EppLEsHErm. Goldfussi Kaup. Middle tertiary, EppLesHeim. Dichodon cuspidatus Owen. Tertiary sand, Horpie in Ene- LAND, Anoplotherium commune Cuy.—(Duvernoyi, platypus, Laurillardii, and Cuvieri Pom.) Parts Basin, near Apr, GERMANY, ENGLAND. posterogenium Fale. and Caut. Srvatrx Hints. secundarium Cuv. Sivalense Fale. Hits. Sargodon sp.* Pleininger. Bone breccia WURTEMBERG. Anthracotherium Alsaticum Cuy. Lignite near WEISSENEURG, in ALSATIA. magnum Cuy, Lignite of Caprpona, marl of LimaGne, near EpPresHerIM, ETO. minimum Cuy. Ditto. Tertiary beds, Middle tertiary, Middle tertiary, Tertiary beds, Middle tertiary, Au- Molasse of Miocene beds, Pants basin. and Caut. Miocene, SrvartK APPENDIX. Anthracotherium velaunum Cuy. Freshwater marl of Puy-EN- VELATS. Cyclognathus Gergovianus Gery. Issore. onoideus Gerv. NEWVILLE. Silistrensis Pentl. Tertiary beds in BrencAt. Non-RumInantTIA. Dicotyim®. Harlanus Americanus Harl. Groreta, N. AMERICA. Dicotyles costatus Leconte. WN. Amprica. labiatus Cuv. Brazi, Paracuay, Peru. major Lund. Braz Caves. sp. Lund. Brazm Caves. sp. Lund. Brazim Caves. sp. Lund. Brazr Caves. sp. Lund. Braz Cavnrs. torquatus Cuv.—(albirostris Fraser?) N. America, south of 34° N.L., Mrextco, GuatrEmana, and the whole of Sour AMERICA, east of the ANDEs; fos- sil in pliocene deposits, N. Ammrtca. Platygonus compressus Leconte. Norra America, Pliocene in Viner, Intimois, Kentucky, lowa, and Mis- SOURI. Hyops depressifrons Lec. Pliocene, NorrH AMERICA. Protocherus prismaticus Lec. Pliocene, N. AMERICA. Eucherus macrops Leidy. Pliocene, N. America. Surpz. Phacocherus Aethiopicus Cuv.—(Pallasii? V. d. Hoev.)* Aitut- OPIA, Potamocherus Africanus Cuv.—(liani Cretz. incisivus Geoff. Harcia Ehr.) Korporan, and from the Eastern district of Anysstnta to SENEGAL. larvatus? F. Cuv. Mapacascar and Carr oF Goop Horr. penicillatus. Red River Hog. Sus Andamensis Blyth. AnpDAmAN IsLanps. Fossil species, the remains of which are not sufficiently distinct to allow them to be allotted among the above genera. antiquus Kaup. Middle tertiary, near Errimsueim, and MonTavupsarD. armatus Pom. Diluvium, Picarpy. Arvernensis Croiz. and Job.—(Provincialis Gery.) Upper miocene in AUVERGNE, Marine Sand at MonrPeLier. barbatus Mull. Borneo. Celebensis Mill. CELEBES. leucomystax Temm. JAPan. Papuensis Mill. New Gunna. pliciceps Gray. scrofa Linn, Evropr, Asta, and NorrH Arrica. var. Bengalensis Blyth. BrnGat. var. Indicus Blyth.—(cristatus Wagn.) Inpra and Cry- LON. var. C. fide Blyth. var. Zeylanensis Blyth. TENASSERIM. CEYLON. * Doubtful whether the remains (incisor teeth) belong to a fish or an Anoplothere. SYNONYMIC LIST OF SPECIES OF MAMMALS. Sus Timoriensis Will. Timor. verrucosus Mill. Java. vittatus Mi/l. Java and Sumarra. n. sp. fide Blyth. Nicobar Isnanps. cherotherium Pom.—(lemuroides Pom.) near SANSANS, leptodon Pom. Lignite of Licurra. paleocherus Kaup.—(antediluvianus Kaup. belsiacus Gerv. Lockharti Blainy. major Gery. cheroides Blainy.) Middle tertiaries near EpriesHem, Maprip Basin, Faununs or Ansov, near AverRay and ORLEANS, Montapusarp, Cucu- RON. priscus Goldf. SanpwicH Cave. Serresii Gieb. Caves of LUNEVIEILLE. Sivalensis Fale. Miocene, Stvatik Hinzs. Calydonius tener y. Meyer. Tertiary beds of La Cuaux DE Fonpbs. trnux vy. Meyer. Middle tertiary Tertiary, La CHaux pr Fonps. Porcula Salviana Hodg. Savi Forest, Himmanayan. Taivana Swink. Formosa. Babyrussa Alfurus Less.—(orientalis Briss.) Monucca Istanps, Crrebers, Burvu, TERNATE, MinpAnoa, Banca. Paleocherus major Gery. Indusial limestone, ALLimR DEpart- MENT. typus Pom, MENT. Entolodon magnum Aym. Indusial limestone, Atnrer DrEpart- Tertiary, calcareous marl of Ronzon, in the DeparTMENT oF Puy. Ronzoni Gery. Tertiary marl, Ronzon, Puy. Archeotherium Mortoni Leidy. Miocene, NEBRASKA. robustum Leidy. NEBRASKA. Cheromorus mammillatus 2? Lart. Freshwater limestone, San- SANS, Cheropotamus affinis Gery.—(Bothriodon platyrhynchus, B. lepto- rhynchus Aym. Hyopotamus crispus Pom. Ch. Matritensis Kaup.) Near Arr. Parisiensis Cuv. Eocene beds of the Paristan basin, of Apt, and the Istz or WicHT. Hyopotamus annectens Owen.—(Ancodus macrorhinus Pomel.) Eocene. bovinus Owen. HmMpstEapD SEriés. Vectianus Owen. Hempstead Series. Hippohyus Sivalensis Cautl. and Fale. Miocene beds, SrvariK Huts. Hyracotheriumleporinum Owen. Lonpon Clay, Herne Bay. cuniculus Owen. Eocene sand below Red Crag at KinGston, in SUFFOLK. Hyotherium Meissneri y. Meyer.—(medium? vy. Meyer.) Middle ? tertiary, near WIESBADEN. Middle tertiary, from GEORGENSMUND, ELGG, CHAUX DE Fonpbs, ETc. Soemmeringi vy. Meyer. * The following is Morron’s synopsis of the species of Hippopotamus :— Tetraprotodon paleindicus. amphibius. Senegalensis. Capensis. Europe, Inpta. AFRICA. AFRICA, Arrica. 307 Syodon sp. Keyserl, GrrMany. Adapis Parisiensis y. Meyer. Gypsum of Montmartre. Tapiroporcus sp. Jaeger. GERMANY. HipporoTamip&. Hippopotamus amphibius Zinn.—(Capensis Desm. Senegalensis Mort.) In all the large Arrroan rivers, from the Carr to the SaHara.* Trawadicus Cautl. and Fale. Huts. major Cuv. Pliocene, Sromy, Irary, France, ENGLAND, IRELAND, GERMANY, ETC. minor Cuv. Dax in the DEPARTMENT OF THE LanveEs. Namadicus Cautl. and Fale. Hits. paleindicus Cautl. and Fale. Hits. Sivalensis Cautl. and Fale. Huts. Cheropsis Liberiensis Morton. Liperta. Merycopotamus dissimilis Cautl., and Fale. Hits. Miocene, Srvanik Miocene, StvaLuK Miocene, StvaLik Miocene, SrvaLix Miocene, Srvanix MULTUNGULA, PALZOTHERID2. Paleotherium anneclens Gery. Eocene beds of Horpie in EnG- LAND, lignite of GarGas. Argentonicum Gery, Eocene. Near ARGENTON. aurelianense Cuy. Eocene. Paris gypsum. crassum Cuy. Eocene. Parris gypsum, and Lig- nite of Apr. curtum Cuy. Eocene. Paris gypsum, and Lig- nite of Apr. giganteum Leidy. Miocene. NEBRASKA. indeterminatum? Cuy. Paris gypsum. Isselanum Cuy. On the Isset and BuscHweiter. latum Cuy. Paris gypsum. magnum Cuy.—(Aniciense Gery.Girondicum Blainv. ) Gypsum of Panis basin, Lignite of Apr, IsLE oF Wieut, Gypsum Marl of Puy-ex-Venats, Lignite of DorpoGne. medium Cuy. Eocene. Paris gypsum, lignite of Apr and Dorpoene, near Anais and BourDEAux. minimum Cuy.—(parvulum ? Serres Schinzi Meyer.) Swiss Molasse, Paris Gypsum, CAsTELNAUDRY, AFRICA. Europe. W. AFrica. Tetraprotodon annectens. minor ? (Cheeropsis) Liberiensis. Hexaprotodon Iravatieus. INp1a. Sivalensis. INDIA. Namadicus. INp1as. Merycopotamus dissimilis. Inxpia. 338 Paleotherium minus Cuy. Parts Basin, near Apr, DorpoGne, Sarmaus. ovinum Aym. Freshwater marl of Puy. velaunum Cuy. Puy-EN-VELAIS ? Lophiodon anthracoideum Gerv.—(Coryphodon Eocenus Owen.) Eocene beds near Sorssons, Laon, Menpon, Cam- BERWELL. cervulum Gery. Freshwater marl of Ants. Cesserassicum Gery.—( Pachynolophus Vismei Pom.) Duvali Gery.—(mastolophus Pom. leptognathus Gery.) Parts Basin. ( Tapirulus) hyracinum Gery. Near Apt. medium? Cuy.—(minutum? and minimum ? ARGENTON. Monspessulanum? Cuvy. Occitanum? Cuy. IssEL. Eocene beds of Parts Basin. and Buschovil- Cuv.) Montpetier. Parisiense Gery. tapiroides Cuv. — (Tapirotherium lanum Cuy.) Near BuscHWEILER. NESODONTIDE. Nesodon imbricatus Owen. PATAGONIA. magnus Owen, PatTaGonta. ovinus Owen. PATAGonta. Sullivani Owen. PATAGONTA. Macrauchenia Boliviensis Huxley. Bourvra. Patachonica Owen.— ( Opisthorhinus Bray.) Paraagonta, Falconeri TAarrrips. Tapirus Americanus Linn.—(suillus Wagn.) From the foot of the CorpmiERas to the Artantic OcEan, and from Crnrrat America to near BurNnos Ayres in Peru, it reaches an elevation of 3000 feet. Do, (mastodontoides Harlan. giganteus auct. Amer. Amer- icanus fossilis Leidy.) Fossil. Kentucky, and TExas. Arvernensis Croiz. and Job.—(minor Serres, and Poi- viert Pom.) Tertiary beds of Issorrr, Puy-En- Vetay and Monrrreier, miocene of the BourBon- NaIs. Haysii Leidy. Pliocene, N, America. Indicus Desm.—(Malayanus Raf. bicolor Wagn. Su- matranus Gray.) Sumatra, Manacca, the south- west Proyryces oF Cuina, Southern Tenasserm PROVINCES, priscus Kanp.—(Helveticus ?, Meyer. pusillus ?. Jager.) Tertiary sands Epriesueim, lignite of Briser, in Croarta, lignite of Swrrzertanp, molasse of Orn- MARSINGER, the Paludina chalk of WrmsBapEn, and the freshwater chalk of Hassnace, Roulini Fisch.— (pinchaque oul. villosus Wagn.) Higher regions of the AnprEs, 7000 to 8000 feet high, from Perv to Cenrran AMERICA. Suinus Lund. Bone-caves in Brazin. APPENDIX. NasIcorniA. Rhinoceros bicornis Linn.—(Africanus Camp. Brucei and Gor- donii Blainv. niger and Camperi Schinz.) AFRIOA, from the Gatna Country to the Care or Goop Horr. brachypus Lart. GERs. Cimorrhensis Lart. Middle tertiary, Smorre. eucullatus Wagn. South of Apyssrnra. incisivus Cuv.—(minutus Cuy. tetradactylus, hemite- chus Fale. longirostris: and brevirostris Lart. Bri- valensis and medius Gery. Goldfussi Kaup. San- sanensis Lartet. Steinheimensis? and molassicus Jag. gannatense, pleuroceros, and typus Duyv.) Middle tertiary near Sansans, AVARAY, GANNAL in the Mayence Basin, near EppLEsHEIM, GEOR- GENSMUND, VIENNA Basin, &e. Javanicus F. Cuv.—(Sondaicus Mull.) Raymanan Hu1s (where now verging on extinction) Bencan SunpERBuND, Inpdo-CHtnEsE Region, Maayan Prninsuta, Java, Upper Stam, Campopra, Pro- VINCE OF QUANGSI IN CHINA. Keitloa Smith. Interior of Sour Arrrca. Kiaboaba Livingst. Crnrran APrica. leptorhinus Cuy.—(protichorhinus 2? Duy. Monspessu- lanus Serres. Kirchbergense Jag. Merki Kaup.) Pliocene. South of France, Irary, ENGnanp, e.g. Monrprevier, Pisa, Issorre, Tuscany, CrLapon. Its occurrence in GERMANY requires confirmation. megarhinus Gery.—(Schleiermacheri Blainy.) Ter- tiary beds, FRANCE. minutus Serres. (Lunellensis Gery.) Cave at Lunr- VIEILLE. Nebrascensis Leidy. NEBRASKA. occidentalis Leidy. N®rBRASKA, platyrhinus Cautl. and Fale. Miocene beds, Srvatix. Simus Burch—(Burchelli Desm. Camus Geoff) Brcuuana Lanp, Interior of Sourn Arrica, chiefly north of Tropic of Capricorn. var. Oswellii. Interior of Arrica. Sivalensis Cautl. and Fale. Miocene beds, Srvatk. Sumatranus F, Cuv.—(Crossii Gray.) BurMesr Country, Matayan PENINSULA, SuMATRA (BORNEO doubtful.) Tapirinus? Pom, LANGENSLENGEN and EsstIncEn. tichorhinus Cuy.—(antiquitatis Fisch, Sibiricus Desm.) In frozen ice and banks in Srperra, and shores Icy Sra, in Pliocene Alluvium and Bone-caves throughout Europe and Asia, unicornis Linn.—(Indicus Cuv. Asiaticus Blumenb. inermis Less.) Tarat Region at base of East Him- MALAYAHS, inclusive of the Valley of the Uprrr BraHMaPoorra, or PROVINCE or ASSAM, Do. fossil in the SrvarrK miocene beds. Titanotherium Proutii Leidy.—(Rhinoceros Americanus Leidy.) NEBRASKA. Middle tertiary, DEPARTMENT oF PROBOSCIDEA.* Mastodon (Trilophodon) Andium Cuy.—(australis Owen.) Post- pliocene. 'S. Amertca, ANDES, Cur, Botrtrvia, Perv. angustidens Cuy.— (Simorrense Lart. Cuvieri Pomel.) Upper Miocene. FRANCE, GERMANY, SWITZERLAND. Borsonit L. Hays.—( Buffonis Pomel.) Pliocene. France, PrepMont. giganteus auct.—(Ohioticus Blum. maxi- mus Cuy.) Post-pliocene. Norra AMERICA, Humboldtii Cuy. Post-pliocene. S§. America, ANDES, CotumBra, BUENOS Ayres, BRAzIL. Pandionis? Fale. Pliocene. S. Inpta. Pyrenaicus (Lart.) Upper Miocene. FRANCE. tapiroides Cuy.—(Turicensis Schinz.) Upper Miocene. Fr., SwrrzeRLAnp. (Tetralophodon) Arvarnensis Croizet and Jobert. Plio- cene. ENGLAND, Francg, Iraty. latidens Clift. Miocene. SS. Inp1a, Brrma. longirostris Kaup. Upper Miocene. EprLtesHEmM, Hrssrk DARMSTADT mirificus Leidy. Upp. Miocene. Mav- vatsE: Trerres, Nropraska, NorTH AMERICA. Perimensis Fale. Miocene. S, Inp1a, West Inp1ra, Istanp or Perm. Sivalensis Fale. Upper Miocene. Stva- tis Hinis, Hmmanayans. Elephas (Stegodon) bombifrons Fale. Upper Miocene. His, Hormmanayaus. Cliftii Fale. Miocene. SIVALIK S. Inpra, Brrma. Ganesa? Fale. Upper Miocene. Srvanik His, HimManayaus. insignis Fale. Upper Miocene. SrvariKx Hows, Hoimarayans. Pliocene, CENTRAL Inpus1, Nerspuppa VALLEY. (Loxodon) Africanus Blumb. Arrrca. Falconeri Busk. Pliocene. Melitensis Fale. Pliocene. meridionalis Nesti. France, Ivaty. planifrons Fale. Upper Miocene. Huis, HmmanayaHs. priscus Goldf. Pliocene. (Euelephas) antiquus Fale. Pliocene. Trary. Armeniacus Fale. ZEROUM. Columbi Fale.—(Jacksoni Sillim. Journ. pro- bolotes Fisch. Texianus Owen and Blake.) Post-pliocene? Mexico, ALABAMA, Matra. Matra. Pliocene. ENGLANT, Srvarik Ena., Lomparpy. ENGLAND, FRANCE, Pliocene? Arment, Er- GEORGIA AND SYNONYMIC LIST OF SPECIES OF MAMMALS. 339 a (Buelaphus) Hysudricus Fale. Upper Miocene. Srvarrk Huis, Homarayans. imperator Leidy. Upper Miocene. Loup River Beps, Nroprara, N. AMERICA. Indicus Zinn.—(Sumatranus Zemm.) Con- TIN. Inpra, Assam, Trnass., CEYLON, Brrma, Mat. Penis., Sumatra, Sram, Coc, Cura. Namadicus Fale. Pliocene. Nersuppa, Crn- TRAL Inpra. primigenius Blum.—The Mammoth. pliocene. Evropr, Asta. Do. var. Americanus Leidy. Post- N. AMERIcA. SMmENIA. Dinotherium giganteum Kaup.— (Cuvieri, secundarium, medium, maximum, Bavaricum and proavum Auct.) Middle tertiary. Evroprr, EpptesHem, Hessr Darm- STADT, SWITZERLAND, ALPS, GEORGENSMUND, ViENNA, Gers IN FRANCE, GREECE, ETC. Indicum Fale, Srvatik Hus. Kenigii? Kaup. Grrmany. Halitherium (Metaxytherium) Beaumonti Gery. Middle and upper tertiary. Germany, France, Irary. fossile Gerv.—(Hippop. medius Cuy.) Middle and upper tertiary. Germany, France, Ivary. Serresi Gery.—(Cuvieri Christol. Schinzi Kaup.) Middle and upper tertiary. Germany, France, Trary. Guettardi Gery. Middle and upper tertiary. MANY, FRANCE, Iraty. Halianassa Studeri? y. Meyer. MotassE, FLtonnrim, GERM. Collinii ? vy. Meyer.—( Christolii Fitzinger.) Tertiary sand, Linz. Ischyrotherium antiquum Leidy. From Judith river on the Missouri, near the MauyaIsEs TERRES. Pontotherium Appenninum Bruno. Tertiary marl, Montre1to0. Trachytherium Rankini Gervy. Marine limestone in the GironDE. mastodontoideus ? Blainy. Manatus sp. Harlan. GER- Molasse of Marra. Maryann, NortH America. Australis Ti/esius—(Americanus Desm. borealis Flem.) Soutu America, Coast oF VENEZUELA, BRAZIL, ETC. OrtNoko, AMAZONS. latirostris Harlan. Frnorma, West Inp1an Istanps, Gur or Mexico, Honpuras? Senegalensis Desm.—(nasutus Wyman. Vogeli Owen. Owenii Du Chaill.) W.Coastor Trop. Arr. Rivers Nicer anp Binvg, and perhaps Lake TscHan. Halicore australis Owen. Srrarrs or Tmior, Norra Coast oF AUSTRALIA ? cetacea Iilig.—(Indica Desm. Dugong Eralb. marinus Tiad. tabernacularum Rupp.) East Coast oF Arrica, Rep Sea, Coast or Persia, East InpiEs, Cryion, Brrma, Manayan Peninsuna, Inp1an ARCHI- PELAGO, JAVA, SUMATRA, BorNEO, Manacca, ETC. Rhytina Stelleri Desm. Extirpated. Burrine’s Istanp, BHER- tne’s Srrarrs, KamrscHarKa, ALEuTIAN ISLANDs, Norru-West Coast oF AMERICA, GREENLAND? * Apud Falconer. 340 CETACKA. BaLENnIDE. Balena Antipodarum Gray. New ZEatanp. (Eubalena) australis Desm—(marginata Gray.) S. Seas. Biseayensis Esch. ATLANTIC. Lamanoni Desm. TERTIARY BEDS AT Parts. mysticetus Linn.— (borealis Less, Greenlandica Linn. vulgaris Briss. glacialis Zacep.) NORTHERN SEAS. paleatlantica Leidy. Miocene. N, Amer. prisca Leidy. Miocene. N. Amer. Megaptera longimana Rudolphi.— (sulcata-antarctica Schleg. Lalandii Fisch. Boops Fab. australis Less. antarcticus F. Cuv. Americana Gray.) SEAS IN BotH HemisPpHERES. Examples have been found stranded at the Bermudas, the Cape, and the mouth of the Elbe. Sossilis Dekay. Pliocene. N, Amer. Cetotherium Rathkei Brandt. Pliocene marine limestone. Peninsula of Taman, ANAPA. Balenoptera Boops Linn.—(suleata-arctica Schley. Jubartes Lacep.) Potar Sras, NortH ATLANTIC, anp NortH Pacrric. Cuvieri Desm.—(Cortesii? Desm.) In A Cray BED AT PULGNASCO. Indica Blyth. Inptan Ocean, Bay oF BENGAL, ARABIAN SEA. Sibbaldius laticeps Gray.— (Schlegelii Flower.) Norra Sra, InpIAN ARCHIPELAGO. microcephala Esch. NortTHERN Spas. musculus Linn. N. ATLANTIC AND MEDITERRANEAN Sra. rostrata Fab.—(minor Esch.) Potar Seas. Temperate Latirupes or NorTtH N. ATLANTIO AND D&ELPHINIDR. Physeter antiquus Gery. Pliocene beds Monrpetrmr, Depart- ment GIRONDE. australis M‘ZLeay. AusTRALIAN SEAS. Krefftii Gray. AUSTRALIAN SEAs. macrocephalus Linn.—(Catodon, microps, and tursio, Linn. trumpo Robertson. gibbosus Schreb. eylindri- cus, orthodon, and sulcatus Lacep. polycyphus Quoy and Gaim. pterodon Less.) THe Troprcar, SEAS, MORE ESPEOIALLY THE Pactric, EXTENDING AS FAR NortH As 45° or 40°, AND As FAR SouTH As Lat. 60°. Stereodelphus brevidens Gery. Mouxassé or KasTRiks. Phocena aflinis Gray.—(melas Owen.) Norra Sea. communis Cuv. N. ATLANTIC OCEAN, As FAR N. as GREENLAND, ON THE Coasts oF EUROPE, IN THE East anp NortH SEA, AND THE MEDITERRANEAN, ON THE AMERICAN Coasts To New York, Cortesii Cuv. Tertiary near PLACENTIA. APPENDIX. - Phocena crassidens Owen. Nortn SEA, Fossil IN PEAT IN LINCOLNSHIRE, (Physalus) globiceps Cwv.—(melas Traill. deductor Scoresby. Syinveal, Sieboldii, affinis, and macro- rhynchus Gray. phocenoides Schleg. latirostris Flow.) Potar AND NortH Ariantic AnD Norra Pacrric Seas, oN THE Coast oF GREENLAND, Nova ZEMBLA, Icenanp, Faroe Ist., OnkNEys, ScoTLanD, FRANCE, AMERICA. griseus Cuv.—(Cuvieri Gray. carbonarius Bennett. ATLANTIC OCEAN, ENGLISH AND ventricosus Lacep.) Frencu Coasts. Heayisidii Gray.— (Capensis Cuv. cephalorhynchus F. Cuv. hastatus Quoy.) Care or Goop Horr. inerassatus Gray, British CHANNEL. Indicus Blyth. Bay or BENGAL. melas Schleg.—(phocenoides Cuv.) SEAs or JAPAN, meridionalis Flower, ‘'TAsMANTA. Orca Cuv.—(grampus Gunt. and Desm. gladiator and Duhameli Lacep.) Norra Atiantic anD NortH Pactrro Ocran, rrom FraNcE TO JAPAN, AND THE Potar SEA. Rissoana Cuv.—(aries Riss.) MrpirERRANEAN. spinipennis Burm. Mouru or THE River PLATA. tuberculifera Gray. Mourn or THAMEs. Delphinus Abusalam Rupp.—(hamatus ? Sehreb.) Rep Sra. acutus Gray.—(Eschrichtii Van Bened.) Norra Sra, Farork Isnanps, YarmourTH, OsTEND. Algiriensis Loche. Bay or Aucirns. Blainvillei Gerv. Coast or ParaGconra, AND MoutH or THE Pata. Boryi? Desm. MapacGascar. . Bredaensis Fisch.—(Chamissonis? Wiegm. Santoni- cus? Less. rostratus Cuv. planiceps Schleg.) Coasts oF FRANCE aNnD HOLLAND. Calvertensis Harlan.. Miocene. N. Amer. erruleo-albus Meyen. East Coast or 8. AMERICA, NEAR THE PLATA. Catalania Gray. Carr Mr yri1z, within great bar- rier reefs of AUSTRALIA. Conradi Leidy. Miocene. N. Amer. coronatus Freminville. SPITZBERGEN. eruciger D'Orb.—(bivittatus Less. albigena Quoy and Gaim.) Brtwrern Carr Horn ann New Hou. Dalionum Laurill. Mrtocnnr preps ar Dax. Delphis Linn.— (vulgaris Lacep. Pernettensis Blain, Thetyos Gerv.) Att THE SEAS oF THE NorTH- PRN HEMISPHERE. Do. Fossil in marine sand at Monrpenier, and at the Downs or Sate. Euphrosine Gray.—(Holbollii Eschr.) Nortu Sra. Eurynome Gray. Ixpian OcgEan, Bay oF BENGAL. frenatus Cuv. Carr or Goop Horr. frontatus Cuv.—(Reinwardtii Schleg.) Inn, OcEAN, Bay or BENGAL, RED Sra. leucopleurus Rasch. Norra Sra, Cristiana. leucorhamphus Per,— (Peroni Less. Commersoni Lacep.) SEAS OF THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE, Van Dreman’s Lanp, New Guin MAGELLAN, ETC. ; STRAITS OF SYNONYMIC LIST OF SPECIES OF MAMMALS. 341 Delphinus longirostris Gray.—(Capensis Gray.) Sas or JAPAN, MALABAR, AND CaPE. lunatus Less. Coast or CHI. macrogenius Laur, Dax. maculatus ? Less. SourH Spa. Malayanus Less. — (plumbeus Rupp. dubius Cuv. frontalis Schreb.) INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO. marginatus Duv. Drepre. Mediterraneus Loche. Bay or Anarers. minimus? Less. Sotomon Isianps. Nilssonii Gray.—(obseurus Nilss.) Coast oF SWEDEN, Nove Zelandiw Quoy and Gaim. New Zpatanp, New Careponta, Norrouk Isis. perniger Hiliot. Bay or Brnean, pseudodelphis Wiegm. LocaLrry UNKNOWN. Renovi Laur. Miocene in Dep. of OrRNE, FRANCE. superciliosus Less.—(obseurus? Gray. Fitzroyi? Waterh.) Coasts or Van Drmman’s Lanp, Care Horn, PataGonta, AND CAPE oF Goop Horr. Tursio Fab.—(truncatus Mont.) N. Artant. Ocean. BETWEEN CEYLON AND THE Equator. Pliocene. Vermont, N. F. Cuv. Capensis Dussum. loriger velox? Cuv. Vermontanus 2? 'Thomps. AMER. Inia Amazonica Spix and Mart. —(Boliviensis auct.) River AMAZON AND ITS LARGER TRIBUTARIES, UP TO THE FOOT OF THE CORDILLERA. Platanista Gangetica Cuv. or 17s DeLra. Indi Blyth. In the Inpus and its Dera. Squalodon (Rhizoprion, Phocodon) Bariense Jourdain. Marine chalk. Lower Miocene, near Bant, S. France. Grateloupe Meyer. Miocene beds. Grronpr, Hr- RAULT, Linz, MonTPELLIER. Hyperoodon Butzkopf Thompson.— (bidens Turton, Hunteri Desm. borealis Nilss. rostratum Wesm.) N, Arnantic OCEAN, Desmarestii Risso. — (Doumetii Gray. Philippii Cocco. cavirostris Gerv. Geryaisii Duvern.) latifrons Gray.—(Butzkopf (male) Esch.) Brivis Seas. : Berardius Arnuxi Duvern. Coast or New ZEALAND. Ziphius planirostris Cuy.—(longirostris ? Cuy.) TERTIARY For- MATIONS AT ANTWERP. Sowerbiensis Blainv.—(bidens Gray. Sowerbii Desm. micropterus Desm. Dalei Wagler.) Norru Spa, Ener, Havre, Etc. Arionius servatus Meyer. Molasse of BarRriIncEN. Balenodon affinis Owen. Red CRAG, SUFFOLK. definitus Owen. Rep crac, SUFFOLK. emarginatus Owen. RED oraG, SUFFOLK. gibbosus Owen. Rep crac, SurroLK. Lentianus Meyer. Turrtarres or Lrz. Rep crAG, SUFFOLK. Priscodelphinus grandevus Leidy. Miocene marl. New Jersry. Harlani Leidy. Miocene. New Jrrsry.* Hoplocetus crassidens Gery. Miocene, Drome; Marine sand. Monrrerier. In THE GANGES AND THE BRANCHES physaloides Owen. Smilocamptus Bourgueti Gery. Fahluns of Sanece-Grronpe. Delphinapterus (Beluga) leucas Pallas. Potar Sra, Nortu Pactrtc, Mourg or Amour, BHERING’s STRAITS. Monodon monocerus Linn. Potar Sra, Barrim’s Bay, anp New Sriperis, BHERING’s STRAITS. ZEUGLODONTIDE. Zeuglodon ( Basilosaurus) cetoides Owen.—(macrospondylus Miill.) Eocene. Marra, AtaBama, S. Canornina, ARKANSAS. serratus Gibbes (brachyspondylus Mull.) Eocene S. CAROLINA. Pontogeneus priscus Leidy.— (Zeuglodon pygmaeus? Mill.) Eocene, S. Carona. EDENTATA. GRAVIGRADA. Scelidotherium Agassii (Platyonyx) Lund. Pliocene? Brazr. Blainvillei (Platyonyx) Lund. Pliocene? Brazi.. Brongniartii (Platyonyx) Lund, Pliocene? Brazu.. Bucklandi Owen. Pliocene? Brazt. Cuviert Owen. Pliocene? Braziu. leptocephalum Owen. PLIOCENE EPOCH? IN BRaziL. minutus Owen. PLIOCENE EPOCH ? IN Brazin. Celodon Maquinense Lund, Pliocene. Brazi. Sphenodon sp. Lund. Pliocene. Braztn. Mylodon Darwinii Owen. SovurTHERN Pants or SourH AMERIca. Orycterotherium Missuriense Harl. (O. Oregonense Perkins. Eubradys antiquus Leidy. Mylodon Harlani Owen. laqueatus Harl. potens Leidy.) MutocENr BEps, Nr- BRASKA, AND NropraRa, OrEGON, Mississippi, SoutH CaRoLina. robustus Owen. La Prata. Megalonyx Jeffersoni Cuy. laqueatus Harl. THE STRarts or MaGELnan. gracilis Lund. Brazi. dissimilis Leidy. Brazit, Nepraska, Miocene beds. Megatherium Cuvieri Desm. From 40° N. Lar. ro 40° S. Lar. wn America, BurNnos Ayres, Loa, Paracuay, VENEZUELA. mirabile Leidy. Norra Ammrica, Groreia, SourTH CaRoLina. Gnathopsis Oweni Leidy. Soura America. Ereptodon priscus Leidy. N.AmeEntca, Mississippi. Bone-cayes, BRazin. From VirGinta To Ochotherium giganteum Lund. TARDIGRADA. Choleepus didactylus Linn. Hoffmanni Peters. Bradypus infuseatus Wagl. torquatus Olf—(crinitus and affinis Gray.) Brazin, AND PERv. tridactylus Cuv. Easr Coast or Brasm, NEAR Rio JANETRO. eucullifer Wagl. AMERICA, GUIANA, SURINAM. Costa Rrea. NortH-west Brazim anv Perv. EAsTERN NortH-EAstern PARTS OF Sour * Erroneously referred to the Greensand. 342 DasyPopip®. Chlamydotherium gigas Lund. Pliocene. Bonr-caves IN Brazin. Humboldtii Lund. Pliocene. Bonr-caves IN Brazi. Pachytherium magnum? Lund. Bonr-caves In Braz. Glyptodon (Hoplophorus) clavipes Owen. Pliocene Deposits. Buenos Ayres. euphractus Lund, Bonr-caves, BRaziu. minor Lund. Bone-caves, Braz. ornatus Owen. BuENos Ayres. reticulatus Owen. Burnos Ayres. Sellowi Lund. Bonr-caves, Brazt. tuberculatus Owen. Burnos Ayres. Heterodon diversidens Lund. Bonr-cayrs oF BRAztIL. Eurodon latidens Lund. Bonk-caves tN Brazin. Psephophorus polygonus y. Meyer. VIENNA. Dasypus brevirostris Lund. Pliocene. Bonr-caves 1n Braz. conurus Burm. La Prava. gigas Cuv.—(giganteus Geoff.) Gurana, Surinam, Bra- ziL, PARAGUAY, AND WHOLE OF 8. AmERIcA, Hast OF THE ANDES. gymnurus Jilig.— (duodecimcinctus Schreb. Tatuay Desm. unicinctus Linn.) Prru, Brazit, Paracuay, AND GUIANA ? hirsutus, GuyAQumL. hispidus Burm. Brazi.. hybridus Desm.—(septemcinctus Schreb.) AND SOUTHWARDS. minutus Desm.—(Patagonicus Desm.) PataGonta TO GUATEMALA, IN AMERICA FROM 36° To 50° SourH Lat. noyemcinetus Linn.— (octocinetus Buff. longicaudatus Wied. tricinctus Linn.) Brazim, Paracuay, AND GutIANa? nudicaudis Lund. Braztu. Peba Desm. Texas, Mexico, CeNTRAL AMER., GUIANA? punctatus Lund. Bone-cavEs 1N Brazi.. sexcinctus Linn.—(gilvipes Illig. setosus Wied.) Para- Guay, BraziL, AND GUIANA. uroceras Lund. Brazi anp PARacuay. villosus Desm. Pampas, BETWEEN 35° AND 39° SouTH Lar. Chlamydophorus truncatus Harl. retusus Burm. Glossotherium Darwini Owen. PARAGUAY, Menpoza In Cum. La Pata. Banpa ORIENTAL, S. AMERICA. SourarTa. Manis aspera Foc. Sumatra. : Dalmanni Sundev. Canton District In Cara. Guy Foc. A¥Frica. Javanica Desm.—(aspera Sundev.) Java, Sumarra, Bor- NEO, CELEBES, AND THE MaLayAN PENINSULA. macrura Hrxl.—(tetradactyla Linn. longicaudata Shaw. Africana Desm. Ceonyx Sundev.) Sierra Leone, GutnrA, SENEGAL, APPENDIX. Manis pentadactyla Zinn.—(brachyura Eral. macroura Desm. laticaudata lig. crassicaudata Geoff. aurita Hodg. leptura Blyth. leucura Blyth.) Crynon, Mapras, Pon- DICHERRY, BENGAL, Assam, NEPAL, ARRACAN, THE Ma- LAYAN PENINSULA. Temminckii Smuts. SourH Arrica, Care or Goop Hope, MosaMBIQuE, SENNAAR. a tricuspis Sund.—(multiscutata Gray. tridentata Focill.) GUINEA. tridentata Foc, MosamBique. Macrotherium giganteum Cuy.* Miocene beds at Sansans, S. FRANCE. VERMILINGUIA. Oryeteropus Aithiopicus Sundev. Nie. Capensis Geoff. Carrrarta, S. W. AFRICA. Senegalensis Less. SENEGAL. Myrmecophaga didactyla Zinn, Gurana, Braz, Peru. gigantea Lund. Bone-caves, Braziu. jubata Zinn. Wuotr or 8, Amertca, East oF THE ANDES, AND Nortu oF La Puata. tetradactyla Linn.—(tamandua Desm. bivittata Desm. nigra Geoff. ursina Griff. crispa Rupp.) S. Nupra, NEAR THE WHITE Gurana, Brazit, Paracuay, GUATEMALA, PERv. INSECTIVORA. TaLrips. Chrysochloris inaurata Wagn.—(Asiatica Linn. Capensis Desm. affinis Wagn. holosericea Licht. albirostris Wayn. Hottentotta Smith. Damarensis Ogilby. rutilans Wagn.) Carr or Goop Horr. obtusirostris Peters. Mosamprqur, Carrr. villosa Smith. Porr Navat. Condylura macrura Hart; radiata Shaw. prasinata Harris. longi- caudata Desm. cristata Linn. Norra AMERICA, Harirax, Nova Scotra ro Fort Ripney anp TO CaruisLE, Pennsyiyanta, OrEGON. Ranges from lat. 40° 12’ to 46° 20’, long. to 63° 30’ to 94° 20’. Talpa Europea Linn. Aut Kuropr, NortH AFRICA, AND A GREAT PART OF AsIA. Do. fossil in BONE-CAVES AND SUPERFIOIAL DmuyruM. ceca Savi. Irany, GERMANY, fossil. Do. fossil in Ivary. insularis Swink. Formosa. leucura Blyth. Smet, KHasyan Hinzs, TenassERIM. microura Hodgs. Nrpat, Srxxr, Assam. Wogura Zemm. Att THE JAPANESE ISLANDS. minuta Blainy.—(brachychir. Meyer.) Miocenr Deposits AT SANSANS, SourH FRANCE. Dimylus paradoxus Meyer. MiocrNr BEDS AT WEISSENAU. Mi0cENE BEDS OF AUVERGNE. antiquis Pom. FresHwatrr MrocENE or AUVERGNE. Geotrypus acutidens Pom. * Doubtful whether this class does not belong to the Dasypodide. SYNONYMIC LIST OF SPECIES OF MAMMALS. 343 Hyporyssus telluris Pom. Mrocenr Beps oF Sansans, Sourn FRANCE. -Galeospalax mygdaloides Pom. TERTIARY BEDS, AUVERGNE. Paleospulax magnus Owen, Forest BED, BOTH IN NORFOLK AND OSTEND. Scalops aquaticus Zinn.—(Canadensis Desm. Pennsylvanicus Harl. Talpa flavyescens Eral. fuseus and purpurascens Shaw.) THE GREATER Part oF NortH AMERICA, FROM 42° ro 27° N. Lar.—Massacuussets, New JERSEY, ConneEcTIcuT, PENNSYLVANIA, VirarnrA, Carona, 8. CarormnaA, Groreta, Frorma, ALABAMA, Mississippi, TENESSEE, ETC. argentatus dud. and Bach. Prarrmes or N, AMERICA, Mricuiean, Inirots, Kansas, ARKANSAS, OHIO, FROM LAT. 42° 20’ to Loursrana, Lona. 83° to 97°. Breweri Bach. Connecticut, AND New York 10 CLEVE- LAND, Onto. latimanus Bach. Mexico anp TEexas. Townsendii Bach.—(aeneus Cup. teniata Lee. Califor- nicus Ayres.) Oregon Mole. West Inpres, To Sawn Francisco, STEILACOOM, CALIFORNIA-—RANGE ON Pa- ciric Coast rrom Lar. 47° 10’ ro 37° 48’. Urotrichus talpoides Temm. Japan. Gibbsii Baird. Cascapre Mountains, Norra Cati- FORNIA. Soricinz. Sorex. § Crossopus. fimbripes Bach. PENNSYLVANIA. fodiens Pall.—(Daubentoni Eral. hydrophilus Pall. cari- natus and constrictus Herm. amphibius, natans, stag- natilis, rivalis Brehm. musculus and psilurus Wagl. nigripes Melchior. Pennanti Gray. Linneana Gray. Hermanni Duv. ciliatus Sowerby. remifer collaris and lineatus Geoff) Most of Europe, and Serra. Do. fossil in Sarpintan BoneE-Breccia, In Divyrom, IN CREVICES IN THE Gypsum, Paris, FRESHWATER Deposits In Norro.k. palustris Rich. Norra America, rrom Hupson’s Bay to THE Rocky Mountains. Himalayicus Gray. Hmrmanayan. Hoyii Baird.—(Thomsoni? Baird.) Onto, Wisconsin. § § Amphisorex. , alpinus Schinz, SwirzeRLAND, Banks or THE ReEvss at Sv. GorrHarDT, URSERNTHAL at an elevation of 5000 to 6000 feet, HimmMaLayanH, SIKKIM. Cooperi Bach.—(Leseuri Wagn.) Norra America, Massa- OHUSSETTS. Forsteri Rich. N.AmeErtca, Hupson’s Bay To New Yorx,. pachyurus Baird. Minnesora, NortH AMERICA. personatus Geoffi—(longirostris Bach. Haydeni? Baird.) Nortu America, NEBRASKA. platyrhinus Dekay.—(platyrhynchus Linsley.) J: AMERICA, FROM MassaCHUSSETIS TO OHIO, AND TO VERMONT. pygmeeus Pall.—(minutus Linn. minimus Geoff: exilis Gmel. Sorex. pumilio Wagl. cecutiens Laxm. pumilus Nilss.) Norra Arrica, GERMANY, Russia To SIBERIA. Richardsonii Bachm.—(parvus ? Rich.) Wisconsin. Suckleyi Baird. Catrrornia, Trowbridgei Baird. OreGon. vagrans Baird. WASHINGTON, AND OREGON TERRITORY, Cali- FORNIA. vulgaris Linn.—(araneus Linn. tetragonurus Herm. fodiens, eremita, and cunicularis Bechst. concinnus, rhinolophus, and melanodon Wagl. labiosus, castaneus, Hibernicus, and rusticus Jen. constrictus Geoff.) Eurorr, rrom Norru Iraty 10 SWEDEN. § § § Crocidura, albinus Blyth. Cuina, Amoy. agilis Le Vaill. Maunrrrius. annellatus Peters. MosamBique. araneus Schreb,—(moschata, major, rufa, and poliogastra Wagl. pachyurus Kist. inodorus Savi. Hedenborgi, and sericeus Sund.) Mrippie anp Sourn Evrore, anp NortH AFRICA. Do. Fossil from the Miocene of AUVERGNE. canescens Peters. MosAMBIQUE. cinnamoneus Lichst.— (varius Smuts, tlayescens Geoff.) CarFrRaRIA. crassicaudus Ehrb.— (sacer Ehrb. religiosus and myosurus Geoff.) Eayrt, Aranra, OLp CaLanar, West AFRICA. cyaneus Duv.—(infumatus Schreb. viarius Geoff.) ELEPHANT River, SourH AFrica. Etruscus Sav.—(suayeolens Pall.) Merprrerranean Disv., Traty, ALeGerIA, CRIMEA. feroculus Kelaart, CryLon. fuliginosus Blyth, TENASSERIM. 2 gracilis De Blainv. Carr or Goop Horr. Griffithii Horsf. Kuasya Hrus.* herpestes Duv. Carr or Goon Hore. heterodon Blyth. Kwasya His. hirtus Peters. MosamBrquE. Indicus Geoffi—(Sonnerati and ceerulescens Shaw. giganteus and Capensis Geoff. nemorivagus, saturatior, and soccatus Hodg. Francicus, Schinz. and Perotteti Duv. melanodon Blyth. fulvaster? Sund. Hodgsoni Blyth.) Ixp1a, Nepar, Beneat, Eeypr, iste or Franca, Assam. Kelaartii Blyth. Cryon. leucodon Herm.—(Guldenstaedti Pall.) France, GERMANY, anp West Russia. leucops Hodg, Sixxnt. Madagascariensis Coquer. Mapacasoar. Mariquensis Smith. SourH Arrica. micronyx Blyth. Norra-west HimMaayan. montanus Kelaart.—(ferrugineus Kelaart.) CEYLON. morio Gray. CamERooN Mounrarns. murinus Linn.—(myosurus Pall.) Maray Counrrigs, JAva, AND JAPAN, CHINA. niger? Horsf. Mapras. * Affghanistan, as reported, is a mistake. See Blyth’s “ Catalogue.” 344 Sorex. nudipes Blyth.—(Newera-Ellia Kelaart. atratus? Blyth. Sori- culus nigrescens? Gray. var.) Crynon, Burmese Coun- TRIES, Inpra. platycephalus Temm. JAPAN. Poensis Fraser. FERN. Po. purpurascens Zempl. CryLoN. sacralis Peters. MosAaMBIQuE. serpentarius Geoff—(Kandianus Kelaart.) Cry.on. tenuis Mill. Timor. Tytleri Blyth. Inpta. umbrinus Zemm.—(Ezi-Nezumi Temm.) JAPan. § § § § Diplomesodon. pulchellus Zicht. Krrauis STEPPES. Fossil species, the remains of which are not sufficiently distinct to allow them to be allotted in the above sections. AUVERGNE. MrocENE or AUVERGNE. Desnoyersanus Lartet. SANsans, SouTH FRANCE. Najadum Pomel. AUVERGNE. Prevostanus Lartet. SANsANs. pusillus y. Meyer. Matnz. Sansanensis Lartet. SANSANs. Mysarachne Picteti Pomel. MiocENrE or AUVERGNE. Plesiosorex Talpoides Pomel.—(Erinaceus soricoides De Blainy.) MrocENE OF AUVERGNE. Blarina angusticeps Baird. Norra America, VERMONT. Berlandieri Baird. Mexico. brevicauda Say. Towa, Intros, Wisconsin, NEBRASKA. Carolinensis Bachm. Nortu America, SourH Carorina, Mexico. cinerea Bach. NortH AMERICA, PENNSYLVANIA, SOUTH Carouina, FLortDA, GEORGIA. exilipes Baird. Norra AmeErtIcA, VIRGINIA, MissIssIPPy, TENNESSEE. talpoides Gapper.— (Dekayi Bach.) Norra Amrnica, MassacHussETts, Connecticut, Nsw York, PENNSYL- VANIA, VirGINIA, Onto, InrrNots, Lake SuPERtior, GworeiA, CanaDA, MicHiGANn, WISCONSIN. Myogale moschata Brandt.—( Moscoyitica Desm.) RussiA, BETWEEN THE Don and WoLGa. Pyrenaica Geoff. PyRENEEs. Sansanensis Lart.— (antiqua Pom.) SANSANS. Potamogale velox Du Chaillu.—(Bayonia velox Barboza de Boc.) Gapoon, West Arrica. Solenodon paradoxurus Brandt. Sr. Domneo. Cubanus Peters, Cupa. Sorex arvernensis Pomel. brachygnathus Pomel. SourH-EAst MiocENE BEDS MacrosceLipEs. Macroscelides brachyrhynchus CaArFRARIA, Edwardsi Smith. fuscus Peters. Intufi Smith. Nozeti Duv. Smith. — (melanotus Ogilby ?) ELEPHANT RIVER, S. AFRICA. MosamBIiQqQue. MosaMBique. Oran, IN ALGERIA. APPENDIX. Macroscelides rupestris Smi/h.—(typus Geoff. Alexandri Ogilb.) SourH AFRICA. tetradactylus Pelers. MosamBiqueE. typicus Smith—(jaculus Licht.) Carr or Goop Horr, anp East Coast oF SoutH Arrica. Rhynchocyon Cirnei Peters. MosAaMBique. TuPaTADE. Cladobates (Tupaia) Belangeri Wagn.—(Peguana Geoff) Prau, VALLEY OF THE SritTanG, TENASSERIM. Ellioti Waterh. Irp1a, EAstERN Guats, ferrugineus Raffl—(glis Diard.) Sumarra, Bornro, Java, Matayan Peninsuna, Peau, Arracan, TEN- ASsERIM, KHasyA Hiris. Javanicus Horsf. Java, SumaTRA, BoRNEO. murinus Willer. Wrst Coast or Borneo. splendidula Gray. Borneo. tana Raffl.—(speciosus Wagn.) Sumatra, BorNEo. Ptilocereus Lowii Gray. Borneo. Hylomys suillus Mull. Java anp Sumatra, Borneo. Peguensis. Blyth. Valley ofthe Sane, TENASSERIM. Gymnura Rafilesii Horsf—(gymnura Raffles.) SuMATRA aND Manacca. Oxyyomphius frequens v. Meyer. WEISSENAU. Upper miocene limestone at ERINAcID2&. Erinaceus Aithiopicus Lhrb.—(Aigyptius Geoff. brachydactylus Geoff. platyotis Sind.) DEsrrrs or Dongora. albiventris Wagn. Inpia. Algirus Duv. ALGERIA. Arvernensis de Blainy. Lower Mrocenr, AUVERGNE. auritus Pall—(hypomelas Brandt. megalotis Blyth.) SourH Russia, GREATER TARTARY, AND SIBERIA. collaris Gray, Punsas, Norta-West Jnpia. concolor Martin. Asta Minor. Deserti Loche. SaHara. dubius Lart. Miocene beds of Sansans. Europeus ZLinn.—(inauris Linn. auriculatus Hill. caninus and suillus Geoff: Sibiricus Bell.) Across WHOLE OF Eur. AND ASIA. Do. fossilis de Blainy. (major Pomel.) Fossil in dilu- vial deposits in Europe. frontalis Smith. Cape or Goop Hops. Grayii Benn.—(spatangus? Benn.) Inpra, Libycus Ehrb. Lypran Desert. micropus Blyth. NrEmGHERRTIES, CEYLON. mentalis ? (Gray.) Himmanayan. nanus Aym. MiocENE BEDS OF AUVERGNE. priscus v. Meyer. WrIsENAv. Pruneri Wagn.—(heterodactylus Sund.) Eaypr, SEN- NAAR. Sansansensis Lart. Miocene beds of Sansans. Upper freshwater miocene beds at Aucu near SANsANs. Galeria Viverroides Pom. CENTETID. Centetes ecaudatus Z//.—(setosus Desm. armatus Geoffr. varie- gatus Gray.) MApAGAscAR AND Mauritius. SYNONYMIC LIST OF SPECIES OF MAMMALS. Centetes semispinosus Cuv.—(Madagascarensis Shaw.) Mapaa. setosus Blainv.—(spinosus Desm.) Mapac. Ericulus nigrescens Geoff. Mapac. Echinogale Laurillardi Pom. Freshwater miocene marl at Pernrrer-Issore. spinosus Desm. Mapbac. Telfairi Mart. Mapa. CHEIROPTERA. Fruarvora. Pteropus Hgyptiacus Geoff—(Geoftroyi Temm.) Eoyrr, SENE- Gal. Alecto Temm. CELEBES. amplexicaudatus Geoff. Timor, Ampoyna, SumaTRa, Sram. collaris I/lig—(Leachii Temm.) Care or Goop Horr, MosamBIQuE. conspicillatus Gould. Frrzroy Istanp, off E. coast of AUSTRALIA. ecaudatus Temm. SuMATRA. edulis Geoffi—(Javanicus and Assamensis Horsf. ehrysoproctus Temm. coeleno Herm.) Inp1an Ar- CHIP., JAVA, AMBOYNA. Edwardsii Geoff.—(medius Temm. leucocephalus Hodys. Assamensis M‘Clell.) Inp1a, Cryton, Map- AGASCAR. funereus Temm. Tuor, Ampoyna, Borneo, SumatTRa, NortH AUSTRALIA. giganteus Fitzing. Nicopar Isnanp. griseus Geoff—(dasymallus Temm. rubricollis Sieb.) Tumor and Neighbouring Islands. Hottentottus Smith. Carr or Goop Hope. hypomelanus Temm. Laxvuan. jubatus Esch. —(pyrrhocephalus Meyer.) PuuerinE Isies. Leschenaultii Desm.—(seminudus Kel.) Sour Inp1a, CEYLON. MacDonaldii Gray. Frist Istanps. Mackloti Temm. Tnvor. marginatus Geoff—(Tittecheilus Temm. Duvaucelii brevicaudatus and Diardii Cuv. pyrivorus Hodg. Horsfieldii and affinis Gray.) Inp1a, Ceynon, Bur- MESE and Matay Countries, Nrcopar, BorNEo. Marianus Desm. Manrtan Isnanps. melanocephalus Temm. Java. melanotus Blyth. Nicopar IsLanp. Nicobaricus Fitz. Nicopar Istanp. pallidus Zemm. Matacca. personatus Temm. TreRNATE (Motuccas). poliocephalus Temm. New Hortanp and Van Dir- mAN’s LAnp. phaeops Temm. CELEBES, AMBOYNA. pselaphon Temm. Bonry Istes, near Japan. rubricollis Geoff. — (collaris Licht. fuscus Briss.) Bovurson Isie and Mapac, scapulatus Peters. Care York, NorTH AUSTRALIA. Scherzeri Fitzing. Nicopar Istanps. stramineus Geoff. SENEGAL, SENNAAR. vulgaris Geoff—(vampyrus ? Linn.) IsLe or Bourson, Mavririvus, MapaGascar, AFRICA? Luzon, 345 Epomophorus crypturus Peters.—(Wahlbergi? Sund,) Mosam- BIQUE, ZAMBESIA. Franqueti Tomes. GaBoon. Gambianus Ogilb, Gampia. labiatus Jemm. ABYSSINIA. macrocephalus Ogilb—(epomophorus and Whitei Benn. megacephalus Swains.) Schensis Rupp. Apysstyta, GAMBIA, GABOON. Cynopterus albiventer Gray. Morty Isianp. Macroglossus minimus Geoff.—(rostratus Horsf.) Java, BuRMAH, Sram, Manayan Countries, TENASSERIM. Harpyia cephalotes Pall.—(Pallasii Geoff.) AmBoyNa. Hypoderma Peronii Geoff.—(palliatus Geoff. Moluccensis Quoy and Gaim.) Ampoyna, Trtor, Samao IsLanD, Banpa, Borneo, SUMATRA. Hypsignathus monstrosus Allen.— (Sphyrocephalus labrosus Murr.) OLD CaLaBar. GAMBIA. ENTOMOPHAGA. IsTIOPHORA. Diphylla ecaudata Spiz. Brazr.. Desmodus murinus Wagn. Mexico, N. AMERICA. Orbignyi Waterh. Cogqumrmo IN CHIL. rufus Wied.—(cinerea d’Orbigny. fuscus Lund.) Brazin, Borrvta, GUATEMALA. Phyllorhina aurita Tomes ? bicolor Temm. Java, AMBoyNA, TIMOR. Caffra, Peters. ZamBesta, Port Navat, and IstanD oF Ino, near MosaMBiQuE. cineraceus Blyth. Punsap Sart Rance. diadema Geoff.—(Commersoni Geoff.) Timor. gigas Wagn. BrNGUELA. gracilis Peters. MosamBiquE, ZAMBESIA. insignis Horsf.— (vulgaris and deformis Horsf.) Java and Neighbouring Islands. Labuanensis Tomes. Lapuan, BoRNEO. murinus Elliot. (fulvus Gray. fulgens Elliot. ater Templ. atratus Kelaart,) Sout Inp14, CEYLON, TeNAssSERIM, Matay Pen., Nicopar ISLanDs. nobilis Hoursfi—(armiger and tragatus Hodg. lan- kadivus Blyth). Nepat, Cryton, Java, Tmtor, Burmese and Matayan Countries. speoris Wagn.—(Templetoni Blyth. Voulha Temp. Dukhunensis Sykes. crumeniferus Peron. api- culatus and penicillatus Gray. larvatus Hors/- griseus Meyer.) Inp1a, Toor, AMBoyNA, ARACAN. tricuspidata Zemm. Motucca Istanps, Borneo, JAVA, SUMATRA. tridens Geoff. Eaypr, Nusta. vittata Peters. IsLanp oF Ibo, near MosaMBIQue. Rhinolophus affinis Horsf—(rubidus and fulvidus Blyth. cine- rascens Kelaart. galeritus Cantor. Rouxii Temm.) Matay Countries, TENAsSERIM, S. MataBar, BENGAL, JAVA, SUMATRA, CEYLON, CHINA (AMOY). aurantius Gray. ConourG PrninsuLa, NorTH Avs- TRALIA. breyitarsus Blyth, Capensis Blas. Srxkim™, Care or Goop Hore and Eeyrr. cervinus Gould. Care York, NortH AvusTRALIA, Sandstone caves, ALBANY IsLaND. ye ME 346 Rhinolephus clivosus Riipp. Daumatia, Levant, Eaypr, Nustra, Norra Arrica, SAHARA. cornutus Temm. JAPAN. Euryale Blus. Norrx Iraty. euryotis Temm.,— (Philippensis Luccas, PHiipprInE IsLaNnDs. fumigatus Riipp. S. East or AByssmNia. ferrum-equinum Leach—(unihastatus Geoff.) From THE SourH oF ENGLAND AND GERMANY TO THE MEDITERRANEAN, AND OVER THE WHOLE OF AFR. ; LEBANON, JAPAN? hippocrepis Bonap.—(hipposideros Leach. minu- tus Mont. bihastatus Geoff.) Mimprie anp Sourn Evrorr To THE Caucasus AND ASIA Minor. Lauderi Mart. Frrnanpo Po. lobatus Peters. Mosamprque, ZAMBESIA. luctus Temm.—(morio Gray. perniger Hodg.) Java, Sumatra, Matacca, Hiwmatayan, NEpat, SIKKIM. macrotis Hodg. Hormanayan, Kaasta Hira. minor Horsf.— (lepidus and sub-badius Blyth. pusillus Temm.) Java, Sumarra, Toor, Ben- GAL, PHmippINE Isies, CELEBES. megaphyllus Gray. Moreton Bay, New Hot- LAND. mitratus Blyth. Crntrat Inpra, Nippon Zemm. Japan. ‘Pearsoni Horsf. Sixx. trifoliatus Temm. Java, Borneo, Megaderma (Celops) Frithii Blyth. Lowrr BENGAL. frons Geoff. SrNeEGAL and Upper Noe Disrricr. lyra Geoff.—(Carnatica Elliot.) Inpta. Philppensis Waterh. PuHtimprne Istrs, Casu- MERE, spectrum Hiigel—(schistaceum Hodg.) trifolinm Geoffi— (spasma Schreb.) NATE. Tylostoma Mexicana Sauss. Mexico. Macrotus Californicus Baird. Catirornta, Mexicanus Sauss. Mexico. Waterhousii Gray. Hayri1, Cupa, Jamatca, and other Wesr Inpran Isnanps. Mormoé6ps Blainvillei Leach, Cupa, Mexico. Aéllo (Chilonycteris) cinnamomea Schinz. Cupa. gymnota Wagn.—(personata Wagn. Pteronotus Davyi Gray.) Brazrv, Trrnman. Cuvieri Leach.—(M‘Leayi Gray. fuliginosa Gray.) Cupa, Hayrt. Osburni Tomes. Jamarca. quadridens Sch.—(grisea Gosse.) Brazu., Phyllodia Parnellii Gray. Jamatca. Nyetophilus Geoffroyi Leach. Inptan Ocean, W. anv SourH- West AUSTRALIA, Gouldii Tomes. Morrron Bay. Timoriensis Geoff. Bataurst, Wrest AUSTRALIA, (not Tr1or. ) unicolor. Van Dieman’s Lanp, Nyeteris Capensis Smith. S, Arnica, Waterh.) Mo- BENGAL. Java, TER- Cura. rubiginosa Wagn. APPENDIX. Nyeteris fuliginosa Peters. Mosamerqur, ZAMBESIA. hispidus Schr. SENEGAL. Javanica Geoff. Java. Thebaica Geoffi— (Geoffroyi Desn. albiventris Wagn. discolor Wagn.) Seneca, Eaypr, and Nupia. Phyllostoma angusticeps Gerv. SourH AMERICA. auricularis Suuss. Braz. auritum Pelers. Mexico and Gurana. Azteca (Carollia) Sauss. Mexico. bidens Wagn.— (soricinus Spix. bicolor and am- blyotis Wagn.) Brazm. ; bilabiatum Wagn. Brazin. calearatum Wagn. Braz. eirrhosum Spix.—(fuliginosum Gray.) Parag. crenulatum Geoff. Locality not known. discolor Wagn. Brazt. dorsale Lund. Brazim.. elongatum Geoff. Norra Braztm. excisum Burm.—(albeseens and fumarium Burm. rotundatum Gray. oporophilum Tschud.) Bra- ziz and PrrRv. hastatum Geo/ff.—(perspicillatum Schreb.) GENER- ALLY DISTRIBUTED THROUGHOUT Braziu. humerale Lund. Braziu. infundibulum Reng.—(rotundum Geoff.) Paracuay. leucostigma Lund. Brazin. longifolium Wagn. Brazm. macrophyllum Wied. — (megalotis and Mimon Gray.) Brazi.. nigrum Bonap. Ecuapor. plecotus Zund. Brazi. spectrum Geoff. Brazm, Gurana. Lophostoma sylvicolum D'Orbigny. Botiyian CorDILLERA, n.sp. GUATEMALA. Centurio flavigularis Gray. Cuba. Mexicanus Sauss. Mexico. senex Gray. Brazt.. Schizostoma minutum Gery. Sourm AMERICA. Pteronotus Dayvyi? Gray. Trrxmpap. Lonchorhina aurita Tomes. West Inpres? Glossophaga (Phyllophora) amplexicaudata Geoff. Surtnam, West INDIES. (Hemiderma) brevicaudum Wied.—(Grayi Waterh. Childreni Gray.) Brazm and Surinam. (Anoura Gray. Cheeronycteris Licht.) ecaudata Geoff-—(Geoffroyi Gray). Bazin. (Monophyllus) Redmanni Leach (caudifera Geoff. Leachii Gray.) Brazit, asour Rito JANEIRO, Jamarca, GUATEMALA. Mexicana Tschudi. Mexico. Peruana Tschudi. EASTERN SLOPE OF PERUVIAN CorDILLERA. Brazin, soricina Pall. Surtwam, CarrBBEan Istanps, JAMAICA. villosa Rengg. Paraguay. Dermanura cinereum Gerv. SourTH AMERICA. Sturnira Chilense Gery. CH. liium Gerv. SourH America. Arctibeus brachyotus Wied. (Jamaicensis, Achradophilus, and sulphureus Gosse.) Brazm, Jamacta. SYNONYMIC LIST OF SPECIES OF MAMMALS. Arctibeus Floresii Bonap, Ecuapor. lineatus Geoff. — (lilium Geoff. personatum and pusillum Wagn.) Brazi, Paraguay, Ecuapor. perspicillatus Geoff.—(planirostre Spix. supercilia- tumand obscurum Wied. Lewisii Leach. Jamaicense Leach. faleatus Gray.) Brazm and ANTILLEs, JAMAICA, CUBA. undatus Gerv. SourH AMERICA. Rhinopoma macrophyllum Geoffi—(Hardwickii Gray.) Eyer, Inpra. Brachyphylla badia Gray—(cavernarum Grag.) Cuba and Sr. VINCENT'S. Stenoderma Chilense Gray. CH. rufum Geoff. Sourn AMERICA, Tolteca Sauss. Mexico. Phyllonycteris Poeyi Gundlach. Jamarca, GYMNORRHIN=. Noctilio Americanus Tomes. JAMAroa. leporina Burm.—(rufipes and affinis D'Orbigny. unico- lor and dorsatus Wied. rufus and albiventris Spix. mastivus Gosse.) BotrviA, ParAGuay, BRAzi, SURINAM, _ JAMATOA. Mormopterus jugularis Peters. Mapacascar. Nyctinomus macrotis Gray. CuBa. nasutus Spix.—(Brasiliensis Geoff. murinus Gray. eynocephala Zee. fuliginosa Cooper. Carolinen- sis Gundlach. naso Wagn. Mexicanus Sauss.) Norta Amerrioa, West Inpies, SourH AMERICA, BurEnos AyREs. Mystacina tuberculata Forst. New ZEaLanp. Miniopterus Australis Tomes. AusTRaLia, Tr1or. blepotis Temm.—(morio Gray. Eschscholtzii Water.) JAPAN, AMBOYNA, AUSTRALIA. Schreibersii Kuhl—(Ursini Bonap. Orsini and dasythrix Z’emm.) SourH Evroprg, Iraty, ro 8000 FEET HIGH IN Mount Como, N. Arrica, ALGERIA, tN Asta, FROM Japan TO Java, BorNEO, SUMATRA. seotinus Tomes. NATau. tibialis Tomes. AmBoyna. Antrozous pallidus Zee. Catrrornia, OREGON, Nyctellus lepidus Gerv. CuBa. Thyroptera bicolor Cantr. Surinam. tricolor Spizx.—(thyropterus Schinz.) BANKs oF THE AMAZON. Emballonura afra Peters. MosamMpique. bilineata Temm. Surinam. calearata Temm.—(Maximiliani Fisch. breviros- tris Wagn.) Brazi. eanina Temm. Braz. n. sp. fid. Gerv. Sunpa Istes. fuliginosa Tomes, FEEJEE IsLanDs. leptura Schreb.—(marsupialis Mull.) Surinam. monticola Temm. Java, SUMATRA. saxatilis Temm.— (naso Wied. Brazin. Diclidurus albus Wied.—(Freyersi Neuwied.) Ischnoglossa rivalis Sauss. Mexico, Ortzaba. Celeno Brooksiana Leach. Habitat not known. rivalis Spix.) Brazr. 347 Dysopes abrasus Zemm.—(holosericeus Wagn., castaneus Geoff.) Brazit, PaRaGuay. acetabulosus (Natalensis) Smith. West Arrica, Maur- irrus, NATAL. Jgyptiacus Geoff—(Geoflroyi Temm. pumilus Riipp.) Eeyrrt. albus Wagn. Braztn. amplexicaudatus Geoff. GUIANA. ater Gray ? aurispinosus Peale. Brazin. Aztecus Sauss. Mexico. brachypterus Peters—(dubius Peters.) Mozams. cecus Wagn.—(auritus Wagn.) Paracuay, BRazin. Cestoni Savi. Ivaty. erassicaudatus Geoff. ParaGuay. fumarius Wayn.—(obscurus Temm.) Brazib, SURINAM. glaucinus Wagn, Braziu. gracilis Wagn. Brazt. insignis Blyth. Amoy. laticaudatus Geoff. PARAGUAY. limbatus Peters. MozamMBIQuE. longimanus Wagn.—(leucopleura Wagn. ferox Péppig ) Peru, Braziz, SuRINAM. macrotis Gray. CuBA. Mexicanus Sauss. Mextco. Midas Sund. SeNNAaR. multispinosus Burm. La Prava. nasutus Wagn. Braziu. Norfolkensis Gray. Norronk IsLanp. olivaceus Wagn, Braziu. perotis Wied.—(rufus Geoff.) Brazr. plicatus Temm.—(Bengalensis Geoff:) BunGAt. Riuppellii Temm. Eayrr. Temminckii Lund. Brazi. tenuis Temm.—(dilatatus Horsf. plicatus Blyth.) Sumatra, Banpa, Manay CounTRIEs. torquatus Wagn.—(cheiropus Zemm.) West Asta, Java, Sum., Born. ursinus Wagn.—(alecto Temm.) INTERIOR OF Brazit, SURINAM. velox Temm.—(tropidorhynchus Gray, Moxensis D' Orb.) Bottvia, Brazti, SuRINAM, CUBA, Furipterus horrens Cuv. GurtAna. eerulescens Tomes. Sour Brazit. Natalus stramineus Gray.—(Nyctiellus lepidus and Spoctrellum macrourum Gerv.) SourH America, S. Braz, Norrnu America, Cuspa, JAMAICA. Hyonycteris albiventer Tomes. Rio Nasso, near Quito. discifera Licht. and Peters, Purrto Capatno, CENn- TRAL AMERICA. Taphozous Australis Gould. NortH AUSTRALIA. leucopterus Zemm. S. Arriea, Mosampique. longimanus Hardw.— (bicolor Temm. fulvidus bre- vicaudus and Cantori Blyth.) Inpra, CEYLon, Burmese Countries. melanopogon Temm.—(Philippinensis Waterh.) Iv- DIAN Prenrnsuta, Manay Penrinsuna, Java, SUNDA Istes. perforatus Geoffi—(nudiventris Riipp. Senegalensis Geoff. Mauritianus Geoff.) Eayrt, NuBrA. JAVA, APPENDIX. Taphozous Saccolaimus Temm.—(pulcher E/liot. crassus Blyth.) Inpran PEN., Matay PEN., JavA, BorneEo. Nyeticejus atratus Blyth. Srxxm. Australis Gray. AUSTRALIA. Bonariensis Burm, La Puava. Borbonicus TZemm. IstE or BourBon. canus Blyth.—(Maderaspatanus Gray.) Inp1A. castaneus Gray. Matay Countries, E. Benet. crespuscularis Allen.—(creeks F. Cuv. humeralis? Raf.) Untrep Srares, New Orteans, NEBRASKA, Trxas, WASHINGTON TERRITORY. Dingana Smith. S. Arnica. Heathii Horsf. Inpra, Cancurra, Mapras. leucogaster Rupp. KornoFran. luteus Blyth. Buneat, Suet, Assam, Burman. macrotus Poepp.— (villosissimus Geoff. sericeus TIund.) Antuco in Cur. mystax Desm. Kentucky. nidicola Kirk, ZAMBESIA. nigrita Zemm. SENEGAL. nivicolus Hodg. NrEPat. ornatus Blyth, Homatayan, Kuasya Hints. planirostris Peters. MosaMBique. pumilus Gray, AUSTRALIA. Sicula Desm. Srcwy. Swinheei Blyth. Amoy. Temminckii Horsf.— (Belangeri Geoff. noctulinus Geoff.) Java, Borneo, Sumatra, Banpa, Tror, PonpIcHERRY. Tickelli Blyth. Crntrat Inpra, Cryton. viridis Peters. MosamBiqun. Lasiurus caudatus Tomes. PERNAMBUCO. cinereus Palisot.—(pruinosus Say.) Nort AMERICA, Canapa, UntrEp Staves, Catrrornia, New Mexico, Grayii Tomes. Sanpwicnu Isianps, Cuit1, NEsQUuALLY, San Juan DE Fuca? intermedius Allen. MeExt1co. Noveboracensis Lral.—(lasiurus Gmel. rubellus Palisot. villosissimus Geoff. monachus and tessellatus Raff. rufus Harl. Blossevillii and Bonariensis Less. varius Poepp.) Red Bat. Universally distributed over temperate regions of Norra Amertca, northwards from Rio GranpE, Trexas, and Carr Sr. Lucas. Pearsonii Horsf. S.E. Hrmanayaus, AMBOYNA. suillus Temm.—(lasiura Hodg. Pearsonii Blyth.) S.E. HimMaayans, Sumarra, Java. vulpinus Temm. ? Scotophilus Bellii Gray. Wrst Inpres, borealis Nilss.—(Nilsonii Blas. and Keys. Kuhlii Nilss. brachyotis Zemm.) ScanprnavrA, Russia, and the Harrz. Carolinensis Geoff. NortH AMERICA, PENNSYLVANIA, NEBRASKA, WASHINGTON TERRITORY. Coromandelianus F. Cuv. Inp1a, Burman, CreyLon, Matayan Pentnsuna, Nrcopar. Cubensis Leach. Cuba. discolor Kuhl.—(serotinus Pall.) South of Sweprn, ENGLAND, SWITZERLAND, CRIMEA. falcatus? Gray. Inp1a, ferrugineus Temm. DutcH GuIANA. Scotophilus fuliginosus Hudg. Nepat. fulvidus Blyth, TENAsSSERIM. fulvus? Gray. Java, Mapras. fuscus Palisot.—(arcuatus Say. phaiops Raff. ur- sinus Zemm. gryphus F. Cuy. Greenii? Gray.) Norra America, MassacHusseTTs, PENNSYLVANIA, Misstsstep1, NEBRASKA, WASHINGTON TERRITORY, OrrGON, CALIFORNIA, ETC. Georgianus F', Cuv.—(monticola Bach. crassus ? F. Cuv, salarii? F. Cuv.) Norra America, PENNSYLVANIA, VrirGIniA, GEORGIA, ARKANSAS, Mexico. Gouldii Gray. New Sourn Wats, S. AusTratia. Greyii Gray. Porr Esstneton, N. AusTrania, hesperus Allen, CALIFORNIA. Hodgsonii? Gray. Inpra, Catcurra. innoxius Gerv. SourH AMERICA. Leachii Gray.—(Kuhlii Leach.) Inpta, Leisleri Kuhl.—(dasycarpus Leisl.) | GERMANY, ENGLAND. lobatus Gray. Inpta. MacLeayii Gray. CuBa. murinus Linn.—(myotis Bechst. submurinus Brehm.) Mrppte and Sours Evrorr, Norra Arrica, Mip. AsIA, TO THE HimMaLayaus. ‘ Do. Fossil in diluvium and bone-caves, EUROPE. noctivagans Lec.—(Auduboni Harl, pulverulentus Temm.) Nortu America, from the ATLANTIC to the Rocky Mountarns. noctula Daub.—(lasiopterus Schreb. labiata Hodg. preterus Kuhl. altivolans White. ferrugineus Brehm. serotinus Geoff.) Att TEMPERATE HuROPE AnD Asia TO JAPAN AS FAR SOUTH AS NorTH ITALY AND THE CasPIAN SEA. pachyonix Tomes. Inpta. pumiloides Tomes. Amoy, CHINA. serotinus Daub.—(noctula Geoff. murinus Pall. Okenii, Wiedii, and rufescens Brehm.) Ati Eur. AND Asti, TO THE HIMMALAYAHS. velatus Geoffi—(bursa Lund. Dutertreus Gerv. furin- alis D'Orb.) Brazi, Borryra, ARGENTINE RE- PUBLIC, CUBA ? Vespertilio Abramus Jemm. Japan. adversus Horsf. Java, BnNGAL, TENASSERIM, CEYLON, PENANG. aenobarbus Temm. SouTH CAROLINA, GUATEMALA. erosa Tomes. East coast oF SourH AFRICA. affinis Allen. Norra America, ARKANSAS. albescens Geoff—(levis Geoff.) Bnraziu. akokomale Temm. JAPAN. Arsinoe Temm. SuRINAM. Aristippe Bonap.—(Alcythoe Bonap.) Stctny. auritus (Plecotus) ZLinn.—(cornutus Fab. brevi- manus Bonap. homocrous Hodg. Darjilingensis Hodg. Peroni Geoff. megalotis Rafin.) Att Eur. From 60° N. L. ro THE Cavoasus, GEorara, HimMabayaH, AND N. AFR. Do, Fossil IN THE BoNE-cAVE OF BEzE, IN THE DEPARTMENT OF AUDE, FRANCE. ater Bonap. Evcuapor. SYNONYMIC LIST OF SPECIES OF MAMMALS. 349 Vespertilio Barbastellus Schreb.— (communis Bonap. Dauben- toni Bell.) ENGLAND, SWEDEN, FRANCE, GERMANY, Traty, HimmabayaH. Bechsteini Kuki. Mippie and Sour Evuropr. Berdmorei Blyth. TENassERiM. Blythii Tomes. Inpra (NastraBap). caliginosus Tomes, Inpta, Capaccini Bonap.—(megapodius Temm.) Srcmy and SARDINIA. Chiloensis Waterh. CHILOE. Chinensis Tomes. CHINA. ciliatus Blas.— (emarginatus Geoff. Schranki Koch.) GERMANY, near CoLOGNE. circumdatus Zemm. Java. Darwinii Tomes. Canary IsLEs. dasyenemus Boic. (limnophilus Temm.) Mripp1ie Europe. Daubentoni Kuhl.—(eedilis Jenyns,Volgensis Eversm.) Sarpinia, Stcrty, Germany, Hotnanp, ENGLAND, Mippte and Sour SwEDEN. epichrysis Smuts. Cape or Goop Hope. erythrodactylus Temm.— (monachus Desm.) PHma- DELPHIA. evotis Allen. NortH America, Pactric Coast FROM : PuGer Sounp to Lower CaLirornia. formosus Hodg. NeEpau, CHINA. fuliginosus Hodg. NEPAL. Geoffroyi Leach.—(pacificus Gray.) HimMaLayaH. Hardwickii Horsf. Java and Sumarra, PHILIPPINE IsLEs. Harpyia Zemm, Java. Hilarii Geoff—(Brasiliensis Desm. polythrix Geoff. parvulus Zemm. Isidori D’Orb.) Braz, AR- GENTINE REPUBLIC. Horsfieldii Zemm.—(macellus Gray.) Jaya, BoRNEO. imbricatus Horsf—(pipistrelloides Kuhl. Javanus Cuv. Hasselti Temm.) Java. insignis Meyer. Mayence Basin. irretitus Cantor. CHusan, Hone Kona. Isidori Burm. La Prara. isabellinus Temm. Triporis. Kuhlii Auhl.—(Pipistrellus Bonap.) Sourn Evrorg, Traty. lanosus Smith. S.ArFrica. Lecontei Cooper.—(Synotus macrotis Lec.) Norra AMERICA. Leibii Bachm. Muicutean. Leisleri Kuhl.—(lasycarpus Leisl.) Grnmany, Eno- LAND. lepidus Blyth. Inpta. Leucippe Bonap. Sicty. leucogaster Wied. Brazuu.. leucomelas Riipp, Arabia PETREA. limbatus (Molossus) Peters. Mosams. lucifugus Lec.—(brevirostris Wied.) N. AMERICA, Unirep Srares, Mexico, and Cenrrat AMERICA, as far south as Panama. macrodactylus Temm. Japan. macropus Gould, SourH AUSTRALIA. macrotarsus Waterh. PHILIPPINE IsLEs. Vespertilio macrotis Temm. SUMATRA. macuanus Peters. Mosams. Madagascariensis Tomes. MaApaGascar. marginatus Riipp.—(albolimbatus Kuster.) SARDINIA, N. Arrica, Ateerra, Oran, Nupra, ARABIA Pr- TREA. Maugei Desm. Porto Rico. maurus Blas. Mr. Branc, St. GorrHarprT. maximus Geoff.—(nasutus Say.) GurANA. megalurus 7'emm.—(Capensis Smith.) S. Arrioa. Mexicanus Sauss. Hor rEGIons oF Mexico. Meyeni Waleh, Puitieprne Isies. microdon Tomes. SourH AusTRALIA, VAN Dreman’s Lanp. minutus Temm.—(hesperida Temm.) S. AFRICA, ABYSSINIA. molossus Jemm. JAPan. murinoides Lartet. Sansans, S. FRANOE, mystacinus Kuhl. Germany, France, EnoGianp, AND TO THE MIDDLE OF SWEDEN. nanus Peters (subtilis Sander.) Mosams., Zam- BESIA. Nattereri Kuhl. From THE MIDDLE OF SWEDEN TO THE MEDITERRANEAN. Nathusii Blas—(Ursula Wagn.) Germany, GREECE. Nicobaricus Fitzroy. Nrcopar Istanps. nigricans Wied. Brazi~, PARAGUAY, nigricans Cresp. Corsica. nigrogriseus Gould. Monreron Bay. nitidus Tomes. Lasuan, Borneo. nitidus Allen, OreGon and Norru America, west of Rocky Mountains. noctuloides Lartet. SANSANS, S. FRANCE. pachomus Tomes. Inp1a. pachypus Jemm. Java and SUMATRA. pallidus Blyth. Crntrat Inpra. pallidus Zec. White Bat. Carrrornta. papillosus Zemm. Java and Sumatra, BENGAL, CEYLON. Parisiensis Cuy. Parts Gypsum. parvipes Blyth. CasHMIR. pellucidus Waterh. PuHutrppine Istxrs. picatus Gould. Interior of Sourm AusTRALIA. pictus Pall.—(Kerivoula Bodd. Malayanus Cuv. Oreias and brachypterus Zemm.) Inp1a, Java, SumaTRA, AND Borneo, Ceyton, Burman, Matay CountTRIES. pipistrellus Daub—(pygmeus Leach. Alcythoe Bonap. minutissimus Schinz.) From Soutn SWEDEN AND ENGLAND TO SPAIN AND GREECE, Asta TO JAPAN. Do. Fossil from a Bone-cave at ANTIBEs. platycephalus Smuts. Carr or Goop Hope. precoz Meyer. Mayencr Bas. ruber Geoff. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. rufopictus Waterh. PuHrrprrne Istes. Ruppellii Fisch.—(Temminckii Rupp.) Nubra. Savii Bonap. Tuscany, Rome, Story. semicaudatus Peale. Samoan IsnanDs. sericeus Tomes. Habitat not known. 390 Vespertilio splendidus Wiem. Sr. Tuomas IsLanp. Siligorensis Hodg. Inpta. subflavus Ff. Cuv. GroRGIA. subulatus Say.—(Californicus Bachm. Caroli Temm. lanceolatus Wied. lucifugus Wace Murris. domesticus Green. lepidus Gerv.) N. AmERICA, PENNSYLVANIA, Cusa. Tasmaniensis Gray. ‘Tasmanra, Pumping Isies, Inpia. Theobaldi Blyth—(pallidiventris Hodg.) LAYAH. Timoriensis Geoff. Trtor, Borneo? Townsendi (Synotus.) Wagn. N. AMERICA. trilatitius Horsf—(tenuis Temm.) JAVAAND SUMATRA, tricolor Smuts. Carg or Goop Horr. tristis Waterh. Purmurprine Istrs. Turcomanus Lversm. SourH Russia. Virginianus Bach. Virernta, Unirep Srares. Himma- RODENTIA. ToXODONTID2. PARAGUAY. Rio NreGro, Banta Bianca, Monte Toxodon Paranensis D’Orb. Platensis Owen. VIDEO. HystRIcIDE. CayvuNnm. Hydrocherus Capybara Erxl. HAsteRN parts or S. America, FROM GUIANA IN THE NorTH, TO THE R10 DE LA PLATA IN THE SOUTH, AND FROM THE ATLANTIC To THE LowLANDS OF PERU AND Borivia. sulcidens Lund. Bonr-caves IN Brazin. Dolichotis Patagonica Shaw. Pavraconta, FRom 48° 30'S. L. To 37° 30’ on THE East Coast, AND EXTENDING tro LA Prata, As FAR NorrH as MENDOZA. Anema leucoblephara Burm. La Pata, Cavia antiquum D’Orb. S, America. aperea Linn. Banks or River PLATA, AND EXTENDS NorTHWARDS INTO ParaGuay, Bortvia, AND Brazin. aperoides Lund. Bone-caves, Brazin. Australis Geoffi—(Kingii Bennett.) ParaconrA, rRoM *39° S.L. ro THE Srrarrs or MAGELLAN. bilobidens Lund. Bonr-caves, Brazi. Boliviensis Meyen.—(Galea musteloides Mey.) THRouGH- our BoLtviA AT GREAT ELEVATIONS, HIGH TABLE-LAND BETWEEN CocHABAMBA AND La Paz. Cobaya? Marcg.—(porcellus Linn.) Restless Cavy or Guinea Pig. Domesticated, not known wild, unless it be descended from C. aperea. Cutleri Tschudi. Peru, West or ANDES? flavidens Brandt——(nigricaus Wagn. obscurus Rupp. saxatilis Zund.) Banta, Brazin. fulgida Wayl.—(rufescens Lund.) Mryas Grass, Brazin. leucopyga Brandt.—(Azarae Wagn.) Brazm. rupestris Wied.—(Moco F. Cuv. sciureus Geoff.) Brazi IN ROCKY PLACES. Spixii Wagl. Braz, Rio pe Janeiro, Banta, AMAzoN. APPENDIX. CHINCHILLINE. Lagostomys trichodactylus Brookes.—(Viscacha Geoff. maximus De Blain.) La Pruara and Entre Rios. Lagidium Cuvieri Bennett—(Peruanum Meyen. aureus Geoff:) AnpEs or Cum, Bortyra, AND PERU. pallipes Bennett. ANDES oF BoriyiA AND PERU, EX- TENDING NortH To Ecvuapor. Chinchilla brevicaudata Waterh—(Chinchilla Licht.) Prrv. laniger Geoff. ANnprs or Cut, Boriyia, AND PERU, EXTENDING NORTHWARDS ON East stDE OF ANDES to 9° S. L., AND AT AN ELEVATION OF FROM 8000 TO 12,000 FEET. Archeomys chinchilloides Gery—(Aryenensis Laiz and Par.) FresHWATER Mant, Issore. Laurillardii Gery. Fresuwater Mart, Issore. OcToDONTIN”. Habrocoma Bennettii Waterh.—(helvina Wagn.) Cuma. Cuvieri Watern. Cui, NEAR VALPARAISO, ABUNDANT IN DRY Hitns PARTLY COVERED WiTH BUSHES. Octodon Bridgesi Waterh. Province or ConcHacua, Cum. degus Molina —(Cumingii Bennett. pallidus Wagn. var. Peruana Tschudi.) CENTRAL PARTS OF CHILI, BETWEEN 28° anp 35° S, L. gliroides D'Orb. and Gerv. Botavtan Anpes, La Paz. Schizodon fuseus Waterh. Vai DE LAS CUEVAS ON THE EASTERN SIDE OF THE ANDES, ABouT 39° S.L. Spalacopus noetivagus Pepp.—(cyaneus Molina.) Cur. Peppigit Wagl.—(ater F. Cuv.) Cri. Ctenomys Boliviensis Waterh.—(opimus Wagn.) Pars or Sr. Cruz DE LA SIERRA. Brasiliensis De Blain —(Nattereri Wagn. torquatus Licht.) Brazm, Paraguay, La Piatra, anp Borrvia. leucodon Waterh. Boriyia, Department or La Paz. Magellanicus Bennett. Port GreGory, STRAITS OF MAGELLAN. EcHmIYINe. Capromys pilorides Say.—(Fournieri Desm,) Forests In CuBa. prebensilis Pappig—(Pcyi Guer.) Forests IN Cua. Plagiodonta «dium I’. Cuv. Sr. Domineo. Myopotamus Coypus Molina—(casteroides Barrow. Bonarien- sis Reugger. Popelairi Wesmael. Chilensis Less.) Coypu. Rivers and streams of great part of S. America, on both sides of the ANDES. On EAST- ERN side from Preru southwards to the Rio Chu- pat in 48° 20’. On the western side from valleys of Cenrran Cut in 33° to 48°, S. L., or even somewhat further, but not into Tierra del Fuego. Cxtmor, River Mayro, NEAR SANTIAGO, Braz, BuENos AYRES, ETC. Cercomys cunicularius F. Cuv. Mrnxas Grrars, Brazin. Petromys typicus Smith. Sour Arrica, Rocky Hmis NEAR THE MovurH or THE ORANGE RIVER. Dactylomys amblyonyx Wagn. Yranema in BRazi. typus Geoffi—(dactylinus Desm.) Supposed to be from Brazin. villosus (Lasiuromys) Deville. Urprer AMAZON. Sr. Pauu’s oN THE SYNONYMIC LIST OF SPECIES OF MAMMALS. Loncheres armata Geoffi— (hispida Licht. Brasiliensis Lund.) CAYENNE. bistriata Wagn. Rio Guapure. Blainvillei Jourdan.— (grandis ? nigrispina? and uni- color Wagn.) Braz. IN THE VICINITY oF Banta, AND IN THE IsiE or DrEos NEAR Banta, AMAZON River, YPANEMA. cristata Geoff—(paleacea? Geoff. chrysurus Licht.) GuyANA AND ParaG.? macrura Wagn. Borpa, Brazi. obseura Wagn.—(didelphoides and semivillosa Geoff-) Supposed to be from Brazrm. pachyura Wagn. Brazi. pagurus Wagn. Borsa, Brazin. picta Pictet. Banta, Braz. Mesomys ecaudatus Wagn.—(brachyurus Wagn. spinosus Desm. rufus Licht.) Paraguay aND Borrvia, Cuvore, N. SIDE or ANDES OF CocHABAMBA, AssuMPTION, Borsa, Brazin. Echimys albispinosus Geoff. Banta, Braz. antricola Lund.—(apereoides Lund. crassicaudatus and pachyurus Wagn.) Lives in the Caves of the CuaLk Mountains oF Minas GERAES. Cayennensis Geoff—(setosus Geoff. myosuros Licht. - leptosoma rants, cinnamomeus Licht. anomala Kuhl. longicaudatus Reuss. fuliginosus Wagn., ele- gans Lund.) GuyANA AND Brazi. hispidus Geoff. Banta, Brazm. inermis Pictet. Jacoprya iy Banta, Braziu. Carterodon sulcidens Lund —(Nelomys sulcidens Lund, Aulaco- dus Temminckii Lund.) Aulacodus Swinderianus Zemm. Sour Arnica. Bone-caves IN Brazu.. Sierra LEONE, GAMBIA, AND DasyPROcTINE. Ceelogenys laticeps Lund. Bonr-caves tn Brazi. major Lund. Bonr-Caves IN Brazit. “Paeca Linn.—(fulyus and subniger F. Cuv. platyee- phala Harl.) The Paca. Sourn America FROM CayENNE TO ParaGuay, PERu (rarely), SOME OF West Inpian Istanps, New Grenaba, Bocora, Minas Gerars, GUATEMALA. Dasyprocta acouchy Lrxl.—(leptura Wagn. exilis Wagl. leporina Gray. albida? Gray.) Wurst Inpran Istanps, Sr. Lucra anpD Grenaba, Guyana, AND NortH Brazi. Aguti Linn. The Agouti. Guyana, AND N. or Brazm. Azare Licht—(punctata Gray. acuti Rengg. cau- data Lund.) Paraguay, Borrvia, 8S. Braz, Mras GERAES. capreolus Lund. Bonr-caves or Brazit. cristata Desm.—(fuliginosa JFayl. nigricans Wagn. nigra Gray. variegata T’sch.) Surinam, Peru ? Nortxu Brazi, Amazon, Borna, Rio Necro. croconota Wagl. Braz. Mexicana Sauss. Mpxtco. prymnolopha Wagler. Guyana. Hystricinz. Cheetomys subspinosus Kuhl.—(tortilis Zig. moricaudi Pictet.) Mipp1e anp Norra Braz. 351 Cereolabes bicolor Tschudi. PERu, EAST OF THE ANDES. dubia Lund. Bone-caves or Brazir, fossilis Waterh. Caves or Minas GERAEs. magna Lund, Bonr-caves or Brazi. melanurus Wagn. Surtam, AnD NortH Brazrm. Nove Hispanie Briss —(Mexicana Shaw. Liebman- ni Reinhardt.) East Coast or Mexico. pallidus Waterh. Wes Inpres. prehensilis Linn.—(cuandu Desm. Boliviensis Gray. platycentrotus Brandt.) Gurana, Brazm ann Bo- LIVIA. villosus F. Cuv.—(insidiosus, affinis, and nigricans Brandt. variegatus Gray. nycthemera Kuhl. and F. Cuv. spinosus Rengg.) Brazt. dorsatus Linn.—(pilosus Rich. Hudsonius Briss.) Uprer Missourt, FROM THE BARREN-GROUNDS IN THE NortH TO NORTHERN PENNSYLVANIA, ON THE SourH, AND FROM THE ATLANTIC IN THE East TO THE MissourrI ON THE WEST. epixanthus Brandt. Norru America, WEST OF THE Missouri, UNALASKA, CALIFORNIA. noy. gen. (Erethizon Gray.) rufescens Gray. Co- LUMBIA. Hystrix Africana Gray.— (fasciculata Benn.) Sierra Leone, FERNANDO Po, Africe-Australis Peters. SourH Arrica. cristata Zinn.—(Cuyieri Gray.) Ivany, anp Nortu AND WEsT Arrica, GAMBIA. refussa Kuhl. Axiuvrom or Issome. fasciculata Shaw.—(macroura Gerv.) Maayan PENIN., SUMATRA. hirsutirostris Brandt.—(leucurus Sykes.) CONTINENTAL INDIA, AND WESTWARDS TO SyrRtA, AND Lycra, Persia. : Javanica F. Cuv.— (Hodgsoni Gray. alophus Hody. torquata and ecaudata Van der Hoev. fasciculata Miill. longicaudata Marsd. brevispinosa Wagn.) Nr- PAL, Srkkrm, ARAKAN, Maayan Penrn., INDo-CHINESE REGION, JAVA, SUMATRA, AND BoRNEO. Erethizon SIAM, AND THE Malabarica Sclater. Matapar. Theridomys aquatilis Gery. Ronzon. : Blainvillei Gery. FRresHwater Mant, Issorre. Lembronica Gery. Issomer. Hyracipx (LAMNUNGIA). Hyrax Abyssinicus ? Hempr.—(zamar Cuv.) ABYSSINIA. arboreus Smith. S. Arrica, W. Africa, Loanpo. Capensis Pall. S. Arica, dorsalis Fraser. FERNANDO Po. sylvestris Temm. GUINEA. Syriacus Schreb.— (ruficeps and Dongolanus Ehrenb.) From the coast of the Rep Sea northwards to Syrta. n. sp. fide Kirke. ZAMBESIA. Lrporip&. Lagomys alpinus Pall. Siperta, rrom THE River Irriscu into KaMTSCHATKA. Corsicanus Bourd. Bonk Breccia, Corsica. Hyperboreus Pall, Norra-East SIBERIA. Meyeri Meyer. Pr1oceNr FresHwateR Mart oF OENINGEN. APPENDIX. Lagomys Nepalensis Hodg.—(Roylii Ogilby. rufescens Gray. Hodgsonii Blyth.) Nepaut, THrBet, CasHMERE, Casoor, AFFGHANISTAN, CENTRAL Asta, Daurtia. Oeningensis Cuy. PxiioceNE FRESHWATER Mart at OENINGEN. ogotona Pall. Monaoura, Cuina, SupaLprne Dist., BEYOND Lake BatkAt. princeps Rich. Rocxy Mounrarns, From 42° N.L, To 60°, NortH AMERICA. pusillus Pall. Sournmrn Districts oF THE VoLGA, anp Urat Mounrarns, SourH SIBERIA, TO THE River Ost. Sansanensis Lart. Miocene beds at Sansans. Sardus Wagn.—(speleus Owen.) Boner Brecora or Caciiart, Brirarn. Titanomys trilobus Gery. Trrtrartes at St. GERavD LE Puy 1N THE DEPARTMENT OF ALLIER, FRANCE. Visenoviensis Meyer. Mippie TrErriary at WEI- SENAU. Lepus Hgyptius Geoff—(Arabicus Hempr. and Ehrb. Sinaiticus Syriacus, thiopicus, and Habessinicus Hempr. and Ehrb. isabellinus Riipp.) Eoypt, Anapta, ARABIA PE- TREA, NEAR Mount Srnat, Syrta, Nupra, ABYSSINIA, Eeyrr, as FAR NortH-WeEsT AS THE OasIs OF GUER- RERA. Americanus Erazl.—(Hudsonius Pallas. nanus Schreb. Virginianus Harlan. borealis Schinz.) NortH-East oF Unirep States, AND AS FAR NortH as Lav. 68°, AND AS Far SoutH As NorTH OF PENNSYLVANIA, AND ALONG THE ALLEGHANY RaNGE INTO VIRGINIA. aquaticus Bach.—(Douglasii var. Gray.) Swampy TRACTS BORDERING THE Mississippi, LouIstana, WET GROUNDS or New Maprip, Missouri. artemisia Bach.— (Nuttallii Bach.) Orneon, NEBRASKA, Missourt, N. Mpxioo, Texas. Audubonii Baird. Coast oF CaLiFoRNIA. brachyurus Zemm. Japan. Bachmanni Waterh, TExas. Brasiliensis Linn.—(Tapeti Pall.) Brazi, ALso FOUND IN PARTS OF PERU, Borivia, AND PaRaGuay. Californicus Gray.—(Richardsonii Bach. Bennettii Gray.) CALIFORNIA, FROM THE COLORADO TO OREGON. callotis Wagl.—(nigricaudatus Bennett. flavigularis Wagn.? Texianus Waterh.?) Mexico, Texas, OREGON. campestris Bach.—(Townsendii Bach. Virginianus Rich.) Lepus hispidus Pears.—(Sinensis Gray. Peguensis Blyth.) Banks OF THE TEESLE, Assam, Cutna, Formosa. hybridus Desm.—(Altaicus Gray. aquilonius Blas. me- dius Nilss.) Russta BETWEEN 55° anp 60° N.L., ALTar Mountains, ZEALAND. Issiodorensis? Croiz, ALLUyIUM IN AUVERGNE. Mandshuricus Radde. Bureca Mountains, E. Srperta. Mediterraneus Wagn.—(meridionalis Gené.) SarpIntA, Grpratrar, Irary, Spars, France, NortH AFRIcA, Tunis, ALGIERS, AND EXTENDS THROUGH THE WHOLE OF THE SAHARA, AND TO THE SEA-CoAsT. Neschersensis Croiz. AtiLuyiuM or AUVERGNE. nigricollis F. Cuv.—(melanauchen Temm. Kurgosa Gray.) Sinp., Punsaus, Deccan (Nor Brncat), CEYLON (IN- TRODUCED INTO JAVA AND THE MAURITIUS). palustris Bach.—(Douglasii var. 2, Gray.) Norra AME- rica, SourH ATLANTIC STATES, THROUGH SoutH Caro- LINA TO GEORGIA, AND FLORIDA. ruficaudatus Geoff—(macrotis Hodg.) Nortn Inp1a, Puarns oF Gances To Detni, NEPAL. saxatilis F. Cuv.—(rufinucha Smith. longicaudatus Gray. fumigatus Wagn.) Care or Goop Horr, Rocky anp Movunrarnous Srruations. sylvaticus Bach.—(nanus Schreb.) Towa, WiscoNsIN, Inuinots, Kansas, Missourr, NEpraska, TEXAS, ALA- BAMa, Misstssrpp1, Lourstana, MassacHuSSETTS. timidus Linn.—(Europeus Pall. campicola and Grana- tensis Schimp.) Europe anp Asta, FRANCE, ENGLAND, Spain, ANDALUSIA, GERMANY. Tolai Pall—(Thibetanus? Waterh. pallipes Hodg. Ocos- telus Hodg. Caspicus? Ehrb.) EXxcLusIVELY AN IN- HABITANT OF THE HIGH STEPPES OF CENTRAL ASIA, Barkan District, MonGoLian DESERTS. Trowbridgii Baird. Coast or Cauir. variabilis Pallas —(albus Jen. Hibernicus Bell. alpinus Schimper.) Trenanp, ScoTLanD, AS FAR AS CUMBER- LAND IN ENGLAND, SCANDINAVIA TO ArcTIC OcEAN, SI- BERIA, NORTH OF 59° PARALLELTO KAMTSCHATKA, BAVARIA, SWITZERLAND, EASTWARDS AS FaR AS SALZBURG. Do. var. canescens Nilss. SouTHERN SCANDINAVIA. Do. var. borealis Nilss. NoRTHERN SCANDINAVIA. Washingtonii Baird. WasHineton Terrirory, OREGON, AND WEsT oF Pucet’s Sound, To Lar, 54° 40’. n. sp. EASTERN SIBERIA, AMOURLAND. Norru parts oF Unirep STaTEs, From Missourr To Myoxmr. Conumsta, As FAR 8, AS THE Puarre at Fort Kearney, Forr Bors. Capensis Linn.—(ochropus Wagn. arenarius Geoff.) Carr or Goop Horr. Glis Cuvieri Giebel. Monrmartre Gypsum. Sansanensis Giebel. Miocene deposits at SANsans. speleus Fisch.—(Parisiensis Cuv.) Montmartre Gypsum. crassicaudatus Geoff.—(rupestris Smith. melanurus Riipp.) vulgaris Klein. South and Temperate Europes, as far as Carr or Goop Horr, anp Port Nata. Grorera and the Worea. cuniculus Zinn. SoutH aNpD WeEsT Europe, GREATER | Muscardinus ayellanarius Linn. Temperate and North Evrore. elegans Siebold. Japan. mumbyanus Pomel. Sawara. Eliomys melanura Wagn.—(nitidula Pall.) Mowunr Srnat. nitela Pall.—(quercinus Linn. Dryas Schreb.) FRaNncE, LaBrRaDOR AND NEWFOUNDLAND, NOT FURTHER S. THAN GERMANY, SwiITzERLAND, and Poxanp, in the ALPS 64° N.L., McKenzie River, AND Siave Lake, GREEN- to the height of 5000 feet. LAND. orobinus Cuv. SENAsR. PART OF GERMANY, NortuH AFRICA, diluvianus Cuy. Divuvian Deposits AT QUEDLINGBURG, Bone Breccia, Grprattar, CETTE, AND Pisa. glacialis Leach. Arctic Portions or N. AMERICA, TO SYNONYMIC LIST OF SPECIES OF MAMMALS. 353 Platacanthomys lasiurus Blyth. S. Manapar. Graphiurus Capensis Cuv.—(Catoirii F. Cuv. elegans Oyilby.) From the Carr to the West Coast of Arrroa, as far as SENEGAL. murinus Gieb. Sour AFRICA. Anomalurus Beecroftii Fraser. W. Arrica, GABon. Derbianus Gray.—(Fraseri Waterh, Beldeni? De Chaillu.) W. Arrroa, Fernanpo Po, Ganon. Pelei Temm. Nort Coast of Arrica. Scruripz. Xerus marabutus Less. SENEGAL. ocularis? Smith. Prarrenpure, 8S. Arrioa. prestigiator Less. SENEGAL. rutilus Cretz.—(brachyotus Hemp. and Ehr.) Coast of Apyssrnta, Somarr Lanp. setosus Forst.—(erythropus Cuv. Leyaillantii Kuhl. pretextus Schreb. alboyittatus Desm. leuco-umbrinus Rupp. Namaanensis Licht. Capensis Thumb.) Corpo- VAN, Senaar, Anyss., E. W. and S. Arnica. simplex? Less. SENEGAL. Rhinosciurus tupaocides Gray.—(laticaudatus ? Miill.) Maayan Perntnsuna, SumaTRA, BornEo. Sciurus Aberti Woodh.— (dorsalis Woodh.) San Franorsco Mountains, New Mextco. wstuans Linn.—(Brasiliensis Briss. pusillus Desm.) Braz, GUIANA. Assamensis? MacLell— (Blythii Tytl. subflaviventris Horsf.) Assam. atrodorsalis Gray, Inp1a, common on the Hills about MovrmeEin. aureogaster ? F. Cuv. MonrTEREy, CALIFORNIA. Barbei Blyth. Trnassrrim PRoyinogs, Sram. Berdmorei Blyth. Marranan, Marcu, TENASSERIM. bicolor Sparzm.—(giganteus Mac Lell. auriventer Geoff. affinis Raff; macrouroides Hody.) S.E. Hmrmanayan, Assam, SyLHET, Munteur, Manayan PENIN., SUMATRA, TENASSERIM. Blandfordii Blyth. Vicinity of Ava. Boothiw Gray. Honpuras. Carolinensis Gmel—(cinereus Schreb. leucotis Bach. vulpinus ? Dekay. migratorius Aud. and Bach. Penn- sylvanicus Ord. niger Godm. fuliginosus? Bach.) N. Amer., Georeta, N. anp S. Carorrna, PENNSYLVANIA, Mississippi, Innrnois, Missourt, ArKANsAs, Towa, Micuiean, Onto, Massacu., N. York, WIsconsIn. castanonotus Baird. Nrw Mexico. castaneoventris Gray.—(griseopectus Blyth.) CHa. cepapi Smith.—(superciliaris Wagn.) S,. Arrica. chrysonotus Blyth, TeNAssentm Proyinors, southwards. cinereus Linn.—(vulpinus Schreb? hyemalis Ord.) N. AmMER., PENNSYLVANIA, MARYLAND, VIRGINIA. cinnamomeiventris ? Gray. CHINA. Clarkii Smith. N. Aner. Clellandii? Horsf. Brnearn and Assam. Collixii Rich. San Bras, Mexico. dimidiatus Waterh. S. Amer. Douglasii Bach.—('Townsendii Bach. mollipilosus Aud. and Bach. Belcheri Gray. Suckleyi Baird.) WasHinc- TON, AND OrEGon TeRr., Catir., Peranuma, Pucer’s Sp. Sciurus Elphinstonei Sykes. N. Marapan. ephippium Mull. Borneo. erythreus Pall.—(hippuris var. McLell.) Krasya Huts. erythrogaster Blyth. Munreur Hutrs, Hills east and south of Upper Assam. erythrogenys Waterh. Frrnanpo Po, exilis Mill. Mountainous regions in SumaTra AND Borneo. Feignouxii Laur. Miocene limestone, AUVERGNE. ferrugineiventris dud. and Bach. Catrrornta. ferrugineus F. Cuv.—(Keraudrenii Geoff.) Hilly re- gions of ARAKAN AND Prau. Finlaysonii Horsf. Istanp or SrowAn in the Gunr or Sram. flavivittis Peters. Mosamp. fossor Peale-——(Heermanni Lee. leporinus? dud. and Bach.) Whole mountain region of Cartrorntia, from San Dimco, as far north as Corumpra River at the Dates. Fremontii Towns. Sawarcu Pass, Rocky Mounrams. Gambianus Ogilb. Gamera. Gervaisianus Lart. Miocene. SAnsans. Gerrardii Gray. New Grenapa. getulus Linn. West coast of Barpary, gilvigularis Wagn.—(rufoniger ? and chrysurus ? Puch.) Mouth of the River Maperno, falling into the Ama- ZON. griseo-caudatus Gray. West Coast Sourm Ammrtoa. hippurus Geoff— (castaneoventris, rufogaster Gray.) Java, Sumatra, Canton, Assam, BuHoran. Hudsonius Pal/.—(Carolinus Ord. rubrolineatus Desm.) Norrs Amertoa, throughout the ATLANTIC STaTEs, as far north as Laprapor, and to the Mtsstssrppr River. hyperythrus Blyth.—(erythreus var. A. Gray.) Trn- AssERIM Provinces, Hills between Peau and Mar- TABAN. hypopyrrhus? Wagn. Mexico. igniventris Wagn.—(pyrrhoventer Wagn.) Rro Necro, S. AMERICA. Indicus Hral.—(macrourus Forst. Ceylonensis Bodd.) Inpra, Manasar Coast, Matacca, Ceynon, AND SuM- ATRA. insignis Cuv. Java, Sumarra, Bornno. isabella Gray. Cameroon Mounrarns. Javensis Schreb. Java, CAMEOGIA. Langsdorflii Brandt. Brazrm. lanigerus dud, and Bach, NortHeRN CAlrrornta. Layardii Blyth. Mountatn recions of Crynon. Leschenaultii Desm.—(hypoleucus Horsf. albiceps Desm. humeralis Coulon. affinis Raff.) Sumarra AnD Java. leporinus dud. and Bach. Norraern CaLmrornta. leucomus Mill. CrLEBes. Lokriah Hodg.— (sub-flayiventris McZell.) Nepan, Srxxim, Assam, Kuasya, ARACAN, in the Mountains. Lokroides Hodg. Nepat, Sixkim, Buoran, in the TrRAt. Ludovicianus Harl.—(rufiventer Geoff. macrourus Say. magnicaudatus Harl., Sayirubicaudatus and occiden- talis dud. and Bach. Audubonii yar. and subauratus Bach. Lewisii? Smith, limitis? Baird.) S. anp CENTRAL ZZ 354 APPENDIX. Norra Amer., [nrnors, Iowa, Missourt, Loursrana, | Sciurus Syriacus Ehrb,—(russatus and anomalus Schreb. Cau- ArKANSAS, TEXAS? OHto, Nepraska, Miontcan, Wis- CONSIN, Sciurus MacLellandii Horsf—(Pembertonii Blyth.) Suxxim, Buoran. macrotis Gray. Sarawak, BorNEo. maximus Zemm.—(Malabaricus Schinz.) S.E. Asta and its ARCHIPELAGO, as far east as JAVA AND Borneo, S. Marapar. melanotis Schlegel. Bornno, JAVA, SUMATRA. minutus Lart. Miocene beds, SANSANS. minutus De Chaillu, GABON. modestus Mull—(concolor Blyth.) Vicinity of Manacca, Sumatra, AND Borneo. Mouhotii Gray. Campoata. multicolor Riipp. Apysstn1A, Mountains on the coast. murinus ? Mull. Sumatra. mustelinus Aud. and Bach, CALIFORNIA. mutabilis Peters. Mosame. nigrescens Bennett. Lowrr CaLirornra. noy. spec.? fide Baird. N.Mrxtoo, Nuryo Lron. ornatus Gray. Navan. palliatus Peters. Mosame. palmarum Linn.—(tristriatus Waterh, Kelaarti and Bro- diei Layard. penicillatus Leach.) Inpra generally, Hrinpostan, Punsaus, avoiding the Plains. Philippensis Waterh, PHirprNe Istanps. Plantanii Lyngh.—(nigroyittatus Horsf. vittatus Raffi. bivittatus and bilineatus Desm. griseiventer, flavi- manus, and pygerythrus Geoff. Phayrei Blyth. gingin- ianus Kuhl. notatus Bodd.) Java, Sumarra, BorNEo, Ava, Canton, Matacca. Preyostii Desm—(Rafilesii Vigors. rufo-gularis and ru- foniger Gray. redimitus Van der Hoev.) Matayan Perninsuna, Borneo. priscus Gieb. Diluvium, QUEDLINGBURG. Pyladei Less. Reateso Mexico. pyrrhopus Cuv.—(Congicus Kuhl. rubripes Du Chaillu.) W. Arrica, Fernanpo Po, Ganon. Richardsonii Bach.—( Hudsonius var. 6. Rich. lanugin- osus Bach.) Rocxy Mountains, WASHINGTON TERRI- TORY. rubriventer Mill. CELEBES. rufobrachiatum Waterh.—(subalbidus Du Chaillu, Sper- mophilus annulatus Aud. and Bach.*) FERNANDO Po, Sansanensis Lart. Miocene. Sansans. setosus Forst.—(Levaillantii Kuhl. albovittatus Desm.) Carr or Goop Horr. Siamensis Gray. Stam. simplex ? Less. SENEGAL. socialis Wagn. Mextco. splendens? Gray. CAMBoGiA. Stangeri Waterh.—(Nordhoffii, eburivorus and Wilsonii Du Chaillu.) Frrnxanpo Po. sublineatus Waterh.—(Delessertii Gmel.) Mountains oF S. Inpra anp Crynon. _* Dr. Baird says that Audubon and Bachman had been de- ceived in the locality of the species which they described easicus? Pall.) Syrra, TuRKEY. Tennentii Layard. H1cHianps or CryLon. tenuis? Horsf. Matayan Prnrns., Java, BoRNEO, AND Sumatra. tricolor T'schudi. North-east Pru, and adjoining parts of Brazin. variabilis Geoff. CoLomBra. variegatoides Ogilb. West Coast of S. AMER. variegatus ? Erzl. Mzxico. varius ? Wagn. Mrxioo. vulgaris Zinn.—(Europeus Linn. varius Pall. niger and albus Erel. alpinus F. Cuv. Italicus Bonap.) Whole of Evrorr and Sierra. vulpinus Gmel.—(niger Linn. capistratius Bose. rufiven- ter McMurt. Texianus Bach.) N. America, Norra Carona, Sour Caroma, Frorma, Grorc1a, NEw ORLEANS. Pteromys (Sciuropterus) alpinus Wagn.—(sabrinus var. 6 Rich.) Conumpra RIvER. alboniger Hodg. S. E. Homat., NEp., Srkxim, BHoTaAn. Baberi? Blyth, N orth of the Himmat. caniceps Gray.—(senex Hodg.) Sixkmt. fimbriatus Gray.—(Turnbulli Gray.) Inpia. fuscocapillus Blyth. S. Manapar. Hudsonius Gmel.—(sabrinus Rich.) N. Amer., Maine, Nova Scorra, Mrnne- Sova. Kaleensis Swink. Formosa. Layardi Kelaart. Mountains of Cry- LON. Oregonensis Bach. CatmrorntA, ORE- GON AND WASHINGTON TERRITORIES. Phayrei? Blyth, Prau, TENASSERIM. sagitta Desm.—(aurantiacus Wagn. ge- nibarbis and lepidus Horsf. Hors- fieldii Waterh.) Java, BoRNEO. spadiceus Blyth. ARAcAN. villosus ? Blyth. Srxxim, Buoray, As- SAM. volans Blas.—(rotans Linn. Sibiricus Geoff. vulgaris Wagn.) North-east Evurore AnD Sierra, not beyond the Lena. volucella Pall. Canapa, Monrreat, Massacuuserts, N. York, Grorcra, Triiwors, Wisconsty, Misstss., Louts- IANA. (Pteromys) cinerascens Blyth. ARaKan, Peau, TEN- ASSERIM. elegans Miill—(inornatus Geoff.) Moun- tain districts of Java. grandis Swink. Formosa. griseoventer Gray. MatayaN PENINSULA. under this name, supposing it to have been an American Sper- mophile, while, in fact, it was a West African Squirrel. SYNONYMIC LIST OF SPECIES OF MAMMALS. Pleromys (Pteromys) magnifieus Hodys—— (chrysothryx Hodgs. nobilis Gray.) Assam, S. E. Himmat. momoga Zemm, Inpran ArncH. CAMBOoGIA. nitidus_Desm.—(Leachii, melanotus, albi- venter, and punctatus Gray. leucoge- nys Temm. Petaurista Pall.) Java, Suma- TRA, BornEo, Matapar, Manacca, and Sram. Philippensis Gray. Purrrrne Istes. punctatus Gray. Matayan PEninsuna. Tamias dorsalis Baird. Fort Wexnstrer, New Mexico, Pallasii Baird. From the Urat, through the whole deserts of Smrrra to the Sra or OcHorsk, and the GuLr or ANADYR. var. Uthensis Pall. AMOoORLAND. quadrivittatus Say.—(minimus Bachm.) N. AMERICA, Mavyatses Terres, Nepraska, YELLOWSTONE River, New Mextco, Orecon Terrrrory, Cotumpra Brver, CascaprE Mounrarns. striatus Linn.—(Americanus Kuhl. Lysteri Rich.) Can- apA, New York, Wisconsin, Missourt. Townsendii Bach—(Hindsii Gray. Cooperi Baird.) Wasaincton and OreGcon Territories, CoLumpra River, Cascape Mountars, Carr. Spermophilus Beecheyi ich.—(Californicus? and Botts ? Less.) CaLrrorniA, Gina RIVER. brevicauda Brandt.—(mugosarius Eversm. inter- medius Brandt.) District South of the Arar. eitillus Blas.—(Germanicus Brisson. undulatus Temm.) Bonemta, Stesta, Ponanp, Austria, Honeary. Not in Russra or SmBERIA. Couchii Baird. Mexico. Douglasii Rich. Onrcon, Cotumpts River. erythrogenys Brandt. Srperra, between the OB and IrtiscH and the Batenas SEA. Eyersmanni Brandt.—(Altaicus Evers. Iacutensis Brandt.) EE. StBERtTA. Franklini Rieh, N. Amer., Iowa, Wisconsrn. fulvus Blas.—(leptodactylus Licht. Turcomanus Eischa. coneolor Geoff!) Steppes of the SourHern Urat. grammarus Say. Trxas, New Mexico, Mexico, Plateau of PERoTE. guttatus Zemm.—(guttulatus Schinz. leucostichus and Dauricus Brandt.) VorHyntA, BessaRaBra, From the Don to the Vorea, and thence on- wards to the Lena. Harrisii Aud. and Bach. MoHAve DESERT, lateralis Say. OreGon Trerrirory, NEBRASKA. macrurus Bennett. West Coast of Mrxtco ? Mexicanus Era, Maramonas, Mexico, Trxas, New Mexico. mugosaricus Blas. On the slopes of the Muao- SARSKIAN MovntTarns, in the Kimcuts STEpres. musicus Menetr,— (xanthoprymnus Bennett.) Higher regions of the Caucasus near the perennial snow. Parryi Rich. North and north-west of Norra America, Buerrne’s Straits, Ishanp OF ARI- KAMTCHITCHI, BHERING’s STRAITS. 305 Spermophilus Richardsonii Sab. Rocky Movuntarns, Lake MicHIGAN, SASKATCHEWAN. rufescens Blas.—(undulatus Eversm.) About the Urat Mounrars, between 49° and 60° N.L. spilosoma Bennett.—(Mexicanus Aud. and Bach.) Sonora, New Mexico. superciliosus Kaup.—(speciosus vy. Meyer.) Dilu- vial deposits and Bone Breccias in France and GERMANY. tereticaudus Baird. Fort Yuma, Carr. tridecemlineatus Mitch.—(Hoodii Sabine.) Wis- consIn, MicuiGan, Intrnots, Mrynesora, Mis- sourt, NEBRASKA, ARKANSAS, New Mexico. Townsendii Bach.— (guttatus Rich.) Rocky Mounrarns. Cynomys Gunnisonii Baird.—(brachyurus Rafin. Columbianus Ord. Lewisii Aud. and Bach.) Norra AMERtIcA, CotumBiA River? Rocky Mountars, NEBRASKA. Ludoyicianus Ord.—(socialis Raf. griseus Raf. Mis- souriensis Ward. latrans Harl.) Missouri Prairie Dog. Nepraska, Missourt, Rocky Movuntarnys, ArKANsAS, New Mexico, TExas. Plesiarctomys Gervaisii Bray. Freshwater limestone of Apt, near the mouth of the RHonr. * Arctomys Arvernensis Gervy. fossil.—(primigenius Kaup.) Voleanic alluvium in AUVERGNE. Baibacina? Brant. Awrat. bobac Pall. Mountainous districts of Ponanp and Garicra, through Russra and Smerta, to the neigh- bourhood of KamrscHarka, Do, Fossil in the diluvium of Russta. caudatus Geoff.—(Tataricus Jameson.) At an elevation of 12,000 feet in the VALLEY or Gompur. flaviventer Aud. and Bach, ORrgGoN, NEBRASKA. monax Linn.—(Canadensis Hrxl. empetra Pall. me- lanopus Awh/. Camtschatica Brandt.) N. America, from Hupson’s Bay to S, Canorrna, and westwards to Rocxy Mounrarns, Massacu., New Yorx, Prenn- SYLVANIA, WisconsIN, Innrnots, Missourt. pruinosus Gmel,—(caligatus Eschsch. Okanaganus King. sibila Wolf. monox Midden.) The borders of the Rocxy Movunrarns, between the CorumpBra and FrasER Rivers. Also said to be found in KamrscuarKa. nov. sp. Mountainous region of Barkan. speleus Fisch. Diluvium Russta, Brachymys ornatus Meyer. Upper miocene limestone of WEIs- SENAU. Oromys Aesopi Leidy. Pliocene beds at Nebraska. PECTINATORIDE. Ctenodactylus Massoni Gray, Trrpout. n. sp. fide Tristram, Samana. n. sp. fide Tristram. Sawara. Pectinator Spekei Blyth. Somart Lanv. 356 APPENDIX. Morin. Arvicola austera Lec. Wusconsty, Intrnots, Loursrana. CasTORINE. Aplodontia leporina Rieh.— (Anisonyx rufa Ruf.) Pucer’s Sounp, WasHincton TERRITORY, OREGON TERRI- TORY, CaALmrORNIAN MounrTatns. Castor Canadensis Kuhl.—(Americana F’. Cuv. fiber Linn.) N. AMERICA FROM THE ARcTIC CIRCLE TO THE GULF OF Mexico, Canapa, Hupsoy’s Bay, Laxe Supertor, NE- BRASKA, Missourtr, Carmrornta, Texas, Mexico. Do. Fossil in Carlisle Cayes. Eseri? y. Meyer. Fresnwater CHark or ULM. fiber Linn. Formerly over whole north of Evropr and Asta, from 67° to 33° North Lat. ; now very rare; said still to be met with occasionally on the Ruons, very scarce in Germany, Norway, and SwEDEN, somewhat oftener in Poranp, AND RusstA, also in Srperta, Tar- TARY, AND THE CaspraAN SEA; notin the Brack Sra, nor the MrpirerraNean, nor in Irany; not in eastern SIBERIAN or in AMOURLAND. Do. Fossil in Bone-cayes and peat-bogs. Issiodorensis? Gery. Issorre. Jaegeri? (Chalicomys) Kaup.— (Chelodus typus Gieb.) Mippie TERTIARY BEDS. minutus? y. Meyer. FresHwater CHatk or Ux. Sansanensis Gery.—(Myopotamus ?) Miocenr. Sansans, sigmodus (Castoromys) Gervy, MoNTPELIER. speleus? Mister. Issorre. Viciacensis Gery.—(subpyrenaicus Gery.) LowER Mrocenn BEDS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF ALLIER. Castoroides Ohiensis Fost. Ix Ciypn, New Yorx, Lacustrinz FORMATION SUBSEQUENT TO THE Drier, Onto. Trogontherium Werneri Fisch. Enetaxp, Evrorr, from the banks of the Rostorr sra. ARVICOLINE. Fiber Zibethicus Linn.—(Oosoziensis Lord.) N, Amertca from the ATLANTIC to the Pacrerc, and from Rio GranpeE to the Barren Grounps of Aretic Amertca. Arvicola agrestis Selys Longet.—(vulgaris Desm. arvalis Surd. insularis Nil/ss. neglectus Jen.) SwepEN, Bencrum. alborufescens ? Emmons. Massacuuserrs. alliaria Less. Srperra. alpina Wagn.—(nivalis Wart. nivicola Schinz. leucurus and Lebruni Gerd. petrophilus Wagn.) Higher re- gions in the Arps, at an elevation of from 5000 to 10,000 feet. ambiguus Pom. Bone-breccia, Aura. amphibia Desm.— (aquaticus F. Cuv. ater M‘Gill.) All Europe and N. Astra, to the Icy Sra. Do. Fossil in bone-cayes and bone-breccias of the Meprrer., Krrxparr, &c. argentoratensis? Desm. Atsavra and the Arps. Amurensis Schrenck. Amour district. arvalis Sel. Longch.—(gregarius Linn. vulgaris Desm. agrestis Jenyn. arvensis Sch. pratensis Baill. rufes- centifuseus Schinz. cunicularius, fulvus, subterran- eus, and duodecimeostatus Selys d’Longch.) Evrore AND SIBERIA. Blumenbachii? Fisch. SENEGAL.* borealis Rich. North of N. America, BARREN GROUNDS. Breweri Baird. Istanp oF MuskreEGeET, on east of MAssACHUSSETTS. Brecciensis Giebel. Bone-cayes in Evrore. Californica Peale. Catir. campestris Blas. GERMANY. cinnamomea Baird. Mrnnnsora. destructor? Savi.—(Musignani S. Longch. terrestris Bon.) Norra Iraty. Drummondii dud. and Bach.—(Noye-boracensis Rich.) E. Amer. edax Lec. Catirornta, MontEREY, San Dinao. Gapperi Vigors.—(fulva and Dekayi Aud. and Bach.) Nova Scorra, Massacuusserts, Lakr SUPERIOR. glareola Sund.—(Hereynicus Wehlis. rubidus, and rufescens ZLongch. pratensis Bell. riparia Tars.) Mippre Evrore, Denmark, SWEDEN, Fryuanp to the Wotea. gregalis Desm. EastTERN SIpeRtA, on both sides the Os. Haydenii Baird. NEBRAsKA. hirsuta? Emmons. MassacHussETTs. hypoleuca? Wagn. Laprapor. longirostris Baird. Catir., Upper Pit River. Maximowiczii Schrenck. Amour district. modesta Baird. Rocky Mountains, SAwWATCH Pass. montana Peale. OrrGon, Catir., NEBRASKA, monticola? Selys. Lonch. PyRENEES. Nageri Schinz. UnsrrnrHan in the St. GorrmarprT. nasuta dud, and Bach. MAssAcHUSSETTS. occidentalis Peale. Pucrr’s Sounp. ochrogaster? Wagn. N.AmERIoA. cconoma Desm. From Irtiscx to the Eastern OcEAN, and northwards to the Icy Sra. Oneida? Dekay. New York. Oregoni Bachm. SHoaLwatTER Bay, WasHINGTON TER- RITORY, CALIFORNIA. pinetorum Lec.—(scalopsoides Aud. and Bach. Apella Lec.) Georeta, Lovrsrana, S. Carona, VirGrn1a, PENNSYLVANIA, ILLINOIs. ratticeps Blas.—(medius Nilss.) Wotoapa. Richardsonii Dekay. Rocky Mountains 1x Britisn Norra America, 62°. viparia Ord.—(palustris Harl. Pennsylvanica Aud. and Bach.) N.Amer., Mippie Srares to Arcrro Sra. Roylei Gray. Kasuume. rubricata Rich, Buerrre’s Srrarrs. rufescens ? Dekay. NortHern New York. rufidorsum Baird. MassacHusserts. rutila Palt. SwepEN, Fran, north of Russta, SERIA to KamrscHarKa. Sayii Sel. Long.—(incerta Sel. Long.) Tray. saxatilis Desm. East Srperta. Sayi? Bachm. N. America. socialis Pall. —(Astrachanensis Desm. Syriacus? Brants. cinerasceus Wagn.) Syrta, to the Caspran Sra, spelea Giebel. Bone-cayes in Evropr. * This species and its loc.lity seem very questionable. I do not believe that any species of Arvicola occurs in Africa, SYNONYMIC LIST OF SPECIES OF MAMMALS, 357 Arvicola terrestris Schrenck. Amour. Texiana? Aud. and Bach. Trxas. Townsendii Bachm. West coast of Norra AMERICA, Pucer’s Sounp, SHoanwarer Bay, CascADE Moun- TAINS. xanthognathus Leach. as the Arctic SEA. Synaptomys Cooperi Baird. N. Amer., New Yor, Iowa ? Myodes bicolor? Fatio. Canron or BERNE. lagurus Pall. Steppes of Jark, Jentse1, and Irriscu, Urat River. lemmus Pall.— (norvegicus Desm.) Norway, SWEDEN. Obensis Brants.—(helvolus Richardson. trimucronatus Rich. albigularis Wagn.) N. Amer., SIBERIA. schisticolor Wegel. Norway, and west coast of Sea of OcHoTskK. torquatus Pall,—(Hudsonius Wagn. Lenensis Pall. ungulatus Baer. Greenlandicus Richard.) Cireum- polar Shores and Islands, Serr and N. America, GREENLAND, ICELAND ? Norru America, as far north ScANDINAVIA, SPALACINE. Rhizomys badius Hodg.—(castaneus Blyth. minor Gray.) TERAt REGION OF NEPAL AND SIKKIM, ARRACAN. macrocephalus Rupp. ScwHoa, 8. oF Apyss. pruinosus Blyth. Kuasyan Hits. splendens Wagn. Axnyss. Sumatrensis Gray.—(Javanus Cuv. Dekan Temm.) Matacca, Marnayan PENIN. AND ARCHIP., TENNAS- SERUM PROVINCES. Heterocephalus glaber Rupp. Scwoa, S. or Anyss. Spalax Pallasii Nordm, Huneary, S. Russta, ExarertNsnoy. typhlus Pall. S.E. or Evropr, Morpavia, Bessarasia, GREECE, SYRIA. Siphneus Aspalax Brants—(Zokor Desm.) MountTarys oF ALTAt. Ellobius luteus Wagn. SANDY DISTRICT NEAR THE SEA OF ARAL. talpinus Fisch. Soutn anp East or Russta, Norra- warps To 50° N.L. Common in the Cruora, and the Steppes of AsTRAcHAN, Bathyerges suillus Wagn.— (maritimus Gimel.) Sanp-H1Ls NEAR THE Coast at THE Carré or Goop Horr. Georychus albifrons Gray. Carr or Goop Hore. Capensis Wiegm.—(Buffoni /. Cuv.) Carr or G. Hore, Damarensis Ogilb. holosericeus Wagn. Damara Lanp, 8. Arr. Care or G. Horr. Hottentottus ZLess—(cecutiens Licht. Ludwigii Smith.) Care or G. Hore. pallidus? Gray. E. Arnica, Heliophobius argenteocinereus Pelers. MosaMBique. SaccomyIn=. Geomys breviceps Baird. Trxas, Lovrstana. bursarius Shaw.—(saccatus Mitchell. Canadensis Licht, Oregonensis Lee.) Mussourt, Hastern Kansas AND * Although Wagner expressly says that this species has no cheek-pouches, Baird finds it corresponds so exactly with D. Pumuirn, in every thing else, that he thinks the cheek-pouches Part or NeBRasKA, W. AND S. Iritors, Iowa, W. WISCONSIN, PART OF MINNESOTA, CANADA. Geomys castanops Baird. Brnr’s Fort, New Mexico. Clarkii Baird. W. Texas. hispidus Lec. BrtTwrEN VrerRA Cruz AND THE CITY Mexico. Mexicanus Brants, Mexico. Pinetis Raf—(Floridana Aud. and Bach.) N. AMER., SourH-Hastern States, FLorma, Grorci, ALABAMA, Missourt. Quachil Gray. Copan, CENTRAL AMER. Thomomys borealis Rich.—(Townsendii Bach. Douglasii Rich. fuliginosus Schinz.) VatLEys or THE CoLuMBIA River towarps Rocky Movunrars, PuceEt’s Sounp. bulbivorus Rich. Coasr or CatrrorntA, from TrE- gon Pass to some distance north of San Fran- cIsco. fulvus Woodh. Valley of the Cotorapo and tribu- taries, from San Francisco Mountains to Fort Yuma, and across to San Dirco. laticeps Baird, Humsotpt Bay, NortHEerRN Cati- FORNIA. rufescens Wied.—(Bottw Eyd.) Upper Mrssovnt, NEBRASKA, AND SASKATCHEWAN. talpoides Rich. SHores or Hupson’s Bay. umbrinus Rich. WrsTERN TExAs AND New MeExt- co, along eastern slope of Rocky Mounrtars, and along the mountains into Sonora. Dipodomys agilis Gambel. Catnrornta, Monterey, San Dizco, Fort Yuma, Hermanni Zec. Srprra Neyapa. Ordii Woodh.—(montanus? Baird.) New Mexico, Missourt, Texas, Sonora, Mexico. Phillippi Gray.—(Macrocolus halticus Wagn.*) S. Catrrornta, Los ANGELos, Monrerry, CALirorn., OREGON. Wagneri Zec.? Norra America, district doubt- ful. : Perognathus fasciatus Wied. Kansas, Cutnuanua City, Mex. hispidus Baird. Mexico, twenty-four leagues west of Maramonas. monticola Baird. Wrst or Rocxy Mounrays, Sr. Mary’s. penicillatus Woodh. San Francisco Movunrarns, New Mexico, Cotorapo River anp DEsEerr Carmrorn1A, Fort Yuma. Cricetodipus flavus Baird. Nepraska, Sarr Lake, Uran, Rocxy Movunrarnys, 38°, Camaroon River, New Mexico, Texas, Sonora, Maramoras. parvus Peale. Kaiye’s River, Carr. Saccomys anthophilus F'. Cuv. Supposed to have come from N. America, from the unique specimen from which is was described, having a North American plant in its pouches. must have been overlooked, especially as Wagner mentions that his specimen was in alcohol. See Baird, op. cit. p. 409. 398 CRrIcETINE. Saccostomus fuscus Pet. Mosamp. lapidarius Pet. Mosams. Cricetomys Gambianus Waterh. SrnrGaMBra AND Mosamp. Cricetus accedula Brants. Urat Mountains, AND THE VOLGA. arenarius Pall. Sandy STEPPES OF BaraBa ON THE Irtiscu, ON THE Wonca, Urat Mounratns, Crea. auratus Waterh. ALEPPo. frumentarius Pall—(vulgaris Desm.) Mmp1E anp Sour Grmrmany, Potanp, Huneary, Mippie Souru RusstA, AND SIBERIA TO THE River Os. furunculus Pall. Daurta, AND oN THE OB, HicH STEPPES or Moncorta, VALLEY OF THE Onon, NorTH or Moncorta. fuscatus Brandt? nigricans Brandt. ABASIA. phaeus Pall. STEPPES ON THE WoLGA AND CASPIAN SEA AS FAR As INTO PERSIA. Songarus Pall. Srerta on THE Irtiscu, Hicu STEPPES OF MonGorta. Cricetodon Gerardeanus Gery. Maris or LIMAGNe. Gergovianus? Gery. Marts or Limacne. medium Gery. TERTIARY BEDS, SANSANS. minus Gery. TERTIARY BEDS, SANSANS. Sansanense Gery. Trrriany BEDS oF Sansans, S. FRANCE. Habitat not known. Mountams oF Caucasus, AND SIGMODONTES. Neotoma cinerea Ord.—{ Drummondii Rich.) Yertowstone Rrv., Nepraska, Faris or tHe Mtssourt. ferruginea Tomes. GUATEMALA, Floridana Say and Ord. S. ATLANTIC AND GuLF STATES, Frorma, Grore1a, New York, S. Canora, up the Missourt River, ARKANSAS. fuscipes Baird. Prranuma, Catrrornta, Santa Ciara, CALIFORNIA. magister Baird, CavEs or PENNSYLVANIA. Mexicana Baird.—(Floridana Geoff.) Merxtco, Cxt- HUAHUA, Sonora, Pecos, New Mexico, CoLorapo BOTTOM, SAN DreGco, Carr. micropus Baird. Sanra Rosaria, CHarnco Esconpmo, MeExtco. occidentalis Baird—(Drummondii Aud. and Bach.) WasHincTon Territory, Orecon Trrr., Srrarrs or Dr Fuca. Sigmodon Berlandieri Baird, Mnxtco, Coanuma, N. Leon, Tamavuripas, Santa Rosarza, Maramoras, W. or San Anronro, Eastern Trxas, Riyccorp Bar- racks, Los NoGarms, Sonora. hispidum Say and Ord.—(hortensis and ferrugineus Harl.) §, Canortna, Grorera, Frorma. Reithrodon. (South American type) chinchilloides Waterh. S. coast of Srrarrs or Ma- GELLAN. euniculoides Waterh. typicus Waterh. PATAGONTIAN Coast. PATAGONIAN Coast. APPENDIX. Reithrodon (North American type) Carolinensis ? Aud. and Bach. Swamps in the Mari- time districts of N. Canorra. humilis Aud. and Bach.—(Lecontei Aud. and Bach.) S. Carorra, Grorata, Missourtr. longicauda Baird. San Francisco AND PETALUMA, Cam. megalotis Baird. Sonora. mexicanus Sauss. Mexico. montanus Baird. Rocxy Mounrarns. H2&sPrRoMyIn=. Hesperomys austerus Baird. Srrmacoom, EasTERN PART OF WasHINGTON TERRITORY. Aztecus Sauss. Mexico. Bairdii? Hoy and Kennic. Pratnms, Tnurors. Boyli Baird. Wasutncton TEerritory, OREGON Territory. Californicus Gambel. St. Ciara, Carir. campestris? Lec. New JERSEY. cognatus Lee.—(polionotus Wagn.) N. Carona, S. Carorina, Mississrppr, GEORGIA. eremicus Baird. Fort Yuma, AND CoLorano, Cai- FORNIA. fulvescens Sauss. Mexico. Gambellii Baird. Wasnineton Trrrrrory, ORE- Gon Territory, CatmorntA, Prranuma, San Franotsco, Monterey, PosaBruk. gossypinus Lec. Groreia, 8. CAROLINA, leucopus Raf— (sylvaticus var. ZHral. agrarius Godm, Novyeboracensis Selys. maniculatus ? Wagn. Emmonsii Dekay.) Hupson’s Bay, Nova Scorra, MassacHussetrs, CoNNECTICUT, New York, Pennsyty., Vinernta, Minnesota, Wisconsry, Innrnots, Onto, Missouri. Mexicanus Sauss. MerExtco. Michiganensis Aud. and Bach. Racine, Wisconsin, Missount. myoides Gapper— Hamster Mouse. (leucopus Thomps. gracilis Lec.) Vermont, New Yorn, Monrreat, Upper Canapa, Lake SmMcor. Nuttallii Har/.—(aureolus Aud. and Bach.) PENN- SYLVANnrA, S. Canorra, Mississippi, TENNESSEE, Missourt, Inninots, GEoRGTA. Sonoriensis Lec.—(leucopus ? Rich.) Uprrr Mis- sourr, Sonora, Texas, New Mexico, Saskat- CHEWAN, Rocky Mountars, Buack Hits, NE- BRASKA, YELLOWSTONE. Sumichrasti Sauss. East slope of Mexican CorpILLERa. Texanus Woodh. Toltecus Sauss. e Open woods near Texas, New Mexico. CorpInLeRA oF VERA Cruz. Myoxomys bicolor Tomes. GUATEMALA. latimanus Tomes. GUATEMALA. Salvinii Zomes. GUATEMALA. Onychomys leucogaster Wied.—(Missouriensis Aud. and Bach.) Nepraska, Missourr River. Oryzomys palustris Harlan.—(orizivora Aud. and Bach.) §. Canoina, GEORGIA. SYNONYMIC LIST OF Calomys anguya Wagn.—(leucodactylus and concolor Wagn.) ParaGuay and Braz. eliurus Wagn.—(longicaudus Lund. pygmaeus Wagyn.) Near Rio Janerro, AND LaGcoa Sanro. expulsus Gieb—(bimaculatus and gracilipes Waterh. masculipes Pictet.) LaGoa Sanva. flavescens Waterh. La Piatra. fuliginosus Wagn.—(caniventris Wagn.) Sr. Pavro. lasiotis Burm. Lacoa Sanra. lasiurus Burm.—(cinnamomeus Pict.) Lagoa Santa. laticeps Burm.—(cephalotes Desm. subflavus Wagn.) LaGoa SANTA. ° longicaudatus Waterh. Magellanicus Waterh. MAGELLAN. orobius Wagn.—(auritus Pictet. brachyurus Wagn.) Near Rro JANEmRo. pyrrhorhinus Wagn. Banta. typus F. Cuv.—(elegans Waterh. longitarsus Rengg. nigripes Desm.) Banta Branca, Burnos Ayres. Habrothrix (including Phyllotis) arvicoloides Wagn.—(Reng- geri Pict.) Near Rio JANemo. auritus Wagn.—(callosus Rengg. pyrrhogaster and Boliviensis Waterh.) Coast DISTRICT BETWEEN Rio JaANEmRO anD Bawa. Darwinii Waterh. Coguimeo 1y Cut. Galapagoensis Waterh. CHATHAM ISLAND, IN THE GaLAPaco ARCHIPELAGO. griseo-flavus Waterh. Sanpy Hitis on tHE Rio Nearo, N. Paraconta. longipilus Waterh. Coqummeo in Crm. micropus Waterh.—(obscurus and arenicola Water.) Santa Cruz IN Pataconta. nigrita Licht. — (canescens Waterh.) Rio JANEmo. principalis Lund. Bone-cayes in Braz. xanthopygus Waterh. Sanva Cruz in PaTaGonta. Oxymycterus (including Scapteromys) hispidus Pictet. Banta. nasutus Waterh. Matponapo on La Prata River. Peruvianus? Peale. Prrv. rufus Desm.—(rostellatus Wagn. dasytrichos Wied. fossorius Lund.) Paracuay, AND Coast District, NEAR Rio JaANETRO, BRAzIn. tumidus Waterh.—(tomentosus Licht.) ponapo, Urueuay. sealops Gay. Cut. Holochilus Brasiliensis Waterh.—(vulpinus Licht.) From the south of Braz to the borders of Paragonra. physodes Wagn.—(leucogaster Brandt.russatus Wagn. mystacalis and yulpinus Zund.) Sr. Pauio, Sourn Brazin. robustus Burm.—(Brasiliensis Pictet.) Banta. squamipes Burm.—(sciureus Wagn. anguya Brandt. eanellinus Wagn.) Sv. Francisco anp Sr. Pavno, S. Braz. Akodon Boliviense Meyer. above the sea, Drymomys parvulus 7'schudi. Crit. Porr Famine, IN Srrarts oF and xanthorbinus Matr- Table-lands of Peru, 14,000 feet Perv. . badius Blyth. SPECIES OF MAMMALS. 359 Morin&. Mus Abotti Waterh. Abyssinicus Rupp. Abyss. eequicaudatus ? Hodg. NEPAL. agrarius Pall. GrrMany AnD Mippie RusstA To Smerra. albipes Rupp.—(fuscirostris Wagn.) Apyss., AND Nubia. albo-cinereus Gould. W. AusTRALIA, Allani Waterh. Frrnanpo Po. Andamensis Blyth, AnpAmaNn Istanps. AsIA. Algiricus Pomel. ALGERta. arboreus Peters. Mosamp. argenteus Zemm. JAPAN. Asiaticus? Gray. Inp1a. assimilis Gould. New 8S. Wares, Kina Grorar’s Sounp, West AvusTRALIA ? VALLEY OF THE SITANG. barbarus Zinn, ALGERTA. castaneus ? Waterh. AUSTRALIA. chameropsis Levaill. ALGERIAN SAHARA. colonus Licht, Ancoa Bay. concolor Blyth. Upper and Lowrr Burma, Maayan PENINSULA. Caraco Pall, Eastern SIBERIA, AND CHINA. cervicolor, Hodg.—(strophiatus Hodg. albidiventris Blyth.) Nepart, Lower Bencan, S. Manapar? cervinipes Gould. Brushes of the eastern part of New S. WALES. cinnamomeus? Blyth. Lowrr Pecu anp Marrapan. cunicularis Blyth. Keasta His. Darjilingensis Hodg. Nera. decumanus Pallas.—(norvegicus Briss. brunneus Hodg. decumanoides Hodg. brunneusculus Hodg.?) Spread over whole the world, wherever commerce has reached. Do. yar. Hibernius Thoms. TreLanp. Do. var. Javanicus Herm. Java, SUMATRA. Do. var. maurus Waterh. Marponapo, Mout or La PLATA. delicatulus Gould. Port Esstneton. dolichurus Smuts. Capp or Goop Horr. Dombeensis Riipp. Anyss. dorsalis Smith. S. Arrica. Ellioti Gray.—(infralineatus Elliot and Blyth.) S, Inpra. erythrotis Blyth. Kasra Hinxs. fallax Peters. Mosamp. fulvidiventris Blyth. Crynon, TRINCOMALEE. gentilis Brants. Eaypr anp Nupia. gerbillinus B/yth—(Theobaldii and Bactrianus? Blyth.) ALPINE PunsgAB, AFFGHANISTAN, KANDAHAR. Gerardianus Gery. Indusial Chalk in the Department of ALLIER, FRANGE. giganteus Hardw.—(Malabaricus, and perchal Shaw. ne- morivagus Hodg.) The Bandicoot. CoromanpEL, My- sorE, BENGAL, Nepar, introduced into Van Drieman’s Lanp. Gouldii Waterh.—(fuseipes Waterh. Greyii and lutreola Gray.) Interior of New Sourm Waxes, W. AusTRALLA, and probably intermediate parts. gliroides Blyth. Krasta Hits. Hardwickii Gray. Inpra. APPENDIX. Mus Hayi Waterh. Morocco. homourus Hodg. Sus-Himmanayan REGION. horeites Hodg. Nepat. hortulanus Nordm. In Botanic GarpEN, ODESSA. Hovelli? Gray. AusTraria. hydrophilus Hodg. Margins of ponds, Neat. imberbis Rupp. ABYSSINIA. Jerdoni Blyth. SixKxim. kok Gray.—(Indicus Gray. providens Elliot. Huttonii Blyth. Griffithii Horsf. pyctoris Hodg. dubius Kelaart.) Inpta. lehocla Smith. S. Arrrca, lepidus Elliot.—(booduga Gray.) S. Inpra. leucosternum Riipp.—(limbatus and maculatus Wagn.) SENAAR, ABYss. lineatus F, Cuv.—(pumilio Brants. vittatus Schreb.) Care or Goop Horr, lineolatus Gould.—(gracilicaudatus Gould.) N. S. WAtEs. longipilis Gould. Banks or Victorta River. macropus Hodg. NeEpat. manicatus Gould. Porr Esstneton. maurus Gray. CAmEroon Mountains. meltada ? Gray 2 Inp1a? microdon Peters. Mosamp. minimus Peters. Mosamp. minutoides S$. Zong. Care or Goop Horr. minutus Pall.—(messorius Shaw. soricinus, parvulus, and pendulinus Aerm. arenarius Wolf. campestris F. Cuv. pratensis Ockshay. Wagneri Evers. agilis Dehne.) Min. Evrore, To Sierra, ENGiand, France, GERMANY, EVC. molossinus Zemm. JAPan. modestus Wagn. Carr or Goon Horr. muscardinus Wagn. Carr or Goop Horr. musculus Linn.— (brevirostris Waterh. islandicus Thien. Adelaidensis Gray.) House Mouse. Nearly cosmopolitan, (not in Inpra ) myothrix Hody. Nepat. nanus Gould. Interior of West AUSTRALIA. Natalensis Smith. S.*Arrica. nemoralis Blyth. BrnGat, Cryton. nitidulus Blyth. VattEy or THE Siranc, Burma. nitidus Hodg. NeEpan. Nove Hollandise Waterh. New Sourn WatgEs. Novare Fitzinger. Nz1coBar Isuanps. oleraceus Benn.—(dumeticola and Povensis Hodg.) Drc- cAN, PLarns oF Inpia. orientalis Cretz. Whole north of Arrica. Palmarum Fitzinger. Nrtcopar Istanps. Peguensis Blyth. Vantry or THE SiTanc, Burma. platythrix Benn. SS. Inpra. platurus ? Gray. AUSTRALIA. pretextus Licht. ARaBIA AND Syria. pulchellus—(Golunda Gray.) E. Arrtca. rattus Zinn. Spread over all Evurorr, established in Persia, Inpra, Arrtoa, N. Amerrca, S. AMERICA. var. Jacobi Waterh. James Istanp, GALaPacos. var. insularis Waterh. ASCENSION ISLAND. var. rattoides Hodg. Nepat. robustulus Blyth.— (flavescens Blyth. Berdmorei Blyth.) Common House-Rat of Rangoon and Moulmein. Lower Prev. Mus rufescens Gray.—(flavescens and rufus Zi/liot. arboreus Horsf. Kandianus, montanus, and tetragonurus Kelaart. caudatior, and niviventer Hodg.) InpIA GENERALLY, AND CryLon. setifer Horsf. Java, Borneo, SumaTra. silaceus Wagn. Carr or Goop Horr. sordidus Gould. Dartina Downs, New Sourn WALEs. speciosus Temm. JAPAN. spinulosus 2 Blyth, Punsan, Mananar. sylvaticus Linn.—(flayicollis Melchior.) Atm Evrorr, and part of Srperra. Do. Fossil in the Bonr Breccra or Corsica. Tanezumi Temm. Japan. tectorum Juvi—(Alexandrinus Geoff. flaviventris Brants. setosus Linn. latipes Benn.) Taypr, Nupra, west coast of Arabta, introduced into Iraty, into N. America, AND Braz. terricolor Blyth. Lowrr Brncat, 8. Iypra. urbanus Hodg—(musculus Liliot. dubius Hodg. Manei Gray.) House Mouse of plains of Iypra. variegatus Licht.—(discolor Wagn. Niloticus Geoff. testi- cularis Sundev.) Anapta, Ecypt, Nupra, Asyss., BAHR EL ABIAD. sp. fide Lart. Fossil in the freshwater deposits of San- SANS. sp. fide Lart. Fossil in the freshwater deposits of San- SANS. sp. fide Lart. Fossil in the freshwater deposits of San- SANS. sp. fide Pomel. Fossil. CrEnmont. i sp. fide Pomel. Fossil. Crermonr. Steatomys edulis Peters. Mosams. Krebsii Peters. Sourm Arrrca. Pseudomys australis Gray. Sanpy His, New Sour Wates. Dendromys melanotis Smith. Carr or Goop Horr. mesomelas Lichi—(typicus Smith. pumilio Wagn.) Care oF Goop Hore. Micromys Aniciensis Aym. FRESHWATER Mart, Ronzon. Aymardi Geoff. Fresawarer Mart, Ronzon. minutus Aym. FRESHWATER Mart, Ronzon. ornatus v. Meyer. TERTIARY DEPOSITS OF WEISENAU. Lithomys parvidens vy. Meyer. fossil. TERTIARY DEPOSITS OF WEISENAU. SMINTHINE. Acomys cahirinus Geoff. Eayrt. dimidiatus Riipp—(megalotis Licht. hispidus Brants.) Anrapia PeTREA, Ecypt, NuBIA. perchal Shaw. Inpta. platythrix Benn. DexKKan. russatus Wagn. Srnat. spinosissimus Peters. Mosamp. Sminthus subtilis Brandt. From Swepen eastwards to the River Jentser, and southwards to the Iscurm Srepre in Astratic Russta. var. betulinus Nilss. Srpertan STEPPEs, var. loriger Nath.—(Nordmanni Keys. lineatus Licht.) CriMEA, AND BucHaRest. var. vagus Wagn. Spread from the Urar, Mountains to the Jreniser oyer the frozen steppes. SYNONYMIC LIST OF SPECIES OF MAMMALS. 361 Phleomys Cummingii Waterh. Luzon, Pamippre Isianps. Otomys rufifrons Riipp.—(pallida Wagn.) Carr or Goop Hydromys chrysogaster Geoff.—(apicalis Kuhl.) New Sours Hore. Wates, anp Van Dreman’s Lanp. unisuleatus Cuv. Caps or Goop Horr. fuliginosus Gould. Kina Grorce’s Sounp, and | Hapalotis albipes Licht.—(constructor Ogilb.) New Sours waters near PertTH, S.W. AUSTRALIA. Wares, VICTORIA. AND SoUTH AUSTRALIA. fulyolayatus Gould. Borders of River Murray, AND apicalis Gould. Van Dreman’s Lanp? SourH Avs- Lake ALBERT. TRALIA. leucogaster Geoff. Banks of Rivers HunTER anD arboricola McLeay. EizanetH Bay, New Sours CLarENCE, New Sour WALEs. WALEs. lutrilla MeLeay. EnizapetH Bay, New Sour cervinus Gould. Interior of S. AusTRALIA, WALES. conditor Gould. Interior of New Sourn WALES AND VICTORIA. MERIONIDES. hemileucura Gray. Interior of north-east provinces Meriones Africanus F’. Cuv.—(Schlegeli Smuts. afer Gray. seri- of AUSTRALIA, ceus Temm.) S. AFRICA. hirsutus Gould. Port Esstneton, Norra Auvs- auricularis ? Smith. S. Arrica. TRALIA. binotatus ? Licht. longicaudatus Gould. Interior of W. AusTRALIA. brevicaudatus? F. Cuv. S. Arrica? Mitchellii Ogilby.—(Gouldii Gray.) West AnD SouTH Burtoni F. Cuv. Danrrur. AUSTRALIA. caffer? Licht. S. Arrica. murinus Gould. Interior of New SourH WALES, AND campestris Le Vaill. Samana. VICTORIA. Cuvieri Waterh. Inp1a. penicillatus Gould.—(melanura Gray.) NortH Avs- Gerbii Loche. Sawana. TRALIA. Indicus Hardw. Hrxpostan. lacernatus Rupp. Abyss. Diropinz. leucogaster Peters. Mozamp. Dipus Agyptius Licht.—(bipes Licht. Gerboa Oliv. Mauritani- melanurus Riipp.—(Lybicus Licht.) Sandy districts cus Duv.) NortH Arapra, Lower Eeypr, Triroris, in N. ArricaA anpD ARABIA PETR#A, SAHARA, AIN southern portions of the Samara. O@dsERA, AND AIN EL IBEL. Deserti Loche. Wanrrcut, in the Desert of Sanara. meridianus Licht—(longipes Pall. fulvus Evers.) hirtipes Licht—(macrotarsus Wagn.) Upper NILE, AND Steppes about the Caspran Sra, west coast of ARABIA. minutus Blainv. SaHAaRa. Jerboa Desm. NortH AFRICA. montanus Wagn. S. Arrica, north of the OraneE lagopus Licht. Steppes of the Aran SEa. River. sagitta Schreb. Steppes between the Don and the myosurus Wagn. Syrta. Wonca, the southern Steppes about Irriscn, the obesus Riipp. ALEXANDRIA. whole of ZonGarEA and MonGorza, and on both sides opimus Licht.—(Tamariscinus Evers. pallidus Wagn. of the Barkan range. . crassus Sund.) S.E. Russta, telum Licht. The Krreutstan Sreprres, and eastern otarius? F, Cuv. East Inpies. shores of the Caspran SEA. pygargus F. Cuv.—Aegyptius F. Cuv. gerbillus Riipp. | Alactaga acontion Pall.—(pygmeus Jilig. Indica Gray. Bac- venustus Sund. longicaudus Wagn. dasyurus Wagn.) triana Blyth. saltator Evers.) KirGHis STEPPES. SeneGan, Eeypr, Nutra. arundinis Cuv. Barbary, SAHARA. pyramidum F. Cuv.—(murinus Sund.) Eaeyrr. aulacotis ? Wagn. West coast of ARABIA. robustus Riipp. Korporan. elater Licht. Kirauis STEPPES. rufescens ? Licht. haltica Zilig—(brachyurus Blainv.) KirGHis STEPPES, Schousbeeii Loche. SAHARA. AND SIBERIA. Shawi Duv.—(robustus Wagn.) ALGERIA, SAHARA. jaculus Pall.—(spiculum Licht. deeumanus Wagn. yexil- Selysii Pomel. Sanara. larius Evers.) Crmma, Steppes between the Don and teniurus Wagn. Syria. Donav to Great Tarrary, north-west of the ALTar tamaricinus Kuhl. Low and flat lands near the Movunratns, from Barnaat to the Ox, southern slope CasPran SEA. of the Urats. tenuis Smith. S. Arrica. platyurus Licht. Near the River Kuwar, Dansa, near Mystromys albicaudatus Smith. S. Arrica, north of the ORANGE the Aran SEA. River. tetradactylus Brandt.—(Abyssinicus Meyer.) Lrpyan lanuginosus Licht.—(albipes Wagn.) CArrraRia. DESERT. typicus Smith. Care or Goop Horr. | Jaculus Hudsonius Zimm.—(longipes Zimm. Canadensis Shaw. Otomys bisuleatus Cuv.—(irrorata Licht.) Extreme south of Americanus Barton. Labradorius Harlan. microcepha- AYRIca. lus Harl. nemoralis Geoff. Acadicus Daws.) From Brantsii Smith. Near the mouth of the ORancE . the Arrantic to the Pacrric across the northern half River. of N. Amerrca, CANanA, Stave Lake, Nova Scorta, 3A 362 Massacuusetts, VERMONT, Connecticut, New York, ‘Lone JTstanp, NEw JERSEY, PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYL- VANIA, Wisconsin, Inminots, Muissourt, NEBRASKA, WasHineton Trrnirory, Orrcon Terrirory, Caui- FORNIA, Rocxy Mounrarys, 38° Lat. Pedetes Caffer Illig.— (Capensis Desm.) Carr or Goon Horr. MARSUPITALIA. ENTOMOPHAGA, ANTECHINI. Antechinus albipes Waterh. S. Austrata, W. AusTRALIA, AND Van Dreman’s Lanp. apicalis Gray. W. Ausrraria, SwAN River. fuliginosus Gould. W., AusTRALta. erassicaudatus Gould. Wrst anp Sovrn TRALIA. ferruginifrons Gould. flavipes Aus- New SoutH WAtzgEs. Waterh. —(rufogaster Gray. Stewartii M‘Lell.) New Sovran Wates, anp SourH Aus- TRALIA. leucogaster Gray. Kiya GrorGr’s Sounp. leucopus Gray. Van Dreman’s Lanp. macroura Gould. Nrw SoutH WatLEs. maculatus Gould. QUEENSLAND. melas Miu//. New Guinea. minimus Z'emm.—(affinis Gray.) TAsMANTA, minutissimus Gould. QUEENSLAND. murinus Waterh. New Sourn Wates. Swaipsonii Waterh. VAN Dreman’s Lanp. unicolor Gould. New Souta Wates. PHASCOGALES. Phascogale calura Gould, W. AUSTRALIA. lanigera Gould. Interior of New S. WatEs. penicillata Shaw.. New S. Wates, S. AusTRALIA, AND W. AUSTRALTA. SARCOPHAGA. Dasyurus Geoffroyi Gould. Western Austrarra, 8. AUSTRALIA, AnD New Souru WALEs. hallucatus Gould. Port Esstycron, Norru APPENDIX. WEST AFRICA, SoutH oF Samara, AND NorTH OF GABoon. Chief authority, Scumarna, “Geograph. Verbreit. d. Thiere,” 1853. Troglodytes Gorilla niger vellerosus ? Cercopithecus Sabzeus Galago murinus Alleni Arctocebus Calabaricus Pterodictus potto Herpestes melanurus Crossarchus obseurus Canis anthus Hyena crocuta Lepus sp. Orycteropus Senegalensis Manis longicaudata tricuspis cynosuros Pteropus stramineus Felis leo Elephas Africanus nictitans Geoftroyi leopardus Rhinoceros sp. indet. pogonius Gambianus guttata Hippopotamus amphibius Campbelli macrocephalus Senegalensis Cheeropsis Liberiensis Martini epomophorus rutila Phacocherus Aeliani Diana Hypsignathus monstrosus caracal Hyomoschus aquaticus roloway Medagerma frons Scinrus Gambianus Camelopardus giraffa leucampyx gigas Poensis Antilope dama var. nanguer erythrotis tridens Stangeri adenota cephus Landeri rufobrachium forfax Burnettii Nyeteris Thebaica leucogenys redunca mona hispida pyrrhopus unctuosa ruber Taphozous Senegalensis erythropus Koba AB thiops leucopterus simplex longiceps fuliginosus Vespertilio Poensis priestigiator scripta Innuus talapoin Nyeticejus nigrita minutus doria Colobus polycomas Sorex (Crocidura) Poensis Congicus strepsiceros leucomeros crassicaudus Derbianus sylvicultrix satanas morio Anomalurus Fraseri Ogilbyi fuliginosus Rhabdogale mustelina Beecroftii quadriscopa Pennantii Lutra Poensis Derbianus grimmia olivaceus Aonyx Calabarica Aulacodus Swinderianus Frederici mormon Viverra civetta Mus Allenii spinigera leucopheeus genetta maurus bubalis ursinus Poensis Cricetomys Gambianus gazella Cynocephalus papio (Richardsonii) Meriones pygargus Moschus aquaticus Galago Senegalensis Geoff. Herpestes fasciatus Hystrix cristata Bos brachyeeros Demidoffii Gambianus Africana 5 CANARY ISLES. Chief authority, Wess and Berruenot’s “ Isles Canaries,” 1835. Canis familiaris Phoca yitulina Mus sp.* Felis domesticus Vespertilio barbastellus pipistrellus And the following all introduced. Delphinus sp. Baleena sp. Bos taurus Camelus dromedarius Capra sp. Equus asinus Ovis aries Capra hireus Lepus cunicnlus Sus scrofa Equus caballus The ancient historians speak of a wild species of Goat in the Islands called “ Guanil.” * “Tt appears that there were rats, at least in some of the islands of the group, at the time of the arrival of the conquerors, for, according to Juan de Barros, cited by Vieva, the inhabitants of Gomera ate them. . . . . We have neglected to ascertain if these rats were of the common species.”.—Wesp and BerrHeror, “ Isles Canaries,” yol, ii. part 1. p. 9. Vespertilio pruinosus subulatus Sorex palustris Forsteri paryus Scalops Canadensis Condylura longicaudata macroura Ursus Americanus arctos ferox maritimus Procyon lotor Meles Labradoria Gulo lusecus Mustela vulgaris erminea vison martes Canadensis Mephitis Americana Lutra Canadensis Enhydra marina Canis lupus occidentalis var. griseus albus nubilus MAMMALS OF SPECIAL DISTRICTS. NORTH AMERICA. From Ricuarpson’s * Fauna Boreale Americana,” 1829), Canis lupus ater Canis latrans familiaris var. borealis lagopus Canadensis Nove Caledonie Vulpes lagopus var. fuliginosa fulvus var. decussata argentea Virginianus vulgaris cinereoargenteus Felis Canadensis rufa fasciata Castor Canadensis Fiber zibethicus Arvicola riparius xanthognathus Pennsylvanicus Noyeboracensis borealis (Georychus) helvo- lus Arvicola trimucronatus Hudsonius Groeenlandicus Neotoma Drummondii Mus rattus decumanus musculus leucopus Meriones Labradorius Arctomys empetra pruinosus brachyurus monax Spermophilus Ludoyicianus Parryi guttatus Richardsonii Franklinii Beecheyi Douglasii lateralis Hoodii Sciurus (Tamias) Lysteri 4-vittatus Hudsonius niger NORTH AMERICA, 397 Pteromys sacrinus Geomys Douglasii umbrinus bursarius talpoides Diplostoma bulbivorum Aplodontia leporina Hystrix pilosus Lepus Americanus glacialis Virginianus Lagomys princeps Equus caballus Cervus alces tarandus var. arctica sylvestris strongyloceros macrotis var. Columbiana leucurus Antilope furcifer Capra Americana Ovis montana Ovibos moschatus Bos Americanus Nortu-Eastern District or North AMERICA, BETWEEN BarrEN GrouNnDS AND NORTHERN SHORES OF LAKE Superror, Vespertiliones, 2 or 3 sp. Sorex palustris Forsteri Scalops sp. _ Ursus Americanus maritimus. Does not go further from sea- shore than 100 miles. Meles Labradoria Gulo luseus BORDERED TO THE EASTWARD By A Narrow Srrip or Limestone. From RicHarpson’s “* Fauna Boreale Americana,” 1829. Mustela vulgaris erminea vison martes Canadensis Mephitis Americana yar, Hud- sonica Lutra Canadensis Canis lupus Vulpes lagopus Vulpes fulvus | var. decussata argentata Felis Canadensis Castor Canadensis Fiber zibethicus Arvicola xanthognathus Pennsylvanicus (Georychus) Hud- sonius Mus leucopus Meriones Labradorius Arctomys empetra Sciurus (Tamias) Lysteri Hudsonius Pteromys sabrinus Lepus Americanus Cervus alces tarandus var. sylvestris 398 APPENDIX. NORTH AMERICA. Barren Grovunps, viz.: Tue Nortu-East corner oF NortH AMERICA, BOUNDED TO THE WEST BY THE COPPERMINE RIVER, GREAT SLAVE, ArHapasca, WoLnasTon, AND Derr Lakes, TO THE SOUTH BY THE CHURCHILL oR Misstssippr RIVER, Ursus Arctos ? Americanus maritimus Gulo luseus Mustela (Putorius) erminea vison Lutra Canadensis Sorex Forsteri? palustris ? Lynx Canadensis Canis griseo-albus Vulpes fulvus var. decussatus argentatus lagopus var. fuliginosus i Mustela Americana Pennantii Putorius pusillus Cicognii Richardsonii Noveboracensis longicauda vison nigrescens (young of P. vison) Gulo luscus Lutra Canadensis Mephitis mephitica Ursus horribilis Americanus ) var. cinnamomeus f arctos ? (Barren Ground Bear) maritimus AND TO THE NoRTH AND EAST BY THE SEA. From Sir J. Rrowarpson’s “ Fauna Boreale Americana,” 1829. Aryicola borealis (Georychus) tri-mu- Canis lupus vulpes lagopus Aretomys (Spermophilus) sp. Parry1 fuliginosus Fiber zibethicus Aryicola xanthognathus Pennsylvanicus NORTH AMERICA, cronatus Hudsonius Greenlandicus Mackenzie River District. Lepus glacialis Ceryus tarandus Ovibos moschatus From List by Bernarp R. Ross in ‘‘ Nat. Hist. Rev.” 1861, p. 271. Genus abundant to Arerie Coast. Ranges to Arctic Coast in summer. To Arctic Coast. To 62° N.L. To Great Stave Lake. To 62° N.L. To Larterres House. To 62° N.L. ” To Arerre Coast. To 62° N.L. To Arctic Coast. ” Great SLAVE Lake. Plains of Upper Missouri to Youcon River. To Arctic Crrctr and be- yond. Barren Grounds and Arctic Coasts. Arotre Coasts. Seiurus Hudsonius Pteromys alpinus Tamias 4-vittatus Arctomys monax pruinosus Kennicottii Castor Canadensis Jaculus Hudsonius Hesperomys myoides Aryicola riparia Richardsonii xanthognathus Fiber zibethicus Erithizon dorsatus epixanthus Lepus Americanus glacialis Lagomys princeps Alees Americanus tangifer caribou Greenlandicus Aplocerus montanus Ovis montana Ovibos moschatus Bos Americanus Vespertilio subulatus To within Arctic Crrcre. Mountainranges Lrarp River. From 33° 30’ to 67° N.L. To 62° N.L. To Arorre CrrcLe. Northernmostranges of Rocky Movuntars. To within Arctic Crrcie. To Youcon River. To Arctic Sra. To 62° N.L. To Arctic Sra. ” To within Arctic Circe. To Liarp River. To within Arorre Circe. To Arctic SEA. Mountain ranges, Lrarp Rrv. To within Arcrio Crrcie, To Youcon River. Barren Grounps and Arctic Coasts. To Arctic SrEa. To within Arcric Crrcie. Barren GRrounps and Arcric Coasts, not rare. To Lirrtr Burraro River, Great Stave Lake. To Sar River. MAMMALS OF SPECIAL DISTRICTS. NORTH AMERICA. UNITED STATEs. From Professor Barrp’s “ Report on the General Zoology of the United States,” 1857. Neosorex nayigator Sorex Trowbridgii vagrans Suckleyi pachyurus Forsteri Richardsonii platyrhinus Cooperi Haydeni personatus Hoyi Thompsoni Blarina talpoides brevicauda Carolinensis angusticeps cinerea exilipes Berlandieri Scalops aquaticus argentatus Townsendii Breweri Condylura cristata Urotrichus Gibbsii Felis concolor onca pardalis eyra yaguarundi Lynx rufus rufus var. maculatus fasciatus Canadensis Canis occidentalis Do. var. griseo alba var, nubila var. Mexicana latrans Vulpes fulvus ~var. decussata argentata macrourus velox Virginianus littoralis Bassaris astuta Mustela Pennantii Americana Putorius pusillus Cicognanii Richardsonii Noveboracensis Putorius longicauda Kaneii frenatus xanthogenys vison nigrescens Gula luseus Lutra Canadensis Californica Enhydra marina Mephitis mesoleuea varians oecidentalis mephitica bicolor Taxidea Americana Berlandieri Procyon lotor Hernandezii Do. var. Mexicana Ursus horribilis Americanus Americanus var. cinnamoneus Didelphys Virginiana Californica Sciurus vulpinus cinereus Ludoyicianus limitis Carolinensis Do. var. Mexicana ? fossor castanonotus Aberti Hudsonius Fremontii Richardsonii Douglassii Pteromys volucella Hudsonius alpinus Oregonensis Tamias striatus quadrivittatus dorsalis Townsendii Spermophilus Beecheyi Douglassii grammurus Couchii lateralis Harrisii Franklini Spermophilus tereticanda tridecem-linea- tus Mexicanus spilosoma Parryi Richardsonii Townsendii Cynomys Ludovicianus Gunnisonii Arctomys monax flaviventer Aplodontia leporina Castor Canadensis Castoroides Ohioensis Geomys bursarius breviceps pinetis Clarkii castanops Thomomys bulbivorus laticeps borealis var. Douglassii rufescens umbrinus fulyus Dipodomys Ordii Phillipii agilis Perognathus penicillatus fasciatus hispidus monticola flavus paryus Jaculus Hudsonius Mus decumanus rattus tectorum musculus Reithrodon humilis montanus megaiotis longicauda Hesperomys leucopus texanus Gambelii austerus Nuttalli gossypinus cognatus Boylii myoides Hesperomys Sonoriensis 399 Michiganensis Californicus eremicus leucogaster palustris Neotoma Floridana Mexicana micropus fuscipes occidentalis cinerea magister Sigmodon hispidus Berlandieri Arvicola Gapperi riparia Breweri rufidorsum Townsendii montana longirostris edax Californica occidentalis modesta Oregoni “ austera cinnamonea Haydenii pinetorum Myodes Cooperi torquatus Obensis Fiber zibethieus Erethizon dorsatus epixanthus Lepus glacialis Americanus Washingtonii campestris eallotis Californicus sylvaticus artemisia Bachmani Audubonii Trowbridgii aquaticus palustris Lagomys princeps Dasypus noyem-cinctus 400 Dicotyles torquatus Alce Americanus Rangifer Caribou Grenlandicus Cervus Canadensis Virginianus leucurus Mexicanus macrotis Columbianus Antilocapra Americana Aplocerus montanus Ovis montana Ovibos moschatus Vespertilio subulatus Sorex palustris Ursus Americanus ferox Gulo luseus Mustela erminea vison martes Canadensis Mephitis Americana Lutra Canadensis APPENDIX. UNITED STATES, continued :— Bos Americanus Species not seen or identified. Sorex palustris fimbripes parvus Harlani Sealops latimanus Canis occidentalis Do. var. atra rufus Putorius nigripes Mephitis mesomelas Procyon psora Seiurus Collivi mustelinus nigrescens lanigerus leporinus ferruginiventris Spermophilus macrourus Arctomys pruinosus Lewisii Thomomys talpoides Dipodomys Wagneri Heermannii Reithrodon Carolinensis Hesperomys campestris NORTH AMERICA, Rocky Movntatn pistrict. From Ricwarpson’s “ Fauna Boreale Americana,” 1829. Canis Jupus Vulpes fulvus Felis Canadensis Castor Canadensis Fiber zibethicus Arvicola riparius xanthognathus Noyoboracensis (Georychus) helvolus Neotoma Drummondi Mus leucopus Arctomys empetra pruinosus Spermophilus Parryi var. ery- throgluteia phrognathus guttatus lateralis Sciurus 4-vittatus Hudsonius Pteromys sabrinus yar. alpina Hystrix pilosus NORTH AMERICA. Arvicola albo-rufescens borealis Dekayi Drummondii hirsutus nasuta oneida Richardsonii rubricatus Texiana xanthognathus Lepus Texiana Nuttalii Lepus Americanus glacialis Lagomys princeps Cervus alces tarandus macrotis Capra Americana Ovis montana Bos Americanus CouNTRY BETWEEN Ripcr or Rocky Mountartns AND THE Pacrric, FRoM NortH CaLirorniA To THE NoRTHERN EXTREMITY OF THE CONTINENT. Vespertilio. Kotzebue found two small Bats with short earsin Norrouk Sounp. Lat. 5630° N. Sorex parvus Scalops Canadensis Condylura macroura Ursus Americanus arctos Americanus ferox maritimus Procyon lotor Meles Labradoria Gulo luseus Mustela (Putoria) vulgaris (Putoria) erminea vison martes Canadensis Mephitis Americana Lutra Canadensis Enhydra marina Canis lupus var. fusca From Ricuarpson's “ Zoology of Capt. Bercuer’s Voyage,” 1839. Canis latrans ochropus familiaris Vulpes lagopus var. fuliginosa fulvus vulgaris cinereo-argentatus Felis concolor onea rufa fasciata Phoea yitulina Phoca Grenlandica barbata jubata ursina fasciata Trichechus rosmarus. BuHER- ma’s Srrairs and the Icy Sea to the northward, seen by Cook as far north as Bris- Tot Bay, Lat. 58° 42’. Un- known to the Esquimaux of the Coppermine and Mac- KENZIE Rtvers. Didelphys Virginiana Castor Canadensis Fiber zibethicus Aryicola rubricatus Neotoma Drummondii Mus leucopus Aretomys caligata Yschsch. brachyurus MAMMALS OF SPECIAL DISTRICTS. NORTH AMERICA, continued :— Spermophilus Parryi guttatus Jeecheyi Douglasi lateralis Sciurus Hudsonius Collixei Rich. Geomys Douglasii Diplostoma bulbivorum Aplodontia leporina Hystrix pilosus Lepus Americanus glacialis Virginianus Equus caballus Cervus alces NORTH AMERICA. +01 Cervus tarandus strongylocerus macrotis leucurus Antilope furcifer Capra Americanus Ovis montana Prarrre Mammarts rrom ManrETopaw, oR MAnEEWoopoo AND WINEPEGOOS Lakes To Foot or Rocky Mountains, NorrHwarps. Ursus ferox Canis latrans Vulpes cinereo-argentata Spermophilus Ludoyicianus From Racuarpson’s * Fauna Boreale Americana,” 1829. Arctomys Richardsonii Franklinii Hoodii Geomys talpoides Diplostoma bulbivorum Lepus Virginianus Equus caballus Cervus alces CALIFORNIA. Cervus strongyloceros macrotis leucurus Antilope furcifer Bos Americanus Chief authority, Dr. Newperry in Report in “ Pacif. R. R, Explor,” 1857. Macrotus Californicus Antrozous pallidus Sorex vagrans Suckleyi Scalops(Scapanus)Townsendii Felis concolor Lynx rufus fasciatus Canis occidentalis var. griseo- alba latrans Vulpes macrourus velox (Uroeyon) Virginianus littoralis Bassaris astuta Mustela Americana Mustela Pennantii Putorius xanthogenys vison Lutra Californica Enhydra marina Mephitis occidentalis bicolor Taxidea Americana Procyon Hernandezii Ursus horribilis Otaria sp. Phoca sp. Didelphys Californica Sciurus fossor Douglasii Tamias Townsendii quadrivittatus Spermophilus Douglasii Beecheyi lateralis Aplodontia leporina Castor Canadensis Thomomys borealis bulbivorus laticeps do. var. Douglassii rufescens Perognathus monticola parvus Jaculus Hudsonius Mus decumanus musculus Hesperomys Gambelii Arvicola Townsendii Arvicola longirostris montana Fiber zebethicus Erethizon epixanthus Lepus campestris Californicus artemisia Audubonii Trowbridgii Alce Americanus Cervus Canadensis leucurus macrotis Columbianus Antilocapra Americana Ovis montana Bos Americanus 402 Hapale rufiventer Macrotus Californicus Desmodus murinus Glossophaga Mexicana Antrozous pallidus Blarina Berlandieri exilipes Felis concolor onea pardalis Eyra yagarundi tigrina Lepus rufus Do. yar. maculata Canis occidentalis Do. var. Mexicana Do. rufa latrans Vulpes Virginianus APPENDIX. MEXICO. From various sources— Baird, Berlandier, Saussure, &c. Bassaris astuta Putorius frenatus Mephitis mesoleuca varians bicolor Taxidea Berlandieri Cereoleptes caudivolyulus Procyon Hernandezii Do. var, Mexicana Ursus horribilis Do. var. horriacea cinnamoneus Gulo barbarus Didelphys Virginiana Californica Sciurus limitis Ludoyicianus Carolinensis castanonotus Tamias dorsalis Spermophilus grammurus Couchii tereticauda Mexicanus spilosoma Cynomys Ludoyicianus Castor Canadensis Geomys Clarkii Thomomys umbrinus fulvus Dipodomys Ordii agilis Philippii Perognathus penicillatus hispidus flayus Mus tectorum Reithrodon megalotis Hesperomys Texanus Sonoriensis * “No skins, but plenty of skulls.” ANTILLES. Hesperomys eremicus Neotoma Mexicana micropus Sigmodon Berlandieri Fiber zibethicus Cercolabes Lubmanni Lepus callotis Californicus sylvaticus artemisia Bachmanni Bradypus tridactylus Dasypus novemeinctus Dicotyles torquatus Cervus Virginianus Mexicanus macrotis Antilocapra Americana Ovis montana Bos Americanus * From “ Notes sur les Mammiféres des Antilles,” in “ Ann. d. Se. Natur.” 2 ser. viii. 60. Brachyphylla cayernarum Glossophaga Redmanii Phyllostoma perspicillatum Jamaiceus faleatum Macrotus Waterhousii Chilonycteris MacLeayii fuliginosa From List of Species collected by Mr. Osporne, Mus rattus tectorum Capromys brachyurus Arctibeus perspicillatus brachyotum Chilonycteris cinnamomea quadridens Phylodia Parnellii Dysopes tropidorhynchus macrotis obseurus Pternotus Davyi Vespertilio Dutertreus Vespertilio splendidus lepidus Maugei barbatus Nycticejus Blossevillei Didelphis Virginiana Solenodon paradoxus Lutra insularis JAMAICA, Monophyllus Redmanni Macrotus Waterhousii Phyllonycteris Poeyi Natalus stramineus Mormoops Blainyillii Chilonyeteris quadridens McLeayi fuliginosa Procyon lotor Cercoleptis caudiyolvulus Capromys Furnieri prehensilis eedium. Dasyprocta aguti Heteromys anomalus Mus pilorides Tomes, “ Proc. Zool. Soc.” 1861, p. 66. Chilonycteris Osburni Noctilio Americanus Molossus fumarius Nyctinomus nasutus From List of Species collected by Mr. Sarvin. Desmodus rufus Glossophaga Leachii Sturnira n. sp. Scotophilus ursinus (Carolinensis Geoff.) Sorex micrurus Lutra Chilensis Felis mitis yagouarondi Cercoleptes caudiyolvulus MAMMALS OF SPECTAL DISTRICTS. GUATEMALA. Nasua fusca Mustela frenata Mephitis mesoleuca Cercolabes Nove Hispanie Ceelogenys paca Sciurus Ludovicianus Vulpes cinereo-argentatus Carolinensis Dicotyles torquatus sp. Dasyprocta aguti sp. Azar Tamandua tetradactyla Lepus palustris Pteromys volucella Sigmodon Berlandieri Mus musculus HONDURAS, BELIZE, AND GUATEMALA. Tomes, “ Proc. Zool. Soe.” 1861, p. 278. Neotoma ferruginea Hesperomys leucopus ? sp. Myoxomys Salvinii Reithrodon longicauda Mexicana Dasypus minutus Didelphys Californica Quica From Mr. THomas Moore's List of Species, collected by Mr, Leynann, in ‘“ Proe. Zool. Soc.” 1859, p. 50. Cyclothurus didactylus Sciurus Boothie mollipilosus Galera barbara Felis concolor Dicotyles torquatus Tapirus Americanus Cervus (Cariacus ?) Lutra sp. Leopardus onea pardalis Vulpes Azarz ? PANAMA. Cervus (Coassus) sp. Lepus sp. Dasypus peba 403 From Dr. Sctater’s List of Species collected by Mr. Brinces in the province of Chiriqui, Panama, in “ Proc. Zool. Soc.” Saimarus sciurea Linn, 1856, p. 139. Sciurus estuans Cyclothurus didactylus sp? Cholepus didactylus ECUADOR. Chiefly from Mr. Tomes’ List of Species collected by Mr. Fraser, “ Proc. Zool. Soc.” 1858 and 1860. Arctibeus perspicillatus pusillus lilium Floresii Vespertilio alberceus Chiloensis velatus Noctilio leporinus Scotophilus furinalis Emballonura canina Molossus obseurus ater Glossophaga ecaudata Phyllostoma hastatum Hesperomys caliginosus nigrum maculipes Desmodus rufus elegans Diphylla ecaudata. Rro Naro. cephalotes Saccopteryx lepturus latimanus Felis sp. (between tigrina and squamipes macroura) bicolor Tapirus Americanus minutus Dicotyles torquatus aureus albirostris Renggeri Tamandua tetradactyla albigularis Sciurus sestuans longicaudatus Hesperomys arvicoloides Mus rattus Didelphys pusilla Waterhousei Echimys semispinosus Cayenuensis Dasyprocta fuliginosa caudata Ceelogenys fulva Azare eancrivora ornata Lepus Brasiliensis . 404 APPENDIX. BRASIL. From Burmeister’s “ Systemat. webersicht der Thiere Brasiliens,” 1854. Mycetes fuscus ursinus Cebus fatuellus robustus Callithrix personata nigrifrons Hapale penicillata rosalia chrysopyga aurita Geoff. chrysomelas phyllostoma brevicaudum hastatum spectrum superciliatum perspicillatum brachyotum bilabiatum lineatum lilium Phyllostoma excisum Glossophaga ecaudata amplexicaudata Desmodus fuscus Noctilio leporinus Emballonura canina saxatilis calearata Diclidurus albus Dysopes perotis auritus holosericeus Mycetes seniculus. North bank of AMAzon caraya Beelzebub Lagothrix Humboldtii North bank and east Ateles paniscus. of AMAZON of Rro Nr Cebus apella gracilis Callithrix sciureus torquatus personatus. South bank of Upper AMAZON a Nyetipitheeus felinus Pithecia irrovata. South bank of Upper Amazon Dysopes velox fumarius Temmincekii Chilonyeteris rubiginosa gymnonotus personata Vespertilio derasus nigricans leucogaster velatus Felis onca mitis macrura (elegans Wied.) concolor Eyra yagaroundi Canis jubatus Azare ( Brasiliensis, me- lanostomas, aguara- chai, melampus) _ vetulus Icticyon venaticus Galictis barbara vittata Mephitis suffocans Lutra Brasiliensis Procyon cancrivorus Nasua socialis solitaria Didelphis cancrivora aurita albiventris palmata Didelphis myosurus Quica cinerea inecana murina agilis pusilla tristriata brachyura velutina Sciurus w#stuans Mus decumanus leucogaster tectorum musculus Hesperomys vulpinus robustus squamipes physodes anguya leucogaster laticeps pyrrorhinus eliurus orobius expulsus lasiurus lasiotis auritus . arvicoloides nigrita rufus Dactylomys amblyonyx AMAZON AND RIO NEGRO. Chiefly from Wattacr’s “ Travels in Brasil.” Pithecia sp. North bank ditto Brachyurus satanas. GurIANAy east bank of Rro Nero oakary rubicundus sp. South side of Urrrer AMAZON Tacchus bicolor. North of Amazon and Ryo NEGRO tamarin nov. sp: Aretopithecus flaccidus Phyllostoma hastatum noy. sp. Tapirus Americanus 1853. Coassus nemorivagus rufus Mazama campestris Dicotyles torquatus labiatus Bradypus torquatus Myrmecophaga jubata tetradactylus Cyclothurus didactylus Priodonta gigas Tatusia septemejnctus Didelphys (several species) Hydrocherus capybara Calogenis paca Dasyprocta nigricans punctata agouti ? Dactylomys cunicularius cristatus armatus Echinomys myosurus Notomys antricola Mesomys spinosus Carterodon sulcidens Ctenomys Brasiliensis Cercolabes prehensilis villosus Coelogenys paca Dasyprocta Azare aguti Hydrochrus eapybara Cavia aperea fulgida leucopyga Spixii flavidens rupestris Lepus Brasiliensis Myrmecophaga jubata tetradactyla Cervus paludosus campestris rufus simplicicornis nanus Dicotyles labiatus torquatus Tapirus suillus Manatus australis Cercolabes prehensilis Echimys sp. Cereoleptes caudivolyulus Nasua olivacea Lutra Brasiliensis Galera barbara Vulpes sp. Felis concolor onea pictus griseus Rodentia. (Many small Rats, Squirrels, &e.) Manatus Australis Platanista Amazonica sp. Ateles marginatus ater paniscus pentadactylus Lagothrix Humboldtii _ canus Mycetes stramineus rufimanus flavicaudatus robustus capucinus albifrons Chrysothrix sciureus Callithrix personatus amictus Nyetipithecus trivigatus Pithecia satanas Midas rufimanus chrysomelas labiatus Phyllostoma elongatum hastatum innominatum pusillum erythromus oporophilum Glossophaga amplexicaudata Peruana anistrophora Vespertilio innoxius velatus MAMMALS OF SPECIAL DISTRICTS. PERU. (From Tscuupt, “ Fauna Peruana,” 1844.) Vespertilio unicolor affinis Molossus naso velox fumarius anonymus ferox myosurus Ursus ornatus frugilegus Nasua socialis montana Cercoleptes caudivolvulus Galictis barbara Mustela agilis Mephitis mapurito fureata Amazonica Lutra Chilensis montana Canis familiaris carabaicus nige Azare Felis concolor onza macrura celidogaster pardalis yaguarundi domestica Otaria jubata Ulloe Didelphys Azare myosurus opossum murina ornata noctivaga impavida Sciurus variabilis stramineus sestuans tricolor Eriomys chinchilla Lagidium Peruyianum pallipes Octodon Cummingii Echinomys leptosoma Mus decumanus musculus Acodon Boliviense Drymomys parvulus Hesperomys Darwinii destructor melanostoma leucodactylus Myopotamus Coypi Sphingurus bicolor Dasyprocta aguti variegata Ceelogenys fulvus 405 Hydrocherus capybara Cavia cobaya Cutleri Lepus Brasiliensis Bradypus infuseatus torquatus Dasypus 9-cinctus tatuay Myrmecophaga tamandua didactyla Equus caballus asinus Tapirus Americanus villosus Sus scrofa Dicotyles torquatus labiatus Auchenia lama huanaco paco vicuna Bos taurus Capra hireus Ovis aries Cervus rufus nemorivagus antisiensis Cetacea various species Coast Region. Quadrumana .. AG Cheiroptera, .. 0 4 Rapacia oc 10 Marsupialia 3 Rodentia se | Scinrina on 1 | Chinehillina .. a 1 Psammorychina oh Murina 4 Castorina a 6 38 . | Hystracina : O6 | Subungulata .. 1 | Duplicidentata F . | Bruta.. rs 0 1 Pachydermata : e . | Ruminantia Tylopoda 0 a5 Ceryina Ac u Sierra Region. Puna Cordill West. | East. Region. | Region. 3 t 3 “ye: 5 6 6 + 3 3 oo 1 I 2 2 1 os i ] 1 1 a «| 4 4 2 2 | 2 2 PROPORTIONS OF DIFFERENT FAMILIES IN PERU. From TscHUDI, op. cit. Wald Region. —_ an an All Ceja \Eigenth Regions. Region.) Region 2 20 Si 1 16 3 7 10 12 3 6 3 bi 3 : ric ] eel 1 a | i il A bo al | 3 90 oe =e 1 > 2 To Mh sya) 1 3 at 2 406 APPENDIX. CHILI. From Craupro Gay's “ Historia Fisica et Politica de Chili,” 1847, and from “ United States’ Astronomical Expedition,” 1855. Stenoderma Chilensis Desmodus D’Orbignyi Dysopes nasutus Molossus nasutus Nycticejus varius macrotis Vespertilio velatus Chiloensis Lutra Chilensis Hindobria montana Mephitis Chilensis furcata Patagonica moline Galictis vittata Canis familiaris fulvipes Magellanicus Azaree Felis catus concolor pajeros Mycetes caraya Cebus Azar Nyctipithecus trivirgatus Phyllostoma superciliatum lineatum infundibiliforme lilium Glossophaga villosa Vespertilio villosissimus nigricans Molossus laticaudatus crecus crassicaudatus castaneus Noctilio dorsatus ruber Nasua socialis solitaria Felis guigna colocolo Ursus ornatus Otaria porcina jubata flavescens molossina Guerini ursina Stenorhynchus leptonyx Macrorhinus proboscideus Didelphis elegans Cavia australis aperea Chinchilla laniger Lagotis viscacha Lagidium pallipes Cuvieri cruciger Abrocoma Bennettii Cuvierii Octodon Cummingii Degus Octodon Bridgesii pallidus Schizodon fuscus Psammoryctes noctivagus Poephagomys ater Spalacopus Poeppigii Ctenomys Magellanicus Myopotamus coypus Oxymicterus scalops megalonyx Mus decumanus musculus Hesperomys Magellanicus longipilis Renggeri brachyotis rupestris xanthorhinus Darwinii lutescens longicaudatus Reithrodon chinchilloides Lepus cuniculus PARAGUAY. From RreneceEr’s “ Saiigethiere von Paraguay,” 1830. Procyon cancriyorus Gulo barbarus vittatus Lutra Paranensis Canis jubatus Brasiliensis familiaris Felis onea concolor pardalis macrura Yaguarundi Eyra catus domesticus Didelphis Azar lanigera erassicaudata Mus Anguya rufus callosus longitarsus Echimys spinosus longicaudatus Myopotamus Bonariensis Sphiggurus spinosus Lepus Brasiliensis Cxlogenys Paca Chloromys acuti Hydrocherus capybara Cayia aperea Dasypus sexcinctus gymnurus novemeinctus hybridus Dasypus minutus Mastodon Andium Sus serofa (introduced) Equus caballus (introduced) Americanus asinus (introduced) Auchenia Hama guanaco Vicuna Cervus pudu humilis Chilensis Capra ‘egragus (domestica- ted.) (Parent of all varie- ties of Goat fid. Gay, mis- taken for hircus.) Ovis aries (introduced) Bos taurus (introduced) Delphinus lunatus albimanus Physeter macrocephalus Balna antarctica Dasypus giganteus Myrmecophaga jubata tetradactyla Tapirus Americanus Dicotyles labiatus torquatus Sus scrofa Equus eaballus asinus Cervus paludosus campestris rufus simplicicornis Bos taurus Capra segagrus Ovis aries Mycetes caraya * Cebus fatuellus * Callithrix personata * Hapale pencillata Dysopes multispinosus naso Plecotus velatus Vespertilio Isidori Nycticejus Bonariensis Felis onca concolor Geoffroyi payeros Canis jubatus MAMMALS OF SPECIAL DISTRICTS. LA PLATA. From Burmetster’s “ Reise durch die La Plata Staaten,” 1861. Canis entrerianus Magellanicus. Valleys of the CorpItLERA Azare. Eastern district. gracilis Burm. Pampas, near Menpoza Galictis vittata barbara Mephitis Patagonica Lutra Paranensis Nasua solitaria ? Didelphis Azars elegans Reithrodon typicus Hesperomys Several species. Myopotamus coypus Ctenomys Brasiliensis Lagostomus trichodactylus Lagidium Cuvieri Dolichotis Patachonica Cavia leucopyga Anema leucoblephara Burm. Hydrocherus capybara Myrmecophaga jubata+ Dasypus (Priodontes) gigas (Xenurus) 12-cinctus hispidus Dasypus (Euphractus) 6- cinctus (Tolypeutes) tricinctus (Praopus) longicaudus Chlamydophorus truncatus t retusus Bos taurus (introduced) Ovis aries (introduced) Capra hireus (introduced) Ceryus sp. Dicotyles torquatus Tapirus suillus * Brasilian species said by Martin DE Movssy, “ Description Géographique et Statistique de la Confédération Argentine,” Paris, 1860, to occur in the wooded districts on the Uruauay, Parana, and Paracuay, in the north-eastern districts of the Argentine Confederation, but not met with by BurmersTER. + Said to occur in northern wooded districts, but not found by BuRMEISTER. } Entirely confined to neighbourhood of Menpoza. MENDOZA. East Foor or Tok CoRDILLERA. No Quadrumana. (None in the States of La Prara, except in the north-east of Entre Rios, where Cebus fatuellus, and in Paracuay Mycetes barbatus occur, but not living together.) Dysopes sp. Vespertilio sp.* Canis gracilis * No Phyllostomata have been met with. Felis concolor Chlamydophorus truncatus retusus 408 APPENDIX. V. TABLE OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE LAGOTHRICIN®. From Dr. Siack’s Monograph, “ Proc. Acad. Nat. Sciences.” Philad. Noy. 1862. £ S 2 Bil oe ale | Gabel Meese | Eig geal be A a na z A a Aa S cc) Sapajou paniscus * k ater .. . . * > pentadactylus .. 09 ae te o6 ere bo * Geoffroyi a6 * ie > aie oe oo a0 an Belzebuth 3 at C0 a0 0 as K Be * * >k marginatus .. 96 fe 00 30 * bo *k hybridus an 50 is as 50 ae * Kk Brachyteles arachnoides bo a0 oo of * ae oc oo at : Lagothrix Humboldtii .. ae bo *k an ate 56 * > * * Aluatta senicula ae 40 0 as “ne ai * a0 * k * ursina .. so we 50 a0 Be a0 * oa do * niger .. 50 ba 30 ik kK ok Beelzebul ae 00 a0 er ae * be 5 palliata .. 20 50 ae ae ote oo 6.0 a 38 * 3] 1 5 5 4 3 3 4 t 409 VI. Famrcies or Caaracteristic Forms or LivinG NON-MARINE MAMMALS PECULIAR TO SPECIAL DISTRICTS, VIZ. 1. Fairies or CHaracreristic FoRMS PRESENT BOTH IN AFRICA SOUTH OF THE SAHARA = AND THE INDIAN REGION, AND FOUND NOWHERE ELSE. Note.—For the most part, large and important families embracing many genera and many species. All the Catarrhine Monkeys, and es- Crossarchus Rhinoceros || pecially the Anthropoid Apes and the Hyenat Elephant || Baboons Ratel Sirenia Lemurs Antilopes,g and especially the Anoa in Manis Viverridee * the Philippine Isles Crocidura § Paradoxurus Tragulidse Rhizomys Herpestest * With the exception of two stragglers in the Mediterranean district and one in Mexico. + With the exception of one or two stragglers in the Europeo-Asiatic region. ¢ Probably not properly reckoned peculiar, haying been an inhabitant of Europe in very recent geological times. § With the exception of two or three stragglers in the Europeo-Asiatic region. || Perhaps these ought not to be reckoned here, as they have in recent geological times been inhabitants of Europe and Asia. q With the exception of three stragglers out of thirty-four in the Mediterranean district. 2. Famiies or Cuaracreristic ForMs PRESENT IN AFRICA SOUTH OF THE SAHARA, AND NOT IN THE INDIAN REGION >—_ AND IN THE INDIAN REGION, AND NOT IN THE AFRICAN. Note.—Almost all individual genera, often single species. I. In Africa and not in India. Cheiromys * Rbynchocyon Xerus Rhabdogale and Zorilla Centetidz (Madagascar ) Bathyerges Horsest Echimyina (two stragglers of South And the following genera of Mice :— Hippopotamus American type) Cricetomys-Saccostomus Chrysochloris Hyrax § Steatomys and Dendromys Potamogale Pectinatoride Mystromys and Otomys Macroscelides ¢ Graphiurus and Anomalurus 7 Pedetes * Probably should be reckoned among and transferred to the Lemurs in the preceding list. + Those found in India belong to the trans-Himmalayan part of Asia, being north of the southern slope of that range. { With the exception of one in North Africa. § Also found in Arabia. TI. In India and not in Africa. Galeopithecus ?* Deer ‘Tupaias Sun Bear Camel Platacanthomys Weasels Tapir Rhinosciurus Pteromys * It depends upon its aflinities whether this form should be reckoned here or not. 3G 410 APPENDIX. 8. Famrires or CHARACTERISTIC FoRMS PRESENT IN EuvroPE or ASIA NORTH OF THE HIMMALAYAHS 3; AND FOUND NEITHER IN AFRICA SOUTH OF THE SAHARA, NOR IN THE INDIAN REGION. Note.—All individual genera or single species. Badger Elk Marmot Glutton Rein-deer Spermophile Bear (typical) Bison type of Oxen Tamias Sheep Talpa Beaver Goat * Crossopus, Amphisorex, and Diplomedon Voles Chamois + Glis, Muscardinus, and Eliomys Spalax, Siphneus, and Ellobius * With the exception of an Indian straggler. + With the exception of a detached species (Haplocerus Sumatrensis) on the mountains of Sumatra. 4, Famruies or Cuaracteristic Forms FouND IN Evrop#, AND Nor rn Astra, OR VICE VERSA. I. In Europe and not in Asia. None, except perhaps Myogale, but it is found in Russia, close to Asia, as well as the Pyrenees, and it therefore, in all probability, also occurs in Asia. II. In Asia and not in Europe. None. 5. Faminies or CHARACTERISTIC FoRMS FOUND BOTH IN THE NORTHERN HALF OF Norru AMERICA AND THE Evropro-AsIATIc REGION, AND NOWHERE ELSE. Note.—All individual genera or single species. Fox Urotrichus Badger Polar Hare Glutton Lemming White Bear Spermophile Elk Marmot Reindeer Tamias Chamois (Antilocapra) Lagomys Bison type of Oxen (Urus and Bison) Dipodins CHARACTERISTIC FORMS OF LIVING NON-MARINE MAMMALS, 411 6. Fawaues or Cuaracreristic Forms pecuniar To THE New WorzD, AND FOUND ty Born Sourn anp Norru AMERICA. Note—Almost all large and important families, embracing many genera and many species. Platyrrhine Monkeys Racoons Sigmodontes Galictis Peccaries Hesperomys Skunks Armadillos Reithrodon Coatis Hystricide * Opossums * A species of porcupine (Erethizon rufescens Gray) has been lately obtained in Columbia, which Dr. Gray considers an Erethizon, an opinion in which I do not concur. 7. Fairies or Cuaracreristic New Wortp Forms rounp In SourH AMERICA, AND NOT IN Norra America ; anv in Norra AMERICA AND Nor IN Souru. Note. —All single genera. I. In North, and not in South America. Condylura Scalops Blarina Cynomys Erethizon ? II. In South, and not in North America. Note.—All, with one exception, families or genera, consisting of a considerable number of species. Sloths + Solenodon + Cavies, Chinchillas, Octodons, Agoutis Ant-eaters Phyllostomat Echimyina § * One found in Costa Rica may be said to have passed the boundary of S. America. + In Cuba. + Also found in Central America and West Indies. § Two found in Africa. VIL. Lerrer rrom Wm. Girrorp Patcrave, Esq., AUTHOR OF “ JOURNEY IN CENTRAL AND EASTERN ARABIA,” ETC. This letter was received too late to allow the information contained in it to be embodied in the preceding pages, but is printed here by per- mission of his brother. It will be seen that the results which he suggests from experience and personal observation very nearly correspond with those at which I had arrived by reasoning from the less extended premises which we already possessed. “ Quiro, 14 May, 1866. “ DEAR SIR “ Your letter of the 2nd April reached Egypt at a time when I was absent hence up the Nile, and was only delivered to me on my return a few days ago. This circumstance must apologize for my not having sooner replied to your varied queries. “ Some of these I must indeed, owing to the limitation of my own knowledge, leave without a satisfactory answer ; others are fortunately more within my range. “The limits of the monkey-tribe run, to the best of my knowledge, south of N ejed ; at least, I neither saw nor 412 APPENDIX. heard of them in that region. But in Oman I saw a few of a small grey species, with brown faces and long tails, resembling a kind not uncommon in the Soodan. The natives of ’Oman, like those of the Nile-valley, call them “ nisnas.’ “T met with one, and only one, porcupine, but do not precisely remember where ; I think it was in the neighbour- hood of Sotar. “ Squirrels in plenty, whether in Nejed or in’Oman ; but no flying-squirrels, nor did I hear of any such. “Nor did I hear or see anything of the Hyrax. “ Buffaloes are common enough in Hasa ; I have seen them, but less frequently, on the’Oman coast. In Nejed there are, I believe, none ; though hunch-backed cattle, like the Indian breed (called sometimes Bhaminee), occur there. “The aspect of the ?Omanees has been by me described at some length in my work on Central and Eastern Arabia. Slender, lithe, brown, rather delicate-featured, without the strongly aquiline nose and narrow eyes of the northern Arab, but also without any Negro thickness of the lips; they, I mean the ’Omanees of pure race, no less than, in my opinion, the whole Kahtanee stock, of which they are perhaps the most authentic representatives, belong to the African Abyssinian family, and migrated at an early period into Arabia from the West, across the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. This Abyssinian family has nothing, in a specific sense, common with the Negro: it belongs to another class, of which the Berbers of Soodan are a further example. “Tt is true that in the shading of races, always running to some degree into each other, especially when of the same or neighbouring localities, the Kahtanee, ’Omanee, or Abyssinian, three closely connected varieties of common origin, offer, some more, some less, certain points of resemblance with the generality of other African families, and hence, though furthest removed, even with the Negro. This is the case not only in physical points, as the eye, the too- slender calf, the uniform darkness of skin and hair, &c., but also in the type of institutions, superstitions, and the like. Still, while asserting my conviction of the African origin of the South-Arabian colony, and of the Omanees in particular, I should not be disposed to admit the imputation of Negro aftinity. “ Now to your question, how far Arabia was formerly part of the South-African district. That it was so once in pre- historic and perhaps even pre-human times, before the waters of the Red Sea broke their way into the great valley which they now fill, is hardly to me a matter of doubt. Geological and mining investigations, conducted sufficiently far at least on either side of the Red Sea to ground a conviction on the subject, confirm, I am told, this belief. My own observation of the superficies of the soil, its qualities, the forms of the mountains and valleys, the character of the rivers, or rather torrents, the vegetation also, would lead me to class Arabia with Africa much more than with Asia. “ At what point on the eastern shores of the Red Sea such relationship ceases I cannot say. But within Arabia itself I should place the limit at Djebel Toweyk, an African mountain, while Djebel Shomer and what lies about it to north, east, and west, appear to me rather a continuation of Syria—Asia in short. Thus I should incline to give Nejed (the Kaseem included), along with Hasa and *Oman to the east and south-east, and the westerly coast from Meda in Salih and Kheybar, besides Yemen, its Zehamah and Hadramowt, with the entire tract of Desert between its limits, over to Africa ; regarding the Desert itself, in a certain measure, as a continuation of the Great Saharah of Africa, from which indeed it is only separated by the two long parallel undulations or valleys, that of the Nile and that of the Red Sea. “The general slope of the Desert is from north to south and from east to west. But the mountain-chain that girds it seawards is of so varying an elevation, though on the whole uniform in character, that it would require more geolo- gical knowledge than I possess to determine what may have been its original relations to the plateauit rims. Its greatest elevation is in the mountains of Oman, and the gulf opposite is very deep. Perhaps the general rise, if it took place, may have been from north to east. “T have never visited the interior of Beloochistan, but from what little I have seen of its coasts and inhabitants, I should not incline to think that they ever belonged to Africa; nor the Persian coast of the Persian Gulf either ; its character being totally different from that of the Arabian side. “ Hoping that these remarks, however scanty, may prove of some use to you for the object you desire, “T remain, Dear Sir, “ Yours very obediently, “W. GIFFORD PALGRAVE. “To A. Murray, Esq., “67 Bedford Gardens, Kensington.” Aard-wolf, 102 Abathmodon, species of, 326 Abyssinia, distiuet from South Africa, 309 East Africa and Mozam- bique—Table of mammals common to, or not, 309 —— mammals of, 392 Acomys, list of species of, 360 Acothernlum, 163 species of, 335 Acrobata pygmiea. 288 Adams’ frozen rhinoceros, 174 Adapis, 165 species of, 337 Adaptation of species to con- dition of life, 13 Adive, 111 Aegocerus, list of species of, 333 Aello, list of species of, 346 Affehavistan, mammals of, 383 Affinities of carnivora, 85 Africa and India, points of re- semblance between, 308 mammals peculiar to, 409 — mammals found in one and not in other, 409 — and South America, pro- bable connexion between, 314 : —— continent between, and - India, 29 geological condition in secondary epoch, 23-28 — East, mammals of, 392 North, mammals of, 390 South, mammals of, 393 West, mammals of, 396 African elephant, 191 mammals, peculiarities of, 310 —— provinces, 309 —— region, genera of mam- mals peculiar to, 409 Africano-Indian region, 308 submerged continent, 29. 58, 76 Agassiz on special faunas, 9, 10 —— system of subdivision, supposed 196 theory of derivation of fishes, 13 —— theory of distribution of man, 63 Agoutis, 247 Agriocherus, 163 species of, 331 Agriotherium, list of species of, 329 Ailurus, 122 —— list of species of, 329 Akodon, species of, 359 Alactaga, list of species of, 361 Alee, list of species of, 334 Algeria, mammals of, 373 Alpaca, 138 Alpine species, dispersal of, 246 INDEX. Aluatta, 78 Amazons, animals of, 18, 19 Amazon and Rio Negro, mam- mals of, 404 Amboyna, mammals of, 378 America and Asia, probable con- nexion between, 314 America, N., Barren Grounds, mammals of, 398 —— Mackenzie river district, mammals of, 398 flora of, 44 its boundaries and depend- encies, 312 mammals of, 397 — north-eastof, mammals of, 7 north-west of, mammals of, 400 —— province of, 312 — Rocky Mountain district, mammals of, 400 America, point of separation between North and South, 313 probable position of for- mer barrier between, 313 United States of, mam- mals of, 399 — South and Africa, probable connexion between, 314 its limits and dependen- cies, 313 province of, 312 America, North and South, mammals peculiar to both, 411 -—— mammals found and not in other, 411 American bears, 121 — deer, 160 — foxes, 110 —— prairies, mammals of, 401 — nation, 6 —- races, 56 —— reindeer, 153, 154, 155 region, 312 Amoorland, mammals of, 375 Amoy, mammals of, 376 Amphicyon, 85, 117 —— list of species of, 329 Amphitherium, 230 Amphisorex, 231 list of species of, 343 Anchitherium, species of, 331 Ancodus, species of, 337 Andaman Islanders, 64 —— Owen upon, 64. mammals of, 383 Angola, mammals of, 395 Anglo-American nation, 6 Animals and plants introduced to West Africa, 8 Animals, regional distribution of, 296 Anoa, 146 —— species of, 333 Anomalurus, 255 in one Anomalurus, species of, 353 Anoplotherids, 162 list of species of, 336 Anoplotherium, 162 list of species of, 336 Anoura, species of, 346 Antechinus, 286 list of species of, 362 —— minutissimus, 53 Antelopes, 145 —— in India, 146 Anthracotherium, 167 list of species of, 336 Anthropini, list of species of, 320 Anthropoid monkeys, 76 Antilles, mammals of, 402 Antilocapra, 145 —— Americana, 145 —— list of species of, 332 Antilope, list of existing species of, 333 ; list of fossil species of, 332 Mariquensis, 146 Antilopide, 145 list of species of, 332 Antiquity of Scandinavian plants considered, 38 Antrozous, species of, 347 Aonyx, list of species of, 327 Aphelotherium, 163 species of, 335 Aplocerus montanus, 145 Aplodontia, 263 species of, 356 Arabia, explanation of distribu- tion of mammals in, 306 fauna of, 306 — relations of, Mr. Palgrave upon, 412 — to what mammalian region it belongs, 305 Arakan, mammals of, 385 Arboreal and terrestrial species, proportion of, 98 Arboreal vegetation, preponder- ance of,in oceanic islands, 22 Archeomys, species of, 350 Archeotherium, species of, 337 Arctibeus, species of, 347 Arctic fox, 109 Aretie regions of North Amer- ica, miocene flora of, 34 Arctitis, species of, 325 Aretocebus, species of, 323 Aretocephalus, list of species of, 330 Arctoeyonidse, 117 —— list of species of, 329 Arctomys, 262 list of species of, 355 Arctopitheci, 81 Argali, 143 Arionius, species of, 341 Armadilloes, 226 Arrangement adopted, 1 Artiodactyla, 137 list of species of, 331 Arctonyx, species of, 328 Arvicola, 265 list of species of, 356 Arvicoline, 265 list of species of, 356 Asia and America, probable con- nexion between, 314 Asia during glacial epoch, 32 flora of, 44 — and Europe, genera of mammals peculiar to, 410 found in one and not in other, 410 Assam, mammals of, 386 Ateles, 79 list of species of, 321 Atolls, 25 Auchenia, 138 — list of species of, 331 Augusta, mammals of, 381 Aulacodus, species of, 351 —— Swinderianus, 247 Auroch, 141 Australia and Cape of Good Hope, connexion between, 71 different faunas in, 291 Eastern region, 291 geological condition in secondary epoch, 23 — mammals of, 380 —— natural divisions of, 291 northern region of, 291 North, mammals of, 380 oolitic relations of, to fauna and flora of, 283 south-east, mammals of, 381 south, mammals of, 381 — southern region, 292 — south-west, mammals of, 381 south-west region, 291 western, mammals of, 382 western region, 291, 292 Australian and New Guinean continent, 59 — flora, 70 —— provinces, 290 region, 310 Babbage, Dr., illustration drawn from his machine, 12 Baboons, 77 Babyrussa, species of, 337 Badgers, 115 Balena antipodarum, 208 Biscayanus, 208 —— Mysticetus, 207 list of species of, 340 Balenidse, 207 list of species of, 340 Balenodon, species of, 341 Balenoptera, 209 — list of species of, 340 Baltic, former continuation of, I eae former embouchure of, 41 Banda, mammals of, 378 414 Bandicoot rat, 229 Bands of elevation and depres- sion, 27 Banteng, 142 Barren Grounds of North Amer- ica, mammals of, 398 Barriers separating species, 17 Bassaris astuta, 103 species of, 325 Basilosaurus, 216 Bathyerges, species of, 357 Bats in Oceanic islands, 21 Bear, 118 American, 121 — Grizzly, 119 —— in Britain, 121 —— Malayan, 121 Beaver, 263 Bed of sea between Shetland and European continent, 40 Belize, Honduras, and Guate- mala, mammals of, 403 Beluga, 213 Berardius, species of, 341 Bettongia, 290 Betula alba in Shetland, 40 Bhering’s Straits, question as to animals crossing it when frozen, 262 Bighorn, 143 Binturong, 122 Birds, regional distribution of, 297 —— Sclater’s distribution of, 297 Wallace’s distribution of, 297 Bison, 140 Black and white races, relative rank and age of, 71, 72 Black races of man, 56 Blarina, list of species of, 349 Blyth on the rhinoceros, 172 Bone breccias, a glacial pheno- menon, 91 Bone-caves of Brazil, 90 Boreal animals not found be- fore glacial epoch, 11 Boreal species, retreat and ad- vance of, before glacial cold, 39 unknown prcvious to gla- cial epoch, 38 Bornean elephants, whence de- rived, 193 Borneo, fauna of, 97 mammals of, 382 Bos bombifrons, 141 brachycerus, 141 —— frontalis, 142 —— guurus, 142 grunniens, 141 — longifrons, 142 —— primigenius, 142 Sondaicus, 142 . — taurus, 142 —— list of species of, 331 Botanical regions, 299 Bothriodon, species of, 337 Bottle-nosed whales, 213 Bourbon Isles, mammals of, 395 Boyide, 139 list of species of, 331 Brachymys, species of, 355 Brachyphylla, species of, 347 Brachyteles, list of species of, 321 Brachyurus, list ofspecies of, 322 Bradypodidx, 220 Bradypus, list of species of, 34.1 INDEX. Braemar, mammals of, 367 Brazil, bone-caves of, 90 , Mammals of, 404 Brazilian monkeys, distribution of, 81 Brayard, M., 169 Brige’s on Hill tribes of India, 67 Bristly squirrels, 256 Brown races of man, 58 Bubalus, 141, 147 list of species of, 333 Buffalo, 141 Cape, 141 — Indian, 141 Burma, mammals of, 385 Burmeister on macraychenia, 169 Cainotherium, 162 species of, 336 Cainozoic epoch, changes of species in, 11 California, mammals of, 4o1 Callithrix, list of species of, 322 Callocephalus nummularis, 126 species of, 330 Callorhinus, species of, 331 Callotus, list of species of, 323 Calomys, 275 list of species of, 359 Calydonius, species of, 337 Camaroon Mountains, mammals of, 395 Cambodia, mammals of, 384 Camel, 137 Camelidw, list of species of, 331 Camelopard, 148 Camelopardalis, 148 list of species of, 334 Camelopardalide, list of species of, 334 ; Camelops, species of, 331 Camelus, 137 list of species of, 331 Canary Isles, mammals of, 396 Canidie, 105 —— list of species of, 326 Canis corsac, 111 —— Entrerianus, 108 —— jubata, 108 lupus, 106 —— Magellanicus, 108 —— Niloticus, 112 velox, 111 list of species of, 326 Cape of Good Hope and Aus- tralia, connexion hetween, 71 mammals of, 394 Cape buffalo, 141 Capra, 145 —— list of species of, 332 Capreolus, list of species of, 335 Capridx, 143 list of species of, 332 Capromys, species of, 350 Capybara, 243 Caracal, 101 Careajou, 116 Careases frozen, of mammoth, 182 —— rhinoceros, 174 Caribou, BarrenGround,15§3,154, 155 —— woodland, 153, 154, 155 Carnivora, 85 —— affinities of, 85 —— extinct, 85, 87 Casterodon, 247 Casterodon, species of, 351 Cascade range, chief mountain barrier in N. Ainerica, 313 Castor Canadensis, 264 fiber, 264 species of, 356 Castorini, 263 list of species of, 356 Castoroides, 264 species of, 356 Catabrosa Vilfvidea, 42 Catarrhini, list of species of, 320 Catarrhine monkeys, 76 Catoblepas, 147 species of, 333 Cats, great, 87 smaller, 101 Cave lion, 87 tiger, 87 Caves, bone, in Brazil, go Cavia, list of species of, 350 Cayies, 243 Cayiine, list of species of, 350 Cebide, 78 Cebus, 78 list of species of, 322 Celebes, mammals of, 377 Centetes, species of, 344 Centetidie, list of species of, 344 Centre of gravity of earth, ques- tion whether disturbed by ele- vation and depression of mountains, 50 question whether disturbed by weight of ice in glacial epoch, 49 Centurio, list of species of, 346 Cephalolophus, 147 list of species of, 333 Cercocebus, list of species of, 321 Cercolabes, 248 list of species of, 351 Cercoleptes caudivolvulus, 122 list of species of, 329 Cereomys, species of, 350 Cercopithecus, 77 list of species of, 321 Cervidee, 149 list of species of, 334 Cervus alces, 150 capreolus, 160 dama, 150 elaphus, 159 megaceros, 149 — tarandus, 150 list of existing species of, 4 extinct species of, 334 Cetacea, 205 Cetolites, 206 Ceylon, mammals of, 388 Cheeromorus, species of, 337 Cheetomys, species of, 351 Chalicotherium, 162 species of, 336 Change of condition cause of origin of new species, 7 Change of species, effect of heat of earth on, 11 Changes of mineral matter, 8 in species in palmozoic, mesozoic, and cainozoic time, II on animals and plants ef- fected by hybridization, 7 on species introduced to West Africa, 8 Chaus, ror Cheetah, 100 Cheilonycteris, list of species of, 346 Cheirogaleus, list of species of, 23 Ghacenyene species of, 323 Cheiromys, 83 species of, 323 Cheiroptera, list of species of, 5 entomophaga, list of species of, 345. : ; frugivora, list of species of, 5 eymnorhine, list of species of, 347 istiophora, list of species __ of, 345 Chevrotains, 161, 162 Chili, mammals of, 406 Chinchilla, 245 species of, 350 Chinchilline, list of species of, fo) Gis (Amoy), mammals of, 376 (Chusan), mammals of, 376 Chironectes, 287 species of, 363 Chittagong, mammals of, 385 Chlamydophorus, 227 species of, 342 Chlamydotherium, species of, _. 342 Cheeronyeteris, 346 Cheeropotamus, 165 —— species of, 337 Cheeropsis Liberiensis, 165 species of, 337 Cheeropus castanotis, 290 species of, 364 5 Cholepus, list of species of, 341 Chrysochloris, 230 list of species of, 342 Chrysothrix, list of species of, 322 Chusan, mammals of, 376 Civet cats, 103 Cladobates, list of species of, 344 Classification adopted in this work, 1 — of insectivora, Peters’, 319 —— —— Pomel’s, 319 — Wagner's, 319 of mammals, different sys- tems proposed, 315 — Cuvier's first system, 315 Giebel’s, 316 — Milne-Edwards’, 315 —— Owen’s, 316 — Van der Hoeyen’s, 315 Claussen's observation on age of bone-caves in Brazil, 90 Climate after glacial epoch, 44 of Europe, past and pre- sent, 88 Clucking sound in negro lan- guage, 61 Coati, 122 Cochin China, mammals of, 384. Ca@logenys, species of, 351 Ceelodon, species of, 341 Cold unknown previous to gla- cial epoch, 38 Colobus, list of species of, 321 Condylura, 231 list of species of, 342 Conepatus, list of species of, 329 | Connexion of Papua and Aus- tralia, 64 Constitutional power of resisting change, 8 Continent between Africa and India, 29 Coral islands, formation of, 26 Corsac, 111 Coryphodon, 167 Cotton rats, 274 Cricetine, list of species of, 358 Cricetodipus, species of, 357 Cricetodon, species of, 358 Cricetomys Gambianus, 273 species of, 358 Cricetus, 273 list of species of, 358 Crocidura, 231 — list of species of, 343 Croll’s speculations as to effect of weight of ice during glacial epoch, 47 Crossarchus, list of species of, 326 Crossopus, 231 —— list of species of, 343 Cryptoprocta, species of, 325 Ctenodactylus, species cf, 355 Ctenomys, list of species of, 350 Cuscus, 288 list of species of, 363 Cuvier’s first classification of mammals, 315 Cyclognathus, 162 — species of, 336 Cynelurus, 100 Cynocephalus, 77 list of species, 321 Cynodon, list of species of, 326 Cynogale, 104 species of, 325 Cynomys, 262 species of, 355 Cynopithecus, list of species of, 321 Cynopterus, species of, 345 Cystophora, species of, 330 Dactylomys, list of species of, “ipfed Dactylopsila, 288 species of, 363 Damalis, 146 Daman, 249 Damara-land, bats of, 394 Dana’s fluvial epoch, 44 terrace epoch, 45 Darwin's theory of origin of species, objections to. 5 Dasyprocta cristata, 248 list of species of, 351 Dasyproctina, 247 list of species of, 351 Dasypodide, list of species of, 342 Dasypus, 226 list of species of, 342 Dasyurus, 286 —— list of species of, 362 Daubentonia, species of, 323 Deeandolle’s botanical regions, 300 regions of species, 301 Deer, 149 Delphinus, species of, 340 Delphinide, 210 —— list of species of, 340 INDEX. Delphinapterus, species of, 341 Dendrolagus, 289 — explanation of its presence both in Australia and New Guinea, 311 — in Australia, 289 species of, 363 Dendromys, species of, 360 Depression and elevation, bands of, 27 Dermanura, species of, 347 Desmodus, species of, 345 Dichobune, 162 — list of species of, 335 | Dichodon, 162 species of, 336 Diclidurns, species of, 347 Dicotyles, 164 list of species of, 336 — torquatus, 164 Dicotylidee, list of species of, 336 Didelphis, 286 Cuvieri, 287 list of species of, 362 Dimylus, species of, 342 Dingo, 106 Dinotherium, 198 species of, 339 Diphylla, species of, 345 Diplomesodon, species of, 344 Dipodidee, 282 list of species of, 361 Dipodomys, 272 list of species of, 357 Diprotodon, 289 species of, 363 Dipus, list of species of, 361 Dispersal of Alpine species, 246 of species, means of, 15 of carnivora, 94 Distribution, regional of ani- mals, 296 of birds, 297 of mammals, 296 of molluses, 298 of plants, 299 of reptiles, 297 Dog-hyena, 108 Dogs, 105 existing, 106 extinct, 105 South American, 107 Dolichotis, 245 species of, 350 Dolphins, 213 Dorcatherium, list of species of, 385m Dorcopsis, 290 Bruni, 289 Dormouse, 255 Dremotherium, list of species of, 335 ; Dromatherium, species of, 364 Dromicia, species of, 363 Drymomys, species of, 359 Dryopithecus, 74 species of, 320 Dugong, 202 Dysopes. list of species of, 347 East Africa, mammals of, 392 Earlier geological formations, uniformity of species in, 11 Earth, heat of, effect of, on spe- cies, 11 Echidna, 292, 293 Echimyina, 247 list of species of, 350 Echimys, list of species of, 351 Echinogale, species of, 345 Economic mouse, 266 Ecuador, mammals of, 403 Edentata, 217 classification of, 219 explanation of their former range, 217 extinct, 217 list of species of, 341 — relation of monotremes to, 218 : Effect of barriers in separating species, 17 — change on exotic plants introduced, $ Elaphus, list of species of, 334 Elasmotherium, 177 species of, 331 Elephant, African, 191 Indian, 191 Elephants, existing, 189 extinct, 187 food of, 184 —— in Borneo, 193 —— in Sulu, 195 Elephas Africanus, 191 —— Columbi, 187 —— Falconeri, 189 —— imperator, 188 — Melitensis, 188 primigenius, 45 —— Sumatranus, 192 list of existing species of, 9 list of extinet species of, 339 | Elevation, bands of, 27 of northern hemisphere, 28 Eliomys, species of, 352 Elk, Irish, 149 Ellobius, species of, 357 Elocyon, species of, 326 Emballonura, list of species of, 347 Endemie forms, richness of is- lands in, 327 Enhydris, species of, 327 Entelodon, 165 species, 337 Eocene epoch, 23 fauna and flora, 23 Eopithecus, 73 Epomophorus, list of species of, 36 See Equilibrium of Earth, 27 Equus, 132 —— list of species of, 331 eurvidens, 133 Ereptodon priscus, 220 species of, 341 Erethizon, 248 species of, 351 Ericulus, species of, 345 Erinaceus, list of species of, 344 Erinacide, list of species of, 344 Esquimaux, 56 Euarctos, species of, 329 Eubaleena, list of species of, 340 Euchverus, species of, 336 Eucrotaphus, species of, 331 Euelephas, list of species of, 339 Eupleures, species of, 326 Eurodon, species of, 342 Europe and Asia, mammals pe- euliar to, 410 415 Europe and Asia, mammals found in one and not in the other, 4.10 Europe and Greenland, con- nexion between, 37 —— during glacial epoch, 32 —— effect of glacial epoch on life, 43 genera of mammals pecu- liar to, 409 repeopling of, after glacial epoch, 43 —— Mid, mammals of, 373 Europeo-Asiatic element in N. America, by what channel in. troduced, 312 region, 304 Evans, account of Mauvaises Terres, 92 Extension of original bounds of species, 94 Falconer, Dr., on the probosci- dea, 185 Faroe Islands, mammals of, 366 Fauna of Borneo, explanation of, 97 Madagascar, 82 Faunas, special, 9 Featherstonhaugh’s rhinoceros, 176 Felidae, 87 — existing, 93 —-— extinet, 87 list of species of, 323 Felis aphanista, 89 borealis, 101 —— cervaria, ror concolor, 100 —— cristata, 89 — Itbis, 99 —— jubata, 100 leo, 93 —— onca, 99 —— spelwa, 87 —— tigris, 95 list of species of, 323 Fiber, species of, 356 —— zibethicus, 265 | Field-mice, 265 Filander, 290 Finmark, mammals of, 369 Finners, 209 Fishes, derivation of, Agassiz’s view, 13 Flora of Eastern Asia and Ame- rica, 44 of Greenland, 41 — of Iceland, 39 — of North-West America,4 5 Eastern Asiatic, progres- sive diminution of westwards, 46 Eastern, rate of spread westwards, actual and hypo- thetical, 46 Floras of Asia and America, cause of similarity in, 46 Flotsam and jetsam, dispersal of species, 15 Fluvial epoch of Prof. Dana, 44 Flying squirrels, 257 Forbes, Edward, view of dis- persal of species, 16 — theory of Sargasso Seas, 35 Formation of species, 7 effect of heat of earth on, Il 416 Formosa, mammals of, 377 Forschammer, Dr., sea-water regions, 3 Fox, Arctic, tog Foxes, 109 France, mammals of, 371 south of, miocene flora, 30° Frozen carcasses of mammoth, | 182 —— rhinoceros, 174 Furipterus, species of, 347 Galago, list of species of, 323 Galapago and Archipelago, ani- mals of, 17 rat, 277 Galeopithecide, species of, 323 Galeopithecus, 84, 230 species of, 323 Galeospalax, species of, 343 Galethylax, species of, 364 Galerix, species of, 344 Galictis, list of species of, 328 Galidia, 104. list of species of, 325 Galidictis, 104 list of species of, 325 Gaour, 142 Gaudry, Mr., discoveries of ex- tinct monkeys, 74 Gayal, 142 Gazella, 14.7 list of species of, 333 Geographical zoology, 1 Geological formation, in which | families occur, 1 Geomys bursarius, 270 list of species of, 357 Georychus, list of species of, 357 , Geotrypus, species of, 342 Germany, mammals of, 370 Gibbons, 77 Giebel’s classification of mam- mals, 316 Glacial cold, question whether it affected both hemispheres, 209 Glacial epoch, 31, 32, 43 bearing of distribution of whales on, 208 duration of, 88 effect of, on Greenland, 38 —— effect of, on life in Kurope, 2 43 effects of, on life in North America, 43 effect of, on species, 11 — ice during, 47 no boreal species previous to, 38 nomenclature applicable to, 91 retreat and advance of bo- real species before, 39 Glebow’s examination of frozen mammoth, 183 Glis, 255 —— species of, 352 Glossophaga, list of species of, 346 Glossotherium, species of, 342 Glutton, 116 Glyptodon, list of species of, _ 342 Gnathopsis, species of, 34.1 Goats, 143, 145 Gopher, 270 Graphiurus, species of, 353 Gravigrada, 220 list of species of, 341 Gray, Professor Asa, on relations of floras of Hastern Asia and America, 44, 46 Great Britain, mammals of, 368 Greenland and Europe, con- nexion between, 37 distribution of plants, Hooker's theory regarding, 38 — during glacial epoch, 38 —— effect of glacial epoch on, 38 flora, 41, 156 —— formerly united to Britain, 39, 157, 158 mammals and birds, Ame- rican, 38 mamuials of, 366 —— miocene flora of, 34 —— peopling of, 38 —— plants and insects, EHu- ropean, 38 reindeer, 154, 155 to what botanical region it belongs, 307 to what mammalian region it belongs, 307, 312 Grizzly bear, 119 Guanaco, 138 Guatemala, Belize, and Hondu- ras, mammals of, 403 Gulf-weed, 35 Gulo, 116 antediluvianus, 116 —— diaphornus, 117 speleus, 116 list of species of, 329 Gunther, distribution of rep- tiles, 297 Guzerat lion, 93 Gymnura, species of, 344 Habrocoma, species of, 350 Habrothrix, list of species of, Halianassa, species of, 339 Halicherus gryphus, 126 species of, 330 Halicore, 202 australis, 203 eetacea, 202 tabernaculi, 202 list of species of, 339 Halieyon, species of, 330 Halitherium, 198 species of, 339 Halmaturus, 289 Hamster, 273 Hapale, 81 list of species of, 322 Hapalemur, list of species of, 323 Hapalotis, 281 list of species of, 361 Haplocerus, list of species of, 332 Hares, 251 Harlanus Americanus, 336 Harpyia, species of, 345 Hawaian Islands, animals of, 17 Heat of the earth, effect of, on change of species, 11 Heer’s miocene flora of Switzer- land, 30 INDEX, Helarctos, 118, 120 species of, 330 Helictis, 115 list of species of, 328 Heliophobius, species of, 357 Hemiderma, species of, 346 Hemigalea, species of, 325 Herefordshire, mammals of, 368 Herpestes, 104 list of species of, 325 Hesperomyine, list of species of, 358 Hesperomys, 274. list of species of, 358 Heterocephalus, species of, 357 Heterodon, species of, 342 Hexaprotodon, species of, 337 Hill tribes of India, 66 Himmalayah, Western, mals of, 389 Hindus, 58 Hipparion, 132 list of species cf, 331 Hippohyus, species of, 337 Hippopotami, extinct, 166 Hippopotamide, species of, 337 Hippopotamus, 165 —— amphibius, 165 species of, 337 Hippotherium, 132 species of, 331 Holochilus, list of species of, mam- 359 Homo, list of species of, 320 Honduras, Belize, and Guate- mala, mammals of, 403 Hoofed mammals, 130 classification of, 130 Hooker, Dr., distribution plants, 302 theory of distribution of plants in Greenland, 38, 39 typical regions, 302 Hoplocetus, species of, 341 Hoplotherium, 162 list of species of, 336 Horses, 132 Humboldt’s theory of the Sar- gasso Sea, 36 Hyegulus, 162 list of species of, 336 Hyeena, 101 —— crocuta, 102 vulgaris, 102 , —— list of species of, 326 Hyzenarctos, species of, 329 Hyrenids, list of species of, 326 Hyzenodon, 102, 117 list of species of, 326 Hybridization, 7 Hydrocherus, species of, 350 Hydromys, 280 —— list of species of, 361 Hylobates, 77 list of species of, 326 Hylomys, species of, 34.4. Hyomoschus aquaticus, 161 —— list of species of, 335 Hyonyceteris, species of, 347 Hyopotamus, species of, 337 Hyops, species of, 336 Hyotherium, 165 species of, 337 Hyperoodon, species of, 341 Hypoderma, species of, 34.5 Hyporyssus, species of, 343 Hypsignathus, species of, 345 of Hypsiprymuus, 289, 290 list of species of, 364 Hyracidee, species of, 351 Hyracodon, 287 species of, 362 Hyracotherium, species of, 337 Hyrax, 249 species of, 351 Hystricidie, 243 list of species of, 350 Hystricinee, list of species of, 351 Hystrix, 248 list of species of, 351 Ice, migrations across, 19 thickness and weight of, during glacial epoch, 47 Iceland, flora of, 42 formerly united to Britain, 39, 157, 158 — mammals of, 40, 159, 366 miocene flora of, 34 —— mouse, 267 —— peopling of, 151 —— reindeer in, 151 —— to what botanical region it belongs, 307 —— to what mammalian region it belongs, 307 India and Africa, points of re- semblance between, 308 continent between Africa, 29 — Hill tribes of, 66 —— mammals of, 388 Indian Archipelago, 53 —— buffalo, 141 —— elephant, 192 flora, 70 region, genera of mammals peculiar to, 409 sub-regions, 310 Indo-Chinese district, 308 Malayan proyince, 308 Indris, list of species of, 322 Inia Amazonica, 215 species of, 341 Innuus, 77 list of species of, 321 Insectivora, 229 different classification of, and sya) extinet, 229 list of species of, 342 —— Peters’ classification of, 319 — Pomel’s ditto, 319 — Wagner's ditto, 319 —— rodents and marsupials, connexion between, 54 Interchange of American and Asiatic floras, 45 Ireland, mammals found Britain and not in, 369 —— mammals of, 369 Trish elk, 149 Ischnoglossa, species of, 347 Ischyrotherium, species of, 339 Isle of Man, mammals of, 369 Tsothermal lines, effect of, in in facilitating interchange of European and Asiatic spe- cies, 45 Italy, mammals of, 373 Jackal, 108 Jaculus, 282 list of species of, 361 Jaguars, 89 mode of preying on turtles, 89 Jamaica, mammals of, 402 Japan, flora of, 44 mammals of, 376 Java, mammals of, 383 Jerboas, 282 Kangaroos, 289 Kangaroo rats, 289 Kangaroos, Tree, 289 Khasia Hills, mammals of, 386 King George’s Sound, mammals of, 381 Kinkajou, 122 Kitfox, 111 Knox's view of special faunas, 9 Laccadives and Maldives, mam- mals of, 379 Lagidium, species of, 350 Lagomys, 251 list of species of, 351 Lagorchestes, 29¢ Lagostomys, species of, 350 Lagothricine, table of geogra- phical distribution, 408 Lagothrix , 78 — list of species of, 321 Lamantin, 199 Lapland reindeer, 152, 155 La Plata, mammals of, 407 Lartet’s fourfold division of qua- ternary epoch, 88 Lasiurus, list of species of, 348 Latax, list of species of, 327 Lemmings, 266 Lemur, list of species of, 322 Lemuride, 82 list of species of, 322 Leopards, 99 Lepilemur, list of species of, 323 ; Leptauchenia, 138 —— species of 331 Leptonyx, species of, 330 Leptotherium, species of, 332 Leporid, 251 —— list of species of, 351 Lepus, list of species of, 352 — glacialis, 253 —— timidus, 251 — variabilis, 252 Lesquereux on miocene flora of Vancouver’s Land, 30 Lion, 93 — of Guzerat, 93 List, synonymicofmammals,320 Listriodon, 167 Lithomys, species of, 360 Lobodon, species of, 330 Llama, 138 Loncheres, list of species of, 351 Lonchorhina, species of, 346 Lophiodon, 167 —— list of species of, 338 Lophostoma, species of, 346 Loris, list of species of, 323 | Loxodon, list of species of, 339 Lutra, list of species of, 327 Lycalopex, 108 Lycaon venaticus, 108 Lyell, Sir Charles, on special faunas, 9 on the miocene Atlantis, 33 Lynx, 101 Macacus, 77 list of species of, 321 Macassar, straits of, 58 — depth of, 59 INDEX. M‘Coy, Prof., Researches in Australia, 283 Machairodus, 89 —— list of species of, 323 Mackenzie River district of North America, mammals of, 398 Macrauchenia, 168 — Boliviensis, 139, 169 — Patachonieca, 139, 169 species of, 338° Macroglossus, species of, 345 Macropus, 289 list of species of, 363 Macroscelides, list of species of, 344 Macrotherium giganteum, 219 species of, 342 Macrotis, species of, 346 Madagascar, 62 belongs to Africa, 310 — fauna, 83 geological condition, 29 mammals of, 394 Malagese, 62 Malayan bears, 121 flora, 70 — Peninsula, mammals of, 384 Malays, 58 Maldives and Laccadives, mam- mals of, 379 Malmgren on plants, 42, 156 Mammalian regions, great and minor, 304 Mammals, classification of, 51 — classification of, proposed by different authors, 315 — Cuvier's system of classifi- cation of, 315 —— Giebel’s classification of, 16 paar Milne-Edwards’ ditto, 315 — Owen's ditto, 316 — Van der Hoeven’s ditto, 315 : —— first appearance of species of, in various geological for- mations, 52 — mutual affinities of, 51 regional distribution of,296 synonymic list of, 320 Mammoth, 45, 182, 185 —— frozen carcasses of, 182 monoeyclotherian or dicy- clotherian, 187 traditions of, 182 Man, 56 Agassiz’s view of distribu- tion of man, 63 — black races of, 60 —— brown races of, 58 — relative age and rank of black and white races, 71, 72 starting-point of white and black races, 72 white races of, 56 Man, Isle of, mammals of, 369 Manatee, 199 — American, 201 in Lake Shirwa ? 201 in Lake Tschad, 201 Manatus australis, 202 latirostris, 202 —— Vogelii, 200 species of, 339 Manis, 227 Spitzbergen Manis, list of species of, 342 Maps explained, 2 Marguine, cave of, go Marianne Islands, mammals of, 377 Marmosets, 81 Marmot, 262 Marsupialia, list of species of, 362 Marsupials, 283 and Rodents, connexion between, 54 —— equivalent groups of, 52, 53 low organisation of, 285 Marsupial structure, teleological purposes of, 285 Martes, list of species of, 328 Mastodon, 178 food of, 181 —— mired, 181 —— Ohioticus, 179 —-— whether found in Austra- lia, 180 list of species of, 339 Maury’s theory of the Sargasso Seas, 36 objection to, 37 Mauvaises Terres, 9t Mauritius, to what region it be- longs, 308 mammals of, 395 Mediterranean province, 307 Megaderma, list of species of, Megalonyx, 22 species of, 341 Megaptera, 210 list of species of, 340 Megatherium, &e., after glacial epoch, 45 —— characteristic position, 225 —— Cuvieri, habits and appear- ance of, 223 species of, 341 remains of, in N. America, 221 meles, 115 Anakuma, 116 list of species of, 329 Mellivora, list of species of, 329 Melursus, species of, 330 Melville Island flora, 42, 156 Mendoza, mammals of, 407 Mephitis, 115 list of species of, 329 Merycoidodon, species of, 331 Merycopotamus, species of, 337 Merycotherium, 138 —— species of, 331 Meriones, 281 list of species of, 361 Merionides, list of species of, 361 Mesomys, species of, 351 Mesopitheeus, species of, 320 Mesopotamia, mammals, 375 Mesozoic epoch, changes of species in, 11 Meyen’'s botanical zones, 300 Mexico, fauna of, 313 mammals of, 401 Mice, 273 New World, 274 —— Old World, 276 Vesper, 274 Microlestes, 283 species of, 364 Microlestide, species of, 364 417 Micromys, species of, 360 Microrhynchus, list of species of, 323 Microtherium, 162 species of, 336 Middle Europe, mammals of, 373 Migrations across ice, 19 of seals, 127 Milne-Edwards’ classification of mammals, 315 Mineral matter, changes on, 8 Miniopterus, species of, 347 Miocene Atlantis, 30, 41 flora of Greenland, 34 — of Iceland, 34 —— of North America, 34 — of south of France, 30 —— of Switzerland, 30 genera of plants surviving in Azores, &c., 39 — plants surviving glacial epoch in Europe, 43 Missouri, line of, a chief point of separation between east and west of North America, 313 tertiary sea, 43 Missourium, 179 Mole, 230 Mole rats, 269 Molluses, regional distribution of, 298 Woodward's distribution of. 298 Monachus, species of, 330 Mongolian province, 307 Monkeys, American, limits of, 80 anthropoid, 76 eatarrhini, 76 —— platyrrhini, 76 existing species, 76 extinct, 73 relative age and rank of catarrhine and _ platyrrhine monkeys, 75 Monodactyla, 132 list of species of, 331 Monodon monoceros, 213 species of, 341 Monophyllus, species of, 346 Monotremata, 292,293 —— affinities of, 294 list of species of, 364. — relation of edentata to, 218 Mormoops, species of, 346 Morunga, species of, 330 Mosambique, mammals of, 393 Moschide, species of, 335 Moschus, list of species of, 335 moschiferus, 161 Moutlon, 143 Mouse, 276 Multungula, 171 Muntjac, 149 Murehison on geological con- dition of Africa, 28 Muride, 263 list of species of, 356 Murine, 273 list of species of, 359 Mus Alexandrinus, 278 decumanus, 276 delicatulus, 53 giganteus, 278 islandicus, 274, 278 musculus, 276 rattus, 276 sylvaticus, 266 3H LETT TT 418 Mus tectorum, 278 —— list of species of, 359 Muscardinus, 255 —— species of, 352 Musk deer, 161 —— 0x, 139 —— rat, 265 Mustela lutreola, 115 vison, 115 —— list of species of, 327 Mustelide, 113 —— list of species of, 327 Mycetes, 78 —— list of species of, 322 Mydaus, 115 —— list of species of, 328 Mylodon, 220 —— species of, 341 Myodes Hudsonius, 269 list of species of, 357 Myogale, list of species of, 344 Myoictes, 288 —— species of, 363 Myopotamus, species of, 350 Myoxinus, 255 -— list of species of, 352 Myoxoinys, species of, 358 Mymaretos, 119 species of, 330 Myrmecobius fasciatus, 290 species of, 364 Myrmecophaga, 227 list of species of, 342 Mysarachne, species of, 344 Mystazina, species of, 347 Mystromys, species of, 361 Narwhal, 213 Nasicornia, 171 Nasua, 122 —— list of species of, 329 Natalus, species of, 347 Nebraska beds, a chief line of separation in N. Americe, 323" | —— deposits, 92 Negritos, 60, 62 Negro languages, 61 elucking sound in, 61 Nelomys, species of, 351 Nemorhadus, list of species of, 332 Neotoma, 274 list of species of, 358 Nepal, mammals of, 387 Nesodon, 168 species of, 338 Nesodontide, 168 species of, 338 New Guineaand Australian con- tinent, 59 —— coast, character of, 97 —— mammals of, 379 province, 311 New Hebrides part of the New Guinea province, 311 New Holland in Europe, 23 New South Wales, 291 — and south-east coast of Australia, mammals of, 381 —— fauna of,291 New World mice, 274 New Zealand, mammals of, 379 —— possible otter in, 114 — rat, 280 Nicobar Islands, mammals of, 383 Nile district, mammals of, 391 INDEX. Noetilio, species of, 347 Non-ruminants, 164 North Africa, mammals of, 390 North America, Barren Grounds, mammals of, 398 — its boundaries and de- pendencies, 312 — chief lines of separation of east from west, 313 — flora of, 44 — life in, epoch, 43 — longitudinal divisions of, during glacial 313 — Mackenzie River district, mammals of, 398 —— mammals of, 397 — north-east of, mammals of, 397 — north-west of, mammals of, 400 —— point of separation from South America, 313 — repeopling of, after gla- cial epoch, 43 —— United States of, mam- mals of, 399 North American province, 312 races, 56 North-east of North America, mammals of, 397, 398 North Georgian Islands, mam- mals of, 365 North-west of North America, mammals of, 400 Nototherium, 289 species of, 363 Nova Zembla, mammals of, 305 3 he Nycteris, list of species of, 346 Nycticebus, list of species of, 3238 os : Nycticejus, list of species of, 349 Nyetiellus, species of, 347 Nyetipithecus, 79 list of species of, 322 Nyctonomus, list of species of, 347 Nyetophilus, list of species of, 346 Objections to Darwin’s theory of species, 5 Oceanic islands, peopling of, 17, 20 —— preponderance of arboreal vegetation in, 22 in Polynesia, submergence of, 25 Ocelots, 101 Ochotherium, species of, 34.1 Octodon, species of, 350 Octodontina, 246 -— list of species of, 350 (ningen fossiliferous beds, 30 Old-World mice, 276 Ommatophoca, list of species of, 33° Onychogalea, 290 Onychomys, species of, 358 Opossums, 286 Oreodon, 163 —— species of, 331 Oreotragus, 147 list of species of, 333 Origin of species, 4 Orkney, mammals of, 366 Ornithorhynchus, 293, 294 species of, 364 Oromys, species of, 355 Orycteropus, 227 —— species of, 342 Orycterotherium, species of, 34.1 Oryx, 147 list of species of, 333 Oryzomis, species of, 358 Osmotectes, 122 Osphranter, 289 Otaria, species of, 331 Otocyon, species of, 326 Otogale, list of species of, 323 Otolemur, list of species of, 323 Otomys, species of, 361 Otospermophilus, 260 Otters, 113 Ounce, 99 Ourang-outang, 76 Outer Hebrides, mammals of, 357 Ovibos, 139 Ovis, 143 —— montana, 143, 144 — nivicola, ib. —— Sibirica, 145 —— list of species of, 332 Owen, Professor, classification of mammals, 51, 316 —— explanation of teleological purposes of the marsupial structure, 285 — view of special faunas, 9 — Dr., geological survey of Wisconsin, 92 Oxen, 139 Oxymycterus, list of species of, 359 Paca, 138 Pachynolophus, 167 Pachytherium, species of, 342 Pacific Continent, submergence of, 25 Pagophilus, species of, 330 Palwocherus, species of, 337 Palseocyon, 85 list of species of, 329 Paleomephitis, species of, 329 Palwomeryx, list of species of, Palxonictis, species of, 326 Palwospalax, species of, 343 Paleotheridse, 167 list of species of, 337 Paleotherium, 147 list of species of, 337 Paleozoic epoch, changes of species in, Ir Palgrave, Mr., letter from, on relations of Arabia, 411 Panama, some mammals of, 405 —— point of separation between North and South America, 313 Papua, mammals of, 379 Papuans, 60, 62 Paradoxurus, 104 list of species of, 325 Paraguay, mammals of, 406 Peat-bogs in Shetland, 40 Peceary, 164 —- collared, 164 Pectinator, species of, 355 Pectinatoridi, list of species of, 355 Pedetes, 282 species of, 362 Peragalen, species of, 364 Perameles, list of species of, 364 Peramelide, 290 —— species of, 364 Perodicticus, list of species of, 323 Perognathus, 272 list of species of, 357 Peru, mammals of, 405 number of species of dif- ferent families represented in, 405 Petaurus, 53, 288 list of species of, 363 Peters’ classification of insecti- vora, 319 Petrogale, 289 Petromys typicus, 247 -—— species of, 350 Phacocherus, 164 —— species of, 336 Phalangers, 287 Phalangista, 287 vulpina, 287,291 list of species of, 363 Phascogale, 286 list of species of, 362 Phascolarctos, species of, 363 Phascolomys, 288 list of species of, 363 Phascolotherium, 283 species of, 363 Philippine Islands, mammals of, 377 Phleomys, species of, 361 Phoca annellata, 126 —— Caspiea, ib. — fetida, ib. leonina, 125 — vitulina, 126 list of species of, 330 Phociena, species of, 340 Phocide, 123 Phocodon, species of, 330, 341 Phyllodia, species of, 346 Phyilonyeteris, species of, 347 Phyllophora, species of, 346 Phyllostoma, list of species of, ib. Phyllorhina, list of species of, 345 _ Physaius, 209 Physeter macrocephalus, 210 species of, 340 Pikas, 251 Pithecia, 78 list of species of, 322 Plagiaulax, species of, 364 Plagiodonta, species of, 350 Plan of work, 1 Plants, regional distribution of, 299 Platacanthomys, 255 species of, 361 Platanista, 213 hypothesis to account for their origin, 213 species of, 341 Plato’s story of the miocene At- lantis, 33 Platycerus, list of species of, 334 Platygonus, species of, 336 Platyrrhine monkeys, 78 Platyrrhini, list of species of, 321 Plesiarctomys, 255 —— species of, 355 Plesiogale, list of species of, 328 Plesiosorex, list of species of, 344 Pliopithecus, 74 Poebrotherium, species of, 335 Polecats, 114 Polynesian province, 311 Pomel’s classification of insec- tivora, 319 Pontogeneus, species of, 341 Pontotherium, species of, 339 Porcula, species of, 337 Poreupines, 248 Portax, species of, 334 Potamocherus, list of species of, 336 Potamogale, species of, 344 Pouched rats, 270 Prairie dogs, 262 Prairie mammals, 401 Preliminary inquiries, 4 Presbytes, 77 list of species of, 320 Priscodelphinus, 205 species of, 343 Proboscidea, 178 list of species of, 339 Procamelus, 138 — species of, 331 Procyon cancrivorus, 122 list of species of, 329 Propithetus, list of species of, 322 Proportion of Scandinavian plants in Greenland, 41 Prosimia, list of species of, 323 | Proteles Lalandii, 102 — species of 326 Protocherus, species of, 336 Protocyon, list of species of, 326 Protopithecus, 74 list of species of, 320 Psephophorus, species of, 342 Pseudelurus quadridentatus, 89 species of, 324 Pseudomys, species of, 360 Pterodon, list of species of, 326 Pteromys, 257, 258 list of species of, 354 Pteropus, list of species of, 345 Pterura, species of, 327 Ptilocercus, species of, 344 Pucheran’s views regarding the characterof African mammals, 310 Punjab Salt Range, mammals of, 389 Quaternary epoch, 88 Racoon, 122 Rangifer, list of species of, 334 Rats, 273 black, 276 —— brown, 276 — bush, 274 — cotton, 274 —— New Zealand, 280 — water, 280 wood, 274 Ratel, 116 Red deer, 159 Redunca, 147 —— list of species of, 333 Reefs, 25 Regions, mammalian, 304 special, 9 Regional distribution of animals, 296 INDEX. Regional distribution of birds, 297 ped mammals, 295, 296 molluses, 298 —— plants, 299 reptiles, 297 — views of authors on, 296 Reindeer, 150 American, 153. 154, 155 — Barren- ground Caribou, 153, 154, 155 fossil, 88, 150, 152 — Greenland, 154, 155 — in Iceland, 151 — Lapland, 152 —— Siberian, 152 species of, 334 — Spitzbergen, 154, 155 — Woodland Caribou, 153, 154, 155 Reithrodon, 275 - list of species of, 358 Relations of floras of E. Asia and N. America, 44 Reptiles, Gunther's distribution of, 297 regional distribution of,297 Retreat and advance of boreal species during glacial epoch, 3 Riabdogeles 115 Rhinoceros, 171 — extinct, 173 extinct, food of, 174 frozen carcasses of, 174 — Indicus, 172 —— Nebrascensis, 176 Sumatranus, 172 — tichorhinus, 173 list of species of, 338 Rhinolophus, list of species of, 345 Rhinopoma, species of, 347 Rhinosciurus, species of, 353 Rhizomys, list of species of, 357 | Rhynchocyon, species of, 3744 Rhytina, 203 list of species of, 339 Rhyzena, species of, 326 Rochas de, theory as to forma- tion of coral islets, 26 Rocky Mountains, not chief line of separation of east from west of North America, 313 Rodentia, list of species of, 350 Rodents and Marsupials, con- nexion between, 54 Roe deer, 160 Rorquals, 209 Ruminants, 137 Ruminantia, list of species of, 331 Sable, 115 Saccomying, 270 list of species of, 357 Saccomys, species of, 357 Saccostomus, 273 species of, 358 Sahara during glacial epoch, 32 —— mammals of, 374 — Sea, 86 to what mammalian region it belongs, 304 Sand-bears, 115 Sand-rat, 270, 271 Sandwich Islands, animals of, 17 — mammals of, 379 Sapajou, 79 Saporta, tertiary flora of south of France, 30 Sappa Nova de Marguine, 90 Sargasso Seas, 3, 35 Sargassum bacciferum, 35 Sargodon, species of, 336 Scalops, 230 — list of species of, 343 Scandinavian district, 304 — plants, antiquity of, con- sidered, 38 Scandinavia, mammals of, 370 Seapteromys, species of, 359 * Scelidotherium, 227 list of species of, 341 Sciuridee, 255 —— list of species of, 303 Sciuropterus, 257 list of species of, 354 Sciurus, 256 list of species of, 354 Schizodon, species of, 350 Schizostoma, species of, 346 Schlegel on the Indian ele- phant, 192 Schmarda’s distribution of ani- mals, 295, 296 —— marine regions, 297 — terrestrial regions, 296 Schow’s phytogeographical re- gions, 2 Selater’s distribution of birds, 296, 297 Scotland, mammals of, 367 Seotophilus, list of species of, 348 Scutata, list of species of, 342 Seals, 123 extinct, 123 — in Caspian Sea, 126 — in Lake Baikal, 126 —— migrations of, 127 Secondary epoch, 23 Semnopitheci, 77 — list of species of, 320 Senaar, mammals of, 391 Serval, 101 Sevalik Sea, 86 Sewellel, 263 Sheep, 143 : Sheet ice during glacial epoch 47 Shetland flora, 40 mammals of, 366 —— peat-bogs, go Shrews, 231 Shropshire, mammals of, 368 Siam, mammals of, 384 Sibbaldius, 200 list of species of, 340 Siberia, province of, 307 West of Amoorland, mam- mals of, 375 Sigmodon, 274 —— list of species of, 358 Sigmodontes, list of species of, 58 Sikkim, mammals of, 386 Simia, list of species of, 320 Silver-fir found in peat bogs in Shetland, 40 Siphneus, species of, 357 Sirenia, 196 classification and position of, 196 —— existing, 199 419 Sirenia, extinct, 198 list of species of, 339 Sivatherium, 148 species of, 334 Skunk, 115 Slack’s Table-of Geographical distribution of Lagothriciney, 408 Sloths, 226 extinct, 220 habits and structure of, 223 —— in North America, 221 — question whether they ex- isted in North America after the glacial epoch, 221 Smilocamptus, species of, 341 Smilodon, 89 Sminthine, list of species of, 360 Sminthus, list of species of, 360 Solenodon, 231 species of, 344 Solidungula, list of species of, 331 Sorex, 231 list of existing species of, 343. fe : — list of extinct species of, 344 Soricictis, list of species of, 326 Soricine, 231 list of species of, 343 South Africa, mammals of, 393 South America and Africa, pro- bable connexion between, 314 point of separation from North America, 313 South American forms found in North America, 312 province of, 312 region, its boundaries and dependencies, 313 South Australia, 381 South-east Australia, mals of, 381 South of France, miocene flora, 30 Sow, 164 Spalacini, 269 list of species of, 357 Spalacodon, species of, 364 Spalacopus, species of, 350 Spalacotherium, 287 species of, 364 Spalax, species of, 357 Species, extension of original bornus of, 94 Special faunas, 9 — in past geological forma- mam: tions, 91 Special forms in special re- gions, 9 — regions,9™— Species change in different geological epochs, 11 dispersal of, 15 — formation of, 7 proportion of arboreal and terrestrial, 98 stability of, 7 uniformity of, in earlier geological epochs, 11 Spectrellum, species of, 346 Speothos, species of, 326 Spermophilus, 260 Eversmanni, 261 420 Spermophilus Parryi, 261 list of species of, 355 Sperm-whale, 210 Sphenodon, species of, 341 Spiny-rats, 247 Spitzbergen flora, 42, 156 — formerly united to Green- land, 39, 157, 158 —— mammals of, 365 —— to what botanical region it belongs, 307 — to what mammalian region it belongs, 307 —— reindeer, 154, 155 Spruce-fir found in peat-bogs in Shetland, 40 Squalodon, species of, 341 Squirrels, 255, 256 Stability of species, 7 Stalagmite in bone-caves of Bra- zil, age of, go Steatomys, species of, 360 Stegodon, list of species of, 339 Stenoderma, list of species of, 347 Stenorhynchus leptonyx, 124, 125 vetus, 124 species of, 330 : Stereocerus, species of, 331 Stereodelphus, species ef, 340 Stereognathus, 229 species of, 364 Stereognathide, species of, 364 Sturnira, list of species of, 347 Stylocerus, list of species of, 35 Submergence of the Southern Pacifie continent, 25 Sucre Pacifie continents, 8 Subsidence of southern hemi- sphere. 28 Subulo, list of species of, 335 Suceatyro, 165 Suide, 164 Sulu, elephants in, 195 Sumatra, mammals of, 382 Sumpitan, 72 Sus, 164 list of species of, 336 Swan River, mammals of, 381 Sweden, mammals of, 369 Swine, 164 Switzerland, miocene flora of, fe) Sylhet, mammals of, 386 Synaptomys, species of, 357 Synonymie list of mammals, 320 Syodon, species of, 337 System of classification adopted, I Talpa, 230 list of species of, 342 INDEX. Talpide, list of species of, 342 Tamias, 259 —— quadrivittatus, 259 —— striatus, 260 list of species of, 355 Taphozous, list of species of, 347 Tapiride, 169 list of species of, 338 Tapirs, 169 fossil, ib. Tapirulus, 167 Tapirus Americanus, 169 +— Indicus, ib. —— Roulini, 169 villosus, ib. —— list of species of, 338 Tapiroporeus, species of, 337 Taiwan, 167 Tarandus rangifer, 150 Tardigrada, 226 —— list of species of, 34 Tarsipes rostratus, 290 —— species of, 364 Tarsius, list of species of, 323 Taxide, 115 list of species of, 329 Taxotherium, species of, 326 Tenasserim provinces, mammals of, 385 Ternate, mammals of, 378 Terrace epoch of Prof. Dana, 45 Tetracaulodon, 178 Tetracerus, 148 list of species of, 334 Tetraprotodon, species of, 337 Tiger, 95 Thalassarctos, species of, 329 Theory of formation of species, 7 Theridomys, species of, 351 Thibet, mammals of, 387 - Thomomys, 272 —— list of species of, 357 Thyroptera, species of, 347 Thylacinus, 286 species of, 362 Thylacotherium, 287 species of, 364. Timor, mammals of, 378 Tipperah, mammals of, 385 Vitanomys, 254 list of species of, 352 Titanotherium, 167 list of species of, 338 Toxodon, 241 species of, 350 Toxodontide, 241 — species of, 350 Trachytherium, species of, 339 Tragelaphus, 147 list, of species of, 333 Tragulus, 162 — list of species of, 335 Tragulidx, 162 » —— list of species of, 335 Tree-kangaroos, 289 Tree-porcupines, 248 Trichechus, species of, 330 Triconodon, species of, 364. Troglodytes, list of species of, 320 Trogontherium, 264 — species of, 356 Tupaia, list of species of, 344 Tupaiade, list of species of, ib. Turanian Steppes, mammals of, 374 Turner, Dr., observations on changes in mineral matter, 8 Twizel in Northumberland, mummals of, 368 Tylodon, list of species of, 329 Tylostoma, species of, 346 Unger, miocene Atlantis, 30 New Holland in Europe, 23 Ungulata, 130 classification of, ib. list of species of, 331 United States, mammals of, 399 Uran-utangs, 76 Ursidse, 118 Ursus, 118 . Americanus, 120 —— Arctos, 119 ferox, 119, 120 — frugilegus, 121 — Japonicus, 120 —— ornatus, 121 —— spelzeus, 118 torquatus, 120 list of species of, 329 Urotrichus, 230 species of, 343 Urus, 141 Van der Hoeven’s classification of mammals, 315 Van Dieman’s Land, fauna of, 291 —— mammals of, 384 Varecia, list ef species of, 322 Variation, 7 Vermilinguia, list of species of, 342, Vesper mice, 274 Vespertilio, list of species of, 348 Vieuna, 139 Viverra rasse, 103 —— list of species of, 324 Viverridse, 103 —— list of species of, 324 Vogel’s manatee, 200 Voles, 265 ' Vulpes fulvus, 109, 110 —— lagopus, 109 —— melanogaster, 1148 Vulpes fulvus, list of species of, 327 Vulpidee, 109 Wagner's classification of in- sectivora, 319 Wallace's views on distribution of birds, 297 Walrus, 128 —— at Spitzbergen, 129 Weasels, 114 Weeds, dispersal of, 17 Weight of ice during glacial epoch, 47 ? West Africa, changes on animals and plants intreduced into, $ mammals of, 396 Western Himmalayah, mam- mals of, 38 West Indian Islands, their re- lation to South America and North America, 313 Whales,:205 — Arctic and Antaretic, hypo- thesis to account for their origin, 213 argument from, as to ex- tent of glacial cold, 209 distribution of, in relation to glacial epoch, 208 —— extinct, 205 bottle-nose, 243 Whalebone whales, 207 right, ib. White and black races, relative rank and age of, 71, 72 White hairs, cause of, 252 White races of man, 56 Wild asses, 134 Wolves, 105 in Britain, 107 Wombat, 288 Woodland caribou, 153, 154,155 Woodward's distribution of mol- luses, 298 land regions of molluses, 298 —— marine regions of mol- luses, 299 Xerus, 256 —— list of species of, 353 Xiphodon, 162 list of species of, 335 Yak, 141 Zambesia, mammals of, 392 Zebra, 134 Zebu, 142 Zeuglodon, 216 species of, 341 Zeuglodontide, 216 species of, 34.2 Ziphius, species of, 344 Zoological geography, + Zorilla, 115 : — list of species of, 322 LONDON : PRINTED BY STRANGEWAYS AND WALDEN, CASTLE STREET, LEICESTER SQUARE. * * oreo “ae ; i ia ‘ve aes nf 7 i ; ‘ ' ; ; ee eRe he Ge Be Rs ge, 4 "e. p ae } is a Pe on - 7 - , - _ pA 7. 4 ag . = ; Ve 7 = > oO : ? ] © ; r zx f ss ~ 4 ° ¢ “7 ~ en sees SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES UNNI 3 9088 00735 275