Wi mmm WMMM: mm^. 'Mm m:^ m wmmWmmH^^^ ^Mi wmm^mm^^^mm 'i^M^mmwm itmUlUiitiiimiA wm LIBRARY. COLLEGE OF LIBERAL ARTS. cv* mim ffnitrmitir. 1 . ^^ J^mOTTlQA^KA. LAXjUtLyry^.. deceived >0 Ai'Ct/ ^ ,.. ist.-5 0 • Remarks Trochii,id.«;. Lampornis Doricha Eulampis Aithurus Mellisuga Calypte Orthm-hynchus Sporadinus 1 1 2 la 1 1 1 1 1 2a 1 1 1 la 2 2 3 2 2 1 1 1 3 3 St. Croix, Dominica, St. Lucia, Martinique Domin., Martini., St. Lucia COHURID^. Ara Conurus 1 1 — — 1 1 1 1 1 S. American species St. Thomas PsiTTACID.a:. Chrysotis 1 1 2 1 3 8 C0LTTMBID.S;. Columba Chamaepelia Zenaida Leptoptila Geotrygon Starrmnas 1 1 2 1 — 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 1 2 1 5 1 One in Honduras St. Lucia, Martinique, one species Mexican TETRAONID.E. Ortyx 1 — — — — — 1 Falconid^, Accipiter Hypotriorchis Cerchneis Cymindis Poly bonis 2 2 1 1 — 1 1 — 1 2 1 2 1 1 Mexican species Mexican species Strigid.«. Nyctalops Pseudoscops Gymnoglaux Glaucidium 1 1 1 — — 1 1 - 1 1 2 1 S. American species St. Croix and St. Thomas {Number of families of resident land-birds in the Antilles ,, ,, genera ,, ,, „ ,, species ,, ,, '' Vol. II.— 6 26 95 203 '72 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [part hi. Me^jtiles and Amphibia. — These classes not having been systematically collected, and the numerous described genera not having undergone careful revision, little trustworthy information can be derived from them. The following enumeration of the chief groups hitherto noticed or described, will, however, show very similar features to those presented by the birds — a general relation to Neotropical forms, a more special relation to those of Central America and Mexico, and a considerable number of peculiar types. Snakes. — Arrhyton (Calamariidse) from Cuba, Hypsirhynchus from Barbadoes, Gryptodacus from Cuba, laltris from Hayti, and Golorania from Cuba (all Colubridae), have been described as genera peculiar to the Antilles. Phylodryas and Dromicus (Colubridae) are Antillean and Neotropical; Ahcetulla (Den- drophidse) has the sa.me distribution but extends to tropical Africa ; Upicrates and Corallus (Pythonidse) are Neotropical and Antillean ; while Ghilabothrus from Jamaica and Umgalia from Cuba and Jamaica (both Pythonidse) are found elsewhere only in Central America and Mexico. There appear to be no Crotalidse except an introduced species of Graspedocephalus in St. Lucia. Lizards are more numerous. Ameiva (Teidse) is found all over America. Gerrhonotus (Zonuridae) is Neotropical and occurs in Cuba ; Gymnopthalmus is South American and Antillean. Of Scincidse seven genera are noted. Gelestus (with 9 species) is peculiar to the Antilles ; Gamilia (1 species) to Jamaica, Panoplus (1 species) and Emhryopus (1 species) to Hayti; Diplogossus is - Antillean and South American ; while Plestiodon and Mahouya are cosmopolite. Of Geckotidse there are four genera ; Fhyllo- dactylus and Hemidadylus which are cosmopolite ; Sphcerodactyliis which is wholly American ; and Gubina found only in Martinique and Brazil. Of Iguanidse there are six genera ; Anolis, which ranges all over America ; Polychrus, which is Neotropical ; Iguana and Lincephalus which are South American ; Tropedurus found in Cuba and Brazil; and Gyclura only known from Jamaica, Cuba, and Central America. Amphibia. — The genus Trachycephalus, belonging to the CHAP. XIV.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 73 Hylidse or tropical tree-frogs, is almost peculiar to the Antilles ; Cuba, Hayti, and Jamaica possessing seven species, while only one is recorded from South America. Other genera are, Pelta- phryne (Bufonidse) from Portorico ; Phyllobates (Polypedatidse) from Cuba ; Zeiuperus (Eanidae) from Hayti, — all Neotropical. Of the Urodela, or tailed batrachians, no representative occurs, although they are so characteristic a feature of the Nearctic region. Fresh-water fish. — The same general remarks apply to these as to the reptiles. Only one peculiar genus is noted — Lehistes, a form of Cyprinodontidse from Barbadoes ; other genera of the same family being, Haplochilus, Rivulus, and Girardinus, widely spread in the ISTeotropical region ; while Gamhusia is confined to Central America, Mexico, and the Antilles. Four other families are represented; Siluridse by Chcetostomus, found in Portorico and South America ; Chromidse by the South American Acara ; Mugillidae by the Central American Agonosfoma ; and Percidse by the North American Gentrarchus, of which a species is recorded from Cuba. Trisects. — The various "West Indian islands have not been well explored entomologically ; one reason no doubt being, that their comparative poverty renders them little attractive to the pro- fessional collector, while the abounding riches of Central and South America lie so near at hand. We can, therefore, hardly tell whether the comparative poverty, or even total absence of some families while others seem fairly represented, is a , real phenomenon of distribution, or only dependent on imperfect knowledge. Bearing this in mind, we proceed to give a sketch of what is known of the chief groups of Lepidoptera and Coleoptera. Lepidoptera. — The Neotropical butterfly-fauna is but poorly represented, the majority of the most remarkable types being entirely wanting ; yet there are a few peculiar and very charac- teristic forms which show great isolation, while the majority of the species are peculiar. Four genera are exclusively or charac- teristically Antillean, — Galisto belonging to the Satyridse, with four species, of which one ranges to South Carolina ; Clothilda 74 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [part la (Nymphalidae) a fine genus which has 4 Antillean species and 2 in Central America; Zwcmm (Nymphalidae) 2 species, confined to Jamaica and Hayti ; and Kricogonia belonging to the Pieridse, which has 2 West Indian species, while 1 inhabits Mexico and Florida. Genera which show a special relation to Central America are Euptoieta, Eumceus, and Nathalis. Almost all the other genera are South American, the total number recorded in each family as occurring in the West Indian islands, being, 3 of Danaidse ; 1 of Heliconiidse ; 2 of Satyridse ; 18 of Nymphalidae ; 1 of Erycinidae ; 4 of Lycaenidae ; 6 of Pieridae; 1 of Papilio- nidae, and 10 of Hesperidae. The genus Papilio is represented by about 20 species, 2 of which are North American, 4 South American, while the rest form little characteristic groups allied to those of Central America. The most marked feature seems to be the scarcity of Satyridae and the almost total absence of Erycinida?, with a great deficiency in characteristic Neotropical forms of Danai-dse and Nymphalidae. Cdeoptera. — Cicindelidae and Carabidae are very poorly repre- sented, by a few species of wide-spread groups, and hardly any peculiar genera. No Lucanidae are recorded. Of Cetoniidae, Gymnetis only appears to be represented. Buprestidae seem to be more numerous ; 15 genera being recorded, but almost all of wide distribution. One only is peculiar — Tetragonoschoma, found in Hayti ; Hetlecia is the only exclusively South American genus ; Chalcophora is widely scattered over the tropical regions but is absent from South America, yet it occurs in the Nearctic region and extends to Jamaica and Guadeloupe. We now come to the Longicorns, the only group of Coleoptera which seems to be well represented, or which has been carefully collected. No less than 40 genera are known from the West Indian islands, and 15 of these are peculiar. Prionidae are proportionately very numerous, there being 10 genera., 2 of which are widely dis- tributed in both South and North America, 1 is North American, and 1 South American, while the following are peculiar, — Stenodontes (Hayti and Cuba) ; DendroUaptus (Cuba) ; Mono- desmus (Cuba and Jamaica) ; Prostervodes (Cuba) ; Solenoptera a,\id Mater opsis, the two largest genera found in most of the CHAP. XIV.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 75 islands. Of Cerambycidae there are 16 genera, 2 of which range all over America, 4 are Neotropical, 1 South American only, while the following are confined to the islands, — Merostenus, Pentomacrus, and Ehuriola (Jamaica) ; Bromiades (Cuba) ; Trichrous, Heterops, and Pceciloderma (Antilles). One genus, Smod,icum, is widely spread, having a species in Carolina, 1 in South America, 1 in Hayti, and 1 in West Africa. Of Lamiidse there are 14 genera, 8 of which are Neotropical, 1 common to Central America and Mexico, 1 to the United States "and Cuba, while 2, Proecha and Phidola, are confined to Cuba. Several of the genera are curiously distributed ; — Spalacopsis is South American, with 4 species in Cuba and Tropical Africa ; Lago- cheirus is Neotropical, with a species in Australia ; while Lepto- stilus is characteristic of the Antilles and North America, with a few species in South America, and one in New Zealand. These cases of erratic distribution, so opposed to the general series of phenomena among which they occur, must be held to be sufficiently explained by the great antiquity of these groups and their former wide distribution. They may be supposed to be the remnants of types, now dying out, which were once, like Callichroma, Clytus, and many others, almost universally dis- tributed. All the peculiar Antillean genera of Cerambycidse and La- miidae are allied to Neotropical forms. The peculiar Prionidae, however, are mostly allied to Mexican and North American groups, and one, Monodesmus, belongs to a group all the other genera of which inhabit the East Indies and South Africa. Land-shells. — This subject has already been generally treated under the Region, of which, in this class of animals, the Antilles form so important a part. We must therefore now confine our- selves mainly to the internal distribution of the genera, and to a few remarks on the general bearing of the facts. The excessive and altogether unexampled productiveness of the West Indian islands in land-shells, may be traced to two main sets of causes. The first and least known, consist of the peculiar influences and conditions which render islands always more productive than continents. Whatever these conditions 76 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [part hi. are, they will be more effective where the islands have been long separated from the mainland, as is here undoubtedly the case. It seems most probable that the great development of land- shells in islands, is due to the absence or deficiency of the verte- brata, which on continents supply a variety of species adapted to prey upon these molluscs. This view is supported by the fact, that in such islands as have been united to a continent at no very distant epoch, and still maintain a continental variety of vertebrate, no such special development of land-shells has taken place. If we compare the Philippine islands with the Sunda group, we find the development of vertebrata and land-molluscs in inverse ratio to each other. The same thing occurs if we compare New Zealand and Tasmania ; and we have a still more striking example in the Antillean group itself, continental Trinidad having only 20 genera and 38 species, while the highly insular Jamaica has about 30 genera and more than 500 species. The other causes favourable to the increase and development of land-shells are of a physical nature. A great extent of lime- stone-rock is one ; and in the larger West Indian islands we have a considerable proportion of the surface consisting of this rock. But perhaps equally or more important, is the character of the land surface, and the texture of the exposed rock itself A much broken surface, with numerous deep ravines, cutting up the whole country into isolated valleys and ridges, seems very favourable to the specialization of forms in this very sedentary class of animals. Equally favourable is a honeycombed and highly-fissured rock-surface, affording everywhere cracks and crannies for concealment. Now, taking Jamaica as an example of the archipelago, we find all these conditions in a wonderful degree. Over a large part of this island, a yard of level ground can hardly be found; but ridges, precipices, ravines, and rock- bound valleys, succeed each other over the whole country. At least five-sixths of the entire surface is limestone, and under the influence of tropical rains this rock is worn, fissured, and honey- combed, so as to- afford ample shelt'er and concealment for land- shells. OHAP, XIV.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 77 It is probable tbat the three chief islands, Cuba, Jamaica and Hayti, are nearly equally rich in land-shells; but the last is very much less known, and therefore, perhaps, appears to be much poorer. Cuba has rather more species than Jamaica ; but while the former has only 1 peculiar genus {Dijplopoma), the latter has 3 {Geomdania, Chittya, and Jamaicea), as well as two others only represented in the other islands by single species. From Hayti, only about one-third as many species are known as from the two former islands. It has no peculiar genera, but it has some forms in common with Cuba and others with Jamaica, which show that those islands have more connec- tion with it, than with each other ; just as we found to be the case in birds. Portorico and the Virgin islands have still fewer species than Hayti ; and, as many of the genera common to the other three islands are wanting, there is, no doubt, here a real deficiency. In the islands farther south (Barbuda to Martinique) more Antillean genera disappear or become very rare, while some continental forms take their place. The islands from St. Lucia to Trinidad have a still more continental character ; the genus Bulimus, so largely developed on the continent, only reaching St. Lucia. The Bahamas contain about 80 species of land-shells, of which 25 are Antillean, the rest peculiar ; aU the genera being Antillean. The affinity is chiefly with Hayti and Cuba, but closest with the latter island. In the West Indian islands as a whole, there are 11 peculiar genera; 9 operculate (Geomelania, Chittya, Jamaicea, Licina, Choanopoma, Ctenopoma, Diplopoma, Stoastoma, Lucidella) ; and 2 inoperculate {Sagda and Stenopus), besides Cyclostomus, which belongs to the Old World and is not found on the American continent. Mr. Bland considers, that many of the Antillean land-shells exhibit decided African and Asiatic, rather than South American affinities. A species of the Asiatic genus Diplommatina has been found in Trinidad, and an Indian species of Ennea occurs in Grenada and St. Thomas ; a clear indication that land-shells are liable to be accidentally imported, and to become established in the less productive islands. Although these islands are so wonderfully rich even now, 78 ZOOLOGICAL GEO&RAPHY. [part iii. there is good reason to believe that many species have become extinct since the European occupation of them. When small islands are much cultivated, many of these molluscs which can only live under the shade of forests, are soon extirpated. In St. Croix many species have become extinct at a comparatively recent period, from the burning of forests ; and as we know that in all the islands many of the species are excessively local, being often confined to single valleys or ridges, we may be sure that wherever the native forests have disappeared before the hand of man, numbers of land-shells have disappeared with them. As some of the smaller islands have been almost denuded of their wood, and in the larger ones extensive tracts have been cleared for sugar cultivation, a very considerable number of species have almost certainly been exterminated. General Conclusions as to the Past History of the West Indian Islands. — The preceding sketch of the peculiarities of the animal life of these islands, enables us to state, that it represents the remains of an ancient fauna of decided Neotropical type, having on the whole most resemblance to that which now inhabits the Mexican sub-region. The number of peculiar genera in all classes of animals is so great in proportion to those in common with the adjacent mainland, as to lead us to conclude that, subsequent to the original separation from the Mexican area, a very large tract of land existed, calculated to support a rich and varied fauna, and, by the interaction of competing types, give rise to peculiar and specially modified organisms. We have already shown that the outline of the present islands and the depths of the surrounding seas, give indications of the position and extent of this ancient land ; which not improbably occupied the space enclosed by uniting Western Cuba with Yucatan, and Jamaica with the Mosquito Coast. This land must have stretched eastward to include Anguilla, and probably northward to include the whole of the Bahamas. At one time it perhaps extended southward so as to unite Hayti with northern Venezuela, while Panama and Costa Eica were sunk beneath the Pacific. At this time the Lesser Antilles had no existence. The only large island of whose geology we have any detailed CHAP. XIV.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 79 account, is Jamaica; and taking this as a type of what will probably be found in Cuba and Hayti, we must place the continental period as having occurred after the close of the Miocene, or during some part of the Pliocene epoch, since a large portion of the surface of the former island consists of beds of marine limestone from 2,000 to 3,000 thick, beheved to be of Pliocene age. After some time, the land between Hayti and South America subsided, and still later that between Central America and Cuba with Jamaica; but a large tract of land remained insulated, and no doubt supported a very much richer and more varied fauna than now. We have evidence of this in extinct Mammalia of large size, belonging to the peculiar South American family of the chinchillas, which have been found in caves in the small islands of Anguilla, and which, from the character of the land-shells associated with them, are believed to be of Pliocene or Post-pliocene age. This discovery is most interesting, and gives promise of very valuable results from the exploration of the numerous caverns that undoubtedly exist in the abundant limestone strata of the larger islands. This extensive Antillean land, after long continuing undivided, was at length broken up by subsidence into several islands ; but as this alone would not account for the almost complete annihilation of the mammalian fauna, it seems probable that the subsidence was continued much farther, so as greatly to reduce the size and* increase the number of the islands. This is indicated, by the extensive alluvial plains in Cuba and Hayti, and to a less extent in Jamaica ; and by elevated beds of Post-pliocene marls in the latter island. The series of changes now suggested, will account for all the main features of the Antillean fauna in its relations to that of the American continent. There remains the affinity with Madagascar, indicated by Solenodon, and a few cases of African and Asiatic affinity in insects and land-shells ; but these are far too scanty to call for any attempt at special explanation. Such cases of remote affinity and discontinuous distribution, occur in all the regions, and in almost every group of animals ; and we look upon them almost all, as cases of survival, under favourable 80 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [part m. conditions, of once wide-spread groups. If no wild species of the genus Equus were now to be found, except in South Africa (where they are still most abundant), and in South Temperate America, where their fossil remains show us they did exist not very long ago, what a strong fact it would have appeared for the advocates of continental extensions ! Yet it would have been due to no former union of the great southern continents, but to the former extensive range of the family or the genus to which the two isolated remnants belonged. And if such an explanation will apply to the higher vertebrata, it is still more likely to be applicable to similar cases occurring among insects or moUusca, the genera of which we have every reason to beheve to be usually much older than those of vertebrates. It is. in these classes that examples of widely scattered allied species most frequently occur ; and the facility with which they are diffused under favourable conditions, renders any other explanation than that here given altogether superfluous. The Solenodon is a member of an order of Mammalia of low type (Insectivora) once very extensive and wide-spread, but which has begun to die out, and which has left a number of curious and isolated forms thinly scattered over three-fourths of the globe. The occurrence, therefore, of an isolated remnant of this order in the Antilles is not in itself remarkable ; and the fact that the remainder of the family to which the Antillean species belong has found a refuge in Madagascar, where it has developed into several distinct types, does not afford the least shred of argument on which to found a supposed independent land connection between these two sets of islands. Summary of the Past History of the Neotropical Region. "We have already discussed this subject, both in our account of extinct animals, and in various parts of the present chapter. It is therefore only necessary here, briefly to review and sum- marise the conclusions we have arrived at. The whole character of Neotropical zoology, whether as regards its deficiencies or its speciahties, points to a long continuance of isolation from the rest of the world, with a few very distant CHAP. XIV.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 81 periods of union with the northern continent. The latest important separation took place by the submergence of parts of Nicaragua and Honduras, and this separation probably con- tinued throughout much of the Miocene and Pliocene periods ; but some time previous to the coming on of the glacial epoch, the union between the two continents took place which has con- tinued to our day. Earlier submergences of the isthmus of Panama probably occurred, isolating Costa Eica and Veragua, which then may have had a greater extension, and have thus been able to develope their rich and peculiar fauna. The isthmus of Tehuantepec, at the south of Mexico, may, probably, also have been submerged ; thus isolating Guatemala and Yucatan, and leading to the specialization of some of the peculiar forms that now characterise those countries and Mexico. The West Indian Islands have been long isolated and have varied much in extent. Originally, they probably formed part of Central America, and may have been united with Yucatan and Honduras in one extensive tropical land. But their sepa- ration from the continent took place at a remote period, and they have since been broken up into numerous islands, which . have probably undergone much submergence in recent times. This has led to that poverty of the higher forms of life, com- bined with the remarkable speciality, which now characterises them ; while their fauna still preserves a sufficient resemblance to that of Central America to indicate its origin. The great continent of South America, as far as we can judge from the remarkable characteristics of its fauna and the vast depths of the oceans east and west of it, has not during Tertiary, and probably not even during Secondary times, been united with any other continent, except through the intervention of North America. During some part of the Secondary epoch it probably received the ancestral forms of its Edentates and Eodents, at a time when these were among the highest types of Mammalia on the globe. It appears to have remained long isolated, and to have already greatly developed these groups of animals, before it received, in early Tertiary times, the ancestors of its marmosets and monkeys, and, perhaps also, some of its peculiar forms of 82 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [part hi. Carnivora. Later, it received its Camelidae, peccaries, mastodons, and large Carnivora; and later still, just before the Glacial epoch, its deer, tapir, opossums, antelopes, and horses, the two latter having since become extinct. All this time its surface was undergoing important physical changes. What its earlier condition was we cannot conjecture, but there are clear indica- tions that it has been broken up into at least three large masses, and probably a number of smaller ones ; and these have no doubt undergone successive elevations and subsidences, so as at one time to reduce their area and separate them still more widely from each other, and at another period to unite them into continental masses. The richness and varied development of the old fauna of South America, as still existing, proves, how- ever, that the country has always maintained an extensive area ; and there is reason to believe that the last great change has been a long continued and steady increase of its surface, resulting in the formation of the vast alluvial plains of the Amazon, Orinoko, and La Plata, and thus greatly favouring the production of that wealth of specific forms, which dis- tinguishes South America above all other parts of our globe. The southern temperate portion of the continent, has probably had a considerable southward extension in late Tertiary times ; and this, as well as the comparatively recent elevation of the Andes, has given rise to some degree of intermixture of two distinct faunas, with that proper to South Temperate America itself. The most important of these, is the considerable Austra- lian element that appears in the insects, and even in the reptiles and fresh-water fishes, of South Temperate America. These may be traced to several causes. Icebergs and icefloes, and even solid fields of ice, may, during the Glacial epoch, have afforded many opportunities for the passage of the more cold-enduring groups; while the greater extension of southern lands and islands during the warm periods — which there is reason to believe prevailed in the southern as well as in the northern regions in Miocene times — would afford facilities for the passage of the reptiles and insects of more temperate zones. That no actual land-connection occurred, is proved by the total absence CHAP. XIV.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 83 of interchange of the mammals or land-birds of the two countries, no less than by the very fragmentary nature of the resemblances that do exist. The northern element consists almost wholly of insects ; and is evidently due to the migration of arctic and north temperate forms along the ridges and plateaus of the Andes ; and most likely occurred when these organisms were driven southward at successive cold or Glacial periods. A curious parallel exists between the past history and actual zoological condition of South America and Africa. In both we see a very ancient land-area extending into the South Temperate zone, isolated at a very early period, and developing only a low grade of Mammalian life ; chiefly Edentates and Rodents on the one, Lemurs and Insectivora in the other. Later we find an irruption into both of higher forms, including Quadrumana, which soon acquired a large and special develop- ment in the tropical portions of each country. Still later we have an irruption into both of northern forms, which spread widely over the two regions, and having become extinct in the land from whence they came, have been long held to be the original denizens of their adopted country. Such are the various forms of antelopes, the giraffe, the elephant, rhinoceros, and lion in Africa ; while in America we have deer and peccaries, the tapir, opossums, and the puma. On the whole, we cannot but consider that the broad outlines of the zoological history of the Neotropical region can be traced with some degree of certainty ; but, owing to the absence of information as to the most important of the geological periods — the Miocene and Eocene — we have no clue to the character of its early fauna, or to the land connections with other countries, which may possibly have occurred in early Tertiary times. 84 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [part hi. TABLES OF DISTEIBUTIOK In drawing up these tables, showing the distribution of the various classes of animals in the Neotropical region, the following sources of information have been relied on, in addition to the general treatises, monographs, and catalogues used in the com- pilation of the Fourth Part of this work. Mammalia. — D'Orbigny, and Burmeister, for Brazil and La Plata; Darwin, and Cunningham, for Temperate S. America; Tschudi, for Peru ; Frazer, for Ecuador ; Salvin, for Guatemala ; Frantzius, for Costa Rica; Sclater, for Quadrumana N. of Panama ; Gundlach, for Cuba ; and papers by Dr. J. E. Gray, and Mr. Tomes. Birds. — Sclater and Salvin's Nomenclator ; Notes by Darwin, and Cunningham ; Gundlach, March, Bryant, Baird, Elliot, Newton, Semper, and Sundevall, for various islands of the Antilles; and papers by Hudson, Lawrence, Grayson, Abbott, Sclater, and Salvin. CHAP. XIV,] THE NEOTKOPICAL REGION. 85 TABLE I. FAMILIES OF ANIMALS INHABITING THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. Explanation. Names in italics show the families which are peculiar to the region. Names enclosed thus ( ) indicate families which barely enter the region, and are not considered properly to belong to it. •*■ Numbers correspond with those of the series of families in Part IV. Order and Family. Sub-regions. Range beyond the Region. MAMMALIA. PPvIMATES. 4. Cebidoe 5. Mapalidce Chiroptera. 10. Phyllostomidce 12. Vespertilionidse 13. Noctilionidse... Insectivora. Centetidae Carnivora. 23. Felidse ... 28. Canidse ... 29. Mustelidse 30. Procyonidae 32. Ursidse ... 33. Otariidae... 35. Phocidse... Cetacea. 36 to 41 SiRENIA. 42. Manatidse Ungulata. 44. Tapiiidae 47. Siidae ... 48. Camelidai 50. Cervidse... (?) (?) California Cosmopolite All tropical regions Madagascar All regions but Australian All regions but Australian All regions but Australian N. America All regions but Ethiopian and Australian S. temperate zone N. and S. tempersite zones Oceanic Tropical shores Indo-Malaya Cosmopolite, excl. Australia Palsearctic All regions but Ethiopian and Australian 8j6 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [part hi. Sub-regions. Order and Family. d s Range beyond the Region. 2 3 1 RODENTIA, 55. Muridfe — — — — Cosmopolite 59. Saccomyidae . — Nearctic 61. Sciiiridse — — All regions but Australian 63. Chinchillidce ... — 64. Octodontidse ... — Africa 65. Echimyidse ... — — Ethiopian QQ. Cercolabidse ... — — Nearctic 68. Caviidce 70. Leporidae — — All regions but Australian Edentata. 7 1 . BradypodidcE . . . 73. Dasypodidce ... — — . — 75. MyrTTiecophagidce — — Marsufialia. 76. Didelphyidae.... — — — Temperate N. America BIRDS. Passeres. 1. Turdidee Almost cosmopolite 2. Sylviidae Almost cosmopolite 5. Cinclidse Nearctic, Palaearctic, Oriental 6. Troglodytidse . . . Nearctic, Palaearctic, Oriental 8. Certhiidffi Nearctic, Palaearctic, Oriental 9. Sittidse ... All regions, excl. Africa 10. Paridae Nearctic, Palaearctic, Oriental 20. Corvidae _ __ Cosmopolite 26. Ccerehidce 27. Mniotiltidae ... Nearctic 28. Vireonidae Nearctic 29. Ampelidae Nearctic, Palaearctic 30. Hirundinidae ... Cosmopolite 31. Icteridae Nearctic 32. Tanagridae Nearctic 33. Fringillidae ... All regions bat Australian 38. Motacillidae ... Cosmopolite 38a. Oxyrhamphidce — — 39. Tyra;nnid8e ... — — — — Nearctic 40. Pipridce — — 41. Cotingidce — — — — 42. Phytotomidce ... — 44. Dendrocolaptidce — — — 45. Formicariidce... — — 46. PteroptocMdce... — — • PlCARIiffi. 51. Picidae All regions but Australian 54. Megalaemidae ... — - Ethiopian, Oriental 55. Hhamphastidce — — CHAP. XIV.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 87 Sub-regions. Range beyond the Region. Order and Family. d 1 Chili. 1 '5 1 < 58. Cuculidre Cosmopolite 60. Bucconidce ... — — 61. Galbulidve ... — — 64. Todidoe — 65. Momoddne ... — — 66. Trogonidaj ... — — — Ethiopian, Oriental 67. AlcedinidiB ... — — — Cosmopolite 72. Steatornithidce 73. Caprimulgidse — — — — Cosmopolite 74. Cypselidse ... — — — Almost cosmopolite 75. Trochilidse ... — — Nearctic PSITTACI. 80. Coiiuridse — — ' S. United States 81. Psittacidte ... — — Ethiopian COLUMBAl. 84. Columbidae ... — — — Cosmopolite Galling. 87. Tetraonidfe ... — — — Almost cosmopolite 88. Phasianidse — All regions but Australian 91. Cracidce — — 92. Tinamidce. ... — — — Opisthocomi. 93. Opisthocomidcc- — ACCIPITRKS. 94. Vulturidse .. . — — — — All regions but Australian 96. Falconidae ... — — — — Cosmopolite 97. Pandionidse ... — — — Cosmopolite 98. Strigidse -^ — — — Cosmopolite Grall^. 99. Pallida . — — — — Cosmopolite 100. Scolopacidse — — — — Cosmopolite 101. Chionididce — 102. Thinocoridce — 103. Parridae... — — Tropical regions 105. Charadriidse ." — — — Cosmopolite 108. CariamidcB — — 109. Aramidce — — 110. Fsophiidce — 111. Eurypygidce — — 113. Ardeidpe — — — — Cosmopolite 114. Plataleida; — — ■ — — Almost cosmopolite 115. Ciconiidae — . — — Nearly cosmopolite 116. Palamedeidce — 117. Phoenicopteri Jse — — — Ethiopian, Indian YoL. II.— 7 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGEAPHY. [part in. Sub-regions. Order and Family. Anseres. 118. Anatidse 119. Laridse 120. Procellariidse 121. Pelecanidse ... 122. Spheniscidae... 124. Podicipidae .. Struthiones. 126. Struthionidae REPTILIA. Ophidia. 1. Typhlopidse .. 2. Tortricidse 5. Calamariidae.. 6. Oligodontidae 7. Colubridse .. 8. Homalopsidse 11. Dendrophidie 12. Dryiophidae .. 13. Dipsadidae .. 14. Scytalidae le.Amblycephalidse 17. Pythonidae ... 20. Elapidaj 23. Hydrophidae... 24. Crotalidae Lacertilia. 27. Chirotidae 28. Amphisbaenidae 29. Lepidosternidae 31. Hdodermidce 32. Teidae ... . 34. Zonuridae 35. Chalcidce 36. Anadiadcc . 37. Chirocolidce . 38. Iphisadce 39. Cercosauridce 41. Gyranopthal- midae 45. Scincidae 49. Geckotidae 50. Iguanidae Crocodilia. 55. Crocodilidae ... 56. Alligatoridae... Bangs beyond the Region. Cosmopolite Cosmopolite Cosmopolite Cosmopolite S. temperate zone Cosmopolite EtHopian Tropical regions and S. Palaearctic Oriental, N.-W. America All warm countiies Oriental, Japan Almost cosmopolite All the regions All tropical regions Oriental, Ethiopian All tropical regions Philippine Islands Oriental All tropical regions, California Tropical regions, Japan, S. Carolina Oriental, Australian, Madagascar Nearctic, Palaearctic, Oriental Missouri Ethiopian, S. Palaearctic Ethiopian Nearctic Nearctic, Ethiopian, S. Europe, and N. India Nearctic Australian, Ethiopian, Palaearctic Almost cosmopolite Almost cosmopolite Nearctic (Ethiopian, Oriental, N. Australian I Nearctic CHAP. XIV.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 89 Su -regions. Range beyond the Region. Order and Family. 6 s' 5 '(3 2 CQ 1 "■5 < « Chelonia. 57. Testudinidse ... — All continents but Australian 58. Chelydidse ... Ethiopian, Australian 60. Cheloniidse ... Marine AMPHIBIA. PsEUDOPfllDIA. 1. Ceciliadae — — Oriental, Ethiopian Ukodela. 6. (Salamandridse) — — Nearctic, Palaearctic Anoura. 7. Rhinophnjnidce 8. Phryniscidae ... — — Ethiopian, Australian, Java 9. Hylaplcsidce . . . 10. BufonidiB . \ All continents but Australia 12. Engy-stomidje . . . All regions but Palaearctic 13. Bombinatoridfe — Palaearctic, New Zealand 14. PlectromantidcE — 15. Alytidse All regions but Oriental 16, Pelodryad?e ... — Australia 17. Hylidffi — — All regions but Ethiopian 18. Polypedatidfe . . . — — All the regions 19. Eanidse — — Almost cosmopolite 20. Discoglossidae — — All regions but Nearctic 21. PipidcB — FISHES. (FRESHWATER). ACANTHOPTERYGII. 3. Percidffl — — — All regions but Australian 11. (Trachinidae) — Australia 12. Scienidse K^ — (?) All regions but Austral-an 33. Nandidse Oriental 34. Polycentridoa — 38. Mugillidse (?) — • — Australian, Ethiopian 52. Chromidse — — — — Ethiopian, Oriental Physostomi. 59. Siluridse — — — All warm regions 60. Characinidae ... — — — — Ethiopian 61. Haplochitonidse — S. Australia 67. Galaxidse — Tasmania and New Zealand 73. Cyprinodontidae — — — Absent from Australia 78. Osteoglossidae... All tropical regions 84. Gyiniwtidce 85. Synibranchida e — — Oriental, Australian, (? marine) 90 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [part 111. Sub-regions. Order and Family. • 1 o ■ 1 Range beyond the Region, * 5 1 ' pa 'S a < Dipnoi. i 92. Sirenoidei i Ethiopiaii, Australian Plagiostomata. 1 112. Trygonidce ... i INSECTS. LEPIDOPTERA (PART). DiURNI (Butterflies). 1 . Danaidie . — _ — — All warm regions, and to Canada 2. Satyridffi — — — — Cosmopolite 4. Morphidse — — Australian, Oriental 5. Brassolidce — — 6. Acraeidse — — All tropical regions 7. Heliconiidce ... — — 8. Nymphalidse ... — — — Cosmopolite .9. Libytheidse ... — — Absent from Australia 10. Nemeobiidse ... — — Not in Australia or Nearctic regions 11. Euryyonidce ... — — 12. Erycinidse — — — Nearctic 13. Lycsenidse — — — — Cosmopolite 14. PieridjE — — — — Cosmopolite 15. Papilionidae ... — — — — Cosmopolite 16. Hesperidse — — — — Cosmopolite Sphingidea. 17. Zygienidse — — — — Cosmopolite 18. Castniidse — . — — Austi-alian 20. Uraniidse — — — All tropical regions 21. Stygiidse... — Palsearctic 22. .ffigeriidse — — — — Not in Australia 23. Sphingidse — — • — — Cosmopolite CHAP. XIV.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 91 TABLE 11. GENERA OF TERRESTRIAL MAMMALIA AND BIRDS INHABITING THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. Explanation. Names in italics show the genera peculiar to the region. Names enclosed thus ( ) indicate genera which barely enter the region, and are not considered properly to belong to it. Genera undoubtedly belonging to the region are numbered consecutively. MAMMALIA. Order, Family, and Genus. PRIMATES. Cebid^. 1. Cebus 2. Lagothrix... 3. Eriodes ... 4. A teles 5. Mycetes ... 6. Pitheda ... 7. BracMurtis 8. Nyctipitheciis 9. Saimiris ... 10. Callithrix HAPALID.E. n. Hapale ... 12. Midas CHIROPTERA. Phyllostomid^. 13. Lonchorina 1 4. Macro2}hyUum 1 5. Vampyrus 1 6. Lophostoma 1 7. Phyllostoma 18. Macrotus ... 19. ScMzostoma 2it. Brachyphylla 21. Glossophaga 22. Phylljnycteris 23. Artibeus ... 24. Stenoderma 25. Shirnira ... 26. Desmodus 27. Saccoptcryx o 2 6 o) Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. ■^02 18 Costa Rica to Paraguay 5 Upper Amazon and E. Andes 3 East Brazil, S. of Equator 14 Almost all tropical America 10 E. Guatemala to Paraguay 7 Equatorial Forests 5 Equatorial Forests 5 Nicaragua to Amazonia 3 Costa Rica to Brazil and Bolivia 11 Panama to Paraguay 9 Brazil and Upper Amazon 24 Equatorial America to Panama 1 West Indian Islands 1 Brazil 25 Tropical America and Chili 1 Antilles and Mexico California 5 South America 1 Antilles 8 Tropical America 2 Cuba 4 S.America & Antilles, Costa Rica 7 The whole region 3 Chili to Guatemala 3 Chili to Mexico 1 Ecuador 92 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PABT III. Order, Family, and Genus. 28. Diphylla 29. Centurio VESPERTILIONIDiE. 30. Lasiurus 31. Scotophilus 32. Vespertilio 33. Nycticejus 34. N'atalus 35. Furipterus 36. Thyroptera 37. Nycticellus 38. Taphozous 39. Diclidurus NOCTILIONID^. 40. Noctilio ... 41. 3Iormops 42. Phyllodia 43. Chilonyderis .. 44. Pteronotus 45. Nyctmomus .. 46. Molossus INSECTIVORA. Centetidjb. 47. Solenodon... S0RICID.E. (Sorex ... . CABNIVORA. FELIDiE. 48. Felis ... . CANID.3E. 49. Icticyon ... . 50. Chrysocyon (Lupus ... 51. Lycalopex... 52. PseitdCilopex . 53. Thous ... . MUSTELID^. 54. Mustek ... . 55. Galictis ... 56. Lontra ... . 57. Nutria ... . Range within the Region. 13 Brazil Brazil to Mexico Tropical America Antilles, Mexi-o to S. America The whole region S. Temperate America S. America and Antilles S. America S. America Cuba S. America Brazil Paraguay to W. Indies Antilles and Mexico Jamaica Brazil and "West Indies Trinidad La Plata to Antilles & Costa Rica' Paraguay and ChUi to Antilles Range beyond the Region. Nearctic Nearc, Austral., Orien. Cosmopolite Nearctic, India, Tropical Africa Ethiopian, Oriental, Aus- tro-Malayan Cuba and Hayti Guatemala and Costa Rica) The whole region, excl. Antilles Brazil S. America Mexico to Costa Rica) S. America S. America, Falkland Islands, Tierra del Fuego S. America to Chili Andes of Peru S. America to Chili & Patagonia Central and S. America to Chonos Archipelago W. coast of America to Chiloe S. Nearc, Orien., Madag. Ethiopian, S. Palsearc, Australian All other reg. but Austrl. All regions but Austral. Northern genus All other reg. but Austrl. W. coast of N. America CHAP. XIV.J THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 93 Order, Family, and Genus. Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 58. Pteroniira 59. Mephitis 1 3 Surinam and Brazil Mexico to Sts. of Magellan Nearctic to Canada PR0CY0NI£)jE. 60. Procyon 61. Nasua 62. Cercoleptes '63. Bassaris 1 5 1 2 Tropical America Mexico to Paraguay & La Plata Mexico to Peru and N. Brazil Mexico and Guatemala Nearctic to Canada California and Texas Ursid^. 64. Tremarctos 1 Andes of Peru and Chili OTARIIDiE. 65. Otaria 66. Arctocephalus ... 1 1 Chili, La Plata, and Patagonia Falkland Islands & Cape Horn New Zealand Phocid.*:. 67. Stenorhynchus 68. Lobodon 69. Leptonyx 70. Ommatophoca... 71. Morunga 72. Cystophora 1 1 1 1 1 1 Falkland Islands Antarctic shores Antarctic shores, E. Patagonia Antarctic shores Falkland Islands Antilles New Zealand S Australia California, S. temp, zone N. Atlantic CETACEA. Delvhinid^. 73. Inia 1 Upper Amazon SIRENIA. MANATID.a;. 74. Manatus UNGULATA. 1 Gulf of Mexico to N. Brazil, Amazon R. W. Africa TAPIRip.a!. 75. Tapirus 76. Elasmognathus 2 1 Equatorial S. America Panama to Guatemala Indo-Malaya ^VIDM. 77. Dicotyles 2 Mexico to Paraguay Texas Camelivm. 78. Auchenia 4 Temp. S. America, from Cape Horn to Andes of Peru CERVID.E. 79. Cervus RODENTIA- 12 Mexico to Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego All regions but Ethiopian and Australian MURID^. 80. Reithrodon 4 South Temp. America to Tierra del Fuego United States 94 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [part hi. Order, Family, and Genus. 81. Acodon ... 82. Myxomijs . . . 83. Hesperomys 84. Holochihis 85. Oxymycterus 86. Drymomys 87. Neotomys... (Fiber ... SACCOMYIDiE. 88. Heteromys SCIURID.E. 89. Sciurus Chinchillid^. 90. Chinchilla 91. Lagidium 92. Lagostomus OCTOUONTID^. 93. Habrocomus .. 94. Caproviys 95. Plxgiodontia . . 96. Spalacopus 97. Octodon .. .. 98. Ctenomys ECHIMYID^. 99. Dadylomys .. 100. Cerconys 101. Lasiuromys .. 102. Myopotamus .. 103. Carterodon .. 104. Mcsomys 105. Echimys 106. Lonelier es CERCOtABID^. 107. Cercolabes 108. Cluctomys CAVIID.E. 109. Dasyprocta . 110. Calogenys 111. Hydrochcerus 112. C'avia 113. Kerodon... . 114. Dolichotis 30 Range beyond the Region Peru, 14,000 ft. elevation Guatemala The whole region S. America Brazil and La Plata Peru S. America Mexico) Mexico, Honduras, Costa Rica & Trinidad Mexico to Paraguay Andes of Chili and Pern Chili to Ecuador (11,000 to 16,000 ft.) Uruguay to Rio Negro of Patagonia Chili Cuba and Jamaica Hayti Chili and E. of Andes Chili, Peru, and Bolivia S. Brazil to Tierra del Fuego Guiana and Brazil Central Brazil St. Paulo, Brazil S. half of tropical S. America Central Brazil Upper Amazon Equatorial America to Paraguay New Granada to Brazil Mexico to Paraguay N. Brazil Paraguay to Mexico and Lesser Antilles Guatemala to. Paraguay Guiana to La Plata Brazil and Peru to Magellan Sts Brazil and Peru to Magellan Sts. The Pampas and Patagonia Nearctic Nearctic genus All reg. but Australian CHAP. XIV.J THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 95 Order, Family, and Genus. V. en O a ^1 Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region LEPORIDiB. 115. Lepus EDENTATA. 1 Central Brazil and Andes, Costa Rica to Me.xieo All regions but Austral. Bradypodid^. 116. Choloepus 117. Bradypus 118..^ rdopithecus . . . 2 2 8 Costa Rica to Brazil Amazon to Rio de Janeiro Costa Rica to Brazil and Bolivia DASYPODiD.a;. 119. Tatusia 120. Prionodontes ... 121. Dasypus 122. Xcnurus 123. Tohjpeutcs ... 124. Chlainydophorus 5 1 4 3 2 2 Rio Grande, Texas, to Patagonia Surinam to Paraguay Brazil to Chili and La Plata, Costa Rica ? Guiana to Paraguay, Costa Rica ? Bolivia and La Plata La Plata and Bolivia Myrmecophagid^. 125. Myrmecopliaga 126. Tamandua ... 127. Cyclothurus ... MARSUPIALIA. 1 2 2 Costa Rica ?, & N. Braz.,to Parag. Guatemala to Paraguay Honduras and Costa Rica to Paraguay DiDELPHYID*. 128. Didelphys ... 129. Chironcctes ... 130. Hyracodon ... 20 1 1 Mexico to Uruguay and S. Chili Guiana and Brazil, Costa Rica Ecuador Temperate N. America BIRDS. PASSERES. TURDID.S;. 1. Turdus ... .. 32 The whole reg. to Tierra del Fuego 2. Rhodinocichla 1 Mexico to Venezuela 3. Melanoptila 1 Honduras 4. Catharus ... .. 10 Mexico to Ecuador and Columbia 5. Margarops 4 Hayti and Lesser Antilles 6. Mimus .. 16 Nearly the whole region 7. Melanotis... 2 Mexico and Guatemala 8. Galeoscoptes 1 Mexico to Panama 9. Mimocichla 4 Cuba to Porto Rico (Harporhynchi IS 3 Mexico) 10. CiTicloccrthia 3 Lesser Antilles 11. Bamphocinclus 1 Martinique and St. Lucia SYLVIID.S; 12. Myiadestes 8 Mexico and Antilles to Peru and Bolivia Almost cosmopolite Nearctic Nearctic Nearctic genus N. & W. of N. America 96 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [part hi. Order, Family, and Genus. 13. Cichlopsis (Sialia 14. Regulus . 15. Polioptila ClNCLID^. 16. Cinclus .. Troglodytid^.. 17. Troglodytes . 18. Thryophilus . 19. Thryothoruo 20. Cistothorus 21. Donacohivs 22. Campy lorhynclius 23. Cyphorhinus . . . 24. Microcercuhts ... 25. Henicorhina ... (Salpinctes (Catherpes 26. Cinniccrthia . . . 27. Uropsila Ceethiid^ (Certhia SlTTID^. (Sitta Parid^. (Parus (Lophophanes... (Psaltripams ... CoRViD.ffi;. 28. Cyanocitta 29. Cyanocorax 30. Calocitta 31. Psilqrhinus 32. Corvus CCEREBID^. ?. Diglossa ... 34. Diglossopis 35. Orcomanes 36. Conirostrum 37. Hemidacnis 38. Dacnis 39. Cerlhidca. . Brazil Mexico and Guatemala) Mexico and Guatemala Mexico and Cuba to Bolivia and La Plata Mexico to Venezuela and Peru Mexico to Straits of Magellan Mexico to Central Brazil Mexico to S. Brazil Mexico to Chili and Patagonia Columbia to Brazil and Bolivia Mexico to Brazil and Bolivia Costa Rica to Peru Mexico to Peru Mexico to Peru Mexico and Guatemala) Mexico) Columbia and Ecuad )r Mexico Mexico and GuatemaLi Range beyond the Region. Mexico) Mexico) Mexico) Mexico and Guatemala) Mexico to Peru and Bolivia Mexico to Paraguay, Jamaica Mexico to Guatemala Mexico to Costa Rica Mexico to Guatemala, Cuba to Porto Rico Mexico to Guiana, Peru, and Bolivia Venezuela to Ecuador Ecuador Columbia to Bolivia Columbia and Upper Amazon Costa Rica to Guiana & S. Brazil Galapagos Islands United States & Canada Nearctic, Palsearctic Can. and S. U. States Nearctic, Palsearctic Nearctic, Palsearctic N.-W. America N. America N. America New Mexico Nearctic genus Gila and Colorado North temperate genus North temperate genus Nearc, Palsearc. , Orient. North temperate genus Nearctic Nearctic Cosmop., excl. S. Amer CHAP. XIV. J THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 97 Order, Family, and Genus. 0.2 . o o razil and Columbia Mexico to Paraeuay and Bolivin Rang3 beyond the Region. All U. States & Canada E. U. States and Canada All U. States & Canada All U. States & Canada Nearctic genus All U. States & Canada Nearctic genus S. and E. United States to Labrador U. States and Canada CHAP. XIV.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 99 ■» M Order, Family, and Genus. o_2 4 Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 122. Lanio Mexico to Bolivia 123. Eucometis 5 Costa Rica to Bolivia 124. Trichothraupis 1 S. Brazil aud Paraguay- 125. Creurgops 1 West Ecuador 126. Tachyphonus n Nicaragua to Paraguay 127. Cypsnagra 1 S. Brazil and Bolivia 128. Nemosia 11 Venezuela, W. Ecuador, to Bra- zil aud Bolivia 129. Pyrrhocoma ... 1 S. Brazil and Paraguay 130. Chlorospingus 18 Mexico to Peru and Bolivia 131. BuarreTnon ... 20 Mexico to S. Brazil and Bolivia 132. Phcenicophilus 1 Hayti 133. Arrcmmi 12 Mexico to S. BrazU 134. Oreothraupis . . . 1 East Ecuador 135. Cissopis 3 Columbia to Peru and Bolivia 136. Lamprospiza... 1 Guiana 137. Psittospiza 2 Columbia to Peru 138. Saltator 17 Mexico to La Plata and Bolivia 139. Diucopis 2 Upper Amazon and S. Brazil 140. Orchesiicus ... 3 Tropical S. America 141. Pitylus 8 Mexico to Brazil and Ecuador Fringillid^e. 142. Chrysomitris... 12 Mexico to Brazil, Chili and Patagonia Nearctic, Palgearctic 143. Sycalis 9 Mexico to Chili and La Plata. Jamaica 144. Coccothraustes 2 Mexico and Guatemala Nearctic, Palaearctic 145. Geospiza 7 Galapagos Islands 146. Camarhynchus 5 Galapagos Islands 147. Cactornis 4 Galapagos Islands 148. Phrygilus 10 Columbia to Fuegia and Falk- land Islands 149. Xenospingus . . . 1 Peru 150. Diuca 3 Peru, Chili, and Patagonia 151. Emberizoides... 3 Venezuela to Paraguay 152. Donacospiza ... 1 S. Brazil and La Plata 153. Chamocospiza 1 Mexico 154. Embemagra ... 9 Mexico to La Plata Rocky Mountains 155. Hcemophila ... 6 Mexico to Costa Kica 156. Atlapetes 1 Mexico Nearctic ? 157. Pyrgisoma ... 5 Mexico to Costa Rica 158. Pipilo 4 Mexico to Guatemala All Nearctic region 159. Jirnco 2 Mexico and Guatemala United States 160. Zonotrichia ... 5 Mexico to Straits of Magellan Nearctic (Melospiza ... 2 Mexico and Guatemala) Nearctic genus (Spizella 3 Mexico and Guatemala) Nearctic genus (Passerculus ... Mexico and Guatemala) Nearctic genus (Pooecetes Mexico) Nearctic genus 161. Ammodraraus Guatemala Nearctic 162. Coturniculus . . . Mexico to Bolivia, Jamaica E. & N. of N. America 163. Peucsea Mexico S. E. States & CaHfomia 164. Tiaris BrazU 165. Volatinia Mexico to Brazil 100 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY- [part in. Order, Family, aud Genus. (Cyanospiza ... 166. Paroaria 167. Coryphospingus 168. Porjjhyrospiza 169. Haplospiza ... 170. Fhonipara ... 171. Poospiza 172. Spodiornis (Carpodacus ... 173. Cardinalis 174. Guiraca 175. Amaurospiza 176. Hedymeles ... 177. PJicucticus ... 178. Oryzoboriis ... 179. Mclopyrrha ... 180. Loxigilla 181. Spcrmophila . . . 182. Catamenia ... 183. Neorhynchiis . . . 184. .Catambly- ) rhynchus \"' (Loxia (Calamospiza (Chondestes ... (Euspiza 185. Gubcrnatrir. ... (Plectrophanes ALA.TJDID.a!. 186. Otocorys MoTACILLID^;. 187. Anthus OxYRHAMPnTD.S:. 187a. Oxyrhamphus TYR\NNID.ffi!. 188. Conophaga ... 189. Corythopis 190. Agriornis 191. Myiotherdes ... 192. Tcenioptcpa ... 193. Ochthodiceta ... 194. Ochthceca 195. Sayornis 196. Fluvicola 197. Arundinicola 108. Aledorurus ... 11 2 5 3 8 1 17 4 4 1 2 Range beyond the Region. Mexico aud Central America) Trop. S. America, E. of Andes Tropical S. America Brazil Mexico and Brazil Mexico to Columbia, Greater Antilles Mexico to Bolivia aud La Plata Ecuador Mexico) Mexico to Venezuela Mexico to Brazil and La Plata Costa Rica and Brazil Mexico to Columbia Mexico to Peru and Bolivia Mexico to Ecuador and S. Brazil Cuba Antilles Mexico to Bolivia and Uruguay Columbia to Bolivia W. Peru Columbia Mexico) Mexico) Mexico) Mexico to Columbia) Paraguay and La Plata Mexico) Nearctic W. & Central U. States Nearctic, Palsearctic S. & S. Cent. U. States Southern U. States Nearctic Texas North temperate genus Arizona and Texas W. and Cent. U. States S. -E. U. States, Palsearc. N. temp. & Arctic genus Mexico, Andes of Columbia Nearc. & Palsearc, genus Mexico to Patagonia and Falk- land Islands Brazil to Costa Rica Columbia to Bolivia and Brazil Brazil and Guiana Ecuador, Peru, and Chili Columbia to Ecuador, Patagonia S. Brazil and Bolivia to Patago. Columbian Andes Andes, Bolivia to Columbia and Venezuela Mexico to Ecuador Guiana & W. Ecuador to Brazil, and Bolivia Tropical S. Am^ica S. Brazil and La Plata Cosmopolite E. United Sts. to Canada CHAP. XIV.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 101 Order, Family, and Genus. 199. Cybernetes 200. Sysopygis 201. Ciiipolegus ... 202. Lichenops 203. Muscipipra ... 204. Copuriis 205. Machctornis ... 206. Muscisaxicola 207. Centrites 208. Muscigralla ... 209. Platyrhynchus 210. Todirostrum . . . 211. Oncosutma 212. Euscarthmit^ . . . 213. Orchilus 214. Colopterus 215. Hcmitriccus ..,. 216. Pkylloscartes ... 217. Hapaloccrcus... 218. Habrura 219. Pogoiwtriccus... 220. Leptotriccus ... 221. Stigmatura ... 222. Serphophaga ... 223. Anceretes 224. Cyanotis 225. Mionectes 226. Leptopogon 227. Capsiempis . . . 228. Phyllomyias ... 229. Ornithion 230. Tyrannulus ... 231. Tyranniscus ... 232. Elainea 233. Empidagra ... 234. Legatus 235. Sublegatus ... 236. Myiozetdes ... 237. Rhynchocyclus 238. CoHopias 239. Pitangus 240. Sirystcs 241. Myiodynastes .. 242. Megarhynchus 243. Muscivora 244. Hirutidinea ... 245. Cnipodedes ... 246. Myiobius 247. Pyrocephalus... 15 p, 1 1 9 1 1 3 1 11 2 1 7 11 2 12 2 2 1 1 3 1 2 2 2 7 4 1 4 6 1 5 4 3 9 18 1 2 2 8 10 3 7 2 6 1 5 3 1 13 Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. Brazil S. Brazil and La Plata Amazonia to Patagonia Brazil and J.,a Plata S. Brazil Costa Rica to S. Brazil Venezuela to Brazil Andes of Ecuador to Chili and Patagonia Bolivia to Patagonia W. Ecuador Mexico to Brazil Tropical N. and S. America Tropical N. America Costa Rica to W. Ecuador, Brazil, and Bolivia Costa R ica to Brazil and Bolivia Veragua to Columbia and Guiana Brazil Columbia to Brazil Brazil to Chili and La Plata Uruguay Brazil and Columbia Brazil and Veragua Upper Amazon to La Plata Columbia to Chili and La Plata Columbia to Chili and La Plata, Magell. Sts. & Juan Fernand, "W. Peru to La Plata Mexico to Brazil and Bolivia Mexico to Peru and Brazil Chiriqui to Brazil Columbia to Brazil Mexico to Brazil Guatemala to Amazonia Guatemala to E. Peru Mexico to Tierra del Fuego, An- tilles Bolivia and La Plata Mexico to Brazil Venezuela and Lower Amazon Mexico to W. Peru and Brazil Mexico to W. Ecuador & Brazil Venezuela to Peru and Brazil Mexico to La Plata, Antilles Panama to Brazil Mexico to Bolivia and Paraguay Mexico to Brazil Mexico to W. Ecuador & Brazil Columbia & Guiana to Paraguay Panama to W. Ecuador & Amazon Mexico to W. Peni, Bolivia, and La Plata Tropical N. and S. America and Galapagos Islands Gila and Rio Granae 102 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [part III. Order, Family, and Genus. 248. Empidochanes 249. Mitrcpliorus ... 250. Empidonax ... 251. Coiitopus 252. Myiodmnes ... 253. Myiarchus ... 254. Blacicus (Empidias 255. Empidonoimis 256. Tyrannus 257. Milvulus PlPRID.iB. 258. Piprites 259. Masi'us 260. Chlcn'opipo 261. Xenopipo 262. Pyjra 263. Neopipo 264. Machceropterus 265. llicura 266. Chiroodphia ... 267. Mctopia 268. Metopothrix ... 269. Chiromachoeris 270. Hetoro2)elma ... 271. Hcterocercvs ... 272. Schiffornis ... COTINGID^. 273. Tityra 274. Hadrostomus . . . 275. Paclujliamphus 276. Lathria 277. Aulia 278. Lipaugus 279. PtiloMoris ... 280. Jltila 281. Casiornis 282. Rupicola 233. Phoenicoccrcios 284. Tijuca 235. Phibalura 236. Piprcola 287. Ampclio 288. Carpodedes ... 289. Heliochcera ... 290. Cotinga 291. XipholevM 292. lodopUura ... 293. Calyptura 294. Qiceriila Range beyond the Region. Venezuela to S. Brazil. Mexico to Costa Rica Mexico to Columbia & Ecuador Mexico to Amazonia, Antilles Amazonia and Brazil Mexico to W. Ecuador & Brazil, Galapagos and Antilles Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica Mexico) Guiana and Brazil All tropical sub-regions Tropical N. and S. America Costa Rica to Brazil Columbia and Ecuador Columbia Guiana and Columbia Trop. N. and S. America Upper Amazon Columbia to Brazil Brazil Guatemala to Brazil Brazil Upper Amazon Mexico to Ecuador and Brazil Mexico to Guiana and Brazil Guiana and Upper Amazon Upper Amazon and Brazil Tropical N. and S. America Mexico to W. Ecuador & Brazil, Jamaica Mexico to W. Ecuador & Brazil Mexico to Brazil Veragua to Brazil Guatemala to Brazil and Guiana Brazil Costa Rica to Brazil and Guiana S. Brazil to Paraguay Guiana to W. Ecuador & Bolivia Guiana and Amazonia Brazil Brazil Venezuela to Ecuador and Peru Columbia to Peru and Brazil Nicaragua and Costa Rica Columbia to Peru and Bolivia Guatemala to Peru and Brazil Guiana to Brazil Guiana to Brazil Brazil Panama to Amazonia All N. America N. & E. of Rocky Mtns. East and "West Coasts to Canada Eastern United States All U. States to Canada Texas CHAP. XIV.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 103 Order, Family, and Genus. 4 Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 295. ITcematoderus 1 Guiana and Lower Amazon 296. Chas-morhynchiis 4 Costa Rica to Guiana and Brazil 297. Gyrmiocephaltis 1 Guiana and Rio Negro 298. Gymnodcnis ... 1 Guiana and Upper Amazon 299. Ft/7-odcrus 3 Venezuela to Brazil 300. Cepluilopterus 3 Costa Rica to W. Ecuador & Upr. Amazon Phytotomid^. 301. Phytotoma 3 Bolivia, Chili, and La Plata DENDROCOLAPTIDiE. 302. Gcobates 1 South Brazil 303. Geositta 6 Peru to Chili and Patagonia 304. Furnarius 9 Guiana & W. Ecuador to La Plata 305. Clibanoruis ... 1 S. Brazil 306. Upticerthia ... 4 Andes of Ecuador to Chili and Patagonia 307. Cmclodcs 5 Ecuador to Chili, Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego 308. Henicornis ... 2 Patagonia 309. Lochmias 2 Venezuela and Brazil 310. Sclerurus 6 Mexico to Brazil 311. Oxyurus 2 Chili to Tierra del Fuego, and Masafuera Islands 312. Sylviorthor- hynch/us 1 Chili 313. Phloeocrypfxs ... 1 W. Peru to La Plata 314. Leptastlicnura 5 Andes of Ecuador to Brazil and Patagonia 315. Synallaxis ... 55 The whole region (excl. Antilles) 316. Coryphistera ... 1 La Plata 317. Anumbius ... 1 Paraguay and La Plata « 318. Limnornis 1 Uruguay and La Plata 319. Placcllodomiis 4 Venezuela to Peru and La Plata 320. Thripop)haga . . . 3 Brazil and Columbia 321. Pseicdocolaptes 1 Columbia to Peru 322. ffoniorus 3 Brazil, Bolivia, and La Plata 323. Thripadedcs ... 1 Columbia 324. Ancistrops 1 Upper Amazon 325. Automolus ... 9 Mexico to Amazonia 326. Philydor 14 Tropical South America 327. Relioblettis .. 1 Brazil 328. Anabatoides ... 1 Brazil 329. Aiubbazenops ... 5 Mexico to Brazil 330. ZcHO/;* 3 Trop. North and South America 331. Sittasomus 3 Mexico to Ecuador and Brazil 332. Margarornis ... 4 Costa Rica to Peru and Bolivia 333. Glyphorhynchiis 1 Trop. North and South America 334. Pygarrhicus ... 1 Chili 335. Dcndrodncla . . . 10 Mexico to Venezuela and Brazil 336. Dendrocolaptes 7 Guatemala to Peru and Brazil 337. iVaw'ca 1 Guiana 338. Drymornis ... 1 La Plata 339. Xiphocolaptes 5 Mexico to Bolivia and Paraguay Vol. II.— ^ 104 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [part III. Order, Family, and Genus. 2 Range within the Region. 340. Dendrcxdastes Guiana 341. Dendrornis ... 14 Mexico, W. Ecuador and Brazil 342. Dendroplcx ... 2 Columbia & Venezuela to Brazil 343. Picolaptcs 14 Mexico to Bolivia and La Plata 344. Xiphorhynchus 4 Veragua to Brazil FORMICARITD^. 345. Cymbilanius ... 1 Amazonia and Guiana 346. Batara 1 S. Brazil 347. Thamnophihis 47 Trop. North and South America 348. Biatas 1 Brazil 349. Thamtiistes ... 2 Central America and Ecuador 350. Pygoptila 2 Amazonia 351. Neodantcs 1 Amazonia 352. Clytoctantcs . . . 1 Eastern Ecuador 353. Dysithavmus... 12 Mexico to Bolivia and Brazil 354. Thamnomaiies 2 Ecuador, Guiana, and Brazil 355. HerpsilocJimus 4 Venezuela to Brazil and Bolivia 356. Myrmotherula 21 Tropical S. America 357. Formicivora ... 14 Trop. North and South America 358. Terenura 3 Veragua to W. Ecuador & Brazil 369. Fsilorhamphios 1 Central Brazil 360. Microhates 1 Cayenne 361. Rhaiiiphoccemis 4 Guatemala to Brazil 362. Cercoraacra ... 9 Cen. America to W. Equador & S. Brazil 363. Pyriglcna 4 Ecuador to Peru and Brazil 364. Gymnocichla ... 2 Honduras to Panama 365. Percnostola ... 3 Guiana and Upper Amazon 366. Heterocncmis... 3 Guiana and Uj)per Amazon 367. Myrmeciza ... 11 Veragua to W. Ecuador, Bolivia, and Brazil 368. Hypocncmis ... 15 Costa Rica toW. Ecuador & Brazil 369. P/%s 5 Nicaragua to Amazonia 370. Rhopoierpe, ... 1 Guiana 371. Phlogopsis 4 Nicaragua to Guiana and Bolivia 372. Formicarius ... 9 Mexico to Brazil and Bolivia 373. PittasoTna 1 Panama and Veragua 374. Chamceza 4 Columbia to Brazil 375. Grallaria 20 Mexico to W. Ecuador & Brazil 376. Grallaricula ... 5 Costa Eica to Ecuador Pteroptochid^. 377. Scyialopics 8 Columbia & Brazil to Chili and Tierra del Fuego 378. Merulaxis 1 Central Brazil 379. Rhinocrypta ... 2 La Plata and Patagonia 380. Liosceles 1 Madeira Valley- 381. Pteroptochus ... 2 Chili and Chiloe 382. Hijladcs 3 Chili 383. Acroptcrnis .. 1 Columbia and Ecuador 384. Triptorhiniis... 1 Chili Range beyond the Region. CHAP. XIV.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 105 Order, Family, and Genus. 0.2 . o IS. Rang within the Region. Range beyond the Region. PICARIiE. TlClDX. 385. Picumnus 14 Honduras to Brazil and Bolivia 386. Picus 6 Mexico, Chili, La Plata, and All reg. but Austral. & S. Patagonia Ethiopian (Sphyrapicus... 1 Mexico and Guatemala) Nearctic genus 87. Campephilus... 12 Mexico to Patagonia, Cuba Nearctic 388. Dryocopiis 4 Mexico to S. Brazil Palsearctic 389. Cclcus 15 Mexico and S. Brazil S90. Nesoceleiis 1 Cuba 391. Chrysoptilus ... 6 Tropical S. America 392. Centurus 10 Mexico to Venezuela, Antilles Nearctic 393. Chlormurpes ... 35 Tropical America, Hayti 394. Xiphidiopicus 1 Cuba 395. Melanerpes ... 9 Mexico to Brazil, Porto Rico Nearctic 396. Leuconerpcs ... 1 Brazil, Bolivia 397. Colaptes 7 Open country of trop, America, Greater Antilles Nearctic 398. Hypoxanthus . . . 1 Venezuela and Ecuador Megal^mid^. 399. Capita 10 Costa Rica to Peru and Guiana 400. Tetragonops .. 2 Costa Rica and Ecuador Ehamphastid^. 401. Rha-mphastos... 12 All tropical America 402. Ptcroglossus ... 16 Mexico to Guiana and Brazil 403. Sdenidera 7 Veragua to Brazil , 404. Andigcna 6 Columbia to W. Ecuador, Bolivia and Brazil 405. Aulacorhamphus 10 Mexico to Venezuela and Bolivia CUCULID^. 406. CrQtophaga ... 3 Tropical America and Antilles Nearctic to Pennsylvania 407. Guira 1 Brazil and Paraguay 408. Neomorphus ... 4 Nicaragua to Brazil [and Upper Amazon 409. Geococcyx 1 Guatemala Texas to Calfornia 410. Dromococcyx ... 2 Mexico to Brazil 411. Diplopterus ... 1 Mexico to Ecuador and Brazil 412. Saurothera ... 4 Greater Antilles 413. Hyetornis 2 Jamaica and Hayti 414. Pimja 3 ^Mexico to W. Ecuador & Brazil 415. Morococcyx ... 1 Mexico to Costa Rica 416. Coccygus 10 Tropical America and Antilles, Cocos Islands Nearctic BUCCONIDiE. 417. Pucco 21 Guatemala to Guiana, Paraguay and Bolivia 418. Malacoptila ... 10 Guatemala to Guiana, W. Ecua- dor and Bolivia 419. Konnula 5 Columbia and Amazonia 106 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [part hi. Order, Family, and Genus. = s 7 Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 420. MoTiasa Costa Rica to Brazil 421. CheHdo2)tera ... 2 Columbia to Guiana and Brazil GALBRILID.E. 422. Galbula 9 Guatemala to Brazil and Bolivia 423. Urogalba 2 Guiana to Lower Amazon 424. Brachygalba ... 4 Columbia to Brazil and Bolivia 425. Jacamaralcyon 1 Brazil 426. Jacamcrops ... 2 Columbia to Amazonia 427. Galbalcyrhyn ) chus ... ) 1 Upper Amazon TODIDiB. 428. Todiis 5 Greater Antilles MOMOTID^ffi. 429. Momotus 10 Mexico to "W. Ecuador, Brazil and Bolivia 430. JJrospatlia 1 Costa Rica to Columbia 431. Baryphthengus 1 Brazil and Paraguay- 432. Hylommus ... 2 Mexico and Guatemala 433. Prionirhynchus 2 Guatemala to Upper Amazon 434. Eumomota ... 1 Honduras to Chi ri qui Trogonid^. 435. Prionotclcs ... 1 Cuba 436. Tcmnotrogon ... 1 Hayti 437. TrogoH 22 Mexico to W. Ecuador & Parag. 438. Euptilotis 1 Mexico 439. Pharomacrus 5 Guatemala to Upper Amazon and Bolivia Alcedinid^. 440. Ceryle 8 Mexico to Brazil, Patagonia and Chili Nearc, S.PalsearCjOricn. Steatobnithid^. • 441. Steatornis 1 Columb., Venezuela, & Trinidad Caprimulgid^. 442. Nyctibius 6 Brazil to Guatemala & Jamaica 443. Hydropsalis ... 8 Columbia & Guiana to La Plata 444. Antrostomus... 10 Mexico and Cuba to Bolivia and La Plata All U. States to Canada 445. Stenopsis 4 Martinique to Columb., W. Peru and Chili 446. Siphonorhis ... 1 Jamaica 447. Ileleothreptus 1 Central Brazil 448. Nyctidromus ... 1 Central America to S. Brazil 449. Podager 1 Tropical S. America 450. Lurocalis 2 Guiana to Brazil 451. Chordeiles ... 7 Mexico to W. Peru and Brazil Jamaica and Porto Rico AU U. States to Canada 452. Nyctiprognc ... 1 Amazonia CHAP. XIV.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 107 Order, Family, and Genus. Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. CYPSELIDiE. 453. Cypselus 3 Antilles to Guiana and Bolivia The Eastern Hemisphere 454. Panyptila 3 Guatemala and Guiana 455. Chsetura 9 Mexico to Ecuador and Brazil Almost eosmopolite 456. Hemiprocne ... 3 Mexico to La Plata, Jamaica and Hayti 457. Cypseloidcs . . . 2 Brazil and Peru 458. Nephoecetcs ... 1 Jamaica TROCHILIDiE. 459. Grypihs 1 Brazil 460. Androdon • 1 Ecuador 461. Eutoxeres 2 Costa Rica to Ecuador 462. Glaitcis 2 Panama to Brazil 463. Phaethornis ... 14 Tropical N. and S. America 464. Pygmornis ... 8 Mexico to Guiana and Brazil 465. Threnetes 4 Costa Rica to Amazonia and W. Ecuador 466. Dolerisca 1 Venezuela 467. Eupctomcna ... 1 Guiana to Brazil 468. Splmioproctus 2 Mexico to Guatemala 469. Campylopterus 9 Mexico to Amazonia 470. Phceochroa ... 2 Guatemala to Columbia 471. Aphantochroa 3 Ecuador and Brazil 472. Urochroa 1 Ecuador 473. Sternoclyta ... 1 Venezuela 474. Eugenes 2 Mexico to Costa Rica 475. Coeiigena 1 Mexico 476. Lainprolccma... 1 Mexico and Guatemala 477. Delattria 2 Guatemala 478. Orcopxjra 4 Costa Rica to Chiriqui 479. Heliopce-dica ... 2 Mexico and Guatemala 480. Topazos 2 Guiana 481. Oreotrochilus... 6 Ecuador to Peru and Chili 482. Lamporjiis ... 7 Mexico & W. India to Amazonia 483. Eulamjjis 2 Lesser Antilles 484. Avocettula 1 Guiana 485. Lafresnaya ... 2 Venezuela and Columbia 486. Doryphora ... 5 Costa Rica to Ecuador 487. Chalyhira ... 5 Costa Rica to Columbia 488. Heliododca 5 Costa Rica to Venezue. & Boliv. 489. loloema 2 Ecuador to Peru 490. Phceolcema ... 2 Columbia and Ecuador 491. Eugenia 1 Ecuador 492. Aithurv^ 1 Jamaica 493. Thalurania ... 10 Costa Rica to Guiana, Ecuador and Brazil 494. Panoplites 3 Columbia and Ecuador 495. Florisuga 2 Guatemala to Brazil 496. Microchera ... 2 Nicaragua to Veragua 497. Lophorius 7 Mexico to Brazil, Peru, & Bolivin 498. Polemistria ... 2 Columbia to S. Brazil 499. Discura 2 Brazil • 500. Gouldia 4 Costa Rica to Brazil & Bolivia 108 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [part III. Order, Family, and Genus. 501. Trocliiius 502. Mclliiiiim 503. Calyptt 504. Selasphorus ... 505. Atthis 50G. Stcllula 507. Calothorax ... 508. Acestrura 509. Chcetocercus ... 510. Myrtis 511. Thaumastura 512. Rhodopis 513. Doricha ... 514. Tilmatura 515. Calliphlox 516. Loddigesia 517. Stcgaiiura 518. Lcsbia 519. Cynanthus 520. Sparganura ... 521. Pteropiianes ... 522. Aglceadis 523. Oxypogon 524. Oreonym/plm ... 525. Rhajnphomicron 526. Urosticte 527. Metallura 528. Adelomia 529. Avoccttinus ... 530. Anthocephala . . . 531. ChrysoHampis . . . 532. Orthorhynchus 533. Cephalolepis. ... 634. CTais 535. Baucis 536. Heliactin 537. Heliothrix 538. Schistes 539. Phlogophihis . . . 540. Augastes 541. Pctasojjhora ... 542. Chrysohronchus 543. Patagona 544. Docimastes 545. Helianthea 546. Heliotrypha ... 547. Helinngelus ... 548. Diphlogoena ... 549. Glytolceina 550. Boiircieria 551. Za ynpropygia . . . 552. Hdiomastes .. 553. Lcpidolarynx... 554. Calliperidia ... 555. Eustephaniis .. 'f> ^ Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. Mexico to Veragua Jamaica to Hayti Mexico and Cuba Mexico to Veragua Mexico and Guatemala Mexico Mexico Venezuela to Ecuador & Bolivia Venezuela and Ecuador Ecuador to Bolivia, W. of Andes W. Peru W. Peru and Chili Mexico to Veragua, Bahamas Guatemala Ecuador and Brazil Peruvian Andes Venezuela to Ecuador & Bolivia Columbia to Peru Venezuela to Ecuador Columbia to Bolivia & La Plata Columbia to Peru Columbia xo Bolivia Venezuela and Columbia Peru Columbia to Bolivia Ecuador Columbia to Bolivia Venezuela to Peru & Bolivia Columbia Columbia Venezuela to Brazil Lesser Antilles Brazil Venezuela and Columbia Mexico to Veragua Brazil Guatemala to Ecuador & Brazil Columbia and Ecuador Ecuador Brazil Mexico to Peru and Brazil Venezuela to Brazil Ecuador to Bolivia and Chili Columbia and Ecuador Columbia to Bolivia Columbia and Ecuador Venezuela to Peru Bolivia E. Ecuador and Brazil Venezuela to Peru Venezuela to Bolivia Mexico to Ecuador & Venezuela Brazil Central Brazil and Paraguay Chili, S. Patagonia, and Juan Fernandez Islands To Canada and Sitka W. & Cen. United States California and Colorado CHAP. XIV.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 109 556. Erioaiemis ... 557. Cyanomyia ... 558. Hemistilbon ... 559. Leucippus 560. Thaumatias .. 561. Amazilia 562. Saiocerottia ... 563. Euphcrusa ... 564. Chrysuronia ... 565. Etccephala 566. Pantcrpe 567 Juliamyia 568. Circe 569. Phceoptila 570. Damophila ... 571. Hylocharis ... 572. Sapphiro7iia ... 573. Sporadinus ... 574. C/; lorostilbon . . . 575. Panychlora ... 576. Smaragdochrysis- PSITTACI. CoNURiD.a:. 577. ^ra 578. Rhyncopsitta ... 579. Henicognathus 580. Conurus 581. Pyrrhura 582. Bolhorhynchus 583. Brotogerys P.SITTACIDiE. 584. Caica 585. Chrysotis 586. Triclaria 587. Deroptyics 588. Pionits 589. Urochroma ... 590. Psittacida COLUMBiE. 591. Columba 592. Zenaidura 593. Chamoepelia .., 594. Columhula 595. Scardafella ... 596. Zcnaida ... ... 14 6 1 2 15 14 7 3 5 7 1 2 3 1 1 3 2 3 8 3 1 Venezuela to Ecuador Mexico to Peru Mexico Peru and Bolivia Mexico to Guiana, Upr. Amazon, and Brazil Mexico to W. Ecuador & Peru Costa Rica to Colunib. & Venezue. Mexico to Veragua Guatemala to Ecuador & La Plata Venezuela to Guiana and Brazil Costa Rica and Chiriqui Panama to Ecuador Mexico Mexico Costa Rica to Ecuador Amazonia and Brazil Columbia and Veragua Cuba, Bahamas, Hay ti, Porto Rico Mexico to Brazil and La Plata Venezuela and Columbia Brazil Trop. North and South America, Cuba, Jamaica (extinct) Mexico Chili The whole region Costa Rica to Paraguay & Bolivia Mexico to Peru, Central Brazil and La Plata Trop. North and South America Mexico to Amazonia All the tropical sub-regions Brazil Guiana and Rio Negro Costa Rica to Bolivia and Brazil Venezuela to Brazil Mexico to W. Ecuador & Brazil Trop. sub-regions with Chili and La Plata Mexico to Veragua Mexico to Brazil and Bolivia Brazil and La Plata to Chili Guatemala and Brazil Antilles and S. America to Chili and La Plata S. &S.E. United States All regions but Austral Nearctic S. Nearctic 110 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [part III. Order Family, and Genus. 597. Melopelia 598. Pcristcra... 599. Mctriopelia 600. GymnopcUa 601. Zeptoptila 602. Geotrygon 603. Starnmnas GALLING. Tethaonid^. 604. Odontophorus 605. Dendrortyx .. 606. Cyrtonyx 607. Ortyx 608. Eupsychortyx (Callipepla . . Phasianid.*;. 609. Meleagris Cracid^. 610. Crax 611. Nothocrax 612. Pauxi 613. Mitua 614. Stegnolcema .. 615. Penelope 616. Penelopina .. 617. Pipile 618. Aburria 619. Chamcepetes . 620. Ortalida... . 621. Oreophasis Tinamid^. 622. Tinurmis 623. Notlioccrcus . 624. Crypturus 625. Rhynchotus . 626. JVothoprocta . 627. Nothura... . 628. Taoniscits 629. Calodromas . 630. Tinamotis OPISTHOCOML 0PISTH0COMID.E. 631. Opisthocomus. S5.S- Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. Mexico to Chili Mexico to Brazil W. America from Ecuador to Chili West Peru and Bolivia Tropical sub-regions Tropical sub-regions Cuba Trop. North and South America Mexico to Costa Rica Mexico to Guatemala Mexico to Costa Rica, Cuba Mexico to Columbia and Guiana Mexico) Mexico and Honduras Mexico to Venezuela & S. Brazil Guiana and Upper Amazon Guiana and Venezuela Guiana to Peru Columbia and Ecuador Trop. North and South America Guatemala Venezuela to Brazil and Peru Columbia Costa Rica to Peru Trop. North and South America Guatemala Trop. North and South America Costa Rica to Venezue. Sc Ecuador Trop. North and South America Brazil to Bolivia and La Plata Ecuador to Bolivia and Chili Brazil to Bolivia and La Plata Brazil and Paraguay La Plata Andes of Peru and Bolivia Guiana and Lower Amazon South & West Nearctic S. Central United States Nearctic to Canada California Nearctic New Mexico CHAP. XIV.J TH E JSJliUTKUPlCAL KHililUiN. 111 Order, Family, and Genus. 6 g Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. ACCIPITEES. VULTURID^. (Cathartin^.) 632. Sarcorhamphus 2 The Andes and S. of 41° S. Lat. 633. Cathartes 1 Mexico to 20° S. Lat. 634. Catharista 1 Mexico to 40" S. Lat. S. United States 635. Pseudogryphis 3 Mexico to Falkland Ids., Cuba, Jamaica United States Falconid.®. 636. Polyborus ... 2 The whole region California and Florida 637. Ibyder 8 Guatemala to Terra del Fuego 638. Circus 3 Nearly the whole region Almost cosmopolite 639. Micrastur 7 Trop. North and South America 640. Geranospiza ... 2 Trop. North and South America 641. Anterior VJ Mexico to Chili and La Plata California and Texas 642. Astur 2 Trop. N. and S. America Almost cosmopolite 643. Accipiter 9 The whole region Almost cosmopolite 644. Heterospizias... 1 Trop. S. America, E. of Andes 645. Tachytriorchis 2 Mexico to Paraguay California 646. Buteo 9 Mexico to Patagonia Almost cosmopolite 647. Buteola Veragua to Amazonia 648. Asturina Mexico to Bolivia and La Plata S.E. United States 649. Bicsarellus ... Brazil and Guiana 650. Siitcogallus ... Columbia and Guiana 651. Uruh^Uinga ... 12 Mexico to Brazil and Bolivia 652. Harpiyhaliceetus Veragua to Chili & N. Patagonia 653. Morphnus Panama to Amazonia 654. Thrasaetus ... Mexico to Bolivia and Paraguay 655. Lophotriorchis Bogota Indo-Malaya 656. Spiziastur Guatemala to Brazil 657. Spizaetiis Mexico to Paraguay Africa, India, Malaya 658. Herpetotheres... S. Mexico to Bolivia & Paraguay 659. Nauclerus Mexico to Brazil S. United States 660. Rostrhamus ... Antilles to Brazil and Peru Florida 661. Leptodon Central America to S. Brazil and Bolivia 662. Elanus Mexico to Chili Califor., Old World trop. 663. Gampsonyx ... Trinidad to Brazil 664. Harpagus 3 Central America to Brazil & Peru 665. Ictinia 2 Mexico to Brazil South United States 666. Spiziapteryx ... 1 La Plata 667. Falco 3 The whole region Almost cosmopolite 668. Cerchneis 3 The whole region Almost cosmopolite Pandionid^e. 669. Pandiou 1 The whole region Cosmopolite Strigid^. 670. Glaucidium ... 6 The whole region W. United Sts. , Palsearc. 671. Micrathene ... 1 Mexico Arizona, New Mexico 672. Pholeoptynx ... 1 The whole region N. W. America & Texas 673. Bubo 1 The whole region All regions but Austral. 112 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [part III. Order, Family, and Genus. 674. Scops 675. Gymnoglaicx .. 676. Lophostrix 677. Syrnium 678. Ciccaba ... 679. NydalcUinits .. 680. Pulsatrix 681. Asio 682. Nydalops 683. Pscudoscops .. (Nyctale 684. Strix Iz; ^ Range within the Region. Mexico to Brazil and La Plata West ludia Islands Guatemala to Lower Amazon Mexico to Patagonia Mexico to Peru and Paraguay Columbia Guatemala to Brazil and Peru The whole region Cuba and Mexico to Brazil Jamaica Mexico) The whole region Range beyond the Region. Almost cosmopolite All regions but Austral. All regions but Austral. N. Temperate genus Almost cosmopolite Peculiar or very Characteristic Geniera of Wading and Swimming Birds. GRkLLM. RALLID.S!. Aramides Heliornis ScoLOPAcica;. Eureunetes . CHIONIDID.ffi). Chionis ... THINOCORID.«i. Attagis ... Thinocoris Charadkiid^. Phcegornis Oreophilus Pluvianellus Aphriza . . . CARIAMID.ffi. Cariama Aramid^. Aramus ... PsOPHIID.a!. Psophia ... ETJRTPYGID.S. Eurypyga The whole region Tropical America The whole region Sts. of Magellan, Falkland Ids. Andes to Fuegia and Falkland Islands Peru, Chili, and La Plata Temperate S. America Temperate S. America Temperate S. America W. coast of S. America S. Brazil and La Plata Mexico and Cuba to Brazil Equatorial S. America Tropical America Nearctic Nearctic Kerguelen's Island W. coast of N. America CHAP. XIV.] THE NEOTEOPICAL REGION. 113 Order, Family, and Genus. °.2 O V 03 Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. Ardeid^. Tigrisoma . . . Cancroma 3 1 The whole region Tropicals. America Palamedeid^e. Palamcdca ... Chauna 1 2 Equatorial America Columbia, Brazil, and La Plata AN'SERES. Anatid^. Cairina Merganetta . . . Microptcrus . . . 1 3 1 Tropical S. America Andes Temperate S. America Spheniscid^. Eudyptes Aptenodytes 6 2 Temperate S. America Falkland Islands Antarctic shores Antarctic shores STRUTHIONES. SXRUTHlONIDiE. 685. Bhea 3 S. Temperate America CHAPTER XV. THE NEAKCTIC REGION. This region consists almost wholly of Temperate Ij'orth America as defined by physical geographers. In area it is about equal to the Neotropical region. It possesses a vast mountain range traversing its entire length from north to south, comparable with, and in fact a continuation of^ the Andes, — and a smaller range near the east coast, equally comparable with the mountains of Brazil and Guiana. These mountains supply its great river- . system of the Mississippi, second only to that of the Amazon ; and in its vast group of fresh-water lakes or inland seas, it possesses a feature unmatched by any other region, except perhaps by the Ethiopian. It possesses every variety of climate between arctic and tropical ; extensive forests and vast prairies ; a greatly varied surface and a rich and beautiful flora. But these great advantages are somewhat neutralized by other physical features. It extends far towards the north, and there it reaches its greatest width ; while in its southern and warmest portion it suddenly narrows. The northern mass of land causes its isothermal lines to bend southwards ; and its winter tempera- ture especially, is far lower than at corresponding latitudes in Europe. This diminishes the available area for supporting animal life ; the amount and character of which must be, to a great extent, determined by the nature of the least favourable part of the year. Again, owing to the position of its mountain ranges and the direction of prevalent winds, a large extent of its interior, east of the Eocky Mountains, is bare and arid, and often almost desert ; while the most favoured districts, — those east of f NE ARC TIC REGION Scale 1 inch -1,000 mUes no LoQrfit-ude West lOO of tireenwidi 30 Stanford's Geoffi-aphical Kitah* London . New York; Harper .^ Brothers. CHAP. XV.] THE NE ARCTIC REGION. 115 the" Mississippi and west of the Sierra N^evada, bear but a small proportion to its whole area. AgOTQ, we know that at a very recent period geologically, it was subjected to a very severe Glacial epoch, which wrapped a fuU half of it in a mantle of ice, and exterminated a large number of animals which previously in- habited it. Taking all this into account, we need not be sur- prised to find the Nearctic region somewhat less rich and varied in its forms of life than the Palsearctic or the Australian regions, with which alone it can fairly be compared. The wonder rather is that it should be so little inferior to them in this respect, and that it should possess such a variety of groups, and such a multitude of forms, in every class of animals. Zoological characteristics of tlie Nearctic Region. — Temperate North America possesses representatives of 26 families of Mam- malia, 48 of Birds, 18 of Eeptiles, 11 of Amphibia, and 18 of Fresh- water Fish. The first three numbers are considerably less than the corresponding numbers for the Palsearctic region, while the last two are greater — in the case of fishes materially so, a circumstance readily explained by the wonderful group of fresh- water lakes and the noble southward-flowing river system of the Mississippi, to which the Palaearctic region has nothing com- parable. But although somewhat deficient in the total number of its families, this region possesses its full proportion of peculiar and characteristic family and generic forms. No less than 13 families or sub-families of Vertebrata are confined to it, or just enter the adjacent Neotropical region. These are, — three of mam- malia, Antilocaprinse, Saccomyidse and Haploodontidae ; one of birds, Chamseidse ; one of reptiles, Chirotidae ; two of amphibia, Sirenidse and Amphiumidse ; and the remaining six of fresh- water fishes. The number of 'peculiar or characteristic genera is per- haps more important for our purpose ; and these are very con- siderable, as the following enumeration wlQ show. Mammalia. — Of the family of moles (Talpidge) we have 3 peculiar genera : Condylura, Scapanus, and Scalops, as well as the remarkable Urotrichus, found only in California and Japan, In the weasel family (Mustelidse) we have Latax, a peculiar kind of otter; Taxidca, allied to the badgers; and one of the 116 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [part hi. remarkable and characteristic skunks is separated by Dr. J. E. Gray as a genus — SpilogaW. In the American family Procyo- nidse, a peculiar genus (Bassaris) is found in California and Texas, extending south along the mountains of Mexico and Guatemala. Eumetopias, and Halicyon, are seals confined to the west coast of North America. The Bovidse, or hollow-horned ruminants, contain three peculiar forms ; Antilocapra, the re- markable prong-buck of the Eocky Mountains ; Aplocerus, a goat- like antelope ; and Ovihos, the musk-sheep, confined to Arctic America and Greenland. Among the Eodents are many pecu- liar genera: Neotoma, Sigmodon, and Fiber, belong to the Muridse, or rats ; Jaculus to the Dipodida?, or jerboas. The very distinct family Saccomyidm, or pouched rats, which have peculiar cheek pouches, or a kind of outer hairy mouth, con- sists of five genera all confined to this region, with one of doubtful affinities in Trinidad and Central America. In the squirrel family (Sciuridse), Cynomys, the prairie-dogs, are pecu- liar; and Tamias, the ground squirrel, is very characteristic, though found also in North Asia. Haploodon, or sewellels, consisting of two species, forms a distinct family ; and Ercthizon is a peculiar form of tree porcupine (Cercolabidse) . True mice and rats of the genus Mus are not indigenous to North America, their place being supplied by a distinct genus (Hesperomys), confined to the American continent. Birds. — The genera of birds absolutely peculiar to the Nearctic region are not very numerous, because, there being no boundary but one of climate between it and the Neotropical region, most of its characteristic forms enter a short distance within the limits we are obliged to concede to the latter. Owing also to the severe winter-climate of a large part of the region (which we know is a comparatively recent phenomenon), a large pro- portion of its birds migrate southwards, to pass the winter in the West-Indian islands or Mexico, some going as far as Guate- mala, and a few even to Venezuela. In our chapter on extinct animals, we have shown, that there is good reason for believing that the existing union of North and South America is a quite recent occurrence ; and that the CHAP. XV.] THE NEAKCTIC REGION. 117 separation was effected by an arm of the sea across what is now Nicaragua, with perhaps anoth# at Panama. This would leave Mexico and Gimtemala joined to North America, and forming part of the Nearctic region, although no doubt contain- ing many Neotropical forms, which they had received during earlier continental periods ; and these countries might at other times have been made insular by a strait at the isthmus of Tehuantepec, and have then developed some peculiar species. The latest climatal changes have tended to restrict these Neotropical forms to those parts where the climate is really tropical; and thus Mexico has attained its present strongly marked Neotropical character, although deficient in many of the most important groups of that region. In view of these recent changes, it seems proper not to draw any decided line between the Nearctic and Neotropical regions, but rather to apply, in the case of each genus, a test which will show whether it was probably derived at a comparatively recent date fl'om one region or the other. The test referred to, is the existence of peculiar species of the genus, in what are un- doubtedly portions of ancient North or South America. If, for example, all the species of a genus occur in North America, some, or even all, o£ them, migrating into the Neotropical region in winter, while there are no peculiar NeolToj>ical species, then we must class that genus as strictly Nearctic; for if it were Neotropical it would certainly have developed some peculiar resident forms. Again, even if there should be one or two resident species peculiar to that part of Central America north of the ancient dividing strait, with an equal or greater number of species ranging over a large part of Temperate North America, the genus must still be considered Nearctic. Examples of the former case, are Helminthophaga and Myioclioctes, belonging to the Mniotiltidae, or wood-warblers, which range over all Tem- perate North America to Canada, where all the species are found, but in each case one of the species is found in South America, probably as a winter migrant. Of the latter, are Ammodramus soldi JiLuco (genera of finches), which range over the whole United States, but each have one peculiar species in Guatemala. These ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [part III. may be claimed as exclusively Nearctic genera, on the ground that Guatemala was rece^ly Nearctic ; and is now really a transition territory, of which the lowlands have been invaded and taken exclusive possession of by a Neotropical fauna, while the highlands are still (in part at least) occupied by Nearctic forms. In his article on " Birds," in the new edition of the " Ency- clopaedia Britannica " (now publishing), Professor Newton points out, that the number of 'peculiar genera of Nearctic birds is much less than in each of the various sub-divisions of the Neotropical region ; and that the total number of genera is also less, while the bulk of them are common either to the Neo- tropical or Paloearctic regions. This is undoubtedly the case if any fixed geographical boundary is taken ; and it would thus seem that the " Nearctic " should, in birds, form a sub-region only. But, if we define " Nearctic genera " as above indicated, we find a considerable amount of speciality, as the following hst will show. The names not italicised are those which are repre- sented in Mexico or Guatemala by peculiar species : — List of Typical Nearctic Genera of Land Birds. 1. Oreoscoptes 2. Harporhynchus 3. Sialia 4. Chamcea 5. Caiherpes 6. Salpinctus 7. Psaltriparus 8. Auriparus 9. Gymnokitta 10. Ficicorvus 11. Mniotilta. 1 2. Oporornis 13. Icteria 14. Helmintherus 15. Helwinthophaga 16. Myiodioctes 17. Phcenopepla 18. Xanthocephalus 19. Scolecophagus 20. Pipilo 21. Jimco 22. Melaspiza 23. SpizeUa 24. Passerculus 25. Pocecetes 26. Ammodromus 27. Cyanospisa 28. Pyrrhuloxia 29. Calamospiza 30. Chondestes 31. Centronyx 32. Neocorys 33. Empidias 34. Sphyrapicus 35. Hylatomus 36. Trochilus 37. Atthis 38. Ectopistes 39. Centrocercus 40. PedioccBtes 41. Cnjndonia 1 Ortyx 42. Oreortyx 43. Lophortyx 44. Callipepla 45. Cyrtonyx 46. Meleagris 17. Micrathene The above are all groups which are either wholly Nearctic or typically so, but entering more or less into the debatable ground of the Neotropical region; though none possess any pecuKar species in the ancient Neotropical land south of Nicaragua. But we have, besides these, a number of genera which we are accus- CHAP. XV.] THE NEARCTIC EEGION. 119 tomed to consider as typically EuroDean, or Palaearctic, having representatives in North America ; ^though in many cases it would be more correct to say that they are Nearctic genera, represented in Europe, since America possesses more species than Europe or North Asia. The following is a list of genera which have as much right to be considered typically Nearctic as Palaearctic : — 1. Regulus 9. Corvus 16. Euspiza 2. Certhia 10. Ampelis 17. Pledrophanes 3. Sitta 11. Loxia 18. Tetrao 4. Parus 12. Pinicola 19. Lagopus 5. Lophoplianes 13. Linota 20. Nyctala 6. Lanius 14. Passer ella 21. Archibutec 7. Perisoreus 15. Leucosticte. 22. Haliseetus 8. Pica The seven genera italicized have a decided preponderance of Nearctic species, and have every right to be considered typically Nearctic ; while the remainder are so well represented by peculiar species, that it is quite possible many of them may have origi- nated here, rather than in the Palaearctic region, all alike being quite foreign to the Neotropical. On the whole, then, we have 47 in the first and 7 in the second table, making 54 genera which we may fkirly class as typically Nearctic, out of a total of 168 genera of land- birds, or nearly one-third of the whole. This is an amount of peculiarity which is comparable with that of either of the less isolated regions ; and, combined with the more marked and more exclusively peculiar forms in the other orders of vertebrates, fully establishes Temperate North America as a region, distinct alike from the Neotropical and the Palaearctic. Reptiles. — Although temperate climates are always compara- tively poor in reptiles, a considerable number of genera are peculiar to the Nearctic region. Of snakes, there are, Conophis, Chilomeniscus, Pituophis, and Ischnognathus, belonging to the Colubridse; Farancia, and Dimodes, Homalopsidae ; Lichanotus, one of the Pythonidae; Cenchris, Crotalophorus, Uropsophorus, and Crotalus, belonging to the Crotalidae or rattlesnakes. Of Lizards, Chirotes, forming a peculiar family ; OpMsaunis, Vol. II.— 9 120 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [part hi. the curious glass-snake, belonging to the Zonuridse ; with Phry- nosoma (commonly calle!P horned toads), Callisaurus, Uta, Euphryne, Uma, and Holhrookia, genera of Iguanidse. Testudinidse, or Tortoises, show a great development of the genus Emys ; with Aromochelys and Chelydra as peculiar genera. Amphibia. — In this class the Nearctic region is very rich, possessing representatives of nine of the families, of which two are peculiar to the region, and there are no less than fifteen peculiar genera. Siren forms the family Sirenidse ; Menohranchus belongs to the Proteidse ; Amphiuma is the only representative of the Amphiumidse ; there are nine peculiar genera of Sala- mandridse. Among the tail-less batrachians (frogs and toads) we have Scaphiopus, belonging to the Alytidse ; Pseudacris to the Hylidse ; and Acris to the Polypedatidae. Fresh-water Fishes. — The Nearctic region possesses no less than five peculiar family types, and twenty-four peculiar genera of this class. The families are Aphredoderidse, consisting of a single species found in the Eastern States ; Percopsidse, founded on a species peculiar to Lake Superior ; Heteropygii, containing two genera peculiar to the Eastern States ; Hyodontidse and Amiidse, each consisting of a single species. The genera are as follows : Paralahrax, found in California; Huro, peculiar to Lake Huron ; Pileoma, Poleosoma, Bryttus and Pomotis in the Eastern States — all belonging to the perch family. Hypodelus and Noturus, belonging to the Siluridse. TJialeichthys, one of the Salmonidae peculiar to the Columbia river. Moxostoma, Pimephales, Hyhorhynchus, Rhinichthys, in the Eastern States; Ericymha, Exoglossum, Zeucosomus, and Carpiode^, more widely distributed ; Cuchlognathus, in Texas ; Mylajphorodon and Ortho- doUj in California ; Meda, in the river Gila ; and Acrochilus, in the Columbia river — all belonging to the Cyprinidse. Scaphi- rhynchus, found only in the Mississippi and its tributaries, belongs to the sturgeon family (Accipenseridse). Summary of Nearctic Vertebrata. — The Nearctic region possesses 24 peculiar genera of mammalia, 49 of birds, 21 of reptiles, and. 29 of fresh-water fishes, making 123 in all. Of these 70 are mammals and land-birds, out of a total of 242 CHAP. XV.] THE NEAECTIC REGION. 121 genera of these groups, a proportion of about two-sevenths. This is the smallest proportion of p"iliar genera we have found in any of the regions; but many of the genera are of ' such isolated and exceptional forms that they constitute separate families, so that we have no less than 12 families of vertebrata confined to the region. The Pahearctic region has only 3 peculiar families, and even the Oriental region only 12; so that, judged by this test, the Nearctic region is remarkably well characterized. We must also remember that, owing to the migration of many of its peculiar forms during the Glacial period, it has recently lost some of its speciality ; and we should therefore give some weight to the many characteristic groups it possesses, which, though not quite peculiar to it, form important features in its fauna, and help to separate it from the other regions with which it has been thought to be closely allied. It is thus well distinguished from the Paleearctic region by its Pro- cyonidae, or racoons, Hesperomys, or vesper mice, and Didelphys, or opossums, among Mammalia ; by its Vireonidse, or greenlets^ Mniotiltidffi, or wood- warblers, Icteridse, or hang-nests, Tyran- nidse, or tyrant shrikes, and Trochilidse, or humming-birds, among birds, families which, extending to its extreme northern limits must be held to be as truly characteristic of it as of the Neotropical region ; by its Teidse, Iguanidse, and Cinostermim, among reptiles ; and by its Siluridse, and Lepidosteidse, among fishes. From the Neotropical region it is still more clearly separated, by its numerous insectivora; by its bears; its Old World forms of ruminants ; its beaver ; its numerous Arvicolce, or voles ; its Sciuropterus, or flying squirrels ; Tamias, or ground- squirrels ; and Lagomys, or marmots, among mammals ; its numerous Paridse, or tits, and Tetraonidae, or grouse, among birds ; its Trionychidse among reptiles ; its Proteidae, and Sala- mandridae, among Amphibia ; and its Gasterosteidse, Atherinidee, Esocidse, Umbridae, Accipenseridse, and Polydontidae, among fishes. These characteristic features, taken in conjunction with the absolutely peculiar groups before enumerated, demonstrate that the Nearctic region cannot with propriety be combined with 122 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. ' [part hi. any other. Though not wy rich, and having many disadvan- tages of climate and of pl^sical condition, it is yet sufficiently well 'characterized in its zoological features to rank as one of the well-marked primary divisions of the earth's surface. There is one other consideration bearing on this question which should not be lost sight of. In establishing our regions we have depended wholly upon their now possessing a sufficient number and variety of animal forms, and a fair proportion of peculiar types ; but when the validity of our conclusion on these grounds is disputed, we may supplement the evidence by an appeal to the past history of the region in question. In this case we find a remarkable support to our views. During the whole Tertiary period, North America was, zoologically, far more strongly contrasted with South America than it is now ; while, during the same long series of ages, it was always clearly separated from the Eastern hemisphere or the Palsearctic region by the exclusive possession of important families and numerous genera of Mammalia, as shown by our summary of its extinct fauna in Chapter VII. Not only may we claim North America as now forming one of the great zoological regions, but as having continued to be one ever since the Eocene period. Insects. In describing the Palsearctic and Neotropical regions, many of the peculiarities of the insect-fauna of this region have been incidentally referred to ; and as a tolerably fuU account of the distribution of the several families is given in the Fourth Part of our work (Chapter XXI.), we shall treat the subject very briefly here. Lepidoptera. — The butterflies of the Nearctic region have lately been studied with much assiduity, and we are now able to form some idea of their nature and extent. Nearly 500 species belonging to about 100 genera have been described; showing that the region, which a few years ago was thought to be very poor in species of butterflies, is really much richer than Europe, and probably about as rich as the more extensive Palse- arctic region. There is, however, very little speciality in the CHAP. XV.] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 123 forms. A considerable number oOTeotropical types enter the southern States ; but there are hardfrany peculiar genera, except one of the Lycsenidae and perhaps a few among the Hesperidse. The most conspicuous feature of the region is its fine group of Papilios, belonging to types (P. turnus and P. troilus) wliich are cliaracteristically Nearctic. It is also as rich as the Palsearctic region in some genera which we are accustomed to consider as pre-eminently European ; such as Argynnis, Melitcea, Gmpta, Chionahas, and a few others. Still, we must acknowledge, that if we formed our conclusions from the butterflies alone, we could hardly separate the Nearctic from the Paleearctic region. This identity probably dates from the Miocene period ; for when our existing arctic regions supported a luxuriant vegetation, butterflies would have been plentiful ; and as the cold came on, these would move southwards both in America and Europe, and, owing to the long continuance of the generic types of insects, would remain little modified till now. CoU(yptera. — Only a few indications can be given of the peculiarities of the Nearctic coleoptera. In Cicindelidte the region possesses, besides the cosmopolite Cicindela, four other genera, two of which — Amhly chile and Omus — are peculiar to the West Coast and the Eocky Mountains. Of Carabidee it possesses Dicmlus, Pasimachus, Eurytrichus, Sphceroderus, Pina- codera, and a number of smaller genera, altogether peculiar to it ; Helluomorpha, Galerita, Callida, and Tetragonoderus, in common with South America; and a large number of characteristic European forms. » The Lucanidae are all of European types. The region is poor in Cetoniidae, but has representatives of the South American Euphoria, as well as of four European genera. Of Buprestidse it has the South American Adenodes ; a single species of the Ethiopian and Eastern Belionota, in California ; and about a dozen other genera of European and wide distribution. Among Longicorns it possesses fifty-nine peculiar genera, representatives of five Neotropical, and thirteen Palaearctic genera; as well as many of wider distribution. Prionus is the chief representative of the Prionidae; Leptura and Crossidius of the 124 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [part in. Cerambycidse ; Leptostylus, Liopus, Graphidurus, and Tetraopes, of the Lamiidse, the latter plus being confined to the region. Terrestrial and FluviatiU Mollusca. The land-shells of temperate North America almost all belong to the luoperculate or Pulmoniferous division ; the Operculata being represented only by a few species of Helicina and Truncatella, chiefly in the Southern States. According to Mr. Binuey's recent "Catalogue of the Terrestrial Air-breathing MoUusks of North America," the feuna consists of the following genera : — Glandina (6 sp.) ; MacromjcUs (5 sp.) ; Zonites (37 sp.) ; Vitrina (4 sp.) ; Limax (5 sp.) ; Avion (3 sp.) ; Ariolimax (3 sp.) ; Prophysaon (1 sp.) ; Binneia (1 sp.) ; Hemipliillia (1 sp.) ; Patula (16 sp.); Helix (80); Holospira (2 sp.) ; Cylindrella (2 sp.) ; Macroceramus (2 sp.) ; Bulimuliis (8 sp.) ; Ctondla (2 sp.) ; Steno- gyra (4 sp.) ; Pupa (19 sp.) ; Strophia (1 sp.) ; Vertigo (6 sp.) ; Liguus (1 sp.) ; Orthalicus (2 sp.) ; Punctum (1 sp.) ; Succinea (26 sp.); Tebennophorus (l.sp.); Pallifera (1 sp.) ; Veronicella All the larger genera range over the whole region, but the following have a more restricted distribution ; Macrocyclis has only one species in the East, the rest being Californian or Central ; Ariolimax, Prophysaon, Binneia, and Remiphillia, are confined to the Western sub-region. Lower Cahfornia has affinities with Mexico, 18 species being peculiar to it, of which two are true Bulimi, a genus unknown in other parts of the .region. The Central or Kocky Mountain sub-region is chiefly characterised by six peculiar species of Patula. The Eastern sub-region is by far the richest, nine-tenths of the whole number of species being found in it. The Alleghany Mountains form the richest portion of this sub-region, possessing nearly half the total number of species, and at least 24 species found nowhere else. The southern States have also several peculiar species, but they are not so productive as the Alleghanies. The Canadian sub-region possesses 32 species, of which nearly half are northern forms more or less common to the v/hole Arctic regions, and several of this character have spread southwards all CHAP. XV.] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 125 over the United States. Species oh^itrina, Zonites, Pupa, and Succinea, are found in Greenland ; aM Eastern Palsearctic species of Vitrina, Patula, and Pupa occur in Alaska. More than 30 species of shells living in the Eastern States, are found fossil in the Post-Pliocene deposits of the Ohio and Mississippi. Fresh-water Shells. — North America surpasses every other part of the globe in the number and variety of its fresh-water moUusca, both univalve and bivalve. The numbers up to 1866 were as follows : — Melaniadse, 380 species ; Paludinida3, 58 species ; Cycladidse, 44 species ; and Unionidse, 552 species. The last family had, however, increased to 832 species in 1874, according to Dr. Isaac Lea, who has made them his special study ; but it is probable that many of these are such as would be considered varieties by most conchologists. Many of the species of Unio are very large, of varied forms, and rich internal colouring, and the gToup forms a prominent feature of the Nearctic fauna. By far the larger proportion of the fresh-water shells inhabit the Eastern or Alleghany sub-region ; and their great development is a powerful argument against any recent extensive submergence beneath the ocean of the lowlands of North America. The Nearctic Sub-regions. The sub-divisions of the Nearctic region, although pretty clearly indicated by physical features and peculiarities of climate and vegetation, are by no means so strongly marked out in their zoology as we might expect. The same genera, as a rule, extend over the whole region ; while the species of the several sub-regions are in most cases different. Even the vast range of the Eocky Mountains has not been an effectual barrier against this wide dispersal of the same forms of life ; and although some important groups are limited by it, these are exceptions to the rule. Even now, we find fertile valleys and plateaus of moderate elevation, penetrating the range on either side ; and both to the north and south there are passes which can be freely traversed by most animals during the summer. Previous to the glacial epoch there was probably a warm period, when every part of the range supported an abundant and varied 126 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [part hi. fauna, which, when the co^^eriod arrived, would descend to the lowlands, and people ^Re country to the east, west, and south, with similar forms of life. The first, and most important sub-division we can make, consists of the Eastern United States, extending across the Mississippi and the more fertile prairies, to about the 100°th. meridian of west longitude, where the arid and almost desert country commences. Southwards, the boundary bends towards the coast, near the line of the Brazos or Colorado rivers. To the north the limits are undefined ; but as a considerable number of species and genera occur in the United States but not in Canada, it will be convenient to draw the line somewhere near the boundary of the two countries, . except that the district between lakes Huron and Ontario, and probably Nova Scotia, may be included in the present sub-region. As far west as the Mississippi, this was originally a vast forest country ; and it is still well wooded, and clothed with a varied and luxuriant vegetation. The next, or Central sub-region, consists of the dry, elevated, and often arid district of the Rocky Mountains, with its great plateaus, and the barren plains of its eastern slope ; extending northwards to near the commencement of the great forests north of the Saskatchewan, and southward to the Eio Grande del Norte, the Gulf of California, and to Cape St. Lucas, as shown on our maps. This sub-region is of an essentially desert character, although the higher valleys of the Eocky Mountains are often well wooded, and in these are found some northern and some western types. The third, or Californian sub-region,is small,but very luxuriant, occupying the comparatively narrow strip of country between the Sierra Nevada and the Pacific. To the north it may include Van- couver's Island and the southern part of British Columbia, while to the south it extends to the head of the Gulf of California. The fourth division, comprises the remainder of North America ; and is a country of pine forests, and of barren wastes towards the Arctic Ocean. It has fewer peculiar species to characterise it than any other, but it possesses several characteristic arctic CHAP. XV.] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 127 forms, while many of those peculiar to the south are absent ; so that it is a very convenient, if it should not be considered an altogether natural, sub-region. We will now give an outline of the most important ;50ological features of each of these divisions, taking them in the order in which they are arranged in the Fourth Part of this work, California comes first, as it has some tropical forms not found elsewhere, and thus forms a transition from the Neotropical region. /. The Western or Californian Sub-region. This small district possesses a fruitful soil and a highly favourable climate, and is, in proportion to its extent, perhaps the richest portion of the continent, both zoologically and botan- ically. Its winters are far milder than those of the Eastern States in corresponding latitudes ; and this, perhaps, has enabled it to support several tropical forms which give a special character to its fauna. It is here only, in the whole region, that bats of the families Phyllostomidae and Noctilionidae, and a serpent of the tropical family, Pythonidse, are found, as well as several Neotropical forms of birds and reptiles. Mammalia. — The following genera are not found in any other part of the Nearctic region, Macrotus (Phyllostomidce), one species in California ; Antrozous (Vespertilionidse), one species on the "West Coast ; Urotrichus (Talpidas) one species in British Columbia; sub-genus iVcsorea; (Soricidae), one species in" Oregon ; Bassaris (Procyonidee), California ; Enhydra (Mustelidse), Pacific Coast; Morunga (Phocidae), California; ^apZoo6?07i (Haploodon- tidfe) a rat-like animal, allied to the beavers and marmots, and constituting a peculiar family found only in California and British Columbia. The following characteristic Nearctic forms also extend into this sub-region : — Taxidea, Procyon, Didelphys, Sciuropterus, Tamias, Spermophilus, Dipodomys, Perognathus, Jaculus. Birds. — Pew genera of birds are quite peculiar to this sub- region, since most of the Western forms extend into the central district, yet it has a few. Olaucidium a genus of Owls, is confined 128 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [part hi. (in the Nearctic region) to California ; Chamcea, a singultir form allied to the wrens, and forming a distinct family, is quite pecu- liar; Geococcyx, a Neotropical form of cuckoo, extends to California and Southern Texas. The following genera are very character- istic of the sub-region, and some of them almost confined to it : Myiadedes (Sylviidfp) ; Psaltriparus (Paridse) ; Cyanocitta, Picicorvus (Corvidse) ; Hesperi'pliona, Peuccea, Chondestes (Fringil- lidse) ; Selasphorus, Atthis (Trochilidae) ; Colwrriba, Melopelia (Columbidse) ; Oreortyx (Tetraonidse). Reptiles. — The following genera are not found in any other part of the Nearctic region : Charina (Tortricidse) ; Lichanotus (Pythonidse) ; Gerrhonotus (Zonuridse) ; Phyllodactylus (Gecko- tidse) ; Anolius and Tropidolepis (Iguanidse). Sceloporus (Igu- anidse) is only found elsewhere in Florida. All the larger North American groups of lizards and snakes are also represented here ; but in tortoises it is deficient, owing to the absence of lakes and large rivers. Amphibia. — California possesses two genera of Salamandridse, Aneides and Heredia, which do not extend to the other sub- regions. Fresh-water Fish. — There are two or three peculiar genera of Cyprinidse, but the sub-region is comparatively poor in this group. Plate X VIII. Ulustraiive of the Zoology of California and the BocJcy Mountains. — We have chosen for the subject of this illus- tration, the peculiar Birds of the Western mountains. The two birds in the foreground are a species of grouse (Pedioccetes Colum- hianus), entirely confined to this sub-region ; while the only other species of the genus is found in the prairies north and wesf of Wisconsin, so that the group is peculiar to northern and western America. The crested birds in the middle of the picture (Oreortyx picta), are partridges, belonging to the American sub- family Odontophorinae. This is the only species of the genus which is confined to California and Oregon. The bird at the top is the blue crow {Gymnokitta cyanocephala), confined to the Eocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada from New Mexico and Arizona northwards, and more properly belonging to the Central PLATE XVIII. SCENE IN CALIFORNIA, WITH SOME CHARACTERISTIC BIRDS. CHAF. XV.] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 129 sub-region. It is allied to the European nutcracker ; but ac- cording to the American ornithologist, Dr. Coues, has also resem- blances to the jays, and certainly forms a distinct genus. The grizzly bear {Ursus ferox) in the background, is one of the characteristic animals of the Californian highlands. //. The Central, or Bochy Mountain Sub-region. This extensive district is, for the greater part of its extent, from 2,000 to 5,000 feet above the sea, and is excessively arid ; and, except in the immediate vicinity of streams and on some of the higher slopes of the mountains, is almost wholly treeless. Its zoology is therefore peculiar. Many of the most characteristic genera and families of the Eastern States are absent ; while a number of curious desert and alpine forms give it a character of its own, and render it very interesting to the nsfturalist. Mammalia. — The remarkable prong-horned antelope (Antilo- capra), the mountain goat {Aploccrus), the mountain sheep or bighorn {Ovis montana), and the prairie-dog (Cynomys), one of the Eodentia, are peculiar to this sub-region ; while the family of the Saccomyidse, or pouched rats, is represented by many forms and is very characteristic. Here is also the chief home of the bison. The glutton (Gulo) and marmot {Lagomys) enter it from the north; while it has the racoon {Procyon), flying squirrel {Sciu- ropterus), ground squirrel (Tamias), pouched marmot (Spermo- philus) and jumping mouse (Jaculus) in common with the countries east or west of it. Plate XIX. Illustrative of the Zoology of the Central Plains or Prairies. — We here introduce four of the most characteristic mammalia of the great American plains or prairies, three of them being types confined to North America. The graceful animals on the left are the prong-horned antelopes {Antilocapra americana), whose small horns, though hollow like those of the ante- lopes, are shed annually like those of the deer. To the right we have the prairie-dogs of the trappers (Cynomys ludovi- cianus) which, as will be easily seen, are rodents, and allied to the marmots of the European Alps. Their burrows are numerous on the prairies, and the manner in which they perch 130 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [part hi. themselves on little mounds and gaze on intruders, is noticed by- all travellers. On the left, in the foreground, is one of the extraordinary pouched rats of America (Cfeomys hur sarins). These are burrowing animals, feeding on roots; and the mouth is, as it were, double, the outer portion very wide and hairy, behind which is the small inner mouth. Its use may be to keep out the earth from the mouth while the .animal is gnawing roots. A mouth so constructed is found in no other animals but in these North American rats. In the distance is a herd of bisons {Bison americanus), the typical beast of the prairies. Birds. — This sub-region has many peculiar forms of birds, both residents, and migrants' from the south or north. Among the peculiar resident species we may probably reckon a dipper, (Cinclus) ; Salpindes, one of the wrens ; Poospiza, Calamospiza, genera of finches; Picicorviis, Gymnoldtta, genera of the crow family; Centrocercus and Pedioccetes, genera of grouse. As winter migrants from the north it has LeucosticU and Pledro- jphanes, genera of finches ; Perisoreus, a genus of the crow family ; Picoides, the Arctic woodpecker ; and Lagopus, ptar- migan. Its summer migrants, many of which may be resident in the warmer districts, are more numerous. Such are, Oreos- coptes, a genus of thrushes ; Campylorhynchus and Cathcvpes, wrens ; Paroides, one of the tits ; Phcenopepla, allied to the waxwing ; Erribernagra and Spermophila, genera of finches ; Pyrocephalus, one of the tyrant shrikes ; Callipepla and Cyrtonyx, American partridges. Besides these, the more widely spread genera, Harporhynchus, Lopliophanes, Carpodacus, Spizella, and Gyanocitta, are characteristic of the central district, and two genera of humming-birds — Atthis and Selasphorus — only occur here and in California. Prof. Baird notes 40 genera of birds which are re- presented by distinct allied species in the western, central, and eastern divisions of the United States, corresponding to our sub-regions. It is a curious fact that the birds of this sub-region should oxtend across the Gulf of California, and that Cape St. Lucas, at the southern extremity of the peninsula, should be decidedly more " Central " than " Californian " in its ornithology. Prof. CHAP. XV.] THE NE ARCTIC REGION. 131 Baird says, that its fauna is almost identical with that of the Gila Eiver, and has hardly any relation to that of Upper California. It possesses a considerable number (about twenty) of peculiar species of birds, but aU belong to genera character- istic of the present sub-region ; and there is no resemblance to the birds of Mazatlan, just across the gulf in the Neotropical region. Reptiles, Amphibia, and Fishes. — A large number of snakes and lizards inhabit this sub-region, but they have not yet been classified with sufiicient precision to enable us to make much use of them. Among lizards, Iguanida?, Geckotidse, Scincidae, and Zonuridse, appear to be numerous ; and many new genera of doubtful value have been described. Among snakes, Calamariidse, Colubridse, and Crotalidee are represented. Among Amphibia, Siredon, one of the Proteidse, is peculiar. The rivers and lakes of the Great Central Basin, and the Colorado Eiver, contain many peculiar forms of Cyprinidse. ///. TJie Hast em or Alleghany Sub-region. This sub-region contains examples of all that is most charac- teristic of Nearctic zoology. It is for the most part an undu- lating or mountainous forest-clad country, with a warm or temperate climate, but somewhat extreme in character, and everywhere abounding in animal and vegetable life. To the west, across the Mississippi, the country becomes more open, gradually rises, becomes much drier, and at length merges into the arid plains of the central sub-region. To the south, in Georgia, Florida, and Louisiana, a sub-tropical climate prevails, and winter is almost unknown. To the north, in Michigan and New England, the winters are very severe, and streams and lakes are frozen for months together. These different cUmates, however, produce little effect on the forms of animal life ; the species to some extent change as we go from north to south, but the same types everywhere prevail. This portion of the United States, having been longest inhabited by Europeans, has been more thoroughly explored than other parts of North America ; and to this more complete knowledge its superior zoological richness 132 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [part hi. may be to some extent due; but there can be little doubt that it is also positively, and not merely relatively, more productive in varied forms of animal life than either of the other sub-regions. Mammalia. — There seems to be only one genus absolutely peculiar to this sub-region — the very remarkable Condylura, or star-nosed mole, only found from Pennsylvania to Nova Scotia, and as far as about 94° west longitude. It also has opossums {DidelpJiT/s) in common with California, and three out of four species of Scalops, a genus of moles ; as well as the skunk {Mephitis), American badger {Taxidea),TdiQ,ooR {Procyon), pouched rat (Geomys), beaver rat (Fiber), jumping mouse (Jacuhis), tree porcupine (Erethizon), and other characteristic Nearctic forms. £irds. — The birds of this sub-region have been carefully studied by American naturalists, and many interesting facts ascertained as to their distribution and migrations. About 120 species of birds are peculiar to the east coast of the United States, but only about 30 of these are residents all the year round in any part of it ; the bird population being essentially a mio'ratory one, coming from the north in winter and the south in summer. The largest number of species seems to be congre- gated in the district of the Alleghany mountains. A consider- able proportion of the passerine birds winter in Central America and the West Indian Islands, and go to the Middle States or Canada to breed ; so that even the luxuriant Southern States do not possess many birds which may be called permanent resi- dents. Thus, in East Pennsylvania there are only 52, and in the district of Columbia 54 species, found all the year round, out of about 130 which breed in these localities ; very much below the number which permanently reside in Great Britain. This sub-region is well characterised by its almost exclusive possession of Ectopistes, the celebrated passenger pigeon, whose enormous flocks and breeding places have been so often de- scribed; and Cupidonia, a remarkable genus of grouse. The only Nearctic parrot, Conurus carolinensis, is found in the Southern States ; as well as Crotophaga, a South American genus usually associated with the cuckoos. Helmintherus and CHAP. XV.] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 133 Oporornis, genera of wood-warblers, may be considered to be peculiar to this sub-region, since in each case only one of the two species migrates as far as Central America ; while two other genera of the same family, Siurus and Setopliaga, as well as the finch genus, Eicspiza, do not extend to either of the western sub-regions. Parus, a genus of tits, comes into the district from the north ; Otocorys, an alpine lark, and Coturnicuhis, an American finch, from the west ; and such characteristic Nearctic genera as Antrostomus (the whip-poor-will goatsuckers) ; Helminthopliaga, Dendrwca, and Myiodioctes (wood-warblers) ; Vireo (greenlets) ; Dolichonyx (rice-bird) ; Quiscalus (troupial) ; Meleagris (turkey) ; and Ortyx (American partridge), are wide-spread and abundant. In Mr. J. A. Allen's elaborate and interesting paper on the birds of eastern North America, he enumerates 32 species which breed only in the more temperate portions of this province, and may therefore be considered to be especially characteristic of it. These belong to the following genera : — Turdus, Galeoscoptes, Earporhynchus, Sialia, Dendrceca, Wilsonia, Pyranga, Vireo, Laniviveo, Lophophanes, Cotumiculus, Ammodromus, Spizella, Euspiza, Hedymeles, Cyanospiza, Pipilo, Cardinalis, Icterus, Corvus, Centurus, Melanerpes, Antrostomus, Coccyzus, Ortyx, and Cupidonia. Reptiles. — In this class the Eastern States are rich, possessing many peculiar forms not found in other parts of the region. Among snakes it has the genera Farancia and Dimodes belong- ing to the fresh-water snakes (Homalopsidai) ; the South Ameri- can genus Flaps ; and 3 genera of rattlesnakes, Cenchris, Crotalopihorus, and Crotalus. The following genera of snakes are said to occur in the State of New York : — Coluber, Tropido- notiis, Leptophis, Calamaria, Heterodon, Trigonocephalus, Crotalus, Psammophis, Helicops, Rhinostoma, Pituophis, and Flaps. Among lizards, Chirotes, forming a peculiar family of Amphis- benians, inhabits Missouri and Mexico; while the remarkable glass-snake, Ophisaurus, belonging to the family Zonuridae, is peculiar to the Southern States; and the South American Sphmrodactylus, one of the gecko family, reaches Florida. Other genera which extend as far north as the State of New 134 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [part in. York are, Scincus, Tropidolepis, Pkstiodon, Lygosoriia, Ameiva, and Fhry7iosoma. Tortoises, especially the fresh-water kind, are very abun- dant; and the genera Aromochelys, Chelydra, Terrapene, and Trionyx, are nearly, if not quite, confined to this division of the region. Amphibia. — Almost all the remarkable forms of XJrodela, or tailed batrachians, peculiar to the region are found here only; such as Siren and Pseudobranchus, constituting the family Sirenidse ; Menobranchus, allied to the Proteus of Europe ; AmpUuma, an eel-like creature with four rudimentary feet, constituting the family Amphiumidae; Notopthalmus, Desmognathus, and Meno- poma, belonging to the Salamandridse ; together with several other genera of wider range. Of Anura, or tail-less batrachians, there are no peculiar genera, but the Neotropical genus of toads, Engijstoma, extends as far as South Carolina. Fishes. — Owing to its possession of the Mississippi and the great lakes, almost all the peculiar forms of North American fishes are confined to this sub-region. Such are Perca, Pileoma, Euro, Bryttus, and Pomotis (Percidse) ; the families Aphredode- ridse and Percopsidse ; several genera of Cyprinodontidse and Cyprinidse ; and the family Polydontidse. Islands of the Alleghany Sub-region. The Bermudas. — These islands, situated in the Atlantic, about 700 miles from the coast of Carohna, are chiefly interesting for the proof they afford of the power of a great variety of birds to cross so wide an extent of ocean. There are only 6 or 8 species of birds which are permanent residents on the islands, all com- mon North American species ; while no less than 140 species have been recorded as visiting them. Most of these are stragglers, many only noticed once ; others appear frequently and in great numbers, but very few, perhaps not a dozen, come every year, and can be considered regular migrants. The per- manent residents are, a greenlet ( Vireo novebm-acensis), the cat- bird (Galeoscoptes carolinensis), the blue bird {Sialia sialis), the cardinal {Cardinalis virginianus), the American crow {Corvus CHAK xv.J THE NEARCTIC EEGION. • 135 americanus), and the ground dove {Chamcepelia passerina). The most regular visitants are a kingfisher (Ceri/le alcyon), the wood- wagtail (Siurus noveboracensis), the rice-bird {Dolichonyx oryzivo- rus), and a moorhen {Gallinula galeata). Besides the American species, four European birds have been taken at the Bermudas:. Saxicola oenanthe, Alauda arvensis (perhaps introduced), Grex pratensis, and Scolopax gallinago. A common American lizard, Plestiodon longirostris, is the only land reptile found on the islands. IV. The Sub- Arctic or Canadian Sub-region. This sub-region serves to connect together the oth(?r three, since they all merge gradually into it; while to the north it passes into the circumpolar zone which is common to the Palee- arctic and Nearctic regions. The greater portion of it is an exten- sive forest-district, mostly of coniferse; and where these cease towards the north, barren wastes extend to the polar ocean. It possesses several northern or arctic forms of Mammalia, such as the glutton, lemming, reindeer, and elk, which barely enter the more southern sub-regions ; as well as the polar bear and arctic fox ; but it also has some peculiar forms, and many of the most characteristic Nearctic t}^es. The remarkable musk-sheep (Ovibos) is confined to this sub-region, ranging over a con- siderable extent of country north of the forests, as well as Greenland. It has been extinct in Europe and Asia since the Post-pliocene epoch. Such purely Nearctic genera as Procyon, Latax, Erethizon, Jaculus, Fiber, Thomomys, and Hesperomys, abound, many of them ranging to the shores of Hudson's Bay and the barren wastes of northern Labrador. Others, such as Blarina, Condylura, and Mephitis, are found only in Nova Scotia and various parts of Canada. About 20 species of Mammalia seem to be peculiar to this sub-region. Plate XX. Illustrating the Zoology of Canada. — AVe have here a group of Mammalia characteristic of Canada and the colder parts of the United States. Conspicuous in the fore- ground is the skunk {Mephitis mephitiea), belonging to a genus of the weasel family found only in America. This animal is YOL. II.— 10 136 • ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. {part hi. celebrated for its power of ejecting a terribly offensive liquid, the odour of which is almost intolerable. The skunks are nocturnal animals, and are generally marked, as in the species represented, with conspicuous bands and patches of white. This enables them to be easily seen at night, and thus serves to warn larger animals not to attack them. To the left is the curious little jumping mouse {Jaculus hudsonms), the American representative of the Palsearctic jerboa. Climbing up a tree on the left is the tree porcupine {Urethizon dorsatus), belonging to the family Cer- colabidffi, which represents, on the American continent, the por- cupines of the Old World. In the background is the elk or moose {Alces americanus) , perhaps identical with the European elk, and the most striking inhabitant of the northern forests of America, as the bison is of the prairies. ^^>^.s._Although the Canadian sub-region possesses very few resident birds, the numbers w^hich breed in it are perhaps greater than in the other sub-regions, because a large number of circum- polar species are found here exclusively. From a comparison of Mr. Allen's tables it appears, that more than 200 species are regular migra,nts to Canada in the breeding season, and nearly half of these are land-birds. Among them are to be found a considerable number of genera of the American families Tyran- nidffi and Mniotiltidse, as well as the American genera Sialia, Progne, Vireo, Cistothorus, Junco, Pipilo, Zonotrichia, Spizella, Melospiza, Molothrus, Agclccus, Cyanura, Sj^hi/rapicus, and many others ; so that the ornithology of these northern regions is still mainly Nearctic in character. Besides these, it has such specially northern forms as Sur7iia (Strigidse) ; Ficoides (Picidffi) ; Pinicola (Fringillidge) ; as well as Leucosticte, Plectrophancs, Perisoreus, and Lagopus, which extend further south, especially in the middle sub-region. No less than 212 species of birds have been col- lected in the new United States territory of Alaska (formerly Russian America), where a humming-bird (Selasphorus rufiis) breeds. The great majority of these are typically American, including such forms as Colaptes, Helminthophaga, Siurus, Den- drceca, Myiodiodes, Passerculus, Zonotrichia, Junco, Spizdla, Melospizpa, Passerella, ScoleopJiagas, Pediocetes, and Bonasa; PLATE XX. A CANADIAN FOREST, WITH CHARACTERISTIC MAMMALIA. CHAP. xv.J THE NEARCTIC REGION. 137 together with many northern birds common to both conti- nents. Yet a few Palsearctic forms, not known in other parts of the sub-region, appear here. These are Budytcs fiava, Phyl- loscopus kennicottii, and Pyrrhula coccinca, all belonging to genera not occurring elsewhere in North America. Considering the proximity of the district to North-east Asia, and the high probability that there was an actual land connection at, and south of, Behring's Straits, in late Tertiary times, it is somewhat remarkable that the admixture of Palaearctic and Nearctic groups is not greater than it is. The Palsearctic element, however, forms so small a portion of the whole fauna, that it may be satisfactorily accounted for by the establishment of immigrants since the Glacial period. The great interest felt by ornithologists in the discovery of the three genera above-named, with a wren allied to a European species, is an indication that the faunas even of the northern parts of the Nearctic and Pal^arctic regions are, as regards birds, radically distinct. It may be mentioned that the birds of the Aleutian Isles are also, so far as known, almost wholly ISTearctic. The number of land-birds known from Alaska is 77 ; and from the Aleutian Isles 16 species, all of which, except one, are North American. Reptiles. — These are comparatively few and unimportant. There are however five snakes and three tortoises which are limited to Canada proper; while further north there are only Amphibia, represented by frogs and t. .ds, and a salamander of the genus Pletliodon. Fishes. — Most of the groups of fresh-water fish of the Nearctic region are represented here, especially those of the perch, salmon, and pike families ; but there seem to be few or no peculiar genera. Insects. — These are far less numerous than in the more temperate districts, but are still tolerably abimdant. In Canada there are 53 species of butterflies, viz., Papilionidae, 4 ; Pieridai, 2 ; Nymphalidse, 21 ; Satyridee, 3 ; Lycsenidse 16, and Hesperidae 7. Most of these are, no doubt, found chiefly in the southern parts of Canada. That Coleoptera are pretty numerous is shown, by more than 800 species having been collected on the 138 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGEAPHY. [part hi. shores of Lake Superior ; 177 being Geodephaga and 39 Longicorns. Greenland. — This great arctic island must be considered as belonging to the Nearctic region, sJJice of its six land mammals, three are exclusively American (Myodes torquatus, Lepus glacialis, and Ovibos moschatus), while the other three (Vulpes lagopus, Ursus maritimus, and Bangifer tarandus) are circumpolar. Only fourteen land-birds are either resident in, or regular migrants to the country ; and of these two are European [Haliceetus albicilla, and Falco peregrinus), while three are American (Anthus ludovi- cianus, Zonotrichia leucophrys, and Lagopus rupestris), the rest being arctic species common to both continents. The waders and aquatics (49 in number) are nearly equally divided between both continents; but the land-birds which visit Greenland as stragglers are mostly American. Yet although the Nearctic element somewhat preponderates, Greenland really belongs to that circumpolar debateable land, which is common to the two North Temperate regions. Concluding remarks. — ^We have already discussed pretty fully, though somewhat incidentally, the status and relations of the Nearctic region ; first in our chapter on Zoological regions, then in our review of extinct faunas, and lastly in the earlier part of this chapter. It will not therefore be necessary to go further into the question here ; but we shall, in our next chapter, give a bri^f summary of the general conclusions we have reached as to the past history and mutual zoological relations of all the great divisions of the earth. CHAP. XV.] THE NEAECTIC REGION. 139 TABLES OF DISTEIBUTION. In drawing up these tables, showing the distribution of various classes of animals in the Nearctic region, the following sources of information have been chiefly relied on, in addition to the general treatises, monographs, and catalogues used in the com- pilation of the 4th Part of this work. Mammalia. — Professor Baird's Catalogue ; Allen's List of the Bats ; Mr. Lord's List for British Columbia ; Brown, for Green- land ; Packard for Labrador. Birds. — Baird, Cassin, and Allen's Lists for United States ; Pdchardson's Fauna Boreali Americana; Jones, for Bermudas; and papers by Brown, Coues, Lord, Packard, Dall, and Professor Newton. 140 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [part III. TABLE I. FAMILIES OF ANIMALS INHABITING THE NE ARCTIC REGION. Explanation. Names in italics show the families which are peculiar to the region. Names inclosed thus ( ) show families which barely enter the region, and are not considered properly to belong to it. Numbers correspond to the series of numbers to the families in Part IV. Order and Family. MAMMALIA. Chiroptera. 10. Phyllostoiiiidse 12. Vespertilionidse 13. Noctilionidse . . . Insectivora. 21. TalpidiE 22. Soricidse Carnivora. 23. Felidffi ... 28. Canidse ... 29. Mustelidse 30. Procyonidse 32. Ursida? .. 33. Otariidae... 34. Trichechidse 35. Phocidse... Cetacea. 36 to 41. Ungulata. 47. Suidse ... 50. Cervidffi ... 52. Bovidse ... KODENTIA, 55. Muridae ... 57. DipodidiB 59. Saccomyidce 60. Oastoridse 61. Sciuridse... Sub-regions. o^ Range beyond the Region. Neotropical Cosmopolite Tropical regions Palsearctic The Eastern Hemisphere, excl. Australia All regions but the Australian All regions but the Australian All regions but the Australian Neotropical Palsearctic, Oriental N. and S. temperate zones Arctic regions N. and S. temperate zones Oceanic All other continents but Australia All regions but Ethiopian and Australian Palsearctic, Ethiopian, Oriental Almost cosmopolite Palsearctic, Ethiopian Mexican sub-region Palsearctic All regions but Australian CHAP. XV.] THE NEAKCTIC REGION. 141 Sub-regions. Order and Family. 1 d >>I0 m « Range beyond the Region. /< a i -^ ■=! il o a ^1 S 62. Uaploodmitidce 66. Cercolabidse ... — — — Neotropical 69. Lagomyidae ... — — Palsearctic 70. Leporidae — — — All regions but Australian Marsupialia. 76. Didelphyidse... — — Neotropical BIRDS. • Passeres. 1. Turdidffi — — Almost cosmopolite 2. Sylviidee — — — Almost cosmopolite 5. Cinclidfe — — Palsearctic, Oriental, Andes 6. Troglodytidse — — — All regions but Australian 7. Chamceidve ... _ 8. Certhiidse — — — Palajarctic, Oriental, Australian 9. Sittidse ^ — — Palwarctic, Oriental, Australian 10. Paridse — — — The Eastern Hemisphere 19. Laniidfe — — • — — The Eastern Hemisphere 20. CorddcTe — — — Cosmopolite 26. (Ccerebidse) ... Neotropical family 27. Mniotiltidse ... — — — Neotropical 28. Vireonidse — — — Neotropical 29. Ampelidse — — — Palaearctic, Antilles, Guatemala 30. Hirundinidse . . . — — Cosmopolite 31. Icterida" — ■ — — Neotropical 32. Tanagridffi ... ■ — • Neotropical 33. Fringillidse ... — — — All regions but Australian 37. Alaudidae — — All regions but Neotropical 38. Motacillidse ... — — — Cosmopolite 39. Tyrannidpe .. — — — Neotropical PlCAKI^. 51. Picidfle — . AU regions but Australian 58. Cuculida — — — Almost cosmopolite 67. Alcedinidee ... . — — — Cosmopolite 73. Caprimulgidffi — — — — Cosmopolite 74. Cypselidse — — — Almost cosmopolite 75. Trochilidse ... — — — Neotropical Psittaci. 80. Conuridae — Neotropical COLUMBA 84. Columbidae ... — — — — Cosmopolite Galling. 87. Tetraonidae ... _ — — Almost cosmopolite 88. Phasianidte ... — Palaearctic, Oriental, Ethiopian, Hondu 91. (Cracidse) — Neotropical 142 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY, [part III. Sub-regions. Order and Family. 1 =3 >^x =" cS Range beyond the Region. ■^ a 'U ■5 '3 aj C8 fc, ^<2 Ml (3 CS o ACCIPITRES. 94. Vulturidse ... — — All regions but Australiai? 96. Falcoiiidse ... — — - — Cosmopolite 97. Pandionidse... — — — Co.smopolite 98. Strigidse — — — Cosmopolite GRALL.ffi). 99. KallidK — — — — Cosmopolite 100. Scolopacidse... — — — Cosmopolite 105. Charadriidae — — — Cosmopolite 107. Gruidae — — All regions but Neotropical 113. Ardeidse — — — Cosmopolite 114. Plataleidse ... — — ■ — Almost cosmopolite 115. Ciconiidse ... All the regions Anseres. 118. Anatidse — — — — Cosmopolite 119. Laridse . — — — Cosmopolite 120. Procellariidie — — — Cosmopolite 121. Pelecanidae ... — — — Cosmopolite 123. Colymbidse ... — North temperate and arctic zones 124. Podicipidse .. — — — Cosmopolite 125. Alcidse — ■ — North temperate and arctic zones REPTILIA. Ophidia. 5. Calamariidse ... — — All the regions 6. Oligodontidse... Neotropical, Oriental, Japan 7. Colubridae — — — Almost cosmopolite 8. Homalopsidse All the regions 17. Pythoiiidse ... — All tropical regions 20. Elapidse All tropical regions, Japan 24. Crotalidae — — Neotropical, Palsearctic, Oriental Lacertilia. 27. Chirotidm — — Mexico 32. Teidae — — Neotropical 34. Zonuridse — — • — All regions but Australian 35. Chalcidse Neotropical 45. Scincidse — — Almost cosmopolite 49. Geckotidse ... — — Almost cosmopolite 50. Iguauidae — — Neotropical Crocodilia. 56. Alligatoridae ... Neotropical Chelonia. 57. Testudinidse ... 59. Trionychidse ... All continents but Au.stralia.n — Ethiopian, Oriental, Japar 60. Chelouiidse ... Marine CHAP. XV.] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 143 Sub-regions. Order and Family. < c<3 §1 i.2 bc 13 6 Range beyond the Region. AMPHIBIA, Urodela. 2. Sirenidce 3. Proteidse 4. Amphiumidcc 5. Menoporaidse 6. Salamandridse — Palsearctic Palasarctic Andes, Palsearctic Anoura. 10. Bufonidse 12. Engystomidje.. 15. Alytidse 17. Hylidse 18. Polypedatidse 19. Ranidaa — — — All continents but Australia All regions but Nearctic All regions but Oriental All regions but Ethiopian All the regions Almost cosmopolite FISHES (FRESH- WATER). ACANTHOPTERYGII. 1. Gasterosteidse 3. Percidse 4. Aphredoderidce 12. Scienidse 37. Atherinidse ... — — — — Palsearctic Cosmopolite All regions but Australian Palsearctic Physostomi. 59. Sihiridse 65. Salmonidse ... 66. Percopsidce ... 70. Esocidse 71. Umbridse 73. C3rprinodontidse 74. Heteropygii ... 75. Cyprinidse 77. Hyodontidce ... — — — — All warm regions Palsearctic, New Zealand Palsearctic Palsearctic All regions but Australian Not in S. America or Australia Ganoidei. 93. Amiidoe 9 5 . Lepidosteidoe . . . 96. Accipenseridse 97. Poly don tidfe ... — — — — Palsearctic Palsearctic INSECTS. LEPI- DOPTERA (PART)- DiUKNi (Butter-' flies). 1. Danaidfe 2. Satyridse 7. (Heliconidse)... — — — — All warm regions Cosmopolite Neotropical 144 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [part, hi- Sub-regions. Order and Family. 1 ei 0 c: fcJO 0 Kange beyond the Region. 8. Nymplialidse . . . 9. Libytheidse ... 12. Erycinidie 13. Lycaenidae 14. Pieridse 15. Papilionidse ... 16. Hesperidse SfHINGIDEA. 17. Zygaenidai ... 18. Castniidse 22. iEgeriidse 23. Sphingidse ... — — — Cosmopolite Not in Australia Neotropical Cosmopolite Cosmopolite Cosmopolite Cosmopolite Cosmopolite Neotropical, Australian Not in Australia Cosmopolite CHAP. XV.] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 145 TABLE II. LIST OF GENERA OF TERRESTRIAL MAMMALIA AND BIRDS INHABITING THE NEARCTIC REGION. Explanation. Names in italics show genera peculiar to the region. Names enclosed thus (...) indicate genera which barely enter the region, and are not considered properly to belong to it. Genera properly belonging to the region are numbered consecutively. MAMMALIA. Order, Family, and Genus. Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. CHIROPTERA. Phyllostomid^. 1. Macrotus 1 CaUfomia Mexico, Antilles Vespertilionid^. 2. Scotophilus 3. Vespertilio 4. Nycticejus 5. Lasiurus 6. Synotus 7. Autrozous 5 6 1 3 2 1 Universal, to Hudson's Bay Universal, to Hudson's Bay South and East Temp. N. Amer. to Nova Scotia S. E. and Central States W. Coast Neotr., Orient., Austral. Cosmopolite India, Tropical Africa, temperate S. America Tropical America NOCTILIONID.*;. 8. Nyctinomus ... 1 Cal. and S. Central Sub-region Neotropical, Oriental. S. Palsearctic INSECTIVORA. TALPID.S:. 9. Condylura 10. Scapanus 11. Scalops 12. Urotrichus 1 2 3 1 Eastern N. America New York to San Francisco S. of Great Lakes & Brit. Columb. British Columbia Japan SORICIDiE. 13. Sorex 14. Neosorex 15. Blarina 16 1 7 The whole region Vancouver's Island (a sub-genus) Canada to Mexico (a sub-genus) Palsearc, Ethiop., Orieu CARNIVORA. Felid^. 16. Felis 17. Lynx 5 3 S. of 55° N. Latitude S. of 56° N. Latitude All regs. but Australian Palaearctic VOL. IT. 14G ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. fPART III. Order, Family, and Genus. 02 Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. Canid.*!. 18. Lupus 19. Vulpes MUSTELID.S!. 6 6 All N. America N. America to Arctic Ocean and Greenland Palaearctic, Oriental Palaearc ., Ethiop. , Orient. 20. Martes 21. Mustela 22. Gulo 23. Latax 24. Enhydris 25. Taxidea 26. Mephitis 2 11 I 1 2 6 Pennsylvania to Paget's Sound All N. America Rocky Mountains and Canada United States and Canada Pacific coast Arkansas to 58° N. Lat. United States and Canada Palaearctic, Oriental Peru, Palaearctic, Ethio- pian, Oriental N. Palaearctic W. coast of S. America Neotropical Procyonid.*!. 27. Procyon 28. Bassaris 2 1 Texas to Canada, California California and Texas Neotropical Guatemala and Mexico IjRSIDiE. 29. Ursus 3 N. America and Greenland Palaearctic, Oriental Otariid^. 30. Callorhinus ... 31. Zalophus Eiimetopias 1 1 1 Behring's Straits S. California to N. Pacific California to Behring's Straits Kamschatka Japan TRICHECHID.S!. 'i2. Trichechus Phocid^. 1 Arctic Ocean to 66° N. Lat. in N. America Palaearctic 33. Callocephalus ... 34. Pagomys 35. Pagophilus 36. Halicyon 37. Phoca 38. Halichoerus 39. Morunga 40. Cystophora 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Greenland N. Atlantic and N. Pacific N. Atlantic and N. Pacific N. W. coast of America Northern Coast Greenland California Greenland Palaearctic Japan Palaearctic Palaearctic Palaearctic S. temperate shores N. Atlantic UNGULATA. SUID^. 41. Dicotyles 1 Texas to Red River, Arkansas Neotropical CERVID2E. 42. Alces 43. Rangifer 44. Cervus 1 2 6 N. E. United States & Canada Maine to Arctic Ocean & Greenl. N. America to 57° N. Lat. N. Palaearctic Arctic zone Neotr., Palaearc, Orien. B0VID.S!. 45. Bison 46. Antilocafya ... 1 1 Between Missouri & Rocky Mtns. Central plains from Rio Grande to British Columbia E. Europe CHAP. XV.] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 147 Order, Family, and Genus. "o J d g Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 47. Aplocerus 48. Capra 49. Ovibos 1 1 1 Northern Rocky Mountains Upper Missouri and Rocky Mountains northwards Arctic America and Greenland Palsearctic RODENTIA. MURID^. 50. Reithrodon 51. Hesperomys ... 52. Neotoma 53. Sigmodon... 54. Arvicola 55. Myodes 56. Fiber 5 16 7 2 27 3 1 N. America to Lat. 39° N. Temperate N. America Temperate N. America S. and S. E. States Texas and California to Hudson's Bay N. United States to Arctic Reg. and Greenland All N. America Neotropical Neotropical Palsearctic N. Palsearctic Mexico DlPODID^. 57. Jaculus SACCOMYID.E. 1 Pennsylvania to Canada and Cali- fornia 58. Dipodomys 59. Perognathus ... 60. Thomomys 61. Geomys 62. Saccomys 5 6 2 5 1 New Mexico to Columbia River and Carolina New Mexico to British Columbia Upper Missouri to Hudson's Bay New Mexico to Alabama and Ne- braska N. America CASTORiD.a;. 63. Castor 1 N. Mexico to Labrador Palsearctic SciURIt)^ 64. Sciurus 65. Sciuropterus ... 66. Tamias 67. Spermophilus ... 68. Cynomys 69. Arctomys 18 4 4 15 2 4 N. America to Labrador California & E. States northwds. Mexico and Virginia to Canada N., W., & Central N. America Rio Grande to Missouri (Central) Virginia and Nebraska, northws. All regs. but Australian Palsearctic, Oriental Mexico, N. Asia Palsearctic N. Palsearctic HAPLOODONTID.S;. 70. Eaploodon 2 California and British Columbia CEKCOLABID.E 71. Erethizon Lagomyid^. 2 Pennsylvania to Canada, & Paci- fic coast 72. Lagomys LEPORID.a!. 1 Rocky Mountains, 42° to 60° N. Lat. Palsearctic 73. Lepus 15 All N. America to Greenland All regs. but Australian 148 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [part hi. Order, Family, and Genus. O g d S w Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. MAESUPIALIA. DlDELPHYID^. 74. Didelphys 2 From Hudson's River & Lower California, southward Neotropical BIRDS. PASSERES. TuP.DIDjE. 1. Turdus 2. Mimus 3. Galeoscoptes ... 4. Oreoscoptes 5. Harporhynchus 9 2 1 1 7 The whole region All U. States and to Canada E. of N. America California and Rocky Mountains N. America, chiefly the west Sylviid^. 6. Myiadestes 7. Sialia 8. Regulus 9. Polioptila 1 3 3 3 W. of Rocky Mountains and to Canada All United States and to Canada All United States & to Labrador Central and Southern U. States ClNCLID^. 10. Cinclus Troglodytid^. 1 Rocky Mountains and British America 11. Troglodytes ... 12. Thryopliilus ... 13. Thryothorus ... 14. Cistothorus (Campylor- ) hynchus \ "' 15. Salpinctes 16. Catherpes 3 1 3 2 1 1 1 N. America N. W. America All N. America N. America Gila and Rio Grande) Rocky Mountains to Oregon Gila and Colorado Cham^idje. 17. Chamma 1 California CerthiiI)^. 18. Certhia 2 All United States and Canada SiTTiD.a;. 19. Sitta 5 All United States and Canada Parid^. 20. Parus 21. Lophophanes ... 22. Psaltriparus ... 23. Auriparus 8 4 3 1 All United States and Canada All United States Central & Western N. America Rio Grande Valley Almost cosmopolite Neotropical To Panama Mexico Mexico Neotropical Mexico and Guatemala Palsearc, Cent. America Neotropical Andes, Palsearctic Neotropical, Palsearcti- Neotropical Neotropical Neotropical Neotropical genus Palfearctic, Guatemala Palfearctic, Mexico Palsearc, Orien., Mexico Palsearctic, Mexico Mexico and Guatemala CHAP. XV.] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 149 Order, Family, and Genus. o « Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. Laniid^. 24. Lanius 4 All N. America Palsearc, Ethio., Orient. CoRVlD^. 25. Perisoreus 26. Cyanocitta 27. Gyimiokitta 28. Picicorviis 29. Pica 30. Corvus 1 9 1 1 2 7 Canada and Rocky Mountains All United States and to Canada Central and N. W. States Central and Western States to Sitka Central and Western States to Arctic Ocean All N. America Palsearctic Neotropical Palsearctic Cosmop., excl. S. Amer. C(EUEBIDjE. (Certhiola 1 Florida ; summer migrant) Neotropical genus Mniotiltid^. 31. Mniotilta 32. Parula 33. Protonotaria ... 34. Hclminthophaga 35. Hclmintherus ... 36. Perissoglossa 37. Dendroeca 38. Oporornis 39. Geothlypis 40. Setopliaga 41. Myiodiodes 42. Siurus 43. Ideria 1 1 1 8 2 1 22 2 4 2 5 3 2 Eastern States Eastern States and Canada Ohio and southwards All N. America S. and E. States to Canada Eastern United States All N. America Eastern States All N. America E. States & Canadian sub-region United States and Canada S. and E. States to Canada E. and Central States to Canada Antilles, Andes of Co- lumbia (migrant) Neotropical Neotrop. to Venezuela Mexico to Columbia Mexico to Veragua Antilles Mex. to Ecuador& Cliili Guatemala and Panama Neotropical Neotropical Mex. to Columb. (migr.) Mexico to Columbia Mexico to Costa Rica VlREONID^. 44. Vireosylvia 45. Vireo 7 6 All N. America All United States Antilles and Venezuela Antilles and Costa Eica Ampelid^. 46. Ampelis 47. Phcenopcpla ... 2 1 All N. America Gila and Lower Colorado Palsearctic, Guatemala Mexico HlRUNDINID.*). 48. Hirundo 49. Petrochelidon ... 50. Cotyle 51. Stelgidopteryx 52. Progne 3 1 1 1 1 All N. America All N. America All N. America Southern States All N. America Almost cosmopolite Neotropical All regs. but Australian Neotropical Neotropical ICTERID^, 53. Icterus 54. Dolichonyx ... 55. Molothrus 56. Agelseus 7 1 1 3 All United States and Canada Eastern States and Canada All United States and Canada A.11 United Sl Family 47.— SUID^. (5 Genera, 22 Species.) Gkneral Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic sub-reoions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. -2.3- - 2.3- 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1. The Swine may be divided into three well-marked groups, from peculiarities in their dentition. 1. The Dicotylinse, or CHAP, xvii.] MAMMALIA. 215 peccaries (1 genus, Dicotyles). These offer so many structural differences that they are often classed as a separate family. 2. The true swine (3 genera, Sus, Putaniochcerus, and Bdbirusa) ; and, 3. ThePhacochoerinse, or wart hogs (1 genus, Phacocho&rus). These last are also sometimes made into a separate family, but they are hardly so distinct as the Dicotylinse. The Peccaries (2 species), are peculiar to the Neotropical re- gion, extending from Mexico to Paraguay. They also spread northwards into Texas, and as far as the Eed Eiver of Arkansas, thus just entering the Nearctic region ; but with tliis exception swine are wholly absent from this region, forming an excellent feature by which to differentiate it from the Palsearctic. ^us (14 species), ranges over the Palsearctic and Oriental regions and into the first Australian sub-region as far as New Guinea ; but it is absent from the Ethiopian region, or barely enters it on the north-east. Fotamochcerus (3 species ?), is wholly Ethiopian (Plate V. vol. i. p. 278). Babirusa (1 species), is confined to two islands, Celebes and Bouru, in the first Australian sub-region. PhacocJioerus (2 species), ranges over tropical Africa from Abyssinia to Caffraria. Dr. J. E. Gray divides true swine (Sus) into 7 genera, but it seems far better to keep them as one. Fossil SuidcB. — These are very numerous. Many extinct species of wild hog (Sus), are found in Europe and North India, ranging back from the Post-pliocene to the Upper Miocene for- mations. In the Miocene of Europe are numerous extinct genera, Botliriodon, Anthracotherium, Palceochcerus, Hyotherium, and some others ; while in the Upper Eocene occur Ccboclicerus, Cheer opota7iius, and Acotherium, — these early forms having more resemblance to the peccaries. None of these genera are found in America, where we have the living genus Dicotyles in the Post-pliocene and Pliocene deposits, both of North and South America ; with a number of extinct genera in the Miocene. The chief of these are, Elotherium, Per- clicerus, Lejotochcerus, and NanoJiyus, all from Dakota, and Thinohyus, from Oregon. One extinct genus, Platygomis, closely allied to Dicotyles, is found in the Post-pliocene of Nebraska Vol. II.— 15 216 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. Oregon, and Arkansas. Elotherium is said to be allied to the peccary and hippopotamus. Hyopotamus, from the Miocene of Dakota, is allied to Anthracotherium, and forms with it (accord- ing to Dr. Leidy) a distinct family of ancestral swine. It thus appears, that the swine were almost equally well re- presented in North America and Europe, during Miocene and Pliocene times, but by entirely distinct forms ; and it is a re- markable fact that these hardy omnivorous animals, should, like the horses, have entirely died out in North America, except a few peccaries which have preserved themselves in the sub-tropical parts and in the southern continent, to which they are compara- tively recent emigrants. We can hardly have a more convincing proof of the vast physical changes that have occurred in the North American continent during the Pliocene and Post-pliocene epochs, than the complete extinction of these, along with so many other remarkable types of Mammalia. According to M. Gaudry, the ancestors of all the swine, with the hippopotami and extinct Anthracotherium, Merycopotamus, and many allied forms, — are the Hyracotherium and Pliolophus, both found only in the London clay belonging to the Lower Eocene formation. Family 48.— CAMELIDvE. (2 Genera, 6 Species). General Distribution. Neotropical sub-kegions. Nearctic Sub-regions. PaLvEARCTIC SUB-KEGIONS. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. Living Species. 2 .3 1 - 2.3.4 Extinct Species. - 3 The Camels are an exceedingly restricted group, the majority of the species now existing only in a state of domestication. The genus Camelus (2 species), is a highly characteristic desert form CHAP. XVII. J MAMMALIA. 217 of the Palsearctic region, from the Sahara lo Mongolia as far as Lake Baikal. Auchenia (4 species), comprehending the Llamas and Alpacas, is equally characteristic of the mountains and deserts of the southern part of South America. Two species entirely domesticated inhabit the Peruvian and Bolivian Andes; and two others are found in a wild state, the vicuna in the Andes of Peru and Chili (Plate XVI. vol. ii. p. 40), and the guanaco over the plains of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. Extinct Camelidce. — No fossil remains of camels have been found in Europe, but one occurs in the deposits of the Siwalik Hills, usually classed as Upper Miocene, but which some natu- ralists think are more likely of Older Pliocene age. Meryco- therium, teeth of which have been found in the Siberian drift, is supposed to belong to this family. In North America, where no representative of the family now exists, the camel-tribe were once abundant. In the Post-pliocene deposits of California an Auchenia, has been found, and in those of Kansas one of the extinct genus Frocamelus. In the Pliocene period, this genus, which was closely allied to the living camels, abounded, six or seven species having been described from Nebraska and Texas, together with an allied form Homocamelus. In the Miocene period diSerent genera appear, — Pcebrotherium, and Protomeryx, — while a Procameliis has been found in de- posits of this age in Virginia, In South America a species of Auchenia has been found in the caves of Brazil, and others in the Pliocene deposits of the pampas, together with two extinct genera, Palceolama and Camelo- therium. We thus find the ancestors of the Camelidse in a region where they do not now exist, but which is situated so that the now widely separated living forms could easily have been derived from it. This case offers a remarkable example of the light thrown by palaeontology on the distribution of living animals ; and it is a warning against the too common practice of assuming the direct land connection of remote continents, in order to ex- plain similar instances of discontinuous distribution to that of the present family. 218 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. Family 49.— TEAGULIDiE. (2 Genera, 6 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Nearctic Paljearctic m EOTKOPICAL, ISEAKLrnU JT AL.IiAKUTIC CiTHIOPIAN URIENTAL AUSTRALIAN SUB-BEGION.S. Sub-regions. Sub-kegions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-begions Ethiopian Oriental Australian 1.2.3.4 The Tragulidse are a group of small, hornless; deer-like animals, with tusks in the upper jaw, and having some structural affinities with the camels. The musk-deer was formerly classed in this family, which it resembles externally ; but a minute examination of its structure by M. Milne-Edwards, has shown it to be more nearly allied to the true deer. The Chevrotains, or mouse-deer, Tragulus (5 species), range over all India to the foot of the Himalayas and Ceylon, and through Assam, Malacca, and Cam- bodja, to Sumatra, Borneo, and Java (Plate VIII., vol. i. p. 337). Hymnosclius (1 species), is found in West Africa. Extinct Tragulidce. — A species of HyomoscJms is said to have been found in the Miocene of the South of France, as weU as three extinct genera, Dremotherium (also found in Greece), with Lophiomeryx from the Upper Miocene, said to be alKed to Tra- gulus ; and Ampliitragulus from the Lower Miocene, of more remote affinities, and sometimes placed among the Deer. There seems to be no doubt, however, that this family existed in Europe in Miocene times ; and thus another case of discontinuous dis- tribution is satisfactorily accounted for. Family 50.— CERVID^. (8 Genera, 52 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical sub-rbgions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic sub-kegions. Ethiopian sub-regions. Oriental sub-kegions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3- 1.2.3.4 1. 2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1 The Cervidse, or deer tribe, are an extensive group of animals squally adapted for inhabiting forests or open plains, the Arctic CHAP, xvii.j MAMMALIA. 219 regions or the Tropics. They range in fact over the whole of the great continents of the globe, with the one striking exception of Africa, where they are only found on the shores of the Mediterra- nean which form part of the Pala3arctic region. The following is the distribution of the genera. Alces (1 species), the elk or moose, ranges all over Northern Europe and Asia, as far south as East Prussia, the Caucasus, and North China ; and over Arctic America to Maine on the East, and British Columbia on the west. The American species may however be distinct, although very closely allied to that of Europe. Tarandus (1 species), the reindeer, has a similar range to the last, but keeps farther north in Europe, inhabiting Green- land and Spitzbergen ; and in America extends farther south, to New Brunswick and the north shore of Lake Superior. There are several varieties or species of this animal confined to special districts, but they are not yet well determined. Oervus (40 species), the true deer, have been sub-divided into numerous sub- genera characteristic of separate districts. They range over the whole area of the family, except that they do not go beyond 57° N. in America and a little fdrther in Europe and Asia. In South America they extend over Patagonia and even to Tierra del Fuego. They are found in the north of Africa, and over the whole of the Oriental region, and beyond it as far as the Mo- luccas and Timor, where however they have probably been intro- duced by man at an early period. Dama (1 species), the fallow deer, is a native of the shores of the Mediterranean, from Spain and Barbary to Syria. Ca])reolus (2 species), the roe-deer, inhabits all Temperate and South Europe to Syria, with a distinct species in N. China. Gervulus (4 species), the muntjacs, are found in all the forest districts of the Oriental region, from India and Ceylon to China as far north as Ningpo and Formosa, also south- ward to the Philippines, Borneo, and Java. Moschus (1 species) the musk-deer, inhabits Central Asia from the Amoor and Pekin, to the Himalayas and the Siamese mountains above 8000 ft. elevation. This is usually classed as a distinct family, but M. Milne-Edwards remarks, that it differs in no important points of organisation from the rest of the Cexvidae. Eydropotes 220 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. (1 species) inhabits China from the Yang-tse Kiang northwards. This new genus has recently been discovered by Mr. Swinhoe, who says its nearest affinities are with Moschus. Other new forms are Lopliotragus, and Elapliodus, both inhabiting North China ; the former is hornless, the latter has very small horns about an inch long. Extinct Deer. — Numerous extinct sjiecies of the genus Cervus are found fossil in many parts of Europe, and in all formations between the Post-pliocene and the Upper Miocene. The Elk and Eeindeer are also found in caves and Post-pliocene deposits, the latter as far south as the South of France. Extinct genera only, occur in the Upper Miocene in various parts of Europe : — Micromeryx, Palcconieryx, and Dicrocercus have been described ; with others referred doubtfully to Moschus, and an allied genus Amphimoschus. In N". America, remains of this family are very scarce, a Cer- vus allied to the existing wapiti deer, being found in Post-plio- cene deposits, and an extinct genus, Leptomeryx, in the Upper Miocene of Dakota and Oregon. Another extinct genus, Mery- codus, from the Pliocene of Oregon, is said to be allied to camels and deer. In South America, several species of Cervus have been found in the Brazilian caves, and in the Pliocene deposits of La Plata. It thus appears, that there are not yet sufficient materials for determining the origin and migrations of the Cervidae. There can be little doubt that they are an Old World group, and a com- paratively recent development ; and that some time during the Miocene period they passed to North America, and subsequently to the Southern continent. They do not however appear to have developed much in North America, owing perhaps to their find- ing the country already amply stocked with numerous forms of indigenous Ungulates. CHAP. XVII.] MAMMALIA. 221 Family 51.— CAMELOPAEDALID^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sdb-regions. Nearctic scb-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. Living Species. 1 - 3 - Extinct Species. -2 1 1 3 — 1 The Camelopardalidae, or giraffes, now consist of but a single species which ranges over all the open country of the Ethiopian region, and is therefore almost absent from West Africa, which is'more especially a forest district. During the Middle Tertiary period, however, these animals had a wider range, over Southern Europe and Western India as far as the slopes of the Hima- layas. Extinct Species. — Species of Camelopardalis have been found in Greece, the Siwalik Hills, and Perim Island at the entrance to the Eed Sea; and an extinct genus, Helladotherium, more bulky but not so tall as the giraffe, ranged from the south of Prance to Greece and North-west India. Family 52.— BOVID.^. (34 Genera, 149 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-kegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2-4 1 .2.3 .4- 1.2.3 — 1.2.3.4 1 This large and important family, includes all the animals com- monly known as oxen, buffaloes, antelopes, sheep, and goats, which have been classed by many naturalists in at least three, and sometimes four or five, distinct families. Zoologically, they 222 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. are briefly and accurately defined as, " hollow-horned ruminants ;" and, although they present wide differences in external form, they grade so insensibly into each other, that no satisfactory definition of the smaller family groups can be found. As a whole they are almost confined to the great Old World continent, only a few forms extending along the highlands and prairies of the Nearctic region ; while one peculiar type is found in Celebes, an island which is almost intermediate between the Oriental and Australian regions. In each of the Old World regions there are found a characteristic set of types. Antelopes prevail in the Ethiopian region ; sheep and goats in the Palaj- arctic ; while the oxen are perhaps best developed in the Oriental region. Sir Victor Brooke, who has paid special attention to this family, divides them into 13 sub-families, and 1 here adopt the arrangement of the genera and species which he has been. so good as to communicate to me in MSS. Sub-family I. BoviN.^ (6 genera, 13 species). This group is one of the best marked in the family. It comprises the Oxen and Buffaloes with their allies, and has a distribution very nearly the same as that of the entire family. The genera are as follows : Bos (1 sp.), now represented by our domestic cattle, the descendants of the Bos primigenius, which ranged over a large part of Central Europe in the time of the Eomans. The Chil- lingham wild cattle are supposed to be the nearest approach to the original species. Bison (2 sp.), one still wild in Poland and the Caucasus; the other in North America, ranging over the prairies west of the Mississippi, and on the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains (Plate XIX., vol. ii., p. 129). Bihos (3 sp.), the Indian wild cattle, ranging over a large part of the Oriental region, from Southern India to Assam, Burmah, the Malay Peninsula, Borneo, and Java. Poepliagus (1 sp.), the yak, con- fined to the high plains of Western Thibet. Bubalus (5 sp.), the buffaloes, of which three species are African, ranging over all the continental parts of the Ethiopian region ; one Northern and Central Indian ; and the domesticated animal in South Europe and North Africa. Anoa (1 sp.), the small wild cow of Celebes, CHAP. XVII.] Mammalia. 223 a very peculiar form more nearly allied to the buffaloes than to any other type of oxen. , Sub-family II. Tragelaphin^ (3 genera, 11 species). The Bovine Antelopes are large and handsome animals, mostly Ethiopian, but extending into the adjacent parts of the Palfe- arctic and Oriental regions. The genera are : Oreas (2 sp.), elands, inhabiting all Tropical and South Africa. Tragela- phus (8 sp.), including the bosch-bok, kudu, and other large antelopes, ranges over all Tropical and South Africa (Plate IV., vol. ii., p. 261). Poftax (1 sp.) India, but rare in Madras and north of the Ganges. Sub-family III. Oeygin^ (2 genera, 5 species). Oryx (4 sp.) is a desert genus, ranging over all the African deserts to South Arabia and Syria ; Addax (1 sp.) inhabits North Africa, North Arabia, and Syria. Sub-family IV. HiPPOTEAGiNiE (1 genus, 3 species). The Sable Antelopes, Hippotragus, form an isolated group inhabiting the open country of Tropical Africa and south to the Cape. Sub-family V. Gazellin^ (6 genera, 23 species). This is a group of small or moderate-sized animals, most abundant in the deserts on the borders of the Palsearctic, Oriental, and Ethiopian regions. Gazella (17 sp.) is typically a Palsearctic desert group, ranging over the great desert plateaus of North Africa, from Senegal and Abyssinia to Syria, Persia, Beloo- chistan, and the plains of India, with one outlying species in South Africa. Procapra (2 sp.). Western Thibet and Mongolia to about 110° east longitude. Antilope (1 sp.) inhabits all the plains of India. JSpyceros (1 sp.) the pallah, inhabits the open country of South and South-east Africa. Saiga (1 sp.) a singular sheep-faced antelope, which inhabits the steppes of Eastern Europe and Western Asia from Poland to the Irtish Eiver, south of 55° north latitude. (Plate II., vol. i., p. 218.) Pan- tlmlops (1 sp.) confined to the highlands of Western Thibet and perhaps Turkestan. Sub-family VI. Antilocappjn^. (1 genus, 1 species), Antilo- capra, the prong-horned antelope, inhabit both sides of the Eocky Mountains, extending north to the Saskatchewan and 224 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. Columbia Eiver, west to the coast range of California, and east to the Missouri. Its remarkable deciduous horns seem to indi- cate a transition to the Cervidse. (Plate XIX., vol. ii., p. 129.) Sub-family VII. Cervicaprin^ (5 genera, 21 species). This group of Antelopes is wholly confined to the continental portion of the Ethiopian region. The genera are: Ccrvicapra (4 sp.), Africa, south of the equator and Abyssinia; Kohus (6 sp.), grassy plains and marshes of Tropical Africa ; Pelea (1 sp.). South Africa; Nanotragus (9 species), Africa, south of the Sahara; Neotragii^s (1 sp.) Abyssinia and East Africa. Sub-family VIII. Cephalophin^ (2 genera, 24 species), Africa and India; Cephaloplms (22 sp.), continental Ethiopian region; Tetraceros (2 sp.) hiUy part of all India, but rare north of the Ganges. Sub-family IX. Alcephalin^ (2 genera, 11 species), large African Antelopes, one species just entering the Palaearctic region. The genera are : Alcephalus (9 sp.) all Africa and north-east to Syria ; Catdblepas (2 sp.), gnus, Africa, south of the Equator. Sub-region X. BuDORCiN^ (1 genus, 2 species) Budorcas in- habits the high Himalayas from Nepal to East Thibet. Sub-family XI. PiUPICaprin^ (1 genus, 2 species) the Cha- mois, Rupicapra, inhabit the high European Alps from the Pyrenees to the Caucasus. (Plate I., vol. i., p. 195.) Sub-family XII. Nemorhedin^ (2 genera, 10 species). These goat-like Antelopes inhabit portions of the Paleearctic and Oriental regions, as well as the Rocky Mountains in the Nearctic region. Nemorhedus (9 sp.) ranges from the Eastern Hima- layas to N. China and Japan, and south to Formosa, the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. Aplocerus (1 sp.), the mountain goat of the trappers, inhabits the northern parts of California and the Rocky Mouniains. Sub-family XIII. Caprine (2 genera, 23 species). The G-oats and Sheep form an extensive series, highly characteristic of the Palaearctic region, but with an outlying species on the Neilgher- ries in Southern India, and one in the Rocky Mountains and California. The genera are Capra (22 sp.) and Ovihos (1 sp.). CHAP, XVII.] MAMMALIA. 225 The genus Capra consists of several sub-groups which have been named as genera, but it is unnecessary here to do more than divide them into " Goats and Ibexes " on the one hand and " Sheep " on the other — each comprising 11 species. The former range over all the South European Alps from Spain to the Cau- casus ; to Abyssinia, Persia, and Scinde ; over the high Himalayas to E. Thibet and K China; with an outlying species in the Neilgherries. The latter are only found in the mountains of Cor- sica, Sardinia, and Crete, in Europe ; in Asia Minor, Persia, and in Central and North-Eastern Asia, with one somewhat isolated species in the Atlas mountains ; while in America a species is found in the Ptocky Mountains and the coast range of California. Ovibos (1 sp.), the musk-sheep, inhabits Arctic America north of lat. 60 ; but it occurs fossil in Post-glacial gravels on the Yena and Obi in Siberia, in Germany and France along with the Mammoth and with flint implements, and in caves of the Pteindeer period ; also in the brick earth in the south of England, associated with Rhinoceros megarliinus and Elcphas antiquus. Extinct Boviclce. — In the caverns and diluviums of Europe, of the Post-PKocene period, the remains are found of extinct species oiBos, Bison, and Capra; and in the caverns of the south of France Rupicapra, and an antelope near Hippotragus. Bos and Bison also occur in Pliocene deposits. In the Miocene of Europe, the only remains are antelopes closely allied to existing species, and these are especially numerous in Greece, where remains referred to two living and four extinct genera have been discovered. In the Miocene of India numerous extinct species of Bos, and two extinct genera, Hemilios and Amphihos, have been found, one of them at a great elevation in Thibet. Antelopes, allied to living Indian species, are chiefly found in the ISTerbudda deposits. In North America, the only bovine remains are those of a Bison, and a sheep or goat, in the Post-pliocene deposits ; and of two species of musk-sheep, sometimes classed in a distinct genus Boothcriiom, from beds of the same age in Arkansas and Ohio. Casoryx, from the Pliocene of Nebraska, is supposed to be allied to the antelopes and to deer. 226 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. In the caves of Brazil remains of two animals said to be ante- lopes, have been discovered. They are classed by Gervais in the genera Antilope and Lcptotlicrium, but the presence of true ante- lopes in S. America at this period is so improbable, that there is probably some error of identification. The extinct family Sivatheridoe, containing the extraordinary and gigantic four-horned Sivatheriuvi and Bramatherium, of the Siwalik deposits, are most nearly allied to the antelopes. From the preceding facts we may conclude, that the great existing development of the Bovidse is comparatively recent. The type may have originated early in the Miocene period, the oxen being at first most tropical, while the antelopes inhabited the desert zone a little further north. The sheep and goats seem to be the most recent development of the bovine type, which was probably long confined to the Eastern Hemisphere. General Remarks on the Distribution of the Ungulata. With the exception of the Australian region, from which this order of mammalia is almost entirely wanting, the Ungulata are almost universally distributed over the continental parts of all the other regions. Of the ten families, 7 are Ethiopian, 6 Oriental, 5 Palfearctic, 4 Neotropical, and 3 Nearctic. The Ethiopian region owes its superiority to the exclusive possession of the hippo- potamus and giraffe, both of which inhabited the Palsearctic and Oriental regions in Miocene times. The excessive poverty of the Nearctic region in this order is remarkable ; the swine being represented only by Dicotylcs in its extreme southern portion, while the Bovidse are restricted to four isolated species. Deer alone are fairly well represented. But, during the Eocene and Miocene periods, North America was wonderfully rich in varied forms of Ungulates, of which there were at least 8 or 9 families ; while we have reason to believe that during the same periods the Ethiopian region was excessively poor, and that it probably re- ceived the ancestors of all its existing families from Eurojie or Western Asia in later Miocene or Pliocene times. Many types that once abounded in both Europe and North America are now pre- served only in South America and Central or Tropical Asia, — as CHAP. XVII.] MAMMALIA. 227 the tapirs and camels ; while others once confined to Europe and Asia have found a refuge in Africa, — as the hippopotamus and giraffe ; so that in no other order do we find such striking ex- amples of those radical changes in the distribution of the higher animals which were effected during the latter part of the Tertiary period. The present distribution of this order is, in fact, utterly unintelligible without reference to the numerous extinct forms of existing and allied families ; but as this subject has been suffi- ciently discussed in the Second Part of this work (Chapters VI. and VII.) it is unnecessary to give further details here. Order VIII.—PROBOSCIDEA. Family 53.— ELEPHANTID.E. (1 Genus, 2 Species.) Genekal Distribution. Neotropical SiTB-REGIONS. Nearctic Sob-regions. Pal^arctic I Ethiopian Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. Living Species. _ 1.2.3 - 1.2.3.4 ExTiNOT Species. 12 1.2.3.4 1 .2.3.4 1 1 - 3 - -■• The elephants are now represented by two species, the African, which ranges all over that continent south of the Sahara, and the Indian, which is found over all the wooded parts of the Oriental region, from the slopes of the Himalayas to Cey- lon, and eastward, to the frontiers of China and to Sumatra and Borneo. These, however, are but the feeble remnants of a host of gigantic creatures, which roamed over all the great conti- nents except Australia during the Tertiary period, and several of which were contemporary with man. Extinct Elephants. — At least 14 extinct species of Elephas, and a rather greater number of the allied genus Mastodon (dis- tinguished by their less complex grinding teeth) have now been 228 GEOGKAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. discovered. Elephants ranged over all the Palsearctic and Nearctic regions in Post-Pliocene times ; in Europe and Central India they go bacls to the Pliocene ; and only in India to the Upper Miocene period ; the number of species increasing as we go back to the older formations. In North America two or three species of Mastodon are Post- pliocene and Pliocene ; and a species is found in the caves of Brazil, and in the Pliocene deposits of the pampas of La Plata, of the Bolivian Andes, and of Honduras and the Bahamas. In Europe the genus is Upper Miocene and Pliocene, but is espe- cially abundant in the former period. In the East, it extends from Perim island to Burmah and over all India, and is mostly Miocene, but with perhaps one species Pliocene in Central India. An account of the range of such animals as belong to extinct families of Proboscidea, will be found in Chapters VI. and VII. ; from which it will be seen that, although the family Elephantidse undoubtedly originated in the Eastern Hemisphere, it is not improbable that the first traces of the order Proboscidea are to be found in N, America. Order IX.~HYRACOIDEA. Family 54.-HYEACID^. (1 Genus. 10-32 Species.) General Distribution, Neotropical St;b-regions. Nearctic s15b-eegi0ns. PaL/EARCTIC Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. - —2. 1.2.3 The genus Hyrax, which alone constitutes this family, consists of small animals having the appearance of hares or marmots, but which more resemble the genus Rldnoccros in their teeth and skeleton. They range all over the Ethiopian region, except Mada- gascar ; a peculiar species is found in Eernando Poy and they just enter the Palsearctic as far as Syria. They may therefore be considered as an exclusively Ethiopian group. In Dr. Gray's I CHAP. XVII.] MAMMxVLIA. 229 last Catalogue (1873) he divides the genus into three — Hyrax, Eithyrax and Dendrohijrax — the latter consisting of two species confined apparently to West and South Africa. No extinct forms of this family have yet been discovered ; the Hyracotherium of the London clay (Lower Eocene) which was supposed to resemble Hyrax, is now believed to be an ancestral type of the Suidas or swine. Order X.—EODENTIA. Family 55.— MUEID^. (37 Genera, 330 Species.) General Distribution, Neotropical St;b-regions. Nearctic sob-kegions. PaL/E ARCTIC Sub-regions. Ethiopian Oriental Australian Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. i.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 —2 The Muridse, comprising the rats and mice with their allies, are almost universally distributed over the globe (even not reckon- ing the domestic species which have been introduced almost everywhere by man), the exceptions being the three insular groups belonging to the Australian region, from none of which have any species yet been obtained. Before enumerating the genera it will be as well to say a few words on the peculiarities of distribution they present. The true mice, forming the genus Mus, is distributed over the whole of the world except N, and S. America where not a single indigenous species occurs, being replaced by the genus Hesjperomys ; five other genera, compre- hending all the remaining species found in South America are peculiar to the Neotropical region. Three genera are confined to the Palaearctic region, and three others to the Nearctic. No less than twelve genera are exclusively Ethiopian, while only three are exclusively Oriental and three Australian. Mus (100-120 sp.) the Eastern Hemisphere, but absent from the Pacific and Austro-Malayan Islands, except Celebes and Papua ; Lasiomys (1 sp.) Guinea; Acanthomys (5-6 sp.) Africa, India and 230 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. N. Australia ; Cricetomys (1 sp.) Tropical Africa ; Saccostomus (2 sp.) Mozambique ; Cricetus (9 sp.) Palsearctic region and Egypt ; Cricetidus (1 sp., Milne-Edwards, 1870) Pekin ; Pseudomys (1 sp.) Australia ; Hapalotis (13 sp.) Australia ; Phlceomys (1 sp.) Philip- pines ; Platacanthomys (1 sp., Blyth, 1865) Malabar ; Dendromys (2 sp.) S. Africa ; Nesomys (1 sp. Peters, 1870) Madagascar ; Steatomys (2 sp.) N. and -S. Africa ; Pelomys (1 sp.) Mozambique ; Reithrodon (9 sp.) N. America, Lat. 29° to Mexico, and south to Tierra del Fuego ; Acodon (1 sp.) Peru ; Myxomys (1 sp.) Guate- mala ; Hesperomys (90 sp.) North and South America ; Holochilus (4 sp.) South America ; Oxymycterus (4 sp.) Brazil and La Plata ; Neotoma (6 sp.) U.S., East coast to California ; Sigmodon (2 sp.) Southern United States ; Drymomys (1 sp.) Peru ; Neotomys (2 sp.) S. America ; Otomys (6 sp.) S. and E. Africa ; Merioncs = Gerbillus (20-30 sp.) Egypt, Central Asia, India, Africa ; Phomhoinys (6 sp.) S. E. Europe, N. Africa, Central Asia ; Malacothrix (2 sp.) South Africa ; Mystromys (1 sp.) South Africa ; Psammomys (I sp.) Egypt ; Sjpalacomys (1 sp.) India ; Sminthus (1-3 sp.) East Europe, Tartary, Siberia ; Hydromys (5 sp.) Australia and Tas- mania ; Hypogeomys (1 sp., Grandidier, 1870) Madagascar ; Pra- chytarsomys (1 sp., Giinther, 1874) Madagascar; Filer [2 sp.) N. America to Mexico ; Arvicola (50 sp.) Europe to Asia Minor, North Asia, Himalayas, Temp. N. America ; Cunicuhis (1 sp.) N. E. Europe, Siberia, Greenland, Arctic America ; Myodes\i sp.) Europe, Siberia, Arctic America, and Northern United States ; Myospalax = Siphneus (2 sp.) Altai Mountains and N. China^; Lophiomys (1 sp.) S. Arabia, and N. E. Africa; Echiothrix (1 sp.) Australia. Extinct Muridce. — Species of Mtis, Cricetus, Arvicola, and Myodes, occur in the Post-Pliocene deposits of Europe ; Arvicola, Merioncs, and the extinct genus Cricctodon, with some others, in the Miocene. In North America, Fiber, Arvicola, and Neotoma, occur in caves ; ^ Myospalax has hitherto formed part of the next family, Spalacidse ; but a recent examination of its anatomy by M. Milne-Edwards shows that it belongs to the Muridse, and comes near Arvicola. CHAP. XVII.j MAMMALIA. 231 an extinct genus, Eumys, in the Upper Miocene of Dakota, and another, Mysops, in the Eocene of Wyoming. In South America Mus, or more probably Hesperomys, is abundant in Brazilian caverns, and OxymyderiLs in the Pliocene of La Plata ; while Arvicola is said to have occurred both in the Pliocene and Eocene deposits of the same country. Family 56.— SPALACID^. (7 Genera, 17 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Si:b-begions. Nearctic I PaL/EARctic I Ethiopian ScB-REGioNS. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Oriental I Australian Sub-regions. Sub-regions. 1.2.3- 1,2.3— 1—3.4 The Spalacidse, or mole-rats, have a straggling distribution ovei the Old World continents. They are found over nearly the whole of Africa, but only in the South-east of Europe, and West of Temperate Asia, but appearing again in North India, Malacca, and South China. Ellohius (1 sp.), is found in South Eussia and South-west Siberia ; Spalax (1 sp.). Southern Russia, West Asia, Hungary, Moldavia, and Greece (Plate II., vol. i. p. 218) ; Bhizomys (6 sp.), Abyssinia, North India, Malacca, South China ; Hderocephalus (1 sp.), Abyssinia ; Bathyerges (= Orycterus 1 sp.). South Africa ; Georychus (6 sp.), South, Central, and East Africa ; Eeliophobus (1 sp.), Mozambique. Family 57.— DIPODID^. (3 Genera, 22 Species.) General Distribution. \ Neotropical sub-rbgionr. Neabctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic sub-hegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-eegions. 1.2.3.4— 2.3.4 lo2.3 The Jerboas, or jumping mice, are especially characteristic of the regions about the eastern extremity of the Mediterranean, being found in South Russia, the Caspian district, Arabia, Egypt, YoL. IL— 16 232 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. and Abyssinia ; but they also extend over a large part of Africa, and eastward to India ; while isolated forms occur in North America, and the Cape of Good Hope. Dipus = Gerhillus (20 sp.), inhabits North and Central Africa, South-East Europe, and across Temperate Asia to North China, also Affghanistan, India, and Ceylon ; Pedeies (1 sp.), South Africa to Mozambique and Angola ; Jaculus = Meriones (1 sp.). North America, from Nova Scotia and Canada, south to Pennsylvania and west to California and British Columbia (Plate XX., vol. ii. p. 135). Extinct Dipodidce.—Dipus occurs fossil in the Miocene of the Alps; and an extinct genus, Issiodromys, said to be allied to Pedetcs of the Cape of Good Hope, is from the Pliocene forma- tions of Auvergne in France. Family 58.— MYOXID^. (1 Genus, 12 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal.«arctic sub-uegion's. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1,3.3.4.1.2.3— — The Dormice {Myoxus), are small rodents found over all the temperate parts of the Palsearctic region, from Britain to Japan ; and also over most parts of Africa to the Cape, but wanting in India. Some of the African species have been separated under the name of Graphidurus, while those of Europe and Asia form the sub-genera Glis, Muscardinus, and Eliomys. Extinct Myoxidm.— Myoxus ranges from the Post-pliocene of the Maltese caverns to the Miocene of Switzerland and the Upper Eocene of France ; and an extinct genus Brachymys is found in the Miocene of Central Europe. CHAP. XVII.] MAMMALIA. 233 Family 59.— SACCOMYIDiE. (6 Genera, 33 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Nearctic Sob-regions. Sub-regions. Pal«arctio Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3.4 The Saccomyidae, or pouched rats, are almost wholly confined to our second Nearctic sub-region, comprising the Eocky Moun- tains and the elevated plains of Central North America. A few- species range from this district as far as Hudson's Bay on the north, to South Carolina on the east, and to California on the west, while one genus, doubtfully placed here, goes south as far as Honduras and Trinidad. The group must therefore be consi- dered to be pre-eminently characteristic of the IsTearctic region. The genera are, — Bvpodomys (5 sp.), North Mexico, California, the east slope of the Eocky Mountains to the Columbia Eiver, and one species in South Carolina ; Perognathics (6 sp.), North Mexico, California, east slope of the Eocky Mountains to British Columbia; Thomomys (2 sp.), Upper Missouri, and Upper Columbia Eivers to Hudson's Bay ; Geoymjs (5 sp.), North Mexico, and east slope of Eocky Mountains to Nebraska (Plate XIX., vol. ii. p. 129) ; Saccomys (1 sp.), North America, locality un- known ; Hcteromys (6 sp.), Mexico, Honduras, and Trinidad. Geomys and Thomomys constitute a separate family Geomyidse, of Professor Cams ; but I follow Professor Lilljeborg, who has made a special study of the Order, in keeping them with this family. In the Post-Pliocene deposits of Illinois and Nebraska, remains of an existing species of Geomys have been found. 234 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. Family 60.— CASTOEID^. (1 Genus, 2 Species.) General Distribution. Is'eotropical Nearctic Sub-regions. Sub-regions. PAL.EARCTIC SUB-REGION.S. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental sub-kegions. AOSTRALIAN SUB-RKGIONS. 1 .2.3 .4 -3- I The Beavers, forming the genus Castor, consist of two species, the American {Castor canadensis) ranging over the whole of North America from Labrador to North Mexico ; while the European {Castor fiber) appears to be confined to the temperate regions of Europe and Asia, from France to the Eiver Amoor, over which extensive region it doubtless roamed in prehistoric times, although now becoming rare in many districts. Extinct Castoridce. — Extinct species of Castor range back from the Post-pliocene to the Upper Miocene in Europe, and to the Newer Pliocene in North America. Extinct genera in Europe are, Trogontherium, Post-Pliocene and Pliocene; Chalicomys, Older Pliocene; and Steneofiber, Upper Miocene. In North America Castoroides is Post-Pliocene, and Palmcastor, Upper Miocene. The family thus first appears on the same geological horizon in both Europe and North America. Family 61.— SCIUPJD.^.— (8 Genera, 180-200 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Nearctic Pal^arctic i Ethiopian Oriental i Australian SuB-REGioN,s. Sub-regions. Sub-hegions. Sub-regions. Sub-eegions. Sub-eeGions. 2.3 — 1 .2.3.4 I 1 .2.3.4 1.2.3 1.2.3.4 The Squirrel family, comprehending also the marmots and prairie-dogs, are very widely spread over the earth. They are especially abundant in the Nearctic, Pal^arctic, and Oriental regions, and rather less frequent in the Ethiopian and Neotro- pical, in which last region they do not extend south of Paraguay. They are absent from the West Indian islands, Madagascar, and Australia, only occurring in Celebes which doubtfully belongs to the Australian region. The genera are as foUows :— CHAP. XVII.] MAMMALIA. 235 Sciurus (100 — 120 sp., including the sub-genera Spermosciurus, Xerus, Macroxus, Eheithrosciurus, and Ehinosciurus), comprises the true squirrels, and occupies the area of the whole family wherever woods and forests occur. The approximate number of species in each region is as follows : Nearctic 18, Paleearctic 6, Ethiopian 18, Oriental 50, Australian (Celebes) 5, Neotropical 30. Sciuropterus (16 — 19 sp.), comprises the flat-tailed flying squirrels, which range from Lapland and Finland to North China and Japan, and southward through India and Ceylon, to Malacca and Java, with a species in Formosa ; while in North America they occur from Labrador to British Columbia, and south to Minnesota and Southern California. Pteromys (12 sp.), comprising the round- tailed flying squirrels, is a more southern form, being confined to the wooded regions of India from the Western Himalayas to Java and Borneo, with species in Formosa and Japan. Tamias{b sp.), the ground squirrels, are chiefly North American, ranging from Mexico to Puget's Sound on the west coast, and from Virginia to Montreal on the Atlantic coast; while one species is found over all northern Asia. Spermo'philus (26 sp.), the pouched marmots, are confined to the Nearctic and Palsearctic regions ; in the former ex- tending from the Arctic Ocean to Mexico and the west coast, but not passing east of Lake Michigan and the lower Mississippi; in the latter from Silesia through South Eussia to the Amoor and Kams- chatka, most abundant in the desert plains of Tartary and Mon- golia. Ardomys (8 sp.), the marmots, are found in the northern parts of North America as far down as Virginia and Nebraska to the Eocky Mountains and British Columbia, but not in Cali- fornia ; and from the Swiss Alps eastward to Lake Baikal and Kamschatka, and south as far as the Himalayas, above 8,000 feet elevation. Cynomys (2 sp.), the prairie-dogs, inhabit the plains east of the Eocky Mountains from the Upper Missouri to the Eed Eiver and Eio Grande (Plate XIX., vol. ii. p. 129). Anoma- lurus (5 sp.), consists of animals which resemble flying-squirrels, but differ from all other members of the family in some points of internal structure. They form a very aberrant portion of the Sciuridse, and, according to some naturalists, a distinct family. They inhabit West Africa and the island of Fernando Po. 236 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. Extinct Sciuridce. — These are tolerably abundant. The genus Sciurus appears to be a remarkably ancient form, extinct species being found in the Miocene, and even in the Upper Eocene formations of Europe. Sjpermophilus goes back to the Upper Miocene ; Ardomys to the Newer Pliocene. Extinct genera are, Brachymys, Lithomys and Plesiarctomys, from the European Miocene, the latter said to be intermediate between marmots and squirrels. In North America, Sciurus, Tamias, and Arctomys occur in the Post-pliocene deposits only. The extinct genera are Ischyromys, from the Upper Miocene of Nebraska ; Paramys, allied to the marmots, and Sciuravus, near the squirrels, from the Eocene of Wyoming. Here we have unmistakable evidence that the true squirrels (Sciurus) are an Old World type, which has"only recently entered North America ; and this is in accordance with the comparative scarcity of this group in South America, a country so well adapted to them, and their great abundance in the Oriental region, which, with the Palsearctic, was probably the coun- try of their origin and early development. The family, how- ever, has been traced equally far back in Europe and North America, so that we have as yet no means of determining where it originated. Family 62.— HAPLOODONTID^.— (1 Genus, 2 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical St:B-REGIONS. Nearctic sob-hegions. Pal^arctic sub-uegions. Ethiopian sub-eegionb. Oriental Australian SuB-BEoioNs. Sub-regions. 1 The genus Haploodon or Aplodontia, consists of two curious rat-like animals, inhabiting the west coast of America, from the southern part of British Columbia to the mountains of Califor- nia. They seem to have affinities both with the beavers and marmots, and Professor Lilljeborg constitutes a sepaiate family to receive them. CHAP. XVII.] MAMMALIA. 237 Family 63.— CHINCHILLID^. (3 Genera, 6 Species ) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic sub-kegions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1 1 1 The Chinchillidse, including the chinchillas and viscachas, are confined to the alpine zones of the Andes, from the boundary of Ecuador and Peru to the southern parts of Chili ; and over the Pampas, to the Rio Negro on the south, and the River Uruguay on the east. Chinchilla (2 sp.), the true chinchillas, are found in the Andes of Chili and Peru, south of 9° S. lat., and from 8,000 to 12,000 feet elevation (Plate XVI. vol. ii. p. 40) ; Lagi- dium (3 sp.), the alpine viscachas, inhabit the loftiest plateaus and mountains from 11,000 to 16,000 feet, and extend furthest north of* aliy of the family ; while Lagostomus (1 sp.), the vis- cacha of the Pampas, has the range above indicated. The family is thus confined within the limits of a single sub-region. Extinct Chinchillidce. — Lagostomus has been found fossil in the caves of Brazil, and in the Pliocene deposits of La Plata. The only known extinct forms of this family are Amlly- rhiza and Loxomylus, found in cavern-deposits in the island of Anguilla, of Post-Pliocece age. These are very interesting, as showing the greater range of this family so recently ; though its absence from North America and Europe indicates that it is a peculiar development of the Neotropical region. Family 64.— OCTODONTIDiE. (8 Genera, 19 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Nearctic PaL/EARctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regioN3. 1.2 - 4. 238 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. The Octodontid^e include a number of curious and obscure rat-like animals, mostly confined to the mountains and open plains of South America, but having a few stragglers in other parts of the world, as will be seen by our notes on the genera. The most remarkable point in their distribution is, that two genera are peculiar to the West Indian islands, while no species of the family inhabits the northern half of South America. The distribution of the genera is as follows : — Hdbrocomus (2 sp.), Chili ; Capromys (3 sp.), two of which inhabit Cuba, the third Jamaica (Plate XVII. vol. ii. p. 67) ; Plagiodontia (1 sp.), only known from Hayti; Spalacopus, including Schizodon (2 sp.), Chili, and east side of Southern Andes ; Ododon (3 sp.), Peru, Bolivia, and Chili ; Ctenomys (6 sp.), the tuco-tuco of the Pampas, the Campos of Brazil to Bolivia and Tierra del Fuego ; CtenodaHylus (1 sp.), Tripoli, North Africa ; Pectinator (1 sp.), East Africa, Abyssinia, 4,000 to 5,000 feet. Capromys and Plagiodontia, the two "West Indian genera, were classed among the Echimyidse by Mr. Waterhouse, but Professor Lilljeborg removes them to this family. Extinct Ododontidce. — Species of Ctenomys have been found in the Pliocene of La Plata, and an extinct genus Megamys, said to be allied to Capromys, in the Eocene of the same country. In Europe, Palmoniys and Archa:omys from the lower Miocene of Germany and France, are also said to be alHed to Capromys. Family 65.— ECHIMYIDSE. (10 Genera, 80 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic sub-begioks. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian sub-rugionb. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1 .2 The Echimyidse, or spiny rats, are a femily, chiefly South American, of which the Coypu, a large beaver-like water-rat from Peru and Chili is the best known. Two of the genera are found in South Africa, but all the rest inhabit the continent of South America, East of the Andes, none being yet known north CHAP. XVII.] MAMMALIA. 239 of Panama. The genera are as follows : — Dadylomys (2 sp.), Guiana and Brazil ; Cercomys (1 sp.), Central Brazil ; Lasiuromys (1 sp.), San Paulo, Brazil; Petromys (1 sp.), South Africa; Myopo- tamus (1 sp.), the eoypu, on the East side of the Andes from Peru to 42° S. lat., on the West side from 33° to 48° S. lat. ; Carterodon (1 sp.), Minaes Geraes, Brazil ; Aulacodcs (1. sp.). West and South Africa ; Mesomys (1 sp.), Borba on the Amazon ; Echimys (11 sp.), from Guiana and the Ecuadorian Andes to Paraguay ; Lonchcres (10 sp.), New Granada to Brazil. Fossil and Extinct Eddmyidce. — The genus Carterodon was established on bones found in the Brazilian caves, and it was several years afterwards that specimens were obtained showing the animal to be a living species. Extinct species of Myopo- tamus and Loncheres have also been found in these caves, with the extinct genera Lonchophorus and Phyllomys. No remains of this family have been discovered in North America ; but in the Miocene and Upper Eocene deposits of France there are many species of an extinct genus Theridomys, which is said to be allied to this group or to the next (Cercola- bidse). Aulacodon, from the Upper Miocene of Germany, is allied to the West African Aulacodes ; and some other remains from the lower Miocene of Auvergne, are supposed to belong to Echimys. Family 66.— CEECOLABTD^. (3 Genera, 13-15 Specips.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Ne ARCTIC SCB-REGIONS. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. — 2.3— 11. 2. 3. 4 The Cercolabidse, or arboreal porcupines, are a group of rodents entirely confined to America, where they range from the northern limit of trees on the Mackenzie Eiver, to the southern limit of forests in Paraguay. There is however an intervening district, the Southern United States, from which they are absent. Ere- tJiizon (3 sp.), the Canadian porcupine, is found throughout 240 GEOGRAPHICAD ZOOLOGY. [part IV. Canada and as far south as Northern Pennsylvania, and west to the Mississippi (Plate XX., vol. ii. p. 135) ; an allied species in- habiting the west coast from California to Alaska, and inland to the head of the Missouri Pdver ; while a third is found in the north-western part of South America ; Cercolahes (12 sp.), ranges from Mexico and Guatemala to Paraguay, on the eastern side of the Andes ; Chcctomys (1 sp.), North Brazil. Extinct Cercolabidce. — A large species of Cercolahes has been found in the Brazilian caves, but none have been discovered in North America or Europe. We may conclude therefore that this is probably a South American type, which has thence spread into North America at a comparatively recent epoch. The peculiar distribution of Cercolahes may be explained by suppos- ing it to have migrated northwards along the west coast by means of the wooded slopes of the Ptocky Mountains. It could then only reach the Eastern States by way of the forest region of the great lakes, and then move southward. This it may be now doing, but it has not yet reached the Southern States of Eastern North America. Family 67.— HYSTEICID^.. (3 Genera, 12 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Neakctic sub-kegions. PaL/EARCTIC SUB-BEGIONS. Ethiopian sub-begions. |1 . 2 . 3 - Oriental Sub-regions. 1.2. 3. 4 Australian Sub-regions. The true Porcupines have a very compact and well-marked distribution, over the whole of the Oriental and Ethiopian regions (except Madagascar), and the second Palaearctic sub-region. There is some confusion as to their sub-division into genera, but the following are those most usually admitted -.—Hystrix (5 sp.). South Europe to the Cape of Good Hope, all India, Ceylon, and South China; Atherura (5 sp.), "brush-tailed porcupines," in- habit West Africa, India, to Siam, Sumatra, and Borneo ; Acan- thion (2 sp.), Nepal and Malacca, to Sumatra, Borneo, and Java. Extinct Hystrtcidce.—Seweml extinct species of Hystrix have CHAP. XVII.] MAMMALIA. 241 been found in the Pliocene and Miocene deposits of Europe, and one in the Pliocene of Nebraska in North America. Family 68.— CAVIID^. (6 Genera, 28 Species.) General Distribution, Neotropical 8r"B-REGI0NS. Nearctic sub-hegions. PaL;EARCTIC Sdb-kegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sdb-recions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3.4 i _^ 1 __ i 1 i The Cavies and Agoutis were placed in distinct families by Mr. Wateihouse, in which he is followed by Professor Carus, but they have been united by Professor Lilljeborg, and without pre- tending to decide which classification is the more correct I follow the latter, because there is a striking external resemblance be- tween the two gToups, and they have an identical distribution in the Neotropical region, and with one exception are all found east of the Andes. Da&yprocta (9 sp.), the agouti, ranges from Mexico to Paraguay, one species inhabiting the small West Indian islands of St. Vincent, Lucia, and Grenada ; Ccelogenys (2 sp.), the paca, is found from Guatemala to Paraguay, and a second species (some- what doubtful) in Eastern Peru; Hydrochcerus (1 sp.), the capybara. inhabits the banks of rivers from Guayana to La Plata ; Cavia (9 sp.), the guinea-pigs, Brazil to the Straits of Magellan, and one species west of the Andes at Y^a in Peru ; Kerodon (6 sp.), Brazil and Peru to Magellan ; Dolichotis (1 sp,), the Patagonian cavy. from Mendoza to 48° 30' south latitude, on sterile plains. Extinct Caviidce. — Hydrochcerus, Ccelogenys, Dasyprocta, and Kerodon, have occurred abundantly in the caves of Brazil, and the last-named genus in the Pliocene of La Plata. Hydrochcerus has been found in the Post-Pliocene deposits of South Carolina. Cavia and Dasyprocta are said to have been found in the Mio- cene of Switzerland and France. No well-marked extinct genera of this family have been recorded. If the determination of the above-mentioned fossil species of Cavia and Dasyprocta are correct, it would show that this now 242 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. exclusively South American family is really derived from Europe, where it has long been extinct. Family 69.— LAGOMYID^. (1 Genus, 11 Species.) General Distribution. ;Nf,otropical SiB-EEGIONS. Nearctic I Pal-barctic SCB-REGIONS. SUB-BEGIONS. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental I Australian Sub-regions. Sub-regions. The Lagomyidse, or pikas, are small alpine and desert animals which range from the south of the Ural Mountains to Cashmere and the Himalayas, at heights of 11,000 to 14,000 feet, and northward to the Polar regions and the north-eastern extremity of Siberia. They just enter the eastern extremity of Europe as far as the Volga, but with this exception, seem strictly limited to the third Palaearctic sub-region. In America they are con- fined to the Eocky Mountains from about 42° to 60' north latitude. Extinct Lagomyidce. — Extinct species of Lagomys have occurred in the southern parts of Europe, from the Post-Pliocene to the Miocene formations. Titanomys, an extinct genus, is found in the Miocene of France and Germany. Family 70.— LEPOPJD^. (1 Genus, 35-40 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-rboions. Australian Sub-regions. — 2 .3 — 1.2 .3.4 1 .2 .3 .4- 1-3 1.2.3— — The Hares and Eabbits are especially characteristic of the Nearctic and Palaearctic, but are also thinly scattered over the Ethiopian and Oriental regions. In the Neotropical region they are very scarce, only one species being found in South America, in the mountains of Brazil and various parts of the Andes, while one or two of the North American species extend into Mexico CHAP. XVII.] MAMMALIA. 243 and Guatemala. In the Nearctic region, they are most abundant in the central and western parts of the continent, and they ex- tend to the Arctic Ocean and to Greenland. They are found in every part of the Palsearctic region, from Ireland to Japan ; three species range over all India to Ceylon, and others occur in Hainan, Formosa, South China, and the mountains of Pegu ; the Ethiopian region has only four or five species, mostly in the southern extremity and along the East coast. An Indian species is now wild in some parts of Java, but it has probably been in- troduced. Extinct Leporidce. — Species of Lepus occur in the Post-Plio- cene and Newer Pliocene of France; but only in the Post- Pliocene of North America, and the caves of BrazQ, General BemarJcs on the Distribution of the Rodentia. With the exception of the Australian region and Madagascar, where Muridse alone have been found, this order is one of the most universally and evenly distributed over the entire globe. Of the sixteen families which compose it, the Palsearctic region has 10 ; the Ethiopian, Nearctic, and Neotropical, each 9 ; and the Orien- tal only 5. These figures are very curious and suggestive. We know that the rodentia are exceedingly ancient, since some of the living genera date back to the Eocene period ; and some an- cestral types might thus have reached the remote South Ameri- can and South African lands at the time of one of their earliest unions with the northern continents. In both these countries the rodents diverged into many special forms, and being small animals easily able to conceal themselves, have largely survived the introduction of higher Mammalia. In the Palsearctic and Nearctic regions, their small size and faculty of hibernation may have enabled them to maintain themselves during those gi'eat physical changes which resulted in the extermination or banish- ment of so many of the larger and more highly organised IVIam- malia, to which, in these regions, they now bear a somewhat inordinate proportion. The reasons why they are now less numerous and varied in the Oriental region, may be of two kinds. The comparatively small area of that region and its 244 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. uniformity of climate, would naturally lead to less development of such a group as this, than in the vastly more extensive and varied and almost equally luxuriant PaLiearctic region of Eocene and Miocene times ; while on the other hand the greater number of the smaller Carnivora in the tropics during the Plio- cene and Post-Pliocene epochs, would be a constant check upon the increase of these defenceless animals, and no doubt exter- minate a number of them. The Eodents thus offer a striking contrast to the Ungulates ; and these two great orders afford an admirable illustration of the different way in which physical and organic changes may affect large and small herbivorous Mammalia ; often leading to the extinction of the former, while favouring the comparative develop- ment of the latter. Order XL— EDENTATA. Family 71.— BEAD ^PODID^. (3 Genera, 12 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical I Nearctic | PaL/EARctic I Ethiopian Oriental I Aostbalian StlR-REOIONS. I SUB-REOIONS. | PtIB-REOIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. SDB-BEQIONS. | SCR-REOIONS. 2.3 ■ — — The Sloths are a remarkable group of arboreal mammals, strictly confined to the great forests of the Neotropical region, from Guatemala to Brazil and Eastern Bolivia. None are found west of the Andes, nor do they appear to extend into Paraguay, or beyond the Tropic of Capricorn on the east coast. The genera as defined by Dr. Gray in 1871 are : — Cholcepus (2 sp.), " Sloths with two toes on fore limbs, sexes alike," Costa Eica to Brazil ; Bradi/pus (2 sp.), " Sloths with three toes on fore limbs, sexes alike," Central Brazil, Amazon to Eio de Janeiro ; Ardopithecus (8 sp.), " Sloths with three toes on fore limbs, males with a coloured patch on the back," Costa Eica to Brazil and Eastern Bolivia (Plate XIV., vol ii. p. 24). CHAP, XVll,] MAMMALIA. 245 Exiind Bradypodidce. — In the caves of Brazil are found three extinct genera of Sloths — Ccclodon, Sphenodon, and Ochotherium. More distantly allied, and probably forming distinct families, are Scelidotherium and Megatherium, from the caves of Brazil and the Pliocene deposits of La Plata and Patagonia. Family 72.— MANIDID^. (1 Genus, 8 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sdb-regions. Pal^arctic Sub- REGIONS. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3 — 1.2.3.4 The Manididse, or scaly ant-eaters, are the only Edentate Mammalia found out of America. They are spread over the Ethiopian and Oriental regions ; in the former from Sennaar to West Africa and the Cape ; in the latter from the Himalayas to Ceylon, and Eastward to Borneo and Java, as well as to South China, as far as Amoy, Hainan, and Formosa. They have been sub-divided, according to differences in the scaly covering, into five groups, Manis, Phatagin, Sniutsia, Pholidotus and Pangolin, the three former being confined to Africa, the last common to Africa and the East, while Pholidotus seems confined to Java. It is doubtful if these divisions are more than sub-genera, and as such they are treated here. No extinct species referable to this family are yet known. Family 73.— DASYPODIDiE. (6 Genera, 17 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. PAL.EARCTIC SUB-KEGIONS. Ethiopian Sub-begions. Oriental sub-bbgions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3 — - 1 1 1 1 The Dasypodidae, or armadillos, are a highly characteristic Neo- tropical family, ranging from the northern extremity of the region 246 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. in south Texas, to 50° south latitude on the plains of Patagonia. The distribution of the genera is as follows : — Tatusia (5 sp.), has the range of the whole family from the lower Eio Grande of Texas to Patagonia; Frionodontes (1 sp.), the giant armadillo, Surinam to Paraguay ; Dasypus (4 sp.), Brazil to Bolivia, Chili, and La Plata ; Xenurus (3 sp.), Guiana to Paraguay ; Tolypeutes (2 sp.), the three-banded armadillos, Bolivia and La Plata; Chlamydophorus (2 sp.), near Mendoza in La Plata, and Santa Cruz de la Sierra in Bolivia. Extinct Armadillos. — Many species of Dasypus and Xenurus have been found in the caves of Brazil, together with many extinct genera — Hoplopliorus, Euryodon, Hcterodon, Pachy- therium, and Chlamydotherium, the latter as large as a rhino- ceros. Eutatus, allied to Tolypeutes, is from the Pliocene de- posits of La Plata. Family 74— ORYCTEROPODID^. (1 Genus, 2 Species.) General Distribution. Nkotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic sub-heoions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental I Australian Sub-regions. Sub-regions. The Aard-vark, or Cape ant-eater (Oryderopus capensis) is a curious form of Edentate animal, with the general form of an ant-eater, but with the bristly skin and long obtuse snout of a pig. A second species inhabits the interior of North-East Africa and Senegal, that of the latter country perhaps forming a third species (Plate IV. vol. i. p. 261). Extinct Orycteropodidce. — The genus Macrotherium, remains of which occur in the Miocene deposits of France, Germany, and Greece, is allied to this group, though perhaps forming a sepa- rate family. The same may be said of the Ancylotherium, a huge animal found only in the Miocene deposits of Greece. CHAP. XV1I."| MAMMALIA. 247 Family 75.— MYRMECOPHAGID^. (3 Genera, 5 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. PaL/EARCTIC Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3 — 1 1 1 1 1 The true ant-eaters are strictly confined to the wooded portions of the Neotropical region, ranging from Honduras to Paraguay on the East side of the Andes. The three genera now generally admitted are : Myrmecophaga (1 sp.), the great ant-eater, Northern Brazil to Paraguay; Tamandua (2 sp.), 4-toed ant- eaters, Guatemala, Ecuador to Paraguay (Plate XIV. vol. ii. p. 24) ; Cydothnrus (2 sp.), 2-toed ant-eaters, Honduras and Costa Rica to Brazil. Extinct Ant-eaters. — The only extinct form of this family seems to be the Glossotherium, found in the caves of Brazil, and the Tertiary deposits of Uruguay. It is said to be allied to Myrmecophaga and Manis. General Remarks on the Distribution of the Edentata. These singular animals are almost confined to South America, where they constitute an important part of the fauna. In Africa, two family types are scantily represented, and one of these extends over all the Oriental region. In Pliocene and Post- Pliocene times the Edentata were wonderfully developed in South America, many of them being huge animals, rivalling in bulk, the rhinoceros and hippopotamus. As none of these forms resemble those of Africa, while the only European fossil Edentata are of African type, it seems probable that South Africa, like South America, was a centre of development for this group of mammalia ; and it is in the highest degree probable that, should extensive fluviatile deposits of Pliocene or Miocene age be dis- covered in the former country, an extinct fauna, not less strange and grotesque than that of South America, will be brought to Vol. 11—17 248 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. light. From the fact that so few remains of this order occur in Europe, and those of one family type, and in Miocene deposits only, it seems a fair conclusion, that this represents an incursion of an ancient Ethiopian form into Europe analogous to that which invaded North America from the south during the Post-Pliocene epoch. The extension of the Manididse, or scaly ant-eaters, over tropical Asia may have occurred at the same, or a somewhat later epoch. For a summary of the Numerous Edentata of North and South America which belong to extinct families, see vol. i. p. 147. Order XII.—MAR8UFIALIA. Family 76.— DIDELPHYID^. (3 Genera, 22 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Si:b-regions. Nearctic SUB-BEGIONS. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian" Oriental Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1,2.3- 1 -3 - 1 The Didelphyidae, or true opossums, range throughout all the wooded districts of the Neotropical region from the southern boundary of Texas to the Eiver La Plata, and on the west coast to 42° S, Lat,, where a species of Biddiihys was obtained by Professor Cunningham, One species only is found in the Nearctic region, extending from Florida to the Hudson Eiver, and west to the Missouri, The species named Didelphys californica inhabits Mexico, and only extends into the southern extremity of Cali- fornia. The species are most numerous in the great forest region of Brazil, and they have been recently found to the west of the Andes near Guayaquil, as well as in Chili. The exact number of species is very doubtful, owing to the difficulty of determining them from dried skins. All but two belong to the genus Didel- phys, which has the range above given for the family (Plate XIV., vol. ii. p, 24) ; Chironcdes (1 sp.), the yapock or water opossum, inhabits Guiana and Brazil; Hyracodon (1 sp.), is a small CHAP. XVII.] MAMMALIA. 249 rat-like animal discovered by Mr. Fraser in Ecuador, and which may perhaps belong to another family. Extinct Didelphyidce. — No less than seven species of Didelpliys have been found in the caves of Brazil, but none in the older formations. In North America the living species only, has been found in Post-Pliocene deposits. In Europe, however, many species of small opossums, now classed as a distinct genus, Pera- therium, have been found in various Tertiary deposits from the Upper Miocene to the Upper Eocene. We have here a sufficient proof that the American Marsupials have nothing to do with those of Australia, but were derived from Europe, where their ancestors lived during a long series of ages. Family 77.— DASYUPJD^. (10 Genera, 30 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sob-regions. Pal^arctic sub-hegions. Ethiopian Sdb-begion.s. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2 The Dasyuridse, or native cats, are a group of carnivorous or insectivorous marsupials, ranging from the size of a wolf to that of a mouse. They are found all over Au"stralia and Tasmania, as well as in New Guinea and the adjacent Papuan islands. Several new genera and species have recently been described by Mr. G. Krefft, of the Sydney Museum, and are included in the following enumeration. PhasgogaU (3 sp.), New Guinea, West, East, and South Australia; Antechinomys (1 sp.), Interior of South Australia; Antcchinus (12 sp.), Aru Islands, all Aus- tralia, and Tasmania ; CJicetocercus (1 sp.). South Australia ; Dadylopsila (1 sp.), Aru Islands and North Australia ; Poddbrus (5 sp.), West, East, and South Australia, and Tasmania ; Myoictis (1 sp.), Aru Islands ; Sarcopliilus (1 sp.), Tasmania ; Dasyurus (4 sp.). North, East, and South, Australia, and Tasmania ; Thyla- cinus (1 sp.), Tasmania (Plate XL, vol. i. p. 439). Extinct species of Dasyurus and Thylacinus have been found in the Post-Pliocene deposits of Australia. 250 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. Family 78.— MYRMECOBIID^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical sub-begions. Nearctic sub-reqions. PALiEARCTIC SUB-REQIONS. Ethiopian Oriental SUB-BEOIONS. SdB-BEOIONS. Australian Sub-regions. 1 1 a 1 1 The only representative of this family is the MyrmecoUus fas- ciatus, or native ant-eater, a small bushy-tailed squirrel-like animal, found in the South and West of Australia. Family 79.— PERAMELID^. (3 Genera, 10 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. pal.earctic Sub- regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2 — The Peramelidse, or bandicoots, are small insectivorous Mar- supials, having something of the form of the kangaroos. They range over the whole of Australia and Tasmania, as well as the Papuan Islands. The genus Ferameles (8 sp,), has the range of the family, one species being found in New Guinea and the Aru Islands (Plate XI., vol. i. p. 440) ; Peragalea (1 sp.), inha- bits West Australia only ; and Chceropus (1 sp.), a beautiful little animal with something of the appearance of a mouse-deer, is found in both South, East, and West Australia. Family 80.— MACROPODIDiE. (10 Genera, 56 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^earctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1 1 1 1.2 CHAP. XVII,] MAMMALIA. 251 The well-known Kangaroos are the most largely developed family of Marsupials, and they appear to be the form best adapted for the present conditions of life in Australia, over every part of which they range. One genus of true terrestrial kangaroos {Dor- copsis), inhabits the Papuan Islands, as do also the curious tree kangaroos {Dendrolagus) which, without much apparent modifica- tion of form, are able to climb trees and feed upon the foliage. The genera, as established by Mr. Waterhouse, are as follows : Macropus (4 sp.), West, South, and East Australia, and Tasmania (Plate XII., vol. i. p. 441) ; Osphranter (5 sp.), all Australia ; Halmaturus (18 sp.), all Australia and Tasmania ; Petrogale (7 sp.), all Australia ; Dendrolagus (2 sp.). New Guinea (Plate X., vol. i. p. 414) ; Dorcopsis (2 sp.) Aru and Mysol Islands, and New Guinea ; OnycliogaUa (3 sp.), Central Australia ; Lagor- chestes (5 sp.). North, West, and South Australia ; Bettongia (6 sp.). West, South, and East, Australia, and Tasmania ; Hypsi- pn^ymmts (4 sp.). West and East Australia, and Tasmania. Extinct MacropodidcB. — Many species of the genera Macropus and Hypsiprymnus have been found in the cave-deposits and other Post-Tertiary strata of Australia. Among the extinct genera are Protevinodon and Sthenurus, which are more allied to the tree -kangaroos of New Guinea than to living Australian species ; the gigantic Diprotodon, a kangaroo nearly as large as an elephant ; and Nototherium, of smaller size. Family 81.— PHALANGISTID^. (8 Genera, 27 Species.) I Gexeral Distkibtjtion. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1 . ! 1 1.2 The Phalangistidae, or phalangers, are one of the most varied and interesting groups of Marsupials, being modified in a variety of ways for an arboreal Hfe. We have the clumsy-looking tail-less koala, or native sloth ; the prehensile-tailed opossum-like phalangers ; the beautiful flying oppossums, so closely resembling 252 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. in form the flying squirrels of North America and India, but often no larger than a mouse ; the beautiful dormouse-like .Dromicim, one species of wliich is only 2^ inches long or less than the harvest-mouse ; and the little Tarsipes, a true honey- sucker with an extensile tongue, and of the size of a mouse. These extreme modifications and specializations within the range of a single family, are sufficient to indicate the great antiquity of the Australian fauna ; and they render it almost certain that the region it occupied was once much more extensive, so as to supply the variety of conditions and the struggle between competing forms of life, which would be required to develop so many curiously modified forms, of which we now probably see only a remnant. The PhalangistidcC not only range over all Australia and Tasmania, but over the whole of the Austro-Malayan sub-region from New Guinea to the Moluccas and Celebes. The distribu- tion of the genera is as follows : — Phascolardos (1 sp.), the koala, East Australia ; Phalangista (5 sp.), East, South, and West Australia, and Tasmania ; Cusctis (8 sp.), woolly phalangers. New Guinea, North Australia, Timor, Moluccas and Celebes ; Petaurista (1 sp.) large flying phalanger, East Australia ; Belideus (5 sp.), Iflying opossums. South, East, and North Aus- tralia, New Guiana and Moluccas ; Acrohata (1 sp.), pigmy flying opossum. South and East Australia; Dromicia (5 sp.), dormouse-phalangers, West and East Australia, and Tasmania; Tarsipes (1 sp.). West Australia. Thylacoleo, a large extinct marsupial of doubtful affinities, seems to be somewhat intermediate between this family and the kangaroos. Professor Owen considered it to be carnivorous, and able to prey upon the huge Diprotodon, while Professor Flower and Mr. Gerard Krefft, believe that it was herbivorous. Family 82.— PHASCOLOMYID^. (1 Genus, 3 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Si'B-REOIONS. Nearctic I Pal/EARctic I Ethiopian I Oriental I Australian Sub- REGIONS. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-reoions. Sub-regions. CHAP, XVIl.l MAMMALIA, 253 The Wombats are tail-less, terrestrial, burrowing animals, about the size of a badger, but feeding on roots and grass. They inhabit South Australia and Tasmania (Plate XI. vol. i. p. 439). An extinct wombat, as large as a tapir, has been found in the Australian Pliocene deposits. General Bemarks on the Distribution of Marsupialia. We have here the most remarkable case, of an extensive and highly varied order being confined to one very limited area on the earth's surface, the only exception being the opossums in America. It has been already shown that these are compara- tively recent immigrants, which have survived in that country long after they disappeared in Europe. As, however, no other form but that of the Didelphyidse occurs there during the Tertiary period, we must suppose that it was at a far more remote epoch that the ancestral forms of aU the other Marsupials entered Australia ; and the curious little mammals of the Oolite and Trias, offer valuable indications as to the time when this really took place. A notice of these extinct marsupials of the secondary period will be found at vol. i. p. 159. Order XIII.— MONO TEEMATA. Family 83.— ORNITHORHYNCHID^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical SrB-REGIONS. Nearctic sub-begions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental sub-beoions. Australian Sub-regions. - 2 The Ornithorhynchus, or duck-billed Platypus, one of the most remarkable and isolated of existing mammalia, is found in East and South Australia, and Tasmania. 254 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. Family 84.— ECHIDNID^. (1 Genus, 2 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sdb-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental 1 Australian Sub-regions. I Sub-regions. 1 1 1 1 la 1 The Eclddiia, or Australian Hedgehog, although quite as re- markable in internal structure as the Ornithorhynchus, is not so peculiar in external appearance, having very much the aspect of a hedgehog or spiny armadillo. The two species of this genus are very closely allied ; one inhabits East and South Australia, the other Tasmania. Extinct Echidnidce. — Eemains of a very large fossil species of Echidna have lately (1868) been discovered at Darling Downs in Australia. Remark on the Distribution of the Monotremata. This order is the lowest and most anomalous of the mammalia, and nothing resembling it has been found among the very numerous extinct animals discovered in any other part of the world than Australia. CHAPTEE XVIII. THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES AND GENERA OF BIRDS. Order I.—PASSERES. Family 1.— TUEDID^. (21 Genera, 205 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic I Pal^arctic SuB-EEGioNS. Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Orikntal Sub-keoions. Australian Sub-regions. 1 .2 .3 .4 1. a. 3. 4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3 4 1.2.3- The extensive and familiar group of Thrushes ranges over every region and sub-region, except New Zealand, It abounds most in the North Temperate regions, and has its least develop- ment in the Australian region. Thrushes are among the most perfectly organized of birds, and it is to this cause, perhaps, as well as to their omnivorous diet, that they have been enabled to establish themselves on a number of remote islands. Peculiar species of true thrush are found in Norfolk Island, and in the small Lord Howes' Island nearer Australia ; the Island of St. Thomas in the Gulf of Guinea has a peculiar species ; while the Mid- Atlantic island Tristan d'Acunha, — one of the most remote and isolated spots on the globe, — has a peculiarly modified form of thrush. Several of the smaller West Indian Islands have also peculiar species or genera of thrushes. The family is of somewliat uncertain extent, blending insensibly with the warblers (Sylviidse) as well as with the Indian bulbuls 256 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. (Pycnonotidse), while one genus, usually placed in it {Myio'phonus) seems to agree better with Enicurus among the Cinclidse. The genera here admitted into the thrush family are the following, the numbers prefixed to some of the genera indicating their position in Gray's Hand List of the Genera and Species of Birds : — ^1143^ Brachypteryx (8 sp.), Nepaul to Java and Ceylon (this may belong to the Timaliid^) ; Turdus (100 sp.) has the range of the whole family, abounding in the Palaearctic, Oriental and Neotropical regions, while it is less plentiful in the Nearctic and Ethiopian, and very scarce in the Australian; (^^^) Orcocincla (11 sp.), Pa]a?arctic and Oriental regions, Australia and Tas- mania ; (^*-) RJiodinocichla (1 sp.), Venezuela ; (^*^) Melanoptila (1 sp.), Honduras ; (^^"^ ^^^) Catliarus (10 sp.) Mexico to Equador ; ^949 gso'^ Margarop>s (4 sp.), Hayti and Porto Eico to St. Lucia • ^951^ j^csGcichla (1 sp.), Tristan d'Acunha; (^^^) GeocicUa (8 sp.), India to Formosa and Celebes, Timor and North Australia; ^954 955^ Monticola (8 sp.). Central Europe to South Africa and to China, Philippine Islands, Gilolo and Java ; (^^^) Oroccetes (3 sp.), Himalayas and N. China ; Zoothera (3 sp.) Himalayas, Aracan, Java, and Lombok ; Mimus (20 sp.) Canada to Patagonia, West Indies and Galapagos ; i^"-) Oreoscoptes (1 sp.), Eocky Mountains and Mexico; (^^^) Melanotis (2 sp.), South Mexico and Guatemala ; (^*^*) Galeoscop)tes (1 sp.), Canada and Eastern United States to Cuba and Panama ; (^^^ ^ Mimocichla (5 sp.), Greater Antilles; ^967 968^ Harporhjnchus (7 sp.). North America, from the great lakes to Mexico ; Cinclocerthia (3 sp.), Lesser Antilles ; (^'^) Rhampliocinclus (1 sp.). Lesser Antilles ; Cha;tops (3 sp.), South Africa; Cossypha = Bessonornis (15 sp.) Ethiopian region and Palestine, Family 2.— SYLVIID^. (74 Genera, 640 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical sub-eegions. Neabctic Sub-regions. PaLvEARCTIC SUB-KEOIONS. Ethiopian scb-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. -2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1 .2.3.4 1.2.3.4 CHAP, xviii.] BIRDS. 257 This immense family, comprising all the birds usually known as " warblers," is, as here constituted, of almost universal distri- bution. Yet it is so numerous and preponderant over the whole Eastern Hemisphere, that it may be well termed an Old-World group ; only two undoubted genera with very few species belong- ing to the Nearctic region, while two or three others whose posi- tion is somewhat doubtful, are found in California and the Neotropical region. Canon Tristram, who has paid great attention to this difficult group, has kindly communicated to me a MSS. arrangement of the genera and species, which, with a very few additions and alterations, I implicitly follow. He divides the Sylviidse into seven sub-families, as follows : 1. Drymoecinse (15 genera 194 sp.), confined to the Old World and Australia, and especially abundant in the three Tropical regions. 2. Calamoherpinse (11 genera, 75 sp.), has the same general distribution as the last, but is scarce in the Australian and abundant in the Palsearctic region ; 3. Phylloscopinse (11 genera, 139 sp.), has the same distribution as the entire family, but is most abundant in the Oriental and Palsearctic regions. 4. Syl- viinse (6 genera, 33 sp.), most abundant in the Paleearctic region, very scarce in the Australian and Oriental regions, absent from America. 5. Kuticillinse (10 genera, 50 sp.); entirely absent from America and Australia ; abounds in the Oriental and Palaearctic regions. 6. Saxicolinae (12 genera, 126 sp.), absent from America (except the extreme north-west), abundant in the Oriental region and moderately so in the Palsearctic, Ethiopian, and Australian. 7. Accentorinse (6 genera, 21 sp.), absent from the Ethiopian region and South America, most abundant in Australia, one small genus (Sialia), in North America. The distribution of the several genera arranged under these sub-families, is as follows : 1. Drymgecin^. — (^36) Orthotomus (13 sp.), all the Oriental region; (^^^) Frinia (11 sp.), all the Oriental region; (^^s 740 742 '^^^) Drpnceca, (83 sp.), Ethiopian and Oriental regions, most abundant in the former; (7*3 to 745 and 74910752) Cisticola (32 sp.), Ethiopian and Oriental regions, with South Europe, China 268 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. and Australia; f") 8uya (5 sp.), Nepal to South China and Formosa; f^^) Sphenmaciis (7 sp.), Australia, New Zealand, and Chatham Island, with one species (?) in South Africa ; C'*^ '^'^^) McgaltLTUs (4 sp.). Central India to Java and Timor ; ('^* ''''^) Poodytes (2 sp.), Australia ; (;^^) Amytis (3 sp.), Australia ; (1^^) Sphemcra (4 sp.), Australia ; (^^*) Malurus (16 sp.), Australia and Tasmania ; (J^^ ^''^) Chthonicola (3 sp.), Australia ; ("^i) Calaman- thus (2 sp.), Australia and Tasmania; C^^) Camaroptera (5 sp.), Africa and Fernando Po ; (^^^) Apalis (1 sp.), South Africa. 2. Calamoherpin^.— (777 to ysi and sp, 2968^) Acrocephalus (35 sp.), Palsearctic, Ethiopian, continental part of Oriental region, Mo- luccas, Caroline Islands, and Australia ; (^^^ sis^ Dumeticola (4 sp.), Nepal to East Thibet, Central Asia, high regions ; (^^'^ ^oo^ pota- modus (3 sp.). Central and South Europe, and East Thibet; (789 '^^ ^p- 2969^ Lusciniola (1 sp.), South Europe ; (^^^ 792) Xocws- tella (8 sp.), Palpearctic region to Central India and China ; (7^^) Horitcs (5 sp.), Nepal to North-west China and Formosa ; (7^* - 786) Bradyptetus = Cettia (10 sp.), South Europe, Palestine, and South Africa ; (7*7 748) Catriscus (3 sp.). Tropical and South Africa; Bernieria (2 sp.), and (7^^) Ellisia (3 sp.), Madagascar; (832 a) Mystacornis (1 sp.), Madagascar ; (7^7) Calamodus (2 sp.), Europe and Palestine ; (7^*) Tatare (2 sp.) Samoa to Marquesas Islands. 3. PflYLLOSCOPiN^iE,^ — Phylloscopus (18 sp.), all Palaearctic and Oriental regions to Batchian; (7" 758 820) _Ercmomda (16 sp.). Tro- pical and South Africa ; (7^*) Eroessa (1 sp.), Madagascar ;^ Hy- polais (12 sp.), Palaearctic region, all India, Timor, North and South Africa; (^^^ ^^^ ^^^) Ahrornis (26 sp.), Oriental region ; (^i*) Reguloides (4 sp.), Palsearctic and continental Oriental regions ; (822) Sericornis (7 sp.), Australia and Tasmania (^^^ 824 i45i) jican- thiza (14 sp.), Australia and New Caledonia ; {^^^) Rcgidus (7 sp.), all Palaearctic and Nearctic regions and south to Guatemala; (^890) Polioptila (13 sp.), Paraguay to New Mexico; (^'^^) Gerygone (22 sp.), Australia, Papuan and Timor groups, New Zealand and Norfolk Island. ^ Tlie species of the genera Phylloscopus and Eypolais are so mixed up in the Hand List, that Mr. Tristram hiis furnished me with the following CHAP, xviii.] BIRDS. 259 4. Sylviin^.— (^^^) Aedo7i (9 sp.), Spain and Palestine, to East and South Africa; {^^^) Drymodes (2 sp.), Australia ; i^^) Pyropli- thalma (2 sp.), South Europe and Palestine ; (^^^) Melizophilus (3 sp.), South-west Europe and North-east Africa; (802 804) gyi^^^ = Alsecus (8 sp.), Palsearctic region to India and Ceylon, and North-east Africa ; (^'^ ^^^) Czirruca (7 sp.). Central and South Europe, Madeira, Palestine, Central India, North-east Africa, and South Africa. 5. KuTiciLLiN^.— (827) Luscinia (2 sp.), West Asia, Europe, North Africa ; (^^^) Cyanecula (3 sp.), Europe, North-east Africa, India, Ceylon, and China; (^^^) Calliope (2 sp.). North Asia, Himalayas, Central India, and China; (^^^) Erithacits (3 sp.), Europe, North-east Africa, Japan, and North China ; (^^s sso 837^ Buticilla (20 sp.), Palsearctic and Oriental regions to Senegal and Abyssinia, and east to Timor ; abounds in Himalayas ; (^^9^ Chmmarrhornis (1 sp.), Himalayas ; (^^^ ^^^ 834-) Larvivora (10 sp.). Oriental region and Japan; (^^^) Notodela (3 sp.), Himalayas, Pegu, Formosa, Java ; (^^^) Tarsiger (2 sp.), Nepal ; (^'^) Gran- dala (1 sp.), High Himalayas of Nepal. 6. Saxicolin.-e.— (975^ Copsychus (7 sp.), all Oriental region and Madagascar; (^^e) Kittacincla (5 sp.). Oriental region to enumeration of the species which in his view properly belong to them, by the numbers in that work : — Phylloscopvs. Hypolais. 3032 3026 3033 3028 3048 = 3038 3029 3039 3054=3031 = 3036 3063 = 3047=3054= =3061 3042 3048 3043 3049 304 3050 3062=3047 3051 3046 = 2932 3052 3035 3053 2976 3056=3081 3057 \ 3059 one A 260 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV, Ceylon, Andaman Islands, Formosa, and Borneo ; (^^* - ^^^) Tham- nohia (10 sp.), Ethiopian region and India to foot of Himalayas; (977) Gervasia (2 sp.), Madagascar and Seychelle Islands ; {^^^ ^*0 Dromolma (18 sp.), Africa to South Europe, Palestine, North- west India, and North China ; (^^^ 843 846) Saxicola (36 sp.), Africa, North-west India, whole Palsearctic region, migrating to Alaska and Greenland; (^^^ ^^^) Oreicola (5 sp.), Timor, Lombok, and Burmah; (^**) Cercomela (6 sp.). North-east Africa to North-west India; {^^°) Pratincola (15 sp.), Europe, Ethiopian, and Oriental regions to Celebes and Timor ; C^^^) Ephthianura (3 sp.), Aus- tralia ; (^^^ - ^^) Petro&ca (17 sp.), Australian region, Papua to New- Zealand, Chatham and Auckland Islands, and Samoa ; (S") Miro (2 sp.), New Zealand (doubtfully placed here). 7. AccENTORiNiE. — C^^) Cinclorhamplius (2 sp.), Australia ; (860) Origma (1 sp.), East Australia ; (S^^) Sialia (8 sp.). United States to Guatemala; (s^^) Accentor {12^-^.), Palsearctic region to Himalayas and North-west China ; C^^) Orthonyx (4 sp.), East Australia and New Zealand (doubtfully placed here). The following two genera, which have been usually classed as Ampelidse, are arranged by Messrs. Sclater and Salvin in the Sylviidse : — (1362) Myiaclcstcs (8 sp.), Peru and Bolivia, along the Andes to Mexico and California, also the Antilles ; Q^^^) Cichlopsis (1 sp.), Brazil. Family 3.— TIMALIID^. (35 Genera, 240 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-kegions. Ethiopian sub-begion.s. Oriental i Sub-regtov.s. I Australian Sub-region.? .- -2 — 4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2-4 The Timaliidse, or babbling thrushes, are a group of smaU strong-legged active birds, mostly of dull colours, which are especially characteristic of the Oriental region, in every part of which they abound, while they are much less plentiful in CHAP, xviii.] BIRDS. 261 Australia and Africa. The Indo-Chinese sub-region is the head quarters of the family, whence it diminishes rapidly in all directions in variety of both generic and specific forms. Viscount Walden has kindly assisted me in the determination of the limits of this family, as to which there is still much difference of opinion. The distribution of the genera here admitted is as follows ; and as the genera are widely scattered in the Hand List, reference numbers are prefixed in every case. ^1023 - 1026 1008-^ PomatorMnus (27sp.), the whole Oriental region (excluding Philippines), Australia and New Guinea ; (^•^-^) Pterohinus (3 sp.), North China, East Thibet ; (^^^a loso) j^j^la- cocircus (9 sp.). Continental India and Ceylon, Arabia, Nubia ; ^1031^ Chatarrhcea (5 sp.), Abyssinia, Palestine, India, Nepal, Burmah, and Philippines ; {^^^^) Layardia (3 sp.), India and Cey- lon ; Q^^^) Acantho^tila (1 sp.), Nepal ; Q^^^) Cinclosoma (4 sp.), Australia and Tasmania : Q^^^ '^^^^) Craterojpus (18 sp.), all Africa, Persia ; Q^^"^) Hypergerus (1 sp.), West Africa : (^^^) Cichladusa (3 sp.), Tropical Africa ; Q^^^) Garrulax (23 sp.), the Oriental region (excluding Philippines) ; (}^^^) JavJhocincla (10 sp.), Nepal, to East Thibet, Sumatra, Formosa ; (^^^^ ^^^'^) Gampsorhynchus (2 sp.), Himalayas ; (^°*^) Grammatoptila (1 sp.) North India ; (^^^^ - 1045^ Trochalopteron (24 sp.), aU India to China and Formosa ; (^°*®) Actinodura (4 sp.), Nepal to Burmah, 3,000 - 10,000 feet ; (1°*^) Pellorneum (4 sp.), Nepal to Ceylon, Tenasserim ; (^^^^ ^^^^) Timalia (12 sp.), Malaya ;^ (^i^^) Dumetia (2 sp.). Central India and Cey- lon ; Q^*^'^) Stachyris (6 sp.), Nepal to Assam, Sumatra, Formosa ; ("^) Pyctorhis (3 sp.), India to Ceylon and Burmah; (^i^^) Mixornis (8 sp.), Himalayas and Malaya ; Q^^'^) Malacopteron (3 sp.), Ma- laya ; Q-^^^ ^^®^) Akippe (15 sp.), Ceylon and South India, Hima- layas to Aracan, Malaya, Formosa, New Guinea ; (^^^°) Macronus (2 sp.), Malaya; Q-^'^'^) Cacopi7 to (5 sp.), Malaya ; Q^'^^) Trichastoma (11 sp.), Nepal, Burmah, Malaya, Celebes; (^"^) Iffapothera (6 sp.), Malaya ; Q-^"^^) Drymocataphus (8 sp.), Burmah, Malaya, Ceylon, ^ The term " Malaya " is used here to include the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo, and Java, a district to which many species and genera are confined. " Malay Archipelago '' will be used to include both Indo-Malaya and Austro-Malaya. 262 GEOGKAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. Timor; (}^^^) Turdimis (5 sp.), Khasia Hills, Malacca, Tenas- serim; ("^6) Trichixos (1 sp.), Borneo, Malacca ; i}"^^) Sihia (6 sp.), Nepal to Assam, Tenasserim, Formosa ; ^"^ i^^^) Alethe (4 sp.). West Africa; O^^^a) Q^^yiahes (1 sp.), Madagascar; CH Pso- phodes (2 sp.). South, East, and West Australia ; Q^^^) Turnagra (3 sp.), New Zealand. Family 4.— PANUKID^. (4 Genera, 13 Species). General Distribution. Neotropical Sob-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub- REGIONS. 1 .2 Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. This new family is adopted, at the suggestion of Professor Newton, to include some peculiar groups of Himalayan birds whose position has usually been among the Timaliidse or the Paridse, but which are now found to be allied to our Bearded Eeedling. The supposed affinity of this bird for the Tits has been long known to be erroneous, and the family Panuridse was formed for its reception (Yarrell's British Birds, 4th edit. p. 512). The genera having hitherto been widely scattered in systematic works, are referred to by the numbers of Mr. G. E. Gray's Hand List. (1901) Paradoxornis (3 sp.), Himalayas and East Thibet ; (}^^) Conostoma (1 sp.), Himalayas and East Thibet ; (^^^) Suthora (8 sp ), Himalayas to North-west China, Formosa ; (S") Chlenasicus (1 sp.), Darjeeling ; (^^7) Pamirus (1 sp.). Central and Southern Europe ; Q^^^^) Hcteromorpha (1 sp.), Nepal, 10,000 feet altitude ; Cholornis (1 sp.), Moupin in East Thibet. Family 5.— CINCLID^. (4 Genera, 27 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Neabctic Pal^arctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian SuB-REoioNs. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sdb-regions. Sub-reoions. Sub-reqions. -2.3- 2 — 4 1.2.3.4 ?4- 1.2.3.4 1 CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. * 263 The Cinclidae consist of a number of more or less thrush-like ground-birds, of which the most remarkable are the Dippers, forming the genus Cinclus. These are curiously distributed, from the Palaearctic region as a centre, to the alpine districts of North and South America ; while the three genera which are here in- cluded as somewhat allied to Cinclus, all inhabit the Oriental region. The genera which I class in this family are the following : — (^^^) Cinclus (9 sp.), Palaearctic region to West China and For- mosa, Eocky Mountains, and Mexico in North America, and southward to the Andes of Peru ; (^^^) Enicurus (9 sp.), Hima- layas to Java and West China ; (^^^) Eupetes (4 sp.), Indo-Malay sub-region and New Guinea ; (^^^) Myiophonus (5 sp.), Himalayas to Ceylon, Java, South China, and Formosa. ^981^ Mesites (1 sp.), Madagascar, is an anomalous bird placed with Eupetes by Mr. G. E. Gray, but of very uncertain affinities. Family 6.— TEOGLODYTID^. (17 Genera, 94 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sob-regions. Nearctic Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Sub-kegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sdb-reoions. 1. 2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3 - 3.4 1 The Troglodytidse, or Wrens, are small birds, rather abundant and varied in the Neotropical region, with a few species scattered through the Nearctic, Paleearctic, and parts of the Oriental re- gions, and one doubtful genus in Africa. The constitution of the family is by no means well determined. The South American genera are taken from Messrs. Sclater and Salvin's Nomen- clator Avium Neotropicalium. Tesia (2 sp.), Eastern Himalayas ; Pnoepyga (6 sp.), Himalayas to East Thibet, Java; (J^^ '^^ ^23) Troglodytes (15 sp.). Neotropical, Nearctic, and Palaearctic regions to the Higher Himalayas ; (^^^) Rimator (1 sp.), Darjeeling ; Thryothorus (13 sp.), South Brazil to Mexico, Martinique, and Nearctic region ; Thryophilus (13 sp.), Brazil to Mexico, and North-west America; Cistothoriis Vol. it.— 18 264 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. (5 sp.), Patagonia to Greenland ; Uropsila (1 sp.), Mexico ; Do- nacdbius (2 sp.), Tropical America ; Campylorhynchus (18 sp.), Brazil, and Bolivia to Mexico and the Gila valley ; Cyphorhinus (5 sp.). Equatorial South America to Costa Kica ; Microc&rculus (5 sp.), Brazil and Peru to Mexico ; Henicorhina (2 sp.), Peru and Guiana to Costa Eica ; Salpinctes (1 sp.), High Plains of Rocky Mountains ; Catherpes (1 sp.), Mexico and Eio Grande ; Cinnicerthia (2 sp.), Ecuador and Columbia. {^^^) Sylvietta (2 sp.), Tropical and South Africa, — is placed in this family by Mr. Tristram. Family 7.— CHAM^ID^. (1 Genus, 1 Species). General Distribution. Neotropical Nearctic Pal^arctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian sub-reoions. sub-reoions. sub-regions. sub-regions. sub-reqions. sub-reoions, The bird which forms the genus Chamcea inhabits California ; and though allied to the wrens it has certain peculiarities of struc- ture which, in the opinion of many ornithologists, require that it should be placed in a distinct family. Family 8.— CERTHIID^. (6 Genera, 18 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Nearctic Pal^arctic Ethiopian | Oriental Australian slib-reqions. sub-reoions. sub-regigns. sub-regions. | 8ub-re0i0ns. sub-reqi0n8. 3 1 .2.3.4 1-3.4- 1 .2 The Certhiidse, or Creepers, form a small family whose species are thinly scattered over North America from Mexico, the Palse- arctic region, parts of the Oriental region, and Australia, where they are somewhat more abundant. The distribution of the genera is as follows : Certhia (6 sp.), Nearctic and Palsearctic regions, Nepal, and Sik- him; jSa/porwjis (1 sp.), Central India; Tichodroma (1 sp.), South CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 265 Europe to Abyssinia, Nepal, and North China ; Ehabdornis (1 sp.), Philippine Islands; Climaderis (8 sp.), Australia and New Guinea. Family ^.— STTTIDiE. (6 Genera, 31 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical sub-begions. Nearctic Sub-regions. PAL.eARCTIC SUB-UEGIONS. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3.4 1.2. 3. 4 1.2.3.4 1.2 — 4 The Sittid£e, or Nuthatches, are another small family of tree- creeping birds, whose distribution is very similar to that of the Certhiidae, but with a more uniform range over the Oriental region, and extending to New Zealand and Madagascar. The genera are as follows : — Sitta (17 sp.), Palsearctic and Nearctic regions to South India and Mexico ; Bendrophila (2 sp.), Ceylon and India to Burmah and Malaya ; Hypherpes (1 sp.), Madagascar ; Sittella (6 sp.), Australia and New Guinea. Acanthisitta (1 sp.) and Xenicus (4 sp.), New Zealand, are placed with some doubt in this family. Family 10.— PAEID^. (14 Genera, 92 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. PALyEARCTIC Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub- regions. Adstraliak Sub-regions. -3-1 1 .2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3 - 1.2.3.4 -2-4 I The Paridse, or Tits, are very abundant in the Nearctic and Palsearctic regions ; many fine species are found in the Himalayas, but they are sparingly scattered through the Ethiopian, Oriental, and Australian regions. The genera usually admitted into this family are the following, but the position of some of them, especially of the Australian forms, is doubtful. (86i — 867 870-) Pancs (46 sp.). North America, from Mexico, Palfearctic, and Oriental regions. Tropical and South Africa; 266 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY, [part IV. ^868 869^ LojpTiophanes (10 sp.), Europe, the Higher Himalayas to Sikhim, North America to Mexico ; Acredula = Orites (6 sp.), Palaearctic region; Melanochlora (2 sp.), Nepal to Sumatra; Psaltria (1 sp.), Java ; Psaltriparus (3 sp.), Guatemala to Cali- fornia, and Eocky Mountains ; Auriparus (1 sp.), Rio Grande ; ^881 882-) Parisoma (5 sp.). Tropical and South Africa ; (^^^ ^^) ^githalus (6 sp.). South-east Europe to South Africa ; (^^ ^^) jEgitJialiscus (6 sp.), Afghanistan and Himalayas to Amoy ; Cephal(ypyrus (1 sp.). North-west Himalayas ; Syhiparus (1 sp.), Himalayas and Central India ; Certhiparus (2 sp.), New Zealand ; ^879 880^ Sphenostoma (2 sp.), East and South Australia. Family 11.— LIOTEICHID^. (11 Genera, 35 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical scb-reoions. NE ARCTIC SCB-REOIONS. Pal^arctic sub-beoions. Ethiopian Stjb-reoions. Oriental Sub-regions. Adstbaliah sub-reqions. 3.4 The Liotrichidae, or HiU-Tits, are small, active, delicately- coloured birds, almost confined to the Himalayas and their ex- tension eastward to China. They are now generally admitted to form a distinct family. The genera are distributed as follows : (11*^) Liothrix (3 sp.), Himalayas to China ; Siva (3 sp.), Hima- layas ; Minla (-i sp.), Himalayas and East Thibet ; Froparus (7 sp.), Nepal to East Thibet and Aracan ; (^^^^) Pteruthim (6 sp.), Himalayas to Java and West China ; Q^^^) Cutia (2 sp.), Nepal ; ^1019') Yuhina (3 sp.), High Himalayas and Moupin ; C^'^^) Ixulus (3 sp.), Himalayas to Tenasserim ; (^"^i^ Myzornis (1 sp.), Dar- jeeling. Family 12.— PHYLLOENITHID^. (3 Genera, 14 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal,earctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Adstraliah Sub-regions. 1 1.2.3.4 ; CHAP. XVIIl.] BIRDS. 267 The Phyllornithidae, or " Green Bulbuls," are a small group of fruit-eating birds, strictly confined to the Oriental region, and ranging over the whole of it, with the one exception of the Philip- pine Islands. The genera are : — ^1022^ Phyllornis (12 sp.), India to Java, Ceylon, and Hainan ; ^1166^ /ora (4 sp.), the whole Oriental region ; Q^^^) Erpornis (2 sp,), Himalayas, Hainan, Formosa, and Borneo. Family 13.— PYCNONOTID^. (9 Genera, 139 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Nearctic Pal^arctic Ethiopian Oriental Aostraliah Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. 2 — 4 1.2.3.4 1 .2.3.4 1 The Pycnonotidae, Bulbuls, or fruit-thrushes, are highly charac- teristic of the Oriental region, in every part of which they abound; less plentiful in the Ethiopian region, and extending to Palestine and Japan in the Pala^arctic, and to the Moluccas in the Aus- tralian region, but absent from the intervening island of Celebes. The genera are : — Microscelis (6 sp.), Burmah, the Indo-Malay Islands, and Japan ; Pycnonotiis (52 sp., in many sub-genera), Palestine to South Africa, the whole Oriental region, China and Japan ; Alcurus (1 sp,), Himalayas ; Hcmixus (2 sp.), Nepal, Bootan, Hainan ; Phyllastrephus (4 sp.), West and South Africa ; Hypsi- petes (20 sp.), the whole Oriental region, Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands ; Tylas (1 sp.), Madagascar ; Criniger (30 sp.), the whole Oriental region (excluding Philippines), "West and South Africa, Moluccas ; Ixonotits (7 sp.). West Africa ; (^^^^ '^^^'^) Setornis (3 sp.), Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo; lole (4 sp.), Aracan and Malaya; Andropadiis (9 sp.). Tropical Africa ; ("") Lioptilus (1 sp.). South Africa. 268 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. Family 14— OKIOLID^. (5 Genera, 40 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Neahctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic SUB-MEGIONS. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2-4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2 The Orioles, or Golden Thrushes, are a small group charac- teristic of the Oriental and Ethiopian regions, migrating into the western Palsearctic region, and with some of the less typical forms in Australia. The genera are : — Oriolus (24 sp.). Central Europe, throughout Africa, and the whole Oriental region, northward to Pekin, and eastward to Flores ; (^°^^) Analcipus (3 sp.), Himalayas, Formosa, Java and Borneo; Mimeta (9 sp.), the Moluccas and Australia ; Sphecotheres (3 sp.), Timor and Australia. Artamia (1 sp.), Madagascar, — perhaps belongs to the next family or to Laniidae. Family 15.— CAMPEPHAGID^. (3 Genera, 100 Species.) General Distribution, Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. pal.earctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian SuB-REGIONa Oriental Sub-regions. Australian SuB-REGIONa 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3 — The Campephagidse, or Cuckoo Shrikes, (Campephaginse of the Hand List, with the addition of Cochoa) are most abundant in the Australian region (especially in the Austro-Malay sub- region) less so in the Oriental, and still less in the Ethiopian region. The genera, for the most part as adopted by Dr. Hart- laub, are liS follows : — ■ Pericrocotus (22 sp.), the whole Oriental region, extending north to Pekin, and east to Lombok ; (^^42 — i244^ Laniderus (4 sp.), West and South Africa ; (^245 1246) Grmtcalus (25 sp.), the whole Oriental region, and eastward to Austro-Malaya, the New CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 2G9 Hebrides, and Tasmania ; Artamides (1 sp.), Celebes ; Pteropo- docys (1 sp.), Australia ; (^^^s 1250 1257 1258) Campephaga (16 sp.). Austro-Malaya, and New Caledonia, Philippines, the Ethiopian region; Volvocivora (8 sp.) the Oriental regijii (excluding Philippines) ; Zalage (18 sp.), the whole Malay Archipelago to New Caledonia and Australia ; Symmorphus (1 sp.), Australia ; Oxynotus (2 sp.), Mauritius and Bourbon ; (^^o*) Cochoa (3 sp.), Himalayas, Java. The position of this last genus is doubtful. Jerdon puts it in the Liotrichidse ; Sundeval in the Sturnidee ; Bonaparte in the Dicruridse ; Professor Newton suggests the Pycnonotidse ; but it seems on the whole best placed here. Family 16.— DICEURID^. (6 Genera, 58 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical st7b-regi0ns. Nearctic sob-begions. Pal.earctic SuB-IlEGIONa. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental SoB-REaiONS. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2 The Dicruridse, or Drongo Shrikes (Dicruridte of the Hand List, omitting the genus Melcenornis), have nearly the same distribution as the last family, with which they are sometimes united. They are, however, most abundant and varied in the Oriental region, much less so both in the Australian and Ethio- pian regions. The distribution of the genera is as follows : — Dicrurus (46 sp., in several sub-genera), has the range of the whole family, extending east to New Ireland, and one species in Australia ; Chcetorhynchus (1 sp.), New Guinea ; Bhringa (2 sp.), Himalayas to Borneo (Plate IX. vol. i. p. 339) ; ChiUa (2 sp.) Himalayas eastward to North China ; Chaptia (3 sp.), all India to Malacca and Formosa ; Irena (4 sp.). Central India, Assam, and Burmah to Borneo and the Philippine Islands. This last genus is placed by Jerdon among the Pycnonotidae, but seems to come most naturally here or in tlie last family. 270 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. Family 17.— MUSCICAPID^. (44 Genera, 283 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic sub-reoions. Pal^arctic sub-kegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian sub-heuions. l.a.3.4- 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 The Muscicapidae, or Flycatchers (Muscicapinse and Myiagrin^ of the Hand List, omitting Cochoa and including Pogonocichla) form an extensive family of usually small-sized and often bright- coloured birds, very abundant in the warmer regions of the Old World and Australia, but becoming scarce as we approach the temperate and colder regions. They are wholly absent from North and South America. The genera, many of which are not well defined, are distributed as follows : — Peltops (1 sp.), Papuan Islands ; Monarcha {2^ sp.), Moluccas to the Carolines and Marquesas Islands, Australia and Tas- mania; Zeucojyhantes (1 sp.). New Guinea; Butalis (4 sp.), Ethiopian and Paltearctic regions, Moluccas and Formosa ; Mus- cicapa (12 sp.), Europe and Africa ; Muscicapula (6 sp.), India to Western China ; Alseonax {1 sp.). South Africa; Erythrosterna (7 sp.), Europe to China and Java ; Newtonia (1 sp.), Madagascar ; Xanthopygia (2 sp.), Japan, China, Malacca ; Hemipus (1 sp.), India and Ceylon ; Pycnophrys (1 sp.), Java ; Hyliota (2 sp.), West Africa ; Erythrocercus (2 sp.), West Africa and Zambesi ; Micrmca (6 sp.), Australia, Timor, and Papuan Islands ; Artomyias (2 sp.), West Africa ; Pseudohias (1 sp.). Madagascar ; Hemiche- lidon (3 sp.), the Oriental region and North China ; Smithornis (2 sp.). West and South Africa ; MegaUas (1 sp.). West Africa ; Cassinia (2 sp.),West Africa; Bias, (1 sp.), Tropical Africa; Niltava (3 sp.), Himalayas to West China; Cyornis (16 sp.), the whole Oriental region; Cyamoptila (1 sp.), Japan, China, Hainan; Euwyias (7 sp.), India to South China, Ceylon, and Sumatra; (1213 and 1216-) Siphia (8 sp.), North India, Formosa, Timor ; An- thipes (1 sp.), Nepal; Seisura (5 sp.), Australia and Austro- CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 271 Malaya (excluding Celebes) ; {Myiagra (16 sp.), Australia and Moluccas to Caroline and Samoa Islands : Eypothymis (2 sp.), Oriental region and Celebes ; Elminia (2 sp.), Tropical Africa ; Muscitodus (2 sp.),riji Islands ; Machccrirhynchus (4 sp.), Papuan Islands and North Australia ; Platystira (12 sp.), Tropical and South Africa ; Bhipidura (45 sp.), the Oriental and Australian regions to the Samoa Islands and Tasmania ; Chelidorynx (1 sp.), North India ; Myialestes (2 sp.), India to Ceylon, China, Java and Celebes ; Tchitrea (26 sp.), the entire Ethiopian and Oriental regions, and to North China and Japan; Philentoma (4 sp.) Malacca, Sumatra, Borneo, and Philippine Islands; Todopsis (6 sp.), Papuan Islands ; (^^^) Pogonocichla (1 sp.). South Africa, ; (^^^ - -^o&z-^Bradyornis {1 sp.). Tropical and South Africa; (^^^) Chasiempis (2 sp.), Sandwich Islands. Family 18.— PACHYCEPHALID^. (5 Genera, 62 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctio Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. au.straliam Sub-regions. 4. 3.4 1.2.3 — The Pachycephalidse, or Thick-headed Shrikes (Pachycepha- Mnse of the Rand List omitting Colluricincla, Gracticus, and Pardcdotus) are almost confined to the Australian region, a single species extending to Java and Aracan, and another (?) to Mada- gascar. The family has generally been united with the Laniidae, but most modern ornithologists consider it to be distinct. The distribution of the genera is as follows : — Orececa (1 sp.), Australia; Falcunculus (2 sp.), Australia; PachycepTiala (44 sp.), Sula Islands (east of Celebes) to the Fiji Islands, and Australia ; Hyhcharis (4 sp.), Timor, Celebes, Indo- Malaya, and Aracan; Calicalicus (1 sp.), Madagascar; Eopsaltria (14 sp.), Australia, New Caledonia, and the New Hebrides ; Ar- tamia (4 sp.), Madagascar, — may belong to this family, or to Laniidae, Oriolidse, or Artamidse, according to different authors. 272 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PABT IV. T'AMILY 19.— LANIID^. (19 Genera, 145 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical sub-kegions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australiak Sub-regions. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 ,1.2.3.4 1.2.3 — The Laniidse, or Shrikes (Laniinse and Malaconotinae of the Hand List, and including Colluricincla), are most abundant and varied in Africa, less plencifal in the Oriental, Australian, and Palfearctic regions, with a few species in the Nearctic region as far as Mexico. The constitution of the family is, however, somewhat uncertain. The genera here admitted are : — Colluricincla (4 sp.), Australia and Tasmania ; Rectes (18 sp.), Papuan Islands, North Australia, to Pelew and Fiji Islands ; ^1462 - 1464 1466 1470 1471 - 1473) Zanius (50 sp.), thc wholc Nearctic, Palsearctic, Ethiopian, and Oriental regions,, one species reaching Timor, none in Madagascar; Laniellus (1 sp.), Java; Hypocolius (1 sp.), Abyssinia and Upper Nile ; Corvinella (1 sp.). South and West Africa ; Urolestes (1 sp.). South and East Africa ; Tephro- clornis (4 sp.). Oriental region to Hainan and Java ; Hypodes (1 sp.), West Africa; Fraseria (2 sp.). West Africa; Cuphopterus (1 sp.), Princes' Island ; Nilaus (1 sp.). South and West Africa ; Frionops (9 sp.). Tropical Africa; Eitrocephalus (2 sp.). North, East, and South Africa, and Abyssinia; Chaunonohis (1 sp.). West Africa ; Vanga (4 sp.), Madagascar (Plate VI. vol. i. p. 278); Laniarius (36 sp.), the whole Ethiopian region ; Telephonus [10 sp.), all Africa and South Europe; Meristes (2 sp.). Tropical and South Africa ; Nicator (1 sp.). East Africa. Family 20.— COEVID^. (24 Genera, 190 Species.) General Distribution. NroTRopiCAL I Nearctic I Pal.«arctic SliB-REQlONS. SOB-KEGIONS. SUB-KEGIONS. . 3 . 4 I 1 . .? . 3 . 4 1.3.3.4 Ethiopian Sub-regions. 1.2.3.4 Oriental Sub-rerions. 1.2.3.4 Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3 CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 273 The Corvidae, or Crows, Jays, &c., form an extensive and somewhat heterogeneous group, some members of which inhabit almost every part of the globe, although none of the genera are cosmopolitan. The true crows are found everywhere but in South America ; the magpies, choughs, and nutcrackers are characteristic of the Palaearctic region ; the jays are Palajarctic, Oriental, and American ; while the piping crows are peculiarly Australian. The more detailed distribution of the genera is as follows : — Sub-family I. Gymnorhininse (Piping Crows). — Strepera (4 sp.), and Gymnorhina (3 sp.), are Australian only ; Cracticus (9 sp.), ranges from New Guinea to Tasmania (this is usually put with the Shrikes, but it has more affinity with the preceding genera) ; Pityriasis (1 sp,), Borneo (an extraordinary bird of very doubtful affinities) ; Grallina (1 sp.), Australia, is put here by Sundevall, — among Motacillidse, by Gould. Sub-family II. Garrulinae (Jays). — Platylophus = LopJiocitta (4 sp.), Malaya ; Garrulus (12 sp.), Palaearctic region, China and Himalayas ; Ferisoreus (2 sp.). North of Palaearctic and Nearctic regions ; Cyanurus (22 sp.), American, from Bolivia to Canada, most abundant in Central America, but absent from the Antilles ; Cyanocorax (15 sp.). La Plata to Mexico ; Calocitta (2 sp.), Gua- temala and Mexico ; Psilorhinus (3 sp.), Costa Eica to Texas ; Urocissa (6 sp.). Western Himalayas to China and Formosa ; Cissa (3 sp.). South-eastern Himalayas to Tenasserim, Ceylon, Sumatra, and Java. Sub-family III. Dendrocittinse (Tree Crows). — Temnurus (3 sp.), Cochin China, Malacca to Borneo (not Java) ; Dcndro- citta (9 sp.), the Oriental region to Sumatra, Hainan, and For- mosa ; Crypsirhina (3 sp.), Pegu, Siam, and Java ; Piilostomtis (2 sp.). West, East, and South Africa. Sub-family IV. Corvinse (Crows and Magpies). — Nucifraga (4 sp.), Palaearctic region to the Himalayas and North China; Pici- corvus (1 sp.), the Eocky Mountains and California ; Gymnokitta (1 sp.), Eocky Mountains and Arizona (Plate XVIII., Vol. II., p. 128); Pica (9 sp.), Palaearctic region, Arctic America, and California ; Cyanopica (3 sp.), Spain, North-east Asia, Japan ; 274 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. Streptocitta (2 sp.), Celebes ; Charitornis (1 sp.), Sula Islands ; Corvus (55 sp.), universally distributed except South America and New Zealand, but found in Guatemala and the Antilles to Porto Kico ; reaches the extrenie north of Europe and Asia ; Crymnocorvus (2 sp.), Papuan Islands ; Picathartes (1 sp.). West Africa ; Corvultur (2 sp.), Tropical and South Africa. Sub-family V. Fregilinte (Choughs). — Fregilus (3 sp.), moun- tains and cliffs of Palsearctic region from West Europe to the Himalayas and North China, Abyssinia (Plate I., Vol. I., p. 195) ; Cor cor ax (1 sp.), Australia. Family 21.— PAEADISEID^. (19 Genera, 34 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical sub-beoions. Nearctic Sob-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2 The Paradiseidse, or " Birds of Paradise," form one of the most remarkable families of birds, unsurpassed alike for the singularity and the beauty of their plumage. Till recently the family was re- stricted to about eight species of the more typical Paradise birds, but in his splendid monograph of the group, Mr. Elliot has combined together a number of allied forms which had been doubtfully placed in several adjacent families. The various species of true Paradise birds, having ornamental plumes deve- loped from different parts of the body, are almost wholly confined to New Guinea and the adjacent Papuan Islands, one species only being found in the Moluccas and one in North Australia ; while the less typical Bower-birds, having no such developments of plumage, are most characteristic of the north and east of Australia, with a few species in New Guinea. The distribution of the genera according to Mr. Elliot's monograph is as follows : — Sub-family I. Paradiseinse. — Paradisea (4 sp.), Papuan Is- lands ; Manucodia (3 sp.), Papuan Islands and North Australia; Astrapia (1 sp.), New Guinea ; Parotia (1 sp.), New Guinea ; Zophorhina (1 sp.), New Guinea ; Diphyllodes (3 sp.), Papuan CHAP, xviii.] BIRDS. 275 Islands ; Xanthomelus (1 sp.), New Guinea ; Cicinmirus (1 sp.), Papuan Islands ; Paradigalla (1 sp.), New Guinea ; Seniioptera (1 sp.), Gilolo and Batchian. Sub-family II. Epimachinae. — Epimachus (1 sp.), New Guinea ; Drepanornis (1 sp.), New Guinea ; Sdeucides (1 sp.), New Gui- nea (Plate X., Vol. I., p. 414) ; Ptilorhis (4 sp.), New Guinea and North Australia. Sub-family III. Tectonarcbinse (Bower-birds). — Sericulus (1 sp.), Eastern Australia ; Ptilonorhijnchus (1 sp.), Eastern Aus- tralia ; Chlamydodera (4 sp.), North and East Australia ; ^lu- rcedus (3 sp.), Papuan Islands and East Australia ; Amblyornis (1 sp.), New Guinea. Family 22.— MELIPHAGID^. (23 Genera, 190 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical 8l7B-REGIONS. Nearctio sub-begions. Pal^arctic sub-uegions. Ethiopian I Oriental SuB-RtGioNS. Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1 .2.3 .4 (As in the Hand List, but omitting Zosterops, and slightly altering the arrangement.) The extensive group of the Meliphagidse, or Honey-suckers, is wholly Australian, for the genus Zosterops, which extends into the Oriental and Ethiopian regions, does not naturally belong to it. Several of the genera ^re confined to Australia, others to New Zealand, while a few range over the whole Aus- tralian region. The genera are distributed as foUows : — Myzomela (18 sp.), has the widest range, extending from Ce- lebes to the Samoa Islands, and to Timor and Eastern Australia ; Entomophila (4 sp.), Australia and New Guinea ; Gliciphila (10 sp.), Australia, Timor, New Guinea, and New Caledonia ; Acan- thorhynchus (2 sp.), Australia and Tasmania ; Meliphaga (1 sp.), Australia ; Ptilotis (40 sp.), Gilolo and Lombok to Australia and Tasmania, and to the Samoa and Tonga Islands ; Meliornis (5 sp.). Australia and Tasmania; Prosthemadera (1 sp.), Pogonornis (1 sp.). New Zealand ; Anthornis (4 sp.). New Zealand and Chatham Islands; Anthochcera (4 sp.), Australia and Tasmania; Xan- 27G GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. thotis (4 sp.), Papuan Islands and Australia ; Leptornis (2 sp.), Samoa Islands and New Caledonia ; Philemon = Tropidorhyncus (18 sp.), Moluccas and Lombok to New Guinea, Australia, Tas- mania and New Caledonia ; Entomiza (2 sp.), Australia ; Mano- rhina (5 sp.), Australia and Tasmania ; Eutlmjrhynchus (3 sp.), New Guinea; Melirrhophetes (2 sp.). New Guinea; Mclidedes (1 sp.), New Guinea ; Mdipotes (1 sp.). New Guinea ; Melithrep- tus (8 sp.), New Guinea, Australia, and Tasmania ; (^^^) Moho (3 sp.), Sandwich Islands; Chcetoptila (1 sp.), Sandwich Islands. Family 23.— NECTAEINIID^. (11 Genera, 122 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Ne ARCTIC Sub-regions. Pal^arctic sub-begions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. _ 2 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2 The Nectariniidse, or Sun-birds, form a rather extensive group of insectivorous honey-suckers, often adorned with brilliant me- tallic plumage, and bearing a superficial resemblance to the American humming-birds, although not in any way related to them. They abound in the Ethiopian, Oriental, and Australian regions, as far east as New Ireland, and south to Queensland, while one species inhabits the hot Jordan Valley in the Palffi- arctic region. For the Eastern genera I follow Lord Walden's classification (Ibis, 1870) ; the African species not having been so carefully studied are mostly placed in one genus. The genera adopted are as follows : — Promero'ps (1 sp.). South Africa; Fcdarinia (60 sp.), the whole Ethiopian region ; Cinnyricindus (5 sp.), West Africa ; Neodre- panis (1 sp.), Madagascar; Arachnedhra (13 sp.), Palestine, all India to Hainan, the Papuan Islands, and North-east Aus- tralia ; uEtliopyga (15 sp,), Himalayas and Central India to West China, Hainan, Java, and Northern Celebes ; NedaropUla (5 sp.), Central India and Ceylon, Assam and Aracan to Java, Celebes and the Philippines; ChalcostetJia (6 sp.), Malay Peninsula to New Guinea; Anthreptes (1 sp.), Siam, Malay Peninsula to CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 277 Sula Islands, and Flores ; Cosmeteira (1 sp.), Papuan Islands ; Arachmthera (15 sp.), the Oriental region (excluding Philippines) Celebes, Lombok, and Papuan Islands. Family 24— DIC^IDiE. (5 Genera, 107 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical St;b-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. PaL/EARCTIC SUB-UEGION.S. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 4 1.2.3.4 1 .2.3.4 1 .2.3 .4 The Dicffiidas, or Flower-peckers, consist of very small, gaily- coloured birds, rather abundant over the whole Oriental and much of the Australian regions, and one genus extending over the Ethiopian region. The genera here adopted are the fol- lowing : — (^22) Zosterops (68 sp.), the whole Ethiopian, Oriental, and Australian regions, as far east as the Fiji Islands, and north to Pekin and Japan ; (*°*^ - *"3) Dicceum (25 sp.), the whole Oriental region, except China, with the Australian region as far as the Solomon Islands; (^o^) Pachyglossa (2 sp. 1*^7 i442)^ iN'epal and Northern Celebes ; (*°^) Piprisoma (2 sp.), Himalayas to Ceylon and Timor; Q^^^) Pardalotus (10 sp.), Australia and Tasmania; ^407 — 409') Prionochilus (5 sp.), Indo-Malay sub-region and Papuan Islands. Family 25.— DEEPANIDID^. (4 Genera, 8 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-reoions. Pal^arctic StJB-HEGIONS. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian sub-kegions. The Drepanididse are confined to the Sandwich Islands, and I follow Mr. Sclater's suggestion in bringing together the following genera to form this family : — Drepanis (3 sp.) ; Hemignathus (3 sp.) ; Loxops (1 sp.) ; Psit- tirostra (1 sp.). If these are correctly associated, the great 278 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. differences in the bill indicate that they are the remains of a larger and more varied family, once inhabiting more extensive land surfaces in the Pacific. Family 26.— CCEEEBID^. (11 Genera, 55 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Nearctic Pal^arctic Ethiopian sub-reoions. sub-reoions. sub-regions. sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Adstralian Sub-regions. -2.3.4 3 - (According to the arrangement of Messrs. Sclater and Salvin.) The Ccerebidse, or Sugar-birds, are delicate little birds allied to the preceding families, but with extensile honey-sucking tongues. They are almost wholly confined to the tropical parts of America, only one species of Certhiola ranging so far north as Florida. The following is the distribution of the genera : — Diglossa (14 sp.), Peru and Bolivia to Guiana and Mexico; Diglossopis (1 sp.), Ecuador to Venezuela; Oreomanes (1 sp.), Ecuador ; Conirostrum (6 sp.), Bolivia to Ecuador and Columbia ; Hemidacnis (1 sp.). Upper Amazon and Columbia ; Dacnis (13 sp.), Brazil to Ecuador and Costa Eica ; Certhidea (2 sp.), Gala- pagos Islands ; Chlorophanes (2 sp.), Brazil to Central America and Cuba ; Ccereba (4 sp.), Brazil to Mexico; Certhiola (10 sp.), Amazon to Mexico, West Indies, and Florida ; Glossojotila (1 sp.), Jamaica. Family 27.— MNIOTTI.TID^. (18 Genera, 115 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. -2.3.4. 1 2 3 4 1 ' 1 1 (Messrs. Sclater and Salvin are followed for the Neotropical, Baird and Allen for the Nearctic region.) The Mniotiltidee, or Wood-warblers, are an interesting group of small and elegant birds, allied to the preceding family and \o the greenlets, and perhaps also to the warblers and tits of Europe. CHAP. XVllI.] BIRDS. 279 They range over all North America from Panama to the Arctic regions, but do not extend far beyond the tropic in Southern America, They are almost as abundant in the Nearctic as in the Neotropical region ; and considering the favourable condi- tions of existence in Tropical America, this fact, in connection with their absence from the South Temperate zone would lead us to suppose that they originated in North Temperate America, and subsequently spread southward into the tropics. This supposi- tion is strengthened by the fact that their metropolis, in the breeding season, is to the north of the United States. The genera adopted by Messrs. Sclater and Salvin are as follows : — (^^^) Siurus (4 sp.), Venezuela and West Indies to Eastern States and Canada; Mniotilta (1 sp.), Venezuela, Mexico, and Antilles to the Eastern States ; Panda (5 sp.), Brazil to Mexico, and the Eastern States, and Canada ; Protonotaria (1 sp.), Antilles to Ohio ; Hclminthophaga (8 sp.), Columbia to Arctic America Helminthcrus (2 sp.), Central America to Eastern States ; Peris- soglossa (1 sp.), Antilles and Eastern States ; Dendro&ca (33 sp.), Amazon to Antilles, and Arctic America, and south to Chili ; Oporornis (2 sp.), Guatemala to: Eastern States ; Geotlilypis (1 1 sp.).. all North America and Brazil ; Myiodioctes (5 sp.), all North America and Columbia ; Basileuterus (22 sp.), Bolivia and Brazil to Mexico ; Seiophaga (15 sp.), Brazil to Canada ; Ergaticus (2 sp.), Guatemala and Mexico ; Cardellina (1 sp.), Guatemala and Mexico ; Q-^^) QranatcUus (3 sp.), Amazon to Mexico ; ("*^) Tere- tristis (2 sp.), Cuba ; (^*^^) Ideria (2 sp.), Costa Eica and United States to Canada. Eamily 28.— VIEEONID^. (7 Genera, 63 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical SUB-RFOIONS. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic SUB-KEGIONS. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. -2.3.4. 1.2.3.4 (Messrs. Sclater and Salvin are followed for the Neotropical genera ; Professor Baird and Mr. Allen for those of the Nearctic region.) Vol. II.— 19 280 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. The Vireonidse, or Greenlets, are a family of small fly-catching birds wholly restricted to the American continent, where they range from Paraguay to Canada. They are allied to the Mniotil- tidse and perhaps also to the Australian Pachycephalidse. Only two of the genera, with about a dozen species, inhabit the Nearctic region. The distribution of the genera is as follows : — Vireosylvia (13 sp.), Venezuela to Mexico, the Antilles, the Eastern States and Canada ; Vireo (14 sp.). Central America and the Antilles to Canada ; Neochloe (1 sp.), Mexico ; Hylophilus (20 sp.), Brazil to Mexico ; Laletes (1 sp.), Jamaica ; Vireolanius (5 sp.), Amazonia to Mexico ; Cychlorhis (9 sp.), Paraguay to Mexico. Family 29.— AMPELID^. (4 Genera, 9 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical sub-reoions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Adstralian Sub-regions. 3 4 1.2.3.4- 1.2.3.4 The Ampelidse, represented in Europe by the waxwing, are a small family, characteristic of the Nearctic and Palsearctic re- gions, but extending southward to Costa Rica and the West Indian islands. The genera are distributed as follows : — p39^ Am'pclis (3 sp.), the Palsearctic and Nearctic regions, and southward to Guatemala; Q^^'^) Ptilogonys (2 sp.), Central America ; Q^'^) Dulus (2 sp.). West Indian Islands ; Q-^^^) Phceno- pe;pla (1 sp.), Mexico and the Gila Valley. Family 30.— HIRUNDINID^. ( 9 Genera, 91 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic s ub-regions. Pal«arctic sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sdb-reoions. Australian Sub-regions. I. a. 3. 4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 281 The Hirundinidae, or Swallows, are true cosmopolites. Al- though they do not range quite so far north (except as stragglers) as a few of the extreme polar birds, yet they pass beyond the Arctic Circle both in America and Europe, Cotyle riparia having been observed in the Parry Islands, while Hirundo rustica has been seen both in Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla. Cotyle riparia and Chelidon urbica also breed in great numbers in northern Lapland, latitude 67° to 70° north. Many of the species also, have an enormous range, the common swallow (Hirundo rustica) inhabiting Europe, Asia and Africa, from Lapland to the Cape of Good Hope and to the Moluccas. The genera of swallows are not well determined, a number having been established of which the value is uncertain. I admit the following, referring by numbers to the Hand List : — (215-221226-228^ ^irundo (40 sp.), the range of the entire family ; (222 223-) Psalidoprogne (10 sp.). Tropical and South Africa ; (224) Phedina (1 sp.), Madagascar and Mascarene Islands ; (22^) Fetrochelidon (5 sp.). North and South America and Cape of Good Hope; (229-232 ?234) ^uicora (8 sp.), the Neotropical region and ? Australia; (2^5 237) Q^f^i^ ^n gp^^ Europe, India, Africa, North America, Antilles and Ecuador ; (236) Stelgidoptertjx (5 sp.), La Plata to United States ; (238 -"^ 239) chelidon (6 sp.), Palajarctic region, Nepal, Borneo ; (^'^^ - 2*2) Progne (5 sp.), all North and South America. Family 31.— ICTERID^. (24 Genera, 110 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. australiak Sub-reoions. 1.2.3.4 1.2. 3. A The Icteridse, or American hang-nests, range over the whole continent, from Patagonia and the Falkland Islands to the Arctic Circle. Only about 20 species inhabit the Nearctic region, while, as usual with exclusively American families, the larger proportion of the genera and species are found in the 282 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. tropical parts of South Anierica. The genera adopted by Messrs. Sclater and Salvin are the following : — Clypeiderus (1 sp.), Upper Amazon ; Ocyalus (2 sp.), Upper Amazon to Mexico ; Ostinops (8 sp.), Brazil and Bolivia to Mexico ; Cassiculus (1 sp.), Mexico ; Cassicus (10 sp.), South Brazil and Bolivia to Costa Rica ; Icterus (34 sp.), La Plata to the Antilles and United States; Doliclionyx (1 sp.), Paraguay to Canada; Molothrus (8 sp.). La Plata to Northern United States ; Agelceus (7 sp.). La Plata and Chili to Northern United States ; Xanthocephalus (1 sp.), Mexico to California and Canada ; Xanthosomus (4 sp.). La Plata to Venezuela ; Amblyrhamphus (1 sp.). La Plata and Bolivia ; Gymnomystax (1 sp.), Amazonia and Guiana ; Pseudoleistes (2 sp.), La Plata and Brazil ; Leisfes (3 sp.). La Plata to Venezuela ; Sturnella (5 sp.), Patagonia and Falkland Islands to Middle United States; Curceus (1 sp.), Chili ; Nesopsar (1 sp.), Jamaica ; Scolecophgaus (2 sp.), Mexico to Arctic Circle ; Zampropsar (4 sp.), Amazonia and Ecuador to Mexico ; Quiscalus (10 sp.), Venezuela and Columbia to South and Central United States; Hypopyrrhus (1 sp.), Columbia; Aphohus (1 sp.), Brazil and. Bolivia; Cassidix (2 sp.), Brazil to Mexico and Cuba. Family 32.— TANAGPJD^. (43 Genera, 304 Species.) General Distribution. ' Neotropical Sob-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic sub-hegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-kegions. 1 .2.3 .4 -2.3- The Tanagers are an extensive family of varied and beautiful fruit-eating birds, almost peculiar to the Neotropical region, only four species of a single genus (Pyranga) extending into the Eastern United States and Eocky Mountains. Southward they range to La Plata. They are especially abundant in the forest regions of South America east of the Andes, where no less than 40 out of the 43 genera occur; 23 of the genera are peculiar to this sub-region, while only 1 (Phlogothraupis) is CHAP, xviii.] BIRDS. 283 peculiar to Central America and Mexico, and 2 {SpiTidalis and Phceniccyphihis) to the West Indian islands. The genera adopted by Messrs. Sclater and Salvin with their distribution will be found at Vol. II., p. 99, in our account of Neotropical Zoology. Family 33.— FEINGILLID^. (74 Genera, 509 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Neakctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic sub-kegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental sub-regio.vs. Australian sub-hegions. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1 .2.3.41 1.2.3.4 The great family of the Fringillidse, or finches, is in a very un- settled state as regards their division into genera, the most di- vergent views being held by ornithologists as to the constitution and affinities of many of the groups. All the Australian finch- like birds appear to belong to the Ploceidse, so that the finches, as here constituted, are found in every region and sub-region, except the Australian region from which they are entirely absent — a peculiar distribution hardly to be found in any other family of birds. Many European ornithologists separate the Emberizidse, or bun- tings, as a distinct family, but as the American genera have not been so divided I am obliged to keep them together ; but the genera usually classed as " buntings " are placed last, as a sub- family. In the following arrangement of the genera, I have done what I could to harmonize the views of the best modern writers. For convenience of reference the succession of the genera is that of the Hand List, and the numbers of the sub-genera are given whenever practicable : — ^793 1795^ 'Fringilla (6 sp.), the whole Palaearctic region, includ- ing the Atlantic Islands ; (^^^*) Acanthis (3 sp.), Europe to Siberia, Persia, and North- West Himalayas; (^^^^) Procardudis (1 sp.). High Himalayas and East Thibet ; (^^^^ - ^^os) Chrysomitris (18 sp.). Neotropical and Nearctic regions, Europe, and Siberia ; (^^^*) Metopo7iia (1 sp.), East Europe to North West Himalayas ; Q^^^ and 1809-) Chlorospiza (9 sp.), Palaearctic region and Africa to the 284 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. Cape of Good Hope ; (^^°^ "" ^*^°^) Dryospiza (14 sp.), South Europe, Palestine, Canaries, and all Africa ; Q^^^) Sycalis (18 sp.), the whole Neotropical region ; (^^^^ - ^^^^ ^^^^ - ^^^^) Pyrgita (34 sp.), Paleearctic and Oriental regions, and all Africa ; (^^^*) Montifriifi- gilla (4 sp.), Palsearctic region ; (^^^^) Fringillauda (2 sp.), North- West Himalayas to East Thibet ; (^^-° ~ ^^^^) Coccothraustes (6 sp.), Palsearctic region and Nepal, Nearctic region to Mexico ; Q^^^) Eophona (2 sp.), China and Japan ; {^^^^) Mycerobas (2 sp.), Cen- tral Asia to Persia, High Himalayas, and East Thibet; (^^^) Ghmmoprocfus (1 sp.), Bo'nin Islands, south-east of Japan, (probably Palaearctic) ; {^^^^) Geospiza (7 sp.) ,Galapagos Islands ; (^^2'') Gamarhynchus (5 sp.), Galapagos Islands ; (^®^^) Cadornis (4 sp.), Galapagos Islands ; (}^^^ - ^^^^) Phrygilus (10 sp.), Colum- bia to Fuegia and the Falkland Islands ; Q^^^) Xenospingus (1 sp.), Peru; (i834) D^ica (3 sp.), Peru to ChHi and Patagonia; (^^^^ and 1837J Emlerizoides (3 sp.), Venezuela to Paraguay ; (^^^^) Dona- cospiza (1 sp.), South Brazil and La Plata ; (^^^^) ChamcBOspim (1 sp.), Mexico ; {}^^ """^ ^^*") Emlernagra (9 sp.), Arizona to La Plata; (i^") HcemopUla (6 sp.), Mexico to Costa Pica; (^^^) Atlapeies (1 sp.), Mexico; (^^*^) Pyrgisoma (5 sp.), Mexico to Costa Rica; (i844 and ms) p^-^^y^, (12 sp.), all North America to Guatemala ; (^^*^) Junco (6 sp.), all the United States to Guate- mala; (^^*^) Zonotrichia (9 sp.), the whole Nearctic and Neotro- pical regions ; (^^^ ^^*^) Melospiza (7 sp.), Sitka and United States to Guatemala ; Q^^'^) Spizella (7 sp.), Canada to Guatemala ; (}^^^) Passerella (4 sp.), the Nearctic region and Northern Asia ; Q^^^) Passerculus (6 sp.), Nearctic region and to Guatemala ; Q-^^^) Poce- cetes (1 sp.), all United States and Mexico ; (}^^'^) Ammodromus (4 sp.), all United States to Guatemala ; Q^^^) Goturniculus (6 sp.), north and east of North America to Jamaica and Bolivia ; Q^^^) Pmcoea (6 sp.), South Atlantic States and California to Mexico ; ^1857^ Tiaris (1 sp.), Brazil ; (^^^^) Volatinia (1 sp.), Mexico to Brazil and Bolivia ; (}^^^)Gyanospiza (5 sp.), Canada to Guatemala ; ^1860 1861^ Paroaria (6 sp.), Tropical South America, east of the Andes ; (}^^'^) Goryphospingus (4 sp.), Tropical South America ; ^1863^ Haplospiza (2 sp.), Mexico and Brazil ; Q^^^ ^^^i) PJwnipara (8 sp.), Mexico to Columbia, the greater Antilles ; (^^^^) Poospiza CHAP, xviii.] BIRDS. 286 (13 sp.), California and South Central States to Bolivia and La Plata ; (*24) Spodiornis (1 sp.), Andes of Quito ; Q-^^ ^^^'^) Pyrrhula (9 sp.), the whole Palsearctic region to the Azores and High Himalayas ; {^^) Crithagra (17 sp.), Tropical and South Africa, Mauritius, Syria ; Q^^^) Ligurnus (2 sp.). West Africa ; (^^to isn) Carpodacus (18 sp.), Nearctic and Palsearctic regions to Mexico and Central India; (i872 _ i874) Enjthrospiza (6 sp.), Southern parts of Palsearctic region, (i875) Uragus (2 sp.), Siberia and Japan; (1^76) Cardinalis (2 sp.). South and Central States to Venezuela : (i877) Fyrrhuloxia (1 sp.), Texas and Eio Grande ; (1878 1879^ Ghuraca (6 sp.), Southern United States to La Plata ; (1880) Amaurospiza (2 sp.), Costa Pica and Brazil ; (i^si) Hedy- meles (2 sp.), all United States to Columbia ; {^^^^) Pheucticus (5 sp.), Mexico to Peru and Bolivia ; (^^^^) OrTjzohorus (6 sp.), Mexico to Ecuador and South Brazil ; (i^^i) Melopyrrha (1 sp.), Cuba; {^^^) Loxigilla (4 sp.), Antilles; (i^se 1887-, Spermophila (44 sp.), Texas to Bolivia and Uruguay; Q^^^) Catamcnia{4.Q^), Columbia to Bolivia; [^^^^) Neorhynclius (3 sp.). West Peru; (18^2) Catamhlyrhyncus (1 sp.), Columbia; (^^ Loxia (7 sp.), Europe to North-west India and Japan, Arctic America to Penn- sylvania, Mexico ; (189*) Pinicola (3 sp.), Arctic America, North- east Europe to the Amoor, Camaroons Mountains West Africa ; (1895) Propyrrhula (1 sp.), Darjeeling in the winter, ? Thibet ; Q-^^) Pyrrhospiza (1 sp.), Snowy Himalayas; Q^^'^) Hcematospiza (1 sp.), South-east Himalayas, 5,000 - 10,000 feet; Q^^^ ^^^^)Linota (12 sp.), Europe to Central Asia, north and east of North Ame- rica ; Q^) Leucostide (7 sp.), Siberia and Thibet to Kamschatka, and from Alaska to Utah. Sub-family Emberizinse, — Q^^^) Calamospiza (1 sp.), Arizona and Texas to Mexico ; [^^^^) Chondestes (2 sp.), Western, Central, and Southern States to Mexico and Nicaragua ; (^^^^ - ^^i") Eu- spiza (9 sp.), Palsearctic region, India, Burmah, and South China, South-east United States to Columbia ; (^^^i - ^^^o) Emheriza (28 sp.), the whole Palsearctic region (continental), to Central India in winter; (i^^i^ Ghihernatrix (1 sp.), Paraguay and La Plata, (according to Messrs. Sclater and Salvin this comes next to Pipilo) ; (I'^^z) Fringillaria (8 sp.), Africa and South Europe ; 286 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. (1923-1925) piectrophanes (6 sp.), Arctic Zone to Northern Europe and North China, Arctic America, and east side of Rocky Moun- tains ; (^^2^) Centronyx (1 sp.), Mouth of Yellowstone River. Family 34— PLOCEID^. (29 Genera, 252 species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Nearctic Sub-regions. Sdb-reoions. Pal^arctic SUB-HEGIONS. Ethiopian sub-kegions. Oriental Sub-regions. 1.2.3.4 1 .2.3. 4 Australian Sub-regions, 1.2.3 — The Ploceidse, or Weaver-finches, are especially characteristic of the Ethiopian region, where most of the genera and nearly four-fifths of the species are found ; the remainder being pretty equally divided between the Oriental and Australian regions. Like the true finches these have never been properly studied, and it is exceedingly difficult to ascertain what genera are natural and how far those of Australia and Africa are distinct. The fol- lowing enumeration must therefore be taken as altogether ten- tative and provisional. When the genera adopted differ from those of the Hand List they will be referred to by numbers. TextoT (5 sp.), Tropical and South Africa ; C^^o - ^^^ i^st) Hy- phantornis (32 sp.), Tropical and South Africa ; (^^^^ i656) gy^. pledes (8 sp.). Tropical and South Africa ; Malwibus (9 sp.), West Africa ; Q-^^^ ^^^^) Ploccus (6 sp.), West and East Africa, the Orien- tal region (excluding Philippines); i}^^) Nelicurvius (1 sp.), Madagascar ; Foudia (12 sp.), Madagascar and Mascarene Islands, Tropical Africa ; (^^^ '^^) Sporopipes (2 sp.). Tropical and South Africa ; (^^^^ - ^^^^) Pyromelana (14 sp.). Tropical and South Africa, Abyssinia to 10,500 feet ; Philetcerus (1 sp.). South Africa ; Nigrita (7 sp.), West Africa to Upper Nile ; Plocepasser (4 sp.), East and South Africa ; (}^'^ - i^^*) Vidua (7 sp.). Tropical and South Africa (Plate V., Vol. I., p. 264) ; (^^'^ - ^^^O Coliuspasser (9 sp.). Tropical and South Africa ; Chera (1 sp.), South Africa ; Spermospiza (2 sp.). West Africa ; Pyrenestes (6 sp.). Tropical and South Africa ; (^^^ - ^^'^ ^^sg i692 i693 leos) Estrilda (26 sp.). Tropical and South Africa, India, Burmah, and Java to Australia ; (^^^ ^^^ CHAP, xviii.] BIRDS. 287 16911695 1696) Pytelia (24 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; (^e^*) Hypargos (2 sp.), Mozambique and Madagascar ; Q-^^"^) EmUema .(1 sp.), North-west Australia Q^"^^ ^^^^ - i7i7) Amadina (15 sp.), Tropical and South Africa, Moluccas to Australia and the Samoa Islands ; (^^"'^ ^"^^^ ^''^*') Spermestes (8 sp.). Tropical Africa and Mada- gascar; {^'^^'^) Amauresthes (1 sp.), East and West Africa; Q^^^ 1-07 - 1709 1711) Munia (30 sp.). Oriental region to Timor and New Guinea; (i7<^*) Donacola{Z sp.), Australia; (^^^^ i706) PocpUla (6 sp.), Australia ; (^''^^ ~ '^'^^^) Erythrura (7 sp.), Sumatra to Java, Moluccas, Timor, New Guinea, and Fiji Islands; Q'^^'^) Rypochcra (3 sp.), Tropical and South Africa. Family 35.— STURNID^. (29 Genera, 124 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical I Nearctic SliB-REGIONS. SaB-REGIONS. Pal.earctic sub-kegi0n.s. Ethiopian I Oriental Sub-regions. Sub-rigions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4-1.2.3.4- 1 — 3.4 The Sturnidse, or Starlings, are a highly characteristic Old- World group, extending to every part of the great Eastern con- tinent and its islands, and over the Pacific Ocean to the Samoa Islands and New Zealand, yet wholly absent from the mainland of Australia. The family appears to be tolerably well-defined, and the following genera are generally considered to belong to it : (^1.558 1559 1562) Eulalcs (13 sp.), the Oriental region to South-west China, Hainan, and Java, — and Flores, New Guinea and the Solo- mon Islands in the Australian region ; Ampeliceps (1 sp.), Tenas- serim, Burmah, and Cochin China; Gymnops (1 sp.), Philippine Islands; Basilornis (2 sp.), Celebes and Ceram; Pastor (1 sp.), South-east Europe to India, Ceylon, and Burmah ; Acridotheres (7 sp.), the whole Oriental region and Celebes ; (^^^ ^^^^) Sturnia (12 sp.), the whole Oriental region. North China, Japan, and Sib'eria, Celebes ; Dilophus (1 sp.) South Africa ; Sturnus (6 sp.), Palsearctic region, to India and South China in winter ; Shirno- pastor (4 sp.), India to Burmah and East Java ; Creadion (2 sp.) New Zealand ; Heterolocha (1 sp.). New Zealand ; (^^^o) Callceas 288 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PABT IV. (2 sp.), New Zealand ; Baplmga (2 sp.), Tropical and South Africa ; Euryceros (1 sp.), Madagascar (see Plate VI., Vol. I., p. 278.) This genus and the last should perhaps form distinct families. (^^") Juida (5 sp.). Central, West, and South Africa ; ( 578) Zamprocolius (20 sp.), Tropical and South Africa ; Cinni/- ricinclus (2 sp.), Tropical and South Africa ; Onychognathus (2 sp.). West Africa ; {^^^^) Spreo (4 sp.). Tropical and South Africa ; (^1582 - 1585) jimydrus (7 sp.). South and East Africa, Palestine ; Aplonis (9 sp.). New Caledonia to the Tonga Islands ; (^^^^ - ^^^^) Calornis (18 sp.), the whole Malay Archipelago and eastward to the Ladrone and Samoa Islands ; {^^^^) Enodcs (1 sp.), Celebes ; Scissirostrum (1 sp.), Celebes ; (}^^^) Saroglossa (1 sp.), Hima- layas ; (}^^^) HartlauUus (1 sp.), Madagascar ; Fregilupus (1 sp.), Bourbon, but it has recently become extinct ; {^^^) Falmlia (1 sp)., Madagascar. Family 36.— APtTAMID^. (1 Genus, 17 Species.) General Distribution, Neotropical Nearctic Pal^arctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. ? 1.2.3.4 1.2 .3 — The Artamidse, or Swallow-shrikes, are a curious group of birds, ranging over the greater part of the Oriental and Austra- lian regions as far east as the Fiji Islands and south to Tasmania. Only a single species inhabits India, and they are more plentiful in Australia than in any other locality. The only well-marked genus is Artamus. There are a few Madagascar birds belonging to the genus Artamia, which some ornithologists place in this family, others with the Laniidse, but which are here classed with the Oriolidse. CHAP. XVIII,] BIRDS. 289 Family 37.— ALAUDID^. (15 Genera, 110 Species.) Geneeal Distribution. Neotropical scb-reoions. Neabctic Sub-regions. Pal^abotic sub-begions. Ethiopian sub-begions. Oriental Sdb-reoions. Acstbalian Sub-regions. -2.3- - 2.3.4 1 .2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2 The Alaudidse, or Larks, may be considered as exclusively belonging to the great Eastern continent, .since the Nearctic, Neotropical, and Australian regions have each only a single species. They abound most in the open plains and deserts of Africa and Asia, and are especially numerous in South Africa. The genera, including those recently established by Mr. Sharpe, are as follows : — Otocorijs (8 sp.) ; the Palsearctic region, North America and south to the Andes of Columbia, North India; (i^^a i929) Alauda (17 sp.), Palsearctic region, all Africa, the Peninsula of India, and Ceylon ; (^^^i) Oalerita (10 sp.). Central Europe to Senegal and Abyssinia, Persia, India and North China ; (}^^^) Calendula (2 sp.), Abyssinia and South Africa ; Q-^^^ i^^) Calandrella (6 sp.), Europe, North Africa, India, Burmah, North China, and Mon- golia ; (192^ - ^^^^) Melanoconjpha (7 sp.), South Europe to Tartary, Abyssinia, and North-west India ; Pallasia ( =p- "^i). East Asia ; (1938) Certhilauda (4sp.), South Europe, South Africa ; Heterocorys (sp. 7792) South Africa; Q^^^) Alcemon (3 sp.), South-east Europe to Western India, and South Africa ; (i^*'^) Mimfra (25 sp.), the Oriental and Ethiopian regions to Australia ; (i^") Ammomanes (10 sp.), South Europe to Palestine and Central India, and to Cape Verd Islands and South Africa ; (^9*2 w^s) Megalophonus (6 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; Tephrocorys (1 sp.). South Africa ; Pyrrhulaiida (9 sp.), all Africa, Canary Islands, India and Ceylon. 290 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. Family 38.— MOTACILLID^. (9 Genera, 80 Species.) General D ISTRIBUTION. Neotropical sub-reoions; Nearctic sub-reoions. PaL/EARCTIC Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sdb-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australia sub-regio 1 .2.3 .4 1 .2 .3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.- The Motacillidge, or Wagtails and Pipits, are universally dis- tributed, but are most abundant in the Palsearctic, Ethiopian, and Oriental regions, to which the true wagtails are almost con- fined. The following genera are usually adopted, but some of them are not very well defined : — Motacilla (15 sp.), ranges over the greater part of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and to Alaska in North-west America ; Budytes (10 sp.), Europe, Africa, Asia to Philippines, Moluccas, Timor, and North Australia; Calohates (3 sp.). South Paleearctic and Oriental regions to Java ; Nemoricola (1 sp.), Oriental region ; Anthus (30 sp.), all the great continents ; Neocorys (1 sp.). Cen- tral North America; Coryddlla (14 sp.), South Europe to India, China, the Malay Islands, Australia, New Zealand and the Auck- land Islands : Macronyx (5 sp.). Tropical and South Africa ; Hcterura (1 sp.), Himalayas. Family 39.— TYRANNID^. (71 Genera, 329 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sttb-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Oriental Sub-regions. SuB-REnioNs. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 ---- The Tyrannidse, or Tyrant Shrikes, form one of the most ex- tensive and truly characteristic American families of birds ; as they extend over the whole continent from Patagonia to the Arctic regions, and are found also in all the chief American islands — the Antilles, the Galapagos, the Falkland Islands, and CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 291 Juan Fernandez. As the genera are all enumerated in the table, at p. 101 of this volume, I shall here confine myself to the dis- tribution of the sub-families, only referring to such genera as are of special geographical interest. Sub-family I. Conophagin^ (2 genera, 13 species). Confined to tropical South America, from Brazil and Bolivia to Guiana and Columbia. Sub-family II. T^niopterin^ (19 genera, 76 species). This group ranges from Patagonia and the Falkland Islands to the northern United States ; yet it is almost wholly South American, only 2 genera and 4 species passing north of Panama, and none inhabiting the West Indian islands. Sayornis has 3 species in North America, while Tcenioptera, Gnipolegus, Muscisaxicola, and Centrites, range south to Patagonia. Sub-family III. Platyehynichin^ (16 genera, 60 species). This sub-family is wholly Neotropical and mostly South American, only 7 of the genera passing Panama and but 3 reaching Mexico, while there are none in the West Indian islands. Only 3 genera extend south to the temperate sub-region, and one of these, Anccretes, has a species in Juan Fernandez. Sub-family IV. Elainein^ (17 genera, 91 species). This sub- family is more exclusively tropical, only two genera extending south as far as Chili and La Plata, while none enter the Nearctic region. No less than 10 of the genera pass north of Panama, and one of these, Elainea, which ranges from Chili to Costa Pica has several species in the West Indian islands. About one fourth of the species of this sub-family are found north of Panama. Sub-family V. Tyeannin^ (17 genera, 89 species). This sub- family is that which is best represented in the Nearctic region, where 6 genera and 24 species occur. Milvulus reaches Texas ; Tyrannus and Myiarchus range over all the United States ; Empidias^ the Eastern States and California ; Contopus extends to Canada ; Empidonax ranges all over North America ; and Pyrocephalus reaches the Gila Valley as well as the Galapagos Islands. No less than 5 genera of this sub-family occur in the West Indian islands. 292 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. Family 39rt.— OXYRHAMPHID^. (1 Genus, 2 Species.) General Distbibution. Neotbopical sub-rbgions. Nearctic Pal^arctic Ethiopian Sub-regions. Sub-kegions. Sub-eegions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions - 2.3 - The genus OxyrJiamphus (2 sp.) which ranges from Brazil to Costa Eica, has usually been placed in the Dendrocolaptidse ; but Messrs Sclater and Salvin consider it to be the type of a distinct family group, most allied to the Tyrannidse. Family 40.— PIPEID^. (15 Genera, 60 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic sub-hegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental sub-kegions. Australian Sub-regions -2.3- 1 1 The Pipridse, or Manakins, have generally been associated with the next family, and they have a very similar distribution. The great majority of the genera and species are found in the equatorial regions of South America, only 9 species belonging to 5 genera ranging north of Panama, while 2 or 3 species ex- tend to the southern limit of the tropical forests in Paraguay and Brazil. The genera which go north of Panama are Piprites, Pipra, Gliiroxiphia, CJiiromacJiceris, and Hetoropelma. Pvprct is the largest genus, containing 19 species, and having representa- tives throughout the whole range of the family. As in all the more extensive families peculiar to the Neotropical region, the distribution of the genera will be found in the tables appended to the chapter on the Neotropical region in the Third Part of this work. (Vol. II. p. 103). oaAP. xviii.] BIRDS. 293 Family 41 .— COTINGID/E. (28 Genera, 93 Species.) General Distribution. Neotbopical Sub-regions. Neakctic sub-kegions. Pal^arctic sub-kegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. -2.3.4 j j The Cotingidae, or Chatterers, comprise some of the most beautiful and some of the most remarkable of American birds, for such we must consider the azure and purple Cotingas, the wine-coloured white-winged Pompadour, the snowy carunculated Bell-birds, the orange-coloured Cocks-of-the-Eock, and the mar- vellously-plumed Umbrella-birds, (Plate XV. Vol. II. p. 28). The Cotingidse are also one of the most pre-eminently Neotropical of all the Neotropical families, the great mass of the genera and species being concentrated in and around the vast equatorial forest region of the Amazon. Only 13 species extend north of Panama, one to the Antilles, and not more than 20 are found to the south of the Amazon Valley. Messrs. Sclater and Salvin divide the family into six sub-families, the distribution of which will be briefly indicated. Sub-family I. Titykin^ (3 genera, 22 species). Eanges from Brazil to Mexico, one species of Hadrostomus inhabiting Jamaica. Sub-family II. LiPAUGiK.^ (4 genera, 14 species) also ranges from Brazil to Mexico ; one genus (Ptilochloris) is confined to Brazil. Sub-family III. Attalin^e (2 genera, 10 species). Eanges from Paraguay to Costa Eica ; one genus {Casiornis) is confined to South Brazil and Paraguay. Sub-family IV. Eupicolin.^ (2 genera, 5 species). This sub- family is restricted to the Amazonian region and Guiana, with one species extending along the Andean valleys to Bolivia. The genera are Rupicola (3 species) and Phmnicocercus (2 species). Sub-family V. Cotingin^ (10 genera, 28 species). Eanges from Southern Brazil and Bolivia to Nicaragua ; only two species 294 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. (belonging to the genera Carpodectes and Cotinga) are found north of Panama, and there are none in the West Indian islands. The great majority of these, the true Chatterers, are from the regions about the Equator. Sub-family VI. GiMNODERiNiE (7 genera, 14 species). Ranges from Brazil to Costa Eica ; two species, of the genera Chasmor- hynchus and Cephalopterus, are found north of Panama, while there are none in the West Indian islands. Only 2 species are found south of the Amazon valley. Family 42.— PHYTOTOMID^. (1 Genus, 3 Species.^ General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Neabctic sub-beoions. PAL.EARCTIC SUB-KEGIONS. Ethiopian | Oriental | Australian Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sufi-BEaioMS. The Phytotomidse, or Plant-cutters, are singular thick-billed birds, strictly confined to the temperate regions of South America. The single genus, Phytotoma, is found in Chili, La Plata, and Bolivia. Their afiinities are uncertain, but they are believed to be allied to the series of families with which they are here associated. (Plate XVI. Vol. II. p. 128). Family 43.— EURYL.^MTD^. (6 Genera, 9 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-begions. Nearctic Sub-regions. pal.earctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions, Australian Sub-regions 3,4-1 — The Eurylsemidae, or Broad-bills, form a very small family of birds, often adorned with striking colours, and which have their nearest allies in the South American Cotingidse. They have a very limited distribution, from the lower slopes of the Himalayas through Burmah and Siam, to Sumatra, Borneo, and Java. They are evidently the remains of a once extensive group, and from the small number of specific forms remaining, seem to be on CHAP, xviii.] BIRDS. 295 the road to extinction. Thus we may understand their isolated geographical position. The following are the names and dis- tribution of the genera : — JEurylcemus (2 species j, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, and Borneo; Corydm (1 species), Malacca, Sumatra and Borneo (Plate IX. Vol. I. p. 339) ; Psarisomus (1 species), Himalayas to Burmah, up to 6,000 feet ; Serilophus (2 species), Nepal to Tenas- serim ; Gymbirhynchus (2 species), Siam to Sumatra and Borneo ; Calyptomena (1 species), Penang to Sumatra and Borneo. Family 44.— DENDROCOLAPTID^. (43 Genera, 217 Species.) General Distribution. Xtotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. PaL/EARCTIC Sub-regions. Ethiopian sub-rkgions. Oriental sob-reoions. Australian sub-regions. 1.2.3- -- The Dendrocolaptidse, or American Creepers, are curious brown-coloured birds with more or less rigid tail feathers, strictly confined to the continental Neotropical region, and very numerous in its south-temperate extremity. They are divided by Messrs. Sclater and Salvin into five sub-families, to which I shall con- fine my remarks on their distribution. The details of the numerous genera, being only interesting to specialists, will be given in the table of genera of the Neotropical region. No less than 13 of the genera are confined to South-Temperate America and the High Andes ; 14 are restricted to Tropical South America, while not one is peculiar to Tropical North America, and only 15 of the 43 genera extend into that sub-region, showing that this is one of the pre-eminently South American groups. Sub-family I. Puenariin^ (8 genera, 30 species), Eanges over all South America, 4 genera and 18 species being restricted to the temperate sub-region; one species is found in the Falkland Islands. Sub-family 11. Sclerurin^ (1 genus, 6 species). Brazil to Guiana, Columbia, and north to Mexico. Sub-family III. Synall^vxin^ (12 genera, 78 species). Eanges from Patagonia to Mexico ; 7 genera and 28 species are confined Vol. II.— 20 296 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. Tpart IV. to the temperate sub-region ; species occur in the islands of Mas-a-fuera, Trinidad, and Tobago. Sub-family IV. Philydokin^ (6 genera, 35 species). Con- fined to Tropical America from Brazil to Mexico ; 4 genera and 8 species occur in Tropical North America. Sub-family V. Dendkocolaptin^ (14 genera, 59 species). Eanges from Chili and La Plata to Mexico; only 3 species occur in the South Temperate sub-region, while 9 of the genera extend into Tropical North America. Two of the continental species occur in the island of Tobago, which, together with Trinidad, forms part of the South American rather than of the true Antillean sub-region. Family 45.— FORMICAEIID^. (32 Genera, 211 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical sob-reoions. Nearctic scb-reoions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. -2.3- The Formicariidse, comprising the Bush-Shrikes and Ant- thrushes, form one of the most exclusively Neotropical families ; and the numerous species are rigidly confined to the warm and wooded districts, only a single species extending to La Plata, and none to the Antilles or to the Nearctic region. Less than 30 species are found north of Panama. Messrs. Sclater and Salvin divide the group into three sub-families, whose distribution may be conveniently treated, as in the Den- drocolaptidae, without enumerating the genera. Sub-family I. Thamnophilin.^. — (10 genera, 70 species.) One species of Thamnopliilus inhabits La Plata ; only 3 genera and 12 species are found north of Panama, the species of this sub-family being especially abundant in the Equatorial forest districts. Sub-family II. Pormicivorinje. — (14 genera, 95 species.) Only 8 species occur north of Panama, and less than one-third of the species belong to the districts south of the Equator. CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 297 Sub-family III. Formicaeiinje. — (8 genera, 46 species.) About 12 species occur north of Panama, and only 5 south of the Equa- torial district. It appears, therefore, that this extensive family is especially characteristic of that part of South America from the Amazon vaUey northwards. Family 46.— PTEROPTOCHID^. (8 Genera, 19 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic sub-kegions. Pal^akctic sob-keoions. Ethiopian sub-reoionb. Oriental Sdb-reoions. Australian Sub-regions. 1 The Pteroptochidse are a group of curious Wren-like birds, almost confined to the temperate regions of South America, extending along the Andes beyond the Equator, and with a few species in South-east Brazil, and one in the valley of the Madeu-a. The genera are as follows : — Scytalopus (8 sp.), Chili and West Patagonia to the Andes of Columbia ; Merulaxis (1 sp.). South-east Brazil ; Bhinocrypta (2 sp.). Northern Patagonia and La Plata ; Lioscelis (1 sp.), Madeira valley ; Pteroptochus (2 sp.). Chili ; Hylactes (3 sp.), Western Patagonia and ChUi; Acropternis (1 sp.), Andes of Ecuador and Columbia ; Triptorhinus (1 sp.). Chili. Family 47.— PITTID^. (4 Genera, 40 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical scb-begions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. 4 Ethiopian Sub-regions. 2 — Oriental Sub-regions. 1.2.3.4 Acstraliak sub-reoions. 1.2 The Pittas comprise a number of beautifully-coloured Thrush- like birds, which, although confined to the Old World, are more nearly allied to the South American Pteroptochidse than to any other family. They are most abundant in the Malay Archipelago, 298 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. between the Oriental and Australian divisions of which they are pretty equally divided. They seem, however, to attain their maximum of beauty and variety in the large islands of Borneo and Sumatra ; from whence they diminish in numbers in every direction till we find single species only in North China, West Africa, and Australia, The genera here adopted are the following : — (1087 1088 1090 1092 1093) p^^^ (33 sp.), has the range of the family; Q^^^) Hydrornis (3 sp.), Himalayas and Malaya; EucicUa (3 sp.), Malaya; Melampitta (1 sp.), recently discovered in New Guinea. Family 48.— PAICTID^. (1 Genus, 2 Species.) General Distribution. Nkotropicai- 8UB-RKOIONfl. Nexrctic sub-reoioms. Pal^akotic SUB-HEQIOMS. Ethiopian sub-reoion3. Oriental sub-reoions. Australian SCB-BEOIONS. i A \ 1 1 This family was established by Professor Sundevall, for an anomalous bird of Madagascar, which he believes to have some affinity for the American Pormicariidse, but which perhaps comes best near the Pittas. The only genus is Fhilepitta, con- taining two species. Family 49.— MENTJPtlD^. (1 Genus, 2 Species.) General Distribution, Neotropical sx'b-reoions. Nearctic sob-beoions. Pal^arctic Ethiopian Sub-regions. Sub-beqionb. Oriental Sdb-beoions. Australian Sub-regions. — 2 — The Menuridse, or Lyre Birds, remarkable for the extreme elegance of the lyre-shaped tail in the species first discovered, are birds of a very anomalous structure, and have no near afiinity to any other family. Two species of Menura are known, con- fined to South and East Australia (Plate XII. Vol. I. p. 44U. CHAP. XVIII.l BIRDS. 299 Family 50.— ATRICHIID^. (1 Genus, 2 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical sub-reoions. Neabctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1 2 1 The genus Atrichia, or Scrub-birds of Australia, have been formed into a separate family by Professor Newton, on account of peculiarities in the skeleton which separate them from all other Passeres. Only two species are known, inhabiting East and "West Australia respectively. They are very noisy, brown- coloured birds, and have been usually classed with the warblers, near Amytis and other Australian species. General remarks on the distribution of the Passeres. The order Passeres, is the most extensive among birds, comprehending about 5,700 species grouped in 870 genera, and 51 families. The distribution of the genera, and of the families considered individually, has been already sufficiently given, and we now have to consider the peculiarities of dis- tribution of the families collectively, and in their relations to each other, as representing well-marked types of bird-structure. The first thing to be noted is, how very few of these families are truly cosmopolitan ; for although there are seven which are found in each of the great regions, yet few of these are widely distributed throughout all the regions, and we can only find three that inhabit every sub-region, and are distri- buted with tolerable uniformity; these are the Hirundinidse, or swallows, the Motacillidse or wagtails and pipits, and the Corvidae or crows, — but the latter is a family of so hetero- geneous a nature, that it possibly contains the materials of several natural families, and if so divided, the parts would probably all cease to be cosmopolitan. The Sylviidse, the 300 GEOGEAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. Turdidge, aud the Paridae, are the only other families that ap- proach universality of distribution, and all these are want- ing in one or more sub-regions. If, now, we divide the globe into the New and the Old World, the former including the whole American continent, the latter all the rest of the earth, we find that the Old World possesses exclusively 23 families, the New World exclusively 14, of which 5 are common to North and South America. But if we take the division proposed by Professor Huxley — a northern world, comprising our first four regions (from Nearctic to Oriental), and a southern world comprising our last two regions (the Australian and Neotropical) — we find that the northern division possesses only 5 families exclusively, and the southern division 13 exclusively, of which not one is common to Australia and South America. This plainly indicates that, as far as the Passeres are concerned, the latter bipartite division is not so natural as the former. Again, if we compare temperate with tropical families (not too rigidly, but as regards their general character), we find in the northern hemisphere only two families that have the character of being typically temperate — the Cinclidse, and in a less degree the Ampelidse— both of small extent. In the southern hemi- spliere we have also two, the Phytotomidse, and in a less degree, the Pteroptochidse ; making two wholly and two mainly tem- perate families. Of exclusively tropical families on the other hand, we have about 12, and several others that are mainly tropical. The several regions do not differ greatly in the number of families found in each. The Nearctic has 19, the Palsearctic 21, the Ethiopian 23, the Oriental 28, the Australian 29, and the Neotropical 23. But many of these families are only represented by a few species, or in limited districts ; and if we count only those families which are tolerably well represented, and help to form the ornithological character of the region, the richness of the several tropical regions wUl appear to be (as it really is) com- paratively much greater. The families that are confined to single regions are not very numerous, except in the case of the Neotropical region, which has 5. The Australian has only CHAP, xviii.] BIRDS. 301 3, the Oriental 1, the Ethiopian 1, and the other regions have no peculiar families. The distribution of the Passeres may be advantageously considered as divided into the five series of Turdoid, Tanagroid, Sturnoid, Formicarioid, and Anomalous Passeres. The Turdoid Passeres, consisting of the first 23 families, are especially characteristic of the Old World, none being found exclusively in America, and only two or three being at all abundant there. The Tanagroid Passeres (Families 24-33) are very characteristic of the New World, five being confined to it, and three others being quite as abundant there as in the Old World ; while there is not a single exclusively Old World family in the series, except the Drepanididse confined to the Sandwich Islands. The Sturnoid Passeres (Families 34-38) are all exclusively Old World, except that two larks inhabit parts of North America, and a few pipits South America. The Formicarioid Passeres (Families 39-48) are strikingly characteristic of the New World, to which seven of the families exclusively belong; the two Old World groups being small, and with a very restricted distribution. The Anomalous Passeres (Families 49-50) are confined to Australia. The most remarkable feature in the geographical distribution of the Passeres is the richness of the American continent, and the large development of characteristic types that occurs there. The fact that America possesses 14 altogether peculiar families, while no less than 23 Old- World families are entirely absent from it, plainly indicates, that, if this division does not represent the most ancient and radical separation of the land surface of the globe, it must still be one of very great antiquity, and have modified in a very marked way the distribution of all living things. Not less remarkable is the richness in specific forms of the 13 peculiar American families. These contain no less than 1,570 species, leaving only about 500 American species in the 13 other Passerine families represented in the New World. If we make a deduction for those Nearctic species which occur only north of Panama, we may estimate the truly Neotropical species of Passerine birds at 1,900, which is almost exactly 302 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [pabt iv. one-third of the total number of Passeres ; a wonderful illus- tration of the Ornithological riches of South America. Order II.—PICABI^. Family 51.— PICID^. (36 Genera, 320 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sdb-begions. 1 .a.3 .4 Nearctic sub-reqions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3.4 :i. 2. 3. 3 1.2.3 — 11.2.3.4 1 The Woodpeckers are very widely distributed, being only absent from the Australian region beyond Celebes and Plores. They are most abundant in the Neotropical and Oriental regions, both of which possess a number of peculiar genera ; while the other regions possess few or no peculiar forms, even the Ethiopian Iregion having only three genera not found elsewhere. The soft- tailed 'Picunminse inhabit the tropical regions only, Picumnus being Neotropical, Vivia and Sasia Oriental, and Verreauxia Ethiopian. Picoides, or Apternns, is an Arctic form peculiar to the Nearctic and Palsearctic regions. Celeus, Chrysoptilus, Chloro- nerpes, and some smaller genera, are Neotropical exclusively, and there are two peculiar forms in Cuba. Yungipicus, Chryso- colaptes, Hemicerciis, Mulleripicus, Brachyptcrnus, Tiga, and Micropiernus, are the most important of the peculiar Oriental genera. Dendropicus and Geocolaptes are Ethiopian ; but there are no woodpeckers in Madagascar. The Palsearctic woodpeckers belong to the genera Picus — which is widely distributed, Gecinus — which is an Oriental form, and Dryocopus — which is South American. Except Ptcoit^es, the Nearctic woodpeckers are mostly of Neotropical genera ; but Sphyrapicus a.nd Hylatomus are peculiar. The geological record is, as yet, almost silent as to this family ; but remains doubtfully referred to it have been found in the Miocene of Europe and the Eocene of the United States. Yet the group is evidently one of very high antiquity, as is shown by CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 303 its extreme isolation, its great specialization of structure, its abundant generic forms, and its wide distribution. It originated, probably, in Central Asia, and passed through the Nearctic region to South America, in whose rich and varied forests it found the conditions for rapid development, and for the speciali- zation of the many generic forms now found there. A large number of genera have been established by various authors, but their limitations and affinities are not very well made out. Those which seem best established are the fol- lowing : — ^2107 — 2112^ Picumnus (22 sp.), Tropical South America to Hon- duras ; (2"3) Vivia (1 sp.), Himalayas to East Thibet; (^n*) Sasia (2 sp.), Nepal to Java ; (J^^^) Verreauxia (1 sp.), West Africa ; Picoides (5 sp.), northern parts of Nearctic and Palce- arctic regions, and Mountains of East Thibet; Picus (42 sp.), the whole Palsearctic, Oriental, Nearctic, and Neotropical regions ; ^2123^ ffyopicus (2 sp.), Himalayas and North China ; (2^^*) Yungi- picus (16 sp.). Oriental region, and to Flores, Celebes, North China, and Japan ; (^127 - 2129-) Sphyrajpicus (7 sp.), Nearctic re- gion, Mexico, and Bolivia ; (^^^^ ~ ^^^^ 2^^^) Campephihcs (14 sp.). Neotropical and Nearctic regions ; Hylatomus (1 sp.), Nearctic region; (^^^^ 2"°) Dryocopus (5 sp.), Mexico to South Brazil, Central and Northern Europe ; (2^^*) Reinwardtipicus (1 sp.), Penang to Borneo ; (^^^^ '^'^^) Venilia (2 sp.), Nepal to Borneo ; Chrysocolaptes (8 sp.), India and Indo-Malaya; Dendi^opicus (16 sp.). Tropical and South Africa ; Hemicercus (5 sp.), Malabar and Pegu to Malaya ; Gecinus (18 sp.), Palsearctic and Oriental re- gions to Java ; (^^^^ — ^ise^ Dendromus (15 sp.). West and South Africa, Zanzibar, and Abyssinia ; (^^^^ — 2^^^) Mulleripicus (6 sp.), Malabar, Pegu, Indo-Malaya, and Celebes ; Celeus (17 sp.), Para- guay to Mexico ; Nesoceleus ( ^p- ^^^^) Cuba ; (2^^^) Chrysoptilus (9 sp.). Chili and South Brazil to Mexico ; Brachypternus (5 sp.), India, Ceylon, and China ; (^i^s 2166) ^-^^ (5 gp )^ ^11 India to Malaya ; ("^^^) Gecinulus (2 sp.). South-east Himalayas to Bur- mah ; Centurus (13 sp.), Nearctic Eegion to Antilles and Vene- zuela ; Chloronerpes (35 sp.). Tropical America, Hayti ; (^I'^i) Xiphidiopicus (1 sp.), Cuba; Melanerpes (11 sp.), Brazil to 304 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. Canada, Porto Rico ; Zeuconerpes (1 sp.), Bolivia to North Brazil ; Colaptes (9 sp.), La Plata and Bolivia to Arctic America, Greater Antilles; Hypoxanthus (1 sp.), Venezuela and Ecuador; (2187) Qeocolaptes, (1 sp.). South Africa; Miglyptes (3 sp.), Malaya ; Micropternus (8 sp.), India and Ceylon to South China, Sumatra and Borneo. Family 52.— YUNGID.E. (1 Genus, 5 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical SfB-RECIIONS. Nearctic sub-begions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. El^IOPIAN Sub-regions. Oriental I Australian Sub-reoions. Sub-regions. 3- 1 I 1.2.3.4 The Wrynecks (Yunx), which constitute this family, are small tree-creeping birds characteristic of the Palsearctic region, but extending into North and East Africa, over the greater part of the peninsula of India (but not to Ceylon), and just reaching the lower ranges of the Himalayas. There is also one species isolated in South Africa. Family 53.— INDTCATOEID^. (1 Genus, 12 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-kegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-kegions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3- 3.4.1 The Honey-guides (Indicator) constitute a small family of doubtful affinities ; perhaps most nearly allied to the wood- peckers and barbets. They catch bees and sometimes kill smaU birds ; and some of the species are parasitical like the cuckoo. Their distribution is very interesting, as they are found in every part of the Ethiopian region, except Madagascar, and in the Oriental region only in Sikhini and Borneo, being absent from the peninsula of India which is nearest, both geographically and zoologically, to Africa. CHAP. XVIII,] BIRDS. 305 Family 54.— MEGAL^MID^. (13 Genera, 81 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical I Nearctic StJB-REGIONS. SdB-REOIONS. Pal^arctic sub-reoions. Ethiopian scb-reoions. Oriental SUB-RBGlONa. Australian sub-rrgions. - 2.3 — ■— 1.2.3—1.2.3.4. The Megalsemidse, or Barbets, consist of rather small, fruit- eating birds, of heavy ungraceful shape, but adorned with the most gaudy colours, especially about the head and neck. They form a very isolated family ; their nearest allies being, perhaps, the stUl more isolated Toucans of South America. Barbets are found in all the tropics except Australia, but are especially characteristic of the great Equatorial forest-zone ; all the most remarkable forms being confined to Equatorial America, West Africa, and the Indo-Malay Islands. They are most abundant in the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, and in the latter are universally distributed. In the beautiful monograph of this family by the Messrs. Marshall, the barbets are divided into three sub -families, as follows : — Pogonorhynchinae (3 genera, 15 sp.), which are Ethiopian except the 2 species of Tetragonops, which are Neotropical ; Megalseminse (6 genera, 45 sp.), which are Oriental and Ethio- pian ; and Capitoninse (4 genera, 18 sp.), common to the three regions. The genera are each confined to a single region. Africa possesses the largest number of peculiar forms, while the Oriental region is richest in species. This is probably a very ancient group, and its existing dis- tribution may be due to its former range over the Miocene South Palaearctic land, which we know possessed Trogons, Parrots, Apes, and Tapirs, groups which are now equally abundant in Equatorial countries. 306 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. The following is a tabular view of the genera with their distribution : — Genera POGONOBHTNCHINiB. Tricholsema ... 1 sp. Pogonorhynchus 12 ,, Tetragonops ... 2 ,, MEGAL.S!MIN.a!. Megalaema ... 29 ,, Xanthol?ema ... 4 ,, Xylobucco ... 2 ,, Barbatula ... 9 ,, Psilopogon ... 1 ,, Gymnobucco ... 2 ,, CAPITONIN.E. Trachyphonus... 5 ,, Capito 10 ,, Calorhamphus... 2 ,, Stactolaema ... 1 ,, Ethiopian Region. W. Africa AU Trop. & S. Af. W, Africa Trop. & S. Africa W. Africa Trop. & S. Africa W. Africa Oriental Region. The whole region The whole region Sumatra Malay Pen., Su- matra, Borneo Neotropical Region. Peru & Costa Rica Equatorial Amer. to Costa Rica Family 55.— EHAMPHASTID^. (5 Genera, 51 Species.) General Distkibution. Neotropical Nearctic PALiEARCTic Ethiopian I Oriental I Aostralian Sub-regions. Sctb-reoions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-kkoions. — 2.3- The Toucans form one of the most remarkable and charac- teristic families of the Neotropical region, to which they are strictly confined. They differ from all other birds by their long feathered tongues, their huge yet elegant bills, and the peculiar texture and coloration of their plumage. Being fruit-eaters, and strictly adapted for an arboreal life, they are not found beyond the forest regions ; but they nevertheless range from Mexico to Paraguay, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific. One genus. CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 307 Andigena, is confined to the forest slopes of the South American Andes. The genera are : — • • Bhamjphastos (12 sp.), Mexico to South Brazil; Pteroylosms (16 sp.), Nicaragua to South Brazil (Plate XV. Vol. II. p. 28) ; Selenidera (7 sp.), Veragua to Brazil, east of the Andes ; Andi- gena (6 sp.), the Andes, from Columbia to Bolivia, and West Brazil ; Aulacorhaw.jphus (10 sp.), Mexico to Peru and Bolivia. Family 56.— MUSOPHAGID^. (2 Genera, 18 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Nearctic Pal/Earctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian SuB-REoiONS. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. 1 .22.3 — The Musophagidse, or Plantain-eaters and Turacos, are hand- some birds, somewhat intermediate between Toucans and Cuc- koos. They are confined to the Ethiopian region and are most abundant in West Africa. The Plantain eaters (Musophaga, 2 sp.), are confined to West Africa; the Turacos {Turacus, 16 sp., including the sub-genera CorythaAx and Schizorhis) range over aU Africa from Abyssinia to the Cape (Plate V. Vol. I. p. 264). Family 57.— COLIID^. (1 Genus, 7 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^earctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3— The Colies, consisting of the single genus Colius, are an anomalous group of small finch-like birds, occuping a position between the Picarise and Passeres, but of very doubtful affinities. Their range is nearly identical with that of the Musophagidse, but they are most abundant in South and East Africa. 308 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. Family 58.— CUCULID^. (35 Genera, 180 Species.) Generai, Distribution. Neotropical sub-kegions. Neabctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic sub-keoions. Ethiopian SOB-REOIONS. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian sub-eeoions, 1.2.3.4 1.2.3 — 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 The Cuculidoe, of which our well-known Cuckoo is one of the most widely distributed types, are essentially a tropical group of weak insectivorous birds, abounding in varied forms in all the warmer parts of the globe, but very scarce or only appearing as migrants in the temperate and colder zones. Many of the smaller Eastern species are adorned with the most intense golden or violet metallic lustre, while some of the larger forms have gaily-coloured bills or bare patches of bright red on the cheeks. Many of the cuckoos of the Eastern Hemisphere are parasitic, laying their eggs in other birds' nests ; and they are also remarkable for the manner in which they resemble other birds, as hawks, pheasants, or drongo-shrikes. The distribution of the Cuckoo family is rather remarkable. They abound most in the Oriental region, which produces no less than 18 genera, of wliich 11 are peculiar ; the Australian has 8, most of which are also Ori- ental, but 3 are peculiar, one of these being confined to Celebes and closely allied to an Oriental group ; the Ethiopian region has only 7 genera, all of which are Oriental but three, 2 of these being peculiar to Madagascar, and the other common to Madagascar and Africa. America has 11 genera, all quite distinct from those of the Eastern Hemisphere, and only three enter the Nearctic region, one species extending to Canada. Kemembering our conclusions as to the early history of the several regions, these facts enable us to indicate, with consider- able probability, the origin and mode of dispersal of the cuckoos. They were almost certainly developed in the Oriental and Palse- arctic regions, but reached the Neotropical at a very early date, where they have since been completely isolated. Africa must have long remained without cuckoos, the earliest immigration CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 309 being to Madagascar at the time of the approximation of that sub-region to Ceylon and Malaya. A later infusion of Oriental forms took place probably by way of Arabia and Persia, when those countries were more fertile and perhaps more ex- tensive. Australia has also received its cuckoos at a somewhat late date, a few having reached the Austro- Malay Islands some- what earlier. The classification of the family is somewhat unsettled. For the American genera I follow Messrs. Sclater and Salvin ; and, for those of the Old World, Mr. Sharpe's suggestive paper in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society, 1873, p. 600. The following is the distribution of the various genera : — ^2195^ PJicenicophdes (1 sp.), Ceylon ; (^^^) Bhamphococcyx (1 sp.), Celebes; (^i^) Rhinococcyx (1 sp.), Java; (2i96pt- and 2203) Bhopodytes (6 sp.), Himalayas to Ceylon, Hainan, and Malaya ; ^2203 pt. -J PQliococcyx (1 sp.), Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo; (^^^^) Dasylophus (1 sp.), Philippine Islands ; (^^^^) Lepidogrammus (1 sp.), Philippine Islands ; P''^) Zanclostomus (1 sp.), Malaya ; (2201) Ceuthmochares (2 sp.). Tropical and South Africa and Madagascar ; (2202) Taccocua (4 sp.), Himalayas to Ceylon and Malacca ; (^^o*) Bhinortha (1 sp.), Malacca, Sumatra, Borneo ; (2199) Carpococcyx (1 sp.), Borneo and Sumatra ; {^^^'^) Neomoiphus (4 sp.), Brazil to Mexico ; (^^os 2206) ^^^^ (iq sp.), Madagascar; (2207) Cochlothraustes (1 sp.), Madagascar; (^221) Centropus (35 ^p.), Tropical and South Africa, the whole Oriental region, Austro-Malaya and Australia ; {^^^^) Crotophaga (3 sp.), Brazil to Antilles and Pennsylvania ; (^212) Quira (1 sp.), Brazil and Paraguay ; (^^o^) Geococcyx (2 sp.), Guatemala to Texas and Cali- fornia; {^^^^)I)romococcyx(2 sp.), Brazil to Mexico; (^^^^) Diplopterus (1 sp.), Mexico to Ecuador and Brazil ; (^^os) Saurothera (4 sp.). Greater Antilles ; (^^i^) Hyetornis (2 sp.), Jamaica and Hayti ; (2215) Piaya (3 sp.), Mexico to West Ecuador and Brazil ; (2218) Morococcyx (1 sp.), Costa Pica to Mexico ; (221*) Goccygus (10 sp.), La Plata to Antilles, Mexico and Pennsylvania, Cocos Island ; (2227) Cuculiis (22 sp.), Palsearctic, Ethiopian, and Oriental regions, to Moluccas and Australia ; (222^) Caliecthrus (1 sp.), Papuan Islands ; (2230-2232^ Caeomantis (15 sp.), Oriental and Australian 310 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PABT IV. regions to Fiji Islands and Tasmania; (2233-2237^ Ghrysococcyx (16 sp.), Tropical and South Africa, the Oriental and Australian regions to New Zealand and Fiji Islands ; Q'^^) Surniculus (2 sp.), India, Ceylon, and Malaya ; (^^s^) Hierococcyx (7 sp.),the Oriental region to Amoorland and Celebes ; (^2*0 2241-) Coccystes (6 sp.), Tropical and South Africa,, the Oriental region, excluding Philip- pines; (2242) Eudynamis (8 sp.), the Oriental and Australian regions, excluding Sandwich Islands ; (^2*3) Scythrops (1 sp.). East Australia to Moluccas and North Celebes. Family 59.— LEPTOSOMIDtE. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical SfB-REOIONS. Nearctic sub-begions. Pal^earctic scb-begions. Ethiopian I Oriental SUB-BEOIONS. SUB-REOIONS. Australian Sub-regions. The Zeptosomus discolor, which constitutes this family, is a bird of very abnormal characters, having some affinities both with Cuckoos and Eollers. It is confined to Madagascar (Plate VI. Vol. T. p. 278). Family 60.— BUCCONID^. (5 Genera, 43 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical SI"B-REOIONS. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Orientai, Sub-regions. Scb-begions. Australian Sub-regions. - 2.3 - The Bucconidse, or Puff-birds, are generally of small size and dull colours, with rather thick bodies and dense plumage. They form one of the characteristic Neotropical families, being most abundant in the great Equatorial forest plains, but extending as far north as Guatemala, though absent from the West Indian Islands. The genera are : — Bucco (21 sp.), Guatemala to Paraguay, and West of the Andes in Ecuador; Malacoptila (10 sp.), Guatemala CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 311 to Bolivia and Brazil ; Nonnula (3 sp.), Amazon and Columbia ; Monasa (7 sp.), Costa Rica to Brazil; Chelidoptera (2 sp.), Colum- bia and Guiana to Brazil. Family 61.— GALBULID^. (6 Genera, 19 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical sub-begions. Neabctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic sub-hegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. -2.3- » :_ The Galbulidse, or Jacamars, are small slender birds, of gener- ally metallic plumage ; somewhat resembling in form the Bee- paters of the Old "World but less active. They have the same general distribution as the last family, but they do not occur west of the Equatorial Andes. The genera are : — Galhula (9 sp.), Guatemala to Brazil and Bolivia ; Urogalba (2 sp.), Guiana and the lower Amazon; Brachygalba (4 sp.),Venezuela to Brazil and Bolivia ; Jacamaralcyon (1 sp.), Brazil ; Jacamerops (2 sp.), Panama to the Amazon ; Galbalcyrhynchus (1 sp.), Upper Amazon. Family 62.— CORACIID^. (3 Genera, 19 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. PaL/EARCTIC Sub-kegions. Ethiopian Sub-begion.s. Oriental 1 Australian Sub-regions. | Sub-regions. 1 1 .2 . 3. 4 1.2.3.4 11.2.3.4 1.2 1 The Eollers are a family of insectivorous birds allied to the Bee-eaters, and are very characteiistic of the Ethiopian and Oriental regions ; but one species {Coracias garrula) spreads over the Palaearctic region as far north as Sweden and the Altai mountains, while the genus Eurystomus reaches the Amoor valley, Australia, and the Solomon Islands. The distribution ot the genera is as follows : — Coracias (8 sp.), the whole Ethiopian region, the Oriental Vol. II.— 21 312 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. region except Indo-Malaya, the Palaearctic to the above- named limits, and the island of Celebes on the confines of the Australian region ; Eurystomiis (8 sp.), West and East Africa and Madagascar, the whole Oriental region except the Peninsula of India, and the Australian as far as Australia and the Solomon Islands ; Brachyptcracias (possibly allied to Leptosomus ?) (4 sp.), Madagascar only, but these abnormal birds form a distinct sub-family, and according to Mr. Sharpe, three genera, Brachypteracias, Atelornis, and Geohiastes. A most remarkable feature in the distribution of this family is the occurrence of a true roller (Coracias temminckii) in the island of Celebes, entirely cut off from the rest of the genus, which does not occur again till we reach Siam and Burmah. The curious Fseudocheh'don from West Africa may perhaps belong to this family or to the Cypselidse. (Ibis. 1861, p. 321.) Family 63.— MEEOPID^. (5 Genera, 34 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sob-regions. N EARCTIC SUB-REG'OSS. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian I Oriental I Australian Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. — l.a 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2 The Meropidse, or Bee-eaters, have nearly the same distribution as the Pollers, but they do not penetrate quite so far either into the Eastern Palaearctic or the Australian regions. The distribu- tion of the genera is as follows : — Merops (21 sp.), has the range of the family extending on the north to South Scandinavia, and east to Australia and New Guinea ; Nyctiornis (3 sp.), the Oriental region, except Ceylon and Java ; Meropogon (1 sp.), Celebes ; Meropiscus (3 sp.), West Africa; Melittophagus (6 sp.), Ethiopian region, except Madagascar. CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 313 Family 64.— TODID^. (1 Genus, 5 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical sur-reoions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Abstraliak Sob-regions. 4 1 - 1 - 1 1 1 The Todies are delicate, bright-coloured, insectivorous birds, of small size, and allied to the Motmots, although externally more resembling flycatchers. They are wholly confined to the greater Antilles, the islands of Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica, and Porto Eico having each a peculiar species of Todus, while another species, said to be from Jamaica, has been recently described (Plate XVI. Vol. 11. p. 67). Family 65.— MOMOTID^. (6 Genera, 17 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. pal.barctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 2.3 The Motmots range from Mexico to Paraguay and to the west coast of Ecuador, but seem to have their head-quarters in Cen- tral America, five of the genera and eleven species occurring from Panama northwards, two of the genera not occurring in South America. The genera are as follows : — Momotus (10 sp.), Mexico to Brazil and Bolivia, one species extending to Tobago, and one to Western Ecuador ; Urospatha (1 sp.), Costa Pica to the Amazon ; BaryphtJungus (1 sp.), Brazil and Paraguay ; Hylomancs (2 sp.), Guatemala ; PrionirhynchiLS (2 sp.), Guatemala to Upper Amazon ; Eumomota (1 sp.), Hon- duras to Chiriqui. 314 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PAKT IV. Family 66.— TROGONID^. (7 Genera, 44 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical sub-kegions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic sub-kegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian SuB-RES(iIONS, -2.3.4 _ 1 .2.3 - 1 .2.3.4 The Trogons form a well-marked family of insectivorous forest-haunting birds, whose dense yet puffy plumage exhibits the most exquisite tints of pink, crimson, orange, brown, or tnetallic green, often relieved by delicate bands of pure white. In one Guatemalan species the tail coverts are enormously lengthened into waving plumes of rich metallic green, as grace- ful and marvellous as those of the Paradise-birds. Trogons are tolerably abundant in the Neotropical and Oriental regions, and are represented in Africa by a single species of a peculiar genus. The genera now generally admitted are the following : — Trogon (24 sp.), Paraguay to Mexico, and west of the Andes in Ecuador ; Temnotrogon (1 sp.), Hayti ; Prionotdes (1 sp.), Cuba (Plate XVII. Vol. II. p. 67) ; Apaloderma (2 sp.). Tropical and South Africa; Harpactes (10 sp.), the Oriental region, exclud- ing China ; Pharomacrus (5 sp.), Amazonia to Guatemala ; Euptilotis (1 sp.), Mexico. Remains of Trogon have been found in the Miocene deposits of France ; and we are thus able to understand the existing distribution of the family. At that exceptionally mild period in the northern hemisphere, these birds may have ranged over all Europe and North America ; but, as the climate became more severe they gradually became restricted to the tropical regions, where alone a sufficiency of fruit and insect-food is found all the year round. CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 315 Family 67.— ALCEDINID^. (19 Genera, 125 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical, Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal.«arctic I Ethiopian SUB-UEGIONti. SUB-RKGIONS. Oriental Sob-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3.4 |1. 2.3.4 I 1.2.3.4 > 1.2. 3. 4:1. 2. 3. 41. 2. 3.^ The Kingfishers are distributed universally, but very un- equally, over the globe, and in this respect present some of the most curious anomalies to be found among birds. They have their metropolis in the eastern half of the Malay Archipelago (our first Australian sub-region), from Celebes to New Guinea, in vi^hich district no less than 13 out of the 1 9 genera occur, 8 of them being peculiar ; and it is probable that in no other equally varied group of universal distribution, is so large a proportion of the generic forms confined to so limited a district. From this centre kingfishers decrease rapidly in every direction. In Australia itself there are only 4 genera with 18 species ; the whole Oriental region has only 6 genera, 1 being peculiar ; the Ethiopian also 6 genera, but 3 peculiar ; and each of these have less than half the number of species possessed by the Australian region. The Palaearctic region possesses only 3 genera, all derived from the Oriental region ; but the most extraordinary deficiency is shown by the usually rich Neotropical region, which possesses but a single genus, common to the larger part of the Eastern Hemi- sphere, and the same genus is alone found in the Nearctic region, the only difference being that the former possesses eight, while the latter has but a single species. These facts almost inevitably lead to the conclusion that America long existed without king- fishers ; and that in comparatively recent times (perhaps during the Miocene or Pliocene period), a species of the Old World genus, Ceryk, found its way into North America, and spreading rapidly southward along the great river- valleys has become differentiated in South America into the few closely allied forms that alone inhabit that vast country — the richest in the world in 316 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. fresh-water fish, and apparently the best fitted to sustain a varied and numerous body of kingfishers. The names of the genera, with their distribution and the number of species in each, as given by Mr. Sharpe in his ex- cellent monograph of the family, is as follows : — Alcedo (9 sp.), Palsearctic, Ethiopian, and Oriental regions (but absent from Madagascar), and extending into the Austro-Malayan sub-region ; Corythornis (3 sp.), the whole Ethiopian region ; Alcyone (7 sp.), Australia and the Austro-Malayan sub-region, with one species in the Philippine Islands ; CeryU (13 sp.), absent only from Australia, the northern half of the Palsearctic region, and Madagascar ; Felargopsis ■ (9 sp.), the whole Oriental region, and extending to Celebes and Timor in the Austro-Malayan sub- region ; Ceyx (11 sp.),the Oriental region and Austro-Malayan sub- region, but absent from Celebes, and only one species in continental India and Ceylon ; Ceycoims (1 sp.), Celebes ; Myioceyx (2 sp.). West Africa; Ipsidina (4 sp.), Ethiopian region; Syma (2 sp.), Papua and North Australia ; Halcyon (36 sp.), Australian, Oriental, and Ethiopian regions, and the southern part of the Palsearctic ; Dacelo (6 sp.), Australia and New Guinea ; Todir- ham/phus (3 sp.). Eastern Pacific Islands only ; MonacTialcyon (1 sp.), Celebes ; Caridonax (1 sp.), Lombok and Flores ; Carcineutes (2 sp.), Siam to Borneo and Java ; Tanysiptera (14 sp.), Moluccas New Guinea, and North Australia (Plate X. Vol. I. p. 414) ; Cittura (2 sp.), Celebes group ; Melidora (1 sp.), New Guinea. Family 68.— BUCEEOTIDI^. (12 Genera, 50 Species.) General Distribution. XrOTROPICAL SiB-BEGIONS. Nearotic Sub-regions. Pal.«arctic sub-region.s. Ethiopiait SUB-RtGIONS. Oriental Sdb-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1 .2.3— 1.2.3.4 The Hornbills form an isolated group of generally large-sized birds, whose huge bills form their most prominent feature. They are popularly associated with the American Toucans, but have no close relationship to them, and are now generally CHAP, xviii.] BIRDS. 317 considered to show most resemblance, though still a very distant one, to the kingfishers. They are abundant in the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, and extend eastward to the Solomon Islands. Their classification is very unsettled, for though they have been divided into more than twenty genera they have not yet been carefully studied. The following grouping of the genera — referring to the numbers in the Hand List — must therefore be considered as only provisional : — ^1957 1958 1963) BuccTOs (6 sp.), all ludo-Makya, Arakan, Nepal and the Neilgherries (Plate IX. Vol. I. p. 339) ; (^^^^g - wei) Eydrocissa (7 sp.), India and Ceylon to Malaya and Celebes ; (1962^ Berenicornis (2 sp.), Sumatra and "West Africa; (^^*) Calao (3 sp.), Tennaserim, Malaya, Moluccas to the Solomon Islands; Q^) Aceros (1 sp.). South-east Himalayas; {^^ ^^'^) Cranorrhiniis (3 sp.), Malacca, Sumatra, Borneo, Philippines, Celebes ; Q^^) Penelopides (1 sp.), Celebes ; Q^^ - i^^^) Tockus (15 sp.), Tropical and South Africa ; (i^^^) BUnoplax (1 sp.), Sumatra and Borneo ; (^^^^ - i^^^) Bycanistes (6 sp.). West Africa with East and South Africa ; Q^"^^ i^") Meniceros (3 sp.), India and Ceylon to Tenasserim ; Q^''^) Bucorvus (2 sp.), Tropical and South Africa. Family 69.— UPUPID^. (1 Genus, 6 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical St'b-regions. Nearctic I Pal^akctic Sub-regions. Sdb-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. — 2-4 1.2.3.4 Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3 The Hoopoes form a small and isolated group of semi-terres- trial insectivorous birds, whose nearest affinities are with the Hornbills. They are most characteristic of the Ethiopian re- gion, but extend into the South of Europe and into aU the continental divisions of the Oriental region, as well as to Ceylon, and northwards to Pekin and Mongolia. 318 GEOGEAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. Family 70.— IREISORID^. (1 Genus, 12 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Neakctic Pal^arctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-heoions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. 1.2.3— The Irrisors are birds of generally metallic plumage, whicli have often been placed with the Epunachidae and near the Sun- birds, or Birds of Paradise, but which are undoubtedly allied to the Hoopoes. They are strictly confined to the continent of Africa, ranging from Abyssinia to the west coast, and southward to the Cape Colony. They have been divided into several sub- genera which it is not necessary here to notice (Plate IV. Vol. I. p. 261). Family 71.— PODARGID^. (3 Genera, 20 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sob-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian S ub-regions. 1.2.3.4 1.2 The Podargidee, or Prog-mouths, are a family of rather large- sized nocturnal insectivorous birds, closely allied to the Goat- suckers, but distinguished by their generally thicker bills, and especially by hunting for their food on trees or on the ground, instead of seizing it on the wing. They abound most in the Austra- lian region, but one genus extends over a large part of the Oriental region. The following are the genera Avith their distribution :— Podargus (10 sp.), Australia, Tasmania, and the Papuan Islands (Plate XII. Vol. I. p. 441) ; Batrachostomus (6 sp.), the Oriental region (excluding Philippine Islands and China) and the northern Moluccas ; JEgotheles (4 sp.), Australia, Tasmania, and Papuan Islands. CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. ai9 Family 72.— STEATOENITHID.^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) Gexeral Distribution. Neotropical Sob-regions. Nearctic scb-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sob-regions. Oriental Sdb-reoions. Australian Sub-regions. 2 ! 1 1 1 This family contains a single bird — the Guacharo — forming the genus Steatornis, first discovered by Humboldt in a cavern in Venezuela, and since found in deep ravines near Bogota, and also in Trinidad. Although apparently allied to the Goat-suckers it is a vegetable-feeder, and is altogether a very anomalous bird whose position in the system is still undetermined. Family 73.— CAPEIMULGID^. (17 Genera, 91 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical sub-region.s. Nearctic Sub-regions. pal.earctic Sub-kegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions, 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1 .2.3.4 1.2 The Goat-suckers, or Night-jars, are crepuscular insectivorous birds, which take their prey on the wing, and are remarkable for their soft and beautifully mottled plumage, swift and silent flight, and strange cries often imitating the human voice. They are universally distributed, except that they do not reach New Zealand or the remoter Pacific Islands. The South American genus, Nydibius, differs in structure and habits from the other goat-suckers and should perhaps form a distinct family. More than half the genera inhabit the Neotropical region. The genera are as follows : — Nydibius (6 sp.), Brazil to Guatemala, Jamaica ; Capri- mulgus (35 sp.), Palsearctic, Oriental, and Ethiopian regions, with the Austro-Malay Islands and North Australia ; Hydropsalis (8 sp.). Tropical South America to La Plata ; Antrostomus (10 320 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. sp.), La Plata and Bolivia to Canada, Cuba ; Stenopsis (4 sp.), Martinique to Columbia, West Peru and Chili ; Siphonorhis (1 sp.), Jamaica ; Heleothreptus (1 sp.), Demerara ; Nyctidromus (2 sp.), South Brazil to Central America ; Scortornis (3 sp.), West and East Africa ; Macrodipteryx (2 sp.). West and Central Africa ; Cosmetornis (1 sp.), all Tropical Africa ; Podager (1 sp.), Tropical South America to La PJata ; Lurocalis (2 sp.), Brazil and Guiana ; Chordeiks (8 sp.), Brazil and West Peru to Canada, Porto Eico, Jamaica ; Nydiprogne (1 sp.), Brazil and Amazonia ; Eurostopodus (2 sp.), Australia and Papuan Islands ; Lyncornis (4 sp.), Burmah, Philippines, Borneo, Celebes. Family 74.— CYPSELTD.E. (7 Genera, 53 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical | Nearctic srb-regions. sub-begions. 1.2.3.4- I 1.2.3.4 PALiEARCTIC I EtHIOPIA/I I ORIENTAL I AUSTRALIAN ScB-REoioNs. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. SuB-REGioNai 1.2.3.4- 1.2.3.4- 1.2.3.4 1.2.3 The Swifts can almost claim to be a cosmopolitan group, but for their absence from New Zealand. They are most abundant both in genera and species in the Neotropical and Oriental regions. The following is the distribution of the genera : — Cypselus (1 sp.), absent only from the whole of North America and the Pacific ; Panyptila (3 sp.), Guatemala and Guiana, and extending into North-west America; Collocalia (10 sp.), Mada- gascar, the whole Oriental region and eastward through New Guinea to the Marquesas Islands ; Dendrochelidon (5 sp.), Oriental region and eastward to New Guinea ; Chmtura (15 sp.), Continental America (excluding South Temperate), West Africa and Madagascar, the Oriental region. North China and the Amoor, Celebes, Australia; Hemiprocne (3 sp.), Mexico to La Plata, Jamaica and Hayti ; Cypseloides (2 sp.), Brazil and Peru ; Nephcecetes (2 sp.), Cuba, Jamaica, North-west America. CHAP. XVllI.] BIRDS. 821 Family 75.— TROCHILID^. (118 Genera, 390 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical sub-kegions. Ne ARCTIC SCB-REGIONS. Pal^arctic sub-begions. Ethiopian Sdb-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Adstralian Sub-regions. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 The wonderfully varied and beautiful Humming-Birds are confined to the American continent, where they range from Sitka to Cape Horn, while the island of Juan Fernandez has two peculiar species. Only 6 species, belonging to 3 genera, are found in the Kearctic region, and most of these have extended their range from the south. They are excessively abundant in the forest-clad Andes from. Mexico to Chili, some species extend- ing up to the limits of perpetual snow ; but they diminish in number and variety in the plains, however luxuriant the vege- tation. In place of giving here the names and distribution of the numerous genera into which they are now divided (which will be found in the tables of the genera of the Neotropical region), it may be more useful to present a summary of their distribution in the sub-divisions of the American continent, as follows : — Genera in each Sub-region Peculiar Genera Species in each Sub-region Sub- Sub- region I. region II. (Patagonia (Tropical & S. Andes.) S. Amer.) 10 90 3 58 15 275 Sub. Sub- Nearctic region III. region IV. region. (Tropical (Antilles.) (Temp. (N. Amer.) N. Amer.) 41 8 3 14 5 0 100 15 6 The island of Juan Fernandez has two species, and Masafuera, an island beyond it, one; the three forming a peculiar genus. The island of Tres Marias, about 60 miles from the west coast of Mexico, possesses a peculiar species of humming-bird, and the Bahamas two species ; but none inhabit either the Falkland Islands or the Galapagos. Like most groups which are very rich in species and in generic forms, the humming-birds are generally very local, small 322 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. generic groups being confined to limited districts ; while single mountains, valleys, or small islands, often possess species found nowhere else. It is now well ascertained that the Trochilidse are really insectivorous birds, although they also feed largely, but probably never exclusively, on the nectar of flowers. Their nearest allies are undoubtedly the Swifts; but the wide gap that now separates them from these, as well as the wonderful variety of form and of development of plumage, that is found among them, alike point to their origin, at a very remote period, in the forests of the once insular Andes. There is perhaps no more striking contrast of the like nature, to be found, than that between the American kingfishers — confined to a few closely allied forms of one Old World genus — and the American hum- ming-birds with more than a hundred diversified generic forms unlike everything else upon the globe ; and we can hardly imagine any other cause for this difference, than a (compara- tively) very recent introduction in the one case, and a very high antiquity in the other. General Remarks on the Distribution of the Picarice. The very heterogeneous mass of birds forming the Order Picarise, contains 25 families, 307 genera and 1,604 species. This gives about 64 species to each family, while in the Passeres the proportion is nearly double, or 111 species per family. There are, in fact, only two very large families in the Order, which happen to be the first and last in the series— Picidfe and Trochilidae. Two others— Cuculidse and Alcedinidee— are rather large; while the rest are all small, seven of them consisting only of a single genus and from one to a dozen species. Only one of the families— Alcedinidse — is absolutely cosmopolitan, but three others are nearly so, Caprimulgidse and Cypselidse being only absent from New Zealand, and Cuculidc^ from the Canadian sub-region of North America. Eleven families inhabit the Old "World only, while seven are confined to the New World, only one of these — Trochilidse —being common to the Neotropical and Nearctic regions. The Picariae are highly characteristic of tropical faunas, for CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 323 while no less than 15 out of the 25 families are exclusively tropical, none are confined to, or have their chief development in, the temperate regions. They are best represented in the Ethiopian region, which possesses 17 families, 4 of which are peculiar to it ; while the Oriental region has only 14 families, none of which are peculiar. The Neotropical region has also 14 families, but 6 of them are peculiar. The Australian region has 8, the Palsearctic 9 and the Nearctic 6 families, but none of these are peculiar. We may see a reason for the great specialization of this tropical assemblage of birds in the Ethio- pian and Neotropical regions, in the fact of the large extent of land on both sides of the Equator which these two regions alone possess, and their extreme isolation either by sea or deserts from other regions, — an isolation which we know was in both cases much greater in early Tertiary times. It is, perhaps, for a similar reason that we here find hardly any trace of the connection between Australia and South America which other groups exhibit; for that connection has most probably been effected by a former communication between the temperate southern extremities of those two continents. The most interesting and suggestive fact, is that presented by the dis- tribution of the Megalsemidee and Trogonidse over the tropics of America, Africa, and Asia. In the absence of palseonto- logical evidence as to the former history of the Megalsemidee, we are unable to say positively, whether it owes its present distribution to a former closer union between these continents in intertropical latitudes, or to a much greater northern range of the group at the period when a luxuriant sub-tropical vege- tation extended far toward the Arctic regions ; but the dis- covery of Trogon in the Miocene deposits of the South of France renders it almost certain that the latter is the true explanation in the case of both these families. The Neotropical region, owing to its enormous family of humming-birds, is by far the richest in Picarise, possessing nearly half the total number of species, and a still larger pro- portion of genera. Three families, the Bucerotidee, Meropidse and Coraciidae are equally characteristic of the Oriental and 324 GEOGEAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. Ethiopian regions, a few outlying species only entering the Australian or the Palsearctic regions. One family (Todicise) is confined to the West Indian Islands ; and another (Leptosomidai) consisting of but a single species, to Madagascar ; parallel cases to the Drepanididae among the Passeres, peculiar to the Sand- wich Islands, and the Apterygidae among the Struthiones, peculiar to New Zealand. Order III.—P8ITTACL The Parrots have been the subject of much difference of opinion among ornithologists, and no satisfactory arrangement of the order into families and genera has yet been reached. Professor Garrod has lately examined certain points in the anatomy of a large number of genera, and proposes to revolu- tionize the ordinary classifications. Until, however, a general examination of their whole anatomy, internal and external, has been made by some competent authority, it will be unsafe to adopt the new system, as we have as yet no guide to the com- parative value of the characters made use of. I therefore keep as much as possible to the old groups, founded on external characters, only using the indications furnished by Professor Garrod's paper, to determine the position of doubtful genera. Family 76.— CACATUID^. (5 Genera, 35 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sl'B-REGIONS. Nearctic Sub-regions. PaL/EARCTIC Sob-regions. Ethiopian Oriental Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1 1 \ ^\ 1.2 1 1 1 The Cacatuidae, Plyctolophidse, or Camptolophidae, as they have been variously termed, comprise aU those crested parrots usually termed Cockatoos, together with one or two doubtful forms. They are very abundant in the Australian region, more espe- cially in the Austi^o-Malayan portion of it one species inhabiting CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 325 the Philippine Islands ; but they do not pass further east than the Solomon Islands and are not found in New Zealand. The distribution of the genera is as follow: — Cacatua (18 sp.) ranges from the Philippine Islands, Celebes and Lombok, to the Solomon Islands and to Tasmania ; Calopsitta (1 sp.) Australia ; Calyptorhynchus (8 sp.) is confined to Australia and Tasmania ; Microglossus (2 sp.) (perhaps a distinct family) to the Papuan district and North Australia; Licmetis (3 sp.) Australia, Solomon Islands, and (?) New Guinea; Nasiterna (3 sp.), a minute form, the smallest of the whole order, and perhaps not belonging to this family, is only known from the Papuan and Solomon Islands. Family 77.— PLATYCEECID^. (11 Genera, 57 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical SnB-REGIONS. Nearctic sub-regioks. PaLvEARCTIC Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sob-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1 ! i 1.2.3.4 1 1 The Platycercidse. comprise a series of large-tailed Parrots, of weak structure and gorgeous colours, with a few ground-feed- ing genera of more sober protective tints ; the whole family being confined to the Australian region. The genera are : — (1996 1999 2000^ PlatyceTcus (14 sp.), Australia, Tasmania, and Nor- folk Island; Psephotus (6 sp.), Australia; Polytelis (3 sp.), Australia ; NympMcus (1 sp.), Australia and New Caledonia ; (2002 2003^ Aprosmictus (6 sp.), Australia, Papua, Timor, and Mo- luccas; Pyrrhulopsis (3 sp.), Tonga and Fiji Islands; Cyano- raw.phus (14 sp.). New Zealand, Norfolk Island, New Caledonia, and Society Islands ; Melopsittacus (1 sp.), Australia ; Euphema (7 sp.), Australia ; Pezoporus (1 sp.), Australia and Tasmania ; Geopsittacus (1 sp.). West Australia. The four last genera are ground-feeders, and are believed by Professor Garrod to be allied to the Owl-Parrot of New Zealand (Strivgops). 326 GEOGKAPHICAL ZOOLOGY*. [part IV. Family 78.— PAL^ORNITHID^. (8 Genera, 65 Species.) General Distribution. Xkothopical Si;b-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^earctic I Ethiopian I Oriental Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2-4 1.2.3.4 1.2 I class here a group of birds brought together, for the most part, by geographical distribution as well as by agreement in in- ternal structure, but which is nevertheless of a very uncertain and provisional character. Palmornis (1 8 sp.), the Oriental region, Mauritius, Eodriguez, and Seychelle Islands, and a species in Tropical Africa, apparently identical with the Indian P. torquatus, and therefore— considering the very ancient intercourse between the two countries, and the improbability of the species remaining unchanged if originating by natural causes — most likely the progeny of domestic birds in- troduced from India. Prioniturus (3 sp.), Celebes and the Philippine Islands ; (^"^^^) Geoffroyus (5 sp.), Bouru to Timor and the Solomon Islands ; Tanygnathus (5 sp.), Philippines, Celebes, and Moluccas to New Guinea ; Eclectus (8 sp.), Moluccas and Papuan Islands ; Psittinus (1 sp.), Tenasserim to Sumatra and Borneo ; Cyclopsitta {8 sp.), Papuan Islands, Philippines and North-east Australia; Loriculus (17 sp.), ranges over the whole Oriental region to Flores, the Moluccas, and the Papuan island of Mysol; but most of the species are concentrated in the district including the Philippines, Celebes, Gilolo, and Plores, there being 1 in India, 1 in South China, 1 in Ceylon, 1 in Java, 1 in Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo, 3 in Celebes, 5 in the Philip- pines, and the rest in the Moluccas, Mysol, and Flores. This genus forms a transition to the next family. CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 327 Family 79.— TRICHOGLOSSID^. (6 Genera, 57 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sob-regions. Pal.«arctic sob-uegions. Ethiopian Oriental Sub-regions. Sub-reoions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2,3 - The Trichoglossidse, or Brush-tongued Paroquets, including the Lories, are exclusively confined to the Australian region, where they extend from Celebes to the Marquesas Islands, and south to Tasmania. The genus Nanodes (= Lathamvs) has been shown by Professor Garrod to differ from Trichoglossus in the position of the carotid arteries. I therefore make it a distinct genus but do not consider that it should be placed in another family. The genera here admitted are as follows : — Trichoglossus (29 sp.), ranges over the whole Austro-Malay and Australian sub-regions, and to the Society Islands ; (^o*^) Nanodes (1 sp.), Australia and Tasmania; Charmosi/na (1 sp.). New Guinea (Plate X. Vol. I. p. 414) ; Ilos (9 sp.), Bouru and Sanguir Island north of Celebes, to the Solomon Islands, and in Puynipet Island to the north-east of New Ireland; (^o^a 2040) Lorius (13 sp.), Bouru and the Solomon Islands ; (^^^^ ^043^ CoripUlus (4 sp.), Samoa, Tonga, Society and Marquesas Islands. Family 80.— CONURID^. (7 Genera, 79 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-begions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub- regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3.4 1 1 3 1 The Conuridse, which consist of the Macaws and their allies, are wholly confined to America, ranging from the Straits of Magellan to South Carolina and Nebraska, with Cuba and Jamaica. Professor Garrod places Pijrrhura (which has generally YoL. II.— 22 328 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [t>art iv. been classed as a part of the genus Conurus) in a separate family, on account of the absence of the ambiens muscle of the knee, but as we are quite ignorant of the classificational value of this character, it is better for the present to keep both as distinct genera of the same family. The genera are : — Ara (15 sp.), Paraguay to Mexico and Cuba; Rhyncopsitta (1 sp.), Mexico ; Henicognathus \1 sp.), Chili ; Conurus (30 sp.), the range of the family; Pyrrhura (16 sp.), Paraguay and Bolivia to Costa Eica ; Bolborhynchus (7 sp.). La Plata, Bolivia and West Peru, with one species in Mexico and Guatemala ; Brotogerys (9 sp.), Brazil to Mexico. Family 81.— P3ITTACID.^.— (12 Genera, 87 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Si;b-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal-earctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental I Australian Sun-KEGioNs. Sub-regions. -2.3.4 I 1.2.3.4 I .1 ! I ' The Psittacidse comprise a somewhat heterogeneous assemblage of Parrots and Paroquets of the Neotropical and Ethiopian regions, which are combined here more for convenience than because they are believed to form a natural group. The genera Chrysotis and Pionus have no oil-gland, while Psittacula and Agapornis have lost the furcula, but neither of these characters are pro- bably of more than generic value. The genera are : — Psittacus (2 sp.), "West Africa ; Coracopsis (5 sp.), Madagascar, Comoro, and Seychelle Islands ; Pceocephalus (9 sp.), all Tropical and South Africa ; (^^^ — ^^ Caica (9 sp.), Mexico to Amazonia ; Chrysotis (32 sp.), Paraguay to Mexico and the West Indian Islands ; Triclaria (1 sp.), Brazil : Deroptyus (1 sp.), Amazonia ; Pionus (9 sp.), Paraguay to Mexico; Urochroma (7 sp.). Tro- pical South America ; Psittacula (6 sp.), Brazil to Mexico ; Poliopsitta (2 sp.), Madagascar and West Africa ; Agapornis (4 sp.), Tropical and South Africa, CHAP. XVIII.J BIRDS. 329 Family 82.— NESTOEID^. (? 2 Genera, 6 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Neahctic sub-kegions. Pal^arctic sub-kegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. The present family is formed to receive the genus Nestor (5 sp.), confined to New Zealand and Norfolk Island. Its affinities are doubtful, but it appears to have relations with the American Conuridse and the Australian Trichoglossidse. With it is placed the rare and remarkable Dasyptilus (1 sp.), of New Guinea, of which however veiy little is known. Family 83.— STRINGOPID^. (1 Genus, 2 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sl"B-REGI0NS. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic sub-iiegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental sub-reoions. Australian Sub-regions. This family contains only the curious owl-hke nocturnal Parrot of New Zealand, Stringops habroptilus (Plate XIIL Vol .1. p. 455). An allied species is said to inhabit the Chatham Islands, if not now extinct. General Remarks on the Distribution of the Psittaci. Although the Parrots are now generally divided into several distinct families, yet they form so well marked and natural a group, and are so widely separated from all other birds, that we may best discuss their peculiarities of geographical distri- bution by treating them as a whole. By the preceding enumeration we find that there are about 386 species of known parrots, which are divided into 52 genera. They are pre- eminently a tropical group, for although a few species extend a considerable distance into the temperate zone, these are 330 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. marked exceptions to the rule which limits the parrot tribe to the tropical and sub-tropical regions, roughly defined as extend- ing about 30° on each side of the equator. In America a species of Conurus reaches the straits of Magellan on the south, while another inhabits the United States, and once extended to the great lakes, although now confined to the south-eastern districts. In Africa parrots do not reach the northern tropic, owing to the desert nature of the country ; and in the south they barely reach the Orange Eiver. In India they extend to about 35° N. in the western Himalayas ; and in the Australian region, not only to New Zealand but to Macquarie Islands in 54° S., the farthest point from the equator reached by the group. But although found in all the tropical regions they are most unequally dis- tributed. Africa is poorest, possessing only 6 genera and 25 species ; * the Oriental region is also very poor, having but 6 genera and 29 species ; the Neotropical region is much richer, ha,ving 14 genera and 141 species ; while the smallest in area and the least tropical in climate — the Australian region, pos- sesses 31 genera and 176 species, and it also possesses exclusively 5 of the families, Trichoglossidse, Platycercidee, Cacatuidse, Nestoridee, and Stringopidse. The portion of the earth's surface that contains the largest number of parrots in proportion to its area is, undoubtedly, the ^ustro- Malayan sub-region, including the islands from Celebes to the Solomon Islands. The area of these islands is probably not one-fifteenth of that of the four tropical regions, yet they contain from one-fifth to one-fourth of all the known parrots. In this area too are found many of the most remarkable forms, — all the crimson lories, the great black Cockatoos, the pigmy Nasiterna, the raquet-tailed Prioniturus, and the bareheaded Dasyptilus. The almost universal distribution of Parrots wherever the climate is sufficiently mild or uniform to furnish them with a perennial supply of food, no less than their varied details of organization, combined with a great uniformity of general type, — tell us, in unmistakable language, of a very remote antiquity. The only early record of extinct parrots is, however, in the Miocene of France, where remains apparently allied to the West CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 331 African Psittacus, have been found. But the origin of so wide- spread, isolated, and. varied a group, must be far earlier than this, and not improbably dates back beyond the dawn of the Tertiary period. Some primeval forms may have entered the Austrahan region with the Marsupials, or not long after them ; while perhaps at a somewhat later epoch they were introduced into South America. In these two regions they have greatly flourished, while in the two other tropical regions only a few types have been found, capable of maintaining themselves, among the higher forms of mammalia, and in competition with a more varied series of birds. This seems much more probable than the supposition that so highly organized a group should have originated in the Australian region, and subsequently become so widely spread over the globe. Order IV.—COLUMB^. Family 84— COLUMBID^. (44 Genera, 355 Species.) General Distribution. ■Neotropical Sub-regions. k earctic Sub-regions. PaL/EARCTIC Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3.4- 1 .2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1 .2.3 .4 The Columbidae, or Pigeons and Doves, are almost universally distributed, but very unequally in the different regions. Being best adapted to live in warm or temperate climates, they dimin- ish rapidly northwards, reaching about 62° N. Latitude in North America, but considerably farther in Europe. Both the Nearc- tic and Palsearctic regions are very poor in genera and species of pigeons, those of the former region being mostly allied to Neotropical, and those of the latter to Oriental and Ethiopian types. The Ethiopian region is, however, itself very poor, and several of its peculiar forms are confined to the Madagascar sub- rec^ion. The Neotropical region is very rich in peculiar genera, though but moderately so in number of species. The Oriental 13 9 75 5 1 7 3 0 9 6 1 37 12 1 66 24 14 146 332 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv region closely approaches it in both respects ; but the Austra- lian region is by far the richest, possessing nearly double the genera and species of any other region, and abounding in re- markable forms quite unlike those of any other part of the globe. The following table gives the number of genera and species in each region, and enables us readily to determine the comparative richness and isolation of each, as regards this extensive family : — Regions. No. of Genera. Peculiar Genera. No. of Species. Neotropical Nearctic Palsearctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian With the exception of Columha and Turtur, which have a wide range, Trcron, common to the Oriental and Ethiopian regions, and Cmyophaga, to the Oriental and Australian, most of the genera of pigeons are either restricted to or very characteristic of a single region. The distribution of the genera here admitted is as follows : — Trcron (37 sp.), the whole Oriental region, and eastward to Celebes, Amboyna and Flores, also the whole Ethiopian region to Madagascar ; Ptilovus (52 sp.), the Australian region (exclud- ing New Zealand) and the Indo-Malay sub-region ; Alectrcenas (4 sp.), Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands : Carpophaga (50 sp.), the whole Australian and Oriental regions, but much the most abundant in the former; (^^'■*) lanthcenas (11 sp,), Japan, Andaman, Nicobar, and Philippine Islands, Timor and Gilolo to Samoa Islands ; (^^''^) Leucomelcena (1 sp.), Australia ; Lopholaimm (1 sp.), Australia ; (^^^^ ^"^ 2283^ Alscecomus (2 sp.), Himalayas to Ceylon and Tenasserim ; Columha (46 sp.), generally distributed over all the regions except the Australian, one species however in the Fiji Islands ; Edopistes (1 sp.), east of North America with British Columbia; Zcnaidura (2 sp.), Veragua to Canada and British Columbia ; CEna (1 sp.). Tropical and South Africa ; Geopelia (6 sp.), Philippine Islands and Java to Australia ; Macropygia (14 sp.), Nepal, Hainan, Nicobar, Java, CHAP, xviii.] BIRDS. 333 and Philippines to Australia and New Ireland ; Turacosna (3 sp.), Celebes, Timor, and Solomon Islands ; Reinwardtcenas (1 sp.), Celebes to New Guinea ; TurtiLv (24 sp.), Palsearctic, Ethiopian and Oriental regions with Austro-Malaya ; Chcerae- pelia (7 sp.), Brazil and Bolivia to Jamaica, California, and South-east United States ; Columbula (2 sp.), Brazil and La Plata to Chili; Scardafella (2 sp.), Brazil and Guatemala; Zenaida (10 sp.), Chili and La Plata to Columbia and the Antilles, Fernando Noronha ; Melopelia (2 sp.), ChiH to Mexico and California ; Peristera (4 sp.), Brazil to Mexico ; Metriopelia (2 sp.), West America from Ecuador to Chili; Gymnopelia (1 sp). West Peru and Bolivia; Leptoptila (11 sp.), Paraguay to Mexico and the Antilles ; (^^i^ 2318 and 2320^ Geotrygon (14 sp.), Paraguay to Mexico and the Antilles; Aplopelia (5 sp.), Tropical and South Africa, St. Thomas and Princes Island; Chalocopelia (4 sp.). Tropical and South Africa ; Starnoenas (1 sp.), Cuba ; Ocyphaps (1 sp.), Australia (Plate XII. Vol. I. p. 441) ; Petrophassa (1 sp.), North-west Australia; Chalocophaps (8 sp.), the Oriental region to New Guinea and Australia ; Trugon (1 sp.). New Guinea ; Henicopliaps (1 sp.), Waigiou and New Guinea ; Phaps (3 sp.), Australia and Tasmania ; Zeucosarcia (1 sp.). East Aus- tralia ; hapitreron (2 sp.), Philippine Islands ; Gcophaps (2 sp.). North and East Australia ; Lophophaps (3 sp.), Australia; Calosnas (1 sp.), scattered on the smaller islands from the Nicobars and Philippines to New Guinea ; Otidiphaps (1 sp.), New Guinea ; Phlogcenas (7 sp.), Philippine Islands and Celebes to the Marquesas Islands ; Goura (2 sp.), New Guinea and the islands on the north-east (Plate X. Vol. I. p 414). Family 84a.— DIDUNCULID^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. PaLvEARCTIC SUB-KEGIONS. Ethiopian sub-regjons. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 334 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. The Diduncidus digirostris, a hook-billed ground-pio-eon, found only in the Samoa Islands, is so peculiar in its structure that it is considered to form a distinct family. Family 85 — DIDID^.— (2 Genera, 3 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sdb-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic sub-kegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. 4 Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. __ The birds which constitute this family are now all extinct ; but as numerous drawings are in existence, taken from living birds some of which were exhibited in Europe, and a stuffed specimen, fragments of which still remain, was in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford down to 1755, they must be classed among recent, as opposed to geologically extinct species. The Dodo (Didus ineptus) a large, unwieldy, flightless bird, inhabited Mauritius down to the latter part of the 17th century ; and an allied form, the Solitaire {Pezophaps solitaria), was found only in the island of Eodriguez, where it survived about a century later. Old voyagers mention a Dodo also in Bourbon, and a rude figure of it exists ; but no remains of this bird have been found. Almost complete skeletons of the Dodo and Solitaire have, however, been recovered from the swamps of Mauritius and the caves of Eodriguez, proving that they were both extremely modified forms of pigeon. These large birds were formerly very abundant, and being excellent eating and readily captured, the early voyagers to these islands used them largely for food. As they could be caught by man, and very easily by dogs, they were soon greatly diminished in numbers ; and the introduction of swine, which ran wild in the forests and fed on the eggs and young birds, completed their extermination. The existence in the Mascarene Islands of a group of such remarkable terrestrial birds, with aborted wings, is parallel to that of the Apteryx and Dinornis in New Zealand, the Casso- waries of Austro-Malava. and the short-winged Eails of New CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 335 Zealand, Tristan d'Aciinha, and other oceanic islands ; and the phenomenon is clearly dependent on the long-continued absence of enemies, which allowed of great increase of bulk and the total loss of the power of flight, without injury. In some few cases (the Ostrich for example) birds incapable of flight co-exist with large carnivorous mammalia ; but these birds are large and powerful, as well as very swift, and are thus able to escape from some enemies and defend themselves against others. The entire absence of the smaller and more defenceless ground-birds from the adjacent island of Madagascar, is quite in accordance with this view, because that island has several small but destructive carnivorous animals. General Remarks on the Distribution of the Columhce. The striking preponderance of Pigeons, both as to genera and species, in the Australian region, v/ould seem to indicate that at some former period it possessed a more extensive land area in which this form of bird-life took its rise. But there are other considerations which throw doubt upon this view. The western half of the Malay Archipelago, belonging to the Oriental region, is also rich in pigeons, since it has 43 species belonging to 11 crenera, rather more than are found in all the rest of the Oriental region. Again, we find that the Mascarene Islands and the An- tilles both possess more pigeons than we should expect, in pro- portion to those of the regions to which they belong, and to their total amount of bird-life. This looks as if islands were more favourable to pigeon-development than continents ; and if we group together the Pacific and the Malayan Islands, the Mascarene group and the Antilles, we find that they contain to- gether about 170 species of pigeons belonging to 24 out of the 47 genera here adopted ; while all the great continents united only produce about the same number of species belonging (if we omit those peculiar to Australia) to only 20 genera. The great deve- lopment of the group in the Australian region may, therefore, be due to its consisting mainly of islands, and not to the order having originated there, and thus having had a longer period in which to develop. I have elsewhere suggested (Ibis 1865, p. 366) 336 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part it- a physical cause for this peculiarity of distribution. Pigeons build rude, open nests, and their young remain helpless for a considerable period. They are thus exposed to the attacks of such arboreal quadrupeds or other animals as feed on eggs or young birds. Monkeys are very destructive in this respect; and it is a noteworthy fact that over the whole Australian re- gion, the Mascarene Islands and the Antilles, monkeys are un- known. In the Indo-Malay sub-region, where monkeys are generally plentiful, the greatest variety of pigeons occurs in the Philippines, where there is but a single species in one island ; and in Java, where monkeys are far less numerous than in Sumatra or Borneo. If we add to this consideration the fact, that mam- malia and rapacious birds are, as a rule, far less abundant in islands than on continents ; and tl^at the extreme development of pigeon-life is reached in the Papuan group of islands, in which mammalia (except a few marsupials, bats, and pigs) are wholly absent, we see further reason to adopt this view. It is also to be noted that in America, comparatively few pigeons are found in the rich forests (comparable to those of the Australian insular region in which they abound), but are mostly confined to the open campos, the high Andes, and the western coast districts, from which the monkey-tribe are wholly absent. This view is further supported by the great development of colour that is found in the pigeons of these insular regions, cul- minating in the golden-yellow fruit-dove of the Fiji Islands, the metallic green Nicobar-pigeon of Malaya, and the black and crimson Aledrcenas of Mauritius. Here also, alone, we meet with crested pigeons, rendering the possessors more conspicuous ; such as the Lopholaimus of Australia and the crowned Goura of New Guinea ; and here too are more peculiar forms of terrestrial pigeons than elsewhere, though none have completely lost the power of flight but the now extinct Dididte. The curious liking of pigeons for an insular habitat is well shown in the genera lanthcenas and Calcenas. The former, con- taining 11 species, ranges over a hundred degrees of longitude, axid forty-five of latitude, extending into three regions, yet nowhere inhabits a continent or even a large island. It is CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 337 found in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands ; in the Philippines, Gilolo, and the smaller Papuan Islands, and in Japan ; yet not in any of the large Malay Islands or in Australia. The other genus, (Jalcenas, consists of but a single species, yet this ranges from the Mcobar Islands to New Guinea. It is not, however, as far as known, found on any of the large islands, but seems to prefer the smaller islands which surround them. We here have the general preference of pigeons for islands, further developed in these two genera into a preference for smaU islands ; and it is probable that the same cause— the greater freedom from danger — has produced both phenomena. Of the geological antiquity of the Columbae we have no evi- dence ; but their wide distribution, their varied forms, and their great isolation, all point to an origin, at least as far back as that we have assigned as probable in the case of the Parrots. Order V.—GALLINM Family 86.— PTEI10CLID.E. (2 Genera, 16 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sttb-regions. Nearctic sub-begions. Pal.barctic Sob-regions. Ethiopian I Oriental Sub-regions. Scb-reoions. Australian Sub-regions. a. 3. 4 1—3.4 1 The Pteroclidffi, or Sand-grouse, are elegantly formed birds with pointed tails, and plumage of beautifully varied protective tints, characteristic of the Ethiopian region and Central Asia, though extending into Southern Europe and Hindostan. Being pre- eminently desert-birds, they avoid the forest-districts of all these, countries, but abound in the most arid situations and on the most open and barren plains. The distribution of the genera is as follows : — Fterocles (14 sp.), has the same range as the family ; Syrrhap- tes (2 sp.), normally inhabits Tartary, Thibet, and Mongolia to the country around Pekin, and occasionally visits Eastern Europe. But a few years back (1863) great numbers suddenly appeared in 338 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. Europe and extended westward to the shores of the Atlantic, while some even reached Ireland and the Faeroes. (Plate III. Vol. I. p. 226.) Family 87.— TETEAONID^. (29 Genera, 170 Species.) General Distribution. Neotroptcal Sub-regions. Nearctic Sob-regions. Pal^arctic I Ethiopian SuB-UEGiONS. Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. -2.3.4- 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2. 3. 4-1. 2. 3. 4 1.2 -4 The Tetraonidse, including the Grouse, Partridges, Quails, and allied forms, abound in all parts of the Eastern continents ; they are less plentiful in North America and comparatively scarce in South America, more than half the Neotropical species being found north of Panama ; and in the Australian region there are only a few of smaU size. The Ethiopian region probably contains most species ; next comes the Oriental — India proper from the Himalayas to Ceylon having twenty ; while the Australian region, with 15 species, is the poorest. These facts render it probable that the Tetraonidffi are essentially denizens of the great northern continents, and that their entrance into South America, Aus- tralia, and even South Africa, is, comparatively speaking, recent. They have developed into forms equally suited to the tropical plains and the arctic regions, some of them being among the few denizens of the extreme north, as well as of the highest alpine snows. The genera are somewhat unsettled, and there is even some uncertainty as to the limits between this family and the next ; but the following are those now generally admitted : — PHlopachus (1 sp.). West Africa ; Francolinus (34 sp.), all Africa, South Europe, India to Ceylon, and South China ; Orty- ffornis (3 sp.), Himalayas to Ceylon, Sumatra, and Borneo : Peli- perdix (1 sp.). West Africa ; Perdix (3 sp.), the whole Continen- tal Pal£earctic region ; Margaropcrdix (1 sp.), Madagascar ; Oreo- perdix (1 sp.), Formosa ; Arhorophila (8 sp.), the Oriental Con- tinent and the Philippines ; Pcloperdix (4 sp.), Tenasserim and Malaya; Coturnix (21 sp.), Temperate Paltearctic, Ethiopian and CHAP. xvi]i.] BIRDS. 339 Oriental regions, and the Australian to New Zealand ; Eollulus (2 sp.), Siam to Sumatra, Borneo, and Philippines ; Caloperdiv (1 sp.), Malacca and Sumatra ; Odontophorus (17 sp.), Brazil and Peru to Mexico ; Dendroriyx (3 sp.), Guatemala and Mexico ; Cijrtonyx (3 sp.), Guatemala to New Mexico ; Ortyx (8 sp.), Hon- duras and Cuba to Canada ; Eupsychortyx (6 sp.), Brazil and Ecuador to Mexico ; Callipepla (3 sp.), Mexico to California ; Lophortyx (2 sp.), Arizona and California ; Oreortyx (1 sp.), Cali- fornia and Oregon (Plate XVIII., Vol. II. p. 128) ; Lerwa (1 sp.), Snowy Himalayas and East Thibet ; Caccahis (10 sp.), Palsearc- tic region to Abyssinia, Arabia and the Punjaub ; TetraoyaUus (4 sp.), Caucasus and Himalayas to Altai Mountains; Tetrao (7 sp.), northern parts of Paltearctic and Nearctic regions ; Cen- trocercus (1 sp.), Eocky Mountains ; Pedioccetes (2 sp.), North and North-west America (Plate XVIII. Vol. II. p. 128) ; Cupi- donia (1 sp.), East and North-Central United States and Canada ; Bonasa (3 sp.), north of Nearctic and Palaearctic regions ; Zago- pus (6 sp.), Arctic Zone and northern parts of Nearctic and Palsearctic regions. Family 88.— PHASIANID^. (18 Genera, 75 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal.-earctic SUB-KEGIONS. Ethiopian Oriental SuB-REGiONS. Sub-regions. Australian sub-eegions. 3 - -2.3 — -2.3.4. 1 .2.3.4 1.2.3.4- 1 The Phasianidse, including the Pea-fowl, Pheasants, and Jungle- fowl, the Turkeys, and the Guinea-fowl, are very widely distri- buted, but are far more abundant than elsewhere in the Eastern parts of Asia, both tropical and temperate. Leaving out the African guinea-fowls and the American turkeys, we have 13 genera and 63 species belonging to the Oriental and Palsearctic regions. These are grouped by Mr. Elliot (whose arrangement we mainly foUow) in 5 sub-families, of which 3 — Pavonnise, Euplocaminae, and Gallinse — are chiefly Oriental, while the Lophophornia3 and Phasianinae are mostly Palsearctic or from the highlands on the 340 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. borders of the two regions. The genera adopted by Mr. Elliot in his Monogra'ph are the following : — Pavonine, 4 genera. — Pavo (2 sp.), Himalayas to Ceylon, Siam, to South-west China and Java; Argusianm (4 sp.), Siam, Malay Peninsula, and Borneo (Plate IX. Vol. I. p. 339) ; Foly- plectron (5 sp.). Upper Assam to South-west China and Sumatra ; Crossoptilon (4 sp.), Thibet and North China. (Plate III. Vol. I. p. 226.) LoPHOPHORiN^, 4 genera. — Lophophorus (3 sp.), High woody region of Himalayas from Cashmere to West China ; Tetraophasis (1 sp.). East Thibet ; Ceriornis (5 sp.), Highest woody Himalayas from Cashmere to Bhotan and Western China (Plate VII. Vol. I. p. 331) ; Pucrasia (3 sp.), Lower and High woody Himalayas from the Hindoo Koosh to North-west China. Phasianinj^, 2 genera. — Phasianus (12 sp.), Western Asia to Japan and Formosa, south to near Canton and Yunan, and the Western Himalayas, north to the Altai Mountains ; Thaumalea (3 sp.). North-western China and Mongolia. (Plate III. Vol. I. p. 226.) EuPLOCAMiN^, 2 genera. — Euplocamus (12 sp.). Cashmere, along Southern Himalayas to Siam, South China and Formosa, and to Sumatra and Borneo ; Ithaginis (2 sp.), High Himalayas from Nepal to North- west China. GALLiNiE, 1 genus. — Oallits (4 sp.). Cashmere to Hainan, Ceylon, Borneo, Java, and eastwards to Celebes and Timor. (Cen- tral India, Ceylon, and East Java, have each a distinct species of Jungle-fowl.) Meleagrin^, 1 genus. — Mcleagris (3 sp.), Eastern and Central United States and south to Mexico, Guatemala and Yucatan. AGELASTiNiE, 2 genera. — Phasidus (1 sp.). West Africa ; Agelastes (1 sp.), West Africa. NuMiDiN^, 2 genera. — Acryllium (1 sp.). West Africa ; JSfu- mida (9 sp.), Ethiopian region, east to Madagascar, south to Natal and Great Fish Eiver. CHAP. XVI II.] BIRDS. 341 Family 89.— TURNICID^. (2 Genera, 24 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical' SliB-REGIONS. Neabctic 1 Pal^arctic Sub-regions. ' Sub-uegions. Ethiopian SUB-REOIONa Oriental sub-reoions. Australian SuB-REGIONi —2—4. 1.2. 3. 4 1.2.3.4 1 .2 — - The Turnicidse are small Quail-like birds, supposed to have remote atfinities with the American Tinamous. and with suffi- cient distinctive peculiarities to constitute a separate family. They range over the Old World, from Spain all through Africa and Madagascar, and over the whole Oriental region to Formosa, and then north again to Pekin, as well as south-eastward to Aus- tralia and Tasmania. The genus Turnix (23 sp.), has the range of the family; Ortyxelos (1 sp.), inhabits Senegal; but the latter genus may not belong to this family. Family 90.— MEGAPODIIDvE. (4 Genera, 20 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian | Oriental Sub-regions. 8ub-i:igions. Australian Sub-regions. 1 'J "^ .... 4. The Megapodiidse, or Mound-makers and Brush-turkeys, are generally dull-coloured birds of remarkable habits and economy, which have no near allies, but are supposed to have a remote affinity with the South American Curassows. They are highly characteristic of the Australian region, extending into almost every part of it except New Zealand and the remotest Pacific islands, and only sending two species beyond its limits, — a Megapodiiis in the Philippine Islands and North-west Borneo, and another in the Nicobar Islands, separated by about 1,800 miles from its nearest ally in Lombok. The Philippine species offers little difficulty, for these birds are found on the smallest 342 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV- islands and sand-banks, and can evidently pass over a few miles of sea with ease ; but the Nicobar bird is a very different case, because none of the numerous intervening islands offer a single example of the family. Instead of being a well-marked and clearly differentiated form, as we should expect to find it if its remote and isolated habitat were due to natural causes, it so nearly resembles some of the closely-allied species of the Moluc- cas and New Guinea, that, had it been found with them, it would hardly have been thought specifically extinct. I therefore believe that it is probably an introduction by the Malays, and that, owing to the absence of enemies and general suitability of conditions, it has thriven in the islands and has become slightly differentiated in colour from the parent stock. The following is the distribution of the genera at present known : — Talegallus (2 sp.). New Guinea and East Australia ; Megace- phalon (1 sp.). East Celebes ; Lipoa (1 sp.). South Australia ; Megapodius (16 sp.), Philippine Islands and Celebes, to Timor, North Australia, New Caledonia, the Marian and Samoa Islands, and probably every intervening island, — also a species (doubtfully indigenous) in the Nicobar Islands. Family 91.— CRACID^. (12 Genera, 53 Species.) Neotropical sub-beoions. — a .3 General Distribution. Ne ARCTIC Sub-regions. PaL/EARCTIC Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental scb-regions. Australian Sub-regions. (Messrs. Sclater and Salvin's arrangement is here followed). The Cracid^, or Curassows and Guans, comprise the largest and handsomest game-birds of the Neotropical region, where they take the place of the grouse and pheasants of the Old World. They are almost all forest-dwellers, and are a strictly Neotropical family, only one species just entering the Nearctic region as far as New Mexico. They extend southward to Para- guay and the extreme south of Brazil, but none are found in the CHAP, xviii.] BIKDS. 343 Antilles, nor west of the Andes south of the bay of Guayaquil. The sub-families and genera are as follows : — Ckacin^, 4 genera. — Crax (8 sp.), Mexico to Paraguay (Plate XV., Vol. II. p. 28) ; Nothocrax (1 sp.), Guiana, Upper Eio Negro, and Upper Amazon ; Pmtxi (1 sp.), Guiana to Venezuela; Mitua (2 sp.), Guiana and Upper Amazon. Penelopin^, 7 genera. — Stegnolcema (1 sp.), Columbia and Ecuador ; Penelope (14 sp.), Mexico to Paraguay and to western slope of Ecuadorian Andes ; Penelopina (1 sp.), Guatemala ; Pipile {3 sp.), Venezuela to Eastern Brazil; Aburria (1 sp), Columbia ; Chamcepetes (2 sp.), Costa Pica to Peru ; Ortalida (18 sp.), New Mexico to Paraguay, also Tobago. Oeeophasin^, 1 genus. — Oreophasis (1 sp.), Guatemala. It thus appears that the Cracinse are confined to South America east of the Andes, except one species in Central America; whereas nine Penelopinai and Oreophasis are found north of Panama. The species of the larger genera are strictly repre- sentative, each having its own distinct geographical area, so that two species of the same genus are rarely or never found in the same locality. Family 92.— TINAMID^. (9 Genera, 39 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Palearctic Sdb-kegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental sub-kegions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3 - 1 The Tinamous are a very remarkable family of birds, with the general a,ppearance of partridges or hemipodes, but with the tail either very small or entirely wanting. They differ greatly in their organization from any of the Old World Gallinse, and ap- proach, in some respects, the Struthiones or Ostrich tribe. They are very terrestrial in their habits, inhabiting the forests, open plains, and mountains of the Neotropical region, from Patagonia and Chili to Mexico ; but, like the Cracidae, they are absent from the Antilles. Their colouring is very sober and protective, as is the case with so many ground-birds, and they are seldom adorned Vol. II.— 23 344 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [fart iv. with crests or other ornamental plumes, so prevalent in the order to which they belong. The sub-families and genera, according to the arrangement of Messrs. Sclater and Salvin, are as follows : — TiNAMiN^, 7 genera.. — Tinamus (7 sp.), Mexico to Paraguay; Nothocercus (3 sp.), Costa Eica to Venezuela and Ecuador; Crypt- urus (16 sp.), Mexico to Paraguay and Bolivia ; Rhynchotus (2 sp.), Bolivia and South Brazil to La Plata ; Nothoprocta (4 sp.), Ecuador to Bolivia and Chili ; Nothura (4 sp.), Brazil and Bolivia to Patagonia ; Taoniscus (1 sp.), Brazil to Paraguay. TiNAMOTiN.^, 2 genera. — Calodromas (1 sp.). La Plata and Patagonia ; Tinamotis (1 sp.), Andes of Peru and Bolivia. General BemarJcs on the Distribution of Qallinm. There are about400 known species of Gallinaceous birds grouped into 76 genera, of which no less than 65 are each restricted to a single region. The Tetraonidse are the only cosmopolitan family, and even these do not extend into Temperate South Ameri- ca, and are very poorly represented in Australia. The Cracidse and Tinamidse are strictly Neotropical, the Megapodiidse almost as strictly Australian. There remains the extensive family of the Phasianidse, which offers some interesting facts. We have first the well-marked sub-families of the Numidinse and Meleagrinse, confined to the Ethiopian and Nearctic regions respectively, and we find the remaining five sub-families, comprising about 60 species, many of them the most magnificent of known birds, spread over the Oriental and the south-eastern portion of the Paltearctic regions. This restriction is remarkable, since there is no apparent cause in climate or vegetation why pheasants should not be found wild throughout southern Europe, as they were during late Tertiary and Post-Tertiary times. We have also to notice the remarkable absence of the Pheasant tribe from Hindostan and Ceylon, where the peacock and jungle-fowl are their sole representatives. These two forms also alone extend to Java, whereas in the adjacent islands of Borneo and Sumatra we have Ar^usianus, Polyplectron, and Euplocamus. The com- mon jungle-fowl (the origin of our domestic poultry) is the only CHAP. XVUI.J BIRDS. 345 species which enters the Australian region as far as Celebes and Timor, and another species {Gallus ceneus) as far as Flores, and it is not improbable that these may have been introduced by man and become wild. We have very little knowledge of the extinct forms of Gallinae, but what we have assures us of their high antiquity, since we find such distinct groups as the jungle-fowl, partridges, and Pterocles, represented in Europe in the Miocene period ; while the Turkey, then as now, appears to have been a special American type. Order VL—0PI8TH0C0MI. Family 93.— OPISTHOCOMID^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) Genkral Distribution. Neotropical sub-reqions. Nearctic sub-reoions. Pal^arctic sub-kegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-beqions ^2 The Hoazin {OpistJiocomus cristatus) is the sole representative of this family and of the order Opisthocomi. It inhabits the eastern side of Equatorial America in Guiana and the Lower Amazon ; and at Para is called " Cigana " or gipsy. It is a large, brown, long-legged, weakly-formed and loosely-crested bird, having such anomalies of structure that it is impossible to class it along with any other family. It is one of those survivors, which tell us of extinct groups, of whose past existence we should otherwise, perhaps, remain for ever ignorant. Order VIL—ACCIPITRES. Family 94.— VULTUEID^. (10 Genera, 25 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-beqions. Nearctic scb-beoions. Pal^ arctic sub-beoions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Obiental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3.4. 1.2.3.4 i.a.3.4> 1.2.3- 1.2.3^ 346 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. Vultures range over all the great continents south of the Arctic Circle, being only absent from the Australian region, the Malay Islands, Ceylon, and Madagascar. The Old and New World forms are very distinct, belonging to two well-marked divisions, often ranked as families. The distribution of the genera is as follows : — Sub-family >I. VuLTURiNJi (6 genera, 16 species), confined to the Old WovM.— Vultur (1 sp.), Spain and North Africa through Nepal to China north of Ningpo ; Gyps (5 sp.), Europe south of 59°, Africa, except the western sub-region, India, Siam, and Northern China; Fseudogyps (2 sp.). North-east Africa and Senegal, India and Burmah; Otogyps (2 sp.). South Europe, North-east and South Africa, India, and Siam; Lopliogyps (1 sp.). North-east and South Africa and Senegal; Neophron (4 sp.), South Europe, India and the greater part of Africa. Sub-family II. Sarcorhamphin^ (4 genera, 9 species), con- fined to the New World. — Sarcorhamphus (2 sp.), " The Condor," Andes of South America, and southern extremity below 41° south latitude ; Cathartes (1 sp.), America from 20° south latitude to Trinidad and Mexico ; Catharistes (1 sp.), America from 40° north to 40° south latitude, but not on Pacific coast of United States ; Pseudogryphis (5 sp.). South America and Falkland Islands, and to 49° north latitude in North America, also Cuba and Jamaica. Family 95.— SERPENTARIID^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical sub-begions. Neakctic Sub-regions. pal.earctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian i Oriental Sub-regions. Sub-regions. 1.2.3- Australian Sub-regions. The singular Secretary Bird (Serpentarms) is found over a large part of Africa. Its position is uncertain, as it has affinities both with the Accipitres, through Polyhoroides (?) and with Cariama, which we place near the Bustards. (Plate IV. Vol. I. p. 261.) CHAP, xviii.] BIRDS, 347 Family 96.— FALCONID^. (69 Genera, 325 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Stib-reqions. Nearctic sub-begions. Pal^arctic sub-iieoions. Ethiopian Oriental Sub-regions. Sub-reoions. Australian sub-kegions. 1 .2.3.4- 1 1 1.2.3.4. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2 .3.4 The Falconidae, including the various groups of Hawks, Kites, Buzzards, Eagles, and Falcons, are absolutely cosmopolitan, ranging far into the arctic zone and visiting the most remote oceanic islands. They are abundant in all the great continents and larger islands, preferring open to woody regions. They are divided into several sub-families, the range of some of which are restricted. For this family as well as the preceding I follow the arrangement of Mr. Sharpe's British Museum Catalogue, and shall give the approximate distribution of each sub-family, as well as of the several genera. Sub-family I. Polybokin^ (2 genera, 10 species), the Neo- tropical region with California and Florida, Tropical and South Africa. — Polyhorus (2 sp.). South America, and to California and Florida; Ihycter (8 sp.), Tierra del Fuego to Honduras and Guatemala. Cariama and Serpentarius, which Mr. Sharpe puts here, are so anomalous that I think it better to class them in separate families — Serpentariidse among the Accipitres, and Cariamidse near the Bustards. Sub-family II. Accipitrin^ (10 genera, 87 species). — Cosmopo- litan.— Polyhoroides (2 sp.), Africa and Madagascar ; Circus(15 sp.). Old and New Worlds, widely scattered, but absent from Eastern Equatorial America, and the Malay Archipelago except Celebes ; Micrastur (7 sp.), and Geranospiza (2 sp.). Tropical parts of Neo- tropical region ; Urotriorchis (1 sp.), West Africa ; Erythrocnema (1 sp.), Chili and La Plata to California and Texas ; Melierax (5 sp.), Africa except West African sub-region ; Astur (30 sp.), cos- mopolitan, except the Temperate South American sub-region ; 348 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. Nisoides (1 sp.), Madagascar ; Eutriorchis. (1 sp.), Madagascar ; Accipiter (23 sp.), cosmopolitan, except Eastern Oceania. Sub-family III. ButeoniN/E (13 genera, 51 sp.), cosmopolitan, except the Malay and Pacific Islands. — Urospizias (1 sp.). East and Central Australia; Heterospizias (1 sp.). Tropical South America east of the Andes ; Tachytriorchis (2 sp,), Para- guay to California ; Buteo (18 sp.), cosmopolitan, except the Aus- tralian region and the Indo-Malayan sub-region ; Archibuteo (4 sp.), North America to Mexico and the cooler parts of the Paleearctic region; Buteola (1 sp.), Veragua to the Amazon Valley ; Asturina (7 sp.), Paraguay and Bolivia to South-east United States; Busarellus (1 sp.), Brazil to Guiana; Buteo- gallus (1 sp.), Guiana and Columbia; Uruhutinga (12 sp.), South Brazil and Bolivia to Mexico ; ffarpyhahceetus (1 sp.). Chili and North Patagonia to Veragua ; Morphnus (1 sp.), Ama- zonia to Panama ; Thrasaetus (1 sp.), Paraguay and Bolivia to Mexico. Sub-family IV. Aquiline (31 genera, 94 species), cosmo- politan.— Gypaetus (2 sp.), south of Palpearctic region from Spain to North China, Abyssinia, and South Africa ; Uroaetus (1 sp.), Australia and Tasmania ; Aquila (9 sp.), Nearctic, Pal^arctic, and Ethiopian regions and India ; Nismtus (4 sp.), Africa and South Europe, India, Ceylon, and Australia ; LopJiotriorchis (2 sp.), Indo-Malay sub-region, and Bogota in South America; Neopus (1 sp.), India and Ceylon to Burmah, Java, Celebes and Ternate ; Spiziastur (1 sp.), Guatemala to Brazil ; Spizmtus (10 sp.). Central and South America, Africa, India, and Ceylon, to Celebes and New Guinea, Formosa, and Japan ; Lophoaetus (1 sp.), all Africa ; Asturinula (1 sp.), Africa, except extreme south ; Herpetotheres (1 sp.), Bolivia and Paraguay to Southern Mexico ; Dryotriorchis (1 sp.). West Africa ; Circaetus (5 sp.) Africa to Central Europe, the Indian Peninsula, Timor ; Spilornis (6 sp.). Oriental region and Celebes ; Butastur (4 sp.). Oriental region to New Guinea and North-east Africa ; Helotarsus (2 sp.), Africa south of the Sahara ; Haliceetus (7 sp.), cosmopolitan, except the Neotropical region ; Gypohierax (1 sp.). West Africa and Zan- zibar ; Haliastur (2 sp.), Indian Peninsula to Ceylon, New Cale- CHAP. XVIII.J BIRDS. 349 donia, and Australia ; Nauderus (= Elanoides) (1 sp.), Brazil to Southern United States ; FAanoides (= Nauderus) (1 sp.), Wes- tern and North-eastern Africa ; Milvus (6 sp.), the Old World and Australia ; Lophoidinia (1 sp.), Australia ; Rostrhamus (3 sp.), Antilles and Florida to Brazil and Peru ; Leptodon (4 sp.). Central America to South Brazil and Bolivia ; Gypoidinia (1 sp.). South and West Australia ; Elanus (5 sp.), Africa, India, and Malay Archipelago to Australia, South America to California ; Gampsonyx (1 sp.), Trinidad to Brazil ; Henicopernis (1 sp.), Papuan Islands ; Madwerhamphus (2 sp.), South-west Africa, Madagascar, and Malacca; Pernis (3 sp.), Palaearctic, Oriental, and Ethiopian regions. Sub-family V. Falconing (11 genera, 80 species), cosmopolitan. —Baza (10 sp.), India and Ceylon to the Moluccas and North Australia, West Coast of Africa, Natal, and Madagascar ; Har- pagus (3 sp.). Central America to Brazil and Peru ; Idinia (2 sp.), Brazil to Southern United States ; Rierax {=Microhierax, Sharpe), (4 sp.). Eastern Himalayas to Borneo and Philippines ; Polio- hierax (2 sp.). East Africa and Burmah ; Spiziapteryx (1 sp.), La Plata ; Rarpa (1 sp.). New Zealand and the Auckland Islands ; Faleo (27 sp.), cosmopolitan, except the Pacific Islands ; ITierofalco (6 sp.), Nearctic and Palsearctic regions ; Hieracidea (2 sp.), Australia ; Cerchneis (22 sp.), cosmopolitan, except Oceania. Family 97.— PANDIONID^. (2 Genera, 3 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. N EARCTIC SCB-REGIONi PAL/EARCTIC Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental ■ sub-kegions. Australian Sub-regions. -2.3.4- I .2.3.4 1. 2.3.4. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 The Pandionidse, or Fishing Hawks, are universally distributed, with the exception of the Southern Temperate parts of South America. The genera are : — Pandion (1 sp.), the range of the entire family ; Polioaetus (2 sp.), India through Malay Archipelago to Celebes and Sandwich Islands. 850 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. Family 98.— STRIGID^. (23 Genera, 180 Species.) General Distribution. Neotbopicm, Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic sub-kegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions, Oriental sub-hegions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3. 4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3 .4. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3 .4 1.2.3.4 The Strigidee, or Owls, form an extensive and well-known family of nocturnal birds, which, although invariably placed next the Hawks, are now believed to be not very closely allied to the other Accipitres. They range over the whole globe, extending to the extreme polar regions and to the remotest oceanic islands. Their classification is very unsettled, and we therefore place the genera, for convenience, in the order in which they follow each other in the Hand List of Birds. Those adopted by most orni- thologists are the following : — Sitrnia (1 sp.), the Arctic regions of both hemispheres ; Nydea (l^p.). South Carolina to Greenland and Northern Europe; Athene (40 sp.), the Eastern hemisphere to New Zealand and the Solomon Islands ; Ninox (7 sp.), the Oriental region, North China and Japan; Glaucidium (7 sp.), Neotropical region, California, and Oregon, Europe to North China ; Micrathene (1 sp.), Mexico and Arizona ; Pholeoptynx (2 sp.), Neotropical region, Texas, and North-west America; Bubo (16 sp.), universally distributed, ex- cluding the Australian region ; Ketupa (3 sp.), the Oriental region, Palestine; Scotopelia (2 sp.), West and South Africa; Scops (30 sp.), universally distributed, excluding Australia and Pacific Islands ; Gymnoglaux (2 sp.), Antilles; Lophostrix (2 sp.). Lower Amazon to Guatemala; Sijrnium (22 sp.), all regions but the Australian ; Giccaba (10 sp.), Paraguay to Mexico ; Nijctala- tinus (1 sp.), Columbia; Pulsatrix (2 sp.), Brazil and Peru to Guatemala ; Asia (6 sp.), all regions but the Australian, Sandwich Islands ; Nyctalops (1 sp.), Cuba and Mexico to Brazil and Monte Video ; Pseudoseops (1 sp.), Jamaica ; Nyctala (4 sp.), the North Temperate zone ; Strix (18 sp.), universally distri- buted ; Phodilus (1 sp.), Himalayas and Malaya. CHAP, xviii.] BI11D3. 351 In Mr. Sharpe's Catalogue (published while this work was passing through the press) the genera of Owls are reduced to 19, arranged in two families — Strigidse, containing our last two genera, and Bubonidse, comprising the remainder. The species are increased to 190; but some genera are reduced, as Strix, which is said to contain only 5 species. General Remarks on the Distribution of the Accipitres. The Birds of Prey are so widely distributed over the world's surface that their general distribution calls for few remarks. Of the four families all but one are cosmopolites, Vultures alone being absent from the Australian region, as well as from Indo-Malaya and Madagascar. If we take the sub-families, we find that each region has several which are confined to it. The only parts of the world where there is a marked deficiency of Accipitres is in the islands of the Pacific ; and it may be noted, as a rule, that these birds are more abundant in continents than in islands. There is not so much difference between the number of Birds of Prey in tropical and temperate regions, as is found in most other groups of land-birds. North America and Europe have about 60 species each, while India has about 80, and South America about 120. The total number of Accipitres is 550 comprised in 104 genera, and 4 (or perhaps more properly 5) families. In this estimate I have not included the Serpen- tariidse, containing the Secretary Bird of Africa, as there is some doubt whether it really belongs to the Order, Order VIII.—GRALLM Family 99.— KALLID^. (18 Genera, 153 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical SUB-REGfONS. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub- REGIONS. Ethiopian SUB-REGiONS. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3.4. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1 .2.3.4 1.2.3.4 The Eails are among the most widely distributed families of birds, many of the genera being cosmopolitan, and several of the 352 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. species ranging over half the globe. They are found in many re- mote islands ; and in some of these — as the Gallinula of Tristan d'Acunha, and the Notomis of Lord Howe's Island and New Zea- land,— they have lost the power of flight. The classification of the Eallidse is not satisfactory, and the following enumeration of the genera must only be taken as affording a provisional sketch of the distribution of the group : — Rallus (18 sp.), Porzana (24 sp.), Gallinula (17 sp.), and Fulica (10 sp.), have a world-wide range ; Ortygometra (1 sp.), ranges over the whole North Temperate zone ; Porphyrio (14 sp.), is more especially Oriental and Australian, but occurs also in South America, in Africa, and in South Europe ; Eulabeornis (15 sp.), is Ethiopian, Malayan, and Australian ; Himantornis (1 sp.), is West African only ; Aramides (24 sp.), is North and South American ; Rallina (16 sp.), is Oriental, but ranges east- ward to Papua ; Habroptila (1 sp.), is confined to the Moluccas ; Pareudiastes (1 sp.), the Samoa Islands ; Tribonyx (4 sp.), is Australian, and has recently been found also in New Zealand ; Ocydromus (4 sp.) ; Notomis (2 sp.), (Plate XIII. Vol. I. p. 455) ; and Cabalus (1 sp.), are peculiar to the New Zealand group. The sub-family, Heliornithinse (sometimes classed as a distinct family) consists of 2 genera, Heliornis (1 sp.), confined to the Neotropical region ; and Podica (4 sp.), the Ethiopian region ex- cluding Madagascar, and with a species (perhaps forming mother genus) in Borneo. Extinct Ballidce. — Remains of some species of this family have been found in the Mascarene Islands, and historical evidence shows that they have perhaps been extinct little more than a century. They belong to the genus Fulica, and to two extinct genera, Aphanapteryx and Erytlironiachus. The Aphanaptcryx was a large bird of a reddish colour, with loose plumage, and perhaps allied to Ocydromus. Erythromachus was much smaller, of a grey-and-white colour, and is said to have lived chiefly on the eggs of the land-tortoises. (See lUs, 1869, p. 256 ; and Proc. Zool. Soc, 1875, p. 40.) CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 353 Family 100.— SCOLOPACID^. (21 Genera, 121 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical sub-reoions. Nearctic sub-reoions. Pal^arctic sub-beoions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Adstraliam Sub-regions. i.a.'*.^'! i.iis.3.^1 i . a.a .^ i.2i.a.4{ i.a.3.4. 1.2.3.4 The Scolopacidse, comprehending the Snipes, Sandpipers, Cur- lews, and allied genera, are perhaps as truly cosmopolitan as any family of birds, ranging to the extreme north and visiting the remotest islands. The genera of universal distribution are the following : — Numenius (16 sp.) ; Limosa (6 sp.) ; Totanus (12 sp.) ; Trin- goides, (6 sp.) ; Himantopus (6 sp.) ; Tringa (20 sp.) ; and Galli- nago (24 sp.). Those which have a more or less restricted dis- tribution are : — Ibidorhyncha (1 sp.), Central Asia and the Himalayas (Plate VII. Vol. I. p. 331) ; Helodromas (1 sp.), Palsearctic region and North India; Terekia (1 sp.). East Palsearctic, wandering to India and Australia ; Becurvirostra (6 sp.), Nearctic region to the High Andes, South Palsearctic, East and South Africa, Hin- dostan and Australia ; Micropelama (1 sp.). North America to Chili ; Machetes (1 sp.), Palaearctic region and Hindostan (Plate I. Vol. I. p. 195) ; Ereunetes (3 sp.), Nearctic and Neo- tropical ; Eiirinorhynchus (1 sp.). North-east Asia and Bengal ; Calidris (1 sp.), all regions but Australian ; Macrorhamjahus (3 sp.), Palffiarctic and Nearctic, visits Brazil and India ; Scolopax (4 sp.), the whole Palsearctic region, to India, Java, and Australia ; Philohela (1 sp.), East Nearctic ; Rhijnclma (4 sp.), Ethiopian and Oriental, Australia, and Temperate South America ; Phalaropus (3 sp.), North Temperate zone, and West Coast of America to Chili. 354 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. Family 101.— CHIONIDID^. fl Genus, 2 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical i Neakctic I PAL.«AkvjTic 1 Ethiopian SUB-KEOIONS. SOB-REOIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. Obikntal I Australian SUB-BEGIONS. SUB-EEGIONS. The Sheath-bills, Chionis (2 sp.), are curious white birds, whose thick bill has a horny sheath at the base. Their nearest ally is Hcematopus, a genus of Charadriidte. These birds are confined to the Antarctic Islands, especially the Falkland Islands, the Crozets and Kerguelen's Land. Family 102.— THINOCOPJD^. (2 Genera, 6 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Neabctic Sob-regions. PAL.EARCTIC SUB-KEGIONS. Ethiopian Oriental sub-regionh. sob-beoions. Australian Sub-regions. 1 The Thinocoridffi, or Quail-snipes, are small birds, confined to Temperate South America. They have much the appearance of Quails but are more nearly allied to Plovers. The two genera are :- Attagis (4 sp.), Falkland Islands, Straits of Magellan, Chili, Bolivia, and the High Andes of Peru and Ecuador ; Thinocorus (2 sp.). La Plata, Chili, and Peru. (Plate XVI. Vol. II. p. 40.) Family 103.— PAKEID^. (2 Genera, 11 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions Nearctic sub-beoions. Pal.«arctic sub-keoions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. -2.3 - 1. a. 3. A 1 .2.3.4 1.2 CHAP. XVllI.] BIRDS. 355 The ParridcT, or Jacanas, are remarkable long-toed birds, often of elegant plumage, frequenting swamps and marshes, and walk- ing on the floating leaves of aquatic plants. They are found in all the tropics. Parra (10 sp.), has the distribution of the family ; Hydruphasianus (1 sp.), is confined to the Oriental region. Family 104.— GLAREOLID^. (3 Genera, 20 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pai,.«:arctic sub-kegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian sub-regi0n3. 1.2.3.41.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2 This family, comprising the Pratincoles and Coursers, is universally distributed over the Old World and to Australia. Glareola (9 sp.), has the distribution of the family ; Pluvia- nus (1 sp.), is confined to North Africa; Cursorius (10 sp.), ranges over Africa, South Europe and India. The position of the genus Glareola is uncertain, for though generally classed here. Prof. Lilljeborg considers it to be an aberrant form of the Caprimulgidse ! It differs, in its insecti- vorous habits and in many points of external structure, from all its allies, and should probably form a distinct family. Family 105.— CHAPtADIID^. (19 Genera, 101 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical StrB-REGIONS. 1.2.3.4 Nearctic Sub-begions. 1.2.3.4 Pal^arctic Sub-regions. 1.2.3.4 Ethiopian Sub-regions. 1.2.3.4 Oriental Sob-beoions. 1.2.3.3 AUSTRALIAM SUB-BEGIONa. 1.2.3.4 The extensive family of the Plovers and their numerous allies, ranges over the whole globe. The genera now usually admitted into this family are the following : — CEclicnemus (9 sp.), is only absent from K'orth America ; .■Esacus (2 sp.), India to Ceylon, Malay Islands and Austraha ; 356 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. Vanellus (3 sp.), Pala3arctic and Neotropical regions ; Chcetusia (15 sp.), the whole Eastern Hemisphere ; Erythrogonys (1 sp.), Australia ; Uoplopterus (10 sp.), widely scattered, but absent from North America ; Squatarola (1 sp.), all the regions ; Cha- radrius (14 sp.), cosmopolitan ; Eudromias (5 sp.). Eastern Hemi- sphere and South Temperate America ; jEgialitis (22 sp.), cos- mopolitan ; Oreophilus (1 sp.). South Temperate America ; Thinornis (2 sp.). New Zealand; Anarhynchus (1 sp.). New Zealand (Plate XIII. Vol I. p. 455) ; Hcematopus (9 sp.), cos- mopolitan ; Strepsilas (2 sp.) almost cosmopolitan ; Aphriza (1 sp.), West Coast of America ; Pluvianellus (1 sp.), Straits of Magellan ; Dromas (1 sp.), India, Madagascar, and North-east Africa; Pedionomus (1 sp.), Australia. This last genus has usually been placed with the Turnicidse. Family 106.— OTIDIU^. (2 Genera, 26 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical SUB-REOIOiTS. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Ethiopian Sub-regions. Sub-regionb. Oriental sub-reoions. Australian Sub-regions. ■- 1.2.3.4 1.2 .3 - 1.2.3 — _ 2 The Otididse, or Bustards, occur in all parts of the Old World and Australia where there are open tracts, being only absent from Madagascar and the Malay Archipelago. Otis (2 sp.), ranges over most of the Palsearctic region ; while Eupodotis (24 sp.), has the range of the family, but is most abund- ant in the Ethiopian region, which contains three-fourths of the whole number of species. Family 107.— GRUID^. (3 Genera, 16 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic SUB-REOlONa. 1.2.3 Pal^arctic sub-keoions. 1.2.3.4 Ethiopian Sub-regions. 1.2.3 Oriental I Australian Sub-regions. Sob-eegioks. 1.2.3 _ a CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 357 The Gruidse, or Cranes, are found in all the regions except the Neotropical. Grus (12 sp.) inhabits the southern and western United States, the whole Palsearctic region, South-east Africa, India, and Aus- tralia ; Anthropoid es (2 sp.), Europe, North and South Africa and India; Balearica (2 sp.), the Ethiopian region (except Madagascar). Family 108.— CAEIAMID^E. (1 Genus, 2 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Si'B-REGIONS. Nearctic Sub-regions. PaL/EARCTIC Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental I AosTRALrAN Sub-reoions. Sub-reqions. 1 .2 The genus Cariama (2 sp.), consists of remarkable crested birds inhabiting the mountains and open plains of Brazil and La Plata. In the British Museum Catalogue of the Birds of Prey, they are classed as aberrant Ealconidse, but their anomalous characters seem to require them to be placed in a distinct family, which seems better placed among the Waders. Family 109.— AEAMID.^. (1 Genus, 2 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical I Neabctic I Pal.«:arctic I Ethiopian i Oriental Sub-region.'!. | Sub-regions. Sub-kegions. Sub-regions. Sub-kegions. Australian Sub-reoions. — 2.3.4 The Guaraiinas are birds which have somewhat the appear- ance of Herons, but which are usually classed with the Eails. They are now, however, considered to form a distinct family. The only genus, Aramus (2 sp.), inhabits the Neotropical region, from Mexico and Cuba to Central Brazil. 358 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. Family 110.— PSOPHIID^, (1 Genus, 6 Species.) Gexkral Distribution. ^."EOTKOl'ICAL SlIB-REGIONS. Nearctic Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Pub-regions. Ethiopian Oriental Sub-regions. Sub-kegions. Australian Sub-regions. I 1 { ! The remarkable and beautiful birds called Trumpeters, are confined to the various parts of the Amazon valley ; and it is an interesting fact, tliat the range of each species appears to be bounded by some of the great rivers. Thus, Psophia crepitans inhabits the interior of Guiana as far as the south bank of the Hio Negro ; on the opposite or north bank of the Kio Negro Psophia ochroptera is found ; beyond the next great rivers, Japura and I^a, Psophia napensis occurs ; on the south bank of the Amazon, west of the Madeira, we have the beautiful Psophia leucoptera ; east of the Madeira this is replaced by Psophia viridis, while near Para, beyond the Tapajoz, Xingu and Tocan- tins, there is another species, Psophia ohscura. Other species may exist in the intervening river districts ; but we have here, apparently, a case of a number of well-marked species of birds capable of flight, yet with their range in certain directions accurately defined by great rivers. (Plate XV. Vol. II. p. 28.) Family HI.— EURYPYGID^. (1 Genus, 2 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-region.s. Nearctic Sub-regions. — 2 .3 Pal^arctic Sub-kegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. The EurypygidsB, or Sun-Bitterns, are small heron-like birds with beautifully- coloured wings, which frequent the muddy and wooded river-banks of tropical America. The only genus, Eurypijga (2 sp.), ranges from Central America to Brazil. CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 359 Family 112.— EHINOCHETID^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) General Distkibution. Neotropical Stjb-rboioks. NE ARCTIC Sub-regions. Pal^arctic sub-begions. Ethiopian sub-reqions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. The genus Bhinochetus (1 sp.), consists of a singular bird called the Kagu, which inhabits New Caledonia, an island which may be placed with almost equal propriety in our 1st, 2nd, or 3rd Australian sub-regions. It is a bird of a bluish ash-colour, with a loose plumage, partaking something of the appearance of Eail, Plover, and Heron, but with peculiarities of structure which require it to be placed in a distinct family. Its anatomy shows that its nearest allies are the South American genera, Eurypyga and Psophia. Family 113.— AEDEIDiE. (5 Genera, 80 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical sub-rbgions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^earctic Sub-hegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. avstrahan Sub-regions. 1.2.3.4 1 .2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3 .4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 The well-known Herons and Bitterns are found in every part of the globe, and everywhere closely resemble each other. Omitting the minuter sub-divisions, the genera are as follows : — Ardea (60 sp.), cosmopolitan ; Botaurus (6 sp.), almost cos- mopolitan ; Tigrisoma (4 sp.), Tropical America and West Africa; Nydicorax (9 sp.), cosmopolitan ; Cancroma (1 sp.). Tropical America. Vol. II.— 24 360 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. Family 114.— PLATALEID^. (6 Genera, 30 Species.) Genekal Distuibution. Neotropical bub-reoions. Nearctic Sob-regions. PaL/EARCTIC SUB-KEQIONS. Ethiopian SUB-REOIONM. Oriental 8UB-RE0I0N3. Australian sub-reoions. 1 .2.3 .4 1.2.3.4 ' 1 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1 .2.3.4 1.2 The Plataleidae, including the Spoonbills and Ibises, have been classed either with the Herons or the Storks, but have most affinity with the latter. Though not very numerous they are found over the greater part of the globe, except the colder zones and the Pacific Islands. The following is the distribu- tion of the genera : — Platalea {6 sp.), all the warmer parts of the globe except the Moluccas and Pacific Islands; Ihis (2 sp.), Temperate North America and Tropical South America ; Falcinellus (2 sp.), almost cosmopolitan ; Geronticus (19 sp.), all Tropical countries and Temperate South America; Scopus (1 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; Balceniceps (1 sp.), the Upper Nile. This last genus the "Shoe-bird," or boat-billed heron, perhaps forms a distinct family. Family 115.— CICONIID^. (5 Genera, 20 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Neakctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-hegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. l.a.3 — 3- 1.2.3 .4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2 The Ciconiidge, or Storks, are mostly an Old World family, only three species inhabiting the Neotropical, and one, the Nearctic region. They are also absent from the islands of the Pacific, the Antilles, and, with one exception, from Madagascar. The genera are as follows : — Ciconia (6 sp.), ranges through the Palsearctic, Ethiopian and CHAP. XVI II.] BIRDS. 361 Oriental regions as far as Celebes, and in South America ; Mycteria (4 sp.), inhabits Africa, India, Australia and the Neotropical region; Leptapiltus (3 sp.), the Ethiopian and Oriental regions to Java ; Tantalus (5 sp.), the Ethiopian, Oriental and Neotro- pical regions, and the South-east of North America; Anas- tomus (2 sp.), the Ethiopian region, and India to Ceylon. Family 116.— PALAMEDEID^. (2 Genera, 3 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Nearctic Pal^arctic Ethiopian ORIE^rrAL Australian SiTB-REoioNS. Sob-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regionb. Sob-reoions. Sub-regions. i.a The Palamedeidse, or Screamers, are curious semi-aquatic birds of doubtful affinities, perhaps intermediate between Gal- linse and Anseres. They are peculiar to South America. The genera are : — Palamedea (1 sp.), which inhabits the Amazon valley; Chauna (2 sp.). La Plata, Brazil and Columbia. Family 117.— PHCRNICOPTEEID^. (1 Genus, 8 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. 1-3.4. Nearctic I Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Sub-kegions. Ethiopian | Oriental Sub-regions. Sub-regions, 1.2.3.4 1.2 - Australian sub-beoions. The Flamingoes (Fhcenicopterus) seem peculiar to the Ethio- pian and Neotropical regions, ranging from the former into India and South Europe. America has four species, inhabit- ing Chili and La Plata, the Galapagos, Mexico and the West Indian islands ; the others range over aU Africa, South Europe, India and Ceylon. These singular birds are placed by some authors near the Spoonbills and Ibises, by others with the Geese. Professor Huxley considers them to be "completely 362 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. intermediate between the Anserine birds on the one side and the Storks and Herons on the other." The pterolysis according to Nitzsch is " completely stork-like." ' General Bemarks on the Distribution of the Orallce, or Wading and Runjiing Birds. The Waders, as a rule, are birds of very wide distribution, the four largest families EaUidse, Scolopacidae, Charadriidse and Ardeidse, being quite cosmopolitan, as are many of the genera. But there are also a number of small families of very restricted distribution, and these all occur in the two most isolated regions, the Neotropical and the Australian. The Neotropical region is by far the richest in varied forms of Waders, having representatives of no less than 15 out of the 19 families, while 7 are altogether peculiar to it. The Australian region has 11 families, with 1 peculiar. The other two tropical regions each possess 11 families, but none are peculiar. The Palsearctic region has 10, and the Nearctic 7 families. No less than three families — Chionididse, Thinocoridae, and Cariamidee — are confined to the Temperate regions and highlands of South America ; while four others, — Aramidse, Psophiidae, Eurypygidae and Palamedeidse, — are found in Tropical America only ; and these present such an array of peculiar and interesting forms as no other part of the globe can furnish. The Phoenicopteridse or Flamingoes, common to the Tropical regions of Asia, Africa and America, but abseut from Australia, is the only other feature of general interest presented by the distribution of the Waders. The Order contains about 610 species, which gives about 32 species to each family, a smaller average than in the Gallinse or Accipitres, and only about one-fourth of the average number in the Passeres. This is partly due to the unusual number of very small families, and partly to the wide average range of the species, which prevents that specialization of forms that occurs in the more sedentary groups of birds. CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 363 Order IX.—ANSERES. Family 118.— ANATID^. (40 Genera, 180 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Neaectic Sub-regions. Pal.earctic sub-keoions. Ethiopian scb-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-begions. i.a.3.4 1.2.3.4 1 . 2 . 3 .4 1.2.3 .4 1 .2.3.4 1 .2.3.4 The Anatidse, comprehending the Ducks, Geese, and Swans with their allies, are of such universal distribution that there is probably no part of the globe where some of them are not occasionally found. They are, however, most abundant in tem- perate and cold regions ; and, contrary to what occurs in most other families, the most beautifully-coloured species are extra- tropical, and some even arctic. The distribution of the genera is as follows : — Anseranas (1 sp.), Australia ; Pledropterus (2 sp.). Tropical Africa ; Sarkidiornis (1 sp.). South America, Africa, and India ; Chenalopex (1 sp.), Amazonia ; Callochen (1 sp.). South Europe, North, East, and South Africa ; Cereopsis (1 sp.), Australia ; Anser (13 sp.), Palaearctic and Nearctic regions to Central America and the Antilles ; Bernicla (12 sp.). Temperate regions of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres ; Chloephaga (5 sp.). South Temperate America and Aleutian Islands ; Nettapus (4 sp.), Tropical Africa and Madagascar, India and Ceylon to Malaya and Australia; Cygnus (10 sp.), Temperate regions of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres; Dendrocygna (10 sp.), Tropical and sub-tropical regions ; Tadorna (3 sp.), Palaearctic and Australian regions ; Casarca (5 sp.), Palaearctic, Oriental, Ethiopian, and Australian regions, to New Zealand ; Aix (2 sp.), Temperate North America and Eastern Asia ; Mareca (4 sp.), Palaearctic region. North America, Temperate South America, and Australia ; Dafila (3 sp.), all America and the Palaearctic region; Anas (16 sp.), cosmopolitan; Querquedida (17 sp.), 364 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. cosmopolitan ; Chaulelasmus (2 sp.), Palsearctic region and North America; Spatula (5 sp.), all Temperate regions; Malacorhynchiis (1 sp.), Australia; Cairina (1 sp.). Tropical South America; Branta (1 sp.), Palsearctic region and India ; Fuligula (5 sp.). North Temperate regions and New Zealand ; j^thija (5 sp.), Palsearctic and Nearctic regions, India, Australia, and South Africa ; Metopiana (1 sp.), South Temperate America ; Bucephala (4 sp.), Nearctic and Palsearctic regions ; Harelda (2 sp.). North- ern Palseartic and Nearctic regions ; Hymenolaimus (1 sp.), New Zealand ; Camptolaimus (1 sp.). North-east of North America ; Micropterus (1 sp.). Temperate South America ; Somateria (5 sp.), Arctic and sub-arctic regions ; CEdemia (5 sp.), Nearctic and Palsearctic regions; Biziura (1 sp.), Australia; Thalassornis (1 sp.), South Africa ; Erismatura (6 sp.), all America, South- east Europe and South Africa; Nesonetta (1 sp.), Auckland Islands ; Merganetta (3 sp.), Andes of Columbia to Chili ; Mer- gus (6 sp.), Palsearctic and Nearctic regions, Brazil, and the Auckland Islands. Family 119.— LAEID^. (13 Genera, 132 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic sub-reoioms. pal.e arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub- REGIONS. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3. 4 1.2.3.4 1 .2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3 .4 The Laridae, or Gulls and Terns, are true cosmopolites, in- habiting the shores and islands of every zone ; and most of the genera have also a wide range. They are therefore of little use in the study of geographical distribution. The genera are as follows : — Stercorarius (6 sp.), cosmopolitan, most abundant in cold and temperate zones; Bhodostethia (1 sp), North America; Larus (60 sp.). cosmopolitan ; Xema (1 sp.), North Temperate zone ; Creagrus (1 sp.), North Pacific ; Fagophila (1 sp.), Arctic seas ; J?ma (3 sp.), Arctic and Northern seas; Sterna (36 sp.), cos- mopolitan ; Hydrochelidon (12 sp.), Tropical and Temperate zones; CHAP. XVllI.] BIRDS. 365- Gygis (1 sp.), Indian Ocean and Tropical Pacific Islands ; Anous (6 sp.), Tropical and Temperate zones ; Ncenia (1 sp.), South Temperate America ; Bhynchcyps (3 sp.), Tropical America, Africa, and India. Family 120.— PEOCELLARIID^. (6 Genera, 96 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic sub-eeoions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental sub-regions. Australian sub-reoioss. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1 1.2.3.4 1.2. 3.4 1.2.3 4 The Procellariidse, comprising the Shearwaters, Petrels, and Albatrosses, are universally distributed, but some of the genera are local. Puffinus (20 sp.), Procellaria (18 sp.), and Fulmarus (40 sp,), are cosmopolitan ; Prion (5 sp.) and Pelecanoides (3 sp.), belong to the South Temperate and Antarctic regions ; Diomedia (10 sp.), comprises the Albatrosses, which are tropical, occasionally wandering into temperate seas. Family 121.— PELECANID^. (6 Genera, 61 Species.) General Distribution. NKOTROPTCAi, SlB-REGlONS. Neabctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic sub-uegioss. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian SUB-KEGION.-j. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4| 1. 2. 3. 41. 2. 3. 4|l. 2.3.41 1.2.3.4 The Pelecanidae, comprising the Gannets, Pelicans, Darters, and Frigate-Birds, although universally distributed, are more abundant in tropical and temperate regions. Sula (8 sp.) and Plialacrocorax (35 sp.), are cosmopolitan ; Pelecanus (9 sp.) is tropical and temperate ; Fregetta (2 sp.) and Phaeton (3 sp.) are confined to Tropical seas ; Ptotus (4 sp.) to Tropical and warm Temperate zones. '366 GEOGJRAPHICAL ZOOLOaY. [part IV, Family 122.— SPHENISCID^. (3 Genera, 18 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Nearctic Pal^arctic \ Ethiopian Oriental Adstraliak sub-begions. sub-reoions. sub-regions. sub-regions. sub-regions. sub-regions. 1.2 The Penguins are entirely confined to the Antarctic and South Temperate regions, except two species which are found on the coast of Peru and the Galapagos. They are most plentiful in the southern parts of South America, Australia, New Zealand, and most of the Antarctic islands, and one or two species are found at the Cape of Good Hope. The genera as given in the Hand List are : — Spheniscus (1 sp.). South Africa and Cape Horn ; Eudyptes (15 sp.), with the range of the family ; Aptenodytes (2 sp.), Ant- arctic Islands. Family 123.— COLYMBID^. (1 Genus, 4 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Neakctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctio Sub-kegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 3.4 The Northern Divers are confined to the Arctic and North Temperate Seas. The only genus, Colymhus, has one species confined to the West Coast of North America, the others .being common to the two northern continents. Family 124— PODICIPID^. (2 Genera, 33 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Ne arctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regioks. 1.2 .3 .4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 CHAP, xviii.] BIRDS. 367 The Grebes are universally distributed. The genera are Podiceps (26 sp.), cosmopolitan ; and Podilymbus (2 sp.), confined to North and South America. Some ornithologists group these birds with the Colymbidse. Family 125.— ALCID^. (7 Genera, 28 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical scb-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1 4 1-3.4. The Alcidse, comprising the Auks, Guillemots, and Puffins, are confined to the North Temperate and Arctic regions, where they represent the Penguins of the Antarctic lands. One of the most remarkable of these birds, the Great Auk, formerly abundant in the North Atlantic, is now extinct. The genera are as follows : — Alca (2 sp.). North Atlantic and Arctic seas ; Fratercula (4 sp.), Arctic and North Temperate zones ; Ceratorhina ( 2 sp.), North Pacific ; Simorhynchus (8 sp.). North Pacific ; Brachy- rhamphus (3 sp.). North Pacific to Japan and Lower California ; Uria (8 sp.), Arctic and North Temperate zones ; Merguhis (1 sp.), North Atlantic and Arctic Seas. The last three genera constitute the family Uriidae, of some ornithologists. General Remarks on the Distribution of the Anseres. The Anseres, or Swimmers, being truly aquatic birds, possess, as might be expected, a large number of cosmopolitan families and genera. No less than 5 out of the 8 families have a world- wide distribution, and the others are characteristic either of the North or the South Temperate zones. Hence arises a pecu- liarity of distribution to be found in no other order of birds ; the Temperate being richer than the Tropical regions. The Ne- arctic and Palaiarctic regions each have seven families of Anseres, two of w^hich, the Colymbidse and Alcidae, are peculiar to them. The Ethiopian, Australian, and Neotropical regions, which all 368 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. extend into the South Temperate zone, have six families, vi^ith one peculiar to them; while the Oriental region, which is wholly tropical, possesses the five cosmopolitan families only. There are about 78 genera and 552 species of Anseres, giving 69 species to a family, a high number compared with the Waders, and due to there being only one very small family, the Colymbidse. The distribution of the Anseres, being more deter- mined by temperature than by barriers, the great regions which are so well indicated by the genera and families of most other orders of birds, hardly limit these, except in the case of the genera of Anatidse. Order X.—STRUTHIONES. Family 126.— STRUTHIONID^. (2 Genera, 4 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical | Neabctic Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Pal^earctic sub-hegions. Ethiopian I Oriental Sub-regions. Sub-reqions. Australian Sub-Kegions. The Ostriches consist of two genera, sometimes formed into distinct families. Struthio (2 sp.) inhabits the desert regions of North, East, and South Africa, as well as Arabia and Syria. It therefore just enters the Palaearctic region. Rhea (3 sp.) inhabits Temperate South America, from Patagonia to the confines of Brazil. Family 127.— CASUARIIDiE. (2 Genera, 11 Species.> General Distribution. Neotropical Scb-regions. Nearctic scb-begions. Pal.«abctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Oriental SUB-RKGIONH. SdB-RBOIONS. Australian SUB-REGIONa. 1 1 1 1.2 ! The Cassowaries and Emeus are confined to the Australian region. The Emeus, Bromceus (2 sp.), are found only on the CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 369 main-land of Australia (Plate XII. Vol. I. p. 441). Casuarius (9 sp.) inhabits the islands from Ceram to New Britain, with one species in North Australia ; it is most abundant in the Papuan Islands. Family 128.— APTERYGID^. (1 Genus, 4 Species.) General Distribution. Neocbopical sub-r»gions. Neakctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic sub-hegions. Ethiopian sub-begio.ns. Oriental sub-keqions. Australian Sub-regions. The species of Apteryx are entirely confined to the two larger islands of New Zealand. They are supposed to have some remote affinity with Ocydromus, a genus of Eails peculiar to Australia and New Zealand ; but they undoubtedly form one of the most remarkable groups of living birds (Plate XIII. Vol. I. p. 445). Struthious Birds recently extinct. A number of sub-fossil remains of birds, mostly large and some of gigantic size, having affinities to the Apteryx and, less closely, to the Cassowaries, have been discovered in New Zealand. These are all classed by Professor Owen in the genus Dinornis and family Dinornithidce ; but Dr. Haast, from the study of the rich collections in the Canterbury (New Zealand) Museum, is convinced that they belong to two distinct families and several genera. His arrangemeiit is as follows. (See Ihis, 1874, p. 209). Family 129.— DINORNITHID^. (2 Genera, 7 Species.) Dinornis (5 sp.) ; Meionornis (2 sp.). These had no hind toe, and include the largest species. Pro- fessor Newton thinks that they were absolutely wingless, being the only birds in which the fore limbs are entirely wanting. 370 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. Family 130.— PALAPTERYGID^. (2 Genera, 4 Species.) Pala'pteryx (2 sp.) ; Euryapteryx (2 sp.). These had a well-developed hind toe, and rudimentary wings. Family 131.— ^PYORNITHID^. (1 Genus, 3 Species.) A gigantic Struthious bird (^pyornis), belonging to a distinct family, inhabited Madagascar. It was first made known by its enormous eggs, eight times the bulk of those of the ostrich, which were found in a sub- fossil condition. Considerable portions of skeletons have since been discovered, showing that these huge birds formed an altogether peculiar family of the order. General Remarks on the Distribution of the Struthiones. With the exception of the Ostrich, which has spread north- ward into the Palsearctic region, the Struthious birds, living and extinct, are confined to the Southern hemisphere, each continent having its peculiar forms. It is a remarkable fact that the two most nearly allied genera, Struthio and Rhea, should be found in Africa and South Temperate America respectively. Equally re- markable is the development of these large forms of wingless birds in Australia and the adjacent islands, and especially in New Zealand, where we have evidence which renders it probable that about 20 species recently coexisted. This points to the conclusion that New Zealand must, not long since, have formed a much more extensive land, and that the diminution of its area by subsidence has been one of the causes—and perhaps the main one — in bringing about the extinction of many of the larger species of these wingless birds. The wide distribution of the Struthiones may, as we have already suggested (Vol. I., p. 287.), be best explained, by sup- posing them to represent a very ancient type of bird, developed at a time when the more specialized carnivorous mammalia had CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 371 not come into existence, and preserved only in those areas which were long free from the incursions of such dangerous enemies. The discovery of Struthious remains in Europe in the Lower Eocene only, supports this view ; for at this time carnivora were few and of generalized type, and had probably not acquired sufficient speed and activity to enable them to exterminate powerful and quick-running terrestrial birds. It is, however, at a much more remote epoch that we may expect to find the remains of the earlier forms of this group ; while these Eocene birds may perhaps represent that ancestral wide-spread type which, when isolated in remoter continents and islands, became modified into the American and African ostriches, the Emeus and Cassowaries of Australia, the Dinornis and u^'pyornis of New Zealand. CHAPTER XIX. THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES AND GENERA OF REPTILES AND AMPHIBIA. REPTILIA. Order L—OPHIDIA. Family 1.— TYPHLOPID^.— (4 Genera, 70 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Neabctic sub-reoions. Pal«arctic sub-hegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. -2.3.4 — 2 - 4. 1 .2 .3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2 The Typhlopidse, or Blind Burrowing Snakes, are widely scattered over the warmer regions of the earth, but are most abundant in the Oriental and Australian regions, and least so in the Neotropical. They are absent from the Nearctic region ; and in the Palaearctic are found only in South-eastern Europe and Japan. The most extensive genus is Typhlops, comprising over 60 species, and having a range almost as extensive as the entire family. The other well characterised genera are : — Typhlina (1 sp.), ranging from Penang to Java and Hong Kong ; Typhline (1 sp.), the Cape of Good Hope ; Dihamus (1 sp.), New- Guinea. CHAP. XIX.] REPTILES. 373 Family 2.— TOETKICID^. (3 Genera 5 Species.) General Distkibuiiox. Neotropical sub-rbgions. Nearctic sub-reoions. Pal^arctic SUB-KEGIONS. Ethiopian Sl'B-REGIONS. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian SuB-REnloNS. -2.3- 1 i.a.3.4 1 The Tortricidse, or Short-tailed Burrowing Snakes, are a small family, one portion of which ranges from India to Cambodja, and through the Malay islands as far as Celebes and Timor ; these form the genus Cylindrophis. Another portion inhabits America, and consists of: — Charina (1 sp.), found in California and British Columbia; and Tortrix (1 sp.), in Tropical America. We have here a case of discontinuous distribution, indicating, either very imperfect knowledge of the group, or that it is the remnant of a once extensive family, on the road to extinction. Family 3.— XENOPELTID^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-hegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Australian Sub-regions. Sub-regions. 1 1 3 A 1 1 I The curious nocturnal carnivorous Snake, forming the genus Xenopeltis, and the sole representative of this family, ranges froni Penang to Cambodja, and through the Malay Islands to Celebes. Family 4.— UEOPELTII>iE. (5 Genera, 18 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical •scb-rfoions. Neaectic . Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Sub-hegions. Ethiopian | Oriental Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 374 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. The Uropeltidse, or Eough-tailed Burrowing Snakes, are strictly confined to Ceylon and the adjacent parts of Southern India, and would almost alone serve to mark out our second Oriental sub-region. The genera are : — Bhinophis (7 sp.), Ceylon ; Uropeltis (1 sp.), Ceylon ; Silybura (8 sp.), Anamally Hills and Neilgherries ; Plecturus (3 sp.), Neil- gherries and Madras ; and MelaTwjphidium (1 sp.), the Wynand. Family 5.— CALAMARIID^. (32 Genera, 75 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sl/B-REOIONS. Nearctic sob-hegions. Pal^arctic sub-begions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sdb-reoions. Australian Sub-regions. i.a.3.4. 1.2.3 - _ 2 1.2.3 - 1.2.3.4 1.2 The Calamariida3, or Dwarf Ground Snakes, are found in all warm parts of the globe, extending north into the United States as far as British Columbia and Lake Superior; but they are absent from the Palsearctic region, with the exception of a species found in Persia. The species are in a very confused state. The best characterised genera are the following : — Calamaria (20 sp.), Persia, India to Java and the Philippine Islands, Celebes, and New Guinea ; Rhahdosoma (18 sp.), Mexico and South America, and also the Malay Islands as far east as Amboyna, Timor, and New Guinea; Typhlocalartius (1 sp.), Borneo ; Macrocalamus (1 sp.), India ; Aspidura (3 sp.), India and Ceylon ; Haplocerus (1 sp.), Ceylon ; Streptophorus (3 sp.), Central and South America ; — with a host of others of less im- portance or ill-defined. Family 6.— OLIGODONTID^. (4- Genera, 40 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical I Neaectic Sub-regions. Sub-beoions. -2.3 - 3 Paljeakctic Sub-kegions. 4. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. 1.2.3.4 Australian Sub-beoions, CHAP. XIX.] REPTILES. 375 The Oligodontidse are a small family of Ground Snakes which have been separated from the Calamariidse, and, with the excep- tion of a few species, are confined to the Oriental region. The best characterised genera are : — Oligodon (12 sp.), India, Ceylon, and Philippines ; dXiA, Simotes (24 sp.), India to China and Borneo. In addition to these, Achalinus is founded on a single species from Japan; and Teleolcpis consists of three species from North and South America. Family 7.— COLUBRID^. (50 Genera, 270 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sdb-reoions. PALiEARCTIC SUB-REQIONS. Ethiopian StJB-BEOIONS. Oriental Sub-regions. AUSTRAI SUB-REO 1 .2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2 - The Colubrine Snakes are universally distributed over the globe, and they reach the extreme northern limits of the order. They are, however, almost absent from Australia, being there represented only by a few species of Tropidonotus and Co7'onella in the northern and eastern districts. This great family consists of four divisions or sub-families : the Coronellinse (20 genera, 100 species), the Colubrinse (16 genera, 70 species), the Drya- dinse (7 genera, 50 species), and the Natricinse (7 genera, 50 species). The more important genera of Colubridae are the following : — Ahlabes, Coronella, Ptyas, Coluber, and Tropidonotus—aM have a very wide distribution, but the two last are absent from South America, although Tropidonotus reaches Guatemala ; Tomodon, Xenodon, Liopis, Stenorhina, Erythrolampus, Elapoch- rus, Callirhinus, Enophrys, and Dromicus — are confined to the Neotropical region; Rypsirhynchus, Cryptodacus, Jaltris, and Coloragia, are confined to the West Indian Islands ; Chilomenis- cus, Conophis, Pitu&pMs, and Ischcognathus, to North America, the latter going as far south as Guatemala ; Compsosoma, Zamenis, Zaocys, Atretium, Xenochrophys, and Herpetoreas, are peculiarly Oriental, but Zamenis extends into South Europe; YOL. II.— 25 376 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. Lytorhynchus, Ehamnophis, Herpetethiops and Grayia, are Ethio- pian ; Ehinechis is peculiar to Europe ; Megahlahes to Celebes, and Styporhynchus to Gilolo ; Cydophis, is found in the Oriental re- gion, Japan, and North America ; Spilotes, in the Nearctic and Neotropical regions ; Xendaphis in the Oriental, Ethiopian, and Palsearctic regions ; Philodryas, Hderodon and Herpetodryas in America and Madagascar, the latter genus being also found in China. Family 8.— HOMALOPSID^. (24 Genera, 50 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical sub-eegions. Nearctic sub-rbmions. PaL/EARCTIC SUB-UEGIONS. Ethiopian SUB-RliOIONS. Orifntvl Sdb-kigi jns. australiak Sub-regions. 1 -3 - 3 - — 2.3.4 _ a 1.2.3.4 1.2 The Homalopsidse, or Fresh- water Snakes, have been separated from the Hydridee by Dr. Gunther, and they include some groups which have been usually classed with the Natricinse. They are especially characteristic of the Oriental region, where consi- derably more than half the genera and species are found ; next comes the Neotropical region which has 6 species ; whUe none of the other regions have more than 4 or 5. It is to be observed that the Ethiopian species occur in West Africa only, and mostly constitute peculiar genera, so that in this family the separation of the Ethiopian and Oriental regions is very well marked. The best characterised genera of the family are the following : — Cantoria (10 sp.), ranging from Europe to Japan, the Philip- pines, and Timor, with one species in Guinea ; Hypsirhina (6 sp.), Bengal, China, and Borneo ; Fordonia (3 sp.), Rangoon to Borneo and Timor; Homalopsis (2 sp,), Cambodja to Java; Cerberus (2 sp.), Ceylon and Siam, the Malay Islands, New Guinea, and North Australia ; Eerpeton (1 sp.), Siam ; Ferania (1 sp.), Bengal to Penang ; Pythonopsis (1 sp.), Borneo ; Myron (2 sp.), India and North Australia ; HomalopMs (1 sp.), Borneo ; Hipistes (1 sp.), Penang; Xenodermus (1 sp.), Java; Neustero- phis and Limnophis, with one species each, are peculiar to West CHAP. XIX.] KEPTILES. 377 Africa ; Helicops (2 sp.), North and South America ; Farancia and Dimodes, with one species each, are from New Orleans ; and a few others imperfectly known from Tropical America. Family 9.— PSAMMOPHID^. (5 Genera, 20 Species.) General Distkibution. Neotropical sub-reoions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^abctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. — 2 1.2.3.4 1—3.4 — The Psammophidse, or Desert Snakes, are a small group characteristic of the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, but more abundant in the former. The distribution of the genera is as follows : — Psammopliis (16 sp.), ranges from West Africa to Persia and Calcutta ; Ccelopeltis (1 sp.), North and West Africa ; Mimophis (1 sp.), Madagascar ; Psammodynastes (2 sp.), Sikhim to Cochin China, Borneo and the Philippine Islands ; and Dromophis (1 sp.), Tropical Africa. Family 10.— EACHIODONTID^. (1 Genus, 2 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sob-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. 2.3 Oriental Sdb-reoions. Australian Sub-regions. The Eachiodontidae are a small and very isolated group of snakes of doubtful affinities. The only genus, Dasypeltis (2 sp.), is confined to West and South Africa. 378 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. Family 11.— DENDEOPHIDiE. (7 Genera, 35 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical SUBrREGIONS. i.a.3.4 Nearctio s ub-regioks. Pal^arctic sub-beqions. Ethiopian sub-rkgions. 1 . 2.3.4 Oriental sub-reoions. 1 .2.3.4 Australian Sub-regions. 1.2 The Dendrophidse, or Tree Snakes, are found in all the Tropical regions, but are most abundant in the Oriental. The genera are distributed as follows : — Dendrophis ranges from India and Ceylon to the Pelew Islands and North Australia, and has one species in West Africa; Ahmtulla is almost equally divided between Tropical Africa and Tropical America ; Gonyosoma ranges from Persia to Java and the Philippines ; Ghrysopclea is found in India, Borneo, the Philip- pines, Amboyna, and Mysol ; Hapsidropliis and Bucephalus are confined to Tropical Africa ; and Ithymjphus (1 sp.), is peculiar to Madagascar. Family 12.— DEYIOPHID^. (5 Genera, 15 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. PaL/Earctic I Ethiopian I Oriental Sub-begions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. a. 3— —2 — 4 1.2.3.4 1 The Dryiophidse, or Whip Snakes, are a very well characterised family of slender, green-coloured, arboreal serpents, found in the three tropical regions but absent from Australia, although they just enter the AustraHan region in the island of Celebes. In Africa they are confined to the West Coast and Madagascar. The genera are : — Bryiophis (4 sp.). Tropical America and West Africa : Tropi- dococcijx (1 sp.), Central India ; Tragops (4 sp.), Bengal to China, the Philippines, Java, and Celebes; Passerita (2 sp.), Ceylon CHAP, XIX.] REPTILES. 379 and the Indian Peninsula; and Langaha (2 sp.), confined to agascar. Family 13.— DIPSADID^. (11 Genera, 45 Species.) Madagascar. General Distribution. Neotropical sub-kegions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-eegions. Oriental Sub-regions. AOSTRALIAK SUB-REOIONS. -2.3- _ 2 1.2.3- 1.2.3.4 1.2 The Dipsadidae, or Nocturnal Tree Snakes, are distinguished from the last family by their dark colours and nocturnal habits. They are about equally abundant in the Oriental and Neotropical regions, less so in the Ethiopian, while only a single species extends to North Australia. The following are the best known genera : — Dipsas, comprising all the Oriental species with one in Asia- Minor, and a few from the Moluccas, New Guinea, North Aus- tralia, West Africa, and Tropical America ; Thamnodyastes, Tropidodipsas, and several others, from Tropical America; Dipsa- doboa, from West Africa and Tropical America ; Leptodeira, from Tropical and South Africa, South America, and Mexico ; and Pythonodipsas, from Central Africa. Family 14.— SCYTALID^. (3 Genera, 10 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Nearctic Pal^earctic | Ethiopian Oriental Adstralian Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. 2.3 It is doubtful how far the three genera which constitute this family form a natural assemblage. We can therefore draw no safe conclusions from the peculiarity of their distribution — Scytale and Oxyrhopus being confined to Tropical America ; while Hologerrhum inhabits the Philippine Islands. 380 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. Family 15.— LYCODONTID^. (11 Genera, 35 Species.) General Distribution. Nkotropical sub-eegionr. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic sub-hegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian sub-beoions. 1.2.3—1.2.3.4 1 The Lycodontidse, or Fanged Ground Snakes, are confined to the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, over the whole of which they range, except that they are absent from Madagascar and extend eastward to New Guinea. The genera have often a limited dis- tribution : — Lycodon ranges from India and Ceylon to China, the Philip- pines, and New Guinea; Tetragonosoma, the Malay Peninsula and Islands; Leptorhytaon and Ophites, India ; Gercaspis, Ceylon ; and Cyclocorus, the Philippines. The African genera are Bomdon, Lycophidion, Hohiropholis, Simocephalus, and Lamprophis, the latter being found only in South Africa. The species are nearly equally abundant in both regions, but no genus is common to the two. Family 16.— AMBLYCEPHALID^. (5 Genera, 12 Species. General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. pal.earctic Sub-kegion.s. Ethiopian Oriental Australian Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. — 2 .3- 3.4 3?- The Amblycephalidse, or Blunt Heads, are very singularly distributed, being nearly equally divided between Tropical America and the eastern half of the Oriental region, as will be seen by the following statement of the distribution of the genera : — Amblycephalus (1 sp.), Malay Peninsula to Borneo and the Philippines ; Pareas (3 sp.), Assam, China, Java, and Borneo ; CHAP. XIX.] EEPTILES. 381 Asthenodipsas (1 sp.), Malacca ; Leptognathus (6 sp.), Central and South America; and Anoplodipsas (1 sp.), supposed to come from New Caledonia, and, if so, furnishing a link, though a very imperfect one, between the disconnected halves of the family. Family 17.— PYTHONID^. (21 Genera, 46 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Neakctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub- REGIONS. 1.2.3.4 Ethiopian Sub-regions. 1 .2.3 .4- Oriental sub-kegions. 1.2.3.4 Australian sub-eegions. 1.2.3- The Pythonidae, comprising the Rock Snakes, Pythons, and Boas, are confined to the tropics, with the exception of one species in California. They are very abundant in the Neotropical region, where nearly half the known species occur ; the Austra- lian region comes next, while the Oriental is the least prolific in these large serpents. The genera which have been described are very numerous, but they are by no means well defined. The following are the most important : — Python is confined to the Oriental region ; Morelia, Liasis, and Nardoa are Australian and Papuan; Enygrus is found in the Moluccas, New Guinea and the Fiji Islands ; Hortulia is African ; Sanzinia is peculiar to Madagascar; Boa, Epicrates, Corallus, Ungalia, and Eunecies are Tropical American; Childbothrus is peculiar to Jamaica and Mexico ; and Lichanotus to California. An extinct species belonging to this family has been found in the Brown-coal formation of Germany, of Miocene age. Family 18.— ERYCID^. (3 Genera, 6 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical sub-begions. Nearctic I Pal^arctic SuB-BEGioNs. Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub- REGIONS. AUSTKALIAX SUB-BEGIONS. 382 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. The Erycidse, or Land Snakes, form a small but natural family, chiefly found in the desert zone on the confines of the Palsearctic, Oriental, and Ethiopian regions. They range from South Europe to West Africa and to Sikhim. The three genera are distributed as follows : — Cursoria (1 sp.), Afghanistan ; Qongylophis (1 sp.), India and Sikhim ; Eryx (4 sp.), has the range of the entire family. Family 19.— ACEOCHORDID^. (2 Genera, 3 Species) General Distribution. NEOrrfoPICAL SUB-REC.IONS. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub- REGIONS. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1 The Acrochordidse, or Wart Snakes, form a small and isolated group, found only in two sub-divisions of the Oriental region — the South Indian and the Malayan, and in New Guinea. Acrochordus, inhabits Penang, Singapore, and Borneo ; Chersy- drus, Southern India and the Malay Peninsula, with a species recently discovered in New Guinea. Family 20.— ELAPID^. (23 Genera, 100 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3- 3 _ 4. 1 .2.3- 1.2.3.4 1.2.3 — The Elapidffi, or Terrestrial venomous Colubrine Snakes, are an extensive group, spread over the tropics of the whole world, but especially abundant in Australia, where half the known species occur, some of them being the most deadly of venomous serpents. In the Oriental region they are also abundant, contain- ing amongst other forms, the well-known Cobras. The American species are almost equally numerous, but they aU belong to one CHAP, XIX.] REPTILES. 383 crenus, and they are annulated with rings of various colours in a manner quite distinct from any other members of this family. The genera, which are all very distinct, are distributed as follows : — Diemenia, Acanthophis, Eoplocephalus, Brachiurophis, Tropi- dechis, Fseudechis, Cacophis, Pseudonaje, Denisonia, and Vermi- cella, are Australian, the first two ranging to the Moluccas and New Guinea ; Ogmodon occurs in the Fiji Islands ; Naja, Bun- garus, OphiopMgus, Pseudonaje, Xenurelaps, Doliophis, Megxro- phis, and Callophis are Oriental, one species of the latter genus being found in Japan, while an Ophiophagus has been discovered in New Guinea; GyrtopUs, Elapsoidea, and PmcilopUs are African : Elaps is American, ranging as far north as South Caro- lina, but not to the West Indian Islands. Family 21.— DENDEASPIDID^. (1 Genus, 5 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical sub-rbgions. Nearctic I Pal^arctic Sob-regions. Sub-hegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2 The single genus Dendraspis, constituting the family, is con- fined to Tropical Africa. Family 22.— ATEACTASPIDID^. (1 Genus, 4 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-hegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 2 .3 This small family, consisting of the genus Atractaspis, is also confined to Africa, but has hitherto only been found in the West and South, 384 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. Family 23.— HYDEOPHID^. (8 Genera, 50 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical scb-begions. Nearctic SaB-REGlONS. PaL^ARCTIC I El'HlOPIAN ScB-EEGiONS. Sub-regions. Oriental sob-reoions. Australian Sub-regions. 3 4 11.2.3.4 I 1.2.3.4 The Hydrophidse, or Sea Snakes, are a group of small-sized marine serpents, abundant in the Indian and Australian seas, and extending as far west as Madagascar, and as far east as Panama. They are very poisonous, and it is probable that many species remain to be discovered. The genera are distributed as foUows : — HydropMs (37 sp.), ranging from India to Formosa and Aus- tralia ; Platurus (2 sp.), from the Bay of Bengal to New Guinea and New Zealand ; Aipysurus (3 sp.), Java to New Guinea and Australia; Disteira (1 sp.), unknown locality ; Acalyptus (1 sp.), South-west Pacific ; Enhydrina (1 sp.). Bay of Bengal to New Guinea ; Pelamis (1 sp.), Madagascar to New Guinea, New Zea- land, and Panama ; Emydocephalus (1 sp.), Australian Seas. Family 24.— CEOTALID^. (11 Genera, 40 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical sub-begions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 3.4 Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3.4 The Crotalidae, or Pit Vipers, including the deadly Eattlesnakes, form a well-marked family of fanged serpents, whose distribu- tion is very interesting. They abound most in the Oriental region, at least 5 of the genera and 20 species being found within its limits, yet they are quite unknown in the Ethiopian region — a parallel case to that of the Bears and Deer. A few species are peculiar to the eastern portion of the Palsearctic region, while CHAP. XIX.] REPTILES. 385 the Nearctic is actually richer than the Neotropical region both in genera and species. This would point to the conclusion, that the group originated in the Indo-Chinese sub-region and spread thence north-east to North America, and so onward to South America, which, having been the last to receive the group, has not had time to develop it largely, notwithstanding its extreme adaptability to Keptilian life. The genera are divided among the several regions as follows : — Craspedocephalus (7 sp.), Tropical America and the West In- dian Islands; CeiichiHs, Crotalopliorus, Ui^opsoplwrus, and Crotahis, inhabiting North America from Canada and British Columbia to Texas, one species {Crotahis horridus) extending into South America; Trimeresurus (16 sp.), all India from Ceylon to Assam, Formosa, the Philippines and Celebes ; Peliupelor and Hy2mah (1 sp. each), peculiar to India ; Calloselasma (1 sp.), Siam ; Atropos (1 sp.), Java and Borneo ; Halys (3 sp.), peculiar to Tartary, Thibet, Japan, North China, and Formosa. Family 25.— VIPERID^. (3 Genera, 22 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical SUB-BEaiON8. Nearctic sub-reoions. PaLvEARCTIC SUB-HEOIONS. Ethiopian sob-r£gions. Oriental Sub-regions. AUSrRALIAK SUB-BEOIOMO. 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 I 1 . 2 . 3.4 I — The Viperidse, or True Vipers, are especially characteristic of the Palsearctic and Ethiopian regions, only one species being found over a large part of the Oriental region, and another reaching Central India. They are especially abundant in Africa, and the Palaearctic confines in South-western Asia. The common Viper ranges across the whole Palsearctic region from Portugal to Saghalien Island, reaching to 67° North Latitude, in Scandinavia, and to 58° in Central Siberia. The genera, accord- ing to Dr. Strauch's synopsis, are distributed as follows : — Vipera (17 sp.), which has the range of the family, extending over the whole of the Palsearctic and Ethiopian regions, except Madagascar, and as far as Ceylon, Siam, and Java, in the Oriental 386 GEOGEAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. region; Ecliis (2 sp.), inhabiting North Africa to Persia and to Continental India ; and Athens (3 sp.), confined to West Africa. Remarks on the General Distribution of Ophidia. The Ophidia, being preeminently a Tropical order — rapidly diminishing in numbers as we go north in the Temperate Zone, and wholly ceasing long before we reach the Arctic Circle — we cannot expect the two Northern regions to exhibit any great variety or peculiarity. Yet in their warmer portions they are tolerably rich; for, of the 25 families of snakes, 6 are found in the Nearctic region, 10 in the Palsearctic, 13 in the Australian, 16 in the Neotropical, 17 in the Ethiopian, and no less than 22 in the Oriental, which last is thus seen to be by far the richest of the great regions in the variety of its forms of Ophidian life. The only regions that possess altogether peculiar families of this order, are the Ethiopian (3), and the Oriental (2) ; the usually rich and peculiar Neotropical region not possessing exclusively, any family of snakes ; and what is still more remarkable, the Neotropical and Australian regions together, do not possess a family peculiar to them. Every family inhabiting these two regions is found also in the Oriental ; and this fact, taken in con- nection with the superior richness of the latter region both in families and genera, would indicate that the Ophidia had their origin in the northern hemisphere of the Old World (the ancient Palaearctic region) whence they spread on all sides, in successive waves of migration, to the other regions. The distribution of the genera peculiar to, or highly characteristic of, the several regions is as follows : — The Nearctic possesses 9 ; four of these belong to the Colubridse, one to the Pythonidse, and four to the Crotalida^. The Palaearctic region has only 2 peculiar genera, belonging to the Colubridse and Crotalidse. The Ethiopian has 25, belonging to 11 families; four to Colubridse, five to Lycodontidse, and three to Elapidsp, The Oriental has no less than 50, belonging to 15 families ; five are Colubridse, five Uropeltidse, twelve Homalopsidae, six Lyco- dontidse, three Amblycephalidse, eight Elapidse, and four Crota- I CHAP. XIX.] KEPTILES. 387 lidse. The Australian has 16, belonging to three families only ; eleven being Elapidse, and four Pythonidse. The Neotropical has about 24, belonging to eight families ; ten are Colubridse, six Pythonidse, and the rest Dipsadidae, Scytalidse, Amblycephalidse, Elapidse, and Crotalidae. We find then, that in the Ophidia, the regions adopted in this work are remarkably distinct ; and that, in the case of the Orien- tal and Ethiopian, the difference is strongly marked, a very large number of the genera being confined to each region. It is in- teresting to observe, that in many cases the affinity seems to be rather between the West Coast of Africa and the Oriental region, than between the East Coast and the plains of India; thus the Homalopsidse — a highly characteristic Oriental family — occur on the West Coast of Africa only ; the Dryiophidse, which range over the whole Oriental region, only occur in Madagascar and West Africa in the Ethiopian ; the genus Dipsas is found over aU the Oriental region and again in West Africa. A cause for this peculiarity has been suggested in our sketch of the past history of the Ethiopian region, Vol. I. p. 288. In the Lycodontidse, which are strictly confined to these two regions, the genera are aU distinct, and the same is the case with the more widely dis- tributed Elapidse; and although a few desert forms, such as EcMs and the Erycidse, are common to Africa and the dry plains of India, this is evidently due to favourable climatic conditions, and cannot neutralise the striking differences in the great mass of the family and generic forms which inhabit the two regions. The union of Madagascar with the South-western part of the Oriental region under the appellation Lemuria, finds no support in the distribution of Ophidia ; which, however, strikingly accords with the views developed in the Third Part of this work, as to the great importance and high antiquity of the Euro-Asiatic conti- nent, as the chief land-centre from which the higher organisms have spread over the globe. Fossil Ophidia.— The oldest known remains of Ophidia occur in the Eocene formation in the Isle of Sheppey ; others are found in the Miocene (Brown Coal) of Germany, and in some Tertiary beds in the United States. Most of these appear to have been 388 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. large species belonging to the Pythonidse, so that we are evi- dently stni very far from knowing anything of the earliest forms of this order. In some of the later Tertiary deposits the poison fangs of venomous species have been found ; also a Colubrine snake from the Upper Miocene of the South of France. Order IL—LACERTILIA. Family 26.— TEOGONOPHID^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical, scb-regions. Nearctic sub-begions. Pal^arctic Ethiopian i Oriental Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 2 - The single species of Trogonophis, forming this family, is found only in North Africa. Family 27.— CHIEOTID^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) General Distribution. Xeotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Paljearctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. Chirotes, the genus which constitutes this family, inhabits Mexico, and has also been found in Missouri, one of the Southern United States. Family 28.— AMPHISB^NID^. (1 Genus, 13 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. 1 .a — 4 Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^abctic Sub-regions. _a — Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. 1.2 Australian Sub-regions. CHAP. XIX.] EEPTILES. 389 The Amphisbsenidse, which, in the opinion of Dr. Giinther, are all comprised in the genus AmpJiisbcena, inhabit Spain and Asia Minor, North and Tropical Africa, South America as far as Buenos-Ayres and the West Indian Islands. Family 29.— LEPIDOSTEENID^. (3 Genera, 6 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical sub-eegions. 1.2 Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic sub-kegions. Ethiopian sub-eegions. -2.3 Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. The small family of Lepidosternidse has nearly the same distribution as the last, indicating a curious relationship between the Tropical parts of Africa and America. Lepidosternon and Cephalopeltis are American genera, while Monotropliis is African. Family 30.— VAEANID^. (3 Genera, 30 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Orientai Sub-kegions. Australian Sub-regions. _ 2 1.2.3 - 1.2.3.4 1.2 The Varanidse, or Water Lizards, are most abundant in the Oriental region, whence they extend into the Austro-Malay Islands as far as New Guinea, and into Australia. Several species are found in Africa. Psammosaurus (1 sp.), is found in North Africa and North-western India ; Monitor (18 sp.), has the range of the family ; while Hydrosaurus (8 sp.) ranges from Siam to the Philippines, New Guinea, and Australia. 390 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. Family 31.— HELODEEMID^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.; General Distribution. Neotropical sub-begions. Nearctic sub-begions. Pal^arctic sub-begions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. au.stralian Sub-regions. 3 — The genus Heloderma, which constitutes this family, is found n Mexico. Family 32.— TEID^. (12 Genera, 74 Species.) General Distribution. Neotroptcal scb-begions. Neabctig sub-begions. Pal^arctic Sub-beqions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Spb-reoions. Australian sub-beqions. l.a.3.A1.2.3 — 1 1 1 The Teidse, or Teguexins — a group of Lizards allied to the European Lacertidse, but with differently formed superciliary scales — are highly characteristic of the Neotropical region, abounding almost everywhere from Patagonia to the Antilles and Mexico, and extending northwards to California on the west and to Pennsylvania on the east. The most extensive genus is Ameiva, containing nearly 60 species and having the range of the entire family; Teius (3 sp.), inhabits Brazil and Mendoza; Callopistes (2 sp.), Chili; CeTi^ro/jv/x (3 sp.), Paraguay to Alabama; Dicrodon (Peru); Monoplocus (Western Ecuador); with Acrantus, Acanthopyga, Emminia, Crocodilurus, Ciista, and Ada, which each consist of a single species, and all inhabit Tropical America. Family 33.— LACERTID^. (18 Genera, 80 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical sob-begions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pa L/E arctic Sub-keoions. Ethiopian sub-reoions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian SUB-REGIONa I |i.2,3.aI 1.2.3 1.2.3.4 —2 CHAP. XIX.] REPTILES. 391 The Lacertidse, or Land Lizards, are small-sized, terrestrial, non-burrowing lizards, very characteristic of the Palsearctic region, which contains more than half the known species, and of the adjacent parts of the Oriental and Ethiopian regions, but extending also to South Africa, to Java, and even to Australia. The best-defined genera are the following : — Lacerta (10 sp.), ranging over all Central and South Europe to Poland, and farther north in Eussia and Siberia, eastward to Persia, and southward to North and West Africa ; Zootoca (8 sp.), has nearly the same range in Europe as the last genus, but has representatives in Madeira, South Africa, and Aus- tralia; Tachydromus (7 sp.) is widely scattered in Chinese Asia, Japan, Borneo, and West Africa ; Acanthodadylus (10 sp.) is most abundant in North Africa, but has a species in South Africa, and two in Central India ; Eremias (18 sp.) is found all over Africa, and also in the Crimea, Persia, Tartary and China ; Psammodromus (2 sp.), is confined to Spain, France, and Italy ; Ophiops (6 sp.), inhabits India, Persia, and Asia Minor to South Eussia. Less strongly marked and perhaps less natural genera are the following : — Thetia (1 sp.), Algiers; Teira (1 sp.), Madeira; Nucras (4 sp.), Caucasus and South Africa ; Notopholis (4 sp.). South Europe and South Africa ; Algira (3 sp.),'North and South Africa ; Scrapteira (1 sp.). Nubia ; Aspidorhinus (1 sp.), Caspian district ; Messalina (4 sp.), North Africa, Persia, and North-west India; Cabrita{l sp.), Central India; Fachyrhynchus (1 sp.), Benguela. Family 34.— ZONUEID^. (15 Genera, 52 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical sub-begions. Neabctic sub-beoions. Pal^arctic sub-kegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-begions. — D .3 .A i.a.3.4 — a — 1 .a .3.4 3 - — a The Zonuridse, or Land Lizards, characterised by a longitudinal fold of skin on each side of the body, have a very remarkable Vol. IL— 26 392 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. distribution. Their head-quarters is the Ethiopian region, which contains more than half the known genera and species, most of which are found in South Africa and several in Mada- gascar. Next to Africa the largest number of genera and species are found in Mexico and Central America,with a few in the Antilles, South America, and California, and even as far north as British Columbia. Three of the genera form a distinct sub-group — the Glass Snakes, — the four species composing it being located in North Africa, North America, South-eastern Europe, and the Khasya Hills. The prominent fact in the distribution of this family is, that the mass of the genera and species form two groups, one in South Africa, the other in Mexico, — countries between which it would be difficult to imagine any means of communication. We have here, probably, an example of a once much more extensive group, widely distributed over the globe, and which has continued to maintain itself only in those districts especially adapted to its peculiar type of organization. This must undoubtedly have been the case with the genus Fseudopus, whose two species now inhabit South-eastern Europe and the Khasya Hills in Assam respectively. The genera are, — Cordylus, Pscudocordylus, Platysaurus, Cordylosaurus, Fleurostrichus, and Saurophis, confined to South Africa ; Zonurus, South and East Africa and Madagascar ; Ger- rhosaurus, ranges over the whole Ethiopian region ; Cicigna is confined to Madagascar; Gerrhonotus (22 sp.), ranges from British Columbia, California, and Texas, to Cuba and South America, but is most abundant in Mexico and Central America ; Abronia and Barissia, are two genera of doubtful distinctness, peculiar to Mexico ; Ophisaurus (the Glass Snake) is found in the Southern United States as far as Virginia ; the allied genus Hyalosaurus in North Africa ; and Pseudopus, as above stated, in South-east Europe and the Khasya Hills. CHAP. x:x.] REPTILES. 393 Family 35.— CHALCID^. (3 Genera, 8 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical sxb-begions. Nearctic sub-begions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental sub-reoions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3- »^ .. The Chalcidee are a small group of Lizards characteristic of Tropical America, one species extending into the United States. The genera are Chalcis (6 sp.), ranging from Central America to Chili ; two other species, which have been placed in distinct genera, inhabit North America and Peru. Family 36.— ANADIAD^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. PaLvEARCTIC SUB-HEGIONS. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian sub-regions. 2 I 1 1 1 The single species ofAnadia, constituting this family, inhabits Tropical America. Family 37.— CHIEOCOLID^. (1 Genus, 2 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-kegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. . 2 1 1 1 1 1 I The genus Hdcrodadylus, which constitutes this family, in- habits Brazil. 394 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. Family 38.— IPHISAD^E. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Neahctic Sub-regions. Pal^earctic Sub-hegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-beuions. — a The single species of Iphisa, has been found only at Para in Equatorial America. Family 39.— CEPtCOSAUEID^. (1 Genus, 5 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Nearctic Pal^arctic Ethiopian Oriental Sub-regions. Sob-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. — a Australian Sub-regions. The genus Cercosaura, is known only from Brazil and Ecuador. Family 40.— CHAM^SAUEID^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical sub-rbgions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. This family, consisting of a single species of the genus Chamce- sawa, is confined to South Africa. CHAP. XIX.] REPTILES. 395 Family 41.— GYMNOPTHALMID^. (5 Genera, 14 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic I Pal-earctic I Ethiopivn I Oriental I Australian SUB-REG'ONS. SrB-KEGIONS. SUB-RROIONS. SUB-KEGIONS. SUB-RKGIONS. 1.2.3 — St — A 1.2.3— The Gymnopthalmidae, or Gape-eyed Scinks, so called from their rudimentary eyelids, form a small group, which is widely and somewhat erratically distributed, as will be seen by the following account of the distribution of the genera : — Lerista (1 sp.) and three other species for which Dr. Gray has established the genem— Morethria (1 sp.), and Menetia (2 sp.), are confined to Australia ; Cryptoblepharus (4 sp.), is found in West Australia, Timor, New Guinea, the Fiji Islands, and Mauritius; Ablepharus (4 sp.), inhabits Eastern and South- eastern Europe, Persia, Siberia, West Africa, and the Bonin Islands ; and Gymnopthalmus (3 sp.), is found in Brazil and the West Indies. Family 42.— PYGOPODID^. (2 Genera, 3 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sn«-REGlONS. Nearctic Sub-regions. PALyBARCTIC Sob-regions. Ethiopian Sob-regions. Oriental Sdb-beoions. Aobtralian Sub-regions. 1 1 1 « This small family of two-legged Lizards, comprising the genera Pygopus and Delma, is found only in Australia proper and Tasmania. 396 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. Family 43.— APKASIAD^. (1 Genus, 2 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical scb-regions. Nearctio Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian" Sub-recionb. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1 1 1 o _ 1 The genus Aprasia, constituting this family, is found in Wesi and South Australia. Family 44.— LIALID^. (1 Genus, 3 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical sub-begions. Nearctio sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian sub-regionb. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian SUB-REpiONS. n This family is also confined to Australia, the single genus, Halts, inhabiting the Western and Northern districts. Family 45.— SCIISrCIDiE. (60 Genera, 300 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-eegion.s. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub- regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3 — 1.2.3.4. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 The Scincid*. or Scinks, are an extensive family of smooth- scaled lizards, frequenting dry and stony places, and almost universally distributed over the globe, being only absent from the cold northern and southern zones. The family itself is a very natural one, and it contains many natural genera ; but a large number have been established which probably require careful revision. The following include the more important and the best established groups : — CHAP. XIX.] REPTILES. 397 Scincus (2 sp.), North Africa and Arabia ; Hinulia (20 sp.), most of the Australian and Oriental regions ; Gyclodina (1 sp.), Homhronia (1 sp.), and Lygosomella (1 sp.), all from New Zealand ; Keneuxia (1 sp.), Philippines, Moluccas, and Papuan Islands; Elania (1 sp.) New Guinea; Garlia (2 sp.). North Australia and New Guinea ; Mocoa (16 sp.), Australia and New Zealand, with species in Borneo, West Africa, and Central America ; Lipinia (3 sp.), Philippine Islands and New Guinea ; Lygosoma (12 sp.), Australia, New Caledonia, Pelew and Philip- pine Islands; Tdradactylus (1 sp.), Heinierges (2 sp.), Cheloiiieles (2 sp.), Omolepida (1 sp.), Lissolepis (1 sp.), Siaphos (1 sp.), Bhodona (3 sp.) Anomalpus (1 sp.), Soridia (2 sp.), and Ophio- scincus (1 sp.) all confined to Australia; Cophoscincus (3 sp.), Philippine Islands, Celebes, and Queensland; Plestiodon (18 sp.), China and Japan, Africa, and America as far north as Pennsylvania and Nebraska ; Eumeces (30 sp.). South Palae- arctic. Oriental and Australian regions, to New Ireland and North Australia ; Mabouya (20 sp.), Oriental region, Austro- Malaya, North Australia, the Neotropical region, and to Lat. 42° 30' in North America ; Amphixestus (1 sp.), Borneo ; Hagria 1 sp.), and Chiamela (1 sp.), India ; Senira (1 sp.), Philippine Islands ; Brachymeles (2 sp.). Philippine Islands and Australia ; Ophiodes (1 sp.), Brazil ; Anguis (3 sp.), West Palaearctic region and South Africa ; Tribolonotiis (1 sp.). New Guinea ; Tropido- phorus (2 sp.), Cochin-China and Philippine Islands; Norhea (2 sp.), Borneo and Australia ; Trachydosaurus (1 sp.), Australia ; Cydodus (8 sp.), Australia, Aru Islands, and Ceram ; Siluhosaurus (2 sp.), Egerina (2 sp.), and Tropidolepisina (6 sp.), all peculiar to Australia ; Heteropus (7 sp.), Australia, Austro-Malaya, and Bourbon ; PygomeUs (1 sp.), Madagascar ; Dasia (1 sp.), Malaya ; Euprcpes (70 sp.), Ethiopian and Oriental regions, Austro- Malaya, South America (?) ; Celestus (9 sp.), peculiar to the An- tilles, except a species in Costa Hica ; Diploglossus (7 sp.), the Neotropical region ; — with a number of other genera founded on single species from various parts of the world. 398 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV, Family 46.— OPHIOMORID^. (2 Genera, 2 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Neakctic Sub-regions. PaLvEARCTIC Sub- REGIONS. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. The snake-like Lizard constituting the genus Ophiomorns, is found in Southern Russia, Greece, and Algeria ; while Zygnopsis having four M^eak limbs, has been recently discovered by Mr. Blanford in South Persia. The family is therefore confined to our Mediterranean sub-region. Family 47.— SEPID^. (7 Genera, 22 species.; General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-hegions. Ethiopian Sub-region.s. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. -2 1.2,3.4 The Sepidse, or Sand-Lizards, are a very natural group, almost confined to the Ethiopian region, but extending into the desert country on the borders of the Oriental region, and into the south of the Palsearctic region as far as Palestine, Madeira, Spain, Italy, and even the South of France. The genera are : — Seps (10 sp.). South Europe, Madeira, Teneriffe, Palestine, North Africa, South Africa and Madagascar ; Sphenops (2 sp.). North Africa, Syria, West Africa ; Scelotes (3 sp.), Angola to South Africa, Madagascar ; Thyrus (1 sp.), Bourbon and Mauri- tius ; Awphiglossus (1 sp.), Madagascar ; Sphenocephalies (1 sp.), Afghanistan ; and Sepsina (4 sp.), South-west Africa. CHAP. XIX,] REPTILES. 399 Family 48.— ACONTIAD^. (3 Genera, 7 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Neakctic StIB-REOIONS. Pal^arctic sub-hegions. Ethiopian Sl'B-REalONS. Oriental sub-heoions. Australian sub-reoions. a .3 .4 I — 2 — 1 This small family of snake-like Lizards has a very curious dis- tribution, being found in South and West Africa, Madagascar, Ceylon, and Ternate in the Moluccas. Ac.ontias (4 sp.), is found in the four first-named localities ; Nessia (2 sp.), is confined to Ceylon ; Typhloscincus (1 sp.), to Ternate. Family 49.— GECKOTID^. (50 Genera, 200 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical SrB-BEGIONS. Nearctic sob-begions. Pal.«arctic Ethiopian SUB-KEGIONB. SUB-REGIONS. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3.4 1.2,3- 1.2.3.4 1,2,3,4 1.2.3,4 1 ,2.3.4 f The Geckoes, or Wall-Lizards, form an extensive family, of almost universal distribution in the warmer parts of the globe ; and they must have some exceptional means of dispersal, since they are found in many of the most remote islands of the great oceans,— as the Galapagos, the Sandwich Islands, Tahiti, New Zealand, the Loo-Choo and the SeycheUe Islands, the Nicobar Islands, Mauritius, Ascension, Madeira, and many others. The following are the larger and more important genera : — Oedura (3 sp.), Australia; Diplodactylus (8 sp)., Australia, South Africa, and California; Phyllodadylus (8 sp.), widely scattered in Tropical America, California, Madagascar, and Queensland ; Hemidactylus (40 sp.), all tropical and warm countries ; Peropus (12 sp.), the Oriental region, Papuan Islands, Mauritius, and Brazil ; Pcntadadylus (7 sp.). Oriental region and Australia; Gecko (12 sp.), Oriental region to New Guinea and 400 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [pakt iv. North Australia; Gehtjra (5 sp.), Australia, New Guinea and Fiji Islands ; Tarentola (7 sp.), North Africa, North America, Madeira, Borneo, South Africa ; Phelsuma (6 sp.), Madagas- car, Bourbon, and Andaman Islands; Pachydadylus (5 sp.), South and West Africa, and Ascension Island ; Sphcerodadylus (5 sp.), the Neotropical region ; Naultinus, (6 sp.), New Zealand ; Goniodactylus (5 sp.), Australia, Timor, South America and Algiers ; Heteronota (4 sp.), Australia, Fiji Islands, New Guinea and Borneo ; Gubina (4 sp.), the Neotropical region ; Gijmno- dactylus (16 sp.), all warm countries except Australia; Fhyllurus (3 sp.), Australia ; Stenodadylus (4 sp.), North and West Africa, and Eio Grande in North America. The remaining genera mostly consist of single species, and are pretty equally distributed over the various parts of the world indicated in the preceding hst. Madagascar, the Seychelle Islands, Chili, the Sandwich Islands, South Africa, Tahiti, the Philippine Islands, New Caledonia, and Australia— all have peculiar genera, while two new ones have recently been described from Persia. Family 50.— IGUANID^. (56 Genera, 236 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropioal Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic I Ethiopian I Oriental I Australian Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. 1.2.3.4-1.2.3 — The extensive family of the Iguanas is highly characteristic of the Neotropfbal region, in every part of which the species abound, even as far as nearly 50° South Latitude in Patagonia. They also extend northwards into the warmer parts of the Nearctic region, as far as California, British Columbia, and Kansas on the west, and to 43° North Latitude in the Eastern States. A distinct genus occurs in the Fiji Islands, and one has been described as from Australia, and another from Madagascar, but there is some doubt about these. The most extensive genera are : — Anolivs (84 sp.), found in most parts of Tropical America and CHAP. XIX.] EEPTILES. 401 north to California ; Tropidolepis (15 sp.), which has nearly the same range ; Leiocephalus (1-4 sp.), Antilles, Guayaquil, and Galapagos Islands ; Leiolcemus (14 sp.), Peru to Patagonia ; Scelopo7'us (9 sp.),from Brazil to California and British Columbia, and on the east to Florida ; Proctotretus (6 sp.). Chili and Pata- gonia ; Phrynosoma (8 sp.), New Mexico, California, Oregon and British Columbia, Arkansas and Florida ; Iguana (5 sp.), Antilles and South America; Cyclusa (4 sp.), Antilles, Hon- duras, and Mexico. Among the host of smaller genera may be noted : — Brachylophus, found in the Fiji Islands ; Trachycephalus and Oreocephahis, peculiar to the Galapagos ; Oreodeira, said to be from Australia ; Diplolmmus and Phymaturus, found only in Chili and Patagonia ; and Callisaurus, Uta, Euphryyie, Uma, and Hol- hrookia, from New Mexico and California. All the other genera are from various parts of Tropical America. Family 51.— AGAMID^. (42 Genera, 156 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. PaLvEARCTIC SUB-KEOIONS. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental I Australian SuB-REOiONS. Sub-regions. — 2. 3. 4-1. 2. 3. 4-1. 2. 3. 4 1.2.3- The extensive family Agamidse — the Eastern representative of the Iguanas — is highly characteristic of the Oriental region, which possesses about half the known genera and species. Of the remainder, the greater part inhabit the Australian region ; others range over the deserts of Central and Western Asia and Northern Africa, as far as Greece and South Russia. One genus extends through Africa to the Cape of Good Hope, and there are three peculiar genera in Madagascar, but the family is very poorly represented in the Ethiopian region. Many of these creatures are adorned with beautifully varied and vivid colours, and the little " dragons " or flying-lizards are among the most interesting forms in the entire order. The larger genera are distributed as foDows : — 402 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. Draco (18 sp.), the Oriental region, excluding Ceylon ; Otocryptis (4 sp.), Ceylon, North India, Malaya ; Ceratophora (3 sp.), Ceylon ; Gonyocephalus (8 sp.), Papuan Islands, Java, Borneo, Pelew Islands ; Dilophyrus (7 sp.), Indo-Malaya and Siam ; Japalura (6 sp.), Himalayas, Borneo, Formosa, and Loo Choo Islands ; Sitana (2 sp.). Central and South India and Ceylon Bronchocela (3 sp.), Indo-Malaya, Cambodja, and Celebes Calotes (12 sp.), Continental India to China, Philippine Islands Oriocalotes (2 sp.), Himalayas ; Acanthosaura (5 sp.), Malacca and Siam ; Tiaris (3 sp.), Andaman Islands, Borneo, Philip- pine and Papuan Islands ; Physignathus (3 sp.), Cochin-China and Australia; Uromastix (5 sp.). South Eussia, North Africa, Central India ; Stellio (5 sp.), Caucasus and Greece to Arabia, High Himalayas and Central India ; Trapelus (5 sp.), Tartary, Egypt, and Afghanistan ; Fhrynocephalus (10 sp.), Tartary and Mongolia, Persia and Afghanistan ; Zophura (2 sp.), Amboyna and Pelew Islands; Grammatophorus (14 sp.), Australia and Tasmania ; Agama (14 sp.). North Africa to the Punjaub, South Africa. The remaining genera each consist of a single species. Eight are peculiar to Australia, one to the Eiji. Islands, one to the Aru Islands, three to Ceylon, five to other parts of the Oriental region, one to Persia, and one to South Eussia. Family 52.— CHAMJ^XEONID^. (1 Genus, 30 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Neakctio Sub-regions. Pal^arctic SUB-llEGIONS. Ethiopian sub-region.s. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian SUB-RE(iION£. 1.2.3.4- 1.2 The Chamseleons are an almost exclusively Ethiopian group, only one species, the common Chamseleon, inhabiting North Africa and Western Asia as far as Central India and Ceylon. They abound all over Africa, and peculiar species are found in Madagascar and Bourbon, as well as in the Island of Fer- nando Po. CHAP. XIX.] REPTILES. 403 General Remarks on the Distribution of the Lacertilia. The distribution of the Lacertilia is, in many particulars, strikingly opposed to that of the Ophidia. The Oriental, instead of being the richest is one of the poorest regions, both in the number of families and in the number of peculiar genera it contains ; while in both these respects the Neotropical is by far the richest. The distribution of the families is as follows : — The Nearctic region has 7 families, none of which are peculiar to it; but it has 3 peculiar genera — Chirotes, 0]jhisaurus, and Phrynosoma. The Palsearctic region has 12 families, with two (Ophio- moridse and Trogonophidse, each consisting of a single species) peculiar ; while it has 6 peculiar or very characteristic genera, Trogonophis in North Africa, Fsammodromus in South Europe, Hyalosaurus in North Africa, Scincus in North Africa and Arabia, Ophiomorus in East Europe and North Africa, and Phrynocephalus in Siberia, Tartary, and Afghanistan. We have here a striking amount of diversity between the Nearctic and Palsearctic regions with hardly a single point of resemblance. The Ethiopian region has 13 families, only one of which (the Chamaesauridse, consisting of a single species) is altogether pecu- liar; but it possesses 21 peculiar or characteristic genera, 9 belonging to the Zonuridae, 2 to the Sepidse, 7 to the Geckotidse, and 3 to the Agamidae. The Oriental region has only 8 families, none of which are peculiar; but there are , 28 peculiar genera, 6 belonging to the Scincidse, 1 to the Acontiadse, 5 to the Geckotidse, and 16 to the Agamidae. Many lizards being sand and desert-haunters, it is not surprising that a number of forms are common to the border- lands of the Oriental and Ethiopian regions ; yet the Sepidse, so abundant in all Africa, do not range to the peninsula of India ; and the equally Ethiopian Zonuridse have only one Oriental species, found, not in the peninsula but in the Kliasya Hills. The Acon- tiadse alone offer some analogy to the distribution of the Lemurs, being found in Africa, Madagascar, Ceylon, and the Moluccas. The Australian region has 11 families, 3 of which are pecu- 404 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. liar ; and it has about 40 peculiar genera in ten families, about half of these genera belonging to the Scincidse. Only 3 families of almost universal distribution are common to the Australian and Neotropical regions, with one species of the American Iguanidse in the Fiji Islands, so that, as far as this order is concerned, these two regions have little resemblance. The Neotropical region has 15 families, 6 of which are peculiar to it, and it possesses more than 50 peculiar genera. These ai-e distributed among 12 families, but more than half belong to the Iguanidse, and half the remainder to the Teidee, — the two families especially characteristic of the Neotropical region. All the Ne- arctic families which are not of almost universal distribution are peculiarly Neotropical, showing that the Lacertilia of the former region have probably been derived almost exclusively from the latter. On the whole the distribution of the Lacertilia shows a remarkable amount of specialization in each of the great tropical regions, whence we may infer that Southern Asia, Tropical Africa, Australia, and South America, each obtained their original stock of this order at very remote periods, and that there has since been little intercommunication between them. The peculiar affinities indicated by such cases as the Lepidosternidse, found only in the tropics of Africa and South America, and Tachydromiis in Eastern Asia and West Africa, may be the results either of once widely distributed families surviving only in isolated locali- ties where the conditions are favourable, — or of some partial and temporary geographical connection, allowing of a limited degree of intermixture of faunas. The former appears to be the more probable and generally efficient cause, but the latter may have operated in exceptional cases. Fossil Lacertilia. These date back to the Triassic period, and they are found in most succeeding formations, but it is not till the Tertiary period that forms allied to existing genera occur. These are at present too rare and too ill-defined to throw much light on the geo- graphical distribution of the order. CHAP. XIX.] REPTILES. 405 Order III.—BHYNCOGEPEALINA. Family 53.— EHYNCOCEPHALID^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pa L.E arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. The singular and isolated genus Hatteria — the " Tuatara " or fringed lizard — which alone constitutes this family, has peculiari- ties of structure which separate it from both lizards and crocodiles, and mark it out as an ancestral type, as distinct from other living reptiles as the Marsupials are from other Mammalia. It is con- fined to New Zealand, and is chiefly found on small islands near the north-east coast, being very rare, if not extinct, on the main land. A fossil reptile named Hyperodapedon, of Triassic age, has been found in Scotland and India, and is supposed by Professor Huxley to be more nearly allied to Hatteria than to any other living animal. Order IV.—CBOCODILIA. Family 54.— GAVIALID^. (2 Genera, 3 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Si'B-REGIONS. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal.«arctic sub-begions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. -: 1 4 1 The Gavials are long-snouted Crocodiles with large front teeth, and canines fitting in notches of the upper jaw. They consist of two genera, GaviaUs{l sp.), inhabiting the^Ganges ; Tomistoma (2 sp.), found in the rivers of Borneo and North Australia. 406 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. Family 55.— CEOCODILID^. (1 Genus, 12 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sob-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic sub-kegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental sub-kegions. Australian Sub-regions. -2.3.4 1 .2.3.4 1 .2 .3 .4 1 The true Crocodiles, which have the canines in notches, and the large front teeth in pits in the upper jaw, are widely distributed over the tropical regions of the globe, inhabiting all the rivers of Africa, the shores and estuaries of India, Siam, and eastward to North Australia. Other forms inhabit Cuba, Yucatan, and Guatemala, to Ecuador and the Orinooko. Four species are Asiatic, one exclusively Australian, three African, and four American. These have been placed in distinct groups, but Dr. Giinther considers them all to form one genus, Crocodilus. Family 56.— ALLIGATORID^. (1 Genus, 10 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Nearctio Pal^arctic Ethiopian Oriental I Australian' Bub-regions. Sob-regions. Sob-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. 2 . 3 The Alligators, which are distinguished by having both the large front teeth and the canines fitting into pits of the upper jaw, are confined to the Neotropical, and the southern part of the Nearctic regions, from the lower Mississippi and Texas through all Tropical America, but they appear to be absent from the Antilles. They are all placed by Dr. Giinther in the single genus. Alligator. General Bemarks on the Distribution of Crocodilia. These animals, being few in number and wholly confined to the tropical and sub-tropical regions, are of comparatively CHAP. XIX.] REPTILES. 407 little interest as regards geographical distribution. America possesses both Crocodiles and Alligators; India, Crocodiles and Gavials ; while Africa has Crocodiles only. Both Croco- diles and Gavials are found in the northern part of the Australian region, so that neither of the three families are restricted to a single region. Fossil Crocodilia, The existing families of the order date back to the Eocene period in Europe, and the Cretaceous in North America. In the south of England, Alligators, Gavials and Crocodiles, all occur in Eocene beds, indicating that the present distribution of these families is the result of partial extinction, and a gradual restriction of their range — a most instructive fact, suggesting the true explanation of a large num- ber of cases of discontinuous distribution which are sometimes held to prove the former union of lands now divided by the deepest oceans. In more ancient formations, a number of Crocodilian remains have been discovered which cannot be classed in any existing families, and which, therefore, throw no light on the existing distribution of the group. Order V.— CHELONIA. Family 57.— TESTUDINID^. (14 Genera, 126 Species.) General Distribution. Nfotropical SirB-REGIONS. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^earctic sub-iiegion.s. Ethiopian SuB-RtGIONS. Oriental sob-reoions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3.4 11. a. 3. 4 l.a-4.il.2.3.4.1.2.3.4. The Testudinidse, including the land and many fresh-water tortoises, are very widely distributed over the Old and New worlds, but are entirely absent from Australia. They are especially abundant in the Nearctic region, as far north as Canada and British Columbia, and almost equally so in the YoL. II.— 27 408 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. Neotropical aud Oriental regions ; in the Ethiopian there is a considerable diminution in the number of species, and in the Paleearctic they are still less numerous, being confined to the warmer parts of it, except one species which extends as far north as Hungary and Prussia. The genera are : — Testudo (25 sp.), most abundant in the Ethiopian region, but also extending over the Oriental region, into South Europe, and the Eastern States of North America ; Fviys (64 sp.), abundant in North America and over the whole Oriental region, less so in the Neotropical and the Palsearctic , regions ; Cinosternon (13 sp.). United States and California, and Tropical America; Aromochelys (4 sp.), confined to the Eastern States of North America ; Staurotypus (2 sp.), Guate- mala and Mexico ; Chelydra (1 sp.), Canada to Louisiana ; Claudius (1 sp.), Mexico ; Dermatemys (3 sp.). South America, Guatemala, and Yucatan ; Terrapene (4 sp.), Maine to Mexico, Sumatra to New Guinea, Shanghae and Formosa — a doubtfully natural group ; Ginyxis (3 sp.), Pyxis (1 sp.), Chersina (4 sp.), are all Ethiopian ; Bumerilia (1 sp.), is from Madagascar only. Family 58.— CHELYDID^. (10 Genera, 44 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Palsearctic sub-kegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-eegions. Australian Sub-regions _ 2 1.2.3.4 _ 2 The Chelydidse, or fresh- water tortoises with imperfectly retractile heads, have a remarkable distribution in the three great southern continents of Africa, Australia, and South America ; the largest number of species being found in the latter country. The genera are : — Peltocephalus (1 sp.), Podocnemis (6 s^.), ffydromedtisa (4 sp.), Chehjs (1 sp.), and PlcUemys (16 sp.), inhabiting South America from the Orinooko to the La Plata, the latter genus occurring also in Australia and New Guinea ; Chdodina (5 sp.), Chelemys (1 sp.), and Elseya (2 sp.) from Australia ; while Sternothcrcs CHAP. XIX.] KEPTILES. 409 (6 sp.), and Pelomedusa (3 sp.), inhabit Tropical and South Africa and Madagascar. Family 59.— TEIONYCHID^. (3 Genera, 25 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Bub-regions. Nearctio sub-begions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Australian Sua-REGioNS. Sub-regions. __ 3 - 4. 1.2.3- 1.2.3 .4. The distribution of the Trionychidse, or Soft Tortoises, is very different from that of the Chelydidee, yet is equally interesting. They abound most in the Oriental region, extending beyond it to Northern China and Japan. In the Nearctic region they are only found in the Eastern States, corresponding curiously to the distribution of plants, in which the affinity of Japan to the Eastern States is greater than to California. The Triony- chidee are also found over the Ethiopian region, but not in Madagascar. The genera are, — THonyx (17 sp.), which extends over the whole area of the family as above indicated ; Ctjcloderma (5 sp.), peculiar to Africa; Emyda (3 sp.), the peninsula of India, Ceylon, and Africa. Family 60.— CHELONIID^. (2 Genera, 5 Species.) General Distribution.— All the warm and tropical Seas. The Marine Turtles are almost universally distributed. Dermatochehjs (1 sp.), is found in the temperate seas of both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres ; Chelone (4 sp.), ranges over aU the tropical seas— (7. viridis, the epicureans' species, inhabiting the Atlantic, while C. imhricata which produces the " tortoiseshell " of commerce is found in the Indian and Pacific oceans. 410 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. RemarTcs on the Distribution of the Chelonia. The four families into which the Chelonia are classed have all of them a wide distribution, though none are universal. The Ethiopian region seems to be the richest, as it possesses 3 of the four families, while no other region has more than 2 ; and it also possesses 7 peculiar genera. Next comes the Neo- tropical region with 2 families and 6 peculiar genera ; the Australian with 3, and the Nearctic with 2 peculiar genera; while the Oriental and Palsearctic regions possess none that are peculiar. There are about 30 genera and 200 species in the whole order. Fossil Chelonia. — The earliest undoubted remains of this order occur in the Upper Oolite. These belong to the Cheloniidse and Emydidse, which are also found in the Chalk. In the Tertiary beds Chelonia are more abundant, and the Trionychidse now appear. The Testudinidse are first met with in the Miocene formation of Europe and the Eocene of North America, the most remarkable being the gigantic Golossochelys Atlas of the Siwalik Hills. It appears, therefore, that the families of the order Chelonia were already specialised in the Secondary period, a fact which, together with their more or less aquatic habits, sufficiently accounts for their generally wide distribution. Species of Testudo, Emps, and Trionyx, are found in the Upper Miocene of the south of France. . CHAP. XIX.] AMPHIBIA. 411 AMPHIBIA. Order L—P8EUD0PHIDIA. Family 1.— C^CILIAD^. (4 Genera, 10 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropicai, I Nearctio SuB-BEGioNS. I Sub-regions. I paliearctic 1 ethiopian Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Oriental | Australian Sub-regions. Sub-regions. -2.3 -2 1.2.3 — The Cseciliadse are a curious group of worm-like Amphibia sparingly scattered over the three great tropical regions. The genera are, — Ccecilia, which inhabits West Africa, Malabar and South America; Siphonopsis, peculiar to Brazil and Mexico; Ichthyopsis, from Ceylon and the Khasya Mountains ; and Rhina- trema from Cayenne. Order IL—UBODELA. Family 2.— SIRENID^. (1 Genus, 3 Species.) I General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. PAL.EARCTIC SUB-KEGIONS. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub- REGIONS. Australian Sub-regions. 3 1 _l 1 The genus Siren, consisting of eel-like Batrachians with two anterior feet and permanent branchiae, inhabits the South- Eastern States of North America from Texas to Carolina. 412 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PAET IV. Family 3.— PEOTElDiE. (2 Genera, 4 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^earctic sub-begions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Aus-mALiAN Sub-regions. 3 - 1 The Proteidae have four feet and persistent external branchiae. The ty^o genera are, — Proteus (1 sp.), found only in caverns of Central Europe ; and Menobranchus, which are like newts in form, and inhabit the Eastern States of North America. Family 4.— AMPHIUMID^. (1 Genus, 2 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropicai, sub-beqionr. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic sub-kegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-region.s. Australian Sub-regions. The genus Amphiuma, or Murcenopsis, consists of slender eel- like creatures with four rudimentary feet, and no external branchiae. The species inhabit the Southern United States from New Orleans to Carolina. Family 5.— MENOPOMIDvE. (2 Genera, 4 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Nearctic Pal^arctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian sub-begionr. sub-regions. sub-kegions. sub-regions. sub-regions. sub-regions. There are large Salamanders of repulsive appearance, found only in Eastern Asia and the Eastern United States. The genera are, — Sieholdia (2 sp.), Japan and north-west China; Menopoma — Protonopsis (2 sp.), Ohio and Alleghany rivers. CHAP, XIX.] AMPHIBIA. 413 Family 6.— SALAMANDRID^E. (20 Genera, 85 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Neabctio Sub-regions. Pal^abctic Sub- regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. -2.3- 1.2.3.4 1.2. 3. 4 3 _ The Salamandridae, of which our common Newts are charac- teristic examples, form an extensive family highly characteristic of the North Temperate regions, a few species only extending into the Neotropical region along the Andes to near Bogota, and one into the Oriental region in Western China. The genera, as arranged by Dr. Strauch, are as follows : — Salamandra (2 sp.), Central and South Europe and North Africa ; Pleurodcles (1 sp.), Spain, Portugal, and Morocco ; Brady- hates (1 sp.), Spain ; Triton (16 sp.), all Europe except the extreme north, Algeria, North China and Japan, Eastern States of North America, California and Oregon ; Chioglossa (2 sp.) Portugal and South Europe ; Salamandrina (1 sp.), Italy to Dal- matia; EUipsoglossa (2 sp.), Japan; Isodactylium (2 sp.). East Siberia; Onychodadylus (1 sp.), Japan; AmUystoraa (21 sp.), Nearctic region from Canada and Oregon to Mexico, most abundant in Eastern States ; BoModon (1 sp.), Tartary and North-east China ; Dicamptodon (1 sp.), California ; Flethodon (5 sp.), Massachusetts to Louisiana, and Vancouver's Island to California ; Desmognathus (4 sp.), Eastern United States south of latitude 43° ; Anaid.es (1 sp.), Oregon and Northern California; Hemidactylium (2 sp.). South-eastern United States and Southern California ; Heredia (1 sp.), Oregon and California ; Spelerpes (18 sp.). Eastern United States from Massachusetts to Mexico, Guatemala, Costa Rica and Andes of Bogota, with a species in South Europe ; BatracJioseps (2 sp.), South-eastern United States and California ; Tylotriton (1 sp.), Yunan in West China. 414 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. Order III.—ANURA. Family 7.— RHINOPHEYNID^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical sub-beoions. Nearctic I Pal^arctic SuB-KEGiONS. Sub-regions. Ethiopian sub-regionb. Oriental ScB-BEf!IONS. Australian sub-begions. The Ehinophrynidse are Toads with imperfect ears and a tongue which is free in front. The single species of Rhinophry- nus, is a native of Mexico. Family 8.— PHRYNISCID^. (5 Genera, 13 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. 1.2.3 — Neabctic sub-reoions. Pal-earctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-begions. i.a I 4. — 2 Australian Sub-regions. The Phryniscidse, or Toads with imperfect ears and tongue fixed in front, are widely distributed over the warmer regions of the earth, but are most abundant in the Neotropical region and Australia, while only single species occur in the Old World. The genera are : — Phrynisms (7 sp.), from Costa Rica to Chili and Monte Video ; Brachycephalus (1 sp.), Brazil ; Pseudophryne (3 sp.), Australia and Tasmania ; Hcmisus (1 sp.), Tropical Africa ; Micrhyla (1 sp.), Java. Family 9.— HYL APLESID^.. (1 Genus, 5 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Nearctic Pal.earctic Ethiopian Oriental I Australian SiB-REQioNs. Sub-regions. Sub-iieowns. Sub-region.s. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. 1 .2 CHAP. XIX.] AMPHIBIA. 41:5 The Hylaplesidse are Toads with perfect ears, and they seem to be confined to the Neotropical region. The only genus, Hylaplesia (5 sp.), inhabits Brazil, Chili, and the Island of Hayti. Family 10.— BU.FONID^. (6 Genera, 64 Species.) General DisTitiBurioN. Neotropical sub-reqions. Neakctic Sub-regions. PaL/KARCTIC SUB-KEGIONS. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3- 1.2.3.4 1.2 The rather extensive family of the Bufonidse, which includes our common Toad, and is characterised by prominent neck glands and tongue fixed in front, is almost universally distributed, but is very rare in the Australian region ; one species being found in Celebes and one in Australia. The genera are : — Kalophrynus (2 sp.), Borneo; Bufo (58 sp.), has the range of the entire family, except Australia ; Otilophus (1 sp.), South America; Peltapliryne (1 sp.), Porto Rico; Pseuddbufo (1 sp.), Malay Peninsula ; Schismaderma (1 sp.), Natal ; Notaden (1 sp.), East Central Australia. Family 11.— XENQRHINID^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) General Distribution. I Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic SUB-KEGIONS. Ethiopian sub-reoions. Oriental sub-kegions. Australian Sub-regions. 1 1 1 1 1 The Xenorhinidse may be characterised as Toads with perfect ears and tongue free in front. The only species of Xenorhina is a native of New Guinea. 41G GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV, Family 12.— ENGYSTOMID.E. (15 Genera, 31 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropioai, bcb-eeqions. Nearctio sub-hegions. Pal^arctic sub-reqions. Ethiopian sub-reqionh. Oriental Sub-ret. IONS. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3— 3 - - 2.3 - 1.2.3.4 — 2 The Engystomidse are Toads without neck-glands and with the tongue tied in front. They are most abundant in the Oriental and Neotropical regions, especially in the latter, which contains about half the known species, with isolated species in Australia, Africa, and the Southern States of North America. They appear to be the remnant of a once extensive and universally distributed group, which has maintained itself in two remote regions, but is dying out everywhere else. The genera are : — Engystoma (9 sp.), Carolina to La Plata, with one species in South China ; Diplopelma (3 sp.), South India to China and Java ; Cacopus (2 sp.), Central India ; Glyplioglossus (1 sp.), Pegu ; Calhda (4 sp.), Sikhim, Ceylon, China, and Borneo ; Bracliymerus 1 sp.), South Africa ; Adenomera (1 sp.), Brazil ; Pacliyhatrachm (1 sp.), Australia ; Breviceps (2 sp.). South and West Africa ; Chelydobatrachus (1 sp.). West Australia; Hypopachus (1 sp.), Costa Pica; Rhinoderma (1 sp.), Chili ; Atelopus (1 sp.), Cayenne and Peru; Copea (1 sp.), South America; Paludicola (1 sp.), New Granada. Family 13.— BOMBINATOEID^. (8 Genera, 9 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Neabctic Pal^arctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-kegions. Sub-regions. Sub-reqions. Sub-regions. 1.2 1 .2 The Bombinatoridse are a family of Frogs which have imper- fect ears and no neck-glands, and they have a very peculiar and CHAP. XIX.] REPTILES. 417 interesting distribution, being confined to Central and South Europe, the southern part of South America, and New Zealand. They consist of many isolated groups forming five separate sub- families. The genera are : — Borabinator, Central Europe and Italy ; Felobates and Didocus, Central Europe and Spain ; Telmatobius (2 sp.), Peru and Brazil ; Alsodcs, Chonos Archipelago; Cacotus, Chili; Liopelma, New Zealand ; Nannophryne, Straits of Magellan. Family 14— PLECTKOMANTID^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical sub-reoions. Nearctic Sub-regions. PALiEARCTIC Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1 1 1 The Plectromantidse, which are Frogs with neck-glands, and the toes but not the fingers dilated, consists of a single species of the genus Pledromantis. It inhabits the region west of the Andes, and south of the Equator. Family 15.— ALYTID^. (5 Genera, 37 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Nearctic Pal.earctic Ethiopian Oriental Australian Sub-region.s. Sub-regions. Sub-kegions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Sub-regions. \ .2 .3- 1 1.2.3— 1.2 The Alytidse are Frogs with neck-glands and undilated toes. They are most abundant in the Ethiopian region, with a few species in the Nearctic and Australian regions, and one in Europe and Brazil respectively. The genera are : — Alytes (1 sp.). Central Europe ; Scaphiopus (5 sp.), California to Mexico and the Eastern States ; Hyperolius (29 sp.), all Africa, and two in New Guinea and North Australia ; Helioporus (1 sp.), in Australia ; Nattereria (1 sp.), Brazil. 418 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV Family 16.— PELODUYAD^. (3 Genera, 7 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Neakctic sub-beoioks. pal.earctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub- REGIONS. Australian Sub-regions. i.a 1.2 The Pelodryadae are Tree Frogs with neck-glands, and are confined to the Australian and Neotropical regions. The genera are Phyllomedusa (3 sp.), South America to Paraguay ; Chirodryas, Australia ; and Pelodryas (3 sp.), Moluccas, New Guinea and Australia. Family 17.— HYLID^. (11 Genera, 94 Species.) General Distribution. Jveotropical Sub-regions. Nearctio Sub-regions. Pal^arctic •Sub-regions. Ethiopian Oriental Sub-regions. Sub-kegions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4- 1.2.3 - 3_ 1.2 The Hylidfe are glandless Tree Frogs with a broadened sacrum. They are most abundant in the Neotropical region, which con- tains more than two-thirds of the species ; about twenty species are Australian ; six or seven are Nearctic, reaching northward to Great Bear Lake ; while one only is European, and one Oriental. The genera are : — Hyla (62 sp.), having the range of the whole family ; Rylella (1 sp.), Ololygon (1 sp.), Pohlia (2 sp.), Triprion (1 sp.), Opistho- delphys (1 sp.), and Nototrema (4 sp.), are South American ; while Trachycephalus (8 sp.), is peculiar to the Antilles, except one South American species ; Pseiidacris (1 sp.), ranges from Georgia, United States, to Great Bear Lake ; Litoria (7 sp.), is Australian and Papuan, except one species in Paraguay ; Ctratohyla (4 sp.), is only known from Ecuador. CHAP. XIX.J REPTILES. 419 Family 18.— POLYPEDATID^. (24 Genera, 124 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical 8i;b-regioms. Neabctic Sub-regions. Pal^abctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3.4 3— 3 4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3 — The Polypedatidse, or glandless Tree Frogs with narrowed sacrum, are almost equally numerous in the Oriental and Neo- tropical regions, more than forty species inhabiting each, while in the Ethiopian there are about half this number, and the re- mainder are scattered over the other three regions, as shown in the enumeration of the genera : — Ixalus (16 sp.), Oriental, except one in Japan, and one in Western Polynesia ; Bhacophorus (7 sp.), and Theloderma (1 sp.), are Oriental; Hylarana (10 sp.). Oriental, to the Solomon Islands and Tartary, Nicobar Islands, West Africa, and Madagascar; Megalixalus (1 sp.), Seychelle Islands ; Leptomantis (1 sp.), Philip- pines ; Platymantis (5 sp.), New Guinea, Philippines, and Fiji Islands ; Gormifer (2 sp), Java and New Guinea ; Polypedates (1 9 sp.), mostly Oriental, but two species in West Africa, one Mada- gascar, two Japan, one Loo-Choo Islands, and one Hong Kong ; Hylamlates (3 sp.), JTemimantis (1 sp.), and Chiromantis (1 sp.), are Ethiopian ; Bappia (13 sp.), is Ethiopian, and extends to Madagascar and the Seychelle Islands ; Acris (2 sp.), is North American ; Elosia (1 sp.), Epirhixis (1 sp.), Phyllobates (9 sp.), Hylodes (26 sp.), Hyloxalus (1 sp.), Pristimantis (1 sp.), Crosso- dadylus (1 sp.), Calostethus (1 sp.), Strabomantis (1 sp.), and Leiyla (1 sp.), are Neotropical, the last two being Central Ame- rican, while species of Hylodes and Phyllobates are found in the West Indian Islands. 420 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. Family 19.— EANID^. (26 Genera, 150 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical SliB-REGIONS. Nearctic sub-heoions. Pal^arctic Sdb-iiegions. Ethiopian SuB-RtGlONS. Oriental sub-recions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2 The Eanidee, or true Frogs, are cliaracterised by having simple undilated toes, but neither neck-glands nor dilated sacrum. They are almost cosmopolitan, extending to the extreme north and south from the North Cape to Patagonia, and they are equally at home in the tropics. They are perhaps most abundant in South America, where a large number of the genera and species are found; the Ethiopian region comes next, while they are rather less abundant in the Oriental and Australian regions ; the Nearctic region has much less (about 12 species), while the Palse- arctic has only five, and these two northern regions only possess the single genus Ra7ia. The genera are distributed as follows : — Bana (60 sp.), ranges all over the world, except Australia and South America, although it extends into New Guinea and into Mexico and Central America ; it is most abundant in Africa. Pyxicephalus (7 sp.), extends over the whole Ethiopian region, Hindostan, the Himalayas, and Japan; Cystignathus (22 sp.), is mainly Neotropical, but has three species Ethiopian. All the other genera are confined to single regions. The Neotropical genera are : — Odontophrynus (1 sp.), Pseudis (1 sp.), Pithecopsis (1 sp.), Ensophleus (1 sp.), Limnocharis (1 sp.), Hemiphractus (1 sp.), all Tropical South American east of Andes ; Ceratophrys (5 sp,), Panama to La Plata ; Cycloramphus (1 sp.). West Ecuador and Chili ; Pleurodcma (6 sp.), Venezuela to Patagonia ; Zeiuperus (12 sp.), Mexico and St. Domingo to Patagonia; HylorUna (1 sp.), Chiloe. The Australian genera are -.—Myxophycs (1 sp.), Queensland ; Platyplectrum (2 sp.), Queensland and West Aus- tralia ; Nedbatrachus (1 sp.). South Australia ; Limnodynastes 7 sp.), and Crinia (11 sp.), Australia and Tasmania. The CHAP. XIX.] EEPTILES. 421 Oriental genera are -.—Dicroglossus (1 sp.), Western Himalayas ; Oxyglossus (2 sp.), Siam to Java, Philippines and China ; Hoplo- hatrachus (1 sp.), Ceylon; Phrynoglossus (1 sp.), Siam. The Ethiopian genera are : — Phrynobatrachus (1 sp.), Stenorhynchus (1 sp.), both from Natal. Family 20.— DISCOGLOSSID^. (14 Genera, 18 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sob-regions. PaL^ ARCTIC Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sdb-rkgions. Oriental Australian SuB-REnioNS. Sub-regions. 1.2 1.2.3.4 - 2.3 - -2.3.4- 1.2 The Discoglossidffi, or Frogs with a dilated sacrum, are re- markable for the number of generic forms scattered over a large part of the globe, being only absent from the Nearctic and the northern half of the Neotropical regions, and also from Hindostan and East Africa. The genera are : — Chiroleptes (4 sp.), Australia ; Calyjplocephalus (1 sp.), allied to the preceding, from Chili; Cryptotis (1 sp.), Australia; As- terophys (2 sp.), New Guinea and Aru Islands ; Xenophrys (1 sp.), Eastern Himalayas ; Megalophrys (2 sp.), Ceylon and the Malay Islands ; Nannophrys (1 sp.), Ceylon ; Pelodytes (1 sp.), France only ; LeptobracMum (1 sp.), Java ; Discoglossus (1 sp.), Vienna to Algiers ; Laprissa (1 sp.), Latonia (1 sp.), Palaearctic region ; Arthrolcptis (2 sp.), West Africa and the Cape ; Grypiscus (1 sp.), Souih Brazil. Family 21.— PIPID^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) Neotropical Si'B-REOIONS. Nearctic Sub-regions. General Distribution. Pal.* arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian | Oriental Sub-regions, i Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. — 2 422 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. The Pipidse are toads without a tongue or maxillary teeth, and with enormously dilated sacrum. The only species of Pipa is a native of Guiana. Family 22.— DACTYLETHRlDiE. (1 Genus, 2 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropicai, Sub-regions. Neabctic Sub-regions. Pa L^ ARCTIC Sub-regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3 - The Dactylethridi3e are Toads with maxillary teeth but no tongue, and with enormously dilated sacrum. The species of Dadylethra are natives of West, East, and South Africa. General Remarks on the Distribution of the Amphibia. The Amphibia, as here enumerated, consist of 22 families, 152 genera, and nearly 700 species. Many of the families have a very limited range, only two (Ranidse and Polypedatidse) being nearly universal ; five more extend each into five regions, while no less than thirteen of the families are confined to one, two, or three regions each. By far the richest region is the Neotropical, possessing 16 families (four of them peculiar) and about 50 peculiar or very characteristic genera. Next comes the Austra- lian, with 11 families (one of which is peculiar) and 16 pecu- liar genera. The Nearctic region has no less than 9 of the families (two of them peculiar to it) and 15 peculiar genera, 13 of which are tailed Batrachians which have here their metropolis. The other three regions have 9 families each ; the Palsearctic has no peculiar family but no less than 15 peculiar genera ; the Ethiopian 1 family and 12 genera peculiar to it ; and the Oriental, 19 genera but no family confined to it. It is evident, therefore, that each of the regions is well characterised by its peculiar forms of Amphibia, there being only a few genera, such as Hyla, Rana, and Bufo which have a wide range. The connection of the Australian and Neotropical CHAr. XIX.] . EEPTILES. 423 regions is well shown in this group, by the Phryniscidse, Hylidae, and Discoglossidse, which present allied forms in both ; as well as by the genus Liopelma of New Zealand, allied to tlie Bombinatoridse of South America, and the absence of the otherwise cosmopolitan genus Rana from both continents. The affinity of the Nearctic and Palaearctic regions is shown by the Pro- teidte, which are confined to them, as well as by the genus Triton and almost the whole of the extensive family of the Salaman- dridse. The other regions are also well differentiated, and there is no sign of a special Ethiopian Amphibian fauna extending over the peninsula of India, or of the Oriental and Palsearctic regions merging into each other, except by means of genera of universal distribution. Fossil Amphibia. — The extinct Labyrinthodontia form a separ- ate order, which existed from the Carboniferous to the Triassic period. No other remains of this class are found tdl we reach the Tertiary formation, when Newts and Salamanders as well as Frogs and Toads occur, most frequently in the Miocene de- posits. The most remarkable is the Andrias scheuchzeri from the Miocene of (Eningen, which is allied to Sieholdia maxima the great salamander of Japan. Vol. II.— 28 CHAPTER XX. THE DISTEIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES OF FISHES, WITH THE EANGE OF SUCH GENERA AS INHABIT FRESH WATER. Sub-class L— TELEOSTEL Order I.— A CA NT HOP TEE YOIL Family 1.— GASTEROSTEID^. (1 Genus, 11 Species.) " Fresh-water or marine scaleless fishes, with elongate com- pressed bodies and with isolated spines before the dorsal fin." Distribution. — Palsearctic and Nearctic regions. The species of Gasterosteus, commonly called Sticklebacks, are found in rivers, lakes, estuaries, and seas, as far south as Italy and Ohio. Four species occur in Britain. Family 2.— BERYCID^. (10 Genera, 55 Species.) " Marine fishes, with elevated compressed bodies covered with toothed scales, and large eyes." Distribution. — Tropical and temperate seas of both hemi- spheres. Their northern limit is the Mediterranean and Japan. Most abundant in the Malayan seas. CHAP. xx.J FISHES. 425 Family 3.— PERCID^. (61 Genera, 476 Species.) " Marine or fresh- water carnivorous fishes, with oblong bodies covered with toothed scales." Distribution. — Seas, rivers and lakes, of all regions. The seuera which inhabit fresh-waters are the following : — Perca (3 sp.), inhabits the Nearctic and Palsearctic regions as far south as Ohio and Switzerland ; one species, the common perch, is British. Pcrcichthys (5 sp.), Chili and Patagonia, with one species in Java; Paralabrax (2 sp.), California; Labrax (8 sp.), six species are marine, inhabiting the shores of Europe and North America, one being British, two species inhabit the rivers of the northern United States ; Lates (2 sp.), Nile and large rivers of India and China ; Acerina (3 sp.), Europe, from England to Eussia and Siberia ; Percarina (1 sp.). River Dniester ; Lucioperca (6 sp.). North America and Europe ; Pihoma (2 sp.), North America, Texas to Lake Erie ; Boleosoma (3 sp.), Texas to Lake Superior ; Aspro (2 sp.), Central Europe ; Huro (1 sp.), Lake Huron ; Percilia, (1 sp.), Rio de Maypu in Chili ; Centrarchus (10 sp.), North America and Cuba ; Bryttus (8 sp.). South Carolina to Texas ; Pomotis (8 sp.). North America, Lake Erie to Texas. Of the exclusively marine genera a species of Polyprion and one of Serranics are British. The latter genus has nearly 150 species spread over the globe, but is most abundant in the Tropics. Mesoprion is another extensive genus confined to the Tropics. Apocjon abounds from the Red Sea to the Pacific, but has one species in the Mediterranean and one in the coast of Brazil. Family 4— APHREDODERID^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) "Fresh-water fish, with oblong body covered with toothed scales, and wide cleft mouth." Distribution. — Atlantic States of North America. 42G GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. Family 5.— PEISTIPOMATID^. (25 Genera, 206 Species.) " Marine carnivorous iishes, with compressed oblong bodies, and without molar or cutting teeth." Distribution. — Seas of temperate and tropical regions, a few only entering fresh water. Of the more extensive genera, nine, comprising more than half the species, are confined to the Indian and Australian seas, while only one large genus {Hcemulon) is found in the Atlantic on the coast of Tropical America. The extensive Pacific genus, Diagravima, has one species in the Mediterraneao. One genus is confined to the Macquarie Eiver in Australia. A species of Dentex has occurred on the English coast, and this seems to be the extreme northern range of the family, which does not regularly extend beyond the coast of Portugal, and in the East to Japan. Australia seems to form the southern limit. Family 6.— MULLID^. (5 Genera, 34 Species.) " Marine fishes, with elongate slightly compressed bodies covered with large scales, and two dorsal fins at a distance from each other." Distribution. — All tropical seas, except the West Coast o America, extending into temperate regions as far as the Baltic, Japan, and New Zealand. Two species of Mullvs (Mullets) are British, and these are the only European fish belonging to the family. Family 7.— SPAKID^. (22 Genera, 117 Species.) " Herbivorous or carnivorous marine fishes, with oblong com- pressed bodies covered with minutely serrated scales, and with one dorsal fin." Distribution. — Seas of temperate and tropical regions, a few entering rivers. CHAP. XX.] FISHES. 427 Cantharus, Pagellus, and CliTysophrys, have occurred on the English Coast. Haplodadylus is confined to the West Coast of South America, and Australia ; Sargus to the temperate and warm parts of the Atlantic and the shores of East Africa ; Pagellus to the western coasts of Europe and Africa. The other large genera have a wider distribution. Family 8.— SQUAMIPENNES. (12 Genera, 124 Species.) "Carnivorous marine fishes, with compressed and elevated bodies, and scaly vertical fins." Distribution. — The seas between the tropics, most abundant in the Oriental and Australian regions, a few entering rivers or extending beyond the tropics. The extensive genus Chcetodon (67 sp.), ranges from the Bed Sea to the Sandwich Islands, and from Japan to Western Aus- tralia, while two species are found in the West Indies. Holacan- thus (36 sp.), has a similar distribution, one species only occurring in the West Indies and on the coast of South America. Only one genus (Pomacanthm), with a single species, is confined to the West Atlantic. Family 9.— CIERHITID^. (8 Genera, 34 Species.) " Carnivorous marine fishes, with a compressed oblong body, covered with cycloid scales." Distribution. — The tropical and south temperate waters of the Indian and Pacific oceans, from Eastern Africa to Western America. Absent from the Atlantic. Family 10.— TRIGLID^. (50 Genera, 259 Species.) "Carnivorous, mostly marine fishes, with oblong compressed or subcylindrical bodies, and wide cleft mouths. They live at the bottom of the water." Distribution. — All seas, some entering fresh water, and a few inhabiting exclusively the fresh waters of the Arctic regions. '. 428 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. They are divided by Dr. Giinther into four groups. The Heterolepidina (comprising 4 genera and 12 species) are con- fined to the North Pacific. The Scorpsenina (23 genera 113 species) have an almost universal distribution, but the genera are each restricted to one or other of the great oceans. Sehastes has occurred on the English coast. The Cottina (28 genera 110 species) have also a universal distribution ; the numerous species of Gottus are found either in the seas or fresh waters of Europe and North America ; four species are British, as well as seven species of the wide-spread genus Trigla. Ptyonotus (1 sp.) is confined to Lake Ontario. The Cataphracti (5 genera, 23 species) have also a wide range ; one genus, Ayonus, is found in the British seas, and also in Kamschatka and on the coast of Chili. Peristethus is also British. Family 11.— TEACHINID^. (24 Genera, 90 Species.) " Carnivorous marine fishes, with elongate bodies, living at the bottom, near the shore." Distribution. — Almost or quite universal. Trachinus is a British genus. A species of Aphritis inhabits the fresh waters of Tasmania, while its two allies are found on the coasts of Patagonia. Family 12. SCI^NID^. (13 Genera, 102 Species.) " Marine or fresh -water fishes, with compressed and rather elongate bodies, covered with toothed scales." Distribution. — Temperate and tropical regions, but absent I'rom Australia. Larimus is found in the Atlantic, and in African and American rivers. Corvina, Scicena, and Otilothus are also marine and fresh- water, both in the Atlantic and Pacific. The other genera are of small extent and more restricted range. Umhrina and Scicena have occurred in British seas. CHAP. XX.J FISHES. 429 Family 13.— POLYNEMID^. (3 Genera, 23 Species.) " Marine or fresh- water fishes, with compressed oblong bodies and entire or ciliated scales," Distribution. — Tropical seas and rivers of both the great oceans, but most abundant in the Pacific. Family 14.— SPHYEENID^. (1 Genus, 15 Species.) "Carnivorous marine fishes, with elongate sub-cylindrical bodies covered with small cycloid scales." Distribution. — The warm and tropical seas of the globe. Family 15.— TEICHIURID^. (7 Genera, 18 Species.) " Marine fishes, with elongate compressed bodies covered with minute scales or naked." Distribution. — All the tropical and sub-tropical seas. Family 16.— SCOMBRID^. (20 Genera, 108 Species.) " Marine fishes, with elongate compressed bodies, scaled or naked." Distribution. — All the temperate and tropical oceans. Mostly inhabiting the open seas. Scomber, (the Mackerel) Tkynnus, NaucraUs, Zeus, Centro- lophus, Brama, and Lamj^is, are genera which have occurred in the British seas. Family 17.— CARANGID^. (27 Genera, 171 Species.) " Marine fishes, with compressed oblong or elevated bodies covered with small scales or naked." Distribution.— All temperate and tropical seas ; some species occur in both the great oceans, ranging from New York to Aus- tralia. Trachurus and Cap'os are genera which occur in British seas. 430 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. Family 18.— XTPHIID^. (2 Genera, 8 Species.) " Marine fishes, with elongate compressed body and a produced sword-shaped upper jaw." Distribution. — Mediterranean, and open seas between or near the Tropics. Xiphias (the Sword-fish) has occurred on the English coast. Family 19.— GOBIID^. (24 Genera, 294 Species.) *' Carnivorous fishes, with elongate low, naked, or scaly bodies, living at the bottom of the shallow seas or fresh waters of tem- perate or tropical regions. Individuals of the same species often differ in inhabiting exclusively fresh or salt water. Distribution. — All temperate and tropical regions, from Scotland and Japan to New Zealand. Species of Gobius, Latrun- culus, and Callionymus occur in Britain. Several genera are confined to the East Indian seas and rivers, but none seem peculiar to America. The genus Periopthalmus consists of the curious, large-headed, projectiug-eyed fishes, so abundant on the muddy shores of African and Eastern tidal rivers, and which seem to spend most of their time out of water, hunting after insects, &c. Family 20.— DISCOBOLI. (2 Genera, 11 Species.) " Carnivorous fishes, with oblong naked or tubercular bodies, living at the bottom of shallow seas, and attaching themselves to rocks by means of a ventral disc. Distribution. — All northern seas, as far south as Belgium, England, and San Francisco. Species of both genera {Cydopterus and Liparis) occur in British seas. CHAP. XX.] FISHES. 431 Family 21.— OXUDERCTD^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) " A marine fish, with an elongate sub-cylindrical body and no ventral fins." Distribution. — Macao, China. Family 22.— BATEACHID^. (3 Genera, 12 Species.) " Marine fishes, with sub-cylindrical body and broad depressed head." Distribution. — The coasts of nearly all tropical and south temperate regions, ranging from New York and Portugal to Chili and Tasmania. Family 23.— PEDICULATI. (8 Genera, 40 Species.) " Marine carnivorous fishes, with very large heads and without scales." Distribution. — Seas of all temperate and tropical regions, extending south to New Zealand and north to Greenland. A species of Lophius (the Fishing-frog or Sea- Devil) is found in British seas. The genus Antennarius, comprising two-thirds of the species, is wholly tropical. Family 24.— BLENNID^. (33 Genera, 201 Species.) " Carnivorous fishes, with long sub-cylindrical naked bodies, living at the bottom of shallow water in seas, or tidal rivers." Distribution. — All seas from the Arctic regions to New Zealand, Chili, and the Cape of Good Hope. Species of Anarrhichas, Blcnnius, Blenniops, Centronotus and Zoarces occur in British seas. Chasmodes (3 sp.) is confined to the Atlantic coasts of Temperate North America ; Petroscirtes (26 sp.) to the tropical parts of the Indian and Pacific Oceans ; and Stichoeus (9 sp.) to the Arctic Seas. 432 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. Family 25.— ACANTHOCLINID^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) " A carnivorous marine fish, with long flat body and very long dorsal fin." Distribution. — Coasts of New Zealand. Family 26.— COMEPHOEID^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) " An elongate, naked, large-headed fish, with two dorsal fins." Distribution. — Lake Baikal. Dr. Giinther remarks, that this fish approaches the Scombrina (Mackerel) in several characters. These are exclusively marine fishes, while Lake Baikal is fresh- water, and is situated among mountains, at an elevation of nearly 2000 feet, and more than a thousand miles from the ocean ! Family 27.— TRACK YPTEEID.^. (3 Genera, 16 Species.) "Deep sea fishes, with elongate, much compressed, naked bodies." Distribution. — Europe, East Indies, West Coast of South America, New Zealand. Dr. Giinther remarks, that little is known of these fishes, from their being so seldom thrown on shore, and then rapidly decomposing. The Eibbon-fish {Regale- cus banksii) has occurred frequently on our shores. They have soft bones and muscles, small mouths, and weak dentition. Family 28.— LOPHOTID^.. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) " A marine fish, with elongate compressed naked body, and high crested head." Distribution. — Mediterranean Sea and Japan. CHAP. XX.] FISHES. 433 Family 29.— TEUTHIDID^. (1 Genus, 29 Species.) " Marine, herbivorous fishes, with compressed, oblong, small - scaled bodies." DiSTKiBUTiON. — Eastern tropical seas, from Bourbon and the Eed Sea to the Marianne and Fiji Islands. Family 30.— ACRONUEID^. (5 Genera, 64 Species.) " Marine, herbivorous fishes, with compressed, minutely-scaled bodies." Distribution. — All tropical seas, but most abundant in the Malay region, and extending to Japan and New Zealand. Family 31.— HOPLEGNATHID^. (1 Genus, 3 Species.) " Marine fishes, with compressed elevated bodies, covered with very small toothed scales." Distribution. — Seas of Australia, China, and Japan. Family 32.— MALACANTHID^. (1 Genus, 3 Species.) " Marine fishes, with elongate bodies covered with very smaU scales, and with very long dorsal and anal fins." Distribution. — Atlantic coasts of Tropical America, Mauritius, and New Guinea. Family 33.— NANDID^. (6 Genera, 14 Species.) " Marine or fresh-water carnivorous fishes, with oblong, com- pressed, scaly bodies." Distribution. — From the Eed Sea to the coasts of China and Australia; and the fresh waters of the Neotropical and Oriental regions. Badis, Navdus, and Cat(ypra inhabit the 434 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. rivers of India and the Malay Islands ; Acharnes the rivers of British Guiana. Family 34— POLYCENTEID^. (2 Genera, 3 Species.) "Fresh- water carnivorous fishes, with compressed elevated scaly bodies, and many-spined dorsal and anal fins." Distribution. — Eivera of Tropical America. Family 35.— LABYEINTHICI. (9 Genera, 25 Species.) "Fresh- water fishes, with compressed oblong bodies, and capable of living for some time out of water or in dried mud." Distribution. — Fresh waters of South Africa and the East Indies from the Mauritius to China, the Philippines, Celebes, and Amboyna. Family 36.— LUCIOCEPHALID^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) ■ " Fresh- water fish, with elongate scaled body, and a dilated branchial membrane." Distribution. — Eivers of Borneo, Biliton, and Banca. Family 37.— ATHEEINID^. (3 Genera, 39 Species.) " Marine or fresh-water carnivorous fishes, with subcylind- rical scaled bodies, and feeble dentition." Distribution. — All temperate and tropical seas, from Scotland and New York to the Straits of Magellan and Tasmania. Atherina preshyter occurs in British seas. Species of Athenna and AtJierinichthis are found in fresh-water lakes and rivers in Europe, America, and Australia. CHAP. XX.] FISHES. 435 Family 38.— MUGILID^. (3 Genera, 78 Species.) " Fresh-water and marine fishes, with oblong compressed bodies, cycloid scales, and small mouths, often without teeth." DiSTEiBUTiON. — Coasts and fresh waters of all temperate and tropical regions. Mitgil (66 sp.) is mostly marine, and is very widely distri- buted ; several species (Grey Mullets) occur on the British coasts. Agonostoma (9 sp.) is confined to the fresh waters of the West Indies, Central America, New Zealand, Australia, Celebes, and the Comoro Islands. Myxus (3 sp.) is marine, and occurs both in the Atlantic and Pacific. Family 39.— OPHIOCEPHALID^. (2 Genera, 26 Species.) "Fresh-water fishes, with elongate subcylindrical scaled bodies ; often leaving the water for a considerable time." DiSTBiBUTlON. — Rivers of the Oriental region :^India, Ceylon, China, Malay Islands to Philippines and Borneo. Family 40.— TRICHONOTID^. (2 Genera, 2 Species.) " Marine carnivorous fishes, with elongate subcylindrical bodies, cycloid scales, and eyes directed upwards." Distribution. — Coasts of Celebes, Ceram, and New Zealand. Family 41.— CEPOLID^. (1 Genus, 7 Species.) " Marine fishes, with very long, compressed, band-like bodies, covered with small cycloid scales." Distribution. — Temperate seas of Western Europe and East- ern Asia, and one species in the Malayan Seas. Cepola rubescens (the Band fish) ranges from Scotland to the Mediterranean. All the other species but one are from Japan. 436 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. Family 42.— GOBIESOCID^. (9 Genera, 21 Species.) "Carnivorous marine fishes, elongate, anteriorly depressed and scaleless, with dorsal fin on the tail." DiSTElBUTiON. — Temperate and tropical seas ; Scandinavia to the Cape, California to Chili, West Indies, Ked Sea, Australia, New Zealand, and Fiji Islands, Three species of Lepadogaster have occurred in the English Channel. Family 43.— PSYCHROLUTID^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) "A large-headed, elongate, naked marine fish, with smaU teeth, and dorsal fin on the tail." Distribution. — West Coast of North America (Vancouver's Island.) Family 44.— CENTRISCID^. (2 Genera, 7 Species.) "Marine fishes, with compressed, oblong or elevated bodies, elongate tubular mouth and no teeth." Distribution. — West Coast of Europe and Africa, Mediterra- nean, Indian Ocean to Java, Philippines, and Japan. A species of Centriscus has occurred on the South Coast of England, and another species is found both at Madeira and Japan. Family 45.— FISTULARIDiE. (2 Genera, 4 Species.) " Marine fishes, very elongate, with long tubular mouth and small teeth." Distribution. — Tropical seas, both in the Atlantic and Indian Ocean, and as far east as the New Hebride'?. CHAP. XX.] FISHES. 437 Family 46.— MASTACEMBELIDiE. (2 Genera, 9 Species.) " Fresh-water fishes, with eel-like bodies and very long dorsal fin." Distribution. — Eivers of the Oriental region, one species from Ceram (?). Family 47.— NOTACANTHI. (1 Genus, 5 Species.) " Marine fishes, with elongate bodies covered with very small scales, and snout protruding beyond the mouth." Distribution. — Greenland, Mediterranean, and "West Aus- tralia. Order IL—ACANTHOPTERYGII PHARYNGOGNATHl. Family 48.— POMACENTEID^. (3 Genera, 143 Species.) " Marine fishes, with short compressed bodies covered with toothed scales, and with feeble dentition." Distribution. — Tropical parts of Pacific and Indian Ocean, less numerous in Tropical Atlantic, a few reaching the Medi- terranean, Japan, and South Australia. Fomacentrus, Glyphi- dodon, and Heliastes are Atlantic genera. Family 49.— LABRIDvE. (46 Genera, 396 Species.) "Herbivorous or carnivorous marine fishes, with elongate bodies covered with cycloid scales, and teeth adapted for crushing the shells of moUusca." Distribution.— Temperate and tropical regions of all parts of the globe. The genera Lahrus, Crenilahrus, Gtenolahrus, Acantholahrus, Centrolabrus, and Coris, have occurred in British seas, and all of 438 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. these, except the last, are confined to the Mediterranean and the Atlantic as far as Madeira. Eight other genera are characteristic of the Atlantic, most of them being West Indian, but one from the coasts of Xorth America. Seven genera are common to all the great oceans ; the remainder being confined to the Indian and Pacific Oceans, ranging from Japan to New Zealand, but being far more abundant between the Tropics. Family 50.— EMBROTOCID^. (2 Genera, 17 Species.) " Marine viviparous fishes, with compressed elevated bodies covered with cycloid scales, and with small teeth." Distribution. — Pacific Ocean from Japan and California northwards. One species enters the fresh waters of California. Family 51.— GERPJDyE. (1 Genus, 28 Species.) " Marine fishes, with compressed oblong bodies covered with minutely serrated scales, and with small teeth." Distribution. — Tropical seas ; ranging south as far as the Cape of Good Hope and Australia, and north to Japan and (one species) to New Jersey, U.S. Family 52.— CHROMID^. (19 Genera, 100 Species.) " Fresh- water herbivorous or carnivorous fishes, with elevated or elongate scaly bodies, and small teeth." Distribution. — The Oriental, Ethiopian, and Neotropical re- gions. Eutroplus (2 sp.) is from the rivers of Southern India and Ceylon; Chromis (15 sp.), Sarotherodon (2 sp.), and Hemi- chromis (4 sp.), are from the rivers and lakes 'of Africa, ex- tending to the Sahara and Palestine. The remaining 15 genera are American, and several of them have a restricted distribution. Acara (17 sp.) inhabits Tropical South America and the Antilles ; Theraps (1 sp.), Guatemala ; Heros (26 sp.), Texas and CHAP. XX.] FISHES. 439 Mexico to La Plata ; Mesonauta (1 sp.), Brazil ; Peienia (1 sp.), Lake Peten, Guatemala ; Uaru (2 sp.), Brazil ; Hygrogonus (1 sp.), Brazil ; CicJila (4 sp.). Equatorial America ; Crenicichla (9 sp.), BrazU and Guiana ; Chcetobranchus (3 sp.), Brazil and Guiana ; Mesops (2 sp.), Brazil ; Satanoperca (7 sp.), Amazon Valley and Guiana ; Geophagus (1 sp.). North Brazil and Guiana ; Symphysoclon (1 sp.), Lower Amazon; Pterophyllum (1 sp.), Lower Amazon. Order III.—ANACANTHINI. Family 53.— GADOPSID^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) " Fresh-water fish, with rather elongate body covered with very small scales, the upper jaw overhanging the lower, forming an obtuse snout." Distribution. — Eivers of Australia and Tasmania. Family 53a.— LYCODID.E. (3 Genera, 14 Species.) "Marine fishes, with elongate bodies, and the dorsal united with the anal fin." DiSTKiBUTiON. — Arctic seas of America and Greenland, and Antarctic seas about the Falkland Islands and Chiloe Island. Family 54.— GADID^. (21 Genera, 58 Species.) "Marine fishes, with more or less elongate bodies covered with small smooth scales." Distribution.— Cold and temperate regions of both hemi- spheres ; in the North extending as far south as the Mediterranean, Canary Islands, New York and Japan (and one species to the Philippines and Bay of Bengal), and in the South to Chili and New Zealand. Gadus (Cod), Merluccius (Hake), Phycis, Lota, Molva, Gouchia, Motella, and Baniceps, are British, lota inhabits fresh waters. Vol. II.— 29 440 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. Family 55.— OPHIDIID^. (16 Genera, 43 Species.) " Marine fishes, with more or less elongate bodies, the dorsal and anal fins united, and the ventral fins rudimentary or absent." Distribution. — Almost universal ; from Greenland to New Zealand, but most abundant in the Tropics. Ophidium and Ammodytes occur in British seas ; Lucifuga inhabits subterranean fresh waters in Cuba. Family 56.— MACEOURID^. (3 Genera, 21 Species.) "Marine fishes, with the body terminating in a long, com- pressed tapering tail, and covered with spiny, keeled or striated scales." Distribution. — North Atlantic from Greenland to Madeira and the Canary Islands, Mediterranean, Japanese and Australian seas. None of these fishes have occurred in the British seas. Family 57.— ATELEOPODID^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) " Marine fishes, with the naked body terminating in a long compressed, tapering tail." Distribution. — Japan. Family 58.— PLEUEONECTID^. (34 Genera, 185 Species.) "Marine carnivorous fishes, with strongly compressed flat bodies, one side of which is colourless, and eyes unsymmetrically placed, both on the coloured side. They inhabit the sandy bottoms of shallow seas, and often ascend rivers." Distribution. — Universal, on Arctic, Temperate, and Tropical coasts. CHAP. XX.] FISHES. 441 Seven genera occur in British seas, viz. : Hippoglossus, Hippo- glossoides, Rlwmbus, Phrynorhomhus, Arnoglossus, Pleuronectes (Turbot), and Solea (Sole). There are 13 genera in the Atlantic and 23 in the Pacific, 4 being common to both ; and 2 found only in the Mediterranean. A Pacific genus, Synaptura, has one species in the Mediterranean. Order IV.—PHYSOSTOMI. Family 59.— SILUKID^. (114 Genera, 547 Species.) " Fresh-water or marine, scaleless fishes, often with bony shields, and the head always furnished with barbels." Distribution. — The fresh waters of all the temperate and tropical regions, those which enter the salt water keeping near the coast. This extensive family is divided by Dr. Giinther into eight sub-families and seventeen groups, the distribution of which is as follows : — Sub-family 1 (Siluhid^ HoMALOPTERiE) is confined to the Old World. It consists of three groups : Clarina (2 genera, Glarias and Eeterohranchus) ranges over the whole area of the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, to which it appears to be strictly confined ; Plotosina (3 genera, Plotosus, Copidoglanis, and Cnido- glanis) ranges from the eastern coasts of Africa to Japan, Poly- nesia, and Australia, in seas and rivers ; Chacina (1 genus, Chaca) ranges from India to Borneo. Sub-family 2 (Silurid^ Heteropter^) is also confined to the Old World ; it consists of one group, — Silurina, containing 19 genera, viz. : — Saccohranchus (4 sp.), India to Cochin China and Ceylon ; Silurus (5 sp.), Palsearctic region from Central Europe to Japan, China, and Afghanistan, and a species in Cochin China; Silurichthys (3 sp.), Cashmere, Java, and Borneo ; Wallago (2 sp.), Hindostan, Sumatra, and Borneo ; Belodontichthys (1 sp.), Su- matra and Borneo ; Eutropiichthys (1 sp.), Bengal ; Crypiopterus 442 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. (15 sp.), Java, Sumatra, and Borneo, with a species in the Ganges, in Siam, and (?) in Amboyna; Callichrous (10 sp.), Afghanistan to Borneo and Java; Schilbe (5 sp.), Tropical Africa; Eutropius (6 sp.), Tropical Africa and Central India ; Hemisilurus (2 sp.), Java and Sumatra ; Siluranodon (1 sp.), Nile ; Ailia (2 sp.), Bengal ; SchilUchthys (1 sp.), Bengal ; Lais (1 sp.), Java, Sumatra, Borneo ; Pseudeutropius (6 sp.), India and Sumatra ; Pangasius (7 sp.), Ganges, Sumatra, Java, Borneo; Helicophagus (2 sp.), Sumatra ; Silondia (1 sp.), Ganges. Sub-family 3 (Silurid^ Anoma.lopter^) is confined to Equatorial America ; it consists of the group Hypopthalmina, containing 2 genera : Helogenes (1 sp.), Hypopthalmus (4 sp.), from the country north of the Amazon, Surinam, and the Eio Negro. Sub-family 4 (Silueidje Proteropter^) ranges over all the tropical and most of the temperate parts of the globe, except Europe and Australia. It consists of four groups : Bagrina (16 genera), ranging over most of the Old World and North America; Pimelodina (15 genera), confined to Tropical America, except one genus which is African; Ariina (10 genera), aU Tropical regions ; and Bagarina (3 genera). Oriental region. The distribution of the genera is as follows : — Bagrus (2 sp.), Nile ; Chrysichthys (5 sp.). Tropical Africa ; Clarotes. (1 sp.), Upper Nile; Macrones (19 sp.), India, Ceylon to Borneo, and one species in, Asia Minor ; Pseuddbagrus (4 sp.), Japan, China, and Cochin China ; Liocasds (5 sp.), Japan, China, Java, Sumatra, and Borneo ; Bagroides (3 sp.), Sumatra and Borneo ; Bagrichthys (1 sp.), Sumatra and Borneo ; Rita (5 sp.), Continental India and Manilla; AcrocJiordonichthys (6 s p.), Java and Sumatra ; Akysis (3 sp.), Java and Sumatra ; Olyra (1 sp.), Khasya; Branchiosteus (1 sp.), Khasya; Amiurus (13 sp.), Nearctic region to Guatemala and China ; Hopladclus (1 sp.), North America; Noturus (4 sp.), North America; SoruUm (1 sp.), Amazon ; Platystnma (11 sp.), Tropical South America; HemisoruUm (1 sp.) Eio Negro, Brazil; Platistomatichthys (1 sp,), Rio Branco, Brazil ; Phradocephalus (1 sp.), Amazon ; Piramutana (2 sp.), Equatorial America; Platynematichthys CHAP. XX.] FISHES. 443 (1 sp.), northern and southern tributaries of Amazon ; Piratinga (3 sp.), Amazon Valley ; Seiades (2 sp.), Amazon ; *Pwielodus (42 sp.), Mexico to La Plata, single aberrant species from West Africa, Java and the Sandwich Islands ; Pirinampus (1 sp.), Brazil ; Conorhynchus (1 sp.), Brazil ; Notoglanis (1 sp.), Madeira, Amazon Valley ; Callophysus (3 sp.). Tropical South America ; Auchenaspis (1 sp.), Tropical Africa ; Arius (68 sp.), all Tropical regions ; Galcichthys (1 sp.), Cape of Good Hope ; Genidens (1 sp.), Brazil; Remipimelodus (3 sp.), India, Sumatra, and Borneo; Ketingus (1 sp.), Sunda Islands; ^lurichthys (4 sp.), Eastern United States to Guiana ; Paradiplomystax (1 sp.), Brazil ; Di- plomystax (1 sp.), Chili ; Osteogeniosus (3 sp.), India to Java ; Batrachocephalus (1 sp.), Java and Sumatra ; Bagarius (1 sp.), India to Java ; Eiidyptosternum (1 sp.), India ; GiyptosternuW' (8 sp.), Himalayas, Central India, Java, and Sumatra ; Rara (3 sp.), Continental India; Amblyceps (3 sp.). Continental India. Sub-family 5 (Silukid^ Stenobranchi^) is confined to South America and Africa, with one genus and species in the Ganges. It consists of three groups : Doradina (12 genera). South America and Africa; Rhinoglanina (3 genera). Central Africa and the Ganges ; Malapterurina (1 genus), Tropical Africa. The distri- bution of the genera is as follows : — Ageniosus (4 sp.), Surinam to La Plata ; Tetranematichthys (1 sp.). Central Brazil, Rio Guapore ; Euanemus (1 sp.), Surinam and Brazil ; Auchcnipterus (9 sp.), Equatorial America ; Centro- mochlus (2 sp.), Equatorial America; Trachelyopterus (2 sp.), Equatorial America; Cdopsis (3 sp.), Brazil; Asterophysus (1 sp.), Rio Negro, North Brazil; Doras (13 sp.). Tropical South America east of Andes ; Oxydoras (7 sp.), Amazon Valley and Guiana; RUnodoras (3 sp.), Tropical South America east of Andes ; Synodontis (12 sp.), Tropical Africa ; Rhinoglanis (1 sp.). Upper Nile; Mochocus (1 sp.), Nile; Callomystax (1 sp.), Nile; Malapterunts (3 sp.). Tropical Africa. Sub-family 6 (Silurid^ Proteropodes) inhabits Tropical America and Northern India as far as Tenasserim. It consists of two groups: the Hypostomatina (17 genera), with the same distribution as the sub-family, and the Aspredinina (3 genera), 444 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. confined to Equatorial America. The distribution of the genera is as follows : — Arges (2 sp.), Andes of Peru and Ecuador ; Stygogenes (2 sp.), Andes; Brontes (1 sp.), Andes; Astrohiepus (1 sp.), Popayan; Callidithys (11 sp.). Tropical South America east of Andes, and Trinidad ; Plecostomus (15 sp.), Tropical South America east of Andes, and Trinidad ; Liposarcus (3 sp.), Surinam and Brazil ; Cha'tostomus (25 sp.), Tropical America, Trinidad, and Porto Pico ; Pterygoplichthys (4 sp.), Brazil ; Rhinelepis (1 sp.), Brazil; Acanthicus (2 sp.). Equatorial America; Loricaria (17 sp.). Tropical South America east of Andes ; Acestra (4 sp.), Brazil and Guiana ; Sisor (1 sp.), Northern Bengal ; Urethistes (1 sp.), Assam ; Pseudecheneis (1 sp.), Khasya Hills ; Exostoma (2 sp.), Assam and Tenasserim ; Bunocephalus (2 sp.), Guiana ; Buno- cephalicUMjs (1 sp.), Pdo Branco, North Brazil ; Aspredo (6- sp.), Guiana. Sub-family 7 (Silurid^ Opisthopter.t:) consists of two groups: Nematogenyina (2 genera), and Trichoraycterina (3 genera), and is confined to South America. The distribution of the genera is as follows : — Heptapterus (2 sp.), South America; Nematogenys (1 sp.). Chili; Trichomyderus (7 sp.). South America to 15,000 feet elevation ; Eremophilus (1 sp.), Andes of Bogota ; Fariodon (1 sp.), Amazon. Sub-family 8 (Silurid^e Branchicol^) is confined to Tropi- cal South America. It consists of one group, Stegophilina, and 2 genera: Stegophilus (1 sp.), Brazil; and Vandellia (2 sp.), Amazon Valley. Family 60. CHAEACINID^. (47 Genera, 230 Species.) " Fresh- water fishes, with scaly bodies and without barbels." Distribution.— The Neotropical and Ethiopian regions. This extensive family is divided by Dr. Gunther into 10 groups, viz. : Erythrinina (5 genera), South America ; Curumatina CHAP. XX.] FISHES. 445 (6 genera), South America; Citharinina (1 genus), Tropical Africa ; Anostomatina (3 genera). South America ; Tetragonopterina (16 genera), South America and Tropical Africa; Hydrocyonina (9 genera), Tropical America and Tropical Africa ; Distichodon- tina (1 genus). Tropical Africa ; Icthyborina (1 genus), Africa ; Crenuchina (1 genus), Equatorial America; Serrasalmonina (4 genera). South America. The following is the distribution of the genera : — Macrodon (4 sp.). Tropical America ; Erythrinus (5 sp.), Brazil and Guiana ; Lehiasiria (1 sp.). West Equatorial Ame- rica ; Pyrrhulina (1 sp.), Guiana ; Corynopoma (4 sp.), Trinidad only ; Curimatm (15 sp.), Tropical South America and Trini- dad; Prochilodus (12 sp.), South America to the La Plata; Ccentropus (2 sp.), East Equatorial America ; Hemiodus (8 sp.). Equatorial America east of Andes ; Saccodon (1 sp.), Ecuador ; Farodon (1 sp.), Brazil; Citharinus (2 sp.). Tropical Africa; Anostomus (8 sp.). Tropical America ; Rhytiodus (2 sp.). Equa- torial America; Leporinus (14 sp.), South America East of Andes; Piabucina (2 sp.), Guiana; Alestes (4 sp.), Tropical Africa : Brachtjalestes (5 sp.), Tropical Africa ; Tetragonopterus (32 sp.), Tropical America ; Scissor {Is^.), South America ; Pseu- dochalceus (1 sp.). West Ecuador ; Chirodon (2 sp.). Chili ; Chal- ceus (1 sp.), Guiana; Brycon (10 sp.). South America east of Andes; Chalcinopsis (4 sp.), Central America and Ecuador; Bryconops (2 sp.). Tropical America ; Creagrutus (1 sp.), Western Ecuador ; Chalcinus (4 sp.), Tropical South America ; Gastro- pelecus (8 sp.). Tropical South America ; Piabuca (2 sp.). Equa- torial America; Agoniates (1 sp.), Guiana; Anacyrtus (7 sp.). Central and South America; ffysfricodon (1 sp.). Equatorial America ; Salminus (3 sp.). South America ; Hydrocyon (3 sp.). Tropical Africa ; Sarcodaces (1 sp.). West Africa ; Oligosarcus (1 sp.), Brazil; XiphorampJms (7 sp.). South America east of Andes ; Xiphostoma (5 sp.). Equatorial America east of Andes ; Cynodon (3 sp.). Tropical America East of Andes ; Distichodus (7 sp.), Tropical Africa ; Icthyhorus (3 sp.), Nile ; Crenuchus (1 sp.), Guiana; Mylesinus (1 sp.), Equatorial America ; Serrasalmo (13 sp.), Tropical South America east of Andes ; Myletes (18 sp.). 446 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. Tropical South America east of Andes ; Gatoprion (1 sp.), Brazil and Guiana. Family 61.— HAPLOCHITONID^. (2 Genera, 3 Species.) " Fresh-water fishes, with naked or scaly bodies and without barbels." DiSTKiBUTiON. — Temperate South America and South Aus- tralia. The genera are, Haplochiton (2 sp.), Tierra del Fuego and the Falkland Islands ; Frototrodes (2 sp.), Southern Australia and New Zealand. Family 62.— STERNOPTYCHID^. (6 Genera, 12 Species.) " Marine fishes, with very thin deciduous scales or none, and with a row of phosphorescent spots or organs on the under surface of the body." DiSTEiBUTiON.— Mediterranean and Atlantic. These are deep-sea fishes found in the Mediterranean sea, and in the deep Atlantic from the coasts of Norway to the Azores and the Tropics. Family 63.— SCOPELID^E. (11 Genera, 47 Species.) "Marine fishes, somewhat resembling the fresh- water Siluridse." Distribution. — Almost universal, but most abundant in warm and tropical seas. These are deep-sea fishes, abounding in the Mediterranean and the great oceans, a few extending north to near Greenland and south to Tasmania. CHAP. XX.] FISHES. 447 Family 64— STOMIATID^. (4 Genera, 8 Species.) " Small marine fishes, naked or with very fine scales." DiSTKiBUTiON. — The Mediterranean and Atlantic. These are deep-sea fishes, ranging from Greenland to beyond the Equator. Family 65.— SALMONID^. (15 Genera, 157 Species.) "Fresh-water fishes, many species periodically descending to the sea and a few altogether marine : — Salmon and Trout." DiSTEiBUTiON. — The Palaearctic and Nearctic Eegions, and one genus and species in New Zealand. A considerable number of species are confined to single lakes or rivers, others have a wide distribution. The genera are distributed as follows : — Scdmo (83 sp.), rivers and lakes of the Palsearctic and Nearctic Eegions, as far south as Algeria, Asia.Minor, the Hindoo- Koosh and Kamschatka, and to about 38° North Latitude in North America, many of the species migratory ; Oncliorhynchus (8 sp.), American and Asiatic rivers entering the Pacific, as far south as San Francisco and the Amur ; Brachymystax (1 sp.), Siberian rivers, from Lake Baikal and the Atlai Mountains northwards; Luciotrutta (2 sp.), Caspian Sea and Volga; Plecoglossus (1 sp.), Japan and Formosa ; Osmerus (3 sp.), rivers of temperate Europe and North America entering the Atlantic, and one species in California ; Thaleichthys (1 sp.), Columbia Eiver, Vancouver's Island ; Hypomesiis (1 sp.), coasts of Cali- fornia, Vancouver's Island, and North-eastern Asia ; Mallotus (1 pp.), coasts of Arctic America from Greenland to Kams- chatka; Retropinna (1 sp.), fresh waters of New Zealand; Coregonus (41 sp.), fresh waters of northern parts of temperate Europe, Asia and North America, many of the species migra- tory : Thymallus (6 sp.), fresh waters of temperate parts of 448 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. Europe, Asia, and North America ; Argentina (4 sp.), Mediter- ranean and deep seas of Western Europe ; Microstoma (2 sp.), Mediterranean, and seas of Greenland ; Salarix (2 sp.), China and Japan, in seas and rivers. Salmo, Osmerus, Coregonus, and Thymallus, are British genera. Family 66.— PERCOPSID^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) " A fresh-water fish covered with toothed scales." Distribution. — Lake Superior, North America. Family 67.— GALAXID^. (1 Genus, 12 Species.) " Fresh-water fishes, with neither scales nor barbels." Distribution. — The temperate zone of the Southern Hemi- sphere. The only genus, Galaxias, is found in New Zealand, Tasma- nia, and Tierra del.Fuego, ranging north as far as Queensland and Chili ; and one of the species is absolutely identical in the two regions. Family 68.— MORMYEID^. (3 Genera, 25 Species.) " Fresh-water fishes, with scales on the body and tail but not on the head, and no barbels." Distribution. — The Ethiopian Region. Most abundant in the Nile, a few from the Gambia, the Congo, and Rovuma. The genera are : — Mormyrus (1 sp.), Nile, Gambia, West Africa, Mozambique, Rovuma ; Hyperopdus (2 sp.), Nile and West Africa ; Mormy- rops (4 sp.), Nile, West Africa and Mozambique. CHAP. XX.] FISHES. 449 Family 69.— GYMNARCHID^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) "Fresh-water fishes, resembling the Mormyridse, but with tapering finless tail, and neither aual nor ventral fins." Distribution. — Ethiopian region. The only genus, Gymnarchus, inhabits the Nile and the rivers of West Africa. Family 70.— ESOCID^. (1 Genus, 7 Species.) " Fresh- water fishes, with scaly bodies, no barbels, and dorsal fins situated towards the tail." Distribution. — The Nearctic and Palsearctic regions. One species, the Pike {Esox hicius) ranges from Lapland to Turkey, and in America from the Arctic regions to the Albany river ; the remainder are American species extending South as far as New Orleans. Family 71.— UMBEID^. (1 Genus, 2 Species.) " Small fresh-water scaly fishes, without barbels or adipose fin." Distribution. — Central Europe and Temperate North America. Family 72.— SCOMBRESOCID^. (5 Genera, 136 Species.) " Marine or fresh-water fishes, with scaly bodies and a series of keeled scales along each side of the belly." Distribution. — Temperate and tropical regions. All the genera have a wide distribution. A species of Belone and one of Scomhresox are found on the British coast. The Flying fishes {Exocetvs, 44 sp.), belong to this family. They abound in all tropical seas and extend as far as the Mediterranean and Australia. None of the genera are exclusively fresh- water, 450 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. but a fe.w species of Belone and Hemiramphus are found in rivers in various parts of the world. Family 73.— CYPEINODONTID^. (20 Genera, 106 Species.) " Fresh-water fishes, covered with scales, the sexes frequently differing, mostly viviparous." Distribution. — Southern Europe, Asia, Africa and North America, but most abundant in Tropical America. The distribution of the genera is as follows : — Cyprinodon (11 sp.), Italy, North Africa and Western Asia to Persia, also North America from Texas to New York ; Fitzroya (1 sp.), Montevideo ; Characodon (1 sp.). Central America ; Tellia (1 sp.), Alpine pools of the Atlas: Limnurgus (1 sp.), Mexican plateau; Lucania (1 sp.), Texas; Haplochilus (18 sp.), India, Java, Japan, Tropical Africa, Madagascar, and the Seychelle Islands, Carolina to Brazil, Jamaica ; Fundulus (17 sp.), North and Central America and Ecuador, Spain and East Africa ; Bimdus (3 sp.), Tropical America, Cuba and Trinidad ; Orestias (6 sp.), Lake Titacaca, Andes ; Jenynsia (1 sp.), Eio Plata ; Fseu- doxiphophorus (2 sp.). Central America ; Belonesox (1 sp.), Cen- tral America; Gambusia (8 sp.), Antilles, Central America and Texas ; Anableps (3 sp.), Central and Equatorial America ; Fcecilia (16 sp.), Antilles, Central and South America; Mol- lienesia (4 sp.), Louisiana to Mexico; Platypcecihis (1 sp.), Mexico; Girardinus (10 sp.), Antilles and South Carolina to Uruguay; Lepistes (1 sp.), Barbadoes. Family 74— HETEEOPYGII. (2 Genera, 2 Species.) " Fresh- water fishes, with posterior dorsal fin, and very small scales." Distribution. — Fresh waters of the United States. AmUyopds (1 sp.) is a blind fish found in the caverns of Ken- tucky ; while Chologastes (1 sp.), which only differs from it in having perfect eyes, is found in ditches in South Carolina. CHAP. XX.] FISHES. 451 Family 75.— CYPKlNlDiE. (109 Genera, 790 Species.) " Fresh-water fishes, generally scaly, with no adipose fin, and pharyngeal teeth only, the mouth being toothless." Distribution, — Fresh waters of the Old World and North America, but absent from Australia and South America. This enormous family is divided by Dr. Giinther into fourteen groups, the distribution of which is as follows : — Catostomina (4 genera). North America and North-east Asia ; Cyprinina (39 genera), same range as the family ; Eohteichthyina (1 genus), Malay Archipelago ; Leptobarbina (1 genus), Malay Archipelago ; Easborina (5 genera), East Africa to China and Borneo ; Semiplotina (2 genera), "Western Asia ; Xenocypridina (3 genera). Eastern Asia ; Leuciscina (10 genera), Palsearctic and Nearctic regions ; Rhodeina (3 genera), Palsearctic region ; Danionina (9 genera), India to China and Japan ; Hypophthal- michthyina (1 genus), China; Abramidina (16 genera), same range as the family ; Homalopterina (2 genera), India to Java ; Cobitidina (10 genera), Palaearctic and Oriental regions. The following is the distribution of the genera : — Catostomus (16 sp.), Nearctic region and Eastern Siberia; Moxostoma (2 sp.). Eastern United States ; Sderognathus (5 sp.), Temperate North America to Guatemala, also Northern China ; Carpiodes (1 sp.). United States ; Cyprinus (2 sp.), Temperate parts of Palsearctic region (1 sp. British); Carassius (3 sp.). Temperate Palsearctic region (1 sp. British); Catla (1 sp.). Continental India ; Cirrhina (5 sp.), Continental India to China; Dangila (6 sp.), Java, Sumatra, Borneo; Osteochilus (14 sp.), Siam to Java and Sumatra ; Laheo (27 sp.). Tropical Africa and Oriental region: Tylognathus (10 sp.), Syria, India to Java; Ahrostomus (2 sp.), South Africa ; Discognathus (4 sp.), Syria to India and Java, mostly in mountain streams ; Crossochilus (9 sp.), India to Sumatra and Java ; Gijmnostomus (7 sp.). Continental India ; EpalzeorTiynchus (1 sp.), Sumatra and Borneo ; Capoeta (13 sp.). Western Asia; Barlus (163 sp.). Temperate or Tropical 452 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa (1 sp. British) ; Thynnichthys (2 sp.), Pegu, Borneo, and Sumatra ; Barbichthys (1 sp.), Java, Sumatra, and Borneo ; Amhlyrhynchichthys (1 sp.), Sumatra and Borneo ; Alhulichthys (1 sp.), Sumatra and Borneo ; Oreinus (3 sp.), Himalayan region ; Schizothorax (13 sp.), Himalayan region and west to Afghanistan and Persia ; Ptychobarhus (1 sp.), Thibet; Gymnocypris (1 sp.), loc. unknown ; Schizopygopsis (1 sp.), Thibet; Diptychus (1 sp.), Himalayas and Thibet ; Aulopyge (1 sp.). Western Asia ; Qohio (2 sp.), Temperate Europe (1 sp. British) ; Pseudogdbio (4 sp.), China, Japan, and Formosa ; Ceratichthys (9 sp.). Temperate North America ; Bungia (1 sp.), Western Asia, Herat ; Pimephales (2 sp.). Eastern United States ; Hyhorhynchus (3 sp.), Eastern United States ; Ericymha (1 sp.), United States ; Psendorashora (1 sp.), Japan, China ; Cochlognathus (1 sp.), Texas; Exoglosswm (2 sp.), United States ; Bhinichthys (6 sp.), Eastern United States ; Bohteichthys (1 sp.), Borneo and Sumatra ; Zepfo- barbina (1 sp.), Sumatra and Borneo ; Basbora (12 sp.). East Coast of Africa, India, to Java and Borneo ; Zuciosma (3 sp.), Java, Sumatra, and Borneo ; Nuria (2 sp.), India, Tenasserim, and Ceylon; Aphyocypris (1 sp.). North China; AmUypharyn- godon (3 sp.), India to Tenasserim ; Cyprinion (3 sp.), Syria and Persia ; Semiplotus (1 sp.), Assam ; Xenocypris (1 sp.), China ; Paracanthobrama (1 sp.), China; Mystacoleucus (1 sp.), Sumatra ; Zeuciscus (84 sp.), Nearctic and Palsearctic regions (5 sp. are British); Ctenopharyngodon (1 sp.), China; Mylopharodon (1 sp.), California ; Paraplioximis (2 sp.), South-eastern Europe ; Meda (1 sp.). River Gila ; Tinea (1 sp.), Europe (Britain to Con- stantinople) ; Zmcosomus (8 sp.), Nearctic region ; CJwndrostoma (7 sp.), Europe and Western Asia; Orthodon (1 sp.), California; Acrcchilus (1 sp.), Columbia Eiver ; Achilognathus (6 sp.), China, Japan, and Formosa; Bhodeus (3 sp.). Central Europe and China; Pseicdoperilamp)us (1 sp,), Japan; Banio (8 sp.), India and Cey- lon ; Pterosarion (2 sp.). Central India and Assam ; Aspidoparia (3 sp.). Continental India ; .5an7ms (15 sp.), East Africa and Con- tinental India ; Bola (1 sp.), Ganges to Bramahputra ; Schacra (1 sp.), Bengal; Opsariichthys (5 sp.), Japan and Formosa; Sgualidbarbus (1 sp.), China ; Ochetobius (1 sp.), North China ; CHAP. XX.] FISHES. 453 Hypophthalmichthys (2 sp.), China ; Ahramis (16 sp.), North America, Central Europe, and Western Asia (1 sp. is British) ; Aspius (3 sp.), East Europe, Western Asia, China ; Alburnus (15 sp.), Europe and Western Asia (1 British sp.) ; Rasborichthys (1 sp.), Borneo; Elopichthys (1 sp.), China; Pelotrophus (2 sp.), East Africa ; Acanthobrama (3 sp.), Western Asia ; Osteobrama (5 sp.). Continental India ; Ghanodichthys (6 sp.), China and Formosa ; Smiliogaster (1 sp.), Bengal ; Culter (2 sp.), China ; Pelecus (1 sp.). Eastern Europe ; Eustira (1 sp.), Ceylon ; Chela (16 sp.), India to Siam, Java and Borneo ; Pseudolabuca (1 sp.), China ; Cachius (1 sp.), Continental India ; Homaloptera (8 sp.), India to Cochin China, Java, and Sumatra ; Psilorhynchus (2 sp.), North-eastern India; Misgurnus (5 sp.), Europe to India, China, and Japan ; Nemachilus (37 sp.), Europe and Asia ; Cobitis (3 sp.), Europe, India, Japan ; Lepidocepalichthys (3 sp.), India, Ceylon, and Java ; Acanthopsis (2 sp.), Tenasserim, Su- matra, Java, and Borneo; Botia (7 sp.), India to Japan and Sunda Isles ; Oreonedes (1 sp.), China ; Lepidocephalus (1 sp.), Java and Sumatra ; Acanthopthalmus (2 sp.), Java and Sumatra ; Apua (1 sp.), Tenasserim ; Kneria (2 sp.). Tropical Africa. Family 76.— GONORHYNCHID^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) " A marine fish with spiny scales, mouth with barbels, and with short dorsal fin opposite the ventrals." Distribution. — Temperate parts of Southern Oceans, and Japan. Family 77.— HYODONTID^ (1 Genus, 1 Species.) " A fresh-water fish with cycloid scales and posterior dorsal fin." Distribution. — Fresh waters of North America. 454 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv Family 78.— OSTEOGLOSSID^. (3 Genera, 5 Species.) "Fresh-water fishes, with large hard scales, and dorsal fin opposite and equal to the anal fin." DiSTKiBUTiON. — Tropical rivers. The genera are : — Osteoglossum (3 sp.), Eastern South America, Sunda Islands, and Queensland; Arapaima (1 sp.). Eastern South America — the " Pirarucii " of the Amazon ; Heterotis (1 sp.), Tropical Africa, Family 79.— CLUPEID^. (18 Genera, 161 Species.) " Marine scaly fishes, without barbels, and with the abdomen often compressed and serrated." Distribution, — Seas of the whole globe, many species enter- ing rivers. They are most abundant in the Indian seas, less so in America, scarce in Africa, while they are almost absent from Australia. The Herring, Sprat, Shad, and Pilchard, are British species of Chipea, a genus which contains 61 species and ranges all over the world. Family 80.— CHIROCENTPtlD^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) " A marine fish, with thin deciduous scales, no barbels, and posterior dorsal fin." Distribution. — The Eastern seas from Africa to China. Family 81.— ALEPOCEPHALID^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) " A marine fish, covered with thin cycloid scales, no barbels, and posterior dorsal fin." Distribution. — Deep waters of the Mediterranean. CHAP. XX.] FISHES. 455- Family 82.— NOTOPTEKID^. (1 Genus, 5 Species.) " Fresh-water fishes, without barbels, head and body scaly, long tapering tail, and short posterior dorsal fin." DiSTRTBUTiON. — Eivers of India, Siam, the Sunda Islands, and "West Africa. Family 83.— HALOSAUEID^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) " Marine fishes, with cycloid scales, a short median dorsal fin, and no barbels." Distribution. — Deep waters of the Atlantic, Madeira. Family 84— GYMNOTID^. (5 Genera, 20 Species.) " Fresh-water fishes, with elongate bodies, pointed tail, and no dorsal fin." Distribution. — Tropical America from Trinidad to the Eiver Parana. The genera are distributed as follows : — Sternarchus (8 sp.), Guiana and Brazil ; MhampMchthys (6 sp.), Guiana and Brazil ; Sternophygus (4 sp.). Tropical America; Carapus (1 sp.), Trinidad to Brazil; Gymnotus, (1 sp, — the Electric eel), Tropical South America. Family 85.— SYMBEANCHID^. (4 Genera, 6 Species.) " Marine and fresh-water fishes, having elongate bodies without fins, and very minute scales or none." Distribution. — Fresh waters and coasts of Western Australia and Tasmania. The genera are : — Amphipnous (1 sp.), Bengal; Monopterus (1 sp.), Siam to Northern China and Sunda Islands ; Symbranchus (3 sp.), Tropical Vol. II.— 30 456 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [i-abt iv. America, and ludia to Australia ; ChilohrancJms (1 sp.), Australia and Tasmania. FAMiLr 86.— MUE^NID^. (26 Genera, 230 Species.) " Marine or fresh-water fishes, with cylindrical or band-like bodies and no ventral fins." DiSTEiBUTiON. — The seas and fresh waters of temperate and tropical regions. This family is divided by Dr. Giinther into two sub-families and nine sections. The genus Anguilla, com- prising our common Eel and a number of species from all parts of the world, is the only one which is found in fresh water, though even here most of the species are marine. Anguilla and Conger are the only British genera. Family 87.— PEGASID^. (1 Genus, 4 Species.) " Small marine fishes, covered with bony plates, and short opposite dorsal and anal fins." Distribution. — Indian Ocean and seas of China and Aus- tralia. Order V.—LOPHOBRANCHII. " Fish with a segmented bony covering, long snout, and small toothless mouth." Family 88.— SOLENOSTOMID^. (1 Genus, 3 Species.) "Marine Lophobranchii, with wide gill openings and two dorsal fins." Distribution. — Indian Ocean, from Zanzibar to China and the Moluccas. CHAP. XX.]' FISHES. 457 Family 89.— SYNGNATHID^. (15 Genera, 112 Species.) " Marine Lophobranchii, with very small gill opening and one soft dorsal fin." Distribution. — All the tropical and temperate seas. Some species of Syngnathus, Doryichthys, and Gtdonotus enter fresh water, and a few live in it exclusively. Siphonostoma, Syngna- thus, Nerophis, and Hippocampus are British genera. The Eippocampina (5 genera, 25 sp.), or Sea-horses, are peculiar to the Indian and Pacific Oceans, except three or four species of Hippocampus in the Atlantic and Mediterranean. Order VI.—FLEGTOGNATHI. "Fishes covered with rough scales or shields, having a narrow mouth, and soft posterior dorsal fin." Family 90.— SCLERODERMI. (7 Genera, 95 Species.) " Marine Plectognathi, with toothed jaws." DiSTElBUTION.— Temperate and Tropical seas, but much more abundant in the Tropics. Family 91.— GYMNODONTES. (10 Genera, 82 Species.) " Marine or fresh-water Plectognathi, with jaws modified into a beak." Distribution. — Temperate and tropical regions. Some species of Tetrodon are found in the rivers of Tropical America, Africa, and Asia. Species of Tetrodon and Ortha- goriscus have been found on the British coasts. 458 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. Sub-class II.— DIPNOI. Family 92. — Sirenoidei. (3 Genera, 3 Species.) " Eel-shaped fresh-water fishes, covered with cycloid scales ; the vertical fins forming a continuous border to the compressed tapering tail." Distribution. — Kivers of Tropical Africa, South America, and Australia. The genera are : — Protopterus (1 sp.), Tropical Africa ; Lepido- siren (1 sp.), Amazon Valley ; Ceratodus (1 sp.), Queensland. Sub-class III.— GANOIDEI. Order I.—HOLOSTEL " Body covered with scales." Family 93.— AMIID^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) " A fresh-water fish, with cycloid scales and a long soft dorsal fin." Distribution. — United States. Family 94.— POLYPTEEID^. (2 Genera, 2 Species.) " Fresh- water fishes, with ganoid scales and dorsal spines." Distribution. — Central and Western Africa. The genera are : — Polypterus (1 sp.), the Nile and rivers of West Africa; Gcila- moichthys (1 sp.). Old Calabar, CHAP. XX.] FISHES. 459 Family 95.— LEPIDOSTEID^. (1 Genus, 3 Species.) " Fresh-water fishes, with ganoid scales, and dorsal and anal fins composed of articulated rays." DiSTEiBUTiON. — The genus Lepidosteus, the Garfishes or Bony Pikes, inhabits North America to Mexico and Cuba. Order II.—CHONDROSTEI. " Sub-cartilaginous scaleless fishes with heterocercal tail, the skin with osseous bucklers or naked." Family 96.— ACCIPENSERID^. (2 Genera, 20 Species.) " Marine or fresh- water fishes with osseous bucklers and inferior mouth." Distribution. — Temperate and Arctic regions of the northern hemisphere. Accipenser (19 sp.), comprising the Sturgeons, has the distribution of the family ; most of the species are marine, but some are confined to the Caspian and Black Seas and the great American lakes with the rivers flowing into them, while the Danube, Mississippi, and Columbia River have peculiar species. The other genus, Scaphirhynchics (1 sp.), is confined to the Mississippi and its tributaries. Family 97.— POLYDONTID^. (1 Genus, 2 Species.) " Fresh- water fishes, with wide lateral mouth and naked skin." Distribution. — The Mississippi and Yang-tse-kiang rivers. 460 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. Subclass IV.— CHONDROPTERYGIL (Sharks AND Rays.) Order I.—HOLOGEPHALA. (Chimceras.) Family 98.— CHIM^RID^. (2 Genera, 4 Species.) " Shark-like marine fishes, snout of the male with a prehensile organ." Distribution. — Northern and Southern temperate seas. Chi- mccra is British. Order II.—PLAOIOSTOMATA. Sub-order. — Selachoidea. (Sharks.) Family 99.— CARCHARIID^. (11 Genera, 59 Species.) " Sharks with two dorsals and a nictitating membrane." Distribution. — Seas of the Arctic, temperate, and tropical regions. Species of Galeus and Mustelm have occurred on our coasts. Family 100.— LAMNID^. (5 Genera, 7 Species.) " Sharks with two dorsals and no nictitating membrane." Distribution. — Temperate and tropical seas. Species of Lamna, Alopecias, and Selache have occurred in British seas. CHAP. XX.] FISHES. 461 Family 101.— EHINODONTID^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) " Sharks with two dorsal fins, the second small, and no nicti- tating membrane." Distribution. — South and East Africa. Family 102.— NOTIDANID^. (I Genus, 4 Species.) " Sharks with one dorsal fin and no nictitating membrane." Distribution. — Temperate and tropical seas, from the North Atlantic to the Cape of Good Hope and California. One species has occurred on our southern coasts. Family 103.— SCYLLIID^. (7 Genera, 25 Species.) " Sharks with one dorsal fin and no nictitating membrane." Distribution.— AU temperate and tropical seas. Species of Scyllium and Pristiurus are British. Family 104— CESTRACIONTID^. (1 Genus, 4 Species.) " Sharks with two dorsal fins and no nictitating membrane." Distribution. — Pacific Ocean from Japan to New Zealand, Moluccan Sea. Family 105.— SPINACIDJE. (10 Genera, 21 Species.) " Sharks with two dorsal fins and no nictitating membrane, no anal fin." Distribution. — Arctic, temperate, and tropical seas. Species of Acanthias, Lcemargus, and Echinorhinus have occurred on our coasts. 462 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv Family 106.— EHINID^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) " Sharks with depressed flat body and large expanded pectoral fins." Distribution. — Temperate and tropical seas, from Britain to California and Australia. Family 107.— PRISTIOPHOEID^. (1 Genus, 4 Species.) " Sharks with produced flat snout, armed with teeth on each edge." DiSTKLBUTiON. — Seas of Japan and Australia. Sub-order Batoidel (Eays.) Family 108.— PRISTID^. (1 Genus, 5 Species.) " Eays with produced snout and lateral saw-like teeth." DiSTKiBUTiON. — Seas of tropical and sub-tropical regions. Family 109.— EHINOBATID^. (3 Genera, 15 Species.) " Eays with long and strong tail, having a caudal and two dorsal fins." Distribution. — Tropical and sub-tropical seas. Family 110.— TOEPEDINID^. (6 Genera, 15 Species.) " Eays with broad smooth disc, and an electric organ." Distribution. — Tropical and temperate seas, from Britain to Tasmania. Family 111.— EAIID^E. <4 Genera, 29 Species.) " Eays with broad rhombic disc and no serrated caudal spine." Distribution. — All temperate and tropical seas. Several species of Baia are found on our coasts. L CHAP. XX.] FISHES. 463 Family 112.— TRYGONID^. (6 Genera, 43 Species.) " Eays with the pectoral fins extending to end of snout." Distribution. — Seas of all temperate and tropical regions, and rivers of Tropical America. A species of Trygon has occurred on our Southern coast. Ellipesurus and Tmniura are found in the fresh waters of the interior of South America, while the latter genus occurs also in the Indian seas, but not in the Atlantic. Family 113.— MYLOBATID^. (5 Genera, 22 Species.) " Eays with very broad pectoral fins not extending to end of snout." Distribution. — Temperate and tropical seas. A species of Myliobatis is British, but most of the species and genera are confined to tropical seas. Dicerobatis and Ceratojptera are very large Kays, commonly called Sea-devils. Sub-class V.— CYCLOSTOMATA. " Cartilaginous fishes, with suctorial mouths and without lateral fins." Family 114.— PETROMYZONTIDiE. (4 Genera, 12 Species.) " Marine or fresh-water eel-like fishes, with suctorial mouths and without barbels." Distribution.— Coasts and fresh waters of temperate regions of both hemispheres. Three species of Petromyzon (Lampreys), are British. 464 GEOGKAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. Family 115.— MYXINID^. (2 Genera, 5 Species.) " Marine eel-like fishes, with four pairs of barbels." Distribution. — Seas of the temperate regions of both hemi- spheres. Sub-class VI.— LEPTOCAEDII. Family 116.— CIERHOSTOMI. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) " A small marine fish with no jaws or fins, and with rudi- mentary eyes." Distribution. — The only species, the Lancelot (Amphioxus), is the lowest form of living vertebrate. It is found in the tem- perate regions of both hemispheres, and has occurred on our southern coast. Bemarks on the Distribution of Fishes. « Marine Fish. — There are about 80 families of marine fishes, and of these no less than 50 are universally, or almost uni- versally, distributed over the seas and oceans of the globe. Of the remainder many are widely distributed, some species even ranging from the North Atlantic to Australia. Six families are confined to the Northern Seas, but four of these consist of single species only, the other two being the Discoboli (2 genera, 11 sp.), and the Accipenseridse (2 genera and 20 sp.). Only one family (Acanthoclinidse) is confined to the Southern oceans, and that consists of but a single species. Four families (Sternop- tychidae), Stomiatidse, Alepocephalidae and Halosauridse) are confined to the Atlantic Ocean, while 13 are found only in the Pacific ; and of the remainder several are more abimdant in the Pacific than the Atlantic. Two families (Lycodidae and Gadidae) are found in the Arctic and Antarctic seas only, though the CHAP. XX.] FISHES. 465 latter family has a single species iu the Indian seas. Among the curiosities of distribution are, — the extensive genus Diagramma, confined to the Pacific with the exception of one species in the Mediterranean ; the single species constituting the family Lopho- tidee, found only in the Mediterranean and Japan ; the small family of Notacanthi, confined to Greenland, the Mediter- ranean, and West Australia; and the four families, Sternop- tychidse, Stomiatidse, Alepocephalidse, and Halosauridae, which are believed to inhabit exclusively the depths of the ocean, and are therefore very rarely obtained. Fresh-water Fish. — There are 36 families of fishes which inhabit fresh water exclusively, and 5 others, which are both marine and fresh-water. These present many interesting pecu- liarities of distribution. The Neotropical region is the richest in families, and probably also in genera and species. No less than 22 families inhabit it, and of these 6 are altogether peculiar. The Ethiopian and Nearctic regions each have 18 families, the former with 3, and the latter with 5 peculiar. Several isolated forms, requiring to be placed in distinct families, inhabit the great American lakes ; and, no doubt, when the African lakes are equally well known, they will be found also to possess many peculiar forms. The Oriental region comes next, with 17 families, of which 3 are peculiar. The Palaearctic has 12, and the Aus- tralian 11 families, each with only 1 altogether peculiar to it. If we take those regions which are sometimes supposed to be so nearly related that they should be combined, we shaU find the fresh-water fishes in most cases markedly distinct. The Nearctic and Palaearctic regions, for example, together contain 20 families, but only 11 of these occur in both, and only 5 are exclusive inhabitants of these two regions. This shows an amount of diversity that would not, perhaps, be exhibited by any other class of animals. The Ethiopian and Oriental regions together possess 24 families, only 11 of which are found in both, and only 1 exclusively characteristic of the two. The Australian and Neotropical regions possess together 27 families, of which 7 are found in both, and 3 are exclusively characteristic of the two. This last fact is very interesting : the marine family of 466 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. Trachinidae possesses a fresh-water genus, Aphritis, one species of which inhabits Tasmania, and two others Patagonia ; the Haplochitonidse (2 genera, 3 sp.) are found only in Tierra del Fuego, the Falkland Islands, and South Australia; and the Galax idse (1 genus, 12 sp.) inhabit the same regions, but extend to Chili, to New Zealand and to Queensland. We have here an illustration of that connection between South America and Australia which is so strongly manifested in plants, but of which there are only scattered indications in most classes of animals. The dividing line across the Malay Archipelago, separating the Oriental from the Australian regions, and which is so strikingly marked in mammalia and birds, is equally so in fresh-water fishes. No less than six families have their eastern limits in Java and Borneo ; while the extensive family of Cyprinidse has no less than 23 genera in Java and Borneo, but not a single species has been found in Celebes or the Moluccas. The distribution of fresh- water fishes lends no support to the view that the peninsula of India belongs to the Ethiopian region. A large proportion of the Oriental families are common to the whole region ; while there is hardly a single example, of a characteristic Ethiopian family or genus extending into the peninsula of India and no further. Among the special peculiarities of distribution, is the curious fish, forming the family Comephoridae, which is confined to Lake Baikal, among the mountains of Central Asia, 2,000 feet above the sea, and a thousand miles distant from the ocean ; yet having its nearest allies in the exclusively oceanic family of the mackerels (Scomberidse). The Characinidse are confined to Africa and South America, distinct genera inhabiting each region. The Salmonidae are confined to the two northern regions, except a single species of a peculiar genus in New Zealand. The genus Osteoglossum has a species in South America, another in the Sunda Islands, and a third in Queensland ; while the curious Sirenoidei are represented by single species of peculiar genera in Tropical America, Tropical Africa, and Tropical Australia. Fossil Fishes. — Fishes have existed from a very remote era, and it is remarkable that the first whose remains have been dis- CHAP. XIX.] FISHES. 467 covered belong to the Ganoidei, a highly developed group which has continued to exist down to our times, and of which the sturgeon is the best known example. We may therefore be sure that the Upper Silurian rocks in which these are found, although so very far back in geological history, do not by any means lead us to the time when the primitive fish-type appeared upon the earth. In the Carboniferous and Permian formations numerous remains of fishes are found, allied to the Lepidosteus or Gar-pike of North America. The next group in order of appearance, are the Plagiostomata, containing the existing Sharks and Eays. Traces of these are found in the highest Silurian beds, and be- come plentiful in the Devonian and Carboniferous formations and in all succeeding ages, being especially abundant in Creta- ceous and Eocene strata. The Holocephali appear first in the Oolitic period, and are represented by the living Chimaridse. The Dipnoi, to which belong the Lepidosiren and Ceratodus, are believed to have existed in the Triassic period, from the evidence of teeth almost identical with those of the existing Australian fish. All the ancient fossil fishes belong to the above-mentioned groups, and many of them have little resemblance to existing forms. The Teleostean fishes, which form the great bulk of those now living, cannot be traced back further than the Creta- ceous period, while by far the larger number first appear in the Tertiary beds. The Salmonidse, Scopelidse, Percidse, Clupeidae, Scombresocidse, Mugilidse, and Siluridse, or forms closely allied to them, are found in the Cretaceous formation. In the Eocene beds we first meet with Squammipennes, Cypri- nidse, Pleuronectidee, Characinidse, Mureenidse, Gadidse, Pedi- culati, Syngnathidae, and Hippocampidse. Most of these fossils represent marine fishes, those of fresh- water origin being rare, and of little importance as an aid in determining the causes of the distribution of liAdng forms. To understand this we must look to the various changes of the land surface which have led to the existing distribution of all the higher vertebrates, and to those special means of dispersal which Mr. Darwin has shown to be possessed by all fresh-water productions. CHAPTER XXL THE DISTRIBUTION OF SOME OF THE MORE IMPORTANT FAMILIES AND GENERA OF INSECTS. Although insects are, for the most part, truly terrestrial animals, and illustrate in a very striking manner the characteristic pheno- mena of distribution, it is impossible here to treat of them in much detail. This arises chiefly from their excessive numbers, but also from the minuteness and obscurity of many of the groups, and our imperfect knowledge of all but the European species. The number of described species of insects is uncertain, as no complete enumeration of them has ever been made ; but it probably exceeds 100,000, and these may belong to some- where about 10,000 genera — many times more than all verte- brate animals together. Of the eight Orders into which Insects are usually divided, only two — the Coleoptera and Lepidoptera — have been so thoroughly collected in all parts of the globe that they can be used, with any safety, to compare their distri- bution with that of vertebrate animals ; and even of these it is only certain favourite groups which have been so collected. Among Lepidoptera, for example, although the extensive group of Butterflies may be said, in a general sense, to be thoroughly well known — every spot visited by civilized man having fur- nished its quota to our collections — yet the minute Tineidse, or even the larger but obscure Noctuidse, have scarcely been col- lected at all LQ tropical countries, and any attempt to study their geographical distribution would certainly lead to erroneous results. The same thing occurs, though perhaps in a less degree, among the Coleoptera. While the Carabidee, Buprestidse, and cuAP. XXI.] INSECTS. 469 Longicorns of the Tropics, are almost as well known as those of the Temperate Zones, the Staphylinidae, the smaller Elateridse, and many other obscure and minute groups, are very imperfectly represented from extra-European countries. I therefore propose to examine with some care the distribution of the Butterflies, and the Sphingina among Lepidoptera, and the following large and well-known families of Coleoptera :— Cicindelidse, Carabidte, Lucanidse, Cetoniidse, Buprestidse, and the three families of Lon- gicorns. These families together contain over 30,000 species, classed in nearly 3,000 genera, and comprise a large proportion of the best known and most carefully studied groups. We may therefore consider, that a detailed examination of their distribu- tion will lead us to results which cannot be invalidated by any number of isolated facts drawn from the less known members of the class. Range of Insects in Time. — In considering how much weight is to be given to facts in insect distribution, and what inter- pretation is to be put upon the anomalies or exceptional cases that may be met with, it is important to have some idea of the antiquity of the existing groups, and of the rate at which the forms of insect life have undergone modification. The geo- logical record, if imperfect in the case of the higher animals, is fragmentary in the extreme as regards indications of former insect life; yet the positive facts that it does disclose are of great interest, and have an important bearing on our subject. These facts and the conclusions they lead to have been discussed in our first volume (p. 166), and they must be carefully weighed in all cases of apparent conflict or incongruity between the dis- tribution of insects and that of the higher animals. 470 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. Order— LEPIDOPTERA. Sub-order — Lepidoptera Ehopalocera, or Butterflies. Family 1.— DANAID^. (24 Genera, 530 Species.) General Distribution. Keotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sob-regions. Pal^arctic SUB-KEGIONS. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1 .2.3 .4 1.2.3.4 _2 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 The Danaidse are now held to comprehend, not only the whole of the group so named by Doubleday, but a large portion of the Heliconidse of that author. Their range is thus extended over the whole of the tropical regions. A few species spread north- wards into the Palaearctic and Nearctic regions, but these are only stragglers, and hardly diminish the exclusively tropical cha- racter of the group. The more remarkable genera are, — Hestia (10 sp.), and Ideopsis (6 sp.), confined to the Malayan and Moluccan districts ; Danais (50 sp.), which has the range of the whole family ; Euplcea (140 sp.), confined to the Oriental and Australian regions, but especially abundant in the Malayan and Moluccan districts ; Hamadryas (4 sp.), Australian region only. The remaining genera constitute the Danaioid Heliconidse, and are strictly confined to Tropical America, except a few species which extend into the southern parts of the Nearctic region. The chief of these genera are : — Ithomia (160 sp.), Melincea (18 sp.), Napcogenes (20 sp.), Me- chanitis (4 sp.), Geratina (32 sp.), Dircenna (10 sp.), and Lycorea (4 sp.). Florida, Louisiana, and Southern California, mark the northern extent of these insects. CHAP. XXI.] INSECTS. 471 I Family 2.— SATYKID^. (60 Genera, 835 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical SiTB-REGIONS. Neabctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic SuB-REGIONa. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental scb-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3.4- 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 k This family has an absolutely universal distribution, extending even into the Arctic and Antarctic regions. Many of the genera are, however, restricted in their range. Emtera, Lymanopoda, Calisto, Corades, Taygetis, Pronophila, Euptychia, and some allied forms (25 genera in all) are Neotropi- cal, the last named extending north to Canada ; Debts, Melanitis, Mycalesis and Ypthima, are mostly Oriental, but extending also into the Australian and the Ethiopian regions; Gnaphodes, Leptoneura, and a few other small genera, are exclusively Ethio- pian ; Xenica, Hypocisia, and Heteronympha, are Australian ; Ere- Ua, Satyrus, Hipparchia, Coenonympha, and allies, are mostly PalaBarctic, but some species are Ethiopian, and others Nearctic ; Chionabas, is characteristic of the whole Arctic regions, but is also found in Chili and the Western Himalayas. The peculiar genera in each region are, — Neotropical, 25; Australian, 7; Oriental, 11 ; Ethiopian, 5 ; Palsearctic, 3 ; Nearctic, 0. Family 3.— ELYMNIID^. (1 Genus, 28 Species.) General Distribution. Keotroptcal 8t;b-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal.earctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian I Oriental Sun-REGioN8. Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 3.4 1 The genus Elymnias, which constitutes this family, is char- acteristic of the Malayan and Moluccan districts, with some species in Northern India and one in Ashanti. It thus agrees with several groups of Vertebrata, in showing the resemblance Vol. II.— 31 472 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PAET IV, of Malaya with "West Africa independently of the Peninsula of India. Family 4. MORPHID^. (10 Genera, 106 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sob-regions. NE ARCTIC Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-regions. Ethiopian Oriental Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 2.3 3.4 1-3- The Morphidse are a group of generally large-sized butterflies, especially characteristic of the Malayan and Moluccan districts, and of Tropical America ; with a few species extending to the Himalayas on the west, and to Polynesia on the east. The genera are : — Amathusia (6 sp.), Northern India to Java ; Zcuxidia (9 sp.), the Malay district; Biscophora (7 sp.). Northern India to Philippines, Java and Timor ; Enispe (3 sp.), Northern India ; Hyades (15 sp.), Moluccan and Polynesian districts, except one species in Java; Chrome (11 sp.), Northern India to Philippines and Celebes ; jEmona (1 sp.), Sikhim ; Hyantis (1 sp.), Waigiou ; Thaumantis (10 sp.), Indo-Chinese and Malayan districts; Morpho (40 sp.), Neotropical region, Brazilian and Central American sub-regions. Family 5. BRASSOLID^. (7 Genera, 62 Species.) General Dlstribution. Neotropical Sub-reoion.s. Neakctic Sub-regions. Pal.«arctic Sub-keoions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 2.3- The Brassolidse have the same distribution as the genus MorpJio. The genera are : — Brassolis (5 sp.) ; Opsiphanes (17 sp.) ; Dynastor (2 sp.); Penetes (1 sp.) ; Caligo (21 sp.) ; Narope (5 sp.) ; and Dasyop- thalma (3 sp.) CHAP. XXI,] INSECTS. 473 Family 6.— ACE^ID^. (1 Genus, 90 Species.) General Distuibution. Neotropical Si;b-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. PaLvEarctic Ethiopian Sub-regions. SuB-REoioNa Oriental sub-reoions. Australian Sub-regions. 2.3 1.2.3.4 1 .2.3.4. 1.2 The genus Acrcea is especially abundant in the Ethiopian region, which contains two-thirds of all the known species ; 3 or 4 species only, range over the whole Oriental, and most of the Australian regions ; while all the rest inhabit the same districts of the Neotropical region as the Brassolidse. Family 7.— HELICONID.^. (2 Genera, 114 Species.) Genekal Distribution. NroTROPicAL Nearctic Pal.earctic Si;b-re(;ions. Sub-regions. Sub-ueoions. Ethiopian Sub-rkgions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. ■ ■ 1 1 The true Heliconidse are very characteristic of the Neotropical region ; one species only extending into the Southern States of North America as far as Florida. The genus Heliconius (83 sp.), has the range of the family ; while Eueides (19 sp.), is con- fined to the Brazilian and Central American sub-regions. Family 8.— NYMPHALID^. (113 Genera, 1490 Species.) General Di.stribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic I Ethiopi.vn Sub-regions. Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1 .2.3 .4 1 .2. 3.4 I 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 This is the largest and most universally distributed family of butterflies, and is well illustrated by our common Fritillaries, 474 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. Tortoise-shell, Peacock, Painted Lady, and Purple Emperor butterflies. They are found wherever butterfly-life can exist, and some single species — like the Painted Lady {Pyrameis cardui) — range almost over the globe. A few of the more extensive and remarkable genera only, can be here noticed : — Colcenis, Agraulis, JEresia, Synchloe, Epicalia, Eunica, Eubagis, Catagramma, Callithea, Ageronia, Timetes, Hetcrochroa, Prepona, Hypna, Paphia, and Siderone, are wholly Neotropical, as well as many others which have a smaller number of species. Euryphene, Bomaleosoma, Aterica, and Harma, are exclusively Ethiopian. Terinos, Athyma, Adolias, and Tancecia, are Oriental, but they mostly extend into the Moluccan region; the last however is strictly Malayan, and Adolias only reaches Celebes. Mynes alone, is exclusively Australian, but ProtJwe is almost so, having only one outlying species in Java. Eurytela and Ergo- lis are confined to the Oriental and Ethiopian regions, but the latter reaches the Moluccas. Cethosia, Cirrhochroa, Messaras, and Symphcedra, are both Oriental and Australian ; while Junonia, Cyrestis, Diadema, Neptis, and NympTiali-s, are common to the three tropical regions of the Eastern Hemisph ere, the latter ex- tending into the Mediterranean district, while Junonia occurs also in South America and the Southern United States. The most cosmopolitan genus is Pyrameis, which has repre- sentatives in every region and every district. Apatura is found in all but the Ethiopian and the Australian, although it just enters the confines of the latter region in Celebes ; Limenitis is abundant in the Oriental region, but extends eastward to Celebes and westward into Europe, North America, and even into South America. Argynnis, Mditma, and Vanessa, are almost confined to the Palsearctic and Nearctic regions ; the former however occurs in the Himalayas and in the mountains of Java, and also in Chili and in Jamaica. Two genera — Dicrorrhagia and Helcyra — have both one species in North India and another in the island of Ceram. The number of genera peculiar to each region is as follows : — Neotropical, 50 ; Australian, 2 ; Oriental ] 5 ; Ethiopian, 14 ; Palsearctic, 1 ; Nearctic, 0. CHAP. XXI.] INSECTS. 475 Family 9.— LIBYTHEID^. (1 Genus, 10 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sdb-reoions. Pal^arctic sub-hegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental sub-reoioxs. Australian Sub-regions. 2 4 -2.3 — .12 -2-4 1 .2.3.4 1--- The genus Libythea, which constitutes this family, appears to have its head-quarters in the Oriental region, but extends on all sides in an erratic manner, into various remote and disconnected portions of the globe, as indicated above. Family 10.— NEMEOBIID^. (12 Genera, 145 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-hegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. — 2.3 - 1 — 2-4 3.4 1 This group has been separated from the Erycinidse of the older authors, and contains all the non- American genera and species. Half the genera and nearly four-fifths of the species of this group are, however, Neotropical ; one is European ; two or three African ; and twenty-six Oriental and Australian. The genera are : — Nemeohius (1 sp.), Europe; Dodona (6 sp.), North India; Zemeros (2 sp.), North India and Malaya ; Ahisara (11 sp.). North India, Malayan and Moluccan districts, Madagascar and West Africa ; Taxila (8 sp.), North India, and Malaya ; Bical- laneura (2 sp.), Moluccan district ; Alesa (6 sp.), Eunogyra (2 sp.), Gremna (7 sp.), Bmotis (3 sp.), are. all from the Brazilian sub-region ; Eunjhia (10 sp.), Mesosemia (80 sp.), inhabit both the Brazilian and Mexican sub-regions. 476 GEOGKAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. Family 11.— EUEYGONID^. (2 Genera, 78 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Neaectic Sub-regions. PaIuE ARCTIC SUB-KEGIONS. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian sub-segions. — 2.3 — This small family, separated from the true Erycinidse by Mr. Bates, is confined to the tropical forest-districts of con- tinental America. The genera are : — Eiirygona (71 sp.) ; Methonella (1 sp.); the latter found in Equatorial South America. Family 12.— ERYCINID^. (59 Genera, 560 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Si;b-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal.«abctic sub-kegion.s. Ethiopian SUB-BtGIONS. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. — 2.3.4 1.2.3 This extensive family of small, but exquisitely beautiful buttei-flies, is especially characteristic of the virgin forests of the Neotropical region, only a few species of three genera ex- tending into the Nearctic region. The more important genera, and those which have an exceptional distribution, can alone be here noticed. Charts extends from Brazil to New York ; Apo- demia from Brazil to California, Utah, and Oregon ; Amarijnthis inhabits the Brazilian and Antillean sub-regions ; Lepricornis and Metapheles are small genera found only in the Mexican sub-region; Lymnas, Necyria, Ancyluris, Diorliina, Usthemopsis, Anteros, Emesis, Symmacliia, Cricosoma, Calydna, Lemonias, Nymphidium, Thcope,, and Aricoris are common to the Brazilian and Mexican sub-regions. All the other genera (40 in number) are only known from the Brazilian sub-region, and of these a considerable proportion are confined to the damp equatorial forests of the Amazon Valley. CHAP. XXI.] INSECTS. 477 Family Id.—LYCJE^IDM. (39 Genera, 1,220 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sob-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Sub-kegions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental sub-kegions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1 .2.3.4 The Lycsenidse — of the variety and beauty of which in tropical regions our own " Blues " and " Coppers " give bi^t a faint idea — are a group of universal distribution. We shall therefore in- dicate those genera which are restricted to one or more regions, or are nearly cosmopolitan. The large genus Polyommatus (con- taining 325 species) has the same universal distribution as the entire family. Our common " Blues " well represent this genus. Lycmna (comprising the " Coppers ") is more especially charac- teristic of the Palsearctic and Nearctic regions, but stragglinsf species occur also in North India, South Africa, Chili, and New- Zealand. Thecla is especially characteristic of the Neotropical region, where there are about 370 species; in the Nearctic region, 36 ; in the Palsearctic 13 ; and in the Ethiopian 3. Miletus, Lucia, Hypolycccna, Myrina, and Deudorix are common to the three tropical regions of the Eastern Hemisphere — the Ethiopian, Oriental, and Australian. -ApJineus and lolaus are common to the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, the latter extending to Celebes. lalmenus, Pseudodipsas, Ouretis, and AmUypodia are common to the Oriental and Australian regions, but the first-named is found also in Madagascar. Zephyrus is found only in the Nearctic and Palsearctic, Uumcetis in the Nearctic and Neotropical regions. The Nearctic region has one peculiar genus {Feniseca) ; the Palsearctic has two — Thestor and Lmosopis ; the Ethiopian has nine — Pentila, Liptana, D'Urhania, Axiocerces, Capys, Phytala, Epitola, Heivitsonia, and Deloneura ; the Oriental has five — Allotinus, Ilerda, Poritia, Camena, and Liphyra; the Australian has three — Hypochrysops, Utica, and Ogyris ; and the Neotropical also three — Zamprospilus, Thearema, and Trichonis. 478 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV, Family 14.— PIEKID^. (35 Genera, 817 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Nearctic Sub-regions. Pal^arctic Ethiopian SUB-KEGION.S. SUB-REGION.S. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-rboions. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3 .4 1.2.3.4 1 .2.3.4 1 .2 .3 — The Pieridae are distributed almost, if not quite, as widely over the globe as the last family, and we shall group the genera in the same manner. Pieris (130 sp.) is cosmopolitan ; Terias and Callidryas are found in all the four tropical regions, and as far north as Pennsylvania in the Nearctic region ; Pontia, Tachyris, Eronia, and Thestias are common to the Ethiopian, Oriental, and Australian regions, the last-named, however, only extending as far as Timor; Colias is pre-eminently Palsearctic and Nearctic, with a few Ethiopian species, one Indian, two in Chili, and one in the Sandwich Islands ; Antho- charis is wholly Palsearctic and Nearctic ; Midea has two species Nearctic, and one in Japan ; Gonepteryx is Palsearctic and Neo- tropical, extending into Texas ; Idmais and Callosune are Ethiopian and Oriental ; Thyca and Iphias are Oriental and Australian ; Meganostoma is Nearctic and Neotropical ; JUa- thalis and Kricogonia are Neotropical, ranging into Florida, Texas, and Colorado. The peculiar genera are pretty equally distributed. The Neotropical region has ten, two being confined to Chili ; Euterpe and Leptalis are the most remarkable, the latter containing a number of forms mimicking the Heliconidse and Danaidse. The Oriental region has two, Prioneris and Dercas ; the Australian one, Elodina ; the Ethiopian two, Teracolus and Pseudopontia ; the Palaearctic two, Zeucophasia and Zegris ; the Nearctic one, Neophasia. CHAP. XXI.] INSECTS. 479 Family 15.— PAPILTONID.E. (13 Genera, 455 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Nearctic sub-regioks. sub-skoioms. Pal^arctic sub^regions. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australfam Sub-regions. 1 .l-.;j.-3. [ 1.2.3.4 1 1 . 2 . 3 .4 1.2 .3 .4 1^.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 The Papilionidse, comprising many of the noblest and richest- coloured butterflies, and long placed at the head of the group, are almost as universally distributed as the Pieridse, but they do not extend to so many remote islands nor so far into the Arctic and Antarctic regions. Nine-tenths of the species belong to the genus Papilio, and these are especially abundant in tropical regions, although species occur in every region and every sub- region. Well-marked sub-divisions of this large genus are characteristic of each great region — as the "^neas" group in the Neotropical, the "Paris" group in the Oriental, the "^geus" group in the Australian, the " Zenobius " group in the Ethiopian, and many others. The few species of the Palaearctic region belong, on the other hand, to a group of universal distribution, and the Nearctic has a good number of species allied to Neotropical forms. The other genera have mostly a very restricted range. Par- nassius is an Alpine genus, confined to the Palsearctic and Nearctic regions. The Palaearctic region further possesses 5 peculiar genera — Mesapia, Hypermnestra, Doritis, Sericinus, and Thais; the Oriental has 4, Calinaga, Tdnopalpus, Bhutanitis, and Leptocirms, the latter going as far as Celebes; the Aus- tralian has 1, Eurycus'; and the Neotropical 1, Euryades, con- fined to the Chilian sub-region. The Ethiopian and the Nearctic regions have no peculiar genera. 480 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part IV. Family 16.— HESPEEID^. (52 Genera (?) 1,200 Species.) General Distribution. Neotropical Sub-regions. Neakctic Sub-regions. PaLvEARCTIC SUB-KEGIONS. Ethiopian Sub-regions. Oriental Sub-regions. Australian Sub-regions. 1.2.3. 4 1 .a. 3. 4 i.a.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 The Hesperidse, or Skippers, are an immense group of mostly- small obscurely coloured butterflies, universally distributed, and of which hosts of species still remain to be discovered and described. As the grouping of these into genera is not yet satisfactorily accomplished, only the more extensive and best known groups will be here noticed. Pamphila and Hesperia are universally distributed ; Nisoniades seems to be only absent from the Australian region. The Neotropical region is pre- eminently rich in Hesperidae, 33 genera being found there, of which 20 are peculiar to it; the Australian region has 12 genera, only 1 {Euschemon) being peculiar; the Oriental has 18, with 3 peculiar; the Ethiopian, 13, with 3 peculiar; the Palse- arctic 6, with 1 {Erynnis) almost peculiar, a species occurring in Mexico ; the Nearctic 9, with none peculiar, 4 being found also in the Neotropical region, 2 in the Palfearctic, and the rest being of wide distribution. Many new genera have, however, been recently described in the United States, but it is impos- sible yet to determine how many, if any, of these are peculiar. More than 100 species of the family are included in Mr. Edwards' " Synopsis of North American Butterflies," — a very large number considering that Europe possesses only about 30. CHAP. XXI.] INSECTS. 48i Sub-order — Lepidoptera Heterocera, or Moths. The Lepidoptera Heterocera, or Moths, are of such immense extent, and are, besides, so imperfectly known compared with the Butterflies, that it would serve no purpose to go into the details of their distribution ; especially as most of the families and a considerable number of the genera are cosmopolitan. We propose therefore to notice only the Sphingina, which, being generally of large size and finely marked or coloured, and many of them day-fliers, have been extensively collected ; and whose numbers are more manageable than the succeeding groups. Grmip I.— SPHINGINA. Family 17.— ZYG^NID^ (46 Genera, about 530 Species). The Zygsenidffi are universally distributed, but many of the genera are restricted in their range. Zygccna (85 sp.) is mainly Palgearctic, but 2 species are South African, and 1 North American ; Procris (22 sp.) has a scattered distribution, from the Palsearctic region to South America, South Africa and North India ; Heterogynis (3 sp.) and Dijsauxis (3 sp.) are European ; Pollanisus (3 sp.) is Australian ; Glaucopis (1 20 sp.) is mainly Neotropical, with a few Oriental ; Syntomis (94 sp.) is found in all the Old-World regions ; and Euchrnmia (150 sp.) is found in all warm countries, though especially abundant in South America. Family 18.— CASTNIID^ (7 Genera, 63 Species). The Castniidee have an interesting distribution, being mainly Neotropical, with four genera in Australia and New Guinea. Castnia, Coronis, and Gazera, with 51 species, are Neotropical ; Synemon, Euschemon, Damias and Cocijtia, with 12 species, are Australian, the latter being found only in the Papuan Islands. 482 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. Family 19.— AGAKISTID^ (13 Genera, 76 Species). The Agaristidae are beautiful diurnal moths, allied to the Castniidae, but almost confined to the Australian and Oriental regions, with a few in the Ethiopian. The most important genera are, — Agarista (21 sp.), Australia and New Guinea ; Eu- semia (31 sp.), JSgocera (7 sp.), Oriental and Ethiopian regions ; the other genera being confined to the islands from Java to New Guinea. Family 20.— UEANIID^ (2 Genera, 12 Species). These magnificent insects have a singular distribution. The gold-spangled Urania (6 sp.) is characteristic of Tropical America, but a single species of great magnificence occurs in Madagascar. The large but sober- tinted NydaUmon (6 sp.) is found in the Neotropical, Oriental, and Australian regions. Family 21.— STYGIID^. (3 Genera, 14 Species.) These insects are confined to the Palsearctic and Neotropical regions, 2 genera in the former, 1 in the latter. Family 22.— ^GERIID^. (24 Genera, 215 Species.) This family is found in all parts of the world except Australia, ^geria is most abundant in Europe, but is found also in North and South America. Family 23.— SPHINGID^. (40 Genera, 345 Species.) The Sphinx Moths are cosmopolitan. The most important genera ave,—Macroglossa (26 sp.), Chcerocampa (46 sp.), and Macrosila (21 sp.), all cosmopolitan ; Sesia (12 sp.), Europe, Asia, and North Americsi ; Deilephila (19 sp.), Palaearctic and Oriental regions, Nearctic region, and Chili; Sphiiwc (21 sp.), Europe, CHAP. XXL] INSECTS. 483, North and South America; Smerinthus (29 sp.), all regions except Australia. Our Death's Head Moth (Acherontia atropos) ranges to Sierra Leone and the Philippine Islands. General Remarks on the Distribution of the Diurnal Lepidoptera and Sphingidea. The Diurnal Lepidoptera or Butterflies, comprehend 431 genera and 7,740 species, arranged in 16 families, according to Mr. Kirby's Catalogue published in 1871. The Sphingidea con- sist of 135 genera and 1,255 species, arranged in 7 families, according to the British Museum Catalogue dated 1864 ; and as this includes all Mr. Bates' collections in America and my own in the East, it is probable that no very large additions have since been made. The distribution of the families and genera of Butterflies corresponds generally with that of Birds — and more especially with that of the Passerine birds — in showing a primary division of the earth into Eastern and Western, rather than into Northern and Southern lands. The Neotropical region is by far the richest and most peculiar. It possesses 15 families of butterflies, whereas the other regions have only from 8, in the Palsearctic, to 12 in the Ethiopian and Oriental regions ; and as none of the Old World regions possess any peculiar families, the New World has a very clear superiority. In genera the preponderance is still greater, since the Neotropical region possesses about 200 altogether peculiar to it, out of a total of 431 genera, many of which are cosmopolitan. Comparing, now, the Eastern regions with the Western, we have two peculiar families in the former to 4 in the latter ; while the Southern regions (Australian and Neotropical) possess not a single peculiar family in common. In the Sphingidea the same general features recur in a less marked degree, the Neotropical being the richest region; but here we have one family (Castniidse) which appears to be con- fined to the two southern regions, — the Australian and Neo- tropical. The distribution of the genera affords us some facts of special interest, which must be briefly noticed. There are several 484 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. genera typically characteristic of the North Temperate regions which have a few species widely scattered on mountains, or in the temperate parts of the Southern Hemisphere. Chili possesses representatives of four of these genera — Argyiinis, Lyccena, Co- lias, and DeiUphila ; and this has been thought by some natura- lists to be of such importance as to outweigh the purely Neo- tropical character of a large portion of the ChiUan fauna, and to render it advisable to join it on, as an outlying portion of a great North Temperate zoological region. But when we re- member that Argynnis occurs also in Java, and Lyccena in New Zealand, while Colias ranges to Southern Africa, Malabar, and the Sandwich Islands, we can hardly admit the argument to be a sound one. For a fuller discussion of this question see Vol. II., pp. 43 — 47. The remarkable fact of the existence of the otherwise purely Neotropical genus, Urania, in Madagascar is even more striking, supported as it is by the Antillean, Solenedon, belonging to a family of Mammalia otherwise confined to Mada- gascar, and by one or two Coleopterous genera, to be noticed farther on as common to the two countries. Our view as to the true explanation of this and analogous phenomena will be found at Vol. I., p. 284. The division of the Castniidse (a family almost confined to the Tropics), between the Neotropical and Australian regions, is also a very curious and important phenomenon, because it seems to point to a more remote connection between the two countries than that indicated by the resemblance between the productions of South Temperate America with those of Australia and New Zealand; but we have already shown that the facts may be explained in another way. (See Vol. I., pp. 398 and 404). The division of the Malay Archipelago between the Oriental and Australian regions is clearly marked in the Lepidoptera, and it is very curious that it should be so, for in this, if in any group of animals, we should expect an almost complete fusion to have been effected. Lepidoptera fly readily across wide tracts of sea, and there is absolutely no climatal difference to interfere with their free migration from island to island. Yet we find no less than 10 genera abundant in the Indo-Malayan CHAP. XXI.] INSECTS. 485 sub-region which never cross the narrow seas to the east of them ; 6 others which only pass to Celebes ; and 2 more which have extended from Java along the closely connected line of islands eastwards to Timor. On the other side, we find 5 strictly Austro-Malayan genera, and 2 others which have a single re- presentative in Java. The following is a list of these genera :— Indo-Malayan Genera : — Amathusia, Thaumantis, Tancecia, Eurytela, Ilerda, Zemeros, Taxila, Aphneus, Prioneris, Bercas, Glerome, Adolias, Apatura, Limenitis, lolaus, Leptocircus, (the last six reach Celebes) ; Biscophora, Thestias ; (the last two reach Timor.) Austro-Malayan Genera: — Hamadryas, Jlypocista, Mynes, Dicallaneura, Elodina, Hyades, ProtJioe (the last two reach Java). The most characteristic groups, which range over the whole Archipelago and give it a homogeneous character, are the various genera of Danaidae, the genus Elytnnias, and Amblypodia with a few other Lycsenidse. These are all abundant and conspicuous groups, but they are nevertheless exceptions to the general rule of limitation to one or other of the regions. The cause of this phenomenon is probably to be found in the limitation of the larvae of many Lepidoptera to definite species, genera, and families of plants ; and we shall perhaps find, when the subject is carefully investigated, that the groups which range over the whole Archi- pelago feed on genera of plants which have an equally wide range, while those which are limited to one region or the other, have food- plants belonging to genera which are similarly limited. It is known that the vegetation of the two regions differs largely in a botanical sense, although its general aspect is almost identical ; and tliis may be the reason why the proportion of wide-ranging genera is greater among such insects as feed upon dead wood, than among those which derive their support from the juices of the living foliage. This subject will be again discussed under the various families of Coleoptera, and it will be well to bear in mind the striking facts of generic limitation which have been here brought forward. 486 GEOGKAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. Fossil Butterflies, apparently of existing genera, occur in the Miocene and Eocene formations, and an extinct form in the Lower Oolite ; but these cannot be held to give any adequate idea of the antiquity of so highly specialised a group, which, in all probability, dates back to Palaeozoic times, since one of the Bombycidse, — a group almost as highly-organised — has been discovered in the coal formation of Belgium. (See Vol. I. p. 168.) Order— COLEOPTERA. Geodephaga, or Carnivokous Ground Beetles. The Geodephaga consist of two families, Cicindelidse and Carabidse, differing in their form and habits no less than in their numbers and distribution. The former, comprising about 800 species, are far more abundant and varied in Tropical regions ; the latter, more than ten times as numerous, are highly charac- teristic of the North Temperate zone, where fully haK of all the known species occur. CICINDELID^. (35 Genera, 803 Species.) The Cicindelidse, or Tiger Beetles, are a moderately extensive group, spread over the whole globe, but much more abundant in tropical than in temperate or cold countries. More than half of the species (418) belong to the single genus Cicindela, the only one which is cosmopolitan. The other large genera are, — Collyris (81 sp.), wholly Oriental ; Odontochila (57 sp.). South American, with species in Java and Celebes ; Tetracha (46 sp.), mostly South American, but with species in South Europe, North America, and Australia ; Tricondyla (31 sp.), characteristic of the Oriental region, but extending eastward to New Guinea ; Gtenostoma (26 sp.), wholly Neotropical; Dromica (24 sp.), wholly African, south of Lake Ngami and Mozambique ; TJicrates (18 sp.), wholly Malayan, from Singapore to New Guinea. The genera are distributed in the several regions as follows : — the Nearctic region has 5 genera, 3 of which are peculiar to it; the CHAP, xxi.j INSECTS. 487 Palasarctic has 2, but none peculiar; the Ethiopian 13, with 11 peculiar ; the Oriental 8, with 3 peculiar ; the Australian 9, with 2 peculiar; and the Neotropical 15, with 10 peculiar. The connection between South America and Australia is shown by the latter country possessing 9 species of the characteristic South American genus Tetracha, as well as one of Megacephala. The small number of peculiar genera in the Oriental and Aus- tralian regions is partly owing to the circumstance that two otherwise peculiar Oriental genera have spread eastward to the Moluccas and New Guinea, a fact to be easily explained by the great facilities such creatures have for passing narrow straits, and by the almost identical physical conditions in the Malayan portion of the two regions. The insects of Indo-Malaya were better adapted to live in the Austro-Malay Islands than those ef Australia itself, and the latter group of islands have thus ac- quired an Oriental aspect in their entomology, though not with- out indications of the presence of an aboriginal insect-fauna of a strictly Australian type. The relation of the Australian and Neotropical regions is exhibited by this family in an unusually distinct manner. Tetracha, a genus which ranges from Mexico to La Plata, has 9 species in Australia ; while Megace^phala has 2 American and 1 Australian species. Another curious, and more obscure relation, is that between the faunas of Tropical America and Tropical Africa. This is also illustrated by the genus Megacephala, which has 4 African species as well as 2 South American ; and we have also the genus Peridexia, which has 2 species in South America and 2 in Madagascar. Several of the sub-regions are also well characterised by pecu- liar genera ; as Amhlychila and Omus confined to California and the Eocky Mountains ; Manticora, Ophrtjodera, Platycldle arid Dromica, characteristic of South Africa; Megalomma ojiA Pogonos- toma peculiar to the Mascarene Islands ; and Caledonica to the islands east of New Guinea. The extensive and elegant genus Collyris is highly characteristic of the Oriental region, over the whole of which it extends, only just passing the limits into Celebes and Timor. The Cicindelidse, therefore, fully conform to those divisions of Vol. II.— 32 488 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. the earth which have been found best to represent the facts of distribution in the higher animals. CAKABID^. (620 Genera, 8500 Species.) The enormous extent of this family, necessitates a somewhat general treatment. It has been very extensively collected, while its classification has been most carefully worked out, and a detailed exposition of its geographical distribution by a compe- tent entomologist would be of the greatest interest. A careful study of Gemminger and Harold's Catalogue, however, enables me to sketch out the main features of its distribution, and to detail many of its peculiarities with considerable accuracy. The Carabidse are remarkable among insects, and perhaps among all terrestrial animals, as being a wonderfully numerous, varied, conspicuous, and beautifid group, which is pre-eminently characteristic of the Palaarctic region. So strikingly and unmistakably is this the case, that it must be held completely to justify the keeping that region distinct from those to which it has at various times been proposed to join it. Although tlie Carabidffi are thoroughly well represented by hosts of peculiar genera and abundant species in every part of the world without exception, yet the Palsearctic region alone contains fully one- third, or perhaps nearer two-fifths, of the whole. It may also be said, that the group is a temperate as compared with a tropical one ; so that probably half the species are to be found in the temperate and cold regions of the globe, leaving about an equal number in the much more extensive tropical and warm regions. But, among the cold regions, the Palsearctic is pre-eminent. North America is also rich, but it contains, by far, fewer genera and fewer species. The magnificent genus Carabus, with its allies Procerus and Procrustes, containing about 300 species, aU of large size, is almost wholly confined to the Palsearctic region, only 10 species inhabiting North America, and 11 Temperate South America, with one on the African mountain of Kilimandjaro. Twelve large genera, containing together more than 2000 species, are truly cosmopolitan, inhabiting both temperate and tropical CHAP. XXI.] INSECTS. 489 countries all over the globe ; but many of these are more abun- dant in the Palsearctic region than elsewhere. Such are Scarites, Calosoma, Brachinus, Cymindis, Lehia, Cklccnms, Platynus, Har- 'pcdus, Bemhecidium, Pcecilus, and Argutor. Of tropical cosmopo- lites, or genera found in all the tropical regions, but not in the temperate zones, there seem to be only four, — Catascopus, Cop- todera, Colopodes, and Caasnonia. Pheropsophus is confined to the tropics of the Old World ; while Drimostoma, though widely scattered, is characteristic of the Southern Hemisphere. The Palsearctic region has about 50 genera of Oarabidae which are strictly confined to it, the most important being, — Leistus (30 sp.), Procerus (5 sp.), Procrustes, (17 sp.), Zabrus (60 sp.), Pristonychus (42 sp.), and Ophomis (60 sp.) ; but it possesses a large number in common with the ISTearctic region. The more remarkable of these are, — Cardbus, Nebria, Amara, Cyrtonotus, Brady cellus, Anopthalmus, Celia, Gychrus, Patrohus, Elaphrus, NotiopMlus, Bradytus, Callisthenus, Blethisa, and several others. Many too, though not strictly confined to the North Temperate regions, are very abundant there, with a few species isolated in remote countries, or widely scattered, often in an eccentric man- ner. Among these may be mentioned, Trechus (120 sp.), all North Temperate but 8, which are scattered in Java, New Cale- donia and South America ; DyscUrus (127 sp.), North Temperate, with 3 or 4 species in Australia, China and La Plata ; Omaseus, (88 sp.), Steropus (90 sp.), Platysoma (114 sp.), and Pterostichtis (138 sp.), are mostly North Temperate, but each has a few species in the South Temperate zone. New Zealand, AustraHa, Chili, and the Cape of Good Hope. Dromms (54 sp.), is about two-thirds Palsearctic, the rest of the species being scattered over the world, in Chili, North and South America, South Africa, Burmah, Ceylon, and New Zealand. The North Temperate genera Calathus and Olisthopvs, have each one species in New Zealand ; Perms has most of its species in South Europe, but 3 in Australia; Ahax is confined to the north temperate zone, but with one species in Madagascar while Lcemosthenes is said to have a species identically the same in South Europe and Chili. Some of these apparent anomalies may be due to wrong 490 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. determination of the genera, but there can be little doubt that most of them represent important facts in distribution. The Nearctic region is comparatively poor in Carabidse. Its more important peculiar genera are, — Diccclus (22 sp.), Pasimachus (17 1 a o ■e i 5 1 O % 1 o 1 £ a) o 1-5 1 (Si o p. a. o o 1 Productidae Orthoceratidae ... Spiriferidae, Orthidae ... Atlaatidffi, Hyaleidae ... Pyramidellidae, Turbinidae lanthidae, Chitonidae ... Lingulidae A\'ieulidae, Mytilidae ... Arcadae, Trigoniadae ... Cyprinidae, Anatinidae... Nautilidae Rhynchonellidae, Cra- ) iiiadae, Discinidae \ Cardiadae, Lucinidae ... Amnionitidae ... Naticidae, Calyptraeidae.. Dentalidae, Terebratulidae Helicidae Fissurellidae, Tornatellidae Pectinidae, Solenidae ... Cerithiadae, Littorini- ) dae, Astartidae \ Belemnitidae Teuthidae, Sepiadae Neritidae, Patellidae, ) Bullidae ... \ Oastrochaenidae.Pholadidae Limnaeidae, Melaniadae Chamidae, Myadae Cycladidae, Veneridae, \ Tellinidae ... ) Hippuritidae Unionidae Strombidae, Buccinidae Gonidae, Volutidae Auriculidae, Cyclostomidae Mactridae ... — Limacidae Argonautidae Tridacnidae Nor is this enormous antiquity confined to family types alone. Many genera are equally ancient. The genus Lingula has CHAP. XXII.] MOLLUSCA. 539 existed from the earliest Palaeozoic times down to the present day ; while Terebratula, Rhynchonella, Discina, Nautilus, Natica, Fleurototnaria, Patella, Lcntalium, Mytilus and many other living forms, range back to the Palaeozoic epoch. That groups of such immense antiquity, and having power to resist such vast changes of external conditions as they must have been subject to, should now be widely distributed, is no more than might reasonably be expected. It is only in the case of sub-genera and species, that we can expect the influence of recent geological or climatal changes to be manifest ; and it must be left to special students to work out the details of their distribution, with reference to the general principles found to obtain among the more highly organised animals. CHAPTER XXIII. SUMMARY OF THE DISTRIBUTION, AND LINES OF MIGRATION, OF THE SEVERAL CLASSES OF ANIMALS. Having already given summaries of the distribution of the several orders, and of some of the classes of land animals, we propose here to make a few general remarks on the special phenomena presented by the more important groups, and to indicate where possible, the general lines of migration by which they have become dispersed over wide areas. Mammalia. This class is very important, and its past history is much better known than that of most others. We shall therefore briefly summarise the results we have arrived at from our ex- amination of the distribution of extinct and living forms of each order. Primates. — This order, being pre-eminently a tropical one, became separated into two portions, inhabiting the Eastern and Western Hemispheres respectively, at a very early epoch. In consequence of this separation it has diverged more radically than most other orders, so that the two American families, Cebidse and Hapalidse, are widely differentiated from the Apes, Monkeys, and Lemurs of the Old World. The Lemurs were probably still more ancient, but being much lower in organisation, they became extinct in most of the areas where the higher forms of Primates became developed. Remains found in the Eocene formation indicate, that the North American and European CHAP, xxiii J SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 541 Primates had, even at that early epoch, diverged into distinct series, so that we must probably look back to the secondary period for the ancestral form from which the entire order was developed. Chiroptera. — These are also undoubtedly very ancient. The most generalised forms — the Vespertilionidse and Noctilionidae — are the most widely distributed ; while special types have arisen in America, and in the Eastern Hemisphere. Eemains found in the Upper Eocene formation of Europe differ little from species still living in the same countries ; so that we can form no con- jecture as to the origin or migration of the group. Their power of flight would, however, enable them rapidly to spread over all the great continents of the globe. Insedivora. — This very ancient group, now probably verging towards extinction, appears to have originated in the Northern continent, and never to have reached Australia or South America. It may, however, have become extinct in the latter country owing to the competition of the numerous Edentata. The In- sectivora now often maintain themselves amidst more highly developed forms, by means of some special protection. Some burrow in the earth, — like the moles j others have a spiny cover- ing,— as the hedgehogs and several of the Centetidge ; others are aquatic, — as the Potamogale and the desman ; others have a nauseous odour,— as the shrews ; while there are several which seem to be preserved by their resemblance to higher forms, — as the elephant-shrews to jerboas, and the tupaias to squirrels. The same need of protection is shown by the numerous Insecti- vora inhabiting Madagascar, where the competing forms are few; and by one lingering in the Antilles, where there are hardly any other mammalia. Carnivora. — Although perhaps less ancient than the preced- ing, this form of mammal is far more highly organised, and from its earliest appearance appears to have become dominant .in the world. It would therefore soon spread widely, and diverge into the various specialised types represented by exist- ing families. Most of these appear to have originated in the Eastern Hemisphere, the only Carnivora occurring in North 542 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. American Miocene deposits being ancestral forms of Canidee and relid{3e. It seems probable, therefore, that the order had attained a considerable development before it reached the Western Hemisphere. The Procyonidse, now confined to America, are not very ancient ; and the occurrence of a few allied forms in the Himalayas {J^lurus and ^luropus) render it probable that their common ancestors entered North America from the Palsearctic region during the Miocene period, but being a rather low type they have succumbed under the competition of higher forms in most parts of the Eastern Hemisphere. Bears and Weasels are probably still more recent emigrants to America. The aquatic carnivora (Seals, &c.) are, as might be expected, more widely and uniformly distributed, but there is little evidence to show at what period the type was first developed. Ungulata. — These are the dominant vegetable-feeders of the great continents, and they have steadily increased in numbers and in specialisation from the oldest Tertiary times to the present day. Being generally of larger size and less active than the Carnivora, they have somewhat more restricted powers of dispersal. We have good evidence that their wide range over the globe is a comparatively recent phenomenon. Tapirs and Llamas have probably not long inhabited South America, while Ehinoceroses and Antelopes were once, perhaps, unknown in Africa, although abounding in Europe and Asia. Swine are one of the most ancient types in both hemispheres ; and their great hardiness, their omnivorous diet, and their powers of swimming, have led to their wide distribution. The sheep and goats, on the other hand, are perhaps the most recent develop- ment of the Ungulata, and they seem to have arisen in the Palsearctic region at a time when its climate already ap- proximated to that which now prevails. Hence they are pre-eminently a Temperate group, never found within the Tropics except upon a few mountain ranges. Frohoscidea. — These huge animals (the Elephants and Masto- dons) appear to have originated in the warmer parts of the Palsearctic region, but they soon spread over all the great CHAP. XXIII.] SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 543 continents, even reaching the southern extremity of America. Their extinction has probably depended more on physical than on organic changes, and we can clearly trace their almost total disappearance to the effects of the Glacial epoch. Bodentia. — Eodents are a very dominant group, and a very ancient one. Owing to their small size and rapid powers of increase, they soon spread over almost every part of the globe, whence has resulted a great specialisation of family types in the South American continent which remained so long isolated. They are capable of living wherever there is any kind of vegetable food, hence their range will be determined rather by organic than by physical conditions ; and the occupation of a country by enemies or by competing forms, is probably the chief cause which has prevented many of the families from acquiring a wide range. The occurrence of isolated species of the South American families, Octodontidee and Echimyidse in the Ethiopian and Palsearctic regions, is an indication that the range of many of the families has recently become less extensive. Edentata. — These singular and lowly-organised animals ap- pear to have become almost restricted to the two great Southern lands — South Africa and South America — at an early period ; and, being there free from the competition of higher forms, developed a number of remarkable types often of huge size, of which the Megatherium is one of the best known. The incur- sion of the highly-organised Ungulates and Carnivora into Africa during the Miocene epoch, probably exterminated most of them in that continent ; but in America they continued in full force down to the Post-Pliocene period ; and even now, the comparatively diminutive Sloths, Ant-eaters, and Armadillos, form a large and important portion of the fauna. Marsupialia and Monotremata. — These are probably the representatives of the most ancient and lowly-organised types of mammal. They once existed in the northern continents, whence they spread into Australia; and being isolated, and preserved from the competition of the higher forms which soon arose in other parts of the world, they have developed into a variety of types, which, however, still preserve a general GU GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. ' [part iv. uniformity of organisation. One family, which continued to exist in Europe till the latter part of the Miocene period, reached America, and has there been preserved to our day. Lines of Migration of the Mammalia. — The whole series of phenomena presented by the distribution of the Mammalia, looked at broadly, are in harmony with the view that the great continents and oceans of our own epoch have been in existence, with comparatively small changes, during all Tertiary times. Each one of them has, no doubt, undergone considerable modifi- cations in its area, its altitude, and in its connection with other lands. Yet some considerable portion of each continent has, probably, long existed in its present position, while the great oceans seem to have occupied the same depressions of the earth's crust (varied, perhaps, by local elevations and sub- sidences) during all this vast period of time. Hence, allowing for the changes of which we have more or less satisfactory evidence, the migrations of the chief mammalian types can be pretty clearly traced. Some, owing to their small size and great vitality, have spread to almost all the chief land masses ; but the majority of the orders have a more restricted range. All the evidence at our command points to the Northern Hemisphere as the birth-place of the class, and probably of all the orders. At a very early period the land communication with Australia was cut off, and has never been renewed ; so that we have here preserved for us a sample of one or more of the most ancient forms of mammal. Somewhat later the union with South America and South Africa was severed; and in both these countries we have samples of a somewhat more advanced stage of mammalian development. Later still, the union by a northern route between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres appears to have been broken, partly by a physical separation, but almost as effectually by a lowering of tempera- ture. About the same period the separation of the Palsearctic region from the Oriental was effected, by the rise of the Himalayas and the increasing contrast of climate; while the formation of the great desert-belts of the Sahara, Arabia, Persia, and Central Asia, helped to complete the separation of CHAP, xxui.] SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 545 the Temperate and Tropical zones, and to render further intermi- gration ahnost impossible. In a few cases — of which the Rodents in Australia and the pigs in Austro-Malaya are perhaps the most striking examples — the distribution of land-mammals has been effected by a sea- passage either by swimming or on floating vegetation ; but, as a rule, we may be sure that the migrations of mammalia have taken place over the land; and their presence on islands is, therefore, a clear indication that these have been once connected with a continent. The present class of animals thus affords the best evidence of the past history of the land surface of our globe ; and we have chiefly relied upon it in sketching out (in Part III.) the probable changes which each of our great regions has undergone. Birds. Although birds are, of aU land-vertebrates, the best able to cross seas and oceans, it is remarkable how closely the main features of their distribution correspond with those of the Mam- malia. South America possesses the low Formicaroid type of Passeres, — which, compared with the more highly developed forms of the Eastern Hemisphere, is analogous to the Cebidffi and Hapalidte as compared with the Old World Apes and Mon- keys ; while its Cracidse as compared with the Pheasants and Grouse, may be considered parallel to the Edentata as compared with the Ungulates of the Old World. The Marsupials of America and Australia, are paralleled, among birds, in the Stru- thionidae and Megapodiidse ; the Lemurs and Insectivora pre- served in Madagascar are represented by the Mascarene Dididse ; the absence of Deer and Bears from Africa is analogous to the absence of Wrens, Creepers, and Pheasants ; while the African Hyracidte and Chrysochloridse among mammals, may well be compared with the eq^ually peculiar Coliidae and Musophagidse among birds. From these and many other similarities of distribution, it is clear that birds have, as a rule, followed the same great lines of migration as mammalia ; and that oceans, seas, and deserts, have 546 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. always to a great extent limited their range. Yet these barriers have not been absolute ; and in the course of ages birds have been able to reach almost every habitable land upon the globe. Hence have arisen some of the most curious and interesting phenomena of distribution ; and many islands, which are entirely destitute of mammalia, or possess a very few species, abound in birds, often of peculiar types and remarkable for some unusual character or habit. Striking examples of such interesting bird- faunas are those of New Zealand, the Sandwich Islands, the Galapagos, the Mascarene Islands, the Moluccas, and the An- tilles ; while even small and remote islets, — such as Juan Fer- nandez and Norfolk Island, have more light thrown upon their past history by means of their birds, than by any other portion of their scanty fauna. Another peculiar feature in the distribution of this class is the extraordinary manner in which certain groups and certain external characteristics, have become developed in islands, where the smaller and less powerful birds have been pro- tected from the incursions of mammalian enemies, and where rapacious birds — which seem to some degree dependent on the abundance of mammalia — are also scarce. Thus, we have the Pigeons and the Parrots most wonderfully developed in the Australian region, which is pre-eminently insular; and both these groups here acquire conspicuous colours very unusual, or altogether absent, elsewhere. Similar colours (black and red) appear, in the same two groups, in the distant Mascarene islands; while in the Antilles the parrots have often white heads, a character not found in the allied species on the South American continent. Crests, too, are largely developed, in both these groups, in the Australian region only ; and a crested parrot for- merly lived in Mauritius, — a coincidence too much like that of the colours as above noted, to be considered accidental. Again, birds exhibit to us a remarkable contrast as regards the oceanic islands of tropical and temperate latitudes; for while most of the former present hardly any cases of specific identity with the birds of adjacent continents, the latter often show hardly any differences. The Galapagos and Madagascar CHAP, xxiii.] SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 547 are examples of the first-named peculiarity ; the Azores and the Bermudas of the last ; and the difference can be clearly traced to the frequency and violence of storms in the one case and to the calms or steady breezes in the other. It appears then, that although birds do not afford us the same convincing proof of the former union of now disjoined lands as we obtain from mammals, yet they give us much (Turious and suggestive information as to the various and complex modes in which the existing peculiarities of the distribution of animals have been brought about. They also throw much light on the relation between distribution and the external characters of animals ; and, as they are often found where mammalia are quite absent, we must rank them as of equal value for the purposes of our present study. Reptiles. These hold a somewhat intermediate place, as regards their distribution, between mammals and birds, having on the whole rather a wider range than the former, and a more restricted one than the latter. Snakes appear to have hardly more facilities for crossing the ocean than mammals ; hence they are generally absent from oceanic islands. They are more especially a tropical group, and have thus never been able to pass from one continent to another by those high northern and southern routes, which we have seen reason to believe were very effectual in the case of mammalia and some other animals. Hence we find no resemblance between the Australian and Neotropical regions, or between the False- arctic and Nearctic ; while the Western Hemisphere is com- paratively poor as regards variety of types, although rich in genera and species. Deserts and high mountains are also very effectual barriers for this group, and their lines of migration have probably been along river valleys, and occasionally across narrow seas by means of floating vegetation. Lizards, being somewhat less tropical than snakes, may have passed by the northern route during warm epochs. They are also more suited to traverse deserts, and they possess some unknown 548 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. means of crossing the ocean, as they are not unfrequently found in remote oceanic islands. These various causes have modified their distribution. The Western Hemisphere is much richer in lizards than it is in snakes ; and it is also very distinct from the Eastern Hemisphere. The lines of migration of lizards appear to have been along the mountains and deserts of tropical countries, and, under special conditions, across tropical seas from island to island. Crocodiles are a declining group. Tliey were once more gene- rally distributed, all the three famihes being found in British Eocene deposits. Being aquatic and capable of living in the sea, they can readily pass along all the coasts and islands of the warmer parts of the globe. Tortoises are equally ancient, and the restriction of certain groups to definite areas seems to be also a recent phenomenon. Amphihia. The Amphibia differ widely from Eeptiles in their power of enduring cold ; one of their chief divisions, the Urodela or Tailed-Batrachia, being confined to the temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere. To this class of animals the northern and southern routes of migration were open ; and we accordingly find a considerable amount of resemblance between South America and Australia, and a still stronger affinity between North America and the Palsearctic continent. The other tropical regions are more distinct from each other ; clearly indicating that, in this group, it is tropical deserts and tropical oceans which are the barriers to migration. The class however is very fragmentary, and probably very ancient ; so that descendants of once wide- spread types are now found isolated in various parts of the globe, between which we may feel sure there has been no direct transmission of Batrachia. Eemembering that their chief lines of migration have been by northern and southern land-routes, by floating ice, by fresh-water channels, and perhaps at rare intervals by ova being carried by aquatic birds or by violent storms, — we shall be able to comprehend most of the features of their actual distribution. CHAP. XXIII.] SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 549 Fresh-ivater Fishes. Although it would appear, at first sight, that the means of dispersal of these animals are very limited, yet they share to some extent the wide range of other fresh-water organisms. They are found in all climates ; but the tropical regions are hy far the most productive, and of these South America is perhaps the richest and most peculiar. There is a certain amount of identity between the two northern continents, and also between those of the South Temperate zone ; yet all are radically distinct, even North America and Europe having but a small proportion of their forms in common. The occurrence of allied fresh-water species in remote lands — as the Ajphritis of Tasmania and Patagonia, and the ComepTiorus of Lake Baikal, distantly allied to the mackerels of Northern seas — Avould imply that marine fishes are often modified for a life in fresh waters ; while other facts no less plainly show that per- manent fresh-water species are sometimes dispersed in various ways across the oceans, more especially by the northern and southern routes. The families of fresh-water fishes are often of restricted range, although cases of very wide and scattered distribution also occur. The great zoological regions are, on the whole, very well characterized ; showing that the same barriers are effectual here, as with most other vertebrates. We conclude, therefore, that the chief lines of migration of fresh-water fishes have been across the Arctic and Antarctic seas, probably by means of float- ing ice as well as by the help of the vast flocks of migratory aquatic birds that frequent those regions. On continents they are, usually, widely dispersed ; but tropical seas, even when of small extent, appear to have off'ered an effectual barrier to their dispersal. The cases of affinity between Tropical America, Africa, Asia, and Australia, must therefore be imputed either to the survival of once widespread groups, or to analogous adap- tation to a fresh-water life of wide-spread marine types ; and these cases cannot be taken as evidence of any fonner land connection between such remote continents. 550 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. Insects. It has already been shown (Vol. I. pp. 209-213 and Vol. 11. pp. 44-48) that the peculiarities of distribution of the various groups of insects depend very much on their habits and general economy. Their antiquity is so vast, and their more important modifications of structure have probably occurred so slowly, that modes of dispersal depending on such a combina- tion of favourable conditions as to be of excessive rarity, may yet have had time to produce large cumulative effects. Their small specific gravity and their habits of flight render them liable to dispersal by winds to an extent unknown in other classes of animals ; and thus, what are usually very effectual barriers have been overstepped, and sometimes almost obliterated, in the case of insects. A careful examination will, however, almost always show traces of an ancient fauna, agreeing in character with other classes of animals, intermixed with the more promi- nent and often more numerous forms whose presence is due to this unusual facility of dispersal. The effectual migration of insects is, perhaps more than in any other class of animals, limited by organic and physical conditions. The vegetation, the soil, the temperature, and the supply of moisture, must all be suited to their habits and economy ; while they require an immunity from enemies of various kinds, which immigrants to a new country seldom obtain. Few organisms have, in so many complex ways, become adapted to their special environment, as have insects. They are in each country more or less adapted to the plants which belong to it ; while their colours, their habits, and the very nature of the juices of their system, are all modified so as to protect them from the special dangers which surround them in their native land. It follows, that while no animals are so well adapted to show us the various modes by which dispersal may be effected, none can so effectually teach us the true nature and vast influence of the organic barrier in limiting dispersal. It is probable that insects have at one time or another taken advantage of every line of migration by which any terrestrial CHAP, xxiii.] SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. . 551 organisms have spread over the earth, but owing to their small size and rapid multiplication, they have made use of some which are exclusively their own. Such are the passage along moun- tain ranges from the Arctic to the Antarctic regions, and the dispersal of certain types over all temperate lands. It will perhaps be found that insects have spread over the land surface in directions dependent on our surface zones — forests, pastures, and deserts ; — and a study of these, with a due consideration of the fact that narrow seas are scarcely a barrier to most of the groups, may assist us to understand many of the details of insect-distribution. Terrestrial Mollusca. The distribution of land-shells agrees, in some features, with that of insects, while in others the two are strongly contrasted. In both we see the effects of great antiquity, with some special means of dispersal ; but while in insects the general powers of motion, both voluntary and involuntary, are at a maximum, in land-molluscs they are almost at a minimum. Although to some extent dependent on vegetation and climate, the latter are more dependent on inorganic conditions, and also to a large extent on the general organic environment. The result of these various causes, acting through countless ages, has been to spread the main types of structure with considerable uniformity over the globe ; while generic and sub-generic forms are often wonderfully localized. Land-shells, even more than insects, seem, at first sight, to require regions of their own ; but we have already pointed out the disadvantages of such a method of study. It will be far more instructive to refer them to those regions and sub-regions which are found *to accord best with the distribution of the higher animals, and to consider the various anomalies they pre- sent as so many problems, to be solved by a careful study of their habits and economy, and especially by a search after the hidden causes which have enabled them to spread so widely over land and ocean. The lines of migration which land-shells have followed, can YoL. II.— 36 552 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [part iv. hardly be determined with any definiteness. On continents they seem to spread steadily, but slowly, in every direction, checked probably by organic and physical conditions rather than by the barriers which limit the higher groups. Over the ocean they are also slowly dispersed, by some means which act perhaps at very long intervals, but which, within the period of the duration of genera and families, are tolerably effective. It thus happens that, although the powers of dispersal of land-shells and insects are so very unequal, the resulting geographical distribution is almost the opposite of what might have been expected, — the former being, on the whole, less distinctly localized than the latter. CONCLUSION. The preceding remarks are all I now venture to offer, on the distinguishing features of the various groups of land-animals as regards their distribution and migrations. They are at best but indications of the various lines of research opened up to us by the study of animals from the geographical point of view, and by looking upon their range in space and time as an important portion of the earth's history. Much work has yet to be done before the materials will exist for a complete treatment of the subject in all its branches; and it is the author's hope that his volumes may lead to a more systematic collection and arrange- ment of the necessary facts. At present all public museums and private collections are arranged zoologically. All treatises, mo- nographs, and catalogues, also follow, more or less completely, the zoological arrangement ; and the greatest difficulty the student of geographical distribution has to contend against, is the total absence of geographical collections, and the almost total want of complete and comparable local catalogues.' Till every well- marked district, — every archipelago, and every important island, has all its known species of the more important groups of animals catalogued on a uniform plan, and with a uniform nomenclature, a thoroughly satisfactory account of the Geographical Distribu- tion of Animals will not be possible. But more than this is wanted. Many of the most curious relations between animal CHAP. XXIII.] SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 553 forms and their habitats, are entirely unnoticed, owing to the productions of the same locality never being associated in our museums and collections. A few such relations have been brought to light by modern scientific travellers, but many more remain to be discovered ; and there is probably no fresher and more productive field still unexplored in Natural History. Most of these curious and suggestive relations are to be found in the productions of islands, as compared with each other, or with the continents of which they form appendages ; but these can never be properly studied, or even discovered, unless they are visibly grouped together. When the birds, the more conspicuous families of insects, and the land-shells of islands, are kept together so as to be readily compared with similar associations from the adja- cent continents or other islands, it is believed that in almost every case there will be found to be peculiarities of form or colour running through widely different groups, and strictly indicative of local or geographical influences. Some of these coincident variations have been alluded to in various parts of this work, but they have never been systematically investigated. They constitute an unworked mine of wealth for the enterprising explorer ; and they may not improbably lead to the discovery of some of the hidden laws (supplementary to Natural Selection), which seem to be required, in order to account for many of the external characteristics of animals. In concluding his task, the author ventures to suggest, that naturalists who are disposed to turn aside from the beaten track of research, may find in the line of study here suggested a new and interesting pursuit, not inferior in attractions to the lofty heights of transcendental anatomy, or the bewildering mazes of modern classification. And it is a study which will surely lead them to an increased appreciation of the beauty and the harmony of nature, and to a fuller comprehension of the complex relations and mutual interdependence, which link together every animal and vegetable form, with the ever-changing earth which supports them, into one grand organic whole. GENERAL INDEX. GENERAL INDEX. All names in Italics refer, either to the genera and other groups of Extinct Animals in Part II. of the First Volume ;— or to the genera whose distribution is given under Geographical Zoology (Part IV.) in the Second Volume; the Families and higher groups being in small capitals. All other references are in ordinary type. The various matters discussed under Zoological Geography (Part III.), are indexed as much as possible by subjects and localities. None of the genera mentioned in this Part are indexed, as this would have more than doubled the extent of the Index, and would have served no useful purpose, because the general distribution of each genus is given in Part IV., and the separate details can always be found by referring to the region, sub-region, and class. A. Aard-vark of East Africa, figure of, i. 261 Aard-vark. ii. 246 Aard-wolf, ii. 196 Abacetus, ii. 491 Abax, ii. 4S9 Abisara, ii. 475 Ablabes, ii. 375 Ablephartis, ii. 395 Abramis, ii. 453 Abronia, ii. 392 Abrornis, ii. 25S AbrostomxLS, ii. 451 Aburria, ii. 343 Acalyptvs, ii 384 Acanthias, ii. 4C1 Acanthicus, iL 444 Acanthion, ii. 240 Acanthis, ii. 283 Acaiithisitta. ii. 265 Acanthiza, ii. 258 AeanthobrairM, ii. 453 ACANTHOCLlNIDiE, ii. 432 Acanthodactyhis, ii. 391 Acanthodelphis, ii. 209 AcanthoUibrus, ii. 437 Acanthomys, ii. 229 Acanthophis, ii. 383 AcMnthopsis, ii. 453 ACANTHOPTERYGII, ii 424 ACANTHOPTERYGII PHARYNCO- GNATHI, ii. 437 Acanthopthalrmis. ii. 453 Acanthoptila, ii. 261 Acanthopyga, iL 390 Acanthorhynchus, ii. 275 Acanthosaura, IL 402 Acara, ii. 438 Accentor, ii. 260 Accentorinse, ii. 257 Accipenser, ii. 459 ACCIPBNSERIDiE, ii. 459 Accipiter, ii. 348 Accipitres, European Eocene, i. 163 Accipitres, classification of, i. 97 range of Palsearetie genera of, i. 248 range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 312 range of Oriental genera of, i. 385 range of Australian genera of, i. 486 ACCIPITRES, ii. 345 general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 351 ACCIPITRIN^, ii. 347 Aceriiia, ii. 425 Accros, ii. 317 Acerotherium, ii. 214 Acerntherinm, European Miocene, i. 119 N. American Tertiary, i. 136 Acestra, ii. 444 Acestiira, ii. 108 Achalinus, ii. 375 Acharnes, ii. 434 Achatina, ii. 515 Achatinella, ii. 514 Acherontia, ii. 483 Achilognathus, ii. 452 Achcenodon, N. American Tertiary, i. 138 Acicula, ii. 519 ACICULID.E, ii. 519 Acmceodera, ii. 497 Acodon, ii. 230 ACONTIADiE, iL 399 Acont^as, ii. 399 Acotherium, European Eocene, i. 126 Acotherium, ii. 215 558 GENERAL INDEX. Acrcea. ii. 473 jlia, ii. 363 ACRiEIDiE, ii. 473 Akysis, ii. 442 Acrantus, ii. 390 Alcemon.ii 289 Acredula, ii. 26(5 Alaska, birds of, ii. 135 Acridothcres, ii. 287 Alauda, ii. 289 Acris, ii. 419 ALAUDIDiE. ii. 289 Acrobata, ii. 252 Albatrosses, ii. 365 Acrocephalus, ii. 258 Albiilichthys, ii. 452 Acrochilus, ii. 452 Alburmis, ii. 453 ACROCHORDID^, ii. 382 ^Jca, ii. 367 Acrochordonichthys, ii. 442 .(4teo(Ha, ii. 522 Acror.hordus, ii. 382 ALCEDINID^, ii. 315 ACKONURIDiE, ii. 433 Alcedo, ii. 316 Acropternis, ii. 297 ALCEPHALINiE, ii. 224 Acryllium, ii. 340 Alcephalus, Indian Miocene, i. 122 Actenodes, ii. 497 Alcephalus, ii. 224 .4cE, ii. 244 Bradyptetus, ii. 258 Broilypus, ii. 244 Bradytus, ii. 489 Brama, ii. 429 Bramatheriiim, Miocene of Perim Island, 1. 122 ii. 226 Branchiosteus, ii. 442 ■ Branta, iL 364 BRASSOLID^, ii. 472 BrassoUs, ii. 472 Brazilian cave-fauna, i. 143 remarks on, i. 145 Brazilian sub-region, description of, ii. 21 mammalia of, ii. 23 birds of, ii. 24 illustration of mammalia of, ii. 23 illustration of birds of, ii. 28 • islands of, ii. 29 Breviceps, ii, 416 Breyeria borinensis. Carboniferous insect, i. 168 Britain, peculiar species in, i. 197 British Isles, zoology of, i. 197 Broad-bill, Malayan, figure of, i. 340 Broad-bills, ii. 294 ■ Bronchocela, ii. 402 Brontes, ii. 444 Brontotherida, N. American Tertiary, i. 137 Brontothermm, N. American Tertiary, i. 137 Brotogerys, ii. 328 Brush-turkeys, ii 341 Brycon, ii. 445 Bryconops, ii. 445 Bryttus, ii. 425 Buarrcmon, ii. 99 Bubalus, ii. 222 Bubo, European Miocene, i. 163 ii. 350 BUCCINI'D^, ii. 507 Buccinum, ii. 507 Bucco, ii. 310 BUCCONID^, ii. 310 Bucephala, ii. 364 Bucephalus, ii. 379 Buceros, ii. 317 BUCEROTID.E, ii. 316 Bucorvus, ii. 317 Budorcas, ii. 224 BunoRCiN-E, ii. 224 Budytes, ii. 290 Buffaloes, ii. 221 Bufo, ii. 415 BUFONID.^, ii. 415 Bulbuls, ii. 267 BULLID.E, ii. 530 Buliminus, ii. 514 Bvlimulus, ii. 514 Bulimus, Eocene, i. 169 ii. 514, 523 Buncehtrus, N. American Tertiary, i. 134 Bungariis, ii. 383 Bungia, ii. 452 Bunocephalrchthys, Ii. 444 Bunocephalvs, ii. 444 564 GENERAL INDEX. Bvphaga, ii. 288 BUPRESTID^., ii. 495 Biiprcstiduim, Oolitic insect, i. 167 Busarellus, ii. 348 Bush-slirikes, ii. 297 Bustards, ii. 356 Butalis, ii. 270 Butastvr, ii. 348 BuUo, ii. 348 Buteoqallus, ii. 348 BUTBONIN^, ii. 348 Buteola, ii. 348 Buthraupis, ii. 98 Butterflies, arrangement of, i. 103 Palsearctic, i 187 of Central Europe, i. 196 of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 205 of Azores, i. 207 peculiar to Siberian sub-region, i. 220 of Japan and Nortli China, i. 227 of the Ethiopian region, i. 255 number of Ethiopian species, i. 256 of Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 342 of tlie Australian region, i. 404 of the Austro-Malay sub-region, i. 404 of the Moluccas, i. 419 of Celebes, peculiarities of, i. 434 of New Zealand, i. 457 ii. 470 general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 483 fossil, ii. 486 of S. Temperate America, iL 43 Bycanistes, ii. 317 Cabalus, ii. 352 Cabrita, ii. 391 Cacatva, ii. 325 CACATUIDjE, ii. 324 Caccabis, ii. 339 Cachius, Ii. 453 Cacomantis, ii. 309 Cacophis, ii. 383 Cacopitta, ii. 261 Cacopus, ii. 416 Cacotus, ii. 417 Cactornis, ii. 284 Cadurcoiheriiivi, European Eocene, i. 125 Ccecilia, ii. 411 CjECILIADiE, ii. 411 Co'cum, ii 509 Ccelodon, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 Ccelogenys, in Brazilian caves, i. 144 ii. 241 Ccenopitheciis, European Eocene, i. 124 ii. 178 Ccentropus, ii. 445 Cainotherium, European Miocene, i. 120 European Eocene, i. 126 Cairina, ii. 364 Caica, Ii. 328 Calamanthus, ii. 258 Calamaria, ii. 374 CALAMARIID^, ii. 374 Calamodon, N. American Eocene, i. 139 Calamodus, ii. 258 Calamoherpin^, ii. 287 Calamoichthys, ii. 458 Calamospiza, ii. 285 Calandrella, ii. 289 Calao, ii. 317 Catathns. ii. 489 Caledonica, ii. 487 Calendula, ii. 289 Calicalicus, ii. 271 Calictis, ii. 195 Calidris, ii. 353 Caliectknis, ii 309 California, illustration of zoology of, ii. 128 Californian sub-region, ii. 127 mammalia of, ii. 127 birds of, ii. 127 reptiles of, ii. 128 amphibia of, ii. 128 fresh-water fishes of, ii. 128 Caligo, ii. 472 Calinaija, ii. 479 Calisto, ii. 471 Callceas, ii. 287 Callia, ii. 521 Callichroma, ii. 501 Callichrmis, ii. 442 Callichtht/s, ii. 444 Callida, ii. 490 Callidryas, ii. 478 Callionymus, ii. 430 Calliope, ii. 259 Callipepla, ii. 339 Calliperidia, ii. 108 Calliphlox, ii. 198 CalHrhynus, ii. 375 Callisaums, ii. 401 Calliste, ii. 98 Callisthenus, ii. 489 Callithea, ii. 474 Callithrix, in Brazilian caves, i. 184 ii. 175 ii. 178 Callocephalus, ii. 204 Callochen, ii.' 363 Callomystax, ii. 443 Callopliis, ii. 383 Callophysus, Ii. 443 Callopistes, ii. 390 Callorhinus, ii. 202 Calloselasma, ii. 385 Callosune, ii. 478 Callula, ii. 416 Calobates, ii. 290 Calocitta, ii. 273 Calodromas, ii. 344 Calcenas, ii. 333 Caloperdix, ii. 339 Calophena, ii. 490 Calopsitta, ii. 325 Caloragia, ii. 376 Calorhamphus, ii. 30'J Calornis, ii. 288 Calosoma, ii. 489 Calostethus, ii 419 CaloUs, ii. 402 Calothorax, ii. 108 Calydna, ii. 476 Calypte, ii. 108 Calyptocephalus, il. 421 Calyptomena, ii. 295 Calyptorhynchus, ii. 32,"^ CALYPTR^ID^, ii. LV. Calyptnra, ii. 102 Camarhynchus, ii. 284 Camaroptera, ii. 258 Camel, fossil in Indian Miocene, i. 122 birth-place and migrations of, i. 155 Palsearctic, i. 182 CamelidcK, essentially extra-tropical, i. 112 N. American Tertiary, i. 138 CAMELIDjE, ii. 216 CAMELOPARD.\LID^, ii. 221 Camelopardalis, Miocene of Greece, i. US GENERAL INDEX. 565 Camelopardalis, Indian Miocene, i. 122 ii. 221 Camelotherium, S. American Pliocene, i. 147 ii. 217 Camels, ii. 216 Camelus, ii. 216 Cnmena, ii. 477 Cmnpi-phariii. ii. 269 CAMI'KIMIAGIDjE, ii. 268 Caiiijiejihilus, ii. 303 Campsiempis, ii. 101 Camptolaimus, ii 364 Campn/lopterus, ii 107 Campylorhynciins ii. 264 Canadian sub-region, mammalia of, ii. 135 birds of, ii. 136 reptiles and fishes of, ii. 137 insects of, li 137 Canaries, birds of, i. 208 beetles of, i. 209 Cancroma, ii. 359 Canidce, European Miocene, i. 118 European Eocene, i. 125 N. Auu'rican Tertiary, i. 134 remarkable S. African, i. 267 CANID^, ii. 197 Canis, European Pliocene, i. 112 Post-Pliocene, i. 112 European Miocene, i. 118 Indian Miocene, i. 121 European Eocene, i. 125 N. American Post- Pliocene, i. 129 N. American Tertiary, i. 134, 135 in Brazilian caves, i. 144 S. American Pliocene, i. 146 ii. 197 Cantharus, ii. 427 Cantoria, ii. 376 Cape Ant-cater, ii. 246 Cape of Good Hope, peculiar flora and fauna of, i. 266 Cape Verd Islands, zoology of, i. 214 Cape-hare, S. African, i. 267 Capita, ii. 306 CAPITONINiE, ii. 306 Capoeta, ii. 451 Caimi, ii. 224, 225 Capreolns, ii. 219 CAPRIMULGID^, ii. 319 Caprimulgus, ii. 319 CAPRINE, ii. 224 Capromys, ii. 238 Capys, ii. 477 CAKABID^,ii. 488 Carabus, ii. 488 ii. 489 CARANGIDjE, ii. 429 Carassitis, ii. 451 CARCHARIIDiE, ii. 460 Carcineutes, ii. 316 Cardellina, ii. 279 CARDIADiE, ii. 535 Cardinalis, ii. 285 Cardiodus, 8. American Pliocene, i. 147 Cardiopthalmus, ii. 492 Cardita, ii. 535 Careniim, ii. 490 Cariama. Brazilian caves, i. 164 ii. 357 CARIAMIDiE, ii. 357 Caridonax, ii. 316 Carlia, ii. 397 Carnivnra of European Pliocene, i. 112 Miocene of Greece, i. 115 European Miocene, i. 118 Indian Miocene, i. 121 Carnivora, European Eocene, i. 125 N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 129 N. American Tertiary, i. 134 of Brazilian caves, i. 144 S. American Pliocene, i. 146 Carnivora, classification of, i. 88 antiquity of, i. 153 of the PaUearctic region, i. 182 li.st of PaUearctic genera of, i. 240 list of Ethiopian genera of, i. 302 range of Oriental genera of, i. 373 list of Australian genera of, i. 476 CARNIVORA, ii. 192 general remarks on the distribution of, 204 range of, in time, ii. 206 summary and conclusion, ii. 541 Caroline Islands, birds of, i. 444 Carpenter, Dr. IPhilip, on Panama shells, ii. 20 Carpiodes, ii. 451 Carpococcyx, ii. 309 Carpodacus, ii. 285 Carpodectes, ii. Iii2, 294 Carpophaga, ii. 332 Carterodon in Brazilian caves, i. 145 ii. 239 Cams, and Gerstaeker on classification of animals, i. 85 Professor, on classification of the Cetacea, i. 88 Carychium, ii. 519 Casarca, iL 363 Cascelius, ii. 492 Casiornis, ii. 102, 293 Casoryx, N. American Tertiary, i. 138 ii. 225 Casnonia, ii. 489 Cassiculus, ii. 282 Cossicws, ii. 282 Cassidwia, ii. 507 Cassidix, ii. 283 Cassinia, ii. 270 Cassowaries, ii. 368 Castalia, ii. 534 Castnia, ii. 481 CASTNIIDv*:, ii. 481 Castor, European Pliocene, i. 113 European Miocene, i. 120 ii. 2.34 CASTORIDiE, ii. 234 Ca^toroide.s, ii. 284 Cas^iariiis, ii. 369 CASUARlIDyE, ii. 368 Catadromus, ii. 490 Ottagramma, ii. 474 Catamblyrhynchus, ii. 285 Catamenia, ii. 285 Catascopiis, ii. 489 ii. 491 Catnulus, ii. 520 Cattutristes, ii. 346 Cathartes, Brazilian caves, i. 124 ii. 346 Catharus, ii. 256 Catherpes, ii. 264 Catla, ii. 451 CatobJepas, ii. 224 Catodon, ii. 208 CatodontidcB, ii. 207 Calopra, ii. 433 Catoprion, ii. 446 Calostomivs, ii. 451 Catoxantha, ii. 496 Catrisms, ii. 258 Cats, ii. 192 566 GENERAL INDEX Cave-fauna of Brazil, i. 143 Cavia, European Miocene, i. 121 in Brazilian caves, i. 144 S. American Pliocene, L 147 il. 241 Cavies, ii. 241 CAVllDJE. ii. 241 CEBID^, ii. 174 Cebocha'Tus, European Eocene, i. 126 ii. 215 Cehus in Brazilian caves, i. 144 ii. 174 ii. 178 Cecina, il. 521 Celebes, physical features of, i. 389 mammalia of, i. 426 birds of, i. 428 insects of, i. 434 origin of fauna of, i. 436 Celestus, ii. 327 Celeiis, ii. 303 Celia, ii. 489 Cenchris, ii. 385 Centetes, ii. 188 Centetidce, European Miocene, i. 118 CENTETID^E, ii. 188 Centrarchits, ii. 425 CENTRISCID^, ii. 436 Centrisctis, ii. 436 Centrites, ii. 101, 291 Centrocercus, ii. 339 Centrolahrus, ii. 437 Centrolophus, ii. 429 Centromochlus, ii. 443 Centronotus, ii. 431 Centropun, ii. 309 Centronyx, ii. 286 Centropyx, ii. 390 Centurus, ii. 303 Cephalepis, ii. 108 CepJudopeltis, ii. 389 CEPHALOPHIN^, ii. 224 Cephalophus, ii. 224 CEPHALOPODA, ii. 505 Cephalopterus, ii. 103, 294 Cephalojit/rus, il 266 Cepola, ii. 435 CEPOLIDvE, ii. 435 CERAMBYCIDiE, ii. 498 Ceratichthys, ii. 452 Ceratina, ii. 470 Ceratodus, remarkable Australian fish, i. 397 Ceratodvs, ii. 458 Ceratohyla, ii. 418 Ceratophora, ii. 402 Ceratophorus, ii. 501 Ceraiophrys, ii. 420 Ceratoptera, ii. 463 Ceratorhina, ii. 367 Ceratorhinus, ii. 213 Ceratotherium, ii. 213 Cerbenis, ii. 376 Cercaspis, ii. 380 Cerchneis, ii. 349 Cercocebiis, ii. 173 Cercolabes in Brazilian caves, i. 145 ii. 240 CERCOLABIDjE, ii. 239 Cercoleptes, ii. 200 Cercomacra,- ii. 104 Cercomela, ii. 260 Cercomys, ii. 239 Cercopithecus in European Pliocene, L 112 ii. 173 Cercosnura, ii. 394 CEKCOSAURIDjE, ii 394 Cereopsis, ii. 363 Ceriurnis, ii. 349 CEBITHIAD^E, ii. 509 Certhia, ii. 264 Certhidea, ii. 278 CERTHIID^, ii. 264 Certhilaucki, ii. 289 Certhiola, ii. 278 Ccrthiparus, ii. 266 Cervicapra, ii. 224 CERVICAPRIN^, ii. 224 CervidcB, European Miocene, i. 120 birth-place and migrations of, i. 155 CERVID^, ii. 218 Cervuhis, ii. 219 Cervus, European Pliocene, i. 113 Indian Pliocene and Miocene, i. 122 N. American Post- Pliocene i. 130 N. American Tertiary, i. 138 in Brazilian caves, i. 144 S. American Pliocene, i. 147 ii. 219 Ceryle, ii 316 CESTRACIONTIDiE, ii. 461 Cetacea, European Pliocene, i. 112 European Miocene, i. 119 N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 N. American Tertiary, i. 140 Cetacea, classification of, i. 89 range of Oriental genus, i. 374 CETACEA, ii. 207 Cethosia, ii. 474 CETONIIDjE, ii. 494 Cetopsis, ii. 443 Cettia, ii. 258 Ceuthmochares, ii. 309 Ceycopsis, ii. 316 Ceylon and Malaya, resemblance of insects of, 327 Ceylonese sub-region, i. 326 mammalia of, i. 327 birds of, i. 327 reptiles of, i. 327 amphibia of, i. 327 insects of, i. 327 past history of, as indicated by its fauna, i. 328 Ceyx, ii. 316 Ch/xca, ii. 441 Chcemarrhomis, ii. 259 Chcemepelia, 333 Chcerocampa, ii. 482 Chcetobranchus, ii. 439 Chcetocercus, ii. 108 ii. 249 0 Chcetodon, ii. 427 Chcctomys, ii. 240 Chcetops, ii. 256 Chcetoptila, ii. 276 ChcetorhyncMis, ii. 209 Chcetostomus, ii. 444 Chcetura, ii. 320 Chcetusia, ii. 356 Chalceus, ii. 445 CHALCID^, ii 393 Chalcinopsis, ii. 445 Chalcimis, ii. 445 Chalcis, ii. 393 ChaUochloris, ii. 189 Chalcopelia, ii. 333 Chakophaps, ii. 333 Chalcostetha, ii. 276 ChaUcomys, European Pliocene, i. 113 Chalicotherium, European Miocene, i. 119 Indian Miocene, i. 122 fossil in N. China, i. 123 GENERAL INDEX. i67 ChamceUo, N. American Eocene, i. 165 Chalybura, ii. 107 Chamcea, ii. 264 CHAM^EID^, ii. 264 CHAM^LEONID^, ii. 402 Chatnaeleons, ii. 402 ChavuBpetes, ii. 343 ChanuBospiza, ii. 284 Chamcesatira, ii. 394 CHAM^.S.\URIDiE, ii 394 Chamceza, ii. 104 CHAMin^, ii. 534 Chamois, figure of, i. 195 ii. 2-24 Chamostrea, ii. 536 Chanodichthys, ii. 453 CHAR.\CINID^, ii. 444 Characodnn, ri. 450 CHARADRIID/E, ii. 355 Ch iradrms, ii. 356 Charina, ii. 373 Charts, ii. 476 Charitomis, ii. 274 Charmosyna, ii. 327 Chisiempis, ii. 271 Chasmodes, ii. 431 Chasmorhynchus, ii. 103, 294 Chatarrhcea, ii. 261 Chatham Islands, birds of, i. 451 Chatterers, ii. 293 Chaulelasmus, ii. 364 Chauna, ii. 361 Chaunonotus, ii. 272 Chaunoproctus, ii. 284 Chela, ii. 453 Chelemys, ii. 408 Chelidon, ii. 281 Chelidoptera, ii. 311 Chelidorynx, ii. 271 Chelodina, ii. 408 Cheloineles ii. 397 Chelom, ii. 409 Chslonia, classification cJf , i. 100 CHELONIA, ii. 407 remarks on the distribution of, ii. 410 fossil, ii. 410 CHELONIIDiE, ii. 409 CHELYDID^, ii. 408 Chelydobatrachus, ii. 416 Chelydra. European Pliocene, i. 165 'ii. 408 Chelys, ii. 408 Chenalopcx, ii. 363 Chera, ii. 286 Chersina, ii. 408 Chersydrus, ii. 382 Chevrotain of Malaya, figure of, i. 336 Chevrotains, ii. 218 Chiamela, ii. 397 Chiasognathus, ii. 493 Chibia, ii. 269 Chilabothrvs, ii. 381 Chili should not be plared in the PalcT arctic or Nearctic regions, i. 63 Chili and Temperate S. America, distribution of Carabidae in, ii. 492 Chilian Andes, illustration of zoology of, M. 40 Chilian sub-region, ii. 36 mammalia of, ii. 36 birds of, ii. 37 illustration of zoology of, ii. 40 reptiles and amphibia of, ii. 40 fresh-water fishes of, ii 42 insects of, ii. 42 origin and migrations of insicts of, ii 47 Chili, islands of, ii. 49 Chilinia, ii. 518 Chilobranchits, ii. 456 Chilomeniscus, ii. 375 Chimeera, ii. 460 CHIMiliRID.*;, ii. 460 China, fossil mammals in, resembling those of Indian and European Miocene, i. 362 North, mammalia of, i. 222 Chinchilla, ii. 237 CHnchillidce in Brazilian caves, i. 145 S. American Pliocene, i. 147 Pliocene of Antilles, i. 148 CHINCHILLID^, ii. 237 Chioglossa, ii. 413 Chionabas, ii. 471 CHIONIDID^, ii. 354 Chionis, ii. 354 CHIROCENTRID^, ii. 454 CHIROCOLID^, ii. 393 Chirodon, ii. 445 Chirodryas, ii. 418 Chirogaleus, ii. 176 Chiroleptes, ii. 421 Chirormchceris, ii. 102, 292 Chiromantis, ii. 419 CHIROMYID^, ii. 177 Chironectes, ii. 248 Chiroptera, classification of, i. 87 list of Palseavctic genera of, i. 239 list of Ethiopian genera of, i. 300 range of Oriental genera of, i. 371 list of Australian genera of, i. 475 Chiroptera, European Eocene, i. 125 in Brazilian caves, i. 144 CHIROPTERA, ii. 181 remarks on the distribution of, ii. 185 fossil, ii. 185 summary and conclusion, ii. 441 Chirotes, ii. 388 CHIROTID^, ii. 388 Chirnxiphia., ii. 102, 292 CHITON IDiE, ii. 512 Chittya, ii. 519 Chlcenius, ii. 489 Chlamydodera, ii. 275 Chlamydophorus, ii. 246 Chlamydotherium, ii. 246 . . in Brazilian caves, i. 145 Chlenasicvs, ii. 262 Chloephaga, ii. 363 Chlorochrysa, ii. 98 ii. 99 Chloronerpes, ii. 303 Chlorophanes, ii. 278 Chlornphonia, ii. 98 ii. 99 Chloropipo, ii. 102 Chlorospiza, ii. 283 Chlorospingus, ii. 99 ii. 100 Chlorostilbon, ii. 109 Choanomphahis, ii. 518 Choanopoma, ii. 521 Chceromonis, European Miocene, i._ 119 Charopotamns, European Eocene, L 126 ii. 215 Chceropus, ii. 250 Chmrotherium, Indian Miocene, i. 122 Cholmpus, ii. 244 Chologastes, ii. 450 Cholornis, ii. 262 Chondestes, ii. 285 Chondrnpoma, ii. 521 CHONDROPTERYGII, ii. 46 Vol. II.— 37 568 GENERAL INDEX; CHONDROSTEI, ii. 459 Chondrostoina, ii. 452 Choneziphius, European Pliocene, i. 112 ChordeiUs, ii. 320 Chough, Alpine, figure of, i. 195 Choughs, ii. 274 CHROMIDjE, ii. 438 Chromis, ii. 438 Chrysichthys, ii. 442 Chrysobronchus, ii. 108 Chrysococcyx, ii. 310 CHRYSOCHLORID^E, ii. 189 Chrysochloris, ii. 189 Chrysocolaptcs, ii. 303 Chrysocyon. ii. 197 • Chrysolampis, ii. 108 Chrysomitris, ii. 283 Chrysopelea, ii. 379 Chrysophrys, ii. 427 Chrysoptihis, li. 303 Chrysothrix, ii. 175 Chrysotis, ii. 328 Chrysuronia, ii. 109 Chthonicola, ii. 258 Ciccaba, ii. 350 Cichla, ii. 439 Cichladusa, ii. 261 Cichlopsis, ii. 260 Cicigna, ii. 392 Cicindela, ii. 486 CICINDELIDiE. ii. 486 Cidnnurus, ii 275 Ciconia, ii. 360 Ciconiidce, ii. 360 CINCLIDjE, ii. 202 Cinclocerthia, ii. 256 Cinclodes, ii. 103 Cinelorhamphus, ii. 260 Cinclosoma, ii. 261 Cinclus, ii. 263 Cinnicerthia, ii. 264 Cinnyricinclus, ii. 276 ii. 288 Cinostemon, ii. 408 Cinyxis, ii. 408 Cionelki, ii. 515 Circaetus, ii. 348 Circe, ii. 109 Circumpolar zones, objections to system of, i. 67 CimLS, ii. 347 Cirrhino.. ii. 451 CIRRHITID^, ii 427 Cirrhochroa, ii. 474 CIRRHOSTOMI, ii. 464 Cissa, ii. 273 Cissopis, ii. 99 Cisticola, ii. 257 CistothoTiis, ii. 263 Cistula, ii. 521 Cithara, ii. 608 UitjMrinvs, ii. 445 Cittura, ii. 316 Cladognathtis, ii. 493 Ctais, ii. 108 Clam-shells, ii. 535 Clarias, ii. 441. Clarotes, ii. 442 Glassiflcation as affecting the study of distri- bution, i. 83 » Claudius, ii. 408 Ctaiisi^ia, Eocene, i. 169 iL 514 Clerome, ii. 472 Clibanornis, ii. 103 CMTnocieris, ii. 265 Climate, as a limit to the range of mammalia, i. 11 gradual change of, before the glacial epoch, i. 41 Clinteria, ii. 494 CLIONID^, ii. 531 Clostophis, ii. 620 Clupea, ii. 464 CLUPEIDiE, ii. 454 Clymenia, ii. 209 Clypeicterus, ii. 282 Clytoctantes, ii. 104 Clytolcena, ii. 108 CTi/«ws, ii. 601 CnidoglanU, ii. 441 Ciiipodectes, ii. 101 Cnipolegus, ii. 101. 291 Cobitis, ii. 463 Cobras, ii. 382 Coccothraustes, ii. 284 Coccygus, ii. 309 Coccystes, ii. 310 Cochlognathua, ii. 452 Cochlostyla, ii. 514 CoMothraustes, ii. 309 Cochoa, ii. 269 Cockatoos, ii. 324 Cockles, ii. 636 Cocos Islands; bird of, ii. 60 Cocytia, ii. 481 Cceligcna, ii, 107 Ccelodon, ii. 245 Ccelonotus, ii. 457 Ccelopeltis, ii. 377 Ccdosterna, ii. 501 Coenonympha, ii. 471 Ccereba, ii. 278 CCEREBID^, ii. 278 Co^ia, ii. 208 Colaptes, ii. 304 Coleoptera, families selected for study, i. 103 Paliearctic, i. 188 '' number of Palar-arctic species, i. 189 of Central Europe, i. 196 ' of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 205 of the Cape Verd Islands, i. 215 of the Ethiopian region, L 256 S. African, i. 268 of Madagascar, i. 282, 283 of the Oriental region, i 319 of Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 342 of the Australian region, i. 405 affinity of Australian and South American, i. 406, 407 of Celebes, i. 435 of New Zealand, i. 457 of the Neotropical region, ii. 15 of S. Temperate America, ii. 44 of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 56 of the Antilles, ii. 74 of tlie Nearctic region, ii. 123 COLEOPTERA, ii. 486 general observations on the distribution of, ii. 602 {see also Beetles) Colias, ii. 478 Colics, ii. 307 COLIID^, ii. 307 ' Colitis, ii. 307 Coliuspasser, ii. 286 Collocalia, European Miocene, i. 161 ii. 320 Colluricincla, ii. 272 Collyris, ii. 486, 487 Colobus, European Miocene, i. 117 ii. 172 Colasnis, ii. 474 GENERAL INDEX. ^'8^ Colonoceras, N. American Tertiary, i. 133 Colopterus, ii. 101 Colossuchelys of Indian Miocene, i. 123, 165 Colpodes, ii. 489 Coluber, ii. 375 COLUBRID^, ii. 375 COLUBRINiE, ii. 375 Columba;, classification of, i. 96 range of Paltearctic genera of, i. 248 range of Etliiopian genera of, i. 311 range of Oriental genera of i. 384 range of Australian genera of, i. 485 Columba, ii. 332 COLUMBA, ii. 331 general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 335 COLUMBID^, il. 331 Columbula, ii. 333 Columna, ii. 516 COLYMBID^E, iL 366 Colymhus, ii. 366 COMEPHORID^, ii. 432 Coimphorus, ii. 549 Comoro islands, zoology of, i. 281 Compsosoma, ii. 98, 375 CONCHIFERV, ii. 533 Condylura, ii. 190 Cones, ii. 608 Conger, ii. 456 CONIDjE, ii. .508 . Conirostrum, ii. 278 Conognatha, ii. 496 Conophaga,n. 100 CONOPHAGINyE, ii. 291 Cotwphis, ii. 375 Conopias, ii. 101 Conorhynchns, ii. 443 Conostoma, h. 262 Continents, distribution of, i. 37 recent clianges of, i. 38 Continental extension in Mesozoic times, i. 156 Contoptis, ii. 102, 291 CONURIDiE, ii. 327 Conurus, ii. 328 Conns, ii. 508 Copea, ii. 416 Cophoscinciis, ii. 397 Copidoglanis, ii. 441 Coptodera, ii. 489, 492 Copurus, ii. 101 Copsychus, ii. 259 Coracias, ii. 311 CORACIID^, ii. 311 Coracopsis, ii. 328 Corades, ii. 471 Corallus, ii. 381 Corbis, ii. 535 . Cordylosaurus, ii. 392 Cordylus, iL 392 Coregonus, ii. 447 Coriphilus, ii. 327 Coris, ii. 437 Coronella, ii. 375 CORONELLINiE, ii. 375 Coronis, ii. 481 Cornu/er, ii. 419 CORVID^, ii. 272 Corvina, ii. 428 Corvinella, iL 272 Corvvltur, ii. 274 Qorvus, European Miocene, L 101 iu 274 CorydaUa, ii. 290 Corydon, ii. 295 Corynopoma, iu 445 Coryphistera, ii. 103 Coryphodon, European Eocene, L 126 Coryphospingus, iL 284 Corythaix, ii. 307 Corythopis, ii. 100 Corythornis, ii. 316 Cosmeteira, ii. 277 Cosmetornis, ii. 320 Cosmopolitan groups enumerated, L 175 Cossypha, ii. 256 Gotingn, ii. 102, 294 COTINGID^, ii. 293 Cottus, ii. 428 Coturnioulus, ii. 284 Coturnix, ii. 338 Cotyk, ii. 281 Coua, ii. 309 Couchia, ii. 439 Coues, Dr., on the blue crow of the Rofky Mountains, iL 128 Coursers, ii. 355 Cowries, ii. 508 Coypu, iL 238 CRACID^, iL 342 GRACING, ii. 343 Cracticus, ii. 273 Cranes, li. 357 CRANIADjE, ii. 532 Cranorrhinits, ii. 317 Craspedocephahis, ii. 385 Craspedopoma, ii. 521 Crateropus, ii. 261 Crax, iL 343 Creadion, ii. 287 Creagrus, ii. 364 Creagrutus, ii. 445 i Creepers, ii. 264 Cremita, ii. 475 Crenicichla,i\. 439 Crenilabrtis, ii. 437 Crenuchits, ii. 445 Creurgops, iL 99 Cricetodori, European Miocene, 1. 120 ii. 230 Cricetomys, li. 230 Cricetulus, ii. 230 Cricetus, European Pliocene, i. JIS iL 230 Cricosoma, ii. 476 Crinia, ii. 420 Criniger, ii. 267 j Crithagra, ii. 285 Crocidura, ii. 191 Crocodiles, Eocene, i. 165 ii. 406 lines of migration of, ii. 548 Crocodilia, classification of, L 100 CUOCODILIA, ii. 405 general remarlcs on the distribution of, ii. 406 fossil, ii. 407 CROCODILIDyE, ii. 406 Crocodilurus ii. 390 Crocodilus, iL 406 Crooic-billed plovers of New Zealancl, L 456 Crossarchus, iL 195 Crossochilus, ii. 451 Crossodactylvs, ii. 419 Crossoptilon, ii. 340 Crossopus, ii. 191 CROTALIDiE, ii. 384 Crotalophorus, ii. 385 Crotalus, ii, 385 Crotch, Mr., on beetles of the Azores, L 209 Crotophaga, ii. 309 Crowned-pigeon, figure of, L 415 Crows, ii. 273 670 GENERAL INDEX. Crypsirhina, ii. 273 Cryptoblepharus, ii. 395 Cryptodacus, ii. 375 - Cryptoproct i, ii. 194 CRYPTOPROCTIDjE, ii. 194 Cryptopterus, ii. 441 Cryptomis, European Eocene, i. 163 Cryptotis, ii. 421 Cryptiirus, ii. 344 Ctenodactyla, ii. 490 Ctenodactylus, ii. 238 Ctennlabrvs, ii. 437 Ctenomys, S. American Pliocene, i. 147 ii. 238 Ctenopharyngodon, ii. 452 Ctenopoina, ii. 521 Ctenostoma, ii. 486 Cuba, extinct mammalia of, i. 148 Curculionidium, Oolitic insect, i. 167 Cubina, ii. 400 CUCULIDiE, ii. 308 Cuculus, ii. 309 Cuckoo-shrikes, ii. 268 Cuckoos, ii. 308 Culter, ii. 453 Cunningham, Professor, lizard discovered by, in Tierra-del-Fuego, ii. 41 Cunieulus, ii. 230 Cuphopterns, ii. 272 Cvpklonia, ii. 339 Curassows, ii. 342 Curceus, ii. 282 Curetis, ii. 477 Curimatus, ii. 445 Cumwa, ii. 259 Cursoria, ii. 382 Cursoriiis, ii. 355 Cuscws, ii. 252 Custa, ii. 390 C-utia, ii. 266 Cuttle fish, ii. 505 Cyanecula, ii. 259 Cyanocorax, ii. 273 Cyanomyia, ii. 109 Cyanopica, ii. 273 Cyanoptila, ii. 270 Cyanorhamphus, ii. 325 Cyanospiza, ii. 284 Cyanotis, ii. 101 CyanvTus, ii. 273 Cybernetes, ii. 101 Cychloris. ii. 280 Cychrus, ii. 489 CYCLADIDjE, ii. 535 Cyclas, ii. 535 Cyclocorus, ii. 380 Cycloderma, ii. 409 Vyelodina, ii. 397 Cjjclodus, ii. 397 Cyclophis, ii. 376 Cyclophorus, ii. 520 , Cyclopterus, ii. 430 Cyclopsitta, ii. 326 Cyclorhamphus, ii. 420 Cyclostoma, Eocene, i. 169 CYCLOSTOMATA, ii. 463 CYCLOSTOMIDiE, ii. 520 Cyclostomus, ii. 521 Cyclothnrjcs, ii. 247 Cyclotopsis, ii. 521 CycJotits, ii. 521 Cyclusa, ii. 401 Cygnus, ii. 363 Cylindrella, ii. 515 gylindrophis, ii. 373 ci/!Jo scpuito, European Cretaceous, i. 107 Ci/m&a, ii. 508" Cymbilanius, ii. 104 Cyrribirhynchus, ii. 295 Cymindis, ii. 489 Cyucelurvs, in Brazilian caver, i. 144 ii. 193 Cynanthus, ii. 108 C^jwciis, ii. 195 Cynocephalus, ii. 173 Cynodiciis, li. 198 Cynodon, ii. 445 Cyiiogale, ii. 195 CYNOPITHECIDiE, ii. 172 Cynopithecus of Celebes, affinities of, i. 427 Cynopithecus, ii. 173 Cynomys, ii. 235 Cyornis, ii. 270 Cyotherivm, European Eocene, i. 125 ii. 198 Cyphogastra, ii. 496 Cyphorhinus, ii. 264 CYPRiEID^, ii. 508 Cyprina, ii. 535 CYPRINIDiE, ii. 451 ii. 535 Cyprinus, ii. 451 Cyprinion, ii. 452 Cyprinodon, ii. 450 CYPRINODONTIDjE, ii. 450 CYPSELIO^, ii. 320 Cypseloides, ii. 320 Cypselus, ii. 320 Cypstiagra, ii. 99 Cyrena, ii. 535 Cyrestis, ii. 474 Cyrtonotus, ii. 489 Cyrtonyx, ii 339 Cyrtnphis, ii. 383 Cystignathus, ii. 420 Cystophora, ii. 204 D. Dacelo, ii. 316 Dacnis, ii. 278 Dactylethra, ii. 422 DACTYLETHRID^, ii. 422 Dactylomys, ii. 239 Dactylopsila, ii. 249 Dactylozodes, ii. 496 Dcf/ta, ii. 363 Da»/ut, ii. 219 Damias, ii 481 Damophila, ii. 109 DANAID^, ii. 470 Danais, ii. 470 Dangila, ii. 451 Danio, ii. 452 Daptophilus, N. American Tertiary, i 134 Darters, ii. 365 Darwin, Mr. , his explanation of the cause of the alDundance of apterous insects in Madeira, i. 211 on the relation of flowers and insects, i. 468 amphibia collected by, in S. Temperate America, ii. 41 mice collected by, in S. Temperate America, ii. 37 on physical geography of the Galapagos. ii. 33 Dasia, ii. 397 DasylopMis, ii. 309 Dasyopthalma, ii. 472 Dasypeltis, ii. 377 GENERAL INDEX. 571 DASYPODIDJE, ii. 245 Dasyprocta, European Miocene, L 121 in Brazilian caves, L 144 ii. -.^41 Dasyptilus, ii. 329 Dasypus, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 b. American Pliocene, i. 147 ii. 246 DASYURID^, ii. 249 Dasyurus, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157 ii. 249 Daiidebardia, ii. 516 David, Pere, his researches in China and Thi- bet, i. 221, 222 on birds of N. China, i. 226 Debts, ii. 471 Deer, fossil in N. American Tertiary forma- tions, i. 138 Paliiearctic, i. 182 probable cause of absence from tropical Africa, i. 291 ii. 218 Deilephila, ii. 482 Deltatria, ii. 107 Delraa, ii. 395 Deloneura, ii. 477 Delphivapterus, ii. 209 DELPHINIDjE, ii. 208 Delphinus, Eui'opean Pliocene, i. 112 ii. 209 DENDRASPIDID^, ii. 383 Dendnispis, ii. 383 Dendrexetastes, ii. 104 DendrocMidon, ii. 320 Dendrocitta, ii. 273 Dendrocolaptes, ii. 103 DENDROCOLAPTID^, ii. 295 DENDROCOLAPTINjE, ii. 295 Veiulrocincla, ii. 103 Dendrocygna, European Miocene, L 162 ii. 363 ■ DcndrouM, ii. 279 Dendrohyrax, ii. 229 Dendroiagus, ii. 251 Dendromvs, ii. 303 Dendromys, iL 230 Dendrophila, ii. 265 DENDROPHlDiE, ii. 378 Dendrophis, ii. 378 Dendropicns, ii. 303 Dendroplex, ii. 103 Dendrornis, ii. 103 Dendrortyx, ii. 339 Denisonia, ii. 383 DENTALIADjE, ii. 512 Denkdium, iL 512 ii. 539 Dentex, ii. 426 Dercas, ii. 478 Dematemys, ii. 408 Dermatocera, ii. 520 Dermatochelys, ii. 409 Deroptyus, ii. 328 Dermognathus, ii. 413 Desert-snakes, ii. 377 Desman of S. Russia, figure of, i. 219 Desmodm, ii. 182 Deudorix, ii. 477 Diadema, ii. 474 Diagramma, ii. 426 Dibamus, ii. 372 DIBRANCHIATA, ii. 505 DICiEIDiE, ii. 277 Diccelus, ii. 490 Bicmum, ii. 277 Dicallomeura, ii. 475 Dicamptodon, ii 413 Dicer atheriwn, N. American Tertiary, i. 137 Dicerca, ii. 496 Dicerobatis, ii. 463 Dichobune, European Eocene, i. 126 Dicotyles, N. American "Post- Pliocene, i. 130 N. American Tertiary, i. 137 in Brazilian caves, i. 144 8. American Pliocene, i. 146 birthplace and migrations of, i. 155 ii. 215 Dicotylinm, ii. 214 Dicrocerus, European Miocene, i. 120 ii. 220 Dicrodon, ii. 390 Dicroglossvs, ii. 421 Dicrorrhagui, ii. 474 DICRURIDiE, ii. 269 Dicrurus, ii. 269 DIDELPHYID^, ii. 248 Didelphys, European Eocene, i. 126 N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 in Brazilian caves, i. 145 ii. 248 Dididm, i. 164 DIDIDiE, ii. 334 Didocus, ii. 417 DIDUNCULID^, ii. 333 Didunculus, ii. 334 Didus, ii. 334 Dieba, ii. 197 Diemeiiia, ii. 383 Diglossa, ii. 278 Diglossopis, ii. 278 Dilophvs, ii. 287 Dilopkyrus, ii. 402 Dimodts, ii. 377 Dimyhts, ii. 190 Dinictis, ii. 194 Diiioceras, N. American Eocene, i. 139 Dinocerata, N. American Tertiary, i. 139 Dmornis, aUied form in European Eocene, i. 163 of New Zealand and Australia, i. 164 ii. 369 Dinornithidce of New Zealand, i. 164J DINORNlTHlDyE, ii. 269 Dinotherwin, Miocene of Greece, i. 116 European Miocene, i. 120 Miocene of Perira Island, i. 123 Dinyctis, N. American Tertiary, 1 134 Dinylus, European Miocene, i. 117 Diomedia, ii. 365 Dioplodon, ii. 208 DiorhiTM, ii. 476 Diphlogcena, ii. 108 Diphylla, ii. 182 Diphyllodes, ii 274 Diplacodon, N. American Tertiary, i. 136 Diplodactylus, ii. 399 Diploglossus, ii. 397 Diplolcemus, ii. 401 Diplomesodon, ii. 191 DIPLOMMATINIDjE, iL 519 Di-plommatina, ii. 520 Diplomystax, ii. 443 Diplopelma, ii. 416 Diplopoma, ii. 521 Dtplopterus, ii. 309 DIPNOI, ii. 458 DirODIDiE, ii. 231 Dipodomys, ii. 233 Dippers, ii. 263 Diprotodon, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157 iL 251 DIPSADIDvE, u. 379 572 GENERAL INDEX. Dipsadohoa, ii. 379 Dipsas, ii. 379 Diptychiis, ii. 452 Diptis, ii. 232 Dircenna, ii. 470 Discina, ii. 639 discinid;e, ii. 532 Discoboli, ii. 430 DISCOGLOSSID.E, ii. 421 Discoglossus, ii. 421 Discognathus, ii. 451 Discophora, ii. 472 DisGura, ii. 107 Dispersal of animals, i. 10 of mammalia, i. 10 of reptiles and amphibia, i. 28 Disteira, ii. 384 Distichodus, ii. 445 Distribution, affected by climate, i. 5 affected by physical features, i. 5 contrasts of, in similar climates, i. 5 similarities of, in diverse climates, i. 6 barriers as affecting, i. 6 study of, dependent on a good classifica- tion, i. S3 of animals an adjunct to geology, i. 8 of animals requires certain preliminary studies, i. 8 of animals dependent on physical geo- grajihy, i. 35 of animals, as affected by the glacial epoch, i. 40 of animals, as affected by changes of vegetation, i. 43 of animals, as affected by organic changes, i. 44 of animals, hypothetical Ulustration of, i. 46 of animals, complexity of the causes af- fecting the, i. 49 of animals, problems in, i. 51 of plants, as affected by the glacial epoch i. 42 Distrigus, ii. 490 Dincu, ii. 284 Diucopis, ii. 99 Diva, ii. 98 Divers, ii. 366 Docimastes, ii. 108 Dodo of Mauritius, i. 282 ii. 334 Dodona, ii. 475 Dolerisca, ii. 107 Dolichodon, ii. 208 Dolichonyx, ii. 282 DolicJwpteriis, European Miocene, i. 162 Dolichotis, ii. 241 Doliophis, ii. 383 Dolium, ii. 507 Dommina, N. American Tertiary, 1. 134 Donacobius, ii. 264 Donacola, ii. 287 Donacospiza, ii. 284 Doras, ii. 443 Dorcatherinm, European Miocene, i. 120 Dorcopsis, ii. 251 Dorcus, ii. 493 DoricJui., ii. 108 DORID^, ii. 530 Doritis, ii. 479 Dormice, ii. 232 Doryichthys, ii. 457 Doryphpra, ii, 107 Dotiroucoulis, ii. 175 Draco, ii. 402 Dremotherium, Miocene of Greece, i. 116 Drenwtherium, Europeati Miocene, i. 120 ii. 218 DREPANIDID^, ii. 277 Drepaiiis, ii. 277 Drepanornis, ii. 275 . ii. 276 Dresser, Mr. H. E,, on northern range of European birds, i. 193 Drimostoma, ii. 489 Dromanis, ii. 368 Dromas, ii. 356 Drmnatherium, N. American Triassic, i. 134 oldest American mammal, i. 160 Dromica, ii. 486, 487 Dromicia, ii. 252 Dromicus, ii. 375 Dromius, ii. 489 Dromococcyx, ii. 309 Dromolcea, ii. 260 Drotiutphis, ii. 377 Drongo-shrike, Malayan, figure of, i. 340 ii. 269 DRYADIN^, ii. 375 DRYIOPHID^, ii. 379 Dryiophis, ii. 379 Drymocahtphus, ii. 261 Dryinodes, ii. 259 Drymaxa, ii. 257 DRYMCECINiE, ii. 257 Drymomys, ii. 230J Drymornis, ii. 103 Dryocopus, ii 303 Dryopithecus, European Miocene, i. 117 ii. 178 Dryospiza, Ii. 284 Dryotriorchis, ii. 348 Dubusid, ii. 98 Ducks, ii .363 Dulus, ii. 280 Duinerilia, ii. 408 Dumetia, ii. 261 Dumeticola, ii. 258 Duncan, Dr., on fossil corals of the Antilles, ii. 21 D'Urbania, ii. 477 Dwarf-ground snakes, ii. 374 Dynastor, ii. 472 Dyschims, ii. 489 Dysauxis, ii. 481 DysitMmnus, ii. 104 Dysopes, ii. 184 Eagles, ii. 347 Eared Seals, ii. 202 Ear-shells, ii. 511 East Africa, geographical features of, i. 258 wide range of genera and species over, i. 259 few special tjrpes in, i. 260 East African sub-region, description of, i. 258 genera and species ranging over the whole of, i. 259 mammalia of, i. 260 birds of, i. 260 reptiles of, i. 260 amphibia and fishes of, i. 260 insects of, i. 260 few peculiar types in, i. 260 illustration of zonlogj' of, i. 261 East Australia, peculiar birds, of, i, 440 GENERAL INDEX. 57», East Thibet, mammalia of, i. 222 Elwes, Mr., on true relations of the birds of Eaton, Rev., A. E., on insects of Kerguelen Central India, i. 323 Island, i. 211 Elymnias, ii. 471 Ehurna, ii. 507 ELYMNIID^, ii. 471 Ei-hidna, ii. 254 ELSIADiE, ii. 530 ECHlDNIDiE. ii. 254 Embasis, N. American Tertiary, 1. 134 EiMmyidfc, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 Emberiza, ii. 285 ECHIMYlDyE, ii. 23S EMBERIZIN^, ii. 285 Echimys, ii. 239 Emberizoides, ii. 284 Echiiiogale, European Miocene, i. 118 Emblema, ii. 287 Echinops, ii. 188, 189 Embernagra, ii. 284 Echinorhinus, ii. 461 EMBROTOCID^, ii. 438 Echiothrix, ii. 230 Emesis, ii. 476 Echis, ii. 386 Emeu, figure of, i. 441 Eclectus, ii. 326 Emeus, ii. 368 Ectognathiis, N. American Eocene, i. 139 Emviiiiia, ii. 390 Ectopistes, ii. 332 Empidagra, ii. 101 Edentata, Miocene of Greece, i. 116 Empidias, ii. 102, 291 European Miocene, i. 121 Empidochanes, ii. 102 N. American Post- Pliocene, i. 130 Empidonax, ii. 102, 291 N. American Pliocene, i. 140 Emindonomus, ii. 102 of Brazilian caves, i. 145 Emyda, ii. 409 S. American Pliocene, i. 147 Emijdida, Indian Miocene, i. 123 Edentata, classification of, i. 90 Emydocephalus, ii. 384 probable birthplace of, i. 155 Emys, Indian Miocene, i. 123 range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 305 Miocene and Eocene, i. 165 range of Oriental genus of, i. 375 ii. 408 EDENTATA, ii. 244 Enes, ii. 501 general remarks on the distribution of, ii. Engystoma, ii. 416 247 ENGYSTOMID^, ii. 416 summary and conclusion, ii. 543 Enhydrina, ii. 384 Ega, ii. 490 Enhydrion, Indian Miocene, i 121 Egerina, ii. 397 ii. 200 Elainea, ii. 101, 291 Enhydris, ii. 199 ELAINEIN^, ii 291 Enicurus, ii. 263 El'inia. ii. 397 Enispe, ii. 472 Elanoides, ii. 349 Enodes, ii. 288 Elanus, ii. 349 Enophrys, ii. 375 Elaphodiis, ii. 220 Ensophleus, ii. 42ft Elaphr-us, ii. 489 Entelopes, ii. 501 ELAPIDiE, ii. 382 Entomisa, ii. 276 Elapochrus, ii. 375 Entomophila, ii. 275 Elaps, ii 383 Enygnis, ii. 381 Elapsoidea, ii. 383 Eobasilevs, N. American Eocene, i. 139 Elasmognathvs, ii. 212 Eocene period, i. 124 Electra, ii. 209 fauna of S. America, L 148 ELEPHANTID.E. ii. 227 Eophona, ii. 284 Elephants, fossil, of Indian Miocene, i. 123 Eopsaltria, ii. 271 fossil in N. American Post-Pliocene for- Eos, ii. 327 mations, i. 130 Epalzeorhynchus, ii. 451 birthplace and migrations of, L 155 Ephemera, from the Lias, i. 167 ii. 227 Ephthianura, ii. 260 Elephant shrews, S. African, i. 267 Epicalia, ii. 474 ii. 186 Epicrates. ii. 381 Elephas, Post-Pliocene, i. 112 EPIMACHINiE, ii. 275 fossil in N. China, i. 123 Epimachvs, ii. 275 N. American Tertiary, i. 138 Epiodon, ii. 208 ii. 227 Epirhixis, ii. 419 Eliomys, ii. 232 Epitola, ii. 477 Elliot, Mr., his great work on the birds of Eporeodon, N. American Tertiary, i. 13S paradise, i. 415 EQUID^, ii. 211 on classification of the birds of paradise. Equidce, European Pliocene, i. 112 ii. 274 Miocene of Greece, i. 115 Ellipesurus, ii. 463 European Eocene, i. 125 ElHpsoglossa, ii. 413 Equuf, European Pliocene, i. 112 Ellisia, ii. 258 Post-Pliocene, i. 112 EUobius, ii. 231 Indian Miocene, i. 121 Elminia, ii. 271 N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 Elodina, ii. 478 N. American Tertiary, i. 135 Elopichthys, ii. 453 Brazilian caves, i. 144 Elornis, European Miocene, i. 162 S. American Pliocene, L 146 Elosia, ii. 419 ii. 211 Elotherivm, N. American Tertiary, L 137, 139 Erebia, iL 471 ii. 215, 216 Eremias, ii. 391 Elseya, ii. 408 Eremomela, ii. 258 Elwes, Mr., on birds of Persia, i. 204 Eremophilus, ii. 444 m GENERAL INDEX. Ereptodon, N. Amenean Post-Pliocene, i. 130 Eresia, ii. 474 Erethistes, ii. 444 Erethizon, ii. 239 Ereunetes, ii. 353 Ergaticus, ii. 279 Ergolis, ii. 474 Ericulus, ii. 188 Ericymba, ii. 452 ERINACEID^, ii. 187 Erinaceus, European Miocene, i. 117 ii. 187 Erioctiemis, ii. 109 Eriodes, ii. 174 Erismaturo., ii. 364 HrUhacus, ii. 259 Eroessa, ii. 258 Eronia, ii. 478 Erpornis, ii. 267 ERYCIDiE, ii. 381 ERYCINIDjE, ii. 476 Erynnis, ii. 480 Erythrinus, ii. 4^5 Erythrocercus, ii. 270 Erytkrocnema, ii. 347 Erythrogonys, ii. 356 Erythrokimpiis, ii. 375 Erythromachus of Rodriguez, i. 164 iL 352 Erythrospiza, ii. 285 Erythrosterna, ii. 270 Erythrura, ii. 387 £r!/r, ii. 382 ESOCIDjE, ii. 449 £sox, ii 449 Esthemopsis, ii. 476 Esthonyx, N. American Eocene, i. 139 EstriUUi, ii. 286 EtJuria, ii. 534 Ethiopian region should not include any part of India, i. 63 defined, i. 73 subdivisions of, i. 73 general features of, i. 251 zoological characteristics of, i. 252 mammalia of, i. 253 great speciality of, i. 253 birds of, i. 253 reptiles of, i. 254 amphibia of, i. 255 fresh- water fish of, i. 255 summary of vertebrates of, i. 255 insects of, i. 255 coleoptera of, i. 256 terrestrial moUusca of, L 257 sub-regions of, i. 258 Atlantic islands of, i. 269 the probable past history of, i. 285 tables of distribution of animals of, i. 293 Euaneimis, ii. 443 Eubagis, ii. 474 Eucephald, ii. 109 EuckcEtes, ii. 98 Eucometis, ii. 99 Euchromia, ii. 481 Eucichla, ii. 298 Eiiclyptostemum. ii. 443 Eudromias, ii. 356 Eudynamis, ii. 310 Eiidyptes, ii 366 E'leides, ii. 473 Eugenes, ii. 107 Eugenia, ii. 107 Euhyrax, ii. 229 Eulabeornis, ii. 353 Eulabes, iL 287 Eulampis, ii. 107 Eumoevs, ii. 477 Evmeces, ii. 397 Eumetopias, ii. 203 Eumomota, ii. 313 Eumys, N. American Tertiary, L 140 ii. 231 Ewnyias, ii. 270 Eunectes, ii. 381 Eunica, ii. 474 Eunogyra, ii. 475 Eiipetes, ii. 263 Eupetomena, ii. 107 Euphema, ii. 325 Eupherusa, ii. 109 Euphonut, ii. 98 Euphractus, S. American Pliocene, i. 147 Euphryne, ii. 401 Euphysetes. ii. 208 Eupleres, ii. 195 Euplcea, ii. 470 EUPLOCAMIN.^, ii. 340 Euplocamus, ii. 340 Eupodotis, ii. 356 Euprepes, ii. 397 Eupsychortyx, ii. 339 Euptilotis, ii. 314 • Euptychia, ii. 471 Eurinorhynchus, ii. 353 Eurocephahis, ii. 272 Europe, recent changes in physical geography of, i. 39 Miocene fauna of Central, i. 117 Miocene fauna of, allied to existing fauna of tropical Asia and Africa, i. 124 European sub-region, description of, i. 191 forests of, i. 192 mammalia of, i. 192 birds of, i 193 reptiles and amphibia of, i. 195 fresh-water fish of, i. 196 insects of, i. 196 islands of, i. 197 Eurostopodus, ii. 320 Euryades, ii. 479 Euryapteryx, ii. 370 Euryarthriiim, ii. 501 Eurybia, ii. 475 Euryceros of Madagascar, figure of, i. 278 Euryceros, ii. 288 Euryms, ii. 479 Eurygona, ii. 476 EURYGONIDiE, ii. 476 EURYL^MID.^, ii. 294 Euryl(f.mus, ii, 295 Euryodon, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 ii. 246 Euryphene, ii. 474 Eurypyga, ii. 358 EURYPYGIDiE, ii. 358 Eurystomus, ii. 312 Eurytela, ii. 474 Eurptherium, European Eocene, i. 126 Eiirytrichus, ii. 490 Euscarthmus, ii. 101 Euschemon, ii. 480 ii. 481 Eusemia, ii. 482 Euspiza, ii. 285 Eustephanus, ii. 108 Eustira, ii. 453 Eutatus, 8. American Pliocene, i. 147 ii. 246 Eutelodon, European Eocene, i. 126 Eutemnodiis, S. American Eocene, i. 148 GENERAL INDEX. 575 Euterpe, ii. 285 Kuthyrhynchus, ii. 270 Eutoxeres, ii. 107 Eutriorchis, ii. 348 Eutropia, ii. 209 Eutropiichthys, ii. 441 Eutropius, ii. 442 EtUroplus, ii. 438 fixucetM.s, ii. 449 Exoglossum, ii. 452 Exostoma, ii. 444 Extinct mammalian fauna of Europe, general considerations on, i. 126 mammalia of N. America |ind Europe, comparison of, i. 140 mammalia of the Antilles, i. 148 mammalia of the Old and New Worlds, general remarks on. i. 148 fauna of New Zealand, i 459 Amphibia, ii. 423 Ant-eaters, ii. 247 Armadillos, ii. 246 Bovidse, ii. 225 BradypodidtE, ii. 245 Camelidse, ii. 217 Camelopardalidse, ii. 221 Canidse, ii. 197 Castorida, ii. 234 Caviidse, 241 Centetidse, ii. 189 Cercolabidse, ii. 240 Cetacea, ii. 209 Chinchillidse, ii. 237 Chiroptera, ii. 185 Crocodiles, ii. 407 Deer, ii. 220 Didelphyidae, ii. 249 Dipodida, ii. 232 Echidnid.'e, ii. 254 EchimyidEe, ii. 239 Elephants, ii. 227 Equidse, ii. 211 Erinaceidae, ii. 188 Felida, ii. 193 Hippopotami, ii. 214 Hyaenas, ii. 196 Hystricidae, ii. 240 Insectivora, ii. 192 Lap^rtilia, ii. 404 Lagomyidae, ii. 242 Leporidae, ii. 243 Macropodidae, ii. 251 Muridae, ii. 230 Mustelidae, ii. 199 Myoxidae, ii. 232 Octodontidse, ii. 238 Ophidia, ii. 387 OrycteropodidfP, ii. 246 Otariidae, ii. 203 Procyonidie, ii. 201 Quadrumana, ii. 178, Rallidae, ii. 252 Khinoeerotidae, ii. 213 Seiuridae, ii. 236 Seals, ii. 204 Sircnia, ii. 210 Struthionidse, ii. 369 Suidae, ii. 215 Talpidae. ii. 190 Tapirs, ii. .212 Tortoises, ii. 410 Tragulidae, ii. 218 Tupaiidae, ii. 186 Ursidae, ii. 202 Viverridae, ii. 195 Extinction of large animals, causes of, i. 158 Falcinelli^s, ii. 360 Fako, ii. 349 FALCONIDjE, ii. 347 FALCON I NiE, ii. 349 Falcons, ii. 347 Fnlcnlia, ii. 228 Falkland Islands, zoology of, ii. 49 Fanged ground snakes, ii. 380 Faraneia, ii. 377 Fauna of Japan, general character and affin-'- ties of, i. 230 of Palaearctic region, general conclusions as to, i. 231 extinct, of Madagascar and Mascarere Islands, i, 282 Malayan, probable origin of, i. 359 Moluccan, peculiarities of, i. 419 Timorese, origin of, i. 422 of Celebes, origin of, i. 436 of New Zealand, origin of, i. 460 of Galapagos, origin of, ii. 33 of Central America, origin of, ii. 57 of Antilles, origin of, ii. 78 of Neotropical region, origin of, ii. 80 FELIDiE, ii. 192 Felis, Miocene of Greece, i. 115 European Miocene, i 118 Indian Miocene, i. 121 N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 129 in Brazilian caves, i. 144 ii. 193 Felis speleea, i. 110 Feniseca, ii. 477 Fennecus, ii. 197 Ferania, ii. 376 Fernando Po, zoological features of, i. 265 Feroculus, ii. 191 Fiber, ii. 230 Figuhis, ii. 493 Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa Islands, birds of, i. 443 Finches, ii. 283 FIROLID^, ii. 531 Fishes, means of dispersal of, i. 29 classification of, i. 101 cosmopolitan groups of, i. 176 of the Palaearctic region, i. 186 of the European sub-region, i. 196 of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 205 of the Manchurian sub-region, i. 227 freshwater, table of Palaarctic families of, i. 227 of the Ethiopian region, i. 255 of South Africa, i. 268 freshwater, table of Ethiopian families of, i. 298 fresh-water, of the Oriental region,). 318 of the Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 341 fresh-water, table of Oriental families of i. 369 fresh-water, of the Australian region, i. 397 fresh-water, resemblance of Australian and S. American, i. 400 how the transmission may have taken place, i. 401 fresh-water, of New Zealand, i. 457 fresh-water, table of Neotropical families of, ii. 89 of Central N. America, ii. 131 of Eastern United States, ii. 134 of Canada, ii. 137 fresh-water, table of Nearctic families of, ii. 143 576" GENERAL INDEX, Fishes, remarks on the distribution of, ii. 464 fossil, ii. 466 Fishing-hawks, ii. 349 FISSURELLID^, ii. 511 FISTULARID^, ii. 436 FUzroya, ii. 4.50 Flamingoes, European Miocene, i. 162 ii. 361 Flora, of New Zealand, as influenced by scarcity of insects, i. 462 fossil of Australia, i. 467 Floras, cretaceous and tertiary, of North America, ii. 155 Florisiiga, ii. 107 Flower-peckers, ii. 277 Flower, Professor, on classification of mam- malia, i. 85 classification of camivora, i. 87 Fluvicola, ii. 100 Flycatchers, ii. 270 Flying Lemur, Malayan, figure of, i. 337 ii. 186 Flying Lizards, ii. 401 Flying Opossum, figure of, i. 442 Fordonia, ii. 376 Forests, essential to existence of many Euro- pean animals, i. 192 Siberian, greatest extent of, i. 216 FORMICARIlDiE, ii. 297 FORMICARIINyE, ii. 298 Formicarius, ii. 104 Fnrmicivora, ii. -104 FORMICIVORIN^., ii. 297 Formosa, zoology of, i. 332 Fossa, ii. 195 Fmtdia, ii. 286 Francolinus, ii. 338 Fraserla, ii. 272 Fratercula, ii. 367 Fregetta, ii. 365 Fregilupus, ii. 288 Fregilus, ii. 274 Fresh-water fishes. Neotropical, ii. 12 of S. Temperate America, ii. 42 of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 54 of the Antilles, ii 73 of the Nearctic region, ii. 120 of California, ii. 128 summary and conclusion, ii. 549 Fresh-water mussels, ii. 534 shell, the most Arctic, ii. 518 snakes, ii. 376 snails, ii. 518 Fringilla, ii. 283 Fringillaria, ii, 285 • Fringillauda, ii. 282 FRINGILLID^, ii. 284 Frog-mouths, ii. 318 Frogs, ii. 420 Fulica, ii. 352 Fuligula, ii. 364 Fulmanis, ii. 365 Fundulus, ii. 450 FURNARIINiE, ii. 295 Furvarins, ii. 103 Fusiis, ii. 507 G. GADIDiE, ii. 439 GADOPSID/E, ii. 439 Gadvs, ii. 439 Galago, ii. 177 Galapagos, scarcity of insects in, i. 463 Galapagos islands, ii. 29 mammalia of, ii. 29 birds of, ii. 30 reptiles of, ii. 32 insects of, ii. 33 land-shells of, ii. 33 conclusions as to the origin ol their fauna, ii. 33 Galatea, ii. 536 Galaxias, ii. 448 GALAXID^, ii. 448 Galbalcyrkynchus, ii. 311 (kilbula, ii. 311 GALBULIDjE, ii. 311 Galecynus, in European Pliocene, i. 112 ii. 198 Galeichthys, ii. 443 GALEOPITHECIDiE, ii. 186 Galeoscoptes, ii. 256 Galeospalax, European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 190 Galeothermm, Post-Pliocene, i. Ill Galera, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 Galerella, ii. 195 Galerita, ii. 289 ii. 490 Galerix, ii. 188 Galethylax, European Eocene, i. 125 ii. 198 Gahus, ii. 460 Galictis, in Brazilian caves, i. 144 ii. 199 Galidia, ii. 195 Galidictis, ii. 195 Gallinse, classification of, i. 96 range of Palsearctic genera of, i. 248 range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 311 range of Oriental genera of, i. 384 range of Australian genera of, i. 485 GALLINjE, ii. 337 ii. 340 general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 344 GalUnago, ii. 353 Gallinula, ii. 352 Gallus, Miocene of Greece, i. 116 ii. 340 Gallus hravardi, European Pliocene, i. 161 Galogale, ii. 195 Gambusia, ii. 450 Gampsonyx, ii. 349 Gampsorhynchus, ii. 261 Gannets, ii. 365 GANOIDEI, ii. 458 Gape-eyed Scinks, ii. 395 Gar fish, ii. 459 Garrod, Professor, on the Classification of Parrots, ii. 324 Garrulax, ii. 261 , Garndus, ii. 273 GASTEROPODA, ii. 507 GASTEROSTEID^, ii. 424 Gastfrosteus. ii. 424 Gastornis, European Eocene, i. 163 GASTROCHjENIUiE, ii. 537 Gastropelecn-s, ii. 445 GAVIALID.^, ii. 405 Gavialis, ii. 405 Gavials, ii. 405 • GazelUt., ii. 223 GAZELLIN^, u. 223 Gazera,\\. 481 Gecinuliis, ii. 303 Gecinus, ii. 303 Gecko, ii. 399 GECKOTIDjE, ii. 399 ■ , GENERAL INDEX. m:. Geese, ii. 363 Oehyra, ii. 400 Genera common to Post-Pliocene and Pliocene faunas of N. America, i. 132 Genetta, ii. 195 Genidens, ii. 443 Geobates, ii. 103 Geobiastes, ii. 312 Geodchla, ii. 256 Geococcyx, ii. 309 Geocolaptes, ii. 304 GEODEPHAGA, ii. 486 Geoffroyus, ii. 326 Geographiol zoology, introduction, ii. 167 materials for, ii. 168 Geological history of Oriental region, i. 362 Geology and Physical Geottraphy of the Antilles, ii. 62, 79 Geomelania, ii. 519 Geomys, ii. 233 Geopelia, ii. 332 Geophaps, ii. 333 Geophagus, ii. 439 Geopsittacus, ii. 325 Georissa, ii. 522 Georychus, ii. 231 Geositta, ii. 103 Geospiza, ii. 284 Geothlypis, ii. 279 Geotrochus, ii. 523 Geotryon, ii. 383 Geotryp^ts, ii. 190 Geranospiza, ii. 347 Gerbillus, ii. 230 ii. 232 Geronticus, ii. 360 Gerrhonotiis, ii. 392 Gerrhosaurus, ii. 392 GERBID.*;, ii. 438 Gervasia, ii. 260 Gerygone, ii. 258 Giant-Clams, ii. 534 Gibbon, ii. 171 Gibraltar, cave fauna of, i. 114 Giraffes, ii. 221 Girardinus, ii. 450 Glacial epoch, as affecting the distribution of animals, i. 40 as a cause of the great change in the fauna of the temperate zones, since Pliocene times, i. 151 probably simultaneous in both hemi- spheres, i. 151 causing a general subsidence of the ocean, i. 152 Glandina, Eocene, i. 169 ii. 515 Glareola, ii. 355 GLAREOLID^, ii. 355 Glaucis, ii. 107 Olaucidium, ii. 350 Glauconeza, ii. 536 Glaucopis, ii. 481 Gliciphila, ii. 275 GIU, ii. 232 GlobiocephahiSfii. 209 Glossoptila, ii. 278 Glossotheri7im, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 S. American Pliocene, i. 147 ii. 247 Glycimeris, ii. 536 Glyphidodon, ii. 437 Glyphoglossus, ii. 416 Glyphorhynchvs, ii. 103 Glyptodon, S. American Pliocene, i. 147 Glyptosternum, ii. 443 Gnaphodes, ii. 471 Gnathodon, ii. 536 Gnathcypsis, S. American Pliocene, i. 147 Goats, Palsearctic, i. 182 ii. 221 Goat-suckers, ii. 519 GOBIESOCIDiE, ii. 436 GOBIlDiE, u. 430 Gobio, ii. 452 Golius, ii. 430 Godman, Mr., on Natural History of the Azores, i. 207 Golden Moles, S. African, i. 267 Goliathi, ii. 494 Gonepteryx, ii. 478 Goniodactylus, ii. 400 Gongylophis, ii. 382 Gonorhynchida;, ii 453 Gonyocephalus, ii. 402 Gonyosoma, ii..379 Gouldia, ii. 107 Goura, ii. 333 Graadavus, N. American Cretaceous, i. 164 Gralhe, arrangement of, i. 97 peculiar or characteristic Palaearctic ge- nera, i. 249 peculiar Ethiopian genera of, i. 31 peculiar Oriental genera of, 386 peculiar Australian genera of, i. 486 GRALL.E, ii. 351 general remarks on the distribution of, iL ■ 362 Grallaria, ii. 104 Grallaricula, ii. 104 Grallina, ii. 273 Grammatopkonis, ii. 402 Grammatoptila, ii. 261 Grampus, ii. 209 Granatellus, ii. 279 Grandala, ii. 259 Graphidnrus, ii. 232 Graphipterus, ii. 491 Graticah^s, ii. 268 Gray, Dr. J. E., on classification of Cetacea, i. 88 Grayia, ii. 376 Grayson, Col , on birds of Tres Marias, ii. 59 Grebes, ii. 367 Greece, Upper Miocene deposits of, i. 115 summary of Miocene fauna of, i. 116 Green Bulbuls, ii. 267 Greenland, zoology of, ii. 138 Greenlets, ii. 280 Groups peculiar to a region, how defined, iL 184 Grouse, ii. 328 GRUID^, ii. 356 Grus, ii. 357 Grypsicus, ii. 421 Grypus, ii. 107 Guacharo, ii. 107 Guans, ii. 342 Guaraunas, ii. 357 Giibernatrix, ii. 285 Guillemots, ii. 267 Guira, ii. 309 Guiraca, ii. 285 Gulick, Rev. J. T., on Aehatinellidue of the Sandwich Islands, i. 446 Gulls, ii. 364 Gulo, iL 199 Giinther, Dr., his classification of reptiles, i. 98 his classification of fishes, i. 101 on gigantic tortoises of Galapagos and the Mascarene Islands, i. 289 570 GENEKAL INDEX. Giinther, Dr., on range of Indian reptiles in the Himalayas, i. 32y on identical Atlantiic and Pacflc fishes ii. 21 on fresh-water fishes of Central America ii. 54 (h/gis, ii. 365 GYMNAUCHID^, ii. 449 Gymnarchtis, ii. 449 Gymnetin^, ii. 494 Gymnobucco, ii. 306 Gyrrmocephalus, ii. 103 Gymnocichla, ii. 104 Gyvinocorvus, ii. 274 Gymnocypris, ii. 452 Gymnodactylus, ii. 400 GYMN0DER1N.E, ii. 293 Gymnoderus, ii. 103 GYMNODONTE8, ii. 457 Gymnoglaux, ii. 350 Gymnokitta, ii. 273 dymnomystax, ii. 282 Gymnopelia, ii. 333 Gymnops, ii. 287 GYMNOPHTHALMID^, ii. 395 Gymnophthalmus, ii. 395 Gymnopus, ii. 199 Gymnorhina, ii. 273 Gymnostomus, ii. 451 GYMNOTID^, ii. 455 Gymnotus, ii. 455 Gymnura, ii. 188 Gypaetus, ii. 348 Gypohierax, ii. 348 Gypoictinia, ii. 349 Gyps, ii. 346 H. Haast, Dr., on extinct birds of New Zealand i. 460 Habitat, definition of, i. 4 Habrocomus, ii. 238 Habroptila, ii. 352 Habrura, ii 101 Hadrostomus, ii. 102, 293 Hcenuttoderus, ii. 103 Hosmatopus, ii. 356 Hcematospiza, ii 285 Hcemophila, ii. 284 Hcemulon, ii. 426 Hmtera, ii. 471 Hagria, ii. 397 Hainan, zoology of, i. 334 Halcyon, ii. 316 Halcyornis, European Eocene, i. 10:3 Halicyon, ii. 204 Haliceetxis, ii. 348 Haliastur, ii. 348 Halichcerus, ii. 204 Halicore, ii. 210 HALIOTID^, ii. 511 Halitherium,, European Pliocene, i. 112 European Miocene, i. 119 ii. 211 Hahnaturus, ii. 251 HALOSAURID^, ii. 455 Halys, ii. 385 Ilamadryas, ii. 470 Hang-nests, ii. 281 Papale, ii. 176 ii. 178 Hapalemur, ii. 176 HAPALIDiE, ii. 175 Hapalctis, ii. 230 Hapalus, ii. 524 Haplocerus, ii. 374 Haplochilus, ii. 450 Haplochiton, ii. 446 HAPLOCHITONIDjE, ii. 446 Haplodactylus, ii. 427 Haploodon, ii. 236 HAPLOODONTJD^, ii. 236 Haplospiza, ii. 284 Hapsidrophis, 379 Harelda, ii. 364 Hares, ii. 242 Harma, ii. 474 Harpa, ii. 349 ii. 507 HarpacUs, ii. 314 Harpagus, ii. 349 Harpalus, ii. 489 HarporhyncMis, ii. 256 Harpyhaliceetus, ii. 348 Hartkmbius, ii. 288 Hathliodes, ii. 502 Hattej-ia of New Zealand, i. 456 Hatteria, ii. 405 Hawks, ii. 347 Hedgehogs, ii. 187 Hedymeles, ii, 285 Helarctos, ii. 202 Helcyra, ii. 474 Heleothreptus, ii. 320 Heliactin, ii. 108 Ueliangebis, ii. 108 Melianthea, ii. 108 Heliastes, ii. 437 HELICID^, ii. 512 Helicina, ii. 522 HELICONIDjE, ii. 473 ii. 522 HeUconius, ii. 473 HelicopJmgus, ii. 442 Helicops, ii. 377 Helictis, Himalayan, figure of, i. 331 Helictis, ii. 199 Heliobletus, ii. 103 Heliochcera, ii. 102 Hdiodoxa, ii. 107 Heliomastes, ii. 108 Heliopwdica, ii. 107 Heliophobus, ii. 231 Helioporus, ii. 417 Heliornis, ii. 352 Heliothrix, ii 108 Heliotrypha, ii. 108 i/eiix. Eocene, i. 169 ii. 513 Helladotherium, Miocene of Greece, i. 116 European Miocene, i. 120 ii 221 Helluomorpha, ii. 490 Helmintherus, ii. 279 Helminthophaga, ii. 279 He.loderma, ii. 390 HELODERMID^, ii. 390 Helodromas, ii. 353 Helogale, ii. 195 Helogenes, ii. 442 HELORNITHINjE, ii. 352 Helotarsus, ii. 348 Hemibos, Indian Miocene, i. 122 ii. 225 Hemicentetes, ii. 188 Hemicercus, ii. 303 Hemichelidon, ii. 290 Hemichromis, 438 Hemicyon, European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 198 Hemidacnis, ii. 278 GENERAL INDEX. 579 HemidactyK'um, ii. 413 Hemidactylus, ii. 399 Heviiergi's, ii. 397 HevUgalea, ii.l95 Hemignathus, ii. 277 Hemimantis, ii. 419 Hemiodus, ii. 445 Hemiphractus, ii. 420 Hemipimelod'us, ii. 443 Hemiprocne, ii. 320 Ilemipus, ii. 270 Hemirhamphus, ii. 450 Hemisilurus, ii. 442 Hemisorubim, ii. 442 Hemistilbon, ii. 109 Hemisus, ii. 414 Hemitricms, ii. 101 Hemixus, ii. 267 Henicognathvs, ii. 328 Henicopernis, ii. 349 Henicophaps, ii. 333 Henicorhina, ii. 264 Henicornis, ii. 103 Heptapterus, ii. 444 . Heredia, ii. 413 Herons, ii. 359 Heros, ii. 438 Herpestes, ii. 195 Herpetethiops, ii. 376 Herpetodryas, ii. 376 Herpeton, ii. 376 Herpetoreas, ii. 375 Herpetotheres, ii. 348 llerpetotherium, N. American Tertiary, i. 134 HerpsUochmus, ii. 104 Herring, ii. 454 Hesperia, ii. 4S0 HESPERIDjE, ii. 480 Hesperomys, N. American Tertiary, i. 140 in Brazilian caves, i. 145 S. American Pliocene, L 147 ii. 230, 231 Hesperornis, N. American Cretaceous, i. 164 Hestia, ii. 470 Hestima, ii. 501 Heterohranchiis, ii. 441 Heterocephalus, ii. 231 Heterocerms, ii. 102 Heterochroa, ii. 474 Heterocnemis, ii. 104 Heterocorys, ii. 289 Heterodactylus, ii. 393 Heterodon, in Brazilian caves, i. 115 ii. 246 ii. 376 Heterogynis, ii. 481 Heterolocha, 287 Heleromorplia, ii. 262 Heteromys, ii. 233 Heteronota, ii. 400 Heteronympha, ii. 471 Heteropelma, ii. 102, 292 Heleropus, ii 397 HETEROPYGII, ii. 450 HetcTospizias, ii. 348 Heterotis, ii. 454 Heterura, ii. 290 Hewitsonia, ii. 477 Hexagonia, ii. 491 Hexaprolodon, Indian Miocene, i. 122 Hickman, Mr. John, on a cause of the extinc- tion of large animals, i 1 58 Hieracidea, ii. 349 Hierax, ii. 349 Hierococcyx, ii. 310 Hiero/alco, ii. 349 Hill-Tits, ii. 260 Himalayas, altitude reached by various groups in the, i. 329, 333 lUmantornis, ii. 352 Himantopus, ii. 353 Hinulia, ii. 397 Hipistes, ii. 376 Hipparchia, ii. 471 Hipparion, European Pliocene, i. 112 Miocene of Greece, i. 115 European Miocene, i. 119 N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 N. American Tertiary, i. 135 ii. 211 Hippocampus, ii. 457 Hippoglossoides, ii. 441 Hippoghssus, 441 HIPPOPOTAMID^, ii. 214 Hippopotamus, Post-Pliocene, i. 112 Europe in Pliocene, i. 113 Indian Pliocene, i. 122 ii. 214 Hipposyas, N. American Tertiary, i. 133 Hippotherivin, European Miocene, i. 119 Indian Miocene, i. 122 HIPPOTRAGIN^, ii. 2J3 Hippotragvs, European Miocene, i. 120 ii. 223 HIPPURITIDiE, ii. 534 Hirundinea, ii. 101 HIRUNDINlDiE, ii. 280 nil-undo, ii. 281 Hoazin, ii. 345 Holocanthus, ii. 427 Hulbrookia, ii. 401 Holochilus, ii. 230 Hologerrhum, ii. 379 HOLOSTEI, ii. 458 HoluTophis, ii. 380 Homalodontotherivm, S. American Pliocene, i. 146 Jfomalophis, ii. 376 Homalophvs, European Miocene, i. 161 HOMALOPSID^, ii. 376 Homalopsis, ii. 376 Homaloptera, ii. 453 Hnmalosoma, ii. 490 Hombronia, ii. 397 Homocamelvs, N. American Tertiary, i. 138 ii. 217 Homorus, ii. 103 ii. 524 Honey-guides, ii. 304 Honeysuclvers, birds specially adapted to Australia, i. 392 ii. 275 Hooker, Dr., on deficiency of odours in New Zealand plants, i. 464 Hoopoes, ii. 317 Hopladelus, ii. 442 HOPLEGNATHID^, ii. 433 Hoplobatrachus, ii . 421 HOPLOCEPHALA, ii. 460 Hoplocephalus, ii. 383 Hoplocetus, European Pliocene, i. 112 Hoplophoneus, N. American Tertiary, i. 134 Hoplophoncs, ii. 246 HoplopteTus, ii 356 Horites, ii. 258 Hombills, ii. 316 Horses, fossil, in Indian Miocene, i. 121 perfect series of ancestral, in N. America, i. 136 probable birthplace o^ i. 154 ii. 211 Horse-shoe bats, ii. 182 p p 2 580 GENERAL INDEX. Hortulia, ii. 381 HYODONTID^, ii. 453 Howling monkeys, ii. 175 Hyohipp^is, N. American Tertiary, i. 135 Hudson, Mr, on land-birds of Patagonia, ii. 39 HyomuscMis, European Miocene, i. 120 Humming-birds, ii. 321 ii. 218 Huro, ii. 425 Hyopicus, ii. 303 Button, Capt. F. W., on origin of New Zealand Hyopotamus, European Miocene, i. 119 fauna, i. 461 N. American Tertiary, i. 137 Huxley, Professor, on zoological regions, i. 59 ii. 216 division of animal kingdom by, i. 85 Hyopsodus, N. American Tertiary, i. 133 Hyades, ii. 472 Hyotherium, European Miocene, i. 119 Hyiena, Post-Pliocene, i. 112 ii. 215 Miocene of Greece, i. 115 Hypargos, ii. 287 European Miocene, i 118 Hyperanthu, ii. 490 Indian Miocene, i. 121 Hypergerus, ii. 261 fossil in N. China, i. 123 Hypcrmncstra, ii. 479 ii. 196 Hyperodapedon, ii. 405 Hycenarctos in European Pliocene, 1. 112 Hypcrolius, ii. 417 European Miocene, i. 118 Hyperoodon, ii. 208 Indian Miocene, 1. 121 HYPEROODONTID^, ii. 208 S. American Pliocene, 1. 146 Hyperopsiiis, ii. 448 Hyanictis, Miocene of Greece, 1. 115 Hypertragxdiis, N. American Tertiary, i. 138 European Miocene, i. 118 Hi/phantornis, ii. 286 ii. 196 Hypherpes, ii. 265 Hya:nid(e, European Miocene, 1. 118 Hypisocbis, N. American Tertiary, i. 138 HYiENIDJJ, ii. 196 Hypna, ii. 474 Hymnodon, European Miocene, i. 118 Hypnale, ii. 385 European Eocene, 1. 125 Hypocliera, ii. 287 N. American Tertiary, i. 134 Hypochrysops, ii. 477 Hycenodontidce, European Miocene, 1. 118 Hypocista, ii 471 HYALEID^, ii. 531 Hypocnemis. ii- 104 : Hyalimax, ii. 517 Hypocolius, ii. 272 Hyalina, ii. 515 Hypodes, ii. 272 Hyalosaurus, ii. 392 Hypogeomys, ii. 230 Hyantis, ii. 472 Hypolais, ii. 258 ' Hybocystis, ii. 520 Hypolithus, ii. 491 Hyborhynchv s, ii. 452 Hypolyccena, ii. 477 Hydrocena, ii. 521 Hypomesus, ii. 477 Hydrochelidon, ii. 364 Hypopachus, ii. 416 Hydrochmrus, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 Hypophtho/lniichthys, ii. 453 Hydror.hderus, ii. 241 Hypophthalmiis, ii. 442 Hydrocissa, ii. 317 Hypopyrrhus, ii. 282 Hydrocyon. ii. 445 Hyporissus, ii. 190 Hydrogode, ii. 199 Hy'pothyniis, ii. 271 Uydromedusa, ii. 408 Hypoxanthus, ii 304 Hydromys, ii. 230 Hypsipetes, ii 267 Hydrophasianus, ii. 355 Hypsiprymnus, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157 HYDKOPHID^, ii. 384 • ii. 251 Hydrophis, ii. 384 Hypsirhina, ii. 376 Hydrupotes, ii. 219 Hypsirhynchus, ii. 375 Hydropsalis, ii. 319 Hyrachyiis, N. American Tertiary, i. 136 Hydrornis, European Miocene, i. 162 HYRACIDJi:, ii. 228 ii. 298 Hyracodon, N. American Tertiary, i. 136 Hydrosaurus, ii. 389 ii. 214 Hyetornis, ii. 309 ii. 248 Hyqroqonus, ii. 439 Hymcoidea, classification of, i. 90 Hyla, ii. 418 Palasaretic, i. 242 Hylactes, ii. 297 Ethiopian, i. 304 Hylambates, ii. 419 HYRACOIDBA, ii. 2?8 Hylaplesia, ii. 415 Hyracotherium, supposed, in European Eocene, HYLAPLESID^, iL 414 i. 125 Hylarana, ii. 419 European Eocene, i. 126 Hylatomus, ii. 303 ii. 216 Hylella. ii. 418 ii. 229 HYLID^, ii. 418 Ilyrax, ii. 228 Hyliota, ii. 270 HYSTRICIDvE, ii. 240 Hylobates, ii. 171 Hystricodon, ii. 445 Hylocharis, ii. 109 Hystrix, European Pliocene, i. 113 ii. 271 Miocene of Greece, i. 116 Hylodes, ii. 419 N. American Tertiary, i. 140 Hylomanes, ii. 313 ii. 240 Ilylomys, ii. 186 Hylophilus, ii. 280 I. Hylorhina, ii. 420 Hylotrupes, ii. 602 lalmenus, ii. 774 Hyloxahis. ii. 419 lanthcenas, ii. 332 Hymenolaimus, ii. 364 . lanthina, ii. 511 GENERAL INDEX. 581 Ibidipodia, European Miocene, i. 162 Ibidorhynchus, ii. 353 Ibidorhyuchus, figure of, i. 331 Ibis, ii. 360 Ibises, ii. 360 Ibycter, ii. 347 Iceland, zoology of, i. 198 Ichneumia, ii 195 Ichthyoborus, ii. 445 Ichthyopsis, ii. 411 Icteria, ii. 279 ICTERIDjE, ii. 281 Icterus, ii. 282 Icthyornis, N. American Cretaceous, i. 164 Icticyon in Brazilian caves, i. 144 ii. 197 letinia, it. 349 Ictitherium, Miocene of Greece, 1. 115 European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 195 ii. 197 Ictonyx, ii. 199 Ictops, N. American Tertiary, i. 133 Ideopsis, ii. 470 Idmais, ii. 478 Iguana, ii. 401 Iguanas, ii. 400 IGUANID^, ii. 400 Ilerda, ii. 477 Ilicura,M. 102 India, Miocene fauna of, allied to that of Europe, i. 123 geological features of, i. 328 Indian sub-region, description Of, i. 321 supposed relation to Ethiopian region, i. 321 mammalia of, i. 322 birds of, i. 323 reptiles and amphibia of, i. 326 Indicator, ii. 304 INDICATORID^, ii. 304 Indo-Chinese sub-region, description of, i. 329 zoological chai-acteristics of, i. 330 illustration of, i. 331 reptiles of, i. 331 amphibia of, i. 331 insects of, i. 332 Islands belonging to, i. 333 Indo-Malayan sub-region, description of, i. 334 mammalia of, i. 336 illustrations of, i. 336, 339 birds of, i. 337 remote geographical relations of, i. 339 reptiles and amphibia of, i. 340 fishes of, i. 341 insects of, i. 341 coleoptera of, i. 342 terrestrial mollusca of, i. 343 zoological relations of islands of, i. 345 recent geographical changes in, i. 357 probable origin of fauna of, i. 359 Inia, ii. 209 Insectivora, European Miocene, i. 117 N. American Post-PUocene, L 129 N. American Tertiary, i. 133 Insectivora, classification of, i. 87 of the Palsearctic region, i. 181 of N. China and E. Thibet, i. 222 range of Palwarctin genera of, i. 239 of Madagascar, i. 273 range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 301 of the Oriental region, i. 315 range of Oriental genera of, i. 372 range of Australian genera of, i. 476 INSECTIVORA, ii. 186 INSECTIVORA, general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 191 summary and conclusion, ii. 541 Insects, means of dispersal of, i. 32 tenacity of life of, i. 33 adapted to special conditions, i. 33 groups selected for the study of their geographical distribution, i. 102 antiquity of the genera of, i. 166 fossil of European Miocene, i. 166 European Cretaceous, i. 167 European Wealden, i. 167 Palaeozoic, i. 168 Palsearctic, i. 187 of Central Europe, i. 196 of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 205 of the Siberian sub-region, i. 220 of the Manchurian sub-region, i. 227 of the Ethiopian region, i. 255 of the E African sub-region, i. 260 of W. African, i. 265 S. Africnn, i. 268 of Madagascar, i. 282 general remarks on, i. 284 of tropical Africa and America, probable cause of similarities in, i. 291 of Indo-Chinese sub-region, i. 332 of the Oriental region, i. 318 of Ceylon, i. 327 of Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 341 statistics of collecting in the various islands of the Malay Archipelago, i. 343 of the Australian region, i. 403 of New Guinea, i. 417 of the Moluccas, i. 420 of the Timor group, i. 426 of Celebes,!. 454 of New Zealand, i. 458 scarcity of, in New Zealand, i. 462 influence of, on the flora, i. 463 of the Neotropical region, ii. 13 of S. Temperate America, ii. 42 of S. Temperate America, Palsearctic affinity of, ii. 45 of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 55 of the Antilles, ii. 73 of the Nearctic region, ii. 122 , ,i., of Canada, ii. 137 ; distribution of, ii. 468 < range of, in time, ii. 469 summary and conclusion, ii .''50 lines of migration of, ii. 551 lodoplevra, ii. 102 lolama, ii. 107 lolaus, ii. 477 lole, ii. 267 lora, ii. 267 Iphias, ii. 478 ii. 394 IPHISAD^, ii. 394 Irena, ii. 269 Iridina, ii. 534 Iridornis, ii. 98 Irrisor, ii. 318 IRRISORID/E, ii. 318 Isacis, N. American Tertiary, i 133 Ischcognathus, ii. 375 Ischyromys, N. American Tertiary, i. 140 ii. 236 Islands, N. European, zoology of, i. 197 of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 200 of the W. African sub-region, i. 265 of the Ethio] ian region, 1. 269 Mascarene, i. 280 of the Indo-Chinese sub-region, i. 333 of the Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 345 . 582 GENERAL INDEX. Islands, Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa, i. 443 Society and Marquesas, i, 444 New Caledonia and New Hebrides, 1. 445 Sandwicli, i 446 of New Zealand sub-region, i. 453 Norfolk, i. 453 Lord Howe's, i. 454 Chatham, i. 454 Auckland, i. 455 of Tropical S. America, ii. 29 of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 59 of Eastern United States, ii. 134 peculiar colours of pigeons in, ii. 336 abundance of land- shells in, ii. 525 Isodactylium, ii. 413 Ispidina, ii. 316 Issiodromys, European Pliocene, i. 113 ii. 232 Ithaginis, ii. 340 Ithomia, ii. 470 Ithycyphiis, ii. 379 Ixalus, ii. 419 Ixonotus, ii. 267 Ixulus, ii. 266 J. Jac tmaralcyon, ii. 311 Jacamars, ii. 311 Jacavierops, ii. 311 Jacanas, ii. 255 Jacchus, in Brazilian caves, i. 144 Jaculus, ii. 232 Jaltri.1, ii. 375 Jamaicia, ii 521 Janella, ii. 517 Janthocincla, ii. 261 Japalura, ii. 402 Japan and North China, physical features of i. 221 southern extremity of perhaps belongs to the Oriental region, i. 226 Japan, general character of the fauna of, i. 230 former land-connexions of, i. 231 Java, mammalia of, i. 349 productions of, well known, i. 350 birds of, i. 351 representative species of birds in, i. 352 origin of the anomalous features of its fauna, i. 352 Sumatra and Borneo, their geographical contrasts and zoological peculiarities explained, i. 357 Jays, ii. 273 Jenynsia, ii. 450 Jerboas, ii. 231 Juan Fernandez, Carabidse of, ii. 44 birds of, ii. 49 beetles and iand-shells of, ii. 51 Jiiida, ii. 2S8 Julkimyia, ii. 109 Junco, ii. 284 Junonia, European Miocene, i. 167 ii. 474 K. Kagu, ii. 359 Kakapoe, of New Zealand, i. 455 Kalophrynus, ii. 415 Kangaroos, extinct in Australia, i. 157 ii. 251 Keneiixia, ii. 397 Kerguelen Island, apterous insects of, i. 211 (note) Kerodon, in Brazilian caves, i. 144 S. American Pliocene, i. 147 ii. 241 Kctingus, ii. 443 Ketupa, ii. 350 King-Hsher, racquet-tailed, of New Guinea, figure of, i. 415 King-fishers, ii. 315 Kittacincla, ii. 259 Kiwi of New Zealand, i. 455 Kneria, ii. 453 Kohus, ii. 224 Koodoo antelope, figure of, i. 261 Kricogonia, ii. 478 Krynickia, ii. 517 Labeo, ii. 451 Labrax, ii. 425 LABRID.E, ii. 437 Lahrus, ii. 437 L.\BYRINTHICI, ii. 434 Lacerta, ii. 391 LACERTIDjE, ii. 390 Lacertilia, classification of, i. 99 LACERTILIA, ii. 388 general remarks on the distribution of, ii 403 fossil, ii. 404 Lacuna, ii. 510 Ladrone Islands, birds of, i. 444 L(emargus, ii. 461 Ltemosthenes, ii. 489 Lw.osopis, ii. 477 Lafresnaya, ii. 107 Lagenocetus, ii. 208 Lagenorhynchus, ii. 209 Lagidium, ii. 237 LAGOMYID^, ii. 242 Lagomys, European Pliocene, i. 113 European Miocene, i. 120 ii. 242 Lagopus, ii. 339 Lagorchestes, ii. 251 Lagosiomus, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 S. American Pliocene, i. 147 ii. 237 Lagothrix, ii. 174 Lais, ii. 442 Lake Baikal, seals of, i. 218 ii. 206 Lalage, ii. 269 Laletes. ii. 280 LAMIID.E, ii. 498 Lamna, ii. 460 LAMNID.E, ii. 460 Lampornis, ii. 107 Lampreys, ii. 463 Lamprima, ii. 493 Lampris, ii. 429 Lamprocolius, ii. 283 Lamprolccma, ii. 107 Lamrophis, ii. 380 Lampropsar, ii. 282 Lampropygia, ii. 108 Lamprospilus, ii. 477 Lamprospiza, ii. 99 Lamprotes, ii. 98 LanceJet. ii. 464 Land-lizards, ii. 391 Land and water, proportions of, i. 35 Land and fresh-water shells, antiquity of the genera of, i. 168 GENERAL INDEX. 583 Land-shells, Palseozoic, i. 169 Patearctic, 1. 190 of Madeira, i. 209 of the Cape Verd Islands, i. 215 of the Ethiopian region, i. 257 of W. Africa, i. 265 of Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands, i. 285 of the Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 344 of the Australian region, i. 407 of the Sandwich Islands, i. 466 of New Zealand, i. 459 of the Neotropical region, ii. 19 of the Antilles, ii. 75 conditions favouring development of, ii. 75 ■ of N. America, ii. 124 general observations on the distribution of, ii. 522 richness of islands in, Ii. 525 their mode of diffusion, ii. 525, 528 comparative distribution of Operculate and In-operculate, ii. 526 estimated numbers of, ii. 526 Land-snakes, ii. 382 Langaha, ii. 379 Laniarixis, ii. 272 Lanictents, ii. 268 Laiiiellus, ii. 272 LANIID^, ii. 272 Lanio, ii. 99 Laniv,s, European Miocene, i. 161 ii. 272 LaopUhecxis, N. American Tertiary, i. 133 Laornis, N. American Cretaceous, i. 164 Laprissa, ii. 421 LARID.*;, ii. 364 LarifMis, ii. 428 Larks, ii 289 Larus, ii. 364 Larvivora, ii. 259 Lasiomys, ii. 229 Lasiuromys, it. 239 Latax, ii. 199 Lates, ii. 425 Lathria, ii. 102 Latonia, ii. 421 Latrunculus, ii. 430 Layardia, ii. 261 Lea, Dr. Isaac, on N. American Unionidaa. ii. 125 Lebia, ii. 489 Lebiasina, ii. 445 Legatus, ii. 101 Leiocephalus, ii. 401 Leiolcemus, ii. 401 Leistes, ii. 282 Leistus, ii. 489 Leiuperus, iL 420 Leiyla, ii. 419 Lemonias. ii. 476 Lemur, ii. 176 Lemur, fossil, ii. 178 Lemuravidce, N. American Tertiary, i. 133 Lemuravus, N. Anjerican Tertiary, i. 133 Lemuria, a hypothetical land, i. 76 Lemuridce, European Eocene, i. 124 LEMURID.E, ii. 176 Lemuroidea, range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 300 range of Oriental genera of, 371 LEMUROIDEA, u. 176 Lemurs, ii. 176 Leonia, ii. 521 Lepadogaster, ii. 436 Lepictis, N. American Tertiarj', i. 133 Lepidocepalichthys, ii. 453 Lepidocephalus, ii. 453 Vol. II. —38 Lepklojrammas, ii. 309 Ltpidolarynx, ii. 108 Lepidoptera, cosmopolitan families of, i. 177 table of Palaearctie families of, i. 238 S. African, i. 268 table of Ethiopian families of, i. 299 of the Oriental region, i. 318 table of Oriental famiJies of, i. 369 of the Australian region, i. 404 table of Australian lauiilies of, i. 472 of the Neotropical region, ii. 13 of tlie Antilles, ii. 73 table of Neotropical families of, ii. 90 of the Nearctic region, ii. 122 Nearctic families of, ii. 143 LEPIDOPTERA, ii. 470 Lepidosiren, ii. 458 LEPIDOSTEIDjE, ii. 459 Lepidosteus, ii. 469 LEPIDOSTERNID^, ii. 389 Lepidosternon, ii. 389 Lepilemur, ii. 176 Lepistes, ii. 450 LEPOKIDjE, ii. 242 Leporinus, ii. 445 Lepricornis, ii. 476 Leprodera, ii. 501 Leptcdis, ii. 478 Leptarchtis, N. American Tertiary, i. 135 ii. 202 Leptasthenura, ii. 103 Leptaiichenia, N. American Tertiary, i. 138 Leptoharhina ii."452 Leptobrachium, ii. 421 LEPTOCARDII, ii. 464 Leptocera, ii. 502 Leptochcunis, N. American Tertiary i. 137 ii. 215 Leptocircus, ii. 479 Leptodeira, ii. 379 Leptodon, Miocene of Greece, 1 116 ii. 214 ii. 349 Leptognathns, ii. 381 Leptomantis, ii. 419 .Leptomeryx, N. American Tertiary, i. 133 ii, 220 Lepton, ii. 535 Leptoneura, ii. 471 Leptonyx, ii. 204 Leptopogon, ii. 101 Leptoma, ii. 520 Leptoptila, ii. 333 Leptoptibis, European Miocene, i. 162 ii. 361 Leptorhytaon, ii. 380 Leptariiis, ii. 276 LEPTOSOMID^, ii. 310 Leptosoimis, allied form in European Eocene, i. 168 ii.310 Leptosomus of Madagascar i. 278 figure of, i. 279 Leptotheri%im, in Brazilian caves, i. 144 ii. 226 Leptotrknts, ii. 101 Leptura, ii. 502 Lepus, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 S American Pliocene, i. 147 Lerista, ii. 395 Lerwa, ii. 339 Lesbia, ii. 108 Lestodo-n, S. American Pliocene, 1. 147 Leucippus, ii. 109 Leiiciscus, ii. 452 Levcochroa, iL 516 384 GENERAL INDEX. Leucocyon, ii. 197 Leucomelcena, ii. 332 Leuconerpes, ii 304 Leucophantes, ii. 270 Leucophasia, ii. 478 Leucopleurus, il 209 LeiKOsarcia, ii. 333 Leucosomus, ii. 452 Leitcosticte, ii. 285 Lewis, Mr. George, his collection of Japan insects, i. 228 LIALIDiE, ii. 396 Lialis, ii. 396 Liasis, ii. 381 Libellula, from the Lias, i. 167 Libythea, ii. 475 LIBYTHEID^, ii. 475 Lichanotus, ii. 381 Lichenops, ii. 101 Licina, ii. 521 Licmetis, ii. 325 Lilljeborg, Professor, on classification of the Rodentia, i. 90 LIMACID^, ii. 517 LIMACINID^, ii. 531 Limax, ii. 517 Limenitis, ii. 474 Hmnmx, Eocene, 169 European Secondary, i. 169 ii. 518 LIMNiElDiE, ii. 518 Limnaiornis, European Miocene, i. 161 lAmnocharis, u. 420 Limnocyon, N. American Tertiary, i. 134 Limnodyiuistes, ii. 420 Limnohyus, N. American Tertiary, i. 136 Limnophis, ii. 376 Limnornis, ii. 103 . LimnothcridcB, N. American Tertiary, i. 133 Limnotherium, N. American Tertiary, i. 133 Limnurgus, ii. 450 Limosa, ii 353 Limpets, ii. 511 Lingula, ii. 538 LINGULIDjE, ii. 532 Linota, ii. 285 Linsang, ii. 195 Liocassis, ii. 442 Liopelma, ii. 417 Liopis, ii. 375 Lioptilns, ii. 267 Lioscelis, ii. 297 LIOTRICHID^, ii. 266 Liothrix, ii. 266 Lipaugus, Ii. 102 Liparis, ii. 430 lAphyra, ii, 477 Lipinia, ii. 397 Lipoa, ii. 342 Liposarcus, ii. 444 Liptala, ii. 477 Lissolepis, ii. 397 Listriodon, European Miocene, i. 119 Lithiodo7i, ii. 521 Lithomys, European Miocene, i. 120 ii. 236 Lithornis, European Eocene, i. 163 Litoria, ii. 418 Littorina, ii. 510 LITTORINIDvE, ii. 510 Lizards, classification of, i. 90 Tertiary, i. 165 wide range of a species in Polynesia, i. 448 distribution and lines of migration of, ii. 547 Ldbodon, ii. 204 Lochmias, ii. 103 Lociistella, ii. 258 Loddigesia, ii. 108 Loncheres, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 ii. 239 LonchopJwrus, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 ii. 239 LONGICORNIA, ii. 498 Longicornia, Palfearctic, i. 188 Ethiopian, i. 257 Oriental, i. 320 Australian, i. 407 Neotropical, ii. 17 of Chili, ii. 46 Nearctic, ii. 123 Loiitra, ii. 199 * Lophiodon, European Eocene, i. 125 N. American Tertiary, i. 136 ii. 212 Lophiomeryx, ii. 218 Lophiotherium, N. American Tertiary, i. 136 Lophius, ii. 431 Lophoaetus, ii. 348 LOPHOBRANCHII, ii. 456 Lophocitta, ii. 273 Lophogyps, ii. 346 Lophoictinia, ii. 349 Lopholainms, ii. 362 Lophiomys, ii. 230 Lophophaps, ii. 333 Lopiuyphanes, ii. 266 LOPHOPHORIN^, ii. 340 Lophophorus, ii. 340 Lophorhina, ii. 274 Lophornis, ii. 107 Lophortix, ii. 339 Lophostrix, ii. 350 LOPHOTlDvE, ii. 432 Lophotragus, ii. 220 Lophotriorchis, ii. 348 Lophura, ii. 402 Lord Howe's Island, birds of, i. 453 Loricaria, ii. 444 Loriculus, ii. 326 Loris, ii. 176 Lorius, ii. 327 Lota, ii. 439 Loxia, ii. 285 Loxigilla, ii. 285 Loxomylus, Pliocene (M Antilles, i. 148 ii. 237 Loxops, ii. 277 Lucania, ii. 450 LUCANIDiE, ii. 492 Lucanus, ii. 493 Lucia, ii. 477 Lucidella, ii. 522 Lxicifuga, ii. 440 LUCINID^, ii. 535 Ludnopsis, ii 536 LUCIOCEPHALID^, ii. 434 Lucioperca, ii. 425 Luciotrutta, ii. 447 Lucisoma, ii. 452 Lund, Dr., his researches in caves of Brazil, i. 143 Lupus, ii. 197 Lnromlis, ii. 320 Luscinia, ii. 259 Lusciniola, ii. 258 Lutra, European Miocene, i. 118 Indian Miocene, i. 121 ii. 199 Liitronectes, ii. 199 Lyccena, Miocene of Greece, i. 115 ii. 196 GENERAL INDEX. 585 LYC^NIDiE, ii. 477 Lycalopex, i 197 LYCOL)ID;E, ii. 439 Lycodoii, ii. 3S0 LYCODONTlDiE, ii. 380 Lycophidioii, ii. 3S0 Lycorea, 11. 470 Lygosoma, 11. 397 Lygosomella, ii. 397 Lymanopoda, ii. 471 Lymnas, 11. 476 Lyncornis, ii. 320 Lyncus, 11. 193 Lytorhynchus, ii. 376 Lyre-bird, figure of, i. 441 ii. 298 M. Mahoutja, ii. 397 Macacus, European Pliocene, i. 112 Miocene of Greece, i. 115 Indian Miocene, 1. 121 supposed in European Eocene, i. 125 ii. 173 11. 178 Macaws, il. 327 Machairodus, i. 110, 111 Miocene of Greece, i. 115 European Miocene, 1. 118 Indian Miocene, 1. 121 K. American Tertiary, 1. 134 in Brazilian caves, 1. 144 S. American Pliocene, 1. 146 ii. 193 Machetornis, ii. 101 MachxBrhamphus, ii. 349 Machmrirhynchus, ii. 271 MachcBroptents, ii. 102 Machetes, 11. 353 Macranchenm, S. American Pliocene, i. 146 MacrocalarMis, ii. 374 Macroceramus, 11. 516 Macroehilus, ii. 491 MacrocyclU, il. 516 Macrodipteryx, ii. 320 Macrodon, 11. 445 Macroglossa, 11. 482 Macrones, 11. 442 Macronus, 11. 261 Macronyx, ii. 290 MACRO PODIDiE, ii. 250 Macropus, iL 251 Macropygia, 11. 332 Maerorhamphus, 11. 353 MACROSCELIDID^, ii. 186 Macroscelides, ii. 186 Macrosila, ii. 482 Macrotherium, Miocene of Greece, i. 116 European Miocene, i. 121 11. 246 Macrotiis californicvs, 11. 182 MACROURID.^, ii. 440 MACTRIDiE, ii. 443 Madagascar, extinct birds of, i. 164 description of, 1. 272 mammalia of, i. 272 birds of, 1. 274 reptiles of, i. 279 amphibia of, 1. 280 extinct fauna of, i. 282 general remarks on Insect fauna of, i. 284 Madeira, birds of, 1. 208 land-shells of, i. 208 beetles of, i. 210 Madeira, wingless insects numerous in, i. 211 how stocked with animals, i. 213 MALACANTHID^, ii. 433 Malacca, Sumatra, arid Borneo, zoological unity of, 1. 353 comparison of mammalia, i. 354 of birds, 1. 355 Malacocircus, ii. 261 Malacopteron, ii. 261 MalacopUla, il. 310 Malacorhynchus, 11. 364 Malacothrix, il. 230 Malagasy sub-region, description of, 1. 272 mammalia of, 1. 272 birds of, i. 274 illustration of zoology of, 1. 278 reptiles of, 1, 279 amphibia of, i. 280 extinct fauna of, i. 282, 289 insects of, i. 282 early history of, i. 286 Malapterurus, 11. 443 Malaya and Indo-Malaya, terms defined, i. 345 (note) Malaya, meaning of term, ii. 261 Malay Archipelago, distribution of butterflies in. 11. 484 distribution of Clcindelidse in, 11. 487 distribution of Longicorns in, 11. 500 Malavan forms of life reappearing in West " Africa, 1. 263 fauna, probable origin of, i. 359 resemblances to that of Madagascar and Ceylon explained, i. 361 Malimhus, 11. 286 Mallodmi, 11. 501 Mallotus, 11. 447 Malta, Post-Pliocene fauna of, i. 114 formerly joined to Africa, 1. 201 fossil elephants of, 1. 201 birds of, 1. 206 (note) Mabirvs, ii. 258 Mammal, the most ancient American, 1. 134 Mammalia, means of dispersal of, i. 10 as limited by climate, 1. 11 as limited by rivers, i. 12 how far limited by the sea, i. 13 dispersed by ice-floes and drift-wood, i. 14 means of dispersal of aquatic, 1. 15 of most importance in determining zoo- logical regions, i. 57 classification of, 1. 85 birthplace and migrations of some families of, 1. 142, 153 cosmopolitan groups of, 1. 176 of the Paliearctic region, 1. 181 of the European sub-region, 1. 192 of the Mediterranean sub-region, 1. 202 of the Siberian sub-region, 1. 217 characteristic of Western Tartary, 1. 218 of the Manchurian sub-region, 1. 222 Palsarctic genera of, in the Manchurian sub-region, i. 222 Oriental genera of, on borders of same sub-region, 1. 223 peculiar to Japan, i. 223 characteristic of N. W. China and Mongolia, i. 226 table of Palaearctic families of, 1. 234 range of Pal*arctic genera of, i. 239 of the Ethiopian region, 1. 253 absence of certain important groups, i. 253 1 of the K. African sub-region, i. 260 ' of W. Africa, i. 262 I of S. Africa, i. 267 586 GENERAL INDEX. Mammalia, of Madagascar, i. 272 Marsh, Mr., on iraprovability of Asiatic and table of Ethiopian families of, 1. 294 African de.serts, i. 200 table of Ethiopian . genera of, i. 300 ou camels and goats as destructive to of the Oriental region, i. S15 vegetation, i. 200 range of the genera inhabiting the Indian MARSUPIALIA, ii. 248 sub-region, i. 322 general remarks on the distribution of, of Ceylon, i. 327 ii. 253 of the Indo-Chinese sub-region, i. 330 Marsupials, classification of, i. 91 of the Indo-Malayan sub-region, i. 336 N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 illustration of characteristic Malayan, European Miocene, i. 121 i. 336 first migration to America, i. 155 of the Philippine Islands, i. 345 diversified forms of, i. 391 table of Oriental families of, i. 365 of America prove no connection with table of Oriental genera of, i. 371 Australia, i. 399 of Australian region, i. 390 list of Australian genera of, i. 476 of the Papuan Islands, i. 410 MARSUPIALIA and MONOTREM ATA, sum- of the Moluccas, i. 417 mary and conclusion, ii. 543 of the Timor group, i. 422 Mattes, N. American Tertiary, i. 135 of Celebes, i. 427 ii. 198 of Australia, i. 439 Mascarene Islands, zoology of, i. 280 illustration of, i. 439 extinct fauna of, i. 282 of New Zealand, i. 450 gigantic land-tortoises of, i. 289 table of families of Australian, 1. 470 Masius, ii. 102 table of genera of Australian, i. 475 MASTACEMBELID.(E, ii. 437 destinctive characters of Neotropical, ii. 6 Mastodon, European Pliocene, i. 113 of S. Temperate America, ii. 36 Miocene of Greece, i. 116 of Straits of Magellan, ii. 37 European Miocene, i. 120 of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 52 in Brazilian caves, i. 144 of the AntiUes, ii. 62 S. American Pliocene, i. 147 table of Neotropical families of, ii. 85 Indian Miocene, i. 123 table of Neotropical genera of, ii. 91 N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 1?0 of the Nearctic region, ii. 115 N. American Tertiary, i. 138 of California, ii. 127 ii. 227, 228 of N. American central plains ii. 129 Mauritius, zoology of, i. 280 of E. United States, ii. 132 reptiles of, i. 281 of Canada, ii. 135 McCoy, Professor, on Palaeontology o: table of Nearctic families of, ii. 140 Victoria, i. 466 table of Nearctic genera of, ii. 145 Mechanitis, ii. 470 Mammalia, extinct, of Old World, i. 107 Meda, ii. 452 extinct, of historic period, i. 110 Mediterranean, recent change.'' in, i. 39 extinct, comparative age of in Europe, i. sub-region, description of, i. 199 127 mammalia of, i. 202 extinct, of the New World, i. 129 birds of, i. 203 extinct, of N. America aild Europe, com- reptiles and amphibia of, i. 204 pared, i. 141 fresh-water fish of, i. 205 original birthplace of some families and insects of, i. 205 genera, i. 142, 153 islands of, i. 206 of the secondary period, i. 160 sea not separating distinct faunas, i. 201 MAMMALIA, summary and conclusion, ii.540 Megabias, ii. 270 lines of migration of, ii. 544 Megdblahes, ii. 376 Manakins, ii. 102 Magacephala, ii. 478 MANATJDvE, ii 210 Megacephalon, ii. 342 Manatus, N. American Post-Hiocene, i. 130 Megacerops, N. American Tertiary, i. 137 ii. 210 Megaderma, ii 182 Manchurian sub-region, description of, i. 220 Megcerophis, ii. 383 mainmalia of, i. 222 Megalwma, ii. 306 birds of, i. 223 MEGALiEMID^, ii. 305 reptiles and amphibia of, i. 227 MEGALiEMINiE. ii. 306 fresh-water fish of, i. 227 Megalixalus, ii. 419 insects of, i 227 Megalocnus, fossil in Cuba, i. 148 coleoptera of, i. 228 Megalomastoma, ii. 521 MANIDIDiE, ii. 245 Megalomeryx, N. American Tertiary, i. 138 Manis, ii. 245 Megalomma, ii. 487 Manorhina, ii. 276 Megalonyx, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 Manticora, ii. 487 in Brazilian caves, i. 145 Manucodia, ii. 274 S. American Pliocene, i. 147 Marcca, ii. 363 Megalophrys, ii. 421 Margaroperdix, ii. 338 Megalostoma, Eocene, i. 169 Margarops, ii. 256 Megalurus, ii. 258 Margarornis, ii. 103 Megalophonus, ii. 289 Marginella, ii. 508 Megamys, S. A.merican Eocene, i. 148 Marine Mollusca, general remarks on the ii. 238 distribution of, ii. 537 Meganostoma, ii. 478 Marine shells of the Neotropical region, ii. 20 MEGAPODIID^, ii. 341 Marmosets, ii. 175 Megapodius, ii. 342 Marquesas Islands, birds of, i. 443 Megaptera, ii. 207 GENERAL INDEX. 587 Megarhynchufs, ii. 101 Merycopotamus, Indian Miocene, i. 122 Megaspira, European Tertiary, i. 169 ii. 214 ii. 527 Merycotlierium, of Siberian drift, i. 112 Megatheridw, in Draziliau caves, i 145 ii. 217 Megatherium, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. MesoKodon, N. American Tertiary, i. 133 130 Mesapia, ii. 479 in Brazilian caves, i. 145 Mesites, ii. 263 S. American Pliocene, i. 147 Mesohippus, N. American Tertiarj-, i. 135 ii. 245 Mesomys, ii. 239 Meiornis, ii. 369 Mesonauta, ii. 438 Melampitta, ii. 298 Mesnnyx, N. American Tertiary, i. 134 Melampus, ii. 519 Mesopithecus, Miocene of Greece, i. 115 Melanerpes, ii. 303 ii. 178 Melania, Euiopean Secondary, 1. 169 Mesoprion, ii. 425 MELANIAD^, ii. 509 Mesops, ii. 439 MelanUis, ii. 471 Mesosemia, ii. 475 Melanochlora. ii. 266 Messalina, ii. 391 Melanocorypha, ii. 289 Messaras, ii. 474 MelanophwLiiim, ii. 374 Metallura, ii. 108 Melanoptila, ii. 256 Metapheles, ii. 476 Mekinotis, ii. 256 Methonella, ii. 476 MELEAGRIN^, ii. 340 Metius, ii. 492 Meleagris, N. American Miocene, i. 163 Metopia, ii. 102 ii. 340 JWefopiana, ii. 364 Meles, ii. 199 Metoponia, ii. 283 Melidectes, ii. 276 Metopothrix, ii. 102 Melidora, il. 316 Metriopelia, ii. 333 Melierax, ii. 348 Mexican sub-region, ii. ■''■1 Melincea, ii. 470 mammalia of, iL 52 Meliornis, ii. 275 birds of, il. 52 Meliphaga, ii. 275 reptiles of, ii. 54 MELlPHAGIDiE, ii. 275 amphibia of, il. 54 Melipotes, ii. 276 fresh-water fish of, ii. 54 Melirrkoph^tes, ii. 276 insects of, ii. 55 Melit(Ba,ii. 474 land-shells of, ii. 67 MelithrepUis, ii. 276 its relations to the N. and S. American Melittophagus, ii. 312 continents, ii. 57 MelizopMlus, ii. 259 islands of, ii. 59 Mellisiiga,n. 108 Meyer, Dr. A. B., on reptiles and amphibia of Mellivora, Indian Miocene, i. 121 New Guinea, i. 415 ii. 199 MicrcBca, ii. 270 Melolonthidium, Oolitic insect, i. 167 Micracantha, ii. 501 Melopelia, ii. 333 Micrastur, iL 347 MelopsiUacus, ii. 325 Micrathene, ii. 350 Melopyrrha, ii. 285 Micrhyla, iL 414 Melospiza, ii. 284 Mi<;robates, ii. 104 Melursus, ii. 202 Microcebus, ii. 176 Menetia, ii. 395 Microcereulus, ii. 264 Meniceros, ii. 317 Microchwra, ii. 107 Meniscotherium, N. American Tertiary, i. 138 Microglossus, ii. 325 Menobranchus, ii. 412 Microhierax, ii. 349 Menopoma, ii. 412 Microlestes, oldest European mammal, i. 16D MENOPOMIDiE, ii. 412 Micromeryx, European Miocene, i. 120 Menotherlum, N. American Tertiary, i. 133 ii. 220 Menura, ii. 298 Micropelama, ii. 353 MENURIDjE, ii. 298 Micropterniis, ii. 304 Mephitis, in Brazilian caves, i. 144 Micropterus, ii. 364 ' ii. 199 Microscelis, ii. 267 Merganetta, ii. 364 Microstoma, ii. 448 Mergulus, ii. 367 Microsyops, N. American Tertiary, i 133 Mergus, ii. 364 Microtheriitm, European Miocene, i. 120 Meriones, ii. 232 Midas, ii. 176 ii. 230 Middendorf, on extreme northern birds, i. 219 Meristes, ii. 272 Midea, ii. 478 Merluccms, ii. 439 Miglyptes, ii. 304 Jtfcroe, ii. 536 Migrating birds, in which legion to be placed. MEROPIDjE, ii. 312 i. 185 Meropiscus, ii. 312 Migration of animals, i. 10 Meropogon, ii. 312 general phenomena of, i. 18 Merops, ii. 312 of birds, i. 19 Merulaxis, ii. 297 of birds in Europe, i. 19 Merychvs, N. American Tertiary, i. 138 probable origin of, i 22 Merychippug, N. American Tertiary, i. 13.'', of birds in India and China, i. 23 Merychochcerus, N. American Tertiary, i. 138 of birds in N. America, i. 23 Merycodm, N. American Tertiary, i. 138 changes in extent of, i. 24 ii. 220 of birds in S. Temperate America, i. 25 GENERAL INDEX. Migration of animals, general remarks on, i. 25 Miletus, ii. 477 Milmlus, ii. 102, 291 Milvics, European Miocene, i. 162 ii. 349 Mimeta, ii. 268 Mimetes, ii. 170 Mimocichla, ii. 256 Mimus, ii. 256 Minla, ii. 266 Miocene fauna of the Old World, i. 1 14 fauna of Geece, i. 115 fauna of Greece, summary of, i. 116 fauna of Central Europe, i. 117 deposits of Siwalik Hills, i. 121 faunas of Europe and Asia, general obser- vations on, i. 123 Miohippus, N. American Tertiary, i. 135 Mionectes, ii. 101 Mirafra, ii. 289 Miro, ii. 260 Misgurnus, ii. 453 Mitra, ii. 508 Mitrephorus, ii. 102 Mitua, ii. 343 Mivart, Professor, on classification of pri- mates, i. 86 on classification of insectivora, i. 87 on classification of amphibia, i. 101 of classification of lemurs, ii..l76 Mixornis, ii. 261 Mniotilta, ii. 279 MNIOTILTID^, ii. 278 Mochocus, ii. 443 Mocoa, ii 397 Moho, ii. 276 Mole-rat of W. Tartary, i. 218 Mole-rats, ii. 231 Moles, almost whoUy Palsearctic, i. 181 ii. 190 MollienesM, ii. 450 Mollusca, means of dispersal of, i. 30 classification of, i, 104 groups selected for study, i. 104 MOLLUSCA, distribution of, ii. 504 range of families of, in time, ii. 538 Moluccas, zoology of, i. 417 birds of, i. 419 reptiles of, i. 420 insects of, i. 420 peculiarities of fauna of, i. 421 Molossus, ii. 184 Molothrm, ii. 282 Molva. ii. 439 MOMOTID^, ii. 313 Moinotus, ii. 3l5 Monachalcyon, ii. 316 Monarcha, ii. 270 Monasa, ii. 311 Monitor, ii. 389 Monkeys on the high Himalayas, i. 12 fossil in N. American Miocene, i. 13.1 in E. Thibet, i. 222 abundance of in the Oriental region, i. 315 Monoceros, ii. 507 Monodon, ii 208 MONODONTID^, ii. 208 Monoplocus, ii. 390 Monopteriis, ii. 455 Monotremata, classification of, i. 91 list of Australian genera of, i. 477 MONOTREMATA. ii. 253 remarks on the distribution of, ii. 254 Monotrophis, ii. 289 Montacuta, ii. 535 Monticola, ii. 256 Montifringilla, ii. 284 Morch, Dr., on Panama shells, ii. 20 Morelia, ii. 381 " More-pork " of Australia, figure of, i. 442 Morethria, ii. 395 Mormolyce, ii. 490 MORMYRID^, ii. 448 Momiyrops, ii. 448 Morinyrus, ii. 488 Morococcyx, ii. 309 Morotherium, N. American Pliocene, i. 140 MORPHID^E, ii. 472 Morphnus, ii. 348 Morpho, ii. 472 Morunga, ii. 204 Moschus, ii. 219 Motacilla, European Miocene, i. 161 ii. 290 MOTACILLIDjE, ii. 290 Motella, ii. 439 Moths, ii. 481 Motmots, ii. 313 Mound-builders, peculiar Australian birds, i. 393 Moupin, position and zoology of, i. 221 Mouse-deer, ii. 218 Moxostoma, ii. 451 Mugil, ii. 435 MUGILLIDiE, ii. 435 Mulleria, ii. 534 Mulleripicus, ii. 303 MULLID^, ii. 426 Mullus, ii. 426 Mungos, ii. 195 Munia, ii. 287 MURiENIDiE, ii. 456 Murcenopsis, ii. 412 Murex, ii. 507 MURICIDjE, ii. 507 Muridce, S. American Pliocene, i. 147 MURID^, ii. 229 Murray, Mr. Andrew, on zoological region. i, 60 Mus, ii. 229 Muscardinus, ii. 232 Museicapa, ii. 270 MUSCICAPID^, ii. 270 Muscicapula, ii. 270 Muscigralla, ii. 101 Muscipipra, ii. 101 Muscisaxicola, ii. 101, 291 Muscitodus, ii. 271 Muscivora, ii. 101 Musophaga, ii. 307 MUSOPHAGIDjE, ii. 307 Mussels, ii. 533 Miistela, Miocene of Greece, i. 115 European Miocene, i. 118 S. American Pliocene, i. 146 ii. 198 . Mzistelidce, in Brazilian caves, i. 144 MUSTELlDvE, ii. 1£- Mustchis, ii. 460 MYACWM, ii. 536 Myadora, ii. 536 Mycalesis, ii. 471 Mycerobas, ii. 284 Mycetes, ii. 175 ii. 178 Mycetopns, ii. 534 Mydmis, ii. 199 Myiadestes, ii. 260 Myiagra, ii. 271 Myiadestes, ii. 271 Myia,rchus, ii. 102, 291 GENERAL INDEX. 589 Myiohius, ii. 101 Myioceyx, ii. 316 Myioch nes, ii. 102 Myiodioctes, ii. 279 Myiodynastes, ii 101 Myiophonus, ii. 263 Myiopitheciis, ii, 173 Myiotheretes, ii. 100 Myiozetetes, ii. 101 Mylesinus, ii. 445 Myletes, ii. 445 MYLIOBATID^. ii. 463 Myliobatis, ii. 463 Mylodon, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 S. American Pliocene, i. 147 Mylopharadon, ii. 452 Mynes, iL 474 Myochama, ii. 536 Myodes, ii. 230 Myogale, European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 190, 191 Myoictis, ii. 249 Myomorphus, fossil in Cuba, i. 148 Myopotamus, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 ii. 239 Myospalax, ii. 230 MYOXlDiE, ii. 232 Myoxus, European Miocene, i. 120 European Eocene, i. 126 ii. 232 Myxomys, ii. 230 Myrina, ii. 477 Myrmeciza, ii. 104 MYRMECOBIID^, ii. 250 Mymecobius, ii. 250 Mynnecophaga, ii. 247 MYRMECOPHAGIDjE, u. 247 Mynnotherula, ii. 104 Myron, ii. 376 Myrtis, ii. 108 Mysarachne, European Miocene, i. 118 Mysaps, N. American Eocene, i. 140 ii. 231 Mystacina tubemdata, iL 184 Mystacoleucus, ii. 452 Mystacornis, ii. 258 Mystromys, ii. 230 MYTILID^, ii. 533 Mytilus, ii. 539 MYXINlDiE, ii. 464 Myxophagus, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 Myxophyes, ii. 420 Myxus, ii. 435 Myzomela, ii. 275 'M.yzornis, ii. 266 N. Ntenia, ii. 365 Naja, ii. 383 NANDID^, ii. 433 Nandinia, ii. 195 Nandus, ii. 433 Nanina, ii. 513 Nannophryne, ii. 417 Nannophrys, ii. 421 Nanodes, ii. 327 Nanohyus, N. American Tertiary, i. 137 ii. 215 Nnnotragus, ii. 224 Napeogenes, ii. 470 Napothera, ii. 261 Nardoa, ii. 381 Narwhal, ii. 208 Narope, ii. 472 Nasica, ii. 103 Nasitema, ii. 325 Nasita, in Brazilian caves, i. 144 ii. 200 Nathalis, ii. 478 Natica, ii. 539 NATICID^., ii. 508 Nautilus, ii. 539 NATRICINvE, ii. 375 2\attereria, ii. 417 Naudenis, ii. 349 Naiwratef:, ii. 429 Naidtinvs ii. 400 NAUTIT ID.'E, ii. 506 Navicella, ii. 510 Nearclu; ic^jiou, defined, i. 79 subdivisions of, i. 80 distinct from Palytarctic, i. 79 ii. 114 zoological characteristics of, ii. 115 mammalia of, ii. 115 birds of, ii. 116 reptiles of, ii. 119 amphibia of, ii. 120 fresh-water fishes of, ii. 120 summary of vertebrata of, ii. 120 insects of, ii. 122 laud and fresh-water shells of, ii. 124 sub-regions of, ii. 125 concluding remarks on, ii. 138 tables of distribution of animals of, ii. 139 Nearctic and Neotropical regions, no decided boundary between, ii. U7 Nehria, ii. 489 Necrornis, European Miocene, i. 161 NECTARINIIDyE, ii. 276 Nectarinia, ii. 276 Nectarophila, ii. 276 Nectogale, ii. 190 Necydalis, ii. 502 I Necyria, ii. 476 Nelicurvius, ii. 286 Nemachilus, ii. 453 Nematogenys, ii. 444 NEMEOBlIDiE, ii. 475 Ne-nuobius, ii. 475 NEMORHEDINjE, ii. 224 Nemorhedus, ii. 224 Nemnricola, ii. 290 Nemosia, ii. 99 Neobatrachxis, ii. 420 Neochloe, ii. 280 Neocorys, ii. 290 Neoctantes, ii 104 Neomeris, ii. 209 Neomorphiis, ii. 309 Neophasia, ii. 478 Neophron,-n. 346 Neopipo, ii. 102 Neopxis, ii. 348 NeorhyncMis, ii. 285 Neosorex, ii. 191 Neotovia.ii. 230 Neotomys, ii. 230 Nentragus, ii. 224 Neotropical region, defined, i. 78 subdivisions of, i. 78 relations of W. African sub-region witl:, i. 265 description of, ii. 1 zoological features of, ii. 5 birds of, ii. 6, 7 distinctive features of mammalia of, ii. 6 reptiles of, ii. 9 amphibia of, iL 11 590 GENERAL INDEX. Neotropical region, fresh-water fishes of, ii. 12 summary of vertebrates of, ii. 13 insects of, ii. 13 land-sliells of, ii. 19 marine shells of, ii. 20 summary of past history of, ii. 80 tables of distribution of animals of, ii. 84 Neotropical sub-regions, ii. 21 Neoziphius, ii. 208 Nephcecetes, ii. 320 NejJtis, ii. 474 NERIIIDjE, ii. 510 Ncritina, it. 510 Neropkis, ii. 457 Nesoceleus, ii. 303 Nesocichla, ii. 256 Nesodon, S. American Pliocene, 1. 147 Nesomys, ii. 230 Nesonetta, ii. 304 Nesopsar, ii. 282 Nessia, ii. 399 Nestor, ii. 329 NESTORIDiE, Ii. 329 Nettapus, ii. 363 Neusterophis, ii. 376 Newberry, Dr., on Cretaceous and Tertiary floras of N. America, ii. 155 Newton, Professor, on position of Mennridte and Atrichiidx, i. 95 on birds of Iceland, i. 198 on Neotropical sub-regions, ii. 25 on genus Camptokemus, ii. 39 on peculiar genera of Nearctic and Neo- tropical birds, ii. 118 on family Panuridce, ii. 262 Newtonia, ii. 270 Newts, ii. 413 New Caledonia, birds of, i. 444 New Guinea, zoology of, i. 409 mammalia of, i. 410 birds of, i. 411 peculiarities of its ornithology, i. 413 illustration of ornithology of, i. 414 reptiles and amphibia of, i. 415 insects of, i. 416 New Zealand, objections to making a primary zoological region, i. 62 extinct birds of, i. 164 sub-region, description of, i. 449 compared with British Isles, i. 449 mammalia of, i. 451 islets of, i. 453 illustration of ornithology of, i. 455 reptiles of, i. 456 amphibia of, i. 457 fresh-water fish of, 1. 457 insects of, i. 458 Longicorns of, i. 458 Myriapoda of, i. 458 land-shells of, i. 459 ancient fauna of, i, 460 origin of fauna of, i. 460 poverty of insects in, i. 462 relations of insect-fauna and flora of, i. 472 Nicator, ii. 272 Nicobar Islands, their zoological relations, i. 332 Nightingale, migration of the, i. 21 Night-jars, ii. 319 Nigidius, ii. 493 Nigrita, ii. 286 Nilaus, ii 272 Niltava, ii. 270 Ninox, ii. 350 Nisaetus, ii. 348 Nisoides, ii. 348 Nisoniades, ii. 480 NOCTILIONIDiE, ii. 184 Nocturnal tree snakes, ii. 379 Nonmda, ii, 311 Norbea, ii. 397 Norfolk Island, birds of, i, 453 Nortli Africa, zoological relatiens of, i. 202 North America, remarks on Post-Pliocene, fauna of, 1. 130 Post-Pliocene fauna of, partly derived from S. America, i. 131 extinct birds of, i. 163 Northern Hemisphere, zoological importance of, ii. 155 NOTACANTHI, ii. 437 Notaden, ii. 415 Notharctos, N. American Tertiary, 1. 133 Nothocerus, ii. 344 Nothocrax, ii. 343 Nothoprocta, ii. 344 Nothura, ii. 344 NOTIDANIDiE, ii. 461 Notiophilus, ii. 489 Notodela, ii. 259 Notoglanis, ii. 443 Notonomus, ii. 490 NOTOPTERIDiE, ii. 455 Notopholis, ii. 391 Notomis of New Zealand, i. 455 Notornis, ii. 352 Notothermm, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157 ii. 251 Nototrema, ii. 418 Noturus, ii. 442 Nvcifraga, ii 273 NUCLEO-BRANX'HIATA. li 531 Nucras, ii. 891 Numenius, ii. 3.')3 NUMIDIN^, ii. 340 Numida, ii. 340 Nuria, ii. 452 Nuthatches, ii. 265 Nutria, ii. 199 NycMa, ii. 350 Nyctahitinus, ii. 350 Nyctalemon, ii. 482 Nyctalops, ii. 350 Nyctea, ii. 350 Nyctereutes, ii. 197 Nycteris, ii. 182 Nyctibius, ii. 319 Nycticorax, ii. 359 Nyctidromius, ii. 320 Nyctiornis, ii. 312 Nyctipithecus, ii. 175 Nyctiprogne, ii. 320 Nymphalis, ii. 474 NYMPHALID^, ii. 473 Nymphicus, ii. 325 Nymphidium, ii. 476 O. Ochetobius, ii. 452 Ochotherium, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 ii. 245 OchthcBca, ii. 100 Ochthodiceta, ii. 100 Octndontid(e, S. American Pliocene, i. 147 OCTODONTIDiE, ii. 237 Ortodon, ii. 238 OCTOPODIDiE, ii. 505 Ocyalus, ii. 282 Ocydromvs, ii. 352 Ocyphaps, ii. 333 GENERAL INDEX. 591 Odontochila, ii- 4S6 Odontolabris, ii. 4ii3 Odontophor'us, ii. 339 Odontophrynus, ii. 420 (Edemia, ii. 364 Qidicnemis, ii. 355 O'edura, ii. 399 CEiut, ii. 332 Ogmodon, ii. 383 Ogyris, ii. 477 OUgdon, ii. 375 OLIGODONTID.E, ii. 374 OUgosarciiS, ii. 445 Olisthoinis, ii. 489 Olylogon, ii. 418 Olyra, ii. 442 Omwsei/s, ii. 489 Ommatophoca, ii. 204 Omolepida, ii. 397 Omosttnus, ii. 492 Omphalotropis, ii. 521 Om«s, ii. 487 ONCIDIADjE, ii. 517 Oncidium, ii. 518 Onychodactylus, ii. 413 Onychogcde, ii. 195 Onychogalea, ii. 251 Onychognathus, ii. 288 Onchorhyiiclms, ii. 447 OTicostoHio, ii. 101 Ophidia, classification of, i. 99 OPHIDIA, ii. 372 remarks on the general distribution of, ii. 380 fossil, ii. 387 OPHIDIID^, ii. 440 Ovhidiuni, ii 440 OPHIOCEPHALIDiE, ii 435 Ophiodes, ii. 397 OPHIOMORID^, ii. 398 Ophionwrus, ii. 398 Ophiophagus, ii. 383 Ophiops, ii 391 Ophioscineus, ii. 397 Ophisaurvs, ii. 392 Ophites, ii. 380 Ophonus, ii. 489 Ophryodera, ii. 487 Ophysia, ii. 209 OPISTHO-BRANCHIATA, ii. 529 OPISTHOCOMI, ii. 345 OpisthocoiMis, Brazilian caves, i. 164 ii. 345 Opisthodelphys, ii. 418 Opisthostoma, ii. 520 Opistlioporus, ii. 520 Oporornis, ii. 279 Opossvvi, extinct in European Miocene, i. 121 Opossums, ii. 248 Opsariichthys, ii. 452 Opsiphanes, ii. 472 Orang-utan, ii. 171 Orca, ii. 209 Orcaella, ii. 209 Orchesticus, ii. 99 Orchilus, ii. 101 Orws, ii. 223 Oretcola, ii. 260 Oreinit^, ii. 452 Oreocephalus, ii. 401 Oreocincla, ii. 256 Oreodeira, ii. 401 Oreodon, N. American Tertiary, i. l.'fS Oreodontidce, N. American Tertiary i. 138 Oreosca, ii. 271 Oreomanes, ii. 278 Oreoiiecte«, ii. 453 Oreonympha, ii. 108 Oreoperdix, ii. 338 OREOPHASINyE, ii. 343 Oreophasis, ii. 343 Oreophilus, ii. 356 Oreopyra, ii. 107 Oreortyx, iL 339 Oreoscoptes, ii. 256 Oreothraupis, ii. 99 Oreotrochihis, ii. 107 Orestias, ii. 450 Oriental region, defined, i. 75 subdivisions of, i 75 description of, i. 314 zoological featurts of, i. 315 mammalia of, i.. 315 birds of, i. 316 reptiles of, i. 317 amphibia of, i. 317 fresh-water fishes of, i. 318 summary of verfebiata of, i. 318 insects of, i. 318 sub-regions of, i. 321 concluding remarks on, i. 362 tables of distribution of animals of, 1. 364 Oriental relations of W. African sub-region, i. 265 Oriental and Patearctic faunas once identical, i. 362 Oriental and Ethiopian faunas, cause of their resemblances, i. 363 Origma, ii. 260 Oriocalotes, ii. 402 Orioles, ii. 268 ORIOLIU^, ii. 268 Orioliis, ii. 268 Orites, ii. 266 Ornithion, ii. 101 ORNITHORHYNCHIDiE, ii. 253 Ornithorhynchus, ii. 253 OroccBtes, ii. 256 OroUippxis, N. American Tertiary, i 136 Ortalida, ii. 343 Orthagoriscus, ii. 457 Orthalicus, ii. 516 ORTHID^, ii. 532 ORTHOCERATlDiE ii. 506 Orthodon, ii 452 Orthogonms, ii. 491 Orthogonys, ii. 98 Orthonyx, ii. 260 Orthorhynchvs, ii. 108 Orthotomus, ii. 257 Ortygometra, ii. 352 Ortygornis, ii. 338 Ortyx, ii. 339 Ortyxelos, ii. 341 ORYCTEROPODIDvE, ii. 246 Orycteropns, ii. 24G Orycterus, ii. 231 ORYGIN^, ii. 223 Oryx, ii. 2:;3 Oryzoborus, iL 285 Oryzorictes, ii. 188 Osmerxis, ii. 447 Osphranter, ii. 251 Osteobrama, ii. 453 Osteochilus, ii. 451 Osteogeniostts, ii. 443 OSTEOGLOSSIDiE, ii. 454 Osteoglossum, ii. 454 Ostinops, ii. 282 OSTREID^, ii. 533 Ostrich, Miocene of N. India, i. 162 Ostriches, ii. 368 592 GENERAL INDEX. Otaria, European Miocene, i. IIS Palsearctic region, land-shells of, i. 190 ii. 202 sub-regions of, i. lyO OTARIID^, ii. 202 general conclusions on the fauna of, 1. 231 OTIDID^, ii. 356 tables of distribution of animals of, i. 233 Otidiphaps, ii. .333 Palceacodon, N. American Tertiary, i. 133 Otilophus, ii. 416, 428 PalcBetus, European Miocene, i. 162 Otis, ii. 350 Palaegithalux, European Eocene, i. 162 Otocorys, ii. 289 Palalodus, European Miocene, i. 162 Otocryptis, ii. 402 Pakeocastor, N. American Tertiary, i. 140 Otogyps, ii. 346 ii. 234 Otomys, ii. 230 Palmocercus, European Miocene, i. 162 Otopoma, ii. 621 Palceochcenis, European Miocene, i. 119 Ovihos, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 ii. 215 ii. 224, 225 Palceocyon, ii. 198 Owl-parrot, ii. 329 Palceohierax, European Miocene, i. 162 Owls, ii. 350 Pakvolagus, N. American Tertiary, i. 140 Oxen, birth-place and migrations of, i. 155 PalcEolama, S. American Pliocene, i. 147 Paliearctic, i. 182 ii. 217 ii. 221 Palceomephitis, European Miocene, i. 118 OXUDERCIDjE, ii. 431 ii. 200 Oxyana, N. American Tertiary, i. 134 PaUeomeryx, European Miocene, i. 120 Oxydoras, ii. 443 ii. 220 Oxyglossus, ii. 421 Palceomys, European Miocene, i. 121 Oxygomphus, European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 238 ii. 186 Palaxmtina oolitica, Oolitic insect, i. 167 Oxylabes, ii. 262 Palaeontology, i. 107 Oxymycterus, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 how best studied in its bearing on geo- S. American Pliocene, i. 147 graphical distribution, i. 168 ii. 230, 231 as an introduction to the study of geo- Oxynotus, ii. 269 graphical distribution, concluding re- Oxypogon, ii. 108 marks on, i. 169 OXYRHAMPHID^, ii. 292 Palmonyctis, European Eocene, i 125 Oxyrhamphus, ii. 292 Palmoperdix, European Miocene, i. 161 Oxyrhopus, ii. 379 Palceophr:iiivs. European Miocene, i. 166 Oxyurus, ii. 103 PalcBorms, Miocene of Greece, i. 116 Oysters, ii. 533 Palceorniii, ii. 326 PALiEORNITHIDiE, ii. 326 Palceonyctis, ii. 196, 206 P. Palceortyx, European Miocene, i. 161 PalfBoryx, Miocene of Greece, i. 116 Pachyiatrachus, ii. 416 Palceospakix, i. Ill Pachycephala, ii. 271 European Miocene, i. 117 PACHYCEPHALIDjE, ii. 271 ii. 190 Pachydactyhis, ii. 400 Palceosyops, N. American Tertiary, i. 136 Pachytena, N. American Tertiary, i. 134 Palceotheridce, European Eocene, i. 125 Pachyglossa, ii. 277 Palceotherium, European Eocene, i. 125 Pachynolophus, European Eocene, i. 126 S. American Eocene, i 148 Pachyrhamphus, ii. 102 Palceotragtis, Miocene of Greece, i. 116 Pachyrhynchus, ii. 391 Palaotringa, N. American Cretaceous, i. 164 Pachy teles, ii. 490, 492 Pakmiedea, ii. 361 Pachytherium, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 PALAMEDEID^, ii. 361 ii. 246 Pahipteri/gidce of New Zealand, i. 164 Pachyura, ii. 191 PALAPTERYGIDtE, ii. 370 Pceocephalus, ii. 328 Palapteryx, ii. 370 PcBcilm, iL 489 Palestine, birds of, i. 203 Pagellus, ii. 427 Pallasia, ii. 289 Pagomys, ii 204 Paloplotherium, European Miocene, i. 119 Pagophila, ii. 364 European Eocene, i. 125 Pagophilus, ii. 204 Paludicola, ii. 416 PaguTiia, ii. 195 Palitdina, Eocene, i. 169 PAICTID^, ii. 298 European Secondary, i. 169 Palaearctic region, ancient limits of, ii. 157 ii. 510 defined, i. 171 PALUDINID^, ii. 510 subdivisions of, i. 71 Pampas, Pliocene deposits of, i. 146 general features of, 1. 180 Pamphila, ii. 480 zoological charcteristics of, i. 181 Panda, of Nepaul and B. Thibet, i. 222 has few peculiar families, i. 181 Himalayan, figure of, i. 331 mammalia of, i. 181 ii. 201 birds of, i. 182 Pandion, ii. 349 high degree of speciality of, i. 184 PANDIONID^, ii. 349 reptiles and amphibia of, i. 186 Pangasius, ii. 442 fresh-water fish of, i. 186 Pangolin, ii. 245 snmmary of vertebrata of, i. 186 Panolax, N. American Tertiary, i. 140 Insects of, i. 186 Panopcea, ii. 536 coleoptera of, i. 187 Panoplites, ii. 107 number of coleoptera of, i. 189 Panterpe, ii. 109 GENERAL INDEX. 593 Pantlialops, ii. 223 PANURIDiE, ii. 262 Panurus, ii. 262 Panychlora, ii. 109 Panyptila. ii. 320 Paper-Nautilus, ii. 505 Paphia, ii. 474 Papilio, ii. 479 PAPILIONIDjE, ii 479 Papuan Islands, zouluyy of, i. 409 Paracanthobrama, ii. 452 Paradigalla, ii. 275 Paradiplomyslax, ii. 443 Paradisea, ii. 274 Paradise-bird, twelve-wired, figure of, 1. 414 Paradise-birds, ii. 274 PARADISEID^, ii. 274 PABADISEINiE, ii. 274 Paracloxornis, ii. 262 Paradoxxirus, ii. 195 Parahippus, N. American Tertiary, i. 136 Paralabraz, ii. 425 Paramys, N. American Eocene, i. 140 ii. 236 Parandra, ii. 501 Paraphoxiniis, ii. 452 Pardalotus, ii. 277 Pareas, ii. 380 Parodon, ii. 445 Pareudiastes, ii. 352 PARIDjE, ii. 265 Pariodon, ii. 444 Parisoma, ii. 266 Parmacella, ii. 517 Parmarion, ii. 517 Parmophorus, ii. 511 Pamassius, ii. 479 Paroaria, ii. 2S4 Parotia, ii. 274 Parra, ii. 355 PARRIDjE, ii. 354 Parroquet, Papuan, figure of, i. 415 Parrots, classification of, i. 96 ii. 324, 329 Partridges, ii. 338 Partula, ii. 515 Parula, ii. 279 Pants, ii. 265 Pasimachiis, ii. 490 Passemdus, ii. 284 Passerella, ii. 284 Passeres, arrangement of, i. 94 range of Palsearctic genera of, i. 243 range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 306 range of Oriental genera of, i. 375 range of Australian genera of, i. 478 PASSERES, ii. 255 general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 299 Passcrita, ii. 379 Pastor, ii. 287 Patagona, ii. 108 Patella, iL 539 PATELLIDiE, ii. 511 Patriofelis, N. American Tertiary, i. 134 Patrobus, ii. 489 Pauxi, ii. 343 Pavo, ii. 340 PAVONINjE, ii. 340 Paxilhis, ii. 520 Pearl-oysters, ii. 533 Pease, Mr. Harper, on Polynesian region of Land-shells, ii. 528 Peccaries, ii. 215 Pectinator, 11 238 Peculiar groups, geograpliically, how defined, ii. 184 Pedetes, ii. 232 PEDICUIiATI, ii. 431 Pedioccetes, ii. 339 Pedionomiis, ii. 356 PEGASID.E, ii. 456 . Pelagius, ii. 204 Pelagornis, European Miocene, i. 162 Pelamis, ii. 384 Pclargopsis, ii. 316 Pcl^a ii. 224 PELECANIDjE, ii. 365 Pelecanoides, ii. 365 Pekcanvs, ii. 365 Pelecium, ii. 490 Pelecus, ii. 453 Pelicans, ii. 365 Peliperdix, ii. 338 Pellorneum, ii. 261 Pdobates, ii. 417 PELODRYADiE, il 418 Pelodryas, ii. 418 Pelodytes, ii. 421 Pelomedusa, ii. 409 Pelomys, ii. 230 Pelonax, N. American Tertiary, i. 138 Peloperdix, ii. 338 Pelotrophxis, ii. 453 Peltaphryne, ii. 415 Peltocephalus, ii. 408 Peltopelor, ii. 385 Peltops, ii. 270 Penelope, ii. 343 Penelopides, ii. 317 Penelopina, ii. 343 PENELOPINjE, ii. 343 Penetes, ii. 472 Penguins, ii. 366 Pentadactylus, ii. 399 Peiitila, ii. 477 Peragalea,, ii. 250 Perameles, ii. 250 PERAMELID.E, i;. 250 Perathervum, European Miocene, i. 121 European Eocene, i. 126 ii. 249 Perca, ii. 425 Percarina, i. 425 Perchcerus, N. American Tertiary, i. 137 ii. 215 Percilia, ii. 425 Percichthys, ii. 425 PERCIDiE, ii. 425 Percnosiola, ii. 104 PERCOPSID^, ii.448 Perciis, ii. 489 Perdix, 338 Pericallus, ii. 490 Pericrocotus, ii. 268 Peridexia, ii. 487 Perim Island, extinct mammalia of, i. 122 probable southern limit of old Palsearctic land, i. 362 character of fossils of, ii. 157 PeriopthaliMis, ii. 430 Perisoreus, ii. 273 Perissodactyla, N. American Tertiary, i. 135 Perissoglossa, ii. 279 Peristera, ii. 333 Peristethiis, ii. 428 Periwinkle, ii. 510 Pernis, ii. 349 Perodictinis, ii. 176 Perognathus, ii. 233 Peropus, ii. 399 594 GENERAL INDEX. Persia, birds of, i. 204 Petasophora, ii. 108 Petmirista, ii. 252 Petenia, ii. 438 Petrochelklon, ii. 281 Petrodromtts, ii. 186 Petrels, ii. 365 Petrccca, ii. 260 Petrogale, ii. 251 Petromys, ii. 239 Petropha,ssa, ii. 333 Petrorhynchus, ii. 208 Petroscirtes, ii. 431 Peuccea, ii. 284 Pezophaps, ii. 334 Pezoponis, ii. 325 Pfeifferia, ii. 516 Phacellodomus, ii. 103 Phacochcerus, ii. 215 Phcenicophaes, ii. 309 Phcenicophilus, ii. 99 Phcenicothraiipis, ii. 98 PhcKnopepla, ii. 280 Phceochroa, ii. 107 Phceolcema, ii. 107 PhcBoptila, ii. 109 Phaethoriiis, ii. 107 Phaeton, ii. 365 Phalacrocorax, ii. 365 Phalangers, ii. 251 Phalangista, ii. 252 Phalangistidae, ii. 251 Phalaropus, ii. 353 Phapitreron, ii. 333 Phaps, ii. 333 Pharoitiacrus, ii. S14 PhascogaU, ii. 249 Phascolarctos, ii. 252 PHASCOLOMYID^, ii. 252 Phascolomys, Australian Post-Tertiarv. i 157 PHASIANID^, ii. 339 PHASIANIN^, ii. 340 Phasiamis, Miocene of Greece, i. 116 European Post-Pliocene, L 161 ii. 340 Phasidics, ii. 340 Phatagiii ii.'245 Pheasants, in European Miocene, i. 161 golden, of N. China, i. 226 eared, of Mongolia, i. 226 ii. 339 Phedina, ii. 281 Phelsuma, ii. 400 Phenacodtis, N. American Tertiary, i. 138 Pheropsophm, ii. 489 PheiKticiis, ii. 285 Phibalura, ii. 102 PhVagetes, ii. 502 Philemon, ii. 276 Philentoma, ii. 271 Philepitta, ii. 298 Philetcerus, iL 286 Philodryas, ii. 376 Philippine Islands, mammals of, i 345 birds of, i. 346 origin of peculiar fauna of, i. 448 Philohela, ii. 353 Philomycus, ii. 517 Philydor, ii. 103 PHILYDORIN^, ii. 295 PhlcEomys, ii. 230 PhltBocryptes. ii. 103 Phlogcema, ii. 333 Phlogophilus, ii. 108 Phlogopsis, ii. 104 Phlogothraupis, iL 98, 283 PAoca, ii. 204 Phocmna, ii. 209 Phncidce, N. American Tertiary, i. 140 PHOCID.E, ii. 203 Pkodilus, ii 350 Phcenicocercus, ii. 102, 293 Phcenkophaes, ii. 309 PH(ENICOPTERID^, ii. 361 - Phcenicopterus, ii. 361 PHOLADID^, ii. 537 Pholadomya, ii. 536 Phokoptynx, ii. 350 Pholidotus, ii. 245 Pholidotus, ii. 493 Phonipara, ii. 284 Phorus, ii. 510 PAos, ii. 507 Phractocephahis, iL 442 Phrygilus, ii. 284 PHRYNISCIDjE, iL 414 Phrynisnis, ii. 414 Phrynobatrachus, ii. 421 Phrynocephalus, ii. 402 PhrynoghssKS, ii. 421 Phrynorhombus, ii 441 Phrynosoma, ii. 401 Phycis, ii. 439 Phyllastrephus, ii. 267 PHYLLIDIAD^, iL 530 Phyllobates, ii. 419 Phyllodactyhis, ii. 399 Phyllomedusa, ii. 418 Phyllomyias, ii. 101 PhyJlomys, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 ii. 239 Phyllornis, ii. 267 PHYLLORNITHID^, ii. 237 Phylloscartes, i\. 101 PHYLLOSCOPIN^E, ii. 257 Phylloscopus. ii. 258 PhyllostomidcB, in Brazilian caves, i. 144 PHYLLOSTOMID^, ii. 181 Phyllunis, ii. 400 PHYLLYRHOID^, ii. 530 PhynuLturus, ii. 401 PAj/sa, ii. 518 Phymlus, ii. 207 Physeter, European Pliocene, i. 112 ii. 208 Physical changes affecting distribution, i. 7 Physignathus, ii. 402 PHYSOSTOMI, ii. 441 Phytala, ii. 477 Phytotoma, ii. 294 PHYTOTOMIDjE. iL 294 Phyton, ii. 502 Piabitca, ii. 445 Piabucina, ii. 445 Piaya, ii. 309 Pica, ii. 273 Picariae, arrangement of, i. 95 range of Palaearctic genera of, i. 247 range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 309 range of Oriental genera of, i. 381 range of Australian genera of, i. 482 PICARt^, ii. 302 general remarks on the distribution of, ii 322 Picathartes, ii. 274 PickoTvus, ii. 273 PICID^, iL 302 Picoides, ii. 303 Picolaptes, ii. 103 Picumniis, ii. 303 Picus, European Miocene, i. 161 ii. 303 GENERAL INDEX. 595 PIERID.E, ii. 478 Pieris, ii. 478 Fiezia, ii. 491 Pigeons, classification of, i. 96 remarkable development of, in the Aus- tralian region, i. 395 crested, of Australia, figure of, i. 441 ii. 331 abundant in islands, ii. 335 Pigs, power of swimming, i. 13 Pikas, ii. 242 Pike, ii. 449 Pikermi, Miocene fauna of, i 115 Pilchard, ii. 454 Pileoma, ii. 425 Pimelodvs, ii. 443 Piitiephales, ii. 452 Pinacodera, ii. 490 Pinicola, ii. 285 Pinulia, ii. 191 Pimhus, ii. 328 Pipa, ii. 422 PIPID^, ii. 421 Pipile, i. 343 Pipilo, ii. 284 Piping crows, ii. 27S Pipra, ii. 102, 292 Pipreola, ii. 102 PIPRID^, ii. 102 Pipridea, 11. 98 Piprisortui, ii. 277 Pipriks, ii. 102, 292 Pirumutana, ii. 442 Piratinga, ii. 443 Pirinainpus, ii. 443 Pitangus, ii. 101 Pithecia, ii. 175 Pithecopsis, ii. 420 Pithys, ii. 104 Pitta, ii. 298 Pittas, ii. 297 Pittasovia, ii. 104 Pittidse, abundant in Borneo, i. 355 PITTIDiE, ii. 297 Pituaphis, ii. 375 Pit-vipers, ii. 384 » Pitylus, ii. 99 Pityriasis, ii. 273 Plagiodontia, ii. 238 Plagiolophus, European Eocene, i. 126 Plagiotelivm, ii. 492 PLAGIOSTOMATA, ii. 460 Planetes, ii. 490 Planorbis, European Secondary, i. 169 Eocene, i. 169 ii. 518 Plantain-eaters, ii. 307 Plant-cutters, ii. 294 Plants, distribution of, probably the same fundamentally as that of animals, ii. 162 Platacanthomys, ii. 230 Platalea, ii. 360 PLATALElDiE, ii. 360 Platanista, ii. 209 Platemys, ii. 408 Platwiis, ii. 384 Platycercidce, gorgeously-coloured Australian parrots, i. 394 PLATYCERCID.*, ii. 325 Platycemis, li. 325 Platychile, ii. 487 Platygonus, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 ii. 215 PIntylophus, ii. 273 Platymantis, ii. 419 Platynematichthys, ii. 44? Platymis, ii. 489 rhitiiiKiriluK, ii. 450 PLATYKIlYNCHINiE, li. 291 Platyrliynrhus, ii. 101 Platysaunis, ii. 392 Platysoma, ii. 489 Platyslira,i i. 271 Platystoma, ii. 442 Platyslovwtkhthys, ii. 442 Plecoglossus, ii. 447 Plecostmnus, ii. 444 Plecntus, ii. 183 PLECTDGNATHI, ii. 457 PLECTROMANTIDjE, ii. 417 Plectromantis, ii. 417 Plectrophanes, ii. 280 Plectropterus, ii. 363 Plectrotre'ma, ii. 519 PlectuTus, ii. 374 Plesiarctomys, European Eocene, i. 126 ii. 236 Plesiomeryx, European Eocene, i. 126 PUsiosorec, European Miocene, i. 118 Plesiiodon, ii. 397 Plethodon, ii. 413 PLEUROBRANCHID.S:, ii. 530 Pleurodeles, ii. 413 Pleurodema, ii. 420 Plevi-onectes, ii. 441 PLEURONECTIDiE, ii. 440 Pleurostrichvs, ii. 392 Pleurotoma, ii. 508 Pleurotomaria, ii. 539 Pliocene period, Old World, mammalia of, 1. 112 Pliocene and Post-Pliocene faunas of Europe, general conclusions from, i. 113 of N. America, i. 132 of S. America, i. 146 of Australia, i. 157 Pliohippus, N. American Tertiary, i. 135 Pliolophus, European Eocene, i. 126 ii 216 PUopithecus, European Miocene, i. 1 7 ii. 178 PLOCEID^, ii. 286 Plocepasser, ii. 286 Ploceits, ii. 286 Plotosns, ii. 441 Plotus. ii. 365 Plovers, ii. 355 Pluvianellus, ii. 356 Pluvianus, ii. 355 PLYCTOLOPHIDiE, ii. 324 Pnoepyga, ii. 263 Podabnis, ii. 249 Podager, ii. 320 PODARGID^, li. 318 Podargtis, li. 318 Podica, ii. 352 Podiceps, ii. 367 PODICIPID^, ii. 366 Podilymbus, ii. 367 Podocnemis, ii. 408 Pabrotherium, N. American Tertiarj-, i. 138 ii. 217 Pcecilia, ii. 450 Pacilophis, ii. 383 Pcecilothraupi^, ii. 98 Poephagus, ii. 222 Poepkila, ii. 287 Pogo-imcichla, ii. 271 POGONORHYNCHINiE, ii. 306 Pogonorliynchu.'!, ii. 306 Pogonornis, ii 275 596 GENERAL INDEX. Pogonostoma, ii. 487 Pogonotriccus, ii. 101 Pohlia, ii. 418 Poiana, ii. 195 Polemistria, ii. 107 Polioaetus, ii. 349 PoKococcyx, ii. 309 Polwhierax, ii. 349 Poliopsitta, ii. 328 PoKoptila, ii. 258 Pollanisvs, ii. 481 POLYBORINjE, ii. 347 Polyboroides, 11. 347 Polyborus, ii. 347 Polyhothris, ii. 497 POLYCENTRID^, ii. 434 Polycesta, ii. 479 POLYDONTlDiE, ii. 459 Polyhirma, ii. 491 POLYNEMIDyE, ii. 429 Polyommdttis, ii. 477 Polynesian sub-region, description of, i. 442 birds of, i. 443 reptiles of, i. 447 Polypedates, ii. 419 POLYPEDATID^E, ii. 419 Polypi, ii. 505 Polyplectron, ii. 340 Polyprion, ii. 425 POLYPTERID^, ii. 458 Potypterus, ii. 458 Polytelis, ii. 325 Pomttcanthus, ii. 427 POMACENTRID.E, ii. 437 Pomacentrus, ii. 437 Pomatias, ii. 521 Pomatorhiniui, ii. 261 Pomotis, ii. 425 Pomplwlyx, ii. 518 Pontia, ii. 478 Pontoporia, ii. 209 Pofficctes, ii. 284 Poodytes, ii. 258 Poospiza, ii. 284 Porcupines, ii. 240 Poritia, ii. 477 Porphyrio, ii. 352 Porpoises, ii. 208 Portax, ii. 223 Porzana, ii. 352 Post-Pliocene, mammalia of Europe, i. 110 remains imply changes of physical geo- graphy in Europe, i. Ill fauna of N. America, i. 129 fauna of N. America, remarks on, 1. 130 Potamidcs, ii. 509 Potamochmrus, ii. 215 Potamodns, ii. 258 Potamogale of W. Africa, figure of, i. 264 Poiamogale, ii. 189 POTAMOGALID^, ii. 189 Potamothcrium, European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 200 Potto of W. Africa, figure of, i. 264 ii. 176 Pouched Rats, ii. 233 Praotherium, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 Pratinrola, ii. 260 Pratincole*!, ii. 355 Presbytrs, ii. 171 # Prepona, ii. 474 Primates, classification of, i. 86 probable birthplace of, i. 153 range of Palspari'tic genera of, i. 239 range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 300 Primates, range of Oriental genera of, i. 371 range of Australian genera of, i. 475 Privuites, European Pliocene, i. 112 Miocene of Greece, i. 115 European Miocene, i. 117 Indian Miocene, i. 121 European Eocene, i. 124 N. American Tertiary, i. 132 of Brazilian caves, i. 144 PRIMATES, distribution of, ii. 170—180 general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 179 summary and conclusion, ii. 540 Prince's Island, birds of, i. 266 Prinia, ii. 257 Prio7i, ii. 365 Prioneris, ii. 478 PRIONIDjE, ii. 498 Prionidiuvi, Oolitic insects, i. 167 Prionirhynchus, ii. 313 Prioniturus, ii. 326 Prionochilus, ii. 277 Prionodontes, ii. 246 Prionops, ii. 272 Prionoteles, ii. 314 PRISTIDiE. ii. 462 Pristimantis, ii. 419 PRISTIOPHORID^, ii. 462 Pristiphoca, in European Pliocene, i. 112 ii. 204 PRISTIPOMATIDiE, ii. 426 Pristiuriis, ii. 461 Pristonychus, ii. 489 Proboscidea, classification of, i. 90 range of Ethiopian genus, i. 303 range of Oriental genus, i. 374 Proboscidea, European Pliocene, i. 113 Miocene of Greece, i. 116 European Miocene, i. 120 Indian Miocene, i. 122 N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 N. American Tertiary i. 138 of Brazilian caves, i. 144 S. American Pliocene, i. 147 PROBOSCIDEA, ii. 227 summary and conclusion, ii. 542 Procamelus, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 N. American Tertiary, i. 138 ii. 217 Procapra, ii. 223 Procarduelis, ii. 283 Procellaria, ii. 365 PROCELLARIIDiE, ii. 365 Procerus, ii. 488 ii. 489 Prochilodus, ii. 445 Prochilus, ii. 202 Procnias, ii. 98 Procris, ii. 481 Procrustes, ii. 488 ii. 489 Proctotretiis, ii. 401 Procyon, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 ii. 200 Procyonida:, in Brazilian caves, i. 144 PROCYONID^, ii. 200 PRODUCTION, ii. 532 Progne, ii. 281 Promecoderus, ii. 490 Promephitis, Miocene of Greece, i. 115 European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 200 Promerops of East Africa, figure of, i. 261 Promerops, ii. 276 Pronophilia, ii. 471 Propal/eotherivm, European Eocene, i. 126 GENERAL INDEX. 597 Proparns, ii. 266 Propyrrhula, ii. 285 Prorastoriius, ii. 211 Proserpina, ii. 5'27 PRO.SOBRANCHIATA, ii. 507 Proslhemadera, ii. 275 PROTEID.E, ii. 412 Proteles, ii. 196 PROTELID^, ii. 196 Protemnodon, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157 ii. 251 Proteus, ii. 412 Prothoe, ii. 474 Protohippus, N. American Tertiary, i. 135 Protomeryx, N. American Tertiary, i. 138 ii. 217 Protonopsis, ii. 412 Protonotaria, ii. 279 Protopithecus, in Brazilian caves, i. 144 ii. 17S Protopterus, ii. 458 Protoruis, European Eocene, i. 162 Prototomtis, N. American Tertiary, i. 134 Prototroctes, ii. 446 Psalidoprogne, ii. 281 Psaltria, ii. 266 Psaltriparus, ii. 266 Psammodromus, ii. 391 Psaminodynastes, ii. 377 Psammomys, ii. 230 PSAMMOPHID^, ii. 377 Psammophis, ii. 377 Psammosaurtis, ii. 389 Psarisomus, ii. 295 Psephotus, ii. 325 Pseudacris, iL 418 Pseudcelurus, European Miocene, i. Hi ii. 194 Pseudalopex, ii. 197 Pseudecheneis, ii. 444 Pseudechis, ii. 383 Pseudeutropi-us, ii. 442 Pseudis, ii. 420 Pseudobagrtts, ii. 442 Pseitdohias, ii. 270 Pseudobufo, ii. 415 Pseudochalceus, ii. 445 Psevdochelidon, ii. 312 Pseudocolaptes, ii. 103 Pseudocordylus, ii. 392 Pseudocyon, European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 198 Pseudodipsas, ii. 477 Pseiidogobio, ii. 452 Pseudogryphis, ii. 346 Psendogyps, ii. 346 Pseudohage, ii. 383 Pseudolabuca, ii. 453 Pseudoleistes, ii. 282 Pseudomorpha, ii. 490 Pseudoviys, ii. 230 Psendonaje, ii. 383 Pseudoperilampus, ii. 452 PSEUDOPHIDIA, ii. 411 Pseudophryne, ii. 414 Pseudopontia, ii. 478 Pseudopus, ii. 392 Psevdorasbora, ii. 452 Pseudorca, ii. 209 Pseudoscops, ii. 350 Psetidoxiphcphorus, ii. 450 Psilopogon, ii. 306 Psiloptera, ii. 497 Psilorhamphtcs, ii. 104 Psilorhinvs, ii. 273 Psilorhynchus, ii. 453 Psittaci, classification of, i. 96 range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 311 range of Oriental genera of, i. 383 range of Australian genera of, i. 484 PSITTACI, ii. 324 general remarks on the distribution of, 329 PSITTAGID^, ii. 328 Psittamila, ii. 328 Psittacus, European Miocene, i. 161 ii. 328 Psittiiius, ii. 326 Psittirostra, ii. 277 Psittospiza, ii. 99 Psophia. ii. 358 PSUPHIID^, ii. 358 Psophodes, ii. 262 PSYCHROLUTID^, ii. 436 Pterodes, European Miocene, i 161 ii. 337 PTEROCLID^, ii. 337 Pterocyclos, ii. 520 Pierodoft, European Miocene, i. 125 Pteroglossus, ii. 307 Pteromys, ii. 235 Pteromyzon, ii. 463 PTEROMYZONTID^, li. 463 Pteronura, ii. 199 Pterophanes, ii. 108 Pterophylhuii, ii. 439 PTEROPIDiE, ii. 181 PTEROPODA, ii. 531 Pteropodocys, ii. 269 PTEKOPTOCHIDiE, li. 297 Pteroptochus, ii. 297 Pterorhinus, ii. 261 Pterosarion, ii. 452 Pterostichws, ii. 489 PtertUkius, ii. 266 Pterygophlichthys, li. 444 Ptilocerus, ii. 186 Ptilochloris, ii. 102, 293 Ptilogonys, ii. 280 Ptilonorhynchus, ii. 275 Ptilopachus, ii. 338 PHlopms. li 332 Ptilorhis, ii. 275 Ptilostomvs, ii. 273 Ptilotis, ii. 275 Ptosima, ii. 497 P<2/o«, ii- 375 PiychobarbiiS, ii. 452 Ptyonotus, ii. 428 Pucrasia, ii. 340 Puff-birds, ii. 310 Puffins, ii. 367 Puffinus, ii. 365 PULMONIFERA, li. 512 Pulsatrix, ii. 350 Punctiirella, li. 511 Pupa, Eocene, L 169 Pwpo vetusta. Palaeozoic, i. 160 Pupa, li. 514 Pupina, ii. 520 Pupinelki, ii. 520 Putorius, ii. 198 PYCNONOTID^, ii. 207 Pycnonotus, li. 267 Pycnophrys, 11. 270 Pyctorhis, 11. 261 Pygarrhicus, 3. 103 Pygmornis, ii. 107 Pygomelcs, ii. 397 PYGOPODID^, ii. 395 Pygoptila, ii. 104 Pygopus, 11. 395 598 GENERAL INDEX. PYRAMIDELLIDiE, ii. 509 Pyrameis, ii. 474 Pyranga, ii. 98 Pyrenestes, ii. 286 Pyrgisoma, ii. 284 Pyrgita, ii. 284 PyrigUna, ii. 104 Pyrocephalus, ii. 101, 291 Pyroderus, ii. 103 Pyromelana, ii. 286 PyrophtJialma, ii. 259 Pyrrhocoma, ii. 99 Pyrrhospiza, ii. 285 Pyrrhida, ii. 285 Pyrrhulaitda, ii. 289 Pyrrhulina, ii. 445 Pyrrhulopsis, ii. 325 Pyrrhuloxia, ii. 285 Pyrrhura, ii. 328 Pytelia, ii, 287 Python, ii. 381 Pythoiiidce, European Miocene, i. 1G5 PYTHONID/E, ii. 381 Pythonodipsas, ii. 379 Pythonopsis, ii. 376 Pythons, ii. 381 Pyxicephalus, ii. 420 P3W;is, ii. 408 Q. Quadrumana, fossil, ii. 178 Quail-snipes, ii. 354 Qrierquediila, ii. 363 Qnenda, ii. 102 QmscaJws, ii. 282 R. Rachis, ii. 524 Racoon-dog of N. China, i. 226 Racoons, ii. 200 Ram, ii. 462 RAIID^, ii. 462 Rails, ii. 351 RALLID^, ii. 351 Ballina, ii. 352 Rail-as, ii. 352 Rana, European Miocene, i. 166 ii. 420 Raniceps, ii. 439 RANID^, ii. 420 Ranodon, ii. 413 Rappia, ii 419 Rasbora, ii. 452 Rasborichthys, ii. 453 Rattle-snakes, ii. 384 Rays, ii. 462 Realia, ii. 521 Rectes, ii. 272 Recurvirosfra, ii. 853 Regalecus, ii. 432 Region, the best term for the primary zoo- logical divisions, i. 68 Arctic, why not adopted, i. 69 Paliearctic, defined, i. 71 Palaearctic, subdivisions of, i. 71 Ethiopian, defined, i. 73 Ethiopian, subdivisions of, i. 73 Oriental, defined, i. 75 Oriental, subdivisions of, i. 75 Australian, defined, i. 77 Australian, subdivisions of, i. 77 Region, Neotropical, defined, i. 78 Neotropical, subdivisions of, i. 78 Nearctic, defined, i. 79 Nearctic, distinct from Pal*arctic, i. 79 Nearctic, subdivisions of, i. 80 Regions, zoological, i. 50 zoological, how they should be formed, i. 63 zoological, may be defined by negative or positive characters, i. 54 zoological, by what class of animals best determined, i. 56 for each class of animals, not advisable, i. 58 zoological, proposed since 1857, 1. 58 zoological, Mr. Sclater's, i. 59 zoological, discussion of those proposed by various authors, i. 61 zoological, proportionate richness of, i. 6! temperate and tropical, well marked iu northern hemisphere, i. 65 and zones, table of, 1. 66 comparative richness of, i. 81 and sub-regions, table of, i. 81 order of succession of the, i. 173 Registoma, ii. 521 Reguloides, ii. 258 Reg^dus, ii. 258 Reinwardtcenas, ii. 333 Reinwardtipicus, ii. 303 Reithrodon, ii. 230 Representative species, i. 4 Reptiles, means of dispersal of, i. 28 classification of, i. 98 Miocene of Greece, i. 116 of Indian Miocene deposits, 1. 123 extinct Tertiary, i. 165 cosmopolitan groups of, i. 176 peculiar to Paliearctic region, 1. 186 of Central Europe, i. 195 of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 204 of the Siberian sub-region, i. 220 of the Manchurian sub-region, i. 227 table of Palfearctic families of, i. 236 of the Ethiopian region, i. 254 of the E. African sub-region, i. 260 of W. Africa, i. 264 S. African, i. 268 of Madagascar, i. 279 table of Ethiopian families of, i. 297 of the Oriental region, i. 317 of the Indian sub-region, i. 326 of Ceylon, i. 327 of the Indo-Chinese sub-region, i. 331 of the Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 340 table of Oriental families of, i 368 of the Australian region, i. 396 of New Guinea, i. 415 of the Moluccas, i. 420 of the Polynesian sub-region, i. 447 of New Zealand, i. 456 table of Australian families of, i. 472 Neotropical, ii. 9 of S. Temperate America, ii. 40 of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 54 of the Antilles, ii. 72 table of Neotropical families of, ii. 88 of the Nearctic region, ii. 119 of California, ii. 128 of Central N. America, ii. 131 of Eastern United States, ii. 133 of Canada, ii. 137 table of Nearctic families of, ii. 142 summary and conclusion, ii. 547 REPTILIA, ii 372 Reiropiiina, ii. 447 GENERAL INDEX. 580 Revillagigedo Islands, zoology of, ii. 60 Bhabdornis, ii. 265 Khabdosoma, ii. 374 RACHIODONTIDjE, ii. 377 Bhacophorus, ii. 419 Rhamnophis, ii. 376 RHAMPHASTIDjE, U. 306 Bhamphastos, ii. 307 Rhamphichthys, ii. 455 Rhamphoccenus, ii. 104 Rhamphococcyx, ii. 309 Rhamphocinclus, ii. 256 Rhamphoccelus, ii. 98 Bhamphomicron, ii. 108 Bhaphatdus, ii. 520 Rhea, in Brazilian caves, i. 164 ii. 368 Bhinaster, ii. 213 Rhinatrema, ii. 411 Rhiiiechis, ii. 376 Rhinelepis, ii. 444 Bhinichthys, ii. 452 RHINIDjE, ii. 462 RHINOBATIDjE, ii. 462 Bhinoceros, Post-Pliocene, i. 112 European Pliocene, i. 113 Miocene of Greece, i. 116 Indian Miocene, i. 122 fossil remains of, at 16,000 fei't elevation in Thibet, i. 122 fossil in N. China, i. 123 N. American Tertiary, i 1.^6 ii. 213 Rhinoceros-hornbill, figure of, i. 3:i9 Bhinocerotidcr . N. American Tertiary, i. loO RHINOCEROTID^, ii. 213 RHINOCHETIDiE, ii. 359 Rhinochetvs, ii. 359 Rhinococcyx, ii. 309 Bkinocrypta, ii. 297 Bhivoderma, ii 416 RHINODONTIDiE, ii. 461 Bhinodoras, ii. 443 Rhinogale, ii. 195 Rhinoglanis, ii. 443 RHINOLOPHID^, ii. 182 Rhinolophus, ii. 183 Rhinophis, ii. 374 RHINOPHRYNIDjE, ii. 414 Rhinophrynus, ii. 414 Bhinoplax. ii. 317 BhinopoTtM, ii. 183 Rhinortha, ii. 309 Rhipidura, ii. 271 Rhizomys, ii. 231 Rhodeus, ii. 452 Rhodinocinda, ii. 256 Rhodona, ii. 397 RJwdopis, ii. 108 Bhodosttehia, ii. 364 Bhombomys, ii. 230 Bhombus, ii. 441 Bhopodytes, ii. 309 Bhopotcrpe, ii. 104 Rhynchcea, ii. 353 RHYNCHOCEPHALIDiE, ii. 405 RHYNCHOCEPHALINA, ii. 405 Bhynchocyon, ii. 186 Bhynchocyclvs, ii. 101 Rhynchonella, ii. 539 RHYNCHONELLlDiE, ii. 532 Rhynchcps, ii. 36.5 Rhynchopsitta, ii. 328 Rhynchotu-t, ii. 344 Bhytina. ii. 210. 211 Rkytiodus, ii. 445 Vol. IL— 39 Ricinula, ii. 507 Rimator, ii. 263 Bimula, ii. 511 Rissa, ii. 364 Rissoa, ii. 510 iJi«a, ii. 442 River-hog, of West Africa, figure of, i. 264 of Madagascar, figure of, i. 278 Rivers, limiting the ringe of mammalia, i. 12 limiting the range of birds, i. 17 River-scene in West Africa, i. 264 River-snails, ii. 510 RivtUus, ii. 450 Rock-snakes, ii. 381 Rocky mountain sub-region, li. 129 mammalia of, ii. 129 birds of, ii. 130 reptiles, ampliibia, and fishes of, ii. 130 Rodentia, classification of, i. 90 range of Patearctic genera of, i. 242 range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 304 range of Oriental genera of, i. 374 range of Australian genera of, i. 476 Bodentia, European Pliocene, i. 113 Miocene of Greece, i. 116 European Miocene, i. 120 European Eocene, i. 126 N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 N. American Tertiary, i. 139 of Brazilian caves, i. 144 8. American Pliocene, i. 147 of S. A.nierican Eocene, i. 148 RODENTIA, ii. 229 Rodentia, general remarks on the distributiou of, ii. 243 Rodentia, summary and conclusion, ii. 543 Bohteichthys, ii. 452 Rollers, ii. 311 Rollulus, ii. 339 Romaleosoma, ii. 474 Rose-chafers, ii. 494 Bostrhanivs, ii 349 Rough-tailed burrowing snakes, ii. 374 Ruff', figure of, i. 195 Bupicapra, ii. 224, 225 RUPICAPRINiE, ii. 224 Bupicola, ii. 102, 293 RUPICOLIN^, ii. 293 Buticilla, ii. 259 RUTIClLLINiE, iL 257 SaccobranchiiS, ii. 441 Saccodon, ii. 445 SACCOMYID^, ii. 233 Saccomys, ii. 233 Saccostomus, ii. 230 Saijda, ii. 516 Sahara, a debatable land, i. 251 Saiga, antelope of W. Tartary, i. 218 Saiga, ii. 223 Saimiris, ii. 175 Sakis, ii. 175 Salamandra, ii. 413 SALAMANDRID^, ii. 413 Salamandrina, ii. 413 Salarix, ii. 448 Salminus, ii. 445 Salmo, ii. 447 SALMONID^, ii. 447 Salpinctes, ii. 264 Salpornis, ii. 264 Saltator, ii. 99 600 GENERAL INDEX. Salvin, Mr. , on birds of Galapagos, ii. 30 Sambus, ii. 496 Samoa Islands, birds of, i. 443 Sand-grouse, Pallas', of Mongolia, i. 226 ii. 337 Sand-lizards, ii. 398 Sandpipers, ii. 353 Sandwich Islands, birds of, i. 445 probable past history of, i. 446 mountain plants of, i. 440 depth of ocean around, i. 447 Sanzinia, ii. 381 Sipcrda, ii. 501 Sapphironia, ii. 109 Sarcodaces, ii. 445 Sarcophilus, ii. 249 SARCORHAMPHINiE, ii. 346 Sarcorhamphus, ii. 346 Sargus, ii. 427 Sarkidiornis, ii. 363 Saroglossa, ii. 288 Sarotherodon, ii. 438 Sasia, ii. 303 Satanoperca, ii. 439 SATYRID^, ii. 471 Satyrites Reynesii, European Cretaceous in- sect, i. 167 Satyrus, ii. 471 Saucerottia, ii. 109 Saunders, Mr. Edward, on the Buprestidte of Japan, i. 229 SauroceUs, ii. 210 Saurophis, ii. 392 Saurothera, ii. 309 Saxicola. ii. 260 Saxicolince, ii. 257 Sayornis, ii. 100, 291 Scallops, ii. 533 Scxilops, ii. 190 Scapanus, ii. 190 Scaphiopus, ii. 417 Scaphirhynchus, ii. 459 Scaptochirus. ii. 190 Scaptonyx, ii. 190 Scaraphites, ii. 490 Scardafella, ii. 333 Scarites, ii. 489 Scelidotherium, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 S. American Pliocene, i. 147 ii. 245 Scelodontis, ii. 490 Sceloporus, ii. 401 Scelotes, ii. 398 Schacra. ii. 452 Schasicheila, ii. 522 Schiffornis, ii. 102 Schilbe, ii. 442 Schilbichthys, ii. 442 Rchismaderma, ii. 415 Sckistes, ii. 108 SchistopUurum, S. American Pliocene, i. 147 Schizodon, ii. 238 Schizogenitis, ii. 490 Schizopygopsis, ii. 452 Schizorhiiia, ii. 494 Schizorhis, ii. 307 Schizothorax, ii. 452 Schoenionta, ii. 502 Schweinfurth, Dr., on natural history of Cen- tral Africa, i. 252 on limits of W. African sub-region, i. 262 (note) Sciddes, ii, 443 Sclmna, ii. 428 SCIyENIDiE, ii 428 SGINCID^, ii. 396 Sdncus, ii. 397 Scinks, ii. 396 Scissirostrum, ii, 288 Scissor, ii. 445 Sciurairus, N. American Eocene, i. 140 Seiuravus, ii. 236 SCIURIDiE. ii. 234 Sciuropterus, ii. 235 Sciunis, European Miocene, i. 120 European Boceue, i. 126 ii. 235, 236 Sclater, Mr., on zoological regions, i. 59 why his six regions are adopted, i. 63 on birds of Sandwich Islands, i. 445 on systematic position of Certhidea, ii. p. 31 Sclater and Salvin, Messrs., on Neotropical sub-regions, ii. 25 SCLERODERMI, ii. 457 Solerogiinthtis, ii. 451 SCLEKURINjE, ii. 295 Sclerurus, ii. lOS Scolecophagus, ii. 282 SCOLOPACID^, ii. 353 Scolopcuc, ii. 353 Scomber, ii. 429 SCOMBRESOCID^, ii. 449 Scombresox, ii. 449 SCOMBRIDjE, ii. 429 SCOPELIDjE, ii. 446 Scops, ii. 350 Scopus, ii. 360 Scortornis, ii. 320 Scotopelia, ii. 350 Scotophilus, ii. 183 Scrapteira, ii. 391 Screamers, ii. 361 Scrub-birds, ii. 299 SCYLLID^, ii. 461 Scyllium, ii. 461 Scytale, ii. 379 SCYTALIDjE, ii. 379 Scytalopus, ii. 297 Scythrops, ii. 310 Sea, as a barrier to mammalia, i. 13 Sea-devils, ii. 463 Seals, fossil in European Miocene, i. 118 of Lake Baikal, i. 218 ii. 203 Sea-pens, ii. 505 Sea-snails, ii. 508 Sea-snakes, ii. 384 SebasUs, ii. 428 Secondary formations, mammalian remains in, i. 169 Secretary bird, of Africa, figure of, i. 261 ii. 346 Seemann, Dr., on protective resemblance o1 sloths, ii. 24 Seisura, ii 270 Selachc, ii. 460 Sflaspknrus, ii. 108 Selenidera, ii. 307 Selenophorus, ii. 490 SeUv/iides, ii. 275 Semioptera, ii. 275 Semiplotus, ii. 452 SEMNOPITHECIDjE, ii 171 Semnopithecus, European Pliocene, i. 112 Miocene of Greece, 1. 115 European Miocene, 1. 117 Indian Miocene, i. 121 ii. 171 ii. 178 Semper, Dr. , on Philippine mammalia, i. 345 Senira, ii. 397 GENERAL INDEX. 601 SEPIADjE, ii. 505 SEPIDiE, ii. 398 Seps, ii. 398 Sepsina, ii. 398 Sericinus, ii. 479 Sericm-nis, ii. 258 Sericulus, ii. 275 Serilophvs, ii. 295 SERPENTARIID^, ii. 346 Serpentarius, European Miof.ene, i. 162 ii. 346 Serphophaga, ii. 101 Serranus, ii. 425 Serrasalmo, ii. 445 Sesia, ii. 482 Setophaga, ii. 279 Setornis, ii. 267 Seychelle Islands, zoology of, i. 281 amphibia of, i. 281 Sliad, ii. 454 Sharlcs, ii. 460 Sharp, Dr., on Japan beetles, i. 229 Sharpe, Mr. R. B., his arrangement of Acci- pitres, i. 97 on birds of Cape Verd Islands, i. 215 on classification of Cuckoos, ii. 309 Sheath-bills, ii. 354 Sheep, Palaearctic, i. 182 ii. 221 Shoi-t-tailed burrowing snakes, ii. 373 Shrikes, ii. 272 Sialia, ii. 260 Sianvanga, ii. 171 Siaphos, ii. 397 Siberia, climate of, i. 217 Siberian sub region, description of, i. 216 mammalia of, i. 217 birds of, i. 219 reptiles and amphibia of, i. 220 insects of, i. 220 Sibia, ii. 262 Siderone, ii. 474 Sieboldia, ii. 412 Sigmodon, ii. 230 Silondia, ii. 442 Silphomorpha, ii. 490 Silubosaiirus, ii. 397 Siluranodon, ii. 442 Silurichthys, ii. 441 SILURIDjE, ii. 441 Silurus, ii. 441 Silybura, ii. 374 Simenia, ii. 197 Simia, ii. 171 SIMIID^, ii. 170 Siniocephalus, ii. 380 Simocyon, Miocene of Greece, i. 115 ii. 198 Simorhynchns, ii. 367 Simotes, ii. 375 Simpulopsis, ii. 516 Siiiopa, N. American Tertiary, i. 134 Siphia, ii. 270 Siphneus, ii. 230 Siphonopsis, ii. 411 Siphunorhis, ii. 320 Siphonoitoma, ii. 457 Siren, ii. 411 Sirenia, classification of, i. 89 range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 303 range of Oriental genus, i. 374 range of Australian genus of, i. 476 Sirenia, European Pliocene, 1. 112 European Miocene, i. 119 SIRENIA, ii 210 SIRENIDjE, ii. 411 SIRENOIDEI, ii. 458 Sirystes, ii. 101 Sisor, ii. 444 Sitana, ii. 402 Sitta, ii. 265 Sittasomus, ii. 103 Sittella, ii. 265 SITTIDA:, ii. 265 Siurus, ii. 279 Siva, ii. 266 Sivatherium, Indian Miocene, i, 122 ii. 226 Siwalik Hills, Miocene deposits of, i. 121 Skenea, ii. 610 Sloths, ii. 244 Slugs, ii. 517 Smaragdochrysis, ii. 109 Smerinthus, ii. 483 Smiliogaster, ii. 453 Sminlhiis, ii. 230 Smith, Mr. Frederick, on Hymenoptera ol Japan, i. 230 Smithornis, ii. 270 Smutsia, ii 245 Snails, ii. 512 Snake, at great elevation in Himalayas, i. 220 Snakes, classification of, i. 99 Eocene, i. 165 large proportion of venomous species in Australia, i. 396 of New Zealand, i. 457 distribution and lines of migiation of, ii. 547 Snipes, ii. 353 Society Islands, birds of, 1. 443 Socorro, zoology of, li. 60 Soft-tortoises, ii. 409 Solarium, ii. 510 Solea, ii. 441 SOLENIDjE, ii. 536 Solenodon, ii. 188 SOLENOSTOMIU.^, ii. 456 Solitaire, ii. 334 Somateria, ii. 364 Soricictis. European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 196 Soricidm, European Miocene, i. 118 SORICIDjE, ii. 191 Soridia, ii. 397 Sorubim. ii. 442 Sotalla, ii. 209 South African sub-region, description of, i. 266 mammalia of, i. 267 birds of, i. 267 reptiles of, i. 268 amphibia of, 1. 268 fresh-water fish of, i. 268 butterflies of, i. 268 coleoptera of, 1. 268 summary of its zoology, i. 269 South America, fossil fauna of, i. 143 riioeene deposits of, i. 146 supposed land connection with Australia, i. 398 South America and Africa, parallelism of their past zoological history, ii 83 South Australia, peculiar birds of, i. 441 SPALACIDjE, ii. 231 Spalacomys, ii. 230 Spalacopus, ii. 238 Spalax, ii. 231 Spargrinura, ii. 108 SPARIDJi;, ii. 426 Spatula, ii. 364 Species, representative, i. 4 602 GENERAL INDEX. Spelerpes, ii. 413 Speothos, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 Spermestes, ii. 287 Spermophila, ii. 285 Spermophihis, European Miocene, i. 120 ii. 235, 236 Spermospiza, ii. 286 Sperm Whales, ii. 207 Sphcerocephalns, ii. 209 Sphcerodactylvs, ii. 400 Sphmroderus, ii. 490 SphaUomorpha, ii. 490 Sphecotheres, ii. 268 Sphcnceacus, ii. 258 SPHENISCIDiE, ii. 366 Sphenisnis, ii. 366 Sphenocephalus, ii. 398 Sphenodon, in Braziliwi caves, i. 145 ii. 245 Sphenognathus. ii. 493 Spkenoproctns, ii. 107 Splienops, ii. 398 Sphenostoma, ii. 266 Sphenura, ii. 258 SPHINGID^, ii. 482 Sphingidea, distribution of, ii. 483 SPHINGINA, ii. 481 Sphingnotus, ii. 501 Sphinx, in European Oolite, i. 167 ii. 482 Sphinx Moths, ii . 482 Sphyrapicns, ii. 303 SPHYRENID;E, ii. 429 Spider monkeys, ii. 174 Spilornis, ii. 348 Spilotes, ii. 376 SPINACID.E, ii. 461 Spindalis, ii. 98, 284 Spiraxis, ii. 515 PIRIFERIDvE, ii. 532 SPIRULID/E, ii. 505 Spizaetus, ii. 348 Spizella, ii. 284 Spiziapteryx, ii. 349 Spiziastur, ii. 348 Spodiornis, ii. 285 Sponsor, ii. 497 Spoonbills, ii. 360 Sporadinus, ii. 109 Sporopipes, ii. 286 Sprat, ii. 454 Spreo, ii, 288 Squalodon, ii. 210 Squaliobarbus, ii. 452 SQUAMIPENNES, ii. 427 Squatarola, ii. 356 Squirrel monkeys, ii. 175 Squirrels, ii. 234 St. Helena, zoological features of, i. 260 coleoptera of, i. 270 landshells of, i. 271 St. Thomas's Island, birds of, i. 260 Stachyris, ii. •261 Stactolcema, ii. 306 Stag-beetles, ii. 492 Stalagmosortui, ii. 495 Starlings, ii. 287 Starnoinas, ii. 33 Stations, definition of, i. 4 Staurotypus, ii. 408 Steatomys, ii. 230 Steatornis. ii. 319 STEATORNlTHIDiE, ii. 319 Steganura, ii. 108 StegnoJmma, ii. 343 Stegophilns, ii. 444 Stelgidopteryx, ii. 281 Stellio, li. 402 Stellula, ii. 108 Steneofiber, European Miocene, i. 120 ii. 234 Steno, ii. 209 Stenodactylus, ii. 400 Stenogyra, ii. 515 Stenopsis, ii. 320 Stenoptis, ii. 516 Stenorhina, ii. 375 StenorhyncJius, ii. 204 ii. 421 Stephanophorus, ii. 98 Stercoraruis, ii. 364 Sterna, ii. 364 Sternarchus, ii. 455 Sternocera, ii. 496 Sternoclyta, ii. 107 STERNOPrYCHIDvE, ii. 446 Steriwpygus, ii. 455 SternotJieres, ii. 408 Steropus, ii. 489 Stesilea, ii. 501 Stethodesma, ii. 495 Sthenurus, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157 ii. 251 SUdKEUs, ii. 431 Sticklebacks, ii. 424 StigmaUira, ii. 101 Stigmodera, ii. 496 S'10MIATID^,ii. 447 Storks, ii. 360 Stabomantis, ii. 419 Straits of Magellan, mammalia of, ii. 37 birds of, ii. 39 Strepera, ii 273 Strepsilas, ii. 356 Streptaulus, ii. 520 Streptaxis, ii. 615 Streptocerus, ii. 493 Streptocitta, ii. 274 Streptophorus, ii. 374 STRIGID^, ii. 350 Stringnps, li. 329 STRINGOPID^E, ii. 329 Strix, European Miocene, i. 162 )i. 350 STROMBID;E. ii. 507 Slruihio, li. 368 Struthiones, arrangement of, i. 98 range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 313 range of Australian genera of, i. 487 STRUTHIONES, ii. 368' general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 370 STRUTHIONIDiE, ii. 368 Struthious birds, probable origin of, i. 287 Sturgeons, ii. 459 Sturnella, ii. 282 Sturnia, ii. 287 STURNIDjE, ii. 287 Sturnopastor, ii. 287 Sturnus. ii. 287 STYGIIDiE, ii. 482 Stygogenes, ii. 444 Stylinodontia, N. American Eocene, i. 139 Stylinodontidce, N. American Eocene, i. 139 Stvporhynchiis, ii. 376 Sublegatus, ii. 101 Sub-regions, on what principle formed, i. 180 Palsparctic, i. 191 Ethiopian, i. 258 Oriental, i. 321 Australian, i. 408 Neotropical, ii. 21 GENERAL INDEX. 603 Sub-regions, Nearctic, ii. 125 Snecinea, ii. 515 Sugar-birds, ii. 278 Snidce, European Miocene, i. 119 SUID^, ii. 214 Sula Islands, fauna of, i. 433 Sula, ii. 365 Summary of relations of regions, ii. 155 Sun-birds, ii. 276 Sun-bitterns, ii. 358 Suricata, ii. 195 Surnia, ii. 350 SurninUus, ii 310 Sus, European Pliocene, i. 113 Miocene of Greece, i. 116 European Miocene, i. 119 Indian Miocene, i. 122 ii. 215 Suthora, ii. 262 Svya, ii. 258 Swallows, ii. 281 Swallow-shrikes, ii. 288 Swifts, ii. 320 Swine, ii. 214 Swinhoe, Mr., on zoology of Formosa and Hainan, i. 332 Sycalis, ii. 284 Sybria, ii. 259 Sylvietta, ii. 264 SYLVIIDVE, ii. 256 SYLVIIN^, ii. 257 Sylviorthorhvnohus, ii. 103 Sylviparus, ii. 266 Syma, ii. 316 Symhorodon, N. American Tertiary, i. 137 SYMBRANCHIDiE, ii. 455 Symbranchus, ii. 455 Symmachia, ii. 476 Hymmorphus, ii. 269 Symphfedra, ii. 474 Symphysodon, ii. 439 Symplectes, ii. 286 SYNALLAXIN^, ii. 295 Synallaxis, ii. 103 Synaphodxis, European Miocene, i. 119 Synaptura, ii. 441 Synchloe, ii. 474 Syndesus, ii 493 Synemon, ii. 481 Syngnathus, ii. 457 SYNGNATHIDiE, ii" 457 Synodontis. ii. 443 Synoplotherivm, N. American Tertiary, i. 134 Syntomis, ii. 481 Syrnium, ii. 350 Syrrhaptes, ii. 337 Sysopygis, ii. 101 T. Tables of distribution of families and genera explained, L 177 Taccocmia, ii. 309 Tachydromus, ii. 391 Tachyphonus, ii. 99 Tachyris. ii. 478 Tachytriorchis, ii. 348 Tadorna, ii. 363 Tceniogale, ii. 195 Taenioptera, ii. 100, 291 TiENJOPTERIN^, ii. 291 Tceniura, ii. 463 Talegallus, ii. 342 Talpa, European Miocene, i. 117 ii. 190 TALPID^, ii. 190 TaTTiandna, ii. 247 Tamiaa, ii. 235, 236 Tancecia, ii. 474 Tanagers, ii. 283 Tanagra, ii. 98 Tannyrella, ii. 98 TANAGRIDjE, ii. 283 Tantalus, ii. 361 Tanygnathus, ii. 326 Tanysiptera, ii. 316 Taoniscvs, ii. 344 Taphozous, ii. 183 Tapir, fossil in N. China, i. 123 Tapir, Malayan figure of, i. 337 Tapirida;, European Eoi;ene, i. 125 TAPIRID^, ii. 212 Tapirs, birthplace and migrations of, i. 154 ii. 212 Tapirus, European Pliocene, i. 113 Indian Miocene, i. 122 in Brazilian caves, i. 144 Tarandus, ii. 219 Tarentola, ii 400 Tarsier, Malayan, figure of, i. 337 Tarsiger, ii. 259 TARSIID/E, u 177 Tarsipes, ii. 252 Tarsius, ii. 177 Tasmania, comparative zoological poverty of, i. 441 Tatare, ii. 258 Tatusia, ii. 246 Taxidea, ii. 199 Taxila, ii. 475 Taxodon, European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 200 Taygetis, ii. 471 Tchitrca, ii. 271 TECTONARCHIN^, ii. 275 Teguexius, ii. 390 TEIDjE, ii. 390 Teinopalpiis, ii. 479 Teira, ii. 391 Teius, ii. 390 Teleopis, ii. 375 TELEOSTEI, ii. 424 Telephonus, ii. 272 Tellia, ii. 450 TELLINIDiE, ii. 506 Telmatobius, N. American Cretaceous, i. 161 ii. 417 Telmatolestes, N. American Tertiary, i. 133 Temnotrogon, ii. 314 Temnunis, ii. 273 Tephrocorys, ii. 289 Tephrodornis, ii. 272 Teracolvs, ii. 478 TerebraUila, ii. 539 TEREBRATULIDjE, ii. 532 Terekia, ii. 353 Terenvra, ii. 104 Terctristis, ii. 279 Terias, ii. 478 Terinos, ii. 474 Terns, ii. 364 Terrapene, ii. 408 Terrestrial Molluscs, ii. 512 Terrestrial MoUusca, summarj' and conclusion, li. 551 lines of migration of, ii. 552 Tesia, ii. 263 Testacella, ii. 516 ii. 517 TESTUDINID^, ii. 407 TesUtdo, Miocene of Greece, i. 116 Indian Miocene, i. 123 604 GENERAL INDEX. Testudo, great antiquity of the genus, i. 2S9 Testudo, ii. 408 Tethionea, ii. 501 TETRABRANCHIATA, ii. 506 Tetrachi, ii. 486, 487 Tetrachus, European Miocene, i. 117 Tetraceros, ii. 224 » Tetracus, ii. 188 Tetradactylus, ii. 397 TetragoTwderus, ii. 490 Tetragonops, ii. 306 Tetragonopterus, ii. 445 Tetragonosoma, ii. 380 Tetranematichthys, ii. 443 Tetrao albits, in Italian caverns, i. 161 Tetran, ii. 339 Tetraogallus, ii. 339 TETBAONID^, ii. 338 Tetraophasis, ii. 340 Tetrodon, ii. 457 TEUTHID^, ii. 505 TEUTHIDIDiE, ii. 433 Textor, ii. 286 Thais, ii..479 Thalassarctos, ii. 201 Thalassictis, Miocene of Greece, i. 115 European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 195 ii. 197 Thalassornis, ii. 364 Thaleichthys, ii. 447 Thaluranid, ii. 107 Thamnistes, ii. 104 Thamnobia, ii. 260 Thamnodyastes, ii. 379 Thamnoinanes, ii. 104 THAMNOPHILIN^, ii. 297 TlMmnophilus, ii. 104 Thaumalea, ii. 340 Thavmantis, ii. 472 Thaumastura, ii. 108 TfuiumatiMS, ii. 109 Thecla. ii. 477 Theloderma, ii. 419 Theope, ii. 476 Theorema, ii. 477 TKeraps, ii. 438 Therates, ii. 486 Theridomys, European Miocene, i. 126 European Eocene, i. 126 S. American Eocene, i. 148 ii. 239 TheropUheciis, ii. 173 Thestias, ii. 478 Thestor, ii. 477 Thetia, ii. 391 THINOCORID^, ii. 354 Thinocorus, ii. 354 Thinohyus, ii. N. American Tertiary, i. 137 ii. 215 Thinolestes, N. American Tertiary, i. 133 Thinornis, ii. 3.'>6 Thomomys, ii. 233 Thoiis, ii. 197 Thrasaetus, ii. 348 Threnetes, ii. 107 Thripadectes, ii. 103 Thripojihaga, ii. 103 Thryophilus, ii. 263 Thryothorus, ii. 263 Thrushes, ii. 255 TTiyco, ii. 471 Thylacinus, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157 ii. 249 ThyUwoleo, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157 ii. 252 Thymallus, ii 447 Thynnichthys, 452 Thynnus, ii. 429 Thyreopterus. ii 491 Thyrus, ii 398 Tiaris, ii. 284 ii. 402 Tichodroma, ii. 264 Ti(/a, ii. 303 Tiger-beetles, ii. 486 Tigrisoma, ii. 359 Tijuca, ii. 102 Tillodontia, N. American Eocene, i. 139 Tillotheridce, N. American Eocene, i. 130 Tillotherium, N. American Eocene, i. 13',i Tilmatura, ii. 108 Timalia, ii. 261 TIMALIIDiE, ii. 260 Timetes, ii. 474 Timor, physical features of, i. 389 group, mammalia of, i. 422 birds of, i. 422 origin of fauna of, i 424 insects of, i. 426 TINAMIDjE, ii. 343 TINAMINjE, li. 344 Tinamous, ii. 343 TINAMOTIN^, ii. 344 Tinamotis, ii. 344 Tinartms, ii. 344 Tinea, ii. 452 Tinoceras, N. American Eocene, i. 139 Titanomys, European Miocene, i. 121 ii. 242 Titanotherium, N. American Tertiary, i. 137 Tits, ii. 265 Tityra, ii. 102 TITYRINjE, ii. 293 Tmesisternus, ii. 501 Toads, ii. 415 Tockus, ii. 317 TODIDjE, ii. 313 Todies, ii. 313 Todirhamphus, 316 Todirostruvi, ii 101 Todopsis, ii. 271 Todus, ii. 313 Tolypeutes, ii. 246 Tomarctos, N. American Tertiary, i. 135 Tomistoma, ii. 405 Tomodon, ii. 175 Tonga Islands, birds of, i. 443 Topaza, ii. 107 TORNATELLID.*, ii. 530 TORPEDINID^, ii. 462 Tortoises, classification of, i. 100 of Mascarene Islands and Galapagos, i. 289 ii. 407 TORTRICID^, ii. 373 Tortrix, ii. 373 Totanus, ii. 353 Toucans, ii. 306 Touraco of W. Africa, figure of, i. 264 Toxodmi, 8. American Pliocene, 1. 137 Toxodontidoe, S. American Pliocene, i. 147 Toxotvs, ii. 502 Trachelvopterus, ii. 443 TBACHINID^, ii. 428 Trachinus, ii. 428 Trachuriis, ii. 429 Trachycephalus, ii. 401 ii. 418 Trachydosaiirus, ii. 397 Trachyphonns, ii. 306 TRACHYPTERIDiE, ii. 4.S2 Trachytherium, European Miocene, i. 119 GENERAL INDEX. eo5 TRAGELAPHINiE, ii. 223 Tropidoeoccyx, ii. 379 Tragelaphus, ii. 223 Tropidodipsas, ii. 379 Tragocervs, Miocent. of Greece, i 116 Tropidokpis, ii. 401 European Miocene, i. 120 Tropidolepisma, ii. 397 Tragopan, Himalayan, figure of. .331 TropidoHotiis, ii. 375 Tragops, ii. 379 Tropidophorus, ii. 397 TRAGULIDjE, ii. 218 Tropidopterus, ii. 490 Tragulus, ii. 218 Tropidorhynchus, ii. 276 Trapelvs, ii. 402 Trucifelis, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 129 Trechxis, ii. 489 Trugon, ii. 333 Tree-crows, ii. 273 Trumpeters, ii. 358 Tree-kangaroo, figure of, i. 415 Trunaitella, ii. 519 Tree-shrew of Borneo, figure of, i .337 Trgyon, ii. 463 Tree-snakes, ii. 378 TRYGONID^, ii. 463 Tremarctos, ii. 202 Tuatara, ii. 405 Treron, ii. 332 Tudora, ii. 521 Tres Marias, zoology of, it 59 Tundras of Siberia, greatest extent of, i. 216 2'ribolonotus, ii. 397 Tupaia, ii. 186 Triboniophorus, ii. 517 TUPAIIDjE, ii. 186 Tribonyx, ii. 352 Tupaiidce, European Miocene, i. 118 Trichastoma, ii. 261 Turacceua, ii. 333 TRICHECHID^, ii. 203 Turacos, ii. 307 TricMchus, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 Turani^, ii. 307 ii. 203 TURBINIDvE,ii. 510 TRICHIURID^, ii. 429 TURDIDvE, ii 255 Trichixos, ii. 262 Turdinus, ii. 262 TRICHOGLOSSIDjE, ii. 327 Turdus, ii. 256 Trichoglossidse, birds specially adapted to Turnagra, ii. 262 Australia, i. 393 Turner, Mr., on classification of Edentata, i TrichoglossHs, ii. 327 90 Tricholcema, ii. o06 TURNICID-E, ii. 341 Trichomycterus, ii. 444 Turnix, ii. 341 Trycondyla, ii. 486 TURRITELLIDiE, ii. 509 Trichonis, ii. 477 Ttirsio, ii. 209 TRICHONOTID^, ii. 435 Turtles, ii. 409 Trichothraupis, ii. 99 Turtur, ii. 333 Trichotropis, ii. 507 Tylas, ii. 267 Triclaria, ii. 328 Tylodon, European Eocene, i. 125 TRIDACNIDiE.ii. £35 ii. 196 Trigla, ii. 428 Tyhgnathus, ii. 451 TRIGLID^, ii. 427 Tylotritnn, ii. 413 Trigotia, ii. 536 TyphlhwL, ii. 372 TRIGONIAD^, ii. 534 Typhline, ii. 372 Trigonoptera, ii. 501 Typhlocalamus, ii. 374 TriTiwresurus, ii. 385 TYPHLOPID^, ii. 372 Tringa, ii. 353 Typhlops, ii. 372 Tringoides, ii. 353 Typhloscincus, ii. 399 TRIONYCHID;E, ii. 409 Typothcrium, S. American Pliocene, i. 147 Trionyx, Indian Miocene, 1. 123 TYRANNID^,ii. 290 Miocene and Eocene, i. 165 TYRANNINjE, ii. 291 ii. 409 Tyranniscus, ii. 101 Triprion, ii. 418 Tyrannnlus, ii. 101 Triptorhinus, ii. 297 Tyrannus, ii. 102, 291 Tristan d'Acunha, zoology of, L 271 Tyi-ant-Shrikes, il 290 Tristram, Canon, summary of the birds of Palestine, i. 203 on the arrangement of the Sylviid*, ii. 257 U. Triton, ii. 413 TRlTONIADiR, ii. 530 Uaru, ii. 439 Trnchalopteron, ii. 261 Uintacyon, N. American Tertiary, i. 134 Trochatelki, ii. 522 Uintatherium, N. American Eocene, i. 139 TROCHILIDi*:, ii. 321 Uintornis, N. American Eocene, i. 163 Trochilus ii. 108 Uma, ii. 401 Trochiis, ii. 510 UMBRIDvE. ii. 449 Troglodytes, ii. 170 Umbrina, ii. 428 ii. 263 Ungalia, ii. 381 TROGLODYTID^. ii. 263 Ungiilata, classification of, i. 89 Trogon, European Miocene, i. 161 antiquity of, i. 154 ii. 314 of the Palsearctic region, i. 182 Trogon, ii. 314 range of Palaearctic genera of, 1. 241 TROGONIDiE, ii.314 range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 303 TROGONOPHID^, ii. 388 range of Oriental genera of, i. 374 Trogonophis, ii. 388 range of Australian genera of, i. 476 Trogontherium, Post-Pliocene of Europe, i 111 Ungulata, European Pliocene, i. 112 ii. 234 Miocene of Greece, i. 115 Tropidechis, ii. 383 European Miocene, i. 119 606 GENERAL INDEX. Ungvlata, Indian Miocene, i. 121 European Eocene, i. 125 N. Ameiiran Post-Pliocene, i. 130 N. American Tertiary, i. 135 of Brazilian caves, i. 144 S. American Pliocene, i. 146 UNGULATA, ii. 211 general remarks on the distribution of, ii -226 summary and conclusion, ii. 542 Unio, European Secondary, i. 169 ii. 534 UNIONIDiE,ii. 534 Upiicerthia, ii. 103 UPUPID^, ii. 31T Uragus, ii. 285 Urania of Madagascar, i. 282 Urania, ii. 482 URANIID^, ii. 482 Uria, ii. 367 Uroaetus, ii. 348 Urocissa, ii. 273 Urochroa, ii. 107 Urochroma, ii. 328 Urocyon, ii. 197 URODELA, ii. 411 Urogalba, it. 311 Urolestes, ii. 272 Uromastix, ii. 402 UROPELTID.E, ii. 373 Vuropeltis, ii. 374 Uropsila, ii. 264 Uropsilus, ii. 190 Uropsophorus, ii. 385 Urospatha, ii. 313 Urospisias, ii. 348 Urosticte, ii. 108 Urotrichus, ii. 190 Urotriorchis, ii 347 UrsidcB, N. American Tertiary, i. 135 in Brazilian caves, i. 144 URSID^, ii. 201 Ursitaxus, Indian Miocene, i. 121 ii. 200 Ursus, Post-Pliocene, i. 112 Indian Miocene, 121 ii. 201 Urubutingn, ii. 348 I'rva. ii. 195 Uta, ii. 401 Utica, ii. 47T V. Vaginiilus, ii. 518 • Valgus, ii. 495 I'alvata, ii. 510 Vanga of Madagascar, figure of, i. 278 Vanga, ii. 272 Vandellia, ii. 444 Vanellus, ii. 356 Vanessa, ii. 474 VARANIDvE, ii. 389 Varanus, Miocene of Greece, 1. 116 Indian Miocene, i. 123 VENERID^E, ii. 536 Venilia, ii. 303 Vermicella, ii. 383 VcrreaitxiO; ii. 303 Vertebrata, summary of Palaearctic, i. 186 summary of Ethiopian, i. 255 summary of Oriental, i. 318 summary of Australian, 1. 397 summary of Neotropical, ii. 13 summary of Nearctic, ii. 120 VespertiHo, European Eocene, i. 125 ii. 183 VESPERTILIONIDiE, ii. 183 Vidua, ii. 2S6 Vipera, ii. 385 VIPBKIDiE, ii. 385 Viperus, European Miocene, 1. 165 Vipers, ii. 385 Vireo, ii. 280 VIREONID/E, ii. 279 Vireolanius, ii. 280 Vireosylvia, ii. 280 Viscacha, ii. 237 Vitrina, ii. 516 Viverra, European Pliocene , i. 112 European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 195 Viverricula, ii. 195 Viverridce, European Miocene, i. 118 European Eocene, i. 125 VIVERRID^, U. 194 Vivia, ii. 303 Volatinia, ii. 284 Valuta, ii. 508 Volutes, ii. 508 V0LUTID;E, ii. 508 Volvocivora, ii. 269 Vulpes, ii. 197 Vultur, ii. 346 yULTURIDvE, ii. 345 VULTURlNiE, ii. 346 W. Wagtails, ii. 290 Walden, Viscount, on birds of Philippine islands, i. 346 on birds of Celebes, 1. 428 on arrangement of the Timaliidse, ii. 261 Wallago, ii. 441 Wall-lizards, ii. 399 Walrus, ii. 203 Wart-snakes, ii. 382 Washakius, N. American Tertiary i. 134 Waterhouse, Mr. G. R., on classification of rodentia, i. 90 on classification of marsupials, i. 91 Water-lizards, ii. 389 Weaver-finches, ii. 286 West African sub-region, description of, i. 262 mammalia of, i. 262 birds of, i. 262 Oriental or Malayan element in. i. "263 river scene with characteristic animals, i. 264 reptiles of, 1. 264 amphibia of, i. 264 Oriental and Neotropical relations of, i. 265 insects of, i. 265 land-shells of, i. 265 islands of, i. 265 West Australia, peculiar birds of, i. 441 Whelks, ii. 507 Whip-snakes, ii. 379 Whydah finch of W. Africa, figure of, i. 264 Wing-shells, ii. 507 ii. 533 Wollaston, Mr. T. V., on the Coleoptera of the Atlantic Islands, i. 209 on the wings of the Madeiran beetles, i. 211 on the origin of the insect fauna of the Atlantic Islands, i. 214 on the Coleoptera of the Cape Verd Islands, i. 215 GENERAL INDEX. 607 Wollaston, Mr. T. V.,on the beetles of St. He- lena, i. 270 Wombats, ii. 253 Woodpeckers, ii. 302 Wood- warblers, ii. 278 Woolly monkeys, ii. 174 Wrens, ii. 203 Wrynecks, ii. 30i Xanthocephalus, ii. 282 Xantholcema, ii. 306 Xanthomelus, ii. 275 Xanthopygia, ii. 270 Xanthosomus, ii. 282 Xanthotis, ii. 275 Xema, ii. 364 Xenelaphis, ii. 376 Xenica, ii. 471 Xenicus, ii. 265 Xenochrophys, ii. 375 Xenocypris, ii. 452 Xenodermus, ii. 376 Xenodon, ii. 375 XENOPELTIDiE, ii. 373 Xenopeltis, ii. 373 Xenophrys, ii. 421 Xenopipo, ii. 102 Xenops, ii. 103 Xenorhina, ii. 415 XENORHINID^, ii. 415 Xenospingns, ii.284 Xenurelaps, ii 383 JTenMnis, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 ii. 246 XijAias, ii. 430 Xiphidiopimis, ii. 303 XIPHIIDiE, ii. 430 Xiphius, ii. 208 Xiphocdiaptes, ii. 103 Xiphodontidce, European Miocene, i. 119 Xipholena, ii. 102 Xiphorhampus, ii. 445 Xiphorhynchus, 103 Xiphostoma, ii. 445 JCi/strocera ii. 501 Ypthima, ii. 471 yw/iina, ii. 266 YUNGIDiE, ii. 304 yi