SSS

oe

SS Seay SS

CC COE ECE erect @
eK : Cec C cc 3

——-

RCo ‘a ae oa WM a i = Za

Ae aa cc am ;
Cd Qe EE
CC a

WHITNEY LIBRARY,

HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

Welle GUE OlF

dict IDE AW eEIC ST IN Tay NC
Sturgis Hooper Professor

IN THE

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY

Tia

iy

=

iS
aa | \i VG AlaAl

AAA p

ANA Aan

AN

He

We

a.

ah ENR ES nS fr \ : ray
re mn a s VAIS
h ~ A ras A ‘ast
~ \ A
a a
in| =
ta test

Woo seteve ey

wv \y) f V \
/, il vit Wy ¥.

uM :
nae
vyye yaa |

a

KE

KCK EE

oe

buveuie UO
/ BUY)

GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES
LIBRARY

WoUNMeSyUN SY “MW WG Yh

yin
nti a)

yi

p An
Wane
i

THE

GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE.

NEW SERIES.
DECADE II. VOL. IV.

JANUARY—DECEMBER, 1877.

GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE:

Monthly Jounal of Geology:

WITH WHICH IS INCORPORATED

“THE GEOLOGIST.”

NOS. CLI. TO CLXII.

EDITED BY

HENRY WOODWARD, F.R.S., F.G.8., F.Z.S.,

VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE GEOLOGISTS ASSOCIATION 5

MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, PHILADELPHIA ;
HONORARY MEMBER OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETIES OF EDINBURGH, GLASGOW, AND NORWICB ;
CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF BELGIUM; OF THE NATURAL
HISTORY SOCIETY OF MONTREAL; AND OF THE LYCEUM OF
NATURAL HISTORY, NEW YORK.

ASSISTED BY

PROFESSOR JOHN MORRIS, F.GS., &., &e.,
AND

ROBERT ETHERIDGE, F.B.S., L. & E., F.GS., &c.

NEW SERIES. DECADE II. VOL. IV.
JANUARY—DECEMBER, 1877.

LONDON:

TRUBNER & Co., 57 ann 59, LUDGATE HILL.
F. SAVY, 77, BOULEVART ST.-GERMAIN, PARIS.
CONSTide

HERTFORD:

PRINTED BY STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS.

eS Ey OPN Ee eve Bis:

PLATES, PAGE
“J. Sketch Map of the Neighbourhood of Newport, Fife, N.B. 8

¥ II. Scottish Lower Silurian Brachiopoda 9 ., eee cee see cee tenon 13
~TII. Coelodus ellipticus, Egerton. Pycnodus Bowerbankt, Egerton... 49

“ IV. Celodus gyrodoides, Egerton. Pycnodus pachyrhinus, Egerton... .... 49

~ WV. Upper Devonian Fossils 00. sack, cece cere cee eset ems tee ee 100

~ VI. Cambridge Greensand (in, sess cesses stsse cree ceeee trees tates nette coon 102
WIN. Tne ao BA Paro, deen) con enw licion! lca) ae Sareea dies, Rie 145
WV lille Olas temberratayger neces uae syuceeseyiitsssce) reassess estscecel crore este) (crest) c===- cn a==s 145
te JDK, GINS, ~~ os Gat ak ae Ge as os) ee cm es) eo Sat 199
Pie NG Ure ten terataeec ices sitey cestaly Ujasssssl daseeth bercve ibacecsees eee BEM coer lbs (Nene D
v XI. Piles of Lake Dwellings of Moringen 2... eee, cece cee ee tee 366
v XII. Carboniferous Mollusca, Scotland 0k, cece cece eee tee nee see 241
v XIII. Carboniferous Ichthyodorulites, Scotland wk cee te ce es 307
v XIV. Geological Panorama of West Coast of Sumatra... ek ce oe 443
vw XV. Map of United States showing Glacial Furrows «0 ce see see 481
UapxaVely Cretaceous Gasheropoday iy) ee. Wnt eal eral certs) sitcsor) lcvccoll) aoesnt mlsaalh cre 556

ae]
Deena

ay
Ah eacee |

LIST OF WOODCUTS.

PAGE
SPINE SROlpOrACHTOPOC Aye crit: ten ciel tase cede at tae HAY Gee a as 14
Two diagram figures illustrating Flotation of Icebergs 0. oe, eee see sees 69
Blatia helvetica, Heer, Coal-measures, Erbignon i, cee cee tee vette see 79
Central Europe, Jurassic Period 0. 0 ce cece cee tees teers SBR SONY Se ial 82
Contralehiuropes Cretaceous erlods ye super cu) eseeral | cea) nas) ler. auigeni eres 83
Central Europe, Middle Miocene Period wo, ee cee cee ey sidestep, cet 85
Chelone ovata, Heer. Chelone imbricata ee eve trees teers SEL ace Ae Sees 84
Glyptostrobus europeus. Taxodium distichwm miocenum. Widdringtonia
BELO UCL UC genre say ILA ceeceae) veecteig Teccts esd eetes sseieest feeaseal ihe ssssihentenneey ecseeey heros 86
SAROUD ILCGBUOAG, COWB OK: aos oma) ono) ono ame! eo Gm a em) a oe 86
Palms of Switzerland, restored from their leaves | o. see ceee cee cee eee 87
Elephas primigenius. Hlephas antiqguus ee see tgs ees Sao Weil) oa 88
Diagram of Freshwater and Marine deposits near Corfe ..... ..... Er OMiyearlc a 180
ialeotsthepBourne st 7s, sere olsen) ved dean Orbea) eee) | Vanes saisil we Teaetne agen! (aes 130
MeavesrOimM ico tyled ons si.stol itcsuilgs.ch lect ecccrsoa iiss call ocr nics, alae dolgietcathettes 132
Branch of Conifer ... wo... Re heriets Seema Ts Ola EP A PEATE NG Lorre 134
GrouproisMonocobyledonsiamr ate mee masse inte Wires es 134
SCGMON OF ©, joorinton OF OSM, sen ae> amp ann oom mw am au > oo 196
Pliocene beds between Sidestrand and Weybourn se teste cesses ee 305
Fusulina-Limestone and Sandstone... ASM tae Restos eaves nen ota atts 402
Woalateldsyonuthe Wirral stay ness cea) sre ohare uae eee nat Ran Ne yeaa eee ww 404
Section of Northampton Ironstone near Lincoln... oe cee sees teeta 407
Section of Lincolmshire Limestone ase sence tenes canes oe en cd gat 407
Section of the Greetwell Cutting 00. case eee ce tenes Breau cat pac) 408
Digimon Win somINGl ILTOGOIN co. cop om a ote) mS Eamets 408
PSSLLIIORAY hid \NVENOCOUUAVSR HON Go eee | cat deo em Geen GN easy) een eee toy yee 408

Geolocicalasechioniotmvyallleyaotauhe wii erae trina Sir ial ene mae 434

Vill List of Woodcuts.

PAGE
Reversed s Halts imlS 1a Ges yey sie emery ee eee dimen yy ui ve alcreealianees 442
Section showing position of Bunter Conglomerate, Turner Street, Nottingham 498
Laminated Structure of Lower Pitchstone, Dunfion ..... _..... seem ien |)cero) ah 501
Dykes mearsDrumadoonehointi ges iu meen ier eens rene pee) cree eae 505
SpleruliticuMelsite mss y wesc tenses Merah een TNL ast Ls a’ cased MeeoeetiyMentes 506
Section showing Felsite and Pitchstone on Corriegills shore 0... ws. cu coon 507

DALLASTINT ILLUSTRATIONS.

Anthrapalemon Hiltiand ose csr sesee attee seen SIRE cats |, deuctnoiqesces pte 56

LG MALONOLUS PING LC S070 ix EVAN Caney mp eeeet i) ceeall eeees UN ence eves ete Uileeeee al cers ae ONT

THE

GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE.

NEW SERIES. DECADE II. VOL. IV.
No. I—JANUARY, 1877.

ORLGINATL ARTICLHS.
—_»——_
T.—On Evoturtion In Grouoey.

By W. J. Sorzas, B.A., F.G.S.,
Lecturer on Geology, Cambridge University Extension.

fa the energy of the earth and the sun is a continually diminish-

ing quantity, and must at the beginning of geologic history
have been far in excess of its present amount, are propositions that
few at the present day would be found to deny; but the exact influence
of this greater quantity of energy on geologic changes has not, I
believe, been hitherto fully discussed.'

The Sun.—The Sun is a large and exceedingly hot star, cooling
slowly in space, and it is because it is so large and hot that it has
been able to supply our world and all the other members of its
system with so much heat for so long a time. It is daily losing
heat, and it is the heat thus lost by the sun, and gained in part by
us, that supplies UNS SOS) requisite for the work of most denuding
agents.

“If the sun then be a cooling body, its store of energy must have
been greater yesterday than it is to-day, by exactly the equivalent
of the amount of heat it has radiated since then; and so of all
previous yesterdays: so that if we go back far enough in time, we
shall reach a period when the store of energy in the sun was too
great to permit of its existence in its present state. This period, as
calculated by Sir William Thomson, is placed as far back as from
100 to 500 millions of years ago.? But it is a law of cooling bodies
that they cool the quicker the higher their temperature is above that
of the surrounding medium. The space in which all worlds exist,
the medium which surrounds our sun, appears to have no sensible

1 The views contained in this paper, the sources of some of which will be obvious,
were first expressed before the Halifax Philosophical Society, in a lecture which I
delivered in 1874, and afterwards in a paper read before the Leeds Geologists’
Association. They are now printed in a condensed form and rather as suggestions
than anything else.

* The increased amount of energy in the sun does not imply a corresponding
elevation of temperature; to a great extent such additional energy was poten-
tial, but from all we know it seems most probable that an increase in potential
would be accompanied in this case by an increase in kinetic energy, and so we may
safely assume that the temperature of the sun rises in an ascending curve as we
proceed backwards in time. The more rapid conversion of potential into kinetic
energy, which probably occurred at intervals, would produce fluctuations in
temperature, and so the temperature curve in the sun’s history is probably not a
simple line, but varied by numerous minor undulations,

DECADE II.—VOL, IV,—NO. I. 1

2 W. J. Sollas—On Evolution in Geology.

temperature of its own, or what temperature it has is generally
taken as practically constant.

Thus by raising the temperature of our luminary we increase the
difference between its temperature and that of surrounding space.
It will consequently cool quicker than when its temperature is lower
and the difference in temperature correspondingly less.

In radiating its heat away more rapidly, it will supply our earth
with a greater quantity of energy, which only comes to saying what
is obvious enough, that when the sun was hotter, it shone with
increased intensity on the earth.

The Harth—The same conclusion may be held to be true as
regards the earth, likewise considered as a body cooling in space.
It is now very hot inside, but at one time it must have been much
hotter ; every century that has passed over it, has left it more and
more impoverished in heat. It becomes hotter not only as we
descend its crust, but also as we pass backwards in time.

The rate at which it cools can only be determined by making use
of data confessedly imperfect, and from these Sir Wm. Thomson
finds that 100 or 200 millions of years ago it first began to be
crusted over by a solid film of rocks; that 10,000 years after its
first crusting over the temperature of the crust increased 2° F. for
every lft. vertically descended below the zone of constant tempera-
ture. The rate of increase for descent with successive periods is
shown in the following table:

Period after crusting over. Rate of increase in temperature
YEARS. for every 1ft. descended.
10,000 000 000 500 900 obo We 18
40,000 RUT! 2 Bie aes towers Ue een? Lei Umer
160,000 8g SC, HE SERENE 3
4,000,000 Bete OAR ECI. alee Se gees to
100,000,000 ae

si of a degree being the present rate of increase.
Various estimates have been made by geologists of the time which
has elapsed since the deposition of the earliest recorded strata, from
the time the Laurentian were first laid down to the present day.
From 500 to 50 millions of years would, I think, include the least
extravagant of them, a period which brings the period of formation
of the earliest known strata into very close proximity with that
when the sun first began his existence as our luminary, and when
our earth was first permanently crusted over.

Prof. Thomson’s estimates may be wrong, and the estimates of
the geologists may be wrong, either or both may be erroneous to a
considerable degree; but even if we put Sir Wm. Thomson’s
periods farther back, twice as far back, or bring the Laurentian
period nearer to us, there will yet remain a very considerable excess
of energy, both in the sun and in our planet, beyond what they
at present possess, and the influence of which must have been
distinctly sensible on the rate of early geologic change. It is there-
fore not only legitimate, but it even becomes necessary, to consider
what must have been the precise effects of this excess of energy on
the earlier physical geography of our globe.

W. J. Sollas—On Evolution in Geology. 3

Velocity of the Earth’s Rotation.—The retardation of the earth’s
rotation, owing to the drain upon its energy in supplying the work
done by the tides, has not yet, perhaps, been accurately estimated
as to its amount, but as to its existence there can be little or no
doubt. From this it follows that the rate of rotation of the earth
was greater in the earlier stages of its history, and has continually
decreased from then to the present day.

Chemical Energy.—The chemical energy which chiefly concerns
us here is the unsatisfied affinity of carbonic anhydride. All sedi-
mentary rocks must ultimately be traced to an igneous source, and
those strata which are composed of carbonates must, in the long
run, have resulted from the combination of the original carbonic
anhydride of the atmosphere with the constituent of some igneous
rock.

Confining our attention to carbonate of lime, it is clear that
every bed of this material bears testimony to so much carbonic
anhydride extracted from the atmosphere, and, by calculating the
quantity of carbonic anhydride which any given limestone bed con-
tains, we determine by how much the atmosphere of our planet has
been deprived by it of that constituent. Thus one cubic mile of lime-
stone contains about four thousand million tons of carbonic anhydride,
1.e. about gooo0 part of the whole amount of this gas at present
existing in the atmosphere. The Laurentian formation of Canada
alone covers an area of 200,000 square miles of the earth’s surface,
and contains limestone beds amounting altogether to 4000 ft. in
thickness. Proceeding on the assumption that this is the average
thickness, which of course it is not, it is easy to determine that the
quantity of carbonic anhydride stored away in these Laurentian
limestones alone exceeds by four times the quantity of carbonic
anhydride at present existing in the atmosphere; or, in other words,
that if it could be again restored to the air, it would inerease the
existing per-centage therein from ‘04 to ‘2 per cent. ; and when we
consider all the calcareous rocks of the Silurian, Carboniferous,
Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Eocene formations now exposed
at the earth’s surface, and the unknown beds of limestone, probably
surpassing all these in thickness and extent, now buried beneath the
sea, then we have abundant testimony to the extraordinary richness
of this carbonic anhydride gas in the original atmosphere of the
earth, before it had been extracted, by virtue of its affinity for
the lime of calcic silicates, and imprisoned in the solid form in
limestone strata. -And the same evidence moreover shows that
it has been continually diminishing in amount from the earliest to
the most recent geologic times.

Influence of increased Solar and Terrestrial energy on the rate of -
Geologic Change.

1. Disintegration by carbonic anhydride.—One does not know what
proportion of the carbonic anhydride which is effective in the dis-
integration of rocks is directly dissolved by rain-water from the

4 W. J. Sollas—On Evolution in Geology.

atmosphere, and what proportion is furnished by that constant
carbonic anhydride generator—decaying vegetable matter.

That directly dissolved would increase with the increased amount
of carbonic anhydride present in the air, but it would on the other
hand be diminished by the higher temperature which, as we shall
show, the earlier rain-water possessed; and as the subterranean
waters were also in the earlier periods warmer than they now are,
the quantity of carbonic anhydride absorbed by them would also
be for this reason less. It is thus impossible to say whether the
presence of an excess of carbonic anhydride in the air would do
more than very partially compensate for its diminished solubility in
water warmer than the present.

2. Denudation by rain and rivers.—As the rate of this depends
ceteris paribus on the amount of rainfall, we have now to inquire
how far this quantity would differ in the earlier from that of the
later geologic times.

The rainfall is the result of the difference in temperature met

with in passing from the equator to the poles and from the surface
of the earth to the higher regions of the atmosphere.
_ Owing to increased radiation from the sun, our earth must have
possessed a higher temperature all over its surface in the earlier
geologic periods, and in addition to this a more extreme difference
in temperature must have existed between the poles and the equator.
The ratio of this difference would of course remain the same, since
that depends on an unvarying cause, but the actual difference
would be much greater, as also would be the difference between the
temperature at the surface of the earth and in the higher regions of
the atmosphere. The general elevation of a constant temperature-
difference to a higher temperature level would of itself be sufficient
to cause increased evaporation and greater rainfall. As an illustra-
tion of this let us mix together 1 cubic inch of air saturated with
aqueous vapour at 100°C. with another cubic inch saturated at 60°C.,
a difference of temperature of 40°C. The result will be that 4:1
grains of water will be precipitated. Now let us take 1 cubic inch
saturated at 65°5°C. and mingle it with 1 cubic inch at 15°5°C., a
temperature-difference greater than in the first case, viz. 50°C. The
condensed aqueous vapour will now weigh only 1 grain; one quarter
the quantity of the former instance.

Thus a merely equable elevation of the earth’s temperature would
suffice of itself to produce greatly increased rainfalls, —greater not
simply in proportion to the elevation to a higher temperature level
of the temperature-difference on which they depend, but in an
increasing ratio; and when to this we add the effects of an actual
increase in the temperature-difference itself, we shall obtain a rain-
fall which will very forcibly indicate that the increased radiation
from the sun must have had its full influence in producing a more
copious evaporation of terrestrial waters, and a corresponding con-
densation of aqueous vapour.

Here we may notice in passing, that the rain would be warmer
rain than the present, and it would fall upon a warmer terrestrial

W. J. Sollas—On Evolution in Geology. 5

surface; the difference in temperature might not be very great, but
it would exist. From the increased rainfall would necessarily follow
a more rapid corrosion of the general surface of the land, and a
speedier degradation of its general level. The sculpturing of hills
and valleys and the delivery of detritus to the sea must have pro-
ceeded at a swifter rate; and indeed all the activities of rain and
rivers would be stimulated to relatively greater energy.

3. Subterranean Waters.—Not only would the amount of these be
augmented by the increased rainfall, but they would be influenced
by the higher temperature of the earth’s crust; thus in the present
period percolating water must descend on the average 51 feet below
the zone of constant temperature in order to rise 1° in temperature ;
4,000 years after the permanent incrustation of the earth, the same
descent would be accompanied by an elevation of 5° in temperature.

4. Marine Denudation. The Waves.—The difference of tempera-
ture which produces the rainfall also drives the winds in their
courses, just as truly as the difference in temperature between the
boiler of a steam engine and the external air drives the piston.
Augment the difference and the winds will flow faster and more
violently, just as certainly as fresh fuel will urge the engine with
greater activity. Thus the denudation accomplished by the winds
will also be accelerated, especially that disintegration of sea-cliffs
which they produce indirectly. For it is the winds ruffling the ocean
which produce the sea-waves, and it is the energy of these directed
to the battering down of the cliffs along every coast-line which pro-
duces a great part of the work of marine denudation.

Tides.—These are due to the rotation of the earth between the
attracting bodies of the sun and moon, and since this rotation must
have been more rapid the further back we recede in time, so must it
have conferred greater energy on the actions of the tides. Let the
velocity of the earth’s rotation be doubled, and the tides will rise
four times instead of twice in every twenty-four hours, and with
greater frequency will attain also greater velocity. But it is the
tides and tidal currents which are, amongst others, the most per-
sistent agents in coast-line transportation; and thus the detritus
produced with increased rapidity by the disintegrating actions of
the rain and waves, will be with corresponding rapidity carried
away to preserve the coast-line constantly exposed to renewed decay.

Marine. Currents.—All these, excepting those produced by the
tides, are ultimately due to differences in temperature on which
the winds also depend, and thus «will likewise flow with accelerated
velocity, and consequently their influence as transporting agents
will be correspondingly exalted.

Deposition.—The rate of deposition is always directly proportional
to the rate of denudation, and may be said at any particular time to
equal it. Thus any increase in the rate of denudation will be
necessarily accompanied by a corresponding increase in the deposi-
tion of sediment. If we look for any direct proof of this, there is
but little to be found. Prof. Phillips has shown that the proportion
of the number of fossil species to the thickness of its strata con-

6 W. J. Sollas—On Evolution in Geology.

stantly diminishes as we proceed from the more recent to the older
rocks; and certainly the length of time required for the formation
of the Palaeozoic rocks, calculated according to their thickness and
the rate of existing processes of deposition, would be far in excess
of that derived from a consideration of the changes in their fossil
fauna. That this might indicate a quicker rate of deposition I
pointed out in my lectures two years ago, while a previous writer
has endeavoured to prove the converse proposition, viz. that the
changed proportion indicates that the rate of variation amongst
animals and plants must have progressively increased from the
earliest to the latest times. Certainly the continual increase of
the sum total of species, an increase only partially checked by the
extinction of some species, will give greater opportunities for
variation; but beyond this there appears but little to explain a
progressively increasing rate of variation which should affect all the
great classes of animals alike; and since the organic world seems
to change much less quickly than the mineral one, one feels much
more inclined to attribute the greater thickness of the older rocks, in
proportion to the number of their contained species, to an accele-
rated rate of deposition, than the contrary. If this be the correct
view, and the change in proportion be available as a means of
measurement, we shall then find that the Paleozoic rocks were
deposited three times as rapidly as the Cainozoic strata, since they
contain one quarter the number of species of fossils for the same
given thickness of rocks.’

Metamorphosis.—This results from the descent of sediments towards
the interior of the earth, by which they become exposed to a tempera-
ture high enough, under the circumstances, to alter their character.
The readier metamorphosis of the earlier rocks follows naturally
from the more rapid rise of temperature which then occurred for‘a
given descent into the earth’s crust from its surface, and from the
greater activity of crust-movements, which we shall show charac-
terized the earlier epochs.

Using Sir William Thomson’s estimates for an illustration of the
former influences, we find that 4,000,000 years after permanently
incrusting, the temperature-increase for every foot descended into
the crust is 75°: and thus a descent of rocks 100,000 ft. from the
surface—by no means an improbable amount—would bring them into
regions the temperature of which would at least amount to 10,000° F.,
by which of course they would necessarily be fused and re-absorbed
into the melted interior of the earth.

1 The studious reader who desires to enter more fully into this question of the
“Rate of Geological Change” should consult Prof. Huxley’s Presidential Address
to the Geological Society (1869), Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxv.; Prof. E.
Forbes “ On the Manifestation of Polarity in the Distribution of Organized Beings
in Time” (Royal Inst. Lectures, vol. i. p. 428); Prof. Phillips’ Rede Lecture:
Cambridge, 1860, afterwards published by Macmillan under the title ‘‘ Life on the
Earth,’ 1860; and an able article by Mr. H. M. Jenkins, F.G.S., Sec. Royal Agl.
Soc. of England, ‘“‘On the Rate of Geological Change,’ Quart. Journ. Science,
1870, vol. vil. p, 822.—Epir. Grou. Mac.

W. J. Sollas—On Evolution in Geology. if

The Laurentian strata were clearly never exposed to a temperature
like this, but it is quite conceivable that their wide-spread and
extreme state of metamorphosis may be connected with the early
date of their origin.

Elevation and Depression of Strata.—The movements of the earth’s
crust are generally allowed to be due to the loss of heat from within
it, whether by the wrinkling or the crushing of the crust on a con-
tracting nucleus, or by any other means. But at the beginning of
geologic time the temperature was much more elevated above that
of its surrounding medium than at present, and consequently cooling
or the loss of heat must have gone on more rapidly than at present,
and from this follows a more rapid progress of those movements of
upheaval and subsidence depending on this cooling. Thus elevation
and depression of strata must have occurred with greater rapidity in
the earlier than in the later stages of our planet’s history.

Summary.—We have now shown that the decreasing energy of
the sun and of the earth must have led to diminishing rapidity
in the action of three of the main factors of geologic change, viz. on
the denudation, reproduction, and the elevation and depression of
strata.

In spite of all fluctuation resulting from more than usually rapid
conversions of potential into kinetic energy, the loss of energy
continually proceeds, and as continually is accompanied by a
decrease in the rate of geologic change, just as certainly as the
greater periodical activity in the solar radiation once every 11:2
years gives rise to exactly opposite results.

If then denudation and deposition take place with accelerated
velocity as we recede from the present time, how great is the
mistake of attempting to check the results as to the age of the world
obtained by the physicist with those deduced by the geologist, as
though the methods of both were independent of each other, while
all the time the latter proceeds upon the assumption that the rate of
geologic change has on the whole been always constant, and the
former disproves this in a corrollary to his chief argument. To
adapt an analogy of Prof. Stuart’s, one is told that a certain boy
grows 75th inch in a year, and that he is four feet high; the
geologist then argues ten years to grow 1 inch, 480 years for four
feet, therefore the boy is 480 years old. On a person who knows
more about the boy in question coming forward to inform us that
when he was younger he grew much faster, and that after all his
age is only ten years, the geologist replies, It may be so, let me
see, 7'oth of an inch in a year, on the doctrine of uniformity, 1 inch
in 10 years; no, you are clearly mistaken, 10 years is far too short
a time, the organic processes of growth could not possibly have
occurred in this time. I grant you my own calculation is not
rigorously exact; let us say then our boy is but 400 years of |
age.

i s this an unjust parallel ?

8 James Durham—The “ Kames” of Newport, Fife.

T].—Tux “Kamus” In THE NergupourHoop or Newport, Firs, N.B.

By James Duruam, Esq.
(With a Coloured Map. PLATE I.)

T the British Association Meeting in Dundee, in 1867, the late
Dr. Chambers, in a brief paper, called the attention of Section C.
to the existence of an “eskar”’ in the neighbouring parish of Forgan,
in the County of Fife. As far as I can recollect or ascertain, the
paper said little or nothing about the subject further than describing
its situation, and recommending it to the attention of the Section.
And I am not aware that the great accumulations of gravel and sand
to which Dr. Chambers referred have been made the subject of
systematic observation since.

The recent construction of a line of railway to connect the North
British Railway’s line at Leuchars with the Tay Bridge, afforded in
numerous cuttings ample opportunity of studying the nature and
arrangement of the materials of which these mounds are formed. I
propose in this paper to briefly describe the external appearance of
those so-called ‘‘ Kames,” as well as the boulders, gravels and sands
of which they are composed, and to point out the inferences that
I think may be fairly drawn from the facts at our disposal as to
the origin of these and similar accumulations elsewhere. These
Kames may, perhaps, be most easily described by supposing the
observer to proceed from the centre of Wormit Bay (see Map) up to
the “Castle Hill,” a lofty cone near their greatest elevation, and
thence by the railway cuttings to St. Michael’s Inn and Leuchars.
Leaving the shore-line a little to the west of Tay Bridge, we are first
met by a series of mounds and ridges, through which a little rivulet
has cut a deep and winding channel. Further on are a great succession
of billowy mounds extending over many acres, and gradually rising
in height as we approach a line between Wormit and Newton Hills,
where they culminate at the height of about 170 feet in the “Castle
_ Hill” and neighbouring heights. As we proceed, the Kames spread
out into the open country in the form of a succession of great undu-
lating ridges gradually lessening in height, and to the south forming
a broad flat-topped plateau, extending like some great line of fortifi-
cation almost from the farm of Kinnear to Leuchars,—its high,
angular, and nearly vertical front forming one of the most imposing
and interesting features of the landscape. To the eastward we find
that these accumulations gradually decrease in height, until, in a
series of gently sloping terraces, they arrive at the sea-level. The
scenery, so to speak, of the Kames is somewhat remarkable ; stand-
ing amongst them, and having no standard by which to estimate
their dimensions, one is apt to be carried away with the feeling that
he is contemplating one of those scenes of mountain grandeur usually
associated with landscapes of far greater magnitude. Cones and
ridges seem hills and mountain chains; little pools seem lakes; and
tiny streamlets rivers—im pressing the imagination not very differently
from the far vaster features of a Highland district.

An examination of the cuttings of the Tay Bridge and Leuchars

Geol. Mag. 1877. New Srrizs_ ; Decade MI-Vol1V Plate 1.

VAL Oy /
|

ae: \\e Dee

bs
Tayacite
Gunmen gE
Seabpe : NN
oo Sr rier

PX
\

!
|
|
}
|
|

Se

~

IRTH of\ TAY
Ss

= a

——

————EE

G.D.Delprat, Del

Dark Blue represents present Sea Level. Light Blue shews Sea Level with Land depressed 200 Feet.

Sketch Map of The Neighbourhood of Newport. Fife NB.

To illustrate M‘ Durhams Paper on Kames

tt Ds,
Ae
£

James Durham—The “‘ Kames”’ of Newport, Fife. 9

railway affords convincing evidence that the gravels of which these
Kames are composed are not such as could have been formed in the
neighbourhood, as they consist almost entirely of fragments of rocks
only to be found far to the north or north-west. A very large pro-
portion of the gravel is made up of the following rocks: Mica schist,
gneiss, quartz, granite, Old Red Conglomerate, Old Red Sandstone,
with a certain proportion of greenstone, basalt, and various ‘‘ tufts” ;
while the rocks of the district consist of trap-rocks confusedly inter-
bedded with impure sandstones, probably of Old Red Sandstone age.
These cuttings further bring to light the important circumstance
that, while the constituents of the loftier Kames, such as the “Castle
Hill,” are large and nearly devoid of stratification, those at lower
levels either towards Wormit Bay on the one hand, or towards
Straiton and St. Michael’s Inn on the other, show a gradual decrease
in the size of the materials, and more and more distinct evidence of
stratification. The long rampart-like Kame at Straiton, as far as
can be ascertained from a few natural sections, is entirely com-
posed of nearly horizontal layers of sand and fine gravel, though
at its base the materials are larger and coarser.

Though the Kames near Newport are by far the most remarkable in
the district, numerous deposits of identical character and composition
are found in every valley or hollow in the surrounding country, all
agreeing in these important features with the mounds just described,
namely, that the materials of which they are composed—the gravel
and boulders—are not local stones, but have been brought from the
north-west ; that in a general way the greater the distance from
the hills, and the lower the levels at which these accumulations
are found, the finer is the gravel and sand, and the more distinct
is their stratification.

It may not be out of place to remark here that there is a striking
similarity between the arrangements of the materials composing
these mounds and that of the Old Red Conglomerate exhibited in
various cuttings in the neighbourhood of Blairgowrie. Proceeding
from Rosemount through Blairgowrie and on towards Bridge of
Cally, we find that while at Rosemount the proportion of pebbles
enclosed in the rock is comparatively small, and the quantity of pure
sandstone relatively large, as we proceed northward the proportions
are gradually reversed, until, as we approach the Silurian hills
which formed the shore of the inland sea, in which the Old Red
system was laid down, the shingle and boulders which compose the
conglomerate gradually increase in quantity and size; and when we
finally arrive at the close proximity of that ancient sea-shore, the
conglomerate is represented by a mass of great rounded stones
cemented together by a slight matrix of sandstone.

The rounded and water-worn character of the stones which so
largely compose the Kames readily suggests the sea as having
played an important part in the formation of those interesting
monuments of the past, and there are in the neighbourhood ample
traces of old sea-levels, many of them far above the loftiest of the
Kames. Along the hill-sides forming the bank of the estuary

10 James Durham—The “ Kames” of Newport, Fife.

are numerous vertical rock faces that can be traced along horizontal
parallel lines at various levels, which so closely resemble the rocks
of the present sea-shore, that there is no reason to doubt that they
are old sea-levels, which as the land rose were successively washed
by its waves. From the fact that between the bases of the higher
lines of cliffs and the tops of those beneath them, there are usually
gently sloping declivities, one is apt to conclude that the upward
movement had not been uniform; but it is well to bear in mind
that the height of the cliffis by no means a trustworthy measure of one
period of rest, as the following fact illustrates. From the rocks at
the upper light-house at Tayport to a point half a mile to the
westward, there is a break in the line of cliff, that elsewhere almost
uninterruptedly forms the margin of the estuary; the break is
occupied by a series of gravel terraces, which, beginning very little
above the reach of the tide, succeed each other a good way up the
hill-sides in rises of from five to ten feet, and as the present sea-cliff
is equal in height to two or three of these terraces, it is apparent
that it must have formed the shore-line during the various elevations
of the land to which they bear testimony, and remains the shore-
line still. But whether the land rose per saltum, or with an unin-
terrupted gradual motion, the sea has left lasting testimony of its
presence in the form of a line of great cliffs, which can be traced
along all the hills, between 150 and 200 feet above the datum-line
of the Ordnance Survey. In colouring the accompanying map, I
have adopted the higher level, in order to show the geography of
the district when the Kames were covered by the sea. (See Plate I.)

That these waterworn gravels and sands are not, as some have
suggested, ancient deposits of the Tay, is, I think, very evident. The
late Dr. William Rhind made a careful estimate of the gravels of
the estuary, and found that seventy-five per cent. of them consist of
fragments of the rocks along its margin; while, as has been stated,
the constituents of the Kames are nearly all far-travelled. There is
indeed little doubt that we owe to the ancient glaciers the intro-
duction into this district of the materials which form these Kames.
As they slowly drew back over the lowlands, they must have
gradually buried hill and valley under a thick layer of the stones
which they carried on their surface, with gneiss and mica-schist
and granite from the Highland mountains, with Old Red Conglomerate,
and Old Red Sandstone from the formations on the flanks of the
Grampians, and with greenstones and basalts from the rocks in the
vicinity. These rock-fragments would be mostly angular, as, after
they were broken off the hill-sides, they had merely rested on the
surface of the glacier, until they were deposited on the track of the
receding ice. Such fragments as found their way through crevasses
to the bottom of the glacier were crushed and ground beneath it,
and on its withdrawal formed ‘ till,” which in this neighbourhood
is a compact mass of light brown clay enclosing smoothed and
scratched stones, mostly local, and nearly as solid and tenacious as
rock itself, and not at all to be confounded with the materials of
the Kames.

James Durham—The “ Kames”’ of Newport, Fife. 11

It is evident from the presence of the raised gravel beaches pre-
viously described that after the final retreat of the glaciers, the land
of this district must have been submerged, or, which is much less
probable, had risen as the glacier withdrew towards the mountains; at
any rate, whether it went down mantled with moraine matter and
then rose again, or simply rose out of the sea after the ice-sheet had
for ever withdrawn from its shores, foot by foot every part of it
would successively form the sea-beach, at first or at last the sea-
beach of the mainland, but for the most part of an archipelago of
little islands through which the waves of the North Sea rolled to-
wards the hills of Angus and Perthshire. We can readily imagine
how that old ocean would sweep the stones left by the ice against
the rocks and over each other, rolling them backwards and forwards
over its changing beach, wearing and rounding them, and spreading ~
them over its bed, the lighter fragments, the fine gravel and sand,
away out in -its motionless depths, the larger pieces being deposited
nearer the shore, while great boulders would scarcely be moved
at all.

Thus, I think the various peculiarities of the construction of the
“‘Kames” may be accounted for. The great mounds of large unstrati-
fied stones, the “Castle Hill” and neighbouring heights, are close to
the shore of the islands represented by Newton and Wormit Hills, in
a channel where the waves of conflicting tides would toss them con-
stantly to and fro, and so prevent anything like orderly stratification,
just as we find to be the case on the beach of any exposed part of
our coast. Leaving these heights in either direction, we descend into
what was the depths of that sea, and find, as we would naturally
expect, that in a general way the further we recede from the old
sea-shore, the finer are the materials which composed its floor and
the more orderly their arrangement.

Having thus explained the source and arrangement of the materials
which form our Kames, we naturally come to the question of their
varied forms. How can we account for the form of the lofty “Castle
Hill” ? round the base of which, during the construction of the
railway, were found traces of an artificial ditch containing black
earth and fragments of human bones, pointing to bygone times and
struggles when its steep gravelly sides formed a strong position of
defence. What force moulded those billow-like ridges that roll
round it on all sides as if mimicking the waves of the ocean. Or,
more puzzling still, whence this great flat-topped plateau with its
angular precipitous side, stretching along the valley like the earth-
works of some race of giants? A tolerably careful examination of
many of the slopes and hollows has convinced me that the only answer
is, Rain and rivers have shaped them all! When the land rose out
of the sea, the re-arranged glacial moraine matter would form either
a gentle seaward sloping plain from the top of its highest ridge to
the sea-level, or, what is more probable, it would form a series of
successive terraces or steps similar to what we find between Newport
and Tayport. The moment either the whole or part of it was exposed
to atmospheric influences, the wasting action would begin; the rain

12 James Durham—The “ Kames”’ of Newport, Fife.

falling on it would soon find or form little channels, which would
grow to small and then larger streams as they ran seaward; great
streams like the Motray would soon cut deep and broad courses,
continually widened and lowered as the stream wound backwards
and forwards on its tortuous seaward way. During a great part of
the time that has elapsed since the elevation of the land, the Motray
has evidently confined its channel to the north side of its valley,
scooping out a broad and deep hollow, leaving the great flat-topped
Kame at Straiton to record the vast amount of matter it has ex-
cavated, its fortification-like front being due to indentations caused
by the windings of the river, which at present flows close to the
foot of this great terrace. While a large stream like the Motray
cleared out a broad plain, tiny rivulets cut narrow but ever-deepening
channels, the loose rubbish sliding down their banks frequently
compelling them to change their courses, and so isolating the various
mounds and ridges, the rain falling on the loose materials would
readily obliterate any appearance of vertical cutting, and so form
the rounded tops of the cones and backs of the ridges.

Occasionally the Kames present forms so peculiar that it is difficult
to realize that rain and running water alone have shaped them ; but in
every doubtful case a careful examination of the surroundings satisfied
me that they have been moulded by this action and no other. One
feature in particular I found very puzzling, viz. the small lakelets
that often occupy the deepest hollows among the Kames, it being
difficult to imagine any force that could hollow out lake-basins,
operating here; and as the action of either running water or the
waves of the sea would necessarily leave at least one side of the
hollow lower than the centre, one solution that presented itself
was that the bottoms of the hollows had somehow sunk; but all the
observations made were by no means confirmatory of the hypothesis,
it being quite apparent that a hollow through which no stream had
flowed must have been filled up by matter washed down from its
banks by the rain; indeed not long ago one of these pools was
almost completely filled up by the action of an unusually heavy fall
of rain ina single night. The solution of the difficulty is, however,
simple enough ; the pools are found in oval-shaped hollows, separated
from each other, as well as from the drained areas, by comparatively
trifling barriers; their oval hollows are the wider parts of the miniature
valley of some vanished streamlet, while the barriers which block up
their ends, and so form them into basins, are the narrower parts of
the valley. partially filled up by gravel washed down from its banks,
the narrower parts being of course much more readily filled up than
the wider. Other similar little difficulties as readily disappeared
upon a closer acquaintance with them, leaving no doubt in my mind
that the remarkable forms of the Kames are the ordinary every-day
work of subaerial denudation, not the product of cataclysmal waves
of ocean, nor of glacier nor iceberg, nor of abnormal sea-currents,
but by the unobtrusive unhasting unresting influence of the rainfall.

In conclusion, I will briefly re-state the argument of the paper :—

1.—The mounds, ridges, and terraces of sand, gravel, and shingle,

Lecade ll Voll. Pt LM.

NEW SERIES

L

Mé& N.Hanhart imp.

Tho® Davidson del. et lith.

R SILURIAN BRACHIOPODA.

OW

COTTISH L

a
©)

T. Davidson—On New Scottish Brachiopoda. 13

the so-called “‘Kames,” owe most of the materials of which they
are composed to the ancient glaciers.

2.—These materials were spread over the bottom of the sea when
it was at a higher level than at present, and in the ordinary familiar
course of nature.

3.—The “ Kames” owe their present forms not to any abnormal
action of the elements, but are the result of the same denuding agen-
cies that are at present in operation.

I1I.—Norrs on Four Species or Scorrish Lower Sinurtan
BRACHIOPODA.
By T. Davinson, F.R.S., F.G.S., ete.
(PLATE II.)
Genus SrpHonorreta, De Verneuil.

Of this remarkable genus several species from the Lower Silurian
rocks of Russia have been well described and illustrated by Hichwald,
Pander, de Verneuil, Kutorga, and others, to whose works and
papers the reader is referred."

In 1849 Prof. Morris described a species from the Upper Silurian
or Wenlock Shale, near Dudley, to which he gave the name of
Anglica.2, In 1851 Prof. M‘Coy made us acquainted with a much
smaller species, S. micula* which abounds in the Llandeilo flags of
various English, Scottish, and Ivish localities.

About two years ago Mrs. Gray, an indefatigable collector of
Scottish Silurian fossils, to whose liberality I am deeply indebted,
discovered in the Caradoc Limestone or Shales of Craighead Quarry,
in Aryshire, several incomplete examples of a third species which
she kindly placed in my hands for description and illustration.

It is not, however, possible, from the crushed and fragmentary con-
dition in which these specimens have been found, to describe the
shell completely, or to refer it, with any degree of certainty, to the
Russian species already noticed. It will consequently be better,
I think, to give to this Scottish species a provisional separate
designation.

1. SipHonotreta Scorica, n. sp.? PI. II. Figs. 5, 6.

Shell oblong oval, anterior half broadly rounded; posterior half
tapering (in the ventral valve) into an acuminated beak, perforated
at its extremity by a small circular foraminal aperture. Valves
moderately convex and marked with numerous concentric ridges,
from which fringes of closely-packed adpressed spines take their
rise, which, although more numerous, partake of the character of
those figured by Kutorga in pl. vi. fig. 2b. of his Memoir already

1 Bichwald, Zoologia Specialis, vol. i. p. 274, 1829. Von Buch, Beitrage zur
Bestimmung des Gebirgsformation Russlands, 1840. Kutorga, Ueber die Siphono-
treteze, 1848. De Verneuil, Geol. of Russia, vol. ii. 1845. Davidson, British Fossil
Brachiopoda, vol. i., Introduction, p. 1381, 1858, and vol. iii. Sil. Mon. p. 75.

2 Morris, Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. iv. No. 28, p. 315, Nov. 1849.

3 M‘Coy, Annals and Mag. Nat, Hist. vol. viii. p. 389, 1851.

14 T. Davidson—On New Scottish Brachiopoda.

quoted.’ These tubular spines measure about one line in length and
are seemingly straight and smooth, and do not, any more than those
figured by Kutorga, show that peculiar moniliform character so well
described and figured by Morris in the much longer spines of his
Siph. Anglica. Mrs. Gray’s largest specimen would not exceed
seven lines in length by six in breadth, and bas much the general
shape of young specimens of Siph. unguiculata.

Before dismissing the subject of the structure of Stphonotreta, I

1 Prof. W. King has kindly favoured me with the following remarks he had made
on the shell and spines of one of the Russian species :—‘‘ The valve of Siphonotreta,
as stated by Kutorga, consists of a dermis of a horny nature, an inner perlaceous
layer, and an intermediate one of considerable thickness, and containing calcareous
matter. Probably an analysis would determine the presence of phosphate of lime in
the valves, as in those of Léngula and Discina. The dermal layer, the only one that
could be tried, slightly effervesces on the application of acid: the same test, however,
discloses abundance of lime in the casts of the fossils. Morris has noticed that the
valves have a distinctly ‘perforated structure’; also that their outer surface is
ornamented with numerous tubular spines, generally arranged in a very regular
order, leaving, when broken off, slightly projecting hollow tubercules in their
place. He does not mention that the spines are continuous with the perforations ;
but it may be inferred that this peculiarity was not unsuspected by him. The spines
in the specimens of Siphonotreta unguiculata under observation are only preserved
on portions of the valves near their margin; elsewhere their presence is indicated
by minute tubercules or pimples. It was these that led De Verneuil to characterize
the shell ‘a surface chagrinée.’ Between the pimples the surface is marked with
fine raised reticulating lines. The tubularity of the spines is indicated by an opaque

; medial line in the midst of their subtrans-
Fig. A. x 105. lucent substance (Fig. A.). The spines, when
transversely truncated, exhibit very clearly the
position of their contained tube; besides, the
pimples frequently show a hollow, correspond-
ing to the tube, in their centre. The inner
surface of the valve is marked with regular
cup-shaped depressions (eminences on a cast of
it), containing in their centre a minute dee
cavity (Fig. B.); which is doubtless continue
through the thickness of the valve into the
tube of the external spines, but the connexion
is not satisfactorily exhibited, evidently through
molecular changes which the intermediate layer
of the valves has undergone. From the pre-
ceding remarks it will be seen that the spinose
Fig. B. x 105. peculiarities of Siphonotreta unguiculata, in-
stead of being simply dermal processes, as is
the case in Discina, are of the nature of those known to. characterize Productus,
Strophalosia, Rh. spinosa, and some other Palliobranchs. Whether the tubularity of
the spinesin Siphonotreta and the fossils just named, is homologous to the perforated
shell structure common to Terebratula, Spiriferina, and other genera of their class, is a
question which does not seem to be sufficiently advanced for determination at present.
Often the hollows on the inner surface of the valve contain a dark-coloured infilling ;
and frequently they are charged with a greenish subtranslucent mineral substance,
which certain Canadian Eozoonites, unnecessarily anxious to meet with a case of
the kind, would probably regard as serpentine; but without denying the possibility
of such a methylised product occurring as a fossil infilling, the substance in question
seems more likely to be one of the numerous varieties of glauconite; or possibly, it
may be related to apatite, and derived from the phosphate of lime of which the
shell structure of Siphonotreta was to some extent originally composed. The hollows
in the pimples, on the outer surface, are also often filled with the same substance ;
which fact may be offered as further supporting the conclusion that there is a tubular
connexion between the inner and the outer surface of the valves.”

T. Davidson—On New Scottish Brachiopoda. 15

may mention that although the external character of the genus
and some of its internal ones have been carefully described, the
questions as to its affinities and muscular arrangements offer great
difficulties which the material in our possession does not allow us to
solve in a satisfactory manner. The form and character of the
perforated beak has been well described by Kutorga, and in pl. vi.
fig. 4d and c, and in fig. Te and d, are drawn internal casts of Sipho-
notreta unguiculata and S. fornicata, in which it is seen that the
muscular scars occupy a small space in the umbonal portion of the
interior of both valves; but he fails to define these impressions or
explain their functions.

During his recent visit to Brighton I asked Prof. F. Schmidt if
he could procure me a sharply-marked and well-preserved internal
cast of Siphonotreta unguiculata, and on his return to Reval, in his
usual kind and obliging manner, he lost no time in sending me the
cast (Fig. 7) from the Lower Silurian Rocks (his “Schicht 1d”’) of
Reval. Of this cast Figs. 8 and 10 are carefully enlarged represen-
tations, 9 and 11 gutta-percha impressions taken from the cast, and
likewise enlarged, to show in an approximately correct manner the
character of the interior of both valves of the shell itself.

After having made these drawings, I submitted them and the cast
to Prof. King, in order to have likewise his valuable opinion on the
subject; but although the impressions were tolerably well defined,
neither of us could interpret them as we might have desired, and
more material will be required before that can be satisfactorily
achieved. It is quite evident, however, that the genus belongs to
King’s division, Tretenterata, or to that group of Brachiopods, such
as Lingula, which are destitute of an anal aperture; and it appeared
to both of us that the specimens we have been able to examine favour
the idea that Siphonotreta is more closely related to Obolus and Discina
than to Monomerella, though the last genus may still lay some claim
to being its kindred. We all know that Obolus has a large muscular
scar (a) close to and at each end of the edentulous hinge in both
valves; each scar is separated from another one (b) much elongated
by a ridge (c). Prof. King thinks the two ridges are present in the
valve of Siphonotreta, and though the evidences on the valve are
perplexing, there being appearances of two scars, or a compressed
one, situated at the origin of the ridge, the evidence is somewhat
in favour of the scar belonging to or representing the scar (a)
in Obolus. That in Obolus the large scar (a) is well pronounced,
lying outside of and distinctly separated from the ridge. In Discina
there are two posterior adductor muscles, leaving strong scars simi-
larly situated, and which Prof. King considers to correspond to those
of (a) in Obolus. If this is a correct interpretation, as regards the
scars at the origin of the ridge in Siphonotreta, the affinities of this
genus, as above stated, will be more on the side of Obolus and Discina
than of Monomerella. Monomerella, as has been stated elsewhere
by Prof. King and myself, does not appear to have posterior adduc-
tors, but they may have been atrophied, thus causing the genus to be
a little more removed than Siphonotreta from Obolus and Discina.

16 T. Davidson—On New Scottish Brachiopoda.

The muscular impressions in Obolus are more spread out than in
either Discina or Siphonotreta, and Prof. King thinks that this difference
appears to be explained thus: the latero-cardinal scars in Siphonotreta
are more crowded together than they are in Obolus, and the central
projecting portion of the undercut ‘spectacle ’-like impressions in
Obolus advance more to the anterior margin of the valve than the
corresponding impressions in Siphonotreta. .

2. Lineuta Canapensis, Billings (?). Pl. II. Figs. 4, 4a. b.
Lingula Canadensis, Billings, Geological Survey of Canada, Fossils,
vol. i. p. 114, fig. 95, June, 1862.

Of this large and beautiful Lingula Mrs. Gray has found one in-
complete example. It was obtained from the Breccia-conglomerate
of Balcletchie, near Girvan, in Ayrshire. ‘This conglomerate rests
upon the rock at Balcletchie, which some geologists have considered
to be of Llandeilo age.

It is not possible to describe the complete shape of the fossil,
because the two anterior thirds of its valves are alone preserved. It
however, so nearly agrees in size, shape, and sculpture with the
fossil described and figured by Billings from the Hudson River
group of Anticosti, that we have thought it preferable to leave it
provisionally under that designation.

It is of a quadrate or sub-pentagonal elongated shape, posteriorly
obtusely acuminated, broadest anteriorly; the sides are almost
straight, front very slightly convex with broadly rounded angles.
The smaller valve is much flattened anteriorly, and but slightly
convex posteriorly or towards the beak. The larger valve is very
much more convex. The surface of both valves is covered with fine
bead-like longitudinal radiating ridges, with shorter and narrower
ones occasionally intervening between each larger pair, and especially
so in the proximity of the front and lateral margins. From five to
eight of these ridges occupy the breadth of a line. The interspaces
between the longitudinal ridges are about three times the width of
each ridge, and from each of the bead-like projections, are horizontal
or concentric much narrower rounded ridges with interspaces of
about equal breadth; as seen in the enlarged drawing, Fig. 40. of
our Plate.

The two perpendicular and horizontal ridges producing on the
surface of the valves a beautifully reticulated sculpture, to which
the rows of bead-like projections give additional prominence.

In size, Mrs. Gray’s specimen, when complete, cannot have
measured much less than one inch and nine lines in length, by one
inch and three lines in breadth. These proportions recall those of
L. tenuigranulata, M‘Coy, a closely allied species, and which would
differ from the one under description by its much more finely and
closely reticulated sculpture.

3. LineuLa quapRaTaA, Hichwald. PI. II. Figs. 2, 3.
Crania quadrata, Hichwald, Zool. Specialis, vol. i. p. 278, pl. 4, fig. 2.
1829.
Lingula quadrata, De Verneuil, Geol. of Russia, vol. 2, pl. i. fig. 10.
1849.

J. R. Dakyns—Gilacial Origin of Terraces. 17

After comparing several Scottish specimens of this fine Zingula
with Russian examples from Reval, given to me by Prof. F. Schmidt,
I arrived at the conclusion that the specimens found by Mrs. Gray
in the Caradoc Limestone at Craighead Quarry, near Girvan, in Ayr-
shire, belonged to the Russian species. The surface is marked with
concentric strive, while along the middle of the shell may be observed
obscure longitudinal lines. JZ. quadrata, as found in Russia, attains
dimensions equalling if not exceeding those of the shell we have
described as L. Canadense, but our Scottish examples do not quite
attain to those dimensions.

4, Disctna Crate, n. sp. PI. II. Figs. 1, la.

Upper or free valve very thin and marginally nearly circular,
about as broad as long, broadly rounded anteriorly, slightly less so
posteriorly, conoidal and of moderate elevation: vertex sub-mar-
ginal; valves slightly flattened along the middle; surface marked
with fine concentric, slightly raised irregular lines of growth, with
very fine radiating strize seen more or less distinctly here and there
over its shining and highly polished surface. Lower or pedicle
valve not known. Length 1 inch 8 lines; breadth about the same;
depth of valve at its most convex part near the apex 4 lines.

Obs.—If we leave out of account the still uncertain, so-termed
Discina? Beckettiana from the .Wenlock Limestone?; the largest
British species of Discina hitherto discovered would be the shell
under description ; it exceeds in size D. Babeana, D’Orb., = D.
Townshendi, Forbes, from the Rheetic formation both of Hngland and
France. In external shape the free valve of D. Craigii bears much
resemblance to that of D’Orbigny’s species, but differs from it on
account of the flatness along the longitudinal middle of the valve.
It is fully three times larger than the largest specimen of D. nitida
with which I am acquainted. A single example was found by Robert
Craig, Esq., of Langside, near Beith, Ayrshire, in the Carboniferous
Limestone of that locality.

F tes. EXPLANATION OF PLATE II.

1—la Discina Craigit, n. sp. Carboniferous Limestone, Beith.

2—3 Lingula quadrata, Kichwald. Caradoc Limestone, Craighead Quarry, Ayrshire.

4—4a Lingula Canadensis, Billings? Llandeilo, Balcletchie, near Girvan, Ayrshire.

5—6 Siphonotreta Scotica, n. sp.? Caradoc Limestone, Craighead Quarry, near
Girvan, Ayrshire.

7—12 Siphonotreta unguiculata. 7. Internal cast, nat. size, Lower Silurian, Reval,
Russia; 8. cast of larger or ventral valve enlarged; 10. cast of dorsal valve,
id.; 9. interior of ventral valve; 11. of dorsal valve; 12. longitudinal section
to show the position of the foramen.

IV.—Tut Supposep GuactaL Origin oF CARBONIFEROUS TERRACES.}
By J. R. Daxyns, Esq. ;
Of H. M. Geological Survey of England and Wales.
HERE is a homely saying, “Sauce for the goose is sauce for the
gander.” Mr. Goodchild, with that ingenuity for which he is
remarkable, has written an elaborate paper to prove that the terraces
of the Yorkshire Limestone dales are all the work of the Great Ice
1 This paper was dashed off immediately after reading Mr. Goodchild’s paper,
though not forwarded till now.
DECADE II.—VOL. IV.—NO, I. 2

a

1s J. R. Dakyns—Glacial Origin of Terraces.

Sheet.1. This paper will doubtless call forth a number of equally
elaborate answers: and this is well. But if Mr. Goodchild has a
fine goose fattened on the Limestone terraces of Wensleydale, I have
an equally fine gander reared on Gritstone terraces in Derbyshire :
and if a frozen sauce of regelated snow from wintry storms of the
Great Ice Age is good for one, it is equally good for the other.
Dropping metaphor, there is no difference between terraces, mainly
of limestone, in Wensleydale, and other terraces, chiefly of grit, that
are found over all the Millstone Grit area of South Yorkshire and
Derbyshire, saving that while limestone predominates in the one,
beds of grit do in the other. If an ice-sheet carved out the terraces
of the Limestone Dales, it equally did those of the rest of Yorkshire,
Derbyshire, and, may I not add, of Cheshire and Staffordshire ; yet
no sober-minded man, looking at these terraces, over so large an area,
rising and falling with every change in the inclination of the beds,
but ever following the dip and keeping to the bedding-planes, could
possibly suppose that they were carved out by ice-sheets. What in
the name of reason is to cause a great grinding ice-sheet, of whose
vaunted powers we have heard so much of late, to keep to a bedding-
plane ; much more to rise and fall with the dip of the beds? Add
to this all-sufficient objection to Mr. Goodchild’s theory the fact that
over a great portion of this terraced area there is not a particle of
drift or a single ice-scratch, that has yet been discovered, to bear
witness to the fact of any ice-sheet having been there at all.

The fact that the terraces conform to the bedding is to my mind
conclusive against the Glacial Erosion theory ; but, as Mr. Goodchild
actually thinks this an argument in favour of his theory, allow me
to ask him how he reconciles this accommodation of glacial action to
differences of hardness with the power of ice to smooth and round
off gnarled crystalline rocks, or to scoop out rock-basins in tough
Silurian slates quite irrespective of degrees of hardness. It seems
quite clear that ice cannot behave at one and the same time in such
opposite ways; if it is guided in its course by such differences of
hardness as occur between limestone and sandstone, or these and
shale, it cannot scoop out rock-basins in total disregard of such
differences; and if it can scoop out such rock-basins, it will not be
so affected in its course as to carve out bedding terraces.

As for the lines of swallow-holes along the junction of the lime-
stone with the overlying shale, the fact that these exist only along
this line of junction, and are not equally to be found over the bare
surface of the limestone, is no argument against the shale bank
having been eaten back by ordinary atmospheric agencies ; for it is
just to the very presence of the shale that the marked lines of
swallow-holes owe their existence; the actual hole in the limestone
is generally a very insignificant matter, mostly a mere ordinary
joint. The marked swallow-holes are in the shale itself, and are due
to the soft shale crumbling away and falling into the open joints
below, and so giving rise to a funnel-shaped hollow much wider at

1 « Glacial Erosion,” by J. G. Goodchild, Gnoz. Mae., July, 1875, Dec. II.
Vol, II. p. 328.

G. A. Lebour—On the Terms “* Bernician”’ and * Tuedian.’ 19

top than at bottom. Cut back the shale bank a hundred feet along
the length of the terrace, and another series of pits will begin to
form, while nothing will remain to mark the former position or
existence of the present line of holes.

The Ice-hobby has been pretty well ridden of late; it shifts the
earth’s centre of gravity, causes the ocean to rise and fall, sinks down
continents into the molten magma on which they float, creeps out
from the north over hundreds of miles of flat; marches over moun-
tains like nothing, like the old soldier’s nose in the fairy tale; grinds
to powder the hardest rock, scoops out basins indifferently in soft
Miocene gravels or crystalline schists, and yet has so little shearing
force that. the upper and under parts move often in diametrically
opposite directions ; it eddies round like a whirlpool in water, turns
back upon itself with a kind of perpetual motion, hollows out combes
on mountain flanks (and every hill-side that is not convex is a combe),
and now yields to the soft allurement of a bed of shale. One is
tempted to ask what feat it will perform next; perhaps it will be
found to be the cause of wide-spread metamorphism. But we shall
see.

V.—On tae Terms. “ BEeRnIcIAN” AND “ 'T'UEDIAN.”’

By G. A. Lezour, F.G.S. London and Belgium, F.R.G.S., ete. ;
Lecturer in Geological Surveying in the University of Durham College of Physical
° Science, Neweastle-on-Tyne.

T the London Meeting of the North of England Institute of
£ Mining Engineers last June, I read a paper in which I ven-
tured to put forward a scheme of classification of the Carboniferous
rocks of Northumberland which I believed to be both a natural and
a convenient one. The leading features of this scheme will be best
understood by glancing at the following table with which my paper
concluded.

TABLE—CORRELATING PROPOSED Divisions WITH OLD ONES.

NorTHUMBERLAND, PROPOSED. SYNONYMS.
COAL MEASURES. Coal Measures. Upper
: Car-
a GANNISTER BEDS. Gannister Beds. boniferous.
Ay
P ( Millstone Grit and )
2 MET ON Git \ Carboniferous Limestone in part. | Middle
& Car-
a ( Yoredale Series and | boniterous.
= | Calecareous Group in part. J
= |
Z BERNICIAN. i Scar Limestone Series and }
S 3 | Calcareous Group in part, plus
(ee) |) Ie LCarbonaceous Group.
S| 8 Lower
a ( Caleiferous Sandstone, L Car-
| or Tuedian, boniferous.
TUEDIAN. < or Valentian,
| and Upper Old Red Conglo-
{ merate in part. J

20 G. A. Lebour—On the Terms “ Bernician” and “ Tuedian.”’

The chief points insisted on by me were,—1. The division of the
Carboniferous rocks into Upper and Lower only,—2. The recogni-
tion of the Gannister Beds and Millstone Grit only as subordinate
members of the Coal-measures Group,—3. The adoption of the names
Bernician and Tuedian for the two great series constituting the Lower
Carboniferous, and including all the rocks from the Yoredales to the
Upper Old Red Conglomerate, both inclusive. The reasons for these
changes need not be repeated here.

When, in the discussion which followed the reading of this paper,
Mr. Warrington Smyth condemned the coining of new names for
divisions of local value, I had little to say in answer to the charge,
since I was conscious of having a year before been guilty of pro-
posing the word “ Bernician” at the Bristol Meeting of the British
Association and in the Grortoctcan Macazine. The words Coal-
measures, Gannister Beds, and Millstone Grit were as old as the
hills, and the only expressions that could be called in question were
“Bernician” and “Tuedian.” Of these the latter was proposed in
1855 by Mr. George Tate, of Alnwick, who up to about ten years
ago was perhaps the only man who had studied the Calciferous Sand-
stone series south of Scotland. I therefore could only feel respons-
ible for the term ‘“ Bernician,” and with an author’s modesty I re-
frained from then giving that name all the praise which I felt it
deserved. I am now no longer in that embarrassing position, and
can now say (what I then thought) that the word is an excellent,
most appropriate, and convenient one, and that it is well fitted to
come into general use.

The fact is that it turns out that I am not the originator of
“ Bernician.” Within the last few weeks I have discovered this,
and hasten to throw the responsibility of its creation on the shoulders
of one whose reputation is far better able to bear it. The term was
proposed in 1856 by the late Dr. 8. P. Woodward, who, at p. 409 of
his ‘“‘ Manual of the Mullusca,” thus defines the Carboniferous portion
of the geological column :

. Bernician. niferous Limes n 1).

1, Ueerboiocon) | fs Bensied rncn samesion Gale ce

Nothing more is said as to these terms, and except in the “‘ Manual”
they have not been reprinted anywhere to my knowledge until 1874,
when Karl Mayer printed his table of sedimentary rocks, in which
he characterizes the Carboniferous system as follows:

III. Kouten-GEBiLpe.

B. Demetian (Woodward, 1859) { ih ie Sieeieame Sante nian (Wayans, MI)
oa 5 99 99

{ II. Elberfelder ay on
( I. Viséer oD 5

The date 1859 is a mistake. It was on seeing this table a few
days ago that my attention was drawn to Dr. Woodward’s use of the
term Bernician. As no explanation of this term is given in the
Manual, in which, indeed, it appears but once, it is perhaps not
surprising that it should have escaped general attention. That Dr.

Woodward should have proposed it, that Dr. Karl Mayer should,

A. Bernician (Woodward, 1859)

G. A. Lebour—On the Terms ** Bernician” and “* Tuedian.” 21

after the lapse of many years, have adopted it, and I may add, that
it should have occurred independently to a writer in 1875 ; all this
is good prima facie evidence that the name has something to recom-
mend it. Before discussing its merits, however, it may be well to
consider what other names it was to take the place of. These we
may divide into two sets—A, those which have a lithological sig-
nification, and which only constant usage can make us tolerate,
and B, geographical names.
A. —Tithological names :

1. Mountain Limestone. 5. Fusulina Limestone.

2. Carboniferous Limestone. 6. Anthraciferous Series (in part).
3. Sub-Carboniferous. 7. Carboniferian (in part).

4. Productus Limestone. 8. Blue Limestone (Calcaire bleu).

B. —Geographical name :
1. Condrusian (in part).

Of the lithological names No. 1 is respectable by reason of its age,
but it is singularly inapplicable to the numerous districts where the
calcareous parts of the Lower Carboniferous are conspicuous by their
excessive thinness or even by their absence. No. 38 is usually limited
to America in its application, and would, I think, have no chance of
_ being naturalized with us; besides, even American geologists while
using it frequently condemn the term. No. d is limited in its value,
as it can only be properly used in connexion with the presence of
Fusulina, and even then is decidedly a bad term, since that Fora-
minifer is now known to range into the Permian, if not higher
still. No. 6, including as it does large series of beds of doubtful
age, some of which are not Carboniferous, would, I think, find no
supporters, and although still much used on the Continent, is un-
known in England. No. 8 is again a French name, formerly much
in vogue, but as it is the most strictly lithological of the lot, it must,
I venture to say, be also the worst of all. Against Nos. 2, 4, and 7
there is not much to say, their use is well understood, but the facts
yet remain, that the series is sometimes devoid of limestone, fre-
quently yields no Producti, and often contains no Coal.

It is curious that as against the eight chief lithological synonyms
of Bernician, I can find but one geographical one which has ever
been in common use. This name, ‘‘Condrusian,” was proposed
by André Dumont in or about 1843, and if equally good would
therefore have priority over Dr. Woodward’s term. Condrusian,
however, was made to include a great deal more than the marine
Lower Carboniferous. It comprised Devonian rocks also, and the
Condroz, whence the name is taken, is now associated in the minds
of geologists more with the latter than with the former. Under
these circumstances, and considering also that the term was probably
meant as a strictly local. one by its author, it will be well to place it
with the eight preceding names as being each and all liable to mis-

‘interpretation, although no doubt blind custom will perpetuate the
use of some of them—probably the worst.

Having endeavoured to show the disadvantages under which
labour the rivals of “ Bernician,” it is time to consider the advantages
of that name. In the first place it is geographical, it is derived from

22 G. A. Lebour—On the Terms “ Bernician”’ and ‘ Tuedian.”’

that part of Britain in which the beds which it denotes are most
largely developed, where especially the characters marking the
series elsewhere are found associated, as, I believe, they are nowhere
else. There numerous beds of limestone represent the massive
calcareous mass of Derbyshire; there occur the Coal-bearing beds
of Russia and the Posidonomya Becheri shales of the Culm; there
the sandstone and grit facies of the Series is most strongly developed ;
and there finally are the paleontological characters of the Silesian,
Belgian, and Scotch series blended in an almost unique manner.
These are all qualities which eminently fit Bernicia to be looked
upon as a type locality or region. In the second place, the name
“ Bernician ” gives rise to no preconceived notion that experience
can prove untrue, it expresses a geographical truth and nothing more.

Dr. Woodward and Dr. Karl Mayer evidently intended to include
everything between the Millstone Grit and Devonian under the term
“ Bernician,” whereas in the paper to which I have already referred,
and which was purely local in character, I retained the name
“Puedian”’ for the Calciferous sandstone series. J, however, also
showed that the line of division between Tuedian and Bernician
was a variable one, that the one series ran into the other as it were,
and that moreover the base of the Tuedians (in which I include the -
so-called Upper Old Red Conglomerate) in a similar manner ran
into the Old Red, and was not sharply divided from it. The former
of these points I again urged more strongly at the Glasgow Meeting
of the British Association in September last. ‘The question left to
be decided is this:—Is “ Bernician” to be distinct from Tuedian,
or is it to contain it as a subordinate member? This is not an easy
question to answer at present, but I incline to think that the last
will be nearer the truth, and that in time the Tuedians will come
to be looked upon as passage-beds from Old Red to Bernician, parts
of which may be claimed by both.

The word Tuedian which I employ is in much disfavour in
Scotland. The only objections to its use that I have heard, however,
are,—first, that the ‘‘Cement-stone and red-sandstone series” occurs
throughout all the Carboniferous districts of Scotland, and is in the
Lothians much more typically developed than in the Tweed Basin ;
and, secondly, that the name ‘‘Calciferous sandstone series” given -
to these rocks by Maclaren in 1889 is a good one.

To the second objection it may be at once replied that as a purely
lithological term of necessarily only local application, exception
might well be taken to Maclaren’s name even were it not so
dangerously similar to the Potsdam “ Calciferous series” of North
America, or even to our Oxfordian “Calcareous grit.” The first
objection is a stronger one, but it does not show that ‘‘ Tuedian ” is
a bad name—only that a better might be invented. If a better
one had thus been proposed before 1855, so much the better; but
“Tuedian” came out then, and if not the best possible is yet a
geographical name, and not a bad one in itself; is it not better to
retain it, whatever the classificatory value of the beds which it
represents may prove to be ?

Gardner's Tropical Forests of Hampshire. 23°

In conclusion, may I venture to hope that before long some rules
respecting stratigraphical nomenclature may be promulgated which
may regulate in some way the issue of new names. It will surprise
some of your readers when I say that I have lying before me a list
of more than four thousand stratigraphical names.

AINK@agayoaas) | OpnsN AMA IWA@ ae SsySy
ce
J.—Tur Tropicat Forests or Hampsnire: BEING THE SUBSTANCE
or A LECTURE DELIVERED IN CONNEXION WITH THE Loan CoL-
Lection, Soura Kensineton, by J. S. Garpnur, F.G.S.,
Saturday. Dec. 2nd, 1876.
‘¢ T\NGLAND at the present time has a climate far from tropical,
but the time to which I refer was when the palm and spice-
plants flourished here, and when the climate may rightly be spoken
of as tropical, not in a poetical or metaphorical sense, but actually.
The data on which our inferences are based are the fossil leaves
which we find in the clays of the south of Hampshire. Out of the
many thousands obtained during many years, I have selected some
which have been exhibited in the Loan Collection. Some have also
been brought in illustration of our subject to-night. Collections of
leaves from this spot and from Alum Bay have also been made by
Mr. W. 8. Mitchell, M.A., and others, and are now preserved in the
British Museum.

It is the district immediately along the line east and west of
Bournemouth which I have specially examined. The beds which
occupy this area are of the age of the Lower Bagshot. Above the
Bagshot series we have the Bracklesham beds full of marine forms ;
the Barton beds, also full of marine forms, but telling a tale of a
different sea; the Headon, Bembridge, and Hempstead series, with
many repetitions of marine and fresh-water conditions, indicative
of long lapses of time. There is, too, the whole Miocene period,
of which we have no trace in this district, but which we believe
from continental evidences was of vast duration. Then, too, there
followed periods of immense length, during which England under-
went its latest Glacial epoch ; after that the time during which the
River Valley gravels and Brick-earths were formed. While, there-
fore, we speak of these beds as almost the youngest of the geological
series, they really belong, when measured in years, to periods of an
incalculably remote past.”

With the help of diagrams and pictures Mr. Gardner traced
the series of beds from Corfe to Wareham, Poole, and Studland,
and then back from Studland to the mouth of Poole Harbour, and
along the shore past Branksome to Bournemouth, and on to
Hengistbury Head, the physical features and general appearance
of the country being described. The alternations of clays, sands,
and pebble beds, as they appear in the cliffs, and the pipe-clay
diggings, were especially referred to, and Mr. Gardner then con-
tinued :—‘‘ No order of arrangement is at first apparent in these
beds, but by traversing the sections many times and studying

24 Notices of Memoirs—J. S. Gardner’s Lecture—

them attentively there is, it seems to me, a very well marked and
recognizable sequence. I will now indicate the sequence. It
has never been laid before the geological public until now, and it is
possible, as is often the case with new work, that there may
be some objections raised to it. I can only tell you, however, that
after discussing the matter with geological friends, my own con-
victions are strengthened.” The author then referred to his diagram
of the district. ‘‘This lower fresh-water series is seen in the neigh-
bourhood of Corfe, and forms part of the cliffs at Studland. It is
characterized by abundance of pipe-clays, and forms a thickness of
possibly 200 feet. The middle fresh-water series, also met with
near Corfe and at Studland, forms the whole thickness of the cliffs
between Poole Harbour and Bournemouth. We thus have a mag-
nificent section four miles long and 100 feet in height. Branksea
Island is also formed of this series. Their entire thickness cannot
yet be accurately estimated, but may be put down at some 300 feet.
They are characterized by the fact that the clays contained in them
are usually brick-earth.

The next series above is a marine series, and is some 400 ft. or
500 ft. thick. The base beds are dark sands and clays, succeeded by
pebble beds and sands, then more sandy clays with pebbles, and
ending with a thick deposit of white sands. This marine portion of
the series occupies the cliffs between Boscombe and High Cliff. It
is the middle fresh-water series which is so rich in the clay beds
containing fossil leaves. These leaves are found in various con-
ditions of preservation. In most cases the impression only of the
leaves in the clay is met with, but in some cases they are so well
preserved that the actual substance has been retained, although chemi-
cal changes have altered its composition, and it will peel off and
blow away. In some of the clays the masses of leaves are so decayed
that they cannot be recognized, and are not worth our collecting.
Where the preservation is good, we can readily distinguish the
various original textures of the leaves by comparing their general
aspect and colour both among themselves and with existing forms.
For instance, those which are thick, such as evergreens; thin, as
convolvulus; hard, such as oak; or soft, such as lilac; or even
velvety, such as the common Phlow, can all be recognized. Their
colours, in most of the beds, vary from buff to brown, and I need
hardly tell you that in no case have we any of the green colouring
of the leaves preserved. Whilst these various shades of dark buffs
and browns are in many cases the result of chemical change that has
taken place after the leaf was covered up, yet I believe that in many
cases this change had occurred, at least partially, before the covering
up, just as we saw a few weeks ago the changed colours of the fallen
leaves of autumn. In the darker clays the remains are black and
completely carbonized ; where this is so, the finer venation is indis-
tinct and the remains difficult to save, so that we may discard them
unless the outline of the leaf is of unusual form. The darker browns,
I take it, indicate hard and evergreen leaves; for instance, the
laurel-like leaves are always of a deep colour, whilst both the thin

On the Tropical Forests of Hampshire. 25

and the succulent leaves are always of light colour, as in the leaves
which we suppose to be fig, some species of Smilax, etc. No other
colours have been met with, with one remarkable exception; frag-
ments of a reed-like plant are found of a deep violet, staining the
surrounding clay mauve for a considerable distance.” The shape,
the venation, and character of the margin of the leaves being the
points by which comparisons are made with the leaves of trees now
existing, were described at some length, and the difficulties of
successfully making the comparisons were referred to. Among
others the following fossil forms were mentioned as having been
determined with but little doubt. Feather and fan-palms, Dryan-
dra, beech, maple, Azalea, laurel, elm, acacia, aroids, cactus, ferns,
conifers, Stenocarpus, and plants of the pea tribe, together with
many others. ‘This question may perhaps have presented itself
to your minds—how is it possible that the tropical forms of which
we have spoken, such as the palm, aroids, cactus, etc., could have
grown alongside of the apparently temperate forms, such as the
oak, elm, beech and others? ‘Time does not allow that I should go
at any length into the explanation of this; but I may just remind
you that in the long geological record of the beds found in England,
there are to the geologist unmistakable indications of many changes
in climate. Further, astronomers, having calculated the path of the
revolution of the earth in ages past, tell us that in recurring periods,
each hemisphere, northern and southern, has been successively sub-
ject to repeated cyclical changes in temperature. There have been
for the area which is now England many alternations of long periods
of heat and cold. Whenever the area became warmer, the descen-
dants of semi-tropical forms would gradually creep further and further
north, whilst the descendants of cold-loving plants would retreat
from the advancing temperature, vice versd. Whenever the area
became gradually colder, the heat-loving plants would, from one
generation to another, retreat further and further south, whilst the
cold-loving plants would return to the area from which their
ancestors had been driven out. In each case there would be some
lingering remnants of the retreating vegetation (though perhaps
existing with diminished vigour) growing alongside of the earliest
arrivals of the incoming vegetation.

Such is a possible explanation of our finding these plant-remains
commingled together. It must, too, be borne in mind that it is not
so much the mean temperature of a whole year which affects the
possibility of plants growing in any locality, as the fact of what are
the extremes of summer and winter temperature. For example, one
place may have a mean winter temperature of 50°, and a summer
one of 70°; whilst another place might have a mean winter tem-
perature of 20° and a summer one of 100°, and yet both have a mean
annual temperature of 60°.

In Cornwall the maiden-hair fern grows in sheltered localities,
because the winter temperature never sinks to the point that would
cause its destruction. Again, at that most charming spot in the
west of Ireland, Glengariff, the Arbutus still forms an abundant

26 Notices of Memoirs—On Paleocypris Eduwardsii.

underwood ; and the Irish ‘ Film-fern ’ (Hymenophyllum unilaterale)
flourished in many favoured spots until quite recently, when the
modern Eccles Hotel has retained tourists too long in the district,
who have ruthlessly carried off, as reminiscences of a pleasant holiday,
this which was one of the most attractive features to the botanist.”

After mentioning that in the two lower fresh-water series there
are no animal remains but what have been blown in, among them
insect wings and the earliest known English feather, the lecturer
went on to speak of the physical conditions under which he supposes
the beds were formed. He said that he regarded a river flowing
from west to east as having deposited all these beds in a valley
of from seven to ten miles, which it had made, and showed a
picture of the restoration of what he supposed the view was like.
The foreground of the picture was made up of plants from Mrs. J.
HE. Gardner’s conservatory, being the nearest known living repre-
sentatives of the fossil plants.

A block opened before the audience proved fortunately a good
one and crowded with leaves. Some experiments were made during
the lecture showing that there is in the decomposed granite enough
iron to account for the colours of the clay.

IJ.—NoTE sUR UN NOUVEAU GENRE D’ ENTROMOSTRACE FOSSILE PROVE-
NANT DU TERRAIN CARBONIFERE DES ENVIRONS DE SAINT-HTIENNE
(Paleocypris Hdwardsit), par M. CHartes BRonGNIART.

N ANY traces of the former existence of Entomostraca are to be
found in the different geological formations, their carapaces
being often admirably preserved and exhibiting all their external
markings, whilst every vestige of the animals themselves has been
entirely removed. Much uncertainty, therefore, exists concerning
the exact zoological affinities of these fossils, and Paleeontologists
have been obliged to base their classifications on the form and ex-
ternal ornamentation of the carapace. M. Ch. Brongniart has been
enabled, however, by a rare good chance, to examine and describe
the remains of some Ostracods from the Coal-measures of Saint-
Etienne, in which not only the carapace, but also the more delicate
appendages, such as the antennze with their hairs, the feet, etc.,
have been preserved. These Entomostraca, which were found im-
bedded in the silex filling the interior of a Cardiocarpus, are closely
allied to the recent genus Cypris, but at the same time, as they differ
in several essential characteristics from that genus, the author pro-
poses to designate them Palcocypris Edwardsii, after Prof. Milne-
Edwards, and gives the following details of their structure :—
Paleocypris Edwardsitt is only half a millimetre (>in. nearly)
in length; the body, as in Cypris, is enclosed in a bivalve, oval test,
laterally compressed. The valves are narrower in front than behind,
and their surface is covered with granulations, whilst numerous very
short and fine hairs are seen springing from the dorsal margin.
The body, properly so called, does not occupy the whole of the
interior of the carapace ; in front it approaches the dorsal edge, and
at the bottom it almost touches the (ventral) margin of the valves.

D. O. Leng—West Tropical Africa. 27

The anterior portion of the body is curved, and in this region is
situated the eye, which is large, black, oblong, very prominent, and
placed much lower than in Cypris. The upper antennz, inserted
immediately below the eye, are long, setigerous, and composed of
five joints gradually diminishing in size. Hach of these joints bears
on its upper part a tolerably long bristle, the fifth, however, is fur-
nished with two. The lower antennz consist of six joints, of which
the second, third, and fourth carry each a single bristle, whilst the
sixth has a tuft of four.

Like all true Cypride, it possesses two pairs of feet. The first
pair slender, composed of four joints and terminating in two curved
claws ; the second stouter, and, like the first pair, made up of five
joints, the last terminating in two long curved claws; but it is also
furnished with two well-developed bristles, which spring from the
summit of the first joint.

The jaws are not so distinctly visible in this fossil genus as the
previously described organs; but M. Brongniart has been able to
distinguish in one individual a large mandible which is divided at
its extremity into several teeth, each provided with some very fine,
short hairs. Another individual exhibits a palpus of two joints, with
a pencil of fourteen medium-sized bristles attached to the terminal one.

The post-abdominal ramus is short, stout, and broad at its ex-
tremity ; in some specimens (probably the females) it bears seven
jointed bristles of uniform length, but in others (the males?) it is not
so large, and provided with only four short bristles, one of which is
longer than the rest. At the posterior portion of the body of the
former appear two large black oval bodies, united at their bases,
which may be the ovaries.

The author carefully notes the differences existing between the
structure of the organs as exhibited in Palgocypris and that of the
corresponding organs in the recent genera of Cypris, Cypridopsis,
Notodromas, and Candona, at the same time pointing out that the
general similarity between them, as far as their organization is con-
cerned, is the more interesting when the immense interval of time
by which their periods of existence are separated is taken into con-
sideration. . B.B.W.

III.—Grorocican Notes on some Parts oF West TropicaL AFRIca.
By D. O. Lene. From the Rep. Imp. Geol. Instit. Vienna, June
30, 1876.

[Communicated by Count Marscuatt, C.M.G.S., ete. ]

ane rocks along the Okande river are argillaceous slates, gneiss,

and mica-schists with garnets, intermixed with subordinate
bands of reddish-white quartz. The prevailing rock in the Ashkura
region is a coarse-grained granite, containing , reddish-white, and
frequently large crystals of orthoclase, having bright cleavage-
planes,—oligoclase in smaller crystals, white with distinct binary
striation,—also biotite-mica in green or greenish-black plates, single
or agglomerated into small nodules, and amphibole in single, rather
large, black, tabular crystals. In several detached blocks the felspar

28 Notices of Memoirs—Prof. C. Wiener—Shell-heaps of Peru.

is almost entirely decomposed into kaolin. The lamine or strata of
the rocks, occasionally of enormous size, and frequently visible in
the bed of the river, follow the direction of the West-African schistose
group, striking N.—S., and dipping E., with a high angle. The hills
on both sides of the Ogowe river do not exceed 300 or 400 meters in
height, excepting some few isolated heights estimated at 600 to. 700
meters. The plain of the Okande region lies between 150 and 200
meters above the sea-level. The hills and the plain are both covered
by a yellow, ferruginous, unstratified Joam, without traces of organic
remains, but containing concretions of argillaceous hydroxyd of
iron and layers of soft white marls.

Innumerable erratic blocks of granite are spread over the hills
and the plains of the Okande region. They have been transported
and deposited there by the waters of the Ogowe, which was far
more extended during the Diluvial Period than at present. A
number of Lakes, on both banks of the Ogowe, and only separated
from it by a strip of ferruginous loam, are the remains of the
former extension of this river.

The whole region between the estuary of the Gaboon and the
delta of Kamma (N’comi) may be regarded as having been under
water previous to the deposition of these loams. The waters, sub-
siding into the valleys, formed rivers, and the more or less marshy
tracts of land were gradually covered with the present immense
virgin forests, obstacles to the investigation of the interior and
breeding-places of deleterious miasmata.

IV.—Notks on SHELL-HEAPS ON THE Coast oF PErRv, SoutH AMERICA.
By Prof. C. Wiener. (From the Journ. Imper. Geograph. Soe.
Vienna, 1876, pp. 486-9.)

[Communicated by Count Marscuatt, 0.M.G.S., etc.]
O* these Shell-heaps, or ‘“Sambaquis,” some lie along the coast,
others 18 to 20 miles inland. They consist of accumulations
of either whole or broken shells of a Venus, a large Ostrea (now
living in brackish water), and Corbule. Some of these mounds are

60 meters high, and 100 meters in diameter.

Those composed of fragments are marine beach-deposits, and mark
the course of the ancient coast-line. These are generally several
kilometers in length,. and their height does not exceed 14 meter.
The gradual upheaval of the Peruvian Coast being an undoubted
fact, the age of these natural accumulations must be admitted to
stand in direct proportion to their distance from the present coast.
In fact, two of those most remote from the shore are composed of a
species of Corbula no longer living on that coast. Prof. Wiener
concludes, from the results of his measurements, that about fifty
years ago, the whole Ratone Valley was under water, and that it has
risen half a meter during the last ten years. The “ Sambaquis ”
have escaped atmospheric disintegration, both by a crust (occasion-
ally in the large mounds 40 meters thick), due to the dissolving
action of carbonic acid and ammonia in the rain-water, and by a
luxuriant vegetation. ;

Reviews—Green’s Geology for Students and General Readers. 29

The “Sambaquis” with entire shells are undoubtedly Kitchen-
middens, and the work of man. Prof. Wiener has examined a num-
ber of these “‘Sambaquis” or “Casquieiros,” making vertical sections
through them. Some show, amidst the heap of shells, black spots of
irregular form, arising from charcoal, ashes, stones blackened by
fire, etc.; there are also bones of fishes, portions of skeletons of birds
(especially parrots), splintered human bones, and broken stone axes.
These are evidently the remains of repasts, chiefly composed of shell-
fish. The heap of refuse having reached a certain height, the upper-
most shells were thrown downward, and new ones heaped up, till
the whole came to a height too troublesome for the laziness of the
- natives, who then chose a new place for their repasts. In other
« Casquiciros” the section shows horizontal layers of earth ; conse-
quently those who heaped them up must have lived above the
remains of their repasts, or, at least, not amidst thein.

A third class are real burying-places made of ferruginous soil.
These contain decomposed, but entire, human skeletons, well-
preserved weapons, and stone mortars of finest workmanship ;
thus indicating an advanced state of civilization, in which human
remains had ceased to be an: article of food, and had become an
object of respect.

The relative age of the “Sambaquis” could perhaps be best stated
by their topographical situation. All of them, natural or artificial,
stood originally along the sea-shore, as people who did not take the
trouble to do away with the remains of their repasts cannot be sup-
posed to have daily transported a heavy load many miles inland, and
this, under the rays of a tropical sun.

Generally the period of chipped stone-implements is considered
more ancient than that of polished ones; the reverse must be admitted
for this part of America. The materials of the second period are
dioritic or basaltic, and thus far softer and requiring less perfect
tools in shaping than the harder ones of the first period. Basaltic
rocks, of schistose texture, abound along the coast. A grindstone
and a file were found to be sufficient to work an axe out of them.
Fragments of the coarse-grained granite, in which these basalts are
imbedded, such as were washed out by the sea, served to give, by
rubbing, the form of an axe to any basaltic fragment. It must be
remarked that polished stone-weapons are exclusively found along
the coast, and as excluisvely chipped ones in the interior ; and that
the inland natives are more advanced in civilization than those living
along the coast.

Zee VE VV )-

I.—Grotocy For StupEnts anp GENERAL Reapers. Part I.
Physical Geology. By A. H. Green, M.A., F.G.S., Professor of
Geology in the Yorkshire College of Science, Leeds. 8vo. pp-
552 and 143 woodcuts. (London: Daldy, Isbister & Co., 1876.)

ie the preface to his work Prof. Green remarks, that most geo-
logists are now obliged to concentrate their attention on some

30 Reviews—Green’s Geology for Students and General Readers.

one department of the science, and to be content with a less perfect
grasp of the rest. If in the second part of this publication we
should find as broad and comprehensive views of the stratigraphical
and paleontological sides of geology, as we have here presented to us
of the physical, then we think Mr. Green will be entitled to rank among
the select few who may claim an approach to geological omniscience.

The style of this book reminds us somewhat of De La Beche’s
writings. The reasoning is logical, and the language simple and
forcible ; but oceasionally marred by a certain roughness which jars
against the reader’s taste. We would in particular instance the con-
stant recurrence, especially in the earlier chapters, of the word
“latter,” which, even when correctly used, breaks the current of
the thoughts, and obliges one to hark back to catch an author’s
meaning. But when there is no “former” to answer to it, then
the phrase is distressing. Thus where (p.56) we are told that quartz
occurs ‘“ usually as glassy lumps, which fill up the spaces between
other minerals, and are sometimes seen to have moulded themselves
on the latter,” we are irresistibly led to ask, what the lumps would
have been like if they had moulded themselves upon the former ?

Throughout the book everything is made subsidiary to pure
geology. The petrological part is treated from a geological point
of view, and rocks, which the petrologist would separate in his
museum, are classed together as merely modifications of the same
original deposit under different aspects and degrees of meta-
morphism. Indeed, upon this subject of metamorphism, the author
appears to hold stronger opinions than are usual regarding the
extent to which it may be carried; and attributes to that agency
many granites and Plutonic rocks, which are commonly looked upon
as never at any former time having been deposited by water. The
sections which relate to contortions, and to the special characteristics
of mountainous districts, are particularly clear and decisive; as is
likewise the treatment of Denudation. In reading the first ten chapters
the ready-made geologist, though he may not learn much that is
new, will nevertheless receive pleasure from feeling his knowledge
so lucidly classified, and happily illustrated; while the learner,
without being burthened with long lists of stratified deposits and of
names of fossils, will gain a general view of the physical principles
upon which the science rests.

But when we come to the two concluding chapters, the eleventh
and twelfth, which treat of the more speculative parts of the science,
the case is altered. We believe that very many of our best-informed
geologists would receive instruction from a careful study of these
chapters. Yet we must confess that we think Prof. Green has, to
use a cant phrase, “‘scamped” some parts of this division of the
work. He has, from his early training, capabilities for grappling
with the harder problems of Physical Geology which few, even of
our very best geologists, are fortunate enough to possess. We there-
fore look to him to give no uncertain sound upon questions of this
nature. To take an instance: We are disappointed where, on p. 517,
he tells us, that “the data in geological questions are too scanty to

Reviews—Prof. Ferd. Roemer’s Lethea Paleozoica. ol

allow of our availing ourselves of mathematical analysis. But if
this be so, it is better frankly to acknowledge the fact, and not to
attempt to support or overthrow a theory by a show of numerical
accuracy, which has no sound basis to rest upon.” This no doubt
_ will be a popular sentiment and a flattering unction to many to be
told, by one of Prof. Green’s ability, that they who cannot calculate
are as well off as those who can. But surely Prof. Green will
acknowledge that in all such cases there are extreme limits, which
the quantities involved in any problem cannot exceed on one side,
or fall short of on the other, and thus the application of these to the
ease in hand involves no “show of numerical accuracy,” but is an
honest and a real way of deciding, within the possible limits, whether
a theory be true or false.

Mr. Croll’s theories of climatal changes are remarkably well
epitomized in the twelfth chapter, and are evidently favourably
entertained. Jndeed this twelfth chapter strikes us as much more
satisfying than the previous one, which treats of the condition of
the earth’s interior. The one subject has been almost as much con-
troverted as the other, although the latter is the older, and has
on that account had the advantage of being attacked by men of
the greatest power. Yet it is only lately that Geology has contri-
buted her share to the data of this great question, and very re-
eently indeed, if even yet, that physicists have learnt to perceive
that the facts of geology cannot bend to the results of physical
inquiry, but that, in order to form a true theory, neither can be
allowed to lord it over the other, and that the requirements of each
must be equally satisfied.

A very noticeable and most valuable feature in Prof. Green’s
work is the abundance of reference to original treatises and papers.
The book might be used as a nearly complete index to the whole
literature of that part of Geology of which it professes to treat.

I].—Letruma Panmozorca. By Professor Ferp. Roemer. Atlas of
62 Plates. Large 8vo. (Stuttgart, 1876.)
VHIS Atlas of Plates is the first issued part of a ‘“ Letheea geo-
gnostica,” which, when complete, will cover the entire ground
of stratigraphical paleontology. The scheme is, on an enlarged and
improved scale, virtually a new edition of Bronn’s well-known
work, with the great advantage of having the co-operation of several
specialists of authority in its production. The Paleozoic portion
has been placed in the hands of Professor Ferdinand Roemer, of
Breslau, whose life-long work among the fossils of the older rocks
has been successfully carried on in every part of Hurope, and in the
New World as well as the Old. No choice could be more calculated
to arouse the highest expectations on the part of geologists and
paleontologists, and although we have yet before us only the illus-
trations of the text to come, still there is enough in the brief preface,
in the choice of fossils, and in the mode of their arrangement, to
show that the subject is handled by a veteran whose individuality
makes itself conspicuous even in such matters as these.

32 Reviews—Prof. Ferd. Roemer’s Lethea Paleozoica.

The stratigraphical divisions in which the fossils represented are
grouped are purposely the largest that could with propriety be
adopted. They are as follows: 1. Cambrian (pl. i., ii.). 2. Lower
Silurian (pl. iii.—viii.). 38. Upper Silurian (pl. ix.-xix.). 4. Lower
Devonian [Old Red Sandstone] (pl. xx.-xxii.). 4a. The same
[Coblenz Grauwacke] (pl. xxiii-xxv.). 5. Middle Devonian
| Hifler-Kalk] (pl. xxvixxxi.). 5a. The same [Paffrather-Kalk]
(pl. xxii.). 6. Devonian, plants (pl. xxxil., xxxiv.). 7. Upper
Devonian [Goniatite beds] (pl. xxxv.). 8. The same [Clymenia
beds] (pl. xxxvi.). 9. Culm (pl. xxxvii., xxxviii.). 10. Carboni-
ferous Limestone (pl. xxxix.-xlvi., xlvili.). 11. Coal-Measures
(pl. xlvii., il.-lv.). 12. Permian (pl. lvi.—lxii.).

Pre-Cambrian fossils do not find favour in the author’s eyes, and
such things (perhaps this is the safest term!) as Hozoon and Palao-
pyge ave not depicted on his plates, although it is to be hoped that
they will not be as utterly ignored in the text. The term “ Proto-
zoic,’ moreover, which Dr. Roemer attaches to the first plates as
synonymous with Cambrian, probably further indicates his views as to
the geological evidences of the beginnings of life. The succeeding
horizons are very fully represented by figures of fossils from all
parts of the world, and of these many will be invaluable from the
fact that they are reproduced from works of very difficult access to
the majority of students, while others have been drawn from striking
specimens expressly for this publication. The plates are litho-
graphed in a bold clear style, quite suitable to the object of the
«‘Lethea’’?; but there is considerable difference discernible in the
quality of their printing. Some few—such as pl. 39 for instance—
being decidedly inferior to the rest in this respect.

Perhaps the most interesting group of organisms here depicted is
that of the Culm, both on account of the peculiar geological relations
of that great Continental series, and because the Breslau Professor of
Geology is of all others, we may say, the one to whom the unra-
velling of these relations is chiefly due. It is with much interest that
we await the explanatory matter to accompany these plates. We
may note even now, however, as a significant fact, that the Culm is
here made to come immediately after the Upper Devonian, with this
observation in brackets, “‘ Kigenthtimliche den Kohlenkalk vertre-
tende sandig thonige Facies des unteren Kohlengebirges.”’ The
Silesian Culm has so often been looked upon as the equivalent of the
Millstone Grit, or at least of the Upper Limestone Series or Yoredales,
that the view that it should be referred to an horizon considerably
lower in the Carboniferous Series will be new to many, although
recent researches have a strong tendency in that direction.

Jt is a question whether absolutely unique specimens should find
a place among a collection of characteristic fossils such as these
plates profess to represent, yet we doubt whether any one will
quarrel with the selector when he discovers in plate 88 a copy of
Goldfuss’s figures of that most curious and astonishing little animal

1 A peculiar sandy-clay facies substituting the limestone of the Lower Coal
formation.

Reviews—Prof. Gosselet’s Cours Elémentaire de Géologie. 33

Bostrichopus antiquus, Goldf. The only known and wonderfully
perfect example of which was found in the Posidonomya schists or
Culm near Herborn in Nassau, and is preserved in the Bonn
Museum.

Lying before us is another work of Professor Ferd. Roemer’s,'
published several years ago, with all the advantages that can be de-
rived from fine paper, good printing, and beautifully finished plates.
It is a handsome quarto monograph of the Fossil Fauna of the
Silurian Drift of Sadewitz in Lower Silesia. It would seem absurd
to compare the eight splendid plates which illustrate it with those of
the ‘‘ Lethea,” but an examination of both will show how thoroughly
they are adapted to their respective objects, and if the latter appear
rough and ready by the side of the former, they will lose none of
their value on that account.

This Sadewitz Monograph is quite a paleontological and geolo-
gical curiosity, being the description of a fauna from unknown
beds, the fossils forming which were all collected from Drift
deposits. Seventy-three species are enumerated, including twenty-
five new ones. and a careful study of the group of organisms thus
brought together, and of the lithological character of the original
matrix still associated with the specimens, led the author to hazard
the suggestion that the Silurian rocks which once contained them
are to be sought in the Eastern Russian provinces, either in
Hsthonia or still under the sea in the neighbourhood.

Among the species figured some splendid sponges are very notice-
able; such as, Aulocopium diadema, Osw.; A. aurantium, Osw. ;
A. hemisphericum, Roem.; Astylospongia incisa, Roem., etc., ete.

The position of the Lyckholm beds in Esthonia, which seem to be
the most likely horizon whence these fossils were derived is towards
the top of the Lower Silurian, between the Wesenberg beds (below)
and the Borkholm beds. Game Aamis

\

IlJ.—Covurs &LEMENTAIRE DE GéoLOGIE A L’USAGE DE L’ENSEIGNE-
MENT SECONDAIRE CLASSIQUE ET DE L’ENSEIGNEMENT SECONDAIRE
spkcraL.” By Prof. J. Gossetet. (Paris, 1876.)

HIS little book of not quite 200 pages is expressly written for
the use of beginners, but self-teaching by its aid is not contem-
plated, the knowledge which it imparts being intended to be supple-
mented by the Professors in the French Lycées. This the author
explains in his Preface, in which he notes the difficulty (greater in
France than in England) of giving public-school boys instruction in
out-door geology. Fortunately for his pupils, Prof. Gosselet is him-
self an enthusiastic field geologist. and we are not surprised to see
that he very justly compares the necessity for field-work in learning
geology to that of laboratory-work as regards chemistry.
In order to give learners an idea of succession in time, the writer
compares the geological divisions to the reigns in which historical

1“ Die fossile Fauna der Silurischen Diluvial-Geschiebe von Sadewitz bei Oels
in Nieder-Schlesien.” By Dr. Ferd. Roemer. 4to. Breslau, 1861.
DECADE II.—VOL. IV.—NO. I. 3

34 Reviews—Prof. Gosselet’s Cours Elémentaire de Géologie.

time is divided (especially in school- books). Thus the Carboniferous
system is called “ Regne des Productus,”’ the Cretaceous is headed
“ Régne des Rudistes,” and so on. This method will probably be of
considerable help in reminding young students of some of the more
strongly characteristic fossil groups, and Prof. Gosselet claims no
more than this in its favour. There are 166 figures in the text, of
these those representing fossils (mostly from d’Orbigny’s works,
etc.) are very good, whilst the others, although well chosen and in-
structive, are as a rule very inferior, having probably been spoiled
in the engraving.

The style of the Lille Professor is extremely clear, and entirely
free as it is from any attempt at so-called “popular” writing, it is
yet decidedly interesting. There is an absence of theorizing which
one is not accustomed to find in foreign manuals of geology. The
book is in fact a collection of carefully selected facts, the inferences
drawn from which are striking and obvious. Those parts of geo-
logical science which still belong to the region of speculation are
omitted, and the student is only told what is known and how it is
known. Cataclysms, Pentagonal systems, and all the other horrors
of so many French text-books, find no place in this one.

In two instances only, we believe, does the author depart from
the well-established views which there is no risk of the student
finding contradicted in larger works. One is in the use of the term
«‘Paléontonique.”” Under this unusual name are grouped the Silurian,
Devonian, and Carboniferous rocks, the pre-Cambrian rocks being
denominated “ Azoic,” notwithstanding Eozoon, which is mentioned
as “ce prétendu fossile,” and the Cambrian being regarded merely
as the base of the Silurian. The other case is the division of the
Carboniferous into three stages, viz.: 1°. The Lower or Carboniferous
Limestone. 2°. The Middle, or Coal-Measures. 3°. The Upper, or
Permian. Now there is, of course, very much to be said in favour
of this grouping, and it is quite possible that a continuation of re-
searches, such as those of Dawson in North America, and Ludwig in
Russia, may bring us some day to accept this as the normal and
typical state of things, yet it seems scarcely wise or in keeping with
the admirable reserve which marks the rest of the book, to include
an innovation in which there is so much room for criticism.

Naturally the text-book refers chiefly to French Geology, and its
value is much enhanced by the two coloured folding plates which it
contains, one being an excellent little geological map of France in
eight divisions, and the other consisting of three sections illustrating
the rock-structure of the country between the Vosges and Paris,
Paris and J.aon, and Brussels and Mézicres.

On the whole the book will compare favourably with the best of
our geological primers and introductory text-books, and leaves most
of the foreign works of the kind far behind. G. A. L.

Reports and Proceedings. 35

IV.—Tae Pozzi or Lire anp How rv was Been Pur Toceruer,
A Sort History or VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL LIFE UPON THE:
Harte FRoM THE Hariiest TIMES, INCLUDING AN ACCOUNT OF PRE-
Historic Man, 1s Weapons, Toons, anp Works. By Artuur
Nicots. pp. 148. (London, Longmans & Co., 1877.)

NY attempt to put the leading facts of a science within the com-
prehension of children, and of grown-up persons whose educa-

tion has not fitted them to grapple with technical terms, must be
fraught with considerable difficulty. Science, as often observed, has

a language of its own, and it is frequently impossible to translate it

in so simple a form, that all who read may understand. The present

little work, however, which is specially addressed to children, is
written in so pleasant and easy a style, and its descriptions of life
on the earth are on the whole so simple and accurate that we can

heartily recommend it to the attention of those who seek such a

guide. The illustrations are good and the general appearance of the

book such that it may compare most favourably with other primers

of geology. H. B. W.

seuss @ieven ss AN») 2 © Ce EIN GS -

Gronocicat Soctetry or Lonpon.—November 22nd, 1876.—Prof.
P. Martin Duncan, M.B., F.R.S., President, in the Chair. The
following communications were read :—

1. “On the Pre-Cambrian (or Dimetian) Rocks of St. David’s.”
By Henry Hicks, Hsq., F.G.S.

Referring to the ridge of pre-Cambrian rocks, which he described
in a former paper as running down the St. David’s promontory, and
as previously supposed to consist of intrusive syenite and felstone,
the author stated that he had now found it to be composed exclusively
of altered sedimentary rocks of earlier date than the Cambrian de-
posits, the conglomerates at the base of which are chiefly made up
of pebbles derived from these rocks. Recent investigations had led
him to the conclusion that the main ridge was composed of two
distinct and decidedly unconformable formations, the older of which
composed of quartzites and altered shales and limestones, con-
stituting the centre of the ridge, has a N.W. and 8.E. strike, and
dips at a very high angle; whilst the newer series, consisting of
altered shales, and having at its base a conglomerate composed of
pebbles of the older rock, has a strike nearly at right angles to that
of the latter. For the former he proposed the name of Dimetian, and
for the latter that of Pebidian. The author indicated the points of
resemblance between these pre-Cambrian Rocks and the Laurentian
of Canada, the Malvern Rocks, and others in Scotland and else-
where, but thought it safer at present to abstain from attempting
any definite correlation of them. The exposure of the older, or
Dimetian, series led the author to ascribe to those rocks a thickness
of at least 15,000 feet ; the upper or Pebidian rocks, which flank both
sides of the old ridge through a great portion of its length, are
apparently of considerably less thickness, but they are in most parts

36 Reports and Proceedings—

more or less concealed by Cambrian deposits overlying them uncon-
formably. Running nearly parallel with Ramsay Sound is another
large mass of the author’s Pebidian rocks, and at the south-western
extremity of Ramsay Island they compose a bold hill almost 400
feet high, and on the east side of this a fault, with a downthrow of
at least 14,000 feet, has brought up the Arenig beds into contact with
the pre-Cambrian rocks. x

2. ‘On the Fossil Vertebrates of Spain.” By Prof. Salvador
Calderon. Communicated by the President.

This paper contained a few introductory observations on the study
of the fossil vertebrates of Spain, followed by a classified list of the
species (68 in number) which have been recognized in that country.
The author particularly remarked on the occurrence of Sivatherium
and Hyenarctos in Spain, on the finding of remains of the Mammoth
in that country, and on the presence in the peninsula at a late period
of Bos primigenius. The earliest known Spanish vertebrates have
been obtained from the Carboniferous formation.

December 6th, 1876.—Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.B., F.R.S.,
President, in the Chair.

The President announced the sad loss the Society had sustained
in the death of Mr. David Forbes, F.R.S., one of its Secretaries,
which took place on the morning of Tuesday, December Sth. He
thought it would be felt by all present that, as a mark of respect to
the memory of one so highly esteemed, the proceedings of the Meet-
ing should be limited to the absolutely necessary business; but as
one of the authors of a paper on the list had travelled a long dis-
tance in order to attend the Meeting, it would hardly be fair to let
him go back with the purpose of his journey unaccomplished. He
theretore suggested that, in addition to the ordinary formal business
of the Meeting, the memoir of MM. Topley and Lebour on the
Whin Sill of Northumberland should be read, and that the Meeting
should then adjourn.

The following communication was read :

‘‘On the Intrusive Character of the Whin Sill of Northumber-
land.” By W. Topley, F.G.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E., Geological Survey
of England and Wales, and G. ‘A. Lebour, F.G.S., Sliechiner on Geolo-
gical Surveying at the University of Durham College of Science,
Neweastle-on-Tyne.

The Carboniferous Limestone series of the north of England con-
tains a bed (or beds) of basalt, known as the “ Whin Sill,” regard-
ing the nature of which opinion has long been divided. Some
writers regard it as truly interbedded and contemporaneous ; others
look upon it as intrusive, and as having been forced laterally between
the planes of bedding. The latter opinion is that held by the
authors, who stated that through South and Mid-Northumberland
there can be no doubt as to the intrusive character of the Whin Sill.
This conclusion can be established by the line of outcrop of the
trap, and also by the evidence of individual sections.

Geological Society of London. 37

A review of the literature on the subject was given by the
authors, showing that the opinions of geologists are very much
divided as to the nature of the Whin Sill. But amongst the prac-
tical miners of the north of England there are very few who will
admit any doubt that the Whin lies evenly, and at one constant
horizon, amongst the strata. Clear cases to the contrary are looked
upon as merely local variations, possibly due to successive eruptions
of submarine lava. The Whin Sill serves them as a definite line,
and the limestone next above it is always called the “Tyne Bottom
Limestone.” The question is thus of considerable economic im-
portance. It is also of interest in reference to the volcanic history
of Britain and to classification.

Prof. Phillips took the Whin Sill as the base of the Yoredale
Series ; the Great Limestone he regarded as its top. But the work
of the Geological Survey has shown that the Whin Sill lies at dif-
ferent horizons in different places; sometimes it even lies above the
Great Limestone itself. In other words, the Whin Sill, which is
supposed to mark the base of the Yoredale Series, sometimes lies above
the limestone which forms the top of that series.

With the disappearance of the supposed base-line of the Yoredales
goes also any good reason for drawing a line here at all. The so-
called “Tyne Bottom Limestone” cannot be traced definitely through
Northumberland, and the beds above and below this horizon have
the same general character.

The authors traced the Whin Sill through Northumberland, as far
north as Dunstanborough Castle, showing the varying positions at
which it occurs in the Limestone series, and noting points of
interest in some of the sections. The Whin shifts its position
amongst the strata to the extent of 1000 feet or more. It fre-
quently comes up in bosses through the bedded rocks, and bakes the
beds above it quite as much as those below, especially when those
beds consist of shale.

As to the age of the Whin Sill, nothing definite can be said. It
is frequently thrown by faults and lodes. There is no certain case
of its being unaffected by faults which throw the neighbouring
rocks, although there are a few doubtful cases which seem to point
in this direction. As the Whin Sill does not approach the Permian
area of Durham, the fact that some of the faults there are believed
to be pre-Permian cannot be applied as a test of age in this case.

In other districts in Britain in which intrusive basaltic sheets
occur amongst the Carboniferous rocks, there is good reason to
believe that in most cases they are pre-Permian, or at least pre-
Triassic. Whether or not this be the case with the Whin Sill
cannot be determined. No light is thrown on this question by the
composition of the rock. Mr. Allport has shown that it resembles,
in all essential characters, the basalts of other Carboniferous districts,
some of which are possibly contemporaneous, some certainly in-
trusive.

38 Correspondence—Mr. T. Mellard Reade.

CORRESPONDENCE.

THE THREEFOLD DIVISION OF THE BOULDER-CLAY OF THE
NORTH-WEST OF ENGLAND.

Str,— Your correspondents Mr. Mackintosh and Mr. Morton raise a
much wider question than the one immediately contained in their
letters, and it is impossible for me to really discuss the nature of
the North Dock Sections without inquiring into the foundations of
the theory upon which their classification of these deposits rests.
Having in a former letter expressed an opinion that there is not
sufficient evidence to justify in this case the threefold division of the
Boulder-clay, will you permit me to state more fully my views on
the subject.

First then it will be necessary to inquire by what characters a
geological subdivision is usually recognized,—there are three :

Ist. By the distinctive character of the inclosed fossils.

2nd. By persistent lithological character and continuity over a
considerable area.

drd. By constant relation to well-defined and known deposits
above and below.

It is evident that these involve the prevalence of physical con-
ditions differing when each deposit was laid down. These conditions
may have differed widely and extended over great areas, or may
have been of a more restricted and local nature. Mr. Morton in his
communication, it is true, does not commit himself directly to any
theory on the subject, but his position involves it all the same.

Mr. Mackintosh, on the other hand, boldly states that the Lower
Boulder-clay, Middle Sands and Gravels, and Upper Boulder-clay,
are each representatives of considerable variations of climate, the
upper and lower clays, of cold more or less intense, the middle
gravels of a mild climate, or what are called interglacial conditions.
This, I believe, is the theory generally accepted by those who uphold
the threefold division of the Boulder-clay, though they differ as to
the nature of the lower clay, some attributing to it a subaerial
origin, and others considering it to be an older marine deposit.'
Unfortunately the terms are often used so loosely, that it is not
always possible to interpret what is really meant by them, though
if the division is to be upheld, they must mean something.

Having examined the general principles, and attempted to extract
the signification of the terms, Lower Boulder-clay, Middle Drift,
and Upper Boulder-clay, let us see what support is lent to the theory
by the Boulder-clay Sections at the Liverpool North Docks.

The distinctive differences existing between the deposits according
to Mr. Morton, so far as I can gather from his letter, are that the
Upper Clay contains fewer stones than the Lower, and is worked with
the spade: while the Lower Clay is more closely packed with small
stones, and has in consequence to be worked with the pick. The

1 There are others who consider the whole to be the product of land-ice, while

some deny altogether the glacial character of the beds, and consider them to be post-
glacial clays reconstructed out of the pre-existing glacial deposits.

Correspondence—Mr. S. Gordon Mc Dakin. 39

Upper contains large striated boulders ; but the Lower, it is admitted,
may possibly also contain large boulders, as it has not been excavated
to any considerable depth. The most distinctive feature is that
they are divided in places by a bed of sand and well-worn gravel.
Mr. Mackintosh considers that these gravels were washed out of
a pre-existing glacial clay, of which only hummocky patches
remain! (Lower Boulder-clay), and their striz effaced during an
inter-glacial period, when the transportation of striated stones had
ceased. Without discussing in detail the accuracy of Mr. Morton’s
description, which I submit does not produce a faithful impression of
what actually exists, but rather records what exists in his own
mind on the subject, I ask, is the foregoing evidence full enough, or
of a nature to justify a careful geologist in accepting an interpreta-
tion of the Boulder-clay fraught with such tremendous consequences ?
For my part, candidly I think it is not, and until some upholder of
the theory shows that the Lower Boulder-clay is either a subaerial
deposit or contains fossils differing from those in the bed above. or
offers any of the distinctive characteristics and continuity such as I
have stated are necessary to constitute a geological subdivision, I
cannot consider the evidence to be worth much. Looking at the
question in a broad aspect, it also appears to me that any division
founded as this primarily is on the separation of the Clay by sand
and gravel involves, if applied over a wide area, a physical absurdity.
Under what possible conditions could a period intervening between
the deposition of two beds of clay be represented everywhere only
by sands and gravels? If these were washed out of the pre-existing
clay, as Mr. Mackintosh infers, what became of the much greater
bulk of the clay in which they were imbedded? Where are the
equivalent deposits of clay which would surely have representatives
somewhere in the interglacial period ?

So far as my experience goes, the marine Boulder-clay and sands
of the lower plains—and none but marine beds have hitherto pre-
sented themselves to me—are from the base of red sand or rock’on
which they rest to the surface, but one great deposit containing local
variations of such a puzzling character as to be interpreted differently
by every observer, the supporters of the tripartite division being
frequently quite at a loss as to which division the respective beds
should be allocated.

BLUNDELLSANDS, LIvERPOOL. T. Meniarp Reape.
Nov. 9th, 1876,

ON THE FORMATION OF GROUND ICE?

Sir,—Relative to the formation of ‘‘ Ground Ice,” I have to offer
the following theory. In order that this phenomenon may take
place the water must be near the freezing-point. Then we have an
analogous condition of things to that of the atmosphere when hoar
frost is deposited upon the ground, trees and shrubs on account
ss ane: Mr. Morton’s description one would infer this deposit extended all over the

OCK.

2 See Dr. Landor’s paper on ‘Ground Ice,’ Grox. Mac., 1876, Decade II.,
Vol. III. p. 459.

40 Correspondence—Prof. A. H. Green.

of these objects radiating their heat more rapidly than the sur-
rounding air, and because they are solid forms presented to a liquid
at the moment of crystallization, the feathers of the hoar frost ex-
tending to windward as each particle of water is driven by the breeze
and frozen upon it.

So in a stream of water at the freezing-point, the stones at the
bottom no doubt radiate their heat more rapidly than the surround-
ing medium, and particle after particle of water assumes its crystalline —
form on coming in contact with the solid, thus forming tubular
masses in the direction of the stream.

124, Wincuzap, CANTERBURY. S. Gorpon McDaxin.

PROF. NORDENSKIOLD ON RECURRENT GLACIAL PERIODS.

Sir,—Prof. Judd has told us repeatedly of late, not without some
flourish of trumpets, how completely Prof. Nordenskiéld has de-
molished Mr. Croll and his theory of the causes of glacial epochs.
Now from my youth up | have been backward in my reading, and
have had an unconquerable aversion to books, and never read any-
thing myself, if I can get a kind friend to read it for me, and tell
me what it is about. So I have not yet read Prof Nordenskidld ; '
Prof. Judd is evidently thoroughly well up in him, and he would be
doing a great kindness to myself, and perhaps others who are equally
ignorant and lazy, if he would send you a short article giving Prof.
Nordenskiéld’s facts and arguments. Prof. Judd says these do not
support Mr. Croll’s theories ; but what I especially want to know is,
whether there is anything in them that tells against the generally
received views on the subject.

YORKSHIRE CoLLEGE or Science, LEEDs. A. H. Green.
Dee. 9th, 1876. :

GLACIAL ORIGIN OF LAKES.

Sir,—I have to ask for space for a reply to the courteous letters of
Mr. Bonney and of my friend Mr. Judd.

' Mr. Bonney’s letter is mainly explanatory of his position, which

several circumstances— unnecessary to detail—combined to render

somewhat ambiguous. I think comparison would tend to show that

1 The paper by Prof. Nordenskiold especially referred to by Prof. Judd, is “ On
the Former Climate of the Polar Regions,” being an address by Prof. Nordenskiéld
delivered at the Anniversary Meeting of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences,
March 31, 1875, and translated and printed zm fwi/ in the GronocicaL Macazine,
1875, Dec. IT. Vol. II. p. 525. The passage quoted by Prof. Judd appears at p. 531,
but the whole paper is well worthy of perusal; as is also his paper ‘‘ On the Geology
of Icefiord and Bell Sound, Spitzbergen,’ GrotocrcaL MaGazine for 1876, pp. 16,
63, 118, 255. Perhaps Prof. Green will ‘‘ get a kind friend to read them for him.”
Nordenskiéld’s ‘‘ Expedition to Greenland ’’ also appeared in the Grou. Mac., 1872,
Vol. IX. pp. 289, 355, 409, 449, 516, and has some good materials in it bearing on
the former climate and the extinct floras. Many of our readers, when oppressed with
the wearisome effort to master the contents of our monthly issue, will cordially sympa-
thize with Prof. Green, and wish for a mental digester and Assimilator (like the
Artificial Stomach in the Loan Collection) into which, as into a ‘‘ Papin’s Digester,”
they might put their heavy reading, and so get therefrom the extractum sensorum in
a concentrated form. ‘Till this invention is patented, Prof. Green has hit upon a
happy expedient: ‘Get a kind friend to tell you what it is about” !—Enrr. Grou. Mac.

Correspondence—Mr. Hugh Miller. 41

we occupy not unlike grounds. Mr. Bonney admits some tarns, like
Grasmere, as glacial; admits, hesitatingly, in part if not wholly,
some lakelets, “(do fhiese include Grasmere’s neighbours?) ; admits
that once a basin is formed, a glacier works in it “under very
favourable conditions” (Letter to Mr. Fisher, p. 877), thus granting
to the process increasingly favourable conditions; but demurs to the
statement “that though competent to deepen a lake- basin, a glacier
could originate it.” “Tt would thus seem to be with Mr. Bonney
a. question, not of ability, but of time.” Did the glacial period last
long enough to evlarge, under “very favourable conditions,” a tarn
it was able to originate under less favourable conditions.

If I understand Mr. Bonney correctly, we are at one both in our
desire to bring each case to the test of observation, and in our ap-
preciation.of the increase of theoretical probability as the series
advances from tarn to lake. But if the utmost that even his careful
observations can do for him is to render the glacial theory probable
or improbable (p. 376), then surely these theoretical probabilities
are worthy of greater weight than he gives them. His illustrations of
blown sand eroding (must we say tarns ?), and Homeric youths spread-
ing erratics, seem to me scarcely relevant to the state of the question.

The latter paragraphs of Mr. Bonney’s letter call for no remark
from me, as they involve—at this stage—a knowledge of the Alpine
lakes that I do not possess. I may assure Mr. Bonney, however,
that though I have ventured to remark on his theories, I do not
question his facts.

The letter of my friend Mr. Judd I must attempt—with savneth
diffidence in my own powers—to answer, for it involves destruction
to my position. First, let me say a word of explanation. In sup-
posing me prepared “to admit the overwhelming probabilities” of
the subsidence theory in regard to all the larger lakes, Mr. Judd
misunderstands me. <A priori probabilities in relation to lakes both
large and small, I believe must be conceded to both theories. But in
such questions, overwhelming probability can be allowed only to
overwhelming proof.

In the second place, as regards the halting-place that Mr. Judd
finds between tarns and lakes. If, as I argued, a glacier is a tool
that greatly grows in calibre and efficiency as a tarn-hollow en-
larges,—that scrapes harder and scores deeper, then to concede
tarns to the feebler tool and deny them enlargement by the more
powerful, nothing being pointed to as intervening to stop the action,
is what may very properly be characterized as not logical and not
reasonable. Nevertheless, as for want of standing room and a
fulcrum, Archimedes found his theoretically infinitely powerful tool
limited by “‘reasonable proportions”—the limit of all terrestrial
tools, so are “reasonable proportions” the limits also of glaciers and
their work. While caution then compelled me to remember, and to
indicate in my paper, that there are limits to the enlargement of
tarns by glaciers, that fact—even in Mr. Judd’s able hands—leaves
the tarn and lake question precisely on its former basis.

My friend suggests to me, however, an analogy which may help

42 Correspondence—Mr. Hugh Miller.

it on, and aid me to show the fallacy of the analogy by which he
seeks to undermine some of the grounds I occupy. Every one who
has studied streams and rivers knows that below rapids and falls,
and at other places, they scoop pools much deeper, and also broader,
than the average stream near the place. The little runnel makes a
rough dimple; the Highland burn a linn; the alluvial river leaves
in its old channels small meres; and in the valley of the great
Amazon these isolated pools are represented by lakelets or lakes
some ten miles long, roughly speaking, and thirty or forty feet deep.
The rule is, that the volume of the stream determines the size and the
contents by volume of the pools it makes. Glancing back now to the
question of “reasonable proportions,” it is evident that this rule
must not be unreasonably stretched by a use of blind logic. 'To say
that it applies within reasonable limits, is correct; to say that any
one allowing only the pools of the burn to the large river is illogical
(as well as wrong) is also correct. But to repudiate the rule because
it cannot explain lakes proportioned by their size to the hypothetical
pools of impossible rivers, would be simply futile.

But I proceed to apply this rule elsewhere. Mr. Judd refuses to
allow that a glacier grinds in a basin with added force, on the grounds
that “‘we are led to infer” that streams of water and rivers of ice fall
under similar laws of motion (p. 525), and in a preceding paragraph
(p. 6524) he says what must involve belief on his part, in the pro-
duction by glaciers of basins proportional in superficies to the pools
of the Highland burn and Mississippi river. The above rule, that
streams of water make their pools according to their volume, being
correct, rivers of ice, Mr. Judd will probably admit, should do like-
wise. Now streams very much broader than the Amazon do not,
and probably could not exist, though I am safe in saying that if they
did their pools would be lakes. But it is a truism now-a-days that
glaciers many times wider than the Amazon did and do exist. The
Humboldt glacier is about 60 miles wide; ancient glaciers moved
over plateaux and over-rode watersheds, and by the analogy claimed
by Mr. Judd we would be justified—nay, encouraged —in predicating
as possible lakes limited in breadth only by the volume of glacier
and ice-sheet. Jt is not immoderate then to ask for the sprinkling of
tarns and lakes which the nature of the pre-glacial surfaces favoured.

Although, as I think, legitimately damaging to Mr. Judd’s position,
his parallel between ice and water cannot strictly be carried out.
The cascade of a Highland burn tumbles into a pool less broad some-
times than deep, and not much longer. To accredit glaciers with
such powers were to forget an important element of difference—the
greater rigidity of ice. It is this property—the same that makes
glaciers habitually scratch rocks as well as smoothing them, thus
giving them a greater rock-hollowing power—that has made it
possible for me to argue, what could not be argued of water, that
the deeper a glacier drives a basin, “the more fully it feels its
power and the more easily and rapidly it works.”

A word now upon the stratigraphical division of the question.
With deference to Mr. Judd’s authority, I must say that 1 cannot
agree with him that the horizontality of the Assynt mountains is ‘‘an

Obituary—E. Billings. 43

optical delusion.” If the boundary-lines of beds 15 and 20 feet
thick can be distinguished separately, local deflections from the hori-
zontal even to that amount should be visible too. Nor is the fact
that they are only “nearly horizontal” worthy of any weight. Their
dip is about 1° westward. They have been spoken of! as “ with
their strata so little inclined that these can be traced by the eye in
long horizontal bars on the side of the steeper declivities.” But
while holding by what I have affirmed on the subject, I am sensible
that Mr. Judd’s objections can be obviated only by an authority equal
to his own. '
Wark-on-TyneE, Nov. 14th. HucH Mier.

“THE CLIMATE CONTROVERSY.”

Srr,—Will you allow me to call the attention of geologists inter-
ested in this subject to a statement made by Sir George Nares to
the Geographical Society.

He tells us that in the extreme north of Greenland, as well as on
the opposite side of Smith’s Sound, instead of the land being en-
veloped in ice like the more southern parts of Greenland, the glaciers
do not reach the sea. This Sir George attributes to the snowfall _
being less than the summer sun can dissolve, the snow-bearing
clouds discharging their contents principally in latitudes further
south, and the land-ice being made up of undissolved snow.

Now does not this militate against the possibility of a polar
ice-cap, as well as against the alleged cumulative tendency of
snow and ice over any large portion of the polar areas? If with
the present lower excentricity the aphelion sun of the northern
summer is sufficient to dissolve the winter snow in latitude 82°,
would not the perihelion sun of a high excentricity be proportionately
more effective, instead, as Mr. Croll contends, of being insufficient
to prevent the accumulation of snow? During the augmented cold
of the Glacial period would not the region of excessive snowfall
have been pushed down to about lat. 55° in Europe (where we find
evidences of the enveloping land-ice), and the chief part of Green-
land, instead of, as now, being enveloped in ice, have been in the ice-
free condition of the land about Smith’s Sound? And since the cold
of that region, notwithstanding this absence of land-ice, was found to
be more intense than that of latitudes where the ice envelopes the land,
may not the cold of the Glacial period have been proportionately more
intense without any greater snow accumulation than now prevails ?

Srartes V. Woop, Jun.

@ Sas OpeAa=eavee

Sy SAT
ELKANAH BILLINGS, F.G.S.
BORN 1820, DIED 1876. AGED 66 YEARS.

Tur late Mr. Billings was born in the Township of Gloucester,
near Ottawa, Ontario, on the 5th of May, 1820. His family came
originally from Wales, and settled in the New England States, but
subsequently removed to Canada. Mr. Billings was educated partly

1 Prof. Geikie’s Scenery of Scotland, p. 211.

44 Obituary—E. Billings.

at Ottawa and partly at Potsdam, in the State of New York. Enter-
ing the Law Society of Upper Canada as a student in 1840, he was
called to the Bar in 1845. He practised first in the town of Renfrew,
and afterwards in Ottawa, or Bytown as it was then called. While
residing in the latter place he seems to have found the study of
nature more congenial to his tastes than the formalities of the Courts;
but whether this was the case or not, it is certain that he commenced
to devote much of his time to collecting the organic remains of the
Silurian rocks of the neighbourhood, and amassed in particular a
fine and almost unique series of Cystideans and Crinoids, which he
ultimately presented to the Museum of the Geological Survey.

His earliest contributions to the literature of science were a few
letters on geological subjects which appeared in the Ottawa Citizen,
but the first paleontological papers of any consequence from his pen
were a couple of articles ‘On some new genera and species of
Cystidea from the Trenton Limestone,” which were published in
the Journal of the Canadian Institute of Toronto for 1854.

In 1856 Mr. Billings commenced the publication of the “Canadian
Naturalist and Geologist”? as a monthly magazine, of which he was
both editor and proprietor. Out of a total of 63 papers in the first
volume of the new venture, 55 were either written or compiled by
him. Since 1857 the “ Naturalist’? has been edited by a Committee
of the Natural History Society of Montreal, but Mr. Billings was
always an active member of this Committee, and there is scarcely
a volume of the journal to which he did not contribute.

The merit’ of Mr. Billings’ descriptions of fossils and his zeal in
their study did not escape the notice of Canada’s veteran geologist,
the late Sir W. E. Logan. Accordingly, in 1856, Sir William offered
Mr. Billings the position of Paleeontologist to the Geological Survey
of Canada, an appointment which was at once accepted. In the same
year Mr. Billings removed to Montreal, the head-quarters of the
Survey, and entered on the discharge of his new duties, which he
continued to perform with equal credit to himself and advantage to
the country up to the time of his death.

His principal memoirs during his twenty years of office are an
illustrated monograph on the Lower Silurian Cystidea and Asteriade,
also another on the Crinoidea of the same formation, which together
form Decades Nos. 3 and 4 of “Canadian Organic Remains:” the
paleontological determinations in the “Geology of Canada” for
1863: ‘Paleozoic Fossils,” vol. i., with 426 pages and 401 wood-
cuts, published at Montreal in 1865: Part 2 of the second volume of
ditto, issued in 1874: and ‘Catalogues of the Silurian Fossils of the
Island of Anticosti,” Montreal, 1866. He wrote numerous paleonto-
logical papers, not only for the ‘‘ Canadian Naturalist,” but also for
the American Journal of Science and Arts, and for these pages.

Mr. Billings was for many years one of the Vice-Presidents of the
Natural History Society of Montreal, was elected a Member of the
Canadian Institute of Toronto in January, 1854, and a Fellow of the
Geological Society of London in 1858.

In 1862 he was awarded a bronze medal in Class 1 by the jurors

Obituary—David Forbes. 45

of the International Hxhibition of London, and a similar one at
the Exposition Universelle of Paris in 1867. In the latter year,
also, he was presented with the silver medal of the Natural History
Society of Montreal as a mark of its appreciation of his “ long-con-
tinued and successful labours in Canadian Science.”

As a diversion from his almost unremitting paleontological
researches, Mr. Billings, at different periods of his life, occupied
himself with the study of mineralogy and entomology. Among
insects, his favourite group was the Coleoptera, and he made quite
an extensive collection of Canadian beetles, which a few years since
he deposited in the Museum of the Natural History Society of
Montreal.

Like many other original thinkers, Mr. Billings was entirely self-
taught, so far as science was concerned, and those whe were best
qualified to form an opinion on both points knew not which to
admire most, the untiring industry of the man, or the conscientious
thoroughness of his work. To show that he spared no pains to
increase his knowledge of the science which he made peculiarly his
own, it may be mentioned that he learned to translate with ease,
paleontological essays, written not only in the French and German,
but also in the Norwegian, Swedish, and Danish languages.

J. FE. Wuitraves.

DAVID FORBES, F.R.S., SEC. G.S., F.C.S., ETC.
BORN 6 sEPT, 1828. DIED 5 DEC. 1876. AGED 48 YEARS.

For many years past the names of its oldest and most eminent
members have one by one been removed from the list of the Geologi-
cal Society, and we have looked around, almost in despair, for men
to fill the front henches, once distinguished by the presence of a
Murchison, a Lyell, a Scrope, a Sedgwick, or a Phillips. Now,
alas! we have to record with sorrow the loss of one of those younger
members from whom we had fondly looked for some ten years at
least of active scientific work.

The name of Forbes had already become well-known and honoured
in association with the Geological and other learned Societies by the
scientific labours of the late Prof. Edward Forbes, brother of the
subject of our present memoir; and when David Forbes returned to
England after nearly twenty years of his life had been spent abroad
in Norway and South America, he was cordially welcomed as a
fellow-worker by his brother Geologists and speedily took an
honoured place among them.

Born in the Isle of Man in 1828, he was partly educated there and
subsequently at Brentwood in Essex. His school-days over, he was
removed to the University of Edinburgh, where, in Dr. Wilson’s
laboratory, he laid the foundation for those chemical and physical
studies which so distinguished his later years.

An early opportunity was afforded him of turning this chemical
and scientific training to good account, and before he was 20 he ac-

46 Ohituary—David Forbes.

companied Mr. Brooke Evans to explore the mineral resources and
afterwards to superintend extensive mining and metallurgical works
at Espedal in Norway, a post which he held for about 12 years.
During this period he travelled much, and lost no opportunity of in-
creasing his store of scientific knowledge, as his writings testify.
David Forbes was a man of resolute and determined courage, and
when in Norway, in 1848, and a revolutionary movement threatened
the country, he armed 400 of his men to aid the Government. For
this service the King sent for Forbes, and thanked him personally,
and ever afterwards remained his friend.

During this time he became a partner in the well-known firm of
Evans and Askin, Nickel-smelters, Birmingham, and it was in con-
nexion with them that he visited Chile, Peru and Bolivia, in
search of Nickel and Cobalt. His investigations into the mineral
resources of these countries extended over six years. During the
years 1857-60, he made a special geological exploration of certain
districts in South America, the result of which, entitled “On
the Geology of Bolivia and Southern Peru,” was communicated to
the Geological Society in 1860.

The paper is full of interesting details, and although many points
may appear to have been neglected, this is not the result of over-
sight, but, as the author truly observes, is “‘due to the great difficul-
ties and frequently severe privations encountered in exploring a
country in many parts entirely uninhabited, or to a great extent in
a savage condition, and, further, by having been limited both as to
‘time and pecuniary resources,.and hampered by other occupations
and by the political state of the country.”

A second communication was to have embodied the Geology and
Mineralogy of the neighbouring Republic of Chile and the Argentine
Provinces, which would have strengthened his previous conclusions,
especially as several of the geological formations not well developed
or studied in the districts described in his first paper, were seen by
Forbes much better and more characteristically exhibited further
south. From South America he made an expedition to the South Sea
Islands, and spent some time in studying their volcanic formations
and minerals.

During four years he traversed Chile in all directions from con-
siderably south of Santiago northwards, up to the frontiers of Bolivia
in the Desert of Atacama.

He inspected all the principal and some of the lesser mining
districts along the range of the Cordilleras ; from these he collected
a valuable and extensive series of minerals, including about 190
species, of which he published a list (much more copious than that
given in the second edition of Domeyko’s Mineralogy), together with
a classification, according to the mode of their geological occurrence,
in his paper “On the Mineralogy of Chile” (see Phil. Mag., 1865).

It was with the same view that during his long residence in
Norway Forbes studied the Mineralogy of the several districts in
that country, viz. with especial reference to the circumstances under
which each mineral occurred and the causes which led to its ap-

Obituary— David Forbes. 47

pearance. (See the Edinb. Phil. Journ., 1856-57, and Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc. Lond., 1855.)

His cabinets are replete with abundant and carefully selected:
rocks and minerals, all intended to illustrate the association, para-
genesis and mode of occurrence of minerals in connexion with the
origin and formation of the rock-masses or mineral veins in which
they are found imbedded.

On his return from Bolivia in 1860, he was requested, previous to
his departure, by a Committee representing the chief commercial and
mining interests of that country, to address a letter to Lord John
Russell urging the re-appointment of a representative of the British
Government to protect British interests. This letter was accompanied
by a memorandum on the resources of the Republic. Although the
official appointment was not then deemed necessary, it must have
been some satisfaction to Mr. David Forbes to know that a number
of influential persons connected with mining enterprises requested
Sir Roderick Murchison to use his influence to secure the appoint-
ment of Mr. David Forbes to the vacant post in that country.

Igneous and Metamorphic phenomena and the resulting changes
in rock-formations were among David Forbes’s especial and favourite
studies, and he lost no opportunity, during his extensive travels in
Europe and Africa, but especially in Mexico and South America, of
observing the effects of modern volcanic action, and their relation to —
similar phenomena in past time.

Having ample opportunities in Norway, in connexion with metal-
lurgical operations, he was enabled to submit various rocks to very
high temperatures and pressures for longer or shorter periods, and
thus imitate metamorphic action in the production of various forms
of rock-structures. The results of these experiments were partly em-
bodied in his paper to the Geological Society in 1855, “On the
Causes producing Foliation in Rocks.” Bearing also on this subject
are his papers ‘“‘On the Chemical Composition of some Minerals
from the South of Norway” (Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1854, Edinb. New
Phil. Journ., 1855-57), “On the Igneous Rocks of Staffordshire”
(Grout. Maca. Vol. III. p. 23) and “On the Contraction of Igneous
Rocks in Cooling ” (Grou. Mae. Vol. VII. p. 1).

Mr. Forbes was a Fellow of the Royal, the Chemical, and the
Geological Societies. Of the latter he had been the active Honorary
Secretary for some years past. As Foreign Secretary of the
Tron and Steel Institute, he has prepared for six years (1871-76)
careful and elaborate details of the progress of the iron and steel
industries in foreign countries, in which his knowledge of lan-
guages materially assisted him. Nor did geological science and
mineralogy alone interest him, for as a member of the Ethnological
Society he contributed an interesting and elaborate paper “On the
Aymara Indians of Bolivia and Peru.”

Upwards of fifty papers have been communicated by Mr. David
Forbes to the Scientific Societies and Journals, besides a long series
of articles in the ‘Chemical News,” the Transactions of the “Iron
and Steel Institute.” Sixteen of Mr. Forbes’s articles and letters

48 Obituary—David Forbes.

have appeared in the GrotocioaL Macazine from 1866—1872. They
all indicate the tendency of his mind to study the bearings of
chemistry on igneous and cosmical phenomena. Forbes felt that
whilst in other departments of Geology, Great Britain was foremost,
she was far behind in the study of Chemical Geology, and he hoped
that others might be induced to devote themselves to this most
interesting and prolific branch of scientific inquiry. His views were
expressed in his paper on “Chemical Geology” (Chemical News,
1867 and 1868; Popular Science Review, 1868; Grou. MaG., 1868,
Vol. V. p. 866, and in his Lecture to the Chemical Society, 1868),
and also in his paper on the “Chemistry of the Primeval Earth,”
(GuoLt. Mac.. 1867, Vol. IV. p. 483; and 1868, Vol. V., p. 105), in
which he criticized certain opinions of Dr. Sterry Hunt published in
his lecture at the Royal Institution (1867) on the same subject
(Guot. Mac. 1867, Vol. IV. p. 857).

His most important papers are already quoted in the body of this

memoir, to which may be added the following :—

“On the Relation of the Silurian and Metamorphic Rocks of the South of Norway.’
Edinb. New Phil. Journ. 1856, iii. p. 79.

“On the Causes producing Foliition in Rocks.” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1855,
xl. p. 166.

“ On the So-called Primitive Formation of the South Coast of Norway.’ Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc., 1858, xiv.

“ On the Geology of South America.” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1860.

“ On the application of the Blowpipe to the Quantitative Determination of certain
Minerals ’’—a series of papers in the ‘‘ Chemical News.”

“¢ Researches in British Mineralogy.’ Phil. Mag., 1867 and 1868.

Mr. Forbes devoted himself almost entirely to his professional
and literary pursuits, and took but little physical exercise, and it is
to be feared that his too sedentary habits, together with the sad
domestic loss he had recently suffered, depressed his spirits and
broke up a constitution already to some extent enfeebled by recur-
rent fever caught in South America, and so accelerated his end.

His loss is keenly felt by those friends who really knew his genial
and social character; whilst his scientific associates, who had hoped
for the further prosecution and publication of his researches and
observations on rocks and minerals will all regret his vacant ESS in
their midst.

Removed from us at so early a period in his career, when his future
promised a devotion to his favourite studies and the arrangement
of the scientific notes he had so earnestly collected, some of which
it is hoped may still be rendered available, although we fear, with
regard to a large proportion, the mind of the master whose hand
penned them could alone render them useful for scientific purposes.
Endowed with great mental activity, although partly impaired of
late by the state of his health, he seems to have acted on the motto
of the great Swedish naturalist—

‘¢ NULLA DIES SINE LINEA.”

J. M.

New SERIES. DECADE I.VOL.1V.PLATE IL.

GEOL .MAG.18777.

(Gilly Griesbach del ot: lath W West & Co.tmp.
Fig.1.Coelodus ellipticus,hserton. :

F'16.a.Pyeno dus Bowerban <i,Higerton

GEOL. MAG. 1877. ; ‘ NEw SERIES. DECADE Il. VOL.IV. PLATE Iv.

]

Cul Grizshach) del eblith

Fig!lg 2. Pycnodus pachyrhinus, Egerton.
Fig.3. Coelodus. gyrodoides, Egerton.

WWest & C° imp.

THE

GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE.

NEW! SERIES DECADE Hi VOEI IV.
No. II.—FEBRUARY, 1877.

(GQassKSAEIN Vay 9 Yea VAG abs S5

———

J.—On some New Pycnoponts.
By Sir Puitie Grey-Hcrrron, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S.
(PLATES III. anv IV.)
1. CaLopus ELiipticus, Egerton. PI. IIT. Fig. 1.

Mr. Atrrep CrAvEN, who for some months past has been occupied
in making a collection of the organic remains found in the Gault at
Folkestone, has submitted to me for examination and description
(if requisite) a specimen of a Pycnodont jaw which, both for the
perfect condition in which it is preserved and for the peculiarity of
its characters, is worthy both of description and representation. The
specimen is the right mandible with most of the tritoral teeth pre-
served in their natural position. It betokens a fish of the largest
size of the family to which it belongs, rivalling in this respect even
the Pycnodus gigas of the Jura beds. The symphyseal border (PI. III.
Fig. 1s) measures two inches and eight-tenths of an inch in length,
and half an inch im thickness. As the anterior extremity is wanting,
the natural size was probably half an inch longer. The outer
margin of the jaw measures four inches, and the basal line—connect-
ing the outer and symphyseal elements of the triangle—three inches
and two-tenths. The dental armature is composed of four ranks on
the anterior and three on the posterior area of the mandible. The
inner row (PI. III. Fig. 1a) consists of teeth very considerably larger
than those of the succeeding rows. Six of these are retained; but as
the anterior extremity of the bone is broken, there were probably one
or two more. The individual teeth measure nine-tenths of an inch
by four-tenths. They are elliptic in outline, but slightly crescentic
on the anterior margin. The four anterior plates show progressive
marks of attrition; but the fifth and sixth, not having as yet come
into contact with the vomerine teeth, disclose the peculiar character
of the dentition. This consists in the occurrence of a longitudinal
sulcus on the anterior face of the tooth, corresponding in form with
the outline of the tooth, and bordered by a slightly crenulated mar-
gin; the remaining area of the tooth being perfectly smooth. The
whole triturating surface is coated with a thick and lustrous enamel.
The second rank (PI. III. Fig. 16) contains eleven teeth of an
elongated elliptic form, constricted at the waist, like an hour-glass.
They measure six-tenths of an inch in length. They are so arranged
that the alternate teeth are opposite to the intervals between those
of the inner or principal row. They all have the longitudinal fur-

DECADE II.—VOL, IVY,—wNO. Il. 4

50 Sir Philip Grey-Egerton—On some New Pycnodonts.

row characteristic of the larger teeth, but it occurs in the centre of
the denticle, and is deeper in proportion to the size of the tooth, so
that it is hardly altogether effaced by use. The four posterior teeth
of the third row (PI. III. Fig. 1 c) are smaller than those of the second,
and the outline is less elliptic and more irregular. These also have
the central furrow described before, but modified in harmony with
the form of the teeth. The teeth in front of these (Pl. III. Fig. 1d)
are in a double row, and seem to have arisen from divided germs,
each pair making up the form and size of one of the posterior teeth,
suggesting the idea that the single teeth of the hinder portion of the
rank are replaced by twin teeth in the front of the mandible. This
peculiarity will be alluded to more particularly hereafter. The
result is a great irregularity in this part of the dentition. Some of
these small teeth are elliptical, some more or less rounded, some
trigonal; some have the larger axis to the front, others coincide
with the two inner ranks in having the larger axis transversal.
They all, however, have a central pit varying in form with the out-
line of the tooth. The mandibular bone (Pl. IJI. Fig. 1m) extends
an inch or more backwards beyond the dentigerous area; it is close-
grained and solid, and measures an inch in thickness in the middle,
and thins off a little towards the symphysis, and more so to form the
outer edge of the mouth.

Before attempting to determine to which genus of the Pycnodont
family this specimen is referable, it will be necessary to notice
some of the discrepancies which occur in the writings of those authors
who have treated of this subject with regard to the number of the
ranks of mandibular teeth. Agassiz! says, “The lower jaw is car-
petted with large teeth arranged in three or five ranks on each side.”
Pictet” follows this dictum. Wagner and Thiolliere,’ on the contrary,
maintain that the correct number is four; but in the figure given by
the latter of Pycnodus Bernardi (pl. 5, fig. 2), five rows are distinctly
shown. Sauvage‘ divides the genus into those with four rows and
those with more. The great opportunities afforded me of examining
these interesting remains of a family entirely extinct since the
Miocene age have led me to think that much irregularity obtains in
the development of the marginal rows of tritoral teeth, and that
these variations are not of specific value except in cases where they
are constant. In Pycnodus Bucklandi, Hugii and parvus there are
always five and sometimes siz rows. 'The inner row when present
is invariably composed of small teeth, which are sometimes irregular,
sometimes have fallen away through use or age, and in one specimen
in my collection are duplicated. The second row is always com-
posed of the largest teeth and is generally constant in character.
‘The third row is also for the most part regular, but composed of
much smaller teeth than the second. The outer rows are subject to
great irregularities in number, form, and position. In some cases

1 Poissons Fossiles, vol. 2, pt. 2, page 183.

* Traité de Paléontologie, vol. 2, p. 197.

3 Poissons Fossiles du Bugey, p. 11.

4 Poissons des Formations Secondaires du Boulonnais.

Sir Philip Grey-Egerton—On some New Pycnodonts. ol

small teeth are intercalated between the rows, in others the larger
teeth are replaced by two smaller ones, as in the specimen described
in this article ; but in every case these teeth are smaller than those
of the principal row. In the genus Gyrodus the dental formula
does not appear to be subject to these irregularities, there being con-
stantly four rows in each mandible, and five in the vomer. In this
genus the outer row comes next in size to the principal row, and all
the teeth have a central eminence surrounded by a fossa. In Ifcrodon
also the teeth of the outer row of the four are next in size to the
principal ones.

Paleobalistum of de Blainville has three rows, the component
teeth being arranged obliquely. In Mesodon of Wagner the teeth
are oval, concave, and notched on the periphery. Heckel’ has added
two genera to the family,—Stemmatodus having three rows of teeth
on either side with notched borders and granulate crowns; and
Celodus described as having three rows on each mandible, elliptical,
with a slight depression on the surface of each tooth. He has,
moreover, upon the evidence of anatomical structure combined with
the dental characters, remodelled the arrangement of the species of
this family.

Microdon hexagonus and rugulosus of Agassiz are referred to
Gyrodus, as is also Microdon truncatus of Wagner. Pycnodus Itieri,
Sauvanasti, Bernardi, Egertont, and Wagneri of Thiolliere ; Pycnodus
umbonatus and MHiigit of Agassiz; and Pycnodus formosus and Reussii
of Wagner, are removed to the genus Microdon. Gyrodus macropterus
of Agassiz, and Pycnodus liassicus mihi, are joined to Jfesodon.
Pycnodus rhombus of Agassiz goes to Stemmatodus, and Pycnodus
orbiculatus of Agassiz to its pristine genus Paleobalistwm of de Blain-
ville. The new genus Celodus, in addition to the many fine species
of entire fish found in Austria, is made to include Pycnodus rhombus,
and Glossodus angustatus of Costa and Pycnodus Mantelli of Agassiz.

On comparing the Folkestone fossil with these several forms,
there is no doubt but that it mostly resembles the genus Celodus of
Heckel. A detached tooth from the outer row might indeed he
mistaken for a Gyrodus tooth if the crown were at all ground down,
but in a young tooth with the surface intact the difference is very
discernible. In specimens having the ranks of teeth preserved
there can be no mistake, as in Gyrodus the teeth of the outer row
are next in size to the principal teeth, whereas in Celodus they
diminish progressively from the inner to the outer series. The
number of the dental ranks in the hinder part of the jaw agrees
with Heckel’s formula, and, as I have stated before, I do not con-
sider the irregularity of the subsidiary ranks in the anterior portion
as indicative of generic variation. Assuming then that this mandible
belongs to Celodus, it is manifest that it cannot be identified with
any of the species of the genus yet described. It is of larger size
than the Celodus Saturnus figured by Heckel, and differs from that and
all the other species in having the teeth of the second row more
numerous and more elliptical. I propose to call it Celodus ellipticus.

1 Beitrage zur Kenntniss der fossilen Fische Oesterreichs, pt. 2.

52 Sir Philip Grey-Egerton—On some New Pycnodonts.

2. CeLopus GyroporpEs, Egerton. Plate IV. Fig. 3.

The Earl of Enniskillen possesses a fine specimen of a Pycnodont
vomer from the Greensand of Pinney Bay, near Lyme Regis,
which, although named Gyrodus new species, I am inclined to refer to
the genus Colodus. It measures two inches and a half in length
by one inch and seven-tenths at the base and one inch four-tenths in
front. It carries five rows of tritoral teeth. ‘The central series
(PL. IV. Fig. 3 a) is composed of eight reniform teeth, six-tenths of an
inch long by two-tenths wide. They have an elongated sulcus on
the anterior face of each tooth similar to those which characterize
the mandibular teeth of Coelodus. The adjoining rows on either side
have nine teeth on the right side (Fig. 36) and eight on the left
(Fig. 3c). They are considerably smaller than those of the centre
row and more obtuse. The depression on the grinding surface is
larger in proportion to the area of the tooth, and each pit has a
slight papilla at the bottom of the cavity. The two outer rows
(Fig. 3dd) contain seven teeth in the right and six in the left.
These are smaller than those in the adjacent rows and more oval in
shape, with a slight truncation of the outer margin. These teeth
might be mistaken for those of Gyrodus, but on comparing them
with perfect specimens of that genus it will be seen that the
periphery of the tooth in it is lower than the central boss, and
the crenulation of the projecting ridges more distinct, giving a
yosette character to the crown, whereas in Celodus the marginal
teeth have more the appearance of pustules with a puckered de-
pression in the centre. ‘There can be no hesitation in affirming that
this specimen indicates a new species of Pycnodont. ‘The only doubt
is whether or not it can be a vomer of Celodus ellipticus described
above. Iam inclined to negative this supposition, for the following
reasons. On applying the vomer to the mandible in the natural
position, the former appears to be too small for the latter, both
being evidently adult individuals, and the two are unsuited to bring
the upper and lower teeth in contact. In those species of Pycnodonts
where the dentition of both jaws is ascertained, there is a general
correspondence in the forms and character of the principal teeth ;
this is not the case here, as the whole dentition differs from that of
Celodus ellipticus in a remarkable degree, and is unlike that of any
Pycnodont hitherto described. I have not been able to ascertain the
exact horizon of the bed in which it was found; the only informa-
tion I have is that it was derived from the Greensand of Pinney
Bay. I propose to call it Oelodus gyrodoides.

3. Pycnopus Bowrrsankt, Egerton. Plate III. Fig. 2.

The specific characters of Pycnodus toliapicus given by Agassiz in
the “ Poissons Fossiles,” vol. ii. pt. 2, p. 196, were taken from a
single specimen in the collection of Dr. Buckland ; for although he
alludes to a second example in the museum of Dr. Bowerbank, he
does not describe it. Some years before Dr. Bowerbank removed
from London, I had an opportunity of examining his fine collection
of Sheppey fishes, in Highbury Grove, and with his permission made

Sir Philip Grey-Egerton—On some New Pycnodonts. 53

sketches of three Pycnodont mandibles which I considered could
not all be referred to Pycnodus toliapicus. For thirty years the
subject escaped my memory, until the examination of the Folkestone
specimen described in a previous article reminded me of the
occurrence, and induced me to make a comparison between it and
the Bowerbankian specimens now in the British Museum. Two of
these belong no doubt to Pycnodus toliapicus. They are right and
left mandibles, and so nearly of a size that they might have belonged
to the same individual. The right jaw has three rows of teeth.
Those of the inner row are the largest. They are five in number
and elliptic in form, agreeing in the latter respect with the descrip-
tion given by Agassiz: “‘The principal teeth are elongated and
rounded at the extremities.’ The second row contains six teeth
very much smaller than those of the inner row, and of ovoid out-
line; the third row has four teeth of similar figure to the preceding
ones, but rather smaller. The left mandible corresponds in these
details with the right, but has in addition an inner row of small
teeth between the principal row and the symphysis, of which three
anterior ones are apparently in siti. The occurrence of this inner
row of denticles is not in my opinion of specific signification when
the other characters correspond so closely. It is constant in Gyrodus,
but in Pycnodus, as I have before stated, it is by no means a charac-
teristic feature. When it is present the component teeth are invariably
smaller than any others. On comparing these specimens and the
figure of Pycnodus toliapicus given on pl. 72a. fig. 55, of vol. ii.
pt. 2, of the Poissons Fossiles, with the figure of Periodus Kenigi,
figs. 61-2 on the same plate, and the specimens in the British Museum
and my own cabinet, I am at a loss to discover any difference either
generic or specific between them. The specimens of Periodus have
been more rubbed down by use, and the discrepancy in the form of
the crowns is due to the unequal attrition of the vomerine teeth.
The third specimen from Dr. Bowerbank’s collection is a right
mandible in beautiful preservation. It is quite as large as Coelodus
ellipticus described above, and contains three rows of teeth. The
inner or principal row (PI. JII. Fig. 2a) has five normal teeth in
series and a sixth, the anterior one, replaced by what I have
designated a twin tooth (Pl. II. Fig. 21). The regular teeth of
this row are larger and more obtusely oval than those of Pycnodus
toliapicus. The twin tooth is divided into a circular denticle, rather
irregular, and a crescentic portion embracing the inner periphery of
the former. I have already alluded to this dentary sport as being
not uncommon in some of the Pycnodont genera. 'The second series
(P1. III. Fig. 26) comprises eight teeth, which, although considerably
smaller than the principal grinders, are nevertheless comparatively of
larger size than those of Pycnodus toliapicus. They are elliptic in
form, differing also in this respect from the oval teeth of that species.
The outer row (Pl. III. Fig. 2c) contains six teeth very’ much
smaller and nearly circular; the crown or triturating surface of those
not yet come into use is irregularly puckered. It will be gathered
from these details that the species is well characterized and broadly

04 = Sir Philip Giey-Egerton—On some New Pycnodonts.

distinct from any other of the genus. I have named it after its
discoverer and former possessor, Dr. Bowerbank, who I am happy to
know is still able to take his share of scientific work in those branches
of research in which he has laboured so hard and done so much.

4, On A VomERINE Puts or A Pycnopus From THE Lonpon CLAY.
Sheppey. Pl. IV. Figs. 1,2.

I have long had in my possession a Pycnodont vomer, found in
the Hocene Clay of the Isle of Sheppey, which first gave me a clue
to the anatomical details of the maxillary apparatus in this family.’
Having been found in clay, the matrix was easily cleared away so
as to display the entire bone, in so far as it was preserved. The ©
five rows of teeth, forming the roof of the mouth in all the species
of Pycnodus, are implanted on the under surface of the vomerine
plate, which is fully one inch in width. A solid vertical plate of
bone (PI. IV. Fig. 1 v) ascends from the upper surface of the vomer
to the height of one inch, where it meets a corresponding descending
plate (Pl. IV. Fig. 1m) of the nasal (Ethmoid) bone, to which it is
united by suture. The anterior margins of both bones expand
transversely so as to form a frontal shield seven-tenths of an inch
wide, to which the premaxillary bones were attached. This structure
has been well described by Thiolliere, who remarks, ‘“L’ethmoide est
remarquable par l’étendue de la cloison verticale qu’il presente au-
dessous du front, et au-dessus du sphénoide anterieure et du vomer.”
The total height of the frontal profile is two inches and a half, but
the upper portion of the nasal bone is broken away. ‘The angle
formed by the frontal line and the palate is sixty-seven degrees.
Although I have stated that the nasal bone is united by suture to
the vomer, this mode of attachment is confined to the frontal union.
Two thin lateral plates of bone expand downwards from the sides
of the nasal bone and overlap the vomerine walls to within half an
inch of the dentary platform. The space thus left of the vomer has
_ the appearance of a shallow groove, and this groove (PI. IV. Fig. 1 0)
at its distal extremity is arched over by a fragment of bone (PI. IV.
Fig. 1s), probably an anterior process of the presphenoid, forming
a large foramen, which in all probability constitutes the olfactory
duct. The dentigerous platform of the vomer measures two inches
and a half long by one inch and four-tenths wide. The median
row (PI. IV. Fig. 2a) counting from behind, has four large oval
teeth in succession, then comes a smaller circular tooth, succeeded
by a still smaller one, and in front a tooth of the normal form and
size. This affords another and striking instance of the irregularity
in the tooth development in the Pyenodont family to which I have
before referred. The second row on the right side (PI. IV. Fig. 2b)
has four teeth in order, the two next wanting, and the front one in
siti. On the left side (PI. IV. Fig. 2c) there are six teeth, all
regular. All the teeth in these rows are oval and arranged obliquely

1 Thiolliere is inclined to think that the so-called Vomer may be compounded of
three bones, the Vomer proper carrying the three median rows of teeth, and the

Palatine or Maxillary bones the outer or marginal rows.—Poissons Fossiles du Bugey,
p. 18.

Note on the Genus Anthrapalemon. 55

to the interspaces of the teeth in the median row. The outer row
on the right side (Pl. IV. Fig. 2d) has four teeth, one vacancy and
an anterior circular tooth, similar to the small circular tooth of the
median set. All the teeth on the left side are broken away except
the anterior one (PI. IV. Fig. 2 e) and a small irregular tooth, similar
though smaller than those in the median and right outer ranks.
These teeth are oval on their inner periphery, but truncated along
the maxillary border. All the teeth in this specimen which have
not been ground down by use have a shallow depression in the centre
of each tooth, over which the outer coat or layer of ganoine is spread
in minute folds radiating from the centre. This type of tooth, as I
have before explained, is easily distinguishable from the dentition of
Gyrodus.

As there is no instance on record of the occurrence of a Sheppey
Pycnodont with the upper and lower masticating apparatus so
associated as to render it probable that they were derived from the
same individual, it is impossible to determine whether the specimen
here described should be assigned to Pycnodus toliapicus or to
Pycnodus Bowerbanki, or to neither. The light thrown upon the
subject by the examination of other species in which the dentition
is accurately known, leads to the conclusion, that the median
vomerine teeth agree in general character with the large mandibular
teeth, but are more obtuse in outline. If this be so, this vomer is
more nearly related to Pycnodus toliapicus than to Pycnodus Bower-
banki ; at the same time in other respects it so far differs that I .
must hesitate to consider it as referable to that species. The most
striking character of this interesting relic is the extraordinary mo-
dification of the facial anatomy for affording power to work the
masticating apparatus, and suggests to me the provisional name of
Pycnodus pachyrhinus.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES III. AND IY.
Puate IIT. Fie. 1.—Celodus ellipticus, Kgerton. Right mandible.

M Fic. 2.—Pycnodus Bowerbanki, a Right mandible.
Puate LY. Fie. 1.—Pyenodus pachyrhinus, ne Vomer. Profile.
sf Fie. 2.—Pycnodus pachyrhinus, 45 Vomer. From below.

50 Fie. 3.—Celodus gyrodoides, 5 Vomer. From below.

II.—Norz on THE Genus AwrHrRapaLzuon (PALHOCARABUS) OF
SALTER, FROM THE COAL-MEASURES.

“Tue earliest known example of a fossil Macrourous Decapod
Crustacean was obtained by Prof. Prestwich from the Pennystone
Jronstone of the Coal-measures, Coalbrook-dale, Shropshire, and was
at that time referred by Prof. H. Milne-Edwards, who examined it, to
the PHyLLopopa under the name of Apus dubius (see Trans. Geol. Suc.
Lond., 1836, 2nd series, vol. v. p. 413). In 1844 some further re-
mains of this genus were noticed by W. Ick, Hsq., F.G.S. (see Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc. Lond., vol. i. p. 199). We are indebted to the late
Mr. J. W. Salter for the first correct account of these Crustacea in
1861, when he figured the almost entire form from a specimen in
the collection of Dr. William Grossart, obtained in the ‘slaty black-

56 Principal Dawson—On New Paleozoic Crustacea.

band’ 960 feet below the ‘Hll-coal’ at Goodhock Hill, Shotts,
Lanarkshire. For this form Mr. Salter proposed the genus Anthra-
palemon (a name which, as he observes, ‘has only a general signi-
fication, and is not intended to indicate a real relation to Palemon,’
to which genus it has not the least resemblance or affinity). He also
added the specific name of Grossartit.

“Mr. Salter also proposed for the Coalbrook-dale form (Apus
dubius of Milne-Edwards) the sub-generic appellation of Palo-
carabus. ‘This sub-genus was subsequently erected into a genus by
the same author, and a new species, described under the specific
appellation Aussellianus, was added.”

In a paper communicated to the Glasgow Geological Society,’ from
which the above is an extract, Mr. Woodward has pointed out that
the characters upon which Mr. Salter depended for his new genus and
species were based on an accidental displacement of the antennules
and antenne.

Mr. Woodward further concludes that there are no good grounds
for maintaining two genera on these Crustacean remains from the
Ironstone. The carapaces of A. Grossartii and P. Russellianus
agreeing in all particulars. As Anthrapalemon has two years’ priority
over Paleocarabus, Mr. Woodward suggests the retention of the
older name.

In their Paleontology of Illinois (1868, vol. iii. p. 554) Messrs.
Meek and Worthen have figured and described another example of
this type under the name of Anthrapalemon gracilis, which in many
respects closely agrees with the Scottish and English forms.

The subjoined note by Principal Dawson, F.R.S., on a new form of
Anthrapalemon from Nova Scotia, adds yet another locality to the
wide distribution of this Paleeozoic type.—Epir. Grou. Mac.

IIIl.—Notre on two Patmozoic Crustaceans From Nova Scorta.

By J. W. Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
Principal of M‘Gill’s College, Montreal, Canada.

Fig. 1.2 Anthrapalemon (Paleocarabus) Hilliana, n.s.

THE specimen referred to in the following
note is I believe the first example of a Ma-
crourous Crustacean from the Carboniferous
of Nova Scotia; and it is interesting to find,
as pointed out to me by Mr. Woodward, that
its affinities are so close with the long known
Paleocarabus dubius of Prestwich, and Anthra-
palemon of Salter, from the English and Scottish
Coal-measures. It was found by Mr. Albert
G. Hill, manager of the Cumberland Coal-mine,
at the South Joggins in Nova Scotia, in one of
the bands of black bituminous limestone which
occur in the middle part of the Coal Formation.

1 Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc. 1866, vol. ii. pp. 68-69, pl. iii. figs. 5-7.
2 Drawn by Mr. G. H. Emerton, and reproduced by ‘ Dallastint.’

Principal Dawson—On New Paleozoic Crustacea. 57

It is associated with shells of Naiadites carbonarius and N. elongatus
(Anthracomya of Salter) and with cara-
paces of Cythere and Bairdia.

The specimen is a flattened carapace,
without any of the other parts. Its
length, without the rostrum, is 0-9 inch.
The rostrum projects 0-25 inch. The
extreme breadth is 0°85 inch. The
surface is smooth at the sides, but pa-
pillose in the median portion. As com-
pared with the published figures and
descriptions of P. dubius, its distinctive
characters appear to be :—1. The shorter
rostrum and larger spines at the anterior
angles. 2. The reduction of the denta-
tions on the anterior part of the sides to
five in number. 38. The presence of two
strong spines in front of the cervical
groove at each side of the base of the
rostrum, and parallel to it, and rather
less than half-way between it and the
lateral margins. Whether the dorsal
ridge extended to the posterior margin
cannot be seen, as this part of the crust
is imperfect. In other respects it re-
sembles the British species, and may be
merely one of its varietal forms.

Fig. 2.1. Homalonotus Dawsoni, Hall.

This species was described by Prof. Hall in the Canadian
Naturalist in 1860, from specimens of the pygidium and portions of
the body segments, collected at Arisaig, in Nova Scotia. The
cephalic shield was afterwards found at the same place, and was
described and figured by Dr. Dawson, in “ Acadian Geology,” second
edition, 1868. The present specimen, showing the entire length of
the body, with the exception of a small part of the posterior
extremity, was found by Mr. D. Fraser, in the Upper Silurian slates
of the Hast River of Pictou, Nova Scotia.

The specimen is a cast of the inner surface of the crust, so that the
deep transverse furrows are not the margins of the segments, but
the impressions of their strong internal ridges. The ends of the
pleuree are bent down abruptly at right angles to the back, giving it
a very narrow appearance when viewed from above; but this may
be partly a result of distortion, in connexion with the slaty cleavage
which has affected the rock. Still, from the great width of the seg-
ments, the thorax is of great length, in comparison with the
cephalic shield and pygidium, and this seems to be one of the
distinctive characters of the species. The caudal shield, as described
by Prof. Hall, has, in all, nine annulations ; of which in this specimen

1 From a Photograph by Henderson, reproduced by ‘ Dallastint.’

Fic. 2.

08 J. R. Dakyns—A Question for Silurian Geologists.

two, as well as the smooth extremity of the shields, have been broken
oft. The impression of the external surface, seen on the matrix,
shows that the axis of the thoracic segments was marked with
scattered tubercles. The cephalic shield and pygidium appear to —
have been minutely granulate. On a portion of the latter these
granulations have a scaly form, as in some other species of the genus.
The ends of the pleura are broad and rounded. (See Fig. 2 a.)

The horizon of the fossil is the upper part of the Arisaig series of
Nova Scotia, equivalent to the Lower Helderberg of New York and
Pennsylvania, and to the Ludlow of England. The matrix of the
specimen contained Chonetes Nova-Scotica, Hall; IMegambonia can-
celluta, Hall; Avicula Honeymani, Hall; Beyrichia pustulosa, Hall ;
and other fossils characteristic of that horizon.

This fine species is evidently a close ally of H. Knightii of the
English Ludlow, though it differs considerably in details of structure.
According to Mr. Salter’s determination of some specimens from
Arisaig placed in his hands by Dr. Honeyman, H. Knightii is also
found at that place;+ but I have not met with any specimens of it.
The representative of this species in the Lower Helderberg of New
York is H. Vanuxemit of Hall.?

Both of these species serve to illustrate that distinctness of the
Atlantic border area of North America from the inland plateau of
the continent, on which I have elsewhere remarked. Both in the
Upper Silurian and Carboniferous, the rocks and fossils of Nova
Scotia can be more easily correlated with those of Great Britain
than with those of New York and Pennsylvania. So much did this
fact strike the late Mr. Salter that he even thought it possible
to correlate the fossils of the Arisaig section with those of indi-
vidual members of the English Upper Silurian.‘

IV.—Is THere A Bask To roe Carpontrerous Rocks 1n TEESDALE ?
A QUESTION FOR SILURIAN GEOLOGISTS.
By J. R. Daxyns, Esq.;
Of H. M. Geological Survey of England and Wales.

URING a recent excursion into Teesdale I paid a visit to certain
Mica trap-dykes discovered by my friend Mr. W. Gunn, and to

a section of the Carboniferous beds below the Whin Sill of Falcon
Clints, near Caldron Snout, which suggested the question whether
there is not a base to the Carboniferous beds in that part of Teesdale.
The section below the Whin Sill has, I believe, been described by
Sedgewick. Suffice it to say that the lowest bed there exposed at
the very foot of the crags, just above the alluvium of the Tees, is a
breccia that reminds one, who knows the beds, of the breccia so
often found at the base of the Carboniferous in Yorkshire. The
next section seen in going down the stream is at the old Pencil Mill,
on the banks of the Tees below Cronkley Scar. Here the beds,
which were once wrought for slate pencils, consist of hardened

1 Honeyman, Geol. Journal, vol. xx. 2 Paleontology of New York, vol. ii.
3 Acadian Geology and Story of the Earth. s Henman 1. ¢.

Rev. T. G. Bonney—The Lherzolite of the Ariége. 59

shale, apparently at a high dip, which the Carboniferous beds of the
neighbourhood are not, traversed by several dykes of mica trap.
These dykes are quite unlike anything else in the country; but
resemble similar dykes in the Kendal country, where they are never
known to pierce the Carboniferous beds, but are exclusively confined
to the Silurian rocks. The hardened shale traversed by these dykes
in Teesdale is not unlike Skiddaw slate, which also was once
similarly worked for slate pencils in Westmoreland ; but I cannot
assert, merely after a short visit on a stormy Sunday afternoon
in November, that the shale is not hardened Carboniferous shale,
hardened by the dykes: but the beds are as much like Skiddaw
slate as Carboniferous shale, perhaps more so; and this similarity,
together with the apparent high inclination, and the Silurian
character of the dykes, when taken along with the breccia at
the base of Falcon Clints, leads one to ask the question at the
head of this notice.

V.—Tue Leerzouite oF ARIEGE.
By the Rev. T. G. Bonney, M.A., F.G.S.;
Fellow and late Tutor of St. John’s College, Cambridge.

HE rock Lherzolite has been described by Prof. Zirkel in his
valuable Beitrige zur Geologischen Kentniss der Pyrenaen
(Zeitschrift der Deutsch. Geol. Gesel., vol. xix. p. 68), but is generally
passed over with the briefest mention or entirely omitted in English
works on Geology. Even in Cotta’s ‘Rocks Classified and Described”
it is barely neticed, and the word is left out in the index. On this
account, and seeing that, so far as I am aware, no descripticn of its
microscopic structure has yet been published, a notice, embodying
the results of Prof. Zirkel’s paper, and of a brief visit of my own to
this not very accessible locality, may be useful to students.

Lherzolite is a crystalline aggregate of the minerals olivine, en-
statite, and diopside, with some picotite, in texture varying from
finely to rather coarsely granular; that from the locality visited by
myself being, on the whole, of the former character. It obtains its
name from the Etang de Lherz, a small tarn in the Eastern Pyrenees
(Dept. Ariége), above Aulus, in the valley of the Garbet, 33 kil.
from St. Girons, and near the Col d’ Ercé (or Port de Lherz), an
easy pass (5341’) leading to Vicdessos in the valley of the Oriége.
The rock entirely surrounds the Htang, and is the largest of a linear |
series of seven exposures in the vicinity of Vicdessos.

The Htang de Lherz is a shallow tarn occupying apparently a true
rock-basin, the longer axis of which lies roughly N. and 8. The
water escapes from the northern end by soaking through some peaty
ground. On the western side is a tiny island. The tarn is sur-
rounded by reunded masses (probably once ice-worn) and fallen
blocks of the Lherzolite, which also rises from the western shore in
a craggy hill. A furlong or less from the eastern shore limestone
shows through the grass and stretches away in that direction, forming
the general mass of the country. The tarn is not in the line of the
main valley of the Garbet, but in a sort of open upland glen, a little

60 Rev. T. G. Bonney—The Lherzolite of the Ariége.

above the bed of the former. On the opposite side of this rises a bare
craggy limestone hill, capping the Lherzolite which forms its base.

The Lherzolite is tough and difficult to break, traversed by many
minute, rather irregular, divisional planes, with occasionally a slight
tendeney to a platy structure. Hence it is not easy to obtain good
specimens. The surface of a specimen from the heart of the rock
is rough, rather uneven and granular, at the first glance tolerably
uniform in colour and apparent composition, of a dark greenish-
grey or olive-green colour. A closer examination shows specks of
brighter green, generally of two colours, one (the more invariable)
an emerald green, the other a waxy-looking duller green; also specks
of a resinous pale-brown mineral, sometimes with a platy or fibrous
aspect and a dullish lustre ranging from silvery to brassy. Minute
grains of an irregularly disseminated black mineral, with a vitreous
lustre, are also just visible; and there is another of transparent glassy
aspect. The last is only broken olivine, to which the predominant
dull-coloured mineral belongs; the emerald green is the diopside;
the resinous mineral enstatite; and the black is picotite. The duller
green tint is serpentine. The separate minerals are more easily
detected in a coarser specimen, which I purchased from Pisani in
Paris in 1875, who obtained it from Sem, the easternmost locality
along this line of outbursts in the Department of Ariége.

The rock at the Etang de Lherz varies a little in texture, some,
especially, as it appeared to me, that towards the outside, being more
compact than the rest. When the rock is slightly decomposed the
dull green tint becomes more marked, and the compact varieties
begin to resemble serpentine. The exterior weathers from a bright
yellowish to a dark rusty-brown tint, with a rough surface. On this
the projecting pale amber-yellow grains of enstatite, and the bright
green grains of diopside, with the black picotite, may be readily
distinguished. Occasionally also a sort of linear structure is developed
on the surface in weathering; such as I have observed in some of
the Lizard serpentine; like this, it has some connexion with an
internal parallelism, but the exact nature of it is not yet quite clear
to me, though I think it will prove to be connected with a fluidal
structure. The brown weathered surface generally extends inwards
for about ‘1 to -2 inch; and the change from it to the green rock is
pretty sudden, a thin pale band usually intervening, in which the
enstatite, diopside and picotite are well distinguished. The rock is
traversed by numerous irregular joints, breaking it up into rude
polygonal blocks ; but now and then the outside of an old weathered
surface shows a more regular prismatic structure; occasionally also
there is a slight parallelism in its fissures. The more minute joints
are lined with a thin film of limonite or of a serpentinous mineral,
apparently a green steatite,—often in the latter ease so thin as to be
a mere glaze. Slickensides are not rare on the joint faces. The
general aspect of the weathered rock, the peculiar roughened surface
with its irregular fissures, the jointings and contours of the fallen
blocks, in shape like masses of broken curd, strongly reminded me
of the Lizard serpentine in Cornwall, with which I am very familiar.

Rev. T. G. Bonney—The Lherzolite of the Ariége. 61

Time did not allow me to cross the valley and examine the
junction with the limestone on the opposite side, where it was well
exposed for a considerable distance at the base of a sort of cliff; but
as far as I could see it was rather wavy and uneven, as if the Lherzo-
lite were intrusive. I followed the junction on the east side of the
pool for a considerable distance. Unfortunately the abundant herbage,
the number of scattered boulders, and the peculiar weathering of
the limestone, which forms deep fissures (like the karrenfelder of the
Alps), harbouring a rich vegetation, prevented me from obtaining a
single actual contact: but as the Lherzolite clearly appears here and
there to protrude in broad tongues into the limestone, and this is
highly crystalline (being quite white and saccharoidal) near the
junction, I have little doubt the rock is intrusive. That it is an
igneous rock I think no one who has examined it will dispute.
There are, however, I think, no proofs of eruption, though a breccia
of angular fragments of Lherzolite and limestone might seem at first
sight to be a volcanic agglomerate, and so even favour the idea of
contemporaneous volcanic action. According to Prof. Zirkel this
breccia occurs here (and here only) between the Lherzolite and the
limestone. I did not, however, observe it at this part of the junc-
tion, but found a dyke-like mass of brecciated Lherzolite on the
opposite side of the Etang. The numerous fallen biocks made
it difficult to examine this in sitd, but it appeared to be about three
or four yards wide, and to cut across the Lherzolite roughly from
E. to W. As far as I observed, however, this rock was com-
posed only of Lherzolite, and I fully believe it only to be a
friction breccia, and not at all of the nature of a volcanic agglome-
rate. The other masses of breccia which I examined were on the
grassy hill-side nearer to the Col d’ Ercé, not far from where
there is another small patch of Lherzolite on Prof. Zirkel’s
sketch-map. These, however, appeared to me to be in every case
erratics, and I could not see the rock in sitt on the hill above.
My time, however, was too limited to allow of a long search. These
blocks varied from a breccia of angular and subangular fragments of
Lherzolite, frequently more than three inches in diameter, imbedded
in a ferruginous paste which often appears to consist mainly of
minute fragments of Lherzolite, to an extremely pretty rock chiefly
composed of fragments of white marble, often from a half to one
inch diameter, imbedded in a speckly yellowish or greenish grey
matrix, with a slight ruddy tinge. In the time at my disposal I
collected four varieties of the breccia, forming a fairly complete
series. The first is exclusively made up of Lherzolite, and so
thoroughly compacted that (as in many ancient breccias) it is
often not easy to distinguish the fragments, except on a weathered
surface. The second consists mainly of Lherzolite fragments with
a very few small pieces of marble, but here and there there is an
appreciable proportion of minute calcareous fragments in the matrix.
In the third, the marble predominates, but the paste contains a large
quantity of comminuted Lherzolite; and in the fourth fragments of
marble abound, but those of Lherzolite are rare, though this rock

62 Rev. T. G. Bonney—The Lhersolite of the Ariége.

is represented to some extent, as in the last, in the paste. In this
(in the last two cases) one can readily distinguish bright green
fragments of diopside and rather numerous black grains of picotite,
apparently imbedded separately.

This mass of Lherzolite is the largest of the seven exposures in
the district, and according to Prof. Zirkel is about 1300 yards in
greatest length. Three other masses lie near it along the line of
the little glen of the Suc. The rest are near its junction with the
Oriége, one being on the opposite bank near the village of Sem.
All are in the Liassic rocks, and, except the last, are very near their
junction with the granite, which even here is at no great distance.
Tt is also more coarsely granular than the rock at the Etang, and the
breccia is wanting. Lherzolite also occurs near Portet d’Aspet, in
the upper Val longue (Castillon), and on the south side of the Col de
Lurdé, in the neighbourhood of Eaux Bonnes. The principal rock
here is a limestone with ophite, 7.e. greenstone, near it. I have not
seen any of these.

The rather compact condition of the rock, and the fact that the
olivine is in some specimens rather green, and the diopside a little dull
in colour, while the enstatite does not always exhibit its characteristic
structure, makes it often very hard to distinguish the component
minerals of the specimens from the Etang de Lherz. They are better
seen, however, on a polished surface, and can be separated, as
Zirkel suggests, by treating the pounded rock, first with hydro-
chloric acid, and then boiling it with caustic potass. In my
Pisani specimen from Sem, the minerals are much more easily dis-
tinguished, as is the case also, according to Zirkel, in his specimens from
this locality. The composition of the Pyrenean Lherzolite is according
to an old analysis (Zirkel, p. 140) :—Si0,—45-0, Al,O,=1:0, CaO=
19:5, MgO=16:0, FeOQ=12:0, CrO=0:5, with a trace of MnO
and loss=6:0. Lasaulx gives the analysis of a Lherzolite from
Norway (Elem. der Petrograph. p. 838) :—SiO,=87-42, Al,O,=
0:10, MgO=—48-22, FeO=8'88, MnO—0°17, NiO=—0-23, H,O,=:71.

The rock varies slightly in different parts around the Etang,
both in grain and in preservation. I collected specimens chiefly
from near the southern end, and about half-way down the west
side; the most serpentinous specimens coming from the former.
Mr. 8. Allport, to whom I gave a duplicate from Sem, kindly cut
me a beautiful slide from it, and I have had slides (six in all)
cut from three varieties collected by myself at the Etang. I will
refer to them as No. I. (from Sem [Pisani]), No. II. (specimen from
the west side), No. III. (specimen from the south end), No. IV.
(specimen showing a partial passage into serpentine). This speci-
men was cut close to a joint face where the change was greatest.

Microscopic Structure.-—In all cases the rock is normally com-
posed of olivine, enstatite, diopside, and picotite, with occasional
minute specks and microlithic aggregates of an opaque black mineral,
probably magnetite. Microliths of other minerals are rare. The
first three minerals all occur in variable shaped grains; those of
the olivine roundish; the diopside occasionally showing a slight

Rev. T. G. Bonney—The Lherzolite of the Ariége. 63

approach to a regular crystal outline; the enstatite usually irregular
and longish; the olivine appears to have crystallized the first, but
I think the difference has not been great. It generally forms about
2 of the whole mass of the rock. The picotite, from its shape, seems
to have crystallized last.

The olivine occurs in more or less rounded, transparent, colourless
grains, very irregular in size. Surface finely granular, something
like frosted glass. Colours with crossed Nicols often very beautiful,
commonest from a translucent greenish yellow to a yellowish green,
and from a bright to a purplish pink. Owing to the peculiar texture,
one of these tints often overspreads the other something like a shot
silk. The mineral shows the usual rather irregular cracks, indi-
cating its imperfect cleavage. These often cause, by imperfect
cohesion, colour bands, which are also common near the edges of
the grains. Not seldom we find in the olivine small vermicular
cavities arranged in slightly wavy bands. These appear to be
sometimes empty, sometimes filled with a brownish mineral, perhaps
iron peroxide. They lie in some cases in the planes of imperfect
cohesion, and then have often a dendritic character. There are
occasional clots of an opaque dust-like mineral, probably magnetite,
and thin fibrous brown films, strongly dichroic, which may either be
mere stains or minute plates of iron-glance. The last are often
associated with the picotite.

The enstatite is transparent, colourless in ordinary light, with a finely

granular or slightly silky texture. The cleavage parallel to wPoo
is generally well exhibited, though not so close as a rule as in

diallage ; a more interrupted cleavage parallel to oP is also some-
times fairly distinct, as in Rosenbusch, Mikroscop. Physiogr. Tab.
viii. 44. In cases where the specimens have a less characteristic
aspect, I have found the principal cleavage planes better exhibited
by rotating the microscope stage till the plane of the principal cleavage -
is nearly parallel to the plane of vibration of one of the crossed Nicols,
when, as the crystal approaches its darkest aspect, the fine cleavage
becomes more clearly visible. This method (proposed by Tschermak)
of distinguishing the orthorhombic enstatite from the monoclinic
diallage will be found very useful in examining Lherzolite. The
crystals show sometimes wavy bands crossing roughly at right
angles the lines of the principal cleavage, formed apparently by
minute elongated cavities and microliths. Colours with polarized
light pale yellowish or greyish to various blues.
The diopside is not generally in well-formed crystals; it is pellucid
in the thin slices, and sometimes still retains a faint tinge of green.
With polarized light, the colours are less diaphanous in aspect than
those of the olivine, rich yellowish-brown and puce tints being
common. The surface is rather variable, but generally moderately
rough-looking, with often a slightly “stepped” aspect. The
characteristic cleavage, as in augite, is commonly well developed.
The picotite occurs in very irregular grains or groups of grains, or
even -films, often looking as if a point armed with a sticky fluid
had been drawn for a short distance along the slice. Surface rather

64 Rev. T. G. Bonney—The Lherzolite of the Ariége.

rough-looking, something like that of augite. Colour a. translucent
rather deep olive green, occasionally slightly inclining to brown,
in No. IV. a rich umber brown. Rosenbusch (Mikroscop. Physiog.
p: 160) gives the colours of picotite as yellow to brown, transparent
to opaque; stating that Pleonaste differs from it in having green
tints. If this distinction be correct, the mineral in slides I., I., II.
must be Pleonaste. The grains are traversed by rather irregular
cracks, which occasionally indicate a rude cleavage. IV. is less
rich in picotite than the rest. As the mineral is isometric, it is of
course dark between crossed prisms.

Of the various slides, No. I. is the best for study of the rock, as
it is more coarsely crystalline, and shows little or no indication
of decomposition. No. II. shows the grains of the minerals a little
more rounded than No. I., and all are much cracked. ‘The olivine
appears to bear a rather smaller proportion to the other minerals
than in I., and the diopside shows a rather smoother texture.
The cracks in the olivine are often bordered on both sides by
a finely fibrous serpentine, the result of decomposition. It remains
bright. generally of a pale golden hue, between crossed prisms.
No. III. is in structure similar to IJ., but with more olivine; here
decomposition has advanced further, giving parts of the slide a
muddy look, probably due to faint stains of peroxide of iron; the
serpentine strings are often abundant enough to form a kind of net-
work in the olivine, and one considerable crack across the slide
is filled by a feebly double refracting serpentinous mineral. There is
a sort of parallel structure perceptible in the direction of the
principal cracks, marking a parallelism in the axes of the crystals,
and the same is to a slight extent perceptible in the arrangement
of the minerals.

No. IV. gives indications of a structure similar to III., but the
change here is much more considerable. A network of serpen-
tinous strings covers almost the whole slide, in many cases invading
the other minerals; the cracks of which are usually free from
serpentine in IJ. and III. In parts the strings seem to coalesce, so
as to convert appreciable portions of the slide into serpentine.
Here it is interesting to note that clots of opaque dust, doubtless
oxides of iron, resulting from the separation of the constituents of
the olivine, appear among the strings just as we see them, for
example, in the Lizard serpentines.

These slides therefore exhibit to us, and this is the most interest-
ing aspect of the rock, the commencement of the formation of
serpentine. In certain serpentines—as, for example, those of Elba,
and, as I have recently discovered, of the Lizard—and in some of
the olivine bearing gabbros, we can trace the process from specimens
from which all the olivine has disappeared, and the alteration into
serpentine is complete, to those in which a considerable amount of
unchanged olivine is still to be detected. We have thus a further
confirmation of the idea, now becoming not unfamiliar to geologists,
that much serpentine is an altered olivine rock.

Prof. J. Miine—On the Flotation of Icebergs. 65

VI.—ConsIDERATIONS ON THE FLOTATION OF ICEBERGS.

By Professor Joun Mine, F.G.S.,
Of the Imperial College of Engineering, Jeddo, Japan.

We all our text-books of Geology, the action of floating Ice is

referred to as an agent of great power in producing physical
changes. Its two chief forms are those of Coast Ice ‘and Icebergs.
Much has been written about the latter of these, but about the
former very little. In the Gronocican Macazine, July, 1876, in an
article on Ice and Ice-work in Newfoundland, I endeavoured to show
that the greater agent of the two was Coast Ice, a view which has
been subsequently strengthened by observations on the Coast of
Finland. In this paper I had occasion to refer to the laxity with
which the conditions under which Icebergs float have been spoken
about. Thus, in Jukes and Geikie’s Text-Book of Geology, p. 416,
we are told that because ‘‘ about eight times more ice of an iceberg
is below water than above,” therefore “(a mass which rises 800 feet
above the waves has its bottom 2400 below them.”

As no regard is paid to what the relative shape of ice above water
is to that below, might it not be well to add, in order to render the
harmlessness of the doctrine more evident, that the mere fact of
planting a Union Jack upon the summit of the berg would cause an
addition to its depth equal to eight times the height of the pole ?

If this were only done, Icebergs might be talked about as grounding
in very deep water, where they could “ tear up the softer deposits of
the sea-bed,” and “rub down and groove the harder rocks” to an
unlimited extent. This grounding in deep water I endeavoured to
show to be, in the generality of cases, untenable, excepting, perhaps,
in the case of bergs immediately in the vicinity of their origin, where
they more or less approximate to parallelopipeds in their form. In
doing this, J also showed that in consequence of the degrading action
which takes place, more especially between wind and water, it would
seem that bergs as they travel towards low latitudes must be looked
upon as a form more like a peak which stands upon a sunken
pedestal or foot, rather than as descending perpendicularly into the
water. In such a case it is evident that no great depth could be
obtained.

However, to take as favourable a view as possible of ice reaching
down to abyssal depths, I will again assume a case which I took
before (GEoLocicaAL Magazine, July, 1876, p. 807), where we must
imagine the portion of the berg beneath the water to be a general
continuation of that above.

Such a figure I showed might be regarded as approximately equal
to a cone or many-sided pyramid. In such a case I have shown
mathematically that the depth of ice below water is approximately
equal to the height which is exposed above, the slight difference which
may exist depending on the ratio we take as existing between the
specific gravity of ice and sea-water,—a conclusion from which I
do not see the slightest reason to alter.

This being the case, it consequently follows that if it is accepted

DECADE II.—VOL. IV.—NO. II. a)

66 Prof, J. Milne—On the Flotation of Icebergs.

that bergs exist at all approximating to that of a pinnacle standing
upon a base, the depth to which they may extend below the surface of
the water is less than the height we see above, and therefore in many
cases, when we see a berg 300 feet above the water, we may with
much reason assume that its depth beneath the surface of the water
is less than 300 feet.

The case which I have considered is one which appears to be
applicable to many icebergs, and, I think, to the generality of them.

It now remains to see how far such views may be carried, and
also, for the sake of illustration, to consider the possible conditions
under which some other forms of ice may be regarded as existing.

In the paper where the conclusion just referred to was arrived
at, a cone approximating to a berg of ice was drawn as floating with
its base downwards. The Rev. O. Fisher (Guon. Mag., 1876, p. 379)
has, however, raised the question of the stable equilibrium of such
a cone, which he thinks would not remain in the position as figured,
but must turn over. Whether this would or would not be the case
with the cone in question, I am not prepared to answer. The figure
is only drawn to illustrate the calculation to which it is appended.
As a practical illustration, to strengthen these views and to show that
the cone of ice which I have taken will not float with its base
downwards, Mr. Fisher takes a tetrahedron out of a set of models
of crystals, and placing it in water finds that it floats with one of its
angles downwards.

This I consider to be an unfair comparison, which no doubt has
led many casual readers to the belief that a cone will also float with
its apex downwards, and perhaps, in consequence, that my con-
clusions, being founded on false assumption, must also of necessity
be false. Lest readers should be led into misconceptions of this
sort, it may be well to consider how cones of ice would float.

First, if we take a slab of ice and place it upon water, we know
that it will float horizontally. On the middle of this slab we might
raise a small pinnacle of ice, and the mass would still keep horizontal.
We might next increase this pinnacle round its sides without increas-
ing its height until we reached the edges of our slab, and still we
may imagine the block we have built up keeping its horizontal
position. We should here have a figure approximating to the
probable shape of an iceberg which has travelled into latitudes like
those of Newfoundland,—a pinnacle supported on a foot or pedestal.
Such a form approximates to a cone, and such a cone I believe would
float, and does float with its base downwards, or in other words,
from a consideration of this sort, it is evident to us that there are
certain obtuse cones which would float with their apex upwards.
Secondly, on the other hand, if I make a very acute or tall cone, it
would never for a moment be expected to float vertically with its
base downwards more than a tall stick of ice would be expected to
retain such a position. Such a cone would, according to ordinary
expectation and according to all probability, fall on its side and float
more or less horizontally. It is also equally certain that such a
cone would not float with its apex downwards, as Mr. Fisher’s ex-
periment might lead one to think.

Prof. J. Milne—On the Flotation of Icebergs. 67

Being thus convinced, from our own sense of reason, that there
are cones of ice which can float with their base downwards, and
also that there are others which can float with their base upwards,
the question then is to define these cones.

1. Adopting from Thomson and Tait, Natural Philosophy, § 767,
that where V is the volume of a body immersed in a fluid, A the
area of its plane of flotation, & the radius of gyration of that plane,
and h the height or distance between the centre of gravity of the
floating body and that of the displaced fluid, for stable equilibrium
we must have

AR>Vh ;
We shall find for a cone of ice to float with its vertex downwards
im sea-water, the radius of the base of the cone must be greater than
196 times its height, —or, roughly, the diameter of the base cannot be
less than two-fifths of the height.

2. Again adopting the same method for a cone of ice floating in sea-
water with its base downwards and horizontal, we shall find that the
radius of the cone must be greater than 1:05 times its height,—
or roughly the diameter of the base cannot be less than twice the height.

Norr.—Case I.! Moment of Inertia of a circular lamina about a

diameter="}-, but this =A?
Ries rR?
e eA? wy a
27.2 aRt e mea ° pas
or TR = 7 eas ka

Let 7 be the radius of the base of the cone and a its height. Also let
the density of the floating cone compared with the liquid be p, then—
AC:BC=1:p° is

.’.radius of plane of flotation is rp*

Col

rp

.. radius of gyration k =~5- (1)
The Area of the plane of flotation i
A= Trp 8 (2)

Let G be the centre of Gravity of the Cone and E that of the dis-
placed water,

GC= and EC=; ap*

“GE or h=~ (1—p*) (3)
V the immersed volume=the volume of the Ice Cone multiplied by
por 5" p (4)
Now substituting in A/?> VA 4
mrp re> pe (1—p*)
or 7r> av Basing

3

Pp
1 See Woodcut, Fig. 1, p. 69.

68 Prof. J. Milne—On the Flotation of Icebergs.

Now if the specific gravity of ice = 1:028 and that of sea-water -918,
then p for sea-water and ice = °893
whence r > a ‘196

Cask II.1—As in Case I. let r=the radius of the base of the cone,
a=the height of the cone, and p as before.

Volume of Cone ACM:vol. of BON::1:1—p .. AC: BC=

:Vi—p

saa of plane of Aotaton r (1p)? and & the radius of

a of plane of flotation =~ =(—p)* (1)
(2)

The distance between G and E which are as before, or h= (Go)

2
3

Area A of plane of flotation=7r?(1—p)

_—
a (IV 1—p) 3 (3)
V the volume of displaced water= 7 (4)

Now substituting in A /?>VA
2 72 2 1 3B 3 / ager
nr(1—p)?q (1p)? >mr’p-s* (— —1)* a (1—V 1p)

orr>aV— ;—1
(1—p)°
or r>a 1:05

Approximations to these two limiting cones are represented in
the woodcuts given on page 69. Fig. 1 represents a cone of ice
floating with its apex downward, which is unstable, and in sea-
water might fall on its side, whilst one less acute Zang float in this
position. Any cone, when thus floating, has about 25 of its whole
depth above water. If such cones existed in meares it is evident
that they must be much more obtuse in form in order to withstand
in such a position the shocks of waves and winds to which they
would be subjected.

Fig. 2 represents a cone of ice floating with its apex upwards,
and its base horizontal. Any cone which is more obtuse than this,
when floating in sea-water, is stable. In this case 47, or, as before
stated, nearly one-half of the height of the cone, is above water.

To test these results I had several small cones made out of
Japanese boxwood (8.G. about °839), which was the most suitable
wood for the purpose which I could obtain. ‘The diameter of the base
of these cones was in all cases 2in., whilst their height, which was
variable, was made above and below the limits as given by calcula-
tion where the specific gravity of the wood I was using took the
place of the specific gravity of ice. These cones, when placed
in water, behaved in a manner similar to the way I have stated that
cones of ice will act.

1 See Woodcut, Fig. 2, on opposite page (p. 69).

Prof. J. Milne—On the Flotation of Icebergs. 69

We have herethe solution to two theoretical cases of supposed bodies
of ice floating in sea-
water, which I think _water_cever
will considerably aid us ==
in forming some idea as
to the depth to which
icebergs extend beneath
the surface of the water,
—the practical solution
of which problem is sur-
rounded with so much
difficulty. The results
are obtained from two
regular solids, but yet it
is evident that they can
be roughly appliedto any
solids which approxim-
ate to such forms. Now
from Case I.,where cones
floatingapex downwards
are considered, it is
evidently possible for
floating ice to have a
depth below the surface
of the water in com- Cc
parison to that which is Fie. 1:
above immensely greater than has generally been believed. But
the question now is, have forms approximating to such inverted
cones any existence in nature? All that I can say to the contrary
is by appealing to the results of observation and to the consequences
of degradation upon a block of ice after leaving its parent the
glacier,—both of which, as pointed out before (Gzox. Mac. 1876,
p- 806), appear unfavourable to such views.

Cc

N waver Lever

A | M
Fie. 2.

I might also add, as another argument against the probability of
ice extending to abyssal depths, that pressure tends to liquefy ice,
or, in other words, to lower the freezing-point of water, and ice
at great depths is under great pressure. For example, ice at the

70 Prof. J. Miine—On the Flotation of Icebergs.

depth of 2400 feet would be under a pressure of about 73 atmo-
spheres. Although this lowering of temperature, which can be
easily calculated, is very small, it must nevertheless have some
influence in the destruction of masses of ice should they extend to
considerable depths, more especially so when we consider that the
action is not merely a surface one, but one that extends throughout
the mass.

The more probable form in which the generality of icebergs
exist are those which have their limit represented by Case IL.,
where we have a series of stable forms, more or less conical in their
shape. Here the depth below the surface of the water never
exceeds the height which is above, but is probably always less.

Of course many other forms of ice also approximating to regular
solids might be supposed, in which the ratio of the depth of ice
below water to that which is above would be greater than that
of the inverted cone, and which would be less than that of the
upright cone. Thus, for instance, such a solid as would be described
by an equilateral hyperbola, revolving round one of its asymptotes,
might be taken as pointing downwards or upwards. In the former
case the ratio of the depth below the surface of the water to the
height which is above might be infinitely greater than in the case of
the inverted cone of ice, and in the latter case or pointing upwards
the ratio of the depth below the surface of the water to the height
which is above infinitely less than in the case of the upright cone.

To obtain the greatest height of ice above the surface of the
water relatively to that which is below we must imagine a sheet of
ice, from the upper surface of which a needle or pencil extends
vertically upwards. The same figure reversed would give us the
greatest depth to which ice could descend below the surface of the
water. Such a case is however purely theoretical. In cubes which
are in stable equilibrium with a face upwards, and in parallelopipeds
which are in stable equilibrium with one of their largest faces
upwards, the depth of ice below the surface of the water would be .
about eight times the height which is exposed above.

Combinations of regular solids might also be considered. Thus
two cones might be supposed placed base to base, and floating one
with its apex upwards and the other with its apex downwards.

First—let the volume of the lower cone V, whose height is H, be
eight times the volume of the small cone v, whose height is h.

In this case we have

Nee 2 Jal == Bp
v h 1
or the depth below the surface of the water is eight times the
height which is above.

Secondly—let the upper or smaller cone be less than 4 the
volume of the lower one, then the depth below water will be
greater than eight times the height above.

Thirdly—let the upper or smaller cone be greater than 4 the
volume of the lower one, then the depth below water will be less
than eight times the height which is above.

Staff-Comr. H. Hosken, R.N.—Notes on Coral Reefs. 71

Continuing in this way, a number of cases might be considered
which would show us that in some cases the depth of ice below the
surface of the water is eight times that which is above, in some
cases less than eight times, and in other cases greater than eight
times.

What now remains to be done is to take the case which seems to
be, for the generality of icebergs, the most probable one. This
I believe to be the case where we have a pinnacle standing on a foot
or pedestal, or in the limiting case a cone floating with its apex
upwards. In this case the height above the surface of the water will
be generally greater than the depth which is below. Until future
observations show this view to be a wrong one, I think I shall
be justified in keeping to the above result.

VII.—Norers on Corat REEFS.

By Srarr-CommanpER Henry Hosxen, R.N., H.M.S. Pearl.
[Communicated by R. H. Scott, F.R.S., Director of the Meteorological Office. ]

HAVE to thank you for your kind letter of the 24th of December,
1875 ; it affords me great satisfaction to hear that my remarks
about the New Hebrides’ have interested you.

Thinking that my observations on the soundings that T obtained
off the east end of Vanikoro Island, Santa Cruz Group, might be
useful, I propose to forward a copy of them, together with tracings,
with the next Log that I shall complete and send into office; the
originals were forwarded to the Hydrographical Department on the
3lst December, 1875. A new edition of the Chart No. 986 with
corrections has since been issued.

The chief interest of this discovery is not so much in its hydro-
graphical importance, as in its connexion with the probable alteration
of the geological formation of these reefs, or else, allowing that they
existed at the time of the Survey, it shows that this “ Barrier Reef”’
is not so different from the general rule as was at first supposed,
when the Chart showed a gap of eight miles in the reef.

Before our arrival at Vanikoro Island, Commodore Goodenough
and I had been remarking on the peculiarity of the apparent cessation
of the “ Barrier Reef” on the weather side of that island.

The Pearl was taken into the anchorage of Ocili Harbour, Tevai
Bay, under sail, a strong Trade was blowing; when nearly abreast
Dillon Head, and steering in on the course recommended, a shoal
‘spot, upon which the sea occasionally broke heavily, was seen; this
was only cleared by about a ship’s length; particulars are given in
copy of remarks. The patch appeared to consist of live coral.

Whilst the Pearl was steaming out, several soundings were
obtained, and much discoloured water seen over shoal-looking
ground, the description of which is given in Remarks, and the
position shown in the tracings already alluded to.

It had been Commodore Goodenough’s intention to have taken
the Pearl inside the “Barrier Reef,” but eventually it was considered .

1 See Grou. Mac. 1876, Decade II. Vol. III. p. 82.

72 J. R. Dakyns—High-level Terraces in Norway.

advisable to round the island outside it, whilst he, with some of the
officers, went in the boats and visited the villages on the south and
west coasts. This was the last friendly reception that the late
Commodore had from the natives, for it was on the following day
that he received his death wound at Santa Cruz.

It is fortunate that the Pearl was not piloted inside the “ Barrier
Reef,” for the lagoon space was reported (on the return of the boats)
to be full of patches of growing coral, which rendered the passages
too intricate for a vessel of her size. You will gather from my
remarks, that I consider these sunken shoals to be a continuation of
the “ Barrier Reef.” The following questions therefore arise: have
these shoals grown up since the survey in 1828 by Capt. Dumont
d’Urville? or did they exist at that time, and were by some mis-
chance not discovered? The survey, in other respects, appears to
be such a good one that I am loath to believe that the latter is
the case.

Mr. Darwin, in his second edition, revised, of the “Structure
and Distribution of Coral Reefs,” pp. 64, 167, and 216, mentions
this ‘Barrier Reef,” and that the level of the islands has been
affected by earthquakes; also Prot. Dana, in his English edition of
“Corals and Coral Islands,” p. 307, refers to the same thing.

With respect to the coral patch off Dillon Head, had it existed at
the time of the Survey, it could not well have been overlooked, for
it was distinctly visible (with an occasional heavy break over it
during our stay) from the anchorage. Another reason for believing
that alterations have taken place in the harbour, is found in the names
that were given to the other two shoals, leading one to imagine that
they would be difficult to be made out, whereas they appear always
to have a break upon them, and can be plainly seen; the terms
“Deceitful” and “ Treacherous” would scarcely have been applied to
these most apparent dangers had they in the year 1828 been in their
present state.

On the west or lee side of Vanikoro Island there were several
large stones of coral rock, well above the water, lying on the “Barrier
Reef,” which were not shown upon the chart.

Contrary to what one generally finds with respect to these reefs,
the highest part is to leeward and the sunken position to windward.

Tapoua Island, which lies 20 miles N.W. from Vanikoro, has a
“Barrier Reef,” but Santa Cruz, which is 40 miles further to the
N.W., has not any; a fringing reef borders portions of the coast,
but it is not continuous.

VIII.—Hieu-Levet Terraces tn Norway.
By J. R. Daxyns, Esq. ;

Of H. M. Geological Survey of England and Wales.
i the summer of 1872 I visited Norway, and wrote the following
brief notice of certain high-level terraces immediately on my
return to England, but kept it back that I might first consult some
papers on Norwegian terraces that had appeared in the closing
numbers of “Scientific Opinion”; these I was not able to meet

J. R. Dakyns—High-level Terraces in Norway. 73

with for so long a time that I gave up the idea of sending my notice
to the press. JI am now induced to do so, because I see that the
subject of the parallel roads of Glenroy still occupies the attention
of geologists, and it may induce some one next summer to examine
minutely the Dovre terraces and sand-heaps and their relation to the
physical geography of the district. I was merely able to make a
flying visit to them, which I delayed my party to do, because they
caught my eye so forcibly, as we were driving along the valley.

The papers in “Scientific Opinion,” which I have since seen, do
not deal with high-level terraces such as those above Dovre.

It is well-known that Norway has risen above the sea-level to the
extent of 500 or 600! feet within comparatively recent times. This
is known from two kinds of evidence, that of marine shells, and that
of raised beaches, terraces, and sea-marks. Marine shells of recent
species have heen found at a height of 470 feet (? Norwegian) ac-
cording to Kjerulf.2 As to the other kind of evidence, it is to be
met with universally. At the head of every fjord a series of terraces
of sand and gravel is to be seen, sometimes more, sometimes less
numerous, lining the side of the dales, and corresponding with
distinct lines of old wave-action, which can be traced for miles
running along the mountain-sides above the sea. These terraces
were clearly formed in the same manner as the present delta of sand
and gravel, which is now forming at the head of every fjord, and
which another rise of the land would convert into a similar terrace.

Such terraces are more or less numerous according to the
accidents of denudation; each separate terrace marking at least one
step and pause in the elevation of the land. I made this year
(1872) various barometric observations of the height of the best-
marked of these terraces. There is one at Soholt, on the Stor Fjord,
about 180 feet above the sea-level; one at Hellesylt, on the same
fjord, 270 feet above the sea-level,—this is a very well marked one.
A large and well-marked terrace at Odde, on the Hardanger Fjord,
is between 200 and 3800 feet high. At Sogndal the highest flat is
460 feet above the sea, but no section of sand or gravel was to be
seen, the solid rock showing at the surface. The highest terrace of
sand and gravel is 374 feet above the sea. Above this level the
solid rock shows, though the level step at 460 feet looks like an
old sea-margin.

The above heights of course are mere rough approximations; but
there is no doubt that the terraces in fjords show an elevation of
about 400 feet, and that corresponding sea-margins can be traced
outside the limits of the dales above the sea itself.

The Norwegian geologists do not admit a greater elevation of the
country than to the extent of 500 or 600- feet, because they have
not found any marine shells above that height. In the year 1869
I noticed several well-marked sea-margins on the Norwegian coast
in the neighbourhood of Tromsce, and my impression is that the

1 Sir C. Lyell says 700, ‘‘ Principles,’ 11th ed. p. 133.

2 Kjerulf says in his ‘‘Jagttagelser over den Postpliocene eller glaciale formation,

Universitats-program for férste halvaar,” that marine shells have been found up to
470 feet above the sea-level.

74 J. R. Dakyns—High-level Terraces in Norway.

highest of these is more than 500 feet above the sea (but a lands-
man is a bad judge of heights and distances across water). This
year (1872) I found sands and gravels, apparently precisely similar
to the lower terraces, at Haugen, on the watershed as you cross
from the Stor Fjord to the Nord Fjord, at the height of 1100 feet
above the sea. This sand I judged by the eye to reach as high as
1200 feet; and my impression is that it was merely a part of a
terrace stretching for a great distance along the hill-side well over
the watershed.

But the best instance I know of high-level terraces, similar in all
respects (except the all-important one of position) to those acknow-
ledged marine ones at the heads of fjords, is in the Gudbrandsdal
and on the watershed between that dale and the Romsdal. The
traveller going north ascends between Laurgaard and Broendhaugen
by a rocky defile to a rolling plateau covered with sand-hills
arranged in irregular mounds. Just before reaching Dovre on this
plateau, the road crosses a bridge, where a stream from the west
joins the main river. This stream issues from a narrow glen, by
which a road leads to Vaage, and the mouth of this glen, just where it
opens out upon the main valley, is occupied by terraces of sand and
gravel precisely similar to those at the heads of fjords; and the top
of these terraces coincides with a distinct mark, which runs hori-
zontally along the hill-side as far as the eye can reach, till it is lost
to sight round the gable end at the descent above Laurgaard. This
mark might, were the beds flat, be taken for an escarpment; but
it is nothing of the sort. The beds are highly inclined, and the mark
runs horizontally along the solid rock for miles across the bedding.’
On the opposite, or east side of the valley, is a corresponding
feature, apparently at the same height above the stream. Dovre is
marked on the pocket map of the “Reise Ruter i Norge” as 1500
feet above the sea; and it is not much higher than the bridge.
The top of the terrace is by aneroid between 400 and 500 feet
above the bridge. This would make it about 2000 feet above
the sea. Judging by the eye, it reaches very nearly, if not quite, as
high as Dombaas,? which is given on the map as 2100 feet above
the sea. This horizontal water-margin can be traced along the
west side of the valley at least as far north as Holset, where a large
valley coming in from the west shows sand-terraces. The main
valley is very flat all the way from Holset to Lesjiverk and
Molmen, between which places is the lake flowing both ways, and
therefore on the very watershed. The terrace and its accompanying
water-mark are therefore up to the level of the watershed, if they
are not actually higher. This is a point which can only be settled
by a proper examination of the ground: and a very important point
it is, for it makes all the difference between the terrace being due to
marine action and to the waters of an ice-dammed lake. If the top

' The Norwegian Geological Map marks the beds as striking directly across the
main valley, but no amount of dip is given.

* For any one wishing to make an extended examination of the country, Dombaas
would be very good head-quarters. There is an excellent inn there. ;

® From this point I have departed from the text of my original manuscript in
order to indicate the two possible solutions that appear open to us.

Notices of Memoirs—Prof. Hébert—Folds of the Chalk. 75

of the terrace is above the summit level of the pass, it will be
difficult to avoid the conclusion that it is an old sea-margin. At the
time I first saw the water-mark and terrace, I had no hesitation
about ascribing them to the sea; but on returning to England,
I found that the Norwegian geologists do not admit so great a
depression. I cannot see that the mere absence of shells is an
insuperable objection to the beds in question being marine; for
surely the climate might have been unfavourable to the existence of
shell-fish.

If, on the other hand, the said terrace is on a level with the water-
shed (and there is certainly no great difference between them), one
is irresistibly led to think of the similar case of the parallel roads of
Glenroy, and to speculate on this terrace too having been due to the
waters of a gigantic Marjelen See, dammed back by ice till it over-
flowed the summit of the pass at Molmen; and it is significant that
I could see no trace of terrace or water-mark on the Romsdal side
of the pass.

But the above is not all. There is in the same district a second
horizontal mark on the solid rock, several hundred feet higher than
the 2000 one. This, too, appears to correspond with sand-terraces in
the recesses of the high glens; but I was not able to visit it, and can
form no more than a guess as to its height ; it probably is as high as
the plateau of the Dovre Fell,—that is, more than 3100 feet above the
sea. This plateau I know to be covered with large gravel mounds
between Dombaas and Folkstuen. Here, again, it is striking, that
the water-mark should seem to correspond with the level of a water-
shed. But it is useless to speculate, and would be absurd to offer
an opinion on the subject without examining the ground. J will
merely say, that only one of two conclusions seems open to us;
either the terraces and water-marks are old sea-margins, or else they
are the margins of huge ice-dammed lakes.

The fells rising above the high-level terraces and water-marks are
rounded, and of a general moutonnéed look. This general glaciation
of the high fells must have taken place either before or simultaneously
with the deposition of the terraces, as any subsequent ice-sheet would
inevitably have swept them clean way.

The Norwegian Geological Map represents the valley, above and
below Dovyre, for the distance of forty-one kilometres, as occupied by
alluvial and post-glacial sand; but whether this is intended to include
the high-level terraces as well as the sand-heaps in the valley
bottom I do not know, but presumably it is.

IN| Qabat@esHtS) (usp) GaMraaaMcOunisyS.

J.—OnDULATIONS DE LA CralE pans LE Norp pe LA FRANCE—
Deux Systemes DE Pirs,—Ace pr ozs Pris. Par M. Hisert.
(Annales des Science Géologiques, tom. vii. No. 2, Paris, 1876.)

N a paper read before the Société Géologique de la France, in
June, 1875, M. Hebert described a series of nearly parallel

76 Notices of Memoirs—Prof. Hébert—Folds of the Chatk.

folds in the Chalk of Northern France, running in a general direction
from §.E. to N.W. These folds, five in number, he distinguished as
the axes of Perche, the Seine, Bray, Bresle, and Artois." These are
crossed almost at right angles by a second set, also nearly parallel,
whose general direction is consequently about S.W.—N.H. To
describe this second series, and to advance some general views on the
probable age of the folds in both, is M. Hébert’s object in the paper
under consideration.

The first fold of this second series starts at Rouen, and runs in a
straight line through Aumale to Pecquigny, whence it is prolonged
in a N.E. direction, passing a little to the south of Arras towards
Douai and Tournay.

The second brings the Glauconitic Chalk to the surface at Pres-
sagny l’Orgueilleux and La Madeleine, near Vernon, and passes in
its north-east extension close to Breteuil (Oise), cutting the axis of
Bray a little to the south of Ville-en-Bray. If prolonged in a south-
west direction, it would pass between Hvreux and Conches by the
important fault which has determined the outcrop of the Glauconitic
Chalk in the valley of the Iton.

The third fold runs along near the shores of the Channel. Start-
ing from Pétreval, near Fécamp, it extends with a curve, or bend, to
Dieppe, where it is probably represented by the fault described in a
previous paper.? At both Fécamp and Dieppe the beds dip at a
higher angle on the N.W. than on the §.E. side. Supposing it to
continue in the same direction on leaving Dieppe, it would then pass
through Beaurainville, north-west of Hesdin, intersect the axis of
Artois at Fruges, and terminate at Dennebroeucg, where the
Devonian beds crop up.

The presence of these several folds leads the author to conclude,
in opposition to several eminent English geologists, that one, if not
more such folds exist in the bed of the Channel, which will offer
serious obstacles to the construction of a tunnel in the Chalk as
proposed. That such undulations do exist there, he considers to
have been conclusively proved by the soundings conducted by
MM. Potier and De Lapparent. One of these (the fourth of this
series) would be nearer to the English than the French shore, but
parallel to the Sandgatte coast, and consequently to the other three.

The fifth and last of the series is also the southernmost. Com-
mencing at Ferté-Bernard, it stretches in a N.H. direction, past
Beynes to Compiegne, and is exactly parallel to that between Vernon
and Breteuil.

Respecting the ages of the folds of both the 8.E.-N.W. and 8.W.-
N.E. series, M. Hébert comes to the following conclusions :—

1. The first, or oldest, is the synclinal fold, in which the Wealden

1 The correspondence of some of these axes with others on this side of the Channel
had already been pointed out by M. Ch. Barrois in a communication read before the
same Society in March, 1875. Thus the axis of Artois is probably represented by
that of Kingselere; the axis of Bresle by that of Winchester; and the axis of
Bray by that of the Isles of Wight and Purbeck.

* Bull. Soc. Géol. de France, 2° série, tom. xxix. p. 586, and ibid. 8° série, tom.
lii. p. 526,

Dr. J. W. Dawson—Carboniferous Batrachia. OU

beds were deposited; in age between the Jurassic and Cretaceous
periods; and belonging to the 8S. W.-N.E. series.

2. The second, also synclinal, is the depression of the Somme; in
age, between the Wealden and Neocomian; belonging to the S.H.-
N.W. series.

3. The third, also §.H.-N.W., is the first indication of the
elevation of the Boulonnais and the Weald, and took place between
the Gault and Glauconitic Chalk periods.

4. The fourth is the S.W.-N.H. anticlinal ridge from Ferté-
Bernard to Brunelles.

5. The three S.H.-N.W. folds of the Perche hills follow next,
posterior to the Chalk with Inoceramus labiatus, anterior probably to
that with Terebratella Bourgeoisii, but at all events of Turonian age.

6. The above-named crumplings doubtless acted on other parts of
the basin besides those named, but it was especially after the
deposition of the Chalk with Jfecraster cor-anguinum and before that
of the Chalk with Belemnitella, that the S.E.-N.W. elevations of the
Seine, of Bray, Bresle, and Artois were clearly defined.

7. The 8.W.-N.E. fold of Pressagny-lOrgueilleux to Breteuil, also
anterior to the Chalk with Belemnitella, was coincident with an
upheaval of N.W. France, and the formation in the north-east, in
Flanders, of a channel, apparently the only one, connecting the Paris
Basin with the North Sea.

8. Finally, between the periods of the Chalk with Belemnitella
mucronata, and the Pisolitic Chalk, an increase of elevation took
place in the 8.W.-N.E. axes of Bray and the Seine.

The lateral pressures which have caused these two systems of
folds seem generally to have acted alternately, and so far from having
formed them at once, appear to have acted through successive epochs.
The 8. W.-N.E. system showed itself first ; but as far as the actual con-
figuration of the ground is concerned, the S.H.-N.W. series exercised
the more considerable influence, inasmuch as its action was prolonged
to the close of the Tertiary deposits of the Paris Basin, destroying or
at least obliterating the effects of the perpendicular folding.

IL—On a Recent Discovery oF CarBONIFEROUS BATRACHIANS IN
Nova Scorra. By J. W. Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S. (American
Journal of Science and Arts, vol. xii., Dec. 1876.)

HE erect Sigillariz inclosed in the sandstone overlying coal-

group 15 of Section XV. Division 4, of the South Joggins
section, have already furnished Principal Dawson with numerous
remains of the reptilia of the Coal Period. The contents of another
of these hollow stems have recently been investigated by him with
great success.

Thirteen skeletons, representing six species, were brought to light,
besides several Millipedes and shells of Pupa vetusta. These
remains enable Prof. Dawson to give fuller descriptions than hitherto
of the genera Hylerpeton, Dendrerpeton, and Hylonomus, and to add
two new species to the first-named genus, viz.—Hylerpeton longi-
dentatus, and H. curtidentatus.

78 Reviews—Heer’s Primeval World of Switzerland.

RAVI ws.
pede Wai
Tue Primmvat Wortp or Swirzertanp: with 500 Iilustrations.
By Professor Oswatp Herr, of the University of Zurich. Edited
by James Hrywoop, M.A., F.R.S. (Translated by W. S. Daunas,
F.L.S., Assistant Secretary Geol. Soc. Lond.) Illustrated by a
coloured Geological Map of Switzerland ; 7 tinted page-size plates
of scenery; and 11 Plates of Fossils. 2 vols. 8vo. pp. 716.
(London, Longmans, Green & Co., 1876.)
ee physical features of Switzerland have long been nearly as
familiar to a large portion of our countrymen as the hills and
valleys of their native land. Each mountain peak, each pass and
glacier, has been visited and graphically described.’

Elijah Walton has painted for us the rosy-tinted Matterhorn, the
pale Mont Blanc, and the blushing Jungfrau kissed by the first rays
of the rising sun.

Forbes, Ball, Tyndall, Wills, Whymper, and numerous leading
members of our Alpine Club have scaled its peaks and studied its
glaciers, and probably nearly as many papers on the geology of the
Swiss Alps have been written by English as by Swiss geologists.
Foremost in the ranks of the latter stands the author of the present
work, Dr. Oswald Heer, of Zurich. Already well known abroad as the
author of many valuable works on Fossil Botany and Entomology,’
he has given us the benefit of his services here also in the examination
and determination of the plant-remains from the series of lignites and
clays of Bovey Tracey, Devonshire,’ and from the Norfolk Forest-.
bed ; whilst to him also we are indebted for that wonderful chapter
in Fossil Botany revealed by the Plant-beds of Greenland and
Spitzbergen, whose treasures have been brought back by Nordenskidéld
and others, and placed in Dr. Oswald Heer’s hands for description.

Under the title of ‘“Urwelt der Schweiz,” the present work ap-
peared at Zurich in 1865, and a French edition, in 1872, was
published at Basle and Geneva.

Perhaps the most attractive feature of the work before us is a
series of eight tinted plates, giving ideal views of Swiss land and
sea in the Carboniferous, Keuper, Lias, Jura, the Miocene, Quatern-
ary and Glacial Periods.

If we ventured to criticize these restorations, we would take excep-
tion to the foliage of Lepidodendron in the Carboniferous Period .
being represented as pendulous, like the Weeping-willow. From an
examination of numerous remains from the Coal-measures, we are
satisfied that the leaves and cones were borne erect, not depending.
We think the same criticism applies to the ‘ Asterophyllites’ foliage of
the Calamites, which would not, we venture to suggest, have bent

1 See the Alpine Guides by John Ball, F.R.S., late President of the Alpine Club,
London, Longmans & Co., in 10 parts at 2s. 6d. each, with excellent maps and
panoramas.

2 On the Tertiary Flora of Switzerland. On the Vegetation and Climate of the
Tertiary Period. On the Tertiary Insects of Giningen and Radoboj.

8 The Lignite Formation of Bovey Tracey, by W. Pengelly, F.R.S., and Dr.
Oswald Heer, of Zurich, Phil. Trans., 18638.

Reviews—Heer’s Primeval World of Switzerland. 79

downwards, but have turned upwards also. The dear old Stigmaria,
without a Sigillaria stem, is growing in the water, as in the early days
of geological inquiry.

In order to account for a Carboniferous fauna and flora in high
northern latitudes, Dr. Heer advocates the theory that at that time
the preponderant heat on the earth was not that of the sun. It is,
however, a generally-received doctrine among geologists and physicists
at the present day, that the influence of the earth’s internal heat had
ceased to affect the climate of the globe long before either its crust,
its waters, or its atmosphere had become sufficiently modified to
admit of their becoming the abodes of living organisms. Any appeal,
therefore, to the internal heat of the earth in explanation of abundant
animal and plant life in high Arctic regions, either in Paleozoic or
Neozoic times, must be deemed unsatisfactory at the present day ; and
the key to the solution of the problem must be sought either in a
change in the inclination of the earth’s axis, an increase of the sun’s
heat. or probably in a combination of these causes together with a
complete change in the relative distribution of land and sea in both
hemispheres. Prof. Heer seems to regard the absence of light
during the long Arctic winter as unimportant, provided the heat
was only maintained well above freezing-point. Hven the insects
of the Coal Period he believes to have been chiefly nocturnal. But
there were many diurnal insects present in the Coal Period besides
the nocturnal Termites and Cock-roaches.'

The accompanying figure is (together with others), by the courtesy
of Mr. Heywood, reproduced from Prof. Heer’s work.

Fic. 1. Blatta helvetica, Heer, Coal-measures, Erbignon.
a. Wing of the natural size. b. The entire insect (restored by Heer).

1 See Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1876, vol. xxxii. pp. 60-64, pl. ix.; and Gzor.
Maa. 1876, Decade II. Vol. III. pp. 519-520.

80 Reviews—Heer’s Primeval World of Switzerland.

Prof. Heer describes and figures many of those beautiful Carboni-
ferous plant-remains coated as it were with silver or gold, met with
in the Valais and higher up in the Col de Balme. These plants have
also been found at the Col d’Anterne above Chamouni, and were
examined in 1856, by Mr. Alfred Wills, whose collection is pre-
served in the British Museum. One remarkable feature to be seen
at the village of Petit Coeur, near Moutiers in the Tarentaise (due to
the inversion of the Carboniferous strata), was noticed by Elie de
Beaumont in the ‘Annales des Sciences Naturelles’ so long ago as
1828.1 Here we find Belemnites in Secondary rocks beneath shales
of undoubted Carboniferous age.?

From the formation of Coal, Prof. Heer proceeds to speak of that
most nearly analogous accumulation of vegetable fuel—Peat, which
we may observe going on at the present day over such extensive
tracts in the colder temperate regions of the earth, and from which,
in Denmark, Ireland, Switzerland, and some parts of England also,
such interesting relics of prehistoric man have been obtained.

Unfortunately for Switzerland. her industrious and patriotic people
enjoy but a very small share of that valuable Coal-formation so widely
distributed through England, Belgium, and the United States. Con-
sequently peat and wood fuel are carefully collected and stored, and
for coal its industries depend upon the basins of Saarbriick and St.-
Etienne and asmaller quantity from the Vosges (Bonchamp), ana from
the Ruhr district in Westphalia. The rate of growth of peat is no doubt
subject to considerable climatal variations, being readily influenced
both by the temperature and moisture of the atmosphere. Prof.
Heer says that—“ Under moderately favourable circumstances, 1 foot
of peat may be produced in a century. In the form of coal this
would make a layer of 0°33 line, or about drd of a line. To produce
a bed of coal 44 feet in thickness, such as occurs in England, a
period of nearly 20,000 years would therefore be necessary. If we
take the increase at 3 lines annually, 10,000 years would be required,
or with 4 times the increase, only 5,000 years.”

Even under the most favourable conditions for rapid increase,
however, the period of time involved in the annual growth, decay
and accumulation of vegetation and its conversion into coal, must
necessarily have been immense. In South Wales, for instance, the
total thickness of the Coal-measures has been reckoned at from
10,000 to 12,000 feet. Estimating the increase of sediment at 2 feet
in a century, and admitting, with Mr. C. Maclaren, that it might take
1000 years to form a bed of coal 1 yard in thickness, Prof. Hull has
calculated that the deposits forming the South Wales Coal-field
might have been accumulated in 640,000 years !*

1 See also Sir C. F. Bunbury’s paper on Fossil Plants from the Anthracite
Formation of the Alps of Savoy, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Lond., 1849, vol. v.
p. 150.

2 See Prof. Favre’s Geological Researches in the Vicinity of Mont Blane in Savoy,
Piedmont, and Switzerland, vol. iii. p. 337, etc.

3 See “The Geology of England and Wales,’ by Horace B. Woodward, F.G.S.,
1876, p. 93.

Reviews—Heer’s Primeval World of Switzerland. 81

“Jn Switzerland no fossil remains of the Permian period have
been preserved, although some of the Swiss rock-masses probably
belong to this epoch.” The Muschelkalk, with its salt-deposits, is
met with on the left bank of the Rhine extending from Ryburg
(near Rheinfelden) to Basle. Borings at Schweizerhall, between
Basle and Augst, revealed a deposit of rock-salt 30 feet thick at
a depth of 420 feet. At Rheinfelden it is probably 60 feet in
thickness.

At Salzburg and Berchtesgaden the salt is mined dry by means of
numerous horizontal workings ; but at Rheinfelden, Schweizerhall,
Augst and Ryburg the wet method is adopted. Water is conducted
through the salt and is then pumped out and evaporated; in this
way about 590,000 cwt. of salt are produced annually. Salt works
also exist at Bex in the Canton de Vaud.

Good figures of the characteristic fossils of the Muschelkalk, e.g.
Ceratites nodosus, Nautilus bidorsatus, Encrinus liliiformis, Pemphix
Sueurti, etc., are given. This is the case with each formation described
throughout this work.

In the Keuper of Basle, we meet with those gigantic Horse-tails
(Hquisetum arenaceum), which for size might fairly rival some of the
Calamites of the Coal Period. A very effective coloured plate,
illustrative of the Flora of the Keuper period, with its Tree-ferns,
Voltzias, and Equisetacee, deserves to be specially noticed.

From the Keuper Period of Basle we pass to the Liassic formation
of Schambelen in the Canton Aargau, and here, as also in the suc-
ceeding Jurassic Period, Prof. Heer unfolds before us the rich
treasures of the sea with its Ammonites, its Pentacrinites, its Star-
fishes and shells, its Shrimps and Lobsters and fishes with
enamelled scales.

The Lias is rich in fossil forms, but the Jura is even richer still;
for besides abundance of marine organisms, we have a most
interesting revelation of the contemporary terrestrial fauna and
flora preserved to us. The Swiss in his inland valley is far from
the shores of the ocean of to-day, yet he resides in a vast marine
bay left dry by the retiring waters; and the rocky walls around him
were once great Coral-reefs, within whose shelter lived and died
Fishes and Mollusca, Echinoderms and Crustacea without number,
and upon whose dry and higher island summits once grew the
Zamia and the Palm-tree, whilst, fearless of aldermen, the Turtles
and the Lizards laid their eggs or rested peacefully upon its beaches.

If then it be a pleasure to wander along the sea-coast, gathering
the productions of the sea left at our feet “by the retiring tide, how
great must be our interest and surprise as we wander among the
Swiss mountains to gather the relics of the fauna of the sea-shores
of a primeval world!

But the geologist can do more than this; for without dredge or
diver’s aid he can study each zone of life in this ancient sea from its
shore-line with Patellas and Purpuras, Neritas and Mytili, down to
the 100-fathom line, each depth marked by its special residents, its

DECADE II.—YVOL. IV.—NO. II. 6

82 Reviews—Heer’s Primeval World of Switzerland.

Bivalves and Gasteropods, its Corals, Sponges, Sea-urchins, and
Pentacrinites, down, down to the Globigerina ooze.

An interesting feature of the work is the introduction of a series
of maps giving in outline the probable relations of sea and land in
Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Miocene times in Central Europe.

Ziverjuo =

Fic. 2. Central Europe in the Jurassic Period. The continents are white; the
shaded parts represent the sea. (Fig. 97, p. 168, Heer.)

Undoubtedly the most wonderful record of the life-history of the
Jurassic Period has been preserved to us in those remarkable quarries
in the Lithographic Stone of Hichstadt, Pappenheim and Solenhofen,
near Munich in Bavaria.

Here comparatively thin-bedded limestones are exposed, which
have evidently resulted from a long-continued supply of extremely
fine and homogeneous mud derived from the disintegration of ad-
jacent land by some great river system bringing down vast quanti-
ties of wasted Magnesian and more recent Rheetic limestones, whose
commingled sediments, especially in their thinner and probably more
shoal-water depositions, reveal to us the near presence of land teem-
ing with life, as attested by large Dragon-flies, Beetles, Hemipterous
insects, long and short-tailed Pterodactyls and Land-lizards, and that
remarkable bird the Archzopteryx.1_ Numerous Conifere are evidenced
by detached branches and remains of cones, some of which have
been described by Prof. Dyer in the pages of this Macazinu.? These,
with abundance of Fishes, Crustacea, and Mollusca, make up a mar-
vellously rich record of Upper Jurassic life; and the geologist who

1 Preserved in the British Museum, and described by Prof. Owen in the Phil.
Trans. 1868, p. 33, pl. 1.

2 See paper on some Coniferous Remains from the Lithographic Stone of
Solenhofen, by Prof. W. T. Thiselton Dyer, B.A., B.Sc., F.L.S., Gzou. Mae. 1872,
Vol. 1X. pp. 150, 193, Pl. V., ete.

Reviews—Heer’s Primeval World of Switzerland. 83

would understand the Jura Period thoroughly should pay these
classical quarries a visit on his journey to or from Munich, where, in
the National Museum, he will find a magnificent collection of the
type specimens of von Meyev’s, Schlotheim’s, Oppel’s, Zittel’s, and
many other celebrated paleontologists’ figures and descriptions of
Lithographic limestone fossils.

“ During the succeeding Cretaceous Period, a great part of Switzer-
land was dry land, the sea covering chiefly the low ground from the
Lake of Constance to the Lake of Geneva; its northern coast ran
nearly in the direction of Schaffhausen by Aarau and Soleure to
Bienne, and thence extended further westward, quitting the limits of

See ="
cH

LYSOL = Aalog: dag,
orankfort

oCarlsruhe

=
Solon ease

Fic. 3. Central Europe during the Cretaceous Period. The white portions represent
continents ; and the shaded parts are seas. (lig. 98, p. 175, Heer.)

Switzerland. The sea no doubt covered these districts, where
strips of marine Cretaceous deposits are frequently met with, which
were formerly connected together. The southern shore of the
Swiss Cretaceous sea is shown generally by a line drawn from
the Lake of Wallenstadt to Altdorf, the Lake of Brienz and Bex;
but there are numerous and deep inlets bringing the sea into the
interior of the Alps, as in the Canton of the Grisons, where the
Calanda and part of the chain of the Kalfeusen are formed of Creta-
ceous rocks.” (p. 176.)

Passing from the Cretaceous formation to the Tertiary Period, we
have in the Hocene slate-quarries of Matt, in the Canton Glaris, the
most important Swiss locality for the remains of fossil fishes. Dry
land was at no great distance, as evidenced by the fossil remains of
two species of birds found at Matt. These beds must have under-
gone great pressure, as they closely resemble the Cambrian slates of
Bangor in their general appearance, though of a much darker hue ;
they are also largely quarried for the same economic purposes as our

84 Reviews—Heer’s Primeval World of Switzerland.

Paleozoic slates. A fine series of fish remains from these beds may
be seen in the Geological Collection of the British Museum.

No fewer than fifty-three species of fish have been identified and
described, together with two Sea-turtles and two Birds. We subjoin
a figure of one of the turtles.

Fia. 4. Fia. 5.

Fic. 4. Chelone ovata, Heer, from Matt, one-third nat. size. (Fig. 141, p. 248, Heer.)
Fic. 5. Chelone imbricata, living Hawk’s-bill Turtle. (Fig. 142, p. 248, Heer.)

The birds (Protornis Blumeri, Heer, and P. glaronensis, Meyer)
were about the size of Larks, and appear to have belonged to the
family of Finches.

The Glaris slate-rock is the oldest of these Swiss Tertiary deposits,
and, like the beds of Monte Bolca, is of Middle Eocene age. Above
it is the Nummulitic formation of Ralligstécke, and the newest, the
shales of Mauremont, Soleure, and Obergiésgen, containing remains
of no fewer than twenty-five genera of terrestrial Mammalia, together
with twelve Reptilia represented by Cheloniz, Ophidia, and Crocodilia.

Nearly one-fifth of the area of Switzerland (about 152 square
geographical miles), comprising the lowland, undulating country
between the Jura and the Alps, is covered by masses of marls and
sandstones, which have received the general name of ‘ Molasse,”
and include all the formations of Middle Tertiary or Miocene age in
this area. These deposits are of great thickness, and rise on the
borders of the Alps into considerable mountains, such as the Speer
(6021 feet) and the Righi (5541 feet). To the south the ‘ Molasse’
is stopped by the zone of ‘ Flysch’ and the Nummulitic deposits ; it
touches the Cretaceous rocks only in a few localities. To the north

Reviews—Heer’s Primeval World of Switzerland. 85

it is bounded by the Jura, and by the heights of the Cretaceous
rocks belonging to that chain.

a

Se

SS —
Brassels. =S3

Fig. 5. Central Europe in the Middle Miocene Period (the Helvetian stage). The
continents are white; and the shaded parts represent the sea. (Fig. 104,
_ p. 296, Heer.)

The following are the divisions recognized by Prof. Heer :—

Upper Freshwater Molasse.
eee v. Upper Brown Coal-formation.
° Gningian Stage.

Marine Molasse.
Mippte j)IV. Helvetian Stage.
Miocene. Subalpine Molasse.
Shell Sandstone.
if Lower Freshwater Molasse.
| III. Grey Molasse Stage.
Gare II. Lower Brown Coal-formation.
Maaees Aquitanian Stage.
; Red Molasse.
Marine Molasse.

LI. Tongrian Stage.

“Switzerland takes the lead of all countries in its abundant
deposits of Miocene plants. There are about eighty places in
Switzerland where Miocene plants have been collected.” Of these
Monod has yielded 193 species ; Locle, 140 species; Hohe-Rhonen,
142 species; and Ciningen, 465 species; 920 species of Miocene
plants are known to Heer from various Swiss localities.

There can be little doubt that forests covered Switzerland in the
Miocene Period probably similar in character to those which clothe
the valleys of the Orinoco and the Amazon in South America at the
present day.

Cupressinee and Abietinee are the two chief Coniferous families
which during this period composed so large a proportion of the
forest flora all over Hurope.

86 Reviews—Heer’s Primeval World of Switzerland.

——Fie. 6.—{ -—-—————F ie. 7.———_—— Fie. 8.

Fic. 6. Glyptostrobus europeus, Br. sp. (Eningen. a. Branch with a mature cone;
6. twig with male flowers; ¢. twig with divergent leaves; d. twig with
adpressed leaves.—Fic. 7. Taxodium distichum miocenum. a. From Hohe-
Rhonen; 4. male flowers from Bilin——Fic. 8. Widdringtonia Helvetica,
Heer, from Hohe-Rhonen. a. Branch; 6. closed cone; c. cone open; a.
open cone with seeds. (Heer, Figs. 155, 156, and 158, p. 324.)

The genus Sequoia had a wide distribution in Tertiary times from
Central Italy and Greece up to the Arctic zone.

Sequoia Langsdorfi is
found fossil on the Mac-
kenzie River, in Green-
land, in Kamtschatka, in
Alaska, and also in many
European localities. This
form is closely related to
the redwood (Sequoia sem-
pervirens) which forms
great forests at the present
day in the coast-range of
California, throwing up Fic. 9. Sequoia Langsdorfi. a. cone from
stems 250 feet high. The Rixhdft; 4. longitudinal section with seed; c.
Mammoth-tree (Sequoia gi- transverse section ; & seed; e. female flowers.
gantea) is found only in the From Greenland, 70° N. lat. (Heer, Fig. 158s,
higher Sierra, and is much ?° say
more limited in its range than the other species, and is probably
dying out, other and smaller Coniferee apparently far out-numbering
it upon its own ground.’ It attains a height of 300-320 feet, and
a diameter of 20-30 feet. Remains of this genus are found in the

' See the admirable Address by Prof. Asa Gray to the American Association at
Dubuque, Iowa, in Silliman’s American Journal, 1872, 3rd series, vol. iv. p. 282.

Reviews—Heer’s Primeval World of Switzerland. 87

Brown-coal of Bonn and in the Miocene Lignites of Bovey Tracey,
and its ancestry has been traced back as far as the Cretaceous Period.

At least twelve species of Palms have been met with in Swiss
Miocene deposits.

(os

\

Fic. 10. Palms, ete. of Switzerland, restored from their leaves. 1. Sabal major,
Ung. sp. 2. Phenicites spectabilis, Ung. 3. Flabellaria Ruminiana, Heer. 4.
Manicaria formosa, Heer. 5. Lastrea stiriaca, Ung.sp. 6. Phragmites Einingensis,
A. Br. 7. Cyperus vetustus, Heer. (Fig. 164, p. 335, Heer.)

Bearing in mind that only a single species of palm, the dwarf
Fan-palm, Chamerops humilis, Linn., is now found in Europe, we
may conclude that a more warm and equable climate was enjoyed
over all this region of the earth.

“This higher temperature of the Swiss Miocene land may be in
part explained by the form of Europe at that time. A different
distribution of land and water is seen in the map of Central Europe
at this period (see Fig. 5). The eastern sea, which extended into
Switzerland, must have exerted a warming influence, as it was
connected with the Indian Ocean through the Red Sea, and perhaps
also through the Persian Gulf. From this tropical sea, a current of
warm water, like the existing Gulf-stream in the Atlantic. flowed
towards the northern seas, exerting a powerful influence upon the
temperature of the surrounding lands by means of the broad arms of
the sea, which penetrated into the heart of Europe.” (vol. ii. p. 263.)

88 Reviews—Heer’s Primeval World of Switzerland.

Like the plant-life, Insects were most abundant at @iningen, about
876 species having been described. Fishes of freshwater species
were also plentiful, together with gigantic Salamanders, Frogs,
Toads, Lizards, Crocodiles, Serpents, and Tortoises, in all 27 species ;
and six species of Birds ; whilst of Mammalia 59 species are known,
3 genera only of which now occur in Switzerland (Cervus, Sus, and
Sciurus). The Gibbons now live in India; the Opossums (Didelphys)
in South America; the Rhinoceros and Musk-deer in India and
Africa; the Tapirs in India and 8. America. Space does not permit
us to complete this interesting historical sketch of Middle Hurope
down to the present day. A long lapse of centuries follows filled
up by the Quaternary Period with its more sombre forests of Pines,
Birch, Oak, and Sycamore, its herds of wild Elephants, its Rhino-
ceroses and Buffalos.

Fic. 11.

Fic. 11. Elephas primigenius, Blum. (3 nat. size.) Last lower molar. From the
railway cutting at Liittingen, near Hauenstein on the Rhine. ;
Fig. 12. Elephas antiquus, Fale. Last lower molar. From Dirnten. (4 nat. size.)

They tell of a period when the climate became colder, and when
the Alpine chain, undenuded by atmospheric agencies, raised its
summits to a far higher level than at the present day, and con-
sequently its snow-fields were far larger, and its glaciers far longer,
and the latter were therefore able to advance further into the Swiss
valleys and piled up upon the Diirnten lignites moraines of formid-
able size. Similar deposits are also to be seen at Utznach.

Reports and Proceedings. 89

With this piling up of the drift over these last records a period
was reached when Man appeared on the scene. Then came the Pile-
builders, and constructed their villages in the Swiss lakes, the history
of which has been so admirably told for us by Keller, and trans-
lated by Mr. J. EH. Lee, F.S.A. But of all this, and of the Glacial
Period in the Swiss valleys when the Alpine flora and fauna came
down the mountain sides into the sheltered valleys, and ice and snow
increased greatly, let those who desire to know more, read Prof.
Heer’s interesting volumes.

To the lover of Switzerland an additional charm will be added to
each fresh visit by this insight into its ancient history teeming
with matter of interest alike for the paleontological and geological
student. EVE

Ea Oates) AN sD) >aROC SED LAGS -
ea

Grotocicat Socrrry or Lonpon.—I.—December 20th, 1876.—
Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.B., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The President read to the Meeting a copy of resolutions passed at
the Meeting of the Council of the Royal Society held on December 7th,
relative to the administration of the Government Fund of £4000,
voted for the advancement of Scientific Research. He stated that
the Secretaries of the Royal Society were prepared to receive applica-
tions for a portion of the sum so liberally voted by Government for
the advancement of science, and added that the Council of the
Geological Society would be glad to receive any hints or suggestions
bearing upon the disposal of this fund.

The President also announced that the late Dr. Barlow, whose loss
must be deplored by all the Fellows of the Society, had left to the
Society by will the sum of £500, to be invested and to constitute a
Fund under the title of the “ Jameson-Barlow Fund,” the proceeds
to be applied annually, or at intervals of two or more years, at the '
discretion of the Council, in such manner as shall seem to them best
for the advancement of the study of Geology. Dr. Barlow also left
to the Society, under certain restrictions, his Collections of geological
specimens, and a selection of books from his Library.

The President further announced the donation to the Society by the
Karl of Enniskillen of the drawings made by Mr. Dinkel, from Sir
Philip de Malpas Grey-Egerton’s collection, for the illustration of Prof.
Agassiz’s great work on Fossil Fishes, presented in accordance with
the promise made by his Lordship at ‘the meeting of the 24th May.

The following communications were read :—

1. On “ Pharetrospongia Strahani, a fossil Holorhaphidote Sponge
a Cambridge Coprolite Bed.” By W. J. Sollas, Esq., B.A.,

The sponge described by the author, which had been long labelled
as a Chenendopora in the Woodwardian Museum at Cambridge, is a
fossilized siliceous sponge, characterized by an irregularly reticulate
fibrous skeleton, the fibres of which in the living state were com-
posed of a number of siliceous acerate spicules, lying parallel to each

90 Reports and Proceedings—

other and to the sides of the fibre. These spicules are still suffi-
ciently well preserved to be figured and measured individually,
though they have undergone a pseudomorphic change,” by which
their original composition has been exchanged for a calcareous one.
A similar replacement has occurred in the case of various species of
Manon and Porospongia ; and this fact is of great interest, as showing
that the extinct and anomalous order of Calcispongiz, which these
fossils were supposed to indicate, has no necessary existence, since
their calcareous nature is a superimposed one, and their original
structure agrees completely with that of existing siliceous forms.
Pharetrospongia Sirahani itself exhibits close affinities to an un-
described sponge now living in the Australian seas.

2. “On the remains of a large Crustacean, probably indicative of
a new species of Hurypterus, or allied genus (Hurypterus ? Stevensont)
from the Lower Carboniferous series (Cement-stone group) of Ber-
wickshire.” By Robert Etheridge, jun., Esq., F.G.S., Paleontologist
to the Geological Survey of Scotland.

The fragmentary Crustacean remains described in this paper are
referred by the author to a large species of Hurypterus. ‘They are
from a rather lower horizon in the Lower Carboniferous than that
from which EFurypterus Scouleri, Hibbert, was obtained. The animal
was probably twice the size of #. Scoulert. The remains consist of
large scale-like markings and marginal spines which once covered
the surface and bordered the head and the hinder edges of the body-
segments of a gigantic Crustacean, agreeing in general characters
with the same parts in #. Scouleri, but differing in points of detail.
For the species, supposing it to be distinct, the author proposes the
name of EH. Stevensont.

Mr. H. Woopwarp remarked that the remains of Hurypteri from the Carboni-
ferous rocks are so distinct from the Upper Silurian Ewrypteri of America, Shrop-
shire, Lanarkshire, and Russia, as probably to entitle them to be placed in a distinet
genus ; and, indeed, at some future day, when more remains are obtained, they may
perhaps have to be arranged among the Arachnida, along with many curious
fragments which have been called Arthropleura, discovered by Mr. M‘Murtrie in
the Radstock Coal-field, by Mr. Jordan in the Saarbriick Coal-basin, and by Mr.
Gibbs in the Manchester Coal-field. Hurypterus Scouleri occurs at Kirton with
Sphenopteris Hibberti in a remarkable siliceous deposit, probably thrown down by an
old thermal spring in the Carboniferous period.

Prof. Ramsay remarked that the rock from which the fossils were derived seemed
to him to be pretty nearly the equivalent of the Burdie-House Limestone, which he
had long ago thought might be to a considerable extent formed by calcareous deposits

from thermal waters, probably during a period of great volcanic activity. This
would be in favour of Mr. Woodward’s opinion.

3. “On the Silurian Grits near Corwen, North Wales.” By
Prof. T. McKenny Hughes, M.A., F.G.S.

The author commenced with a description of sections near
Corwen, in North Wales, from which he made out that the grits
close to Corwen were not the Denbigh grits, but a lower variable
series, passing in places into conglomerate and sandstone with
subordinate limestone and shale. This series, under the name of
‘The Corwen Beds,’ he described in detail, having traced them round
the hills 8. of Corwen, also near Bryngorlan, 8. of the Vale of
Clwyd, on Cyrnybrain, and §. of Llangollen. He had noticed in

Geological Society of London. 91

places a kind of double cleavage affecting the lower series, but not
the upper, and also fragments of cleaved mudstone included in the
upper, from which he inferred a disturbance of the older rocks
previous to the deposition of the newer. He exhibited a selection of
fossils, and said that immediately below the Corwen beds there were
none but Bala fossils. In the Corwen beds all the few fossils found
were common to the Llandovery rocks, some of them, as Jeristella
crassa and Petraia crenulata, being peculiar to that formation. In
the flaggy slates above the Pale Slates he had found Graptolites and
Orthoceratites of the same species as those found in the Denbigh
Flags. He considered that the Corwen Beds were on the horizon of
the May Hill or- Llandovery group, and should be taken as the
base of the Silurian, thus including in the Pale Slates or Tarannon
Shale a thick series which intervened between the Corwen Beds and
the flaggy slates of Penyglog.

4, “On Mineral Veins.” By W, Morgan, Esq. Communicated
by Warington W. Smyth, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S.

The author maintained that no one theory can be accepted in
explanation of the formation of mineral veins; and that whilst in
some cases their formation may be due to the presence of pre-existent
fissures induced by shifting of the containing rock, in others any
such explanation is insufficient, as he thought the means by which
the sides of such fissures were kept apart could not be easily indicated.
The point upon which he especially insisted in connexion with this
question was the presence of ‘‘ horses” in many mineral veins. He
advocated the view that the walls of veins were in close proximity
in their earliest stage, and that the enlargement and infilling of the
veins took place simultaneously by the segregation of materials derived
from the adjacent rock, supplemented, perhaps. by a tension or
tendency to separation caused by slow contraction of the latter.
Instead of a fissure he assumed the presence of an irregular surface
of least resistance or of electrical action, at which the vein matter
might collect at first as a mere film. In this way, he thought, the
vein might increase and its walls might recede simply by the aggre-
gation of the vein-matter itself, and in general in proportion to the
degree of mineral saturation of the adjacent rocks.

JI.—January 10th, 1877.—Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.B., F.R.S.,
President, in the Chair.—The following communications were read :—

1. “On Gigantic Land-Tortoises and a small Freshwater Species
from the Ossiferous Caverns of Malta, together with a List of the Fossil
Fauna, and a Note on Chelonian Remains from the Rock-cavities of
Gibraltar.” By A. Leith Adams, Esq., M.B., F.RB.S., F.G.8., Pro-
fessor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin.

The author described three extinct species of Tortoises from the
Maltese rock-cavities, one of which was of gigantic proportions, and
equalled in size any of the living or extinct land Chelonians from
the Indian or Pacific islands. The characteristic peculiarity in the
two larger species is a greater robustness of the long bones as com-
pared with the denizens of the Mascarene and Galapagos islands,

92 Reports and Proceedings—

with which he had been enabled to contrast them. The largest, on
that account, he had named T. robusta; it rivalled the gigantic
Testudo ephippium, Giinther, in size, showing affinities to it in a
few minor characters. A smaller species, T. Spratti?, and a small
Lutremys, not distinguishable, as far as the few remains extend, from
the recent L. europea, besides many fragments of shields of tortoises
of various dimensions, had been obtained. These Chelonians were
found in conjunction with the remains of the dwarf Elephants and
other members of the remarkable fauna, collected by Admiral Spratt
and the author in the ossiferous rock-cavities of Zebbug, Mnaidra,
Benghisa, etc. The paper contained a list of the animal remains
hitherto recorded from the Maltese fissure caverns, including three
species of dwarf Elephants, two species of Hippopotamus, two
gigantic species of Myoxus, a gigantic Swan, and other animal re-
mains; and further, a Note on some Chelonian remains from the
rock fissures of Gibraltar.

2. “On the Corallian Rocks of England.” By the Rev. J. F.
Blake, M.A., F.G.S., and W. H. Hudleston, Esq., M.A., F.G-S.

The object of the paper was to describe the rock masses existing
betwixt the Oxford and Kimmeridge Clays. Topographically the
Corallian region is divided into five districts of very unequal size,
wholly separated from each other. The special features of each dis-
trict were detailed, both as regards the development, composition,
and fauna of the several subformations therein contained, and these.
latter compared with their equivalents or representatives in the other
districts. The old names were, as far as possible, retained; but,
where obviously inapplicable, local names replaced them.

In the Weymouth district (I.) one section discloses 230 feet of beds
between the Oxford and Kimmeridge Clays, made up in ascending
order of grits, clays, marls and oolites, gritty limestones very fossili-
ferous towards the top, clays, and grits. Another section on the
opposite side of the anticlinal shows the same development of the
central limestones ; but the lower series is considerably attenuated,
and the upper series (Supra-Coralline) shrunk from about 90 feet to
a thin ferruginous band of only a few inches. There are hardly any
corals, and no Coral Rag whatever; argillaceous and arenaceous
matter, always, however, more or less mixed with lime, prepon-
derates, but there is a rich and varied fauna, which has strong
affinities with some of the Corallian beds of other districts. This
culminates in the Trigonia-beds, which lie towards the top of the
main limestone series ; above this the fauna inclines to Kimmeridgian,
below to Oxfordian types. The remarkable irregularity of the Supra-
Coralline beds was noted, especial reference being made to the
mineral character, fossil contents, and geological position of the
Abbotsbury iron-ore. In the North Dorset district (II.) the thick-
ness of the mass is much reduced, and its constitution greatly altered.
Corals are still very rare, but caleareous sediment greatly pre-
ponderates, and is made up largely of comminuted shell, loosely
aggregated pisolites, and rubble, frequently false-bedded; the
arenaceous base of the Corallian series, described generally under

Geological Society of London. 93

the term Lower Calcareous Grit, is almost at its minimum in the
neighbourhood of Sturminster. The central limestones contain a
moderate assemblage of the usual Corallian forms, but Cidaris
florigemma appears confined to a rubbly bed of about 8 feet thick.
The West Midland range (III.), extending from Westbury to Oxford,
exhibits the greatest variety, and, being classic ground, contains a
larger proportion of the type forms of the rocks. The development
is very unequal, and the entire group is reduced to less than 25 feet
in some places; but where the sandy base is expanded, as in those
districts where the escarpment faces the north, the thickness ex-
ceeds 100 feet, occasionally falling to about 30 feet in the direction
of the dip, with the probability of the entire mass ultimately thinning
to a feather edge. In many places true Coral Rag is largely
developed, usually terminating the Corallian series in an upward
direction, or at most succeeded by a very few feet of ferruginous
sand. Throughout the great escarpment facing the upper valley
of the Thames, the lower arenaceous member predominates, though
much mixed with thin-bedded sandy clays, the whole constituting
a loose formation, which is capped by hard gritty limestone con-
taining an abundant fauna, representative of the middle series,
differing somewhat, on the one hand, from the Rag with its partially
Kimmeridgian character, and, on the other, from the Lower Cal-
careous Grit, whose affinities are, of course, Oxfordian. The beds
of this district, however, are so varied that it is impossible to deal
with them in an abstract. District IV. includes the Coral reef at
Upware, 75 miles H.N.E of Oxford ; though the exposures are small,
they are very suggestive. The limestone of the south pit is an
excellent Coral Rag, but softer and more chalky than much of the
Coral Rag of the West Midland district. Moreover, whilst the rock
contains many familiar forms, and especially Cidaris florigemma, whose
presence in abundance invariably indicates a distinct horizon, we also
find the casts of shells, rarely or never met with in the West of
England, but which appear common in some parts of the Continent :
e.g. Species of Isoarca, and certain species of Opis, which latter occur
also in a portion of the Yorkshire Basin (V.). This bears 130 miles
N. by W. from the reefat Upware. The Corallian beds are grouped as
a belt of rocks inclosing an oval tract of Kimmeridge Clay. There is
more symmetry here than in the south, and the triple division of grit,
limestone, and grit, though not absolutely true in all places, is fairly
accurate; most of the beds are better developed, and the contrast
between the Coral Rag and underlying Oolites is strongly marked.
In the Tabular Hills these Oolites constitute a double series, divided
by a “Middle Cale Grit,” a fact first indicated on stratigraphical
grounds by Mr. Fox Strangways, and amply borne out by fossil
contents. The shell beds of the Lower Limestones are, especially
in their lower parts, charged with Brachiopoda and other forms of
the Lower Cale Grit; whilst the Upper Oolite, on which the Coral
Rag reposes, contains a far more varied fauna, though singularly
destitute of Brachiopoda. ‘The fauna of the Rag here, as elsewhere,
inclines to Kimmeridgian types.

94 Correspondence—Mr. Alfred R. C. Selwyn.

As the object of the paper was to arrange facts rather than to
propound theories, the conclusion was chiefly occupied in summing
up and correlating. It was shown that, since the leading feature
of the rock masses between the Oxford and Kimmeridge Clays is
variety, a strict and rigid correlation is altogether impossible. Yet,
in spite of great local differences, producing in many places a
strongly contrasted facies, there are certain features which may be
deemed fairly characteristic of the several divisions. The bank-like
character of most of these beds was insisted upon. A table of com-
parative sections, 14 in number, affording a generalized idea of the
development, was exhibited, and the stratigraphical verifications of
many of these given, as sections drawn to scale, in the body of the

paper.

CORRESPONDENCE.

ORIGIN OF LAKE-BASINS.

Srr,—In reading the correspondence and remarks on the origin of
Lake-basins in the November Number of the Grotcercan MaGazine,
it has occurred to me that the glacial origin of these basins may be
explained without supposing the ice to have scooped them out of
solid rocks such as we now see around them. I have been led to
this idea by a study of the phenomena connected with the decom-
position of rock in sité in southern latitudes—Australia and Brazil.
Similar facts may likewise be seen in South Carolina, Georgia, ete.

In these regions, which have never been glaciated, the surfaces
over more or less extensive areas consist of quite soft decomposed
rock, and mining operations have shown that this decomposition
has been very irregular in its action, and that often great masses,
resembling boulders, are quite unchanged, though completely sur-
rounded by the decomposed material; and the varying depth to
which the decomposition has extended has resulted in producing a
solid rock surface as full of hollows and depressions of all shapes
and sizes as can be found in any of our northern lake regions. And
if we admit that prior to the Glacial period these northern lake
regions were similarly covered with decomposed rock, then the ice
would not be called upon to exert any very extraordinary power in
order to scoop out any number of lake-basins, and to leave enormous
boulders scattered over the face of the country as we now find them.

GroLoGicaL SURVEY oF CANADA, ALFRED R. C. SELWYN.

Montreat, Dec. 20, 1876.

MR. DURHAM ON KAMES, AND MR. MELLARD READE ON
BOULDER-CLAY.

Srr,—If Mr. Durham’s Kames be the equivalent of the English
and Irish Eskers, I cannot help thinking that he has not had
an opportunity of seeing a series of good typical sections of
these deposits. Along the east borders of North Wales (where
I have examined the Eskers) clear sections demonstrate that
their surface-configuration has been scarcely at all altered by at-
mospheric action, and that the internal structure of the swamp-

Correspondence—Mr. D. Mackintosh. 95

and-lake barriers is a continuation of that of the mounds, and not
superinduced. In the above district most of the eskers occur at a
distance from river-valleys; often where there are no streams of
water; and sometimes on the summits of hills. Their magnitude
(reaching 150 feet in height) in Shropshire; the breadth of the
barriers, and the depth and size of the inclosed Jakes (not to
mention the frequent total absence of streams of water) clearly show
that their forms were left by the agency that piled them up, or
denuded them before their emergence from the sea. So far as I
am aware, all English and Irish geologists believe that their
curvilinear shape is not owing to atmospheric action. [See Mem. of
lrish Geol. Survey, 98, 99, 108, 109, 117, 118. ]

In answer to Mr. Mellard Reade I have only to say that I do not
regard the drifts in the neighbourhood of Liverpool as good repre-
sentations of the general succession one may trace from Carlisle to
Church Stretton in Shropshire. Long sea-coast and railway sections
between these places (over a distance of about 150 miles) show
a persistency in the relative positions of the three drifts, or of two
of them where only two are present. The clay left by the sea
washing the sand and stones out of the Boulder-clay would not form
a Boulder-clay somewhere else on the same horizon, but would give
rise to such a stoneless clay as we frequently find imbedded in the
great middle sand and gravel formation.’ D. Macxrnytosz.

THE TROPICAL FORESTS OF HAMPSHIRE.

Str,—In Mr. Gardner’s lecture “On the Tropical Forests of
Hampshire,” in your January Number, he is reported as offering
two suggestions in explanation of the occurrence of the remains
of a temperate climate flora intermingled with that of a tropical one
in the Lower Bagshot of Hampshire. One of these is an oscilla-
tion of climate which for a time left survivors of the previous flora
lingering beside the new growth introduced by a change of climate,
and the other the existence of a mean annual temperature which
permitted the growth of either class of vegetation side by side.

As I believe both suggestions to be remote from the truth, and as
the first of them is contrary to the general evidence afforded by the
animal remains of the Hocene period in England, which appear to
me to offer the strongest evidence against the existence of a glacial
climate in Kurope during any part of that period, perhaps you will
allow me to offer what I believe to be the true explanation.

The remains upon which the determinations of this flora have
been based are drifted, and not those of a bed in situ like the Coal-

1 For full and accurate information concerning the Post-tertiary deposits of this
country I would recommend Mr. H. B. Woodward’s Geology of England and
Wales. It is the only geological work in which an account of these deposits has
been thoroughly brought up to the present state of discovery. Having gone over the
greater part of the ground described in Mr. Woodward’s work, and having pre-
viously written a work called ‘“ Scenery of England and Wales,” I may be pardoned
for stating that it exhibits more evident signs of great labour and care than any
geological book I have read.—D. M.

96 Correspondence—Mr. Searles V. Wood, jun.

seams, and the whole of the Hampshire Eocene is connected with
the delta of a great river which persisted throughout the accumula-
tion of the various beds, which aggregate to upwards of 200 feet in
thickness. This river evidently flowed from the west, through a
district of which the low ground had a tropical climate; but like
some tropical rivers of the present day, such as the Brahmaputra,
the Megna, the Ganges, etc., it was probably fed by tributaries
flowing from a mountain region supporting zones of vegetation. of
all kinds from the tropical to the Arctic, if during the Hocene period
vegetation such as the present Arctic had come into existence, of
which we have as yet no evidence. Torrential floods may have
swept the remains of vegetation from the temperate zones of this
region into tributaries that conveyed it into the main river before it
was decayed or water-logged, where it became intermingled with
the remains of vegetation which grew in the tropical low ground
skirting the main stream, so that both sank together into the same
mud aud silt.

Assuming, therefore, that the determinations of these extra-tropical
forms of vegetation are well founded, we have in the case in
question no difficulty in discovering those elevated regions from
which, in the way suggested, such forms may have come, for Mr.
Judd, in describing (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxx. p. 220) the
ancient volcano of Mull, which les about 400 miles N.N.W. of
Hampshire, has shown that it was in full activity during the
Eocene and Miocene periods, and possessed a dimension much
exceeding that of Etna at the present day; and that, though from
denudation and collapses, the greatest elevation to which any of its
remnants now reach is only 3172 feet, yet that in Eocene and
Miocene times its elevation must in all probability have greatly
exceeded that of Etna, which is nearly 11,000 feet.

Nearer, however, than this, and between 100 and 200 miles only
N.W. from Hampshire, we have in Wales a mountain: region, the
summits and upper zones of which (if we take into consideration the
considerable depression which the western side of the British Isles
must have undergone coincidently with the upheaval of the Hocene
sea-bed in the south-east of them, and make some allowance for the
action of subaerial denudation) would have had an elevation suffi-
cient to support a temperate and extra-tropical vegetation during
the Eocene period synchronously with the growth of tropical forms
in the low ground, and have furnished to the sediment of the
principal river the remains of various forms of vegetation, which,
according to the elevation of their source, departed more or less from
those of tropical character which clothed the banks of the streams
flowing through that low ground. Searztes V. Woop, sun.

Mepats AND Funps to BE AWARDED BY THE COUNCIL OF THE
Grotogicat Soctsry, Frpruary 16ta.—Four Medals will be
awarded at the ensuing Anniversary Meeting of the Geological
Society: the “Wollaston” (Gold Medal), the “Lyell,” the ‘ Mur-
chison,” and the “Bigsby” Bronze Medals; and £116 18s. 7d.

in funds.

THE

GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE.

NEW. SERIESSe DECADE Tin VOR. IV:
No. I1I—MAROCH, 1877.

(Ql SEIN ANE) PN Sy ao Ob ass

——— +>

I.—Evipencr AFFORDED BY THE Praner Mars on THE SupsEct
oF GuAcIAL PERIopDs.
By Epwarp Carpenter, M.A., late Fellow of Trinity Hall, Cambridge.

AVING read with much interest Mr. Murphy’s papers in the
Journal of the Geological Society for 1869 (p. 850) and for
1876 (p. 400), in which he maintains that at the time of maximum
excentricity of the Harth’s orbit that hemisphere would be glaciated
which had its winter in aphelion, as against Mr. Croll, whose theory
is that the glaciated hemisphere would be that which had its summer
in aphelion: it has occurred to me that ] have never seen, in this
discussion, any reference to the case of the planet Mars.

It may be worth while, therefore, in case no one has done so
before, to point out how remarkable a parallel may be drawn
between the state of affairs on that planet and on the earth, and how
remarkable a confirmation the relative dimensions of the snow-caps
on that planet appear to give of Mr. Murphy’s view of the matter.

The excentricity of the orbit of the planet Mars is, as is well
known, considerably greater than that of the earth’s orbit. It is
given by Sir John Herschel, in his Outlines of Astronomy, as
00981125. Leverrier’s estimate of the maximum excentricity of the
earth’s orbit, as quoted by Mr. Croll, is 0:07075. The excentricity
of Mars’ orbit is therefore somewhat greater than the maximum
excentricity of that of the earth. Again, the inclination of the axis
of Mars to the perpendicular to the plane of its orbit is 28° 51’,
which in a similar way is somewhat greater than the inclination of
the earth’s axis to the plane of the ecliptic, which is 28° 27’ 24”. So
that in both respects Mars offers a slight exaggeration of the
conditions supposed to prevail in the case of the earth at the time
under consideration. But these coincidences would be of no service
to us, were they not supplemented by a third, most fortunate,
coincidence. The axis of Mars, namely, is inclined at the present
time towards one extremity of the axis of its orbit, and indeed
towards the perihelion point; so that as on the earth at the present
time the winter solstice of the Northern hemisphere coincides with
perihelion, its summer solstice with aphelion, and the winter solstice
of the Southern hemisphere coincides with aphelion, the summer
solstice with perihelion. To show how nearly this is the case it
will be sufficient to quote the lengths of the seasons. They are
given as follows (from elements of the planet obtained by Maedler

DECADE Il.—VOL, IY,—NO. III 7

98 Edward Carpenter—The Planet Mars.

and Sir William Herschel) by Mr. Breen, of the Cambridge Obser-
vatory. For the Northern hemisphere :—
Spring (vernal equinox to summer solstice)... 1914 Mars’ Days.
DUMITTE Rr Sees chu cect tne teekanaectueeeulnuneceats 181 on op
IAEV ESE Wrerectectsiecssecstesecasesseccatitedeereenets 1492 _~—C,,
NHI: aoe occescconenccacerREOCeaECOPDOE HBcEEOACESs 147 39

5)
29

Thus we have on Mars at the present time all the conditions
prevailing which the case under consideration requires—only ex-
aggerated: the axial inclination is slightly greater, the excentricity
is greater, and the year is longer, 687 of our days instead of 365.
Yet the exaggeration, at any rate in the cases of the axial inclina-
tion and excentricity, is by no means so great as to destroy the
comparison: on the contrary, it might be expected just to emphasize
it. One more point before proceeding to actual observations of the
polar snows of Mars ; the distribution of land and sea on that planet
is far more equable than on the earth, indeed there is a remarkable
symmetry or likeness between the two hemispheres; at neither pole
is there, apparently, an ocean of great extent, and, as is well known,
land predominates largely over sea throughout, the two being in an
estimated proportion of three or four to one. Thus, as far as we
can at all judge, geographical causes of difference between the poles
seem to be next to eliminated on Mars, and we are left to observe
the results of the purely astronomical influences.

And they are remarkable. I am not, unfortunately, able at the
present moment to lay my hand on the latest investigations into this
subject; but I hope that the present paper may be the means of
drawing more information from others. However, the main facts
are clear enough. There is no great disproportion between the
snow-caps of Mars; on the whole perhaps they are not far from
equal. But there is a marked difference between their fluctuations :
the Northern cap in fact changes slowly and little, the Southern
fluctuates rapidly and much. The following facts will give an idea
of their range and variation. In the year 1830 a favourable oppor-
tunity occurred for viewing the Southern cap; it was during the
summer-time of that Pole, and the following measurements were
taken, the times of year corresponding to our summer months being
given (Breen’s Planetary Worlds, p. 177) :—

June 16 Diameter of spot 12° 46’ July 7 Diameter of spot 6° 20’
23 i ay faplslc304 9 Y Be ae
—— 26 . ° 10’ —19 5p on Sen

Thus at a time of year corresponding to our July 9 the snow-cap
fell to a minimum, and was only 5° 46’ broad. It will be seen, too,
that it fell off rapidly, having been more than twice as broad a
month before. This would lead us to expect a large extent in
winter-time: and we find that at the opposition of 1837 a good part
of the Southern snow-cap was seen, although the South Pole was
then turned away from the earth (and of course from the sun too) ;
in fact it was estimated that it extended to a distance of 35° from
the Pole, though this seems to have been an exceptional occasion.

In the year 1887 similar measurements were taken of the mini-

Edward Carpenter—The Planet Mars. 99

mum of the Northern snow-cap, with the following results, the times
of year being again given in terms of our summer months :—

May 4 Diameter of spot 31° 24’ July 4 Diameter of spot 18° 24’
June 4 ie enna) Bel 0, ete) My ER OW
=== 1 99" 54" 0 i fae TER LO

Here we remark that the numbers concerned are much larger
than—more than double, in fact—what they are for the South Pole ;
and we also remark a slower falling off towards the minimum.
There is more difficulty about the maximum. In the winter season
the edges of the spots, owing probably tothe state of the atmosphere,
are ill-defined; and, as already hinted, when Mars is in opposition,
and therefore most favourably situated for observation, the wintry
pole is turned away from us, and therefore at no time is there any
opportunity of directly measuring the diameter of a snow-cap at its
maximum. It is however certain, as mentioned above, that the
maximum of the Northern cap is nothing extreme, and in all
probability it is not far different from that of the Southern.

Certainly, to one who looks at the more general aspects of the
question, nothing can be more obviously likely than that that should
happen which does happen at the two poles of Mars: namely that
that pole which endures the extremely hot summer and the ex-
tremely cold winter should present the extreme of fluctuation in its
snow-cap, and that that pole which endures the moderately hot sum-
mer and the moderately cold winter should present a kind of modera-
tion or mean. in the fluctuation of its snow-cap. And I believe that
the agreement of the behaviour of these caps with the more obvious
theory of the behaviour of snow under such circumstances was one
of the things which confirmed Maedler in the idea (for which con-
firmation is now no longer needed) that these white patches were
indeed snow.

If Mars, then, gives us, in the variation of its polar snows, a true
result of astronomical causes, it gives us a singular confirmation of
Mr. Murphy’s theory; for, though the results may be exaggerated
on that planet, yet for that very reason they point out the more
distinctly in what direction we should look for corresponding results
on our own planet. They tell us, in fact, in unmistakable language,
that, other things equal, our Northern hemisphere would now be the
glaciated one. For though I have not spoken of ice-caps—since we
have not such good reason for speaking of ice as of snow on Mars—
yet no one would I suppose doubt that, as Mr. Murphy points out,
the range of glaciation must lie within the summer range of snow,
and that therefore the glaciated hemisphere must be that in which
the summer range is largest, and the fluctuations (probably) least.

However, other things are not equal ; and the able way in which
Mr. Murphy points out that the fact that “the climate of the
Southern hemisphere is on the whole maritime, and that of the
Northern continental,” counteracts the effects otherwise natural to the
two hemispheres—that the geographical causes in fact overpower the
astronomical ones—must command the assent of most readers.

There is one discrepancy, however, in Mr. Murphy’s second paper;
or an apparent one, probably due to a misapprehension on my part.

100 J. H. Lee—Saltern and Biidesheim Fossils.

Admitting, in agreement with Mr. Croll, the existence of a
Southern ice-cap on the earth at the present day, which he ascribes
. to geographical causes, while Mr. Croll ascribes it to astronomical,
he still seems to concur with Myr. Croll in ascribing the great extent
of the Southern oceans to the action of this ice-cap. For he says:
“The ice-cap, as Mr. Croll has elaborately shown, will, by displacing
the earth’s centre of gravity, draw a greater share of ocean water to
the glaciated hemisphere.” Now it is obviously impossible to ascribe
the oceanic character of our Southern hemisphere to the ice-cap, if
the ice-cap is itself due to the ocean climate; so obviously indeed
that it is impossible to believe Mr. Murphy intended to do so: yet it
is difficult to read his words otherwise.

But there are difficulties every way. For if our Southern oceans
are not mainly due to the ice-cap, it has to be considered that they
may be due to a permanent internal displacement of the centre
of gravity from the centre of figure of the earth—especially if Sir
William Thomson is correct in supposing the interior of the earth to
be solid. And if this is the case, then the tendency of water to
collect in the Southern hemisphere will be a permanent one, and
will always militate a good deal against the glaciation of the
Northern hemisphere.

Certainly if the choice lay between supposing the great abundance
of water in the Southern hemisphere to be due to a displacement of
the earth’s centre of gravity by a polar ice-cap, and supposing it due
to a permanent internal displacement, I should prefer the latter
supposition. And for this reason. The probability seems immensely
strong that, in the process of formation of a body like the earth
(whatever that process might be), the centre of gravity would not
take the exact position of the centre of figure—immensely stronger
than that it would. If the centre of gravity, however, were not in
the centre of figure, it would necessarily lie in the axis of rotation :
in fact, the axis of rotation would not be permanent unless it passed
through the centre of gravity. Thus the centre of gravity would
necessarily come to lie towards one or other of the poles; and thus
would result a necessary, though indirect, connexion between the
pole and the preponderance of water in its neighbourhood.

IJ.—Noticz or tHe Discovery or Upper Drvontan Fossins IN
THE SHALES OF TorRBAY.’
By Joun Epwarp Les, F.G.S., ete.
| (PLATE V.)
N the present state of our knowledge of the Devonian formation,
it seems highly desirable, if possible, to correlate any of the
beds in Devonshire with those of this wide-spread formation on
the Continent.
1 An excellent article on the planet Mars appeared in the Quarterly Journal of

Science, vol. ii. for 1865, p. 369, from the pen of the late Prof. John Phillips, M.A.,
F.R.S., whose name is still dear to many of our geological readers.—Epir. Grou. Mae.

* The Editor expresses his regret that he has unwillingly detained this Notice
without publication for several months, the plate not having been executed.—Ep,

Grou. Mac.

GE Ob.MAG.1877. New SERIES DECADE ILVOL.IV.PLATE V;
Selterr Budesheim.

Edward Kidding del. et litle. g W.West& Co.wmp.
Upper Devonian Fossils.

J. EH. Lec—Saltern and Bidesheim Fossils. 101

Though the following notice may be very scanty, yet every well-
founded attempt to correlate the beds paleontologically is worth
something ; and under this impression it may be desirable to place
on record the following facts.

All the old geological maps of the Torbay district colour a portion
of the ground near the middle of the bay as Old Red Sandstone. Dr.
Holl, in his amended map of 1868 (Quarterly Journal, Nov. 1868),
divides this “Old Red ” into two parts—the ‘‘ Lower South Devon”
or the slates, etc., under the middle limestone, and the ‘ Upper South
Devon” or those above it ; and he makes the first or the Lower South
Devon (of which the Mudstone shales are a type) to touch the shore
near or in Saltern Cove. These red shales, however, are tilted up
at rather a sharp angle, and are covered unconformably by the nearly
horizontal beds of Exeter conglomerate, so that this fact alone
renders it very improbable that they are the same as the Mudstone
shales, and the following evidence from fossils seems to confirm this.

For some time Goniatites have been known to have been found
here, but they are exceedingly local;1 in fact, so much so that,
notwithstanding repeated searches, I never could discover them till
my friend, Capt. Bedford, R.N., of Paignton, and a young geologist,
a friend of his, directed me where to look. The space where they
are found appears very limited, but still we soon secured a number
of small Goniatites and a few other shells. From the very first the
appearance of these Goniatites reminded me strongly of those
found in such abundance in the well-known beds of shale at
Biidesheim in the Hifel, where a friend and I had worked in
1875, and where, in the course of a few hours, we were fortunate
enough to secure a large number. It need hardly be said with what
pleasure we discovered at Saltern the well-known minute shell
Cardium palmatum, almost, if not entirely, characteristic of the
German shale at Biidesheim, and this discovery was followed by
others, so that, before the day was finished, we obtained from this
very limited locality some eight or ten species apparently identical
with those found at Biidesheim. I have determined the following
species as occurring at both places.? (See Plate V.)

Orthoceras Schlotheimt, Quenst. Goniatites Gerolsteinus, Stein.

Goniatites auris, Quenst. ——— _ primordialis, Quenst.
retrorsus, Quenst. ———— sp. (near to auris).

- Ausavensis, Stein. Pluerotomaria turbinea, Stein.
prumiensis, Stein. Cardium palmatum.

These facts appear to me of great interest, and though I dare not
say that the occurrence of these eight or ten species in the two
localities absolutely identify the beds of Saltern Cove with those of
Biidesheim, yet the evidence goes a long way in this direction, and a
further close investigation is highly desirable.

1 Tn order to indicate the place more clearly, it may be well to state that Saltern
Cove consists of a larger bay to the south anda very small one to the north. The
place where these fossils are found is to the north of the extreme point of the
headland dividing these two bays.

2 Mr. Henry Woodward, who has examined these specimens and compared them
with those from Biidesheim, concurs in these determinations.

102 W. J. Sollas—The Genus Webbina.

The German Government geologists consider the Biidesheim beds
as Upper Devonian. If they are right, is it not probable that we
should be correct in dropping the term “Upper South Devon,” and
simply calling these beds “‘ Upper Devonian” ?

It may be well to add that the same beds a little to the northward,
at the extreme south end of Goodrington Sands, have yielded several
specimens of Pleurodictyum problematicum and sections of large
Crinoidal stems. There are also many indefinite markings in the
red sandy shale bearing a great resemblance to vegetable remains.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE Y.

From SALtERN Cove. From BUDESHEIM.

Fic. 1. Goniatites auris, Quenst. Fic. 2a, 26. Goniatites auris, Quenst.
a 99 retrorsus, Quenst. Spence 29 retrorsus, Quenst.
~» Oo i Ausavensis, Stein. a0: +p Ausavensis, Stein.
pana | 9 primordialis, Quenst. », ll. a, 6, Orthoceras Schlotheimi,

(nat. size.) Quenst.

op fe Gerolsteinus, Stein. », 18. Pleurotomaria turbinea, Stein.
op i prumiensis, Stein. », 16. Cardium palmatum.
», 10. a,b, c¢, Orthoceras Schlotheimi,

Quenst. (All drawn twice nat. size, except Fig. 7.)
», 12. Pleurotomaria turbinea, Stein.
», 14. Mytilus priscus, Stein.
», 15. Cardium palmatum.

», l7. a, 6, c, Crinoidal stems.

III.—Own tHE PERFORATE CHARACTER OF THE GENUS WaeBBIWA, WITH A
Notice oF Two New Sprctss, W. rzvis anp W. TUBERCULATLA,
FROM THE CAMBRIDGE GREENSAND.

By W. J. Souuas, B.A., F.G.S.
(PLATE VI.)
HE well-known genus Trochammina was instituted in 1859! by
Messrs. Parker and Jones as a sub-genus for the reception of
an arenaceous foraminifer, the Rotalia (Nautilus) inflata of Montagu.

Subsequent researches led these observers in the following year”
to elevate it to the rank of a distinct genus, and it was at the same
time made to embrace the important series of forms then known as
Webbina irregularis, D’Orb.

In the incomplete list of the genera of Foraminifera occurring in
the Cambridge Greensand, furnished by me to the Journal of the
Geological Society * some time ago, Trochammina is enumerated as a
somewhat abundant form, on the evidence of numerous examples of
what I regarded at the time as specimens of Webbina irregularis, and
which indeed so closely resemble this species in external form and
appearance, as to have led Mr. Brady to form the same opinion in
regard to them as myself.

It did not occur to me to question the arenaceous character of these
forms, till, in examining a thin slice of Ventriculite, preserved, like
most of the fossils of the Cambridge Greensand bed, in calcic phos-
phate, I observed two specimens of a foraminifer in section presenting
the same outline as that of the supposed W. irregularis, and adherent,

1 Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 1859, vol. iv. p. 383.
2 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1860, vol. xvi. p. 304.
3 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1872, vol. xxviii, p. 398.

GEOL.MAG.1877. New SERIES. DECADE EL-VOL.1IV. PLAT VI.

Wel. Sollae det. |“ WWest Come.
F'uqgs.1-3.Webbina levis, Sollas Figs. &9. W.Tuberculata, Solas.
Cambridge Greensand.

W. J. Sollas—The Genus Webbina. 103

like it, to a piece of coprolite, which in this case, however, had
become imbedded together with other foreign material in the second-
ary deposit of ‘coprolite’ which had finally filled up the cloaca of the
sponge. Both these sections exhibited in an unmistakable manner
the tubulation of the shell-wall which distinguishes the Vitrea per-
forata. This observation led me to select some characteristic examples
of the supposed Webbina irregularis for the purpose of grinding them
down into thin slices ; and on examining the sections which had been
thus prepared, the same tubulated structure was clearly revealed.
Thus then two things were proved : first, that the section which had
been first observed in the Ventriculite is that of one of the Cambridge
Greensand Webbing, and thus available for further observations; and
next, and most important, that these Webbing are truly perforate
foraminifera.

On returning now to a closer examination of the external cha-

-racters of these forms, one finds that they comprise two kinds, one
ornamented with irregularly dispersed, more or less conical tubercles,
the other with a perfectly smooth plain surface ; the latter I pro-
pose to call Webbina levis, and the former W. tuberculata.

The only difference which I can distinguish between W. levis
and Trochammina irregularis exists in the structure of their shell-
walls ; vitreous and perforate in the one, imperforate and arenaceous
in the other. Since, however, this distinction (according to the
generally received classification) is a fundamental one, it requires
some recognition in our nomenclature, and I venture to suggest that
those Webbina-like forms which are distinctly arenaceous should
not receive any other generic designation than that of Trochammina ;
while those which are perforate should possess the exclusive right to
D’Orbigny’s name of Webbina.

Genus Weszina. (PI. VI.)

General Characters.—Consisting of a single more or less hemi-
spherical, ovoidal, or pyriform chamber, terminated in many cases
by a short narrow open tubular prolongation, or a succession of such
chambers in variable number, connected together in a moniliform
series, varying in direction of growth, and increasing in size from
the first formed onwards; always adherent to some foreign body, the
surface of adherence furnishing the immediate boundary wall to one
side of the cavity of the test, except near the circumference of the
chamber, where the foreign substance is overgrown by an im-
measurably thin structureless calcareous film or lamina, which is
shown in section as the fine line “1” in Fig. 7. White and opaque,
tending especially in W. laevis to become colourless and translucent ;
surface smooth or tuberculate ; size variable, the smallest chamber
observed measuring 0-005, and the largest 0-03 of an inch in length.

Minute Structure.—The test is traversed throughout, in a direction
normal to its surface, by very fine canaliculi, less than 0-00006 of an
inch in diameter. These are well shown in Fig. 7, and on a larger
scale (x 540) in Fig. 8.

Species.—1. W. levis, mihi, Figs. 1, 2, 3. Surface of test smooth,

104 W. J. Sollas—The Genus Webbina.

not tuberculate.—Formation, Cambridge Gr eensand. —Locality, Cam-
bridgeshire.

2. W. tuberculata, mihi, Figs. 4 to 9.—Surface of test ornamented by,
a number of tubercles irregular ly dispersed, generally hemispherical
and depressed, resembling the rivet-heads on an iron girder, but some-
times conical and transversely truncated, average diameter 0-00115’’,
height 0:0008/’. In some specimens the ‘tubercles appear to be larger
and more numerous than in others. A section of this species, includ-
ing some instructive longitudinal sections of its tubercles, is repre-
sented in Fig. 7.

From an examination of these it will be seen that each of the
bosses of the exterior is but the superficial portion of a structure
which enters deeply into the test. This structure has the form of a
double cone, such as would be produced by two cones fusing to-
gether by a common base, the outer and shorter one rising into a
tubercle on the exterior, the longer and inner one reaching inwards,
nearly, but not quite to the interior face of the test. The longitudi-
nal axis of this skittle-shaped column or double cone is occupied by
a canal about 0:0009 of an inch in diameter, simple and cylindrical
in the exterior cone, but in the interior one constricted and dilated
alternately either in an annular or spiral fashion, as shown by the
waved outline of its margins in section.

Exteriorly the surface of the test is slightly raised to form a
mound about the projecting cone, and internally the substance of the
test immediately imbedding the penetrating cone is traversed by
tubuli as elsewhere, which, however, stop short of the cone itself.

Formation, Cambridge Greensand. Zocality, Cambridgeshire.

Remarks.—As the contents of the Cambridge Greensand bed have
been subjected to very considerable attrition, it is just barely pos-
sible that W. levis is simply W. tuberculata, with its outer tubercles
worn off. The smooth, beautifully finished appearance of the former
species does not lend any support to this conjecture however, nor do
careful sections made across its shell exhibit the interior ends of the
tubercular columns, which of course would remain after the exterior
parts had been worn away. The conclusiveness of this latter critical
test is, however, somewhat diminished by the difficulty of obtaining
complete and perfect slices of such minute objects as these forms. I
have not been able myself to obtain a section of more than an are of
the wall of W./evis, and the completeness of the section of W. tuber-
culata shown in Fig. 7 is entirely due to the accident of its having
been preserved imbedded in hard coprolite, which afforded it a firm
support on all sides in the process of grinding down.

Alliances.—The minuteness of the tubulation would appear to ally
these forms to the Rotaline series of Foraminifera, and the irregular
method of their growth to Planorbulina, to the coarse perforations
and projecting points of which genus the perforated columns of
Webbina tuberculata present indeed a certain sort of resemblance ; in
external form there is an absolute identity of character between W.
levis and Trochammina irregularis.

Summary.—That the tubulated Webbina, simulating the truly arena-
ceous Trochammina, should be found in tolerable abundance in the

Dr. Feistmantel—Bohemian Ooal Fauna and Passage-Beds. 105

Cambridge Greensand, is a singular fact, when we consider that the
Bulimina and Textularia of this deposit are usually very coarse
arenaceous examples of these genera. The preceding observations
leave no doubt however as to the existence of a Foraminifer so
similar externally to Trochammina irregularis, as to be superficially
undistinguishable from it, and which yet possesses a purely non-
arenaceous and unmistakably tubulated test; and thus is added
another example to the already existing list of species which may be
like one another in all else, and yet differ in the arenaceous or non-
arenaceous character of their walls.

Some day, perhaps, the barrier between the arenaceous and non-
arenaceous Foraminifera may be broken down as an artificial separa-
tion of closely-allied forms, but on this point I may not say more
now, lest I should seem to be making premature use of the information
about to be published by Mr. Carter,! and which he has most kindly
furnished me with beforehand.

Bex ANAT TON” OR SPATE Vi:
Fics. 1 to 38. Webbina levis, mihi.

1.—Outline of a specimen grown around the corner of a small angular fragment of
coprolite. c, the solid angle of the coprolite (x 40).

2.—Outline of a specimen consisting of three chambers, which are defined from one
another by slight constrictions merely (x 40).

3.—Outline of a specimen grown over the curved edge of a minute piece of cop-
rolite (x 40).

Fries. 4 to 7 and 9. W. twberculata, mihi.

4.—Profile outline of a specimen showing the tubercles, ¢, and the anterior tubular
prolongation, », ending in the open mouth, m (x 40).

5.—Tubercles represented in plan (x 140).

6.—Tubercles shown in elevation from a lateral view (x 140).

7.—Section across a specimen adherent to a fragment of coprolite, imbedded in a
subsequent deposit of coprolite within the cloaca of a Ventriculite (V’. mam-
millaris). t¢ and ¢’, tubercles ; 7, thin calcareous lamina, covering over a part
of the surface of adherence, d (x 104).

8.—Tubulated wall of the test of Webbina (x 540).

9.—Single tubercular column of JV. ¢uberculata shown in longitudinal section, with
the adjacent tubulated walls of the test. c, axial canal with simple outline
exteriorly and undulating in the inner cone; e, outer projecting cone; 7,
inner part of the column; m, mound produced by accumulation of the sub-
stance of the test about the projecting cone (x 540).

TV.—GerorocicaL AND HistoricaAL Notes ON THE OCCURRENCE OF A
Fauna, Cuterty oF Permran AFFINITIES, ASSOCIATED WITH A
CarBoNIFEROUS Fora IN GAS-COAL IN THE UPPERMOST PoRTION
or THE BoHEeMIAN CoAL-STRATA.”

By Ortroxar FristmanTetL, M.D.,
Of the Geological Survey of India.

S Dr. Anton Fritsch of Prague has brought the relics of Permian
animals (Sauria and Fishes) from the Gas-coal of Niirschan *
and from the ‘“ Schwarte,’* near Rakonitz,> before the Meeting of
1 Vide Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. for March.
2°For a notice of the Animal-remains from the Gas-coal of Nyran near Pilsen and
Kounova near Rakonitz see Grou. Mac. 1876, Vol. III. Decade II. pp. 33-34.
3 In the Pilsen Coal-basin, S.W. Bohemia.

4 The local name for a kind of Gas-coal.
> In the Kladno-Rakonitz Coal-basin, N.W. of Prague, Bohemia.

106 Dr. Feistmantel—Bohemian Coal Fauna and Passage-Beds.

the British Association at Glasgow in September last, it will certainly
not be without interest, to give some geological and historical notes
on this most important occurrence, and I may, I trust, be allowed
to do so in the GrotoeicaL Magazine.

The question whether these beds, with a Fauna of Permian aspect,
but occurring with a Carboniferous Flora, are to be taken as of
Carboniferous age, or, guided by the animal relics, as Permian, or
whether they should be considered as intermediate between the two,
occupied the greater part of my time whilst engaged upon the
paleontological examination of the Bohemian Coal-fields.

I have reported several times on this subject, and I constantly
maintained almost the same opinion, considering these Gas-coals first
as Lowest Permian, later as Passage-beds between the Carboniferous
and Permian formations; but as all my reports are published in
German, my repeating them in this place is certainly justified.

As the animal-remains in the Gas-coal occurred only in the
above-mentioned Coal-basins,! I will especially speak of them.

My chief object has always been to show that in Bohemia (and
certainly also in other localities) there is no strict boundary between
the Carboniferous and Permian; on the contrary, that these formations
are in very close connexion, as is shown in the association of a
Flora of Carboniferous character with animals mostly of Permian
character in the above-mentioned districts, namely, in the Gas-coals
of the Pilsen- and Kladno-Rakonitz basins, which formerly, at least
to a great extent, were considered as truly Carboniferous, but now
must be modified, although there are still authors who assert that
the Flora alone must decide the age of these strata.

A.—GEOLOGICAL AND PALZONTOLOGICAL NOTES.
I.—General Consideration of the above-mentioned Coal-basins.

These the richest Coal-deposits in Bohemia can, properly speak-
ing, be considered as only one continuous area, as they are in no
place distinctly interrupted; they begin in the south-west,’ in the
neighbourhood of Dobrzan and Mantau, and extend in a N.E. direc-
tion by the city of Pilsen as far as Plass, where generally the end of
the Pilsen basin is taken; but quite in the immediate neighbour-
hood, on the so-called ‘“ Mlatzer tanb,” the other basin begins with
a narrow band, which extends across Shelles, Technitz, Horzowitz,
and so on across Rakonitz, Kladno, until it reaches about twenty
English miles north of Prague as far as the river Elbe, where it
apparently ends.

Both these basins have further in common: a. that there is a
Coal-bearing portion, with Coal-seams of different quality and thick-
ness in successive order, and, b. there is a portion of Red Sandstones
without Coal-seams, or at least without productive Coal- Roum) also
in successive order.

1 Some of the same genera and species also occur again higher in the true Permian,
in N.E. Bohemia, Silesia, Saxony, the Saarbriick basin, etc.
2 See Maps of the Vienna Geological Institution.

Dr. Feistmantel—Bohemian Ooal Fauna and Passage-Beds. 107

Furthermore, the Coal-bearing group of both the basins contains
two portions, a lower and a higher one.

The lower portion is truly Carboniferous, with a Carboniferous
Flora and Fauna (as far as known), and contains true Coal only.

The upper portion contains in both districts, besides a thinner
Coal-seam, still another stratum of Coal, in the form of a very
bituminous Coal of schistose structure, which may be generally
denoted as “ Gas-coal ” or “ Gas-shale.”’ In both basins, this Gas-coal
contains animal-remains different from those in the lower portion ;
they are, on the contrary, such as we find generally in the Permian
strata. The Flora, however, which occurs partly in this Gas-coal,
but to a greater extent in the shale above, is almost throughout
Carboniferous.

This stratum is therefore in both basins that of most importance,
as indicating the passage from the lower and truly Carboniferous beds,
to the undoubted Permian formation.

II.— Consideration of each of the districts specially.

Here only the objective facts are given as observed by my-
self and others, and as they really are seen; from these it will be
apparent of what age these beds should be considered.

1. The Coal-basin of Pilsen.
a. Tue NtrscuHan GaAS-COAL.

This is the great Coal-basin in §.W. Bohemia, extending gene-
rally from 8.W. to N.E., beginning, as I mentioned, at Dobrzan and
Mantau, and-spreading as far as Plass to the N.E., including especially
the localities Lihn, Blattnitz, Wilkischen, Steinoujezd, Nirschan,
Pilsen, Tremoschna, Dobraken, etc.! -

Here the Coal-seams overlie each other, as is seen especially in
the interior of the basin, where first an upper Coal-seam must be
traversed to reach the lower one; this is especially seen in the
shafts at the villages Niirschan and Steinoujezd, and further to-
wards the north at Tremoschna.

In the shafts W. of Niirschan (as Steinoujezd, Lazarus, Humboldt),
the upper seam is reached at a depth of 60 to 115 métres from the
surface ; the seam itself is about 1 m. 6 dec. m. thick; immediately
below it is the Niirschan Gas-coal, about 40 to 48 centimétres thick ;
then follows the Lower Coal-seam about 20 to 30 métres thick.

In the immediate neighbourhood of Niirschan (station of the
Western-Bohemian Railway), at the mines of Dr. Pankraz, the
upper seam is reached at a depth of 24 to 54 métres, and again im-
mediately below, without any intervening stratum, is the Nirschan
Gas-coal. This seam is therefore no doubt identical in all the
shafts mentioned in the neighbourhood of Niirschan.

But the same Coal-seam with the Niirschan Gas-coal we find after-
wards more towards the north—about eight English miles North of
Pilsen at Tremoschna, where, in the two western shafts, “ Barbara”

1 All these localities are well seen on the Geological Maps issued by the k. k.
Geologischen Reichsanstalt.

108 Dr. Feistmantel—Bohemian Coal Fauna and Passage-Beds.

and ‘‘ Procopi,” of that region, the upper seam is reached at a depth
of 40 métres, and is again underlain by the Gas-coal, of about 32 to
37 c.m. thickness—no doubt this seam is the same as that of Nir-
schan. Beyond the places mentioned, the Niirschan Gas-coal does
not occur; at least, not so developed: this is the case generally also
with the upper seam.

J have discussed these relations in various papers, either wholly
or partly... For the extension of this Gas-coal of Niirschan, see espe-
cially my paper in the Jahrbuch d. k. k. Geol. Reichsanst. 1872,
p: 289 et seq., where a little sketch-map illustrates the relations.

The most interesting part is, that this Gas-coal, as I have shown, .
everywhere immediately underlies the upper Coal-seam, which is
at an average distance from the lower Coal-seam of about 20 to 30
metres.

While the lower seam, the shales, and the Clay-Ironstone nodules
in them, contain remains only of a truly Carboniferous Flora, as
Calamites, Equisetites, true Carboniferous Ferns, Lycopodiacee,
Sigillarie; the Niirschan Gas-coal contains a mixed Fauna and
Flora, which are the chief points of observation.

Animal-remains in the Gas-ecoal.

These animal-remains consist especially of Saurians, Fishes, and
Crustaceous animals.

Dr. Anton Fritsch has already given some preliminary notes® on
these interesting animals, and I myself repeated them and gave some
figures, especially of Diplodus, in my short paper in the Zeitschrift
d. D. Geol. Gesellsch. 1870, pl. xviii.

In the meantime Dr. Fritsch has submitted this subject to a
thorough examination, and communicated his results in another
short paper,’ and lately before the meeting of the British Association
at Glasgow.*

His*examinations yielded. besides several new forms, also the
well-known Xenacanthus, of which one is certainly X. Decheni, Beyr.,
one of the best Permian species; Acanihodes, one of which is very
close to A. gracilis, Rom.; Palgoniscus, Uronectes (Gampsonyx), a
Julus, which is very close to living forms, ete.

From the fact that the Nirschan Gas-coal contains these animal-
remains, of which there is no trace in the lower seam, this upper
Coal-seam is quite well marked and separated from that portion,
though the Flora which occurs in the Gas-coal and in the shale

1 Ueber Pflanzenreste aus dem Niirschaner Gasschiefer, ete , Sitzgb. d. k. bohm.
Gesell. d. Wissensch. 1870.—Beitrag zur Kenntniss des Niirschaner Gasschiefers,
etc., Jahrb. d. k. k. Geol. Reichsanst Wien, 1872.—Verhaltniss der Perm. zur
Steinkohlenform. in Bohmen, ete., Zid. 1873.—Ueber den Niirschaner Gasschiefer,
ete., Zeitschr. d. D. Geol. Gesellsch. Berlin, 1873. With Plate. — Studien in
bohm. Kohlengebirge, Abh. d. R. bohm. Gesellsch. d. Wissensch. 1874.—Versteine-
rungen der bohm. Kohlenablagerungen, 1874-6.

2 See Grou. Mac. 1876, Dee. II. Vol. III. p. 34. Sitzungsb. d. k. bohm.
Gesellsch. ef Wissensch. Prag, 1870, etc.

3 Tbidem, 1875.

4 See Nature, September, 1876, p. 457. See also list of papers read before
Brit. Assoc. Glasgow, in Grou. Maa. for 1876, p. 471.

Dr. Feistmantel—Bohemian Coal Fauna and Passage-Beds. 109

above is almost throughout of real Carboniferous character, and
many species are identical with those from the lower Coal-seam ;
but some few species of the Niirschan Gas-coal seem to bear Per-
mian affinities.

I enumerated all the plants in my papers above mentioned, and it
will be sufficient to mention the genera only, and some of the species.

Plants in the Gas-coal.

Calamites (3 sp. Carbonif.), Huttonia, Asterophyllites (Carbonif.), Sphenophyllum
(Carbonif). :

Sphenopteris® (about 9 Carbonif. sp.), Hymenophyllites, Schizopteris, Cyathettes (4
sp. Carbonif.), Alethopteris (3 sp., important, Alethopt. erosa, Gutb., and
longifolia, Gopp.); Oligocarpia (?), Newropteris, Odontopteris (1 think odtusi-
loba, Naum., or obtusa, Brong.); Dictyopteris Brongniarti, Gutb.; Cyclopteris.

Lepidodendron dichotomum, Stbg.; Sagenaria elegans, Stbg.; Knorria, Lepidophyllum

- majus, Brong.; Lepidostrobus variabilis, L.H.; Cardiocarpon, ete.

Sigilaria distans, Stbe.; Stgillarinestrobus, Stigmaria.

Walchia—I think certainly some branchlets belong here (of the common Permian
form).

There are, altogether, about 50 species of plants of Carboniferous
character, besides the animals, which Dr. Fritsch, from the very
first,? recognized as Permian genera, and which he lately announced
before the Glasgow meeting, as representing the passage between
the Carboniferous and Permian formations.

b. PLANTS IN THE SHALE ABOVE THE Upper Sram!

As in the Gas-coal, and also in the Shale above the Upper Coal-
seam (therefore also above the Gas-coal), the Flora is still of
Carboniferous character. 1 had occasion to determine about 75
species, mostly well-preserved and interesting plants. Al] orders, as
Equisetacee, Filices, Lycopodiacee, and Sigillarie, are frequently
represented; Sphenophyllum Schlotheimi, Brong., very frequent, Sphe-
nopteris abounds, amongst which truly Carboniferous forms, as
Sphenopt. Hininghausi, Sph. obtusiloba, Brong.; Sph. asplenites, Gutb.,
prevailing; Neuropteris numerous; Adiantites giganteus, Gopp.;
Dictyopteris, Guth. ; Cyatheites, Alethopteris, and especially various
forms of fern trunks of the genus I/egaphytum, which I described in
a special paper.

Lycopodites, Lepidodendron, Sagenaria, Bergeria, etc., all very
frequent.

Sigilluria very abundant, with about ten species, and Stigmaria
throughout.

With these plants from the Shale above the seam, the Nirschan
Gas-coal has more than the half of its species (about 82) in common,
and in both strata the Flora is to be considered as a continuation of
that in the Lower Coal-seam.

1 See Feistmantel, Sitzungsb. d. k. bohm. Gesellsch. d. Wissensch. 1870.—
Jahrbuch d. k. k. geol. Reichsanstalt, 1872, 1873.—Zeitsch. d. D. geol. Gesellsch.
1873. :

2 Most frequent Sphenopt. Gravenhorsti, Brong.

3 Sitzungsber. d. k. bohm. Gesellsch. d. Wiss. 1870.

* See the same papers as before.

5 Ueber Baumfarrenreste der bohm. Kohlenformation, etc., Abhandl. der k. bohm.
Gesellsch. d. Wissensch. 1872, ii. Tafeln.

110 Dr. Feistmantel—Bohemian Ooal Fauna and Passage- Beds.

c. THe Lower Coat-sEAM.

From this district I determined about 96 species of plants, and
also a Crustacean referred to the Eurypterida was described as
Lepidoderma Imhofi, Reuss.' A full account of these relations I
have given lately in two larger papers.’

It is very interesting to note the occurrence of numerous Ironstone
nodules in some Jocalities in the district of this lower seam, which
are in the shales above it, and contain, like the shales themselves,
many well-preserved fossil plants.

The fossil plants of these spherosiderites and of other places in
the Bohemian Coal-fields I have especially described.®

The Lower Coal-seam is generally thicker, and where it is in
connexion with the upper seam, much deeper below the surface ; in
other localities it is reached at once when sinking a shaft, without
traversing the upper seam.

d. Animal Fossits FROM ABOVE THE UPPER COAL-SEAM.

It remains to mention another occurrence of animal-remains above
the Upper Coal-seam. More in the northern part of it, about six
English miles N.N.W. of the city of Pilsen, between the villages
Zilow and Ledec, a Coal-seam was reached at a depth of six métres,
which was only 63 ¢c.m. thick, and contained in the lower part only
some thin streaks of a variety of Coal which resembled mostly the
Niirschan Gas-coal, so that I had no doubt this seam is the most
northern representative of the Niirschan Upper Seam.

A little to the south of the village Zilow, I succeeded in finding
(already 1871) some spherosiderites, which evidently came from
above the Upper Coal-seam ; they were more oblong and flat,
and reminded me of similar forms in the Leebach strata of the
Saarbrtick Coal-field, which was still more probable judging by
their contents; they contained spines of Xenacanthus (apparently
Decheni), Ichthyocopros (as they are found in the Permian strata of
Northern Bohemia), ribbed fish-scales, and other bones, which most
probably belong to the Permian Archegosaurus.

In 1875, Dr. A. Fritsch again visited this region, and procured
also from the spherosiderites,* several fishes of the genus Palco-
niscus, amongst which was an Amblypterus (according to the last
report) of 115 ¢.m. in length. This all speaks certainly for Permian
affinities.

e. Rep SANDSTONE FORMATION IN THE PinsEN BaAsIN.

Above all the seams we find Red Sandstones,. especially in the
northern and southern portion of the Upper Coal-seam district.
In the northern portion we find near the village Kottiken sand-

1 Reuss, Denkschriften der k. Academie der Wissensch. Wien, 1856, p. 83.—
Fritsch, Fauna der Steinkohlenformation in Bohmen, Archiv fur Naturh. Durch-
forsch. ete., 11. vol. 1878.

2 Studien im Gebiete des Kohlengebirges in Bohmen, Abh. der k. bohm. Gesellsch.
d. Wissensch. 1874. —Versteinerungen der bohm. Kohlenformation, Cassel, 1874-76.

3 Sitzungsb. d. k. bohm. Gesellsch. d. Wissensch. 1873.

4 J think it is the same locality, or very near, of which I just spoke.

Dr. Feistmantel—Bohemian Coal Fauna and Passage-Beds. 111

stones (arcoses) with a richly Kaolinic cement, and including nu-
merous silicified coniferous stems of the genus Araucarites in the
same condition as we find them in Northern Bohemia in the true
Permian formation. Of these Red Sandstones I gave lately two
sketches in my Versteinerungen der bohm. Kohlenformation, Cassel,
1876, pl. xiii.

These Red Sandstones are mostly developed in the southern
part; we find them on the railway (from Pilsen to Furth, in
Bavaria), near Weipernitz, and especially near Zwug, Rothon-
jezd,! Auherzen, etc. Also here we find numerous stems of Arauca-
rites, and.I have no doubt these Red Sandstones are truly Permian.’

jf. GENERAL VIEW OF THE STRATA IN THE PitsEN Basin.
(descending order.)
a. With Araucarites.
1. Red Sandstones. { 4. Spherosiderites, with animal-remains of Permian affini-
ties near Ledec and Zilow.

( Shales with Carboniferous Flora.

| Coal-seam.
a yee a Saas Nutrschan Gas-coal, with Carboniferous Flora and a Fauna
Bhi yt of generally Permian character. From this horizon
L Dr. A. Fritsch has made his largest collections.
3. Lower Coal-seam ( Shales and Spherosiderites with Carboniferous Flora.
District ......... \ Coal-seam.

Every one studying this table will perceive that No. 1 is truly
Permian, No. 3 is truly Carboniferous, and No. 2 must be taken as
a passage-bed, as J have represented it in my later papers,* while
in the first papers I took it as lowest Permian, judging from the
animal-remains only.

Dr. Anton Fritsch, before the Glasgow meeting, pronounced the -
Niirschan Gas-coal also as a “ passage-bed,” a view which I had ad-
vocated already three years ago (1873). The historical development
of the different opinions I give further on.

2. The Coal-field of Kladno-Rakonitz.
a. Toe RaKkontrz GAS-COAL, LOCALLY CALLED “ScHWARTE.”

This Coal-field is in the north-western portion of the area men-
tioned above. It extends generally H.N.E., and is the richest of the
Bohemian Coal-fields. There is the same classification here as in
the Pilsen Coal-basin.

The Lower Coal-seam District.

This les immediately on Silurian rocks, and has a northern dip;
the southern boundary runs from the locality Kralup (twenty
English miles north of Prague) westwards across the localities
Minitz, Wotwowitz, Zakolan, Brandeisl, Kladno, Lahna, Ruda,
Rakonitz, Lubna, Petrowitz, and so on.

1 This village Rothonjezd (Roth=red) has certainly obtained its name from the
red colour of the soil, which is caused by the decomposed Red Sandstones.

2 Professor Krejci of Prague is also of the same opinion.

3 Jahrb. d. k. k. geolog. Reichsanst. 1873; Abh. d. k. bohm. Gesellsch. d.
Wissenschaften, 1874; Verst. d. bohm. Kohlenablagerungen, Cassel, 1874.

112. Dr. Feistmantel—Bohemian Coal Fauna and Passage-Beds.

Mining is carried on there to a great extent, and there are several
localities where fossils can be got. The fossils throughout are plants
of Carboniferous character; and some remains of a Scorpion were
procured, which were ranged by Dr. Fritsch with Cyclophthalmus
senior, Corda.!

Of the plant remains, I described those from Kralup in a special
paper,” and the others 1 enumerated in my general paper on the Coal-
basin.”

All orders of Carboniferous plants are represented, and some Clay-
bands in the Coal-seam are especially rich in plants.

For the comparison of this seam with others in Bohemia, the
abundant occurrence of the genus Néggerathia is very useful ;*
two species are found: Noéggerathia foliosa, Stbg., and Néggerathia
intermedia, K. Feistm. This species, however, Mr. Stur, of Vienna.
considers as belonging to the genus Rhacopieris, Schimp. Cer-
tainly these forms have nothing in common, and this Négg. inter-
media, K. Feistm., at Rakonitz, is a true Néggerathia. Besides the
foliage, there occurred also a fruit of Néggerathia, which I called
Néggerathiaestrobus bohemicus, O. Feistm.

The Upper Coal-seam District.

This overlies conformably the Lower Coal-seain District, extends
in a northern direction, and is especially developed in the neighbour-
hood of Rakonitz, near the Zbanberg at the villages Mutiowitz,
Kounowa, Hredl, etc., and in the neighbourhood of Sehlan, at Stern,
Libowitz, Lotausch, ete.

The Coal-seam in this district is only about 14 métres thick, but is
immediately overlain by the Gas-coal, about 8 to 11 c.m. thick, locally
called Schwarte ; above this we again find shales.

The Gas-coal here is of the same importance as the Niirschan Gas-
coal in the Pilsen Basin ; it contains the animal-remains. These were
very distinctly mentioned already by Messrs. Reuss* and Lipold°® in
their papers on the geological relations of these Coal-basins ; they
are, as far as at present known: Ctenoptychius brevis, Rss.; Desmodus,
sp.; Paleoniscus Vratislaviensis, Ag.; Acanthodes gracilis, Rom. ;
Xenacanthus Decheni, Beyr. ; Diplodus ; Pygopterus, sp., ete.

From this both Reuss and Lipold drew the conclusion that this
Gas-coal should be considered as Permian, and also Dionys Stur
regards this Gas-coal (his Kounowa Series), as being of Permian age,
while the Nirschan Gas-coal, containing many more forms of that
kind, he puts down as the lowest portion of the Carboniferous.’

1 Archiy fiir naturh. Durchforschung von Béhmen, 1873, II. Bd. 2 Abth.

2 Steinkohlenflora von Kralup, 1874, Abhandl. d. k. bohm. gesellsch. d. Wissensch.
4 Tafeln.

3 Steinkohlen und Permablagerungen N. W. von Prag, 1874, Abh. d. k. bohm.
Gesellsch. d. Wissensch. II. Tafeln.

4 This I first pointed out in my papers; all other opinions about it are subsequent.

5 Sitzungsb. d. k. Acad. d. Wissensch. Wien, 1858.

6 Jahrb. d. k. k. Geolog. Reichsanstalt, 1861-62.

7 It is certainly not uninteresting that only lately a Ceratodus has been procured
from these beds,

Dr. Feistmantel—Bohemian Coal Fauna and Passage-Beds. 118

Here in the Kladno-Rakonitz Coal-basin the Gas-coal lies therefore
above the Coal-seam. The shale above the Gas-coal, however, con-
tains again a Flora which is very distinctly Carboniferous.

I enumerated it already on various occasions.’ I will especially
note — Calamites Suckowi, Brong.; Asterophyllites, Sphenophyllum,
Cyatheites, Alethopteris, Caulopteris peltigera, Brong.;* Lycopodites
selaginoides, Stbg.; Lepidodendron dichotomum, Stbg.; Sigillaria
alternans, L. & H.; S. Cortei, Stigmaria ficoides, etc. All these
occur therefore above the Permian Fauna, and no Permian plants
amongst them.

b. Tur Rep SanpstonE Formation.

Above this Upper Coal-seam, with the Gas-coal on top, we find
the real Permian Series partly exposed near Rakonitz, but especially
more to the north, near Klobuk and Perutz, where they dip under
Cretaceous beds, and extend to the valley of the Eger river, between
Postelberg and Budin, as they are seen in that region on the right
shore of that river. In this series we have again the Permian
Araucarites stems in abundance, as in the Pilsen Basin and in the
truly Permian strata in N.E. Bohemia, on the 8.W. side of the
Riesengebirge.

From near Klobuk we know Calamites gigas, Brong., and Walchia
piniformis, Stbg., etc. The sequence of the beds in this Coal-field
is, therefore, generally the following:

1. Red Sandstones —With Araucarites, Calamites and Wailchia.
Shales with Carboniferous Flora.

Gas-coal (Schwarte), with Permian Fauna only.
The Coal-seam.

2. Upper Coal-seam (
District.

Shales with Carboniferous Flora and Scorpio.
3. Lower Coal-seam ) Coal-seam.
District. Clay-band with Carboniferous Flora.
Coal-seam.

If we now compare both these basins (Pilsen and Kladno-Rakonitz)
we shall observe :

1. The group of Red Sandstones in the Kladno-Rakonitz basin is
equal to the same group in the Pilsen basin, with the beds near
Ledec and Zilow.

2. The Rakonitz-Schlan Gas-coal is rather higher in the series
than the Gas-coal at Nirschan, though both contain some genera of
animals in common; the Flora being, however, much more abundant
near Niirschan than near Rakonitz, seems to indicate a slow ex-
tinction of it towards this latter place; but this Rakonitz Gas-coal
was, even by Dionys Stur, acknowledged as Permian in his mis-
leading paper on that subject in Verh. d. k. k. geol. Reichsanstalt,
Wien, 1874, p. 194.

3. The lower seam in the Pilsen basin is of the same horizon, as
in the Kladno-Rakonitz basin.

This we may perhaps explain in the following way :

1 Abhandl. d. K. bohm. Gesellsch. d. Wissenschaften, 1873-4; Jahrb. d.k.k.
Geol. Reichsanst. 1874.

2 Figured in Verstein. d. bohm. Kohlenablagerungen (Feistmantel), pl. xxiv.
DECADE II.—YOL. IV.—NO, III. 8

114 Dr. Feistmantel—Bohemian Coal Fauna and Passage-Beds.

The lower Coal-seam districts in both basins are characterized by
a truly Carboniferous Flora only.

While this Flora still grew in abundance in the Pilsen basin, the
first Permian animals appeared there at a time when the upper
Coal-seam of Niirschan began to be deposited.

From this point the animals continued in the district of Kladno-
Rakonitz upper Coal-seam, until the end of its deposition, while
the Carboniferous Flora still existed, but was already dying out.

After this time the Carboniferous Flora rapidly died out, and was
replaced by Permian forms, which, with the associated Permian
animals, lived together as we find them in the northern part of
Kladno-Rakonitz Coal-field, and especially in the north-east of the
Bohemia, but which already began so in the Pilsen basin.

We have therefore an eastward and northward development of
Permian animals and plants.

A general view may illustrate the relations :—

( a Red Sandstones with Araucarites, Permian Flora, etc.

6 Spherosiderites near Ledec and Zilow, Pilsen basin; with
Permian animal-remains only.

Upper

Coal e Carboniferous Flora (rarer), near Rakonitz.
Di cai d Gas-coal of Rakonitz (Schwarte); Permian animals.
: ee e Coal-seam.

C at We q f Carboniferous Flora, very abundant.
eee (; Coal-seam.

( h Nirschan Gas-Coal, Permian Fauna, and rich Carboniferous
Flora.

~ Carboniferous Flora only, very abundant.

ft Coal-seam.

Seam District

Lower Coal- (
in both

Z Carboniferous Flora.

Coal-fields. m Coal-seam.

As an immediate result from this consideration it follows that in
Bohemia (and certainly also elsewhere) there is no strict boundary
between the true Carboniferous and Permian epoch, to demonstrate
which was always the chief object of my four years’ examination of
the Bohemian Coal-fields, all of which I saw under the guidance of
Mr. Krejci, Professor of Geology at the Polytechnikum in Prague.

The same result is clearly to be seen even from Herr Stur’s
general view (Verh. k. k. geolog. Reichsanst. 1874, p. 208), and
even Prof. Weiss does not deny it,! although both Weiss and Stur
tried for some time to place the Niirschan Gas-coal, which is the
passage-bed, much lower in the series.

But Mr. Krejei explained it very decidedly in a short, but com-
prehensive and clearly written paper, 1874.°

B.—HISTORICAL NOTES.

While local geologists and paleontologists, long resident in
Bohemia, were especially engaged in the examination of these
Coal-fields for many years, and had explained the relations of
these Gas-coals with their Permian animals in the manner I have
indicated, some foreign geologists, who never had occasion to

1 Zeitschrift. d. D. Geol. Gesellsch. 1874, p. 364.
2 Sitzungsb. d. k. bohm, Gesellsch. d. Wissensch. 1874, Decemb.

Dr. Feistmantel—Bohemian Coal Fauna and Passage-Beds. 115

examine them so thoroughly, and who never had such a rich collec-
tion of these animals, were inclined to consider the Fiora only, and
explained their relations in a directly opposite manner.

But in medio virtus must also be here the guiding motto, and all
circumstances must be considered.

The age of the Gas-coal in the Kladno-Rakonitz basin, which is
especially known for many years from the locality Hredl, was already
recognized correctly by Messrs. Reuss (in 1858) and Lipold (in
1862), both taking it as of Permian age, for which they had good
grounds.

I myself visited this basin for three years with Prof. Krejci, and
we could only confirm again these previous observations. But I found
more. I found that the Flora from above the Gas-coal is throughcut
Carboniferous, and not one single species is of Permian character.

I discussed these relations first in my special paper on this basin,’
and they are also to be found in my subsequent general papers.”

Here I was the first who pointed out the analogy of the lower
Coal-seam with the Coal-strata of Radnitz,° and described first, more
in detail, the localities of the Gas-coal with Permian animal-remains,
and a Carboniferous Flora, in the shales above.

Herr Stur, of Vienna, expressed about this Gas-coal, in one and
the same year, two rather different opinions. In his misleading
paper on the Bohemian Coal-fields,* on account of the animals, he
treats the Gas-coal (Schwarte) without hesitation as truly Permian
(or as he prefers calling it, Dyas’); but he established a superfluous
name for this Gas-ceal, calling it ‘‘ Kounowa Series,” while, if a new
name be made at all, it should be called Hredler Series, being much
longer and much better known from the locality of Hredl.

In a note, in the Verhandl. d. k. k. geol. Reichsanstalt, 1874,
Herr Dionys Stur reports on plants from the district of the Gas-coal,
and says distinctly that till that time no plants from this district
were recorded, although my special paper on the Kladno-Rakonitz
basin was already published, and Herr Stur was acquainted with it.
Here I enumerated the first plants from above the Gas-coal. Herr
Stur was obliged to recognize that those plants were only of Carbon-
iferous character. To be able to explain it, Herr Stur at once re-
moved the position of the Gas-coal to the very beginning of the
Permian, in which he might perhaps not be wrong, although at first,
judging from the Fauna only, he thought it higher. We see, how-
ever, that the Permian character of this Gas-coal is so apparent that
Herr Stur could not transform it, although he would certainly have
liked to do so.

Prot. Krejci, in his excellent short paper,’ pronounced the last

1 Abhandl. d. k. bohm. Gesellsch. d. Wissensch. 1873.

2 Geologischen Reschsanst. Wien, 1873. Abhandl. d. k. bohm. Gesellsch. d.
Wissensch. 1874. Verst d. bohm. Kohlenablangerungen, Cassel, 1874-76.

3 Hurr Stur, of Vienna, did so later, when my paper was already published, and
without mentioning it, although aware of its existence.

4 Verh. d. k. k. geol. Reichsanst. 1874, p. 189, et seqq.

5 This unfortunate word is certainly very inappropriate and confusing.

6 Sitzungsb. d. k. bohm. Gesellsch. d. Wissensch, 1874.

116 Dr. Feistmantel—Bohemian Coal Fauna and Passage-Beds.

opinion, taking this Gas-coal in the Kladno-Rakonitz Coal-field to be
analogous to the Kohlenrothliegendes in the Saarbriicken basin, or
in other words as Lower Permian, in which my own explanations
were acknowledged.

About the Niirschan Gas-coal, from which so many more animals
are known, and from whence Dr. A. Fritsch has obtained the greater
part of his material, the literature is a little more complicated.

First we find the Gas-coal mentioned in Prof. Geinitz’s voluminous
and important work, ‘“Steinkohlen Deutschlands und anderer Lander
Europas,” 1865, i. vol.; but the Professor did not know any animals
from there, and of the plants only two species are specially mentioned,
amongst which, as the most frequent, Sphenopéeris Gravenhorsti,
Brong., which I found again in my examinations. The Professor
knew the Gas-coal also only from the mines in the immediate neigh-
bourhood of Niirschan.

More lately, however, in 1870, I visited this Coal-field and
collected plants in the more western mines of Niirschan, as well
from the Gas-coal as from the Shale above, in the mines of Dr.
Pankraz, while Dr. Anton Fritsch had already at that time some
material of animal-remains to determine.

At that time he wrote the first note! and spoke of these re-
mains as Permian; at the same time I wrote my first paper on the
plant-remains from this stratum in June, 1870,? and pointed out
already strongly as very interesting the occurrence of this Permian
Fauna with an almost entirely Carboniferous Flora.

In a reference to this paper of mine in Geinitz und Leonhard’s
Jahrbuch, 1870, the Carboniferous age of the plants was acknow-
ledged, the Permian character of the animals could not be denied ;
and to explain this, an immigration or colonization of those
migratory animals (as they are called there) in the Carboniferous
strata was suggested as possible. But it certainly says that in our
Pilsen basin the Carboniferous Flora was still growing, while these
Permian animals had already begun to live, which only proves the
existence of the former in Permian times.

Later I paid three more visits to this Coal-field and wrote my
other papers on this subject.? In all these papers I declared as
a paleeontological maxim, that in this case the animal-remains will
certainly have to decide, and that a surviving of an already exist-
ing Flora is more natural, and I then declared the Nirschan Gas-
coal as also of lowest Permian; parallel with Herr Weiss’s Kohlen-
rothhegendes.

Prof. Geinitz, however, maintained his view of an “immigration”
of “dyadic forms.”

1 Sitzungsberichte der k, bohm. Gesellsch. d. Wissensch. 1870. April.

2 Thidem, June, 1870.

3 Beitrag zur Kenntniss und Ausdehnung des Nirschaner Gasschiefers, etc., Jahrb.
d. k. k. geol. Reichsanst. 1872.—Ueber das Verhaltniss der bohm. Kohlen- und
Permformation, etc., Ibidem, 1873.—A letter to Prof. Geinitz, in Geinitz und
Leonhard N. Jahrb., 1872, p. 8303.—Ueber den Niirschaner Gasschiefer, Zeitschr. d.
D. geol. Gesellsch. 1873.—Ueber Verbreitung und geol. Stellung der verkieselten
Araucaritenstamme, ete., Sitzungsb. d. k. bohm. Gesellsch. d. Wiss. 1878, etc.

Dr. Feistmantel—Bohemian Coal Fauna and Passage-Beds. 117

In the mean time I entered into correspondence with Prof. Weiss
in Berlin, who classified in a similar manner the Saarbriicken Coal-
field, and he communicated to me his opinion that our Nirschan
Gas-coal will most probably be analogous to his Otweiler Series,
forming the transition from the Carboniferous to the true Permian,
which he stated also in an exposé in the Zeitschr. d. D. geolog.
Gesellsch. 1874, pp. 367-69, referring to my paper “‘ Verh. d. bohm.
Kohlen zur Permform. l.c.”; he could not deny the fact, that the
Carboniferous and Permian strata appear only as members of one
formation, to show which was always my chief intention; this state-
ment of Weiss was therefore a great satisfaction to me. But I yet
must recall to mind that Weiss himself gave as characteristic for his
Otweiler Series a Carboniferous Flora, without a Permian Fauna,
which, however, is so numerous in our Gas-coals at Nurschan (and
Rakonitz), that they certainly never can be mistaken for Carbon-
iferous.

In consequence of this I adopted, in a certain way, Herr Weiss’s
view (in a letter to Dr. Geinitz, in Leonh. und Gein. Jahrb. 1874),
considering this Niirschan Gas-coal (therefore the whole upper seam)
as passage-beds, which may be called Otweiler Series, in the Saar-
briick basin, but strongly advocating the close connexion of this with
the Permian formation, and citing the abundance of Xenacanthus,
Acanthodes, ete.

This view I used afterwards again in my general works,' but only
for the Ntirschan Gas-coal, considering it parallel with Weiss’s
Otweiler Series, as passage-beds, while the Rakonitz Gas-coal I
placed at the beginning of the Permian.

I gave the following table :

The true Red Sandstones, with Permian Fauna and Flora.

Permian Spherosiderites of Zilow and Ledec.

Rakonitz Gas-coal.
1 Above Carboniferous Flora.
Otweiler Series ) Ntirschan Gas-coal, with Permian Fauna and Carboniferous Flora.
Passage-Beds ) Upper seam of the Coal-field at foot of the Riesengebirge, near
\ Radowenz. :
True
Carboniferous

This was the state of the question, on my part,? when I left for
India, engaged on the Geological Survey, after having examined for
four years the Bohemian Coal-fields.

When all the above was written, for the most part with the approval
of Mr. Krejci, Professor of Geology, and Dr. Ant. Fritsch, Professor
of Zoology and Paleontology in Prague. two visitors, Herr Stur,

1 Studien im Gebiete des bohm. Kohlengebirges; Abh. d. k. bohm. Gesellsch. d.
Wissenschaften, 1874. Verst. d. bohm. Kohlenabl., Cassel, 1874-76.

2 My paper, “‘ Studien in Kohlengebirge,” etc., was later discussed in Nature,
July 27, 1876, p. 270, where the reviewer concludes as follows: “ But faults like
these will not detract from the real value of the work; when the time comes for a
rectification of boundaries on the Permo-Carboniferous frontier, the vast mass of
carefully-observed facts which it furnishes will form no unimportant contribution to
the body of evidence by which the question must be decided. The author may have

been premature in his conclusions, but his industry and application have produced a
work that will have a permanent value.”

Lower Coal-seam district.

118 Dr. Feistmante-—Bohemian Ooal Fauna and Passage- Beds.

from Vienna, and Herr Weiss in Berlin, came to see the Pilsen basin.
They had, of course, a very easy task, as they had already a great
amount of important papers for their guidance.

As I have already mentioned, Herr Stur published in 1874 a paper
in the Verhandl. d. k. k. geolog. Reichsanstalt,! which, however,
must be taken with precaution, as it contains a great many asser-
tions, mostly without proof; therefore Herr Stur must naturally
expect that, as he is not infallible, his views are open to objections.

Herr Stur took, also, as I did before, the Rakonitz Gas-coal as
Permian, although, as I first proved (L.c.), the Flora above is Carbon-
ierous; but for the Niirschan Gas-coal he has chosen another Opinion,
and pronounced this Niirschan Gas-coal as parallel to one of the
‘‘ lowest Carboniferous horizons” in Bohemia. .This was done with
such a degree of certainty (but always without arguments) that my
conclusions on this subject seemed struck down, but fortunately
only for a short time. Herr Stur did well not to deal with the
occurrence of the animal-remains, which would certainly not have
fitted in with his well-made system in words.

About the same time Herr Weiss, from Berlin,? came to see for
a short time the Pilsen basin, and at once wrote a Report on
what ‘he had seen”; in a letter to Prof. Geinitz,3 which is
signed by him and another gentleman, apparently as witness. In
this the Niirschan Gas-coal, certainly only from a superficial view,
is also attributed to the lowest Carboniferous horizon in Bohemia; but
the animal-remains were not considered at all, which, however, must
be absolutely done, to gain a correct idea of its relations. Mr. Weiss
on the contrary, in his note in Zeitschr. d. D. geol. Gesellschaft,
1874, p. 368, discussing my paper on the relation of the Permian
and Carboniferous in Bohemia, went so far as to say—when com-
paring the Niirschan Gas-coal with the Otweiler Series—that in the
latter no Xenacanthus has been found, which, however, as Herr Weiss
thinks, is of no importance (lc. p. 868 below), and yet he was
the first, who in his paper “ Leitfische des Rothliegenden in den
Leebacher und aequivalenten Schichten des Saarbriickisch-pfiilz-
ischen Kohlengebirges,”* mentions Acanthodes, Xenacanthus, Palco-
niscus, etc., as the most characteristic genera for the Permian strata.

A mining engineer, now lecturer in the Mining Academy at
Leoben, Herr Helmhacher, went still further, and endeavoured to
prove,’ from the mineralogical relations, that this Niirscham Gas-
coal is something like the English Bog-head Coal, and therefore also
of Lower Carboniferous age: “quod erat demonstrandum,” thought the
gentleman. But the imagined victory of these outside observers was
only of short duration.

Hirst I have to notice the repeatedly pronounced opinion of the

' Momentaner Standmeiner Untersuchungen iiber die unsseralpine Steinkohlen-
formation, April, 1874.

* He writes notices and reviews under the signature, W. in Berlin.

3 N. Jahrb. 1874, pp. 963-964.

4 Zeitschrift d. D. geol. Gesellsch. 1874.

° See Verh. d. k. k. geol. Reichstlt. 1876, p. 213; N. Jahrb. etc., 1876, p, 104.

Dr. Feistmantel—Bohemian Coal Fauna and Passage-Beds. 119

well-known Prof. F. Rémer of the University of Breslau, that he
considers the Niirschan Gas-coal as corresponding with a similar
deposit at Klein-Neundorf in Silesia, which is indeed so.

Very soon after Herr Stur’s paper, with an amount of facts without
arguments, a simply but clearly written article by the Bohemian
local geologist, Prof. Krejci, appeared,' wherein the Professor, after
many long years of experience and practice in Bohemian geology,
has explained the matter in a most natural way.

While acknowledging the abilities of all the authors, who have
written on the subject, he yet for good reasons cannot concur either
in Herr Stur’s or Herr Weiss’s opinions, and he adopts that view
which I have illustrated so repeatedly.

He says in the conclusion of his paper (I give the translation) :
“The Bohemian Coal-formation, and especially the Pilsen basin,
forms therefore a connected series of strata, of which the Lower
portion (Radnitz, Kladno, Pilsen, etc.) is parallel with the Saar-
briicken Series, the higher portion (Rakonitz Gas-coal) with the
Cuseler and Leebach Series, while the Niirschan Gas-coal, however.
has to be put at the base of the Kohlenrothliegendes of the Saarbriick
basin, or it is analogous with the Otweiler Series,” which classifica-
tion may decide the present state of the question about the age of
the Nirschan Gas-coal.”

This result is the same which I had arrived at in my later papers,
and this paper of Prof. Krejci was the first energetical contradiction
of the opinions of those gentlemen J mentioned above.

But a still more important expression of opinion in that way
is Dr. A. Fritsch’s presentation of his results of the examinations of
the Fauna from the Gas-coals before the last Glasgow meeting. Dr.
A. Fritsch declared the animals to be mostly of Permian character,
and these beds as passage-beds between Carboniferous and Permian
in Bohemia, just as I did, and as Prof. Krejci stated again, and this
after duly considering both kinds of organisms.

Thus Herr Stur and Herr Weiss had a very short time the satis-
faction of having contradicted my views, as they have been so
evidently re-established by our best local geologists and palaon-
tologists, and we can always suppose that good local geologists, who
are also excellently acquainted with all other relations, will and can
decide a question better than a visitor, who only casually examines
the subject.

I felt obliged to bring this subject forward, in the GEoLoGIcAL
Maeazing, in order to give English readers an indication where
to find, if required, the several papers on this question, so impor-
tant in its bearings on the subject of the boundaries of the Permo-
Carboniferous formation in general, and by way of caution as to
Herr Stur’s publications in that direction. But here again, im
medio virtus. Where plants only occur, they may decide the
horizon, if they are analogous with known and already determined

! Sitzungsb. d. k. bohm. Gesellsch. d. Wissensch. 1874.
* These are the passage-beds, to which I also referred the Nurschan Gas-coal.

120 Notices of Memoirs—Th. Fuchs—On the Tertiaries of Malta.

floras; where animals only occur, they must decide from their part ;
but if both animals and plants occur, they must both be used in an
appropriate way; but we must always take this maxim for our
guidance, that already existing organisms could much easier sur-
vive, than that organisms generally known as higher in stratifica-
tion should be transferred to much lower strata; and how such
cases can be explained by colonization, everybody knows best for
himself, and I have indicated already above.

We must further consider that formations in general have proved
not to be so strictly limited, and that very often forms from the
lower pass into the higher, as for instance the Rhetic beds, as
passage-beds between the Keuper and Lias; the Wealden formation,
as a passage-bed between the Upper Jura and Lower Cretaceous,
etce., were established; there is certainly such a passage also be-
tween the Carboniferous and Permian formation, and in Bohemia
the Nirschan Gas-coal establishes this passage : it is therefore to be
considered as a passage-bed between the Carboniferous and Permian
formations there.

INI@ TESTS) (Oran) ViseaaNVa@aeee S-
——@——_

J.—On tHE Tertrarres oF Matra.! By Tu. Fucus. Proceed.
Imp. Acad. Vienna, Jan. 20, 1876, vol. Ixx. p. 92.
[Communicated by Count Marscuatt, C.M.G.S., ete. ]
ee Tertiaries may be divided into two groups; the upper one

answering to the Leitha-limestone of the Vienna Basin; the
lower one to the deposits of Schio near Vicenza, of Monte Titano
near San Marino, of Dego, Carcare, and Belforte in Italy, those of
Bazas and Merignac in France, the Marine Molasse of Bavaria, the
Sotzka beds of Styria, and the Pectunculus beds of Hungary. The
two groups are conformable; but, though petrographically analogous,
offer different paleontological characters.

The succession of beds (in descending order) is :—

A. Leitha-Kalk Group.

1st. —Leitha-limestones in all the varieties occurring in the Vienna
Basin, and a peculiar compact variety with breccia-like texture,
bearing more resemblance to the Triassic ‘“ Rauhwackes” of the
Alps than to any Miocene Leitha-limestone.

The plateaux formed of these limestones are notably worn out by
atmospheric agencies, their superficial erosions being filled by a
brick-red earthy substance, like those of the Illyrian Karst. Organic
remains, identical with those of the Leitha-limestones of the Vienna
Basin, are locally abundant.

2nd.— Green Sands and Heterostegina-limestones of Gozo, im-
mediately beneath the Leitha-limestones with an enormous quantity
of Polyzoa, Heterostegine, Echinide, Ostree, and Pectines, and in
every respect answering to the sands of Neudorf, south of Vienna.

1 Papers on the Geology and Fossils of Malta, by Duncan, Jones, and Hutton,
have appeared in the Gronocican Magazine, Vol. I. pp. 96—106, and Vol. III.

pp- 145—152, which may be consulted in connexion with this communication.—Enir.
Gzou, Mac.

_ Notices of Memoirs—Geological Survey of India. 121

3rd.—Plastie Clay (“Schlier” of the Vienna Basin), with a thick-
ness of 180 feet, abounding with Nautilus Aturi, Bast. (Naut. diluvit,
Sism.), Pecten denudatus, Reuss, and Pecten, sp. nov.

B. “ Bormidian-Aquitanian.”

1st.— Pecten-beds, answering to the Schio-beds, finely arenaceous,
soft, with an abundance of small Echinide and Pectines (P. Haueri,
and P. deletus) ; the chief building material of Malta.

2nd. — Lower Limestones, chiefly developed in Gozo, visible in
Malta for longer or shorter distances along the coast. Composed
of detritus of Nulliporees and Polyzoa; hard and compact. ‘The
characteristic organic remains are small Scutelle, identical with
those of Schio, gigantic Orbiculine! and Orbitoides, some four
inches in diameter. Shells are abundant; most of them are analogous
to those of Castel-Gomberto and Sangonini; but some are of the
Miocene type, such as Turritella cathedralis.

Il.—Nore sur urs Dépors: Criracis LACUSTRES ET D’EAU
SocmArre pu Miprt pe 1a France, par M. Ph. Maruuron.
(Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France, 8° série, vol. iv.
pp. 415-428.)

HE author is of opinion that the beds of fresh and brackish water

deposits that occur in Central France, and which were at one

time considered to be entirely of Miocene age, represent not only

almost all the Tertiary series, but even some of the uppermost beds
of the Chalk.

Starting at the Chalk with Ostrea Matheroniana, the lowermost
bed of the Sénonien, as a base-line, there follow in ascending order
in the Department of Bouches-du-Rhone, zone of Ostrea acutirostris,
the littoral beds with Cassiope Coquandiana, brackish-water beds,
Fuveau series, Rognac series, and the large series of red claystones.
All these M. Matheron classes as Cretaceous ; all above being referred
tothe Tertiary period. The “terrain Garumnien” of M. Leymerie is
correlated with the two last named of the above series, 1.e. uppermost
Cretaceous.2—B.B.W.

Il].—Recorps or run Grotoctcat Survey or Inpra, Vou. IX. Pr. 4.

‘YONTAINS on p. 154 a notice of the discovery of the remains of
J a Plesiosaurus in the Umia (Tithonian and Portlandian) beds
at Burroria, in Kachh.

The specimen, which is the first indication yet found of the presence
of this reptile in India, ‘comprises the whole of the symphysis and
small portions of the rami of the mandible; on the right side it
contains the alveoli of five teeth, and on the left side, of four.” It
‘aorees almost exactly in form and size with P. dolichodeirus of the
Lias.” This interesting specimen, which doubtless will not long
remain unique, was found by Mr. A. B. Wynne, and is described
by Mr. R. Lydekker, of the Indian Geological Survey.—B.B.W.

1 Orbiculina is not noticed in Grou. Mag. Vol. III. p. 152, as a Maltese fossil.—
Eprror.

> M. Hébert (Bull. Geol. Soc. de la France, 3° série, vol. iii. p. 595) had classed
the Garumnian beds as Upper Senonian, and the Rognac beds as Damien (?).

122 Reviews—Rer. T. G. Bonney’s Cambridgeshire Geology.

dSy In WAI RIE Wise

J. — CampripGrsHireE Grotocy. A SKETCH FOR THE USE OF
Stupents. By T. G. Bonney, M.A., F.G.S., ete., Tutor and
Lecturer in Natural Science, St. John’s College, Cambridge.
(Deighton, Bell & Co., 1875.)

HIS sketch of Cambridgeshire Geology is stated in the preface to
have been published to give to beginners some information on
the local geology of this district. A pamphlet on this subject was
privately printed by the late Prof. Sedgwick in 1861. Since that
period many papers have been written on the geology of this part
of England. Mr. Bonney gives a short account of the strata of the
Mesozoic period, and the nature of their variation when traced
diagonally across England from the southern counties. The physical
geography of the Cambridge district is thus described: ‘ The valley
of the Cam is a wide alluvial plain, bounded on the eastern side by
a clearly-marked escarpment of the Lower Chalk, on the western by
a more irregular hilly district, consisting partly of outliers of Lower
Chalk, partly of inferior deposits capped by Boulder-clay. The
right bank of the valley is formed by the edge of the great Chalk
plateau, which has been corroded by the action of rain and rivers
into undulating hills and valleys. From this Chalk plateau sundry
streams descend towards the Cam, forming wide valleys with shelv-
ing sides, occupied in places by alluvial deposits. The fen land does
not extend to Cambridge, its nearest inlets are four to five miles
distant ; thence it extends to the sea, as a widespread tract of per-
fectly flat land, scarcely above the sea-level.” Next follows a descrip-
tion of the Jurassic strata, which, in the neighbourhood of Cambridge,
consists of a vast argillaceous deposit, with a few local and partial
calcareous beds, the lower part of which is Oxford Clay, and the
upper part is Kimmeridge Clay ; in some places these graduate one
into the other, without any very clear line of demarcation. The
lower beds of the Oxford Clay, containing 4. Duncani, etc., may be
seen at St. Neots; the higher beds at St. Ives, where the deposit
consists of a pale bluish-grey fine clay, with occasional calcareous
concretions, crystals of selenite, and lumps of pyrites often altered
into limonite. Gryphea dilatata is very abundant, also Am. cordatus,
Marie, Eugenti and Hecticus, and Belemnites hastatus. The most
important of the calcareous zones is that at Elsworth, described by
Prof. Seeley (Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. iii. vol. x. p. 98). The
Transition Clay has been called by Prof. Seeley Ampthill Clay. Near
Upware there is a low broad ridge of Limestone, which Mr. Bonney
regards as a representative of the Coralline Oolite.

The Kimmeridge Clay is best seen at Roslyn Pit, near Ely. It
is of a bluish-black colour, containing Septaria. Among the fossils
are Lingula ovalis, Ostrea deltoidea, Exogyra virgula, Am. biples,

‘rigonellites latus, and several genera of fishes and_ reptiles.
The Neocomian deposits of Potton and Upware are next described.
Mr. Bonney adopts the same view with regard to the age of these

Reviews—Rev. T. G. Bonney’s Cambridgeshire Geology. 123

deposits as that expressed in papers which have appeared in this
Macazinw. The Gault in this district is described as a pale bluish-
grey tenacious clay, in which are concretions of iron pyrites, small
crystals of selenite, and light brown phosphatic nodules ; its thick-
ness at Cambridge is about 115 feet, near Hitchin 214. Its upper
surface is uneven. The base of the Gault contains several fossils, as
Inoceramus concentricus, Nucula pectinata, Belemnites minimus, etc.
Resting on the eroded surface of the Gault there is a stratum barely
a foot in thickness, full of green grains of glauconite and black
nodules of phosphate of lime, looking like a sediment from the
purer marl above; it contains erratic boulders covered with
Plicatula sigillina, as was pointed out by Prof. Seeley in the third
volume of this Magazine. This bed is remarkable for the number
of fossil fishes, Deinosaurs, Ornithosaurs, Chelonians, etc., which it
contains; Mollusca, Crustacea, Coelenterata, Foraminifera, are also
abundant. Mr. Bonney supposes the phosphatic nodules to have
been formed by concretionary action. He regards some of the
fossils as having been derived from the Gault. We cannot agree
with him in calling this seam Chloritic-marl; as the fossils proper to
the bed are those of the Chalk-marl, and the characteristic fossils of
the Chloritic-marl are almost entirely absent. The Chalk round
Cambridge contains Holaster subglobosus, Inoceramus Cuviert, ete.
(see Seeley, Geor. Mac. Vol. I. p. 153). The Post-Pliocene de-
posits of Cambridgeshire are described in the following order :—
1. Boulder-clay. 2. Coarse Hill Gravel. 3. Fine Gravel of the
Plains—this is well seen at the Barnwell Gravel Pit; it contains
Cyrena fluminalis, Hydrobia marginata and Unio littoralis, all
now extinct in England; along with these are found existing
species of land and fresh-water shells, and bones of Bos, Equus,
Rhinoceras tichorhinus, Elephas, Hippopotamus, ete.; flint imple-
ments have also been found. A deposit of gravel at March contains
marine shells. 4. Older Peat. 5. Buttery Clay. 6. Newer Peat.

Next follow five appendices to the work. The first contains an
account of the Upware Sections, with which the readers of this
MaGazine are well acquainted. The second, an account of the Roslyn
Pit, Ely, reprinted from this Magazine. Third, a short account of
the Hunstanton Red Rock, which Mr. Bonney considers probably
to represent paleontologically the Cambridge Greensand. Fourth,
on the Water Supply of Cambridge, which is derived from three
sources: 1. Old river gravels: 2. From springs at the base of the
Lower Chalk; 3. From artesian wells driven through the Gault into
the Neocomian Sands from 100ft. to 150ft. deep. Fifth, on the
Building Stones, etc., employed in Cambridge—the white bricks
from the Gault; red bricks of St. John’s College from London Clay
of Suffolk ; Magnesian Limestone, the lower part of King’s College
Chapel; Inferior Oolite from Aislaby, near Whitby, great room of
University Library and Woodwardian Museum ; Lincolnshire Lime-
stone, King’s College Chapel, New Courts of St. John’s and Trinity,
etc.: Bath Oolite, University Press and Observatory ; Portland
Oolite, Senate House, facade of University Library, Fitzwilliam

124 Reviews—Prof. H. G. Seeley on Ornithosauria.

Museum, Fellows’ buildings of King’s College; Lower Chalk, in-
terior of several churches; it is called Clunch.

This work, along with Mr. Whitakev’s list of geological papers on
Cambridgeshire, will not only be very useful to students at Cam-
bridge reading for the University examinations, but will also be
very interesting to old members of the University, and we can
strongly recommend it to readers of this MaAcaztne who wish to
obtain a clear and correct view of what is at present known of the
Geology of Cambridgeshire, as a carefully prepared and well-written

book. J. F. W.

J].—On THE ORGANIZATION OF THE ORNITHOSAURIA. Linnean
Society’s Journal—Zoology. Vol. XIII. 1876, pp. 84-107.
By Professor H. G. Srenuy, F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.G.S.

HIS is an important paper upon an interesting paleontological
subject, for but in few instances have the hard lines of classifi-
cation been more difficult to define, or have led to greater divergence
of opinion among the most eminent of European naturalists, past
and present, than has that of the natural position of the Pterodactyles
in regard to their affinities: whether they should be classed with the
Birds on the one hand, or with the Reptiles on the other. It is true
that the weight of authority, whilst admitting some important
anomalies in their organization, refer them to the latter class. Prof.
Owen’s name of Pterosauria being generally accepted for the group.
But other naturalists consider that their peculiar organization, as de-
duced from their osteological remains, entitle them to be elevated
into a distinct group or Order, intermediate between birds and reptiles,
and for which group the designation ORNITHOSAURIA was proposed by
Prince Charles Buonaparte in 1838. Among the advocates of these
views is the author of the memoir under consideration, and in which
he maintains, aided by further observations and additional facts, the
opinions enunciated some seven years ago in his useful and interest-
ing work on the Ornithosauria in the Woodwardian Museum, Cam-

bridge (see notice in Gron. Mac. Vol. VII. p. 341).

From careful comparisons of the various bones of the skeleton of
these extinct volants with the corresponding bones in birds and
reptiles, he here describes in detail the pomts m which they most
resemble, or depart from, the typical characteristics of the groups
with which they have been compared; and maintains that the results
of his later examinations confirm his previous convictions, and fully
demonstrate that the organization of these old volants was decidedly
more avian than reptilian.

The most important characters upon which he relies for the claims
of the Pterodactylia to be classified as a distinct Order, are the pneu-
matic foramina and the form of the brain-cavity, believing that
“brains and lungs are organs of incomparably greater value in
questions of organization” than manus or pes,—organs, in which,
according to Prof. Huxley, the Pterodactyles depart most widely from
the ornithic type.

With regard to the pneumatic foramina, he asserts that they are

Reviews—Prof. H. G. Seeley on Ornithosauria. 125

essentially avian in character, and are not “adaptive modifications,”
to any reptilian form ‘‘ consequent upon the parts of the body having
had to perform identical functions—seeing that the Cheiroptera
among mammals have great powers of flight without the skeleton
being pneumatic.”” Upon this character he also further remarks: “The
pneumatic foramina of Ornithosaurs so closely resemble those of
birds in almost every bone of the skeleton, that the resemblance
often amounts to complete coincidence. ‘The holes are usually in
exactly the same positions on each of the bones in both groups; and
in both they have the same details of reticulate structure. It must
then be sound physiology to infer that such identity of structure is
due to identical causation.” These well-ascertained facts, in the
author’s opinion, tend to prove that the respiratory and circulatory
organs were near akin to those of the bird, and, as a consequence,
the Ornithosaurs were hot-blooded, and therefore not reptilian. Prof.
Huxley, commenting elsewhere upon the high development of these
organs in the Pterodactyles, thinks it highly probable that they had
hot blood, but nevertheless that they were reptiles, with special
modifications for special purposes. These conclusions Prof. Seeley
contends cannot be accepted.

We may here remark that Prof. Owen, in his latest memoir upon
these animals, as positively maintains that their affinities are reptilian
rather than avian, and that by the absence of feathers as a heat-con-
serving covering they were also cold-blooded. It is a remarkable
fact that no trace of scales, hair, or feathers, or of integumentary
covering, have ever been found associated with their osteological
remains in deposits, like the Solenhofen Limestone, so peculiarly
adapted for their preservation.

The other vital character that Prof. Seeley advances in support of
his argument is the stucture of the brain; the evidence for which
“vests upon the form of the cerebral hemisphere in Pterodactylus
longirostris and other specimens from the lithographic slate,” on a
specimen from the Wealden, and on some fragments showing por-
tions of the brain-cavity from the Cambridge Upper Greensand ;
these he compares with the brain-cavity in the skull of an Owl, and
fully describes, with minute anatomical detail, the many points in
which the structural characters are common to both, and as the
result of these comparisons he observes, that “the resemblance of
form and arrangement of parts between this fossil animal’s brain
and the brain of a bird amounts, as far as the evidence goes, to
absolute identity—the cerebrum being the cerebrum of a bird, the
optic lobes those of a bird, and the cerebellum that of a bird, no
more perfect specimen could add to the force of the conclusion that
the Ornithosaurian brain is an avian brain of typical structure.”
On these resemblances in vital structure chiefly rests the claim of
the Ornithosauria to be classified with the birds, which if allowed,
they are only separated from the carinate and other birds by such
modifications of the skeleton, as distinguish Cetacea, Carnivora, and
Monotremata among Mammals from each other.

The recent discovery in America of undoubted ornithic remains,

126 Reports and Proceedings—

which, in addition to other skeletal modifications, have teeth im-
planted in sockets, is, as far as it goes, another point in favour,
being a character which can no longer be used as an argument to
prove that the Pterodactyles were non-avian.

The skull, the microscopic structure of the teeth, and all the im-
portant bones of the skeleton, notably those of the fore-limb. have
been subjected to minute examination and comparison with the
corresponding parts in various birds and reptiles; and the points in
which they most resemble either the one or the other are discussed
and amply dilated upon; but upon this portion of the subject we
cannot enter further than to summarize a few of the conclusions
derived from the study of these remains. With regard to the skull,
it is observed, ‘‘Every point of the Ornithosaurian skull upon which
I have not offered comment presents absolute identity with the cor-
responding structures in birds”; and of the sacrum, that it is
«distinct from that of birds, and yet altogether unlike the sacrum of
any reptile.” That ‘‘the pectoral and sternal bones are about as
markedly avian as in the skull.” That “the pelvis and hind limb
are the least reptilian portions of the Ornithosaurian skeleton,” that
“the femur is in no respect a reptilian bone,” and that the tibia and
fibula are altogether avian, so much so that in many genera no
anatomist could distinguish them from the same bones in birds.”

These avian resemblances are not advanced by Mr. Seeley as
original discoveries, for they have been noticed and commented upon
by Herman von Meyer and others, but who have, notwithstanding
these resemblances, referred them to the class reptilia.

Without committing ourselves to any opinion on the subject, we
can, without hesitation, recommend those students who desire full
information upon the many points advanced, from original observa-
tions and study, in support of the ornithic affinities of these interesting
extinct animals, to read Mr. Seeley’s paper. It is clearly written and
argumentative, and is a valuable contribution to the literature of the
Pterodactyles. Vhs IDL

REPORTS AND PROCHEDINGS.
Tega

GronocicaL Socrery or Lonpon.—January 24th, 1877.—Prof.
P. Martin Duncan, M.B., F.R.S., President, in the Chair. The
following communications were read :—

1. “Note on the Question of the Glacial or Volcanic Origin of the
Talchir Boulder-bed of India and the Karoo Boulder-bed of South
Africa.” By H. F. Blanford, Esq., F.G.S.

The author, referring to a doubt expressed by the President in a
paper on Australian Tertiary Corals as to the glacial origin of the
Talchir Boulder-bed, indicated the hypothesis of its formation by
the action of local glaciers under present climatal conditions would
require the elevation of the whole region to the extent of 14,000 or
15,000 feet, and the assumption that the denudation of this great
mountain mass was so moderate that large tracts of the ancient
surface are still preserved at levels now only a few hundred feet

Geological Society of London. 127

above the sea. This the author regarded as very improbable. He
assumed that the President, rejecting the evidence adduced by
various writers in favour of the glacial origin of the Talchir and
Karoo Boulder-beds, was inclined to fall back upon the notion of
their being of volcanic origin, and quoted a letter from Mr. King,
who had described the Talchir rocks of Kamaram as trappean, in
which that gentleman stated that the rocks so interpreted by him
prove to be dark green and brownish mudstone. He cited further
evidence of like nature, and concluded that the ascription of a
volcanic origin to these boulder-beds was probably in all cases due
to similar misinterpretations.

The President, having quitted the chair, stated that in the remarks
he had made he had no wish to dogmatize, as the author seemed to
think ; and further, that those remarks were not made by him as
President, but as a simple Fellow of the Society, in a paper written
before he had the honour of filling the office of President. In
connexion with the assumed improbability of a change of level to
the extent of 14,000 or 15,000 feet, required, according to the
author, by the hypothesis that the beds referred to were formed by
local glaciers, he noticed that there was in the immediate neigh-
bourhood of some of these deposits a fault with a downthrow of
12,000 feet, so that such changes were at all events not impossible.
He remarked that as Professor at Cooper’s Hill he had prepared an
abstract of all that had been written on the geology of India, and
in so doing had made a selection of the different views that had
been expressed by Indian geological surveyors as to the nature of
the beds in question, but found their opinions so strikingly divergent
that he was forced to go back to the facts. He described the range
of the great Talchir formation from the Sone river in the north to
Hyderabad in the south-east and the Nerbudda in the north, and
stated that throughout the whole region the plant-bearing series ig
underlain by crystalline rocks, except in one instance by Vindhyan
rocks. The Coal-bearing series is found in basins or broken seg-
ments between great faults, the whole country, in fact, being much
broken. The succession of the beds he described as follows :—At
the top the Panchet beds, then the Barakar, and at the bottom the
Talchir deposits about 500-800 feet thick, having as their lowest
member a bed consisting of boulders united by a sandy silt. To-
wards the Nerbudda it was possible to trace within a few miles the
source from which the blocks had been derived. The boulder-bed
presented a close resemblance to an old shore-deposit, but to this
might be objected the large size and angularity of the blocks, many
of which must have travelled far, and some of which are scratched.
The underlying rocks are sometimes grooved. The deposit occurs
over an immense area, and its formation must have occupied much
time, and some forces must have been at work to bring the blocks
down and scratch them. Some Indian surveyors have referred their
presence to the action of shore-ice. He maintained that scratching
and angularity do not necessarily imply ice-action. With regard to
the grooving of the underlying rock, he remarked that on rocky

128 Reports and Proceedings—

coasts instances are not uncommon of the production of grooves at
right angles to the shore by tidal action and moving stones. In his
opinion the deposits had been formed, as long ago suggested by
Mr. Ball, by a combination of marine and land denudation, and he
had certainly never suggested that they could be of volcanic origin.
The so-called Karoo boulder-beds he thought are either brecciated
traps or metamorphosed rocks into which the felspathic element
largely enters.

2. “On British Cretaceous Patelloid Gasteropoda.” By John
Starkie Gardner, Esq., F.G-S.

In this paper the author commenced by a general statement as to
the classification of the forms to be described in it, which he referred
to the families Patellidee, Fissurellidee, Calyptreeidee, and Capulide.
He noticed thirty species, which are mostly of rare occurrence; and
nineteen of these were described as new. Four genera were
indicated as new to the Cretaceous series, and one as new to the
Cretaceous in England. The new species were Acmea formosa and
plana, Helcion Meyeri, Anisomyon vectis, Scurria calyptreiformis and
depressa, Emarginula puncturella, divisiensis, ancistra, Jfeyeri, and
unicostata, Puncturella antiqua, Calyptrea concentrica, Crepidula
chameformis, Crucibulum giganteum, Pileopsis neocomiensis, dubius
and Seeleyi, and JZTipponyx Dixoni. Most of the Patellide were
from the Neocomian, and the majority of the Fissurellide from the
Upper Greensand: the species of the other two families were scat-
tered through the series. The author referred to the indications of
depth of deposit and other conditions furnished by these Mollusca,
and also to the resemblance presented by many of them to certain
bivalves common in the same rocks, which he regarded as a sort of
mimicry.

3. “Observations on remains of the Mammoth and other Mammals
from Northern Spain.” By A. Leith Adams, Esq., M.B., F.R.S.,

The remains noticed in this paper were obtained by MM. O'Reilly
and Sullivan in a cavern discovered at about twelve metres from the
surface, in the valley of Udias, near Santander, by a boring made
through limestone in search of calamine. They were found close to
a mound of soil which had fallen down a funnel at one end of the
cavity, and more or less buried in a bed of calamine which covered
the floor. The cavern was evidently an enlarged joint or rock-
fissure, into which the entire carcases, or else the living animals,
had been precipitated from time to time. The author had identified
among these remains numerous portions, including teeth, of Hlephas
primigenius, which is important as furnishing the first instance
of the occurrence of that animal in Spain. He also recorded Bos
primigenius and Cervus elaphus (?), and stated that MM. O’Reilly and
Sullivan mention a long curved tooth which he thought might be a
canine of Hippopotamus.

Geologists’ Association. 129

Gerotoetsts’ AssocraTion, Untversity Couiece, 5th Jan., 1877.—
Witt1am Carrutrusrs, Hsa., F.R.S., F.G.8., President, in the Chair.

A paper was read by J. Srarkie Garpner, Hsq., F.G.S., “On THE
BournemoutH Lear-Breps.” The author described the nature of
the operations in the Bournemouth Leaf-Beds which he has been
carrying on for some years past, and explained that, having spent
some time with the President, Mr. Carruthers, at Poole Harbour in
the summer of 1876, he had been requested by him to give some
account of this most interesting paleobotanical locality to the
members of the Geologists’ Association. Having given some general
description of the locality, he said: If we examine these cliffs and
banks, we find them composed of clays dark or white, or red and
white mottled, of layers of coarse grey grit and of sands of every
shade of red and yellow, white, and variegated. Often the sands
have angular lumps of clay imbedded in them. The quarrying is
mostly done in open pits, the clay being dug out perpendicularly
with a long and narrow spade. Some of the deeper seams are
mined, and a considerable depth is reached in Mr. Pike’s workings,
and at Branksea similar pipe-clay is worked under the sea-level.

Overlying the pipe-clays we find another series of deposits, which
are not here quarried for use, but looked upon as refuse; but near
Bournemouth they are dug into in many places for the brick-earth
contained in them. They are easily distinguished by the darker
colour and more sandy nature of the clays. These drab clay-basins
are of smaller extent, and are full of remains of decayed leaves, and
have actual seams of coal in them, which is burnt by the villagers.
In the sheltered bay of Studland we can see but little of the cliffs,
as they are now mostly overgrown to the very beach. One is struck,
however, by the coloured sands, which forcibly remind those who are
familiar with them of the still more brilliant hues of the sands at
Alum Bay.

Being ferried across the inlet of Poole Harbour, and walking along
the beach towards Bournemouth, we find the coast for the first mile
composed of hills of blown sand, beyond which the cliffs we have
been viewing from a distance rapidly rise. These cliffs are them-
selves of rather monotonous appearance, being devoid of the
brilliant colouring so conspicuous at Alum and Studland Bays.
Their colour varies from buff to white, and from white to slate
colour. We notice apparently endless successions of clays, sands,
and grits deposited at different angles, and without any single bed
being traceable for more than a few yards. The cliffs, preserving
the same characters for a distance of four miles, extend to near
Boscombe, where we notice a change in their composition. The clays
are black and still more sandy, the upper parts of the cliffs are far
less steep and seem composed of loose white sands and shingle with
a thick capping of gravel.

Still further to the east these beds disappear beneath the sea in
consequence of the general dip of the strata. The sand beds which
follow, where they cap the cliffs, are recognized from a distance by
their greater slope from the cliff shorewards, for they are so loosely

DECADE II.—VOL. IV.—NO. II. 9

130 Reports and Proceedings.

composed that every wind blows the sand away in clouds, and leaves
the shingle to rattle down upon the beach. So loose is this material
that that part of the coast-line which had cliffs composed of this
sand has now but an insignificant height; the sand has been blown
away by wind and wasted by rain, until the shingle has been left
dropping lower and lower, and the stones which neither wind nor
rain could affect have come closer and closer together. This is the
cause of the land connecting Hengistbury Head being much lower
than any other in the neighbourhood. ‘The shingly beds are ancient
sea-beaches, and their slope to the ancient sea can still be seen in
places. So long have they been exposed that the flint pebbles in
them are sometimes almost decomposed, the familiar white coating
to the flints being an inch or more thick. This shingle, which is
composed of rounded pebbles, that tell the tale of a long rolling on
the old sea-beach, is now the source of the pebbles on the present
beach, and the rounded condition of these pebbles on this part of
the coast is not, as on the shore further towards Poole, or as at
Brighton, the result of present wave-action, although the existing
sea has undoubtedly reduced the pebbles in size. They cannot be
confounded with the later angular river-gravels which everywhere
cover this area.

At the peninsula of Hengistbury Head, about six miles beyond
Bournemouth, the cliffs again rise, being at first composed of black,
chocolate-coloured, and white sands with pebbles, and farther on of
greén clayey sands containing nodules of large irregularly-shaped
concretions of sandy, argillaceous ironstone disposed in layers.
Beyond Christchurch Harbour we have cliffs of white sand, which,
according to my views, close the series.

Inland the country has a barren appearance except in the planta-
tions, and the scattered brick-pits afford no additional information of
use to us in our present researches.

FRESHWATER. MARINE

Fie. 1.

In the above rough diagram (Fig. 1) the lower fresh-water series
is seen in the neighbourhood of Corfe, and forms part of the cliffs at
Studland. It is marked by beds of pipe-clay, and has a thickness of
200 feet or more.

Near Corfe and Studland the middle fresh-water series is met with,
forming the whole thickness of the cliffs between Poole Harbour and
Bournemouth,—the section being four miles long and 100 feet
high. Their entire thickness cannot yet be accurately stated, but
may be put down at some 300 feet. They are characterized by the
fact that the clays contained in them are usually brick-earth.

(Copied

the deposition of the Lower Bagshot Formation.

sted during”

1877.)

from Nature, January r1th,

Fic. 2.—The Valley of the Bourne restored to represent the conditions which are supposed to have exi

sya Reports and Proceedings—

The next series above is a marine series, and is some 400 or 000
feet thick. The base beds are dark sands and clays, succeeded by
pebble-beds and sands, then more sandy clays with pebbles, and
ending with a thick deposit of white sands. This marine portion of
the series occupies the cliffs between Boscombe and High Cliff.

Plain as this order of deposition appears, we have collateral proof
that this interpretation is right, for at Alum Bay there is a complete
section of the whole of these beds, although somewhat thinned out,
and upheaved vertically. We see in succession the lower pipe-clays,
the brilliant sands, the darker clays, sands, pebble-beds, one after the
other, and can examine them all in detail within the space of a few
hundred yards.

The thick pipe-clays and quartzose grits which we find at the
bottom of the series can without the slightest hesitation be referred
to the result of the wearing away of granite rock.

LEAVES OF DICOTYLEDONS.
Fic. 3.

At Studland the grits are not so coarse, and at Alum Bay, a long
way east, the sands are very fine, so that any one knowing the dis-
trict could tell which of these specimens came from either place.

These clays extend under the surface, eastward, for they are

Geologists’ Association. 133

worked at Branksea below the sea-level, at Parkstone, and near
Bourne. At Alum Bay they are tilted up, and are full of beautiful
fossil leaves. (See Woodcuts Figs. 3 and 5.)

The series of beds above are of a different character, and
mark a great change in the conditions of the land, from a valley in
which the previous beds were deposited, to a broad low-lying tract
in proximity to the sea. We believe we can trace how this tract
became gradually lowered and lowered down to the sea-level.

The conclusion as to the gradual lowering of the land in this
area is borne out by the fact that in the cliffs near Poole, which are
slightly lower in position than those farther east, we get only leaves
of evergreens and forest trees, whilst as we work our way east so
as to meet with beds on a higher level, or, which is the same thing,
of more recent age, we get a mixture of ferns and other plants,
which require much moisture; whilst further east still we get assem-
blages of plants that could only have lived in absolute swamps.

Low as the land appears to have become, we have no evidence
whatever, throughout the whole thickness of this part of the series,
amounting to 300 feet at least, with one exception, that it was low
enough to be inundated by the sea, as the few shells that have been
found are of fresh-water kinds. The exception is the occurrence of
logs of wood bored by the Teredo. All the ship-worms generally
known to us live only in salt water, and are so delicately organized
that the slightest mixture of fresh water instantly killsthem. This
isolated fact for some time presented a grave difficulty ; but happen-
ing to read Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys’ interesting account of the habits of
this creature, I not only found that he relates the occurrence of simi-
larly-bored wood 800 miles up the river Gambia, but distinctly
states that there is a species which lives in fresh water. ‘Therefore
this supposed marine indication may be on his authority removed,
and, supposing this theory should be verified and accepted, we may
safely infer that these middle beds are of fresh-water origin.

We now come to the third series of beds. A still continued sink-
ing of the area brought this swampy condition so low that the sea
was no longer kept out, but, bursting through, formed great salt-
water lagoons teeming with life; for we suddenly find crowds of
marine forms imbedded in what was formerly black mud.

In this series of marine beds we have at the bottom lagoon beds,
as I call them, indicating the former existence of mud-banks left dry
or shallow between each returning tide. We still find here leaves
of trees, many of them doubtless overhanging the lagoons, which
have so slowly decayed, that they are overgrown with Polyzoa;
crowds of oysters are met with; we find the remains of shore-crabs,
which overran the muddy shore; Callianasse, which burrowed in
the mud; Calypirga, Arca, Corbula, and many other shell-bearing
molluscs. This lagoon condition went on until the gradual sink-
ing permitted the ever-encroaching surf to break over the lagoon
barrier, to rush in and overwhelm them with rolled shingle and sea-
sand. We still trace the lagoon condition for a mile or so east,
where it is represented by cigar-ash-coloured sands, impregnated

134 Reports and Proceedings—Geologists’ Association.

with salt, and coloured with the dark tint of carbonaceous matter.
These sands contain very perfect remains of branches of a Coniferous
tree resembling the genus Dacridium and large pieces of Cactus. It
should be mentioned that this is the earliest cactus known, and that

Fic. 4.—BRANCH OF CONIFER (Taaodium).

the spines are found to be still flexible. The sands are in other
places crowded with fruits—probably a Pandanus fruit (Nipadites)—
resembling those met with at Sheppey. Unfortunately the salt con-
tained in them effloresces and splits all these specimens into frag-
ments.

Fic. 5.

At Hengistbury Head we have deeper sea-deposits, with sharks’
teeth and bones. At Highcliff, Barton, we have relics of a sea

Correspondence—Dr. Hector. 135

swarming with life, myriads of fossil shells may be collected from the
cliffs, whilst still further on, at Hordwell, we have beds showing
that the land arose again, affording suitable conditions for the
growth of luxuriant palms, and was the haunt of the alligator,
turtle, and other reptiles, which are now confined to tropical
countries.?

CORRESPONDENCE.
See AL eee s
THE OTOTARA SERIES, NEW ZEALAND.

S1r,—In the last received Grotocicat Macazine for August Capt.
Hutton takes exception to my note appended to Mr. H. Woodward’s
paper on the ‘“ Fossil Crab of New Zealand.”

One of his criticisms I admit to be correct. No distinct Saurian
bones have been found on the West Coast. The error arose from
an oversight in correcting the press, as the remark under letter &
was (Saurian beds, Ammonites, etc.), by which I meant to indicate
the horizon in the East Coast section of the same formation, as
proved by associated fossils.

His other criticism relates to the presence of Secondary fossils in
the Ototara group; but he evidently confounds this with his Oamaru
formation, under which are included strata of both later and earlier
date, while localities are excluded where Secondary fossils are
found. Thus he places the Greensands of the Green Island Brown
Coal in his Oamaru formation, although they contain Belemnites,
Ancyloceras Rostellaria, and other Cretaceous forms. His Oamaru
Cape beds I consider to be Miocene, while the Upper Marls at
Amuri Bluff, which Capt. Hutton places in his Pareora or Miocene
formation, are the calcareous Greensands that form the upper part
of the Chalk formation, with Inoeeramus and Pleuronectes Zittelli,
the latter found ranging through the whole series; while from about
the middle of the section the humerus of Palweudyptes antarcticus
has lately been found by Mr. McKay, making the third locality for
this fossil bird in New Zealand. Other cases of stratigraphical
confusion might be stated, showing that we have not yet acquired
sufficient data for classifying our later formations by per-centages of
fossils to the exclusion of stratigraphical evidence.

GEoLocicaL SurvEY OFrricr, James Hector.
WELLINGTON, 10th Nov., 1876.

MR. MILNE ON FLOATING ICE.

Str,—I am sorry that Mr. Milne should think that I made an
“unfair comparison” in testing the behaviour of the floating cone
he had figured, by means of a tetrahedron. ‘Comparisons are”
always “odious.” What then must they be when they are “unfair” ?
And I am the last who would wish intentionally to make unfair ones.
The truth is that I had not a cone, and so I took the solid nearest in
its proportions to Mr. Milne’s figure, and I submit that the tetrahedron
was quite as like an iceberg as the cone!

1 See also Report of Mr. Gardner’s Lecture in the January Number of the
Grou. Mae. (p. 28), ‘‘On the Tropical Forests of Hampshire.

136 Correspondence—Rev. O. Fisher—Mr. Clement Reid.

In Fig. 2 Mr. Milne has now shown us the highest cone which
could float with its vertex upwards; and thereby proved that I was
right in saying that a berg of the “shape” he had “figured ” in his
former paper “would not remain in that position, but must turn
over.”

Your readers will no doubt join with me in thanking Mr. Milne
for his calculations, which:I conceive may be thus summarized. If
the

(1) Diameter of base of cone of ice is less than 2 the height, it
will float on its side. ,

(2) Diameter is greater than 2 the height, it will float with its
vertex downwards.

(3) Diameter is greater than twice the height, it may float with its
base downwards.

(4) Or, since this case is included in (2), it may float with its
vertex downwards.

However, when the diameter is only a little greater than twice the
height, it would appear that the more stable position of the two
would be with the vertex downwards. O. FisHer.

MODERN DENUDATION IN NORFOLK.

Str,—The following facts concerning recent destruction of the
Norfolk cliffs seem to be of sufficient interest to induce me to beg
your insertion of them in your Macazine.

On Tuesday, January 30th, we had a severe gale, which did much
harm all along the coast. The coincidence of a spring-tide and a
high wind from the W.N.W., brought the sea to a height it has not
been known to reach for at least forty years. I have examined
the coast from Hasborough to beyond Sherringham, and the damage
done is marvellous. Probably the loss of land along the whole line
of coast mentioned may be estimated at a yard. At the life-boat gap
Bacton the amount that has gone is fifteen yards, and a strip of
about that width is missing as far as the Walcot gap (three furlongs).
At Bacton the cliffs are low, so the denudation is greater than in
other parts.

Mundesley has had part of the life-boat gangway swept away, and
some walls thrown down, besides the land lost.

At Cromer people are congratulating themselves on the small
amount of damage done ; it is said that £150 will cover it. During
the gale it was thought that the jetty would be pulled up bodily by
the upward force of the waves; but fortunately the planks gave way,
and there are only about fifty missing. The gangway at the north
end of the town has been swept away; but as it was only made of
earth, that will not much matter.

The most serious loss is at Lower Sherringham. There Mr.
Upscher has lost two acres; nearly all the sea-wall has been swept
away: none of the gangways are left; a cottage and a shed have
fallen into the sea; the inn on the cliffs has had the windows broken,
and is in a very unsafe condition ; and should another gale occur
now, much of the village will go.

Oorrespondence—Ur. J. S. Gardner. 137

At Weybourn I hear that the sea broke through the beach and
flooded the Coastguards’ cottages.

None of the fishermen can remember a single tide doing so much
harm. I believe a yard is rather more than the estimated yearly loss
of land. And Mr. Upscher informs me that he reckons his loss of
land during the past sixty years to be thirty acres at the very least.

GroLogicaL SuRvEY, CROMER, CuemEent Rerp.
14th February, 1877.

THE TROPICAL FORESTS OF HAMPSHIRE.

Srr,—I have no wish to enter into any discussion with Mr. Searles
Wood, jun.; but he has, it seems to me, written to you upon a
subject on which, notwithstanding his large store of geological
knowledge, he appears to be quite unacquainted. The supposition,
alluded to in my lecture at South Kensington, that oscillations of
climate might partly account for the varied character of the Bagshot
Floras, is partly based upon and supported by strong negative and
some positive evidence, of alternating warmer and colder conditions,
not glacial; contained not only in English Hocene, but all Tertiary beds
throughout the world, although these seem to have escaped Mr. Wood’s
appreciation. No glacial conditions are necessary to explain any-
thing connected with the Eocene Floras; but Mr. Wood cannot surely
suppose that the Bagshot leaves from the London basin and those
from Bournemouth and Alum Bay indicate an equal temperature ; or
that the Fauna of the Thanet sands, Woolwich beds, and London
Clay, or the Bracklesham, Headon, Bembridge, and Hempstead
beds do not make plain to us that the climatal conditions during
the deposition of our Hocene series differed widely at each period.

The second hypothesis, that of the existence of a mean annual
temperature which permitted the growth of sub-tropical and more
temperate forms side by side, is supported by abundant evidence, and
is the one by which Httingshausen, and almost every continental
geologist who has devoted himself to the study of Tertiary Floras, -
can best explain the universal admixture of these forms at that time
in all our, at present, temperate climates. Mr. Searles V. Wood,
jun., however, states that both these theories are “‘ remote from the
truth,” and proceeds to make some extraordinary mis-statements
in the process of giving what he believes to be the true explanation.
After expressing the total thickness of these beds, which reach
nearly 10U0 feet, as “ upwards of 200! feet,” he goes on to say that
the vegetable remains have been drifted, and are not in siti.

Mr. Wood can never have personally worked at these beds, or
even examined collections made from them by others, or he could
not have so failed to comprehend what he had seen.

He appears not to be at all aware of the published work and the
conclusions of those who have studied these beds in England, or the
similar leaf-bearing Eocene and Miocene beds abroad; neither can
he have heard or read the statements made by me in my lecture, or
in an appendix to it communicated to the Geologists’ Association.

1 This was a Printer’s error; Mr. Searles V. Wood, jun., correctly stated the

thickness at 2000 feet, see his letter at p. 141. We regret the mistake exceedingly.
Epir. Grou. Mae.

138 Correspondence—Mr. J. Curry.

The leaves have never been drifted from afar; they are often
still adhering to the twigs. The leaves are flat and perfect, rarely
even rolled and crumpled, as dry leaves may be, if falling on a muddy
surface; still more rarely have they fallen edgeways and been
imbedded vertically. They are, moreover, not variously mixed, as
they should be if they had been carried for any distance, but are
found in local groups of species. For example, all the leaves of
Castanea have been found in one clay patch, with Iriartea and
Gleichenia; none of these have been found elsewhere. A trilobed leaf
is peculiar to Studland; the Alum Bay Aralia, the peculiar form of
Proteacee, the great Ficus, and other leaves oceur at Alum Bay only.
Each little patch at Bournemouth is characterized by its own
peculiar leaves. Such a distribution can only result from the
proximity of the trees from which the leaves have fallen. The
forms of most temperate aspect are best preserved, so that, to be
logically applied, the Drift theory requires the palms, etc., to have
been drifted upwards. To suppose that most delicate leaves could
have been brought by torrents 400 miles from Mull or 200 miles
from Wales, and spread out horizontally in thousands, without crease
or crumple, on the coast of Hampshire, may be a feasible theory to
Mr. Searles V. Wood, jun., but will not recommend itself to the
majority of thinkers. But without invoking these lengthy voyages,
the requisite height might have existed near at hand in the granite
region of Devon, during the Eocene time. However this may be,
so obviously simple an explanation as that the temperate forms grew
on high ground and were drifted down and mingled with those
growing on lower levels, had of course escaped no worker on these
or similar floras, and has been duly considered and abandoned by
every one. J. S. GaRDNER.

IS THERE A BASE TO THE CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN TEESDALE?

Str,—Some years ago, when out on a geological tour, I crossed
over the Pennine Chain from Appleby, in Westmoreland, to High
Force in Upper Teesdale. My route was first along the Eden
valley plain to High Cup Gill Beck; next up the side of this Gill
to High Cup Nick, at the head of the Beck; thence across to Maize
Beck, which is a tributary to the Tees, following down the south
side of this beck to Caldron Snout, and continuing on from here
down the side of the Tees to the old Pencil Mill, where my attention
was arrested by observing the shale, here exposed, to have a striking
resemblance to the Silurian shales which I had noticed at the foot of
High Cup Gill, on the other side of the chain, and at other places in
the Lake District, also on the east side of this district, in Wastdale
Beck, near Shap Wells. The Carboniferous strata rise from the
vicinity of the old Pencil Mill, in a westerly direction, on the
line of the route just sketched, and crop out on the west slope of the
chain in High Cup Gill Beck, where there is to be met with one of
the finest sections of the Carboniferous rocks in the North of Eng-
land. In the lower part of this Gill there is a very thick section of

Correspondence—Mr. W. Gunn. 139

Silurian rock exposed. The north side of Murton Pike forms the
south side of the Gill here, and is almost entirely Silurian rock ;
indeed, the west side of this Pike is wholly Silurian up to its sum-
mit. Next, further up the Gill, is the Old Red Sandstone. Then
still higher up occur the escarpments of the alternating limestones,
sandstones, and shales of the Carboniferous series, including the
Melmerby Scar Limestone, which is the thickest bed of limestone on
this part of the chain. Above this series, at the head of the Gill, we
come to the Whin Sill, where a considerable quantity of its débris
lies at its foot. More Carboniferous rocks take on above the Whin
Sill, and slope backward each way to form the summit of the ridge
on the north and south sides of the Nick. As to the thickness of
the strata from the base of the Carboniferous rocks, in this section,
to the bottom of the Whin Sill, I cannot do more than give a pro-
bable estimate. and will venture to put it down at about 1000 feet.
Should this thickness be near the truth, as I expect it may, and if
the same thickness, or nearly so, occurs from the base of the Car-
boniferous rocks to the bottom of the Whin Sill, at the old Pencil
Mill, then, I think it may be fairly concluded that, the Silurian-like
shale, at this place, is not real Silurian, but indurated carboniferous
shale, and, therefore, the base of the Carboniferous rocks must be
considerably below the bottom of the valley of the Tees at either
Falcon Clints or the old Pencil Mill. The section at High Force,
about two miles further down the Tees from this place, affords
additional evidence, corroborative of the soundness of the conclusion,
that the base of the Carboniferous rocks cannot be seen in Teesdale.
I may here refer Mr. Dakyns, or any of your readers, to that brief
abstract of a paper on this section, by C. T. Clough, Esq., B.A.,
F.G.S., in the Grotoeicat Magazine for October, 1876, page 474.
Before leaving the subject, I may, however, state that there is a
possibility of some peculiar positions of the strata, such as a great
upward bend, or the upcast of a considerable dislocation, bringing
the base of the rocks in question to view. ‘The Burtree Ford dyke
has a course nearly north and south; it ranges up the east Allen to
the west of Allenheads, thence through Weardale, at Burtree Ford ;
and Mr. Forster, in his section of the strata, states that it crosses the
Tees at Cronkley Scars. In Weardale this dyke brings rocks up
to view, which would not have been seen, had the dyke not existed.
There is some probability that it might produce a similar effect
where it crosses through Teesdale ; but whether it does so or not,
will be known by those who are better acquainted with the rocks
in that part of Teesdale than I am. JoHN CURRY.

Boutspurn, Easteate, DarLineton,
February 5th, 1877.

IS THERE A BASE TO THE CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN TEESDALE?

Sir,—My friend Mr. Dakyns, in the last Number of your Macazizz,
asks the question, “Is there a base to the Carboniferous rocks in
Teesdale ?”? Permit me, on behalf of my colleague Mr. Clough and
for myself, to answer the question in the affirmative. We cannot

140 Correspondence—Ur. J. R. Dakyns—Mr. J. Durham.

now give the reasons for our opinion, all details being reserved
for a paper in preparation. W. Gunn.

GxroLocicaL Socirty oF ENGLAND AND WALES.
Barnarp Casrixz, February 18th, 1877.

BASE OF THE CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS IN TEESDALE.

Str,—I have just opened Phillips’ Geology of Yorkshire, Part 2,
by chance at page 81: and the first words that caught my eye were
“ Widdybank ” and “anomalous breccia.”

This is the breccia which, on my visit to Teesdale, last October
and November, I suggested to my companions, Messrs. Gunn and
Clough, was the base of the Carboniferous rocks, for the reasons
quoted by me in the Gon. Mag. for February. From the use of the
term “anomalous,” it is clear that Phillips had noticed the peculiar
character of the bed. It is somewhat strange that none of the
geologists, as far as I know, who have written about the rocks in
Teesdale, should have been struck with the possibility of the breccia
being the. base of the Carboniferous. They seem to have been too
much taken up with the Whin Sill to think about that. Perhaps
they did not see the Silurian-like dykes and pencil-beds below
Cronkley; but if they did, they must have equally missed their
suggestive character.

It is some satisfaction to us youngsters that the older geologists
have left us something to discover. J. R. Daxyns.

Kenpat, February 20th, 1877.

‘“ KAMES” AND DENUDATION.

Srr,—Mr. Mackintosh is quite right. I have not seen either the
English or Welsh ‘Eskers’ he mentions, so that perhaps, as another
critic of my paper has said, I am “not entitled to generalize.” But
at the same time I cannot help expressing my astonishment at being
told that there are vast numbers of Kames, or similar gravelly
mounds, whose shapes have nothing to do with denudation. Since
many of these mounds were first exposed to atmospheric influences,
not only have rivers cut their channels to great depths through the
most compact rocks, but the hard metamorphic mountains of the
Highlands have been so wasted that their flanks are usually draped
with debris, which, spreading over the floors of the valleys, bury
them deep under masses of angular rock fragments, which are
frequently shaped into very good imitations of Kames by the action
of streams running along the valleys, aided by torrents from the
mountain-sides. I do not suppose that any one would maintain that
the shapes of these mountains have nothing to do with denuding
agencies. How is it then that the loose gravels of the Kames
“‘sometimes on the summits of hills,” as Mr. Mackintosh says, have
withstood influences before which the solid hills literally “flow from
form to form” ?

That the Newport Kames do not enjoy such immunity from the
action of the rain-fall, has been demonstrated during the recent
excessively wet weather. All the mounds not protected by grass
have water-courses cut in their sides, some of them of considerable

Obituary—Sartorius von Waltershausen. 141

size. One stream, after leaping in a cascade from a hollow in a hill-
side, has cleared out a channel of from eight to ten feet deep, and in
some parts fifteen to eighteen broad. The loose gravelly sides of
such channels soon fall in, and beyond a modification of the contour
of the slope, all trace of the denuding agent is lost.
James DurHam.

P.S.—I heartily concur in Mr. Mackintosh’s estimate of Mr. H.
B. Woodward’s admirable Geology of England and Wales, but Mr.
Woodward says little about ‘ Kames’ which would not be explained
as readily by the Denudation theory as by any other.—J.D.

THE TROPICAL FORESTS OF HAMPSHIRE.

S1r,—Please correct the following erratum in the last Number of
the Grou. Mag. in my letter, line 3, from top of page 96 ; for “200
feet” read “2000 feet.” That is the thickness of the Eocene beds
in section in Hampshire, according to the Geological Survey
Memoir. by Messrs. Forbes and Bristow. It was written very
plainly in figures in the MS. of my letter.

MARTLESHAM, NEAR WOODBRIDGE, SEARLES V. Woop, JUN.
February 21st, 1877.

@23 Oy ANNs:

a

SARTORIUS VON WALTERSHAUSEN.
Born 17 Dec., 1809. Drep 16 Ocr., 1876.

Tue death is announced of Professor Sartorius von Waltershausen,
of Gottingen, on the 16th of last October, after a long and painful
illness. The loss of a man who has done so much to advance the
science of Petrology will be generally felt and deeply regretted.
The obituary notice which has appeared in the Jahrbuch fir Miner-
alogie is so singularly meagre that we propose to review in somewhat
fuller detail his history and scientific labours.

Wolfgang Sartorius von Waltershausen was born on the 17th De-
cember, 1809. He was an illustrious son of an illustrious father,
Georg Sartorius von Waltershausen, who was Professor of Philosophy
in the University of Gottingen. The father was a great friend of
Goethe, and was more especially known as the author of the
‘Geschichte des Hanseatischen Bundes.” The son, after having
taught for a time in some of the German schools of learning, and
having published some memoirs on terrestrial magnetism, devoted
several years to travel. From 1884 to 1846 he visited various
districts, where the phenomena of volcanic activity could be studied
with advantage, and the observations made in the field formed the
material for more important memoirs issued in later years. He
was for a considerable period in Sicily, returning in 1848, and his
“Atlas” of researches on the rocks of Etna appeared three years later.
In 1845 he visited Ireland and Scotland, and in 1846 we find him in
Norway and Iceland. In the journey to the Danish Island he was
accompanied by his friend Bunsen, and the results of the investiga-

142 Obituary—F. B. Meek.

tion of the igneous rocks, geysers and gases of that remarkable
region have long been famous. In the same year appeared his
paper on the submarine volcano of Val di Noto; while his riper
reflections appeared in a memoir on the volcanic rocks of Sicily and
Iceland in 1853.

In 1865 he published his views respecting the causes of the
change of climate since the commencement of what has been termed
the Historic period, and expressed his belief that the interval known
as the Ice Age was due to an alteration of the contour of the earth’s
surface since Diluvial times. His labours, however, were not re-
stricted to the field of Petrology. In 1856 he described what he
regarded as a new mineral species from Borgarfiord, parastilbite,
differing from epistilbite in some of its angular measurements; and
he published about the same time his examination of the crystalline
form of boron. In Paleontology, again, we find him actively at
work ; he described a fragment of a Saurian from the Coal-beds at
Zwickau, and that of a fossil snake from Burlington, in Mississippi.
It should be stated, moreover, that he was the close friend and ally
of Gauss, and wrote the life of this eminent physicist and mathe-
matician, which appeared at Gotha in 1856.

While so ably filling the position of Professor of Mineralogy and
Geology in the University of Gdéttingen, he devoted himself to
writing a magnum opus on Etna, which occupied him till a short time
before his lamented death. The Chair which after the lapse of thirty
years now becomes vacant has, it is stated, been offered to Prof.
Tschermak, of Vienna.—W. F.

Fale DAnNGG ab te Vide eae
Patmontonocist, U.S.A.
Born 10 Derc., 1817. Drep 22 Dec., 1876.

Mr. F. B. Merk was born in the city of Madison, Indiana, U.S.
America, Dec. 10th, 1817. His grandparents were Irish Presby-
terians, and emigrated to America from the county of Armagh,
Ireland, about the year 1768. He spent his early days in Madison,
where his father was a lawyer of considerable eminence; but un-
fortunately died when young Meek was only three years old, leaving
his family in very moderate circumstances. From his earliest
recollection he was interested in the Silurian fossils so abundant
in the rocks of the neighbourhood of his home. He had never
heard of Geology, but studied these remains with admiration and
wonder as to their origin. On attaining his majority, by the advice
of his friends, but against his own wishes, he commenced business
as a merchant; but, absorbed in his favourite pursuit, he neglected
his avocation, and in the financial crisis of 1847 he lost his small
capital, on which he depended.

In 1848 he seems to have really commenced his career as a
scientific man, being first employed as assistant to Dr. D. D. Owen,
on the States Geological Surveys of Iowa, Wisconsin, and Minnesota.

In 1852 he became the assistant of Prof. James Hall, the eminent
paleontologist of Albany, New York. Here he remained until

Obituary—F.. B. Meck. 145

1858, with the exception of three summers, two of which he spent
with the Missouri State Geological Survey. In the summer of 1853
he accompanied Dr. F. V. Hayden in an expedition to explore the
“Bad Lands” of Dakota, and brought back very valuable collections.
This was the commencement of that long series of successful ex-
plorations of all portions of the West, which have continued up to
the present time. While at Albany he was constantly engaged in
the most important paleontological works, the results of which were
published in the proceedings of the learned societies of the United
States.

In 1858 he went to Washington, where he resided until the time
of his death, leaving the city only for a few months at a time while
engaged as Paleontologist for the State of Illinois, Ohio, or in field
explorations in the far west, in connexion with the U.S. Geological
Survey of the Territories under the direction of Dr. F. V. Hayden.

His publications, aside from the State reports referred to, were
very numerous, and bore the stamp of the most faithful and con-
scientious research. One great distinction between Mr. Meek’s
paleontological labours and the geological publications of his col-
leagues on the great Surveys of the States, lies in the fact, that
whereas much of their work will require most careful concordance
before the grand results accomplished by them can be fully corre-
lated, on account of many of the separate States having adopted
purely local or new-coined names for their rock series, Mr. Meek’s
paleontological work is at once available to his brother-workers all
over the world, being written in the same cosmopolitan language.

Mr. Meek was so modest and retiring that he was scarcely known
outside a very limited circle of friends. His bodily infirmities pre-
vented him from mingling in society. Although his fame as one
of the most eminent paleontologists on the American Continent
had been acknowledged among scientific men everywhere, his
existence was scarcely known to the world at large. He was a
member of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States,
and many other prominent scientific associations in America ‘and
in Europe.

He died within the walls of the Smithsonian Institution, where
he had occupied rooms for eighteen years. He had been connected
with the U.S. Geological and Geographical Surveys of the Territories
as a salaried officer for the greater portion of the time since its first
organization in 1867.

His last great work (Vol. IX.) appeared in 1876, and contains
630 pp. of quarto text, and 45 plates, of which he writes to Dr.
F. V. Hayden, “The following is my final Report on the Invertebrate
Cretaceous and Tertiary Fossils of the Upper Missouri Country.”

His grand paleontological works are his noblest and best monu-
ment ; yet, as Prof. Dana truly observes, “he is gone before his work
was done ;” and he adds, ‘“‘ American paleontology has lost (as regards
its Invertebrate Department) half its working force at a blow.” ?

1 These notes were, in great part, communicated by Dr. F. V. Hayden through
the kindness of Thomas Davidson, Esq., F.R.S.—Eprir, Grou. Mac.

144 Obituary—Humphry Salwey.

BUM Pin RY fA Le WEY
Born 1803. Diep 1877.

Mr. Humpury Satwey, who died on January the 21st, at his
residence, The Cliff, Ludlow, was one of the earliest pioneers of
geological research in the Old Red Sandstone and Silurian districts ;
and he has formed an important collection of the fossils of the
counties of Shropshire and Herefordshire, including many unique
specimens. He derived his knowledge almost exclusively from
observation, but he did not neglect the recorded observations of
others, and his broad views and clear thought were most conspicuously
displayed when, in the course of a day’s work in the field, he would
offer some friendly criticism of theories and conclusions which he
could prove that less practical men had too readily admitted.

It was thus that Mr. Salwey did much valuable teaching, and not
a few of his numerous geological friends will be ready to admit that
he has given them standpoints from which the vision could penetrate
the obscurity in which the geology of a district had been involved
by too hasty generalization.

Mr. Salwey’s knowledge of the local geology of his native district
was such as can only be obtained by life-long labour. Those who
knew him well have cause to lament the loss of a sincere and warm-
hearted friend ; but the geologist from afar, to whom he was always
ready to extend a cordial welcome, will sustain a loss which cannot
easily be replaced—that of an experienced and sound expositor of
the typical Ludlow district. It was here that he delighted to
welcome his fellow-workers, and to offer to them his open and un-
assuming hospitality ; and the cordial welcome with which he and
his family received the members of the Geologists’ Association at
The Cliff on the occasion of their visit to Ludlow in 1872, will ever
be gratefully remembered by those who were present, several of
whom have kept up the acquaintance then for the first time formed,
and have revisited more than once the beautiful neighbourhood,
replete with geological interest, then for the first time seen.

Mr. Salwey was one of the founders of the Ludlow Museum,
which he has enriched with many valuable geological specimens.
He has discovered several new species of fossils, principally col-
lected in the Old Red Sandstone and the Ludlow Rocks, and his
name as a paleeozoic geologist is perpetuated in several species ; but
he was not a writer, and, excepting in a few addresses to the Field
Clubs of the neighbouring counties, his extensive knowledge of the
geology of his district now, alas! lives only in the memory of those
to whom he was so ready to impart it, or is diffused in their
writings.—J. H.

1 Zenaspis Salweyi, Egerton; Necrogammarus Salweyi, H. Woodward; and
Monograptus Salweyt, Hopkinson.

=
DS
AY
ass
=
mS

Yo

Je | l

y]

Deca

t

Geol Mag. 1877

Hanhart imp. London.

5 Davidson, del.et ith

Bae

‘a

-
aie A
Wi esa
es : Uae 2 ea

ell Vol IV. PLVIIL

d.

Mag 187

Ud

Vay

Hanhart imp. London

avidson, del.et lith

Fr

THE

GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE.

NEW SERIES DECADE li VOLe IV:
No. IV.—APRIL, 1877.

(Qa AEN /Naane@abaaSse

—_—»>—_——_

J.—Wauart 1s A Bracuropvop ?!
By Tuomas Davipson, F.R.S., F.G.S., V.P.P.S., etc.
PART I.
(PLATES VII. anp VIII.?)

E are all aware that it is very often much easier to put a

question than to obtain an entirely satisfactory answer, and

I am consequently sorry to have to begin my few observations on a

very extensive class or group of organisms, by stating that zoologists

and comparative anatomists have not yet entirely agreed as to the
exact position it should occupy among invertebrate animals.

The first species belonging to the class were imperfectly and
quaintly described and figured by Fabio Columna as far back as
1606, and for many years were supposed to be referable to the genus
Anomia, one of the Lamellibranchiata; but as was judiciously observed
by Hdward Forbes, ‘A close examination shows that there is no
relationship between them, but only a resemblance through formal
analogy.” It is during the present century that the class itself has
been worked out and understood, and this has been achieved after
the most lengthened and persevering researches.

It will not be possible in a short article to enter upon a complete
history of the progress made by science up to the present time with
respect to the Brachiopoda. Suffice it to say, that many of the most
eminent zoologists and paleontologists have materially contributed
to our knowledge of the group, and I have devoted the best portion
of my life to its elucidation. We may however observe that, pre-
viously to the present century, several naturalists had published notes
of some interest upon the Brachiopoda, which have helped to bring
the subject under the special notice of the more experienced mala-
cologists of our time. In 1675, 1687, and 1688, Martini Lister
published figures of a few recognizable species of Brachiopoda, and
in particular of Productus giganteus. In 1696 Llhwyd proposed the
name Terebratula for several of the shells that had previously been
referred to Anomia: he also gave some good figures of several

1 This memoir is the substance of a lecture delivered by the author to the Brighton
and Sussex Natural History Society on the 11th of February, 1875, and subsequently
published in French with additions and plates in vol. x. of the Annales de la Société
Malacologique de Belgique for 1876.

+ Plates 1X. and X. will accompany Part II.

DECADE II.—VOL, IV,—NO. IV. 10

146 T. Davidson— What is a Brachiopod ?

species of Brachiopoda found in the neighbourhood of Bath. In
1775 T. Pennant described and figured some of the soft parts of the
animal of Terebratulina caput-serpentis (especially its brachial or
labial appendages), and in 1774 Grundler gave a good description
of the same appendages with enlarged illustrations. Again, in 1776
and 1791, Miiller and Poli described the animal of Crania (their
Patella anomala and Criopus turbinata) with some enlarged illustra-
tions, in which the brachial appendages are correctly represented.’
During that century many species of Brachiopoda both recent and
fossil were described and figured by Linneeus, Bruguiére, and others,
but no attempt at classification was made.

Space unfortunately will not admit of my mentioning in detail the
honoured names of all those who have so materially contributed
to the knowledge we at present possess with reference to the
Brachiopoda; but we must allude to Von Buch, Alcide d’Orbigny,
Defrance, de Blainville, de Verneuil, §. P. Woodward, Gray, Deslong-
champs, father and son, Sowerby, Barrande, de Koninck, King,
Salter, E. Suess, M‘Coy, Hall, Billings, Dall, Dalman, Fischer,
Pander, Moore, Hichwald, Kutorga, Keyserling, Sandberger,
Seguensa, Meek, etc. The names of the zoologists who have so
ably worked out the anatomical and structural characters of the
animal will be duly recorded in the sequel. Grundler, in 1774,
seems, however, to have been the first to propose to create for the
animals under notice a distinct class among the Mollusca.

Name.—The name Bracutorop (Gpayiwv, an arm; 7rovs, mobos,
a foot) was proposed for the class by Cuvier in 1805, and Dumeril
in 1809, and has since been very extensively adopted. In 1824
Blainville proposed as a substitute for Cuvier’s name that of Pallio-
branchiata (pallium, a mantle; branchiaz, gills), on account of the
respiratory system being combined with the mantle on which the
vascular ramifications are distributed. This term has always been
adopted by Prof. King, who perhaps has rightly objected to Cuvier’s
name, on the grounds that it is a misnomer; for the two variously
curved and cirrated brachial or labial appendages, improperly
designated as arms or feet, were subsequently found not to sub-
serve the function of locomotive organs.

Shell.—Before alluding to the position the Brachiopod should
occupy amongst the Invertebrata, we may at once observe that the
animal is protected by a shell composed of two distinct valves; and
that these valves are always, except in cases of malformation, equal-
sided, but not equi-valved. The shell is likewise most beautiful in
its endless shapes and variations; in some species it is thin, sem1-
transparent and glassy, in others massive; generally the shell
is from a quarter of an inch to about four inches in size: but in
certain species it attains nearly a foot in breadth by something less

1 A very remarkable paper by M. de Lamanon, “ Sur les Térébratules ou Poulettes,
et déscription d'une espece trouvée dans les mers de la Tartarie Orientale,”’ was
published in 1797 in vol. iv. of the Voyage de la Pérouse autour du monde. In this
memoir, which appears to have been overlooked by all those who have treated of the
same subject, the author describes as far as his knowledge permits the soft parts of
the animal of a species of Zerebratella.

T. Davidson— What is a Brachiopod ? 147

in length, as is the case with Productus giganteus. The valves are
often very unequal in their respective thickness, as may be seen in
Productus Llangollensis (Pl. VII. Fig. 27); Davidsonia Verneuili
(Pl. VII. Fig. 26), ete.; and while the space allotted to the animal is
very great in a number of species, as in Terebratula spheeroidalis
(PI. VII. Fig. 25), it is extremely small in many others, as Strophomena
and Leptena (Pl. VII. Fig. 28). The outer surface of many of the
species presents the most exquisite sculpture, heightened by brilliant
shades, stripes, or spots of green, red, yellow, and bluish-black.

The valves have been distinguished by various names, but those
of dorsal and ventral are in more general use. ‘The ventral valve is
usually the larger, in many genera as Terebratula and Rhynchonella, it
has. a prominent beak, with a circular or otherwise shaped perforation
or foramen at or near its extremity, partly completed by one or two
plates termed a deltidium. Through the foramen passes a bundle of
muscular fibres called the peduncle, by which the animal is in many
species attached to sub-marine objects during at least a portion of its
existence. It is, however, certain from the admirable researches of
Prof. Morse that the embryo of some, if not of every species,
swims most actively in every direction and turns abruptly about ;
but that in the fourth stage of its development it becomes attached,
the peduncle widening at its end into a sucking disk. Other species
show no indication of ever having been* attached; while some that
had been fixed by means of a peduncle during a part of their exist-
ence become detached at a more advanced stage of life, the opening
for the peduncle becoming gradually cicatrized. Lastly, forms
appear to have adhered to sub-marine objects by a larger or smaller
portion of the surface of their ventral valve, or by spines (Stro-
phalosia, etc.), during their entire life.

In external shape the valves are essentially symmetrical (differing
in this respect from those of the Lamellibranchiata), so much so,
that certain Brachiopod shells received the name of Lampades from
some early naturalists; but while such may beara kind of resemblance
to an antique Etruscan lamp, by far the larger number in no way
resemble one. The valves are either articulated by means of two
curved teeth developed from the hinge-margin of the larger valve,
and fitting into sockets in the corresponding part of the smaller one,
or they are unarticulated, and kept in place by means of muscles
especially provided for that purpose.

Having described the exterior of the shell, a few words may now
be devoted to its interior. On the inner surface of both valves
several well-defined muscular impressions are observable, which
vary considerably in position and shape in different genera and
species. They form either indentations of greater or lesser size and
depth, or occur as variously shaped projections. In the T'rimerellide
some of the muscles are attached to a massive or vaulted platform
situated in the medio-longitudinal region of the posterior half or
umbonal portion of both valves. In addition to these, there exists
in the interior of the dorsal valve of some genera a variously modi-
fied thin, calcified ribbon-shaped lamina or skeleton for the support

148 T. Davidson—What is a Brachiopod ?

mainly of the brachial or labial appendages ; and so varied, yet con-
stant in shape to certain species is this laminal apophysis that it has
served as one of the chief characters in the creation of both recent
and extinct genera (Pl. IX. Figs. 2, 7,9). The apophysis, or loop,
is more or less developed, extending in some genera to upwards of
three-fourths of the length of the shell, but in others it is so short
and rounded as to project only a little beyond the hinge. In some
genera it is attached only to the hinge-plate, as in Terebratula, Wald-
heimia (Pl. IX. Fig. 2), in others to a central longitudinal plate or
septum’ (Pl. 1X. Fig. 9). In certain families the apophysis presents
the form of two spiral processes which nearly fill the interior of the
shell, the ends of the spires being either directed outwards towards
the cardinal angles (Spirifer, Pl. VIII. Fig. 6), or placed horizontally
with their apices directed inwards and towards the centre of the
concave surface of the same valve, which they almost fill; the inner
sides of the spires are pressed together and flattened with their ter-
minations close to each other near the centre of the bottom of the
shell (Atrypa, Pl. VIII. Fig. 7). In the Rhynchonellide again it
assumes the shape of two short, slender, curved lamine (Pl. IX.
Fig. 7); while in many genera and even families, Productide, etc.,
there exists no calcified support for the labial appendages.

The muscles, pallial sinuses, and ovaries, generally leave such in-
dentations on the internal surface of the valves, in both recent and
fossil genera and species, that they materially assist in determining
the characters of extinct forms; and in addition, the brachial or
labial appendages often leave indications of their presence and cha-
racter, which is also evinced by the shape of the calcified skeleton
which supported them to a greater or lesser extent.

Shell Structure.—The structure of the shell has been shown by
Dr. Carpenter, Prof. King, Dr. Gratiolet and others to be generally
distinct from that of the Lamellibranchiata. or Gasteropoda. Dr.
Carpenter, who has deseribed the shell structure with infinite care
and minuteness, informs us that in the shell of the Brachiopoda,
there is not that distinction between outer and inner layers, either in
structure or mode of growth, which prevails among the ordinary
bivalves; and that it seems obvious, both from the nature and form
of the shell substance, the mode in which it is extended, that the
whole thickness of the Brachiopod shell corresponds with the outer
layer only of the Lamellibranchiata. He adds that he has, however,
occasionally met with a second layer in recent Terebratule, within
the earlier formed portion of the shell, but confined only to a part
of the surface, instead of extending beyond it. In some families,
according to Prof. King, it consists of three divisions; the innermost

1 Tn a very interesting paper on the development of the loop in Wald. cranium
and W. septigera entitled “ Bidrag til Vestlandets Molluskfauna,” published in the
“ Saerskilt Aftryk af Videnskabsselskabets Forhandlinger’’ for 1875, Mr. Herman
Friele has started the hypothesis that the loop becomes modified with age, and he
indicates a most remarkable development of a simple loop out of a compound one,
but before this important question can be definitely settled a complete connecting

series of the different ages of a same species will have to be examined, which has not
been hitherto done to my entire satisfaction.

T. Davidson—W hat is a Brachiopod ? 149

and middle divisions, which constitute the entire thickness of the
valve, are calcareous, with a prismatic or fibrous structure, while
the outer division consists of a very thin membrane (PI. VII. Fig. 29).
The innermost and intermediate divisions are in some families
traversed by minute tubular canals which pass from one surface to
the other, for the most part in a vertical direction, and at tolerably
regular intervals; but just before terminating, near the outer surface
of the epidermis, their orifices suddenly become dilated; the lower
half of the canals being often considerably smaller in diameter than
the upper half. The canals are occupied by ccecal processes pro-
ceeding from the mantle, or the fleshy covering of the animal. Their
functional nature is according to Dr. Carpenter branchial or sub-
servient to respiration; but, as observed by Prof. King, the outer
epidermis, which covers their expanded terminations, would seem-
ingly prevent any communication between the surrounding sea-water
and the mantle; so that it may be questioned whether they are at
all connected with the respiratory function. In certain genera, such
as Lhynchonella, there are no canals; the shell being found to con-
sist of flattened prisms of considerable length, which lie parallel to
one another with great regularity, and at a very acute angle to the
surface of the valves. The shell substance of Zingula Prof. King
believes to be also almost entirely composed of Keratode, with a
subordinate portion of phosphatic calcareous matter.

The shell structure of Zingula and Discina has also been attentively
studied by Dr. Gratiolet in his excellent memoir “ Etudes anatomiques
sur la Lingula anatina,’ 1860. Therein he mentions, that “the
structure of the valves in the Lingulide appears at first sight to
differ much from that of the Terebratulide, but a more attentive
examination reveals analogies at first unsuspected. Two distinct
elements exist in the shell of Lingula—the one corneous, and the
other testaceous. They occur in thick layers alternating from the
convex to the concave surface of the valves, commencing with a
superficial corneous one. These layers are not, however, of equal
thickness throughout. On the convex side the thickness of the horny
layers is greater towards the outer surface of the shell, while on
the visceral, or inner surface, the testaceous elements predominate.
They are of especial thickness at the level of the posterior angle of
the rhomb.: The thick testaceous layers are separated by thin
corneous ones which thin out at certain points. This arrangement
gives an amount of opaqueness to the central portions of the valves,
while the outer edges, where the horny substance predominates, are
semi-transparent. ‘The structure of the testaceous layers simulates
that of the Terebratulide ; they are crossed by numerous microscopic
canals which are traversed by extremely delicate striez, recalling the
chains formed by the prismatic elements of the shell in Terebratulide.
This description applies equally to Discina, but in these last the
calcareous portion predominates greatly over the horny one.”

Soft Parts of the Animal.—I must now allude to some of the soft
parts of the animal, but it would require much more space than can
be bestowed in this short article to do anything like justice to so

150 T. Davidson— What is a Brachiopod ?

difficult a subject. I am, however, truly happy to state that this
important inquiry has been most ably and successfully elaborated
during the last forty years by some of the most distinguished anato-
mists and naturalists of the period. To such men as Hancock,’
Cuvier,? Owen,’ Huxley,‘ Gratiolet,> Vogt,’ Macdonald,’ King, and
others, we are indebted for an extensive series of dissections and obser-
vations which have defined, to a very considerable extent, what are the
true characters of the Brachiopod; while some important researches
elaborated by Steenstrup, Lacaze-Duthiers, Morse, Dr. Fritz Miiller,
Oscar Schmidt. McCrady, Kowalevsky, and others, have thrown much
additional light upon the embryology and early stages of the group.
Some differences in opinion, it is true, have been and are still enter-
tained with respect to the exact function to be attributed to certain
parts of the animal; but on all essential questions there is a pretty
general agreement.

Before describing the various parts of the animal, it may be as well
to mention that the Brachiopods have been divided by Bronn into
two great groups, termed Apygia and Pleuropygia. Professor King,
considering these to be inadmissible on certain grounds, substituted
the name Clistenterata for the first group, on account of its including
animals that are destitute of an anal aperture; and the term Teten-
terata for the second, as it embraces animals provided with this
opening. ‘The former division contains species which have the valves
articulated, as Terebratula, Spirifer, Rhynchonella, etc. The latter
comprise species with non-articulated valves, as Lingula, Discina,
etc.© Some very important modifications in the animal are con-
nected with these two divisions, especially in what relates to the
muscular system.

According to Morse the Brachiopods are reproduced by eggs,
generally kidney-shaped and irregular, which are discharged from
the anterior margin of the shell, and drop just beyond the pallial
membrane, hanging in clusters from the sete. Some uncertainty
has prevailed as to whether there is a male and female individual.
Lacaze-Duthiers and Morse state that the sexes are separate, and
describe them as such in Thecidium and Terebratulina, and the
French malacologist goes so far as to suggest that a difference is
even observable in the shell; but this point I am unable to deter-
mine.

Prof. Morse describes the embryo of Terebratulina with great
minuteness during its six stages of development. It is divided into

1 Philosophical Transactions Royal Society, vol. 148, 1858.

* Sur Vanimal des Lingules, Bull. Soc. Philomatique de Paris, vol. i., 1797, and
Sur l’animal de la Lingule anatina, Mémoirs du Museum, vol. i., 1802.

’ Transactions of Zool. Soc., vol. i., 1883, and Davidson’s General Introduction
to British Fossil Brachiopoda, vol. i., 1853.

* Annals and Mag of Nat. History, vol. xiv., 2nd series, 1854.

° Journal de Conchyliologie, 1857, 1859, and 1860.

6 Anatomie der Lingula anatina, 1845.

7 On the Physiology of the Pallial sinuses of the Brachiopoda, Transactions of the
Linnean Society of London, vol. xxiii., p. 378, 1862.

* An instructive note on the primary divisions of the Brachiopods by T. Gill will
be found in the Annals and Mag. of Natural History, 4th, series, vol. xii., 1873.

T. Davidson— What is a Brachiopod ? 151

two, three, or four lobes clothed with vibratile cilia; and before
becoming attached swims, or whirls head foremost, by means of the
vibratile cilia covering the body. Morse describes the gradual for-
mation of the shell from its first stage of development to the adult
condition. Lacaze-Duthiers also alludes to two and four eye-spots in
the embryo of Thecidium, and states that the animal appears to be in
some measure sensible to light. The mouth conducts by a narrow
cesophagus to a simple stomach, which is surrounded by a large
granulated liver. Owen’s “hearts” have been found to be oviducts,
while the true heart would, according to Huxley and Hancock,
consist of a pyriform vescicle appended to the dorsal surface of the
stomach ; but Prof.Semper, who has described the animal of Lingula
at considerable length, with especial reference to its vascular system,
contends that the pyriform vescicle termed “a heart” does not repre-
sent that organ, that there is not the least vestige of vascular system
connected with it, aud consequently that the existence of a heart must
be considered unproven. ‘The digestive organs, viscera, as well as
the muscles, which take up only a small place in the proximity of
the beak, are separated from the great anterior cavity, and protected
by a strong membrane, in the centre of which the mouth is situated.
The nervous system consists of a principal ganglion, of no great size.

Mantle.—Both valves are lined by a delicate membrane termed the
“pallium” or mantle; it secretes the shell, and is generally fringed
with horny bristles or setee (Pl. VIII. Figs. 9 and 10). It is composed
of an outer and inner layer, between which are situated the blood-
channels or lacunes. The mantle has been ably described by Hancock,
and by E. Deslongchamps,' who observes “ that all the internal parts
of the shell are lined by the internal layer of the mantle, with the
exception of the muscular impressions, or those portions where the
muscles are inserted on the inner surface of the shell.”

The outer layer closely lines the inner surface of the valves to
which it adheres, and in those species in which the shell is traversed
by canals there exists on the surface of the mantle facing the inner
surface of the valves, corresponding short cylindrical membranous
projections, or ceca, which insert themselves into the small tubular
orifices that traverse the shell (Pl. VIII. Fig. 10c). The czcal pro-
longations do not exist in those genera such as Rhynchonella where
the shell is deprived of tubular perforations. The inner layer is
rather thicker than the outer one, and is covered with vibratile
cilia. Between the two layers composing the mantle are situated
the blood-channels or lacune. These vary in their dispositions or
details in different genera, and as they project to some small extent,
leave corresponding indentations on the inner surface of the shell,
so that their shape and directions can, very often, be traced on fossil
and extinct genera, as well as if the animal were still living, as may
be seen in the numerous illustrations appended to my works on
British and Foreign Brachiopoda.

There are usually four principal arterial trunks in each lobe of the

Recherches’sur organisation du Manteau chez les Brachiopodes articules, Caen,
1864, and to which the reader is referred for further details,

152 T. Davidson— What is a Brachiopod ?

mantle; the two central ones run direct to the front, near to which
they bifurcate, while the outer ones give off, at intervals, on the side
facing the lateral margin of the valves, a series of branches which
bifurcate several times, as may be seen in the figures here reproduced
from Hancock’s admirable work (Pl. VIII. Fig. 9, Pl. X. Fig. 4).
That eminent zoologist observes that the inner lamina of the mantle,
and more particularly that portion of it forming the floor of the great
pallial sinuses, undoubtedly assist in purifying the blood.

In 1854, in his review of my Monograph on British Fossil
Brachiopoda, Oscar Schmidt called attention to an important
anatomical omission, namely, the existence of a vast number of
microscopic flattened, calcareous, denticulated plates or spicule on
certain parts of the surface of the mantle, which serve, no doubt,
to stiffen the portions that contain them. It was, moreover
remarked by Hancock, and afterwards by Deslongchamps, that
these calcareous plates “are not spread over the entire surface of
the mantle, but only over the large vascular sinuses, the arms,
and the perivisceral cavity.” These spicule do not, however, ap-
pear to be present in every species, being totally absent in
Lingula, Rhynchonella, etc.; but Deslongchamps again observes
that, “after an examination of the genera Kraussina, Terebratula,
Terebratulina, Megerlia and Morrisia (Platidia), we find a series in
which the number and consistency of the calcareous portions increase
in a very rapid manner, the spicules forming several layers, leading
the observer by a series of gradations to the genus Thecidiwm, in
which the spicules are soldered together, occupying the whole of the
mantle, and incrusting it to such an extent that the mantle is no
longer distinguishable from the shell itself. The mantle forms that
calcareous mass, which equals in consistency the brachial append-
ages, a fact of which paleontologists have often, and in vain, sought
the explanation.”

The Brachial or Labial Appendages are a pair of singular organs
eminently characteristic of the Brachiopoda. They are often, more
correctly, termed labial appendages on account of each member being
a prolongation of the lateral portion of the lips or margin of the
mouth. The lamellibranchs, or conchifera, have analogous append-
ages, but very much less developed. They assume different shapes
in different genera, and are supported, or otherwise, by the more or
less complicated calcified skeleton already described. The brachial
or labial appendages, whether they form a pair of long, bent, or
spirally convoluted organs, occupy the larger portion of the cavity
of the shell, in front of the visceral chamber ; they therefore are
mainly composed of a membranous tube fringed on one side with
long flexible cirri (Pl. IX. Figs. 4, 5, 6), which were not capable of
being protruded in those families and genera in which they were folded
back upon themselves, and supported by a calcareous skeleton. In
Rhynchonella, where the elongated spiral arms are only slightly sup-
ported at their origin by two short projecting calcareous processes,
they could be unrolled at the will of the animal and protruded to
some distance beyond the margins of the valves. When forcibly

T. Davidson— What is a Brachiopod ? 153

stretched out, they are said to be more than four times the length of
the shell, and to support some 8000 cirri (Pl. 1X. Fig. 8). It
must, however, remain for ever uncertain whether in the extinct
genera Spirifera, Atrypa, and others, in which the spirally coiled
fleshy arms were supported throughout their entire length by a
calcified skeleton, the animal could protrude its labial appendages
beyond the margin of the valves.

In some families—Rhynchonellide, Productide, and others—these
organs are spiral and separate; in others, Lingulide, only at their
extremities. It is almost certain that these beautiful organs, by
means of their cirri and the cilia they are doubtless furnished with,
are not only instrumental in carrying floating nutrimental particles
or minute microscopic organisms to the mouth (which is situated
between the appendages at their origin), but are subservient to the
function of respiration. Hancock observes that “to prove that the
brachial organs subserve the function of gills, as well as that of
sustentation, it is only necessary to refer to the manner in which the
blood circles round the arms (labial appendages), and is carried to
the cirri; but more particularly to its circulating through these latter
organs, returning direct from them to the heart.”

(To be continued in our neat Number.)

FIG. EXPLANATION OF PLATE VII.
1. Terebratula septentrionalis. A cluster of eggs from the genital band (magnified).

2. Egg from the perivisceral chamber, immediately after their escape
from the pallial sinuses.
3. Ege; first ciliated stage.
4,56 Transverse division of embryo, showing long tuft of cilia at cephalic
extremity.
6, 7, 8. ————— Embryo, showing various outlines assumed in, while swimming.
9, 10. ———— Embryos attaching themselves by their caudal segment.
WN, Embryo showing first appearance of caudal or peduncular segment.
12,138, 14. Successive changes of the embryo, showing formation of dorsal

and ventral areas by the folding and growth of the thoracic ring.
15, 16. ————— Embryo, the deciduous sete appear in this stage.

We Free swimming embryo.

18. First stage, in which the mouth makes its appearance, and dorsal
and ventral plates become distinctly marked.

19. Earliest stage, showing arrangement of deciduous sete, and contour

of embryonic shell.

20. ——-_———— A considerably advanced stage, showing subsequent widening of
the anterior portion of the dorsal and ventral plates.

All the above enlaged figures are taken from Prof. Morse’s memoir on the
embryology of Terebratulina.

21. Waldheimia cranium. Showing the manner in which it attaches itself by the
means of its peduncle. a. ventral; 6. dorsal valve; p. peduncle.

22. Discina lamellosa. Showing the manner in which it attaches itself and forms
clusters of large dimensions. Upwards of one hundred specimens thus
attached were sent to me by Prof. Verrill, from Callao, Peru. p. peduncle.

23. Crania ignabergensis (fossil). Showing the manner in which it attaches itself to
submarine rocks and corals by a portion of the surface of one of its valves.

24. Chonetes striatella (fossil). To show the row of hollow spines that rise from the
upper edge of the area of the dorsal valve.

25. Terebratula spheroidalis (fossil). Longitudinal section to show the loop and
large free space for the occupation of the animal. a. ventral; 6. dorsal
valve.

\

154 T. Davidson— What is a Brachiopod ?

26. Davidsonia Verneuilii (fossil). To show the great thickness of the ventral valve
a, and its mode of attachment to submarine objects by a portion of the
acta of this valve. 6. dorsal valve; d. small free space left for the
animal.

27. Productus Llangollensis (fossil). Longitudinal section to show the great difference
in thickness of the valves. a. ventral; 6. dorsal; d. space left for animal.

28. Strophomena filosa (fossil). To show the small space left for the animal between
the valves.

29. Waldheimia flavescens, Enlarged section of shell (after King). 0. thick cal-
careous innermost division ; 2. intermediate thin calcareous division ; mm. outer
division of thin membrane; ¢. f. canals traversing the calcareous layers
o and m; the lower half of the perforation being considerably smaller in
diameter than the upper one.

30. Terebratula bullata (fossil). Section of shell near the external surface and
parallel to it, showing the remarkably large size and close proximity of the
perforations. 100 diameters.

31. Waldheimia flavescens or australis. Internal surface of the shell, showing the
imbricated arrangement of the extremities of the prisms, which are seen
longitudinally at 6, magnified 100 diameters.

32, ——_———— Vertical section, considerably enlarged, so as to show the ordinary
trumpet-like form of the vertical passages and remarkable condition which
they exhibit in the inner and (probably) later-formed layer.

33. Rhynchonella psittacea. Portion of the internal surface of the shell more highly
magnified, showing the imbricated arrangement and the entire absence of
perforations, magnified 100 diameters. >

Portion of the shell, showing at a the internal surface, with the
imbricated arrangement of the extremities of its component prisms, and at
b the aspect of the prismatic substance as displayed by a fracture nearly in
the direction of the length of the prisms, showing also entire absence of
the least trace of perforations. Magnified 40 diameters. Figs. 30 to 34
after Dr. Carpenter. ,

35. Lingula anatina. Longitudinal section of the shell to show the alternation of
calcareous and horny layers; b. b. calcareous layers perforated by minute
canals; d. d. horny layers. After Dr. Gratiolet. rat

36. Crania anomala (enlarged). Interior of the dorsal valve to show the position of
the spiral appendages. From a specimen in the Museum of the School
of Mines.

}4,

FIG. CLISTENTERATA. PLATE VIII.

1. Terebratula carnea (fossil). Interior of the dorsal valve, to show the short
simple loop.

2. Terebratulina caput-serpentis. Interior of the dorsal valve, to show the ring-
shaped loop.

3. Magas pumilus (fossil). Longitudinal section to show the large central septum
and disunited deflected portion of the loop. (

4. Bouchardia tulipa. Interior of the dorsal valve, to show the anchor-shaped
apophysis.

5. Thecidium mediterraneum. Seen in profile. The valves opened as in life. After
Lacaze-Duthiers.

6. Spirifer Schrenkii (fossil). Interior of the dorsal valve, showing the cardinal
process, quadruple impression of the adductor muscle, and one of the cal-
careous spiral lamine for the support of the labial appendages. ay

7. Atrypa reticularis (fossil). Interior of the dorsal valve, showing the position

and shape of the spiral laminz for the support of the labial appendages.

. One of the spicule of the mantle of Terebratulina caput-serpentis highly mag.

. Rhynchonella psittacea (after Hancock) much enlarged. Dorsal view of the

animal; a. pallial lobe; ¢. peduncle; d. great pallial sinuses giving off
branches at the margin; 7. extremities of adductor muscle; Ne liver ;
x. spiral brachial apparatus; z. genitalia and muscular ties uniting the
walls of the genital sinuses.

10. Waldheimia australis (after Hancock). Diagram of longitudinal section of
marginal portion of valves in connexion with the mantle, much magnified;

© co

W. T. Aveline—Magnesian Limestone & New Red of Notts. 165

a. margin of valve; 4. shell exhibiting prismatic structure; ¢. ¢c. pallial
ceca penetrating ditto; d. great pallial sinus ; e. marginal vessels; f. outer
lamina of mantle; g. external reticulated layer of ditto, in which the pallial
ceca take their origin; . homogeneous layer of other lamina; ¢. inner
lamina of mantle; j. epithelium; % 4. membrane lining pallial sinus;
m. inner ditto; o. marginal fold; py. one of the sete; g. follicle of ditto;
y. prolongation of glandular matter of follicle; s. marginal muscles ;
zt. extreme pallial margin.

(Plates IX. and X. will appear in our next Number.)

I].—Tar Maenustan Limestony anp New Rep SANDSTONE IN THE
NrrgHBourHOoD or NoTrincHaM.
By W. T. Avetine, F.G.S.,
Of the Geological Survey of England and Wales.
INCE the Government Geological Survey of the country around
Nottingham was made in the year 1809, and the Explanation
on the Geological Map Quarter-sheet 71 N.E. was written in 1861,
-papers by local geologists have been written, stating that in the
neighbourhood of Nottingham a perfect conformity existed between
the Magnesian Limestone and the New Red Sandstone. This being
totally at variance with conclusions I came to when I surveyed that
country, I have been for some time past desirous to say a word on
the subject, but being deeply occupied with the old rocks of the Lake
district, I have put it off from time to time. I felt little doubt in my
mind, when surveying the neighbourhood of Nottingham, that there
was a considerable break between the Magnesian Limestone and the
New Red Sandstone, and this opinion was completely confirmed as
I continued my survey northwards through Nottinghamshire into
Yorkshire. Unfortunately I did not make a statement regarding
this break between the two formations in my Explanation on Sheet
71 N.H. Wishing to compress my observations as much as possible
to form a pamphlet, the price of which would not be more than six-
pence, much that might have been of interest was left out. But in
my Explanation on Geological Map Skeet 82 N.H., the country
in the neighbourhood of Worksop, I have given my proofs of this
great break. I have shown that in the district to the north of
Worksop the Permian series consists of at least four divisions. To
begin at the top, there are the Upper Marls; next below the Upper
Magnesian Limestone so-called, though it contains little or no Car-
bonate of Magnesia; then the Middle Marls and Sandstones ; and,
lastly, the lowest and chief member of the Permian series, the Lower
Magnesian Limestone. I state that the Bunter Sandstone overlaps
the Upper Permian Marls throughout most part of the district, and
before the neighbourhood of Worksop is reached the Upper Limestone
is also overlapped. From Worksop southward to Nottingham there
are only left the Middle Marls and Lower Magnesian Limestone.
Between these two places the Middle Marls are frequently over-
lapped, and, finally, west of Nottingham, the Lower Magnesian
Limestone is itself overlapped, the New Red Sandstone resting on
the Coal-measures. Therefore, in the neighbourhood of Nottingham,
instead of there being a perfect conformity between the Magnesian

156 Thos. Belt—The Glacial Period in Norfolk.

Limestone and the New Red Sandstone, and a passage from one into
the other, there are at least three subdivisions wanting that should
come between these formations.

I am quite willing to admit that there is a much greater degree of
conformity between the Permian and the New Red Sandstone than
between the Carboniferous and the Permian, and that the great
division between the Primary and the Secondary formations should
be at the bottom and not at the top of the Permian. The links that
bound the Permian to the Carboniferous are now nearly all broken.
The Lower Red Sandstone of Sedgwick, or Rothliegende of
Murchison, lying below the Magnesian Limestone, with its coal-
plants and even coal-beds, is now proved to be either Coal-measures
or Millstone-grit, and the Permians of Staffordshire and Warwick-
shire are now said to be Upper Coal-measures of a red colour.

The relation between the Permian and the New Red Sandstone is
an interesting question, but the truth can only be arrived at by a
statement of facts. I have nowhere myself seen a passage upwards
from the Permian into the New Red Sandstone, but I will not say
such a thing does not occur.

IIL—On tHe First Staces ofr tHe GuactaLt Periop 1n NorFrouk
AND SUFFOLK.

By Tuomas Bett, F.G.S.

HE publication in the last Quarterly Journal of the Geological

Society of the most instructive paper by Messrs. 8S. V. Wood,

jun., and F. W. Harmer, on the Later Tertiary Geology of Hast

Anglia, and one by the latter author on the Kessingland Cliff-section,

induces me to offer the following remarks, with the hope that my

views may be considered by geologists who have made this question
their study.

Messrs. Wood and Harmer show very clearly that over most of
Norfolk and Suffolk, laminated brick-earths were originally spread
out, and afterwards more or less denuded, and in some parts greatly
contorted and disturbed. At their base lie pebbly sands, which are
partly the “ Westleton beds” of Mr. Prestwich, and above them lie
the “ Middle Glacial sands and gravels” of Mr. 8. V. Wood, jun.

In nearly all the sections given by the authors in the above-named
memoirs, and in most of those that I have myself examined, the
brick-earths and pebbly sands rest directly on the Chalk or on the
Newer Tertiary beds. In the few exceptions, as in the Cromer Cliff-
section, and near Thetford, where these brick-earths are underlain
wholly or in part by till, there is much disturbance of the strata, and
the beds are greatly contorted and folded, as has been very fully
described by Sir Charles Lyell.

I have in various papers urged that the ice that flowed down the
bed of the German Ocean reached to and invaded the coast of
Norfolk ; and it may very well have been reinforced by ice that
had rounded the southern end of the Pennine Chain from the

Thos. Belt—The Glacial Period in Norfolk. 157

north-west, as we know that it was of immense thickness in
Lancashire."

Now if the brick-earths had been deposited before the ice reached
the coast, it seems not improbable that they should be contorted by
it and pushed up by the rising ice, so that in some eases the till would
be actually deposited below them. We find that the ice has certainly
accomplished this with the Lias, the Kimmeridge-clay, and the
Chalk, so that great masses of them are often found lying on till;
and at the Ely Clay-pit there was a fine section open last summer,
showing highly inclined beds of Chalk, Kimmeridge Clay, and
Neocomian Sands, all underlain by till, and that by crushed and
disturbed beds of Kimmeridge-clay.

Hvidence of the passage of ice over the district has been found by
Messrs. Wood and Harmer in the valley of the Yare, the Wensum,
and the Little Ouse, and I have noticed it besides in the valleys of
the Waveney and the Ouse. !

I believe it was Mr. Croll who first pointed out that the bed of the
North Sea between Scotland and Scandinavia had been filled with
ice, and this opinion is now held by many geologists. In a letter,to
Nature in 1874, I remarked that, as up to the time of the Glacial
period the Straits of Dover did not appear to have been cut through,
it was evident that as soon as the northern end of the German Ocean
was blocked up by ice, a lake must have been formed, which drained
to the south-west, and gradually wore out a passage through the
Straits of Dover. This has appeared to many a rash speculation ;
but if any one will take the trouble to imagine what would be
the necessary result of stopping the flow of water to the north,
before the passage to the English Channel was open, he will find
that the theory is not an improbable one; and I am glad to see that
it has been indorsed by Mr. Croll.’

At first, when the northern outlet was only partially obstructed,
the water would still be salt, though not so much go as the open sea,
and perhaps only stand a few feet above the present sea-level; but
as the ice advanced, the water would rise until it overflowed the
isthmus that then connected England with the Continent. The
water of the lake would be fresh, or but slightly brackish, and I
suppose it was then that the laminated brick-earths, including those
of the lower part of the Thames Valley, were deposited. The Straits
of Dover were gradually cut through, and the brick-earths denuded,
whilst the ice from the north was slowly advancing southward. At
last, I suppose, the ice reached the coast of Norfolk, forced up great
masses of Chalk, and contorted and shifted the laminated brick-
earths.

A branch of the ice-stream flowed up the Wash, and being re-
inforced, as before mentioned, from the north-west, reached certainly
as far south as Ely, and probably much further, sending off a branch
along the depression now occupied by the valley of the Little Ouse
and the Waveney. I suppose that the ice in passing along the sea-

1 Mr. R. H. Tiddeman, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. xxviii. p. 471.
* Climate and Time, p. 462.

158 Thos. Belt—The Glacial Period in Nerfolk.

bed had become partly charged with marine remains, and that thus
the broken shells were introduced that are found in some of the
Norfolk drift.

It will be readily seen that this is not a theory specially proposed
to account for the phenomena presented in the Norfolk and Suffolk
beds, but rather an attempt to show that they are naturally explained
by that of the German Ocean glacier, which rests upon other and
very strong evidenee. I have, during the last twelve months, dis-
cussed this question with several geologists acquainted with the
district ; and though I cannot say that I have made any converts, I
have only met with general objections, such as the unwillingness to
admit that there was ever such an accumulation of ice as would fill
the bed of the German Ocean; this feeling seeming to over-ride
every evidence of its existence. It will, however, strike many
minds, that in a theory so comprehensive as that which I have pro-
posed to account for the varied phenomena of the Glacial period,
there ought, if it is not the true one, to be many facts that cannot be
explained by it. I am unable, either by my own observation or by
studying the works of others, to find any; and I have thought that
by presenting clearly my theory in reference to one restricted area,
and to one portion only of the Glacial period, I should offer a fair
opportunity to those who differ from me to bring forward the facts
on which they rely. I have therefore confined these remarks to the
question of the formation of the Quaternary beds of Norfolk and
Suffolk, up to and including that of the Cromer till, but have not
here dealt with the larger subjects of the Boulder-clays and Middle
Glacial sands and gravels, of which, however, I have treated
elsewhere.

Briefly, my conclusions respecting the beds in question are as
follows :—

1. The Cromer forest grew before the German Ocean had been
blocked up to the north by ice.

2. The fluvio-marine beds, lying above the forest bed and the
pebbly sands at the base of the laminated brick-earths, were formed
when the northern end of the German Ocean was partly obstructed,
so that the water was slightly freshened and a little raised above the
present level of the sea.

3. The laminated brick-earths were deposited when the ice com-
pletely blocked up the German Ocean to the north, causing the
formation of a lake that drained to the south-west and gradually cut
through the Straits of Dover. The water of this lake was fresh or
but slightly brackish.

4. The Straits of Dover were cut through, the lake lowered, and
the brick-earths denuded, whilst the ice was advancing southward
along the bed of the German Ocean.

5. The ice reached the coast of Norfolk, and crumpled up and
shifted the brick-earths that it came in contact with, and in some
cases, as on the north coast of Norfolk, where its power was greater,
pushed them up and deposited till beneath them, as it did also with
great masses of Chalk-marl and Kimmeridge-clay.

Rev. E. R. Lewis—Notes on the Geological Survey of Lebanon. 159

IV.—Norrs on THE Gronocy or THE LEBANON.

By the Rey. E. R. Lewis, M.A.,
Of the Syrian Protestant College, Beirtit, Syria,

HAVE been fortunate enough to obtain from the eastern slope of

Mount Hermon (Jebel esh Shech) a large lot of fossils, which

not only determine the geological position of that part of the Lebanon,

but also settle the question of the existence of Jurassic formations

in Syria. Of course it has been often enough asserted that Jurassic

rocks are found here, but the fact has not been considered settled
beyond doubt.

M. Louis Lartet, in his “Géologie de la Palestine,” p. 120, says :—
“Te Cidaris glandifera et le Collyrites bicordata sont les deux seuls
fossiles jurassiques du Liban et de PAnti-Liban dont l’authenticité
soit jusqwici établie.” M. Lartet evidently felt that Botta, Russegger,
and others had been hasty, if not inaccurate, in their conclusions.

Dr. Oscar Fraas, of Stuttgart, in his “Aus dem Orient,” p. 40,
says that his chief object in visiting Syria was to determine “ with
what part of the Jura formation we have here to do,” and adds,
“denn dass in Palistina die Juraformation die Hauptgruppe der
Gebirge bilde, war mir nach Allem, was ich an Literatur kannte,
eine ausgemachte Sache.”

Dr. Fraas, as a geologist who had been brought up among Jurassic
formations, and therefore by M. L. Lartet styled “géologue juras-
sien,’ was without doubt competent to decide the question which
he went to decide. He examined the geological formation of
Palestine from Jaffa to the Dead Sea, and from Jerusalem to the
Mountains of Galilee. and then wrote, “dass weder von ilterer
Kreide noch von Tertiir, geschweige von Juraformation oder sonst
einem secundiren Gebirge die Rede ist, glauben wir an der Hand
leitender Fossile zur Gentige beweisen zu konnen,” p. 72. He also
writes, p. 71, that the formation which makes up the Lebanon is the
same as that in the south. These late and trustworthy investigations
of M. Louis Lartet and Dr. Oscar Fraas certainly left the existence
of Jurassic formations a matter to be yet decided.

In the summer of 1878 I first found, on the eastern slope of Mount
Hermon (at a place a little north of where M. Louis Lartet found
specimens of Collyrites bicordata), a lot of fossils which differed
from any I had hitherto found in the Lebanon. Dr. Fraas had
never reached this place, I believe. Again, in 1874, I visited this
place, and collected a large and exceedingly valuable set of fossils
which I submitted to Dr. Fraas for determination. The following is
the answer returned by him :—

Rhynchonella lacunosa, Buch. Ammonites hecticus, Quenst.
Terebratula bisuffarcinata, Ziet. perarmatus, Sow., d’Orb.
Ammonites transversarius, Quenst. Nucula variabilis, Sow.

dentatus, Rein. ornata, Quenst.

convolutus, Schloth. lacryma, Morr., Sow.
—— flexicostatus, Phillips. Belemnites semihastatus, Blainville.

Dr. Fraas adds to this list, “ Vraiment oxfordien! tous des fossiles
correspondent exactement aux fossiles du méme horizont en Europe.”

160 J. 8. Gardner—On Ettingshausen’s Theory

I have to add to the above that I visited the summit of Mount
Hermon during the summer of 1875, and while there obtained from
the live rock, near the highest point at Kasr Antar, a specimen of
Fthynchonella lacunosa. The specimen was not perfect, but there
could not be much doubt about what it was. It is evident then
that we have at last obtained satisfactory evidence of the existence
of Jurassic formations in Syria. The beds on the eastern slope of
Mount Hermon are without doubt the White Jura and the Brown
Jura of the Germans. These beds are examined at best advantage
near Mejdel esh Shems, a small village about two hours north-east of
Banias. The strata dip to the south-east and disappear under the
Hauran basalt, which here reaches its limit. This Jura formation,
however, does not seem to be limited to this place, but evidently
reaches to the highest summit of Hermon, thus establishing the
geological position of this mountain.

I have a large collection of these Jurassic fossils; but to Dr.
Oscar Fraas, of Stuttgart, is due the credit of identifying them.

V.—On Baron C. von ErrincsHausen’s THEORY OF THE DEVELOP-
MENT OF VEGETATION ON THE HaARTH.

By J. Svrarxiz Garpner, F.G.S.
I. Genetic relationship of the Tertiary Flora-elements' to the living Floras.

[Aus dem LXIX. Bande. der Sitzb. der k. Akad. der Wissensch. I. Abth. Marz-
Heft, 1874.]

Baron Errmnesoausen has forwarded to me from Graz a series
of papers, relating more especially to the Fossil Floras of the Ter-
tiary Periods. We have been made familiar with these mainly
through the translations of the works of Heer, Unger, and De La
Harpe; but to most of the readers of this Journal the work and
opinions of other continental palzeontologists, such as Ettingshausen,
Massalongo, and Saporta, are unknown. It may, therefore, not be
out of place, pending the contemplated publication by the Palzeonto-
graphical Society of a monograph on the British Fossil Hocene
Flora, to give in the GEonocicaL MAGAZINE a brief analysis of their
theories.

In the first paper under consideration Baron von Ettingshausen
states that the present vegetation is but a phase in the develop-
ment of plants, and has resulted from earlier and preparative con-
ditions. By careful study of living plants, we may trace their
genetic connexion with those of Tertiary times, and even with still
more ancient Floras. But in this research, at present, the most
important of Fossil Floras are those of the Tertiary Period, on
account of their greater resemblance to existing forms.

In this period the types of actual living plants were in existence,
although not then characterizing distinct phyto-regions, as we now see
them, but all growing in close proximity. As examples of this we
find, in the same beds of the Tertiary formation, remains of European

1 J have preserved the original term Flora-element, although it is unfortunately
open to more interpretations than the sense in which it is here used.

of Development of Vegetation on the Earth. 161

plants such as oak and pine mingled with palms and other tropical
plants and with extra-Huropean Sequoias, Cinnamons, Dryandras, ete.
Having worked out an explanation of this strange mingling on the
supposition that these were assemblages of plants brought together
which had grown at different elevations, Ettingshausen was led to
abandon that theory by a visit to the fossils in siti at Steiermark,
and became at once convinced that the Oonifere, Betulacee and
Cupulifere had not lived in zones above the Palms and J/usacee, but
that the otherwise enigmatical association of these plants is easily
explained by supposing that the predecessors of our Huropean
species, which differ from their descendants in many respects, were
able to exist in a warmer climate.

In comparing the Tertiary Flora with that now living, Httings-
hausen considers the former as a collective stock-flora, which may
be analysed into its component Flora-elements. By Flora-elements
he means all those ancient plant-forms whose representatives at
present belong exclusively to, and characterize some natural floral
region.

The genetic relationship of some of the forest trees of the American
Continent, for example, to Tertiary trees can be traced directly from
horizon to horizon, as in the case of Castanea atavia to C. vesca.
In the development of our European Flora the analogues of trees
now living in America have played the most important parts. In
the Tertiary times the vegetation of the whole earth is supposed by
Hittingshausen to have had one and the same character, distinguished
by the general mixture of what he terms all the Flora-elements—as
far at all events as climatic conditions allowed,—which contained
within itself the elements from which all existing Floras are
derived.!

He characterizes these Flora-elements as chief-elements,? and col-
lateral-elements.2 For example, the Mid-European Flora-element
in the Tertiaries stands in reference to the existing Flora of Europe
as chief-element ; whilst all the exotic forms contained in the same
beds stand in the relationship of collateral-elements. We frequently
see certain plants taking their place in the natural Flora of a region
which appear extraneous to the general character of that Flora, some-
times even so abundantly represented as to influence the character
of the Flora. These are descendants of collateral-elements.

Reference is then made to the Flora of Japan, which presents a
mixed assemblage of tree-forms, recalling forcibly the Flora of our
Tertiaries. In that place are to be seen growing side by side
apparent representatives of the vegetation of the Hast Indies and the
Amazons, of Kurope and North America.

The same mingling of types is seen, though less markedly, in the
woods of North America. ‘The Southern States possess endemic and
European, Japanese and sub-tropical forms. In neither case could
this be the result of immigration.

1 The Flora of America, it may be remarked, is now known to have been at least as
distinct from that of Europe in Cretaceous (?) times as at present.—J. 8. G.
* Haupt-element. 3 Neben-element.
DECADE II.—YVOL. IV.—NO, Iv. ll

162 J. S. Gardner—On Ettingshausen’s Theory.

Glancing at the distinctive Flora of the Californian coast-line,
we see a series of Huropean genera (although represented by other
species), whose origin Ettingshausen states to have been derived, in
Tertiary times, from European elements, which elements, being
universally distributed, were, however, according to the Baron’s
theory, also present even at that time in California. As instances,
he traces the Californian Quercus Douglasii and Q. agrifolia to their
supposed ancestor. The greater the resemblance between different
species, the greater the probability that they are derived from a
common stock ; as, for example, we see that Liquidambar styracifluum
and L. orientale are both derived from the Tertiary Z. europeum,
whilst two other species, closely resembling each other, L. altingia
and LL. chinense, were derived from another and still unknown
ancestor.

In the phyto-regions of Japan, North America, the Mediterranean,
etc., alongside of the chief-elements the collateral-elements have
also contributed their share to the character of the vegetation ;
whilst in the temperate regions of the Himalayas and Andes they
have markedly influenced it. On the other hand, the Cape and
Australian Floras owe their pronounced character to a remarkably
preponderating development of the chief-elements, although, even
here, residua of the collateral-elements are to be traced. As the
Cape and Australian Flora-elements are, upon this theory, derived,
not simply from the European, but the universal Tertiary Flora of
the temperate regions of the world, they had originally the same
composition. At the Cape, plants of an Australian, and in Australia
those of a South African character grow. This theory explains the
community in the recent Floras of both regions of a number of
families and genera, of which the Proteacee, Ericacee, and half a
dozen others, are conspicuous examples. In other natural Floras of
the world remains of these elements are also met with as represen-
tative genera and species. Thus in the Mediterranean region the
Cape-element is seen in the Hricas, species of Mesembryanthemum,
and a Pelargonium and Apteranthes (representing Cape Stapelia).
Callitris, belonging to the same Flora, is descended from an
Australian element. The numerous representatives of the existing
Australian-element in the Tertiary Flora of Europe do not indicate
that these belong to an older type of vegetation, but simply show
the former connexion of these Floras through the Flora-elements,
when distant parts of the globe were yet united.

The Baron then explains that in some regions the Tertiary Flora-
elements have come down almost unchanged, and in others have
taken special characters, arising from the almost exclusive develop-
ment of some only of the Flora-elements, and the expulsion or
suppression of the rest. Besides the Tertiary Floras, beds of
Cretaceous age have furnished plant-remains. We can trace some
of the Flora-elements to this period, and prove that in it even simpler
elements are contained, which unite in themselves some of the parent-
stocks, which we have been considering as Tertiary Flora-elements.

The differentiation of the Flora-elements, commenced, according

Notices of Memoirs—H. Goss—On Tertiary Insects. 163

to Ettingshausen, in the Cretaceous epoch, progressed continually
throughout the Tertiaries, during which period was prepared the
way for later and still greater divisions. With the dawn of the
post-Tertiary, this differentiation was for the most part accomplished,
and in Hurope the tropical and Australian forms had been gradually
pushed out by those of our temperate zone. So says Httingshausen.
We cannot do better than conclude this notice by translating almost
verbatim the inferences which he draws at the conclusion of his
paper from the facts we have been considering. They are as
follows:

1. All the present natural Floras of the earth are connected
together through the elements of the Tertiary Flora.

2. The character of a natural Flora is determined by the more
pronounced development of some of the Flora-elements (the chief-
elements).

3. In the construction of the recent Floras the collateral-elements
have shared, as far as climatal conditions permitted. A mixture of
plants has resulted, possessing characters foreign to the general
Flora, sometimes present only in subordinate numbers, but some-
times in such rich masses that they appear distinctly characteristic.

4. The representative species in the present phyto-regions are
members, mutually corresponding one with another, of the same or
similar Flora-elements.

INF@EEIEenaS! Oug> AMVMaIMUOInsIS

——<>—_—_-

I.—Tue Insect-Fauna or tHe Tertiary PeEriop.

T a meeting of the Brighton and Sussex Natural History Society,
held on March 8th, at the Brighton Free Library and Museum,
Mr. H. Goss, F.L.S., F.Z.S., ete., communicated a paper on “The
Insect Fauna of the Tertiary Period, and the British and Foreign
formations in which Insect-remains have been detected.” Mr. Goss
remarked on the neglect of Fossil Hntomology in this country, and
called attention to the importance of an acquaintance with fossil
insects, and the valuable conclusions which might be arrived at
from their study, bearing upon the geological conditions of the earth
during the respective periods of its existence. He also observed
that the researches of Professor Heer had taught us that the study
of insect-remains, and a comparison of the numerical proportion
existing between the Carnivorous and Herbivorous species of any
period with that existing at the present day, would afford a valuable
clue to the state of the vegetation and climate prevailing in former
periods.

After quoting Sir Charles Lyell as to the importance of an
acquaintance with fossil insects, Mr. Goss reviewed the bibliography
of the subject, beginning with Scheuchzer’s “ Herbarium diluvianum”
(published in 1700). He called special attention to the importance
of Professor Heer’s great work ‘Die Insekten Fauna der Tertiir-
gebilde von Ciningen und von Radoboj in Croatien;” and to the

164 Notices of Memoirs—H. Gooss—On Tertiary Insects.

very valuable memoirs recently published by M. Oustalet, Mr. S.
H. Scudder, and others. He also drew attention to the fact that the
Rev. P. B. Brodie had published a book! on this subject so long
back as 1845.

Mr. Goss then made some observations as to the nature of the
strata in which insect-remains were most commonly detected, and
offered some explanation of the reasons why fossil insects were
frequently met with in marine formations. He then reviewed in
descending order the principal deposits of the Tertiary period in
which insect-remains had been detected in Great Britain, on the
Continent, and in America.

After alluding to the remains of a few insects from Post-Tertiary
strata, including Coleoptera from the Post-Glacial Drift near Col-
chester, and the Forest bed and lacustrine deposits in the cliffs
along the Norfolk coast, and from the lignites of Uznach in Switzer-
land, he proceeded to enumerate the orders of insects, and the
numbers of each, detected in British and Foreign Tertiary strata.
With the exception of a few Coleoptera from the Lower Miocene of
Antrim, Ireland, and from the Middle and Lower Eocene of the
Isle of Wight, no well-authenticated remains appeared to have been
found in English strata of this period. On the Continent they
appeared to have been found in more or less abundance at (iningen
in Switzerland, Radoboj in Croatia, Corent and Menat in Auvergne,
Siebengeberge on the Rhine, Aix in Provence, and Monte Bolca in
Upper Italy.

The author quoted Sir C. Lyell’s description of the Ciningen
strata belonging to the Upper Miocene period. From these strata
Prof. Heer obtained 5081 specimens, comprising 844 species, viz :—
Coleoptera, 518 species; Neuwropetera, 27; Hymenoptera, 80; Diptera,
63; Hemiptera, 1383; Orthoptera, 20; Lepidoptera, 8.

Mr. Goss alluded to the large proportion of Herbivorous Coleop-
tera amongst the Ciningen fossils, and remarked that as they were
always more abundant as the Equator was approached, it might
be inferred that the climate of Giningen was at the period somewhat
more tropical than at the present day, and this was, he said, the
opinion of Dr. Heer and M. Oustalet. Allusion was then made to
the present geographical distribution of the Giningen species.

From the Middle Miocene formation of Radoboj about 812 species
had been detected. In these strata the Hymenoptera were the best
represented. The Butterflies were represented by three species, one
of which belongs to an extinct genus.

According to the researches of Bronn, Germar, Giebel, Dr. Heer,
Dr. Hagen, and Herren C. von Heyden and L. von Heyden, the
lignites of Rott in Siebengeberge near Bonn, belonging to the Lower
Miocene, have produced about 90 species. From other deposits of
Brown Coal about 125 species had been described by Dr. Hagen,
C. von Heyden and others.

- Mr. Goss drew attention to the remarkable formation known as

' “On the Fossil Insects of the Secondary Rocks,” containing many interesting

determinations of fossil insect-remains, by the Rey. P. B, Brodie, and Prof. J. O.
Westwood, of Oxford.

Notices of Memoirs—Dr. G. Stache—On Fusulina Limestones. 165

“Tndusial Limestone” and to other strata of the Auvergne, Central
France. From these strata M. Oustalet had described some 49 species,
30 of which were referable to the order Diptera.

Reference was then made to the formations of Aix, in Provence,
belonging to the Upper Eocene period, from which more fossil insects
had been obtained than from any other deposits except Ciningen.

One noticeable fact about these strata was that out of the nine
Butterflies detected in the European Tertiaries, 5 of them had been
found here.

The marls and limestones of Monte Bolca belonging to the Middle
Eocene period were next referred to; seven species of insects have
been described from them by Signor Massalongo.

The American strata of the Tertiary period in which fossil insects
had been discovered were then noticed. It appeared from a paper
of Mr. Scudder’s that Mr. Richardson had discovered about 40
species of insects in these strata; besides these, about 31 species of
Coleoptera have been described by Mr. S. H. Scudder of Boston,
U.S.A.

In conclusion, fossil resin, or amber, from the Baltic, was de-
scribed, and a list of the genera of the various orders of insects
discovered therein was given, and allusion was made to the various
writers who had treated of amber and its organic remains.

IJ.—On some Fusunina Limestonss. By Dr. G. Sracue.
Imper. Geol. Instit. Vienna, Meeting December 19, 1876.
[Communicated by Count Marscuatt, F.C.G.S., etc. ]

A. From Upper Carniola.

EW localities of Fusulina-rock in this district are—l. The
Leptlin ravine, near Fauerburg; in the Carboniferous area of
black and grey limestones and calcareous breccias. 2. Assling ;
white dolomitic limestones. 3. Neumarkt; dark-red calcareous
breccias. 4. The Gerauth Valley, near Neumarkt; black lime-
stones. 5. The same locality; white and light-grey limestones.
6. Brown sandy marls.

The black limestones of the first of these localities are particularly
rich in large spherical forms, some of them agreeing with Fusulina
princeps, Ehrenberg. sp. Other deposits contain a series of forms
approaching externally the type of F. cylindrica or of F. ventricosa.

The facts at present known concerning the Fusulina-beds in the
Southern Alps? lead to the following conclusions :—

1. The West to Hast extension of these beds in the Southern Alps
is probably very considerable.

2. These strata differ much in petrographical type; they repre-
sent, however, a definite facies among the Carboniferous group, in
some way analogous to that of the Alveolina-beds of the Istrio-
Dalmatic Lower Miocenes.

3. These Fusulina-rocks appear at various horizons both above
and below the Upper Carboniferous series. They constitute, how-

1 See also notes by Prof. E. Suess, Proceed. Imp. Geol. Inst. Vienna, Jan. 4, 1870.

166 Notices of Memoirs—Dr. Neuwmayr—On the Russian Jura.

ever, a coherent group of beds, mainly belonging to the upper sub-
division of the Carboniferous group, thus representing a sea-coast
facies, nearly equivalent to the dry land facies of the Upper Carbon-
iferous sub-division abounding in vegetable remains.

B. From Borneo.

The Fusulina-limestones of this island are represented by two
varieties (probably from different horizons), differing both litho-
logically and paleontologically.

1. The prevalent variety is a somewhat siliceous limestone, un-
equally speckled with light-yellowish and reddish-grey colours,
intersected by white and reddish veins and fissures, and abounding
in large spherical Fusuline. These occur nearly complete, and some-
what silicified ; or appear in various sections on the surfaces altered
by decomposition. The prevalent form, with numerous whorls of
the spiral, is essentially different from the form figured by Mr.
Brady‘ as Fusulina princeps, Ehrenb. sp., showing (like the large
spherical forms from Carinthia and Carniola) only six whorls.
The new species, externally similar to the four-whorled Carinthian
F. Hoeferi, St., is F. Verbeeki, Geinitz, characterized by the presence
of from ten to twelve whorls.

Some sections are referable to -Alveolina, or to a genus nearly
allied; being types of a new species, Alveolina (?) atavina.

2. The second variety of Fusulina-rock is a variegated and
generally fine-grained breccia, including some spherical forms, and
very many sections of more abundant, smaller, cylindrical, thick-
fusiform or oblong-oval individuals, varying in dimensions. Accord-
ing to the position of analogous calcareous breccias in the Southern
Alps, these Bornean breccias may belong to an horizon immediately
above that of the first variety.

C. From the Isle of Chios.

According to Mr. Teller, the Fusulina-limestones here appear so
widely spread in the form of blocks and smaller fragments, that
they may be supposed to be a rather important constituent in the
geological structure of this island. These limestones are grey, and
include an abundance of broken stems of Orinoids, together with
rather frequent, large, and elongated Fusuling, standing next to the
Carinthian J” Suessi, St., and to the American F. elongata, Shum.
Certain reddish and yellow portions of the limestone, rather sandy
and argillaceous, exhibit on their decomposed surfaces several smaller
forms of Foraminifera.

III.—On rue Jurassic Formations or Russta. By Dr. Neumayer.
From the Reports Imperial Geological Institute Vienna, October, 1876.
[Communicated by Count Marscuatt, F.C.G.S.]
aN SEAM of earthy brownish coal, with coniferous wood, resting

on limestone, considered to be Devonian, is worked at Tchoul-

kowo, south of Moscow. The coal-seam is overlain by a bed of clay

with pyritized Cephalopods characteristic of the lowermost Jurassics.
* Grou. Mac, New Series, Vol. II. p. 587, Pl. XIII. Fig. 6.

Notices of Memoirs—Dr. Newmayr—On the Russian Jura. 167

The Upper Jurassic division is represented by light-coloured glau-
conitic limestones, containing Cephalopods, Gasteropods, and Bra-
chiopods. Dr. Neumayr found the following fossils in the clay :—
HTarpoceras Brighti, Pratt; H. lunula, Ziet.; Perisphinctes scopi-
nensis, sp. nov.; P. Mosquensis, Fischer (a characteristic Russian
form); Stephanoceras coronatum, Brug.; Cosmoceras Jason, Ziet. ;
and C. Polluz, Rein.; all in a state of preservation closely resem-
bling that of the fossils in the Ornatus-clays of Swabia. Of the
above-named seven forms, five are commonly met with in the Middle
and Upper Callovian of W. Europe, the zones of Simoceras anceps,
and of Perisphinctes athleta; they must be considered as Jmmi-
grants ; and even the two others may be modified descendants (?) of
Perisphinctes curvicosta, a form widely spread over Central Europe.

The Fauna of Tchoulkowo is exceptional among the Jurassic
Faun of Russia, both by its antiquity and by its striking analogy
to those of Western Europe. The Fauna from the red and yellow
Sandstones of Jelatma on the Oka is next related to it.

The Russian Jurassic formations, in descending order, are :—

a. Inoceramus-bed of Simbirsk.

b. Olive-green glauconitic sandstones, with Amaltheus catenulatus,
Fisch., and Perisphinctes fulgens, Trauts.

c. Aucella-bed, with Ama/th. catenulatus, Fisch., and Aucella IMos-
quensis. (Upper Moscow bed.)

d. Beds with Perisphinctes virgatus, von Buch. (Mid. Moscow beds.)

e. Beds with Amaltheus alternans, von Buch. (Lower Moscow beds.)

f. Strata of Tchoulkowo and Jelatma, with Cosmoceras Jason,
Ziet., and Stephanoceras coronatum, Brug.

g. Belemnite-shales of Jelatma; besides several merely local
deposits.

According to Dr. Trautschold, the division e answers to the de-
posits between the lowest “‘Bathonian”’ and the uppermost ‘“‘Oxford-
ian ;” division d being the “ Kimmeridgian ;” and division e the
“ Portlandian.”

Dr. Neumayr is of opinion that only ten species of West-Huro-
pean Cephalopods, all characteristic of the Middle and Upper
‘““Callovian” and of the Upper and Middle “ Oxfordian,” are met
with in the Russian Jurassics, among which only the deposits of
Tchoulkowo and Galiowa can be paralleled with those of Western
Kurope. The Fauna of the clays of Tchoulkowo and the equivalent
deposits of Jelatma answer exactly to that of the Upper and Middle
* Callovian,” including a number of forms identical with those of
Western Europe. The horizon of Galiowa (division c) yields forms
referable to the zones of Aspidoceras perarmatum and Peltoceras trans-
versarium, together with some specially Russian species. Some
forms of division d may be considered to be representative types of
Western forms, such as Perisphinctes virgatus, P. polyplocus, P.
Pallasianus, @Orb., and P. Witteanus, Oppel.

The divisions a, b, and c may be considered as equivalent to the
Uppermost Jurassics; possibly division a may be even ranked
among the Cretaceous series. The concordance with West-Huro-

168 Notices of Memoirs—Fossil Man in the Danube Loess.

pean forms, so conspicuous in the lower horizons, gradually di-
minishes upwards. The “autochthonic” forms of the Moscow
Jurassic fauna, that is, those originated within the Centro-Russian
Basin by transformation (?) of immigrated Western-European forms,
are associated with the transformed (?) offspring of Indian immi-
grants (as some Perisphinctes, standing next to P. frequens, Oppel, a
Tibetan form); and, in division ¢, with those from a third (northern)
origin, such as Amaltheus catenulatus.

From all these facts, Dr. Neumayr endeavours to trace five distinct
phases in the formation of the Russian Jurassies :—

1. Crimeo-Caucasian phase. Previously to the deposit of the
“ Kelloway”’ beds the Russian Basin is invaded by the sea, and
Belemnitic shales, analogous to those of the Crimea and the Cau-
casus, are deposited.

2. Free communication with the Centro-European sea existing
during the “Middle Callovian” Period, immigration and exclusive
prevalence of a Fauna of unmixed Centro-European type obtain.

3. Continued immigration of Western forms; and immigration of.
others from the newly opened Indian Sea, in the beginning of the
‘‘Oxfordian ” Period; with transformation (?) of the immigrants
into autochthonic forms.

4. Connexion with the Western Sea closed; development of a
special Russian Fauna in the Perisphinctes virgatus beds; Centro-
Huropean forms only represented by analogous species.

5. Great Northern transgression, coeval with the deposition of the
Aucella beds; communication with the Northern Sea (probably
already existing) notably enlarged; immigration of Auced/a, Amal-
theus catenulatus, and other extraneous types.

Dr. Neumayr described two new species: Perisphinctes scopinensis
from the Ornatus-clays, and Waldheimia Trautscholdi from the
glauconitic limestones of Tchoulkowo.

ITV.—Remarys or Man anp Pietstocenrs ANIMALS IN THE LOESS OF
THE Danuse. (From the Vienna Imperial Acad. Sciences,
Meeting February 1, 1877.)

HE Danube, during the Diluvial (Pleistocene) Period, covered
all the northern portion of the Vienna Basin; and left, on its
retreat to its present channel, a thick deposit of laminated loam
(Loess), overlying the Tertiaries. Near Zeiselberg, at the mouth of
the Kamp Valley, Count Wurmbrand discovered in 1876, beneath
unmoved layers of Loess, a rich deposit of bones, and under that
a blackish stratum abounding with fragments of charcoal and
with flints bearing traces of human workmanship. Other deposits
also with bones and worked flints exist in the neighbourhood.
The bones in the Loess here are those of Diluvial (Pleistocene)
animals, namely, Mammoth, Rhinoceros, Reindeer, Horse, Ox,
Wolf, and Bear. The local conditions contradict the supposition that
these remains were carried to their present position from a distance
by currents of water or other agency. The excavations are still going
on, partly at the expense of the Vienna Academy. Count M.

Stur and Fritsch—Coal Measures of Bohenua. 169

V.—Fosstns From tue Coat-Muasures oF Bouemra. By D. Srur
and A. Frrrscu. Imp. Geol. Inst. Vienna, Meeting Dee. 5, 1876.

[Communicated by Count Marscuatt, F.C.G.S.]

1. Three species of fossil Plants were lately found for the first
time between the first and second Coal-seams of the Kladno-Schlan
Basin, namely, Sphenopteris irregularis, St. (together with Astero-
carpus Wolfi, Stur, in the same state of preservation as in the roof of
the upper Coal-bed of Radnitz) ; Alethopteris Serlii, Brongn. (only the
apex of a frond); and Pecopteris elegans, Germ. (a large fragment
of a frond, agreeing in minute details with a specimen from Wettin
in Saxony).

2. Animal-remains have only been met with in one subdivision
(Radnitz Beds) of the Centro-Bohemian Carboniferous Formation.
They all belong to essentially Terrestrial Animals— Crustaceans,
Arachnids, and Insects ; and are distributed thus :—

In the roof of the upper Radnitz Coal: Lepidoderma Imhofi,
Reuss ; Xyloryctes planus (borings).

In the upper Radnitz Coal-seam: Gampsonyz, sp. (in laminated
coal).

In the roof of the lower Radnitz Coal: Palaranea borassifolia,
Fr. ; Cyclophthalmus senior (Microlabis Sternbergi), Corda; Xyloryctes
septarius (borings).

In the floor of the Radnitz Beds: Gampsonychus parallelus, Fr. ;
Acridites priscus, Andrée.

Excellent specimens of all these forms are preserved in the newly
established Geological Museum of Prague.

VI.—Tux Distrisution oF THE CEPHALOPODA IN THE Upper CHALK
or NortH Germany. [VERBREITUNG DER CEPHALOPODEN IN
DER OBEREN KrerpgE NorpD- DEUTSCHLANDS, von CLEMENS
Scutiirer.| (Zeitschrift der Deutschen geologischen Gesell-
schaft, Band xxviii. heft 3.)

HIS Memoir by Herrn Clemens Schliiter constitutes a kind of sup-

plement to his work ‘‘ Cephalopoden der oberen deutschen Kreide.”

The Upper Cretaceous beds of North Germany are subdivided into
the following zones in ascending order, viz. :—

Zone of Pecten asper. Zone of Inoceramus Cuviert.
» Amim. varians. » Amn. Marge.
» Amm. Rhothomagensis. » Scaphites binodosus.
» Actinocamax plenus.' » Becksia Soekelandi.

>, Lnoceramus labiatus. » Amm. Cesfeldiensis.
» Lnoceramus Brongniartt. » LHeteroceras polyplocum.
Heteroceras Reussianum. i

A brief sketch of the geographical extent, and equivalents in
France or England when such exist, together with a list of the
Cephalopoda obtained, is given under each of these headings; whilst
appended will be found a table showing the respective vertical
ranges of the 155 species of Cephalopods in the Chalk of North
Germany; or, rather, their respective positions in the vertical series:
for the most prominent fact revealed in this table is the limitation of
these several species to the different horizons, only a few being
common to two or sometimes three consecutive zones. B.B.W.

170 = Reviews—Belt—On the Loes of the Rhine and Danube.

REVIAWS.

—

I.—On tHe Loxss or tHe Rune anp Danuse. By Tuos. Betz,
F.G.8. (Quarterly Journal of Science, January, 1877.)

ae Loess in the valleys of the Rhine and Danube has formed

the theme of many papers published both here and on the
Continent, and numerous theories have been advanced respecting
its origin; but probably no bolder hypothesis has been put forward
than that now propounded by Mr. Belt.

The paper commences with a description of the character and
extent of this deposit, the position it occupies with respect to the
rivers and slopes of the valleys being illustrated by woodcuts (in
which the vertical scale is of course greatly exaggerated). The
greatest elevation to which it attains in the valley of the Rhine is
800 feet above the sea-level, whilst in the basin of the Danube it has
been found at a height of 1300 feet above the sea.

Mr. Belt thinks that he has been able to trace the gradual passage
of the Loess into the northern drift; and the animal-remains that
are found in it being of the Glacial type (see ante, p. 168), he is led
to class the Loess as the southern equivalent of the northern drift
(the Upper Boulder-clay of Searles V. Wood).

Respecting the origin of this wide-spread alluvium, the author
shows in the first place that it must have been deposited subsequent
to the excavation of the valley system, and not during the course of
its formation; and he complains that “the usual explanation of the
facts of the Glacial period is one continued appeal to the hypothesis
of great oscillations of the earth’s surface at that time.” <“ But is
there,” he asks, “really no other way of getting water up to the
heights we require without resorting to this extreme hypothesis ?”
This “other,” and simpler, way is to be found in the theory already
advanced by Mr. Belt on a former occasion when treating of the
deposition of the Northern drift, viz. “That the ice of the Glacial
period flowed principally down the ocean depressions, and blocked
up the drainage of the continents as far as it extended, causing
immense lakes of fresh or brackish water.” Mr, Belt then explains
how, according to his hypothesis, a glacier of fresh-water ice occupied
the basin of the Atlantic, and reared its snowy crest some 1700ft.
above the now sea-level, damming back the drainage of Europe, and
converting the lowlands into a lake studded with icebergs. This
huge lake “was once completely drained; at first gradually, but
from about 500ft. above the present level of the sea suddenly and
tumultuously by the breaking away of the icy barrier, and thus
was produced a great deluge or débicle that swept over the low-
lands, and covered them with a mantle of false-bedded sands and
PTAC) io: tonpehle rs After being thus broken, the icy barrier soon closed
up again, and the great lake was reformed, and this time was much
more permanent.”

Such is the picture of the Physical Geography of the period given
us by Mr. Belt; but whether the land to the south is sufficiently

Reviews—Prof. de Koninck’s Fossils of New South Wales. 171

high and continuous to maintain the waters of an immense lake at
such an elevation as 1700ft. above the modern sea-level, or whether
the presence of such an enormous body of ice would not be likely
to freeze up the rivers altogether, Mr. Belt does not tell us.

B. B. W.

II.—Proressor L. G. pr Koninck on THE Patmozorc Fossiis oF
New Sours Wats, [‘‘ Rechercnes sur Les Fosstnes Panfo-
ZOIQUES DE LA NoUVELLE-GALLES DU Sup (AusTRALIE).”] Re-
printed from the Ifémoires de la Société Royale des Sciences de
Liege, 2°™° série, t. vi. (1876), 140 pp. Svo. and 4 quarto plates.

1 this important Memoir Professor de Koninck describes all the

Silurian and Devonian species which have been collected by
the Rev. W. B. Clarke, F.B.S., in New South Wales during thirty
years of scientific labours in the colony. The following paragraph
of the Introduction hints somewhat obscurely at the reasons which
induced Mr. Clarke to send his fossils so far to be named, and perhaps
demands fuller explanation. Prof. de Koninck says:

“Mr. Clarke, in communicating to me the Paleozoic fossils
gathered by his care in New South Wales, wished to check his own
observations and to confirm their accuracy in a manner which he
has not dreaded to seek five thousand leagues from the country
explored by him, when, with inconceivable want of judgment [ aber-
ration d’esprit|, certain geologists disdained to make use of them,
although ready at hand, in arriving more surely and quickly at the
methodical classification of the formations the study of which was
confided to them.” (p. 6.)

Whatever may be alluded to in these words, it is clear that no one
could have set about the work of determining the species represented
in Mr. Clarke’s collection with more zeal or learning than the great
Belgian paleontologist.

Fifty-nine Silurian species are enumerated and described. Of
these, twenty-seven are referred to the Ludlow horizon, and the
remaining thirty-two to the Upper Llandovery, the greater number
of the former consisting of Corals and Crustacea, and the latter almost
exclusively of Mollusca and Crustacea. No Graptolites are recorded
from New South Wales, although they are common in Victoria
(=Bala Beds, according to Prof. McCoy and Mr. Etheridge, jun.).

Thirteen species are described as new, but here, as in the case of
most of the thirty new Devonian forms described, they all belong to
Huropean or American genera, of which closely-allied species are
known.

The Upper Silurian Fauna here described therefore is strictly
analogous to those of Europe and America, and is not even sensibly
distinguished from them by such minor characters as size or other
individual peculiarities of local value. Moreover, the beds which
contain the Upper Llandovery fossils are chiefly argillaceous, whilst
the overlying Ludlovian forms occur in hard reddish quartzites and
in white or greyish limestone.

The Devonian species described are eighty-one in number, of

172 Reviews— Whitaker’s Geology of Hast Essex.

which only five are considered as Upper Devonian. These are:
Strophalosia productoides, Murch.; Chonetes coronata, Conr.; Rhyn-
chonella pleurodon, Phill.; Spirifer disjunctus, Sow.; and Aviculo-
pecten Clarkei, de Kon.

Here again we find that, with four exceptions only, every one of
these New South Wales Devonian fossils belong or are closely allied
to European or American species of the same age. The exceptions
are described by Prof. de Koninck under the following names:
Archeocyathus (?) Clarkei, Billingsia alveolaris (this genus is transi-
tional between Aulopora and Syringopora), Niso (?) Darwinii (this
is the first record of a representative of this genus from rocks older
than Tertiary), Mitehellia striatula (a Buccinid shell somewhat
allied to Columbella and represented by one specimen only).

The Carboniferous species are not included in the present memoir, ©
but the writer states that their enumeration will carry out the law
which he has shown holds with regard to Devonian and Silurian
forms. The South Wales Carboniferous Fauna will not be found to
differ in any marked degree from those of America and Europe.
This is but a confirmation of what we had been led to expect from
the work of identification begun by Mr. W. B. Clarke himself, Prof.
McCoy, Messrs. Selwyn, Salter, and R. Htheridge; but it is impossible
to overrate the interest of the subject both to geologists and to
biologists. G. A. L.

JII.—Tse Gronoey or tHe Hastern Env or Essex. By Win11aM
Wauiraker, B.A., F.G.S. [Explanation of Quarter Sheet 48 S.H.
(with the adjoining part of 48 N.H.) of the Geological Survey
Map of England and Wales.| 8vo. pp. 32. (London, 1876.
Price 9d.)

'HE area described in this concise little memoir, embracing about
50 square miles, includes the country around Walton Naze and
Harwich, and forms part of the London Basin.

It boasts no very striking or picturesque scenery, being, as Mr.
Whitaker describes it, “‘essentially a clay-country, with gentle slopes,
nowhere probably reaching to a greater height than 150 feet above
the sea, the higher ground being for the most part flat, from the
cappings of gravel, the remains of a once continuous plateau. The
slopes mostly sink into alluvial flats, which are to a great extent
below the level of high water, and are protected only by artificial
embankments.” The geology, however, furnishes many points of
considerable interest, such as the Cement-stone beds of Harwich and
the Red Crag of Walton Naze, while the evidence furnished by the
deep well at the former locality has more than a local importance,
proving, as it did, the occurrence of Paleozoic rocks at a depth of
1029 feet beneath the surface.

The formations described include: (1) the London Clay ; (2) the
Red Crag of Walton Naze and Beaumont, with the description of
some small outliers first noticed during the mapping of the country,
and a notice of the Red Crag of Harwich described by Dale in 1782,

Reviews—Dr. Traqguair’s Fossil Fishes. 173
Y

and which is now entirely destroyed by the encroachment of the
sea; (4) drifts, including gravel, sand, and loam, some probably of
Glacial age, while other deposits are classed as Post-Glacial, together
with recent deposits of alluvium, blown sand, and shingle.

The appendix contains records of all the well-sections ; and lists
of fossils from the London Clay of Harwich; and from the Red Crag
of Walton Naze and Beaumont; and from the Pliocene (probably
Post-Glacial) deposits of Walton and Harwich.

References are given to the works of the chief observers, amongst
whom may be mentioned Dale, the Rev. W. B. Clarke, Dr. J.
Mitchell, Mr. John Brown, Prof. Prestwich, and Mr. 8. V. Wood, jun.

H. B. W.

1V.— On New anv Lirrie-xnown Fossit Fisues From tur Epry-
BuRGH District, No. I. By R. H. Traquatr, M.D., F.G.S8.
(Proceedings Royal Society of Edinburgh, Session 1876-77.)

N the above memoir Prof. Traquair has given lengthy and minute
i. descriptions of three species of Fossil Fishes from the Blackband
Tronstone of Venturefair Colliery, Gilmerton, and the Carboniferous
shales of Wardie. ‘They are referred to two genera, Nematoptychius,
Traq., and Gonatodus, Traq., and to the family Palconiscide. The
first “genus was instituted by the author for the reception of the
Pygopterus Greenockii of Agassiz, and characterized in the ‘ Annals
and Magazine of Natural History,’ for April, 1875.” He here
describes another species, N. gracilis, Traq., founded upon two
specimens, the only ones at present known, and which are re-
spectively nine inches, and about ten inches in length, the form is
elongate and slender, the dorsal fin being situated very far back,
and the scales small, but their configuration is apparently the same
as in Nematoptychius Greenockii,” the external ornamentation being
the same as in that species. ‘‘'The external surface of the lower jaw
is ornamented with a minute and very close tuberculation; the
dental margin of the maxilla is also tuberculated, but the rest of its
surface is marked with delicate ridges.” ‘Large conical teeth occur
in both jaws, with a few of the external series of smaller ones.”
The paired fins may be termed small, the pectoral and ventral in
one specimen being respectively 1 inch and # of an inch in length;
the rays are fine, but their number not accurately known. He
remarks “that the present species is closely allied to the powerful
Nematoptychius Greenockii, Ag. sp.—it differs, however, from the
latter in several particulars, beside its smaller size.’

Gonatodus is a new genus, and comprises two species : it is
founded in part for the reception of a specimen—one of three—from
the Carboniferous shales of Wardie, and described and figured by
Agassiz as Amblypterus punctatus. These three imperfect specimens,
our author states, having personally examined and compared them
‘‘with a series of entire fishes from the Wardie beds, establish the
fact, that the Amblypterus punctatus of Agassiz was founded upon
fragments of two distinct species, the specimen with the head, but
without the hinder part of the body, being even generically distinct

174. Reviews—Poussin & Renard—Belgium & the Ardennes.

from the other two.” And that “the peculiar form and arrangement
of the teeth in the first of these render necessary the institution of
a new genus, to which I have given the name of Gonatodus.” He,
however, preserves Agassiz’s name of punctatus for the species; but
redescribing it from original and careful observation of the more
complete material at his command. He further observes that ‘‘the
peculiar dentition of Gonatodus was, however, first correctly de-
scribed by Mr. R. Walker, in a fish from the oil shales of Pitcorthie,
Fifeshire, to which he gave the name of Amblypterus ancono-—
echmodus.” And that “Mr. Walker’s fish undoubtedly belongs to
the same genus, and may possibly be the same with G. punctatus.”

Gonatodus macrolepis, 'Traq., is a new species, ranging in length
from four to seven inches, and occurs in the Blackband Ironstone.
The configuration of the bones of the head, as far as they can be
defined (for in the specimens examined they are all more or less
crushed and broken), and their sculpturing, and also the configuration
of the teeth are essentially the same as in the preceding species; but
the scales on the anterior portion of the body are considerably
larger than in G. punctatus, and as in that species the surfaces are
brilliantly polished, and devoid of ornamentation, and their posterior
margins are finely denticulated.

Ample and clear as are the descriptions, we cannot conclude with-
out expressing regret that they have not been supplemented by good
figures of the specimens upon which the species have been founded.

We!

V.—Méfmorre sur tes Caractbres MINnERALOGIQUES ET STRATI-
GRAPHIQUES DES RocHES DITES PLUTONIENNES DE LA BELGIQUE.
mT DE L’ARDENNE Francaise. By Professors C. DE La VALLEE
Poussin and A. Renarp. 4to. pp. 264, and 7 plates. (Brussels,
1876.)

E SAUSSURE declared that mountains were not to be studied
with the microscope. What would that venerable father of
geology think could he see the “slicing” of rocks which is now
going on all over Hurope! It was the custom, not so very long ago,
for geologists to be content, for descriptive purposes, with a small
stock of words wide and rather vague in meaning—of which “trap ”
is a worthy example—words which bound one to very little or
nothing. A hand-lens to be used in the field was the only auxiliary
thought of in determining the lithological characters of rocks. Now
all is changed, the geologist trembles as he hazards a name for the
specimen he collects, for he knows not how wrong he may be proved
to be by that newly-arisen votary of science—the Micro-petrologist.

The rock-nomenclature of his youth is gone, he knows nothing of,

and finds it hard indeed to learn the meaning of “ fluidal structure,”

“ devitrification,” “ globulites,” “belonites,” or ‘“margarites,” and

the result is that he, as a rule, gives up the attempt, and relies, for

the determination of his rock-specimens, on the knowledge of those
who have made micro-lithology their special study. In England the
number of these specialists is small but increasing, headed as they

Reviews—Poussin & Renard—Belgium & the Ardennes. 175

are by one of the founders of the new science—H. Clifton Sorby,
F.R.S. Only the other day a Geological Survey Memuir was issued,
a chief feature of which is the delineation of the microscopic
structure of some of the rocks of the Lake District, leading to
important conclusions. In this case the field geologist and the
microscopist were one and the same person, but this is the ex-
ception. It is in Germany that this line of inquiry has attracted
the greatest attention. ‘There the influence of such men as G. Rose,
Tschermak, Zirkel, Kenngott, Vogelsang, Mohl, Boricky, von Lasaulx,
and a host of others has been such that not only have manuals
of micro-petrography been published and sold, but that special
Chairs for the teaching of the subject have been established in most
of the Universities. In France the impulse has been felt, although
not so strongly, and is rapidly spreading under the influence of
Delesse, Des Cloizeaux, and Michel-Lévy. Now we have to record
a brilliant beginning on the part of Belgium in the handsome memoir
the title of which heads this notice.

The authors, both Professors, one at the Catholic University of
Louvain, and the other in the Jesuits’ College in the same town,
thoroughly deserve the gold medal with which their work has been
rewarded by the Academy of Belgium, and the extremely beautiful
coloured plates with which it has been hberally furnished by that
body.

The subject worked out by them was not absolutely untouched.
André Dumont had long ago described the physical relations of the
so-called ‘‘ Plutonic” rocks of the Ardennes and the Rhine, and
dOmalius d’ Halloy has left valuable notes on some of them. Quite
recently also Prof. Malaise published a paper “On some of the
Porphyritic Rocks of Belgium,” which cleared up many errors, and
brought to light a number of new facts;! but, armed with the micro-
scope and their German method, the Louvain Professors have by their
prize-memoir marked an era in the progress of Belgian geology.

We say geology advisedly, for although their procedure is litho-
logical and mineralogical, yet their most interesting results are
strictly geological. Thus they show that the amphibolitic and
porphyroidal rocks of French Ardenne are regularly interbedded
with the Cambrian slates and quartzites amongst which they lie, and
that they are not intrusive, as they were long considered to be, but
are of truly sedimentary origin, They hazard the opinion that the
crystallization of these rocks took place at the bottom of the sea,
very soon after their deposition, and when the materials were still
in a plastic state. In the same manner, the schistoid eurite of
Enghiem, the quartzose eurite of Nivelles with ripple-marks, the
porphyroidal rocks of Monstreux, Fauquez, Rebecq-Rognon, Pitet,
and Steenkuyp, all of which were looked upon as igneous, are proved
to be derivative deposits. ‘The Lower Silurian arkoses of Brabant
are shown to be, not strongly metamorphic, but formed of trans-
ported crystallized materials only. The so-called “ Hypersthenite ”

1 See Bulletins Acad. royale de Belgique, 2° sér, ¢. xxviii.

176 Reports and Proceedings—

of Hozémont and Grand-Pré is demonstrated to be a gabbro, but its
relation to the other rocks is not known. On the other hand, the
quartziferous porphyry of Spa is undoubtedly intrusive, and so are
the quartzose Diorites of Quenast, Rebecq-Rognon, and Lessines.

As we have hinted at before, the nomenclature of crystalline rocks
is becoming a matter of increasing anxiety to the geologist. ‘The
present authors are to be complimented on the simplicity of the
system they have adopted. One example will suffice: under the
term ‘“diorite quartzeuse,” they designate a rock on which the
following names have at various times been bestowed, viz. :

Porphyrite, Zirkel. Porphyritie diabase, Naumann. Quartzose
porphyry, Delesse. Oligoclase porphyry, Roth. Chlorophyre, Dumont.

Synonymy is an evil which geology will sooner or later have to
deal with, both as regards lithological and stratigraphical nomen-
clature, and the sooner some broad rules are accepted by the majority
of the leaders of the science, the better. At present, in examining
geological maps, or in reading geological works, half our time is
wasted in finding out (if we do find out) what is meant by the
terms used. Zoologists and Botanists are fortunate in having some
generally-recognized laws of priority, tempered to’ some extent by
fitness, and it certainly does not appear why Geology should con-
tinue to lack any relief of a more or less similar character.—G. A. h.

RES Sea @ alee Sin Ss ACN a) eae @) @ se see) Ne Se

ES

GroLtocicaL Socrery oF Lonpon.—].—February 7th, 1877.—
Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.B., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.—
The following communications were read :—

1. “On the Chemical and Mineralogical Changes which have
taken place in certain Hruptive Rocks of North Wales.” By John
Arthur Phillips, Esq., F.G.S.

In this paper the author described the felspathic rock of Pen-
maenmawr, which has been erupted through Silurian strata, and
rises to a height of 15538 feet above the level of the sea. The rock,
which is composed of crystalline felspar with minute crystals of
some hornblendic mineral, is fine-grained and greenish grey, divided
into beds by joints dipping north at an angle of about 45°, and
again divided by double jointings, sometimes so developed as to
render the rock distinctly columnar. At the eastern end of the
mountain the stone is so close in texture as often almost to resemble
chert. In the next two quarries westward the rock is coarser, and
its jointing less regular. In the most westerly quarry the stone is
generally fresher in appearance, closer in grain, and greener in
colour. All these stones are probably modifications of the same
original rock. From the chemical analysis of the rocks the author
concludes that, supposing them all to have had originally the same
composition as the unaltered rock in the most westerly quarry, that
at the extreme east of the mountain has lost about 38 per cent. of
silica, and the others have received respectively an increase of 1:35

Geological Society of London. Were

and 0:77 per cent. of silica. The altered rocks contain an abund-
ance of quartz granules, due probably to the crystallization of pro-
gressively dissociated silica, as the specimens of rock in which these
eranules oceur do not contain a larger proportion of silica than those
in which its presence can hardly be detected under the microscope.
The proportion of alkalies in the different specimens does not
materially vary.

Overlying the second quarry at the east end of the mountain is an
ash bed of reddish-brown colour, containing more than 10 per cent.
of protoxide of manganese and nearly 20 per cent. of peroxide of
iron, and showing a great diminution in the per-centage of silica
when compared with the associated crystalline rock.

The author further described the characters of the uralite-por-
phyry of the Mawddach valley near Dolgelly, which is of a greyish-
green colour, spotted with black, and consists of a granular base
inclosing patches and crystals of uralite, the outlines of which are
sometimes sharp and well defined, but generally rounded and merging
into the general base.

2. “On new species of Belemnites and Salenia from the Middle
Tertiaries of South Australia.” By Ralph Tate, Esq., F.G.S., Pro-
fessor of Natural Science in the University of Adelaide.

The author noticed the occurrence in deposits of supposed Miocene
ave in South Australia of a species of Belemnite (Belemnites senescens)
and a Salenia (S. tertiaria). ‘These fossils were obtained from
Aldenga, twenty-six miles south of Adelaide, on the east coast of St.
Vincent’s Gulf, where the long series of sea-cliffs contains an assem-
blage of fossils identical with that of the Murray River beds. ‘The
Salenia is especially interesting on account of the discovery of a
living species of the genus by the naturalists of the ‘ Challenger.’

3. “On Mauisaurus Gardneri, Seeley, an Elasmosaurian from the
base of the Gault at Folkestone.” By Harry Govier Seeley, Hsq.,
F.L.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geography at King’s College, London.

The author described the skeleton of a great long-necked Saurian
obtained by Mr. J. 8S. Gardner from the Gault of the chff at Folke-
stone. The remains obtained included a tooth, a long series of
vertebra, some ribs, bones of the pectoral arch, the femur, and some
phalanges, indicating a very large species, which the author referred,
with some doubt, i the genus “Manisaur us of Dr. Hector, founded
upon a Saurian from the Gretace.us formation of New Zealand. He
gave it the name of Mauisaurus Gardueri, in honour of its discoverer.
A small heap of pebbles was found in the neighbourhood of the ribs,
and it was supposed that these had been contained in the stomach of
the animal.!

1Mr. J. W. Hulke, with regard to the pebbles, suggested that the animal may not
have swallowed them as an aid to the comminution of food in its stomach, but that
they were introduced in the stomachs of fish which it had swallowed. The flesh and,
subsequently, the bones of these would be digested and absorbed, whilst the indiges-
tible stones, if the stomach of the Plesiosawrus was like that ot Crocodiles, would be
unable to pass through the small gone opening into the intestine, and must perma-
nently remain in the stomach.

DECADE II.— VOL. IVY.—NO. IV. : 12

178 Reports and Proceedings—

ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING.

ee ea 16th, 1877.—Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.B., F.R.S., President, in
the Chair.

The Secretaries read the Reports of the Council and of the Library and Museum
Committee for the year 1876. The position of the Society was described as ex-
ceedingly satisfactory, and the income of the year was stated to have considerably
exceeded the expenditure. The number of Fellows elected was fully up to the
average. The Report further mentioned the bequest to the Society by the late Dr.
H. C. Barlow of the sum of £500 Consols, the proceeds of which, under the title of
the ‘‘ Barlow-Jameson Fund,” are directed by the testator to be applied every two
or three years by the Council in such manner as may seem to them most conducive to
the advancement of the science of Geology. It was also announced that Dr. Bigsby,
F.R.S., F.G.S., had handed to the Council, in order that it might be awarded at the
present meeting, a copy of the medal which he last year proposed to found, and that
he further proposed to hand over to the Society the sum of £200 to be invested, the
balance of the proceeds, after paying the cost of striking a medal, to be given
biennially with the medal, as an aid and incentive to geological research.

In presenting the Wollaston Gold Medal to Mr. Robert Mallet, C.E., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
the President addressed him as follows : —

Mr. Mallet,—The Council of the Society has awarded you its principal Medal,
which, originating with the illustrious Wollaston, has year by year received an
increasing value by its reception by the most distinguished geologists in the world.
This now famous prize is presented to you in recognition of the results of at least
forty years of sedulous labour in some of the most important and difficult problems in
Geology. arly in your career you commenced those studies relating to Earthquakes
and Volcanos, which have occupied your time and taxed your energies down to the
present date. From the first you took the correct logical method of investigation of
phenomena, which were hardly disconnected from the supernatural ; you collected the
facts and indicated the manner in which you would employ them by your com-
munications “On the Relation of Molecular Forces to Geology,” and ‘‘On the
Dynamics of Earthquakes, or an attempt to reduce their observed phenomena to
the known laws of Wave-motion in Solids and Fluids.” Moreover your reports
““ On the Experimental Determination of the limits of the transit-rate of the propa-
gation of waves or pulses analogous to those of Earthquakes through solid materials,”
and on the results of your experiments on a cognate subject on the rocks of Holyhead,
tended to prepare science for your theories of the Earthquake-wave, and for the
establishment of that branch of knowledge which owes so much to you, namely
Seismology. Your numerous reports to the British Association for the Advancement
of Science upon Karthquakes, and your magnificent contribution to Science and
Literature upon the Neapolitan Earthquake, added immensely to the knowledge of
the subject; and your descriptions of the nature of the earth-movement, of the
comparatively slight depth of the focus of motion, and of the nature and effects of the
great marine wave, have been pregnant with results in geological theory. Of late
years your able communication to the Royal Society “ On Volcanic Energy ” has been
very prominently before the physicists and geologists of the Old and the New World.
Full of admirably elaborated facts, it propounds a theory whose truth may be fairly
estimated by the constant attention it has received. One of your earliest communi-
cations was ‘On the Trap-rocks of Galway,” and your latest have been on the same
subject. In your last essay you have endeavoured to solve the difficult question of
the peculiar shape of basaltic prisms. In all these researches your employment
of the exact sciences has been of necessity; and it is evident that the procedure has
not only been most satisfactory in your argument, but that it has afforded a good
example to those who cannot pretend to be geologists without an acquaintance with
your works. You have followed out the line of research with which you commenced,
and have done great service to geology, and also in directing the thoughts of
scientific men towards the cosmical relations of the grandest phenomena of the globe,
and the possibility of their explanation by thermo-dynamies. As a student of your
works, and as a teacher of your views, I am proud of having this opportunity of
conferring upon you this well-merited reward.

Mr. Mallet, in reply, said:—Mr. President,—I am deeply sensible of the great
honour which has been conferred upon me by the award of this Wollaston Medal, the
highest honour which it is in the power of the Society to bestow. I appreciate this

Geological Society of London. 179

honour as of the greater significance, since of all our scientific societies the Geological
Society of London must be deemed that which in all respects is the most competent
to form a judgment of those labours it has specifically named as justifying its decision
in my own case. It is a somewhat trying ordeal, even to one of scientific achievement
far beyond anything to which I can pretend, to bear his own work (as is usual on
occasions such as the present) trumpeted forth from the Presidential chair before such
an assemblage of eminent men, best capable of weighing their merits or demerits, as
that I now see around me. I fear, Sir, that a good deal of the sunny colouring
spread by you over whatever I may have been able to add to our knowledge of certain
branches of Physical Geology, must become toned down to more sober tints, when, in
future years, what I have been able to do shall be examined by the steady light of the
study of the students and philosophers of a future age. It is given to no man so to
interpret nature that his enunciation of her secrets shall remain for ever unmodified
by the labours of his successors. Nor am I vain enough to imagine that the two
subjects for which you have principally awarded me this medal can be exempt from
that which is the common lot of all advances in science. What I have enunciated
with respect to the laws of earthquake movements will fundamentally, I believe,
admit of little of very radical change by the future advances of Physical Geology ; for
the laws I have assigned to seismic phenomena come so close to, and are such direct
consequences of well-understood physical laws, as to be, like those laws, immutable ; but
in details future discovery cannot fail to alter something, and vastly to add to that I
have been privileged to announce. For example, it was my own good fortune to
ascertain, observationally and experimentally, the depth below the earth’s surface
whence the impulse came of the first earthquake ever submitted to measurement.
That in the case of the great Neapolitan shock of 1857 proved to be only about eight
or nine geographical miles; but it is highly probable that the depth of the centre of
impulse of many great earthquakes may greatly exceed this, and may be found to bear
some relation to the height of the greatest mountain-ranges adjacent. Thus my old
friend, Dr. Oldham, after his examination of the region of the great Cachar earthquake
a few years since in North-eastern India, found that its centre of impulse may have
been thirty miles in depth from the surface. The views which I have enunciated as
to the nature and origin of volcanic heat and energy, though I believe they will be
ultimately found to be in the main a true interpretation of nature, must, I expect,
be subject to large modification and addition in the future advances of knowledge.
Our physical data in their numerical relations are still too defective to enable us to do
much more at present than to sketch the general scheme of the laws of volcanic
action, which must, by the way in which they fit into or explain many natural
phenomena in widely diverse regions of nature, seem to afford credentials of their own
reality in nature.

In making these remarks, I have, perhaps, already exceeded the limit that properly
belongs to an occasion like the present; and, in conclusion, let me once more repeat
my thanks for the kindness, sympathy, and appreciation with which you have to-day
marked your approval of what little I may have been able to do for the advancement
of our common object.

The President then presented the balance of the proceeds of the Wollaston Donation
Fund to Mr. Robert Etheridge, jun., F.G.S., and addressed him as follows :—

Mr. Robert Etheridge,—I have great pleasure in handing to you the balance of the
proceeds of the Wollaston Donation Fund, which the Society has awarded to you as
a testimony of their appreciation of your industry and accuracy as a Palveontoiogist.
You have laboured with great success amongst the fossiliferous rocks of Australia, and
now you are advancing paleontological science by describing the rarer fossils of the
invertebrate series from the Scottish Carboniferous formation. In offering you this
distinction, I venture to hope that its reception will stimulate you to further inquiries
into the Paleozoic faunas.

Mr. Etheridge replied :—Mr. President,—The recognition by the Council of the
Geological Society of my labours, by the award of the Wollaston Fund, is both
gratifying and complimentary to me. I have been and am still making great
endeavours to elucidate some branches of our common science. For your award
I beg to tender my sincere thanks. It will stimulate me to further exertions.
The systematic study of the British Carboniferous Mollusca, to which I have more
particularly confined my attention, has been for many years comparatively neglected,
notwithstanding the vast amount of material gathered together through the energy
and zeal of local scientific men, many of them distinguished members of our Society.

180 Reports and Proceedings—

That any contributions of mine towards this object have met with the approbation
of the Society, is in itself a great reward; coupled, however, with the honour you
have to-day paid me, it becomes a source of much higher gratification.

The President next handed the Murchison Medal to Mr. Warington W. Smyth, for
transmission to the Rey. William Branwhite Clarke, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8., and
spoke as follows :—

Mr. Warington Smyth,—The Council of the Society has awarded the Murchison
Medal and a portion of the Murchison Fund to the Rev. William Branwhite Clarke,
F.R.S., of Sydney, Australia, in recognition of his remarkable services in the
investigation of the older rocks of New South Wales, services which have led to a
correct knowledge of the succession of the formations in that great country, and which
have been of great value to the community.

Mr. Clarke’s labours date back nearly half a century, and he had contributed
several interesting essays on points of British Geology before he commenced his
arduous work amongst the Coal-bearing strata of his adopted country. Influenced by
the love of scientific investigation, and aided by a self-reliant and independent
character, he surveyed those great depths of rock which brought the local names of
Hawksbury, Wianamatta, and Newcastle before the geological world as land-marks
in an apparently anomalous series of strata. His survey, the result of years of patient
labour, was so exact, that, in spite of former unsparing criticism, it is now universally
recognized as correct; and his deductions as to the relative value of marine and
plant-bearing strata in estimating the ages of formations, though disbelieved in former
years, have been proved to be consistent with facts since observed in Africa, India,
and North America.

Mr. Clarke discovered that there were strata of marine limestones containing Carboni-
ferous Spirifert and Producti, and with which were intercalated beds of coal which
presented a mixture of forms of plants. He noticed that there was no break in this
great series of deposits, and that S7gil/ariz, Calamites and Conifers, were associated
with Glossopteris and other genera of Filices, which, had they been found in the
typical area of England, would have denoted a Mesozoic horizon. Subsequent research
by other observers in Queensland has produced corresponding results; and science
therefore owes much to Mr. Clarke for the consistent and persistent manner in which
he has upheld his opinions regarding the age of these Australian Carboniferous series.
Labouring amongst the strata below the Carboniferous, Mr. Clarke discovered the
presence of Silurian rocks by the existence in them of characteristic Trilobites and
Corals, and noticed the unconformability of the Carboniferous to the underlying
group; and even in those early days of his work he grasped the important idea that
the geology of the typical area of Europe was not exactly comparable with that of
Australia.

From his knowledge of the country and of the physical development of the
Australian Cordillera, Mr. Clarke was able to enlarge upon the relations of the
sedimentary and intrusive rocks, and this led to his discovery of the auriferous
quartzites and detrital accumulations of the mountains within sixty or eighty miles of
Syduey. Subsequently the possibility of the great north and south range of New
South Wales being highly auriferous, was impressed upon him by his comparing these
mountains with the details of the Oural, the result of the labours of the great geologist,
donor of this Medal, and Keyserling and De Verneuil.

Mr. Clarke’s last work on the Sedimentary Formation of New South Wales
appeared in 1875, and in it the veteran geologist had the satisfaction of repeating
those acknowledged truths which he had elaborated thirty years since.

In asking you to forward this Medal to the Rey. William B. Clarke, I know that I
am requiring a pleasant task at your hands, especially when I desire you to express to
him the appreciation in which his labours are held by this Society.

Mr. Warington W. Smyth replied: —Mr. President,—It is with much satisfaction
that I receive this Medal, to be forwarded to the Rey. Mr. Clarke, one among the
oldest Fellows of the Society, who joined its ranks upwards of fifty years ago, and has
since that time to the present continued his labours in the field of science. Although
not personally acquainted with Mr. Clarke, I have had the opportunity, from his
being a constant and valued correspondent of our late friend Sir Roderick Murchison,
to hear much of the laborious researches carried on by our Medallist in New South
Wales. I feel assured that the award of this honour will be duly appreciated in the
colony, the Geology of which has been so much advanced by Mr. Clarke, aud trust

Geological Society of London. 181

that it will be a source of pride and pleasure to the veteran explorer in his
declining years.

In presenting the balance of the proceeds of the Murchison Geological Fund to the
Rev. J. F. Blake, M.A., F.G.S., the President said :—

Mr. Blake,—In presenting you with the balance of the Murchison Geological Fund
in the name of the Council of this Society, I have to express to you our appreciation
of the excellence of the Geological and Paleontological services which you have
rendered to science during the last few years. The Mesozoic formations of England
which you are still investigating, require all the energies and accomplishments of the
paleontologist for their elucidation, besides a great knowledge of practical field-
geology. You have undertaken a great task in their description, and I trust that
this slight expression of the approbation and sympathy of your fellow-geologists may
urge you on in your laborious path.

Mr. Blake replied as follows:—Mr. President,—I beg to thank the Council very
sincerely for the honour they have done me in making this award, and you, Sir, for the
kind manner in which you have presented it tome. I do not know that there is any-
thing that I care for more than the spread and advancement of our knowledge of
Nature ; and there is no honour I covet more eagerly than such as show, as I take it
this does, that I have to some extent succeeded in doing something towards this end.
I think I may conscientiously say that what geological work I have done has been
the best I have known how to do, or have had the opportunity of doing, though I am
continually learning how very much better that best might have been. With regard
to the Mesozoic rocks, which form so prominent a feature in English Geology, there is
very much yet to be learnt; and the hard and fast lines of the earliest observers have
yet to be smoothed down and shaded off, by a study of the physical conditions of the
deposits, before we have a complete and artistic picture of the whole. You have
assured me, Sir, that the present award is meant not only as an honour but as an
encouragement and incentive to me to go on and add, if possible, something more to
the picture; and I hope the future may prove that I have received it in that sense.

The President next handed to Professor Ramsay, F.R.S., the Lyell Medal and part
of the Lyell Fund, for transmission to James Hector, M.D., F.R.S., Director of the
Geological Survey of New Zealand, and addressed him as follows :—

Prof. Ramsay,—The Lyell Medal I have the pleasure of asking you to forward, on
the part of the Council of this Society, to James Hector, M.D., F.R.S., Director
of the Geological Survey of New Zealand. It is given to him in recognition of his
long and valued services in Geology and Paleontology both in British North America
and in New Zealand. Seventeen years ago Dr. Hector communicated a valuable
Report to the British Association for the Adyancement of Science on the Geology of
the Palliser Expedition, and others on the Physical features of British North America,
and on the climate of the Saskatschewan district; and in 1861 this Society published
his able paper on the Geology of Lake Superior. Having gained great experience as
an accomplished surveyor, he commenced his celebrated survey of New Zealand, and
the results of it have been to place the geological formation of those remarkable
islands plainly before the world. His Geology of Otago, the Reports of the Survey,
and his Geological Map of New Zealand—works of great importanee—are most
valuable contributions to our science. A distinguished naturalist, Dr. Hector has
contributed largely to the Botany of New Zealand and to the study of its river-fish,
which have remarkable affinities; as a paleontologist, he has not only described the
fossil remains of the gigantic birds, but also of the extinct Reptilia of the islands.
Impressed with the voleanie phenomena still in action, he has studied and written
upon the thermal springs, the extinct volcanos, and the earthquake phenomena.
He has been able to compare the grand developments of the formations of the islands
with the European types; and his labours have ever been influenced by that method
of research which rendered the founder of this Medal so illustrious.

Prof. Ramsay, in reply, said:—Mr. President,—I have very great pleasure in
receiving this Medal for Dr. Hector, not only on account of his great distinction, but
also because we have both been so much engaged in questions of Physical Geology.
As a Physical Geologist, I regard him as standing in the very first rank; and his
qualifications have been shown, not only in North America, but also by his thorough
organization of the Geological Survey of New Zealand, which, under his charge, has
attained a position second to none in the world. In Dr. Hector’s name I beg to
thank the Society for this testimony of its appreciation of his labours.

182 Reports and Proceedings—

In handing the balance of the proceeds of the Lyell Fund to the Rev. Thomas
Wiltshire, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., for transmission to Mr. William Pengelly, F.R.S.,
F.G.S., the President said :—

Mr. Wiltshire,—The Council of the Society have awarded to Mr. Pengelly the
balance of the proceeds of the Lyell Fund, I may say unanimously, as an evidence of
their thorough appreciation of his long and successful labours in the Geology of
Devonshire, and his untiring devotion to the great task of extending scientific know-
ledge relating to the antiquity of man. By his systematic survey and labour in
Kent’s Cavern, especially, he has not only excited attention on this important subject,
but has elaborated facts which will last as long as science. Thanks to his great
energy and perseverance, he has kept up a love for geological science in his county ;
and this has been mainly due to the results of his work among the rocks of Devon-
shire. In presenting this fund to you for transmission to Mr. Pengelly, I feel that
the good opinion which his fellow-geologists have of him and his work cannot be
sufficiently expressed by me; but I trust that this recognition of his services to
parce will be felt by him as a slight reward for many years’ arduous devotion to

eology.

Mr. Wiltshire replied :—Mr. President,—It is a subject of regret to Mr. Pengelly
that he is prevented by public engagements from receiving to-day in person the
award of the Lyell Trust Fund. Mr. Pengelly, while deputing me to be his repre-
sentative, has begged me to convey to the Society his high appreciation of the honour
conferred upon him. The award, he writes, seems to bring him once more into
communion with the spirit of his old friend the founder of the trust, and will be an
additional motive for still following up those investigations in Kent’s Cavern and in
we county of Devonshire which so long were approved of by the late Sir Charles

ell,

The President then handed the Bigsby Medal to Mr. Hulke, F.R.S., F.G.S., for
transmission to Prof. 0. C. Marsh, F.G.S., and addressed him as follows :—

Mr. Hulke,—The Council of this Society have awarded the Bigsby Medal to
Prof. O. C. Marsh, F.G.8., of Yale College, Connecticut, U.S., and I trust that in
forwarding this testimony of our admiration of his abilities and work, you will
explain to him that, being a Fellow of the Society, we cannot enrol him amongst
our Foreign Correspondents and Members, but that we can offer him the first medal
given by one who has laboured long and successfully in the field of American Geology.

The Medal is given in recognition of the great services which Prof. Marsh has
rendered to the paleontology of the Vertebrata. He has distinguished himself by
studying the fossil remains of nearly every great group of the Vertebrata from the
Paleozoic, Cretaceous, and Cainozoic strata of the New World. ‘The field of his
research has been immense, but it has been very correct; and his descriptive and
classificatory paleontological work indicates his effective grasp of anatomical details,
and his great power as a comparative osteologist.

Prof. Marsh’s early work was upon an Enaliosaurian from the Coal-formation of
Nova Scotia; but this limited field of vertebrate research was soon left for the fossils
ot the wonderful country in the western territories of the United States. The Cre-
taceous series yielded the remarkable fossil birds, whose examination has been due to
Professor Marsb; he added to the knowledge of the Pythonomorpha from the same
series by distinguishing the pelvic girdle and the hind limbs. The Pterodactyles
have been his especial study, as have also the Mosasaurs of New Jersey and the
Tylosauri and Lestosauri of Kansas. The fossil fish of the Niobrara group have
been in part worked out by him. Interesting and important as have been these
researches in the lower vertebrates, they are surpassed by Prof. Marsh's paleon-
tological contributions regarding the Mammalia of the post-Cretaceous ages. He
has described some of the Oreodontide, those interesting Artiodactyles of the Miocene
of Oregon; and he has illustrated and contributed to our knowledge of the Perisso-
dactyles of the so-called Eocene of the western territories of his country, the genera
Palaosyops, Limnohyus, Lophiodon, Hyrachyus, and Limnotherium being especially
studied. His researches amongst the Dinoceratide are familiar to every geologist,
and most anatomists will admire his labours amongst the fossil Rodentia. Prof.
Marsh, moreover, has paid great attention to and described fossil species of Crocodilia,
Lacertilia, and Glyptosauria, from the same series of strata, whose stratigraphical
position is still a matter of debate. I trust that you will, as a brother paleontologist
labouring somewhat in the same field, express to Prof. Marsh the appreciation we all
have of his interesting and valuable contributions to our science.

Geological Society of London. 183

Mr. Hulke replied: —I cannot doubt, Sir, that the award of this Medal will afford
Prof. Marsh the highest satisfaction. His services to Paleontology have just been
so fully enumerated by yourself as not to leave me anything to add in his behalf;
they are so numerous and so important as to mark an epoch in this line of résearch.
The present recognition of the value of his labours will doubtless prove an incentive
to fresh work.

The President then proceeded to read his Anniversary Address, in which he re-
ferred to the fact that the strict uniformitarianism of former days is giving way to a
school which insists upon the recognition of a scientific cosmogony, and attempts the
explanation of the gradual evolution of the globe. He noticed the characters of the
great curves of the surface produced by the earliest contractions of the globe in
cooling, and especially discussed the effect of the forces to which the curving, folding,
reversing, and upheaval of rocks are due, in the production of heat below the surface
of the earth, and the manifestations of this interior heat in vulcanicity and meta-
morphism. He also referred to the rate of formation of deposits, the necessary
extension of geological time, the conditions of denudation, the extent and cosmical
relations of the atmosphere of our earth, and the effects upon geological phenomena
of a probably higher and more abundant atmosphere in past ages. Stratigraphical
geology, he remarked, has become synthetic; and instead of seeking for sharp breaks
between formations, characterized by universal destructions of existing and creations
of new forms, geologists now seek for evidence of the continuity of geological pheno-
mena, the so-called ‘‘ passage-beds”’ being recognized as not geological anomalies,
but links in the chain of evidence regarding the variety of the synchronous changes
on the surface of the earth, and of the irregularity and localization of the grand
movements of its crust. These statements were illustrated by reference to various
formations in different parts of the earth. The President also briefly discussed the
modern doctrine of the origin of organic forms by descent with modification. The
Address was prefaced by some obituary notices of Fellows and Foreign Members
deceased during the past year, including Prof. Ehrenberg, Baron von Waltershausen,
Prof. Brongniart, Mr. E. Billings, Dr. H. C. Barlow, Dr. H. Credner, Mr. T. G.
Wyndham, and Mr. David Forbes.

The Ballot for the Council and Officers was taken, and the following were duly
elected for the ensuing year :—President: Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.B., F.R.S.
Vice- Presidents: Sir P. de M. Grey-Egerton, Bart., M.P., F.R.S.; R. Etheridge,
Esq., F.R.S.; John Evans, Esq., F.R.S; Prof. J. Prestwich, M.A., F.R.S.
Secretaries: J. W. Hulke, Esq., F.R.S.; Rev. T. Wiltshire, M.A. Foreign
Secretary: Warington W. Smyth, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. Treasurer: J. Gwyn
Jeffreys, LL.D., F.R.S. Council: H. Bauerman, Esq.; Rev. T. G. Bonney, M.A.;
W. Carruthers, Esq., F.R.S; Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A., F.R.S.; Prof. P.
Martin Duncan, M.B., F.R.S.; Sir P. de M. Grey-Egerton, Bart., M.P., F.R.S.;
R. Etheridge, Esq., F.R.S.; John Evans, Esq., F.R.S.; Henry Hicks, Esq.; W.
H. Hudleston, Esq., M.A.; J. W. Hulke, Esq., F.R.S.; J. Gwyn Jeffreys, LL.D.,
F.R.S.; Prof. J. W. Judd; Prof. T. MeKenny Hughes, M.A.; Prof. J. Morris;
Prof, J. Prestwich, M.A., F.R.S.; R. H. Scott, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.; Earl of
Selkirk, F.R.S.; Samuel Sharp, Esq., F.S.A.; Warington W. Smyth, Esq., M.A.,
F.R.S.; Admiral T. A. B. Spratt, C.B., F.R.S.; Rev. T. Wiltshire, M.A., F.L.S.;
Henry Woodward, Esq., F.R.S.

111.—February 21st, 1877.—Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.B., F.R.S., President,
in the Chair.—The following communications were read :—

1, “On Possible Displacements of the Earth’s Axis of Figure produced by Elevations
and Depressions of her Surface.” By the Rev. J. F. Twisden, M.A., Professor of
Mathematics in the Staff College. Communicated by John Evans, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S.

The object of this paper is to discuss the question of the possibility of a displacement
of the earth’s axis of figure under the conditions indicated in a question (suggesting
the possibility of a displacement of the axis of figure from the axis of rotation
amounting to 15° or 20°) put to mathematicians in a passage of the Anniversary
Address, delivered to the Geological Society, by its President, J. Evans, Hsq., on the
18th February, 1876. The treatment of the question is kinematical; the forces by
which the elevations and depressions might be effected do not come under discussion.
In determining numerically the amount of the deviation from the formulas investigated,

184 Reports and Proceedings—

approximate numbers seem to be sufficiently exact for every useful purpose. The
conclusions arrived at are as follows :—

(1) The displacement of the earth’s axis of figure from the axis of rotation that
would be effected by the elevations and depressions suggested in the question above
referred to, would be Jess than 10’ of angle.

(2) A displacement of as much as 20° could be effected by the elevations and
depressions of the kind suggested only if their heights and depths exceeded by many
times the height of the highest mountains.

(3) Under no circumstances could a displacement of 29° be effected by a transfer of
matter of less amount than about a sixth part of the whole equatorial bulge.

(4) Even if a transfer of this quantity of matter were to take place, it need not
produce any effect, or only a small effect, on the position of the axis of figure, e.g. if
it took place in a way resembling that suggested in the question, it would produce a
displacement amounting to but a small part of 20°.

(5) If, however, we suppose a deviation of the axis of figure from the axis of
rotation amounting to as much as 20° to have been by any means brought about, the
effect would be to cause a sort of tidal motion in the ocean, the greatest height of
which would tend to be about twice the depth of the ocean. The author suggests as
probable that the effect of this tendency would be to cause the ocean to sweep over
the continents in much the same way that a rising tide sweeps over a low bank on a
level shore.

(6) The notion that a large deviation of the earth’s axis of figure from its axis of
revolution may be effected by elevations and accompanying depressions is at first sight
an inviting way of bringing polar lands into lower latitudes, and thereby accounting
for the more genial climate that is believed to have once prevailed in such countries as
Greenland. The investigation by which the above results have been obtained seems
to show that the desired explanation is not to be sought in the direction indicated by
Mr. Evans’s question. Whether there is any other agency by which a gradual
displacement of the pole geographically could be effected is a question of far wider
scope than that discussed in the present paper, and one which the author does not
profess to determine. !

Discussion.—Mr. Evans was willing to admit that in his Address he had some-
what overstated the amount of change in the position of the polar axis which was
likely to result from the supposed belts of elevation and depression. When, however,
he was told that the displacement would not exceed ten miles, notwithstanding his
implicit faith in mathematics, there arose an inward feeling of disbelief as to the
conditions of the problem having been accurately stated in order to obtain such a
result. It seemed to him that the author had treated the globe as an absolutely solid
spheroid instead of a terraqueous globe, with the proportions of land and sea upon its
surface as at present existing, which were important elements in the case.

The depth of the ocean in equatorial and polar regions ought surely to be taken
into account, as it was quite possible to conceive of the irregularly-shaped solid
portion of the globe projecting in places through a spheroidal coating of water, so as
to form large tracts of land, and yet on the average forming a sphere. Such a sphere,
from disturbances of its equilibrium, he believed would be much more hable to
changes in its axis than a spheroid, and the nearer a spheroid approached a sphere,
the more sensible it would become to such disturbances.

He had never intended to suggest that the hypothetical belt was to be suddenly
elevated so as to produce the enormous tidal movements of which the author spoke.
On the contrary, he believed that all such disturbances of equilibrium were gradual,
and that the axis of rotation and that of figure were never at any great distance from
each other. There was one portion of the paper which he found difficult to com-
prehend. He could not conceive why so enormous a protuberance as 125 miles over
a belt 20° in width should be necessary in order to displace the polar axis by 20°,
when the present equatorial protuberance was only about one-tenth of that height.

Moreover, the probability is that the earth, instead of being a rigid solid, is to a
certain extent viscous or plastic, and that such should be the case seems quite in
accordance with geological facts. If the globe were a viscous body, with a solid crust

1 The first draught of the paper, of which the above is an account, was drawn up last August,
and was shortly after sent to Mr. Evans. It was written independently of the wider view of the
subject taken by Sir W. Thomson in his Address delivered at the last Meeting of the British
Association, and by Mr. G. Darwin in his paper, of which an abstract has been published in
No. 175 of the Proceedings of the Royal Society.

Geological Society of London. 185

of moderate thickness, elevations such as suggested in the Address might well suffice
to bring about a shifting of the crust, either by sliding on the fluid or viscous interior,
or by causing it to undergo a certain amount of gradual deformation. The thinner the
crust, provided it were sufficiently rigid to support the elevations once made upon it,
the more readily would its geographical position be changed with regard to the poles.
With regard to the thickness of the crust at the present time, he did not despair of
astronomers at last conceding a less thickness than that assigned by the late Mr.
Hopkins and Sir William Thomson. He was glad to find that the latter, in his
Address to- the Mathematical Section of the British Association at Glasgow, was
willing not merely to admit, but to assert as highly probable, that the axis of
maximum inertia of the earth and the axis of rotation, always very near one another,
may have been in ancient times very far from their present geographical position, and
may have gradually shifted through 10, 20, 30, 40, or more degrees, without at any
time any perceptible sudden disturbance of either land or water.

Mr. George Darwin, also no mean mathematician, in his paper recently communi-
eated to the Royal Society, agrees as to the probability of large geological changes
affecting the position of the poles, and regards the effect of such changes as possibly
cumulative.

Mr. Evans felt that the Society was much indebted to Mr. Twisden for having
likewise investigated the question, in which, of course, he was personally much
interested.

Prof. Ramsay referred to the former prevalence in Geology of views which had
long since been exploded, and expressed his opinion that before long the theory of
the fixed geographical position of the poles of the earth would share the same fate,
and that the position of the poles would be regarded as very variable indeed. The
_ Flora of various deposits in Polar lands indicated the growth of plants which would
require the stimulus of light, even if the necessary amount of heat for their growth
could be accounted for. With respect to great local changes of level, he remarked
that the northern part of Africa was 4000 feet below the level of the sea in very
recent times, and there was considerable reason to suppose that even later than the
Miocene a vast tract of land occupied the space between what were now the con-
tinents of Africa and India. Of course no one supposed that the position of the
poles had been changed by rapid upheavals of land; but as we know that all geo-
lovical changes of level have been slow and gradual, so the poles may have altered
their position by a process as slow as that of evolution which has originated the
species of animals and plants during the long series of geological time. Such
questions as these were serious questions involving the results of much observation,
and could not, he thought, be solved in the closet by any amount of geological work.

Prof. ‘T. McKenny Hughes, Mr. A. W. Waters, the Rev. J. F. Blake, and Prof.
Seeley, also took part in the discussion, and the author briefly replied.

2. ‘Note on a Specimen of Diploawylon, from the Coal-formation of Nova Scotia.”
By J. W. Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.

The author described the occurrence in Coal-measure sandstone at the South
Joggins of an erect stump of a Sigillarian tree 12 feet in length. It originated
in a coaly seam 6 inches thick, and terminated below in spreading roots; below the
coal-seam was an under-clay 8 feet 4 inches thick, separating it from an underlying
seam of coarse coal. The stem, which tapered from about 23, feet in diameter near
the base to 14 foot at the broken end, was a sandstone cast, and exhibited an internal
axis about 2 inches in diameter, consisting of a central pith cylinder, replaced by
sandstone, about 2 inch in diameter, and of two concentric coats of scalariform tissue,
the inner one >; inch in thickness, the outer constituting the remainder of the axis.
The scalariform tissue of the latter was radially arranged, with the individual cells
quadrangular in cross section. A few small radiating spaces partially filled with
pyrites obscurely represented the medullary rays, which were but feebly developed ;
the radiating bundles, passing to the leaves, ran nearly horizontally, but their structure
was very imperfectly preserved. The cross section, when weathered, showed about
twenty concentric rings; but these under the microscope appeared rather to be bands
of compressed tissue than true lines of growth. The thick inner bark was replaced
by sandstone, and the outer bark represented by structureless coal. On a small
portion of one of the roots the author traced the remains of stigmarioid markings.
From the above characters the author identified this tree with Diplowylon of Corda,
and stated that it was the first well-characterized example of this type of Sigillarians

186 Reports and Proceedings—

hitherto found in Nova Scotia. The author compared the structure of this stem
with that of other Sigillarians, and remarked that it seemed to come within the limits
of the genus Sigillaria, but to belong to a low type of that genus approaching Lepi-
dodendron in structure; those of the type of S. elegans, Br., and S. spinulosa, Renault,
being higher in organization, and leading towards the still more elevated type de-
scribed by him in 1870. He further discussed the supposed alliance of these trees
with Gymnosperms, and the probability of the fruits known as Z’rigonocarpa being
those of Stgil/aria, and expressed the opinion that the known facts tend to show that
there may be included in the genus Sig¢llaria, as originally founded, species widely
differing in organization, and of both Gymnospermous and Acrogenous rank.

IV.—March 7, 1877.—Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.B., F.R.S., President, in the
Chair.—The following communications were read :—

1. “On the Beds between the Gault and Upper Chalk, near Folkestone.” By F.
G. Hilton Price, Esq., F.G.S.

The author described the characters presented by the beds between the Gault and
Upper Chalk near Folkestone, indicated the fossils contained in them and their range
in this division of the Cretaceous series, and discussed the classification of the deposits,
and their equivalence with those recognized by other writers. His conclusions are
shown in the following tabular arrangement :— .

. Author’s divisions Iie Den ve .
C. Barrois. qd Whitaker’s D’Orbigny.
ere Survey Memoir.

Upper Chalk.
(tx. Zone of Eehi-

ps . 2s 7}
Capt mammneese S ‘ES | noconus subrotun-
; ee alban | ~4' | dus and Terebratu- | i
; G 3 lina gracilis, 118 ft. } eee
‘at A oS 50 feet.
Come nodules oe = © | VIII. Zone of Car- ] Concretionary |
Faye u 2S | diaster pygmeus, \ Pnodular chalk,
; S32 | 32 feet. ) 73 feet. J
L
Bel. plenus zone ( VII. Zone of Bel- )
proper. emnites plenus, 4 ft. | Soft bed of 6 ft. )
La (f with Belemnites,
= |Zone a Bel. Whitaker, p. 33.
S| plenus vee 4 | fila phi
=, | compacte). s 1te cha
< i 5 | VI. Zone of Ho- | without flints,
. | Craieargileuse ( & J laster subglobosus, | 138 feet.
+ + avec banesdurs | & 148 feet.
= |a Amm. Rho- |
§ thomagensis. V. oft. 9in
8 ST aa eet } Cenomanian,
® | Zone 4 Amm No Mone! LUD 197 feet
oe ° Lhothomagensis, ‘
= | varians. 11 ft. |
UII. 8} feet
Craie marneuse a (oy IMTS Sy ele ca marl, |
Plocoscyphia me@-, =F thickness not
hirine | S II. Zone of 10 ft. + given ; say about
wy 1. Plocoscyphiame- | 30 feet.
Marne sableuse = ( ‘S andrina. 14 feet.
zone of Pecten as-) & |
per, or Warminster
beds. 5)

Upper Gault.

2. “On the Vertebral Column and Pelvic Bones.of Plhiosaurus Hvansi (Seeley), from
the Oxford Clay of St. Neot’s, in the Woodwardian Museum of the University of
Cambridge.” By Harry Govier Seeley, Esq., F.L.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geo-
graphy im King’s College, London.

Correspondence—Mr. Searles V. Wood, Jun. 187

In this paper the author described some bones obtained by J. J. Evans, Esq., in
the lower part of the Oxford Clay at Eynsbury, near St. Neot’s. They consisted of
thirty-seven vertebrae, twenty-one of which are cervical, and apparently complete
that series. ‘These presented the characters of the cervical vertebrae of the typical
Pliosaurs of the Kimmeridge Clay. The remains of the pelvis included a pubic bone
showing a close correspondence in form with those of the Pliosaurs of the Kimme-
ridge Clay of Ely, and an ischium.

3. “‘Supplementary Notes on the Fauna of the Cambridge Greensand.” By A.
J. Jukes-Browne, Esq., B.A., F.G.8.

This paper was supplementary to one communicated to the Society by the author
in 1875, in which he maintained that the Upper Greensand does not extend further
in a north-westerly direction than West End Hill, near Cheddingten, in Bucking-
hamshire, that the Cambridge Greensand is merely a nodule-bed at the base of the
Chalk Marl, resting uneonformably upon denuded Gault, to the upper part of which
the greater portion of the fauna belongs, and that the remainder of the Fauna, be-
longing to the deposit itself, consists ef species proper to the Chalk Marl rather than
to the Upper Greensand. The object of the paper was to indicate certain additions
to, and corrections in, the list of fossils upon which these conclusions were supported.
The following Gault species were indicated as not previously identified in the Cam-
bridge Greensand :—Nautilus arcwatus, Desh.; N. inequalis, Sow.; Turrilites
elegans, D’Orb.;? T. Emericianus, D’Orb.; Ornithopus histocheila, Gardn.; Brachy-
stoma angularis, Seeley; Turbo Pictetianus, D’Orb.; Pleurotomaria regina, Pict. &
Roux;? P. Itieriana, Pict. & Roux; Peeten Raulinianus, D’Orb.; P. subacutus,
D’Orb.; and Lima Rauliniana, D’Orb. The auther described as new species:
Turrilites nobilis, Nautilus, sp. nov., Natica levistriata, Nerita nodulosa, and Lima
interlineata, and noted several corrections in the nomenclature adopted in his
former list.

CORRHSPON DENCE.

a

THE FOSSIL FLORA OF THE TERTIARY BEDS OF BOURNEMOUTH.

Srr,—As Mr. Gardner admits that the vegetation of the Bourne-
mouth beds is drifted, the question seems to resolve itself into one of
extent. This he thinks he can measure, and pronounces to be very
limited. I, on the contrary, venture to doubt that there is anything
in the state of this vegetation repugnant to its having travelled various,
and in some cases considerable, distances. He insists that the leaves
have never been drifted from afar, because of their perfect condition,
and because they are often adherent to the twigs; and he adds that
“the forms of most temperate aspect are best preserved, so that, to be
logically applied, the Drift theory requires the palms, etc., to have been
drifted upwards.” Now I fail (and I think that your readers will fail
also) to perceive any logic in the matter. Short tributaries descending
from elevated regions at no great distance would necessarily have a
very swift current; and the vegetable spoil of those regions would in
consequence be carried far more quickly, and in better condition,
towards the place of its deposit than would much of that carried by
the main river and by those tributaries which flowed with more
sluggish currents through longer tracts of low ground, and brought
‘‘the palms, ete.”

Mr. Gardner, after intimating that I appear to be totally un-
acquainted with the subject, observes that the Fauna of the Thanet
sands, Woolwich beds, London Clay, Bracklesham, Headon, Bembridge,
and Hempstead beds,! make it plain to us that the climatal conditions

1 The Hempstead beds are not usually regarded as Eocene.

188 Correspondence—Dr. Ottokar Feistmantel.

during the deposit of our Eocene series differed widely at each period.
Now my acquaintance with the Eocene formation, and with its
Fauna in various ways,' is somewhat more than Mr. Gardner gives me
eredit for; and I distinctly traverse his suggestion that the Fauna
of the beds he names affords (when allowance is made for varying
conditions of bottom and depth, and for the difficulty in making
comparisons between faunas of which some are marine, some fluvio-
marine, and some fluviatile, as is the case with these beds) any indica-
tion whatever of a diversity of climate. Fortifying the opinion which
I have formed from my own acquaintance with these beds, and with
their Fauna, by that to the same purport of my father, who has made
the study of the Tertiary Mollusca the occupation of the greater part
of a long life, I contend that, so far as the past can be judged from
what is known of the present, this fauna is of tropical character
throughout. It was once thought that the mollusca of the Thanet
sands indicated a colder climate than did those of the beds which
succeed it, but the subsequent discovery of a Nautilus in these sands has
made even that view difficult to be maintained. Moreover, not only do
the Eocene beds of Western Europe present this character, but the
close similarity between Eocene mollusca found in the Aral-sea region
and those from the English and French beds indicates that this climate
prevailed under nearly the same latitude as far, at least, as the
meridian of 60° East longitude.

I have trespassed thus much on your space, to vindicate the opposi-
tion which I offered to Mr. Gardner’s hypothesis of oscillations of
climate during the Eocene period; and I could pursue the subject
further, as well as offer reasons for disagreeing from his alternative
theory of the existence of a mean annual temperature, which permitted
the growth of sub-tropical and more temperate forms side by side; but
as he expresses his intention of not entering into any discussion with
me, this would be undesirable, as I should be sorry to tempt him into
any descent from the serene elevation on which he has placed himself.

I would, however, observe that, although the explanation which I
offered as to the Hampshire Flora seemed to me the most obvious in that
particular case, and although I do look upon both of Mr. Gardner's
hypotheses as remote from the truth, I have nothing to say in opposition
to Prof. Heer’s view that difference of climate according to latitude did
not, so far as it is evidenced by fossil vegetation, begin to show itself
until late in the Mesozoic division of the Earth’s history.

Seartes V. Woop, Jun.

THE GONDWANA SERIES OF INDIA?

Srr,—I have some remarks and corrigenda’to add to my article on
the Gondwana Series of India.’

First, as regards the classification of the whole area, as used in the
above-mentioned paper, I have to state that it should be, properly, as
follows:

* Amongst them, the original and first disinterment from the Hampshire cliff, in
association with my father (now thirty-four years ago), of the remains of ‘‘ Alligator,
Turtle, and other Reptiles,”’ to which Mr. Gardner in his paper refers.

* The publication of this letter has been by an unfortunate oversight delayed a

month.—Eprr. Grou. Mac.
3 See Grou. Maa. Dec. II. Vol. III. p. 481.

Correspondence—Mr. W. T. Blanford. poise

Gonpwana System (not, as I wrote, ‘“‘ Gondwana Series’’).
a. Upper portion of the Gondwana System.

*‘Kachh-Jabalpir Group’’ (not Kachh Series, as I wrote); ‘‘ Raj-
mahal Group”’ (not, as 1 wrote, Rajmahal Series ),' etc.

b. Lower portion of the Gondwana System.

‘*Panchet Group’’—‘‘ Damuda Series” (not, as I wrote, Damuda
Group, as it consists itself of several groups, as, Kamthi-Ranigunj
group, Iron-shales, Barakur Group: this, however, only stratigraphi-
cally).

‘‘Talchir Group”’ (considered by me to be a lower portion of the
Damuda Series).

In the chapter on the fossils of the Panchet Group (/. ¢. p. 486) I
have to add that Prof. Huxley, although considering the vertebrate
fossils as probably Triassic, found also some aflinities with certain
Permian forms; but the closest connexion is still with the Triassic (?)
South African reptilian remains. And here, in India, we have, as
additional evidence, throughout a Triassic (Keuperic) Flora, which
leaves little doubt that our Panchet Group, in comparison with already
known formations, is to be considered as what is termed in Europe
“‘Keuper.’’ ‘This, of course, is not intended to prove that both are
contemporaneous. It proves only identity of forms, and therefore the
some homotaxial position.

I write this note especially because it should not seem that I have
intentionally left out half of the arguments. I thought, however, to
have said enough by referring to Prof. Huxley’s important paper on
the reptilian remains from the Panchet group, where he has himself
so thoroughly discussed their affinities.

There are also some serious errata in the text, which should be cor-
rected, namely :

On p. 485, line 5, for “with European Triassic forms,’ read
“‘Kuropean Jurassic beds” (for the only beds in Kachh are Jurassic).

On p. 487, line 12, omit “perhaps” (because there are certainly
similar forms in Africa).

On p. 489, line 83, for “ Pteroph. Carterianum,” read “ Pteroph.
Morrisianum.”’ Dr. Orroxar Frtsrwanre,

Caxcutta, 14th Dec. 1876. Geol. Survey of India.

DR. FEISTMANTEL’S PAPER ON THE GONDWANA SERIES.

Sir,—Even a scientific controversy, if prolonged, tends to become
less amicable than it should be, and I shall therefore not attempt to
reply at length to Dr. Feistmantel’s remarks in his paper on the
Gondwana Series of India, published in the GronocicaL Magazine
for November, 1876. I will only beg that any one who feels
interested in the subject will do me the honour of consulting my
original paper in the Records of the Geological Survey of India
for 1876, pt. ili. pp. 79-85, because I do not think that a just idea
of my views or of the objects of my paper will be derived from

1 This was the former collective name for the whole upper portion of the Gondwana
system, as used by Dr. Oldham; but there are certainly several different groups.

1.0) Correspondence—The Planet Mars.

Dr. Feistmantel’s criticisms. Dr. Feistmantel suffers from the great
disadvantage of writing in a foreign language, and I think he ex-
presses himself sometimes more forcibly than he intends.

The object of my paper was to point out that Dr. Feistmantel had
overlooked some of the arguments which had mainly influenced the
opinions of those of his colleagues who had written upon the age of
certain portions of the Gondwana series. JI may have been in error
on certain points, as on the question of the occurrence of Cycads in
the Damudas, but I still think that Dr. Feistmantel’s enthusiasm has
led him to overestimate the arguments in favour of his own views,
and to undervalue those which are opposed to his conclusions. I
have no wish to insist upon an Upper Oolitic or Post-Oolitic horizon
for the plant-beds of Cutch, and I am far from considering the
Paleozoic age of the Damuda beds as proved; but I think that Dr.
Feistmantel has argued, however ably, on one side of the case only,
and that it was a mere act of justice to his predecessors to explain
why they had come to a different conclusion.

My mistake about the occurrence of the Cycadacece requires a few
words of explanation, the more so that Dr. Feistmantel evidently
considers it of the greatest importance, for he calls attention to it in
a marked manner no less than three times in two pages, so as to
produce the impression that I had committed a most absurd blunder.
I wrote, ‘‘Cycads have not hitherto been found in the latter,” 7.e. the
Lower Gondwana rocks. Dr. Feistmantel replies, “ Cycadaceous
plants are not absent at all”; and he proceeds to enumerate three
species, and he adds in a footnote referring especially to me, ‘“ they
(i.e. Cycads) were indeed known long ago.” Now what are the
facts? 'Two of the three species enumerated by Dr. Feistmantel,
viz. Néggerathia Vosgesiaca and the Glossozamites, were, to the best
of my knowledge, not even detected by Dr. Feistmantel himself
till after my paper was written; certainly no notice of them was
published, nor had Dr. Feistmantel called my attention to them.
The third species, described by Sir C. Bunbury as Néggerathia
Hislopi, was, if 1 am not mistaken (I am writing at a distance from
all books of reference), referred with doubt to the genus; and
Néggerathia certainly was not formerly classed as a Cycad; still
Dr. Feistmantel may be right in referring it without any doubt to
the Cycadacee, and all I have to say in apology is that I was not
aware that the Cycadaceous nature of the genus had been ascertained.
I think this explanation is necessary, and it is to be regretted that
Dr. Feistmantel, by omitting to state all the facts, has compelled me

to make it. W. T. Buanrorp.
Camp, Sinp, February 1st, 1877.

MR. CARPENTER ON THE PLANET MARS.1
Srr,—In the first paragraph of the first article of your last issue,
Mr. Carpenter has exactly inverted the proper descriptions of Mr. Croll’s
and Mr. Murphy’s theories. This no doubt was a slip of the pen.
But when he goes on to say that it has occurred to him that he has

1 See the March Number, p. 97.

Correspondence—Mr, H. George Fordham. 191

never seen in this discussion (on climate) any reference to the planet
Mars, he ought to have added, that it had not occurred to him to look
out ‘‘ Mars” in the index to ‘‘ Climate and Time.” ODE:

THE PILSEN PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS BEDS.

Str,—In the extremely interesting paper on the Permo-Car-
boniferous beds of Bohemia which appears in the current number of
the GrotogicaL Magaztne, Dr. O. Feistmantel appears to rely very
strongly on the announcement which he says was made by Dr.
Anton Fritsch at the last meeting of the British Association that he
considered the Niirschan Gas-coal horizon as a passage-bed froin
Carboniferous to Permian. Now when Dr. Fritsch exhibited his
splendid series of specimens before the Geological Section, it was
evident that he avoided carefully expressing any statement of opinion
as to the exact age of the beds whence they came. A member then
rose and asked Dr. Fritsch whether he considered the Pilsen Gas-
coal series as Carboniferous or Permian, or whether he looked upon
them as passage-beds. The only answer elicited from the cautious
paleontologist was that it was not yet time to settle the matter, and
that more work was required before the question was ripe for de-
cision. In fact, he declined to give any clue as to what his views on

the subject might be. THE QueEstioneR Himse er.
8 March, 1877.

THE TERM “CHLORITIC MARL.”

Srr,—In the review of Cambridgeshire Geology, by the Rev. T.
G. Bonney, in your last Number, your reviewer takes exception to
the use in that work of the term ‘Chloritic Marl” as applied to
the Phosphatic Nodule-bed at the base of the Chalk-marl in Cam-
bridgeshire and elsewhere. From this it would appear that there is
some doubt about the proper use of the term. and I should be very
glad to hear from your reviewer what he considers the true typical
Chloritic Marl. The question of nomenclature is so important that
I feel sure your readers will not regret the use of a small portion of
your valuable space in clearing up a doubt which seems to exist on

this subject. H. Grorer Forpuam.
Opsry, Royston, March 5th, 1877.

@rS teh OPAS EU aya

JAMES SCOTT BOWERBANK, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.,

PRESIDENT OF THE PALZONTOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY.
BORN JULY 14, 1797. DIED MARCH 8, 1877.

Iv is with no ordinary feelings of regret that we record the loss
of the Founder and President of the Paleeontographical Society.

James Scott Bowerbank was born in Bishopsgate, London, in 1797.
He succeeded, in conjunction with his brother, to his father’s dis-
tillery, in which business he was an active partner until 1847.
From his youth he exhibited a strong attachment to Natural History
pursuits, especially to Botany. When of age, he joined the Mathe-
matical Society of Spitalfields, and remained a member until its in-
corporation with the Royal Astronomical Society in 1845. Here he

192 Obituary—Dr. Bowerbank.

became acquainted with many scientific men, and earnestly entered
upon a course of Natural Science studies, which were steadily con-
tinued, although he was actively employed in a business demanding
constant and careful attention for at least twelve hours daily. His
pursuit of science was a labour of love, for at that period but little
favour was bestowed either upon science or its votaries.

During the years 1822, 1825, and 1824, he delivered courses of
public lectures on Botany, and later, in 1831, on Human Osteology.

About 18386 he formed, with F. EH. Edwards, Searles V. Wood,
John Morris, Alfred White, and N. T. Wetherell, “The London Clay
Club ;! the members of which devoted themselves to the task of
examining the fossils of the London Clay, and making a complete
list of the species.

In 1847, after the reading of a paper by Prof. Prestwich, at the
Geological Society, “On the Structure, etc., of the London Clay,”
Bowerbank joined in the discussion, and in the tea-room, after the
meeting, solicited the leading geologists present to support him in
establishing a Society for the publication of undescribed British
fossils. Buckland, De la Beche, Fitton, and others who were
present, gave him their names, and thus originated the Paleeonto-
graphical Society. *

In 1840 Bowerbank published a separate work, entitled: “On
the Fossil Fruits of the London Clay,” still the only publication in
which these interesting remains have been described and figured.

In 1842 Dr. Bowerbank was elected a Fellow of the Royal
Society. He contributed upwards of thirty papers to the various
learned Societies, to the Annals Nat. Hist. and the Microscopical
Journal. His scientific collections* were most extensive, comprising
fossils from every geological horizon, many of which are figured
in the various Monographs of the Paleeontographical Society.

From 1844 to 1864 Dr. Bowerbank was in the habit of receiving
once a week, at his residence in Park Street, and afterwards at High-
bury Grove. On these occasions every youthful geological student
found in him a willing instructor and a sincere and kind friend.
The treasures of his Museum, the use of his microscopes, and his
personal assistance, were at the disposal of every one.

Sinee his retirement to St. Leonard’s, Dr. Bowerbank rarely
visited London; only a few of his scientific friends have therefore
been able to keep up a personal intercourse with him. Mr. Dinkel
writes, “For the last six or nine months I have been with him
daily, but there is little to mention save his fervent desire to finish
his great work on Sponges. He employed almost all his time upon —
it, and begged me to remain till all the plates were executed. We
reached the last plate, and when half of it was drawn, he became
sadly depressed, and so weak that the finishing was postponed from
day to day till his death. There will be no difficulty, however, in
completing the work.”

1 See Grou. Mac. 1875, p. 571.

2 Extract of letter from Prof. Prestwich, F.R.S.

% Tt will be interesting to our readers to learn that, in 1864, Dr. Bowerbank’s

magnificent collection was purchased for the British Museum, and now forms part
of our National treasures.

THE

GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE.

NEW "SERIESS * DECADE WI. VORI VIN.
No. V.—MAY, 1877.

Ores GaN eA tian 2 els @ alee

I.—A Visit To THE VOLCANO oF OsHIMA.

By Professor Joun Mixing, F.G.S.,
Imperial College of Engineering, Kogakurio, Tokei, Japan. —

OOKING at a map of Asia, or, still better, at a map of Japan,
there will be seen a string of islands stretching from near the
entrance of the Bay of Yeddo in a more or less southerly direction
towards the Bonins. It is very probable that all these islands are
of volcanic origin. With the exception of one or two of them,
which within the last few years have given off a few curling wreaths
of steam, they might strictly be defined as being dormant, having
given vent neither to fire nor smoke within the history of their
inhabitants. In this respect they are similar to many of the volcanic
cones in Japan, with which they are also probably coincident in age.
A short time ago, however, during the first week in January, a great
change was observed in the most northern of these islands, which is
called Oshima. Ships coming into Yokohama brought news that
the island was on fire. One captain reported that flames 200 feet
in height were seen. Although Oshima was an island which three
years previously had been giving out clouds of smoke, and seven
years before that had been actually in eruption, it was thought by
many that the conflagration was due to the burning of grass or
wood, and it was not till some days had passed that the true state
of affairs became fully recognized.

After some trouble, a party was organized and a steamer engaged
to visit the scene of the eruption. We left Yokohama on the after-
noon of the 19th January, and in the evening reached Kanasaki, a
village situated at the extremity of the peninsula upon the south side
of Yeddo Bay. After staying here a few hours, we continued our
course, and reached the island shortly after daybreak on the follow-
ing morning. During the night there was an uninterrupted view of
the volcano, from the summit of which huge clouds of steam, lighted
up with the glow from the crater beneath, could be distinctly seen.
It was a veritable “ pillar of fire.”

The island, which is about eight miles long, and very mountainous,
has only one harbour, and this is useless but for vessels of small
size. It is called Habu, and is situated near the S§.E. corner of the
island. It is entered by a narrow gap in cliffs of stratified and con-
torted agglomerate. This entrance is shallow, but the harbour itself

DECADE II.—vVOL, IV.—NO. V. 13

194 Prof. Milne—Visit to an active Volcano.

is about fifteen métres or more in depth, and is surrounded by
apparently almost perpendicular cliffs of stratified trachytic and
brecciated rocks. It is in fact the crater of an old volcano, and is
stated by the people of the island to have been first occupied by the
sea about 100 years ago. About two weeks previous to this time I
had been travelling round the province of Idzu, which is the nearest
mainland to this island. Whilst there, I and my companion made
several unsuccessful attempts to cross the ten or fourteen miles of
water which separated us from this then inactive volcano. Japanese
boatmen and junk-owners, however, thinking the weather too un-
certain, we had to content ourselves with remaining on the mainland,
and sketching the island from a distance. Both it and its southern
neighbours showed many peaks, which, from their similarity to those
in Japan, might be considered without much risk of error as being
of volcanic origin. One thing which then particularly struck us was
their barren appearance. In this I now found that we had been
considerably mistaken, and that, at least at Oshima, there was a
considerable amount of vegetation. All the sides of the harbour in
which we lay were thickly covered with underwood and small trees,
whilst in many places near the shore, some fair-sized pines rose to a
considerable height.

Excepting birds, the Fauna of the island is represented by rats,
mice, weasels, and snakes. At one time there was a large wild
animal like a goat, but this has been exterminated by the Japanese
natives. Foxes, and many other animals, which are so abundant on
the mainland, do not exist. Frogs are also conspicuous by their
absence, but this is probably owing to there being a scarcity of
water on the island. In whatever way, however, this island may
have been colonized since the time of its formation, both the Fauna
and Flora are sufficiently large to guarantee the assumption that it
is of a considerable age, which, as I have before stated, is probably
that of the volcanic cones which so thickly cover the mainland.

From the people on shore we learnt that the eruption had com-
menced on the 4th of the month, and therefore it had been sixteen
days in action. The only notice that they had of its outburst was a
loud explosion, which was described as having produced a slight
vibration. This appears to have been all that was felt of the nature
of an earthquake, and so far as the inhabitants of the island were
concerned, all was going on quietly. They told us that cinders —
were being thrown out of the crater, and that seven years previously,
as I have before stated, there had been a similar eruption, which,
however, only lasted two days. Twenty years before that they
said it was always in eruption. Information, however, was difficult
to obtain, and uncertain in its character. None of the inhabitants,
although not more than four miles distant, had visited the crater,
and, as we shortly afterwards found out, did not appear even to
know the way to it.

Securing the assistance of six men, we set out by a zigzag road
towards the top of the old crater, in which the village is situated and
where our vessel was lying at anchor. The sides of this crater had,

Prof. Miine— Visit to an active Volcano. 195

near the place where we ascended, an inclination of from 40° to 50°.
We were soon amongst a network of small lanes and footpaths
overshadowed with bamboo, alder, and other trees. Once or twice
our path led up to a small water-course, the black ashes forming its
bed becoming coarser and coarser as we ascended. Next we were
ascending the course of an old lava-stream over black trachytic
boulders. Then again we were in steep gullies and narrow lanes, the
sides of which were made up of stratified beds of ashes, all dipping at
various angles down towards the sea. Once or twice we reached a
small open space, and obtained a view of the bare peaks towards
which we were travelling. Whilst resting on one of these, we could
distinctly hear a series of explosions, which sounded like the sudden
escape of large quantities of steam, and we saw clouds of vapour
rising from behind the nearest summit. After struggling along for
nearly two hours, we found that the men we had engaged as guides
did not know the road, and were leading us round the island rather
than up towards the crater. Meeting with a lava-stream of tolerably
large dimensions, which was filling the bed of a gully, I struck up
along its course, expecting that it would lead to some crater or other
on higher ground. At several points along its course we met with
obstacles where the lava when molten had made a precipitous descent,
like frozen waterfalls, which involved some tedious climbing and
scrambling through the bushes, which thickly covered the almost
perpendicular walls of the ravine on either side. The rock of this
stream was trachytic, of a very dark colour, and extremely vesicular.
I may here remark that most of the lavas in Japan appear to be
trachytic. The general direction of the vesicles in the lava was
that of the stream; but there were so many exceptions to this,
owing to irregularities and obstacles in its course, that they could
not be taken, unless seen as a whole, as indicating the original direc-
tion of the fluid matter. When lava flows over an even course,
such deductions might possibly be made, even if the stream were
only examined at one point along its course. In some places along
the stream my companions observed the charred trunks of several
trees which had probably been overwhelmed during its flow. That
these trees still remained seemed to indicate that this stream must
have been of recent origin. After about an hour’s climbing, we were
above the line of vegetation, and instead of trees and bushes being
on either side of us, we now had hills of ashes. On one of them
my friend Dr. Naumann met with beds of tufa, in which were im-
pressions of plants, which, from some attached rootlets, appeared to
have been buried where they grew. From the position of these
beds and their contents it was evident that vegetation once extended
much higher up the sides of the mountain than it does at present,
and that it was probably destroyed by a volcanic outburst.

We now directed our course towards the highest peak before us
(marked A in section), at the back of which we hoped to see some-
thing of the eruption. After a tough scramble through black,
scoriaceous ashes, we reached the top, where we soon saw that we
had much further to travel. We had in fact reached the rim of an

196 Prof. Milne—Visit to an active Voleano.

old crater (B), whose sides at this point descended perpendicularly
I should think, at least 400 feet. Walking along this rim, which was
covered with large weather-worn whitish boulders, which looked not
unlike material which had been torn from the perpendicular faces
below us, we found a slope of ashes, down which we descended into
the bed of the old crater. On looking at the face of the perpendicular

Approximate section of the upper portion of Oshima.

S—A, Outer slope of old crater-wall. (prehistoric ?)

B, Floor of old crater, partly filled by later eruptions.

B—C, F—N, Outer slopes of modern crater-walls.

C,D,F, Rim of modern crater.

E, New volcanic cone formed by present eruption, January, 1877.
cliffs from the top of which we had just descended, we saw they con-
sisted of irregularly broken and contorted bands of a whitish rock
like trachyte, more or Jess parallel. They were capped with beds of
ashes. In these ashes, as in the most scoriaceous portions of the
lava, crystals of a glassy felspar were very abundant. In the more
compact lava they were absent, that is, to the naked eye. The
rim of this old crater, although a serious obstacle on the side of our
ascent, is not continuous round the mountain, and is only to be seen
on the south and south-western side.

After collecting a few specimens of rock from a black-looking
mass which was probably the throat of an old vent, we pro-
ceeded forwards to make the ascent of another cone of ashes (B C),
which, from its position, was evidently that which remained of the
eruption succeeding the one which formed the crater we were then
leaving. The explosions we had heard when at a greater distance
were now more audible, and occurred rapidly in succession. As we
neared the top (C), which was about 800 feet above the plain from
which we started, the noise, which was like that of immense jets
of steam, was sometimes accompanied with a tremulous motion of
the ground. It was not long before we reached the rim of the second.
crater (C), which we did to behold a sight defying my powers of
description. Instead of looking up at a crater, we were looking
down at one. Standing on the rim of crater C, before us there
was a short descent of loose, black ashes, somewhat steeper than
that up which we had climbed, terminating suddenly in perpendicular
cliffs, which formed an amphitheatre of rocks about half ‘a mile in
breadth, the walls of which, upon the opposite side, were about 300
feet in height. At the bottom of this pit, on the side nearer to us,
a small cone, with an orifice of about 50 feet in diameter, was belch-
ing masses of molten lava to a height more than double that at
which we were standing.

Prof. Milne—Visit to an active Volcano. IG)

The explosions, which varied in intensity, occurred about every
2 seconds, but sometimes there was a pause for 15 or 20 seconds.
At the time a strong wind was blowing at our backs, which kept
any of the lighter lapilli from driving in our direction. Coming, as
we did, so suddenly upon the precipice-like edge of a huge black
cauldron, roaring, shaking the ground, and ejecting a dense column
of red-hot stones and ashes, the wild and dismal aspect of which was
heightened by dark clouds, driving rain, and a heavy mist, produced
at first a feeling of timidity, which was so strongly shown by our
six so-called guides that it was with difficulty they were prevented
from taking to precipitate flight.

The cone at the bottom of the cauldron before us, together with
a large quantity of lapilli and bombs scattered over the ground on
which we stood, were the result of 16 days’ activity. Three years
ago, in the place where this new cone now stands, there was a deep
hole, from which steam was issuing.

The great interest in this eruption lay in the fact that we were
able, on account of our position, to look down into the crater.
In the intervals between the ejections the interior could be well
seen, and it was observable that the sides had a slope of very nearly
the same inclination as the exterior. Now and then large masses of
these interior sides, which were black, would slide down towards
the throat of the crater, and reveal a red-hot interior, showing that
the cone itself was probably internally red hot throughout. One
side of the cone had been blown away, leaving a breach, almost
level with the plane from which it rose. This opening greatly
facilitated our observations. Looking down into the crater on this
side, molten lava, approximately level with the base of the cone, could
be seen. At each explosion it rose in waves, and swayed about
heavily like a huge basin of mercury, a little of it being apparently
pushed forward through the breach to add to a small black-looking
stream upon the outside. The explosions, which I have referred to
several times as resembling outbursts of steam, might be compared
to the escape of steam from a slowly-working non-condensing steam
engine greatly magnified.

On listening attentively, a rattling could sometimes be heard,
reminding one of stones and pebbles on a beach driven forwards
and drawn backwards by the advancing and retreating surge.
This I think could hardly be due to the churning of stones in
the mouth of the crater, which was not only short, but it expanded
upwards, forming a -funnel-shaped opening. Nor was it in the
throat of the crater; for, so far as I could see, that was filled with
molten matter. It is, however, difficult to imagine it to be due to
the contact of particles brought about outside the crater, which is
the only place remaining to which the origin of the sound can be
attributed.

Hach explosion, as I have said, produced a fountain-like column of
red-hot ashes and volcanic bombs. ‘The height to which they some-
times rose must have been nearly 1000 feet. Many of them
appeared to be of a feathery lightness. As they rose, their velocity

198 Prof. Milne— Visit to an active Volcano.

became gradually less and less, until they seemed to pause and float
in mid-air, before turning to descend, which they did with an
augmenting speed. The large masses only rose to a comparatively
small height. Many of the pieces fell upon the sides of the exterior
of the cone from which they had been shot, where they at once
created a small cloud of steam, and rolled a short distance down its
side to form a natural slope. As the material, which approximately
fell vertically, increased in quantity, the angle of this slope would
naturally increase up to a certain point, because, where the slope is
short, any material that might fall upon its side has sufficient
momentum to roll to the base; but as the length of the slope
increases, an element of friction is brought to play, which prevents
such action taking place. The direction in which the material was
shot up was generally vertical, but sometimes it had a little inclina-
tion in a direction opposite to that in which we were standing.
Should the ejections from a volcano not be in an approximately
vertical line, or during the time of its action winds should blow
in one direction more than another, we might reasonably expect the
resulting cone, which would be formed by the falling material, to
have a less steep inclination upon the side where the greatest
quantity of material had accumulated. Such actions may perhaps
vive some explanation to the slight differences in slope which are so
often to be observed in recent conically-shaped volcanic mountains.
This is of course presuming that the form of the mountain has not
been materially altered by subsequent denudation. Many of the
larger pieces often appeared to separate when in mid-air. This I do
not think was due to any explosion which took place within them,
but rather perhaps to some such cause as a sudden cooling.

Looking at some of these bombs, which had fallen on the level
where I was standing, they appeared to have done so whilst still in
a pasty condition, because some of them showed a decided flat-
tening, as if produced by impact. Both the bombs and lapilli were of
a black colour, and pumiceous texture. Although I believe each of
these explosions to have been the result of a sudden bursting of
steam through the molten lava, I did not see any aqueous vapour
which I could recognize as having been evolved whilst I was standing
near the crater. This may have been perhaps due to the intense
heat keeping the vapour in an invisible state until it became hidden
in the fog and murky atmosphere which enveloped us.

Notwithstanding a strong ice-cold breeze blowing in the direction
of the eruption, which was about 150 yards distant from us, the
effect of radiation was distinctly felt, especially when the ejected
column of ashes was large.

Independently of variations, produced by unusually large ejec-
tions, two thermometers in boxes were each raised 3° C. so long as
we remained in this position. This warmth was all that made
our position bearable, as otherwise it was bitterly cold, with a
sleety rain pouring down, and we were all wet through. Once
or twice a little fine ash fell upon us, and a slightly sulphureous
smell could be detected. The journey down the mountain was

INDEWAY SUE ISUCE Ss), Decade I1VoLIVPLX.

Ceol Mag. 1877

r

reer ccen,
en A it SPA Re Et
Sa cresths

mr

Hanhart imp. ondon.

Thos Davidson delet lith.

TSS PAT PT A mA

T. Davidson— What is a Brachiopod ? 199

accomplished in about two hours, which was half the time it had
taken us to ascend.

From the inhabitants we learnt that the mountain is regarded as
being holy, and that at certain seasons they make solitary pilgrim-
ages to its summit. We, however, had been the first to see the
eruption.

Harthquakes, although so common on the mainland, are said not
to occur here; and the only shocks that have been felt are those
which were produced at the time of the breaking out of the volcano.
This statement appeared to find some confirmation in the fact of a
strong earthquake having occurred in Yokohama and Yeddo at the
time of our making our inquiries, without being perceived by us.
Several other localities in Japan are reported as being free from
such annoyances; but how far these statements may be relied on
needs investigation. Some of these districts are in the neighbour-
hood of recently active volcanos. If it is admitted that in the
immediate vicinity of certain active volcanos, earthquakes are un-
known, whilst in the surrounding districts they are strongly felt,
the idea would at once suggest itself that round these particular
volcanos, conditions exist which ward off the advance of any seismic
wave. Thus, for example, a lake of lava beneath the unaffected
area might accept a wave, but, for want of proper contact with the
the rocks above, would be unable to transmit its effect in their
direction. Owing to the state of the weather, and the short time we
remained upon the island, conditions were very unfavourable for
making accurate observations.

Next morning we set sail for home, a distance which in coming
had been traversed in only six hours; but in returning, through the
roughness of both wind and water, occupied two days.

I.—Wuat 1s a Bracutopop ?
By Tuomas Davipson, F.R.S., F.G.8., V.P.P.S.
PART TH:
(PLATES IX, anp X.)
(Continued from the April Number, p. 155.)

Muscles.—As the number and position of these organs differ
materially in the two great divisions into which the Brachiopoda
have been separated, and to some extent, also, in the different genera
of which each division is composed, it may be desirable to treat this
subject under two different heads.

In the Clistenterata, of which the genus Zerebratula may be taken
as an example, five or six pairs of muscles are stated by Hancock,
Gratiolet, and others to be connected with the opening and closing
of the valves, or with their attachment to, or movements upon the
peduncle. First of all, the adductors or occlusors consist of two
muscles, which, bifureating near the centre of the shell cavity, pro-

1 Unfortunately almost every anatomist who has written on the muscles of the

Brachiopoda has proposed different names for each muscle; hence much corfusion
has arisen which can but be regretted.

200 T. Davidson— What is a Brachiopod ?

duce a large quadruple impression on the internal surface of the
small valve, and a single divided one towards the centre of the large
or ventral valve. The function of this pair of muscles is the closing
of the valves. Gratiolet, who has likewise described with great
minuteness the muscles of the Brachiopoda, informs us that those
which close and open the valves were the only ones known to Pallas,
but that he clearly defined their positions and functions. The same
was done by Blainville and Quenstedt, but the absence of good
figures caused much uncertainty to prevail. This deficiency was
subsequently supplied by Hancock’s and Gratiolet’s admirable illus-
trations.' Two other pairs have been termed divaricators by Hancock »
or cardinal muscles (= muscles diducteurs of Gratiolet), and have
for function the opening of the valves. The divaricators proper are
stated by Hancock to arise from the ventral valve, one on each side,
a little in advance of, and close to the adductors, and, after rapidly
diminishing in size, become attached to the cardinal process, a space
or prominence between the sockets in the dorsal valve. The accessory
divaricators are, according to the same authority, a pair of small
muscles which have their ends attached to the ventral valve, one on
each side of the median line, a little behind the united basis of the
adductors and again to the extreme point of the cardinal process.
Two pairs of muscles, apparently connected with the peduncle and
its liniited movements, have been minutely described by Hancock as
having one of their extremities attached to this organ. The dorsal
adjustors are attached to the ventral surface of the peduncle, and are
again inserted into the hinge-plate in the smaller valve. The ventral
adjustors are considered to pass from the inner extremity of the
peduncle, and to become attached by one pair of their extremities
to the ventral valve, one on each side of, and a little behind, the
expanded base of the divaricators. The function of these muscles,
according to the same authority, is not only that of erecting the
shell, but also that of attaching the peduncle to the shell, and thus
to effect the steadying of it upon the peduncle.

Gratiolet describes the peduncle with great care, and states that it
is composed of two portions:—1l. A horny sheath formed of con-
centric epidermic layers, very analogous to that which Prof. Vogt
described in Lingula. 2. A fibrous stem enveloped by the sheath.
This stem, formed of tendinous fibres, is fixed by its free extremity
to different marine objects; the other end passes through the foramen
into the shell, and ends in a bulbous-shaped extremity.

Such is the general arrangement of the shell muscles in the division
composing the articulate Brachiopoda, making allowance for certain
unimportant modifications observable in the shells composing the
different families and genera thereof.

In the Tretenterata, of which Lingula may be cited as an example,
the myology is much more complicated, and anatomists have differed
considerably in their respective views concerning the function of
some of the muscles. They have been described by Vogt, Hancock,
Gratiolet, and others, and more recently by King, whose views I

1 Journal de Conchyliologie, Octobre, 1857.

~T. Davidson— What is a Brachiopod ? 201

shall adopt, as they seem to carry with them a greater degree of
plausibility! (Pl. X. Figs. 1,2). Of the shell or valvular muscles he
makes out five pairs and an odd one, and individualises their
respective functions as follows. Three pairs are Jatera/s, having
their members limited to the sides of the shell: one pair are
transmedians, each member passing across the middle to the
reverse side of the shell: while the odd muscle occupies the um-
bonal cavity. The central and wmbonal muscles effect the direct
opening and closing of the shell; the laterals enable the valves to
move forward and backward on each other: and the transmedians
allow the similar extremities (the rostral) of the valves to turn from
each other, to the right or the left, on an axis subcentrically situated,
that is, in the medio-transverse region of the dorsal valve. It was
long a matter in discussion whether the animal could displace its
valves sideways when about to open its shell; but this point has
been set at rest by Professors Semper and Morse, who observed the
animal perform the operation. They mention that it is never done
suddenly, or by jerks: as the valves are at first always pushed to
one side several times, and back again on each other, at the same
time opening gradually in the transverse direction, till they rest
opposite to one another and widely apart. Those who had not seen
the animal in life, or who did not believe in the possibility of the
valves crossing each other with a slight obliquity, would not consent
to appropriating any of its muscles to that purpose, and consequently
attributed to all the lateral muscles the simple function of keeping
the valves in an opposite position, or holding them adjusted. We
have not only the observations of Semper and Morse, but the anato-
mical investigations of King to confirm the sliding action or lateral
divarication of the valves of Lingula.

In the Clistenterata, where no such sliding action of the valves was
necessary, or possible, no muscles for such an object were required :
consequently none took rise from the lateral portions of the valves, as
in Lingula. In an extinct group, however, the Zrimerellide, which
seems to be somewhat intermediate in character between the TZireten-
terata and Clistenterata, certain scars have been found which appear
to have been produced by rudimentary lateral muscles; but it is
doubtful (considering the shells are furnished with teeth, though but
rudely developed) that such muscles enabled the valves, as in Lin-
guia, to move forward and backwards upon each other. There are
muscles connected with other portions of the animal, such as the
parietal so strongly defined in the Tretenterata, and distinctive pecu-
liarities of the peduncle, etc.; but the limited space at my disposal
will not admit of more than a passing allusion to them.?

Ranges of Depth.—All Brachiopoda are inhabitants of the sea. A
vast amount of important and accurate information has been collected
during the past ten years with respect to the geographical distri-

1 King, Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist., 4th series, vol. xii., 1873.
2 Davidson and King, on the Trimerellide, Quarterly Journal of the Geological
Society, 1874, vol. xxx. p. 124,

202 T. Davidson—What is a Brachiopod ?

bution of the recent species, as well as to the marine depths they
inhabit or prefer.

This important knowledge is mainly due to the numerous well-
conducted and equipped dredging expeditions carried on by private
individuals, and by the Governments of the leading maritime States..

Previous to these investigations the data we possessed with respect
to the habitat, and ranges of depth were, in most cases, vague and
unsatisfactory. It has also been ascertained that the Brachiopoda are
much localised, and usually occur in great numbers in their favourite
haunts.

We can know nothing with certainty in respect to the ranges of
depth at which the extinct species lived; but some idea as to their
probable depths can be surmised from a study of recent forms.

As far as our present information will carry us, the Zretenterata
(Lingula, etc.) do not appear to have been found at a greater depth
than from 1366 to 2000 fathoms.

Lingula abounds in particular haunts, and lives at about half tide-
mark, and partly buried in mud; or at depths varying from three or
four inches from the surface of the sea to seventeen fathoms. Prof.
Morse describes a species which he found in vast numbers in a sand-
shoal at low-water: the peduncle, six times the length of the shell,
was partly encased in a sand tube (Pl. X. Fig. 5). He observed
likewise that this species (Lingula pyramidata) had the power of
moving over the sand by the sliding motion of the two valves, using
at the same time the fringes of setee, which swing promptly back and
forth like a galley of oars, leaving a peculiar tract in the sand. In
the motion of the sete he noticed the impulse commencing from
behind, and running forward.

Discina has been found attached to stones at low-water mark, and
has been dredged from depths ranging from five to nearly 2000
fathoms; very often clustered together in vast numbers, and adher-
ing, in all stages of growth, by their peduncle to the surface of
the shell of their neighbour, one above the other, till they formed a
living mass of considerable breadth and thickness.

Crania is found in great numbers adhering to stones and shells at
depths of from eighteen to 530 fathoms. Lucas Barrett informs us
that the cirri are protruded, but not the brachial appendages, beyond
the margin of the shell, and that the valve opens by moving upon
the straight side of the hinge without sliding the valve.

The genera and species of Clistenterata lived at depths ranging
from about half tide-mark to 2600 fathoms. At that great depth,
between Kerguelen Island and Melbourne, the “Challenger” Ex-
pedition brought up, among other things, ‘‘a very elegant little
Brachiopod ;” another species was dredged by the same expedition
three hundred miles east of St. Paul’s Rocks, Atlantic, at a depth of
1850 fathoms, but the larger number of species live at depths of
from five to three, or four hundred fathoms, usually attached by their

1 The reader is referred to an important paper upon this subject by Prof. Edward

Suess, ber die Wohnsitze der Brachiopoden (Aus dem xxxvil. und xxxix. Bande,
Wien, 1859, 1860, Akademie der Wissenschaften besonders abgedruckt).

T. Davidson— What is a Brachiopod ? 208

peduncle to various marine objects, and very often to the outer sur-
face of one another’s valves, and even quite young individuals to the
peduncle of the parent shell, as may be seen in a number of speci-
mens of Zerebratulina septentrionalis sent me from America by Prof.
Verrill. I have likewise clusters of Zerebratella rubicunda from
New Zealand, adhering to each other in a similar manner. They
occur also in great numbers attached by a shorter or longer peduncle
to coral reefs, and several minute species were found by Dr. Gwyn
Jeffreys fixed to sea-weeds. Kraussina rubra, from the coast of Natal
in South Africa, was described by Dr. Gray as found attached in vast
numbers to Ascidia and stems of sea-weeds. We may likewise men-
tion that a small species of Kraussina has been recently obtained by
Mr. Vélain (during the French expedition to make observations re-
lative to the transit of Venus) in the interior of the breached and
submerged crater-basin of the Island of St. Paul, attached, in vast
numbers, to rocks at low tide-mark,! and I am informed by Dr.
Gwyn Jeffreys that Terebratulina caput-serpentis was found by the
late Mr. R. T. Loweliviry, nearly forty years ago, in the living
state, attached to a rock at low-water mark, on a part of the Scottish
coast where the tide falls only a few feet. The same species occurs
also at variable depths, having been dredged alive from depths
varying from three to upwards of 150 fathoms. Waldheimia cranium
has been obtained from depths varying from 160 to 228 fathoms.
Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys does not believe that the habitat of any inver-
tebrate animal is affected by bathymetrical conditions. The late
Prof. J. Beete Jukes collected any number of Waldheimia flavescens
or australis while boating in Australia among the reefs; they were
merely washed by the tide, and he gathered them with his hand like
limpets on the shore.

Lucas Barrett informs us that this species, as well as Terebratulina
caput-serpentis, manifested a remarkable power and disposition to
move on its peduncle, and that the cirri were almost constantly in
motion, and he often observed them to convey small particles to the
channel at their base. Dr. J. Gwyn Jefireys, who has watched
Terebratule alive, informs us that they were incessantly opening
and folding their brachial or labial appendages, and drawing and
sucking in by means of the whirlpool thus caused every animalcule
within their influence.

Classification—Having briefly alluded to some of the most im-
portant characters of the shell and animal of the Brachiopod, it is
necessary to refer to their classification. This matter will be found
fully discussed up to the year 1858 in the general introduction to

1 Mr. Vélain informs me, that the Brachiopods he forwarded to me (a species of
Kraussina) are found in great abundance on the shore, in the interior crater of the
island of St. Paul. During the ordinary low tides they are scarcely covered by water,
and are alternately covered and left bare at the ebb and flow of the tide, but twice
a month, during the high tides, they are left completely dry. They occur only in an
area of a few yards, and consequently at a very shallow depth, doubtless because
they find there those undisturbed conditions to which they are accustomed in other
localities.

204 T. Davidson— What is a Brachiopod ?

my monograph on “ British Fossil Brachiopoda.”! I then published
my views, which were subsequently very generally adopted both by
British and foreign paleontologists; but I did not omit to impress
upon my readers that we were not then (neither are we now) ina
condition to prepare a complete or satisfactory classification of the
numerous species composing the class. In 1853 I divided the
Brachiopoda into eight families comprising twenty-four genera and
twenty-two sub-genera ; but, during the years that have elapsed since
that date to the present time, about seventy more genera or sub-
genera have been described. I published a list of them in the Sussex
Daily News for the 20th of August, 1872, and they will be found
recorded in the table accompanying this memoir, where their geo-
logical distribution in time has been tabulated, as far as the present
state of our information will permit. It it, however, very probable
that a certain number of the names there recorded will have to be
placed amongst the synonyms, and it is of the utmost importance
that genera should not be founded on trifling modifications, or un-
important details which exist only in some abnormal forms. In
1855,’ I proposed certain modifications in the arrangement published
in 1858 by getting rid of the sub-families. Much consideration on
my part has been devoted to the subject; but I feel that in order to
place the known genera and species in their respective families, or
into new ones that will have to be created, much more informa-
tion must be acquired. The subject is immense when one has to
grapple with between 5000 and 6000 described species, varieties or
synonyms; and it must likewise be remembered that many of the
extinct genera have as yet been but imperfectly elaborated. The
material in hand is, however, so great that doubtless, in time,
paleontologists will be able to lay before the public a complete
history of a class, which, as will be shortly shown, has played an
important part in the great life-system of our globe, from its dawn
to the present time. It will be necessary, I think, as has already
been stated, to admit the two great divisions, Tretenterata and Clisten-
terata, into any scheme of classification, although it is impossible to
say whether all the extinct genera were provided with an anal
aperture, or otherwise.

The TretentrerRata would comprise the families JZingulide,
Discinide, Craniade, and perhaps one or two others.

The CuistentERATA would include the families Terebratulide,
Thecidede, Spiriferide, Rhynchonellide, Pentameride, Orthide,
Strophomenida, Productide, and perhaps two or three others that will
have to be characterized. By far the larger number of described
genera and species would find their places in this last great division
and the above-named families. We will now, very briefly, notice
some of the characters of the families above indicated.

1 A French revised translation of my general introduction by MM. Deslongchamps,
father and son, will be found published in vol. x. of the Mémoires de la Société
Tinnéenne de Normandie, 1856.—A German translation by Prof. E. Suess and Count
Marschall was also published in Vienna in the same year, 1856.

# Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist. 2nd ser. vol. xvi.

T. Davidson— What is a Brachiopod ? 205

TrREeTENTERATA, King.

Family 1. Lingulide.—Shells generally either oblong or circular,
with a peduncle, sometimes of considerable length, passing out
between the valves or through a narrow channel in the hinge-
margin; texture horny and calcareous: no calcified support for the
labial appendages, the fleshy spiral coils directed upwards. This
family would comprise the following genera: Lingula, Lingulella,
Lingulops, Lingulepis, Glottidia, Monobolina, Obolus, Obolella, Dig-
nomia, Schmidtia, Acrites, Volborthia, and some others. It may,
however, be hereafter desirable to group the genera above recorded
into two groups or families, Lingulide and Obolide. Lingulella is
one of the oldest, if not the oldest type of animal life now known,
while Lingula appeared for the first time about the middle of the
Cambrian period, and has continued to be represented up to the
present time.

Family 2. Discinide.—Shells more or less circular or oval-shaped,
attached by a peduncle passing through a foramen in the ventral
valve; shell calcareous and horny, setee extremely long, barbed with
cilia of great length: labial appendages fleshy, curved backwards,
with small terminal spire directed downwards, as in Crania. Genera:
Discina, Tremates, Discinisca, Kutorgina (2), Acrotreta (?), Siphono-
treta (?). Discina appeared about the middle of the Cambrian period,
and has continued to exist up to the present time.

Family 8. Craniade.—Shells orbicular or limpet-like, entirely
free or attached by a greater or lesser extent of the under surface
of their ventral valve: labial appendages spirally coiled, directed
towards the bottom of the dorsal valve: shell calcareous, perforated
by minute canals. Genera: Crania, Craniops, Craniscus, Pholidops.
The genus Crania appeared for the first time during the Silurian
period, and has continued to be represented up to the present time.

Family 4. Trimerellide. — Shells transversely or longitudinally
oval: ventral valve usually the largest and flattest, with a more or
less developed beak and area: ventral vaives generally the most
convex, hinge rudely or faintly dentated: all the genera are provided
with a solid or vaulted muscular platform in the interior of both
valves; no calcareous support for the labial appendages: shell cal-
careous, and in two of the genera very massive. All the forms are
extinct. Genera: TZrimerelia, Monomerella, Dinobolus. The genera
and species of this family are restricted to the Silurian period.

CLIsTENTERATA, King.

Family 5. Terebratulide.—Shells very variable in shape, with a
prominent beak, truncated by a circular foramen, partly completed
by a deltidium in one or two pieces; labial appendages united to
each other by a membrane, variously folded upon themselves, and in
some genera spiral at their extremities. These appendages are
entirely or partially supported by a calcified process assuming a
great variety of shapes. All the species lived attached to submarine
bodies by the means of a peduncle. Shell structure perforated by
canals. Genera: Terebratula, Terebratulina, Waldheimia, Terebratella,

206 T. Davidson— What is a Brachiopod ?

Megerlia, Kraussina, Terebrirostra, Magas, Mannia, Bouchardia,
Platidia, Argiope, Cistella, Zellania, Reusselaria, Gwynia, Macandrevia
Diclasma, Megantheris, Stringocephalus, Trepidolopsis and some others.
Terebratula appeared at the close of the Silurian period, and con-
tinued to be represented up to the present time; but the larger
number of genera have had a very limited distribution in time.

Family 6. Thecidede. — Shells small, thick, varied in shape,
attached by a larger or smaller portion of the shell substance of their
ventral valve; area flat; deltidium indistinct; valves articulated;
loop in the dorsal valve folded into two or more lobes lying in
hollows of corresponding shape excavated in the substance of the
valve. This loop, or apophysary ridge, supports the brachial mem-
brane, whose thickened and cirrated margin is apparently attached
to the inner sides of the grooves; shell structure perforated by
canals. Only one genus at present known, Thecidium. It appeared
in the Trias, and has continued to be represented up to the present time.

Family 7. Spiriferide. —Shells variable in shape, ovate, elongated,
transverse, trilobate, etc., with the hinge-line straight and extended
into wing-shaped expansions: valves articulated, with or without a
flattened area in the ventral valve: animal free, or attached during
at least a portion of its existence by means of a peduncle, or by
muscular fibres issuing from an angular or circular foramen in the
beak or area of the ventral valve. Dorsal valve internally furnished
with two calcareous spiral processes connected in different manners
and directed outwards towards the side of the shell; these processes
afforded support to the brachial appendages. This family comprises
the following impunctate and punctate genera: Spirifera, Cyrtia,
Cyrtina, Spiriferina, Martinia, Athyris, Meristina, Merista, Retzia,
Nucleospira, Trematospira, Rhynchospira, Meristella, Zygospira, Coclo-
spira, Rhynchotrema, Uncites, Amboceelia, Charionella, Syringothyris,
Humetria, Suessia, Vetulina (?). The first species belonging to this
family made its appearance during the Silurian period, and the
family became entirely extinct in the Inferior Oolite.

Family 8. Rhynchonellide. — Valves articulated, very variable in
shape, more or less trigonal, often trilobed or ovate, smooth or
plicated; foramen beneath a usually produced and pointed beak,
completed by a deltidium at times concealed: brachial appendages
fleshy and spirally coiled, flexible, and supported only at their origin
by a pair of short-curved shelly processes, or throughout by two
broad spirally-coiled lamella (these spires are vertical, closely
adpressed, and directed upwards towards the centre of the valve):
shell structure fibrous and impunctate. This family comprises the
following genera: Rhynchonella, Atrypa, Eatonia, Leptocelia, Bra-
chymerus, Anastrophia, Leiorhynchus, Camarophoria, Rhynchopora,
Fthynchonellina, and one or two others. The first species appeared
during the Silurian period, and representatives of the family have
continued to the present time.

Family 9. Pentameride.— Shells ovate, somewhat pentagonal ;
valves articulated, without hinge-area; foramen angular; no delti-
dium: inside of ventral valve two contiguous vertical septa of

T. Davidson—What is a Brachiopod ? 207

greater or lesser length, which coalesce into one median plate, and
then diverge to form the dental plates, inclosing a triangular trough-
like chamber. In the interior of the dorsal valve are two longitudi-
nal septa of variable dimensions, to which the socket-walls converge,
and to which they are joined, forming two more or less developed
and inclined plates, to the produced extremities of which were no
doubt affixed the fleshy spiral labial appendages. Shell structure
impunctate. Genera: Pentamerus, Pentamerel/a, and perhaps one
or two others.

Family 10. Strophomenide. — Shells semicircular, transverse, or
elongated: valves usually concavo-convex, regularly arched, geni-
culated or depressed, so that the valve, which is convex in some
species, 1s concave in others, and vice versa; hinge-line long, straight:
area in ventral valve flat, with a fissure partly arched over by a
pseudo-deltidium. Valves sometimes uniformly convex, the dorsal
one sometimes depressed with an area divided by a triangular
foramen. In the interior of the dorsal valve a small simple pro-
jecting cardinal process is situated between prominent socket-walls,
to the inner extremities of which were (probably) attached the brachial
appendages. Genera: Strophomena Streptorhynchus, Strophodonta,
Leptena, Orthis, Orthesina, Skenidium, Brachyprion, Discelosia, Meekella,
Davidsonia (?), and several others. The first species appeared during
the Silurian period, and the last in the Upper Lias. It may, how-
ever, be necessary to group the genera provisionally placed in
Strophomenide into one or two families or sub-families. A great
family Orthide might be established. Strophomena differs from
Orthis in having a closed fissure, and the cardinal process bifid or
trilobed, while in Orthis it is generally formed of one piece. In
Strophomena it is situated directly between the dental sockets, or has
between them and it a small prominent ridge, or brachial process ;
for this last is scarcely developed, where it exists, and forms a marked
contrast to what we find in same valve of Orthis. There are also
four more or less distinctly defined adductor depressions, which are
longitudinally parallel to each other, and separated by ridges, while
in Orthis these four divisions are placed in pairs one above the other.

Family 11. Productide.— Shells more or less concavo-convex,
oval, semi-oval, or angular, and generally auriculated; the hinge-
line straight, with or without teeth and sockets for the articulation
of the valves. Surface of ventral valve or hinge-line more or less
furnished with tubular spines, sometimes of considerable length: no
calcareous process for the support of the brachial appendages: shell
structure perforated by canals: cardinal process prominent, trilobed
or bilobed. Under this a narrow longitudinal ridge generally ex-
tends to about half (or more) of the length of the valve, and on each
side are seen the ramified dendritic impressions, which may be attri-
butable to the adductor muscle. Outside, and in front of these are
the two reniform impressions so characteristic of the family. Genera:
Productus, Strophalosia, Aulosteges, Chonetes, Productella. The Pro-
ductide made their first appearance during the Silurian time, and
became extinct at the close of the Paleozoic period.

(To be concluded in our next Number.)

4

208 T. Davidson—What is a Brachiopod 2

Fia.

1.

10.

(J)

(Plates VII. and VIII. accompanied Part I. of Mr. Davidson’s memoir.)
CLISTENTERATA. PLATE IX.

Waldheimia flavescens. Interior of ventral valve. f. foramen; d. deltidium;
t. teeth; a. adductor muscular impressions (= occlusor Hancock) close
valves; ¢. divaricator Hancock (= cardinal muscles King = muscles
diducteur principaux, Gratiolet) open valves; c¢. accessory divaricators
Hancock (= muscles diducteurs accessoires Gratiolet); 6. ventral adjustors
Hancock (= ventral peduncular muscles or muscles du pedoncule paire
superieur, Gratiolet) ; 0’. peduncular muscle Hancock.

Interior of dorsal valve. ¢, c’. Cardinal process; J’. hinge-plate ;
s. dental sockets; 7. loop; a. adductor (=anterior occlusor Hancock; val-
vular muscles King; a. adductor (= posterior occlusor Hancock); c’. ac-

- cessory divaricator, point of attachment (= muscles diducteurs accessoires
Gratiolet ; 4”. dorsal adjustor, points of attachment (= dorsal peduncle
muscle =muscles du pedoncule, paire inferieur Gratiolet.

Diagram showing the muscular system after Hancock. M. ven-

tral valve; N. dorsal valve; /. loop; v. mouth; 2. extremity of intestine;

a. adductor; ¢. divaricators; ¢’. accessory divaricators ; 6. ventral adjus-

tors; 4’. peduncular muscle; 0”. dorsal adjustors; P. peduncle.

—— Interior of dorsal valve to show the position of the labial or
brachial appendages; a portion of the fringe of the cirri has been removed
to show the brachial membrane and a portion of the spiral extremities of
brachial appendages.

Longitudinal section of valves, with a portion of the animal.

d, h. labial appendages; a. adductor; ¢’,c’. divaricator muscles; D. cardinal

process; s,s. septum; V. mouth. The adjustor or peduncular muscles have

been purposely omitted.

. Waldheimia fiavescens. Portion of the labial appendages, enlarged, showing

the interbranchial membrane. w. the canal; y, g. ciliated cirri coated
with spicule (after HE. Deslongchamps).

. Rhynchonella psittacea. Interior of dorsal valve. a. adductor muscular im-

pressions; 7. short curved lamelle for support of labial appendages.
Showing the spirally rolled labial appendages (after Owen’s
original figure, Trans. Zool. Soc. vol. 1. pl. 22, fig. 14); but I have given
a more correct illustration of the position of the brachial appendages, of
R. nigricans, in the Memoirs of the Soc. Linnéenne de Normandie, pl. x
fig. 11, 1857.

. Terebratella Magellanica. Interior of dorsal valves, to show the double attach-

ment of the loop.
Platidia anomioides. Interior of dorsal valve, to show the position and shape of
the brachial appendages.

TRETENTERATA. PLATE X.

. Lingula anatina. Interior of ventral valve (diagram after King).

Interior of dorsal valve. g. umbonal muscular impressions (open
valves); h. central muscles (close valves); 7. transmedial or sliding muscles ;
6. parietal band; 7, /, 7. lateral muscles (7. anteriors, %. middles, 7. out-
sides), enable the valves to move forward and backward on each other.

——_—— Diagram of the muscular system (after Hancock). The letters
indicate the same muscles as are designated in King’s figures 1 and 2; p.
peduncle; ¢. heart; a. alimentary tube; z. anal aperture.

——_———— enlarged (after Hancock), to show the dorsal pallial lobe or
mantle turned back to expose the pallial chamber; ¢. marginal fold; ».
pallial sinuses; o. spirally coiled brachial apparatus; ¢”. liver; 7. lateral
muscles; #. lateral muscles (middles); 7¢. transmedial or sliding muscles;
z. lateral wall of body; z. anal nipple.

. Lingula pyramidata (after Morse). Showing manner in which the valves slide

their valves, also portion of the long peduncle, to which sand has agglu-
tinated in the shape of a tube.

. Embryos removed from the pallial sinus of Lingua anatina, magnified 120 dia-

meters, (after Owen).

Miss Agnes Crane—On Certain Living and Fossil Fishes. 209

IJl.—On Crrrain Genera or Living Fisues AnD THEIR Fossin
AFFINITIES.!

By Miss AGNES CRANE.

N first thoughts, it may seem that the lowest group of verte-
brates, of all the divisions comprised in the animal kingdom,
might be most easily described, and its zoological limits defined ;
but, on examination, the fishes prove to be most curiously linked to
the invertebrata below and the amphibian reptiles above. In fact,
it is not easy to draw the lines positively between them, and to say
where the true vertebrates begin, or where the piscine characters
are merged in the reptilian. It is proposed to refer to some of
the most aberrant forms of living fish and their fossil affinities ;
then, briefly passing in review the distribution of the various
families in geological time, to see how far descent with modification
is traceable in this class of vertebrates.

Tur Lowest VERTEBRATE.—It is well known that the lowest ver-
tebrate form is the anomalous lancelet (Amphioxus lanceolatus}, which
is found burrowing in sand banks on our southern shores and in the
Mediterranean. The position which this singular species should occupy
in the animal kingdom has long been a subject of debate among natu-
ralists. Some, like Agassiz, separate it entirely from all other fishes,
while Haeckel proposes to place it in a distinct division of the Verte-
brata, and Professor Semper removes it from the vertebrates altogether.
But Professors Owen”? and Huxley,’ considering it to possess the
rudiments of a skull and brain, with the elements of a vertebral
column, retain it among the fishes, and it forms the first or lowest
order of their respective systematic arrangements. In Amphioxus,
which ranges from one and a half to two inches in length, the
vertebral eollsninns is notochordal throughout life, that is to say, com-
posed of a membraneous rod inclosed in cartilage; and as there is no
enlargement of the skull for the reception of the brain, the animal
tapers nearly equally at either end. The skin is scaleless, lubricous,
and so transparent that the internal structure is visible, and the eyes
are not more fully developed than in the common leech. The mouth .
is vertical, jawless, and suctorial, and is furnished with vibratile
cilia. The lancelet possesses neither heart nor swimming bladder,
and is without ribs and even rudimentary limbs. In all other fishes
respiration is effected by means of water passing through the mouth
and escaping by the gills, or their equivalents; in this species
it traverses the whole interior of the animal and escapes by a special
pore on the under surface of the body. Professor Goodsir* long ago
called attention to this peculiar mode of respiration, and noticed the

1 Read before the Brighton Nat. Hist. Soc. Feb. 8th, 1877, and the Geologists’
Association April 6th, 1877.

The writer is much indebted to Dr. Gunther, F.R.S., and Mr. W. Davies, F.G.S.,
of the British Museum, for information kindly impar ted, and facilities and assistance
afforded in the examination of specimens.

2 Anatomy of Vertebrates, vol. 1.

3 Preliminary Note on the Structure of the Skull and Brain in Amphioaus lanceo-
lati, Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1874, No. 157, December.

4 ‘Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. xv. pl. 11, p. 259.

DECADE II.—VOL. IV.—NO. V. 14

210 Miss Agnes Crane—On Certain Living and Fossil Fishes.

resemblance between the enlarged phrangeal sac of Amphioxus and
that of the tunicated mollusks or sea squirts. He considered the
lancelet also as allied to the annulosa, from the simple organization
of its respiratory and circulatory system, and M. Kowalevsky has
more recently traced a close affinity between this species and the
early stages of some Ascidians. Thus, in Amphioxus are united
characters belonging to the Tunicates and Annelides, and unexpected
relations are revealed between the Vertebrata and the Invertebrata.

Tue Most Hicuty Oreanizep Fisa.—In the Lepidosiren, the
highest of all the fishes, we find an organization of a no less complex
nature. The genus was founded in 1837 by Dr. Natterer for the re-
ception of a singular animal to which he gave the specific name of
paradoxa, discovered by him in America, inhabiting the swamps in the ~
vicinity of the river Amazon. This species, which attains a length
of three feet, the body being eleven times as long as the head,! is now
becoming very rare. In 1839 Prof. Owen referred specimens from the
river Gambia of West Africa to the same genus, under the designation
of Lepidosiren annectens, and classed them in a provisional group
between the reptiles and fishes. They are placed by Prof. Huxley
in the highest order of his classification of fishes, namely, the Dipnoi
or “double breathers,” and are popularly known as “mud-fish.”
These paradoxical “scaled sirens” have well-developed reptilian
lungs co-existing with functional internal branchie, and are capable
of living either in the water or out of it. Their structure and
habits are very peculiar. During the rainy season, the waters of the
Gambia overflow its banks, and the mud-fish is carried out of the
true bed of the river. When the waters retire it is left stranded ;
then, burrowing in the softened mud, it coils itself up, keeps open a
communication with the air above its nest, and breathes by means of
its modified swimming bladder. It thus remains inactive till the
return of the floods soften the walls of its cell, when it emerges,
and resumes its former habits. They have been found in a semi-
torpid state eighteen inches below the surface, in situations where
the ground is dry and hard for months in the year, and are dug out
by the natives with a sharp pointed stick and used for food.? The |
body of the Lepidosiren is fish-like, and covered with small cycloid
scales, simply constructed pectoral and ventral limbs are present,
with a dorso-caudal fin. The notochord is persistent, but the skull
is partly bony, partly cartilaginous, and the costal arches and
neural and hemal spines are well ossified; thus it forms a link

1 Trans. of the Linnzan Society, vol. xviii.

2 A specimen of Z. annectens has been on exhibition in the entrance hall of the
Brighton Aquarium for more than two years. It is kept at a regular temperature
of 70°, and is in a very thriving condition, having grown several inches since it has
been in the institution, and thickened proportionately. The animal generally lies
quietly at the bottom of its tank, rising occasionally to the surface to take in air.
It is fed three times weekly on small pieces of raw beef, which it can be observed to
eat in a very unusual manner. When the food is thrown in, the mud-fish stretches
itself leisurely and seizes it, as it comes within reach, between its sharply formed
vomerine teeth. After masticating it slowly, it throws it out with a quick jerk, and,

commencing at the other end, repeats the manceuvre; it then again rejects it, and
subjects it to a third process of mastication before finally swallowing it.

Miss Agnes Crane—On Certain Living and Fossil Fishes. 211

between the bony and cartilaginous types of fishes. The dentition
is composed of a pair of vomerine teeth, and two molars in each
jaw. The heart is three-chambered, and true lungs exist with
rudimentary external branchiee and functional internal ones.

Lrvrné Arrrnities or Leprpostren.—Among living fish. the Lepi-
dosiren is most closely related to another “ dipnoid,” discovered in the
rivers of Queensland, Australia, in 1870. This species was at once,
with singular accuracy, referred by Mr. Gerard Krefft, the late Curator
of the Sydney Museum, to Ceratodus, a genus till then only known by
the fossil teeth which occur abundantly in Triassic, and rarely in
Oolitic strata.! He also described it “asa gigantic amphibian, and as
allied to Lepidostren,” the correctness of which determination has
been fully demonstrated by the subsequent minute investigations of
Dr. Gitinther”? and Prof. Huxley,’ who have published exhaustive
memoirs on this subject. Two species of living Ceratodonts are
recognized, one named after its discoverer, the Hon. William Foster,
Ceratodus Fosteri, and Ceratodus miolepis, distinguishable only by its
smaller and less ornate scales. These fish, known locally as < flat-
heads,” inhabit the fresh and brackish waters of the Queensland
rivers, and ‘‘at night leave the streams, and go out on the flats,
among the reeds and rushes, subject to tidal influence.” Dr.
Giinther is, however, of opinion that they do not probably live
freely on land, as the limbs are too flexible and feeble to support the
heavy body, and considers that though they may be occasionally
compelled to leave the water, they could not remain long in a lively
condition without it. The species, which range up to six feet in
length and twenty pounds in weight, appear to feed exclusively on
the remains of plants Myrtace and Gramine, taken in a decomposing
state. The body of Ceratodus is covered with large cycloid scales,
and the limbs are structurally identical with those of Lepidosiren,
but the axis and fringe are more dilated, and the fin scales distinctly
visible. The internal skeleton, though of a more cartilaginous type,
resembles that of the mud-fishes, and the skull is partly osseous.
The anterior nasal openings are situated under the lip, in front of
the vomerine teeth, while the posterior pair are placed in the cavity
of the mouth, a little before the maxillary ones. The dentition is
essentially that of Lepidosiren, slightly modified to suit herbivorous
diet, being adapted rather for “cutting and crushing” instead of
“piercing and cutting.” It consists of a pair of vomerine teeth,
and two molars in each jaw, thus proving the correctness of the
views of Pander and Agassiz, who had assigned that number of
dental plates to the fossil forms of the middle geologic ages. The
respiratory organs are twofold, as in Zepidosiren, but the gills are
more developed in Ceratodus, and when inhabiting clear waters the
fish probably breathes by them alone, the true lungs only coming
into action when on the mud flats, or living in turbid waters. The
shape of the body, the number, position, and structure of the fins,

1 Ceratodus Phillipsi, Ag., Great Oolite, Mantell Coll., British Museum.
* Transactions of the Royal Society, 1871.
3 Proceedings Zoological Society, 1876, part i. June.

212 Miss Agnes Crane—On Certain Living and Fossil Fishes.

the elements of the internal skeleton, and above all the co-existence
of a lung with gills, show how close is the affinity between the
Australian Ceratodus and the mud-fishes of Africa and South
America, and although the former approach less to the amphibian
type than the latter, it is obvious that in a natural classification their
place is side by side.

Fosstn Arrinitres oF THE Dipno1.—Having shown the close
connexion between the two genera of living dipnoids, let us
now consider the relations of the living and fossil Ceratodonts.
No remains of this genus have as yet been found in the Tertiary
or Cretaceous formations; but the fossil teeth, of which several
varieties are recognizable, possibly the relics of numerous species,
occur abundantly in the Triassic beds of Aust Cliff, near Bristol,
and in the Muschelkalk of Germany. They have also been ob-
tained from strata now determined to be of Triassic age at
Maledi, south of Nagpur, in India, and associated, as in Hurope,
with the reptilian remains Hyperodapedon. Many of these fossil
teeth are much larger than those of the existing species (specimens
of one Triassic form measure over two inches in length), and must
necessarily have belonged to individuals of a gigantic race. The
dental plates only have been found fossil, but the structure of
Ceratodus Fosteri indicates that they alone of a like-constructed
animal would be susceptible of preservation in sedimentary strata,
and the classification of the recent forms with those of the Mesozoic
rocks, separated by so wide a gulf of geological time, though
founded on the similarity of the dentition alone, is the only reason-
able one, as there is no evidence that the living and fossil Cerato-
donts, differed from each other. The teeth of this genus resemble
in general shape and structure those of Ctenodus which are widely
distributed in Carboniferous strata, species occurring in America
being identical with those of the British rocks of contemporaneous
age. The dentition of the Devonian Dipterus is also closely related
to that of Ceratodus, as well as Lepidosiren.'

Thus the history of the Dipnoi, an order before the discovery of
the Australian Ceratodus only represented by the mud-fishes of Africa
and South America, is carried back to remote geological ages, and
the four living representatives, at present known, are found to be
the survivors of a well-defined and characteristic group of fishes first
appearing in the Devonian age. They can be traced up from Dip-
terus, through the Carboniferous Ctenodus, to the Jurassic Cerato-

1 Prof. J. S. Newberry (vol. ii. Paleontology of Ohio, p. 63, pl. 58, fig. 18)
recognizes in his new genus Hediodus, occurring in the Upper Chemung group of the
American Devonian, the most gigantic member of the family of dipterine ganoids to
which Ceratodus, Ctenodus, and Dipterus belong. The teeth resemble in microscopic
structure those of Dipterus, and in general shape those of Ctenodus. ‘The upper
palatal ones differ, however, from those of all other known dipnoids in being united
“in the form of a fully-opened fan.’ He is also of opinion that the Paledaphus
insignis of Van Beneden and de Koninck, from the Carboniferous strata of Belgium,
is not generically identical with the P. Devoniensis, of the same authors, and while
admitting that the former is really a Plagiostome, considers that the latter should

be associated with his new dipterine genus under the designation of Heliodus
Devoniensis.

Miss Agnes Crane—On Certain Living and Fossil Fishes. 213

donts, and then the link is lost sight of until their lineal descendants
reappear widely distributed on the surface of the present world.
This is but an illustration of the truth that species which have the
greatest vertical range in time have also the widest geographical
distribution, or that a wide distribution proves the antiquity of the
genus. It is certainly a very significant fact that the group of living
fish most closely allied to the amphibian reptiles should be repre-
sented in the Devonian rocks, long before the most simply con-
structed amphibians appeared on the scene of life in the swamps of
the Carboniferous period. The Dipnoi, as at present constituted,
includes the following families: Protopterina, Ceratodontina, Cteno-
dodipteride, and possibly Phaneropleuride. They are closely allied
to the Ganoids, and especially to that sub-order termed, by Prof.
Huxley, the Crossopterygide, or “ fringe-finned,” to be presently re-
ferred to. Dr. Ginther, indeed, proposes to unite the dipnoids with
the ganoids, as a distinct family ; but Prof. Huxley considers that,
though nearly related to that order, they yet possess many important
differences. It seems as if the Dipnot had also some affinities with
the group of fishes known as Plucoderms, for a most remarkable
fossil fish has recently been discovered in America, the dentition of
which is almost exactly like that of Lepidosiren, except that it is
about one hundred times greater. The genus Dinichthys was founded
by Prof. Newberry for the reception of this gigantic Placoderm, of
which two species at least are recognized and graphically described
by him, in vol. ii. of the State Reports of the Paleontology of Ohio. —
They occur in the Huron Shales of the Upper Devonian series,
where they seem to have preponderated in number, fragments of
over a hundred individuals having been detected, while the remains
of other genera are found more rarely in the same horizon. The
jaws of this “terrible fish ” were each two feet long, the breadth of
the head was about three feet, and the cranium was composed of
massive bony plates, the solid bone of the occipital portion being
three inches in thickness. The length of the body is estimated by
Professor Newberry to have been about fifteen feet, and its diameter
three. The anterior portion was protected by huge dorsal and
ventral shields, resembling, in general shape and structure, those
of the genus Coccosteus, rendered classic by the pen of Hugh
Miller. Very little is known with regard to the fins, “ about six
inches only of an apparently median fin, with well-ossified rays as
thick as one’s little finger,” having as yet been found, and, from the
absence of scales, it is conjectured that the posterior portion of the
body of the animal was covered with a tough skin, as in Coccosteus,
a genus which possibly protected itself, like the modern sheat: fish
of the Ganges, by burrowing in the mud, watching for prey with
only its mail-clad parts exposed. The powerful dentition of Dinich-
thys is suggestive of carnivorous habits, and probably being so heavily
weighted by the thick shields encasing its vital organs it would be
compelled to obtain food rather by cunning than by swift pursuit. It
is worthy of notice that the ponderously armed Placoderms had a com-
paratively short range in time, remains of the group being only found

214 Miss Agnes Crane—On Certain Living and Fossil Fishes.

in the Upper Silurian and Devonian rocks; thus it seems as though,
unable to cope in the struggle for existence with the lighter-armed
and more active race of ganoids which predominated in the Devonian
waters, they died out, leaving no immediate descendants. The
vertebral column in the Placoderms was generally cartilaginous, a
condition considered by some authors as indicative of a low organi-
zation, but as the quantity of bone composing their external shields
was much greater than that forming the internal skeleton of the
existing types of true bony fishes, and as traces of ossified caudal
vertebrae have been discovered in one genus, they ought rather to be
highly placed in a systematic classification. The group is considered
by Professor Huxley to form a link between the Ganoids and the
Teleosts, and as having most affinity with the living plated Siluroid
Teleosts of the African rivers.

DistripuTion AND RanGe or tHe Piscine Faminies In GeEo-
LogicaAL Time.—In considering the distribution and range of the
various families in geological time, we find that authenticated remains
of sharks, Placoderms, and Cephalaspids have been obtained from the
Lower Ludlow Beds of the Upper Silurian in Europe, but in
America it is singular that no fossil fishes have as yet been discovered
before the Devonian epoch, when the relics of numerous genera occur
abundantly, differing, however, from the European forms. This
dissimilarity in the fauna is probably owing to the differences
existing in the physical geography of the two areas at the time
of the deposition of the series. The Devonian formation is built up
of freshwater, estuarine and marine strata, each group characterized
by its peculiar forms of life. In the Old Red Sandstone of Scotland
and Russia, freshwater species predominate, while in the marine
limestones of Devonshire, and the Hifel, Mollusca, Corals, and the
remains of genera of inshore dwelling fish indicate a shallower
marine deposit. The greater part of the American Devonian, on the
contrary, was apparently laid down in an open sea, and thus a
monster marine fauna flourished, not so generally represented in
Europe; but it is interesting to note the identity of a few species
occurring in localities where the beds are of similar structure to
those of contemporaneous age in Europe. In both worlds the for-
mation is alike distinguished by the great preponderance of ganoid
over elasmobranchiate fishes. The conditions existing during the
formation of the Devonian rocks are well illustrated at the present
day by the freshwater lakes, mighty rivers, and extended coast-line
of the African and American continents, and it is a most suggestive
and significant fact that the genera of living ganoid and dipnoid
fishes most resembling the Paleozoic forms are now, with two
exceptions, found on those continents alone. Taking the various
orders of Professor Huxley’s comprehensive classification in succes-
sion, we find that no traces of the first or lowest order, the Pharyn-
gobranchii, which contains only the “ gullet-breathing ” Lancelet,
have been found in a fossil state. This is easily accounted for,
however, by the soft and perishable structure of the species, of
which no remains could possibly be preserved in the finest sedi-

Miss Agnes Crane—On Certain Living and Fossil Fishes. 216

mentary strata, and, therefore, the non-representation of this lowest
form of ichthyic life in ‘the records of the rocks” becomes less
remarkable. Of the cartilaginous J/arsipobranchii, comprising the
hag fishes and lampreys, the horny teeth alone would be susceptible
of preservation, and their absence has been commented on as nega-
tiving the evidence of progressive development among fishes, as it is
obvious the most simply constructed forms should appear first on
the scene of life in order to give place to their more highly organized
descendants. In 1856, Pander, in his magnificent work on the
Silurian and Devonian fishes of the Russian Baltic Provinces, gave
numerous figures of what he supposed to be the teeth of small
sharks from the Lower Silurian rocks, but these so-termed conodonts
have not been accepted as of true ichthyic origin. Professor Owen *
retains only three species as possibly the teeth of fishes, and is of
opinion that the remainder might be either the ornaments of crus-
taceans, “or the spines, or hooklets, or denticles of naked mollusks
or annelides.” Great numbers of these ‘cone teeth” have recently
been detected in Carboniferous strata, both in England and America,
and it is suggested that they may be the teeth of cyclostomous fishes
like the hags and lampreys, and thus be the representatives of the
Marsipobranchii of the ancient Silurian seas. They seem most to
resemble in shape and structure the teeth of the Myxinoids, in which
the dentition is peculiar, being composed of one horny conical tooth
situated in the roof of the mouth, with two serrated dental plates on
the tongue. It has been objected that the teeth of living cyclos-
tomous fishes are horny or chitonous, while the fossil cone teeth are
calcareous, but this applies with equal force to the theory that they
are the teeth of mollusks, as the modern shell fish have siliceous teeth.
The piscine derivation of the conodonts is, however, still a debated
question requiring careful investigation, as it would antedate the
appearance of ichthyic life in geologic history; but if it cannot be
asserted that they are the teeth of fishes, neither as yet can it
be positively proved that they are not.

The next order, the Elasmobranchii, embraces the sharks, dog
fishes, rays, and Chimeroids. 'The first of these families has enjoyed
a long range from the Upper Silurian epoch to the present day. and
one genus seems to have varied but slightly. the Cestracion Phillips
or Port Jackson shark of Australia being a descendant of the ancient
Cestracionts, a once numerous family now verging towards extinc-
tion. The Chimeroids appeared first in the Devonian, and live on,
but the Rays were not represented until the Jurassic age. The
Placoderms, as we have seen, enjoyed but a transient existence,
dying out at the close of the Devonian, while the Teleoste: or true
bony fishes which so largely predominate at the present day did not
appear on the scene of life until the formation of the Cretaceous
rocks. Seven living genera alone survive of the Ganoidei which.
prevailed so numerously in Paleozoic times, and but one of these,
the sturgeon, the least characteristic of the group, is found in
Huropean waters. Two of the six remaining forms, which are all
dwellers in fresh water, occur in Africa, and four inhabit the lakes

1 Ene. Brit., vol. xvii., part i., 1859, art. Paleontology.

216 Miss Agnes Crane—On Certain Living and Fossil Fishes.

and rivers of North America. The preservation of the majority of
living ganoids in America is probably owing to the fact that some
portions of this ancient continent, truly the old world of geologists,
have never been submerged since their upheaval from the first
Silurian seas ; thus some representatives of this ancient race of fishes
were able to find a refuge in its bays and rivers, and the chain
of descent has been kept unbroken from the early ages of the
incaleulably remote past. The large-spined, shagreen-sealed Acan-
thodide, which are considered by Professor Huxley to link the
Ganoids to the Hlasmobranchs, range only in the Devonian and
Carboniferous rocks. The “thick-toothed” Pyenodonts lived from
the Coal-measures to the Tertiaries, and are now extinct, while the
buckler-headed Cephalaspids, like the Placoderms, existed only in
Silurian and Devonian times. The Chondrosteide, to which group
the sturgeons belong, were certainly represented in the Jurassic seas,
and possibly by the gigantic Macropetalichthys in the Devonian.
Amia calva, the dog fish of the American lakes, is the sole member
of the sub-order Amiade.’ The Lepidosteide includes the living
bony pikes, inhabitants of the rivers of the same continent, and fossil
forms in all the formations reaching back to the Devonian.

There remains for discussion but the sub-order Crossopterygide.
that important group of fringe-finned ganoids, through which Prof.
Huxley’ considers the passage from the fishes to the reptiles took
place. All the families of this well-defined sub-order are character-
ized by the possession of lobate paired fins having a central axis or
stem covered with scales like the body walls, and surrounded by a
fringe of fin rays. Two dorsal fins are present in the majority.
Jugular plates always replace the branchiostegal rays, and the scales
are either rhomboidal or cycloidal. The families Saurodipterini,
Glyptodipterim, and Phaneropleurini are restricted to the Palaeozoic
rocks The Ceelacanthini range from the Carboniferous to the

1 Two species, namely, Amia scutata and A. dictyocephala Cope, are referred by
Prof. EK. D. Cope (in the Bull. of the United States Geol. and Geog. Survey, No. 1.
2nd series, 1875) to the genus Amia. They are recorded as occurring in the Tertiary
Shales of South Park; apparently a freshwater deposit of later Tertiary age.

* Decade x. of the Memoirs of the Geological Survey, 1861 (Classification of
Devonian Fish).

8 In the memoir on Tristéchopterus alatus, Eg. (Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, vol.
27, 1875), Dr. Traquair follows Dr. Giinther in associating the Ctenodipterini of
Huxley (Cleodus, Dipterus) with the Dipnoi, but retains the Phaneropleuride as
a sixth family of Crossopterygian ganoids, sub-dividing the remaining families thus :
1. Polypteride; 2. Coelacanthode; 38. Rhombodipteride, sub-fam. Glyptolemini
(Glyptolemus, ete.), Saurodipterini (Osteolepis, Diplopterus); 4. Cyclodipteride
(Lristichopterus, etc.) ; 5. Holoptychidee (Holoptychius, ete.) ; 6. Phaneropleuride
(Phaneropleuron, Uronemus). In the memoir on British Carboniferous Ganoids
by the same author, published in the vol. of the Pal. Soc. for 1877, the
Valeoniscide are raised to the rank of a distinct family, and removed from the
sub-order Lrprpostro1p# into that of the AcipENsERomDEI. The Dipnor are

retained as a separate order, and the following classification is proposed for the
order GANOIDEI.

Sub-order I, Crossopterycii. Fam. 4. Palzoniscide.
» II. Acipenseroidci. », 5. Platysomide.
Fam. 1. Acipenseridee. Sub-order III. Lepidosteoide.

» 2. Spatularidee. 9%) IV. Amioidei.
», 93 Chondrosteide, |

Miss Agnes Orane—On Certain Living and Fossil Fishes. 217

Chalk, and the Polypterini, comprising only the living Polypterus and
Calamoichthys of Africa, alone represent this once prevailing race of
fishes at the present day. The genus Polypterus is remarkable for
the unique arrangement of its sub-divided dorsal fin, and by the
possession of a double cellular air bladder, which most nearly approxt-
mates to the lungs of the Dipnoi. It has least structural affinities
with the Celacanths, its nearest allies in time, and is most closely
zoologically related to the rhomboidal scaled Sawrodipterines of the
Devonian, from which it is separated by an enormous gulf of geolo-
gical time, as no intermediate links have been discovered.

In the notochordal Phaneropleurini we find forms which most
closely resemble the acutely lobate finned Lepidosiren. The shape
of the body, number, position, and structure of the fins, and all the
elements of the internal skeleton, exactly foreshadow those of the
mud-fishes. Like them Phaneropleuron was covered with thin
eycloidal scales, through which the long and well-ossified ribs show so
plainly in the fossil state as to suggest the name of the genus. The
dentition, however, differs from that of Ceratodus and Lepidosiren,
being composed of a row of short conical teeth in each jaw; and in
the absence of the grooved dental plates so characteristic of the true
dipnoi, it is uncertain whether this family can be associated with the
other members of that order. The chain of descent is carried on by
the Oelacanthini, the only fringe-finned ganoids occurring in the
Mesozoic rocks. They can be traced up from Coelacanthus in the
Carboniferous, through Holophagus in the Lias and Undina in the
Oolites, up to Macropoma in the Chalk. The family is distinguished
by cycloid scales, hollow fin supports, and a notochordal skeleton
built on the same principle as that of the mud-fishes. . In some
genera the walls of the air bladder are ossified. This peculiarity,
which was first suspected by Mantell, is especially remarkable in
Undina and Macropoma. No fossil Crossopterygids have been dis-
covered in Tertiary strata, but it is the opinion of Professor Huxley
that, as the rhomboidal scaled Saurodipterines of the Devonian rocks
are now represented by the living Polypterus, so the stiff-walled
lungs of the Lepidosiren are the homologues of the ossified air
bladder of the Ccelacanths, and thus that genus carried up the
eycloidal branch of the Crossopterygids to the present day.

Such, in the abstract, is the life history of fishes, a class character-
ized, like other divisions of the animal kingdom, by the extinction of
some groups after a brief existence, and by the persistent endurance
of others through untold ages. In the few genera of living ganoids
we have undoubtedly the surviving descendants of a numerous and
powerful race which prevailed in the Devonian epoch, and by the
discovery of fossil dipnoal forms the progenitors of Ceratodus and
Lepidosiren, the Dipnoi are likewise proved to be of ancient lineage.
The greater part of the existing piscine fauna, on the contrary, is
shown to be of comparatively modern date. Moreover, in con-
sidering the fact that the early fishes are remarkable from a combi-
nation of diverse characteristics which subsequently become the dis-
tinguishing peculiarities of distinct families, and of a higher order,

“SSULIIOY] OT} JO Bury +

*syoO1 snolajIMOgIeD YSuIg
ay} Ul SnasrwoMjyg ond} OU SI

alo} Avnbvay, “Aq 0} SuIp1ovy

*(snxowydup) yayooue'T
*(wozhuouag)

skoiduey (avahyy) sey
“snyauhysoy

-109 j.<vso.ujsuou vimunyy

‘aya ‘sayvys ‘opad.oy,
udduppiyg wora

-0.44sa9 ‘Soysy sop ‘syaeyg

*(wasuiadwy) w0es.inyg
“vOLIpy Jo

shyjynoumng ‘snwagdhjoq
“ROLIOULW

jo oyiq Auog snagsoprdaT
‘soye] UvdLIEWY ayy

JO YSY-sup oY} vara wrmp

‘ojo org ‘daeg ‘Sursay
‘uawisopideT ‘snporv.a9

*so[duiexg SULA] olteuey

“snpohyasy
‘snpousnpy ‘wop.yaupsy
“SaQUGOUY AT

ssnpoyohig ‘snpo.ap

“sapoy juve
‘snpojag ‘snpouahg ‘snmoshpnq
*S21d8040)T
‘sidsnypy dig ‘sidspuayan
"SNAISO.LpuUoyy
spuodowan yy
‘sadajojdhj5 ‘srdajoajs¢
* sedajo.w2aup
x Shasiuon)ug ‘snjopidaT

*sedaqusaysyy ‘shy qyniarg
‘snagso0009 ‘shy jyauuy

“snuausg ‘ahiag .
{snpopw.iag asnpouary 4sniaqauy |

‘sad AJ, [IS80q OLIN)

‘payjnom anbiiqo ‘ct “sits payetd Aqurqy, ‘or *payeos Auog °¢
‘yea AOPUITS “GL ‘poy nour ajojdwog “FI *paurds ase °6 ‘palvas Sutusjysy[y “F
“payynour ao1IQ “gT “SuIqyearq YUH “ST “poT]}00} Ya *8 ‘pared Suog *g
“pouuly OSv[IALD “LT “s]L3 poyouod “Zl — “paproyy Aopyong *f “pauog JooJled °G
*saysy JUSIOUY “OT *paproy 1aSuO, “TT *pouuy ssulIg “9 ‘sioTyvoIq ajqnog ‘|
oe g 1IduvooLag’y *] ¢ LIHONVULODNAUVH
TATLLOWAT (T
x gp VLVNOLSOTORY "TT 21 LIHONVULOdISUV | |
|X X/X|x eda leet “vpeydaoojo FL 1 Bpluewmi1yyo a eeydeoojoy,
|x x[xlx | KpPUBy g
“IMOJSOLStTg = \ TWOJSOISL[ I
X X([X|x/x/X}x|¥ x|xX eprenbs »
{sft} dorpuoyy ) or IIHONVUMONSVIGY | 1) INOLSOIOVIG
x| x 6 Bplpoyjuroy 4— |
: toptouvy-oprida
x!x|x|/x|x/x/x 3 epyuopouig f— fs PSOE AL
ix | X , epidsepeydey a — \ leploury-ootp.q
xg x g eploysoipuoyg Y — oe
Xe KX) x|/x/X/[x|x x 9 epro{iaydossorg 9 — Ge “
|
|
SKS KG S| | oxaexa xe tes ¢ eploysopidey g — “ s
x d epeluly i 66 66
‘loudiq, Surpnpout —‘stapio-qng
“faplouvsy ;IGdIONVY | toprouvy-opideT
x|x| |g SHAHLHOIM TV | TI] g LW.Aapoor[ LoplouRy)-OdrT
Xs HX ‘1GLSOMTAT, “A z ILSOMTAT, 1 NOLO,
x| Be celia dea | LONdI(T IUTLIOLOUNT
"a Ly ol; oft Lyd) oy a)’ "s
| OT UTHENAY ‘RATXOAPL NIMOQ
“O10Z 2 . y 2
ourug | “21020807 D1OZOBL J
*SNOILVNUO ‘SUMCUQ-d#AG GNV SUTAAC

‘SHHSIA ‘IISSOA AO NOMAGIULSIG TVOIOOTOHO UNV

NOIMLVOIAISSVIO AHL ONIAOHS WI1aVL

Notice of Memoirs—A. W. Waters. 219

we find further evidence that the ancient ganoids formed the parent
stock from which the succeeding fishes, amphibians, and reptiles
have diverged. In some sauroid Devonian fishes the position and
structure of the teeth foreshadow those of the Labyrinthodont reptiles,
in others the throat is protected by gular plates, a fashion retained
in the Carboniferous amphibia. Again, in some species the scales
are surface pitted, like the scutes of Crecodiles. While, in the noto-
chordal weak-limbed amphibians of the Coal-measures, with minute
body scales, and partly osseous skulls, we cannot fail to recognize
structural peculiarities now found in the swamp-dwelling mud-fishes.
Thus in the anomalous “scaled sirens,” we have the “persistent
type” of an ancient group of fishes, in which now, as in the old
time, the piscine and amphibian characters are so united as to com-
pletely efface the line of demarcation between the orders, and effectu-
ally link the fishes to the reptiles.

IN@lne mS) Os Ver Vi@rseS-

——@——_.

PROCEEDINGS oF THE Mancuester Lirerary AND PHILOSOPHICAL
Soctery, vol. xvi. No. 10, p. 171. Session 1876-77.—ORp1INaRyY
Meerrine, March 6, 1877.

A PAPER was read by Mr. Arthur Wm. Waters, F.G.S., entitled
“Inquiries concerning a Change of Position of the Harth’s
Axis.” The author stated that the cause of the greater warmth in
high latitudes during the Tertiary period had not, in the opinion of
many, yet received any satisfactory solution.

The Arctic Miocene Flora was considered. 356 Miocene species
of plants have already been determined from latitude 70-77 N. in
Spitzbergen and Greenland, and include Tawodiwm (swamp cypress
of Texas), Sequoia, birch, lime, oak, beech, plane, and even mag-
nolia ; so that Prof. Heer, by comparison of the localities of these,
says that the temperature must have beon 30° F. warmer than at
present. Fossil floras of the Cretaceous, Jurassic, and Carboniferous
periods have been discovered within the arctic circle. Most of these
plants are unable to resist severe cold, besides requiring a warm
summer, and it seems difficult to accept the fact of their flowering
and ripening their seeds, where the winters are so long and the
summers so short, and, apart from the lower temperature, where the
amount of light is so much diminished.

Several theories have been brought forward to explain the cold of
the Glacial Period, the generally received one being that of Mr.
Croll, that it was brought about indirectly from an increase in the
eccentricity of the earth’s orbit, modified by the obliquity of the
ecliptic. In the longer and colder winters more snow fell, which the
summer could not melt away, so that the earth now covered gets
little of the warmth of the sun. As this explanation has not always
been thought quite satisfactory with regard to the greater warmth,
the change of the position of the earth’s axis has from time to time
been suggested on various grounds.

220 Notice of Memoirs—A. W. Waters.

It was suggested that there are three causes which might change
the position of the axis, viz. distortion of the earth by continental
and local upheaval altering the centre of gravity, and thus changing
the position of the axis; the removal of water by elevation of land
displacing the ocean; and the removal of matter in solution; and
these two last, though not considered to be the most important
in amount, were considered more in detail.

According to Mr. T. Mellard Reade,! about one ton of solid matter
is removed in solution by the drainage of each square mile, so that
about 5000 million tons are removed from the land surface each
year; thus in ten years a weight equal to that of Vesuvius
is removed from the land to the oceanic area by this means;
and as there is more land in the northern hemisphere, this
gives a gain for the southern hemisphere of 8230 million tons
over the northern. If the earth is divided into a land and water
hemisphere, with England as a centre, the gain of. the weight of
the water hemisphere is about 4300 million tons, or one Vesuvius
in twelve years, the place of greatest gain being about 45° 8. and the
greatest loss 45° N. in antipodal positions.

A statement by Sir G. B. Airy in the Atheneum, 1860, was
considered in order to see what effect special alteration would have.
Removing a weight equal to that of Asia 1000 feet high from the
centre of the land hemisphere, and adding a similar weight at the
antipodes in a sinking Pacific Ocean, leaving the remaining portion
in each hemisphere balanced by the natural configuration, would
give an alteration of from 18-27 miles. This alone would require
13 million years at the present rate of denudation, but there are
many causes, some of which were mentioned, which would very
much reduce the time required for this amount of “soluble denuda-
tion,” so that it might be reduced to one or two million years, and
the vast thickness of calcareous rocks, which are only the record of
others from which they were partly formed, shows how many times
such areas must have been transported from land to sea.

The sinking of an-area equal to the continent of Asia to the mean
depth of the ocean would bring a weight of water sufficient, if the
antipodes were a suboceanic rising area, to displace the position
of the axis 40—60 miles by the same method of calculation. It is
thus seen that these may be disturbing or starting forces, but do
not give a large amount of change directly, and that the one to three
degrees which Mr. George H. Darwin, M.A.,! allows is all that we
should expect in recent geological times, unless there is some cumu-
lative effect.

Mr. Waters maintained that if the change was caused by addition
of weight, then the earth in re-adjustment would cause phenomena
equivalent to an elevation in those semi-hemispheres from which the
maximum bulge has been removed, displacing, if it should be an
oceanic area, an amount of water to be placed in another region; the

In a paper on Geological Time, read as a presidential address to the Liverpool
Geol. Soe. 1876-77.
* Proce. Roy. Soc., No. 175, 1876.

Change in the Earth’s Axis. 221

maximum effect of each degree of change is 33; of the weight of the
bulge, and the possibility of a redistribution of land and sea prevent-
ing a change in an opposite direction of the motion of the poles was
pointed out.

The astronomical objections are that any such movement of the
axis would be discoverable from the earth’s and moon’s motions,
that is, by precession and nutation of the equinoxes, which are
caused by the attraction of the sun and moon on the equatorial bulge.
It is from no sufficient change in these motions that we have been
told the figure of rotation has not altered in 3000 years (the limit of
known observation), but this has been based upon a preternatural
rigidity of the earth which is not now maintained by all physicists.

It has been seen how the forces under consideration may have
acted in opposite directions, and a consideration of recent geological
phenomena shows that while large areas have been elevated it has
not taken place steadily and uninterruptedly, but that there have
been elevations and subsidences (or kindred phenomena) many times
repeated, so that, if we turn to the north of Europe, to Belgium, or
to Italy, we find, for a general elevation of a few hundred feet to
have taken place since the middle of the Tertiaries, there have been
subsidences and elevations of many thousand feet in each direction.
Now, with the number of forces at work, and the irregular distribu-
tion of land and sea, it may be said that a reversal of conditions in
one part could not take the axis back to exactly the same place;
in other words, the axis might tack.

The great changes in the Tertiar y period were briefly considered,
showing how much change of level has taken place.

Mr. Waters said the points he wished to bring forward are, that a
change of the position of the axis would elucidate many facts which
have not yielded to any other explanation, and that a change of the
position must take place, but that only a small amount could be
directly proved; but if there is a cumulative effect, then it may be
explained. The idea thrown out for examination by physicists was
whether the frequent changes in direction which are caused by
forces working in various parts of the world would not thus give a
sufficient increase to the amount calculated.

Referring to recent papers bearing on this subject, the author
adds :—

Since this paper was written, ‘‘ Le Déplacement Polaire” of Dr.
Jules Carret has come into my hands. This little work is written
to demonstrate from various grounds that the position of the axis
has changed, but without inquiring into the cause. The greater
part of the book is devoted to proving that the present distribution
of land and sea can only be accounted for by such a change, and this
he thinks explains the polar land area and the antipodal position of
nearly all the land to water areas. He shows that the effect of
a change of position of the axis with the unequal diameters of the

1 Sir William Thomson says in his Glasgow address: ‘‘A slow distortion of the
.earth as a whole would never produce any great angular separation between the
instantaneous axis and axis of maximum moment of inertia for the time being.”

222 Reviews—Nicholson’s Life-History of the Earth.

earth, which are unequally divided by the centre of gravity, will be
to cause the land to be antipodal to the water, and the slight ex-
ceptions are near to the cireumference, dividing the globe into land
and water hemispheres, which is where the exceptions would be
expected.

By these exceptions he concludes that the poles have moved in a
curved direction. If we divide the earth by a plane (grand circle
polaire) perpendicular to the equator and to the direction in which
the position of the poles have been changing, the points of inter-
section at the equator form two pivots for this motion, and here the
effect of re-adjustment will be a minimum, while before and behind
will be an area of elevation and submergence respectively. If the
motion is curved, the plane (g.¢ p.) we have just supposed must cut
the tangent of this curve at right angles. The changing position of
this tangent changes the position of the plane, and the points of
intersection are removed from the elevation to the submergence area
on one side, and the opposite points from the submergence to the
elevation area, so that land antipodal to land is the consequence.

RAVLCEwS.-

J.—Tusr Anorent Lire-History or toe Harta. A Comprehensive
Outline of the Principles and Leading Facts of Paleeontological
Science. By H. Atteyne Nicuotson, M.D., D.Sc, M.A., ete.,
Professor of Nat. Hist. in the University of St. Andrews. 8vo.,
pp. xvi. and 407, and 276 woodcuts. (Hdinburgh and London,
W. Blackwood and Son.)

T affords us much pleasure to bring under the notice of our
readers a recent publication, which, we trust, will be the means,

at any rate to a great extent, of assisting the student of Paleontology
in his battle with the many conflicting and unsolved problems of
the science. In his “ Palsontology”’ Professor Alleyne Nicholson
treated the subject from a purely zoological point of view, as a
branch of the comprehensive Science of Biology. In the present
work, on the contrary, the same subject is discussed as a sub-
division of Geology, from its historical aspect, with the introduction
of purely structural details, only so far as may be necessary to a due
understanding of the ancient forms of our globe. Such a work as
the present is best appreciated by those who have gone beyond the
mere threshold of paleontological science, and learnt how difficult
it is in working up any given subject to obtain an epitome of the
various views which have been passed upon it. ‘The comparative
absence of works such as Professor Nicholson’s ‘Ancient Life-
History” from our language is a fact we must all deplore, but one
we hope ere long to see remedied to a great extent; and it is
particularly on this account that the present work is the more
welcome. ‘True, we have Prof. Owen’s ‘ Paleontology,” a host in
itself, the value of which was evinced by the fact that a second
edition was called for before the book was a year old; but on

Reviews—Nicholson’s Life-History of the Earth. 2293

the other hand, we have presented to us by our Continental brethren,
as against this, such works as Pictet’s Traité de Paléontologie,
@Orbigny’s Cours Elémentaire, Vogt’s Lehrbuch der Geologie und
Petrefactenkunde, and, now publishing, Schimper and Zittel’s Hand-
buch der Palzontologie.

Prof. Nicholson’s “ Ancient Life-History” is divided into two
parts, “The Principles of Paleontology,” and “ Historical Paleeon-
tology.” In the first the science is defined, the nature of fossils and
process of fossilization described, the origin and mode of formation
of sedimentary rocks discussed, and brief descriptions given of the
chief kinds of the latter, illustrated by vignettes of microscopic
sections of the rocks described. In the ‘Chronological Succession
of the Fossiliferous Rocks” the student is taught the use of fossils,
the assistance rendered by them in the sub-division and working out
of the historical succession of the sedimentary formations, and due
attention is paid that the student shall have a clear conception
of the deductions to be drawn from an examination of any set of
fossils, as to their age, origin, whether the deposit was accumulated
under fluviatile, lacustrine, or marine conditions, and whether repre-
senting a littoral, deep-sea, or actual shore deposit. The evidence
afforded by fossils as to climate is also dwelt on, but it is judiciously
pointed out that all conclusions under this head, based as they
are upon the present distribution of animal and vegetable life on
the globe, must be accepted with caution, and may be, to a certain
degree at least, vitiated or modified by certain well-established facts,
such, for instance, as the occurrence of groups so unlike anything
now existing that no theory as to the climate under which they
existed can be drawn from them, neither is it certain that the habits
and requirements of extinct. animals were similar to their represen-
tatives of the present day. In the chapter devoted to ‘Breaks
in the Geological and Paleeontological Record,” the contemporaneity
of groups of strata is touched on, and it is pointed out by Prof.
Nicholson that this may hold good for strata containing identical.
fossils within the limits of a single geographical region; but when
the distance between the areas where the strata occur is greatly
increased, the case is different, and is accounted for by a migration of
the fauna, rather than that they were contemporaneous in the strictly
literal sense of the term. The Geological and Paleontological records
are considered to be sufficiently extensive to throw the balance of
evidence in favour of the “continuity theory,” as opposed to that
of intermittent and occasional action in the production of life from
the Laurentian upwards to the present day. The interruptions and
breaks in the records are accounted for by the occurrence of an
unconformability between any two sets of strata, supplemented by
metamorphism, and supported by the absence of an appreciable
number of animals, of which no trace is found in the fossil state.
“Thus we arrive,” says Prof. Nicholson, “at the conviction that
continuity is the fundamental law of geology, as it is of the other
sciences, and that the lines of demarcation between the great forma-
tions are but gaps in our own knowledge.”

224 Reviews—Nicholson’s Life- History of the Earth.

Under the ‘Biological Relations of Fossils” we are told that
fossils ‘‘ have relations of the most complicated and weighty character
with the numerous problems connected with the study of living
beings, or, in other words, with the Science of Biology.” To such an
extent is this the case that no adequate comprehension of Zoology
and Botany, in their modern form, is so much as possible without
some acquaintance with the types of animals and plants which have
passed away.”

Passing to the section of the work devoted to Historical Paleeon-
tology, there are a few points to which the attention of our readers
is particularly directed. At the end of each chapter, representing a
geological period, Prof. Nicholson has introduced a list of the more
important and accessible works and memoirs bearing on the period,
or its fossils, treated of, under the general heading “ Literature.”
This feature has already been carried out by some German writers,
notably by Carus and Gerstaecker in their “Handbuch der Zoologie,”
and its adoption by Prof. Nicholson will, we think, be of much
assistance to the student, and add greatly to the value of the work.
The stratigraphical sub-divisions of each period, irrespective of
description, are well shown in the form of woodcuts representing
vertical “generalized sections,” demonstrating the order of suc-
cession of the various groups of strata, in one or other, and
sometimes several of the countries in which the rocks comprising
the period are best developed. Supplementary to these ‘“general-
ized sections” are occasionally given ‘tabular views,” in which
are shown the equivalent sub-divisions of a formation in various
countries, ranged in parallel columns. We can only notice with
brevity a few of the more strictly important paleontological facts
brought forward by the author. The reasons for supposing the
existence of an abundance of life during the Laurentian period are
clearly brought forward. Whilst speaking of Eozoon, the author
considers ‘‘that the balance of evidence up to this moment inclines
decisively to this view” (i.e. as to its organic nature). As a line of
demarcation between the Cambrian and Silurian formations, Dr.
Nicholson takes the Tremadoc slates, as proposed by Dr. Hicks.
The structure of the Graptolites is entered into at some length,
as might be expected from the author’s well-known acquaintance
with this family ; he regards them as an ancient and peculiar group
of Hydroida, and does not accept the Polyzoal affinities advocated by
some writers. With regard to the advent of Vertebrates, we are
reminded that the curious bodies from the Lower Silurian rocks of
Russia, termed Conodonts by Pander, may yet prove to be the teeth
of fishes, recent researches of Prof. Newberry having a tendency to
establish Pander’s original conclusion as correct. We regard Prof.
Nichdlson’s remarks on the Devonian question with keen interest.
With the view that the ‘Devonian formation has in nature no
actual existence,” advocated by some authorities, he does not concur,
but considers that its flora and fauna, as a whole, are quite distinct
both from the Silurian and Carboniferous. ‘This conclusion may be
regarded as sufficiently proved even by the phenomena of the

Reviews—The Paleontographical Society. 225

British area; but it may be said to be rendered a certainty by the
study of the Devonian deposits of the continent of Europe; or, still
more, by the investigation of the vast, for the most part uninter-
rupted and continuous series of sediments which commenced to be
laid down in North America at the beginning of the Upper Silurian,
and did not cease till, at any rate, the close of the Carboniferous.”
This from one who has laboured so extensively as Prof. Nicholson
has done, both as a geologist and paleontologist, amongst the rocks
of that age in North America, is gratifying support to the Devonian
advocates amongst ourselves.

Want of space quite prevents us following Prof. Nicholson step
by step through his very interesting and instructive book, much as
we are tempted to do so. We need only add that the same care
and attention to detail is evinced in dealing with the Secondary and
Tertiary formations as is shown in the earlier parts of the work.
The concluding chapter is on “The Succession of Life upon the
Globe,” in which are summarized some of the principal results
which may be deduced as to the succession of life upon the earth
from the facts which have been passed in review in the preceding
portion of the work.

Without coinciding with Prof. Alleyne Nicholson in all the views
expressed in his latest work, yet we still feel ourselves authorized in
considering the “‘ Ancient Life-History of the Harth” as a desirable
addition to every student’s library, and as a work which will
probably have a tendency to increase the study of Paleontology
amongst us in no small degree. In the event of the book reaching
a second edition, which we have no doubt it will, we would strongly
advocate the insertion of a “generalized section” of the Scottish
Carboniferous rocks for comparison with those of England, the
very marked differences of deposition evinced by the Carboniferous
series in North and South Britain being a point of considerable
interest. Another point, and we have done. How much would the
value of a work like the present be increased by the introduction of
a few generic descriptions—descriptions of genera typical of each
period into which the book is divided—terse, but to the point? We
feel sure that an enlargement to this extent would repay the author
for his trouble as much as it would afford instruction and pleasure
to the reader. The book is printed in an exceedingly clear type,
the illustrations are good, very numerous, and, so far as we are
able to judge, accurate, and the whole work does the publishers
much credit. :

Il.—Works or THE PALMONTOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY.

1.—Monocrarus oF Britisa Fosstts. Published by the Paleonto-
graphical Society. Vol. XXVII. (for 1878). 4to. (London,
1874.)

f¥\HE continued enthusiasm and industry of veteran paleonto-
logists, who have done much for the elucidation of British
fossils in the earlier volumes of these Monographs, again offer
rich stores to both systematic and amateur naturalists.
DECADE I.—VOL, IV.—NO. V. 15

226 Reviews—The Paleontographical Society.

1. Dr. Wright gives part 6th of vol. i. of the Cretaceous Hchino-
derms, especially of the genera Cottaldia, Discoidea, and Hchinoconus.
In treating of the “ Echinoidea exocyclica,” the author takes great
care to define the seven groups in which Breynius, one of the first
and best of early Echinodermatologists, arranged the Kchinidz, with
the synonyms used by others; and he gives a translation of the
rare “‘Schediasma de Echinis,” etc., from Breynius’s “ Dissertatio
physica,” ete., 1732.

2. Mr. Davidson adds to his immense collection of Brachiopodal
literature and iconography some valuable supplemental notes, de-
scriptions, and figures of Tertiary and Cretaceous species, either new
or not sufficiently well known.

This enthusiastic student of Brachiopodal life-forms, having him-
self drawn on stone for the Society upwards of 200 quarto plates,
often crowded with good figures, has thus enabled the Society to
expend considerable sums on the illustration of other subjects,
which would else have waited, perhaps in vain, for costly figuring.

3. Mr. 8S. V. Wood, the veteran geologist of the Crag, contributes
a Supplement to his monographic account of the Bivalves of the
Crag (and this Supplement is a monograph of itself, with 5 plates),
some concluding remarks on the distribution of the Crag fauna, and
an admirable “Synoptical List of Marine Mollusca from the Upper
Tertiaries of the East of England,” with remarks and an analysis of
the list. The stratal grouping adopted’ is (downwards) :

Post-Glacial; Valley Gravel, and Upland and Lowland
Brick-earths.

Gutea" \ Post. Glacial, and Glacial (2).
ravel.
Upper Glacial; the great Chalky Boulder-clay.
Middle Glacial; Sand a wens f Glacial
. The Contorted Drift. Beds.
Lower Glacial { The Pebbly Sand and Pebble-beds.
Chillesford Beds ; Clay and Sand.
Fluvio-marine Beds.
Red Red Crag, excepting the Scrobicularia-beds above, and pa
gf the Walton Crag below. Tag.
Crag. | Older or Walton Red Crag.
Coralline Crag. Whi Gre,

“<The results of the Table indicate,” writes the author, p. 220, ‘‘an almost identical
per-centage of forms not known as living in the case of the older Red Crag and the
Coralline, which is in conflict with the geological break, which I still believe to exist
between the two formations. With the exception of the Middle Glacial column of it,
however, the Table shows very forcibly the diminishing Mediterranean aspect of the
fauna as we ascend in the geological scale. In the Coralline Crag there are fifty-two
Mediterranean forms not living in the British seas, and only twenty of the converse
character; and of these twenty, two, viz. Odostomia Gulsone and Psammobia
tellinella, are Lusitanian. In the Walton Red Crag the respective numbers are
fourteen and thirteen; but in the rest of the Red Crag the British species not living
in the Mediteranean are in number more than double those of the converse character ;
while in the Fluvio-marine Crag these proportions are increased five-fold; and in
the Chillesford beds nineteen-fold. In the Lower Glacial there occur thirteen, in
the Upper Glacial twenty-one, and in the Post-Glacial nineteen British species un-

1 See also the Introduction to this Supplement, Part 1, 1872, by S. V. Wood, Jun.,
F.G.S., and F. W. Harmer, F.G.S.

Reviews—The Paleontographical Society. 227

known in the Mediterranean; but in none of these three deposits does there occur
a single species of the converse character.

“Simultaneously with these features, we find..... a proportional increase of
the Arctic species as we ascend through the Crag and Glacial series; and that even
in the Post-Glacial deposits no less than four out of a total of forty-nine are Arctic
shells of the preceding Glacial Period, which have since receded from the British
coasts.

“The Middle Glacial fauna stands out in some discord with the above; since in it
not only do several Mediterranean species unknown to British seas reappear, but the
proportion which these bear to the number of British species not known in the Medi-
terranean is as eight to twenty-one,—a much larger proportion than exists in the
Fluvio-marine Crag, and altogether beyond. the proportions exhibited by the inter-
vening formations. The explanation is probably to be found in the Molluscan
remains of this deposit having travelled from some distance, as mentioned in the Intro-
duction to this Supplement, p. xxiii. Altogether this Middle Glacial assemblage is a
very interesting one, and the most important of any of the formations succeeding the
Crag. Several of the species which occur in it seem to have disappeared from
the British coast during the earlier part of the Red Cray; and while some of these
are not known living, others are confined to the Mediterranean or other southern
waters.

‘““T have only to add that I am equally convinced with the authors of the Intro-
duction to this work, that the Molluscan remains of the Middle Glacial Sand
(fragmentary and worn as they occur in it) are not derived from any older deposit, but
are contemporaneous with the sand which contains them.”

4. To osteologists, and those who study the fossil dragons of the
Wealden and Purbeck formations, the continued labours of the inde-
fatigable Professor Owen bring grand results in the descriptions and
figures of remains of Iguanodow Mantelli, I. Hoggii (2), I. Foaii,
Hyleochampsa Vectiana. In the same volume the author continues
his researches on the Mesozoic Pterosauria, describing and illus-
trating many relics of Pterodactyles from the Gault, Hastings Beds,
Kimmeridge Clay, Great Oolite, and the Lias.

2.—Monoerarus or Britisn Fossints. Published by the Paleeon-
tographical Society. Vol. XXVIII. (for 1874). 4to. (London,
1874.)

J. This volume has fewer Monographs, or parts, than usual; but
one, and that fortunately a complete work, is bulky in text and
enriched with sixteen plates, which have an average of upwards of
30 figures in each! These (all drawn by G. 8S. Brady, and Jitho-
graphed by T. West and G. West) illustrate the minute Bivalved
Entomostraca which occur plentifully in many clays and loams of
Post-Tertiary date, and have their analogues, and often their exact
representatives, in the existing seas, lakes, and rivers. The Paleon-
tographical Society has already published Monographs by Rupert
Jones on the Cretaceous and Tertiary species; and the present Mono-
graph, by Dr. G. 8. Brady, a first-rate carcinologist, with whom the
Entomostraca are favoured pets, aided by two careful naturalists
and geologists, Messrs. H. W. Crosskey, F.G.S., and D. Robertson,
F.G.S., advances our knowledge of these small, but true and useful
witnesses of past conditions, bringing them en rapport both with
those that are found fossil in older deposits and those now living.
The classification of the Ostracoda (the special group of Bivalved
Entomostraca treated of in this Monograph), according to the shape,

228 Reviews—The Paleontographical Society.

texture, markings, and hingement of the valves, at pages 109-114,
and the synopsis of their genera, based upon the anatomical
characters of the animal, at pp. 115 and 116, will be highly accept-
able to the students both of recent and of fossil specimens ; and
indeed these admirable synopses are full of the latest information,
derived from the researches chiefly of Dr. G. O. Sars, of Norway,
and Dr. Brady himself.

“ Of the 132 species of Ostracoda described in this Monograph, 2+
may be considered to have been inhabitants of fresh or slightly
brackish water, the remaining 108 being strictly marine species.”
The freshwater species are as follows :—

Cypris cinerea, Brady. Candona compressa, Koch.
compressa, Baird. detecta, Miller.
gibba, Ramdohr. lactea, Baird.

——— ovum, Jurine. Potamocypris fulva, Brady.
—— reptans, Baird. Darwinella Stevensoni, B. & R.
— salina, Brady. Limnicythere antigua, n. sp.
virens, Jurine. inopinata, Baird.
levis, Miiller. —— monstrifica, Norman.
Cypridopsis Newton, B. & R. Sancti- Patricti, B. & R.
obesa, B. & R. Oytheridea lacustris, Sars.
Candona albicans, Brady. torosa, Jones.
candida, Miller. Loxoconcha elliptica, Brady.

All except Limnicythere antiqua are known in the living state. Of
the marine forms found in the Post-Tertiary beds there are lists
given,—l. Of those now known as characterizing the Arctic seas
and the northern coasts of Norway, Scotland, and America. 2. Those
now extinct, or unknown in the living state. 3. Those found in the
Glacial and Post-Glacial deposits of Norway. 4. Those found in the
Glacial (and Post-Glacial ?) deposits of Canada.

The Introduction of this Monograph (pp. 1—108) is essentially
geological, being descriptive of the numerous Post-tertiary clays and

sands associated with the beds which have yielded the Ostracods
under notice. In fact this portion of the work is a Monograph on
the Post-tertiary beds of Scotland and the north of England, with
notices of others beyond those limits. After a definition of terms,
our authors proceed to describe: 1. The local varieties of Boulder-
elay, both with and without fossils (pp. 3—10); 2. The varieties of
fossiliferous deposits, not being Boulder-clays and not Post-Glacial
(pp. 11—25); these may be (a.) “immediately beneath the Boulder-
clay, and either Preglacial, Interglacial, or Glacial, without having
any Boulder-clay for their base ;” (.) “between masses of Boulder-
clay ;” (c.) “clays, sands, and gravels characterized by a fauna more
or less intensely Arctic ;” (d.) “clays and sands, characterized by an
Arctic fauna, either immediately overlying Unfossiliferous Boulder-
clay, or separated from it by a thin seam of ‘Laminated Clay.’”
3. The Ostracodiferous beds (pp. 25—92): A. “characterized by an
Arctic fauna ;” B. “the characteristics of the Arctic-shell beds,’’—not
necessarily belonging to one age, and fluctuations of climate may
have taken place; the difference of these Arctic beds summarized ;
C. “series of beds of later date, and not in any way Arctic, indicating
the steps through which the present physical geography of Scotland

Reviews—The Paleontographical Society. 229

has been reached since the retreat of the ice;” (a.) ‘deposits
possibly belonging to a period of warmer-climate conditions than
now exist;” (b.) “series of Post-glacial deposits belonging to the
most recent period of the depression of the land,”—such as Raised
Beaches and Estuarine Muds. 4. ‘General sequence of the Post-
tertiary beds of Scotland,—Preglacial, Harly Glacial, Middle Glacial,
Final Glacial, Early Post-glacial, Middle Post-glacial, and Final
Post-glacial; the termination of the Period being marked by the
most recent elevation of the land” (pp. 93—96). 5. ‘Relationships
between the Glacial fauna of Scotland, the Recent British fauna, and
the Glacial fauna of Norway and Canada, established by Ostracoda
as well as by Mollusca” (pp. 96—99). 6. English, Irish, and
Welsh Post-tertiary deposits examined for Entomostraca (pp. 100—
108).

When we consider that fifty principal localities of the Post-tertiary
Ostracoda are here systematically treated of, we can form some
notion, not only of the mass of geological information brought
together in this Monograph, but of the importance of these minute
fossil Entomostraca among the ‘‘ Medals of Creation.” An elaborate
table of the Distribution of the Fossil Ostracoda over the Post-
tertiary Localities, a copious Table of Contents, and a good Index
of generic and specific names, greatly add to the value of this
Monograph.

The “ Journal of Bores at Garvel Park,” given at p. 44, etc., we
may mention, is not a private diary of self-complacent noodles,
pedants, and witlings at a dull country-house; but a strictly pro-
fessional illustration of the good old mole-like geologist’s motto—
““T bore.”

Il. The next constituent of the 1874 Volume is Part I. of a
Monograph of the British Fossil Bivalved Entomostraca from the
Carboniferous Formations, by T. Rupert Jones, J. W. Kirkby, and
G. 8. Brady; and this first portion is devoted to “the Cypridinadez
and their Allies.” Some parts of the Mountain Limestones of various
countries seem to abound in subglobular bivalve carapaces, and their
loose valves, which approximate in character to various members of
the Cypridinad group; some are also found in the Coal-measures ;
and others in the older Devonian, and even in the Silurian rocks.
They are associated frequently with other Ostracodous valves, such
as Beyrichia, Leperditia, Cytheride, and Cypride@ of various alliances.
In this part of the Monograph we find 15 Cypridine (directly related
to the existing Cypridina) ; 7 Cypridinelle, 9 Cypridelline, 6 Cypri-
delle, and 2 Sulcune, which are genera arranged artificially to
receive several forms of carapace varying by gradational differences
from the valves of the known Cypridina; 2 Cyprelle; 1 Brady-
cinetus; 1 Philomedes; and 2 Rhombine, of which much the same
may be said as of the foregoing; also 4 Entomoconchi, 1 Offa, and
3 Polycopes. The definition of the true Cypriding,—the true alloca-
tion of the several species placed by De Koninck under Cyprella,
Cypridella, and Cypridina,—and a more exact interpretation of
M‘Coy’s Entomoconchus, are (besides many new species) the chief

230 Reviews—The Paleontographical Society.

novelties of this memoir, which is illustrated by five plates (by
George West) very full of excellent figures of these small fossils.

III. Another instalment (No. 2) of Dr. Lycett’s “Monograph of
the British Fossil Trigoniz” concludes this Fasciculus, with his
careful and valuable account of these interesting fossils, chiefly
“Undulate,” with some “ Clavellate” and some “Glabre,” and with
ten exquisite plates of Jurassic Trigoniz, drawn by P. Leckerbauer,
in Paris.

3.—Monocraprus oF THE PaLmonroGRAPHICAL SocreTy For 1875.
Vol. XXIX.
HE study of fossilized organic remains has an ever-increasing
interest,—to the geologist, because thereby he gets the means
of distinguishing one set of strata from another, more and more defi-
nitely according to the exactness by which the remains of successive
creatures are discriminated,—to the biologist, because more and more
of the missing links of the organic world in all its stages are brought
to light,—and to the general observer, because he wishes to know,
for knowledge sake, what manner of creatures were the animals or
plants whose only relics are obscurely enwrapped in the fossiliferous
clay or stone which comes under his notice.

The volume of Monographs (vol. xxix.) issued by the Paleeonto-
graphical Society for 1875 comprises Ist, a communication (Part
iv.) of Mr. Binney’s well-illustrated monographic study of the
Plants found in the Coal-measures of Great Britain. Sigillaria and
Stigmaria are the special objects in hand, and are elucidated by
numerous microscopic observations on slices of well-preserved speci-
mens from the author’s rich collection, and beautifully drawn by
Fitch. He here gives a bibliographic summary of the present state
of our knowledge on the structure of Sigillaria and allied plants
(Anabathra, Diploxylon, etc.) ; together with further information on
Sigillaria vascularis, Binney, a description of a Stigmaria agreeing
with that plant in structure, and special notes on the base of Sigil-
laria and the rootlets of Stigmaria.

2nd.—Dr. Wright’s continuation of his Cretaceous Echinodermata,
such as the Echinoconide, Echinonide, Echinobrisside, Echinolampide,
and Spatangide; these are illustrated by many excellent figures by
the late C. Bone.

3rd.—Part 3 of Dr. Lycett’s Monograph on the British fossil
Trigonie (beautifully drawn by Leckerbauer). Like the foregoing,
this is very welcome to British paleontologists, whether they wish
to have the natural history and synonymy of these important
groups soundly settled, or to be able to arrange their specimens
systematically in their cabinets.

4th.—The remains of Bothriospondylus from the Forest-marble and
the Kimmeridge Clay enable Prof. Owen to demonstrate the presence
of true Saurian, and absence of Ornithic characters in this great
Reptile. The short Monograph on the genus Cetiosaurus, pp. 27-—
43, concentrates and criticizes what has been hitherto published on
this great aquatic Dinosaur, as exemplified by the magnificent

Reviews—The Paleontographical Society. 231

specimens of C. longus, Owen, in the Oxford Museum. The fine
series of remains of a gigantic Cetiosauroid Dinosaur (Omosaurus
armatus, Owen), from the Kimmeridge Clay at Swindon, furnishes
material for a Monograph, with twelve large plates beautifully
drawn by C. L. Griesbach; and enables Prof. Owen to enlarge upon
the “life and affinities of Dinosauria, as elucidated by the known
character of Omosaurus.” The classification of fossil Saurians by
H. von Meyer, and the opinions of Prof. Huxley as to the ornithic
affinities of the Dinosaurs, are criticized in detail; and the relative
- smallness of the fore-legs of these great Reptiles is regarded as
analogous to that in swimming Crocodiles, and not as having refer-
ence to an upright position on their hind-legs in moving on the land.

4.—MoNOGRAPHS OF THE PALMONTOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY FOR 1876.

HE volume for 1876 (vol. xxx.) has (1st) a short Supplement to
Prof.Owen’s Fossil Reptilia of the Wealden Formation, in which he
describes and illustrates a new species of Poikilopleuron (P. pusillus,
Owen), with its cavernous vertebree, in which ossification had been
arrested; also a new genus of gigantic and probably Dinosaurian
Reptiles, in which such chondrosal cavities, due to the partial re-
tainment of the primitive chondrine, are very characteristic. Two
species of this great Chondrosteosaurus are known from the Wealden
(one of them had been previously referred to Bothriospondylus).
2nd.—The British Fossil Brachiopoda are further elucidated and
systematized by Mr. Davidson, who has enthusiastically devoted so
much time and labour to mastering and explaining the characters and
relationships of this most interesting group of shells. Those of the
Triassic and Jurassic species which had previously escaped notice
are now described, and additional notes on those already known
enhance the value of this magnificent Monograph. Plates IX. to
XVI. are given with this portion, and illustrate the Jurassic Treten-
terata and Clistenterata.
3rd.—H. B. Brady’s Monograph of Carboniferous and Permian
Foraminifera (the genus Fusulina excepted), 166 pages, with 12
plates, is one of the most exhaustive and perfect Monographs yet
supplied by the Paleeontographical Society. The Introduction tells
of the history of the undertaking, and enumerates the author’s fellow-
workers and helpers. Under ‘‘General Considerations ” he tells us
of the relationship of limestones and Foraminifera; pointing out that
only some limited portions of the Mountain-limestone appear to be
formed of Foraminifera in the British and West-Huropean area,
though Fusulina constitutes enormous masses of that limestone in
Russia and North America. Indeed, he considers that there are large
areas of this limestone where the sea appears to have deposited its
excess of mineral constituents by chemical precipitation, resulting in
concretional, spheroidal, or oolitic structures ; organic remains, if not
absent, having been either dissolved or masked. The rationale of
the necessary physical conditions and changes is briefly explained.
The occasional presence of Foraminifera in prepared slices of the
British Carboniferous and Permian limestones (for these formations

232 Reviews—The Paleontographical Society.

are treated of together), and the more frequent opportunities of
finding them afforded by the disintegrated shaly wayboards, or
partings, of the limestone, are also noticed.

The “ Zoological Considerations,” of especial interest to the Rhizo-
podist, comprise a critical review of von Reuss’ and Carpenter’s
classifications of Foraminifera, and a general comparison of the
generic forms known in the Carboniferous strata with those now
living. The conclusions arrived at are—I1st. The prevalent forms
(except Fusulina) in the Carboniferous and Permian limestones do
not belong strictly to either of the two sub-orders (Imperforata and
Perforata) into which Foraminifera have been divided, but to inter-
mediate types (especially Trochammina, Valvulina, Endothyra, Nodo-
sinella, and Stacheia), neither invariably arenaceous nor uniformly
perforate in their shell-texture. 2nd. In the modifications of these
primitive intermediate types there are some varieties conspicuously
sandy and imperforate, others essentially hyaline and porous; and
these varietal peculiarities seem to have been transmitted as perma-
nent characters, thereby originating the two parallel isomorphic
series. 3rd. The porcellanous imperforate group (iliolida) is of
later creation, judging from negative evidence. 4th. The Permian
Rhizopod-fauna is much more limited than the Carboniferous, being
confined to five generic types (Trochammina, Nodosinella, Nodosaria,
Textularia, and Fusulina), representing, however, at least four dis-
tinct families of Foraminifera, which in the Carboniferous rocks are
represented by fifteen genera,

In the “ Geological and Geographical” section, Mr. Brady gives a
catalogue of the localities from which, with the aid of many friends,
he obtained the Foraminifera described and figured in this Mono-
graph. The exact geological horizon is duly indicated, whenever
ascertained. The North of England, Midland Counties and Wales,
Bristol District, Scotland, Ireland, Belgium, Russia, and North
America are the regions, subdivided into many districts, whence
have come the 142 specimens of Carboniferous rocks, which yielded
Foraminifera to Mr. H. B. Brady’s careful, and indeed laborious,
examination. Very many specimens of the Magnesian Limestone of
England and Ireland, and the Zechstein and Kupferschiefer of
Germany have been thoroughly searched by our indefatigable author
for the Permian Foraminifers.

The “ Bibliography,” pp. 51-55, comprises the titles and dates of
the books and memoirs referred to in the Monograph; they reach
from 1826 to 1876.

The following genera and species are described and figured. The
plates have been exquisitely lithographed by A. T. Hollick after Mr.
Brady’s drawings :—

SaccaMmina, Sars. Curmacammtina, Brady.
Carteri, Brady. antiqua, Brady.
Lirvora, Lamarck. TrocuammMina, Parker & Jones.
nautiloidea, Lamarck. incerta (dOrbigny).
Bennieana, nov. centrifuga, Brady.
Harioruracmium, Reuss. anceps, Nov.

rectum (Brady). annularis, NOV.

Reports and Proceedings. 233

TROCHAMMINA, Parker & Jones.
gordialis, Parker & Jones.
pusilla (Geinitz).
milioloides, P., J.. & K.
Robertsont, nov.

Jilum (Schmid).

Vatvutina, d’Orbigny.
paleotrochus (Ehrenb.).

Youngi, Brady.
—— var. contraria, Brady.
decurrens, Brady.
plicata, Brady.
bulloides, Nov.
rudis, Nov.
Enpotayra, Phillips.
Bowmani, Phillips.
ammonoides, Brady.
globulus (d’ Hichwald).
crassa (Brady).
radiata (Brady).
macella (Brady).
ornata (Brady).
—— var. tenis, NOV.
obligua (Brady).
subtilissima, DOV.
NoDOSINELLA, gen. nov.
digitata, Nov.
NopostnELia, cylindrica, nov.
priscilla (Dawson).
concinnia, Nov.
lingulinoides, Nov.
STACHEIA, gen. nov.
marginulinoides, DOV.
Susiformis, nov.

var. compressa, Brady.

STACHEIA, gen. nov.
pupoides, nov.
acervalis (Brady).
congesta, NOV.
polytrematoides, NOV.
Lacena, Walker & Jacob.
Parkeriana, nov.
Howchiniana, nov.
Lebourtana, nov.
Noposaria, Lamarck.
radicula (Linne).
Denratina, D’Orbigny.
communis, d Orbigny.
multicostata, @ Orbigny.
Textunarta, Defrance.
gibbosa, @ Orbigny.
eximia, a’ Hichwald.
Jonesi, NOV.
triticum, Jones.
multilocularis, Reuss.
BIGENERINA, @’ Orbigny.
patula, NOV.
Truncatuiina, d Orbigny.
carbonifera, Nov.
Boueana, @ Orbigny.
Putvinuina, Parker & Jones.
Broeckiana, noy.
Caucarina, d’ Orbigny.
ambigua, Nov.
Arcuzpiscus, Brady.
Karreri, Brady.
Amputstecina, d’Orbigny.
minuta, NOV.
Nummutina, d Orbigny.
pristina, Brady.

The exposition of the structure of Valvulina and Endothyra and
their interesting subarenaceous allies, already noticed,—and the dis-
covery of the Rotaline (Truncatulina, Pulvinulina, Calearina), and of
the Nummulinide, (Archediscus, Amphistegina, and Nummulina) in
the Carboniferous Limestones, are some of the most important points
in this excellent Monograph; and its value is greatly enhanced by
eight elaborate Tables, special and general, showing in great detail
the geological and geographical distribution of the 58 species, accord-
ing to their localities and stratal horizons in the many districts
whence they were obtained. A perfect Index for genera and species
and their synonyms completes the volume. Ao lets de

REPORTS AND PROCHHDINGS.

—_@——__

GrotogicaL Soctrty or Lonpon.—I.—March 21st, 1877.—Prof.
P. Martin Duncan, M.B., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The following communications were read :—

1. “On the Strata and their Fossil Contents between the Borrow-
dale Series of the North of England and the Coniston Flags.” By
Prof. Robert Harkness, F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in
Queen’s College, Cork, and H. Alleyne Nicholson, M.D., D.Sc.,

234 Reports and Proceedings—

F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor of Natural History in the University of
St. Andrews.

The object of this paper was the investigation of the strata
between the great volcanic series of the Lake-district, the Borrow-
dale rocks, and the sedimentary rocks called Coniston Flags by
Prof. Sedgwick. The Borrowdale series, the Green Slates and
Porphyries of Sedgwick, are underlain by the Skiddaw Slates,
forming the base of the Silurian series, and equivalent in age to the
Arenig rocks of Wales, according to their fossil contents. The
Borrowdale rocks consist of ashes and breccias, alternating with
ancient lavas, and are partly subaerial, partly submarine. ‘They
contain no fossils except in a band of calcareous ashes near the
summit of the group, which is followed by the Conistone Limestone,
with or without the intervention of a bed of trap. The fossils are
of Bala types. Sometimes this band is recognizable, with no traces
of fossils except cavities filled with peroxide of iron. The authors
regard this as proving the prevalence of volcanic activity in the
Lake District up to the later portion of the Bala period.

The deposits specially discussed in the paper sent, lie, apparently
quite conformably, upon the Borrowdale rocks, and are grouped by
the authors as foliows, in ascending order :—

1. Dufton Shales.

2. Coniston Limestones and Shales.

3. Graptolitic Mudstones or Skelgill Beds.
4. Knock Beds.

The “ Dufton Shales” are a well-marked, but locally distributed
group of muddy deposits, especially well developed in the Silurian
area underlying the Cross Fell range, where they are seen in four
principal exposures, and their thickness probably exceeds 300 feet.
They are richly fossiliferous, the fossils being generally of Bala
types; and they may be regarded as forming, paleontologically, the
base of the Coniston Limestone. The fossils sometimes occur in
ash-beds; and the continuance of these conditions leads the authors
to believe that there was no break between these shales and the
underlying Borrowdale rocks.

The “Coniston Limestone” has long been recognized as the best-
defined division of the Lower Silurian rocks of the north of England.
Its range and characters, and those of the associated shales in
different localities, are indicated by the authors; and from the con-
tained fossils, they refer it, at least approximately, to the horizon of
the Welsh Bala Limestone, whilst they regard it as the precise equi-
valent of the Lower Silurian of Portraine (co. Dublin), and of that
of the Chair of Kildare, both of which are of Bala age.

The “Graptolitic Mudstones” overlie the Coniston Limestone,
wherever the summit of the latter is to be seen. Besides Grapto-
lites, they contain many other fossils, including Corals, Brachiopods,
Cephalopods, and Crustaceans; and from the consideration of the
whole fauna, the authors are led to believe that the position of these
deposits must correspond either with the highest beds of the Bala
series, or with the lower portion of the Llandovery group. In their

Geological Society of London. 230

opinion, there is perfect conformity between the Mudstones and the
underlying Coniston Limestone. They regard the Graptolitic Mud-
stones as constituting a definite geological horizon of more than
local importance, as they have been recognized in Ireland, Sweden,
Carinthia, and Bohemia.

The Graptolitic Mudstones are succeeded by the “ Knock beds,”
so called from their great development in Swindale Beck, near
Knock. Wherever they occur, they consist chiefly of pale-green,
fine-grained slates, very ashy in appearance, and presenting many
dendrites, and frequently crystals of cubic pyrites. There is no
evidence of unconformity between them and the underlying Mud-
stones. The former contain scarcely any fossils. They are directly
surmounted by the “Coniston Flags,” representing the Denbighshire
Flags of North Wales, which have been shown to be of Upper
Silurian age. Hence the authors conclude that the Knock beds
must be either the basement series of the Upper, or the summit
series of the Lower Silurian, or else a group of passage-beds between
the two. The paleontological evidence is insufficient to settle the
point, but it tends to show that the Knock beds are at the base of
the Upper Silurian, an opinion which is corroborated by their
lithological resemblance to the Tarannon slates of Wales.

The paper concluded with’ an appendix on the Irish rocks referred
to above.

2. “On a new Area of Upper Cambrian Rocks in South Shrop-
shire, with the Description of a new Fauna.” By C. Callaway, Hsq.,
Me Aer te GS:

The purpose of the author was to prove that certain olive, mica-
ceous, thin-bedded shales exposed at Shineton, near Cressage, and
covering an area of eight miles in length by two in the greatest
breadth, which had been mapped as Caradoc in the survey, were of
Tremadoe age. ‘They were seen clearly to underlie the Hoar Edge
Grit, the lowest beds in the district, with Caradoc fossils; and no
rock distinctly underlying the shales could te detected. The evi-
dence for their age was chiefly paleontological. With the exception
of Asaphus Homfrayi, a Tremadoc form, the species are new.
Genera such as Olenus, Conocoryphe, Obolella, and Lingulella,
suggested a very low horizon, but two Asaphoid forms (though not
typical Asaphi) pointed in an opposite direction. Corroborative
evidence was found in a correlation of the shales at Shineton with
the Dictyonema-shales at Pedwardine and Malvern. It was shown
from lithological characters and from fossils that the shales at the
three localities were of the same age; and as the beds at Pedwar-
dine and Malvern were, on their own testimony, admitted to be of
Lingula-flag or Tremadoc age, the Shineton shales were inferred to
be on the same horizon, the Asaphids leading the author to adopt
the younger of the two formations. He was of opinion that the
Black Shales of Malvern (Dolgelly beds) were not represented in
the Shineton area. He announced the discovery of the Hollybush
Sandstone, forming a continuous band between the Shineton Shales
and the Wrekin axis, recognized by the occurrence of utorgina

236 Reports and Proceedings—

cingulata, and probably separated from the shales by a fault. This
also afforded corroborative evidence of the identity of the Dictyonema-
shales with the shales at Shineton.

IJ.—April 11th, 1877.—Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.B., F.RB.S.,
President, in the Chair.

Shells from raised beaches, Blackcliff Bay and Port Foulke, lat.
82° 35’ N., were presented to the Museum by Lieut. George le Clere
HKgerton, R.N.

The following communications were read :—

1. “On Sandworn Stones from New Zealand.” By John D.
Enys, Esq., F.G.S.

The author exhibited specimens of sandworn pebbles from near
Wellington in New Zealand, and described their mode of occurrence.
They are found on an isthmus rising but little above the sea, and
about a mile wide, and having on each side a line of low sand-hills,
separated by a flat space of clayey sand, on which the stones rest.
The isthmus separates two bays, on each side of which the ground
is high, and hence the prevailing winds (which are north-west and
south-east) blow across the isthmus with considerable force, and
carry with them a cloud of sand, which, on a windy day, forms
a dense mass, reaching about to the knees of a person walking over
the ground. The passage of this moving sand over the stones or
pebbles lying on the surface wears them away so as to give them
sloping sides, and even to bring them to an angle or ridge running
along the upper surface, the direction of the longer axis of the stone
with respect to the prevailing wind governing the particular form
assumed by the worn stone. Where veins of harder material occur
in the stones, these are left projecting from the surface, and are
sometimes even undercut.

2. “The Bone-caves of Creswell Crags.’—Third Paper. By the
Rev. J. Magens Mello, M.A., F.G.S.

In this paper the author gave an account of the continued explora-
tion of these caves, and of the completion of the examination of the
Robin Hood Cave, noticed in his previous communications. Five
deposits could be distinguished in the Robin Hood Cave, namely,
when all present :—

1. Stalagmite, 2 ft.

2. Breccia, with bones and flint implements, 1 ft. 6 in.
3. Cave-earth, with bones and implements, 1 ft. 9 in.

4. Mottled bed, with bones and implements, 2 ft.

5. Red sand, with bones and quartzite implements, 3 ft.

Variations both in thickness and in character occur in different
parts of the cave. The surface-soil yielded traces of Romano-British
occupation, such as enamelled bronze fibule, fragments of pottery,
&c. ‘The most important discoveries were made in the cave-earth,
and chief among these was a fragment of bone, having on it a well-
executed outline of the head and neck of a horse, the first recorded
discovery of any such work of art in this country. The cave-earth
also yielded a canine of Machairodus latidens, hitherto obtained in

Geological Society of London. 237

England only in Kent’s Hole. Numerous remains of the Pleistocene
mammalia already recorded were found, together with a great
number of implements of quartzite and flints, and two of clay iron-
stone. The quartzite implements were most abundant in the lowest
bed.

In the other cave examined, the Church Hole, which consists
principally of a long fissure in the south side of the crags opposite
Robin Hood’s Cave, the succession of beds was nearly the same as
in the latter. In the surface-soil near its mouth a fine bronze
brooch was found. Some of the implements met with in the cave-
earth were of great interest, and several of them were of bone.
Bones of Rhinoceros were found in great abundance; and those of
the Mammoth, Horse, ete., were also plentiful.

As the result of the exploration of these caverns, the author said
it is evident that during the Pleistocene period Derbyshire and the
adjoining counties were inhabited by a very numerous and diversified
fauna, the vast forests and pastures which extended far to the east
and south offering a congenial home to the Mammoth, the Woolly
Rhinoceros, the Hippopotamus, the Irish Elk, the Reindeer, the
Bison, and the Horse, whilst among them the Hyzena, the Glutton,
the Bear, the Lion, the Wolf, the Fox, and the great sabre-toothed
Machairodus, roamed in search of prey; and that with these and
other animals man lived and waged a more or less precarious
struggle, amidst the vicissitudes of a varying climate, sheltering
himself in the numerous caves of the district, which were already
the haunts of the hyzena and its companions.

3. “On the Mammal-fauna of the Caves of Creswell Crags.” By
~ Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A., F.RB.S., F.G.8.

In this paper the author gave an account of the remains found in
the caves explored by the Rev. J. M. Mello. He stated that the
recent explorations had proved that the Robin Hood Cave was
inhabited by Hyzenas, not only during the deposition of the cave-
earth and breccia, but also during that of the red-sand clay under-
lying it, which had also furnished traces of the existence of man.
An immense number of specimens were collected in this cavern,
including bones of the following animals :—Machairodus latidens,
Cave-Lion, Wild Cat, Leopard, Spotted Hyzna**, Fox**, Wolf, Bear,
Reindeer*, Irish Elk*, Bison*, Horse**, Woolly Rhinoceros*,
Mammoth*, and Hare**; those marked with * occurring in the
red sand and clay as well as in the cave-earth, although: much more
sparingly. The traces of man consisted of more than 1000 imple-
ments; and, as before, those made of quartzite were generally found
in the lower strata. The most important indication of human
handiwork was the outline of the head and fore-quarters of a horse,
engraved upon the fragment of the rib of some animal. Among
the animal-remains the most interesting discovery was that of a
canine of Machairodus latidens; it consisted of the sabre-shaped
crown only, which appeared to have been purposely broken away
from the root.

The superficial layer of earth in the cave contained remains be-

238 Correspondence—E, Wilson.

longing to the historic and prehistoric. ages, including a Romano-
British enamelled bronze brooch, of the same pattern as one found
in the Victoria Cave; fragments of pottery, human bones and teeth,
and bones of both wild and domestic animals.

The distribution of the remains found in the Church Hole Cave
agreed generally with that above described; traces of human occu-
pation and remains of the Hyzena occurred both in the cave-earth
and in the red sand and clay. The bones found indicated the
following animals :—Lion, Polecat, Hyena, Fox, Wolf, Bear, Rein-
deer, Irish Elk, Bison, Horse, Woolly Rhinoceros, Mammoth, and
Hare—all common to both the cave-deposits, except the Lion, which
was found only in the cave-earth, and the Poleeat, of which a single
jaw occurred in the red sand. The latter contained a larger propor-
tion of the remains than in the Robin Hood Cave, but, as in the
latter, the quartzite implements were more abundant in the lower
strata of the deposits. Among the articles of human workmanship
was a perfect and well-shaped bone needle. The superficial soil
of the Church Hole Cave also contained articles of the historic and
prehistoric age, including a bronze fibula, fragments of pottery
(one medieval), and bones of man and animals. From the pre-
sence of these objects in the surface-soil the author inferred that
the caves of Creswell Crags, like those of Yorkshire and else-
where, were used as places of refuge by the Brit-welsh during the
conquest of the country by the English.

After noticing the conditions of the fossil bones found in the
caves, the author proceeded to remark upon the general results of
the explorations with regard to their Pleistocene fauna, and con-
cluded that there is no evidence from these or other caves in this
country to prove that their faunas are either pre- or interglacial,
and that we have no proof of the existence of pre- or interglacial
man in Britain.

CORRESPONDENCE.

Re ae
THE MAGNESIAN LIMESTONE AND NEW RED SANDSTONE IN
THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF NOTTINGHAM.

Srr,—Assuming that I am one of the “local geologists” referred
to by Mr. Aveline in his notice on the above subject, published in
the April Number of the Gronocican Magazine, 1 must, speaking
for myself alone, take exception (1) to his definition of my position,
and (2) to the necessity for the inference that he draws from facts
in themselves not open to question. In a paper on the Permians of
this district, Q. J. G. S. Nov. 1876, I briefly referred to a series of
sandstones, marls, and breccia, that I had long since noticed in the
neighbourhood of Nottingham to intervene between the typical
Lower Bunter (f') and the Middle Permian marls (e*). On
account of their combining the textural characters of both these
sub-formations, it became extremely difficult to relegate them to one
or the other; and some geologists were inclined to class them as
passage-beds. In the above paper and accompanying section it was

Correspondence—E. Wilson. 23

my intention to refer to, but not to sanction this idea, as an impartial
critic will, I think, readily perceive. To speak candidly, these beds
require further study before their precise relationship can be satis-
factorily determined.

While by no means prepared to affirm that “a perfect conformity
exists between the Magnesian Limestone and the New Red (meaning
Bunter) Sandstone in the N.E. of England,” I differ widely from
Mr. Aveline, in his view that there is proof of a great break between
these formations. In support of this position, he cites the successive
overlaps of the Upper Permian Marls and Limestone, Middle Marls
and Lower Limestone, by the Bunter Sandstone, going south, from
the district north of Worksop, to the latitude of Nottingham.

But has it ever occurred to him that all these cases may be of the
nature of conformable overlaps? My own experience of the Marl
Slate, Lower Magnesian Limestone, and Middle Marls of this dis-
trict, founded on accumulated data, not attainable in Mr. Aveline’s
time, convinces me that there is a general tendency in these sub-
formations to attenuate inter se, as also to become coarser in texture,
when followed from the north or north-east towards the south or
south-west. To cite one or two instances of this. The attenuating
Lower Magnesian Limestone, which, for the last few miles of its
southern extension, has become in great part a flaggy, sandy, and
even conglomeratic rock, dies out as a coarse brecciated littoral
deposit. The Middle Marls! have just previously faded away.
Simultaneously, the Marl Slate series has diminished from 60 or 70
feet of shales (mostly), to 20 feet of sandstones (mostly), and from
that to nil, when the basal Permian, a coarse brecciated rock, comes
directly beneath the last degraded relic of the Magnesian Limestone.?
These facts in my opinion point to the existence of an inter-Permian
marginal barrier immediately to the south, and somewhat more
remotely to the west, and to successive synchronous increments of
subsidence in the opposite directions.

I do not believe that any of the above rock series ever
stretched appreciably further south than they do now. Extending
this reasoning to the Upper Magnesian Limestone and uppermost
Permian Marls (as to which my data is admittedly more limited),
I would suggest that they never extended appreciably further south
than they respectively do now, and that their southerly disappear-
ance is due to analogous causes. Successive increments of subsidence
in a north-easterly direction will account for these phenomena.
Inter-Bunter-Permian denudations will not. Small local irregu-
larities undoubtedly exist between the Lower Bunter and (the

1 The persistent outcrop of this thin and denudable series between the Mag-
nesian Limestone and Lower Bunter formations negatives the idea of any great
amount of denudation between these two periods in this neighbourhood.

* It thus appears that the Magnesian Limestone overlaps its own Marl Slate base,
with which it appears to be perfectly conformable. Yet no one supposes there is a
‘great break” between them. Had, however, this overlap been concealed by a cloak of
Lower Bunter, that formation, and not the Magnesian Limestone, would have been
credited therewith, and the fact cited as an additional proof of the great break
between the Permian and New Red Sandstone periods.

240 Correspondence—Dr. R. H. Traquair.

marginal) portions of certain of the Permian sub-divisions owing
to the minor oscillations, resulting in partial failures of deposition
and paltry denudations, to which all shallow-water deposits of
limited thickness are liable. These were, however, probably mostly
inter- rather than post-Permian. Such, for instance, are the cases
mentioned in the Survey Memoirs, near Mansfield and Tadcaster,
where Middle Permian Marls rest on an eroded surface of the Lower
. Magnesian Limestone, which at the former place is full of false
bedding, and at both exhibits signs of having been sufficiently close
to the surface to have locally curtailed or even entirely excluded the
deposition of the Middle Marls. I would insist on the importance
of discriminating between what is the result of contemporaneous
influences (great and small), and what of subsequent causes, in
limiting the extension of the Permian formations. If we consent to
exclude all evidence that is not provably post-Permian, I think we
have yet to learn the grounds for considering that there was in the
above district any ‘considerable break” between the Permian and
the Bunter.

It is with no small gratification that -I find so eminent a Govern-
ment Surveyor as Mr. Aveline is willing to admit that the great
break in this district is, as I, have laboured in my paper to show, at
the bottom and not at the top of the Permians, and that he has
become converted to the opinion that the “‘ Lower Red Sandstone”
is a myth. EK. Witson.

NorrincuHamM, 15th April, 1877.

MONOGRAPH ON BRITISH CARBONIFEROUS GANOIDS.

Str,—Will you kindly permit me, through the medinm of your
Journal, to correct and apologize for a very awkward blunder, which
occurs in the first part of my monograph on British Carboniferous
Ganoids, recently published by the Palzontographical Society ? In
the Introduction I have advocated the retention of the Dipnoi as a
distinct order of fishes; but at p. 41, in a manner unaccountable to
myself, for I certainly did not mean it, I have included them as a
suborder of the Ganoidei. That this “slip of the pen” was not
detected in the revision of the proofs must have been due to an
amount of carelessness, of which I am justly ashamed.

April 2. R. H. Traqvarr.

CARBONIFEROUS GANOoID FisHESs.—ERRATA.

Page 7, line 24, deete ‘‘ which.”
» 12 4, 11, for “Egerton” read “ Agassiz.’’
» 14 ,, 8, for “interclavicular” read ‘‘infraclavicular.”
» 16 ,, 28, insert a ‘*(’? before * Elonichthys.”
28 ,, 34, for “or” read “on.”
38 ,, 31, for “centre” read “ centra.”
41 ,, 34, delete ‘Suborder I. Dipnoi.”
» 41 4, 35, for “II.” read “Suborder I.”
» 41 4,° 86, for “TIT.” read “11.”
oy A oy) ES, iyete SOU? Grane, SS WIT
be Ce SON eget EIN

bare

Me

fala

GEOL.MAG.1877. New Series. DECADE ILVOL.IV.PLATE XII.

14 15° ©)

ise

G.Snarmoan delet lithe W. West & Co.imp.

Mollusca Carboniferous.

* Seotlan Gl.

THE

GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE.

NEW SERIESS "DECADE Ih -VOED NIV.

No. VI—JUNE, 1877.

@iz ts Ga IN AS PASE UE @ ae meass

———>——

J.—FurtHEeR ContrisuTions To British CARBONIFEROUS
PALHONTOLOGY.
By R. Eruzriner, Junior, F.G.S.
(PLATE XII.)
Class LaMELLIBRANCHIATA. Genus Prcrey, Bruguicre.
Pecien (Amussium?) Sowerbii, M‘Coy. Plate XU. Figs. 1-3.

N the Groroctoat Magazine for July, 1874,'I gave a description
and figures of this species, and also that of a shell I referred
with some hesitation to Aviculopecten ellipticus, Phillips, closely re-
sembling the forms referred to P. Sowerbii, but differing in the form
of the ears, which are after the normal type of the Pectinide, and not
connate, with a re-entering angle between them, as in P. Sowerbii.
In the above description, and in a note succeeding it,” I stated that I
had seen traces of the characteristic y-strie of P. Sowerbii on the
shells referred by me to A. ellipticus. I had at the time some doubts
in my own mind as to the propriety of the reference of these shells
to A. ellipticus, Phill., and now, after consideration and examination
of a further large series of specimens, I am convinced that the shell
I figured as A. ellipticus is nothing more than the opposite valve of
P. Sowerbii, M‘Coy; and that I was too hasty in placing it under the
name of Phillips’s shell. In other words, one valve of P. Sowerbu
has the ears connate, with a re-entering angle between them, and the
shell very frequently showing the y-striz (Fig. 1); the other has the
ears after the usual form, and the shell only occasionally showing
the peculiar strive (Figs. 2 &3). Both forms are constantly associated
together, often to the exclusion of other members of the Pectinide,
and they exhibit several characters in common with one another,
such as puckering or shrivelling of the shell, the lateral grooves
from the beaks, and the ears, although differing in form, still striated
similarly. Ifa glance is given at one of my former figures,* a point
I then neglected to draw attention to will become apparent, viz.
that there is a decided indication in the ears of the figure that the
Specimen represents the compressed valves in apposition. My
colleague, Mr. W. Hellier Baily, has given a figure* of this species
which corroborates my reading of the subject. His figure exhibits
the simple small ears, and the shell without y-strie, but having some
! Dec. II. Vol. I. p. 300, Pl. XIII. Figs. 1 and 2. 2 p. 804.
© G- Vals QD Waies oe 4 Figures Char. Brit. Foss., vol. i. pl. 39, fig. 3.
DECADE II.—VOL, IV,—NO. VI. 16

242 Rk. Ktheridge, Jun.—Contributions to British Paleontology.

beautiful colour markings preserved on it. In an interesting paper
lately published, “On New and Peculiar Mollusca of the Pecien,
Mytilus and Arca Families procured in the ‘ Valorous’ Expedition,” !
Dr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, F.R.S., re-defines the genus Amussium as
follows: ‘Shell inequivalve, more or less circular, flattened, smooth
or variously sculptured, furnished inside with slight ribs, which
radiate from the hinge, and are not impressions of outside markings,
but are quite irrespective of them.”

Pecten Sowerbii was referred by Prof. M‘Coy in his second de-
scription of the shell? to the genus Amussium, a reference which is
considerably strengthened by the inequality which must exist from
the peculiar form of the ears in the two valves, and by the more or
less circular or oval flattened form. To complete the analogy we
only require the interior radiating ribs, which have not yet come
under my own observation in this species. There are also certain
analogies with the genus Pseud-amussium, to which it has been referred
by Prof. de Koninck,*® but even more so with the genus Entolium,
Meek. I have lately had an opportunity, through the kindness of my
friend Dr. Bigsby, F.R.S., of seeing Hayden’s Final Report on the
U.S. Geological Survey of Nebraska, in which Mr. Meek gives a
description of Entolium (Pecten) aviculatum, Swallow.* The genus
Entolium was founded by Meek on Pecten demissus, Phill., an Oolite
shell possessing a very peculiar hinge structure, well figured by
Quenstedt. ‘I am not sure the group,” says Mr. Meek, “is more
than sub-generically distinct from Pseud-amussium, Brug. It differs
from Amussium mainly in having no internal coste, and in having
the valves more nearly equal, with, sometimes, minute radiating
strie, and no traces of a sinus under the anterior ear in either valve.
The species known to me have the cardinal margin of the left valve
angulated in outline by the elevation of the extremity of the ears,
while that of the right valve appears to be straight, and articulated
in a little transverse groove of the other valve, not always defined
however. .... The cartilage pit is as in other allied types of the
Pectinide, while diverging from it are two other tooth-lke ridges.
These, however, do not seem to have been properly teeth, fitting
into sockets, but appear to have been a little raised in both valves,
and occupy a position between the ears and the broad diverging im-
pressions, descending obliquely from the beaks.” °

Externally, E. aviculatum is almost identical with our P. Sowerbii,
a fact which has not escaped the observation of Mr. Meek; but I have
never as yet seen the above structure in the hinge of the latter, and
therefore, for the present, I refrain from definitely referring P. Sowerbii
to Entolium, as Mr. Meek has done.’ The two forms certainly bear
a very great resemblance to one another, even to the presence of
the y-striz in Hntolium. Mr. Meek assigned certain characters on
which he based a specific distinction between the two forms, one
being the presence of a number of “minute obscure radiating striae” ;

1 Annals Nat. Hist. 1876, vol. xviii. p. 424. 2 Brit. Pal. Foss. p. 478.

5 Mon. Foss. Carb. Bleiberg en Carenthie, 1873, p. 94.

4p. 189. 5 ahid. p. 190. 6 Pl, xix. fig. 13.

R. Etheridge, Jun.—Contributions to British Paleontology. 243

but in my former description of P. Sowerbii I noticed a number of
fine lines to be seen in the substance of the shell rather than on it,
especially when the shell is held at an oblique angle. Through
the kindness of Mr. A. Patton I am now able to figure this (Fig. 1).
Mr. Meek further remarked on the presence of the y-striz nearly
always on one valve only—a character particularly coinciding with
our shell, and adds that the y-striz are possibly a “sort of effort
at internal markings, of a very different kind, but in some respects
analogous to the internal costae of Amussium.”

Genus AvicutopecrEN, M‘Coy, 1851. (Annals Nat. Hist., vii. p. 171.)
Aviculopecten papyraceus, Sow. Plate XII. Figs. 4 and 6.

Obs.—I give a figure of one of several specimens well preserved
in a dark limestone from the English Lower Coal-measures. The
extreme variation in the ribbing of the same individual is remark-
able. The flattened spaces between the primary ribs or ridges are
sometimes plain, or subdivided by one large interpolated rib from
the margin, which does not reach the beak, or by two smaller ribs
which ultimately unite and become one. In the case of the last-
named variation, the two interpolated ribs are separated by a less
space than separates each of them from its contiguous primary ribs.
The specimens before me are all left valves, and have the anterior
ear ornamented with from five to six radiating ribs. The posterior
margins of all but one specimen are rounded, and form, with the
hinge-line, well-marked but obtuse angles. In the exception the
posterior margin is slightly sigmoidally curved, and the posterior
wing slightly pointed.

Loc. and Horizon. — Lower Lomax, Bury by Bolton-le-Moor,
Lancashire, in a dark limestone of the Lower Coal-measures. Coll.
Mus. Pract. Geol., London.

Genus Anruracomya, Salter, 1861. (Iron Ores of Great Britain ;
Mems. Geol. Survey, p. 229.)

Anthracomya Phillipsii, Williamson. Plate XII. Figs. 6 and 7.
Unio Phillipsii, Will., 1836: Phil. Mag. vol. ix. p. 351. (Without description.)
Unio linguiformis, Phillips, 1839; Murchison’s Silurian System, p. 88.

Modiola sp., Binney, 1855; Mems. Lit. Phil. Soc. Manchester, 2nd ser., vol. xii.
p- 221, note. (Without description.)

Anthracomya Phillipsii, Huxley and Etheridge, 1865; Cat. Foss. Mus. Pract. Geol.
pp. 157 and 160. (Without description.)

—_—____________. Jones, 1870; Grou. Mac. Vol. VII. p. 217, Pl. IX. Figs.
3 and 18.

Sp. Chars.—Transversely-obliquely-oval, modioliform, elongated
in the direction of the diagonal. Anterior end small, its margin
rounded; posterior end much higher than the anterior, with a long
obliquely truncated margin, forming by its union with the hinge-line
an obtuse angle. Hinge-line straight, almost half the length of the
diagonal of the shell; ventral margin convex, becoming straight
anteriorly and passing up obliquely to the anterior end, when, if
continued to meet the dorsal margin in a direct line, a very acute
angle would be formed. Beaks anterior, almost terminal, very

244 Rk. Htheridge, Jun.—Contributions to British Paleontology.

obtusely rounded and inconspicuous; in the uncrushed condition
there is probably a more or less blunt diagonal ridge. Ornamen-
tation consisting of concentric wrinkles and finer strive between
them; on the anterior end there are traces of a further transverse
wrinkling.

Obs.—A. Phillipsti was first noticed by Prof. W. C. Williamson, in
the second part of his paper ‘On the Limestones found in the Vicinity
of Manchester,’’ as a ‘“ Unio of small size.”” He adds: “The shell
varies considerably in size, being sometimes one inch and a half in
length, and at others not more than three-fourths of an inch. The
depressed and crushed.state in which these fossils are found would
indicate a shell of a thin and fragile nature.” The shell was
named Unio Phillipsié in honour of Dr. C. Phillips of Manchester.
In a letter from the late Prof. Phillips quoted by Sir R. I. Murchison
in his “Silurian System,” this shell is spoken of as Unio lingw-
formis, and a brief description is given. Mr. HE. W. Binney, F-R.S.,
obtained Anthracomya Phillips in red and greenish mottled clays
near the junction of the Coal-measures and New Red Sandstone
in the Valley of the River Medlock, near Manchester. He
records it under the name of Modiola sp., to which genus he con-
sidered the uncrushed condition to bear the greatest resemblance.
I believe the Catalogue of Fossils in the Museum of Practical
Geology to have been the first publication in which Unio Phillipsi
was referred to the genus Anthracomya, probably from a deter-
mination of the late Mr. J. W. Salter. Similarly, I think the first,
and perhaps only figure of this shell, which has hitherto appeared, is
that given by my friend Prof. T. Rupert Jones, F.R.5S., in his paper
“On some Bivalve Entomostraca from the Coal-measures of South
Wales.” ! He there shows the general resemblance in outward form
borne by some Carboniferous Estherie@ to species of the genus
Anthracomya, and further suggests the possibility of a small shell
ficured by Mr. Salter as a Modiola,? from the South Wales Coal-
measures, being the young of A. Phillipsi.

T have been favoured by Prof. W. C. Williamson with the loan of
an almost perfect, although crushed, example of this species from
Ardwick, and another similar specimen from Bradford by Mr. E. W.
Binney. The latter is the more transversely-obliquely-elongated of
the two.

Horizon and Loc.—In “black bass” of the Upper Coal-measures,
Avdwick, near Manchester, collected by and in the Cabinet of Prof.
W. CG. Williamson, F.R.S.; in dark shale of the Coal-measures at
Bradford, near Manchester, collected by and in the Cabinet of Mr.
BE. W. Binney, F.R.S. A. Phillipsii is also found at Longton and
Opedale in Staffordshire.?

Anthracomya Scotica, sp. nov. Plate XII. Fig. 8.

(Compare Naiadites (Anthracoptera) levis, Dawson, Acadian Geology, 2nd ed.»

1 Grou. Mac. Vol. VIII. Pl. IX. Fig. 3.
2 Tron Ores Great Britain, 1861, pl. 2, f. 3. ;
3 Huxley and Mtheridge’s Cat, Foss. Mus. Pract. Geology, 1865, p. 16 0.

R. Etheridge, Jun.— Contributions to British Paleontology. 245

1868, p, 204, fig. 44. Anthracomya (Naiadites) levis, Salter, Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc., 1868, vol. xix. p. 79, fig. 2. Also Unio nuciformis, Hibbert, Trans. R. Soc.
Edinb., 1836, vol. xii. p. 249.)

Sp. Chars.—Obliquely-broad-ovate, flattened, abruptly truncated
along the dorsal margin. Anterior end rounded ; posterior end pro-
duced ventrally, its margin obliquely rounded. Hinge-line not so
long as the shell, passing insensibly into the oblique posterior
margin. Umbones anterior, but not terminal, inconspicuous. Shell
marked with exceedingly close fine microscopic thread-like strize,
with a few transverse wrinkles, which at times give it the ap-
pearance of being partially radiately striated.

Obs.—A small shell was described by Dr. Dawson from the Coal-
measures of the South Joggings, Nova Scotia, under the name of
Naiadites levis {= Anthracomya, Salter), to which the present shell
bears so strong a resemblance that I was for some time quite at a
loss how to distinguish between them. However, A. Scotica is larger
than the Nova Scotian Naiadites levis. Judging from Dr. Dawson’s
figure, the concentric striz are also more numerous, finer and closer ;
the posterior end appears to be more obliquely truncate, and the
beaks are more anterior.

In pointing out the resemblance between these two forms, I am
supported by the opinion of Prof. T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S., who,
independently of any views of my own, suggested a reference of
the Scotch fossil to Dr. Dawson’s species. It is sufficiently distinct
from the other Anthracomye and Naiadites described by Mr. Salter,!
and Dr. Dawson,” not to require comparison; but it appears to be
related to Anodonta obstipa, Ludwig.’ Judging from figures only,
A. Scotica also resembles the shell figured by Prof. T. R. Jones
as the probable young of Anthracomya Phillipsii, Will.;* but the
concentric strize are much closer and the shell larger, as Prof. Jones’s
figure is highly magnified. Dr. Hibbert long ago obtained, from
strata connected with the Burdiehouse Limestone, a shell to which
he gave the name of Unio nuciformis.. —Hibbert’s figure represents
a shell in the uncrushed state of a particularly convex and globose
form. All our efforts to re-discover this shell have failed hitherto ;
and as Dr. Hibbert’s collection was brought to the hammer, I am
afraid little chance remains of our ever being able to obtain access
to the type, although I have tried all means at my disposal. The
thought has often struck me whether this species might not be Unio
nuciformis in a perfectly flattened form, its usual condition. Al-
though some of the characters bear out this supposition, still, I
have seen no evidence in the flattened examples of A. Scotica of
the great inequality of the valves exhibited by Dr. Hibbert’s figure.

Loc. and Horizon.—The figured example is from the Linnhouse
Water between Calder Hall and Calder Wood, near Mid Calder,

1 Tron Ores, Great Britain, pp. 230-1.

2 Acadian Geology, 2nd ed., p. 204.

3 “Freshwater Shells of the Coal-formation of the Urals,” Paleontographica,
ViOlls 8x6 th Chie He

+ Gor. Mae., Vol. VII. Pl. IX., Fig. 18.
> ‘Trans. R. Soc. Edinb., vol. xiii. p. 245.

246 R. Etheridge, Jun.—Contributions to British Paleontology.

Hdinburghshire. Mr. C. W. Peach has collected A. Scotica from
shale above the Burdiehouse Limestone at Straiton Oil-shale Mines,
near Burdiehouse, and from shale interbedded with trap on Inch-
keith Island, Firth of Forth. Myr. J. Bennie has obtained the
species at numerous localities in the oil-shale ground to the west of
Edinburgh, including Straiton Oil-shale Mine, and I have found
it at the first quarry east of the Binn Hill, Burntisland, Fife.
It was communicated to me by Mr. J. Linn, from shale obtained
at Middleton Pit, Uphall, Edinburghshire. These localities are all
in the Cement-stone Group, near the horizon of the Burdiehouse
Limestone. Both Mr. J. Henderson (Hdinb. Geological Society)
and Mr. Bennie have found it sparingly in a lower horizon of the
Cement-stone Group than the Burdiehouse Limestone, viz. the
Wardie shales, in the Water of Leith, at Kates-mill, near Edinburgh.

Genus Sanauinomires, M‘Coy, 1844. (Synopsis Carb. Foss. Ireland,
p- 47; Brit. Pal. Foss. p. 276.)

Sanyuinolites ? Abdenensis, sp. nov.? Plate XII. Figs. 9-11.

Sp. Chars.—Transversely elongated ; two and a half times as long
as high. Anterior side short, rounded ; posterior side produced,
margin subtruncate in its upper part, rounded below. Dorsal
and ventral margin almost parallel, the former long and straight,
the latter with a very little shallow sinus in it a little posterior to
the umbones; the latter are anterior. Diagonal ridge faintly marked ;
posterior slope scarcely defined from the body of the shell. Surface
ornamented with concentric lines parallel to the margins, which
leave little or no trace on the posterior slope of casts.

Qbs.—I have provisionally given the above name to a shell which
has been found in considerable quantities, at one locality, always as
casts. Its generic affinities are doubtful, but I refer it to Sanguinolites
partly from its general form, and also because there is an indication
of an inflected hinge-margin. S.? Abdenensis appears to be allied to
, angustatus, Phill.,! but uniformly differs in size, and possesses
a shorter anterior end, whilst the posterior slope, although usually
smooth in the casts, now and then exhibits the remains of concentric
strize passing across it. The shell also appears to have some affinity
with Sanguinolites discors, M‘Coy ;* but in addition to being dis-
tinguished by the previously mentioned characters, the much
straighter ventral margin of our shell may be noticed, and the
much coarser and more regular marking in S. discors, so far as an
opinion can be formed from casts only. §. Abdenensis is at first
sight not unlike §S. plicatus, Portlock,’ more especially M‘Coy’s
figure of the latter. However, our shell is more transversely
elongated, and is not so high a shell in proportion to its length as
S. plicatus, and there is no trace of the sharp angle formed by the
junction of the posterior and dorsal margins. The great abundance

1 Geol. York., 1856, vol. ii. p. 208, t. 5, f. 2.

2 Synop. Carb. Foss. Ireland, 1844, p. 49, t. 8, f. 4.
3 Geol. Report, Lord., 1843, p. 433, t. 34, f. 18.

4 Zc. p. 49, t. 10, f. 8a and d.

Rk. Etheridge, Jun.— Contributions to British Paleontology. 247

in which the shell occurs requires that a name should be given to
it, and in the absence of any more definite characters, the above
will serve to distinguish it.

Loe. and Horizon. —Covering the surface of a bed of shale dis-
covered by Mr. Bennie, in large numbers, below the Abden Lime-
stone, on the shore between tide-marks, at Abden, a short distance to
the east of Kinghorn, near Kirkealdy, Fife, near the base of the
Lower Carboniferous Limestone Group. Collection of the Geol.
Survey of Scotland, and my own Cabinet.

Genus Caputus, de Montfort. Capulus neritoides, Phillips. Plate XII.
Figs. 12-14.

Pileopsis neritoides, Phill., 1836; Geol. York., vol. ii. p. 224, t. 14, f. 16-18.
% vetustus, ,, (non Sow.) 5 op ie 1M,
Bi angustus, ,, 1886 f, 20.
Acroculia vetusta, M‘Ooy (pars), 1844; Synop. Carb. Foss. Treland, p. 46.
Capulus neritoides, de Koninck, 1842- 44 Descr. Anim. Foss. Terr. Carb. Belgique,
p. 334, t. 23 dvs, f. ss
Acroculia angusta, and A. neritoides, Tennant, 1847; Strat. List Brit. Foss. p. 106.
D’Orbigny, 1849; Prodrome de Pal., p. 126.
Pileopsis neritoides, Brown, 1849; Foss. Conch, p. 102, t. 47, f. 48 and 61.
0 angustus, 4, 7 > “a », 103, t. 47, f. 54.
9 vetustus, 99 50 On
Capulus auricularis, M‘Coy ; Brit. Pal. Foss., 1 523.
- angustus, et C. neritotdes, Morris, 1854: Cat. Brit. Foss., p. 239.

(Compare Conchliolithus | Helicites| auricularis, Martin, Pet. Derb. 1809, t. 40,
f. 3 and 4.) :

Obs.—American paleontologists appear to have adopted the name
Platyceras (Conrad, 1840, =Acroculia, Phillips, 1841) for shells
similar to the present species, in preference to the earlier proposed
Capulus (de Montfort, 1810, = Pileopsis, Lamk., 1812), in the belief
that they are generically distinct from the latter. This separation
has been made by Prof. Hall from the absence, in Platyceras as
he supposed, of the peculiar horseshoe-shaped muscular scar of
Capulus.' Messrs. Meek and Worthen, however, who also adopt the
term P/atyceras, have demonstrated the oceurrence of the scar in at
least two American species.” It follows from this that no satisfactory
evidence has, as yet, been adduced for a separation of Conrad’s
Platyceras from Montfort’s Capulus ; but on the contrary the evidence
is rather confirmatory of their identity than otherwise.

Prof. M‘Coy drew attention to a point which he considered had
been greatly lost sight of, the identity of Conch. | Helicites | auricularis,
Martin, with Capulus neritoides, Phill., and its synonyms. Prof.
M‘Coy’s suggestion appears to be worthy of consideration; for if such
is the case, we should, in simple justice to Martin, adopt his name.

I propose to consider the following shell (Plate XII. Figs. 12-14)
as a variety of the above species, under the name of

C. neritoides, Phill., var. Simpsoni, var. nov.

Varietal Chars.—Shell considerably more depressed than in the
typical form ; dorsal portion obtusely rounded and wanting the arched

' Twelfth Annual Report of the Regents of the Univ. New York, 1859, p. 16.
@ [llinois Geol. Report, 1868, vol. ii. p. 385.

248 R. Etheridge, Jun.—Contributions to British Paleontology.

character of the latter; distance between the apex and the lower
margin is much reduced; the spire has a tendency to become hori-
zontally coiled instead of vertically. The aperture is elongately
oval.

Obs.—The relation of the variety to the typical form is seen in
the pronounced inrolled spire, feebly sinuated sharp edges to the
aperture, with an elongated little-marked lobe in front, and the fine
concentric striz, with at intervals a stronger lamina of growth.

The horizontal manner in which the spire is coiled appears to be
a peculiar character of this variety. Were it compressed laterally
instead of from above downwards, it would be more closely allied to
Capulus (Pileopsis) compressa, Goldf., from the Hifel, as figured by
Quenstedt.!

Loc. and Horizon.—Magazine Limeworks (quarry at), near Path-
head, Haddingtonshire, in shale above No. 2 Limestone (. Carbon-
iferous Limestone Group). The figured specimen was obtained by,
and is in the Cabinet of Mr. J. Simpson, Edinburgh, to whom I am
indebted for calling my attention to it, and after whom I name the
variety. Specimens are also in the Coll. Geol. Society of Scotland,
collected by Mr. J. Bennie.

Genus Dentatium, Linnzeus.
Dentalium inornatum, M‘Coy? Plate XII. Fig. 1.

_ D. inornatum, McCoy, 1844 ; Synopsis Carb. Foss. Ireland, p. 47, t. 4, f. 30.
oy $p Tennant, 1847; Strat. List Brit. Foss., p. 105.

D’Orbigny, 1849; Prodrome de Pal., i. p. 127.

ss BS Morris, 1854 ; Cat. Brit. Foss., 2nd ed., p. 246.

on # Pictet, 1855; Traité de Paléontol., vol. iil. p. 303.

Sp. Chars.—Shell slightly curved, very gradually tapering; mouth
circular. Surface smooth, without ornamentation (M‘Coy).

Vbs.—Omitting the question of dissimilarity in size, the only
appreciable difference between the specimen and M‘Coy’s figure is
the rate at which they respectively taper. Of the descriptions of
smooth Paleozoic Dentalit with which I am acquainted, D. inornatum
appears to be allied to D. granosum, var. levigatum, Eichwald,? and
more especially in minute delicacy to the Permian D. Speyeri,
Geinitz.? A comparison may also be instituted with D. venustum,
Meek and Worthen ;* but the latter is a less curved form, and tapers
less rapidly. The shelly matter is exceedingly well preserved in our
specimen, and not a trace of any ornamentation is to be seen. In
the larger of Prof. M‘Coy’s figures there is a notch or slit in the
margin; but as nothing is said about this in the description of the
species, I presume it is accidental.

Loc. and Horizon.— Ardross Limestone,” shore (high-water
mark) immediately east of Ardross Castle, near Elie, Fife (see
remarks under Orthoceras Brownianum).

1 Handbuch, 1852, t. 35, f. 11.

* Lethaa Rossica, 1860, i. p. 1062.

3 Dyas, 1861, p. 57, t. 12, f. 11-13.

4 Illinois Geol. Report, Palwontology, vol. iii. 1866, p. 284, t. 19, f. 8.

R. Etheridge, Jun.— Contributions to British Paleontology. 249

Class CepHaLopopa. Genus Orruoceras, Breyn.
Orthoceras Brownianun, p. nov. Plate XII. Figs. 15a and 15d.
Stiletto-like Orthoceras, Rey. T. Brown. Trans. R. Soc. Edinb., vol. xxii. pt. 2, p. 362.

(Compare O. calamus, de Kon., Descrip. Anim. Foss. Terr. Carb. Belgique,
p. 506, Supplément, p. 703, pl. 59, f. 2 a-d; O. regulare, v. Schl. Sandberger’s
Die Verstein. d. Rhein. Schichtensystems in Nassau, 1856, p. 173, atlas, pl. 20,
f.2; O. planiseptatum, Sandb. loc. cit., p. 160, atlas, pl. 17, f. 4; O. acutissimum,
id. Joc. cit. p. 173, atlas, pl. 20, f. 10.)

Sp. Chars.—Shell much elongated, pointed, and _ stiletto-like,
tapering very gradually; section at the smaller end circular (not
determinable at the larger end). Septal sutures distant as compared
with the diameter of the shell, horizontal, not waved; intervals
decreasing very slightly towards the smaller end; septa, as denoted
by the only one visible, somewhat flattened, not very convex.
Chambers as denoted by the intervals between the septal sutures,
with the height (vertical) exceeding the diameter (transverse).
Siphuncle subcentral. The specimen where septate is a fraction
more than two inches long; the diameter of the smaller end is as
near as possible a little less than half a line; at the upper end
Immediately before the point where it is crushed the diameter is
about one line and a half. In the space of one inch there are 19
or 20 chambers. Surface smooth.

Obs.—For an introduction to this elegant Orthoceras we are in-
debted to the Rev. T. Brown, M.A., who aptly termed it in his
paper “On the Mountain Limestone and Lower Carboniferous Rocks
of the Fifeshire Coast,” etc.,! the “thin stiletto-like Orthoceras,”
and mentions it as exceedingly characteristic of his Bed F, or
‘“‘ Ardross Limestone,” near Hlie.

In Prof. de Koninck’s classification of Carboniferous Orthoceratites
this species would clearly come under the division “ Orthocerata
gracilia,” and in form and slenderness resembles the typical species
of that section, O. Martinianum, de Kon.,? but the septa are rather
distant and cannot be described as very close, as in the Professor’s
species. There is a closer resemblance to his 0. calamus; especially
to the apical portion represented by Fig. 26 on the 59th plate of
the “ Animaux Fossiles.” Our form appears to taper at nearly the
same ratio, but is perhaps thinner and more slender; the septal
sutures are about the same distance apart as those of O. calamus,
~ and the section is equally circular, but the siphuncle is subcentral
in position.

I would also call attention to the resemblance of this Orthoceratite
to the apical portion of O. regulare, v. Schlotheim, as figured by the
Drs. Sandberger, but in this case the septa certainly appear too far
apart, and, as in the case of Prof. de Koninck’s species, the siphuncle
is central. O. Brownianum is also not unlike the apical portion of
O. planiseptatum, Sandberger, but here the chambers are far too broad
for their height to bear close comparison with the present form. In
all these cases it must of course be borne in mind that no comparison
can be made with the large upper ends in the three species, O. cala-
mus, O. regulare, and O. planiseptatum, especially in the two latter.

1 loc. cit. supra. 2 op. eit. supra, p. 505, t. 44, f. 4.

250 Rk. Etheridge, Jun.— Contributions to British Paleontology.

Prof. M‘Coy’s description of 0. cylindracewm, Flem. (non Sow.),'
with the exception of the waved septa, would almost embrace our
species ; on the other hand, it does not correspond with Fleming’s
original figure,? or with the specimen from which this was drawn, as
I have (through the kindness of Dr. Traquair) ascertained by an
inspection of it in the “Fleming Collection,” Museum of Science
and Art, Edinburgh. Both in 0O. cylindraceum, Flem., and O.
attenuatum, Flem. (non Sow.), the septa are much more numerous,
and the intervals between them relatively too broad for their height.

On the whole, I think we may consider 0. Brownianwm as closely
allied to O. calamus, de Kon.

Loc. and Horizon.—Bed F, or Ardross Limestone, of the Rev. T.
Brown, on shore east of Ardross Castle, near Elie, Fife. This so-
called limestone consists of three bands of an impure limestone
separated by thin shales, and is well displayed on the beach at high-
water mark, at the above locality. The Rev. T. Brown, in his
paper before alluded to, speaks of these bands collectively as one,
and places it as the lowest of six limestones near the base of what
we usually call the Carboniferous Limestone Series. According,
however, to Mr. Brown’s explanation of the geology of this part of
Fife, the Ardross Limestone will be some 1400 ft. above the base of
this series, the 1400 ft. in question being taken from the upper part
of Mr. Maclaren’s Calciferous Sandstone Series (= L. Carboniferous),
and tacked on to the hitherto supposed base of the Carboniferous
Limestone Series.2 The Geological Survey Map of this part of
Fife* by Mr. Howell, represents the patch in which this limestone
occurs as Lower Carboniferous (Cement-stone Group). I have much
pleasure in naming this Orthoceras after the Rev. Mr. Brown, to
whom I am indebted for the loan of the figured specimen, and
information relating to the Fifeshire coast.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XII.

Fic. 1.—Pecten Sowerbii, M‘Coy ; nat. size. Cement Stone, L. Carb. Limestone

Group. Brewsterland Quarry, E. Kilbride. Cabinet of Mr. A. Patton.

», 2.—The same; nat. size. IL. Carb. Limestone Group, Merry and Cuning-
hame’s Iron and Limestone Pit, near Carluke. Coll. Geol. Survey of
Seotland.

», 8.—The same; nat. size. Shale above No. 1 Limestone, L. Carb. Limestone
Group, Whitfield Old Quarry, near Macbiehill Station, Peeblesshire.
Coll. Geol. Survey of Scotland.

», 4.—Aviculopecten papyraceus, Sow.; nat. size. Lower Coal-measures, Lanca-
shire. Coll. Mus. Pract. Geology, London.

», 5.—The same. Various forms of the ribbing, magnified.

», 6.—Anthracomya Phillipsii, Will.; nat. size. Coal-measures, Bradford.
Cabinet of E. W. Binney, Esq.

», 7-—The same; nat. size. Coal-measures, Ardwick. Cabinet of Prof. W. C.
Williamson.

», 8.—A. Scotica, R. Eth., jun.; twice nat. size. Cement-stone Group, L.
Carboniferous, Mid Calder. Coll. Geol. Survey, Scotland.

», 9.—Slab showing crushed specimens of Sanguinolites ? Abdenensis, R. Eth.,
jun.; nat. size. L. Carb. Limestone Group, Abden, near Kinghorn.

1 Brit. Pal. Foss., p. 569.
? Annals Phil. 1814, vol. v. p. 202, t. 31, f. 3.
3 Brown, l.c., p. 391. 4 Sheet 41, Scotland.

Prof. Miine and Alex. Murray—Rocks of Newfoundland. 251

Fic. 10.—S. Abdenensis, R. Eth., jun. ; left valve, twice nat. size. Same locality.
» Ll.— 9 99 99 > valves partially
united along the hinge-line. Same locality.
5 12.—Capulus neritoides, Phill., var. Simpsoni, R. Eth., jun.; nat. size side view.
L. Carb. Limestone Group, Magazine Quarry, Pathhead, Haddington-
shire. Cabinet of Mr. J. Simpson, Edinburgh.

», 138.—The same; nat. size, dorsal view.

yy 14.— +5 3 view of aperture.

», 15.—Orthoceras Brownianum, R. Eth., jun.; natural size. L. Carboniferous,
Ardross, Fife. Cabinet of Rev. T. Brown, Edinburgh. Fig. 15d, section
enlarged.

II.—On roe Rocks or NEWFOUNDLAND.
By Professor Joun Mixnz, F.G.S.,}
Imperial College of Engineering, Tokei, Japan.
With Notes by ALEXANDER Murray, F.G.S., of the Geological Survey of Canada,
St. John’s, Newfoundland.

HEN we speak of Newfoundland, we speak of England’s oldest
and yet almost unknown Colony. When we look at its rocks,
we shall find that they also are old, and from the metamorphisms and
contortions they have suffered are almost unrecognizable. The first
geologist who journeyed round the rugged shores which gird the
island, and across the marshes and thickets which cover its interior,
was the indefatigable Jukes. For two years he laboured hard, and
after many dreary tramps up river-courses, across swamps, and
round impenetrable scrub, to the shores of quiet inland rocky lakes,
he returned without finding a fossil. The next to prosecute research
was Richardson, of the Canadian Survey, who fixed a basis of con-
nexion between the geology of the Island and that of the mainland.
He was immediately succeeded by Alexander Murray, a veteran
geologist, who, in connexion with Sir William Logan, will always
be remembered as the earliest worker who successfully unravelled
the tangled knots of the Laurentian system. Mr. Murray has been
ten years engaged upon this Survey, and has now placed before us a
geological map of the greater part of an island about which we
previously did not even know the general topographical details,

although it was our oldest Colonial possession.

The formations which have been hitherto recognized are shown in
juxtaposition with their English and American equivalents in the
table on the next page (p. 252).

A mere glance at this table will show the antiquated rocks with
which we have to deal, and suggest a picture of all that is weather-
worn and grey with age. A distinguished Hnglish geologist, Prof.
Judd, after inquiring about the age of the rocks in Newfoundland,

1 The information contained in the following paper was obtained whilst travelling
round and through the island of Newfoundland during the years 1873 and 1874.
I visited nearly every bay and cove, and made many journeys into the almost
unknown interior whilst twice going round the island. Many specimens, both of
rocks and fossils, were collected.

Although I had every opportunity of seeing the island, I must acknowledge the
large proportion of material extracted from the early numbers of Mr. Murray’s
official reports. I also thank Mr. Thomas Davies, F.G.S., of the British Museum,
for the microscopic determination of many rocks.—J. M.

252 Prof. Milne and Alex. Murray-— Rocks of Newfoundland.

[ Table referred to on p. 251.]

Nort AMERICA.

Lower Laurentian
Upper Laurentian
Huronian

GreEAT Britatn.

NEWFOUNDLAND.

Laurentian

Cambrian ?

U. Laurentian.
Huronian.

a Laurentian.

St. John’s Group

Paradoxides Slates
Lower Potsdam
Upper Potsdam

Lingula Flags Primordial: Silurian.

owen Gslcierous ilk Tremadoce Slates Potsdam.
Upper Calciferous Calciferous.
Quebec Group. Llandeilo Beds ae me
|t Group | sitlery.
Trenton and Bird’s Eye Limestones..... Bird’s Eye Lime-

Caradoc Beds [stone.

Hudson River Beds.

Oneida Conglomerate
Medina Sandstone
Clinton Group
Niagara Group ............
Onondago Group
lowerpElelderberes ook ie, eee
Oriskany Sandstone

Caudagalli Grit. ..........
Schoharrie Grit ........ e
Gaspe Sandstone..........
Mid. Devonian or Upper Helderberg
U. Devonian, Portage Group, ete.....
Lower Carboniferous (Gypsiferous)
Middle Carboniferous (good coal)..........
Upper Carboniferous 22. |

M. Silurian.

Clinton.
Niagara ?

nt
a
Z |
|

L. Llandovery Rocks
U. Llandovery

Wenlock.

L. Devonian, I. Devonian Devonian ?
Gaspe Sandstones.
M. Devonian
U. Devonian
L. Carboniferous.
Millstone Grit.

Carboniferous

and hearing that the newest were Lower Carboniferous, almost
shuddered, and wondered how it was possible to live in such a
country.!

Laurentian.—Commencing with the lowest member of the series,
we have a large exposure of crystalline rocks, which have been
identified as being of Laurentian age. This identification is based
on the relations they hold to the Lower Silurian rocks which they
underlie, and on the lithological resemblances they have to the
Laurentian rocks of Labrador and Canada. The limestone bands
which belong to the Continental exposures of this series have not
yet been found; neither have any traces of organic remains.’ Both

1 I cannot see upon what grounds Prof. Judd founds this remark. The valley of
the Great St. Lawrence, including the magnificent champaign regions of Western -
Canada, now called Ontario, is based upon Silurian rocks for the greater part, the
highest formation being of Devonian age; the beautiful valley of Stratheam, in
Perthshire, is upon Old Red Sandstone; the valley of the Forth, Stirlingshire, is
Carboniferous; and a great part of Herefordshire, Monmouth, etc., is Lower Silurian.
It seems to me, that the capabilities of a country, for the support of life, depend, not
upon their actual position in the geological sequence; but upon the constituents
of which they are composed, and the mineral character of the debris which is yielded
by their ruins, and spread over the surface; and also in great measure to the degree
of metamorphism and disturbance by which they have been affected.—A.M. ;

* The crystalline limestone bands of Lower Laurentian age, so well known in
Canada, have not been seen in place, in Newfoundland; but I have reason to think they

Prof. Milne and Alex. Murray—Rocks of Newfoundland. 258

in the Northern, Southern, and Central parts of the island we have
a great display of these rocks, consisting of granite, syenites,
gneiss, ete., together with many igneous dykes, some of which are
of considerable breadth. From several of these dykes I collected
specimens. One of these from Harbour Deep averages at least 25
yards in width. It cuts through a hornblendic gneiss which is
traversed by many small veins of quartz, associated with which
are small specks of copper pyrites, especially in the vicinity of the
dyke. The rock of which the dyke is composed is a melaphyre of a
bluish-green to a black colour, and has a splintery fracture. A
specimen from one side of the dyke shows some calcite and a little
quartz; a specimen from the opposite side is more compact, and is
almost an aphanite. Specimens taken from the inner parts of the
dyke were not so compact as those from the exterior, and were of a
greyer colour. Crystals of a plagioclase felspar, magnetite, and also
a considerable amount of apatite, which latter was not seen in the
exterior portion of the dyke, are easily recognized. On going to
another portion of the dyke, three-quarters of a mile to the south,
and taking a similar series of specimens across its breadth, I found
that the exterior portions of the dyke had a more slaty character,
and the central part, although it still contained the apatite, also con-
tained quartz, which had not been before observed. This particular
dyke therefore illustrates that not only may there be differences at
different points across the breadth of a dyke, a result which has
often before been observed, but also that we may meet with
differences as we work along their length.

In the vicinity of St. George’s Bay there is a series of labradorite
rocks which Mr. Murray has recognized as belonging to the Upper
Laurentian. I have also seen specimens of labradorite from High
Point, River Exploits, but I do not know how it occurs.’

Intermediate Series.X—The first series we meet with above the
Laurentian is a series which is supposed to be the equivalent of the
Cambrian and Huronian, to which it has a great lithological re-

exist to a partial extent in the valley of the great Cordroy River. About thirty miles
up that valley I found large angular fragments of white crystalline limestone, with
graphite, which exactly resembled the Canadian rocks; and in front of the position
they were supposed to occupy the hills are composed of labradorite, which I assume
to be of Upper Laurentian age.—A.M.

1 These are in erratic blocks, more or less water-worn; their source is not
known.—A.M.

2 I object to the term Cambrian, as applied to Huronian, and I introduced the
name Intermediate, because the system is undoubtedly cxtermediate between the
Laurentian and the lowest beds of Primordial strata, holding Paradoxides, Agraulus,
Archeocyathus, Iphidea, Agnostus, Conocephalites, Obolella, and many other forms
typical of the lowest Paleozoic fauna. I have shown that the Intermediate or
Huronian system, must have been worn through by denudation to the very base,
previous to the deposition of the beds holding the above-named fauna; as we find
them occurring nearly undisturbed overlapping the Laurentian and lower beds of the
Huronian. I pointed my evidences out to my old friend and colleague, Sir William
Logan, on the ground, who was immediately convinced of the accuracy of my obser-
vations. I have also shown that there are some striking lithological resemblances
between the Intermediate of Newfoundland and the typical Huronian of Canada.—
A.M. ‘.

254 Prof. Milne and Alex. Murray—Rocks of Newfoundland.

semblance. It has been called by Mr. Murray the Intermediate
Series. These beds are in the main made up of dark-coloured
slates, some of which are fine-grained and cherty, red and grey
conglomerates, and various sandstones. There are also some igneous
rocks like diorite, quartzite and jaspery bands intercalated in the

series.
Considering that there is good reason for believing that these

strata are of Huronian age, they are remarkable as containing
fossils.” The fossils are Aspidella terranovica, together with traces
of organisms like Arenicolites.

At many points in this Huronian Series, which has a great
resemblance to the Gold-bearing Series of Nova Scotia, traces
of metallic ores have been found. Thus on Terra Nova River
an opening has been made on a quartz lode containing copper
pyrites, coursing through a chloritic and calcareous rock. A more
successful undertaking is, however, to be seen at the La Manche
Mine.’ The ore worked is galena, which is associated with blende,
barytes, quartz, amethyst, and calcite, the latter forming the chief
portion of the gangue. One side of the lode is bounded by green-
stone, or more truly an amygdaloidal melaphyre, in the ground mass
of which there is a large quantity of acicular needles of apatite.
On the opposite side of the lode we have the black slates of the
country, but so hardened that they have the appearance of a siliceous
rock.

Primordial Silurian.s—Lying unconformably above the Huronian
rocks, and distinguished from them by their fossil contents, we have
a series of rocks identified by Mr. Murray as the Primordial Silurian,

1 The type of the system in Newfoundland is in the peninsula of Avalon, where it
occupies an enormous area. ‘There are, besides the clay-slates spoken of here, a great
mass of pale-green felsite slates, which weather of a dingy whitish colour, with occa-
sional alternating beds of red slate. I have remarked that, except as intersecting
veins, lime is very scarce throughout the series as seen in Avalon, and mica almost or
altogether absent.—A.M.

2 The Aspidella terranovica and Arenicolites are found in the clay-slates, which are
pretty high up in the series. They pass immediately below the sandstones and con-
glomerates of Signal Hill, which appear to be at the summit.—A.M.

3 Beautiful hand specimens of various ores of copper have been produced from
many parts of the distribution, chiefly from quartz veins; but the extent and quantity
of the ore, in no case I have ever known, seemed sufficient to warrant the reqtuisite
outlay for opening up a mine. Lead occurs in many localities, usually in calcareous
veins. The occurrence so frequently of veins of calcite, in a non-calcareous rock, has
induced me to speculate on their derivation; which I conceive possibly may have been
from infiltration into the fissures of the older rock, from the calcareous overlying
Primordial group, now denuded.

4 T have a very good collection of these fossils from many parts of the island. The
formations are distributed in patches; one of the best developments being in Concep-
tion Bay, where the relations to the Laurentian and Huronian are most distinctly
exhibited. There are also fine developments in Trinity Bay, in St. Mary’s Bay, in
Placentia Bay, in Fortune Bay, and on the island of Miguelon, from all which places
I have made large collections of fossils. The series is recognized in Bonavista Bay,
but not so well developed as at the places named above, and I have not hitherto been
able to procure any organic remains from them. ‘The base of the series is usually a
conglomerate, passing upwards into a reddish sandstone, over which are a set of slates,
which ave admirably adapted for roofing slates. Mr. Milne’s description applies
especially to this latter locality.x—A.M.

Prof. Milne and Alex. Murray—Rocks of Newfoundland. 255

lying as they do at the very base of the Silurian. My last oppor-
tunity of seeing these rocks was whilst coasting along the shores of
Bonavista Bay, especially in the neighbourhood of Cutler’s Head,
where they are exposed in cliffs several hundreds of feet in height.
The rocks are fine-grained, chloritic, and argillaceous. In many
places they are coloured with red oxide of iron. Some of the rocks
of this neighbourhood of an amygdaloidal character appeared to be
altered diorite.

On the western side of this headland there is a deserted monument
of folly in the form of a small quarry, which was vigorously worked
upon under the impression that the compact argillaceous-like rocix
of the cliff was a mass of tin-stone.

Further up the bay conglomerate and more igneous rocks of a
chloritic character and rich in kaolinized felspar were observed.

Potsdam and Calciferous.'—Still ascending in the series, the next
members are those of the Potsdam and Calciferous groups. These
are to be seen in the northern and western parts of the island.

The former of these groups consists of dark-coloured slates and
conglomerates, containing recognized Potsdam fossils. The series
amounts to upwards of 5400 feet in thickness. Penetrating these
rocks I found dykes very similar to those I observed before, such as
felsites and highly chloritic melaphyres containing quartz.

The Calciferous series, which overlies the Potsdam, is one which
presents very different characters to any of the preceding. It is
well exposed in the western parts of the island upon the northern
side of the Port au Port Peninsula, where it consists of definitely
stratified grey limestones rich in fossils,—large Orthosceri, Corals
and Maclurea being very noticeable. These limestones weather into
thick columnar forms, divided horizontally by joints, just as if so
many huge discs with rounded edges had been piled one above the
other.

By the action of the sea and other causes, several caverns have
been excavated. Two of these I explored. One was wide and open,
and about 70 feet in length; the second, which was narrow and low,
was about 130 feet in length. Some of these, on future exploration,
may yield remains, beneath the bed of clay with which their floor
is covered, which may be of interest in connexion with the study
of the modern fauna of the island.

Quebee Group.—At the base of this group we get a vast series of
graptolitic shales, amounting to about 4000 feet in thickness.
Above these shales we have a large display of serpentines and

1 The passage upwards from the Paradoxides slates is very well displayed in Con-
ception Bay, where there is no evidence of any want of stratigraphical conformity ;
but it is difficult to tell in what part of the section the Primordial ceases, and the
Potsdam proper begins; a great mass of sandstone occurs at Kelly’s Island, and
there are alternating sandstones and black shales or slates, which form the largest
island in the bay—Bell Island. The whole of these strata hold in greater or less
abundance Cruziana similis, Billings, Hophyton Linneanuwm, Torrell, several
species of Lingula, and other forms which Mr. Billings was disposed to think were
of Upper Potsdam type. ‘These strata differ considerably from the beds Mr. Milne

quotes, on the north and west sides of the island, which are probably higher
measures.—A.M.

256 Prof. Milne and Alex. Murray—Rocks of Newfoundland.

diorites about 1000 feet in thickness. As these serpentines and
diorites, which represent the Lauzon or middle division of the
Quebec group, are, from an economical point of view, perhaps the
most important series in the island, I will consider them at greater
length than I have the others. Their importance lies in the fact of
their being repositories of metallic ores, a character which they bear
not only in Newfoundland, but in all our transatlantic colonies and
the United States.

In Newfoundland this formation has a considerable development.
On the eastern side of the island we see it occupying the valley of
Gander River, a great portion of the shores and islands of Notre
Dame Bay, and farther to the north in the vicinity of Hare Bay.
On the west coast it crops out at many points, as at Cow Harbour,
Bonne Bay, Bay of Islands, and Bluff Head. On the south we see
it in Despair Bay, and extending northwards up Conne River towards
the head waters of the above-mentioned Gander River.

All these districts, with the exception of Gander Valley, I visited,
and from various points collected several hundreds of rock and
mineral specimens. In the fall of 1874 Gander Valley was explored
by my friend Mr. Murray, and to him I am indebted for a collection
of rocks from that locality... They consisted of many schists, most

1 J made a very full report upon the Quebec Group in 1874, the result of my own
observations in 1873, and of my assistant’s survey by my direction in 1874; to which
I beg to refer for my views of the structure. At page 52 of the said Report I have
expressed myself thus: ‘‘The facts ascertained, as already represented in the descrip-
tion of the coast and river sections on the east side of Port-a-Port Bay, seem to point
to the conclusion that the Silurian formations are arranged in a series of sharp
anticlinal and. synclinal folds, ranging generally about N. 22° E., S. 22° W.; the
whole mass of strata having, towards the close of the later deposits or subsequently,
been affected by vast igneous intrusion, and become much dislocated by great parallel
or nearly parallel faults, the ground trend of which is N.K. and S.W. At the
summit of the whole series is a great volume of igneous and magnesian rocks, consist-
ing of various diorites, serpentines, and chlorites, which our evidences seem to
indicate to be lapped over the inferior strata unconformably, and to come in contact
with different members at different places.” In Sir William Logan’s investigations
in Canada, the great mass of sandstone and conglomerate, displayed so largely at
Sillery and other parts of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, were provisionally placed at the
summit of the Quebec Group, and as overlying the metamorphic and igneous rocks
with serpentines and metallic ores, etc.; but our evidences in Newfoundland seem to
point to a somewhat different conclusion—unless, indeed, there may happen to
be two great sandstone formations, one of which is absent in this island. The
description of the rock of the St. Lawrence applies in nearly every particular to the
rock here; but while we find it to succeed the Levis formation with perfect regularity,
althotgh with numerous folds and twists, in every case it seems to pass below the
serpentines, wherever a contact has been seen; and moreover to pass below them
unconformably. The Long Point of Port-a-Port Bay contains fossils recognized by the
late Mr. Billings as not older than the Bird’s Eye and Black River, and may be near
the base of the Hudson River Group; and these strata are comparatively un-
disturbed; but they are brought down by a fault against older rocks, at the base
of which the sandstones are displayed in great disturbance. Having weighed all the
evidences with great care, I have come to the conclusion that the great igneous intru-
sion, of which mention is made in the above extract, must be nearly of the age of the
Chazy, or perhaps later; that it has been the metamorphosing agent, and that
the altered strata consisting of chloritic slates, serpentines, melaphyres, dicrites, etc.,
belong to a horizon somewhere intermediate between the Chazy and the Hudson
River Group.—A.M.

Prof. Milne and Alex. Murray—Rocks of Newfoundland. 257

of which were more or less chloritic; some were, however, argil-
laceous and slightly calcareous, whilst a few were harsh and
splintery clay-slates. Bands of dolomite are here and there inter-
calated, some of which contain disseminated particles of magnetic
er chromic iron, which by decomposition give a rusty appearance
to the weathered surface of the rock.

A predominating feature among these rocks are dark-green
serpentines, which show traces of actinolite, and some specimens
could only be regarded as serpentinized varieties of this mineral.
Associated with the serpentine, veins of chrysotile are common. A
quartz conglomerate and veins of quartz have also been found. The
latter are supposed to contain gold, but what the result of their
analysis has been I am not yet able to say. On the whoie, the rocks
have a green chloritic look, and are magnesian in their character.

Fattee mh : : :

Further to the north, in Notre Dame Bay,! there is quite an archipe-
lago of islands, the greater number of which seem to belong to the
Quebec Group. There are amongst them, however, some granites,
porphyries, felsites, diorites, and basalts,? to which no particular
horizon can be assigned. On Pelly’s Island, copper pyrites is found,
and mining operations have been commenced in rocks which are
dark-green in colour and chloritic in character. On Toulinguet we
also find a more or less chloritic series of rocks. On the mainland,
upon the north side of the Bay, we meet with massive serpentinous
rocks. All of this series have, however, been so altered and con-
torted that it is difficult to make out their lithological characters, and
almost impossible to make out their stratigraphical relations. Along
the coast these rocks form bold cliffs, here and there broken by small
indentations forming small bays and coves. Inland, they form
moderately-sized hills, which are covered with drifted boulders.

The serpentines are dark and light green in colour, some are com-
pact and splintery, whilst others are soft and earthy. When jointed,
their partings contain either gypsum or calcite. Chrysotile is also

1 The confusion and disturbance manifested in Notre Dame Bay is such, that
to obtain a structural section is almost impossible; while the total absence of organic
remains in the group which contains the metallic ores adds to the difficulty of disen-
tangling the complexities. Our evidences of horizon are therefore of a negative
rather ‘than a positive kind ; but the circumstance of these altered rocks ‘being
succeeded by a group containing fossils typical of a horizon ranging between the
upper part of the Hudson’s River Group and the Clinton is sionificant. These upper
strata have been found in unconformable contact with the older and metal- bearing
formations, and traced from the extreme eastern end of New World Island to the
Exploits River. Near the base of the group there is a black shale or slate with
Graptolithus ramosus, which was followed far up the Exploits River. These fossils
Mr. Billings supposed to be types of Hudson River age. The higher beds of
the formation were found to contain the following fossils, many of which indicate a
period as late as the Clinton:—Orthis ruida ; Rhynchonella ; Stricklandinia lens ;
Modiolopsis ; Atrypa reticularis; Strophomena rhomboidalis ; Leptena sericea»
Orthis Davidsoni (=) ; Heliophyllum ; Laphrentis bellisriata; Petraria ; Fuvosites
Gothlandica ; Orthoceras Murchisonia; Bronteus ; Encrinites ; andlPentamenus —A.M.

2 In my report for last year, 1876, I have shown reason for believing that the
granites here spoken of are later in date, or contemporaneous with, the Quebec
Group; and in my report upon the Exploits, 1871, I have shown that the porphyries

and some of the basalts intersect the Middle Silurian. Felsites and diorites occur in
strata in the Quebec Group; and also as intersecting veins.—A.M.

DECADE II.— VOL. IV.—NO. VI. 17

258 Prof. Milne and Alex. Murray—Rocks of Newfoundland.

to be seen, whilst magnetic iron, and probably also chromic iron, are
disseminated through the mass. Enstatite, diallage, and bronzite
have also been observed.

The chloritic rocks are sometimes slaty in their character, and
sometimes compact and earthy. Very often these rocks are talcose,
and in their joints calcareous. Grains of magnetite are to be seen in
the mass. Some of them give indications of having been derived
from diorites. Associated with this series are a number of rocks
which are also, but to a much less degree, chloritic. Amongst them
we have altered felsites of a light-green colour, some of which show
changes approaching serpentine. There are also others of a green
colour, which are tolerably compact, but which under the microscope
apparently resolve themselves into a volcanic ash or breccia. In
some cases the angular and sub-angular fragments of which these
rocks are made up are easily to be recognized. Distinct traces of
crystals of felspar are also to be made out.

Amongst these rocks, bands or beds of dolomite are occasionally
found, associated with which at Tilt Cove there is an irregular
deposit of copper-nickel. It is in the form of small strings and
nests. With the chloritic rocks irregular deposits of copper pyrites
occur; this has led, in the case of Tilt Cove, to the opening of a
large and prosperous mine.

Further to the north, at Terra Nova Mine, a similar series of
rocks is to be met with. Here the predominating metallic ore is
iron pyrites, which occurs in a band about five feet in thickness.

Although sedimentary rocks are exhibited in the district, volcanic
rocks nevertheless predominate and give a character to the whole.
That in Silurian times we had volcanos of large extent may alone be
inferred from the existence of the extensive beds which I have
called volcanic ash and breccia. Since that period, however, the.
rocks have been so changed in character that it is with difficulty,
and generally speaking only with the aid of the microscope, that their
origin is to be inferred.

Along the north side of Hare Bay we find a compact splintery
grey slate, which at many points holds finely disseminated iron
pytites, which is also sometimes in veins. Near the head of the
Bay, at How Harbour, true serpentinous rocks rise conspicuously into
high hills, which have generally a bare appearance and a character-
istic reddish tinge. Some specimens from this locality had a splintery
fracture and a fibrous structure. With the ¥’ objective, kaolinized
felspar, crystalline grains of hornblende and crystals of magnetic
iron were distinctly visible, giving altogether indications of an
altered diorite. Other specimens showed a striking likeness to some
of those from Gander River Valley, 160 miles to the south.

On the western side of the island, commencing at Bonne Bay, are
some very high flat-topped hills, which, from their reddish colour
and bare surfaces, are at once to be recognized as being serpentinous.
To the south of this, in Lark Harbour, we find rocks belonging to
this series of a very undefinable character,—they are rusty, ar-
gillaceous, and filled with so many joints that it is difficult to obtain

Prof. Milne and Alex. Murray—Rocks of Newfoundland. 259

a fractured surface. However, when one is obtained, the interior of
the rock is seen to be chloritic.

Still further to the south, about Bluff Head and Louis Hills, we get
a series of weathered araygdaloidal rocks, which may be defined as
melaphyres. They have generally an argillaceous smell, and are
calcareous, especially in their joints and amygdules. Under the
microscope there can be seen, a finely granular ground mass, a much
kaolinized felspar apparently labradorite, and sometimes a mineral
which brilliantly polarizes, which may be olivine. On the whole,
they are like altered dolerites, and all of them have a more or less
chloritic look. In places disseminated through the mass there is a
bituminous mineral, and very often specks of native copper. These
minerals are chiefly found in the more decomposed portions of the
rock. Up Louis Brook some true serpentines are to be found, and also
a dolomite. Comparing these rocks on the west side of the island
with those of similar age upon the east, they only seemed to me
to differ in the degree of alteration which they had undergone.
And those upon the west in this way tend to confirm the idea of the
voleanic origin of the greater part of this series, as exposed in New-
foundland.}

Southern and Central Exposures.—In the southern and central
exposures of this series, about Bay Hast River, we get serpentines,
chloritic and talcose slates, felsites and micaceous slates. The rocks
on the whole having a lithological likeness to the other members of
the same series.

Taking a general review of this formation, as presented to us in
patches, some of which are more than 100 miles apart, one cannot
but be struck with the great lithological similarity which runs
throughout the whole. In comparing lists of specimens taken from
different localities, it is found that some are almost identical. The
rocks everywhere contain serpentines and chlorites, are magnesian
in their character, and always contain more or less of some valuable
mineral matter like ores of copper. Sometimes their nature is at
once to be seen, whilst in other cases it is only with difficulty to be
recognized. Everywhere they show traces of having been derived
from volcanic rocks, and in all cases the alteration to which they
have been subject is similar, and has only differed in amount.
Looking at the vast hills which yet remain of these rocks, they appear
as relics of large and powerful volcanos which were in activity
belching out showers of ashes and pouring forth great streams of
lava in Mid-Silurian times.?

If this view is a correct one, then there was a period when
quiescent, dreary Newfoundland was like a modern Iceland. Since
that time, however, great changes have happened, and processes of

1 T have already alluded to the probable age of the igneous rocks, and to the
geological position of the serpentines on the west coast of the island.—A.M.

2 This view is not improbable, but I am inclined to think, from the undisturbed
state of the rocks already spoken of at Long Point, Port-a-Port Bay, that the time of
greatest volcanic activity must have been at an earlier date, probably within the
Chazy or Trenton periods.—A.M.

260 Prof. Milne and Alex. Murray—Rochs of Newfoundland.

degradation have washed away portions of these rocks and divided
them in patches; whilst metamorphic action has so changed their
character that at times they are hardly to be recognized.

Sillery (St. Julien Sandstones, etc.)'—Above the serpentinous and
Magnesian series, which has been estimated by Mr. Murray as having
a thickness of from 16 to 1700 feet, there is a large series, chiefly
composed of black slates and limestones, approximately 3 to 4000
feet in thickness. In these slates, which are well exposed in the
northern parts of the island, I have observed both intrusive and
imbedded masses of diorite. They are generally of a dark grey or
greyish green colour, and in some cases amygdaloidal, the amygdules
being filled with calcite. Under the microscope, altered felspar,
hornblende and grains of magnetite are generally to be seen.

In Noddy Bay these shales are serpentinous, and contain im-
bedded nodular masses, which under the microscope resolve them-
selves into a serpentinized diorite. True serpentine is also to be met
with in the same locality. ‘The intrusive rocks of this district would
show that the volcanic action continued after the deposition of the
upper part of the Quebec Group.

Niagara and Clinton.°—The only display of these rocks which has
been hitherto recognized is to be found at the head of White Bay,
where we have a series of conglomerate, and slates capped with
Limestone, altogether 2800 feet in thickness. Owing to the oc-
currence of a series of faults, some of which may amount to 1000
feet, there has been difficulty in tracing out the sequence amongst
the members of this formation. Traversing these rocks there are
several large dykes of melaphyre and felsite. One of these latter,
at the §.W. end of Sops Island, appears in columnar masses 40—60
feet in height. They are of a pinkish colour, and have a splintery
coarse fracture. Their measurements are about 1 foot in diameter,
and 20 feet in length. They have generally from 4 to 6 sides.
In places they are curved and slightly divergent. The tops of these
prismatic-like columns form acute angles with the sides, instead of
being at right angles, as is so generally the case. Between these
columns strips of greenstone, which under the microscope resolves
itself into a melaphyre, may be seen. These felsites are also to
be seen further to the north.

On the §.H. side of the island there is a large dyke, which also
appears to be a melaphyre, and probably derived from the alteration
of a dolerite. It contains many veins of calcite and quartz, and
along one side of it a very fair deposit of galena.

1 In the note on page 256 I have already expressed my views regarding the strati-
graphical position of these sandstones. I have visited St. Juliens myself, and Mr. James
Richardson, of the Geological Survey of Canada, visited the place where the formation
is largely displayed, at the north-eastern termination of the island; but a contact with
the serpentinous group was not seen in either case ; and I hold to the opinion that it
is in consequence of the later group being unconformably spread over the older rocks,
that the sandstones are not seen at Ilow Harbour or at Pistolet Bay.— A.M.

2 Rocks of Middle Silurian age have already been referred to, as having a wide
spread in Exploits Bay and the southern parts of Notre Dame Bay. The lithological

characters, and some few obscure fossils, also seem to indicate that the series, or a
portion of it, extends far up the Exploits and the Gander Rivers.—A.M.

Prof. Milne and Alex. Murray—Rocks of Newfoundland. 261

Devonian.—In the vicinity of Cape Rouge and Fox we find a
series of plant-bearing sandstones, coarse conglomerates, and reddish-
green slates, amounting altogether in thickness to about 8700 feet,
which have provisionally been called Devonian, and are apparently
the equivalents of the Gaspe sandstones.

Carboniferous.—The Carboniferous is the newest rock formation
of which Newfoundland yet boasts. It is displayed in two localities,
in both of which it rests upon a Laurentian base.' One of these is
in the central part of the island, in the vicinity of Deer Pond and
Grand Pond, and the other is in the 8.W. part of the island round
St. George’s Bay. Its thickness is about 6400 feet, and it resembles
in every way the lower portion of the equivalent formation of Nova
Scotia and Cape Breton. In going up any of the rivers which
run at right angles to the general strike of the beds, they are seen to
consist of red sandstones, shales, greyish limestones, gypsum, and
conglomerate. The gypsum is presented at many points in masses
like huge cliffs of chalk. At many points where its contact with
the surrounding rocks is to be observed, it seems to occupy the
position of an intrusive rock,” those with which it is in contact being
contorted, broken, and turned up against its sides, as, for instance, at
the mouth of Kippens Brook. The conglomerate contains frag-
ments of rock and pebbles of magnetic iron derived from the
Laurentian Series, and pieces of limestone containing fossils which
are undoubtedly of Silurian age. Several seams of coal, one of
which is 3ft. 6in. in thickness, have been met with, and many others
in all probability remain to be discovered.

In this series I did not observe anything which could be called an
igneous rock, nor do I know that any have yet been observed. This
fact would lead to the conclusion that it was previous to this time
that Newfoundland sank imto the tranquil state in which it now
exists.°

Drift.—Above the Carboniferous we have no other formation but
a covering of alluvium, which in many parts of the island, from
the striated angular stones it contains, shows undoubted evidence of
glacial action. In places this Drift contains shells very similar to
those which are still living in the surrounding sea. These, in con-
junction with terraces, raised beaches, roche pérche, etc., tend to show
that Newfoundland was at no very remote period below the present
level of the sea. The surface of the rocks on which the Drift rests
is often roundly smoothed and striated, indicating what may have
been glacial action. This so-called glacial action I am, however,
inclined to think, from what I have seen in Newfoundland and
Finland, is more likely to have been produced by Coast-ice acting in

1 On the north side of St. George’s Bay it rests against Calciferous and Potsdam.

2 T have tried to account for this phenomenon, which I have repeatedly observed,
both in Canada and in Newfoundland, and a suggestion is offered at pp. 18 and 19 of
my Report for 1873. The strata of Carboniferous age on the north side of St.
George’s Bay is almost perfectly flat.—A.M.

3 Neither have I seen any intrusions of trap in any part of the distribution of the
Carboniferous; but the formation is very much disturbed and faulted, both on
the south side of St. George’s Bay and in the Grand Pond region, —A.M.

262 T. Davidson— What is a Brachiopod ?

a rising area, than by glaciers. (See Grou. Mac., Decade II.
Vol. III. Nos. 7, 8, 9, July, August, and September, 1876.)

Conclusion.—In conclusion 1 may say that it appears that the
rocks of Newfoundland are exclusively old ones, a character which
might be inferred from their metamorphosed and generally broken
up and contorted appearances. Here and there fossils exist, but
they are scarce. In all formations up to the Devonian and Carboni-
ferous, which are the youngest excepting the general superficial
covering of Drift, igneous rocks are abundant. During Silurian
times there were probably large volcanos, which gave vent to fields
of lava, and deposited large beds of ashes. But even these rocks
also have undergone great changes, and are now only to be recog-
nized as chloritic and serpentinous masses—a character of metamor-
phism which seems to be common to many of the formations. An
important point about the serpentinous rocks is that they have been
already proved to be the receptacles of mineral wealth. In many
parts of the country there is the strongest evidence to show that the
island has lately emerged from the sea, and during this elevation, for
reasons which have in part been previously expressed, we believe
that Coast-ice was the chief agent in impressing on the country the
glaciated character which it mow carries—a view which has subse-
quently been strengthened by observations on the coast of Finland.
Kesides the metalliferous wealth of the island, which is in the main
confined to the serpentines of the Middle Quebec Group, much may
be expected from the Coal-measures. When the value of these two
formations becomes fully recognized, we may expect to see the local
government stimulated to giving further aid to geological explo-
ration,—explorers will be attracted, the dreary wastes of the almost
unknown interior will be penetrated, and something more certain
will be learnt about the early history and formation of our long-
neglected and oldest colony Newrounpuanp.!

I1].—Wuart 1s Aa Bracutopop ??
By Tuomas Davinson, F.R.S., F.G.8., V.P.P.S.

PART III.
(With a large folding Table.)

AFFINITIES OF THE BRACHTOPODA.
For some years past, the serious attention of several eminent
malacologists has been directed to the endeavour to determine the

1 IT refrain from more at present, than to make a few general remarks upon
Mr. Milne’s conclusions in regard to glacial action, and the rise of the land, as
I shall probably have something to say upon these subjects at a future time. I
think, however, there are evidences to show that there must have been enormous
glacial action, probably intermittent; and that the rock-basins of many of the great
lakes of the interior, and other phenomena at high elevations in the interior and on
the coast, can only be accounted for as the result of such an agency. I also think
that the evidences we have, of the rise of the land in very recent times, do not show
an elevation of over a hundred feet a¢ most over the present level of the sea.

My new Geological Map of Newfoundland will probably aid in illustrating both
Mr. Milne’s and my own remarks. It may be obtained at Mr. Edward Stautord’s,
55, Charing Cross.—ALEx. Murray.

* (Concluded from the Muy Number, p. 208.)

wk EO EEE —=—«

TABLE INDICATING THE GEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE BRACHIOPODA IN TIME.
By Tuomas Davinsoy, F\RS., F.G.S., V. P. Par. Soc., ere.

Gror, Mac. 1877. Drcape II. Vor. IV.
: AH | bs
Li _|43 zg |
GENERA. AUTHORS. | DATE. FAMILIES. BE. 3 z afzlg} H g | 84
aE Elalai3i/4i¢ 5
eae EOE ESE GEN Ea
Aji aloj/e]a|sio]e& iar
1 | Linguieila— — Salter = ingulidee 2 exe] | |
2 | Lingulepis Hall = +i eae alec |
3, | Monobolina Silter) = hg te | | |
4 | Acrotreta Kutorga ? Discinidee S26 || aS |
§ | dewAde — - Linnarsson — Divnive = a8 |S |
Iphidea id. — ? So
y | Aeeqina = — =| Billings =I eee [I i
Obotdla 2) eat Lingulida— — =] 3 | XE |
9 | Ortkis —. — —| Dalman — — Straphomenida — —] 8
ro | Lngula — —| Bruguitre Lingulidae — =|2
ur | Dixina — —| Lamarck — Dixinide— — —|
iz Obolus —| Eichwald Lingulide — ai) 5 =
13, | Siphonotreta —| De Verneuil 2 Discinider N's
14 rematis = c Diseinidee
15 | Poramboniter — — Se Strophomen
16 | Zotonia — — —| RAynchonellide
17 | Triplets — — =a i ere i
18 | Coclospira_ = Spiriferide —
19 | Lingulops — é-| = Linguiida— =|
20 | Dinobolu: — — —| Sel Trimerellida — =
ax | Rkynobelus — — = Wane es =
22 | Echualdia - - —— ? — =
23. | Siricklandinia — — = Rhynchonellidae
24 | Camerella — = = Tepe
ag. || Zromerlis— : z Pameraltide, — |
2 irachyprion = —| | jomenidc — 3 =
Be aia = = ‘Riynchondlite— =e =
28 | Keiserlingia — —| =) = he a lh
29 | Hemeinia — — Ay ? a ==
30 | Schmidtia _ — —| Volbonh — ? Lingulier aI
ST | a ae Te pa |
32 | Volborthia— eo ? == =!
33 | Anastrophia — — Rhynchonellidie {
34 | Meristina =e Spirsferid = =
35 | RAynehotrema - z td. 5 : =
36 | Schizocrania — — = Diteinidr - : |=
37. | Diceloria ‘Strophomenida — =]
38 | Monomerella — — : Trimerellidae al =
39 | Leptwtia— — Rhynchonellida— ==
4o | Rowederis — — ee Terebratulidae — 7
4u | Stenidivm — es ? Strophomenida =i
42 | Crplonclla — eT SS S15
43. | Menitdls . — —| Spiriferide 1
44 | Zyespira— id. — u
45 | Pholidops — — cee Craniade — | iS
46 | Cyrtia z i Spirferida S| Earl
47 | Dignomia_— — —| Hs = ingulide— —— — iin
48 | Spirifer — — .—| Sowerby Spinferide =~ = 1
49 | Atlyrs — — —| McCoy a id. Sad T
go | Cronin — Retaus Craniade — — Sr
31 | Rhynchonella “| Fischer Rhynchonellidae— —| —t
32 | Zrematespira — —| Hall — 1857 | Spiriferide =I
53 | Orthisina — —| D'Orbigny —| 1849 | Strephomenida — pom tal are | be:
34 | Merits = ciseeSe Wisi | Spinfenida 1 | |
$5 | Strophodonia — —| = =) 1852 | Strophomenida— |
56 | Nucleorpira — Spiriferide = ==
57 | Rhynchospira = Care |
38 | Atnpa Cia, =!
59 | Powtamerus - y Rhynchonellida— —
Strophomena —| Rafinesque Strophomenide T |
61 | Reso. — — —| King Spinferida T
62 | Choncler — —| Fischer Productida =! i oe es
63 fens — — —| Dalman — 1827 | Strophomenide — | |) -=SSese
64 erekratula Lihwyd 1699 | Tertbratulide — 7 iF
65 | Meguntheris — Sues— — =| 1835 id. z NE i
66 | Stringocephalus—— —| Defrance | 182 id. = mS
67 | Uncites — | id | 1828 | Spiniferide |
68 | Anaplotheca — —| Sandberger 1855 fe a = ed |
69 | Davidionia —| Bouchard - 1849 ? = se
70 | Vetulina — —| Hall 1860 ? ae pe |
mu Trepidlopit — | 1857 |? Terebratulide = — | |
72 | Centrondis .— —| “| 1859 ? =a | | |
73 | Chariondla —- —| | 1861 | Spirsferide =| | |
74 | Pentamerella = | 1867 |? Rhynchonellide | | |
75 | Amphigena — - 5670 || tan | = |
76 | Gypidula 1867 |? i. = - |
77 | Ambocelia — 1860 | Spiriferide — — 2
78 | Leiorhynchus = 1860 | Rhynchonellidae— >
39 | Productella — — 1864 | Productide = — —
8 | Cyrtina — — — [| 1858 | Spiriferie a =
81 | Productus —| Sowerby 1814 | Productida — — a
$2 | Strofhalosia — —| King — —| 1844 i. a : i f
83 | Spirsferina —- —| D'Orbigny —| 1847 | Swiriferide — — | |=
84 | Martinia == | McCoy 1844 Ch a
85 | Syntrielarma — —| Meck | 1866 ase .
86 | Syringothyris — —| Winchell 1863 | Spiriferide. E =
87 | Meebella - —| White | 1867 | Strophomenidae =
88 | Crypvacanthia — id 1867 : =
8 | Aulacorhynchus Dittmar =| 1871 ? =
go | Zumeria — — —| Hall T} 1863. | Spiriferiae al
9t | Camarvphoria | King 1844 | RAynchonellide— at
92 | Streptorhynchus —| King 1850. | Strophomenide — —| =
93 | __ —| King - 1859 | Zerebratulide — |
94 | Aulosteges Helmersen 1847 | Productidee |
95 | Riynchofora — —| King — “| 1862 | ? RAynehonellida
Thecidiuin Defrance 1828 | Theidide — — ?
97. | Dimerella —| Zittel 1870 | Terebratulidae 5
98 | Amphiclina — --| Laube 1865 ? Saf
99 | Kenincking — —| Sucss— 1853 | Spiriferide
100 | Cranieur— — --| Dall — - 1871 | Craniade— — —| . | . B fon |
tor | Hynniphora Suess— 1855 ? Ss baa a Mace (sel
102 | Zélania — — —| Moore 1854 | Zerabratulide — J 2 |o |. |. | + | «
103 | Swaila = =| Destongchamps.,| 1854 | Spirferide
104 | Rhynchoncllina —| Gemellaro 1871 | Khynchonellide. —| . | «
405 | Zemenia —| King < Z| 1850. | erebratulide — |. |.
106 | Waldheimia if, = 1850 eee are c
roy) || Zapata = D'Orbigny 1837 7h SAS Moola
1 Terebroudla id =| 1847 id, is a lie |
109 | Argiope —| Deslongchamps.,| 1842 tid. a es
110 | Megerlia =| King 1850 Ndi =
11x | Craniops -.| Dall — 1871 | Craniade — — |
12 | Xingina — — — 1852 | Terebratulide — —
113. | Zirebrirostra — D'Orbigny 1847 ia. Sey
114 | Sagas Sowerby 1815 id,
15 | Cullis. — —| Gray 185 6.
116 | Mannia > =| Dewalque 18 id. = |
a7 | Lagueus — —| Dall 1870 | Lingulide . |
m8 | Arowsina. Davidson — » — Terebratulide eo |
119 | Bourhardia -| id id,
120 | Platidia Costa (FA ial |e
121 | Mogailla— — —| Dall id. ; |
122. | Discinisca— id Discinide =
123 | Glotidia — — —) _ id. Lingulidie Ele
124 | Guynia ~. | King — Terebratulide — Ba esa | eat |
125 | Macandrevia it id, - 7 |
126 | Afretia —| Jeffreys ? Sy eS ol | Alin]

Tt cannot be doubted that a certain number of these genera when better understood will require to be added to the synonyms, It will be
so expecially with some that appear founded more on specific than generic characters. The families to which several of the genera belong
‘cannot yet be correctly determined.

Sigs Aeon
‘

ha

4
,
j
a |

T. Davidson— What is a Brachiopod ? 263

affinities of the Brachiopoda, or the exact position the group should
occupy in the animal kingdom. The Invertebrata have been grouped
into five sub-kingdoms, namely, the Protozoa, Coelenterata, Annuloida,
Annulosa, and Mollusca, and for many years the Brachiopoda
have been considered to constitute a separate class in the sub-
kingdom Mollusca, a view still maintained by some distinguished
naturalists. Milne-Hdwards, some years back, separated the
Mollusca into two divisions, Mollusca and Molluscoida, and into the
last division he placed the Brachiopoda, Polyzoa, and Yunicata, an
arrangement that has been followed by many naturalists. Although
the greater number of zoologists have admitted the close connexion
existing between the Polyzoa and Brachiopoda, some considerable
doubt has been expressed with respect to the affinities and position
of the latter to the Zunicata. Moreover, a strenuous offort has been
made by such excellent observers as Steenstrup, Morse, Kowalevsky,
and Alex. Agassiz to demonstrate that the affinities of the Brachio-
poda and Polyzoa are with the worms, and that they should form a
division, or two divisions, of the Annulosa, and be placed close to
the Annelids.

In his review of Kowalevsky’s admirable memoir on the embryo-
logy of Argiope, Thecidium, and Terebratula, Alex. Agassiz observes:
“The close relationship between the Brachiopoda and Bryozoa
(Polyozoa) cannot be more fully demonstrated than by the beautiful
drawings upon plate v. of Kowalevsky’s history of Z'hecidium. We
shall now have at least a rational explanation of the homologies of
Brachiopods ; and the transition between such types as Pedicellina to
Membranipora and other incrusting Bryozoa is readily explained from
the embryology of Thecidium. In fact, all incrusting Bryozoa are
only communities of Brachiopods, the valves of which are continuous
and soldered together, the flat valve forming a united floor, while the
convex valve does not cover the ventral valve, but leaves an open-
ing more or less ornamented for the extension of the Lophophore.”

With respect to the Tunicata we ave reminded by Morse, that
Kowalevsky, Kupffer, Schultze, and others, assign to them a position
at the base of the Vertebrate series, through the affinities of some of
their forms to Amphioxus, as well as their singular embryological
relations to the Vertebrates. Gratiolet states likewise that the Tuni-
cata are in no way related to the Brachiopoda, and Hancock, in 1870,
expressed himself to me as follows, ‘Of late years I have gradually
inclined to the opinion that the Brachiopoda are not so closely re-
lated to the Tunicata as we at one time thought. J am now busily
engaged in working out the Tunicata, and they seem to be very in-
timately connected with the Lamellibranchs. JI am disposed to
consider that there is a considerable hiatus dividing the Tunicata
from the Brachiopoda and the Polyzoa or Bryozoa, and that these
two latter groups alone should be included in the Molluscoida. If
therefore Morse can establish his doctrine, it will relieve me of some
little difficulty, inasmuch, as it will militate against Huxley’s view
that the branchial sac of the Ascidian is the homologue of the
pharynx of the Polyzoa. My idea being that the branchial sac is the

264 T. Davidson— What is a Brachiopod ?

true representative of the gill plaits of the Lamellibranch, and has
nothing to do with the pharynx of the Bryozoon. There are some
characters of the Brachiopoda that are very puzzling.” It is there-
fore evident that the dismemberment of the Molluscoida must be
considered necessary, and that we cannot place the Brachiopoda and
Polyzoa in the same division with the Zunicata.

The Brachiopoda have likewise been considered by Gratiolet, and
some others, to be allied to the Crustacea. Morse reminds us also that
twenty-six or twenty-seven years ago Prof. Steenstrup had not only
considered the Brachiopoda as worms, but had placed them near the
tubicular annelids.

It would not be possible, in this short paper, to enter into the
numerous and elaborate details given by those zoologists in support
of their views, and the reader must consequently refer for more
ample information to Prof. Morse’s several memoirs upon the sub-
ject, and especially to the one on “the systematic position of the
Brachiopoda” published in the Proceedings of the Boston Society
of Natural History, vol. xv., 1873, as well as to Kowalevsky’s im-
portant memoir published in 1875. This last, however, written in
the Russian language, not being accessible to every reader, I cannot
do better than reproduce the short review published by A. Agassiz
in Silliman’s American Journal of Science and Art for 1874. “The
second memoir of Kowalevsky is a very complete history of the
development of Brachiopods, strikingly in accordance with the views
of Steenstrup, and of Morse, on the affinities of the Brachiopods
with Annelids. The homology between the early embryonic stages
of Argiope with the known annelid larve is most remarkable, and
the resemblance between some of the stages of Argiope figured by
Kowalevsky, and the corresponding stages of growth of the so-called
Loven type of development among annelids is complete. The number
of segments is less: but otherwise the main structural features show
a closeness of agreement which will make it difficult for concho-
logists hereafter to claim Brachiopods as their special property.
The identity in the ulterior mode of growth between the embryo of
Argiope, and of Balanoglossus, in the Tornaria stage, is still more
striking ; we can follow the changes undergone by Argiope while
it passes through its Tornaria stage, if we may so call it, and becomes
gradually, by a mere modification of the topography of its organs,
transformed into a minute pedunculated Brachiopod, differing as far
from the Tornaria stage of Argiope as the young Balanoglossus
differs from the free swimming Tornaria. In fact the whole develop-
ment of Argiope is a remarkable combination of Loven’s and of
Tornaria types of development among worms. His paper also in-
cludes the history of a less vermiform type of development, that
of Thecidium, and of Terebratula, in which the observations of
Kowalevsky fully agree with the previous well-known memoir of
Lacaze-Duthiers on Zhecidium,! and of Morse on Terebratulina,? and
it certainly is a striking proof of the sagacity of Morse to have

1 Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 4°me série, Zool. vol. xv. 1861.
* Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History, vol. ii.

T. Davidson— What is a Brachiopod ? 269

announced so positively, from the history of the American Brachio-
poda alone, the vermiform affinities of the Brachiopods now so con-
clusively proved by the development of Argiope in Kowalevsky’s
paper.”

No one can doubt that the Brachiopods and Amphitrites possess
many important characters in common after perusing the admirable
observations upon the subject contained in Prof. Morse’s memoir ;
but, at the same time, as was remarked to me by Prof. Verrill,
almost any invertebrate group may be annelidelized by overrating
certain points of its affinities; and, it seems to me, that one must not
place entire confidence in any classification which is founded to so
great an extent on embryological characters. It may turn out, how-
ever, that the Brachiopoda read/y constitute a division of the Annelids.
The sete do not appear to be a constant character, and the tendinous
peduncle of the Terebratulidze seems very different from the annu-
lated structure which Morse describes in Eéngula, and it appears,
according to Dr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, to closely resemble the peduncle
of a species of Anomia (A. patelliformis), Lingula being likewise an
aberrant form.

Morse does not, however, fail to observe that “in considering the
assemblage of remarkable characters in the Brachiopoda, we must
recognize in them a truly ancient type. Thus, while we do not find
them in all their characters resembling any group of worms, I have
endeavoured to show that all their features, to a greater or lesser
degree, are shared by one or other of the various groups of the
Vermes, with one or two features of the Arthropods.”

Morse concludes his elaborate series of observations by stating
that he must regard the Brachiopoda as anciené cephalized Chetopods,
while Serpula, Amphitrite, Sabella, Protula, and others, may be
regarded as modern (later) cephalized Cheetopods.

Mr. Dall, a distinguished American naturalist, is strongly opposed
to the idea of placing the Brachiopoda among the Annelids, and in
order that the reader may become acquainted with both sides of the
question, we must refer him to Dall’s paper in the American Journal
of Science for 1871. Therein he maintains, after a lengthened com-
parison between the Annelids and Brachiopoda, that these last are
allied to the other groups included in the Molluscoida, and through
their combined characters to the typical Mollusca. Stoliczka agrees
with the conclusions advocated by Dall, and adds, ‘There cannot
be, I think, much doubt as to the true Molluscovs character of the
Brachiopoda, and their proper classification between the Anomiide
of the Pelecypoda, and the Saccopoda, and the arm-bearing section
of the Ciliopoda.” !

With such contradictory views as have here been briefly announced,
it seems still premature to emit a positive opinion with respect to
the affinities of the Brachiopoda, notwithstanding the mass of most
valuable information so ably contributed to science by Morse,
Kowalevsky, Dall, and others. The following observations on the

1 Paleontologia Indica, Brachiopoda, vol. iv. 1872.

266 T. Davidson— What is a Brachiopod ?

affinities of the Brachiopoda have been kindly communicated to me
by Prof. W. King, Sc.D. :—

“The group Palliobranchiata embraces forms formed of two types of organiza-
tion. The absence of an anal vent in the Clistenterata makes them inferior to
the aniferous Tretenterates. In determining the affinities of the group first
thoughts should be directed to the simplest of these divisions: but a difficulty
arises; for, so far as is known, the second and highest division was the first that
made its appearance. This, however, may be got over on the supposition that the
Tretenterates became degraded into the Clistenterates,—such a metasmotosis is not
unknown; for example, the ventless Ophiurids are outcomes of aniferous pluteiform
larvee, and probably a similar metasmotosis takes place in certain ventless asteroids
(Astropecten, Luidia, etc.). Adopting this supposition, the Clistenterates may be
dismissed from further consideration. I shall, therefore, regard the Tretenterates
as the initial or older type. The Cambrian system is not only the first in which
indisputable organic remains occur, but it is the one in which the Palliobranchs
make their first appearance, and, as far as is known at present, they appear to be
exclusively Tretenterates; the genera, with perhaps one exception! (Orthis Hicksi),
being all more or less related to Lenyula and Discina. Associated with these
Cambrian Tretenterata there are remains of organisms belonging to other groups
besides the Palliobranchs. According to the doctrine of Chronogenesis, the natural
affinities of any group of organisms can only be determined by its structural charac-
ters being considered in connexion with those of other groups of contemporaneous
(geological) origin,? I shall attempt to give a table of the Cambrian fossils of
interest in connexion with the present subject, separated into their respective groups,
which I have drawn up from Hicks’s momoir on the Tremadoc rocks in the neighbour-
hood of St. Davids, in South Wales : 3—

EP OLOS PONG UC ea meccran teen nee ee Spongida.

ahh IQs ae teak aa escaak cenedeters ee eeeec ce ? Hydrozoa.
Oldham { “a mets Poon
ENCED Sr eee tn ? Pteropoda.
eingulella sete ee Palliobranchiata.
Palasterina Asteridia and Ceptoidia.
Histioderind, SColUthus cecccecccessnseneees Annelida.

Paradowides, Agnostus, Ct@. cerrccccccsrsee Crustacea.

Of these groups the Palliobranchs have often been associated with Polyzoa; but
lately Morse has endeavoured to show that they are more closely related to one of
the others, Annelida. There is no doubt he has sueceeded in adducing certain points
in his favour; but there are so many dissimilarities between the annelids and the
palliobranchs that it is scarcely to be expected the polyzoonal alliance will be
abandoned by those who have contended for it, especially since the discovery of
Rhabdoplewra, a marine form of Hippocrepian polyzoa.t There is another group of
organisms, also occurring in Cambrian rocks, which does not appear to have attracted
much notice in connexion with the subject in hand—I allude to the Asteridia. The
late Johannes Miiller showed that in the larval state certain star-fishes have their
form completely different from what it is in the adult state, changing from bilateral
to a radical character. This is especially the case with the larval star-fish (Bipin-
navia asterigera), which possesses features strongly reminding one of the structure of
Lingula. Yt hasa large peduncular appendage at the posterior end of the body ; it 1s
furnished with a pair of tentaculiferous arms bilaterally arranged, with the tentacles
ciliated; its mouth is situated between and at the base of the arms; it has an
intestine, which is doubled back on itself, and terminates at one side as an open gut.°
This seems so very like the general structural plan of Lingula that I preter asso-

1 An Orthis (possibly a Clistenterate) has been found in the Menevian group, but to whatever
division it may belong does not matter, as Lingu/elia occurs at the base of the Cambrians.

2 See a memoir by Prof. King, entitled, ‘‘An Attempt to Classify the Tetrabranchiate
Cephalopods.” Annals of Natural History, in 1845.

3 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxix. J872. ; P Z

4 First described by Prof. Allman (Quart. Journ. Microscopical Science, n. s. vol. ix. p. 57),
next Ossian Sars (id. n.s. vol. xiv. p. 1), previously Ray Lankester has published some valuable
** Remarks on the Affinities of Rhabdopleura” in the same work, id. p. 77.
a Joh. Miiller, Ueber die Larven und die Metamorphose des Echinoderm, p. 22, Taf. 2, fig. 1,

toh

T. Davidson— What is a Brachiopod ? 267

ciating the Tretenterates with the larval star-fish, rather than with the annelids in a
similar stage, or the adult forms of polyzoons. The latter seem to be more removed
from the Tretenterates than the annelids. Chronogenesis, though it appears to tell
equally in favour of Morse’s view, may be held as favourable to the Asteridian
affinities of the Palliobranchs; for notwithstanding that Pulasterina Ramseyensis
occurs in a higher horizon of the Cambrian system than the annelids of the Long-
mynds, Hicks mentions, in a note appended to his description of the above species,
that Torrell and Linnarsson have described forms of a Star-fish from Swedish
rocks, supposed to be of the Harlech or Longmynd group of the Lower Cambrian.
Although admitting that the palliobranchs manifest affinities to the annelids, poly-
zoons, and asterids, I cannot relinquish the idea that they are more closely related to
the molluses. If they do not possess sufficiently distinctive characters entitling them
to rank as a more comprehensive division, I would, instead of associating them with
any of the first three groups above mentioned, prefer that they retain their old
position in the sub-kingdom Mollusca, as defined by Cuvier.”

I am, however, quite of opinion that, whether the Brachiopods be
placed in a separate group close to the Mollusca, or to the Annelids,
they possess sufficient characters of their own to constitute a well-
defined class.

DisTRIBUTION IN TiME.

Assuming that the reader is acquainted with the geological divi-
sions into which the erust of this earth has been grouped, I may
at once observe, as justly remarked by Barrande, in his admirable
memoir, ‘“‘ Epreuves des Théories Paléontologiques par la realité,”
that the Brachiopoda, after the Trilobites, occupy the most important
place in the Cambrian or Primordial fauna. Thus in 1871, out of
241 species known to him as composing the animal kingdom of that
period, 179 are referable to the Trilobites and other Crustaceans, 28
to the Brachiopoda, while 34 species would be divided between the
Annelides, Pteropodes, Gasteropoda, Bryozoa, Cystidians, and Spon-
gida. Subsequent to these researches several additional species of
Trilobites and Brachiopoda have been added to the list through the
indefatigable exertions of Prof. Linnarsson, Mr. Hicks, and others.
If therefore we exclude the problematical “Hozoon Canadense” from
the animal creation, as some naturalists have done,! we find the
Brachiopoda along with the groups mentioned by Barrande as the
earliest representatives of life at present known; for Mr. Hicks has
obtained undoubted examples of Lingula or Lingulella (L. primeva)
from the very base of the whole Cambrian series of St. Davids in
Wales.

It is impossible, for the present, to offer more than an approximate
comparison, based on numbers, of the genera and species that have
existed during the various and more or less extended geological,
periods; and many years will have to pass away before some master
minds will be able to grapple with the accumulated observations of
a century or more, and reduce the number of genera and species
within reasonable limits, from which something like trustworthy data
may be formed. Much, indeed, of the confusion must be attributed
to the imperfection of the information still existing on zoology and

1 Dawson, Carpenter, Rupert Jones, and others, consider Zozoon to be a

Rhizopod or Foraminifer; while King, Rowney, Carter, and others, firmly maintain
that it is a mineral production.

268 T. Davidson—What is a Brachiopod ?

comparative anatomy, so essential to the proper understanding of
fossil, or extinct genera and species.

But to return to our subject. I cannot do better than to extract
from Lyell the following passage. “Nothing is more remarkable,
in the Silurian strata generally of all countries, than the pre-
ponderance of the Brachiopoda over other forms of Mollusca. Their
proportional numbers can by no means be explained by supposing
them to have inhabited seas of great depth, for the contrast between
the palzeozoic and the present state of things has not been essentially
altered by the late discoveries made in our deep-sea dredgings. We
find the living Brachiopoda so rare as to form about one forty-fourth
of the whole bivalve fauna, whereas in the Lower Silurian rocks, and
where the Brachiopoda reach their maximum, they are represented
by more than twice as many species as the Lamellibranchiate bi-
valves. There may, indeed, be said to be a continuous decrease of
the proportional number of this lower tribe of Mollusca as we pro-
ceed from the older to the newer rocks.”

Dr. Bigsby informs me that from a conspectus in his new The-
saurus (now in the press) the following numbers of Silurian, Devo-
nian, and Carboniferous Brachiopoda have been given, with due re-
gard to accuracy, but that after all it is only a careful approximation
liable to future disturbances :

America. Europe, etc. Total.

Cambrian and Silurian............ 689 CER 1422
WEVOMTAN yc eeccises eeitoete eee cases SO 789 1366
Carbontlerousee ces erecta 488 384 871
1754: 1905 3659

The number from the Permian formation, which completes the
Paleeozoic series, has not yet been computed, but they are compara-
tively few in number. Making a large allowance for synonyms, it
will be seen that fully 3000 species are already known to have
existed during the primary periods. Itis alsoa remarkable fact that
the Brachiopoda, so immensely abundant during the Cambrian,
Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous periods, became apparently
very much less numerous during the Permian and Triassic ; while
they again became abundant, although comparatively reduced in num-
ber, during the Jurassic and Cretaceous period. In the Tertiaries
they had materially decreased in number, and are represented, at the
present time, by about one hundred species. It has also been clearly
ascertained that a certain number of genera and species passed from
one system or formation into the one that followed it, as may be
seen by a glance at the Table, in which the general distribution of
the genera in time has been given with as much accuracy as the
present state of our knowledge will admit. From this table it will
be perceived that about 9 genera appeared for the first time in the
Cambrian system, 52 in the Silurian, 21 in the Devonian, 7 Carbon-

‘

LT. Davidson— What is a Brachiopod ? 269

iferous, 2 Permian, 2 Triassic, 11 Jurassic, 5 Cretaceous, 3 Tertiary,
and 9 in the recent periods.’ But what wonderful changes have
been operating during the incalculable number of ages in which the
creation (?) and extinction of a large number of genera and thousands
of species bave taken place. Some few only of the primordial, or
first created genera, such as [ingula, Discina, and Crania, have fought
their way and struggled for existence through the entire sequence of
geological time. Many were destined to a comparatively ephemeral
existence, while others had a greater or lesser prolongation of re-
production. These remarks lead me to give some extracts from a
letter which I received from Darwin as far back as the 26th of April,
1861. In that letter, this eminent and admirable observer writes,
“J do not know whether you have read my ‘Origin of Species.’ In
that book I have made the remark, which I apprehend will be
universally admitted, that as a whole, the fauna of any formation is
intermediate in character between that of the formation above and
below. But several really good judges have remarked to me how
desirable it would be that this should be exemplified and worked out in
some detail, and with some single group of beings. Now every one
will admit that no one in the world could do this better than you
with Brachiopods. The result might turn out very unfavourable to
the views which I hold; if so, so much the better for those who are
opposed to me. But I am inclined to suspect that on the whole it
would be favourable to the notion of descent with modification. I
ean hardly doubt that many curious points would occur to any one
thoroughly instructed in the subject, who could consider a group of
beings under the point of view of descent with modification. All
those forms which have come down from an ancient period very
slightly modified ought, I think, to be omitted; and those forms
alone considered which have undergone considerable change at each
successive epoch. My fear is whether the Brachiopoda have changed
enough. The absolute amount of difference of the forms in such
groups at the opposite extremes of time ought to be considered, and
how far the early forms are intermediate in character between those
which appeared much later in time. The antiquity of a group is not
really diminished, as some seem to think, because it has transmitted
to the present day closely allied forms. Another point is how far the
succession of each genus is unbroken from the first time it appeared
to its extinction, with due allowance made for formations poor in
fossils. I cannot but think that an important essay (far more im-
portant than a hundred literary reviews), might be written by one
like yourself, and without very great labour.”

In several subsequently written letters, Darwin reiterates his
suggestions. I can assure you that I have not neglected a request
coming from so eminent a quarter, but I am bound to state that I
have found the subject beset with so many apparently inexplicable
difficulties, that year after year has passed:away without being able
to trace the descent with modification among the Brachiopoda which
the Darwinian doctrine requires.

1 These numbers must of course be considered provisional, see Table.

270 T. Davidson—What is a Brachiopod ?

The imperfection (one due, I believe, to our slight acquaintance
with the subject) in the geological record cannot in many cases be
doubted, but we have no right to make capital out of unknown data.
We must therefore deal with facts as we find them, and see how far
they will bear upon the subject under examination. It may be quite
true, that strata at great distances cannot be positively asserted to be
strictly speaking absolutely contemporaneous, although they may
contain the same animals.

Prof. Huxley has stated that for anything that Geology and Pale-
ontology are able to show to the contrary, a Devonian Flora in the
British Islands may have been contemporaneous with a Carbonifer-
ous Flora and Fauna in Africa; but as we have no certainty that
such has been the case, it cannot be adduced in support of the theory
under notice. It is likewise very probable that some species may
have migrated from the sea-bottom on which they originally lived
to some more favourable locality, and have become to some extent
modified. No one can seriously doubt that life has continued to be
represented under one form or another ever since it was first brought
into existence, and I consequently cannot agree with M. Deshayes
and others who believe in a total extinction of the animal creation
at certain specified periods. We are also aware that, taking, for
instance, the rocks of the Carboniferous period, in almost every
locality in Europe, Spitzbergen, Newfoundland, America, India, or
Australia, there are present a few species common to all, in addition
to a number that are special to the locality. Thus, for example, as
I have shown elsewhere, Spirifer lineatus is one of those persistent
forms, but with different proportions according to the locality, caused,
no doubt, from the sea-bottom being more or less favourable to its
development. It is consequently very large in the Punjab, of mo-
derate dimensions in Europe, and considerably dwarfed in Nova
Scotia. Still the species remain essentially the same.'

Notwithstanding the theoretical doctrine that has been promulgated
with respect to the origin of species, we are still and shall probably
for ever remain in the dark, or within the region of suppositions,
with respect to so important a question. In his admirable address
to the Belfast Meeting of the British Association, Tyndall observes :
“Tf you ask me whether there exists the least evidence to prove
that any form of life can be developed out of matter, without demon-
strable antecedent life, my reply is that evidence considered perfectly
conclusive by many has been adduced; and that were some of us
who have pondered this question to follow a very common example,
and accept testimony because it falls in with our belief, we also
should eagerly close with the evidence referred to. But there is in
the true man of science a wish stronger than the wish to have his
beliefs upheld; namely, the wish to have them true. And this

' Tt has been observed by Robert MacAndrew that although the size attained by
Mollusca (and no doubt by other animals) may be influenced by various conditions in
different localities, as a general rule each species attains its greatest size, as well as
its greatest number, in the latitudes best suited to its general development; and
that whether a species be Arctic, Boreal, Celtic, or Lusitianian, it will grow largest in
the region to which it belongs.

T. Davidson— What is a Brachiopod ? 271

stronger wish causes him to reject the most plausible support, if be
has reason to suspect that it is vitiated by error. Those to whom I
refer as having studied this question, believing the evidence offere|
in favour of ‘spontaneous generation’ to be thus vitiated, cannot
accept it. They know full well that the chemist now prepares from
inorganic matter a vast array of substances which were some time
ago regarded as the sole products of vitality. They are intimately
acquainted with the structural power of matter as evidenced in the
phenomena of crystallization. They can justify scientifically their
belief in its potency, under the proper conditions, to produce organ-
isms. But in reply to your question they will frankly admit their
inability to point to any satisfactory experimental proof that life can
be developed save from demonstrable antecedent life.” Further on
he adds, “In fact, the whole process of evolution is the manifesta-
tion of a Power absolutely inscrutable to the intellect of man.”

Darwin’s tempting and beautiful theory of descent with modifica-
tion bears a charm that appears to be almost irresistible, and I would
be the last person to assert that it may not represent the actual
mode of specific development. It is a far more exalted conception
than the idea of constant independent creations; but we are stopped
by a number of questions that seem to plunge the conception in a
maze of inexplicable, nay, mysterious difficulties; nor has Darwin,
as far as I am aware, said how he supposes the first primordial form
to have been introduced. The theory is at best, as far as we can at
present perceive, with our imperfect state of knowledge, but half
the truth, being well enough in many cases as between species and
species ; for it is evident that many so-termed species may be nothing
more than modifications produced by descent. It applies, likewise,
to accidental variations as between closely allied genera, yet there is
much more than this, with respect to which the theory seems in-
sufficient. The strange geological persistency of certain types, such
as of Lingula, Discina, Nautilus, etc., seems also to bar the at present
thorough acceptance of such a theory of general descent with
modification. Barrande seems to be strongly opposed to the
Darwinian view, for in his admirable memoir already quoted he
states : “‘Par contraste nous devons constater, comme resultat final
de nos études, que l’observation directe contredit radicalement toutes
ses prévisions des théories paléontologiques au sujet de la com-
position des premiéres phases de la faune primordiale Silurienne.
En effet, étude speciale de chacun des éléments zoologiques qui
constituent ces phases, nous a démontré, que les prévisions théoriques
sont en compléte discordance avec les faits observés par la paléon-
tologie. Ces discordances sont si nombreuses, et si prononcées que
la composition de la faune réelle semblérait avoir été calculée a dessin,
pour contredire tout ce que nous enseigne les théories, sur la pre-
micre apparition et sur l’evolution primitives des formes de la vie
animale sur le globe.”

We have no positive evidence of those modifications which the
theory involves, for types appear on the whole to be permanent
as long as they continue, and when a genus disappears there

22 7. Davidson— What is a Brachiopod ?

is no modification, that I can see, of any of the forms that con-
tinue beyond, as far as the Brachiopoda appear to be concerned,
and why should a number of genera, such as Lingula, Discina, Orania,
and Rhynchonella, have continued to be represented with the same
characters and often with but small modification in shape during the
entire sequence of geological strata? Why did they not offer
modifications or alter during those incalculable ages ? Limiting
myself to the Brachiopoda, let us see what further they will tell us
upon this question. Taking the present state of our knowledge as
a guide, but admitting, at the same time, that any day our conclusions
and inductions may require to be modified by fresh discoveries, let
us ascertain whether they reveal anything to support Darwinian
ideas. We find that the larger number of genera made their first
appearance during the Paleozoic periods, and since they have been
decreasing in number to the present period. We will leave out of
question the species, for they vary so little that it is often very
difficult to trace really good distinctive characters between them; it
is different with the genera, as they are, or should be, founded on
much greater and more permanent distinctions. Thus, for example,
the family Spiriferide includes genera which are all charac-
terized by a calcified spiral lamina for the support of the brachial
appendages; and however varied these may be, they always retain
the distinctive characters of the group from their first appearance to
their extinction. The Brachiopodist labours under the difficulties of
not being able to determine what are the simplest, or which are the
highest families into which either of the two great groups of his
favourite class is divided; so far then he is unable to point out any
evidence favouring progressive development in it. But, confining
himself to species, he sees often before him great varietal changes, so
much so, as to make it difficult for him to define the species; and it
leads him to the belief that such groups were not of independent
origin, as was universally thought before Darwin published his great
work on the Origin of Species. But in this respect the Brachiopoda
reveal nothing more than other groups of the organic kingdoms.

It would appear that the earliest forms among the Brachiopoda
are referable to the division Zretenterata, which includes the genera
Lingulella, Lingula, Discina, and Obolella. Of these only Lingula
and Discina have lived on with but slight modifications in external
shape during the entire sequence of geological time; and they are
still represented by several species. But in rocks somewhat later
in age (from the middle beds of the Menevian group or Lower Lin-
gula flags) to those in which the above genera are found, there occurs
a species of Orthis (O. Hicksii), which may possibly be the first re-
presentative, as far as we are aware, of the division Clistenterata.
On this point, however, I would refer to Professor King’s note pre-
viously given. Since the Cambrian period both divisions continue
to be represented without apparently showing a tendency to pass one
into the other. Now although certain genera, such as Zerebratula,
Rhynchonella, Crania, and Discina, have enjoyed a very considerable
geological existence, there are genera, such as Stringocephalus, Uncites,

Revo. T. G. Bonney—Formation of Cirques. 273

Porambonites, Koninckina, and several others, which made their ap-
pearance very suddenly and without any warning; after a while they
disappeared in a similar abrupt manner, having enjoyed a compara-
tively short existence. They are all possessed of such marked and
distinctive internal characters that we cannot trace between them
and associated or synchronous genera any evidence of their being
either modifications of one or the other, or of being the result of
descent with modification. Therefore, although far from denying
the possibility or probability of the correctness of the Darwinian
theory, I could not conscientiously affirm that the Brachiopoda, as
far as 1 am at present acquainted with them, would be of much
service in proving it. The subject is worthy of the continued and
serious attention of every well-informed man of science. The sublime
Creator of the Universe has bestowed on him a thinking mind; there-
fore all that can be discovered is legitimate. Science has this ad-
vantage, that it is continually on the advance, and is ever ready to
correct its errors when fresh light or new discoveries make such
necessary.

The importance of the study of the Brachiopoda must be obvious
to all. They are among the first well-known indications of life in
this world; and they have continued to be very extensively repre-
sented up to the present time. They are also very characteristic
fossils, by which rocks at great distances, whether in New Zealand
or Spitzbergen, in the Himalayas or the Andes, can be identified
without its being even necessary for the paleontologist to visit the
district from whence the fossils are derived. They are, as Mantell
would have termed them, sure medals of creation, the date of their
appearance firmly stamped upon them, and their distinctive characters
so legibly impressed as to defy misinterpretation.

TV.—On Mr. Hetiann’s THrory or THE ForMATION OF CIRQUES.

By the Rey. T. G. Bonney, M.A., F.G.S. ;
Fellow, and late Tutor, of St. John’s College, Cambridge.

N the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society (vol. xxxiii.
p. 142) is an important paper by Mr. Helland, on Fjords, Lakes,
and Cirques in Norway and Greenland. In this he notices a theory
of mine on the formation of cirques which was published in the same
journal (vol. xxvii. p.312). As I mentioned in a note attached to his
paper, he somewhat misunderstands me, supposing apparently that
I describe only cirques of a small size,—the fact being, that, so far
as I know, the Alpine cirques are quite commensurate with those of
Norway. ‘This, however, is of slight importance. My present
purpose is to give reasons why, after further observations in the
Alps and Pyrenees, and even in the British Isles, I still prefer the
explanation then advanced, that the cirques are mainly produced
by the combined erosive action of streamlets, to the one given by
Mr. Helland, that a cirque is a result of glacial action.
I must first remark that in the Alps the persistency in direction,
which he observes in the Norway and Greenland cirques, is not
DECADE II.—VOL, IV.—NO. YI. 18

274 Rev. T. G. Bonney—Formation, of Cirques.

maintained. Of those which I described, some indeed look N.; buat
- the Creux de Champs and Fer & Cheval have a N.W. aspect, the
former perhaps rather W.N.W.; the Cirque Am Ende der Welt looks
S.W., and the two under the Rothstock almost due 8. IJ am, there-
fore, disposed to regard the fact which he notices as quite indepen-
dent of any general theory of the formation of cirques.

He further points out that there is a connexion between the posi-
tion of cirques and the height of the snow-line ; and that cirques
and glaciers are commonly associated. Hence he concludes that the
cirques were excavated by the glaciers, and describes the mode in
which he conceives this to have been effected. There is, no doubt,
some connexion between the level of the snow-line and of the bed of
the cirque. In the Alps, however, the bed of the more important
cirques is generally far below the former. (Professor Gastaldi’s
statement I think places the lower limit rather too high.) Most of
those which I describe have their floors about 4500’ to 6000’ above
the sea-level; but I have also seen them much higher. The rela-
tion, however, in no way militates against my view, because, when
the walls of the cirque rise up beyond the snow-line, the conditions
most favourable to stream erosion prevail, as a perennial supply of
snow rests on the higher ledges and slopes; in fact, I think it would
be difficult for a large cirque to be formed, unless the streams were
supplied by snow-beds. Again, as to the connexion between cirques
and glaciers. Mr. Helland says, ‘“‘Where the mountains are higher
and isolated glaciers are very numerous, cirques are also numerous ;
and as isolated glaciers are here capable of being formed and main-
tained at an inconsiderable height above the sea, the cirques also
occur at but slight elevations.” As J have just observed, proximity
to the snow-line is undoubtedly favourable to the formation of
cirques, and I quite agree that the above association is one of cause
and effect, only that which Mr. Helland deems cause I consider effect
—no doubt a rather important difference. I believe that isolated
glaciers abound where cirques abound, because a cirque with its
sheltered recesses is peculiarly favourable to the formation of a
glacier. This connexion seems to me no more to prove his case than
the occurrence of a puddle in the sheltered corner of a quarry proves
that the water excavated it.

I proceed then to offer reasons why I consider Mr. Helland’s
theory of the formation of cirques inadequate. It is thus stated—
« As the temperature around the glaciers constantly varies about the
freezing-point, the incessant freezing and thawing of the water in
the cracks in the rock may split it, and the glacier may do the work
of transportation for the fragments thus broken loose. On examining
the interior of an empty cirque, we observe that a bursting, not a
scooping out of the rock has taken place.” If I understand him
rightly, he regards the cirque as formed by a sort of process of per-
petual “tooth drawing,”—the bed or slope of the mountain beneath
{he glacier is cracked by changes of temperature, the fragments are
caught by the superjacent ice, lifted up, perhaps wrenched out, and
borne away. Now with regard to this theory, I must remark in

Rev. T. G. Bonney— Formation of Cirques. 270

limine that I cannot admit a necessary connexion between cirques
and glaciers, because I see no possibility of drawing any hard and
fast line between cirques, corries, and even the ordinary bowl-shaped
heads of valleys so common in any country which has been sub-
jected to meteoric action. The small passes into the large, the slope
steepens into the precipice; but rain rills before they gather into a
streamlet, streamlets before they gather into a river, all produce
the same result; viz. a bowl-like excavation in the mountain-side,
which is drained by the one outlet valley. I have even seen cirques
on clayey banks, in miniature, with walls that might almost be
measured by inches. Connecting links may be found, through
corrie and cwm, between the merest bowl-like hollow on some
down of Chalk or Oolite or even some plateau of sandy clay, and
the grandest cirque of the Alps or Pyrenees. The differences are
due to the nature of the materials and to other local circumstances.

Besides the above, the following objections seem to me to make
Mr. Helland’s hypothesis untenable.

1. The general smoothness of the rock in the bed of cirques and
corries. Where I have seen the live rock in the bed of a cirque or
corrie, it is usually smooth and iceworn. Were it formed as Mr.
Helland supposes, it should be always rough,—pitted with the
sockets of the extracted rocky teeth,—because it is deepened, not by
the wearing away of prominences, but by the fracture of fragments.
The sharp-edged blocks of which he speaks, so far as I have seen
them, are generally loose and strewn over the basin, i.e. they have
either fallen directly from above or been dropped by the melting
glacier.

2. His theory fails satisfactorily to account for the tarns in certain
cirques when they are true rock-basins. ‘It does not seem likely
that they were mainly scooped out like the great lakes, along the
sides of which we see groovings and roches moutonnées one beside
the other; for in the little lakes one often sees sharp-edged blocks
covering the bottom. When the glaciers of the cirques filled these
small lakes so as to leave but little water, it seems probable that the
water thus left would freeze in winter, so that the whole tarn
would be frozen to the bottom, and the rocks in that way broken
loose. Whatever may be the manner in which these blocks are
broken out, we see that, from their situation and form, a bursting has
taken place in these tarns, so that they are the last works of the
glaciers in the cirques.” I quite agree with the final clause; but
think that the rest—that the existence of the tarn before its basin—
is rather like ‘“‘ seeing the roads before they were made.” These tarns
are in fact among the basins which I readily concede to glacier
action, because, if a small glacier forms in a previously existing
corrie or cirque, the descent of the ice from the steep surrounding
slopes on to the level floor will facilitate erosion; so this is just
where I should expect to find—and commonly do find—a basin ;
but I have seen true cirques without tarns. The floors also of these
basins, as stated above, where visible, are smooth and iceworn.
Further, as these basins appear to be sometimes of considerable

276 Rev. T. G. Bonney—Formation of Cirques.

depth, how are the excavated materials removed ? When there is
much pressure from the ice behind, that in front may be forced uphill
for a short distance, and a sort of scooping action maintained; but
I fail to see how this could happen with Mr. Helland’s theory.

3. The size of some of the cirques appears to me also a fatal
objection. The walls of the cirques in the Alps and Pyrenees, like
those described by him, are often 2000’ or 3000’ high. Indeed one
might almost call those of the Creux de Champs double that; for
the precipices (as I well know) rise with inaccessible steepness,
interrupted by mere ledges, from the floor of the cirque to the very
crest of the Diablerets. Does Mr. Helland seriously mean to say
that ‘‘a small isolated glacier” has settled almost vertically down-
wards on the site of this cirque, deepening its bed by a thousand
yards,—and that too beneath its névé, where the erosive power is
weakest ?

I am content to ask any one to replace the material removed from
one of these great cirques, to clap a glacier on some accidental hollow
on the mountain, and then to consider if the problem proposed is
mechanically possible. We should want the “rotatory glaciers—
whirlpools of ecstatic ice—like whirling dervishes,” which Mr. Ruskin
long ago suggested, to perform work like this.

4. But suppose for one moment we are not staggered by this
feat of excavation. Suppose we imagine a thousand yards of rock
dug almost vertically out of the mountain-side. Are we not then
forced to admit one of the following alternatives? If this energetic
glacier was limited to the immediate vicinity of the cirque, then
the floor of this part of the valley ought to be lower than that
further down; in other words, there should always be a deep lake
beneath the walls of the cirque (which there is not): or else the
valley must have been immensely deepened and modified, almost
excavated, by the glacier. It is this latter alternative which I
understand Mr. Helland to accept; it is this which in my first
paper I endeavoured to show was inevitable; and it is exactly this
which is not only unsupported but even opposed by the evidence
of the Alps and of every mountain region which I have seen.
As I have endeavoured again and again to show in arguing against
the application of the theory of glacial excavation to the greater
Alpine lakes, we have in the valleys little or no indication of any
but the most superficial effects of glacial erosion. These valleys
commonly have the characteristic forms of river action. In the
Val Sesia, Val Bregaglia, in the valley of the Dranse and many
more, I have traced glacial marks almost down to the present
torrent bed, where the valley itself exhibits the most characteristic
forms of fluviatile erosion. The contours also of the valley below
Gavarnie are those of river, not of glacial erosion. If then the
erosive effect of glaciers is so slight that it is difficult to credit them
with the greater Alpine lakes, how can we attribute to them cirques,
which occur just at the point where they are feeblest, where the con-
nexion with the formation of the whole valley is most inseparable ?

Lastly, Mr. Helland objects to my theory “that the part of the

J. S. Gardner—Development of Plants. 210

crest surrounding the cirque, and sloping to it, is only some metres
broad, so that it cannot feed even a very small stream.” But in all
the cirques that I have seen there are the streams. In Gavarnie, the
Fer 4 Cheval—all that I have described, and many more besides, the
streams are so marked a feature, that even the passing traveller
cannot fail to notice them. Sometimes they are supplied by ledges,
which, though almost invisible from below, are large enough to sup-
port permanent snow-beds; for instance on such a precipice as that
of the Creux de Champs, a bed as broad as Regent Street would from
below seem a mere streak. Sometimes they may be fed by springs ;
sometimes it may be that the work of erosion is coming to a stand-
still for want of a sufficient feeding ground, and the streams are
supplied only by the rain drainage of the cliff itself. More than once
it has been rather a puzzle to me how those which I saw were
supplied. But be this as it may, I have never yet seen a cirque
without abundant streamlets; evidenced by the gulleys and water
stains in some places, by the actual runlets in others, and by the
talus heaps below all. Hence I conclude that the theory of water
excavation as applied to all cases, big and little, in hot countries as
well as cold—so far as my experience goes—is better than that of ice
excavation, which seems mechanically almost impossible, and leads
us to conclusions about the formation of valleys which I think most
physiographers will admit to be untenable.

V.—On Baron OC. von Ertinasmausen’s THEory oF THe DEVELOP-
MENT OF VEGETATION ON THE Harra.

By J. Srarxre Garpner, F.G.S.
II. The Tertiary Elements of the European Flora.

[Aus dem LXIX. Bande der Sitzb. der k. Akad. der Wissensch. I. Abth. Marz-
Heft, Jahrg. 1874.]
HE following is an abstract of another of the papers forwarded
to me from Graz, to which I alluded in the April Number of the
Gerotocican Magazine. The author first states that the opinion he
had formed, that all the Floras of the present time were represented
in the Tertiary Flora of Europe, has been still more confirmed by
later researches, and then enters upon his more immediate subject.
Of all the groups of plants comprised in our Tertiary Floras,
those which resemble the AustraLran forms are the most striking and
deserve our first attention, as their peculiar and unmistakable charac-
ters show more than those of any other group, how a Flora, now
completely exotic and distinct, was once fully represented in all its
more important elements, in Europe. The Tertiary strata of Hurope
contain all the characteristic families of the present Australian Flora,
represented by many distinctive genera; thirteen families only,
and these of small extent, not being hitherto found. The leaves
of Australian plants are very characteristic and easily recognized;
and there exist, as well as leaves, either fossil fruits, or seeds of the
Proteaceze, belonging to the genera Banksia, Dryandra, Hakea,
Persoonia and Lomatia, and Petrophiloides (of the latter the fruit

278 J. S. Gardner—On Lttingshausen’s Theory

only being known). Besides Proteaces, other not less distinctive
plants are known, about the determination of which there can be no
doubt ; these are branches and seeds of Casuarina and Hxocarpus,
branches of Leptomeria, fruit of Dodonea and Pittospermum. In
addition to these, twenty-seven other genera are enumerated, and a
further list of ten genera resembling Australian forms; but the
determination of these is still open to doubt.

Next in importance are the representatives of the Care Frora, (no
less sharply defined than the Australian), which is undoubtedly re-
presented by Widdringtonia, the genera Protea and Leucodendron,
Euclea, Royena, Cunonia, and the Celastrinez, the latter being espe-
cially represented by numerous forms, closely resembling those now
living. <A list of twenty-three other genera is given, and the repre-
sentation in Huropean Tertiary Floras is so complete that but six
distinctive families ef the Cape Flora are not found, and these are
of plants whose growth is for the most part unfavourable to their
preservation as fossils.

The Centra Arrican Tropica ReGion (Sudangebiet) is repre-
sented by the well-marked genera Gardenia and Boscia, and by ana-
logues of specific forms peculiar to this region.

Tropica Asta (Monsungebiet) is represented by a great assem-
blage of species and genera. which are noteworthy on account of
their wide distribution in the Tertiary strata; these are Engelhardtia,
Dalbergia, Cesalpina, Pterospermum. |Twelve other characteristic
genera are named, and 357 analogues of Hast Indian types. |

Less in number, but of more striking form, and also widely dis-
tributed in the Tertiaries, are the representatives of the Cxino-
JAPANESE region. Four characteristic species of Coniferze, Thuiopsis
of Japan, Glyptostrobus and Cunninghamia of China, and Salisburia
common to China and Japan ; Cinnamomum and Koelreuteria ; besides
a host of analogous. species of Pinus, Podocarpus, Betula, Ulmus, and
ten other not less important genera, represent this region in the
Tertiary Flora.

STEPPE-REGION (Steppengebiet). The representatives of this region
are by comparison only subordinate; but three genera, now exclu-
sively confined to it, are present, Planera, Parrotia, and Pterocarya ;
but species are met with, analogous with those characterizing the
region, of eleven more widely distributed genera.

Representatives of the MeprrERRANEAN and the temperate regions
of the Hastern and Western Continents are the most numerous of all
in the European Tertiary Floras. It is remarkable that the more
the Australian elements are present, the less in number these are,
and vice versdé the more these preponderate, the less the Australian
elements seem to dominate. Thus in the Floras of Sotzka, Hiring,
and Monte Promina, the proportion of Australian forms is 1 in 3;
in the Flora of Sagor and Kutschlin 1 in 6; of Radaboj and Leoben
1 in 14; of Bilin 1 in 16; of Giningen 1 in 30; and in the Pliocene
Flora but 1 in 40. On the other hand, we find 1 representative of
the Mediterranean or Temperate regions in 11 or 12 in the Floras
of Sotzka, Hiring, and Moute Promina; 1 in 7 at Sagor; 1 in 6 at

of Development of Vegetation on the Earth. 219

Kutschlin; 1 in 4 at Radaboj, Leoben, and Bilin; one-third at
(Hningen, and half in the Pliocene. [The list of fossil genera agree-
ing with those of the Mediterranean region contains 41 names. |

Analogues of the floras of the Temperate regions have been met
with in every locality, from which Tertiary fossil plants have been
obtained. They are divided into those which are common to both,
and those which are peculiar to one of these, the European or
American Temperate regions. Included in the former are the ferns
Aspidium and Osmunda, and a number of genera of familiar trees
and plants, as pine, oak, beech, elm, poplar, holiy, lime, etc., the
Tertiary forms of which correspond with species now living both
in Hurope and America. A number of fossils on the other hand,
belonging to genera now common to both hemispheres, resemble
species peculiar to one or other only. For instance, the species of
Myrica are all of North American aspect, the European forms not
being represented, whilst only European forms of Castanea have
been met with.

[Thirty-five genera are mentioned, a large proportion of which are
monocotyledons (4 aquatic), whose analogues existed in either one
or other Continent, or which cannot be referred with certainty to
either. The list includes 2 Gymnosperms. Juniperus and Taxus. The
most remarkable of the dicotyledons are Custanea, Alnus and Sadia. |

As representatives of the Flora of the Temperate region of the
Western Continent, there are 37 genera, besides those common to
Europe, amongst which are Smilaz, Sabal, Platanus, Magnolia,
Sapindus, Carya, Rhus, Juglans, Spirea, Cassia, ete.

The Flora of the Pratrt region is represented by some analogues
of species of Quercus, Populus, and four other genera; the Catt-
FORNIAN Coast rEGIoN by the genus Sequoia and species of Pinus,
Quercus, Myrica. Fraxinus, Juglans, Salia, etc. ; the Mexican REGION
by species of Quercus, Ficus, Synplocos, and 5 others; the West
Inpigs by species of Sabal, Dodonea, Celastrus, Myrtus, Cassia, and
9 others.

More fully represented than any of these is the vegetation of
tropical South America, no less than 59 genera being found ; of these
Andromeda, Aralia, Cesalpinia, Mimosa, Acacia, and Sapindus are
familiar genera.

The Cuintan TERRITORY is represented by few, but distinctive
genera [11, including Podocarpus, Celastrus, and Arbutus. |

The Ocranrc Isuanp Froras are represented as follows :—Azores,
Madeira and Canaries by 4 ferns, Aspidium, Cheilanthes, Pteris,
Woodwardia, and by Laurus, Dracena, and 6 other genera; Mada-
gascar by dndromeda and Higodendron; Mascarenes by Hrythroxy/lon,
Celastrus and H’godendron; Sandwich Isles by Metrosideros ; Nor-
folk Isle by Pisonia, Ele@odendron, Baloghia; New Zealand by
Hedycarya, Panax, Weinmannia and Adwardsia.

280 Notices of Memoirs—Dr. Ch. Barrois— Devonian of Brest.

NOTICES OF MEMOIRS.

J.—NotTEe sUR LE TERRAIN DEVONIEN DE LA RADE DE Brest. By
Dr. Cu. Barrors. (Ann. de la Soc. Géol. du Nord, vol. iv. p. 59.)
P{\HE Devonian strata of Britanny are found scattered here and there
in the synclinal hollows of the Silurian beds, and have formed
the subject of numerous papers by many eminent French geologists.
They consists of sandstones, grauwacke, limestones, and schists,
and are divided by the author into five sections, each characterized
by its distinct assemblage of fossils. M. Barrois carefully describes
these several divisions and their contained fauna; and discusses their
probable equivalents in other regions. His views on this latter
point will be best gathered from the following table, which he has
provisionally drawn up.

Divisions oF THE LowreR Devonian.

Rape DE Brest. Nassau. ARDENNES, EIret.
ee) Sey
2 8 | Schists of Fret. : :
4.2 : ; Iron Ore of Fourmies, with
woe pseu of Pors- | Schists of Wissenbach. Spirifer cultrijugatus.
mw 8 | guen.
Sid)
Grauwacke of Hierges (base).
Red Schists of Vireux and
Burnot.

Black Sandstone of Vireux.
aS ) Foliated schists we] , } Slates of Alle. Lime-
Sa » | o8 | Slates. ad |
eas | slates. = § Limestone = _ stone of Bouillon.
os a | Limestone. BO Grauwacke: as | Grauwacke of Mon-
nm? J Grauwacke. Ss] = tigny.

23! |.
2 5
= 26 | White Sandstone Taunus Sandstone. A

2 ; : nor Sandstone.
a8 in Tron Ore. Johannisberg Ore.
Hw a 5

2 |

Gedinian.

I].—Tuae Grotocy or tHe Norruern Part or Tue Eneuiso Lake
District, [Description of Quarter-sheet 101 S.H. of the
Geological Survey Map of England and Wales.| By J. Currron
Warn, F.G.S.. ete. 8vo. pp. 132. (London. 1876.)

HIS Memoir, the first issued by the Geological Survey in de-
scription of the Lake District, is devoted to an account of the
geology of the country around Keswick, including the lakes of

Ullswater, Thurlmere, Derwentwater, Bassenthwaite, Crummock

Water, Buttermere and Ennerdale. Mr. Ward commences with a

brief account of the Physical Geography, and then gives a general

description of the rocks; these embrace the Skiddaw Slate, the

Volcanic Series of Borronmadale (Green Slates and Porphyries), the

Basement Conglomerate (often called Upper Old Red Sandstone), the

Carboniferous Limestone, Glacial Deposits and Alluvium. JBesides

Reports and Proceedings. 281

these are numerous Igneous Rocks. All are described in detail, as
well as the character and causes of metamorphism. Much attention
has been given to the Igneous Rocks (a new feature in connexion
with the Survey publications); and the work is accompanied by
three coloured plates of microscopic sections of these rocks.

The faults and mineral veins are described, and one chapter is
devoted to Plumbago or Graphite. Cleavage is the subject of another
brief chapter, while the Physical History of each formation is dwelt
upon at more leneth. The Glacial Phenomena of the District, and
the Relation of the Scenery to Geology receive due attention, and
the concluding chapter is devoted to the fossils of the Skiddaw
Slate. In an Appendix Mr. Etheridge describes some new species
of Trilobites from this formation, and one new genus of Annelida,
termed Sted/a-scolites. There is also a useful Appendix containing a
list of all works bearing on the geology of the district.

ve Osea S TANS) 2 @C a) NGS.

——

GrotocicaL Socrery or Lonpoy.—I.—April 25th, 1877.—Prof.
P. Martin Duncan, M.B., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

1. “On the Upper Limit of the essentially Marine Beds of the
Carboniferous System, and the necessity for the establishment of a
‘Middle Carboniferous Group.’” By Prof. H. Hull, F.R.S., F.G.S.

The author, in this paper, divided the whole of the Carboniferous
rocks into successive stages from A to G inclusive, taking the Car-
boniferous beds of Lancashire as a type, and showed that these
stages could be identified over the whole of the British Isles. It
was only recently that their determination had been made in
Treland, so that until now the materials had not existed for a
complete correlation of the series in the British Islands. The
following is an abbreviated statement of the representative stages
in descending order :-—

Essentially Freshwater or Estuarine, with one or two Marine Bands.

Stace G.—Upper Coal-measures of Lancashire (2000 ft.) and
other English coal-fields. Red Sandstones, etc., of Bothwell and
Ayr. in Scotland. (Absent in Ireland.)

Stace F.—Middle Coal-measures of Lancashire, etc., with prin-
cipal coal-seams (3000 ft.). Flat coal series of Scotland. Present
in Ireland (Tyrone, Kilkenny).

Essentially Marine.

Stace H.—< Gannister Beds” (Phillips), with marine shells and
thin coals (2000 ft.), in Lancashire. ‘“ Pennystone series” of
Coalbrook Dale, South Wales, etc. <“Slaty black-band” series
of Scotland. (Present in Ireland, Kilkenny, Dungannon, Lough
Allen Coal-fields.) Also in Belgium, Rhenish Provinces, and
Silesia, with numerous marine shells.

Stace D.—Willstone Grit Series of England and Wales. 3500 ft.
in Lancashire; ‘‘ Moorstone Rock” of Scotland; ‘ Flagstone-series ”
of Carlow and Kilkenny ; Millstone Grit of Fermanagh and Leitrim,
with coals and marine shells.

282 Reports and Proceedings—

Stace C.—Yoredale Beds. 3000 feet in Lancashire; Upper
Limestones and “ Lower Coal and Ironstone series” of Scotland;
Shale series of Kilkenny and Carlow; Ironstone shales of Lough
Allen, with marine shells.

Stace B.— Carboniferous Limestone. Mountain Limestone of
Derbyshire; ‘“Scaur Limestone” in Yorkshire; “Lower Lime-
stone” (Roman camp) of Scotland; Carboniferous Limestone of
Ireland.

Stace A.—Lower Limestone Shale of England. Calciferous Sand-
stone series (‘‘Tuedian,” Tate) of N. of England and Scotland;
Lower Carboniferous Sandstone, N. of Ireland; Lower Carboni-
ferous slate, with Coomhola grits, with marine shells, 8. of Ireland.
(In Scotland, estuarine or lacustrine.)

Paleontological Resu/ts—On making a census of the Molluscan
and other fossils from the various stages above that of the Carboni-
ferous Limestone (Stage B.) as determined by the paleontologist of
the Geological Survey, some interesting results were obtained,
showing the prevalence of marine conditions up into Stage E, and a
general change in the character of the fauna in the succeeding
stages. Including only the area of the British Islands, it was found
that no fewer than 37 genera, with 74 or 75 species, of decidedly
marine forms, occur in the Gannister-beds (Stage E), of which all
the genera and about 40 species were known in the stage of the
Carboniferous Limestone.! The series includes Phillipsia, which
has been found by Dr. F. Romer, in the representatives of Stage H
in Silesia.

On the other hand, of the whole number of species in Stage H
(Gannister beds), only 6 are known in the overlying Stages F and G,
these being characterized by the prevalence of bivalves of supposed
lacustrine or estuarine habitats, variously called “ Unio” and “ An-
thracosia.” Of the few species of marine genera known in Stage F
(Middle Coal-measures), about 5 or 6 species are peculiar to itself,
according to the determination of the late Mr. Salter.

Such a remarkable difference in the fauna of the Upper and
Middle Coal-measures, as compared with that of the Gannister beds,
constituted, in the author’s opinion, sufficient grounds for drawing
a divisional line between those two divisions of the Carboniferous
series. Of the several existing methods of classification adopted by
different authors, none of them appeared sufficiently to recognize
the paleontological distinctions and characteristics of the several
formations. The large number of genera and species which are now
known to range up from the Carboniferous Limestone into the Gan-
nister beds, and no higher, indicated the proper horizon for a divi-
sional line, in fact a paleontological break at the top of the Gan-
nister beds.

On the other hand, the mineral and paleontological differences

‘ In the discussion which followed the reading of Prof. Hull’s paper, the author in
replying remarked that it seemed to him that sufficient importance had not
been given to the paleontological break above the Gannister beds; out of 74 species
of marine genera below this line not more than 6 pass upwards.

Geological Society of London. 283

between the Carboniferous Limestone and the overlying Yoredale
series” were sufficient to justify their separation into distinct divi-
sions; while the Yoredale, Millstone Grit, and Gannister series, are
related by close mineral and paleontological resemblances.

With a view, therefore, of bringing the classification of the Car-
boniferous series into harmony with the character of the repre-
sentative faunas, and the physical features of the successive stages,
the author suggests that Stages C, D, and E, composed of essentially
marine beds, should be aoniiad into a Middle Carboniferous group ;
while Stages F and G would remain as at present, in the Upper
Carboniferous, their fauna being essentially of fresh water. The
series, as thus amended, would be as follows :—

Upper CARBONIFEROUS GROUP.
Stage G. Upper Coal-measures ............006 Mecutaieateas socenensies Essentially
op dls MOS Copllomensanes | 5 coco: adeossoncobodonsoceosbaneoendaon Leones
Mippire CARBOoNIFEROUS GROUP.

Stage E. Lower Coal-measures or Gannister Beds .............0000+ .
DM aggre Essentially
4 : iMkstionaKer={ Cais Sa 1GIS). (so bagn dno ao ssddcuceacacbogdGe sobood conden .
6. Wares ye Marine.
* Mee conedalessenlesp ye seerseseeceecceee ceca ne opledastes ceases :
Lower CaRrBonirerous Group.
Stage B. Carboniferous Limestone series.........00. .csscsescoeeeeces ) Essentially ma-
», <A. dower shales, slates, carboniferous and ealciferous and rine (except
SANASCONE SELLESi eres: se caceceee sone renee teteee eeene eee ) in Scotland).

The author then proceeded to show, by reference to the writings
of Dr. F. Romer of Breslau, of M. De Koninck, M. Charles Barrois,
etc., that Stage E with its marine fauna is represented both in
Germany, Belgium, and France, as well as in the British Islands,
so that the classification would hold good over Western Europe,
which was a sufficiently extensive area to justify the establishment
of a distinct group of strata.

2. “On Coal-pebbles and their Derivation.” By H. K. Jordan,
KEsq., F.G-S.

In this paper the author endeavoured to explain the mode of pro-
duction of pebbles of coal in the clays and sandstones of the South
Wales Coal-field and elsewhere, the occurrence of which had been
long since noticed by Sir William Logan and Sir Henry de la Beche.
His opinion is that the pebbles in question are derived either from
the seam of coal above which they are found, or from a seam of
coal which formerly existed in the same, or approximately in the
same position, and which has been destroyed by erosion, the effect
of strong currents of water, which distributed the grains of sand
and other materials upon the coal-seam.

I.—May 9th, 1877.—Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.B., F.RS.,
President, in the Chair.

1. “On the Agassizian Genera Amblypterus, Paleoniscus, Gyro-
lepis, and Pygopterus.’ By Ramsay H. Traquair, HEsq., M.D.,
F.R.S.E., F.G.S.

The author’s object in this paper was to discuss the characters by

1 In the south of Ireland there is strong evidence that the Yoredale beds (‘‘ Shale-
series”) are unconformable to the Carboniferous Limestone.

284 Reports and Proceedings—

which the above genera of fossil fishes have been supposed to be
distinguished in the case of specimens from the Carboniferous
series. In Amblypterus he distinguished five types among the
species referred to that genus by Agassiz, viz.:—I. Of A. latus; II.
A. macropterus = genus Rhabdolepis, Trosch.; III. Of A. striatus
= Cosmopiychius, g.n.; IV. Of A. nemopterus = genus Hlonichthys,
Gieb.; V. Of A. punctatus = Gonatodus, g.n. In Paleoniscus he
distinguished the following types:—I. Of P.-Freieslebeni; II. Of P.
Duvernoyi = genus. Amblypterus, Ag.; III. Of P. striolatus = genus
Hlonichthys, Gieb.; of P. ornatissimus = Rhadinichthys, gn.; VI. Of
glaphyrus = Acentrophorus, g. n.; VII. Of P. catopterus = genus
Dietyopyge, Egert. He further discussed at great length the charac-
ters and affinities of the genera Gyrolepis and Pygopterus, the former
of which he regarded as untenable, on the ground of its being
founded on fragmentary remains of fishes belonging to several other
genera; and the latter as divisible into the following groups :—I.
Type of P. Humboldtii, Permian only; II. Type of P. Bucklandi=
Hlonichthys, Gieb.; Ill. Type of P. Greenockii= Nematoptychius,
g.n. There are no Carboniferous species of Pygopterus proper.

2. “On the Circinate Vernation, Fructification, and Varieties of
Sphenopteris affinis, and on Staphylopteris? Peachii, Wtheridge and
Balfour, a Genus of Planis new to British Rocks.” By C. W. Peach,
Hsq., A.L.S. Communicated by Robert Etheridge, Esq., F.R.S.,
V.P.G.S.

The author noticed the occurrence in the Carboniferous shales near
West Calder (Edinburgh) of abundant remains of the fern described
by Lindley and Hutton as Sphenopieris affinis, dwelling especially
on the circinate vernation and supposed fructification of the plant.
With it were found many fragments of small flower-like plants,
which had been referred to the genus Staphylopteris, Presl, the
fructification especially resembling that ascribed to that genus. The
author considered that in all probability the Staphylopteris was
parasitic upon the Sphenopteris, perhaps after the fashion of Cuscuta

upon flowering plants.

Discusston.—Mr. Carruthers spoke in high terms of appreciation of Mr.
Peach’s work in nearly all departments of Natural History. The greatest credit
was due to him for his exceedingly careful observations. At the same time Mr.
Carruthers was compelled to differ from him with regard to the plants which had
been brought before the Society on this occasion. ‘The structure of the fruit in
some of Stur’s coal-plants is the same as in the living Hymenophylium, consisting of
two valves peculiarly arranged, the lower pinne of the fronds being fertile and
modified accordingly. The same thing seems to have occurred in Sphenopteris affinis,
except that the lower pinne retained their normal structure, and the apical pinne
were modified as the fruit-bearing portion, which had been regarded as forming the
peculiar genus Staphylopteris.

3. “On the Occurrence of a Macrurous Decapod (Anthrapalemon
Woodwardi, sp. nov.) in the Red Sandstone, or Lowest Group of the
Carboniferous Formation in the South-Hast of Scotland.” By Robert
Etheridge, Esq., Jun., F.G.S.

After giving a detailed bibliography of the Paleeozoic Malacostra-
cous Crustacea, the author described the remains of a small Crus-
tacean from the lower group of the Carboniferous formation near

Correspondence—Mr. J. Milne—Mr. J. R. Dakyns. 285

Dunbar, and discussed its affinities and systematic position, which he
regarded as being among the Macrurous Decapods, although the
absence of the eyes in the preserved specimens, and some other
characters, rendered it doubtful whether it might not in some respects
approach the Stomapoda. Its position among the Macrura seemed,
however, to be established by the well-developed abdominal somites
and teison. He referred the fossil to Salter’s genus Anthrapalemon,
and named the species 4. Woodwardi.

4. “On the Stratigraphical Position of the Corals of the Lias of
the Midland and Western Counties of England and of South Wales.”
By R. F. Tomes, Esq. Communicated by R. Etheridge, Hsq., F.R.8.,
V.P.G.S.

The object of this paper was to give the precise stratigraphical
position of the species of Liassic Corals collected by the author and
his friends in the districts above mentioned. He noticed 41 species,
of which 15 were described as new, namely :—Cyelolites Anningi,
Thecosmilia longiserialis, Montlivaltia cyclolites, Thamnastrea Ethe-
ridgii, Thecocyathus mucronata, Montlivaltia papyracea, and several
others to which no specific names are attached, chiefly belonging to
the genus Jsastrea.

CORRESPONDENCE.

phish gbretih
THE ACTIVE VOLCANO OF OSHIMA.!

Sir,—It may interest some of your readers to learn that since my
return to Tokei, Japan, I find, from a microscopic examination, the
lava from the Island of Oshima appears to be an Augitic Andesite,
containing some Sanadine, and on the whole resembling some of the
Java rocks, which will make it very interesting. Joun MILNE.

ImpeRtaL CoLLEGE or ENGINEERING, Kocaxurio, ToxE, Japan.
March 24th, 1877.

EXPLORATION OF VICTORIA CAVE, SETTLE, YORKSHIRE.

Sir,—It was with great surprise that I read, in an abstract of the
proceedings of the Geological Society of London, the following
passage: “The President asked Prof. Boyd Dawkins whether the
impression which prevailed in some quarters that there had been a
want of care in the excavation of the Victoria Cave was well founded.”

Having lived for a long time in the north of England, and having
paid several visits to the Cave, since Mr. Tiddeman has had the
charge of it, I feel bound to state that I have always been struck
with the great care shown in the excavation, and with the scrupulous
accuracy with which the position of every article found was noted.

I am morally certain that there is no ground whatever for any
imputation of carelessness; it would indeed be a gross injustice
both to Mr. Tiddeman, who has so generously sacrificed so much of
his spare time to the work, and also to Mr. Jackson, the discoverer
of the Cave. J. BR. Daxyns.
“1 See “Account of a Visit to the Active Volcano of Oshima” in Grou. Mae.
May, 1877, p. 193.

286 Correspondence—Mr. R. Etheridge, Jun.

GOLD IN THE COAL-MEASURES OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Sir,—The following important facts, abstracted from a report by
my friend Mr. C. 8. Wilkinson, F.G.S., Government Geologist of
New South Wales, to the Minister of Mines of that Colony, on the
occurrence of payable gold in the New South Wales Coal-measures,
may be of interest to your readers. Mr. Wilkinson observed that
the gold found in the alluvial deposits of Tertiary age at the Old
Tallawang and Clough’s Gully diggings was derived from con-
glomerates of Coal-measure age, associated with sandstone and
shale containing the very characteristic genus of fossil plants,
Glossopteris. At Clough’s Gully the conglomerate in sitd is worked
for gold, and has yielded nuggets weighing as much as five ounces.
This is the first time that payable gold has been noticed to occur in
the New South Wales Coal-measures, although it is to that veteran
in Australian geology, the Rev. W. B. Clarke. F.R.S., and the late
Sir T. L. Mitchell, Surveyor General of New South Wales, that we
are indebted for the first announcement of the fact that gold was to
be found in rocks of the age in question.’ Mr. Wilkinson also states
that a collection of fossil fruits obtained from the ‘“ Black Lead,”
Gulgong, under a stratum of Basalt, and at a depth of 168 feet from
the surface, has yielded to the researches of the Baron F. von
Miiller, M.D., F.R.S., etce., seven genera and nine species of new
forms. The report concludes with a reference to another important,
and at present, unique discovery by Mr. Wilkinson, that of a species
of Unio in one of the Gulgong “deep leads,” ‘the first fossil shell
of the kind yet discovered in the Pliocene Tertiary gold drifts.” ?

Epinpureu, March 28, 1877. R. ErHeripcGs, Jun.

NATURAL OR ARTIFICIAL? PITS OF THE HAUTE MARNE.

Srr,—At p. 210 of Le Bassin de Paris, by M. E. Belgrand, a
letter from M. Royer is inserted giving the following account of
some singular excavations in the Portland Plateaux, Haute Marne.

“On the high hills of the town of Poissons near Joinville, the
culminating point of which reaches the height of 200 metres above
the river Rongeant, these cavities, from their depth and extent,
acquire unusual importance; certain of these hills are literally
riddled with pits (puits) ramifying in all directions, sometimes
having a subterranean communication one with another and reaching
unascertained depths, sometimes exceeding 30 or 40 métres. The
general character of these pits and the polish of their rocky
walls suggest that an acid contained in the waters by which they
were eroded, may have contributed to their excavation; but their
extent and number suggest some ‘more powerful agent; and what
more powerful cause could you invoke than a great quantity of
water, acting through a long period, falling into the fissures of the
Portland rock, enlarging them, fashioning them, and giving them
the capricious forms which we find everywhere in rocks subjected

1 Clarke’s Southern Goldfields, New South Wales, 1860, pp. 44 and 244.

2 Sydney Evening News, No. 2940, November 30th; and Sydney Morning Herald,
December 2nd, 1876.

Correspondence—Mr. Henry Norton. 287

to their action? .... Now among the debris which have filled
these cavities . . . bones of the great mammalia of the Quaternary
period have been found.” (Hlephant.)

There is a difference of opinion as to the date of the excavation :
M. Royer contending that it was before, and M. Belgrand that
it was after, the excavation of the valleys; but both agree in
attributing these pits to the action of a vast quantity of water,
whether produced by a diluvial cataclysm, or else by the incessant rains
of the Pluvial period in which they both believe. The description
immediately suggested to me a strong resemblance to “ Grimes
Graves,”’ near Brandon, an account of which will be found in the
Journal of the Ethnological Society of London, New Series,
vol. ii. p. 419, in an article on the opening of Grimes Graves, in
Norfolk, by the Rev. William Greenwell, M.A., F.S.A.

Beyond all question Grimes Graves were excavated by the manu-
facturers of flint implements; and they were sunk to a depth of 30
or 40 feet in order to reach a layer of flint especially suited to their
purpose. There are some circumstances mentioned by M. Royer in
which his pits agree with these: their great number, the subter-
ranean communication one with another, and lastly the form, so far
as it is suggested by the French words ‘puwit’ and ‘gouffre,’ both
applied to these pits. M. Royer speaks of “ capricious forms,” which
seems to betray the fact, that he is puzzled to know how those vast
waters could have done it so regularly (?). The depth of “some of
them,” 30 to 40 métres, is indeed somewhat staggering, being three
times the depth of the Brandon pits, and the rock is not Chalk,
but corresponds in age to our Portland. M. Contejean, in his
“Hléments de Geologie et de Paléontologie,” p. 620, describes the
“terrain jurassique” as consisting in thick argillaceous and
calcareous beds (massifs), often irregularly alternating, and as
including, at various levels, ferruginous layers, and layers of flint
nodules. And at p. 426 he says, siliceous nodules (rognons) exist in
all sedimentary deposits, but especially in the Jura limestone and
in chalk. What is the precise nature of the Upper Oolite in
Burgundy and Champagne my library does not give me the means
of knowing. Burat only remarks that it does not present such
marked forms (due to the outcrop of limestone) as the middle and
lower Oolite; the argillaceous part (assise) at the base is but little
developed ; the greyish or yellowish-grey calcareous beds (calcaires)
of the upper part (assise), which are found at first in isolated
outliers, on the summits of the middle stage (étage moyen), end by
forming, at the foot of those summits, an undulating surface of hills
with more or less gentle slopes, with altitudes of not more than 150
and 200 métres, the inclines and escarpments of which are less
conspicuous. Among localities where the beds may be studied, he
mentions Bar-le-duc, Bar-sur-Seine, and Auxerre; and says that in
the Portland beds the limestone is too much divided to be quarried,
and forms stony plateaux (p. 440). It does not appear from these
authorities that any insuperable impediment exists to such pits
having been sunk by man; and the suggestion is countenanced by

288 | A New Submarine Volcano.

the fact, that although in the comparatively narrow and steep
valleys traversing this formation, there is but little gravel, and no
implements have been found, yet on the uplands numerous and well-
made flint implements have been collected, from what M. Belgrand
calls the hunting stations.

It may seem strange that if these pits really do present the
similarity to Grimes Graves which I have supposed, the idea should
not have occurred to the French geologists; they may never have
heard of our pits; but I find it stated that in the Memoires de la
Socicté des Sciences, etc., du Hainaut, Année 1866-7, published at
Mons, 1868, there is a paper, relating to similar ancient works, by
MM. Briart, Cornet and De la Haie (Rapport sur les Découvertes
géologiques, etc., faites 4 Spiennes en 1867), and that those works
were known as long ago as 1842. I have not seen this article, and
can find no account of it in my books.

If attention has not previously been called to the prima facie
possibility that these pits in Champagne are the work of manu-
facturers of flint implements, perhaps you will consider the matter
of sufficient importance to give it a place in your Macazinr. The
description is too loose and general to be a ground for anything more
than suggestion and inquiry. Henry Norton.

21, UntHanks Roap, Norwicu, April 20th, 1877.

A New Supmarine Votcano? In tHE MepITeRRANEAN.—An ex-
citing story is going the round of the London journals, calling
attention to ‘‘a singular accident which lately befell the steam-
ship Knight Templar, 1,550 tons gross register, from Cardiff to
Bombay with coal. When off the island of Galita, near the Gulf
of Tunis, and, according to the Admiralty Chart, being in a thousand
fathoms of water, she suddenly received a violent shock, and was
immediately surrounded by a seething mass of foam. Being run
ashore, and ultimately examined, it was found that at a distance of
15 feet from the stem of the vessel some 10 feet of her keel had
been torn out in a peculiar manner, while the after part of the ship’s
bottom had also been seriously injured. Altogether the character
of the damage done to the ship leads the writer, a Board of Trade
surveyor, to the conclusion that the ship’s hull had been struck by a
submarine volcanic eruption, a theory much strengthened by the
well-known character of the locality.”

Scrope long since pointed out that the volcanic line of disturbance
extends from Calabria and Sicily in a south-westerly direction
towards the African coast, and embraces the volcanic island of
Pantellaria, and the sunken volcanic island of Ferdinanda, to Cape
Bon, the eastern promontory of the Bay of Tunis, linking Sicily
with Africa; and that the intervening tract is known to be very
shallow (‘ Volcanos,” p. 345).

Is it not possible that a sunken rock was the cause of the “ Good
Templar’s” scrape ? Anyhow he had a narrow escape, whether struck
by a volcanic bomb under water, or scraped on a part of the old ridge
dividing the Eastern and Western basins of the Mediterranean. We
hope the Admiralty will investigate this matter thoroughly.

THE

GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE.

NEWS SERIES DECADE lie VO EAI ve

No. VIL—JULY, 1877.

Gide micIN esa VA Syeb arabes

—————_

J.—Across Hurorpe ann Asra.—TRAVELLING NOTES.

By Professor Joun Mitnz, F.G.S.;
Imperial College of Engineering, Tokei, Japan.

Part I.—London to St. Petersburg.

ContEents.— Wearing away and accumulation of land on the coasts of England and
Denmark.—Ice-worn character of the coasts of Sweden and Finland probably
due to the action of coast ice on a rising area.

LEFT London on the 3rd of August, 1875, and next morning
| was sailing down the muddy estuarine waters of the Humber
towards the German Ocean en rouée for Gottenborg. On either side
was a long line of flat coast. Before us was Spurn Point, which,
by the action of the sea, is being fast carried away. The denudation
of the eastern coast of England, and the steady encroachment of
the sea, which has swallowed up towns and forced others to move
inland, is a subject with which all geologists are familiar. Here,
where the materials are soft, the rate of waste is rapid enough to
become a marked event in the lifetime of an inhabitant. The little
town of the Banks has disappeared, and a lighthouse at the entrance
to the river has been forced to migrate towards the land.

Although the tides and currents of the sea are destroying and
transporting the materials of many coasts to form beds of silt and
other matter upon the ocean bottom, there are cases where their
action upon a coast is reproductive,—an example of which is to be
seen at the northern extremity of Denmark, called the Skagen or Skaw
promontory. We sighted this after leaving Spurn. At a distance
this point looked like a low white shore. About two miles and a half
from the end I could see a buoy, marking the end of a shoal. This
shoal the captain told me, when first he knew it, between twenty
and thirty years ago, instead of being two miles and a half long,
was then only one mile long. The point itself, which I believe is
made up of shingle, sand, and other drifted material, also appears to
be lengthening, as is indicated by an old lighthouse standing almost
a mile back from the new one which has supplanted it at the end of
the point. The materiais for such rapid growth as is here exhibited
appear to have come down the Baltic, the islands lying in a line with

DECADE II.—vVOL, IV.—NO. VII. 19

290 Prof. Milne—Across Europe and Asia.

the end of the point having been the chief source of supply. Although
Denmark is increasing at the Skagen, the losses which it and the
neighbouring islands suffer from the flood of water ever pouring
between the German Ocean and the Baltic are by no means com-
pensated for. The waste of Denmark is with geologists as fruitful
a theme and text as that of Hastern England.

The same evening on which I saw the Skagen I reached Gotten-
borg. This place is interesting as giving evidence of a slow eleva-
tion of the land above the sea-level, without the intervention of any
violent agency. Early next morning I had a short ramble across
the gneissic hills, which overlook the town. These are smooth and
rounded, and have that hummocky character usually attributed to
glacial action. Between these, filling up the valleys, were long, flat
grassy meads banded with shining strips of water. I did not notice
any boulders or drift.

In a small museum in the town I saw a collection of geological
specimens, and also a fine series of Scandinavian and other animals.
Amongst these latter there was a Swedish Elk which, to me, had a
much thinner, taller, and altogether gaunter appearance than the
American Moose, with which, by some, it is thought to be identical.

Whilst walking about the town J was much struck with the
sections of fossils in the flags which pave the sidewalks. They
were nearly all of the genus Orthoceras, many being large and
beautifully defined. In places these cylindrical bodies were so
thickly packed that the sea-bottom on which they were deposited
must have been like a floor strewn with spikes. These flagstones
come from some of the Silurian islands of the Baltic.

On the evening of the 8th I left Gottenborg for Stockholm. As
the train went slowly, so long as daylight lasted I had excellent
opportunities of seeing the country through which we passed. For
the first part of the journey we traversed a fertile valley bounded
on either side by high hills, which in many places showed bare
rock. In some places the line was so overhung by trees that they
almost swept the tops of the carriages as we passed beneath them,
and one might almost fancy oneself in an English lane. Farther
up the valley the alluvium, and with it the vegetation, crept some
distance from the central trench up the flanking hills. This con-
tinued until we reached Lerum, where the cold-looking rocky
summits were all decked with the earthy covering, which at a lower
level had only stretched across the valley bed. Next morning, just
before we reached Stockholm, I saw several cuttings made in the
sides of small hills, showing earthy sections about forty feet in
height filled with stones and large boulders.

The general opinion with regard to the origin of the rounded
rocks like those of Gottenborg, and the beds of clay and boulders
as seen near Stockholm, is, that they have been produced through
the agency of some form of ice. Glaciers being conspicuous and
accessible objects for investigation by the writers on these subjects,
have received considerable attention. But there is another probable
and possible agent by which appearances of this sort may have been

Prof. Milne—Across Europe and Asia. 291

brought about, which by those who talk and write about Ice and its
actions is very often either ignored or forgotten, and this is the
action of Floe or Coast Ice. As I saw some striking examples of
the work done by this agent in the next section of my journey along
the coast of Finland towards St. Petersburg, I will not digress, but
continue my itinerary. As the oscillatory movement of the land is
intimately connected with the idea I wish to broach, I may here
mention that near Stockholm we appear to have an axis about which
the Baltic coast is moving. To the north it is rising, whilst for
some distance to the south it is sinking.

After leaving Stockholm (Aug. 11th) and its flagstones, which,
like those of Gottenborg, are filled with sections of Orthoceras, I
at once found myself amongst the archipelago of islands which stud
the southern and south-western shores of Finland. As the sea was
smooth and the weather fine, I had ample opportunity of seeing every-
thing around me. Islands were everywhere. In fact they were often
so close together that they masked our route ; looking backwards
we seemed to have sailed away from the land, whilst looking for-
wards it seemed as if we were steering into it. Sometimes we passed
so close to them that we might easily have pitched stones upon them.
Where the water was more open, our course was shown by a white
mark or a pile of stone upon the land, or by an upright pole stand-
ing on some sunken rock.

There is everywhere evidence of reefs and shallow water. The

islands vary very much in size, some have an area of several miles,
whilst others consist of a mere rock just peeping from the surface of
the water. They are generally destitute of vegetation, but some are
‘found capped with small clumps of dark-coloured stunted firs, whilst
near the water they are bordered with a fringe of green, looking
like bunches of alder. Now every year, as the winter months come
round, the water freezes, and every rock and island and the adjoin-
ing mainland give birth to a fringe of ice. But this congealation
does not go on quietly, it is continually interrupted. By the rise
and fall of the tides it is raised and lowered on the shore, strong
currents carry portions of it away, the wind and the driving in of
floating ice and other causes all tend to destroy any steady forma-
tion of a sheet of ice like that which forms on small freshwater
lakes and ponds. In this way the first fringe of ice most likely
attached to pebbles, boulders, and materials, to which, whilst resting
on the shore, it has become cemented, are driven high and dry upon
the land, scraping, scratching, and moulding in a definite manner all
the rocks over which they pass. Or again, this fringe with its load
of stones may by winds and tides be forcibly torn from its birth-
place, and borne away to do its work of moulding and depositing of
boulders at some distant locality.

Grinding and moulding actions of this sort, together with the
transportation and deposition of boulders, will take place chiefly
during the formation and breaking up of this icy barrier, which
will be in the fall and spring of every year. And the action is by
no means confined to Finland, but is one which annually occurs

292 Prof. Milne—Across Europe.and Asia.

over areas of enormous extent, both in the temperate and frigid
zones. Now what must be the effect of such actions upon a coast
where we have a gradual elevation of the land in operation, or, to
speak more generally, where there is a varying relation between a
country and the water which surrounds it? The case I shall take
for consideration is where the land may be supposed to be emerging,
as in the case of Finland. How this emergence has been produced,
whether by an elevation of the land, or by a drawing off of the waters,
by an accumulation of polar ice, makes no difference. First, consider
the land when it is just beneath the surface of the water, where, in
summer time, it forms a heaving curling swell, and often a crest-
capped breaker, to warn the passing boats of its dangerous shallows.
At this period it comes for the first time within the influence of coast
ice, and moulding is begun upon its surface. During winter and
spring months passing pans and small bergs of ice jostle on its
shallows. Should it possess asperities, they are rounded off. And as
it rises higher in the water, it will gradually assume the hump-
backed form which is so observable in many of the small rocky
islands on the Finnish coast. It will now be within the full influence
of all the grinding agents which, during the winter months, float
round and attach themselves to its shores. A fringe of ice, set with
teeth of stone, is ready at every tide to rise and fall upon its sides,
at every wind to be driven high and dry or to be carried away, and
with every current to move coastwise scouring and scratching along
its rocky shore.

Now what I wish to maintain, and what I have put forward before,
is, that as the island or coast-line continues to rise, the definite
character and markings of coast-ice are carried upwards, and remain
in many cases raised high above and sometimes far removed from
the present sea-line, as monuments of an old coast that once was
fringed with ice.

Striking examples of this I saw in some of the islands just before
we reached Abo. Some of these were large, and were decked with
clumps of trees; others, which were smaller, were without trees, but
were black with age and probably with a growth of lichen; whilst
others, again, the smallest, of about fifty yards in diameter, were only
raised like inverted saucers a few feet above sea-level. Many of
these islands had a great similarity in their rounded contour, and
were covered with boulders brought there by the winter ice. The
surface of the smallest of these small islands was wholly of a whitish
colour, produced by the rubbing of the ice, and showing that they
had recently been entirely covered with it. As in winter time the
larger islands are only fringed by ice, the whitish colour, as might
naturally be expected, only extends in a band round their base, instead
of wholly covering them.

Now the point I observed is this, that in taking one of the larger
islands, one without a capping of trees or shrubs being the best for

1 A more detailed account of the action of coast ice can be seen in “ Ice and Ice
Work in Newfoundland,’ Grou. Mac. Dec. II. Vol. III. Nos. 7, 8, 9.

Prof. Milne—Across Europe and Asia. 293

observation, it is distinctly seen that between the white band pro-
duced by the biannual rubbing of the ice and the dark-coloured rock
which is above it, there is in many cases an undisturbed contour, the
mammillations, curvatures, and hollows of the one now seen to be
produced by the ice, run uninterruptedly into the mammillations,
curvatures, and hollows of the darker rocks above. It seems to me
that, as year by year the sea recedes, or as the rock creeps upwards,
it carries with it the characters which were impressed upon it when
at a lower level, and what is now the dark round lichen-coloured
rock, a century ago may have been the clear white banded rock
annually scratched and scoured by ice.

The entrance to Abo, which was the first place we touched at
upon the Finnish mainland, is up a long winding inlet bounded by
an undulating country of pinkish granite. Upon the right side as
we entered, the land rose in places somewhat suddenly from the
water, but nowhere to any considerable height. Everywhere, how-
ever, there was the rounded hummocky character. Upon the hills
which overlooked the scattered houses and buildings which formed
the town this was very noticeable. Everywhere there were numbers
of boulders.

On the evening of the next day (Aug. 12th), after steering in and
out between innumerable rocks and islands, we reached Helsingfors,
a granite-built town standing in a much more open country than
that around Abo. Some of the limestone causeways contained
Orthoceras.

Now comparing these different pieces of mainland which I saw at
Abo, Helsingfors, and at other points, one with the other, one could
not fail to be struck with their great similarity,—rounded granitic
rocks and scattered granitic rocks, some of which are of an immense
size, were to be seen nearly everywhere. Two travellers who joined
our ship at Helsingfors, just returned from near Kajana in the far
north of Finland, gave me the idea of a country filled with winding
lakes, but not generally differing in character from that which I had
been looking at.

Continuing northwards to the White Sea and Arctic Ocean, and
then winding round the northern end of the Baltic through Finland
down to the eastern side of the Scandinavian peninsula, a rough
undulating country covered with lakes, and often strewn with
boulders, is generally met with.

The agent which moulded this country into its present form, and
strewed it so thick with boulders, would, I think, by most geologists,
be identified as ice, and the only argument that would probably
arise would be as to the way in which it acted.

A universal covering of ice forming one huge glacier, like that
which is now supposed to cover the greater part of Northern Green-
land, might perhaps be the first suggestion. To explain this, a
colder climate than that which now exists in these latitudes would
be necessary, and this in its turn would require some great astrono-
mical change, as a variation in the obliquity of the Hcliptic, the
excentricity of the earth’s orbit, the temperature of space, or some

294 Prof. Milne—Across Europe and Asia.

great natural revolution in the distribution of land and water, all of
which would involve difficulties and controversy in their explanation.
How this universal sheet of ice obtained, and afterwards deposited,
its boulders, might next be questioned. Some would eall in a sea
of icebergs to solve the problem, and might even go so far as to
consider them sufficient to explain the whole of the phenomena in
question. Following this latter supposition we are again quickly in
the midst of difficulties, passing from question to question whilst
endeavouring to affirm or refute a suggestion that is little better
than proofless.

Icebergs and their parents, the glaciers, have done and are still
doing much towards the formation of the physical outlines of our
planet; but yet I think their less imposing but more active and more
extensive associate, coast ice, ought at least to take an equal place
as a scatterer and modeller of rocks.

In Finland, in Labrador, and in Newfoundland, I have seen the
work it has commenced on, that which it has partially finished, and
that which, I hold, it has completed. There is the sunken rock
barely to be seen at low water, just being rounded ; there is the rock
standing up above high-water, whitened, smoothed and rounded, by
the annual coat of ice, which by winds and tides is forced across its
back; and, lastly, there is the large island and the mainland all
showing a continuous and unbroken contour from their shores
annually invaded by the ice, and those parts which are now removed
high above its action. Upon the south coast of Finland one is in a
workshop where one sees a workman busy with his tools. Part of
his work is only commenced, part is almost completed, whilst the
remainder is finished and laid aside. Amongst all these specimens
of work there is a resemblance, and it is hardly fair to imagine that
one part should have been made in a manner different to another.

Let the whole of the Finnish archipelago continue slowly rising
above the level of the sea as it now appears to be doing, I thmk
that in time to come there will be produced a low undulating ice-
scratched boulder-covered country, very much resembling the one
we see upon the adjoining mainland.

One striking instance of the formation of a miniature mainland I
noticed shortly after leaving Abo, when we passed a low island about ©
50 to 100 yards in length. At each extremity of the island there
was a round ice-scratched knoll. These two knolls were joined by
two narrow ridges, between which there was a hollow, over into
which the sea had washed to form a pool. The history of this little
formation seemed to me similar to that of many larger areas.

The first stage was when the two knolls had been represented by
two sunken rocks, over which the waves might have been seen
heaving and swelling as they passed across their surface. Thus far
their existence was only recognized by the disturbance they created.
However, the nuclei of a little continent was formed, and its surface
was annually swept by ice. The next stage was when the knolls
appeared as two separate rocks above the surface of the water, the
intervening ridge being still hidden; a position analogous tu the

Prof. Milne—Across Europe and Asia. 295

present position of the whole Finnish archipelago. As they rose
still higher, they entered upon the third stage in which I saw them,
representing, in miniature, a small country where part of the land
has been raised high above the action of ice, whilst the remainder
yet lies within its influence. In such a case as this we have a small
island formed by the rise of two small rocks. Why can we not then
go further and picture to ourselves the formation of many islands
which, as they emerge from their watery bed, unite to form countries
marked and moulded like the nuclei from which they spring? It
is certainly not a great stretch of the imagination.

All geologists grant that oscillations of land and water have taken
place, and this together with the present or such slightly modified
climatal conditions as would result from these changes is all that is
asked. If it were conceded that through some such cause as a polar
extension of land in the Hastern Hemisphere, the formation of a cold
current travelling towards the south, or the cutting off of the Gulf
Stream travelling towards the north, we might then reasonably ex-
pect to have a climate in Europe not unlike that of corresponding
latitudes in America, and the effects of coast ice might be expected
at least so far south as the middle of France; nay more, if Europe
had been a rising area during such periods, the greater part of its
surface would have been gradually subject to such an action.

Commencing with Belgium and Holland, and travelling eastward
over Denmark, North Germany, Poland, and as far east as Novgorod
in Russia, then north to the White Sea, and west over Scandinavia,
excepting its high central portions, there is an area which has been
subject to oscillation during late geological times; and if, during these
times, such climatal conditions existed in Europe as now exist in
America, I think we might in many places look successfully for the
action of old coast-ice upon old coast-lines.

Of course many objections may be raised to such a view as this,
but there will be more still to matters of detail in the production
of certain observed phenomena by the agent which we suppose to be
here employed, rather than to the weighticr objections which are
raised as to the ways and means of the production of the agent
itself invoked by glacialists. We all know into how much
difficulty, uncertainty, and speculation we find ourselves involved
when we endeavour to conceive the manner of production and
method of action of that immense glacier which by some is
supposed to have covered Northern Hurope. Granted oscil-
lation of land, and a climate not more intense than that of North
America, and all those astronomical and physical questions as to
what gave birth to the heat and cold necessary for the production of
huge continental glaciers, together with much speculation, contro-
versy, and other products of the imagination, are done away with.
Appearances similar to those which I have described as having been
seen along the coast of Finland, I have also seen along nearly 4000
miles of coast in Labrador and Newfoundland. In many places the
rocks are striated and often worn and smoothed. This latter effect
more especially has been recorded by Lyell, Campbell, Packard, and

296 Prof. Milne—Across Europe and Asia.

other visitors to those shores. The countries which surround such
smooth-worn coast-lines, like Finland, give evidences of recent eleva-
tion, and moreover both lands show a similar ice-worn surface, over
which boulders in varying quantities are everywhere scattered.

Ancient glaciers, many of which were of large extent, together
with icebergs, have no doubt done their share as tools in Nature’s
workshop. But there is another form of ice which, when thought
of, comes readily to the front, and that is Coast Ice. How far this
agent may have acted in the modelling of continents I have only
speculated on; but how far it has been influential in the modelling of
islands, coast-lines, and low-lying countries, I have already stated
my convictions upon. In conclusion I may state that to my mind it is
certain that, on further observation, the action of coast ice will be
proved to have been far more extensive than geologists have hitherto
supposed.

On the night of the 12th August we left the town of Helsingfors,
and all next day were slowly steaming across the quiet waters at the
head of the Gulf of Finland. About 4 p.m. we ran between the
formidable-looking forts of Cronstadt, and shortly afterwards sighted
the huge gilt dome which crowns St. Isaac’s cathedral, the glory of
St. Petersburg.

If we look at the map appended to chap. xxvi. in Geikie’s Great
Ice Age, on which are indicated the general directions of ice action in
the northern parts of Hurope, their directions, which all point sea-
wards, or else towards the lowest land, will be seen to be rather more
favourable for the views which I have advocated than they are for
those which they are more particularly intended to support, which
are that the ice radiated from “the high grounds of Norway and
Sweden, flowing north and north-east into the Arctic Ocean, and east
into the White Sea.”

It is difficult to conceive, as most geologists do, that the northern
drift and its associated boulders are a purely marine deposit, for to
have been this it is necessary that at one time they must have
passed from beneath the water where they were deposited through
a surging coast-line, in order to reach the elevated position they now
occupy, during which period they would have been subject to such
degradation which none but deposits of extraordinary thickness
could well withstand.

A similar objection might be raised respecting the existence of
any scratches and roundings produced by land glaciers, if it is ever
supposed that they were subsequently beneath the sea. Such
markings to be preserved must always have remained above sea-
level, or else have been shielded by some protective covering during
both subsidence and elevation.

If we read Chapter xxvi. of Geikie’s “Great Ice Age,” which
treats of the glaciation of Norway, Sweden, and Finland, we find
much evidence which is unintentionally favourable to my argument.
For example, at the end of the chapter, p. 397, the immense power
of coast-ice upon the coast of Finland is spoken of, and a case is
cited of an immense raft of ice being driven ashore which over-

Prof. Milne-—Across Europe and Asia. 297

whelmed many dwellings and whole forests. After it had melted,
many stones and blocks were found piled in great quantities upon
the ground.

The existence of blocks at heights considerably above the positions
from which they originated, of which there are many remarkable
examples in Sweden, is another phenomenon which points to the
action of coast-ice upon a rising area for its explanation.

Huge glaciers and ice-caps, together with subsidences and eleva-
tions, explain many local phenomena which the agent I have chosen
would by itself be incapable of giving a direct answer to. But it
must be remembered that, on the other hand, coast ice acting on a
rising area offers explanations to other questions, as in the case of
boulders raised to positions above the rock from which they were
derived, where glaciers and ice are comparatively incapable of
furnishing an answer, so that the relative merits of these two agents
are to some extent divided.

The abrading action of coast-ice on a rising area is an undoubted
fact, and one that is now actively going on before our eyes. Slight
physical changes in past geological times may have so intensified it
that its effects were to be seen as far south in the Old World as they
are now in the New World. Huge glaciers and ice-caps, on the
other hand, are phenomena whose existence can only be established
by hard fighting.

Admitting the excentricity of the earth’s orbit and other cosmical
changes, Arago denied that ice-caps would result, Herschel barely
admitted their possibility, whilst other astronomers, to whom geolo-
gists look as to the last peg upon which they can hang their hopes,
are unceasingly occupied in one controversy or another. This being
the case, so far as the origin of the agent with which we deal is.con-
cerned, coast-ice must come prominently to the fore. Not only upon
such a point as this, but also if we were to consider the general de-
vastating influence which would result from anything like a universal
covering of ice in our northern regions, we again find ourselves face
to face with difficulties, the explanation of which would not be called
for, if we are content to extend our ideas respecting the efficacy of
coast-ice upon a rising area.

In conclusion, I may say that I feel convinced that Coast Ice has
done and is doing much towards the modelling of rising areas, but
how far this has extended yet needs investigation. In bye-gone
times the climate was colder than it is now, and coast-ice extended
farther south than it does at present. During this period many
glaciers were increased, and many, especially in the higher regions,
were called into existence; but that these ever filled oceans and
covered continents, I do not see the necessity of supposing, unless it
be to create materials for amazement and debate.

(To be continued in our next Number.)

298 J. H. Blake—Age of the Kessingland Root-bed.

IJ.—On toe Ace or tHE Mammattan Roornetr-Bep at Kussinc-
LAND.!

By J. H. Buaxs, F.G.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E. ;
Of H. M. Geological Survey of England and Wales.

N two papers, by Messrs. 8. V. Wood, jun., and F. W. Harmer,
recently read before the Geological Society,—alluded to by Mr.
Belt, in the Grotogicat Magazine for April last,—this Rootlet-bed
at Kessingland has been referred to, and described as an interglacial
shallow valley deposit; of an age posterior to the Contorted Drift
or Lower Boulder-clay, lying in a trough excavated out of the
Chillesford Clay. To make their description more intelligible, the
authors (Messrs. Wood and Harmer) subjoin a sketch-map—in their
combined paper ‘Observations on the Later Tertiary Geology of
Hast Anglia,” read November 8th, 1876—and indicate by a broken
line the connexion of this trough with the existing (!) valley systems
of the rivers Waveney and Yare—which are here mainly cut out
of the Chalky Boulder-clay and Middle Glacial Sands—thus ap-
parently assuming that, before the Middle Glacial Sands and Chalky
Boulder-clay were deposited, there were valley systems occupying
much the same positions in this immediate locality as there are now,
with the addition of the supposed continuation of the interglacial
valley of the Waveney in a south-easterly direction to Pakefield and
Kessingland. To strengthen their argument, they likewise give an
hypothetical section; representing, what they believe to be the true,
though concealed, structure of this Waveney valley. They conclude
this portion of their paper by stating, “‘If these views (as pro-
pounded by them) are right, there seems reason for suspecting that
this Kessingland-bed, containing Mammalian remains and rootlets
(which is directly overlain by the Middle Glacial), may belong to
the period of interglacial valley excavation we have been discussing ”’
—that is, posterior to the Contorted Drift or Lower Boulder-clay.

I will now refer to Mr. Harmer’s paper “‘On the Kessingland
Cliff-section,” etc., read November 8th, 1876. After criticizing,
generally, Mr. Gunn’s paper ‘“‘On the Presence of the Forest-bed
Series at Kessingland and Pakefield,” etc., read November 17th,
1875; and expounding his own views as to the sequence of the beds,
etc.; Mr. Harmer states, “ While, however, the posteriority of these
Mammaliferous and fresh-water deposits (Rootlet-bed, ete.) to the
Crag (Chillesford Clay) seems thus apparent,” their age relatively to
the beds newer than the Crag is obscure, since there is nothing to
show whether they preceded the Lower Glacial beds, which are absent
from the Kessingland section, or succeeded them—a point of con-

1 This paper is published by permission of the Director-General of the Geological
Survey.

® The section of the Kessingland Cliff given (in the Quart. Journ. Geol. Society,
vol. xxxiii. p. 137) to show this — besides being inaccurate, together with the
description of it, in some important particulars—is very deceptive in appearance,
owing to the distorted scale to which it is drawn (the vertical scale being about 13
times that of the horizontal), and also on account of the interval between Covehithe
and Kessingland (a distance of about 24 miles) being abridged.

J. H. Blake—Age of the Kessingland Root-bed. 299

siderable interest, in reference to the great denudation which, as Mr.
Wood and I (Mr. Harmer) maintain, followed the Lower Glacial
formation when the valley-system of Hast Anglia was, we believe,
mainly excavated.”

It is quite unnecessary—as will presently appear—to follow
Messrs. Wood and Harmer, any further in their theoretical views,
as to this Rootlet-bed being a deposit formed posteriorly to the Con-
torted Drift or Lower Boulder-clay, and during the great denudation
which they maintain took place previously to the deposition of the
Middle Glacial Sands, marking a long interval of time, and which,
they state, must have been accompanied by a climate as temperate
as that of the preglacial Forest-bed of the North Norfolk coast, if
their suggestion of the interglacial age of the Kessingland-bed should
prove to have good foundation, etc., etc. ; inasmuch, as the Rootlet-
bed, containing mammalian remains, can be proved by superposition,
irrespective of all other considerations, to wnderlie the Contorted
Drift or Lower Boulder-clay and other Lower Glacial beds; there-
fore, is clearly not of the age suggested by the authors of these
papers.

Messrs. Wood and Harmer mention this Rootlet-bed as “the well-
known Kessingland deposit,” also as “the Mammalian-bed of Kessing-
land,” ete., and treat it, in a great measure, as a deposit peculiar to the
Kessingland Oliff-section; but I would draw attention to the fact,
that the continuation of this very same deposit is to be seen at the
base of the adjoining cliffs of Hopton and Corton, containing rootlets
of the same kind and in precisely the same crumpled condition as
those to be seen at Kessingland and Pakefield; and the deposit,
of clay itself—in which the rootlets occur in a vertical position as
they grew—is in every respect precisely similar to that at Kessing-
land, and likewise contains Mammalian remains. I have also observed
this same deposit, with rootlets, in the Cliff-section at Hasborough,*
and also in the Cliff-section at Runton, to the west of Cromer; and
have not the slightest doubt as to the identity of this remarkable
bed—specially characterized by small vertical crumpled rootlets in
siti, all apparently of the same species—which is exposed at intervals
at the base of the Norfolk and Suffolk Cliffs, from Kessingland to
Runton, a distance of nearly fifty miles; thus, marking an horizon
of considerable importance with respect to the correlation of the
beds in Norfolk and Suffolk: and this horizon, 1 may briefly ex-
plain—as all details will be given in future Survey memoirs and
cliff-sections—oceurs at the upper part, or thereabouts, of what is
generally known as the Cromer preglacial Forest-bed series, and
beneath the Lower Glacial series of Messrs. Wood and Harmer.

Although, according to Mr. Harmer, there is nothing in the
Kessingland Cliff- section to show whether this deposit, with
rootlets, preceded the Lower Glacial beds, that is not the case in
the other cliff-sections mentioned by me, where a continuation of
this identical deposit with rootlets occurs ; at Hopton and Corton
it is overlaid by the Contorted Drift or Lower Boulder-clay, with a

1 Spelt Happisburgh on Ordnance Map; but usually called Hasborough.

300 Olement Reid—Pliocene Beds near Cromer.

few feet of buff-coloured sand and laminated grey clay in places
intervening ; at Hasborough—where the deposit itself is contorted
together with the rootlets—it is overlaid by Cromer Till, which
latter, close by, is underlaid by a little buff-coloured sand and
laminated grey clay; and at Runton it is overlaid by twelve to
fifteen feet of buff-coloured sand—in which is some gravel and
laminated grey clay—which latter underlies the Cromer Till and
Contorted Drift. Thus, by the best of all geological evidence,
namely, superposition, it is perfectly clear that this Mammalian
deposit, with rootlets, did precede the Lower Glacial beds; there-
fore, it is not of interglacial age as suggested, cautiously I admit,
by Messrs. Wood and Harmer, and consequently will not in any
way support their views of Hast Anglian interglacial valley ex-
cavations.

It is well known that Messrs. Wood and Harmer have long been
sceptical as to the Forest-bed series at Kessingland —owing, I
presume, to certain complications in this cliff-section— being of
the same age as the Forest-bed series of the Cromer coast; and, I
think I am correct in stating, that, in their numerous publications,
they have entirely ignored the existence of the Forest-bed series at
Hopton and Corton, which, in my opinion, forms a very important
link in the series, inasmuch as that deposit, as I have already stated,
is identical in every respect with the Rootlet-bed of Kessingland, to
the south of it, and to that of Hasborough to the north of it. Mr.
Gunn, on the contrary—from the evidence of the Mammalian
remains, associated Unio-beds, etc.—has long held the opinion that
the Kessingland Forest-bed series belonged to the same series as
that of the Cromer coast, the correctness of which opinion my
investigations fully confirm.

As I have used the terms “‘ Lower Glacial series” and “ Forest-
bed series” in this communication, I wish particularly to state, I do
not necessarily adopt all the views of the authors of those terms
respecting the beds included by them in these series; and as I hope
to treat of the relation of the Forest-bed series to the Chillesford
Clay in some future paper, I have not referred to that subject here.

II].—Own rue Succession AND CLASSIFICATION OF THE BEDS BETWEEN
THE CHALK AND THE LowEr BovULDER-CLAY IN THE NEIGHBOUR-
HOOD OF CROMER.

By Cirement Rerp, F.G.S.;
Of the Geological Survey of England and Wales.

BS the permission of the Director-General of the Geological
Survey I am enabled to publish a short account of the results

arrived at during a detailed examination of the cliffs between Wey-

bourn and Mundesley on the coast of Norfolk.

In the course of the Survey I have found it necessary to make
considerable alterations in the generally accepted classification and
succession of the Pliocene beds near Cromer, while my views with
regard to the mode of formation of the so-called “Forest Bed”
differ materially from those published by previous observers. To

Olement Reid—Pliocene Beds near Oromer. 301

show clearly the changes which occur in these beds I will describe
each one separately, commencing at the base.'

Weypourn Beps ano Forest Ben.

Beds of sand with numerous seams of clay and an abundance of
shells are shown resting immediately on the Chalk at Weybourn.
These constitute the well-known ‘‘ Weybourn Sands” with which
Messrs. Wood and Harmer correlate the upper shell-bed of Belaugh,
Wroxham, and other places in the Bure Valley. It will be desirable
to retain the name “ Weybourn Beds,” as, besides being already
known, they have the advantage at Weybourn of not occurring, as
is the case in the Bure Valley, in proximity to any other marine rand
shell-bearing sands. The shell-beds at Weybourn vary in number,
but careful collecting from each separately has convinced me that
they all belong to one paleontological division. As these beds are
traced towards Cromer, the upper portion becomes more and more
interstratified with clay, which gradually takes the well-laminated
character which is so conspicuous near Mundesley.

At Runton, resting directly on the Chalk, there is a . bed of sand
and nearly unworn flints full of double valves of Mya arenaria and
Tellina obliqua ; this is succeeded by two or three feet of marine crag,
the upper part of which is mixed with land and fresh-water shells,
and occasionally contains large bones. From this bed I obtained the
scapula of an elephant now in the Museum of Practical Geology.
Above this “ Hlephant-bed” is the ‘“ Forest-bed,” consisting of a
large quantity of drift wood, one tree trunk which I measured being
upwards of 18ft. in length. This locality has yielded no leaves or
seeds, and all the wood is much worn: a few marine shells occur
with the wood. The Forest-bed passes up into laminated clays,
seams of gravel cemented with iron locally known as “ pan,”? and
sands with marine fossils. ‘The shells correspond with those in the
lower bed, but the list, owing principally to the fewer and smaller
exposures, is not yet so large. From Runton the Forest-bed thickens
to the §.E., and as it increases the sands are replaced by laminated
clays, and marine shells become scarcer, although they are still to be
found at Mundesley and Bacton. The underlying shelly crag can
be traced as far as Sidestrand, beyond which place the foreshore is
nearly always hidden by sand.

The usual character of the Forest-bed is well exhibited on the
foreshore opposite the Cromer lighthouse, where it consists of
masses of drifted peat, wood, and stools of trees imbedded in
greenish sand, with layers of clay pebbles. The well-known
Mammalian remains occur in the sandy and gravelly beds, and,
although not worn, they are commonly broken.

I have examined most of the localities where the “ Forest-bed ”
has been seen as far eastward as Bacton, and have pulled up every
tree-stump that I could discover on the foreshore. The roots always

1 Detailed descriptions of the sections and complete lists of fossils will be given in

the Survey publications.
2 Pan occurs at various horizons.

302 Clement Reid—Phocene Beds near Cromer.

exhibited a worn and frayed-out appearance, and did not end in
rootlets, as published descriptions would lead us to expect. It
is not sufficient to find stools of trees in any upright position, as
when laden with earth and stones they would naturally sink with
the roots downwards. It is possible that hidden in some part of the
beach there may be a submerged forest that I have not yet seen, but
the masses of drift wood already described are what Norfolk geo-
logists speak of as the “Forest-bed.” I am informed that Mr.
Norton, of Norwich, has communicated a paper to the Norwich
Geological Society, expressing his opinion that none of the stools
of trees he has observed at Mundesley have grown on the spot.

From the facts I have been enabled to gather, I have been led to
regard the ‘ Forest-bed” as an estuarine equivalent of the upper
part of the marine Weybourn Beds, and not as a land surface.

From the lower marine bed at Runton I have obtained the
following species, most of the land and fresh-water species only
occurring with the bones:

c. common. r.rare. vY.c, very common. y.r. very rare.

Buccinum undatum, v.r. Astarte borealis, v.c.
Helix arbustorum, rv. compressa, C.
hispida, v.r. suleata, Y.

Limnea palustris, v.r. Cardium edule, v.c.
Iittorina littorea, v.c. Grenlandicum, v.r.
———_ rudis, Yr. Corbula striata, r.
Melampus pyramidatis, v.r. Cyprina Islandica, v.¢.
Natica catena, c. Donax vittatus, rv.

clausa, V.. Leda oblongoides, ec.

helicoides, v. Lucina borealis, v.r.
Paludina vivipara, 1. Mactra ovalis, rv.

P glactalis, 2. * Mya arenaria, v.c.

media, 2. truncata, V.¥.

Planorbis corneus, 1. * Mytilus edulis, ec.
Pleurotoma turricula, v. Nucula Cobboldie, c.
Purpura lapillus, v.c. + Pholas crispata, e.
Scalaria Gronlandica, ¢. Saxicava arctica, v.
Succinea putris, 1. Tellina Balthica, v.c.

lata, Vr.
obliqua, v.e.
pretenuis, 1.
Unio pietorum? 1.

Trophon antiquus, Vr.
—_—_——_ (veversed var.), r.
Turritella terebra, v.x.

* Tn their natural position with the valves united.

+ In their borings about six feet above the present high-water mark near
Sherringham.

I have as yet been unable to obtain any additional species
from other sections on the coast; but I should mention that Prof.
Prestwich’s list contains Venus fasciata from the lower, and Leda
lanceolata from both upper and lower beds at Weybourn. Leda
oblongoides, which is not contained in Prof. Prestwich’s list, is
rather common ; but I cannot find L. lanceolata, although I have
repeatedly searched for it.’

The mineralogical character and fossils of the beds just described
point to an estuary advancing seaward in a northerly direction. The
relation of the sea-level to that of the land differed probably about

1 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Nov. 1871.

Clement Reid—Pliocene Beds near Cromer. . 803

20ft. from what it is at present, which (if we consider the fall of the
tides to be unaltered) would bring the colonies of Mya arenaria,
Mytilus edulis, and Tellina obliqua to a few feet below low-water,
while Pholas crispata would occur between tide marks. Although
Tellina obliqua and T. Balthica occur with the valves united at
Weybourn at a higher level, yet here they are not in their natural
position, and the beds appear to have formed a sandy and muddy
beach such as is often seen at the mouths of rivers.
FREsH-WATER Ben.

Above, and often resting on a slightly eroded surface of the marine
and estuarine beds already described, are shown extensive deposits
of freshwater sand, clay, and peat. These beds are much more ex-
tensive than is commonly considered, and appear to have been formed
in shallow lakes like the present “ broads” of Norfolk. They can
be traced with but short interruptions from Weybourn to West
Runton, and again from Overstrand to Mundesley.

In places rootlets penetrate three or four feet into the Weybourn
Beds, marking the position of islets in the lakes, or perhaps be-
longing to water-plants, in which case they would indicate where
the fresh-water deposits have been denuded. This “rootlet bed”
may be traced at intervals between Happisburgh and Weybourn
Signal Station, but the rootlets do not always penetrate beds on the
same horizon.? It is noticeable that none of these roots belong to
anything larger than brushwood, as observed by Mr. Gunn in a
similar bed at Kessingland.

The Fresh-water Bed appears to have been formed when the re-
lations of sea and land were much as they are at present, for although
in several places between Sherringham and Mundesley it has filled
hollows a foot or two below high-water mark, the channels seem
never to be cut deeper, apparently showing that they had reached
the sea-level.

The mammals from this bed have been carefully collected at
West Runton by Mr. A. C. Savin, and the list already contains two
or three species not known in the Forest-bed. It has also yielded
the wing-bone of a bird, seeds, beetles and numerous mollusca.
From this locality I have obtained the following species of land and
fyesh-water shells :—

Paludina contecta. Limnea palustris.
- vivipara. peregra.
Vaivata piscinalis. —— stagnalis.
= cristata. _ truncatula.
Bythinia tentaculata. Aneylus lacustris.
Planorbis albus. Limax, 2 sp.
complanatus. Succinea putris.
contortus. Helix arbustorum.
—— corneus. hispida.
nautileus. — nemoralis.
spirorbis. Zua lubrica.

1 Tt should be remembered that there are two fresh-water beds at Mundesley, one
older than the Lower Boulder-clay, the other newer, and probably Post-glacial.

? Near Weybourn, where the Fresh-water Bed rests directly upon the Chalk, the
joints and crevices in this rock are often filled with peat.

304 . Clement Reid—Pliocene Beds near Cromer.

Pupa, sp. Pisidium amnicum.

Carychiwm minimum. JSontinale, var. Henslowana.
Clausilia, sp. pusillum.

Corbicula filuminalis. Unio pictorum.

Spherium corneum. Anodon cygneus.

To the above list may be added Physa fontinalis and Planorbis
nitidus from specimens in the Norwich Museum. I have been
unable to find Unio margaritiferus and Pisidium nitidum mentioned
in Prof. Prestwich’s paper (op. cit.).

None of the shells are stunted, and the whole assemblage, with
the exception of Corbicula fluminalis, is such as might now be found
in the Norfolk broads. There appears to be no sufficient reason
for classing either this or the Weybourn Beds with the glacial
series, for the climate, as shown by the land animals and plants,
was but little, if at all, colder than at present. The first appear-
ance of Tellina Balthica, so much relied upon by Messrs. Wood
and Harmer, seems hardly of sufficient importance, in the absence
of other evidence, to mark the incoming of the Glacial Period, for
it is now living on our coasts, and is by no means a peculiarly arctic
shell.

Myauis Bern.

We now arrive at beds which show a decided change of con-
ditions, for directly over the fresh-water deposits and usually
separated from them by a marked line, occur fine false-bedded
sands with gravel and loam, the fossils of which would have lived
in a depth of five or ten fathoms. These sands, for which I propose
the name of J/yalis Led, from their being characterized by the
presence of Leda myalis, are very sparingly fossiliferous ; but where
fossils do occur, they form colonies, with the bivalves in their natural
position. I have been unable to adopt Prof. Prestwich’s name of
«‘Westleton Beds,” as the shingle at his typical locality is unfossil-
iferous, isolated, and is not seen in connexion with either the Fresh-
water Bed or the Contorted Drift. His fossils were obtained from
the Weybourn and Fresh-water beds, with the exception of Leda
myalis and Mya truncata, obtained from West Runton.’

This bed has already yielded the following species, and I hope
in time to add more :—

Buccinum undatun, Yr. Cardium edule, r.
Lacuna, sp., v.c. * Cyprina Islandica, v.c.
Littorina littorea, c. * Leda myalis, v.c.

op rudis, VY. * Mya truncata, v.c.
Natica, sp., v.r. Mytilus edulis, rv.
Purpura lapillus, rv. * Ostrea edulis, V.c.
Trophon antiquus (reversed var.), r. Tellina Balthica, c.

* Astarte borealis, vr.

* In their natural position with the valves united.
A careful examination of the junction of the Myalis Bed with the

1 When on a visit to Westleton last year, my colleagues, Messrs. H. B. Woodward
and J. H. Blake, ascertained that the shingle at that locality was the equivalent
of masses of shingle that occur in the so-called Middle Glacial Sands of Dunwich
Cliff.

Olement Reid—Pliocene Beds near Cromer.

Lower Boulder-clay has always
shown me a sharp and well-
marked line of division, and
neither Mr. H. B. Woodward nor
myself have been able to see
any alternation of these sands

with the Cromer Till, such as.

is mentioned by Messrs. Wood
and Harmer as exhibited in the
Norfolk cliffs. For this reason,
and on account of the absence
of glacial action (other than per-
haps that of river ice) in any
of the beds described, I have
thought it advisable to draw the
line marking the commencement
of the Glacial Period at the base
of the Lower Boulder-clay—a
line which I may mention has,
on independent evidence, been
taken by Mr. H. B. Woodward
in the neighbourhood of Norwich.
The subjoined table will show
the different stages of what may
be well termed the Norfolk Crag.
Lower Boulder Contorted Drift and
clay. Cromer Till.

( Myalis Beds.

| Freshwater Bed.

| Weybourn Beds and
Norfolk Crag{ Forest-bed.

| Chillesford Crag.?

| Norwich Crag proper, or

( Fluvio-marine Crag.?

The accompanying section will

show the relations of the several
divisions of the Pliocene Strata in
the Cliffs between Sidestrand and
Weybourn. The Glacial Beds,
with the exception of part of the
Lower Boulder-clay, are omitted,
as they could not be shown on the
exaggerated scale in the right
proportion to the other strata. It
will be observed that the Lower
Boulder-clay occasionally scoops
down to the Chalk, as at Beeston.

1 Supp. to Crag Mollusca, Introduction, p. xviii.

2 Not shown in the Cromer Cliffs.

DECADE II.—VOL. IV.—NO. VII.

DIAGRAM SECTION TO SHOW THE RELATIONS OF THE PLIOCENE BEDS BETWEEN SIDESTRAND

AND WEYBOURN.

The upper portion of the cliff not shown.)

Distance 10 miles; vertical ‘scale highly exageerated.
guy exage

Ke

oO

pe)
=
i=
=|
ash
al
al

|

VT
SAU

TS Low Water.

EXPLANATION OF SECTION IN DESCENDING ORDER.

5. Lower Boulder-Clay.

4. Myalis Bed.

3805

1. Chalk with pockets of Peat near Weybourn.

2. Weybourn Sands and Forest Bed.

3. Freshwater Bed.

306 ft. Etheridge, Jun.—Contributions to Paleontology.

IV.—FurruHer Contrisutions to British CARBONIFEROUS
PALHONTOLOGY.

By Rozert Erueripes, Junior, F.G.S., etc.
(Continued from the June Number, p. 251.)
(PLATE XIII.)
Class Piscus. Genus Frssopus, St. John and Worthen, 1875.

Fissodus, St. J. and W., 1875. Illinois Geol. Report, vol. vi. p. 413.
Fissodus Pattoni, sp. nov. Plate XIII. Figs. 2 and 3.

Sp. Chars.—Tooth bidenticulated with a re-entering angle between
the denticles; sides sloping down to the lateral angles: anterior
profile convex ; posterior profile concave. The most prominent
portion of the anterior surface is at the centre of the inferior margin
of the crown, where it becomes bowed-out, whence the surface
gradually recedes to the cutting edge of the crown on the one hand,
and more rapidly towards the root on the other. Superior and
inferior margins of the crown symmetrical ; no coronal ridges on
the anterior ; anterior surface of the crown smooth, but, where worn,
with a coarsely-fibrous appearance. On the posterior face of the
tooth the enamel-like layer only just caps the two denticles, and
is traceable as a thin line into the re-entering angle between them,
and are bounded inferiorly by a thickened ridge; the convex portion
of the anterior face is here represented by a concavity. Root long,
attenuated, or oblong.

Obs.—I believe it is now becoming generally acknowledged that
many of the so-called species amongst the Carboniferous “ palatal ”’
teeth are mere variations of other well-marked forms. Notwith-
standing this, I think we are justified in assigning names, provisionally
at any rate, to teeth which appear to be different from those already
known, until such can be shown to be individuals of a series repre-
sented by some previously well-known form. Acting under this
belief, I have given the above name to the elegant little tooth now
figured, in honour of Mr. A. Patton, to whom I have been frequently
indebted for the loan of fossils from his cabinet. My friend, Mr. W.
Davies (of the British Museum), was kind enough to examine and
compare one of the specimens with the extensive collection of teeth
in the National Collection, and informs me that it is unknown to him.

I believe I am correct in referring them to the above recently
established genus, although one of the characters ascribed to Fissodus,
viz. the ear-like lateral angles, is certainly not represented here,
the latter being definitely rounded. Of the two described species,
Fissodus bifidus, St. J. and W., and F. tricuspidatus, St. J. and W.,
our tooth very closely resembles the former; but there is the partial
generic difference noticed above, and there is an entire absence of
imbricating ridges at the base of the crown, in addition to other
minor points.

Loc. and Horizon.—Obtained by Mr. A. Patton from shale im-
mediately above the Calderwood Cement Stone, Lower Carboniferous
Limestone Group, at the Kirktonholm Cement Mine, East Kilbride,
Lanarkshire ; also roof of the Splint Coal, Edge Coal Series, Dean

DECADE ILVOL.IV. PLATE XUL

S
E
oe
ot
o
<
=

COI,

GK

1p,

W.West tee.

Ot Ker EL UVL

a
ae
- ©
aap)
BD)

Ff. Etheridge, Jun.—Contributions to Paleontology. 307

Pit, Kinniel, near B’oness.—Collection of the Geological Survey of
Scotland, collected by Mr. James Bennie.

Genus Oracanruus, Agassiz.
Oracanthus Milleri, Agassiz. Plate XIII. Figs 4-6.

O. Milleri, Ag., Rech. Poissons Foss. vol. ii. (1833-34), p. 18, Atlas iii. t. 3, f. 1-4.
pf » M‘Coy, Brit. Pal. Foss., p. 634.

Spine.—Four-sided, more or less laterally flattened, tapering, hollow
nearly to the apex, substance thin. Apex where broken = 10 lines
by 44 lines; base = 2 inches 2 lines by 1 inch (about). Section of
the base transversely oval ; section of the apex oval, wider at one
end than the other, solid. Anterior end (?) narrower than the
posterior; posterior end (?) flattened, at right angles to the sides.
Canal large, occupying the whole of the internal portion of the
ray, but terminating towards the apex at the fractured point. Sur-
face covered with conical, fluted tubercules, arranged singly in
undulating transverse ridges or becoming laterally confluent ;
apices of the tubercules obtusely pointed. On one of the larger
or lateral faces the rows are almost horizontal, or only slightly
oblique; but on the other they are much more so, the obliquity
being considerably increased on the smaller ends. The tubercules
increase slightly in size down the spine from the apex towards
the base, and their apices are, if anything, inclined a little upwards
towards the former; on the flattened posterior (?) end they are
decidedly larger than on any other part of the spine. The confluent
portions of the ridges are of less height than the tubercules them-
selves. Flattened, or a little concave, striate, or striato-punctate
_ spaces separate the transverse ridges.

0bs.—The protean character of surface ornamentation, proportions,
and distortion often found in this spine are ascribed by Prof. M‘Coy!
to the thin character of its substance, and in consequence no two
descriptions will be found alike. M‘Coy united Agassiz’s described
form O. Millert with the undescribed O. confluens,? and doubtless
with justice. The above description is that of the very handsome
specimen (Figs. 4-6) from the Cabinet of Mr. A. Patton, E. Kilbride,
and which appears to be O. Milleri (+ O. confluens), as described by
Prof. M‘Coy. Dr. Traquair was kind enough to examine a specimen
bearing the name O. confluens, in the Cabinet of the Earl of
Enniskillen, and informs me, that, so far as he can recollect,
without actual comparison, Mr. Patton’s fine specimen bears a great
resemblance to it. The spine appears to be quite in its normal
form, there are no signs of crushing or distortion. The free, or con-
fluent form of the tubercules, is not specially confined to any one
part of the spine.

Loc. and Horizon.—Obtained by Mr. A. Patton from shale two feet
and ahalf above the Calderwood Cement Stone, Lower Carboniferous
Limestone Group, in a quarry at the Upper Glebe, Hast Kilbride,
Lanarkshire.

1 Loe. cit. supra. 2 Loe ct. supra, p. 177.

808 =f. Etheridge, Jun.—Contributions to Paleontology.

Genus Psammopus, Agassiz.
Psammodus rugosus, Agassiz. Plate XIIJ. Figs. 7-9.

P. rugosus, Ag.; Rech. Poissons Foss. vol. ili. (1838-34), p. 111, Atlas iii. t. 12, f.
14-18, t. 19, f. 15.
sistiliss M‘Coy, Brit. Pal. Foss., p. 644.

Tooth.—Oblong, lingual; length, without the lateral prolongation,
2 inches 5 lines; breadth 1 inch 2 lines; height 8 lines. The longer
margins of the crown are convex and rounded, with sharp edges,
and bound the somewhat concave centre of the crown, which is
higher in the middle than at the shorter ends. One of the shorter
margins (the anterior?) is obliquely convex, and its edge roughly
crenulated; the other (or posterior?) is somewhat concave or ex-
eavated, with the edge a little bevelled outwards and deeply slit
vertically. Sides. —The longer sides are more or less vertical, or
at right angles to the crown; one of the shorter sides (the anterior ?)
is bevelled inwards for the articulation of the preceding tooth; the
other shorter side is like the longer lateral ones, almost vertical,
and is extended backwards with one of the latter to form a pointed,
laterally compressed prolongation. Ornamentation.—The crown is
covered with minute, vermiform, transverse, tortuous fringed ridges,
many of which bifurcate, and become more broken up on the longer
lateral margins. The longer lateral sides are roughened.

Obs.—The present tooth differs from Agassiz’s typical figures in
the absence of the prominent rounded eminence on the posterior
part of the crown, although one of his specimens appears to have
been devoid of it. Agassiz considered that an intimate affinity
existed between the teeth he named P. porosus and P. rugosus, whilst
M‘Coy united the two under the one name P. rugosus.! The latter,
in his description, says, that the long sides are either parallel, or
one is concave and the other convex, and usually bevelled obliquely
on the under-side for articulation, the short lateral sides on the other
hand being rudely vertical. He further adds that the surface of
the crown is raised towards the short sides, which are usualiy the
most prominent parts of the tooth. It will be observed that the
specimen now figured does not quite correspond with this descrip-
tion, as the long lateral sides are quite vertical, and one of the short
sides is bevelled; further, the surface of the crown towards the
shorter ends is in each case depressed instead of being elevated or
prominent. The concave and convex shorter sides are probably
similar to those so described in P. canaliculatus, M‘Coy,? which is
considered by Messrs. Davies and Barkas as a synonym of P.
rugosus, Ag.’ Neither Agassiz nor M‘Coy make any mention in
their descriptions of the “single lateral prolongation seen in the
present tooth.

Loc. and Horizon —This fine example was communicated to me
by my friend Prof. H. A. Nicholson, M.D., who obtained it from the
highest limestone but one, in the Carboniferous Limestone series,

1 Brit. Pal. Foss., p. 644.

2 Brit. Pal. Foss., p. 648.
3 Grou. Mae., 1874, Dec. II. Vol. I. p. 548.

Rev. A. Irving—On the “ Permian” and “ New Red.” 309

about 50 or 60 feet below the bottom of the Orton Scar Limestone
at Ashfield, Ravenstonedale, Westmorland. Associated with the
tooth, Prof. Nicholson informs me, were a large number of Corals,
Brachiopods, and other fossils. Of the Corals the most characteristic
and abundant were Lithostrotion Martini, L. irregulare, Syringopora
geniculata, and Zaphrentis Bowerbanki. Cabinet of Prof. Nicholson.

IT am much indebted for information and the loan of specimens to
Professors Williamson and Nicholson, and Messrs. E. W. Binney,
F.R.S., A. Patton, J. Bennie, J. Linn, and J. Simpson, and the
Rev. T. Brown, M.A.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIII.

Fic. 1.—Dentalium inornatum, M‘Coy 2 twice nat. size. L. Carboniferous, Ardross,
Fife. Coll. Geol. Survey, Scotland.

» 2.—Fissodus? Pattoni, R. Eth., jun.; three times nat. size. Calderwood
Series, East Kilbride. Cabinet of Mr. A. Patton, Anterior view ?

», 8.—The same; another specimen, posterior view ? three times nat. size. Roof
of the Splint Coal, Edge Coal Series, Dean Pit, Kinneil, near B’oness,
Linlithgowshire. Coll. Geol. Survey of Scotland.

», 4.—Oracanthus Milleri, Ag. lateral view, nat. size. Calderwood Series,
East Kilbride. Cabinet of Mr. A. Patton. 4a, tubercules enlarged.

» 0.—The same; posterior view? nat. size.

9» 6.— at anterior ,, %

» (.—Psammodus rugosus, Ag. var.; view of crown of the tooth, nat. size.
Carboniferous Limestone, Ravenstonedale, Westmorland. Cabinet of
Prot, Nicholson.

», 8.—The same. Side view showing the lateral prolongation; nat. size.

',, 9.—Portion of surface of the crown of the same tooth magnified to show the
characteristic ‘‘ fringed ridges.”

V.—ON THE SO-CALLED “‘ PERMIAN” anp THE New Rep SANDSTONE
ForMATIONS.

By the Rev. A. Irvine, B.A., B.Se., F.G.S.,
of Wellington College, Wokingham.

N the 6th March, 1874, I communicated a paper on the “‘ Geology

of the Neighbourhood of Nottingbam”?* to the Geologists’
Association, which was subsequently printed im eatenso in their Pro-
ceedings. Up to that time I believe the definition laid down by the
Government Survey, and imported into text-books, of the distinction
between the so-called Permian and the New Red Sandstone forma-
tions had not been called in question very prominently. Like other
students of geology, I myself accepted in good faith the dictum as to
a great break existing between the two formations, indicating, of
course, an enormous period of time. I could not, however, help, as
I walked along the banks of the Leen,—which flows along the foot
of the western escarpment of the Lower Bunter Sandstone,—trying
to realize what this really meant; and the thought was not without
its influence in stimulating me to try and work out such evidence as
the district might afford, of the reality of this great hypothetical
interlude in the geological succession of strata. Wishing to make
myself acquainted with all the observations which had been pre-
viously made upon the subject, | perused caretully the memoirs of

1 See Grou. Mac. 1874, New Series, Vol. I. p. 314.

310 Rev. A. Irving—On the “ Permian” and “ New Red.”

the Geological Survey upon the district. The more the matter was
studied, the more did I lose confidence in the dictum above referred
to, and I could not help coming finally to the conclusion, as Prof.
Phillips had done, with reference to the same two series of rocks
in another area, that “ their physical history was upon the whole
one great series of natural operations.” Nor had I overlooked,
as Mr. Aveline’ seems to imagine, the few and meagre data which
were furnished by him and by Prof. Hull in their respective
‘“‘Memoirs,” from which their conclusions as to the great uncon-
formity between Bunter and Permian was drawn. It is not for me
to point out to Mr. Aveline, or to any other geologist so practised
and experienced in field-work as he is, that we have here a question
where we must decide, if at all, by the balancing of probabilities.
The direct evidence of any great unconformity is very weak
indeed. The intercalation of the middle marls and sandstones ~by
Worksop and northward furnishes very little ‘proof of the removal
by post-Permian denudation of the Upper Magnesian Limestone as
we proceed south; as I think any one will see who will take the
trouble to weigh well the reasoning of Mr. E. Wilson, F.G.S., in the
May Number of this Macazine (p. 288). I must say that I agree with
this gentleman entirely as to the true interpretation of the facts
reiterated with so much emphasis by Mr. Aveline in his recent
communication to this periodical: facts which both Mr. Wilson and
myself were fully conversant with, since they were stated years ago
in the “ Memoirs.” And not only are we now in a better position
to judge of their true bearing, on account of the great accession to
our stock of data which has been furnished by the recent develop-
ment of the South Notts Coal-field; but I venture to say that any
one who had seen the great intercalated masses of dolomitic
sandstone which are quarried in the neighbourhood of Mansfield,
might well feel sceptical (in the absence of palzeontological evidence)
as to the precise identity of a particular member of the Magnesian
Limestone group at Worksop, with the beds that occur between
Mansfield and Nottingham; where the lateral variation of the whole
series is so great, and the general tendency of even the dolomite
itself to become more and more coarse-grained, flaggy, and gritty in
its progress southward, is most pronounced. Nor do | forget (even
with the circumscribed geological vision of a “local geologist’’) that
this is in general harmony with the thinning-out of the whole series
of the Magnesian Limestone from a thickness of 600 feet in the
county of Durham, to that of a few flagey bands in Nottinghamshire.

Every one who has done any field-work at all, must know how
hazardous it is to generalize in a spirit approaching to anything like
dogmatism, on the actual relation of two sets of rocks, both of which
are unfossiliferous, unless they had been traced continuously across
the country ; and this Mr. Aveline, with the small amount of data
afforded, will scarcely maintain to have been done in the present
instance, That a southern and south-western boundary musi have

‘ See Mr. Aveline’s article in the April No. of Grou. Mac., p. 155, “On the
Magnesian Limestone and the New Red Sandstone of Nottingham.”

Rev. A. Irving—On the “ Permian” and “ New Red.” 311

existed somewhere to the Magnesian Limestone Sea, is beyond all
doubt; and we believe that it was not far from the latitude of the
town of Nottingham ; for I suppose no one will contend that the
Permian series of this district has anything in common with, or
was once continuous with, the so-called Permian sandstones and
marls of Warwickshire and the adjacent counties (which, by the
way, I am glad to learn that Mr. Aveline is willing to relegate to
the Coal-measures, and so confirm the belief to which a visit of two
or three weeks of last winter to that county, led me).

It is with great diffidence now, as it was four years ago, that I
venture to discuss with hima question for which he has so
much more aptitude, both from extensive observation and from pro-
fessional training, than one can possibly pretend to, who has worked
at Geology more from a conviction of its educational value than
from any other motive; but I hope he will pardon my saying that
in geological questions we must look for the same logical coherency
in the evidence as we demand in other departments of science or in
a court of law, and that the lack of this cannot be compensated for
by our belief (however strong that may be), in the extensive know-
ledge of the observer. That the Bunter strata overlap the Magnesian
Limestone in Nottinghamshire is evident enough, but I could not
see (nor can I see yet) that this necessarily implies unconformity
resulting from the disturbance and general denudation of the imme-
diately subjacent strata. This may or may not accompany the
phenomenon of “overlap”’; and whether it actually does or not
must be decided, in a case like the present, by examination of actual
sections ; but here we find, as section after section is added to the
list of those previously exposed, that the great break (as evidenced
by observed unconformity) is below the “ Permians,” and not above
them. I do not for a moment maintain that there is “ perfect con-
formity ” everywhere between the Permians and the Bunter; but I
believe that such slight unconformities as are actually observable at
this particular horizon are not a whit greater, and have no more
general significance whatever, than such as (according to my own
observation, and Mr. Aveline’s showing in his ‘Memoir’) exist
between different members of the Permian and Trias themselves ;
and especially (a) between the Magnesian Limestone and the
stratified red and purple Permian marls that lie upon its eroded
surface at Mansfield and elsewhere; (d) at the junction of the
Lower Mottled Sandstone and the base of the Bunter Conglomerates,
as seen in section in the “ Hemlock Stone”; (¢) at the junction of
the Bunter and the Keuper, several sections of which in the neigh-
bourhood of Nottingham I have previously described. For further
information concerning such minor and localized unconformities, I
may refer to Mr. Aveline’s memoir on “ Parts of Nottinghamshire
and Derbyshire,” p. 11, and to Prof. Hull’s memoir on the
‘Permian and Triassic Rocks,” figs. 11, 12, 13, 14, and 16.

It is no reflexion upon Mr. Aveline personally, nor in any sense a
depreciation of the officers of H.M. Geological Survey or their most
valuable work, to suggest that generalizations may have been, in

312. J. Rk. Dakyns—Prof. Hull’s Carboniferous Classification.

some instances, too hastily arrived at in the earlier days of their
work, before time and experience had shown the necessity of that
habit of caution and hesitation which is forced upon a field-geologist
more and more as he pursues his work, and which might have pre-
vented such inconsistencies as are illustrated by the case of the
“‘ Rotherham Rock,” as it is mapped in two different editions of the
One-inch Survey Map; or by such a statement as that of Mr. Aveline
himself that “a peculiarity of the | Lower Bunter] sandstone is, that
it is quite free from the pebbles that characterize the formation over-
lying it,” when a little closer observation might have shown him
some half-a-dozen sections within easy reach of Nottingham, in which
the pebbles of quartz, quartzite, slate, and grit, are scattered sparsely
through the sandy matrix. But these are of course petty matters of
detail, worthy only of the attention of that inferior order labelled by
Mr. Aveline “local geologists,” one of whom has observed a good
many of the pebbles in question even in the typical section of Lower
Bunter south of Mansfield, which Mr. Aveline refers to in his
“Memoir” (p. 12).

I will not intrude further upon your space and your courtesy,
except to disclaim, on my own part and that of my co-workers in
the same field, any wish to make an attack upon Mr. Aveline or any
of his colleagues (several of whom I have the honour and the pleasure
to know personally) ; while, on the other hand, he, no doubt, would
be the last to repudiate the notion, that, with all their exceptional
advantages, they possess a monopoly of geological knowledge. We
have on both sides a strong desire to arrive at the actual truth; and,
even if further investigation should prove our position to be alto-
gether untenable, I shall, for my part, be glad, if I have in any way
helped to bring this question into the full light of criticism.

VI.—On Proressor Huxt’s CarBoNIFEROUS CLASSIFICATION.

By J. R. Daxyns, M.A. ;
of Her Majesty’s Geological Survey.
ih a paper read before the Geological Society of London, Prof.
Hull proposes, as generally applicable to the whole of Great
Britain and Ireland, a new classification of the Carboniferous rocks,
as follows :
Upper CARBONIFEROUS GROUP.
Stage G. Upper Coal-measures ... be ae Essentially
», F. Middle Coal-measures nae : freshwater.
Mivpie CarBonirerous Grove.
Stage E. Lower Coal-measures or Ganister Beds

» D. Millstone-grit Series ... a ASE Essentially marine
» ©. Yoredale Series ... i

Lower CARrBoNIFEROUS GROUP.

Stage B. Carboniferous Limestone Series ... 006 Essentially marine
», A. Lower Shales, Slates, Carboniferous, Cal- (except in Scot-
ciferous and Sandstone Series 000 land).

There are two points in this classification: one is the division of
the whole Carboniferous Series into two portions, distinguished as

J. R. Dakyns—Prof. Hulls Carboniferous Classification. 313

freshwater and marine: the other is the further subdivision of the
lower or marine portion into two by uniting the Ganister Beds,
Millstone Grit and Upper Limestone Shales into a Middle division,
and the Carboniferous Limestone and Lower Limestone Shales into
a Lower division.

It is difficult to see how the Lower Coal-measures and the Mill-
stone Grit can properly be classed as essentially marine in the face of
the coal-seams and beds of Ganister, which bespeak land-surfaces :
but the proposal to unite the Lower Coal-measures or Ganister Beds
with the Millstone Grit has something to recommend it, for the
North of England at least, on stratigraphical grounds beyond the
paleontological ones relied on by Prof. Hull: for the two sets of
- beds have much in common; workable coal-seams are not unknown
in the Millstone Grit of Derbyshire, and such become more common
as we go northward ; though the Sandstone Beds are as a rule coarser
in the Millstone Grit than in the Lower Coal-measures, yet all
Millstone Grits are not coarse ; some are very fine; and grits quite
as coarse as ordinary Millstone Grits do occasionally occur in the
Lower Coal-measures. It is true we have a well-marked top to
the Millstone Grit in Derbyshire and Yorkshire: but this I look
upon as a happy accident: and were the Permian removed, where
it hides the upper part of the Millstone Grit, perhaps we should find
the Rough Rock lose its well-marked character or possibly thin
away altogether, and then where would our division-line be? But,
what is more important, beds of Ganister, which are the distinguish-
ing feature of the Lower Coal-measures, occur also in the Millstone
Grit : this is the case as far south as Derbyshire ; and as we go north
the Ganister beds in the Millstone Grit become so prominent that the
measures containing them might easily be mistaken for the equivalents
of the Lower Coal-measures of South Yorkshire.

Prof. Hull further proposes to class the Upper Limestone Shales
with the Millstone Grit. It has always been a difficult matter to
separate these two subformations satisfactorily, except for quite
limited areas. The line between the two has been drawn in very
different places by different observers. The late Prof. Phillips
drew the line below the great grit of Pendle Hill: subsequent ob-
servers threw the equivalent of this grit, under the name of Yoredale
Grit, into the Upper Limestone Shales. But Phillips was undoubt-
edly right in classing it with the Millstone Grit; for the grit in
question is simply the basement bed of the Kinderscout Grit, from
which it is often quite impossible to separate it satisfactorily. The name
Yoredale Grit, too, is a singularly unhappy one; for it is more than
doubtful whether any representative of this grit occurs in Yoredale
at all. But in my opinion the term Yoredale, as a synonym for the
old term Upper Limestone Shale, is itself incorrect. The type of
beds developed in the valley of the Yore is a very marked one; also
very peculiar, by no means generally characterizing the beds below
the Millstone Grit; it would seem better therefore to retain the old
term Upper Limestone Shales for these measures generally, reserving
the term Yoredale series for those cases in which the beds approxi-

314 G. M. Dawson— Rocks of British Columbia and Chile.

mate more or less to the type in Yoredale. Considering the peculiar
character of the Yoredale beds, so different from the Millstone Grit,
I think it would be a mistake to throw them into the same class as
the latter group; nor would Prof. Hull find it everywhere so easy,
as it is in Derbyshire and Lancashire, to separate the Upper Lime-
stone Shales from the Carboniferous Limestone, the fact being that
the thick limestone splits up north-eastward into a number of sub-
divisions of limestone, sandstone, and shale. I do not myself
believe, pace Prof. Hull, in the possibility of finding any classifica-
tion of the Carboniferous rocks applicable to the whole of England,
other than the philosophical one recommended by Prof. Ramsay, of
treating the whole as one indivisible formation and mapping
separately each important bed, or group of beds, of grit, limestone,
chert, ironstone, plate, or shale.

VII.—Mesozorc Voutcantc Rooks or BritisH CoLuMBIA AND CHILE.
RELATION oF Voucantc AND Meramorruic Rocks.

By Gzorce M. Dawson, F.G.S.,
of the Geological Survey of Canada.

N Chile and adjacent regions of South America, Mr. Darwin, in his
“‘Geological Observations,” has described a great series of Meso-
zoic rocks, which he calls the ‘‘porphyritic formation,” and which
shows an interesting resemblance to certain rocks in British Columbia.
These I had provisionally designated in my report in connexion with
the Geological Survey of Canada for 1875, as the Porphyrite series,
without at the time remembering Mr. Darwin’s name for the Chilian
rocks. Many of Mr. Darwin’s descriptions of the rocks of Chile
would apply word for word to those of British Columbia, where the
formation would also appear to bear a somewhat similar relation to
the Cascade or Coast Range, which that of Chile does to the Cordillera.
By its fossils, the porphyritic formation of Chile is proved to occupy a
position intermediate between the Jurassic and Cretaceous, which is
much that which the Porphyrites of British Columbia must hold.
Beds overlying the Porphyrites on Tattayoco Lake by some thousands
of feet—probably conformably—hold fossils characteristic of the
Shasta Group or lowest of the Cretaceous in California, which is
believed to represent the English Series from the Gault downwards.
Fossils collected last summer in the porphyrite and felsite—altered
ash rocks—of the Iltasyonco, a branch of the Salmon River in latitude
52° 50’, present a more distinctly Jurassic facies, though their
paleontological value will be more certainly known when Mr.
Whiteaves shall have finished his examination of them.

Of the South American Series Mr. Darwin writes :'— ‘The
alternating strata of porphyries and porphyritic conglomerates, and
with the occasionally included beds of felspathic slate, together make
a grand formation; in several places within the Cordillera I esti-
mated its thickness at from 6000 to 7000 feet. It extends for many
hundred miles, forming the western flank of the Chilian Cordillera ;

1 Loc. cit. p. 476.

G. M, Dawson—Rocks of British Columbia and Chile. 315

and even in Iquique in Peru, 850 miles north of the southernmost
point examined by me in Chile, the Coast escarpment which rises to
a height of between 2000 and 3000 feet is thus composed.”

The area over which the Porphyrite formation occurs in British
Columbia is very great, but is as yet imperfectly defined. I have
roughly estimated its thickness in one locality at not less than 10,000
feet. It is built up of porphyrites, tending occasionally towards
quartz porphyries, felsites, and fine-grained dolerites, diabases, and
probably also diorites, with other rocks transitional between these
and the first named, and great masses of volcanic breccia or agglom-
erate. Many of these rocks are of sedimentary origin, as shown by
their holding fossils, and by their bedding, but the material has
been supplied ready made as voleanic ashes and sand, and in the
region near the eastern flanks of the Coast Range no intercalated
siliceous sandstones, or water-leached clays forming true argillites,
are found.

It may seem hazardous even to compare rocks so widely separated
in space, but it is very generally found that in directions parallel to
the main axis of disturbance on the West Coast, the formations are
remarkably constant in character, and it is just in such cases that
lithological resemblances may to some extent safely supplement other
facts. 1am not aware that contemporaneous volcanic products have
been recognized as forming a part of the Cretaceous or Jurassic
formations of California,—which of the intermediate region is the
most carefully studied portion,—but in reading Professor Whitney’s
report, one is much tempted to believe that a portion of the very
puzzling appearance of metamorphism in certain groups of beds
intercalated with others almost unchanged, may really be due to
their original composition as volcanic materials easily hardened and
crystallized. The “red rock” or “imperfect serpentine” of the
Cretaceous of the vicinity of San Francisco certainly resembles
nothing so much as a partly altered volcanic product.'

It is evident that by the folding together and complete metamor-
phism of such masses of volcanic material as those described in Chile
and British Columbia, they would form, without addition or much
chemical change, a great series of granites, gneisses, diorites, and
crystalline schists, like those characterizing many of the older forma-
tions in portions of their extent. Besides the mere chemical identity
rendering this change possible, it may, I think, be stated that the
equivalency of volcanic products with rocks of this class has actually
been demonstrated in the field. I would refer especially in this
connexion to the work of Prof. Judd in West Scotland, and to that
of Mr. J. Clifton Ward in Cumberland. In Vancouver Island, we
have, in fact, also a great series of rocks of Paleeozoic age, almost
certainly referable to the Carboniferous period, which while com-
posed of diorites, felsites, schistose and gneissic rocks which Mr.

1 It should be mentioned that Prof. J. J. Stephenson, in reporting on a portion of
Colorado, speaks of ‘‘large fragments of volcanic rocks and volcanic ash in the lower
portion of the Cretaceous everywhere.” U.S. Geol. Surv. West of the 100th Merid.,
1876, vol. ii. p. 500. ;

316 G. M. Dawson—Rocks of British Columbia and Chile.

Selwyn has compared in their lithological character to those of the
Huronian or Altered Quebec group of Hastern Canada, yet retain
ample evidence of their origin as volcanic sediments and igneous
flows, and hold some beds of erystalline limestone, and of argillite,
—the latter showing comparatively little sign of alteration. It is not,
however, intended at this time to enter into detail with regard to
these rocks, or of the yet. more ancient-looking diorites and granites
of the Cascade Range, which are very possibly of the same age and
origin.

Passing from rocks such as these, however, of which the source is
yet clearly demonstrable, to some of those of the Eastern border of
the Continent, one is led to think that sufficient prominence has not
been given, in endeavouring to account for their origin, to the possible
inclusion at different periods of great masses of little weathered
volcanic products; and that while in Britain the importance of such
material has been fully recognized, and it has been found to occur
at many stages in the geological scale,—forming in Cumberland from
12,000 to 15,000 feet of “green slates and porphyries,”’ in Wales a
great thickness of similar hard and more or less crystalline rocks in
the Lower Silurian alone,—it has scarcely been allowed a foothold
in Hastern America except in instances so patent that to deny its
origin would be absurd. In discussing the possibility of the produc-
tion of “metamorphic” rocks from ordinary aqueous sediments not
chemically their equivalents, by pseudomorphism and replacement,
and the chemical formation of sediments by processes not active at
the present day, much ingenuity has been employed, while the place
of volcanos in supplying ready-made the material of crystalline
rocks has virtually in too many cases been ignored. This action,
according to strictly uniformitarian principles, must be supposed to
have been at least as important at former periods as at present, and
very lately the Challenger soundings have added largely to our idea
of its influence, Mr. Murray having shown in connexion with them
that in point of fact all deposits in the depths of the Pacific not
organic are volcanic.

The rocks of the Huronian are, where I have studied them on the
Lake of the Woods, I have no hesitation in affirming, in great part
of volcanic origin; these beds, described originally by Dr. Bigsby
as ‘Greenstone Conglomerates,” being undoubtedly of this character
and connected with others not so evidently volcanic by transitional
materials, the whole associated with some rocks which must have
approached ordinary argillites in composition and with quartzites.’
If correct in this instance, as I believe them to be, similar con-
clusions will apply to a great portion of the rocks of other localities
supposed to be of Huronian age, as a perusal of their description in
the “Geology of Canada” will render evident. In the felspathic
and gabbro-like rocks of the Upper Laurentian, we have a series so
completely the same in composition with certain abundant modern
volcanic rocks, that the attempt to account for its composition by
pseudomorphism, or by the theory of chemical precipitates unlike

1 Geology and Resources, 49th Parallel, 1875, p. 52.

G. M. Dawson—Rocks of British Columbia and Ohile. 317

those of the present day, seems almost as unnecessary as it would
be to invoke a similar remote origin for the formation of an ordinary
sandstone. In suggesting voleanic agency as an important factor in
the history of the Lower Laurentian, more hesitation may be felt,
as the mere area covered by its rocks is so much greater than we
would expect to result from any system or linear series of volcanos as
at present known. It is still a fact that the greater part of the rocks
of that formation are just such as would be produced from the com-
plete metamorphism of volcanic products among which those of the
acidic class preponderated. Its limestones and iron ores do not oppose
the theory, as these, with the quartzites and graphites may have been
formed during periods of repose; and it is also apparent that if con-
siderable areas of recently ejected volcanic matter were from time
to time exposed to sub-aerial influences, their decay would furnish
lime and iron readily and in great abundance to the surrounding
waters, there to be fixed by organic or other agency.

Judging from lithological characters alone, and without presuming
to enter into questions of age, it would appear probable, or almost
certain, that volcanic sediments or other more or less immediate
volcanic products have assisted materially in the production of the
crystalline rocks of the Green and White Mountains, and their
probable southward continuations; the rocks of the Metamorphic
Quebee group, and those of the supposed Huronian of Eastern
Massachusetts and Maine. The concise description of these last
given in Dr. Hunt’s “Chemical and Geological Essays,” ! might be
applied with scarcely a word of alteration to portions of the Meso-
zoic volcanic series of British Columbia.

If we may be allowed thus to explain the building up of a great
thickness of the older rocks by volcanic action, we may economize
greatly in the call for geological time, which at. present seems
desirable. The crystalline character of any series of rocks may
reasonably be supposed to depend more closely on their original
composition than on subsequent alteration, and in volcanic products
—which may be as finely stratified as any—we have the materials
of many of the rocks of the older crystalline formations. If, how-
ever, the action of volcanos in supplying materials for rock-building
on a large scale be admitted as possible at any era in geological time
—and there is surely no reason why it should not be admitted—the
correlation of separated areas of crystalline rocks on lithological
characters alone, from the difficulty of completely eliminating
voleanic action, and the precise similarity of the volcanic rocks of
all periods, when they have sustained an equal degree of alteration,
becomes at least extremely hazardous. On the other hand, as already
stated, these rocks, due to the same period, may be found at a similar
stage of metamorphism and showing precisely similar characters for
great distances in certain lines of volcanic activity and disturbance,
and may also be accompanied by parallel belts of contemporaneous
materials of ordinary aqueous origin.

1 p. 187, § 4.

318 Rk. Etheridge, Jun.— Paleontological Notes.

VIII.—Patmontotocicat Norss.
By R. Erueriper, Junior, F.G.S., ete.
ul ee following brief notes on rare, little known, or occasionally
new fossils, in some cases anticipating more detailed descriptions,
may be of interest to the readers of the Gronocican Macazinu.

1. SprrorBis ampicuus, Fleming (Edinb. New Phil. Journ., 1825,
vol. xii. p. 246, t. 9, f. 3).—This little Annelide appears to have been
a good deal lost sight of by paleontologists, and for that reason it
may perhaps be well to call attention to it. S. ambiguus was not
mentioned by Prof. Morris in his “Catalogue of British Fossils,”
nor by Messrs. Armstrong and Young in their “Catalogue of the
Carboniferous Fossils of the West of Scotland.” It was originally
described by the Rev. Dr. Fleming, in his paper on the British
Testaceous Annelides, and placed in the second division of his
arrangement of the species of the genus Spirorbis, those with the
tube “destitute of longitudinal ridges.” He obtained it from Cult’s
Limeworks, near Pitlessie, Fife, adhering to the surface of Myalina
crassa, Flem. The tube expands towards the aperture, which is round ;
the umbilicus is open, and the surface unornamented, or very finely
wrinkled across. Unlike Sp. carbonarius, Murchison, it does not, so far
as I have observed, make a groove for itself in the surface of the body
to which it is attached. In general appearance Sp. ambiguus closely
resembles Spiroglyphus marginatus. M-Coy. It will be a question for
careful consideration whether this species, from its early enunciation,
will not absorb some of the later described forms; amongst the latter
I would recommend particular attention being paid to S. minuta, Port-
lock, and S. ompha/odes, Goldfuss. Mr. Bennie has obtained S. am-
biguus from Roscobie Quarry, Fife, in addition to the typical locality.
[Shale above the Roscobie Limestone, L. Carb. Limestone group. |

2. SprrorBIs CARBONARIUS, Murchison, var. ?—The abundance
with which the typical form of S. carbonarius is to be met with in
all the strata about the horizon of the Burdiehouse Limestone
(Cement-stone group of the L. Carboniferous or Calciferous Sand-
stone Series) is something wonderful. In a quarry on the Linnhouse
Water, opposite the Oakbank Oil Works, near Mid Calder, there is a
small band of limestone almost entirely made up of this species,
and in company with it is to be occasionally found another peculiar
and handsome little Annelide, which. has not before come under my
notice. It has the general characters of S. carbonarius, but the
periphery is produced into a number of minute tubercules, almost
amounting to spines, which give to the tube a very distinctive ap-
pearance. There is a described species having this character,
Spirorbis Siluricus, Kichwald (Lethzea Rossica, vol. i. p. 668, t. 34,
f. 1), from the Coral Limestone of the Isle of Oesel, and the Old Red
Sandstone of the Department of Novgorod, and so like are our
Lower Carboniferous forms to it, that I do not know how to distinguish
them, although I scarcely like listing it under Hichwald’s name
without a direct comparison of specimens. In the mean time, as its
other characters correspond with those of S. carbonarius, we may
consider it as a well-marked variety of that species.

Collector, Mr. James Bennie.

Lf. Etheridge, Jun.— Paleontological Notes. 31g

3. In a bed of shale above a limestone of the L. Carb. Limestone
group at Hillhead Quarry near Cockmuir Bridge, and Whitfield
Quarry near Carlops, occur peculiar little microscopic onion-shaped
bodies in thousands. They very much resemble an onion in
general appearance, but at the same time are indistinctly four-lobed
and provided with a small peduncle or stalk. The form is usually
round or globular, and the four-lobed character is caused by furrows
or constrictions, but always in a symmetrical manner. Occasionally,
they are met with of a more flattened form, but still showing traces
of the four-lobate structure. - I forwarded these little bodies many
months ago to Mr. H. B. Brady, who informed me that he was well
acquainted with them, that they bore no Foraminiferal characters,
and usually occurred in large numbers together, but seldom where
Foraminifera abounded. He adds, ‘‘I suspect they must be vege-
table. They occur in one of the beds of the Yoredale Rocks (Eng-
land), where they are very abundant.” I have not been able to
detect any structure which would lead me to assign to them any
particular position in the Animal Kingdom. If they are not
Foraminiferal, and of this there can be no better judge than Mr.
Brady, and so far as J have seen there does not appear to be any
Echinodermal structure about them, we are reduced to the alternative
of regarding them as of vegetable origin. May they be Sporangia ?

Collector, Mr. James Bennie.

4. BorinGs IN THE SHELL OF CHonetTEs LaGursstana, de Kon.—
Specimens of this species from shale above the limestone at Roscobie
Quarry near Dunfermline are perfectly riddled with fine borings
quite perceptible to the naked eye. They appear to be of two kinds.
Those seen on the exterior of the ventral valve are straight, and
all more or less tending in one direction, generally parallel with
the surface striz of the shell, but at times crossing these latter at an
angle. The second kind are visible on the dorsal valve, they are
irregularly festoon-shaped, and are more commonly confined to near
the front margin of the valve, but all connected with, and running
into one another. Each boring appears tu form almost a semicircle ;
these being placed in longitudinal rows, and connected by their
extremities with the row in front, give rise to the appearance of
irregular festoons. They may be the borings of sponges, or perhaps
of parasitic algee (?).

Collector, Mr. James Bennie.

5. Some very minute, quite microscopic, flask or bottle-shaped
little bodies were obtained by Mr. Bennie from the shale above the
the limestone at Roscobie Quarry, Fife (Ll. Carb. Limestone
Group). They may be described as elongately bottle-shaped,
inferiorly tapering almost to a point, expanding at about the centre,
becoming constricted towards the superior end, where bifurcation
takes place. The larger portion, which is the cell-mouth, is bent
almost at right angles to the imaginary axis of the fossil; the other
portion is continued vertically as a small connecting stolon for
the cell which would succeed. They have a shining hyaline ap-
pearance. Examples were forwarded to the Rev. T. Hincks, who
was kind enough to confirm my previously entertained suspicion as

320 Notices of Memoirs—H. Norton, on Norfolk Forest-bed.

to their Polyzoal affinities. He remarks that the little bodies appear
to come very near the recent genus “cruparia, and its ally Hippothoa.
He adds, there is also a Cretaceous species of the genus Aiea
(Ai. anguinaria) closely related to them. The present form need
not be mistaken for either of the following Paleeozoic species :—
Hippothoa Voigtiana, King, Permian Foss. England, 1850, p. 31,
t. 38, f. 13; Gienitz, Dyas, p. 120, t. 20, f. 24, 25; HH. inflata, Hall,
Nicholson, Ann. Nat. Hist., 1875, vol. xv. p. 128, t. 11, f.1. As
regards size, /7. inflata, Hall, approaches nearest to our Carboniferous
forms, but it is much larger. I propose to call this Hippothoa ?
Hincksii, and hope before long to give a more detailed description

and figure.
(To be continued.)

IN @ ik @ aS 1) @ iat eM iaeeeVE@ ee Se
———— Y
I.—Tux Forrst-pep or Hast Norrorx. By Henry Nortovy, F.G.S.
Paper read before the Norwich Geological Society, May 1st,
1877.—Norwich Mercury, May 5th.
P{\HE author first refers to an excursion made to Mundesley and
Happisburgh by members of the Norwich Geological Society,
an account of which was published in the Hastern Daily Press,
of February 15th. It was therein stated that ‘several stools of trees,
with roots branching out, were seen, and proved on examination to
have grown upon the bright blue clay of the soil of the forest.”
Having been unable to attend the excursion, he went two days later
for the special purpose of ascertaining whether the stumps of trees
observed were actually in siti as they grew. The few he was
enabled to examine, although they had a false appearance of having
grown where found, had their roots broken off, and could not have
lived on the spots. They might very naturally have been drifted
into such positions.

The poor result of his visit induced him to examine what is the
evidence on which the belief in the Forest-bed rests; and the main
object of the present paper was to point out how unsatisfactory were
the statements of those who have written upon the subject. He
referred to the observations of R. C. Taylor, Rev. J. Layton, 8.
Woodward, J. Trimmer, and to those of Mr. Prestwich and Mr.
John Gunn. Lyell had never seen the stools of trees in siti. The
statements made by these geologists were all vaguely general. No
one had taken a particular stump, examined the condition of the
roots, whether whole or broken, and told us their actual length and
their position on the ground. It was known that remains of oak
have been found, but we were never told that any particular stool
was oak ; nor have we ever been told that any particular trunk was
ever found lying near its own stool. It was, in fact, only too clear
that our observers in general did not appreciate the value of precise
facts as opposed to loose generalities.

Mr. Norton was ready to admit the high, very, high probability,
of a forest in sitt, but contended that there was yet no absolute
proof of it. H.B.W.

Notices of Memoirs—Notes on Fossil Plants. 321

IJ.—Norrs on Fosstn Puanrs.
[Communicated by Count Marscuatt, C.M.G.S., ete.]
1. Sandstones of Gréden, between Neumarkt and Mazzon, South Tyrol.
(Imp. Geol. Instit. Vienna, Meeting January 9, 1877.)

HE strata here are horizontal in a hill, at the summit of which is
Mazzon. Beginning with the lowest beds (near Neumarkt, at
the foot of the hill), Nos. 1, 8, and 5 are grey and red sandy and
argillaceous beds of the “ Gréden Sandstone”; 2. White sandstones,
with vegetable remains; 4. Subordinate beds of grey shales, with
vegetable remains; 6. Yellow dolomitic strata, partly oolitic and
glauconitic, and white compact limestones, interspersed with mala-

chite; 7. ‘“‘Seisser beds,” on which Mazzon is situate.

The plant-remains in No. 2 are indeterminable stems and trunks,
with carbonized bark, well preserved and large stobili (of Volizia
Hungarica ?), branches with acicular leaves, fronds of Ferns, and
here and there some few Calamites. The very friable bed No. 4
‘includes perfectly preserved bracts, acicular leaves, short branches,
and strobili.

Altogether the facies of this Flora is Triassic, like that of the
“ Roth ” Flora of Zweibriicken. On closer investigation, however,
these Florze do not possess one species in common. Professor
Schimper thinks the Flora under notice to be probably of Permian
age. Almost all the species are identical with those of Fiinfkirchen
in Hungary, which, according to Prof. Heer, are of Post-carboni-
ferous or Upper Dyasic age. The branches and strobili of Voltzia
Hungarica prevail in number; with them occur Baiera digitata,
Heer, Ullmannia Bronni, Heer, Ullm. Geinitzi, Carpolithes, fronds of
Ferns, Calamites (or Lquisetites), Lingula sp., some few Fish-
scales, ete.

More or less frequent and distinct fragments of Voltzia Hungarica
have been found at several places in the Tyrol, a fact worthy of notice,
as, at these localities, the typical black Bellerophon-limestones (re-
presented near Neumarkt by yellow dolomitic rocks) rest imme-
diately on the strata containing plant-remains. The most frequent
Foraminifera in the Bellerophon-limestones are Cornuspirida, es-
pecially a form near Endothyra.

2. On some Rhetian Plants from Pdlsjé, South Sweden.—By Dr.
NATHORST.
(Imp. Geol. Instit. Vienna, Meeting January 23, 1877.)

Dr. R. H. Nathorst lately presented to the Imperial Geological
Institute of Vienna a collection of fossil plants from Palsjé. The
species represented in it are —Spiropteris, sp., Rhizomopteris Schenki,
Nath., Cladophlebis Nebbensis, Brong., Gutlieria angustiloba, Presl,
Diciyophyllum Muensteri (Gopp.), Nath., Nilssoni. Brong., Nilssonia
polymorpha, Schk., Anomozamites gracilis, Nath., Podozamites distans,
Presl, Palissya Brauni. Endl., Schizolepis Follini, Nath., Pinites Lund-
greni, Nath. (a well-preserved Strobilus), and Swedenborgia erypto-
merides, Nath. In a letter to Prot. D. Stur, Dr. Nathorst observes
concerning these remains :—Lhizomopteris Schenki is undoubtedly

DECADE 1I1.—VOL. IV.—NO, VII. 21

322 Notices of Memoirs—Notes on Fossil Plants.

the rhizome of a Dictyophyllum. Denticulation is visible on a
fragment of Cladophilebis Nebbensis, as in an Austrian specimen of
Cladophlebis. The leaves of Gutlieria are constantly found with
fructification. Sagenopteris, Otenopteris, and Thimfeldia are very
rare. The occurrence of genuine Dictyophyllum Jluensteri and D.
Ni/ssoni may be doubted, the Pilsjo specimens of this last species
having less regular and shorter secondary segments, although not as
short and broad as those of D. acutilobum, Schenk, but perfectly con-
cordant with the Transsylvanian Campt. Nilssoni. Perhaps the
Pilsjé species shows transitions to Dictyophyllum rugosum, and D.
Leckenbyi may be admitted as a distinct species under the name of
D. polymorphum.

The nerves of Nilssonia polymorpha are invariably simple, and the
lamina covers completely the upper side of the rhachis. In all the
FPiterophylla, from the Trias up to the Cretaceous, the segments are
laterally attached to the rhachis, not covering it completely, and a
certain number of nerves at the base are dichotomous; good dis-
tinctive generic characters. There are, however, transitional forms,
such as Pterozamites Blasti, Braun. Cycadites longifolius, somewhat
reminding us of the Chinese Zaxites spathulatus, Newb., may possibly
be a Conifer. The least frequent variety of Podozamites distans
is the typical form, genuina. Podozamites ovalis, Nath., may be a
variety of Podoz. distans. The Strobili of Schizolepis are generally
so much worn by rolling that the division of the scales is indis-
tinguishable.

3. Fossil Plants from Eastern Siberia.—By Dr. St. T. ScHMALHAUSEN.
(Imp. Geol. Inst. Vienna, Meeting of January 23, 1877. )

In 1878, Mr. Lopatin, a Russian Mining Engineer, discovered,
among the pebbles of the River Ogux (an affluent of the Yenisei),
impressions and casts of plants in fragments of sandstone. The
species, as far as they can be ascertained, are :

Bornia radiata (Brong.). Lepidodendron Wiikianum, O. Heer.
Filicites Ogurensis, Schmalh. Lepidostrobus gracilis, Schmalh.
Lepidodendron Veltheinianum, St. Knorria, sp.
_ Bergeria regularis, Schmalh. Cyclostigma Kiltorkense, Haught.
an alternans, Schmalh. | Stigmaria jicotdes, St.

The presence of Cyclostigma Kiltorkense proves these remains to
have belonged to the Lower Carboniferous.

4, On the Permian Plants of Fiinfkirchen, Hungary.—By Prof.
O. Hurr.
(Imp. Geol. Inst. Vienna, Meeting of January 23, 1877.)

The species found in this locality are:

Baiera digitata (Brong.) Carpolithes Hunnicus, Heer.
Ulmannia Geiniteii, Heer. 59 foveolatus, Heer.
Voltzia Hungarica, Heer. 3 Hiselianus (Gein.).
», Boeckiana, Heer. . libocedroides, Heer.
Schizolepis permiensis, Heer. op Geinitzvi, Heer.

Carpolithes Klockeanus (Gein.).

They occur in shales, intercalated between brownish, yellowish-
erey, and occasionally red sandstones, beneath coarse Triassic quartz-

Notices of Memoirs—Notes on Fossil Plants. 323

conglomerates, at the base of the variegated sandstones with
Myophoria costata, being a part of the lower horizon of the
Fiinfkirchen shelly limestones. Nearly one-half of these species
are found in the Copper-shales of the Saxon and Franconian
“Zechstein.” Ulimannia Geinitzi and its congener U. Brauni are
characteristic Dyasic (Permian) forms. The specimens of Voltzia
Hungarica, Hr., are identical with Palissya Brawn in the form and
the distichous arrangement of their leaves, and in the form of their
branches, and would find a better place in this genus; the forms
generally ranked among Volizia having no median nerve, and the
arrangement of their leaves being polystichous. The scales of
strobili, possibly not connected with the branches found here, stand
very near those of Voltzia.

5. On the Upper Tertiary Plants of Sicily.—By Dr. H. Tu. Gym.
(Imp. Geol. Instit. Vienna, Meeting of March 6, 1877.)

These plants, together with fossil Insects, have only been found
in the lacustrine gypsum and sulphur-bearing beds of the hill range
of Cannatone, north of Racalmuto and Grotte, in the Province of
Girgenti. The species, denoting an earliest Pliocene origin, repre-
sent the genera Xylomites, Furcellaria, Algacites (?), Pinus, Phrag-
mites, Poacites, Potamogeton, Palmacites, Myrica, Alnus, Quercus,
Cimamomum, Laurus (?), Uiospyros (?), Celamstrus (?), Berchemia,
Juglans, Cesalpinia (?), Robina (?), and Acacia (?). Several of
them are identical with those from the Tertiaries of Giningen.

6. On the Arctic Fossil Plants. By D. Srur.
(Imp. Geol. Instit. Vienna, Meeting of March 6th, 1877.)

Professor Oswald Heer has lately published the fourth volume of
his classic “‘ Flora fossilis arctica,” in which he treats of the follow-
ing localities :—

A. Ropert VaLLey, Reszarcu Bay, 77° 33’ N. Lat., explored by
Prof. Nordenskidld. The species collected there are—Sphenopteris
frigida (compare Sph. bifida, Lindl.), Sph. geniculata, Germ. (Sph.
sub-geniculata Stur (from the “ Culm”), fleabilis, Heer, Sph. distans,
Stb. (an exclusively “Culmian” form), Adiantites concinnus, Goepp.
(Ad. tennifolius, Goepp., from the “ Culm”), Ad. bellidulus, Heer
(compare Ad. oblongifolius, Goepp., “ Culm”), Staphylopteris, sp.
(Indusia only found in the “Culm”), Lycopodites filiformis, Heer,
Lepidodendron Sternbergi, Brong. (Lep. Veltheimianum, St., Gein.), Lep.
selaginoides, St., Lepidophyllum caricinum, Heer, Stigmaria Lindleyana,
Heer (Stigm. inequalis, Goepp.), Sphenophyllum longifolium (?),
Germ., Sphenoph, bifidum, Heer, Sphenoph. subtile (compare Sphenoph.
tenerrimum, Hitt. sp., “Culm ”’), Rhynchogonium crassirostre Heer, Rh.
costatum, Heer, Rh. macilentum, Heer, 2h. globosum, Heer, Cordaites
palmeformis (Goepp.), Cord. borassifolius (St.), C. principalis (Germ.),
Walchia linearifolia, Goepp. (compare W. antecedens, Stur), Sama-
ropsis Spitzbergensis, Heer, and Carpolithes nitidulus, Heer. According
to Professor Heer, this Flora is Middle Carboniferous ; the Calamites,
Annularie, Asterophyllites, Neuropteride and Pecopteride, wanting in
the above list of species, may have been overlooked by the collector.

324 Notices of Memoirs—Distribution of Cephalopoda.

Mr. Stur remarks that many of the above-named plants belong to
the “Culm” series, or have, at least, very nearly related representa-
tives in this horizon. The genuine Sphenopteris distans is a
characteristic form of the “Culm.”

B. Care Boupman. The sandstone and carbonaceous beds of
this locality, formerly thought to be Tertiary, have proved to be
Jurassic (“ Brown Jura”; ‘“ Bathonian” of the French geologists).
Ten of the thirty-two species composing this flora are known to
exist in other Jurassic localities. ‘The most remarkable forms are
Podozamites lanceolatus (Lindley), and Ginko digitata (Brong.).

C. Care Sraratcutn. A total of 19 species of Cretaceous forms.

D. Care Lyxenn, Scorr Gracier, and Capz Husr, explored by
Prof. Nordenskiéld. All these localities together yield 71 species
of Miocene plants. The specimens from Cape Lyell are beautifully
preserved, those of the two other localities are not in nearly so good
a state.

E. East Sreerta and Amoor Provinces, explored by MM. Schmidt
and Glehn. The fossil plants of these regions are of the highest
interest for the study of the Jurassic Flora. The species are :—

From Hast Siberia, Government Irkutsk ;

Thyrsopteris Murrayana (Brong.) Baiera Czekanowskiana, Hy.
——— Maakiana, Hr. Ginko Schmidtiana, Hy.
Dicksonia clavipes, Hr. ——. Sidirica, Hr.
Asplenium (Diplazium) Whitbiense ——— lepida, Hr.

(Brong.) Czekanowskia setacea, Hr.

> var. ——__ rigida, Hr.

tenuis, Hr. Leptostrobus laxifiora, Hr.
Lycopodites tenerrimus, Hy. Samaropsis rotundata, Hr.
Phyllotheca Sibirica, Hr. ——_ caudata, Br.
Phe wicopsis angustifolia, Hr. ——— parvula, Hr.
Baiera longifolia (Brong.) Kaidacarpum Sibirieum, Hr.

Amoor Province :

Anomozamites Schmidtii, Hr. Thyrsopteris prisca, Hichw.
Podozamites Eichwaldi, Sch. Dicksonia Saportana, Hr.
Phenicopsis speciosa, Hr. —— acutiloba, Hr.

Czekanowskia setacea, Hr. Asplenium spectabile, Hr.

|
These Flore, like the scanty one of the Islet of Andoé on the
West coast of Norway (only eight species), are characteristic of the

Middle Brown Jura (Bathonian).

I11.—Tue Disrrreution oF CEPHALOPODA IN THE UPPER CRETACEOUS
Series or North Germany. By Herr C. Scuxtirer.
(Imp. Geol. Instit. Vienna, Meeting January 23, 1877.)
A. Lower Pliner (Cenomanian, d’Orb.).

1. Zone of Pecten asper, and Catopygus carinatus.
2. Zone of Ammonites varians and Hemipneustes Guepenkerli.
3. Zone of Ammonites Rhotomagensis and Holaster subglobosus.

B. Upper Planer (Turonian, d’Orb.).

. Lone of Actinoceras plenum.

Zone of Ammon. nodosoides and Inoceramus labiatus.
Zone of Ammon. Woolgari and Inoe. Brongniarti.

Zone of Heteroceras Reussianum and Spondylus spinosus.
Zone of Inoceramus Cuviert and Epiaster brevis.

oR ONE

Notices of Memoirs—Distribution of Cephalopoda.

CS
[)
Or

C. Embser (analogous to the Alpine “ Gosau’’).
Zone of Ammonites Marge and Inoe. digitatus.
D. Lower Senonian.

1, Sandy Marls of Recklinghausen, with Muarsupites ornatus.
2. Quartzose beds of Haltern, with Pecten muricatus.
3. Calcareous sandy beds of Dulmen, with Scaphites binodosus.

E. Upper Senonian (Cceloptychian Chalk).

1. Zone of Becksia Sekelandi.
2. Zone of Ammonites Cesfeldensis.
3. Zone of Ammon. Wittekindi and Heroceras polyplocum,

Count M.

IV.—Tue Foop or a Srperran Ruarnoceros.
(Imp. Geol. Instit. Vienna, January 23, 1877.)

Dr. St. J. Schmalhausen has microscopically examined the
remnants of food contained in the cavities of the teeth of a North-
Siberian Rhinoceros (Rh. antiquitatis) whose remains are preserved
in the museum of Irkutsk. These are remnants mostly of leaves,
and of some stems, chiefly monocotyledonous. ‘There are fragments
of grasses, and of small twigs of some woody plants, such as Picea
(obovata ?), Abies (Siberica ?), Larix (Siberica ?), Ephedra, sp., Salix,
sp. (prevalent), and Betula ( fructicosa?). All these plants still
exist in high northern latitudes, and confirm Brandt’s supposition,
that the Pachyderms of North Siberia lived in the regions where
their remains,‘ partly preserved by frost, are now found.—Count M.

V.—Tue Species or Masropon In HUROPE.

Herr M. Vacek stated at the meeting of the Imp. Geol. Instit.
Vienna, February 6, 1877, that of the seven species of Mastodon
known to exist in the European Tertiaries, five have been ascertained
to have lived within the region of the Austro-Hungarian empire.
These are Mast. Borsoni, Mast. tapiroides, Mast. angustidens, Mast.
longirostris, and Mast. Arvernensis.

VI.—Own an Ossirerous Cave in Tourineta. By Dr. K. Tu. Lress.
(Imp. Geol. Instit. Vienna, February 20, 1877.)

A small Bone Cave was discovered late in the autumn of 1874,
in the Linden Valley, South of Gera in East Thuringia. The
animals whose remains are found in this cave (probably a Hyzena-
den, of rare occurrence in Germany), arranged according to their
relative frequency, are, Equus fossilis, Hyena spelea (nearly all the
bones broken and evidently gnawn), Rhinoceros tichorhinus, Bos
primigenius, Ursus speleus, Felis spelea, Cervus elaphus, Cerv. alces,
Cerv. tarandus, HElephas primigenius, Alakdaga geranus, Vulpes
vulgaris, Canis, sp., Arctomys marmotia, Arvicola gregalis, Mus
rattus, Cervus capreolus, Mustela, sp., Lepus, sp., Tetrao tetrix,
Pandion haliaétus, and Charadrius, sp. The presence of Alakdaga (a
species of Gerboa), now living in the Steppes of extreme Hast
Hurope, and of Arvicola gregalis, an inhabitant of high Northern
latitudes in Europe and Asia, are specially worthy of notice. The

326 Reviews— Foraminifera of Belgium.

remains of these two species have also been found by Dr. Wehring
near Westeregelt, associated with those of Rhinoceros, Horse,
Marmot, Lemming, ete.

Split bones, worked fragments of horns, and flint implements
were also found in this cave. The dolomitie detritus, heaped in
form of a terrace before the cave, is full of bone splinters and broken
antlers of Reindeer, without any traces of having been gnawed by
Hyenas.—Counr M.

RAV Le wSsS-.

I.—Tue Foramixirera or THE Piiocenr Bens or Bexcium. By
BH. Vanpen Broreck and H. Mitier. Part I. Gzxonocicar
AND PALMONTOLOGICAL SKETCH OF THE PLIOCENE DEPOSITS OF
THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF ANTWERP. By EH. Vanpen Brorck.
Fasc. i. THe Lower Antwere Sanps. pp. 101. 8vo.
(Brussels. )

HIS important contribution to Belgian geology is endorsed

“ Extracted from the Annals of the Malacological Society of

Belgium, vol. ix. 1874,” but was published separately late in 1876.

It forms the first instalment of a series of publications in course of

preparation, constituting a monograph of the Belgian Pliocene Fora-
minifera. ‘The second instalment is on the eve of publication.

The chief points to which the author draws attention in the
portion before us are:—1lst. The conditions under which the Pliocene
deposits of W. Europe were formed; and 2nd. The alterations which
those deposits have subsequently undergone.

The Miocene Period is unrepresented in the Anglo-Belgian area
by any deposit; the subsidence of that area initiating the Pliocene
Epoch. The gulf thus formed was partly occupied by mollusca,
etc., migrating from the Vienna Miocene Basin (then beginning to
shallow) through Silesia and N.W. Germany.

The earliest deposit is characterized by Panopea Menardi; it is a
slightly clayey sand, of a dark olive-green colour from the abundance
of glauconite grains. The fauna denotes water of 100 to 200 feet in
depth, about two-thirds being Gasteropods. Partly synchronous
with the later beds of this zone are sands characterized by Pectun-
culus pilosus, equally glauconitic but less clayey, and with a littoral
fauna, two-thirds of which are Lamellibranchs. Of slightly later
date are the Gravelly Sands of Diest and Antwerp, completing the
Lower Sands of Antwerp, which have no British equivalent except
the traces of questionable age on the Kentish Downs. The synonymy
of this part of the series is treated at considerable length by the
author, resulting in the following condensed statement :—

Lower ANTWERP Sanps.
Diestian System: Dumont, 1839; Dujardin, 1862; Dewalque, 1868.
Lower or Black Crag: Lyell, 1852; Dewael, 1853.
Diestian Sands: Dewalque, 1868; Mourlon, 1873; Cogels, 1874.
Llack Antwerp and Hdeghem Sands: Omalius d’Halloy, 1862.

Reviews— Foraminifera of Belgium. 327

The synonymy of the sub-divisions is as follows:

Panopea Menardi Sanvs: (Black) Edeghem Sands.

Pectunculus pilosus Sanps: Shelly glauconitic Sands, Dumont and
Dewael; Black Sands of Fort Herenthals, Nyst, 1843; Black or
Lower Antwerp Crag, Lyell and Dewael; Black Antwerp
Sands, Omalius d’Halloy, Dujardin, and Mourlon.

GRAVELLY SANDS OF ANTWERP AND Dtmst.

Green Sand, Dujardin, Mourlon, and Cogels; Diestian System,
Glauconitic Diestian Sand. Ferruginous Sand and Grit, Dumont;
Diest Sands, Omalius d’Halloy, d’Archiac, Lyell, Dewalque,
and Mourlon.

Throughout the formation of this series subsidence was going on
to the N.W. and emergence to the S.E., so that each zone overlaps
the N.W. edge of its predecessor, but does not reach its 8.E. border.

The Middle and Upper Antwerp Sands (corresponding to the
English Coralline and Red Crags respectively) follow, and will be
described in a future memoir.

As against the placing of the. Lower Sands in the Miocene or
terming them Diestian, it is urged that the break between the
Oligocene or L. Miocene and the Lower Sands is greater than any
break in the whole Antwerp Series, and the principal break in
the latter is between the Middle and Upper divisions, both ad-
mittedly Pliocene (Scaldisian).!

Lists of fossils of the Lower Sands are given, relative abundance,
range, etc., being shown. With a caution as to the effect of bathymetric
differences and the incompleteness of our knowledge of the existing
fauna, the relative numbers of extinct and recent species are stated
to be as follows: Panopea Menardi zone 44 per cent. recent;
Pectunculus pilosus zone 51 per cent. recent, or on the average 47
per cent. for the whole. 47 per cent. occur in the English Coralline
Crag, and 51 per cent. in the English Crags generally.

The Lower Sands range from N. France into Holland and N.W.
Germany, but there is no evidence that they ever extended into
England, as the pebbles of rock of that age in the Basement Beds
of the Coralline and Red Crags may have been derived from the
Belgian area. Traces of the Gravelly Sands occur on the Kentish
Downs (these are regarded by Mr. Whitaker as probably Hocene, see
Mem. London Basin, p. 336).

Hrrors have arisen from the alteration of the glauconite in these
beds, and from the removal of the shells by percolating waters, an
important discovery made independently by English and Belgian
observers in 1876. The shells are first rendered friable and then
completely removed by carbonated waters (occasionally leaving
impressions and casts), whilst the glauconite is decomposed first into
pale-green protoxide, and finally into deep red-brown. peroxide of

1 A trivial objection is made to the use of the term Black Crag, that the deposit is
unrepresented in England, and is therefore not Crag. But by use and wont “‘ Crag”
is all but synonymous with Pliocene, and similar exception might be taken in every
case where a foreign series bears the name of its less-developed British equivalent.

328 Reviews—Dana’s Mineralogy.

iron.t’ The altered portions are sometimes separated by a sharp line
from, at other times graduate imperceptibly into, the unaltered. The
unfossiliferous ferruginous or pale-green part of such beds has not
seldom been separated from the unaltered part as a posterior forma-
tion, whilst the irregularity of the line of junction (due to varying
porosity or to the presence of protecting beds of clay), has been
described as proof of unconformity between the two series. W.H.D.

I].—A Text-Boox or Minreraoey, with AN EXtTenpeD TREATISE
ON CRYSTALLOGRAPHY AND Puysican Minuratocy. By Epwarp
S. Dana. On the Plan and with the Co-operation of Prof. Jamzs
D. Daya. With upwards of 800 Woodcuts and one Coloured
Plate. 8vo. pp. 485. (New York, John Wiley & Sons;
London, Trtibner & Co., 1877).
MONG the various writers who have contributed systematic
works, text-books and guides, to the science of Mineralogy,
no author so richly deserves the thanks of English students of this
branch of study as Professor James D. Dana, of Yale College, New-
haven, Ct., U.S.A., the father of Mr. Edward S. Dana, the editor and
part author of the volume before us. When it is borne in mind that
the first. edition of “‘A System of Mineralogy,” by James D. Dana,
appeared as long ago as the year 1837, and that the fifth and last
edition appeared in 1868, it will, we think, be readily conceded that
we owe to Prof. Dana a vast obligation for his valuable services to
mineralogical science. Nor have these several editions been, as is too
often the case, merely reprints slightly modified and corrected ; but
in great part they have been re-written and largely increased in extent
of contents ; so much was this the case that in the 1868 edition it
was found necessary to greatly abbreviate the introductory chapters
on chemical and determinative mineralogy, the great feature of the
fifth edition being the descriptive portion, which still remains un-
equalled by any work on this subject in the English language.
The great demand for Dana’s System of Mineralogy led its author to
undertake, in 1868, the preparation of a “'Text-Book of Mineralogy”;
but the state of Prof. Dana’s health however early compelled him to
relinquish the work. and he was not able subsequently to resume it.

Finally, after the lapse of seven years, the editorship of the volume
was placed in the hands of Prof. Dana’s son, Mr. Edward Salisbury
Dana, who has with great care endeavoured to carry out his father’s
original plan.

The work has been arranged with a view to meet the requirements
of class instruction. With this object in view the descriptive part
has been made subordinate to the more important subjects embraced
under Physical Mineralogy. Thus the Text-Book now issued forms
a companion volume to the fifth edition of the System of Mineralogy
published in 1868, rather than as superseding it.

The Crystallography is presented after the methods of Naumann ;

1 The Red Crag of Suffolk and the yellow flagstones of the Carboniferous Rocks

are, in certain cases of protection from oxidation of their contained iron, of a greyish-
blue colour.

9

Reports and Proceedings. 329

his system being most easily understood by beginners, and most
convenient for giving a general knowledge of the principles of the
science.

For use in calculations it is, however, much less satisfactory than
the method of Miller, and a concise exposition of Miller’s system
has therefore been added in Appendix “ A.”

The chapter on the physical characters of minerals has been
expanded to a considerable length, especially as regards their optical
properties, but not more so than was absolutely necessary in order
to make clearly intelligible the practical application of the principles
of optics to the study of crystals.

The descriptive part, which, as already stated, has been made
subordinate to that of physical mineralogy, is identical in general
arrangement with that of Dana’s “System of Mineralogy,” ey which
reference must still be made for fuller descriptions of many un-
certain species and varieties with descriptions of localities and
methods of occurrence.

A large part of the figures are reproduced from Dana’s System of
Mineralogy ; ; but 200 are new to this work, and greatly enhance its
interest and usefulness to the student.

The chemical formule given in the 5th edition of the System of
Mineralogy are only in part those of modern chemistry, but those
of the present work are uniformly in modern notation.

Jn addition to Appendix “A,” treating of Miller’s Crystallography,
we have in Appendix “B” a most important chapter on the draw-
ing of figures of crystals, and “OC,” a series of Tables to be used
in the determination of minerals, whilst ““D” is a Catalogue of
American localities of minerals essentially the same as that con-
tained in the last edition of the “System,” but with considerable
additions derived from various printed sources and from private
communications.

The book is one which reflects great credit on its authors, and
cannot fail to prove a most acceptable addition to our series of
higher text-books, for which no doubt there will be as great a
demand as for the several editions of Dana’s System of Mineralogy.

i):

IRTP POS! /AANMD) AzISJ{OC ra AIDIAN ets)

———E

GrotocicaL Society or Lonpoy.—lI.—May 23, 1877.—Professor
P. Martin Duncan, M.B., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The President read a letter from C. J. Lambert, Esq., announcing
that his father, the late C. Lambert, Esq., F.G.S., had left by will
the sum of £25,000 to be distributed in gratuities to persons in his
employ, and in gifts to scientific societies. The distribution of this
amount was left to the judgment of Mr. C. J. Lambert, who allotted
the sum of £500 to the Geological Society. The President further
announced that the sum of £500 had already been paid to the
Society, and would be invested for its benefit.

The President also announced that a letter had been received from

330 Reports and Proceedings—

Count Gaston de Saporta, F.C.G.S., expressing the hope that Fellows
of the Society would attend the meeting of the French Association
for the Advancement of Science, which will be held in August next
in Havre. Count de Saporta stated that any Fellows attending the
Meeting will be exceedingly welcome, and that any who will send
word previously of their intention to come will meet with a most
cordial reception. In connexion with this it was further announced
that, according to a circular from the Geological Society of Normandy,
that Society proposes, during the meeting of the Association, to hold
a Geological Exposition, intended as preliminary to that to be held
in Paris next year, and that it invites co-operation.

The following communications were read ;—

1. “Remarks on the Coal-bearing Deposits near Erekli, the
ancient Heraclea, Pontus-Bithynia.” By Rear-Admiral T. A. B.
Spratt, C.B., F.R.S., F.G.S.

In this paper the author described the occurrence of true Coal-
measures near Erekli, on the north coast of Asia Minor, from
observations made by him when on service in the Black Sea in 1854.
The coal was obtained near Kosloo, about 30 miles east of Erekli,
where it cropped out on the sides of a valley, and was worked by
horizontal drifts. The district was much disturbed by faults, and
the workings could only be driven from 100 to 400 yards into the
hill. In the eastern ridge bounding the valley of Kosloo there were
11 or 12 seams of coal of different thicknesses in a distance from
N. to 8. of about 2 miles, one of them being about 18 feet thick,
and the best coal forming a seam of 4 ft. 10in. The seams dipped
S.H. about 26°. They were interstratified with shales, sandstones,
and conglomerates of quartz-pebbles, and occasionally with thin
bands of clay and ironstone. From some of the seams the author
obtained fossil remains of plants, which sufficiently prove that these
coals belong to the Carboniferous period. ‘They include, according
to Mr. Etheridge, species of Lepidodendron, Lepidostrobus, Calamites,
Pecopteris, Sphenopteris, Neuropteris (?), Sigillaria, Stigmaria, Glos-
sopteris (?), and Sphenophyllum. The author also noticed several
other localities in the immediate neighbourhood where coal was
known to exist under somewhat similar conditions. He also referred
to the geology of Erekl itself, and noticed especially the occurrence
of patches of more or less altered shales and marls, probably of
middle Tertiary age, overlying the igneous rocks of which the
country consists.

2. “On the Structure and Affinities of the Genus Siphonia.” By
W. J. Sollas, Esq., B.A., F.G.S.

This paper contained, first, a full account of the history of the
genus Siphonia, including a complete list of its described species,
and, next, a description of its general and minute structure. Its
skeletal network was shown to consist of spicular elements belonging
to the Lithistid type of sponges, and most closely allied in generic
details to the recent form Discodermia polydiscus. Not only in this
character but in every other, Siphonia was shown to approach Disco-
devia so closely as to be almost identical with it.

Geological Society of London. B31

The mineral replacements which have affected the siliceous
skeleton of Siphonia were then considered: in specimens preserved
in phosphate of lime from the Gault of Folkestone the spicules
have undergone a replacement by calcic carbonate, while those from
the greensand of Haldon and other localities still possess a siliceous
composition, though the interior of the spicules has been dissolved
away so as to enlarge the axial quadriradiate canal to a surprising
extent; and the silica so dissolved has been re-deposited on the
exterior of the spicule, so as to fill up the interstices of the net-
work, and in some cases the cavities of the canal system of the
sponge. ‘Thus, to some slight extent, these specimens may be said
to have fossilized themselves.

Choanites was shown to be the deep-sea form of Siphonia, the
latter characterizing Greensand deposits, which were laid down
in depths corresponding to those in which existing Lithistids now
flourish, while the former is characteristic of the chalk which was
deposited in a deeper sea.

The paper concluded with a systematic description of the genus.

3. “On the Serpentine and Associated Rocks of the Lizard. Dis-
trict.” By Rev. T. G. Bonney, M.A., F.G.S., Fellow and late Tutor
of St. John’s College, Cambridge.

The author stated that considerable doubt appeared still to exist
as to the true relations of the Lizard serpentine and the associated
hornblende schists; and as to the origin of the serpentine. He had
carefully examined all the junctions accessible on the Cornish coast
(inland they are generally obscured). Some of them are concealed
by débris, ete.; but the majority prove beyond doubt that the ser-
pentine is intrusive. Further, almost everywhere large fragments
of hornblende schist are caught up and included in the serpentine.

Besides the serpentine there is a large mass of gabbro at Crousa
Down, and many dykes and veins along the east coast almost to
the extremity of the serpentine region. At Coverack Cove, near
the above mass, are gabbros of two ages. the older much resembling
a kind of troktolite. On microscopic examination it proves to be
chiefly plagioclase felspar, augitic minerals (including diallage),
and olivine partially converted into serpentine. There is a red and
a green variety. ‘The newer, a coarser variety, appears to be of the
same age as the other veins on the coast, and connected with the
main mass. Some remarkable changes have taken place in this
also. In certain places it exhibits a separation of its mineral con-
stituents, causing it to resemble a foliated rock. This is proved to
be due to pressure at right angles te the structure. The minerals
also are often changed. The felspar is replaced by a white granular
mineral resembling saussurite; the diallage (which occurs some-
times in very large crystals) is often partially, or even wholly,
converted into rather minute crystalline hornblende. In these
specimens there is no olivine to be distinguished. The great mass,
however, is rich in olivine, yet a weathered specimen from it,
resembling in aspect the gabbro of the veins, does not show olivine.
Hence the author believes that in certain cases the olivine, instead

302 Reports and Proceedings—

of being converted into serpentine, aids in forming the hornblende.
Further, there are dykes and veins over the same area of a dark
trap. Some of these are augitic, others hornblendic. The author
believes that at any rate in certain of these the hornblende is of
secondary formation. On the west coast are veins of granite; those
on the east coast, said to be granite, prove, on careful examination,
to be altered rock, remarkably like granite veins, but not really such.

In discussing the origin of the serpentine, the author called atten-
tion to a structure commonly seen, which appeared to be a true
“fluidal structure.” He then described the result of microscopic
examination of many specimens of the Lizard and some other ser-
pentines. Commencing with slightly altered Lherzolite (from the
Ariége), he traced the change through the older gabbro of Coverack
to the serpentine rock of that place, which contains a large quantity
of unaltered olivine; and so to other serpentines in which the
olivine is quite replaced by the mineral serpentine. He described
also the mode of the change. The other minerals found in the
serpentine rock are enstatite, varieties of augite, and occasionally a
fair quantity of picotite, with, of course, oxides of iron. Hence he
concluded that, as had been already shown as regards some other
serpentines, that of the Lizard was the result of the hydrous altera-

_tion of an olivine rock, such as Lherzolite.

4. “On certain ancient Devitrified Pitchstones and Perlites from
the Lower Silurian District of Shropshire.” By 8. Allport, Esq.,
IGS.

In this paper the author described a series of ancient vitreous and
semivitreous lavas, with their associated agglomerates and ashes,
constituting the ridge of Ercal Hill, Lawrence Hill, and the Wrekin,
and the low ridge parallel to this to the west, both of which are
marked as “greenstone” on the Geological Survey Map. Their
composition and structure show them to have been originally
identical with some of the glassy volcanic rocks ejected during the
most recent geological periods. After noticing the geological rela-
tions of these rocks, the author described the structure of modern
perlitic and spherulitic rocks, and pointed out that the spheroidal
balls which characterize them are produced by a process of more or
less concentric cracking during the contraction of the mass after
it has been solidified. He then indicated the characters of the
ancient rocks of the Lower Silurian district of Shropshire, and
showed their identity of structure with the modern spherulitic
pitchstones and perlites; he also noticed that in some instances they
had become devitrified. As the result of his investigation, he says
that the structure of these rocks proves their original vitreous
condition; for the perlitic and spherulitic formations, with their
associated microliths, are only observed in connexion with the
obsidian or pitchstone varieties of volcanic glass; and that in the
older as in the younger series there is the same gradation between
the vitreous and stony varieties.

IT.—June 6th, 1877.—Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.-B.,. F.R.S.,
President, in the Chair. —The following communications were read :—

Geological Society of London. 393

1. “On the Rank and Affinities in the Reptilian Class of the
Mosasauride, Gervais.” By Prof. R. Owen, C.B., F.R.S., F.G.S.

The author stated that while the Mosasaurians had been originally
referred to the Cetacea by Camper, then to Crocodilia by Faujas de
St. Fond, and to the Lacertilia by Cuvier, Prof. Cope had recently
thought he recognized in them Ophidian affinities, spoken of them as
“‘sea-serpents,” and formed of them an order called Pythonomorpha.
He then discussed in detail the various characters presented by the
remains of these animals, and arrived at the following conclusions :
In the single occipital condyle and the composite structure of the
mandible the Mosasaurians are Reptilian, as also in their procoelian
vertebree ; in the double occipital hypapophyses, the bifurcate and
perforate parietal, the presence of the “columella,” the composite
formation of the suspensory joint of the tympanic and in the type of
the tympanic, the frame of the parial nostrils and the structure and
attachment of the teeth, they are Lacertian. In one special dental
modification they are Iguanian, in another Monitorial, and their
special group characters consist in the more extensive fixation of the
pterygoids and ossification of the roof of the mouth, the large pro-
portion of the vertebral column devoid of zygapophyses, the con-
fluence of the hremal arch with the centrum in certain of the caudal
vertebre, and the natatory character of the fore and hind limbs.
These distinctive characters did not appear to the author to be
sufficient for ordinal rank, and with P. Gervais he regarded the
Mosasauridee as a family of Lacertilia equivalent to the Iguanodon-
tides and Megalosauridee in the order Dinosauria. The order
Lacertilia among Reptiles, being equivalent to the order Carnivora
or Ferze among Mammals, the Mosasaurians would be the equivalents
of the Seals in the latter.
_ 2. “Note on the Occurrence of the Remains of Hyenarctos in the.
Red Crag of Suffolk.’ By Prof.Wm. Henry Flower, F.R.S., F.G.S.

The traces of Hyenarctos described by the author in this paper
consist of a right and a left first upper molar, which were obtained
from the Red Crag of Waldringfield, and are so much alike, that
but for the former being rather more worn they might have belonged
to the same animal. On comparison these teeth were found to show
no appreciable difference from the corresponding teeth of the original
specimen of Hyanarctos sivalensis from the Sewalik Hills, and
hence the author did not venture to regard them as representing a
species distinct from the Indian one. The author discussed the
synonymy of this species, which was first described by Falconer and
Cautley, in 1856, under the name of Ursus sivalensis. The genus
Agriotherium was established for it by Wagner in 1887, and the
names Amphiarctos and Sivalarctos were given to the genus by
Blainville in 1841; but Falconer and Cautley’s name Hyanarctos,
although certaimly of later date, has been generally adopted. Re-
mains of the genus have been found in the Pliocene marine sands
of Montpellier (7. insignis, Gerv.), and in Miocene beds at Sansang
(H. hemicyon), and at Alcoy, in Spain. A nearly perfect mandible
of H. sivalensis has recently been obtained in its original locality by
Mr. Theobald.

dot Reports and Proceedings.

3. “On the Remains of Hypsodon, Portheus, and Ichthyodectes
from British Cretaceous strata, with descriptions of new species.”
By E. Tulley Newton, Esq., F'.G.S., of H.M. Geological Survey.

Hypsodon lewesiensis, as established by Agassiz in the “ Poissons
Fossiles,” it appears, includes two forms which are generically
distinct, and the author felt justified in adopting Prof. Cope’s sug-
gestion for their separation. It is proposed to retain the above
name for the specimen upon which the genus and species was really
founded, and to refer to the genus Portheus (Cope), the upper jaw,
with large irregular teeth, which had already been described by
Dr. Mantell in 1822 as ‘an unknown fish.” To this the specific
name of P. Mantellii is to be given. Another maxillary bone from
the Lower Chalk, characterized by its greater proportionate depth,
and the convexity of its dentary border, as well as by the more
equal size of its teeth, it is proposed to name P. Daviesii.

A very fine specimen from the Gault belonging to this same
genus was described in detail. This fish is closely allied to P. lestris
(Cope), but differs in the form of its maxilla and premaxilla, and is
chiefly remarkable for the peculiar incurving of the points of the
mandibular teeth. The parts of this specimen which are preserved
are—botb upper and lower jaws, parts of the palato-quadrate arch,
of the hyoid bones, ethmoidal region, brain case, etc. Portheus
gaultinus is the name suggested for this species.

Hypsodon minor (Egerton), figured in Dixon’s “ Fossils of Sussex,”
will now, it is thought, on account of the regularity of its teeth,
have to be placed in the genus Ichthyodectes (Cope).

Another small mandible from the Lower Chalk of Dorking, which
is distinguished by the regularity of its slender, incurved, and
oblique teeth, it is proposed to call Ichkthyodectes elegans.

4, “On the Precarboniferous Rocks of Charnwood Forest.” Part I.
By Rev. E. Hill, M.A., F.G.S., and Rev. T. G. Bonney, M.A., F.G.S.

The authors described a mass of slates, grits, and volcanic brec-
cias, accompanied by some knolls and dykes of Syenite, spread over
a space of about 50 square miles. They showed that the patches
marked on the Survey Map as Greenstone of Bardon, Birchwood,
and Buck Hill, except a very small portion of the latter, are really
altered rock; that the Syenite knoll of Bawdon Castle carries a mass
of breccia in its centre ; and that the area of the Syenite in Bradgate
House Woods must be enlarged.

Several writers have noticed that part of the porphyritic region of
the north-west corner is altered rock. The authors showed that
there isin it no igneous rock at all, and that the same is the case
with every one of the smaller patches marked as porphyry on the
Survey Map. All are volcanic breccias, ashes, or agglomerates,
some of enormous size. The extent to which volcanic materials
enter into the rocks of the district is remarkable.

The authors endeavoured to correlate the stratified rocks, and
adduced evidence to prove that the pebble and ash-beds of Forest
Gate, the grit and pebble-beds of the Hanging Rocks, the similar beds
in the grounds of A. Ellis, Esq., at Swithland, and the quartzites of
Bradgate Stable Quarry, Groby Pool, and Steward’s Hay Spring,

Correspondence—Mr. John Gunn. 335

form one horizon; the slate breccias of Blores Hill, Bradgate,
Ulverscroft Mill, Markfield, Bardon, and High Towers, a second ;
the coarse ash-beds of Benscliff, Chitterman Hill, Timberwood Hill,
and the Monastery, a third; and the quartzose rocks of Charley
Wood, Charley, the Old Reservoir, and Blackbrook, a fourth.

Hence they showed that the beds are considerably dislocated near
the Syenites, which removes the main objection which previous
writers have urged against these being intrusive ; and they described
the evidence they have obtained as to this being their real nature.
This evidence included the description of actual contacts of igneous
and sedimentary rock seen at two points in the wood south of
Bradgate House, and at a third in Bradgate Park.

They propose, in a continuation of the paper, to touch upon the
Faults, and to describe in greater detail the microscopic structure of
the rocks.

COREE Ss @iN Esa zeae

—eenes
THE NORFOLK FOREST BED.

Srr,—At your request, I gladly furnish you with all the informa-
tion I can respecting the stools of trees being found, in siti, where
they grew in the Forest-bed on the eastern coast. I have repeatedly
seen them at Happisburgh, and once in the company of Professor
Sedgwick and of Professor Harry Seeley, who, at a meeting of tho
Geological Society in 1876, gave a vivid description of the appear-
ance of the stools of trees, and of the gratification which Professor
Sedgwick expressed on seeing them.

] have also seen them, in s7ti, at Bacton, on a recent excursion of
several of the members of the Norwich Geological Society, by whom
one stool in particular, which grew out of the blue clay of the soil
of the forest, was examined, and ascertained to be rooted in its
native soil.

On the excursion to Cromer of the members of the British Asso-
ciation in 1868, the company assembled on the beach at Overstrand,
at the spot where the stool of a tree stood on the soil of the forest.
Being invited, I endeavoured to explain that the trees grew on the
estuarine soil, in which the bones of the Hlephas meridionalis were
associated with Cetacean remains, after it was raised, above the
surface; and that then the growth of the forest commenced, of which
the Hlephas antiquus was the typical mammal. This stool was dug
up by the direction of Lady Buxton, who placed it, where it now is,
in the Norwich Museum. Mr. Reeve, the Curator, says that one of
the roots was about four feet long, and he was obliged to have it
shortened to get it into its case.

The above mentioned are the principal places where remnants of
the Forest-bed have survived its general destruction and denudation
from Kessingland in Suffolk to Runton in Norfolk beyond Cromer.
The trees were torn up, and together with fossil remains were re-
deposited in the laminated beds above; and hence it is, no doubt,
that so few of the trees, or rather of the roots and stumps, are to be
seen at present 7 sitd, in proportion to the débris. The evidence,

336 Correspondence—Prof. Judd.

however, of the late Samuel Woodward, who may truly be said to
be the Father of Geology in the eastern counties, and whose memory
J honour as my preceptor; of Sir C. Lyell and Mr. Symonds, late of
Cromer; of R. Taylor, author of “The Geology of Hast Norfolk ;” and
of the Rev. Charles Green, author of *‘The Geology of Bacton” (page
69), is so direct that it would be a waste of time to add more. Asa
question has been raised by Mr. Norton as to the validity of the
evidence of Sir C. Lyell, and also of Mr. Symonds, I will mention
an incident which occurred at Cromer in 1862. I had the gratifica-
tion to accompany Sir Charles, together with Sir J. D. Hooker and
the late Mr. King, of Saxlingham Rectory, to the Hotel des Bains at
Cromer ; and in the evening Sir Charles requested Mr. Symonds to
join our party. The conversation turned on the Forest-bed, and Mr.
Symonds mentioned that he had observed Sir Charles to pay particular
attention to the annual rings of growth on the stumps or stools of
the forest. I do not remember the precise place where, or the year
when, this took place; but it is indelibly fixed in my memory that both
Sir Charles and Mr. Symonds said they had seen the stools in siti.

I will mention one corroborative fact, which convinces me that the
trees must have grown on the spot at Happisburgh, namely, the
finding a large quantity of leaves imbedded there in a muddy
ooze. These were seen by Dr. Falconer, by whose advice I had a
large quantity conveyed to Irstead, and they were identified by Dr.
R. H. Nathorst, an eminent Swedish naturalist, as the leaves of two
varieties of willow. They must have fallen from trees which grew
on the spot. The same may be said of the immense quantity of
fir-cones which must have dropped from the trees. Dr. Falconer,
with his characteristic sagacity, picked from the interspaces of the
teeth of the Rhinoceros Htruscus some remnants of coniferous wood,
observing that this showed what the Rhinoceros of the Forest-bed
lived upon. Whether the animals and the trees of the forest lived
and grew upon the spot where their remains are now found, and
whether they are imported from some other unknown regions, live
must leave to the judgment of the dispassionate reader.

10, CarHEDRAL Street, NorwicuH, JOHN GUNN.
» June 11th, 1877.

GEOLOGY AND SCENERY OF NEWFOUNDLAND.

Sir,—When my friend Prof. Milne told me of the unfossiliferous
character and monotonous aspect of the rocks of Newfoundland, the
involuntary “shudder” of which he speaks was occasioned by
feelings of commiseration for the geologist who should have his lot
cast there, and not, as Mr. Murray seems to suppose, from any
opinion concerning the absence of agricultural capabilities or
picturesque features in the country. Since, however, I have had
the opportunity of reading the valuable notes in your last Number,
and studying Mr. Murray’s valuable map, the sentiment of horror
has been replaced by one of pride in the science which can manage
to extract so much of interest even out of the “marshes, thickets,
and swamps” of Newfoundland. Joun W. Jupp.

Royau ScHoou oF Minus, 18¢h June, 1877.

THE

GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE.

NEW SERIESH DECADE IW VOl. Vs

No. VIIL—AUGUST, 1877.

(Susale MENA, YS aloe Saen eS
—
T.—Across HEvrorz anp Asta.—Trave.uine Notes.
By Professor Joun Mine, F.G.S. ;
Imperial College of Engineering, Tokei, Japan.
(Continued from p. 297.)

Part I1.—From St. Petersburg to Perm.
ContEents.—St. Petersburg, its Public Buildings, Museums, Monuments, ete.—
Moscow.—Nijni Novgorod.—River Volga.—River Kama.—Perm.

ATURE has by no means contributed her charms to the adorn-
It ment of St. Petersburg. In fact, it is built upon a marsh, in a
situation so flat that it is not until you have almost landed that you
can see anything of this great city. The only object in choosing
such a site appears in a sentiment of its founder, who wished to
have “a window looking out into Hurope.” In some openings made
in the streets and public gardens, I saw sections of from 15ft. to 20ft.
thick, which gave some idea of the weak foundation on which
certainly a large part of this great northern capital has been placed.
It was all a bluish-grey sand. Beneath this sand I was told there
was a bed of clay. But for this, if I may judge from the weak
foundations which I saw, the look-out of the Russian Czar might by
this time have entirely sunk from view.’ The low situation of St.
Petersburg, together with its marshy surroundings, at certain seasons
gives rise to a mild malaria; and if you visit the city in summer-
time, you will find that all the wealthy inhabitants have, in con-
sequence, migrated towards the sea.

On the day after my arrival I paid a visit to the Government
School of Mines, where there are about 450 students. Before entering,
as at other higher government schools, the candidate must pass an
examination or produce a diploma from one of the Gymnasiums
which exist in nearly all the towns throughout the kingdom. He
then enters upon a five years’ course, paying about 80 roubles (nearly
£5) annually. The system of education is very like that adopted in
many other European Mining Schools, but very different from that
which is followed out in the Government School of England,—many
subjects being taught, and each one spread over a great number of
years. In such a system a student, leaving before the curriculum is
run, does so with a smattering of much, but with no thoroughness

1 Peter the Great, who, after dispossessing the Swedes, in 1702, of this neighbour-

hood, commenced, in the spring of 1708, to build the town, drafting annually 40,000
men from distant parts of the empire for this purpose.

DECADE II.—VYOL, IV,—NO. VIII. 22

338 Prof. Miine—Across Europe and Asia.

in anything. In sucha case, or where it is desired by the student
to become acquainted with only one or two of the many subjects
which are discussed in Mining Schools, the English system, where
one branch after another is successively commenced and ended,
appears to be undoubtedly superior. At any period of his course a
student may retire, and gain a benefit from the instruction he has re-
ceived. Looking at the course of instruction which is appointed in
the St. Petersburg School of Mines, there is an element of theory
which strikingly preponderates. This is apparent not alone in
theoretical subjects, but in those which would of themselves ad-
vantageously admit of practical application. Thus in Mathema-
tics a first-year student must become tolerably master of the
Calculus, but as a Zoologist he must become effete with lectures.
Amongst the long list of subjects which are discussed, there are
several, such as Jurisprudence, Statistics, Political Hconomy and Re-
ligion, which at other schools are only conspicuous by their absence.

The painful way in which some subjects clash is also observable,
—-thus in one chamber the probability of kinship between men and
apes is treated of, whilst in the next chamber such doctrines are
dogmatically exploded. Overlooking these glaring inconsistencies,
the political advantages of an ecclesiastical element in a semi-military
school may perhaps be recognized.

The vacations, which are of about three months’ duration, are spent
in making geological surveys, attending metallurgical and other
practical works. The preliminary training, such as is necessary
for a mining engineer, being completed, the studies take a more
decided form, and the students qualify themselves as geologists,
metallurgists, or in that branch to which they may have devoted
special attention.

Altogether the course is a severe one, as may be judged by making
a comparison between the number of students in each of the five
years. If there are 450 in the first year, about 400 are found com-
petent to pass into the second year, 100 to the third, 60 to the fourth,
whilst to the fifth there will not be more than 18 or 20. It is a hard
gauntlet to run successfully. The course being completed, the student,
before actually taking charge of works, may, if he desire it, proceed
to some government works to further qualify himself, where he will
receive a small salary.

In the School there is a large collection of models and of minerals.
These latter are especially worthy of attention, as presenting, in the
case of minerals peculiar to Russia, specimens which may in many
cases be regarded as unique. A large block of malachite, weighing
29 ewt., said to be the largest ever obtained, at once strikes the
attention. Besides this, I noticed several fine chrysoberyls. One of
the clear ones was nine inches long, and from three to four inches
in thickness. The emeralds and topazes are also conspicuous.

In the basement of the School there is a model of a mine, where the
appearance of lodes, faults, and underground workings of various
deposits are demonstrated in a manner intended to approximate to
reality.

Prof. Milne—Across Europe and Asia. 339

In addition to the jewels which may be seen at the School of
Mines, there are others in various buildings and museums in the
city, all of which are accessible to visitors. At the Winter Palace
I saw the collection of Crown jewels. For size and number the
display of diamonds, emeralds, and sapphires is perhaps unrivalled in
any other court in Europe. A large spinel or ruby in the Imperial
Crown is very conspicuous. The great Orloff diamond, weighing
1943 carats, is also here. It has been suggested by Mr. Tennant
that it once formed part of the same stone as the Koh-i-Noor. Its
_ brilliancy, however, is not so great as might perhaps be anticipated ;
but this may, in part, be due to the form in which it has been cut.

Whilst looking at this rich and varied collection of gems, I was
forcibly struck with the poor manner in which they are displayed.
The rooms are bad, and generally ill lighted; whilst the cases, which
were in accordance, afforded no protection whatever to their con-
tents. By the taking of your hat and passport at the entrance to
the building where these valuables are stored, one could not fail to
remark, that any visitor who wished to make a sudden exodus, either
from the room or from the capital, would be sorely inconvenienced.

In the city numbers of fine buildings meet the eye at every turn.
Many of these, especially the churches and palaces, give some
wonderful examples of modern masonry. The most conspicuous
of these is St. Isaac’s Cathedral. Here there are four porches,
each of which is supported by double rows of tall cylindrical
columns capped by Corinthian capitals. These columns, which
are composed of red granite, are each 60 feet high and 7 feet in
diameter. The steps leading up to these porches, each a single
mass of granite, are equally striking, from their megalithic pro-
portions. Inside the building there are many tall columns of
malachite and several of lapis lazuli. These, however, are only
columns with an external coating of those minerals; nevertheless,
when they are seen, they serve to give an idea of the quality and
quantity of these substances which have been obtained from Russian
mines, and also serve to remind one of the insignificance of the
displays of similar minerals in our own and other countries.

Although many monoliths have been used in the building of this
Cathedral, isolated specimens of stone may be seen which are even
larger. For example, there is the Alexander Column, which is a
single shaft of granite 84 feet in height (originally 102 feet), and
14 feet in diameter. This, standing on a huge pedestal, and with
its crowning capital, both of the same material, presents an ap-
pearance not less imposing than Pompey’s Pillar at Alexandria.
Besides this column, there is a block of granite on which rests an
equestrian statue of Peter the Great, also remarkable for its size.
It is calculated to weigh 1500 tons, and its original dimensions were
45 feet in length, 30 feet in height, and 25 feet in width. Its
dimensions have, however, been somewhat reduced. This block,
and many others which are to be seen in St. Petersburg, oceurred
as erratics in the vicinity of the town, very similar to those which
I have referred to as being so plentifully distributed over Finland.

340 Prof. Milne—Across Europe and Asia.

The scale on which so much of the masonry of this northern city
has been carried out only finds its counterpart in that of ancient
Egypt —massiveness and grandeur are displayed everywhere.

On the 15th of the month, which was Sunday, I visited the
Museum of the Academy of Sciences, my object being to see a
skeleton of the Mammoth, the remains of Rytina Stelleri, and some
skulls of European Beavers.

The first of these, the Mammoth, I found, as I had often seen it
depicted, standing side by side with the skeleton and a stuffed
specimen of its modern representative, the Indian Elephant. In
these pictures it is shown as a large monster with clubbed feet. Its
relations look sensationally small, and the people who are regarding
it still smaller. The clubbed feet are an inexplicable puzzle, and
totally at variance with the rest of its bony framework and the toe-
joints of its neighbours. In reality I did not find the imposing
appearance which I had anticipated from picture studies. The room
in which the skeleton has been placed is one that, if the creature were
alive, it would find it, I believe, impossible to walk out of. It is
neither high nor broad, has a dull gloomy appearance, and is piled
up with many other remains. A lofty clear well-lighted apartment
would greatly help in giving visitors a conception of the magnificent
proportions of this ancient Elephant. As it is, they are presented to
the framework of an animal so reared across a room that its tail
almost touches one wall and its head the other.

On several parts of the skeleton, especially about the skull and
hind feet, integument is still existing. There is also a covering on
the right fore-foot, on which there is some thick red hair more than
two inches long. The left fore-limb, if I remember rightly, and also
the corresponding hind-limb are both cast from plaster, as also, I
believe, many of the ribs. These feet, which have been cast to
imitate the right fore-foot and its covering of integument, have given
the club-footed appearance to the skeleton which is so often drawn
without explanation. Several pieces of integument which belonged
to this animal, from £ of an inch to more than 14 inches in thick-
ness, are to be seen in the room, and also a fore-foot covered
with skin half-way up the leg. The hair with which this creature
was covered was like long red horse-hair. Although I subsequently
saw many specimens of the integument of Mammoth covered with
hair, I never saw any specimens with wool on them, such as are
sometimes spoken of in books. The tusks seem to have belonged to
another individual than to the one to which they are now attached,
because the stumps to which they are joined are of much larger
diameter than the tusks! themselves. This specimen is one which
was discovered on the banks of the Lena in 1799.

The tusks which are supplied in such large quantities to the
London market, to be used as ivory, come chiefly from the shores of
the White Sea and the entrance to the River Petchora, where, as

1 See a similar statement, made on the authority of Prof. Maskelyne, Grou. Maa.
1868, Vol. Y. p. 541, in an article on the curvature of the tusks of the Mammoth.

Prof. Miine—Across Europe and Asia. 341

the sea cuts its way back inland, large quantities of these valuable
elephantine remains become exposed. Along the Siberian rivers,
but especially along the Obi and Lena, immense numbers of these
remains have been found. The Russians tell one that they are
often in such preservation that the natives eat of their flesh. Some
of the Jakutski and Tungusians who collect these bones obtain 20 to
30 roubles (£3 to £4 10s.) per pood (40lbs.) for them.

The skeleton of Rytina Steller, of which the only other example
is to be found in the Museum of Helsingfors in Finland, I could
not find in the osteological collection to which the general public
have access. On explaining my wants, I was treated with every
kindness, and given facilities for seeing all I wished. The skeleton
for which I was looking, together with many other skeletons, is kept
in a chamber below the ordinary floor of the museum, which in
appearance is not unlike a store-room.

The skeleton, which represents an animal more than 25ft. long,
is not altogether perfect, for the hand bones, if it ever had any, are
lost, and also one or two of the caudal vertebre. A portion of the
large gristly palate with which the creature was provided is also
preserved. The rough transversely furrowed surface of this, which
answered the purposes of mastication, is very curious. In places
where the ribs had been cut into for purposes of examination,
they showed a fine white texture very like ivory. This specimen
came from Behring’s Isle, which in times past appears to have been
its central if not its only home. About a hundred years ago it was
sacrificed, like the Great Auk and many other animals, to: the gluttony
and wants of man, and is now to be regarded as one of the links be-
tween the past and present so often referred to by geologists at the
commencement of their labours and historians at the end.

In the same room as the one in which Rytina Stelleri is standing
I had an opportunity of taking a passing glance at the skulls of some
European and Asiatic Beavers. There are many animals inhabiting
the Old World which bear the same name as those in the New World.
This has arisen from their general similarity in outward appearance.
Identities of this sort have been brought into question by naturalists,
who, after various examinations, have found certain differences to
exist between many American species on the one hand and Asiatic
and European species on the other, and the question apparently to be
decided, is whether these differences:are sufficient to constitute a differ-
ence in species. The case of the Beaver was one that was especially
brought before my mind during my travels in Newfoundland, where
my companion, Mr. T. G. B. Lloyd, made a careful study of it,
and subsequently followed it up with the assistance of all such
material as could be found in the Museums of Great Britain.
The result of the comparisons as made, not only by Mr. Lloyd,
but also by various other investigators, seems to lie in the re-
lation existing between the length of the nasal bones and the skull.
Why the rest of the framework of the animal was not taken into
equally minute consideration I do not know, unless it was from the
fact that such material was more difficult to obtain. Mr. Lloyd’s

342 Prof. Milne—Across Europe and Asia.

results, as deduced from an examination of more than 30 Huropean
recentand fossil beavers’ skulls, and a greater number of recent American
skulls, seem to show that the proportion between the length of the
nasal bones to the length of the skull in the Huropean Beaver, is to
the length of nasal bone to the length of skull in the American
beaver as 6 is to.d. Or more mathematically—
Length of Nasal Bones . Length of Nasal Bones

ee European . American } 6 ¢ 5.

Length of Skull Length of Skull

In a still simpler form the European Beavers have larger nasal
bones than the American Beavers. The Beavers of both countries
appear to have been contemporaneous with their gigantic predecessors,
namely, the Zrogontherium of Kurope and the Castoroides of America,
and the ancient giants had differences like their modern but com-
paratively dwarfish successors. Now what I saw of Beavers in
the St. Petersburg Museum were two or three brownish-red stuffed
specimens upstairs where the public go, and five skulls from
localities from which specimens are rarely seen in the vault with
Rytina Stellert. These latter were the ones of interest. The first
came from the River Kola, the second and third came from California,
the fourth came from the Kurile Isles, whilst the fifth was from
Sitka. Those with the shortest nasal bones were from the Kurile
Isles and Sitka, then came one of the Californian specimens, then the
specimen from the Kola River, and last of all, with the longest nasal
bones, was the remaining specimen from California. Such a result
as this is incongruous and at variance with the elaborate deductions
just quoted. Perhaps American specimens west of the Rocky
Mountains may be classed with European. The examination was,
however, cursory, and therefore perhaps incorrect; nevertheless, it
may be sufficient to draw the attention of the labourers in such
inquiries to the five skulls lying in the vaults of the great St.
Petersburg Museum.

Amongst other things of novelty and interest which I saw during
iny short visit to the Museum, were some remarkably large skulls of
Arctic Bears 18 inches and 20 inches in length, which had recently
been received from Northern Siberia. A good specimen of a Great
Auk, half hidden by a flock of other birds, attracted my attention.
Not long ago an egg of this now apparently extinct bird was
offered to the Museum. ‘The price asked was 700 thalers. It was
not purchased. This Museum, like many other scientific under-
takings in Russia, seemed to be much in want of assistance. The
reptiles looked bright and fresh, but the order of the remaining
collections was below the. standard of a public museum. ‘The
corners of each room, where in winter-time stoves had been standing,
were all torn down, and the openings only covered with rough paper.

Whilst travelling about St. Petersburg, everybody is struck with
the two extremes which the paving assumes, as it so materially con-
cerns the comfort of the traveller. One part of the city is even
and smooth, and over this one rolls noiselessly ; whilst the other part
is so uneven and bouldery, that at times it is difficult to retain one’s

Prof. Milne—Across Europe and Asia. 343

seat in the small uncomfortable carriages in which you have to ride.
The former is of wood, and the latter of granite cobble stones. The
wood paving is generally laid in hexagonal blocks ; but although so
good in summer, in winter it is very slippery, owing to the freezing
of the moisture with which it is always permeated. ‘The direction
taken by the water in entering the wood is very noticeable, even in
summer-time, by dark radiating lines parallel to the medullary rays.

On the evening of the 19th August I left.St. Petersburg by train
for Moscow, where I hoped to be successful in finding a companion
for the coming trip across Siberia. So long as daylight lasted
Wwe were passing over a flat and marshy country. Most of it
was covered with corn-fields, where the reaped crops were yet
standing in sheaves. Here and there were clumps of birch, thickets
of spruce and alder, and small woods of fir and juniper. In the
morning, before we came in sight of the domes and spires of Moscow,
the country was slightly undulating. As the line between these
two capitals is as straight as it could practically be made, we took
everything as it came. The design of the engineer had been that it
should pass in the vicinity of several large towns; but the Emperor
Nicolas, to whom the plans were submitted, laid his rule upon the
paper between the two extremes, and drew a straight line, intimating
that it was between St. Petersburg and Moscow that he wished to
travel. And thus originated the straightest railway line in Europe.
The strata on which Moscow stands are, I believe, of Liassic age.
Comparing the site on which the town is built and the surrounding
country, with that in and about St. Petersburg, I found myself in
quite a hilly country. The only museum in the town which I visited,
where anything of geological interest is exhibited, was the Museum
Polytechnique, and here all that I saw were a few maps, models,
sections and specimens, which are chiefly exhibited for educational
purposes. Notwithstanding the endeavours of many friends to find
me a travelling companion, on the evening of the 26th I started off
alone upon the next section of my journey, which was to be as far as
Nijni Novgorod. In going to the railway station I had a long drive
of seven miles or more, all that I remember of which was that at one
point the road made a sharp descent into a valley, on either side of
which I saw nothing but alluvium. It was nearly dark before the
train started, and J could see nothing until next morning, when
J woke up, and saw the Volga. Between us and the river there was
a huge flat plain, covered with corn-fields and copses. On the other
side, which was the south side of the river, high banks rose up to
form a long and well-marked scarp. On the top of this scarp the
old town of Nijni Novgorod is built, and it was not very long before
we saw its white towers glistening in the morning sun. Atthe time
of my arrival the Great Fair, which is disappointing to all sightseers,
was going on. It is carried on in a series of one-storied houses and
sheds built upon the flat ground upon the north side of the river.
Amongst other wares I saw a few minerals offered for sale. Besides
atew pieces of alexandrite from the Urals, and dioptase from the
Kirghis Steppes, there was nothing but anumber of common minerals

344 Prof. Milne—Across Europe.and Asia.

stuck together to represent grottoes, cottages, and other devices,
which I think, from what I afterwards saw, must probably have been
made in Ekaterinburg or its neighbourhood. All were very dear,
and there were none of any great value.

After many difficulties, I found, amongst the dense black mass of
barges and steamers which line the banks of the river, a boat which,
on the following morning, was to start for Perm. As it was lying
upon the south side of the river, I had opportunity to look at some
high steep banks which rose high above us. Running horizontally
along the face of this slope, which I have mentioned as having
seen from the railway, there are many well-marked horizontal
terraces. Two of these were very broad and flat. In several places
the scarp or slope was cut through with small gulleys. These were
utilized as roadways between the upper plane and the river. Where
cuttings had been made, reddish-looking earthy sections, traversed
with a few whitish bands, which looked like chalk, could be seen.
The height of this scarp above the level of the river is about 240
feet, and the slope at the steepest part about 29°. At the top of
this the country is flat. The red and white bands, both of which
are apparently marly and without stones, are clearly visible up to
about 180 feet. When dry, these materials break like a dried clay.

About 10 a.m. next morning, the whistle sounded three times, the
captain gave his orders, and we pushed out into mid-stream. After
doffing of hats, and crossing (1 suppose for a favourable voyage), we
started off in a driving rain against a head wind down the Volga.

All that I could now see of the river was by looking through the
cabin window. Everywhere there are shoals of sand. On the north
side of the river, where the banks were sufficiently cut into to show
the stratification, long straight lines and sweeping curves could be
distinctly traced. After a few miles, the scarp upon the south side,
instead of looking as if it were only the sudden termination of a
plain, merged gradually into a hill-like character. Both the hills
and the scarp which now formed their face were of a red colour,
and the white beds, which before had been at higher levels,
were now only to be seen near the base. As we pushed on down
the river, a long sandy shore crept in between us and the scarp.
Towards the afternoon, as we travelled eastwards, the hills became
less precipitous and scarp-like, until at last they had a rounded
outline, and stripes of corn-fields diversified their sides. The islands
in the river show sections of stratified earth or mud. Some of them
are, héwever, sandy, and their light-coloured shores contrasted
favourably with their dark-green cap of birch and alder. As night
came on, the cold and drizzle, instead of ceasing, came on also. The
hills upon the south side drew nearer to the river’s edge, along
which they continued pretty constantly. Those courses of the river
which had the more northerly direction were, I think, bounded upon
their southern side with the steepest banks. These still kept their
red colour, and, where they had a few trees clinging to their sides,
looked picturesque.

At 5:30 p.m. we stopped upon the south side of the river at a

Prof. Milne—Across Europe and Asia. 345

small village called Hsad, to take in wood. The houses are built
upon the side of a hill, but most of them occupy the first of a series
of terraces with which it is furrowed. Numbers of wooden stair-
ways join one portion of the settlement with the other. As the
river has as many shoals beneath the surface of its waters as there
are sandbanks which appear above it, two men are kept constantly
at the bow to sound. This they do with a straight rod marked with
alternate bands of black and white. Each sounding is called out.
When the captain hears less than 34 feet proclaimed, the signal to
stop is given, and, if it is not too late, the vessel is run backwards and
a new course is tried. Early next morning we ran into a small
steamer and smashed its bows in. After this, many hours were
spent in finding our way between sandbanks, often grounding with
a shake and shock which on first experience was startling. From
the style of navigation, it may be inferred that it is impossible to
learn or place the courses of the river, which are ever being shifted
by the silting up of channels and opening of others.

About midday, as we neared Kazan, we could see a few low hills
away in the distance upon the north side of the river. On the south
side the scarp, which had hitherto been red in colour, was now
yellowish-white, and, instead of being earthy-looking, appeared
more compact. Further on, these yellow beds were seen to underlie
the red. Opposite to Kazan, a strip of low flat country marked the
entrance of the River Swjaga, one of the feeders of the Volga. It
flows from the south, and is very noticeable from the position it holds
to the river to which it is tributary. Measured in a straight line, it
is more than 150 miles long, and during the whole of this distance
it flows parallel to, and only a few miles distant from the Volga,
which it feeds—but, strange to say, in an entirely opposite direction.
Whilst the Volga flows south, the Swjaga flows north. At more
than 100 miles above their confluence, the two rivers come so close
together that they are indicated upon the map as flowing through the
same town of Simbirsk. Although rivers of this sort are exceptional,
they give us hints of the difficulties which explorers may meet with
in unknown countries when working out their topographical details.

After passing the flat opening, we again had the hard whitish
cliffs upon the south, the red colour appearing at last to be entirely
lost. By disintegrating agencies acting along the lines of strati-
fication, horizontal ledges have been left protruding. Although these
are not very well defined, they are yet sufficient to form a foothold
for small trees and bushes, which now form dark lines along the face
of the cliff. The water of the river here was apparently the same
as it had been at Nijni Novgorod, so charged with sediment as to be
of a dirty-yellowish colour.

Next morning I awoke to find that during the night we had broken
down, and were quietly lying alongside a hulk at a small station
called Cheestopol, at the entrance of the River Kama. As we were
detained here until evening in making repairs, I had a ramble
amongst the woods near the shore. Elm, oak, and birch were the
common trees; I did not see any spruces or pines. Butterflies and

346 J. R. Dakyns—Geology of the West Riding.

other insects were taking advantage of a few gleams of sunshine, and
I had great sport amongst them.

The current of the Kama is a little more rapid than the Volga, and
here, with the wind blowing against it, it was curled up and flecked
with patches of white foam. Our repairs being ended, we started
up the Kama. We had, however, not been very long afloat, when.
through running on a sandbank, our machinery again gave out, and
we were detained for the remainder of the night. Next day we
were again afloat. Upon our western side an occasional red cliff
was to be seen, whilst nearer to the river brownish earthy banks
were well marked with lines which showed the height to which the
water sometimes rises.

During our second evening on this river an immense number of
delicate white ephemeral-looking flies fell upon our deck and into
the water. These were so thick in places that they fringed the
windward shore of the river with a white line. On the Dneiper a
somewhat similar fly sometimes occurs in such quantities that the
fishermen light fires to attract them. The creatures, whilst hovering
round the light, get their wings singed, and fall down on and round
the fire like snow. They are then swept together, mixed with clay,
and used for ground bait.

A passenger on board, a man apparently of some intelligence, told
me that mineral coal had been found on the Kama near Piani-Vor.
If this is proved to be correct, it will not only give a new locality
for the mineral, but also another point for the outcrop of the
Carboniferous formation. In the Kama there are a few low islands,
which take the place of the sands I saw upon the Volga. With
this exception, I do not think that there is any choice, as far as ,
picturesqueness is concerned, between the two. As a whole, they
are both flat and dull. As we progressed upwards, we saw some
pleasant upland slopes chequered over with square plots of cultiva-
tion. In outline these hills are not unlike our downs, but they are
perhaps more furrowed by the small streams which cut through the
soft red Permian strata of which they are composed. The shore is
everywhere slippery and muddy. As we neared Perm, we had upon our
western side high sloping hills of red earth bounded with white rock.

On the afternoon of Thursday, September 3rd, we came in sight
of Perm, and in the afternoon we landed, after a wearisome eight
days’ steaming along two rivers, which, for flatness and monotony,
would rival, ] think, any in Europe.

(Zo be continued in our next Number.)

I].—A Sxerce or tHE Grotocy oF KEIGHLEY, SKIPTON, AND
GRASSINGTON.!
By J. R. Daxyns, M.A., of H.M. Geological Survey.
le Derbyshire the Millstone-grit series consists of four or five well-
marked grits, separated by shales, viz. the so-called first or
topmost grit, named, from its coarse character, the rough rock ;

1 Originally read with the Director’s permission before the British Association at
Bradford, but not heretofore published.

J. R. Dakyns— Geology of the West Riding. 347

the second grit, which is generally a flagstone; the third grit, a
bold, well-jointed rock; and lastly, the Kinder Scout grit, which
sometimes consists of two beds. In advancing northwards this
type undergoes considerable changes; the second grit becomes
merely a basement bed to the rough rock, not always separable
therefrom ; the third grit loses its massive character, and other
beds of sandstone begin to show themselves amid the shales over-
lying the Kinder Scout grit. When one reaches the valley of the
Colne, four separate sandstones have developed themselves between
the rough rock (locally known as the sand rock) and the recog-
nizéd Kinder Scout grit. This type prevails also in the valley
of the Yorkshire Calder; but is not to be found on crossing the
watershed into the basin of the Aire. There the series consists in
descending order, first of the rough rock, which throughout maintains
its usual marked character till it is buried beneath the Permian ;
secondly, of a very variable basement bed to the last, consisting,
when well developed, of valuable flagstones. These are extensively
quarried at Nab, above Oxenhope Moor; and also in an outlier at
the Penistone quarries, near Haworth. Below this bed comes a
fresh series of variable sandstones and shales. There may be in
places as many as fifteen or sixteen distinct sandstones below the
basement of the rough rock and the regular Kinder Scout grit. But
tliis set of beds may conveniently be divided into two by means of a
conspicuous grit which is continuous with the third grit of Lancashire.
This grit forms the bold escarpment of Hallan Hill and Earl Crag,
so conspicuous with Wainman’s monument on its crest, as seen from
the railway between Keighley and Skipton. We may conveniently
speak of it as the middle grit. It generally has three grits between
it and the base of the rough rock; these four beds are presumably
the four grits of the Calder and Colne valleys mentioned above. I
will now briefly point out the general run of the beds in the basin of
the Aire. The rough rock runs in a nearly unbroken manner from
the latitude of Penistone, and enters the basin of the Aire above
Oxenhope Moor ; its basement flags form the lofty escarpment of
Nab, whence may be had a glorious view of the northern fells from
Ingleborough on the west to Great Whernside on the east.

A large fault, ranging across Thornton Moor in a W.N.W. direc-
tion, throws down the Coal-measures of Denholme on the north,
from beneath which the rough rock rises to form Black Moor and
Brow Moor. Another W.N.W. fault throws the beds up again near
Cullingworth, so that Harden Moor, between Bingley and Keighley,
consists of an outlier of rough rock, while various members of the
third grit series occupy the flanks of the hill. West of the river
Worth the rough rock forms, with a dip slope, the wide expanse of
Keighley Moor; but at Exley Head another W.N.W. fault throws
up the beds to the north, so that an outlier of rough rock forms the
hill on which is situated Keighley tarn. Going N.W. from the town
we pass successively over the various members of the third grit
series. The middle grit can clearly be traced by its massive cha-
racter running down to the valley south of Hawkcliff Cottage ; it

348 J. h. Dakyns— Geology of the West Riding.

ascends on the north side of the Aire, somewhat broken by faults,
and forms Brunthwaite Crag; is thrown up by a W.N.W. fault to
form White Crag, and again in the escarpment of Addingham
High Moor. It is this rock which forms the well-known Brimham
Rock near Pateley Bridge. Below the escarpment of the middle
grit there is no conspicuous rock south of the Aire ; but on the north
of that river several beds of sandstone appear, one of which becomes
important further north as the hard siliceous grit with ganister,
which forms the summit of Great Whernside. Owing to the number
of sandstones that now have come in, it is somewhat uncertain what
ought to be taken as the top of the Kinder Scout grit, though there
is no doubt about the main mass of the bed. This well-marked,
coarse, and massive grit is brought in by a W.N.W. fault (south of
the river Aire), which is remarkable as one of the few instances in
which galena has been found away from the limestone area. North
of the Aire the Kinder Scout grit rises up regularly from beneath
the overlying beds at Kildwick. Near Cononley a N.E. fault throws
down the beds on the N.W., so that the upper part of the Kinder
Scout grit is again found in the valley. The bed here consists
generally of three separate rocks. It is immediately underlain by a
thick but variable set of sandstones, with shale partings, which have
hitherto been styled Yoredale grits; but this is a very bad and
misleading term, as the beds are merely the basement part of the
Kinder Scout grit, from which they cannot always be separated
without forcing; and, moreover, these grits are nowhere, that I
know of, found in Yoredale. Beneath these are found, at Skipton,
shales and limestones, a narrow band of contorted limestone, forming
the crest of an anticlinal, appearing between the road and railway
about half a mile south of Skipton. The strike of the beds hitherto
described is generally N.E. and §.W., the dip: increasing as we go
westward ; but about the latitude of Skipton the beds bend round
so as to strike nearly EH. and W., with a dip of 20 deg. to the south
along Skipton Moor. In fact, the country between the latitudes of
Skipton and Grassington has been much disturbed and thrown into
a series of east and west rolls. Thus a strong anticlinal ranges
down the Skibeden Valley from: Skipton to Bolton Abbey, with a
steady dip to the north, and many minor folds on the south. The
effect of this is that amass of Mountain Limestone forming the green
boss known as the Haw Park has been brought up in the Skibeden
Valley between two ranges of Millstone-grit hills, viz. Skipton
Moor on the south, and Embsay Moor on the north. The Mountain
Limestone here is a dark thin-bedded limestone. It is extensively
quarried for road material both at Haw Bank and also at Thornton,
where similar beds are found. Hither of these quarries is well
worth a visit. The beds are much faulted and contorted, particularly
along the south side of Skibeden Valley ; good instances of contor-
tion are to be seen at Draughton and the Wheelam Rock quarries, as
also at the Hambleton Rock quarry, near Bolton Bridge; an excel-
lent section of contorted beds is also to be seen in Halton Gill. The
strike of the beds of Mountain Limestone seems to indicate that they

J. R. Dakyns—Geology of the West Riding. 349

have partly been brought up by a fault ranging along the south side
of the Skibeden Valley ;’ but on the north they dip regularly under
the Yoredale and Millstone-grit beds. On that side, where the series
is much clearer than on the south, there are two limestones above
the Mountain Limestone. On the south side of the Skibeden Valley
and anticlinal the Kinder Scout grit strikes E. and W. along Skipton
and Draughton Moors, and descends to the river Wharfe north of
Addingham. Its high southerly dip carries it up the slope of
Langbar Moor, it base running just below Beamsley Beacon; it
then, under the influence of a branch of the Skipton anticlinal,
plunges down northward to Kex Beck, where the beds bend up
again and rise northward to Hazlewood Moor and Bolton Park;
here, on the strike of the Skipton anticlinal, the beds bend over
northward and recross the Wharfe below Laund House; south of
this, as far as Bolton Abbey, limestones and shales of the Yoredale
series are seen along the river. These are cut off opposite Bolton
Abbey by a N.H. fault bringing in the upper beds. The so-called
Yoredale grits run along the slopes of Skipton Moor to Fairfield
Hall; and east of the Wharfe are found about Beamsley and
Storriths. They have not been everywhere identified on the north
side of the Skibeden Valley. On the west side, though the beds are
in several places broken by N.W. faults, yet their general run is
tolerably plain. A set of bold crags marks the escarpment of the
Kinder Scout grit along Halton and Embsay Moors, Rylstone,
Burnsall, and Thorp Fells. Beneath the western escarpment of the
Kinder Scout grit, the Yoredale grit is found forming at intervals
promontories on the sides of the fells, probably caused by a local
hardening of the rock, which appears to be of a very variable
character. It has not been traced further east than the northern
extremity of Burnsall Fell. The Kinder Scout grit, whose escarp-
ment has been briefly indicated above, lies in the shape of a syn-
clinal trough dipping east, and thus occupies with its various mem-
bers the whole extent of Burnsall Fell, Barden, and Embsay Moors.
The rock is well seen along the river Wharfe, particularly at the
celebrated ‘Strid’ in Bolton Woods. On the east of the Wharfe these
grits rise up ina sort of broken dome with a quaquaversal dip to
form the summit of Barden Fell, well marked by the bold crags of
Simon Seat, whence a magnificent view is to be had, and York
Minster may be seen on a clear day. Near these crags, at the very
summit of the fell, 1700 feet above the sea, some pot-holes (one of
which, in the dialect of the country, is, from its great size, called the
Great Shak) indicate the presence of limestone at no great distance.
The beds may be seen in Howgill and on the path through Fell
Plantation, dipping steeply to the N.W. into the valley; but along
the Skyreholme beck they turn up again, and dip steeply to the S.E.
From Appletreewick the grits are seen striking north-eastward,
underlain by a mass of shale, from beneath which massive white
scar limestone rises regularly with a similar strike, as far as a set of

‘ T now consider it doubtful whether there is not also a fault along the north side
of Skibeden.

350 A. J. Jukes Browne—On the Upper Greensand, ete.

bold crags, marked by the Ordnance station, 1350 feet above the sea-
level; here the beds end abruptly, being cut off by the Craven
fault. The position of this fault is also shown by the abrupt termi-
nation of similar grit crags at Fancarl, by great disturbances of the
beds at Thurskell Well, near Hebden, and by disturbed beds on the
banks of the Wharfe near Lyth House, whence the fault runs by
Skirethornes, with limestone on its north side and grit on its south,
to join the line of bold cliffs which mark the line of the fault from
Malham to Settle. East of the river Dibb we have, north of the
Craven fault, massive white limestone, dipping north at 19°,
closely overlain by the grit of Grimwith Fell, from which the main
mass of limestone is separated merely by a thin band of mixed
shales and limestones. The green mass of Greenhow Hill forms the
dome-shaped end of this band, which is in fact an anticlinal, broken
up by the Craven fault. Between the river Dibb and Grassington
the ground is very obscure; but the Millstone-grits seem to be
separated from the great limestone by a considerable thickness of
shales, with but poor limestone bands. At Grassington, however,
the limestones swell out, and with the exception of two bands of hard
sandstones, known as the Dirt Pot Grits, there is solid limestone
from the grits of Grassington Moor to-the river Wharfe. North-
wards the limestone gradually breaks up, and finally takes on the
Yoredale type, so well known from the writings of Professor
Phillips.

IlI.—-Nores on THE CoRRELATION OF THE BEDS CONSTITUTING THE
Urpprr GREENSAND AND Cutorttic Mart.

By A. J. Juxzes Browne, B.A., F.G.S. ;
of H.M. Geological Survey.

ONSIDERABLE uncertainty has for some time existed with
regard to the formations known by the names of Upper Green-
sand and Chloritic Marl.

The series of beds which are thus denominated have been accurately
described as they exist in several different localities, and the strata
supposed to constitute these divisions have been shown to vary greatly
both as regards their lithological characters and their fossil contents;
but very few attempts have “been made to ascertain the lateral ex-
tension and the exact stratigraphical relations of these component
beds; they have been like the fragments of a puzzle which no one
has succeeded in putting together.

Geologists, indeed, were for a long time contented to receive all
the sandy and glauconitic deposits intervening between the Gault-
clay and the Chalk-marl of any locality in England as belonging to
the Upper Greensand. Afterwards, when the Chloritic Marl was
separated from the series in the Isle of Wight, its existence in other
parts of England was not properly established—or, to speak more
correcily, different inland horizons were assigned to it by different
writers.

The type of the Upper Greensand was supposed to exist in

A. J. Jukes Browne—On the Upper Greensand, ete. Bol

Hampshire and the Isle of Wight, and it was said to assume dif-
ferent facies in other districts; thus the Blackdown Beds, the War-
minster Greensand, and the Cambridge “Coprolite Bed,” have all
been referred to the Upper Greensand, and have been considered as
local developments of that formation. It is true the two latter have
also more recently been called Chloritic Marl, but this only shows
the uncertainty attending the use of that term, and the general
opinion has been that they were all ‘‘ Upper Greensand”; the great
differences between the above-mentioned deposits being accounted for
by the relative distances from contemporaneous land and other vary-
ing geographical conditions.:

It was known that these Greensands contained very different
fossil faunas, but no one had followed up the beds possessing any
of these local faunas, nor had the fossils even from the separate
beds of one locality been collected with the view of ascertaining
whether the succession of strata contained the same fauna from top
to bottom. Such investigations must inevitably have led to more
accurate views, but the valuable evidence afforded by the fossils was
to a great extent ignored, and the more obvious differences were
explained away in the manner above mentioned; explanations
which in themselves suggest very interesting questions, but which
are inadequate to account for all the circumstances of the case.'

Within the last few years, however, the Cretaceous system has
been more carefully studied both in England and France, and the
Greensands have received their due share of attention; the strati-
graphical details of the several divisions have been investigated by
men who were at the same time careful to pay attention to the
paleontological evidence, and it is now possible to answer most of
the questions above indicated as obscure or unknown.

The result of these inquiries has been to alter very materially our
conception of the importance of the Upper Greensand and Chloritic
Marl, and to render it very doubtful whether they should continue
to rank as divisions of primary importance in the Cretaceous series.

It is perhaps the position of the Chloritic Marl which is at present
the most doubtful and undefined. Mr. C. J. Meyer has claimed for
it an importance equal to that of the Upper Greensand, while Mr.
Whitaker has expressed himself as objecting to the term altogether
on the ground of its being nowhere satisfactorily defined, but applied
in one place to Upper Greensand and in another to Chalk.

Again, in the March Number of the Gronoeican Magazing, p. 128,
the reviewer of Mr. Bonney’s “Cambridgeshire Geology” takes
exception to the application of the term Chloritic Marl to the
‘Cambridge Greensand, and in the April Number, p. 191, Mr. H. G.
Fordham expresses surprise at this, and wishes to learn what may
be taken to constitute ‘the true typical Chloritic Marl.”

It seems therefore that it would be useful to give some general
account of all the Glauconitic, or mis-called Chloritic, sands between

1 These arguments have been recently renewed by Mr. Seeley, but without the
support of any additional observations, and in the face of the facts brought forward
by Dr. Barrois and myself.

302 A. J. Jukes Browne—On the Upper Greensand, ete.

the Gault and Chalk-marl, and to review some of the conclusions
arrived at by different writers on the subject, in order that the way
may be paved towards the establishment of a better nomenclature,
and a more natural classification in this part of the geological series.

Tue Upper GREENSAND.

The early history of this formation is chiefly connected with that
of the Wealden area. where the Firestones and Greensands below
the Chalk had attracted attention in the beginning of the present
century ; it was to these I believe that the term “ Greensand” was
first applied: thus in William Smith’s Memoir (1815), the suc-
cession of the strata is correctly given as follows:

Chalk (Upper and Lower).
Greensand parallel to the Chalk.
Blue marl (viz. Gault).

Kentish Rag, ete. _

This last, however, and some other beds between the Gault and
Weald Clays, being likewise of a green colour, came also to be
spoken of as ‘‘the Greensand.” Thus Conybeare and Phillips, in
1822, showed the Firestone-beds of Merstham to be distinct from
the Greensand, and separated therefrom by a blue marl which they
doubtfully refer to the Cambridge Gault. They also distinguish the
[Lower] Greensand from the Hastings beds of the Weald, then
called ‘Iron sand’; but they do not make the same distinction in
the Isle of Wight, where their Greensand is the Upper Greensand.

It was left for Fitton, in 1824,! to finally clear up doubts and
difficulties which attended the correlation of the Greensands and the
Iron sands, and by him the whole series was correctly described
both in the Wealden area and in the Isle of Wight.

It being thus proved that there were two horizons where beds of
Greensand occurred, viz. above and below the Gault or “Blue
marle,” it was natural that these should come to be called the
Upper and Lower Greensand. Sir R. I. Murchison seems, however,
to have been the first who actually made use of the name in any
published paper: this being in his Memoir on West Sussex, read
before the Geological Society in 1825.

Mr. Martin adopted the name for the beds in the northern part of
the Weald, and Dr. Fitton in 1856 for those in the Isle of Wight
and the south-east of England. The name was thus accepted as
designating all the sandy beds between the Gault and Chalk-marl,
and was a division founded purely on lithological characters, and
without any reference to the fossils which its several component
strata contained.

The first attempt to estimate accurately the thickness of the Gault
and Greensands is recorded in the Quart. Journal for 1845 by Mr.
J. W. Simms,’ the following section being measured between Ather-
field Point and the cliff south of St. Catherine’s Down :—

1 Ann, Philos. ser. ii. vol. viii. pp. 865 and 458.
* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. 1. p. 77.

A. J. Jukes Browne—On the Upper Greensand, etc. 358

Feet

Upper Parallel layers of soft rock and of hard cherty sandstone 37

Greensand Sand with layers of stone and chert ... fe ono
— 104

Ganie Light-coloured Gault becoming bluer ... oa we 48

Beds of decided blue colour a a be 550. O83
146

Lower Greensand in various beds

250

These measurements and divisions, although apparently taken
with great care, do not seem at first sight to correspond with those
given in the Survey Memoir on the Isle of Wight; but it is re-
markable that the combined thickness of the Gault and Upper
Greensand should be estimated in both at exactly the same amount,
viz. 250 feet. Of this, 150 feet are assigned to the Greensand by the
Geological Survey, including 50 feet of clayey micaceous sands at the
base. Now I think it is not improbable that these are the “ light-
coloured Gault” mentioned in the above section, which, if added to
the other beds, makes the thickness very nearly the same, viz. 147
feet. This is of course a conjecture; but as they are certainly
passage-beds, it would not be surprising to find them placed in the
lower formation by some authors, and in the higher by others.

Captain L. L. B. Ibbetson seems also to have excluded these beds,
when he states that the Upper Greensand is about 100 feet thick ; 1
he does not mention the locality where this was measured, but he
gives a detailed list of the strata observed in descending order; as
this has never been reproduced elsewhere, I give the following
abridgment. of it :—

ft, in.
{ 1. Zones of Chert and Rag, with Pecten orbicularis, P. 5-costatus,
| Serpula concava and iSiphonte , 000 jag LH ©)
< 2. Conglomerate of Chert and Rag (much rolled) 600 eek GeO
| Be Bands of Chert and Firestone,, 560 00 ooo
L 4, Freestones separated by layers of Rag ee oac soe ek a6,
{ 5. Rag and Malm alternating 16 8
| 6. Mammillary Rag, round Chert, sandy boulders with h_phos-
Z phate of lime (? pees: ae Lo ©
1 7. Malm and Rag... 60 900 300 vee 200 oo 8 8
| 8. Fossiliferous Malm... 006 G00 coo ©
9. Malm and Rag, with numerous 1s Serpule 560 BED .. 40 0
103 6

The close agreement of this section with that of Mr. Simms is
made more apparent if it is still further abbreviated thus :—
ft. in.
Zones of Chert, Firestone and Freestone 900 500 oon 88 8
Alternations of Rag and Malm... 600 ood G00 ween Oa LO

103 6
and it is possible therefore that the thicknesses were estimated at the
same place, viz. at St. Catherine’s Down.
About the same time (1848) Messrs. Paine and Way published an
important paper on the Phosphatic Strata of the Chalk Formation,?
' Notes on the Geology and Chemical Composition of the Various Strata in the

Isle of Wight, London, 1849.
2 Journ. Roy. Agric. Soc. ser. i. vol. ix. p. 56.

DECADE II.—VOL. IV.—wNO. VIII. 23

354 A. SJ. Jukes Browne—On the Upper Greensand, ete.

and were, I believe, the first to point out the threefold division
of the Upper Greensand as developed in Hampshire and Surrey.
They say: ‘It commonly comprises three distinctive formations ;
the first is a thin green band of marl, more or less siliceous, and
abounding in organized fossil remains; it lies below and in contact
with the soft dirty white marl above mentioned ; in thickness it varies
from a few inches to 10 or 15 feet. The second division is the fire-
stone rock, the thickness of which also varies... . This rock
gradually merges into a soft clayey marl, which constitutes the
third sub-division, and this again in its inferior parts becomes more
and more argillaceous, until it is finally lost in the Gault.” Mr.
Godwin-Austen, writing in the same year, makes a similar division
of the series near Guildford,’ but refers the lowest green marls and
clays containing phosphatic nodules to the Gault.

Here, again, there is no definite base-line for the Upper Green-
sand, and certain clayey marls are referred by one observer to the
Gault and by others to the Greensand ; it will be seen in the sequel
that I look upon the former mode of grouping as the most correct.

In 1862 two memoirs were published by the Geological Survey
describing the Isle of Wight and parts of Hampshire and Berkshire
(Sheet 12); no detailed sections of the Gault and Greensand are
given in either of these works, but the following may be deduced
from the description on p. 24 of Mr. Bristow’s “Isle of Wight,” and
may be compared with those on a previous page.

Feet

1. Caleareous Sandstone ... . eae ara ih) ee bocce Ee amt en cee)
2. Chert, Sandstone, and Freestone .. Bee Nk SAN Ose tT ORR Uae eran OG
Bo Sands and Sandstones ... . P24
4, Yellowish-grey sand with some e Sandstone and Chert (? (F Rag) 40
5. Bluish sandy micaceous beds... ... os 600 ada» OO)
155

It is to be regretted that the fossils found in these beds were not
given separately instead of being combined into a general list.

As regards the base-line, Mr. Bristow says (p. 28): “Sometimes
the Gault assumes a very sandy character, and passes so insensibly
into the Upper Greensand as to be scarcely distinguishable from it.”
A section also is given showing the passage from Gault to Greensand,
and the bluish sandy clays are stated to contain Gryphea vermicularia
and Arca; the line is mainly drawn to separate sands from clays,

he sandy clays being mostly included with the Upper Greensand,
and not with the Gault (see ante).

In the Memoir on Sheet 12 the Upper Greensand is described as
consisting of the same three divisions previously indicated by Messrs.
Paine and Way, viz. (1) Greensands; (2) Malm rock; (3) Soft
sandy marls; but the former of these is referred to the Chloritic
Marl, leaving the other two only to constitute the Upper Greensand.

Thus we find that there is great uncertainty both concerning the
upper and lower limits of the formation, and that the only beds
which all agree in calling Upper Greensand are the Malm-rock and

1 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. iv. p. 267.

A: J. Jukes Browne—On the Upper Greensand, ete. 355

Firestone of the Wealden area, and their equivalents of Firestone
and Cherty Sandstone in the Isle of Wight. The Warminster Green-
sand has also been generally accepted as another type of the Upper
Greensand, and of its claims more will be said hereafter.

Tue Curioritic Mart.

By whom this name was first proposed, and to what bed or beds
it was first applied, I have been unable to determine with any cer-
tainty, nor have the several geological friends whom. I have consulted
been able to enlighten me on the subject. It seems probable indeed
that in its first application it was used rather as a descriptive term
than as.a designation for any particular bed, and simply as a transla-
tion of the French. “‘ Marne chloritée.”

Thus the earliest paper which takes cognizance of it is one by Mr.
Godwin-Austen on the geology of the south-east of Surrey, 1843.'
After describing the Lower Chalk of this district, he says, “This
portion of the series, taken in a descending order, slowly acquires
an admixture of sand and green earth, so as to become first a erate
chloritée, till by the further diminution of the calcareous matter we
reach the bright green beds of the Upper Greensand with Plicatula
mnflata.”

This crate chloritée appears to coincide in position with what was
afterwards called the Chloritic Marl; but a paper written in the
ensuing year by Prof. Forbes and Capt. L. L. B. Ibbetson, contains the
first actual mention of the term that I have been able to find, and
in this a more indefinite location is assigned to it. The authors
describe the Cretaceous system as seen in the Isle of Wight between
Sandown and Whitecliff Bays, and the following passage occurs: ‘‘The
Upper Greensand corresponds nearly to the section at St. Catherine’s
Down, presenting successively sands and clays, under the name of
Chloritie Marl, siliceous bands, firestone and freestone, malm and
rag, the malm in a 3-feet bed, highly fossiliferous, surmounted by
26 feet of malm and rag passing into Cialic Mar!.”

The whole description is somewhat confused ; but if any particular
beds are meant to be indicated by the name of “Chloritic Marl,”
they would appear to be sandy marls and clays overlying the Gault-
clay, and forming the passage-beds to which I have previously alluded.
The authors may, however, have been mistaken in their identifica-
tion of the horizon, or they may have merely meant the term to be
descriptive of the lithological character of the beds,

However this may be, the term Chloritic Marl had apparently
been associated with strata at the top of the Greensand or base of
the Chalk Marl before the year 1848, and by this time the authors
above mentioned had arrived at more definite views regarding it.
Captain Ibbetson read another paper before the British Association
in this year ‘‘On the position of the Chloritic Marl or Phosphate of
Lime-bed in the Isle of Wight,’* the substance of which was in-

1 Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. iv. p. 169.

2 Brit. Assoc. Rep. Trans. See. 144.
3 Brit. Assoc. Rep. 1845, Lra.s. Sec. p. 69.

396 A. J. Jukes Browne—On the Upper, Greensand, etc.

cluded in his little book on the Strata of the Isle of Wight previously
cited. In these publications he does not appear to propose the
application of the term to this bed for the first time, although it is
probable that its position was now first clearly defined; he thus
speaks of it at p. 21:1 |

“The Chloritic Marl or principal phosphate of lime bed comes
next in succession and divides the Chalk Marl from the Upper
Greensand. It is a grey marl full of green grains of a silicate of
iron and sand, very fossiliferous. The upper part in places exhibits
a conglomerate of pebbles and small boulders, and in it the fossils
are chiefly broken as if rolled on a beach. The lower beds contain
the fossils whole and appear to have been formed in still water.
Ammonites varians and splendens, and Scaphites striatus are the
most characteristic fossils, but it also contains abundantly nodules of
@ coprolitic form, composed of from 15 to 28 per cent. of phosphate
of lime.”

The bed is stated to vary in thickness from one to three feet, and
to occur all round Shanklin and St. Boniface Downs directly under
the Chalk Marl; a list of other places where the stratum is observ-
able is also given.

Nothing is added to this description in the Geological Survey
Memoir of 1862, except a fuller and more accurate list of fossils.
Mr. Best informs me that the term Chloritic Marl appears to have
been first adopted by the Survey during the year 1856, as it is not
mentioned in the Index of Colours for that year, but is contained in
the first edition of the Catalogue of Rock Specimens published early
in 1857. It may, however, have been used in the field before this
date, and Prof. Forbes is by tradition accredited with the recognition
of the fact that its fauna, though peculiar, links the bed rather with
Chalk Marl than with the Greensand below ; probably this was be-
tween the years 1844 and 1848, as Prof. Forbes comments upon the
list of fossils originally appended to Capt. Ibbetson’s paper in that
year. Capt. Ibbetson also refers to Messrs. Austen and Nesbit as
having mentioned the occurrence of the Chloritic Marl at Guildford
and Farnham respectively. These gentlemen in 1848 had indicated
the exact position occupied by the several phosphatic beds in the
‘Cretaceous series of Hampshire and Surrey,? and although their
papers do not contain any actual mention of the marl, it is suffi-
ciently evident that one of the phosphatic beds lies in the uppermost
green marl described by Messrs. Paine and Way as varying in thick-
ness from one to fifteen feet, and that this is much on the same
horizon as the bed identified by Capt. Ibbetson.

This was also the view taken by Messrs. Bristow and Whitaker
in their Memoir on Sheet 12 (1862), where the Chloritic Marl is
mentioned as occupying a narrow band at the base of the Chalk
Marl, overlying the Malm Rock, and varying in thickness from a
few inches to ten or fifteen feet. Sections of this marl are also de-
scribed in the later Memoir on the Weald by Mr. Topley, who prefers

1 Notes, ete., on the Strata of the Isle of Wight, London, 1849.
* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. iv. pp. 257 and 262.

A. J. Jukes Browne—On the Upper Greensand, ete. 857

to class it with the Upper Greensand, but remarks that—*In the
Memoir on Sheet 12 this bed was described as Chloritic Marl, and
was classed with the Chalk. This was done at the suggestion of
Prof. Edw. Forbes,'because in Dorset and in the Isle of Wig! it
Scaphites, etc., were supposed first to appear in a bed which is. con-
sidered to be the same as this.” To this difference of opinion I shall
have occasion to refer again presently.

There is another district in which a bed has often been described
as occupying a similar position; this is the outlying area of Cre-
taceous beds in the counties of Devon and Dorset. Mr. Davidson, in
his Monograph of the Cretaceous Brachiopods, gives the following suc-
cession as seen in the neighbourhood of Chard and Chardstock :!—

I. Lower Chalk without flints..
LI. Chalk Marl, with fine siliceous and chloritic grains, and Am. Manteili,
Discoidea cylindrica, Hol. subglobosus, etc.
III. The Scaphites Bed, 3 to 9 inches thick, a compact accumulation of fossils and
siliceous grains — Scaphites, Nautilus triangwaris, N. levigatus,. Ain.
varians, etc. .

IV. V. VI. The Upper Greensand in three beds.

This ‘‘Scaphites bed” is evidently the analogue of the Chloritic
Marl, and the bed below is described as distinctly separated from it.

In 1870 Mr. Whitaker divided the Upper Greensand of Beer
Head from glauconitic beds above, which he doubtfully referred to
the Chalk Marl, and which he showed in an accompanying section
as overlapping the lower strata.2, Mr. De Rance afterwards made a
further subdivision of the beds in West Dorset, establishing a suc-
cession of five different zones.°

I. Zone of Scaphites equalis..

II. Zone of Pecten asper,.29 feet.
III. Zone of Exogyra conica,.15 feet.
IV. Fox-mould, 60 feet.

V. Cowstones (? 40 feet),

The first of these he considers to be the Chloritic Marl, and the
last he refers to the Upper Gault, leaving the three middle zones in
the Upper Greensand.

In the same year Mr. C. J. A. Meyer published a paper on the
relative horizons of the Warminster and Blackdown. deposits,‘ in
which he divides the beds of the Beer Head district into a number
of zones, and groups these into four larger divisions, viz. the Black-
down beds, the Upper Greensand, the Warminster beds and the
Chalk Marl, thus limiting the Upper Greensand still more by sepa-
rating from it the Warminster beds or Pecten asper zone, reducing it
indeed to little more than the equivalent of the Ex. conica zone of
Mr. De Rance. Speaking of the Warminster beds he says, ‘“'They
are seen to cap the Upper Greensand, and are therefore in reality
Chloritic Marl,” a conclusion which he considers to be borne out by
the evidence of the fossils.

As however the fauna of the Warminster beds has subsequently
been found in the Upper Greensand of the Isle of Wight below the

1 Pal. Soc. Mem. 18652, p. 114.
2 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxvii. p. 98.

3 Gzox. Mac. Dec. II. Vol. I p. 196.
* Quart, Journ. Geol, Soc. vol. xxx. p. 369)

858 A. J. Jukes Browne—On the Upper Greensand, ete.

Chloritic Marl, it is evident that this identification is not correct, and
that these beds must be restored to the Upper Greensand.'

The mistake was probably caused by the existence of remaniés
fossils from the Warminster beds in the Chloritic Marl of the Isle
of Wight, imparting to its fauna the semblance of that below; this
appears to be also the case with its probable equivalent in the Devon-
shire section, namely, that numbered 18 by Mr. Meyer, which he
describes as resting upon an uneven surface of the bed below, and
as containing numerous phosphate nodules and casts of shells, some
of which he regards as having probably been derived from the erosion
of the beds below. He rightly considers this bed as forming the
base of the Chalk Marl, and remarks upon the importance of the
line formed by its marked separation from the Warminster beds.

The paper indeed is a valuable one, for though mistaken in ‘one
particular, he correctly states the infra-position of the Blackdown to
the Warminster beds, and of the latter to what is really the Chloritic
Marl; the true relations of these beds had not before been ascer-
tained, and the lists of fossils afford the means of determining and
recognizing the beds over a larger area.

I have previously drawn attention to the similarity between the
conditions presented by the base of the Chalk Marl in Devonshire
and those observable in the Cambridge Greensand ;? there can, I
think, be little doubt that the two beds -occupy exactly the same
horizon, and that the fossil contents of both are to a greater or
less extent remaniés. There is, however, this great difference ‘be-
tween the two sets of derived fossils, viz. that the one of them
was derived from the fauna of the Warminster beds, and the other
from that of the Upper Gault; the reasons of this difference I ‘have
also fully explained. The Cambridge bed has been described as
Chloritic Marl by the Rey. T. G. Bonney in a paper read before
the Geologists’ Association in 1872,* and more recently in ‘his ‘Cam-
bridgeshire Geology, but without distinctly comparing it to the
Chloritie Marl-of the Isle of Wight; in the former paper, indeed.
le was inclined to regard it as to some extent the equivalent of
the Upper Greensand, but adds at p. 19, “It must, however, ‘be
remembered that, probably, our Cambridge bed is rather homo-
taxial than absolutely contemporaneous with some at least of the
more western developments of the South of England Upper Green-
sands.” I think, however, I am not misrepresenting Mr. Bonney’s
present views in saying that he concurs ‘with me in considering the
Nodule Bed as forming the actual ‘base of the Chalk Marl, and,
therefore, as the exact equivalent of the Chloritic Marl according
to its more recent definition.

1 See Barrois, Sur l’age des couches de Blackdown, Ann. Soc. Geol. du Nord,
tom. iil. p. 7.

2 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxxi. p. 272.

° The fact of the entire absence of the characteristic fossils of the Warminster beds
in the Cambridge Greensand is ‘sufficient proof that these beds were never deposited
in that area, Joc. cit., pp. 272, 278.

* Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. iii.

A. J. Jukes Browne—On the Upper Greensand, ete. 359

Dr. Barrots’ CLAssiIFICATION.

Having now reviewed the various descriptions and definitions .
which have been given of the Upper Greensand and Chloritic
Marl up to the year 1875, I proceed to notice those given in the
recently published researches of Dr. Ch. Barrois,' which have, I
conceive, gone far towards harmonizing the conflicting opinions
previously existing with regard to the constitution and im-
portance of these beds, and towards establishing a more natural
method of grouping the strata in this portion of the Cretaceous
series.

In this work Dr. Barrois has shown that a proper understanding
of the Cretaceous system (as of all other systems) can only be
attamed by one who unites the qualifications of a paleontologist
with those of a field-geologist; and no one, I think, can study the
pages of his ‘‘ Recherches” without admitting that he himself pos-
sesses these qualifications in an eminent degree.

He has also reminded us, or rather takes for granted that we
remember what some of us seem apt to forget, that lithological
characters alone form untrustworthy foundation for rock-groups,
that the same stage or formation can be a clay in one district and
a marl or sandstone in another, that Gault may include sand as
well as clay, and that this is particularly the case with the Upper
Gault or zone of Ammonites injiatus.

Working on these data he has determined the existence of a succes-
sion of paleontological zones from the Gault upwards throughout the
Chalk, and carefully followed them over the Cretaceous areas of the
British Isles.

The first four of these zones are as follows :—

1. Zone of Amm. inflatus = Blackdown Beds.

2. », Lecten asper= Warminster Beds.
3. Chloritic Marl.

4, Zone of Holaster subglobosws =Chalk Marl.

Regarding the first two of these divisions, he says (p. 71), ‘‘ The
Upper Greensand, as defined by Berger, Inglefield, Webster, Fitton,
and Ibbetson, appears to me everywhere divisible into two zones;
the zone of Am. inflatus, and the zone of P. asper. The fauna of
the Upper Greensand, being a mixture of these two faunas, had of
necessity relations with both.” Again at p. 105, “I had thought
that the lithological characters of the Upper Greensand would make
it a special division, distinct from the other horizons; but I was
deceived, and in the Upper Greensand of the Isle of Wight, as in
that of the rest of England, there are two perfectly distinct faunas,
that of Blackdown and that of Warminster.’ The case, however, is
not quite so simple as would appear from this, for the lower and
clayey portions of the Amm. inflatus zone have always been ex-
cluded from the Upper Greensand ; the two zones therefore do
not exactly form its equivalent, since they include more than the
Upper Greensand.

' Recherches sur le Terrain Crétacé supérieur de l Angleterre et de I’ Ireland, par
Ch. Barrois, D.Sc. Lille, 1876.

360 A.J. Jukes Browne—On the Upper Greensand, ete.

I will now give Dr. Barrois’ interpretations of the sections in

the three areas we have been chiefly concerned with, viz. the
' Weald, the Isle of Wight, and the Western area. In the Isle of
Wight, at St. Lawrence, he gives the following :—

Zone I. Amm. inflatus. Feet
A. Micaceous and Glauconitic sands, with bluish argillaceous
bands at the bottom ... 3) ood doo. WOH
B. Yellowish sandstone, with hard siliceous bands . upnalsoriis eGORni color
Zone II. Pecten asper.
C. Greensand with phosphate nodules ... 1... see cen wee 6
D. Bands of green sandstone and bluish chert... ... ... ... 24
HeChioritic Marlys ieee Baie eee cee 7

A certain similarity will be noticed ibetween aig section and those
previously given, all of them being capable of a natural division
into two unequal portions, to the upper of which all unite in giving
a thickness of 380 to 36 feet. Moreover, the lists given by Dr.
Barrois from these two divisions, in the Isle of Wight and the
neighbouring county of Dorset, show that they contain two different
groups of fossils, the one of which corresponds with that found in
the Upper Gault and Blackdown beds, while the other resembles
the Warminster fauna. In Surrey (p. 141), he looks upon the
lower soft sandstones and marls as belonging to the zone of
Am. inflatus, and upon the Firestone as representing the zone of
P. asper. In Hampshire he gives an account of the beds near
Petersfield (p. 36), and thus describes them—
Feet

1. Soft, micaceous sandy beds, with Am. inflatus ... .. .. 70

2. Coarse quartzose sands and sandstones . een)

3. Marly bed with glauconite and nodules of phosphate ‘of

lime (no fossils “seen) ..

The second he refers to the Warman ede or Bonen asper zone,
and the last he assimilates to the Chloritic Marl; remarking “that
these two horizons have not before been identified in this part of
Hampshire.” .He also mentions a road section near Binstead, where
a similar nodule bed is seen resting on coarse greensands, which he
considers to represent the Pecten asper zone; he does not give any
very definite opinion regarding the position of the Malm-rock, but
he does not seem to distinguish it from Firestone.

The superposition of the Warminster beds to those of the Black-
down or Amm. inflatus zone is stated to be visible in the vales of
Warminster and Pewsey, even if it had not been so clearly indicated
by Mr. Meyer in Devonshire.

He adopts Mr. Meyer’s account of the series of beds exhibited
near Beer Head as giving an accurate description of the different
horizons, but differs from him in the correlation of the several
groups; admitting the existence of a Blackdown fauna (belonging
to Htage A) in the beds numbered 2 and 8, he does not think that
Nos. 4, 5 and 6 are sufficiently different to be separated from the
lower beds, and as they contain large Pecten 4-costatus and Hx.
conica, he refers them to Htage B of the same division or zone (see
ante). No. 7 he considers to be a pebble bed separating the two
divisions, and he gives to the lower or Am. inflatus zone a thickness

A. J. Jukes Browne—On the Upper Greensand, etc. 361

of 75 ft. Nos. 8 and 9:he parallels with his Etage C, and numbers
10, 11, 12 he agrees with Mr. Meyer in referring to the fossiliferous
portion of the Warminster beds; thus giving to the whole zone of
P. asper a thickness of 21 feet. Nos. 13 and 14, called Chalk Marl
by Mr. Meyer, he correlates with the Chloritic Marl, though ad-
mitting the possibility of the latter bed being the attenuated repre-
sentative of his Holaster subglobosus zone or Chalk Marl.

He proceeds to trace these several stages through Devon and
Dorset, but we must not forget that Mr. De Rance had accurately
described them in 1874, and had even given the same names to two
of the groups; had he indeed ventured on a more extended corre-
lation of the zones, he would perhaps have anticipated Dr. Barrois’
division of the Upper Greensand; referring to the tables before
given, it is evident that zone I. of De Rance = Htage E (Chloritic
Marl), that zone II. = Etages D and E (Pecten asper), zone IJ. =
Htage B (Hx. conica), while the Fox-mould and Cowstones repre-
sent Htage A of the Am. imflatus zone.

The section on the northern side of Swanage Bay has also been
recently described by Mr. H. G. Fordham,’ who divides the Upper
Greensand into its local component beds; he informs me that he
would assimilate the first three of these, with a total thickness of 26
feet, to the P. asper zone, and refer the remaining 40 or 50 feet to
the Am. inflatus zone of Dr. Barrois.

Regarding the Chloritic Marl he says that its junction with the
underlying Upper Greensand is irregular but well marked, and
further on, “I have used the term Chloritic Marl to signify the lowest
bed of the Chalk Marl, which is characterized by the presence of
glauconitic grains, and a Chalk Marl fauna, mixed with many derived
phosphatic casts of fossils.” Its thickness he gives as 4 feet, and
correlates it with the Cambridge phosphate bed and No. 13 of Mr.
Meyer’s section.

Concluding Remarks.—As I conceive we now possess a knowledge
of the true order and succession of the Greensand beds above the
Gault, together with a more accurate conception of their character,
contents, and extent, it only remains for me to make a few remarks
on the application of the terms Chloritic Marl and Upper Greensand,
and to indicate one or two points that seem to require still further
investigation.

From the foregoing sectional evidence I think it is clear that no
break occurs in the series from the base of the Gault upwards till
we reach the so-called Chloritic. Marl, and that here there is a well-
marked discontinuity, both stratigraphical and paleontological.
The line of separation and slight erosion at its base in the south-
west becomes more decided when traced to the north-east, and the
small indigenous fauna, when the numerous derived fossils are
separated from it, is found to differ very little from that of the
Chalk-marl. and to be quite distinct from that of the Pecten asper
zone. In the Wealden area the line of division appears to be less
clear, there has been less erosion, and the bed contains fewer fossils

1 Proc. Geol. Assoc. vol. iv. p. 8.

3862 A. J. Jukes Browne—On the Upper Greensand, ete.

either indigenous or derivative ; it has on this account been generally
confused with the sands below, and the two together have been
ealled Chloritic Marl. Dr. Barrois, however, has shown that it is
divisible from these sands in Hampshire, and it seems probable that
the latter are lenticular beds belonging to the P. asper zone some-
times attaining a thickness of 10 or 15 feet and sometimes thinning
out altogether, while the thin bed of sandy marl with glauconitic
and phosphate nodules has a wider extent, and is probably to be
found at the base of the Chalk-marl all round the Weald; its exist-
ence is very marked in the neighbourhood of Maidstone, where it
directly overlies the Gault, as at Cambridge, without the interposition
of any Upper Greensand strata whatever.

The thickness of this bed is rarely more than 3 or 4 feet, but
if passes gradually upwards into the Chalk-marl from which it is
inseparable, except so far as its green grains and phosphate nodules
give ita character of its own. Thus it is clear that the narrow zone
of glauconitic marl lying at the base of the Chalk cannot be con-
sidered as forming a separate division, and therefore does not merit
such a name as that of Chloritic Marl, which at once suggests a
comparison with the Chalk-marl, and gives it an importance far
greater than it possesses; moreover, it has often been pointed out
that the name itself is based an a misconception, in as much as the
green grains are not composed of Chlorite but Glauconite, and |
therefore agree with Mr. Whitaker and Mr. Price in advocating the
entire abandonment of the name.

Since, however, the bed itself does exist as a zone subordinate to
the Chalk Marl, it is desirable that some name indicative of this
should be assigned to it; Mr. Davidson and Mr. De Rance have
called it the zone of Scaphites equalis, and perhaps that name can be
adopted ; at the same time it may be observed that this fossil is both
of wide and partial distribution ; it is known to occur both in the
beds above and below, while in some areas, as at Cambridge, it
does not seem to exist in the zone of which it is supposed to be
characteristic. It may therefore be found more convenient to indi-
cate this horizon by one of the numerous sponges, which it every-
where contains, and which are now being described by my friend
Mr. W. J. Sollas. Or, lastly, it may have to be amalgamated with
the horizon immediately succeeding it, which Dr. Barrois calls the
zone of Plocoscyphia meandroides, further information being required
concerning the persistence of this band and its relation to the marl
below.

Finally, it is desirable that some more clear definition of the
Upper Greensand should be given. I remember Prof. Ramsay once
observing that Gault and Greensand were the same thing, and
doubtless they are in the sense that no hard and fast stratigraphical
line can be drawn between them, but taken as a whole it is found
that the series can be divided into three groups of beds, each con- °
taining a peculiar fauna of its own, and worthy of a separate name.

Dr. Barrois says that the English Upper Greensand consists of two
parts, which he calls the zones of Am. inflatus and Pecten asper, but

A. J. Jukes Browne—On the Upper Greensand, etc. 363

this is not strictly true, because the former zone contains beds of
Gault Clay which have never been included in the Upper Greensand.
The real fact is, that recent researches have shown the formations
known as Gault and Upper Greensand each to consist of two
divisions, but the lower part of the one being united palzonto-
logically with the upper member of the other, only three well-
marked groups can be established. Supposing, therefore, that the
names of Gault and Upper Greensand are still retained, we must
decide to which of the two this intermediate zone more probably
belongs, whether in fact we should extend the Greensand down-
ward or the Gault upward. I would advocate the latter measure,
and the restriction of the term Upper Greensand to the group of
beds containing a Warminster fauna; with regard to stage B,
containing Ex. conica (the Upper Greensand of Mr. Meyer), I do
not think Dr. Barrois gives very strong reasons for classing it in
the lower division; it is true that it does not contain many fossils,
and that these do not indicate any marked affinities, but the large
Junira equicostata is I think mostly found in the Warminster
beds; its lithological constitution certainly links it rather with
the upper than the lower beds. I would suggest, therefore, that
the zone B of Ex. conica be ineluded with the Warminster beds,
and that the limit of the lower division be placed at the shingle
beds in No. 4 of Mr. Meyer’s section. The upper division would
then consist of two parts, zone of Pecten asper and zone of Ex.
conica, De Rance, the lower of which may be taken as forming the
base of the Upper Greensand. As a matter of fact this bed has
always been included in that formation, and it would cause great
confusion if in retaining the term we excluded this part of it; the
twofold constitution of the Greensand is well seen at Wantage,
where, according to Mr. HE. C. Davey, 80 feet of soft greensands are
underlaid by 6. feet of firestone.

GENERAL CLASSIFICATION.

¢ Marl with small Brachiopods Feet

Chalk Marl b Zone of Plocos. meandroides 40—80
a Glauconite (Chloritic) Marl
Warminster beds = zones of P. asper and FP
Wipper Greensand Ex. conica (De Rance) Smee

Blackdown beds or zone of Ammonites

Upper Gault 60—100

anfiatus F
ayn of DiOnbigny = zones of Am. 30-150
autus and Am. interruptus
Aptien of D’Orbigny =zones of Am. mam- 2100
millaris and Folkestone beds. i
The arrangement above suggested has also the merit of necessita-
ting only a very slight alteration in the lines on the published
Survey Maps, the term is rendered lithologically applicable, and a
definite fauma is secured to the formation instead of a mixture of
two different groups. It is true that the lists of Upper Greensand
fossils will have to be revised, and those excluded which belong to
the lower zone; but that was requisite in any case, and I venture to
hope that in the future care will be taken to indicate the exact
locality and horizon where any particular fossil or fossils are found.

Lower Gault

Lower Greensand

364 Notices of Memoirs—Prof. Owen—

I conclude with appending a table in which the various local beds
are correlated as far as possible with one another. I would point
out that the horizon of the Malm-rock is somewhat uncertain, but
that its fauna appears to belong to that of the P. asper zone ; also
that I have included Htage B, and beds 5 and 6 of the Devon section,
in the same division, thus giving to it a thickness of from 35 to
45 feet.

While thus endeavouring to limit satisfactorily the three stages
into which the Gault and Greensand can be divided, and which it
is important to recognize, it must be remembered that they really
pass into one another and form a continuous series; so that it is
impossible to draw very definite lines between them such as that
which does exist above the P. asper zone and divides it from the
overlying Chalk-marl.

CoMPARATIVE SECTIONS.

Zones. | Folkestone | Merstham | Selbourne \I.of Wight| Devon | Wiltshire | Cambs
(Price) (Barrois) |(Geol. Sur.)| (Barrois) | (Meyer) | (Barrois)
6. P Clayey | Chalk Marl Chalk Marl| Marl with | (Absent.) | Marl with | Marl with
marls Turrilites Rh.Martini Brachiopods
5. Ploco- Qy. of Ploc. P F Qy. of Ploc.| (Absent) P Absent
scyphia mean- mean-
meandroides| droides droides
4, Scaphites 2?) Zone of ? Chloritic | Chloritic | No. 13.. Chloritic Cambs
@qualis \Stauronema Marl Marl Marl Greensand
3. Pecten Absent ? |Upper sands Upper.sands} Sandstones| 5 to 12 |Warminster, Absent.
asper & Firestone | and D.C. & B. Warminster beds
Malm Rock beds.
2. Ammon. | Sandy and Lowersands Sandy marls| Sands and 2 to 4 Micaceous | Absent or
inflatus | marly clays| and marls Sandy-clays, Blackdown | sands and | base only
= Mio fauna clays
1. Ammon. |Gault clays} Gault Gault (part)| Black clay. | Black clay | Dark clay | Gault.
lautus |

INK OQ ARROAHS}! Oig- — IMI Owes S 5

I.—Prorrssor Owen’s. Fosstrn Mammats or AUSTRALIA.

N pursuance of his aim to leave records of the vertebrate fossils of
our Colonies, Prof. Owen, after the issue of his “ Catalogue of the

Fossil Reptilia of South Africa” (4to. 1876), proceeded to prepare
for press his notes “On the Fossil Mammals of Australia,” portions
of which have from time to time appeared in the “ Philosophical
Transactions.” To the materials systematically arranged in the
work now issued he has premised a chapteron the Fossil Marsupials
of Great Britain, the whole being included in two quarto volumes,
one of text (pp. 522, with interspersed woodcuts) ; the other of
plates, 132 in number, under the title “ Researches: on the Fossil
Remains of the Extinct Mammals of Australia.” The aim of this
work is, mainly, to afford the Australian students of Paleontology a
ready means of comparison of the mammalian fossils which may

Fossil Mammals of Australia. 365

come under their observation; and for this purpose illustrations of
the osteology and dentition of existing Marsupials are given, more
especially of species of the families of the Kangaroos (J/acropodide)
and Wombats (Phascolomyide).

Of the genus Diprotodon, indicated, in 1835, by a fragment of lower
jaw with an incisor of a young individual, fossil evidences since re-
ceived, and described in this work, have enabled the author to give
a restoration of the skeleton of the largest species (D. australis).
Of the genus Nototherium much of the skeleton is restored and three
species defined—WN. Mitchellii, N. Victoria, and N. inerme.

An extinct genus (Phascolonus), of the Wombat family, is founded
on fossils indicative of a species which attained the bulk of a Tapir ;
and evidences of five extinct species of Phascolomys are adduced
from fossils more nearly the size of the existing Wombat. In
addition to larger species of the existing genus IMacropus, e.g. Macr.
Titan, the author adduces characters of the dentition and limbs re-
ferable to seven extinct genera of the Kangaroo family.

IJ.—NorE PRELIMINAIRE SUR LE TERRAIN SILURIEN DE OUEST DE
LA BreraGNe. Par Dr. Cuas. Barrors. (Ann. de la Soc. Géol.
du Nord, vol. iv. p. 38.)

ie -this paper the author pursues a similar course with regard to
the Silurian, to that which he took a short time since with the

Devonian deposits of this district.!

The stratified deposits in this locality rest on the Gneiss of Brest,
and are divided by the central granite plateau of Brittany into
two great masses, a northern and a southern, each of which is again
subdivided into eastern and western basins, and it is the Silurian
beds in the western basin of the southern mass—the Finisterre basin
—that are here treated of. They consist of a series of schists,
sandstones and quartzites, and may be tabulated as follows, com-
mencing with the Gneiss de Brest, then follow in ascending order :—
Mica-schists ; Phyllades vertes de Douarnenez: Poudingues et Schistes
rouge lie-de-vin du Cap la Chevre; Grés blancs des Montagnes
Noires & Scolitus linearis ; Schistes de Morgat a Calymene Tristani,
the most fossiliferous division of the group; Schistes et Quartzites
de Plougastel. The last named have been classed by some previous
observers as Devonian; but are considered by M. Barrois to be of
Silurian age, and the equivalents of the “ Grés blancs sans fossiles ”’
of Dalimier in the Rennes and Cotentin basins. —

M. Barrois maintains that these Silurian beds of the Finisterre
basin exhibit precisely the same divisions as in the better studied
regions of the province; the modern ideas of their true stratigraphy
being founded on misconceptions as to the real age of the schists
and quartzites of Plougastel, whilst a large fault running down the
valley of the river Hlorn and the estuary of Brest has been entirely
overlooked.—B. B. W.

1 Ann. de la Soc. Géol. du Nord, vol. iv. p. 59; Guot. Mac. June, 1877, p. 280.

366 Reviews—Lake Dwellings of Switzerland.

JJJ.—Naturat History Transactions of NorTHUMBERLAND AND
Duruam. Vol. V. Part III. (London: Messrs. Williams and
Norgate.)

P{\HIS number contains two paleeontological papers of interest. The
first, “On the Skull and other Bones of Loxomma Allmanni,

Hux., from the Low Main, Newsham, Northumberland,” by Messrs.

Dennis, Hmbleton, and T. Atthey, contains a most careful and

ininute description of the most complete specimen of the skull of this

reptile yet found, the upper surface and border being perfect. Close
by it were found the two halves, right and left, of a lower jaw,
fitting it, and probably belonging to the same individual, as well as
some vertebrae, ribs and other bones. When viewed from above, the
skull has a general resemblance to that of Archegosaurus and the

Crocodilia, and of the latter, the Alligator rather than the Crocodile.

The teeth are nearly all broken off transversely, and exhibit a

beautiful labyrinthodontine structure, which is well figured on pl. iv.

Its affinities with the fishes are shown by the existence of one
concave articular surface instead of a condyle or condyles, and by the
existence of two facets on the exoccipitals for articulation with the
neural arch of the atlas; whilst the form, size, and solidarity of the
skull, together with its peculiarly reticulated surface, resembles that
of the Alligator. Its zoological position is defined as being between
the Salamandroid fishes and the Crocodilia.

The second paper contains an equally elaborate description, by Mr.
T. Atthey, of the largest by far of the three Labyrinthodonts yet
found in the Northumberland Coal-field—Anthracosaurus Russelli,
Hux. The parts treated of are the upper and under surface of the
skull, both rami of the mandible, the teeth scutes and other bones.

The plates illustrating these two papers are admirably executed.—

B. B. W.

REVIEWS.

I1.—Tuse Lake DweELLines oF SwiTzERLAND AND OTHER Parts oF
Evrorr. By Dr. Ferpinanp Ketizr. Translated and arranged
by Joun Epwarp Luz, F.S.A., F.G.S., ete. Forthcoming second
edition. (London, Longmans, Green & Co.)

(PLATE XI.)

({TUDENTS of Prehistoric Archeology in this country are largely

) indebted to Mr. John Edward Lee, of Torquay, for the valuable
service he has rendered them in presenting to Hnglish readers so
excellent a version of Dr. Ferdinand Keller’s great work on the
Lake-Dwellings of Switzerland, noticed by us in the GuronogicaL
Magazine for 1866, Vol. ILI. p. 460.

So thoroughly has Mr. Lee’s labour been appreciated, that a new
edition has been called for, and is actually completed, and will
shortly appear.

In the eleven years that have intervened since the appearance
of the first edition, the Swiss antiquaries have largely added

a i i ie i 8 i Nn

Gopi, Mag. 7877.

we cP I oN ae teeter ape ee vigttome mate yee ee

a Ts

Decade.tI Vol. WV V. PLS Me

=—2

PILES of THE LAKE DWELLING or MORINGEN
( Bronze Age.)

Copied by Permission of J Birktk sq" ot Berw | -

Reviews—Harmer’s Testimony of the Rocks. 367

to their fund of information concerning these lacustrine habi-
tations, the peoples that inhabited them, their domesticated animals,
the beasts of the chase which they hunted, their weapons, and the
rude arts and manufactures which they practised. Other sources of
information have also been largely drawn upon in order to show
that lake-dwellings existed in other parts of Europe, and also in
Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, which in many respects may be con-
sidered analogous to certain peculiar constructions found in Switzer-
land, although of later date. The translator has contributed
liberally from his own stores of antiquarian lore towards the inter-
pretation of innumerable points of interest bearing upon the fabri-
eation and uses of the thousand and one objects which have been
dug or dredged up from amid the pile-works of these truly wonderful
Pfahlbauten.

The new edition is largely increased as regards the number of its
illustrations, as well as in the subject-matter contained in the text itself.

The book is far removed from a mere translation. On nearly every
page Mr. Lee has added some fresh piece of information, collected
from innumerable sources, which tends greatly to enhance the value
and usefulness of the work,

By the courtesy of Mr. Lee, we are permitted to reproduce a
most interesting and remarkable view of the stumps of the piles
which once supported the Lake-dwelling of Méringen, a settlement
of the Bronze age on the shores of the Lake of Bienne, which con-
veys at a glance a wonderful idea of the extent of one of these
settlements and the labour involved in its erection. We hope soon
to have the new edition before us, and will not therefore now say
more as to its increased usefulness, but will reserve the description
of Méringen and other points of interest for a later notice.

39

I].—Tue “Testimony oF THE Rocns” 1n Norroux. A Popular
Description of the Geology of the County. By F. W. Haruezr,
FG.S. pp. 38. (London: Hamilton, Adams, and Co.)

HIS sketch of the geology of Norfolk was delivered as a lecture
at Norwich in March, 1877, and gives in an easy and inter-
esting form an account of the great physical changes which the area
has undergone since Cretaceous times. The method of formation
of the Chalk, the Norwich Crag, the Forest-Bed, and the Glacial
deposits are especially dwelt upon. Accompanying this little work
is an excellent coloured geological section from Hunstanton Cliff to
Great Yarmouth, on which the relations of the various strata are
well shown, while the beds passed through in the deep wells at
Norwich and Yarmouth are particularly noticed. The “Carstone”’
of Hunstanton, of Lower Greensand age, is grouped as Neocomian,
under the local name of “Sandringham Beds.” These beds are
stated to consist of sand with shingle-beds in their upper part in the
extreme north-west of Norfolk, and which, where indurated, are called
Carstone. We can heartily recommend Mr. Harmer’s lecture to
those who wish to grasp the main features of the geology of Norfolk
without entering into the details.

368 Reports and Proceedings— Geological Society.

aS TISOIRwS CAINZD) 2214 OCT IDID ION GS.
ise ty, Feast

J.—Corswotp Firip Crus. —The 82nd anniversary meeting of the
Cotswold Club, under the presidency of Sir W. V. Guise, Bart.,
F.L.S., etc., took place on April 14, 1877. It was also the 19th
annual meeting presided over by its president. About thirty
members attended to hear the address and to arrange for the
meetings and general business of the coming season. The club then
adjourned to the School of Art to hear Mr. W. C. Lucy’s paper on “'The
Extension of the Boulder-clay and Drift over the Cotswold Range.”

Mr. Lucy referred to a former paper read before the Club in 1869,
in which he stated that he had not found Northern Drift pebbles at
a higher elevation than 750 feet, confirming the observations made
many years ago by Prof. Hull, when surveying the district. Mr.
Lucy also mentioned that he was not aware of the presence of
Boulder-clay, unless some clay which had been found in the partings
of a quarry at Woodchester, with a small quantity of pebbles im-
bedded in it, should prove to be it. The special object of his paper
seemed to be the discovery of the same highly silicified clay in
various parts of the Cotswolds, including ithe highest point of Cleeve
Cloud. This clay he had had analyzed by Prof. Church and Mr.
Embrey, and the result, as will be seen by the following table, showed
so marked a resemblance in the per-centage of silica as to leave
no doubt that it was all derived from the same source; and from
the Northern Drift pebbles being found with it, Mr. Lucy classed it
as belonging to the Boulder-clay period, indicating that the whole
of the Cotswold range was submerged during that time. Mr. Lucy
also traced the same clay in a gravel-pit in the vale at Frampton,
which clay he believed was once on the higher ground, and from
the weathering of the friable Oolitic rocks, had been brought into
its present position.

W oodchester Cleeve Symonds Painswick Frampton
Park. Cloud. Hall Farm. Hill. Gravel Pit.
Silica ... 70°50 67-2 69°58 68-2 69°60

Mr. Lucy further pointed out the undoubted presence of ice action,
as shown at Limbury, and at Aston Magna, and other parts of the
Upper Cotswolds, and explained that striations were not found in
the Gloucester area owing to the soft character of the Oolitic rocks.
We cannot follow him in the account he gave of the grooving of the
Lias in the valleys upon which some of the gravels rest, nor the
very difficult and complicated second Boulder-clay to which he
referred.

IJ.—Grotocicat Society or Lonpon.—June 20, 1877.—Prof.
P. Martin Duncan, M.B., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The following papers were read :

1. “On a Hitherto Unnoticed Circumstance Affecting the Piling-
up of Volcanic Cones.” By R. Mallet, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S.

After some remarks upon the two forms of volcanic activity, the
earlier system of “fissure eruption,” and the present one of “ eruption

Thos. Belt—The Steppes of S. Russia. 369

at explosive foci,” which he did not think could be carried back
much beyond the Tertiary epoch, the author discussed the ordinary
method of formation of a volcanic cone, and pointed out that the
effect of the piling up of material must produce a pressure on the
original surface commensurate with the amount of material heaped
up on it, and therefore increasing gradually from the circumference
nearly to the centre of the cone, where the loftiest column of material
presses upon the unit of space. When the supporting rock is un-
yielding, such as the granite which bears the Puys of Auvergne, it
will probably maintain its original position; but when it is of a
more yielding nature, as in the case of the ordinary stratified rocks,
the pressure of the cone will produce a saucer-shaped depression,
deepest in the centre where the greatest pressure occurs; and this
tendency to sink will be aided materially by the honeycombing and
evisceration of the subjacent rock-masses exposed to the action of the
volcano. The consequence of this depression of the surface support-
ing the cone will be to diminish the original slope of the successive
superimposed deposits, and even in some cases cause the lowest beds
to slope from the circumference towards the centre. If the strata
upon which the voleano stands be particularly plastic, its pressure
may cause an uprise of the strata into protuberances round the foot
of the mountain. Similar phenomena may occur when the support
of the cone is formed by older volcanic deposits.

2. “The Steppes of Southern Russia.” By Thomas Belt, Hsq.,
P.G.S.

The author describes sections of strata in the south of Russia, and
traces the following succession of events :

1. Deposition-of marine Miocene beds when the Vienna basin and
the Aralo-Caspian area were joined together, and had free commu-
nication with the Mediterranean.

2. Interruption of the communication with the Mediterranean, and
deposition of the Sarmatic beds in a closed sea-basin.

3. Gradual freshening of the water of this area and deposition of
the Congerian strata.

4, Lowering of the water of the Vienna basin and Aralo-Caspian
area to below the present level of the ocean, and great denudation
of the preceding strata. The author thinks that the drainage was at
this time to the north.

5. Interruption of drainage to the north and deposition of fluviatile
beds, with freshwater shells of existing species and remains of the
Mammoth and Irish Elk.

6. Drainage to the north completely stopped and formation of a
great lake, over which floated icebergs with northern drift. Forma-
tion of diluvial clay of the south and boulder-clays of the north of
Russia.

7. Lake gradually lowered by the cutting through of the channel
of the Bosphorus.

The author considers that the formation of the great lake was due
to the ice of the glacial period flowing down the beds of the Atlantic
and Pacific, and damming back the drainage of the continents as

DECADE I1.— VOL, IV.—NO. VIII. - 24

370 Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society.

far as it extended. To the rising of these waters he ascribes the
destruction of paleolithic man, the mammoth, and the woolly
rhinoceros, which he considers are prediluvial. This lake was once
suddenly and torrentially discharged through the breaking away of
the Atlantic ice-dam, causing the outspread of the middle glacial
sands and gravels, but was formed again, and ultimately drained by
the cutting through of the channel of the Bosphorus.

He also offers suggestions to account for the preservation of the
Aralo-Caspian fauna and the arrival of Arctic animals in the area.

3. “The Glacial Period.” By J. F. Campbell, Esq., F.G.S.

In this paper the author gave the results of numerous observations
extending over many years, and made in many different parts of the
world, the results of which had led him to form the opinion that no
geological record exists of any abnormal Glacial periods colder than
the present world’s climate. But if the term “Glacial period” be
used with a limitation, such as “ local,” or “ Alpine,” or “‘ European,”
he saw nothing to object to. Changes in the relations between the
surface of the earth and the undoubtedly permanently glacial
portions of the atmosphere, principally brought about by changes of
level in the former, appeared to him sufficient to account for the
phenomena. The most recent so-called Glacial periods being fixed
in Postpliocene times, the author remarked that Indian glaciers (lat.
27°-32° N.) are now almost as large as they have been since the
deposition of the crumpled Tertiary deposits known as ‘“‘ Nahuns”
and ‘‘Sivaliks.” A similar result was obtained from observations in
the Caucasus (lat. 40° N.) and Rocky Mountains (lat. 36°-37° N.).
In Northern Italy (about lat. 45°-46° N.) glaciers were a great deal
larger in Postpliocene times than at present.

4, “The Action of Coast-ice on an Oscillating Area.” By Prof. J.
Milne, F.G.S., of the Imperial College of Engineering, Tokio, Japan.

In this paper the author described the results of observations made
by him in Newfoundland, Labrador, and Finland, which had led him
to believe that many of the marks generally regarded as furnishing
evidence of the existence of an ice-cap, or at least of an enormous
extension of land-ice at certain periods, might easily be explained by
the action of coast-ice upon an oseillating, and especially a rising area.

5. “On Points of Similarity between Zeolitic and Siliceous Incrus-
tations of Recent Formation by Thermal Springs and those observed
in Amygdaloid and other Altered Volcanic Rocks.” By Prof. A.
Daubrée, F.M.G:S.

The author described the formation of zeolitic minerals by the
infiltration of masonry by the waters of thermal springs at Plom-
biéres (Vosges), Luxeuil (Haute-Sadne), Bourbonne (Haute-Marne),
and near Oran in Algeria. In breaking through the wall of con-
crete, composed of fragments of stone and brick built by the Romans
round the mouths of these springs, it has been found that the
materials employed have undergone a great change by the long-
continued action of the water. The cavities in the bricks are occu-
pied by minerals, generally zeolitic, among the most abundant of
which is chabasite, agreeing in all respects with the natural mineral.

J. S. Gardner—COretaceous Dentaliade. Oval

Phillipsite or lime Harmotome also occurs, associated with the pre-
ceding, just as in the amygdaloidal trap of Iceland. In hollows of
the calcareous cement small crystals of apophyllite occur, with pul-
verulent and minutely crystalline fluor spar, together with other
minerals not identified, but resembling in character gismondine and
scolezite. At Plombiéres hyalite occurs with the zeolites ; and where
the masonry is exposed to the full flow of the water there is a trans-
parent gelatinous deposit, which becomes white and opaque when
dry, and is a hydrated silicate of lime analogous to okenite. Aragon-
ite occurs generally in acicular crystals, but sometimes of the form
called apotome by Haiiy, found in iron ore deposits and in some
basalts. Calcite is frequently associated with the chabasite, as in
Icelandic lavas. Halloysite is also met with at Plombicres.

Besides the formation of geodes in the visible cavities, the whole
substance of the bricks was found to be altered by contact with the
water. ‘This change rendered the originally friable brick very hard
and compact ; and microscopic examination showed that its minute
pores. were filled with colourless and transparent mineral substances.
The author gave the following list of the minerals thus found :—
Chabasite, christianite (?), mesotype, hyalite (?), tridymite, chalce-
dony in radiate spherules, calcite, and some globular bodies of un-
certain nature. The association of chalcedonic quartz with opal is
interesting, as proving that silica may be deposited in the anhydrous
form when the temperature of the surrounding medium does not
exceed 70°C. Analysis showed that the amount of zeolitic substance
added to the bricks is from 15 to 14 per cent. of the total weight.

This contemporary production of zeolites and other minerals
identical with those found in amygdaloidal and many other altered
voleanic rocks is regarded by the author as an experimental demon-
stration of the mode of formation of the latter, which are no doubt
produced in a similar manner by the percolation of water through
the substance of the rocks, conveying to, and depositing in, their
cavities mineral substances, dissolved durime its passage. Zeolitic
minerals, as he says, may therefore be considered a kind of ‘“ ex-
tract” of the rocks so subjected to continued lixiviation. And the
process being effected independently of any peculiar conditions of
heat and pressure, would seem to show that no such conditions are
essential in the production of natural zeolites.

6. “On the Cretaceous Dentaliade.” By J. 8. Gardner, Esq.,
EGS:

In this paper the author described the Dentaliadze from the British
Cretaceous rocks, of which he enumerated the following species :—
Dentalium decussatum, Sow., and var. edlipticum, Sow. (Gault) ; D.
medium, Sow. (Gault, Greensand, and Grey Chalk); D. divisiensis,
sp. n. (Upper Greensand) ; D. alatwm, sp. n. (Gault) ; D. cylindricum,
Sow. (Blackdown); D, acuminatum, sp. n. (Gault); D. subtetrago-
num, sp. n. (Gault); D. tetragonum, sp. n. (Gault); Entalis Meyer,
sp. n. (Blackdown) ; and Gadus gaultinus, sp. n. (Gault).

7. “On a number of New Sections around the Estuary of the
Dee which exhibit Phenomena having an Important Bearing on the

372 Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society.

Origin of Boulder-clay and the Sequence of Glacial Events.” By D.
Mackintosh, Esq., F.G.S.

In this paper the author minutely stated the results of repeated
examinations of a number of new sections of drift-deposits, with a
particular reference to the character of their bases and lines of
junction between them. He described in detail the patterns ex-
hibited by the grooved erratic stones of the shelly clays compared
with irregularly scratched stones of the Lake District. He then
gave a particular account of the character of the two shelly clays,
and assigned reasons for believing in their threefold origin—the
local grit and broken shells accumulated by the sea, which at the
time was fully charged with sub-glacial clay, and the erratic stones
carried and dropped by floating coast-ice. He described phenomena
proving that boulders must have fallen into the clay, and called at-
tention to the varying directions of strize on rock-surfaces (including
some he had lately discovered), and their relations to the courses
and cross-courses taken by erratic stones, some of which had travelled
200 miles. He then connected the special observations he had lately
made with the results of many years’ investigations extending around
the basin of the Irish Sea, from Carlisle to Crewe, and from Crewe
to Anglesey, and traced the horizontal and vertical extent of the
three shelly drifts, and their relation to the mountain drifts of North
Wales and the Lake District. He stated many reasons for rejecting
the idea that land-ice had distributed either of the two Boulder-clays
he had described, but left it an open question whether the blue clay
of North Wales, the Lake District, the Yorkshire valleys, and parts
of Lancashire, with its local stones, may not have been accumulated
under land-ice. He concluded by stating that the paper was in-
tended to be introductory to one on the correlation of the drifts of
the north-west with those of the eastern and central parts of
England.

8. “Discovery of Silurian Beds in Teesdale.” By W. Gunn, Esq.,
F.G.8., and C. T. Clough, Esq., B.A., F.G.8., of H.M. Geological
‘Survey.

The authors described the general physical characters of Teesdale,
referring especially to the position of the Burstreeford Dyke, the
whin, according to them, occupying a very different horizon at
Forcegarth Hill and Cronkley Fell, so that the displacement indi-
cated by it is probably 400 feet greater than has been supposed.
This disturbance has brought up the beds which lie at the base of
the Carboniferous series in the dale, and these are exposed in the
banks of the Tees at the old Pencil Mill at Cronkley, where they
were formerly worked up into slate pencils. They are soft shales,
usually gray or greenish gray, sometimes yellowish green or purplish
red. They are very indistinctly bedded, but show traces of what
may be cleavage in some parts. From the character of the deposit,
the character of the dykes of the district, and the fact that these
beds are not altered by them, the character of the veins traversing
them, and an apparent unconformity between these beds and the
undoubtedly Carboniferous beds overlying them, the authors come
to the conclusion that this deposit is not of Carboniferous, but of

G. M. Dawson—Geology of British Columbia. 373

Silurian age, and they indicate certain theoretical conclusions which
follow from this determination.

9. “On the Superficial Geology of British Columbia.” By George
Mercer Dawson, Esq., F.G.8., Assoc. R.S.M., of the Geological
Survey of Canada.

The author stated that the rock-striation and fluting on the south-
eastern peninsula of Vancouver’s Island shows that at one time a
great glacier swept over it from N. to S., filling the Strait of Georgia,
50 miles broad in places, and having near Victoria a thickness of ice
of over 600 feet. Traces of this glacier also occur on San Juan
Island, and on the coast of the mainland. The deposits immediately
overlying the glaciated rocks, besides what may be moraine profonde,
locally developed, are sandy clays and sands, arranged in water, and
sometimes containing marine shells. The lower beds, at least, of
these, were probably formed at the foot of the retreating glacier, the
sea standing considerably higher than at present. The northern part
of the Strait of Georgia and the fjords opening into it, and the fjords
north of the Strait, show ice-action to a height of above 3000 feet.
Terraces on the coast of the mainland are rare, and never at great
elevations.

The interior plateau of British Columbia shows a system of
glaciation from N. to §., traces of which have been observed above
3000 feet. Subsequent glaciation radiating from the mountains
also occurs. The superficial deposits here are either unmodified or
modified. The former, representing the Boulder-clay, occurs at
nearly all heights up to over 5000 feet; the latter characterizes
nearly all localities below 3000 feet, and is most extensively
developed in the northern low country, where it forms a white
silt or loess. The interior is marked with shore-lines and terraces
up to 5270 feet. Moraines occur in great numbers, most of them
marking stages in the retreat of glaciers towards the mountains,
although some may have been formed im connexion with the N. and
S. glaciation.

The sequence of events in the interior, according to the author,
seems to have been as follows :—Glaciation from N. to S., with
deposit of Boulder-clay ; formation of terraces by lowering of water
surfaces, accompanied or followed by a warm period; advance of
glaciers from the mountains, and formation of lower terraces; and
retreat of glaciers to their present limits. The glaciation of Van-
couver’s Island may have occurred during both cold periods or during
the second only.

The author considers the assumption of the production of the
N. toS. glaciation by an ice-cap to be attended with great difficulties,
and seems to favour the notion of its being effected by the accumu-
lation of ice on the country itself, and especially on the mountains
to the N., filling the central plateau in going southward, and passing
seaward through the gaps and fjords of the coast range.

10. ‘The Exploration of the Ossiferous Deposit at Windy Knoll,
Castleton, Derbyshire, by Rooke Pennington, Esq., LL.B., F.G.S.,
and Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins.” By Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A.,
Bey Ses E). Gris.

2

O74 Reports and Proceedings— Geological Society.

In this paper the author gave an account of the results of a further
exploration of the ossiferous deposit at Windy Knoll. The section
exposed included the following beds in descending order :—Clayey
debris without bones, probably quarry rubbish ; yellow clay, with
large blocks of limestone, etc., and containing bones of Bison, Rein-
deer, Hare, Wolf, Fox, and Bear; and stiff yellow loam resting on
the surface of the limestone. The bones and teeth of animals were
generally perfect, and had been buried in their natural positions.
The entire skeleton of a Roedeer was found in the upper part of the
yellow clay. As the work proceeded the limestone floor descended
rapidly, and the ossiferous clay inereased in thickness from 8 to 21
feet ; at the bottom it rested on loose fragments of limestone, filling
a vertical shaft. The author coneluded that the rock-basin contain-
ing the ossiferous deposit was originally a swallow-hele, plenty of
which occur in the immediate neighbourhood, and that the vertical
shaft, filled with limestone fragments, probably led down into a
cavern through which drainage took place. The rock-basin forming
the mouth of the swallow-hole was lined with clay, as is not un-
common, and then converted into a poel, in which the ossiferous
clay was accumulated. The author noticed the geographical changes
which must have occurred in ‘the district since the formation of the
deposit, and indicated the proportions of the remains of young and
old Bisens and Reindeer, which confirmed the conclusion arrived at
in his former paper, that the Bisons were here in the summer and
the Reindeer in the winter. He regarded the deposit as of late
Pleistocene age.

11. “Description of the Fossil Organic Remains from Bendigo.”
By M. Carl August Zacharie. Communicated by the President.

In this paper the author described the fossils obtained by him
from the slate deposits in the neighbourhood of the auriferous
quartz reefs of Bendigo. He remarked on the absence of Trilobites
and of Diplograptian Graptolites; Lingula is of very rare occur-
rence, Monoprionidian Graptolites abound, bivalved Phyllapods are
frequent,.and there are doubtful examples of a Stomapod Crustacean.
This last is described but not named. The Phyllopod is described
as forming a new genus named Alaocaris. The Lingula is identified
with Z. Davisii. Some species of Sertularia are described as new
under the names of S. australis, S. astricus, 8. truncus ilapillarum,
S. magna, and S. virgata. Of Graptolites the author notices the
occurrence of Gonothece (?), and of the following species.:— Grapto-
lites Sedgwickii, Graptolithus (Didymograpsus) planus, sp. n., G. ex-
tensus, geminus, serratulus, ¢tripedes, sp. n., tetrapleurus, sp. n.,
Murchison, fruticosus, pygmeus, sp. n., campanula, sp. n., crassus,
sp. n., bryonoides, scopula, sp. n., spinifer, sp. n., quadribrachiatus,
and var. gracilis, octobrachiatus, Mackayi, sp. u., Hutchinsoni, sp. n.,
roseta, sp. n., briareus, sp. un., filicatus, sp. n., Pythagoras, sp. n.,
cardunus, sp. 0., stellatus, sp. n, and trifariwm, sp. n., and Phyllo-
graptus folium.

12. “Notes on some recent Discoveries of Copper Ore in Nova
Scotia.’ By Edwin Gilpin, Esq., M.A., F.G.S.

G. H. Kinahan—TIrish Granitie Rocks. 379

The author described the occurrence in the northern part of Nova
Scotia of a great band of Silurian deposits, running nearly east
and west, and traversed in a corresponding direction by numerous
detached bands of granites, syenites, etc. Roughly parallel to the
line of the latter there is a tolerably well-defined series of fractures
running from Parrsboro on the Bay of Fundy to Guysboro on the
Atlantic coast. The course of this line of disturbance is marked by
metamorphism, and by the presence of associated ores of iron and
copper. The principal localities where the latter occur are noticed
by the author, who states that the copper deposits attain their
greatest development near Lochaber Lake and Polson’s Lake,
where they form a series of veins, cutting at oblique angles black
and red shales and quartzites, apparently of somewhat doubtful age.
The quality of the ore is said to be good.

13. “Glacial Drift in the North-eastern Carpathians.” By R. L.
Jack, Esq., F.G.S., and John Horne, Esq., F.G.S., of the Geological
Survey of Scotland.

In this paper the authors noticed the statements of previous
observers as to the occurrence of glacial drift in the northern part
of the Carpathian range, and described the rock-formations sur-
rounding the head waters of the Theiss, and some drift sections
observed in the valley of that river. They arrived at the following
conclusions :—Glacial deposits are not abundantly developed in the
valleys of the north-eastern Carpathian. The drift in the upper
reaches of the Theiss is of the most fragmentary character, and is
confined mainly to the broader portions of the valley. There is,
however, sufficient evidence for maintaining that the Theiss valley
was filled with a glacier upwards of 45 miles long, although the
authors were unable to determine whether this glacier ever debouched
on the plains of Hungary or ever reached the edge of the Carpathian
chain; but they think it probable that such was the case.

14. “On Terminal Curvature in the South-western Counties.”
By W. A. E. Ussher, Esq., F.G.S., of H.M. Geological Survey.

The author discussed the views advocated by Mr. D. Mackintosh
on the terminal curvature of slaty beds (Q. J. G.S. vol. xxiii. p.
326), and objected to the hypothesis that the phenomenon was pro-
duced by the action of ice in any form, which was the agency to
which Mr. Mackintosh was most inclined to ascribe it. The author
thought that what has been called terminal curvature might be pro-
duced by three distinct causes, namely,—1. The curvature produced
by internal movements at great depths, afterwards rendered super-
ficial by long subsequent denuding agencies; 2: The action of
wedging frosts on the upturned edges of the beds as advocated by
Mr. Godwin-Austen; and 3. The intrusion between the lamine of
the rocks of the roots and rootlets of growing trees.

15. “On the Chronological Classification of the Granitic Rocks of
Ireland.” By G. H. Kinahan, Esq., M.R.I.A. Communicated by
Prof. Ramsay, F.R.S., F.G.S8.

The author adopts Scheerer’s definition that a granite is a rock
of certain constitution, in which all the constituents are separately

376 Reports and Proceedings— Geological Society.

developed, and gives the name of elvanites to those granitic rocks in
which part of the constituents are not perfectly crystallized. The
elvanites pass into true granites on the one hand, and on the other
into plutonic or volcanic rocks. They are thus “ passage-rocks ”
between the two sections.

The author apparently regards all granites as formed by the
metamorphosis either of the sedimentary rocks in which they occur,
or of the plutonic rocks associated with these. Even intrusive
granites are the product of an extreme degree of metamorphosis. Of
metamorphosis he distinguishes two kinds, namely :—WMetapepsis, or
regional metamorphosis, extending over larger or smalier areas, and
due to aqueo-igneous action; and Paroptesis, or local metamorphosis,
caused by heat generated at or near local igneous action or a pro-
trusion or sheet of igneous rock.

The author then indicates the application of these principles to
the classification of the granitic rocks of Ireland in the chrono-
logical order of the sedimentary deposits with which they are asso-
ciated, and divides these rocks into eleven classes, corresponding to
the Cambrian, Cambro-Silurian, Silurian, Carboniferous, Triassic,
and Tertiary series, with five intermediate classes, the latter generally
divided again into sub-classes. The granitic rocks of different
districts in Ireland are then described in some detail, and referred
to their places in the proposed chronological scheme.

16, “The Cambrian Rocks of South-Hast Ireland.” By G. H.
Kinahan, Esq., M.R.I.A. Communicated by Prof. Ramsay, F.R.S.,
EG.S:

The author states that these rocks are greatly altered by meta-
morphic action. Quartz rock occurs in dykes and other masses
among the Cambrian and Cambro-Silurian rocks, but chiefly among
the former; it may be foliated and converted into quartzite by what
the author calls metapepsis (see preceding paper).

Of the Cambro-Silurian rocks the base is seen only in two places,
at Greenore and on the §.W. coast of Wexford. At the former it is
a fine reddish conglomerate, lying on or against schists; at the latter
a massive slate conglomerate. The rocks of this series in ascending
order are:—1l. Black carbonaceous shales and slates, or grey beds
with subordinate beds of grit; 2. Green and grey grits, shales and
slates; 8. The Ballymoney series of green, grey, black, and red
gerits, sandstones, slates and shales, with interstratified igneous rocks;
+. Red, purple, and green beds, usually more or less argillaceous.

The Cambrian formation generally consists of green, purple, or
reddish grits, shales and slates, but here and there with grey or
even black beds. The author describes the Cambrian rocks in the
various areas in which they occur, namely, at

Howth, where they are but little altered in the N., becoming more
altered towards the §S.

Bray Head, generally unaltered, and containing many specimens
of Oldhamia, and with massive dykes of quartz rock.

S.E. Wicklow, where the western boundary is doubtful. Near
Carrick mountain and to the westward the rocks are much altered,

Correspondence—MUr. J. S. Gardner. 307

and the author thinks that probably masses of Cambrian rocks were
forced by disturbances into the Cambro-Silurians, and then the whole
were metamorphosed together.

N.E. Wexford. The area commences on the east coast near Cour-
town Harbour, extends S. to and beyond Wexford, and then $.W.
to the coast near Bannow Bay. The rocks are generally submeta-
morphic, with many large protrusions of quartz-rock, generally
changed by metapepsis into quartzite. Rooney’s Rocks, 8. of Poul-
shore, consist of two protrusions of quartz-rock, between and N. of
which are green and purplish Cambrian shales, in which O/dhamia
antiqua has been found, as also in a green bed further south at
Cahore. On the coast of Haggard and Bannow the Cambrian and
Cambro-Silurian rocks are mixed up very irregularly by means of
numerous faults. At Bannow Oldhamia is not uncommon. The
most continuous sections are seen in this area in the valley of the
river Slaney, where the rocks generally dip to the N. at angles of
10°-60° or 80°, and are going from N. to 8. :—

1. Massive grits with some shaly beds, underlain by more or less altered Feet
grits and shales; average dip 30°, giving a thickness of about...... 3000
2. Schists with quartzites (metamorphosed grits), dip 50°; about......... 4000

3. Schists with masses of quartzite (altered quartz rock), dip 40°; about 4000

Motalwaboutesencscer arcsec 11,000
but the numerous faults under the numbers uncertain.
S.H. Wexford. The rocks are more or less metamorphosed, gra-
duating from schist through gneiss into granite near Carnsore.

CORRS PON DENG.

i

THE RED CLAY OF THE DEEP-SEA AND THE GAULT DEPOSITS.

Sir,—In the May number of the Monthly Microscopical Journal,
a portion of the address to the Royal Society in November last has
been printed, in which the President mentioned the endeavour of
Mr. Sorby, to determine the nature of the Red Clays of the ocean-
bottom, and stated that Mr. Sorby had imformed him that many
specimens of the Red Clay are so entirely analogous to what the
Gault must originally have been, that those specimens might almost
be looked upon as being as truly modern Gault as the Globigerina-
ooze is modern Chalk. This opinion it appears is derived from the
similarity of the Gault deposits to those of the Red Clays of the
ocean-bottom; but this passage of the address as reported is
somewhat obscure. We can hardly, however, suppose that it is
intended to convey that the Gault was deposited under conditions at
all similar to those in which the Red Clay is now being deposited,
as the former, especially as shown in its earlier beds, was a littoral
and shallow-water deposit. This is abundantly shown by the
common occurrence of wood, twigs, and cones of Sequoia and Pinus,
by turtles’ eggs, and by its mollusca, many of which belong to genera
now confined to shallow water. The Gault in all parts of Europe
has been proved to have been deposited in a sinking area, its fossil

378 Correspondence—Prof. G. S. Boulger.

fauna showing the change to deeper-water conditions. Near Folke-
stone the change to the deeper water of the Grey-chalk sea is very
plain, and is seen to have been a gradual one. The discovery of
these Red Clays is of exceeding interest, but it is misleading to speak
of them as analogous to the Gault. J. S. GARDNER.

Park Howse, Sr. Jonn’s Woop Park, N.W.
May 17th, 1877.

DR. WILLIAM SMITH’S GEOLOGICAL MAPS.

Str,—At a recent sale the copper-plates of William Smith’s original
folio atlas of geologically coloured maps of England, sixteen in
number, including the index, published in 1821, came into the
possession of Mr. Edward Stanford, of Charing Cross, who is willing
to sell them at, as he writes to me, a trifling cost (for sixteen large
coppers), if purchased for the Geological Society. It would not pay
now-a-days to reprint maps only of historical interest; but I venture
to think that the maps of the father of English Geology are worthy
of being preserved from the melting-pot, the doom of superannuated
copper-plates, and entrusted to the safe keeping of some chartered
society. I write this, therefore, to obtain the opinion of geologists
on the matter, and shall be glad to receive the names of gentlemen
who will subscribe for their purchase, as I propose, for presentation
to the Geological Society, which already possesses the original
manuscript maps. G. 8. Boutesr, F.L.S., F.G.S8.

Scientiric Ciun, 7, Savite Row,
July 12, 1877.

PREMATURE CONCLUSIONS.

Str,—The practice of the Geological Society, of publishing
“abstracts” of papers read at the meetings, before the papers
themselves are published, is sometimes of great service both to the
authors and to the public; but it has this serious drawback, that the
public generally found their conclusions regarding the value of the
paper—and the correctness of the author’s views—not on the paper,
but on the “abstract,” which necessarily contains but an imperfect
statement of the data upon which the author has rested his argu-
ments; and the probabilities are, that when the paper itself appears
in eatenso some months afterwards, the men who have based their
conclusions upon the statements of the “abstract”? will not care to
make themselves acquainted with the details and arguments of the
paper.

This drawback has come with great force to my mind (as no
doubt it has done in the case of others) from the manner in which
the paper I had the opportunity of bringing before the Society has
been received and criticized in several quarters. One geologist, for
whose opinion I entertain a high respect, wrote at once to intimate
that he could not accept my conclusions; and when I naturally
replied that he had not had an opportunity of reading the details
upon which they had been founded, he replied that, ‘having seen
the ‘abstract,’ he knew already quite enough to satisfy his own mind
on the subject;” and I greatly fear my friend, who on a former

Correspondence—Prof. E. Hull. 379

occasion has openly expressed his impatience of long papers, will
consign my production to the shelf or waste-paper basket when it
reaches his hands, as he probably considers he knows enough of the
matter.

The paper of Mr. Dakyns in the Guot. Mae. for this month (July,
1877), is another case in point. It contains a critique on my paper
as contained and represented in the “abstract” only; and of this I
complain. If it had been based on a perusal of the paper itself, I
should have been perfectly satisfied, whatever the conclusions of my
reviewer might have been, because I would have been aware that he
had all the data before him; and if these did not bring him to the
same conclusions as myself, I should conclude that this was owing
to the fact that his mind and my own are constituted differently ;
Be I deprecate conclusions drawn from a partial knowledge of the
acts.

I cannot now go fully into Mr. Dakyns’ objections—time and
space forbidding. I ask him, however, to mark the force of the term
“essentially ’—as used by me—and to recollect that it does not
mean exclusively.

Then as regards the difficulty of believing the Gannister beds to
be marine essentially—notwithstanding the large number of marine
mollusea, etc., they contain—because of the occurrence of beds of
coal in Scotland. This is not so surprising as the occurrence of beds
of coal in Scotland overlaid by marine limestones, which shows that
Nature accomplishes results which man sometimes cannot conceive.

As regards the term “ Yoredale,” Mr. Dakyns, as an officer of the
Geological Survey, might surely have concluded that I have adopted
the term as it is used by the Survey itself, whatever its original
signification may have been. It may not be strictly correct, but it
would be hard to find a better for the great series of beds above the
Mountain Limestone of Derbyshire.

As regards the latter part of Mr. Dakyns’ paper, does he hold the
opinion under which I myself was enthralled till lately, that the
great limestone series of the north of England and Scotland is
all ef it the representative of the true Carboniferous Limestone of
Derbyshire and Lancashire? If so, I believe this to be a popular
delusion, which I have endeavoured to prove as such in my paper.
The true Carboniferous Limestone is, I believe, represented in the
north only by the bed (or group of beds) known as ‘the Scaur
Limestone” of Phillips, and in Scotland, as the Lower (or Roman
camp) Limestone. The series of beds, limestones, ironstones, coals,
shales, etc., which overlie this, being the representatives of the
“‘Yoredale” beds only. Lastly, let me ask how is it possible to
believe the Carboniferous rocks to be “one indivisible formation,”
if by that term is meant a heterogeneous collection of beds of various
mineral characters, and of various modes of formation, in the face of
the great fact of the predominance of marine limestones in the lower
part, and their entire absence in the upper? So far from this being
the general conclusion to which a survey of the Carboniferous rocks
of the British Islands and the West of Europe would lead us, I

380 Correspondence—Mr. W. T. Aveline—Prof. Nicholson.

have always found it rather difficult to prove to a student that the
Lower and Upper Carboniferous beds really belong to one formation
at all, so great is the contrast between the “essentially” marine
aspect of the lower, and the essentially lacustrine aspect of the
upper division. If this be so, is it not ‘“ philosophical” to suppose
hat there is a middle group, between these extremes, “ essentially ”
marine, yet less oceanic than the lower stage of the Mountain
Limestone ?

Meanwhile, allow me to ask my colleague to defer his opinion on
the views I have stated in my paper till he has had an opportunity
of reading it. Hpwarp Hutt.

GrEoLtogicaL Survey or IRELAND,
Office, 14, Hume-street, Dublin.

THE RELATION OF THE PERMIAN TO THE TRIAS.

Str,—Mr. Irving appears to have quite mistaken the purport of
my communication on the relation of the Permian to the Trias in the
neighbourhood of Nottingham.’ I understood it had been stated by
geologists of Nottingham, that not only a perfect conformity existed
between the Permian and the New Red Sandstone near that town,
but there was a passage upwards from one formation into the other.

I merely wrote to: say this could not be, for the reasons I gave.
But I never intended to imply there was not a general conformity
between the two formations, for this general conformity must be
apparent to any one on looking at a good geological map, whereon
these formations are laid down. Neither did I intend it to be under-
stood that I considered that the break between the Permian and the
New Red Sandstone was greater than between some of the sub-
divisions of these formations. As, for instance, the break between
the Middle Marls and Lower Magnesian Limestone of the Permian,
or that between the Keuper and the Bunter of the Trias. I gave no
opinion one way or the other on these points.

The point of my communication was this. The relation of the
Permian to the Trias I considered an important problem yet to be
worked out. If a perfect passage from the one up into the other
was found, it would go far to settle the question. As far as I know,
that passage has not been found, and, I contend, it does not exist in
the neighbourhood of Nottingham.

Some personal remarks in Mr. Irving’s communication I shall not
reply to, they have nothing to do with the question, and were wholly
uncalled for. I do not consider the pages of a scientific magazine
the place for that kind of bantering. W.. TanBot AVELINE.

HURONIAN VOLCANIC ROCKS.

Srr,—In an able paper in your last issue, Mr. George M. Dawson
publishes the results of his study of the “ Porphyrite Formation ”
of British Columbia, and applies these results to the explanation of
the origin of the Huronian series of Hastern North America. I am
particularly pleased to find so good an observer as Mr. Dawson: not

1 Grou. Maa. Dee. II. Vol. IY, p.. 155.

Obituary— William Harris. 381

only prepared to affirm that the Huronian rocks on the Lake of the
Woods are in great part volcanic, but putting forward the theory
that the Huronian formation is largely composed of metamorphosed
contemporaneous igneous matter. This is the view to which I was
myself led by my study of these rocks in the field, and I published
this opinion in a paper on the Geology of the North Shore of Lake
Superior some years ago (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxix.). In
this paper I expressed the opinion that the great masses of “ talcose”’
and ‘ chloritic”” slates which, together with interbedded traps, make
up the greater part of the Huronian formation between Lake
Superior and Lake Shabendowan, are “truly of the nature of bedded.
felspathic ashes;” and I also drew attention to the singular resem-
blance which they present to the Borrowdale series, or Green Slates
and Porphyries, of the North of England. It affords me, therefore,
much pleasure to find that these views, at that time quite unsup-
ported, should have been corroborated by the wide opportunities for
observation and the extended experience of Mr. Dawson.
Unirep Cottecr, Sr. ANDREWS, H. Atteyne NIcHo3son.
July (th, 1877.

@ iS ie O AS ee ae

WILLIAM HARRIS, ESQ., F.G.S.
Born 1797. Drep 1877.

WirH regret we announce the death of Wint1am Harris, Esq.,
F.G.8., on the 18th May, aged 80, at Charing, in Kent, where he
had resided for many years. He was greatly esteemed by a large
circle of friends for his genial disposition and real philanthropy ;
and he obtained deserved reputation for his untiring researches
among the fossils of the Chalk, and into the geological history and
structure of the country around him. He was elected a Fellow of
the Geological Society of London in 1839. After a long life of
useful activity his health failed him eight or-nine years ago, and he
gradually lost his power of moving about and attending to business,
as well as his interest in those scientific pursuits which were formerly
his pleasure. He had for many years assiduously collected the
organic remains found in the Chalk-pits of the neighbouring hills,
especially the Sponges and Fishes. Of the former he communicated
many to Mr. J. Toulmin Smith, who figured and deseribed the
Ventriculide of the Chalk in 1848. Of the Fishes he collected and
- prepared a. great many, but they were never classified. The
enormous numbers of Entomostraca, Polyzoa, and Foraminifera,
together with small Brachiopods, Serpule, fragments of Corals,
Encrinites, etc., which Mr. Harris obtained, by careful and patient
search, from the Chalk and Chalk-marl, were freely and liberally
distributed to his friends, and to others interested in paleontology.
Many a one has been instigated to take up geological studies, with
microscope at home and hammer abroad, after participating in some
of these minute organic treasures from “the Charing Detritus,” as
the disintegrated Chalk-marl of the locality was termed by our
lamented friend.

382 Obituary—John Leckenby.

Prof. W. C. Williamson, in 1847, figured and described some of
the small fossils from Charing in his comprehensive and far-seeing
memoir “On some of the microscopical objects found in the Levant,
and other deposits; with remarks on the mode of formation of
calcareous and siliceous rocks,” Mem. Manchester Lit. Phil. Soc.,
vol. viii. See also the supplemental “Corrections of the Nomen-
clature of the Objects,” etc., op. cié., third series, vol. v. 1872. Dr.
Mantell also noticed the excellent results of Mr. Harris’s labours on
the “ Chalk-detritus ’ and its Animalculites in the sixth edition of his
“Wonders of Geology,” 1848, and in his ‘“ Medals of Creation,”
1854, ete.

The Entomostraca from the same source were the incentive, and
supplied the chief material for the “‘ Monograph of the Entomostraca
of the Cretaceous Formation of England,” Paleontogr. Soc., 1849;
and for its revision in the Greonocican Magazine, Vol. VII., No. 2,
February, 1870. Mr. Harris’s collection of similar fossils from the
Gault of Kent added largely to the completion of that Monograph.

Of the Foraminifera and other fossils thus collected at and near
Charing, many increased the lists in the second edition of Prof.
Morris’s “Catalogue of British Fossils,” 1854, and are duly
acknowledged in the preface. Some small Brachiopods were worthy
of Mr. Davidson’s attention and description ; and other rare fossils in
Mr. Harris’s collection are figured in Dixon’s Geology of Sussex, ete.

Mr. Harris devoted much of his leisure to mapping the areas of
the Cretaceous strata about Charing on the One-inch Ordnance Map ;
and the Geological Surveyors were pleased to avail themselves of his
work as far as they could. In company with the writer, in 1854, he
found the fossiliferous specimens of Tertiary ironstone in sandpipes
of the Chalk near Lenham, which added so much to our knowledge
of the “Kentish Crag,” when studied by Messrs. Prestwich and
Searles Wood (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xiv. p. 325, and p.
333). Mr. Harris also worked indefatigably in tracing the extent of
this fossiliferous ironstone in his immediate neighbourhood; and he
had diggings made, at considerable expense, on the hill above
Charing to the depth of about 30 feet. Mr. Prestwich gives an
account of these in his paper above referred to.

Thus, as one of the many quiet workers in rural districts, carefully
observing nature, and looking with knowledge on antiquities, fossils,
and all traces of the past, Mr. Harris took pleasure both in
collecting and in communicating everything of use and interest that
could be learnt within his field of observation. Abe dass dlc

JOHN LECKENBY, ESQ., J.P., F.G.S.
Born 1814. Diep 1877.

Ir is with no ordinary feelings of regret that we record the loss of
an excellent Yorkshire geologist, whose death leaves a sad blank in
our circle of scientific friends. Mr. Leckenby was a native of
Ripon; he came to reside at Scarborough upon his appointment to
the York City and County Bank in 1837, then recently established.
From that latter date the direction of his mind towards the cultiva-

Obituary—Dr. Bryce. 383

tion of the natural sciences commenced; he quickly formed the
acquaintance and friendship of Dr. Wm. Smith, who at that time re-
sided at Scarborough, and also of Mr. William Bean and Dr. Lycett.

For several years he was known only as a diligent collector of the
varied objects yielded by the coast of that part of Yorkshire, more
especially of the recent shells, and he never ceased to add to and
improve his collection of British Mollusca until, at his death, they
had become, with a single exception (that of Dr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys),
the finest collection of British shells known. About the same time
(1837) the discovery by Mr. Bean of the considerable Oolitic flora
in the shore-beds of Gristhorpe Bay and the publication of his
specimens by Lindley and Hutton in their Fossil Flora of Great
Britain, had an important influence upon the mind of so enthusiastic
a young man as Mr. Leckenby, and materially aided in directing his
attention to Geology and Paleontology. In the pursuit of the latter
science it became his especial object to acquire the finest possible
specimens, or, to use his own expression, ‘he loved to see nature
with clean face and hands.” His fine museum of fossils was trans-
ferred during these later years to the Woodwardian Museum at the
University of Cambridge. He made several contributions to the
pages of this MacGazrtne, and algo to the Quarterly Journal of the
Geological Society of London, vols. xv. xix. and xx.

His genial and hospitable disposition won for him a large circle
of friends both in Scarborough and London. The progress of the
fatal disease to which he succumbed was rapid, and dates only from
September, 1876.

JAMES “BRYCE, ESQ... M.A. EE BD.) F-G:s:
Bonne 1806. Drep 1877.

By a deplorable accident Science has lost a most able geolo-
gist through the death of Dr. James Bryce, which occurred in the
pass of Inverfarigaig, near Foyers, whilst on a geological excursion.
He had sallied forth alone, hammer in hand. to examine the rocks
in the pass, and whilst pursuing his researches on the top of the
cliff he must have inadvertently stepped upon a loose piece of rock,
which giving way beneath him, he was precipitated to the foot of
the cliff, where, three hours later, his lifeless body was found by two
gamekeepers.

James Bryce, son of the Rev. James Bryce, Presbyterian minister,
was born at Kalleague, near Coleraine, in the north of Ireland,
October, 1806. The greater part of his early education he received
at home; but he subsequently went to the University of Glasgow,
where he graduated, having specially distinguished himself in
Greek, and carried off, among other honours, the Blackstone prize.
After leaving College, he acted as mathematical master in the Belfast
Academy, until, in 1846, he was appointed to superintend the
Mathematical and Geographical Department of the High School,
Glasgow. There he spent the greater part of his life, diligently
discharging his daily duties and earnestly endeavouring to promote
the teaching of science in schools when that was not so popular as

oo4 Obituary—Dr. Bryce.—Miscellaneous.

now. In recognition of his services in this and other capacities. his
Alma Mater in 1855 conferred the degree of LL.D. Three years
ago he retired from scholastic work, and came to reside in Edin-
burgh, where, as in the West, his genial disposition, not less than
his intellectual activity and varied acquirements, soon gained him a
wide circle of friends. Prominent for many years among Scotch
educationists, Dr. Bryce took an active part in founding the Educa-
tional Institute, of which he was President in 1852. In 1874 he
was President of the Association of Higher. Class Public School-
masters ; and within the last few months he acted as secretary to
the committee for securing the continuance of the Scotch Education
Board. His contributions to educational literature were numerous,
but to the general public he was perhaps better known as an inde-
fatigable geologist. When quite a young man, he contributed many
papers to scientific journals upon geological subjects, and in 1834 he
became a Fellow of the Geological Society of London. When resident
in Belfast, he carefully investigated the geology of Antrim, and parti-
cularly of the Giants’ Causeway, and these researches, the results of
which were published from time to time, threw not a little light on
the character of basaltic formations. After removing to Glasgow, he
devoted much attention to Arran, and in due time produced an
excellent work on the geology of that remarkable island, now in its
second edition. He made another important contribution to the
London Geological Society on the rocks of Skye and Raasay. In
Glasgow, Dr. Bryce took a warm interest in the proceedings of the
Philosophical Society, of which he was President for two years. As
convener of the British Association’s Committee on Harthquakes, he
conducted experiments at Comrie, regarding which interesting re-
ports were made. During the three years he resided in Hdinburgh,
he was assiduous in attendance at the meetings of various scientific
societies. Of the Royal Society he was a fellow and councillor; and
of the Geological Society a fellow and senior Vice-President. Dr.
Bryce, it may be also mentioned, was editor of a Cyclopedia of
Physical Geography. For several years he has been working at the
geology of the North West Highlands, to which he made many
excursions. He was a keen and intelligent observer of geological
facts ; and outside the family circle seemed never happier than when
travelling, hammer in hand, through a district which promised to
reward research. It is a melancholy coincidence, that it had been
intended to ask Dr. Bryce to lead the next excursion of the Inverness
Field Club to the very glen in which he has so suddenly closed an
active and useful career.—The Weekly Scotsman, July 14th, 1877.
Vine SS Gane Se ACI @ Wis.
gi iia

Drxon’s GroLtocy or Sussex. 4to. 1850, pp. 454, with 60 Woodcuts and 44
Plates. —This fine work, published after Mr. Frederick Dixon’s death, under the
able editorship of Professor Owen, C.B., assisted by Professors Thos. Bell, F.R.S.,
Edward Forbes, F.R.S., Mr. Wm. Lonsdale, F.R.S., Mr. James De Carle Sowerby,
and Sir Philip Grey Egerton, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., is, we understand, after an interval
of twenty-seven years, to see a second edition, prepared by Professor T’. Rupert Jones,
F.R.S., F.G.S. ; assisted by Professor Owen, C.B., and numerous other geological and
paleontological friends. ‘To be published by W. J. Smith, Brighton,

THE

GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE.

NEW e"SERIESS DECADE ik VOLJ« lM:

No. IX—SEPTEMBER, 1877.

ORIGINAL ARTICIEMS.
oo

T,—Tur KessincuanD FREsHWATER Brep AND WeyzBourRNE SaAnp.
By 8. V. Woop, Jun., F.G.S., anp F. W. Harmer, F.G.S.

WO papers in the July Number of this Macazinz, one by Mr. J.

H. Blake, and the other by Mr. C. Reid, impugn certain repre-

sentations given by us of beds on the Norfolk and Suffolk coasts, and
demand from us some remark.

As the paper of Mr. Blake, ‘‘On the Kessingland Cliff Section,”
does not introduce any new fact, either as to the section itself, or in
contradiction or qualification of the evidence which was offered in
our joint paper in the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society
for February, 1877, or in the separate paper by one of us in the
same Journal, we have only to say that we have never advanced,
nor do we entertain, any decided opinion that the freshwater beds
of the section are of interglacial age; and that we only suggested
the possibility of such a thing as a matter for consideration in con-
nexion with other interglacial features described by us.

So far as we can see, Mr. Blake’s objections amount to this, that
freshwater beds with roots, overlain by the Lower Glacial beds,
occur in Corton cliff, and in places on the Cromer coast; and that,
therefore, they are necessarily of the same age as those of Kessing-
land, which are not so overlain. On this point we beg to refer your
readers to the observations made by us in the “Introduction to the
Supplement to the Crag Mollusca” (p. xv), as to the improbability
of any denudation having so evenly removed the Lower Glacial
beds (which must have once covered this district, since they occur in
considerable thickness in the neighbourhood) without leaving a trace
of them, and yet have spared the root-indented surface of the un-
stratified bed of clay, throughout the whole length of the section,
which extends for more than a mile.

The interglacial denudation, with which we suggested in our
joint paper the bed in question might be connected, rests, however,
on far clearer evidence; and the very case which Mr. Blake would
assume in explanation of the preglacial age of these freshwater
deposits, viz. the removal of the Lower Glacial beds before the
deposition of the Middle Glacial, involves the admission of such
denudation.

Mr. Blake says that the section given in the separate paper by one
of us, as well as the description, is inaccurate; but he does not
specify in what respect; nor does he say anything about the series
of beds which Mr. Gunn shows in his section as intervening between

DECADE II.—VOL, IV,—NO. IX. 26

386 S. V. Wood, jun., and F. W. Harmer—

the forest-bed of Kessingland and the Middle Glacial sands—beds
which we say have no existence there ;—but as Mr. Blake expresses
an opinion that these forest-beds in siti are undoubtedly identical
with similar beds beneath the contorted drift in Corton cliff, and at
Hasbro’, and Runton on the Cromer coast, we may refer to the paper
of his colleague, Mr. Reid, in which the existence of the forest-bed
in siti along that coast is called in question altogether.

It will be interesting to see the various views of the gentlemen of
the Geological Survey brought into the harmony requisite for the
Memoir on East Anglian Geology which Mr. Blake promises us.

With respect to Mr. Reid’s paper we would observe :

Firstly. Vhat the Norwich Crag and Chillesford Clay, which many
have found, and some still find, at Weybourne and elsewhere along
the Cromer coast, but which we have always contended do not occur
there unless concealed beneath the beach, have no place in Mr. Reid’s
section. So far, therefore, we agree with him.

Secondly. That as regards the freshwater bed (No. 3) shown by him
to be irregularly interposed between marine sands (2 and 4), Sir
Charles Lyell, in his paper on Norfolk in the Phil. Mag. for 1840,
showed that the freshwater bed at Runton (which we presume is
part of Mr. Reid’s No. 8) was both overlain and underlain by marine
sands (the lower called Crag by Sir Charles). The improbability of a
purely freshwater bed in sit thus occurring as a mere patch, or rather
lump, between marine sands without there being any transition into
or out of it, raised doubts of its correctness, so that one of us, in his
‘Remarks and Map,” circulated in 1865, suggested that nothing but
a clean vertical section would be conclusive on the point. This
section has since been made, and it appears that Sir Charles’s repre-
sentation was correct. The original difficulty therefore recurs, and
the question arises whether this freshwater bed of peaty sandy clay,
which is only a thick mass a few yards long, or any other similar
patches, are beds in siti or not. Mr. Norton seems to think that
much of the long-quoted ‘forest-bed’ of the coast is not in siti, and
Mr. Reid expresses himself very decidedly as of that opinion. If this
should prove to be correct, it might, were it not for Mr. Reid’s state-
ment that rootlets penetrate the sands, possibly explain the whole
matter by showing that some parts of these peats and freshwater
and forest remains along the Cromer coast are portions of the pre-
glacial land-surface, which were stripped off by ice which formed
over it, and were carried with it into the estuary, in the sands of
which they became imbedded, in the same way that sheets of chalk,
hundreds of feet long, and several feet thick, were stripped off the
surface and carried into the Cromer Till just over these sands when,
somewhat later, the formation gave place in the same estuary (as we
take it) to that of the Till! We are sceptical as to whether the in-

1 We have seen sheets of sandy peat also imbedded in the Till itself near Cromer ;
and in the sections of the Norfolk cliff which accompany the ‘‘ Remarks and Map”
circulated by one of us in 1865, the sands in question are about Sidestrand (where
Mr. Reid represents his freshwater bed as intercalated between marine sands)

described as charged with the débris of the forest bed with freshwater mollusca and
peat (/” of those sections). With the exception of the lump at Runton, neither of

Kessingland Freshwater Bed and Weybourne Sand. 387

distinct markings in the sand which Mr. Reid believes to be rootlets
are really such; and this point must be satisfactorily established
before any division of these marine sands into two beds by the inter-
vention of a land-surface can be admitted. The mere presence of
the opercula of freshwater shells, or even of freshwater shells
themselves, which Mr. Reid occasionally finds in these beds, cannot
be looked on as conclusive of their freshwater origin, since fresh-
water shells are found in those parts of these sands which are un-
doubtedly marine, or at most slightly fluvio-marine. Apart, there-
fore, from the existence of the black peaty bed at Runton, but which
may be explicable in the way suggested above, we have never seen
anything in these Weybourne sands which would justify Mr. Reid’s
division of them into two marine beds, separated by a freshwater
deposit or land-surface.

Thirdly. The passing up of the Weybourne sand into the Till is
denied by Mr. Reid. We are surprised at this, for at many clean
exposures which we have from time to time met with, this was
clearly visible. It was so at Weybourne most distinctly; and it was
so over the Runton peaty bed, where the sand with pebble seams
below the Till alternates with bands of clay, indistinguishable from
the Till itself; while between Cromer and Mundesley these beds
arch up in great thickness above the beach, and, darkened by and
interstratified with lignitic debris, change so gradually into the Till
by alternation of pebble seams, chalky silt, and lignitiferous sand
with clayey Till, that it is impossible to draw even an approximate
line between the two deposits. On the other hand, there are near
Hasborough distinct unconformities in the stratified material by
which the Till and contorted drift are indistinguishably represented
at that end of the cliff section, but these we regard as simply the
effect of shoaling and of current action during the accumulation of
these beds (see No. II. of the sections accompanying our map in
the Supplement to the Crag Mollusca). It is obvious that if the two
deposits, the pebbly sands and the Till, do not pass into each other,
there must exist everywhere a line of denudation between them, be-
cause there could not have been an intermediate conversion into
land without it; and this line should be visible everywhere along
the coast where the section is clear, and not be confined to the dips
or plunges shown in Mr. Reid’s section, which seem to us only part
of the disturbances caused by the grounding of bergs in the con-
torted drift, by which the Till and that drift have been in places
affected, in common with the sands in question. We have also seen
these sands interstratified with the Contorted Drift in the neighbour-
hood of Norwich, though Mr. Reid appeals to Mr. H. B. Wood-
ward’s experience of that neighbourhood to the contrary. The
quarry by Guist Church shows, or did show, also, the same thing.

Fourthly. As regards Tellina Balthica, My. Reid is in error in sup-

us has ever represented the forest bed and its associated freshwater deposits as cz
siti to the west of Mundesley, but only to the east of that place, where we still
believe the freshwater beds with mammalian remains occur in that state, whatever
be the case as regards the arboreal remains there.

388 SS. V. Wood, jun., & F. W. Harmer—The Kessingland Bed.

posing that we have referred to it as a peculiarly Arctic shell. If he
had remembered that it is found now living everywhere on the
Norfolk coast, he would hardly have attributed to us such exceptional
simplicity. What we have contended is that this shell, which is
Arctic as well as West European, has not occurred in any bed of
Crag age, notwithstanding various assertions to the contrary; and
that therefore as it does occur (and always in abundance) in every
fossiliferous marine bed of newer age than the Crag, it furnishes a
clear paleeontological horizon by which to divide the Crag from beds
of Glacial age. With the exception of Turritella terebra, Plewrotoma
iurricula, Ostrea edulis, and a species of Lacuna,’ all the marine
shells mentioned by Mr. Reid as discovered by him in these Wey-
bourne sands will be found in the Lower Glacial column of the
tabular list in the “Supplement to the Crag Mollusca,” or in the
additions thereto given in the note to our joint paper in the Quarterly
Journal of the Geological Society for February, 1877; and it is satis-
factory to us to find, by the few additions only which have resulted
from Mr. Reid’s lengthened stay upon and study of this coast, that
we had so nearly arrived, by our own researches, at the molluscan
fauna of these Lower Glacial sands.

Lastly. If we understand Mr. Reid’s paper aright, he thinks that
the beds between the Chalk and the Till on the coast constitute only
one formation, and that such formation is an estuarine one. This is
what we have always contended, only we add to it that this forma- .
tion is the same as the pebbly sands described by one of us in 1866,
under the name of “ Bure Valley beds,” and afterwards by Prof.
Prestwich in 1870 under the name of “ Westleton Shingle ;”? and
also that the Till is merely a continuation of the same deposit, due to
increasing depth of water combined with glacial action ; and this is
one of the very few things connected with the-Glacial beds as to which
we feel no doubt. Ifthe pebbly sands thus characterized by Tellina
Balthica, which form the base of the Cromer Till (or Lower Boulder-
clay of Mr. Reid and others), are to be rejected from the Glacial
formation, to which, although they may present no indications of
elacial action, they structurally belong, because their marine fauna
is not, as is the fact, more Arctic than the uppermost beds of the
Crag (though both contain several species of mollusca that now live
only in Arctic seas), then most assuredly the sands and gravels
which we term Middle Glacial should be rejected also from the
Glacial formation, because their molluscan fauna is even less Arctic

' The Cardium Grenlandicum of Mr. Reid is no doubt the shell given in the tabular
list which accompanies the “‘ Supplement to the Crag Mollusca,” as Cardiwm Island-
cum with a? These imperfect decorticated specimens of Cardiwm cannot be identified
with any certainty.

2 It is not our business to defend Prof. Prestwich’s identification of the shingle at
Westleton with these Weybourne sands, which the gentlemen of the Survey impugn;
but with respect to the identity which they discover between that shingle and the
mass which plunges into the Middle Glacial sand of Dunwich cliff, we beg to say
that this shingle (gravel) was several years ago, when that cliff could be ascended at
the spot, and closely examined, divided at one end from the Middle Glacial sand
bencath it by a denuded remnant of the Upper Glacial clay, in the manner shown in
Section R, which accompanies the map in the “Supplement to the Crag Mollusca,”’
aud perhaps this remnant may still be found if looked for.

Prof. Miine—Across Europe and Asia. 389

than is that of the sands in question, while the relation borne by
them to the Chalky clay which rests on them is at least as distinct as
is that of the pebbly sands to the overlying Till. Both, however, in
our opinion, are not only part of the Glacial formation, but the Till
in the one case, and the Chalky clay in the other, are equally con-
tinuations of the sand deposits beneath them by change in the
material deposited. We may add, also, in opposition to Mr.
Reid’s assertion that the climate, as shown by the land animals and
plants, was no colder than at present, that Sir Charles Lyell
(“ Antiquity of Man,” p. 262) stated that a Swedish geologist recog-
nized among the lignite beds of the sands in question the remains of
Salix polaris, now only known within the Arctic circle, and of an
Arctic moss, Hypnum turgescens, only found living in temperate
latitudes on the extreme heights of the Alps. Most of the land and
freshwater shells mentioned by Mr. Reid, and referred to by him
in support of his contention as. still living in Norfolk, occur also
within the Arctic circle; and the rest, there can be little doubt,
are also denizens of the same region, though their presence there has
not been actually recorded. Perhaps he will go on to tell us what
forms of land or freshwater mollusca beyond what are known as
from these or from Crag beds would, if present, indicate an Arctic
climate. Seven or eight species belonging to the genera Helix,
Pupa, Succinea, Planorbis, and Lymnea, from Greenland, are given
as distinct by Moller; but it is very doubtful wether these are any-
thing more than well-known temperate-climate species.

In conclusion, we would observe that if Mr. Reid’s diagram section
is correct, the actual sections at and near the termination of the
Weybourne cliff must have greatly changed of late years, for it is -
evident, from Prof. Prestwich’s sections of the cliff between Sherring-
ham and Weybourne (both those published in his paper, and those
besides which were exhibited on its reading, all of which differ from
ours only in representing the lowest part of the beds in question as
Crag and Chillesford Clay), that during tho period of his acquaintance
with the cliff near Weybourne, he had not observed in it the some-
what thick freshwater bed which’ Mr. Reid represents as there ex-
tending: continuously and intervening unconformably between marine
sands; and our experience of those sections, except so far as concerns
the reference of any part of them to the Crag and Chillesford Clay,
is in accord with that of Prof. Prestwich.

II.—Across Evrorz anp Asta.—Travetiine Notes.
By Professor Joun Miunz, F.G.S. ;
Imperial College of Engineering, Tokei, Japan.
(Continued from p. 346.)

Part III.—Perm to Ekaterinburg and Nijni Tagil.
ConrEents.—Perm.—Aross the Urals.—Ekaterinburg—Gold Mines of Beresovsk.—
Ride to Nijni Tagil.—Mines of Nijni Tagil.

ERM is known to the Russians like Woolwich is to the English,

as being a great cannon manufactory. Itis said to employ 4000
workmen, and is the largest establishment of the kind in Russia.
To see it one must go about three miles farther up the river. In

390 Prof. Milne—Across Europe and Asia.

driving there I passed a section of a whitish fissile rock, which was
apparently a local representative of the Permian strata. The most
noticeable thing at the works was a large steam hammer, said to be
the largest in the world. The weight of the head of this instru-
ment is 50 tons, but when steam is employed the energy is equiva-
lent to three times this amount. The anvil on which this falls is a
solid block of cast iron, weighing 667 tons. Up till quite recently
all the coal used at these works was brought from England, which
naturally involved considerable expense. Now they use their own
coal, which is found on both sides of the neighbouring Urals in
great abundance, coke only being brought from England. This
costs about £5 per ton. It was not until the evening of the dth
September that my carriage, in which I intended to cross the Urals,
was engaged. I started in the middle of the night. For the first
65 versts (1 verst=#2 of a mile) I saw nothing but a few fir-trees
and quantities of birch, after which a white rock began to crop up
at various points, especially at those points where we wound round
or cut through some undulations which relieved what had hitherto
been a melancholy flatness. Right and left of the road, which in
many places seemed like a pleasant avenue of birches, were rolling
plains of yellow corn and stubble land. These vast expanses of
open land, which are chiefly used for the cultivation of corn, clearly
indicated the cutting down of large forests, the clearing away of
which appears to have influenced the rainfall, and consequently the
flow of rivers. This wholesale cutting down of the timber seems to
have had its greatest impetus at the time of the Crimean War, when
the manufactories of St. Petersburg and other large towns were pre-
vented from receiving their accustomed supply of coals from external
sources. From these times the use of wood became firmly established,
as it was found to be so economical, not only in its first cost, but,
among: other reasons, from its not burning up the fire bars of their
furnaces as coal did.

The first village of any size that we saw upon the road was
Kongar, just before reaching which there was a descent so steep
that it necessitated the use of a drag. This I mention, because it
never occurred again, the plan being to charge down one hill in
order to acquire sufficient momentum to ascend the next. After we
had left Kongar, I heard that there was a cave there, which my
informant told me was worthy of a visit. We were now in an
undulating country, the contours of which were smooth and round.
Most of the hills were cultivated to their summits, but some few
had a covering of trees. In the evening we found ourselves at the
tenth station out of the eighteen we had to pass before this section
of our journey, which was as far as Ekaterinburg, would be over.
All the following day we were amongst the spurs of the Urals.
The hills around us were only of a moderate height. Patches of
trees upon their sides, and dotted on the plains and winding valleys
at their base, gave to them a rural, park-like aspect. As we ascended,
small streams grew smaller, and told us that the water parting
which divides the two great continents was near. Large fat magpies,

Prof. Mitne—Across Europe and Asia. 391

lively water-wagtails, and an occasional woodpecker were the chief
birds we saw. <A few flowers still remained in bloom; a pretty
yellow Snap-Dragon (Linaria vulgaris) and the white heads of the
monopetalous Chrysanthemum inodorum were common. ‘The bell-
shaped heads of a few Campanule, a purple Pansy (Viola tricolor),
the spike-like purple heads of Veronica spuria, and a few other
plants, including a Melgedium hispodum, which I believe is rare,
were also to be seen. But about the few plants I collected I will
say more farther on. Above the flowers a few butterflies were
flying,—the heavy flutter of a Camberwell Beauty, some brown
Fritillaries and a white Pieris, all reminding me of the fauna
I had left at home. Notwithstanding the cheering aspect of
these bright relics of a fading summer, a yellow tinge upon the
drooping birches told me that the ‘‘fall” was near. During the
night—for we rattled along in our springless carriage continuously,
as is customary when travelling in Russia—it was now cold, and
in the morning everything had a coating of hoar frost. After
crossing the River Chesovoi, we passed through a gap in some high
hills, which had for some time been before us, and which in fact
formed the central hard granitic core of this portion of the Urals,
and then descended rapidly towards Ekaterinburg. We were now
fairly over the borders. Just before we reached the town, we
crossed an undulating expanse of ground, where I collected, almost
for the last time upon my journey, a few more flowers. This undu-
lation is a boss of crystalline rocks, partly dioritic. These are
apparently traversed in a north and south direction by numerous
veins of quartz. Near some of these veins the rock had quite
a fissile structure, and looked as if shales had been turned on
end parallel with the veins of quartz. All the surface soil appears
to be derived from the disintegration of the subjacent rocks. It is
not more than 14 feet in thickness, and is filled with angular frag-
ments of stone. The town of Ekaterinburg, which we reached late
in the afternoon of September 9th, is one of the finest towns in
Siberia. It appears to have been built in a shallow saucer-like
hollow. One of the employments of its inhabitants is the cutting
of various minerals for ornamental purposes. ‘The minerals chiefly
used are malachite and rock crystal. This latter, when of a smoky
tinge and often when clear, is called by its vendors topaz. One
thing that is striking, not only in Hkaterinburg, but also in most of
the Siberian towns, is the green colour of the roofs, especially the
churches. This, I believe, is made from crushed malachite.

When in England, and during the greater portion of my journey
across Russia, I had the impression that on reaching Hkaterinburg
I should find myself in the centre of the Ural Mining District.
The grass-grown heaps of rubbish, long-forgotten “dumps,” which
are dotted over the surrounding country, told me that Ekaterinburg
at one time might perhaps have realized my expectations. Except-
ing one or two small alluvial workings carried on in search of gold,
the mining days of Ekaterinburg are for the present past. The
nearest works of any consequence are those of Beresovsk, which

392 Prof. Miine—Across Europe and Asia.

are about twelve miles distant. The mineral here sought is gold.
Hitherto in Siberia all workings for gold have been by washing the
alluvium, but here operations for the purpose of quartz mining are
being carried on in an energetic manner, and at apparently con-
siderable expense. From this fact, from the unusual mode in which
the deposits occur, and I may add also from the historical associa-
tions connected with the Beresovsk mines, it being to these mines
that many of the early Siberian exiles were condemned, it will not
be out of place for me to relate the little I saw and gleaned during
several visits that I paid to them.

For the privilege of making these visits, and for the kind hospi-
tality I received whilst staying there, I have to thank General
Astershof, their chief promoter, the resident director and engineer.
My first journey to Beresovsk was on September 11th. Owing
to the breaking of the axle-tree of our carriage and a fall of
snow, we were detained a considerable time upon the road. The
greater part of the way is along a wide open clearing through fir
woods. Here and there I obtained a view over a wide {flattish
country, which appeared as if its surface had been overturned and
washed at many points. As we neared the village of Beresovsk,
which gives its name to the mines, I saw several freshly-opened
pits and trenches, all indicative of gold-searching operations. The
first discovery of this metal was made in the year 1745, when it
was found at the same time by two men at places about 80 versts
apart. At the outset all the workings were upon quartz reefs; but
in 1828, gold-bearing sand having been discovered, the quartz
mining ceased, and the works assumed a new aspect. ‘These
alluvial washings no longer yielding a profitable return, the work-
ings are now reverting to their old form. On the first day of my
visit I was driven over the greater portion of the property, which
covers about 56 square versts. This gave me a general topo-
graphical idea of the country, which for the most part is a large
plain, here and there sweeping upwards to form low mound-like
hills. The whole of this is cut into deep trenches for costeaning
purposes, which reach through the alluvium down to the subjacent
rock. From these trenches, and from various shafts which have
been sunk, I think nearly fifty in all, I was very well able to see
for myself, and realize the description which had been given to me
by the mining engineer in charge, of the circumstances under
which the mineral bands occur. The surface soil, which appeared
almost everywhere, was of varying thickness. In many places it
was very ferruginous, and looked as if it had been formed by the
decomposition of the rocks beneath. There were other places
where this superficial deposit had a character not unlike that formed
in the bed of a river. In this latter, which was the aliuvium from
which gold was originally washed, and which only occurs in isolated
patches, I picked up specimens of white and pink quartz, chalce-
dony, hornstone, greenstone, epidosite, green mica, beresite
(which I shall again refer to), and also other stones. Beneath these
superficial deposits there is a rock not unlike a talcose schist

Prof. Miine—Across Europe and Asia. 393

(Listwenite). This strikes north and south parallel to the adjacent
Urals, towards which it also dips. It is very much broken, very
ferruginous, soft, and generally irregular in its character. In one
direction it appears to merge into a kind of serpentine. Inter-
stratified, so to speak, or at all events running parallel with the
strike of the talcose schists, are bands or dyke-like masses of a
granitic rock, containing but little mica, called beresite.

These bands vary from 28 to 180 feet in breadth. An average
breadth is about 80 feet. As they descend, they become denser and
narrower. In one shaft that I descended, which was sunk altogether
in this rock, I had a fair opportunity of seeing its various characters.
Near the surface it commenced with its usual appearance of a white
clay, which clay I was told was used for making fire-bricks; deeper
down, however, it appeared as a compact grey rock, which, owing
to its non-splintery character, had been finished off with as smooth
a surface as that of an ordinary brick wall. These bands of beresite
apparently occur in great numbers, and in the neighbourhood of
Beresovsk 157 have already been discovered. Sixteen of these are
within the distance of six or seven versts as measured across their
strike. These, with the exception of three, which run east and
west, preserve a north and south course parallel with the adjacent
Urals.

At right angles to these bands of beresite, and also to the talcose
schists, there are numbers of quartz veins, and it is in these latter
that the gold is found. These veins are generally from three to
seven inches in thickness, but in places they have reached a thick-
ness of more than three feet. Like the beresite veins they traverse,
they often thin out in going downwards. Their strike, which is
generally east and west, is apt to vary, and two or more of them
will intersect to form a pocket. Sometimes several small veins,
which at the surface appear as mere streaks, are found, as they
descend, to unite together to form a solid course. Some of these veins
have been traced to depths of nearly 500 feet. In looking at a plan
of a portion of the workings, I counted thirty-seven quartz veins all
crossing a strip of beresite not more than eighteen Russian fathoms
(126 feet) in length, and in another plan I saw seventeen veins
crossing a vein of similar length. In such places as these the
quartz veins are of course very near to each other, but there are
places where they are as much as 40 fathoms (280 feet) apart.
These veins are either vertical or else dip steeply towards the north.
They are often strongly coloured with oxide of iron. In places they
contain a little galena, and occasionally a few specks of copper
pyrites. It has been observed that the lodes are rich at those places
where they cross each other, where they are much stained with
oxide of iron, or contain the above minerals, and when they do not
remain altogether in the beresite, but cut through into the rock
on either side. On the other hand, where the veins or lodes are
confined to the beresite, when they are flat, that is, do not dip
almost vertically, and as a rule as they descend in depth, they
are usually observed to yield but little gold. Up to the date of

394 Prof. Milne—Across Europe and Asia.

my visit these mines have yielded a little more than 609 ponds
(21,924 lbs.) of gold from the stamping of 47,639,874 pouds of ore.
This gives an average of 482% zol (zol=z;0z.) of gold for 100 pouds
of ore (1 poud=36lbs.). Some of the veins have yielded as much
as an ounce to the ton, and some of the alluvium 12oz. to 14 tons.
As an average analysis, out of 96 parts of gold, about 90 will be
pure gold, whilst the remaining six parts will be silver, copper,
and iron.

The only excursion which I made in the neighbourhood of
Ekaterinburg besides that to Beresovsk was to Nijni Tagil, one
of the great centres of the Ural mining operations. This lies about
156 versts in a north-west direction from Ekaterinburg. Not-
withstanding the roughness of the roads, the snow, rain, frost,
and general hardship of the journey,—which was of necessity per-
formed “ pereclodnoi,” that is, in post carriages or carts, from which
you and your baggage change at every station,—I never regret the
undertaking, on account of the great interest and information I
derived. On a greater part of the road, away upon our left, we
could see the low, black-looking hills of the Urals, which in places
rose in peaks and hummocks. The outlines were smooth, and there
was nothing very striking in the scenery. About half way we
passed a small gold-mine upon the left side of the road, where they
were winding auriferous gravel from a pit. In some places, instead
of sinking shafts to the auriferous bed, it has been thought just
as economical, and more satisfactory, to remove the whole of the
superincumbent strata. This was carried out to a great extent at
the Tabalour mine, which lies about seventy versts north from
Beresovsk, where the overlying strata, seventy feet in thickness,
were removed in a series of parallel step-like benches.

By some miners it is said that gold never occurs on the European
or western side of the Urals. Such a rule, although I believe it has
a few exceptions, at once suggests that it is towards the mountains
of Central Asia that we must look for the origin of the auriferous
gravels which cover so many of the Siberian plains and valleys.

Another miner’s rule, when prospecting for gold upon the flanks
of the Urals, is to look upon all such slopes as probably auriferous
excepting those facing the north-east. Although it is difficult to
give a satisfactory explanation of such phenomena, we should by
no means be justified in doubting their truth without first thoroughly
examining the evidence upon which they are based. After leaving
Kkaterinburg, we had twenty-four hours of continuous travelling
before we entered Nijni Tagil. The town is situated in a hollow
along the banks of a shallow sharp-running stream. Looking down
upon this sheltered spot are the round knobbed hills and ridges of
the Urals. The very life of Tagil is in its mining and metallurgical
works. The chief of these are iron, copper, and gold. Many
English travellers have visited this place, including Murchison,
who, from his researches in this and neighbouring districts, gave
the first impetus to the study of Russian geology. Since his time,
however, many changes have taken place. This is especially

Prof. Miine—Across Europe and Asia. 395

noticeable in the mines where new explorations have led to the
modification and alteration of many preconceived ideas.

The great feature in Tagil is its iron works. The largest
of these, which are named after the family by whom they are
possessed, are the Demidoff. At these works 2500 men and
350 horses are employed. Many of the shops and foundries are
lighted by gas, which is made from wood,—200 cubic feet of wood
giving about 800 cubic feet of gas. The roots of pine and the rind
of birch furnish the largest quantity of gas. The light from this
gas is poor as compared with that made from coal, the former
being equivalent to about ten candles, whilst the latter is equal to
about fourteen. It is however, cheap, one jet costing half a kopec
(one-sixth of a penny) per hour.

Whilst walking over the works, I saw several things in various
stages of completion, which, if I speak of them as they were described
to me, will sound quite transatlantic. First, there was a turbine
being cast with a wheel 24 feet in diameter. Then there was a new
iron furnace being built; this was elliptical in form, 56 feet in
height, and was intended to have a capacity of some 8500 cubic
feet. To keep this going a blowing engine was almost complete,
the blast cylinders of which were seven feet in diameter. This
turbine, the blast furnace, and the blowing engine, I was assured,
were the largest in the world. As regards the turbine, this off-hand
statement may perhaps be true, but larger examples of blast furnaces
and blowing engines may be seen at home, as at Middlesborough.

The sand which is used for casting is derived from a weathered
greenstone; but as this is somewhat calcareous, it is not so good as
might be wished. Every year the manufactured steel, iron plates,
bars and other materials are transported in waggons over the Urals
to the River Chesovoi,! where they are placed in boats, each carrying
about 400,000 Ibs. About 150 boats are used annually. From
the iron works I walked over to the Copper Hiitte. From the
commencement of the mine here in 1814, up to the year 1874,
152,671,193 pouds (1 poud=36 lbs.) of ore, which yielded
5,001,016 pouds of copper, have been extracted. The yield of
copper from the extracted ore has been therefore about three per
cent. Close by these works there is a museum, where specimens
of the raw and manufactured materials which are produced in Tagil
can be seen. An interesting object in this museum was a large
natural magnet, which supported about 10 pouds (400 lbs.).

Before describing what I saw of the mines, I will give the
following as a short general geological description of the country
around Tagil, in which these mines are situated. The information
enabling me to do this I derived from a local topographical map,
coupled with what I saw and what was kindly told me by a resident
mining engineer.

All the country around Tagil, as I have before said, is very hilly.
The highest of these hills look down upon the town from the west.

1 Spelt Zchusovaya in Keith Johuston’s Atlas.

396 Prof. Miine—Across Europe and Asia.

The line of highest elevation, which has a general north and south
direction along the summit of the Urals, is about 1500 (?) feet above
the town. ‘

On either side of this line, and more or less at right angles to it,
the rocks dip away in a generally east and west direction. This
dip is, however, by no means distinctly marked in the neighbour-
hood of Tagil, as the rocks are often so fractured, metamorphosed,
and altogether altered, that they would require to be very carefully
examined before it would be possible to speak of them with any
certainty. The rocks along the highest line are for the most part
Silurian, as is indicated by the presence of Orthis and other fossils.
These rocks are made up of limestone, clay-slate,; and sandstone.
Running parallel to this Silurian band, but nearer to Tagil, there is a
broad band of rock called diorite. The general character of this rock,
from what I saw, was that of a highly chloritic and much altered
stone, which was generally very soft, sometimes: talcose, and some-
times calcareous. In one place it is dark red, and ten feet away it
is dark green. Where its structure can be made out, it is seen to be
somewhat laminated. In places this appearance gave rise to the
suspicion that it might be only an altered Silurian slate.

It is along this band of diorite that the greater number of gold
washings are situated. Here and there, cropping up“ through this
band, are patches of a fine green serpentine, and it is to the surface
of the country marked by the outcrop of this latter rock that most
of the platinum works are confined.

Still farther to the east, and parallel to both the Silurian rocks
and the diorite, there is a band which is generally felspathic. In
the neighbourhood of Tagil, however, a patch of limestone seems to
have been intercalated. This, from the evidence of a single fossil
found at the time of my arrival, would appear to be of Silurian age,
and probably the remnant of a fold of the rocks of similar age,
which I have just described as forming the higher ground farther
to the west. It is in this limestone, and on the border ground
between it and the neighbouring dioritic and felsitic rocks, that
the copper-mines are situated. Continuing still farther to the east,
bands of diorite, serpentine, and limestone lie approximately
parallel to each other and to those which I have just described.
These repetitions of parallel bands of similar rocks suggest the idea
that they are probably sections produced by denudation of foldings
and crumplings of strata once horizontal.

All these rocks are traversed by numerous faults running about
15° W. of N., a direction to which but very few are counter. These
faults, which are waved rather than straight lines along their out-
crop, sometimes intersect at an acute angle. They are filled with
a yellow ochreous clay, in which malachite occurs imbedded in
nodular and other forms. It is upon a deposit of this sort that the
great copper-mine of Nijni Tagil has been sunk. I believe Murchi-
son described this mine as being in two faults, which lay between
diorite and limestone, and which at the surface was marked by a
worn-out hollow filled with alluvium and boulders.

Prof. Milne—Across Europe and Asia. 397

This mine is of interest, as it is now, I believe, the only one in the
Urals from which the malachite which is such a prominent feature
in the decoration of Russian palaces and churches is obtained.
Another great deposit existed at Sisserski in the south, but this is
now under water, and consequently unworkable. It was from this
latter mine that the large piece lying in the Imperial School of
Mines at St. Petersburg was obtained. The depth of the Tagil
mine is about 82 sageen (574 feet). As might be anticipated from
the situation of the mine and the faulted nature of the surrounding
country, it is very wet. In places, water streams upon you in
torrents, and some of the levels are like rivulets. In spite of a suit
of leather, I was quickly soaked through. In the sides of the levels
there are many small holes from which water issues in powerful
jets. Boards are placed in front of these, to break their direction.
All this water, together with the clayey nature of the ground in
which the levels are driven, renders this mine for visitors as un-
pleasant as can be well conceived. In many places corresponding
points on the walls of the lode appeared in some cases to have been
moved to the right or left—lateral shifting which was probably
produced at the time of the opening of the fault. At the south-east
end of the mine, where the levels are driven along through the clay
of the faults, there is a limestone on one side and a slaty rock upon
the other. Here there is the greatest yield of malachite. As you
travel in an opposite direction towards the north-west end of the
mine, the clay appears to be replaced by brown iron-ore, and with
the malachite one also finds some cuprite and phosphate of copper.
At this part of the mine slates form both walls of the lode. Con-
tinuing still farther to the north-west, you enter the rock which is
called diorite. It is very chloritic, and so soft that gunpowder is
never required. Here native copper and cuprite are found.
Although the ore at this end of the mine is the poorer of the
two, yet it is more concentrated. In this diorite an isolated mass
of magnetite has been found.

A section made at right angles to the general direction of the
lode, which is from 8.H. to N.W. across its northern end, gives a
curious parallelism of materials. First, as a wall upon the westerly
side, there is limestone. Then comes a band of magnetite containing
copper pyrites: this is seven feet broad, and thins out at either
end. Next comes a slate, which is followed by a second band of
magnetite, and more slate. After this there is a mass of diorite,
seventy feet in width, followed by a mass of brown iron-ore; then
once more we have diorite, and last of all slate.

From the northern end of the workings, where the deposit is cut
off by a counter lode, and past which explorations have not as yet
been made, to the other extremity of the mine at the southern end,
the distance is about half a verst.

The yield of ore from this mine may be judged of by the quantity
I have given as having passed through the smelting works. As
labour is cheap, ores which do not yield more than two and a half
per cent. of metal can be worked.

398 Prof. Milne—Across Europe and Asia.

The iron mines of Tagil lie in a small hill upon the north side
of the, town. This hill appears to form a portion of a more or
less metalliferous band, running north and south parallel with the
Urals. This band consists mainly of felspathic rocks. On the
east it is bounded by rocks similar to those of which it is composed,
and on the west by a white highly crystalline slightly magnesian
limestone. Throughout this band there are isolated patches of
limestone slate and magnetic iron-ore. The small hill which I
have mentioned is a mass of this ore, and in it are situated the
mines or rather quarries of iron.

The form of this hill is somewhat ellipsoidal. Its height is about
280 feet, and its length about two miles. The ore is in many places
coloured green, with stains of copper.

Penetrating through this huge mass of ore are small bands or
strips of felsite, which run north and south; but, with these excep-
tions, the remainder is pure magnetite. An east and west section,
at right angles to the length of this mass of ore, would seem
to indicate that it probably thins out as you descend in depth.
The hill is divided into five properties, each of which is worked
in large open quarries. The face of one of these quarries upon
the S.W. side of the hill is about 150 feet in height, and is
worked in a series of horizontal benches or steps. Whilst walking
about these quarries, I was much struck with the appearance of
many large slickensides. The scratches on some of these were half
an inch broad, and long and regular, covering patches two yards
square ; in many cases not at all unlike the effects of glaciation.

Some of these surfaces gave evidence of movements having taken
place at different periods. The metalliferous band in which this
magnetic iron-ore occurs has a breadth of about two miles; but if
we include isolated patches of ore as indicating the same band, it
may in places have a breadth of nearly ten miles. About ten miles
to the south a similar deposit has been found, whilst towards the
north, for a distance of 230 miles, several large masses have also
been met with, some of which, as at Kuschwa and Pawda, are being
worked. One of the limestones which I have spoken of as occur-
ring in the metalliferous bands has near Tagil been found to contain
manganese. This occurs in huge pipes or fissures, which thin out
as you descend.

The valleys and low ground of the whole of this metalliferous
district are covered with a considerable thickness of alluvium, in
which large lumps, and sometimes even boulders, of magnetite are
found. In one place near Tagil this alluvium was 1005 feet in
thickness. The greater part of it is plastic clay. Where this has
been produced from decomposing felspar, it has been used for the
manufacture of the bricks required in building furnaces. Very often,
however, it contains a certain quantity of lime, which deteriorates
its quality. The general colour of this clay is yellow. There are
places where I saw the colour considerably intensified, as might be
expected from the immense quantity of iron in the neighbourhood.

Prof. Milne—Across Europe and Asia, 399
Part IV.—The Middle Urals.

ContENTS.—Nijni Tagil to Ekaterinburg.—Appearance of the Urals; their age;
their geological structure.—The Coal-measures of the Urals and of Moscov.—
Explanation of the intercalation of beds of limestone.—The land of the Carboni-
ferous period in Russia lay to the West.—Coal-fields of Siberia.—Peculiarities in
the distribution of the Fauna and Flora of the Urals; their geological bearing.

T was the 18th of September when I left Tagil and returned to Ekat-
erinburg. The drive back along the flanks of the Urals was even
more disagreeable than it had been when coming, and much of the in-
terest was lost by repetition. The ponds were frozen, snow fell, and
the roads were, without any exaggeration, like ploughed fields which
had been frozen, jolting over which both night and day in an open

springless carriage by no means enhanced our pleasures. Before I

leave these mountains, I will here give a general statement of my few

and imperfect observations as taken from my “omnium gatherum”
of fragmentary notes. Some idea of this line of hills—which form
more or less a barrier between the two great continents—may have
perhaps been gleaned from what I have said concerning my journey
across them when first I entered Ekaterinburg, and also when
referring to my journey along their eastern slopes towards
Tagil. They would appear to be a low undulating line of hills
covered almost to their summits with vegetation. rather than that
black formidable-looking Alpine range which they might be taken
for if we were only to inspect a map of Russia or Europe. But
as the point about which I speak is the place where the road
between Perm and Ekaterinburg—the highway between Russia
and Siberia—crosses into Asia, we might, notwithstanding the
blackness of the maps, anticipate the truth, and conclude that,
if the Urals at any point approximate to gentleness in their
contour, it would be most probably there where the great
Queen Catherine built her Siberian gateway. the town of Ekaterin-
burg. Further to the north, however, the hills, although not pos-
sessing any striking grandeur, are much rougher and higher: but
nowhere along their whole meridional length of 1250 miles do they
anywhere appear as physical features of great importance. Their
highest point is only about 6000 feet. In fact, as a long range of
mountains, occupying such an important position in the divisions of
the world, they are rather remarkable for their want of elevation and
boldness of outline. However, they are extremely old. The Alps,
the Pyrenees, the Apennines, and the Himalayas, appear to have been
wrinkled up in Tertiary times; but the Urals were raised before even
the strata of these great mountains had been deposited. The period
at which they were formed is usually assigned to the close of the

Paleozoic age, before the deposition of the Permian; but from what

1 saw and gathered I should be inclined to think that there is a great

probability of their being somewhat younger, perhaps post- rather

than pre-Permian. This, however, would not materially alter the
length of time their heads have been lifted up against the weathering
influences of time. From the deposition of the Trias down to the

1 «The northern Ural is more considerable, jagged mountain peaks rising to the
height of from 5000 to 7000 feet above the sea,” —Ansted’s Physical Geography, p. 82.

400 Prof. Milne—Across Europe and Asia.

deposition of the alluvium, which covers areas of vast extent upon
the Siberian plains, and up to the present, they must have seen
many changes and suffered much degradation, all of which has
tended to reduce their original height and bring them to their present
form. There is only one other range of any importance which has
had time to see and suffer more, and that is the line of hills in
Scandinavia which date back to Silurian and Laurentian times. At
times the Urals must have stood up like a range of islands, during
which period sediments were deposited like those we now see upon
their flanks. From the beds of alluvium which I saw in and near
Tagil, lying in thick patches high up upon their sides, they must at
no very remote period have been almost totally, if not quite, sub-
merged, the surrounding waters being probably fresh, and perhaps
the same as those from which the Siberian drift was deposited.
In Triassic times the waters were probably salt.

But before saying anything more about these mountains, I will give
a general geological sketch of their structure, as compiled from infor-
mation I derived in Ekaterinburg and Tagil, which of course relates
especially to their appearances in the vicinity of these two localities.
If we made an ideal section across the middle portion of this range
of mountains, we should see that their nucleus is granitic. This
does not appear at all points to occupy the highest position as a
saddle to the range, as for example near Nijni Tagil, where, from a
cursory examination, a Silurian limestone seems to form the highest
ground. Moreover, these central granitic rocks do not occur as a
single boss, but rather appear to protrude at several points. Thus
near Ekaterinburg, upon the eastern side of the mountains, there are
three protrusions of granitic and porphyritic rocks. Right and left
of these rocks, and dipping away from them both east and west, a
series of schiefer, gneiss, greenstone, serpentine, limestone, and other
crystalline rocks are seen, which, from their stratigraphical position
and lithological characters, are regarded as being of Laurentian age.
Above these, upon both sides of the range, come the Silurian rocks,
which are in turn overlain by the Devonian and Carboniferous for-
mations. Upon the western side of the Urals, above the last forma-
tion, we get the Permian, and last of all the Trias, this latter resting
horizontally upon all the older rocks, which dip away from the axis
of the Urals, and have all suffered more or less contortion. On the
eastern side of the Urals the Carboniferous formation is buried
beneath horizontal Tertiaries. These latter consist of sandstones,
whitish clay, and other rocks, in which fragments of lignite and
small pieces of amber are sometimes found.

If the Permian and Triassic strata are absent upon the eastern
flanks of the Urals, we here get indications of vastly different physi-
cal conditions having existed over portions of Hurope and Asia at.
the close of the Paleozoic age. On the one side there may have
been conditions purely terrestrial, and on the other a vast expanse
of salt inland seas.

From the horizontal position of the Trias, whilst all the older
formations dip away right and left from the Ural axis, we may

Prof. Milne—Across Europe and Asia. 401

reasonably infer that, since the time of the accumulation of these
strata, little or no disturbance has taken place, and that the eleva-
tion of these mountains, as before stated, was at least antecedent
to the deposition of the Trias.

If the Permian strata are also undisturbed, which I doubt, it
would make the date of elevation of these mountains somewhat
earlier (see Ramsay on “The Geological History of some of the
Mountain Chains and Groups of Europe,” Mining Journal, January
23rd, 1875).

Carboniferous Formation.—Of all the formations which help to
build our Continents, the one perhaps most sought for is that which
yields us Coal. These formations in Russia, as in Britain, show
differences in stratigraphical character, and also in some other points,
when examined over districts which are distant from each other.
Therefore, for purposes of comparison, before I commence with the
Carboniferous strata which flank the Urals, I will state the general
conditions under which coal exists farther to the west, near Moscow.
Commencing with the upper beds, we get three great zones, the
lowest of which contains the coal, and overlies the Devonian. The
first of these zones is a limestone holding Fusulina cylindrica, the
second is a limestone with Productus gigas as its characteristic fossil.
and the third, which I have said holds the coal, consists mainly of
clay-slate, with Stigmaria ficoides. Comparing this general arrange-
ment with one that may be observed upon the western or Russian
side of the Urals, we find that the three zones of the Moscow district
are now represented by five zones, which also overlie the Devonian.
The upper one of these, which was called by Murchison Millstone-
grit, on account of its lithological and stratigraphical resemblance to
similar rocks in Britain, forms, I believe, the Etage @’Artinsk of M.
Karpensky. It contains three bands of limestone, which in one
direction thin out. Beneath this upper zone is a Fusulina cylindrica
limestone, and, still lower, a sandstone and clay-slate rock carrying
coal. These last two zones, inasmuch as they overlie a limestone
containing Productus gigas, may be looked upon as being the equiva-
lent of the Fusulina-limestone of Moscow, both of them occupying
somewhat similar positions. Beneath this last limestone, which in
the West Ural series will form zone number 4, come more sandstones
and coal, which overlie the Devonian. Judging from a series of rock
specimens which I saw taken from zone number 1, they appeared
to represent a quartziferous sandstone much finer-grained than
the generality of rocks from our Millstone-grit. The limestone
bands, which are intercalated in this zone, may probably be con-
nected together, and also with the Fusulina-limestone below, their
position being an intercalated overlap indicating that some physical
change, such as oscillation, had taken place during their deposition.
The accompanying figure will illustrate my meaning, and perhaps
suggest an explanation for similar occurrences which have been
observed in other parts of the world. At the end of the section,
marked W, we get a series of limestones which may correspond to
the Fusulina-limestones near Moscow. At the opposite end of the

DECADE II.—VOL. IV.—NO. IX. 26

402 Prof. Milne—Across Europe and Asia.

4 4
+t fea] a J [on ag
RE a woes

section, marked E, we find a series, the upper three parts of which
are respectively sandstone, Fusulina-limestone, and sandstone, and
correspond to the West Ural section. An appearance of this sort
might be explained by assuming that the limestone was deposited
in deeper water than the sandstone. After the limestone had been
deposited up to the point 1 in deep water, by oscillation the sea
became shallower towards the east or EK, and the limestone then be-
came covered as far as the point 1 with deposits from shallow water.

Next we may imagine the water to have deepened, and the lime-
stone, so to speak, encroached upon these deposits which were being
laid down in shallower water. In this way it was enabled gradually
to overlap the sandstone as far as the point 2, when another oscilla-
tion in the opposite direction set in, and the agencies producing the
limestone had to retreat towards deeper water before the advancing
heavy gritty material of the shore-line. At the point 3 the limestone
is indicated as again advancing towards 4, which would suppose still
further oscillation. If the intercalations of limestone amongst sand-
stone in the Ural mountains be of the nature IJ have here suggested
and described, it is possible that they were produced in the manner
indicated.

One great distinction between the sections of the Coal-fields upon
the Western Ural and those to the south of Moscow, is that the
former contain many large beds of sandstone which are absent from
the latter. Just as we are able to infer from somewhat analogous
changes which are observed when travelling northwards over the
Coal-measures of Great Britain, that much of our early Carboniferous
land lay somewhere towards the north, so may we infer that much
of the Carboniferous land of Russia lay somewhere towards the east
rather than to the west.

Upon the eastern or Siberian side of the Urals the sections of the
Coal-measures present still greater differences as compared with the
Moscow series. So far as explorations have yet been carried, all the
upper stages which we have mentioned in the other sections are
apparently wanting, and we commence with the Productus-limestone.
Beneath this comes sandstone and conglomerate, amongst which
small quantities of coal are found. Still lower there is a second lime-
stone, also containing Productus gigas, which overlies sandstones and
conglomerates, ainongst which true beds of coal with underclays occur.

Prof. Miine—Across Europe and Asia. 403

After this a third Productus-limestone is found, which rests uncon-
formably upon the underlying Devonian. The repetition of this
Productus-limestone may perhaps be explained in a manner similar
to that which I have suggested as an explanation for the intercala-
tions of the Fusulina-limestones on the western side of the Urals.

The general relations of these three coal-fields are shown in the
following table :

Sourn or Moscow. West oF URALS. East oF URaAts.

1. Limestone with Fusw-| 1. Millstone-grit.

lina cylindrica. 2. Limestone with Ff.
I cylindrica.
7 3. Sandstone, slate, and
Coat.
2. Limestone with Pro- | 4, Limestone with Pro- | 1. Limestone with P.
ductus gigas. ductus gigas. gigas.
Tl. 2. Sandstone, Coan and
conglomerate.
3. Limestone with P.
gigas.
a a ten sandstonerconelome-
3. Clay-slate with Stg- | 5. Sandstone and Coat. rate and Coat.
lie maria ficoides and 5. Limestone with P.
Coan. ; gigas.
Devonian. Devonian. Devonian.

As the materials which form this table, and the description I
have given, were collected from verbal information and the little
that I saw, they must only be taken as giving a general outline of
the chief geological features of this district, which will shortly be
published in St. Petersburg with detail and accuracy.

Up to the present time little or nothing has been known about the
existence of coal upon the eastern side of the Urals. At many
places it has, however, been discovered, as at Geogorshina, Irbit-
skeeya, Vershene, etc. The general dip at these places is 8.W.
towards the Urals. In the northern parts it is more anthracitic
than in the south, but this seems to be connected with the fact that
there it is more bent and contorted, owing to its approaching more
closely to the crystalline rocks. Some specimens from the above-
mentioned localities had this character, and they were also very
friable. Their friability resulted from the numerous small joints by
which they were traversed. Some of these joints were stained with
iron, others held a small quantity of loose carbonaceous dust, whilst
a few contained a white talcose mineral. The thickest seam yet
found on this eastern side of the Urals is between six and seven feet,
but this is divided by some clay partings. The thickest seam in
Russia is, I believe, in the Solekamsk district on the River Luma,

404 Prof. Milne—Across Europe and Asia.

about 850 versts N.W. from Ekaterinburg, which is reported as
being forty-two feet in thickness. It is described as being bitu-
minous and containing many earthy partings.

These coal-fields on the eastern flanks of the Urals are by no
means the only coal-fields which have been discovered in Siberia.
Farther east, in the neighbourhood of Tomsk, anthracite has been
found, whilst more towards the south, in the Kirghis Steppes, no
less than sixteen seams have been found at the Ruanda Mines.

These were described by Mr. Wardroper, an English resident at
Tumen. They occur in a hilly country, traversing both hill and
dale over a large area, as shown in the accompanying sketch, where

three seams are shown in section, two of which are seen cropping
out upon the slope of the distant hills.

Beneath some of the seams there is an underclay, and above
them bands of ironstone. One of the seams is about 5 ft. 10in.
thick, and dips about three inches to the foot. The associated
rock is a soft sandstone, of which I saw several specimens. The
character of the coal is not unlike some of the Scotch splint coal.
The smaller seams are generally better than the larger ones, being
freer from impurities. Still farther east. in the neighbourhood of
Irkutsk, on towards the Amoor and on the Amoor itself, considerable
quantities of coal have been found. The characters of these seams
are those of better class lignites, and their age is apparently Jurassic.

Whilst in Ekaterinburg, my attention was daily attracted by
batteau firing in the neighbouring woods; going in that direction,
I found that it arose from the guns of squirrel-hunters. Squirrels,
like other animals, wander in search of food, and they were then
in numbers round Hkaterinburg, though not seen at other seasons.

Comparing the Fauna on the two sides of the Urals, there does not
appear to be any striking difference, except in the case of one
small mammal, the common house or brown Rat, which is at present,
I believe, only to be found upon the western side of these mountains,
—that is, in their central and northern parts. The head-quarters of
this rat appear to be at Astrachan, where it exists in such numbers
as to give rise to stories, which, if repeated, would be thought in-
credible. It extends all over Hurope, and up the Volga and its
tributaries, to the very foot of the Urals, and here it appears to stop.
So far as boats and railways have gone, the rat has gone also. It
was conveyed by ship from Scandinavia to England, where it has
almost exterminated its black congener (Mus rattus), the aboriginal
species. In a similar manner it reached California, and probably
also China, Japan, and Amoorland. Wherever it has landed, it

Prof. Milne—Across Europe and Asia. 405

has thriven rapidly, and often, whilst securing its footing, it has
rooted out some pre-existing species.

At present a line of rail is being built across the Urals from Perm
to Ekaterinburg, and for this the rats are waiting. Strange as it
may seem that rats should wait for trains, no sooner is one ready
for them than it seems certain that they will commence their march
eastwards into Siberia.

Here we have a modern example of a new species appearing
suddenly in an area, analogous to those sudden appearances met with
in paleontological records. In such records we may, however,
notice that these new appearances are sometimes coincident with, or
else rapidly succeed, the dying out of some form which seems
never to return. A recent example of this sort we may draw from
the same districts we are now considering.

This example is the Beaver, which, if not quite extinct, is cer-
tainly an almost unknown animal. At one time it inhabited the
whole of Europe and Western Asia, but now it is doubtful if many
survive, excepting in a few districts where they have received pro-
tection. In Bavaria, where they appear to have become extinct so
late as 1860, there are no less than sixty places, like Biberach,
Biberfeld, etc., all testifying to their former abundance. Reading
Murray’s “Distribution of Mammals,” one might expect to find
them yet existing in considerable numbers in the streams of the
Ural Mountains; but from all that I could learn, I think that this is
not the case. In times gone by it used to be found upon the River
Boroslovsky, but even there they have been exterminated. In 1859
two beavers were seen on the River Kakoia. In 1873 one, probably
a descendant of this last-mentioned pair, is said to have been seen,
and this is, I believe, the last record of beavers in the Urals. Further
to the north, however, there are many rivers to be explored, where
there is a possibility of still finding the creature; but of its actual
existence I could not gather any information.

Looking all over the Asiatic Continent, although it was often
stated to me that the Beaver was to be found in such localities as
Yakutsk and Irkutsk, as I approached these places the animal
appeared to be as far off as ever. The Yakutsk merchants obtain
the skins they sell from the Tchucktians, who in turn obtain them
from the neighbourhood of the Anadyr River, and perhaps also from
the western part of North America.

The hare (Lepus timidus) is an animal which is rarely seen on the
eastern side of the Urals, whilst upon the west, especially in Central
Russia, it is very common. In the case of some species, as the
Reindeer (C. tarandus) and Moose (C. alces), the Urals form an elevated
pathway by which inhabitants of the north are enabled to descend
towards the south without suffering greatly from any change of
climate.

Besides the above two species of deer, O. capreolus is also a
common inhabitant of the Urals. In the Middle Urals the Bear
- (Ursus arctos) is to be met with in considerable numbers, indications
of its abundance being found in the seal of the Government of Perm,
the effigy on which is a bear.

406 Capt. Macdakin—Northampton Tronstone Beds.

Although many fish are common to the two sides of the Urals,
there is a greater difference between those on the east and those on
the west than that which appears to exist between the Mammalia.
Considering the difficulties that fish have in crossing a barrier of
land, this might naturally be expected. As examples we have
a species of Carp, Alburnus lucidus, only on the west side, and the
Guiniad, Coregonus leucichtys, one of the Salmonide, only on the east.

Upon the eastern side of the Urals we have a singular example of
the spread of a species in a district it was brought to colonize. This
is the Crawfish. Up to the year 1843 or 1844 it only lived on the
western side of the mountains, but about that time it was carried over,
and now the eastern rivers of the Middle Urals are alive with Crawfish.

During the few weeks’ ramble I had amongst the Urals, the season
was too far advanced for the collecting of many plants. However,
to the great surprise of a resident botanist, Mr. Onsiéme Clére, I
obtained a few, one or two of which proved to be of rare occurrence.

Mr. Clére’s observations tend to show that the plants in their
geographical distribution about the Urals exhibit similar peculiarities
to those I have noticed as occurring amongst the animals. Thus we
have plants peculiar to the western side of these mountains, as
Asarum europeum and Ajuga reptans, and I may also add, I think,
Primula lorella and an Auricula. hen there are plants which are
seldom seen upon the western side, but are common in Russia, as
Veronica officinalis, Bunias orientalis, and Tragepogon orientalis.
Certain plants, as might naturally be expected, are only to be found
upon the high mountains of the North Urals; for example, Salix reti-
culata, S. herbacea, S. rotundifolia, Dryas octapetala, Saxifraga punctata,
Pyrethrum bipinnatum, and Asplenium crenatum. Then, again, there
are plants which have only been found in the Alps and near St.
Petersburg, in addition to the Urals, as, for example, Hieracium
prenanthoides. Again, certain plants which are found in the Urals
stretch eastward into Siberia, such as Caltha natans, Actea spictata,
A. oxycarpa, A. leucocarpa, and Aconitum volubile. Other plants have
an excessive range in this direction; thus Rubus humilifolius extends
to the Amoor, as also does Ranunculus Purschii.

Thus we see that the Urals, although not forming a formidable
barrier in the physical configuration of the globe, still play the part
of one in preventing an unlimited mixture of species, which is alike
evident both amongst the animals and vegetables,—a fact which, when
regarded geologically, is of considerable significance, more especially
when we reflect upon their great antiquity.

(Zo be continued in our next Number).

IJ].—Tsr Nortuampron Ironstonr Bxrps 1n LincoLNsHIRE.
By Caprarn Macpakin.

HE Ironstone Beds of Oolitic age in Lincolnshire have, during
the last four years, yielded not only large quantities of brown
heematite iron-ore, but some very interesting sections and borings,
comprising thirty-one of the latter between four and seven miles
to the south of Lincoln, and several extensive openings showing

Capt. Macdakin—Northampton Ironstone Beds. 407

that the beds are much richer at this distance from Lincoln, but
that they become very siliceous and pass into a ferruginous sand
above Normanton about eighteen miles to the south.

Fig. 1.—Section of the Northampton Ironstone beds eight miles South of Lincoln.
Oolitic Limestone

35 feet thick. Inches.

Hem Cro Rde) Dede ttcccaccssrvaseuscercmmenenccrtenes 8
ATES Clery ironstone ses seccetseesseserteres fee easter nlp 4
III. Hard carbonate of iron wececssccseeeceee 9
Vie Clay, partin pe ccnccacocc nace nirc Rec = 4
V. Hard blue carbonate of iron 16
VI. IRELOXIGISEC ND ANG Crcrreeeetscecscerrerssserescccn creates | 10
VII. Nodules and clay partings ose an
VIII. Blue ferruginous sand bed emus 13
HeXemlronstone NodWles) . sscsesecenseecenesteres eaters = 6
X. Clay with nodules (micaceous) 36

: ———— =
KI Coprolites and pyrites .......cssccsscscsssen =e 3

ZZ

ME Bie a8 Cay. ceric tei ett —

__Z2-aa

In the physical geography of the country, the Northampton Sands
occupy the upper part of the escarpment (Fig. 2 B, D), known as
the Cliff, running roughly parallel to the Great Northern Railway
(Fig. 4) from Grantham to Lincoln. At about a quarter of a mile

Fic. 2.—Section of Cliff showing in the shaded portion of C, the oxidised
| outcrop of the iron bed.

WwW

5 ; F
A, Lincolnshire Limestone. B, Lower Estuarine bed. C, Northampton Ironstone bed,
oxidised from;the outcrop towards F, this bed being ten feet thick. D, the Coprolite
bed four inches. , Lias clay.

408 Capt. Macdakin—Northampton Ironstone Beds.

Fic, 3.—Diagram, showing the slipping back and faulting of the beds over the
Lias clay in the Greetwell cutting.

= = << Za a

os

EXPLANATION oF Map. — 1. Normanton. 2. Caythorpe. 3. Leadenham.
4. Navenby. 5. Coleby Mines. 6. Waddington Mines. 7. Canwick. 8. Burton.
9, Searle Boring for coal. 10. Greetwell cutting.

S. Ry. = Sheffield Railway. G. Ry. = Grimsby Railway.
Northern Railway. The escarpment is shown by a shaded line.

QUID NOOOQQH

WILE

RY

ON

yw es ‘y ¢

WW

G. N. Ry. = Great

Fie. 5.—Section at Waddington.
Railway. Ironstone Mine. Pane aie Country.
| |

Lias Clay.

Capt. Macdakin—Northampton Ironstone Beds. 409

distant from the Great Northern Railway, and overlooking the broad
valley of Lias Clay, the top of the escarpment is formed of the
denuded edge of the Lincolnshire Limestone (Fig. 2 A). The
borings near the edge show a thickness of the Lower Oolite, Lincoln-
shire Limestone, of four feet, suddenly thickening to thirty feet or
thirty-three feet, and maintaining this thickness to the eastward.
The surface is almost entirely level for about a thousand yards from
the edge of the escarpment, and then breaks into a succession of
slight undulations (Fig. 5), until it is lost under the beds of Lower
Oolite Clay or beneath the drift.

From personal observation I believe these undulations to have
been caused by the upper beds having slipped in the direction of their
dip, over the Lias Clay, which retains the water that percolates
through the Oolite beds and Northampton Sands. This folding of
the strata may be seen to advantage in the railway cutting on the
Grimsby line at Greetwell (Fig. 3), about a mile from Lincoln,
with the Lower Estuarine Clay forced up here and there where the
limestone has been fractured. ‘This escarpment is about a hundred
and fifty feet in height, the whole being formed by the Lias Clay
with the exception of the upper ten feet, which is Inferior Oolite.
The top being scattered over with drift pebbles, which I have failed
to detect in the Lias valley nearer than a mile and a half, when they
again commence and form extensive gravel-pits at Boultham Moor.

The Lower Hstuarine series is next encountered, varying from
eighteen inches to two feet, consisting of a very white sand and
flagey sandstone, and in some places of clay.

Below this come the Northampton Ironstone beds (Fig. 2 C, and
Fig. 1), having a very constant thickness of eight feet, and resting
on the Upper Lias. The ironstone beds vary in richness and in
their mineral characteristics : whilst the upper beds are siliceous, the
lower beds are more argillaceous ; some of the richer bands contain as
much as forty per cent. of iron, which in the more siliceous portions
falls to twenty-eight per cent. The ore near the outcrop occurs in
nodular masses on an average perhaps of a foot in diameter, some-
times as geodes with concentric bands of oxidation, and occasionally
containing a loose kernel of unoxidised blue carbonate of iron. For
two hundred yards from the outcrop the beds are of a deep reddish
brown colour owing to the silicate of iron ; then changing (Fig. 2 F)
into the bluish grey carbonates (Fig. 1) ; the red ore occasionally
lining fissures plainly showing the cause of this change, from the
original blue carbonate by oxidation to the brown clay ironstone
nodules of the outcrop, which even still in some places exhibit on
fracture a centre of the original blue carbonate of iron. Some por-
tions of the peroxidised beds are very vesicular, the well-sinkers
having from time immemorial called it “ Firestone,” believing it to
have been the work of subterranean fires.

Immediately over the Lias Clay there is a curious bed (Fig. 1,
No. XI.), three inches in thickness, of phosphatic nodules, with
pyrites, handsome brilliant masses, that the country people carry off
as decorations for their chimney-pieces. A bed of micaceous clay

410 Henry H. Howorth—Geology of the Isle of Man.

(Fig. 1, No. X.), sparkling like the scales of a fish, also excited much
curiosity among the natives.

The siliceous ironstone is very difficult to fuse in crucible experi-
' ments with the usual proportion of limestone fluxes, even in the
intense heat of a puddling furnace; but I found the blue Lias Clay
an excellent flux, deducting of course the iron it contains (about
four per cent.) from the result. Fossils were very scarce, and
only the usual Inferior Oolite specimens, with a few small phosphatic
nodules being occasionally met with of about an inch in length by
half an inch in diameter, in the Northampton Ironstone bed.

Several chalybeate springs find their way into the valley, and form
thin patches of re-deposited iron ore. The dead leaves and twigs at
the bottom of ditches being sometimes covered with crystalline
feathers of peroxide of iron, as bushes and trees are occasionally
decorated with hoar frost in winter.

IV.—GeEoLocy oF THE Is~E oF Man.
By Henry H. Howorru, Esq.

N a recent visit to the Isle of Man, I spent three long days in
examining the deposits of the very interesting district in the
south of the island, and I wish to draw the attention of your readers
to some facts which are, I think, important. Not being an ex-
perienced geologist, I hope I shall do so with becoming modesty,
and I should feel very gratified if some more practised geologist
would verify my statements, which are, however, not rashly made,
as I have sifted the question with care and patience.

Mr. Cumming has written the most elaborate account of the
geology of the Isle of Man, and his work on the island is an admir-
able specimen of what such a work ought to be. He is the authority
for the opinion now generally received, that the Mountain Lime-
stone which occurs under very interesting circumstances in the bays
of Derbyhaven, Castletown, and Poolvash, is separated from the
underlying schists by deposits of the Devonian or Old Red Sand-
stone period. ‘This conclusion, if true, would be very interesting in
view of the recent discussions as to the relations of the Old Red
Sandstone to the Carboniferous formation, since it is admitted by Mr.
Cumming that the fossils contained in these red rocks are identical
with those contained in the limestone.

I believe the view of Mr. Cumming on this subject to be entirely
erroneous, and that the red rocks in question do not belong to the
Old Red formation, nor are they older than the limestone, but that
they in fact overlie that formation. There are four ways in which
the age of the deposit may be tested, and the result in every case is
conclusive that it is not Devonian.

First, the paleeontological evidence. Into this I shall not enter.
Mr. Cumming admits that the fossils found in the red deposit are
the same as those found in the limestone, and this fact is assuredly
a priori almost conclusive that the red rocks are not Devonian.

Secondly, the petrological evidence. The rocks in question consist

Henry H, Howorth—Geology of the Isle of Man. 11

of a conglomerate, and occasional pockets and layers of consolidated
fine red mud. The whole thickness is not more than twenty feet at
any point. The conglomerate consists of a very closely packed
series of boulders, some of them rounded and some with their
edges sharp, imbedded in a matrix of consolidated red mud, similar
to that just mentioned.

The boulders just referred to are of various sizes, from a foot and
a foot and a half in diameter to small pebbles, and, so far as a careful
and prolonged examination could discover, consist almost entirely of
pieces of limestone and quartz, the limestone forming about 3%
of the whole. These limestone boulders are some of them of the
natural colour of the limestone, and others are deeply coloured with
iron. These boulders are most clearly of Mountain Limestone, and of
the same character as the bedded limestone close by, and but for the
colour of a number of them, there would never have been any doubt
that they were formed out of the disintegrated limestone. Again,
the muddy matrix in which the boulders are imbedded, as well
as the intercalated pockets, consists of a paste made up largely of
pulverized limestone.

These facts seem to admit of but one conclusion. A conglomerate
consisting almost entirely of limestone boulders, imbedded in a
matrix of pulverized limestone, lying immediately in contact with
beds of limestone, cannot well by any process of reasoning be made
into an “Old Red Conglomerate.” Unless there be some reason of a
very marked kind to the contrary, the conclusion is inevitable that it
has been formed of the disintegrated beds of Mountain Limestone,
and is posterior in date to them.

Thirdly, as to the position of these beds. Mr. Cumming says they
underlie the limestone which rests conformably upon them. I have
searched carefully the various points where they appear at Langness,
on the banks of the river Santon, at Cushnahavin, and in Derby-
haven bay, and nowhere can I find evidence to support this state-
ment. The sections exposed are nearly al! on the coast, and are
much obscured by the overgrowth of sea-weed, and by discoloura-
tion, etc., etc. There was only one place where the sequence of the
beds seemed to me unmistakable, and that was in the beds lying
almost horizontally between high and low water mark in Derby-
haven bay, and there, certainly, as far as I could make out, the grey
and dark coloured limestone was overlain by beds of an ochreous
colour, still unmistakable limestone, and in every respect bedded
like the grey limestone just mentioned; above this red-coloured lime-
stone again lay the beds of red conglomerate. Nowhere, as I have
said, could I see any evidences that the conglomerate was overlain
by the limestone, nor do I believe, after having tested the position
carefully, that such a succession of the beds can be seen anywhere in
this part of the island. On the contrary, north of the Santon
brook, where, by the violence of the great discharge of trap, the
beds are torn and twisted in an extraordinary fashion, a bed of
limestone has been thrown up on end, and its lower surface has been
bared, and we can examine very easily both its upper and lower

412 Henry H. Howorth—Geology of the Isle of Man.

surface. The latter rests immediately on the schist, and I have
a number of specimens broken off from the very point of contact,
where unmistakable schist is immediately in contact with unmistak-
able limestone, and nothing intervenes between them, the beds at
the same time resting apparently conformably one upon the other.
This may be seen at Cushnahavin, a few yards north of the estuary
of the Santon brook; a few yards to the south, as I have said, the
purple schists may be also seen in immediate contact with the
limestone, showing that no Devonian beds intervened.

Fourthly, as to the red colour of the beds. This is undoubted, but,
as I believe, it has nothing to do with the beds being Devonian. At
the mouth of the Santon brook may be seen a sight which Mr.
Cumming rightly considers as one of the most interesting which a
geologist can see anywhere. The twisted and contorted schists
gradually change colour, and from being of a blue, and grey colour,
become striped with red bands, which are occasionally a foot and
a foot and a half in width, and eventually the whole rock, without
changing its character, assumes a beautiful purple colour. The
brook passes right through these purple schists; some ten or fifteen
yards to the south of the brook the schists lie directly against and in
contact with the great beds of Mountain Limestone.. At the point
of contact, and some distance beyond, the limestone is coloured of a
russet colour by iron. There are no interposed beds of red ¢on-
glomerate, but the schists and the limestone are both of them stained
red with iron for some distance from the point of junction. Further,
I was told by a neighbouring farmer that a shaft had been pierced
into the limestone at the poimt of contact in search of iron-ore,
which had been found there.

Where the schists and the limestone are in contact at Port St.
Mary, a similar excavation for iron has been made, and the limestone
beds are stained of a russet colour.

The same thing occurred in Castletown bay on the peninsula of
Langness, where the deep blue slate may be studied in its normal
condition, both at the extremity of the headland and at a recently
sunk shaft made in search of copper about 500 yards from the
extremity of the headland. The schist between the two points just
named gradually changes colour and becomes highly charged with
iron, while the beds of limestone which lie in the bay go through a
similar change of colour. This shows that where the schist and the
limestone came into close contact, there has been a discharge of iron
which has discoloured the rocks on either side. This discharge
probably proceeded from one of the numerous trap veins which have
dislocated the rocks in a very extraordinary manner, and whose
meandering lines are very clearly marked against the differently
coloured rocks close by. It is this discharge of iron at this critical
line of junction between the limestone and the schist which may
possibly have led to the idea of there having been a series of Devon-~
ian beds between the schists and limestones in the south of the Isle of
Man, but I am confident that no such Devonian rocks exist in that
part of the island. I do not say a word about the red sandstones of

Reviews—Catalogue of British Fossil Crustacea. 413

Peel, which I have not seen, and my arguments only apply to the
beds in the south of the island. Having shown that the red beds
are not Devonian, I hope in another communication to show what
they really are.

RAVI WGS.

I.—A Catanoeur or British Fosstz Orustacka, with THEIR
SYNONYMS AND THE RANGE In Time oF Eacn Genus AnpD
Orprer. By Henry Woopwarp, F.R.S., F.G.S., of the Depart-
ment of Geology, British Museum. 8vo. pp. 168. (London:
Printed by order of the Trustees, April, 1877.)

HE want of a Catalogue of British Fossil Crustacea, in which all
the synonyms should be given, has long been felt. The
present task was commenced some years since; but, owing to the
unsatisfactory state of one group, the Bivalved Entomostraca, which
greatly needed revision, the work was for some time laid aside by
its author for other and more pressing occupations.

Thanks to the labours of Messrs. Brady, Crosskey, and Robertson,
whose Monograph on the British Fossil Post-Tertiary Entomostraca
forms quite a volume of itself in the Monographs of the Paleon-
tographical Society for 1874, this portion of the work has now been
very carefully worked out, and when combined with the long
labours of Prof. T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S., amongst the older forms,
leaves little more to be desired in the completion of this group.

Some idea may be formed of the progress of paleeontological work
in this country from the fact that when Prof. Morris’s Catalogue of
British Fossils was published in 1854, he recorded 81 genera and
306 species of Fossil Crustacea only.

The present Catalogue contains a record of 197 genera, and 1051
species and varieties found fossil in Britain; so that, since 1854, 116
new genera, and 745 new species and varieties of Fossil Crustacea
have been figured and described in Britain.

With the exception of one doubtful organism (the EHozoon Cana-
dense) not met with in the oldest known British Sedimentary rocks,
the fossil representatives of the class Crustacna take rank in an-
tiquity amongst the earliest known organic remains.

From the recently discovered Pre-Cambrian rocks of St. David’s,
Pembrokeshire (the “Dimetian” and ‘“ Pebidian” formations), no
organic remains of any kind have been obtained; the Lower Cam-
brian series, however, have yielded to the labours of Mr. Henry
Hicks, F.G.8., and others, remains of Monnuscompa, AnneLrpa, and
CRUSTACEA.

Of the thirteen Orders enumerated in the subjoined Table (p.
416), two only (printed in Italics) are extinct, namely the Trinoprra
and Eurypreripa, and three are not represented in a fossil state,
viz. the Cuapocrra, the Coprropa, and the RurzocePHALa.

The small Table is intended to show at a glance the earliest

414 Reviews—Henry Woodward—

appearance in time (so far as we have been enabled to ascertain it)
of each order, and its recurrence in each successive formation.

A ie f
E WN Eile & Qi ea PE Faille hae
< 3 ¢de/48/ A LS Aa 4 “Slo A A Q
A AaAP|AP o) : ja fo) Ss) | RO Ay ° a a
©5o|/os8/om] & < g.5 a a | 8.8 ° Sy B A
Aaal ho|mo <q Q oe et ° aS re) = vA a
ag/<z2/<<4/ 3 /)°9]8h%] & me | ee) 8 3 < <
3 PS) io) SI 5 ri Eo oy y ao al a | i]
aA lat) a Se) S| esi 2 S| eS] @ 4 a
A A =) mni)a |e <q 4 1m 0 o) —Q |
Post-Tertiary.......... SKA Pep || eX Dol WX eK eases oda oe Ico Me ll pK heen (ne
erhianygee oe 5 Be P58 35 Poe | cee 280 36] one ae | oe | ae) | 38
Cretaceous «0.0.00... 5 etal hb-< Bailie: Gy 5 cy eee a Tp ee at te ace De lend Guilltied:e > Illa
Jurassic 3k) axon |e, x Pees x Kye wees x
ETASSIC eats eee cee || yey || om gel Rel Seog! Eeceg| BAe as x xX
i erermatary le Ses ive Sed ete IT Pet ee ee KAT eee Xt lx
Carboniferous .....) ... |... o€ || xe || SR |] 38° |) 5 Kl} ox x x
Old Red Sandstone}... |... | se | es 5 <a fev: ae te aXe aXe x
Wiper nsilurian gees ieee esi | tee pee | Gin INS elles @ MNS. gh MASc ee aio ett eat x
ILOyyere, Shilopeteiay sl Gos | cars|) ates || emo Il oe Brel Ties ant tae ee Ba 3Q | ore
Cambriam. occ] coone a iy Me ea DBs Heal Meer ae tes, 5 x
Pre-Cambrian

Bracuyura.—The oldest known Orab is the Paleinachus longipes,
H. Woodw., from the Forest Marble (Great Oolite), Wilts. The
Crabs are well represented from the Jurassic period to the present
day, when they attain their maximum development within the warm,
temperate, and subtropical latitudes, where land, freshwater, and
marine specimens abound.

AnomurA.—The Anomura embrace forms of Decapoda, both re-
lated to the Brachyura (e.g. Dromia, Porcellana, Dorippe, etc.) and
to the Macrura (e.g. Pagurus, Galuthea, Munida). ‘Their earliest
appearance is in the Cretaceous period. Numerous species of land
and marine Anomura are found within the tropics, and the marine
Species occur very widely distributed in the colder seas of the
globe.

Macrura.—Of this division of the Drecapopa a single species, the
Anthrapalemon Grossartii, occurs in the Coal-measures, and is well
represented from the Trias to the present day. There are abundant
freshwater and marine, but no land-dwelling Macrura.

Sromapopa.—One species (the Pygocephalus Husleyi, H. Woodw.)
from the Coal-measures probably is referable to this division. True
Squillas and Mysis-like Crustaceans occur in the Jurassic rocks.
They are most abundant in our modern seas.

Isopopa.—The remains of a single species of Isopod, Prearcturus
gigas, H. Woodw., have been obtained from the Old Red Sandstone
of Herefordshire, and other representatives occur in the Carboniferous
and Secondary rocks. The Isopopa are most widely distributed over
land and sea to-day —terrestrial, freshwater, and marine species
abound.

Tritoprta.—This extinct Order ranges from the Lower Cambrian
to the Carboniferous Series, more than 800 British species being

Catalogue of British Fossil Crustacea. 415

described, and in Bohemia 350 species have been named and
figured by Barrande alone. The great Paradoxides Davidis
measures nearly two feet in length. As this group ascends in time,
we find those extravagantly ornamented and spinose forms, such as
Paradoxides and Acidaspis, disappear; and only three genera sur-
vive in the Carboniferous, small in size, and very regular and neat
in form, especially the genus Griffithides.

Ampuipopa.—The Amphipoda has one representative in the Upper
Silurian (the Necrogammarus Salweyi, H. Woodw.) ; it is represented
by Gampsonyx in the Coal of Rhenish Prussia; and by the genus
Prosoponiscus in the Permian of Durham. Other (Secondary) species
occur in Bavaria, etc. The living genera of Amphipoda are
abundant both in marine and freshwater, and some species are even
terrestrial in their habits.

XipHosurRA.—The earliest representative of the King-Crabs known
is the Neolimulus falcatus, H. Woodw., from the Upper Silurian of
Lanarkshire ; several species are met with in the Coal-measures, and
are very widely distributed. The genus is represented largely in
the Oolite of Bavaria, and is also found living to-day in both the Old
and New World.

EurypteripA.—The Euryprreripa, like the Trinoprra, are an
extinct order. They were represented in Devonian and Silurian
times by genera, which attained a length of from 5 to 6 feet. They
are nearly related to the King-Crabs in structure, but differed in
their development as do the Lobsters from the Crabs at the present
day: the XrpHosuRa representing the Bracuyura, and the Eury-
PTERIDA the Macrura.

PuyLLoropa.—The PhyHopoda are represented from the Middle
Cambrian to the Tertiary period by many genera. Large extinct
forms, closely resembling the little modern Nebalia bipes, were
abundant in the Upper Silurian of Ludlow and Lanark. They are
represented to-day by species in freshwater, brackish water, salt
water, and highly saline salterns and lakes.

Ostracopa.—The Bivalved HEntomostraca included in this order
are largely represented throughout the entire series of stratified
rocks, from the Lower Cambrian to the present day; they are equally
well represented in a recent state. They not unfrequently (as in
the Cypris shales of the Wealden) make up entire strata with their
accumulated bivalved carapaces.

Creripepia. (a.) Bantanipm.—The oldest fossil sessile Cirripede
is the Pyrgoma cretacea, H. Woodw., from the Upper Chalk of
Norwich.

(b.) Lepapripa.—The oldest known pedunculated Cirripede is the
Turrilepas Wrightit, H. Woodw., from the Upper Silurian of Dudley.
None have been met with lower than the Lias except Turrilepas ;
but from the Lias upwards, pedunculated forms are well represented.

The group is abundant and cosmopolitan in all the seas of the
world, parasitic on all objects, living and dead.

The subjoined Table gives the number of genera, species, and
varieties belonging to each order, and suborder in the class Crustacea.

416 Reviews—Australian Tertiary Geology and Fossils.

Crass CRUSTACEA.

Subclass I. THORACIPODA, H. Woodw. (or Maza- |

COSTRACA). Genera. Species. | Var.

Legion 1. PODOPHTHALMIA.
Order 1. Decapoda.

Suborder (2) BRACHYURA cssssssssseesssssesssses 27 41

» (6) ANOMURA 2 3
(c) Macrura 22 52
Order 2. "Stomap Od Bf ccntih ce aay utmten eealy 2 4
Legion 2. EDRIOPHTHALMIA,
OrderproTsopod a, ia... es ae aco 3 3
Sa RA sae CSLAL ONE TIEN feet nels tennen enue 51 304 18
Sv Amphipoda,....0 VU Ae Pe ee 1 1
Subclass IT. "GNATHOPODA, H. Woodw. (or Ento-
MOSTRACA).
Legion 8. MEROSTOMATA.
Order 6. Xiphosura, and CYcLvS (?) cesses 4 16
Fh do LOTR TOT RIID IA eterna ery 5 36 4
Legion 4. BRANCHIOPODA.
Orders yPhyllopoday ees eee 12 55 6

» _ 9. Cladocera.
Legion 5. LOPHYROPODA.
OrderOsOstracoda Wey eh on eo 55 413 41
», 11. Copepoda.
Legion 6. ANCHORACEPHALA.
Order 12. Rhizocephala.
», 18. Cirripedia.

i (2) (BALANTD as) Se te i) 18
(2) IGnPADTp zn 2 eas 4 29 3

Crustacean « Teeth,” Eggs, and “ Tracks””’............... ashy | 4
1 Oe 72

JJ.—1. Hisrory or Avustraian TERTIARY eee By the Rev.
J. WH. Trentson-Woops, F.G.S8., etc.—2. Furtaer Nores on
THE TERTIARY Marine Beps or Tanuie Cape, Tasmanta. By
R. M. Jounsron.—3. Norrs on toe Tertiary Fossits, Tas-
MANIA. By the Rev. J. HE. T. Woops, F.G.S., ete.
(From the Papers and Proceedings of the R. Soc. Tasmania for 1876. 8vo. pp.
45. Hobart Town, 1876.)
N the first of the above papers the Rev. Mr. Woods, after a brief
notice of the chief works bearing on Australian Tertiary Geology,
passes to a consideration of some important questions arising therein.
For instance, he asks—Do the Tertiary formations of Australia ex-
hibit any sign of a persistence of the types common to the Secondary
formation of the continent? This question Mr. Woods tells us
may be answered in the negative. ‘Some of the Brachiopoda have
faint Secondary affinities, but the Echinodermata are certainly not
Mesozoic in character.” The Secondary types in the Australian
Tertiary deposits are few and rare; they may be summarized as
two species of Trigonia, both differing from existing forms, and a
Pleurotomaria.! In other respects the resemblance between the
Huropean and Australian Tertiary rocks is considerable, whilst there
1 There are three Trigonie, viz. T. acuticostata, M‘Coy; T. semiundulata, M‘Coy ;
and 7. Howitti, M‘Coy. The first of these has recently been found living in Bass’s
Hie The Pleurotomaria referred to by Mr. Woods is P. HERTS ta, ° Mi Coy.—
un.

Reviews—Australian Tertiary Geology and Fossils. 417

is the same break between the Secondary and Tertiary series. Mr.
Woods is of opinion that the weight of evidence is against the
theory advanced by some that any part of the continent has remained
dry land since the Mesozoic period.

Mr. R. M. Johnston’s paper deals with the stratigraphical order
of the Table Cape Tertiary series. The surrounding country has
been subjected to a large amount of denudation, a capping of basalt
and basaltic tuff, 80 feet thick, acting as the protecting medium in
the immediate vicinity of the Cape. Beneath this cap is a series of
beds of white and grey calcareous sandstone, termed by the author
the “Turritella Group” from the prevalence of T. Warburtonii,
Tenison-Woods. The deposit next in order of succession below
the “Turritella Group” consists of an “irregular agglomeration of
shells, bound up in a matrix of ferruginous-looking mud,” and is
called the “ Crassatella bed.” The fauna of both groups is a copious
one, and they are respectively characterized more by the prevalence
of certain forms in eack, and the gradual diminution or increase of
these, as the case may be, as we pass from one series to the other,
than by the restriction of species to each bed. All that can be said
is that the Turritella Group and Crassatella bed were accumulated
under somewhat different conditions to one another. This marine
deposit rests upon a highly indurated conglomerate floor, which
probably corresponds to a conglomerate described by Mr. Gould on
the Dial Range, as of Silurian age. At the Table Cape this con-
glomerate appears to rest unconformably on slate rock.

The species obtained by Mr. Johnston from the Tertiary beds of
Table Cape, 150 in number, were examined by the Rev. Mr. Woods,
and the new species described in the third paper above cited.
Highty of these were found to be new, of which, 10 per cent.
are existing forms, and appear to indicate the Table Cape beds
as a deposit of the Laminarian zone. The Foraminifera are
abundant, and amongst the Corals are the only true reef-builders
met with in the Australian Tertiaries. The Brachiopoda are also
abundant, and the Echinodermata numerous, presenting some new
forms, whilst on the other hand the Polyzoa are scarce, a marked
contrast to similar beds in South Australia. Eliminating those
fossils peculiar to the Table Cape beds, the majority are identical
with those of the S. Australian so-called Miocene, there being a
greater resemblance between the two deposits on each side Bass’s
Straits, than between the existing Molluscan faunas of the two
coasts. The new species described by Mr. Woods are divided as
follows :—Gasteropoda, 48 or 49; Lamellibranchiata, 9; Polyzoa, 1 ;
Corals, 2; and by Mr. Johnston, Echinodermata, 1.

The Polyzoon described is both a new genus and species—Buskia,
(B. typica, TYenison-Woods). We would merely point out that the
term Buskia has already been made use of in a generic sense by the
late My. Alder for a recent Zoophyte, which he named Buskia nitens.'

R. E., Jun.

1 Catalogue of the Zoophytes of Northumberland and Durham, Trans. Tyneside
Nat. Field Club, vol. iii. p. 156.

DECADE II.—YOL. IV.—NO. IX. 27

418 Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of Ireland.

te > @ eS) ASIN a) |b @ GariEe a ets =
suche Ini

I.—Royat Gronogican Society or Irr~tanp.—March 16, 1877.

“On the Nature and Origin of the Beds of Chert in the Upper
Carboniferous Limestones of Ireland.” By Prof. Edward Hull,
M.A., F.R.S., Director Geol. Survey of Ireland. With ‘‘ Chemical
Notes,” by EH. T. Hardman, F.C.S., Geol. Survey of Ireland.

After reviewing what had been published by previous authors on
the origin of chert-beds, and showing that much remained to be done
in this department of petrology, the author proceeded to describe the
geological position of the principal cherty zone of the Carboniferous
Limestone of Ireland, showing that, while bands of chert occur at
intervals throughout this formation, the highest beds immediately
under ‘The Yoredale Shales” are especially rich in chert, and are
frequently entirely replaced by this mineral. In these beds coralline,
crinoidal, and other marine forms were frequently to be recognized
by the naked eye. Thin slices for microscopic examination, taken
from various localities, extending from Sligo to Carlow, also showed
that even the most dense and compact masses of chert exhibit, under
favourable circumstances, forms belonging to those of marine animals
—such as corals, crinoids, foraminifera, and occasionally molluscs,
animals which build their shells or skeletons of carbonate of lime
rather than of silica. The siliceous paste in which these forms are
inclosed was found to be in a gelatinous state, and the forms were
only to be distinguished by difference in depth of shade from the
paste, the shells or skeletons having disappeared. The chemical
analyses of these specimens by Mr. H. T. Hardman, F.C.S., tended
to show that the chert-beds contain various proportions of carbonate
of lime as well as other minerals, so that a gradation from siliceous
limestone into pure chert might be traced. From a review of the
whole circumstances, it appeared that the origin of the chert-beds
was to be attributed to the replacement of the original limestone
or calcareous “ooze,” due to organic agency, by silica, and that the
rock is truly a pseudomorph, a view held by several observers.

The manner in which this replacement had been brought about
was then touched upon. It was shown that there was reason for
believing that at the close of the period during which the Carbon-
iferous Limestone was formed over the area of Central Ireland, the
sea-bed was elevated, so as to be covered with the waters of a
shallow sea, exposed to the sun’s rays, and of a warmer temperature
than when at a greater depth. The waters appear to have been
charged with a more than usual supply of silica in solution, derived
(as Mr. Hardman suggests) from the surrounding lands, formed, for
the most part, of highly siliceous materials. As silica is less soluble
than carbonate of lime, chemical replacement would naturally take
place, the carbonate of lime being dissolved out, and its place taken
by the silica. The warm condition of the sea-water, its exposure to
sunlight, the porous character of the coralline, crinoidal, and other
forms, and the soft and ‘‘oozy” condition of the foraminiferal mud
would give easy access to the sea-waters, and the process of silicifi-

British Association—Section C.—President’s Address. 419

cation would take place, analogous to that described by Prof. Dr. P.
Martin Duncan, F.R.S., as having occurred in West Indian Corals.

The paper was accompanied by chemical analyses and photographic
figures of some of the thin slices, slightly magnified.

I]l.—Britiso Assocration, Prymoura, August 16th, 1877.—Section ©.
Address to the Geological Section. By W. Pengelly, F.R.S., F.G.S., Presi-
dent of the Section.

When, as long ago as 1841, the British Association made its only pre-
vious visit to Plymouth, some of us, now amongst its oldest members,
thought ourselves too young to take any part in its proceedings. If the
effects of that meeting are still traceable in this district, it will be admitted,
of course, that the seed then sown was of excellent quality and that it fell
on good soil. Be this as it may, the hope may be cherished that thirty-
six years will not again be allowed to elapse between two consecutive visits
to the capital of the two south-western counties.

One effect of this wide hiatus is the loss of almost all the human links
whose presence on this occasion would have pleasantly connected the
present with the past. A glance at the lists. of Trustees and the General,
Sectional, and Local officers in 1841 will show that the presence of scarcely
one of them can be hoped for on this occasion; and there is but little
probability that any of those who prepared Reports or Papers for the last
Plymouth Meeting will have done so for that which is now assembled.

Nor are these the only changes. In 1841 Section C embraced, as at the
beginning, the Geographers as well as the Geologists; but ten years later the
geographers were detached, whether to find room for themselves, or to make
room for the students of an older geography, it is not necessary to inquire.

Some years afterwards came an innovation which, until entering on the
preparation of this address, I always regarded as a decided improvement.
The first Presidential Address to this Section was delivered at Leeds in
1858 by the late Mr. Hopkins, so well known to geologists for his able
application of his great mathematical powers to sundry important problems
in their science ; and from that time to the present, with the exception of
the Meetings of 1860 and 1870 only, the President of this Section has
delivered an address.

None of the local geological papers read in 1841 appear to have attracted
so much attention as those on Lithodomous Perforations, Raised Beaches,
Submerged Forests, and Caverns (see Athenzeuim for 7th to 28th of August,
1841); and, as an effort to connect the present with the past, I have
decided on taking up one of these threads, and devoting the remarks I
have now to offer to the History of Cavern-Exploration in Devonshire. I
am not unmindful that there were giants in those days ; and no one can
deplore more than I do our loss of Buckland and De la Beche, amongst
many others ; nor can I forget the enormous strides opinion has made
since 1841, when, in this Section, Dr. Buckland “contended that human
remains had never been found under such circumstances as to prove their
contemporaneous existence with the hyenas and bears of the Caverns,”
and added that “in Kent’s Hole the Celtic knives .... . were found in
holes dug by art, and which had disturbed the floor of the cave and the
bones below it” (Athenzeum, 14th Aug. 1841, p. 626). This scepticism,
however, did the good service of inducing cavern explorers to conduct their
researches with an accuracy which should place their results, whatever they
might prove to be, amongst the undoubted additions to human knowledge.

The principal Caverns in South Devon occur in the limestone districts
of Plymouth, Yealmpton, Brixham, Torquay, Buckfastleigh, and Chud-
leigh ; but as those in the last two localities have yielded nothing of im-
portance to the Anthropologist or the Palsontologist, they will not be

420 Reports and Proceedings—British Association—

further noticed on this occasion. In dealing with the others it seems most
simple to follow mainly the order of chronology ; that is to say, to com-
mence with the Cavern which first caught scientific attention, and, having
finished all that the time at my disposal will allow me to say about it, but
not before, to proceed to the next, in the order thus defined ; and so on
through the series.

Oreston Caverns.—When Mr. Whidbey engaged to superintend the con-
struction of the Plymouth Breakwater, Sir Joseph Banks, President of the
Royal Society, requested him to examine narrowly any caverns he might
meet with in the limestone-rock to be quarried at Oreston, near the mouth
of the river Plym, not more than two miles from the room in which we
are assembled, and have the bones or any other fossil remains that were
met with carefully preserved (see Phil. Trans. 1817, pp. 176-182). This
request was cheerfully complied with, and Mr. Whidbey had the pleasure
of discovering bone-caves in November 1816, November 1820, August and
Noy. 1822, and of sending the remains found in them to the Royal Society.

It is, perhaps, worthy of remark that, though Cavern-researches received
a great impulse from the discoveries in Kirkdale, Yorkshire, and especially
from Dr. Buckland’s well-known and graphic descriptions of them, such
researches had originated many years before. The request by Sir Joseph
Banks was made at least as early as 1812 (see Trans. Devon. Assoc. v. pp.
252, 253), and a paper on the Oreston discoveries was read to the Royal
Society in February 1817, whereas the Kirkdale Cavern was not discovered
until 1821. British Cave-hunting appears to have been a science of Devon-
shire birth.

The Oreston Caverns soon attracted a considerable number of able
observers; they were visited in 1822 by Dr. Buckland and Mr. Warburton ;
and in a comparatively short time became the theme of a somewhat volu-
minous hterature. Nothing of importance, however, seems to have been
met with from 1822 until 1858, when another cavern, containing a large
number of bones, was broken into. Unfortunately, there was no one at
hand to superintend the exhumation of the specimens ; the work was left
entirely to the common workmen, and was badly done; many of the
remains were dispersed beyond recovery ; the matrix in which they were
buried was never adequately examined ; and we are utterly ignorant, and
must for ever remain so, as to whether they did or did not contain indica-
tions of human existence. I visited the spot from time to time, and bought
up everything to be met with ; but other scientific work in another part of
the county occupied me too closely to allow more than an occasional visit.
The greater part of the specimens I secured were lodged in the British
Museum, where they seem to have been forgotten, whilst a few remain in
my private collection.

Some difference of opinion has existed respecting the character of the
suceessive caverns, and much mystery has been imported into the question
of the introduction of their contents. Mr. Whidbey, it is said, “saw no
possibility of the cavern of 1816 having had any external communication
through the rock in which it was inclosed” (Phil. Trans. 1817, pp. 176-
182) ; but Dr. Buckland was of opinion that they were all at first fissures
open at the top, and ‘‘that the openings had been long filled up with
rubbish, mud, stalactite, or fragments of rocks cemented, as sometimes
happens, into a breccia as solid as the original rock, and overgrown with
grass” (Phil. Trans. 1822, pp. 171-240).

The conclusion I arrived at, after studying so much of the roof of the
cavern of 1858 as remained intact, was that Dr. Buckland’s opinion was
fully borne out by the facts ; that, in short, the Oreston caverns were
Fissure Caverns, not Tunnel Caverns.

The Cavern of 1858 was an almost vertical fissure, extending a length of

Section C.—Address by Mr. W. Pengelly, President. 421

about 90 feet from N.N.E. to S.S.W. It commenced at about 8 feet
below the surface of the plateau, continued thence to the base of the cliff,
but how much further was not known, and its ascertained height was
about 52 feet. It was 2 feet wide at top, whence it gradually widened
to 10 feet at bottom. The roof, judging from that part which had not
been destroyed, was a mass of limestone-breccia, made up of large angular
fragments, cemented with carbonate of lime, and requiring to be blasted
as much as ordinary limestone. The Cavern was completely filled with
deposits of various kinds.

The uppermost 8 feet consisted of loose angular pieces of limestone,
none of which exceeded 10lb. in weight, mixed with a comparatively small
amount of such sand as is common in dolomitized limestone districts, but
without a trace of stalagmite or fossil of any kind. The 32 feet next
below were occupied with similar materials, with the addition of a con-
siderable quantity of tough, dark, unctuous clay. Between this mass and
the outer wall of the cavern was a nearly vertical plate of stalagmite,
usually about 2 feet thick, and containing, at by no means wide intervals,
firmly cemented masses of breccia identical in composition with the
adjacent bed just mentioned. The bones the caverns yielded were all
found within these 32 feet ; and were met with equally in the loose and
the coherent breccia, as well as in the stalagmite. A somewhat consider-
able number of ellipsoidal balls of clay, from 1:5 to 2°5 inches in greatest
diameter, occurred in the clay of this bone-bed, but not elsewhere. Still
lower was a mass of dark, tough, unctuous clay, containing a very few,
small, angular stones, but otherwise perfectly homogeneous, and known to
be 12 feet deep, but how much more was undetermined.

The osseous remains found at Oreston prior to 1858 have been described
by Sir E. Home, Mr. Clift, Dr. Buckland, Professor Owen, Mr. Busk, and
others. The animals represented were Ursus priscus, U. speleus,
Weasel (?), Wolf, Fox, Cave Hyena, Cave Lion, Rhinoceros leptorhinus,
Equus fossilis, EH. plicidens, Asinus fossilis, Bison minor, Bos bongifrons,
and, according to the late Mr. Bellamy, Mammoth and Hippopotamus
(see Nat. Hist. of S. Devon, 1839, p. 82). With regard to Hippopota-
mus, I can only say that I have never met with satisfactory evidence
of its occurrence in Devonshire ; but the Mammoth was certainly found
at Oreston in 1858 ; and, unless I am greatly in error, remains of Rhino-
ceros tichorhinus were also met with then, and lodged by me in the British
Museum. It may be added that the skull and other relics of Hog were
exhumed on that occasion, and now belong to my collection. There was
nothing to suggest that the cavern had been the home of the Hyzena ; and
whilst I fully accept Dr. Buckland’s opinion that the animals had fallen
into the open fissures and there perished, and that the remains had sub-
sequently been washed thence into the lower vaultings (Reliq. Dil. 2nd ed.
1834, p. 78), I venture to add that some of the animals may have retired
thither to die ; a few may have been dragged or pursued there by beasts
of prey ; whilst rains, such as are not quite unknown in Devonshire in the
present day, probably washed in some of the bones of such as died near at
hand on the adjacent plateau. Nothing appears to have been met with
suggestive of human visits..

Kent’s Hole-—About a mile due east from Torquay harbour and half a
mile north from Torbay, there is a small wooded limestone hill, the eastern
side of which is, for the uppermost 30 feet, a vertical cliff, having at its
base, and 54 feet apart, two apertures leading into one and the same vast
cavity in the interior of the hill, and known as Kent’s Hole or Cavern.
These openings are about 200 feet above mean sea-level, and from them
the hill slopes rapidly to the valley at its foot, at a level of from 60 to 70
feet below.

422 Reports and Proceedings—British Association—

There seems to be neither record nor tradition of the discovery of the
Cavern. Richardson, in the 8th edition of ‘A Tour through the Island
of Great Britain,’ published in 1778, speaks of it as “ perhaps the greatest
natural curiosity” in the county ; its name occurs on a map dated 1769 ;
it is mentioned in a lease dated 1659; visitors cut their names and dates
on the stalagmite from 1571 down to the present century ; judging from
numerous objects found on the floor, it was visited by man through
medizeval back to pre-Roman times ; and, unless the facts exhumed by
explorers have been misinterpreted, it was a human home during the era
of the Mammoth and his contemporaries.

In 1824, Mr. Northmore, of Cleve, near Exeter, was led to make a few:
diggings in the Cavern, and was the first to find fossil bones there. He
was soon followed by Mr. (now Sir) W. C. Trevelyan, who not only found
bones, but had a plate of them engraved. In 1825, the Rev. J. MacEnery,
au Irish Roman Catholic priest residing in the family of Mr. Cary, of Tor
Abbey, Torquay, first visited the Cavern, when he, too, found teeth and
bones, of which he published a plate. Soon after, he made another visit,
accompanied by Dr. Buckland, when he had the good fortune to discover
a flint implement ; the first instance, he tells us, of such a relic being
noticed in any cavern (see Trans. Devon Assoc. iii. p. 441). Before the close
of 1825, he commenced a series of more or less systematic diggings, and
continued them until, and perhaps after, the summer of 1829 (ibid. p.
295). Preparations appear to have been made to publish the results of
his labours ; a prospectus was issued, numerous plates were lithographed,
it was generally believed that the MS. was almost ready, and the only
thing needed was a list of subscribers sufficient to justify publication, when,
alas! on the 18th February, 1841, before the printer had received any
“copy,” before even the world of Science had accepted his anthropological
discoveries, before the value of his labours were known to more than a very
few, Mr. MacEnery died at Torquay.

After his decease his MS. could not be discovered, and its loss was duly
deplored. Nevertheless, it was found after several years, and, having
undergone varieties of fortune, became the property of Mr. Vivian, of
Torquay, who, having published portions of it in 1859, presented it in
1867 to the Torquay Natural History Society, whose property it still
remains. In 1869, J had the pleasure of printing the whole, in the ‘Trans-
actions of the Devonshire Association.’

Whilst Mr. MacEnery was conducting his researches, a few independent
diggings, on a less extensive scale, were undertaken by other gentlemen.
The principal of these was Mr. Godwin-Austen, the well-known geologist,
whose papers fully bore out all that MacHnery had stated (see Trans.
Geol. Soc. Lond. 2nd series, vi. p. 446). In 1846, a sub-committee of the -
Torquay Natural History Society undertook the careful exploration of
very small parts of the Cavern, and their Report was entirely confirmatory
of the statements of their predecessors—that undoubted flint implements
did occur, mixed with the remains of extinct mammals, in the cave-earth,
beneath a thick floor of stalagmite. The sceptical position of the
authorities in geological science remained unaffected, however, until 1858,
when the discovery and systematic exploration of a comparatively small
virgin cavern on Windmill Hill, at Brixham, led to a sudden and complete
revolution ; for it was seen that whatever were the facts elsewhere, there
had undoubtedly been found at Brixham flint implements commingled
with the remains of the Mammoth and his companions, and in such a way
as to render it impossible to doubt that Man occupied Devonshire before
the extinction of the cave mammals.

Under the feeling that the statements made by MacHnery and his
followers respecting Kent’s Hole were perhaps, after all, to be accepted as

Section C.—Address by Mr. W. Pengelly, President. 423

verities, the British Association, in 1864, appointed a Committee to make
a complete, systematic, and accurate exploration of the Cavern, in which
it was known that very extensive portions remained entirely intact. This
Committee commenced its labours on 28th March, 1865; it has been
reappointed, year after year, with sufficient grants of money, up to the
present time ; the work has gone on continuously throughout the entire
thirteen years ; and the result has been, not only a complete confirmation
of Mr. MacEnery’s statements, but the discovery of far older deposits than
he suspected—deposits implying great changes of, at least, local geogra-
phical conditions; changes in the fauna of the district ; and yielding
evidence of men more ancient and far ruder than even those who made
the oldest flint tools found in Kent’s Hole prior to the appointment of the
Committee.

The Cavern consists of a series of chambers and passages, which resolve
themselves into two main Divisions, extending from nearly north to south
in parallel lines, but passing into each other near their extremities, and
throwing off branches, occasionally of considerable size.

The successive deposits, in descending order, were :—

Ist, or uppermost. Fragments and blocks of limestone from an ounce
to upwards of 100 tons weight each, which had fallen from the roof from
time to time, and were in some instances cemented with carbonate of lime.

2nd. Beneath and between these blocks lay a dark-coloured mud or
mould, consisting largely of decayed leaves and other vegetable matter. It
was from three to twelve inches thick, and known as the Black Mould.
This occupied the entire Eastern Division, with the exception of a small
chamber in its south-western end only, but was not found in the other, the
remoter, parts of the Cavern.

3rd. Under this was a Stalagmitic Floor, commonly of granular texture
and frequently laminated, from less than an inch to fully five feet in thick-
ness, and termed the Gr anular Stalagmite.

4th. An almost black layer, about four inches thick, composed mainly of
small fragments of charred wood, and distinguished as the Black Band,
occupied an area of about 100 square feet, immediately under the Granular
Stalagmite, and, at the nearest point, not more than 32 feet from one of
the entrances to the Cavern. Nothing of the kind has occurred elsewhere.

5th. Immediately under the Granular Stalagmite and the Black Band
lay a light red clay, containing usually about 50 per cent. of small angular
fragments of limestone, and somewhat numerous blocks of the same rock
as large as those lying on the Black Mould. In this deposit, known as the
Cave-earth, many of the stones and bones were, at all depths, invested
with thin stalagmitic films. The Cave-earth was of unknown depth near
the entrances, where its base had never been reached ; but in the remoter
parts of the Cavern it did not usually exceed a foot, and in a few localities
it “thinned out” entirely.

6th. Beneath the Cave-earth there was usually found a Floor of Sta-
lagmite having a crystalline texture, and termed on that account the
Crystalline Stalagmite. It was commonly thicker than the Granular Floor,
and in one instance but little short of 12 feet.

7th. Below the whole, occurred, so far as is at present known, the oldest
of the Cavern deposits. It was composed of subangular and rounded
pieces of dark red grit, imbedded in a sandy paste of the same colour.
Small angular fragments of limestone, and investing films of stalagmite,
both prevalent in the Cave-earth, were extremely rare. Large blocks of
limestone were occasionally met with; and the deposit, to which the
name of Breccia was given, was of a depth exceeding that to which the
exploration has yet been carried.

Except in a very few small branches, the bottom of the Cavern has

424 Reports and Proceedings—British Association—

nowhere been reached. In the cases in which there was no Cave-earth,
the Granular Stalagmite rested immediately on the Crystalline; and
where the Crystalline Stalagmite was not present, the Cave-earth and
Breccia were in direct contact. Large isolated masses of the Crystalline
Stalagmite, as well as concreted lumps of the Breccia, were occasionally
met with in the Cave-earth, thus showing that the older deposits had, in
portions of the Cavern, been partially broken up, dislodged, and rede-
posited. No instance was met with of the incorporation in a lower bed of
fragments derived from an upper one. In short, wherever all the deposits
were found in one and the same vertical section, the order of superposition
was clear and invariable ; and elsewhere the succession, though defective,
was never transgressed.

Excepting the overlying blocks of limestone, of course, all the deposits
contained remains of animals, which, however, were not abundant in the
Stalagmites.

The Black Mould, the uppermost bed, yielded teeth and bones of Man,
Dog, Fox, Badger, Brown Bear, Bos longifrons, Roedeer, Sheep, Goat, Pig,
Hare, Rabbit, and Seal—species still existing, and almost all of them in
Devonshire. This has been called the Ovine bed, the remains of Sheep
being restricted to it. In it were also found numerous flint flakes and
“ strike-lights ;” stone spindle whorls ; fragments of curvilinear pieces of
slate; amber beads; bone tools, including awls, chisels, and combs ;
bronze articles, such as rings, a fibula, a spoon, a spear-head, a socketed
celt, and a pin; pieces of smelted copper ; and a great number and variety
of potsherds, including fragments of Samian ware.

The Granular Stalagmite, Black Band, and Cave-earth, taken together
as belonging to one and the same biological period, may be termed the
Hyenine beds, the Cave Hyena being their most prevalent species and
found in them alone. So far as they have been identified, the remains
belong to the Cave Hyzna, Hyuwus caballus, Rhinoceros tichorhinus,
Gigantic Irish Deer, Bos primigenius, Bison priscus, Red Deer, Mammoth,
Badger, Cave Bear, Grizzly Bear, Brown Bear, Cave Lion, Wolf, Fox,
Reindeer, Beaver, Glutton, Machairodus latidens, and Man—the last being
a part of a jaw with teeth, in the Granular Stalagmite. In the same beds
were found unpolished ovate and lanceolate implements made from flakes,
not nodules, of flint and chert ; flint flakes, chips, and “cores ;” ‘ whet-
stones ;” a “hammer-stone ;” “dead” shells of Pecten ; bits of charcoal ;
and bone tools, including a needle or bodkin having a well-formed eye,
a pin, an awl, three harpoons, and a perforated tooth of Badger. The
artificial objects, of both bone and stone, were found at all depths in each
of the Hyzenine beds, but were much more numerous below the Stalagmite
than in it.

The relics found in the Crystalline Stalagmite and the Breccia, in some
places extremely abundant, were almost exclusively those of Bear, the only
exceptions being a very few remains of Cave Lion and Fox. Hence these
have been termed the Ursine beds. It will be remembered that teeth and
bones of Bear were also met with in both the Hyzenine and the Ovine
beds; and it should be understood that this biological classification is
intended to apply to Kent’s Cavern only. The Ursine deposits, or rather
the Breccia, the lowest of them, also yielded evidences of human ex-
istence ; but they were exclusively tools made from nodules, not flakes,
of flint and chert.

Ansty’s-Cove Cavern.—About 3 furlongs from Kent’s Hole towards
N.N.E., near the top of the lofty cliff forming the northern boundary of
the beautiful Ansty’s Cove, Torquay, there is a cavern where, simulta-
neously with those in Kent’s Cavern, Mr. MacEnery conducted some
researches, of which he has left a brief account (see Trans. Devon. Assoc.

Section O.—Address by Mr. W. Pengelly, President. 425

vi. pp. 61-69). I have visited it several times, but it seems to be frequently
kept under lock and key, as a tool and powder house, by the workmen in
a neighbouring quarry. It is a simple gallery, and, according to Mr.
MacRnery, 63 feet long, from 3 to 9 feet high, and from 3 to 6 feet broad.
Beneath some angular stones he found a stalagmitic floor 14 inches thick,
and in the deposit below remains of Deer, Horse, Bear, Fox, Hyzena (?),
Coprolites, a few marine and land shells, one white flint tool with frag-
ments of others, a Roman coin, and potsherds.

In a letter to Sir W. C. Trevelyan, dated 16th December, 1825, Dr.
Buckland states that Mr. MacEnery had found in this Cave “bones of all
sorts of beasts, and also flint knives and Roman coins; in short, an
open-mouthed cave, which has been inhabited by animals of all kinds,
quadruped and biped, in all successive generations, and who have all left
their exuvize one upon another” (ibid. p. 69).

Yealm-Bridge Cavern.—About the year 1832 the workmen broke into a
bone-cavern in Yealm-Bridge quarry, about one mile from the village of
Yealmpton, and eight miles E.S.E. from Plymouth; and through their
operations it was so nearly destroyed that but a small arm of it remained
in 1835, when it was visited by Mr. J. C. Bellamy, who at once wrote an
account of it, from which it appears that, so far as he could learn, the
Cavern was about 30 feet below the original limestone surface, and was
filled to within from 1 foot to 6 feet of the roof (see Nat. Hist. 8. Devon,
1839, pp. 86-105). In the same year, but subsequently, it was examined
by Captain (afterwards Colonel) Mudge, who states that there were origin-
ally three openings into the Cave, each about 12 feet above the river
Yealm ; that the deposits were, in descending order :—

1. Loam with bones and stones ............ 3°5 feet.
2a tittewhitishiclayararesccaese sees ZrO
Bhs TSEN OG Nyy gatos Asn BO oR SAT patna Ton Sonic ne GO 5,
ANPIVE CCA WON AA aeile eee ton cate cane nae eee os BD 55
5, Aygenlllevesovls) SeNaV6l Gocopshooocoosooseos 6 to 180 ,,

and that, where they did not reach the roof, the deposits were covered with
stalagmite.

On the authority of Mr. Clift and Professor Owen, Captain Mudge
mentions relics of Elephant, Rhinoceros, Horse, Ox, Sheep, Hyzena, Dog,
Wolf, Fox, Bear, Hare, and Water-Vole. The bones, and especially the
teeth, of the Hygena exceeded in number those of all the other animals,
though remains of Horse and Ox were very abundant. Mr. Bellamy,
whilst also mentioning all the foregoing forms, with the exception of Dog
only, adds, Deer, Pig, Glutton, Weasel, and Mouse. He also speaks of
the abundance of bones and teeth of Hygena, but seems to regard the Fox
as being almost as fully represented ; and next in order he places Horse,
Deer, Sheep, and Rabbit or Hare; whilst the relics of Elephant, Wolf,
Bear, Pig, and Glutton are spoken of as very rare. The bones, he says,
were found in the uppermost bed only. They were frequently mere frag-
ments and splinters, some being undoubtedly gnawed, and all had become
very adherent through loss of their animal matter. Those of cylindrical
form were without their extremities ; there was no approach to anatomical
juxtaposition ; and the remains belonged to individuals of all ages. Reli-
quiz of Carnivorous animals greatly exceeded those of the Herbivora, and
teeth were very abundant. Coprolites occurred at some depth below the
stalagmite, in the upper bed, which also contained granitic and trappean
pebbles, and lumps of breccia made up of fragments of rock, bones, pebbles,
and stalagmite. The bones found prior to 1835 had been removed as
rubbish, and some good specimens were recovered from materials employed
in making a pathway. Nothing indicating the presence of man appears to
have been found,

426 Reports and Proceedings—British Association—

The Ash-Hole —On the southern shore of Torbay, midway between the
town of Brixham and Berry Head, and about half a mile from each, there
is a cavern known as the Ash-Hole. It was partially explored, probably
about, or soon after, the time Mr. MacEnery was engaged in Kent’s Hole,
by the late Rev. H. F. Lyte, who, unfortunately, does not appear to have
left any account of the results. The earliest mention of this Cavern J
have been able to find is a very brief one in Bellamy’s ‘ Natural History of
South Devon,’ published in 1839 (p. 14). During the Plymouth Meeting
in 1841, Mr. George Bartlett, a native of Brixham, who assisted Mr. Lyte,
described to this Section the objects of interest the Ash-Hole had yielded
(see Report Brit. Assoc. 1841, Trans. Sections, p. 61). So far as was then
known, the Cave was 30 yards long and 6 yards broad. Below a recent
accumulation, 4 feet deep, of loam and earth, with land and marine shells,
bones of the domestic fowl and of Man, pottery, and various implements,
lay a true Cave-earth, abounding in the remains of Elephant. Professor.
Owen, who identified, from this lower bed, relics of Badger, Polecat, Stoat,
Water-vole, Rabbit, and Reindeer, remarks, that for the first good evidence
of the Reindeer in this island he had been indebted to Mr. Bartlett, who
stated that the remains were found in this Cavern (see Brit. Foss. Mam.
1846, pp. 109-110, 113-114, 116, 204, 212, 479-480). I have made
numerous visits to the spot, which, when Mr. Lyte began his diggings,
must have been a shaft-like fissure, accessible from the top only. A lateral
opening, however, has been quarried into it; there is a narrow tunnel
extending westward, in which the deposit is covered with a thick sheet of
stalagmite, and where one is tempted to believe that a few weeks’ labour
might be well invested.

Brixham Cavern.—EHarly in 1858 an unsuspected Cavern was broken
into by quarrymen at the north-western angle of Windmill Hill at Brixham,
at a point 75 feet above the surface of the street almost vertically below,
and 100 feet above mean tide. On being found to contain bones, a lease
in it was secured for the Geological Society of London, who appointed a
Committee of their members to undertake its exploration ; funds were
voted by the Royal Society, and supplemented by private subscriptions ;
the conduct of the investigation was entrusted to Mr. Prestwich and my-
self ; and the work, under my superintendence, as the only resident
member of the Committee, was begun in July 1858, and completed at
midsummer 1859.

The Cavern, comprised within a space of 135 feet from north to south,
and 100 from east to west, consisted of a series of tunnel galleries from 6
to 8 feet in greatest width, and 10 to 14 feet in height, with two small
chambers and five external entrances.

The deposits, in descending order, were :—

1st, or uppermost. A Floor of Stalagmite, from a few inches to a foot
thick, and continuous over very considerable areas, but not throughout
the entire Cavern.

2nd. A mass of small angular fragments of limestone, cemented into a
firm concrete with carbonate of lime, commenced at the principal entrance,
which it completely filled, and whence it extended 34 feet only. It was
termed the First Bed.

ard. A layer of blackish matter, about 12 feet long, and nowhere more
than a foot thick, occurred immediately beneath the First Bed, and was
designated the Second Bed.

Ath. A red, tenacious, clayey loam, containing a large number of angular
and subangular fragments of limestone, varying from very small bits to
blocks a ton in weight, made up the Third Bed. Pebbles of trap, quartz,
and limestone were somewhat prevalent, whilst nodules of brown hematite
of iron and blocks of stalagmite were occasionally met with in it. The

Section C.—Address by Mr. W. Pengelly, President. 427

usual depth of the bed was from 2 to 4 feet, but this was exceeded by 4 or
5 feet in two localities.

5th. The Third Bed lay immediately on an accumulation of pebbles of
quartz, greenstone, grit, and limestone, mixed with small fragments of
shale. The depth of this, known as the Mourth or Gravel Bed, was unde-
termined ; for, excepting a few feet only, the limestone bottom was nowhere
reached. There is abundant evidence that this bed, as well as a stalag-
mitic floor which had covered it, had been partially broken up and dislodged
before the introduction of the Third Bed.

Organic remains were found in the Stalagmitic Floor and in each of the
beds beneath it, with the exception of the Second only; but as 95 per
cent. of the whole series occurred in the Third, this was not unfrequently
termed the Bone Bed.

The Mammals represented in the Stalagmite were Bear, Reindeer,
Rhinoceros tichorhinus, Mammoth, and Cave Lion.

The First Bed yielded Bear and Fox only.

In the Third Bed were found relics of Mammoth, Rhinoceros tichorhinus,
Horse, Bos primigenius, B. longifrons, Red Deer, Reindeer, Roebuck, Cave
Lion, Cave Hyzena, Cave Bear, Grizzly Bear, Brown Bear, Fox, Hare,
Rabbit, Lagomys spelceus, Water-Vole, Shrew, Polecat, and Weasel.

The only remains met with in the Fourth Bed were those of Bear, Horse,
Ox, and Mammoth.

The Human Industrial Remains exhumed in the Cavern were flint im-
plements and a hammer-stone, and occurred in the Third and Fourth
Beds only. The pieces of flint met with were 36 in number. Of these,
15 are held to show evidence of having been artificially worked, in 9 the
workmanship is rude or doubtful, 4 have been mislaid, and the remainder
are believed not to have been werked at all (see Phil. Trans. vol. 163, 1873,
pp. 561, 562). Of the undoubted tools, 11 were found in the Third and 4
in the Fourth Bed, Two of those yielded by the Third Bed, found 40 feet
apart, in two distinct but adjacent galleries, and one a month before the
other, proved to be parts of one and the same nodule-tool; and I have
little or no doubt that it had been washed out of the Fourth Bed and re-
deposited in the Third.

The Hammer-Stone was a quartzite pebble, found in the upper portion of
the Fourth Bed, and bore distinct marks of the use to which it was applied.

Speaking of the discovery of the tools just mentioned, Mr. Prestwich
said in 1859 :— “Tt was not until I had myself witnessed the conditions
under which flint implements had been found at Brixham, that I became
fully impressed with the validity of the doubts thrown upon the previously
prevailing opinions with respect to such remains in caves ” (Phil. Trans.
1860, p. 280); and according to Sir C. Lyell, writing in 1863:—“A sudden
change of opinion was brought about in England respecting the probable
coexistence, at a former period, of man and many extinct mammalia, in
consequence of the results obtained from the careful exploration of a Cave
At brimbam. 6... The new views very generally adopted by English
geologists had no:small influence on the subsequent progress of opinion in
France” (Antiquity of Man, pp. 96, 97).

Bench Cavern.—Early in 1861 information was brought me that an ossi-
ferous cave had just been discovered at Brixham, and, on visiting the spot,
I found that, of the limestone quarries worked from time to time in the
northern slope of Furzeham Hill, one known as Bench Quarry, about half
a mile due northof Windmill Hill Cavern, and almost overhanging Tor-
bay, had been abandoned in 1839, and that work had been recently resumed
init. It appeared that in 1839 the workmen had laid bare the greater
part of a vertical dyke, composed of red clayey loam and angular pieces of
limestone, forming a coherent wall-like mass, 27 feet high, 12 feet long,

.

428 Reports and Proceedings—British Association—

2 feet in greatest thickness, and at its base 123 feet above sea-level. In
the face of it lay several fine relics of the ordinary Cave Mammals, includ-
ing an entire left lower jaw of Hy«na spelwa replete with teeth, but which
had nevertheless failed to arrest the attention of the incurious workmen
who exposed it, or of any one else.

Soon after the resumption of the work in 1861, the remnant of the outer
wall of the fissure was removed, and caused the fall of an incoherent part
of the dyke, which it had previously supported. Amongst the débris the
workmen collected some hundreds of specimens of skulls, jaws, teeth,
vertebre, portions of antlers, and bones, but no indications of Man. Mr.
Wolston, the proprietor, sent some of the choicest specimens to the
British Museum, and submitted the remainder to Mr. Ayshford Sanford,
F G.S., from whom I learn that the principal portion of them are relics of
the Cave Hyzena, from the unborn whelp to very aged animals. With
them, however, were remains of Bear, Reindeer, Ox, Hare, Arvicola rat-
ticeps, A. agrestis, Wolf, Fox, and part of a single maxillary with teeth not
distinguishable from those of Canis isatis. To this list I may add Rhino-
ceros, of which Mr. Wolston showed me at least one bone.

From the foregoing undesirably, but unavoidably, brief descriptions, it
will be seen that the Devonshire Caverns, to which attention has been
now directed, belong to two classes,—those of Oreston, the Ash-Hole, and
Bench being Fissure Caves; whilst those of Yealm Bridge, Windmill Hill
at Brixham, Kent’s Hole, and Ansty’s Cove are Tunnel Caves.

Windmill Hill and Kent’s Hole Caverns have alone been satisfactorily
explored ; and besides them none have yielded evidence of the contem-
poraneity of Man with the extinct Cave Mammals.

Oreston is distinguished as the only known British Cavern which has
yielded remains of Rhinoceros leptorhinus (Q. Journ. Geol. Soc. xxvi. p. 456).

Yealm Bridge Cavern, if we may accept Mr. Bellamy’s identification
in 1835, was the first in this country in which relics of Glutton were
found (South Devon Monthly Museum, vi. pp. 218-223; see also Nat.
Hist. S. Devon, 1839, p. 89). The same species was found in the Caves
of Somerset and Glamorgan in 1865 (Pleist. Mam., Pal. Soc. pp. xxi, xxii),
in Kent’s Hole in 1869 (Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1869, p. 207), and near Plas
Heaton, in North Wales, 1870 (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. xxvu. p. 407).

Kent’s Hole is the only known British Cave which has afforded remains
of Beaver (Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1869, p. 208), and, up to the present year,
the only one in which the remains of Machairodus. latidens had heen met
with. Indeed, Mr. MacEnery’s statement, that he found in 1826 five
canines. and one incisor of this species in the famous Torquay Cavern, was
held by many paleontologists to be so very remarkable as, at least, to
approach the incredible, until the Committee now engaged in the ex-
ploration exhumed, in 1872, an incisor of the same species, and thereby
confirmed the announcement made by their distinguished predecessor
nearly half a century before (Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1872, p. 46). In April last
(1877) the Rev. J. M. Mello was able to inform the Geological Society of
London that Derbyshire had shared with Devon the honour of having
been a home of Machatrodus latidens, he having found its canine tooth in
Robin Hood Cave in that county, and that there, as in Kent’s Hole, it was
commingled with remains of the Cave Hyzna and his contemporaries
(Abs. Proc. Geol. Soc. No, 334, pp. 3, 4).

The Ash Hole, as we have already seen, affords the first good evidence of
a British Reindeer.

In looking at the published Reports on the two famous. Torbay Caverns,
it will be found that they have certain points of resemblance as well as
some of dissimilarity :—

1st. The lowest known bed in each is composed of materials which,

Section OC.—Address by Ir. W. Pengelly, President. 429

whilst they differ in the two cases, agree in being such as may have been
furnished by the districts adjacent to the Cavern-hills respectively, but
not by the hills themselves, and must have been deposited prior to the
existing local geographical conditions. In each, this bed contained flint
implements and relics of Bear, but in neither of them those of Hyzena.
In short, the Fourth Bed of Windmill Hill Cavern, Brixham, and the
Breccia of Kent’s Hole, Torquay, are coeval, and belong to what I have
called the Ursine period of the latter.

2nd. The beds just mentioned were in each Cavern sealed with a sheet
of stalagmite, which was partially broken up, and considerable portions of
the subjacent beds were dislodged before the introduction of the beds next
deposited.

3rd. The Great Bone Bed, both at Brixham and Torquay, consisted of
ved clayey loam, with a large per-centage of angular fragments of lime-
stone ; and contained flake implements of flint and chert, inosculating
with remains of Mammoth, the tichorhine Rhinoceros, and Hyena, In
fine, the Cave-earth of Kent’s Hole and the Third Bed of Brixham Cavern
correspond in their materials, in their osseous contents, and in their flint
tools. They both belong to what I have named the Hycenine period of the
Torquay Cave.

But, as already stated, there are points in which the two Caverns
differ :—

Ist. Whilst Kent’s Hole was the home of Man, as well as of the con-
temporary Hyzena during the absences of the human occupant, there is no
reason to suppose that either Man or any of the lower animals ever did
more than make occasional visits to Brixham Cave. The latter contained
no flint chips, no bone tools, no utilized Pecten-shells, no bits of charcoal,
and no coprolites of Hyzena, all of which occurred in the Cave-earth of
Kent’s Hole.

2nd. In the Torquay Cave relics of Hyena were much more abundant
in the Cave-earth than those of any other species. Taking the teeth
alone, of which vast numbers were found, those of the Hyzena amounted
to about 30 per cent. of the entire series, notwithstanding the fact that, com-
pared with most of the Cave-mammals, his jaws, when furnished completely,
possess but few teeth. At Brixham, on the other hand, his relics of all
kinds amounted to no more than 8°5 per cent. of all the osseous remains,
whilst those of the Bear rose to 53 per cent. ;

3rd. The entrances of Brixham Cavern were completely filled up and its
history suspended not later than the end of the Paleeolithic era. Nothing
occurred within it from the days when Devonshire was occupied by the
Cave and Grizzly Bears, Reindeer, Rhinoceros, Cave Lion, Mammoth, and
Man, whose best tools were unpolished flints, until the quarrymen broke
into it early in A.D. 1851. Kent’s Cavern, on the contrary, seems to have
never been closed, never unvisited by Man, from the earliest Paleolithic
times to our own, with the possible exception of the Neolithic era, of
which it cannot be said to have yielded any certain evidence.

Though my History of Cavern Exploration in Devonshire is now com-
pleted, so far as the time at my disposal will allow, and so far as the
materials are at present ripe for the historian, I venture to ask your
further indulgence for a few brief moments whilst passing from the region
of Fact to that of Inference.

That the Kent’s-Hole men of the Hyzenine period—to say nothing at
present of their predecessors of the Breccia—belonged to the Pleistocene
times of the Biologist, is seen in the fact that they were contemporary
with Mammals peculiar to, and characteristic of, those times. This
contemporaneity proves them to have belonged to the Paleolithic era of
Britain and Western Europe generally, as defined by the Archeologist ;

430 Reports and Proceedings—British Association.

and this is fully confirmed by their unpolished tools of flint and chert.
That they were prior to the deposition of even the oldest part of the Peat
Bogs of Denmark, with their successive layers of Beech, Pedunculated
Oak, Sessile Oak, and Scotch Fir, we learn from the facts that even the
lowest zone of the bogs has yielded no bones of mammals but those of
recent species, and no tools but those of Weolithic type ; whilst even the
Granular Stalagmite, the uppermost of the Hyzenine beds in Kent’s Hole,
has afforded relics of Mammoth, Rhinoceros tichorhinus, Cave Bear, and
Cave Hyezena.

That the men of the Cave Breccia, or Ursine period, to whom we now
turn, were of still higher antiquity, is obvious from the geological position
of their industrial remains. That the two races of Troglodytes were
separated by a wide interval of time we learn from the Crystalline Stalag-
mite, sometimes 12 feet thick, laid down after the deposition of the
Breccia ‘had ceased, and before the introduction of the Cave-earth had
begun, as well as from the entire change in the materials composing the
two deposits. But, perhaps, the fact which most emphatically indicates
the chronological value of this interval is the difference in the faunas. In
the Cave-earth, as already stated, the remains of the Hyena greatly
exceed in number those of any other mammal; and it may be added that
_ he is also disclosed by almost every relic of his contemporaries—their
jaws have, through his agency, lost their condyles and lower borders ;
their bones are fractured after a fashion known by experiment to be his ;
and the splinters into which they are broken are deeply scored with his
teeth-marks. His presence is also attested by the abundance of his
droppings in every branch of the Cavern. In short, Kent’s Hole was one
of his homes; he dragged thither, piecemeal, such animals as he found
dead near it ; and the well-known habits of his representatives of our day
have led us to expect all this from him. When, however, we turn to the
Breccia, a very different spectacle awaits us. We meet with no trace
whatever of his presence, not a single relic of his skeleton, not a bone on
which he has operated, not a coprolite to mark as much as a visit. Can
it be doubted that had he then occupied our country he would have taken
up his abode in our Cavern? Need we hesitate to regard this entire
absence of all traces of so decided a cave-dweller as a proof that he had
not yet made his advent in Britain? Are we not compelled to believe
that Man formed part of the Devonshire fauna long before the Hyzena
did? Is there any method of escaping the conclusion that between the
era of the Breccia and that of the Cave-earth it was possible for the
Hyena to reach Britain ?——in other words, that the last continental state
of our country occurred during that interval? I confess that, in the
present state of the evidence, I see no escape; and that the conclusion
thus forced on me compels me to believe also that the earliest men of
Kent’s Hole were interglacial, if not preglacial,

The following Table will serve to show at one view the co-ordinations
and theoretical conclusions to which the facts of Kent’s Cavern have led
me, as stated briefly in the foregoing remarks. The Table, it will be seen,
consists of two Divisions, separated with double vertical lines. The first,
or left hand, Division contains three columns, and relates exclusively to
Kent’s Cavern, as is indicated by the words heading it. The second,
or right hand, Division is of a more general character, and shows the
recognized classification of well-known facts throughout Western Europe.
The horizontal lines are intended to convey the idea of more or less well-
defined chronological horizons ; and their occasional continuity through
two or more columns denotes contemporaneity, Thus, to take an example
from the two columns headed “ Archeological” and ‘ Danish-Bog,” in
the second Division: the horizontal line passing continuously through

Correspondence—Dr. O. Feistmantel. © 431

both, under the words “Tron” and ‘‘ Beech,” is intended to suggest that
the “Iron Age” of Western Europe and the “ Beech” zone of the Danish
Bogs takes us back about equally far into antiquity ; whilst the position of
the line under the word ‘‘ Bronze,” indicates that the ‘‘ Bronze Age” (still
of Western Europe) takes us back from the ancient margin of the Beech
era, through the whole of that of the Pedunculated Oak, and about halfway
through the era of the Sessile Oak ; and so on in all other cases. ;

KENT’S CAVERN. | PERIODS.
Deposits. | Bones, peels | Bae eee Biological. | Geographical.| Climatal.
Iron. || Tron, Beech.
| Peduncu-
es Ovine. | Bronze, || Bronze. lated Oak. Recent. Insular, pee.
and (?) Glacial.
See oessileOaks :
Neolithic.
Neolithic.
Scotch Fir.
Granular
Stalagmite.
as Paleoe Glacial
Black band. | Hyzenine.| lithic Continental.
Flakes. and (?)
Inter-
Cave-earth. Paleolithic. Pleistocene. :
Glacial.
| Insular.
Crystalline
Stalagmite, Paleo-
Ursine. lithie Continental.
Nodules. Pre-
Breccia. Glacial.

CORRES OND =NC at.
pines Ce AE BEY

THE CYCADACEH IN THE “DAMUDA SERIES,” AND THE NURSCHAN
GAS-COAL OF BOHEMIA.

Str,—I wish to send a few lines of explanation in reply to two
letters which appeared in your Journal for April (pp. 189-191) last,
which are intended to modify somewhat two statements in my papers
previously published in the Grotoaican Macazine (March Number,
p- 105). With regard to the occurrence of Cycadacee in our Damuda
series (and the Triassic facies of that series), the fact will be best
established when I am enabled to publish the descriptions of all the
fossils in a connected work with figures of all the forms. It will
then be seen that so long ago as 1850 a true Zamia had been de-
scribed from Burdwan as Zamia Burdwanensis, M‘Clell. (which, as
the original shows, is a Pterophyllum). The others have been sub-
sequently found, although not examined at the time.

I wish to state that our Néggerathia, from the Damuda series, does

432 Correspondence—Mr. B. S. Breese.

not agree with the genus as defined by Schimper, Weiss, and, more
recently, by Prof. O. Heer; I have allowed the name to stand as
a matter of convenience. Our Néggerathia is more allied to Zamia
than to any other genus.

My statement that the Nitirschan Gas-coal of Bohemia was
considered by Dr. Anton Fritsch to be a passage-bed, I am rather
astonished to see denied by the ‘‘Questioner Himself” (see Gurot.
Mae. April, p. 191). I was of course not present in Glasgow at the
meeting of the British Association, but in the report given in
“Nature” for 21st Sept., 1876, p. 457, is the following passage :—
*¢On Labyrinthodont Remains from the Upper Carboniferous (Gas-
coal) of Bohemia. By Dr. Ant. Fritsch.—The Gas-coals of Bohemia
are unusually rich in remains of Labyrinthodonts, fishes, and insects.
They lie ‘near the top of the Coal-measures’ and ‘are regarded by
Dr. Anton Fritsch as passage-beds, the Fauna being of Permian and
the plants of Carboniferous types.’”’ I think the reporter must have
been correctly informed, or he would certainly not have written so
distinctly.

But even if not so stated, it is no proof against their being con-
sidered such, and lying as they do, near the top of the Coal-measures,
their close relation to the Permian series is sufficiently established on
stratigraphical evidence, as clearly stated by Prof. Krejci’s admirable
paper, referred to in my article (March, 1877, p. 105).

Caucurra, Dr. OrroKkaR FEISTMANTEL,

11th May, 1877. Paleontologist, Geological Survey of India.

[The publication of the above letter has, we regret to say, been
inadvertently delayed.—Epir. Grou. Mac. |

FOREST BED OF EAST NORFOLK.

Sir,—Having seen a letter on the “ Forest Bed of Hast Norfolk ”
in your last issue, I should like to say a few words on that subject.
I remember a few years ago, when in that locality, seeing the stools
of several trees just below the Gut at Hasbro. The sand, which is,
I believe, usually about ten feet deep in that place, was washed
quite away from the bottom, leaving the stumps of the trees stand-
ing about a foot above the surface of the bed. The upper surface
of the roots were clear, but the under portions were imbedded in
the solid bottom, which was so hard that a pick was necessary to
extricate them. I have not seen the bed since, but the landlord cf
the Hill Hotel at Hasbro has succeeded in getting several of the
stumps from that place. Those I saw stood upright, and were so
firmly fixed that they could not possibly have been washed there,
but must have grown on that spot.

I may as well add that, owing to natural causes, this bed is not
often clear. Indeed, though I have frequently been there for the past
twelve years, I have only heard of it being seen three times.—I am,
Sir, yours faithfully, B. 8. Breese.

Tur Crosz, Norwicu, 13th August, 1877.

THE

GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE.

NEW SERIESS »DECADE WIT. VOLE. IV.

No. X.—OCTOBER, 1877.

ORIGINAL ARTICLE HMS.

—_.—__

J.—Is Man Tertiary? ‘THe Antiquity or Man In THE Roman
CouUNTRY IN RELATION TO THE GEOLOGY OF THE VALLEY OF
THE TIBER.

By Prof. Rar. D. P. Mantovani;
of the Royal Lyceum College, Rome.

HE soil of the Roman country, so interesting to the archeologist
for the splendid remains it has yielded of the Roman age, is no
less rich in relics which shed light on the history of primitive man.
Although researches of this kind began here only ten years ago,
the results obtained up to this date have been highly satisfactory.
These anthropological investigations have been executed with great
care by many independent investigators, among whom may be
mentioned Ponzi, Ceselli, Bleicher, De Verneuil, and also the author
of this communication, who have collected a great many specimens,
and accumulated numerous observations relative to primitive Man.

To give a clear and accurate notion of the succession of pre-
historic events in the Roman country, I think it will be useful to lay
before my readers a brief general account of the geological formation
of the Valley of the Tiber.

At the close of the elevation of the Tertiary strata, forming the
great plain of the Roman country stretching from the foot of the
Apennines to the shores of the Mediterranean, the ice and snow
accumulated during the Glacial period began to melt, producing an
immense quantity of water, which, running down to rejoin the sea,
caused a considerable erosion of the plain above mentioned, and ex-
cavated the Valley of the Tiber, leaving the alluvial deposits upon
the sides of the Pliocene hills. The direction of the channel was
facilitated by a fault, the effect of a violent earthquake at the close
of the Pliocene period. (See the annexed Diagram, p. 434).

Thus the geological structure of the hills has actually initiated this
primitive valley. The hills are chiefly formed by strata of Pliocene
age, flanked by alluvial deposits of the Pleistocene period. The
Pliocene formation is represented by blue marl, overlain by thick
beds of yellow sand and gravel, very rich in fossil shells, correspond-
ing to the English crag. ‘The Pliocene beds are every where covered

DECADE II.—VOL, IVY,—NO. X. 28

?

8s Man Tertiary

CARI—.

Prof. Manto

434

‘sjisodep Areuroyene) 10 “HUY, ouso0g “Cd

WAOpop{ UJIM poly st AoTPwa TALI OTT, *PPAVID SUI00TIg “9D
“OULAOABIT, LO OUIIO0ISTOTG JUIN x » “pucg SHOTOFITISsOy SUId00l[T “qq
“90N9004SI0[q JUOIOUY “dd [VP euI00T[g “WV

*eqyedys dUad0I[ J 9}
JO JuomIV0R|dstp years
SuISNed 4[nV 7

LL

*€9S OY} 9AOQE 409J CZ
‘WOMed UOT

"eas OT} BAOGR 399} 00g
‘OLIV, UOT

“dadIL FHL JO AUTIVA GHL AO NOILOGS 'TVOINOTORD

|

Prof. Mantovani—Is Man Tertiary 2 435

by superposed beds of volcanic tuff, the last and most extensive
marine deposit of that period in the Roman country. This volcanic
tuff was ejected from the volcano of Sabatini, actually represented
by the group of mountains which now form the basin-of Lake Brac-
ciano. ‘The Pleistocene strata are for the most part of mechanical
origin, and in a less degree of a chemical nature. They result from
the superposition of irregular beds of gravel, sand, and freshwater
marl, containing pebbles of various sizes, derived from the detritus
brought down from the Apennines. Limestone and polierome silex
are most abundant, but a great quantity of broken crystals of
volcanic minerals, as augite, leucite, olivine, etc., are mixed with and
compose the gravel and sand.

This volcanic debris has been derived from the decomposition and
erosion of the tuffs, or from the Latial Volcanos, whose eruptions
were contemporaneous with the formation of the valley of the Tiber.

The chemical deposits are only seen in the broader expanses of
the valley, and result in the deposition of vast beds of travertin, a
freshwater limestone of very uniform texture, and largely used in
ancient and modern buildings.

The earliest traces of primitive man consist of angular fragments
of silex evidently artificially worked. This silex is usually met
with in the form of flint-flakes or knives, spear or arrow-heads, and
celts or hatchets. These weapons are always chipped out roughly,
their surfaces are never smoothed or polished, consequently they are
referable to the Paleolithic or Archzeolithic era of prehistoric man.

In the same river-valley gravel, commingled with the worked
flints, are frequently found the bones of fossil Mammalia; of
these relics of the extinct fauna of the Roman country, the most
abundant are:

Bos primigenius, Boj. Cervus elaphus, Linn.

Elephas primigenius, Blum. Hippopotamus major, Nesti.
meridionalis, Nesti. Rhinoceros tichorhinus, Cuv.
antiquus, Fale. Sus scrofa, Linn.

Others less common are:

Hyena spelea, Goldf. Cervus (dama) Romana, Ponzi.
Castor Europeus, Owen. Bos latifrons, Cus.
Ursus speleus, Blum.

The latest researches of this kind have disclosed a fact of the
highest importance, namely, that flint implements have been dis-
covered in the gravel forming the upper portion of the Pliocene
deposits (see Diagram, Bed C.). I have collected some of these
flint implements myself on the Pliocene hills of Janiculus and
the Vatican; but I must sincerely confess that the evidence of their
having been artificially formed appears to me to be open to doubt.
On the contrary, however, the flint implements of the alluvial deposits
leave no doubt as to their having been artificially formed by the
hand of man. For the present therefore we will only consider
these undoubted traces of man contemporaneous with the great
Mammalia in the Quaternary deposits.

The first and most evident conclusion that may be drawn is, that

436 Prof. Mantovani—Is Man Tertiary ?

the alluvial deposits having, as already stated, been produced by the
action of water derived from the melting of the snows of the glacial
epoch, it follows that the animals, whose remains occur therein,
and the makers of the flint implements associated with them, were
living before the Glacial period which destroyed so many of the
great Mammalia.

Man must therefore have appeared at the end of the Pliocene
period, and during this early time he was in the Paleolithic era, as
evidenced by the fabrication of his weapons of silex. No metals
nor pottery of any kind have been found in these formations.

Let us now examine the evidence relative to man during the
Neolithic age. The Roman country is very rich indeed in remains
referable to this more recent epoch. Everywhere in the surface
soil are found extraordinary quantities of flint knives and spear-
heads, finely formed and polished, and sometimes magnificent
hatchets of smoothed stone. These objects are not only found
scattered over the surface of the soil, but they are frequently met
with accumulated in limestone caverns, imbedded in stalagmite,
and associated with them are the fragments resulting from the
manufacture of the weapons themselves, in fact a true manufactory
of Neolithic implements; a thing unknown in the Paleolithic period,
the weapons of which are so inferior in finish and workmanship.

Whilst antiquaries divide the prehistoric period into two distinct
epochs, namely, the Paleolithic (or Archeolithic) and the Neolithic,
the difference in workmanship between the objects which have been
found is so great, that for a long time I believed it might be possible
to define an intermediate or transition period from the Paleolithic to
the Neolithic. And, indeed, I believe we have found in this district
good evidence of such a transitional stage, which I would propose
should be designated the Miolithic period.

This new period embraces two very distinct although contem-
poraneous geological formations. These are, (a) the recent traver-
tine (so-called to distinguish it from the ancient travertine already
described), and (b) the ‘peperino’ formation, a kind of volcanic tuff
which occurs in thick strata around the Latial Volcanos. In these
two formations are imbedded not only a great quantity of worked
flints but also pottery. The flint weapons are not rough like the
Paleolithic, nor are they so smoothed and highly finished as in the
Neolithic period. The pottery is made of a kind of marl entirely
worked with the hands without the use of the potter’s wheel, which
was evidently unknown; and the vessels are very imperfectly
baked, or perhaps only sun-dried. Under the ‘peperino’ of the
Latial Volcanos a vast necropolis exists, where hundreds of these
utensils lie buried beneath the volcanic dust. The improvement in
the manufacture of flint weapons as compared with the Paleolithic
type and the presence of a necropolis are certainly indicative of
progress in the social condition of these ancient inhabitants of Italy.

But here a fact of the highest importance must be mentioned,
namely, that in the necropolis above mentioned, and also in the
tombs inclosed in the recent travertine, we found mixed with the

Prof. Mantovani—Is Man Tertiary ? 437

objects just described, some beautiful vessels of perfect work, re-
sembling those of the ancient Htruscans. There have also been
occasionally found hatchets perfectly polished, made of a kind of
stone (a Jadeite) that is not found in Italy. From what region were
these objects derived? My opinion is that a foreign and more civi-
lized people was in communication with the native inhabitants of
Italy during this period, and that a kind of commerce was probably
established, and that in process of time this people (certainly a more
advanced and civilized race) became the invaders, and that the
primitive population of Italy, being less civilized, disappeared
entirely.

Upon such an hypothesis the presence of metals mixed with these
flint implements and this rude pottery may easily be explained.
For it cannot be supposed that a race of men who had attained to
the art of separating metals from their ores by smelting, should yet
continue to manufacture flint-weapons, and to use them in preference
to those of bronze or iron.

I prefer rather to adopt the conclusion that the introduction of
metals is good evidence of the presence of a more civilized foreign
people, who at first were in occasional communication with the pre-
existing population for purposes of trade, and in later times occupied
the country. It is necessary to observe that the metallic objects
met with consist for the most part of spears and hatchets carefully
cast in bronze, which, although an easily fusible material, proves that
the people who worked in it were well instructed in the use of the
ores of copper and tin. We do not find any trace of iron, the use
of which is certainly referable to a posterior age, owing no doubt to
the greater difficulty attending the treatment of this metal.

I believe that prior to the introduction of bronze, some metals
more easily fusible were employed, and 1 remember to have once
examined a leaden spear-head of rough workmanship, but which
had evidently been fused and moulded. This object was found in
a bed of Quaternary gravel. But this single fact is scarcely suffi-
cient by itself to establish that lead was the first metal employed by
man, although the instance above cited seems deserving to be placed
on record.

From the facts stated it seems to me that the existence of a
transition period between the Paleolithic or Archeolithic and the
Neolithic ages (which I would propose to name the Miolithic period)
is admissible, and it would be of great importance to learn whether
the researches carried on in other countries give the same results as
those which have been obtained here.

Certainly in Central Italy this transition period is distinctly
indicated, and marks a very clear epoch in the primitive history of
human civilization.

Admitting then this new period which I have proposed, and
taking the Archeeolithic or Paleeolithic period as a point of departure,
to this would succeed the Miolithic, and I conceive that during this
middle period the primitive inhabitants of Central Italy were divided
into two different populations, which were probably represented by

438 Prof. Mantovani—Is Man Tertiary ?

two distinct races; the one, primitive or native, which continued to
use flint weapons, perfecting their manufacture during the successive
Neolithic period; the other of more recent introduction (but cer-
tainly derived from a more ancient and more highly advanced race as
regards its progress in civilization), which, invading the country,
gradually superseded the aboriginal flint-implement-making race.

According to this view, the Latin population which actually
inhabits the Italian peninsula does not represent the primitive race,
but they are the descendants of an exotic people who brought to
Italy a civilization much in advance of the aboriginal race.

If it be asked from whence came those early foreign settlers,
I think it will not be difficult to prove that they came from Asia,
where we also find remains of monuments of the highest historical
antiquity, affording records of the most ancient period in human
civilization.

The introduction into Italy of this exotic population is referable
to the dawn of the modern epoch, whereas the primitive inhabitants
of Italy were existing from the end of the Pliocene period, when
all the plains now stretching on both sides of the Apennines were
covered by the sea, and when the latest Tertiary deposits were being
spread over their submerged surfaces. In this remote time Central
Italy was represented by an archipelago of mountainous islands, the
Apennines being washed to their feet by the waves of the Pliocene sea.
Ever then primeeval man inhabited the mountains, and their calci-
ferous caverns were his sole retreats, nor could he descend into the
plains until after their upheaval, when he doubtless witnessed the
gradual formation of the great Quaternary alluvial deposits and the
eruptions of the Latial Volcanos.

Reviewing the facts derived from these observations, it seems to
me permissible to draw the following conclusions as to the history
of primitive man in the Roman country.

1st. The earliest appearance of man in Central Italy can be traced
back to the end of the Pliocene period, his weapons having been
found in the oldest Pleistocene deposits, and perhaps also in the
latest Pliocene formations.

2nd. Man was contemporaneous with the great extinct Mammalia.
He survived the Glacial period, and was witness to those imposing
scenes produced by the eruptions of the Latial Volcanos, in the great
alluvial deposits of which our present river-valleys were excavated.

3rd. Primitive man at first lived in a very rough manner, using
only flint weapons of the Paleeolithic type. Subsequently he traded
with people of another continent possessed of a higher civilization.
This continued through the Miolithic period. In the Neolithic period
the primitive race was gradually replaced by the exotic one; and
here our investigation ceases, and we enter upon the period of
ancient history and tradition.

In the subjoined table I have attempted to show the geological
formations of the Roman country in which the remains of pre-
historic man may be traced.

J. R. Dakyns—The Antiquity of Man.

439

RECORDS OF PREHISTORIC MAN IN THE ROMAN COUNTRY.

Geological Nature of the Periods in the Evidences of Man’s
Periods. Deposit. History of Man. presence.
IV. Modern Recent alluvial a a EL
or | deposits and surface- Neolithic. Of asian eerie
Quaternary. | soil of the country. oan Ants) fats rietiie
mares Silex well polished,
IL N 7 ae nee : but not perfectly cut ;
ere Es Ve cate procucts Miolithic. rough pottery mixed
Pleistocene.| of the <a Purse GT case
Latial Volcanos. anetalg (beans e) Mp
Gravel, sand, and Flint implements
II. Ancient marl, with the Paleolithic or of a more perfect
Pleistocene. bones of Archeolithic. workmanship ;
great Mammalia. Metals ? (Lead).
Gravel and yellowsand sone
ea eas with marine fossils | First appearance. Seen
: locene. | (_ Crag Mollusca.) roughly worked.

I.—Tue Antiquity or Man.
By J. R. Daxyns, M.A., of H.M. Geological Survey.

F all geological questions, perhaps that of the Antiquity of Man

is the most popular. Nor is it one on which geologists have
been rash or hasty in advancing new ideas; quite the reverse: they
have lagged behind the evidence. In the “ Principles of Geology,”
one of the most instructive chapters is that in which the author treats
of the progress of Geology. Therein Sir Charles Lyell has shown
how the science had been retarded for three hundred years by men’s
reluctance to admit such a simple and obvious matter as the marine
origin of stratified rocks, owing to a fixed idea that the world had
come into being a short time since in much the same state as it appears
to-day. Yet the illustrious author of the “ Principles of Geology ” let
pass for thirty years the evidence that Man was contemporaneous
with the extinct Pleistocene mammalia. In 1833 the evidence on
this pot was nearly as complete as it is now; but it was practically
neglected because it did not square with preconceived ideas. In fact,
it was not accepted till Lyell himself, reviewing the facts in his
usual masterly manner, summed up judicially in favour of the new
views in his first edition of the “ Antiquity of Man.” Now, to com-
pare great things with small, a like reluctance to admit new evidence
on the subject is widespread. Then the prejudice was that man was
modern, that he never saw old-world mammals any more than
Silurian forms of life; now, admitting perforce his co-existence with

440 J. R. Dakyns—The Antiquity of Man.

the Pleistocene mammals, the prejudice is that he should be considered
post-Glacial. Yet, geologically, the question is practically settled by
the evidence afforded by the Victoria Cave. There the usual Pleisto-
cene fauna is found overlain by a true glacial deposit. Whether or not
the bones of man have really been found there, is a question for
osteologists to determine; but though of great, this is not of the first
importance. The fauna is that often associated with man ; therefore,
without prejudice, we conclude that, what is true of them as to age,
is also true of him: whether or not a human bone has been found
in that particular collection is comparatively unimportant. As,
however, owing to the reluctance shown in certain quarters to admit
the evidence, the simplicity of the geological question is not generally
known, a short summary of the facts and arguments may be of
interest. At the Victoria Cave the remains of Hyena, Fox, Brown
Bear, Grizzly Bear, Elephas antiquus, Rhinoceros leptorhinus, Hippo-
potamus, Bos primigenius, Bison, and Red Deer, and a questionable
fibula, have been found in the lower cave-earth. The ends of this
deposit were covered by a mass of erratic boulders and of till.
This was a true glacial deposit, as I have myself seen. This glacial
deposit immediately overlies the Cave-earth containing the Pleistocene
mammalia, without the intervention of any talus; but it was itself
covered by an enormous mass of talus, twenty feet and upwards in
thickness, composed of limestone fragments, fallen from the cliff
above, without the intermixture of any boulders whatever.
This sequence of deposits, consisting of :—

Modern screes, resting upon

Glacial Boulder-beds, overlying

Cave-earth, with the Pleistocene fauna,
sufficiently establishes the fact that the animals, whose remains
have been there found, lived in the country before the end of
the Glacial period. This is perfectly simple: but it is contrary
to the common opinion formed entirely upon the evidence
gleaned in a very different part of the country, to wit, the Ouse
and Thames basins, where the said fauna is post-Glacial. So
prejudice sets to work and puts its votaries through remarkable
contortions. First, it is suggested that the boulders are not a true
glacial deposit in place, but have tumbled into their present position
off the cliffs above. This is simply impossible, and therefore the
suggestion is absurd, for the following reasons :—Had the boulders
fallen off the cliff in the course of its weathering, they would be
mixed up with ordinary talus and screes. But they are not so; they
form a distinct deposit by themselves. Moreover, one cannot
suppose, if one would, that a nest of boulders and a patch of
Boulder-clay had been providentially, though most improbably,
placed on the top of the scar above the mammalian remains, so as
to fall in a lump and leave not a stone behind to mix with the sub-
sequent screes, for this reason: restore to the cliff the amount of
rock that has subsequently fallen as screes upon the boulder-bed,
and make due allowance for the enormous amount that has been
carried away in solution without leaving a trace behind; restore all

E. J. Hebert—Reversed Faults in Slates. 44]

this to the cliff, and it will project so far over the site of the
boulder-beds as quite to preclude the idea of their having fallen
from the cliff above. But drowning sceptics catch at straws. So
we have a further exhibition of intellectual contortion. It is now
asserted by the sceptical geologist that the boulder-bed has come
through a providential pot-hole or pipe, ‘of which,” it is said,
“there are plenty in the limestone above.” Memory, when sceptical,
is certainly creative. The limestone plateau above is singularly free
from pot-holes: there is not one of any great size within many a
mile, the nearest being Gingling Hole, more than three miles distant;
and I much doubt whether there are any worthy the name nearer.
But even had they been tolerably abundant, has the ingenious author
of this theory ever seriously asked himself what are the chances
of a pot-hole occurring just in so very convenient a situation, and
what the chance of the cliff having just weathered back far enough
to destroy this providential pot and no further? When he has got
an idea of the smallness of these chances separately, let him then
endeavour to estimate the probability of their both having occurred
together. I rather fancy the figures will somewhat astonish even
the sceptic. So much for the geological question, the chief points
of which have been insisted on over and over again by Mr. Tiddeman.

As regards the paleontological question, Mr. Tiddeman’s argument
is simply this: here we have a fauna which is elsewhere often
associated with the remains of man; whatever be the age of this
fauna, is presumably also that of man; in the Victoria Cave we have
evidence that this fauna existed before the close of the Glacial
period; therefore, presumably, man existed in this country also
before the close of that period. The fact that the said fauna with
human remains is post-Glacial in the South of England is to be
explained by the consideration that the last glaciation of the country
did not extend over the South of England. This consideration too
explains the remarkable fact, that no Pleistocene fauna has been
found in river-gravels in the North of England. Why should such
a fauna, when found in river-gravels, be confined to the south ?
Simply because the last glaciation has swept away all the river
deposits of that age from the north; but as it did not extend to the
south, the old river-gravels of that district have escaped destruction,
and remain to-day to be seen with their included fauna.

Ii].—Reversep Fauttrs 1n Beppep Snares.

By E. J. Heserr, M.A., F.G.S.,
of H.M. Geological Survey.

F it be an established rule, in coal-mining districts, that the hade
of a fault is to the downthrow, it is an equally undeniable fact,

that the surfaces of bedded slates, as a rule, exhibit only faults
which hade to the upthrow. In suggesting a possible explanation of
this phenomenon, I shall allude to the latter as reversed, and the
former as direct faults. Let Fig. 1 represent a piece of wood six
inches square and one inch thick, lying upon a table, and let it be

442 Li. J. Hebert—Reversed Faults in Slates.
sawn through diagonally as indicated; apply equal and opposite

pressures P, P, Q, Q, at right angles to each of the sides, at their
middle points, as indicated by the arrows in Fig. 1. Then if P be

P
J

Fig. 1. Fig. 2.

equal to Q, there is no tendency to a displacement; whereas if P
be greater than Q, the square has a tendency to assume the form of
Fig. 2, and if P be less than Q, of Fig. 3. Now suppose this
square, instead of being of wood, and lying on a table, forms a part
of the earth’s crust, and stands vertically, the grain of the wood
being replaced by the strata of which the crust is made up; then if
the vertical pressures upon the sides of this square of rock exceed
the horizontal, the strata of which it is made up will tend to
assume the form indicated by Fig. 2, ¢.e. a direct fault will probably
take place; whereas if the horizontal pressures exceed the vertical,
the strata will tend to take the form of Fig. 3, i.e. a reversed fault
will probably ensue.

These tendencies, however, will not of necessity result in faults,
since any displacement may be prevented by the more or less rigid
connexion of the square of rock, under consideration, with the
adjoining strata, of which it forms a part. Friction also, as well as
a multitude of other modifying causes, will influence the result.
Now since it is probable, where strata are tolerably free from con-
tortion, as in the English Coal-measures, that vertical pressures
have exceeded horizontal pressures, (arguing as above) we should
here expect to meet with direct faults; but since it is certain in
highly contorted and cleaved strata, as in the English and Welsh
slates, that horizontal pressures have at one time far exceeded the
vertical pressures, we should here similarly expect to meet chiefly
with reversed faults; and in each case our surmises would prove
correct.

It should, however, be remarked, that the above are considerations
of the most simple case, and in practice we should meet with many
variations which would modify the result. First and foremost
amongst these should be mentioned that the hade of the faults will
seldom happen to be 45° (as in the figures), a lower hade tending to
neutralize the motive power of the vertical pressures, and a higher,
that of the horizontal pressures, while if the fissure be vertical, the
horizontal pressures will have no motive power at all. Still further

s es New Series
Geol. Mag. 1877.

2 11 Vol 1V Plate X1V
==)

Deca

RIVER SANKAREWANG

“ Pe Sandstones and [= - a Py = =, ’ i tone 2

Sandstone with cal | 5b Be aeseacins | | 5a qpreceiat hes 5a. ree (oat Quartz-porphyry aa: vith tusulinas 2 Syenite ee i
@. Mount Soela. 6. Mount Tbenkar PR. Harambahan Coalheld
c. Sigaloet Mowuains. d. Vount Mendjarei Q. Sigaloet Coalfield \ Oembilien Coalfield
fF. Mount Roewajan Barock R. Soenget-Doerian Coalfield

GEOLOGICAL PANORAMA OF THE OEMBILIEN COALFIELD, HIGHLANDS OF PADANG, WEST COAST OF SUMATRA.

M. Verbeek—Geology of Sumatra. 443

complications will ensue when the horizontal pressures are of such a
direction as to produce a certain amount of lateral shift in the strata
on either side of the fault, as would be the case in our illustration, if
the square of wood were not sawn at right angles to its surface, but
with the saw on the slant, in which case, the pressures being applied,
the two pieces of wood would no longer tend to move in the plane
of the square; and itis here necessary to remark that reversed
faults resulting from the horizontal pressures accompanying cleavage,
will not be exhibited on the cleavage faces of bedded slates, except
where the pressures have a direction similar to that last referred to,
i.e. such as would produce a certain amount of lateral shift. But
as this oblique position of the fissures with respect to the pressures
will be of most frequent occurrence, we should expect the greater
number of faults resulting from cleavage pressures to be exhibited
upon the faces of the slates.

The above modifications do not, however, destroy the general in-
ference, that direct faults are indicative of excessive vertical pressure,
and reversed faults of excessive horizontal, or lateral, pressure.

IV.—Tue Gronocy or SumMaTRA.
By M. R. D. M. Verprex,
Director of the Geological Survey of the West-Coast, Sumatra.
(PLATE XIV.)
(Communicated by Professor T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S., of the Royal Military and
Staff Colleges, Sandhurst.)
HE Geological Panorama, Plate XIV., prepared by M. R. D. M.
Verbeek, is in further illustration of his Memoir! “On the
Geology of Central Sumatra,” in the Gro. Mae. 1875, New Series,
Dee. II. Vol. II. (No. 186), pp. 477-486 ; and it gives a view, from -
north to south, of a most interesting part of the Highlands of
Padang, namely the Oembilien Coal-field.

To the left the syenite is covered by sandstones and breccias of
the group “da.” The quartz-porphyry of Mount Toenkar conceals
the greater part of the Parambahan Coal-field. Then follows the
Sigaloet Coal-field, with its beds dipping south; on the other side of
the River Oembilien the sandstones of the Soengei-Doerian Coal-
field are seen dipping to the north. Thesé three coal-fields form
together the Oembilien Coal-field. More to the right (south) follows
the old limestone with Fusuline,? and the greenstone (pyroxene-
porphyry). The hills between the Coal-field and the point from
which the panorama was taken are composed of breccias and marl-

1 See also Grou. Mac. Dec. II. Vol. III. p. 882, for some verbal corrections in
this memoir; also Vol. II. pp. 532-89, Plates XIII. and XIV., for Mr. Brady’s
description of some Fossil Foraminifera from Sumatra; and Grou. Maa. Dec. IT.
Vol. IIT. pp. 433-40, Plates XV.-XIX., for Dr. A. Giinther’s description of some
Fossil Sumatran Fishes. This coloured Panorama, like the foregoing Plates, has
been executed under the auspices and at the cost of the Durcu-NreTHERLAND
GOVERNMENT. i

* In the Neues Jahrb. 1876, p. 415, M. Verbeek mentions the discovery of
Productus semireticulatus, Phillipsia, and G'oniatites in the Fusulina-limestone of
Sumatra.

444 IM. Verbeek—Geology of Sumatra.

slates of the oldest part of the Eocene formation (5a); the latter
contain, on the River Siinkarewang, remains of Fishes and Plants.

The following summary, by Prof. H. B. Geinrrz and Dr. W. v. p.
Marck (Report Imp. Geol. Instit. Vienna, August 31, 1876), of the
information they have obtained on the geology and fossils of
Sumatra, may be introduced here with advantage.

Mr. R. D. M. Verbeek has noticed the following succession of rocks
(in ascending order) near Fort Van-der-Capellen, West-Coast, Sumatra.

1. Grey Limestones abounding with a large spherical form of
Fusulina (belonging to the group of Fus. robusta, Meek), and the
ossicles of Crinoid stems. This Fusulina approaches very near the
Carinthian form Fus. globosa. Prof. Geinitz’s Fus: Verbeeki is
identical with Ehrenberg’s Borelis princeps from the hornstone of
the Carboniferous Limestone near Archangel. These limestones
may be ranked in the Upper Carboniferous, or eventually, perhaps,
in the Inferior Dyadic (Lower Permian) Series.

2. Marl-shale Formation [ Marl-slates |, dark-grey, thinly laminated
shales, with remains of Fishes, analogous to those of Glaris. These
Shales, immediately resting on greenstones, are considered by Prof.
Geinitz and Dr. von der Marck to be a connecting link between
Cretaceous and Eocene deposits; and by Professors Herz and R.
Jones to be Hocene. [ Dr. Giinther, however, has indicated their
very close alliance with recent forms. |

3. Sandstones with Coal-seams, without organic remains, nearly
1000 feet thick, resting unconformably on the Marl-shales. The
only fossils in them are undeterminable stalks and leaves of plants,
small Melanie, and traces of Fish.

4. Marly Sandstones, very far spread; a marine deposit with
remains of Ostrea, Pecten, and Serpula.

5. Coral-limestones (rather extensively overlying group 4); includ-
ing internal casts of Gasteropods and Conchifers, together with
Echinide comparable with the Eocene forms Prenaster Alpinus,
Desor, and Periaster sub-globosus, Desor.

The fossil Fishes from the laminated, black-brown, bituminous
shales, with Coprolites, have been described by Dr. W. v. vp. Marck
as four new species, namely, Protosyngnathus Sumatrensis | Auliscops
Sumatranus, Gunther |, Sardinioides amblystoma | Thynnichthys amblyo-
stoma, Giinther |, Brachyspondylus saropteryx, and B. Indicus [ Pseudo-
tropius Verbeekit, Giinther]; and in his opinion this fauna, especially
Sardinites, allows him to parallelize these shales both with the
uppermost Cretaceous beds of Westphalia and Syria and with the
Eocene fish-beds of Monte Bolea, and thus to regard them as an
intermediate link between Cretaceous and Hocene, and analogous to
the “Liburnian” horizon of Istria and Dalmatia.—Report Geol.
Instit. Vienna, August 51, 1876.

Dr. GiinTHER points out (op. cit. supra, p. 484) that of the nine
genera of Fishes represented in the Sumatran Collection which he
examined, all but one have living species, mostly in India and
Sumatra.

Charles Callaway—Migration of Species. 445

V.—Tur MicRATION oF SPECIES AS RELATED TO THE CORRELATION
oF GEoLoGicaAL KorMATIONS.

By Cartes Cattaway, M.A., B.Sc., F.G.S.

HE topic of this paper is suggested by a somewhat extended

practical study of the fossils of North America. A comparison

of these forms with our European faunas will, I think, throw some
light upon migration, and upon the correlation of strata.

When comparing western with eastern formations, we are thrown
back chiefly upon the testimony of fossils. Mineral resemblance, such
as 1s observed between the Wenlock Limestone and Shale in the east,
and the Niagara Limestone and Shale in the west, is of little value
at great distances. The Wenlock Limestone, for instance, passes
into an arenaceous deposit towards Wales, and the Niagara Lime-
stone thins out towards the east in the State of New York; so that
the continuity of the two formations is an extreme improbability.
Stratigraphical position, the third test of contemporaneity, is also of
little service, and is itself dependent upon fossil evidence. We
cannot, for example, justly argue that the Niagara group of New
York represents our Wenlock on the ground of its stratigraphical
position, unless we admit that the formations overlying and under-
lying it correspond respectively to our Ludlow and May Hill
Sandstone. But we can prove that correspondence only by strati-
graphical position, which would land us in absurdity ; or by fossils.
The uncertainty of mere stratigraphical evidence is well illustrated
by the Devonian and Old Red Sandstone of South-western Britain ;
and, if this method of proof is so dubious in the case of formations
separated by the Bristol Channel, it is obviously much more un-
trustworthy when applied to groups on opposite sides of the At-
lantic Ocean.

It has been maintained that cdentity of species, so far from proving
contemporaneity, is an evidence of non-contemporaneity. If, for ex-
ample, a species migrates from Britain to America, it is clear that
the beds containing it in America are newer than the strata which
contain it in Britain. This is undoubtedly true if we use the word
“ contemporaneous ” in a strictly historical sense. It is evident that
the whole of the formation in America characterized by a certain
fauna cannot be contemporaneous with the whole of the series in
Britain containing the same fauna; the former will be later than
the latter by the time occupied in the migration of the fauna a
distance of 3000 or 4000 miles. This is on the supposition that the
migration was from east to west. It is possible, however, that the
fauna may have originated in some intermediate centre, and spread
both east and west ; in which case eastern and western formations,
characterized by the same (or a similar) fauna, may be strictly con-
temporaneous. Hven on the extreme supposition of an east and
west migration, I shall attempt to show that the time occupied in
the migration is unimportant in comparison with the duration of
geological epochs.

It must be remembered that, for purposes of correlation, the group

446 Charles Callaway— Migration of Species.

of the Mollusca are the most important. This is emphatically the
case with the older Paleeozoic fossiliferous groups, in which molluses
are the predominant forms of life. Brachiopoda, especially, abound
in all epochs, from the Cambrian to the Carboniferous, and are most
valuable for our purpose. Molluscous faunas are of very wide dis-
tribution even in the present day. Dr. Krauss informs. us that
Ranella granifera ranges from the Red Sea to New Zealand, Purpura
lapillus from Greenland to the Cape, Venus verrucosa from Britain to
the Cape. Dr. §S. P. Woodward (Manual Moll. p. 60) states that,
“out of 270 sea-shells found on the coast of Massachusetts north of
Cape Cod, more than half are common to Northern Hurope.” In
wider seas, species have a still greater extension. In the great
Indo-Pacific province, including “three-fifths of the circumference
of the globe and 45° of latitude,” the facies of the fauna is uniform.
“Mr. Cuming obtained more than 100 species of shells from the
eastern coast of Africa, identical with those collected by himself at
the Philippines, and in the eastern coral islands of the Pacific.”” In
Paleozoic times, the conditions for the extension of species were
undoubtedly more favourable than in most recent provinces; and, in
all probability, closely resembled the conditions now prevailing in
the Indo-Pacific province. ‘That resemblance is seen chiefly in two
points: in freedom from extremes of temperature, and in continuity
of marine conditions. In proof of the latter point, it will be neces-
sary to show that the sea was open from the eastern to the western
hemisphere in Paleozoic times. It is highly probable that the
southern part of what is now the northern Atlantic was occupied by
continental land; but that the sea was open towards the north will, I
think, be evident from the following considerations. The Middle
Silurians (Murchison) of New York and the Appalachians (Oneida
Conglomerate and Medina Sandstone) are represented towards the
north-east, in Anticosti, by a continuous series of marine limestones.
The fossils collected in Arctic regions by Parry, Franklin, Belcher,
and others, and examined by Salter, were shown to be chiefly from
Silurian limestones. Fossils recently collected by Captain Fielden
during the Arctic Expedition (which, through the kindness of Mr,
Etheridge, I have been permitted to examine) throw additional light
upon this point, and prove the interesting fact that within 450 miles
of the Pole there flourished a molluscan and coralline fauna closely
similar to that contained in British and North American Paleozoic
limestones. It is, therefore, highly probable that British and
American seas communicated with each other by way of the
northern part of the North Atlantic. Lying in the same latitudes,
both eastern and western areas must also have been similar in ~
climate. We may, then, safely infer that, as in the present day a
similar fauna extends continuously for 15,000 miles in open seas,
the same animals lived at the same time in British and North
American seas. If this be so, identity of species is not a proof of
non-contemporaneity, and the orthodox doctrine of the value of
fossils as indices of contemporaneity is the true teaching.

We must keep in mind that faunas and floras are not in the habit

Horace B. Woodward—Notes on the Devonian Rocks. 447

of migrating en masse. It certainly was not so in Paleozoic times.
A few examples will suffice to illustrate this. Pentamerus galeatus,
a species which, in Britain, commenced its existence in the Wenlock
period, is not found in any American formation below the Lower
Helderberg group, the representative of our Ludlow. Pentamerus
oblongus, which in the eastern hemisphere and in eastern North
America is not found higher than the Clinton group (our May Hill
Sandstone), ascends into the Niagara (Wenlock) formation in more
westerly localities. A more striking example may be cited. Our
Ludlow rocks are characterized by an abundant Lamellibranchiate
fauna, notably by the genera Péerinea, Goniophora, and Cypricardinia.
In North America, this fauna is represented, not in Silurian, but in
Middle Devonian (Hamilton) rocks, by forms which, in some cases,
are specifically identical, and, taken as a whole, are strikingly
similar. We are bound to regard the Hamilton as true Devonian,
since it lies above strata with a distinctively Devonian facies, and far
above formations which clearly represent our Upper Silurian groups.
In all these cases, the migration must have been from east to west.
On the other hand, the Merostomata flourished in the Water-lime
formation (Upper Wenlock) in the west; but in the east they do not
appear till the Ludlow period; the migration being obviously from
west to east.

Hquability of climate over large areas in Paleozoic times must have
been highly favourable to migration. The President of the Geological
Society, Prof. P. Martin Duncan, in his anniversary address in
February, suggests that our earth is losing its atmosphere, as the
moon has already lost hers; and, consequently, our atmosphere
must have been denser in earlier periods. This would probably
account for the greater equability of climate which we infer on
paleontological evidence to have existed in Paleozoic epochs. If,
then, migrations were wider and more rapid in ancient periods,
fossils must be even better tests of contemporaneity than in younger
formations.

VI.—Norres on tHE Devontan Rocks near Newton ABBot AND
Torquay; WiTtH Remarks ON THE SUBJECT OF THEIR CLASSIFI-
CATION."

By Horacze B. Woopwarp, F.G.S.,
of the Geological Survey of England and Wales.
[Read before the British Association at Plymouth, August 16th, 1877.]

HEN we consider the growth of geological knowledge in our
own country, we soon learn how very detailed must be the
' character of all new work compared with that performed by the great
pioneers in the science. Much that has now to be done may be
called the microscopic work, labour that is often uninteresting and
dry, except to the individual himself, but which nevertheless is most
useful and necessary.
The more or less rapid traverses of the earlier geologists enabled

1 This paper is communicated by permission of the Director-General of the
Geological Survey of the United Kingdom.

448 Horace B. Woodward—Notes on the Devonian Rocks.

them to produce sketch-maps, and in most cases to grasp the main
geological features of the country when they could not attempt to
follow out all the local points of structure; and when we remember
that they had to start as it were in a terra incognita, we may well
speak with admiration of the grand work that was achieved in field-
geology in the early part of this century.

While the greater portion of England and Wales has now been
worked out in considerable detail, and its rocky structure repre-
sented upon the Geological Survey maps, our knowledge of the
Paleozoic country of West Somerset, Devon, and Cornwall, is almost
entirely confined to sketch-maps, showing the general grouping
of the strata; the determination and correlation of minor sub-
divisions in the rocks, and the tracing out of their exact boundary-
lines, having been as yet attempted only in a few localities.

Thus the geological picture sketched partly by Sedgwick and
Murchison and Godwin-Austen, remains for the most part very
much as it was when left by the master-hand of De la Beche. And
here it is only right to observe that the maps of this district, which
were those first published by the Geological Survey, were the work
of De la Beche as an amateur, assisted only by the voluntary contri-
butions of other private workers. Consequently the same attention
to minute accuracy with which he subsequently directed the labours
of his staff, could not possibly have been given to this early work,
which covered an extent of ground that no one man could have
thoroughly investigated in a lifetime.

Another grand version has, however, been given to the geological
outline of this district, and by a man whose experience put him at
least on a par with any of his predecessors. A considerable modifi-
cation in the classification of the rocks, as maintained by the majority
of those who had previously studied the country, was proposed in
1863 and subsequent years by Jukes. And his observations, based
to a large extent upon an intimate knowledge of the Carboniferous
rocks and Old Red Sandstone in the south of Ireland, coupled with
some previous acquaintance with the district, and with the advantage
of the labours of those who had gone before him, gave to his
Opinions and conclusions a force which belonged to no other writer
upon the subject. He attempted no more than others had done, but
he drew a different outline, and instead of regarding the whole of
the Devonian rocks as equivalent in time to the Old Red Sandstone,
he maintained that only the lower divisions of the group could be
classed with this formation, the slates and limestones representing
the lower portions of the Carboniferous system.

It is needless to enter here into all the labyrinths of this con-
troversy, as the subject has been elsewhere reviewed on several
occasions during the past few years.’ Ii is scarcely to be expected
that a settlement of the question can be gained until the whole of
the country has been thoroughly worked out, and the accumulated
observations of many observers have been carefully arranged and
digested. It may not, however, be altogether fruitless if, while

1 Quart. Journ. Science, Jan. 1873; Trans. Plymouth Inst., vol. v. p. 480.

Horace B. Woodward—WNotes on the Devonian Rocks. 449

noting a few facts in the local geology, some remarks be made on
the work that has been done, so that if possible more labourers may
be tempted to come into the field.

During a year’s residence at Newton Abbot (1874-75), while
engaged in the revision of the boundaries of the Secondary and
newer deposits, I was enabled to gather a few facts which may be
of interest concerning the succession of the Paleozoic rocks in that
neighbourhood ; but I should mention that my work was restricted
to the older rocks immediately bordering the Secondary strata, as a
revision of the Paleozoic rocks is postponed, so far as the Geological
Survey is concerned,-until the Six-inch Ordnance Maps are issued.

The published maps of the Geological Survey show but two
general divisions in the Devonian rocks, the slaty group having one
colour, and the limestones another. The relations of these are not
exhibited, and one might conclude that the limestones occurred at
different horizons as great lenticular or isolated masses. A careful
examination of the ground, however, soon dispels this notion ; and
when the boundaries are traced out, it will be found that the fre-
quently abrupt terminations of the limestone are due to well-marked
faults. Wherever positive evidence was to be obtained, a definite
sequence in the Devonian rocks was manifest—the limestones form-
ing an upper group, the slates a middle one, and red sandstones a
lower group. It must be admitted that this positive evidence is not
often obtained in sections actually showing a junction or super-
position, but it is very clearly established when the beds are traced
out over the ground. The relation of the rocks to the form of the
country is very clear, and the actual boundary-line between the lime-
stones and the slates beneath may usually be defined within a few
feet. When, as is often the case in some limestone quarries, the
dip of the beds cannot be distinguished amidst the cleavage and
jointing, the general inclination can be determined when the
boundary with the slates has been drawn, according as the lne
runs a long way or but a short distance into the ravines and valleys
that intersect the escarpments. In this way the little masses of
limestone mar Woolborough and the slates of Abbots Kerswell, as
noted by Jukes and Dr. Holl, can be readily correlated with the
Devonian limestones and slates, instead of being classed with the
Culm-measures, as represented on the Geological Survey Map.
These beds are abruptly faulted against the Culm-measures on the
west.

The slates may be clearly traced beneath the limestone south-
east of Daccombe, at Barton, Anstey’s Cove, Wickaborough, and
other places. The boundary with the red sandstones beneath is not
so well marked, for the lithological characters are not so sharply
defined, nor have we the benefit of the springs which are thrown off
at the junction of the slates with the limestone.

The relations of the red sandstones to the beds above are, how-
ever, well shown at Cockington. A quarry about a quarter of a mile
north-east of Livermead shows beds of red sandstone dipping a little
to the east of north, while further west they are shown dipping a

DECADE Il.—vVOL. IY.—-NO. X. 29

450 Horace B. Woodward—Notes on the Devonian Rocks.

little to the west of north. We may trace the slates above them at
Cockington village, and if we proceed up the valley by Stanton, we
come upon the limestone dipping at from 20° to 24° a little to the
west of north. At the bottom of the valley immediately to the east
of Barton, thin flaggy red sandstones may likewise be traced beneath
the slates.

In 1875 a well-section was made by the Diamond Rock Boring
Company’s process for the Torquay Brewing and Trading Company
in Fleet Street, Torquay. The following details were kindly com-
municated to me by Mr. T. Perry, B.A., and although the boring
was not carried sufficiently deep to supply all the requirements of
the geologist, the facts are nevertheless of sufficient interest to be
noted. ‘They are as follows : —

Tee tiTiCONe Wilenel Nhe), Gras sree ccraeeccosccenceracececcoC OE about 92 feet
PlainelGrmestone) ie es meee ees i PE mens:

(Hiatus of two or three feet filled with soft
tenacious red clay.)

Bley Slate ps2) A eA AEs OR a Ak See Ome
Chocolate) Slate sess eee eae aaa ae 5 GOs eines
Bley Stabe cc7) ts les OD ee ee eee 5 O85 O55
im dumated se dylM tang] teense eaten cn oi ay MN: ae Gull gute
Depth of boring ........ . 628 ft. 7 im.

The inclination (or ‘‘ natural cleavage”? as it was termed) of the
limestones was about 70°, whereas the inclination of the slates was
no more than 45°; and this difference J am inclined to think is due
to a fault between the two which runs north-west and south-east
along the margin of the limestone that extends from Torquay
Harbour to Daddy Hole.

Owing to this inclination, the thickness of the beds passed through
may be estimated as follows :—

HGTV SLOT Ces ee Aw Tee oe eee ae eatin he LAA LOR a AN 130 feet
Dlahe sy eee hes elt aan ae a eae a Miva Lae aL leaical se AU Some.
Te ideas] get ekki B ee arr) CRON lee eee Aa lee AU 26

Concerning the so-called “‘ Indurated Red Marl,” I saw a specimen
which seemed to belong to one of the junction beds between the
slates and red sandstones, but it would be hazardous to express any
more definite opinion about it.

The succession of limestones, slates, and red sandstones here
pointed out is not new: the results of my own field-work rather
coincide with the views expressed fifty years ago by De la Beche.
Nevertheless, a different interpretation was put upon the structure
of South Devon by Dr. Holl; and De la Beche himself was led in
after years to modify his opinions concerning the classification of the
beds, so as to conform with the views of Sedgwick and Murchison.
It was in 1827 that he gave an account of the geology of Tor and
Babbacombe Bays. The limestones he then termed Carboniferous
Limestone, stating that the beds ‘‘ contain fossils that have been dis-
covered in the Carboniferous Limestone of other places, and, though
a matter of minor importance, mineralogically resemble it; they are,
moreover, separated from the Old Red Sandstone by a shale, which
may be considered the equivalent of the Lower Limestone Shale.” ?

1 Trans. Geol. Soc. 2nd ser. vol. iii. p. 163.

Horace B. Woodward—WNotes on the Devonian Rocks. 451

He described the Old Red Sandstone of Cockington as “ chocolate-
coloured, micaceous, siliceous, and very compact sandstone.”

The fact that the Devonian slates and limestones in South Devon,
as well as in North Devon, are underlaid by beds resembling the
Old Red Sandstone, is most important. Almost every writer speaks
of their mineralogical resemblance. So far as I know, the beds at
Cockington have yielded no organic remains, but I obtained some
obscure plant-like markings.

We can draw no such close comparisons between the Devonian
Slates of South Devon and the Lower Limestone Shales, although
there are local resemblances. The former beds are, however, much
affected by cleavage. In West Somerset some of the Devonian
slaty beds are much like the Lower Limestone Shales of the Mendip
Hills.

When we come to the Devonian Limestone, we find a great and
striking mineralogical resemblance to the Mountain Limestone. Some
beds are of a dense blue colour, with few veins of calcite; others
again are very freely veined with a fine network of spar, or contain
broad bands of crystalline matter. Beds of nearly white limestone
occur near Ideford, others again are Oolitic in structure. It may be
remarked, also, that many of the beds of Devonian Limestone, when
fractured, emit the same sulphurous smell as does the Mountain
Limestone; while the slaty beds beneath sometimes exhibit similar
alternate bands and nodular beds of limestone. So that almost every
lithological feature that one may observe in the Mountain Lime-
stone of the West of England is repeated in the Devonian Limestone
of Devonshire. ‘This reminds me that a few years ago, when writing
in conjunction with Mr. Bristow about the much-abused limestone of
Cannington Park, near Bridgewater, we spoke of its striking re-
semblance in all particulars to the Mountain Limestone. I can
only add now that lithologically the Cannington Park Limestone
is as much like the Devonian as the Mountain Limestone.1

Sedgwick and Murchison noticed the occurrence of “ thin laminz
of bright coal” in the limestone near Plymouth.” Mr. Godwin-
Austen too observed that ‘‘ the limestone of the Ashburton band is
exceedingly carbonaceous, containing even seams of anthracite,” and
he detected the same feature at Totnes. He considered the formation
of the carbonaceous matter to be due to marine rather than to ter-
restrial vegetation.’

The weathering of the Devonian Limestone is naturally similar
to that of the Mountain Limestone. Some-of the honeycombed
surfaces that may be seen on joints and exposed edges of the rock
in a quarry at Wolfsgrove Farm, near Kingsteignton, showed that
when fossils occurred, they stood out in relief in the cavities,
proving that here at least the phenomena resulted from the action of
atmospheric agents, and not that of snails.

1 Grou. Maea., Vol. VIII. p. 500. See also Geol. of E. Somerset, etc. (Geol.
Survey), p. 26.

2 Trans. Geol. Soc., 2nd series, vol. v. p. 651.

3 Idem, vol. vi. pp. 461, 469.

452 Horace B. Woodward—Notes on the Devonian Rocks.

While I would not for a moment suggest that an accurate parallel
of the strata could be made on lithological any more than on paleon-
tological grounds alone, yet we cannot overlook the resemblances.

It cannot be doubted, however, that we must be guided by the
stratigraphical facts, and most important is the relation that the
Devonian Limestone bears to the Culm-Measures above.

While I have indicated the facts of the succession in the strata
near Newton Abbot and Torquay, there are many places where the
relations of slates and limestones are not clear.

The mass of limestone that extends from Lyndridge to near
Kingsteignton dips to the south-east at angles of from 20° to 30°.
The boundary-line with the Culm-measures to the north runs along
the bottom of the valley, and no junction sections are to be seen.
The same is the case south of Ideford, where, instead of there being
three small masses of limestone in the midst of the Culm-measures,
there is but one mass, abruptly adjoining these newer strata. The
Culm-measures at Combe, Heston, and Whiteway Farms dip to the
south-east as if they would pass under the Devonian Limestone.
Hence, if the beds be not actually inverted, there must be a con-
siderable fault running along the valley between Lyndridge Hill and
Ideford. An inversion might help us to account for the mass of
limestone stretching from Oldchard Well to Ugbrooke House. Its
relations with the Culm-measures are nowhere exhibited, but these
beds are seen to be violently disturbed by the high-road west of
Bellamarsh Wood; here, however, the great fault that cuts off the
Chudleigh Limestone may pass. Again the Devonian slates that
extend from Bishopsteignton to Kingsteignton, and which near Wear
Cross would seem to overlie the limestone, are nowhere clearly
shown in relation to it, and are highly disturbed in places by the
great intruded mass of igneous rock. There is clear evidence
in the cliffs north of Teignmouth of a fault which runs through
Bishopsteignton.

Nowhere have we any positive evidence of a mass of Devonian
slates overlying the limestone. In some places, near Oldchard Well
and Abbots Kerswell, I have seen traces a foot or two in thickness
of blue and purple shales resting upon the limestone, and this would
accord with the facts obtained by my colleague Mr. Reid at Chud-
leigh, where the Devonian Limestone is only separated from the
Culm-measures by a thin bed of shales.

This question of the relations of Devonian rocks and Culm-
measures is full of interest, and full of puzzles. Authorities agree
that the Culm-measures represent a part of the true Coal-measures,
and probably include the whole of the Millstone-grit. Both Mr.
Godwin-Austen and Dr. Holl have maintained that in South Devon
the Culm-measures rest unconformably upon the Devonian rocks.
Some of the evidence relied upon by the former, and quoted by the
latter, has been shown by Mr. Reid to be the result of a fault ; *
and so far as my own observations have gone, I saw nothing in
the relations of Culm-measures and Devonian rocks near Newton

' Paper read before Brit. Assoc. at Plymouth.

Horace B. Woodward—Notes on the Devonian Rocks. 453

Abbot that proved unconformability. And I could only agree with
Jukes that concealed disturbances and faults would account for all
the phenomena there to be observed.’

The promontory of Torquay and Babbacombe Well shows the
great disturbances to which the beds have been subjected. The
cliffs are for the most part abrupt, and they can only be studied by
the aid of a boat. In the quarry at Hope’s Nose nearly horizontal
beds of limestone may be seen resting on the upturned edges of
similar rock, in such a manner that a first glance would seem to
show an undoubted case of unconformability. It requires, however,
but little examination to prove that this feature is the result of
a fault acting on the disturbed beds of limestone, and whose hade
is inclined inwards from the face of the quarry. The contortions
throughout the Torquay district are very great, and the faults are
numerous. In one instance the beds are clearly reversed, as Mr.
Champernowne has pointed out.’

At Meadfoot are beds of slate and grit which show considerable
metamorphism. Some of the large masses strewn along the shore
well exhibit the phenomena of cleavage, bedding and jointing. The
precise relation of these beds to the limestone is not clear owing to
numerous faults, but I think we have in them representatives of the
lower portion of the oe series or the junction beds with the red
sandstone group.

Some hard grits that occur near Christ. Church, Ellacombe, and
near Upton Church, also north of Hope Farm, reminded me of the
Millstone-grit.

These notes are scanty, but they may not be without their use.
A study of what has been written, and, more important still, the
recent field-researches of Mr. Champernowne, indicate that the facts
to be obtained near Newton Abbot and Torquay may be applicable
to the whole of South Devon; and the structure may therefore be
much simpler than is generally thought, or than the observations of
Dr. Holl would lead us to suppose.’

Much has been written, and especially by Mr. Etheridge, about the
correlation of the beds by fossil evidence; but it is needless to observe
that until the stratigraphical relations of the beds have been worked
out, the organic remains cannot be taken as evidence for classifica-
tion. The work of Phillips, which will always be highly valued
for its specific identifications, contains few references to the exact
horizons from which the species were obtained. Much of the col-
lecting must therefore be done afresh, and here is plenty of work for
the resident geologist. We cannot have too many lists of fossils
recording the precise beds and localities; for by these means only can
we determine the succession of life forms, and arrive at any conclu-
sions as to the geographical distribution of the species.*

1 Notes on parts of 8. Devon, etc., p. 7. See also Grot. Mac., Dec. II. Vol.
Til., Oct., 1876. 2 Trans. Devon. Assoc. for 1374.

3 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxiv. p. 400.

41 trust that Mr. J. E. Lee ey be tempted to publish a catalogue of the
Devonian fossils in his collection.

454 Clement Reid—Culn-measures near Chudleigh.

So far as one can judge at present, the evidence certainly favours
the views of Jukes, that the basement beds of the Devonian system
are truly Old Red Sandstone, while the succeeding slates and lime-
stones were formed during what we call the Lower Carboniferous
period, and in a different zoological province to the Mountain Lime-
stone of other parts. The view that the entire series of the Devonian
rocks was deposited during the same period as the Old Red
Sandstone is entirely unsupported by physical or stratigraphical
evidence, for it requires a barrier to have existed at the time,
separating a lacustrine from a purely marine area, and of this we
have not the slightest evidence. And indeed, just where we should
look to find it, we come across the mass of Limestone at Cannington
Park, which some observers call Carboniferous Limestone and some
Devonian Limestone. Perhaps both views may be right.

VII.—On tHE Junction oF THE Limestonn AND CULM-MEASURES
NEAR CHUDLEIGH.
By Crement Ruin, F.G.S.,
of the Geological Survey of England and Wales.
(Communicated by permission of the Director-General of the Geological Survey of
the United Kingdom.)

N the course of an examination of the district around Chudleigh

during the year 1875, I was led to consider that there is a
passage from the Devonian Limestone into the Culm-measures, and
that all the appearances which have been accepted as indicating un-
conformability may be easily accounted for by a fault with a con-
siderable hade.

The peculiar position of the Chudleigh Limestone has led to many
hypotheses in explanation of the manner in which it appears to abut
against the Culm-measures. Sir Henry De la Beche, judging from
the apparent dip of the Culm-measures beneath the Devonian rocks,
considered that the Limestone was included in the Carbonaceous
Series, and as such it was engraved in his published sections and
coloured in the Geological Survey Map.

Mr. Godwin-Austen and most subsequent writers have recog-
nized the identity of the limestone of Chudleigh with that of Newton
Abbot, but have considered that there is evidence of unconform-
ability, and have drawn hypothetical sections in support of this view.

The following fossils, which I collected from the limestone in the
neighbourhood of Chudleigh, correspond closely with those to be
found near Newton Abbot. The species have been identified by Mr.
Htheridge :—

Lower Dunscombe Quarry (upper part of the limestone) :

Rhynchonella pugnus, Mart. sp. Streptorhynchus erenistria, Phil.
cuboides, Sby. Fenestella.
Atrypa, sp. Cyrtoceras.

» reticularis, Linn. sp.
Kerswell Quarry (middle or lower part of the limestone) :

Stromatopora. Heliolites porosa, Goldf.
Oyathophyllum cespitosum, Goldf. Alveolites suborbicularis, Lamk.
Favosites cervicornis, Edw. Pullastra. :

Clement Reid—Culm-measures near Chudleigh. 455

Acroculia vetusta, Phil. Euomphalus serpens, Phil.
Murechisonia angulata, Phil. Macrocheilus 2

oa spinosa, Phil. Pleurotomaria cirriformis, Sby.
Natica ?

Prof. Phillips and Mr. Jukes suggested the existence of a fault,
and a detailed examination of the ground has enabled me to trace
a dislocation which will without difficulty account for the apparent
unconformability.

Unfortunately sections of the junction of the Culm-measures and
Devonian Limestone are rare, but in the road south of Lewell
House, near Chudleigh, we have an exposure which has every
appearance of a passage. ‘The upper part of the Limestone is seen
to become more and more shaly, then to pass into alternations of
shale and limestone; and gradually grit, at first fine grained, replaces
the calcareous beds. Still higher there is thick-bedded sandstone
like that in the lower part of the Culm-measures of Ugbrooke Park.
The upper part of this section is not clearly exposed, though it
seems to indicate a passage.

At Lower Dunscombe Quarry the Limestone again passes into
limestone-shale containing Clymenia valida and C. striata (as identi-
fied by Mr. Htheridge). Unfortunately the junction with the Culm-
measures is not exposed; but as far as can be judged from the stones
in the adjoining fields, it is similar to that shown in the last section.
It is noticeable that the species of Clymenia have not been found in
the solid limestone, but only in the few feet of calcareous shales
above it.

A more difficult question has arisen from the abrupt ending of the
Limestone on the west of Chudleigh and its sudden replacement by
Culm-measure shales. ‘The small patch at Waddon Barton is nearly
horizontal, and entirely surrounded by green and purple Devonian
slates; the isolated position of this limestone is caused by de-
nudation, and a slight flexure of the beds will connect it with the
main mass. <A short distance to the west a fault runs in a north
and south direction, throwing down Culm-measures against the
slates; this fault I have traced northward to Whiteway House,
where the Limestone and Culm Shales are thrown together. 'The
fault then disappears beneath the Triassic rocks of Haldon, ap-
parently without affecting them. 'To the south the dislocation can
be traced to near Lower Herkley, beyond which I have not ventured
to continue it, as there are only slates and shales for guidance.

Mr. Godwin-Austen, in his “ Geology of the South-east of Devon-
shire,” mentions a well dug at the house on the west side of Chud-
leigh rock. This showed about fifteen feet of horizontal carbonaceous
shales and sandstones resting on highly inclined claret-coloured slates
dipping in the same direction as the Chudleigh Limestone. Mr.
Austen considers that this is an instance of unconformability ; but on
quite independent evidence, and before I had noticed the account of
this well, I had been led to trace the fault through this exact spot.
A considerable hade to the fault will account for all the appearances
in this and some other sections noticed by Mr. Austen and Sir Henry
De la Beche.

456 Henry H. Howorth—Geology of the Isle of Man.

VIII.—Groxroey or tHE IsLE or Man.

By Henry H. Howorrn, Esq.
(Concluded from page 413.)

N my former note I adduced the reasons which make me confident
that the conglomerates of the south of the Isle of Man, which
have been hitherto classed as Devonian, are not Devonian, but are
later than the Carboniferous Period. I will now turn to the problem
of what they really are. It is a well-known fact that in the Isle of
Man the Secondary and Tertiary rocks are wholly absent. This is
the view of all those who have examined the island, and is in fact
perfectly palpable. The series of older rocks terminates with the
upper layers of the Carboniferous Limestone; above this there
are nothing but deposits of Quaternary Age. The red con-
glomerate to which I have referred contains no trace of any Second-
ary or Tertiary fossils, nor is there the smallest ground for believing
that it belongs to either of those series. Does it then belong to the
Quaternary beds? This conclusion is inevitable, and, as we shall
see, 1s an exceedingly interesting one.

The deposits of the Pleistocene age are developed in the Isle of
Man on a very large scale, and the series may be there studied in
detail, and especially the Boulder-clay formation. One of the
peculiarities of the Boulder-clay in the Isle of Man is the large
proportion of local or insular materials that have built it up.
This has been noticed by Mr. Cumming (op. cit. page 113).

Here let me make a small digression. If, as is almost certain,
the matrix in which the boulders are imbedded was formed out of
the subjacent rocks, ground down and pulverized by moving ice,
it is quite clear that what will be clay in one situation, where the
materials for making clay exist, will be an entirely different sub-
stance elsewhere. That the same sheet of shore-ice, which in scrap-
ing over the upturned edges of Silurian schists makes excellent clay,
will, within a few yards of the same place, and perfectly contem-
poraneously, be making a bed of a pasty texture out of the Mountain
Limestone immediately adjoining, while if it was ploughing down
the surface of Secondary and Tertiary rocks, the resulting product
would again be different. I don’t know (and claim the privilege of
a mere student in suggesting) but it may be that those who have
mapped out the Quaternary Deposits of Europe have not sufficiently
attended to this crucial fact, namely, that they have looked for Boulder-
clay where no clay could possibly be found, and that they have placed
on a different horizon some really contemporaneous bed made of dif-
ferent materials.

In the Isle of Man, at all events, we must take this fact into con-
sideration, and we have our lesson very palpably laid down for us.
Where the basset edges of the schists are exposed, we find the ad-
joining drift deposits to be almost pure clay. Where these beds
change colour, so do the superincumbent clays. Where we near the
horizontal beds of limestone deeply scored in various directions, we
find more and more lime in the clay, which becomes a veritable tilth,

Henry H, Howorth—Geology of the Isle of Man. 457

as my friend Mr. Binney calls it; and lastly, we have beds evidently
contemporaneous with and made under precisely the same conditions
as the Boulder-clay proper, composed of a kind of soft pudding-stone,
of boulders imbedded in a matrix not of clay, but of disintegrated
limestone.

The proportion of lime from the clay in various parts of the
island is given by Mr. Cumming in Appendix I. of his work, and
fully confirms this argument, and, as that author says, “ indicate
the extremely local character of the contents of a great part of the
Boulder-clay.” (Ibid. p. 306.)

Let us now turn once more to the red conglomerate. Superfi-
cially it will be conceded by those who see it that it resembles an
_ indurated Boulder-clay formation of a red colour. This was, in fact,
remarked by Mr. Cumming, who says of it at one place, “It looks
extremely like a consolidated ancient Boulder-clay formation, only
there is more approach to regular bedding, more regularity of strati-
fication, as in the drift-gravel deposits.” (op. cit. 8-9.) The word
“ancient” in this extract must be accepted as covering Mr. Cumming’s
theory in regard to the deposit; while as to the regularity of the
layers of boulders, this is, I take it, in a great measure imaginary.
I noticed no such peculiarity except in very local instances. The
red colour I have already explained as resulting from the formation
being made up of disintegrated local rocks of an ochreous colour.
Where the schists and limestones are not purple, the conglomerate
exists without its red colour, and I have specimens by me showing
the gradation from a perfectly grey pudding-stone of limestone to
one quite russet in colour. The inclosed blocks, as I said in my
former paper, consist for the most part of boulders of the adjoining
limestone, many with their edges hardly rubbed at all; and the
whole deposit, but for its colour and tenacity, is very like the mass
of undoubted Boulder-clay forming Hango Hill, in the centre of the
Bay of Castletown.

The situation of the conglomerate is also that of a drift deposit.
Tt caps the hills and higher ground, as at the Brough and at Langness
Point, and at the latter place may be studied in close proximity
to similar deposits without the red colour, which have been de-
scribed by Mr. Cumming as Boulder-clay. In every sense I believe
therefore the red conglomerate to be a glacial deposit, and in no
sense a Devonian one; and as such a striking example of the law
prevailing among the glacial deposits of the island in ‘changing in
composition and tallying in chemical character as well as in litho-
logical appearance and colour with that of the adjacent rock.”
(Cumming, op. cit. p. 118.)

I have not yet referred to what seems to me the most important
result of this rectification, and which indeed induced me to pro-
secute my inquiry. I have said that the conglomerate differs from
an ordinary Boulder-clay deposit in one important respect, namely,
in its compactness and solidity. This quality it shares with much
of the grey conglomerate with which I have compared it. The
cause of this density we must now inquire into. One horn of Castle-

458 Henry H. Howorth—Geology of the Isle of Man.

town Bay is occupied by a famous basaltic boss, known as the Stack
of Scarlet. From this boss lines of trap emerge in sporadic fashion
and may be traced in various directions, especially about the pro-
montory of Langness, in Derbyhaven Bay, and at Cushnahavin.
Where they have burst through, they have naturally altered the rock
very considerably. It has in some places so altered the limestone
that it is impossible to see any limit where trap ends and limestone
begins. In another place, namely, close to Ronaldsway, between
high- and low-water mark, it has broken it up into rhomboidal
blocks by cracks running §. 40° W. and S. 80° E. But the meta-
morphism is more important elsewhere. Let me quote the graphic
words of Mr. Cumming himself:

‘There is one remarkable fact which should not be overlooked,
which is, that the Boulder-clay itself seems in some measure to have
partaken of the metamorphosed character of the limestone. Patches
of it here and there are hardened and cemented, and present a
baked appearance, and have resisted the action of the sea. It is
difficult to determine whether this has resulted from long contact
with the ochreous mass of altered limestone, or from the escape of
heated gases at some period of the Boulder-clay through cracks
formed by the previous disturbances which we must thence class as
belonging to the Boulder period.” (op. cit. p. 100.) The difficulty
suggested by Mr. Cumming exists only so far as I can see because
of his classing the red conglomerate as Devonian. If he had seen
that it was in fact but an altered glacial deposit, but one conclusion
would, it seems to me, have been possible. Let me, to illustrate my
position, quote one more passage, and although a long one, it shall
be the last. Speaking of the great trap dyke at Langness, Mr.
Cumming says :—‘The ground plan of it is well worthy of a
minute study, and the contrast of colour of the two rocks (the
green or olive-coloured trap and the red conglomerate) renders the
phenomena distinctly visible to even an ungeological eye. 'The trap
seems to shoot out in one strong body from the schist to the east-
ward, and may be seen as a dyke of the breadth of forty-five feet,
where it runs out to sea, on the eastern side of the peninsula; but
as soon as it enters upon the old red conglomerate (sie) which over-
lies the schist, we find it separating into branches and twisting about
amongst the pebbles and boulders of that formation in a most
singular manner. Some of these branches taper off to an extreme
thinness. We can trace them by the colour till they are scarcely
the thickness of a wafer. Now on the opposite side of the bay, at
Knockrushen, we see this dyke where it cuts through the limestone
in the same solid and compact form which it has where it cuts
through the schist. There are there to be sure two or three straight
cracks in the limestone, which have been filled up by the fluid trap
injected from this dyke; but the general fact which we must observe
is this, that in the schist and tough limestone the trap dyke is com-
pact ; in the old red conglomerate it is spread out and branching.
And thus we come to the conclusion that the fluid trap was forced
upwards with enormous force through the schist; that when on its

Prof. Milne—Across Europe and Asia. 459
ascent it reached the more permeable and separable beds of the old
red conglomerate, tied down as they are by the tougher masses of
limestone, it spread itself out and ultimately raising the limestone
in a boss or saddle, produced a crack or series of cracks, and so
forced its way through the opening to the surface.” With this
passage as a description of facts I do not quarrel; but I cannot at
all agree with its inferences. If the conglomerate was of Devonian
age, as Mr. Cumming suggests, and the trap dyke in passing through
it was broken up into many small channels, it seems impossible that
it should have again become concentrated into one or two main
streams in passing the limestone. But if the conglomerate be as I
claim to have shown, of Glacial age and long posterior in date to the
limestone, the appearances so truthfully and graphically described
by Mr. Cumming are at once clear and very interesting. The
streams of trap permeating the red conglomerate make it almost
certain that the outbursts of the trap and the activity of the volcanic
vent at Scarlet Point were posterior to the deposit of the Boulder-
clay, and we thus add another remarkable example to the list of
volcanos active within the British seas in post-Tertiary times.
Although only an amateur geologist, I hope this may be deemed a

f=)
fact of sufficient importance to excuse my intrusion into your pages.

TX.—Across Hurorr anp Asta.—Traveriine Nores.
By Professor Joun Miung, F.G.S.;
Imperial College of Engineering, Tokei, Japan.
(Continued from p. 406.)
Part V.—Ekaterinburg to Tomsk.
Conrents.—Ekaterinburg to Tumen.—Tumen to Tomsk (along the Toufa, Tobol,
Irtish, and Obi).—The Ostiacks.—Character of the Siberian Steppes.—Theory
of their Origin.

()* Wednesday, the 22nd of September, I left Ekaterinburg for
Tumen, where I hoped to catch a steamer going to Tomsk.

For a short distance after starting, the road was bounded by tall firs.
Beyond these came a few hill-like mounds covered with large grey
weather-worn boulders, the appearances of which were not unlike
those of some ancient terminal moraines. These boulders were the
only ones which J saw during the whole of my journey across Siberia.
From their similarity to the rock of the country which here and
there cropped up through its covering of peat and grass, I think they
must have been of local origin; but whether this origin was in any
way connected with the action of ice, through not having made any
close examination I am unable to form any conclusion. For the re-
mainder of the road the land on either side was under cultivation, and
was yellow with fields of stubble and stacks of corn. Now and then
I passed a village of log huts. In each of these a church, with a
towering dome, surrounded by many smaller domes, was conspicuous
among the poverty above which it rose. At many of the houses in
the villages of this part of Siberia the inhabitants had been at some
pains in building small box-like houses, which were raised on the
‘top of poles, in order to induce sparrows to localize themselves.

460 Prof. Milne—Across Europe and Asia.

Along the roads there were numbers of birds like magpies, water-
wagtails, and woodpeckers, but these were perhaps not so desirable
as the sparrows. After 36 hours of continuous travelling, I reached
Tumen, the distance being 3064 versts.

At Tumen there are some engineering works, which belong to Mr.
Wardroper, an English resident, who has made many of the steamers
of light draught which are now so numerous on some of the Siberian
rivers. The evening after my arrival I joined a small steamer
which was to take us down the shallower portions of the River
Toufa to a larger steamer lying further down. Upon the right hand,
or southern side of the river, there is a bank from 50 to 80 feet in
height, which is chiefly composed of white sand. The opposite
shore is however low. As we descended the river, these appearances
were reversed, and the high bank was upon the left-hand side. The
Toufa is'a shallow sandy river, with a very winding course. Lines
of willows, which clothed the furrowed banks on either side, shut
out our view of the surrounding country.

Our progress was both slow and difficult, but this was partly
owing to our steamer having to tow behind it a large and unwieldy
barge, in which there were nearly 1000 convicts. Now and then
we obtained a glimpse through the barrier of willow on either side,
and saw a background of tall black firs and the flickering leaves of
clumps of aspen. On this river, although we were many hundreds,
and I might almost say thousands of miles from the sea, there are
many sea-gulls (Zarus canus ?) to be seen. ‘The backs of these were
grey and the ends of their wings black.

Early on the morning of the 26th September we left the Toufa
river and joined the Tobkol. The water was still of the same dirty
sandy hue, and about 120 yards in breadth. Our course was still
very winding, and we repeatedly described curves like the letter S.
It is said that sturgeon and sterlet are seldom seen in the rivers
where we were, although common a little farther east. The ex-
planation of this was that the rivers were too shallow. During
the first day all that I saw which was indicative of habitations
were two green domes capping the tower-like spires of a church.
Now and then we passed a few ragged Tartars who had pushed
their way through the tall fringe of willow to see the passing
steamer. Their skins were very dark, and their eyes were small
and sharp. From some small “dugout” boats and nets, which were
generally to be seen near them, IJ think their occupation was that of
fishermen. The banks of the river often showed a horizontal strati-
fication. Intercalated with the sandy beds which formed these
banks, I sometimes saw a bed of peaty matter, in some cases prob-
ably marking an old land-surface which had been buried by the
deposits from a river or a lake.

About 3 p.m. we reached Evelewa, where we joined a large steamer.
This was of course a sign that we had reached somewhat deeper
water.

Next morning we sighted Tobolsk. The town is pleasantly
situated partly on the top and partly beneath the face of a tall ridge

Prof. Mine—Across Europe and Asia. 461

which trends across the country like some huge embankment.
Further to the north this ridge forms the eastern bank of the river;
but on reaching the point at which Tobolsk is situated, it turns
suddenly and bears away almost at right angles to its previous direc-
tion. It is in fact an abrupt termination to a plateau, on the top
of which one portion of Tobolsk is built, whilst the other portion of
the town is below. Whilst we were still at a distance, many church
spires, white barracks, and various public buildings could be dis-
tinctly seen. As we neared these, we left the muddy waters of the
Tobol, and joined the clear black waters of the Irtish. As we had
a few hours’ rest at Tobolsk, I had opportunity for seeing the town.
One thing I soon observed was that stone was a substance which was
only known in name, and wood took its place even on the pavement.
A steeply sloping deep cutting connected the lower part of the town
with the upper part, which is on the summit of the plateau. This,
like the streets, was covered with wood. LHxcepting at this cutting,
and at another point where stairs have been built, the scarp-like face
of the plateau is too steep to be ascended. Everywhere in the
vicinity of the town this scarp consists of a whitish-grey sand. In
the upper part of the town, in some public gardens, I saw a monu-
ment erected to the memory of Yermack, the first invader and so-
called conqueror of Siberia. Another curiosity on the top of the
hill was one of the monuments of folly which John the Terrible
left standing behind him. ‘This is a bell which, on the occasion of
one of his human butcheries, was either ringing when it ought not
to have rung, or else was not ringing when it should have done.
Wor this it suffered exileship instead of those who had thus misused
it, and after having a small piece broken from it, was sent to Siberia
with orders that never so long as it was a bell, was it to ring again.

After looking at the lower portion of the town, where the greater
part of the business is transacted, we rejoined the steamer, and were
again under weigh steaming rapidly down the Irtish towards its
confluence with the Obi. From this point we now had upon our right
hand or eastern side the steep slope of what I will call the Tobolsk
plateau. This was, however, not quite so high as it was at Tobolsk,
and in places perhaps not more than 100 feet. Near its base bluish
clayey beds sometimes cropped up. As we continued northwards,
villages became fewer, and it soon became a matter of interest even
when we saw either a small boat or a man. On our right we had
the steep earth cliffs capped with a line of fir, whilst on our left
were banks of willows, and a fringe of tall straight grass. As we
continued to descend, the river increased in breadth, which, on the
28th of the month, must have been at least a quarter of a mile wide.
On the eastern side, we passed the entrances to many lagoon-like
areas, filled with water. These I believe were in many cases openings
across the bends in the river. Now and then we stopped and hauled
in alongside the bank to obtain firewood. This was generally done
in the vicinity of a small village, the dirty inhabitants of which,
shivering in their tattered sheepskins, giving us some assistance.
At these places I had opportunity to examine the banks of the

462 Prof. Milne—Across Europe and Asia.

river, which were in fact sections of the great alluvial plain of this
portion of Siberia. These sections, which are generally made up of
fine sand, now contained in addition some bands of a bluish clay.
This clay, which was very shppery to walk on, and plastic in its
nature, could be often seen to merge into the sandy beds amongst
which it was intercalated.

On the 29th I was told that we had entered the Obi. For some
time a dense fog prevented me from seeing where we were. One
thing was, however, certain—that we now had a strong current run-
ning in a contrary direction to that in which we were steaming.
When the mist cleared, I saw myself in a stream about three-quarters
of a mile in breadth, bounded by banks ten to fourteen feet in height.
On the 30th we drew up to take in wood near the village of Soor-
goot (or Surgut), the position of which was indicated by a church
tower a few miles distant. Here I saw a number of Ostiacks, who
came with boat loads of fish to try and trade. Some of the fish
they had were like small pike, and called “stchooke” (Hsoa luctus).
These were from three to six lbs. in weight. Others they had
were called “nalym” (Lota vulgaris.)

The Ostiacks, whom I frequently saw during several succeeding
days, were short in stature, had large heads, heavy bodies, and
thin legs. Their eyes, which point inwards and downwards, are
not deeply sunk in their heads, but are so placed that the eye-
lids run smoothly up to the eyebrows, which latter are well up
above the eyes themselves. Notwithstanding a general chubbiness
in their face, the cheek-bones are very prominent. ‘Their hair is
long and black, and their complexion chocolate.

Their canoes or boats, in which they swarmed round our ship,
were, from their graceful appearance and lightness, very striking.
They are cut from a solid block of wood, which I think is a kind
of poplar, the Russian name of which is “‘oseena.” Both stem and
stern are sharply pointed, and they sweep elegantly from end to
end. A midship section is nearly semicircular, but at either end
it would be V-shaped. The sides are kept from shrinking inwards
by means of two or three transverse stretchers. One small canoe
which I measured was ten feet long, one foot nine inches broad,
and nine inches deep in the centre. It was so light that I could lift
it and carry it easily with one hand. The paddles look somewhat
like spades, there being at one end a large flat blade, and at the
other a transverse handle. ‘These are only used on one side of the
boat.

The dresses of these people, such as they were, were made of
sheepskin, and of a coarse brown material like sacking. It was,
however, difficult to ascertain their real nature, they were so very
dirty. At one of our landing places I saw several of the houses
in which these people live. One which I examined was about
twelve feet square, with perpendicular walls about three feet high.
From two of the side walls there was a sloping roof, meeting
in a ridge running from back to front, making the highest point
in the house only five feet eight inches in height. The frame-

Prof. Miine—Across Europe and Asia. 463

work of this edifice was made of rough pine sticks. These were
stuck in the ground, and over them a covering of birch bark was
laid, which was kept in its place by a second row of sticks. The
roof was covered in a manner similar to that in which the sides
were covered, there being, so to speak, two rows of rafters with
birch bark in between them. Along the line of the ridge-pole a
long narrow opening is left for the purpose of allowing the smoke
from the interior to escape. Some of the birch bark was doubled
and sewn together to form sheets six feet square. Along the edge
of these sheets an extra strip of bark was doubled over and stitched
on as a border, for the purpose, I presume, of preventing any
splitting taking place. Many of the utensils in the house were
also made of birch bark. With the exception of this method of
using bark, and also the neatness exhibited in the building of boats,
so far as I saw, the remainder of their works were coarse, clumsy,
and untidy.

This portion of the Obi appears to form their southern boundary,

‘and in it they have their capital called Narim.

In many places along the borders of the river there were peaty
marshes, covered with moss and occasionally with trees.

Thus far along these rivers I do not remember seeing a single
pebble or stone, the only hard substance which I could pick up
being a few small nodules of sand cemented together by iron. Every-
where the banks showed sections of sand, sandy-mud, and a bluish
clay, the sand, however, always predominating. As we passed small
creeks which masked the mouths of tributary streams, the beds of
sand were usually capped with beds of mud, which had probably
been deposited by the stream which now ran over them.

On the 4th of October we stopped at a place called Kolpashovoe.
At this place one bank of the river forms cliffs 70 to 80 feet in height.
These cliffs are nearly wholly composed of white sand, but near
their base they suddenly merge into a bluish clay. In the lower
part. of these clayey beds I saw some fine lines of black earthy
matter from 4 to + inch in thickness. An examination of these
showed them to consist of yellowish green particles of vegetable
matter resembling a flat-leaved grass.

Next day, the 5th of October, we reached the mouth of the river
Tom. As this river was very shallow, we had to leave our large
steamer and join a smaller one. Along the shore there were many
bushy trees, on which a few autumnal leaves yet fluttered. Beyond
these trees came an open flat country. In all places the water of
the river was rippling and eddying along with a current that proved
itself far too strong for our little steamer and the bargeload of
convicts which we had to tow behind us.

The bottom, like the shores on either side, was pebbly, whilst the
water, unlike that of the Obi, was quite clear.

On several points along the shore, and noticeably along those parts
where the water rises and falls slowly, there was a red deposit of
iron. Upon those parts up to which the waters rapidly reached and
afterwards rapidly receded from, as would happen during flood

464 Prof. Milne—Across Europe and Asia.

times, no deposit had been formed. On the evening of the Sth, it
was warm enough to go outside without an overcoat; but next
morning, as we sighted Tomsk, it was bitterly cold, and our decks
were thickly covered with ice. The time at which the Tom generally
becomes frozen is about the 22nd of October, and it then remains
closed until about the 20th of April.

Before proceeding with a description of the country which I saw
beyond Tomsk, I will give my impressions of the vast plain through
which, since leaving Tumen, I had been traversing. One great
feature was the absence of variety, in consequence of which my
daily observations became almost a series of identities,—every where
there was one great plain composed of either sand or loam forming
more or less of an open Steppe.

The origin of these Steppes, according to Mr. Thomas Belt and
Siberian geologists, was due to the blocking up of the mouths of
the great Siberian rivers by an overflow of polar ice from the north,
and a consequent flooding of the country by an overflow of the
rivers in the south. Mr. Belt chiefly bases this view on observations —
made by him when on a journey from Hkaterinburg to Byanovl,
360 miles §.H. from Omsk.

One observation which was apparently very quickly made was,
“that the plains had no relation to the present river-system; the
rivers simply cut through them; and there are no defined river-
basins bounded by rocks of greater age on which they might have
been deposited.”

This simple but grand method of dealing with the river-systems
of Northern Asia and their boundaries, which are but little better
explored than the sources of the Nile, is not, I think, in all senses
justifiable; for if we take any Physical Map of Asia, we shall see
that the river-systems form a remarkable example of the connexion
of rivers and plains, which can be only paralleled on the Amazons.
Wherever there is a river, and especially a large one, a broad
plain accompanies it for the greater portion of its course. As it
expands in flowing north, the plain also expands. The widening of
these plains continues until they touch each other, when they unite
to form that open flat expanse which fringes the Arctic Ocean.

That every river has a tongue of flat ground through which it
runs is a fact which points to the intimate connexion of the two
(plain and river). Such a fact as this assists in making Mr. Belt’s
argument more comprehensible; for, instead of being led to regard
the whole of Northern Siberia as having been one huge freshwater
lake, the area of which would be unparalleled, it might now be
regarded as several areas, each occupying more or less its own
particular basin.

The most important point about these plains is the immense
expanse of sand and loam which they everywhere exhibit. The
absence of marine shells and the presence of freshwater shells like
Cyrena fluminalis over a great portion of the area furnish strong
evidence, which Mr. Belt brought forward in support of his argu-
ment, that these strata were deposited in fresh rather than in salt

Prof. Miine—Across Europe and Asia. 465

water. As additional evidence to these conclusions, I may add from
my observations, first, the finding of plant-remains on the Obi at
Kolpashovoe, and, secondly, the fact that the sand and loam when
examined microscopically show a sharp angularity, characteristic of
river-sand rather than of those sands which had been washed and
rounded in the sea. The samples of sand and loam which I collected
came from districts far apart, and therefore may be taken as repre-
senting the character of an area rather than that of a single spot.

As culminating evidence in support of this theory, Mr. Belt seems
to have found, at Pavlodav, ‘‘the ancient bed-rock over which the
ice must have moved if it existed, and saw the crushed and shattered
surface and the fragments pushed up into the overlying silt.” Now
this is an interesting discovery, because it is so strange that Mr.
Belt in his flying visit should have been so fortunate as to have met
with the remains of glacier action, whereas geologists who have
been working in these latitudes of Siberia, especially near Irkutsk.
for the last ten years, where glaciers were more likely to have
occurred if an ice-sheet ever advanced so far as Mr. Belt supposes,
have not yet been able to find any signs of ice-action greater than
those which are annually produced by the freezing of the river.

Also, if such a cold period had existed, ice-rafts must have scoured
the sides of this great lake, and carried off boulders from its shores
to deposit them on its bed. But ice-markings, such as are produced
upon every coast invaded by floating-ice, I have not seen nor heard
of, neither are the boulders to be found,—the country is, in fact, as
I have pointed out, singularly destitute of stones, and whilst travel-
ling more than 1500 miles in parts where I had many opportunities
of seeing sections, I do not remember seeing even a single pebble,
although I looked for them. Erman noticed large fragments of
rock imbedded in clay at Samarova, but they are probably not very
numerous, as I passed through that district without observing them.

Until the markings of old glaciers and coast-ice, together with
erratic boulders and allied phenomena, which would be necessary
adjuncts to the invasion of a polar ice-cap, and the formation of an
inland sea, are shown really to exist, or else have, some explanation
found for their absence, it would, I think, be better to pause before
accepting the idea of an invading ice-cap. Mr. Campbell, the well-
known author of ‘“ Frost and Fire,” argues that if polar ice-caps ever
existed, their markings ought to be found in all meridians alike, and
that they should approximately be so appears to be a reasonable
argument. What is more, if we follow out such an argument as
that of Mr. Croll, who shows us that in bygone times there was a
glacial period produced in that hemisphere whose winter occurred
in aphelion indirectly, owing to its having been at that time further
from the sun than it is at present, we must remember that the same
series of induced causes would also produce a general lowering of
temperature over that half of the world whose crown had been
capped by ice. This being the case, glaciers and other forms of ice
existing in latitudes below the crown of ice ought to have been
considerably augmented, whilst at other points still more removed

DECADE II.—=VOL. IV.—NO. X. 30

466 Prof. Miine—Across Europe and Asia.

new ones might be born. Not overlooking the observations of Pro-
fessor Agassiz on the Amazons, and those of Mr. Belt in Nicaragua,
evidences of this kind are yet very rare. As additional reasons for
not forming too hasty a conclusion, we must wait until the markings
of the ice-cap have been shown to be more general in their dis-
tribution, and the markings which would be consequent on such a
covering have been more fully recognized. Cosmical changes have
no doubt produced their effect upon climate, and so also have causes
like those we now see in action, and therefore I do not see the
necessity that all glacial phenomena should be attributed wholly to
the one or to the other cause; but I must confess that where it is
possible to adopt existing agencies, I should take them into con-
sideration before those whose origin and subsequent mode of action
was of a more debatable character. For these reasons, together
with the fact that the Siberian Steppes present phenomena not well
explained by the invasion of a polar ice-cap, 1 venture to suggest
a modification of the theory advocated by Mr. Belt and Siberian
geologists, which appears to me to be more reconcilable with the
phenomena which have been hitherto recorded.

In addition to the general freshwater character of the plains which
has been already noticed, we must also observe the slight elevation
which they have above the Northern Ocean towards which their
rivers flow. On physical maps points more than 1000 miles inland
are shown not to be more than 250 feet above it. Another point
to be observed is that the last movement which these plains have
made, as indicated by beds of marine shells along their northern
frontier, has been an upward one. From this we may infer that
when they were at lower levels a considerable portion of their
surface must have been covered by what would now be an invading
sea. At such a time the rivers would be shorter in length, and the
plains, through which they flow, more tongue-like in their character.
Again, we must observe that in old times, as at the present day,
these rivers were often covered with ice, which, blocking up their
channels, may have given rise to floods. ‘These actions can now
be seen both at the forming and the breaking up of these winter
barriers. By comparison with what has happened in Hurope and
in America, we may infer that either cosmical or geographical
changes, or perhaps both, have in former times intensified this
action.

The following table, which I have compiled from information
collected when in Siberia, will show approxtmaTELy the time of
formation and breaking up of ice at different latitudes upon the same
and different North Asian rivers, and will indicate an important
cause operating in the formation of these floods or temporary lakes :

The first thing that will be observed in this table is that the
influence of latitude practically outweighs all local circumstances
which might accelerate or retard the time of freezing, or the break-
ing up of the ice upon these rivers. ‘The farther north a place is,
the sooner the water freezes, and the later is the ice broken up, as
compared with more southern positions. Another point to be noticed

Prof. Miine—Across Europe and Asia. 467

Name of River, N. Lat. | Ice Forms. Ice breaks up.

{ Sir Daria, near Aral. 45° 0’ | Nov. 20 | March 22.
Basin of | Obi, near Barnaul. 53°14" | Oct. 30 | April 15.
the Obi, 4 (Lobel, near Kurgan. 55° 32’ | Oct. 26 | April 16.
* | \Irtish, near Tobolsk. 58° 20’ | Oct. 24 | April 20.
L Obi, near Obdorsk. 67° 28’ | Oct. 20-| May 20:
Basin ( Angara, near Irkutsk. , | 62° 20° | Dec. 30 | May 20.

of the { |Lake Baikal.* 53° 0’ | Dec. 23 | April 20—May 10.
Yenisei. | |Yenisei, near Krasnoiarsk. 56° 6’ | Oct. 29 | April 20.
Basin of ( Lena, near Kirensk. 57° 40" | Oct. 25 | April 30.
the Lena. | Lena, near Yakutsk. 61° 58’ | Oct. 21 | May 13.
eae /Yana, near Ust Yansk. 71° 23’ | Sept. 6 | May 24.

* Lake Baikal, which is introduced amongst the table of rivers, like the rapid
Angara which flows from it, is very irregular in its time of freezing and in opening.
These times also vary in different parts of the lake, as might be expected from its
north and south extension.
is that on the same river, the northern portion of the river freezes
only a little earlier than the southern part, whilst it, comparatively
speaking, breaks up a considerable time later. Thus, for instance,
on the Obi, at Obdorsk, near its mouth, the ice only forms about one
week before it does at Barnaul, which is a considerable distance to
the south, whilst it breaks up a month later.

For illustration, suppose we take the River Nile near its mouth,
and partially reduce the area of its channel with a blockade of ice
for a week: I think we might reasonably expect a flood. Floods of
this kind may be observed in low latitudes, as on the Angara near
Irkutsk. In 1870, a sudden frost rapidly freezing the river over, a
flood was caused which did great damage to the town. But this is
not the worst aspect of the action which may be illustrated by taking
the Nile, not at an ordinary season, but at the time when it is drain-
ing off an unusually large quantity of water from the south, and at
such a time placing a barrier across its mouth, not for one week, but
for three or four. The consequences would be, I think, disastrous.
It will be observed that it is at these times when the Siberian rivers
have the most water, from the melting of the southern ice and snow, to
drain away, that their mouths are for the longest period dammed up.

During past times, when the cold was probably more intense, these
barriers of ice may have been more continuous and complete, and
thus have kept the plains—which were then smaller than they are at
present, because their northern ends were beneath the sea—more or
less constantly covered with a lake of turbid water. As this flood
varied in its nature, being more or less dependent upon the accumu-
lation and breaking up of the ice, so we had beds of a varying
nature deposited ; sometimes they were of silt, and sometimes they
were of sand.

And‘in this way, whilst accepting the main feature in Mr. Belt’s
argument that it was a barrier of ice which caused a freshwater
lake, I should endeavour to explain the origin of the Siberian
Steppes, without seeking the aid of a Polar Ice Cap.

We have now a Paleocrystic Ice Cap upon our northern hemi-

468 Notices of Memoirs—Land-plant in the Silurian.

sphere, which is small, and placed somewhat jauntily on one side.
At one time it was in all probability much larger, and was then
drawn farther down over our northern regions than it is at present ;
but so far as I have seen, many of the markings it may then have
made can also be explained by more modest assumptions; whilst
not only its tracks, but also of the allies it would have summoned
into being, we yet need proof of their existence.

Various causes as at present have in past times been in action, and
the results of one may often have obliterated those of others, which
renders the tracing of phenomena to their origin a matter of
difficulty, because our data are either antagonistic or else not suffi-
ciently convergent in their character.

(To be continued in our next Number.)

NOTICHS OF MEMOIRS.

J.—On tHE Discovery or a Lanp-puant 1n THE Mippie Portion
OF THE Sinurtan Strata. By M. G. pe Saporra. (Comptes
Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences, tom. lxxxv. No. 10.)

HE discovery that I am about to announce to the Academy is
quite new. On my journey to Caen, three days ago, I received
from Prof. Moriére, a slab, coming from the slaty-schists of Angers,
and from the zone of Calymene Tristani, which furnishes evident
traces of a tolerably large fern. The impression is in a fair state of
preservation; the vegetable substance is replaced by sulphuret of
iron, and many of the outlines are broken or torn, as if the plant
had suffered from a long sojourn at the bottom of the waters. A
long stem is distinguishable, along which the pinnules, attenuated
towards their point of insertion, are attached by a subsessile base.
The venation, composed of very fine veins, often dichotomous, with-
out a median vein properly so called, places this fern amongst the
Neuropteride ; it calls to mind the genera Cyclopteris and Palgopteris
in the Upper Devonian or Lower Carboniferous series; but the
species I now record cannot be confounded with any of those
hitherto described. The Silurian of Europe having as yet, in point
of vegetable remains, only furnished some Alge of a doubtful
character, we may conclude this fern from the slaty-schists of Angers
to be the oldest terrestrial plant that has been met with on our
continent. The existence of the family of ferns is thus carried back
to a period more remote than one would have supposed. The origin
itself of vegetation will be thrown back far beyond the Silurian,
since the fern from Angers, by reason of its affinity with the
Carboniferous Neuropteris, seems to indicate a flora already rela-
tively rich and complex, and far removed from the beginning of
plants, and the first apparition of life.

I should add that the learned Leo Lesquereux, who, in America,
pursues his researches on the plants of the Carboniferous and
Palzozoic epochs, assured me, three or four months ago, that he
had collected on his side, terrestrial plants, and particularly ferns,

G. H. Morton—The Country around Llangollen. 469

very rarely it is true, from near the base of the Silurian strata.
These observations agree with those I have just offered to the
Academy, and support the conclusions to which I have arrived. I
only wish to establish in favour of M. Lesquereux the right of
priority which no one will dispute with him. B. B. W.

IJ.—DescrizionE DEGLI sTRATI PLIOCENICA DEI DINTORNI DI
Stena. By Prof. Canto Srerant. (Bolletino del R. Comitato
Geologico, August, 1877.)

N the August number of the Bolletino del R. Comitato Geologico

Prof. Carlo Stefani completes the “ Descrizione degli strati
Pliocenica dei dintorni di Siena,” which was begun in the previous
number. Targioni, Soldani, Pareto, Mortillet, Capellini, and many
other Italians and foreigners, who have made a study of the Tertiaries,
have described this district, which makes a detailed description and
discussion of the geology of this classical spot, brought up to the
present stand-point of the science, doubly important. The beds in
the immediate neighbourhood are Pliocene, apparently lower and
middle, consisting of alternations of marine and_ brackish-water
strata, with fresh-water only in one place, and these changes the
author ascribes to the amount of sea-water which could enter into

a gulf of the sea in this locality.

' The great development of the Pliocene in Italy and contempo-

raneous deposits having taken place in such different circumstances,

as in deep-sea, littoral, brackish, and fresh-water conditions, it is not
unnatural that many divisions of this period have been made which
will have to fall under more exact examination, and in the Siena
beds Prof. Stefani shows that the geological phenomena become
simpler when the contemporaneity of the various deposits is under-
stood. Long lists of fossils are given for comparison, and a com-
plete catalogue from the pen of a colleague is promised shortly.

These beds, it is unnecessary to say, are very fossiliferous.

The laborious communications that are constantly appearing in
this Bolletino on the interesting Miocene and Pliocene formations of
Italy are gradually placing before us the recent geology of this
country with great clearness. A. W. W.

III]. —Assrract or A Parser on THE CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE
AND MILLSTONE-GRIT IN THE CouUNTRY AROUND LLANGOLLEN,
North Waters. By Gurorer H. Morton, F.R.S.

[Read at the Meeting of the British Association, Plymouth, August 20th, 1877.]

fWVHE author described the Carboniferous Limestone exposed in the

Eglwyseg ridge near Llangollen. He stated that the finest
section is exposed at the Ty-nant ravine, on the west of Cefn-y-Fedw,
and that the country must be considered as the typical area of the
Lower Carboniferous series in North Wales. The Millstone-grit, or
Cefn-y-Fedw Sandstone, which reposes on the limestone, in the same
district was also described. The following tabulation explains the
succession and thickness of the entire series.

470 Notices of Memoirs—G. H. Morton.

TapuLar Virw or THE Carzonrirerous Limestone AND CEFN-y-Fupw SAND-
STONE IN THE CouNTY AROUND LLANGOLLEN.
Feet. Upper

{ Aqueduct Grit, or Upper Sandstone and 70) Cefn-y-Fedw,

Conelomeratehee see ee } > Dee Bridge, or
Upperishalee as 30 | Millstone-grit
Dee Bridge Sandstone 30 J Series.
Crern-y-Frpw } Lower Shale with Fire-clay and bands) is) M
SANDSTONE. ‘ of Limestone )

iddle and Lower
Cefn-y-Fedw,

Middle Sandstone 200 | i

Cherty Shale 50? Y ‘ed 1

Lower Sandstone and Conglomerate ..... 250 | S vanea

{ Sandy Limestone .............. 78 J soo
Upper Grey Limestone... 00) Upper Carboni-
CARBONIFEROUS a) Wihateny is, _ { ferous Limestone.
LIMESTONE. Lower ,, us ) L ay :
ower ditto.

cP eES TO WWM nt eal ledeale trite neers

1923

Upper Old Red Sandstone .... 300 feet.

Hach of the subdivisions was separately described, and a section
from the Ty-nant ravine to Tyfyn-uchaf was exhibited, showing the
regular succession of the whole of the strata from the Old Red Sand-
stone to the Coal-measures. The following table shows the gradual
attenuation of the Carboniferous Limestone towards the south-east.

| |

SUBDIVISIONS. Ty-nant. ee | aiever Bronheulog.' Fron.

! | | :

Upper Grey Limestone 300 | 300 | 260 66* 88*

WV ANIbe ees 300 | 250 140 99 dap
Lower _,, a UO WO TMI Sy LI OAS eke
» Brown ,, 480 | 360 | 100£ QGGee Vila Reet
1200 | 10265 | 607 296 116

* Upper portion has been denuded.
t+ Reposes on the Wenlock Shale.
{ Lowest beds not ascertained with certainty.

This section shows how the limestone diminishes in thickness
with the rise of the Wenlock Shale towards the south-east. Between
the Ty-nant ravine and Fron, four miles from the former place, the
attenuation is not less than 900 feet.

The list of fossils collected by the author contained seventy-seven
species. Of these fifty-eight occur in the Upper Grey Limestone,
and only eighteen in the Lower Brown Limestone. If the Carboni-
ferous Limestone is simply divided into Upper and Lower Limestone,
thirty-eight species are peculiar to the two upper subdivisions, and
nineteen to the two lower subdivisions; twenty species being com-
mon to both. However, the species are by no means confined to the
subdivisions in which they are found near Llangollen, for they
occur at different horizons in other districts.

Notices of Memoirs—British Association, Section C. 471

TV.—Brittsn AssoorarioN FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE,
Forty-seventh Merrrine, Puymours, Avcusr 16rx, 1877.
Tirtes or Papers Reap in Section C. (GEoLoGy).

President.—W. PENGELLY, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S.

President’s Address. (See p. 419.)

The President.—Sketch of the Geology of the Coast from the Rame
Head to the Bolt. Tail.

J. H. Collins. —On the Drift of Plymouth Hoe.

hh. N. Worth.—Notes on the Paleontology of Plymouth.

Professor G. Dewalque.—On the Devonian System in England and in
Belgium.

A. Champernowne, M.A.—On the Succession of the Paleozoic
Deposits of South Devon.

S. R. Pattison.—On the Carboniferous Coast-Line of North Cornwall.

C. Reid.—On the Junction of the Limestone and Culm-measures
near Chudleigh. (See p.-454.)

H. B. Woodward. —Notes on the Devonian Rocks near Newton Abbot
and Torquay, with Remarks on the Subject of their Classification.
(See p. 447.)

W. Pengelly, F.R.S.—Thirteenth Annual Report of the Committee
for assisting in the Exploration of Kent’s Cavern.

Rh. H. Tiddeman, M.A., F.G.S.—Fifth Annual Report of the Com-
mittee for assisting in the Exploration of the Settle Caves
(Victoria Cave).

C. De Rance, F.G.S.—Report of the Committee for investigating the
Circulation of Underground Waters in the New Red Sandstone
and Permian formations.

C. Le Neve Foster, D.Sc., F.G.S.—On some Tin Mines in the parish
of Wendron, Cornwall.

0. Le Neve Foster, D.Sc., F.G.S.—On the “ Great Flat Lode” South
of Redruth and Camborne.

CO. Le Neve Foster, D.Sc.—On some of the Stockworks of Cornwall.

Arthur W. Waters, F.G.S.—Influence of the Distribution of Land
and Water upon the Shifting of the Axis of the Harth.

J. H. Collins, F.G.S.—Note on the Serpentine of Duporth in St.
Austell Bay, Cornwall.

Professor J. W. Clarke.-—Some Observations upon the Origin and
Antiquity of the Mounds of Arkansas, United States.

Professor A. S. Herschel, M.A., F.R.A.S., and G. A. Lebour, F.G.S.—
Report on the Thermal Conductivities of Rocks.

Rev. H. W. Crosskey, F.G.S.—Report of the Boulder Committee.

J. Gwyn Jeffreys, LL.D., F.R.S.—On the Post-Tertiary Fossils pro-
cured in the late Arctic Expedition, with Notes on some of the
Recent or Living Mollusca from the same Expedition.

O. E. De Runce, F.G.S.—Note on the Correlation of certain Post-
Glacial Deposits in West Lancashire.

G. H. Morton, F. G.S.—On the Carboniferous Limestone and Millstone-
grit in the Country around Llangollen, North Wales. (See p. 469.)

G. A. Lebour, F.G.S.—On some Pebbles in Shales.

472 Reviews—Miller’s Paleozoic Fossils : America.

W. Gunn, /.G.S8.—A Short Sketch of the finding of Silurian Rocks
in Teesdale.

W. Molyneua, F.G.S.—On the Occurrence of Aviculopecten and other
Marine Shells in Deposits associated with Seams of Coal, con-
taining Salt Water, in the Ashby Coal-field.

H. C. Sorby, F.G.S.—On a New Method for Studying the Optical
Characters of Minerals.

Rev. Professor Heer.—Note on the Fossil Flora of the Arctic Regions.

H. Woodward, F.R.S.—On the Discovery of Branchipus in a fossil
state in the Hocene Limestone (Freshwater) of Gurnet Bay, Isle
of Wight.

G. A. Lebour. F.G.S.—On the Age of the Cheviots.

hi. A. C. Godwin-Austen, F.R.S.—On the Geological Significance of
the Boring at Messrs. Meux’s Brewery, London. (See p. 474.)

Thomas Plunkett.—Cave Exploration in Fermanagh.

Dr. J. S. Phené.—On some peculiar Stalactitic Formations from the
Island of Antiparos.

A. J. Mott.—On the Source and Function of Carbon in the Crust of
the Earth.

ReEVvlE ws.

I.—Tur American Patmozoric Fossits. A CaTALoGUE OF THE
GENERA AND SPECIES; WITH AN INTRODUCTION DEVOTED TO
THE STRATIGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY OF THE Patmozoic Rooks.
By 8. A. Miller. (Cincinnati, Ohio, 1877.)
H# constant additions to the number of fossil species, and their
publication in different memoirs and various kinds of periodicals,
renders it very difficult for the student of paleontology to ascertain
where to find them described or noticed.

Under this point of view, carefully prepared catalogues are of
considerable use and convenience, whether as merely including the
species of a genus, or that of a larger group, as the Catalogue of the
Crustacea by Mr. H. Woodward noticed in this Macazinn (Sept.
p. 415), or as embodying the entire fauna of a single geological
formation, or of a series of strata, as in the Catalogue which is
the object of this brief notice.

The student of Paleeozoic fossils will find in this volume a record
of the numerous remains of the North American Paleozoic fauna
and flora, which have of late years been the subject of numerous
valuable memoirs by the indefatigable paleeontologists of that country.

The main body of the work, which of course comprises the
catalogue of species, is preceded by the preface, in which the author
states the general plan upon which the Catalogue is based. Some
notion of the extent of the work and consequent labour attending
it may be gleaned from the fact that the total number of genera and
species, including the synonyms, is 11,200, comprising 1000 genera
and 2000 species; the number 2200 are names of genera and species
which are considered to be synonyms of the others.

A chapter is devoted to the construction of systematic names in
paleontology by Prof. Claypole, containing some useful remarks,

Reviews—Delesse & de Lapparent—Rerue de Géologie. 473

with a view of giving assistance to paleontological students and
workers, in avoiding errors and improving the nomenclature of the
science. Most of us must admit that much confusion exists in the
scientific nomenclature, as regards scientific and grammatical errors.
Synonymy is frequently overburthened by the impossibility of learn-
ing where species have been found, or what names have been given ;
besides which, many names have been formed in violation of the
recognized rules of language. On this latter point some errors are
pointed out, and useful rules are given for the formation of new
names in paleontology, and thus avoid the occurrence of malformed
words and barbarous terms, some of which, too long current to be
now withdrawn from circulation, will serve as memorials, fossil
relics, to show to future times the freaks of linguistic development
in the early days of Paleontology.

The introduction which follows is devoted to stratigraphical
geology, and the author gives a concise account of the successive
geological formations and their equivalents in North America, from
the Archzean to the Permian inclusive, with an estimated thickness
of 28 miles, all of which is known to be fossiliferous, except about
three miles at the base. In the Catalogue, which occupies more than
200 pages of the work, the genera and species are arranged in
alphabetical order under the following great divisions, Plante,
Protista, Radiata, Mollusca, Articulata, and Vertebrata; the sub-
kingdoms are again divided into classes, orders, and families; so that
the zoological position of the genera mentioned in the different lists
may be found. The mode of arrangement is simple but useful, the
names of the authors, dates, place of publication, groups of rocks in’
which the species are found, are given, as well as the etymology and
signification of the words, as in the following:

CaLyMENE, Brong. 1822, Hist. Nat. Crust. Foss. [Ety. Hekalymenos concealed]
Plaustbacht, Brong. 1822, Hist. Nat. Crust. Foss. Niagara group [Ety. proper
nhame |.

By this publication Mr. Miller has conferred a benefit on
geologists, in showing the nature and extent of the North American
fauna, and thus enabling them more readily to compare it with that
of Europe. : J. M.

I.— Revue DE GéoLociE, pouR LES ANNEES 1874 mur 1875. Par
MM. Detessz er pe Lapparent. (Paris, 1877.)

HE publication of the thirteenth volume of the French Geo-
logical Record contains the progress of Geology and the allied
sciences for the years 1874-75, as shown by numerous papers and
books published during that period, and of the contents of which
fair and useful abstracts are given. Independently, however, of
published works, the editors of the “ Revue” have further rendered
their work more valuable by notices of the maps and unpublished
documents shown in the International Exhibition of Geography at
Paris, and by the insertion of numerous private communications
from French and other geologists. Besides these, many analyses of
rocks are given, which have been made either in private laboratories

474 Reports and Proceedings—

or in those of the School of Mines or other public institutions, and
also notices of all the new researches on the metamorphism and
modifications of rocks. The work is compiled with the same care
as the previous volumes, and reflects much credit on the pains taken
in rendering in a condensed form the notices and abstracts so very
useful and instructive; for, without this aid, it would be impossible
for any ordinary student to become acquainted with the wide range
of geological literature. The subjects are systematically arranged
under lithological, historical, geographical, and dynamical geology,
besides notices of general works on the subject. Some attention is
also given to memoirs on economic geology, and a neatly-executed
coloured map is given by M. Delesse. This map, designed M. Ae.
Babinski, although on a small scale, shows in a simple and striking
manner the agricultural resources of France, and the relative values
of the different districts, and the distribution of the vineyards,
commons, and forests. J: M:

ISP S(@usgslts) /AINpPID) ISssyO Osta ID ALIN] Er -
oe Sa

“On the Geological Significance of the Boring at Messrs.
Meux’s Brewery, London.” By Robert A. C. Godwin-Austen,
F.R.S., V.P.G.S., ete. Read before the British Association at
Plymouth (Section C.).

The author commenced by pointing out that it was very generally
known that this undertaking, after passing through a great thickness
of Chalk, met with a very insignificant representative of the sands
‘which underlie the Chalk in the south-east of England, thence at once
passed into strata which, by characteristic fossils, were identified as
Paleozoic, and of Upper Devonian age. ‘This was just as had been
anticipated as to the absence of any portion of the Oolitic series there,
and confirmed what many years since had been supposed to be the
subterranean structure of the South of England; indeed, it might
fairly be stated that geologists generally have been of opinion that a
band of Paleozoic rocks extended from Westphalia westwards, and
passed somewhere beneath the Secondary formation of the south-east
of England. ‘The importance of determining the course of such
Paleeozoic band was, that along the whole of the exposed part of its
course, as from its extreme eastern place to near Valenciennes, it
had dependent on it on the north the productive Coal-measures of
Westphalia, Belgium, and the North of France. From Valenciennes
westwards the Coal-measures were not exposed at the surface, but
were reached beneath the Chalk formation, and from,the underground
workings the relations of the several members of the Paleozoic series
were known to correspond exactly with those where the series were
exposed, as was the case, also, where it was again seen at the sur-
face in the Boulonnais, and at sundry other valleys of elevations
along the axis of Artois. The whole of the Coal-measures of Belgium
and North of France must be understood as occupying a trough
formed out of the older members of the great Paleozoic series, and
the explanation given of the preservation of this extended and

R. A. C. Godwin-Austen—The Boring at Messrs. Meux’s. 475

narrow band of coal-growth surface was, that it had resulted from a
contraction of the earth’s crust in a south to north direction at some
time subsequent to the completion of the Palaeozoic series (Coal-
measures included), whereby along the line a series of east and west
undulations were produced, in the deepest or most considerable of
which, portions of the coal-growth surfaces became included, so as
to be preserved during the subsequent periods of denudation of the
surface. From the consideration of the physical features of a line of
country of elevation, and disturbance, which crossed the Huropean
Continental area for 300 leagues, he had inferred that like results
were due to like causes here. The line of the Paleozoic strata having
been conjecturally carried alone close by where it has just been
met with; so it might reasonably be supposed that certain other
phenomena, which, in like manner, had resulted from the same
disturbances, should also correspond and serve for guidance. For
the present it had not been ascertained in what direction the highly
inclined Devonian strata at Tottenham Court Road were dipping
—a most important point in the considerations involved.

It might safely be supposed that, from position, any Palzeozoic
rocks at such place must be trending east and west, and the oc-
currence might seem to be an isolated fact, but for other inferences
which tended to give it importance. The 653 feet of Chalk strata
were horizontal, or with only a very slight north dip. The
Devonian strata gone through dipped uniformly at about an angle of
30 degrees. The section, therefore, corresponded exactly with those
of the North of France. In Belgium and the North of France it was
on the south side of the Paleozoic trough that the high inclines
occurred, as it happened along the whole line from Liége to Toulon.
On the north the beds were flatter, and spread out wider. From
this it might be supposed that it was the north side of the trough
which was hit upon by Messrs. Meux; and that it was a trough at
this place followed necessarily from the circumstance that the
beds so highly inclined were as low as the Devonian. Bearing
in mind that the whole of this part of Hurope they were now
considering formed part of the area over which the Devonian or
Lower Carboniferous series preceded, or was overlaid by the Upper
or true Carboniferous formations, and that when they occurred the
other followed everywhere, the fact of the inclination of the beds at
Tottenham Court Road involved this—that the higher formations
must soon follow the Mountain Limestone on the Devonian, and the
Coal-measures on the Mountain Limestone. This reasoning applied
equally, whether the Devonian strata at Tottenham Court Road might
be dipping north or south: but thus much had been ascertained, that
London just overlies the edge of a great Coal-field, and the prob-
ability was that the Coal-field was to the north. What seemed to
suggest that the Coal in this direction might have considerable ex-
tension was derived partly from a study of the geological features
of their own island, and partly from what was the case in Belgium.
It was dependent on what was the original form and extent of the
coal-growth surface, and in the places at which the greatest amounts
of contraction and subsequent denudation of the surface took place.

476 Correspondence—Rev. T. Gi. Bonney.

CORRESPONDENCE.

THE CORAL RAG OF UPWARE.

Srr,—In Messrs. Blake and Hudleston’s admirable paper on the
Corallian Rocks in England, “the well-known though very inacces-
sible exposure of Corallian beds at Upware”’ does not appear to
have received from the authors such careful study as those in other
localities. They state that in the northern quarry the beds “ dip to
the south, or in an opposite direction to those of the Rag-pit, so that
there is a synclinal in which are found the Neocomian sands,” and
they give a “presumed section,’ in which the said sands are repre-
sented as so situated. Now this section is not confirmed by any
evidence known to me. The dip in the northern pit—so far as
there is any dip at all—is northward, not southward, probably a
little west of north. I verified this a few days since in the company
of three friends, all fairly accustomed to geological observation.
Further, any one who has watched the working of the ‘coprolite’
pits, knows that the Neocomian beds rest unconformably on the
Coral Rag, and thin out against the side of the ridge. The road
along its crest (if one may use the word), between the two pits,
nowhere crosses Neocomian beds. Two small shallow pits have
indeed been opened adjoining the road on the west side, a little less
than a quarter and half a mile respectively south of the northern pit.
These seemed to be still in the same rock as it; and thus in all
respects are unfavourable to the theory of a synclinal. The position
of the strata was given some years since by Mr. Keeping in this
Magazine (Vol. V. p. 272), and I have since examined several
sections confirming this one, with the exception that I have never
myself seen the Kimmeridge Clay exposed. Again, at the present time
there is a considerable patch of the base of the Gault laid bare, just
west of the south end of the Rag-pit, and perhaps four yards below
the crest of the limestone; that is, exactly where it should not be on
any theory of a synclinal. The stratigraphy is puzzling enough ;
but, so far as the evidence goes, it appears to me rather in favour of
the old theory of an anticlinal as represented by Fitton (‘Trans. Geol.
Soe., vol. iv. pl. xi.). The present authors may be right in assign-
ing to the rock of the northern pit a lower horizon than that of the
southern; but I have no hesitation in saying that the evidence at
present is only paleontological, and this is not strong.

The other matter is a personal one, and refers to their mention of
my own account of this district. I am well aware that in my
Geology of Cambridgeshire it was “ partially, but not very fully,
described,” because the book only professes to be a sketch for the
use of students. At the same time, when authors call attention to
an imperfection, one may fairly expect that they will considerably
augment our stock of knowledge. I venture to assert that the
questionable statement discussed above is the only material addition
contained in the paper on the Corallian rocks. The two accounts
are about equal in length, and contain as nearly as possible the same
facts. Again, the authors’ statement about the position which I

Correspondence—Mr. A. J. Jukes Browne. 477

assign to the Upware rock is, I think, so worded as to convey a
wrong impression. “He correlates it with the lowest portion of the
Corallian region, on account of its containing Cidaris florigemma, a
reason which would make us assign to it nearly the highest.” This,
coupled with the rest of the paragraph, and their use of the word
Corallian, would give rise, I think, to the supposition that I had
placed the Upware rock below the Coral Rag. On the contrary, I
take some pains to prove it to be Coral Rag, and the only support
for this statement is that, as I was contending against Mr. Seeley’s
attempt to place the bed in the Kimmeridge series, and as C. flori-
gemma was then supposed to characterize rather the lower part of
the Coral Rag, I point out that the affinities of the Upware rock are
downward rather than upward, so that it cannot even be paralleled
with the Continental Séquanien. It is true that, according to Messrs.
Blake and Hudleston, the position of the zone of C. florigemma is
less constant than it was supposed to be; but in reasoning on that
point, I used the best information to be obtained at the time, and the
change does not materially weaken my main position that the
Upware limestone is true Coral Rag, as the word was then under-
stood.

Sr. Joun’s CoLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. T. G. Bonney.

THE ORIGIN OF CIRQUES.

Sir,—In a recent number of the Gronocican MaGazine (p. 273),
Mr. Bonney has replied to the arguments adduced by Mr. Helland
in favour of the glacial origin of cirques (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,
vol. xxxili. p. 142), and has adduced many cogent reasons in support
of the explanation he has previously given, viz. “that the cirques
are mainly produced, by the combined erosive action of streamlets.”

May I be allowed to cite what I conceive to be an illustrative case,
occurring in a country which I have lately visited, and where it
would be difficult to discover any traces of ice action, but where the
erosive power of torrential rains is markedly exhibited? I refer to
Upper Egypt, and especially to that district lying between the valley
of the Nile and the Red Sea.

The eastern bank of the Nile above Cairo is bordered by a desert
plain, about three or four miles wide, and stretching up to the high
cliffs beyond, which rise into mountains some 600 or 700 feet high,
and form the range known as the Arabian chain. These cliffs are
furrowed by numerous deep gorges and valleys opening on to the
desert plain below, over which is spread out the detritus brought
down from the hills; for Egypt is not the rainless country it is
sometimes represented to be, and in winter-time rain falls occasion-
ally in quantity sufficient to convert these dry valleys into rushing
torrents; thus among the recesses of the bare and barren limestone
rocks, into which the valleys lead, signs of water-action are every-
where visible. A cirque in such a “land as this could hardly be
formed by any other agency than that to which Mr. Bonney attributes
them, and yet a very cirque-like hollow came under my notice while
exploring one of these ravines. I had ridden some distance along

478 Correspondence—Mr. A. J. Jukes Browne.

this, and, wishing to gain a better view of the country, I dismounted,
and ascended the steep slope which formed its northern side; I then
found myself on a flat-topped ridge looking down into three valleys
at once (as shown in diagram at A).

(ii

(ill

TYLA
\

ine

ee

Sy
\y

The watercourse I had been following (B) was cut off by a
wider and deeper valley, here making a magnificent curve; and on
my left was a deep, broad, and short hollow (C), only separated
from the same valley by a narrow ridge or knife-edge. Its sides
presented a succession of irregular steps, resulting from the weather-
ing of the hard and soft beds of the limestone; but these were
interrupted by numerous small channels and gulleys, and the heaps
of débris which choked up the bottom testified clearly to the mode
of its formation. Although evidently a rain-gorge, its cirque-like
form struck me at first sight, and the reason of its taking this shape
was easily perceived; having been cut backwards till a mere knife-
edge remained between it and the valley beyond, elongate extension
had become impossible, but the runlets which drained the flat-topped
heights on each side had so extended it laterally that its width was
already more than half its length. f

Now is not this very suggestive of the origin of other cirques ?
Mr. Helland finds a difficulty in the fact that the part of the crest
surrounding the cirque, and sloping to it, is so narrow that it cannot
feed even a small stream. Mr. Bonney has shown that he should
have said, “can only feed very small streams,” and with this cor-
rection the sentence would fairly indicate the very conditions which
I conceive to be essential to the formation of a cirque, viz. the con-
centration of small streams falling off a narrow mountain crest.

Mr. Helland himself says (p. 165): “The cirques which occur
isolated in the mountains are not essentially different from the
valleys which end in a cirque. .... They both occur in the same
way, except that the valleys are longer, their area being as much as
25 times as great as that of the cirques.” Surely he would not have
us believe that these valleys are likewise the result of glacial action ;
and if not the valleys, then why the cirques ?

Correspondence—Rev. O. Fisher. 479

In truth, as Mr. Bonney has pointed out, the cirque form is the
natural termination of a valley cut back far into the hills; and I
think it might almost be said that the farther a valley is carried
back amongst hard rocks, the more cirque-like does its termination
become; rounded hollows certainly do occur at the head of such
valleys, and these might even become broadly subcircular, if the
lateral streams happened to be stronger than the terminal.

Finally, are not cirques more rationally accounted for in this way,
than by crediting glaciers with the curious “tooth-drawing” pro-
pensity which Mr. Helland suggests, and thus investing them with
even more wonderful powers than have yet been claimed for them
by the most devoted glacialists ? A. J. Jukes Browne.

H.M. Grontogicat Survey, SPILspy.

FOREST-BED AT HAPPISBURGH.

Srr,—I am glad to see that a discussion has arisen in your pages,
which may lead to a more strict inquiry into the age and position of
the portion of a submerged forest at Happisburgh, or Hasbro. If I
recollect rightly, upon my first visit to Norfolk, Mr. Gunn took
me to the spot, and told me that the Forest-bed (meaning the pre-
glacial one) was usually to be seen open here, but only occasionally ~
so at other places on the coast. I at that time collected some fir-
cones from it.

At a subsequent visit I thought that the Boulder-clay passed under
it, although I could not perceive what the actual superposition was.
For I could trace the Boulder-clay to the edge of the foreshore, very
close up to the Forest-bed; and there was no indication of those
“laminated beds” of sand and gravel, which intervene between the
Cromer Forest-bed and the glacial series. I therefore concluded that
the deposit at Happisburgh was not a continuation of the Cromer bed.

Mr. Gunn, in a paper, which he read at Norwich in the spring of
1868, remarked upon this bed, and seemed to think it was not
exactly coeval with the Cromer bed, but belonged to an upper
portion of it, “which remained dry land on the partial submersion
of the subsiding forest.” He likewise referred to the absence of the
“laminated beds.” He also stated that ‘metatarsal bones of sheep
or the goat were discovered here by Mr. Wilham Haughton. The
elephants had at that period died off from the increasing cold.”
Now, the goat is not included in the list of mammals belonging to
the Cromer bed as given by Prof. Dawkins at p. 417 of the Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc.; nor I believe is it usually known to occur in
the earlier Quaternary formations. If then the determination of
that genus be correct, it is rather an argument on paleontological
grounds for a later date for the Happisburgh deposit.

It is of some importance that its true age should be settled,
because the vegetable remains from it have been much relied upon
as indicating the climate of the Cromer forest period, which possibly
may after all be different. Cannot the true relations of the “hard”
clay in which the trees are rooted be determined by digging a pit of
sufficient size, so as to find out on what the Forest-bed really rests ?

480 Obituary—Edward Wood.

It may be in your remembrance that J threw doubts upon the
preglacial age of this deposit in the paper which I read at the meet-
ing of the British Association at Norwich in 1868.'

Harton, CAMBRIDGE. O. FisHer.

GAS sr Iy O/A1s3 865

EDWARD WOOD, J.P., F.G:S.
Born May 24, 1808. Diep Aveustr 16, 1877.

WE regret to record the death of Mr. Edward Wood, of Richmond,
Yorkshire, President of the Mechanics’ Institute, and of the Rich-
mond Naturalists’ Field-club, of which he was also the founder.

For more than thirty years Mr. Wood devoted his best efforts to the
promotion of Natural Science, especially Geology, and he expended
considerable sums of money and much personal labour in forming
what is allowed to be the finest private collection of Mountain
Limestone fossils in England. Many of the Brachiopoda have af-
forded the types for Mr. Thomas Davidson’s splendid Monograph in

the Paleontographical Society’s publications. Prof. L. de Koninck,
- of Liége, has also figured many of his fine Carboniferous Crinoids,
the best of which, perhaps, has been named after its discoverer
Woodocrinus. To Mr. Wood’s liberality is due the foundation of a
Museum of Natural History in Richmond. For many years he
undertook the pleasant and instructive task, at his own charge, of
taking large parties of his fellow-townsmen to all the prominent
geological localities within fifty miles. In promoting education
among the young, Mr. Wood was always very active. In 1862, he
took 100 poor boys from Richmond to London, and at his own
expense conducted them daily to the Exhibition and elsewhere.

Mr. Wood was always most earnest and sincere in advocating the
cause of Science; for many years he endeavoured, by the intro-
duction of Science-lectures in his native town, to raise up a taste
for intellectual pursuits among his fellow-townsmen. His loss will
be greatly felt by a large circle of friends to whom he was endeared,
not so much perhaps on account of his scientific attainments, as for
his social worth and the kindliness of his disposition to all, even the
humblest of bis fellows.

Cotourine oF Ooxrtic Rocxs.—Mr. Judd has pointed out that
when dug at great depths or otherwise obtained at points where they
have not been exposed to atmospheric influences, all the Oolitic
rocks exhibit an almost uniform deep-blue tint, which is apparently
communicated to them by a diffusion through their substance of
small quantities of sulphide of iron.—H. B. Woodward, Geology of
England and Wales, p. 188.

Erratum.—tIn Mr. J. R. Dakyns’s article, August number, p. 349,
line 4, tnsert “seen” before ‘ above.”

1 See Grou. Maa. Vol. V. p. 544, and Brit. Assoc. Rep. Norwich, 1868.

Hage con ahs | i
Vaan

yithak,

pi ak

Aimer

Yt

fyi) Binh
RAY Ke ay
mat is} AN:

Geol. Mag.1877.

MAP
SHOWING

DRIFT AREA
AND BEARINGS OF

GLACIAL FURROWS.

| 25
0

Line of 600f* attitude.
wee Margin of Drift Area

\
70

75

0 | MEXICO

THE

GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE.

NEW) SERIES: DECADE Il. VOL. IV.

No. XI—NOVEMBER, 1877.

ORIGINAL ARTICLIES.
LEN, oF
J.—American “Surracre GEonoGy,” AND ITS RELATION TO Brivtsu.
Wit some Remarks on THE GuactaLt ConpiTions In Briratn,
ESPECIALLY IN REFERENCE TO THE “GREAT Ick AGE” or Mr.
JAMES GEIKIE.
(PART I)
By Srartes V. Woop, Jun., F.G.8.,
Illustrated by Two Maps and several Sections.!

(PLATE XV.)

ROM. no part of the world have we of late years derived more
additions to the Geological Record than from Norih America.
Besides important additions to the earliest pages of that record, the
rich coliections made by the United States Surveyors, both of fauna
and flora, from the Cretaceous, Hocene, and Miocene deposits, have
thrown much light upon the life history of the Earth ; and it is even
contended that they have bridged over the interval which, notwith-
standing the Maestricht beds, the Pisolitic, and the Faxoe Limestones,
still remains sharply marked between the Cretaceous and Tertiary
formations of Europe so far as they have yet been examined.

As regards those latest deposits, which, by adoption from the
Frenchmen, as other fashions are from the Frenchwomen, it has
become the fashion to call “ Quaternary,” * and which have received
of late years so large a share of attention from geologists, Americans
have not been behind their Huropean brethren in devoting to it
abundant investigation. Memoirs and notices by Principal Dawson
and others relative to the newer Geology of Canada have made us
familiar with the general features of the Glacial and post-Glacial
formations of the lower basin of the St. Lawrence, as have those of
Professors Dana, Winchell, and others, with similar features in
the United States, while recently * there has appeared, in the Report
of the Geological Survey of Ohio, a comprehensive memoir by Prof.

1 The map of Yorkshire with sections will appear with Part III.

2 Considering that the term “‘ Primary” had long become obsolete, and that the
term ‘‘ Secondary” was fast becoming so, we might have been spared the absurdity
of “‘ Quaternary.” However, as Crinoline has done so, I suppose, it will go out of
fashion in.time. The separation of Geology into “solid”’ and ‘“ superficial”’ officially
made by the late Director of the Geological Survey of England, and on the basis of
which the maps of the National Survey are to be delineated, is, to my mind, also an
absurdity; but in deference to the leaders of fashion, I have adopted the term of
‘Surface Geology”’ in the title of this paper.

3 The Surface Geology of Ohio, by J. 8S. Newberry (Columbus, 1874).

DECADE II.—VOL, IV,—NO. XI. 3l

482 S. V. Wood, jun.— American and British Surface- Geology.

J.S. Newberry, on the “Surface Deposits” of that State, and their
connexion with the general features of Glacial and post-Glacial
geology presented by the Central and Eastern parts of the North-
American Continent ; and from which the map of those regions that
accompanies this paper is taken. A discussion of the views of
American geologists occurs in the 55th chapter of the 2nd edition of
Mr. Geikie’s ‘‘ Great Ice Age,” and it seems to me that, in the present
condition of our knowledge, the leading facts of this Memoir of
Prof. Newberry may be usefully epitomized, and examined, in the
way of analogy with those observed concerning our English Glacial
and post-Glacial formations ; and I propose here to make the at-
tempt to do so.

Commencing with the oldest Glacial evidences in North America,
Prof. Newberry describes the grooved and furrowed rock-surface,
which is to be traced as far south as the 39th parallel of north lati-
tude, and the extent and direction of which are indicated by the
arrows on the map. This evidence of the occupation of the Eastern
side of North America by glacier-ice is not confined to the basin of
the St. Lawrence, but extends in the State of Ohio over the water-
parting of the two great basins which receive the drainage of the
central part of North America east of the Rocky Mountains; that is
to say, it extends on to the northern edge of the basin of the Missis-
sippi. These scratchings and groovings, though having a general
north and south direction, nevertheless conform, according to Prof.
Newberry, in a rude way to the present topography, and follow the
directions of the great line of drainage. ‘'T’o the action of this ice
when the continent stood several hundred feet higher than now,
Prof. Newberry attributes the excavation of the basins of the great
lakes, as will be further on described.

1. The oldest of the surface deposits is the Hrie clay (No. 1), the
origin of which Prof. Newberry attributes to the action of this sheet
of glacier-ice during the period of its retirement before returning
warmth, after the continent had become depressed 500 feet or more
below its present level, and when the basin of the great lakes
became, as this ice receded, occupied by an inland sea of freshwater.

He does not explain how, if the continent were depressed 500 feet
below its present level, this basin could be occupied by freshwater,
seeing that such a depression would bring all but the upper edges of
the basin below the sea-level ; nearly all the area of the basin of the
St. Lawrence, as well as a large part of that of the Mississippi, in-
clusive of the water-parting of the two basins, being, according to
the map which accompanies the Professor’s Memoir and is repro-
duced here, below the 800-feet line. I presume, however, that he
considers the sea to have been dammed out by a mass of the glacier-
ice left remaining and filling the lower and narrow part of the St.
Lawrence Valley, which lies several degrees of latitude further
north than Ohio; but if so, there must have been an equal re-eleva-
tion of the continent before the growth of the forest surface (bed
No. 2) over the Hrie clay, because the warmth necessary for that
growth must have thawed the dam and let in the sea, an event of

S. V. Wood, jun.—American and British Surface- Geology. 488

which there seems no evidence, the only fossil organisms which
occur in the deposits of the lake-basin being those of land or fresh-
water. So far as I can understand the case, however, there seems to
me no necessity to infer any depression until after the formation of
beds Nos. 1 and 2, as the phenomena indicated by these beds seem
explicable by returning warmth alone, and by the draining off of the
lake-waters after the deposit of No. 1; while the marine clays of the
Lower St. Lawrence, which, so far as I have been able to gather the
facts of American geology, alone afford evidence of any submergence
of the St. Lawrence basin, seem to me, as subsequently explained, to
belong to a later glaciation.

Prof. Newberry contends that the lower and unstratified portion
of the Hrie clay represents the material eroded by the glacier, which,
as the ice-sheet retreated northward, it thrust out and left behind ;
and which now forms a nearly continuous sheet of Boulder-clay over
the glaciated surface. He urges that this clay was not deposited
beneath the glacier-ice, because it covers the glaciated surface in a
sheet sometimes 100 feet thick, and that it must have accumulated
at the margin of the glacier as it receded. This, if we substitute the
sea in Britain for the lake in Ohio, is in chief measure, the mode of
origin for which I have for many years past been contending in the
case of the Glacial clay of England, as distinguished from Mr. James
Geikie’s view of its-origin beneath the ice itself.

There is one feature, however, connected, according to my view,
with the origin of the unstratified Glacial clay of England to which
I find no parallel in Prof. Newberry’s memoir, viz. the lifting of
portions of this extruded mass, and its distribution over the bottom,
partly from being dropped in small quantities, but principally in
sheets or masses. This seems to me to have been clearly the mode
of accumulation in the case of that part of the English clay which
overlies the Middle Glacial sands, as well as of some portion of that
part of the clay which has no Middle Glacial beneath it, but which,
as at Dimlington and Bridlington in Yorkshire, contains within
its mass beds of sand full of lamellibranchiate mollusca with
valves in some cases united. When, however, the vast area of the
American beds comes to be examined with the same minuteness as
has been the case with the comparatively small area of the British,
I do not doubt that parallel features will be found in them, unless
the water under which the moraine was extruded was too deep to
allow of this process.’

1 Tf, as some American geologists say, unstratified morainic clay has been found
overlying the forest surface im siti, then these would seem to me to be instances of
dropping from floating ice; for if the ice passed over the forest, it must have destroyed
it. Some of our Norfolk geologists are now coming to the opinion that the long-
known Forest-bed of Cromer is not ¢” si¢&, but transported; and if they are right,
the theories based upon the occurrence of peats and freshwater shells in the midst
of Glacial clay will require much reconsideration. This, however, does not apply
tothe Pakefield and Kessingland root-indented bed, which is clearly i sité. If
it should turn out that the Cromer Forest and freshwater deposits associated with
it are not zn situ, but stripped from some distant land-surface by ice, and transported,
analogy for such a thing may be found in some peaty masses which I have observed
mupeieed in the midst of the marine-formed Contorted Drift in the Cromer clitf
itself.

484 8S. V. Wood, jun.—American and British Surface- Geology.

Mr. Geikie insists on the purely terrestrial origin of all this un-
stratified Glacial clay, and urges his views in the “Great Ice Age”
with the amplitude for which a work specially devoted to the
Glacial formation affords scope. It is impossible to meet his various
contentions within the limits of a paper like this; but to insist, as
he does, that rock-basins and great valleys of erosion have been
excavated by the tremendous agency which is exerted by the
combined vertical and horizontal force of glacier-ice thousands of
feet thick moving over its bed, and at the same time to contend that
this ice can have passed over finely-stratified sands, such as the
Middle Glacial, pushing at the same time under it a thick moraine
of clay brought from a distance, without disturbing the stratification
in the slightest, does appear to me a most striking inconsistency.
We are reminded by it of the steam-hammer which forges a 100-ton
gun and cracks a nut without crushing the kernel; but glacier-ice
is not kept under the delicate control that a steam-hammer is. Not
only is the stratification undisturbed, but within very few feet of the
junction of this undisturbed stratified sand with the morainic clay
there occurs in several places, both in the Hast Suffolk cliff and in
sections inland, a band of molluscan remains, mostly fragmentary,
but containing intermixed with them an abundance of small papy-
raceous specimens of Anomia ephippium, and of the valves of Balanus,
sharp and unworn, both of which have evidently fallen from objects
floating in the sea. These small Anomie are so thin and tender that
in the fossil state in which we find them they exfoliate, and may be
blown into fragments by a strong breath; and in their living state
they must have been very fragile. Are we to suppose that glacier-
ice hundreds, nay, according to the extreme glacialists, thousands '
of feet thick passed over these sands, rolling its moraine as it pro-
gressed, without either distorting the stratification of such sands or
crushing the tender organisms within them which lie but very few
feet from the line of junction ?

This inconsistency becomes to my mind enhanced by Mr. Geikie’s
contention that the worn shells and shell fragments which occur in
some of the morainic clays, as, for instance, in the purple clay of
Holderness, the chalkless clay to the north of it, and in the Lanca-
shire clays. are due to the ploughing out of anterior (inter-Glacial)
sea-beds, and the intermingling of the ploughed-out shelly matter
with the land-derived moraine material; for how, if such things
occurred, could the sea-bed formed of the Middle Glacial sands to
which I have referred have escaped destruction if the glacier

1 In objecting in my paper, “‘ On the Climate Controversy,” in this Macazine
for September, 1876, to the extreme thickness assigned to the ice of Britain during
the Glacial period, I spoke of the existing Antarctic ice being at least 5000 feet
thick. In this I was led away by the instances of bergs of tabular form having
been met with in Southern seas which rose more than 500 feet or 600 feet above
the sea, given by Dr. Croll in his work on “ Climate and Time.” From the descrip-
tion of the Southern bergs, however, given by the Challenger Expedition, I do not
see how the Antarctic ice can at its sea termination much exceed 2000 feet, even if it
reaches that. It seems probable, however, so far as Greenland and Spitzbergen
disclose the case, that land-ice is of less thickness at the glacier terminations than
where it lies in greater masses further inland.

S. V. Wood, jun.— American and British Surface-Geology. 485

passed over it? The shells and shell-fragments, more or less worn,
which occur in these morainic clays, owe their presence in my opinion
to the alternate advance and recession (such as now in Greenland
occurs from century to century) of the glacier-ice along the sub-
marine valleys or fidrds, through which its escape to the sea took
place; by means of which the sea-bottom of these fidrds was
ploughed out and became mixed up with the moraine on the
advance of the ice, and, thus intermixed, was deposited where it is.

To the same action, I conceive, was due all that part of the shell-
bed contained in the upper layers of the Middle Glacial sands just
referred to which consists of worn shells and shell-fragments ; these
having been carried away by the currents when the ice advanced on
the submarine valleys, and been deposited in these sands in asso-
ciation with organisms fallen from floating objects. When the
glacier-ice receded, this ploughing-out ceased, and the moraine ac-
cordingly ceased to be intermixed with shell-fragments, portions
of it being carried away and dropped over these sands, while
the bulk of it remained as extruded during recession on the bottom
upon which the glacier had rested.

Different, however, to this must have been the conditions to which
the sand thread full of perfect valves of Nucula Cobboldie which is
present in the midst of the morainic clay near the foot of Dimlington
Cliff owed its origin; for in that case the only explanation seems to
be that the shells established themselves in a thin bed of sand
deposited on the submarine moraine, and were afterwards killed
and buried by the descent upon them of a sheet of the moraine
lifted from some other place. This bed or thread of sand with
shells was discovered by Prof. Hughes and Mr. Leonard Lyell,
during a visit made by them to the Holderness coast, in company
with Sir Charles Lyell; and in a memorandum sent to me with
the shells by Sir Charles, the thread of sand was described as
intercalated in the mass of the unstratified chalky clay, and packed
with perfect valves of Nucula Cobboldie and other shells, some of
them having the valves united. The position of this thread appears
to have been below, but near to, the beds of sand occupying hollows
in the chalky clay forming the lower part of Dimlington Cliff,
and which were distinguished by Mr. Rome and myself in our sec-
tions' by the letter b, and which are overlain by the purple clay,
also full of chalk debris in its lower part, but getting less and less
upwards till such debris disappears altogether from the clay. These
sand beds, 6, are very irregular, and in some places they are inter-
mixed with, and in others replaced by sheets of morainic clay,
which present the distinct appearance of having been dropped
successively. Mr. Geikie, in referring to the beds thus described
by Mr. Rome and myself under the letter 6, speaks as though
we regarded them as marking an interval in which the chalky

1 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxiv. p. 148; and Palewontographical Society's
volume for 1871; Introduction to Crag Mollusca, Supplement, p. xxv. They are
also shown in the section which accompanies the sequel of the present paper
under the letter 4,

486 8S. V. Wood, jun.—American and British Surface- Geology.

clay was converted into land and denuded, and then subsequently
depressed beneath the sea; but this view was only offered by us
as an hypothesis alternative to that which we regarded, and which
I still regard, as the true one, viz. a change in the source of the
morainic material due to the recession of the ice from the chalk
country, which the gradual diminution upwards in the overlying
clay of the chalk debris, and its eventual disappearance in the
uppermost portion, seemed to us to indicate. In many sub-
sequent references that I have made to the purple clay of York-
shire, 1 have invariably regarded it as one continuous deposit
with the chalky clay of Hast Anglia, and with the chalky clay
which, underlying the purple, forms the base of the Glacial forma-
tion of South-Eastern Holderness, and seems identical with that of
Hast Anglia. So far from being a separate deposit, this purple clay
with lessening chalk debris, forms, in my view, about the middle
portion of that one unbroken formation, the Upper Glacial, the
deposit of which took place mainly in the horizontal form, and of
which the chalky clay of East Anglia, and that forming the base-
ment clay of South-East Holderness, constitutes the earliest and
preceding part, and the chalkless clay of Holderness, into which
the purple clay with chalk passes up, and the clay of the more
northern counties, constitutes the succeeding parts. 3
Reverting to the case of morainic clay resting upon stratified
sands with marine shells, I would call attention to the evidences
which are available to show what kind of effect has actually resulted
from the action of glacier-ice upon strata softer than rock when
these formed the floor occupied by it. Thus in Norfolk we have
evidence of glaciers having occupied the valleys which were cut out
of the Lower Glacial and Crag beds down to the Chalk, and left
their moraine upon that formation as they receded.1 Where this
has occurred, not only is the Chalk beneath the moraine matter
altogether altered in character, having become a greasy marl, but the
lines of flint which it contains are ruptured, and forced violently
upwards, and crumpled together. This feature is most conspicuous
nearest the surface where the grinding pressure of the glacier on its
bed was most felt, and becomes less and less downwards until deep
down (in some cases not until a depth of twenty feet in this solid,
though altered, Chalk is reached) the lines of flint are found to
regain their undisturbed state. A representation of this action of
glacier-ice upon the Chalk at Litcham was given by me in 1866,
in a paper in the Quart. Journ. of the Geol. Soc.;? and in a
subsequent part of the present paper also I shall have occasion to
describe the action of an ice plough on sands in:the Yare Valley,

1 See paper by myself and Mr. Harmer on the later Tertiary Geology of East
Anglia, in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxiii. p. 74.

2 vol. xxii. p. 84. Instead of this action on the Litcham chalk having (as re-
presented in the paper quoted) taken place during the formation of the Contorted
Drift, I should now refer it to the time when, after the elevation of part of the
Upper Glacial into land, the inland-ice pressed on the west of Norfolk, as explained
in the sequel of the present paper; the bed J of the section in the paper quoted not
being, apparently, the Contorted Drift.

S. V. Wood, jun. American and British Surface- Geology. 487

which, where it did not sweep them out altogether, twisted them up
in a violent manner with other sands on which they had reposed.

Can any one contend in the face of this that sands would be left
undisturbed by glacier-ice moving over them with vast pressure ?

In deseribing the morainic chalky clay, of which the Upper Glacial
in Hast Anglia is formed, as having arisen in part from droppings, I
have, until now, spoken of the dropping agent having been bergs,
but it has since struck me that I have been to that extent in error.
I was led to this view because, while it seemed to me clear that the
morainic matter was dropped from floating ice, I was pressed by
the impossibility of floe (or sea surface-formed) ice attaching itself
to morainic material extruded in deep water.

In the case of this chalky clay, however, though the evidences of
its having arisen in part by the droppings of the material from
floating-ice are to my mind conclusive, yet we fail to find evidences
in it of the action of grounding berg, such as is so conspicuous in
the case of the Contorted Drift. At the same time the general bearing
of the facts connected with the accumulation of the chalky clay
seems to me to indicate that during it the sea in Hast Anglia was too
shallow to give rise to bergs, for these only break off where the water
is deep enough to buoy up and break off the glacier termination. It
is only some of the Greenland fidrds where the water is very deep
that thus give rise to bergs, for in others the glacier ending in shallow
water melts in the sea, and fills up the fidrd with its moraine.’

We must, I now think, infer that the agent by which this dropping
was accomplished was floe ice packed in winter around the glacier’s
termination which froze to the bank of morainic material at the
glacier’s foot, and so carried it away in sheets and masses during
summer.

Resuming now our examination and enumeration of American
Glacial phenomena, we find that the Erie clay, which in its lower
part is unstratified like the Upper Glacial clay of Hast Anglia and
of the North of England, and the Scottish Till, is similarly full of
rolled debris; and it is described by Prof. Newberry as passing up
in Ohio into laminated beds which he attributes to the deposit of
the finer material ground up by the glacier-ice and suspended in the
water of the basin. The interbedding of material ground up by
glacier-ice in ordinary mud in the form of streaks of chalky silt,
may be distinctly seen in the Contorted Drift of Cromer Cliff, as we
follow it north-west from Cromer towards Weybourne, that is to
say, towards the place where, during the formation of this Drift, the
glacier discharged into the sea. In the chalky clay (or Upper
Glacial) of Hast Anglia, owing, as it seems to me, to the shallowness
to which at that stage of the Glacial period the sea had in that
part of England become reduced, we do not encounter this feature ;

1 Brown, Journal of the Geographical Soe. for 1871, p. 351. Mr. J. W. Tayler,
also, in the same journal for 1870, p. 228, says that numerous fidrds in Greenland
have been so filled up by the moraines extruded by the glaciers, that boats hardly
find depth of water enough to ascend them, while one of the glaciers, that north of

Frederickshaab, which is 15 miles wide, and ends, not in a fidrd, but on the open
coast, has formed a beach at its base with the moraine it extrudes.

488 8S. V. Wood, jun.—American and British Surface- Geology.

but in Holderness, where the chalky clay passes up into the purple,
and where, as explained in the sequel, the water was deeper,
though not deep enough to form bergs, the morainic chalky clay
does seem to pass up, through an intermediate stage formed by
dropped sheets of morainic matter, into clay of the character which
Prof. Newberry describes the upper portion of the Erie clay to
be; for though it is not usually laminated, it is full of lenticular
beds of sand, and to my eye presents the appearance of a clay
formed by marine deposit from the ground-up material of a glacier
carried away in suspension, and accompanied by copious droppings
of rock debris from floating ice (see the clays ¢ and d, with lenti-
cular beds of sand and gravel, c’ and d/ therein, shown in the sheet
of sections accompanying the sequel of this paper).

On the Canadian highlands, where the material acted on was
harder, and where free drainage, as he calls it, washed away the
finer portions, this clay, Prof. Newberry says, is largely replaced by
gravel-sands and boulders. As the gravel-sands of these highlands
could not, however, have been accumulated until the glacier-ice had
receded from thence so as to give place for their deposit, we seem
to have here a formation of Hskers and Kames, such as is discussed
further on. If the gravels of these Canadian highlands occupy, as I
imagine they do, elevations above the Erie clay, and also above that
to which the submergence under which the Leda and Champlain
clays accumulated reached, it seems to me that they must be Eskers
or Kames formed by the melting of the glacier-ice when it ceased
to discharge its moraine beneath the Atlantic, and beneath the
lake waters, and had receded to these highlands. If, however, they
be not thus referable to Kame and Esker origin, or if they contain
marine organisms, they would, perhaps, answer to the Mountain
(Moel Tryfaen) and high-level (Macclesfield) sands of England
and Wales, which represent the latest portion of the Upper Glacial
formation when the ice-sheet had wasted back to the mountain
peaks, and North-west Britain had assumed the condition of an
archipelago. Assuming them, however, not to be of marine origin,
but Kames and Eskers (which, as presently explained, is the form
assumed by the moraine when the recession of the ice takes place
subaérially), it seems to me that they must be the product, and
the latest product too, of the last glaciation to which the region
they occupy has been subjected; for not only would the ice in its
subaérial recession leave such beds, but it must, it seems to me,
have ploughed out and destroyed the formations of any previous
glaciation wherever it encountered them in its advance, and there-
fore up to wherever such subsequent ice reached.

Prof. Newberry observes that although the Erie clay occupies the
same relation to the glaciated rock-surface as do the “Leda,”
“ Champlain,” and “Glacial” clays of the Atlantic coast, there is
not sufficient evidence to connect them as exactly synchronous ;
but he considers that these Atlantic coast clays were formed in a
similar way to that of the Hrie clay; that is to say, during a subsi-
dence of the Hastern coast of North America when the Atlantic

S. V. Wood, jun.— American and British Surface-Geology. 489

waters in following the retreating glacier covered, and in part strati-
fied, the material ground up by it. In this view he (as do also
several American geologists) differs from Principal Dawson, who
has attributed the glaciation of the Atlantic coast to an Arctic
current carrying icebergs, instead of to glacier-ice, either solely or
in connexion with a following sea. It seems to me, however, as
explained presently, that though formed in the way Prof. Newberry
contends, they are more probably synchronous with the beds 3a,
presently described, or even to some extent with the Lake terraces,
or beds No. 4.

2. The formation which immediately succeeds the Erie clay in
Ohio is, according to Prof. Newberry, that of a terrestrial surface
indicated by forest-beds with logs and stumps, and sometimes up-
right trees, of which beds he gives many instances. This formation
(No. 2), or the deposits associated with it, contains the bones of
Elephant, Mastodon, and the giant Beaver, and it indicates, accord-
ing to the Professor, a climate somewhat colder than that now
prevailing in the same region, though some of the forest-remains of
Ohio contain a large number of plants still growing there.

With reference to this terrestrial surface, Prof. Newberry observes
that no certain proof has yet been detected in America of the return of
the glaciers to the area which they had before occupied and abandoned
after the intervention of a milder climate, such as is found in Europe.
Now the preservation of so considerable an extent of forest-grown
surface to the Hrie clay, that is, between the deposits No. 1 and those
presently to be described under the symbol 8a, seems repugnant to
such an oscillation of climate ; because this surface, and indeed the
Hrie clay itself, would, we must infer, have been ground out and
destroyed by any re-occupation of its former site by glacier-ice,' and
in such case the deposits which succeed it would all appear to
belong to that period which, having followed the retreat of the con-
fluent glacier-sheet in Britain and the elevation of this country from
its general submergence, English geologists have hitherto been
accustomed to call post-Glacial.

If, however, Prof. Newberry is right in regarding the glaciation
which gave rise to the Erie clay as having taken place when Ohio
stood 500 feet and more above its present level, and the beds which
succeed the forest-surface as having been accumulated when the
same area was depressed to as great or even greater depth below that
level, this difference of altitude (1000 feet) may have so reduced the
second glaciation as to prevent the re-occupation of the Erie clay
area in Ohio by glacier-ice, notwithstanding the return over the earth
-1 This, as described further on in the present paper, has been the case with the
Lower Glacial deposits in England. Mr. Geikie seems to see no difficulty in glacier-
ice passing over forest-surfaces without destroying them, although to such ice is
attributed the excavation of great valleys and rock-basins, but I do not believe in the
possibility of such a thing, the two resulting actions appearing to me irreconcilable
with each other. According to Prof. Dana the thickness of the ice which passed
over the northern part of the United States was 6000 feet, exerting a pressure of
300,000 lbs. to the square inch, while it was double this on the watershed between

Canada and Hudson’s Bay. I am, however, very sceptical of these vast thicknesses
of ice anywhere.

490 8S. V. Wood, jun.—American and British Surface- Geology.

generally of conditions as frigid as those which prevailed during the
first glaciation. On the other hand, if there never was anything
more than such a limited depression of the St. Lawrence basin as
sufficed to bring the Atlantic waters over those parts which are
covered by the Leda, Champlain, and other marine clays of the coast
districts (and I fail to see how there could have been more), we
should not find this explanation of difference in level available as
an explanation, but be driven to infer that the glaciation to which
the beds overlying the forest-surface were due was a minor one; so
that the ice did not reach to its former position, but damming up the
lower valley of the St. Lawrence (which lies in several degrees higher
latitude than Ohio), it filled the lake-basin with the waters produced
by its dissolution, over which drifted the ice from whose droppings,
and from the mud and gravel taken up by currents from the glacier
discharge, these beds appear by Prof. Newberry’s description to be
made up—beds which possess very much the physical character of
the Contorted Drift of Cromer, without its included marl masses, as
well as of the purple clay of the district near Flamborough Head
which is shown in the sections accompanying the sequel of this
paper under the letter d.

3. The beds thus overlying the forest-surface in Ohio consist,
according to the Professor, of clays, sands, and gravels of various
kinds, sometimes containing boulders as well as having boulders
extensively scattered over them. These beds, to which I have already
referred under the symbol 38a, he considers were deposited by the
lake-waters while the Canadian highlands were occupied by glacier-
ice, from which bergs breaking off drifted over the lake-basin and
scattered blocks. .

Looking at the general group of facts affecting the American
region as described by Prof. Newberry, and at the general facts with
which a long study of the English beds have made me familiar, I
strongly incline to the belief that both in America and in Europe
there have been two glaciations only ; one, the greater, during which
the beds that I term glacial were accumulated, and when Britain
underwent its general submergence; and the other, the less, which
was subsequent to the general emergence of this country, but oc-
curred while the South of England was still partially submerged, and
the North of England and South of Scotland had undergone partial
resubmergence, and during which the older part of the beds that I
term post-Glacial were accumulated. I think that if we take into
consideration the greater height of the glacier generating land in
Britain over that in Canada, this minor glaciation bears the same
proportion to the major in both countries; for the Canadian _high-
lands forming the northern lip of the St. Lawrence basin, and on
which, according to Prof. Newberry, the ice terminated and sent off
its bergs during the accumulation of the beds 35a, lie between ~
latitude 45° and 50°, which is at least 5° of latitude short of that
to which the grooved rock-surface of Ohio shows the glacier-ice
giving rise to the Hrie clay had reached. In Britain there is not
this difference in latitude between the limits of the major and minor

S. V. Wood, jun American and British Surface- Geology. 491

glaciations, and it seems to be still less in Switzerland, because both
countries are more mountainous than Canada, and the conditions are
therefore in this respect not parallel; but the similarity is to be dis-
covered in the circumstance that the glaciers of the minor glaciation
were in Britain nonconfluent (to any great degree at least), while
in America the confluent sheet which they formed was arrested on
the Canadian highlands instead of reaching to the centre of Ohio, as
the confluent sheet of the major glaciation had done.

Inasmuch as during its greatest extension the ice in Britain did
not reach much, if any, south of the 52nd parallel, while in Hastern
North America it reached to the 39th, it seems clear that the marked
difference in climate between the two regions which now exists, and
is due to the influence of the Gulf Stream and the action of the
prevalent winds, existed in a similar degree during the major glacia-
tion; and we are assured by American geologists that in a similar
way the existing preponderance of winter cold in Eastern North
America over that in Western, which now obtains, obtained also
during the Glacial period, as the evidences of glaciation have not
on the Pacific coast been detected much if at all south of the 49th
parallel. These appear to me to be very pregnant facts indicative
equally of the cosmic origin of the Glacial period, and of the
inapplicability of the Excentricity theory of Dr. Croll to its explana-
tion ; because, by the express statements of its author, the influence
of excentricity would be inoperative on climate were it not for its
effecting a complete diversion from Western Europe of the Gulf
Stream, and its similar operation upon the great currents of the
Pacific and other oceans, as well as the prevalent winds.

An identity of character between the vegetation which intervenes
between the Erie clay surface and the beds 8a, and that now grow-
ing in the same region, would, if free from question, be of great im-
portance, because so much uncertainty attaches to the evidence
afforded by mammalian remains upon the question of climate; some
geologists contending that we are entitled to infer from the presence
of certain of these mammalia, especially the Hippopotamus, a period
of warm or at least temperate climate; while others insist that
mammalia adapt themselves so easily to all climates that they furnish
no reliable evidence upon the question; and they endeavour to get
over the difficulty of the Hippopotamus inhabiting a country whose
rivers would have been thickly frozen over during winter, under
conditions of climate much short of glacial, by attributing to this
animal migratory habits like those of the Reindeer and Musk Ox,
notwithstanding that in its living state it, and indeed, I believe, all
Pachydermata, show, as far as known, no migratory disposition at all.
Tn the case of a flora, however, to a great extent identical with one
still growing on the same region, no such uncertainty could, I think,
arise; and if, therefore, in the interval between the Erie clay and
the beds 38a we got such a flora, we could hardly deny the interven-
tion of a temperate climate; and were such an established fact in
American geology, it would furnish a strong support to the case of
a similar interlude between those two glaciations of major and minor

492 8.V. Wood, jun. American and British Surface- Geology.

extent, of which I consider the English formations to afford evidence.
Prof. Newberry, however, observes that most of the forest inter-
vening between the Erie clay and the beds 8a was Coniferous, and
that as it includes the Cedar and Cranberry, it may be regarded as
indicating a climate somewhat colder than the present; for it is not
clear that the forest-beds which yield so many of the plants which
still grow in the same localities, and which could not have grown
if the climate had been much colder, are of the same age as are those
found intervening between the Erie clay and the becs 3a.!

It should, however, be borne in mind that if the forest-beds thus
intervening be in sité, a great amelioration must, it seems to me,
have ensued ; for unless the ice had completely thawed out of the
lower valley of the St. Lawrence, which lies in several degrees
higher latitude than Ohio, the lake-basin could not have been laid dry
so as to support a forest growth; because an amelioration sufficient
only to release the Ohio portion of the basin from the glacier-ice
indicated by the Erie clay, and by the striated surface down to
latitude 89°, would have only brought about those conditions which
are described by Prof. Newberry as giving rise to the beds 8a, and
which I have attributed to the return of a minor glaciation; viz. the
filling of the Ohio lake-basin with freshwater instead of the for-
mation of a land-surface. Moreover, how could the lake-basin have
again become filled with freshwater after a land-surface, unless a
return of glacial conditions took place, minor in degree, but sufficient
to dam up the lower valley of the St. Lawrence with ice ?

Whatever may prove to be the case, however, as to the nature of
the terrestrial climate which preceded the minor glaciation, I think
that we have in some parts of North-Western Europe evidences of a
warmer marine climate during a very late geological period, than
that which now exists in the same region as specified in the sequel.

Besides the beds 3a, Prof. Newberry describes certain gravels form-
ing hills and mounds upon the water-parting which in Ohio divides
the drainage flowing to the St. Lawrence from that flowing to the
Mississippi. These gravels, which, in order not to dissever them from
Prof. Newberry’s sequence of deposits, we will call 30, he regards as
similar to Kames and Eskers as they are called in Scotland and Ire-
land; and they are attributed by him to the action of shore-waves
among low islands and shallows, in which condition the highlands
of Ohio were at the time when, during the formation of the clays
with boulders (8a), North America underwent, he considers, a sub-
mergence so great that the sea overflowed the water-parting between
the St. Lawrence and Mississippi basins.

I am unable, however, to understand why, if the sea overflowed

1 Tt must not be, however, forgotten that the doubts which are being raised as to
whether the Forest-bed of the Norfolk coast is ém situ apply with greater reason to
the forest-beds over the Erie clay which appear to have been only encountered in
sinkings, and therefore not open to so rigorous an examination as the Norfolk forest ;
so that if the latter should turn out to be a land-surface ploughed off and removed
by the agency of ice, it would be difficult to resist a similar explanation for the Ohio
forest-bed ; and in such case the beds 3a would probably prove to be only a con-
tinuation of the Erie clay formation itself.

S. V. Wood, gun.—American and British Surface-Geology. 493

this water-parting, and so invaded the lake-basin, some marine
organisms do not occur in the deposits of that basin. Not only does
Prof. Newberry make no mention of any such, but Mr. Hinde, in a
paper in the Canadian Journal for April, 1877, insists that none but
land and freshwater organisms have occurred in them. It seems to
me, therefore, in the absence of better explanation, that the gravels
thus occupying the Ohio water-parting are not of marine origin, but
have come into existence in a different way altogether, viz. :

Not having seen the Kames and Hskers of Ohio, or even those of
Ireland, I of course can only form my opinion by analogy; but:
those of Scotland I have seen throughout most of the Highlands of
that part of Britain, and on both sides of them as far north as
Inverness; and it appears to me that Mr. Jamieson’s view of their
origin, from the melting subaérially of ice which formed in the
mountain districts of Scotland posterior to the emergence of our
island from its great depression, is the correct one. Not only so,
but nothing to my mind is more confirmatory of the view for which
Prof. Newberry and I contend of Glacial clay, or Till, having had
a submarine origin, than the contrast afforded by this Esker and
Kame drift. When a glacier terminates in the sea, or a lake,
the moraine material extruded and left behind by it in its recession
is only washed out into gravel where it is subjected to current
action. This action is exceptional, and may perhaps be induced
by the outflow here and there of streams of freshwater from beneath
the ice. In whatever way, however, the currents be caused, the
formation of gravel during morainic extrusion with submergence
seems to me to be partial, and the great, bulk of the material to be
accumulated in the unwashed form, because nearly all the glacier-
ice is either carried away piecemeal from the termination of the
glacier in the form of bergs, to dissolve elsewhere, which is the
case where the water is deep enough; or else it wastes imperceptibly
away into the sea that washes the glacier, which is the case where
the glacier terminates in water too shallow to give rise to bergs.
When, however, the glacier ends short. of the sea, 7.e. on land, these
conditions are reversed ; for all this ice dissolves in the glacier itself,
and pouring from beneath it as water forms a torrential river, wash-
ing out the moraine material into gravel, which the glacier as it
recedes leaves in heaps and ridges, while the muddy particles are
carried off in suspension by the river. Thus, it appears to me that
the unfossiliferous gravel which forms the principal part of the Drift
of the Scottish Highland valleys arose from the melting back sub-
aérially of the nonconfluent glaciers of the Hessle period. This
period I contend was one of limited re-submergence which, reaching
its maximum during the deposit of the Hessle clay, was confined
to the northern parts of Britain. It is also the period, as it seems
to me, during which the Glenroy roads were formed; and I observed
that near the sea or the great lochs in the southern extremity of the
Highlands, the moraine material consisted principally of gritty
Boulder-earth, and at the northern extremity, as about Inverness,
it passed downwards into similar earth; while in the higher valleys

494 S§.V. Wood, jun.—American and British Surface- Geology.

of the Highlands the Drift was entirely of Kame character, 1.e.
gravel with boulders, though Boulder-earth covers the mountain
sides up to great elevations. Assuming, therefore, that the north of
Britain rose from its limited submergence during the Hessle period,
and before the glaciers occupying the valleys of the mountain
districts had wholly melted back, and then, after its elevation, that
this melting back took place subaérially, we seem to me to get an
explanation of much of the complex and seemingly conflicting
phenomena of that region; for in the higher valleys which the
limited post-Glacial submergence was insufficient to bring down to
the sea-level, the valley drift would be all of this character, while
in the lower valleys, especially towards their seaward terminations,
the lower part of the Drift would be principally unwashed moraine,
and the upper part of it washed Kame gravel.

Applying this now to the case of Ohio, and assuming, for the
reasons given previously, that no depression of that part of the con-
tinent took place until after the growth of the forest-surface (2),
which rests on the Erie clay, it appears to me that when the ice-sheet
to which Prof. Newberry attributes the Hrie clay reached to and
rested on the water-parting between the St. Lawrence and
Mississippi basins, where these Esker and Kame gravels are found,
and where the grooved rock-surface attests the former presence of
the glacier-sheet, its dissolution was all subaérial; and the water
resulting from it escaped into the Mississippi valley, so that the
resulting moraine. was washed out into Kames and Hskers; but
that so soon as it wasted back from the water-parting, and into the
St. Lawrence basin, the melting of the ice began to form a lake, and
this washing out of the moraine ceased. The moraine then extruded,
being all left subaqueously, retained its original unwashed form of
Glacial (Erie) clay, similar in character to the Upper Glacial clay of
England, which was left beneath the sea by the retreat of the ice-
sheet during the general submergence of Britain. If this view be
sound, the age of the Ohio Kames and Eskers which, following the
sequence assigned to them by Prof. Newberry, I have called 36,
would really be that of the oldest portion of the Ohio Glacial series,
viz. coeval with the Hrie clay (No. 1), of which they would con-
stitute in the horizontal sequence of Glacial deposits the earliest
portion.!

The occupation of the Canadian highlands by an ice-sheet sub-
sequently to the growth of the forest over the Erie clay seems to me
to conspire with the evidence afforded by the recent character of
the mollusca of the Leda, Champlain, and other marine clays of the
lower basin of the St. Lawrence, and Atlantic coast, to show that

1 Prof. Newberry observes that only patches of the Erie clay occur on the water-
parting which is the region of these Kames, and in the details of sections that he
gives, these Kame gravels do not rest on the Glacial deposits, but on the rock-surface.
Mr. Geikie, in the second edition of his “‘ Great Ice Age,” similarly suggests that
the Ohio Kames were due to the action of water flowing from the glacier-ice when
it reached to the centre of Ohio, but he does not of course recognize such a distinc-
tion as I have endeavoured to draw between the deposit formed by the subaérial
extrusion of the moraine and that formed by its subaqueous extrusion.

S. V. Wood, jun.—American and British Surface-Geology. 495

these marine clays belong to a later glaciation than that to which
the Hrie clay owes its origin; because I cannot, as I have already
observed, conceive that with such vast erosive power as is attributed
to glacier-ice any deposits of prior Glacial age could survive its
destructive agency, so far as it extended. In the case of the older
Glacial beds of Hast Anglia they remain undestroyed, it seems to
me, only so far as the subsequent ice giving rise to the Middle and
Upper Glacial formation did not extend. The depth of the water
under which the Lower Glacial of Hast Anglia accumulated renders
it difficult to conceive that this formation did not extend north and
west of the limits to which it is now restricted; and it must have
extended either in a marine or terrestrial form as far northwards
as the ice to which it owed its origin wasted back or deflected; so
that when we combine the absence of any formation representing it
in the North of England with the Crag-like character of the mollusca
of its basement sands, it seems but reasonable to regard this earlier
part of the Glacial series as having been largely destroyed by the
subsequent advance upon it of the ice.' Now there is an absence
from the marine clays of the Lower St. Lawrence basin, and of the
Atlantic coast, of any species of mollusca but such as still occur in
a living state either in the Atlantic or in the Arctic sea immediately
north of it,” while there are Crag forms in the English older Glacial
beds, which are not known as living at all; and others, which,
if living, are only represented by species known as such in
the North Pacific; and two of these, as, e.g. Nucula Cobboldie, and
Tellina obliqua, range in our Upper Glacial clay up to what I regard
as about the middle place in its horizontal accumulation, viz.
Dimlington Cliff base, and Bridlington. This leads me to think
that the marine clays of the Lower St. Lawrence and of the Atlantic
coast were deposited during the time of the later or minor ice-sheet
which gave rise to the beds 8a of Ohio. Mr. Geikie also in his
second edition refers these clays to the later part of the Glacial
period as defined by him, which corresponds with what I call post-
Glacial.

Besides the beds above described, and those yet to be. mentioned
under the number 4, there is the great Bluff formation or Loess of
the Mississippi valley, described by Sir Charles Lyell in the succes-
sive editions of his well-known works, and in which at Natchez he
mentions the occurrence of a human pelvis.

This formation Prof. Newberry regards as the silt brought down
by the rivers which form the Mississippi drainage system when in
flood, and spread out over the great valley as the sea by the eleva-
tion of the continent receded from it, the chief contributor being the
Missouri with its affluents. There is, he says, evidence that the
lower part of the valley near New Orleans was depressed nearly

1 The line up to which this formation, and also the Middle Glacial and earliest
part of the Upper, have been destroyed by the subsequent ice is defined in a note to
the sequel of this paper.

2 This, at least, is my impression, from the works to which I have had access. If
the facts are otherwise, then my argument to that extent fails,

496 8. V. Wood, jun.—American and British Surface- Geology.

1000 feet below the sea-level; and as this must have brought the
sea very high up the valley, its recession was a long affair, and the
mud of the Blutf formation consequently represents the long period
of this recession which its outspread accompanied, the portions at
higher elevations being the oldest. He adds that this submergence
brought the waters of the Gulf of Mexico up the valley of the
Mississippi until the sea covered all the lower half of Ohio; and
that it was during the maximum of this submergence, and during
the acccumulation of the beds 8a, that the action of the shore-waves
formed the Kames and Hskers which occur on the watershed be-
tween the two basins; but, as I have before observed, if the sea had
thus overflowed the water-parting, we are met with the difficulty
that the waters of the lake-basin would have become salt, of which
no evidence is offered. Neither does Prof. Newberry offer us any
evidence of marine organisms to prove the occupation of the upper
parts of the Mississippi valley by the sea. He describes certain
clays with sands and gravels, which, occurring in Southern Ohio,
belong to the deposits of the Mississippi basin ; and these, he says,
overlie a forest growth, which seems to be a continuation of that
which, lying within the St. Lawrence basin, occurs over the Hrie
clay, and appear to be identical in age with the beds 3a. The
relation which these clays, etc., bear to the Bluff formation of the
Mississippi, he does not point out with sufficient clearness to enable
me to apprehend precisely his view about them, but so far as I can
gather from his memoir (p. 87), he regards them as the equivalent
of that formation. If, however, the depression about New Orleans
was coeval with that to which the marine clays of the Lower St.
Lawrence and of the Atlantic coast are due, the Bluff formation
would seem to have begun before this. Looking at the subject in
the whole light afforded by the examination of the Glacial features of
the St. Lawrence basin, as described by Prof. Newberry, it seems to
me that the Bluff formation of the Mississippi valley must represent
both the Glacial and the post-Glacial periods, and have commenced
as far back at least as the Erie clay. Indeed, if the suggestion that
the Kames and Eskers of the water-parting between the two basins
in Ohio originated from the subaérial dissolution of the ice of the
first sheet, when it rested there before shrinking back into the St.
Lawrence basin, and forming a lake, be sound, the finer mud carried
off by the water in forming such Hskers and Kames must have
found its way into the Mississippi valley, and contributed to the
material of the earlier part of the Bluff formation, whatever sub-
mergence the Mississippi valley underwent having been confined
to its lower or Gulf extremity.’

1 In reference to this suggestion it would be interesting to learn to what extent
rock-fragments have been found in the Mississippi valley which can be identified
with rocks ¢m situ in the St. Lawrence area. Prof. Newberry speaks of large
quantities of gravel and boulders having been carried through the waste weirs,
penetrating the water-parting, and deposited in lines leading towards the valley of
the Ohio, so that I infer such rock-fragments of lake-basin origin do abound within
the limits of the Mississippi valley, and up to the line of Northern drift limit shown
in the map.

(Zo be continued in our next Number.)

J. Shipman—Bunter Conglomerate. 497

IJ.—ConGLoMERATE AT THE Base oF THE Lower KeEupeER.
By J. Surpman, Esa.

ECENT excavations for buildings on the east side of Notting-
ham have afforded opportunities for observing the true character

and development of the conglomerate at the base of the Lower
Keuper, which did not exist when this district was visited by the
Government Geological Survey. The fact that no fair equivalent of
the Muschelkalk of Germany has been met with in England lends
an interest to the beds at the junction of the Lower Keuper and the
Upper Bunter which they would probably not otherwise possess.
Thus the Geological Survey paid special attention to the scanty
exposures of this junction that happened to exist twenty years ago
in this part. The best section to be seen at that time, near Notting-
ham, was in a lane leading from the Mansfield turnpike road, a mile
north of the town, to the Mapperley Hills, and is thus described by
Mr. Aveline in his memoir on the Nottingham district (Sheet 71,
N.E.) :—‘‘ Near the bottom. of the lane there are beds of coarse
sandstone [Upper Bunter] slightly consolidated, with pebbles of
various coloured quartz, quartz-rock, and other sandstones. There
is no good bedding visible in this conglomerate, and lying on it
there are thin and regularly-bedded fine sandstones of a red colour.
This is the bottom of the Lower Keuper beds, and the line between
the two formations is well marked, there being an apparent uncon-
formity. There is about twelve feet of this red sandstone, and above
it three to four feet of soft red loam, then a thin bed of coarse light
sandstone, above this a bed of sand and marl, with some small
pebbles of quartz, then alternations of dark and light-brown soft
sandstone of various thickness, and red marly shale, which pass up
into the Upper Keuper red marly shale with thin beds of white
sandstone.” Between the Bunter conglomerate beds and the “ thin
and regularly-bedded fine sandstones” there comes a thin bed of
conglomerate encrusting the slightly eroded surface of the former,
which Mr. Aveline does not appear to-have noticed, or, if he did,
probably took it to form part of the Bunter. The only conglomerate
Mr. Aveline appears to have seen was some sixteen or seven-
teen feet above the base of the Keuper. This conglomerate, how-
ever, although traceable all over the Keuper area east of Nottingham,
consists of merely a few quartz-pebbles imbedded in yellow or
greenish-white sandstone, never more than eight inches thick, and,
unlike the conglomerate at the base, is not calcareous. It was not
until two or three years ago that, discovering the calcareous nature
of what had been always regarded as the top of the Bunter, I was
led to examine the junction at other spots. Since then the further
opening up of the ground along the line where the Keuper begins
to overlap the Bunter has enabled me to collect tolerably complete
data as to the development of the conglomerate in this neighbourhood.
It may be here mentioned that chemical analysis has shown that the
matrix contains a very large proportion of magnesia as well as lime.
Generally the conglomerate is found to occupy the slightly angular,

DECADE I1.— VOL. IV.—NO. XI. oe,

498 J. Shipman—Bunter Conglomerate.

or rounded, shallow cavities of an eroded surface of Bunter, and as
the Keuper reposes somewhat obliquely on the Bunter, there is an
unmistakable unconformity. The conglomerate is thickest at its
outcrop, and as it passes beneath the Keuper seems to lose some
of its compactness, and, in one spot I have seen, is represented by
pebbles stuck in a deep-red marly sand. Its usual development,
however, is in the form of a ferruginous compact crystalline band,
thickly studded with pebbles, and so hard that it is dreaded even
by navvies ; it varies in thickness between six inches and two feet,
and is sometimes swollen by lenticular beds of coarse bleached
sandstone as much as three feet thick. The most interesting ex-
posure of it about Nottingham existed, until lately, on the Hunger
Hill Road, and its character at this spot may be taken as fairly
typical of its fullest development. The conglomerate itself consisted
of pebbles, chiefly of quartz and quartz-rock, with fragments of
trap, volcanic ash, claystone, greenstone, slate, chert, bits of yel-
lowish limestone, permian magnesian limestone, and other rocks,
with a good deal of calcareous matter coating some of the pebbles,
in a ground-up form, and in minute crystals. Among the pebbles I
found what seems to have once formed the extremity of a sea-worn
pinnacle (for it was ribbed or fluted horizontally) of fine-grained
greenish Cambrian (?) sandstone. Resting on the conglomerate was
a thin bed of grit cemented into cakes by calcareous matter, then
about two feet of bluish-grey soft bleached sand, irregularly bedded,
but having a general slope at about 5°, and passing under the
Keuper. False-bedding was shown here and there, with partings
of strings of pebbles. In nothing but the absence of sea-shells did
these beds differ from recent raised beaches met with on sandy
coasts at the present day. The pebbles are all similar to those
found in the Upper Bunter, while the sandstone is evidently re-
deposited Bunter; so this conglomerate may possibly throw some
light on what happened in England during the interval between the

Lower Keuper, with the Conglomerate, resting on Bunter—Turner Street,
Nottingham.

(Reduced from a pen and fill sketch by the author.)

Bunter and the Keuper subdivisions. The manner in which this
conglomerate rests on the Bunter is well shown in the above sketch
taken from a section in Turner Street, N ottingham.

The conglomerate is surmounted by thin and thick bedded red

Rev. T. G. Bonney—Pitchstones and Felsites of Arran. 499

sandstone with marl partings. I have not attempted to trace this
conglomerate farther north than Red Hill, four miles and a half from
Nottingham. It is there seen, however, in a rather different form
to what I have described it at Nottingham. Mr. Aveline thus re-
fers to it :—‘* On the east of the road south of Red Hill may be
seen some thick beds of very coarse half-consolidated sandstone
of a yellow and reddish-brown colour, containing pebbles of quartz,
and on these lie beds of red sandy marl with bands of fine-grained
yellow sandstone; the lower coarse beds are the top of the Pebble
Beds, the others the bottom of the Lower Keuper Sandstone. A
few small pebbles occur near the bottom of the latter, but there
is a very apparent difference between the two series of beds.”
When I first visited this spot, following Aveline, I, too, regarded
the “thick beds” (about four feet thick) as Bunter; but on a
second visit, after a long and careful study of the Keuper con-
glomerate at Nottingham, my suspicions were aroused by the
striking resemblance between the thick beds studded with quartz-
pebbles and precisely the same deep-red half-consolidated sandstone
associated with the Keuper conglomerate, and a removal of the
vegetation shrouding the lower part of the section revealed a
compact ferruginous conglomerate, eight inches thick, below the
massive bed of sandstone, and separated from the Bunter—a coarse
yellow sandstone containing scarcely any pebbles—by about twelve
inches of soft red marl. Of course this coarse red sandstone con-
taining the quartz-pebbles was mapped as Bunter.

IjJ.—On Crrrain Rocx-Srructurses, as ILLusTRATED BY PitcH-
STONES AND F'ELSITES IN ARRAN.
By the Rev. T. G. Bonney, M.A., F.G.S. ;
Fellow and late Tutor of St. John’s College, Cambridge.

N a paper read on February 23rd, 1876, before the Geological
Society of London,! I endeavoured to prove that the peculiar
laminated or fissile structure, common in certain igneous rocks, was
due to contraction, like the associated ordinary joint-structures. In
the discussion which followed, an objection was made to my having
quoted certain phonolites from Auvergne, in support of my theory,
because it was well known that the fissile structure in the typical
phonolites of Hungary was due to change in mineral composition,
and so the result of a banded structure in the rock. That this was
not the case with those Auvergne phonolites, I had already convinced
myself by examination, both in the field and with the microscope,
and I had nowhere asserted that the only way in which rocks could
become fissile was by the particular cause which I had advanced ;
for, although I only knew the Hungary rocks from hand-
specimens, I was aware of a somewhat similar structure in certain
British rocks. I thought I remembered also one or two cases in
these where the fissile and the banded structure were co-existent and
independent, but as the criticism came from a quarter not to be

1 Q.J.G.S. vol. xxxii. p. 140.

500 Rev. T. G. Bonney—Pitchstones and Felsites of Arran.

neglected, I determined to re-examine these cases. This I have done

on occasion of short visits to Arran in the past and present year,

during which I have obtained materials which will, I think, further

illustrate this, and throw some light on other rock structures. The
points, then, upon which I shall touch in the present paper are the

relation (I.) of fissile and banded structures; (II.) of banded,

spherulitic, and perlitic structures.

I.—The Relation of Fissile and Banded Structures.

I may commence by an additional instance of platy and joint
structures. The great quartz-felsite' dyke on the Corriegills shore
south of Brodick affords an excellent example. The outcrop of the
dyke on the shore is about twenty yards wide, which probably cor-
responds to a vertical thickness of nearly ten yards; the base of the
felsite for about eight feet is traversed by a series of platy joints,
parallel to its surface, so that the rock splits up into tile-like pieces ;
above this a rude vertical prismatic jointing predominates. The
upper part again is platy for about six feet, and just at the junction
the jointing is very irregular, the platy structure seeming at one
place to change for a short distance into a direction at right angles
to the usual one. This is caused by the sudden predominance of a
set of vertical joints. On following up the central part of the dyke,
the joints curve considerably, as though they formed parts of the
faces of large irregular spheroids. A basalt dyke breaks through
between the base of the above felsite and the sandstone. It is, how-
ever, evident that the platy structure is not a true cleavage, due to
the pressure of the basalt, because it has evidently been disturbed by
the intruding dyke.* Hence it seems due to the mass cooling rapidly
but rather uniformly.

Great Pitchstone Vein, Corriegills shore-—This rock is rudely
columnar, but exhibits a predominating fissile structure top and
bottom, best developed at the latter, as well as a very faintly
indicated banded structure often only visible on weathered surfaces,
likewise parallel to the above surfaces, and perhaps most distinct
near them. We find, however, occasional distinct traces of a local
fissile structure in the columns, parallel to their faces, and some-
times the latter structure curves round and passes into the former.

Lower Pitchstone, Dunfion—This dyke well exhibits banded and
various fissile structures; the former being most marked in the
eastern part, the latter in the western; here the lamine run parallel
to the faces of long ellipsoidal joint-surfaces. These at one place
are crossed and partly obliterated by a set of wavy joints, so that
the rock is cut up into small rhomboidal pieces. Where the fissile
structure is best developed, there the cross-joints are least. Towards
the eastern end the divisional planes of the fissile structure curve
round, and really form parts of flattened spheroidal surfaces, and in
so doing cut the banded structure at high angles (Fig. 1).

1 Mentioned by Bryce, Geology of Arran, p. 72.

* The base of the felsite near the basalt has a vitrified appearance and has a faint
indication of banding.

Rev. T. G. Bonney—Pitchstones and Felsites of Arran. 501

Pitchstones, Tormore shore.—The southernmost of these dykes
exhibits banded, laminated and rudely columnar structure. The
first is generally parallel to the upper and lower surface; so also is
the second, but not invariably, as the two structures do not always
correspond in direction, and occasionally cut at an angle of
nearly 80°.

Fig. 1.—Diagram of intersection of streaky and laminated structure, from Lower
Pitchstone, Dunfion.

A. Laminated structure, rather curved. B. Streaky structure.

A dyke of brown pitchstone to the north of the last, about four
feet wide, shows banded structure very clearly on the southern side,
where there is an intruded basalt dyke. This structure is barely, if
at all visible on the northern.

The above cases seem to show that, though the fissile and
banded structures are often coincident by reason of a common re-
lation (which will be presently discussed) to the surface of the mass,
yet they are of independent origin; and that the former is really
only one special case of a series of phenomena due to contraction
of the rock in cooling. Many other instances showing the relation
of fissile structure to tabular and columnar jointing, and that
between these and spheroidal structure, might readily be adduced
from the various Arran rocks; but it is perhaps needless to multiply
them. One curious case, however, in a pitchstone from Moneadh-
mhor Glen, may be worth a brief description, as well as a remarkable
change in structure in the Birk Glen Pitchstone. The first of these
pitchstones (exposed in two places in the stream, both apparently
parts of one irregular bossy intrusion), is very closely and irregu-
larly jointed, generally platy towards the exterior and passing into
a columnar structure in the interior. A hand-specimen from the
latter part illustrates the connexion between jointed and spheroidal
structures. It exhibits three or four fairly well defined columns,
while in other parts the joints have no definite direction. The
largest column, about # inch in diameter, exhibits an external platy
structure; within this is seen at one end a very shallow cup,
elliptical in outline. The other end shows an irregular dome-like
ball. On following the surface of this downwards, it is seen,
where becoming lost to view, to be again curving inwards, so that
it resembles a rather distorted egg, partly sunk in the column.
Somewhat similar structures are exhibited by the ends of the other
columns. I conceive that this specimen supports my view of

002 Rev. T. G. Bonney—Pitchstones and Kelsites of Arran.

splorsiaal and columnar structures, and shows that while they are
due to the same cause, namely, contraction in cooling, they are
partially independent.

The Birk Glen Pitchstone shows a very remarkable sudden change
in the character of the rock. It is exposed in the bed of the burn,
and again at about twenty yards distance by the pathway. There
can be no doubt. though vegetation covers the intervening space, that
these are parts of one and the same bed. ‘The pitchstone in the
burn is traversed by numerous joints, cutting it into rhomboidal
prisms, from about 3 to $ inch in diameter, one set of joints
occasionally predominating a little, so as to give a laminated struc-
ture to the rock. So marked and persistent is this jointing, that it
is almost impossible to obtain a specimen of any size. Under the
microscope the rock appears as a glass, either full of very minute
belonites, or exhibiting beautifully the batrachospermum-like groups;!
surrounded by clearer spaces, with very few spherulites, and no
banding of any kind. But the rock in the path has much fewer and
less regular joints, it shows a distinctly streaky structure, and a great
number of ill-defined spherulites, generally lying in the streaks.
Under the microscope it shows the same belonitic structure as the
other rock, except that this, as will be described below, is somewhat
modified by the conspicuous banded and spherulitic structure. Asa
further proof of the identity of these two masses of rock, careful
examination shows that the pitchstone, where last seen by the path,
is becoming a little more regularly jointed, and in the bed of the
stream we find one or two nodes, as it were, in which ‘the regular
jointing dies out, and a structure sets in, something like that seen in
the pathway.

II.—Banded, Spherulitic, and Perlitic Structures.

In the paper mentioned above I endeavoured to show that perlitic
structure was only a variety of ordinary spheroidal structure, and as
this has been independently maintained by Mr. F. Rutley in a paper
read a few days afterwards before the Royal Microscopical Society,’
and has since received further confirmation from Mr. 8. Allport,’ I
shall take it as granted here. Banded or streaky structure is com-
monly supposed to be the result of tension* produced by flow in a
mass not perfectly homogeneous, and of this in many cases I have
no doubt. The evidence, however, which I am about to bring
forward will, I think, show that in certain cases it may result from
pressure. Spherulitic structure also is generally supposed to be the
result of crystalline forces. The evidence to be brought forward

1 See Mr. 8. Allport’s description and plates, Grou. Mac. Dec. I. Vol. IX. p. 1.
See also p. 537.

2 Monthly Microscopic Journal, 1876, p. 176. The author kindly refers to my
work so far as regards basalt only; the reason being that I was obliged, in reading,

greatly to condense the paper, and dismissed perlite in one or two words, which escaped
his notice.

3 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxiii. p. 440.

4 Thus: the strain elongates oval masses and tends to draw them out into ropy
filaments. Further, if a mass consisted of particles of various sizes, motion under
strain would haye a tendency tu pack like with lke.

Rev. T. G. Bonney—Pitchstones and Felsites of Arran. 508

will show that though this may often be the case, the mechanical
forces produced by contraction have also sometimes an influence
upon it, and may even determine whether or not this structure shall
be set up.

The first case which I shall quote is not from Arran, but is ex-
hibited in a slide of liparite from the Lipari Islands. It is a por-
phyritic rock containing many crystals of felspar, with a little quartz,
biotite, and iron-peroxide. An ordinary lens shows the dull white
ground-mass to be traversed by a series of more transparent lines
dividing it up into polygons, so that it looks like a miniature represen-
tation of a columnar-jointed surface. Inside the polygons, the rock
exhibits a faint radial structure. Under the microscope these cracks
appear to have been true minute divisional surfaces, though they now
seem to be closed by a generally paler mineral deposit, which is
dark between crossed prisms. Sometimes also we see a thin dark
line, bordered on each side by aclear space. The interior of the
polygons commonly exhibits very clearly the usual fibrous radial
structure ;' but in some of the smaller it is very ill-defined. In
some cases we note a kind of circle inscribed in the polygon, within
which the radial structure is more marked; generally there is no
nucleus visible in the spheroids, though now and then they seem
to become rather more crystalline on approaching the centre; nor do
they appear to have any very immediate relations with the larger
embedded crystals (compare Fig. 3).

Passing next to a perlitic pitchstone from Meissen, we observe
that it exhibits a flow-like structure, indicated by wavy bands (in
outline like some cirrus clouds), produced by innumerable very
minute opaque microliths. Through these the perlitic structure
cuts with perfect independence. There are no spherulites to be seen
in the slide. A perlite, also, from Glashiitte (Schemnitz), shows very
well this wavy flow-structure; but here the bands are so conspicuous
and clearly marked that the rock looks like a miniature model of a
contorted gneiss. A few spherulites occur in this, which in most
cases, though not in all, seem connected with the larger crystals
occurring in the matrix.

The great pitchstone vein on the Corriegills shore exhibits, as has
been said, faint indications of a banded structure. Under the micro-
scope it appears full of a microlithic dust with larger belonites
singly or in groups, surrounded by slightly clearer spaces; a good
many of these belonites are roughly parallel. The smaller vein has also
indications of banding, though slighter, with a similar microscopic
structure; but the clearer spaces are larger, and themselves indicate
a kind of banding. There are one or two spherulites surrounded by a
clearer ring. More distinct bands are seen in the lower pitchstone vein
of Dundhu, and some of the dykes of the Tormore shore, the micro-
scopic structure of which is excellently depicted by Mr. 8. Allport,’
who says (p. 6), “The rock is simply a continuous homogeneous
glass, in which the devitrified or crystallized particles have arranged

1 See Mr. S. Allport, Groz. Mac. Dee. I. Vol. IX. p. 641.
2 Grou. Maa. Dec. I. Vol. IX. Pl. I. Fig. 2.

504 Rev. T. G. Bonney—Pitchstones and Felsites of Arran.

themselves in alternate layers characterized by differences in texture
only.” The southern dyke at Tormore seems to indicate that the
banding is here caused by the more complete crystallization of the
augitic constituent, the fine dust having almost disappeared from the
glass with a marked increase in the number of belonites; there are
also several spherules. The pitchstone by the path in Birk Glen
shows some fairly regular isolated bands of yellowish glass, together
with several more irregular patches. In no case, however, have the
ends of these a torn or ‘“ teazed”’ look, as if they had been subjected
to strain ; some indeed are quite round. Belonites occur in both the
clear and the yellow glass, sometimes singly, but commonly with
the usual alga-like aggregates. They pass from the clear to the
yellow glass, sometimes, however, being a little crowded on the
surface of the latter, as though they stuck in a denser fluid. In it
also the lateral microliths are less clearly defined, as though the side
branches had’ fallen from the main stem of the plant, and had been
replaced by a lichen growth. With polarized light these bands
show an imperfect spherulitic structure, as do some of the rounded
spots. In the former, however, there is no indication of any dis-
turbance of the spherulitic structure, that is, it does not appear as if
one or more spherules had been elongated into a band, but as if a
line of imperfect spherules had formed out of a band.

The first pitchstone on the shore south of King’s Cove gives
indications of a rough perlitic structure. Under the microscope this
appears more as a polygonal network of exceedingly minute cracks
than as the ordinary perlitic structure. There are irregular bands
and cloudy spots of yellow glass; the latter frequently showing
rings of darker glass, which, on examination, prove to be roughly
concentric with the above reticulations. With crossed prisms these
rings prove to be the boundaries of more or less perfect spherules.
This rock does not show the alga-like tufts, but has numerous
scattered belonites about -001 inch long. These often pass indiffer-
ently into the spherulites, but are sometimes arranged radiately.
There are a good many larger crystals scattered about, chiefly of
sanidine; some of which (but not all) showa growth of belonites
perpendicular to their surface, and a radial structure of the sur-
rounding mass. A pitchstone, from an erratic,’ on the Old Lamlash
Road, also shows a similar spherulitic growth on some of the larger
crystals contained, but here also this structure is visible in many
isolated patches of brown glass.

The larger crystals occurring in the pitchstones sometimes, as
described by Mr. Allport, include portions of the glassy matrix, but
rarely, if ever, well-defined belonites. Sometimes they have evidently
been broken, and the fragments lie close together. They appear then
to be the first things formed in the rock, and perhaps may some-
times be very much anterior to the solidification of the ground-mass.?

1 T am not aware that the locality where this occurs 7m situ is known. It is the
same rock as is described by Mr. Allport from a boulder occurring near W. Benan
(Gzor. Mac. Dec. I. Vol. IX. p. 537).

2 T have observed in numerous instances in trachytes, felsites, etc., that the forma-

Rev. T. G. Bonney—Pitchstones and Felsites of Arran. 505

Reviewing then the above facts, we seem justified in asserting
that in some of the pitchstones there is the following succession of
phenomena—1l. The formation of the larger porphyritic crystals ;
2. The differentiation of the matrix, which produces the streaky or
banded structure; 3. The formation of the belonites; 4. The aggre-
gation of them into the alga-like clusters; 5. The formation of
spherules. Of these, 1 and 2 as a rule take place before the motion
of the rock as a mass is quite arrested, though probably it has at-
tained a pasty condition, and—at least in 2—the position of its mole-
cules in space is not greatly altered subsequently. With regard to
3 and 4, the evidence is more conflicting ; the belonites sometimes
giving evidence of subsequent pressure or strain, sometimes of
having formed in a mass in equilibrium; 5 has occurred—and in con-
nexion with it the perlitic structure—when all motion except mole-
cular has become impossible.

Passing now to the felsites, we find an interesting case on the
shore north of Drumadoon; there a dyke of compact felsite is
divided from another mass of porphyritic felsite by a branching
dyke of basalt (see Fig. 2). The former felsite is very flaggy, with

Fre. 2.—Dykes near Drumadoon Point.

A. Porphyritic Felsite. B. Basalt. C. Compact Felsite.
C’. Spherulitic Felsite.

some slight appearance of a generally minute spherulitic structure,

but the character of the rock changes for the last half-yard or so
adjacent to the basalt; here the flaggy structure is lost, the rock
becoming massive, of porcellanous aspect, with well-defined spheru-
litic structure. On examining a surface of this carefully, we see a
polygonal network, indicated often by darker lines, and within each.
reticulation one or more well-defined spherules. Under the micro-
scope (Fig. 8) we see the network indicated clearly by darkish
lines; sometimes faint, but oftener well-defined, like a string over-
grown with dusty mould. The inner circles are marked with fainter
lines of the same. On crossing the prisms, we see the structure

tion of the larger crystals of felspar and some other minerals seems anterior to the
setting up of microlithic structure. Can it be that in many cases these have been
formed in some prior cooling of the rock, and that the last elevation of temperature
previous to the ejection of the rock only fused the ground-mass ? Except on some such
theory it is very hard to explain such cases as are ‘found in some of the coarser leucite
lavas of Vesuvius.

006 Rev. T. G. Bonney—Pitchstones and Felsites of Arran.

described by Mr. S. Allport, namely, a felsitic structure outside the
circle, and a fibrous radial structure inside, the division between
them not being quite so sharp or regular as it appeared before. By
searching about the slide we can find almost every stage, from the
setting up of the fibrous radial structure at a point in the matrix, to
a spherule with a well-defined circular boundary. There is no
evidence that a nucleus of a different mineral character is needed
for the formation of a spherule.

ANS

we ‘dy ‘
eA WZ)
Bey Az

St

TZ
LE

a

Fic. 3.—Spherulitic Felsite. Diagrammatic sketch from microscope. The radial
structure in the spherulites is rather exaggerated; the exterior granulated part with
both prisms shows ‘felsitic’ structure, sometimes with slight radial tendency, the
polygons are defined by opaque clotted (ferruginous ?) dust.

The next rock to be examined is the spherulitic felsite on the
Corriegills shore, It has been noticed by Macculloch and others, and
its microscopic structure has been excellently described by Mr. 8.
Allport; but still its relations to the neighbouring rocks do not
seem to have been fully worked out, so that I must describe it at
some length, as these seem to throw much light on the formation of
some of the above structures. A compact felsite dyke about 12
yards across is exposed on the shore, and can afterwards be traced
running up the inland cliff. Here a pitchstone vein, rather more
than a yard thick, separates it from the sandstone beneath. At the
base of the cliff both are lost for a time under vegetation; but when
this ceases, we find the pitchstone still beneath the felsite. The
latter shows a rather platy structure for about three or four feet, top
and bottom, most distinct at the latter, being irregularly jointed else-
where. Generally the felsite is much decomposed, of a pale cream
colour, with ferruginous brown stainings, in appearance rather like
a soft fine sandstone. The base, however, above the pitchstone, as
will presently be described, is much indurated. The pitchstone now
thins away, and some irregular outcrops of a greenish spherulitic
felsite make their appearance. These occur chiefly in two little
bays in the sandstone about four yards apart. The one further from

1 Grou. Maa. Dec. I. Vol. 1X. p. 541.

Rev. T. G. Bonney—Pitchstones and Felsites of Arran. 507

the sea shows (I.) the laminated base of the felstone; (II.) the same
of a vitrified aspect, and streaky, rather spherulitic structure; (III.)
pitchstone; (1V.) spherulitic felsite (Fig. 4). The last has fewer
spherules at top and bottom. No one of these three rocks is in
absolute contact, each being separated by a foot or two of debris.
It is not quite certain either whether this particular piece of pitch-

Fig. 4.—Section showing relation of Felsite and Pitchstone on Corriegills shore.

A. Flaggy Felsite. A’. Vitrified base of Felsite.
B. Pitchstone. C. Spherulitic Felsite.
D. Sandstone. _X. Debris.

stone is really in situ, as it is separated from the rest of the vein, but,
so far as I could make out, by clearing away the rubbish, it seemed
to be. In the southern bay there is only the spherulitic felsite under-
lying the indurated base of the felsite. The question then which first
suggests itself is the following, Is the spherulitic felsite a special
condition of the ordinary felsite or of the pitchstone, or a third and
distinct intrusive rock? The evidence is as follows: A passage
between the pitchstone and the spherulitic felsite is nowhere seen,
though the former seems to have rather more spherules towards its
base, and the latter rather fewer spherules top and bottom; the decom-
posed state of the two rocks being very similar, each forming a
brittle grey putty-like clay. The spherulitic felsite, however, cannot be
quite identical with the pitchstone, because it has a different be-
haviour, showing a peculiar ropy structure, like some lavas, on its
outer surface, and adhering to the sandstone, where it is last seen, in
a thin skin, with an appearance of viscid flowing, difficult to describe,
but very remarkable. Near here we find it apparently attached to
the partly vitrified base of the ordinary felsite. This at first sight
looked like a junction of two distinet rocks; undoubted ordinary
felsite (though indurated and altered) being within an inch of fairly
characteristic spherulitic felsite: but careful study of the specimen
and microscopic examination fail to detect a perfectly clear line of
demarcation. Further, on the south side of the felsite dyke, are two
or three small irregular intrusive-looking masses of rock, which, on
close examination, seems to be the spherulitic felsite in a highly de-
composed condition; the matrix of part being stained a light dull
red; part being quite sandy and cream-coloured, like the other
felsite. Still, in its mode of occurrence, it resembles the spherulitic
felsite on the opposite side, and the spherules in places yet remain
fairly distinct.

On examining the base of the felsite in the cliff over the pitchstone,
I found it exhibited a vitrified appearance and banded structure,
with numerous not very clearly defined small spherules, and a
peculiar structure on the surface of the base, as if it were studded
with half spherules arranged in lines or sometimes agglutinated

508 Rev. T. G. Bonney—Pitchstones and Felsites of Arran.

into mounds. I have a slab from the very base, ‘about 14 inch thick,
which shows this structure on both surfaces; the lower being the
coarser; the upper in its fine parallel arrangement almost resembling
a piece of wood beneath the bark.

The microscopic structure has been so minutely described by Mr.
Allport that I cannot do better than quote his words.! “In a very
thin section, in ordinary light, the spheres exhibit a well-defined
circle, bounded by a line of minute grains of iron oxide, but the
fibrous structure is not so distinct; in fact, it then appears to be
simply a radial arrangement of the particles of a fine dust scattered
through a dull uniform base; dark greenish aggregations of this
substance sometimes form an irregular nucleus, throwing off rays
towards the circumference; frequently, however, the centre is free
from them, and there is then no appearance of any sort of structure.
These green patches also occur in the matrix, and both spheres and
matrix appear to be composed of precisely the same substance.
Placed between crossed nicols the appearance is completely changed,
and it is at once seen that the matrix has a felsitic structure,’ and
that some of the spheres are also composed of portions of the same
substance, which have, however, undergone a process of aggregation
and radial arrangement in globular masses; but the felsitic structure
is still quite as evident as in the base. Many of the spheres are,
however, composed of two or more concentric layers; in some there
is a felsitic nucleus surrounded by radiating groups of green dust ;
in others the nucleus consists of grains of quartz only.” I may add
that where spherulites are in contact, there is a divisional line
between them, as in the Lipari and Drumadoon specimens, and some-
times the spaces between the polygonal boundary lines and the circle
show a structure intermediate between the normal felsitic and the
true radial; also that this spherulitic felsite exhibits great variety of
structure; a piece taken at the distance of a yard from one of
the parts where these spherulites are best developed showing com-
paratively few of them, and these very small, often imperfect, and
with a linear arrangement. A slide from this last specimen shows
that the felsitic structure mentioned by Mr. Allport prevails in most
parts; and the spherulites are isolated and not very well developed ;
a slight banded structure is apparent in the rock; and here and there
also a curious structure something like a lichen or dendritic growth.

A slice cut vertically from the slab at the base of the felsite in the
cliff shows that this structure prevails throughout it. With crossed
prisms the effect is really pretty, a peculiar arborescent growth, like
some lichens or sea-weeds, standing out with a sort of stereoscopic
effect in various tints of milky grey against a dark ground. Here
and there is a trace of spherulitic structure, and the bands, which
are not nearly so distinct under the microscope, have rather a
streaky aspect. A slice from the base of the felsite on the shore,
where it approaches most nearly in appearance to the spherulitic

1 Geox. Maa. Dec. I. Vol. IX. p. 541.

* Exactly the same structure is seen in the felsite from near Drumadoon, mentioned
above.

Rev. T. G. Bonney—Pitchstones and Felsites of Arran. 509

felsite, shows an irregular banded structure; wavy, mossy, brown
bands and elongated streaks of brown dust, giving it somewhat the
appearance of a slice of agate; the latter are full of tolerably clear
spherules, sometimes isolated, sometimes crowded; with crossed
prisms these show very clearly radial polarization. In parts of the
slide, the dendritic structure described above may be seen; it is
more brightly coloured than in the last; in fact one constituent
(quartz ?) in this slide seems to be more distinctly crystalline and
the other more earthy than in that specimen.

With regard then to this particular rock, the spherulitic felsite, the
evidence seems to show that it is more closely related to the felsite
than to the pitchstone,’ but that it is not merely a portion of the
felsite altered in situ. It appears to have distinctly flowed at a period
subsequent to the intrusion of the ordinary felsite. In this respect
its relation seems closer to the pitchstone. It is evidently a rock of
extremely local occurrence. J conclude therefore that the pitch-
stone, which has everywhere very highly altered the felsite in con-
tact with it, has in one or two places actually melted it down, so
that the liquefied mass flowed for a short distance before solidifying
again. The regularity of the spherules shows that they did not
begin to form till the mass was wholly at rest.

Reviewing then the whole of the evidence, it would appear as if
spherulitic structure were generally one of the very last to be set
up, so as to be even capable of being produced in a rock by a tem-
perature a little lower than that which would actually melt it.

The above observations also seem to throw some light on the
cause which produces it. This seems generally to be vaguely stated
as ‘concretionary,’ or the result of crystalline forces; devitrification
being often supposed to be started by the accidental presence of some
foreign body at the central point. The above examples suggest a more
definite explanation, which may at any rate hold good in numerous
cases. That spherulites are formed at all may be due primarily to
very slight differences either in mineral composition in that part of
the glass,” or in the rate or mode of cosling. What we have noticed
seems to show that only very rarely had they any connexion with
included substances, and suggests that they have rather grown in-
ward than outward. Suppose then a cooling mass, already in a
semi-solid condition, to be losing heat very slowly and uniformly in
all directions, it will thus be thrown into a state of strain from con-

1] am indebted to a college friend for the following additional evidence.
The spherulitie felsite agrees in composition more closely with the other felsite
(allowing for its state) than with the pitchstone; the last having at least 2 per cent.
less SiOz. Again, when the powder of all three is heated to redness for about
10 m., that of the two felsites does not cohere, and afterwards cannot be distinguished
in colour—being an ochreous grey; while that of the pitchstone ccheres and is
brownish stone-grey. Again, on fusing both the spherulitic felsite and the pitch-
stone with (K. Na.) COs, the former assumes a yellowish-green tinge, and the latter
a rather clear bright green, showing there is more Mn or less Fe init. The pitch-
stone also (though the coarser powder) decomposed readily with the fusing mixture,
while both the felsites left a residue, which required prolonged fusion.

2 As when we find them associated with the brown glass of pitchstones.

510 Rev. T. G. Bonney—Pitchstones and Felsites of Arran. -

traction, and will have a tendency to break up into fragments. The
great facility with which spheres are formed under contractile strain
will render a perlitic structure a very common result,’ but seeing
that obviously space cannot be entirely filled by spherical surfaces,
fracture into regular polyhedrons is likely to result, the form of
which, in accordance with the principle of least action, will be
rhombic dodecahedrons.

Consider now the case of a single one of these, and suppose it to go
on very gradually losing heat uniformly from its exterior, then, just
as I have shown happens in the case of spheroidal structure on a larger
scale, the surfaces of equal tension will be approximately spherical.
As the mass contracts, all the particles in any one of these surfaces
will be simultaneously acted upon by an equal central force: if then
the temperature, pressure, ete., be such that microlithic cry stalliza-
tion is set up, the crystals will grow towards the centre, because both
that is the direction of the normal force, and the surface of crystal-
lizing temperature is approaching the centre. There is thus a certain
analogy with the growth of radiating columns in a spheroidal mass
of igneous rock, like the spindle at St. Andrews. The nucleus, when
present, is therefore more often likely to be a residuum than an
included foreign body. As the mass is in a state of normal strain,
it may once or twice rupture along a concentric surface during the
formation of the spherule, and this may account for the concentric
layers in the spherules. Certainly these are not seldom surfaces of
weak cohesion, because the spherule exfoliates easily along them,
and they are often covered with a sort of white dust. ‘There is
thus a common cause in the development of perlitic and spherulitic
‘structure, namely, a contractile force, but this in the latter case is
acting on a crystallizing body. I think, however, that the same
explanation will apply to the spherules which do not show a crystal-
line structure, and probably to some of the larger felsitic balls in
igneous rocks, the outer surface denoting a surface of equal force,
which has caused the part within to assume a structure (not neces-
sarily crystalline) different from that without. Further, it will be
obvious that the process of formation of a line or band of spherules
will be analogous to the formation of spheroidal structure in a
column of an igneous rock, especially to that case where the spheroids
are formed without external rupture of the column.

Some of the above evidence, such as the banding of pitchstones
towards the exterior, and one at least of the banded felsites, also
seems to show that this latter structure may be the result of squeez-
ing, not of flowing; the same result, as I have pointed out in
another case,? being produced by diverse forces. The former cause
is likely to produce the more regular structure; for it will be readily
seen that if a number of particles, not homogeneous, are mixed
together, and then squeezed, so as to be forced to pack into smaller
space, there will be a kind of rhythmic arrangement, like getting

1 See Quart Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxi. p. 152.
2 loc, cit. p. 168.

Rev. T. G. Bonney —Pitchstones and Felsites of Arran. 511

with like, in alternate order.! The effect then of contraction due to
cooling is probably much greater in producing rock structures than
has been generally supposed. Since, however, the chemical com-
position, and the circumstances of solidification, vary so greatly in
igneous rocks, and a very slight difference in the circumstances may
produce with these minute structures a very appreciable alteration
in the results, we must not be surprised if cases should occur to
which we cannot apply the above explanations, at any rate without
considerable modification.

IV.—Across Europe anp Asta.—Traveviine Nores.
By Professor Joun Mite, F.G.S. ;
Imperial College of Engineering, Tokei, Japan.
(Continued from p. 468.)
Part VI.—Tomsk to Irkutsk.

ConrEents.—Tomsk to Krasnojarsk—Appearance of the Country—Flint Implements
at Kansk—Pre-historic Remains in Siberia, probably the ‘Spoor’ of a race
allied to the Eskimo—Geology in the neighbourhood of Irkutsk—Cold of
Irkutsk.

HE day on which I arrived at Tomsk, which was the 6th of
October, I bought a small tarantass, and next morning I started,
with some who had been fellow-passengers on the steamer, en route
for Irkutsk. There were four conveyances between three parties,
one of them being used exclusively for baggage. As each of these
always needed three horses, and sometimes four, we often had diffi-
culties at the post-station, where the post-master seemed disinclined
to allow such a sudden draft being made upon his stables. Luckily
my friends were high officials, and travelling on Government ser-
vice, and their wants had from necessity to be supplied. My
carriage being included with the rest, 1 went along comfortably and

without delay, which would most certainly have occurred had I

been alone. Before we were fairly outside Tomsk we ascended

what I had, when at a distance, mistaken for hills, but which now
appeared to be only a scarp-like face of 2 plateau, and we were soon
upon a dusty road bounded by a low plantation of birch. Now and
then we plunged down and over a small water-course, our momen-
tum always carrying us some distance up the other side. Hvery-
where the country appeared as if it were an alluvial expanse ; but in
‘the vicinity I think there must have been some beds of rock, because
everywhere along the road stone was being used as a material to
repair it. This was yellow, argillaceous, and somewhat slaty in its
character, perhaps having come from some of the Coal-measures
which I believe exist in the vicinity of Tomsk. The birch-trees
were now destitute even of their withered leaves, and the only
relics of the falling year were a few white heads of a Millefolium
and brown tufts of faded grass. During our first day upon the
road we met a number of carts carrying a white clay, used in Tomsk
for the manufacture of pottery. We travelled day and night, stop-

1 With this compare the “ veined structure” in glacier ice, as explained by Prof.
Tyndall, Glaciers of the Alps, p. 376.

ol, Prof. Milne—Across Europe and Asia.

ping every two or three hours at some post-station to obtain a
change of horses. I now noticed that the birch-trees were only
growing upon the land which had been cleared on either side of the
road ; far behind them I could see the dark frontage of woods of fir.
The evergreen, on being cut down, had evidently given way, whilst
trees, like birch and aspen, had sprung up in its place, giving us
an example of that succession in growth which sometimes takes
place in the Vegetable Kingdom, and which Lyell and others have
represented as having taken place in pre-historic Denmark and
in other countries. Every night we now had frosts, and it was
necessary to wrap up warmly, whilst every morning the sun
streamed in at the open mouth of our tarantass to take off the chill
of night, and remind us that it was Eastward Ho that we were
travelling.

On the morning of the 27th at last I saw real hills. They were
large and smooth in outline. Separating us from them there was
a valley filled with mist, between the patches of which small
stretches of a shining river could now and then be seen. ;

As we were entering a village called Bojotol, at about 9.50 a.m.,
one of our carriages happening to break down, I had an opportunity
given to me to walk down to the river I had seen, which I learnt
was called the Chulim. In a bend upon the side towards which the
water flowed, there were banks 20-8Q feet in height. The upper
layer of these was of black earth, about 14 feet in thickness, beneath
which came a yellowish clay, which readily crumbled when it was
dry. In this latter, which formed the remainder of the bank, about
six feet from the top, I found a lower jaw of some small rodent like
a Squirrel. This was unfortunately so friable that it broke whilst it
was being transported. Two feet below this there was a band of
clayey concretions. ‘Two feet still lower I found a number of frag-
mentary bones, only the articulating heads of which were preserved.
They were apparently those of an animal like an Ox. Beneath this
bone band there was a bed of bluish clay, from which a talus sloped
downwards to the water’s edge, hiding all that was beneath. After
the difficulties of carriage mending had been overcome, we proceeded
on our journey. Some miles farther on the road I saw another
section in the banks of the same river, which I have just described.
It was, however, twice as thick, and was made up of beds which
were very sandy. In the afternoon we passed a square post
standing by the side of the road, which marked the division between
the governments of Hast and West Siberia, and the same evening
we entered the town of Artchinsk. Before night came on I had
time to see that there were a few low hills in the neighbourhood,
but these, I think, like those at Tobolsk, were made of alluvial
material. Next afternoon, just before we reached Krasnojarsk,
which I looked upon as the halfway house upon our tiresome car-
riage journey, we entered on.a hilly country. It was very open,
which, with its want of trees, together with its smooth curving
contour-lines, gave to it an appearance not unlike our English
Downs. For a considerable time whilst we were rolling along the

Prof. Milne—Across Europe and Asia. 513

roads between these gentle slopes, we had before us a view of two
very remarkable-looking peaks, which were in shape like Egyptian
pyramids. ‘These, however, by the time we had reached Krasno-
jarsk, which was early in the afternoon, had so changed in their
appearance that they were only like towering ragged rocks. Near
the entrance to the town I saw upon my right a scarp of reddish
rocks.

Instead of doing as I ought to have done, and gone for a
scramble among the surrounding hills, I joined my friends in
accepting an invitation to sup at the house of the military
governor. Here the effects of four days’ and four nights’ continuous
jolting very naturally resulted in my falling asleep in the drawing-
room of my host. Before midday next morning we were again
upon the move. The River Yenesei, which we crossed just outside
the town, is both broad and rapid. On the opposite side of the
river there is a range of sharply-pointed hills, amongst the peaks of
which I think I recognized my pyramids of the previous day.
Between the river and the foot of these hills, there is a narrow line
of cultivation. For some distance outside Krasnojarsk there was
a continuity of cultivated land, and we had many pretty views of
pine-clad hills, which looked down upon villages and fields in the
valleys which they bounded.

On the 29th we passed through the little town of Kansk, a short
distance beyond which we ferried over the little river Kam. It is
so clear that all across you can see its pebbly bottom. . These pebbles
are mostly siliceous, such stones as Flint, Jasper, and Agate being
common. On the opposite shore we were faced by a steep bank, at
least thirty feet in height, to the top of which we ascended through
a cutting. It was made up of a yellowish sandy soil, with here and
there a small patch of bluish clay. Growing on its slope there was
a stunted sweet-smelling Artemisia, and a small succulent broad-
leaved plant like a house-leek, whilst in the water below there were
beds of water-weed. Near the top of the embankment the soil as-
sumed a fine sandy character, which gradually merged into a black
earth. In one or two places, when these came together, I found
fragments of bone and chipped flints. With these there were
many pieces of burnt wood. Some few of the flints were in the
form of rough arrow-heads without fangs, but the greater number
were simply chips. In different parts of Siberia large quantities
of the remains of the early inhabitants have been found. In the
Museum at Irkutsk I saw many which had been brought to light
whilst making excavations in the vicinity of the town. Thus, whilst
digging the foundations for a new military hospital on the banks of
the River Ooshakofka, a tributary of the Angara, in addition to
stone arrows and fragments of coarse pottery, a number of imple-
ments and ornaments were also found, These latter were made
from ivory, which is apparently that of the Mammoth. One of
these resembles a dice box (or the head of a croquet-mallet), but
differs slightly in the diameter of its two extremities, and is not
hollow. ‘The diameter of one end is 84 mil., and the other end 29

DECADE II.—VOL. IV.—NO. XI. 33

514 Prof. Miine—Across Europe and Asia.

mil. The length is, I believe, 71 mil. In the centre of this a hole
has been bored, which, from its conical shape, looks as if it had been
rymed out by means of a flake of flint... Round the diameter of this,
circular bands have been deeply scratched. Another curiously-
shaped article is spheroidal in form, the two diameters being re-
spectively 45 and 58 mil. Upon it, as upon the cylindrical body
which has been just described, there are bands of circles traversing
its surface in different directions. The use of these articles does not
appear to be known. They were found in clay at about the depth
of 24 métres, and were accompanied by shells like Pupa. Helix, and
Succinea, indicating freshwater and terrestrial conditions. In ad-
dition to these I also saw many other relics of bygone times.
Amongst these there were many gouge-shaped stone chisels, like
those which are dug up in Japan, Newfoundland, and many parts
of North America. These, I believe, were used to dress skins with
in a manner similar to that in which a Micmac now performs the
same Operation with a knife. There were also some teeth of
Cervus elaphus, which had holes bored through them, bones of
Equus caballus and Bison priscus. From the comparison of these
beds with others also in the vicinity of the town, where the remains
of the Mammoth have been found, Mr. Tschersky, their ‘discoverer
and describer, appears to think that they in all probability belong to
a Middle Stone period. f

Besides those animals which I have just mentioned, others, which
are conspicuous amongst the list of European Pleistocene mammalia,
have also been found in the vicinity of Irkutsk. Thus we have
Elephas primigenius, Rhinoceros tichorhinus, Equus caballus, Cervus
tarandus, Cervus elaphus, Cervus capreolus, and very many others.

Prof. Boyd Dawkins shows that the Paleolithic cave-dwellers of
Hurope have a blood relation with the Eskimos of North America, a
view which is chiefly founded on the fact that these two races, which
are now removed so far by both space and time, apparently used the
same set of implements, a condition which at the present day only
exists between blood-related tribes. The Musk-sheep and Reindeer
which now give food to the Eskimo, having also furnished food to
the early cave-dwellers, strengthens the idea,—and it was as these
animals retreated from Hurope across Asia towards the north-east,
that man retreated also. The bones of these animals, as Mr. Boyd
Dawkins tells us, together with those that I mentioned, mark the
line of this retreat across Siberia. The flint implements that I found
upon the Kan, together with others of like kind from neighbouring
localities, tell us that certain implement-forming minerals were
everywhere sought out and utilized by primitive Man, who, chipping
them into weapons at each convenient resting-place, has thereby
left his spoor. If this migration is a fact, and it seems, when all
the evidence is considered, to be probable enough, then it may be
correlated with those periods of great cold to which I have already
several times referred.

1 The specimens are figured by Mr. Tschersky, who has also described them in the
Proceedings of the Geographical Society of Irkutsk, Sept. 18th, 1872.

Prof. Milne—Across Europe and Asia. 515

In the first portion of my journey across Sweden, and along
Finland, I described the ice-worn aspect which these countries
present, which I, in part, justly attributed to the action of coast-ice
on arising area. I then made reference to the indications that we
have, both here and farther south, of the higher lands and valleys
being covered with glacier-ice. In some places new ones were
freshly formed, whilst in other places pre-existing ones were aug-
mented, so that, as Prof. Ramsay tells us, we had, for example, in
the Alps glaciers perhaps 3500 feet in thickness. All this implied
an intensification of modern agencies. Farther on, upon the section
of my journey across the Siberian steppes, I intimated that indica-
tions of an ice-cap, or of conditions so severe as they appear to have
been in Europe, are at present wanting, and, therefore, until we
have really found them, their existenee rests on debatable evidence.
Adopting the above views, the tracks of Paleolithic man, and of
the animals which were contemporary with him, which are being
brought to light in Siberia, may be taken as congruent phenomena,
and we may suppose that they retreated from a climate, which in
Western Europe was by its severity driving them towards the south,
and escaped to one more suited to their conditions. That they re-
treated directly towards the north as the cold retreated, at present
hardly appears to have been the case, because remains of a Palzo-
lithic type do not appear to have been collected from those countries,
like Denmark and Scandinavia, where they would naturally be ex-
pected to occur.

With this speculation upon the cause of migration, which migra-
tion was in itself more or less of a speculation, I will stop, and
return to my track upon the road to Irkutsk from which I have so
far wandered. The country beyond the River Kan is undulating,
and is thickly covered with both pine and birch. As the road some-
times led us along the tops of ridges, we occasionally obtained exten-
sive views. In the afternoon we crossed a morass upon a road which
was kept in its place by a row of piles driven in about three feet
apart upon either side. Every morning we stopped at the first
station we reached after daybreak to warm ourselves and drink tea.
At these places we had excellent opportunities for observing a red
species of cock-roach with which the walls of the station-house
were thickly covered. On the following night, Ist of November, it
snowed heavily, and by the morning the ground was so thickly
covered that the rapidity of our progress was greatly impeded. The
surrounding hills were now higher. Owing to a thaw during the
day and a frost at night, the sides of many of the hills which we
had to cross became so slippery that it was often doubtful whether
we should reach their summits, and much of the night was spent
walking alongside our struggling horses. One horse we had to
leave for dead. On the 4th it rained and blew heavily, and, in spite
of all our endeavours, the rain forced an entrance to our tarantass.
On the evening of the same day, about 5 p.m., we reached the shores
of the rapidly flowing Angara, on the opposite side of which we
could see the glimmering lights of the houses in Irkutsk. In less

516 Prof. Miine—Across Europe and Asia.

than an hour we had crossed the flying bridge, and were safely at the
end of this section of my journey: the distance from Tomsk being
about 1559 versts, or 1036 English miles. Irkutsk is a large town,
of about 30,000 inhabitants, containing many fairly handsome build-
ings. It is situated on the N.H. side of the Angara, opposite to its
junction with the River Irkut. Like St. Petersburg, it may be said
to have been built upon a marsh. In 1652 there were only two
houses upon the present site, but soon after, in 1686, by order of the
Government, the town as it now appears began to rise. Although
the town itself is flat, the surrounding country is undulating. All
along the sides of the rivers, and running for some distance up the
slopes of the hills, there are beds of alluvium. On the hills them-
selves there is a covering of yellowish earth from two to three feet
in thickness, which, from the fragmentary stones it contains, can be
seen to have been derived from the disintegration of the subjacent
rocks. These are in the main a grey and yellowish sandstone,
slightly micaceous, and somewhat gritty. This is quarried and used
as a building stone in the few places where stone is required about
the town. In some placesit isconglomeratic. Whilst examining this
rock upon the north-east side of the town, I found several thin vein-
like seams of coal. ‘These veins, which had a brownish lignitic
character, were from two to four inches in thickness. In the sur-
rounding districts many outcrops of this material have been found,
which unfortunately appears to lack more in quality than it does in
quantity. From fossils which have been found in this formation, its
age, as I have before stated, when speaking of the coal-fields of the
Urals, is probably Jurassic. About 40 miles to the north-west this
overlies a limestone, which is probably of Devonian age, but even
about this there is some doubt. Besides the strata on these two
horizons, the only other rocks in the district appear to be either
highly metamorphic or else volcanic in their origin. ‘The former of
these rocks are well developed along the valley of the River Tunka.
The rugged mountains which bound this valley, called the Tunkusian
Alps, can be seen from Irkutsk. Mr. Tchersky, who has explained
this district, has described a remarkable series of graduations as
occurring there. The series commences with limestone, passes
through pyroxenic rocks, and ends with rocks that are granitic.

Up this same valley perched boulders of a local origin have been
found. Their discoverer, Mr. Tchersky, attributes their origin to
glacial action, but on this point local geologists are not agreed. The
only other phenomena which can be assigned to the action of ice are
the scratched stones in the alluvium of the river-banks, but these
are only such as are produced every year. So, as I have before said,
we have not yet any undoubted evidence of polar ice-caps or large
glaciers.

Besides coal, which I have spoken of, Iron ore, Gypsum, and
Kaolin are found in the neighbourhood. A small quantity of gold
is also worked, and once there was a lead-mine. ‘The best returns
appear to be derived from the salt springs, as at Tailma, which was
a station I pissed through before reaching Irkutsk.

Prof. Miine—Across Europe and Asia. 517

Two days after my arrival in Irkutsk snow again fell, and this
time it covered the ground so deeply that all my outdoor work
came to an end.

In Irkutsk there are two museums. One of these is attached
to a Technological School, and is used for teaching purposes, and the
other is at the rooms of the local Geographical Society, which acts
as a branch of the larger Society in St. Petersburg. In this latter
there are many objects of great interest. Amongst the minerals,
fine crystals of Uilnite and Onvarovite are the most noticeable. In
the osteological collection the bones of Deer and of the Mammoth
seem to preponderate. Some of the latter had integument still
remaining on them. In the Technological Museum there are some
remains of the same animal, which, in addition to the integument,
have also a good coating of long red hair, eight inches in length.
I also saw several skulls of Tigers from the Amoor district, and
Seals from Lake Baikal, together with a long series of Crustacea,
which also appear to be peculiar to this lake. Of especial interest .
to the Zoologist and Palexontologist are a number of mummified
remains of various animals, which have been obtained from a cave
near Nijni Udinsk. As the temperature of this cave appears never
to rise above — 4° C., the creatures that have died in it have had a
great portion of their integument preserved. The results obtained
from exploring such caves, and a number of them appear to have
been discovered in these localities, will probably be of great interest,
as it will give us a surer insight into the softer parts of many
animals with which we have only hitherto been acquainted from
their bones. Jn the museum there is also a small collection of birds
and quadrupeds, some insects and fossils, and an antiquarian assem-
blage of dresses and implements. During my stay in Irkutsk,
which was for about a month, the weather gradually grew colder.
One night the thermometer sank to — 28° R. (— 31° F.). Notwith-
standing the deadening influence of this cold at night-time, the
stars looked brighter and more cheerful than I had ever before seen
them, and when the moon was up it was so light, that I could read
without difficulty small handbills posted on the walls. The cold
was, however, too great to be enjoyed. During the day the appear-
ances were reversed, and the town, especially during the dull
weather, was both melancholy and depressing. The smoke from
the chimneys, instead of rising to be dispersed in airy clouds, rolled
heavily from the chimney tops in a long black horizontal line, and
then fell down towards the ground. Its quantity seemed to be
increased, which was perhaps due to condensation of the aqueous
vapour. When you opened a door, the cold air rushing in con-
densed all with which it mingled like so much smoke, which rolled
across the floor in fuming clouds. If the sun shone brightly, you
could often see spicules of ice glittering in its beams.

Although I felt great cold whilst staying in Irkutsk, I did not
experience anything like the extreme cold which this district
annually experiences. The greatest cold registered during the pre-
ceding winter was — 39:5 R., and the greatest warmth during sum-

518 Notices of Memoirs—Prof. Toula—St. Nicolas- Balkan.

mer was + 21:75 R., which gives a range of 61-25 R., or of 137°8 F.
The average temperature in winter at Irkutsk is — 14°°8 R., and
the average for summer + 13:1 R. For the whole year the average
is — ‘4 R., indicating that as a whole the gay society of Irkutsk live
in a freezing temperature. Farther to the north at Yakutsk the
average temperature is — 8°6° R., whilst still farther upon the
borders of the Arctic Ocean at Ust Yansk it is — 13-0° R.

(To be continued in our next Number.)

IN ORI tOpatS) | (pgy AME IMrOuneys|
ASI at
Proressor TouLa on THE Guotocy oF St. Niconas-Batkan: Section
OsmanicH-Ak-PaLanka. (Proceedings of the Imperial Academy
of Vienna, April 25th, 1877.)
[Communicated by Count Marscuatt, F.C.G.S., ete. ]

\HE central massif is composed of crystalline unstratified rocks,
_ of granite (St.-Nicolas Defile: altitude 1390 metres), and very
extensive dioritic rocks. Azoic rocks, such as clay-slates and
gueissic rocks, with intercalations of chloritic and quartzitic schists,
appear both on the south, and especially the north slope. In this
direction they extend as far as the River Arcer, where they are
partly overlain by ‘‘Sarmatic”’ deposits. The Carboniferous sand-
stones south of Belgradeik, on the northern slope, include organic
remains characteristic of the Old Red (‘ Walchian”’) sandstones, as
Calamites, Annularia, Odontopteris obtusa, Naum., Cyatheites arbor-
escens, Brongn.; Alethopteris gigas, Gutb., Taniopteris abnormis,
Gutb., and Walchia pyriformis, Schlth. These sandstones are uncon-
formably overlain by a thick deposit of red sandstones, probably the
Bunter or Lower Triassic Sandstones. The Muschelkalk is met with
in the same locality. The fossils are: Teeth of Saurichthys, Lima
striata, Schlth., Pecten discites, Schlth., Pecten Alberti, Goldt., Ostrea
decemcostata, Mstr., Retzia trigonella, Schith., Spiriferina fragilis,
Schlth., Waldheimia vulgaris, Schlth., and Hntrochites in abundance.
The overlying strata are white sandstones of unascertained age, and
white Upper Jurassic limestones with hornstone and Belemnites.
These limestones occur likewise beneath the Nerinza-limestones
of the isolated hill of Rabis. The Jurassics are conspicuously re-
presented south of Belogradez by hard sandstones (‘ Middle
Dogger’”’), with Pecten demissus, Phil.. Monotis elegans, Goldf., and
Belemnites (near canaliculatus, Schlth.). conformably overlain by
fossiliferous, distinctly stratified limestones, containing Sphenodus
macer, Quenst., Lepidotus maximus, A. Wagn., Aspidoceras ortho-
ceras, WOrb., Perisphinctes polyplocus, Rein., Simoceras Doublieri,
WVOrb., Oppelia Holbeint, Opp., Oppelia compsa, Opp., Phylloceras
tortisulcatum, VOrb., Aptychus latus, Park., Apt. Bulgaricus, sp. nova,
Rhynchonella Agassizi, Zschn., and Rhynch. sp. (near sparsicosta,

Quenst.).
Cretaceous marls with small Belemnites and Inocerami are found
to a limited extent between Vrbova and Quprén. Middle and Lower

Reviews—Belt’s Glacial Period in S. Hemisphere. 519

Cretaceous deposits prevail in the southern portion of the chain. The
older sediments are represented there only by Paleozoic conglo-
merates and schists, and by the red sandstones near Berilovce, over-
lain by limestones and marls with Orbitulina lenticularis, two other
species of the same genus, Spongia Vola, Mich., and other Spongie,
one Craticularia, one Sporadiscina, some Corals and Polyzoa, and
fragments of Ostrea, Terebratulina, Terebrirostra, and Natica.

Cretaceous sandstones rest on these beds; and beneath them, near
Isvor, are fossiliferous, sandy, and locally somewhat oolitic Neoco-
mian limestones, abounding with Polyzoa (among them a new
species, Heteropora Isovriana), together with numerous joints of a
Pentacrinus belonging to the series of astralis, Quenst., abundant
spines of Cidarites, a Peltastes (near stellulatus, Ag.), and a new
small Crustacean, Prosopon inflatum.

Friable Cretaceous sandstones then follow almost to the descent
into the Nisova Valley, where Caprotina-limestones, resting on marls
with Pyrina pygmea, Ag., appear. Enormous deposits of rolled
blocks and gravel cover the slope up to a considerable height.

EVEN Visa WS -

I.—Tae Guiactat Prriop in tHE Sovrnern Hemispoere. By
Tuomas Bett, F.G.S. (Quart. Journ. of Science, July, 1877.)

N all his former papers on the Glacial Period, the author has dealt
mainly with phenomena connected with the glaciation of the
northern hemisphere, a great part of which he has travelled over
himself, and has therefore been able to bring his personal experience
to bear upon the subject; but in treating of the southern, he is obliged
to rely for his data on the observations of other geologists. This
compilation of the recorded facts that relate to the subject-matter is
undertaken, Mr. Belt says, with the view of refuting the idea which
seems of late to have arisen in the minds of some geologists, that
there is no evidence of a glacial period south of the equator; and to
show that the phenomena there found agree with those of the northern
hemisphere.

The first authority cited is Prof. Agassiz, whose theories concerning
the Amazon valley are considered by the author to be mistaken ones.
The Pampean mud, it is argued, owes its origin to the same causes
as the loess of Central Europe and the silt of the Siberian steppes,
viz. the formation of a freshwater lake through the damming back
of the drainage by the advance of the south polar ice up the basin of
the South Atlantic; and a similar explanation is hinted at for the
plains of gravel and silt in New Zealand.

The icy barriers to these lakes would themselves be melting and so
contribute to their formation, and there would, it is maintained, be
no more reason for the lakes they caused being frozen than that the
Manjalen Sea, which is formed in a similar way, should be so.

This advance of the ice in both hemispheres simultaneously towards
the equator would result not from a flow of the ice in that direction,
but from ridges being formed which intercepted the moisture travelling

520 Reviews—Harrison’s Geology of Leicester and Rutland.

to the poles, and compelling precipitation to take place on the slopes
nearest the equator, and thus, by continual accumulation, would
these mountains of ice creep far into the temperate zones ; whilst at
the poles themselves there would probably be less ice than is found
there at the present day.

This wholesale accumulation of ice at the poles, of course. implies
a like abstraction of water from the sea, and Mr. Belt calculates that
a lowering of the sea-level to the extent of 2000 feet took place all
over the world.

The author agrees entirely with Prof. Tyndall, that to reduce the
force of the sun’s rays would cut the glaciers off at their source, and
that “‘ we cannot afford to lose an iota of solar action; we need, if
anything, more vapour, but we need a condenser so powerful that
this vapour, instead of falling in liquid showers to the earth, shall
be so far reduced in temperature as to descend in snow.” ? ‘This con-
denser, Mr. Belt maintains, exists within the Antarctic circle, which,
as it moved northward, intercepted the vapour to be condensed in
increased quantities.

As now-a-days polar ice is kept within proper bounds by the
counterbalancing forces of nature (as Mr. Belt admits, p. 23), it
must be left for physicists to decide on the causes that led to its ex-
traordinary behaviour during the so-called “ Glacial Period.”

B. B. W.

IJ.—A Sxetcn or THE GEOLOGY OF LEICESTERSHIRE AND RUTLAND.
By W. J. Harrison, F.G.8. Reprinted from White’s History,
Gazetteer, and Directory of the Counties. Large 8vo. pp. 67.
(Sheffield, 1877.)

KETCHES of the Geology of our English counties are always
welcome. The residents who have any taste for the science
naturally take especial interest in the geology of their own county,
and to many of them, as well as to the occasional visitor, a work in
which the principal facts are narrated is a great boon, because
many have neither time, inclination, nor opportunity to study the
numerous special papers that may have been written upon the
subject.

Mr. Harrison has already done much useful work in this way by
preparing a series of Outlines of the Geology of the Counties of
England, many of which have appeared in Kelly’s Post-Office
Directories for 1876 and 1877. And he has now given us a far
more elaborate sketch of the Geology of Leicestershire, accompanied
by a short account of Rutland, which counties, from his position as
Curator of the Town Museum at Leicester, he has had ample oppor-
tunity of investigating.

Leicestershire, geologically speaking, is one of our most interest-
ing counties. In it we are brought face to face with some of the
grander problems of Geology, as offered for solution in its tiny
mountain-group of Charnwood Forest, where some of the older

1 Heat as a Mode of Motion, p. 188.

Reviews—Harrison’s Geology of Leicester and Rutland. 621

rocks are developed, and where the phenomena of igneous and
metamorphic action may be well studied. We may add that here,
too, we have abundant material for controversy. In the Lower
Oolites, the Lias, and in the New Red. Sandstone series, we may
seek relief from the puzzles of the older rocks, while the complex
history of the Drift deposits furnishes another pleasant subject of
dispute.

Commencing with the Crystalline and Slaty rocks of Charnwood
Forest, Mr. Harrison notices their general structure and arrange-
ment, describing in detail the principal sections. The granite
quarries of Mount Sorrel and the syenite quarries of Croft, Huncote,
Sopewell, Markfield, and Enderby, as well as the quarry at Bardon
Hill, are represented in photographic plates. The stone of Bardon
Hill is described by the Rev. T. G. Bonney as a felstone.

The coarse ashy slates of Broombrigg’s Hill are likewise well
shown in a photograph, and this neighbourhood is stated to contain
the most typical outcrops of the slates.

Concerning the age of the old rocks of Charnwood, Mr. Harrison
observes that they “may be put down as Lower Silurian [=Upper
Cambrian of Sedgwick] with certainly as great a degree of proba-
bility as the theory has which assigns them to Cambrian [= Lower
Cambrian] Laurentian age.”

Many points of interest are furnished by the Carboniferous rocks,
and especially in the structure of the Coal-district. No Coal-measures
are exposed on the eastern flanks of the Palaeozoic rocks, ‘the old
elevation line of Charnwood seems to have bent southwards, and’
passing by Enderby and Sapcote forms a terminal ridge in that
direction.” But Mr. Harrison briefly discusses the probability of
finding coal beyond this ridge, in the most easterly portion of
Leicestershire.

In describing the Permian and Triassic rocks, allusion is made to
the unconformity between the former rocks and the Coal-measures,
and it is likewise pointed out that the Permian and Triassic rocks
are unconformable, although ‘there are no good sections in Leices-
tershire to show this.” It is only right to observe that the marked
break between Permian and Trias which was formerly supposed to
exist, is now questioned; while the overlap of the Trias merely
indicates submergence and in itself affords no evidence whatever of
unconformity. It may be questioned, too, whether the marks of
erosion between the Bunter and Keuper are more than local, and
such as we might expect to occur anywhere in such false-bedded
accumulations.

Interesting accounts of the Rhetic beds, Lias and Oolites,
and of the various gravels and other Drift deposits, follow; there
are some notices of remarkable boulders, and a plate showing
glaciated and waterworn rocks at the granite quarry of Mount
Sorrel. Notices of prehistoric man, of mineral springs, list of
heights, glossary of technical terms, and records of colliery shafts,
complete the subject-matter of the Geology of Leicestershire.

Rutland, until very recently, says Mr. Harrison, was quite a

522 Reviews—Lyman’s Geology of Japan.

neglected county, so far as its geology was concerned, but since
1867 the researches of Prof. J. W. Judd, which have been published
by the Geological Survey in the shape of map and memoir, have
pretty well exhausted the subject.

Mr. Harrison describes the Liassic and Oolitic rocks, and the
Post-Tertiary gravels and clays, noting all the economic features
and other points of interest.

We should have mentioned that in describing the Geology of
Leicestershire, due acknowledgment was made of the observations
of other geologists—of Mammatt, Jukes, Potter, the Rev. W. H.
Coleman, Hull, Ansted, and others. And we may add that the
photographic illustrations, which to the number of twelve are
scattered through the volume, are well executed, and represent, as
clearly as photographs can, some of the grandest facts in the
geology, which have been so carefully described and arranged in the
letterpress by Mr. Harrison. H. B. W.

IiI.—Lyman’s GeonocicaL Survey oF Japan.!

if is now nearly three years since we noticed in Dee. IT. Vol. I.

of the Grou. Mag. the preliminary report on the first season’s
work of the Geological Survey in the Island of Yesso. We have
now before us four extremely detailed reports, making up over 900
pages of letterpress, with numerous maps, said to have an area of
190 square feet: the whole recording the operations of the Survey
down to the year 1876.

Mr. Lyman does not appear to have allowed the grass to grow
under his feet; and with the characteristic energy of our American
cousins, we find that sickness was not permitted to arrest his
progress, though the cure adopted was starvation; also, when thrown
from his horse and seriously injured, he had himself carried, thus
performing long journeys.

It speaks well for the capabilities of Japan that he has been able,
within so short a time, to train native assistants, with the aid of but
one fellow-countryman (Mr. Munroe), not alone in geology, but in
surveying and mapping, so as to produce the very highly creditable
results before us.

The printing of the reports is most excellent, clear and neat, the
paper white and good, and though they have only stiff paper covers,
they have a tasteful and business-like look, most having an index,
and all possess the great advantage of clean cut edges. The maps,
too, are well lithographed and photographed, faithfully reflecting
Mr. Lyman’s own style. They look perhaps rather crowded, but it
is from the effort to make them contain all the information possible,
in both Japanese and English writing, the latter in somewhat large
thin block character, probably the most easily acquired by native
draughtsmen. They have also contour lines to show the form of the

Reports of Progress of the Geological Survey of Yesso or Hokkaido and the Oil-
fields of Japan, the Island of Yesso, ete., 1874 to 1877, by Benjamin Smith
Lyman, Chief Geologist and Mining Engineer. Tokei: published by the Kaitakushi
(Colonization Board).

Reviews—Lyman’s Geology of Japan. 523

ground, and what seem to be rather speculative lines to mark, not
merely the outcrops of the important beds, but also their positions
at various depths beneath the surface. One of the maps, a sketch
of the geology of Yesso, is lithographed in colours, the first attempt
of the kind made in Japan, its registry is almost perfect, and it could
scarcely have been better executed anywhere else. On the whole
there is no Geological Survey with which we are acquainted that
produces its results in much better form.

In some respects the reports may be called exhaustive, they are so
numerous and so detailed. One section is given through 6500 feet
of rocks, showing frequently the thickness of strata only amount-
ing to small decimals of a foot, and the distances of one observation
from another are often mentioned in the number of paces actually
stepped, besides stating larger measurements and those of quantity
in both English and Japanese terms. The angles and directions of
dips and strikes are profusely recorded, and even the forms of the
ground below the sea are mentioned.

Nor are the geology and economic geology alone the subjects of
these reports; most of them have the form of a traveller’s journal,
abounding with remarks upon the topography, forests, water power,
hotels, horses, weather, inhabitants, the customs, schools, spelling
and pronunciation of Japanese names, political economy, in short
nearly everything a tourist in a strange land would observe.
Throughout, though geological features receive attention largely, the
practical mining engineer as an observing medium is very evident.

Considerable space is devoted to Coal-fields, as a matter of course,
the carriage and shipment of the mineral, with numerous tables,
showing the constitution of the various beds, and we learn that there
are in Yesso, both above and below sea-level down to 4000 feet,
150,000,000,000 tons of workable coal, or ‘two-thirds as much as
' the coal of the same thickness of the famous fields of Great Britain.”
One descriptive term of frequent occurrence, ‘“‘bony coal,” may be
an American expression, with the meaning of which we are un-
acquainted. ‘ )

The mineral oil of Yesso is black, thick, and does not seem to be
of much economic importance. The island contains an estimated
quantity of 8700 tons of native sulphur. One of the sources of this,
on a promontory at the N.E. side of the island, is thus described :
“Tt is a large hole in the midst of the deposit, ... perhaps a
hundred feet in diameter, and thirty feet deep, and at the bottom
has a smaller hole, perhaps twenty feet long and fifteen wide. The
smaller hole is full to within perhaps five feet of its brim, witha
dark brownish-gray, muddy-looking liquid, which is boiling violently
and spouting upwards for several feet in great commotion, and
sending out heavy fumes of sulphur that hide the view much of the
time. ‘The liquid would appear to be nothing but melted sulphur ;
in the whole branch valley there was no water to be seen. More-
over, water could not exist at that temperature in such a place
without quickly turning to steam and disappearing ; and no steam
is noticeable in the fumes. They are rising from the hole, are

524 Reviews—Lyman’s Geology of Japan.

blown sometimes one way, and sometimes another, and have dropped
powdery sulphur all about within a space of somewhat rectangular
shape, about 250 yards long from top to bottom, and 150 yards
wide across the valley, which here is broad and shallow, and slopes
steeply westward, falling about 325 feet from top to bottom of the
sulphur. There are no plants here, and the ground is covered with
rough blocks of stone of one foot, two feet, or even six feet or more
in diameter, a grey volcanic rock, trachytic porphyry containing
sanadine. Among these stones the sulphur has gathered to irregular
depths, in some hollows quite covering the stones like a snow-drift.
In some places the sulphur is burning quietly at a depth of a few
inches below its surface, and sending out fumes by small holes.
Further down hill the sulphur has been washed by the rains down
the bed of the stream now dry, and has collected into a solid pretty
pure mass, a foot or two, or even three, in thickness, but only a few
feet wide, though perhaps a hundred yards long.” As would not be
unlikely, there is no drinkable water within a mile and a half; the
carriage to the shore is difficult; and yet it is thought a small profit
might be made by working the deposit; the experiment of dipping
up the molten sulphur is suggested, but no mention is made of any
possibility of condensing and thus economising the fumes so largely
given off.

Tron seems only to occur in the forms of magnetic iron sand along
the shores of Volcano Bay, etc., and as bog iron ore in other places,
the whole amount present being hardly more than 100,000 tons.

With regard to geology proper, extended knowledge of the ground
has reduced the number of formations into which the rocks had been
previously divided, so that, instead of the list formerly given, we
have now the following :—

New Alluvium, perhaps up tO wi. cece see seen 100 feet in thickness
Old Alluvium PPI AAU ree tan sae Aa 100 ‘ aS
INCQOD. SOURTOUG TEOGES ing 1 btn!) Sots © Gan) oa 200 99 96
Toshibets Group, probably about owe eee 3000 4
Old Volcanie Rocks, perhaps _.... ee eerie, 8000 op a

Horumui (or Brown Coal-bearing) Group,
ROMO by WINOTG ceo | cmo) emn) ceo! aes as 6500 5 5s
Kamaikotan (Metamorphic), perhaps wa. 3000 5 if

The thicknesses, except those of the Toshibets and Horumui
groups, are not based on any measurements, but inferred from
general observations. i

Mr. Lyman has seen reason to abandon the Toshibets Kuril
division, and to include it with the Toshibets Karafto groups.

In one of his reports specially geological he has not adopted
the chronological order of description, but inverted it, sacrificing the
advantage derivable from giving a comprehensive idea of consecutive
geological events.

A great want is that of geological sections showing the structure
of the island, and the manner in which the different groups succeed
each other. Sections across the coal-beds are frequently given,
showing synclinal and anticlinal curves, the forms of which need
not as a general rule be necessarily those assumed for them from
observations on the dips taken at the surface, but we do not find a

Reviews—Lyman’s Geology of Japan. 525

single section showing the geological relations of the formations,
and this is the more strange because it would appear that ample
materials for rough ones at ‘least have been collected.

In connexion with his rock groups, our author, too, seems to
place more importance than necessary upon the directions in which
the beds are folded, the folds of different regions, or of the same
region with different axial directions, being thought to mark different
periods of disturbance, without the collateral testimony of uncon-
formity or distinct superposition, or much other conclusive evidence
being adduced to prove difference of age, either of the rocks them-
selves, or in their systems of disturbance.

The oldest group of the Island of Yesso is the Kamaikotan (or
Home of the Gods) subdivision, a series of metamorphic quartzites,
talcose and quartzose schists, blue marble, and blackish serpentine,
with greenish impure limestone, granites, and mica schist. So far
as we have gathered, these rocks are all distinctly stratified, they
contain no fossils, and are sharply contorted with steep angles of
dip from 45° to 60° or more. They form the core of the island, and
any mineral veins they contain traverse also rocks of the next newer
stage, so that it is doubtful if they contain any peculiar to them-
selves—even the gold of the superficial deposits not being excepted.
These metamorphic rocks are of unknown age.

Next newer than this is the Horumm group, containing very
numerous, but for the most part thin or impure beds of coal, with
some good coal, having but a small per-centage of ash, and some
‘furnishing’ coke of good appearance. ‘The rocks are chiefly sand-
stones of greenish or grey colour and grey shales or clays. The
fossils found have been few, and not carefully studied; but the rocks
are thought to be of early Tertiary or possibly of late Secondary age.
In probably the lowest beds a Ptychoceras and some Ammonites
have been obtained. This group is more than double the thickness
of any other.

Conformably succeeding these, apparently, though this is not dis-
tinctly stated to be the case, is a group of Old Volcanic rocks,
trachyte porphyries, with smali crystals of glassy felspar, taken to be
of late date, because of their rhyolitic character. Light grey, coarse-
grained syenite occurs in them at several places, and diorite less
frequently. These rocks, it is supposed, may have partly issued from
volcanos that still send out new volcanic rocks.

Then comes the Toshibets group. possibly locally conformable and
passing into that preceding. In this group Mr. Munroe distinguished
two divisions, the upper of clays, sandstones and pumice, or other
conglomerates derived wholly from volcanic rocks, and the lower
of shales, sandstones and conglomerates. Between the two he thought
at one place he detected an unconformity, though there was none
elsewhere.

Derived pebbles of syenite and other crystalline rocks in these
beds, supposed to have come from the Old Volcanic group, would at
least suggest more of unconformity than is stated to exist.

One bed, 500 feet or so from the top of the group, contains fossil

526 Correspondence—Prof. Ralph Tate.

Pectens, Oysters, etc., of very recent appearance, in considerable
numbers. It is this group also which contains the slightly oil-
bearing beds ; the rocks are extremely disturbed, and are conjectured
by Mr. Lyman to be of middle Tertiary age.

The New Volcanic rocks include those surrounding or near all the
numerous volcanic mountains of the island—pumice of light-brown
colour with capillary pores, trachytic rock, etc.; some of these
voleanos still sending forth sulphurous smoke, and one having
been in eruption as late as 1874.

The Old Alluvium consists of materials brought down by ancient
rivers, just as the New Alluvium does of that now being deposited by
the present streams. Overlying the latter are extensive marshes
and some peat.

Among the minerals of less importance than those previously
mentioned, the gold-fields of the island are, perhaps, only worth
noticing, to say that, after close examination, the industrial prospects
connected with them are unpromising, 180,000 dollars worth being
barely workable.

The Survey is conducted under the orders of the Colonization
Board, or Kaitakushi, whose multifarious supervision seems to in-.
clude the making of roads, railways, bridges, building of schools,
ownership of all the horses in the island, introduction of cattle,
grain, and other plants from abroad, as well as fruit trees, the produce of
hundreds of thousands, which will, Mr. Lyman observes, bring the
good fame of the Kaitakushi most agreeably into everybody’s mouth.

Although these reports leave the impression that there is a good
deal still to be done in the way of elucidating the geology of Yesso,
they contain a fund of interesting information, which warrants the
wish of still further success to the Geological Survey of Japan.— W.

COE Si @ ape ae Ni@ aaa

ae

OSTRACODA AND FORAMINIFERA IN THE MIOCENE OF SOUTH
AUSTRALIA.!

Sir,—In the Gronocican Magazine for July, 1876, Mr. Robert
Etheridge, jun., has furnished a list of Foraminifera and Ostracoda
derived from the matrix of mollusca obtained from the Government
Well sunk on the Murray Flats, between the Burra and the North-
West Bend, South Australia, and I wish to correct errors that he has
fallen into in assigning the beds yielding the fossils to the post-
Tertiary, and in remarking that the River Murray Flats must be
composed of strata, geologically speaking, of no great antiquity.

The River Murray Plain is constituted of Miocene strata (conten-
poraneous with the fossiliferous beds of Tertiary age in the southern
and western parts of Victoria, with which your correspondent is so
familiar), These Miocene beds are bounded on the west by the

1 This letter has been by an oversight accidentally held over.—Edit. Grou. Mac.

Correspondence—Rev. O. Fisher; H.E.H., Reversed Faults. 527

Adelaide chain of metamorphic and slate rocks, where they are
covered up by a Pliocene drift (of pluvial or glacial origin), contain-
ing remains of extinct marsupialia and trees only.

The two sets of deposits are shown in the Well-section alluded to,

which is as follows :—
Estimated thicknesses.

PLI0cENE— Feet.
SPMallee a ClAY anal. acen meta a imlete eens ye Ne ee 40

Mi0cEenz (marine).
Light-coloured sandstone with casts of shells _..... 10
Gravelly ironstone and bands of clay 81
ie ae as Be
Sandstone) without shells)eey ee) meen tenem oa ern ters 17
Woose Sandee sit ee N ECE a eR ee eek a EE 6

Actual depth ..... ..... 154

UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE,
June 18th, 1877. Ratra Tate.

ELEPHAS MERIDIONALIS IN DORSET.

Str,—At a recent visit to the Blackmore Museum at Salisbury,
I was surprised to see two specimens of the teeth of Hlephas
meridionalis, which were labelled as found at Dewlish, in Dorset-
shire. This being a preglacial species, it would be interesting to
learn under what conditions they occurred at that locality, which is
situated among the Chalk downs. ‘The specimens were white, and
had the appearance of having come out of Chalk debris.

The only specimen I have seen from any Hnglish locality besides
the Cromer Forest-bed was a fragment at the Chichester Museum,
said to have been found on the neighbouring Sussex coast.

Can any of your correspondents give information about these
specimens ? O. FisueEr.

REVERSED FAULTS IN BEDDED SLATES.

Sir,—I should like to call Mr. Hebert’s attention to a few points
in his article on the above subject in the October Number, which
appear to require further consideration. Though it may be the
established rule in some coal-mining districts that the hade of a
fault is to the downthrow, there are in other districts exceptions to
this rule, in which the faults are reversed,’ or, as they are commonly
called here, overlap faults. The cause of these reversed faults is, as
stated, no doubt horizontal pressure, the results produced varying
with the angle of hade, friction, and so forth. The causes of these
horizontal pressures I should be glad to see further discussed by the
author. The cooling of the earth, and consequent contraction of
the nucleus beneath the solid crust, has, as well as the more local
effects of earthquakes and volcanic intrusions, been suggested as a
cause. It is evident that a local subsidence under an arched portion
of strata will, if the abutments are stronger than the arch at the
line of subsequent rupture (or fault), cause an overlap or reversed
fault when the arch gives way, or it is evident that the matter may

i

528 Correspondence—Mr. C. Callaway.

be complicated by a local upheaval of somewhat horizontal strata
into acurve or arch; that then, while still upheaved and so distended
laterally, a subsidence may take place towards the crown only of the
arch, letting down the keystone, so to speak, as a ‘trough’ fault ;
then, on an extension of the same subsidence over a larger area, the
arch, being keyed up afresh by the occurrence of the trough fault,
can only give way by rupture of the nature of an overlap or reversed
fault. These overlaps are sometimes on a considerable scale. Within
a few miles of the place whence I write, there is a well-defined and
proved and, as it happens, easily measured fault of this kind, in
which the amount of movement is no less than 101 fathoms mea-
sured in the plane of the fault, the amount of throw being seventy-
four fathoms vertical, and about sixty-nine fathoms horizontal. The
hade of this fault is very nearly the same as Mr. Hebert’s experi-
mental ones, being 47°. I would also call attention to the fact that
the downward vertical pressure P (vide his diagram) can in no case
exceed the actual simple weight of the mass above the fault, and
that in actual nature it is impossible (vide Fig. 2) for the left-hand
portion to subside unless there be room for it to subside into. This
room can, generally speaking, only be got by the horizontal
separation of the masses on both sides of the portion subsiding. It
would thus appear probable that all direct faults are of the nature
of trough faults, that is to say, that either near or far off there is a
somewhat parallel fault with an opposite hade, contemporaneous as
to date of occurrence, and that this pair of faults meet sooner or
later in depth. I would thus suggest that in the case of direct
faults Mr. Hebert should in his inference substitute horizontal
tension for vertical pressure (which is a secondary effect), and that
the rule should be stated thus :—direct faults are indicative of
horizontal tension, reversed faults of horizontal pressure.

Ston Easton, NEAR Baru. H. E. H.

PROF. MANTOVANI AND THE ‘MIOLITHIC’ PERIOD.

Srr,—Prof. Mantovani, in your last issue, proposes the term
“ Miolithic ” for a period intermediate between the Palzolithic
and the Neolithic. The term appears to be formed upon the
“Miocene ” of Lyell, which, of course, does not mean Middle
Tertiary. Should the Italian Professor establish his new period,
he would more appropriately substitute ‘ Mesolithic” for ‘‘ Mio-
lithic.” It is to be presumed he uses his terms in a purely local
sense, for his Italian Miolithic age is represented as being con-
temporaneous with an age which produced “beautiful vessels of
perfect work, resembling those of the ancient Htruscans,” and was,
therefore, probably post-lithic. The teachers of our science should
not forget, for the sake of beginners, that the words “ Paleolithic,”
“ Neolithic,” etc., represent, not absolute epochs of time, but stages
in human development. CHARLES CALLAWAY.

WELLINGTON, SALOP,
Oct. 4th, L877.

THE

GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE.

NEW SERIES. DECADE II. VOL. IV.
No. XII.—DECEMBER, 1877.

Gs RINT NAG | AC Sse De@)a ins aS

J.—On THe Occurrence or Cuatk in THE New Brarrain Grovr.
By Proressor LiversipcGe, Erc., Erc.,
University of Sydney.
(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, July 4, 1877.)

i the following brief notice it is my wish to communicate to the

Society a description of the physical properties and chemical
composition of one of the geological specimens recently brought
from the above group of islands.

The specimen which I now have the honour to lay before you is
not only interesting in itself, as an example of what is known as an
organically formed rock, since it is built up almost entirely of the
calcareous skeletal remains of organic forms; but it is interesting
in a still higher degree, as it apparently indicates that a most impor-
tant geological discovery has been made of the presence of chalk in
a hitherto unknown, and even unsuspected, locality.

In October last, the Rev. G. Brown, Wesleyan missionary,
brought amongst other specimens from New Britain and New Ire-
land (New Britain Group, latitude 4° §., and 150° E. longitude)
certain grotesque figures of men and animals, which had been
carved by the natives of the above islands out of a soft white some-
what pulverulent material, having much the appearance of plaster
of paris or chalk. Some of these figures were deposited in the
Museum, and a fragment broken off from one of them was placed in
my hands for identification.

On examination the remains of numerous Foraminifera are at once
detected, the forms of the larger ones being plainly visible, even to
the unaided eye; under the microscope the whole mass of the rock
is seen to be almost entirely composed of the shells and fragments
of shells of Foraminifera, the remains of Globigerine being most
abundant. ‘To obtain the shells of the Foraminifera tree from the
cementing calcareous matter, it is only necessary to gently rub the
surface of the specimen with a soft tooth or nail brush under a stream
of water, when the whole surface of the fragment submitted to the
operation speedily becomes studded with the minute shells and frag-
ments of shells of Foraminifera, now left standing out in relief. To
free the Foraminifera perfectly from the accompanying powder, it is
sufficient to dry the collected debris and to place it upon the surface
of some clean water contained in a glass beaker or other vessel; the
larger or more cavernous Foraminifera float on the surface of the water,
while the broken fragments, much of the amorphous powder, and many
of the denser Foraminifera, are deposited at the bottom of the vessel
as a sediment. ‘The very light and finely divided parts are got rid of
by decanting the milky supernatant liquid. In the sediment the

DECADE II.—VOL. IV.—NO. XII. 34
'

530 Prof. Liversidge—Chalk in New Britain.

microscope reveals the presence of the smaller Foraminifera, of a few
sponge spicules, and minute grains of what are evidently siliceous and
igneous rock.

The further examination showed that the material is limestone,
having a very close resemblance to chalk, both in chemical composition
and in physical properties; in colour it is not the dazzling white of
some chalk, but bears a closer resemblance to the light grey varieties.
Although it is essentially composed of carbonate of lime, still it is
not perfectly pure; there are certain impurities present in the form of
alumina, iron, silica, manganese, etc.; but reference will again be
made to this question later on.

To ascertain whether my supposition that the rock might be regarded
as chalk and not merely as a soft, white friable recent limestone, or as
a deposit such as is now forming over parts of the beds of the Atlantic
and Pacific Oceans, I took an early opportunity, when writing, to
inclose a portion of the material to Mr. H. B. Brady, F.R.S., of
Neweastle-on-Tyne, who has devoted himself to the study of Foramini-
ferous deposits, and I have since received a reply from him, in which
he says :—

‘‘Wirst, let me speak of your chalk from the New Britain Group. I
suppose you have ascertained that it is a Cretaceous chalk and not a
friable Tertiary limestone. All the Foraminifera, or nearly so, are
South Pacific recent pelagic and deep-sea species, Glodigerina bulloides,
Gl. inflata, Pulvinulina Menardii (a thick variety which I do not think
is yet named), P. Micheliniana, and probably P. Karsten, Pullenia
spheroides, Nonionina umbilicatula, Bulimina Buchiana, fragments of
Dentalina, Uvigerina, ete. Also a characteristic Pulvinulina, with
thick shell and honeycombed surfa¢e, not yet described, of which I
have quantities in the ‘ Challenger’ material.”

In answer to a question as to the locality and mode of occurrence of
the material used for the carvings, the Rev. G. Brown wrote to me as
follows :—‘‘ The chalk of which the figures are formed is, I am in-
formed, only found on the beach after an earthquake, being cast up
there in large pieces by the tidal wave. It is only found, as far as we
know at present, in one district on the east side of New Ireland.”

We have now to consider its chemical composition in somewhat
closer detail, and to compare the results furnished by analysis with
those yielded by specimens of typical or true chalk.

Chemical Composition of specimen from New Ireland.
Hygroscopic moisture, 7.e, water driven off at 100° C.... 1-202

Canbonicvanlhydride eee) ise Mico iess Mikes sO ORO ON
MbRONM ETOP) 345, 455° 1905) G00 Gad C00 000 500 ago LDN
JMG, Gg4, G00' | an 5001900 900, d00 0. aco, c(i PHL GH
Kohler net Bari tehkie!, BbaU NaS), dodll/'caslis’dog! Ulsdoleabditcoo: oT
Phos phoricracidus isles alee eo aieceln st eae e MITTUDOREACe
Manganese) provoxiden- aie msciicce ailsctells <acliiicretl ieseniNiece 623
IE ibNIYss (2A2 Th da We Gob ican) Boke -adoe: LODE | .0d0; 2, CoOtL eeu wood | GHeRaUS
WEEROISIE, ono) Gon) 660. G00 O58 /m00 OO) ODD Od, 00 476
Taye ysl sa)! gga "abs. dog» odo! \dad).""G00) 808) | d00')- G00.) B80 308
Oda ast LE cca tenet adease eaethanreen eat nie eminimeel titer 260
Chlorine... 900, G00,. cod od 105

Combined qaalige anul ameletanminatl a, seo) vista yeeeek keel a TOMnOO

Specific gravity, 2°199 at 59° F.

‘Prof. Liversidge—Chatk in New Britain. 531

The specific gravity was taken from a mass weighing about
78 grammes, which was allowed to soak in water for about one hour
and a half, in fact until all air-bubbles ceased to be evolved; a small
quantity of the block scaled off when immersed in the water—a
correction for which had to be made.

The above figures show that in round numbers about 81 per cent.
of the specimen consists of calcium .carbonate; thus it is undoubtedly
a far less pure limestone than the ordinary white chalk, as the follow-
ing figures indicate.

Chemical Composition of Chalk.

A specimen of chalk, from near Gravesend, which was analysed by
Mr. W. J. Ward, yielded the following results :—

Calcium carbonate ... eee Bea) ton li eGa God) WoleaP4

iP eTNeRIT INCE WINO TENE 53 Gyo) od) Goo Mcto. 655 cdo dds *29
Crnlioriniin SUNN g56°>.655" G90" M600) 606° Gan" God Gna, coe 14
Manganese DINOKIMe ies. | lors Mack bool ue) wc tveee aloes 04
Hosphoric]acideieve teres Eccl sceh) pscilisonte) opments (eGEACeS
Onaamnrcigmaitberssy ee) mee ctistee ot) eneoy dieos! | naney teste voce Mies nae
imsoluble matter, chiethy, silica) \s..2- 1... \es)) cee ese Wess 65
99-64

Mr. David Forbes, F.R.S., also examined some specimens of chalk,
the analyses of which are here cited; the first analysis shows the com-
position of a piece of white chalk from Shoreham, in Sussex; and the
second of a piece of grey chalk from Folkestone.

White chalk. Grey chalk.
Calemmycanbonateyesemaee een san eaeeei a sect O54 Ole 409

Miaonesimm'carbonaterse cp sch tron cacchl iece 5O.Sie rene “31
Phosphoric acid WAG

Alumina and loss if coe ene eos cece eee eee 42 ooo trace
Sodinme chloride wires sisitlss) (aces ioe Mens = ono || oY)
Wreniee 76 6) 'o60. 000 000 =>) coo “70

Insoluble rock débris Be ee Seeks see ae Oe e eae: ese Gil

100:00 100-00

(Vide ‘‘Geology of England and Wales,” by H. B. Woodward, p. 239.)
Another sample of chalk obtained from a well at Driffield. was found
by Mr. T. Hodgson to have the following composition :—
Moisture o38 1060. | a

Walciuimycarbonateyy isu vpaicam tse ie Seca cae en OB aS
Mae nesiumicaTyONateyeoeunt-sciu rach ipacs neo e pees eas 15
Hiconisesquioxidevandvaluminayl gcoumene nes | eas lente °20
Sul caya esse A TeRan 158 os SUT RES See SER Ra atc energy

100-00

Tt is, however, far less impure than the “chalk mud” of the
Atlantic, for the analysis quoted by Professor Sir Charles Wyville
Thomson, F.R.S., in his ‘‘ Depths of the Sea,” p. 469, shows that the
‘‘chalk mud”’ contains merely some 60 per cent. of calcium carbonate,
and with as much as from 20 to 30 per cent. of silica, and varying
proportions of alumina, magnesia, iron, and other substances. The same
author mentions that the typical chalk is free from silica, and so it
would appear to be from the above-quoted analyses; but the “insoluble

582 Prof. Liversidge—Chalk in New Britain.

rock débris’’? mentioned by the late talented David Forbes, F.R.S.,
probably consisted largely of silica.

The only locality for chalk in the Pacific Islands to which I can find
any reference occurs in Dana’s work on ‘‘ Corals and Coral Islands,”
see p. 308. But this even is not true chalk; it is merely a recent
limestone derived from disintegrated corals, and which resembles chalk.

“‘The formation of chalk from coral is known to be exemplified at
only one spot among the reefs of the Pacific.

‘‘The coral mud often looks as if it might be a fit material for its
production ; moreover, when simply dried, it has much the appearance
of chalk, a fact pointed out by Lieutenant Nelson in his memoir on the
Bermudas (1834), and also by Mr. Darwin, and suggested to the author
by the mud in the lagoon of Honden Island. Still this does not explain
the origin of chalk, for, under all ordinary circumstances, this mud
solidifies into compact limestone instead of chalk, a result which would
be naturally expected. What condition then is necessary to vary the
result, and set aside the ordinary process ?

‘‘The only locality for chalk among the reefs of the Pacific, referred
to above, was not found on any of the coral islands, but in the elevated
reef of Oahu, near Honolulu, of which reef it forms a constituent
part. It is twenty or thirty feet in extent, and eight or ten feet deep.

‘The rock could not be distinguished from much of the chalk of
England; it is equally fine and even in its texture, as earthy in its
fracture, and so soft as to be used on the blackboard in the native
schools.

‘Some imbedded shells look precisely like chalk fossils. It con-
tained, according to Professor Silliman, 92°80 per cent. of carbonate of
lime, 2°88 of carbonate of magnesia, besides some alumina, oxide of
iron, silica, ete.

‘The locality is situated on the shores, quite above high-tide level,
near the foot of Diamond Hill. This hill is an extinct tufa cone,
nearly 700 feet in height, rising from the water’s edge, and in its
origin it must have been partly submarine. It is one of the lateral
cones of Eastern Oahu, and was thrown up at the time of an eruption
through a fissure, the lava of which appears at the base. There was
some coral on the shores when the eruption took place, as is evident
from imbedded fragments in the tufa; but the reef containing the
chalk appeared to have been subsequent in formation, and afforded no
certain proof of any connexion between the fires of the mountain and
the formation of the chalk.

‘The fine earthy texture of the material is evidence that the deposit
was not a subaerial sea-shore accumulation, since only sandstones and
conglomerates, with rare instances of more compact rocks, are thus
formed. Sand-rock making is the peculiar prerogative, the world over,
of shores exposed to waves, or strong currents, either of marine or of
fresh water. We should infer, therefore, that the accumulation was
produced either in a confined area, into which the fine material from a
beach may have been washed, or on the shore of a shallow quiet sea—
in other words, under the same conditions nearly as are required to
produce the calcareous mud of the coral island. But, although the
agency of fire in the result cannot be proved, it is by no means im-

Prof. Liversidge—Chalk in New Britain. 533

probable, from the position of the bed of chalk, that there may have
been a hot spring at the spot occupied by it.

“That there were some peculiar circumstances distinguishing this
from other parts of the reef, is evident.

“This, if a true conclusion, is to be taken, however, only as one
method by which chalk may be made. For there is no reason to
suppose that the chalk of the chalk formation has been subjected to
heat. On the contrary, it is now well ascertained that it is of cold-
water origin, even to its flints, and that it is made up largely of minute
Foraminifera, the shells of Rhizopods.

‘Professor Bailey found under his microscope no traces of Forami-
nifera, or of anything distinctly organic, in the chalk.”

The entire absence of any remains of Foraminifera must, I venture
to think, completely destroy any claim for the Oahu limestone to be
regarded as chalk proper. Neither can the Atlantic ooze, rich though
it be in coccoliths and the shells of Foraminifera, be regarded as chalk.
It is true that it may in future geological ages fulfil Prof. Sir C. Wyville
Thomson’s prediction and become such, but even of that we cannot be
certain. At present it is a soft calcareous mud, and a very impure one.
When consolidated and converted into dry land, instead of forming a
brilliant white chalk limestone, a hard compact argillaceous or siliceous
slaty limestone may be the result. The true white chalk so familiar
to Englishmen is found over an area extending from the southern part
of Sweden to Bordeaux, a distance in round numbers of 850 miles,
and again from the northern part of Ireland to the Crimea, z.e. about
1140 miles. I am, of course, referring to the extent merely of the
soft white limestone known emphatically as chalk, not to the areas
occupied by that great variety of rocks which are classed with the
chalk, and which are collectively known as the rocks of the Chalk
or Cretaceous period, from the fact that they contain certain fossils in
common.

Rocks belonging to the Chalk or Cretaceous period have a very wide
distribution, being found in Europe, Asia, Africa, America, and in
Australia from Western Australia to Queensland, and New Zealand.
It may, perhaps, be mentioned as an argement in favour of the
probability of the New Ireland limestone being properly regarded as of
Cretaceous age, that we have Cretaceous rocks in Queensland as far
north as 11° S., and in New Guinea, still nearer to New Ireland, we
have rocks which undoubtedly belong to the Mesozoic or Secondary
period, for amongst the geological specimens brought by Signor
D’Albertis from the Fly River, and submitted to me for examination,
there were Belemnites, an Ammonite (this Ammonite bears a very close
resemblance to a Liassic form), and other fossils, such as teeth of Carcha-
rodon and shells of Pecten, all of which may or may not belong to the
Cretaceous age. It would be by nomeansastartling thing tofind that these
Secondary beds had an extension to the New Britain group of islands,
a distance of only a few hundred miles, which would comprise an area
by no means equal to the extent of country occupied in Europe by the
typical white chalk. It should, however, be mentioned that no true
white chalk has yet been found either in Queensland or in New Guinea.

In conclusion, it may be stated that the principal reasons in

534 Henry B. Brady—WNotes on Cretaceous Foraminifera.

favour of the rock being regarded as chalk are that physically it is
almost indistinguishable from most typical specimens of that rock, and
that it has had the same organic origin; the Foraminifera alone are not,
unfortunately, sufficient to rigidly determine the geological age of the
rock, because they are types which have been persistent from the
Cretaceous period to the present time.

I.—Supriementary Note on tHE Foraminirera or THE CHALK (?)
oF THE New Briratn Grovp.

By Henry B. Brapy, F.R.S., Erc., Ec.

INCE writing the letter quoted in the foregoing communication
by my friend Prof. Liversidge, I have had the opportunity of
examining a larger fragment of the calcareous rock to which it
refers, and am thereby enabled to add somewhat, not merely to the
list of Foraminifera which it contains, but also to the general con-
clusions to be drawn from it. The lithological characters of the
rock are, as Prof. Liversidge has stated, precisely those of many
specimens of white chalk, but it is seldom that a Cretaceous mineral
is so entirely composed of the recognizable remains of microzoa, and
it is still more rarely that a geological deposit occurs, for which so
exact a counterpart in process of formation can be indicated. Under
these circumstances some further remarks on the subject may not be
without interest.
The following is a revised list of the Foraminifera, with notes
appended concerning a few of the less generally understood species :

Spiroloculina celata, Costa. Globigerina bulloides, d’ Orbigny.

Lagena marginata, Montagu.
levis, Montagu.
apiculata, Reuss.
aspera, Reuss.
Dentalina brevis, @ Orbigny.

communis, d Orbigny.

obliquestriata, Reuss.
Vaginulina legumen, Linné.
Uvigerina asperula, Cz} zek.

Bulimina Buchiana, @ Orbigny.

Cassidulina crassa, d Orbigny.

Gaudryina pupoides, d Orbigny.

Pullenia spheroides, V Orbigny.

——— inflata, d Orbigny.

—— Dutertrei, d Orbigny.

sacculifera, Nov.

(Orbulina) universa, WV Orbigny.

Spheroidina bulloides, d’Orbigny.

dehiscens, Parker and Jones.

Pulvinulina Menardii, d Orbigny.

—_—— — var. twinida, nov.
pauperata, Parker and Jones.
Savus, NOV.

Rotalia Soldanit, V Orbigny.

Nonionina umbilicatula, Montagu.
pompilioides, Fichtel and Moll.

compressiuscula, Reuss.

This category, though considerably extended, by no means ex-
hausts the material, for it contains, in addition, certain species of
Planorbulina and Truncatulina, which I have not as yet been able
to identify, besides fragments of Nodosarians, and some other obscure
organisms.

Spiroloculina celata, Costa. —This name is adopted in the absence
of a better for a species not uncommon in deep-water dredgings,
both from the Atlantic and the Pacific. The test is composed of a
uniform very fine sand, without any basis of calcareous shell; the
sutures are scarcely discernible on the exterior; the aperture small
and obscure, sometimes apparently wanting. It differs from the

Henry B. Brady—Notes on Cretaceous Foraminifera. 535

Quinqueloculina agglutinans of @’Orbigny both in shell-texture and in
general contour. The late Professor Costa figures such a form
(Paleont. del» Regno di Napoli, pt. 2, pl. 26, fig. 5), though in some-
what clumsy fashion, under the name above employed.

Lagena marginata.—Two or three pretty distinct forms are in-
cluded under this specific name. The varieties of L. marginata
have not as yet been sufficiently worked out.

Globigerina sacculifera, nov.—This is a somewhat important modi-
fication of the Globigerine type, and one that appears almost to have
escaped attention hitherto. Dr. Carpenter figures a poor specimen
(‘ Introduction,’ pl. 12, fig. 11) under the name Globigerina helicina,
@Orb., but the figures in Soldani’s ‘Testaceographia,’ on which
d’Orbigny founded that species, pertain to a very different form, the
name for which cannot be spared. Reserving details respecting
the subordinate groups into which the genus may be divided for
another opportunity, it will suffice to state here that the trivial name
sacculifera has been applied to a set of Globigerine, in which the
terminal chamber or chambers take an elongate, pouch-shaped and
usually pointed contour, and always present at least one large
aperture on the superior or spiral surface. Such forms are common
and grow to considerable size, especially in deep water south of
the Equator.

Pulvinulina Menardii, var. tumida, nov.—A thick, oblong modifica-
tion of P. Menardii, d’Orb. The superior surface is subconical, the
inferior strongly convex. There seems to be no satisfactory descrip-
tion or figure of this variety, though the dead shells are common,
and of large size, in many deep-sea dredgings.

Pulvinulina favus, nov., is a somewhat remarkable species. When
fully grown, the test is lenticular, and nearly symmetrically bi-
convex, and the surface, except around the aperture, which is oblique,
and peripheral, is covered with a raised reticulate ornamentation.
The spiral structure is entirely concealed’ by the exogenous honey-
comb-like shelly deposit. Young specimens are relatively much
thicker than adults, and have the margin blunt or rounded.

Comparing the Rhizopod fauna characterized by the species above
enumerated with what we know of the accumulations at present
going on at the sea-bottom in various parts of the globe, it is not
difficult to indicate recent deposits at depths of 1400 fathoms and
upwards in either the Atlantic or the Pacific having the same
general characters in their organic constituents. There is, however,
one species, Pulvinulina favus, which serves to limit the area of com-
parison. A cursory examination of the rough notes upon about a
hundred and fifty soundings from the “Challenger” and “ Porcu-
pine” expeditions has only furnished six localities at which this
form occurs, and these are all of them between Stations 271 and 302
of the ‘‘ Challenger” series, that is, from just on the Equator in the
middle of the Pacific, on a course direct south and then east, to a
point off the South American coast, lat. 42° 43’ S., long. 82° 11’ W.,
the depths varying from 1875 faths. to 2435 faths. Upon closer

586 S. V. Wood, jun.— American and British Surface-Geology. —

comparison it is noticeable that the soundings obtained from this
area also resemble the rock under examination in the comparative
rarity of Pulvinulina Micheliniana, one of the commonest of Atlantic
Foraminifera, and in the scarcity of the arenaceous types. But little
care was taken, in the process of washing, to preserve the Radiolaria,
but such as remain are of the same species as those of the line of
dredgings alluded to.

In conclusion, it appears to me not too much to say that after
disintegration and washing this ‘ Chalk” from the New Britain
Group could not possibly be distinguished by its organic remains
from a washed Globigerina-ooze dredged in 1500 to 2500 fathoms
in the South Pacific. The determination of the exact geological age
is a matter for geologists; my observations have necessarily been
limited to the physical characters and the organic constituents of
the specimen placed in my hands by Prof. Liversidge, but it appears
worth considering whether the rock may not be part of a recent sea-
bottom which has been distributed by volcanic or other agency.

Such deposits may be very old chronologically speaking, and we
know by dredging experience that they do often become very hard
and compact even comparatively near the shore. Mr. Brown’s letter,
quoted above, provides us with the required disintegrating force.

I1J.—American “ Surrace Gronocy,” anp 1rs RELATION TO BRITISH.
Wire some Remarks on THE GuaciAL ConpiTIons IN BRITAIN,
ESPECIALLY IN REFERENCE TO THE “GREAT Ick AGE” oF Mr.
JAMES GEIKIE.

By Szarntes V. Woop, Jun., F.G.8.
(PART IT.)
(Continued from page 496.)

UMEROUS buried channels filled with drift occur over Ohio and
the neighbouring states forming the St. Lawrence basin. Some
of these penetrate the water-parting, and formed, according to Prof.
Newberry, waste weirs through which the lake waters of the St.
Lawrence basin escaped into the valley of the Mississippi, as the
land rose and the sea retired from that valley. This, if I understand
him rightly, took place after the beds 3a had been formed, and
before the terraces, to be described under the number 4, began to
form by the fall of the lake waters; but these waste weirs would
seem to have probably acted the same part also at an earlier period,
viz. during the commencement of the Erie clay deposit, when the
lake began to form by the recession of the ice from the water-parting,
and when it must have been full up to the brim of that parting, or
at least up to the level of the waste weirs.

The final shrinking, however, of the waters of the lake-basin is
marked, according to Prof. Newberry, by the formation of clearly-
marked terraces or lake-beaches at successive levels, the uppermost
of which inosculates with these waste weirs. The shrinkage giving
rise to them may have arisen, he says, from the removal of ice-dams

S. V. Wood, jun.— American and British Surface-Geology. 537

(such, I suppose, as that which blocked out the sea from the lake-
basin during the depression which gave rise to the marine clays of
the Lower St. Lawrence), or by the cutting away of barriers of
drift, or even, he adds, by the “ warping of the earth’s crust.” It
does not appear that any of these terraces, though possessing great
constancy of level, present such visible regularity as the well-known
roads of Glenroy; but if, as is the more probable, the shrinkage of
the lake-basin was due to the removal of an ice-dam, their origin
would seem to be identical with that to which the inclination of
modern opinion refers these roads.

A very interesting feature in the geology of the lake region
consists in the buried channels now filled with and concealed by
Drift. Some of these form the waste weirs just referred to. but
they occur also at various lower levels, even to levels beneath those
of the existing lakes; so that if opened again great modifications
would take place in the hydrographical conditions of the St. Law-
rence basin; and indeed Prof. Newberry ventures to assert that
buried channels of communication exist between Lake Erie and
Lake Ontario. If such exist, then, of course, Niagara could by
their opening be laid dry, and he dwells on the practical service to
which the various buried channels might be turned for engineering
purposes. He also insists on the soundness of the rock-basin
erosion theory as applied to the entire valley of the St. Lawrence.
This valley he describes as having been prior to the Glacial period,
and when the elevation of that part of the North American con-
tinent was considerably greater than now, the valley of a river-
system which flowed at much lower levels than at present; and
which, instead of reaching the Atlantic as it now does by way of
the Gulf of St. Lawrence, flowed between the Adirondack and
Appalachian mountains, in the line of one of these buried channels,
passing through the trough of the Hudson River, and emptying
into the Atlantic about eighty miles south-east of New York. At
this time, according to the Professor, that part of the St. Lawrence
valley which is now formed by the basins of Lakes Michigan and
Superior formed no part of the river-system to which they now
belong, but part of a separate river-system emptying itself into the
Mississippi, the Straits of Mackinau not being then opened; and it
is to the erosive action of the glacier-ice, which during the Glacial
period crept down from the Laurentian highlands of Canada, and
filled these pre-existing valley systems, that he attributes their
excavation and conversion into the one great basin which now
receives so large a part of the drainage of North America, and is
referred to under the name of the lake-basin, or basin of the St.
Lawrence.

Assuming that my suggestions as to the period and mode of
origin of the Ohio Eskers have some good foundation, I propose,
subject to the qualifying observations applied to each case, to
suggest certain synchronisms between the Glacial and post-Glacial
phenomena of the St. Lawrence basin and those of Britain, according
to the view of the English beds to which their study has led me.

538 S. V. Wood, jun.—American and British Surface- Geology.

As a preliminary, however, it may be well, for clearness sake, to
recapitulate in their descending order, from the newest to the oldest,
the deposits of the St. Lawrence basin, with such alterations in
their relative ages as I have suggested, viz. :
The later part of the Lake Terraces (beds No. 4), and the Eskers and Kames of
the Canadian Highlands.
The earlier part of the Lake Terraces (beds No. 4), and the Marine Clays.
The Yellow Clays with Gravel and Boulders (beds No. 3a), and possibly a part
of the Marine Clays.
The Forest surface resting on the Erie Clay (bed No. 2).
The Erie Clay (bed No. 1) which commenced with the formation of Eskers and
Kames on the Ohio water-parting (beds No. 32).

Approaching then the examination in detail of the conditions
under which we may seek to find grounds of synchronism between
the American and Hnglish series, we have first the oldest members
in the series of each country to examine; and therefore, but without
suggesting any synchronism between them by so doing, I place

them side by side, viz. :

ENGLISH.

St. Lawrence Basin.

The Lower Glacial Series.

This series begins with a littoral and estuarine deposit
of pebbly sands (the Bure Valley beds of myself, and
Westleton Shingle of Prestwich), containing a molluscan
fauna differing but little (chiefly in the introduction of
Yellina Balthica) from the later (Chillestord) beds of the
Crag. These sands are fossiliferous in places, and con-
tain Mya truncata with valves united and siphonal ex-
tremities vertical just as they lived; and they pass up by
interbedding into the Cromer Till, which is a deposit
of deeper water, though also estuarine, and whose for-
mation took place while the sands continued still in
progress of accumulation in South Norfolk and North-
East Suffolk. Up to this time, though the ice ripped off
long sheets of Chalk, which are interstratified in the
Cromer Till, it appears to me that the glacier-ice had
not, in England at least, become confluent, @.e. formed
into a continuous sheet. The series ends with the Con-
torted Drift, a marjne deposit of reddish-brown mud and
silt, into which the Cromer Till passes up. This Drift
was accumulated under a depth of water sufficient to float
large bergs; for these in grounding have buried huge
masses of remanié Chalk in the mud and silt, contorting
it in the process, though what that depth may have been
is very difficult to estimate. The glaciers had evidently
much increased at this time, so as to form these bergs,
but whether even then they were confluent over England
is not apparent, as the glacier from which the bergs
bearing the imbedded masses broke off must have been
for great part of its course confined to the Chalk country,
because these masses are formed almost entirely of recon-
structed Chalk.

The Eskersand Kames
of the Ohio water-part-
ing, being the washed-
out moraine of the first
ice-sheet, due to its
dissolution subaérially,
when at its southern-
most extension it termi-
nated on that water-
parting; and the water
dissolving from it flowed
into the Valley of the
Mississippi. The Erie
clay (No. 1), being the
unwashed moraine of
this ice-sheet extruded
at its margin, and left
behind as it receded
beneath the waters of
the lake, which began
to form so soon as the
sheet shrunk back with-
in the St. Lawrence
basin.

Of these accumulations of the period of first glacier development
in either country, those of England clearly accompanied its incep-
tion and increase, but those of America seem to have accompanied

S. V. Wood, jun.—American and British Surface-Geology. 539

its recession only. The ice which accompanied the accumulation of
the Lower Glacial beds does not appear to have reached so far south
as did that to which the chalky part of the Upper Glacial was due;
but after this accumulation a material change took place, and
extensive troughs were excavated through these beds, which were
filled in by the Middle and Upper Glacial deposits." These troughs,
by their re-excavation, have in great measure originated the present
valley-system of East Anglia, part of such re-excavation having been
produced by the advance along them of tongues from the inland-ice
during the formation of the chalky clay, as presently explained.

At the bottom of one of these filled-in troughs, which has not
been re-excavated, lies the Kessingland freshwater formation with
some arboreal remains and a root-penetrated surface, covered evenly
by the Middle Glacial sand. Whether this formation is a deposit
mm the trough, and therefore of interglacial age, or whether it is a
preglacial formation which the excavation of this trough through
the Lower Glacial beds uncovered without destroying, is a question
for the determination of which no sufficient data have yet been
detected. If, however, this formation should prove to belong to
the period of interglacial trough excavation, it would not necessarily
indicate an amelioration of climate, because, according to Milner’s
Atlas, forests in Norway, and according to Von Wrangel’s Map,
forests in Siberia extend many degrees of latitude north of that
parallel (61° N.) down to which glaciers give off bergs in South
Greenland.

The glacier, the accretion and extension of which accompanied
the accumulation of the Lower Glacial beds, was, I think, most prob-
ably that of the Vale of Pickering, to which I shall in the sequel
have occasion to refer in connexion with the Purple clay. If this
glacier deflected south-eastwards over the Chalk along the line
marked by the Purple clay. which caps the Chalk towards Flam-
borough Head, its direction would have been straight towards
Cromer, around which town for several miles the great masses of
remanié Chalk are imbedded in the Contorted Drift. From Flam-
borough southwards this glacier would -have travelled exclusively
over Chalk, and terminating at some point between Flamboro’ and
Cromer, where the water was deep enough to generate them, would
have sent off bergs laden with masses of remanié Chalk, which,
grounding near Cromer, buried them in the marine silt, and gave
rise to the contortions which accompany these masses, and to which
this Silt or Drift owes it name. The elevation of the Lower Glacial
sea-bed over Norfolk and Suffolk, which put an end to the accumula-
tion of the Contorted Drift, reduced, it is probable, this depth of
water and put an end to the generation of bergs by the Pickering
glacier, so that a new state of ice arrangement resulted. Whether
the outflow of this glacier was checked by an elevation of the sea-
bottom, or merely by the great accumulation of sediment to which it
gave rise, such a change in relative levels of the places of least resist-

1 See S. V. Wood, Jun., and F. W. Harmer, in Q.J.G.S., Feb. 1877, p. 74, and
F. W. Harmer im same, p. 184.

540 8. V. Wood, jun.—American and British Surface- Geology.

ance would have caused, I conceive, the ice to seek a new direction,
the result of which was that its main flow deflected more directly
southwards from the Pennine Hills, and formed the large glacier sheet
to which the Middle Glacial sands and the chalky portion of the
Upper Glacial clay owe their origin, and of which the motion was
partly out through the Humber gorge, but principally southwards
over Lincolnshire.

Since thus the earliest deposits of the Glacial period in Britain
belong to that part of it during which the ice was beginning to
accumulate and during which it was extending, but had not reached
its culmination; while according to Prof. Newberry the Erie clay
belongs to that part of it during which it was receding, we can
hardly suggest any parallelism in time between this clay and the
English Lower Glacial beds, unless that part of the period which
followed the elevation of the latter and the excavation of the
troughs through them was accompanied by a general recession of
the ice and amelioration of climate, as to which there does not
appear at present to be any reliable evidence. On the whole,
therefore, it seems to me most probable that none of the American
beds, so far as they have yet been described, are quite so old as the
Lower Glacial series of England; but that the oldest of them
represent the period of recession from greatest ice extension under
which the principal glacial formation of Britain, the Upper Glacial,
was accumulated.

As, however, the object of the present attempt at synchronism is
tentative only, I have thought it most convenient to place the oldest
described formations of either country side by side, as the clearer
way of presenting the subject for the consideration of geologists,
and therefore in pursuing that course we get next :

ENGLAND. : St. LAwRENCE BASIN.

The Middle Glacial sand and gravel. The Forest surface and asso-
The Upper Glacial beginning with the Chalky | ciated beds (No. 2), which rest
clay of Kast Anglia, succeeding which comes the | on the Erie clay.
Purple clay of Holderness, and such of the clay The beds 3a of Ohio and part
of the North of England as is not of Hessle age, | of the marine clays of the
and terminating with the Moel Tryfaen and Lan- | Lower St. Lawrence and At-
cashire high-level sands with marine mollusca. lantic coasts.

If, as already suggested, there was no general recession of the ice
and amelioration of climate after the formation of the Lower Glacial
series of England, and that therefore the Hrie clay and Kskers of
the Ohio water-parting more probably represent the Upper Glacial
of England, then the beds of the St. Lawrence basin which are
above placed beside the Middle and Upper Glacial would, I conceive,
belong to that period which we have been accustomed in England to
call post-Glacial, and during which a minor glaciation, I consider,
occurred ; and I think that this pushing forward of the American
beds in the synchronism will eventually be found to accord best
with the entire group of facts.

S. V. Wood, jun.— American and British Surface-Geology. 541

The Middle and Upper Glacial deposits of England appear to me
to have been formed during the culmination and recession of the ice
only, as in the case of the Kames of the Ohio water-parting and of
the Hrie clay. During the accumulation of the Middle Glacial sand
and gravel formation, it is not clear how far the ice extended,
because, by the action of the inland ice on the western side of the
three Eastern counties, after the elevation of the greater part of
them into land which accompanied the protrusion of glacier tongues
along their valleys, as presently explained, this formation on the
western sides of these counties seems to have been destroyed. The
origin of these sands and gravels, however, appears to have been due
to the washing out by submarine currents of the moraine extruded
by the land-ice lying somewhere west of the line marking this
destruction in Suffolk and Norfolk which is defined in the sequel ;!
and this was both accompanied and followed by the lifting and
dropping through the agency of floating-ice of sheets of the un-
stratified moraine itself, because we find such moraine occasionally
interstratified in the sands and. gravels, as well as very extensively
forming a thick bed of Glacial clay over them.

During the first formation of these sands and gravels, the eastern
side of England must have been submerged some 400 feet, because
we find them (without any indication of disturbance having occurred
in the floor which supports them) ranging from the present sea-
level nearly up to that altitude. Near the southern extremity of
Glacial clay occurrence in Middlesex, these gravels range up to
about 300 feet at Finchley, where they are covered by the morainic
clay, and in Hssex to 367 feet at Danbury, where they are not so
covered. Between these points the morainic clay of the Upper
Glacial occupies for the most part lower ground, resting direct on the
London clay, as though, after the deposit of the sands and gravels,
and their partial overspread by the morainic clay dropped upon them,
the ice had advanced and ploughed out the lower ground, which was
afterwards covered by the moraine extruded.”

The distribution of the same sands and gravels and of the
morainic clay over parts of the counties of Hertford, Bedford,
Buckingham, Warwick, Oxford, and Leicester, where in some in-
stances they attain elevations somewhat greater than at Danbury,
discloses analogous features; and seems to indicate that similar
small extensions and recessions of the ice when at its furthest limit
took place in.that part of England also.

As the sands and gravels with marine mollusca reach in North
Wales to an elevation considerably exceeding 1300 feet, and in
Lancashire, on the west slope of the Pennine ridge, to elevations

1 A considerable spread of coarse rolled flint gravel in West Norfolk resembling
cannon shot seems to have resulted from similar current action during the formation
of the Upper Glacial chalky clay, upon which in some instances it seems to rest.

2 The position of the beds thus referred to is shown in the Geological represen-
tation of Ordnance Sheets 1 and 2, which I made, and in the year 1866 placed in the
Library of the Geological Society, with a manuscript memoir and sections in illus-
tration of it. Itis also shown in the map at p. 348 of Vol. III. Gzox, Maa. 1866.

542 SS. V. Wood, jun.— American and British Surface- Geology.

between 1100 and 1200 feet, it is clear that either at this time
or subsequently the submergence must have much increased north-
wards and westwards. As, however, the mollusca of the Middle
Glacial sands presents so decidedly an older and more Crag-like
facies, and even the Upper Glacial at Dimlington and Bridlington
contains the Crag forms Nucula Cobboldie and Tellina obliqua,
while the Moel Tryfaen and Lancashire beds contain none but forms
still living in British seas, and one or two more that live in the
Arctic Sea immediately north of the Shetlands, we can hardly
escape the inference that either a submergence of the Pennine
region and North Wales took place after the accumulation of the
earliest portion of the Upper Glacial (the chalky clay), or else that
during this accumulation those mountain regions were enveloped in
ice which, until the gradual passing away of the glacial conditions
removed it (and therefore after the chalky and purple clays had
accumulated), prevented the access of the sea and the formation of
marine beds. .

The chalky Upper Glacial reaches in Lincolnshire (Ponton) to
elevations somewhat exceeding 400 feet, and in Herts of 550 feet,
and the glacier to which it was due, and whose submarine recession
most of its accumulation in my view accompanied, descended over
Lincolnshire, but could hardly have extended much to the west of the
meridian which touches the westernmost boundary of that county ;
because nearly all the material which makes up this clay is derived
from the beds of that county, from the Trias to the Chalk inclusive.’
At its greatest extension it existed in the form of inland-ice partly
below the sea-level, just as now occurs in the case of some of the
inland-ice of Greenland and of parts of Spitzbergen, its eastern edge
resting upon the high ground forming the westernmost parts of
Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex, its southern on the north border of
Herts, and its western, as already defined. Within these limits,
although here and there a few sporadic occurrences of gravel under
the chalky clay may be detected, and which I refer to some very
localized current action issuing from the ice in its retreat, the
chalky clay rests directly on the older rocks; while on every side of it,
except the north, where the glacier connected with the place of its
genesis, the sands and gravels which I term Middle Glacial occur
extensively, though not uniformly. On its west side this glacier

1 Darbyshire, Grou. Mac. 1865, Vol. II. p. 293.

2 The Upper Glacial of Middlesex and Essex contains little other chalk than the
hard form of that material characteristic of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire; but in
Norfolk a good deal of soft chalk is intermingled, and in the case of the morainic
clay in the valleys of that county produced, as mentioned further on, by glaciers pro-
truding tongue-like from the great mass of inland-ice, the chalk debris seems mostly
of the soft character of the valley floor on which it rests. The fact that the chalk
so abundant in the Glacial clay of Middlesex and Essex is all of the hard kind (at
least if any of the soft is present it is so occasional that it has escaped my notice),
seems to me to go a long way in proof of this clay not being what Mr. Geikie makes
it out to be,—the submoraine im sitw of a glacier which reached to the Thames
Valley; for if so the chalk debris would be that derived from the counties of Essex,
Middlesex, Herts, Cambridge, Suffolk, and Norfolk exclusively, instead of, as it
appears to be, chalk derived in chief part, if not exclusively, from Lincolnshire.

S. V. Wood, jun.— American and British Surface- Geology. 543

probably terminated direct in the sea, but on its eastern side it was,
as presently described, divided from the sea during part of the Upper
Glacial period by a belt of land formed of the eastern parts of
Essex, Suffolk, and Norfolk. To the action of this glacier, when,
during its greatest extension, its principal mass rested on the great
Fen level, do I attribute the formation of that level itself; its edges
as above defined being on all sides, except the north, within twenty
miles of the Fen boundary ; and to the extrusion of its moraine
during recession do I refer the principal part of the chalky clay, the
rest having been accumulated by droppings in mass from ice which
floated in the sea during its greatest extension, as well as in the sea
that followed up its recession. As explained subsequently, a branch
from this glacier passing through the gorge of the Humber carried
out into Holderness nearly all the moraine engendered north of that
gorge, as well that engendered for a few miles south of it, the ice
against the Wold scarp drawing in from both sides of this gorge
to form a tongue which issued through the valley of the Humber.
Thus, as the glacier receded northwards, the moraine extruded be-
came less and less, so that before it receded to the latitude of the
Humber it had shrunk away from the Chalk Wold on its western
side, and there was no more chalky moraine to extrude. North
of Holderness, however, the glacier which came through the Vale
of Pickering, and passed over the lower ranges of the Wold for a
few miles inland of Flamborough, to which I have already adverted
as giving off bergs during the accumulation of the Contorted Drift,
but which, after the termination of that accumulation, ceased to give
off bergs, and which also had wasted back under the influences
which caused the Lincolnshire glacier to waste back and disappear,
still brought chalk debris, derived from the north scarp of the Wold,
but accompanied at first by a corresponding abundance of the hard
rocks which lie north of the Wold, and form the opposite side of the
Pickering trough.!| This morainic material is of a dark purple
colour in its lower part, changing to a more reddish purple upwards.
In its lower part it is full of rolled chalk mixed with the more
angular debris of hard rocks, and at its junction with the lead-
coloured chalky clay at its base (a of the sections and map) sheéts
of it frequently alternate with sheets of the latter, showing, it seems
to me, that from this horizon at least upwards the clay of Southern
Holderness originated from the dropping process, and other forms
of marine deposit, and not by direct moraine extrusion. As we see
the succession upwards, exposed in the high cliff of Dimlington, and

1 This trough is that lying between the north scarp of the Chalk Wold and the
slope of the Eastern Moorlands formed mostly of rocky Jurassic beds. Its eastern
end is now blocked up by the last of the morainic clay which its glacier engendered,
so that the drainage flows in the opposite direction to that in which the moraine
travelled to the sea, viz. westwards and round the north-west angle of the Wold, and
thence southwards to the Humber, west of the Wold scarp. During the Contorted
Drift the Pickering glacier, I conceive, travelled perhaps 50 miles on both its sides
over chalk; but at the period of the commencement of the purple clay it had shrunk
back so that one side only touched the chalk, and this for a few miles only, and as
the purple clay deposit proceeded, it gradually shrank from the chalk altogether.

544 8. V. Wood, jun.—American and British Surface- Geology.

that south of Mappleton, where the uppermost part of the purple
clay has escaped the denudation which, prior to the Hessle beds,
destroyed it elsewhere to the south of Bridlington, the rapid decrease
of the chalk debris is very marked, but the decrease of the debris of
the hard rocks north of the Wold is much less conspicuous. * Still,
even this diminishes, and though it continues in the clay of the
upper parts of these two cliffs, it becomes so scant that in the
uppermost part where the chalk debris has wholly ceased, and
where the Hessle clay with its subangular chalk debris wraps over
it, there is very little debris of any kind in the clay. It is in fact
a stiff mud, much resembling, save that it is stiffer and uncontorted,
and has no chalky sediment intermixed in it, the Contorted Drift of
Cromer Cliff, which is generally conceded to be a marine silt, though
nearly destitute of organic remains. It is, I think, more than doubt-
ful whether any of the clay without chalk south of the Pickering
trough is of direct morainic origin, either as originally extruded, or
as dropped. It seems to me, though produced from the grinding
of the glacier-ice, to have been distributed by marine agency, ac-
companied by the dropping of erratics from floe-ice ; for not only
is this clay full, though at no particular horizon, of lenticular beds
of sand (¢ and d’ of Section J.)—a feature which the true morainic
chalky clay of East Anglia lacks—but it presents the most marked
contrast to the small moraines of pure rolled chalk (¢ of the same
section) which underlie it, and occupy ravines or gullies in the chalk
floor where it rises above the beach from Bridlington northwards.
These small moraines are evidently connected with the purple clay
containing much chalk of the cliffs south of Mappleton (¢ of the
section), the place of which they occupy relatively to the clay with
little and no chalk (d) that overlies both; and having been formed
beneath the Pickering glacier while it still rested on the north-
eastern extremity of the Wold after the termination of the chalky
clay formation, they seem confirmatory of the mode in which the re-
treat of the ice took place, as indicated by the other phenomena
previously discussed.

As this mud-like clay (d) caps the cliffs continuously northwards
from Bridlington to the mouth of the Pickering trough (which it
blocks up), and for several miles attains elevations between 350 and
400 feet, it seems to me to indicate that when the Pickering glacier
by shrinking back gave rise to its accumulation, Yorkshire must
have been submerged to that extent.

The recession of this glacier through the Vale of Pickering after
the disappearance of the glacier which produced the chalky clay is
thus, it seems to me, very clearly indicated ; as well as two corol-
laries ; the first of which is that, when the chalky clay was in pro-
gress of accumulation, the contemporaneous moraine that passed
through the Vale of Pickering was left out in the sea beyond our
present shores; and the second of which is that, since the further
north the latitude the later must have been the recession, the
Glacial clay of the northernmost English counties is later than all
this of Holderness, except possibly that which, wholly destitute of

S. V. Wood, jun.— American and British Surface- Geology. 546

Chalk debris, immediately underlies the Hessle clay wrapper in the
two high cliffs already mentioned; while that of Scotland, so far as
it belongs to the same period of glaciation, is latest of all, and may
have accumulated while the South of England was the theatre of the
disturbances presently referred to. Moreover, when the latest part
of the Upper Glacial formation, the Moel Tryfaen and Lancashire
high-level sands, was accumulated, it is clear that, except to the
extent possibly of some glaciers still remaining in the valleys of
the islands to which the mountain district of the North of England
was at that time reduced by submergence, there could have been
no ice enveloping the Southern extremity of that district, though
Snowdon and other higher mountains of North Wales may possibly
still have been snow-clad. The North of Scotland, too, from its
latitude, may also at this time have not been freed from its ice, so
that the morainic clay of that part of Britain, except so far as it may
be of later (i.e. Hessle) age, may even be synchronous with these
high-level sands of Lancashire and Wales, for the shells which have
occurred at Hlie and elsewhere on its eastern coast, though more
Arctic in character, possess the same modern facies as do those of
Moel Tryfaen, and of Macclesfield, as well as those from gravels of
Hessle age.

In the Hast of England the sea, during that earlier part of the Glacial
period to which the Contorted Drift belongs, was evidently deep enough
to buoy up the glacier which occupied some part of the Chalk country,
and break off portions into bergs; and these, from the dimensions
of the masses of reconstructed Chalk which by their grounding
they introduced into the mud of that drift, must have been of con-
siderable size. What that depth of water was it is difficult to
estimate; but when we consider that the mass of Lower Glacial
deposits in which these bergs grounded was itself in that part near
200 feet thick, it is clear that at this stage in the Glacial period
the Eastern counties must have undergone, since the time of the
newest Crag beds, great depression and submergence. As already
mentioned, however, this sea-bed had, prior to the Middle Glacial
sands, undergone denudation, the effect of which was to excavate
along the lines of our present valleys wide and deep troughs, in
which to a great extent these sands accumulated, and were over-
spread in their turn by a deposit of the morainic chalky clay.
After this, as I shall presently endeavour to show, so much of this
area as forms the eastern part of the counties of Norfolk and
Suffolk was early in the formation of the chalky portion of the
Upper Glacial converted into a belt of land, which divided the
inland-ice from the sea, and through the valleys of which that ice
in the form of glacier tongues escaped. By the well at Yarmouth,
described by Mr. Prestwich in the 16th vol. of the Journ. of the
Geol. Soc. of London (p. 450), we learn that the depth to which
one of these valleys, the Yare, has been excavated and filled up
since with silt and mud is 170 feet below Yarmouth, or about 155
below Ordnance datum. This is not only far below the surface of
the adjoining sea-bottom, but is below the surface of that sea-bottom

DECADE II.—VOL, IV.—NO. XII. 38

546 S. V. Wood, jun.—American and British Surface- Geology.

everywhere between Norfolk and the coast of Holland, except for a
small space about midway, where the soundings range between
twenty-five and twenty-eight fathoms; and it is possible that this
remarkable excavation was accomplished by the glacier tongue which
thus passed through the Yare valley.

Probably the North Sea was deeper throughout the Glacial
period than it now is, for it must have been greatly filled with
silt since then, like the Yare valley at Yarmouth has been, as well
as in parts of it been filled with deposits of Glacial age also ;' and
since then it has, as several things contribute to show, been in its
southern part converted into land and again submerged. At the
time, however, when the land-ice escaped through these valleys to
the sea, even if we assume that the table-lands out of which those
valleys are excavated did not stand so high above the sea-level as
they now do, we can scarcely, in view of this depth of the valley
at; Yarmouth, assign a greater depth to the sea in which the eastern
side of the inland-ice escaped than 200 feet,—a depth too small, I
take it, to engender bergs.

Towards Belgium it seems to me that this sea continued to shoal,
so that, although the South of England and the Boulonnais (and I
suspect also a part of Brittany) were covered by it, the shore lay for
the most part outside the present coast of Northern France, passing
thence across Belgium, where the Rhine and other rivers during
the summers of the Glacial period poured over the flats surrounding
their embouchures the floods to which the deposits of Limon Hesbayen
and Limon des plateaux were due.

The gravels which over the West of England represent in my
view the Upper Glacial were cut through in excavating the Mickle-
ton tunnel at the northern extremity of the Cotteswolds,” where
they were found in great thickness at an elevation reaching to 490
feet, occupying what was evidently a channel or strait dividing
the small island formed by Ebrington Hill from the main island
formed by the Cotteswold range at that time. This gravel has
been traced by Mr. Lucy up to elevations in the Cotteswold region
between 600 and 700 feet; and it is evident that the washed-out
moraine of the glacier which, descending over Lincolnshire, gave
rise to the chalky clay, has contributed to the material of this
gravel, because there occur in it the large coarse flints so cha-
racteristic of that clay, and also pieces of the red chalk, and much
more of the hard white chalk of Lincolnshire and Yorkshire.*

' T learn from M. KE. Vandenbroek of Brussels that the Crag to a depth of 415
feet has been sunk through at Utrecht, in Holland, wnder 760 feet of (so-called)
Quaternary accumulations, the boring at that depth (1175 feet) being still in sands
whose fossils agree with the Coralline Crag, and not those of the earliest of the
Belgian Crag-beds. This seems to me to show that the bed of the North Sea, un-
disturbed by the Scandinavian glacier-ice, has been tranquilly receiving sedimentary
accumulations from the commencement of the Pliocene period up to the conversion
of parts of it into land at the close of the Glacial period.

-* See Gavey in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. ix. p. 295, for full description of the
Mickleton cutting ; also Hull, in vol. xi. p. 477.
3 “The Grayels of the Severn, Avon, and Evenlode, and their extension over the

Cotteswold Hills,” by W. C. Lucy, read April 7th, 1869, before the Cotteswold
Club, and printed separately.

S. V. Wood, jun.—American and British Surface-Geology. 547

In one part of the South of England, the gravels which in my
view represent the Upper Glacial range also to elevations between
600 and 700 feet, as at Ceesar’s Camp, near Aldershott, and other
detached hill-summits N.N.W. of it, but elsewhere, as at Headon
in the Isle of Wight,’ at St. George’s Down in the same island,
at Chilworth Tower, Stony Crop, and Bramshaw Telegraph in
Hampshire,’ and at Swanscombe Hill in Kent, the limit of their
elevation ranges from 300 to 420 feet. Such of these summit
gravels as lie north of the Chalk district that divides the Hampshire
from the London Basin may be all continued by numerous other
gravel-topped eminences of less altitude across the counties of Berks,
Buckingham, and Hertford in the one direction, and across the
Thames Valley in another, into contiguity with the unwashed
moraine which the chalky clay represents.

The elevation attained by the gravels in the Cotteswolds probably
affords a measure of the extent of the submergence in that direction,
as these are remote from the theatre of submarine disturbances
which have so elevated the gravels of the South of England. From
the description given by Mr. H. B. Woodward of the Devonshire
gravels, this submergence does not appear to have diminished for a
long distance further south-west. The elevation of the gravels
over the South of England (Surrey, Hampshire, etc.), however,
affords, in my view, no measure of the depth of the sea in that
direction, because these gravels attain greater and greater elevations
as they approach the points where the highly inclined position of
the chalk shows the region to have undergone great elevation rela-
tively to the rest of the gravel-sheet before so much of it was de-
stroyed by the denudation resulting from the disturbances producing
this exceptional elevation. A study of the position of these gravels
in Hampshire, Surrey, Berks, and Kent has convinced me that the
sea under which they accumulated was not deep; and that though
it covered in a general sense the whole of the South of England,
there were many islands over that part of Britain formed by such of
the higher hills as had come into existence before the Glacial period,
and were not, as were the Hogsback ridge and the Purbeck and
Wight anticlinals, produced by the disturbances of this period.’ It

1 Geol. Survey Memoir on the Isle of Wight.

2 Codrington, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxvi. p. 528.

3 I have in various papers during twelve years past, and particularly in one on the
Weald Valley denudation in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. for 1871, urged that the dis-
turbances in which the rectilinear upcasts of the Isles of Wight and Purbeck, as
well as those of the Hogsback and Portsdown Hills, originated, took place at this
time; viz. the close of the Glacial period and beginning of what we in England
have been accustomed to call the post-Glacial; and it is interesting to me to find that
Mr. Prestwich, in a paper read in the year 1874 (Q. J. G. S. vol. xxxi. p. 29), makes
out that during the Glacial period that portion of the Purbeck and Wight anticlinal
which is continued north of Portland Isle was submerged, and then upheaved and
subjected to excessive deundation, though he does not admit the general submergence
of the South of England.

The section given in the Geological Survey Memoir of the Isle of Wight through
Headon Hill, with that in the Memoir on the London Basin through Cesar’s Camp

(vol. iv. p. 3876), are, it seems to me, not reconcilable with anything less than this
general submergence ; and show to my mind clearly the excessive denudation which

548 8S. V. Wood, jun American and British Surface-Geology.

was, I contend, with disturbances of an intense character taking
place under the sea at this period that the emergence of the South of
England commenced, and it was to the long train of changes which
thus beginning continued through the period of minor glaciation that
we have hitherto called post-Glacial, and which I have endeavoured
to trace in my paper on the Wealden Denudation in the Journal of
the Geological Society for 1871, that in my view the South of
England, including the Wealden Valley, was brought to its present
form and condition.

In reference to the elevation of the greater part of the Hast
Anglian counties into a belt of land early in the progress of the
formation of the chalky clay, there exist certain phenomena connected
with the valleys of that district which have long been a subject of
perplexity to me, and in reference to which the following passage
occurs in the recent paper by myself and Mr. Harmer, ‘On the
later Tertiary Geology of East Anglia,” already quoted, viz.: “It is
also a perplexing feature that some denudation has occurred at
the bottom of valleys by which the Upper Glacial (or clay un-
distinguishable from it) rests directly on beds older than the Middle
Glacial sand, as is shown in Section XV. [of that paper] in the
case of the Ket Valley, and of which instances are also to be found
in the Waveney, Blyth, and Gipping Valleys. This, if the clay so
occurring be the Upper Glacial, seems to have taken place either
during the accumulation of that deposit or that of the Middle
Glacial, but to have been very partial or local.”

The explanation of the difficulty has since occurred to me; and it
is, aS already mentioned in these pages, that after the Middle Glacial
had been deposited and received by dropping a covering of morainic
clay, the area of the Hastern counties intersected by these valleys
was converted into land which formed a belt dividing the land-
ice from the sea, as is the case at the present time in Central
and South Greenland ; and that through the valleys traversing this
belt, or some of them, the land-ice issued in narrow tongue-like
glaciers to the sea, as it does in those parts of Greenland at the
present time. In Greenland this belt is formed of lofty land, but in
Hast Anglia the belt must have been of land even lower than the
present.

The section afforded by the cutting of the Cromer Branch Railway
at Thorpe near Norwich, some years ago, though puzzling at the time,

accompanied the acute upthrow of these rectilinear ridges, just as Mr. Prestwich
shows it has done the portion of one of them which is continued through the Port-
land district.

The restoration map No. II. of the plate to the paper by myself on the Weald
above quoted shows what I regard as the distribution of land and water at that par-
ticular stage of this emergence, when the oldest part of the gravel lying within the
Thames Valley commenced to form and when the West and South of England were
to a great extent still submerged.

I ought to add also that Mr. O. Fisher in 1868 (Guo. Maa. Vol. V. p. 99), suggested
that the lofty gravels over the Southern counties represented the Upper Glacial. at
that time I regarded them as somewhat later, and as having accumulated after the
glacial clay had been removed from that part of England by denudation, but I have
for several years past given up this view in fayour of that of Mr. Fisher.

S.V. Wood, jun.—American and British Surface- Geology. 649

appears to me now to throw a clear light on this case. This cutting
was made through the north side of the Yare Valley, and in it the
chalky clay was exposed with the Middle Glacial sand containing
its shell-bed under it on the upper part of the valley side; but lower
down the whole of the clay had been ploughed out, and the sand
was all twisted up with the Lower Glacial (Bure Valley) sand, on
which, after the first excavation of the valley, it had been deposited.
In the valley below the chalky clay may still be seen in section
resting on the glaciated chalk floor of the valley, and it is clear that
we have here an illustration of what glacier-ice produces when moving
over clays and sands, viz. their destruction in part and the twisting
of the rest with the soft beds on which they repose.’ A similar
feature of ice plough was afforded (some years ago when the cutting
had been fresh scarped on one side) by the railway cutting at the
Hast Suffolk Railway Junction, Ipswich, in the Gipping Valley. If
such features were exhibited generally over the plateaux through
which these valleys are cut, we might explain them merely by a
general advance of the ice; but there has been no such ploughing
over the plateaux, as the numerous inland pit sections over them and .
the continuous sections of them which the cliffs north and south of
Lowestoft afford, show in the case of the Yare Valley most clearly.

Thus the succession of events in Hast Anglia was, first the deposit
by marine agency over a floor formed of Chalk, Lower Tertiaries,
and Crag, of the Lower Glacial series in considerable thickness ;
next the excavation of the valley-troughs (whether subaérially or
subaqueously may be here left out of consideration), into which, as
shown by Mr. Harmer and myself, the Middle Glacial sand was
bedded and covered by the chalky clay ; and then, while the chalky
clay was still in progress, these deposits were elevated into land, so
as to form the coast belt which I have described. This belt was
pressed on its western side by the great body of ice which, having
passed over Lincolnshire, occupied the fen, and from whose mass the
tongue-like glaciers passing through some of these valleys to the sea
went off and formed the means by which the land-ice escaped; and
these by their ploughing produced that subsequent denudation of
those valleys, and gave rise as they receded to those deposits of
morainic clay which we find in them, resting upon glaciated chalk,
which were so long puzzles to me. In the case of the smaller
valleys as well, as in those lateral to the few main ones through
which the glacier tongues passed, the patches of chalky clay which
occur in their bottoms appear to have been produced by the drifting
into them of floe-ice freighted with sheets of the morainic material.
The action of this inland-ice upon the western parts of Norfolk and
Suffolk may also be traced in the abrupt termination in these parts
of the counties of the Lower and Middle Glacial, as though both had

1 Where this cutting was carried through, sand had rested on sand, viz. the
Middle Glacial on the Bure Valley beds ; but a pit about a quarter of a mile west,
of old date, showed the Middle Glacial sand resting on the Contorted Drift, which
in that neighbourhood is uncontorted. The valley plough referred to in the text
had here contorted the two together, and so given rise to this exceptional feature.

500 8S. V. Wood, jun.— American and British Surface- Geology.

undergone destruction there by its pressure and motion.! For several
miles round Thetford upon the high ground the Upper Glacial presents
a very peculiar condition, as it consists of a gritty sandy kind of
material, intermingled in which are often masses of stiff blue morainic
clay, which resemble the clay of the Upper Glacial elsewhere, the
whole resting upon glaciated chalk. This morainic material, which
forms some of the lightest and most barren heath land in England,
appears to be moraine formed by the destruction of the Lower and
Middle Glacial deposits (and possibly also of some of the earliest
deposited Upper Glacial) during the time when the inland-ice was
pressing upon the western side of this land-belt; and it terminates
quite abruptly, and gives place to the stiff heavy clay which forms
the usual character of the Upper Glacial, just where the Middle
Glacial sets in beneath it. The Chalk also beneath it is glaciated,
as it usually is on the west of the line to which this land-ice reached.

The state of things which thus existed after the earliest part of
the Upper Glacial had accumulated appears to me to throw light
upon the age of the well-known lacustrine bed two miles from the
River Waveney, and situated at Hoxne, on the table-land out of
which the valley of this river is excavated. This bed of laminated
brick-earth and sand, with freshwater mollusca and Paleolithic
implements, was elaborately described by Mr. Prestwich in the
Phil. Trans. for 1860 and 1864, and shown to occupy a small
basin-like hollow in the chalky clay. I examined the locality with
Mr. Prestwich’s sections some years ago, and could detect no error
in them.” The deposit is so placed that on one side it has been
denuded by the excavation of a valley which is lateral and tributary
to that of the Waveney, viz. the Goldbrook Valley. This fact, and
the occurrence of some gravels capping the chalky clay along the
edges or brows of the main valley, induced Mr. Prestwich to con-
tend that the accumulation of the brick-earth and gravels must have
preceded the excavation of the Waveney Valley, because, if not, it
would be necessary to infer either that the valley was filled at the
time with the sea or by freshwater. The first of these alternatives
was rejected for want of any evidence of it, and as being repugnant
to the facts affecting the case; while the latter was evidently a
physical impossibility. Hence the view adopted was that the Hoxne

1 The limit up to which this inland-ice pressed upon and destroyed all the pre-
ceding glacial deposits is marked, as nearly as can be defined, by a line which, start-
ing in North-west Norfolk, a little east of Docking, runs south between Swaffham
and East Dereham, and between Thetford and East Harling, where the ice began to
draw in to form the glacier-tongue which passed through the Waveney Valley ; from
whence it runs by Bottesdale, south of which the glacier-tongue through the Gipping
Valley went off. From thence the line runs westwards, and is more difficult of defi-
nition. The tongue which passed down the valley of the Wensum and Yare probably
went off near the starting-point of this line.

2 I think it, however, probable that the chalky clay and underlying (Middle
Glacial) gravel do not possess the regular horizontality which Mr. Prestwich gives to
them; and also that between them and the chalk some of the Contorted Drift, out of
which the valley was first interglacially excavated, may be present. The representa-
tion given by Mr. Belt in the Quart. Journ. of Science tor 1876 does not in any
respect agree with my view of the facts of the case.

S.V. Wood, jun— American and British Surface-Geology. 551

bed was accumulated prior to the excavation of the Waveney Valley,
and when the chalky clay formed a continuous table-land across it,
the gravels of the Waveney Valley associated with the bed being
referred to a general system of high-level river-gravels over England
and Northern France, which marked either the commencement of the
excavation of the valleys of the rivers, or a period when that ex-
cavation was in progress, and when the rivers ran at a corresponding
higher level. The late Mr. J. W. Flower opposed this view, in-
sisting that the physical structure of the country around forbade the
possibility of the Waveney River having been the agent by which
the valley containing it has been excavated—a contention that
assists, if it be necessary, the proof of what seems clear to me, viz.
that the valley originated interglacially between the Contorted
Drift and Middle Glacial, and was then subjected to re-excavation
by one of the glacier tongues, which in its recession left behind it
the deposits of chalky clay which occur at intervals on the sides and
bottom from the mouth to the head of the valley. These deposits
seem to me to furnish irrefragable proof that the valleys in which they
occur had been excavated to at least their present depths before the
chalky clay had ceased to accumulate; and, but for the physical
conditions to which I have referred as having succeeded the for-
mation and conversion into land of the earliest part of the chalky
clay, they would present a very puzzling problem. The passage, how-
ever, of glacier tongues through some of these valleys (and amongst
them that of the Waveney), by which the escape of the land-ice
over the Fen took place, seems to me to remove the difficulty ;
because, by filling up the valley, these glacier-tongues would have
given rise to physical conditions similar to what would have existed
had the Waveney Valley not been excavated—conditions which have
been deemed necessary to explain the position of the Hoxne brick-
earth ; for if we regard the lagoon in which the brick-earth ac-
cumulated as held up by the ice in the way in which glacier lakes
are, then, as the glacier receded and the sea took its place at a
lower level than the top of the ice, the water of the lagoon would
escape, and in so doing denude that side of the brick-earth over
which this escape took place, giving rise thereby to the Goldbrook
Valley.

If I am right in this, the Hoxne bed, though necessarily posterior
to so much of the chalky clay as crowns the table-land through
which the valley runs, is yet anterior to the great mass of that
clay which covers the Fen country and Lincolnshire, and about
synchronous with such parts of it as occur in the valley bottoms of
_ East Suffolk and Norfolk; and this would carry the evidences
of man’s occupation of Britain some way back into what I regard
as the true Glacial period.

(To be concluded in our neat Number.)

502 George Barrow—On a Marine Bed in the Yorkshire Oolite.

IV.—On a New Marine Bep 1n toe Lower Ooumrses oF Hast
YORKSHIRE.
By Grorcr Barrow, F.G.S. ;
of H. M. Geological Survey of England and Wales.
{By permission of the Director-General of the Geol. Surv. of the United Kingdom. }

BOUT half-way between Hayburn Wyke and Cloughton Wyke,
and five miles North of Scarborough, a scar of hard sandstone,
remarkable for its even bedding, may be seen rising with a con-
siderable dip from the sea. This sandstone contains along its
bedding planes occasional thin layers of a very dense ironstone,
from which it has probably received the name of “Iron Scar.”
Immediately beneath are about five feet of shales closely resembling
those of the Middle lias, and containing two bands of dogger
ironstone.

A careful search shows that the uppermost of these two bands
contains a few small fossils; while the base of the sandstone con-
tains casts of Nucula minima? in great numbers.

This particular bed of sandstone would scarcely attract much
attention, but for the fact of its constant presence in the great mass
of false-bedded sandstones which wedge out in both directions in
the face of the bold cliffs of this district. It can easily be traced
from the above-mentioned locality to Blea Wyke and the great
Peak fault, between which points it is seen about 160 feet above
the Dogger, or top bed of the miners, and about 130 feet below the
Millepore bed.

It is not seen again in the cliffs till we reach Hawsker, and it
first comes to the face of the cliff immediately on the North of Maw
Wyke, from which point it continues to High Whitby, and after
turning inland for a short distance, once more reappears just North-
west of Saltwich Nab. From this point it continues to the mouth
of Whitby Harbour, where it is the capping rock of the Hast Cliff.

Tn all this long exposure, though the bed preserves the same
lithological appearance, it contains very few fossils, and would have
remained unnoticed perhaps, but for the fact of its far better
development inland. At Whitby its only remarkable feature is the
sudden development of a false-bedded conglomerate in the midst of
the sandstone ; a condition which can be well seen on ascending
the Old Church Steps on the Hast Cliff.

Inland we have to go as far as Goathland on the Whitby and
Pickering Railway, before seeing the typical section of what, in
spite of its thinness, we believe to be an important marine bed in
the great Estuarine series of East Yorkshire.

About 500 yards down the stream, Eller Beck (from which we
propose to call it the Hller Beck bed), below Goathland, and a
little below the picturesque village of Darnholm, is a small Force of
about seven feet fall, the Force being caused by a close-grained very
hard sandstone, well bedded and flaggy at the base, and passing
insensibly into a shale, identical in appearance with the shales of the
Ironstone series of the Middle Lias. The following is the section, in

George Barrow—On a Marine Bed in the Yorkshire Oolite. 553

descending order, at this point, called Walk-mill Force, on the
Six-inch Maps:
(a) Ten feet of Sandstone, hard and dense at top; flaggy at base.
(2) Four feet of shale, ferruginous and sandy in upper part, much resembling
the shales of the Middle Lias Ironstone.
(c) Five inches of dense earthy ironstone.
(d) Five feet of shales, similar to (0).
(e) Fourteen inches of ironstone weathering into blocks, and full of com-
minuted fossils. :
(f) Shales of Estuarine series.

(a) This sandstone has, [ think, been noticed by Mr. W. H. Hudleston,
F.G.8., in a paper on the Lower Oolites of Yorkshire, read before
the Geologists’ Association in November, 1873, and published in
August, 1874. The bed is remarkable for the density of the upper
part, which causes it to weather out as a small overhanging cliff in
the steep sides of the gorges of the district, by which character
alone it may be at once identified. The lower part being softer
weathers away more rapidly. According to Mr. Hudleston the fossils
found in it are Pholadomya Scemanni and a Modiola, the latter of
which I have found myself. The sandstone, however, contains but
few fossils, and those very much scattered, and badly preserved.

The thin bed of Ironstone (c) contains a very large number of
fossils, but in most cases the shell is replaced by a white earthy
powder, or paste; and the complete preservation of the shell is
rare, thus causing some difficulty in the identification of the species.

The following are the more abundant :—Littorina sp., Astarte
minima, Nucula lachryma,* Trigonia striata, Cardium™ sp., Ceri-
thium quadrivittatum (?), Pinna cuneata (?), Gervillia acuta, Cucullea.

There are several other species, but undeterminable from their
occurring only as casts. In the middle of the shale below is a thin
aluminous band, very soft, and tasting strongly of alum.

(e) This bed of ironstone, first mentioned by Bewick, is a nearly
white, hard stone, full of comminuted shells, and much resembling
the lower part of the Pecten-band (Middle Lias) at Grosmont. Its
characteristic, however, is the extraordinary abundance of a Phola-
domya, which occurs chiefly in the weathered joints of the ironstone,
and in such numbers that a hundred full-sized specimens may be
collected in a few hours. It also contains a Myacites, vertically
imbedded, in considerable numbers; the other fossils being much
the same as those in the bed above, only not occurring in such good
preservation.

This bed of ironstone is about 120 feet above the top of the Upper
Lias in this district; the whole Estuarine series being much thinner.
than at Peak.

It is in Winter Gill, however, a small tributary of Glaisdale Beck,
about five miles west of the Eller Beck section, that this marine
bed attains its greatest known thickness, as well as its most interest-
ing development. Unfortunately a climb of nearly 800 feet, over a
rather rough road, will probably deter all but the more ardent spirits
from studying the section that is here so well shown.

* Abundant.

554 George Barrow—On a Marine Bed in the Yorkshire Oolite.

'

It is as follows, in descending order:

(a) Four feet of very hard close-grained sandstone, containing fragments of
soft jet and other carbonaceous matter.

(4) One foot of sandy impure ironstone.

(c) Six feet of dark-brown Oolitic ironstone, slightly magnetic; apparently
unfossiliferous.

(d) Two feet of calcareous and ferruginous stone, with a few small fossils.

(e) Twenty feet of hard, flaggy, micaceous, white sandstone; passing gradually
downwards into a sandy shale.

(f) One foot six inches of sandy marl.

(y) Four inches of dense limestone, apparently unfossiliferous.

(i) Five feet of argillaceous, micaceous shale, much resembling the shales of
the Middle Lias.

(‘) One foot of ironstone, with many specimens of the characteristic Phola-
domya.

(c) The position of the above section can best be fixed by the
presence of a heap of this ironstone (c) lying on the side of the stream.

Upon an analysis of the ore being made, it was found to contain
an average of more than thirty-five per cent. of metallic iron, one
sample yielding as much as forty-two per cent. of that metal. The
amount of phosphorus and sulphur was very small, being usually
less than 0-1 per cent. of each.

After making a careful survey of this district, I have been
compelled to arrive at the conclusion that the deposit is of an
extremely local nature; there being the clearest evidence that it
does not continue for more than a hundred yards, either to the
north, east, or west. Moreover there seems to be a constant tendency
to the development of an Oolitic ironstone, usually very siliceous,
in the middle of the bed of sandstone: a feature that can be well
seen both in the upper part of the Murk Esk, near Julian Park, and
in Wheeldale.

The bed does not appear to be continuous in a southerly direction ;
T rather believe that the ore thins away as rapidly (towards the
south) as it can be proved to do in every other direction.

(f) This bed of marl is in places almost composed of what
appears to be a small Gryphea, which occurs in even greater pro-
fusion than does Gryphea cymbium in the Middle Lias. Running
through the middle of the marl is a thin band of soft jet or, perhaps,
non-bituminous Coal, with a layer of pyrites above and below.
When first dug out, the bed has a bright fracture, and is very hard ;
but on exposure to the air it soon becomes so soft that it can be
broken to pieces with a very slight blow.

(¢) The lower bed of ironstone does not differ in any essential
point from its representative near Goathland; the characteristic
Pholadomya being equally abundant in both cases. There seems to
be a greater variety of species in Winter Gill section, but this has
scarcely been proved up to the present time.

This lower bed of ironstone, with its characteristic Pholadomya,
has a very much wider range horizontally than might have been
expected from its small thickness. It can be easily traced along
the steep banks of the upper part of the Murk Esk, and is seen
occasionally in the bed and sides of Wheeldale Gill, one of its

George Barrow—On a Marine Bed in the Yorkshire Oolite. 555

tributaries. It has been seen in Hartoft Beck, at the head of
Glaisdale, and of Grange Becks, and lately my colleague, Mr.
C. F. Strangways, has found it in a small tributary of the Rye,
where the ironstone is 2ft. 6in. thick, and has a close resemblance
to a similar seam in the Middle Lias.

In the north and east the whole fossiliferous part of the bed thins
away gradually, until, at Loftus Railway Station, there is a section
of the shales with thin wedges of shaly ironstone, the whole being
only two feet thick, and containing but few fossils; chiefly a small
Gryphea.

At Kettleness, however, there is a section showing the typical
sandstone, ferruginous in parts, with about eight feet of shale
beneath. About six to seven feet down in this shale is a thin band
of fine dense ironstone-doggers; their base being a mass cf fossils,
mostly the small Gryphea, but with occasional nests of Astarte
minima, Nucula minima, Littorina, and a few other fossils, all small,
and apparently dwarfed. Below this is a foot of shale, perhaps
more, resting on a bed of hard ironstone, about a foot thick, sandy
at the base, and the upper part having a blue tint and of an oolitic
structure. Beneath this ironstone again is a mass of false-bedded
sandstone.

I believe that this Grypheza (?) is figured, but not specifically
named, in Phillips’s Geology of Yorkshire (8rd edit. pl. ix. fig. 26) ;
and from its appearance always at the top or base of these thin
marine beds, I feel sure it is essentially a brackish-water shell; and
from its occurrence alone in the Loftus section, and being only
accompanied by a few small species at Kettleness, we may venture
to say that the bed dies out, or at least becomes less marine in
character as we go north and east, and thickens south and west,
as is proved by the rapidly increasing thickness of the fossiliferous
ironstone going from the coast to Goathland, Glaisdale, and Ryedale.
At the same time we believe it to become. thinner again south of a
certain point which we cannot yet accurately define; the whole bed
forming an extremely thin but very persistent wedge, over the
whole of the Hast Yorkshire area.

This sandstone bed is interesting archeologically, as its outcrop
is often marked by old heaps of scoriz; the thin bands of ironstone
in the sandstone being the source of the ore: the two bands of
ironstone that occur in the shale underlying never having been
used. Holey Pits, near Egton Bridge, show a number of small
holes formerly made in the sandstone in order to win or obtain the
ironstone.

This short notice is sent in the hope that others may carefully
study the fauna of the lower band of Ironstone, from which, in
the Ryedale district, a large addition may be made to the present
number of known species of fossils. A fuller description of the bed
will be published in the Survey Memoir on the districts in which it
is so well displayed.

556 J. 8S. Gardner—WNotes on Cretaceous Giasteropoda.

V.—Norss on Creracnous GastERoPoDA.
By J. S. Garpner, F.G.S.
(PLATE XVI.)

ie May last I had the honour of laying before the Geological

Society a description of all the known British Cretaceous Patellide
and patelloid Gasteropoda. Since then the well-known collector,
Griffiths, of Folkestone, has forwarded to me a new limpet from
Hythe, which appears to belong to the genus Hipponyx. The finding
of a shell of this genus is remarkable, as hitherto the shelly bases were
the only indications of the existence of Hipponyx in Cretaceous rocks
in England, whilst Capulus Dunkerianus, d’Orb., was the only shell
on the Continent, of this age, which could be referred to the genus.

Hipponyx neocomiensis, sp.n. Pl. XVI. Fig. 1.
Lower Greensand, Hythe.

Conical, cap-shaped, very elevated, front flattened and com-
pressed, posterior flattened and slightly hollowed, margin slightly
quadrate. The cast shows the shell to have been very thick, and
there are indications of coarse ribbings; the beak was probably solid
and overhung the posterior margin. The dimensions are large, as
seen by a reference to the figure. The great size of this and all
Gasteropods from Hythe compared with those from other British
Lower Greensand localities is truly remarkable.

Dentalium major, sp. nov. Pl. XVI. Fig. 2.
Cast bed, Grey Chalk, Dover.

Tubular, symmetrical, slightly curved, very gradually tapering ;
surface evenly striated near the apex, plain and rather rugose towards
the aperture. This is one of the alated forms, remains of slight
bordering keels being visible here and there on the figured specimen,
and more perfectly on others. The tube was probably elliptical.
Dimensions: length 4? inches, breadth at aperture $th of an inch.

This is the largest Dentalium known, exceeding D. grandis from
Japan in size by about an inch. Portions were found by me, during
my last visit to Folkestone, in the cast bed, where it appears to be
common. The figured specimen was found by Griffiths.

The Figures 3 to 18 are drawn from specimens kindly lent by Mr.
Thomas Jesson, F.G.S., late of Trinity College, Cambridge, and unite,
it appears to me, the following species from Cambridge.

1. Crepidula gaultina, Buvignier.
2. Calyptreea Cooksonie, Seeley=C. sancte-crucis, Pict. et Camp.
3. (?) Crepidula alta, Seeley.

The depressed form (Figs. 3, 4, 5, 20) known as Crepidula
gaultina, also found at Folkestone, is perhaps a young form, and, from
its flattened appearance, seems to have been fixed inside the apertures
of shells. Figure 20 is taken from the specimen originally described
by Seeley. The higher form known as Calyptreea Cooksonie, Seeley
(Figs. 6 to 19), may have been occasionally attached to the outside of
shells, as similar differences according with the position of attach-
ment may be seen in the forms of recent Calyptreide in the cases at
the British Museum. No character is discernible by which the

1 See Q. J. G. S., May, 1877, p. 201.

GEOT.. MAG. NEV 7 NEW SERIES DECADE JIL. VOT, IV PLATE XVI.

WWest & Loump.

New Cretaceous Gasteropoda.

Prof. Miine—Across Europe and Asia. 5)7

two may be separated. Fig. 19 represents the specimen originally
figured by Prof. Seeley, which is lent to me by the kindness of the
Curator of the Woodwardian Museum. Fig. 21 is a drawing of
Crepidula alta, Seeley, which still remains an unique and perhaps a
distinct shell, although I hesitate to accept it as such in a group, the
individuals of which are liable to such extreme variation. Curious
instances of this variation occur in the apertures of Fusus longeevus
from the Paris Basin, in the British Museum, in which Capulide are
flattened and even take the crescentic form of the aperture of that shell.

Fig. 8a represents Crepidula gaultina, considerably enlarged and
looking down upon it, and shows the helicoid apex which Dr. J.
Gwyn Jeffreys notices as being common to all the limpets. In this
species it is especially persistent, and is very distinctly visible in the
cast, and also, but less so, in the perfect shells from Folkestone.

Fig. 6b is the apex alone, and shows the fine transverse ribbing
with which it is always internally ornamented. Figs. 6a, 8a, 8b
are other views showing the position of the helicoid apex, but are
enlargements of shells said to be Calyptrea Cooksonie. Fig. 4a is a
view looking down upon @. gauliina. Fig. 4b shows the crater-like
scar, highly magnified, which is left on the cast after the removal of
the helicoid spire. This is the imperfect state in which most
specimens are found.

The great variety of scar left after the removal of the septum
is well seen in this series. As I am informed by Mr. Jesson and
the Rey. Arthur Buxton that the casts of these shells are abundant,
when diligently searched for, in the apertures of Cephalopods in the
Cambridge beds, there will be no difficulty in confirming the correct-
ness of my proposal to unite the several forms in a single species.
In this case Buvignier’s name would have priority.

Fig. 22 represents Brachystoma angularis, Seeley. The genus was
proposed by me in this MaGaztne last year to receive this rare shell,
and is placed in the family of Aporrhaide. I had then no space to
figure the Cambridge specimens (two in number), which are now
in the Woodwardian Museum, and I embrace this opportunity of
figuring one of them, as they are of larger size than the still unique
specimen from the Gault of Folkestone.

VI.—Across Hurore anp Asta.—Travexiine Notes,
By Professor Joun Mite, F.G.S. ;
Imperial College of Engineering, Tokei, Japan.
(Continued from p. 518.)

VII.—Irkutsk to Lake Baikal.

Contents.—Irkutsk ; its Earthquakes—Gold-washing in Eastern Siberia—Method
of sinking to the bottom of a river through a shaft of ice—Road to Lake
Baikal—Round its southern end—Old lake-terraces—Its former extension—
Origin of its basin—Bearing of its Fauna on its origin—Is it a pool left behind
a flood P

HILST in Irkutsk I had many opportunities of conversing
about the earthquakes which sometimes disturb these Central

Asian localities. Not long before my arrival in the town, a sharp

shocks had been experienced. The general effect it produced was

558 Prof. Milne—Across Europe and Asia.

given to me by Miss Cathleen Campbell, now Mrs. Szlenker, who
had been keeping a record of meteorological and other phenomena.
The shock took place at 2°55 a.m. on the 4th September. It was at
first felt in a direction from east to west, but after 14 minutes it
changed to N.H. and §.W. The shock, which was severe, caused
ornaments on the table to rattle, and a few bottles which were close
together knocked each other with so much force that they fell over.
There were thirteen of them, and they tumbled in various directions
—nine fell on the table, and four were broken on the floor. Watches
and clocks were stopped, and screws 11 in. long, fastened in the
wall to keep a clock straight, were drawn out. Preceding this shock,
from observations which I saw, the barometer appears to have been
lower than usual.

From a list of earthquakes drawn up by MM. Orlof and Stuikin
as having occurred between the years 1725 and 1874, there appear
to have been at least 188 different days on which shocks were dis-
tinctly felt. As these were all perceptible to the inhabitants, and
not such as needed celicate instruments in order that they should be
recorded, we cannot well make comparisons as to their frequency,
but only as to their relative intensity.

The severest of these happened at the end of the year 1861. The
district where the effects were most observed was near Irkutsk and
along the shores of Lake Baikal. On the N.E. portion of the delta
formed by the River Selinga where it enters the Baikal, the effects
were permanent. This district, which was violently disturbed, is
about forty versts long and 20 versts wide, and runs along the shores
of the lake. On this strip of land were situated the Russian villages
of Kudara, Doobeeneena, Oimoorchi, and a Bourat village, with a
population amounting in all to 1300.

The first shocks, which were light, took place on the 29th
of December. Next morning they were stronger, and on the
succeeding night, that is, between the 30th and 31st, they not only
increased in number, but their power also increased. On the after-
noon of the 31st, at 3 p.m., a heavy underground rumbling was
heard, and this was followed by a series of shocks so strong that
it was impossible for persons to remain standing. Barrels in a yard,
each containing twenty pouds (720 Ibs.) weight of fish, were rolled
backwards and forwards from one end of the yard to the other. In
the yard and in the street the earth was cracked, and water charged
with mud issued from the crevices thus formed. In some of the
wells water rose like a “fountain” a fathom or more in height.
Some of the fissures formed springs of clear fresh water, one of
which, issuing from a crack about one arsheen (28 inches) wide, and
two fathoms (12 feet) deep, gave so much water that a small lake
was formed a verst in area. In the village of Krasnikova a hollow
place twenty fathoms wide and three fathoms (18 feet) deep, with a
spring in it, was formed.

In a church at the village of Kudara, the shocks were so strong
that the cupola fell down inside, breaking a chandelier which was
hanging beneath. In the houses at the same village so much

Prof. Miine—Across Europe and Asia. 509

mud and water came out of the cracks which were formed, that the
boards forming the floors were burst, and the streets were covered
with water one arsheen (28 inches) deep. On the same day the
water of the Baikal flowed over the Sagansky Steppe and the
Bourat villages which were situated upon it. On New Year's Day,
1862, the water of the Baikal flooded ‘all the land as far as the
Steppe of Bartogoisky. Three thousand five hundred head of cattle
were drowned, and upwards of 40,000 hayricks were washed away,
whilst corn and other things were also destroyed. Near to the
Baikal the water was four arsheen deep (9ft. 4in.), and near Selinga
4 arsheen (7 in.). The force of this flood of water was very great.
Many pieces of ice several yards square and 4 arsheen (14 in.) in
thickness were carried to distances of two versts (14 miles).

The direction of the shocks was from N.H. towards 8.W., through
Cabansk, towards Selenginsk and Lake Gooseenoi. In Selenginsk
the first shock was on the 80th December, at 4 pm. Next day
there were a series of slow shocks, which, in the afternoon, at 2 p.m.,
had increased in strength. Noises and tremblings were felt con-
tinuously. The church bell rang of its own accord, whilst the
building itself swayed from north to south, and the crosses on its
summit were tipped over to one side. The shocks were repeated
rapidly, and, as night came on, they had so increased in strength that
the earth oscillated every two or three minutes. By these strong
oscillations the ice covering Lake Goosenaya and Lake Stuchya was
cracked, and from the cracks came forth water charged with mud and
pebbles. In Verkne Udinsk the shocks commenced at 4 p.m. on the
30th December, and during the day fourteen of them were observed.
At 3 p.m. next day they were so strong that stone houses were
cracked, stove pipes shaken down, and window glass was broken.
Tremblings were observed so far as Chita and Nertchinsk. In
Irkutsk observations were made by MM. Shookeen and Semen-
tovsky. The tremblings commenced on December 30th, at
3h. 55m. 40sec. p.m. The force of the shocks and the rapidity of
the tremblings were unusual. The breaking of the ice upon the
Rivers Angara and Ooshankofa caused great noise. During the
night there were many shocks. At 2:19 p.m., on the 3lst, the
churches were shaken and the bells rang. From one church a cross
fell down, the Arcanglesky Church inclined to the south, Blagovats-
chevsky and Teekveensky churches inclined east, whilst the cross
on the last-mentioned building was turned round. A number of the
brick houses were shaken, whilst the chimneys of the wooden ones
cracked and fell. Slight shocks continued all day and next night.

In the Tunkinskaya country the effects were slight, and no visible
results were left.

On the 30th Dec., in the Island of Olkoni (or Olkoon) on Lake
Baikal, there was heard a noise, which was followed by a shaking.
This continued until the 13th January, generally happening from
4 to 7 o’clock during the day. The greatest shakings were on the
3lst December. Rumblings and slight tremblings were more or
less felt, usually twice a day, until the 25th of January.

560 Prof. Miine—Across Europe and Asia.

At the settlement of Ooreekofskim, which is about 20 versts from
Irkutsk, an iron tie was torn from a church, and great damage was
done. The southern boundary of the earthquake passed through Urga
and Mongolia, and was perceptible at all places about the same time.

Earthquakes continued during the months of, January, February,
and even March, few days passing without shocks being felt.

In 1870 to 1871 strong shocks were also felt near Irkutsk. These
were preceded by sounds like those of a powerful wind. Crosses
fell from the churches, and the ice in the Angara, which was frozen
at the time, moved up and down. One observer assured me that
the upright planks, which formed the wall of the room in which
he slept, had danced vertically up and down. When at the other
extremity of Siberia, on my road towards Irkutsk, I had heard some-
thing about the violence of the earthquakes which I might per-
chance have the opportunity of experiencing. In consequence of
the severity of the shocks I had also heard that the houses were
only built one story high; but this is not the case, for I found
that buildings soared almost as high in the Hastern capital as
they do in the Western. All the earthquakes, like those of which I
have spoken, have been accompanied by an underground noise.
During the daytime the trembling of the buildings can be seen as
well as felt. ‘he smaller shocks, and more especially such as occur
at night, are said to be indicated by the bellowing of cattle, the
neighing of horses, and the howling of dogs. The general direction
of the shocks is from N.E. to 8.W. I was told that when ouly a
slight shock was felt in Irkutsk, it often happened that something
more severe was felt in the valley of the Tunka, about 80 miles to
the §.W. This latter district is looked upon as being the centre
from which the greater number of the Irkutsk earthquakes originate,
a circumstance which may be supposed to have a connexion with
the traces of volcanic action found in that district. Indications of
volcanic forces are to be found at other points in the vicinity of
Irkutsk, besides those in the valley of the Tunka; thus round Lake
Baikal, in addition to old lavas, there are still hot springs and
mineral waters. A liquid asphalt, which sometimes rises to the
surface of the lake, is also referred to the same origin. On the
Verkne Angara, south of Nijni Udinsk, and near Selenginsk, on
the east side of the Baikal, there are also volcanic rocks; but I
shall speak again of these presently.

Some few earthquakes appear to have originated from the neigh-
bourhood of the Baikal, or even from the lake itself. These earth-
quake shocks occur at all times of the year, and are not confined to
particular seasons, as they appear to be in many localities. After a
great earthquake, as that of 1861, there is generally a period of
quiescence, as if the internal forces were exhausted, and were
therefore necessitated to await a fresh accumulation of energy.

The first record of an earthquake is that of 1725. ‘This seems
strange, insomuch as the town was built in 1686, and the place had
been inhabited since 1652. From this we may infer that, prior to
the date of the first shock, there must have been a quiescent period

Prof. Mitne—Across Europe and Asia. 561

of at least thirty-nine years and perhaps more than seventy years.
The only other explanation for this lapse of time, which is without
an analogue in the subsequent history of the Irkutsk earthquakes, is
that perhaps the records were either not kept or else have sub-
sequently been lost. One remarkable statement I heard was that
small earthquakes occurring on one side of Lake Baikal are not felt
upon the opposite side. Such being the case, we might perhaps infer
that there is some peculiarity in the depth or formation of the lake
which prevents vibrations which originate on one side passing to the
other. I shall have more to say about this lake bye-and-bye.

Since arriving in Japan, at certain seasons I have had almost a
weekly experience of earthquakes. The month after my arrival,
which was in March, 1876, there were no less than ten shocks re-
corded, whilst during the year there were fifty-three. Although
these Japanese earthquakes are in most cases perceptible withcut the
aid of instruments, they are by no means so strong as those I have
been describing. They usually commence as a slight shock, which
is followed by an easy short horizontal vibration, producing a sensa-
tion as if you were supported on a mass of stiffish jelly which had
been slightly agitated. The timbers in your house crack, whilst
glasses and windows rattle. This usually lasts for about thirty
seconds, after which all is quiet. At first the sensation is curious,
but by repetition it becomes unpleasant.

As at Irkutsk and other localities, the lower animals are affected.
This is chiefly noticeable in the pheasants, which I hear screaming
in my garden at every shock. ‘They sometimes herald its approach
a few seconds beforehand, and then usually continue their calling
until the movement ceases.

When speaking of my journey across the Urals, I made
reference to the gold-mines which I saw there. Although these
mines were chiefly represented by alluvial workings, a few open-
ings, as at Berezovski, had been made upon lodes of quartz. In
Eastern Siberia this latter class of work has not yet been developed,
but the former class has been very largely carried out. The chief
workings are upon the Lena, as far nortii and even farther than
Yakutsk, and in the Trans-Baikal and Amoor districts, as at
Nertchinsk. Gold is also worked, but to a small extent, upon the
Mongolian frontier. Here, however, but little has been done; chiefly
owing to difficulties which arise with the Chinese and Native tribes,
who, refusing to pay duty, wander backwards and forwards across
the frontier, opposing or escaping all Government officials.

From all that I could learn, gold is found in greater or less
quantities almost everywhere. The gold which comes from the
northern districts, as the Lena, is generally the poorest, containing
the greatest per-centage of silver and copper.

As an average analysis of 96 parts of Hast Siberian gold, I may

give the following— TOTAL.
Amoor gold ... ... 912 gold 4 silver 4 copper= 96
NMMOOTEOOLG, “et bei) OAL) dose OS ee oe Ske
Ibeme, CveleutS) ho Shoay BE op Ae it) = 96

DECADE II.—VOL. IV.—NO. XII. 36

562 Prof. Milne—Across Europe and Asia.

This would suggest that the constancy in the general character of
the gold obtained from the Lena, as compared with that from the
Amoor, is either due to their having originated from different sources,
or, what is perhaps as probable, that those great causes which acted
in laying out the beds of alluvium in which they occur, also acted
in separating the various qualities of gold according to their respec-
tive specific gravities, that which was light being carried farthest
from its source as compared with that which was heavier. If there
is any probability of such an action ever having taken place, then
we might suppose that the gold of the Lena district has travelled
farther from its origin than that in the Amoor.

In the consideration of such an action, the average relative sizes of
the transported particles is an important factor. In the gold of
Eastern Siberia such metals as platinum or iridium, which are so
common in the Urals, are but seldom found. A little is, however, |
obtained from the washings at Nertchinsk.

Whilst in Irkutsk I paid several visits to the smelting works,
where all the gold of Hastern Siberia is cast into ingots. There is
a similar establishment at Barnaul for Western Siberia. At these
works I had every opportunity kindly given me of examining
large quantities of gold from various localities. The bulk of what
I saw was more or less roughly granular, many of the grains being
as large as peas. JI saw many indications of the formation of
crystals, from which I concluded that such gold had not travelled
very far from the position in which it had been originally deposited.

The gold mining all over Russia is under Government control,
which always specifies that, after obtaining a grant of land,
one must commence to work upon it within a given time. The
places which are generally worked are the banks and beds of small
tributary rivers, but more especially the beds. Near the mouth of
the river the yield is generally less than it is higher up. In such
places the alluvium may be sixty feet in thickness, whilst the bed
containing the gold, which may be below all this, is only perhaps
seven feet in thickness. The workings generally commence at the
mouth of a stream, and work up the valley down which it flows to-
wards its source. The first operation is to sink a number of trial
shafts at right angles to the direction of the valley. These go
down to the bed rock. From the gold-sand which generally lies
upon this rock samples of 10 pouds each (360Ibs.) are taken, then
washed, and afterwards the yield for 100 pouds is calculated. After.
this has been done at several points, and the results are satisfactory,
adam is thrown across the river, and the water is sent round one
side, along the edge of the valley, instead of down the course in
which it originally ran. If near the dam they have to sink, say, for
example, thirty feet, im order to reach gold, then they must also
sink thirty feet below the bed at some point below these workings,
and from it cut a drain in order to carry off any water which may
accumulate at the point where they are extracting the gold.

This is only one system which is adopted in mining and pro-
specting. There are others specially for prospecting, which are

Prof. Milne—Across Europe and Asia. 565

noteworthy from their ingenuity. One system in particular to which
I refer is that adopted for sinking shafts in the beds of rivers with-
out the necessity of making a dam. This is done in winter when
the waters are frozen. First of all holes are cut in the ice the size
of the prospecting shaft, to within two or three inches of the water.
The shallow pit thus formed is then allowed to rest for a day or two,
when underneath the portion that is cut away the water freezes, and
the ice is again thickened at the point where it had been made thin.
There is now material in which to deepen the excavation, which is
again carried on to within two or three inches of the water. Once
more it is allowed to thicken, and the shaft is continued. In this
way the bed of the river is reached, by means of a tube of ice, round
the outside of which water is flowing. Whilst the operation is going
on, a small hole is occasionally made through the floor of ice to test
its thickness. After this has been measured, the orifice is im-
mediately stopped up with a plug of ice, and the excavation con-
tinued or allowed to rest, according to circumstances. In this way I
am told that many of the rivers are tested during the winter months.
When good ground is found, the river is dammed up and the works
proceed as I have before described.

Although Siberian cold is thus turned to account by the pro-
spector, it is often a great bugbear to the miners. In the north gold
mining is carried on in ground perpetually frozen. After this has
been excavated, before it can be washed, it has first to go through a
process of thawing. Exposure to the atmosphere is sometimes suf-
ficient for this purpose, but at other times it has to be subjected to a
process of firing.

Some of the Tungusians are said to have great skill in prospecting,
which they do in a truly philosophical and scientific manner, their
chief guide being the general contour of the country. Ascending a
high hill, they look down upon the country beneath, intersected
with its network of streams and valleys. They then observe those
places in the valleys where a line of hills, a projecting ridge, or any
other object, would be likely to offer an obstruction to the passage of’
materials which may at any time have come sweeping down from
higher ground. These positions are then marked, and afterwards
examined on similar principles, but in detail, and the results are
generally said to be most satisfactory.

After nearly a month’s residence in Irkutsk, I at last left it at 11
P.M. on the 23rd of November, and took the road towards Kiachta.
As there was now so much floating-ice upon the Baikal, and it was
in consequence doubtful whether the steamer would be able to
cross, I was forced to take the road running round its southern end.
Although I was now travelling in a sledge, to which I had anxiously
looked forward as a pleasure compared with a tarantass, I found the
jolting still unpleasantly heavy. When daylight came, I found
myself in a hilly pine-covered country. In the distance before me,
and also a little to my right, there were many snow-capped peaks,
none of which appeared to rise above a common level. From the
cuttings which had been made during the formation of the road, I

564 Prof. Mitne—Across Europe and Asia.

could see that many large boulders had been taken. These were
egneissic in their character, and some of them were one or two feet
in diameter.

I did not see Lake Baikal until I was almost in it. This was at
the village of Kultuchno, the entrance to which is down a steep hill
leading directly towards the water. It was from the top of this hill
that I had my first view of what the Russians eulogize as the ‘ Holy
Sea,’ the dark blue waters of which contrasted strikingly with the
small white peaks which capped the distant hills. Large waves
were forming under a stiff breeze, which jostled packs of floating-
ice, and drove them into the bays. My road now led round the
borders of the lake, beside which, for some two or three versts, I
glided along over the frozen waters of a small lagoon. Before me,
on the sides of some of the hills which led backwards from the
south end of the lake, I saw some small parallel lines, which I took
to be old lake-terraces. These were also conspicuous further on
the road behind the station of Mooravoya Amoorskaya.

It was not long before I was travelling eastwards along the
southern end of the lake. I was, so to speak, upon a ledge running
along the face of high gneissic rocks. Although I had in places
cliffs above me on the right, and cliffs beneath me on the left, the
road is by no means so romantic as I had anticipated from the de-
scription. Notwithstanding my elevation, when looking up the lake
a sea horizon always met my eye. The east and west shores
of this large piece of water, which is about 400 miles long, and 45
miles broad, are very different in their appearance,—the eastern
side sloping gently backwards to peaked hills, and the western being
bounded by almost perpendicular cliffs, or else by steep slopes.
Along the faces of these latter I fancied I could see a horizontal
stratification, indicating that their dip was probably towards the
west. This being the case, then, the origin of the cliff-like face
upon the western shore of the Baikal is due to a similar cause as
that producing the greater number of escarpments, which are nearly
always formed at right angles to the dip of the rock in which they
are cut. Here, however, instead of having volcanic agencies so
prominently at work, we have the action of the waters of the lake
itself, which, washing against its western shore, readily undercuts the
strata. These strata, like those of a sea-cliff, ultimately fall down,
and are afterwards washed away. In this way we might suppose that
the boundaries of the Baikal are extending westwards in a similar
manner to that in which many of the escarpments of England are
gradually receding eastwards. Tracing such an action backwards, we
may readily conceive a time when this lake, instead of being forty-five
miles broad, was only one mile broad, when it was in fact little more
than the borders of a river running from the N.E. towards the S.W.
This might be represented by the right hand branch of the letter V,
the left-hand portion of which still remains as represented by the
River Angara, running to the N.W. This may or may not have been
the origin of the hollow in which the Baikal now rests, but it
certainly appears to be connected with its enlargement, and is more

Prof. Milne—Across Europe and Asia. 565

feasible than the supposition of its having been formed by some
cataclysmic seismic action, as is sometimes advocated.

It was along this southern end of the Baikal that I met with the
best scenery in crossing Siberia. About halfway along the shore I
left what I have spoken of as a ledge, and descended to the level of
the lake. In places the shore was covered with large boulders,
whilst in other parts it was sandy. Sometimes I crossed the mouth
of a small valley, which marked the entrance of some tributary
from the south. Here, instead of tall pines, which flanked the
steeper portions of the road, there were clumps of birch, which
swung their drooping branches, thick with hoar-frost, in the breeze.
At night-time, charging deep gullies in the dark, the roaring of the
waters on the shore, the intense cold, the loneliness, and the gexe-
rally cramped position in which I was obliged to sit both night and
day, had a miserable and depressing effect. Along the road I only
met two men, and this happened under circumstances so suspicious
that I congratulated myself when they were well passed. After
rounding the southern end of the lake, I had a full view of the cliff-
faced hills upon the western side, which were then capped with
snow. Nearer to me I had small fields of ice, some of which were
a square mile or more in area, and amongst which a few blocks
stood up like icebergs in miniature.

When speaking of the freezing of Siberian rivers, I mentioned
the fact of the Baikal freezing over at different times in different
parts. Thus in the vicinity of the Island of Olkoon it freezes about
the 23rd of December, and breaks up from the end of April to the
10th or 15th of June, whilst near Posolsky, farther to the south, it
freezes from the 22nd of December to the 10th or 16th of January,
and breaks up between the 20th of April and the 10th of May.
There are small places in the lake where it is said never to freeze,
and about such places the seals, which inhabit these waters, are said to
congregate in winter-time. ‘These unfrozen patches are, I believe,
looked upon as marking the position of warm springs. In some por-
tions of the lake there is a slight increase in temperature as you
descend. The experiments showing this were made at 1000 métres
from the shore in water ninety fathoms deep. At about ten métres
from the surface the temperature was ‘7 Cel., and this increased as
you descended until the bottom was reached, when it was 3:1 Cel.

At all the post stations I made inquiries about the seals which
inhabit the lake, but I did not see anything more than a few of
their skins. I also asked about shells and fish, and I was successful
in obtaining a few of the former.

Speaking of the Lake Baikal seal, Mr. Wallace, in his Geographi-
cal Distribution of Animals, vol. i. p. 218, says: ‘It is a species of
Callocephalus, closely allied to, if not identical with, one inhabiting
Northern seas, as well as the Caspian and Lake Aral. This would
indicate that all Northern Asia was depressed beneath the sea very
recently; and Mr. Belt’s view, of the ice during the Glacial epoch
having dammed up the rivers and converted much of Siberia into a
vast freshwater or brackish lake, perhaps offers the best solution of

566 Prof. Milne—Across Europe and Asia.

the difficulty.” Before at once accepting these views of Mr. Wallace
in the adoption of Mr. Belt’s idea as to the origin of the Siberian
Steppes, to which latter I have already referred at length, I will
relate the few facts I collected, all of which, I think, have a bearing
on this interesting speculation.

When at Irkutsk I saw a Baikal seal. It was short and thick,
and said to be a young one. It had a generally greyish colour, but
rather darker on the back than upon the other portions of its body.
As the seals grow older, the body deepens in colour. One thing that
I was distinctly told was that they are never marked. with spots or
patches.

The only seal that I have seen which is anything like the Baikal
Seal is the so-called bay seal of Newfoundland and Labrador, which
often ascends rivers and permanently inhabits inland lakes. Speak-
ing from memory, which is unfortunately of but little value in
making the nice distinctions which are required when establishing
the identity or distinction of two species, these latter seals are more
elegant in their proportions than those from Lake Baikal, and, what
is more, at certain periods of their existence, they have various
markings developed on their skin—a feature which is absent in the
Baikal seals.

The head-quarters of the seal in the Baikal Lake are at its northern
end, but in winter they collect round those portions which are said
to remain unfrozen.

I also heard that seals are found in Lake Kosogol, across the
borders, further to the south; they are also reported as existing in
another lake lying to the east, and in the Oron Lake to the north-
east. If this is true, and, from the relations which the fauna of other
lakes bear to that of the Baikal, it is not unlikely, then we shall
have a striking piece of evidence indicating to us the probable way
in which these lakes may have originated.

Across the northern end of the lake a series of soundings have
been made by M. Debovsky, of Irkutsk, who also examined its
fauna. The greatest depth attained at this end was 1373 feet. In
some places it is stated as being 800 fathoms. This is very deep,
but if we were to draw a section across the lake, which would be
about forty-five miles long, the magnitude of this would be seen to
be more or less apparent. The bottom consists of various materials,
such as pebbles, clay, rocks, and sand. The fish of the lake form a
great trade, and supply many vessels upon its waters. Many of
these vessels come down the Angara as far as Irkutsk, where they
discharge their cargo. The commonest of these fish, which I had
many times the pleasure of eating, were Coregonus omul and Lota
vulgaris. ‘These two fish, which are known respectively as the
omool and naleem, are to be seen in the house of every Siberian,
and they are esteemed so much that they may sometimes be found
amongst the Russian residents in China. The omool is peculiar, I
believe, to the Baikal; but the naleem is found farther west. Other
fish inhabiting the lake are: Idus melanotus, Acanthopsis tonia,
and Perca fluviatilis : these are also found farther west. Salmo

Prof. Miine—Across Europe and Asia. 567

Jflwiatilis, Salmo coregonoides, a Cottus, and Thymallus are also found
in the lake.

Besides the seal, called by some Phoca Baicalensis, and the omool,
which may be regarded as being so far peculiar to the lake, Coregonus
Baicalensis, Squalidus Baikalensis, and Calorrhous Baikalensis, along
with other creatures, are also peculiar.

There are also many Crustaceans which have hitherto been only
found in the Baikal. Amongst these there are, I think, seventy or
more species of Gammarus. These latter, many of which I saw, are
generally of a light yellow colour. They live in holes in the sand
or clay. They are very ravenous. If a dead body is sunk in the
lake, the whole of the flesh is devoured in a few days, and only a
skeleton remains. It was by lowering a carcase like that of a sheep
into the lake, and by taking advantage of the flesh-eating tendency
of these creatures, that many new species were captured. Osteo-
logical specimens have been prepared by sinking them for a few
days in the lake. This was very satisfactory, as the whole of the
flesh was removed without any attack being made upon the outer
portion of the bone, as ants are very apt to do.

Some of these, like G. verrucosus, G. viridis, and G. cancellatus, live
near the shore in shallow water, whilst others appear to only in-
habit the deeper portions of the lake. In addition to the Crustaceans,
Lake Baikal yields a peculiar series of Mollusca.

Some interesting experiments have been made here by M.
Debovsky as to the depth at which these creatures can exist.
One of these experiments was to place living specimens of Paludina
Baicalensis and Choanomphalus Mackii in a bag and sink them to
various depths between 700 and 1200 feet, and there allow them
to remain for several weeks. The result of this was that the sub-
jects survived in an apparently healthy condition.

Some Crustaceans, similar to those in the Baikal, have been found
in a small lake up the Tunka Valley, and I have already mentioned
that it is not at all unlikely that seals also occur in neighbouring
lakes.

These facts, small as they are, naturally tend to the surmise that
the fauna of the inland fresh waters of these districts may, on ex-
amination, prove to have a great similarity. Should this be so, we
may perhaps be led to think, as has before been suggested, that
all the small lakes which we see dotted on the map around the
Baikal were once connected, and in former times existed as a vast
inland sea. That the Baikal was once more extensive than it is at
present seems to be indicated in the terraces which appear to be
marked upon its southern boundaries. Still farther to the south and
south-east, up the valley of the Tunka, Mr. Tchersky tells me that
there are beds of alluvium marking an old extension of the lake.

So far as I could learn, there appear to have been two well-
marked periods in the history of this lake: first there was the
original cutting out of the rocky bed, and a subsequent filling in
with alluvium, and secondly there was the cutting out of the basin
in the alluvium, traces of which remain in the valley of the Tunka,

568 Reviews—J. B. Simpson—Northumberland Coal-field.

and a sinking of the waters to their present level. By this latter
action we had the water, so to speak, split up imto separate areas.
This would explain the similarity in the fauna of the different
districts, should it ever be proved satisfactorily to exist, and also the
presence of salt lakes in the Trans-Baikal territory, where the
waters, for want of outlet, have become gradually supersaturated,
until now they annually form a deposit on their shores.

Most of what I have said about the Baikal, it will be seen, is based
on scanty evidence, and must only be accepted until something better
can be obtained. When the geology and zoology of these districts
have been further investigated, it remains to be seen if we get in-
dications as to the origin of the physical features of this part of the
world still pointing in the same direction, as those do which we
have at present in possession.

So far, then, I am content to believe that at one time, in this
portion of the world, there were inland fresh waters which deposited
alluvium, and, as these retired, the Baikal, with its surrounding
lakes and lakelets, were left like pools behind a flood.

REVIEWS.

I.—Sections oF THE NoRTHUMBERLAND AND DuRHAM COAL-FIELD.
By J. B. Simpson, M.H. (Large folding sheet, published by A.
Reid, Newcastle-on-Tyne, 1877.)

HE times when mining engineers jealously kept their local know-
ledge to themselves are rapidly passing away, and it is but rarely

now that information of a scientific character is withheld from the
public. The publications of the Geological Survey teem with acknow-
ledgments of assistance rendered by the very men who, years ago,
would have thought it their duty to oppose obstacles to the progress
of such work. There are still exceptions, but they are few and
far between—survivals, but not of the fittest. The issue of the
handsome sheet before us is a case in point. Here Mr. Simpson,
well known as one of the most active of North-country mining
engineers, and the author of more than one paper of geological
interest, has given the world a key to the structure of the great

Northern Coal-field, of which it is difficult to speak with sufficient

praise. In the right-hand corner of the sheet an index geological

map shows the limits of the field, its chief lines of fault and the
lines of section, one N. and §., and the other EH. and W., the
detailed illustration of which forms the chief object of the plate.

This object is attained by means of nearly fifty actual measured

vertical pit-sections carefully drawn to scale, and placed side by side

in order across the sheet. To the left stands a general section in
which every recorded Coal-seam is given and numbered, correspond-
ing numbers being used in all the other sections for the same beds,
thus enabling one to ascertain at a glance the author’s views as to
the equivalence of the minor seams. This is perhaps the most
valuable feature of the publication. As a datum-line the Low-
Main or Hutton Seam has, we think very properly, been chosen.

Reviews—Prof. Tschermak—On Volcanic Action. 569

Two longitudinal sections along the lines mentioned give a good
idea of the general connexion of the details.

As a whole, the structure of the Tyne, Wear, and Tees Coal-field
is simple enough, and since Buddle’s remarkable papers on the
larger seams of the district, the general equivalence of these has
been fairly well understood. With the minor seams, however, this
is not the case, and every one will appreciate the obligation under
which Mr. Simpson has placed northern geologists and mining men
in giving them the results of his observations on the subject. In
some instances even now the correlation of the seams is still doubtful,
especially in the extreme north. When this is so, a special mark
attached to the sections denotes the uncertainty.

The nomenclature of Coal-seams has ever been eccentric, and here
we have this brought vividly before us. The names in use in the
Tyne district are not those of the Wear Valley, while yet other
names are given to the same Coals in the Derwent area.

The care with which this chart has been drawn up is evidenced
by the fact that even the small seams lying between the Brockwell
seam (the arbitrary base of the Coal-measures) and the Millstone-
grit are duly entered in their places. In this interval we have the
group of beds sometimes referred to as the Ganister series, although
the rocks composing it are indistinguishable from those either above
or below, and no marine fossils have, so far as we are aware, been
found in them yet. The fine-grained white, rootlet-pierced, sand-
stones, which give their name to the division, are found both in the
beds above the Brockwell seam and in the Carboniferous Limestone
or Bernician rocks far below. We are therefore pleased to see that
Mr. Simpson includes the series (some 300 feet thick) in the Coal-
measures proper, in which, indeed, he has, very judiciously, recog-
nized no divisions whatever. The entire thickness of the Coal-
measures, according to him, from the highest bed known in Boldon
Colliery (between Sunderland and Newcastle), and the top of the
Millstone-grit, is about 2125 feet. What thickness of upper beds was
removed before the deposition of the Permian deposits (the un-
conformity of which is well shown in these sections), there is of
course no means of knowing.

‘Mr. Simpson’s diagram, while it is indispensable to all local
inquirers, cannot fail to be appreciated by geologists and mining
engineers everywhere as the latest, readiest,-and most accurate
summary of all that is important respecting the Newcastle Coal-
field. G. A. L.

II.—On Voucantc Action As A PHENOMENON OF THE UNIVERSE. By
Prof. Gustav T'scHurMAK, Member of the Imperial Academy
of Sciences. Read 8th March, 1877. (From vol. Ixxv. of the
Transactions of the Imperial Academy of Sciences, Ist part,
March number, 1877. Vienna.)

(YVHE author has formerly suggested that all stars in the course of
their development pass through a volcanic phase. ‘The moon’s

mountains have been thought by Hooke, Nasmyth, and Carpenter,

570 Reviews—Prof. Tschermak—On Volcanic Action.

to owe their shapes to eruptions. The sunspots are eruptions of
incandescent gas: the sudden brilliancy of some stars points to a
similar cause. The forms and materials of meteorites may be due to
ejection from some planet in volcanic activity, perhaps now itself
reduced to fragments. He will consider which of the many hypo-
theses brought forward will bear application to the earth and
extension to the universe. First he describes the theory which
attributes volcanic phenomena to the mutual action of the water
which percolates down and the heated rock which it meets. This
explains many of the circumstances. He objects to it, however,
that since percolation is a continuous process, volcanic activity ought
either to be continuous or regularly periodic, also that it fails to
explain the origin of many products of eruptions, especially carbonic
acid gas, nitrogen, ammonia, sulphurous and sulphuric acids, etc.,
and that the moon shows numerous volcanos but no water.

Next he describes Mallet’s suggestion that the heat is owing to
the sinking of portions of the earth’s crust into cavities produced by
contraction. This he says could not develope a temperature nearly
sufficient ; its weakness has been shown by O. Fisher and Roth, and
it offers no explanation of the chemical products. He briefly dis-
misses the suggestion of Nasmyth and Carpenter, that the moon’s
materials expand in solidifying; as also that of Davy that the earth’s
interior contains potassium.

He then enunciates his own hypothesis, first developed by Angelot
in 1842, that the molten materials within the earth contain absorbed
in them quantities of vapours or gases, which, in solidifying, they
disengage. Angelot thought this would not account for the amount
of action, but he himself considers that he has calculated that it will.
The irregularity of eruptions he attributes to the irregularities in the
interior. He adduces the quantities of gases found contained in me-
teorites. He explains on this hypothesis the disengagement of gases
from lava, its origin, and its behaviour. Hspecially he urges the agree-
ment of his theory with the hypothesis of Kant and Laplace—the
origin of all heavenly bodies by condensation of gases. In their
solidification these bodies would include quantities of the simple
gases, which at those temperatures would be elements, but when
disengaged in cooling might meet, combine, and so produce great
and sudden developments of heat. The application to solar eruptions
is plain. If small bodies were so formed, their quicker cooling
might cause explosive action more violent than ordinary, resulting
in swarms of irregular fragments, and perhaps the complete destruc-
tion of the bodies. Thus he accounts for meteorites. The small
attraction of such bodies would be insufficient to retain water un-
vapourised on them. Now meteorites, he says, contain generally
anhydrous minerals. If the moon be derived trom a former ring
(like one of Saturn’s) round the earth, its materials would be light.
If its surface consist of light absorbent materials, these may retain
the steam and gases disengaged from the interior, and account
for the absence of a visible atmosphere.

In Appendix I. (pp. 18-20) the author estimates the degree of

Reports and Proceedings— Geological Society. 571

temperature that could be produced on Mallet’s hypothesis. He
calculates that a mass 100 square miles in area, sinking 1 métre, on
the assumption that half the heat developed was produced by
friction, and that its effect extended to a distance of one métre on
each side of the surface of rupture, could not produce along this
surface a rise in temperature of more than 547° Centigrade.

In Appendix II. (pp. 20-24) he cites many observations which
show that molten metals contain considerable quantities of different
gases, and disengage them in cooling and solidifying.

In Appendix III. (pp. 24-26) he shows that on the supposition
of a large number of assumptions the amount of gas developed from
the earth would be more than sufficient to account for the volcanic
activity we see. His assumptions are, Poisson’s calculation of the
heat lost annually by radiation: that the additional amount lost by
hot springs, lava vents, etc., is one-tenth more: that the latent heat
of consolidation is that of iron (which he estimates ingeniously) :
that the molten materials at great depths disengage in solidifying 50
times their volume of gas: and that the velocity of eruption of gas
from a volcanic vent is fifteen métres per second. His result is that
the gas disengaged would be sufficient to keep in vigorous activity
20,000 volcanic vents, each one square métre in area.

Though the author’s theory is open to some of the objections
which he urges against other hypotheses, and though his calcula-
tions, as is apt to be the case with such estimates, are of little im-
portance, yet it does seem likely to be a partial cause of terrestrial
voleanic activity, perhaps the whole cause of solar eruptions; and

the paper, as a clear statement of the theory, is a valuable one.
HK. H.

a= wali Oe= nS) /NANpID) 25554 @(OR TAD KES
po

I.—Gerontoaicat Socrety or Lonpon.—November 7th, 1877.—
Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.B., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

The President announced that Mr. Frederick L. Woodward had
been appointed Junior Assistant in the Library and Museum.

The following communications were read :-— ;

1. A letter dated Foreign Office, September 14, 1877.

«« Sir,—I am directed by the Harl of Derby to state to you, for the
information of the Geological Society, that his Lordship has received
a despatch from Her Majesty’s Minister at Teheran, reporting that
-a mining engineer had arrived there from Berlin, who, at the re-
quest of the Persian Government, had been selected by Messrs.
Siemens to ascertain what foundation there was for the reported
existence of a rich vein of gold in the vicinity of Zengan; that he
had visited the locality, and reported that auriferous quartz does
exist, but that he had not yet succeeded in finding any vein or de-
posit of the metal.—I am, Sir, your most obedient, humble Servant,

“The Secretary, Geological Society, ete. JULIAN PAUNCEFOTE.”

2. “Notes on Fossil Plants discovered in Grinnell Land by Capt.
H. W. Feilden, Naturalist to the English North Polar Expedition.”
By Prof. Oswald Heer, F.M.G.S.

O72 Reports and Proceedings—

Near Discovery Harbour, where H.M.S. “Discovery ” wintered
in 1875-6, in about 81° 45’ N. lat., and 64° 45’ W. long., a bed of
lignite, from 25 to 30 feet thick, was found, resting unconformably
upon the azoic schists of which Grinnell Land chiefly consists. The
lignite was overlain by black shales and sandstones, the former con-
taining many remains of plants; and above these there were, here
and there, beds of fine mud and glacial drift, containing shells of
marine Mollusca of species now living in the adjacent sea. This
glacial marine deposit occurs up to levels of 1000 feet, indicating a
depression and subsequent elevation of the region to at least this extent.

Remains of 25 species of plants were collected by Capt. Feilden,
and 18 of these are known from Miocene deposits of the Arctic
zone. ‘The deposit is therefore no doubt Miocene. It has 17 species
in common with Spitzbergen (78° 79 N. lat.), and 8 species in
common with Greenland (70° 71’ N. lat.). With the Miocene flora
of Hurope it has 6 species in common; with that of America
(Alaska and Canada) 4; with that of Asia (Sachalin) 4 also. The
species found include 2 of Equisetum, 10 Coniferse, Phragmites Cinin-
gensis, Carex Noursoakensis, and 8 Dicotyledons, viz. Populus arctica,
Betula prisca and Brongniarti, Corylus Macquarrii and insignis, Ulmus
borealis, Viburnum Nordenskiéldi, and Nymphea arctica.

Of the Conifers, Torellia rigida, previously known only by a few
fragments from Spitzbergen, is very abundant, and its remains show
it to have been allied to the Jurassic genera Phenicopsis and Baiera,
the former in its turn related to the Carboniferous Cordaites, and
among recent Conifers, to Podocarpus. Other Conifers are, Thuites
Ehrenswardi (2), Taxodium distichum miocenum (with male flowers),
Pinus Feildeniana (a new species allied to P. strobus), Pinus polaris,
P. abies (twigs covered with leaves), a species of Tsuga (Pinus
Dicksoniana, Heer), and a white Spruce of the group of Pinus
grandis and cariocarpa. Pinus abies, which occurs here and in
Spitzbergen, did not exist in Europe in Miocene times, but had its
original home in the extreme north, and thence extended south-
wards; it is met with in the Norfolk Forest-bed, and in the inter-
glacial lignites of Switzerland. Its present northern limit is 693°
N., and it spreads over 25 degrees of latitude. Taxodium distichum,
on the contrary, spread in Miocene times from Central Italy to
82° N. latitude, whilst at present it is confined to a small area.

Betula Brongniarti, Ett., is the only European species from Grin-
nell Land not previously known from the arctic zone.

The thick lignite-bed of Grinnell Land indicates a large peat-
moss, probably containing a lake in which the water-lilies grew; on
its muddy shores stood the large reeds and sedges, the birches,
poplars, Taxodia, and Torellig. The drier spots and neighbouring
chains of hills were probably occupied by the pines and _ firs,
associated with elms and hazel-bushes. A single elytron of a beetle
(Carabites Feildenianus) is at present the sole evidence of the exist-
ence of animals in this forest-region.

The nature of the flora revealed by Capt. Feilden’s discoveries
seem to confirm and extend earlier results. It approaches much

Geological Society of London. 573

more closely to that of Spitzbergen than to that of Greenland, as
might be expected from the relative positions of the localities ; and
the difference is the same in kind as that already indicated by Prof.
Heer between Spitzbergen and Greenland, and would indicate the
same kind of climatic difference. Nevertheless, the presence of
Taxodium distichum excludes arctic conditions, and that of the
water-lily indicates the existence of fresh water, which must have
remained open a great part of the year. Representatives of plants
now living exclusively in the arctic zone are wanting in the Grin-
nell-Land deposits; but on the other hand most of the genera still
extend into that zone, although they range in Grinnell Land from
12° to 15° further north than at present.

3. “On our present knowledge of the Invertebrate Fauna of the
Lower Carboniferous or Calciferous Sandstone series of the Edinburgh
neighbourhood, especially of that division known as the Wardie
Shales, and on the first appearance of certain species in the beds.”
By R. Etheridge, Esq., jun., F.G.S.

The Calciferous Sandstone series of the district described con-
sists, according to the author, of two divisions :—the superior, or
“Cement-stone group,” composed of sandstones, shales, oil-shales,
some thin coals, and a few limestones; the inferior, or “ Red Sand-
stone,” consisting of red and grey sandstones, conglomerates, marls,
and cornstones. The latter are very unfossiliferous, an HEntomo-
stracan (Hstheria Peachii) being the only fossil known from the Red
Sandstone. In some sandstones and shales at Clubbiedcan Reservoir,
placed with doubt at the base of the Cement-stone group, Leperditia
scotoburdigalensis and a crushed bivalve (Myalina ?) occur with
Sphenopteris affinis; and.a limestone belonging to the same set of
beds is almost entirely composed of Spirorbis helicteres with S. car-
bonarius (?). In shales at Craiglockhart Hill, Discina nitida, Lingula
squamiformis (?) and mytiloides, Anthracosia nucleus, Avicula Hender-
soni, and anew Myalina occur. In the Wardie Shales at Woodhall
Serpulites carbonarius, a species of Cheetetes, a new species of Leda,
Myalina crassa, var., a species of Aviculopecten, Schizodus Salteri,
Pandora typica; Pleurotomaria monilifera, Murchisonia striatula (2),
Bellerophon decussata, var., a species of Conularia, Nautilus cariniferus,
and a species of Orthoceras, make their appearance, associated with
several of the previously mentioned fossils. ‘This appears to be the
richest deposit in the whole group; but a new species not found in
it occurs elsewhere. The author has increased the known Inverte-
brate fauna of the Calciferous Sandstone group in this district from
twenty to thirty species, most of which he describes and figures, and
among them the following are distinguished as new or undeter-
mined :—Chetetes sp., Avicula Hendersoni, Aviculopecten sp., Anthra-
coptera obesa, Myalina sublamellosa, Nuculana Sharmani, Pandora?
typica, Littorina? scotoburdigalensis, Conularia sp.,and Orthoceras sp.

From his investigation of these species he indicated the occurrence
of at least three or four marine beds in the Calciferous Sandstone
series in addition to that mentioned by Mr. Salter, namely, at Craig-
lockhart, at Woodhall, Water of Leith, at Drumsheugh, which may

574 Reports and Proceedings—American Association.

be identical with the last, and probably at Dean'Bridge. Several of
the species which occur low down in this series attain their greatest
development in, and are characteristic of, the Carboniferous Lime-
stone series.

IJ.—Amemrican ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE,
Nashville, Tenn., August 31, 1877.—Prof. T. Sterry Hunt read a
paper on “ The Geology of the Older Rocks of Western America,” of
which the following is a synopsis :—

Prof. Sterry Hunt called attention to the great types of crystalline
stratified Hozoic rocks which he has recognized in the eastern part
of the continent and in Hurope, and which he has endeavoured to
show constitute distinct groups, well marked, both lithologically and
geognostically. He then gave some conclusions drawn from obser-
vations made by himself at a few points among the crystalline rocks
during a late journey in the West. His examinations of those in
the Rocky Mountains were made in the Sangre de Christo Range,
near Garland; in the Front or Colorado Range; at the Ute Pass and
Glen Hyrie; and also along Clear Creek Cation, and about George-
town. In all of these localities he found gneissic rocks, frequently
granitoid, often hornblendic, but scarcely micaceous, and apparently
identical with the Laurentian series of the Hast. He referred to the
published observations of the late Mr. Marvine, in Hayden’s Report
for 18783, who had carefully studied these rocks in the Colorado
Range, and who compared them to the Laurentian; and he agreed
with Mr. Marvine in regarding as indigenous the red granitoid rocks
in the region of the Ute Pass. Similar granitoid rocks at and near
Sherman, on the Union Pacific Railroad, are also, according to
Prof. Hunt, probably of the same nature. He referred in this con-
nexion to the area of labradorite rocks having the character of the
Norian series, found in the Rocky Mountain region, in Wyoming, but
known to the speaker only through specimens.

The rocks of the Wasatch Range, as seen in the Devil’s Gate
on the Weber River, are Laurentian, to which are to be referred
also the crystalline stratified rocks found in the same range further
south, in the upper part of the Little Cottonwood Canon. Here,
among loose blocks of the gneiss, are found occasional masses of
coarsely crystalline limestone, with mica, and others of a peculiar
type of pyroxenic rock, which accompanies similar limestones in the
Laurentian series. The crystalline rocks in the lower part of the
same Canon are, however, well-marked exotic or eruptive granites.

Eruptive granites are found in California, where they abound
among the foot-hills of the Sierras, in Placer and Nevada counties.
The crystalline schists seen by the author in these counties, and in
Amador county, are Huronian, and have all the characters of the
Huronian series, as seen in the eastern regions of North America,
and of the pietri verdi of the Alps. To this horizon are also to be
referred the similar crystalline rocks of the Coast Range of California,
as seen near San Francisco and San Jose. The auriferous veins
which, in the Rocky Mountains, intersect the Laurentian gneisses,
are found in the Sierras alike in the Huronian schists, and in the
eruptive granites which probably penetrate the Huronian series.

Correspondence—E. H., the late Mr. Edw. Wood. 575

CORRESPONDENCE.

THE LATE MR. EDWARD WOOD, J.P., F.G.S.

Str,—Your obituary notice (Gnon. Mac. Oct.) of the late Mr.
Wood, of Richmond, omits a circumstance in his life which the
writer may not have known—but which ought not to be left un-
recorded.

Mr. Wood was a man with a warm and feeling heart; and some
years ago, when it was the fashion for ladies to wear seabirds’ wings
in their hats, gangs of merciless ruffians used to put out in boats
from the coast towns of the north-east of England for the purpose
of capturing the birds (which breed on Flamborough Head) while
sitting on their nests. Not satisfied with this, they would often
tear the wings from the bodies, retaining only the former, and
throwing the latter into the sea.

During Mr. Wood’s geological excursions he became a witness to
this revolting practice, which he determined if possible to put an end
to. He foresaw that unless this was done the whole race of sea-
birds on that coast would be exterminated. He immediately put
himself in communication with gentlemen of influence in that part
of the country, described with natural indignation what he had seen
with his own eyes, and obtained their aid in bringing the matter
before members of Parliament. He also went up to London and
had interviews with members of the Government and of both
Houses of Parliament, and at length had the satisfaction of seeing a
Bill carried into law, for the protection of seafowl during the
breeding season. All who love the feathered tribes, therefore, owe
a debt of gratitude to Mr. Wood, of Richmond, Yorkshire.

Dusuin, 14th October, 1877. K. H.

TRIPARTITE ORIGIN OF THE BOULDER-CLAYS OF THE NORTH
WEST OF ENGLAND.

Str,— From repeated examinations of a number of constantly
varying sections around the estuaries of the Dee and Mersey, I have
been led to adopt the theory of a tripartite derivation of the con-
stituents of the two Boulder-clays—the normal sand and coarse grit
from the local Triassic, Permian, and Carboniferous sandstones; the
abnormal clay (of which the deposits mainly consist) from “ mud”
issuing from beneath glaciers (chiefly in the Lake District) when
they descended as low, or nearly as low as the sea-level ; the equally
abnormal erratic stones transported and dropped into the slowly
accumulating clay by floating coast-ice, the sea having been too
shallow to float icebergs, which indeed would either directly or
indirectly have disturbed the surface of the middle sand (which,
away from the mountains, almost invariably indicates the prevalence
of extremely tranquil conditions) when the upper clay began to be
deposited. The clay may have been partly worked up from the
local shales and so-called marls, but its wide distribution, general
uniformity of character, and great amount, are clearly incompatible
with the idea of its having been mainly of local derivation.

576 Correspondence—Mr. D. Mackintosh—Prof. T. G. Bonney.

The above theory of the tripartite origin of the Boulder-clays will
explain many facts which, at first sight, are calculated to puzzle the
observer, and make him think that there is no constant order of
succession in the drift-deposits of the north-western plain. The
current-distributed subglacial clay could not, everywhere, have been
equal in amount. It is indeed reasonable to suppose that in various
places, and at various times, there would be a partial or even entire
failure in the supply of this clay, so as to leave the sea nothing to
deposit but loam, sand, or coarse local grit, which would often con-
tain few or no erratics, as the currents which would bring the clay
would likewise be the principal carriers of the floating coast-ice
(part of which, however, would appear to have been blown in
aberrant directions by wind).

In the lower clay, there is often a change in its character upwards,
as if the supply of subglacial clay and erratic stones had been
diminishing; in other words, it often becomes less stony, and more
intercalated with loam or sand towards its junction with the non-
glacial middle sand. This indeed might be expected on the sup-
position that the lower clay and middle sand were deposited during
the same submergence.

The tripartite theory likewise explains the degeneracy of the
clays southward from the source of supply; and upward on the
hill-slopes where the clays gradually become more earthy and local
in their character; for the progress of the submergence must have
melted the ice upward, so as to limit its extent and consequent
power of supplying subglacial clay. D. Macxiytosu.

COLOURING OF OOLITIC ROCKS.

Srr,—An excellent illustration of Professor Judd’s remark on the
colouration of the Oolites, quoted at p. 480, from “'The Geology of
England and Wales,” may be now seen in a cutting on the Midland
Railway to the north of Kettering. The bed is very low down in
the Inferior Oolite, doubtless part of the Northampton Sands. It
seems to be (I have only noticed it from the train, but I believe it
identical with rock I have elsewhere examined) a soft sandstone,
perhaps calcareous. Vertical joints divide its beds into blocks, so
that there is a rough resemblance to courses of masonry. Sometimes
these blocks are wholly brown; but in other cases the heart of a
block is blue-grey, while the exterior for several inches is brown:
so that it is evident that the former was the original colour, and that
atmospheric water, as may be seen in so many other cases, has con-
verted the pyrite (or, what is here more probable, the carbonate of
iron, vide Judd, Geol. Rutland, p. 156) into limonite. The effect
produced by this change along the planes of bedding and of jointing
is very singular, something like masonry exceedingly coarsely
pointed. T. G. Bonny.

Erratum.—In the Rey. T. G. Bonney’s article, Grou. Maa. Nov. 1877, p. 499,
lines 8 and 14, for “‘ Hungary,” read “ Bohemia.”

AFR

FRICA, West Tropical, 27.
American Association, 574.
American and British ‘‘ Surface Geo-
logy,” 481, 536.

Paleozoic Fossils, 472.
Anthrapalemon from Coal-measures, 55.
from Nova Scotia, 56.
Antiquity of Man, 439.

Ardennes and Belgium, Rocks of, 174.

Ariége, Lherzolite of, 59.

Arran, Structure of Pitchstones and
Felsites in, 499.

Asia and Europe, Across, 289, 337, 389,
459, 511, 557.

Australia, Mammals of, 364.

— Miocene of, 526.

Tertiary Geology of, 416.

Aveline, W. T., Magnesian Limestone
and New Red Sandstone near Notting-
ham, 155; Relation of Permian to
Trias, 380.

AIKAL, Lake of, 564.
Barrois, Dr. C., Devonian of Brest,

280; Silurian of Brittany, 365.

Barrow, G., Lower Oolite of E. York-
shire, 552.

Batrachia in Nova Scotia, Carboni-
ferous, 77.

Belgium and Ardennes, Rocks of, 174.

Belt, T., Glacial Period of Norfolk and
Suffolk, 156; Glacial Period in South-
ern Hemisphere, 519; Loess of Rhine
and Danube, 170.

“¢ Bernician,’ on Term, 19.

Billings, Elkanah, F.G.S., Obituary of,
43

Blake, J. H., Age of Mammalian Root-
let-bed at Kessingland, 298.

Blanford, W. T., Dr. Feistmantel’s
Paper on Gondwana Series, 189.

Bohemia, Fossils from Coal-measures of,
169.

Gas-coal Flora and Permian

Fauna, 105.

DECADE II,— VOL. IVY.—NO. XII.

CAR

Bonney, Rev. T. G., Cambridgeshire
Geology, 122; Coral Rag of Upware,
476; Helland’s Theory of Formation
of Cirques, 273; Lherzolite of Ariége,
59; Rock Structure, 499.

Boulder-clay, Mr. Mellard Reade on, 94.

—-—— Threefold Division of, 38.

Boulger, G. 8., Dr. W. Smith’s Geo-
logical Maps, 378.

Bournemouth, Tertiary Flora of, 187.

Bowerbank, Dr. J. S., Obituary of, 191.

Brachiopoda, 13, 145, 199, 262.

Scottish Lower Silurian, 13.

Brady, H. B., Foraminifera of the
Chalk, New Britain, 534.

Breese, B. 8., Forest Bed of East Nor-
folk, 432.

Brest, Devonian of, 280.

British Association, 419, 471, 474.

Carboniferous Paleontology,24'.

Columbia, Volcanic Rocks of, 314.

Fossils, Monographs of, 225.

Brittany, Silurian of, 365.

Broeck, E, V., Pliocene of Belgium, 326.

Brongniart, C., Paleocypris Kdwardsii
from Coal-measures, 26.

Browne, A. J. J., Origin of Cirques,
477; Upper Greensand and Chloritic
Marl, 350.

Bryce, J., Obituary of, 383.

Bunter Conglomerate, 497.

ALLAWAY, C., Correlation of Geo-
logical Formations, 445; Prof.
Mantovani and ‘‘ Miolithic” Period,
528.

Cambridgeshire, Geology of, 122.
—— Greensand, Webbina

levis and W. tuberculata from, 102.
Carpenter, E., Evidence afforded by the
Planet Mars of Glacial Period, 97;

Carpenter on the Planet Mars, 190.
Carboniferous Batrachia, 77.
Classification,

on Prof.

Hull’s, 312.
37

CAR

Carboniferous Flora of Gas-coal associ-
ated with Permian Fauna, 105.
Ganoids, Monograph on

British, 240

Paleontology, 306.
—__—___ —_-——__ British, 241.
Rocks in Teesdale, 139,

140.

—-——_—_——-? ls

there Base to, 58.
—_——. Terraces, Glacial Origin

of, 17.

Cephalopoda of North Germany, 169,
324,

Chalk, Folds in, 75.

in the New Britain Group, 529.

Coal-measures, Anthrapalemon from,
50.

Chile, Volcanic Rocks of, 314.

Chloritic Marl, 191, 350.

Chudleigh, Limestone and Culm-measures
near, 454.

Cirques, Helland’s Theory of Formation
of, 273. ;

Origin of, 477.

“‘ Climate Controversy,” 48.

Coal-measures of Bohemia, Fossils from,
169.

—-—— of New South Wales,
Gold in, 286.
Paleocypris Hdwardsii

from, 26.
Coast of Peru, Shell-heaps on, 28.
Ceelodus ellipticus, Egerton, 49.
gyrodoides, Egerton, 52.
Conclusions, Premature, 378.

Coral Rag of Upware, 476.

Reefs, 71.

Correlation of Geological Formations,
445,

Correspondence from Aveline, W. T.,
380; Blanford, W. T., 189; Bonney,
Rey. T. G., 476, 576; Boulger, Prof.
G. S., 378; Browne, A. J. J., 477;
Breese, B. 8.,432; Callaway, C.,528;
Curry, J., 138; Dakyns, J. R, 140,
285; Durham, J., 140; Etheridge, R.,
jun., 286; Feistmantel, Dr. O., 188,
431; Fisher, Rev. O., 185, 479, 527;
Gardner, J.S8., 137,377; Green, Prof.
A. H., 40; Gunn, Rev. J., 385; Gunn,
W., 1389; Hector, Dr. J., 1385; Hull,
Prof. E.,378; Judd, Prof. J. W., 336;
McDakin, S. G., 39; Mackintosh, D.,
94,575; Miller, H., 40; Milne, Prof.
J., 285; Nicholson, Prof. H. A., 380;
Norton, H., 286; Reade, T. M., 38;
Reid, C., 186; Selwyn, A. R. C., 94;
Tate, Prof., 526; Traquair, Dr. R.
H., 240; Wilson, E., 288; Wood, S.
V., jun., 43, 95, 141, 187.

Cotswold Field Club, 368.

Index.

_ ESS
Crane, Agnes, Living Fishes and their
Fossil Affinities, 209.
Cretaceous Gasteropoda, 556.
Cretaceous and Tertiary Deposits of
Central France, 121.
Cromer, Pliocene Bed near, 301.
Crustacea, Catalogue of British Fossil,
413.

from Nova Scotia, 56.

Culm-measures and Limestone near
Chudleigh, 454.

Curry, J., Is there a base to Carbonifer-
ous Rocks of Teesdale ? 138.

Cycadaceee in “ Damuda Series” and |
Niirschan Gas-coal of Bohemia, 431.

Pier J. R., Antiquity of Man,
439; Base of Carboniferous Rocks

in Teesdale, 140; Geology of Keighley,
Shipton, and Grassington, 346 ; High-
Level Terraces in Norway, 72; Is
there a Base to Carboniferous Rocks
in Teesdale? 58; Prof..Hull’s Car-
boniferous Classification, 312; Sup-
posed Glacial Origin of Carboniferous
Terraces, 17; Victoria Cave, Settle,
Yorkshire, 285.

Dana, E. S., Text Book on Mineralogy,
328.

Danube, Loess of, 170.

Man and Pleistocene Animals in
Loess of the, 168.

Davidson, T., Four Species of Scottish
Lower Silurian Brachiopoda, 13;
What is a Brachiopod? 146, 199,
262.

Dawson, G. M., Relation of Volcanic
and Metamorphic Rocks, 314.

Dr. J. W., Carboniferous
Batrachia, 77; Crustaceans from Nova
Scotia, 56.

Denudation and “‘ Kames,’’ 140.

— in Norfolk, Modern, 136.

Devonian of Brest, 280.

— Fossils in Shales of Torbay,

100.

—_ Rocks near Newton Abbot and
Torquay, 447.

Durham, J., “‘ Kames” and Denudation,
140; ‘‘Kames” in Neighbourhood of
Newport, Fife, N.B., 8.

ARTH’S Axis, Change in, 219.
Earth, Life-History of the, 222.
Edinburgh District, No. 1, Fossil Fishes
from, 173.
Egerton, Sir P. Grey-, New Pycnodonts,
49.
Elephas meridionalis in Dorset, 527.
Essex, Geology of East, 172.

Index. Thy)

KTH

Etheridge, R., jun., British Carboniferous
Paleontology, 241, 306 ; Gold in Coal-
Measures of New South Wales, 286 ;
Paleontological Notes, 318.

Kttingshausen’s, Baron von, Theory of
Development of Vegetation on the
Earth, 160, 277.

Europe and Asia, Across, 289, 337, 389,
459, 511, 557.

Evolution in Geology, 1.

AULTS in Slate, Reversed, 441, 527.

Feistmantel, Dr. O., Cycadacee in
Gas-Coal of Bohemia, 431; Gas-Coal
Flora and Permian Fauna of Bohemia,
105; Gondwana Series of India, 188.

Fife, N.B., ‘‘ Kames”’ in, 8.

Fisher, Rey. O., Elephas meridionalis in
Dorset, 527; Forest-bed at Happis-
burgh, 479; Mr. Milne, on Floating
Ice, 135.

Fishes and their Fossil Affinities, Living,
209.

from Edinburgh District, No. 1,

> Fossil, 1738.

Floating Ice, Mr. Milne on, 135.

Flora of Tertiary Beds of Bournemouth,
187.

Flotation of Icebergs, 65.

Folds of Chalk, 75.

Food of Siberian Rhinoceros, 325.

Forbes, D., F.RS., Obituary of, 45.

Fordham, H. G., The Term ‘+ Chloritic
Marl,” 191.

Forest-bed at Happisburgh, 479.

of Kast Norfolk, 320, 325, 432.

Forests in Hampshire, Tropical, 23, 137,
141.

Fossil Plants, 321.

France, Cretaceous and Tertiary Deposits
of Central, 121.

Freshwater bed of Kessingland, 385.

Fritsch, Dr. A., Coal-measures of Bo-
hemia, 169.

Fuchs, T., Tertiaries of Malta, 120.

Fusulina Limestones, 165.

ANOIDS, Monograph on British
Carboniferous, 240.

Gardner, J. 8., Cretaceous Gasteropoda,
556; Baron von Kttingshausen’s
Theory of Development of Vegetation
on the Earth, 160, 277; Red Clay of
Deep-sea and Gault Deposits, 377;
Tropical Forests of Hampshire, 23,
137.

Gas-coal Flora and Permian Fauna of
Bohemia, 108.

Gault Deposits, 377.

Geological Formations, Correlation of,
446.

HAR

Geological Maps, Dr. W. Smith’s, 378.
— Notes on West Tropical Africa,

27.
Review, 473.
Society of Ireland, Royal, 418.
London, 34, 89, 126,
176, 233, 281, 329, 368, 571.
Survey of India, 121.
Japan, 522.
Geologists’ Association, 129.
Geology, Australian Tertiary, 416.
of Cambridgeshire, 122.
of Isle of Man, 410, 456.
— of East Essex, 172.
—. Elements of, 33.
——— Evolution in, 1.
of Keighley, Shipton, and Grass-
ington, 346.
of Lake District, 280.
— of Lebanon, 159.
of Leicestershire and Rutland,

520.

of St. Nicolas Balkan, 518.
—— for Students, 29.
—— of Sumatra, 443.
Glacial Origin of Lakes, 40.
—— Carboniferous Terraces,

17.
Period, 97.
of Norfolk and Suffolk,
156.
———_ in Southern Hemisphere,
519.

——— Prof. Nordenskiéld on
Recurrent, 40.

Gold in Coal-measures of New South
Wales, 286.

Gondwana Series of India, 188.

Goss, H., Insect-Fauna of Tertiary Beds,
160.

Gosselet, Prof. J., Elements of Geology,

Oe

Grassington, Geology of, 346.

Green, Prof. A. H., Geology for Stu-
dents, 29; Prof. Nordenskiéld on Re-
current Glacial Periods, 40.

Greensand, Upper, 360.

Webbina levis and W. tuber-
culata from Cambridgeshire, 102.

Grey-Egerton, Sir P., New Pycnodonts,
49 :

Ground Ice, Formation of, 39.

Gunn, Rey. J., Forest-bed of Norfolk, 335,

——- W.., Is there a Base to Carbon-
iferous Rocks in Teesdale ? 139.

AMPSHIRE, Tropical Forests of,
23, 95, 137, 141.
Happisburgh, Forest-bed at, 479.
Harmer, F. W., Kessingland freshwater
bed and Weybourne sand, 385; Testi-
mony of Rocks in Norfolk, 367.

580
HAR

Harris, W., Obituary of, 381.

Haute Marne, Pits of, 286.

Hebert, E.J., Reversed Faults in Bedded
Slates, 441.

Hébert, Prof., Folds of Chalk, 75.
Hector, Dr. J., Ototara Series of New

: Zealand, 135.

Heer, Prof. O., Primeval World of
Switzerland, 78.

Helland’s Theory of Formation of Cir-
ques, 278.

Homalonotus Dawsoni, 57.

Hosken, Staff-Commander H., R.N.,
Coral Reefs, 71.

Howorth, H. H., Geology of Isle of
Man, 410, 456.

Hull’s Carboniferous Classification, Prof.
312.

Hull, Prof. E., Premature Conclusions,

Hunt, Prof. T. Sterry, Older Rocks of
Western America, 574.
Huronian Volcanic Rocks, 380.

CE, FORMATION of Ground, 39.
Icebergs, Flotation of, 65.

India, Geology of, 121.

— Gondwana, Series of, 188.

Insect Fauna of Tertiary Period, 163.

Ireland, Royal Geological Society of,
418.

Ironstone bed of Northampton in Lin-
colnshire, 406.

Irving, Rev. A., Permian and New Red
Sandstone, 309.

Isle of Man, Geology of, 410, 456.

A eee Geological Survey of, 522.
Judd, Prof. J. W., Geology and
Scenery of Newfoundland, 336.

Jurassic Formations of Russia, 166.

AMES and Denudation, 140.

in Fife, N.B., 8.

—— Mr. Durham on, 94.

Keighley, Geology of, 346.

Keller, Dr. F., Lake Dwellings, 366.

Kessingland Freshwater bed, 385.

Age of Mammalian Rootlet-
bed at, 298.

Koninck, Prof. L. G. de, Fossils of
New South Wales, 171.

AKE-BASINS, Origin of, 94.
—— District, Geology of, 280.

— Dwellings, 366.
Lakes, Glacial Origin of, 40.
Land-plant in Silurian Strata, 468.
Lebanon, Geology of, 159.
Lebour, G. A., the Terms “ Bernician”’

and “ Tuedian,’’ 19.

Index.

MIL

Leckenby, J., Obituary of, 382.

Lee, J. E., Upper Devonian Fossils in
Shales of Torbay, 100.

Leicestershire and Rutland, Geology of,
520.

Leng, D. O., Geological Notes on West
Tropical Africa, 27.

Lethea Paleozoica, 31.

Lewis, Rev. E. R., Geology of Lebanon,
159.

Lherzolite of Ariége, 59.

Liebe, Dr. K. T., Ossiferous Cave in
Thuringia, 325.

Life-History of Earth, 222.

Limestone and Culm-measures
Chudleigh, 454.

Lincolnshire, Ironstone beds of North-
ampton in, 406.

Liversidge, Prof., Chalk in the New
Britain Group, 529.

Llangollen, Geology around, 469.

Loess of Danube, Man and Pleistocene
Animals in, 168.

—_———_ - and Rhine, 170.

Lower Silurian Brachiopoda, 13. ‘

Lyman’s Geological Survey of Japan,
622.

near

ACDAKIN, Carr., Northampton

Tronstone beds in Lincolnshire, 406.

McDakin, 8. G., Formation of Ground-
ice, 39.

Mackintosh, D., Mr. Durham on Kames,
and Mr. Reade on Boulder-clay, 94;
Boulder-clays of N. W. England, 574.

Magnesian Limestone near Nottingham,
155, 238.

Malta, Tertiaries of, 120.

Mammalian Rootlet-bed at Kessingland,
Age of, 298.

Mammals of Australia, 364.

Man, Antiquity of, 439.

—— and Pleistocene Animals in Loess
of Danube, 168.

—— Tertiary? Is, 433.

Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society, 1876-77, 219.

Mantovani, Prof. D. P., Is Man Tertiary ?
433.

Marl, Chloritic, 350.

Mars, Mr. Carpenter on the Planet. 190.

on Subject of Glacial Periods,
Evidence aftorded by, 97.

Marschall, Count, Fossil Plants, 321.

Mastodon in Europe, 326.

Matheron, P., Cretaceous and Tertiary
Deposits of Central France, 121.

Mediterranean, Submarine Volcano in,
288.

Meek, F. B., Obituary of, 142.

Miller, H., Glacial Origin of Lakes, 40;
Pliocene of Belgium, 326.

Index. O81

MIL

Miller, S. A.,
Fossils, 472.

Milne, Prof. J., Across Europe and Asia,
289, 337, 389, 459, 511, 657; Flota-
tion of Icebergs, 65; Rocks of New-
foundland, 251; Visit to Volcano of
Oshima, 198, 285.

Milne, Mr., On Flotation of Ice, 135.

Mineralogy, Text-book on, 328.

Miocene of South Australia, 526.

Miolithic Period, 528.

Monographs of British Fossils, 225.

Morton, G. H., Geology of Llangollen,
469.

Murray, A., Notes on Rocks of New-
foundland, 251.

American Paleozoic

EKUMAYR, Dr., Jurassic Forma-
tions of Russia, 166.

New Britain, Chalk of, 529.

Foraminifera, 534.

New South Wales, Fossils from, 171.

New Zealand, Ototara Series of, 138.

Newfoundland, Geology of, 336.

Rocks of, 251.

Newport, Fife, N.B., “‘Kames”’ near, 8.

Newton Abbot, Devonian Rocks near,
447,

Nicholson, Prof. H. A., Huronian Vol-
canie Rocks, 380; Life History of the
Earth, 222.

Nicols, A., Puzzle of Life, History of
Vegetable and Animal Life upon the
Barth, 35.

Nordenskiéld
Periods, 40.

Norfolk, Forest-bed of Kast, 320, 335,
432.

on Recurrent Glacial

Glacial Period of, 156.

Modern Denudation in, 136.

Testimony of Rocks in, 367.

Northampton Ironstone bed in Lincoln-
shire, 406.

Northumberland and Durham, Natural
History Transactions of, 366.

Norton, H., Forest-bed of East Norfolk,
320; Pits of Haute Marne, 286.

Norway, High-level Terraces in, 72.

Nottingham, Magnesian Limestone and
New Red Sandstone near, 155, 238.

Nova Scotia, Paleeozoic Crustaceans from
56.

BITUARY Notices of, E. Billings,
F.G.S., 43 ; D. Forbes, F.R.S., 45,
S. von Waltershausen, 141; F. B.
Meek, 142; H. Salwey, 144; Dr. J.
S. Bowerbank, LL.D., F.R.S., 191;
W. Harris, F.G.8., 381; J. Leckenby,
J. B., E-G-S:, 382; EH. Wood, J.P,
F.G.S., 480.
Ornithosauria, Organization of, 124.

RUT

Oshima, Volcano of, 193, 285.

Ostracoda and Foraminifera of Miocene
of South Australia, 526.

Ototara Series, 135.

Owen, Prof., Mammals of Australia, 364.

AL AOCY PRIS Edwardsii
Coal-Measures, 26.

Palzontographical Society, Monographs
of British Fossils, 225.

Paleontological Notes, 306, 318.

Paleozoic Crustaceans from Nova Scotia,
56.

171.

Permian Fauna Associated with Carbon-
iferous Flora of Gas-Coal in Bo-
hemia, 105.

Permian and New Red Sandstone, 309.

— to Trias, Relation of, 380.

Peru, Shell-heaps on Coast of, 28.

Physical Geology for Students, 29.

Pilsen Permo-Carboniferous Beds, 191.

Pits of Haute Marne, 286.

Plants, Fossil, 321.

Pleistocene Animals and Man in Loess
of Danube, 168.

Pliocene Beds near Cromer, 301.

of Belgium, 326.

of Siena, 469.

Poussin, Prof., Rocks of Belgium and
Ardennes, 174.

Pre-Historic Man, his Weapons, Tools,
and Works, 35.

Pycnodonts, New, 49.

Pycnodus Bowerbanki, Egerton, 52.

———— From London Clay of Sheppey,
54,

from

Fossils of New South Wales,

EADE, T. M., Division of Boulder-
clay of North-west of England, 38.
Red Clay of Deep-sea and Gault deposits,

377.

Reid, C., Beds between Chalk and Lower
Boulder-clay near Cromer, 301; Lime-
stone and Culm-measures near Chud-
leigh, 454; Modern Denudation in
Norfolk, 136.

Renard, Prof., Rocks of Belgium and
Ardennes, 174.

Rhinoceros, Food of Siberian, 325.

Rhine, Loess of, 170.

Rocks of Newfoundland, 251.

—- in Norfolk, Testimony of, 367.

——- Structure, 499.

Roemer, Prof. F., Lethea Paleozoica,
él.

Russia, Jurassic Formations of, 166.

Rutland and Leicestershire, Geology of,
620.

582
ST.

Soe ICOLAS-BALKAN, Geology of,
18.

Salwey, H., Obituary of, 144.
Sandstone near Nottingham, New Red,
155, 238.

and Permian, 309.
Saporta, G. de, Land-plant in Silurian,
468.

Seeley, Prof. H. G., Organization of
Ornithosauria, 124.

Schliter, C., Cephalopoda in Upper
Chalk of North Germany, 169, 324.
Scottish Lower Silurian Brachiopoda, 13.
Selwyn, A. R., Origin of Lake-Basins, 94.

Settle, Yorkshire, Victoria Cave, 285.

Shales of Torbay, Upper Devonian
Fossils in, 108.

Shell-heaps on Coast of Peru, 28.

Shipman, J., Bunter Conglomerate, 497.

Siena, Pliocene of, 469.

Silurian Brachiopoda, Lower, 18.

Land-plant in, 468.

: of West Brittany, 365.
Simpson, J. B., Northumberland and
Durham Coal-field, Sections of, 568.

Skipton, Geology of, 346.
ee Reversed Faults in Bedded, 441,
5

Smith’s Geological Maps, Dr. W., 378.

Sollas, W. J., Evolution in Geology, 1;
Perforated Character of Genus WVebbia,
from Cambridge Greensand, 102.

South America, Shell-heaps on Coast of
Peru, 28.

Stache, Dr. G., Fusulina Limestone, 165.

Stefani, Prof. C., Pliocene of Siena, 469.

Students, Geology for, 29.

Stur, D., Coal-Measures of Bohemia,
169.

Suerte Volcano ? In Mediterranean,

88.

Suffolk, Glacial Period of, 156.

Sumatra, Geology of, 443.

Switzerland, Primeval World of, 78.

A breey R., Miocene of South Australia,
526.

Teesdale, Carboniferous Rocks in, 58,
138, 139, 140.

Tenison-Woods, Rev. J. E., Australian
Tertiary Geology, 416.

Terraces, Glacial Origin of Carboni-
ferous, 17.

——— in Norway, High Level, 72.

Tertiaries of Malta, 120.

Tertiary and Cretaceous Deposits of
Central France, 121.

Flora of Bournemouth, 187.

Geology of Australia, 416.

? Is Man, 438.

Period, Insect Fauna of, 160.

Thuringia, Ossiferous Cave in, 326.

Index.

YOR

Torbay, Upper Devonian Fossils in
Shales of, 100.

Torquay, Devonian Rocks near, 447.

Toula, Prof., Geology of St. Nicolas-
Balkan, 518.

Traquair, Dr. R. H., Fossil Fishes from
Edinburgh District, No. 1, 173;
Monograph on British Carboniferous
Ganoids, 240.

Trias to Permian, Relation of, 380.

Tropical Africa, 27.

Forests of Hampshire, 23, 95,
137, 141.

Tschermak, Prof., on Volcanic Action,
569.

“ Tuedian,” on Term, 19.

Vee ee on Earth, Theory of
Development of, 160, 277.

Verbeek, M. R. D. M., Geology of
Sumatra, 448.

Victoria Cave, Settle, Yorkshire, 285.

Volcanic Action, Prof. Tschermak on,
069.

Voleanic Rocks, 880.

Volcano in Mediterranean, 288.

of Oshima, 193, 285.

Vomerine Plate of a Pycnodus from
London Clay of Sheppey, 54.

ALTERSHAUSEN, Sartorius von,
Obituary of, 141,

Ward, J. C., Geology of Lake District,
280.

Waters, A. W., Change in Earth’s Axis,
219.

Webbina, Two New Species from Cam-
bridge Greensand, 102.

Weybourne Sand, 385.

Whitaker, W., Geology of East Essex,
172.

Wiener, Prof. C., Shell-heaps on Coast
of Peru, 28.

Wilson, E., Magnesian Limestone and
New Red Sandstone near Nottingham,
238.

Wood, E., Obituary of, 480, 575.

Wood, 8. V., jun., American and British
“ Surface Geology,” 481, 586; “ Cli-
mate Controversy,’ 43; Kessingland
fresh-water bed and Weybourne Sand,
385; Tertiary Flora of Bournemouth,
187; Tropical Forests of Hampshire,
95, 141.

Woodward, H., Catalogue of British
Fossil Crustacea, 413.

—— H.B., Devonian Rocks near

Newton Abbot and Torquay, 447.

ORKSHIRE, Victoria Cave, Settle,
285.
—— Lower Oolite of, 552.

STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS, PRINTERS, HERTFORD,

HARVARD COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, MA 02138
(617) 495-5355 :
Borrowers are responsible for the proper care and timely
return of Library materials. Please return this item directly —

to Cabot by the date stamped below te avoid fines. A full
policy statement is available at the Circulation Desk.

VU Jt WN x
de
er
VV b (,
vi"
MOM

NW

WW
WUC IU

_

CABOT
SEP 10 2919
BOOK Di IE |

Pepe OAY
AVAUAVAU ae
J ¥V

OF OL
ee o>) >-yD>
229»

22>

cy uyuvy ouevueueuuee

3p WS) Md Ve
if

> > > >> as » =
x Dw SD > =
we 2» 2 Pe

= ee Sy =

DZ
> > > ie

Pa >
Seis ; >. ae as

=
Se ee > :
22 “Spi 4

De Poo,

(Care @ ; 7 Poh - Cie oe Ul KE t £ BPE age = : ~—

AQAA aA Se (Ae : (( «é ( C( A {

/ ( ag el gee ae Bea SO SSS gs = :

4 4 Sa oe Gig 5 = s SETS a ; :
AN 40 4 ( 1 ¢ (A / Sm QS Li ,

SSS ; AK’ Q BME ; ‘] Mi

Ga CC CCE ae < COE
aCe COR Ke CCEGEGE ae CK 4

— Soe
(<e Ce € ss yi

CCaee,

Ne ae a =