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THE

GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE.
DECADE IV. VOL. VII.
JANUARY—DECEMBER, 1900.

AY

+ aH

Riva magni:

THE

GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE

OR,

Monthly Journal of Geology:

WITH WHICH IS INCORPORATED

) Eas GH Ol © GES i:

NOS. CCCCXXVII TO CCCCXXXVIII.

EDITED BY

HENRY WOODWARD, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.8., F.R.M.S.,

OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY;
PRESIDENT OF THE PALZONTOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY,

VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE ZOOLOGICAL AND MALACOLOGICAL SOCIETIES ;

MEMBER OF THE LYCEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, NEW YORK; AND OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL
SOCIETY, PHILADELPHIA ; HONORARY MEMBER OF THE YORKSHIRE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ;

OF THE GEOLOGISTS’ ASSOCIATION, LONDON; OF THE INSTITUTION OF MINING AND
METALLURGY, LONDON; OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETIES OF EDINBURGH,
GLASGOW, HALIFAX, LIVERPOOL, AND SOUTH AFRICA; CORRESPONDING
MEMBER OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF BELGIUM; OF THE
IMPERIAL SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY OF MOSCOW; OF
THE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY OF MONTREAL;

AND OF THE MALACOLOGICAL
SOCIETY OF BELGIUM,

ASSISTED BY

ROBERT ETHERIDGE, F.RB.S. L.&E., F.G.S., F.C.S., &e.
WILFRID H. HUDLESTON, M.A., F.B.S., F.G.S., F.LS., F.C.S.
GEORGE J. HINDE, Pu.D., F.RB.S., F.G.8., &e.

AND

HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S., F.G.8., &c.

NEW SERIES. DECADE IV. VOL. VII.
JANUARY—DECEMBER, 1900.

LONDON: ‘ney a °
MESSRS. DULAU & CO., 37, SOHO SQUARE.
1900. \

»*,

‘ © 4 ye

HERTFORD :
PRINTED BY STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS.

LIST OF PLATES.

Podocnemis egyptiaca, sp. nov., Lower Miocene, Egypt
Tertiary Foraminifera from Egypt .

Rev. Osmond Fisher, M.A., F.G.S.
Gallinuloides Wyomingensis, gen. et sp. nov. .
Foraminifera .

Pleuronautilus ? scarlettensis, sp. nov.

Fossils from the Devonian Rocks of Cornwall .
Edrioaster Buchianus

Edrioaster Buchianus

Edrioaster Buchianus Loe eee
Map of the River System of North Wales .
Salter’s Undescribed Trilobites (Part I)
Tertiary Foraminiferal Limestones from Sinai
Eocene Foraminifera from Sinai .

Decapod Crustaceans from Vancouver Island .

Decapod Crustaceans from Comox and Hornby Island .

Cretaceous Crustacea from Canada .
Restoration of Stylonurus Lacoanus (Claypole)
Hyperodapedon Gordoni, Huxley.

Pleistocene Shells from the Red Sea
Pleistocene Shells from the Red Sea
Pleistocene Shells from the Red Sea

FACING PAGE

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT.

Sandstone Pipe in Carboniferous Limestone, Dwlban Point, Anglesey

Diagram Section at Dwlban Point

Large Pipe in Inland Cliff .

Profile of Glaciated Pit .

Deflected Glacial Strie, Dwlban Point, Anglesey .
Mesodromilites Birleye, H. Woodward, gen. et sp. nov.
Restored outline of Lanarkia spinosa, Traquair

Restored outline of Birkenia elegans, Traquair

Restored outline of Lasantus problematicus, Traquair
Restored outline of Drepanaspis Gmuendenensis, Schliiter
Suture-line of Gephyroceras affine

Suture-line of Gephyroceras caleuliforme

Suture-line of Gephyroceras equabile

Suture-line of Gephyroceras serratum

Diagram of Somerset Earthquakes, Dec. 80-31, 1893
Map of part of Moel Tryfaen .

Section showing Contortions in Sands below Boulder-clay .
Junction of Boulder-clay and Sandy Beds .

North-west termination of Boulder-clay in Section
Sections showing position of Foraminiferal Beds .
Diagram at north-east side of Alexandra Quarry .
Restored outline of Drepanaspis Gmiindenensis, Schhiter
Sketch of Carapace of Drepanaspis Gmiindenensis, Schliter
Restored outline of Drepanaspis Gimiindenensis, Schliter
Group of Dykes in Mynydd Llwydiarth

Upward Termination of Dyke at Cadnant .

Section through Dyke near Careg Onen

Diagram of Cornwall Earthquake, Aug. 27, 1895
Diagram of Cornwall Earthquake, Jan. 26, 1896.
Diagram of Rutland Earthquake, Jan. 28,1898 .

121,

vil Last of Illustrations in the Text.

Diagram of Comrie Earthquake, Aug. 22, 1898

PAGE

171

Diagrams illustrating Mr. Bather’s paper on Edrioasteroidea 195, 196, 197, 198, 200

Map of Bala Lake and the Neighbourhood .

Sections of Bala Lake

Geological Map of the Valley of the Bala Fault .

Diagram of the Bala Faults

Sketch-map of the Topography of the Valley of the Bala Fault
Diagram to illustrate Mr. Seymour’s paper

Lhadinichthys monensis, Egerton .

Plestochelys vectensis, Hooley, sp. nov. .

‘Geology of Snowdon, Section .

Diagrams of Composition of Igneous Rocks

Bythocypris Jurassiea, sp. nov., and Bairdia Nusseldorfensis, sp. nov. .

Bad Nauheim .

Geological Sketch-map of Country around Bad Nauheim
Ground-plan of Bad Nauheim

Geological Diagrams of Bad Nauheim .

Diagrammatic Section through the Bad Nauheim District

‘Outlines of the Skull of Hyperodapedon Gordoni .

‘Skin from the posterior abdominal region of Rhynchosawrus articeps
Sections of Coal and Clay-slate

Greywether or Sarsen-stone from the Gravel .

Diagram and Sketch-map of Felstone Dyke on Llechog

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THE

GHOLOGICAL MAGAZINE.

NENY “SERIES. “DECADE TV. VOL. VII.

No. I—JANUARY, 1900.

Ole Gey Aja), Acre rer @ ee SS.

—_»>—__
I.—On a New Sprcrus or Cuetontan (Popocvemis £GYPTIACA)
FRom THE LowER Miocene or EHeypt.

By C. W. Anprews, B.Sc., F.G.S., of the British Museum (Natural History).
(PLATE I.)

HE occurrence of fossil reptiles in the Lower Miocene of
Moghara in Egypt has already been referred to in a paper
published in the last volume of this journal (1899, p. 481), where
a short account of the deposits in which the remains are found has
been given. The specimens which have been received from Captain
H. G. Lyons, R.E., Director-General of the Egyptian Geological
Survey, include bones and scutes of Crocodile, Trionyx, and of the
Chelonian which forms the subject of the present notice. Of the
two former the remains are too imperfect for determination, and
further material is desirable ; but in the case of the last it has been
found possible to reconstruct the plastron and most of the carapace,
and from these it can be shown that this Chelonian belonged to
the Pleuradiran group, and is referable to the genus Podocnemis,
forming a new species, to which the name Podocnemis egyptiaca
may be applied. At the present day the genus is found only in
South America and Madagascar, but, as in many other cases in
which the modern representatives of a group are confined to the
Southern Hemisphere, where they may occur in widely separated
areas, in the Tertiary period species existed in the Northern Hemi-
sphere. In the present instance two species of Podocnemis have
been recorded from the Lower Eocene of England and India—that
from the former being Podocnemis Bowerbanki (=Platemys Bowerbanki ;
Emys levis, Owen), from the London Clay of Sheppey; that from
the latter, Podocnemis indica, from Nila in the Salt Range. The
present species is interesting as showing that in early Miocene
times the genus existed in Africa, whence probably it spread into
Madagascar, now one of its headquarters.
Description of the Specimens.

The carapace of the type-specimen, as figured (Pl. I, Fig. 1),
is very incomplete in its peripheral region, for, although some
portions of the marginal bones are preserved, it has not been
possible to fit them into their places. Of the remainder of the
carapace the neurals 3 and 5 are wanting, 2 and 6 incomplete,
all the costals are imperfect at their outer ends, and much of the
posterior ones is broken away. The general form is somewhat
depressed, and there is no trace of any keel. The neurals (x)
Were six in number, the first being the largest and the last

DECADE IV.—VOL. VII.—NO. I. 1

2 C. W. Andrews—A New Chelonian from Egypt.

relatively very small. There are eight pairs of costals (c, 1-8),
of which the last two meet in median suture; possibly also the
sixth pair were only partly separated by the last neural. The
positions of the facets for union with the inguinal and axillary
buttresses of the plastron are marked + in Fig. 1 of the Plate.
The furrows marking the boundaries of the horny plates are very
distinct ; the vertebral shields are somewhat balloon-shaped, and in
their anterior half are nearly twice as wide as they are posteriorly.
The outlines of three complete vertebrals are preserved and portions
of two others.

The general form of the plastron is shown in Fig. 2, Pl. I. The
entoplastral (ent.) is lozenge-shaped, with slightly convex posterior
borders. There is a pair of small mesoplastrals wedged in between
the outer ends of the hyo- and hypoplastra. The xiphiplastra (axp.)
bear on their upper surfaces rugose prominences (Fig. 3), indicating
the firm sutural union of the ischia (és.) and pubes (pu.) with the
plastron. ‘The posterior border of the plastron is notched.

There is a very small intergular (7.9.), the posterior end of which
does not extend so far back as the anterior angle of the entoplastron,
and only separating the gulars (g.) for about a third of their length.
The sutures between the humerals and pectorals cross the ento-
plastron in front of its middle point. In the proportions and
arrangement of these anterior plastral shields this species approaches
P. madagascariensis very closely. The abdominal, femoral, and anal
shields do not present any peculiarity.

The total length of the plastron is 33:5cm.; the length of the bridge,
13°3cm.; width of plastron immediately in front of bridge, 15°5 em.

The existence of a firm sutural union between the pelvis and
plastron shows that this Chelonian belonged to the Pleuradiran
group, and the presence of mesoplastra further indicates that it
is referable to the family Pelomeduside. In this family the
mesoplastra are small and laterally situated in two genera,
Pelomedusa and Podocnemis, to the latter of which the fossil
approaches most nearly, and, as already mentioned, is in some
respects extremely similar to Podocnemis madagascariensis.

The remains of P. @gyptiaca seem to be very common at
Moghara, and some of the specimens indicate that it attained
a considerably greater size than the specimen now figured.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE I.
CARAPACE AND PuLasTRON OF PoDOCNEMIS 22GYPTIACA (TYPE-SPECIMEN).
Fre. 1.—Carapace (dorsal view). Fie. 2.—Plastron (ventral view).

Fie. 3.—Xiphiplastral region of plastron (upper surface).
(About one-third natural size.)

abd. Abdominal shields. hy. Hyoplastral plate.

an. Anal shields. i.g. Intergular shield.

¢,-s. Costal plates. is. Surface for union with ischium.
ent. Entoplastral plate. mp. Mesoplastral plate.

cp. piplastral plate. n. Neural plate.

fem. Femoral shield. pec. Pectoral shield.

g- Gular shield. pu. Surface for union with pubis.
hk. Humeral shield. zp. Xiphiplastral plate.

v/ Dp. Hypoplastral plate.

F. Chapman—Egyptian Foraminifera. 3

Ii,— On a Parertina- LIMESTONE AND ANOTHER FORAMINIFERAL
Limestone From Eeyrrt.

By F. Cuapman, A.L.S., F.R.M.S.
(PLATE II.)

HE specimens dealt with in this paper were collected by the
Officers of the Geological Survey of Egypt, and I have ‘been
requested by Dr. H. Woodward, on behalf of Captain H. G. Lyons,
R.E., F.G.S., the Director-General, to give an account of the various
species of Foraminifera met with during the progress of the Survey.

THE PareLLINA-LIMESTONE,

These specimens bear the Survey label No. lle (827). The rock
occurs on a plateau between Cairo and Suez, the geological position
of which Mr. Barron is inclined to consider as the base of the
Miocene grits and marly clays (letter dated 29th July, 1899).
The exact locality whence these samples came is situated six kilo-
metres west of Camp 35, in lat. N. 30° 17' 55”, long. E. 32° 18° 14”.

The rock is of the greatest interest on account of the presence of
a new species of Patellina, which constitutes a large proportion of
the limestone. The relative abundance of the Patelling in the rock
can be well seen in the photograph (PI. II, Fig. 1) of a thin section
taken haphazard from the rock-specimen. This genus appears to be
hitherto quite unknown in the limestones of Egypt.

Besides Patelling there are other foraminifera associated with it in
this rock, belonging to the genera Biloculina, Miliolina, Orbiculina,
Alveolina, Bigenerina, Discorbina, Truncatulina, Gypsina, Polytrema,
and Nonionina.

The limestone is ochreous-yellow to pale brown in colour. The
matrix of the rock is somewhat spongy, cavities caused by chemical
solution and recrystallization being seen here and there, whilst in
section the foraminifera other than the Patelling frequently have
a space between the wall of the test and the matrix by which it is
partially filled. When the rock is crushed for the extraction of the
smaller organisms the casts fall out, leaving the walls of the tests
adhering to the matrix.

The microscopic structure of the enclosing rock-mass is distinctly
crystalline, which condition is probably due to subsequent molecular
disturbance of the calcareous mud in which the foraminifera were
embedded, and which has resulted in the formation of a granular
caicitic material, in which scalenohedra are an abundant crystalline
form, especially on the borders of the cavities.

Besides foraminifera there are some obscure examples of polyzoa.
An ostracod (Bairdia, described below) also occurs in some numbers,
represented both in section and by a specimen isolated from the rock.

Scattered through the rock are some rounded grains of quartz
averaging 1mm. in diameter, and often containing strings of
tninute inclusions or gas cavities.

4 FE. Chapman—Eyyptian Foraminifera.

OSTRACODA.
Family BAIRDIID.
BAIRDIA, McCoy [1844].
BaiRDIA SUBDELTOIDEA (Minster).
Cythere sae ae Miinster, 1830, Jahrb. Min., p. 64; 1835,
6

Bairdia auaelitiiten (Miinster), Jones & Sherborn, 1887, p. 387;
idem, 1889, Mon. Tert. Entom., p. 16, pl. i, figs. 15a, b.
Egger, 1895: Naturhist. Vereins Passau, Jahresb. 16,
p. 42, pl. ii, figs. 20a, b.

The specimens found in the Egyptian limestone are of medium
size, with the valves united. In the sections of the rock they occur
with some frequency. The species has a rather wide range in time,
since it is characteristic and common in all the Cretaceous deposits
beginning at the Aptian, or Lower Greensand of England; and it
also occurs in beds of Middle Eocene age at Bracklesham and in the
older Pliocene of Northern Italy.

? Lower Miocene: from a plateau between Cairo and Suez.
Frequent.

FORAMINIFERA.

Family MILIOLIDA.
Subfamily Muiniorina.
BILOCULINA, d’Orbigny [1826].
BILOCULINA BULLOIDES, d’Orbigny.

“ Conchula minima, etc.,” Plancus, 1739: De Conch. min. nat., p. 28,
pl. ii, fig. 6.

Biloculina bulloides, d’Orb., 1826: Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. vii, p. 297,
No. 1, pl. xvi, figs. 1-4; Modele, No. 90.

B. Peruviana, id., 1839: Foram. Amér. Mérid., p. 68, pl. ix,
figs. 1-3.

B. ringens (uam.), Parker, Jones, & Brady, 1865: Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist., ser. 111, vol. xvi, p. 6.

B. lucernula (pars), Schwager, 1866: Novara-Exped., Geol. Theil.,

ne vol. ii, p. 202, pl. iv, figs. 17a, 6.

B. bulloides, d’Orb., Terquem, 1882: Mém. Soc. géol. France,
sér. 111, vol. ii, p. 153, pl. xxiii, fig. 38.

Miliolina ringens (Lam.), Goés, 1882: K. Svenska Akad. Handl.,
vol. xix, p. 181, pl. x, figs. 363-365, 386 ?

Biloculina bulloides, d’Orb., Brady (=B. lucernula, Schwager, Schlum-
berger), 1884: Rep. “Challenger,” vol. ix, p. 142, pl. 1,
figs. 5, 6. Schlumberger, 1887: Bull. Soc. géol. France,
sér. 111, vol. xv, pp. 574-579, pl. xv, figs. 10-13 and
woodcuts 1-5. Egger, 1895: Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad.
Wiss., vol. xviii, Abth. 2, p. 217, pl. i, figs. 16-18.
Rupert Jones, 1895: Mon. Foram. Crag, pt. ii, pp. 101
and 102.

F. Chapman—Egyptian Foraminifera. a)

B. bulloides is quite a common species in the Patellina-limestone.
On crushing the rock the little subspherical tests are seen amongst
the débris, and projecting from the surfaces of the larger fragments.
They often have the shell-wall perfect, and are occasionally noticed
as casts. The contour of the test in these Egyptian specimens is
very typical, having a globose penultimate chamber and a slightly
elongated aboral neck. Passage forms occur which link this species
with its more pyriform variety next described.

Although B. bulloides ranges throughout the Tertiary fossiliferous
strata to recent times, yet the fossil forms seem to be distinct in
some of their characters, as shown by Schlumberger.

? Lower Miocene: from a plateau between Cairo and Suez.
Common.

BILOCULINA BULLOIDES, var. INORNATA, d’Orb.

Biloculina inornata, d’Orb., 1846: Foram. Foss. Vienne, p. 266,
pl. xvi, figs. 7-9.

B. bulloides, @’Orb., var. truncata-gracilis, Reuss, 1867: Sitzungsb.
Akad. Wiss. Wien, vol. lv, p. 69, pl. ii, fig. 2.

B. bulloides, var. inornata, d’Orb., Rupert Jones, 1895: Mon. Foram.
Crag (Pal. Soc.), pt. ii, pp. 101-2, pl. vii, figs. la-e.

The slightly elongate variety of B. bulloides may be referred to
B. inornata of the Vienna Tertiaries. It is not so common as the
typical B. bulloides in this Egyptian limestone, but is represented,
nevertheless, by several good examples.

Besides its original occurrence in the Miocene of the Vienna
Basin, this variety has been found in many fossiliferous deposits of
Pliocene age.

? Lower Miocene: between Cairo and Suez. Frequent.

MILIOLINA, Williamson [1858].
Mixiotina OBLONGA (Montagu).

Vermiculum oblongum, Montagu, 1803: Test. Brit., p. 522, pl. xiv,
fig. 9.

Miliolina seminulum (L.), var. oblonga (Montagu), Williamson, 1858 :
Recent Foram. Gt. Brit., p. 86, pl. vii, figs. 186, 187.

M. oblonga (Mont.), Brady, 1884: Rep. Chall., vol. ix, p. 160, pl. v,
figs. 4a, 6. De Amicis, 1893: Boll. Soc. Geol. Ital.,
vol. xii, fase. 3, pp. 27, 178, 179, 317.. Goés, 1894:
K. Svensk. Akad. Handl., vol. xxv, No. 9, p. 110, pl. xx,
figs. 850, 850f. Rupert Jones, 1895: Mon. Foram.
Crag, pt. it, p. 120; pl. iii fies. 31, 32; pl. v, fig. o.
Millett, 1898: Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc., p. 267, pl. v,
figs. 14a, b.

Examples of this somewhat variable species were found with both
the triloculine and the quinqueloculine forms. The triloculine
variation is more typical. The quinqueloculine form seems to be
somewhat closely allied with Miliolina alveoliniformis, Brady, and
also with Schlumberger’s subgeneric type of Pentellina.

6 FE. Chapman—Egyptian Foraminifera.

Miliolina oblonga dates back as far as the Eocene period, and it is
found living at the present day, usually in shallow water.
? Lower Miocene: from a plateau between Cairo and Suez. Rare.

MILIOLINA SUBROTUNDA (Montagu).

Vermiculum subrotundum, Montagu, 1803: Test. Brit., pt. ii, p. 521.

Quinqueloculina subrotunda (Mont.), d’Orb., 1826: Ann. Sci. Nat.,
vol. vii, p. 802, No. 36.

Miliola (Quinqueloculina) subrotunda (Mont.), Parker & Jones, 1865:
Phil. Trans., vol. clv, p. 411, pl. xv, fig. 38.

Miliolina subrotunda (Mont.), Brady, 1884: Rep. Chall., vol. ix,
p- 168, pl. v, figs. 10, 11.

M. subrotunda (Walker & Boys), Goés, 1894: Kongl. Svenska Vet.-
Akad. Handl., vol. xxv, p. 109, pl. xix, figs. 846, 847.

M. subrotunda (Mont.), Rupert Jones, 1895: Mon. Foram. Crag,
pt. ii, p. 120, woodcut, fig. 9. Millett, 1898: Journ.
Roy. Micr. Soc., p. 502.

The specimens from the Egyptian limestones are very typical.

As a fossil this species dates from Miocene times. It is an
essentially shallow-water form at the present day, and this is the
case with the other Miliolines recorded from the Egyptian Miocene
limestone.

? Lower Miocene: from a plateau between Cairo and Suez.
Frequeut.

Minrotina TRIGONULA (Lamarck).

Miliolites trigonula, Lamarck, 1804: Ann. du Muséum, vol. v,
p- 351, No. 3. 1822: Anim. sans Vert., vol. vii,
p- 612, No. 8.

Triloculina Austriaca, d’Orb.. 1846: Foram. Foss. Vienne, p. 275,
pl. xvi, figs. 25-27.

Miliolina trigonula (Lamarck), Williamson, 1858: Recent Foram.
Gt. Brit., p. 83, pl. vii, figs. 180-182. Schwager, 1883 :
Paleeontographica, vol. xxx, Pal. Theil, p. 86, pl. xxiv (i),
figs. 6a-d. Brady, 1884: Rep. Chall., vol. ix, p. 164,
pl. ili, figs. 14-16. Sherborn & Chapman, 1889: Journ.
Roy. Micr. Soc., p. 484, pl. xi, fig. 1. Terrigi, 1891:
Mem. Roy. Com. Geol. Ital., vol. iv, pt. i, p. 66, pl. i,
fig. 4. Goés, 1894: Kongl. Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl.,
vol. xxv, p. 115, pl. xxii, fig. 870. Millett, 1898: Journ.
Roy. Micr. Soc., p. 503.

There is some variability in the dimensions of the Egyptian
specimens, but they are otherwise characteristic. Schwager has
recorded this species from the cherty Alveolina-limestone, between
Siut and Farafrah ; in the Miliolina-limestone of the Arabian Desert
at Wady Natfe ; also similar forms near Minieh and Mokattam.

M. trigonula dates from the Eocene period, and is also found fossil
in Miocene strata and onwards to the present day.

? Lower Miocene: from a plateau between Cairo and Suez.
Frequent.

bee

F. Chapman—Egyptian Foraminifera.

Mitotina inruata (d’Orbigny).

Triloculina inflata, d’Orb., 1826: Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. vii, p. 300,
No. 10. Romer, 1838: Neues Jahrbuch, p. 398, pl. iii,
fir, 72. Michelotti, 1841: Mem. Soc. Ital. Sci.,
vol. xxii, p. 299, pl. iii, fig. 11. D’Orb., 1846: Foram.
Foss. Vienne, p. 278, pl. xvii, figs. 13-16.

Quinqueloculina inflata (d’Orb.), Parker, Jones, & Brady, 1871:
Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 1v, vol. viii, p. 249, pl. viii,
fig. 16.

Triloculina inflata, @’Orb., Terquem, 1878: Mém. Soc. géol. France,
sér. 1, vol. i, p. 56, pl. v (x), figs. 16a—18b. Idem,
1882 : ibid., vol. ii, p. 165, pl. xvii [xxv], figs. 4-6.

Miliolina lucens, Schwager, 1883: Paleontographica, vol. xxx,
Pal. Theil, p. 87, pl. xxiv, figs. Ta-d.

The inflated varieties of the type IZ. seminulum may be referred
to the above specific name. WM. inflata is a common Tertiary form,
and is most typical in the Kocene and Miocene formations.
Schwager records his Jf lucens from the cherty Alveolina-limestone
and marl between Siut and Farafrah; on the Nekeb-el-Farudj ;
in the upper beds of El Guss-Abu-Said, and in the <Alveolina-
limestone of Wady Natfe in the Arabian Desert.

? Lower Miocene: from a plateau between Cairo and Suez.
Frequent.

MILIoLINA SEMINULUM (Linné).

Serpula seminulum, Linné, 1767: Syst. Nat., 12th ed., p. 1,264,
No. 791; 1788, 13th (Gmelin’s) ed., p. 3,759, No. 2.

Vermiculum intortum, Montagu, 1803: Tert. Brit., p. 502.

Quinqueloculina seminulum (L.), d’Orb., 1826: Ann. Sci. Nat.,
vol. vii, p. 808, No. 44.

Miliolina seminulum, Williamson, 1858: Recent Foram. Gt. Brit.,
p- 8d, pl. vii, figs. 185-185.

Quinqueloculina seminulum, Jones, Parker, & Brady, 1866: Foram.
Crag, p. 9, pl. iii, figs. 35, 36.

Miliolina seminulum, Greene, 1871: Manual Protozoa, p. 15, fig. 3g.
Quinqueloculina semilunum [seminulum] (L.), Terquem, 1875: Anim.
plage Dunkerque, fase. 1, p. 40, pl. vi, fig. 8.

Miliolina seminulum (L.), Brady, 1884: Rep.Chall., vol. ix, pp. 157-160

(woodcuts, figs. 3a-c); pl. v, fig. 6. Sherborn &
Chapman, 1886: Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc., ser. 1,
vol. vi, p. 742, pl. xiv, fig. 1. Rupert Jones, 1895:
Mon. Foram. Crag, pt. ii, p. 116. Millett, 1898: Journ.

Roy. Micr. Soc., p. 505.

M. seminulum is a common species in the Patellina-limestone from
Egypt, and the specimens are well developed.

As a fossil this foraminifer dates from the Lower Eocene period,
and it is also a well-known shallow-water species at the present day.

? Lower Miocene: from a plateau between Cairo and Suez.
Common.

8 FE. Chapman—Egyptian Foraminifera.

Mitiomina Potycona (d’Orbigny).

Quinqueloculina polygona, d’Orb., 1839: De la Sagra, Hist. Phisiq.,
etc., Cuba, “‘ Foraminifeéres,” p. 198, pl. xii, figs. 21-23.

Mitiolina seminulum (L.), Goés, 1882, “Ret. Rhiz. Caribb. Sea”:
Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl., vol. xix, No. ix, figs.
3038, 354.

Miliolina Gussensis, Schwager, 1883: Paleontographica, vol. xxx,
Pal. Theil., p. 85, pl. xxiv (i), figs. 5a—d.

M. polygona (d’Orb.), Goés, 1894: Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl.,
vol. xxv, No. 9, p. 111, pl. xxx, figs. 854-8549; idem,
1896, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, vol. xxix, No. 1,
pt. xx, p. 88, pl. viii, figs. 11-18.

This species in the Egyptian limestone varies much as to size, but
the specimens are constant in the characters of the test.

The specimens named M. Gussensis by Schwager were found in
the argillaceous beds with Operculina libyca of El Guss-Abu-Said
(Libyan Stage).

In recent soundings this form affects warm areas, usually in the
neighbourhood of coral reefs. Goés found this species in the West
Indies at a depth from 300 to 400 fathoms.

? Lower Miocene: from a plateau between Cairo and Suez.
Frequent.

Subfamily PENEROPLIDIN ®.
ORBICULINA, Lamarck [1816].
OrBicuLIna aDuNCcA (Fichtel & Moll).

Nautilus orbiculus, Fichtel & Moll, 1803: Test. Micr., p. 112, pl. xxi.
N. angulatus, idem: ibid., p. 118, pl. xxii.
N. aduncus, idem: ibid., p. 115, pl. xxiii.
Orbiculina adunca (Fichtel & Moll), Lamarck, 1816: Tabl. Encyel.
et Méth., pl. eccclxviii, figs. 2a-c. D’Orbigny, 1839:
Foram. Cuba (in Sagra’s “ Hist. phisiq. Cuba”), p. 81,
pl. viii, figs. 8-14. Brady, 1884: Rep. Chall., vol. ix,
p. 209, pl. xiv, figs. 1-18. Agassiz, 1888: Three Cruises
“ Blake,” ii, p. 160, figs. 486, 487.
Both casts and perfect specimens of Orbiculina occur in the
Patellina-limestone.
_O. adunca is known from Eocene and Miocene rocks, and at the
present time it is confined to fairly shallow water of warm areas.
? Lower Miocene: from a plateau between Cairo and Suez.
Common.
Subfamily ALVEOLININ».
ALVEOLINA, d’Orbigny [1826].
ALVEOLINA ELLIPSOIDALIs, Schwager.

Alveolina ellipsoidalis, Schwager, 1883 : Palzeontographica, vol. xxx,
Pal. Theil, p. 96, pl. xxv (ii), figs. la-7 and 2a-c.

Examples of the above species are quite common in the Patellina-

limestone, and one perfect enough for identification was isolated

F. Chapman—Egyptian Foraminifera. 9

by crushing the rock. It is probable, but not quite certain in the
absence of sections, that the Alveolina Hauerii of @Orbigny' from
the Miocene of Nussdorf is of the same type. Schwager’s specimens
came from the Alveolina-limestone of the Wady Natfe in the
Arabian Desert (Libyan Stage).

? Lower Miocene: from a plateau between Cairo and Suez.
Common.

ALVEOLINA LEPIDULA, Schwager. (PI. II, Fig. 1.)
Alveolina lepidula, Schwager, 1883: Paleontographica, vol. xxx,
Pal. Theil, p. 98, pl. xxv (ii), figs. da-g.

This species, viewed towards the septal face, gives an ovate, pointed
outline. It was suggested by Schwager that it may represent an
immature stage of the foregoing species. It was found by that
author associated with A. ellipsoidalis from the Wady Natfe, Arabian
Desert.

? Lower Miocene: from a plateau between Cairo and Suez. Very

common.
Family TEXTULARITD_.
Subfamily TEXxTruLaRiine.
BIGENERINA, d’Orbigny [1826].
BIGENERINA CAPREOLUS (d’Orbigny).
Vulvulina capreolus, d’Orb., 1826: Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. vii, p. 264,
No. 1, pl. xi, figs. 5, 6; Modéle, No. 59.
Schizophora Neugeboreni (?), Reuss, 1861: Sitzungsb. bohm.
Gesellsch. Wiss., vol. ii, p. 13.
Grammostomum capreolus (d’Orb.), Parker & Jones, 1863: Ann.
Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 111, vol. xi, p. 93.
Teaxtilaria flabelliformis (young stage), Giimbel, 1868: Abhandl.
bayer. Akad. Wiss., Cl. ii, vol. x, p. 647, pl. ii, figs. 83a, b.
Venilina Heringensis, Giimbel, 1868: ibid., p. 649, pl. ii, fig. 84
(bis), a, b.
Schizophora Heringensis, Hantken, 1872: Mittheil. Jahrb. ungar.
geol. Anstalt., vol. i, p. 186, pl. ii, figs. 17a, b.
Bigenerina capreolus (d’Orb.), Brady, 1884: Report Chall., vol. ix,
p- 372, pl. xlv, figs. 1-4.

A good vertical section of the above species occurs in one of the
slides. It is recognized by the pointed aboral end and the fine
arenaceous structure of its test.

As a fossil B. capreolus makes its first appearance in the Eocene
of the Bavarian Alps; it was also found in the Clavulina-Szaboi
beds of Hungary ; and it is known from the newer Tertiaries of
Italy (Mio-Pliocene). The depths at which this species occurs in
recent deposits ranges from fairly shallow water to about 700
fathoms. At the present day it is generally found in the North
Atlantic Ocean.

? Lower Miocene: from a plateau between Cairo and Suez. One
specimen.

1 Foram. Foss. Vienne, 1846, p. 148, pl. vii, figs. 17, 18.

10 F. Chapman—Egyptian Foraminifera.

Family ROTALITDAi.
Subfamily Rorariun”.
PATELLINA, Williamson [1858].
Generic Synonymy.

Orbitolites, pars, Lamarck [1801], Defrance.

Madreporites, Blumenbach [1805 ].

Orbulites, Lamarck [1816].

Cyclolina, pars, d’Orbigny [1846], Carter.

Orbitolina, d’Orbigny [1847], Bronn, d’Archiac, Gras, Parker &
Jones, Carter, Martin.

Orbitulites, Bronn [1848].

Paitellina, Williamson [1858], Carpenter, Parker & Jones, Brady,
Alcock, Parfitt, G. M. Dawson, Miller & Van den
Broeck, Robertson, Schulze, Terquem, Siddall, Berthelin,
Shone, Wright, Fritsch, Hantken, Zittel, Howchin,
Chapman.

Conulites, Carter [1861 ].

The above synonymy is given in order that the claim of Patellina
as the name of the genus may be readily seen. The subject of the
nomenclature has already been discussed by Carpenter, Parker, &
Jones,” and, later, by Professor Rupert Jones.*

It will perhaps be useful to point out briefly the shortcomings
of the various names earlier than Patellina.

Orbitolites is now retained for one of the two types originally
confused under the same name.

Madreporites does not stand according to the Strickland Rule
No. 11, since it implies a false relationship; moreover, the name
was previously used by Deluc (1802) in connection with Orbitolites.

Orbulites, an improved form of Orbitolites, was used by Lamarck
when describing specimens belonging to that and the present genus.

Cyclolina used to denote a depressed, complanate form, probably
of the present genus, but by no means typical.

Orbitolina appears to have been originally used in the sense of
a recent form of Orbitolites, which was at the time thought to be
a fossil genus, the terminations ina and ites being used by Lamarck
and others for recent and fossil specimens respectively. This
generic term has been largely used on the Continent to designate
the Patelline with large tests and thick shell-walls, and which are
so common in various Cretaceous beds in France, Spain, and
Switzerland. Should these particular forms be proved to possess
hyaline or tubulated shell-structure, there is no ground for retaining
the name even as an isomorphic arenaceous group with Patellina.

Orbitulites is evidently a misspelling.

1 For references see Sherborn’s Index to Genera and Species of the Foraminifera,
1896.

2 Introd. Foram., 1862, p. 229. Also Ann. Mae. Nat. Hist., ser. 111, vol. xii
(1863), p. 212.

> Cat. Foss. Foram. Brit. Mus., 1882, p. 84.

ot MaG. rgoo.

2.» PHOTO.

SER. IV’ VoL. VIL. 12h b. AG!

MORGAN & KIDD, COLLOTYP!

TERTIARY FORAMINIFERA FROM EGYPT.

FE. Chapman—Egyptian Foraminifera. 11

Patellina was well described by Williamson, who took the typical
little P. corrugata for the purpose. This form is quite hyaline
throughout. In most cases the large fossil forms above referred to
show very little evidence of hyaline structure, but it is extremely
probable that this absence of tubulation is due to recrystallization
of the calcitic substance of the shell-wall. In the Egyptian Patellina,
however, by careful examination under high powers, a distinct But
extremely fine tubulation can be made out in portions of the
hell-wall better preserved, the tubules sometimes radiating in
« characteristic manner.

Conulites was founded on specimens of Patellina from India, but
described at later date than Williamson’s type-form. This form
approximates very closely to the Egyptian species in general
structure.

The whole group of the Patelline require a systematic and
exhaustive study, and this I believe is being undertaken by
Mr. A. Vaughan Jennings, who possesses a valuable collection of
material for the purpose. I will here express my sincere thanks
to Mr. Jennings for much assistance in making comparison with
oecimens of Patellina from his collection.

z PaTELLINA Eeypriensis, sp. nov. (Pl. II, Figs. 1-3.)

Test conoidal, in vertical section nearly equilateral, the two sides
slightly convex, straight, or incurved in the middle of the test ;
base circular in outline, and with a slightly convex surface ;
peripheral edge rounded. The chambers are arranged on two
plans, consisting (1) of an internal cone of chamberlets arranged
at the apex in a spiral, and afterwards annular, or discoidal, each
disc being subdivided into chamberlets by labyrinthic or irregular
septa, the chamberlets alternate with those above and below;
(2) of a cortical or external layer of rectangular chambers, partially
subdivided by imperfect septa attached to the outer wall of the
chamber and projecting inwards. The spire at the apex or aboral
end of the test is large and simple, consisting of about one and
a half turns, and in some cases the primordial sphere is well shown.
The primordial chamber is most frequently megalospheric, measuring
about %5 inch (-416 mm.) in diameter; one sphere of the microspheric
type measures ;}; inch (‘26 mm.) in diameter.

In vertical section the cone is seen to be divided laterally by
curved floors parallel with the convex surface of the base. These
are subdivided somewhat irregularly by vertical septa in the
central area. Average height of test, } inch (5 mm.); average
diameter at the base, } inch (4:16 mm.).

ArFinities.—The present species differs considerably in point of
structure from the large Cretaceous Patelline, the chief distinction
of the latter forms being the more or less hemispherical or spherical
shape of the chambers constituting the cortical layer. In the
Tertiary specimens the cortical chambers are decidedly rectangular.

I have lately taken the opportunity of examining the specimens

12 FE. Chapman—Egyptian Foraminifera.

of ‘ Conulites’ Cooki,’ both in the collection at the British Museum
(Natural History) * and in the Carter Collection at the Geological
Society, in order to make a comparison of the Indian with the
Egyptian species. In the collection at the Geological Society’s
Museum the best specimens of Patellina Cooki are mounted on slide
No. 40 of the Carter Collection, and are numbered 2 (from Kelat),
3 (from Sind), and 4 (from Arabia). The sections of P. Cooki
show the cortical layer to consist of rectangular chambers, but
these, unlike the Egyptian specimens, are without the secondary
imperfect septa or dissepiments seen in the latter.

Some West Indian specimens of Miocene age kindly lent me by
Mr. Jennings show this secondary septation of the cortical layer,
but the chambers in these are more crowded and narrower than in
P. Egyptiensis, and the species is probably new.

It is interesting to note that Patellina Cooki is associated with
the following foraminifera in the Indian limestone as given by
Carter in the paper above mentioned, namely: <Alveolina elliptica,
Nummulites obesa, N. perforata, N. Carteri, Assilina exponens,
A. spira, and Orbitoides dispansa. The limestone in which these,
foraminifera occur appear to belong to the Kirthar Group (Hocene),*
In these Hocene beds the shell-structure exhibits the simplest plan.
In the Egyptian beds, probably Lower Miocene, we have the inter-
mediate stage in the development of the cortical layer. Finally, 1 it
the West Indian Miocene, presumably newer in age, the transition
of the outer chambers is carried out still further.

Thus there appears to be a progression of this form in a westerly
direction.

? Lower Miocene: from a plateau between Cairo and Suez. Very
abundant, forming about 50 per cent. of the bulk of the rock.

DISCORBINA, Parker & Jones [1862].
DiscorBina, sp., near D. eroputarts (d’Orbigny).

Rosalina globularis, d’Orb., 1826: Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. vii, p. 271,
pl. xiii, figs. 1-4; Modéle, No. 69.

Discorbina globularis (d’Orb.), Parker, Jones, & Brady, 1865: Ann.
Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 111, vol. xvi, p. 30, pl. ii, fig. 69.

Our specimen occurs in a section of the rock, but there is little
doubt, from the thick peripheral wall and globular segments, that
it is referable to the above species. It is a well-known fossil in
Middle Eocene, Miocene, and Pliocene beds.

? Lower Miocene: from a plateau between Cairo and Suez. One
Specimen.

1 See Carter, 1861, Journ. Bombay Br. Roy. As. Soc., vol. vi, p. 83. Also
Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 111, vol. viii, p. 457, pl. xv, fig. 7.

2-To Mr. R. B. Newton and Mr. W. R. Jones I'am indebted for their kind
attention when examining these specimens at the British Museum and the Geological
Society.

3 See Manual of Geology of India, 1893, Medlicott & Blanford, 2nd ed., revised
by R. D. Oldham, pp. 305-7.

F. Chapman—Egyptian Foraminifera. 13

TRUNCATULINA, d@’Orbigny [1826].
Truncatutina Uncertana (d’Orbigny).

Rotalina Ungeriana, d’Orb., 1846: Foram. Foss. Vienne, p. 157,
pl. vili, figs. 16-18.

Truncatulina Ungeriana (d’Orb.), Reuss, 1866: Denk. Akad. Wiss.
Wien, vol. xxv, p. 161, No. 10. Brady, 1884: Rep.
Chall., p. 664, pl. xciv, figs. 9a—c.

The example found is very typical, and has the form of the test
well preserved ; it was obtained by powdering the rock. The above
species makes its appearance in beds of Cretaceous age, and it occurs
commonly throughout the Tertiary formations.

? Lower Miocene: from a plateau between Cairo and Suez. One
specimen.

Subfamily Trnoporin =.

GYPSINA, Carter [1877].
GYPSINA ORASSITESTA, sp. nov. (Pl. I, Fig. 4.)

Test hyaline and adherent; coarsely perforate ; consisting of series
of dome-shaped segments overlying one another alternately and in
about five or more successive layers. The first series of chambers
more spherical than the later ones. The test is adherent to thin
shell fragments or consolidated pieces of sand. Average diameter of
the chambers, 34; inch (‘26 mm.). The largest specimen found
measures 3°; inch (9 mm.) in length ; height, ;4;inch (‘75 mm.).

The recent Gypsina inherens (Schultze)! has a similar habit of
growth to this species, but it is usually much thinner in its shell-
wall. The present species has coarse tubuli, such as is often present
in Gypsina. The nature of the thick walls also reminds one of
a similar character seen in Carpenteria. Gypsina vesicularis, var.
discus, Goés,? may also be compared with the above species with
regard to the depressed form of the test, especially in one of our
specimens, where the peripheral edge is neatly rounded off.

? Lower Miocene: from a plateau between Cairo and Suez.
Frequent.

POLYTREMA, Risso [1826].

PoLYTREMA PAPYRACEA, sp. nov. (PI. II, Fig. 5.)

Test adherent, consisting of layers of somewhat acervuline but
much elongated chambers, extending along the plane of attachment.
The test often attains the length of + inch (6°25 mm.) ; greatest
thickness, -'; inch (‘694 mm.).

A passage form between this species and the well-known recent
Polytrema miniaceum (L.) has been found in certain Tertiary and
recent limestones, and will shortly be described. The present species
is distinguished by its limited extent and compressed lenticular shape.

4 Acervulina inherens, Schultze, 1854: ‘‘ Organismus Polythal.,’’ p. 68, pl. vi,
o, 12.

oh Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, 1896, vol. xxix, No. 1 (xx), p. 74, pl. vii,
gs. 4-6.

14 F. Chapman—Eygyptian Foraminifera.

? Lower Miocene: from a plateau between Cairo and Suez.
Frequent.
Family NUMMULINIDA.
Subfamily PoLystoMELLIN®.
NONIONINA, d’Orbigny [1826].
Nonrontna Bovuana, d’Orbigny.

Nonionina Boueana, d’Orbigny, 1846: Foram. Foss. Vienne, p. 108,
Dio wasticis eh.

This species is represented both by casts and sections in the
Egyptian limestone. In the casts the retral processes of the
segments are faithfully reproduced, and the umbilical protuberance
is well shown. The general form of the test is subcircular, com-
pressed, with a rather sharp keel, and numerous narrow chambers.

Fossil specimens of this shallow-water form have been recorded
from the Oligocene of Germany and the Miocene of the Vienna Basin
and Southern Italy; and I have lately identified a variety of this
species in the Miocene of California.

? Lower Miocene: from a plateau between Cairo and Suez.
Common.

With regard to the age of the foregoing species of foraminifera in
the Patellina-limestone, should the exact stratigraphical horizon of
the rock as Lower Miocene be confirmed, it is of much interest to
note the general aspect of the fauna, which strongly tends to confirm
this idea, although there are one or two exceptions, such as the
presence of Alveoling found by Schwager much lower in the series
(Libyan Stage) in Egypt. Since no Nummulites have been observed
in our rock-specimens we cannot but regard the occurrence of the
Alveoling as indicating an upward range of considerable extent.

LIMEsTone witH Oprrcuzina, ETC.

These specimens are labelled Box D, 5, 6, and 7 (1,257), near
Erment, right bank of Nile Valley. Captain Lyons considers these
beds to be of Pliocene age. The colour of the limestone is of a pale
cream to a whitish tint. The foraminifera are not numerous in this
rock, but Opereulina may be detected on the fractured surfaces. In
section the rock is a fine granular or crystalline limestone, with
some included fragments of a denser and somewhat amorphous-
looking limestone scattered through it, especially in specimen D 6.
There are also traces of lamellibranch shells and echinoderm spines.
‘The organisms in this rock are deposited very uniformly, their
length coinciding with the plane of bedding, so that the sections
taken at right angles to one another show the shells cut in two
directions, longitudinal and transverse, in the separate slides. The
foraminifera are fairly numerous, but rather small, and comprise the
genera Textularia, Globigerina, Gypsina, Amphistegina, and Operculina.

F.. Chapman—Egyptian Foraninifera. 15

FORAMINIFERA.
Family TEXTULARIID&S.
Subfamily TexruLariin®.
TEXTULARIA, Defrance [1824].
TEXTULARIA SAGITTULA, Defrance.
Textularia sagittula, Defrance, 1824: Dict. Sci. Nat., vol. xxxii,
p- 177; vol. liii; p. 344; Atlas Conch., pl. xiii, fig. 5.
Brady, 1844:. Rep. Chall., vol. ix, p. 361, pl. xlii,
figs. 17, 18.

Several sections of this species occur in the limestone. It is
easily recognized by its elongated contour and numerous chambers.

T. sagittula has a wide range in time, being known as far back as
the Aptian.

Pliocene: near Erment, right bank of Nile Valley. Frequent.
TEXTULARIA AGGLUTINANS, d’Orbigny. (PI. II, Fig. 6.)
Textularia agglutinans, d’Orb., 1839: Foram. Cuba, p. 136, pl. i,
figs. 17, 18, 32-34. Brady, 1884: Rep. Chall., vol. ix,

p. 065, pl. xliii, figs. 1-3.

The specimen found in the limestone from Egypt is typical in
form, but rather small. In the fossil condition this species occurs
as far back as the Carboniferous Limestone formation.

Pliocene: near Erment, right bank of Nile Valley. One specimen.
Family GLOBIGERINIDZ.
GLOBIGERINA, d’Orbigny {1826].

GLOBIGERINA CONGLOBATA, Brady.
Globigerina conglobata, Brady, 1879: Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.,
vol. xix, N.s., p. 72; idem, 1884, Rep. Chall., vol. ix,
p- 608, pl. Ixxx, figs. 1-5; pl. Ixxxii, fig. 5.

The examples of the above species found in the Operculina-
limestone are fairly typical, but are somewhat rounder in outline
than recent specimens. G. conglobata appears to make its first
appearance in beds of Miocene age.

Pliocene: near Erment, right bank of Nile Valley. Frequent.

Family ROTALITDE.
Subfamily Trnoporin=.
GYPSINA, Carter [1877].
GYPSINA VESICULARIS ? (Parker & Jones).
Orbitolina vesicularis, Parker & Jones, 1860: Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,
ser. 111, vol. vi, p. 31, No. 5.
Gypsina vesicularis (Parker & Jones), Carter, 1877: Ann. Mag.
Nat. Hist., ser. rv, vol. xx, p. 173.

There is a fragment of a Gypsina occurring in one of our slides,
which seems to come nearest to the structure seen in G. vesicularis ;
on the other hand, there is just the possibility that it is an irregular

16 F. Chapman—Egyptian Foraminifera.

example of the more regularly-built G. globulus (Reuss). Both
species date from the Miocene.

Pliocene: near Erment, right bank of Nile Valley. A fragment.

Family NUMMULINIDZ.
Subfamily Nommuririn x.
AMPHISTEGINA, dOrbigny [1826].
Ampuistreina Lessonu, d’Orbigny.
Amphistegina Lessonii, d’Orb., 1826: Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. vii,
p- 304, No. 3, pl. xvii, figs. 1-4; Modéle, No. 98.

A, mamillata, VOrb., 1846: Foram. Foss. Vienne, p. 208, pl. xii,
figs. 6-8.

A. rugosa, id.: ibid., p. 209, pl. xii, figs. 9-11.

A. gibbosa, Williamson, 1851: Trans. Micr. Soc. Lond., ser. 1, vol. iii,
p- 110, pl. xvii, figs. 1, 2.

A. Lessoni, d’Orbigny: Parker, Jones, & Brady, 1865, Ann. Mag.
Nat. Hist., ser. 111, vol. xvi, p. 34, pl. iii, fig. 92.

A. semicostata, Kaufmann, 1867: Geol. Beschreib. des Pilatus, p. 149,.
pl. viii, fig. 18.

Hemistegina rotula, id.: ibid., p. 150, pl. viii, fig. 19.

A, Lessonii, d’Orb., Moebius, 1880: Foram. Mauritius, p. 99, pl. x,
figs. 10-14; pl. xi, figs. 1-3.

A. Parisiensis, Terquem, 1882: Mém. Soc. géol. France, sér. 1,
vol. ii, Mém. iii, p. 124, pl. xiii, figs. 5a, 0.

A. Lessonii, @Orbigny, Brady, 1884: Rep. Chall., vol. ix, p. 740,
pl. cxi, figs. 1-7.

The above synonymy refers especially to the thick varieties of
A. Lessonii, since the examples met with in the Operculina-limestone
belong to that group. The specimens are well-grown, and exhibit in
all cases a well-developed cone of non-tubulous shell material.

Typical specimens of 4. Lessonii date from the Eocene period, and
they abound in some rocks of Miocene and Pliocene ages.

Pliocene: near Erment, right bank of Nile Valley. Frequent.

OPERCULINA, d’Orbigny [1826].
OPERCULINA AMMONOIDES (Gronovius). (PI. II, Figs. 6, 7.)
Nautilus ammonoides, Gronovius, 1781: Zooph. Gron., p. 282,
No. 1,220, and p. v (expl. Tab.).
N. Balthicus, Schroeter, 1782, Naturforscher, vol. xvii, p. 120;
1788, Kinleitung, vol. i, p. 20, pl. i, fig. 2.
Operculina complanata (Defrance), Parker & Jones, 1857 : Ann. Mag.
Nat. Hist., ser. 11, vol. xix, p. 285, pl. xi, figs. 3, 4.
O. ammonoides (Gronovius), Parker & Jones, 1861: Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist., ser. 111, vol. viii, pp. 229, 230.
Brady, 1884: Rep. Chall., vol. ix, p. 746, pl. exii, figs. 1, 2.
A. Silvestri, 1893: Mem. Pontif. Accad. N. Lincei, vol. ix, p: 217,
pl. vi, fig. 5.
Rupert Jones, 1897: Mon. Foram. Crag, pt. iv, p. 364, pl. vii,
figs. 34a, b. Also, var. curvicamerata, Jones, ibid.,
p. 365, pl. v, fig. 33.

FEF. Chapman—Egyptian Foraminifera, Vi

The Egyptian specimens are neat and typically shaped. The
septation, however, is rather more crowded and narrower than
usual. In vertical section the test appears to be somewhat strongly
limbate. In the limestones from near Erment this species is very
common, but does not constitute a large proportion of the rock.

It is interesting to note that the previous geological occurrences of
O. ammonoides agree with the age of these present rocks, since it has
been met with in beds not older than the Pliocene of Calabria; it
was also found in the English Coralline Crag, and it has been noted
from the Pleistocene of Norway. As a recent organism it occurs
in fairly shallow water, and has a wide geographical range, including
the Mediterranean and the Gulf of Suez.

Pliocene: near Erment, right bank of Nile Valley. Very common,

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IT.

Fic. 1.—Limestone with Pateliina Egyptiensis, sp. nov., and Alveolina lepidula,
Schwager. ? Lower Miocene: between Cairo and Suez. x 12.

Fic. 2.—Vertical sections of Patellina Egyptiensis, showing the primordial spire.
? Lower Miocene: between Cairo and Suez. x 16.

Fic. 3.—Basal section of Patellina Eyyptiensis, showing the central and cortical
arrangement of the septa. ? Lower Miocene: between Cairo and Suez.
x 16.

Fic. 4.—Gypsinua crassitesta, sp. nov., vertical section. ? Lower Miocene: between
Cairo and Suez. x 16.

Fic. 5.—Polytrema papyracea, sp. nov., median section. ? Lower Miocene: between
Cairo and Suez. x 16.

Fic. 6.—Limestone with Operculina ammonoides (Gronovius) in median section, and
Textularia agglutinans, @Orb. From specimen D4. Pliocene: near
Erment, right bank of Nile Valley. x 13. ;

Fic. 7.—Limestone with Operculina ammonotdes (Gronoyius) in vertical section.
From specimen D 5. Pliocene: near Erment, right bank of Nile Valley.
x lod.

SPECIES OF FORAMINIFERA DESCRIBED IN THIS PAPER.

1. Biloculina bulloides, VOrb. . . . ? L. Miocene: between Cairo and Suez.
2s rs », var. inornata, VOrb. sp ” ”»

3. Miliolina oblonga (Montagu) oe ” ” ”

4, 36 subrotunda (Montagu) : 9 ” »

5. 55 trigonula (Lam.) . . . . Fz) ” ”

6. x5 inflata (VOrb.) . . “F ” ”

7. o seminulum (Linné) . ” ” ”

8. Ms polygona (VOrb.) .. 3 ” ”

9. Orbiculina adunca (¥ichtel & Moll) 50 ” ”
10. Alveolina ellipsoidalis, Schwager an ” ”
1 i lepidula, Schwager ‘ “5 ” ”

12. Textularia agglutinans, VOrb. . . Pliocene: near Erment.
13, x0 sagittula, Detrance . : 3 ”
14. Bigenerina capreolus (V Orb.) . . . ? L. Miocene: between Cairo and Suez,
15, Globigerina conglobata, Brady . . . Pliocene: near Erment.
16. Patellina Egyptiensis, sp.nov. . . ? 1. Miocene: between Cairo and Suez.
17. Discorbina globularis? (V Orb.) Mie AC ” ”

18. Truncatulina Ungeriana (a Orb.) ” ”

i, 9
19. Gypsina vesicularis ? (Parker & Jones) Pliocene: near Erment.

20. 2 erassitesta, sp. nov. . . . ? L. Miocene: between Cairo and Suez,
21. Polytrema papyracea, sp.nov... . ” ” ”
22. Noniontna Boueana, d’ Orb. a! Ie ” ” 22
23. Amphistegina Lessonii, 7 Orb. . . Pliocene, near Erment.
24, Operculina ammonoides (Gronovius) ” ”
OsTRACODA.

Bairdia subdeltoidea (Minster) . ?L. Miocene: between Cairo and Suez,
DECADE IV.—VOL. VII.—NO. I. 2

18 J. R. Dakyns—Modern Denudation in N. Wales.

TIJ.—Mopern Denupation 1x Norra WA tss.
By J. R. Daxyns.

'\HE subject of denudation is so important that I propose giving

a few instances of denudation and of the transport of material
that have actually come under my own observation or that of my
friends. Where one sees the same familiar crags and pinnacles year
after year, apparently quite unchanged, one may perchance fancy
that denudation is at a standstill; but anyone who, in scrambling
across the screes that clothe many a steep hillside, finds them moving
beneath his feet, or perhaps has clattering about his ears a shower of
stones dislodged by some wandering sheep, will at once perceive
that it is not so: for it-is obvious that if the mere tread of such
a small beast as a sheep, shepherd or other pedestrian, can set scree
rolling downhill, it must be in a very unstable state, and may be
expected to move in a conspicuous manner under more potent forces
than the tread of animals. Observation shows that this is the case.
Not a year passes without some conspicuous fall of scree or of solid
rock, owing chiefly to great downpours of rain. Leaving general
statements, I will now give actual instances of the fall of rock or
movement of scree that have recently taken place in the Snowdon
district.

In the Summer of 1897 a large mass of earth and rock débris was
washed by heavy rain down the hillside overlooking the east end of
Llyn Llydaw, leaving a conspicuous scar which is still quite distinct.
A similar scar close by, which is actually marked on the Ordnance
six-inch map, was doubtless formed in a similar manner. Later on,
in August, under another downpour of rain, a similar scar was
formed on the Glyder near the head of Llanberis Pass.

In June, 1898, after a great. deal of wet weather, while the
summits were still enveloped in mist, I was scrambling along the
slope of Lliwedd, above Cwm Llan, when I was startled at hearing
from the side of Snowdon a noise like that of an explosion, followed
by the sound of falling rocks. Turning quickly round, I saw issuing
from the mist a quantity of earth and stones rushing down the
mountain-side, and leaving long trails ploughed out of the loose
material clothing the steep slope. Going up next day I found that
a large mass of rock, weighing several hundred tons, had slipped
down the hillside. The landslip was evidently due to a tiny rill
having been swollen by the recent rains and having washed away
some material supporting the highly weathered rocks, whose points
of support then gave way with snaps like explosions of gunpowder.
I once saw a somewhat similar fall of rocks in Norway caused by
a thunder-shower. In August, 1899, during heavy rain, a long
conspicuous scar was formed in scree on the side of Yr Aran. On
November 8rd, the day of the great gale, when from fifteen
to twenty streams were tearing down the mountain-sides, where
usually there are only two or three, the high-level footpath to.
Snowdon was in three places either completely washed away or
obliterated by being overwhelmed with stuff washed down the side

J. R. Dakyns—Modern Denudation in N. Wales. 19

of Crib y Ddysgl. A few days after this, on going to seek shelter
from rain in an old adit level, where I had often sheltered two
years ago, I found it completely covered with screes, which had
either come down in a similar manner previously or had gradually
accumulated during the last two years. Another old level, which
was open when I was a boy, has long since been quite covered by
scree.

A long red sear is to be seen on the hillside between Lliwedd
and Galt y Wenallt: this was formed in March some years ago by
an avalanche caused by the sudden melting of the winter’s snow
under heavy rain. A friend of mine saw and heard it come down
with a roar like thunder.

Another cause of the fall of rocks is lightning. I often see
freshly broken rocks that look as if they must have been broken
by lightning : such a one I noticed the other day below Crib Goch,
which had “probably been struck by lightning during the thunder-
storm that occurred on the 20th of July, 1899; but ‘it is not often
that we actually know as a fact that such and such a rock has been
struck by lightning. During the great thunderstorm that occurred
in North Wales in the middle of August, 1898, a mass of rock. was
broken and thrown down near Llyn Yeyrn. This is known to have
been done by lightning, as it was not there till after the storm. It
is still quite distinct.

It will thus be seen that scree is perpetually moving down to
a quite conspicuous extent under the influence of water, and that
large landslips and falls of rock are also caused by heavy rain and
by lightning. I have not had an opportunity of observing in
Wales the transport of stones by ordinary mountain torrents; but
doubtless such torrents behave in Wales as similar streams do in
Yorkshire, about which I happen to know something. I once lived
at Kettlewell in Craven, in a room overlooking a mountain torrent.
I had not been there very long before there was a deal of heavy
rain; and one night, after all the village folk had gone to bed,
I heard a bumping noise as if a heavy cart were jolting over a rough
road; so, being surprised that anyone should be driving a cart at
dead of night, a opened the window and looked out, and I then
discovered that the noise was caused by boulders bumping against
one another as they were swept down by the beck that flowed under
my window. Whenever there was heavy rain on the hills, that
bumping noise was heard. The beck, when in spate, which it often
was, invariably rolled great stones down to the river Wharfe. No
doubt mountain streams in Wales and in other hilly countries
do likewise. I may here remark that this transport of stones may
go on in clear water. In such a country as the volcanic parts of
Cumberland and Westmorland, where there is no shale, very little
peat, and all the rocks are hard, a stream, even when in spate, will
run quite clear, but it is hurrying stones on along its bottom all the
same. The effect of this may be seen in many places in the great
spreads of gravel that occur where a mountain stream enters a river
‘walley, as for instance where such a stream enters the valley of the

20 E. Greenly—Sandstone Pipes.

Aire from the hills above Kildwick and Conouley. I have given the
above-mentioned observations to prove that there is now going on
a steady transport of material, but the same conclusion is manifest
to the reason, for there are places on the mountains where the rock
is conspicuously bare, naked, and fresh-looking, being free from
asperities and from vegetable growth; such spots, reason tells us, are
the places where there is a perpetual or oft repeated fall of stones
from above. ‘here is such a naked rock on Clogwyn y Garnedd,
under the summit of Snowdon; and though I have not actually seen
stones falling there, I am as sure that the naked appearance of the
rock is due to falling stones as if I had seen them fall. Such bare
places on the mountain-sides are very conspicuous in some parts of
Norway ; and the natives tell you that they are due to ‘stane scree.’

Another sign that a rock is now wasting away is this: if the
ground beneath a cliff is thickly strewn with blocks of the same
rock as that of which the cliff is composed, you may be quite sure
that the cliff is now wasting away. A geologist must be careful
how he hammers such a cliff at its foot, for even a slight blow of
his hammer may bring down a mass of rock on to his head. Again,
the spiky character of a serrated ridge is proof that the ridge is
wasting away. Such wasting away is mainly due to frost; and
I have noticed that in the Spring the mountain-sides are in a more
crumbly and unstable state than at any other time of the year.
This is doubtless due to the winter frosts. I have now said enough
to show that denudation is steadily going on, though its amount may
be small in comparison with the size of the hills.

IVY.—On Sanpstone Pires In THE CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE AT
Dwupan Point, Hast AnGursey.

By Epwarp Greenty, F.G.S.

HE low, but rocky headland of Dwlban Point forms the western
corner of Red Wharf Bay, on the east coast of Anglesey ;? and
is on the coastline of the principal tract of Carboniferous rocks in
the island, not very far from the boundary fault which runs out
to sea beneath the sands of the bay. The Carboniferous Limestone
near the Point is for the most part a light-grey, crystalline rock,
with abundant crinoids, corals, and other marine fossils. There are,
however, four beds of sandstone, varying from 2 to 9 feet thick, and
some of the Limestone itself also contains scattered grains of
quartz. The sandstones are clean white rocks, generally fine, but
with occasional thin seams of small pebbles.
Now the foreshore at Dwlban Point is composed of a massive bed
of light-grey, crystalline Limestone. The surface of this bed, at
a little creek close to the headland, is pierced by a large number of

‘ Abstracts of this and of the succeeding paper were read before the British
Association, Dover, 1899.

* During the first examination and the mapping of this ground I was accompanied
by my friend Mr. J. R. Dakyns. I should like to add also that most of the
phenomena here described were noticed more than twenty years ago by Mr. G. H.
Morton, F.G.S. ; ib

E. Greenly—Sandstone Pipes. 21

circular pits, varying from 1 foot to 7 feet in diameter. The
margins of these having been glaciated, they open out in trumpet-
shaped forms, but each can be seen to be, or to have been, filled
with a plug of fine white sandstgne, descending into the Limestone
at right angles to the bedding. (See Figures illustrating the
succeeding paper.)

These plugs can be seen in various stages of denudation. Some
have been worn down flush with the surrounding Limestone, and
some of the smaller ones have been excavated so as to leave an
almost empty pit or pothole with a little sandy matter in the
bottom. In one part of the shore, however, the plugs have been
left standing each in its circular pit, some 4 or 5 feet above the level
of the surrounding rock (Fig. 1); and the foreshore here presents

Fic. 1.-—Sanpstone Pirr 1n Carronirerous Limestone, Dwipan Pornt,
ANGLESEY. Looking N.N.W.

a most extraordinary appearance, great masses suggestive of gigantic
fossil corals, or of the Paramoudras of the Chalk, standing up from
the rocky ledges, while others, torn out by the sea, lie prostrate in all
directions.

The Limestone is here the highest bed seen, but as we proceed
a few yards to the S.S.E. in the direction of the dip (which is at
about 4°-5°) a bed of sandstone, about 2 feet thick, comes on
above, forming the foreshore in its turn as the beds come down ;
and a little further still, in a low cliff, this is surmounted by about
7 feet of dark shale, and this by another Limestone of ordinary type,
some 8-10 feet in thickness. (Fig. 2.)

Now at the exposed junction between the piped or lower Lime-
stone and the overlying sandstone, there are numerous pipes, and
the material of their plugs can be seen in cross section to be con-
tinuous with that of the sandstone above. There is no sign of

22 E. Greenly—Sandstone Pipes.

collapse in this bed of sandstone; indeed, the upper surface of the
bed is in most cases gently domed upwards over the openings of the
pipes, so as to present a hummocky surface on the foreshore. In
some cases also there is a domed joint or crack in the sandstone over
the head of the plug.

h i}* {a

Te ee

Fic. 2.—Dr1AcraM Section at Dwizan Port.
a, Piped Limestone ; 8, Sandstone ; y, Shale; 6, Upper Limestone.

The larger pits seen at Dwlban Point are about 6 feet in diameter
at the top, and can be traced to a depth of about 5-6 feet. But
about 230 yards to the south, at an inland crag across the débris of
some ancient quarries, is a section showing a pipe no less than
12 feet in depth. (Fig. 38.) The rock pierced by the pipe is a very

Fic. 3.—Larce Pree i Innanp Cuirr.
a, Cherty Limestone ; 8, Sandstone; y, Upper Limestone.
massive grey, crystalline Limestone, with lines of chert nodules, and
the material of the pipe is in connection with that of the base of
a sandstone whose normal thickness is about 8 feet. Overlying this
is another Limestone about 10 feet thick, rather fine and dark, and
poor in fossils. Except at the pipe the sandstone lies in perfect
conformity with both Limestones. It isa white, hard rock, mostly
fine, but with some lines of pebbles. The funnel-shaped pipe, whose

E. Greenly—Sandstone Pipes. - 23

bottom is not seen, gives rise to a shallow cave, and in this it
appears to widen out somewhat behind the face of the crag, as
though it were there more basin-shaped than where cut by the plane
of section. The bedding of the sandstone in the pipe is somewhat
irregular, and bends gently downwards near the mouth.

The material of the plugs is a fine white, hard sandstone,
weathering light brown. It weathers also very cavernously, as
though calcareous, though a specimen examined at home did not
effervesce with acid. There are a few small lenticular nests of little
pebbles, but no pebbles were observed more than 1 inch in
diameter. The weathered plugs show marked bedding, which is
parallel to that of the series as a whole. There seem also a con-
centric structure and concentric colour banding. The jointing tends
to be radial.

In both cases the Limestones penetrated by the pipes are
thoroughly marine, as shown by the fossils, though at Dwlban Point
the upper parts become somewhat sandy. No unconformity can be
observed between the beds, but just below the base of the sandstone
at the coast the Limestone becomes full of cracks, which widen
upwards into small fissures filled in with sand and pebbles.

Whatever their origin, the pipes appear to be contemporaneous
with the series as a whole. There is no sign of collapse in the beds
above them, for the gentle downward bend in the great pipe affects
only the material within the pipe itself, and not the overlying beds ;
indeed, the tendency is to a heaping into domes above them. They
are suggestive of potholes, but there is no really coarse material
in them, pebbles, though present, being both rare and small. The
smaller plugs seem to be the more pebbly.

The suggestion has been made that the beds overlying the piped
Limestone represent fresh-water episodes and upheaval, with
accompanying denudation. Shales and = sandstones in similar
positions in the Penmon area do, indeed, contain abundant plant-
remains, though no pipes were observed by me there. But at
Dwlban Point the shale above the sandstone (1, Fig. 2) has yielded
a shell which, though very poorly preserved, Mr. I. 'T. Newton,
F.R.S., who was so good as to look at it for me, believes to be
Spirifera ovalis, while the sandstone itself contains what seem to
be annelid castings. Mr. J. Bennie, formerly of the Geological
Survey of Scotland, has also very kindly examined the shale for
minute organisms, but has hitherto failed to find any. The whole
series therefore appears to be marine. The fissuring of the upper
surface of the Limestone, however, points to an interval of exposure
after hardening; and it is interesting also to note that the Penmon
Sandstones above alluded to contain pebbles of Carboniferous Lime-
stone (Q.J.G.S., 1896, pp. 628, 629). We may conclude, then, that
the piping took place during an interval of shallowing, and, perhaps,
exposure of the sea-bottom. This was probably quite local, for the
sandstones in this region are for the most part of very limited extent.

1 By Mr. P. F. Kendall, F.G.S., during the discussion at the meeting of the British
Association. ;

24 E. Greenly—Deflected Glacial Strie.

It is curious that these pipes should occur in the same area at
three different horizons, the great pipe being somewhat above those
of the Dwlban Point, while some seen to the north of Benllech must
be much lower in the series.

V.—On DeFiecrep GuactaL Strrm at Dwipan Pornt,
East ANGLESEY.

By Epwarp Greeny, F.G.S.

HE Limestone of the foreshore at Dwlban Point is magnificently

glaciated, the ice-worn surfaces being preserved for a distance

of some yards from the Boulder-clay. The striae where undeflected

run N.N.E.-S.S.W., which is in agreement with the general direction
of the glaciation on that part of the coast.

Limestone

SSW.

Fic. 1.—Profile of Glaciated Pit.

The rock is not merely striated, but furrowed, and in one furrow
a ledge of rock facing N.N.W. is undercut so as to overhang some
3 or 4 inches, the slope of the overhanging surface being as much

Fic. 2.—Derriectep Guaciat Strim, Dwipan Point, ANGLESEY.

The normal direction of striation is that of a line joining the small round hole on the
left with the small fissure at *. Boulder-clay is seen in the background; and,
on the right, part of a Sandstone plug in its pit.

A. J. Jukes-Browne—Boring through Chalk near Dieppe. 25

as 15°-80° from the vertical. This undercut furrow is distinctly
smoothed and striated.

The trumpet-shaped mouths of the pits described in the foregoing
paper are beautifully ice-worn, though the heads of their sandstone
plugs are for the most part rough and angular.

The strize are deflected on passing across the mouths of the pits.
In the case of one pit, about 6 feet in diameter, whose profile with its
plug is shown in Fig. 1, the stria sweep completely round in
the moat-like hollow surrounding the plug, until on its S.S.W.
side they are pointing more than 20° N. of W. These deflected
strie are shown, for part of their course, in the photograph’
(Fig. 2). On the broad and gently convex surface of Limestone
just outside the hollow they have the normal direction 8. 25°-30° W.,
so that the deflection in the space of some 2 yards is nearly 90°.

The agent which produced this phenomenon and that of the
undercut furrows must have adapted itself, it would seem, as
a practically plastic body, to every irregularity in the surface of
the rock.

A Red Clay, somewhat poor in stones, rests upon the ice-worn
surface, forming a cliff about 12 feet high.

VI.—Nore on a Borrtng THROUGH THE CHALK AND GAULT NEAR
Dirrrpe.”
By A. J. Juxes-Browng, B.A., F.G.S.

HE following particulars of a boring for water made at Puys,

near Dieppe, in 1898 have been communicated to me by

Messrs. Legrand and Sutcliff, and as they appear to indicate a

succession of beds very similar to that occurring beneath Dover, the

present seems a fitting occasion for placing on record a brief account
of the boring.

Puys is a small village less than a mile and a half north-east of
the entrance of Dieppe Harbour, and the site of the boring is at
an hotel by the sea-shore, the well-mouth being not more than
00 yards from high-water mark and about 45 feet above mean
sea-level.

The beds passed through by the boring are described as follows,
the thicknesses being given in metres and in feet :—

Metres. Feet.

Chalk without flints ... ace aa 156 hs 511}

Greensand and sandy clay cr one 2 if 63

Gault clay ae es 38 Bue 42 “OC 137}
Black sand and pyrites, passing down

into clean quartzose sand ... aes D1 es 377

2112 6934

1 For this photograph and that illustrating the preceding paper, as well as for
the lantern slides and other photographs of these phenomena, used at the British
Association, I am indebted to Mr. J. Trevor Owen, M.A., Headmaster of the County
School, Carnarvon.

2 An abstract of only the first part of this paper was read before the British
Association at Dover, September, 1899.

26 A. J. Jukes-Browne—Boring through Chalk near Dieppe.

According to the diagrammatic section of the coast-line given by
Hébert in 1872, Puys stands on the chalk of the Holaster planus:
zone,' which corresponds to the lowest part of the flinty chalk
east of Dover. Thus the chalk traversed by the boring is the
equivalent of the whole of our Lower and Middle Chalk. In 1875.
Hébert estimated the thickness of the planus zone near Dieppe
at 11 metres (36 feet) and that of his zone of Inoceramus labiatus:
(our zones of Rhynchonella Cuvier’ and Terebratulina gracilis) at
70 metres (230 feet). The three zones taken together, therefore, are
estimated at 266 feet, and if we deduct this from the 5114 feet of
chalk traversed by the boring, there remains 245} feet as the
thickness of the Lower Chalk. This is rather a greater thickness
than might have been expected for the Lower stage, and it is-
probable that the Middle Chalk or Turonian is rather thicker than
Hébert supposed. As a matter of fact he measured 65 metres of it
in the cliff itself, and its base is nowhere exposed ; hence it is not at
all unlikely that its full thickness is nearly 75 metres (or 2475 feet),
and in this case the thickness assignable to the Lower Chalk will be
228 feet, which is a more probable amount.

The two metres of greensand and sandy clay at the base of the
Chalk probably corresponds with what we know as the Chloritic
Marl or zone of Stauronema Carteri. This has a thickness of about
15 feet at Folkestone, but not more than 4 feet near Hastbourne.

As nothing of the nature of sandstone or ‘ gaize’ is recorded in
the boring, we may assume that nothing of an ‘Upper Greensand’
character is present below Dieppe, and that the zone of Ammonites.
rostratus is represented by clay and marl as it is at Wissant and
Folkestone. his is interesting as showing that what may be called
the Folkestone facies of Gault extends as far as Dieppe, which is
about 78 miles south of Folkestone and rather less from Wissant.

November 10.—Since the above was written I have received,
through the kindness of Monsieur G. Dollfus, a more complete
account of this boring. The following is a translation :—~

THICKNESS. Derra.

Metres. Metres.
Ground exeayated ... 2°75 2°75
z ( White marl 59°25 62°00
= | Soft white marl 4:25 66°25
Go | Grey marl ... “45 66°70
& | White marl ae 3°30 70°00
& | Grey marl with flints 4:00 74:00
< ; Hard white marl ... a Mee 14°30 88°30
yz, 1 Hard marl (with Znoceramus labiatus) 22°70 111-00
& | Grey chalk i: 20°25 13125
4 | Grey chalk with flints 6°25 137-30
@ | Grey chalk 8°50 500 146-00
z Greenish sandy clay 10°20 ae 156°20
o \ Green sandy clay ... ue ate er. we 2°10 ap 158°30
ay Black clay nee ae bh te aac 41:20 ate 199-50
3) Clayey green sand 6°80 ane 206°30
< }) Grey sand ... Ree 3°15 cb 209°45
© \ Black sandy clay ... 2°05 sas 211750»

? Bull. Soc. Géol. France, ser. 11, vol. xxix, p. 586.

A. J. Jukes-Browne—Boring through Chalk near Dieppe. 27

The only specimen seen by Mons. Dollfus was one of a hard
chalk with fragments of Inoceramus labiatus; this he is inclined to
refer to the Turonian, but as the species also occurs in the highest
part of our Lower Chalk, I am disposed to think the base of the
Middle Chalk was traversed at 88°30 metres, i.e. 2894 feet. He
agrees with me in regarding the ‘green sandy clay” as the base
of the Cenomanian, which thus has a thickness of 2294 feet.

The only important difference between the account furnished to
me and that communicated to Mons. Dollfus is in regard to the
lowest beds, for it seems that the boring passed through the grey
sand at 209-45 metres and entered a black sandy clay. It is
impossible to suppose the Vectian sands to be only 10 feet thick
below Dieppe, nor is it likely that a thick bed of black sandy clay
should occur in them; consequently M. Dollfus believes that both
the sand and the clay belong to the Gault.

In support of this view he sends the particulars of another boring
recently made at the Chateau d’Eu in the valley of the Bresle,
about 16 miles north-east of Dieppe. Samples and fossils from this
boring were seen and determined by M. Munier-Chalmas, and there
is consequently a much greater certainty about the horizons. The
following is a translation :—

THICKNESS. DeprH.

Metres. Metres.
Alluvia of the valley of the Bresle ae nie 10°89 Sac 10°89
( White chalk with Rhyne. Cuvieri coe wee 8°61 ae 19°50
. | Firm white chalk with some flints BAe ie 11:90 as 31°40
“ | Chalk without flints, some hard lumps ... sae 16°70 see 48°10
5 } Chalk without flints, ee sticky as ar 2°40 sea 50°50
@ | Grey chalk 554 ues Soc oot 83 ses 51°38
P | Soft yellow chalk ... ue 1°67 Ae 53°00

4 Grey and white chalk, in hard and softer beds
\ alternating, Inoc. labiatus ... 17°46 “as 70°46
y ( Greyand blue argillaceous chalk, with Belemnites 3°12 i. 73°58
= Soft white chalk, with Holaster ... BEC site 8°62 aKe §2°20
a Grey compact chalk Son ae ae se0 3°42 Bac 85°62
& } Marly grey chalk sb Bee es 22-38 me 10800
q Greenish- orey sandy ch alk aes oat 30 16°18 ase 124:18
© | Green clayey glauconitie chalk ... Be : 14°82 ae 39°00
( Black clay with Znoceramus was ba Soc 11°75 306 150°74
Greenish quartzose sand . sic det S00 6°75 8 157°00
g | Black and green sandy clay age Me she 1°50 see 159-00
3 | Pure green ‘sand... 1°60 she 160°60
oS Green and black clay, with Aimmonites. auritus

4 and Am. splendens ... ots “on 2°60 es 163°20
a Greenish-grey sand and sandstone es 2-90 ee 166-10
| Bed of eveenish sandstone 5 sep sid “16 ses 166:26
| Green sand with lar ve grains of quartz ae ae 1°54 she 167-80
Black sandy clay ... ABE . 1:10 ae 168-90
| Green quartzose sand (not pierced) sat 300 — ade 171-80

This boring is very interesting in several ways. In the first

place the base of the Turonian is clearly fixed at 70-46 m. ., and
the base of the Cenomanian at 139m. This gives a thickness of
68°54 m. (= 224-8 feet) for the Cenomanian or Lower Chalk, thus
corroborating my interpretation of the Dieppe boring. In the next
place the curious alternations of black clay and green sand, which

28 Notices of Memotrs—Diprotodon australis.

evidently belong to the Upper Gault (zone of Ammonites rostratus),
are very noteworthy. ;
Lastly, it is remarkable that these sands in the Gault should yield
an abundant supply of water. In the case of the Dieppe boring the
water rose to about 12 feet above the surface, and at Eu it rose to 50
feet above the surface with a yield of 750,000 litres in the 24 hours.
The beds traversed by the two borings may be summarized thus :—

Dreprer. CHATEAU pb’ Ev.

Feet. Feet

Surface deposits... is ae ) 8 sare 35°7

Middle Chalk As oF ae 280°3 ee 195°4
Lower Chalk, with Chloritic Marl

at the base... 500 Soc 229°6 224°8

Gault (not pierced) 174°5 107°5

693°4 563°4

NOTICES OF MEMOTRS-~-

Drproropon ausTratis. Fosst. Rematns or Lake CALLaBonna.
Part I: Description of the Manus and Pes of Diprotodon australis.
By E. C. Srirtine, C.M.G., F.R.S., etc., and A. H.C. Zietz, F.LS.

M\HIS lavishly illustrated memoir contains the first instalment of the

description of the remarkable series of skeletons of Diprotodon
discovered some years ago in the dried-up bed of Lake Callabonna
in South Australia. A brief account of the discovery was published
in Nature (vol. 1, 1894, pp. 184 and 206) by Professor Stirling, and
a description of the remarkable bird-remains from the same locality
has also appeared.

The present memoir deals with the structure of the fore and hind
feet, which are almost the only important parts of the skeleton not
described by Owen. The collections included a considerable number
of more or less complete feet, so that the authors have been able not
only to describe in great detail the separate bones, but also to give
restorations of the manus and pes, both of which exhibit some
remarkable characters.

The fore-foot possesses five complete digits, of which the fifth is
the largest; the fifth metacarpal has a broad flange-like expansion
on its outer side. The pisiform bears more than half the articular
surface for the ulna.

The hind-foot also possesses five digits, but the first consists of
the metatarsal only. The second and third digits are extremely
slender, the fourth only a little stouter, but the fifth is very much
thicker, the metatarsal bearing a great flange-like expansion. The
whole foot is a most remarkable structure, but, although considerably
modified on account of the great weight it had to bear, it still retains
distinct marsupial characters.

The general conclusions arrived at by the authors are as follows:—

‘“‘Marsupial characters are evident in both the manus and pes of
Diprotodon.

Reviews—Dr. G. J. Hinde on Fossil Radiolaria. 29

“So far as the individual constituent bones are concerned
they present resemblances to their homologous parts in both the
Phalangeridz and the Phascolomyide, but the approximation to the
former is, on the whole, greater than to the latter.

*On the other hand, regarding the feet as a whole, they, in their
shape and proportions as well as in the character and degree of
the attenuation of the second and third digits of the pes, are more
readily comparable to these members in the Phascolomyidee.

“With the more specialized pes of the Macropodidee, comparison
of that of Diprotodon yields scarcely any points of resemblance,
except in so far as the character of the degradation of the hind-feet,
similar in kind but varying in degree, affords evidence of the
marsupial nature of both.”

The memoir is excellently illustrated by a series of eighteen very
good photographic plates, including two of the restored manus
and pes.

I.—Fossiz Raprouaria. By Dr. G. J. Hinpe, F.R.S., F.G.S.

1. “ Note on some Radiolarian Chert from the South Uplands of
Scotland”: Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xlvi (1890), Proc.,
p. 111, and Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. vi, vol. vi (1890), p. 40.

2. “Note on the Radiolaria in the Mullion Island Chert.” By
Gad. Hinde, PhD: V.P:G.5. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,
vol. xlix (1893), pp. 215-218, pl. iv.

3. “Note on a Radiolarian Rock from Fanny Bay, Port Darwin,
Australia.” By George Jennings Hinde, Ph.D., V.P.G.S.
8vo; pp. 221-226, pl. iv. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xlix
(1893).

4, “On a well-marked Horizon of Radiolarian Rocks in the Lower
Culm-measures of Devon, Cornwall, and West Somerset.”
By G. J. Hinde, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., and Howard Fox, Esq.,
F.G.S8. 8vo; pp. 609-667, pls. xxili-xxviiil. Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc., vol. li (1895). Supplementary Note, etc., Trans.
Devon Assoc., vol. xxviii (1896), pp. 774-789.

5. “On the Radiolaria in the Devonian Rocks of New South Wales.”
By G. J. Hinde, Ph.D., F.RS., F.G.S. 8vo; pp. 38-68,
pls. viii and ix. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. lv (1899).

6. “On Radiolaria in Chert from Chypon’s Farm, Mullion Parish,
Cornwall.” By George Jennings Hinde, Ph.D., F.R.S.,
F.G.S. 8vo; pp. 214-219, pl. xvi. Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc., vol. lv (1899).

7. “Description of Fossil Radiolaria from the Rocks of Central
Borneo.” By Dr. George J. Hinde. 4to; 36 pp., with 4 plates.
(E. J. Brill, Leyden; and H. Gerlings, Amsterdam : 1899.)

MONG the various minute aquatic organisms that have persistent
structure within or without their bodies, several kinds have

been recognized by naturalists, with more or less exact discrimination,
since natural history became a definite study, after the dark ages of

30 Reviews—Dr. G. J. Hinde on Fossil Radiolaria.

mediaeval ignorance had cleared away. Thus the relatively large
‘water-fleas’ of streams and ditches, and the sand-like ‘ammonites’
of the Adriatic, were objects of curiosity for some, and the
Diatomacez, mistaken for Infusoria, were before long carefully
studied, from both fresh and salt waters. So also the spicules of
Sponges were noticed, classified, and figured. Together with some
of the foregoing, in either a recent or fossil state, other minute
organisms, of great beauty in their delicacy and symmetry, had been
met with, but their real place in nature was not determined until
within fifty years ago. These, when alive in the sea, have a jelly-
like body, invested or supported by a complex but delicate and often
elegant framework of meshes and spicules, mostly siliceous. Johannes
Miiller, of Berlin, indicated their true alliance by grouping them as
“ Rhizopoda Radiaria seu Radiolaria,” in 1858.

These attractive little organisms were known to exist in the Medi-
terranean and other seas, and to be fossil in thick strata at Barbadoes
and elsewhere. During the Voyage of the ‘‘ Challenger” in 1875-6,
they were found to constitute a large percentage of the ooze over
extensive oceanic areas. After long study of these organisms,
Dr. E. Haeckel, determining their essential characters and modifica-
tions, classified them, with descriptions and illustrations, in his “ Die
Radiolarien,” 1862, and the “ Report of the Scientific Results of the
Voyage of the ‘ Challenger’ during the years 1873-76”: Zoology,
vol. xviii, 8 parts (1887).

The nuclear or medullary body, with its enclosing membrane or
open-worked shell, either central or at one end of the axis, is
enveloped with a protecting (cortical) sarcode, which extrudes
pseudopodia, and in many cases is strengthened and invested by
spicules, meshes, and radial spines, usually of silex, and of
manifold form and arrangement. The persistent forms are usually
regarded as belonging to the ‘ Polycistina’ of Ehrenberg and Miller.
(Polycistina = many baskets; Polycystina=many bladders; used
sometimes indifferently.)

In the case of those that have no shell, and those in which the
radial spines are not composed of hard silica, there is little or
nothing left in the fossil state. Otherwise numerous individuals
remain more or less perfect in various rocks of the Paleozoic,
Mesozoic, and Czenozoic formations. They mostly present “ either
simple or concentric latticed shells, some with relatively long radial
spines; and they are similar in character to recent Radiolaria, and
probably referable to the same genera as the latter.”

However much modified in the individuals of different groups,
yet the inner or nuclear capsule and the outer capsular investment
(calymma) may be, their essential character is always recognizable.
The spicules in the naked forms of the Spumellaria, and the hard
parts of the other groups, constitute subsidiary evidences of the
generic and specific differentiation.

In these, as in other low forms of life, Nature is so lavish of her
productive power in the multiplicity and almost endless variations
of growth, that at first sight it seems to be impossible to find the

-clue to the apparent entanglement of structural peculiarities in the

Reviews—Dr. G. J. Hinde on Fossil Radiolaria. 31

investments and their bizarre outgrowths. The clue, however, as
noted above, is afforded by the innermost organ.

This is itself lost to the geologist, but its latticed capsule, and
the radial spines which partly form the transverse bars and beams
of the whole organism, may have remained, more or less imbedded
in limestones, shales, and sandstones, probably altered into marbles,
‘schists, and quartzites. Indeed, many fine-grained siliceous rocks
now appear to have resulted from Radiolarian ooze itself,

In comparing the fossil and the recent specimens, the student has
to recollect that the general form is either globular, ellipsoidal, or like
vases, caps, umbrellas, discs, irregular stars, chambered cones, etc.,
all perforate, fenestrate, or reticulate, with the meshes lengthening
-out into spines on the surface or at the edges. The radial rod-like
spines, whether or not beginning in the middle of the nuclear lobe,
are often united by branching spicules at or near the surface of the
calymma, and similarly become involved in the outer lattice-shell.

In the Spumellaria the skeleton, if present, consists of either pure
silica or of a peculiar silicate (silicate of carbon?) ; the rods are
solid, as in the Nassellaria, and do not begin in the centre. In the
Acantharia the rods begin in the centre, and consist of acanthin. In
the Nassellaria the skeleton is siliceous; the rods are solid, usually
monaxial, and belong to the outer capsule (calymma). In the
Pheeodaria the skeleton consists of a silicate, and belongs to the outer
capsule.

Radiolaria from strata of Tertiary age have been examined by
many observers. Some are figured by Ehrenberg, who gave neatly
executed drawings, but did not otherwise advance our scientific
knowledge of these microzoa.. In his “ Mikrogeologie,” 1854, some
Radiolaria appear (as ‘ Polycystina’) from Tertiary beds at Aigina,
Zante, and Caltanisetta, Sicily. These are noted, as to their
geological age, in the Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 1v, vol. ix (1872),
pp. 2238, 225, and 228.

Messrs. Jukes-Browne & Harrison, treating of the siliceous rocks
-of Barbados (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. li, 1892, pp. 193-4), refer
to Haeckel’s statement that many of the Barbadian Radiolaria are
not known in the modern oceanic ooze, and that about 25 per cent.
-of those fossil forms are present in the ooze. These results are taken
as determining a Pliocene age for the West-Indian siliceous strata
referred to.

Cretaceous Radiolaria have been freely studied: for instance, by
Riist, 1888; Zittel, 1888; Pernet, 1891; Fritsch, 18938 ; Hill & Jukes-
Browne, 1895; and Cayeux, 1897. They have not, however, been
fully classified and strictly compared with other faune.

Jurassic Radiolaria are known chiefly from Dr. Riist’’s Memoir in
the ‘“Paleontographica,” vol. xxxi (1885).

M. Lucien Cayeux! has compiled a table of the geological
occurrence of Radiolaria of Mesozoic and earlier date, in which he
refers

t «Contribution 4 l'étude micrographique des Terrains sédimentaires, ete.’’ (4to,
Lille, 1887), p. 206. The Cretaceous Radiolaria of France and Belgium are dealt
with at pp. 185-206 and 450-452, pls. vii and viii.

32 Reviews —Dr. G. J. Hinde on Fossil Radiolaria.

; Spheeroidea to the Pre-Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian, and Senonian.
Prunoidea to the Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian ?, and
Senonian.
Discoidea to the Silurian, Devonian, Permian, and Jurassic.

+ ( Cyrtoidea to the Pre-Cambrian, Devonian, Carboniterous, and
NASSELLARIA UT ee . 2
‘ \ Senonian.

SPUMELLARIA

These results differ somewhat from those given in this notice of
Dr. Hinde’s Radiolarian researches.

Dr. G. J. Hinde, whose important memoirs descriptive of Radio-
larian rocks from different parts of the world are enumerated at the
head of this article, noticed in 1890 some chert beds, composed
mainly of Radiolaria, from the South Uplands of Scotland (in
Lanarkshire and Peebleshire), belonging to an Ordovician formation
equivalent to the Llandeilo-Caradoc series of Wales, and in which
the late Dr. H. A. Nicholson had already observed these microzoa.

In 1893 Dr. Hinde determined two genera of the Order Spheroidea,
and three of Prunoidea, in the chert of Mullion Island off the Lizard
Peninsula, Cornwall, and suggested that they may be of the same
age as the Ordovician cherts of Scotland.

In the same year, examining a siliceous rock from Fanny Bay,
Port Darwin, Northern Australia, he found one genus of Prunoidea,
five genera of Discoidea, and three of Cyrtoidea.

In 1895 Dr. Hinde found in the cherts of the Lower Culm-
measures of Cornwall, Devon, and West Somerset, one genus of
Beloidea, eight genera of Spheroidea, three of Prunoidea, seven of
Discoidea, and four of Cyrtoidea. Of these twenty-three genera,
“‘twenty-one have been previously determined from the Palzozoic
formations of this country and the continent”’; and of these, seventeen
have been determined by Dr. Riist from the Culm of Germany, Sicily,
and Russia.

In the same year Dr. Hinde examined some Radiolarian rocks of
Devonian age trom New South Wales, namely, siliceous claystones
and shales, volcanic tuff, and chert from Tamworth, also jaspery
cherts with few and badly preserved Radiolaria from Bingera,
Barraba, and Jenola Caves. Although some associated Corals
indicate a Devonian age, the Tamworth Radiolaria correspond on
the whole with those from the Ordovician (Lower Silurian) phos-
phorites and siliceous shale of Cabriéres and Languedoc, described
by Riist (‘‘ Paleeontographica,” vol. xxxviili, 1892), and those of the
South Uplands of Scotland, of corresponding age (Hinde, p. 60).
The apparent absence of Cyrtoidea distinguishes this from Mesozoic
and ‘Tertiary faune; the predominating forms being Spheroidea,
with medullary tests and radial spines. The Cyrtoidea were either
not represented or by a small minority in the earlier deposits.

The Tamworth Radiolaria are :—

Genera. Species.
Beloidea ate 505 an 1 Ses ee eee 1
Spheroidea ... ar ne 14 pts was he 28
Priunocidea ... a sie 4 Bae wee oe 7
Discoidea ws ae sas i) aes ots ie 12
Plectoidea Pe Bae ai 2 Sis eee noe 6

29 54

Reviews —Karpinsky on Helicoprion. 39

The Ordovician chert of Chypon’s Farm, in Mullion parish,
continuous with the Radiolarian chert of Mullion Island, was
examined in 1899, and yielded: Spheroidea, 38 genera (with 38
species) ; Prunoidea, 3 genera (6 species) ; and Discoidea, 1 genus
(1 species).

Dr. Hinde’s latest memoir on Radiolaria has been prepared as an
Appendix for the “ Geology of Central Borneo,” to be published by
Professor Dr. G. A. F. Molengraaf, of the Dutch Exploring Expedi-
tion, in 1893-4. In his Introduction Dr. Hinde describes the
outcrops and general character of the Radiolarian rocks under
notice, namely, jaspers, cherts, hornstone, and diabase tuff. Their
local occurrence in the siliceous rocks and in the tuffs, and the dis-
tribution of these fossil Radiolaria in other countries, are indicated
in the table at pp. 44-46, and treated in detail in the text :—

Genera. Species.
Beloidea 1 1
Spheroidea 5) 17
Prunoidea 5) 12
Discoidea 6 16
Cyrtoidea 13 54
30 100

These rocks are stated to underlie strata of Cenomanian age,
and they seem to belong either to the latest Jurassic or the earliest.
Cretaceous age, as is the case also with the Radiolarian cherts and
jaspers of the Coast Range in California.

Great services have been rendered to geology by Dr. Hinde’s
elucidation of the relics of some very obscure Invertebrata, in his
successful studies of the Silurian Conodonts, of Sponges of every
group and age, and now of Palwozoic and other Radiolaria. He has
thus indicated how the relative age of many rocks may be deter-
mined by the evidence of several kinds of microscopic fossils.

I].—Hericorprion—SprineE or Tootu ?

“Ueber die Reste von Edestiden und die neue Gattung Helicoprion.”
By A. Karpinsky. Verhandl. k. russ. min. Ges. St. Petersburg,
ser. 11, vol. xxxvi, No. 2, with 4 pls. and 72 text-figs. (1899).
ALAIONTOLOGISTS are indebted to the eminent Director of

the Imperial Russian Geological Survey for one of the most
exhaustive memoirs on a fossil ever published. Dr. Karpinsky’s
description of the strange ‘ichthyodorulite,’ Helicoprion, is a model
of what such a work should be—thorough from every point of view,
geological, chemical, and biological. It is, moreover, illustrated by
exquisite plates, besides numerous text-figures, representing not
only the outward form of the problematical fossils dealt with, but
also every feature of their microscopical structure.

Helicoprion, to a superficial observer, looks much like an
ammonite; but on closer inspection it is easily recognizable as
a spiral consisting of teeth firmly fixed together by their bases.
Fragments of a more or less. similar spiral have already been

DECADE IV.—VOL, VII.—NO. I. 3

34 Revriews—Karpinsky on Helicoprion.

described under the name of EHdestus from Carboniferous strata in
North America, Russia, and Western Australia; but no ‘specimens
at all approaching the two best of the fossils now made known
by Dr. Karpinsky have hitherto been discovered. The rival theories
by which Edestus has been sometimes ascribed to the jaws, some-
times to the external dermal armour of a shark or skate, can thus
be discussed again in the light of important new facts. If the
Edestidz must still remain as Hlasmobranchs of uncertain zoological
position, the memoir before us at least makes great accessions to
our knowledge of the essential points in the structure of their
so-called segmented spine.

The new fossils forming the subject of the memoir were discovered
by Mr. A. Bessonow in the Permo-Carboniferous (Artinsk Series),
near Krasnoufimsk, in the Government of Perm. They comprise
two nearly complete spirals from 0:288 m. to 0-260 m. in diameter,
besides three fragments, and were sent by their discoverer to the
Museum of the Imperial Geological Survey, St. Petersburg. The
ends of both spirals are incomplete, but both exhibit approximately
34 whorls, all in one plane and apparently bilaterally symmetrical.
The segments or teeth of the central whorls are relatively very
small, but they rapidly increase in size towards the periphery, and
are largest at the free outer end. In one specimen 136, in the other
specimen 146 segments are preserved or indicated. The segments
resemble those of the typical species of Edestus in all respects,
except that the enamel extends far down the middle of the side of
the base, and there is a notch at the inner extremity of the base.
These two features, together with the remarkable extent of the
spiral, are rightly judged by Dr. Karpinsky to be the marks of
a distinct genus, which he names Helicoprion. All the new
specimens are placed in a single species, named H. Bessonowi
after their discoverer. Edestus Davisi, H. Woodw., from the Car-
boniferous of Western Australia, is provisionally referred to the
same new genus.

After a detailed description of the general characters of these
remarkable fossils, Dr. Karpinsky illustrates their microscopical
structure by a series of beautifully prepared sections. They are
shown to consist of vaso-dentine, without any trace of bone-cells ;
and the superficial enamel seems to be the ordinary gano-dentine
or vitro-dentine.

Chemical analyses by Mr. B. Karpow are also discussed, and the
conclusion is arrived at that the fossil itself consists chiefly of
a substance closely resembling apatite.

Two or three of the specimens exhibit numerous small granules
over and around the bases of the segments. These are next
treated in great detail, and the description is again illustrated by
beautiful microscopical preparations, of which figures are given.
Dr. Karpinsky regards these granules as shagreen or placoid scales,
though he finally admits that he does not know shagreen granules
of precisely the same structure in any other Elasmobranchs. In
our opinion they are not dermal structures, but the well-known

Reviews—Karpinsky on Helicoprion. 30

granular calcifications of Elasmobranch cartilage,’ which are often
mistaken for shagreen by paleontologists.

Having described the new fossils and determined their generic
and specific characters, Dr. Karpinsky concludes with a most
exhaustive discussion of their true nature, which is facilitated by
the concise sketch of our previous knowledge of EHdestus, given
as an introduction to the memoir. He regards four results as
established: (i) that Helicoprion belongs to an Elasmobranch ;
(ii) that the bases of all the segments of the spiral were embedded
in the soft parts of the fish; (iii) that the spiral must have been
situated in the vertical median plane of the fish; and (iv) that the
whole of the spiral, except the large end, must have been exposed.
In a diagrammatic sketch he represents the problematical fossil as
originating in the upper jaw, and curling forwards and upwards so
that the spiral forms a terrible weapon above the snout. On this
supposition, each individual would possess only a single weapon of
the kind.

In connection with the last-mentioned circumstance, it would be
interesting to know whether the five examples of /Helicoprion
discovered in the quarry near Krasnoufimsk were found close
together at one time, or whether there is any other evidence of
their natural association. For a recent discovery by Dr. Traquair
in the Lower Old Red Sandstone of Turin Hill, Forfarshire,? proves
undoubtedly that there were Paleozoic sharks with sharp, piercing
teeth, which were never shed, but became fused into whorls as the
animal grew. If he be correct, the teeth in these Lower Devonian
sharks even formed spirals; for he considers that the so-called
Onychodus anglicus from Ledbury, figured in the Brit. Mus. Catal.
Foss. Fishes (pt. ii, pl. xv, fig. 1), truly belongs to the same Elasmo-
branch genus as the head from Forfarshire. It is well-known that
the crushing dental plates in the Elasmobranch Cochliodontida
sometimes became considerably in-rolled at the outer margin where
they could not break away. The discovery of Elasmobranchs with
cutting or piercing teeth similarly disposed is therefore not surprising.
The fact that the known specimens of £destus and Helicoprion are
bilaterally symmetrical does not necessarily relegate them to the
median line, if they happen to be whorls of teeth ; for several of
the anterior rows of teeth in the living Chiamydoselache exhibit
essential bilateral symmetry.* Moreover, it may be remarked that
the possibility of Ndestus and Helicoprion being whorls of teeth from
the mouth is not uegatived by the absence of lateral facettes or
marks of contact with adjoining whorls: they may have been well
separated, as in the existing shark just mentioned. The conception

1 Compare figures by Williamson, Phil. Trans., 1851, pl. xxx, fig. 29; and
A. Fritsch, « Fauna der Gaskohle,’’ vol. ii (1889), p- 101, ‘figs. 178, 180.

ee "Traquair, ‘© Notes on Paleozoic Fishes’? : Ann. ° Mag. Nat. Hist. [7],
vol. ii (1898), p. 69 (Protodus scoticus, E. T. Newton, sp.).

3 E.e. Cochliodus es Ag.: J. W. Davis, Trans. Roy. Dublin Soc. [2],
vol. i (1883), pl. lii, figs. 4a, 6.
_ 4 §. Garman: Bull. Mus, ‘Gae' Zool. Harvard Univ., vol. xii, No. 1, p. 6, pl. il.

36 Reviews—Fritsch’s Fauna of the Gas-coal.

of a gigantic shark armed in both jaws with several series of teeth
like those now described under the name of Helicoprion is, indeed,
sufficiently startling; but it seems to us more likely to be
realized than the hypothesis which Dr. Karpinsky’s most interesting
researches have led him to propose. AS: Ve

IJl.—Fauna pER GASKOHLE UND DER KALKSTEINE DER PeErmM-
FORMATION Bénems, von Dr. Ant. Frrrscu, F.R.G.S. Bd. iv,
Heft 1, Myriopoda, Pars 1; and Bd. iv, Heft 2, Myriopoda,
Pars 2, Arachnoidea. 4to; pp. 1-32 and 33-64, pls. exxxili-exliy
and exlv-cliii. (Prague, 1899.)

MF\HE progress of this important work, dealing with the fauna of

the Gas-coal of Bohemia, has been noticed from time to time in
the Grotocrcan Magazine. In the fourth volume the author con-
mences the description of the Articulata of the Permian formation.
There is little to say concerning the Hexapoda, or Insects proper ;.
three species of Phryganea are recorded as evidenced by the cases of
the larvee of the Caddis-fly, and some fragments of the wings of the
adult insect. Of Orthoptera (Cockroaches) he describes Htoblattina
Bohemica, Arthroblattina Lubnensis, and two others, chiefly from
wings, and three insects of uncertain determination.

Pages 18 to 55 of the two parts are occupied with descriptions and
figures of the wonderful series of Myriopoda, of which no fewer than
thirty-four species are enumerated, some being smooth unspined
forms like the modern Julus, others armed with rows of powerful
curved and branched spines (each compound or double division of
the body bearing two pairs of legs), well-developed trachez, a head
furnished with compound and simple eyes (ocelli), and one pair of
antenne.

Such forms of centipedes have long been known from the
Carboniferous Series, both in England and America. The earliest
record of the discovery of terrestrial Arthropods from the Coal-
measures of England was made by the late Rev. P. B. Brodie in
1845, in his ‘History of Fossil Insects.” In this work Professor
Westwood states that he regarded the organism (which we now
know to be part of a gigantic spined Myriopod) as the remains “of
some large Caterpillar furnished with rows of tubercles.” The late
J. W. Salter in 1868 described a similar fossil from the Clay-
ironstone of the Staffordshire Coalfield under the name of Zurypterus
(Arthropleura) ferox, and referred to it, as a most curious crustacean
fragment, part of the spined abdomen of a Eurypterus. Messrs.
Meek & Worthen, in their Geological Survey of Illinois (1868),
were the first who correctly recognized these fossils from America
as the remains of gigantic spined Myriopods. Similar forms have
since been described by Scudder in America and Dr. Woodward in
England (see Gzorocican Magazine, 1887).

Numerous illustrations are given in the text to show the character
and arrangement of the rows of branched spines upon the sides of
the dorsal surface of the segments, the tracheal openings, the jointed

Reviews—Fritsch’s Fauna of the Gas-coal. ov

legs, the form of the head, the compound eyes, the ocelli, the
antenna, and the jaws. Nineteen plates are likewise devoted to the
illustration of the various forms of these curious Myriopods, giving
full detail of their structure and ornamentation. One form of King-
crab is also described under the name of Prolimulus Woodwardi (Fritsch).
The shales in which these remains abound are pyritous, and the
fossils in them very rapidly perish. In order, therefore, to rescue
the evidence of these organisms from destruction, the author has hit
upon the idea of making electrotypes of all the important specimens,
which thus become permanent records in the Prague Museum. This
is no novel process, however, as Jules Marcou introduced the same
method of electrotyping the Trilobites of Canada forty years ago.

One cannot fail to be impressed by the great antiquity of these curious
forms of many-jointed terrestrial air-breathers, which even at this
early geological period enjoyed so wide a geographical distribution
over the globe. Their primitive character and simple elongated
forms, with sometimes cylindrical, sometimes flattened body, present
the greatest resemblance to the Annelids in the serial similarity of
the rings of the body and in their mode of locomotion.

The genera described by Dr. Fritsch embrace -Acantherpestes,
38 species; Huphoberia, 2 species; Isojulus, 3 species; Pleurojulus,
6 species; Anthrucojulus, 1 species; Pylojulus (Xylobius), 4 species ;
Acroglomeris, 2 species; Archiscudderia, 5 species; Glomeropsis,
4+ species; /Zemiphoberia, 1 species; Purkynia, 1 species; Hetero-
vorhoefia, 1 species ; and Sandtneria, 1 species.

The Arachnoidea also appear to claim a very early place among
the air-breathers in geological time. No scorpions are here figured
by Dr. Fritsch, although some of the earliest examples of this
remarkable type were obtained by Count Sternberg from Bohemia.
The spiders are represented by the genera Hemiphrynus, 2 species ;
Promygale, 5 species ; Arthrolycosa, 3 species ; and Pyritaranea,
1 species. On plate cliii is figured a remarkable example of
Arthrolycosa prolifera, a female having a cocoon of well-developed
young attached to its body. Enlarged figures of some of the
embryo spiders are given. One is at a loss to understand how the
small shells known as Spiroglyphus vorax happen to be found
attached to the body of a spider (Promygale rotundata, pl. cliii,
fig. 4); these small discoidal spiral shells were formerly considered
as the cases of marine, or at least aquatic, Annelids. They were
probably forms of some kind of parasitic tube-dweller, perhaps
terrestrial.

We cannot help expressing regret that the draughtsman who
prepared the plates had not possessed a more delicate and artistic
perception of the objects he has delineated. They might have been
made so much more beautiful by being less coarse and heavy in
execution, and the expenditure in colouring seems to us to be after
all of doubtful value compared with extreme accuracy of minute
detail and correct drawing of the outlines.

All praise is due to Dr. Fritsch for the earnest labour he has
bestowed for so many years in bringing out his great work on the

38 Reviews—Mill’s International Geography.

fauna of the Gas-coal of Bohemia. It has cost the author much
money, which we fear he will never be recouped; but students
of paleontology all over the world cannot fail to be grateful to him
for making them acquainted, by means of this work, with the rich
and varied fauna of the Permo-Carboniferous Series of Bohemia.

IV.—Tue Inrernationat Grocrapny. By Seventy Authors. Edited
by Hucu Rozert Mitt, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., ete. Svo; pp. xx and
1,090, with 488 Illustrations. (London: George Newnes,
Limited, 1899. Price 15s.)

F any evidence were wanting in order to prove the vast and
ever-increasing importance which a knowledge of geography
has of late years assumed, we have but to turn to the enormous
development which the closing years of the century has witnessed
in the issue of maps, both geological and topographical, and the
cheapening of their production so as to bring them within the reach
of all who seek for such knowledge as they convey.

Along with maps of all kinds, come naturally in importance
handy books of reference bearing upon all questions of geography
which maps portray graphically, but do not explain so fully as can
be done in a textbook. Dr. Hugh Robert Mill, from the vantage-
ground of his position as an officer of the Royal Geographical
Society of London, has been enabled, with the aid of a whole
army corps of authors, to bring together in a little over 1,100
well and clearly printed pages, a complete summary of the globe,
arranged under countries, giving in each case an account of its
general configuration and geology, its river-systems, climate, natural
resources, and a brief notice of its fauna and flora. The several
peoples are described as to race, language, history, and mode of
government; with their manufactures and external trade; and
especially the main industries peculiar to each country; with their
system of internal communications. The political divisions are con-
sidered individually, together with notices of towns. All towns with
populations of 100,000 and upward are separately noticed, and all other
towns which are of special importance. In every case where it is
possible, the characteristics of the site which determines the position
of a town, or the geographical conditions which minister to its
prosperity, have been noticed. A statistical table, giving the area
and population at the last two censuses of the whole country, and
in federal countries of the constituted states; the average values of
exports and imports for three five-yearly periods, ten years apart,
e.g., for 1871-75, 1881-85, 1891-95, have been taken, and the chief
towns with their population at the two last censuses.

The introductory general discussions of mathematical, physical,
commercial, and political geography are written from a strictly geo-
graphical point of view, and in a purely general manner, referring
only to such phenomena or conditions as are not restricted to
particular regions. The object has been, not to give a treatise
on the subject named, but to supply the few general facts and

Reviews—Mill’s International Geography. 59

principles necessary to the comprehension of the special geography
of each individual country. The general description of each continent
refers only to the largest and most determinative features, and these
are taken in the following order: coasts, surface, geology, climate,
flora, fauna, anthropology, history, including territorial changes of
the largest order.

To afford some further insight into the arrangement of the work
we may mention that the principles and progress of geography are
treated by Dr. H. R. Mill; mathematical geography, dealing with
the form and dimensions of the earth, and the methods employed
for determining and representing the positions of places upon its
surface, a chapter full of most valuable and concise information, is
by Dr. A. M. W. Downing, F.R.S.; maps and map-reading, by the
veteran cartographer, E. G. Ravenstein; the plan of the earth,
dealing with its form, is by Dr. J. W. Gregory, F.G.S., of the
British Museum,’ and treats of “the tetrahedral theory of the earth,”
which we need not now discuss here, but refer our readers to this
work and to Gregory’s original paper (Geographical Journal, 1889,
vol. xili, p. 225).

The next chapter on “ Land-Forms,” by Dr. Hugh Robert Mill,
treats of the relative divisions of the earth’s crust into oceanic
plateau, continental slope, continental plateau, and culminating
area; of land-forms, of the materials of the earth’s crust, giving
the nature of the geological formations, their order of succession,
and the subsequent forms and features produced by crustal move-
ments, subaerial and marine denudation, and the result of rivers.
Sir John Murray and Dr. Mill follow with a chapter on the oceans,
which is concise and up to date. In this, as in other parts of the
work, in consequence of the earnest effort made to condense the
greatest amount of information into the smallest possibie space, the
488 text-illustrations suffer in consequence, both in size and quality,
and some of them hardly do justice to the work. This will, we
hope, be recognized, and remedied in a second edition, which is
certain to be called for. Mr. H. N. Dickson follows with a chapter
on “The Atmosphere and Climate”; and Professor J. Arthur
Thomson, on “The Distribution of Living Creatures,” in which
the author discusses that most interesting question, the relation
of the dry-land and fresh-water faunas to the littoral fauna, the
pelagic, the deep-water, and the abyssal faunas, and suggests that
a littoral fauna was probably the original one whence have been
derived on the one hand the pelagic and abyssal faunas, and on the
other those of the fresh waters and dry land. Professor Brooks, on
the contrary, maintains that the pelagic fauna was primitive, for
there the conditions of life are easiest; while Sir John Murray
takes the fauna of the ‘mud-line,’ i.e. the boundary between the
abyssal and the littoral (or neritic) regions at an average depth of
about 100 fathoms, as the primitive life-zone. Here the minute
organic and inorganic particles derived from the land and surface-

1 Just appointed (as we write) to the Chair of Professor of Geology in the
University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.

40 Reviews —Mill’s International Geography.

waters find a resting-place upon the bottom, the great feeding-
ground of the ocean, and which seems to be very densely peopled.
He holds to the view “that in early geological times there was
a nearly uniform high temperature over the whole surface of the
globe, and a nearly uniformly distributed fauna and flora; and
that with the gradual cooling at the Poles, species with pelagic
larves were killed out or forced to migrate towards the Tropics,
while the great majority of the species which were able to survive
in the Polar areas were those inhabiting the mud-line” (p. 95).

“The Peoples of the Earth and the Distribution of Mankind,” which
forms the subject of a chapter by A. H. Keane, deals with the human
race from a geological as well as a zoological standpoint. Of course,
the Pliocene man from Java, Pithecanthropus erectus (spelt in error
‘erectis’), takes a prominent place, but we have always felt that
Dr. E. Dubois’s discovery rested upon extremely slender evidence,
and that too large a superstructure of theory should not be built
upon so small a foundation of fact. After treating of the various
races of mankind, the writer remarks that from Neolithic times
the Ethiopic and American groups have been losing, whilst the
Cancasians and Mongols have been everywhere gaining ground,
with results expressed in terms of population as under :—

Caucasians ate ae ae avs 770,000,000
Mongols ee O00 560 Hac 540,000,000
Ethiopians 30¢ 380 nac 090 175,000,000
Americans 500 ae BBE 30C 22,000,000

Total oe ... 1,507,000,000

We can only hope that in the struggle of races the Caucasian may
maintain his superiority over the Mongol, but time alone will show
whether he will be able to do so or not.

Part I ends with a chapter on Political and Applied Geology, by
Dr. J. 8. Keltie, Secretary of the Royal Geographical Society,
carrying us to p. 121, which may be considered to conclude the
introductory matter of the volume.

Part II contains the sum and substance of the work itself.
Commencing with the geography of Europe, pp. 128-421, Asia
follows next, pp. 422-574, taking in Japan and the East Indian
Islands. The next section deals with Australia and Polynesia,
pp. 075-663. North America commences book 4, pp. 664-781.
Central and South America occupy book 5, pp. 782-888. Africa
forms book 6, pp. 889-1024. The last section of the book treats of
the Arctic and Antarctic regions (pp. 1025-1053), a chapter full of
interest both for geologists and geographers.

As a proof of the value of this book as a handy work of reference,
it may be mentioned that the index contains about 15,400 names of
places described and localized in the body of the work, besides
references to temperatures, winds, climate, population, animals,
plants, geology, minerals, rivers, mountains, fisheries, timber, and
endless other matters that may well be included in such a com-
prehensive work. |

Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London. 41

We are much indebted to the editor and his vast array of authors
for this valuable volume, which is certain to find a place in every
scientific library, and in every series of books of ready reference in
both private and public libraries in England, America, and our
Colonies.

ee Oke Ss | AINUD | PROCHE DINGS.

——
4 GeroLocicaL Soctrry oF Lonpon.

J.—November 22, 1899.—W. Whitaker, B.A., F.R.S., President, in
the Chair.

The President, having requested all present to rise from
their seats, expressed in feeling terms the sorrow felt by the
Society at the unexpectedly sudden loss of an esteemed Fellow
and genial friend, Dr. Henry Hicks, F.R.S., V.P.GS., to
whose energy and perseverance the Quarterly Journal owed
sO many papers, and from whom many more valuable con-
tributions might have been expected in the years to come.
The following resolution had been passed by the Council that
afternoon, and a copy thereof had been communicated to
Mrs. Hicks with an expression of sincere sympathy :—

“That the Council desire to place on record their great
grief at the loss which Geological Science and the
Geological Society have sustained by the death of
their Vice-President, Dr. Henry Hicks, who so recently
occupied the Presidential chair, and so energetically
attended to the welfare of the Society.”

The President then said that the Society had to deplore
another severe loss in the person of their revered friend,
Sir J. William Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S., who died at Montreal
on Sunday, the 19th inst. The Council had passed the
following resolution :—

“That the Council have heard with deep regret of the
decease of the old and valued Fellow of the Geological
Society, Sir J. W. Dawson, who for nearly fifty years has
taken an active part in advancing geological knowledge
in general, and more especially with regard to the great
Dominion of Canada; and they desire to assure Lady
Dawson, and the distinguished Fellow of the Society,
Dr. George Dawson, of the Council’s sincere sympathy
in their loss.”

The following communications were read :—

1. “On some Remarkable Calcisponges from the Eocene Tertiary
Strata of Victoria (Australia).”” By George Jennings Hinde, PhD,
F.R.S., F.G.S.

42 Reports and Proceedings— Geological Society of London.

The greater number of the sponges described were discovered
by Mr. T. S. Hall, M.A., of Melbourne University, in incoherent
detrital beds of Eocene age, in the southern part of Victoria; a few
were picked out of some washings of fragmental polyzoa from
the same district and horizon, by Mr. B. W. Priest. Some of
the specimens are in an extremely perfect condition, and their
structural details are as distinctly shown as in recent sponges.
They are also of more than local interest in that they are the first
fossil forms described of a group of calcisponges, the Lithonina,
characterized by the peculiar aberrant forms of some of the spicules,
and the mode in which they are closely fitted and organically fused
together to form the skeletal mesh. This structure has, so far,
only been recognized in one recent species, Petrostroma Schulzet,
Doderlein, from the Japanese Sea.

The sponges are small, unattached, with a glassy, firm, resistant
skeleton, calling to mind that of siliceous Lithistida. They are
built up of a great variety of spicular forms ; some are simple rods,
with three- and four-rayed spicules, similar to those in recent
calcisponges ; but the majority are aberrant four-rayed forms, with
three of the rays curved and with obtuse or expanded ends which
are clasped, and fused as well, to the surfaces of adjacent spicules.
The connected spicules form continuous anastomosing or radial
fibres resembling those in the fossil Pharetrones, to which they are
in some other respects similar, and it is probable that the spicules in
the fibres of some members of this family were likewise organically
cemented together. The common Porosphere from the Upper
Chalk, generally regarded as Hydrocorallines allied to the recent
Millepora, are also closely related to the above sponges, and the
author hopes shortly to publish the evidence for their affinity to
this group.

The Victorian sponges are placed in four new species, belonging
to three genera: two of these are new; the other, Bactronella, Hinde,
was founded on some peculiar calcisponges of Jurassic age, now
known to be Lithonine in character.

2. “The Silurian Sequence of Rhayader.” By Herbert Lapworth,
Ksq., F.G.S.

This paper opens with a general reference to the Ordovician and
Silurian complex of Central Wales, and a notice of the geological
work hitherto done in the region. The stratigraphical relations of
the Silurian formations which occur in the country surrounding.
the town of Rhayader (Radnorshire) are then described in detail.
Typical and confirmatory sections are given, demonstrating the
complete local sequence of the rocks of the Rhayader district. These
are illustrated by lists of characteristic graptolites. These fossils
are compared with those of Southern Scotland, Sweden, and North
Wales, showing that the graptolite succession is everywhere similar,
and fixing the age of the Rhayader Series as representing the Lower
Llandovery, Upper Llandovery, and Tarannon of other areas.
Finally, several new species of Climacograptus and Diplograptus.
are described.

Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London. 43

The author establishes the following sequence :—

Rhayader Group (Pale Shales). = Gala and Tarannon
/ Group.
._ § Gafallt Shales.
Bahan | Gafallt Beds. \ WL. Sedgwicki-grits. pper Llandovery,

| eos
Group. Caban Upper Conglomerate. j May Hill, and
)

{
Conglomerates. | Intermediate Shales. Upper Birkhuill.
(

| Lower € onglomerate.

Pale Grey Mudstones.

a ale Zone of A. convolutus.
Tae Caleareous Nodule-beds.
\ Zone of M. fimbriatus.
evcataden Ddél Shales. »» IM. cyphus. = Lower Llandovery
Group. 4 », (WM. tenuis. and te
( D. modestus-flags. Lower Birkhill.
Dyffryn Flags. ; Rottenstone Beds.
( Micaceous Flags & Grits.
Cerig Gwynion
\ Grits. )
Blue-black Shales. = Bala and Hartfell.

No single section, taken in any direction across the Rhayader
country, shows the complete succession. In any area some one
group is always better developed than others; and some portion of at
least one group is certain to be missing. The lowest, or Gwastaden
Group, has a maximum thickness of over 1,800 feet. It is underlain,
apparently conformably, by highly cleaved dark-blue shales, and
overlain unconformably by both the Caban and Rhayader Groups.
The base of the Gwastaden Group is formed of a thick mass of
grauwackes, which thin to the east and thicken to the west. They
contain Climacograptus, and pass up into mixed flags and grits with
Climacograptus and Diplograptus. These are succeeded by shales
and mudstones in which the first Monograptide appear. ‘These
become dominant in the upper part.

The succeeding Caban Group has a maximum thickness of
1,500 feet. Its lower division consists of two massive con-
glomerates, separated by shales; its higher division is made up
of fine-grained grits, shales, and flags. Each member of the group
is overlapped to the east by the next subgroup above it, until
eventually the whole group disappears beneath the Rhayader Pale
Shales, which in the eastern areas rest directly on the Gwastaden
rocks.

The Rhayader Group consists of pale-green, blue, and grey shales
and mudstones, which overstep on to the Gwastaden beds; and may
possibly pass completely over them, and rest on the dark shales
farther east.

After the Gwastaden rocks were laid down, the sea-floor appears
to have been elevated and denuded, a hollow being scoured out to
the eastward. Rapid sinking followed, and the sea filled the hollow
with the Caban sediments, practically levelling it up by the time
that the deposition of the Pale Slates began.

44 Reports and Proccedings—Geological Society of London.

Tables of fossils enable the author to establish a complete com-
parison of the whole of the local zones of the Rhayader district with
those of Southern Scotland, Wales, and Sweden. In the Rhayader
area we find, for the first time in Britain, the entire Valentian
succession developed in one general sequence of rocks, with a more
or less common lithological character, and with a fauna composed
throughout of similar paleontological types.

TI.—December 6, 1899.—W. Whitaker, B.A., F.R.S., President, in
the Chair.

Dr. Blanford said that he had been asked by Professor Judd, who
was unable to attend, to say a few words about certain photographs
sent by Mr. E. H. L. Schwarz, and representing the Dwyka
boulder-bed and the rounded and grooved underlying surface, in
the neighbourhood of the Orange River near Hopetown and Prieska.
The importance of these photographs lay in the evidence which they
afforded on a disputed point. Dr. Sutherland and Mr. Griesbach
had called attention to the evidence of ice-action presented by the
Dwyka Conglomerate in Natal, and additional evidence had been
brought forward by several observers, especially by Mr. Dunn from the
Orange Free State and Cape Colony, and recently by Dr. Molengraafft
from the Transvaal. Other observers, however, and especially the
late Professor Green, had disputed the glacial origin of the Dwyka
beds. The photographs now exhibited would, the speaker thought,
convince most, geologists that the phenomena presented were due to
ice-action. The resemblance to similar photographs shown to the
Society in 1896 by Professor T. W. Edgeworth David, and repre-
senting the beds corresponding to the Dwyka Conglomerate in South
Australia, was noteworthy. Evidence of glacial action in Upper
Paleozoic times had gradually accumulated from India, Australia,
and South Africa, and there was a probability that similar indications
existed in South America.

The following communications were read :—

1. ‘On the Geology and Fossil Corals and Echinids of Somali-
land.” By Dr. J. W. Gregory, F.G.S.

British Somaliland consists of a high plateau, of which the
northern scarp is separated from the Gulf of Aden by a belt of low
hills and plains known as the Guban. The southern plateau
consists of Archean gneisses, quartzites, amphibolite - schists,
chloritic schists, and pegmatites. It is capped by purple grits,
red sandstones, and conglomerates, which are covered by limestones
of Neocomian, Turonian (? Cenomanian), and Eocene ages. The
Neocomian limestone, which may be correlated with that of Singeli
described by Rochebrune, occurs at Dobar in the Guban; while
a Jurassic limestone, probably of Bathonian date, occurs at
Bihendula in the Guban. Fossils collected from these limestones
and from raised reefs of Pleistocene age, by Mr. and Mrs. Lort
Phillips, Miss Gillet, Mr. G. P. V. Aylmer, Captain E. T, Marshall,

Reports and. Proceedings—Geological Society of London. 45

and Mr. F. B. Parkinson, have been examined by the author, who
tabulates a list of corals and echinids. One new genus and fourteen
new species of corals are described, belonging to the genera
Stylophora, Stylina, Columnastrea, Prionastrea, Favia, Metethmos,
Cyclolites, and Litharea, and one new species of Pseudodiadema.
The evidence of the collections is sufficient to show that a Neocomian
limestone occurs both on the summit of the Somali plateau and on
the floor of the Guban, and that some marine limestones of Lower
Tertiary age (probably Eocene) also occur on the plateau. It is
therefore evident that the foundering of the Aden Gulf is post-
Eocene in age.

2. ‘*Note on Drift- gravels at West Wickham (Kent).” By
George Clinch, Esq., F.G.S.

The author describes two beds of Drift-gravel at West Wickham.
The first, occupying the bottom of a dry valley, yields, in a section
exposed at Gates Green, material derived from the Chalk and the
Lower Greensand ; and distinct, although perhaps not direct, relation
with the denudation of the Weald is claimed for it. The other bed
of gravel is of later age, and has yielded many Paleolithic implements
and flakes. The specimens of these exhibited were found by the
author between 1880 and 1885, and they establish the existence of
Drift-gravels about a mile south of Hayes Common. Some of the
implements have lost their pointed ends and bear other indications
of use, many are smoothed and rounded by Drift-wear, but a few are
entirely unworn, while some, particularly the larger examples, are
bruised and crushed by such influences as the ploughshare and
wageon-wheels. Most of the implements have a superficial colouring,
varying from a pale straw-tint to a rich ochreous-brown. ‘The
association of much-worn implements, unworn implements, and
flakes, cores, and waste-chips, in the same bed of Drift-gravel points
to the fact that we have here a collection of material which was
brought from a great variety of places, and has undergone a great
variety of conditions and changes.”

3. “On the Occurrence in British Carboniferous Rocks of the
Devonian Genus Palgoneilo, with a Description of a New Species.”
By Dr. Wheelton Hind, B.S., F.R.C.S., F.G.S.

The family Nuculide is represented in Carboniferous rocks by the
genera Nucula, Nuculana, and Ctenodonta, and to these must now be
added Palgoneilo, which the author describes from two fine specimens
in the Museum of Practical Geology, from Carboniferous Shale
(Yoredale Shale) south of Hammerton Hall, Slaidburn, Yorkshire.
It is remarkable that a genus so well developed in Devonian times
should be found at the top of the Carboniferous Limestone Series,
but not in intermediate beds. Hall’s diagnosis of the genus is given,
with additional remarks, and a new species is described and con-
trasted with Ctenodonta (Palgoneilo) lirata, Phil., from the Devonian
of Baggy.

46 Correspondence—F. R. Cowper Reed.

CORRESPONDENCE.

THE GENERA APATOKEPHALUS (BROGGER) AND TRAMORIA
_ (REED).

Sir,—With reference to the fauna of the Waterford Ordovician
beds, it will be of interest to the readers of the GronogrcaL
Macazine to learn that Professor Brogger informs me that the
trilobite which I have recently described (Q.J.G.S., vol. lv, 1899,
p- 758, pl. xlix, figs. 14-16) as Tramoria punctata, gen. et sp. nov.,
belongs without any doubt to the genus Apatokephalus, which was
established by him in 1896 (“Ueber die Verbreitung der Euloma-
Niobe Fauna [der Ceratopygenkalkfauna] in Europa,” Nyt Jagazin
fur Naturvidenskaberne, Bd. xxxv, 1896, pp. 179-185, 200) for
a group of species related to Dikellokephalus occurring in the widely
distributed Euloma-Niobe fauna. In this country this fauna is con-
tained by the Shineton Shales and the Tremadoc of North Wales.
The form named by Salter Conocoryphe invita belongs to this new
genus Apatokephalus, and the following species from Europe and
America are also mentioned by Brégger as occurring in beds with
this Euloma-Niobe fauna :— Apatokephalus serratus, Boeck ;
A. angusticauda, Ang.; A. finalis, Walcott; A. Schlotheimi, Billings ;
A. magnificus, Billings. We have now to add Apatokephalus punctatus
to the above list, and the generic name Zramoria must be dropped.

Professor Brégger adds that this identification lends important
support to my view that the fauna of the Waterford beds has a facies
resembling that of the homotaxial Scandinavian beds, especially of
the Asaphus Stage (Kt. 38, Brégger). The occurrence of genera
characteristic of the Euloma- Niobe fauna in beds of a higher
stratigraphical horizon in Wales, and their association with a later
fauna of a different character in shallow-water deposits, are facts
also noticed by Brogger in the paper referred to. With regard
to the wide geographical distribution of this fauna and the presence
of its most characteristic genera of trilobites in distant areas, Brogger
shows that it extended from 65° N. lat. to 48° N. lat., and is repre-
sented not only in Sweden but at Hof in Bavaria, St. Chinian in
Languedoc, Shropshire, North Wales, and America, wherever the
bionomical conditions were favourable. No barrier, therefore,
between the Baltic and British provinces can have existed at
this time, and it is shown that the supposed distinct characters of
the trilobitic faunas are based upon an erroneous separation of
genera and species owing to a want of acquaintance with foreign

Specimens. F. R. Cowper ReExp.
WoopwarbDIAN Museum, CAMBRIDGE.
November 29, 1899.

THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF EGYPT.

Sir,—Since the commencement of this Survey in October, 1896,
the officers attached have carried out a geological and topographical
reconnaissance over a large portion of the country, besides a certain
amount of more detailed work in some areas. During this time
many new facts have been brought to light, in numerous cases

Correspondence—Hugh J. L. Beadneil. 47

necessitating entirely different conclusions to those arrived at by
earlier observers in the same field.

Unfortunately, up to the present, the Egyptian Government has
not’ been able to publish any maps or descriptions of the regions
surveyed, and even if, as proposed, publication is undertaken in the
coming year, a considerable time must necessarily elapse before the
accumulated results of three years can be brought out.

In an abstract report in the Zeitschrift fiir praktische Geologie
for November, 1899, of a paper entitled ‘‘ Neues zur Geologie und
Paliiontologie Aegyptens,” by Dr. Max Blanckenhorn, the following
statement occurs:—‘“ Den von v. Zittel beschriebenen Cenoman-
vorkommen reihen sich zwei neue im eigentlichen Aegypten gelegene
und von Blanckenhorn gefundene an. Das erste liegt im O. des Nils
am Gebel Chebrewet ; das zweite, westlich des Nils gelegene, ist das
der Oase Baharia mitten im Eociinplateau der Libyschen Wiiste.
Das letztere weist auch in Limonit umgewandeltes Holz (Palmoxylon)
und gut erhaltene Abdriicke von Dicotyledonenblittern in demselben
Versteinerungsmittel auf, ein vielversprechender Aufschluss tiber die
Kreideflora Aegyptens.”!

As the copy of this abstract report was sent to this Survey by
Dr. Blanckenhorn himself, I am forced to conclude that he claims to
have himself discovered the existence of rocks of Cenomanian age in
Baharia Oasis, which as far as I know he has never visited, and can
only have derived his geological information from an examination of
my Own specimens.

In view of this, it is advisable to put on record some of the more
important conclusions at which I have arrived. They are briefly as
follows :—In 1897 the discovery of the existence of extensive faults
along the west margin of the Nile Valley, and the absence of high
fluviatile deposits, pointed to the conclusion that the Nile gorge is
not a “valley of erosion,” but probably a line of rift and faulting.
In 1899 similar faults were again found along the east side between
Assiut and Kena.

A thick and extensive series of limestones, tufas, clays, sandstones,
and pebble-beds has been shown to occur throughout the Nile Valley,
from Esna to the Fayoum on the west side and from Kena to Minia
on the east, during work carried on between 1896 and 1899.
Although they are generally of fresh-water origin, Mr. Barron and J,
by the discovery of marine foraminifera in these beds near Luxor
in January, 1897, showed that marine conditions existed far up the
Nile Valley in comparatively recent times, these beds being probably
of Pliocene age. In 1897 an extensive series of fossiliferous Cre-
taceous beds of Cenomanian to Danian age was discovered and
mapped in Baharia Oasis, and the junction of the Cretaceous and

' To the occurrences of Cenomanian rocks described by Zittel are added two new
‘ones, situated in Egypt proper. The first lies on the east of the Nile at Gebel
‘Chebrewet ; the second, situated on the west of the Nile, is that of the Oasis of
Baharia in the midst of the Eocene plateau of the Libyan Desert. The latter also
shows wood (Palmoxylon) converted into limonite, and well-preserved impressions of

Dicotyledonous leaves in the same matrix. This exposure promises to afford valuable
information as to the Chalk-flora of Egypt.

48 Correspondence—Grenville A. J. Cole & J. W. Evans.

Eocene in this area was found to be marked by a strong uncon-
formity and overlap. This had never been previously recognized in
Egypt. In 1898 the existence of thick bone-beds, probably of con-
siderable commercial value, was discovered in the Oasis of Dakhla.
Again, in 1897, in the Abu Roasch district, near the Pyramids of
Giza, the junction of the Cretaceous and Hocene was again found to
be uncontormable, instead of being marked by lines of fault, as
formerly supposed. In the Western desert, and in one case in the
Eastern desert also, igneous intrusions have been discovered at
isolated spots in the sedimentary areas.

This brief statement of a few of my own results is rendered still
more necessary in view of the fact that there are at the present time
several observers about to visit the same regions. The details con-
nected with these questions will probably be dealt with in the
Survey Memoirs. Huan J. L. Beapnet.

Carro, 7th December, 1899.

ORGANIC REMAINS FROM CAMBRIAN ROCKS OF BRAY.

Srr,—The question of the age of the ancient beds of Bray and
Howth has recently attracted some attention in connection with the
additions to our knowledge of Cambrian and Pre-Cambrian rocks in
other places. The true nature of the real or supposed fossils in these
Irish beds is therefore an urgent one. Oldhamia has been obliged to
submit to a verdict of Not proven, at the best. It is naturally asked
whether Histioderma is to meet with a similar fate. Unfortunately,
inquiries from various workers elicited the fact that the type-
specimen was missing from the Irish Survey Collection.

Recently, however, in rearranging the mineral collection of the
Royal College of Science for Ireland, we were fortunate enough to
find four specimens of Histioderma, with their original tablet; these
have now been restored to the Survey Collection, and will be
exhibited in the Museum of Science and Art, Dublin. Two of the
specimens are the internal and external casts of the same object, the
former being the actual specimen figured as Histioderma Hibernicum
by Dr. J. R. Kinahan in his paper ‘“‘ On the Organic Relations of the
Cambrian Rocks of Bray and Howth; with Notices of the most
remarkable Fossils”: Journ. Geol. Soc. Dublin, vol. viii (1858),
pp. 68-72, pl. vi, fig. 2.

A moment’s examination of the actual specimens is enough to
remove all doubt of the organic nature of Histioderma. It consists
of a cup-shaped expansion, with two sets of approximately parallel
ridges which intersect each other obliquely, and a conical root-like
continuation below. Without denying the possibility of the correct-
ness of Kinahan’s explanation that the ridges represent the tentacles
of an annelid, we cannot help thinking that the general appearance
rather suggests that they are lines of thickening in a continuous
muscular envelope. GrenvittE A. J. Coue.

Joun W. Evans.

Roya CoLLEGE oF ScreNcE FoR IRELAND.
December 16, 1899.

GEOL. MaG., Igoo. Iie NU

— + ed

THE

GHOLOGICAL MAGAZINE.

NEW “SERIES... DECADE Iv. VOL. Vit.
No. II—FEBRUARY, 1900.

Ore Gara Aarts) |) ASE da Cane S-

T.—Eminent Living Gronogists: Rev. Osmonp FIsHEr,
M.A. EUG.S:

(WITH A PORTRAIT, PLATE III.)

HE subject of this notice belongs to a family of which several
members have occupied high positions as clergymen and
scholars. His father, the Ven. John Fisher, the early friend
and patron of Constable, was Archdeacon of Berks, Canon of
Salisbury, and Vicar of Osmington and Gillingham in Dorset;
his grandfather, the Rev. Philip Fisher, D.D., was Master of
the Charterhouse ; and his great-uncle, the Rev. John Fisher, was
preceptor to the Princess Charlotte, and subsequently Bishop, first
of Exeter and afterwards of Salisbury.

Osmond Fisher was born at Osmington on November 17, 1817,
and was named after the patron saint of his father’s church. The
district is an interesting one for geologists, and, while a mere child,
Osmond used to accompany his uncle, the Rev. George Cookson,
when collecting fossils in the neighbouring cliffs. At the age of 11
he was sent to Eton, where two years were spent under the
fiery Dr. Keate without his receiving a single lesson in arithmetic.
A year at home, spent in pursuing his natural bent for science, was
followed by his removal to the house of his uncle, the Rev. W.
Fisher, at Poulshot, in Wiltshire. Here he took up geology again,
made out the structure of the neighbourhood (on the same horizon
as Osmington), and collected fossils from the Coral Rag and other
strata, some of which are now in the Woodwardian Museum. During
the next two years he lived with his grandfather, the Master of the
Charterhouse, and studied at King’s College, London, where he
began to read mathematics. He also heard one or two lectures
from Lyell and Daniell, who were then Professors at the College,
and roamed about the geological galleries of the British Museum.

In 1886 Fisher proceeded to Jesus College, Cambridge ; and,
though equally capable of taking a classical degree, fortunately
decided on a mathematical career. After degrading a year on
account of ill-health, he graduated as 18th wrangler in 1841. He
was ordained deacon in 1844, and at once took the sole charge of
his uncle Mr. Cookson’s living at Writhlington, near Radstock, in
the Somerset Coalfield, and was also elected a Fellow of his College.

DECADE IV.—«VOL, VII.—NO,. II. 4

50 Eminent Living Geologists : Rev. Osmond Fisher.

In 1845 he was ordained priest, resided for a short time at
Cambridge, and in the following year was appointed curate-in-
charge of All Saints, Dorchester, where he lived for seven
years. Here his leisure time was spent in geologizing along the
Ridgway fault and in the neighbourhood generally. He frequently
visited his uncle, Mr. Cookson, at Poorstock, near Bridport, and
collected many fossils from the Inferior Oolite there, which are
now in the Woodwardian and Dorset County Museums, the latter
of which he assisted in founding. While he was at Dorchester the
Geological Survey began mapping the district, and Mr. Fisher was
able to give many hints to Mr. Bristow, who was in charge of the
work. He also met A. C. Ramsay and HE. Forbes when they came
down to inspect its progress.

In 1853 Mr. Fisher became tutor of Jesus College, Cambridge.
He had on previous occasions attended some of Sedgwick’s lectures,
and so made an acquaintance, which now ripened into friendship.
Sedgwick had been his proposer when he was elected a Fellow of
the Geological Society in 1852.

The busy life of a College tutor left little leisure for geology in
term-time, but the vacations were still spent in Dorchester, where
he worked hard at the Purbeck rocks. The results of his studies
are contained in a paper read before the Cambridge Philosophical
Society in 1854. The greater part of the collections he made at this
time are now in the Woodwardian Museum, and include a series of
fossil insects which have never yet been described. He afterwards
took up the geology of the Bracklesham Beds, and gave the results
of his investigations in a paper read before the Geological Society
in 1862. The fossils then obtained are likewise to be found in the
Woodwardian Museum.

In 1857 Mr. Fisher was presented by his College to the living
of Elmstead, near Colchester, and was married to Maria Louisa,
daughter of Mr. Hastings N. Middleton, then residing at Ilsington
House, near Dorchester. While at Elmstead he spent a week with
Henslow in Suffolk, and afterwards collected a little from the Crag
and Pleistocene beds at Walton-on-the-Naze. In the absence of
other more interesting subjects, he now turned his attention to
denudation. His work on the ‘trail,’ which was done at this time,
is perhaps one of the most important of his purely geological
investigations. In 1867 he removed to Harlton Rectory, another
College living, but shortly afterwards was left a widower, with five
sons, all of whom are now living.

Harlton is a quiet country village about six miles from Cambridge,
far enough from railway-lines and main roads to acquire a certain
sense of retirement, but close enough to a great centre of learning to
stimulate thought and encourage original investigation. There are
few villages in England so well known by name to geologists, many
ws whom have experienced the kindly hospitality of its present

ector.

1 Some of the facts above given are, by the kind permission of the anonymous
author, taken from an article in the Cambridge Review, March 16, 1898.

————

AIS et EPR a

Eminent Living Geologists: Rev. Osmond Fisher. 51

Mr. Fisher’s removal to Harlton was almost concurrent with
a change in the nature of his work. Pure geology was not, indeed,
neglected, but it gradually gave place to the study of the great
problems presented for solution by the earth’s crust. The British
Association met at Norwich in 1868, and Mr. Fisher was invited to
open the proceedings of the Geological Section with a paper on the
“« Denudations of Norfolk.” The coprolite deposits of the Cambridge
Greensand and the mammaliferous deposits at Barrington also occu-
pied a good deal of his attention, and form the subjects of papers
read before the Geological Society in 1872 and 1879.

It is interesting to notice that Mr. Fisher, who is now the foremost
opponent of the contraction theory, was many years ago one of its
strongest advocates. He was, indeed, an independent discoverer of
the theory. It occurred to him as early as 1841, the year in which
he took his degree, and was suggested by the ridging up of cracked
and re-frozen ice in one of the locks of the river Cam. In his delight
at the discovery, he tells us. he forthwith vaulted over a five-barred
gate. The idea, however, lay apparently dormant for many years;
and it was not until April, 1868, that the first of his three well-
known memoirs was read before the Cambridge Philosophical
Society. At this time Mr. Fisher was orthodox in his views. He
accepted the solidity of the earth’s interior on the authority of Lord
Kelvin as “almost certain,’ and considered that the outer crust
would lose the support of the inner portions “ probably from the
effects of contraction in cooling.”

When he is presented with a new theory, Mr. Fisher’s first
impulse is to test it numerically. The cause invoked may be a true
one, but is it also sufficient? Is it capable of producing effects of
the amount as well as of the kind observed ? Here the mathe-
matician steps in with advantage and offers useful aid to the
geologist. In Mr. Fisher’s first memoir the process is applied to
the contraction theory. He shows that, if an outer spherical shell
could be isolated from the mass within, it would at once be crushed
by lateral pressure till it rested on that mass. The contraction
theory thus invokes a true cause of rock-folding. To prove the
sufficiency of the theory, he calculates roughly the order of magni-
tude which mountain-ranges, if so formed, might be expected to
assume ; and concludes that “the theory seems to be at any rate not
deficient in its capability for producing the results attributed to it.”

Five years later, in June, 1873, we find Mr. Fisher defending the
contraction theory against Captain F. W. Hutton in the pages of this
Magazine; but, within a very few months, his allegiance to the
theory must have begun to waver. The paper referred to contains
the groundwork of his estimate of the mean height of the surface-
elevations of the globe. He was then led to calculate more closely
the mean height of the elevations that would be produced by the
contraction of the earth in cooling; and his work is described in
a second memoir read before the Cambridge Philosophical Society in
December, 1873. The discrepancy is so great (more than 9000 feet
in the one case, and less than 800 feet in the other) that Mr. Fisher

52 Eminent Living Geologists: Rev. Osmond Fisher.

felt compelled to give up the contraction theory in its original form.
Crust-folding he still attributed to lateral pressure brought into
action by a shrinking interior, and he refers, though not with entire
approval, to the view which he repeated in the first edition of his
future work that the earth consists of a solid crust and nucleus with
an intervening liquid layer."

The third of the Cambridge memoirs, read in February, 1875, shows
that his belief in such a constitution had gradually strengthened ; for
he investigates the form into which a uniformly thin flexible crust
would be thrown if the support of the liquid substratum were from
any cause withdrawn.

About this time, the direction of Mr. Fisher’s inquiries was slightly
changed. Mr. Mallet had shortly before published his well-known
memoir dealing with the origin of volcanic energy. There is
a fascination about the theory he advanced, but Mr. Fisher’s
quantitative analysis at once laid bare its weak point, though several
months elapsed before the controversy was closed.

The evening of an active life can hardly be better employed than
in revising the work of earlier years, and this is especially the
case when that work has been devoted mainly to the solution of
a connected series of problems. It can then be regarded almost
as calmly as if it were another man’s; there is ample time for
considering criticisms without bias, for filling up gaps, and for
exhibiting all the different portions in their true relations to one
another. In 1880, at the age of 63, Mr. Fisher began the work
with which his name will always be connected. The “ Physics
of the Harth’s Crust” is, however, not merely a reprint or revision.
It included, indeed, all those parts of his memoirs which seemed
to him worthy of preservation, but the additional material forms
a notable fraction of the whole. The book was published at the
end of 1881, and in spite of its highly technical character, has from
the very first met with a considerable sale.

Many a man, after so great a success, might have been content to
rest upon his laurels. But Mr. Fisher seems to have regarded this
first edition as a mere instalment, as a kind of guarantee that his
work should not be wasted by sudden illness or death. During the
years which followed he has not ceased to strengthen his theory, by
building up fresh defences and by raids into the enemy’s country.
By 1889 a second edition had in his opinion become necessary (the
remainder of the first being withdrawn from sale), and in 1891 this
was supplemented by an appendix of three additional chapters.

Besides the papers incorporated in the “ Physics of the Harth’s
Crust,” Mr. Fisher has written many others, which have appeared
in different scientific journals. The last of the series was published
only seven months ago in the Philosophical Magazine, and deals
with the residual effect of a former Glacial epoch upon underground
temperature.

The Geological Society, always so ready to welcome the contribu-
tions of mathematical geologists, awarded Mr. Fisher the balance of

1 At present he regards the solidity or otherwise of the nucleus an open question.

Eminent Living Geologists: Rev. Osmond Fisher. 53

the proceeds of the Lyell Fund in 1887, and the Murchison Medal
in 1893. In 1878 he was appointed Honorary Fellow of King’s
College, London, and in 1893 Honorary Fellow of Jesus College,
Cambridge. In 1895 his portrait was painted by Mr. Coney. A copy
ot the picture was subsequently made by Mrs. H. A. Morgan, and
accepted by the Society of Jesus College, in the hall of which College
it now hangs. The admirable photograph here reproduced was taken
by Mr. R. H. Lord of Cambridge in 1898.

The “Physics of the Earth’s Crust” with its appendix may be
said to consist of two distinct parts, a destructive part and a con-
structive part. In the first Mr. Fisher is chiefly occupied by
a criticism of the contraction theory from the point of view of its
insufficiency to account for existing elevations. If his assumptions
are all correct, there can be little doubt that he has proved his case,
whether the interior be wholly solid or partly liquid, and whether
the shrinking of the nucleus be due to loss of heat or loss of included
steam by means of volcanic eruptions. Of the other and more
valuable part, there is no need to insert any description here.
Mr. Fisher has himself given an exhaustive summary in his con-
cluding chapters for the benefit of non-mathematicians, and every
good textbook of geology contains some account of it. On re-reading
the book after the lapse of several years, the points which chiefly
strike one are perhaps the wonderfully close agreement between the
theory and the phenomena to be explained by it, and the ingenious
manner in which the physical objections to the existence of a liquid
substratum are encountered.

It is impossible at the present time to make any estimate of the
permanent value of Mr. Fisher’s work. There can be no doubt that
it is more highly appreciated in foreign countries than it is in
England ; for Mr. Fisher’s views are generally regarded as un-
orthodox here, while abroad the balance is probably in their favour.

It is unfortunate that English opinion as to the condition of the
earth’s interior should be mainly led by a few mathematicians whose
chief interests lie elsewhere. No controversialist is bound, or can
be bound, to examine every criticism of his work, but so long as
careful and conscientious criticisms are left unanswered, the judg-
ment of others with regard to that work must be held in suspense.
Mr. Fisher’s investigations cannot be brushed aside as of little or no
consequence. We may or may not believe in the practical solidity
of the earth’s interior ; but, if we do consider this view as the more
probable, we cannot but feel that the objections which he has offered
require serious examination, and that our lines of communication for
further advances are menaced until his attack is definitely repelled.

In reflecting on Mr. Fisher’s work as a whole, one cannot help
being struck by his self-sacrificing boldness. It is no light thing
for a thoughtful man to spend the better part of thirty years’ leisure
in working out a theory the foundation of which may be swept away
by some future discovery. In such a position many of us would
guard our work with jealous watchfulness from all unfriendly glances.
But at fourscore years and more, Mr. Fisher welcomes criticism ; his

4 C. R. Eastman—Fossil Bird and Fish Remains

only complaint is that he cannot get enough of it. What he most of
all desires, and what his patient labour deserves, is that his work
should be subjected to a searching examination. But until his
conclusions are proved to be wrong, we may fairly claim a wide
toleration for whatever views on the physics of the earth’s crust.
seem to us most nearly in accordance with the nature of geological
phenomena.

Some time or other, no doubt, Mr. Fisher’s chief life-work will
be weighed in the balance. Whether it be found wanting or not,
no one will dispute that he has solved one problem with complete
success. However bitterly he may have been attacked, his courtesy
has never failed. He is one of the few men whose part in
controversy has enriched, and never degraded, science. He can
look back upon a long life of fruitful labour and of kindly service
to his fellow-men. At the same time he can reflect that he has never
written a harsh word that he could now wish to be withdrawn.

C. Davison.

II.—New Fossin Brrp anp FisH Remains From THE MiIppLE
HocrenE or WYOoMING.

By Cuarztzes R. Eastman, Cambridge, Mass.
(PLATE IV.)

HE Green River Shales of Wyoming have long been noted for their
numerous and beautifully preserved fossil fishes. Fragmentary
traces of bird-remains have been met with in the same horizon from
time to time since the year 1869, when the first fossil feather
reported from North America was obtained by Dr. F. V. Hayden.’
During the past summer the Museum of Comparative Zoology
at Cambridge, Massachusetts, has come into possession of two
remarkable specimens from the fish-bearing shales near Fossil,
Wyoming. One of these is a gigantic Lepidosteid, of which only
detached scales and vertebras have hitherto been known; the other
is a nearly perfect skeleton of a gallinaceous bird. It is the writer’s
intention to present a detailed description of both fossils at some |
future time, but meanwhile it is possible the following notes may
be of interest.

Gallinuloides Wyomingensis, gen. et sp. nov. (Plate IV.)

Short-billed, stout-legged birds attaining the size of a gallinule,
rail, or small coot, and resembling these forms in general characters.
Coracoid straight and stout, without subclavicular process; furculum
V-shaped, with well-developed hypocleidium. Wings short, bones
of hind-limb of medium length. Femur one-fifth and tibia rather
more than two-thirds longer than the tarso-metatarsus. The latter
is flattened from back to front, has moderately expanded extremities,
and a deep anterior channel occupying nearly the total length, which
in the type measures 84 mm. ; second trochlea slightly shorter than
the fourth, and not produced towards the inner side. Lateral toes

1 Amer. Journ. Sci. [3], vol. xi (1870), p. 272.

GEOL. MAG., 1900. DecwmiVe Viole VilESeI Sie

Gallinuloides Wyomingensis, gen. et sp. NOV.

Middle Eocene : near Fossil, Wyoming.

Jrom Middle Eocene, Wyoming. 55

subequal, about two-thirds as long as the middle one, and hallux
one-third as long; middle digit and tarso-metatarsus of equal length.
Plumage unknown.

The general appearance of this specimen is shown in the
accompanying Plate, which is reproduced from a photograph with-
out retouching. It will be seen that the body lies with its right
side embedded in the matrix, the right hind-limb in advance of the
left, the humeri elevated and overlying a bend in the neck. The
right fore-wing is wanting, and the left is doubled over so as to
expose the humerus from the palmar and the remaining wing-bones
from the opposite or ventral aspect. The pelvis also is seen from
the ventral side, the right hind-limb from in front, and the left
partly from in front, partly from one side. Thus, one of the
femora presents a lateral and the other an anterior view, but the
coracoids and scapula are so turned as to exhibit mutually corre-
sponding sides.

To speak of the imperfections first, the ribs are broken and
confused, the caudal vertebree are wanting, the dorsal displaced
and in part scraped away by careless use of tools in the hands
of a collector, and the cervicals in part concealed by the humeri.
Between the scapule, and between the humeri and occiput, the
vertebral column appears largely in section, owing to unfortunate
mutilation. Most serious of all, however, is the damage done to
the head, the bone-substance being so cut into or scraped away
as to make it impossible to distinguish the separate elements.
Depredations of this nature are wholly inexcusable, and cannot be
too severely censured.

The sternum is well shown in lateral aspect, its body, however,
being much compressed. The latter gives off a very long and
slender intermediate xiphoid process, and a stouter and shorter
external xiphoid, the distal extremities of both being expanded.
The costal condyles for articulation with the sternal ribs are very
small, and the costal process of only moderate proportions. There
is a well-developed rostrum or manubrium, and the coracoid grooves
are broad and deep. The coracoids themselves are relatively short
and stout, without subclavicular processes and foramina ; their
sternal facets are considerably arched, and there is a faint hyosternal
process. The clavicles form a narrow V-shaped arch, implying
reduced powers of flight. The scapule are long and slender, with
well-developed glenoidal and acromial processes, and are not distally
expanded.

The bones of the fore-limb do not require special comment. The
right humerus is seen in radial aspect, and shows a broad delto-
pectoral crest and prominent distal condyles. The latter are
especially well displayed in the palmar view presented by the left
humerus. Effects of pressure are apparent in the extreme width of
the remaining wing-bones. It is possible, in addition, that the
ulnz of both wings are superimposed or are crushed contiguous to
one another. Since the photograph was taken, all the limb-joints
have been more fully exposed with the point of a needle.

56 C. R. Eastman—Fossil Bird and Fish Remains

The pelvis leaves much to be desired in the way of preservation.
It presents the visceral aspect to view, the sacro-iliac roof being
embedded in the rock; part of the sacrum is concealed by the
‘overlying left femur. The anterior border of the ilium is convex;
the post-acetabular portion is broader than the fore part, but of
about equal length. The right acetabulum is distinctly shown, and
measures 35mm. in diameter. Just behind it lies the elongate-
elliptical ischiadic foramen, and at the junction with the pubis is
seen a very small obturator foramen. The pubes are long and
delicate, slightly convex outward, and do not appear to have been
attached to the ischia posteriorly. Only the first two caudal
vertebra are preserved. Concretionary structures are the cause of
the discolorations in line with the distal extremities of the pubes,
and adjacent to the left scapula.

The bones of the hind-limb are all more or less flattened by
pressure. The femora are stout, nearly straight, and exhibit
moderate - sized rotular channels and distal condyles. The left
tibia is seen from the fibular side, with the fibula itself — together
with the procnemial and ectocnemial processes — very much
flattened. Of the distal condyles the inner is slightly the larger in
fore-and-aft extent, the outer in transverse. An oblique bridge
over the groove for the extensor tendons is faintly indicated close to
the condyles. The tarso-metatarsus is flattened from front to back,
traversed by a deep longitudinal groove along nearly the entire
anterior face, has the external tibial facet on a lower level than the
internal, and the second and fourth trochlee of about equal size.
The phalangeals of the first three toes are of about the same
proportions as in the common pigeon, those of the fourth toe are
longer. The proportions of principal parts are given in the
subjoined table :—

TasLe or MEASUREMENTS.

Length in mm. Length in mm.
TENGE G ls oheh Mame ss Manus’ ee i. dee’ cso eee
Scapula ... ... 48 Fremiur' )\ 232-4145 025520 ae inert eee
Coracoid ... ... 27 Tibia Baa Woe G00. coO. cob tuo
Fureulum “tips o8 Tarso-metatarsus ... «0. «. -.. 04
Crista sterni ... 58 T.., Digit (7-4-4); co) Ve tesaeanee
Humerus... ... 47 jy (URE SG) centers
Vina ei: aj 849 TIT. ,)) (2-10 6e76) eens
Radins| ese 40 IV. ,, (7:545°544444?4) 28

Height of knee-joint (estimated)... 90 mm.

Total height (estimated) --- ... 220 mm.

Six cervical vertebra are discernible in section between the occiput
and distal portion of the left humerus, the length of the series being
45mm. Possibly six or seven more lie concealed beneath the
humeri and glenoidal end of the right scapula. Measuring along
the loop indicated by the position of the vertebral column gives
a length of 85mm. for the entire series of cervicals; the length of
the dorsal series cannot be precisely estimated.

Relationships.—The characters outlined in the above cannot be
brought into strict agreement with any one modern ornithic family,

Jrom Middle Eocene, Wyoming. oT

but appear to be transitional between true gallinaceous birds
and the group typified by coots, rails, and gallinules. With
the last-named the present skeleton exhibits a number of
features in common, and there is also some resemblance to
curassows. | An annectant type or a generalized organization is
exactly what we should expect to find, considering the antiquity of
the remains. For paleontological purposes, the limits of modern
bird-divisions must be considerably extended, and this becomes the
more imperative the further we recede in geologic history. Hence,
in the present instance, we shall not be very far wrong in assigning
to the new form a position intermediate between the orders
Paludicole and Gallinew, as these are commonly understood.

From the late Tertiary of America a number of representatives of
the two last-named orders have been described by Cope,’ Marsh,’
and Shufeldt,? but so far as the writer is aware but one genus, and
that a crane (Aletornis, Marsh), is known from the Hocene. The
fragments described by Marsh as Telmatornis priscus and 1’. affinis
from the Cretaceous marls of New Jersey are referred by him to the
Rallide. fRallus itself and typical Gallinz are first met with in the
Upper Eocene of Europe.

Lepidosteus atrox, Leidy.

Only one of the eight ‘ species’ of Lepidosteids described by
Leidy, Cope, and Marsh, from the American Tertiary, is founded
upon anything like a complete fish. This is Lepidosteus cuneatus
(Cope), a small form about 30cm. in length, from the Miocene of
Central Utah. The remainder are established upon detached scales,
jaw-fragments, and vertebra, many of them too imperfect for generic
determination. Our knowledge of European Lepidosteids is likewise
confined to the same class of fragments. The fact is, fossil gars are
very rare, and are known only from Eocene and Lower Miocene
horizons.

Cope‘ observed that in French examples the maxillary is much
less segmented than in recent gars; also that two of the American
species (L. atrox, Leidy, and L. glaber, Marsh) have the “ mandibular
ramus without or with reduced fissure of the dental foramen, and
without the groove continuous with it in Lepidosteus.” Upon such
slight differences he erected the new genus Clastes, to which all the
American species are commonly referred. The complete specimen
obtained this summer from Fossil, Wyoming, proves that a generic
separation from Lepidosteus is impossible; the name Clastes there-
fore becomes a synonym, and it is further probable that the so-called
Clastes anax of Cope is identical with Leidy’s L. atroz.

The new specimen is beautifully preserved as a whole, the only
serious defect being that the cranial bones are more or less crushed.

1 Bull. U.S. Geol. Surv. Terr., vol. iv (1878), No. 2.

2 Amer. Journ. Sci. [3], vol. ii (1871), p. 126; ibid., vol. iv (1872), pp. 256-8;
Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1870, p. 11.

3 Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., vol. ix (1892), pp. 411-416.

# “ Tertiary Vertebrata,” bk. i, p. 53 (Rept. U.S. Geol. Surv. Terr., vol. iii,
1884).

58 J. R. Dakyns—Some Snowdon Tarns.

The tail and hinder part of the trunk present the right lateral aspect
to view, but the remainder of the body lies squarely on the ventral
surface and is flattened out symmetrically on both sides by pressure.
The fins are superbly preserved, and with their bundles of finely
articulated rays and fringe of biserial fulera make a striking appear-
ance. The total length of the fish is 1-7 m., of which the head forms
about 0-5 m. In point of size, relative length of head, fin-structure,
and squamation, there is a very close resemblance to the recent
Alligator gar, or L. viridis, Giinther; the dentition is much the
same, and the number of longitudinal and transverse scale-series
is the same in both. A detailed description of the new specimen
will form the subject of a separate paper; it will be sufficient for
the present to point out that the modern gar, and more particularly
the Alligator gar, has existed from at least Eocene times essentially
unchanged.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE IY.

Gallinuloides Wyomingensis, gen. et sp. nov. Middle Eocene: Fossil, Wyoming.
ce, coracoid ; c/, furculum; f, right femur; %, 4’, humeri of left and right
wings respectively ; i, ilium; m, manus; p, pubis; 7, radius; rd, detached
rib; s, scapula; s¢, sternum; ¢, tibia; tm, tarso-metatarsus; #, ulna ;

I-IV, toes.

IIJ.—Somrt Snowpon Tarns.
By J. R. Daxyns, Esq.

I HAVE from my boyhood been intimately acquainted with
Snowdon and its neighbourhood, and for some years past
I have been investigating the geology of the district in a systematic
manner. In doing this I have paid particular attention to the lake
basins, and shall in the following pages give an account of some of
my investigations as far as they have gone. I say as far as they
have gone, because I hope in the future to make by means of a level
more accurate measurements than can be made with a _ pocket
aneroid ; and I also hope that next Summer the lakes and tarns will
be sounded either by myself or by someone else ; for at present we
know nothing about the depth of Llyn dur Arddu, next to nothing
above that of Glaslyn, and very little about Llydaw, though that
little is of great importance.

I will now proceed with my account. Glaslyn at its outlet is
bounded by rock on the north side and by drift on the south, but
the shape of the ground shows that the drift is merely a mound of
no great thickness, banked against the Gribbin, as the rocky spur
is called which separates Glaslyn from Llydaw. At a distance of
about twenty yards from the lake solid rock is seen in the bed of
the outflowing stream at less than six feet below the level of the
lake. This to my mind proves without any reasonable doubt that
the lake lies in a rock basin; for, as I said above, the drift is
apparently of but little thickness, and the lake is certainly more
than six feet deep: I have myself dived into it to a greater depth
than that. I will not, however, insist upon this; forat the old mill,
seventy yards from the lake, solid rock extends right across the

J. R. Dakyns—Some Snowdon Tarns. 59

stream from the Gribbin on one side to the cliffy ground, on the
other, along which the road from the mines runs. From this
point in the stream one can ascend to the summit of Snowdon,
either by the Gribbin on the south or by way of Crib y Ddysgl
on the north, without treading on anything but solid rock. This
point is, as measured by an aneroid, 40 feet below the level of
the lake. Consequently, unless Glaslyn is less than 40 feet deep,
it must lie in a rock basin, even if we neglect the fact that rock is
seen in the stream at only a few feet below the level of the lake.
We do not know the depth of Glaslyn, but it is probably more than
40 feet deep; for on the north side, near the mine, rock comes
down to the water at a slope of 30°, and on the opposite side the
average slope of the rocks coming down to the lake is even more
than 30°.

I conclude, then, that Glaslyn occupies a rock basin. In their
paper on the Lakes of Snowdon, Messrs. Marr and Adie write in
reference to the outflow of Glaslyn, with all the emphasis of
italics, “the bottom of the drift-filled depression is at a lower level
than the present stream, which runs at the side of the valley, being
separated from the lowest part by a low shelf of rock.” What they
call the present stream is an artificial watercourse made by the
old miners to carry the surplus water of the lake clear of their
works. Comment is needless.

Llyn Llydaw is dammed up by glacial deposits; but at 250 yards
from the outlet solid rock is seen in the issuing stream and on both
sides of it. ‘This point in the stream is by my aneroid from 25 to
30 feet below the level of the lake. Mr. Watts, however, considers
the first live rock seen by him in the stream to be 40 or 50 feet
below the level of the lake. At 250 yards from the present outlet,
in a N.N.W. direction, there is a depression by which the lake may
possibly have once discharged itself; and at about 225 yards from
the lake solid rock is seen in the bottom of this depression and on
both sides thereof. According to the aneroid this point is 40 feet
below the level of the lake. The space between the present
outflowing stream and the above-mentioned channel is occupied by
drift which thins away eastward, so that immediately south of the
little pool, shown on the Ordnance six-inch map, rock forms the
surface of the ground. The place where the rock is seen in the
said depression, as stated above, is just where it is joined by another
depression, which runs down from the little pool, and it is along this
line that Mr. Marr imagines the lake to have formerly drained.

Consequently, in all possible outlets, real or imaginary, to Llydaw,
solid rock is first met with in descending from the lake, at a level
no lower than 40 or 50 feet below its surface. Llydaw must
then lie in a rock basin unless it is less than 50 feet deep; but
we have reason for believing that it is much deeper than 50 feet.
Many years ago a man’s clothes and boots were found lying beside
the lake. It was supposed that the owner had been drowned. A pro-
fessional diver was fetched up from Caernarvon, and search was
made for the missing body. The late Henry Owen, the well-known

60 J. R. Dakyns—Some Snowdon Tarns.

landlord of Pen y Gwryd, was present at the search; and he told
a friend of mine that in one place no bottom was reached at the
depth of 200 feet. Unless, then, this estimate was grossly erroneous
Llydaw must lie in a rock basin.

There is not much to be said about Llyn dur Arddu. It lies at

the head of Cwm Brwinog under the precipice called Clogwyn dur
Arddu, which forms the south side of the Cwm, and rock is seen
at the outlet on the south side of the stream; but no rock is to be
seen on the north side of the lake, nor, as far as I know, for a long
distance down-stream; in fact, on that side nothing is to be seen
but a steep bank strewn with large blocks of stone, so that we
cannot tell whether the tarn lies in a rock basin or not. Although
nothing but the rock-strewn bank is to be seen on the north side of
the Cwm, yet the unsophisticated intellect conceives that the Cwm
is bounded on that side, too, by solid rock, hidden, however, by
superficial detritus. There is absolutely no evidence to support the
assertion of Messrs. Marr and Adie that the lake once drained more
northward down a valley now buried under moraine. Not only is
there no evidence in favour of such a view, but the chances are all
the other way, for it presupposes a far greater thickness of drift
than is known to occur in any part of the district. There are many
places in the Snowdon region where the thickness of the glacial
deposits can be measured. As far as I know, these deposits are
thickest under Yr Aran, on the left bank of the Colwyn, about
a mile above Pont Caer-gors, and here the thickness is less than
a hundred feet. In most cases it is much less than this. Thus it
is most improbable that there should be in Cwm Brwinog so great
a thickness of drift, and that for the distance of a mile or more, as
must be the case if there is such a buried valley as Messrs. Marr
and Adie assume.
_ The tarns in Cwm Glas are so shallow that they are of little
importance, but the lower one, Llyn Glas, most certainly lies in
a rock basin, for, without going below the level of the tarn, one can
walk all round it without ever treading on anything but solid rock.

I shall not at present say more about Cwm Glas, nor about Cwm
Brwinog, as I hope on a future occasion to deal fully with the
geology of these corries. Nor shall I now treat of the Snowdonian
lakes as distinct from the tarns; but as Messrs. Marr and Adie, in
the part of their paper on the Snowdon lakes dealing with Llyn
Cwellyn, have indulged in some speculations and statements about
a part of the country with which I am intimately acquainted, I must
point ont some mistakes into which they have fallen.

On p. 55 of their paper they say “a drift-filled depression is
traceable up a tributary joining it” (the main stream) ‘‘a few yards
south-east of Cwellyn State Quarry.” This is a mere assertion: no
proof is offered of the existence of drift in this depression; it is
simply assumed, and in fact no proof can be offered, for along the
course of the little valley there are no sections in superficial material
save one near Ffridd quarry, where a pit has been dug for walling-
stones in some loose stuff which may be morainic. Throughout the

Dr. H. Woodward—A New Gault Crustacean. 61

rest of its course there is no evidence of the existence of glacial
drift; but on the contrary some evidence that there is no drift in
the depression, for solid rock is seen close to the stream at 100 yards
north of the narrow-gauge railway; and still further north the
valley is cumbered with large angular blocks consisting entirely
of diabase, which have fallen from the cliffs above. ‘There is no
drift, for were there any we should find stones of many different
sorts, and many of them would be rounded. So Mr. Marr’s drift-
filled gorge 350 feet deep is a mere figment of the imagination.
I must also remark that judging from the shape of the ground Llyn
Cwellyn is probably a great deal more than 50 feet deep.

As to the peaty watershed near Pitts Head, it matters nothing
whether it is “‘composed of an alluvial deposit ” or not, for the solid
rock comes to the day in so many places that the superficial
covering is evidently merely a thin skin.

On the next page the authors say “the bed of the Colwyn runs
over drift until within a short distance of Beddgelert.” I am sorry
to be obliged to contradict the writers, but the above statement
is incorrect. Neither the Colwyn nor its bed runs over drift
immediately south of Pitts Head watershed, for solid rock is seen
in the bed of the river at Pont Caer-gors and at several other
places for more than 550 yards down-stream, at which distance
the river actually runs in a rocky gorge. The eastern side of
the Colwyn valley is formed of solid rock, not only throughout
the whole of this distance, but for much further south. A low
bank of drift forms the western margin of the river immediately
south of Pont Caer-gors. This drift obviously lies as a tablecloth
on a gently sloping surface of rock which comes to the day 300
yards west of the bridge. No drift-buried gorge is possible here.
The upshot is that Messrs. Marr and Adie, in their hurry to escape
from a rock basin, have invented an impossible gorge to carry the
water of Llyn Cwellyn across a mountain range whose lowest point
is 650 feet above the sea, that is, 186 feet above the present level
of the lake. This is a brilliant effort of the imagination, though
hardly of the scientific sort, but it does not come near that of the
old Welsh, who imagined an underground connection between Llyn
Cwellyn and the Llanberis lakes to account for the existence of char
in both.

IV.—Nore on a Crustacean Jzsopromizires BIRLEYI, GEN. ET
SP. NOV., FROM THE GAULT OF FOLKESTONE, KENT.

By Henry Woopwarp, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., etc.

NE of the results incidental to the meeting of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science at Dover in
September last was a visit paid to Folkestone by the members of
Section C (Geology). Among the ladies present was Miss Caroline
Birley, well known both as a traveller and for the deep interest
which she has always taken in paleontological research ; she is also
the owner of an excellent private museum of minerals and fossils,

62 Dr. H. Woodward—A New Gault Crustacean.

mostly collected by herself. Miss Birley was fortunate in obtaining
from Mr. J. Griffiths, the resident geological collector, a small but
well-preserved carapace of a Gault Crustacean, believed at the
moment to be the usual Necrocarcinus Bechet (Deslongsch., sp.),
a form about as abundant in that locality as the Palgocorystes
Stokesii (Mantell, sp.). The specimen, enlarged twice natural size,
is clearly depicted in the accompanying illustration in the text.

2
=

Mesodromilites Birleyi, gen. et sp. nov.

Gault: Folkestone. «@, dorsal aspect; b, profile of same specimen. Drawn twice
the natural size. The original specimen is in the possession of Miss Caroline Birley.

A more careful examination of the original convinced me that
I was in error in referring this Crustacean to WV. Bechei, or indeed
to any species of Necrocarcinus ; and after a lengthened search for
an analogue I was compelled to believe it to be a new form,
a thing well-nigh incredible in a formation like the Gault of
Folkestone, which has been ‘the happy hunting- ground’ for so
many generations of London and provincial geologists, and a spot
dear to the name of J. Griffiths, who for the past fifty years or more
has been the sole collector and geological guide of Folkestone Cliffs.

The figures give both the dorsal and lateral aspect of the
carapace, and show it to be one-fourth longer than broad, very
tumid in the centre, having three pairs of rounded sub-central
tubercles (three on either side of a median dorsal line), with
a central tubercle placed on the posterior metacardiac region. Two
rather curved and elongated tubercles occur on the surface of the
test outside the hindmost pair of sub-central tubercles and midway
between them and the lateral margins of the carapace, just over the
posterior branchial region. Five somewhat prominent tubercles

Dr. H. Woodward—A New Gault Crustacean. 63

mark each lateral margin, the hindmost and most prominent pair
being situated on a transverse V-shaped ridge and furrow, which
cuts off the posterior fifth of the carapace, and meeting in the centre,
where it is marked by the single median posterior tubercle already
referred to.! The three succeeding pairs of marginal tubercles are
about equal in size, and the front pair forms the outer angle of the
orbital fossa. The rostrum is subdivided or notched in the centre,
having a A-shaped groove running down it, the base of which is
directed forwards, and the diverging points reaching to the first pair
of sub-central tubercles which mark the gastric region. The orbits
are large and well defined. No nuchal furrow is visible. The
carapace is not in the least crushed or distorted, and the surface
is well preserved.

Differences and Affinities.—A careful comparison of our Brachyuran
with the various species from the Gault and Greensand affords but
little assistance in the specific determination of the specimen. In
Necrocarcinus, when the rostrum is preserved it is not notched or
bifurcated, but pointed in the centre; the median line of the
carapace is not simple, but divided into distinct gastric and cardiac
regions, and an anterior nuchal furrow can be traced ; the carapace
1s broader than long; the marginal tubercles are not prominent, and
the posterior or metabranchial furrow is absent.

Turning to Dromilites from the London Clay, one is at once struck
by many points of resemblance. ‘The carapace (as in our Gault
fossil) is longer than broad, is very tumid, the rostrum is bifurcated,
there is a median furrow, the tubercles are arranged in pairs ; four
pairs of marginal tubercles are present, the posterior metabranchial
furrow is also seen; the orbits are large and conspicuous.

Unfortunately the other ventral aspect of the carapace is wanting
in the Gault fossil.

Prof. Bell (‘ Fossil Malacostracous Crustacea of Great Britain,”
Mon. Pal. Soc. : Part ii, ‘Crustacea of the Gault and Greensand,’
1862, p. v) remarks :—‘“ The Crustacea of the strata below the Chalk
. present several remarkable peculiarities in their forms
and affinities. One of the most interesting of these is the existence
of analogous or, so to speak, representative species in these beds and
in the London Clay” (see part i of same Mon., ‘ Crustacea of the
London Clay,’ op. cit., 1857, pls. v and vi). ‘In some cases this
representation is shown in their specific distinction, with the most
perfect generic identity, as in the case of Hoploparia, of which we
have already seen two very distinct species in the later formation,
and we have now described no fewer than six species in the earlier
deposits. In no instance do any of these locally separated individuals
belong respectively to the same species ; in every one the specific
distinctness is unambiguous, but the generic relation to each other
is no less so. Another case of nearly similar import occurs in the
anomourous family Dromiade; the Homolopsis of the Greensand

1 This line may be defined as the ‘metabranchial furrow,’ and is seen in

Plagiophthalmus oviformis from the Greensand of Wilts, and in Dromilites from
the London Clay.

64 Notices of Memoirs—J. Dewitz—Colour of Lakes.

being represented in the London Clay by two species of Dromilites,
a very nearly allied form.”

The addition of another new species, apparently related to this
family in the Gault, is extremely interesting as exemplifying the
close family similarity, but very clear specific and (1 venture to
think) in this case even generic distinctness from its congeners.
It is hoped that before long other examples may be obtained,
offering fuller details of its structure; meantime I publish this
interesting little Crustacean, giving it the name of Mesodromilites to
define its older geological position and also its probable relationship
to Dromilites of the London Clay, with the specific name of Birleyi,
in honour of Miss Caroline Birley, to whom I am indebted for the
opportunity of describing this new Gault crab.

INFOQERETeRSHS (ar AVCIaHIME@) cise S} -
I.—Tur Rep Contour or THE Satr Lakes In THE Wapi NATROUN.
By J. Dewrrz.

N an article published in the ‘Zoolog. Anzeiger* I have given
a report on the biology of the Natron Valley, the Wadi Natroun,
in the Libyan desert, about 170 kilometers from Cairo. It seems
that my remarks concerning the red colour of the water of the salt
lakes of the valley have interested readers of the article. I there-
fore wish to add here some researches I was able to make on the
same subject owing to the kindness of Mr. Prochaska, head of the
chemical survey of the soda company.

When I came to the Natron Valley the red water of the lakes
excited at once my curiosity. and I tried to ascertain the reason for
the redness of the liquid. Most people to whom I spoke about the
matter told me that Artemia lives in the lakes, and that the red
colour of this Crustacean is communicated to the water. During
my stay in the Wadi the Artemia salina was not to be seen, the
animal appearing only at certain periods of the year. It is im-
possible to believe that the coloured mass of these small creatures
is sufficient to stain such immense quantities of water as the Wadi
Natroun lakes. These lakes, about fourteen in number, lie rather
close to each other and extend over a space of about 40 kilometers.

No number of Artemia salina would be great enough to give the
water the deep purple colour which it has. If there were frogs in
the lakes and those frogs were red, and someone should say that the
red colour of the water came from the red colour of the Amphibia,
this explanation, I think, would not be much inferior to the Artemia
theory. Besides Artemia, there are other red animals in the lakes.
I obtained, for example, a red culicid larva. This shows that
animals living in the water may take the colour from it, and not the
water from the red animals. Finally, Artemia salina disappears in

1 Reprinted from Science, N.s., vol. x (1899), No. 240, pp. 146, 147.
2 “Das Wadi Natroun in der libyschen Wiiste und seine niedern Thiere,’’
Bd. xxii (1899), pp. 53-61.

Notices of Memoirs—Minerals of Japan. 65

the lakes for the greater part of the year without causing a change
in the coloration of the water.

But, if it is not Artemia salina, what is it that gives the red colour
to the water? In my investigations I treated the red water with
different chemicals, among them acetic acid. When the acid is
poured into the red water a powerful development of carbonic acid
takes place, and at the same time a red soft mass rises to the surface
of the liquid, while the latter loses more and more of its colour.
From a large quantity of water I collected the soft red mass swim-
ming on the surface, washed it with distilled water, and shook it in
a mixture of ether and absolute alcohol. The red colour left the soft
mass, being extracted by the ether. The solution of the colour in
ether did not keep the purple tint of the soft mass, but showed a fine
brownish coloration, the soft mass itself appearing now as a grey
yellowish substance, reminding one of blood fibrine. It could be
reduced to ashes, and is, therefore, of organic composition. When
the lake water was directly exposed to the mixture of ether and
alcohol without having passed through acetic acid no result was
obtained. Concerning the osmotic property of the red organic mass,
it is to be noted that it did not pass through a membrane of so-called
parchment paper, such as is used for covering jars.

The experiments show that the water of the lakes contains an
astonishingly great quantity of organic red substance, and that it is
this which gives the red colour to the water.

The question now arises what the origin of the red organic
substance is. My supposition is that the substance must be the
product of bacteria. Hach drop of water taken from the lakes will
be found full of them. The bacteria in all the lakes are uncoloured,
but I found that the cocci exhibit a red colour.

According to “ Baedeker”’ (Egypt, French edition, 1898) there
existed another spot in Egypt, near Suez, where red salt water is
found. On p. 162 of the guidebook I read the following note:
“La couleur rouge des marais salants entre des collines des Bédouins
et le canal, provient d’une petite écrevisse (de lordre des
phyllopodes) presque microscopique qui y fourmille & certains
moments. Le matin ils exhalent un parfum semblable & celui des
violettes.” Unfortunately, when I was at Suez I did not visit the
‘marais salants,’ and I therefore wish to call this note to the
attention of the biologists visiting that part of Egypt. It would be
very interesting to ascertain whether the water there contains
bacteria and the same red organic mass which I found in the lakes
of the Natroun Valley.

IIl.—Nores on tHe Mrinerats or Japan. By Korora Jims.
(Reprint from Journ. Sci. Coll. Imp. Univ., Tokyé, 1899, vol. xi,
pp. 213-281.)

A. DESCRIPTION is given of 128 mineral species found in

Japan, and represented in the collections of Mr. T. Wada,
of the Imperial University and the Imperial Museum at Toékyé.

The paper is written in English, and so renders information, which

DECADE IV.—VOL. VII.—wmo. II. i)

66 Reviews—Dr. Traquair on Silurian Fishes.

previously has only been published in Japanese journals, more
easily accessible. The subject-matter is mainly confined to the
enumeration of occurrences; and for museum curators, puzzled by
Japanese locality names, the paper will be very useful. Longer
descriptions are given of quartz, topaz, and felspar, these minerals
being represented in Japan by specially fine crystals.

a4) Ja WA IE ds OW Se

I.—Dr. Traquatr on Siturran Fisuzs. Report on Fossil Fishes
collected by the Geological Survey of Scotland in the Silurian
Rocks of the South of Scotland. By Ramsay H. Traquatr,
M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb., vol. xxxix,
pp. 827-864, pls. i-v. (December, 1899.)

R. TRAQUAIR’S new memoir on the Upper Silurian fishes of
Southern Scotland is the most valuable contribution to our
knowledge of Palzeozoic Ichthyology which has been made for many
years. It is of fundamental importance not only as describing with
tolerable completeness the exoskeleton of several organisms which
have hitherto been known only by indeterminable isolated frag-
ments; it also records for the first time a series of well-ascertained
facts in reference to the primitive mode of development of the
dermal armour of the Vertebrata. Moreover, it is a work which
could not have been accomplished, or at least have been done
in a thoroughly trustworthy manner, by anyone less skilled in
the observation and interpretation of Paleeozoic fish remains than
Dr. Traquair himself. Most of the fossils are very obscure, and
can only be understood after long-continued study and repeated
comparisons. Any geologist or biologist who casually examines
them will feel gratitude to the painstaking author, whose patience
and unwearied zeal have enabled him to obtain so much information
from them as is contained in the beautiful memoir now before us.

The specimens in question were discovered by Messrs. Macconochie
and Tait, collectors to the Geological Survey of Scotland, in the
Upper Ludlow and Downtonian beds in the neighbourhood of
Lesmahagow, Lanarkshire. The thin bands in which they occur
consist of hard, grey, flaggy shale; and in most cases the actual
substance of the fossils seems to be preserved.

The two first genera described are considered to be primitive
Heterostraci or Pteraspidians, in which the dermal armour consists
of isolated shagreen-like granules, not yet fused into plates. They
constitute the family Ccelolepide of Pander, which was known
only by the detached dermal granules until a year ago, when
Dr. Traquair published a foretaste of his results in the description
of Thelodus Pagei from the Lower Old Red Sandstone of Forfarshire.
Two new species of Thelodus (T. scoticus and 7. planus), from the
Upper Silurian, are now described and figured. The head and
trunk are completely covered with a dense layer of the little
shining, quadrangular granules, which have long been familiar to

——_

Reviews—Dr. Traquair on Silurian Fishes. 67

collectors from the Ludlow Bone-bed and the Upper Silurian
of Oesel. In shape the fossilized organism closely resembles
a Cephalaspis, and its anterior portion is usually crushed vertically,
while its slender caudal region occurs in more or less direct side
view. No orbits are distinguishable. There is no clear evidence

Fie. 1.—Restored outline of Lanarkia
spinosa, Traq., in the position in
which it occurs as a fossil, namely,
vertically compressed in front, but
the tail twisted round so as to
appear in profile.

of paired fins. The heterocercal caudal fin is well preserved, but
there is apparently no dorsal fin. Zanarkia is a new allied genus,
armoured with small, sharp, hollow, conical spines, instead of the
comparatively solid quadrangular tubercles. LZ. horrida, L. spinulosa,
and Z. spinosa (Fig. 1) are distinguished, the last with the dermal
spinelets not uniform in size.

A remarkable new genus and species, Ateleaspis tessellata, follows
next. The remains on which it is based are rather fragmentary ;
but Dr. Traquair is inclined to regard the organism as intermediate
between the simplest Heterostraci and the Osteostraci, only referring
it to the latter because part of the tissue of its armour exhibits true
bone-cells. The general form of the body is apparently as in the
Ceelolepide, but the dermal covering in front consists of small
polygonal plates, while in the caudal region it is in the form of

68 Reviews—Dr. Traquair on Silurian Fishes.

flat, rhombic, sculptured scales. The orbits seem to have been
close together on the top of the head, as in Cephalaspis.

A new order, ANASPIDA, is established to contain the two last
and perhaps most extraordinary new genera treated in the memoir.
These comprise small, laterally compressed organisms, without
paired fins, but with a single small dorsal fin and a well-developed
heterocercal tail. In many respects they are suggestive of Cepha-
laspis and its allies, but there is no continuous head-shield, and
the orbits are not clearly distinguishable in the known specimens.
The substance of the armour is not sufficiently well preserved to
furnish satisfactory sections for microscopical examination. Birkenia,
with a single species, B. elegans, is the first genus placed here. It
is completely armoured with small scutes arranged in the strange
manner indicated in Dr. Traquair’s careful restoration (Fig. 2). On
the side apparently of the back of the head there is an oblique series
of eight small round holes, which look like branchial openings.
The flank-scales of the trunk are disposed chiefly in series which
incline forwards and downwards, not backwards and downwards
as is usual in fishes. A median series of ventral scutes develops
into a formidable armour of spines in the caudal region. The
second new genus, Lasanius, with two species, L. problematicus
(Fig. 3) and L. armaius, is considered to be closely related to
Birkenia, differmg in the loss of all the dermal armour except
a few anterior flank-scales and the median ventral row of spines.

The detailed descriptions of these organisms are illustrated by
a beautiful series of five plates, most of the drawings being by
Mr. James Green, but the highly magnified details and critical
points by the author himself.

In the concluding section of the memoir, which is a general
discussion of the results, Dr. Traquair gives for comparison a brief
description of the hitherto problematical Lower Devonian genus
Drepanaspis. Its main features are illustrated in an outline-sketch
which he kindly permits to be reproduced here (Fig. 4). In shape
it resembles Thelodus and Lanarkia, but it is covered with well-
developed plates and scales, and the orbits seem to have been placed
laterally. All the known plates of Drepanaspis are too much
pyritized for microscopical examination; but Dr. Traquair has
shown that the other Devonian plates named Psammosteus belong
to a elosely similar animal, and these contain no bone-cells. The
Drepanaspide and Psammosteide are therefore placed by him in
the Heterostraci.

It follows from these researches that the definition of the order
Heterostraci must now be slightly modified. We must admit that
the armour may consist either of separate granules (each formed
round a distinct papilla), or these granules may be more or less
fused together in every degree from small polygonal plates to great
shields. According to Dr. Traquair the order will therefore include
the known families of Ccelolepide, Psammosteide, Drepanaspide,
and Pteraspide, each exhibiting a progressive modification over the
other in the development of the dermal armour.

69

Reviews—Dr. Traquair on Silurian Fishes.

—4

{saqnos [BIJUAA ‘8°? “pasavpua aurpyno parojsar ‘beary, ‘snazqnuajqoud snruvsvT—

ZS
Dy

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7peK
Jy)

"sopOIsso Jo ureyp ‘*,4 {spor orpeydao-ysod fu

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70 Reviews—Dr. Traquair on Silurian Fishes.

While the original conception of the Heterostraci is enlarged in
this manner, Ateleaspis seems to form a link between its lowest
family (the Coelolepide) and the order Osteostraci. Dr. Traquair
points out that the shape of this organism is like that of Thelodus,
while its polygonal plates and scales merely represent groups of the
dermal tubercles of the latter fused together by the great develop-
ment of their bases. At the same time some of the basal layers of

cS
KX
wo

aK
SAN

SON eer”

i

Fic. 4.— Drepanaspis Gmuendenensis, Schliiter. Restored outline of the dorsal
aspect, the surface ornament omitted, and the tail twisted round so as to
show the caudal fin in profile. ¢., central plate; p./., postero-lateral plates ;
r., rostral plates; x., orbits?

the plates contain distinct bone-cells, a peculiarity necessitating the
reference of Ateleaspis to the Osteostraci. Dr. Traquair is therefore
of opinion that Cope and the British Museum Catalogue are correct
in regarding the Heterostraci and Osteostraci as closely related
orders, while Professor Lankester is no longer justified in main-
taining that “there is absolutely no reason” for grouping them
together beyond that they “occur in the same rocks.”

Reviews—Dr. Traquair on Silurian Fishes. 71

As might be anticipated, Dr. Traquair also discusses the propriety
of admitting the existence of the sub-class Ostracodermi, to which
the Heterostraci and Osteostraci have been referred by Cope and the
British Museum Catalogue. He concludes that no more satisfactory
arrangement can be suggested at present. He accordingly accepts
it, and adds the new order Anaspida to include the Birkeniide.

The most disappointing feature of the memoir is, that it provides
no new facts which will be universally regarded as advancing our
knowledge of the affinities of the Ostracodermi. Dr. Traquair is
very emphatic in his refusal to believe that they are ‘‘ Agnatha.”
Very justifiably, he declares that he has no faith in negative
evidence. He must have some positive reason before he can admit
that these organisms were destitute of a mandibular arch and paired
limbs. On the other hand, he thinks his new discoveries justify
a belief that the Ostracodermi are the modified descendants of an
early group of Elasmobranchii. He ‘prefers to consider” the
Ceelolepide, or lowest Ostracoderms, ‘‘as having definitely split
off from the [Elasmobranchii], from which they doubtless originally
came” (p. 844).

When, however, the arguments for this new interpretation are
closely examined, I maintain that they are found to depend just
as much on negative evidence as the hypothesis of Cope. So far as
I understand them, they are based on two propositions — (i) that
the shagreen of the Ccelolepide is identical with that of an
Hlasmobranch, and (ii) that the lappet-like postero-lateral angles
of the anterior broad part of the body in the Ccelolepide,
Drepanaspide, and Cephalaspide are pectoral fins.

As to the first proposition, I think there is justification for
asserting that, in the present state of knowledge, it affords no sure
proof of affinity between the Ostracoderms and the Elasmobranchs.
We cannot conceive of the dermis of a chordate animal beginning to
acquire superficial calcified hard parts by any other process than by
the deposition of mineral matter round papilla. At the remote period
when the Chordata were first beginning to develop an exoskeleton,
it is extremely probable that these animals were already well
differentiated ; at least, we cannot explain their diversity and high
grade in the early Devonian period unless we admit this probability.
When dealing with Silurian fish-like organisms, therefore, a form
armoured with tubercles of dentine does not necessarily belong to
the Elasmobranchii; it may be a Chordate animal of any kind just
beginning to assume a protective covering. The admitted fact that
since early Carboniferous times an exoskeleton exclusively of dentinal
tissues has persisted only in Hlasmobranchii and Chimeroidei, is no
proof that any organism similarly armoured in the strange archaic
Devonian and Silurian faunas is intimately related to either of
these sub-classes.

In short, if Dr. Traquair has discovered that the Coelolepida are
closely related to the Heterostraci proper and to the Osteostraci, as
seems almost certain, I maintain that he has not helped us towards
forming any more plausible theory of their origin. He has merely

72 Reviews—Dr. Traquair on Silurian Fishes.

dealt another blow at the old Agassizian conception of the importance
of dermal structures in classification. He has shown that ‘placoid
scales’ are as of little value for taxonomic purposes in the Silurian
and Devonian periods as are ‘ganoid scales’ in the Tertiary and
existing faunas.

Dr. Traquair’s second proposition that the Coelolepidz and Drepan-
aspidee possess pectoral fins, seems to me to be much more absolutely
an hypothesis than my contrary assertion that Cephalaspis is destitute
of them. So far as I understand, not a single specimen of Thelodus
or Zanarkia shows the slightest change in texture or arrangement
of its armour at the postero-lateral angles of the broad part of the
organism, which are described as lappet-like pectoral fins. There is
no more appearance of flexibility here than along any other border.
There are not the faintest lines of demarcation of any kind. In the
remarkable genus Drepanaspis the angles in question are indeed
strong plates, apparently without any power of motion. Nevertheless,
Dr. Traquair still considers them as pectoral fins, believing them to
be ‘rendered utterly functionless as fins by being enclosed in un-
yielding bony plates.” In other words, a motile organ, originally
used at least for balancing, if not for progression, is assumed to have
lost its function, not by atrophy, but by conversion into a rigid
structure continuous with its base of support—a phenomenon for
which I have tried in vain to find a parallel in the animal kingdom.
Personally, I consider it is less hypothetical to believe that the
postero-lateral angles in question are not homologous with the flaps
in Cephalaspis, but with the hinder end of the branchial chamber
of the same. Both hypotheses depend on negative evidence, but
I prefer the latter as most reasonable.

With respect to the flexible flap in Cephalaspis, which I regard as
opercular, but which Dr. Traquair now thinks is really a pectoral
fin, I may repeat that we know exactly its relationships. The
specimens in the British Museum show that it is a flexible outgrowth
from the hinder margin of the roof (perhaps more accurately the
outer and partly upper wall) of the branchial chamber, while the
external outlet of this chamber is clearly a large oval opening
immediately beneath (within) the base of the flap.

In conclusion, 1 therefore believe that Dr. Traquair’s hypothesis
of the derivation of the Ostracodermi from an early race of
Elasmobranchs with a mandibular arch and paired fins, depends
quite as much on negative evidence as does Cope’s theory that they
are far more primitive and best termed Agnatha. I still maintain
that they “are quite of a problematical character”; but of the two
theories proposed for their interpretation, I think that of Cope is, for
the present, the less beset with difficulties.

A. SmritH WoopWwaRrD.

Reviews—Zittel’s Century of Geology, etc. 73

TI. — Gescuronts per GroLocre uND PationroLoGie Bis EInpDE
prs 19 JanruunpeRts. Von Karu ALFRED voON ZITTEL.
(R. Oldenbourg : Miinchen u. Leipzig, 1899.)

History oF GEOLOGY AND PALMONTOLOGY UP TO THE END OF THE
NINETEENTH Crentury. By Karu Atrrep von Zirrer. Demy
8vo; pp. vil and 868.

W\HIS volume forms one of a series of histories of science in

Germany in recent times, issued, under the patronage of the

King of Bavaria, by the Royal Academy of Sciences at Munich.
Its preparation had at first been entrusted to the late Professor Ewald
ot Berlin, but it remained unfinished at the time of his death, and,
in accordance with the terms of his will, the incomplete MS., with
his other papers, was destroyed. ‘The task was then undertaken
by Professor von Zittel, and the contents of this volume prove that
it could not have been allotted to abler hands. The work was
intended originally to be limited to a history of geology in Germany
only, but the author enlarged the plan so that it should include
a history of the science generally, and present a faithful picture of
the successive stages in its development wherever they may have
occurred. Whilst it may be true that the German literature on the
subject has been, in some parts, referred to with greater fulness than
that from other countries, no important contribution from other
sources has been overlooked, and the author’s comments and
criticisms on the writings and achievements of past and present
geologists are marked by the strictest judicial impartiality. With
respect to subjects which are still matters of controversy, the author
takes a neutral position, and contents himself with a plain statement
of facts and opinions relating to the particular questions in dispute.

The History is treated under four periods of very inequal length
and interest: Ist, the geological knowledge of the ancients; 2nd,
the early stages of paleontology and geology; 3rd, the heroic age of
geology, from 1790 to 1820; and 4th, the later development of
geology and palzontology.

With respect to the first period, that of the geological knowledge
of the ancients, the author shows that whilst facts relating to the
science were of a limited character, hypotheses on the origin and
development of the earth were plentiful enough. If any of these
latter have perchance been found conformable to modern views, it is
due to their being lucky speculations rather than theories based on
observation. At the same time, some of the observations made at
this period on earthquakes, volcanoes, changes of level of the earth’s
surface, and on the action of water, are not without importance.

Neither does the second period, which includes from about 800 a.p.
to the close of Buffon’s career in 1788, present us with any solid or
striking advance in geological science. We find that fossils aroused
the attention and curiosity of many of the learned in different parts
of Europe during the fifteenth to the seventeenth centuries, and
many were figured with remarkable fidelity in the works of Lister,
Lang, and Knorr and Walch; but their real characters were

74 Reviews—Zittel’s Century of Geology, ete.

unrecognized and they were attributed to a certain ‘ vis plastica,’ and
considered to have been directly produced in the ground where they
were met with. Even when they were seen to be the remains of
extinct animals, they were supposed to have reached their position
in the rocks through the action of Noah’s Deluge! The paleontology
of this period did not advance beyond dry, detailed descriptions of
fossils, with fantastic speculations as to their origin, and their relation
to the sacred scriptures.

Amongst the writers of this period whose observations of
geological facts and whose views of the origin and history of
the earth are placed before us by the author, we find the names.
of Leonardo da Vinci, Giordano Bruno, Nicholas Steno, Burnet,
John Woodward, Scheuchzer, John Ray, Charpentier, and Guettard ;
whilst amongst those distinguished for their observations on voleanoes-
and earthquakes occur the names of Della Torre, Desmarest, Sir W.
Hamilton, and Faujas de St. Fond.

In the concluding part of the chapter on this period a summary of
the views of Buffon on the theory of the earth is given, with an
appreciative reference to the position which this great French.
philosopher occupies in geological history. As an _ original.
investigator and observer his claims were limited, but he under-
stood the significance of facts, and possessed a marvellous capacity
of marshalling them in support of his theories. He was incontest-
ably the most genial representative of that speculative movement,
held in high repute in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth
centuries, which set itself to solve its problems in a deductive way.
With Buffon there closed a period which had indeed gathered
together a large store of materials needful for the earth’s history,
and had moreover arrived at the conviction that the data for
that history might be obtained from the earth itself. But the
key for the determination of a chronological succession of events:
on our planet had not as yet been discovered, no satisfactory
insight as to the composition and building up of the earth’s crust.
had been obtained, nor of a regular succession of the fossil remains
found within it.

With the third period of the heroic age of geology, placed by
the author in the thirty years from 1790 to 1820, there commences
an epoch when facts were recognized and sought after as the only
sure foundation for theory, and a corresponding appreciation was-
placed on the investigation and description of the phenomena of
the earth’s crust which are within the limits of human observation.
Amongst the imposing host of geologists of this period whose works.
are passed under review occur the names of Werner, Pallas, Saussure,
Hutton, Playfair, William Smith, Leopold von Buch, Alexander von
Humboldt, Alex. Brongniart, and Cuvier. Perhaps the most
conspicuous amongst his contemporaries is the celebrated Freiberg:
Professor, A. G. Werner, of whose teachings and of the wonderful
influence which he exercised on his students a very graphic account
is given by the author. It is difficult to realize at the present day
that the teaching of Werner that all the rocks of the earth’s crust

Reviews—Zittel’s Century of Geology, ete. 75

had been produced as chemical or mechanical deposits from a watery
solution should have been so firmly maintained and strenuously
defended, and that it was only overthrown after a lengthened period
of violent controversy.

But whilst Werner, with a renown akin to that of a prophet, had
drawn to himself a school of ardent disciples from all civilized
countries, a simple teacher in Scotland, James Hutton, was preparing
his work on “The Theory of the Earth,” which was destined to
exercise a powerful influence on modern geology long after the
Neptunist theory of Werner had exploded. ‘The great merit of
Hutton, as the author points out, is that he based his conclusions
on inductions from previously observed facts, and explained the
phenomena by the action of forces still in operation, so that he had
no need to call in the aid of supernatural or imaginary powers. As
is well known, many of Hutton’s ideas were more fully expanded
by subsequent authors, notably by Sir Charles Lyell, and thereby
the credit justly due to him has, in a measure, been attributed
to others.

To the genius of another of our countrymen of this epoch,
William Smith, is due the discovery of the leading principle that
the succession of the rocks may be known by their included fossils.
A sympathetic account of William Smith’s work is given by the
author, with an able summary of his character in the following
terms :—“ William Smith was self-educated, a man of rare originality
and unusual penetration. Without academic training, without any
guidance, without any material support, and at the beginning
without even encouragement from his contemporaries, he succeeded
by his tenacious perseverance in tracing out the geological structure
of England in so clear a manner that subsequent investigation has
not made any important change in the groundwork he laid down.
Smith limited himself to the practical study of the geology of his
native land, and abstained from all general speculations on the
origin and history of the earth. On his work, thus wisely limited,
rests his greatness, and to it this modest, unselfish, and open-hearted
observer owes the well-deserved appellation of Father of English
Geology.”

The position occupied by geology in the principal countries of
Europe during this heroic period, and the lines of investigation
followed by the leaders of the science in each, are passed under
review: the various textbooks on geology and geognosy published
in this interval are noticed as contrasting favourably by their sober,
practical treatment of the subject with the more speculative works of
the preceding epoch, and sketches are given of the advances made
in the study of petrology and paleontology. Owing to the great
influence of Werner’s teaching, which did not take much account of
fossils, their study did not take so high a position during this period
as that of petrology. The great French anatomist, Cuvier, however,
dwelt much on the importance of fossil organisms in the study of
the earth’s history in general, and of organic life specially. In the
warin eulogium pronounced on him by Von Zittel it is pointed out

76 Reviews—Zittel’s Century of Geology, ete.

that his merit chiefly rests on his achievements in vertebrate
paleontology, in establishing a scientific method in the nomen-
clature of fossil osteology, and in the convincing proof which he
gave that fossil mammals belonged to extinct genera and species
and that they could not be regarded as mere varieties of forms now
living. At the same time he maintained the unchangeableness of
species, and denied that there was any genetic connection between
the earlier forms of organic life and the present ones. It must be
confessed that on some points he stood at a lower level of knowledge
than his contemporaries, and that some of his theoretical conclusions
tended to hinder rather than forward the advance of geology.

The author’s fourth period —the more recent development of
geology and paleontology, from 1820 to the present time—is treated
at great length, and occupies about three-fourths of the volume.
After the close of the last epoch, which might well be termed the
spring-time of the science, geology entered on a new phase. Its
position as not the least important of the natural sciences had been
established, and in most of the great centres of academical learning
courses of study were founded and collections of rocks and fossils
made for teaching its principles. The period for great discoveries
had passed ; hasty and superficial observations and wide generaliza-
tions were replaced by deeper and more detailed investigation, less
brilliant perhaps, but more permanent in its results. The list of
eminent professors and teachers of geology in the Universities of
Germany during this recent period indicates the high importance
attached to the science in that country, in a measure greater than
that shown in the corresponding institutions in England and in
France.

The value of geology in many departments of practical life, such
as mining, agriculture, building, etc., was not long hidden from
Government authorities, and led to the establishment of official
Geological Surveys for the purpose of investigating and mapping
the geological structure of their respective countries. The first to
be founded was that of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom
in 1835, and since then Government Surveys with a similar object
have been formed in nearly every State in the civilized world.
A further notable impulse to the study of geology in recent times
has been derived from the societies and associations for the
encouragement of independent researches in the science which have
sprung up in different countries.

The wide field for observation presented by the diverse aspects
of geology in its later developments, and the vast store of materials
collected from so many varied sources, naturally led to a division of
labour amongst the workers, and hence the science became divided
up into a series of special departments, more or less intimately
linked to each other and to the sister sciences, though often differing
materially from each other in their mode of working. It was there-
fore impossible to treat the recent development of geology as a whole,
and the author has consequently given us a history of the origin, the
growth, and the present position of each of the separate branches of

Reviews—Indian Geology. fits

the science, which are referred to in as many chapters under the
headings of Cosmical, Physiographical, Dynamical, and Topographical
Geology, Stratigraphy, and Petrography. It would be beyond our
province to refer to the numerous points of importance in each of
these subjects, which have been so thoroughly and lucidly stated by
the author; their intimate connection with the present generation of
geologists will cause them to be scanned with the liveliest interest.

In the concluding chapter, Palzontology, the science with which
Von Zittel’s name will ever be associated, is treated in a somewhat
condensed form, and consists chiefly of short references to the
principal groups of fossil organisms and to the authors and works
in which they have been described. It would almost seem as if the
author’s vast knowledge of the subject had restrained him from
venturing into details which might have proved overwhelming.

We cannot finish this short notice without expressing our high
opinion of the value of this work to all geologists and to others
interested in the science of geology who desire to be acquainted with
its early history and the various stages it has passed through in the
course of its growth up to the present time. The author is heartily
to be congratulated on having successfully carried out this arduous
undertaking, the character of which can only be appreciated by those
who have some knowledge of the enormous literature which has to
be studied and digested for its preparation.

IlJ.—Inpran Gerouocy.

1. Memorrs oF tHE GerotocicaL Survey or Inpra, vol. xxv:
Geology of Bellary District, Madras Presidency. By R. Brucz
Foorr, F.G.S., F.M.U. Superintendent, Geological Survey of
India. 8vo; pp. xviii and 218 (1895), with a folding geologically
coloured map of the Bellary District (October, 1896). (Calcutta,
1897.)

2. Tue Grotocy or Baropa Sratrze. By R. Bruce Foors, F.G.S.,
C.F.E.G.S., Geological Survey of India (retired), and lately
State Geologist, Baroda. Published by order of H.H. the
Gaekwar. S8vo; pp. x and 194, with 3 folding maps (1897-98).
Received December, 1899. (Madras, 1898.)

VHE author of these memoirs is one of the oldest and most
experienced members of the Geological Survey of India, and
although he has retired some time from the stafi, he has remained
resident in India! He has just sent us a copy of his memoir
on the Geology of the Bellary District in the Madras Presidency,
being the last piece of his official survey work, done some time
since. The map which accompanies this memoir is a good specimen
of modern chromolithography, well and clearly printed in colours,
which define alluvium, laterite-breccia, the Dharwar System and
hematites, the granitoids and eneisses, the steatite beds, granite
veins, trap-dykes, crystalline limestones, etc.

1 Undertaking the Geology of Baroda and of Mysore States for their respective
native Governments.

78 Reviews—Indian Geology.

Bellary District lies between Haidarabad on the north, Mysore
on the west and south, and Anantapur on the east. It forms the
western division of the Ceded Districts (so-called because ceded by
the Nizam by treaty in 1800 to the Hast India Company) ; it lies in
the centre of the Deccan tableland, and has an area of 5,904 square
miles. Nearly the whole area has a general slope to the northward,
and is drained by the Tungabhadra River. Thirty-one hills are cited
by the author having altitudes varying from 1,674 feet to 3,285 feet.

The rocks of the district are arranged in four principal groups—

Post-TERTIARY,. Pseudo - Lateritic Breccias. | Kankar formations.
Blown sands. Regur. Red soils. Mixed and white
soils.

Ailwvial.—Modern Alluvial deposits (loams and shingle
beds) of the Tungabhadra and its tributaries. Fossili-
ferous Travertine. Consolidated shingles. High-
level gravels (old alluvium) of the Tungabhadra.
Shingle fans.

IV. Recent AND ie — Talus formation. Cemented Taluses.

III. Tertrary (?). Terrace Laterite.
II. Lower ( Dharwar System.—Principal metalliferous rocks of South
TRANSITION. ( India.
S) I. ARcHZAN OR )
S Meramorpuic / Granitoids and gneisses with associated traps, etc.
<<

AND PLUTONIC. f

The Archean rocks, which form the fundamental series in the
peninsula, are very largely developed in the Bellary District, and
occupy fully five-sixths of its area. Their extent alone, therefore,
renders them the most important geological series to be treated of;
they are deserving of much interest, and of far closer study than
could be bestowed upon them, because of their general poverty
in minerals of economic importance, to the quest for which much
more time had to be devoted.

Taking the district as a whole, it must be described as consisting
mainly of granitoid rocks, generally of porphyritic character, the
metamorphic or gneissic crystallines playing a very subordinate
part in most places, though of such great importance in other parts
of the Madras Presidency.

The description of the Archean or metamorphic rocks occupies
the whole of chapter iv, pp. 26-73.

“Very marked and interesting illustrations of the power of
weather-action along lines of jointing are to be seen on the top of
the Fort Hill in the shape of water-holes which have been utilized
as cisterns. In every case the weathering has worked along lines
of jointing and produced the remarkable boles which are so useful
in holding rain-water, and of which the native builders availed
themselves so fully by increasing the water-holding capacity by dams.

“Some people seem to think the constant supply of water in these
holes a rather mysterious phenomenon, whereas it is in reality a very
simple one. The several catchment-areas which supply the holes
are more than large enough to fill them in good rainy seasons, and
the larger holes are so deep that their stock of water cannot evaporate
more than partially before they get a fresh supply from the skies, and

Reviews—Indian Geology. ta

thus they never run dry in a normal succession of seasons. There
is, then, no need to appeal to occult causes, such as natural artesian
action, pressure derived from the copper-mountain, or subterranean
syphons connected with mysterious water stores at unknown depths,
goodness knows where!” (p. 58.)

The lower Transition or Dharwar Rocks, a great system of sub-
metamorphic sedimentary rocks with numerous contemporaneous
trap-flows, was first recognized by Foote as distinct from the
South Indian gneiss; these rocks were originally deposited over
very much larger areas than those they now occupy, and very
probably extended across the whole or nearly the whole peninsula.

The Dharwar System was exposed to great contortion and deforma-
tion at a very remote geological period, followed by vast denudation,
which eroded and cut up the enormous folds, into which they had
been previously forced, into the great bands in which they now
occur. These transition rocks are richly interbedded with bands of
hematite, giving them great stability and resistance to denudation,
so that they now form most of the hilly country of the district.
Many illustrations and geological sections accompany this chapter,
pp. 74-175. These are followed by the intrusive rocks in the
Archean area, the Laterite terraces, the alluvial deposits, the
subaerial formations, and economic geology. Under this last
heading we find that iron, manganese, gold, and copper are met
with, the iron alone occurring in any quantity. There are also
excellent building stones.

The last chapter is devoted to prehistoric economic geology, and
describes the various implements met with of Paleolithic and
Neolithic age down to iron axes closely imitating polished stone
implements in form.

2. Baroda State. — Mr. Bruce Foote introduces his memoir on
Baroda as follows :—‘‘The duty of making a geological survey of
the Baroda State was entrusted to me early in October, 1891, and
occupied the working seasons of 1892, 1893, and 1894. During
those three years I visited carefully and examined closely all the
important mineral regions lying within the limits of the State, both
in Gujarat and Kathiawar. ‘The completion of this memoir has been
delayed partly by personal ill-health and by difficulties connected
with the preparation of the maps and plates requisite to illustrate
the memoir, the work required being of such a nature that all the
most important parts had to be done by myself, and did not admit
of my being appreciably assisted by anyone else.”

The Gujarat divisions of Baroda are separated from each other by
intercalated parts of British territory belonging to the districts of
Surat, Broach, Kaira, and Ahmedabad, and the political agencies of
Rewakanta, Panch Mahals, and Mahikanta.

The southern half of the Baroda territory lies about ten miles
inland from the Gulf of Cambay, except in the Nausari taluq
between Mindhola and Purna Rivers, where the Baroda territory
forms the seaboard; but the State possesses no seaport of any

80 Reviews—Indian Geology.

value, while, owing to the silting up of the estuaries of the great
rivers, no craft of any size can ascend to any point within the State
boundaries.

The northern half of the State lies entirely inland along the
valleys of Mahi, Sabarmati, and Sarasvati Rivers.

The drainage of the Gujarat divisions of Baroda State all falls
westward into the Arabian Sea, and, excepting that of the most
northerly taluqs, which are drained by the Banass and Saraswati
Rivers into the Runn of Kach, falls into the Gulf of Cambay, which
receives such a vast amount of silt brought down by the larger
rivers that it is rapidly being silted up, as shown by the present
condition of the harbours of Surat, Broach, and Cambay. Not two
centuries ago the seaports were visited by fleets of shipping of the
ordinary size of the traders of those days. Now they are with
difficulty reached by vessels of as low a tonnage as about 380 tons.

The succession of the rocks met with in the Gujarat divisions of
Baroda State are referable to the following groups, which are here
arranged in descending order :—

VI. Recent (b) Subaerial Formations.—Blown sands; soils; the
great blown loam or ‘ Loess’ formation; fluviatile and
marine alluvia.

(a) Old Alluvia of the Great Rivers.—Consolidated grits
and ferruginous gravels of the Sabarmati, Mahi, and Tapti
Quaternary deposits.

V. The Eocene (Nummulitic) System.—Clays, cement-stones, lime-
stones, conglomerates, and laterites of the Kim and Tapti
Valleys. Laterites and sandstones of the Sabarmati Vailey.
Laterites of Purna and Ambika Valleys.

IV. The Deccan Trap (Cretaceous) and Intertrappean Rocks.—Traps
and intertrappean rocks of the Mohar Valley (Atarsumba).
Traps and intertrappean rocks of the Mahi Valley (Sauli
taluq). Intertrappean rocks in the Vishwamitri. Traps in
the Dev River. Traps in the valley of the Heran. Spurs of
the Rajpipla Hills north of the Tapti. Spurs of the Sahyadri
range south of the Tapti. Dykes traversing the southern
trap area.

III. The Bagh Series.—Songir conglomerates and sandstones in
Sankheda taluq, and conglomerates and limestones in Sauli
taluq.

Il. The Champanir System.—Quartzites forming the hills north of
the Orsang River. Quartzites, limestones, calcareous schists,
clay schists, and slates in the valley of Heran and Aswan
Rivers.

I. The Archean Rocks.—Granite with pegmatite veins of the Upper
Sabarmati Valleys. Granites, gneisses, and crystalline lime-
stones of the Orsang and Unch Valleys, Sankheda taluq.
Intrusive rocks, pegmatites, quartz reefs, and trap-dykes.

Although so much of the country is masked by deep coverings
of alluvium, of sand, loess, and other late deposits, the Eocene
(Nummulitic) System, where it occurs, yields some fossils which

Reviews—Annual Report Indian Survey. 8l

have been identified by Stoliczka as—Rostellaria Prestwichi ; Tere-
bellum; Cerithium; Cyprea elegans; Natica longispira; Conus, sp. ;
Trochus, sp.; Pholas, sp.; Pecten Hopkinsi; P. Favret; P. corneus ;
Vulsella legumen; Ostrea Flemingii; O. lingura, etc.; Nummulites
perforata; N. Brongniarti; N. exponens; and N. spira.

Under the head of Economic Geology, the author points to one
serious drawback to the development of the country, namely, the
want of roads. Owing to the want of construction these lines of
would-be traffic are during the rains totally impassable, districts are
entirely isolated from one another, and travelling becomes impossible.
In dry weather the mud is exchanged for deep ruts and suffocating
clouds of dust. The tanga frequently sinks up to the axle-tree. Iron
and iron-ores are fairly abundant ; gold also is met with, but in very
small quantity. Building material can be obtained readily within
a reasonable depth below the surface in the western talugs of the
Kari and Baroda Prauts.

Part II is devoted to a sketch of the geology of the Gaekwari
Districts in the Kathiawar Peninsula. This area is about 1,320
square miles in extent, and largely occupied by rolling plains, whieh
as a rule are treeless and cheerless in aspect. The Gir forest is hilly,
and is the last refuge of the Gujarat lion, now reduced to about forty
individuals.

The succession of the rocks in the Kathiawar Gaekwari is
limited to—

Alluvium and subaerial deposits.
IT. Recesr. — } Aiholite.
IT. Tertiary. | Dwarka beds.

§ Gaj beds.

I. Creraczovs. Deccan Trap Series.
The only economic product of importance here seems to be the
building stones, principally the miliolite or Porbander stone largely
quarried at Porbandar.

It is quite impossible to do justice as we could desire to this
valuable memoir in the space at our command. ‘Three large folding
maps greatly assist the comprehension of the regions described.

Everyone interested in Indian geology will be grateful to
Mr. Bruce Foote for his contributions to a fuller knowledge of
these districts, which he has so carefully examined and reported
upon. Wherever Mr. Bruce Foote goes he gathers not only
geological notes but also ethnological treasures. One of these,
which he figures in this volume (pl. v), is a rude Palzolithic axe
from the alluvium of the Sabarmati River, and is very remarkable
in shape, not unlike an iron adze in form.

IV.—Generau Report on tHe WoRK CARRIED ON BY THE GEOLOGIOAL
Survey or InpIA FOR THE PERIOD FROM ApRIL 1, 1898, To
Marcu 31, 1899. Under the direction of C. L. Grimssacn,
C.LE., F.G.S. Large 12mo; pp. 91. (Calcutta, 1899.)

A ia be the various materials of this Report there is much interest

to be found in the “Lists of Assays and Examinations made

in the Laboratory during the past year” (pp. 3-10), melee the

DECADE IVY.—VOL. ViI.—NO. II.

82 Reviews—The Paleontographical Society.

account of a Stony Meteorite (p. 2) which fell at Gambat in Sind,
September 15th, 1897. Dr. A. von Kraaft reports on the Spiti
fossils (pp. 11-22), collected by Mr. H. H. Hayden, whose
report on the geology of Spiti is given at pp. 46-50. Economic
inquiries by the Surveyors, beginning with the distribution of
mica and the local systems of mining, were made under the
superintendence of Mr. T. H. Holland, whose much extended issue
of the late Professor Val. Ball’s account of Indian Corundum, Ruby,
and Sapphire, from Part iii of the “Manual of the Geology
of India,” 1881, was published in 1898. A preliminary report is
given at pp. 28-33. Mr. La Touche’s discovery of a coal area in
Bikanir is reported (pp. 83-35) as being likely to prove very
valuable. Another landslip at Naini Tal is reported at p. 390.
Geological Surveys have been carried on in the Central Provinces,
Central India, Western Rajputana, Himalayas, and Baluchistan, with
good results, often of much interest. A list of additions to the
Library is appended as usual. T. R. J.

V. — Tut PaLmonToGRAPHICAL Soormty or Lonpon: ANNUAL
Votume (LIII) ror 1899. Issued December, 1899.

f[\HE volume issued by the Society for the year 1899 contains
portions of four monographs; two of these are devoted to the

bivalved Mollusca, which, by the way, in one monograph are called

Lamellibranchia and in the other Lamellibranchiata.

1. A Monograph of the British Paleozoic Phyllopoda (Phyllocarida),
Packard. By Professor T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S., F.G.S.; ete..
and Dr. Henry Woodward, F.R.S., F.G.S., ete. Part IV
(Conclusion) : General Title-page; pp. i-xv, 175, 176 (re-
printed), 177-211; pls. xxvi-xxxi.

This forms the concluding portion of this Monograph, the preceding
parts of which appeared in the volumes of the Paleontographical
Society for the years 1887, 1892, and 1898. The study of the
genus Dithyrocaris, which was commenced in part iii, is continued
and concluded. Two new species, D. Dunnii and D. Neilsoni, are
described from tail-pieces; the former upon specimens found by
Mr. John Dunn in the Redesdale Shales, Northumberland, the latter
upon examples in Mr. Neilson’s collection from Hast Kilbride.
A new genus, Chenocaris, is proposed to include McCoy’s Dithyro-
caris tenuistriatus from the Carboniferous Limestone of Little Island,
Cork, and a new species (C. Youngii) founded upon a specimen from
the Upper Limestone group of the Lower Carboniferous series at
Robroyston, Lanarkshire. For the unique specimen in the Museum
of the Geological Survey of Scotland that was collected from
a “‘greenish-grey’ (now reddish), flaggy, calcareous shale of the
Lower Red Sandstone series at the Carmichael Burn, near the
Manse, four and a half miles south-east of Lanark,” and previously
described as Dithyrocaris striatus, the new genus Calyptocaris is
proposed, and into it is placed, somewhat doubtfully, a new species
(C.? Richteriana) founded upon a single specimen from the “ Cypri-
dinen-Schiefer”” (HEntomis-shales), at Saalfeld, Sachsen-Meiningen.

Reviews—The Palwontographical Society. 83

Then follow descriptions of various tail-pieces belonging to the genus
Dithyrocaris ; some remarks upon the allied genus Mesothyra from
the Devonian strata of North America, and a note upon F’. A. Roemer’s
Dithyrocaris Jaschei from the Hercynian Limestone in the Kloster-
holz, near Ilsenberg, Hartz, which the authors refer with a query to
the genus Ptychocaris. There is a short chapter on “The Gastric
Teeth of Dithyrocaris,” with a number of illustrations of these curious
little fossils. The part concludes with observations on “Some Allies
of Dithyrocaris.” These are—(i) Lebescontia enigmatica, a new genus
and species founded upon two specimens which were collected by
M. Paul Lebesconte, of Rennes, from the Lower Silurian rocks of
Brittany and neighbourhood, which, although ‘somewhat obscure
on account of imperfection, distortion, and embedment,” the authors
believe to be ‘“‘the relics of some kind of bivalved or shield-like
Phyllopod, near to but not identical with Dithyrocaris”; (ii)
Lebescontia occulta, a new form from the ‘“ Upper Limestone ”
series at Linn Spout, south-west of Dalry, twenty miles south-west
of Glasgow; (iii) Hibbertia orbicularis, already described and figured
by the authors in the GrontoaicaL Macazrne for September, 1899.

This being the concluding part of the Monograph there are various
lists, several pages of ‘“‘ Addenda et Corrigenda,” and an index and
general title-page to the whole volume. ‘The binder is instructed to
“cancel the title-pages of parts i, ll, ill, and iv... and substitute
the general title-page given in the volume for the year 1899”; but
though the dates of the several parts are given, some workers may
prefer to have the volume bound with the title-pages of the several

parts in position as issued. We shall certainly do so ourselves. 5

2. A Monograph of the Cretaceous Lamellibranchia of England.
By Henry Woods, M.A., St. John’s College, Cambridge.
Part I: Nuculanide, Nuculide, Anomiide, and Arcide.
pp. 1-72: pls. i-xiv.

Mr. Woods has already devoted much attention to the Paleontology
of the Invertebrata, and not very long ago contributed to the Geo-
logical Society of London an important paper on “The Mollusca of
the Chalk Rock” (Q.J.G.S., vol. lii, 1896, pp. 68-98, pls. ii—iv;
and ibid., vol. liii, 1897, pp. 3877-404, pls. xxvii and xxviii).
Mr. Woods doubtless found the nomenclature of the Cretaceous
Lamellibranchiata in a sad state of confusion, and this may have led
him to commence the present Monograph. The bad state of pre-
servation of many of the Chalk Mollusca renders their study
exceedingly difficult; but as the Chalk is now attracting the special
attention of not a few geologists, it is very desirable that all the
Mollusca, especially the Lamellibranchiata and the Gasteropoda, which
have hitherto been in a very unsatisfactory state, should be over-
hauled, and the nomenclature corrected as far as possible. Mr. Woods’
monograph appears, therefore, very opportunely, and he deserves the
hearty thanks of all for undertaking to work out this very difficult
group. As in every other group, many species have been very
differently interpreted by different authors; we are therefore glad
to find that whenever possible the type-specimens of the species

84 Reviews—The Palwontographicat Society.

have been examined, for very often this is the only way to arrive at
a satisfactory conclusion.

This first part of Mr. Woods’ Monograph deals with the
Nuculanides, the Nuculidw, the Anomiide, and the Arcidea. The
arrangement of the species of each genus is in the main strati-
graphical.

The Cretaceous members of the family Nuculanidz are comprised
in the genus Nuculana, H. F. Link, and range from the Crackers
and Atherfield Clay of Atherfield, through the Gault and Upper
Greensand, possibly into the Chalk Rock. It is found also at several
horizons in the Speeton Clay, a new form, N. Speetonensis, being
described from the Speeton Clay of Speeton, upon specimens
in the British Museum (Natural History) and in the Museum of
Practical Geology, but their precise horizon is not recorded.

The only representative of the family Nuculide is the genus
Nucula, Lamarck, which occurs in the Speeton Clay, and ranges from
the Lower Greensand through the Gault and Upper Greensand,
possibly into the Chalk Rock. A new species (N. Lamplughi), the
types of which are in Mr. Lamplugh’s collection, is described from
the Speeton Clay (D4) of Speeton.

The Cretaceous Anomiide are comprised in the genus Anomia,
Linnzus, which ranges from the Lower Greensand through the
Gault, Upper Greensand, and Cambridge Greensand, into the
Totternhoe Stone.

The family Arcide is represented by the genera Arca, Linneeus
(sensu stricto) ; Barbatia, J. EK. Gray ; Grammatodon, Meek & Hayden;
Trigonoarca, 'T. A. Conrad; Cucullea, Lamarck, with the new sub-
genus Dicranodonta; Isoarca, G. Miinster; Pectunculus, Lamarck ;
and Limopsis, A. Sasso. The subgenus Dicranodonta is proposed for

Geology, Jermyn Street.

3. A Monograph of the British Carboniferous Lamellibranchiata.
By Wheelton Hind, M.D., ete. Part IV: Edmondida,
Cyprinidz, Crassitellidee. pp. 277-860; pls. xxvi-xxxix.

In the present part the author deals with the rest of the
Edmondidx, comprising, in addition to those treated of in part iii,
the genera Sedgwickia, M‘Coy; and Edmondia, De Koninck, with the
subgenus Scaldia, De Ryckholt. Sedgwickia is represented by five

Reviews—Professor Lewis’ Crystallography. 85

species, three of which (S. ovata, S. Scotica, and S. suborbicularis)
are described as new. In his observations on this genus the author
states that ‘“ Venus centralis, M‘Coy, and WDolabra_ securiformis,
M‘Coy . . . doubtless belong to the genus ; unfortunately, however,
the type specimen of the former has decomposed, and that name can
no longer be retained.” If we are to conclude from this statement
that when the type-specimen decomposes the name of the species
disappears, what a prospect for the names of the Gault and London
Clay fossils, which have such a strong inclination to go ‘wrong’!
The genus Hdmondia, De Koninck, is represented by about twenty
species, six of which are regarded as new, and the subgenus Scaldia,
De Ryckholt, by two species.

Of the Cyprinids the author recognizes among the Carboniferous
Lamellibranchiata only the new genus Mytilomorpha, the typical
Carboniferous form of which he considers to be that described by
Phillips as Cypricardia rhombea ; the only other British Carboni-
‘ferous species being Jf. angulata, n.sp.

To the Crassitellide Dr. Hind refers Hall’s genus Cypricardella,
seven species of which are desoribed in the present part ; Fischer and
Beushausen placed this genus in the Astartide, and the author admits
that it really possesses characters intermediate between the two
“genera” [families]. He regards Astartella and Cypricardella as
probably identical, and says (p. 347) “the date of the description of
Astartella is 1858, the same year as that of Cypricardella,” a state-
ment, however, which does not quite agree with the references to
these two genera given on the preceding page.

4, A Monograph on the Inferior Oolite Ammonites of the British
Islands. By 8. 8. Buckman, F.G.S., ete. Part XI. Supple-
ment: ii.—Revision of, and addition to, the Hildoceratide.
pp. xxxiii-lxiv ; pls. v—xiv.

Mr. Buckman continues his revision of this family, dealing chiefly
with the forms which were referred in the body of the work to
Inoceras and Ludwigia. He says that “nearly all the specimens
inscribed as Zioceras in the body of this work must be removed from
that position.” The genus Lioceras is restricted, opalinus being the
type species of the genus, and ‘“‘Quenstedt’s fig. 10 in pl. vii of his
‘Cephalopoden’ is regarded as the arbiter of what is opalinus.”
Several new species and not a few new genera are proposed.

VI—A Treatise on OrystaLLocrapuy.—By W. J. Lewis. pp. 612,
with 553 figures in the text. (Cambridge, 1899.)

URING Mr. Lewis’s tenure of the University Professorship,
which has extended over nearly twenty years, the subject of
Mineralogy (in combination with Crystallography) has been made
an independent subject of the Natural Sciences Tripos, and for
some time has had a considerable number of students; a textbook
of Crystallography at once suited to the requirements of the Tripos
and corresponding in its methods and terminology to the professorial
lectures will be a great boon to Cambridge men, and the book will
doubtless be welcomed in other Universities, both at home and

'

86 Reviews—Dana’s Appendix—The S. Wales Coalfield.

abroad, more especially in America. Among the many good points
which we have noticed, we may more particularly mention the lucid
descriptions of the methods of crystal drawing and the numerous
worked problems illustrating in detail the methods practically
adopted in the calculation of the forms of crystals from the
measured angles. The methods of projection and the uses of
anharmonic ratios are also well explained. In the treatment of the
subject great stress is laid on the independence of the thirty-two
types of crystalline symmetry, and their deduction and characteristics
are illustrated in full detail. Most of the figures have been
specially drawn, and there are frequent references to the specimens
preserved in the Cambridge Collection. The Cambridge University
Press is to be heartily congratulated on this particularly handsome
and valuable addition to its series of Natural Science Manuals.

M. F.

VII.—First APPENDIX TO THE SrxtH HpitTion or Dana’s SystEM
or Mingeratocy. By Epwarp §. Dana. pp. 75. (New
York, 1899.)

HE usefulness of the well-known Dana’s System of Mineralogy,
the sixth edition of which was published in 1892, has been
increased by the issue of a First Appendix, which includes within
a brief compass a description of the more salient characters of the
new mineral species discovered during the last seven years, and
an account of the results of later research on the species already
described in the Sixth Edition itself. For convenience the mineral
species are noted in alphabetical order, and full references are given
to the original memoirs. The Appendix is brought well up to date,
and takes account of researches published very shortly before its
Own appearance. M

VIII.—Tur Grotoay or tue Sours Wa.es Coatrientp. Parrl:
THE Country aRoUND Newrort, Monmoutusuire. By AusBRey
STRAHAN, M.A., F.G.S. Memoirs of the Geological Survey.
pp. vi, 97. (London: printed for H.M. Stationery Office,
1899. Price 2s.)

HE resurvey of the great Coalfield of South Wales was com-
menced in 1891 by Mr. Strahan, and has been carried on with
the aid of Mr. J. R. Dakyns (who has now retired from the service),

Mr. R. H. Tiddeman, Mr. Walcot Gibson, and Mr. T. C. Cantrill.

The present Memoir is the first of a series intended to explain the

one-inch geological maps of the district, of which four have now

been published. In it we have descriptions of the Silurian rocks of

Usk, of the Old Red Sandstone, Carboniferous rocks, Keuper Marl,

Rhetic Beds, Lower Lias, Glacial Drifts, and more recent deposits.

The Silurian rocks comprise Wenlock and Ludlow Beds, and while

they are overlain with apparent conformity by the Old Red Sand-

stone, it is noted that the plane of demarcation is sharp and that
there is no evidence of gradation. This is not as we have usually
been taught to believe. Moreover, instead of any break in the Old

Red Sandstone, marking a division into Upper and Lower beds, it is

Reviews—G. F. Matthew—The Eitcheminian Fauna. 87

stated that the entire group is made up of a conformable series of red
sandstones, conglomerates, and marls with cornstones. Of these,
three divisions have been traced out and coloured on the map.
Remains of Pteraspis and Cephalaspis occur in the lowermost division.

The Lower Carboniferous rocks rest conformably on the Old Red
Sandstone, but they differ from equivalent beds in the Mendip area,
inasmuch as the mass of ‘“‘ Lower Limestone Shales” there, is repre-
sented in the neighbourhood of Newport by a lower bed of brown,
often oolitic, encrinital limestone 50 to 100 feet thick, surmounted
by from 40 to 90 feet of shale. Above is the main mass of Carboni-
ferous Limestone, which in the area now described varies from 150
to 700 feet. No particular attention appears to have been given to
the fossils of these rocks, and we can hardly wonder that this has
been the case. Fossils are not readily to be obtained from the
Carboniferous Limestone of Monmouthshire, and the field-geologist
can scarcely give the weeks of labour to quarries and other exposures
of rock, without which collecting would be of little value.

No distinct division of ‘‘ Upper Limestone Shales” is recognized.
The strata immediately above the Carboniferous Limestone are
grouped as Millstone Grit, and they comprise not only the
characteristic hard grit with quartz pebbles, but considerable
masses of shales. The details relating to the Coal-measures
naturally form the most important features in this Memoir, judged
from an economic point of view. A study of the various faults and
dislocations is most important, and these will be best understood
when the map is placed alongside the memoir. Descriptions are
given of the Keuper Marls, the Rhztic Beds, and the Lower Lias
which are exposed near Newport, in quarries and cuttings at Lis-
Werry and at Goldcliff on the Severn shore. Various Glacial drifts,
River gravels, and other Alluvial deposits are also described.

IX.—Pretiminary Notice or tan Ercueminian Fauna or Care
Breton. By G. F. Marruew, LL.D., etc. Bull. Nat. Hist. Soc.
New Brunswick, vol. iv, pp. 198-208, pls. i-iv. December, 1899.

(T\HE fossils described in this article were collected from a terrane

beneath the Cambrian in Cape Breton Island, in the province
of Nova Scotia, Canada. The sections given prove that this terrane
is beneath the Cambrian, which overlies it unconformably, They
show no ‘Lower Cambrian,’ as the faunas of Paradoxides and

Protolenus are absent, or, at least, have not been recognized. The

beds are therefore assigned by Dr. Matthew to the same level as the

beds of similar appearance and position in New Brunswick and

Newfoundland (see Grotocicat Magazine, Dec. IV, Vol. VI, pp. 373

and 472, August and October, 1899; see also next notice). The

Pre-Cambrian life-period thus revealed has been named Htcheminian

by its discoverer. It was a period characterized in this region by

much volcanic activity, and by rather humble forms of life: worms
in abundance, primitive brachiopods, Capulidea but few other
molluscs, some ostracods but no trilobites. None the less, still

@ long way from the beginning of things.

The fauna in the Cape Breton Etcheminian is quite different from

88, Reviews—G. F. Matthew—The Cambrian Fauna.

that found in rocks supposed to be of the same age in Newfoundland ;:
in fact, the genera are all such as occur at the base of the Cambrian
in New Brunswick (Protolenus zone). A difference of age, however,
is to be inferred from the fact that the species are all different and
new. Of Brachiopods there are —Lingulella, two species ; Lepto-
bolus (?), two sp.; Obolus (subgen. Palgobolus, n.subgen.), one Sp. ;
Acrothele, one sp.; Acrotreta, one sp. Of Ostracods there are—
Bradoria (n.gen.), three sp: ; Schmidtella, two sp. Four plates of
figures representing these species accompany the article.

X.—Srupres on Camprtan Kaunas: No. 3, Upper Cambrian Fauna
of Mount Stephen, etc.; No. 4, Fragments of the Cambrian
Faunas of Newfoundland. Also The Etcheminian Fauna of
Smith Sound, Newfoundland. By G. F. Marruew, D.Se., LL.D.
-Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, ser. 11, vol. v (1899), sect. 4, p. 39.
HESE articles on the early Paleozoic faunas of the eastern part
of Canada and Newfoundland and on that of Mount Stephen in,
British Columbia serve to extend and broaden our knowledge of the
species of that early time in America. Dr. Matthew, on a careful’
review of the Mount Stephen fauna, concludes that it may be
regarded as equivalent to the Peliura fauna of N.W.Hurope. Eleven
genera of trilobites are recognized,—Ogygia (Ogygopsis), Bathy-
uriscus, Zacanthoides, Neolenus (n.gen. with 5 n.spp.), Ptychoparia,
Dorypyge, Agnostus, Corynexochus, Dolichometopus, Oryctocephalus,
and Conocephalites. Two new genera and four new species of
Hyolithide are described. This problematic group of animals is,
in accordance with the views of Pelseneer and Holm, absolutely
removed from the Pteropoda or any other Mollusca, and is referred by
Dr. Matthew to the Annelida, a conclusion which is at any rate more
consistent with their predominance at so low a geological horizon.
Under ‘Study’ No. 4, a variety of forms from several horizons
of the Cambrian of Newfoundland is described. Raphistoma (?)
Kelliensis, n.sp., is an early type of a Pleurotomarioid Gasteropod.
Several worm-burrows and trails are described, and a large Hyolithes.
Among the trilobites is a Jlcrodiscus; the Agrauloid forms are
represented by Strenuella (subgen.) ; two new species of Miomacea
are described; one new Avalonia, and a fine Metadoxides. The
Conocoryphine are re-classified, C. trilineatus as subgen. Atops, and
Erinnys venulosa, Salt., as Z. (Harpides) breviceps, Ang. ~
The third article gives the fauna of a set of beds described by the
author as a separate terrane, lying beneath the beds that carry the
well-known fauna of Paradoxides and the less-known fauna of
Protolenus, which underlies it. This fauna, to which we have.
referred in the preceding note, is remarkable for the prevalence of
Hyolithide and primitive types of Gasteropods and Brachiopods.
In this article the new Gasteropod genus Randomia is described, and.
the following new species: Kutorgina, one sp.; Randomia, one sp. 3
Platyceras, three sp.; MModiolopsis, one sp.; Urotheca, one sp...
' Helenia, one sp.;. Hyolithellus, one sp.; Orthotheca, four sp. ;.
Hyolithes, one sp. ; Aptychopsis, one sp. }
. The articles are accompanied by eight plates of figures.

Reports and Proceedings— Geological Society of London. 89

mss Oe SAAT DD) PROCHMRDTEN GS:

ee

GeoLocicaL Socirrry oF Lonpon.

_ December 20, 1899.—W. Whitaker, B.A., F.R.S., President, in the
Chair. The following communications were read :—

1. “On some Effects of Harth-movement on the Carboniferous
Volcanic Rocks of the Isle of Man.” By G. W. Lamplugh, Esq.,
I.G.S., of H.M. Geological Survey.

[Communicated by permission of the Director-General of the Geological Survey. |

The author, since the completion of his survey of the Isle of Man,
has studied the coast-section in the Carboniferous Volcanic Series
between Castleton Bay and Poolvash, with the result that he
has discovered evidence that the strata have undergone much .
deformation in pre-T'riassic times, and probably before the Upper
Permian rocks of the island were deposited. In the western part
of the outcrop the volcanic material consists almost wholly of tuff,
in places bedded and fossiliferous; in the eastern part there exists
a chaotic mass of coarse and fine fragmental volcanic material
traversed by ridges of basaltic rock and containing entangled patches
of dark limestone. The author now considers that the larger
lenticles and most of the smaller blocks of limestone have been
torn up from the underlying limestone floor during a sliding forward
or overthrusting of the volcanic series upon it. Such blocks do not
contain ashy material, and the patches of truly interbedded, ashy
limestone can be distinguished from them. ‘The sections at Scarlet
Point, Poolvash, and between Cromwell’s Walk and Close ny Chollagh
Point are described and figured. Strips of limestone are found to
shoot steeply upwards and become wedged in between the blocks
in the agglomerate; they give indications of sliding and disturbance,
and their outer surfaces ave indurated and chert-like. ‘lhe ash,
which usually rests on black argillaceous limestone flags, in places
appears to come into juxtaposition with a somewhat lower horizon,
crushed, platy material intervening between the two. Steep domes
of the limestone break into sharp crests which shoot up into the ash
and are bent over towards the north; and between the crests there
are small ragged strips of limestone entangled among the tuff.
Bands of vesicular basalt are bent and shattered. A dyke-like
mass has had a segment sliced off and thrust forward among the
agglomerate, so that its flow-lines of vesicles are sharply truncated
along the fractured edge, which is often notched and filled in with
ash as though lumps had been torn out of it. The composition of
the included masses is influenced by the neighbourhood of the rocks
in siti, calcareous near limestone, basaltic near the basalt masses.

The phenomena may be explained as the result of earth-movement
on a group of rocks consisting of limestoue passing up into tuff,
interbedded with lava-flows, and possibly traversed by sills or
dykes of basaltic rock. The effects of the disturbance appear to
be limited vertically and horizontally, and to have been influenced
by the differential resistance of the component rocks. Analogous
features occur in the Borrowdale Volcanic Series and in the Silurian
volcanic rocks of Portraine.

90 Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London.

2. “The Zonal Classification of the Wenlock Shales of the Welsh
Borderland.” By Miss Gertrude L. Elles. (Communicated by
J. E. Marr, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S.)

This paper deals with the Wenlock Rocks of Builth, the Long
Mountain, and the Dee Valley, and establishes the following
sequence in these districts :—

SouTHERN
Buiuta. Lone Mountain. Dez VALLEY. re
Lower Ludlow. | Lower Ludlow. Nant-Glyn Flags. | Cardiola-Shales.
6. Zone of Zone of Slates with very Zone of
Cyrtograptus C. Lundgreni. we few graptolites. | C. Carrutherst,
Lundgreni, = Lapw. = Zone of
Tullb. a NM. testis.
@ J ti eee
5. Zone of Zone of g
Cyrtograptus C. rigidus. Fe ca
rigidus, Tullb. E WAKO Ns
C. rigidus.
4. Zone of Zone of Zone of Be
Cyrtograptus C. Linnarssoni. C. Linnarssoni.
Linnarssoni,
Lapw.
3. Zone of ; :
Cyrtograptus, ? Pen-y-glog Grit. |
sp. nov. t Zone of
: M. Riccartonensis
2. Zone of Zone of 3 Zone of
Monograptus | M. Riccartonensis| = | M. Riccartonensis.
Riccartonensis, a
Lapw. a
ch
1. Zone of 5 b Zone of Zone of
Cyrtograptus ; a C. Murchisoni. | C. Murehisoni.
Murchisoni, a
Carr.
(Local (Local (Succession conformable.) (Succession
Unconformity.) | Unconformity.) conformable.)
Tarannon Shales? | Purple Shales Tarannon Shales. Shales with
: (? Tarannon), graptolites.
Llandovery Grits. | Llandovery Grits. Corwen Grit.

The results obtained by the author completely confirm the work
of Tullberg on the Wenlock Shales of Southern Sweden.

Along the Welsh border the Wenlock Rocks do not cover a large
area, but are merely a fringe to the Ludlow Rocks. The former
are characterized by graptolites of the priodon-Flemingii type, the
latter by those of the colonus type.

The general structure of the Builth district is a syncline towards
the north and north-west part of a series of folds whose axes run
north-east and south-west. A later set of movements, along east
and west axes, and of later date, lifted the district to the north and
north-west of Builth, and, combined with the effect of previous
movements and subsequent denudation, caused the exposure in the

Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London. 91

north and north-west of beds which are overlapped to the east. The
full six zones in the foregoing table occur to the north-east of
Builth Road Station, but some of them are overlapped north-west of
Builth; and at Aberedw Hill, east of Builth, only the highest zone
is exposed. The entire succession in the north and north-west part
of the district is given below :—

10.
palow: . Micaceous sandy shales, with rotten limestone bands.

0. Hard light-grey siliceous flags.
9
8. Calcareous flagstones, with fossiliferous bands.
(f) 7. Calcareous fissile shales, with beds of flagstone.
= Zone of Cyrtograptus Lundgreni.
6. Hard grey calcareous shales with graptolites.
5
4

= Zone of Cyrtograptus rigidus.

. Light-coloured flags, unfossiliferous _... (400 feet) ?
Wenlock | (2) 4- Grey calcareous flags and shales, with limestone
halons concretions... ... . 300 feet.
y = Zone of Cyr togr aptus Linnarssoni.
(c) 3. Soft shales with harder flaggy beds sao. oe co, AND BEI,
= Zone of Cyrtograptus, sp. nov.
(0) 2. Hard calcareous flagstones ... 300 feet.

= Zone of Monogr aptus Riccartonensis.
(2) 1. Soft fissile shales alternating with flags.
( = Zone of Cyrtograptus Murchisoni.

The Wenlock Shale of this area was deposited on the sinking
shore-line of the old Llandeilo ridge, resulting in the overlap of
higher beds on lower.

The Long Mountain is a syncline with north-east and south-west
axis. Here also there must have been deposition on a sinking ridge
accompanied by overlap. ‘The lowest beds, exposed near Chirbury,
belong to the zone of Monograptus Riccartonensis ; but on the
north-west side, near Middletown, the lowest beds seen above the
Tarannon shales belong to the zone of Cyrtograptus Linnarssoni.
The relationship of these beds to the Tarannon shales is regarded
as an unconformability. The sections in this district confirm those
established for the Builth area.

In the Llangollen Basin the general structure is a yan fold
complicated by many minor folds and faults. The ‘pale slates’
are covered by darker shales belonging to the zone of Cyrtograptus
Murchisoni ; and in this district the “relationship of the lowest zones
is clearer than at Builth or the Long Mountain.

The palzontological part of the paper describes several species,
some of which are recorded for the first time in the country:
Cyrtograptus Carruthersi, C. rigidus, and a new species of Cyrto-
graptus of zonal value, four varieties of Monograptus Flemingit,
three of M. vomerinus, one variety of M. testis, and two new species
of ee are amongst the forms dealt with.

“On an Intrusion of Diabase into Permo-Carboniferous Rocks
at Froerch Henry Bay (Tasmania).” By T. Stephens, Esq., M.A.,
N)

The relationship of the abundant diabase to the Permo-Carboni-
ferous strata of the island has been long a matter of dispute.
Among others, Jukes described sections sab appeared to confirm
the view that Permo-Carboniferous sediments were deposited round

92 Correspondence—Mr. J. R. Dakyns.

vast masses of igneous rock previously cooled and denuded. The
author has identified and visited the sections, and finds in one that,
although there is a step-like junction between the sediments and
the igneous rocks, it is the result of intrusion of diabase, and not
of the deposition of sediment. ‘The sediment, which is fossiliferous,
is converted into an intensely hard whitish marble, and the associated
shale bands into chert. The diabase, which is ordinarily an ophitic
rock, acquires at the junction a finely crystalline-granular structure.
Jukes’s second section also gives undoubted evidence of intrusion.

GroLocican Society or Lonpon: Mzpats anp AWARDS,
January 10th, 1900.
The Council of this Society has decided to give the Medals and

Awards on February 16th, 1900, as follows :—

The “ Wollaston Gold Medal” to the American Geologist, Professor
G. K. Gilbert, For. Memb. Geol. Soc., of the United States
Geological Survey, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.

The “ Murchison Medal” to Baron Adolf Erik Nordenskidld, Ph.D.,
For. Memb. Geol. Soc., of Stockholm.

The “Lyell Medal” to Mr. J. E. Marr, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., of
Cambridge (for many years Secretary of the Geological
Society of London), Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge.

The Wollaston Fund to Mr. George Thurland Prior, M.A., F.G.S.,
of the Mineralogical Department, British Museum (Natural
History), S.W.

The Murchison Fund to Mr. A. Vaughan Jennings, F.L.S., EGS.,
Assoc. R.8.M., ete.

The Lyell Fund to Mies G. L. Elles, Woodwardian Museum,
Cambridge.

The Barlow-Jameson Fund (1) to Mr. G. C. Crick, Assoc. R.S.M.,
F.G.8., Geological Department, British Museum (Natural
History), Cromwell Road, 8.W.; (2) to Professor T. T.
Groom, M.A., D.Sc. Lond., F.G.S., of the College, Reading.

CORRESPONDENCE.

THE COLOUR OF GLASLYN AND OF LLYN LLYDAW.

Sir,—Glaslyn and Llydaw are the names of the two chief
Snowdonian lakes. Glaslyn has from time immemorial been noted,
as its name implies, for the greenish colour of its water; but until
this year, 1899, there has not been anything peculiar about the
colour of Llydaw. Last summer, however, for the first time within at
least the last fifty years, the water of Llydaw has become as green as
that of Glaslyn. The cause of this change of colour is not far ‘to seek,
for last spring the company that works the Snowdon copper-mine
commenced crushing and washing their ore on the bank ot Llydaw,
So that a large quantity of greenish débris is daily carried into
the lake, whose water has thus become turbid and greenish in
colour. "The rock excavated along the copper veins is of a greenish
hue, as anyone may see by looking at the tips at the mouths of the

Correspondence—Mr. G. C. Crick. 93

adit levels. The change of colour in Llydaw explains the colour of

Glaslyn, about the cause of which there has hitherto been some

doubt, for it must now be obvious that Glaslyn owes its green colour

to the detritus of green rock washed into t from the adit levels of

the mine. J. R. Daxyns.
Prn-x-Gwryp, Nov. 14, 1899.

CATALOGUE OF THE,FOSSIL CEPHALOPODA IN THE BRITISH
MUSEUM (NATURAL HISTORY), PART III: A CORRECTION.

Srr,—The woodblocks used in illustrating Part iii of the ‘“ Cata-
logue of the Fossil Cephalopoda in the British Museum (Natural
History),” by Dr. A. H. Foord and myself, have just passed through
my hands, and on comparing them with the figures in the book
I find that there has been a very unfortunate transposition of the
figures of the suture-lines of some of the species of Gephyroceras.
The blocks themselves are numbered correctly, but owing to
a printer’s error they do not appear in their proper places in the
volume. The following corrections are necessary :— For Fig. 33
(suture-line of Gephyroceras affine) see Fig. 34: for Fig. 34 (suture-
line of Gephyroceras calculiforme) see Fig. 36; for Fig. 85 (suture-
line of Gephyroceras equabile) see Fig. 833; and for Fig. 86 (suture-
line of Gephyroceras serratum) see Fig. 35. These four figures, then,
with their descriptions, should have been as follows :—

Fic. 33.
Suture-line of Gephyroceras affine (Steininger). Copied from Holzapfel and completed.
Fia. 34.

Suture-line of Gephyroceras calculiforme (Beyrich), enlarged. After Sandberger.

Fig. 35.

Wee ce wr
Suture-line of Gephyroceras equabile (Beyrich). After Sandberger.

Fig. 36.

f
? |
Suture-line of Gephyroceras serratwm (Steininger). After Sandberger.

Gro. C. CRICK.

British Museum (Narurat History).
December 22, 1899.

94 Correspondence—Professor EF. Hull,

THE SUB-OCEANIC VALLEY OF THE RIVER CONGO.

Str, —I have just completed the details of this magnificent
submerged river-channel by means of the soundings on the Admiralty
chart No. 604. Fortunately they are sufficiently numerous at this
part of the African coast to enable me to do so with great accuracy.
That the Congo valley is continued under the Atlantic to a great
depth has been known for some years, and accompanying the paper
by Mr. Edward Stallibrass on “ Deep-sea Soundings in connection
with Submarine Telegraphy,”* there is a plan of this sub-oceanic
valley from the mouth of the Congo down to the 1,000-fathom
contour, which very closely corresponds with that drawn by myself.
The scale of Mr. Stallibrass’ map is about half that of the Admiralty
chart, or about 25 miles to the inch: the details deserve publication
on the full scale. The length of the submerged valley is about 120
miles, and, like those of the West of Europe, it opens out on the
abyssal floor at a depth of 1,200 fathoms. The valley is remarkably
straight for a distance of about 100 miles, and nearly coincides with
the 6th parallel of South latitude, but at this point bends slightly
northwards. It is generally narrow, and bounded by walls, in some
places precipitous, descending to depths of 2,000-4,000 feet within
very short horizontal spaces, and the average fall of the channel
is 60 feet per mile. It is unnecessary to point out the significance
of the presence of this great submerged river valley as far south
as 6° beyond the Equator. It proves beyond question that the
western margin of Africa has shared in the great upheaval and
subsequent depression by several thousand feet of that of Western
Europe and the British Isles, and, let me add, represents on the
eastern side of the Atlantic the uprise and depression of the
Antillean continent so ably elucidated by Professor Spencer. I hope
to treat this subject more fully in a paper to be read before the
Victoria Institute this session. Epwarp Hutt.

January 15, 1900.

Oi Reo PAGEe ae

JOHN RUSKIN, M.A., EL: D:.) D:- Gala yeERGEse
Born Fespruary, 1819. Diep January 20, 1900.

Tue great Art-writer and Critic of the century, John Ruskin,
passed away peacefully on the afternoon of Saturday, 20th January,
his life’s work accomplished long since. ;

Few men have had greater influence on modern thought in matters
pertaining to art, pictures, sculpture, and architecture than John
Ruskin; he was always an idealist and romantically enthusiastic in
his notions, and wholly unworldly, yet no one believed more strongly
than he did in his ability to regenerate the world and reform its
abuses. His kindness of heart was extreme, and his sympathies
were universal. He has been, as such a man naturally would be,
severely criticized for his published views on ‘ Political Economy,’

1 Journ. Telegraphic Engineers, vol. xvi (1888), p, 479.

Obituary—John Ruskin, M_A., LL.D. 95

and his fierce comments on those manufacturers and merchants who
pile up riches by the employment of labour. Doubtless Ruskin
forgot for the moment that his own splendid abilities mainly owed
the opportunity for their development and sustained energy through
life to the accumulated fortune of his father, a partner in the firm of
Ruskin, Telford, & Domecq, London.

His success as an art-critic and writer gave him unbounded belief
in his power to carry out any matter upon which he had set his
heart. Thus, at one time (resenting the intervention of publishers)
he determined to print, illustrate, and publish his own works. At
another time he started a business as a tea-dealer in order to show
that trade might be conducted in an honourable and honest manner.
He encouraged the undergraduates at Oxford to dig and repair the
roads ; and he himself undertook to keep the streets clean between
the British Museum and St. Giles’, engaging a staff of helpers and
setting them an example of their duties.

Everyone who loves Ruskin is, of course, well acquainted with
his numerous works—his “ Modern Painters,” ‘Stones of Venice,”
“Seven Lamps of Architecture,” ‘“ Lectures on Architecture and
Painting,” “Fors Clavigera,” ‘‘ Ethics of the Dust,” ‘Sesame and
Lilies,” and some thirty other works, essays and lectures. But how
many are aware that he had a strong attachment to geology and
mineralogy !

When taken as a boy to Wales by his parents he enjoyed his first
sight of really bold scenery ; he ascended Snowdon and Cader Idris,
and, to his intense delight, found for the first time in his life a real
mineral. Ruskin believed if he had been ailowed to remain there
in charge of the good Welsh guide and his wife they would have
made a man of him, and also “ probably the first geologist of my
time in Europe.” Although this youthful dream was never realized,
and he devoted his after years to art and architecture, his crossings
and recrossings of the Alps in his frequent pilgrimages to his
beloved Italy made a powerful impression upon his imagination,
as may be seen by his notes and sketches published in the
Grotocicat Magazine for 1865, whilst his subsequent papers on
Banded and Brecciated Agates, 1867-1870, op. cit., may still be read
with intense pleasure for their wonderful word-painting ; these, too,
being all illustrated by Ruskin’s own hand. His “ Deucalion” on
Geology is also most attractive.

Only a few years since he was deeply engrossed in arranging a case
of specimens in the Mineralogical Gallery of the British Museum of
Natural History, Cromwell Road, to illustrate the structure of Agates,
accompanied by a printed description by himself. To this collection
he also presented the great South African uncut natural gem, which
he named the “Colenso Diamond” after the late Bishop Colenso.
The Ruskin Museum, founded by him at Meersbrook Hall, near
Sheffield, is a treasure-house of Art, in which minerals also find
a place, Of Ruskin’s many acts of noble generosity to the world
the public Press is now everywhere speaking in most just and
appreciative praise; the innumerable kindnesses which he secretly
performed will never be known, but they will serve to keep his

96 WMiscellaneous—Testimonial to Rev. Professor Wiltshire.

memory green in the hearts of a large circle, to whom, although

occupying quite humble positions, he had endeared himself for all

time by calling them his friends.

TittEs oF Pror. Ruskin’s PAPERS PRINTED IN THE GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE.

1. “‘ Notes on the Shape and Structure of some parts of the Alps, with reference to-
Denudation.’’ Vol. IT (1865), pp. 49-54 and 198-196, Pl. VI and Woodeuts.

2. ‘*On Banded and Brecciated Concretions.’’ Vol. IV (1867), pp. 3837-889,
Pl. XV.

3. ‘On Brecciated Formations.’’ Vol. IV (1867), pp. 481, 482, Pl. XX.

4. ‘On Brecciated Concretions.’? Vol. V (1868), pp. 12-18, Pl. III and Wood-
cuts; pp. 159-161, Pl. X; and pp. 208-213, Pl. XIII ‘and Woodeuts.

5. ‘*On Brecciated Concretions.’? Vol. VI (1869), p pp. 529-584, Pl. XIX and
Woodcuts.

6. ‘‘ On Banded and Brecciated Concretions.’’ Vol. VII (1870), pp. 10-14, Pl. 11
and W oodcuts.

IVES Cine EAN EE Ori S-

PRESENTATION OF A TESTIMONIAL TO THE Rev. PrRoressor
Wiuursuirze, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.8., F.G.8., ero., Honorary Secretary of
the Ray and Paleontographical Societies. _A well- attended meeting
of the members of the Paleeontographical and Ray Societies was held
at the Geological Society’s Apartments, Burlington House, on
Tuesday, Decemien 19; the Rt. Hon. Sir John Lubback, Bart eae
M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., President of the Ray Society, in the
chair, supported by Dr. Henry Woodward, F.R.S., F.G.S., President
of the Paleontographical Society. The object of the joint meeting
was to present to the Rev. Prof. Wiltshire, the Hon. Secretary of both
the above-named Societies, his portrait in oils, an illuminated address,
and a cheque for £188—the balance of the sum subscribed after
defraying expenses—in recognition of the services rendered by him
to these Societies and to Paleontology and Zoology during a period
of more than thirty years. The portrait was executed by Miss.
Atkinson, the illuminated address by Miss G. M. Woodward.
Among those present were—The Right Rev. Bishop Mitchinson,
Master of Pembroke, Oxford; Professor T. McKenny Hughes, F.R.S.,
and Professor W. J. Lewis, of Cambridge ; the Rev. R. A. Bullen,
the Rev. G. F. Whidborne, V.P. Pal. Soc., the Rev. H. H. Winwood,
Dr. W. T. Blanford, F.R.S., Mr. John Hopkinson, Professor T. Rupert
Jones, F.R.S., Sir Owen Roberts, Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S., Mr. F. W.
Rudler, F.G.S., and Mr. A., Strahan; many ladies were also present.
The presentation address was delivered by Sir John Lubbock, and
the Rev. Professor Wiltshire responded. Speeches were also made
by Dr. Woodward, Professor T. McKenny Hughes, Rev. G. F.
Whidborne, and the Rev. H. H. Winwood; 132 subscribers took
part in the testimonial.

Corricenpa.—In Mr. F. Chapman’ 8 paper on Patellina-limestone,
which appeared in our last issue, the following corrections should
be made: pp. 11, 12, and 17, for Patellina Hgyptiensis read Patellina
Aligyptiensis; pp. 13 and 17, for Polytrema papyracea read Polytrema
papyraceum. — Also on p. 40, line 20 from foot, for “Apple
Geology,” read ‘ Applied Geography.”

1 Now ‘‘ Lord Avebury.”’

GEOL. Mac. 1900. Dec. IV, Vol. VII, Pl.

RWELCH,

PHOTOMICRO &£7F DEL

FORAMINIFERA

FROM THE FORMBY AND LEASOWE POST-GLACIAL BEDS.

Magnified 40 diameters.

THE

GHOLOGICAL MAGAZINE.

NEV. SERIES. DECADE IV.) VOL.: Vil.
No. III—MARCH, 1900.

@OorhGee Nea, ~ASEe te SC zm s =

—

I.—A ContrisuTion To Post-GuacraL GEronoay.
By T. Metuarp Reapz, C.E., F.G.S., F.R.I.B.A.
(PLATE V.)

FoRAMINIFERA OF THE Formpy AND Leasowre Marine Bens.

ilps 1871 I read a paper before the Liverpool Geological Society

describing the extensive and interesting submarine forests
and associated Post-Glacial beds that occur fringing the coasts
of Cheshire and of South-West Lancashire.’

The first known description of these fossil forests was in the
Gentleman’s Magazine for 1796.* Since then they have been
described by Mr. G. H. Morton in his “ Geology of the Neighbour-
hood of Liverpool,” by the late Mr. Charles Potter, and others, and
by Mr. C. E. De Rance in the Memoirs of the Geological Survey ;
and have formed the theme of vigorous controversy on many
occasions at the meetings of the Liverpool Geological Society.

In the paper referred to it was my endeavour to describe and map
out the relations of the various beds over the whole area from the
mouth of the Dee to the mouth of the Ribble, and to show that they
were only a part of an extensive series of beds of the same age
extending round the British Isles and the opposite coasts of France
and Belgium.

Since the paper was written I have had many opportunities of
checking the accuracy of the work and of testing the conclusions

1 «The Geology and Physics of the Post-Glacial Period, as shown in the Deposits
and Organic Remains in Lancashire and Cheshire’’: Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc.,
Session 1871-72, pp. 36-88, illustrated with four coloured plates of maps and
sections. See also Geox. Mac., Vol. LX, pp. 111-119.

Since writing the above I have found an earlier mention of them in Dr. Aikin’s
*‘ Description of the Country from Thirty to Forty Miles round Manchester,”’
published in 1795. In describing Sephton parish he says: ‘‘ Along the sea-shore,
and near the Grange land-mark, are the stumps of several large trees, which, by
being in a line and at equal distances, were undoubtedly planted: whence it would
seem as if formerly either the climate was not so rough, or the sea did not advance
so far, since there would now be no possibility of raising trees in the same situation.
It appears, however, as if the sea had formerly overrun a good deal of this country,
from the strata of sea-slutch, moss, sand, and shells found in various parts; and
the sea now again seems retiring.”’

DECADE IV.—VOL. VII.—NO. II. 7

98 T. Mellard Reade—Post- Glacial Geology.

arrived at. Though I might add further illustrations and facts to
those already given, as indeed I purpose doing in this paper, there is
very little in the original work that needs correction or alteration.

In 1897, with Professor A. Renard, of Ghent University, I had an
opportunity of seeing the excavations of the new Bruges Canal near
Heyst in Belgium, which resulted in my reading a paper before the
Geological Society of London, in which the Microzoa, especially the
Foraminifera in the silty beds overlying an extensive peat bed, are
dealt with in considerable detail.

So much struck was I with the similarity of these Belgian Post-
Glacial deposits to those I had mapped out and sectioned in
Lancashire and Cheshire, that for microscopical comparison I took
the first opportunity that occurred to get specimens of the shelly
blue clays underlying the Peat-and- Forest Bed in Cheshire.
Mr. Joseph Wright, F.G.S., of Belfast, with his usual kindness, has
examined them for me, and, I am pleased to add, extracted a most
interesting assemblage of Foraminifera which form the subject of
this paper. It will be observed that the Belgian beds referred to
occur above the main bed of peat, whereas those in Cheshire and
Lancashire occur below the superior peat bed. The synchronism of
the beds will be discussed later on.

The Superior Peat-and-Forest Bed is exposed in a continuous
section along the shore from the west end of the old Wallasey
Embankment to a spot between Dove Point and Hoylake. Many
stools of trees rooted in the clay and silt below are still to be seen,
but the whole bed has been much reduced in area by the denudation
of the sea since my survey of 1871 was made. The peat has also
been stripped off, so that where formerly it was several feet thick
it is now reduced sometimes to one foot or less. Underlying this
Upper or Superior Peat-and-Forest Bed is a blue silty clay, which
is now nowhere exposed for a greater depth than from two to three
feet. It is this clay which I have classed with a similar bed in
Lancashire under the name of the Formby and Leasowe Marine
Beds, and from which the specimens yielding Foraminifera were
taken. At places there are still some exposures of a second bed of
peat underlying the Formby and Leasowe bed. This bed is known
as the Lower or Inferior Peat-and-Forest Bed, and it in turn rests
upon the Boulder-clay which is also exposed in the western end
of the series of beds described. I may add that this series is the
thinned-out shore margin of these Post-Glacial deposits.

Description of Specimens.

Specimen No. 1 was taken about a quarter of a mile east of Dove
Mark from the blue silt lying between the Superior Peat-and-Forest
Bed, which is here about 1 foot thick, and the Inferior Bed, here
only a few inches thick. The blue silt (Formby and Leasowe
Marine Beds) was only 2 feet thick, and contained much vegetable
matter in the shape of traversing fibres. Below the Inferior Peat

1 « Post-Glacial Beds exposed in the Cutting of the New Bruges Canal”’:
Q.J.G.S., vol. liv (1898), pp. 575-581.

T. Mellard Reade—Post-Glacial Geology. 99

was a bed of bluish clay about 7 inches thick, full of pebbles,
many of which were glacially facetted. This was evidently the
redistributed Boulder-clay derived from the brown Boulder-clay on
which it rested, which was only exposed about 6 inches in depth.

Specimen 2 was taken from this brown Boulder-clay, but it was
only a surface specimen, much perforated by rootlet tubes.

It will be seen from this description that the paucity of Fora-
minifera in specimens Nos. 1 and 2 is not surprising.

Specimens Nos. 8 and 4 were taken from the blue clay (Formby
and Leasowe Marine Beds) a little west of the west end of the old
Wallasey Embankment, at a depth of 18 inches below the Superior
Peat and horizontally about 20 feet apart. Here were found
numerous specimens of Scrobicularia piperata, vertical as in life, with
both valves united but in a very chalky condition. This was a good
representative of the Scrobicularia Clay of the Formby and Leasowe
Marine Beds, and yielded Foraminifera in profusion.

No. 5 is a specimen of brown Boulder-clay taken between Dove
Point and Hoylake at a greater depth than specimen No. 1; the
capping of redistributed blue clay and pebbles and Inferior Peat
and Forest Bed was more developed, and good-sized roots traversed
them, striking into the Boulder-clay below. This was an outlier
of the Inferior Peat-and-Forest Bed, the Superior Peat and Formby
and Leasowe Beds appearing on a higher level of the shore
immediately opposite the outlier. Mr. Wright’s report shows that
notwithstanding the shallow depth at which the specimen of
Boulder-clay was taken it contained eleven species of Foraminifera.
The relations between these Glacial Foraminifera and the Post-Glacial
forms will be discussed later on.

Report by Ir. Joseph Wright, F.G.S.

No. 1, from between upper and lower peat beds, Leasowe Shore.
Weight of clay, 15°8 oz. troy. After washing, ‘8 oz. fine; no coarse.
Clay very fine and containing a large quantity of vegetable matter.
Only one Foraminifer was obtained; it was a weak specimen of
Trochammina inflata.

No. 2. Brown Boulder-clay, under lower peat. Weight of clay,
18-402. troy. After washing, 2:8 oz. fine; *6 coarse. Most of the
stones more or less rounded, one of them showing faint stria. Clay
containing a large quantity of vegetable matter. ” Foraminifera very

rare, only three § specimens of Polystomella striato-punctata.

No. 3. Blue clay with Scrobicularia in siti. Weight of clay,
17-8 oz. troy. After washing, 56 oz. fine; ‘Ol coarse. Fragments
of shells only. Clay containing a quantity of vegetable matter.
Foraminifera most abundant.

FORAMINIFERA.

* Miliolina seminulum (Linné). One specimen.

Cornuspira involvens, Rss. One specimen.
* Trochammina inflata (Montag.). Very common. (Pl. V, Fig. 1.)
* Textularia globulosa, Ehr. Frequent. (Pl. V, Fig. 2.)

100 T. Mellard Reade—Post-Glacial Geology.

* Bulimina pupoides, D’Orb. Common. (Pl. V, Fig. 3.)
marginata, D’Orb. Rare. (Pl. V, Fig. 4.)
Susiformis, Will. Frequent. (Pl. V, Fig. 5.)
Aor gis elegantissima, D’Orb. Very common. (Pl. V, Fig. 6.)
* Bolivina punctata, D’Orb. Very common. (PI. V, Fig. 10.)
= plicata, D’Orb. Very common. (PI. V, Fig. 7.)
levigata (Will.). Very rare.
difformis (Will.). Rare.
dilatata, Rss. Frequent.
me obsoleta, Eley. Very rare. (Pl. V, Fig. 8.) _ } :
a8 », var. serrata, Nov. Frequent. (Pl. V, Fig. 9.) This form differs
from B. obsoleta in the segments being more obliquely set, and in the
marginal ends projecting, especially in the later segments ; specimens
very small.
* Cassidulina crassa, D’Orb. Very common. (Pl. V, Fig. 11.)
* Lagena globosa (Montag.). Rare.
* ,, levis (Montag.). Frequent. (Pl. V, Fig. 12.)
x clavata (D’Orb.). Frequent. (Pl. V, Fig. 13.)
4 suleata (W. & J.). Very rare. (Pl. V, Fig. 14.)
semistriata, Will. Frequent.
* ,, hexagona (Will.). Rare. (Pl. V, Fig. 15.)
* 4» squamosa (Montag.). One specimen.
* 4, levigata (Rss.). Very common.
* 4» lucida (Will.). One specimen.
* 5, Orbignyana (Seg.). Very rare.
», marginata (W.& B.). Very common. (Pl. V, Fig. 17.)
* Nodosaria communis, D’Orb. Rare, fragments.
5A pyrula, D’Orb. Rare, fragments.
Rhabdogonium tricarinatum, D’Orb. Very rare.
Cristellaria rotulata (Lamk.). Rare.
ere hly tae erepidula (F. & M.). Onespecimen. (Pl. V, Fig. 16.)
* Polymorphina lactea (W. & J.). Very rare.
Uvigerina Canariensis, D’Orb. Very rare.
35 angulosa, Will. Very common.
* Globigerina bulloides, D’Orb. Very common. (PI. V, Fig. 18.)
ie ae ete cretacea, D’Orb. Very common. (Pl. V, Fig. 19.)
* Orbulina universa, D’Orb. Very common.
Spirillina vivipara, Ehr. Very rare.
* Patellina corrugata, Will. Very rare. (Pl. V, Fig. 20.
* Discorbina globularis (D’Orb.). Rare. (Pl. V, Fig. 21.)
* #5 rosacea (D’Orb.). Very common.
Bb lass Wrightii, Brady. Very common.
* Truncatulina lobatula (W. & J.). Frequent.
* Pulvinulina, sp. near P. awricula (F. & M.). Rare.
* Rotalia Beccarii (Linné). Very common. (Pl. V, Fig. 22.
* Nonionina depressula (W. & J.). Most abundant. (Pl. V, Fig. 23.)
aa pauperata, B. & W. Frequent.
bs turgida, Will. (?). One broken specimen.
* Polystomella striato-punctata (FE. & M.). Most abundant. (Pl. V, Fig. 24.)

Ostracods common.

In this clay medium-sized specimens both of Nonionina depressula -
and Polystomella striato-punctata are in great profusion and in fine
preservation, the other Foraminifera being for the greater part small
or very small in size. The Arenacea are represented only by
Trochammina inflata, some of the specimens being large in size; and
only two specimens of the Porcellanea were obtained, viz., one each
of Miliolina seminulum and Cornuspira involvens.

)
”

No. 4. Blue clay with Scrobicularia in siti taken 18 inches below
upper peat. Weight of clay, 31-2 oz. troy. After washing, ‘8 oz.

T. Mellard Reade—Post-Glacial Geology. 101

fine; :008o0z. coarse fragments of shells only. Clay containing
a quantity of vegetable matter. Foraminifera most abundant.

FORAMINIFERA.

* Miliolina seminulwm (Linné). One specimen.
Reophax scorpiurus, Monti. One small specimen.
Haplophragmium Canariense (D’Orb.). One specimen.
Trochammina squamata, J. & P. One small specimen.

sf - inflata (Montag.). Very rare.

* Textularia globulosa, Khr. Common.

Gaudryina filiformis, Berth. One specimen.

* Bulimina pupoides, D’Orb. V ery common.

f marginata, D’Orb. Frequent.
>, fusiformis, Will. Common.

“. eae elegantissima, D’Orb. Very common.
Virgulina Schreibersiana, Cz. Very rare.

7 _ poloua punctata, D’Orb. Very common.

», plicata, D’Orb. Very common.
» ¢evigata (Will.). Rare.

», ifformis (Will.). Common.

», dilatata, Rss. Frequent.

* 4, obsoleta, var. serrata, Nov. Frequent.
Cassidulina levigata, D’Orb. Rare.

= crassa, D’Orb. Very common.

= Lagena globosa (Montag. ). Common.

» lineata (Will.). Frequent.

»; levis (Montag.). Common.

», elavata (D’Orb.). Common.

», suleata (W. & J.). Common.

», Williamsoni (Alcock). Very rare.

»» striata (D’Orb.). Rare.

», semistriata, Will. Rare.

* 4, squamosa (Montag.). One specimen.

* ,, hexagona (Will.), Frequent.

* 4, Jlevigata (Rss.). Very common.

», lucida (Will.). Frequent.
» Qquadrata (Will.). Very rare.

* 4, marginata (W.& B.). Very common.

* 4, bicarinata (Terg.). One specimen.

* 5, Orbignyana (Seg.). Rare.

» lagenoides (Will.). Very rare.
clathrata, Br. Elongate pyriform yatiety. One small specimen.
Nodosaria radicula (Linné). “vi ery rare.

ENE He Ea

AG calomorpha, Rss, Very rare.
5p pyrula, D’Orb. Very rare.

ae communis, D’Orb. Very rare.
55 obliqua (Linné). Very rare.

Rhabdogonium tricarinatum, D’Orb. Rare.
Cristellaria rotulata (Lamk.). Very common.
= a crepidula (F. & M.). Rare.

* Polymorphina lactea (W. & J.). Rare.

p Cvigeri ina Canariensis, D’Orb. Very rare, specimens broken.
s angulosa, Will. Very common.

* eo ebigerina bulloides, D’Orb. Very common.

ns eretacea, D’Orb. Very common.

* Orbulina universa, D’?Orb. Very common.
Spirillina vivipara, Ehr. One small specimen.
* Patellina corrugata, Will. Rare.

Discor bina globularis (D’Orb.). Rare.

i rosacea, D’Orb. Very common.

Sie! x Wr ightii, Brady. Very common.

102 T. Mellard Reade—Post-Glacial Geology.

Discorbina tuberculata, B. & W. Very rare.
* Truncatulina lobatula (W. & J.). Very common.
Pulvinulina Karsteni (Rss.). Rare.
* 35 sp. near awricula (F. & M.). Rare.
* Rotalia Beccarit (Linné). Very common.
* Nonionina depressula (W. & J.). Most abundant.
a pauperata, B. & W. Common.
5 turgida, Will. Very rare.
a stelligera, D’Orb. Rare.
* Polystomella striato-punctata (F. & M.). Most abundant.

Ostracods very common.

The Foraminifera in this gathering are very similar to those
obtained from the previous sample (No.3). Medium-sized specimens
of Rotalia Beccarii, Nonionina depressula, and Polystomella striato-
punctata occur in great profusion, the other species being for the
greater part small or very small in size.

No. 5. Boulder-clay. Weight of clay, 28 oz. troy. After washing,
2°6 oz. fine; °650z. coarse. The greater portion of the stones more
or less rounded. Foraminifera frequent.

FORAMINIFERA.
Miliolina seminulum (Linné). One specimen.
Bolivina plicata, D’Orb. Very rare.
Cassidulina crassa, D’Orb. Very rare.
Lagena sulcata (W. & J.). One specimen.

»» levigata (Rss.). Very rare.

Cristellaria rotulata (Lamk.). One specimen.
Globigerina bulloides, D’Orb. One specimen.
Discorbina rosacea (D’Orb.). One specimen.
Rotalia Beccarii (Linné). One specimen.
Nonionina depressula (W. & J.). Common.
Polystomella striato-punctata (KF. & M.). Frequent.

The species marked with an asterisk occur in one or other of
the Heyst deposits of the new Bruges Canal, viz. the “ Argile
des polders supérieure,” the “ Cardium Sand,” or the “ Scrobicularia
plana (piperata) Clay.” Some of the Boulder-clay forms also occur
in the Heyst deposits, but these are not marked, as it is wished to
confine the comparison to beds of the same age.

A comparison of this list of Foraminifera, consisting of 68 species
in all, with that of the Bruges beds already referred to, shows that
there are 34 or half of the species in common. Globigerina cretacea,
a notable form which is common to both, does not occur as a recent:
species in the British Isles, and in consequence Mr. Wright thought
that those in the Bruges silts were not native to the deposits, but
derived from Cretaceous beds in the neighbourhood. The discovery
of Globigerina cretacea in abundance in the Leasowe under-clay
shows that the species are here indigenous, as there are no Cretaceous
beds in Cheshire or adjoining counties from which they could be
derived.

Mr. Wright also observes that the interiors of Foraminifera from
our Chalk are filled with silica, so that when placed in muriatic acid

T. Mellard Reade—Post- Glacial Geology. 103

the tests of the shells only are affected by it, the casts being
unaltered. On placing some of the Leasowe specimens in the acid
they all effervesced away, showing that they could not have been
derivative from the Chalk, and must have lived where now found.
On testing the Bruges specimens with acid the same thing
happened with no siliceous remainder, so that I think Mr. Wright
is justified in now thinking that this species was living where found
in the Bruges sand and silt.

Textularia globulosa is a form very rare in British waters, but
common in the Chalk, occurs in abundance in the Leasowe Beds, and
also in the Bruges silt. Globigerina cretacea was found rare in
the Boulder-clay at Riverside, Seacombe, Cheshire, and Textularia
globulosa very rare in the Crosby Boulder-clay. (See Proc. Liver-
pool Geol. Soc., vol. viii, session 1898-99, p. 361, and ibid., vol. vii,
session 1895-96, p. 389.)

The Post-Glacial Deposits represent a well-marked Geological
Episode.

As I have proved in many previous papers, these marginal beds
around our Island contain records of several oscillations of the level
of the land, cumulatively giving evidence of a well-marked period of
time between the dying out of the Glacial epoch and the incoming of
historic time.

It is well worthy of note that the deposits bear a characteristic
physical resemblance to each other, whether found in England,
Scotland, Ireland, or Belgium, being evidence of the widespread
and persistent nature of the conditions under which they were laid
down. The fauna and flora are analogous, and we further find the
silts associated with Scrobicularia piperata are distinguished by the
presence of Globigerina cretacea, a species of Foraminifera not now
found living in the British Isles. The peat-and-forest beds show
that our Island was covered with forest trees, of which this marginal
band has been preserved by being covered up with a growth of peat
and deposits of silt, sand, and blown sand. There is good evidence
that the climate of this period was milder and more continental than
the present one.

It may be noted as interesting that the royal fern, Osmunda
regalis,” is found in the superior peat at the Alt mouth, and
also what is not uncommon in peat beds, viz. the wing

1 See papers previously referred to ; also many minor papers in the Proceedings of
the Geological Society of Liverpool, and the following: ‘A Problem for Irish
Geologists in Post-Glacial Geology,’’ Journ. Roy. Geol. Soc. Ireland, N.s., vol. ii,
pt. 4, pp. 255-258 ; ‘* Oscillations in the Level of the Land as shown by the
Buried Riyer-Valleys and Later Deposits in the Neighbourhood of Liverpool,”’
Grot. Mac., 1896, pp. 488-492. As bearing upon the same subject, see also
an excellent paper by Mr. A. Strahan, ‘‘On Submerged Land Surfaces at Barry,
Glamorganshire,’’ with notes on the Fauna and Flora by Mr. Clement Reid:
Q.J.G.S., vol. lii (1896), pp. 474-496.

2 I showed this fern embedded in the peat to the members of an excursion
party of Section C at the twenty-fourth meeting of the British Association at
Liverpool, 1896.

104 T. Mellard Reade—Post-Glacial Geology.

cases of beetles. When the Post-Glacial deposits rest on Boulder-
clay, as is commonly the case, and a section displays both, the
difference of the deposits are so striking that a novice may at once
pronounce upon them. It is noticeable that the surface of the
Boulder-clay under the Post-Glacial deposits is deeply eroded by
subaerial action, indicating that the land was at that time at a higher
level than now with respect to the sea. The silt and Scrobicularia
clays containing the profusion of Foraminifera detailed in the pre-
ceding lists are equally a sign of the subsequent submergence of this
Boulder-clay surface to a depth marked generally by the 25 feet
contour-line. The Superior Peat-and-Forest Bed is again a sign of
following subaerial conditions succeeded by a depression, for much of
it is now washed over by the tides.

The last movement of the land was downwards at Formby and
Leasowe, and it appears to me to have been the same in Belgium.
As I have before observed, the Bruges Canal or Heyst silts lie above
the peat, whereas the Leasowe silts lie below. If the Heyst peat is
of the same age—and it is certainly not older than the Superior Peat-
and-Forest Bed at Leasowe—the Belgian silts I have described are
not so old as those at Leasowe, but they nevertheless belong to the
same series of beds.' This group of beds is a geological object-
lesson of a comparatively recent date, showing that geological periods
are records of a similar kind, but on a larger scale of widely pre-
vailing physical conditions.

Relative to these conditions it is interesting to find that the
Boulder-clay on which the group rests, though so markedly different
in physical constitution, possesses a foraminiferal fauna of much the
same character, though of amore stunted growth. Even in this little
surface exposure one of the specimens of Boulder-clay yielded eleven
species of Foraminifera, and if it were possible to get specimens from
a depth of 10 or 20 feet it would no doubt yield them in the same
profusion as the Boulder-clay at Great Crosby, Lancashire, or River-
side, Seacombe, Cheshire.? The species found in the Leasowe Beds
have doubtless lived through the Glacial seas, nevertheless the two
periods or episodes are so physically different that no geologist could
mistake one for the other.

The artistic figures given in the Plate accompanying this paper
are by Mr. Robert Welsh, of Belfast, and I am greatly indebted to
him and Mr. Wright for enabling me to illustrate the leading species
in such a satisfactory manner. Being photographs of the actual
specimens obtained from the Leasowe deposit, they are instructive as
showing the relative sizes of the different species as they occur in
the deposit.

1 There is a very good engineering description of the works of the new Bruges
Ship Canal by Mr. Vernon Harcourt in the Minutes of Proceedings of the Institute
of Civil Engineers, vol. exxxvi (1899), pp. 283-295, with plans and sections.

2 “The Gypsum Boulder, Great Crosby’’: Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc., 1898-99,
pp. 347-356. ‘‘Foraminiferal Boulder-clay, Riverside, Seacombe, Cheshire”’ :
ibid., pp. 857-864.

Geol. Mag. 1900. Decade IV. Vol. VII. PI VI.

G.M Woodward del. ect lith. West, Newman imp.

Pleuronautilus?scarlettensis. Sp. Tov.
Carboniferous, I. of Man.

F. R. Cowper Reed—A new Carboniferous Cephalopod. 105

EXPLANATION OF PLATE YV.
Fie. 1. Trochammina inflata (Montag.). Fie. 13. Lagena clavata (D’Orb.).

», 2. Textularia globulosa, Ehr. Bape » — suleata (W. & J.).

», 38. Bulimina pupoides, D’Orb. 99 los Gy. Hexagona (Will.).

eae 3 marginata, D’ Orb. », 16. Cristellaria crepidula (F. & M.).

3) Be ap Susiformis, Will. », 17. Lagena marginata (W. & B.).

Sean Oe 3 elegantissima, D’ Orb. », 18. Globigerina bullotdes, D’ Orb.

», 7. Bolivina plicata, D’Orb. pp. we .; cretacea, D’ Orb.

A 8G a obsoleta, Eley. », 20. Patellina corrugata, Will.

eee o >» var. serrata, », 21. Discorbina globularis (D’ Orb.).
Nov. », 22. Rotalia Becearii (Linné).

55 UO: 5 punetata, D’ Orb. », 28. Nonionina depressula (W.&J.).

3, ll. Cassidulina crassa, D’ Orb. », 24. Polystomella striato - punctata

», 12. Lagena levis (Montag.). (F. & M.).

The figures are magnified 40 diameters.

IJ.—Woopwarpian Musrum Norrs: A NEW CARBONIFEROUS
CrepHaLopoD, PrruroNAUTILUS ? SCARLETTENSIS, SP. NOV.
By F. R. Cowrer Rzep, M.A., F.G.S.

(PLATE VI.)

OUR fragments of a large cephalopod (from the Carboniferous
Limestone) were collected by Professor Hughes’ party in 1892
at Scarlett Quarry, Isle of Man. On fitting three of these together
they were found to compose nearly the complete shell, and in
a sufficiently good state of preservation to warrant description.
The fourth fragment is a cast of a portion of the external surface.
Mr. G. C. Crick has expressed his opinion that they represent a new
species and probably a new subgenus or genus.

Dracnosts.—Shell discoidal, compressed ; whorls in contact, but
not overlapping; umbilicus wide, shallow, exposing all the whorls ;
no central vacuity ; volutions rapidly increasing in width. Whorls
eight in number, laterally compressed and flattened, twice as high as
broad. The two outer whorls form nearly four-fifths the diameter of
the shell, and have steeply sloping walls to the umbilicus. The
outer whorl has its sides weakly convex for the inner two-thirds of
its width and crossed by about thirty transverse rounded plications,
which are strongest about the middle portion of the whorl, but
become gradually weaker towards the beginning of the second
whorl, and also towards the aperture, dying out completely a short
distance from it. The outer fourth of this whorl is not crossed
by these plications, but is deeply excavated into a broad marginal
groove bordered by the sharp edge of the ventral side. Ventral
(peripheral) side rather less in width than diameter of whorl,
flattened or slightly concave with projecting edges overhanging
the marginal groove on the sides. Dorsal side narrow, about one-
fourth the width of ventral side, marked by shallow groove where
in contact with next whorl. Second whorl with very weak or
obsolete transverse plications, and the marginal groove very
shallow and gradually dying out. Inner whorls poorly preserved,
but with nearly flat sides, devoid of transverse plications and
marginal groove. Aperture vertical, narrow, lanceolate, with sides
produced obliquely forwards to ventral rostrum. The sides of

106 Dr. C. Davison—British EHarthquakes, 1893-99.

the outer whorl near the aperture become slightly swollen, and
then are suddenly depressed to the level of the marginal groove,
the ventral side at the same time considerably narrowing and
losing its overhanging edges and being produced apparently into
a pointed rostrum. Septa, sutures, and siphuncle not preserved.

MuasurEmEnts.—Diameter of shell, 13-15”; height of mouth,
43"; width of ditto, 14”.

Remarks.—The only species which has a general resemblance
in possessing transverse plications and an overhanging concave
ventral side is Gyroceras (Trigonoceras) aigoceras (Minster), but
as it consists of only two whorls, which are not in contact, are
of much greater breadth, and have a sharp keel-like dorsal side,
the resemblance is not very close. Moreover, so far as we know,
the mouth did not possess the important features which we find in
the Manx form. There is no species of Gyroceras with which I am
acquainted exhibiting these characteristics, and it seems impossible
to attribute our new form to this genus or to Discites. Pleuro-
nautilus has a closely coiled shell with transverse ribs; but, on
the other hand, a rather large central perforation is present.
Mojsisovics? has remarked on the relations between G. aigoceras and
Pleuronautilus, and it seems advisable for the present to place
our new form in the latter genus, though probably a subgenus or
genus will have to be made to contain it (which might appropriately
receive the name of Hubonioceras from the ancient name of the Isle
of Man). Until we know the suture-lines, septa, and siphuncle it
will, however, be wiser to associate it with Plewronautilus.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VI.

Plewronautilus ? scarlettensis, sp. nov. Carboniferous Limestone: Scarlett Quarry,
Isle of Man. One-third nat. size.

. Body-chamber of shell.

- Part of outer whorl.

- Inner whorls of shell.

. Cast of surface.

. Transverse section of Fig. 1 near the mouth at a.

. Transverse section of Fig. 1 at 0.

DOP OW

III.—On some Minor Brirish HarraquakEs OF THE YEARS
1893-1899.

By Cuartes Davison, Sc.D., F.G.S.

URING the seven years 1893-1899, 42 earthquakes have been felt

in Great Britain—28 in England and Wales and 14 in Scotland.*

All of the latter number visited areas which are thinly populated,
and it has therefore been impossible to draw the boundaries with the
accuracy that is to be desired. In the English earthquakes this

' Munster, ‘‘ Cyrtoeera aigokeros (1838)’’: Beitr. r. Petrefact., 2nd ed., Hefti
(1843), p. 06, t. i, figs. 7a, 70; t. ii, fig. 1. Foord: Cat. Foss. Ceph. Brit. Mus.,
pt. 11 (1891), p. 72, and references.

“ Die Ceph. d. Medit. Triasproy.’?: Abhandl. d. k. k. geol. Reichs., Bd. x
(1882), p. 78.

8 The cost of investigating all these earthquakes was defrayed from grants which
I had the honour to receive from the Government Research Fund.

Dr. C. Davison—British Earthquakes, 1893-99. 107

difficulty is seldom encountered, and the failures are generally due
to the confusion caused by the rather rapid succession of the shocks.
The number of earthquakes more or less briefly described in this
paper is 19, and, with few exceptions, I have not been able to
correlate them with known faults. It should not be inferred from
this that the shocks owe their origin to some other cause than fault-
slipping; for, in nearly every case, the epicentral region is one in
which it is difficult to detect faults. It is possible, indeed, that the
careful study of an earthquake may form a useful supplement to
the methods which are at the disposal of the field-geologist.
Explanation of Map-Symbols.—In a weak earthquake, every place
of observation can generally be marked on the map; and, without
making use of a wide range of symbols, it is convenient to employ
signs to represent the perception of the shock and sound. In all but
one of the following maps, a square indicates that the shock was
felt, a triangle that no mention is made of the shock or that its
perception was doubtful, and a circle that no shock was felt. A
figure entirely filled in denotes that the sound was heard, one half-
filled in that no mention is made of the sound or that its perception
was doubtful, and one not filled in at all that no sound was heard.

List of Earthquakes, 1893-1899.

1893, Jan. 2, 7.20 p.m. Glen Garry.
Aug. 3, 6.41 p.m. Leicester.
Nov. 2, 5.45 p.m. Pembroke (principal
earthquake).
ey 6.1 p.m. Pembroke.
5 about 6.15 or 6.20 p.m. Pembroke.
Nov. 3, about 1 am. Pembroke.
Dec. 11, about 3 p.m. Glen Garry.
Dee. 380, 11.20 p.m. Somerset.
Dec. 31, 12.28 a.m. Somerset.
a about 4a.m. Somerset.
1894, Jan. 12, about 11.55 p.m. Fort William.
Jan. 23, about 9 a.m. Exmoor.
Jan. 25, 1.7 pm. Glen Garry.
March 8, about midday. Annandale.
May 14, in the afternoon. Annandale.
July 12, about 11 pm. Comrie.
Sept. 18, 10.10 a.m. Glen Garry.
1895, Jan. 9, about 5.45 am. Fort William.
July 12, about 7.40 a.m. Comrie.
Aug. 27, about 12.30 p.m. Cornwall.
1896, Jan. 26, 6.50 a.m. Cornwall.
May 29, 4.47 a.m. Annandale.
June 5, early in the morning. Glen Nevis.
Dec. 16, about 11.0 or 11.30 p.m. Hereford.
Dec: Lise2,00,b a.m, Hereford.
- , 1.80 0r 1.45 a.m. Hereford.

108 Dr. C. Davison—British Earthquakes, 1893-99.

1896, Dec. 17, about 2a.m. Hereford.
3am. Hereford.
Me ,», 3380am. Hereford.
4am. Hereford.
5am. Hereford.
a » o0.20am. Hereford.
. .82 am. Hereford (principal earthquake).
about 5.40 or 5.45 a.m. Hereford.
fs » 6.15 am. Hereford.
1897, July 19, 3.49 a.m. Hereford.
1898, Jan. 28, about 10.5 p.m. Rutland.
Mar. 29, about 10.25 p.m. Cornwall.
Apr. 1, 9.55 p.m. Cornwall.
Apr. 2, about 3 p.m. Cornwall.
Aug. 22, about 7.15 am. Comrie.
1899, Dec. 18, about 6.50 a.m. Glen Garry.

The more important of these earthquakes have been described in
the following papers, etc. :—

“On the Leicester Earthquake of August 4, 1893”: Roy. Soe.
Proce., vol. lvii, 1895, pp. 87-95.

“On the Pembroke Harthquakes of August, 1892, and November,
1893 ”: Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. lili, 1897, pp. 157-178.

“On the Exmoor Earthquake of January 23, 1894, and on its
Relation to the Northern Boundary Fault of the Morte Slates”:
Grot. Mae., Vol. III, 1896, pp. 553-556.

“On the Comrie Earthquake of July 12, 1895, and on the Hade
of the Southern Boundary Fault of the Highlands”: Gro. Mae.,
Vol. III, 1896, pp. 75-79.

“The Hereford Earthquake of December 17, 1896.” (Cornish
Brothers, Birmingham, 1899.)}

“On the Cornish Earthquakes of March 29th to April 2nd, 1898” :
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. lvi, 1900, pp. 1-7.

1 Since this report was written, several papers have been published on the Hereford
earthquake. The following is a complete list of those which I have seen :—

W. Cole, ‘‘ The English Earthquake of December 17th, 1896’’: Essex Nat.,
vol. ix, 1896, pp. 258-259. (Records from Hssex.)

H. G. Fordham, ‘‘ The Earthquake of the 17th December, 1896, as it affected
the County of Hertford’’: Herts. Nat. Hist. Soc. Trans., vol. ix, 1897,
pp. 183-208. (Records from Hertfordshire and adjoining counties.)

E. Greenly, ‘‘ The Hereford Earthquake of December 17, 1896, considered in
Telation to Geological Structure in the Bangor-Anglesey Region’’: Edin. Geol.
Soc. Trans., vol. vi, 1898, pp. 469-476.

J. Lomas, ‘‘ The Earthquake of December 17th, 1896’’: Liverpool Geol. Soc.
Frees 1896-1897, pp. 91-98. (Records from the neighbourhood of Liverpool
chiefly.)

HG. Moore, R. Clarke, & A. Watkins, ‘‘The Earthquake of December 17th,
1896’: Woolhope Field Club Trans, 1898(?), pp. 1-8. (A detailed account of
the damage to buildings in Herefordshire.)

G. J. Symons, ‘‘ The Earthquake of December 17th, 1896’’: Meteor. Mag.,
vol. xxxi, 1896, pp. 177-185. (An analysis chiefly of newspaper reports.)

Rev. H. H. Winwood, ‘‘ Notes and Observations on the Earthquake of December
the 17th, 1896,’’ contributed by members of the Cotswold Club: Cotswold Nat.
Field Club Proc., vol. xii, 1896-1897, pp. 187-196. (Records from Gloucestershire.)

39

Dr. C. Davison—British Earthquakes, 1893-99. 109
Glen Garry Earthquake: Jan. 2, 1898.

A slight shock, accompanied by a noise as of a carriage passing
very rapidly, was felt by Mr. Duncan Grant at Glenquoich at
7.20 p.m. The noise was also heard by another observer about
three miles higher up the Glen.

Glen Garry Earth-Sound: Dec. 11, 1898.

A low rumbling sound, resembling that which accompanies an
earthquake, was heard at about 3 p.m. at Glenkingie, Glenquoich,
and Lochournhead. There was no perceptible movement of the
ground.

This note is founded on a paragraph in the Oban Times for
Dec. 15 (7).

Somerset Earthquakes : Dec. 30-31, 1898.

The number of earthquakes that should be included in this series
is somewhat uncertain. The most important are those which
occurred on Dec. 30 at 11.20 p.m. and on Dec. 31 at 12.28 a.m.,
and these were followed at about 4 a.m. by a third but much weaker
shock. There may also have been four others in the early morning
of Dec. 31, but the times are only roughly recorded, and they ought,
I think, to be regarded as doubtful earthquakes. They are as
follows :—

a. Shepton Mallet, shortly after the shock at 12.28; and Draycot,
12.45 or 12.50 a.m.

b. Shepton Mallet, between 1 and 2 am.; and Wedmore, about
1.30 a.m.

c. Croscombe, about 2.30 a.m.; and Wookey, about 2.15 a.m.

d. Street, 2 or 3 minutes after the shock at about 4 a.m.

The times of the two principal shocks were determined by
a signalman at Masbury station, and, as they agree with those
given by several other witnesses, they are no doubt correct to the
nearest minute.

For convenience, the isoseismal lines of both earthquakes are
shown upon one map (Fig. 1), and the symbols referred to above are
therefore not employed. Also, as it would be difficult to represent
all the places of observation on so small a figure, I have only
marked those which are of importance or which are mentioned in
the following pages. The broken lines refer to the first earthquake,
the continuous lines to the second.

First Earthquake : Dec. 30, 11.20 p.m.—The number of records is
45, coming from 27 places. There are also negative records from 20
places ; and, in addition, two observations from Frome and Whatley,
the connection of which with the present shock is doubtful.

The intensity of the shock was certainly not less than 4, and at
Wells may have been as high as 5. The disturbed area is 15} miles
long, 13+ miles broad, and contains 159 square miles. Owing to the
absence of negative records towards the north-west, it is uncertain
whether the boundary should not extend a little further outwards
on this side. The direction of its longer axis is W. 50° N. and
E. 30°S. Its centre lies 4 mile 8. 37° W. of Wells.

110 Dr. C. Davison—British Earthquakes, 1893-99.

The isoseismal 4 is an elongated oval, 93 miles long, 5 miles
broad, and 38 square miles in area. The direction of its longer
axis is W. 30° N. and E. 30° S.; and its centre is one mile N. 35°
W. of Wells. The distance between the two isoseismals is 3 miles
on the north-east side and 5 miles on the south-west side. |

40

! Draycot

\ i
' °
/ Wookey Hole
t °

c

Wook
enor

°
Watts

[o}
Prlton

Glastonbury
°

W.Pennard 0:
Street is

Fie. 1.—Somerset Earthquakes: Dec. 30-31, 1893.

So far as J can learn, the shock was in all parts a continuous
series of vibrations, like that felt in an upper room when a heavy
waggon or train passes. Its mean duration was 4 seconds.

The sound was compared by different observers to that of
a waggon passing over loose stones, the dragging of a heavy weight
or a heavy piece of furniture along the floor, a rolling peal of
thunder, a stack of wood or coal tumbling down, the fall of an
avalanche of snow, a terrific explosion, ete. As a rule, the beginning
of the sound either preceded or coincided with that of the shock,
while the end of the sound either coincided with or followed that of
the shock,

Second Earthquake: Dec. 31, 12.28 a.m.—Of this earthquake,
there are 41 records from 25 places, and negative records from 20
places, the latter being the same as for the first earthquake.

The intensity of the shock at Wells and one or two other places
was about 5. The disturbed area is more elongated than the former.
It is 193 miles long, 124 miles broad, and contains 180 square miles.
Its longer axis runs from W. 27° N. to H. 27° §.; and its centre is

3 mile W. 6° S. of Wells.

Dr. OC. Davison—British Harthquakes, 1895-99, PIE

The isoseismal 4 is 114 miles long, 4 miles broad, and includes
43 square miles; the direction of its longer axis being W. 30° N.
and E. 380° S. Its centre is 2 mile W. 27° N. of Wells, and } mile
from the corresponding centre for the first shock, the line joining
the two centres being parallel to the longer axis of both curves.
The distance between the isoseismals is nearly 3 miles on the north-
east side, and nearly 5 miles on the south-west side.

In nature and duration the second shock resembled the first. It
was again a continuous series of vibrations, like that felt in a house
built directly over an underground railway, according to one
observer. The mean recorded duration was slightly less than
4 seconds, but most of the observers were awakened by the shock
and may have missed the earlier tremors.

The sound is also compared to similar types. Among them may
be mentioned a goods train passing over an iron bridge, a deep
peal of thunder, a rushing wind, the fall of boxes on a floor, and
tremendously heavy blasting but prolonged.

In estimating the frequency of comparison to different types, the
small number of descriptions renders it advisable to do so for the
two shocks together, especially as there are several other accounts
in which the particular shock is not distinguished. The sound is
compared to passing waggons, etc., in 26 per cent. of the records,
to thunder in 11 per cent., to wind in 4, loads of stones falling in 13,
heavy bodies falling in 11, explosions in 26, and to miscellaneous
sounds in 8 per cent. These are about the usual proportions for
a slight earthquake, except for the rather frequent references to
explosions. The exception is in reality only apparent, for, in all
but three cases, the reference is to an explosion prolonged or else
to an explosion in the midst of an undescribed rumbling sound ; the
three places are Wells, Wookey, and Wookey Hole, and these are
close to the epicentre. Again, the comparison to passing waggons
implies that the sound was of long duration and gradually increased
to a maximum and then died away; but this is not the case with
the dragging of heavy boxes along the floor, which I have included
in the same type. Comparisons to the latter sound come from
Priddy, Street, and West Pennard, places which are not far from
the shorter axis of the disturbed areas. The general result is, as
we should infer, that the sound is of long duration near the ends
of the longer axis, and of short duration near the ends of the other.

Relation between the two Harthquakes.—The relation between the
isoseismal lines of these two earthquakes is somewhat peculiar.
They are almost concentric. Yet both isoseismals of the second
shock overlap those of the first towards the east and west, and are
overlapped by them towards the north and south. Moreover, though
the second shock had the larger disturbed area yet its intensity was
not everywhere the greater. The first shock is reported to have
been the stronger at Binegar, Chewton Priory, Coxley, Dinder,
Priddy, Street, West Pennard, Wookey, and Wookey Hole; and
the second shock at Croscombe, Draycot, Masbury, Pilton, Shepton
Mallet, and Wells. Now, at the points where the isoseismals

112 Dr. C. Davison—British Earthquakes, 1893-99.

intersect, the intensities of both shocks were the same, and, if curves
(represented by dotted lines on the map) be drawn through the four
points of intersection on both the west and east sides of the disturbed
areas, the intensities of both shocks at any point of these curves
should be the same. These lines divide the whole area into three
districts. In the central district lie all the places where the first
shock was regarded as the stronger, and in the terminal districts
those where the second was the stronger, with one exception, that
of Wells. This city lies near the centres of both disturbed areas,
and, according to a newspaper report, the second shock. was
severer than the first. ‘Too much stress should not be laid upon
this exception, for there is always some variation in the estimates
of the relative intensities of two shocks where these do not differ
greatly.

The explanation of the peculiarity is simple enough. The more
elongated form of the isoseismal lines of the second shock implies
that it had a longer focus. The overlapping towards the north and
south of the second disturbed area by the first shows that the initial
intensity of the first shock within a given area of the focus was
greater than that of the second. Thus, the second earthquake owes
its larger disturbed area simply to the greater length of its focus.

Third Earthquake: Dec. 31, about 4 a.m.—A slight shock was felt
at Priddy, Street, Wells, and Wookey. At Street and Wells it was
accompanied by sound. So far as we can judge from the distribution
of these places it would seem that the epicentre lay to the west of
the epicentres of the two first shocks.

Origin of the Earthquakes.—It has been suggested that the shocks
were not of seismic origin, but were caused by the fall of large
masses of rock in underground channels. If this were so, the
disturbed areas and isoseismal lines would have been approximately
circular and the sound would have been compared almost exclusively
to explosions or the fall of heavy bodies. The elongated forms of
the isoseismal lines and the general character of the sound are
therefore conclusive against such an explanation.

On the other hand, all the phenomena known to me are in
complete accordance with the view that the shocks were caused
by slips along a fault, running W. 30° N. and EH. 30° §., hading
towards the south-west, and passing through a point between one
and two miles north-east of Wells and between Wookey Hole and
Priddy. The Geological Survey map contains no fault in this
position, but it will be noticed that ‘the direction assigned to the
earthquake-fault is roughly parallel to that of the Mendip Hills
in this district. The focus of the first shock must have been about
4 miles and that of the second about 6 or 7 miles in length.

Fort William Harihquake: Jan. 12, 1894.

Owing to its time of occurrence (about 11.50 or 11.55 p.m.) and to
the small number of villages within the disturbed area, I have only
been able to obtain 17 records from 14 places, in addition to
negative records from 5 places. I regret my failure especially in

Dr. C. Davison—British Earthquakes, 1893-99. 113

this case, as the earthquake appears to be unique in one respect
among British earthquakes of the last eleven years.

So far as the accounts may be trusted, the disturbed area appears
to consist of two detached portions—one in the neighbourhood of
Fort William, the other in Moidart and Arisaig in the extreme west
of Inverness-shire. Eleven of the places of observation lie in the
former area and three in the latter, while between them there are
three places (Kinlochiel, Duisky, and Kingairloch) at which, I am
told, the earthquake was not observed. Much reliance should not of
course be placed on so small a number of negative records, especially
for an earthquake which occurred at midnight ; but there is also
distinct evidence that, in the eastern area, the shock was much
weaker on the west than on the east side of Loch Linnhe.

In a country district, time-records are naturally liable to con-
siderable error, but those in both parts of the disturbed area agree
in giving the time as nearly midnight. If there were two separate
impulses, there is therefore no evidence to tell us which occurred
first.

Of the places in the eastern area, four (Ardgour, Banavie,
Carpach, and Trislaig) are on the north-west side of or close to the
great Highland fault, and the remaining seven (Achintore, Blarmac-
foldach, Carnach, Fort William, Glencoe, Nether Lochaber Manse,
and North Ballachulish) are on the south-east side. The boundary of
the area cannot be determined satisfactorily from these places, but
it is about 17 miles long, its longer axis is roughly parallel to the
great fault, and it extends to a much greater distance on the south-
east than on the north-west side of the fault. If the shock felt
in the eastern area were due to a slip of the fault, or of one of
the system of faults, it is clear that the fault concerned must hade to
the south-east. This is also shown by the intensity of the shock;
for the only places where it attained the degree 4 (Blarmacfoldach,
Carnach, and Nether Lochaber) are on this side.

As a rule, the shock resembled the tremors felt in a house when
a heavy conveyance is passing. At Nether Lochaber Manse, how-
ever, the movement was stronger and more distinct, being like that
felt in a heavy carriage in rapid motion on a rough road, and
culminating in a severe vibration. The sound was compared by
three observers to the rumbling of a cart or a heavy loaded waggon
on a rough road, and by three to distant thunder.

Very little can be ascertained with regard to the western part of
the disturbed area. The shock was felt only at three places, namely,
Arisaig, Glenmoidart, and Roshven ; at the second of these places
the intensity was 4. The sound was described by one observer as
like distant thunder, and by another as like the explosion of a large
quantity of gunpowder at a great distance. The observer at
Glenmoidart informs me that a second and weaker shock was felt
there in the daytime some days afterwards, and a third at night.

It seems to me probable from the above evidence that there were
two distinct shocks, each disturbing a separate area; and that the
shock felt in the neighbourhood of Fort William was due to a slip of

DECADE I1V.—-VOU. VII.+-NO. IIL. 8

114 Dr. C. Davison—British Earthquakes, 1893-99.

the great Highland fault. With regard to the origin of the other
shock nothing can be ascertained, nor is there any evidence to show
whether the proximity in time and place between the two shocks
was other than accidental.

Glen Garry Harthquake: Jan. 25, 1894.

A shock, of intensity 4, was felt by Mr. M. Matheson and at least
four other persons at Ardochy at 1.7 p.m. The vibration was like
that produced by a carriage passing over a wooden bridge; it was
followed by a distant roar.

Annandale Earthquakes : March 8 and May 14, 1894.

My only authorities for these two shocks are the accounts given in
the local newspapers.’ J was unsuccessful in my attempts to obtain
further information, but houses are widely scattered in the district.
I see no reason for doubting the seismic character of the shocks.

The first earthquake occurred about midday on March 8, and was
most marked in the central district of Corrie.

The second occurred during the afternoon of May 14 in the upper
valley of the Milk. It was distinctly felt at Corrie Bridge, Corrielaw,
and Rosebank (about two miles east of Lockerbie), and possibly also
in the district about Eskdalemuir. The intensity was at least 4 in
the first three places mentioned. At Corrie Bridge, the shock was
accompanied by a noise resembling the distant firing of cannon.

Comrie Earthquake : July 12, 1894.

A very distinct trembling (of intensity 3) was felt at about
11 p.m., and was accompanied by a dull rumbling sound lasting
about 6 seconds. So far as I know, the earthquake was only
observed at Comrie and Dalginross, which is about + mile south-east
of Comrie ; and I have six negative records from places in the
vicinity. The disturbed area must therefore have been very small,
and the epicentre may be regarded as coincident with the village of
Comrie.

Glen Garry Earthquake : Sept. 18, 1894.

Mr. Matheson informs me that this shock was not so strong at
Ardochy as that felt on Jan. 25. It occurred at 10.10 a.m., and was
followed by a loud noise. It was also felt on the opposite (or south)
side of Loch Garry.

Fort William Earth-Sound: Jan. 9, 1895.

The occurrence of this earth-sound was noticed in the daily papers,
but for the details given below I am indebted to Mr. Angus Rankin
of the Ben Nevis Observatory.

The noise was heard between 5.45 and 5.50 a.m. by many persons,
some lying awake in bed, others preparing to go to work; but it
was not loud enough to waken sleepers. It is described by all as
a rumbling noise resembling distant thunder, and to one observer at
Fort William it appeared to travel in a north-easterly direction. No

1 Annandale Herald (Lockerbie), May 17; Dumfries and Galloway Courier and

Herald (Dumfries), May 19; and Eskdale and Liddesdale Advertiser (Langholm),
May 23.

Report on the Moel Tryfaen Drift. 115

shock or tremulous motion was felt by anyone, and the seismograph
at the Low-level Observatory at Fort William showed no sign of
any movement. The noise was heard also at Blarmacfoldach and
Lundavra, which are respectively 3 and 5 miles to the south
of Fort William; all three places being close to the northern
boundary fault of the Highland district. As to the seismic origin of
the sound, there can be little doubt, for the district is one where
slight shocks are occasionally felt, and all the observers agree that it
was an ‘earthquake-noise.’ So far as our knowledge of the earth-
sound goes, its evidence confirms the conclusion that the great fault,
or one of the system of faults, hades to the south-east.

(To be continued in our next Number.)

1V.—Report on THE Drirt at Mort Tryrarn.’ Drawn up by the
Secretary, H. Greenly, F.G.S.

Intropuction.—In August, 1898, it became known that what is
perhaps the clearest and most instructive section in the famous
high-level drift deposits at Moel Tryfaen must in a short time be
swept away in the course of the quarrying operations. There are
two slate quarries on Moel Tryfaen, the ‘‘ Alexandra” and the
“Moel Tryfaen” Quarries, excavated in the same line of strike of
the slates. Gradually expanding, they had approached each other
so nearly as to leave a narrow bank between them with no more
than a yard or two of uncut turf upon it. Now the drift sections

ow
— 2 4 . 230
ae 1372 1223
oe 4
1363, “GM, 16011 an
Pre ae 12065
: BAL IEI-S
tr Wen 1283;3 we
BR IZS365 &
gh %,
Ky Sy
oo
| » yo as
Oat
ss .
he é ge oi

Fic. 1.—Map of part of Moel Tryfaen from Six-inch Ordnance Map.

thus in danger of destruction are exceedingly important for the
following reasons: (1) They are at right angles to the strike of
the slates, and thus display the character of the underlying rock

1 Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. H. Hicks (Chairman), deceased,
Mr. E. Greenly (Secretary), Professor J. F. Blake, Professor P. Kendall, Mr. G. W.
Lamplugh, Mr. J. Lomas, Mr. T. Mellard Reade, Mr. W. Shone, and Mr. A.
Strahan, appointed to make photographic and other records of the disappearing drift
section at Moel Tryfaen (spelt Tryfan in New Ordnance Survey Maps). Reprinted
from the British Association Report, 1899 (1900), pp. 414-4238.

116 Report on the Moel Tryfaen Drift.

surface; (2) they show the nature and position of the junction of
the shelly sands and gravels with the overlying Boulder-clay ;
(3) the false bedding and other structures in the sands and gravels
are best seen along them; (4) they have been more accessible than
the other sections in the quarries. A Committee was therefore
appointed to preserve, by photography, supplemented by a written
report, an impartial record of the phenomena displayed in these
sections. The Committee have much pleasure in acknowledging
their obligations to Mr. Menzies, the manager of the Alexandra
Quarry, who, with a large-minded appreciation of scientific work
for which geologists cannot be too grateful, offered to suspend
operations in that part of the quarry for three months, besides
showing the Committee every hospitality and facilitating their work
by all means in his power.

PHotToGRaPus.—Six whole-plate and five half-plate photographs
were taken by Mr. John Wickens, F.R.P.S., photographer, of
Bangor.

The views taken are :—

. General view of section from W.N.W. end.

. General view of section from E.S.H. end.

. General view from W.N.W. of Moel Tryfaen Quarry, including neighbourhood.
. Boulder-clay by engine-house at H.S.E. end section.

. Sands seen below Boulder-clay.

. Junction, wedge of Boulder-clay in sand and gravel.
. Base of sands and terminal curvature near W.N.W. end of section looking

.

8. Duplicate, showing a little more of slate.

9. Similar phenomena on N.E. side of quarry (third gallery) looking N.N.E.

10. Duplicate, a little nearer.

11. Rocks on summit of hill from N.W.

Description or Srction. — The Chairman, the late Dr. Hicks,
F.R.8., visited the section on September 26, 1898; and on
November 5, 1898, Messrs. Kendall, Lamplugh, Lomas, Mellard
Reade, Shone, and the Secretary examined it and recorded the facts
embodied in this report. On July 1, 1899, the Secretary added
items 1, 2, and 9.

As there have been serious differences of opinion as to the inter-
pretation of the Moel Tryfaen phenomena, the Committee wish to
emphasize the statement that this report is intended to be a record
of observed facts only, without reference to any conclusions that
may be drawn from these facts.

The observations are here arranged under thirteen heads. All
the details were examined from the side of the Alexandra Quarry,
which was the better and more accessible section of the two.

1. Bearing and Distance of Section from Hilliop.—About 800 feet
E.S.E. to the middle of the section.

2. Length of Section.—From 700 to 750 feet.

3. Direction of Section—The sections are in curves concave to
N.N.E. and 8.S.W. in the ‘“ Alexandra” and ‘“Moel Tryfaen”
Quarries respectively, so that a tangent to both curves at their
nearest point, about the middle of each section, is about
W.N.W.-E.S.E.

MAID OP OD

8.

Report on the Moel Tryfaen Drift. a Wg

4. Height of Rock Surface-—The floor of Gallery “No. 1,” the
highest in the Alexandra Quarry, is at 1,281 feet above sea-level.
The surface of the rock emerges from below drift in the floor of
this gallery a few yards E.S.K. of the edge of the Boulder-clay, and
rises gradually to W.N.W. The angle measured by Abney Level
from the opposite side of the Alexandra Quarry is from 2°°5 to 6°-0
(average 4°25) to E.S.E. (Photographs 1, 2, 3). But the surface
undulates (Photographs 7, 8).

5. Slope of Surface of Drift along Section (Photograph 3).

6. Strike and Dip of Cleavage of Slates.—N. 30 H., 95°-98° to
S. of E. Dip of Bedding of Slates.—25°-30° S.S.E. or S., but
undulating.

7. Thickness of Drifts along Section.—25 feet maximum, thinning
toward hilltop (Photographs 1, 2, 3, 4, 11). The sections which
will remain at present will show the varying thicknesses in the
quarries.

8. General Nature of the Drifts——Their general characters have
been often described. Towards the N.W. are sands, sandy loam,
and gravel, with shells, Boulder-clay coming on above them towards
the 8.E. (Photographs 1, 2, 3).

9. Position of Boundary of Sandy Group and Boulder-clay.—The
junction at the surface between the quarries is about 1,000 feet from
the hilltop.

i. Mynydd Mawr Eurite
2. Welsi Felsile

3. Penmaenmawr Diorite \_)

Fic. 2.—Contortions in Sands below Boulder-clay.
(Section at x in Fig. 3 on Elevation.)

10. Character of the Sandy Group.—The beds may be described
as sand and yellow loam with gravelly streaks and _ pockets
containing shells. The shell fragments were found on November 5
only in the gravel, none but the finest crumbs having been seen
in the sand and loam (a, p. 120). The bedding is very irregular,
and even here and there curved (Photograph 1), but contortion has
only been observed near the junction with the overlying Boulder-
clay (B, p. 120).

ll. Characters of the Boulder-clay.—This is a good typical, tough,
strong, unstratified till, such as is mostly found in mountain

118 Report on the Moel Tryfaen Drift.

districts, dark grey in colour and full of stones (Photograph 4).
The stones are for the most part of moderate size, but some up to
34 and 3 feet (the visible part) occur. They are subangular and
well striated. Theze seems to be a general slight upward inclination
of the longer axes of the stones to H.S.H. or E. The longer axis of
the large boulder mentioned pointed W. 20 8.—E,. 20 N., and its
eastern end was a little lifted. Nearly all the stones observed were
of North Welsh origin, the riebeckite eurite of Mynydd Mawr being
very abundant, but one pebble of a granite foreign to North Wales
was obtained on November 5 (y, p. 120). LExtensive sections will
remain, in which all points not depending upon orientation can be
observed.

12. Nature of Junction of Sandy Group and Boulder-clay (Photo-
graphs 5, 6).—In a general way the sandy group passes under the
Boulder-clay to the E.S.E., as described by previous writers.
The sandy beds in places dip W. at the junction, and are also
contorted, a string of loamy sand two inches thick being bent into
sharp folds (Fig. 2). These contortions,’ however, were not very
clearly displayed on November 5 on account of slipping.

The Boulder-clay rests upon an uneven surface of the sandy beds,
as shown in the annexed section (Fig. 3), which was measured, and
is drawn to scale.

The photograph No. 5 is taken close to the H.S.E. end of this
section. The Boulder-clay is “ good typical stony till,” and the
underlying beds the usual sand and yellow loam with gravelly
streaks and pockets containing shell fragments. In the lowest
layers are angular fragments of slate, below which is broken slate

2

Be

Sato fea comma aan ee cm enn un me
Floor of Gallery No. 1.

Fic. 3.—Junction of Boulder-clay and Sandy Beds.
(Scale 1 inch=36 feet ; length of section 144 ft. 6 in.)

mixed with a small quantity of clayey matter resting on slate with
terminal curvature.

Evidence has been adduced by previous writers to show that the
sandy group overlies as well as underlies the Boulder-clay, so that
the two groups interdigitate. The section as seen on November 5
could not be said to be conclusive on this point ; but it is shown

1 Very well seen on September 26.—H. H.

Report on the Moel Tryfaen Drift. 119

in Photograph No. 6, of which Fig. 4 is an explanatory diagram :
(a) is. very stony Boulder-clay, stones mainly of Welsh origin ;
(6) yellow loam and sand bedded and contorted ; (c) bedded sand
and gravel, 1 foot to 2 feet; (d) soil 6 inches. The lower edge of
the Boulder-clay dips downward into the exposed face rather steeply.
BBB are boulders with angular ends projecting from the clay into
the sand, the largest being apparently of Penmaenmawr diorite, and
the other two of riebeckite eurite of Mynydd Mawr. There is no
distinct evidence that the shelly sand and gravel anywhere overlie
the Boulder-clay. A close examination showed a distinct line,
probably of erosion, between that which passes above and that
which passes beneath the Boulder-clay, in which last only were
shell fragments found. The sand and gravel above the Boulder-clay
may be altogether newer than that in the lower part of the section
containing the marine shells, and may possibly be merely hill-wash.

13. Base of the Drifts and Nature of Underlying Rock Surface
(Photographs 7, 8).—The surface of the slate is seen in contact
with the sandy group only, the Boulder-clay not reposing directly
upon the rock in any part of the section. The surface of the
slates is exceedingly shattered, the shattering affecting them to the
depth of a foot or two. The shattered edges are, with (6, p. 120)
certain local exceptions, bent over in an E.S.E. direction, i.e. to the
left of an observer looking along the strike of the cleavage to the
S.S.W., the displaced laminz retaining generally their original
direction of strike. The displacement usually goes down to the
first horizontal joint below the surface, and is a ‘displacement’
rather than a true curvature.

These terminally disturbed slates pass up into a band of slate
breccia or rubble, composed of angular fragments (e, p. 120).
This forms a well-marked band all along the section, and is from

Fie. 4.—North-west termination of Boulder-clay in Section.

1 to 8 feet thick. The fragments become smaller towards the top,
and have at first a slight inclination upwards to the H.S.E., the
upper layers, however, becoming horizontal. Where not obscured

120 Report on the Moel Tryfaen Drift.

by slipping, the junction with the sandy drift above is usually
well marked, but angular and subangular débris is mixed with the
lowest layers of the gravel.

Conciusion.—The above description is not intended to be ex-
haustive, though the description of the section about to be destroyed
has been made as full as seemed possible at the time. Incidentally
certain details in other parts of the quarries were observed, and
have therefore been included; but these form only a subsidiary
and unessential portion of the report, and are therefore placed in
a separate appendix,’ because the sections in which they are
displayed are in no danger of destruction. Generally, moreover,
it will be observed that the report is confined to questions of
structure, physical relations, and measurements; and that many
matters of the highest importance, such as species, distribution, and
state of preservation of the shells, the nature of the boulders in the
sands and the clay, the character of the fine material of the drifts,
are not dealt with. These are points which can be investigated as
well as ever in extensive sections, which the quarrying will keep
clear and open.

It must not be supposed that the Moel Tryfaen sections are being
destroyed as a whole. It is the part specified only that is perishing ;
and the drifts of the quarries will continue to furnish ample scope
for research into many matters of great importance to glacial
geology for many years to come.

Notre A.—By Chairman and Members.

(a) §10.—Some of the best preserved specimens sent to me by
Mr. Menzies from the drift in the Alexandra Quarry have adhering
to them a fine loamy sand, and it is in such a material, interstratified
with sand and gravels, that I have usually obtained the best
specimens of shells in the Welsh sections.—H. H.

(8) §10.—In addition to boulders of North Welsh rocks, they
are full of far-travelled erratics from the Lake District and the
South of Scotland.

(y) §11.—This deposit, therefore, differs widely in regard to its
included stones from the underlying sandy group, which contains
many far-travelled erratics, as before stated; as it does also in the
apparent absence of marine shells and of Foraminifera.

(6) §13.—P. F. Kendall and J. Lomas would prefer to say that
the general direction of displacement had only a few individual
exceptions, which might indeed be due to quarrying operations.

(c) §13.—This material was not observed by the Committee to
contain any glacially striated fragments or any foreign stones—no
fragments, indeed, but of the underlying slates.

Nott B.—By T. Mellard Reade, F.G.S.

Specimens of the drift were taken by me at the meeting on
November 5, 1898, in the positions shown on the following sections

' See Appendix C.

Report on the Moel Tryfaen Drift. 121

(Figs. 5 and 6), and submitted to Mr. Joseph Wright, F.G.S., of
Belfast.

He very kindly examined them for Foraminifera, and in all
discovered twenty-three species. The results seem to show that
the Foraminifera occur in the most abundance in the shelly sand.
None were found in the overlying Boulder-clay (Specimen 4), and
a few only in Specimens Nos. 1 and 2. In No. 5 the Foraminifera
were more plentiful and of species common to the low-level
Boulder-clay of Lancashire, Cheshire, and the Vale of Clwyd. As
usual, Nonionina depressula was common, and far outnumbered the
other species.

Boulder clay very S$FONG
local rocks

fron band
Swecimen NI

Secimen NP 2. Very fine red or bright
= orowa marly send

See Pes Paar ee o::

- a x a
« QS ata) 6 esa OSeeECIoD
3 Sand &:Gravefe sin
sae ony. me pee = a 5 cea
Ore oe
ero Os ee!
a
=e Bedded slate fragment
RAY ECCla *_=— fu =
as URE ens ecra * = : ( 7 clayey matrix.
SSS SSS SSS) Larger fregmen
feed in Gh Hla ye ooo nese ee
if 1S f7yi 99,1 yl rel ht C Ph i Vertically inclined trag-
ee ents of slate rock
Sole Foch = = Ste Cernunal curvature”
> =a a .— state 5 ieee ——

Fia. 5.—Section showing position of Foraminiferal beds.

The high-level drift generally does not appear to have been
searched much for Foraminifera. The only other published list
from Moel Tryfaen that I can find is that given by Miss Mary K.
Andrews.’

This list was also the result of Mr. Wright’s examination of
Specimens collected by Miss Andrews. In all twelve species are

1 Annual Report, Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club, 1894-95, pp. 209, 210.

122 Report on the Moel Tryfaen Drift.

enumerated, those common to this list being marked with an asterisk,
and being eight in number.

Cg oe 630 e >
- HO eho S On GO 2a
©. Shelly. sand <*.
Oam Oe Ge Qfo2 & P ves,

M8 gravel yo

a8 SOG 58 OF. BEE. UGS GOR

ay
«

°

Fre. 6.—Section showing position of Foraminiferal beds.

Nore C.

List or FoRAMINIFERA OF PLEISTOCENE Breps or Mort TryYFAEN.
By Joseph Wright, F.G.S.

No. 1.—Weight of sand, 11b. 1°70z. troy. After washing, fine 10°8 oz. ;
coarse 1:50z. In this sample, as well as in all the others which I examined, the
greater portion of the stones were more or less rounded, the others being angular.

Lagena semistriata (Will.). Very rare.
* Nonionina depressula (W. & J.). Very rare.
No. 2.—Weight of sand, 1lb. 2°70z. troy. After washing, fine 7:3 0z.; coarse

2°20z. Very fine bright brown sand.
Lagena lineata (Will.). Very rare.

No. 3.—Weight of sand, 21b. 3°5 oz. troy. After washing, fine 1b. 8:2 07. ;
coarse 5:40z. Fragments of shells.

Report on the Moel Tryfaen Drift. 123.

Miliolina seminulum (Linn.). Rare.
Bulimina pupoides (D’Orb.). Very rare.
Bolivina punctata (D’Orb.). Frequent.
», plicata (D’Orb.). Common.
*Cassidulina crassa (D’Orb.). Common.
Lagena suicata (W. & J.). Very rare.
», Williamsoni (Alcock). Very rare.
», semilineata (Wright). Very rare.
* ,, sguamosa (Montg.). Very rare.
» marginata (W. & B.). Rare.
», Qquadrata (Will.). Very rare.
», ¢clathrata (Br.). Very rare.
» Orbignyana (Seg.). Very rare.
», Qquadricostulata (Rss.). Rare.
Uvigerina angulina (Will.). Very rare.
Globigerina bulloides (D’Orb.). Very common.
Orbulina universa (D’Orb.). Frequent, very small.
* Discorbina rosacea (D’Orb.). Very rare.
Wrightii (Br.). Common.
* Pulvinulina Karsteni (Rss.). Rare.
*Nonionina depressula (W. & J.). Most abundant.
* Polystomella striato-punctata (F. & M.). Very rare.
203 specimens of Nonionina depressula were obtained from this gathering, whilst
the other twenty-one species numbered only 102.

No. 4.—Weight of sand, 2lb. 6°70z. troy. After washing, fine 6°6 oz. ; coarse
1:30z. Sand very dirty, and having a large proportion of stones in it.
No Foraminifera.

23 V9 0%% = 90-3" -9~ > Bouller chy

¢ Sy Ming iequahties
— SF sand & gravest
< : ae, Surlece.

Shee ages a - mon Raat < = . ae
ee ST Hello stoneles
a - ce ee eae ey ith sand & ;

Fic. 7.—Diagram at north-east side of Alexandra Quarry, showing dome-like
arrangement of sand and gravel beneath Boulder-clay.
(Length 50 to 60 yards ; height about 60 feet.)

Nore.—Much of the middle series consists of fine plastic reddish-
yellow clay or silt without stones, the kind of material common in
the stratified drifts of the Isle of Man. Shell fragments rather
plentiful in the gravelly streaks, but none seen in the clay or sand.

P.S.—For the sake of those interested in the drifts of Moel
Tryfaen, it may be mentioned that copies of the photographs alluded
to in this Report may be seen in the collection belonging to the
British Association (at Jermyn Street Library); and of the more
important of them also at the Museums of Science and Art in
Edinburgh and Dublin. Copies have also been sent to Chicago and
Ottawa.—. G.

124 Reviews—J. Joly’s Age of the Earth.

See, 2 Vs Se Ee VVe Se

I,.—An Estimate oF THE GeEoLocicaL AGE OF THE EarrTH.
By J. Jory, M.A., B.A.L, D.Sc. F.R.S., F.G.S., MoBR.LA;
Hon. Sec. Roy. Dublin Soe., Professor of Geology and Mineralogy
in the University of Dublin. Scientific Transactions of the
Royal Dublin Society, ser. 11, vol. vii (1899) ; 4to, pp. 44.

Nee paper consists of an introduction and these nine sections :—

I. The estimate of geological time.
IJ. The original condition of the ocean.
III. The supply of sodium by the rivers.
IV. The saline deposits.
V. The alkalies of the rocks.
VI. The potash of the rivers.
VII. Uniformity of denudation by solution.
VIII. The alkalies of sediments, and the geological age of the latter.
IX. The solvent denudation of the ocean.
And two appendices.

Appendix 1 is generally useful. It contains a list of numerical
quantities adopted in the calculations. Appendix 2 is a list of
sources of error which may modify the conclusions.

The matters treated of in the nine sections are epitomized in the
Introduction.

The first point argued is, that so much of the removal of the
land surface as is due to solution may be accepted as a uniformitarian
process; and this being granted, if we take the one element of
sodium, which is dissolved out of the rocks and enters the ocean
through river discharge, and if we assume that there was no sodium
in the primeeval ocean, the amount of sodium in the ocean divided
by the amount annually brought down by rivers will give the
length of time during which the accumulation has been going on,
and will be a measure of the age of the world.

Professor Joly claims that the amount of sodium in the ocean
agrees very well with that which must have been lost by the
crystalline rocks in the process of their being converted into the
existing volume, as usually estimated, of the sedimentaries. This
would decidedly support his view that the sodium of the ocean
has been derived from the crystalline rocks, and that the primitive
ocean was devoid of that element.

I. The data upon which the calculations are made are as follows:
“<The absolute masses of the ingredients of the ocean ” are :

Tons.
Sodium chloride ARG eee 6 00,990 x O12:
Magnesium chloride ... 208 pon) nO Oot ecu Ones
Magnesium sulphate ... 500 sop | AA) IPA Sg MO
Lime sulphate ... vee 009 see, COON OL2s
Potassium sulphate... not soo UG tebTL Sg).
Magnesium bromide ... 530 soe 100 x 101,
Lime bicarbonate... Cor ae 160 x 101.

Reviews—J. Joly’s Age of the Earth. 125.

“ Of the sodium chloride 39°32 per cent. is sodium. In the sea,
there is therefore amass of sodium amounting to 14,151 x 10” tons.”

The materials in tons per cubic mile of nineteen of the principal
rivers of the world (after Sir J. Murray) are next given, and from
these it is calculated that they contain 24,106 tons of sodium per
eubic mile. ‘The total volume [of water] discharged by the rivers
into the ocean is 6,524 cubic miles per annum.”

The mass of sodium in the ocean divided by the mass annually
brought down by the rivers gives the length of time in which, at
the present rate, the mass in the ocean can have accumulated. The
result is 89,565,000 years. But Professor Joly prefers to use
a later estimate of the volume of the ocean, which would lengthen
the “ period of geological denudation to 94,800,000 years nearly.”

The foregoing gives the pith of Professor Joly’s very ingenious
theory of the age of the earth. The remaining sections are subsidiary
to it, and are apparently intended to meet possible objections, and
to render the first estimate more accurate.

II. ‘On the Original Condition of the Ocean.” This is a necessary
inquiry ; for unless it can be premised that there was no sodium in
it, the argument clearly fails, and the earth’s age will be pro-
portionately shorter by an unknown amount. The author assumes
that the earth was once molten, and considers that, upon cooling,
“the upper part of what is now the earth’s crust must have contained
as silicates, in the form of slag, lava, or rock, the alkaline earths
now appearing chiefly as carbonates, the alkalies now distributed
between the salts of the sea and the alkali silicates of the rocks,
along with iron and alumina. The early hydrosphere must for
want of other known alternative be supposed to have contained
a quantity of hydrochloric acid, roughly represented by the chlorine
now in the ocean.”

We next find speculations as to the sequence of events preceding
and following the first condensation of water on the surface; and
it is considered improbable that a uniform ocean ever covered the
entire globe; and the author inclines to the opinion that the sub-
oceanic crust is more dense than the continental, and that ocean
basins have been permanent. This part of the essay is of much
interest, but does not very closely concern the main question of the
age of the earth.

We have here quoted an important analysis by Mr. F. W. Clarke
(Bull. U.S.A. Geol. Surv., 1897), “which may fairly represent the
composition of the older crust of the earth.”

GC for (AS an ree seo OPAL Naz O... eS So BUCH!
Alz O3 SE a2 LO338 EN OW-be oe Bao) Lalas!
Fez O3 te Pen OO Opps: aR ne Oro38
HeO. 2: ae ens ByiOz .c2 ae eos 2
CaO ... a so este! a
MgO... ae soc 4°40 99°14
Ol s ue Sho 23a

‘“‘Such a rock, or lava, attacked by a heated solution of hydro-
chloric acid, must ultimately yield its iron, calcium, magnesium,

126 Reviews—J. Joly’s Age of the Earth.

potash, and soda as chlorides. The atomic percentages of Clarke's
average are given by himself as follows :—

irony ees ae 4°71 20 \ 9-0
Calcium 206 3°53 | take up 6°3
Magnesium ... 2°64 500 units of 7°6
Potassium... 2°35 200 [ chlorine 2°14
Sodium Be 2°68 ”’ ) \ 4:1

Having given the composition of the crust, the author next
considers how the chlorine of the heated hydrochloric acid, which
he supposes then to have been in the ocean, would have been
distributed among the bases.

It is evident that any sodium which was obtained by rock solution
from the floor of the primeval ocean must be deducted from that
supplied by the rivers, otherwise the age of the world will be
reckoned too long. Professor Joly proposes to estimate the former
by considering the chlorine in the ocean. Of whatever chlorine
there was in the primitive ocean the sodium would take 14 per cent.
(reckoning from the proportion of sodium to the other bases in the
crust). But some chlorine is also supplied by the rivers, and by rain
upon the land. He allows for this at a guess 10 per cent. Deducting
this, the total supply by rivers is 97°8 x 10° tons of sodium chloride
per annum. There are other chlorides (lithium 16 x 10°, ammonium
6-5 x 10°) in the rivers. Thus we find 76 x 10° tons of chlorine
discharged into the ocean annually by rivers.

“Tf we assume that the final result as to the duration of denuda-
tion will not be far from 86 x 10° years, we arrive at a total
deduction of 6,536 x 10” tons [of chlorine] as a correction on the
amount of chlorine contained [at present] in the sodium chloride of
the ocean.” This, however, seems to postulate the period of 86 x 10°
years, which is the thing to be found. The calculation will be—

Tons.

Chlorine in the sod. chl. now in the ocean ... Ase wee 2451 Dea
Chlorine in the mag. chl. now in the ocean ... 500 at) 1G]

28,316 x 1012
Deduct chlorine introduced by rivers in 86 x 10° years ... 6,536 x 10”

21,780 x 10!

“The result is 21,780 x 10" tons” of chlorine in the original
ocean. Of this, 14 per cent. will have been combined with sodium
as already explained, the remainder combining with the other bases
of the magma. This gives 1,972 x 10" tons of sodium in the
original ocean. Hence we have—

Tons of sodium in the present ocean ... 306 --- 15,6272x 108
Tons of sodium in the original ocean... oa -. ) L,O72excei
Difference given as brought in by rivers one .. 13,655 x 10!

This, divided by the annual supply of sodium by rivers, viz.
15,724 x 10 tons, gives as a final result 86-8 x 10° years for the age
of the world.

III. In this section some slight modifications of the supply of

Reviews—J. Joly’s Age of the Earth. 127

sodium by rivers to the ocean are considered. The estimate of
89°3 millions of years is finally arrived at as “based on the most
complete estimates of probabilities.”

IV. We next have a short geological discussion on the origin of
beds of rock salt; but the author concludes that these have scarcely
any bearing upon his theory.

V. In this section the rates of percentages of soda and potash in
igneous and sedimentary rocks respectively are considered. Seeing
that the sedimentaries have been ultimately derived from the igneous,
the difference needs to be accounted for. The difference is con-
siderable ; for while in the igneous the percentages are of potash
2°83 and of soda 3-61, in the sedimentaries they are of potash 2°49
and of soda 1:47. ‘If now the inference is right that the missing
alkalies [i.e. the deficiency of soda in the sedimentaries] were
supplied to the ocean, we should expect to find, on a rough approxi-
mation of the bulk of sedimentaries, and hence of the original rocks
giving rise to them, that such a mass of parent rock would be
adequate to supply the sodium in the ocean.” This the author claims
to be the case, allowing for the sodium retained in beds of rock salt.
The weight of this argument clearly depends upon what reliance we
can place upon the estimate of the bulk of the sedimentaries, which
is taken from Mr. Mellard Reade.’ Professor Joly accepts his
estimate of a layer 2 miles thick over the land area, which on
deducting the calcareous rocks is reduced to 1°6 miles. This, how-
ever, is reduced still further by a course of somewhat complicated
reasoning to 1:1 miles, and the conclusion, accentuated by italics, is
thus stated :—

“ Hence it appears that, if a thickness of 1:1 mile of rock spread
over the land area represent the bulk of the entire detrital siliceous
sedimentary rocks, inclusive of submarine detritus, and this constitutes
67 per cent. of the entire sedimentaries of the earth, including matter in
solution in the sea, the sodium contained in the sea, added to what is left
over in the detrital sediments, would suffice to restore to the entire mass
a soda percentage almost equal to that in the eruptive, igneous, and
crystalline rocks; the deficiency, about 0-4 per cent., exists partly in
rock-salt deposits.”

The bearing of this section upon the general argument is, that
the sodium in the ocean may be regarded as having been all of it
derived from the original rock magma.

VI. The ratio of potash to soda in the ocean is 1 to 31 nearly,
whereas in the river discharge it is 1 to 2:8, that is, there is about
eleven times as much potash compared to soda in the rivers as there
is in the ocean. It is therefore clear that at this rate the present ratio
of these alkalies in the ocean could not have been contributed by the
rivers. ‘“ We must then suppose that the rivers are now supplying
more potash relatively to soda than formerly ; or that some process
of abstraction of the potash from the ocean is in continual progress.”
The author comes to the conclusion that there is no reason to
suppose that the ratio of the alkalies in the river supply differed in

1 Grou. Maa., Dec. III, Vol. X (1893), p. 97.

128 Reviews—J. Joly’s Age of the Earth.

times past from what it is now, but attributes the deficiency of
potash in the ocean to a continual abstraction of that alkali in
deposits which have always been, and still are, going on upon the
sea bottom, especially in the form of glauconite. Moreover, while
the soda brought by rain from the ocean is returned to it again,
much of the potash is retained by vegetation, and finally deposited in
the strata.

[Is it certain, however, that the primeval ocean did not contain
soda? If it did, the excess wouid be at once explained. |

VII. The uniformity of denudation by solution throughout
geological time is a first requisite of Professor Joly’s calculation.
The objection which would be probably made is, that the sodium
supply by rivers will have been greater in early times. To meet
this he first argues for a nearly equable distribution of land and sea
all along, so that there would not have been formerly much larger
areas exposed to denuding agency than now. This portion of the
present section is very interesting from a geological point of view,
and is well reasoned. No claim is made to settle definitely the
ratios of rainfall during successive epochs.

In the next place the author meets the possible objection, that
it might be thought that formerly greater areas of the land surfaces
were occupied by crystalline rocks, which, containing a larger
percentage of sodium than the sedimentaries, would have supplied
that element at a quicker rate. In later times the sedimentaries
would occupy a larger proportion of the exposed surface, but the
balance of supply would, he thinks, be rectified by the greater ease
with which the sedimentaries, aided by disintegration into soils,
yield up the alkalies they contain.

VIII. In this section ‘a very interesting but difficult line of
enquiry is suggested in the probable facts of geological denudation ”
referred to in the previous section. The object in view appears to
be to support the theory of uniformity of sodium supply.

IX. By “the solvent denudation of the ocean” is meant its
action upon the coastlines. This is believed by the author to be
small compared with what goes on upon land surfaces. Moreover,
experiment has shown that sea-water has little effect in decomposing
felspars, and similarly the volcanic products which are so abundant in
deep-sea deposits have the alkali ratio of igneous, not of sedimentary
rocks—‘“a plain proof that the waters of the ocean do not affect
them as would terrestrial rain and rivers.” The correction on the
world’s age on account of the solvent denudation of the ocean will
be sufficient if half a million years is allowed. The final conclusion
is that “our present knowledge of solvent-denudation of the earth's
surface points to a period of between eighty and ninety millions of
years having elapsed since water condensed upon the earth, and rain
and rivers and the actions continually progressing in the soils began
to supply the ocean with materials dissolved from the rocks.”

As Major Dutton has somewhere remarked, ‘‘If we enquire of
Mother Earth her age her face is the face of a sphinx.” Has

Reviews—J. Joly’s Age of the Earth, 129

Professor Joly read her riddle aright? The suggestion of some
criticisms may be excused.

In the first place, it does not appear safe to take the intensities of
actions now going on as a measure of those in past ages, because the
earth has been losing energy ; and, as Professor Darwin has pointed
out in his book on ‘‘ The Tides,” meteorological agencies must have
formerly been more powerful than they are now. In the writer’s
opinion, in dealing with events of long past ages the interaction of
the moon upon the earth ought not to be lost sight of. This is
inversely proportional to the cube of her distance, which distance
was once much less than it is now, if, indeed, the moon was not
once a portion of the earth suddenly detached. If such was the case,
the primeval condition of the earth’s surface may have been pro-
foundly modified by the stupendous event.

The assumption made that the primitive ocean did not contain

alkalies appears to require that the alumina in the original magma
was exactly proportioned to the alkalies, so that when the felspathic
minerals were formed there was neither alumina left nor alkalies, as
there certainly was silica in abundance, still uncombined. If this
proportion did not hold, there would have been either alumina
uncombined in the crystalline rocks, or alkalies over to combine
with the acids in the ocean—presumably the latter, seeing that
alkaline salts abound in it at present. That this due proportion
should have existed does not seem probable. If there was soda in
the primeval ocean, that would shorten Professor Joly’s estimate of
the earth’s age.
_ The various sodium salts in the rivers are in the proportion of
sulphate 32, nitrate 27, chloride 17, nearly. The decomposition of
iron sulphide would supply the sulphuric acid. Bacteria in the
soils would supply the nitric. But whence came the chlorine?
The amount of 0:01 per cent. stated to occur in crystalline rocks
seems insufficient. Sodium occurs as carbonate rather abundantly
in some rivers and artesian wells, which, Sterry Hunt remarks, ‘‘ has
its source in the decomposition of felspathic minerals.” ’ This shows
that the direct product of these rocks is the carbonate rather than
the chloride. Is it not probable that the chlorides of sodium, and to
a small extent of lithium, are derived from sedimentary rather than
from crystalline rocks; not from the decomposition of these rocks,
but: from what Sterry Hunt calls the “fossil sea. water still to be
found imprisoned in the pores of the older stratified rocks,” * and
presumably in the younger as well ?

This idea had occurred to the writer before referring to Sterry
Hunt’s book, and he had already begun to examine a specimen of
the Silurian rock (Wenlock shale) obtained from the depth of
880 feet in the New River Company’s borehole at Ware; for it
seemed probable that this rock has never yet been exposed to
atmospheric influences, so that it would contain all the salts which
were present in the mud of the very early ocean from which it was

1 «¢ Chemical and Geological Essays,’’ p, 8d.
2 Tbid., p. 41.

DECADE IV.—VOL. VII.—wNO. III. 9

130 Reviews—dJ. Joly’s Age of the Earth.

consolidated. And it is distinctly salt to the taste. On submitting
a fragment of this rock for examination to Mr. Purvis, of the
Cambridge University chemical laboratory, he found that it contained
0:568 of soluble matter, of which 0-042 per cent. consisted of chlorine
calculated to sodium chloride. Now the specific gravity of this rock
is 2°59. Consequently, since a cubic foot of water weighs 1,000
ounces, there are 1:08 ounces of chlorides in a cubic foot of the rock
and 2:27 ounces of other soluble salts. In like manner a piece of
Devonian shale from Meux Brewery in Tottenham Court Road at
the depth of 1,070 feet was found to yield 1:11 per cent. soluble in
water, but the amount of chlorine was too small to determine.

It is interesting to compare these old rocks with such as we might
suppose would now be forming. Accordingly it was found upon
squeezing dry some mud from Southampton Water that the matter
soluble in water was 0:495 per cent., and of “chlorine calculated to
sodium chloride 0-074 per cent.” This mud was derived from
Middle Bracklesham sands, and yielded a soft sandstone rock when
consolidated in a hydraulic press.

Some mud from the Fleet near Weymouth, when treated in the
same manner, yielded 0-9 per cent. of soluble matter, of which
chlorine calculated to sodium chloride gave 0:29 per cent.

It is remarkable that the total amount soluble in these hypothetical
recent rocks is closely analogous to that in the ancient rocks
examined, and also that the proportion of sodium chloride in both
cases is comparatively small; whereas in sea-water it is very much
greater than that of any other salt. Mr. Purvis adds: ‘This pressed
mud also contains probably mixed sulphates, such as magnesium
sulphate, sodium sulphate, potassium sulphate, and calcium sulphate.”
It is natural to conclude that the decomposition of iron sulphide in
the original sands may have converted much of the chloride into
sulphate. Sulphuric acid is also a product of the combustion of
coal, which would account for the presence of a certain amount in
localities like those from which these muds were obtained. But
the point of interest is the probable substitution of sulphates for
chlorides, from whatever source the acid may have come. This
consideration shows that there may have been originally more sea
salt in a sedimentary rock than is indicated by the quantity of
sodium chloride it now contains.

Another point to be noticed is, that the amount of salts in the
ancient rocks being so near that in rocks now presumably being
deposited, shows that the ocean was about as salt then as it is now,
and consequently not much additional sodium can have accumulated
in it during the long ages since Silurian times.

In the 18th annual report of the U.S.A. Geological Survey '
upwards of sixty analyses of well waters are recorded in Indiana
and Ohio. In the artesian wells sodium chloride is very abundant,
to the amount of 1,000 to 3,000 grains to the U.S.A. gallon. These
waters appear to be found in sedimentary rocks. In the i9th report *

1 1896-7, pt. iv, p. 500.
* 1897-8, p. 650, ‘‘ Rock Waters of Oh'o.”

Reviews—ZJ. Joly’s Age of the Earth. 131

we read: ‘‘ Water from a greater depth [not specified] holds dissolved
chlorides as well. Chloride of sodium is by far the most common,
but chlorides of magnesium and calcium are often added. Such
waters are usually called saline. The presence of chlorides is
seldom shown in waters at less than 100 feet in depth... .” “ It
is very rare that the drill descends to 300 feet without encountering
saline water.” These waters are from Silurian beds.

The conclusion to be drawn from these remarks is, that some
of the sodium found in river waters may probably be derived from
the “ fossil waters” of old sea muds, and if that is the case, it is in
circulation from the ocean to the stratified rocks and back again.
No doubt much sodium may find its way into rivers immediately
from the felspar of rocks, but we are not justified in crediting all the
sodium conveyed to the ocean as having been supplied de novo in
that manner. This consideration would lengthen Professor Joly’s
estimate of the world’s age by an unknown period.

An enquiry not without interest may be made as follows :—
Supposing the whole of the land area to consist of granite; for how
many years would a foot thickness of the land supply the sodium as
carried down by the rivers at the present rate? Mr. Merrill’s book
supplies the data to answer this question.' He describes a section
where solid granite occurs at the bottom, and, after passing through
an intermediate stage of weathering, is disintegrated into sand at
the surface. It appears legitimate to assume that this process of
disintegration keeps pace with the denudation of the surface. Mr.
Merrill says that the solid granite, in the process of disintegration
into the residual sand, loses 28:62 per cent. of its soda. Now the
weight of the sodium is the weight of the soda minus the weight of
the combined oxygen, so that it will be 23/31 the weight of the
soda. Also he tells us that the weight of the soda is 2°68 per cent.
of the solid granite ; and according to Mallet a cubic foot of granite
weighs 198-34 pounds.

With these data it appears that the weight of the sodium in
a cubic foot of granite is 0-00047029 of a ton.

Accepting Professor Joly’s figures, the land area in square feet
will be 55,814,000 x (5,280)?, which gives us the volume of a layer
a foot thick covering the land area; also the weight of the sodium
annually discharged by the rivers is 157,267,544 tons. Dividing this
by the volume of the one foot layer multiplied by the weight of
sodium in a cubic foot, we get 1/5000 of a foot of granite as
competent to supply the sodium of the rivers in the annual process
of disintegration.

We may hence conclude that, if the land area consisted of
granite, the rate of denudation would be one foot in 5,000 years.
Sir A. Geikie, in his “Text Book of Geology” (p. 444), accepts
one foot in 6,000 years asa probable mean for the rate of denudation.
It is certainly remarkable that the result we have obtained comes
near this. But when we remember that but a small portion of the
land surface consists of crystalline rocks, and that the mean

1 «On Rocks and Rock Weathering,” p. 209.

132 Reviews—P. N. Venyukov’s Silurian of Podolia,

percentage of soda in sedimentary rocks is only 1°47 (p. 44), it is
obvious that a much higher rate of denudation would be required
to yield annually by decomposition of such rocks the amount of
sodium carried down by the rivers. The conclusion will be that,
if one foot denuded in 6,000 years is near the truth, the sodium in
the rivers must have some further source than the soda which forms
a mineral constituent of the surface rocks, and that this additional
soda is probably derived, as already suggested, from “ fossil” sea-
water. Ought not also some allowance to be made for the soda
introduced into rivers by human agency ?

The style of the paper leaves here and there a little to be desired
in respect of clearness; for instance (p. 47), “We can apply to the mean
analysis of the sedimentaries on the one hand, and to that of the original
crust on the other, to arrive at a rough estimate of the loss of entire
rock by solution in the process of formation of the former.” Again
(p. 46), “‘ We accept one mile deep of these [detrital sediments] on
the land, and confining ourselves to purely detrital siliceous
sediments, assume that as much as 10 per cent. of what is on the
land is in the sea [!], or say a total of 1:1 mile deep over the
iand area.”

In this important essay Professor Joly has opened up an entirely
new line for the investigation of geological time. It is too soon to
pronounce whether his numerical estimate is fully to be relied upon,
until it has been a little while before the scientific world. His
period of between 80 and 90 million years will perhaps satisfy
geologists as being sufficient. The leading physicists, on the other
hand, are disposed to grant us a good deal less time.

O. FisHer.

Haruton, CAMBRIDGE.
January 22, 1900.

I].—Tue Fauna or tHe SrnurR1AN oF Popotta.

Fauna siluriiskikh otlozhenii podol‘skoi gubernii. Die Fauna der
Silurischen Ablagerungen des gouvernements Podolien. By
P. N. Venyuxoy (Wenjukow). Mater. Geol. Russlands, XIX,
pp. 21-266, pls. i-ix ; November, 1899.

ODOLIA, which lies to the south-west of Kiev, is bounded on
the south by the Dniester and on the west by Galicia, and is
drained by a river beloved of every schoolboy—the Bug. The
Silurian rocks are all in the south-west of the province, adjoining
the similar formations of Galicia. The present work by Professor
Venyukov of Kiev describes the fauna of these rocks, unfortunately
for us, in Russian; but the broad results may be gathered from the
short abstract in German, while the new species, of which there are
not a few among corals, brachiopods, molluscs, and ostracods, may to
some extent be identified from the plates. The Silurian geologist
will certainly have tv read the abstract, and the specialist in
paleontology must get the Russian descriptions translated for him.
Here we give only the main conclusions.

Baron von Toll—The Siberian Cambrian. 133

Reviews

The Silurian rocks of Podolia consist chiefly of limestone, and
may be divided into three series (Horizonte), each characterized by
a more or less independent fauna, which developed and altered
during the deposition of the series. The lowest series, which occurs
in the south-east of the Silurian area, near Studenitza, is very
poor in corals and gasteropods, but rich in brachiopods, especially
Atrypide and Lepteenide. Among the characteristic species are
Strophomena antiquata, Atrypa cordata, A. imbricata, A. Barrandei,
A. Thisbe, Pentamerus linguifer, and Glassia compressa. This is
correlated with the Wenlock Shale, and with bed ¢ of Lindstrém’s
+0tland scale. The middle series has a wider extent, and is exposed
along the north bank of the Dniester. It is very rich in corals,
such as Cyathophyllum articulatum, Ptychophyllum truncatum, Rhizo-
phyllum gotlandicum, while gasteropods of the genera Oriostoma
(esp. O. discors, O. globosum), Murchisonia, and Pleurotomaria are
characteristic and abundant. The brachiopods are represented
chiefly by Rhynchonellidz and Pentameridee. The series is clearly
capable of further subdivision, but in the main is correlated with the
English beds from Wenlock Limestone to Aymestry, and with d, e, f
of Gotland. The uppermost series occurs towards the north of
the area, near Dumanov and Kamenez-Podolsk. Brachiopods pre-
ponderate, and among the species may be noticed Spirifer Thetidis,
S. robustus, Rhynchonella nympha, Rk. Hebe, and Atrypa sublepida.
There are scarcely any mollusca and few trilobites; but there are
some ostracods and the characteristic Hurypterus Mischeri and
Scaphaspis obovatus (?). As local developments are beds of crinoid-
limestone, in which Crotalocrinus rugosus is the only recognized
species. A similar occurrence is characteristic of the Gotland
horizons g and h, with which this is correlated. Its English
representatives are the Upper Ludlow and Passage Beds.

It is clear that for the greater part of Silurian time the Podolian
area formed a part of the great northern basin in which the rocks of
England, Gotland, and North-West Russia were deposited. It was,
however, connected with the Bohemian basin, and this connection
increased until in Lower Devonian time the Podolian sea formed
a link between Bohemia and the Ural basin. PRAL SB.

IIJ.—Butrrice zur Kenntniss pres SiprriscHeN CamBrium. Von
Epuarp von Tout. Mémoires de l’Académie Impériale des
Sciences de St. Pétersbourg. Série vii, vol. viii, No. 10, 1899.

ConTRIBUTIONS TO A KNOWLEDGE OF THE SIBERIAN CAMBRIAN.
By E. von Tou. 4to; pp. iv + 57, with 9 woodcuts and
8 plates.

N this memoir Baron von Toll records the discovery of beds of
sandstone, shale, and limestone, with Cambrian fossils, in several
localities in Hastern Siberia widely separated from each other, which
seem to indicate the existence in this region of an extensive basin of
Cambrian deposits. The rocks have previously been regarded,
owing to an erroneous determination of some imperfect fossils,

134 Reviews—Baron von Toll—The Siberian Cambrian.

as of Devonian, Carboniferous, and Triassic age. The strata are
principally exposed in the banks of the great rivers, and fossils
have been found in the following localities: (1) Torgoschino, near
Krasnojarsk on the Yenesei, 56° N. lat., 93° H. long.; (2) on the
right bank of the Vilyui, 63° N. lat., 115° EH. long.; (8) on the
Olenek, in 70° N. lat., 120° H. long.; and (4) on the Lena,
between Oleminsk and Yakutsk, in 64° N. Jat., 128° E. long.

From limestones on the Lena the author describes two species of
Ptychoparia related to forms in the Olenellus zone of North America;
three new species of IMicrodiseus, two of which approach closely to
American forms; Agnostus, sp.n.; fragments of a doubtful Olenellus ;
Kutorgina cingulata, Billings ; an Obolella related to O. chromatica,
Bill. ; and an undetermined Hyolithes.

The beds on the Olenek contain Bathyuriscus Howelli, Walcot,
a Middle Cambrian species found originally in Nevada; Agnostus
Czekanowskii, Fr. Schmidt; and some worm tracks. From the Vilyui
Fr. Schmidt has already described -Anomocare Pawlowski and
Liostracus ? Maydelli.

From limestones at Torgoschino on ike Yenesei two species of
Trilobites, Proetus Slatkowskit and Cyphaspis Sibirica, had been
described by Fr. Schmidt: the former of these is now determined
by the author to belong to the Cambrian genus Dorypyge, Dames,
and the latter with some doubt to Solenopleura, Angelin.

The Yenesei rocks likewise contain numerous representatives of
the widely distributed Cambrian family of the Archeocyathine.
The author describes six species of Archgocyathus, Bill., three of
which are new, and three considered to be identical with species
from the Cambrian rocks of Sardinia. Of the allied genus Coscino-
cyathus, Bornemann, seven species common to the Sardinian rocks
and one new are recognized, and there is also a doubtful form of
Protopharetra, Bornemann. The Yenesei examples of this family,
like those from Sardinia, appear to be enclosed in a very hard lime-
stone, so that they can be studied only in sections; consequently
the recognition of specific characters is very difficult, and complete
identification of species, as the author acknowledges, is hardly to be
expected.

A new genus, Rhabdocyathus, is also proposed: it agrees, in the
laminate character of the wall, with Spirocyathus, Hinde, but it
possesses neither septa nor dissepiments, andthe space between the
inner and outer wall layers is traversed by tubes which open on the
exterior surface as rows of pores. The author considers that this
form represents a simpler type of the family than any hitherto
known, and, further, that it furnishes a clue to the systematic
position of the group, which, as is well known, is not as yet by any
means settled. The Archzeocyathine have been in turn referred to
siliceous sponges, foraminifera, and perforate corals, but their
resting-place in any one of these divisions has not received the
general support of paleontologists. Von Toll puts forward a fresh
suggestion, namely, that they are possibly Calcareous Algae, whose
nearest relations are to be found in the Tertiary genus Acicularia,

Reports and Proceedings— Geological Society of London. 1385

D’Archiac, and the existing Acetabularia, Lamx. Whatever may be
the final conclusion respecting the nature of the Archeocyathine,
their significance as characteristic fossils of Cambrian strata is
further manifested by their occurrence, in association with Dorypyge,
in Hastern Siberia.

It may be hoped that the author’s anticipations of fresh dis-
coveries of fossils in these ancient rocks in the works for the great
Siberian railway, now in progress, will be fully realized.

Gia dale

Eee Oi) AND ROC Be DEImGS-

—_—

GeroLogicaL Society oF Lonpon.

J.—January 10, 1900.—W. Whitaker, B.A., F.R.S., President, in
the Chair. The following communications were read :—

1. “On a Particular Form of Surface, the Result of Glacial and
Subaerial Erosion, seen on Loch Lochy and elsewhere.” By
Dr. W. T. Blanford, F.R.S., Treas. G.S.

This form of surface, first noticed by the author on Lake Como,
was afterwards observed in the Great Glen of Scotland and in
British Columbia. It consists of an almost even plane sloping at
a moderate or high angle, and cut at intervals by small ravines or
channels. The sides of the Great Glen have been planed by glacier-
action to a greater extent than usual, and between Loch Lochy and
Loch Oich, near Laggan, the sides of the Glen have a regular and
flat slope of over 55° up to about 1,000 feet above sea-level. Numerous
stream-cut channels draining down this slope are, on an average, not
more than 10 to 15 feet deep, but some quite exceptional examples
may be 50 feet deep; these channels occupy less than a fourth of
the surface. In addition there are larger glens which, although
they run out into shallow ravines where they cut the sloping
side of the Great Glen, are frequently 500 feet in depth among the
hills. If these were ordinary stream-valleys before the Glacial
Period, the cutting away of the ridges separating them to the extent
of at least 250 or 3800 feet must be attributed to glacial erosion on
the sides of the Great Glen. ‘The erosion of the small ravines in
the glacial slope must have been effected by streams in post-Glacial
times, and the measurement of their rate of erosion might be
expected to throw light on the amount of time which has elapsed
since the Glacial Period in this district. ‘‘The general effect pro-
duced by the whole evidence is . . . the small amount of
denudation that has taken place since the Great Ice Age, and the
necessary deduction that no great period of time, measured in
years, can have elapsed between the Glacial Epoch and the
present day.”

2. “On the Geology of Northern Anglesey.” Part II. By C. A.
Matley, B.Sc., F.G.S.

136 Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London.

The present paper deals in the first place with the stratigraphy of
the Northern Complex. The following table shows the succession of
the rocks in descending order :-—

C. Tur LuanpeILo Srrata.

Feet.
Cd. Black argillaceous shales... bus B06 S02 ... 40; top notseen.
Cie Ironstone, in part oolitic .. e20
Cb. Grey quartzose shales or slates, striped by thin, black lamine 150
Ca. 2. Pale conglomerates and grits o06 500 30 ee .00
1. Red- purple conglomerate .. oe 500 300 nog isi)

B. Tue Luanpaprie Sertzs, about 1,000 or 1,500 feet; apparent order :—

Bf. Quartzite.

Be. Pebbly slates.

Bd. Slates with grit and quartzite bands.

Be. Quartzites, shales, and some limestone (Porth Padrig, etc.).

Bd. Limestone (as at Trwyn y Pare).

Ba. Grits and slates, usually smashed to a crush-conglomerate.
A. Tur Grern SERIEs.

Greenish and bluish slates (of the Northern Complex).

The rocks strike east-south-east, and dip usually at a high angle
northward; a well-marked transverse fault divides the complex
into western and eastern portions. The Llandeilo rocks occupy four
strips of ground in the west and three in the east, but the full
succession does not occur in any one of these outcrops. ‘The effects
of compression are much marked in the purple conglomerate ; the
matrix is dragged out along small shear-planes, and the pebbles are
stretched into ‘phacoids, slip-faulted, and their extremities tailed out.
A deceptive appearance of unconformity is also produced at the
junction of grits and shales. Fossils are found in some of the
rocks. The Llandeilo rocks are of importance, as they reveal the
existence of at least four shattered synclines, usually faulted, and
probably all overthrust on their northern boundaries.

No fossils have been found in the Llanbadrig rocks, and no more
definite assertion of their age is possible than that they are pre-
Llandeilo. They are newer than, and their base may be con-
formable with, the Green Series; but as fragments almost certainly
derived from, the latter series have been found in the highest zones,
the relation between the two series is more likely to be that of an
unconformity. The Llandeilo rocks contain fragments of limestone
and pieces of quartzite; but in spite of this evidence in favour
of unconformity between the Llanbadrig and Llandeilo rocks, the
basal beds of the latter are found to cling closely to the highest
quartzite of the Llanbadrig Group.

The quartzites are remarkable in the fact that they frequently
contain patches of limestone, apparently deposited with them, and
that they vary rapidly in thickness from about 30 to 200 feet
at. Craig Wen, where this variation is correlated by an inverse
variation in the conglomerate. Although earth-movement may be
partly responsible for this variation, some further explanation
appears requisite, and this may possibly be furnished by erosion of

Reports and. Proceedings — Geological Society of London. 1387

the quartzite. The overthrusting force appears to have come from
a direction somewhat east of north.

The igneous rocks are dealt with in two groups: those older
and those newer than the earth-movement. To the former belong
granite, serpentine, and its associates, and basaltic dykes. In each
area where they occur the serpentines are associated with masses
of a peculiar purple limestone not known elsewhere; they also
contain bands of ophicalcite, and schistose structures are common
in the rocks. The later dykes belong to an acid and a basic set ;
the latter show some evidence of a minor movement, such as faulting
and alittle shearing. The acid dykes are microgranites, granophyres,
and quartz-porphyries. In some cases the dykes are composite,
the acid material being the older and the basic the later constituent.
As a rule, the basic material invades the edge of the dyke; but
in one case it has invaded the joints and cracks and caught up
fragments of the acid rock.

3. “The Formation of Dendrites.’ By A. Octavius Watkins,
A.R.S.M., F.G.S.

If two plane-surfaces be separated by a film of suitable plastic
material, and one surface be rotated slowly on the other through a
small arc, the plastic material collects into branching forms similar
to the structure of dendrites. The dendritic form starts from the
part farthest from the axis, and the flow of material is from the
smaller to the larger branches, the smaller uniting to form
the larger. The author explains dendritic structure by the
formation of a fissure in rock which becomes filled with a thin film
of dendritic material; if the fissure is slowly widened, the dendrite
starts where the widening commences, coinciding dendrites being
formed on each wall. This theory is in accordance with many of
the characters of dendrites, such as their method of occurrence, the
nature of the material, and their uniformity in thickness.

I].—January 24th, 1900.—W. Whitaker, B.A., F.R.S., President,
in the Chair. The following communications were read :—

1. “Fossils in the University Museum, Oxford. II. On two New
Genera and Species of Crinoidea.” By W. J. Sollas, M.A., D.Sc.,
LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.G.S., Professor of Geology in the University
of Oxford.

The first genus and species are founded on two calyces in the
University Collection and three in the British Museum; all the
specimens come from the Carboniferous Limestone. The arms and
stem are at present unknown. The genus in general character anil
structure recalls Platycrinus, but the incorporation of the costal
and distichal plates in the calyx affords a very obvious distinction.
The analysis of the calyx, however, suggests the Melocrinide, from
the members of which it is chiefly distinguished by the comparatively
small size of the costal and distichal plates. ‘The new genus is a
truly annectant form uniting the Melocrinide and the Platycrinida,
and may be indifferently associated with either.

188 Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London.

The second genus and species are founded on a specimen in the
Grindrod Collection, obtained probably from the Silurian rocks, but
from a locality not known, possibly Dudley. In general appearance
it resembles an elongated form of Pisocrinus, particularly in its
calyx, but the arms are those of a Heterocrinid. This conjunction
of characters, though rendering necessary a revision of the definition
of the Pisocrinide, cannot be regarded as bringing this family
appreciably nearer to the Heterocrinide, which are fistulate, while
the Pisocrinide, so far as known, are not.

2. “ Fossils in the University Museum, Oxford. III. A New
Worm-track from the Slates of Bray Head, Ireland; with Observa-
tions on the genus Oldhamia.” By W. J. Sollas, M.A., D.Sc.,
LL.D., F.B.S., V.P.G.S., Professor of Geology in the University
of Oxford.

The curious markings known as Oldhamia have not been hitherto
recorded from other than the lower Paleozoic rocks, although they
have a wide distribution in space, being found in Ireland, in the
Ardennes, in Brabant, in America, and possibly in Norway. While
the organic nature of Oldhamia was scarcely a matter of doubt in
the minds of the earlier writers, there existed a great diversity of
opinion as to its place in the organic world, and it was placed
by different observers among polyzoa, hydrozoa, and plants,
respectively. The microscopical observations made by the author
prove that Oldhamia is not the remains of an organism, but merely
a marking in the rock, though one which might be, nevertheless,
of organic origin. Certain markings formed in the mud at Portishead,
by the feeding habits of a small burrowing crustacean, bear a con-
siderable resemblance to specimens of Oldhamia; but a stronger
resemblance to the new species described in this paper is found in
Nathorst’s figures of the impressions made by one of the two recent
worms Glycera alba or Gonidia maculata. Professor Joly’s observation
that markings of Oldhamia antiqua always occur in relief, while
those of O. radiata are depressions, might suggest that while one set
of markings was produced by the animal when feeding, the other
was connected with its castings of excrementitious matter. This
explanation is open, however, to several objections, and the author
is inclined to believe that these species of Oldhamia are the traces
of some kind of siphonaceous alga: the cavities left by their decay
were subsequently filled in by sediment under pressure. If the
upper surface of O. antiqua were more resistant than the lower,
this might account for its preservation in relief. The microscopical
examination of slate containing Oldhamia affords evidence of original
and secondary structures which have an important bearing on "this
ane

3. “Contributions to the Geology of British East Africa. Part IL:
The Geology of Mount Kenya.” By J. W. Gregory, D.Sc., F.G.S.
The three main zones of Kenya are characterized by different
geological features. The long slope of the forest-belt consists in
the main of volcanic ash, though the remains of secondary parasitic

Reports and Proceedings—G'eological Society of London. 189

craters occur in it. The Alpine zone consists of coarser ash,
agglomerates, and tuffs, interbedded with lava-flows and traversed
by numerous dykes, with the remains of some secondary centres
of eruption. The third zone, or central peak, consists of the plug
which choked the central vent, of beds of agglomerate, and the thick
proximal ends of the great lava-flows.

The rocks of the central core comprise an olivine-anorthoclase-
nepheline-syenite with wgyrine, and a black glassy lava with
numerous white phenocrysts of anorthoclase ; this rock is allied in
some respects to the pantellerites, but receives a special name both
here and in its occurrence in lava-flows.

The dyke-rocks tall into two categories—a series of phonolites,
and one of basalts and dolerites. One, at least, of the dykes is
compound, including both these rock-types. The basic group ranges.
from basalts with little olivine to coarsely crystalline dolerite rich
in that mineral.

The lavas belong to three main groups: (1) those of the
nepheline-syenite series, (2) the phonolites, and (8) the basalts.
The oldest lavas appear to be the phonolites, but they and the
first group of lavas seem to have overlapped in age; the olivine-
basalts, which reach the surface from a zone of secondary craters
in the Alpine zone, are the latest in date. ‘he first group of lavas
are rhyolitic in aspect, and consist of a brown or green glass in
which are embedded phenocrysts of anorthoclase, and green needles
which show the optical characters of egyrine. As these rocks do
not conform to Rosenbusch’s definition of pantellerites, a new name
is proposed for them; the author considers that the pantellerites
may be liparitic equivalents of the dacites, while these Kenya
rocks correspond with the nepheline-syenites. The structure of the
phonolites is trachytic, the groundmass including abundant small,
Jath-shaped plagioclases ; nepheline is not very abundant, and occurs
in larger crystals than the other constituents, the chief of which is
gegyrine. ‘I'he basalts are often vesicular and columnar, and contain
olivine, augite, magnetite, and apatite often in a glassy groundmass.

The pyroclastic rocks vary in texture from coarse to fine; they
contain blocks of all types of the lavas, and also large crystals of
anorthoclase.

The nepheline-syenite is the most deeply-seated, holocrystalline
rock found on Kenya; and the mountain appears to represent
a single, ancient, dissected, volcanic mass, with a shorter geological
history and a narrower range of rock-types than its great companion
voleano, Kilima Njaro. ‘fhe author gives reasons for considering
that all the different rock-types present may have resulted by
differentiation from the olivine - anorthoclase - nepheline - syenite
magma, although this involves the conclusion that in some cases the
basic materials must have concentrated in the glass and solidified
after the formation of the felspars. J

4. “Contributions to the Geology of British Hast Africa. Part IIT:
The Elewolite-Syenite and Fourchites intrusive in the Coast Series.”
By J. W. Gregory, D.Sc., F.G.S.

140 Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London.

The rocks described in this paper were given to the author by
Mr. C. W. Hobley. Mount Zombo, situated in long. 39° 15’ E. and
Jat. 4° 26'S, and 1,519 feet high, is a massif of coarse-grained
eleolite-syenite, consisting of anorthoclase, eleolite, usually allotrio-
morphic, and egyrine. The rock must occur in the belt of Duruma
Sandstone, unless the fossiliferous Jurassic shales run westward up
the low valley of the Umba River. Associated with this massif
is a series of dykes belonging to the olivine-less variety of
monchiquites known as fourchites. Their phenocrysts consist of
plagioclase, probably oligoclase, hornblende, and egyrine, but
augite and ilmenite are also present; the groundmass contains
a certain amount of analcite.

Unfortunately there is some doubt as to the exact age of the
Duruma Sandstone into which the fourchites are intrusive. The
author gives an account of the different opinions as to the age of
these rocks ; the evidence at present available is only sufficient to
prove that they are post-Carboniferous and pre-Callovian. The
sedimentary series on the coast-lands of British Hast Africa and
Usambara, in his opinion, may be previously arranged as follows :—
. Pleistocene reefs, limestones, alluvium, and laterites.

. Jurassic shales and sandstones; Kimeridgian, Oxfordian, and Callovian.
. Possibly a pre-Jurassic part of the Duruma Sandstone.

. Magarini sandstones ; ? Triassic.

. Sabaki shales ; Upper Carboniferous.

It is therefore probable that the igneous rocks are not older than
the early Mesozoic, and may be Jurassic or post-Jurassic.

ep wm Or

I1].—February 7, 1900.—W. Whitaker, B.A., F.R.S., President,
in the Chair. The following communications were read :—

1. “Foraminifera from an Upper Cambrian Horizon in the
Malverns.” By Frederick Chapman, A.L.S., F.R.M.S. (Com-
municated by Prof. T. T. Groom, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S.)

The foraminifera described in this paper were found in a shaly
limestone which Professor Groom obtained “from the débris of
a small ridge composed of black shales, with intercalated basalts,
which forms aspur on the north-west side of Chase End Hill.
The rock belongs to the well-known and widely-spread zone of
Spherophthalmus, Peltura, and Ctenopyge, which in Britain forms
the upper half of the Dolgelly Beds or Upper Lingula-Flags.” The
specimens have been sliced, and have yielded a few forms other
than Spirillina; sections of echinoderm-spines, ostracod-tests, and
occasionally sponge-spicules (?) are also to. be seen in the slides.
The tests of the foraminifera are infilled with a crystalline substance.

The following species are mentioned: Lagena levis, Montagu,
L. apiculata, Reuss, Z. ovum, Ehrenberg, Nodosaria pygmea (?),
Terquem, N. abnormis (?), Reuss, Marginula soluta (?), Reuss,
Cristellaria acutauricularis (2?) (Fichtel & Moll) ; and a new species
of Spirillina is described. The Spirilline are in a good state of
preservation ; and the valves of mollusca, cut through in section, are
sometimes seen to be quite filled with the tests of this genus.

Reports and Proceedings—Greological Society of London. 141

A record is given of some of the earliest known foraminifera,
including the somewhat doubtful forms described by Cayeux from
pre-Cambrian rocks in Brittany, those by Ehrenberg from the so-
called ‘Silurian Clay’ near St. Petersburg, by W. D. & G. F.
Matthew from the rocks bearing the Protolenus-fauna in New
Brunswick, by Keeping from the shells above the Bala Limestone
near Welshpool, by Blake from the Llandovery of Cwm Symlog,
by Brady from the Woolhope Limestone of the Malverns, and by
Terquem from the Upper Silurian rocks of Indiana. The author
has also frequently met with Lagena in the Wenlock Limestone of
Shropshire.

2. “Bala Lake and the River-System of North Wales.” By
Philip Lake, M.A., F.G.S,

In this paper the author begins by showing that topographically
Bala Lake belongs to the same valley as the River Wnion—the
valley of the Bala Fault; and he believes that the whole drainage
of the valley flowed originally south-westward, and entered the sea
near Barmouth. : :

He then examines the possible outlets, and shows that the lake
is probably rock-bound in all directions except towards the south-
west, where there is no conclusive evidence.

He describes the faults which occur near the watershed that
separates the Wnion from the streams flowing into Bala Lake,,
pointing out that they are closely related to the form of the valley.
and that the watershed coincides with a transverse line of fault.
From this he infers that the formation of the lake is possibly due to
earth-movements.

The watersheds of several other similar valleys are examined,
and are shown to lie in one straight line; whence it is concluded
that they must have been produced by some general cause, probably
a slight differential movement.

The general drainage-system of North Wales is next discussed.
Attention is drawn to the existence of a series of long and nearly
parallel valleys running from north-east to south-west, which divide
the region more or less completely into a number of strips. The
drainage of each strip is now independent, and flows in most cases
into the long valley lying south of it. But from the fact that the
chief streams in each strip have their representatives (flowing in
the same line) in the adjacent strips, it is concluded that before the
formation of the long valleys the streams were continuous.

The centre from which these streams radiate lies in the high
ground near the sources of the Conway; and the author believes
that this was the centre of an original radial system of drainage, and
that this radial system was subsequently broken up into sections by
the formation of the long valleys which now run from north-east to
south-west—each of these long valleys carrying away the drainage
of one of the sections. He attributes the formation of the long
valleys to faulting.

142 Correspondence—dJ. Smith.

CORRESPONDENCE.

RAILWAY SECTIONS IN AYRSHIRE AND LANARKSHIRE,

Srr,—At present there are some railway sections through Drift in
the line being constructed from Darvel, in Ayrshire, to Strathavon,
in Lanarkshire, which, I think, show features demonstrative of
a depression of the land, and the marine origin of at least part of
the Drift beds. Lately, with two friends (it was my fourth visit
to the locality), I examined minutely one of these sections, 500
to 600 feet above sea-level (estimated from a bench-mark). This
cutting is to be a deep one, and is being taken in two ‘lifts’; about
200 yards of the upper lift can at present be examined, but it is
much longer, part of the slope being already pick-dressed. The
section is almost horizontal for the above-mentioned distance, and
very regular—not at all twisted or disturbed, as is the case with
many parts of the Drift. It is about two miles east of Darvel. The
following beds are exposed :—

1. Sand and gravel, stratified ... 206 -.- 15 feet.
2. Stony Boulder-clay with large blocks wes eS
3. Laminated clay with few stones and larcebloc ksi. sOmmee
4. Stonyclay . : 5 cee sce 3B se

5. Sharp sand, not cut through. |

In bed 1, I observed a long boulder of Matstone Hill granite,
quite in a vertical position. In beds 2, 3, and 4, long boulders were
obtained during the progress of the cutting, in a similar position. In
the laminated bed 3, a large striated boulder of white sandstone is at
present to be seen, measuring four feet in diameter. It has clearly
fallen into the clay when the latter was in a soft state, as the laminz
at the bottom corners of the block are bent down under it, showing
that the block in falling has made a small indent in the laminated
clay. They (the laminz) also curved over the top of the block.

Another interesting feature was the depressions or ruts in the
stony clay bed 2, these being invariably filled more or less with
laminated clay. A number “of. shell- fragments with the epidermis
were picked out by us from the stony clay, and from the laminated
bed we secured a perfect valve of Leda parvula. (I may say that in
this district marine shells are frequent in certain parts up to 700 feet
above sea-level. See suppl. to vol. xi, Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow,
p- 59.)

The boulders in the sections of the railway at this part are
a variety of porphyrites (igneous rocks with conspicuous felspar, a
peunvey: term), amygdaloids, felstones (igneous fine-grained rock,
a ‘Survey’ term), sandstones, dolerites, a few limestones ; Matstone
Hill granite, a moderately coarse- erained reddish granite, being not
infrequent, the parent rock occurring fully two miles to the south
and on the opposite side of the Irvine Valley to the railway sections.

Not only the Boulder-clay, but a sharp grey sand bed also shows
very distinct jointing. The joints in a sand-pit 200 yards north of the
railway were very conspicuous, and had attracted the attention of
the workmen in the pit, who called them water-backs. Workmen’s

Obituary—Professor Di. Geinits. 143

terms are generally pretty expressive. In solid rocks water often
issues from joints.

We went on to Londoun Hill. This hill is not named on Sheet 28 ;
it is just above the house named Backhill on the western edge of
the map. It is composed of large vertical columnar felstone.

To the east and south-east of this hill the ‘Survey’ have shown
a ‘terrace of marine drift’ and an ‘old sea beach.’ Lately
I observed that the talus of large blocks from the hill had fallen
down upon the top of the ‘marine drift,’ so that the great vertical cliff
on the south side of the hill was very likely the work of the waves,
assisted perhaps by shore-ice, for much of the ‘ felstone’ in the drift
may have come from this hill, it being the only felstone rock within
many miles of this district.

The ‘marine terrace’ is 700 feet, and the top of Londoun Hill
1,054 feet, above sea-level.

The facts given in this letter speak, I think, pretty plainly. The
Drift beds here are clearly water deposits, and that ‘ water’ was the
sea. The blocks and stones in both the stony and laminated clay
were clearly dropped into the clay from floating ice. In bed 2 (the
stony Boulder-clay), there are frequent indications of stratification,
and those lines have a steady, gentle dip of five to ten degrees
towards the east, or up the Irvine Valley. This long section has
been exposed to the weather for about six months; the clay has
not slipped, and the rain-washed face of the drift can be read like
a book. There are many well-striated stones and boulders lying in
all directions, long ones even vertical, but quite as many which show
no striations. The ruts in the stony clay bed 2 were probably
produced by floating ice grating on the sea bottom, and these have
formed sheltered hollows in which laminated clay has been deposited.

J. SMITH.
MonkreppinG, KinwiInninc.

SOME SNOWDON TARNS.

S1r,—Will you permit me to correct a mistake in my paper on
“Some Snowdon Tarns.” The depression at 250 yards from the
present outlet of Llyn Llydaw is in a N.N.E. direction therefrom,
not N.N.W. as I had erroneously written. J. R. Daxyns.

Snowpon View, Nant Gwynant,
BEDDGELERT, CARNARVON.
February 19, 1900.

FS UA Ee ZL <

GEHEIMRATH PROFESSOR DR, GEINITZ,
For. Mem. Geot. Soc. Lono.
Born Ocroper 16, 1814. Diep January 28, 1900.
Dr. Hans Bruno Getnitz was born at Altenburg, Saxony, where
he passed a happy boyhood in his father’s home. The political
troubles of 1830 affected the family prosperity, so that the youthful

144 Obituary—Professor Dr. Geinits.

Geinitz had to serve for four years in the shop of the Court chemist,
but this did not prevent him from spending his spare time in the
study of botany, chemistry, and modern languages. In 1834 a way
opened for him to go to the University of Berlin, and in 1886 to.
that of Jena, where he graduated in 1838, Under the influence of
Quenstedt, Geinitz directed his attention more particularly to the
study of mineralogy and paleontology, and the subject of his
graduation thesis was the Muschelkalk in Thuringia. In the same
year, 1838, he went to Dresden and accepted the post of assistant-
tutor in the Technical High School, with the modest salary of
150 thalers (about £22) per annum. In 1850 he became Professor
at the same institution, and he occupied this position until 1894,
when, owing to increasing deafness, he was obliged to resign.
From 18638 to 1878 he was one of the editors of the Neues Jahrbuch;
in 1857 he was appointed Director of the Royal Mineralogical
Museum at Dresden, which may be said to owe its present
flourishing condition mainly to his zeal and energy, and also the
founding of the Prehistoric Museum in 1874.

Professor Geinitz was a very prolific writer on geological and
paleontological subjects, and his published papers date from 1837
_ to nearly the latest years of his life. Though to a large extent they
refer to the rocks and fossils of his native country, they yet include
matters of general and permanent importance to geological science.
Amongst his principal memoirs are his descriptions of the fossils in
the Grauwacke formation of Saxony, which appeared in 1852; the
monograph of the animal remains of the Dyas formation, 1861-62 ;
and that on the “ Elbthalgebirge,” 1871-75, which contains the
results of his long-continued researches into the stratigraphy and
paleontology of the Cretaceous rocks of Saxony and adjoining
countries. He also wrote on the fossil flora of the Hainich-
Ebersdorf Coal Basin, and on that of the Coal formation in Saxony.
A commendable feature in Geinitz’s paleontological memoirs is the
admirable manner in which they are illustrated.

Professor Geinitz was deservedly esteemed and honoured alike
by the geologists of his own country and by those of other
lands. He became a Foreign Member of the Geological Society of
London in 1857, and was the last of those elected to this position
directly without passing through the subordinate stage of Foreign
Correspondent. In 1878 he received the Society’s Murchison Medal.

Professor Geinitz died at Dresden on the 28th January in the
86th year of his age, and his remains were interred on the 31st,
in the presence of a numerous gathering of his old students and
colleagues.’ Godan

Tut Honorary Degree of Doctor of Laws has just been presented
by the Senate of the University of Glasgow to Mr. Arthur Smith
Woodward, F.L.S., F.G.S., of the British Museum (Natural History),
Cromwell Road, London. °

1 Many of the facts in the above notice are taken from the Dresden Anzeiger,
a copy of which was kindly forwarded by Miss Agnes Crane of Brighton.

Geol. Mag. 1900. Decade IV. Vol. VIL PLVIL. ~

LL. neat. suze,

GM.Woodward del. et Ith. West, Newman imp.
Fossitts from the Devonian Rocks.

of the North Coast of Cornwall.

oo

THE

GHOLOGICAL MAGAZINE.

NENW oERIES. DECADE «IV... VOL. VIF.

No. IV.— APRIL, 1900.

@l=k GaN Att AS Leh Cases
Sa ee

I.—Nores on THE GeEonoGy anp Fossinrs oF somME DEVONIAN
Rocks on tHE Nortu Coast oF CoRNWALL.

By Howarp Fox, F.G.S.
(PLATE VII.)

URING the past year I had the pleasure of spending some weeks
on the north coast of Cornwall, south of the Camel, examining
the rocks exposed in the cliffs and on the foreshores of the various
coves, some of which I had not previously visited. A part of my
notes were communicated to the Annual Meeting of the Royal
Geological Society of Cornwall last November, and with the
permission of the Society I propose to reproduce these and
additional observations obtained since, with the view more par-
ticularly of calling attention to some of the fossils which, though
fragmentary, appear to me to yield not unimportant evidence on
the stratigraphical horizon of the rocks along certain parts of
the coast.

It had been my intention to visit the various islands lying off
the north coast, but during my holiday month, September, there
was not a single day in which it would have been prudent to attempt
a landing either on the Quies Group or the Bull Rock off Trevose
Head. I did, however, make a brief visit to Gulland Island, which
is, rightly, coloured greenstone on the Geological Survey Map.
The entire surface of this island is covered with angular weathered
fragments, which have been disjointed off from the massive rock,
a process still rapidly going on. The lower cliff on the south side
of the island is composed of a coarse-grained felspathic rock, whilst
higher up the rock is of the same kind but much finer grained.
The exposed rock surfaces, within reach of the waves and spray,
weather nearly black, whilst the rocks beyond are of a rusty-brown
appearance.

Padstow Harbour.—In the rocks both to the north and to the
south of the River Camel, simple cup-corals and fragmentary
crinoidal remains occur, but for the most part they are unfavourably
preserved.

Trevone.—An account of the fossils present at several distinct
horizons in the shales at this place, and more especially on the
foreshore, has already appeared in the Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc.

DECADE IV.—VOL. VII.—wNO. IV. 10

146 Howard Fox—Devonian Rocks and Fossils

Cornwall, vol. xi, 1894, pp. 634-644, The following, amongst
others, were noted: fragmentary plates of Pteraspis; Orthoceras;
Bactrites, including B. Budesheimensis, Ferd. Roemer; Goniatites ;
G. (Tornoceras) simplex, Von Buch; EHuomphalus; Cardiola retrostriata,
Von Buch; Centronella, Phacops, Tentaculites, Styliola, Amplexus,
Favosites, and Pachypora. According to Mr. G. C. Crick the
majority of the Cephalopod remains indicate the same geological
horizon as the Budesheim Beds, that is, the lower portion of the
Upper Devonian, but with these there are some small forms resembling
Anarcestes latiseptatus, Beyr., and Mimoceras compressus, belonging
to the Wissenbach (Nassau) Beds, of Lower and Middle Devonian
age. On visiting the locality again, after an interval of six years,
I was disappointed at not finding any new forms exposed by the
ceaseless scour of the waves and sand on the rocks.

West of Newtrain Bay..—The shales here contained some frag-
mentary crinoidal arms, which were determined by Mr. F. A.
Bather to be of a nearly similar character to those of Scaphiocrinus,
Hall, as figured by the Rev. G. F. Whidborne from the Pilton Beds
near Barnstaple (see “‘ Dev. Fauna S. of England”: Pal. Soc., 1898,
vol. iii, pt. 3, pp. 228-252, pls. xxxi, xxxili-xxxviil).

Mother Ivey’s Bay.—A shelf of blue shale is exposed at the east
end of the beach at this place, near high-water mark, which contains
fragmental crinoidal stems, pyritized examples of Tentaculites, and
Centronella similar to those occurring at Trevone, and, in addition,
a specimen of Hyolithes.

Porthcothan Cove.—This picturesque cove is about three miles
south of Trevose Head. The rocks are of a bluish, non-calcareous
shale, showing a general dip H.N.E. at 15-20°. Fossils do not
appear to have been previously noticed in them, but they contain
a fair number, though for the most part in poor preservation. The
following have been recognized :—Petraia, in casts showing the
outlines of the cup and septa, are not uncommon. ‘Two species
appear to be represented; one may be P. celtica. Pleurodictyum, sp.,
described below, fragments of Conularia similar to those from
Constantine Bay (Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Cornwall, 1894, p. 643),
imperfect pygidia of Trilobites,? and obscurely shown examples of
Orthoceras and Goniatites.

Porth Mear.—This cove is about half a mile south-west of
Porthcothan, and the rocks enclosing it are of the same character.
On the foreshore several distinct fossiliferous bands are exposed ;
one of these can be traced for a distance of 40 yards nearly due
east from the north end of the island; numerous specimens of
Pleurodictyum are weathered out of its surface.

Lower Butter Cove.—The same kinds of rocks and fossils noted
from Porthcothan and Porth Mear are likewise found in this cove,
which is about half a mile south-west of the last-named place. The
fossiliferous beds are visible at low-water, at the base of the eastern

1 At the Bay itself I have since found two species of Fayosite corals.

2 A Trilobite minus the head, which I have recently obtained here, has been
determined by Dr. H. Woodward to be a species of Phacops.

on the North Coast of Cornwall. 147

cliff of the southern inlet. Huge blocks of rock fallen from the
cliffs above likewise contain numerous fossils.

Bedruthan. Steps.—The fossiliferous character of the claret and
bluish shaly or slaty beds of this locality has long been known.
Mr. 8S. R. Pattison states that they contain crinoidal remains,
a bivalve shell, and impressions of a Trilobite (Trans. Roy. Geol.
Soc. Cornwall, vol. vii, 1848, p. 48) ; and in the same volume (p. 391)
the late Mr. W. Pengelly notes the occurrence in them of the plates
of Steganodictyum, McCoy (Pteraspis), then supposed to be a fossil
sponge. The fossils are present, in great abundance, in the lower
part of the cliff and on the foreshore, and in the large fallen rock
masses. Some years since I obtained here fragments of fish-plates,
principally of Pteraspis; Orthoceras?; the basal plate of a crinoid
resembling Sphcerocrinus, and fragments of crinoid stems which
may have belonged to Ithodocrinus or Melocrinus ; simple cup-corals,
apparently zaphrentoid in character; Pleurodictyum and Aulopora?
Last autumn I[ further obtained Petraia; a fragment of a Monticuli-
poroid; crinoidal fragments, one of which has been determined by
Mr. Bather as the anal tube of a dicyclic adunate crinoid; and
specimens of the peculiar form described below as Pteroconus mirus.

Watergate or Tregurrian Bay or Beach.—This range of beach and
cliff extends about 24 miles north of St. Columb Porth, and it is
noted for the variegated colouring of its slates. Similar rocks occur
between Fowey and Polperro, and according to Mr. W. A. E. Ussher
they are also present in South Devon, where they are known as the
Dartmouth - Kingswear Slate group. Professor Sedgwick states
(Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1852, vol. viii, p. 4) with respect to these
rocks, that he found a highly fossiliferous group extending from
New Quay to Mawgan Porth and Padstow, and thence to Tintagel ;
not merely ranging near the coast, but running far up the interior
of the country until, in some instances, it approached a central boss
of granite.

On close examination I found indications of fossils throughout
the whole series of the variegated slates or shales of the Bay, though
they are, as a rule, so poorly preserved that only occasionally can
the nature of the organism be recognized. Fragments of Pleraspis
plates are not infrequent in satiny grey soft shales exposed on both
the north and south banks of the small stream running into the sea
north of the noted Watergate Elvan; and also in a bed of soft
blue shale the Pteraspis plates, though fragmentary, are in great
abundance.

The fossils mentioned above, which I have obtained from these
north coast rocks from time to time, have been submitted to various
authorities at the British Museum (Natural History), to whom I am
greatly indebted for their efforts to decipher the characters of the
forms usually very imperfectly preserved. Dr. A. Smith Woodward,
F.L.S., has determined the fish remains, Mr. F. A. Bather, M.A.,
the Crinoids, and Mr. G. C. Crick, F.G.S., the Cephalopods, ete.
Further, Dr. G. J. Hinde, F.R.S., has examined the Corals and
doubtful forms. On -the accompanying plate some of the fossils,

148 Howard Forx—Devonian Rocks and Fossils

which appeared to be of sufficient interest to justify figuring, °
have been skilfully represented by Miss G. M. Woodward, and the»
following notes are appended in explanation of them, beginning
with the fish remains.

Pteraspis Cornubica, McCoy, sp. (PI. VII, Figs. 7, 8.)

This species is represented by irregularly shaped, flattened
fragments of the dermal plates, which are scattered, sometimes
singly, sometimes in close juxtaposition, and even occasionally
overlapping each other, on the exposed surfaces of the bluish-
grey shales at Watergate Bay. The plates are black, sometimes
glossy in appearance, and their exterior surfaces are ornamented
with fine ribs or striz running parallel to the length of the plate.
The striz are in places interrupted so as to look like a series of
minute tubercles, only visible under a lens, and in some instances
they are crossed transversely by lines of growth. The plates vary
from 0:5 to 1 mm. in thickness, and there are about four of the surface
striz in a millimetre. These fragmentary plates have been identified
by Dr. Smith Woodward as similar to those of Pteraspis Cornubica
which occur in the Devonian rocks of Lantivet Bay, South Cornwall,
and of which he has lately given an interesting account (Trans.
Roy. Geol. Soe. Cornwall, vol. xii, 1899, p. 229).

These fragments are found at Bedruthan Steps as well as at
Watergate Bay. According to Dr. 8. Woodward the genus Pteraspis
is characteristic of the Lower Devonian or Lower Old Red Sandstone
in Western Europe, and does not descend below this horizon
(Catalogue of Fossil Fishes in the British Museum, vol. 11, 1891,
pp. 160-169).

Phlyctenaspis, sp. (PI. VII, Figs. 5, 6.)

The only specimen referable to this genus is a thin plate, part
of which is shown on the surface of a light-grey shale and part
still enclosed in the rock. The plate is not entire ; in one direction
it is shown for a distance of 55mm., and it is about 0°56 mm. in
thickness. ‘The upper surface, nearly of the same grey tint as the
matrix, is furnished with numerous small depressed tubercles,
rounded or oval in outline, and about 0°5 mm. in diameter. They
are arranged alternately in rows, between three and four in the
distance of 2mm. ‘The summit of these tubercles is often wanting,
and the rounded dome is replaced by a minute crater.

Dr. Smith Woodward states that owing to the incompleteness of
the plate it is not possible definitely to identify it with Phlyctenaspis,
but the tubercular surface is approximately similar to that of the
plates of P. acadica, Whit., sp. (see Got. Maa., Dee. III, Vol. IX,
1892, p. 5, Pl. I, Figs. 7, 8), from the Lower Devonian at Campbellton,
New Brunswick. ‘The Canadian fossil, of which a specimen is in
the British Museum (Nat. Hist.), has stouter tubercles with strize
radiating from their bases, and they are more deeply hollowed out
than in the present form.

The specimen is from Watergate Bay. The genus Eilyslense
is characteristic of the Lower Old Red or Lower Devonian.

on the North Coast of Cornwall. 149

Climatius, sp. (PI. VII, Figs. 9, 10.)

The only example is a fragment of a compressed spine, 9 mm. in
width and 2 mm. in thickness; the exposed surface is jet-black ; it
shows stout, straight, longitudinal ribs, of which there are eight in
the width of the spine. The upper edge of the ribs is, in places,
tuberculate, and on one side of each there are, at intervals, blunted
processes which reach across the interspace between the ribs so as
to form elongate hollows, now filled with matrix. According to
Dr. Smith Woodward the structure of this spine resembles that of
the spines of the genus Climatius, Ag., which has a dermal spine
in front of each fin except the caudal.

The specimen figured is from Watergate Bay. The genus occurs
in the Lower Old Red of Forfar, Hereford, and Worcester, and in
the Lower Devonian of New Brunswick.

The occurrence of the remains of Pleraspis, Phlyctenaspis, and
Climatius in the same series of shaly strata at Watergate Bay and
Bedruthan Steps derives significance from the fact, brought to my
notice by Dr. Smith Woodward, that in other regions of Western
HKurope and Eastern North America where these three genera are
present, they characterize the geological horizon of the Lower Old
Red Sandstone or the Lower Devonian. It may therefore be
reasonably assumed that the rocks on the North Cornish coast in
which they are found likewise belong to the same geological period.

The following descriptions of Pteroconus mirus, n.sp., and Pleuro-
dictyum, sp., have been contributed by Dr. G. J. Hinde, F.R.S. :—

Family HYOLITHIDZ, Nicholson.
Genus Prrroconus, Green (= Neretropsis, Green).
Pteroconus mirus, sp. nov. (Pl. VII, Figs. 1-4.)

Shell conical, compressed, straight; in transverse section round
or elliptical, on both sides with small shelly flap or fin-like
extensions disposed at regular intervals from the basal point to
the summit aperture. A longitudinal rod or thickening of the shell
enclosed within the cone. The outer surface with an ornamentation
of transverse lines of growth following the contour of the summit,
and at intervals with stronger raised lines connected with the lateral
processes. No operculum has been observed.

This description is based on the characters shown by a number
of specimens collected by Mr. Howard Fox at Bedruthan. The
fossils are exposed on the surface of a bluish or claret-tinted shaly
rock as they have been naturally weathered out; in some the shelly
exterior of the test with its ornamentation is visible, whilst in others
the interior of the cone has been laid bare. The forms are to some
extent compressed in the shaly rock, and only the surface weathered
in relief can be studied. The test is now of a brownish or reddish-
brown tint, owing to the replacement of the original shell by some
compound of iron; the interior is now generally filled with the
shaly matrix. Only exceptionally are perfect specimens met with ;

150 Howard Fox—Devonian Rocks and Fossils

as a rule the summit apertures are defective, but on the whole
these fossils are better preserved than other organic remains in the
same rock,

The specimens are variously elongate, gradually tapering cones,
ranging from 30mm. to 72mm. in length and with a summit
breadth of 7-9 mm. The most complete example (PI. VII, Fig. 1)
is a cone, 35 mm. in length, showing the outer surface of the test,
but the ornamentation is only distinguishable in its upper portion.
The upper margin, apparently perfect, has a gently convex outline,
and including the lateral processes is about 9mm. in breadth. The
surface of the central cone exhibits delicate arched growth-lines
following the contour of the aperture, and at intervals of about
2°5 mm. it is crossed by stronger raised lines, which on either side
of the cone are prolonged downwards to form the anterior margins
of small flattened or slightly concave processes or flaps, which
extend obliquely for a distance of 1:5-2 mm. from the cone. There
are in this specimen sixteen of the ear-shaped processes; they are
disposed so that the posterior margin of each dips slightly under
the front edge of the one next below it in the series. ‘The three or
four processes on either side of the lower part of the cone appear to
have coalesced together so as to form a narrow continuous plate,
which extends round and slightly beyond the point of the cone.
In another specimen, 72 mm. in length, there are about thirty-four
pairs of processes, which are somewhat triangular in outline.
A transverse section of a specimen similar to Fig. 1 is distinctly
elliptical in outline.

In the form represented in Pl. VII, Figs. 2 and 3, the cone has
been weathered so as to expose the interior longitudinal rod or
thickening of a portion of the interior of the test. The specimen
is imperfect, and a joint in the shale has divided it into two parts.
Above the fracture, the exterior of the test is shown crossed by strize
with a slightly concave curve, whilst below the line of fracture the
interior of the cone is laid bare by weathering, and a central
rod-like body, unequally thickened at intervals and bordered by
depressions on either side, projects slightly above the bordering
wall of the test (Pl. VII, Fig. 3). The lateral flaps or processes
are very distinctly striated, and in contrast with those of the
specimen mentioned above (Fig. 1) the processes and the striae
have a slightly upward direction. This difference may perhaps
be explained by supposing that the side of the shell exposed in this
example is the reverse of that shown in Fig. 1. Owing to the fact
that only one side of a specimen can be examined, it is not
practicable to determine if the characters of the dorsal or ventral
side in this form are similar or not.

Another aspect of the interior rod is seen in the middle half of
a specimen (Pl. VII, Fig. 4) in which the striated shelly exterior
has been weathered away. It here appears as a straight, slender,
nearly smooth, cylindrical rod, just within the wall of the cone. In
the short length of it exposed there is no connection with the lateral
processes apparent. The nature and function of this interior rod

on the North Coast of Cornwall. 151

are problematical. At first it suggested the idea that it might
indicate a siphuncle, but there is no evidence that it was a hollow
tube. Mr.G.C. Crick, who has most carefully examined these fossils,
is unable to recognize in them any genuine Cephalopodan characters.

The real nature of these forms has been a subject of much
speculation alike to the writer and to other paleontologists who
have examined them. ‘They present several points of resemblance
to the Hyolithide in their general form, size, the character and
ornamentation of the shell, and even the peculiar flaps or lateral
processes may be looked upon as analogous to the winged expansions
in Pterotheca, Salter, and Pterygotheca, Novak. I am unable to say
at present whether any structure occurs in known Hyolithide
which can be compared with the interior rod-like body in Pteroconus.
On the whole there seems sufficient justification for regarding this
genus as belonging to the Hyolithida. The systematic position of
this family is still a matter of debate, and its relations to the
Pteropoda have not been certainly proved.

Whilst working at the specimens sent to me by Mr. Howard Fox,
my attention was called to the figures of some casts of fossils from
Polruan, ete., by Mr. Upfield Green, in the Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc.
Cornwall, vol. xii (1899), pt. 4, pl. F, p. 227. Through the kindness
of Mr. Green and Mr. J. H. Collins, 1 had an opportunity of seeing
the originals of the figures which are preserved in the Museum
of that Society at Penzance, and at once recognized them as casts
of organisms similar to those discovered by Mr. Fox. Mr. Green
did not describe the forms, but limited himself to giving the figures
and naming “the fossil Nereitopsis cornubicus, from its somewhat
distant resemblance to some of the species of the genus Vereis
(Cuvier) of the dorsibranchiate order of Annelids.” I pointed out
to Mr. Green that the fossils themselves, as distinct from the casts,
precluded the idea that they could in any way resemble any species
of Nereis, and that consequently the name he proposed was mis-
leading and should be changed. Mr. Green accepted my suggestion
and desired to substitute Pteroconus for Nereitopsis, and I have
adopted his fresh name as that of the genus. Mr. Green states that
the larger of his specimens (fig. 1, pl. F) “differs from the others,
being terminated posteriorly by a tuberculated extension,” and this
may properly be considered as the type of Péeroconus (Nereitopsis)
Cornubicus. Whether the other forms represented in his figures are
new species or will prove to be the same as those described and
figured in this paper must remain at present undecided.

The specimens of Pteroconus mirus were collected by Mr. Howard
Fox in the claret-tinted and bluish shales, probably of Lower
Devonian age, exposed in the cliffs and foreshore at Bedruthan
Steps, North Cornwall. Mr. Fox has announced his intention to
present the specimens figured to the British Museum (Natural
History), Cromwell Road, South Kensington.

Pleurodictyum, sp. (Pl. VII, Fig. 11.)
Corallum discoidal, thickness inconsiderable, the upper surface
depressed convex, diameter from 25 to 34mm. There are about

152 Howard Fox—Devonian Rocks and Fossils of Cornwall.

ten large corallites in what appears to be a full-sized corallum,
with smaller corallites in the angles between the larger. The
corallites range from 5 to 9mm. wide, their average diameter is
7mm. They are polygonal or rounded in outline, shallow, the
walls are relatively thick and apparently vesicular, showing small
irregular interspaces on their weathered margins. ‘There are
indications of pores passing through the walls near the base of the
corallites and communicating with the exterior, but it is uncertain
if the corallites were directly connected with each other by mural
pores. A few blunt spines are present in the lower portion of the
corallites, but there are no indications either of tabulee or septal striz.

Examples of this form are by no means rare, but they are all
very poorly preserved, and but little more than their upper surfaces,
slightly projecting from the bluish shaly rock, can be distinguished.
Their walls have been replaced by a mineral which gives a very
slight reaction with acid. So far as comparison is possible, the
form to which they are nearest allied is P. granulifera, Schliiter
(Anthoz. d. rhein. Mittel-Devon. Abhandl. der geol. Landesanst.,
vol. viii, 1889, p. 361, pl. iv, figs. 5-8), from the Middle Devonian
of the Hifel. According to Mr. C. W. Peach, P. problematicum, Goldf.,
also occurs in abundance at Polruan and other localities in Cornwall
(Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Cornw., vol. ix, p. 52), but I am unaware if
this determination has been confirmed.

It seems desirable not to give a specific name to the present form
until better preserved specimens have been obtained. It is found
at Porthcothan, Porth Mear, and Lower Butter Cove.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE YI.

Fie. 1.—Pteroconus mirus, Hinde, sp.n. Showing the exterior surface of a fairly
perfect specimen, weathered out on the surface of a shaly rock. Natural size.
Lower ? Devonian: Bedruthan Steps, North Cornwall.

Fic. 2.—The same. An imperfect specimen from the same locality, the exterior
surface shown in the portion above the line of jointing. and below this the
interior of the cone with the lateral processes are exposed. Natural size.

Fic. 3.—The same. A part of Fig. 2, enlarged three diameters, showing the
longitudinal rod within the cone and the striation of the lateral processes.

Fic. 4.—The same. An imperfect specimen showing in the middle portion the inner
rod, exposed by the weathering away of the shell. Natural size. From
Bedruthan.

Fic. 5.—Phlyctenaspis, sp. A fragment of a plate weathered out on a surface of
shale. Natural size. From the Lower Devonian of Watergate Bay, North
Cornwall.

Fic. 6.—The same. A portion of Fig. 5, enlarged ten diameters to show the
tubercles, one of which is hollowed out.

Fic. 7.—Pteraspis Cornubica, McCoy, sp. An imperfect shield-plate, showing the
striz and lines of growth. Natural size. From the Lower Devonian at
Watergate Bay.

Fic. 8.—The same. A portion of Fig. 7, enlarged five diameters.

Fic. 9.—Climatius, sp. A fragment of a spine, showing the strongly marked ribs
with their lateral processes. Natural size. From Watergate Bay.

Fie. 10.—The same. Part of Fig. 9, enlarged five diameters.

Fie. 11.—Pleurodictywm, sp. The upper surface of a specimen, partly weathered
out of bluish shale. Natural size. From the Lower Devonian at Porth-
cothan, North Cornwall.

Dr. R. HW. Traquair—On Drepanaspis. 153

TJ.—Novres on DrepavasPis GMUNDENENSIS, SCHLUTER.
By Dr. R. H. Traquair, F.R.S.

\HIS most remarkable fish, from the Lower Devonian Roofing

Slate (Hunsriickschiefer) of Gmiinden, in Western Germany,
avas named, but very imperfectly described, by Schliiter in 1887, as
his material was at that time of a very fragmentary nature. He
apparently considered the creature to be allied to Cephalaspis. In
Dr. Smith Woodward’s “‘ Catalogue ” (pt. ii, 1891, p. 311) it is only
mentioned by name along with a number of other imperfectly known
forms (Aspidichthys, Anomalichthys, etc.) which he considered as
‘perhaps for the most part” referable to the Coccosteide.

In 1890 I began to obtain specimens, at first very fragmentary,
through the agency of Mr. Stiirtz in Bonn, and in exhibiting these
before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, I expressed the opinion that
the affinities of Drepanaspis lay rather with the Pteraspide (Nature,
vol. liv, p. 263). Finally, having got together a considerable
amount of more perfect material, I incidentally described the fish in
my recently published memoir on the Silurian Fishes of Scotland,
giving a restored figure of its dorsal aspect, which Dr. Smith
Woodward has reproduced in his critical notice of that memoir
which appeared in the Gronoaican Macazine for February last.
The conclusion I came to was that Drepanaspis formed the type of
a distinct family, related not only to the Pteraspidee but also to the
Psammosteide and Coelolepide, and which must consequently along
with these three families be included in the Heterostraci, of which
the Ceelolepidee appear to form the starting-point.

But beyond the fact that Drepanaspis possessed a large median
ventral plate as well as a dorsal one, and that the two could readily
be distinguished by their shape, my knowledge of the topography of
the inferior surface of the carapace was still imperfect. Nor had
I ascertained the position of the mouth, though I said that “as it is
impossible to conceive of the absence of a mouth, we must conclude
that it was placed exactly at the anterior margin.”

However, since that memoir was published, I have received from
Dr. Krantz, of Bonn, a specimen of the carapace of Drepanaspis
(Fig. 2), which not only clears up previously unsettled questions
regarding the arrangement of the plates on the ventral surface, but
also shows the mouth itself in sitd.

But before describing the ventral surface, I may as well recapitulate
the facts already known regarding the configuration of the fish.

The carapace (Fig. 1) is broad, depressed, very obtusely rounded
in front, and terminating behind in a prominent though rounded
angle on each side. There is on the dorsal surface a large median
plate (m.d.) of an ovate-hexagonal shape, the anterior margin being
short and nearly straight, while the still shorter posterior one is
acutely notched. Each postero-lateral angle of the carapace 1s
formed by a narrow, elongated, somewhat falciform plate (p.l.), the
postero-lateral or cornual, which tapers to a sharp point in front and
forms most of the external margin of the shield. The rest of the

154 Dr. R. H. Traquair—On Drepanaspis.

surface is formed by small polygonal plates, reminding us of the
tesselated surface of many Psammostean shields, while we sometimes
find a few larger rostral ones (r.) just at the anterior margin; and
external to these just at the edge of the carapace we find a plate
showing a small round depression or pit (#.) which in my Silurian
memoir I have supposed might possibly represent an orbit. But to
this I shall again refer further on.

Fie. 1.—Drepanaspis Gmtindenensis, Schliiter ; restored outline of the dorsal aspect,
the surface ornament omitted, and the tail twisted round so as to show the
caudal fin in profile. m.d. median dorsal plate; j./. postero-lateral plates ;
7. rostral plates ; #. sensory plate. Slightly altered from the figure previously
given.

The surface ornament of all these plates consists of small and
tolerably closely set stellate tubercles, and it is to be noted that
on the small polygonal ones we often find a tubercle of larger
size at or near the centre, as is commonly the case on the polygonal
areas of Psammosteus Taylori.

The tail, springing from the middle of the posterior margin of
the carapace, is comparatively short, and terminates in a heterocercal

Dr, R. H. Traquair—On Drepanaspis. 155

though scarcely bilobed caudal fin, but there is no trace of any other
fins or appendages, paired or unpaired. These parts are covered
on the sides by rhombic tuberculated scales, and bordered above and
below respectively by a single row of narrow imbricating median
scales or ‘fulcra.’ Nothing resembling fin-rays can be seen, nor is
there any definite line of demarcation between the scales of the
body prolongation and those of the fin-membrane, though the latter
become gradually smaller.

Turning now to the ventral surface of the animal, I have in Fig. 2
given an accurately reduced sketch of the plates as seen in the
new specimen to which I have alluded, while Fig. 3 represents
a restoration in which the oblique distortion due to slaty cleavage

Fie. 2.— Sketch of a specimen of the carapace of Drepanaspis Gmtndenensis,
Schliiter ; one-third natural size ; distorted by slaty cleavage, and somewhat
imperfect behind. o. mouth; +. rostral or upper labial plates ; el. external
labial plate; ™. mental plate; w. sensory plate; a.v./. anterior ventro-
lateral ; m.v. median ventral ; m.d. portion of inner surface of median
dorsal; y.v./. posterior ventro-lateral ; p./. postero-lateral or cornual plate.

has been corrected. We may now see that the mouth (o.) is placed
exactly where I had expected to find it, namely, at the anterior
margin of the carapace. It is a transverse slit, the upper margin of
which is formed by the anterior edges of the rostral plates (r.) already
mentioned, while at each outer corner there is a small external labial
plate (e.l.), the tubercles on which are rather larger than those

156 Dr. R. H. Traquaiv—On Drepanasprs.

elsewhere. The lower boundary of the oral slit is formed by the
lower margin of a broad pentagonal plate (m.), which we may call
mental, ‘The anterior or oral margin of this plate, which is also the
longest, is, however, not quite straight, as it shows a very obtuse
angle in the middle; the two lateral margins are shorter and
slightly convergent posteriorly ; the postero-lateral margins follow,
each at an obtuse angle to its respective lateral one, and they meet
each other behind also at an obtuse angle, which fits into the wide
anterior notch or excavation of the plate next to be described.

r Pr

Fic. 3.— Restored outline of the ventral aspect of Drepanaspis Gmtindenensis,
Schliter ; surface ornament omitted, and the tail twisted round so as to
appear in profile. Lettering as in Fig. 2, but the mouth in front and the
supposed cloacal opening behind are represented in black.

This, the great median ventral plate (m.v.), is of a broadly oval form,

having a widely open notch or indentation in front which, as aforesaid,

receives the posterior angle of the mental plate. In the specimen
of which Fig. 2 is a sketch, the hinder extremity of this plate is
broken off, but in Fig. 3 I have restored its contour from other

Dr. R. H. Traquair—On Drepanaspis. 157

specimens, whence it will be seen that it presents a narrow median
notch, the direction of which is continued for a little way in front.
by a longitudinal fold-like elevation of the surface.

Returning now to the front, we find on each margin of the
carapace, immediately behind the small external labial plate of the
mouth, another and rather larger element of a trapezoidal shape
(x.), transversely placed, with a short external margin, a longer
internal one, while the posterior is the longest and is directed
nearly at a right angle to the middle line of the creature. In the
outer extremity of this plate is a small rounded depression, which
in the specimen sketched in Fig. 2 and in some others is seen on
the ventral aspect of the fossil; but as it also appears in some on the
dorsal aspect it appears to me to have been marginal, and that
the outer extremity of the plate on which it occurs must have been
reflected upwards when in an uncrushed condition. In my
Silurian” Memoir above quoted, I have designated this depression
as an orbit with a query, and it certainly occupies a position
singularly analogous to that of the supposed orbit in Pteraspis,
which is also very small in proportion to the size of the animal.
But in some examples before me it seems to have a floor furnished
with tubercles similar to those of the rest of the surface, so that its
orbital nature can hardly be maintained. However, from its constant
occurrence on the same plate and in the same position it must have
a meaning, and doubtless it marks the place of an organ of sense of
some sort, which can hardly be a nostril, and as the plate itself
must have a name we may call it the sensory plate.

Immediately behind this ‘sensory’ plate is another and larger
one (a.v.l.) of an approximately triangular form, a long irregularly
scolloped side internally, a gently convex outer one, and an acutely
pointed posterior angle. The outer margin of this plate, which we
may call anterior ventro-lateral, fits on below the anterior pointed
extremity of the great postero-lateral plate (p.l.), so extensively
seen on the dorsal surface (Fig. 1), but which appears on the
ventral aspect simply as a rather narrow thickened margin, marked
with wavy ridges instead of tubercles, and is obliquely bevelled off
just at the postero-lateral angle (Figs. 2 and 3). These lateral
elements on the ventral surface are on each side separated from the
mental and median ventral plates by a series of small polygonal
ones, as represented in Figs. 2 and 3, but just behind there is an
ovate-oblong one of a considerable size (p.v.l.), which may be called
posterior ventro-lateral. The space between this and the postero-
external angle of the plate p.l. (left empty in the figures) seems
in one specimen to be covered by another smaller one; any way,
I think that in this region the branchial aperture must have been
placed, though its position is as yet not exactly determined.

in a specimen in the collection of the Geologische Landesanstalt in
Berlin, the posterior notch of the median ventral plate seems to
form, along with an elevated median scale just behind it, a narrow
opening, which I take to be the orifice of the cloaca (see Fig. 3).
This is succeeded in the backward direction by four similar scales

158 Dr. R. H. Traquair—On Drepanaspis.

which pass into the median fulcra of the ventral margin of the tail
and caudal fin: these fulcra being at first very stout and prominent,
but becoming further back proportionally more slender and oblique.

The above is a sketch of the configuration of Drepanaspis and of
the parts forming its exoskeleton, so far as I have been able to
elucidate the subject after ten years’ careful hoarding up of material.

Observations.—It will, I think, be acknowledged that Drepanaspis
is a creature, the details of whose structure as described above form
an important addition to our knowledge of the extinct Ostracodermi
of the Silurian and Devonian periods. Its resemblance to the still
imperfectly known Psammosteide cannot be gainsaid, nor can its
affinity to the Coelolepide on the one hand and to the Pteraspide on
the other be doubted, and consequently I have in my memoir on
the Scotch Silurian fishes included all four families in a new
and enlarged conception of the Heterostracous division of the
Ostracodermi.

Looking at Drepanaspis by itself we have a creature whose hard
parts are entirely dermal, and in which no traces whatever of any
endoskeleton can be found.

The mouth is a transverse slit, which shows no teeth, nor any
jaws properly so called, and therefore affords an apparent support to
the agnathous theory of the Ostracodermi. But, 1 repeat, we know
nothing of the original cartilaginous endoskeleton, and consequently
to believe that the fish while living had no cartilaginous repre-
sentative of the Meckelian element is surely an assumption, while
to argue therefrom any special affinity to the Lampreys, so utterly
different in form, seems to me to be a non sequitur. Here it may be
observed that the condition of the nasal organ does not afford us any
help in this question, as no external nostril, either single or double,
has been observed in Drepanaspis or in any other Ostracoderm.
The only Paleozoic fish which is apparently monorhinal like the
Lampreys is Palzospondylus.

There is certainly no shoulder girdle in Drepanaspis, nor are
there paired fins, at least from the functional standpoint. But the
prominent postero-lateral angles of the carapace are obviously
equivalent to the lateral expansions in the Ccelolepida, which I have
interpreted as pectoral fin-folds. If this idea is right, we have the
parts representing the pectoral fins in Drepanaspis replaced by
unyielding plates.

Dr. Smith Woodward, in his review of my Silurian memoir, dis-
agrees with this view on two grounds.

First, because there is no line of demarcation between the fin-like
expansions of Thelodus and the rest of its body, no change in the
character of the dermal armature at that part, and no signs of
flexibility.

But the very same things may be said of the caudal fin of Thelodus
and of Drepanaspis, and surely no one would deny that 7é, at least,
is a fin. In Drepanaspis, as we have seen, the expanse of the caudal
fin is covered with scales precisely similar in shape and in sculpture
to those of the body prolongation, between which and the fin

Dr. R. H. Traquair—On Drepanaspis. 159

membrane no abrupt line can be seen, though the scales tend to
diminish in size distally. And in a specimen of the recent Angel-fish
(Rhina squatina) now before me, I see no sudden change in the
character of the shagreen granules as they pass from the surface of
the body on to that of the broad pectoral fin. As regards evidence
of flexibility, the Silurian specimens of Coelolepide are all crushed
absolutely flat, but in the case of the large T’helodus Paget from the
Forfarshire Old Red, which has not been subjected to such an
extreme degree of compression, it does seem to me that there is
decided evidence of flexibility, as well as thirfmess, at the posterior
external angles of the parts which I have supposed to represent fins.

Secondly, Dr. Smith Woodward objects to the idea of ‘a motile
organ, originally used for balancing, if not for progression, losing its
function, not by atrophy, but by conversion into a rigid structure
continuous with its base of support,” a phenomenon for which he has
“tried in vain to find a parallel in the animal kingdom.”

It is perhaps a bold idea, and I may be wrong, but let us look for
one moment at the case of the Asterolepids (Antiarcha of Cope).
Dr. Smith Woodward thinks it improbable that the pectoral members
of Pterichthys are homologous with those of the ‘Class Pisces,’ but
there they are, organs which must have been used for progression,
enclosed in rigid plates, though provided with two joints, one at
the junction with the body and another about the middle of the
appendage itself. Dr. Smith Woodward maintains, however, that
the fixed pectoral spines of Acanthaspis, which he considers to be an
Asterolepid or Antiarchan, are homologous with the moveable ‘arms’
of Asterolepis or Pterichthys. If he is right in this, would there not
be something of a parallel here, unless we believe that the fixed
spine has been the original condition from which the complex
moveable limb of Péerichthys has been evolved, which is not very
probable? ‘This, of course, is not an argument upon which I can
insist, seeing that I personally consider Acanthaspis to be, not an
Asterolepid, but a Coccostean, closely related to Phlyctenaspis, Traq.,
the very similar pectoral spine of which Dr. Smith Woodward was
himself the first to observe.

It is, however, not the object of the present communication to
enter into an exhaustive discussion of the disputable questions raised
in my ‘Silurian’ Memoir and in Dr. Smith Woodward’s comments
thereon, —that I must defer to another time and another place. My
purpose has been to complete the description of the remarkable
Heterostracan genus Drepanaspis, according to light thrown on the
subject by material acquired since the publication of the memoir to
which I have so often referred.

? In Coccosteus itself the pectoral spine is so small that in my description of the
skeleton of C. decipiens (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Feb., 1890) I described and figured
it merely as a process of the interlateral plate, from which it is, however, quite
distinct. There certainly is a ‘ Bruststachel’ in Coccosteus, but as it is not only very
small, but absolutely fixed, it can hardly be called a ‘ Ruderorgan.’

160 E. Greenly—A ge of Later Anglesey Dykes.

IiJ.—On tue Ace or toe Later Dykes or ANGLESEY.
By Epwarp Greenty, F.G.8.

HE existence in Anglesey of a series of dykes later than most of
the rocks of the island has long been known. Some of the
more conspicuous ones were described by Henslow, many more
appear on the map of the Geological Survey, and petrological
descriptions were given some years ago (GEOL. Mac., 1887-88) by
Mr. Harker.

They have been ltherto regarded as of Post-Carboniferous but
Pre-Permian age, on the ground that, while traversing the Coal-
measures of the Malldraeth Marsh, one of them has been observed
to terminate at the base of the overlying red strata. Sir A. C.
Ramsay distinctly states that this evidence is derived entirely from
the old coal-workings, and that at the time he wrote the red beds,
regarded by him as Permian, were nowhere visible at the surface.
(“ Geol. N. Wales,” 2nd ed., p. 266.)

Now, however, some of the red beds in question are exposed in
the bottoms of the railway cuttings on either side of Holland Arms
Station. ‘The sections are shallow, the cuttings being grassed over
to within a few feet of the bottom, but are tolerably clear where
visible. The rocks seen are variable red sandstones and marls, often
green-mottled with occasional thin beds of harder yellow and white
sandstone and grey shale. While some of the types are such as
elsewhere occur in the true Coal-measures, others are of well-known
‘New Red’ aspect, and might, as far as lithological characters go,
be even of Triassic age.! They closely resemble the rocks seen on
the old pit spoil-banks, among which I have found red sandstones
with secondary outgrowths of quartz showing crystal facets, like the
well-known rocks of Penrith and other localities. There are beds,
moreover, containing fragments of chert in a dolomitic matrix, and
some with rolled fragments of limestone; and due weight must still
be attached to the statement that certain faults fail to traverse these
red beds in the old coal-mines.

It appears, then, that while the question of the age of these rocks
cannot be regarded as settled, there is no fresh evidence to upset,
and some to support, the view of Sir A. C. Ramsay that they are of
Post-Carboniferous age.

Now, in the cutting south-west of the station, these beds are seen
to be traversed by two dolerite dykes, one on each side of the
Holyhead Road, that on the north-east being about 50 feet and
that on the south-west side about 110 feet in width. Their intrusive
relations are clear, and one of the grey shales shows small spots
and is perceptibly indurated near the dyke. They break up
spheroidally, and although the bulk of the material of both dykes
is quite decomposed, yet the spheroidal cores are not only hard
but remarkably fresh and well preserved. The dyke on the

1 Some of my former colleagues of the Geological Survey, who have lately had

much experience of the Red Rocks of South Wales and the Midlands, kindly
examined some specimens for me.

EE. Greenly—Age of Later Anglesey Dykes. 161

north-east side of the road is seen only in the cutting, but that on
the south-west side (which I will call the Holland Arms dyke)
has been traced to the E.8.H. for a distance of more than a quarter
of a mile, retaining all its peculiar characters. In this short
distance it passes from the red rocks of the cutting across a faulted
belt of Carboniferous Limestone, then across a narrow belt of
Ordovician shales, and from these into mica-schists belonging to
the old complex. It traverses, indeed, nearly all the great rock
groups of Anglesey, and passes, unaffected so far as can be seen,
across two, if not three, main faults. Moreover, the two faults in
question must be at least of Post-Carboniferous, and if Sir A. C.
Ramsay’s view be correct, of Post-Permian age.

It appears, therefore, that the dykes must be of much later date
than has been hitherto supposed. The negative evidence of the old
pit-workings, that they belong to a period between Carboniferous and
Permian, loses its value in face of the positive evidence from the
railway cutting,’ and certainly no volcanic episode of that date is
known elsewhere in Britain. It is conceivable, indeed, that they
might belong to the Permian period itself, but this is very unlikely,
even should the red rocks prove to be Carboniferous. No such
regular system of N.W.-S.E. dykes is known in the Permian
volcanic groups, and in any case we should hardly expect Permian
dykes to pass across main faults of Post-Carboniferous date. Now
the next period of volcanic activity within the British area is that of
Tertiary time (Geikie, ‘‘ Ancient Volcanoes of Great Britain,” vol. 11,
p- 107); and to that period, therefore, these dykes most probably
belong.

In addition to the stratigraphical considerations above set forth,
there are others that lend support to this view.

The petrological characters of the dykes are on the whole
favourable to it rather than otherwise. While the majority are
somewhat sub-basic dolerites, with andesitic selvages, there are
a certain number of typical ophitic olivine-dolerites, of which the
Holland Arms dyke is one. I have compared a slide of it and of one
of the less basic dykes a short distance away, on the south side of
the Holyhead Road, near the old Jerusalem Inn, with a number of
slides of Tertiary dykes in the Jermyn Street collection, and there is
no difficulty in matching them. ‘The Holland Arms dyke itself
resembles a dyke from Goat Island, Raasay, to mention a particular
instance.

Mr. Harker, who has described these dykes (Guou. Mac., 1887,
p. 409 ; 1888, p. 267 ; also “ Bala Vole. Series Carnarv.,” pp. 106-109,
and “Petrology for Students,” 2nd ed., p. 129), and who has had
exceptional opportunities for studying the Tertiary dykes of Skye,
writes me :—‘ Petrographical analogies would seem rather to
support than to debar such a conclusion [viz., as to their Tertiary
age|. The Menai Straits dykes are for the most part andesitic
dolerites and augite-andesites, not rocks of very basic composition,

1 It may be remarked in passing that the statements as to certain favdts in the
coalfield, if true, lose none of their importance as evidence.

DECADE IV.—VOL. VII.—NO. Iv. 11

162 E. Greenly—Age of Later Anglesey Dykes.

and olivine is of exceptional occurrence. J)ykes and other intrusions
of the Carboniferous- Permian set elsewhere in Britain seem to be in
general decidedly basic, and usually carry olivine. They might be
matched among the Tertiary rocks of the Western Isles, which have
a very considerable range of composition, basic and sub-basic; but
the Tertiary dykes of the North of England are, as Teall has pointed
out, mainly of andesitic nature.”

On p. 215 of “ British Petrography,” Mr. Teall remarks on a rock
from Holyhead Island as “a wonderfully fresh ophitic olivine
dolerite. In its composition and state of preservation it differs
so markedly from the ‘greenstones’ and approaches so closely to
many of the Carboniferous and Tertiary dolerites that one is inclined
to regard it as a rock of much later date.”

The Holland Arms dyke presents two opposite extremes with
regard to state of preservation. Much of the rock is decomposed to
a sand,’ and yet in the cores of the spheroids even such a mineral as

Scale stx inches one mile

Fie. 1.—Group of dykes in Mynydd Llwydiarth.

olivine remains intact and unserpentinized to a degree almost
unknown in Pre-Tertiary rocks. Mr. Barrow tells me that this
condition is characteristic of the Cleveland dyke when traversing
certain beds in East Yorkshire. The less basic dolerites are also in
general very well preserved.

In their strike and general behaviour in the field these dykes closely
resemble those of the West of Scotland; and certain parts of the
maps can hardly fail to at least suggest to the mind that they belong
to the same age and series of intrusions, the type of volcanic action
being identical. (Fig. 1.) The average strike is about N.W.-S.E.,
a large number ranging W.N.W.-E.S. E,, and a few in a more N.S.

1 Denudation along this soft friable material probably initiated the transverse
ravine on the south side of the Holyhead Road at Holland Arms.

E. Greenly—Age of Later Anglesey Dykes. 163

direction. The ‘solitary’ and ‘gregarious’ habits may both be
said to be represented. The Plas Newydd dyke is a good example
of the solitary, and the group shown in Fig. 1 of the gregarious type.

Most of them are short, or at any rate are traceable for short
distances only, the longest yet mapped being the large dyke that
runs from Menai Bridge village to Castellor, about a mile and three-
quarters. The widest is the Holland Arms dyke itself, 110 feet, but
the larger dykes of Menai Bridge, which average about 50 feet, are
more typical of the larger dykes of the island. One of these last has
been quarried for road-metal in several places, and the abandoned
quarries remain as very striking trench-like chasms, one of which
is visible from the Suspension Bridge among the houses on the
north-east side. It may be observed, moreover, in this connection,
that these dykes furnish the principal material for road-metal in
the district.

The discontinuity of the dykes at the surface is not wholly due to
concealment by drift, but can in certain cases be shown to be due to
failure to reach the existing surface of the ground. Thus, the Menai
Bridge dyke can be seen to be interrupted by a space of country rock
near the Church, reappearing after a few yards. A small dyke
(about 2 feet wide) at Cadnant Creek can be seen to terminate
upwards in cross section (Fig. 2), while a large one on the coast

Fig. 2.—Upward termination of dyke at Cadnant.

near Careg Onen, sufficiently inclined to be of the nature of a sill
(a somewhat rare mode of occurrence) is partly overlain by schist
(Fig. 3), and disappears wholly underground before reaching low-

Fie. 3.—Sketch section through dyke near Careg Onen.

water mark. These characteristics were observed by Henslow, and
are illustrated by him in some longitudinal sections. The Castellor
dyke actually stops short at the brow of the hill overlooking the
village of Menai Bridge, instead of, as might have been expected,
being still better exposed in the lower ground. It is curious, though
perhaps accidental, that the Cleveland dyke is known to behave in
a similar manner (see Geikie, ‘Ancient Voles. Gt. Brit.,” vol. ii,
pp. 147-150). Yet, in spite of phenomena like these, dykes cross the
summit of Mynydd Llwydiarth at a height of 500 feet above the sea.

164 Dr. C. Davison—British Earthquakes, 1893-99.

If the views advocated in this paper be adopted, considerable
interest will attach to these rocks. The only igneous rock hitherto
recognized as Tertiary in this country to the south of the Cleveland
dyke is a solitary dyke which traverses the red rocks of Staffordshire.

But these Anglesey dykes are a large and important system,
much more important than has been generally supposed. They do
not give rise to conspicuous features of any kind, and easily escape
notice, so that few of them have been hitherto recorded, except on
certain parts of the coast. But within the space comprised in the
one-inch sheets 94 and 106 (i.e. east of a line drawn from Pentraeth
to near Plas Newydd) I have met with no less than 131. A large
group also occurs about Holland Arms itself; and thongh they are
less numerous in the centre of the island, a good many still appear,
and of the same general type as those near the Straits; while
Mr. Teall’s remark above quoted shows that they also occur in the
Holyhead area.!. They are most numerous of all in the rocky tract
known as Mynydd Liwydiarth (in Sheet 94), where 47 occur within
a space of a square mile. But there is good reason to believe that
they are as plentiful in the drift-covered areas as elsewhere, for the
number of boulders they have furnished to the drift is out of all pro-
portion to the known exposures, even allowing for their durability.
Without supposing, however, that they are everywhere as numerous
as on Mynydd Llwydiarth, it is not improbable that they average
as many as ten to the square mile in Sheets 94 and 106, which
estimate is as high as that given by Necker for the island of Arran
(Geikie, op. cit., p. 124).

Volcanic activity thus appears to have been exerted in Tertiary
times not only in North but in certain parts also of South Britain,
and this serves to bring the British phenomena perceptibly nearer
to those of the Continent. And if the phonolite of the Wolf Rock
be, as would seem most probable, of Tertiary age, yet another
link is added to carry us, in Tertiary time, across the tract of

quiescence which still separates, though now even more widely
than then, the volcanic regions of Northern from those of Central
and Southern Europe.

TV¥V.—On some Minor British HarrHquakES OF THE YEARS
1893-1899.
By Cuarues Davison, Se.D., F.G.S.
(Concluded from the March Number, p. 118.)

Cornwall Earthquake : Aug. 27, 1895.

MA\HIS slight, though not uninteresting, earthquake was of intensity
4, and occurred at about 12.50 p.m. I have 20 records from 19

places, and negative records from 2 places.
The earthquake is chiefly remarkable for its small, but elongated,
disturbed area (Fig.2), which is 6 miles long, nearly 2 miles broad,
1 Some basic dykes recently described from the north of the island do not appear

to belong to the same series. (See C. A. Matley, Abstract Proc. Geol. Soc.,
Jan. 10, 1900, and discussion.)

Dr. ©. Davison—British Earthquakes, 1893-99. 165

and contains only 9 square miles. The direction of its longer axis
is KE. 6° N. and W. 5°S. The centre of the area is 4 mile north
of Blisland.

The shock was felt at 15 places. The sound was heard at all of
these, and at 6 other places, 4 of which lie outside the disturbed
area. The sound-area overlaps the disturbed area both to the north
and south, but whether towards the east and west as well is doubt-
ful; for, owing to the scarcity of observations, it is impossible to
trace the boundary of the sound-area.

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Fig. 2.—Cornwall Earthquake: Aug. 27, 1895.

In all parts of the disturbed area, the shock was merely a slight
tremor, a shaking like that experienced on a bridge when a heavy
weight is passing over it. At Greenbarrow, the earthquake was
noticeable first as a low rumbling sound, growing louder until it
resembled an explosion of gunpowder, causing a slight trembling of
the floor and a little shaking of the furniture in the room.

The sound is described in 15 records, the comparisons being to
passing trains, etc., in 83 per cent. of the number, to thunder (a long
low peal of thunder) in 47 per cent., and to explosions in 20 per
cent. The beginning of the sound generally coincided with that
of the shock, and the end of the sound either coincided with, or
followed immediately, the end of the shock. The epochs of maximum
intensity of both sound and shock coincided, as is the rule in weak
earthquakes. Several observers noticed a change in the character of
the sound at the time when it was loudest. ‘his is shown in the
record from Greenbarrow quoted above. The evidence of an observer
at Tregaddick is also worth giving. “The sound,” he says, “ was
like that of an artillery waggon being trotted up to the house, and,
when it apparently had arrived at the house, there was a noise as if
two large stones were crunched against each other.”

Origin of the Earthquake.—The only element of the originating
fault that can be determined is its average direction, which is
E. 5° N. and W. 5° S. The Geological Survey map shows no fault

166 Dr. C. Davison—British Earthquakes, 1893-99.

anywhere near the disturbed area. Not far distant, however, there
are several series of elvan dykes which have almost this direction.
The broken lines on the map represent one of these series, and if one
of the dykes, especially either of those which nearly coincide with
the southern boundary of the disturbed area, should happen to run
along a fault hading towards the north, it would satisfy all the
conditions required by the seismic evidence.

The seismic focus must have been about 4 miles in length, and
the displacement throughout extremely small. That the part from
which the more prominent vibrations came was a narrow band is
evident from the small breadth of the disturbed area. The extension
of the sound-area on both sides of the disturbed area shows, I think,
that the sound-vibrations came from the lower, as well as from the
upper, margin of the focus; in other words, that the displacement
died out downwards as well as upwards and laterally.

Cornwall Earthquake : Jan. 26, 1896.

The earthquake was a very slight one, of intensity 5 or nearly
4. It was felt at 6.50 am. The number of records is 56 from
30 places, in addition to which there are negative records from
20 places.

The disturbed area is 12 miles long and 8? miles broad, and
contains 86 square miles. The direction of the longer axis is east
and west, and the centre of the area lies 14 miles §. 42° H. of
Launceston.

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Fic. 8.—Cornwall Earthquake: Jan. 26, 1896.

The shock was felt at 14 places. At all of these the sound was
heard, as well as at 10 places where the shock was not felt, and
at 6 others where no mention of the shock is made. The sound-area
is 15 miles long and 10 miles broad, and includes 124 square miles.
Its longer axis is directed east and west, and is thus parallel to that

Dr. C. Davison—British Earthquakes, 1893-99. 167

of the disturbed area. The centre is 13 miles 8. 12° E. of Launceston,
and, as will be seen from the map (Fig. 3), the sound-area overlaps
the disturbed area by 3 miles towards the west and by 11 miles
towards the south.

Very few observers describe the shock. It was clearly a mere
tremor, a dull shiver according to one, and a movement such as
is produced in a building by a heavy peal of thunder according
to another.

The sound was, as usual, a far more prominent feature of the
earthquake. Comparisons to well-known sounds are made in
30 cases, in 27 per cent. of these to passing waggons, etc., in 57
per cent. to thunder, and generally distant thunder, and in 17 per
cent. to explosions, which were, however, either prolonged or
followed by a rumbling noise. Thus, the sounds must in all parts
have lasted several seconds.

Origin of the Earthquake.-—The longer axis of the disturbed
area and sound-area agree in assigning an east and west direction
to the originating fault. Its hade must be to the north, for the
disturbed area is overlapped by the sound-area towards the south.
The fault-line must therefore pass a short distance to the south of
the centre of the disturbed area, possibly not very far from Dunterton,
Landue, and Lezant.

The horizontal length of the seismic focus must have been about
© miles, but the extension of the sound-area towards the west shows
that the western margin of the focus was much longer than the
eastern margin. The displacement throughout the whole focus was
very small, and not much greater than that which will produce the
sensation of sound.

In this case, again, the Geological Survey map provides no fault in
the required position; but the early date of the survey should
be borne in mind. To the south of the disturbed area there are,
however, numerous mineral veins and elvan dykes, all of which run
east and west, and therefore parallel to the earthquake-fault. If the
district were to be carefully re-surveyed, a fault would no doubt
be discovered that would satisfy all the seismic conditions.

Annandale Earthquake: May 29, 1896.

The disturbed area of this earthquake occupies a more populous
part of Annandale than those of the shocks felt on March 8 and
May 14, 1894. The number of records which I possess, is, however,
small, only 15 from 14 places; but there are several other places
from which negative records have come. ‘The time of occurrence,
as determined by a signalman at Castlemilk station, was 4.47 a.m.

The shock was distinctly felt at 7 places which lie within an
area roughly circular in form and about 6 miles in diameter. The
centre of the area is in lat. 55° 6’ N. and long. 3° 17’ W., and is
equally distant (3 miles) from Lockerbie, Ecclefechan, and Minsca.
The sound alone was observed at several places outside the boundary ;
at Craighouse close to the boundary on the south-east side, Dormont
14 miles to the south-west, and Corsegreen 3 miles to the west.

168 Dr. C. Davison—British Earthquakes, 1893-99.

Also at Castleo’er, 6 miles to the north-east, the sound was heard by
two persons, and a faint tremor was felt by one of them. Probably
all of these observations refer to the earthquake.

The shock lasted about 3 seconds, and was a mere quiver of
intensity 4 at places close to the boundary above mentioned, which
may therefore be regarded as an isoseismal of that intensity. Six
observers compare the sound to some well-known type—three
to distant thunder and three to the rumble of a passing cart or
waggon.

On the Geological Survey map of the district, there is no fault
marked anywhere near the required position. If the earthquake
were due to a fault-slip, the approximate circularity of the disturbed
area and the short duration of the shock show that the length of the
seismic focus was small.

Glen Nevis Earthquake: June 5, 1896.

A slight shock was felt at an early hour in the morning, being
strongest at Achreach. No mention is made of any sound accom-
panying the shock, but the account is very brief (North British
Daily Mail, Glasgow, June 6). One of the seismographs at the
Low-level Observatory at Fort William is said to have shown
a very doubtful indication of the shock. The earthquake may have
been due to a slip of the Highland fault, but there is no proof
whatever of such an origin. If there were, it would of course
furnish another indication that the hade of the fault in this district
is to the south-east.

Rutland Earthquake : Jan. 28, 1898.

A slight shock of intensity 8 was felt about 10.5 p.m. over
nearly the whole of Rutland and in small portions of the adjoining
counties of Lincoln, Leicester, and Northampton. I have received
40 records of the earthquake from 26 places. For more than
half of these accounts 1 am indebted to Mr. F. Coventry, of
Duddington, who very kindly made many inquiries and distributed
a number of my forms in different parts of the disturbed area.

In the map of the earthquake (Fig. 4), the boundary of the
disturbed area is represented by a continuous line and that of
the sound-area by a dotted line. Of the two the latter is probably
the more accurately drawn, but it is impossible to feel much
confidence in either, on account of the small number of determining
places and the want of negative records. I made many inquiries,
however, in the surrounding district, and the absence of replies is
probably equivalent to non-observance of the shock or sound.

The disturbed area, as mapped, is 15 miles long, 124 miles broad,
and contains 142 square miles. Its longer axis is directed N. 27° W.
and 8. 27° H. The sound-area overlaps the disturbed area by about
a mile towards the south and three-quarters of a mile towards the
east; its linear dimensions being 16 miles and 131 miles, and its
area 165 square miles. The centre of the disturbed area is 1% miles
E.N.E. of Oakham and coincides nearly with the village of Burley.

: Dr. C. Davison—British Earthquakes, 1893-99. 169

Wherever the earthquake was observed the sound was a far more
prominent feature than the shock. The movement, when felt, was
merely a faint vibration in the middle of the rumbling noise. In
a few places it made glasses and crockery jingle slightly.

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Fic. 4.—Rutland Earthquake: Jan. 28, 1898.

With the exception of one village, in which the omission is
probably accidental, the sound was heard at every place where
the earthquake was observed. Its gradual rise and fall in intensity
are perhaps responsible for the frequent references to the passing of
a heavy carrier’s van, a train rushing over a long iron bridge, or
heavy barrels rolled on pavement underneath the house. The
sound is also compared to thunder or the continued tipping of
a cartload of bricks. Every one of the ordinary types of earthquake
sound is, however, employed, reference being made to passing
waggons in 40 per cent. of the records, to thunder in 34 per cent.,
wind in 3, the tipping of a load of stones in 11, the fall of a heavy
body in 3, explosions in 3, and to miscellaneous sounds in 6 per cent.
The average duration of the sound appears to have been about 5
or 10 seconds; that it was not inconsiderable is evident from the
frequent use of the longer types of comparison.

Origin of the Earthquake.—It is difficult to locate the originating
fauit with precision. Its general direction would appear to be about
N.N.W. and S8.S.E. The overlapping of the sound-area towards
the east indicates that the fault hades to the west, as the sound-
vibrations in the protruding part would come chiefly from the

170 Dr. C. Davison—British Earthquakes, 1893-99.

upper margin of the focus. ‘Thus, the fault-line should traverse
the district between the centre of the disturbed area and its eastern
boundary.

The faults of the district have been mapped by Professor Judd _
and described in his well-known memoir.’ The more important
ones have a W. by N. and H. by 8. direction, with throws in some
places of not less than 150 feet towards the north. The two chief
faults are the Billesden and Loddington fault (traced for about
7 miles) and the Tinwell and Walton fault (about 14 miles in
length), and between them are several others which have a parallel
direction. Running transversely to these east and west faults are
a number of others of smaller throw and with a general north and
south direction, apparently representing cross fractures. A group
of these is shown in the south-east corner of the map; one of which,
passing by Ketton and Duddington, can be traced for a distance of
8 miles. Its throw seems to be greatest in the central part of its
course, to the west of Collyweston; near Duddington it probably
amounts to about 40 or 50 feet. At its north end it bends round
to a north-westerly direction, and in this part its hade is evidently
towards the west. The most easterly fault of the group runs about
N.N.W. and 8.S.E.

“That the faults mapped and described include all which traverse
the area,” Professor Judd remarks, “is by no means probable.
Over considerable areas clays of enormous thickness prevail without
any well-defined hard beds, and among these it would be impossible
to detect dislocations while running the geological lines; other large
areas are hopelessly concealed from our observation by thick masses
of Boulder Clay, and of some of the faults actually detected it is not
possible to trace more than a small part of their course, owing to the
same causes.” (p. 259.)

Possibly this may account for the termination on the map of the
Ketton and Duddington fault towards the north, just after it crosses
the river Wash and enters a mass of Lincolnshire Oolite. If the
fault does not really end at this point, but is continued roughly in
a N.N.W. direction, it would satisfy all the conditions implied by the
seismic evidence. Whether it be to a slip of this fault, or of another
transverse fault not shown on the Survey map, that the earthquake
was due, it is clear that the displacement must have been very small
to produce so slight a shock. The horizontal length of the focus may
have amounted to two or three miies, and the displacement probably
died out more slowly towards the south, giving rise to a broader
lateral margin, and thus causing the sound-area to overlap the
disturbed area in that direction.

Comrie Harthquake: Aug. 22, 1898.

To the seismologist, the recent Comrie earthquakes are of interest
as members of a long series of shocks and sounds, now perhaps
drawing for the present to a close. To the geologist, they may be of

1 “The Geology of Rutland’’: Geol. Surv. Mem., 1875, pp. 256-259.

Dr. C. Davison—British Earthquakes, 1893-99, 171

value from the evidence they furnish with regard to the hade of the
great fault which forms the southern boundary of the Highlands.
The study of a slight shock, which occurred on July 12, 1895, led to
the inference that, in the neighbourhood of Comrie, the fault hades
to the north-west ;' and the still feebler shock of Aug. 22, 1898,
supplies additional evidence in favour of this conclusion.

Many persons in the Comrie district seem inclined to refer the
recent shocks to a desire to keep up the historic reputation of the
village ; and the exaggerated reports which have appeared in several
newspapers certainly offer some excuse for this scepticism. More-
over, the weather on the last occasion was warm and sultry, the
sound-area is very small, and it is therefore natural that many, who
did not hear, or only just heard, the sound, should regard it as due
to a peal of distant thunder. The seismic character of the dis-
turbance cannot, however, be doubted after a careful study of all the
evidence. ‘The shock itself was felt by several persons (by two, as
a vertical movement), the sound was evidently of underground
origin, and other observers who are well acquainted with the tremors
and earth-sounds of the district felt no hesitation in ascribing the
sound to that of an earthquake too slight to be felt in all parts of the
area affected.

The following account is based on 14 records from 8 places, and
on statements that, at 12 other places, no sign of the earthquake was
perceived.

Carroglen 2

we , Bractordie
/® patmeuick

. fe) 75
- Gerrichreur Lawers z
Cinihicke

Comrie

A fe)
S Dalchonzte

pire aguaiginross
Aberuchill
fe}

Scale of Miles
rere eee aL

Fic. 6.—Comrie Earthquake: Aug. 22, 1898.

The earthquake occurred at about 7.15 am. The shock, which
was of intensity 3, was felt only at Clathick, by three or four
persons, and possibly by one person on the adjoining estate of
Lawers. At Clathick, three distinct movements upwards and down-
wards were felt, as of heavy blows struck on the ground immediately
beneath, lasting about 3 seconds. The sound was compared by four

1 Grou. Maa., Vol. III, 1896, pp. 75-79.

172 Dr. C. Davison—British Earthquakes, 1893-99.

persons to distant thunder, and by one each to a cart coming up the
road, to coals turned out of a cart, and to a distant quarry-blast.

The boundary of the sound-area is represented on the map (Fig. 5)
by the continuous line; but, on account of the small number of
observations, it cannot be regarded as very accurate, especially to
the east of Clathick. The area, as drawn, is 3? miles long, 3 miles
broad, and contains 9 square miles. Its centre is one mile H. 27° N.
of Comrie.

Connection with the Earthquakes of 1894 and 1895.—The epi-
centres of all three earthquakes lie on the north-west side of the
great fault, whose course is indicated by the broken lines on the
map. The dotted line represents the isoseismal 5 of the earthquake
of 1895. As we have seen, the epicentre of the 1894 earthquake was
close to Comrie; in 1895, the epicentre must have been a mile or
more in length, with its middle point a quarter of a mile south-west
of Comrie. Thus, while the first two earthquakes originated in
nearly the same region of the fault, the slip which caused the earth-
quake of 1898 took place at a spot about a mile further to the north-
east, and apparently just outside the focus of the preceding shock.

As the epicentres must lie on the side towards which the fault
hades, the three earthquakes agree in showing that, near Comrie,
the hade is to the north-west.

Glen Garry Earthquake: Dec. 18, 1899.

As the records for these and preceding years have shown, slight
earthquakes are not uncommon in the west of Inverness-shire, in
Glen Garry and the tributary glens, but none seem to have been
felt for more than five years, between Sept. 18, 1894, and the above
date, when a stronger shock than usual occurred. It was felt at
about 6.50 a.m. at Glenquoich, Glenkingie, Lochournhead, Carnich,
and even as far as Corran (Arnisdale, in Glenelg), but the limits of
the disturbed area cannot be ascertained owing to the scanty
population of the district. On the south side of Loch Quoich the
intensity of the shock was about 5. At Glenquoich a sound was
heard like distant thunder, getting louder till the house trembled,
and then the sound died away as if a carriage had passed ; the sound
lasted fully 17 seconds. In a neighbouring part of the glen, the
sound was compared to a chimney on fire and afterwards to a very
heavy carriage passing over an iron bridge, and at Glenkingie to
a flock of sheep rushing over hard ground.

For the notices on the Glen Garry earthquakes described in this
paper I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. D. Grant, of Glenquoich,
Mr. A. M. G. Foster, of Glenkingie, and Mr. M. Matheson, of
Ardochy, three very careful observers, who for many years have
paid close attention to the subject. The value of their work can
hardly be overestimated.

Doubtful and Spurious Earthquakes.

Monmouthshire, etc.: Jan., 1893.—In two letters in Nature
(vol. xlvii, 1893, pp. 247, 270), Mr. E. J. Lowe, F.R.S., describes

Dr. C. Davison—British Earthquakes, 1893-99. 173

a series of slight shocks. On the 5rd inst. he was sitting in
a railway carriage placed in siding at Severn Junction station.
At 2.154 p.m. he felt a sensible upward movement of the seat (as
if pushed trom below) and saw the carriage sway. ‘The movement
was from south to north, ie. at right angles to the railway, and was
repeated four times in about six seconds. At 2.17 p.m. there were
two weaker movements. ‘There was no train at the station, and the
air was calm. Ice in the neighbourhood was said to have been
cracked at the time. On Jan. 4, at 11 a.m., a heavy plant stage in
a greenhouse at Itton Court, near Chepstow. was seen by two
gentlemen to move four times. On Jan. 5, between 2 and 3 (?) p.m.,
and again on the 6th a little earlier, a rambling noise was heard on
the Black Mountains near Llanthony Monastery. On Jan. 14,
at 6.55 p.m., a shock, lasting more than a second, was felt at
Colesford (in Gloucestershire, a few miles from Monmouth) by
a gentleman who had had experience of earthquakes in Japan.

Much fuller evidence than is here given would be required to
establish the seismic character of these disturbances. An earthquake-
shock strong enough to cause a sensible upward movement like that
felt on Jan. 2 would be noticed over an area of many square miles,
and could not fail to have attracted the attention of other persons.
The rumbling noises near Llanthony may have been due to other
natural or to artificial causes. It is clear that they cannot be placed
in the same category as the Glen Garry earth-sound of Dec. 11,
1898, or the Fort William earth-sound of Jan. 9, 1895. In only
one case were there two observers, and they were in the same house.
I think, therefore, that the evidence is insufficient to enable us to
regard them as other than doubtful, if not spurious, earthquakes.

Isle of Man: May 5-6, 1893.—A number of shocks were felt at
nearly regular intervals on the days noticed, but there can be little,
if any, doubt that they were due to the firing of heavy guns from
H.M.S. “Neptune ” (see Nature, vol. lx, 1899, p. 139).

Comrie: Feb. 27, 1894.—Reports of an earthquake on this day
appeared in several daily papers, but were at once contradicted in
the two journals published in Crieff. It is certain that an earth-
quake felt also, as alleged, at Ardoch and Buchanty (more than
8 and 10 miles, respectively, from Comrie) would have been widely
observed. The weather, moreover, was stormy, and several peals
of thunder were heard at the time at Comrie.

West Cornwall: May 29, 1896.—According to a paragraph in
the Standard for the following day, a slight earthquake-shock was
felt in West Cornwall at 6.55 a.m., and men on their way to work
at the Camborne Mines felt the vibrations distinctly. I made many
inquiries in the district, but none of my correspondents had met
with, or heard of, any observer of the supposed earthquake. I do
not think, therefore, that any reliance can be placed upon the report.

Through the kindness of several correspondents I have received
reports of supposed earthquakes, but as I have been unable to obtain
corroborative evidence, I have confined myself to noticing those
which are recorded in journals that future seismologists would be
likely to consult.

174 Dr. C. Davison—British Earthquakes, 1893-99.

Earth-Shakes in Mining Districts.

Under this heading are included several shocks which, it is
possible, may be of artificial origin, and, if so, ought to be regarded
as spurious earthquakes. Formerly, I should have so considered
them, but another explanation has recently occurred to me; and, if
it be correct, it will be evident that they are partly artificial and
partly natural in their origin. It therefore seems desirable to
consider them separately.

Rhondda Valley.—The shocks referred to are frequently felt in
the Rhondda Valley in Glamorganshire. One occurred on June 22,
1889,' and there have been at least three others within the period
embraced by this paper, on April 11 and May 2, 1894, and
October 16, 1896. Judging, however, from the expressions used
by several of my correspondents, it is probable that these are the
dates of only the more important movements.

The shock which occurred on April 11, 1894, at about 2.40 a.m.,
is described as one of the severest recently felt in the district; and
making every allowance for exaggeration in the accounts,” there can
be no doubt as to its intensity. At one or two places it cannot have
been less than 5, that is to say, it must have been the strongest
shock considered in this paper. Two loud reports, like those of
cannon, were heard in quick succession, and at the same moments,
or immediately afterwards, sharp vibrations were felt. They seem to
have been almost equally distinct underground, for in several pits
the miners rushed to the bottom of the shaft, thinking that a violent
explosion had occurred. Notwithstanding the strength of the shock,
however, the disturbed area was very small. So far as I have been
able to ascertain, its boundary is almost exactly circular, about 5
miles in diameter, and with its centre # mile east of Porth.

The second shock took place about noon on May 2, 1894, and
seems to have originated in the same district. At the surface it
must have been much slighter than the preceding shock; but
underground it produced similar effects, miners in the same pits
again leaving their work to escape from what appeared to be an
explosion.

On October 16, 1896, the district affected was a very small one,
not more than a mile in diameter, including Ystrad - y - fodwg,
Pentre, Ton, and Gelli. At about 11 p.m. a loud boom, like the
muffled sound of blasting, was heard, followed by a brief shaking.
‘The sensation is described by most as like that experienced in
a room immediately beneath another in which a heavy article of
furniture had fallen. Miners at work rushed from one pit to

1 Grou. Maa., Vol. VIII, 1891, p. 371.

2 Houses are said to have rocked like cradles, ete. ‘‘Sir,’’? said Dr. Johnson,
when Boswell told him of the earthquake of Sept. 14, 1777, ‘‘it will be much
exaggerated in public talk: for, in the first place, the common people do not
accurately adapt their words to their thought: they do not mean to lie: but, taking
no pains to be exact, they give you very false accounts. A great part of their
language is proverbial. If anything rocks at all, they say it rocks like a cradle:
and in this way they go on.”’

Dr. C. Davison—British Earthquakes, 1893-99. 175

another, thinking an explosion had occurred. One informed me
that a severe shaking was felt, the tools sprang from the floor and
the dust rose in clouds off the bottom. Indeed, the shock seems to
have been distinctly stronger underground than on the surface.

Kilsyth: Feb. 16, 1898.—Kilsyth lies in the valley of the Kelvin,
11 miles N.E. of Glasgow, and the same distance from Falkirk and
Stirling. The supposed earthquake occurred at 1.33 p.m. It was
felt and heard by hundreds of people in the town, but, though
T have made many inquiries, I have received nothing but negative
records from the surrounding country. It is therefore certain that
the area affected must have been very small. All the accounts from
Kilsyth are in agreement as to the nature of the shock and sound.
There was a single movement, which immediately died away,
lasting about a second ; a dull heavy thud, as if some heavy article
had fallen on the ground shaking all around. It was strong enough
to make windows and crockery rattle, in one house to ring bells,
and in others to throw down crockery from the shelves. The sound,
which accompanied the shock, is said to have resembled the tipping
of a load of coals, the fall.of some heavy body, the slamming of
a door, etc. Men working in the mines below were so alarmed that
they ran to the bottom of the shaft.

Pendleton (near Manchester) : Feb. 27, 1899.—With one exception,
I am indebted for all the records which I possess of this supposed
earthquake to the kindness of Mr. Mark Stirrup, F.G.S.!. The shock
was felt shortly after 10 p.m., according to one observer at exactly
10.1 p.m. The places at which the shock was felt are all within
a small area, approximately circular in form, and about 4 or 5
miles in diameter. The centre of the area is about 4 mile north
of Pendleton, and lies a short distance on its downthrow side from
the Irwell Valley fault. Hven if we disregard the evidence of some
observers as possibly exaggerated, there can be no doubt that the
intensity of the shock was not less than 4, and it may have been
as great as 5. A booming sound, like that of a gas explosion,
accompanied the shock. In the Pendleton Colliery some falls of
rock took place, and raised a cloud of dust which put some
workmen’s lamps out.

Origin of the Earth-Shakes.—There are certain features which are
common to all the earth-shakes here considered, and which dis-
tinguish them from most ordinary earthquakes. They are :—

(1) The disturbed area is small; in the strongest, it is not more
than about 5 miles in diameter.

(2) The intensity of the shock is very great for so small an area,
and dies away rapidly from the centre towards the boundary.

From these facts, we conclude that the depth of the centre of
disturbance is very small, and the inference is supported by the
obviously great intensity of the shocks as felt in mines. Again:

(3) The shock and sound are of very short duration. The brevity
of the sound is strikingly illustrated by the type of comparison

1 See a paper by Mr. Stirrup on ‘‘ The Earthquake of February 27th, 1899’’:
Manchester Geo]. Soc. Trins., vol. xxvi, 1899, pp. 174-178.

176 Dr. C. Davison—British Earthquakes, 1893-99.

usually employed in describing it. Taking the four earth-shakes
together, we find that 6 per cent. of the sound comparisons are to
thunder, 12 to a load of stones falling, 35 to the fall of a heavy body,
and 47 to explosions. Now, in the slightest earthquakes, such as
those described in this paper, the corresponding percentages are 31
to passing waggons, etc., 35 to thunder, 8 to wind, 8 to a load of
stones falling, 5 to the fall of a heavy body, 14 to explosions, and 4
to miscellaneous sounds. But it is only in isolated earthquakes that
this is the case. The earth-sounds following a great earthquake or
the sounds which accompany the weakest after-shocks resemble
those caused by explosions or the fall of a heavy weight.’

It follows from this that the centre of disturbance must have been
very small in the case of every one of the earth-shakes; and this
conclusion is confirmed by the small size and the approximate
circularity of the disturbed areas.

These two conclusions regarding the small depth and size of the
centre of disturbance are strongly in favour of a local origin of the
shocks. In the Rhondda valleys they are generally, 1 believe,
attributed to rock-falls in old mine-workings; aud this is no doubt
the origin of some of the shocks, for such falls from the roof are
known to occur and to lead to a subsidence of the ground above. The
chief difficulty in accepting this explanation for the recent dis-
turbances arises from the absence, so far as known, of any fallen
masses.” The Kilsyth earth-shake was referred without hesitation
by one of my correspondents to a blast in one of the whinstone
quarries in the town; but, as another points out. the blasts have
occurred daily for twelve years without any suggestion of an
earthquake. Others, including several miners, consider that the
shock was caused by a fall of rock in one of the old pit-workings
by which the ground below is honeycombed. ‘The shock at
Pendleton is apparently, though not distinctly, ascribed by
Mr. Stirrup to a slip of the Irwell Valley fault, and the proximity
of the fault to the centre of disturbance is a point in favour of this
theory.

But this, of course, is not a peculiarity of the Pendleton coal-mines.
The beds about Kilsyth are cut up by a series of faults, and in
the Rhondda Valley faults pass close to the centres of the disturbed
areas of the earth-shakes. Perhaps a more significant fact is that
the coal-seams are generally worked right up to the fault. This is
certainly the case, as Mr. Stirrup informs me, at Pendleton, and it is
probably so at Kilsyth and in the Rhondda valleys.

Now, by the withdrawal of the coal, the rock above is deprived to
a great extent of its support, and tends gradually to sink down and
close up the worked-out seam. Nowhere can this tendency be
greater than where the rock is severed by a fault from that which
adjoins it. Here the sinking would take place by a series of fault-
slips, each of which might give rise to a rather strong shock on the
surface of the ground above. But, as the slip would only affect.

1 Phil. Mag., vol. xlix, 1900, p. 58.
* Nature, yol. lx, 1899, p. 140.

Notices of Memoirs—Belinurus—Devonian. Le

a small region of the fault-surface and would occur at a slight depth,
the intensity of the shock would rapidly fade away from the
epicentre ; the disturbed area would therefore be small and circular
in form; and the shock and sound would be of brief duration, and in
many ways resembling those produced by the fall of a heavy mass
of rock.

If this is a correct explanation of some of the earth-shakes which
occur in mining districts, it follows that such cannot be classed
either with true or with spurious earthquakes. They are of natural
origin in so far as they are produced by fault-slips, but artificial in
that the slips are brought about by human labour and not by the
slow and gradual cooling of the earth.

WO TECHS Oi =MeEnIVEOirS =

Note on BELINURUS GRANDAZVUS.'

N a review of a paper by Professor T. R. Jones & Dr. Henry
Woodward on Belinurus grandevus, a new species of Palaeozoic *
Limuloid Crustacean from the ‘ Eo-Carboniferous’ of Riversdale,
N.S., it is stated on p. 208 of this journal that Belinurus has
not been found in rocks of earlier age than the Coal-measures.
In Geikie’s Text Book of Geology, however, this genus is mentioned
as occurring with Pterygotus, Bothriolepis, Coccosteus, Pterichthys,
Glyptolepis, and other typical Lower Devonian and Silurian forms
in the Kiltorcan Beds of Ireland. Thus the inference drawn in the
conclusion of this article that these rocks are Carboniferous does not
seem to be sustained. May it not, on the other hand, be assumed
that “The faune of the seas of the Lower Carboniferous, Coal
formation, and Permian periods, both in Europe and America,
present so great similarities that they may, in a broad view of the
subject, be regarded as identical ; ” * while for ‘ Lower Carboniferous,’
according to correlations of the fossils from these strata in New
Brunswick and Nova Scotia made recently by Professor Kidston
and Dr. David White, as recorded by Mr. J. F. Whiteaves in his
“Address on the Devonian System in Canada,” * must we now say
‘Lower Devonian’ ? R. W. E.

15% 22h W/ AE dah WATSE

T.—GrotocgicaL Survey or Canapa. G. M. Dawson, C.M.G.,
LL.D., F.R.S., Director. Annual Report (New Series), Vol. X.
Reports A, F, I, J, M, 8, 1897. 8vo; with plates and maps.
(Ottawa: Dawson, 1899.)

ee present volume, like its predecessors, contains within its

: pages many proofs of the excellent organization as well as

the enterprising spirit which controls and animates the operations

of all branches of the Survey, and testifies once again to the

1 From Zhe Ottawa Naturalist, January, 1900, vol. viii, No. 10, p. 256.

2 Grou. Maa., September, 1899, p. 388.

3 Acadian Geology, p. 285. ;

4 Section E, American Association, Columbus, Ohio, August, 1899.
DECADE IV.—VOL. VII.—NO. IV. 12

178 Reviews— Geological Survey of Canada.

wonderful resourcefulness and the scientific attainments so happily
blended in the Canadian geologist.

The Summary Report (A) by the Director, Dr. G. M. Dawson,
dated January, 1898, contains a brief record of the executive and
office work of the department and of the organization and main
results of the field-work up to the end of the year 1897. The
reports which follow have, as usual, all been issued separately, prior
to the completion of the general report.

The Director refers especially in his report to the rich discoveries
of placer gold on the Klondike and its tributary streams in the
Yukon District, verifying his forecast as to their great value
published in 1889. More detailed geological investigations must
be made before the question of the origin of the gold can be solved.
A prolonged and uninterrupted wearing down, from a very early
period in the Tertiary, of rocks containing auriferous veins may,
in part, account for the great quantities of residuary gold now
contained in the placers.

The operations of the field parties (to the number of fifteen)
embraced the following widely extended regions, viz., British
Columbia (2), North-West Territories, boring operations (2),
Ontario (4), Quebec (1), New Brunswick (1), Nova Scotia (3),
and Hudson Strait (2).

Experimental borings in petroleum - bearing rocks were under-
taken in Northern Alberta (N.W. Territories) with results which
pointed to the existence of an oil-field of great extent in that region.

Following the account of this work, which is given in much detail,
are the reports of the officers responsible for the Museum, Herbarium,
and Library of the Survey.

The first field report (F) is that of Mr. W. McInnes, on the
geology of the area covered by the Seine River and Lake Sheben-
dowan map-sheets, comprising portions of Rainy River and Thunder
Bay Districts, Ontario. After describing the physical characters of
the region, its principal rivers, lakes, waterfalls, wild animals, forest
growth, etc., the author deals with its geology. The geological
formations are as follows, in descending order :—

Surface deposits of glacial and lacustrine origin.
Animikie.

Steep Rock.

Keewatin.

Coutchiching.

Laurentian.

The most widely distributed of these is the Laurentian, which
occupies more than three-fourths of the entire area. It is made up of
granite-gneisses, which vary in composition according to the presence
or absence of hornblende, and in the distinctness of their foliation.
The typical rock is a biotite-granite-gneiss made up of quartz,
orthoclase, plagioclase, and biotite, generally distinctly foliated and
banded with finer and coarser layers. The non-foliated, central
portion merges gradually, at varying distances from the edge of

Reviews—Geological Survey of Canada. 179

the area, into well-marked gneiss, the latter evidently a phase of
the granite produced by stress and incipient flow. The prevailing
aspect of the rocks of the Coutchiching series in this section is that
of stratiform, fine and coarse gneisses, the coarser intrusive through
the finer. The finer gneiss is identical with the Coutchiching series
of Rainy Lake and probably represents its eastward extension. The
Keewatin is made up of a number of rock types varying from
extremely basic, igneous masses and their derived schists, to acid
quartz-porphyries and the schists produced by their shearing. The
Steep Rock Series, occurring about Steep Rock Lake, are believed
to be of later age than the greater mass of the Keewatin strata, as
they overlie unconformably the rest of the Archean, occupying
a position below the Cambrian and above the great bulk of the
Keewatin. The Animikie rocks, which occupy a limited area in
the south-eastern corner of the region, overlie unconformably the
Archzean rocks wherever they have been seen in contact. From
their stratigraphical relations to the overlying formations further
east on Lake Superior, they are believed to represent the lower
beds of the Cambrian. They consist of black and green slates with
calcareous and cherty bands.

The glacial geology and economic geology of the region are
described, the minerals including iron, gold, and silver, with others
in insufficient quantities to be commercially valuable.

Report I, by Mr. A. E. Barlow, deals with the geology and
natural resources of the area included in the Nipissing and
Temiscaming map-sheets, comprising portions of the district of
Nipissing, Ontario, and the county of Pontiac, Quebec. It is
accompanied by two maps, each on a scale of four miles to one
inch. The area represented in each map measures seventy-two
miles in length from east to west, and forty-eight miles from
north to south, thus embracing an area of 3,456 square miles, or
a combined area of 6,912 square miles. The several geological
systems and formations represented in the region subjacent to the
Pleistocene superficial deposits are as follows, in descending order :—

Pi eoioic. f Silurian : Niagara. 4 :
( Cambro-Silurian: Trenton ; Birdseye and Black River.

Huronian.

ARCH HAN. : en : : ;
Laurentian: Diorite-gneiss and granite-gneiss.

The Archwan rocks of the region may be separated into two
great subdivisions, that of the so-called Lower Laurentian and the
Huronian. The Laurentian is composed of a series of massive or
schistose, and usually evenly foliated, crystalline rocks, the latter
being commonly referred to as ‘gneisses.’ The latter are separable
into two divisions according to the prevalence of orthoclase or
plagioclase as the felspathic constituent. Of the two types, granite-
gneiss and diorite-gneiss, the former is by far the most abundant,
and often passes by insensible gradations into massive, reddish
granite in which little or no trace of foliation can be detected.

The Huronian rocks are generally clastic in composition, appear-
ance, and microscopic structure, in marked contrast to those of

180 Reviews— Geological Survey of Canada.

the Laurentian. The breccia or breccia-conglomerate which lies at
the base of the Huronian is the rock referred to by Logan and
Murray as ‘slate-conglomerate’ or ‘chloritic slate-conglomerate.’
It is composed of angular, subangular, or rounded fragments of
various plutonic rocks, of which a coarse, red granite is the most
abundant. Diabases and diorites are also present. Throughout
the area the Huronian, where fully represented, is separable into
three distinct subdivisions, which are, in ascending order, as
follows: (1) Breccia or Breccia - conglomerate, (2) Greywacke
shale or slate, (3) Felspathic sandstone or quartzite.

The Paleozoic rocks contained in this area consist of outlying
patches of the following formations: (1) Birdseye and Black
River, (2) Lower Trenton, (8) Niagara. Some excellent illustrations
of the scenery of the region surveyed, and plates of microscopic
sections, accompany this voluminous report, to which two appendices
are added, the first consisting of tables of elevations calculated in
feet above mean tide water at Quebec, the second containing tables
of Cambro-Silurian and Silurian fossils, with remarks upon them,
drawn up by Dr. H. M. Ami.

Report J, by Mr. R. Chalmers, is on the surface geology and
auriferous deposits of South-Eastern Quebec. It contains the results
of observations made during the seasons of 1895, 1896, and 1897.
The district included in the report extends from Lake Champlain
and the Vermont boundary north-eastward to Montmagny county,
and from the province line along the New Hampshire and Maine
border north-westward to the plain of the St. Lawrence. A general
study of the superficial deposits of the region was made, with
special reference to the auriferous alluviums of the ‘ Hastern
Townships. To carry this out thoroughly the whole of the
St. Lawrence Valley was examined in some detail, the glaciation
and the distribution of the Boulder-clay were investigated, and the
origin of the latter and of other superficial deposits traced out.
The pre-Glacial, decayed rock materials, ‘sedentary’ and ‘trans-
ported,’ lying beneath the Pleistocene series, were also studied in
the gold-bearing districts, as it is chiefly in these that the precious
metal is found in workable quantities.

Gold was first discovered in South-Eastern Quebec on the Gilbert
River about the year 1823. Many years afterwards (1866) a report
by an expert employed by Sir W. E. Logan, at that time Director
of the Geological Survey of Canada, was drawn up relative to the
distribution of gold in the gravels and clays and gold-bearing
quartz veins ; since that time gold-mining has gone on intermittently
and with varying success in the valleys of the Gilbert and Chaudiere
rivers and other parts of the district referred to in the report.
Although the gold-bearing alluviums of South-Eastern Quebec have
been worked and studied for more than half a century by geologists,
mining engineers, and others, yet very little is known concerning
the true source of the gold. Juogan and Sterry Hunt regarded its
origin as traceable to the materials derived from the disintegration
of the oldest rocks of the region, viz., the crystalline schists of the

Reviews— Geological Survey of Canada. 181

Notre Dame Range, belonging for the most part to the Quebec
Group. Little progress has been made in a knowledge of its
derivation since the time of these geologists, as practically no
quartz-mining has yet been carried on. The author finally concludes
that “the primary source of the gold of the ‘Eastern Townships’
seems to be the crystalline schists of pre-Cambrian or Huronian
age, which were invaded by diorites and other intrusives and
yielded material to the basal Cambrian conglomerates, and were
also probably traversed by quartz veins. In the removal and
transportation of sedimentary material by drainage waters, what-
ever gold was in the quartz veins, and in the products of rock
decay, would be concentrated in channels or river-bottoms in the
gravels in which it is found at the present day.”

Dr. L. W. Bailey’s Report (M) relates to the mineral resources
of the Province of New Brunswick. Among metallic ores are
included iron, in the forms of hematite, magnetite, etc. ; copper,
as native copper, and various sulphides ; lead, as galena, usually
slightly argentiferous ; zinc, as blende; antimony; nickel sulphide,
bismuth ; and gold. ‘To these are added, among substances affording
combustible products, bituminous coal, anthracite, cannelite, albertite,
petroleum, and peat. Among materials for construction are granite,
treestone, slate, limestone and marble, gypsum, clays and sands,
besides graphite, salt, infusorial earth, fireclay, etc. Many of these
substances, especially the metallic ores, occur only in small amounts.
The geological formations represented in the province include all
the divisions of the geological scale from the earliest Archean
to the Trias; those formations, such as the Laurentian, Huronian,
and Cambrian, which elsewhere usually produce metallic ores, and
the Carboniferous formation yielding coal and related products,
occupy the largest areas.

Referring to gold, Dr. Bailey says that its existence in profitable
quantities remains to be proved, and that this can only be done by
a prolonged and systematic prospecting of the areas in which it is
likely, if anywhere, to be found. The question of the occurrence
of coal is to be made the subject of a special report. There is no
dearth of materials used in construction and of deposits of gypsum,
limestone, clay, sand, and probably bog manganese. ‘This is doubt-
less a valuable report, especially from the economic point of view ;
but our space does not admit of more than this bare outline of its
contents. It is accompanied by a map of the province on a scale
of 10 miles to 1 inch.

Mr. E. D. Ingall, assisted by Messrs. Denis and McLeish, con-
tributes his annual report (S) on mineral statistics and mines,
thus adding to the steadily increasing classified system of mining
records. Noting some features of progress of mineral development
in the country as a whole, Mr. Ingall says the grand total of 1897,
as compared with 1896, shows an increase of nearly 27 per cent.,
and as compared with 1895 of over 30 per cent. ‘lhis is almost
altogether due to the metallic minerals, and amongst these gold,
silver, copper, and lead are those showing the most marked advauce,

182 Reviews—Canadian Paleontology.

due chiefly to the continued expansion of the mining industries of
British Columbia, that province dividing the honours with the
Yukon District in the matter of gold.

With this voluminous report the volume concludes, and we have
only now to congratulate Dr. Dawson and his able staff on the
results of their labours as set forth with so much completeness and
wealth of detail. Artuur H. Foorp.

IJ.—Contriputions ro Canaprtan Panmontonocy. Vol. 1V, Part 1.
A Revision of the Genera and Species of Canadian Paleozoic
Corals. The Madreporaria Perforata and the Aleyonaria.
(Geological Survey of Canada.) By Lawrence M. Lamps, F.G.8.
Pages 1-96, plates i-v. (Ottawa, 1899.)

REVISION of the Paleozoic Corals has long been a desideratum.
Since the great works of Milne-Edwards and Haime, no
comprehensive treatise has been produced, though the labours of
De Fromentel, LindstrOm, Duncan, Hinde, Koch, and others in
Europe, and Hall, Billings, and Rominger in America, and
Nicholson on both sides of the Atlantic, have greatly extended our
knowledge of many groups. It need scarcely now be maintained
that to Nicholson science is deeply indebted for the initiation of
methods of study in this complicated group of organisms whereby
a fuller and more exact comprehension of their structure has been
acquired than was possible to the earlier workers in this field of
study. His work on the Paleozoic Tabulate Corals laid the
foundation upon which all subsequent investigators have built, and
the fact of his having made use of much American material gives
a peculiar value to his writings for those who have to deal with
the Paleeozoic Corals of that continent.

In the work before us the genera and species of the Canadian
Paleozoic Corals are redescribed, and “it is attempted to show
that some forms hitherto considered of little value as regards the
determination of the age of the deposits in which they occur, on
account of their wide range in geological time, are capable of
indicating definite horizons through the possession of distinctive
structural peculiarities.” Thus, as Rominger has observed (“ Fossil
Corals of Michigan,” 1876), Cambro- Silurian (Ordovician) and
Silurian species of Favosites have spiniform septa, while those of
the Devonian have squamule. Again, it is found that the forms
of Halysites of different geological horizons have distinctive
characteristics which are apparently constant. A table (at p. 74)
shows the distribution in time (from the Niagara to the Trenton),
with the physical characters—shape of corallites, size of their tubes,
septation, tabula, etc.—of Halysites catenularia and six varieties,
illustrating this point.

With respect to distribution in time Favosites Gothlandica has
avery wide one in Canada. It is recorded as occurring at many
localities in the Niagara, Guelph, and Lower Helderberg formations,
in divisions 2, 8, and 4 of the Anticosti Group, and in rocks of
supposed Hudson River age at Stony Mountain, Manitoba. Its

Reviews—Canadian Paleontology. 183

regional distribution is also very considerable: it extends from the
shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Saskatchewan River.
Another species, widely distributed in time and space, is Lyellia
afinis, occurring in the “Hudson River and Niagara formations,
in the four divisions of the Anticosti Group, and in the Lower
Helderberg Group,” and ranging from the Island of Anticosti to
the Saskatchewan River.

The detailed descriptions of the species and their mutual relations,
distribution, and synonymy are all worked out by the author with
great care, and he seems to have sounded his authorities at all points.

Though in respect to the classification of the Paleozoic corals
we are, and perhaps shall ever be, on very debatable ground, yet
it may not be amiss to take a survey of our present position in the
light of the more recent attempts made in this direction. Haeckel
(‘“‘Systematische Phylogenie der Wirbellosen Thiere’’) includes in
his class Seyphopolypi the fossil Cnidarians, such as the Favositide,
Cheetetidz, Auloporidse, Halysitide, etc., which built the coral reefs
of the Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous seas, and are generally
assigned to the Tabulata. Nicholson, discarding the latter group
as originally constituted, as containing an incongruous assemblage
of forms, places the Favositide, Syringoporids, and Thecide in the
Madreporaria Perforata, while the Helioporide, Heliolitide, Haly-
sitidee, Cheetetides, and Auloporide are referred to the Aleyonaria
(“ Manual of Paleontology,’ Nicholson & Lydekker, vol. i).
Von Zittel, in his “ Grundziige der Paleontologie,” while affirming
that the greater number of the typical Tabulata (Favositide,
Syringoporidz, Halysitide) show close relationship to the Hexa-
corallia, concludes that any definite decision as to their systematic
position seems to be unattainable. On this ground, though retaining
them as a suborder of the Madreporaria, he relegates them as an
appendix to the Hexacorallia, and places Heliolites in the Octocorallia
(Aleyonaria), its generally accepted position.

The uncertainty regarding the zoological status of the various
groups enumerated above (excepting perhaps the Heliolitidee) is not
likely to be dispelled, unless evidence is forthcoming in the shape
of a living reef-building coral whose affinities with the fossil reef-
builders of the favositoid and other kindred types will satisfy the
most searching investigation. Even the remarkable discovery by
Mr. J. J. Quelch' of a living coral (Moseleya) of Cyathophylloid
affinities does not seem to have carried with it evidence of such
a convincing character as to shake the position of the Rugosa
(or Tetracorallia) as a distinct group.

Much light is thrown upon the structure and affinities of the
Heliolitide in a recent and valuable contribution to the subject by
Professor Lindstrém (Kong. Svenska Vetenskaps-Akad. Handl.,
Bd. xxxii, No. 1). It is noticeable that the genus Lyellia, M.-E. &
H., is rejected by Lindstrom on account of its similarity to
Propora, M.-E. & H.

1 Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. xiii (1884), p. 293; ‘‘ Challenger ’’ Reports, vol. xvi
(1886), p. 110 ; see also Nicholson, in ‘* Manual of Palwontology,’’ Nicholson &
Lydekker, vol. i (1889), p. 274.

184 Reports and Proccedings—Greological Society of London.

In the present work the author’s suppression of certain species
is, we trust, done with sufficient justification. It is a proceeding
which should be carried out with the utmost caution, because,
however inconvenient a multitude of species may be to the

systematist, their presence is a lesser evil than that which may —

result from the loss of information respecting the mutations which
groups of individuals undergo, and which are best recorded and
stereotyped under a specific or varietal name. ‘The disadvantage
of burying such records, so to speak, is of course very much lessened
when there is abundance of material at the disposal of the
paleontologist, in which case transition forms may be found to
bridge over the gaps and to unite what had before been mistaken
for independent forms. The following genera are included in this
Revision :—

Favosites. Syringolites. Heliolites.
Alveolites. Romingeria. Plasmopora.
Ceenites. Fletcheria. Lyellia.
Cladopora. Nyctopora. Lyopora.
Michelinia. Syringopora. Protarea.
Striatopora. Cannapora. Stylarea.
Trachypora. Halysites. Tetradium.
Calapeecia.

The illustrations are few, and though excellent, considering the
mode of reproduction adopted, are more suitable for the text than
for plates. The details, doubtless most faithfully rendered in the
original drawings, are in some instances reproduced on too small
a scale to give satisfactory results. Moreover, we miss represen-
tations of the entire corallum, which is inserted only in one instance
(pl. v, fig. 4, 4 nat. size). Apertures of corallites, sketched in
outline, with the tubular parts from which they proceed omitted,
have a strange and unnatural appearance (plates i and iii).

We cannot commend the practice adopted by the author of
employing two terms of measurement—one for the corallum, in
inches ; the other for the individual corallites, in millimetres.

This work will be of especial value to students of the Paleozoic
corals of North America, while other paleontologists may learn
much that is interesting respecting variations in structure, both
external and internal, so minutely and carefully recorded by
Mr. Lambe from the rich material at his command.

AxtHur H. Foorp.

Ee Oia) AND 232 @ Gir She

———

GronogicaL Soorrry or Lonpon.

February 16th, 1900.—W. Whitaker, B.A., F.R.S., President, in
the Chair.
AnnuaL GeEneraL Meerina.
_ The Secretary read the reports of the Council and of the Library
and Museum Committee for the year 1899. In the former the
Council referred to the continued increase in the number of Fellows
and the steadily maintained financial prosperity of the Society.

Reports and Proceedings— Geological Society of London. 185

During 1899 the number of Fellows elected was 52 (exactly the
same number as in 1898): of these 45 qualified before the end of
the year, making, with 11 previously elected Fellows, a_ total
accession of 56 in the course of the twelve months under review.
During the same period, the losses by death, resignation, and
removal amounted to 51, the actual increase in the number of
Fellows being therefore 5.

The total number of Fellows, Foreign Members, and Foreign
Correspondents, which on December 8lst, 1898, was 1,336, stood
at 1,344 by the end of 1899.

The balance-sheet for the year 1899 showed receipts to the
amount of £3,991 14s. 4d. (including a balance of £1,076 Os. 8d.
brought forward from the previous year), and an expenditure of
£3,029 14s. 6d. (omitting the sum of £541 6s. Od. invested in India
3 per cent. Stock). Among the items of non-recurring expenditure
were £200 contributed by the Society, at the request of H.M. Office
of Works, towards the cost of the improved lavatory accommodation
at the Society’s apartments; and £73 16s. dd. expended in the
publication of vol. iii of Hutton’s “Theory of the Harth.’” The
balance remaining available for the current year is £420 lds. 10d.

The Council announced that it was proposed to complete the
extension of the electric lighting to the whole of the Society’s
apartments at an estimated cost of £250, and the Fellows were
requested to sanction this expenditure.

The bequest made by Sir Joseph Prestwich of the sum of £500
had now become payable to the Society, owing to the lamented
death of Lady Prestwich. An extract from Sir Joseph’s will was
read, citing the purposes to which this sum is applicable, but it was
pointed out that, in common with other legacies, that to the Society
will have to be to some extent abated and moreover will have to
bear its own legacy duty.

Reference was made to the issue of the third volume of Hutton’s
“Theory of the Earth,” and gratitude was expressed for the minute
and reverent care with which the work had been edited and
annotated by Sir Archibald Geikie.

The completion of vol. lv and the commencement of vol. lvi of
the Society’s Quarterly Journal was mentioned, and it was stated
that the Council had decided to discontinue, for the present, the
issue of index-slips.

In conclusion, the awards of the various Medals and proceeds of
donation funds in the gift of the Council were announced.

The report of the Library and Museum Committee enumerated
the increasingly extensive additions made to the Society’s Library,
and announced the completion by Mr. C. Davies Sherborn of the
work of labelling and registering the type, and other important
Specimens in the Museum.

After the reports had been read, the President invited those to
speak who wished to make any comment on the management of the
Society. Dr. G. J. Hinde said that owing to the action of the
Council in rejecting a motion which he had made to it, ‘that an

186 Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London.

invitation be extended to Miss Hlles to be present at the Annual
General Meeting to receive the award which has been made to her
by the Council,” he had, as a protest, resigned his position on the
Council and withdrawn his nomination to the new Council, then
being elected. He contended that the giving of the Medals and
Awards was not an official part of the business of the Annual
Meeting, and that in refusing to invite a recipient of an honour
to be present to receive it, solely on the ground of sex, the Council
had acted against the custom of the Society.

The reports having been adopted, the President handed the
Wollaston Medal, awarded to Professor G. K. Gilbert, F.M.G.S.,
of Washington, to Mr. Henry White, Secretary of the American
Embassy, for transmission to the recipient, addressing him as
follows :—Mr. White,—

For many years Professor Gilbert has contributed to several American publications
papers of a most varied kind, some dealing with important subjects appertaining to
the Geology of the United States and some with matters of still wider interest.

The same may be said of his series of reports, etc., to the Geological Survey of
the United States, beginning with the well-known ‘‘ Geology of the Henry
Mountains,”’ in which the volcanic structure known as a laccolite was first described,
and a masterly summary of the principles of erosion was given. ‘The Essay on the
Topographical Features of Lake-shores, descriptive of the work of waves, of streams,
and of ice, of the formation of deltas, of cliffs, and of terraces, naturally led up to
the great monograph on Lake Bonneville, the tracing out of a former feature—
whereof the present Great Salt Lake is the diminished representative, written in such
a way as to make one almost feel that the old lake is there still.

Nor has Professor Gilbert neglected those more practical matters that press
themselves on officers of a Geological Survey, for he has written also on the Under-
ground Water of the Arkansas Valley; but the lake fever keeps with him, and has
led him to take up the question of recent earth-movements in the region of the
Great Lakes, on which we had an elaborate essay in 1898, leading to the conclusion
that change is still going on, and pointing out the results that will occur if it
continues.

We feel that Professor Gilbert is an honour to the Survey of which he has long
been an officer, and a worthy successor of his countrymen, James Hall an
J. D. Dana, as our Wollaston Medallist, for his work is not only American, but for
the world at large.

Mr. White replied in the following words :—Mr. President,—

It has given me great pleasure, Sir, to attend this interesting meeting to-day, and

to receive on behalf of my fellow-countryman, Professor Gilbert, the Wollaston
Medal which has been awarded to him by the Council of this Society for important
researches concerning the mineral structure of the earth—an honour which, as you
have just pointed out, has hitherto been conferred upon two other Americans only,
the late James Hall and the late J. D. Dana.

Particularly gratifying has it been to me, as I am sure it will be to all who know
Professor Gilbert, to hear, from the statement which you have just read, how highly
his work is appreciated by the Geological Society ot London. He deeply regrets
that it should not have been possible for him, owing to engagements of a pressing
nature at home, to come here to-day and to receive this Medal himself, but I shall
not fail to inform him of the very kind manner in which its presentation has been
made, and of the applause which has greeted each mention of his name at this
meeting.

I beg to thank the Council of this Society most sincerely, on Professor Gilbert’s
behalf, for the honour which has been conferred upon him, an honour which he
highly appreciates, as does the United States Geological Survey, of whose staff
he has been a distinguished member since its foundation in 1878.

Perhaps I may be permitted, as one who has been closely connected for many years
past with the diplomatic relations between the United States and Great Britain, to

Reports and Proceedings— Geological Society of London. 187

add that I always welcome with especial pleasure occasions of this kind, on which
marks of appreciation are conferred by scientific Societies of one country upon
eminent men of the other, as they not only tend to draw more closely together the
people of Great Britain and America, but they demonstrate to the rest of the world
that the two nations are working together for the furtherance of science, and
consequently for the advancement of civilization.

The President then handed the Murchison Medal, awarded to
Baron Adolf Erik Nordenskiéld, of Stockholm, to His Excellency,
Count Carl Lewenhaupt, Minister for Sweden and Norway, for
transmission to the recipient, addressing him as follows :—Your
Excellency,—

Baron Nordenskiéld has given much of his time to the arduous work of Arctic
exploration, having visited Spitsbergen twice, the first time in 1858, with Torell.
Again, in 1868-he organized and started another Arctic expedition, and in 1872
he discovered the great masses of native iron of Ovifak, originally described to our
Society as meteorites, and also brought home a large collection of tossil plants, from
which we learnt much as to the long-past climatic conditions of the Arctic regions.

In 1875 he went up the Yenisei trom the Kara Sea; three years later he first
doubled the northernmost point of the Old World, and reached Japan in the latter
part of 1879, making what is known as the North-East Passage.

In 1883 he undertook a second voyage into the interior of Greenland, adding
largely thereby to our knowledge of its glacial conditions.

Among the records of these expeditions, his book entitled ‘‘'The Voyage of the

‘ega,’’? which has been translated into English, and from which we derive much
information as to inland ice, glaciers, and icebergs, and his work on ‘‘ The Second
Swedish Expedition to Greenland,”’ are notable.

We have also to thank him for giving us an English version of some of his work,
chiefly in the pages of the GzoLocicaL MaGaAzing, in vol. ix of which is a set of papers
on the Expedition to Greenland in 1870, while in vol. ii of decade 11 we find the
Lecture on the Former Climate of the Polar Regions, and in vol. iii a set of papers
on the Geology of part of Spitsbergen and a discourse on the distant Transport of
Volcanic Dust.

Both as an observer and as an organizer of expeditions of discovery has Baron
Nordenskiéld earned our gratitude, of which this Murchison Medal is a sign.

His Excellency replied in the following words : —Mr. President,—

On behalf of Baron Nordenskiéld, I beg to express his deep gratitude for the
great distinction conferred upon him by the Council of the Geological Society.
i shall not fail to transmit the Medal at once, but I may perhaps be allowed to
mention that 1 have been asked to present the accompanying cheque as a donation
from Baron Nordenskiéld to the British Antarctic Fund. 1t is a great pleasure for
Baron Nordenskidld to have this opportunity of proving his good wishes for the
success of this expedition.

The President then presented the Lyell Medal to Mr. John
Edward Marr, F.R.S., addressing him as follows :—Mr. Marr,—

From 1876 onwards you have contributed fourteen papers to our Journal, most of
them on the Geology of the Lake District and its borders, but two being on Welsh
and two on European geology. Of these one may specially note those on the
pre- Devonian Rocks of Bohemia, on the Stockdale Shales (done in conjunction with
our lamented friend Nicholson), on the Shap Granite and its Associated Rocks (done
with Mr, Harker), and on Limestone-knolls.

These papers that you have given us are enough to prove your power as an
observer and a reasoner both in the field and at home; but you have also contributed
much to the Gronocicat Macazine, often in association with other workers, and
I may remark that the frequent coupling of your name with other names shows how
your aid is valued and how well you can work with others. Nor is this all; other
journals have been enriched by your pen, and you have added the following books to
the literature of Geology: ‘‘The Classification of the Cambrian and Silurian
Rocks,” ‘‘ The Principles of Stratigraphical Geology,’’ and ‘‘ The Scientific Study
of Scenery.’

188 Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London.

Undoubtedly your long continuous service on the Council (from 1885 to 1899) has
alone hindered us trom thus acknowledging the value of your work until now. f

The award of the Lyell Medal may bring an additional pleasure to you in that it
has been given to Nicholson, with whom you have so often worked, and to Hughes,
whom you have so greatly assisted in the teaching of geology at Cambridge.

We are proud to add your name. to the list of Lyell Medallists.

Mr. Marr, in reply, said :—Mr. President, —

In thanking the Council for the very gratifying and unexpected honour which they
have conferred upon me, I feel that they must have been influenced in their choice
by personal considerations, as I have been so long among them. ‘he Founder of
the Medal stated that the recipient must have ‘‘ deserved well of the science,’’ which
in the present case could only be so in that L have tried to do my best; I will
endeavour, however, by working in the future, to ‘‘ justify the honour.’’

You have mentioned, Sir, original work and teaching as qualifications. As
regards original work, I have been singularly fortunate in the co-operation of the
late Professor Nicholson, and in that of Mr. Harker and Mr. Garwood. As
a teacher, 1 am glad to see two of my old pupils receiving awards on this occasion,
as it shows how happy I am in the nature of my classes. But I feel that the
teacher’s influence must count for something, and I know it by experience, as a pupil
of the Woodwardian Professor. I am glad to take the present occasion to bear
testimony to Protessor Hughes’s guidance of his pupils’ work—a guidance by no
means exercised solely in the lecture-room.

As one who was brought up in Lyellism, and am still being brought up in it, I am
unaffectedly glad that the Lyeil Medal has beenawarded tome. 1 do not use the term
Lyellism in a narrow sense, as a crystallized set of tenets, which will ever retain the
form in which they were left at the Founder’s death. 1 regard it rather as
possessing vitality, and as ever growing and spreading its seed, like a goodly tree.

In conclusion, while thanking you, Sir, for the kind words which you haye used in
presenting the Medal, I teg to call your attention to the fact that it is 25 years since
you have shown me your first kindness, and that kindness has continued ever since.
I am especially glad to receive the Medal from your hands.

In presenting the halance of the proceeds of the Wollaston Donation
Fund to Mr. George Thurland Prior, M.A., of the Natural History
Museum, the President addressed him as follows :—Mr. Prior,—

In the course of the last thirteen years you have contributed a number of papers
to the Mineralogical Society, either alone or in conjunction with other observers, in
which you have described minerals from various parts of the world. In the case,
indeed, of one of the late numbers of the Mineralogical Magazine, there would be
little left were the five papers wholly or partly written by you taken out. In three
cases you have done us the service of showing that certain minerals had been
christened more than once. You have, moreover, strayed from the path of pure
Mineralogy into the ways of Petrology, and have always been ready to let geologists
have the advantage of that valuable help which your position in the Natural History
Museum enables you to give them.

We are glad to find that our great National Museum continues to keep to the front
in Mineralugy, and that we may look forward to the continuance of able observers
among its officials. ‘The Wollaston Fund is most fittingly awarded to this end.

Mr. Prior replied in the following words :—Mr. President,—

I wish to express my heartfelt thanks to the Council for the honour which they
have done me in conferring this award. That it should be connected with the name
of Wollaston is to me an additional pleasure, since my work has been mainly of
a chemical and mineralogical character.

Mineralogists are perhaps rather apt to pay too little attention to the modes
of occurrence and mutual associations of the minerals that they study. To try
in future to make my mineralogy more geological in its character, I feel, will be the
best way for me to show my high appreciation of this generous recognition trom the
Council and of the kind words with which you, Sir, have accompanied it.

The President then handed the balance of the proceeds of the
Murchison Geological Fund, awarded to Mr. A. Vaughan Jennings,

Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London. 189

F.L.S., to Professor J. W. Judd, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., for transmission
to the recipient, addressing him as follows :—Professor Judd,—

Mr. Vaughan Jennings has done much work in Physical Geology and in Petrology,
especially in the papers which he has given us on the country around Davos in
Switzerland, and he has done this despite long and serious illness. Driven abroad by
that illness, he has used the opportunity thus afforded to investigate the geological
structure of the district in which he has had to live and to unravel the geological
history of the great valley of the Engadin.

We hope that this award may not only show him that his work, done under such
disadvantage, is appreciated by us, but may also cheer him in time of trouble and
encourage him to continue his labours.

Professor Judd, in reply, said :—-Mr. President, —

I wish to express my great regret that the state of Mr. Vaughan Jennings’s health
and the illness of a near relative prevent him from being present to receive the award
in person, and theretore beg to read the following words of acknowledgment of the
honour done to him :—

«* In endeavouring to express my thanks to the Council of the Geological Society
for the honour which they have conferred upon me, I feel that my remarks must be
of an apologetic character. Though much of my time for many years has been
devoted to geological matters, my contributions to original research in that science
have been far less than I wished and hoped.

“‘ The reason—or, perhaps, I should say, the excuse—for this, lies in an
unfortunate interest in the sister sciences of Zoology and Botany, and in the fact that
most of my time has been devoted to teaching. While most of the Fellows of this
Society doubtless recognize, in theory, the value of an equal study of the three
branches of Natural History, it must be difficult for many to realize the difficulty of
putting the theory into practice, and the limitation which such an attempt must
impose on one’s efforts to do special work in any particular branch.

““The consciousness that 1 have been led astray into the mazes of Invertebrate
Anatomy and the devious paths of Cryptogamic Botany, makes me feel still more
grateful that geologists have recognized some slight value in my contributions to our
knowledge of the earth.

‘« My first attempt in Alpine geology is almost certainly my last ; but the Council
may rest assured that their kind recognition of my efforts will encourage me to work,
as long as I am able, for the advancement of our science in whatever way is possible.
That 1 have been capable of accomplishing anything in this direction is chiefly due to
my studentship at the Royal College of Science, and to the kindly help of those
connected with that institution.

“* Perhaps I may be allowed to express also my great regret that, by accident (as
I was travelling during the final revision), no acknowledgment was made in my last
paper of the kind and constant assistance vouchsafed to me by Professor Bonney
during the progress of the work.’’

In handing the balance of the proceeds of the Lyell Geological
Fund, awarded to Miss Gertrude L. Elles, of Newnham College, to
Professor T. McKenny Hughes, F.R.S., for transmission to the
recipient, the President addressed him in the following words :—
Professor Hughes,—

After some stratigraphical work in the Lake District and in North Wales, done
with Miss EK. M. R. Wood, Miss Elles gave special attention to the Graptolites, and
we have had from her a paper on the subgenera Petalograptus and Cephalograptus,
adding much to our knowledge of the characters and range ot those fossils, followed
by the still more important paper on the Graptolite fauna of the Skiddaw Slates, in
which, after a mass of descriptive details, the phylogeny of the group is treated of at
some length.

This has been followed by a paper, as yet unpublished, in which her knowledge of
the Graptolites is applied to the zonal classification of the Wenlock Shales of the
Welsh Borderland. We hope that this award from the Lyell Geological Fund will
show her that her work is valued and will encourage her to continue it.

190 Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London.

Professor Hughes replied as follows :—Mr. President,—

I am glad to have been asked to receive the award from the Lyell Fund for
transmission to Miss Elles, who is debarred by circumstances over which she had no
control from standing here to receive for herself this mark of recognition which the
Council of the Society have bestowed upon her.

The research by which she has won for herself a prominent place among geologists
might seem of limited scope to all but a few who know the difficulty and the
importance of the group of organisms to which she has chiefly devoted her attention.

I am much pleased, therefore, to be here to-day to testify that Miss Elles, who is
Assistant Demonstrator in my Department at Cambridge, has shown herself to be
a clear-sighted stratigraphist and an astute palzeontolocist over a much wider field
than might appear from the mention of the work for which this award has been
made, and that she is, besides, accomplished in other and altogether different
branches of culture.

Miss Elles has asked me to communicate her thanks in the following terms :—

‘* Please convey to the Council of the Geological Society my warmest thanks for
the great honour which they have so unexpectedly conferred in awarding to me the
Lyell Fund for this year.

“‘T have been able to do so little as yet, that I am bound to regard it as an
incentive to future work, rather than as a reward for anything accomplished. I can
only add, that I will strive my very utmost to make the work “which T may do in the
future worthy of the confidence which such an award seems to imply.”’

The President then handed to Mr. George C. Crick, A.R.S.M.,
of the Natural History Museum, a moiety of the proceeds of the
Barlow-Jameson Fund, addressing him as follows :—Mr. Crick,—

In the course of the last ten years you have made yourself an authority on Fossil
‘Cephalopoda, and have contributed several papers on various branches of this subject
to the GrotocicaL Macazrne and other journals, among which one may note, as of
high general interest, your long and well illustrated essay on the muscular attachment
of the animal to the shell, published in the Transactions of the Linnean Society in
1898: a subject which had escaped the attention of paleontologists until you drew
attention to it.

Your official work at the Natural History Museum has included the making of the
List of Types and Figured Specimens of Fossil Cephalopoda and the preparation of
vol. iii (im conjunction with Dr. A. H. Foord) of the Catalogue of Fossil
Cephalopoda in that Museum, and you have kept up the high character of that
public establishment for readiness to impart information to the inquiring geologist.

Mr. Crick replied in the following words :—Mr. President,—

I beg to express my sincere thanks to the Council of the Geological Society for the
great and unexpected honour that they have conferred upon me; ‘and to you, Sir, for
the kind words with which you have accompanied the award. Considering the many
privileges that pertain to my official connection with the British Museum, the amount
of work which has been done by me is comparatively so small that I regard the
award as an encouragement to continue my work, rather than as a recognition of that
already accomplished.

In presenting to Professor Theodore Thomas Groom, M.A., D.Sce.,
the other moiety of the proceeds of the Barlow-Jameson Fund, the
President addressed him as follows :—Professor Groom,—

While at Cambridge you gave us two papers on paleontological and petrological
subjects, and since then we have had from you, together with Mr. Lake, a paper on
the Llandovery Rocks of Corwen, in which special reference is made to the structure
of the district. Carrying out this line of research, you have contributed two
elaborate papers on the Geological Structure of the Malverns, one of which is but
lately published ; and in these you have shown your knowledge of some of the latest
methods of stratigraphical research, and your power of applying them to the
elucidation of important problems in a somewhat difficult district. T trust that this
award may be an encouragement to you to continue your good work.

Reports and Proceedings— Geological Society of London. 191

Professor Groom replied in the following words :— Mr. President,—

The scientific investigator has many and varied sources of pleasure: among the
greatest of these must be reckoned the sympathies of his fellow-workers, and the
appreciation of his efforts by those best qualified to judge. It is therefore with
peculiar satisfaction that I understand from your kind words, and from the honour
which the Council of the Geological Society have conferred upon me, that my work
has met with approval.

The President then proceeded to read his Anniversary Address, in
which he first gave obituary notices of several Foreign Members,
Foreign Correspondents, and Fellows deceased since the last annual
meeting, including Professor R. W. Bunsen (elected F.M. in 1856),
Professor H. B. Geinitz (F.M. in 1857), Dr. Franz Ritter von
Hauer (F.M. in 1871), Charles Brongniart (F.C. in 1888), Professor
Louis Lartet (F.C. in 1882), Sir J. W. Dawson (elected a Fellow in
1854), G. Dowker (el. 1864), Sir William Flower (el. 1866), Sir
Douglas Galton (el. 1848), T. M. Hall (el. 1865), Dr. H. Hicks
(el. 1871), Sir Frederick McCoy (el. 1852), J. B. Redman (el. 1882),
and John Ruskin (el. 1840). He also gave obituary notices of Major
Lambart Brickenden, formerly for many years a Fellow of the
Society, and of Lady Prestwich.

He then referred to the great advance in Geological Science in
his own time, an advance that consisted largely of the arising of
new lines of work and not merely of progress in old ones; thus
Petrology was a new branch of the science. Paleontology had
heen affected by the growth of the Theory of Evolution. In
Physical Geology such subjects as metamorphism, mountain-
structure, and erosion had entered into new phases. In Strati-
graphy the geological series had been extended downward below
the Cambrian, and at the other end of the scale our knowledge
of the Drift had greatly developed, largely owing probably to
geological discoveries connected with the Antiquity of Man.

He then treated of the advance in our knowledge of Underground
Geology, especially in the South-East of England, a subject in which
comparatively little was known 45 years ago; and he described in
some detail the underground extension and thickness of various
formations, particularly of those below the Chalk, under the heads
Upper Greensand, Gault, Lower Greensand, Wealden and Purbeck,
Jurassic, Lias and Trias, and Older Rocks ; referring to the amount
of knowledge which we possess in the London Basin, and its
southern border in the Wealden district, as compared with the
Hampshire Basin.

He concluded that, as in the past such great progress had been
made, so in the future would progress continue, with the development
of new ideas and fresh methods of work, so that our younger
geologists would have plenty of work before them.

The ballot for the Council and Officers was taken, and the following were declared
duly elected for the ensuing year: —Cowncil: W.T. Blanford, LL.D., F.R.S. ; Professor
T. G. Bonney, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.; Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.S. ; E. J. Garwood, Esq., M.A. ; Alfred Harker, Esq., M.A.; F. W. Harmer,
Esq. ; R. S. Herries, Esq., M.A.; Rev. Edwin Hill, M.A.; William Hill, Esq. ;
Professor J. W. Judd, ©.B., LL.D., F.R.S.; Lieut.-General C. A. McMahon,
F.R.S.; H. W. Monckton, Esq., F.L.S.; E.T. Newton, Esq., F.R.S. ; G. T.

192 Correspondence—Dr. UM. Blanckenhorn.

Prior, Esq., M.A.; F. W. Rudler, Esq. ; Professor H. G. Seeley, F.R.S., ee =
Professor W. J. Sollas, M.A., D. Se., LL.D., BOR S25) dele Eke Teall, Esq., M.A.,
F.R.S.; Professor W. W. Watts, M. A. W. Whitaker, Esq., B.A., R. Sie
Rey. H. H. Winwood, M.A.; A. S. Wonca! Ksq., F.LS.; and H. B.
Woodward, Esq., F.R.S.

Officers :—President: J. J. H. Teall, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. Vice- Presidents :
Professor J. W. Judd, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S.; H. W. Monckton, Esq., F.L.S. ;
Professor H. G. Seeley, F.R.S., F.L.S.; and Professor W. J. Sollas, M.A., D.Sce.,
LL.D., F.R.S. Secretaries: R. S. Herries, Esq., M.A., and Professor W. W.
Watts, M.A. Foreign Secretary : Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.L.S. Treasurer: W.T. Blantord, LL.D., F.R.S.

ClOi1 IAS) ON AD sas Cash

THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF EGYPT.

Sir,—In No. 427 of the Guot. Mac., January, 1900, p. 46,
Mr. H. J. L. Beadnell, in a letter entitled “The Geological Survey
of Egypt,” refers to an abstract report (in Zeitschrift fiir praktische
Geologie, Berlin, November, 1899) of my lecture, “‘ Neues zur
Geologie und Paliontologie Aegyptens”’ (Allgemeine Versammlung
d. Deutsch. geol. Ges., 1899, in Miinchen).

From this abstract report he concludes that I claim to have myself
‘“‘discovered the existence of rocks of Cenomanian age in Baharia
Oasis,” which, in fact, I never visited. JI never did claim such
a thing in any way, as shown by the manuscript of my lecture,
not yet printed, and I cannot possibly be made responsible for an
abstract report, which, as everyone sees from its title and its
contents, is not written by me but by Mr. Dieseldorff, the reporter
of the Zeitschrift fiir praktische Geologie. In this paper the names
of the geologists mentioned in my lecture have been left out in
order to shorten it, and there are other mistakes besides which J am
sorry I could not correct, because a proof was not sent to me for
correction. The authentic words of my lecture will be published soon.

I desire to mention the following facts :—Although I did not my-
self find the fossils in the Cretaceous formation of the Baharia Oasis,
yet I was the first to examine and recognize them as Cenomanian,
and thus to prove the Cenomanian age of Baharia. Mr. Beadnell
himself, who did not at all know the meaning of his fine fossils,
was surprised by my discovery. This he will certainly not deny.

But as Mr. Beadnell justly sets a great value upon being named
as discoverer of the fossils, I must claim the same right for myself
with respect to the publication of notes in this Magazine on the
Paleontology of Egypt. In the January number there is an essay,
“On a New Species of Chelonian (Podocnemts egyptiaca) from
the Lower Miocene of Egypt,” by C. W. Andrews, who describes:
some fossils collected by me at Moghara without anywhere
mentioning my name.

I wish to act in the interests of my former colleagues in Egypt
also by asking the paleontologists of the British Museum to
mention in each instance the name of the discoverers of the fossils
referred to. M. BLanckENHORN.

BERLIN.

[ Unavoidably delayed in publication.—Hprr. Grou. Mace. |

GEOL. MAa. 1900.

J. GREEN PHOTO., F.A.B. DEL.

DECADE IV.

EDRIOASTER BUCHIANUS.

Vot. VII. PL. VIII.

SWAN ELECTRIC ENGRAVING CO.

‘

ERRATUM.

Page 147 (April Number), line 14 from bottom: for ‘‘ on both the north and south
banks,’’ read ‘‘ in cliffs both north and south.”’

Ae RR IT me

|
|

—-

rh

GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE.

NEW SERIES. DECADE IV." VOED Vite

No. V.— MAY, 1900.

ORIGINAL ARTICIUES.

—__@__ >"

I.—Srupies in Eprroasrerorpna. II. Eprioastrr Bucuiayvs
Forses sp.

By F. A. Baruer, M.A., F.G.S.
(PLATES VIII, IX, ann X.)

‘id 1848, under the name Agelacrinites Buchianus, Edward Forbes
introduced to science “one of the most remarkable Cystideans
as yet discovered in British strata.” His description and figures,
published in his memoir “On the Cystidez: of the Silurian rocks
of the British Islands” (Mem. Geol. Surv. Gt, Brit., II, pt. ii; see
pp. 519-5238, and pl. xxiii), have not proved fully intelligible to
Subsequent workers, even to those who have had ‘the fossil before
them. Unfortunately J. W. Salter, in his « Appendix. On the Fossils
of North Wales,” to “The Geology of North Wales ” by A. C. Ramsay
(Mem. Geol. Surv. Gt. Brit., III, 1st ed., 1866), criticised a little, but
illuminated less; while the same Appendix in the second edition,
1881, though “greatly enlarged and partly rearranged by Robert
Etheridge, F.R.S.,” merely introduced verbal alterations into Salter’s
account.

Allusions to this fossil by writers who have not themselves
examined it serve chiefly to show the need that exists for a fresh
description. Through the kindness of the Director-General of the
Geological Survey and of Mr. E. T. Newton, to whom my sincere
thanks are here offered, the original specimens were placed at
my disposal for several months. About two years ago the first
draft of this paper and some of the illustrations were sent to
Dr. Otto Jaekel in Berlin, and have been utilised on pp. 44-46
of his splendid volume « Stammesgeschichte der Pelmatozoen.
I. Thecoidea und Cystoidea ” (1899). Thanks to Mr. J. F. Whiteaves

and the Director of the Canadian Geological Survey, I subsequently
| learned the true structure of Hdrioaster Bigsbyi, which was unknown
to Dr. Jaekel when he wrote the pages referred to. Hence some
|interpretations in the present account differ from those given
‘by Dr. Jaekel. They agree, however, with the statements in
‘chapter xii—The Edrioasteroidea—of “A Treatise on Zoology,
Part III, The Kchinoderma,” edited by Professor E. Ray Lankester

DECADE IV.—VOL. VII.—NO. V. 13

194 F. A. Bather—Studies in Edrioasteroidea—II.

(London, 1900). Some of the points will be better understood
after publication of Study III, which will deal with Z. Bigsbyi.

The terms used and the arrangement followed in the present
account are the same as those in Study I. Dinocystis Barroisi.'

Horizon AND LOCALITY.

The specimens preserved under this name in the Museum of
Practical Geology, V +3, were obtained during the summer of 1847
from the Caradoc beds, two miles west of Ysputty Evan; that is to
say, about two miles south of Pentre Voelas, and therefore in
Denbighshire and not in Caernarvonshire as stated by J. W. Salter
(op. cit., 1866, p. 262) and by R. Etheridge, sen. (op. cit., 1881,
pp. 895 and 407). Mr. Htheridge informs me that the specimens
were not found in situ, but were collected by Mr. Gibbs from a wall
of loose stones, all of the same material. There seems, however,
no reason to doubt that they came from the Caradoc beds of some
quarry in the immediate vicinity, for they have the well-known
characters of those beds. ‘The matrix is an indurated sandstone,
hardly to be described as “schistose” in any modern sense of the
word. It contains remains of crinoid stems, brachiopods, and
corals; the calcareous portions of these have been dissolved from
the outer portions of the stone, and the same is the case with the
edrioasteroid.

Description OF THE T'yPE-SPECIMEN.

This consists of an internal cast of the whole individual (Pl. VIIT)
and an external impression of its abactinal surface (Pl. IX). There
is also preserved, in the central region of the abactinal surface of
the cast (Pl. VIII, Fig. 8), a small portion of the original theca.
Except when said to be otherwise, the statements refer to the
internal cast.

The periphery is subpentagonal ; the sides of the pentagon
correspond to the interradial areas, and are slightly convex. The
length along the sagittal plane is 36mm. The transverse diameter
is 32mm.2 The greatest width of each side is about 20mm.

From the periphery, the theca rises rather steeply, then curves
gently over to a slight depression around the actinal pole; towards
the under surface it bends more suddenly. Seen from the side
(Pl. VIII, Fig. 2) the theca looks like a round cap squashed in at
the top. If the fossil be placed on a flat surface, it reaches a height
of 185mm.; but the actinal pole is about 35mm. below this.
The under surface is excavate to about 5 mm., so that the length of
the polar axis is about 10mm. The specimen does not appear
to have undergone more compression along this axis than it was
capable of effecting spontaneously during life.

1 Gron: Mac., N.s., Dec. IV, Vol. V, pp. 548-548, pl. xxi ; Dec., 1898.
2 To dispel possible perplexity, it may be said at once that Forbes’ measurements
are very inaccurate, sometimes inexplicably so.

a aed

GEOL. MAc. 1900.

DECADE IV. VoL. VII. en JDK,

————SS —

<2
454i

IRG < D COLLOTYPE
J. GREEN PHOTO., F.A.B. DEL MORGAN & KIDD COLI T

EDRIOASTER BUCHIANUS.

F. A. Bather—Studies in Edrioasteroidea—II. 195

On the Upper Surface (PI. VIII, Fig. 1), five Radial Grooves
proceed fairly straight to a distance of 13 mm. from the actinal pole.
They then rather suddenly bend in a dextral or solar direction, and,
at about 34 mm. from the actinal pole, pass on to the under surface
of the theca (Pl. VIII, Figs. 2and 3); here they continue along the
edge until they have attained a distance of about 46mm. from
the actinal pole, when they terminate. The width of a groove in
the proximal half of its course is 55 to 6mm.; where it bends
over to the underside, the width is about 5mm., and gradually
tapers to 2°5 or 2 mm., after which it is rapidly rounded off.

Of the five grooves, the anterior is the most perfectly preserved.
In its proximal half it forms a rather deep V with slightly concave
sides, as shown in section, Fig. 1. On the sides are ridges, passing
outwards from the median line at an angle that varies with the
curvature of the groove, but is never far from a right angle
(Pl. X, Fig. 6). These ridges represent the sutures between the
flooring-plates. Each ridge passes up to a prominence of somewhat
ovoid outline, broader at the end next the groove; the side of the
prominence towards the actinal pole has a gentler slope than
the side away from it, so that the prominence as a whole seems
to pass outwards in an abactinal direction. The depression between
adjacent prominences is continued as an exceedingly slight concavity
down the side of the groove to the middle line; slight though it be,
it is observable in some parts where the sutural ridges on either side
cannot be detected. The prominences, and consequently the sutural
lines, on the two sides of the groove do not actually alternate ;
neither do they quite correspond. Therefore the ridge that may,
in places, be seen at the bottom of the groove, representing the
suture between the flooring-plates of the two sides, bends alternately
to either side; in the tract figured (Pl. X, Fig. 6), a long stretch
towards the right (of the figure) is followed by a short stretch
towards the left.

Sections across the internal cast of the anterior groove, both as seen from the oral
side; x 4 diam. v.g. impression left by flooring-plates ot subvective groove.
p. matrix rising up into the pore between adjoining flooring- plates.
Fic. 1, from proximal region of groove. : i ; nt.
Fic. 2, from more distal region, just on the periphery or ambitus of the fossil.
The distal region of any groove deviates from the structure just
described only in the proportionately less depth of the groove, in
. q _ *,
the more pronounced alternation of the plates, ana in the relative
elongation of the prominences, which here merge more gradually into
the sutural ridges. (See section of cast, Fig. 2). ;
A wax squeeze taken from the impression of the distal region of
a groove (e.g. the left posterior, Pl. X, Fig. 7) restores the appearance

196 _F.-A. Bather—Studies in Edrioasteroidea—Ll.

‘formerly presented by the now vanished test as seen from the outside.
In this region we see the flooring-plates rising slightly above the
interradial areas, then presenting a narrow flat surface, then dipping
down in a slightly convex curve to the middle line of the groove.
The groove is less deep than in the internal cast, which means that
the flooring-plates were thicker in the middle of the groove than
at its margins. Between the flooring-plates, where they bend
downwards, are elongate slits, wider towards the margins of the
groove; these correspond to the prominences of the internal cast.
The right anterior and left posterior grooves are still filled in
places by portions of matrix; and the hollows between this matrix
and the internal cast enable one to reconstruct a section of the
groove based on actual measurement. Fig. 3 is taken from the left

Fic. 3.—View of the left posterior groove, as preserved in the fossil. x 4 diam.
ext. matrix filling the exterior of the groove. int. matrix filling the interior
of the test. gr. groove on the surface of the latter. . matrix filling pores
between the flooring-plates. _p’. scars where the same has been broken away.

posterior groove, at 5:5 mm. from its distal end. Here the plates.

are about 1 mm. thick at the edge of the groove, but thin considerably
towards the middle line.

A good idea of the appearance of the groove as seen from the
inside of the test is obtained from a wax squeeze of the internal
cast (Pl. X, Fig. 5).

Forbes describes the ‘‘ margin of the” grooves as composed of
“areal or interambulacral plates bearing 2-3 short elevated transverse
ridges, each of which points to the origin of an ambulacral plate,
short and oblong; a double series of these ambulacral plates form
the canal.” It is hard to believe that Forbes did not understand
he was dealing with an internal cast; yet this seems to have been
the case, for he proceeds to describe the external impressions of the
grooves as triangular arms “‘ composed of two rows of dove-tailing
joints, with ridges at the articulations to lock into the furrows
bordering the arm-canal.” From this truly remarkable misconception
arose an extraordinary theory as to the nature of the radial grooves
and as to the homologies of the ambulacral areas in Hehinoids.
After half a century one need not linger over mere errors of fact
in the first sentence quoted. The present description and figures
will enable readers to make the corrections themselves.

Piecing all this evidence together as in Fig. 4, we see that each
radial groove was composed of a double row of flooring-plates, more
or less alternating, and meeting in a median zigzag line. In the
proximal half of the groove the long axis of each of these plates,
nearly at right angles to the middle line of the groove, measured
3-35 mm., and the short axis, parallel to the middle line, ‘9 mm.
The total number of plates along one side of a groove was about 60

Pit,

DECADE IW. Vor, VII

GEoL. Mac. 1900.

MORGAN & KIDD PHOTOTYP.

F.A.B,. DEL.

EDRIOASTER BUCHIANUS.

%

ene

F. A. Bather—Studies in Edrioasteroidea—ITI. 197

(certainly more than the 50 which Forbes counted). The thickness
of the plates towards their outer margins was about 1mm. The
plates were continuous with the interradial thecal plates, but rather
thicker ; at a little distance from the edge, they bent downwards
at a rather sharp angle, so as to form a V-shaped trench with
slightly convex sides. Seen from the inside the plates formed
a ridge, with sides at first steep, then gradually rounding over.

Fic. 4.—Reconstructed section across a subvective groove. x 6 diam. Compare
with Fig. 1 on p. 195, and Fig. 3 on p. 196. The relations of the covering- :
plates are inferred from Edrioaster Bigsbyi. The position of the perradial
water-vessel and its branch to the podium is deduced from the remains of
E. Bigsbyi and the present species. Natural suture-surfaces are dotted ; cut
surfaces are ruled diagonally ; supposed soft parts are in broken outline.
v.g. subvective groove. c¢.p. covering-plates. fp. flooring-plates. 7.a.
interambulacrals. w. perradial water-vessel, connected by a branch with the
podium, y. «amp. ampulla connected with the podium through the pore.

» The adjacent sides of the plates were excavate so that pores were

formed between them. Thus the groove was fringed with a row
of pores on either side. These pores lay, not at the extreme
margin, but just where the plates bent downwards; they passed
outwards at an angle sloped away from the actinal centre; they
were wider in the proximal portion of the groove, and more elongate
in the distal portion. We may infer from the as yet undescribed
structure of Ldrioaster Bigsbyi, that the groove was roofed by
covering-plates, which rested on the flattened border. But these
covering-plates must have been detached and washed away before
the theca was imbedded, since no traces of them remain.

Around the Actinal Pole the form of the internal cast is rather
complicated (Pl. X, Fig. 2). The grooves curve down towards the
pole, and at 2 or 3mm. from the pole itself they bend downwards
sharply. The central region is occupied by an irregularly shaped
mass of matrix, with a broken surface about 3:5 mm. below the highest
point of the cast. This mass probably represents the cesophagus.
It is surrounded by a channel or, as it were, a moat, into which the
down-bent grooves lead. At certain points, however, this moat is
bridged by matrix, and in the two rays of the left side the extreme
proximal ends of the grooves are similarly bridged. These bridges
look like continuations of the prominences or infillings of the proximal
pores. In the posterior interradius is a similar lump of matrix,
mistakenly alluded to by Forbes (op. cit., p. 522) as ‘the projection |
which bore the anus.” This is separated from the cesophageal

198 F. A. Bather—Studies in Edrioasteroidea—l.

matrix by the moat, and is itself bordered on its outer side by
a semicircular channel, which dips down on each side to join the
moat; just at those points, this channel is very nearly bridged by
projections from its enclosed matrix almost joining the proximal
prominences of the adjacent rays. Owing to the bridging and
overhanging of the matrix, it is impossible to obtain a satisfactory
wax squeeze of the channels; but, translating the appearances into
the original stereom structures, we infer that the mouth was central
and roughly five-lobed, widest on the posterior side, and that it
was surrounded by a stout ring of stereom, over which the food-
grooves passed. This latter structure may possibly be that described
by Salter (op. cit., p. 291) as ‘a great thickening of the oral
ossicles, just within the mouth.” The proximal or adoral pores
were connected with one another above this stereom ring, but below
the outer theca, so as to form a closed ring-canal (hydrocircus)
around the mouth. In the posterior interradius was a madreporite
or hydropore-plate, the inner surface of which formed a semicircular
projection for the attachment of the upper end of the stone-canal.
This was more or less directly connected with the ring-canal. The
existence of pores along the radial grooves almost certainly implies
the presence of podia, as well as of perradial water-vessels connecting
the latter with the ring-canal. But the specimen does not afford
satisfactory evidence as to the position of the perradial vessels.

The shape of the Interradial Areas has been figured by Forbes
(op. cit., pl. xxiii, fig. 5), but the arrangement of the plates thus
represented, though not ridiculous, is imaginary so far as details are
concerned. His drawing, however, presents a certain resemblance
to the left anterior interradial area, here refigured (Fig. 5). This

Fic. 5. i
}
}
I
F
)
{

Fic. 5.—Arrangement of plates in left anterior interradius. Nat. size.

Fie. 6.—Arrangement of plates in upper part of posterior interradius. Nat. size.
st.c. depression caused by stone-canal. mes. depression perhaps caused by
mesentery.

shows the marks left by the plates pretty clearly, and indicates
that they were irregular polygons of various sizes, apparently not
imbricate. The only regularity visible in their arrangement here
is a band of plates bordering the right side of the area, and
passing across it at the lower edge of the theca, while another less
regular band runs parallel to, and on the inner or left side of, this
outer one. Down to and including these bands, there were 36 plates
in the left anterior interradial area. The greatest width of this

F.. A. Bather—Studies in Edrioasteroidea—LI. 199

area is 13°75 mm. ; that of the posterior area is 16°5mm. The latter
also tapers less rapidly towards its actinal end, where the hydropore
was situated.

The greater width of the posterior interradial area (Fig. 6 and
Pl. VIII, Fig. 1) is due to the anal opening, which lay in this area
about half a millimetre to the left of its middle line and at 11 mm.
from the actinal pole. The anal pyramid (“ovarian pyramid” of
Forbes) was not a regularly constructed pyramid surrounded by
a definite rim, but was a roughly circular area of about 6°25 mm. in
diameter, the plates of which appear to have risen from under the
edges of the surrounding interradials. The plates contained within
this circle seem to have been irregularly disposed in two circlets.
The plates of the outer circlet were not so long as those of the
inner. These latter were roughly triangular and met in a central
point, where doubtless was the anus; the sutures indicate their
number as 11, although Forbes estimated them at only 5. The
anal pyramid can hardly be described as raised; but above it,
and half surrounding it, is a semicircular depression with three
concentric wrinkles plainly marked on its left side. Immediately
on the right of the anus, the test is not depressed. In the adjacent
(r. post.) interradius there is a slight elevation of the theca at this
level, clearly shown in the side-view (Pl. VIII, Fig. 2). The
wrinkled depression in the anal interradius may be ascribed to
the contraction after death of some internal structure, presumably
the mesentery attaching the stone-canal to the theca. The slight
swelling that curves round from the anus may indicate the course
of the rectum; and this would imply that the gut had a dextral
coil. Jaekel also has expressed this view (op. cit., p. 46).

The Under or Abactinal Surface of the theca (PI. VIII,
Fig. 3, and Pl. IX) is partly bounded by the dextrally curved ends
of the radial grooves, which, as seen from below, of course appear
sinistral. The excavate space included by these may be divided
into three regions, which, proceeding from without inwards (i.e. from
oral to aboral), are as follows :—

(1) Peripheral Area.—A closed ring formed by small polygonal
plates like the interradials, with which they are in fact serially
homologous. These plates are roughly arranged in rows continuing
the spiral twist of the grooves. They are a little smaller than the
majority of the interradials, and their long axes are directed more
or less radially to the vertical axis of the theca.

(2) The Frame.—A closed ring of 11 thicker and larger plates,
with their long axes tangential to the vertical axis of the theca.
Their outer margins are slightly scolloped by the sutures with the
plates of the peripheral area; the inner margin of each forms
@ curve, convex towards the aboral pole. These plates seem to
alternate in size, a smaller plate corresponding to each interradius
and a larger to each radius. Two plates go to the wider posterior
area. Too much stress, however, must not be laid on this slight
appearance of regularity. Theso plates were ornamented with
small tubercles, the traces of which are seen on both the cast and

200. F.A. Bather—Studies in Edrioasteroidea—TIT.

the impression, more pronounced than those left ‘by the interradials \
of the actinal surface.

(3) Central Area.—The whole space within the frame is still
covered. in the cast by what appears to have been a flexible

Fre. 7.— General section across the theca of Edrioaster Buchianus, about in the
transversal plane. Natural size. i, iii, iv, three subvective grooves (compare
Plate VIII). ys. peristome, the thickening of the cireumesophageal ring
not shown. er. peripheral area of the abactinal surface. cent. central area
of same. fr. frame surrounding the latter.

integument, in which were deposited minute, loosely calcified,
imbricating plates. The imbrication is such that the outer edges:
of the plates are directed away from the abactinal pole. The exact.
arrangement of this, and its relation to the surrounding plates, are,
however, best made out from a wax squeeze (Pl. X, Figs. 1 and 8):
of the impression (Pl. IX).

Forbes speaks of this central portion as a “tough membrane,”
over which “from the centre radiating lines, with the appearance.
of having been caused by vessels, proceed, dividing in their course

- » The markings . . . resemble those of Ischadites.”
There can be no doubt, now that we know the structure of other
Agelacrinidz so much better than Forbes could, that these lines are.
merely the edges of imbricating plates. This was fully recognised
by Salter (op. cit., p. 291).

Forbes’ view is here mentioned in order to explain his next,
sentence. ‘The plates immediately bordering it [the membrane]
are rather larger than the others, and all the plates of the base
are marked with twin pore-like dots, connected by a groove.” By
“all the plates of the base” we must understand, not the minute
imbricating plates of the membrane, but the 11 plates forming the
frame, and the smaller plates of the peripheral area. Forbes’
pl. xxiii, fig. 7, shows these diplopores on one of the frame-plates,
but not on the membrane, while the peripheral plates are only
drawn in outline. I have been quite unable to distinguish any
structure at all resembling the diplopores so clearly described and
figured by Forbes; there is nothing more than the tuberculation
already referred to. Salter says, “The surface of the plates [in
general] is granular, but I can see no trace of spines; nor can
I see the chain-like pairs of pores on the puckered membrane, as
figured by Forbes in his fig. 7. I think the artist has been deceived
by the imbrication of the small calcareous plates which covered this
surface.” The chief conclusion to be drawn from these bewildering
remarks is that Salter did not take the trouble to understand the:
clear description and figure of his predecessor. Salter’s statement,.:

FF. A. Bather—Studies in Edrioasteroidea-——II. 201:

however, was repeated in modified language by Etheridge (op. cit.,
p. 482), and it may therefore be considered that two palzontologists
of .repute were, as I am, unable to see the diplopores described by
Forbes and drawn by C. R. Bone.

The most important features of the abactinal membrane are
O prominences or evaginations of it. They form a fairly regular:
pentagon, each corresponding to an interradius, but they bear no
evident relation to the angles of the central area. Hach evagination
has a rounded U-shaped margin, the apex directed away from the
thecal axis. The raised margins are not absolutely continuous.
Within the margins the membrane is again depressed, and just in
the middle, about the actinal pole, it cannot be traced in either cast
or impression. Possibly it was here very thin and contained no
imbricating calcareous plates. There is, however, no evidence that
there was either a stem-attachment, as Forbes thought, or any
opening from the gut or the body-cavity to the exterior.

These evaginations of the aboral membrane, alluded to by Forbes
as ‘‘prominences” (p.522) and “peduncles” (p.538), received another
explanation from Wyville Thomson. He writes (p. 110): ‘In the
specimen of Agel. Buchianus (Forbes), in Jermyn Street, there is
a rudely pentagonal stamp on the apical surface, which is probably
the impression of the wide base of a pyramid of jaws like that of
Kchinocystites, on the inside of the coriaceous integument.” This
is very incorrectly expressed, and were it not for some remarks by
Salter (op. cit., pp. 290, 291), would be unintelligible. By ‘the
pentagonal stamp,” Thomson seems to have meant, as Salter says,
‘the five indentations figured by Forbes, fig. 6,” i.e. indentations
not on the apical surface, but on the impression of that surface,
and therefore not really indentations but prominences. Salter,
attempting to improve on Thomson, speaks of them as “large buccal
teeth . . . which must, I suppose, represent the ‘lantern’ in
the Echinus.”

To this interpretation of the prominences there are objections
of three distinct kinds. First, the specimen, though it shows traces
of the circumoral ring plainly enough, shows within or below this
ring no traces whatever of jaws or teeth. Secondly, the buccal
armature of Palgodiscus would not make an impression of this
nature or in this position, while that of Echinocystis is not large
enough to make any such impression at all.* Thirdly, it is incon-
ceivable that an Echinoderm of distinctly pelmatozoan type, with
mouth upturned and with deep subvective grooves, can have had any
use for stout biting jaws; even if descended from a gnathostomatous
Echinoid (a quite absurd supposition) it would have lost its jaws
before attaining its present habit and structure.

The meaning of these five extrusions of the aboral membrane
must be sought among other Pelmatozoa. They must have been
1. Wyville Thomson, ‘‘On a new Paleozoic Group of Echinodermata” :
Edinburgh New Phil. Journ., n.s., vol. xiii, pp. 106-117, pls. ili, iv; Jan., 1861.
»2 See W. J. Sollas, ‘‘ On Silurian Echinoidea and Ophiuroidea”’ : Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc., vol. lv, pp. 692-715; Nov., 1899.

202 F. A. Bather—Studies in Edrioasteroudea—LI.

made by some system of organs that had undergone division into
five, and had the pentameres interradial. The stomach, gonads of
Kchinoid type, and water-vascular system seem therefore to be
excluded, while the chambered organ of crinoids is forcibly suggested.

It is clear that the frame of 11 large plates gave some rigidity
to the base, while within this the membrane was very flexible,
capable of extension and contraction. These arrangements may
have served a twofold purpose. If the theca were compressed by
any external agent, the soft parts and the fluid contents of the coelom
would have been squeezed out into this extensile sac, which thus
acted as a safety-valve. Or the vertical mesenteries of the coelom
may have been attached to it, and, developing muscles as in
Echinothuride, may have been able to withdraw it within the
frame; if the outer edge of the theca were closely apposed to the
ground, the effect of this would be to create a vacuum and so hold
the creature in its position like a limpet. In the dead animal, when
the tissues shrank, the aboral membrane was naturally pulled
upwards, and at the same time other parts of the theca were
pulled inwards. Hence arose the stretching of the membrane over
the internal (? chambered) organs, in the same way as the wrinkled
depression already noticed in the posterior interradius. Jaekel’s
opinion that the central area of the abactinal surface was fixed
(aufgewachsen) on a not quite hard bottom, does not seem in accord
with the shape of the theca or with the sharp definition of these
five lobes.

OrHrR SPECIMENS.

The various stem-fragments ascribed by Forbes to this species
can, as already noted by Salter and Etheridge, have had nothing
to do with it. They were found in the same stone wall, but not
in juxtaposition with the theca. Neither can the 4-rayed impression
so badly represented in Forbes’ pl. xxiii, fig. 14, be regarded as
“‘the impression of the base, probably of a similar cystidean.”

There was found, however, one other fragment, which I am
unable to fit on to the type-specimen, and therefore regard as
indicating the existence of another individual. It is an impression
of part of an ambulacrum, 16mm. long, and of portions of the
adjacent interambulacra, one of which shows very clearly the
markings produced by the ornament of the plates (Pl. X, Fig. 3).

No other specimen of this species is known.

Systematic Posrrion.

Forbes called this species Agelacrinites Buchianus, comparing it
first with the specimen discovered by Bigsby, and described and
figured by G. B. Sowerby in the Zoological Journal (vol. ii,
pp. 318-820, pl. xi, fig. 5, 1826), and afterwards named Agelacrinttes
Dicksoni by HK. Billings (1856); and secondly with Agelacrinites
hamiltonensis, Vanuxem, which is the type of the genus. Forbes
considered it as a Cystid, allied to the Echinoidea.

Salter (op. cit., p. 290), while retaining the species in Agelacrinus,
considered it as more allied to the species described by Billings as

F. A. Bather—Studies in Edrioasteroidea—II. 203

Edrioaster Bigsbyi, 1858. In the list on p. 262 of the same work
it is actually called ‘“‘ Hdrioaster Buchii (Agelacrinus, Forbes).” The
same is the case in Htheridge’s revision of Salter (pp. 481 and 395).

Salter’s opinion is abundantly justified not only by the details of
the present paper, but by the new facts concerning /drioaster
Bigsbyi, which will form the subject of the next study. To that it .
is better to postpone the diagnoses of the genus and of the present
Species.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES VIII, IX, anp X.
Eprioaster BucHIaNus.

[All the figures are from the type-specimen in the Museum of Practical Geology,
except Pl. X, Fig. 3, which is from a fragment associated with it. Plates VIIT
and IX are based on photographs by Mr. J. Green; the figures of Plate X are
drawn directly from the specimens or trom wax squeezes thereof. The figures of
Plates VIII and IX are magnified two diameters ; those of Plate X are enlarged
to the extent stated under each. Difficulties of lighting have rendered impossible
a rigorous maintenance of the standard orientation ; where doubt might have arisen
the position of the anal interradius has been marked by a *. ]

Prater VIII.—The internal cast.

Fic. 1.—Actinal surface, showing peristomial and anal areas clearly, and the
subvective grooves here occupying an almost strictly radial position and
marked i-v trom left posterior to right posterior.

Fic. 2.—Side view, showing the curvature of the subvective grooves. The anterior
groove (iii) passes across the middle of the figure. The plates of the right
anterior interradius (between iii and iy) are fairly distinct.

Fic. 3.—Abactinal surface, showing in its central area a portion of the original
test (compare Pl. X, Fig. 8). The numbers i-v here correspond to those ot
Fig. 1, and mark the radii, while the subvective groove corresponding to each
number is now seen to have passed through fully one-fifth of the circumference
away from it: e.g. the anterior groove (iii of Fig. 1) now comes into the
right anterior radius (iv). Close to number ii some matrix fills the groove,
and on this is the impression of a columnal of some crinoid or cystid.

Pirate IX.—The external impression of the abactinal surface. The upper figure is
lit from the right hand, the lower figure from the left hand. ‘These figures,
with Fig. 3 of Pl. VIII, give the evidence on which Pl. X, Fig. 8 is based.

Prats X.—Enlarged details.

Fic. 1.—A wax squeeze from a portion of the impression of the abactinal
surface, showing accurately the relations of the plates; x 3 diameters.
Compare Forbes, pl. xxiii, fig. 7. cent. small plates of the central area.
fr. a frame-plate. per. plates of the perradial area. s. suture between two
of the latter, apparently crenulate. gr. portion of left anterior subvective
groove. col. columnal lying on matrix that fills a part of this groove.

Fie. 2.—The peristomial region of the internal cast, slightly diagrammatised, and
seen from right posterior interradius ; x 2 diam. st.c. a depression where
a semicircular ridge on the inside of the test is supposed to have supported the
stone-canal; the matrix within this would thus have underlain the madre-
porite. oes. matrix filling the esophagus. c.o.fr. hollow space surrounding
the latter and presumed to have been occupied by a circumcesophageal frame
of plates (modified flooring-plates). w.v. strands of matrix bridging over
the space just mentioned ; they seem to be serially homologous with the podial
or pore scars, and may represent water-vessels connecting the adoral podia
with a circumoral water-ring.

Fic. 3.—Interambulacrals showing vermiculate ornament and raised, slightly
crenulate suture-margins. From a wax squeeze of a fragment associated with
the type. x 2.

Fic. 4.—Flooring-plates in the distal region of the left anterior groove, drawn
from a wax squeeze of the external impression. x 6 diam.

204. Philip Lake—Bala Lake and River System.

Fre. 5.—Portion of the anterior groove as seen on.the inside of the test, drawn’
from a wax squeeze of the internal cast; x 5 diam. ia. interambulacrals. |
p. pores for the passage’ of the podia or of the ampulle from the podia,
f.p. flooring-plates. The proximal end is uppermost in the drawing. :
Fic. 6.—The internal cast of part of a subvective groove ; the complement of
Fig. 5. x 6 diam. yp’. projecting scars of matrix that filled the podial :
pores.
Fie. ye —The distal end of the left posterior groove, from a wax squeeze of the.
external impression; x 4 diam. Lettering as in Fig. 5.
Fie. 8.—The central part of the abactinal surface, from a wax squeeze of the’
external cast (Pl. 1X), slightly diagrammatised, since details are often obscure
in the specimen; x 3diam. per. peripheral area. fr. frame. cent. central
area, with its flexible plated membrane, raised in five interradially situate
lobes. * position of posterior (anal) interradius. p.1a. the meridian in which
plates of the posterior interradius (i.e. posterior interambulacrals) pass from
the actinal to the abactinal surface and merge with the peripheral plates of”
the latter.

Ii.—Baua Lake anp tHe River System or Norta WALES.
By Puitie Lars, M.A., F.G.S.

Introduction.

HE evolution of rivers and the origin of lakes have recently
attracted a considerable share of attention ; and the principles
which should guide us in tracing the development of a drainage
system have been expounded by several authors, both in England
and in America.

Little, however, has been written on the lakes and rivers of
North Wales. In 1876 Ramsay,' who was one of the pioneers in
questions of this kind, endeavoured to decipher the history of the
Dee and of Bala Lake; and subsequently he performed a similar
office for the Clwyd.?_ More recently Mr. Strahan and Mr. Morton®
have dealt with the latter river.

A few papers,‘ also, have been written on the tarns or ‘ Llyniau’
of Caernarvonshire ; but with these we are not directly concerned.

In the following pages an attempt is made to explain the origin
of Bala Lake, and to show how the river system of North Wales
was established and was subsequently modified ; but the formation
of the Vale of Clwyd is barely touched in this investigation.

It is scarcely necessary to point out how deeply I am indebted
to the writings of Mr. Marr, to which, in fact, whatever there may
be of value in my labours is primarily due. For although the
present drainage system of North Wales differs greatly from that
of Cumberland and Westmoreland, yet in some respects the resem-
blance is so close that it is Mr. Marr’s work in the Lake District
which has enabled me to attempt an interpretation of the river

1 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxxii (1876), pp. 219-229. See also Mem. Geol.
Surv., vol. iii (1881), 2nd ed., pp. 314-323. ;

2 Mem. Geol. Surv. ., vol. iii (1881), 2nd ed., pp. 306-313.

3G. H. Morton: Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc., vol. viii (1897-98), pp. 32-65,
181-204. <A. Strahan: Grou. MaG., 1899, pp. 111-117.

4 W. W. Watts: Brit. Assoc. Reports, 1895, pp. 683, 684. W. A. Brend:
Guou. Mac. ae a pp. 404-407. J. EK. Marr & BR. H. Adie: Gzon. Maa., 1898,
pp. 51-61.

Philip Lake—Bala Lake and River System. 205

system of North Wales. Mr. Marr, however, finds no evidence of
the differential movements which seem in, Wales to have played so
important a part in modifying the original drainage system.

My thanks are also due to Mr. A, L. Hall, of Caius College,
Cambridge, and to Mr. J. B. Scrivenor, of Hertford College,
Oxford, for invaluable assistance in sounding Bala Lake; and I am,
besides, under obligation to Mr. Hall for help in other portions of
the work. |

ay Tae re ea > : i2_) x 2 V AA DF } baa ay 4 ( iy
DEN D Ae

WX?

eae
ae Ne
Ne a
)}

\

Lr

FIG. I

MAP OF BALA LAKE
AND THE
NEIGHBOURHOOD
es

Contour lines below 1000 ft)
(at intervals of 100 ft))
Contour lines 1000 ft and over
(at intervals of 260 ft)! |
: Scale of Miler, 2
Se

Contours below 1,000 feet indicated by dotted lines.
Contours 1,000 feet and over indicated by continuous lines.

Topography of Bala Lake and of the valley in which it lies.

Bala Lake (see Fig. 1), the largest natural sheet of water in
Wales, is nearly four miles long and about half a mile wide. It is
oblong in shape and unusually regular, the two sides being remark-
ably straight and parallel, so that the width is nearly uniform
throughout. The straightness of the sides is interrupted only by
the peninsulas of Llafar, Llangower, and one or two smaller points ;
and all of these are mere tongues of alluvium. At each end there
is a wide alluvial plain, and the lake owes its symmetry partly,
but not entirely, to these alluvial deposits.

_ On February 19, 1885, the surface of the water was determined
by the Ordnance Survey to be 529°9 feet above Ordnance Datun ; '

1 Merionethshire (6 inches to 1 mile): Quarter-sheets xxii 8.W., xxii N.W., and
xxii N.E,

206 Philip Lake—Bala Lake and River System.

and on August 3, 1899, in a dry season, Mr. Hall and I found it to
be 15:3 feet below B.M. 543-7 (about-a mile south-west of Llan-
gower), or 528:4 feet above O.D. The level of the water, therefore,
seems to vary but little, and it may be taken as about 530 feet
above the sea.

The depth of the lake is stated by Ramsay to be about 130 feet.?
On August 1, 1899, Mr. Hall, Mr. Scrivenor, and myself took
a series of soundings, and the greatest depth which we measured
was 126 feet. This was at a point a little distance north of the
Llangower peninsula.

Our soundings were taken along the three lines shown upon
the map (Fig. 1). As they were made with ‘ water-cord,’ which
is liable to stretch, they are not exact, but (corrected by subsequent
experiment) they are probably not more than a few feet out in any
case. All the sections® (Fig. 2) showed that the sides of the lake

Vy WY

Fic. 2.—Sections of Bala Lake along the lines A-B and E-F in Fig. 1. Scale
(horizontal and vertical), 3 inches = 1 mile.

slope inwards at an angle, which, indeed, is not very steep; but the
bottom of the slope is well defined, and the central portion of each
section is nearly flat. The maximum depth in the line A~B was
66 feet, in the line C-D 77 feet, and in the line E-F 126 feet. The
floor of the lake, therefore, appears to slope from north-east to
south-west, that is to say, in a direction opposite to the present
flow of the water. It would, however, require a more extended
series of observations to prove that this slope is continuous.

In the paper already mentioned,* Ramsay assumes that there
never could have been any other outlet for the water of the lake
than the channel of the Dee; and because the Dee flows over rock
in siti at a higher level than the bottom of the lake, he concludes
that the lake must lie in a rock basin. In the light of Mr. Marr’s
recent researches on the tarns and lakes of Cumberland and

1 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxxii (1876), p. 219.

2 Our positions were determined by compass bearings from the shore, and haye no
pretensions to precise accuracy. The section A—B and the south-eastern half of the
section E-F are probably correct ; but in the north-western half of the section E-F
the angles of intersection were somewhat acute, and the positions of the soundings
are therefore not so accurately fixed.

3 «Qn the Physical History of the Dee, Wales’’: Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,
vol. xxxii (1876), pp. 219-229. See also Mem. Geol. Surv., vol. iii (1881), 2nd ed.,
pp. 314-823.

Philip Lake—Bala Lake and River System. 207

Westmoreland,' it is impossible now to maintain this view without
a closer examination of other possible outlets.

Now, although Bala Lake empties itself through the Dee, which
flows in an easterly direction from its north-eastern end, this is not
what the general topography of the district would lead us to expect.
The lake does not lie in the continuation of the Vale of Edeyrnion
(as the valley of the Dee between Llandderfel and Corwen is called) ;
but it lies in a very distinct and well-defined valley which runs
from the sea at Barmouth in a north-easterly direction to the town
of Bala; and this valley is entirely shut off from the Vale of
Edeyrnion by a ridge of hills, except for the narrow gorge through
which the Dee now flows. This great valley is in the line of the
Bala fault, and from Dolgelly to Bala its direction is S.W.-N.E.,
which is precisely that of the lake; while the general direction of
the Dee for several miles after leaving the lake is nearly west to east.

It is true that the actual watershed crosses the valley at Pant-
gwyn, and that on the one side the waters flow into Bala Lake and
thence to the Dee, while on the other side they flow into Afon Wnion
and finally into the estuary of the Mawddach. But the watershed
forms no feature in the valley, and the slope which determines the
direction of flow is so slight that it requires a very careful examina-
tion of the streams to discover the position of the water-parting.
The floor of the valley in no place rises to a greater height than
774 feet above the sea, i.e. about 374 feet above the bottom of the
lake. The depth of the valley near this point is entirely out of
proportion to the size of the little rivulets which now flow in it.

Continuing the line of the valley in which Bala Lake lies, it
leads us in a north-easterly direction, not along the course of the
Dee, but into the valley which is now occupied by Nant Meloch
and its tributary from Cors-y-Sarnau. This is a stream which flows
from north-east to south-west, and which would enter the lake near
Bala, were it not that before it reaches that point it is suddenly
deflected almost at right angles, so as to join the Dee at Melin
Meloch.

If the gorge near Llandderfel were blocked, this stream would
flow into Bala Lake, and Bala Lake would empty itself into the
Wnion ; and we should have a continuous flow of water down what
is now undoubtedly a continuous valley running from north-east to
south-west.

From these topographical considerations alone, it appears probable
that the drainage of the district originally flowed in this direction,
and that the present outlet of the lake is of subsequent formation.
In favour of this view it may be noted that at the foot of the lake
there is an alluvial plain, which is even more extensive than that
which is now being formed at its head; and also that the floor of the
lake appears to slope from north-east to south-west.

1 See, especially, ‘The Tarns of Lakeland’”’: Quart. Journ, Geol. Soe., vol. li
(1895), pp. 35-48. ‘* Additional Notes on the Tarns of Lakeland”? : ibid., vol. lii
(1896), pp. 12-16. ‘On the Lake Basins of Lakeland’’: Proc. Geol. Assoc.,
vol. xiv (1896), pp. 273-286.

208 Philip Lake—Bala Lake and River System,

Ts Bala Lake a rock basin?

‘There are only three directions in which we can leave Bala
Lake and travel towards the sea without crossing the contour-line
of 1,000 feet.

The first of these is north-east, up the valley of Nant Meloch, and
along the road to Corwen, where the greatest height to which we are
compelled to rise is 891 feet, about 14 mile from Bethel Inn.

The second is east, along the course of the Dee; and this is
necessarily a continuous descent.

The third is south-west, along the valley of the Bala fault, eae
-we can reach the sea without ever rising higher than 774 feet.

Elsewhere the lake is completely shut in by the 1,000 foot contour-
line, and there is no reason to suspect the existence of any former
outlet.

I have not examined very closely the valley of Nant Meloch;
‘but I believe that in this direction the rocky floor rises considerably
above the level of the bottom of the lake. Even now, where the
bottom of the valley is 600 or 700 feet above the sea, the valley is.
narrow and steep-sided, and it seems improbable that the solid
floor lies two or three hundred feet below the present level. The
valley, however, deserves a more careful examination than I have
been able to give it.

If we follow the present course of the Dee from Bala Lake, we
pass first over a wide alluvial plain until we near the ridge which
crosses the line of the river at Bodweni, about 24 miles east of Bala.
Here the Dee enters a narrow and rather steep-sided gorge, and
is closely hemmed in by hills of solid rock; and a little farther on,
the bed itself is formed of rock at a height of about 495 feet above
the sea, or 95 feet above the bottom of the lake. So narrow is the
valley at this point, and so close lie the exposures of solid rock,
that there seems to be no room for any drift-filled gorge; and there
can be but little doubt that in this direction at least, as Ramsay
pointed out, the lake is rock-bound.

South-westerly, however, along the line of the Bala fault, it is
impossible to prove that the solid floor of the valley is at any point
higher than the bottom of the lake. Following upwards the course
of the Dyfrdwy, we find that at Tal-y-bont the stream flows over
rock in sité at a height of more than 600 feet. But the valley here
is very wide, and for many hundred yards south-east of the stream
- there is nothing to be seen but drift. It is quite possible, therefore,
that another channel may exist which is now concealed.

No more rock is exposed 7 siz in the bottom of the valley until
we have passed the watershed and proceeded down the other slope
to Drws-y-nant-isaf. A few hundred yards below the railway
station the river runs in a little rocky gorge, the floor of which is
also made of rock; and the height of this floor is about 460 feet
above the sea, that is to say, about 60 feet above the bottom of the
lake. But at this point, exactly, in fact, where it enters the gorge,
the river has left the line of the Bala fault and has been deflected

Philip Lake—Bala Lake and River System. 209

to the right ; while in the direct line there is a slight depression,
which is certainly filled with drift, however deep or shallow that
drift may be.

Here, again, it is impossible to assert that the solid floor of the
valley is higher than the bottom of the lake. And as no more
rock is seen in sif% until we pass below the level of the lowest point
of the lake, we are compelled to admit that in this direction there
is no certain evidence that the lake is rock-bound.

So far, then, as this evidence goes, Bala Lake may have been
formed in the same way as the lakes of Cumberland and West-
moreland. The sections show that, like them, it is a submerged
river valley. Its general direction and the slope of its bed indicate
that the valley of which it is a portion is the valley of the Bala
fault. Originally, no doubt, the waters drained south-westward into
the sea at Barmouth (or, perhaps, at Towyn). But the channel
was subsequently blocked, and the drainage of the upper portion
was forced to seek a fresh outlet.

I shall, however, give reasons for supposing that, although the
old channel may have been choked by drift, the reversal of the
drainage was due, at least in part, to earth-movements; and that
it was these earth-movements which determined the position of the
watershed.

Relation of the Faults to the Valley and to the Watershed.

That the valley to which, as we have seen, Bala Lake belongs,
is in the line of a great fault, has long been known; and the fault
is represented on the Survey maps as passing down the middle
of the lake. It lies, I believe, more nearly along the south-eastern
shore, and the opposite shore coincides with the line of a second fault,
which, like the former, has its downthrow towards the lake. Thus
the lake lies in the continuation of a trough, and its two sides
coincide or nearly coincide with the two faults enclosing the trough.

South of Pant-gwyn the valley is very narrow. Its north-western
side is formed of volcanic rocks, which are usually supposed to be of
Arenig age, while the south-eastern side is formed of Middle Lingula
beds containing Lingulella Davisi. But the floor of the valley is
concealed by drift and alluvium, and there is nothing to indicate
the exact position of the fault which undoubtedly exists, nor is
there any evidence to show whether this fault is simple or compound.

At Pant-gwyn, however, the valley opens out; the faults are
much more clearly seen, and here they form a complex system
which we shall now proceed to examine. (Fig. 3.)

It is, perhaps, unnecessary to give in detail the evidence on which
these faults are drawn. It will almost be sufficient to say that,
in general, wherever the volcanic series exists, it is conspicuously
visible, and it is an easy matter to trace its boundary.

The slates below the volcanic series are also well enough exposed,
but it is different with the post-volcanic slates in the valley; and
as many of the exposures of these beds are difficult to find, it may
be well to enumerate them.

DECADE IV.—VOL. VII.—NO. Y. 14

210 Philip Lake—Bala Lake and River System.

GEOLOGICAL MAP OF THE
LLEY oF THE BALA FAULT
NEAR THE WATERSHED

)

Fic. 3.—Geological Map of the Valley of the Bala Fault.

Philip Lake—Bala Lake and River System. 211

On the south-east side of the valley, these slates are visible close
to the Bala fault at Cilgellan, and again between Cefn-gwyn and
Cwm-onen. They, as well as all the other rocks, are well exposed
in and near Afon Dwrnudo.! They occur also in the banks of
a small stream about 300 yards below Bryn Amlwg; and again,
close to the Bryn Amlwg patch of volcanics, in the streamlets near
the transverse fault.

On the other side of the valley, the slates are found in the farm-
yard of Pant-gwyn. They are well exposed in the triangular patch
four or five hundred yards north-west of that farm; and in the
Dyfrdwy they are seen to overlie the volcanic series, dipping
5° S. of E. (true) at an angle of 88°. They occur also in the quarry
near Ty-mawr and in the bed of the river close to Tal-y-bont.

In the neighbourhood of Llwyn-gwern these slates are visible in
several places, and the volcanic series dips beneath them. South-
east of Llanuwchllyn also, in the valley of Afon Twrch, the slates
and ashes are clearly shown, and the ashes dip beneath the slates ;
but the boundary is here more complex than is represented upon
the map, being faulted by a series of little faults of which only one
or two are indicated.

The north-to-south fault which lies east of Drws-y-nant-uchaf
is plainly visible in the stream 500 yards above the farm, where it
brings black slates (presumably Upper Lingula) on its eastern side
into contact with Middle Lingula Flags (containing Lingulella Davisi)
on its western side. The eastern is therefore the downthrow side,
and as the hade is towards the west the fault is reversed. The
crushing due to this fault is also seen in the little rivulet some
200 yards north-east of the farm.

The fault which is drawn between Moel Caws and Creigiau
Llwyn-gwern nowhere, so far as is visible, brings beds of different
character into contact with each other, and is inserted upon less
evidence than the rest. But I venture to think that few who
examine the remarkable little valley in which it lies will be disposed
to deny the existence of this fault.

The evidence for the other faults is manifest upon the map, and
need not here be recapitulated. In most cases the position and
direction can be fixed with considerabie accuracy, but seldom so
precisely as to determine which of two intersecting faults displaces
the other. It may be noted that the fault which crosses the Dwrnudo
600 yards above Llechwedd-fwyalchen is probably continued for
a considerable distance in both directions.

One or two patches of intrusive rock exist besides that which is
shown upon the map. Granophyre occurs on both sides of the
Bala fault at several points north-east of Drws-y-nant-uchaf, but is
too imperfectly exposed to be satisfactorily mapped. There are also
some masses of intrusive rock on the left bank of the Dyfrdwy,
near Rhyd-y-drain ; but these have not yet been examined in detail.

1 Afon Dwrnudo is the stream which flows past Llechwedd-fwyalchen.

212 Philip Lake—Bala Lake and. River. System.

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Fic. 4.—Diagram of the Bala Faults.

In the accompanying diagram of the faults (Fig. 4), the downthrow
side of each (when it is known) is shaded, and the bottom of the

Philip Take—Bala Lake and River System. 218

valley is indicated by a heavy line. Some of the faults are continued,
in their probable directions, into the area which is now concealed
: by drift and alluvium ; and an additional fault (N) is inserted which
is not shown upon the geological map. The existence of this is
somewhat doubtful, but the foot of the hills is here so extraordinarily
‘straight that I cannot help suspecting that it coincides with a line
of fault.
~ A comparison of this diagram with the topographical map (Fig. 5)
~ will show that the actual contour of the ground agrees very closely
with the contour which would be produced by the faults, if it were
‘determined by them alone. It is true that a few of the faults, such
as that near Drws-y-nant-uchaf, have no effect upon the surface.

.

1000» + 1900 1700 VARS
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400 400 300 200 100 +0 ‘00
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rz > ry

Fie. 5,—Sketch-map of the topography of the valley of the Bala Fault
near the watershed.

But generally each fault is marked by a more or less sudden change
of slope, and the ground on the downthrow side of the fault lies
lower than that on the upthrow side. ‘This is sometimes well shown
even where the rock is similar in character on both sides of the
fault. Attention may be drawn, for example, to the fault west of
Pant-gwyn.

(214 Philip Lake—Bala Lake and River System.

It will be observed that several of the most important faults run
parallel to the general direction of the valley, some on one side and
some on the other, and that in most cases the downthrow of these
faults is towards the valley; the only exceptions are the faults
D and E, which indeed are not parallel to the valley, but are nearly
so, and are placed symmetrically with regard to it. In these two
cases the downthrow is away from the valley.

There is also a series of transverse or oblique faults, and these
throw down either towards Bala Lake or towards the bottom of
the valley.

Except for a wide curve, convex towards the north-west, the
whole of the valley north of Pant-gwyn is enclosed between the
outermost of the longitudinal faults—the Bala fault (A) on the one
hand and the fault B on the other; and both of these throw down
towards the centre of the valley. Moreover, the fault B, if pro-
duced, coincides precisely (as is very clearly seen in the field from
a position near its southern end) with the north-west shore of Bala
Lake. The Bala fault is dislocated at several points, but if the
northernmost portion be continued in a straight line it will be found
to lie nearly parallel to the south-east shore of the lake, but some
distance within the water’s edge.

Without any aid from denudation these faults would, of themselves
alone, form a valley very similar to that which now exists; and if
we take into account the oblique faults F, M,' and L and the doubtful
fault N, even the convex bend of the valley out of its regular course
may be explained as directly due to the faulting.

The general shape of the valley is, in fact, not unlike that which
the faults themselves might be expected to produce. But it must
be allowed that the form produced by the faults has been consider-
ably modified by subsequent denudation; and it is difficult, if not
impossible, to determine how far the present configuration is to be
attributed to the direct effect of the faults and how far to their
influence in guiding denudation. The relation of the faults to the
configuration of the ground is, however, so close that they must,
either directly or indirectly, be the cause of that configuration.

Hiven if we assume that the valley has been actually formed by
the faults themselves, it is by no means necessary to suppose that
it is so old as, for example, the Bala fault. A comparatively small
movement along this fault, perhaps long after its original formation,
would be sufficient to account for all the phenomena so far as it is
concerned.

The transverse fault at Pant-gwyn is particularly interesting.
Its downthrow is towards the north-east, that is, towards Bala Lake;
and it appears to form the southern end of the trough produced
by the longitudinal faults. On the north-west bank of the valley the
ground is much higher on the upthrow side of the fault than on
the downthrow side. But this is not the case on the south-east bank.
Yet here, near the bottom of the valley, drift on the downthrow

1 Tt should be noted that there is no evidence to show which is the downthrow
side of either M or N. ;

Professor Bonney—Plant-stems in Geiss. 215

side is in contact with solid rock on the upthrow side, and it is
possible that the fault produces its full effect upon the solid floor.
However this may be, the fault coincides very closely with the
watershed in the valley. No water crosses it except a single
streamlet, and this rises only a yard or two away.

Whatever the reason may be, therefore, we may safely say that
the valley north of Pant-gwyn lies in the trough between two
faults, and that this trough is closed at its southern end by
a transverse fault, which coincides with the watershed crossing
the valley ; and further, that many of the other faults apparently
produce on the surface of the ground an effect which is similar
in kind, if not in degree, to that which they produce on the strata
themselves.

That these coincidences are accidental is, to say the least,
improbable; and a simple explanation appears to be that the
valley was blocked out, so to speak, by the faults themselves, and
that the form so produced has been somewhat modified by subsequent
denudation.

In advancing this view I am aware that it attributes to the faults
a more direct influence upon the topography than many geologists
will be disposed to allow. But although most valleys may have
been carved out by rivers, it is impossible to deny that some have
been formed by faults.

It may be urged that since the formation of the faults there must
have been a vast amount of denudation which would obliterate their
effect upon the surface. But where erosion exceeds deposition, the
tendency of subaerial denudation is to accentuate rather than to
obliterate inequalities. Moreover, the evidence of the age of the
faults is extremely slight, and there is nothing to show that no
movement has taken place along them in comparatively recent
times.! I shall show subsequently that, however the valley may
have been formed, it was probably not in existence when the
drainage system of the district was first established.

(To be concluded in our next Number.)

IJ].—PuLant-stEMS IN THE GUTTANNEN GNEISS.
By Professor T. G. Bonney, D.Se., LL.D., F.R.S.

A important paper? on the reputed occurrence of fossil plant-
stems in gneiss of Carboniferous age at Guttannen, Switzerland,
by Messrs. E. v. Fellenberg & C. Schmidt, for a copy of which
I am indebted to the courtesy of the authors, closes, if their view
be adopted, a comedy of errors. On this account a brief outline
of the story may be of service; for it reduces this supposed relic
of Paleozoic forests to a lusus nature, and, in any case, once more
illustrates the truth of the saying, ‘‘ we are all fallible mortals.”

1 It may be noted that Mr. C. Davison’s researches on earthquakes in Great
Britain seem to indicate that even at the present time slips occasionally take place
along faults which are, in their origin, of very ancient date. 8

2 EK. vy. Fellenberg & C. Schmidt, ‘‘ Neuere Untersuchungen iiber den sogen.
Stamm im Gneisse yon Guttannen’’: Separat-Abdruck aus den Mitt. der Naturfors.
Gesell. in Bern, Jahrgang 1898.

216 Professor Bonney—Plant-stems in Geiss.

> The gneiss-plant’s first’ introduction to English literature was,
I think, in 1890, when Professor Heim, in a controversial note
appended to my paper: on “Crystalline Schists and their relation
to Mesozoic Rocks in the Lepontine Alps,”! cited it as a proof that
gneiss of Paleozoic age existed in the Central Alps; but it was
described and figured by Baltzer? two years earlier in the official
publication of the Swiss Geological Survey. I had, however,
examined the specimen when visiting the Museum at Berne in
August, 1889, and can best describe its aspect and the impression
it produced on me by an extract from my diary. ‘The rock
is a purplish-grey colour, rather fine-grained as a rule, containing
numerous. small plates of brown mica, many white spots rather
angular in outline, apparently felspar, and quartz, in the matrix.
One or two quartz veins traverse the block. ‘The rock at first sight
is wonderfully like a gneiss. It has evidently been compressed,
resulting in a sort of foliation or rude cleavage, with a brown
slickensided look on the surfaces of the supposed organisms (cf. the
Obermittweida conglomerate, Reusch’s Scandinavian fossils in
Silurian ‘schists,’ etc.). The rock does not exactly resemble any
gneiss I have seen in the Alps. Though I cannot be quite sure that
I detected extraneous fragments, I thought I did. The matrix varies
somewhat from coarse to fine, as one traces it through the mass, and
its ultimate groundmass or ‘paste’ has a slightly muddy look,
In short, the rock reminded me very much of some of the best
‘imitative crystallines’ of Vernayaz, and I suspect that it is really
an infolding of Paleozoic or Mesozoic ‘arkose.’ The tree stems
are two in number, with obscure traces of what may be a third;
the largest about 5 feet long by 8 inches wide; it rises in a low
curve, with a sagitta of about 3 inches. There are some indications
of cross markings like the stems of calamites; no ribbings or leaf-
scars that I noticed. In short, they are obscure markings, but
I think it more likely that they indicate vegetable remains than
that the rock is a member of the crystalline series.” The opinion
thus formed was expressed in a note on Professor Heim’s comments
appended to the above-named paper.*

I determined, however, to make a fuller investigation of the
question, and in 1891 found an opportunity of visiting Guttannen,
in company with my friend Mr. J. Eccles, F.G.S. On my way
from England I halted at Berne to make another examination of
the specimen in the Museum. The note, written on the spot, is
practically an epitome of that already quoted, with the addition
that ‘(one stem appears to have a kind of ‘bark,’ not graphite, but
dark carbonaceous matter, as if coaly material were mixed with
mud. The outer surface has a sort of brown glaze (irony) over it,
and so has the inner one.” At Guttannen we examined the outcrops
of the supposed Carboniferous gneiss on the eastern side of the
valley, with some of those on the western, together with many

? Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xlvi, p. 237.

2 Beitrage zur geol. Karte der Schweiz, Lief. xxiv (1888), pt. 4, p. 161.
3 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xlvi, p. 238.

Professor Bonney—Plant-stems in Geiss. 217

erratic blocks, including that from which the Berne specimen was
said to have been taken.

This field work? and subsequent microscopic study of specimens
strengthened my conviction that the rock was an ‘arkose’ of
materials from crystalline rocks, and thus only. an imitation of a
gneiss.* I may add that the other possibility—that these objects
were not-really plants, but imitative markings, produced by earth
movements in a truly crystalline rock—had been present to my
mind throughout. It would have saved me from wasting my time
by a journey to Guttannen, so that, if I could, I would gladly
have adopted it. But the markings were accepted as plants by
the experts of the Swiss Survey,® and, so far as I could form an
opinion, on good grounds, while the clastic structure of the rock
on the whole appeared to be original rather than superinduced.
Moreover, the grounds on which Herr Schmidt claimed the rock
for a true gneiss appeared to me, as I pointed out in my paper,*
defective in more than one respect.

Still, though this visit to Guttannen strengthened my conviction,
microscopic study of the specimens did not, as I had hoped, place
the matter beyond all question. So in the Summer of 1896 I again
visited Guttannen, this time in company with my friend the
Rev. Edwin Hill, F.G.S., and now more especially examined the
western flank of the valley. Everywhere the so-called Carboniferous
gneiss had a grit-like aspect, including a not unfrequent change
in coarseness perpendicular to the occasional banded structure. In
one place we found a thin band of rock resembling a dark phyllite,
but no conglomerate. We traced the ‘Carboniferous gneiss ’
northwards nearly up to its junction with the ordinary gneiss of
the district, the difference between them being very marked.
Though the field work strengthened me in the view which I had
already expressed, complete demonstration was again wanting
and was not supplied by a microscopic study of the specimens
collected. Among other things, the supposed phyllite band exhibited
such indications of crushing as to make it an untrustworthy witness.

-I determined, however, to make a third attempt to obtain
decisive evidence. According to the Swiss geological map this
zone of ‘Carboniferous gneiss’ crosses the Urbach Thal, just about
the foot of the Gauli Glacier. So in the Summer of 1897 I planned
a visit to this locality in company with Mr. J. Parkinson, F.G.S.
The walk to the foot of the glacier, from Im Hof, the nearest
halting-place, and back, takes about eight hours, so our time for
studying the gneiss was rather limited. The result of this®
and of subsequent microscopic examination of specimens was

1 About a month later I visited Vernayaz to look once more at the well-known
Carboniferous infold, parts of which sometimes curiously resemble crystalline rocks ;
this time examining it as far as the Téte Noire. i
__* This conclusion and the reasons are fully stated in a paper (Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc., vol. xlviii, p. 390).

® Beitrage, ut supra, pp. 164-8.

_ 4 Ut supra, p. 395.
® On another day we spent a little time at Guttannen.

218 Professor Bonney—Plant-stems tn Geiss.

disappointing. A truly clastic origin was constantly suggested, but
was not placed beyond dispute. Shortly afterwards we visited the
Museum at Berne, and again examined the famous stems. Pieces
had been cut from the ends, probably for the investigation undertaken
by Messrs. Von Fellenberg and Schmidt. One passed through the
longer stem, affording a crescentic section, and disclosed a third,
circular in outline and much smaller. I wrote thus in my diary:
“ Both ‘stems’ seem occupied by a material slightly darker,
greener, and compacter than the rest of the block. In places
there is about 0-1” or 0:15” of a phyllite-like substance, where
‘bark’ should be on the stem. ‘The outer curve of the stem
appears not to enter the stone like a fracture would do, but more
as a fossil. The bark-like appearance is very conspicuous in the
upper, smaller, and ‘indented’ stem on the face of the block.
This, neither in shape, nor in aught else, looks like a ‘roll’
in the rock. There are two or three surfaces of mechanical
division, but they do not appear to be the same, and the glaze on
them, which can also be traced in parts of the stem, seems a mere
film.” After noting one or two other matters, I conclude thus:
“If plants, they are very rough and ill preserved ; but if the result
of mechanical movements, they are of a most extraordinary and
exceptional nature, and the rock certainly has the look of an
‘arkose’ rather than of a true gneiss.”

In the memoir before us Messrs. Von Fellenberg & Schmidt
give the results of the investigation which was no doubt in process
at the last-named date. It is illustrated by seven plates containing
nine figures, giving excellent representations of the supposed
remains, both as formerly visible and as disclosed by the new
sections. The latter are cut from both the upper and lower ends
of the longest stem, which, as we can observe in the photograph,
has an extraordinary resemblance to a plant. From a cross cut
the outline is seen in one case to be an oval, rudely flattened on
one side, in a second very rudely crescent-shaped, and in a third
nearly circular. The core of the enclosure, a very tough and
compact material, blackish green in colour, proves to be an
amphibolite; for it is composed almost entirely of short columnar
grains of hornblende, between which lie allotriomorphic water-clear
felspars, solitary scales of muscovite, zoisite in thread-like clusters,
and numerous grains of magnetite with jagged edges. The compact
exterior (the supposed bark) is described as practically composed
of biotite. Herr Schmidt has also examined the surrounding rock,
and maintains the accuracy of his description already published.'
In regard to the mineral constituents it agrees with what I have
seen in specimens believed to come from another part of the block, |
especially with reference to the rather remarkable changes in texture,
though in my specimen the felspar is rather more converted to |
sericite, and the ‘ mortelstructur ’ is less noteworthy or characteristic |
than in the slices which he describes. The block is traversed by —

1 Loe. cit., p. 164.

Professor Bonney—Plant-stems in Geiss. 219

quartz veins and exhibits (as illustrated by a photograph) irregular
folds, the crests of which are roughly parallel with the supposed
stem, besides other mechanical disturbance. The result of the
investigation, into the more minute details of which it is needless
to enter, is summed up in the following words: “Der vermeintliche
Stamm erscheint als ein Amphibolit-Hinschluss, der beim Faltungs-
process gewalzt worden ist”: in other words it is not a fossil plant,
but a lusus nature.

The authors, however, leave without notice some interesting
questions. We should welcome some explanation of these isolated
and singularly shaped portions of hornblendic rock in a mass which
elsewhere is generally without that mineral. Are we to regard
them as branches of an intrusive vein of dioritic rock, rolled round
and perhaps broken up by mechanical movements; or were they
originally concretions, somewhat similarly affected, and if so, how
are they to be explained? These questions the authors dismiss with
the brief remark that such hornblendic inclusions are common in
the Guttannen gneiss. ‘That may be so, but I cannot remember
to have observed another instance, and in the rock itself hornblende
is seldom, if ever, present. In no one of twenty-four slices in my
cabinet, three of them, according to report, from the same block
as the specimen at Berne, can I find an indubitable grain of
hornblende. Again, what explanation must we give of the biotite
‘skin,’ which so curiously mimics a ‘bark.’ Was it a contact
product of the gneiss and the amphibolite, or a secondary result
of their juxtaposition and of mechanical disturbances ? Yet more,
how do we account for the curious petrographical character of the
so-called Carboniferous gneiss, which is so distinctive as to catch
the eye at once in the field, and to have led the official geologists
of Switzerland to distinguish it from the other gneisses of the
region?! Iam fairly well acquainted with Alpine gneisses, and this
one, so far as I can remember, differs from all others known to me.
The ‘mortelstructur’ also, exhibited by certain specimens from
Guttannen, appears to me abnormal. From the majority, which
neither resemble true gneisses nor those called mylonitic, it is
absent; in the few, where it occurs, the presence of a fragment
seems possible.

But I must admit that, though some aspects of the problem seem to
have been overlooked by the authors, their petrographical description
of this Guttannen gneiss makes it impossible that these structures
can be the remains of plants. Hence, whatever the rock may be,
they cease to have any special interest. They do not reveal its
geological age, and the inferences founded on them are fallacious.
That a mistake had been made, I was confident from the first ; but
of the two possible explanations of it I have apparently adopted the
wrong one. Though I naturally regret this, I cannot but rejoice
at the effectual laying of another metamorphic spectre, and for that
we are deeply indebted to Messrs. Von Fellenberg and Schmidt.
_ 1 Near Guttannen they term it Seritische Phyllite, an inappropriate name, as
‘I understand Phyllite.

220 “Professor J. Joly—The Age of the Earth.

But I may be allowed to remark that their exorcism comes rather
Jate in the day. Such an investigation ought to have been under-
taken at least’ a dozen years ago, that is to say, before the specimen
was displayed in the principal museum at Berne, figured and
described by a government department, and trumpeted forth to the
world by an official geologist as a discovery of prime importance in
the history of metamorphic rocks. For twelve years this error has
been infecting textbooks and impeding progress; but at last the
plant-remains in the gneiss of Guttannen have gone to join
the schists, where garnets and staurolites dwell in unity with
belemnites, in that limbo which is appointed for exploded hy poe
Requiescant in pace! —

lV.—Tue Geronocicat Acre or tHe HartH.
By J. Jory, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.

T{\ELE able review of my paper on the Geological Age of the Harth

which appears in the March number of this Magazine (p. 124),
from the pen of the Rev. O. Fisher, raises again questions of such
wide interest that some further remarks, referring principally to
the criticism of the distinguished writer of the review, and also
to criticisms which I have received from others and which are
probably in the minds of many who have considered the matter,
may not be out of place.

My position in reference to the mode of estimating the Geological
Age of the Earth advocated in my paper has, of course, been that
of the Uniformitarian. In answer to general objections on this
score, I have only to say that positive knowledge on the subject
under discussion will probably never be attained by Science.
Recognizing this, we may ask of the Physicist on the one hand,
and of the Geologist on the other, to what the probable error-
limits of their several methods of computation may amount. Will
the Geologist admit as probable, denudative activities continued
throughout the entire past of geological history which are sufliciently
discordant with those of to-day as to bring his error-limit to the
magnitude of that confessed to by the Physicist? Will he admit,
in short, that the activities of to-day may have been five times
excelled or five times diminished, and stand divided between the
possibility that they were maintained at the one or the other of these
magnitudes throughout geological time? In other words, that our
hundred million years may have been five hundred millions or twenty
millions so far as denudative processes can tell us? Yet it is just
this position the Geologist must assent to before he attains to
the uncertainty which divides Physicists on this question at the
present day. I need not draw the obvious inference or review
the question further.

Among geological methods, that one which I have advocated
{and in which ] was in part anticipated by Mr. Mellard Reade)
claims, as I have contended, the safest and most restricted measure
of Uniformitarianism—claims, in fact, uniformity confined more

Professor J. Joly—The Age of the Earth. 221

especially to activities depending on molecular processes : processes
in which the mutual presence of the reacting substances is the
primary factor, their rate of relative motion or circulation entering
the result only in’ a secondary manner. The method, in short,
relies principally on uniformity in the prevalence of that most general
of geological conditions, the mutual presence of water and rock
material over the land areas. I can best explain by an example.
Suppose we desire to estimate the rate of solubility of basalt. in
water. We arrange that a. measured quantity of water circulates
over the fragments of rock for a certain time. Now in this
experiment, whether we circulate the water quickly or slowly
over the rock the result will be the same or nearly the same.
This is so because the molecular actions are relatively so slow
that even very sluggish circuiation of the water suffices to renew
the solvent before saturation is nearly attained, aud so suffices to
preserve the action at its maximum rate. The accelerative influence
of friction—as in Daubrée’s revolving cylinders—plays relatively
but a small part in the work of chemical and solvent denudation
on the earth’s surface.

But advantages depending on the restriction of our Uniformi-
tarianism are not the only ones which the method claims to possess.
The quantities involved, those on which our final answer depends,
are more clearly defined and more accurately measurable than those
required in Uniformitarian methods based on rates of sedimentation.
The total volume of the ocean, its composition, the volume and
composition of the river water, are quantities measurable without’
speculation; our knowledge of which will grow with the advance
of Science.

The value of this restricted Uniformitarianism may be exemplified
in the possibilities involved in the abnormal lunar tides suggested
by Professor G. Darwin. If such abnormal tides affected the earth’s
surface within the period of the Geological Time of which we speak,
the mechanical effects would remain the chief record; and we could
not say if the wider and barer coasts of the period would contribute
more or less than the normal dissolved matter to the ocean. We
might argue for more on the ground of increased mechanical action ;
for less, on the grounds that the soils wherein chemical effects would
most favourably progress had not been formed. Very probably the
ultimate result would be to affect our numbers but little.

This appropriately leads me to the question of the nature of the
primitive ocean. I submit that upon those who wish to imagine
the waters of the primeval earth charged with alkaline salts rests
the onus of showing how these elements escaped the avidity of the
silica under early igneous conditions: the combination of the two
being the course of events which we primd facie infer. Or, if they
admit such formation of alkaline silicates, they have to explain the
subsequent release of the alkali.

On this last point I have in my paper gone on the assumption
(justifiable, as I submit) that long-continued attack from free acid
cannot be assumed as directed to the one element sodium. Free

222. Professor J. Joly—The Aye of the Earth.

acid in the primitive atmosphere must be supposed to act upon the
primitive rock much as it would in the laboratory experiment of
to-day, when we put such rock to digest in the aqueous solution of
the acid. Taking, then, HCl as probably by far the most abundant
of the free active acids of the primeval atmosphere, the outcome
of the chemical reaction between the acid and the average rock-crust
affords such a mass of sodium as would shorten Geological Time by
some six million years. (The corrigenda affixed to my paper should
be consulted in reference to this number.)

I may add with regard to vague ideas (not unprevalent) as to
long ages of boiling waters acting upon the primitive rocks that
calculation relegates these long ages to their proper importance.
In fact, the rate of cooling of lava after solidification is so rapid that
the long ages shrink to a very few years. ‘The thickness of the
wholly solidified crust grows at first with extreme rapidity—at the
end of a year it may be as much as ten metres, with a surface almost
or quite cool enough for some kinds of vegetation.” (Lord Kelvin,
“The Age of the Harth”’: Address to the Victoria Institute, 1897.)
The subsequent rate of cooling may be inferred from a further
extract from the same address: ‘To fix our ideas let us suppose
at the end of one year the surface to be 80° (Cent.) warmer than
it would be with no underground heat, then at the end of 100 years
it would be 8° warmer, and at the end of 10,000 years it would be
0-8 of a degree warmer.” So then (and, be it observed, these figures
are independent of what we postulate as to the gross thermal actions
involved in earth-cooling) the long ages shrink to a period of
a century, during which the water fell through its critical point
to a liquid resting on our earth, warmed about 8° above what it
is to-day; if, indeed, a lesser sun-heat (see Professor Perry’s article
in Nature, vol. 1x, p. 247) did not act to make it considerably cooler.
Now if we assume that the mean rate of solvent and chemical
aqueous denudation during this period was as much as one hundred
times as great as to-day, we find 10,000 years’ work accomplished
in the first 100 years: involving a correction evidently quite
negligeable.

But difficulties which may be described as based on highly
probable speculation are not the only ones which have to be faced
by the advocates of the primitive alkali-charged ocean. Let us
suppose they have surmounted the difficulties of accounting for the
state of things they desire to establish. They have now to explain
how the known enormous subsequent formation of sediments was
effected from the original rock-crust without putting into the ocean
the bulk of the alkalies they have already assumed to be in it. Still
more, they have to explain the coincidence that the approximate
measure of the sodium missing from these sediments very closely
suffices to account (the error being on the side of ewcess) for the
amount of sodium in the ocean. ‘This is a point resting on estimates
certainly sufficiently reliable for the degree of accuracy required
in confirmatory evidence, and can neither be slighted nor ignored
till its fallacy is demonstrated.

ee

Professor J. Joly—The Age of the Earth. 223

Before finally dropping the subject of the primitive ocean I must
refer to a remark of Mr. Fisher’s to the effect—if I understand it
aright—that any assumption involving an original ocean free from
alkalies also involves chemical proportions between the alumina
and the alkalies in the original rocks. ‘If this proportion did not
hold there would have been either alumina uncombined in the
crystalline rocks or alkalies over to combine with the acids in the
ocean, presumably the latter, seeing that alkali salts abound in it
at present. That this due proportion should have existed does not
seem probable.” I really see no reason why we should look for or
except any such equivalence between alumina and alkali. Why
not an excess of alumina over alkali? Why not, when a glance
at Mr. Clarke’s average crust-composition shows that there is
a very large excess of alumina over what is required to make felspar
molecules out of the alkalies or, for that matter, molecules of most
of the important alumina-alkali-silicates ; and fresh-water lakes of
to-day exist among such rocks? Would any special difficulty arise
if these lakes were now to be formed by condensation of steam ?

Mr. Fisher’s criticism on the legitimacy of accepting the river
supply of sodium to the ocean is directed to the origin of the
chloride of sodium of the rivers; contending that Clarke’s crust-
percentage of chlorine (0:01) is inadequate to account for the
chlorine involved. Hence, he suggests, we must look to Sterry
Hunt’s “ fussil sea-water ” contained in sedimentary rocks.

With regard to this point it will conduce to clearness if I first
refer to the deductive allowance of sodium chloride required by the
presence of this body in rain-water.

In my calculations I had allowed 10 per cent. of the chloride
of sodium of rivers as supplied by rain, and on this account not
entering the calculations. This, I of course admit, may have been
an insufficient allowance. But in the present state of our knowledge
on the matter I do not think more or much more is justified. Inland
rains show an ever diminishing percentage of salts, and again much
of the rainfall richest in salts—that falling immediately on seaboards
—finds its way back to the ocean in rills and streams, taking but
little from the land. The great rivers of the world, which
make up the bulk of the estimate of the river supply to the ocean,
gather their constituents from inland areas remote from the coasts.
On this point our knowledge will doubtless grow with the years.

It will, however, clear away misapprehension as to the stress to
be laid on this matter if I state that, admitting very wide error on
my part in making this allowance, the final possible error involved
is quite limited in amount. Suppose, in fact, we extend the
allowance to a point certainly not justifiable, and assume half the
total NaCl of rivers to be derived from rain-water. Then
it will be found that the estimate of Geological Time increases from
90 to 100 millions of years. If, then, 10 per cent. is too small
and 50 per cent. is too large an allowance, we fix our limits as
between 90 and 100 millions of years. If we were sure of this
we might be well satisfied !

224 Professor J. Joly—The Age of the Earth:

. Now as to the “ fossil sea-water.”” In the first place we find very

conflicting evidence. Mr. Fisher, himself, quotes two observations—

one affording 0-042 per cent. of ‘chlorine calculated to sodium
chloride,” the other affording a quantity too small for estimation.
Sterry Hunt quotes many analyses of deep-seated springs, some in
faulted beds, others in apparently undisturbed beds. The results
give the most widely varying amounts of sodium and other elements
in solution. Even in the case of wells arising in the same rocks
and near together (as in the Trenton Limestone) the relative
proportions of dissolved salts vary even to 100 per cent. His
results did not lead him to the conclusion reached by Mr. Fisher
(that but little sodium had entered the sea since Silurian times),

but to the conclusion that the original ocean contained large amounts:

of calcium chloride, and that alkaline carbonates (derived from
decomposing felspars) ‘‘ which from the earliest times have been

flowing into the sea have gradually modified the composition of

its waters, separating the lime as carbonate and thus replacing the
chloride of lime with chloride of sodium.” (“Chemistry of Natural
Waters,” § 24.) A conclusion essentially in accord with the theory
of oceanic supply which I have advocated.

- Finally, if we refer to No. 148 Bulletin of U.S. Geological Survey,’

containing Messrs. Clarke & Hillebrand’s valuable collection of
rock analyses, we find among many very minute analyses of slates,
shales, and clay-slates the chlorine, in one case only, given at as much
as 0:01 per cent., and generally left blank or entered as “ trace.”

But the part played by possible ‘fossil sea-water” is capable
of estimation and of having a true value assigned to its importance.

Let us accept Mr. Fisher’s first quoted observation, that most
favourable to his suggestion, without reserve. Assume the per-
centage of chloride of sodium derived from ‘fossil sea-water” to
be 0:042 in all slates and similar rocks, and that such rocks cover
one-half the land area of the globe. We will also take the figure
of one foot in 6,000 years (which Mr. Fisher favours) as the rate
of denudation ; and remarking that the sodium chloride supply
from this source, in order to be continuous, must keep pace with
the rate of denudation, we proceed to estimate the amount of
sodium set free by denudation, and express this as a percentage
of the quantity of the element contained in the river supply to
the ocean. The result, as I reckon, comes out as 0-9 per cent.
Tf, then, this amount of sodium chloride circulated, our conclusion
as to the duration of Geological Time would be falsified by about
this percentage, but the assumptions we made in obtaining even
this number are evidently entirely unwarranted.

In point of fact, the conclusion which Mr. Fisher draws from
his experiments might indicate that the premises were somewhere
at fault—that “‘not much additional sodium can have accumulated
in it (the ocean) since Silurian times.” Mr, Fisher elsewhere refers
to the setting free of the alkalies of the felspars of granites.
What, then, became of all the sodium contributed in this manner
to the ocean throughout the ages that have since passed away ? ©

Professor T. R. Jones—Chalk Foraminifera. 225

Now contrast the foregoing inadequacy of denudation as acting
to set free “fossil sea-water” with denudation as dissolving the
alkali-silicates, the latter action being very interestingly brought
out by Mr. Fisher himself in his estimate of the rate of denudation
required to maintain the river supply of alkalies. I venture to
claim that Mr. Fisher has strongly supported my view in showing
that =3s5 of a foot of granite removed per annum over the land
area would suffice to supply the sodium of the rivers. In this
connection I again urge that detrital rocks passing more readily
into soils and exposing finer material to surface actions probably
contribute quite as effectively as eruptive rocks to the supply of
alkalies.

Finally, in reference to Mr. Clarke’s estimate of the crust
constituents, it is worth noting that this estimate is not derived
in such a manner as to include extravasated substances. As
I gather, it is founded on typical rock analyses. Now chlorine, as
it happens, entering only with difficulty into the constitution of
silicates, occurs chiefly as an extravasated substance. Hence we find
it abundant in mineral springs of volcanic regions and in association
with ores. Springs arising in connection with lodes are often
heavily charged with chlorides. The sources of supply are in these
cases probably deep-seated, and would not enter into estimates of
crust constituents based on rock analyses. It will be at once
apparent, too, that saline waters, where entering occasionally into
deep-seated bedded rocks, may well be derived from such sources ;
or, again, from inland waters of former times which had never
communicated with the ocean. The very various composition of
such waters from deep wells supports their non-oceanic origin.
For the greater part these sources of chlorine are to be included
on the side of the crust constituents and (for a large part) so far
as they include sodium in combination, go towards explaining the
discrepancy, such as it is, in the equation between the sodium
missing from the sediments and the sodium of the ocean.

We have no reason to suppose the contributions from these
sources to the rivers to have varied in one or the other direction
during the past.

V.—CaraLoguEe oF THE KNOWN FoRAMINIFERA FROM THE CHALK
AND CHALKMARL! oF THE SoutH AND SourH-HasteERN COUNTIES
OF ENGLAND.

By Prot. T. Rupert Jonzs, F.R.S., F.G.S.
The sources of information are given below.
D. From T. Rupert Jones’s Catalogue of the Foraminifera from
the Chalk and Chalkmarl in the Second Edition of Dixon’s
“Geology and Fossils of Sussex,” 1878, pp. 284 and 285.

1 Tt is not here practicable to divide the Foraminifera belonging severally to the
two formations ; but some indication of the distribution is shown by the list at
pp. 284 and 285 of Dixon’s “ Sussex,’’ 2nd edition, 1878. Of the range of these
Foraminifera in earlier strata of the Cretaceous series, some particulars may be
gathered from the list published in Topley’s ‘‘ Geology ot the Weald’’ (Mem, Geol.
Surv., 1875, pp. 423 and 424), as far as known at that time.

DECADE IV.—YOL. VII.—NO. VY. 1d

226 Professor T. R. Jones—Chalk Foraminifera.

Cr. Foraminifera of the Chalk and Chalkmarl referred to in the
“ Monograph on the Foraminifera of the Crag,” by T. Rupert
Jones and others: Pal. Soc., parts ii, iii, iv, 1895-96-97.

G. Foraminifera belonging to the Chalk and Chalkmarl referred to
in F. Chapman’s “ Description of the Foraminifera from the
Gault’: Trans. Roy. Microsc. Soc., 1891-98.

T. Chapman, ‘On Microzoa from the Phosphatic Chalk of
Taplow”: Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xlvili, 1892,
pp. 514-518.

L. Chapman, “Foraminifera of the Phosphatic Chalk of Lewes”
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. lii, 1896, pp. 470-472.

Jones and Chapman, “On the Fistulose Polymorphine and the
Genus Ramulina’’: Journ. Linn. Soc., Zool., vol. xxvi, 1897,
pp. 340, etc. Besides several of the Polymorphine, this
memoir treats especially of Ramulina aculeata, Wright, for
D, G, T; and R. globulifera, Brady, for the column G.

Upper Chalk: Purley, Surrey. Mr. Charles Upton’s “Chalk under
the Microscope”: Proc. Cotswold Nat. Field Club, vol. vii,
pt. 2, 1898, pp. 209-216. With the nomenclature revised,
the species noticed and figured in this memoir are :—

Textularia globulosa, Ehrenberg. Frondicularia inversa, Reuss.

5 turris, D’ Orb. Cristellaria convergens, Bornem.
Gaudryina pupoides, D’ Orb. Ramulina aculeata, Wright.
Bulimina Murehisoniana, D’ Orb. “3 globulifera, Brady.

50 ovulum, D’Orb. Globigerina marginata, Reuss.
Frondicularia coronata, Perner. Rotalhia Soldanii, D’ Orb.

| D. Cr. G. ak L.
MitroLipz.
Nubecularia tibia, Jones & Parker ... ¥

59 Jonesiana, Chapman au *

a novorossica, Karrer & Sinzow . *
Spiroloculina limbata, D’Orbigny ... | +
Miliolina seminulum (Linné) aes *

ag trigonula (Lamarck) : we eis hs See *

a oblonga (Montagu) eee ocr | eek its wen Oly eae

Fe turgida (Karrer) .. et x
Cornuspira (Lrochammina ?) cretaced '(Reuss) } * *

Litvo1ip#.
Haplophragmium irregulare (Romer) evelyn oe As ae *

5, ovatum (Hagenow) se Seg, ee ene BE ot *
Lituola neutiloidea, Lamarck ay Se, re
Placopsilina Cenomana, D’Orb. .... wi *

Haplostiche Sherborniana, Chapman e aa pas 5

Bdelloidina aggregata, Carter. From the :
Chalk ; locality not known.

Webbina rugosa, D’ Orbigny. ee ah *

TEXTULARIIDE. |

Textularia globulosa,! Ehrenberg ... # * ae * *
#5 »> Var. strusta, ii Ehrenberg a8 Be Sb: 4% &
a decurrens,} Chapman Fis ean) supe ROPE se *

|

| |
1 These are included in a new genus, ‘ Guembelina,’ by Dr. Egger, 1899.

Professor T, R. Jones—Chalk Foraminifera.

Textularia quadrilatera, Schwager...

oe anceps, Reuss... aoe
a conica, D’Orb. ... wae
- trochus, D’Orb. ... Ne
5 turris, D’Orb. ... sex
9 agglutinans, D’Orb. ...
~ concava (Karrer) ... 5c
ae serrata, Chapman

sagittula, Defrance

<5 gibbosa, D’Orb. ... aes
9 Baudouiana, D’Orbd. ...
prelonga, Reuss...
Verneuilina tr iquetra (Minster)
57 Bronnii, Reuss ... 500
; spinulosa, Reuss...
» pygmea (Egger)
Tritaxia pyramidata, Reuss
oe Sfoveolata, Marsson

os tricarinata, Reuss
Spiroplecta rosea, Ehrenberg
5 annectens, Parker & J ones

oe biformis, P&I.
Gaudryina rugosa, D’Orb. ...

5p Jonesiana, Wright bee

ae pupoides, D’ Orb. soc
Bigenerina pennatula (Batsch) ¢
Heterostomella aculeata (Ehrenberg)
Bulimina elegans, D’Orb. ...

55 affinis, D’Orb.

a5 ovata, D’ Orb. noe

as subspherica, Reuss saa

Aa brevis, D’ Orb.

5 obtusa, D’ Orb.

9 trigona, Chapman

i Murchisoniana, D’Orb. .

5 intermedia, Reuss nat
a obliqua, D’Orb. ... sis
. ovulum, Reuss

oH Presli, Reuss

op variabilis, D’ Orb.
polystropha, Reuss

Bolivina dilatata, Reuss

‘3 strigillata, Chapman

af punctata, D’ Orb.

ae textularioides, Reuss

or nobilis, Hantken

ae obsoleta, Eley
Virgulina Schr eiber siana, Czjzek

Bs subsquamosa, Egger...

a3 Hemprichii (Ehrenberg)

se paradoxa (Ehrenb.) :
Pleurostomella subnodosa, Hantken ...

LaGenip™.
Lagena suleata, Walker & Jacob
» globosa (Montagu) aa
», striatopunctata, Parker & Jones
> levis (Montagu)
» gracilis, Williamson

ee KK KS

* : ER ROK!

Ke KK RK:

Cr. G.
E

eee *

*

*
*
*

* *
*
*
*
*

*

* sive

* *

*

*

* © * #

* * #

* *

*:

* * * *

* ee OK KK OK

*

KRG R RIOR, i

228 Professor T. R. Jones—Chalk Foraminifera.

Nodosaria Zippei, Reuss, = raphanus (Linné)

s radicula (Linné) ... 30
_ ambigua, Neugeboren ... se
tenuicosta, Reuss vas
Subgenus 1. Giandulina levigata, D’Orb. .
53 cylindracea, Reuss .
3 mutabilis, Reuss
30) humilis, Reuss
Subgenus 2. Dentalina oligostegia, Reuss .
55 afinis, Reuss
c brevis, Reuss ae
ae communis, D’ Orb. ...
3 gracilis, D’Orb....
As linearis, Reuss
A lineolata, Reuss
Be Lorneiana, D’ Orb.
e monile, Cornuel
aA suleata, D’Orb. ...
a sulcata (Nilsson) ...
ee obscura, Reuss
an consobrina, D’ Orb. ...

a hispida, D’Orb. ...
nit obliqua, D’Orb. ....
a Roemeri, Neugeboren
Ks aculeata, D’Orb. ...
56 pauperata, D’ Orb. ...
is nodosa, D’Orb. _...

expansa, Reuss...

Lingulina car inata, D’ Orb. ...

a6 semiornata, Reuss G66 200
Rhabdogoninmn tricar inatum, var. el
lum, Reuss 386
Frondicularia Archiaciana, ‘D’ Orb.
ee Verneuiliana, D Oxbesuees
We tricarinata, D’ Orb. ua
Me angulosa, D’ Orb. ae Bee
as angusta, Nilsson ...
os Oordai, Reuss
a striatula, Reuss ...

inverst, Reuss 5
Marginutina g glabra, D’ Orb.
elongata, D’ Orb.
@quivoca, Reuss ...

3 compresst, D’ Orb.
ensis, Reuss :
s yaricosta, D’ Orb.

i trilobata, D’ Orb.
Vaginulina levigata (Romer)

aA costulata (Rémer)

a strigillata (Reuss)

xi truncata (Reuss)

Fe gaultina, Berthelin ba

im comitina, Berth.... 200 Sec
Cristellaria cultrata (Montfort)...

ss rotulata, Lamarck ae ae

a gibba, D’Orb. ... 506 Sb

a navicula, D’ Orb. BA

Bi tr iangularis, D7ZOcb eee

ut gemmata, Brady ... Pe

*

* KOK OK

Cr.

* * * *

* * * *

x HK *

Professor T. R. Jones—Chalk Foraminifera.

229

Cristellaria convergens, Bornemann

+B)

Gaudryana, D’ Orb.

gaultina, Berthelin aos
acutauricularis (Fichter & Moll)
obsoleta, Jones bas Ane
ovalis, Reuss... bea Bee
recta, D’ Orb.

Flabellina rugosa, D’ Orb. a ‘ -

”

Baudouiana, D’ Orb.
pulchra, D’ Orb. ...
ornata, Reuss
cordata, Reuss
elliptica, Nilsson
ovata, Geinitz

Polymorphina gibba, D’ Orb.

”

acuminata, D’Orb.
Thouwini, D’Orb.
sororia, Reuss...
Sustformis (Romer)
compressa, 1)’ Orb.
communis, D’ Orb.

Uvigerina Canariensis, D’ Orb.
Sagrina rugosa, \’ Orb.

GLOBIGERINID®.
Globigerina bulloides, D’ Orb.

eretacea, D’ Orb.

xt marginata, Reuss

33 equilateralis, Brady

>) Linneana, D’ Orb.

4 elevata, D’Orb. ...

Ab pelagica, D’Orb....
Rota =.

Planorbulina Clementiana, D’ Orb.

ey
9?

Lorneiana, D’ Orb.
Voltziana, D’ Orb.

Truncatulina lobatula (Walker & J acob)

”?
29
?

variabilis, D’ Orb.
Ungeriana (D’ Orb.)
Huaidingeri (D’ Orb.)

Discorbina Berthelotiana (D’ Orb.) ...
Anomalina ammonoides (Reuss)

”
”
9

aviminensis (D’ Orb.)
grosserugosa (Gumbel)
rotula (D’Orb.) .

Pulvinulina elegans (D’Orb.) |

”

Karsteni (Reuss)

punetulata (D’Orb.) ... sac
Menardii (D’ Orb.) sis 505
Corderiana (D’ Orb.) :
crassa (D’Orb.) .

Micheliniana (D’ Orb.) .

Rotalia exsculpta, Reuss

bP)
”?

Soldanii, D’ Orb.
Beccarii (Linné) ...

Calearina Spengleri (Gmelin)
Gypsina ovata, Marsson

we

OK OK OO ee

kK OK KS

* * * *

*

He ORK KK:

* he RK

230 Reviews—Hall & Clarke—Paleozoic Sponges.

asa 2H AYA DEAD A Sh

J.—A Memorr on THE Patmozoric Rericutare SponGEs OcOoN-
STITUTING THE Famity Dicryosponcip@. By James Hat,
State Geologist and Palzeontologist, in collaboration with Jonx
M. Crarke, Assistant State Geologist and Paleontologist.
Imp. 4to; pp. 350, plates Ixx and 46 figures in the text.
(University of the State of New York, 1898.)

HIS elaborate monograph treats of a family of siliceous sponges
which occur very abundantly in certain portions of the Chemung
division of the Upper Devonian in the State of New York; they are
also present in lesser numbers in the sub-Carboniferous rocks of Ohio
and Indiana. Beyond the bounds of the United States they are
represented by a few forms in the Psammites du Condroz (on the
same horizon as the Chemung) in the North of France, which have
been described by Dr. Charles Barrois; one species is also known
from the Middle Devonian of the Hifel, and another, which appears
to be the oldest representative of the family, has been found in the
micaceous shales of the Upper Ludlow of Westmorland, and
described by McCoy under the name of Tetragonis Danbyt.

The sponges of this family are very varied in shape, but the
majority are vasiform, cylindrical, or prismatic, whilst others are
flattened saucer-shaped, and not infrequently they are of large size.
They consist of a thin wall which is built up of fascicles, principally
of elongate rod-like spicules intermingled with others of cruciform,
five and probably six rays, arranged in vertical and horizontal
bands so as to form a lattice-like mesh with rectangular interspaces.
With the exception of a few specimens from the sub-Carboniferous
tocks of Indiana, these sponges are only known in the form of casts
or solid moulds of the interior hollow of the sponge, which has been
infilled with the arenaceous or calcareous materials of the rock in
which they are imbedded. These moulds retain, very perfectly as
a rule, the form of the sponge scarcely at all compressed, and their
outer surfaces show, in a fairly definite manner, the impressions
of the spicular bands bounding the angular mesh-interspaces. But
it is very difficult to determine from the impressions the form, size,
and disposition of the individual spicules composing these bands, and
hence arises the principal obstacle in the classification of these
sponges, which rests to a considerable extent on their outer form
and proportions, characters of very subordinate value if we may
judge from the existing members of the class.

In some specimens from the sub-Carboniferous rocks of Indiana
where the matrix is a calcareous shale or mud, the originally siliceous
spicules of the bands are now replaced by pyrites, and it has been
possible to determine their forms to a certain extent, but of still
greater significance is the discovery in these pyritized specimens
of very minute flesh-spicules comparable with those in existing
Hexactinellids. Amongst these may be mentioned small regular
six-rayed forms with the rays minutely spined, peculiar modifications

a

Reviews—Hall & Clarke—Paleoxzoic Sponges. 231

of the pinule, and a comparatively new form, termed an umbel,
consisting of a plump rod with an umbrella-shaped summit. There
are also rods with anchor-shaped terminations as in recent sponges
of the same group.

The Dictyospongide in the Chemung rocks of New York are
not infrequently met with associated together in large numbers in
particular beds of a somewhat coarse sandstone, in which they lived
and flourished in large colonies. ‘This habitat is in striking contrast
to that of recent hexactinellid sponges, of which the greater number
live in mud or ooze and often at considerable depths, whereas the
sandy matrix on the surface of which their Devonian progenitors
lived indicates a comparatively shallow sea.

The Bibliography of the Dictyospongide is not without interest.
The earliest known example, Hydnoceras tuberosum, was thus named
by Conrad, in 1842, under the supposition that it was an unusual
form of Cephalopod, and in the same year Vanuxem described
Uphantenia Chemungensis, another member of the family, as a marine
plant. In 1863 James Hall, the senior author of the present
monograph, proposed a new genus, Dictyophyton, with nine species,
including Hydnoceras tuberosum, Conrad, the generic name signifying
that in Hall’s opinion the fossils belonged to marine Alga. ‘That
these supposed fossil plants were in reality siliceous sponges related
to the recent Euplectellidea, was clearly shown by R. P. Whitfield
in 1881, who pointed out that in this case the generic term
Dictyophyton, Hall, was a misnomer, and that therefore it would
be necessary to go back to one of the earlier names, Hydnoceras,
Conrad, or Uphantenia, Vanuxem. In 1884 Professor Hall defined
several new genera, but though the spongoid character of the family
is fully recognized in the name given to it, the term Dictyophyton is
retained, and the same course is followed in 1890, when other new
species were placed in the genus. In the meantime a large collection
of these fossils had been gathered together by Professor Hall, who
handed them over to Dr. J. M. Clarke for revision, and it may
therefore be fairly assumed that this latter author is mainly
responsible for the classification and descriptions in the present
monograph. We find in it a veritable revolution as regards the
nomenclature: the name Dictyophyton, Hall, is entirely given up,
since it “has proved a misleading term among the sponges”;
Conrad’s genus Aydnoceras, which Hall had merged in Dictyophyton,
is again revived, and the various species placed under Dictyophyton
by Hall, and by others who had adopted the generic name without
reference to its original signification, are now distributed among
Hydnoceras and ten new genera !

A summary of the monograph shows that the Dictyospongide
family is divided into 7 subfamilies, all new; 32 genera, 20 of
which are new; and 128 species, of which 77 are new. The
‘descriptions of genera and species are drawn up very carefully, but,
as already remarked, the structural characters of the skeleton in
these sponges are very imperfectly shown in their casts, and
differences of mere outer form and mode of growth, on which many

232 Reviews—An English Edition of Zittel.

of the generic and specific features are mainly based, are too
inconstant to be relied on.

The varied forms of these sponges are very clearly shown in the
admirable plates, whilst figures of the remarkable flesh-spicules
are given in the text.

This monograph is a worthy addition to the series of volumes
on the Paleontology of the State of New York which, under the
authorship of the late Professor James Hall, have appeared during
the last fifty years, and it also furnishes a happy augury for the
further continuance of the series by his successor, Dr. J. M. Clarke.

G.cd2)

I].—Trxt-Boox or Patmontonrocy. By Kari A. von ZIrret.
Translated and edited by Cuartes R. Eastman, Ph.D. Revised
and enlarged. Vol. I. pp. viii and 706, with 1,476 woodcuts.
(London: Macmillan & Co., 1900.)

F recent years it has become more and more evident that it is
impossible for one man, however great, to write unaided an
advanced text-book dealing with all the branches of one science. The
only way in which an advanced text-book can be compiled so as to be
of real value is by the co-operation of a number of specialists under
the direction of a competent editor. This has already been done in
some sciences, and to this class of work we may refer the book
under consideration, which marks an epoch in paleontological
literature.

We had long envied our German colleagues the possession of
Zittel’s Handbuch der Palaeontologie, for although it was for the
use of all paleontologists, still a work in a foreign language is
never quite the same as one in our own; but now we feel that we
have the advantage over them, for in the present work we have
the foundation Jaid by Zittel with a superstructure by a number
of zoologists who, as specialists in the groups with which they
are dealing, possess worldwide reputations. We have only to
glance at the list of collaborators to see what an immense advance
this work makes on all other paleontological text-books.

The only disadvantage which this type of work appears to us to
suffer from, is the fact that specialists are, after all, but human
beings, and consequently apt, in dealing with their favourite group
of animals, to give undue prominence to their own views, especially
in matters of classification and nomenclature; consequently the
advanced student will do well to bear in mind that each chapter
is either written or revised by an ardent enthusiast, and not by
a cool and perhaps unprejudiced general paleontologist.

Looking at this work in more detail, we find that while the
chapters on the Protozoa and Celenterata stand essentially as in the
original, those on the Wolluscoidea, Mollusca, and Trilobita are
entirely rewritten, and the remainder enlarged and revised. We
cannot help regretting that some of the short descriptions of the
sub-kingdoms were not revised along with the other matter, since

Reviews—Lankester’s Treatise on Zoology. 233

such statements like those on p. 257 re the supposed relationships
of the Molluscoidea to the Mollusca, and the supposed total
absence of all hard parts in Tunicata, are apt to mislead the
student, unless he has had a very thorough zoological training.
So also would some of the definitions of the classes and orders
of the Mollusca.

Studying a work of this description one cannot help wondering
whether specialists in different groups will ever come to any
agreement as to the differences which constitute species, genera,
and families, and in this connection we think that the student who
voluntarily takes up the study of the fossil Cephalopoda will be
a bold man indeed.

We must congratulate Dr. Eastman and his collaborators on the
excellent results which have attended their efforts, and we think
that Professor von Zittel was wise in allowing his work to be
expanded and altered to its present form, which Messrs. Macmillan
have put before us in such excellent condition. All English-
speaking students of Palaeontology will rejoice at its appearance.

I1].—A Treatise on Zoonocy. Edited by E. Ray Lankesrer.
Part III: The Echinoderma. By F. A. Barner, M.A., assisted
by J. W. Gregory, D.Sc., and E. 8. Goopricu, M.A. pp. vi
and 344, with 308 figures in the text. (London: Adam &
Charles Black, 1900.)

T last we have actually before us the first instalment of Professor
Lankester’s long promised Treatise on Zoology. It is some-
what unfortunate that the appearance of this part has been so long
delayed (for we notice that the MS. of some parts of the work were
completed rather more than three years ago), since, as we all know,
zoological text-books have a way of getting out of date very rapidly,
owing to the enormous amount of work which is being done all
over the world.

Professor Lankester promises us nine more parts of this work,
which are to be written as far as possible by graduates of Oxford
University. We only hope that these parts will make a fairly early
appearance, since, judging from the present part, they should be of
immense service both to the paleontologist and to the student
of living forms.

The present work deals with the Echinoderma, and since the
greater part of it is written by two paleontologists it will probably
appeal more strongly to the readers of this Magazine than some
of the parts which have yet to appear. The ordinary zoologists
will be apt to consider that the paleontological side is perhaps
a little overdone; but when we remember that the phylum Hchino-
derma includes the Pelmatozoa, three classes of which are extinct,
and the remaining class, the Crinoidea, consists mainly of fossil
forms, the preponderance of the paleontological aspect becomes at
once accounted for. This group occupies 179 pages and is the main

234 Reviews—Hemoirs of the Geological Survey.

feature of the book; coming as it does from the pen of Mr. F. A.
Bather, who has made such a special study of the group, it will
torm a classical work of reference for all students of the Pelmatozoa,
and will form an interesting companion to the shorter account of
this group revised by Mr. Wachsmuth in Zittel’s Text-book. We
think, however, that Mr. Bather might have dealt a little more
fully with the actual facts of anatomy in the general part (pp. 1-37),
and given us a few more figures of the general morphology of the
Echinoderma, and perhaps fewer theoretical diagrams.

The Holothurians are very briefly dealt with in 18 pages, and
somewhat meagrely illustrated with a series of almost blackboard
diagrams. ‘The remaining 96 pages are devoted to the Stelleroidea
and the Hchinoidea, and are from the pen of Dr. Gregory. Both
these accounts seem unduly compressed, and the forms are perhaps
dealt with too much from the standpoint of the skeleton, as if the
variations in the soft parts were comparatively of little value.

The whole work is profusely illustrated with a large number
of excellent figures, most of which are new. Some, however, of
those not acknowledged in the description are old ones, and one
or two of the old ones might well have been replaced by fresh
figures, notably fig. iv, p. 242, which is a very poor representation
of the general anatomy of a starfish.

Professor Lankester, in his conception of this work, has filled
a void long felt in zoological literature, and, in obtaining
Mr. Bather’s assistance to write the greater part of the Echinoderma,
he has exercised a wise selection, the result being that the student
is furnished with a most admirable systematic text-book, in which
he will find the characters of the classes, orders, families, etc., of
the Echinoderma dealt with in a manner not hitherto attempted
in any of our zoological text-books. We can only hope that the
succeeding parts will be of equal merit and not too tardy in their
appearance.

1V.—Memorrs oF tHE Gronocican Survey: THe GeEoLogy oF
Br.rorp, Hoty Isuanp, anp THE Farne Isnanps, NoRTHUMBER-
LAND. By Wiutram Gunn, F.G.S. 8vo; pp.iv, 155. (London:
Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1900. Price 2s. 6d.)

f{\HIS Memoir is an Explanation of the New Series Geological

Survey Map, Sheet 4 (Old Series 110 S.E.), and it contains
accounts of the Carboniferous Limestone Series, Glacial Drifts, and
more recent deposits, with descriptions also of the Whin Sill, whose
northern limit is seen in the Farne Islands. The chief part of the
Memoir is occupied with descriptions of the Carboniferous rocks,
the Tuedian or Cement-stone group, the Fell Sandstone, the
Scremerston Coal, and the Limestone groups, the two latter con-
taining seams of workable coal. Details of many pit-sections are
given, and there are lists of Carboniferous fossils.

Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London. 235

REPORTS AND PROCHHEDINGS.

ie
GeoLtocicaL Soorrty or Lonpon.

I.—February 21st, 1900.—J. J. H. Teall, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.,
President, in the Chair. The following communications were
read :—

1. “The Bunter Pebble-Beds of the Midlands and the Source of
their Materials.” By Professor T. G. Bonney, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.G.S8.

The author states the results of occasional work in the Bunter
Conglomerate of Staffordshire. After a sketch of matter already
published, he gives additional particulars of the lithology of the
pebbles, more especially of the felstones and of some rather compact
dark rocks. Of the former he has now obtained about thirty
varieties: orthoclase-felsites and porphyrites, some with, others
without quartz; several contain tourmaline, which sometimes
has replaced biotite, sometimes felspar. One pebble exhibiting
reddish spherulites in a dark matrix, once doubtless glassy, but
now devitrified, is not like any British rock known to the author.
Of the dark pebbles, some are fine-grained quartzites blackened
with opacite; others, varieties of ‘schorl-rock’; and two, (which
Dr. G. J. Hinde has kindly examined) are radiolarian cherts,
which, however, cannot be more precisely identified.

The mode of transport and source of the pebbles are next
considered. ‘the reasons, already published, for a fluviatile, as
opposed to a marine, origin are briefly summarized. If the former
be accepted, certain conditions must be satisfied, which bear directly
on the position of the source. These beds represent the destruction
of large masses of rock. If brought by rivers, those must have
been important and powerful, of a continental rather than an
insular type. Hence the necessary physical conditions exclude
limited districts near the Midlands, such as the Wrekin, Lickey,
Hartshill, and Charnwood, even if they included (which is not the
case) the right types of rock. As regards the Longmynds, their
argillites, if they occur, are not common; their conglomerates do
not exactly resemble the Bunter pebble-beds ; their ‘'Torridonian’
is a quartz-rhyolite rather than a quartz-felspar grit. The rocks
required cannot be supplied from either Wales, the Lake District,
or the Pennine range, and we have no reason to suppose them
concealed under Hastern and South-Hastern England. We have
therefore to choose between a southern and a northern source.
Cornwall and Devon might perhaps furnish the schorl - rocks ;
possibly also one or two varieties of felstone (though this is doubt-
ful) and the right quartzites and quartz-felspar grits occur in the
Budleigh Salterton pebble-bed. But the characteristic flat ellipsoidal
pebbles of grit, dominant here, are not found in the Midlands.
Physical conditions also seem opposed to a northward flow of the
rivers of Britain in the earlier part of the Trias. In Scotland,
however, we find the right varieties of quartzite, the Torridonian

236 Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London.

grit, and many felstones, some apparently identical with, others
closely related to, those in the Midlands. The rarity of tourmaline
rocks in that region is the only difficulty in looking to it or its
vicinity for the main source of these pebbles.

2. “Further Evidence of the Skeleton of Eurycarpus Oweni.” By
Professor H. G. Seeley, F.R.S., F.L.S., V.P.G.S.

The original specimen from which this species was named was
obtained from the Sneewberg (South Africa) in 1876, and after
being doubtfully referred to Dicynodon was described and figured in
1889. It was presented to the British Museum by Mr. Thomas Bain
through Sir Henry Barkly. The skull was found with the complete
specimen, and a short memorandum of its characters, with a sketch
of the skeleton, including the skull, was made by Mr. T. Bain and
has been preserved in the British Museum. Half of the counterpart
of the slab was presented to the author by the Rev. C. Murray, and by
means of it complete casts of part of the skeleton have been obtained.

From Mr. Bain’s sketch the author is able to give some account
of the skull, including its dimensions. From the material mentioned
above, he gives new facts with regard to the vertebral column, the ribs,
the shoulder- girdle, the fore-limb, the hind-limb, and the armour,
which was present upon the limbs and the fore-part of the body.

The locality from which the animal was obtained had already
yielded to Mr. A. G. Bain Lycosaurus pardialis, Tigrisuchus simus,
Cynosuchus suppostus, Scalaposaurus constrictus, and Dicynodon
leoniceps. It would therefore appear to be one of the chief
localities for the Lycosaurian types of Theriodontia and to be on
the horizon of the Dicynodon-beds. The recovery of the missing
half of the Murray slab, with the evidence of the skull and pelvis
which it would give, is to be desired in completion of our knowledge
of this fossil animal.

IJ.—March 7, 1900.—J. J. H. Teall, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., President,
in the Chair. The following communications were read :—

1. “Notes on the Geology of Gilgit.” By Lieut.-Gen. C. A.
McMahon, F.R.S., F.G.S.

This paper is based on observations in the field made by Capt.
A. H. McMahon, C.8.1., C.1E., F.G.S., and Capt. J. R. Roberts,
I.M.8., and on the petrological examination of the specimens sent
home by them. It is divided into three parts. Part I refers to
the work of previous observers, and embodies a brief petrological
description of the four granites and aplite intrusive in the sedimentary
rocks of Gilgit. Part II consists of a topographical account of the
Gilgit rocks from Askole and Nanga Parbat on the south to the
northern passes leading into the Russian Pamirs. Part III recites
the author’s conclusions from the facts recorded in the paper.
Briefly stated, they are as follows :—

That at one period in the elevation of the Hindu Kush the strata
were thrown into a series of folds and compressed into a series of
uniclinal beds with a vertical dip.

That the direction of the main drainage of the area was determined

Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London. 287

before, or at the commencement of, the last series of earth-movements
that crumpled up the strata.

The sedimentary rocks were profusely invaded by granite and
diorite, and profoundly metamorphosed by contact-action.

As regards the age of the rocks, the author gives his reasons for
identifying the Gilgit limestones with the conformable Carbo-Triassic
series of the Himalaya. This series was mapped by Mr. Rh.
Lydekker, F.R.S., in the neighbouring district of Kashmir, and it
has been traced up to the border of Gilgit. Sir Martin Conway’s
specimens, reported on by Professor Bonney and Miss Raisin, enable
the author to connect it with the limestones of Gilgit. From this
correlation the author concludes that the oldest rock in the Gilgit
area is of Silurian or Lower Carboniferous age, and that the most
recent are of Triassic or even later age. As all the granites are
intrusive in the most recent beds, it follows that the ‘granites are
younger than the Trias. The author gives his reasons for believing
that the oldest granite was erupted while the crumpling of the Gilgit
rocks was in progress; but that a portion, at all events, of the
younger granites was erupted after the crumpling had taken place.

The author offers an hypothesis to explain certain structures
found in the Gilgit granites, including the granophyric structure so
common in them.

All the Gilgit granites, the author believes, came from the same
igneous reservoir, the differences in them being due to gradual and
progressive silification caused by the gradual crystallizing out of
the comparatively basic minerals ; the process extending over a long
Pa of time measured in years.

‘The Rocks of the South-Eastern Coast of Jersey.” By John
De sion, Esq., F.G.S.

In this paper the author has continued the study of the deep-
seated rocks of Jersey begun in a communication presented to the
Society last session entitled “‘On an Intrusion of Granite into
Diabase at Sorel Point (Northern Jersey).” <A great resemblance
exists between these rocks in the north and south of the island,
and it is concluded that they represent parts of the same magma ;
but in the south-east additional complications arise, owing to the
intrusion of another rock before the invasion of the granite. For
convenience of study the district under discussion is divided into
two parts, an eastern and a western, separated the one from the
other by the western termination of the Gréve d’Azette. In the
eastern district the granite and the intrusive rock which preceded it
are found; in the western a rather different rock invades the diabase.
The latter is correlated with the aplite intrusion of the northern coast.

Taking first the earlier intrusion found at Le Nez Point, it is
shown that it consists of a rock more acid than a diorite, but on
the whole more basic than the granite which followed it. Micro-
scopical examination indicates that it was poor in ferro-magnesian
minerals, and that quartz and orthoclase, though present, are not
found in the proportion which characterizes the granite. This
rock, the exact composition of which it is not easy to discover, has

238 Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London.

invaded the diabase, as well as a dioritic rock associated with it,
streaking and veining them. Mixing took place as a result of such
intrusion, producing a composite rock characterized by elongated
hornblendes which occasionally attain a considerable size. Mica is
conspicuously absent.

The intrusion of the granite following this is next described.
Here, as on the northern coast, local absorption of the older rock
has taken place. The resemblance between the mixed rocks is
commented upon, and a parallel drawn between the basic and acid
rocks of Jersey and the eastern and northern coasts of Guernsey.

Passing to the western district, the aplite of St. Elizabeth’s
Castle is described, together with the melting and absorption which
have taken place as a consequence of this intrusion. Field evidence
indicates that this is later than any intrusion found in the eastern
district, though the difference in age is probably but slight; thus
it bears out the results of work on the northern coast, where
the intrusion of an aplite was found to have followed that of
a porphyritic granite. Reasons are given in the body of the
paper for believing that successive intrusions cannot be separated
the one from the other by hard-and-fast lines. Finally, it is
suggested that the various rocks considered are closely related, and
indeed form parts of one magma, the successive injections of which
became progressively more acid.

3. “The Rocks of La Saline (Northern Jersey).” By John
Parkinson, Esq., F.G.S.

The rocks of La Saline closely resemble those of Sorel Point,
about a mile to the west. A coarse porphyritic granite is found
in the upper part of the cliff which passes rapidly into an equally
coarse but redder rock, approaching an aplite in composition. The
latter occasionally contains mica in some quantity, and evidence
is given for concluding that this mineral has been produced by
the combination of the constituents of the augite of a dolerite,
through which the acid magma forced its way, and the felspathic
parts of the magma itself. This evidence is based (i) on the fact
that in one part of the Bay a few outcrops of rock are found
identical with others from Sorel Point, which have been clearly
formed by the absorption of fragments of diabase (dolerite) by an
acid magma; (ii) on the presence of fragment-like patches rich
in mica in the aplite itself; (iii) by the irregular distribution of this
mineral through the acid rock. A peculiar quartz-less rock is next
described containing large orthoclases, plagioclase, and chlorite:
it is concluded that the last-named mineral is derived from mica.
With some hesitation the structure of this rock is explained by
supposing that the intruding magma melted a mass of dolerite,
completely dissolved the felspar, and produced mica in the manner
indicated above; and that as freedom of movement was not greatly
restricted, segregation of the basic elements followed, enclosing
among them numerous porphyritic orthoclases. Some movement
of the whole then appears to have taken place.

Correspondence—Rev. G. F. Whidborne. 239

CORRESPONDENCE.

PTEROCONUS MIRUS, HINDE.

Sir,—Last Spring Mr. Upfield Green allowed me to see the fossils
to which he afterwards gave the name Nereitopsis Cornubicus in the
Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Cornwall, vol. xii, p. 227, regarding them as
Annelids. While studying them, point after point came out which
forced me to the conclusion that they belonged either to Orthoceras
or to a closely allied genus. The surface ornament, the contour,
the septa, and other details seemed thus, and only thus, explicable.
The chief perplexity was that, while the other parts were crushed
and partially obliterated, the siphuncle remained rigid; but the
consideration of Actinoceras, and still more Huronia, seemed almost
to clear this away, and I felt able to tell Mr. Green that they were
in my opinion certainly Cephalopoda.

With these fossils, or some of them, Dr. Hinde identifies those
collected by Mr. Howard Fox at Bedruthan, to which he has given
the name Pteroconus mirus on p. 149 of the present volume of
the GrotocicaL Magazine, regarding them as Hyolithide. These
fossils he has very kindly shown to me, and with the identity
of three of the specimens (his figs. 2, 3, 4) I agree, though still
venturing, in spite of such weighty authorities as Dr. Hinde and
Mr. Crick, to believe that I see in them Cephalopoda. The fossil
represented by his fig. 1, I confess that in my hurried examination
of it I could not fully decipher; nor did I feel quite certain that
it was the same as the rest; but at the same time some Devonian
Orthocerata which I have seen did appear as if they might go some
way toward explaining it.

Fossils in such an extremely obscure state of preservation may,
I think, allow of a different interpretation without disrespect to the
authority of my valued friends; and, indeed, I think that my
difference of view is mainly due to my regarding them as masked
and distorted by the processes of fossilization to a very much greater
extent than they appear to consider. G. F. Wuipporne.

FOSSILS IN DEVONIAN ROCKS OF NORTH CORNWALL.

Srr,—The fossils figured by Mr. Green in the Transactions of
the Geological Society of Cornwall under the name of Nereitopsis
Cornubicus being very interesting ones, their further illustration and
description in the more widely circulating Gronogrcan Macazine
is a matter of congratulation. But is the renaming of them quite
in accordance with accepted rules of nomenclature? Dr. Hinde in
his paper! mentions the fact that Mr. Green did not fully describe
it; but many accepted names rest on figures alone. He also states
that as, in his opinion, the fossils could not “in any way resemble
any species of Nereis,” the name is ‘misleading and should be
changed.” But has not the author of a genus the right to express
in the name what the form reminds him of, even if the resemblance
be fanciful 9—e.¢. Ophiopsis, Pileopsis, Galeopsis. And would not
the new name proposed (Pteroconus) be open to the same objection,

1 Grou. Mag., Dec. IV, Vol. VII, p. 149.

240 Correspondence—Rer. J. F. Blake.

the first half comparing the “ flap- or fin-like extensions” to a wing,
which is not a serial organ, and the second half suggesting
a relationship to a genus of shells? As to the specific name,
Mr. Green gave the name Cornubicus to his specimens as a group,
regarding them as specifically one; but if they are to be divided,
then his statement that a certain specimen ‘“ differs from the others”
indicates that the “others” are regarded as thetype. As Dr. Hinde
says he is ‘‘ undecided” whether his specimens are different from
these others, it follows that the statement sp. nov. after the name
he gives is quite unproved. I would also point out, what cannot
have struck Dr. Hinde, that the name mirus implies that the
specimens so named are the first discovered. One is not astonished
at further examples of a known form, however wonderful, turning
up, and Mr. Green showed his specimens to his friends, Cornish and
others, and recognized examples in the Penzance Museum before the
beginning of last year, when Mr. Fox’s specimens were found.
In justice, therefore, to Mr. Green the new name ought to be relegated
in toto to the synonymy.

As to the nature of the organisms represented, there will probably
continue to be a difference of opinion. The use of the word
‘shell’ in Dr. Hinde’s description is an assumption, as it is
admitted that nothing now remains but ‘some compound of
iron,” which may be derived, as in the case of the chalk
Ventriculites, from other things than shells. The irregularity of the
outline indicates rather a soft-bodied animal. The downward bend
of the flaps in one specimen, their upward bend in another, and
the straight direction of their bases in a third indicate that they
were flexible. Dr. Hinde seems to think that downward-bending
flaps on both sides might appear as upward-bending if the fossil
were turned round on its median axis, but this is impossible. He
also states that we cannot tell whether the dorsal and ventral sides
are alike or not; but asin one specimen each later flap “ dips slightly
under” the next preceding, we can tell that we are looking at the
opposite side in any other specimen if, as appears to be the case
in his second figure, the later flap lies slightly over the next
preceding. The supposed rod may very well be the remains of
the intestine filled with matrix, or mere folds in the shrunken
integument. In Mr. Green’s specimens the bases of the flaps are
somewhat swollen, and the distal lines are slightly radial rather
than absolutely parallel.

If, then, we figure a soft-bodied animal, lineally elongated, with
a series of flexibie organs on each side consisting of oblique flaps
ending distally in slightly radiating prolongations, the description
fits so well with that of a polychetal annelid, as exhibited by many
larve and by the adult of Aphrodite, and so ill with that of any other
known group of organisms, that this interpretation of the fossils
seems the most reasonable, especially as we have reason to believe
that this group was well established before the Devonian period.

J. F. Brake.

Erratum.—On p. 147, line 19, for “‘adunate ” read “ inadunate.”

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MAP OF THE RIVER SYSTEM
OF NORTH WALES

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THE

GHOLOGICAL MAGAZINE.

s NEW SERIES. DECADE IV. VOL. VII.
No. VI.—JUNE, 1900.

O27 LE GALIN AT |) AIRE Te aS.

—_—_@—___

I.—Bata Lake anp tue River System or Norra Wass.
By Puiu Laxe, M.A., F.G.S8.
(With a folding Map, PLATE XI.)
(Concluded from the May Number, p. 215.)

Watersheds in other Valleys.

[ North Wales there are several valleys which run parallel

or nearly parallel to the valley of the Bala fault, and, like it,
are crossed by watersheds which are quite inconspicuous. One of
these watersheds separates the head of Cwm Prysor from the source
of Afon Tryweryn ; a second parts the springs of the Conway
from those of Afon Dwyryd; and a third divides the waters of
Nant Ffrancon from those of Afon Llugwy (a tributary of the
Conway). (PI. XI.)

In the first two cases the valleys are not deep, but they are
sufficiently defined to form the lines chosen for the railway from
Bala to Ffestiniog, and for the road from Ffestiniog to Denbigh ;
and in the third case, the valley is at least as striking as that of
the Bala fault, and the watershed is even less conspicuous than
that at Pant-gwyn.

All these watersheds lie upon one straight line—a line drawn
from Pant-gwyn to a point 1,200 yards east of Llyn Ogwen. This
may, indeed, be a mere coincidence, but the coincidence is remarkably
close, and it seems more probable that the positions of the watersheds
have been determined by some general cause.

It can scarcely be supposed that ever since the formation of
these valleys (which are certainly pre-Glacial) the whole of Wales
has remained absolutely fixed and immovable. And if the region
has moved at all, there is little difficulty in supposing that the
motion was not uniform throughout. A very slight differential
movement, even now, would be sufficient to alter the positions of
these watersheds; and it is quite possible, therefore, that their
present positions have been fixed by former movements.

It may be remarked that this straight line crosses two other
important valleys in which it does not coincide with the watersheds
—the valley of Afon Lledr and Nant-y-gwryd. But this is easily
explained if we suppose that the heads of these valleys stood too
high to be affected by the differential movements. Moreover, in

DECADE IV.—vVOL. VII.—NO. VI. 16

242 Philip Lake—Bala Lake and River System.

each case there is some evidence that near to the spot where the
line crosses, the rocky floor is higher than it is farther up the
valley.

i ine valley of Afon Lledr the line crosses a little way below
Roman Bridge station. Above, the river flows through an alluvial
flat: here, rocky spurs run down to the stream, and the stream
itself flows over rock in siti.

Nant-y-gwryd is crossed near Dyffryn Mymbyr. The stream
flows over a drift-covered flat; but at this point a line of rocky
knolls rises through the drift.

These, then, are perhaps attempts at watersheds, frustrated by
the fact that the heads of the valleys lay at a higher level. I am
not, however, disposed to attach much importance to these unfinished
watersheds, until the ground has been more closely examined. The
evidence is somewhat doubtful, and near Roman Bridge it is possible
that the river has forsaken its ancient channel.

Development of the River System of North Wales.

Among the most striking features in the topography of North
Wales are the long deep valleys which run from north-east to
south-west, and which, where they enter the sea, form the wide
estuaries of the Mawddach, Dyfi, etc. Many of these valleys are
dry for a considerable part of their course, or are occupied only
by little streamlets out of all proportion to their own size. They
are crossed by the principal watersheds of the district, and even
at these points the floors of the valleys are comparatively low.
They are not perfectly straight, but generally form curves of long
radius, the convexity of which faces the south-east. (Pl. XI.)

Sometimes, at least, the valleys coincide with lines of fault ;
and in one case, as I have shown, two faults form a trough for
a certain distance, and the floor of the valley coincides with the
bottom of the trough.

My examination of the region not being by any means complete,
I do not attempt upon the accompanying map to trace these valleys
continuously across the district; but have merely indicated by
heavy broken lines the principal streams, or portions of streams,
flowing in valleys which I believe to belong to this N.H.—-S.W.
system. The continuity of the valleys is nevertheless sufficiently
evident, although not quite so clear as it is in the field.

Among the most important of these valleys, or—to male less
of an assumption—of these lines of valleys, are the following :—

1. The Menai Straits.

2. The estuary Traeth-bach, Afon Dwyryd, Cwm-tegwel, Afon
Machno.

3. Mawddach estuary, Afon Wnion, Afon Dyfrdwy below Pant-
gwyn, Bala Lake, Afon Meloch, River Alwen from Maerdy to
Bettws Gwerfil Goch, and possibly a part of the Clwyd.

The Mawddach estuary is not in a line with the general direction |
of the Wnion. A valley in more direct continuation of the latter is _

that in which lies the high road from Dolgelly to Towyn.

Philip Lake—Bala Lake and River System. 243

4. Valley of Tal-y-llyn and the Towyn Railway. Nearly in
line with this, but apparently quite disconnected, is the Valley
of the Dee between Llandderfel and Corwen, and the valley of
Nant Morwynion.

5. Afon Dyfi up to Cemmaes, and perhaps to the source of the
river.

6. River Banw from Llanfair to its junction with the Vyrnwy ;
then the Vyrnwy to its junction with the Tanat. The rivers Ceiriog
and Dee below Chirk perhaps belong to this valley.

7. River Severn from Llanidloes to its junction with the Tanat.

Among the smaller valleys belonging to this system are (a) Cwm
Prysor and Afon Tryweryn above its junction with Afon Gelyn, and
(6) a small part of the Vyrnwy below the Liverpool Waterworks,
River Marchnant, River Ceiriog from Llanarmon Dyffryn Ceiriog
to Llansantffraid Glyn Ceiriog. Other shorter valleys of similar
character and direction undoubtedly exist, but these I have made
no attempt to indicate.

A closer examination would certainly reveal more clearly the
connection and continuations of some of these valleys: but enough
is shown upon the map to prove that some at least of these lines
of valleys are continued, with little or no interruption, for great
distances.

That these valleys have exercised a profound influence upon the
drainage of the country is quite clear, and most of the principal
rivers lie in them. They cut up the country, more or less
completely, into parallel strips; and the drainage of each strip
is intercepted by one or other of these parallel valleys. In the
most northerly strip, between the Menai Straits and Traeth-bach,
most of the streams flow northwards. But in the others the
greater part of the drainage of each strip falls into the valley lying
south of it; while the streams which run northward are generally
small and unimportant.

For instance, entering the valley of the Bala fault from the north,
we have Afon Eden, Afon Lliw, Afon Llafar, Afon Tryweryn, the
Ceirw, and the Alwen; while from the south, the most important
is Afon Twrch in Cwm Cynllwyd.

The question then arises, was the drainage of each strip estab-
lished independently, after the formation of the long valleys; or
was the drainage established first, and the long valleys formed
afterwards? In the former case there would, presumably, be no
connection between the streams of adjacent strips; in the latter,
we should expect the more important streams of one strip to have
their representatives in the next.

Beginning with the streams which flow into the valley of the
Bala fault from the north, we have first Afon Eden, with its
tributary Afon Mawddach.1 This important river runs southward
till it enters the Mawddach estuary at Llanelltyd, where it turns

suddenly almost at right angles. But if we continue the line of

1 After the junction of these two the river is called the Mawddach. But the
Eden is clearly the principal branch, inasmuch as it maintains its direction unchanged.

244 Philip Lake—Bala Lake and River System.

the Eden across the valley and over the opposite hills, it leads us
into Afon Dulas. The Dulas maintains the same direction until
it enters the valley of the Dyfi, where it also is deflected to the
right. If we neglect this deviation and proceed in the same line,
we come again upon another stream flowing in the same direction,
namely, Afon Rheidol. This river runs southward as far as Devil's
Bridge, where it in turn is suddenly deflected at right angles, so
as to enter the sea at Aberystwith. But our line is continued still
further by the upper part of the Ystwyth and the valley of the Teifi.

So exactly are all these rivers—the Eden, Afon Dulas, the upper
parts of Afon Rheidol, and of the Ystwyth and the Teifi—in the
same line,’ that the valleys to which they belong seem all to be
portions of one great valley, the head of which probably lay as
far north as Blaenau Ffestiniog. This valley, according to my
views, was subsequently broken up by the formation of the transverse
valleys belonging to the N.H.-S.W. system.

Similarly, on the south-east side of the Bala fault, we find the
continuations of Afon Lliw and Afon Llafar in the river which is.
now called the Vyrnwy; of Afon Tryweryn in the River Tanat ;
of the Ceirw (probably) in the Ceiriog; and of the Alwen, in the
Dee below Corwen.

Another important stream south of the Bala fault is the Banw,
and possibly the original head-waters of this are represented by
the upper part of the Dyfrdwy.

The Banw, the Vyrnwy, and the Tanat, all enter the sixth of
the N.E.-S.W. valleys given in the list on a previous page. The
Banw and the Vyrnwy are deflected and flow along this valley ;
but the Tanat maintains its original course and even crosses the
next transverse valley. The original continuation of the Banw
is probably to be looked for in the lower part of Afon Rhiw and,
across the Severn, in the Onny River.

If we assume that the Eden, Lliw, etc., were the upper portions
of the valleys which I have endeavoured to trace, we must conclude
that before the transverse valleys were formed—those which now
run from north-east to south-west—a radiating system of drainage
was established, the centre of which lay in the high ground at and
near the present source of the Conway.”

This appears also to be the centre from which radiate the principal

1 It will be noticed that this line is almost exactly parallel to the general trend of
the coast of Cardigan Bay, a fact which seems to point to some community of origin.

2 If the radial valleys existed before the formation of the transverse valleys, we
might expect that where the lines joining the remnants of the radial valleys cross
the intervening ridges, there should be a col or depression; and this is, indeed,
very commonly the case. Moreover, opposite each important stream where it enters
a transverse valley, there is generally a little valley running down from the col and
entering the transverse valley on the opposite side. For example, opposite the
point where Afon Lliw enters the valley of the Bala fault, a valley runs in from
the col called Bwlch-y-pawl, which is situated at the head of the River Vyrnwy.
Opposite Afon Tryweryn is the valley of the Hirnant, and from this we pass across
a col into the head of Afon Tanat. Similarly, in the line of the Ceirw we find
Afon Trystion entering the valley of the Dee from the opposite side ; and from the
head of Afon Trystion a decided descent leads us to the head of the Ceiriog.

Philip Lake—Bala Lake and River System. 245

tributaries of the Clwyd; the Conway itself; and the rivers of
Snowdonia, which occupy Nant Ffrancon, the Vale of Llanberis, and
the valley of Llyn Cwellyn. Iam not, however, in a position to
discuss this question more fully, nor am I prepared to assert that
all these streams belong to the same radial system.

There is certainly one important river which seems to be exceptional,
namely, the river which flows through the pass of Aberglaslyn.

But the broad outlines of the river history of North Wales seem
to be clear. A radial system of drainage was established; and
subsequently a series of transverse valleys was formed, which broke
up the radial system into sections, and each of the main transverse
valleys carries away the drainage of one or other of these sections.

The transverse valleys were, I believe, formed by faults, with
an upheaval on one side; but further investigation is needed to
elucidate this point. One of the faults appears to have assumed for
some distance the character of a trough, with the consequent
formation of a lake, which is now Bala Lake; and it seems that the
development of this trough was subsequent to the original formation
of the valley. ;

Tf it were not for these transverse valleys, the drainage system
of North Wales would be very similar to that of the Lake District,
and the Vale of Clwyd would be the analogue of the Vale of Eden
in Cumberland.

Summary.

In the foregoing pages I have endeavoured to throw some light
upon the formation of Bala Lake and to sketch the development
of the present somewhat complicated river system of North Wales.
The explanation suggested is simple and fairly consistent; but it
is still, in many respects, hypothetical. This is especially the case,
perhaps, with regard to the share attributed to the faults, in the
production of the present topography of the country. On this and
many other points, further research is certainly necessary. Yet
from the evidence adduced, it seems that the following conclusions
may, with some probability, be drawn :—

1. Bala Lake belongs to the same valley as the River Wnion; and
the drainage of this valley formerly flowed into the sea near Barmouth.

2. Bala Lake and the rest of the valley as far to the south-west
as Pant-gwyn lie in a trough between two faults, modified by other
faults crossing the trough obliquely.

3. The position of the watershed in this and in several other
similar valleys has been determined by earth-movements.

4, The original drainage system of North Wales was a radial
system, the centre of which lay in the high ground around the
sources of the Conway. Subsequently a series of transverse valleys
was formed which divided the radial system into sections, and
each of the principal transverse valleys now carries away the
drainage of one of these sections. Bala Lake was formed in one
of the transverse valleys, probably not at the same time as the valley
itself, but at a somewhat later period.

246 Professor Bonney—Parent-rock of the Diamond.

T].—Tue Parent-Rock oF THE Diamond. ReEpty TO A CRITICISM.
By Professor T. G. Bonney, D.Se., LL.D., F.R.S.

SHORT time since Mr. G. Trubenbach, Managing Director of
the Newlands Diamond Mine, West Griqualand, drew my
attention to a notice by Professor Beck! of the paper which I read
to the Royal Society last June, on the Parent-rock of the Diamond
in South Africa, kindly sending me a translation of the original.
As Professor Beck’s criticisms are founded on such a travesty of my
published opinions* that I can only suppose his knowledge of our
language to be very imperfect, and as the hypothesis which he
advances appears to me untenable, I ask permission to reply to
the one and point out the improbability of the other.

1. Professor Beck objects to my terming the crystalline garnet-
pyroxene rock, which sometimes contains diamonds, an eclogite,
remarking,® “which, however, must raise doubts, as this name
has hitherto been applied only to a similar mineral combination of
crystalline schists (schiefer), while Bonney particularly emphasizes.
the eruptive nature in this instance.” In my paper I took the
precaution of stating that I was well aware doubts had been
expressed in the past as to the origin of eclogite, but that after
good opportunities of studying it I was convinced it was an
intrusive igneous rock. That such doubts should have existed is
not surprising. The significance of foliation was for long imperfectly
understood, and as eclogite is generally associated with crystalline
schists, and is not seldom foliated, it was supposed to have had
a similar origin. In such cases it is a metamorphic rock, but
not in the sense formerly implied by that word; the foliation (by
no means universal) being only a superinduced structure, while
the evidence of intrusion is sometimes conclusive. Hclogite formerly
was left with sundry other little understood rocks in a kind of
‘oddment’ drawer.‘ Does this uncertainty in the past as to the
genesis of a rock debar us from using its name afterwards when
we are able to do it with more precision? Or does Professor Beck
mean to say that the whole history of a rock, as well as its mineral
composition and structure, must be known before we can give it
a name? In both the latter this South African rock is truly an
eclogite, and I maintain the name may legitimately be used for it,
when ill-grounded uncertainties as to the genesis have been cleared
up. What does Professor Beck mean to do with the olivine rocks
(or peridotites) and the corresponding serpentines? There also
a similar doubt as to origin formerly existed.

2. This, however, is a mere difference of opinion on a question
of nomenclature. I pass on to one more important. Professor Beck
criticizes, at too great a length for full quotation, my supposed

1 Zeitschrift fiir Praktische Geologie, December, 1899.
2 Proc. Royal Soc., Ixv, p. 223.
8 I quote from the translation sent to me by Mr. Trubenbach, though I have
SURO IY made a slight alteration in the terms used.
See, for instance, Cotta on Rocks, translated by Lawrence, 1878, p. 310.

Professor Bonney—LParent-rock of the Diamond. 247

views in regard to the original home of the diamond. The more
important part, however, runs as follows :—‘“ He assumes that
they (the garnet diopside boulders) are fractures from a much
older rock, which, having been subjected to the same action as
river boulders, were brought to the surface, together with the
kimberlite, from a fluviatile deposit,! at a great depth. Quite
naturally he now deduces the hypothesis that all the diamonds
found in the kimberlite have their origin in such diamantiferous
soapstone formation (diamantseifen) deposited in the depth of the
Karoo formation and brought to the surface by the same eruptive
agencies as produced the kimberlite necks (stocks).” Professor
Beck then proceeds to argue against the probability of these
“‘diamantiferous soapstones” underlying the whole of the Karoo
formation. But I never even mentioned a soapstone, and do not
know what Professor Beck means by it, unless it be the matrix
of the so-called kimberlite; neither have I ever asserted anything
like the sentences which I have placed in italics. I agree with
him that the existence of a bed of ‘“diamantiferous soapstone” at
the base of the Karoo (i.e. in the Dwyka conglomerate) is most
improbable, but of that he is the sole inventor, and I strongly
object to having such nonsense fathered upon me. I have read
my paper again, and think, speaking from some experience as
a writer, that it ought to be intelligible to anyone who really
understands English. I did not, indeed, elaborate every minute
detail of the argument.? For this I had two reasons—one, that as
I was addressing scientific experts, they did not require elementary
instruction ; the other, that, as I personally object to elaborate
demonstrations of the obvious, or to being told with much detail
that Queen Anne is dead, I abstain, as far as possible, from
inflicting this penance on others. What I said amounted to this,—
that the diamond had now been found as a constituent of a coarse-
grained eclogite; that this eclogite no doubt formed part of an
old crystalline floor, underlying the Permo-Triassic deposits, from
which fragments must have been broken off and rolled by water
action into boulders; that these probably had been inmates of the
Dwyka conglomerate; that after the Karoo Beds were deposited,
volcanic explosions had shattered much of the crystalline floor
(eclogites, peridotites, etc., some of them diamantiferous), and sent
its fragments flying up together with the overlying Dwyka con-
glomerate* and Karoo Beds; and that the pipe was ultimately
filled up with this broken material, which was subsequently exposed
to solfataric, perhaps also very locally to contact action.

Thus Professor Beck is criticizing an hypothesis which is none of
mine, but of his own imagining. From this I turn to the one
which he proposes as a substitute. ‘We take the garnet diopside
lumps, notwithstanding their form, not as actual boulders, but of

1 The italics are mine.

2 My views will be found on pp. 235, 236.

3 The boulders, pebbles, and mineral grits in this would be scattered like shot
from a gun.

248 Professor W. J. Sollas—Derived Limestones.

intra-telluric origin, ie. concretions of the kimberlitic magmas.
They hold the same position to kimberlite as the well-known olivine
lumps (olivinknollen), which sometimes have the same rounded-off
form and smooth surface; to the basalt in which they are inclosed.”
To this I reply that: (1) I have spent some time in the endeavour
to prove that kimberlite is only a fragmental rock,’ and the
occurrence in any peridotite of coarsely crystalline ‘concretions’
of garnet, diopside, enstatite, ete., would be without precedent.
(2) It has yet to be proved that these ‘olivinknollen’ in basalt
are ‘concretions,’ and I do not envy the man who attempts the
task. JI have examined scores of them; they are seldom, if ever,
really well rounded, and are, I believe, fragments of a peridotite,
caught up by the basalt, as happens to pieces of granite, gneiss,
sedimentary and other kinds of rock. If the lumps of eclogite
are concretions it is strange they should be so easily separable from
the enclosing ‘kimberlite,’ and still more so that the minerals at
their surface should so often be cut through exactly as they would
be by attrition. In other words, speaking from a wide experience
in the field, lam certain that these are as truly boulders as any
in the bed of an Alpine torrent. But Professor Beck, apparently
not quite satisfied with his ‘concretion’ hypothesis, goes on to
suggest that rounding “‘may be accounted for by a rotatory abrasion
during the eruption in the crater.” Ihave examined the materials
of a good many volcanic cones, but never saw such perfect rounding
as this, and as I foresaw the possibility of that hypothesis being
advanced, was careful to insert a sentence to show that I had both
considered and rejected it. Thus I find myself unable to admit
either the justice of Professor Beck’s criticisms or the reasonableness
of his hypothesis. The latter, indeed, suggests to me that its
inventor has heard the “mouse squeak” more often than “the
lark sing.”

IiI.—Dertvep Limestonss.
By Professor W. J. Sotzas, D.Sc., F.R.S.

\ Y attention has been directed to the following paragraph, which
appears in Mr. H. B. Woodward’s monograph on the Jurassic
Rocks of Britain, vol. iii, p. 31 (1893). It is as follows :—

“Prof. Sollas has suggested that rivers sometimes bear to the sea
considerable quantities of undissolved calcareous matter, derived
from the formation through which they flow. This is a matter
that requires confirmation, for it is known that carbonate of lime
is more readily soluble in fresh-water than in sea-water.”

The statement attributed to me was more than a mere suggestion,
and as the subject is of some interest it may be as well if I now
present the evidence which I had in mind when asserting that the

* I do not deny—nay, I expect—that large masses of peridotite (probably
also diamantiferous) exist in the crystalline floor, but not ‘kimberlite’ as defined
by Professor Carvill Lewis. A little lower down, Professor Beck seems to admit the
‘ kimberlite’ to be a breccia. If so, how can it be a ‘ magma,’ unless he means that

the unbroken material exists somewhere down below, in which case it is not likely to
be ‘ kimberlite,’ but some ordinary variety of peridotite.

Professor W. J. Sollas—Derived Limestones. 249

denudation of a limestone and the transportation of calcareous
sediment may be accomplished not only by solution but by the
mechanical action of fresh-water.

On examining under a microscope the suspended matter which
floats in the river Cam above Cambridge, and which may readily
be separated by filtration through a muslin net, the observer who
looks upon them for the first time will be surprised to find
associated with a number of minute living organisms certain bodies
which resemble in the closest manner the coccoliths of the Chalk.
The appearance of these is so fresh that it would not be an altogether
inexcusable blunder to regard them as native to the stream, and
though it might be objected that fresh-water coccoliths are things
hitherto unheard of, yet an answer to this might be found in the
fact that on removing the calcareous part of the organism with
dilute acid a soft granular film remains behind, which has not only
a very organic appearance, but readily stains with magenta and some
other aniline dyes.

On pushing the enquiry further, however, it will be found that
the residual film is not affected by such stains as are selective in
their effects ; those which only react upon protoplasm have no effect
upon it. Further, the coccoliths give no signs of life ; they cannot
be made to grow nor to subdivide by fission.

In the old days when the coprolite pits around Cambridge were
being worked it was not uncommon to come across streams of
chalky water flowing away from the washing tanks. An examina-
tion of this revealed all the forms of coccoliths which were to be
found floating in the Cam, but in this case there could be no
question as to their origin, they were derived from the chalk marl.

Considering, then, that no independent evidence can be cited for
the existence of fresh-water coccoliths, that the minute bodies
floating in the Cam present no signs of life, and that the river drains
a country largely composed of chalk rocks, from which, as we have
proof, coccoliths may be derived, the presumption is altogether in
favour of regarding the coccoliths of the Cam as mechanical sedi-
ments now in process of being carried to the sea.

I have said that these sediments may be ‘‘considerable.”” A good
deal depends on what is meant by considerable, but I think the
qualification may be justified by the following example. On
visiting the gravel-pits at Barnwell occasional white lenticular beds
may be observed intercalated amid the finer sands of the deposit.
These are composed of carbonate of lime, and a microscopic examina-
tion proves them to consist of minute organisms and débris of
organisms, which have been derived from the chalk. Foraminifera,
whole and broken, of which Globigerina is one of the commoner
forms, shell prisms, and coccoliths are obvious. Thus we learn that
not only may a river transport calcareous sediment, even when con-
stituted of such minute bodies as coccoliths, just as it might an
insoluble clay, but further, that under favourable circumstances
it may deposit this material and thus form beds of limestone, which
are not immediately but only indirectly of organic origin.

250 F. R. Cowper Reed—On the Genus Conocoryphe.

It was partly from observations such as these that I was led to
suggest a derivative origin for the calcareous substance of the corn-
stones of the Old Red Sandstone, and for much of the limestone of
the Lower Lias; nor has subsequent reflection led me to abandon
this explanation, but rather to extend it. A good deal of the
magnesian limestone of the North of England is as false-bedded as
a modern beach sand, and occurs under circumstances that would lead
us to look for its source rather in the mountain limestone than in its
poverty-stricken indigenous fauna. Such derivative calcareous matter
would by reason of its finely divided state be in a condition to yield
readily to the action of magnesian waters and thus pass into dolomite.

It by no means follows that rivers have been the only agents by
which mechanical calcareous deposits have been formed from pre-
existent limestones; sea waves may have also played their part, as,
indeed, is suggested by my friend Mr. Woodward, who also has
arrived at the conclusion “that under certain conditions there may
be sedimentary deposits of calcareous mud [derivative] as well as
chemical precipitates.”

TV.—Woopwarpian Musreum Nores: On tHE British SPECIES
OF THE GENUS CONOCORYPHE.
By F. R. Cowrrr Ruezp, M.A., F.G.S8.

N 1877 Dr. Woodward? recorded nineteen British species of the
genus Oonocoryphe, of which seven were doubtful. The
following is the list of them :—

Conocoryphe abdita, Salter. C. Lyellii, Hicks.

C. applanata, Salter. C.? olenoides, Salter.
C.? bucephala, Belt. C.? simplex, Salter.

C. bufo, Hicks. C. solvensis, Hicks.

C. coronata, Barrande. C. sp., Salter.

C. (Solenoplewra) depressa, Salter. C.? variolaris, Salter.
C. Homfrayi, Salter. C.? verisimilis, Salter.
C. humerosa, Salter. C. vexata, Salter.

C. invita, Salter. C.? Williamsoni, Belt.

C.? longispina, Belt.

Professor Htheridge* in 1888 gave the following four additional
species :—

Conocoryphe Malvernius, Phillips. C. inher, Hicks.
C. monile, Salter. C. Plantii, Salter.

Salter * in 1872 had doubtfully recorded C.? ecorne (Angelin) ? from
Wales. The latest addition to the list was C. viola (H. Woodward)
in 1888 from Bethesda.

Since the generic name Conocoryphe is now used in a much more
restricted manner than formerly, it is desirable that the true position
of the above-mentioned species should be determined afresh. The
genus Conocoryphe is now used*® as the type of the family

’ Catal. Brit. Foss. Crust., pp. 31-33.

2 Brit. Pal. Foss., pp. 48, 49, and 406.

: Catal. Camb. Sil. Foss. Woodw. Mus., Pewee
5

H. Woodward, Q.J.G.S., vol. xliv (1888), p. 74, pl. iv.
Textbook of Palzontology, by Zittel & Eastman (1900), vol. i, p- 626.

F. R. Cowper Reed—On the Genus Conocoryphe. 251

Conocoryphide, which also includes the genera Atops, Ctenocephalus,
and Bathynotus, besides others of subgeneric rank or of less
importance. The characters of the family are given (op. cit.) as
follows :—

“Free cheeks very narrow, forming the lateral margins of the
cephalon, and bearing the genal spines. Fixed cheeks large,
usually traversed by an eye-line extending from near the anterior
end of the glabella. Facial sutures running from just within the
genal angles, curving forward, and cutting the anterior lateral
margins of the cephalon. Eyes rudimentary or absent. Thorax
with from fourteen to seventeen segments. Pygidium small and of
few segments. Cambrian.”

The characters of the genus Conocoryphe are given as follows :-—
“Cephalon semicircular; genal angles produced into spines;
glabella distinctly lobed, wide behind, and contracted in front,
not extending to the frontal border. Fixed cheeks very large, with
conspicuous furrow parallel to the anterior margin; free cheeks
narrow, marginal ; thorax of fourteen segments.”

The same author, Dr. Charles Beecher, who has written the
article on trilobites in the book above quoted, published the same
diagnosis of the family Conocoryphide in 1897," and included in it
the following genera and subgenera :—

Conocoryphe, Corda (= Conocephalites, Barrande).
Aneucanthus, Angelin.

Atops, Emmons.

Avalonia, Walcott.

Bailiella, Matthew (= Salteria, Walcott, and Erinnys, Salter).
Bathynotus, Hall.

Carausia, Hicks.

Ctenocephalus, Corda.

Dictyocephalus, Bergeron.

Eryx, Angelin.

Harttia, Walcott.

Toxotis, Wallerius.

Matthew ” has contributed much to our knowledge of the genus,
and his writings deserve careful study.

The usage of the generic name Conocoryphe in Britain has on
a previous occasion been briefly criticized by the present author,’
and some of the British species assigned to other genera. In
discussing them here more in detail it will be convenient to take
them alphabetically.

Conocoryphe abdita (Salter, Mem. Geol. Surv., vol. iii, 1866,
p- 306, pl. v, fig. 13).— This species is at once seen to possess
fundamental differences from Conocoryphe, sens. str., in the large
well-developed eyes and in the course of the facial suture. The
presence of pits in the marginal furrow of the head-shield suggests
that it should be referred to either Huloma or Apatokephalus, and
the position of the eyes, their relative size, the eye-lines, and the

1 Amer. Journ. Sc., vol. iii (1897), p. 180.
2 Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, vol. ii (1884), sect. iv, pp. 102, 103.
3 Grou. Maa., Dec. IV, Vol. V (1898), pp. 495, 496.

252 F. R. Cowper Reed—On the Genus Conocoryphe.

course of the facial suture indicate that it belongs to the former
genus, Huloma. Linnarsson and Brégger’ assigned it many years
ago to this genus.

C. applanata (Salter, Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1865, p. 285; Q.J.G.S.,
vol. xxv, 1868, p. 53, pl. ii, figs. 1-5).—In the first place the
presence of eyes and the course of the facial suture remove it
trom Conocoryphe, sens. str. The characters of Solenopleura, which
Matthew? has tabulated, agree in many particulars with those
present in this form. The surface is granular or subtuberculate,
the glabella is prominent, the dorsal furrows well defined, the
genal angles are pointed, the fixed cheeks are strongly swollen,
and the pygidium is small with but three segments. The rather
remote eyes, with the ocular ridges, the parabolic glabella, the
course of the facial sutures, the strong margin to the head-shield,
and the marginate pygidium are also points in which C. applanata
agrees with Solenopleura. The tubercle on the neck-segment found
in the latter genus is also present in the type-specimen, though not
mentioned in Salter’s description. The pleura, however, of this
species are said to be pointed, while in Solenopleura Matthew
(op. cit.) describes them as bluntly rounded. All the specimens
of C. applanata which I have examined appear to have had blunt
tips to the pleure, the pointed appearance being due to oblique
crushing or distortion, The weight of evidence is therefore in
favour of assigning this form to the genus Solenopleura.

C.? bucephala (Belt, Gnot. Mac., Vol. V, 1868, p. 10, Pl. II,
Figs. 1-6).—This species is certainly not a true Conocoryphe, as
a brief inspection of the figures shows. The general characters of
the species place it amongst the Olenide, and it may provisionally
be assigned to the genus Olenus. The crust of the glabella is said
to be unfurrowed as in Angelina and Cyclognathus, but when this is
removed or the glabella crusted two or three pairs of furrows are
seen. The triangular margin of the frontal lobe is peculiar, and
since the pygidium is also unknown its true generic position must
for the present remain a matter of doubt.

C. bufo (Hicks, Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1865, p. 285; Q.J.G.S., vol. xxv,
1868, p. 52, pl. ii, fig. 8).—This is a true Conocoryphe, sens. str., a8
has been previously remarked.’ It appears to belong to the sub-
genus Bailiella (Matthew), of which C. Baileyi (Hartt) is the type,
and which is characterized by the facial suture cutting off a third of
the marginal fold instead of running along the outer edge of this
fold as in C. Sulzeri. Matthew (op. cit.) remarks that C. bufo
possesses a head-shield very like that of ©. (Bailiella) elegans
(Hartt), but the pygidium is not known. Linnarsson‘ had previously

, Die Silur., Etag. 2 and 3 (1882), p. 98.
: Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, vol. v (1887), p. 134. ;
4 Matthew, Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, vol. ii (1884), sect. iv, pp. 102, 103;
Reed, Grou. Mac., Dec. IV, Vol. V (1898), pp. 495, 496. ;
Sver. Geol. Undersokn., 1877, Om fauna i lagren med Paradoxides Glandicus,
p. 16, t. 2, f. 2-4; Sver. Geol. Undersokn., ser. c, No. 35, 1879, Om faunan
i Kalken med Conocoryphe exsulans, p- 19, t. 2, f. 26-28.

FR. Cowper Reed—On the Genus Conocoryphe. 253

noticed the resemblance of the British species to C. Dalmani
(Sjogren), which may be identical with C. emarginata (Linn.).

C. coronata, Barrande (Syst. Sil. Bohéme, vol. i, 1852, p. 424,
t. 13, f. 20-26). — This species was first described from Britain
by Hicks. The type-specimen is in a poor state of preservation,
and there may be some doubt if it really belongs to Barrande’s
species ; but Salter’s remark * that while Hicks’ specimen possesses
genal spines Barrande’s figure shows none, is of no importance, as
Barrande’s figure was drawn from a specimen without the tree-cheeks.
Genal spines are characteristic of the genus Ctenocephalus (Corda),
to which C. coronatus belongs, as Matthew (op. cit., p. 103) has
pointed out. Ctenocephalus is distinguished from Conocoryphe (type
C. Sulzeri) by the possession of a marked protuberance—a frontal
lobe—in front of the glabella, and by a smaller pygidium. The
number of thoracic segments is also not the same, and the course
of development is different. The distinction of these two genera
therefore appears to be well founded.

C. (Solenopleura) depressa, Salter (Siluria, 2nd ed., 1859, p. 47,
Foss. 7, fig. 2 [Hilipsocephalus|).— Brogger* has expressed the
Opinion that this species belongs to the subgenus Cyclognathus of the
genus Olenus. But the presence of genal spines, the more remote
and more backward position of the eyes, the glabellar furrows, the
relative shortness of the glabella itself, the possession of a rather
wide frontal limb separating it from the margin, and the different
shape of the head-shield, are opposed to this view. The form of the
pleuree is certainly somewhat similar, and the number of body-segments
is the same, while the pygidium bears a very close resemblance.
But a comparison with specimens of the type form Cyclognathus costatus
from Vestfossen presented by Professor Brogger himself to the
Woodwardian Museum confirms my opinion that C. depressa cannot
be referred to Cyclognathus. With Solenopleura its affinities are rather
closer. The number of body-segments is the same and the pygidium
and pleure are fairly similar, but the fixed cheeks show no sign of
having been swollen, the genal angles are pointed and have no sub-
marginal spine, the eyes are rather forward, and there is no neck
tubercle nor granulation of the surface. Matthew, in a manuscript
note on the specimens of this species in the Woodwardian Museum,
considers it to be allied to Solenopleura. Its precise generic position
must for the present remain uncertain, though it must be removed
from Conocoryphe. With the exception of the shape of the pleure
it has many points of similarity to Olenus, sens. str., and it
undoubtedly belongs to the family Olenide.

C. ? ecorne, Ang.? (Salter, Cat. Camb. Sil. Foss. Woodw. Mus.,
1872, p. 12), is a species of Peltura, and shows all the characteristic
features of that genus.

C. Homfrayi, Hicks (Q.J.G.S., vol. xxviii, 1872, p. 178, pl. vi,
fig. 12).—The type-specimen is much compressed and distorted, and

1 Q.J.G.S., vol. xxviii (1872), p. 178, pl. vi, fig. 11.
2 Mem. Geol. Sury., 2nd ed. (1881), vol. iii, p. 499,
3 Die Silur., Etag. 2 and 3 (1882), p. 111.

254 F. R. Cowper Reed—On the Genus Conocoryphe.

after a careful examination of it I have much doubt’ if eyes really
existed, though the species has been described as possessing them.
The number of thoracic segments and the shape of the pleure are
the same as in Conocoryphe, sens. str., and the genal angles similarly
bear spines. The pygidium, according to Hicks, has fewer segments
than in C. Sulzeri, but the state of preservation of this member is
very poor. With much probability this species may therefore rightly
be left in the genus Conocoryphe.

C. humerosa, Salter (Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1865, p. 285; Q.J.G.S.,
vol. xxv, 1868; p. 54, pl. ii, fig. 7)—The specimen on which this
species was founded has the head-shield very much crushed, and the
characters given by Salter (op. cit.) are very imperfectly seen, so
that not much weight can be attached to them. The ornamentation
of the crust is, however, distinct, and the neck-spine is preserved
fairly well. The portion of the thorax is nearly perfect, and all the
features mentioned by Salter can be made out, as well as some others
not recorded. But all the characters are absolutely different to any
found in the thorax of any species of Conocoryphe, sens. str., and it
can be positively asserted that it does not belong to this genus.
The spine on the neck-segment, followed by those on the axial rings
of the thorax, the shape, the groove, and free spinose ends of the
pleuree suggest the genus Olenoides. The peculiar radiate “ venulose
lines” and granulation ornamenting the surface of O. typicalis
(Walcott) described by Walcott? are distinctly visible on the head-
shield of the type-specimen of C. humerosa; and comparison with
specimens of Olenoides from America shows that the spines on the
axis closely resemble those in O. typicalis, while the pleure are
more like those of O. nevadensis (Meek). The geological age of the
beds in which Olenoides occurs is approximately the same as that in
which C. humerosa was found, and there seems to be no reason for
hesitating to ascribe this species to the genus Olenoides.

C. invita, Salter (Dec. Geol. Surv., 1865, pl. vii, fig. 6).—This
species has been referred by Brégger * to his new genus Apatokephalus,
as I have recently mentioned.t The characteristic features cf this
genus, which shows many points of resemblance to Zuloma and
Dicellocephalus, are well exhibited in the head-shields of this form,
and Brigger’s view needs no further comment.

C.? longispina, Belt (Gnon. Mac., Vol. V, 1868, p. 9, Pl. II,
Figs. 12-14).—By the characters of the head-shield we can at once
decide that this species does not belong to Conocoryphe. Judging
from Belt’s figures and description, it may without hesitation be
referred to the genus Olenus, and probably to its subgenus
Parabolinella, as indicated by the course of the facial suture and
position of the eyes, but the shortness of the glabella is remarkable.

C. Lyelli, Hicks (Q.J.G.S., vol. xxvii, 1871, p. 339, pl. xvi,
figs. 1-7).—On a former occasion * I have stated that this species 18

; Grou. Mac., Dec. IV, Vol. V (1898), p. 495.

: Bull. U.S. Geol. Sury., No. 30 (1886), p. 180, pl. xxv, figs. 2, 2a, 7.

: Nyt Magazin fur Naturvidenskaberne, Bd. xxxv (1896), pp. 179-185, 200.

Gro. Mac., Dec. IV, Vol. VII (1900), p. 46.

° Geox. Mac., Dec. IV, Vol. V (1898), p. 495.

F. R. Cowper Reed—On the Genus Conocoryphe. 258

probably a true member of the genus Conocoryphe. The narrow
marginal free-cheeks, the course of the facial suture, the absence of
compound eyes, the number and characters of the thoracic segments,
are features in which it completely agrees.

C. malvernius, Phillips (“Geology of Oxford,” 1871, p. 68,
fig. 5).—As far as the imperfect figure allows one to judge, this
species appears to belong to the genus Peltura. At any rate, it is
not a Conocoryphe, but is referable to one of the Olenide.

C. monile, Salter (Cat. Camb. Sil. Foss. Woodw. Mus., 1872, p. 32;
Callaway, Q.J.G.S., vol. xxxiii, 1877, p. 665, pl. xxiv, fig. 4).—This
species, which was first. described by Callaway (op. cit.), has been
assigned to the genus Huloma by Brogger,' of which it exhibits all
the typical features.

C.? olenoides, Salter (Mem. Geol. Surv., vol. iii, 1866, p. 308,
pl. viii, fig. 6).—It is quite doubtful to what genus this species
should be referred, but we cannot have any hesitation in removing
it from Conocoryphe and placing it amongst the Olenidee.

C. perdita, Hicks (Q.J.G.S., vol. xxv, 1869, p. 53, pl. ii, fig. 3).—
This species has never been fully described, and the only published
figure of it is most unsatisfactory. Hicks (op. cit.) says C. bufo is
its nearest ally, and if this be the case it must probably be a true
Conocoryphe.

C. Planti, Salter (Cat. Camb. Sil. Foss. Woodw. Mus., 1872,
p- 11).—This species, founded on well-preserved specimens, is an
excellent example of the subgenus Parabolinella of the genus
Olenus, and a description of it is now in the press. Salter (op. cit.)
assigned it correctly to Olenus.

C.? simplex, Salter (Mem. Geol. Surv., vol. iii, 1866, p. 306,
pl. v, fig. 17).—The smooth glabella, the very forward position
of the eyes close to the front end of the glabella, and the course
of the facial suture agree well with Cyclognathus, to which it may
be referred.

C. solvensis, Hicks (Q.J.G.S., vol. xxvii, 1871, p. 400, pl. xvi,
fig. 8).—I have previously? referred this species to Ctenocephalus,
and probably it belongs to its subgenus Hartella, as Matthew * has
remarked, and resembles C. J/atthewi, Hartt. A Scandinavian
species which is very closely allied, or may be only a variety of
C. solvensis, is Conocoryphe exsulans, Linnarsson.*

C. ? variolaris, Salter (Q.J.G.S., vol. xx, 1864, p. 236, pl. xi,
figs. 6, 7). — The characters of the head-shield, eyes, and facial
sutures at once remove it from Conocoryphe, sens. str. Salter
compares it to C. Ribeiro, Barrande, and also mentions that in some
respects it resembles the genus Sao. But the lobation of the
glabella is very different to that in Sao hirsuta, and the genal
angles are furnished with definite spines, turned slightly outwards,

1 Die Silur., Etag. 2 and 3 (1882), p. 98.

2 Grou. Maa., Dec. IV, Vol. V (1898), p. 495.

3 Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, vol. ii (1884), p. 103.

4 Sver. Geol. Undersokn., ser. c, No. 35, Om Faunan i Kalken med Cono.
exsulans (1879), p. 16, t. ii, f. 21, 22.

256 F. R. Cowper Reed—On the Genus Conocoryphe.

and not merely pointed as in that species. The eye is also smaller,
and there is no ocular ridge. There are seventeen body-segments
in the adult Sao, while in C. ? variolaris there are only thirteen
preserved, with traces of a fourteenth. The tuberculation bears,
however, a somewhat close resemblance, but this feature is not of
much importance in determining affinities.

On the other hand, the lobation of the glabella corresponds with
that described by Angelin! for Solenopleura, and there is also
a coarse though not so abundant tuberculation of the head-shield
in some of the Scandinavian species. The genal angles in Soleno-
pleura appear to have typically borne similar spines. The convexity
of the fixed cheeks which Matthew (op. cit.) emphasizes, also
existed in C.? variolaris, as their cracked surface shows, and in
the type-specimen it is crushed in. The tubercle on the neck-
segment is also present as in Solenopleura. Though in the descrip-
tion of the species it is said the pleure have pointed ends, yet in
the type-specimen they are certainly rounded so far as they are
preserved.

On the whole, it does not seem to be unnatural to assign this
species provisionally to the genus Solenopleura.

C. ? verisimilis, Salter (Mem. Geol. Surv., vol. iii, 1866, p. 308,
pl. vi, fig. 15).—Brogger? has suggested that this species may
belong to Cyclognathus; but though the forward position of the
eyes seems to favour this view, the shape of the free-cheeks with
their pointed genal angles forbids its acceptance. The generalk
appearance of the form is that of an immature individual of
Angelina Sedgwicki; but it may be a distinct species. There are
only twelve body-rings instead of fifteen; the genal spines are
much shorter, and the eyes are more forward and nearer the front
end of the glabella; but all these characters might be due to
immaturity. The pygidium is unknown, but the thoracic segments
have similar characters; and it may be with much confidence
referred to the genus Angelina.

C. vecata, Salter (Mem. Geol. Surv., vol. iii, 1866, p. 307, pl. viii,
fig. 7).—Though this species is obviously not a member of Cono-
coryphe as now defined, its true generic position is doubtful.
Perhaps it belongs to the Olenidz, but even this is uncertain.

C. viola, Woodward (Q.J.G.8., vol. xliv, 1888, p. 74, pl. iv).—
The figures and description of this form suffice to remove it from
Conocoryphe, sens. str., but its features, especially its facial sutures,
are so peculiar that a new generic title seems requisite.

_C.? Williamsoni, Belt (Guon. Mag., Vol. V, 1868, p. 9, Pl. II,
Figs. 7-11).—This species belongs to the Olenida and probably to
the subgenus Parabolinella of the genus Olenus; the course of the
facial sutures, the position of the eyes, and other characters of the
head-shield correspond, but only two pairs of furrows on the
glabella are described. The thorax rather more resembles that of
Olenus, sens. str., than that of Parabolinella, and the pygidium is

? Pal. Scand., 1854, p. 26.
* Die Silur., Etag. 2 and 8 (1882), p. 111.

H. J. Seymour—Blue Amphibole in Hornblende. 257

somewhat peculiar, though in the complete margin and number of
segments it agrees with Parabolinella. ‘To Olenus used in a generic
sense this species may certainly be referred. Salter’s' species with
the same name is distinct from Belt’s, but belongs to the Olenide.

From the above revision the so-called species of Conocoryphe in
Britain should be designated as follows :—

Euloma abditum. Conocoryphe Lyelli.

Solenopleura applanata. Peltura? malvernia.

Olenus ? bucephalus. Euloma monile.

Conocoryphe (Bailielia) bufo. Conocoryphe? perdita.

Ctenocephalus coronatus. Olenus (Parabolinella) Planti.
Solenoplewra ? depressa. Olenus (Cyclognathus) simplex.
Peltura, sp.[= C.? ecorne? (Ang.),Salter]. Ctenocephalus (Hartella) solvensis.
Conocoryphe? Homfrayi. Solenopleura ? variolaris.

Olenoides humerosus. Angelina verisimilis.

A patokephalus invitus. Olenus (Parabolinella?) Williamsoni.

Olenus (Parabolinella ?) longispina.

The three species of which the genera even are doubtful are
C.? olenoides, C. vexata, and C. viola. But none of these three can
be attributed to Conocoryphe, and their true position must be left to
the future to decide.

The distribution of the tabulated forms is as follows :—

Hartecu SERIzEs. Olenus ? bucephalus.
Conocoryphe Lyell. Peltura, sp.
Ctenocephalus (Hartella) solvensis. A patokephalus invitus.
MENEVIAN. Olenus (Parabolinella?) longispina.
Solenopleura applanata. Peltura ? malvernia.
Conocoryphe (Bailiella) bufo. Olenus (Parabolinella) Planti.
Ctenocephalus coronatus. Olenus (Cyclognathus) simplex.
Conocoryphe? Homfrayi. Olenus (Parabolinella?) Williamsoni.
Olenoides humerosus. TREMADOC.
Conocoryphe ? perdita. Solenopieura ? depressa.
Solenoplewra? variolaris. Euloma monile.
Lrneuta Fuacs. Angelina verisimilis.

Euloma abditum.

The genus Conocoryphe, sens. str., is thus seen to be confined in
Britain to the Lower and Middle Cambrian beds.

V.—ON THE OCCURRENCE OF A Bur AMPHIBOLE IN A HoRNBLENDE
KeErsantite From Co. Down.

By Henry J. Seymour, B.A., F.G.S., of H.M. Geological Survey of Ireland.
(Communicated by permission of the Director-General.)

N connection with the revision of the Silurian area in Ireland,
at present in progress by the staff of the Irish branch of
the Geological Survey, a number of rock-specimens of the dykes
occurring on the coast of Co. Down were lately petrographically
examined by the writer, who detected in one of the slices a blue
amphibole of secondary origin. As a mineral of this kind was not
hitherto known to occur in sité in Ireland, it may be of interest to
put its discovery on record here and to give also a few details
respecting its characteristics,
1 Cat. Camb. Sil. Foss, Woodw. Mus., 1872, p. 12.
DECADE IV.—VOL. VII.—NO. YI. 0

208 H. J. Seymour—Blue Amphibole in Hornblende.

The rock in which it occurs appears as a dyke (in Upper
Silurian sediments)’ on the shore one-eighth of a mile south of
the point where the letter B in South Bay is engraved on the map;
three miles south-east of Portaferry (1” sheet 49), and near the
spot where the small road south of ‘Tara Fort’ reaches the coastline.
On the original 6 inch working maps of the Survey it is represented?
as a double dyke, with the ends of each portion in parallel contact,
the northern limb forming a semicircular bend in the middle and
enclosing a small area of sedimentary rocks. The combined width
of the two portions is approximately 20 inches.

In the hand-specimen the rock is of a dull greyish-green colour,
and possesses a medium-grained crystalline structure. Bronzy mica
is the mineral most readily noticeable, and a few octahedra of
magnetite may be seen with the aid of a pocket lens. Its specific
gravity was found to be 2:85 in its present slightly decomposed
condition. Under the microscope it is seen to consist essentially of
a dark mica, with subordinate green hornblende, and an aggregate
of felspar crystals. Accessory and secondary minerals also present
are apatite, magnetite, a blue amphibole, chlorite, and several.
calcareous pseudomorphs, apparently after augite or hornblende
phenocrysts, more probably the latter.

MinErats.—H). green hornblende. m. biotite. Ap. apatite. B. amp. blue

amphibole.

Fic. 1 shows two large hornblende phenocrysts, with additions of secondary blue
amphibole on some of their terminal faces. x 45 diams.

Fic. 2 shows four crystals which exhibit the typical mode of occurrence of the
blue amphibole. That in the S.E. quadrant shows a basal section with the
clinopinacoid of the primary:green hornblende replaced by the blue amphibole.
The crystal in the S.W. quadrant shows a narrow pale-blue zone between the
green hornblende and the normal blue amphibole. x 45 diams.

* These sediments were originally regarded as Lower Silurian. The recent revision
(by Mr. F. W. Egan), however, shows them to be Upper Silurian. Report of
Director-General of Geol. Survey, Appendix to 44th Report, Dept. of S. and A.,
p- 365.

* By Mr. W. A. Traill, who mapped the dykes in this district. See Memoir of
Geol. Survey to accompany 1” sheets 49, 50, and 61 (1871), pp. 6 and 48.

H. J. Seymour—Blue Amphibole in Hornblende. 259

The biotite forms small (about 0:40 mm.) hypidiomorphic crystals
scattered fairly abundantly and evenly throughout the slide. Sections
at right angles to the cleavage planes are strongly dichroic (almost
colourless to greenish brown), and are frequently bent into curved
forms. Narrow bands of calcite are occasionally noticed between
the lamella. The mineral is here and there altered to chlorite on
its edges, and also to a less extent along cleavage cracks. Sections
parallel to the basal plane give a uniaxial interference figure and
show an outer rim of a much darker colour than that of the interior
of the crystal.

The felspars occur in medium-sized allotriomorphic crystals which
are rather altered and mostly micropoikilitic with numerous minute
inclusions. In their present condition the exact species is not
satisfactorily determinable, but repeated twinning is noticeable in
several of the less altered crystals, and they would seem to be
essentially plagioclase.

Apatite is an abundant constituent in the rock, and occurs as
inclusions in the biotite, plagioclase, and in the green hornblende.

This latter mineral is also hypidiomorphic, and appears to be
slightly posterior in date to the biotite, small crystals of which
it sometimes includes. Sections parallel to the principal axis attain
a length of 060mm. The pleochroism is fairly strong, the tints
varying from yellowish toa dull dark green. Basal sections exhibit
the characteristic six-sided forms with well-defined cross cleavages
intersecting at an angle of about 124°. The blue amphibole occurs
mostly as a secondary addition to, but partly also as a replacement
of, the primary green hornblende, and has grown in crystallographic
continuity with it. The cleavage lines are usually continuous in
both varieties, but are finer and sharper in the blue amphibole. In
most cases this latter is added to the clinopinacoidal or terminal
planes of the green variety, and occurs also, but less often, along
eracks in the interior of these crystals. The secondary enlargement
is quite limited in extent and seldom exceeds 0:10 mm. in greatest
length, the average being rather below this figure. ‘The junction
line between the two varieties is generally distinct, and they are
also sharply marked off from one another by their notably different
pleochroism. Exceptionally a very narrow band or zone of material
of a much paler blue colour than the normal blue amphibole occurs
between the latter and the green hornblende. The drawings show
the characteristic mode of occurrence of the secondary mineral in
question. Owing to its small size it does not present facilities for
satisfactorily determining its optical properties, but in so far as
it is possible to do so, they would appear to be as follows. Sections
approximately parallel to the clinopinacoid show that the extinction
angle is about 15°, and that this takes place on the opposite side
of the vertical axis to that of the green hornblende to which it has
been added. Observations with the quartz wedge appear to prove
that this direction of extinction corresponds also with the axis of
maximum elasticity. The pleochroism is strong and is as follows:
a = sky-blue, bh = pale reddish-violet, ¢ = pale yellowish. The
absorption formula is a > b > s.

260 E. D. Wellburn—On Rhadinichthys.

In some isolated cases the blue amphibole shows wavy extinction
under crossed nicols, due apparently to a gradual change in chemical
composition during its formation. It was found impracticable to
isolate material for chemical analysis, but there can be no reasonable
doubt that it belongs to the soda amphibole group of which
riebeckite and arfvedsonite are typical examples.

The occurrence of a secondary blue amphibole under conditions
exactly similar to those just detailed above has been described by
Dr. Whitman Cross‘ in the case of an allied rock from Colorado.
A. C. Lane? also records a similar occurrence in a syenite from
Michigan. More recently J. S. Flett® notes the presence of
a secondary blue amphibole in cracks in crystals of hornblende in
one of the lamprophyre dykes of the Orkney Islands. The mineral
from the Co. Down corresponds so closely in every particular with
those from the two American localities aboved cited, that the writer
has little hesitation in referring it to the same species. The mineral
described by Cross has been called crossite by Ch. Pelache,t who
also has described a species with identical optical properties.
Dr. Cross, however, in a later publication® states that the mineral
in question is considered to be arfvedsonite by Dana,* Brégger,’ and
Rosenbusch.* It may be noted further that Iddings, in his trans-
lation * of Rosenbusch’s work, describes the secondary amphibole of
Cross in the context between glaucophane and riebeckite, which
position the at any rate optically similar species of Pelache”
occupies by virtue of its intermediate chemical composition. Rosen-
busch” notes the occurrence of a blue amphibole in a minette from
Wachenback in the Vosges, the rock belonging to the same group as
the Co. Down specimen.

VI.—On Ruapivicuryys uovensis, EGERTON, AND 1Ts DISTRIBUTION.
IN THE YORKSHIRE COALFIELD.

By Epear D. Wetizvrn, L.R.C.P., F.G.S., F.R.1.P.H., etc.

ds species was first described by Sir P. De M. Grey Egerton” as
Palgoniscus monensis, in 1850, from detached scales from the
Coal-measures of Anglesey. Subsequently, Dr. R. H. Traquair™
proved that the proper position of the fish was in his genus Rhadin-
ichthys. Up to this date only detached scales had been known, but
in the paper just mentioned Dr. Traquair described specimens
showing many points in the structure of the fish which had been

* Amer. Journ. Sci., vol. xxxix (1890), p. 359 et seq.

? Amer. Journ. Sci., vol. xlii (1891), p. 508.

* Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, vol. xxxix (1900), pt. iv, p. 884.
* Bull. Dept. Geol. Univ. California, 1894, p. 181 et seq.

° 16th Ann. Rep. U.S. Geol. Survey, 1894-95, pt. ii, p. 30.

® System of Mineralogy, 6th edition, 1892, p. 402.

7 Die Gesteine der Grorudit-Tinguait-Serie, 1894, p. 33.

® Die mikro. Phys. der petro. wichtigen Min., 3rd ed., 1892, p. 567.
° Translation of the last work by Iddings, 1898, p. 270.

10 Loe. cit., p. 189.

'! Mikro. Phys. d. massigen Gesteine, 1896, p. 510.

*? Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. vi (1850), p. 5.

'S Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edinb., vol. iv (1878), p. 241.

E. D, Wellburn—On Rhadinichthys. 261

hitherto unknown. In my collection there are many fragmentary
remains, collected from the Yorkshire Coal-measures, which show,
among other interesting points, the form and ornamentation of many
of the bones of the head and shoulder-girdle ; while one more nearly
perfect specimen shows well the form of the fish and some other
points in its anatomy which have not been hitherto described, namely,
the relative positions of the dorsal, anal, and ventral fins, the former
being very well preserved and perfect.

From the material above mentioned, together with that already
described by Dr. Traquair, I now think it possible to give a fuller
and more detailed description of the fish than has hitherto been
possible.

One specimen in my collection, which shows the fish from a line
drawn obliquely upwards and backwards from a point immediately
behind the pectoral fin to a point slightly beyond the commencement
of the caudal fin, would represent a fish about 55 mm. to 60 mm. in
length; but other fragmentary remains show that the adult fish
reached a larger size, probably about 90mm., and this size
corresponds with that given by Dr. Traquair.

The bones of the head appear to be of the same form and to have
the same arrangement as those of other members of the genus
Thadinichthys. The cranial buckler, as shown by specimens in my
collection and as pointed out by Dr. Traquair, is ornamented with
“tolerably coarse ridges, passing here and there into tubercles.” The
opercular bones are ornamented in a similar manner, but the ridges
appear to be somewhat finer, not so frequently interrupted, and
rather more irregular in arrangement. On the maxille the ridges
are moderately coarse, are interrupted at distant intervals, and recur
in slightly wavy lines more or less parallel with the inferior border,
which does not show any signs of tuberculation. The mandible, as
pointed out by Dr. Traquair, is ‘slender and tapering, sculptured
with a few tolerably coarse ridges, which, as usual, pass forwards and
also obliquely upwards to meet the dentary margin at a very oblique
angle.” The teeth are small, conical, and somewhat incurved.

The bones of the shoulder- girdle are of the usual form and
arrangement, and are sculptured with ridges which are interrupted
at distant and irregular intervals, and which run more or less
parallel with the borders of the bones.

The body is elegantly fusiform, but somewhat elongated, the
greatest depth being at a point about midway between the occiput
and the commencement of the dorsal fin, the depth here in one
specimen in my collection being 10mm. and the total length of the
fish (when perfect) probably about 50mm. From this deepest
region the body gradually tapers to a delicate tail pedicle.

The scales on the nape appear equilateral; on the mid-flank they
are slightly higher than broad; on the belly they become low and
narrow ; and posteriorly they get gradually smaller and more nearly
equilateral until on the tail pedicle they assume the usual lozenge-
shaped form. The scale ornamentation consists of (1) a few sharply
cut, faint striz, which run parallel and close to the anterior anc

262 E. D. Wellburn—On Rhadinichthys.

inferior borders, and (2) four or five ridges which commence at the
posterior denticulations and run forward for some distance across
the scale, the ridges becoming somewhat more oblique from below
upwards. This sculpture is most strongly marked on the scales of
the nape, but from this point it gradually appears to become fainter,
the striz parallel with the anterior and inferior borders being first
lost; the ridges then become fainter and less marked, but the
posterior denticles, although they become less in number, appear to
be present on the scales far back on the body near the tail pedicle.

The pectoral fin, as pointed out by Dr. Traquair, appears to have
been ‘‘of moderate size and its principal rays unarticulated until
near their termination.” The ventral fins are not well shown in
any specimen, but one in my collection shows a trace of one of these
fins, though not in a condition to permit of a detailed description :
it appears to have been small and delicate. The dorsal fin is
beautifully shown in the specimen mentioned above: it commences
at a point very slightly in advance of the anal fin, the two fins
being nearly opposed to each other. This fin is of moderate size,
acuminated, concavely cut out behind, and composed of delicate rays
which dichotomize distally, the terminal branches of the rays being
very fine. The rays are distantly articulated, and show a single,
sharply cut, longitudinal furrow. The anal fin in the same specimen
is more imperfect, but a fin of similar form and construction is
indicated. The caudal fin in the above specimen commences at
a point about 17mm. behind the commencement of the dorsal fin,
but unfortunately only the proximal portion of the fin is shown.
According to Dr. Traquair, the “rays are delicate and their articula-
tions rather distant.”

Rhadinichthys monensis, Egerton. Twice natural size.
DF, dorsal fin; av, anal fin; vr, ventral fin ; TP, tail pedicle.
In the Yorkshire Coal-measures this fish is mostly found in a very

fragmentary condition; but it has a wide distribution, and occurs in
the shale above the following coal-seams :— :

Rk. W. Hooley—A New Wealden Tortoise. 263

I. Lower Coau-MEASURES.
. Halifax Soft-bed Coal (Shibden).
Halifax Hard-bed Coal (Queensbury).
Better-bed Coal (Low Moor and Wyke).
. Black-bed Coal (Low Moor).
. Cannel Coal (Whitehall Lane, near Low Moor).
Jf. Crow Coal (near Leeds).
II. Mrppie Coan-MEASURES.
a. Cannel Coal (Tingley).
b. Haigh Moor Coal (Castleford).
c. Barnsley Thick Coal (Barnsley).

In different individuals the scale sculpture shows very considerable
differences as regards the strength and prominence of the scale-
markings, the sculpture being much more pronounced in the case
of some individuals than in others where the scales seem almost
smooth. Another point of interest is that in the young fish the
ventral scales do not appear to be so low and narrow as they
are in the more adult fish. The fish, a young one, which has
been carefully figured above, shows this well.

US SR

dS

VII.—Nore on A TorTOISE FROM THE WEALDEN OF THE ISLE OF
WiGuHtT.

By Reernatp W. Hootrery, Esq.

N May, 1897, a fossil tortoise was found about 10 feet above low
water-mark opposite Shepherd’s Chine, by Mr. Wm. White, of
Atherfield, Isle of Wight. It came into my possession in July of
last year (1899). At that time the only portions clear of matrix
were the sixth, seventh, and eighth costal bones, the edges of the
marginals, and the epi- and hyoplastrals nearly to the notch; the
matrix is a fine silt containing much iron. The specimen had been
subjected to long attrition by the sea. A very thin but hard seam of
whole and broken Paludina had offered a stubborn resistance, as
likewise it did against a finely pointed and tempered chisel. On
the surface of the carapace are several Cyprids (sp.?) and the
impression in section of Paludina.

The carapace is somewhat distorted and flattened ; in its present
state it measures 124 inches long from A to B and 14% inches wide
from C to D; in life its shape was probably ovoid. A semicircular
piece of the fifth costal on the left side and the greater portion of
the posterior costals, the pygals, and posterior marginals have been
destroyed by the sea subsequent to the fall of the specimen from
the cliff, but in other respects it is remarkably complete.

The neurals, eight in number, are narrow and elongate, some
being twice as long as broad. There are eight costals, of which the
second, third, and fourth have been depressed beneath the rest of the
carapace to the extent of their thickness, and outer ends of the first
and fifth left costals, moreover, have been forced under the marginals.
The nuchal is emarginate and seems to be divided; there are eight
marginals on the right, with a portion of the seventh and eighth
wanting, and seven on the left, with but part of the seventh remaining.

Rk. W. Hooley—A New Wealden Tortoise. 265

The vertebral shields are wider than long, the first by 1} inches,
the second and third by Linch, the fourth by inch. The area
underlying the second and third vertebral shields is slightly fluted,
that under the others is smooth.

The entoplastral is wide, and rounded anteriorly and posteriorly ;
mesoplastrals are absent. The suture between the hypo- and the
xiphiplastrals commences below the apex of the sulcus dividing the
anal and femoral shields, thence it ascends and terminates nearly at
the top of the inguinal notch. The sulcus dividing the abdominal
and femoral shields is entirely on the hypoplastrals; it ascends
towards the hyoplastrals, and terminates in the inguinal notch.
The anal shields extend on to the hypoplastrals. The total length
of the plastron is 12} inches.

From the above particulars I conclude that the specimen belongs
to the genus Plesiochelys (Riitimeyer). It differs from P. valdensis
by the very slight fluting of the area underlying the vertebral
shields; indeed, as mentioned, this is absent except under the second
and third. It can be distinguished also by the fact that the vertebral
shields extend only one-third across the costal bones; in this respect
it agrees with P. Brodiei. The shape of the shields differs from that
seen either in P. Brodiei or P. valdensis, and approaches very nearly
to the form characteristic of Pleurosternum concinnum. The shape of
the nuchal bone is different from that of the other species mentioned,
and the entoplastral, instead of being V-shaped posteriorly, is rounded.
The suture of the xiphiplastral bone in P. Brodiei is very nearly
horizontal, whilst in the specimen now described it ascends and
terminates a little below the inguinal notch.

I endeavoured by the matrix, the Paludina seam, and Cyprids on
the surface of the carapace to fix the exact horizon whence the
specimen came, but after diligent and careful search could not locate
closer than it is within the 49 feet of Wealden shales immediately
overlying the sandstone of Cowlease Chine and Barnes High, there-
fore about 120 feet more or less below the Perna Bed; but if the
Cyprids on the carapace prove to be Candona Mantelli (Jones) this
would, I think, be sufficient to fix the horizon at 100 feet below the
Perna Bed in the 9 feet of shales with Candona Mantelli (Jones) in
the section on p. 15, Memoirs of Geological Survey, Isle of
Wight, 1889.

My amateur examination seems to point to this being a new
species; if it be so I would suggest Plesiochelys vectensis as its name.

EXPLANATION oF PaGE-pLate InLusTRATION (p. 264 opposite).

Fie. 1, A.—The carapace (dorsal aspect).
Fic. 2, B.—The plastron (ventral aspect).

ab, Abdominal shields. hum. Humeral shield.
an. Anal shields. hpp. Hypoplastral plate.
¢ 1-8. Costal plates. hyp. Hyoplastral plate.
es 1-4. Costal scutes. ig. Intergular plate.
entp. Entoplastral plate. n 1-8. Neural plates.
ep. Epiplastral plate. nu. Nuchal plate.

Jem. Femoral shield. xp. Xiphiplastral plate.
g. Gular shield. v 1-4. Vertebral shields.

M =matrix.

266 J. B. Tyrrell—Stability of Land around Hudson Bay.

V1ll.—Tue Srapiity oF THE Lanp arounD Hupson Bay.
By J. B. Tyrrewt, F.G.S.

N a former number of this Magazine, and also in a Report
published by the Geological Survey of Canada, I showed
reasons for believing that while the land around Hudson Bay, in
the northern part of Canada, had undoubtedly risen several hundred
feet in Post-Glacial times, it has now reached a condition of
stability similar to that of the land along the Gulf of St. Lawrence
and on the eastern seaboard of Canada.

In taking this position I was obliged to combat the views of my
friend, Dr. Robert Bell, of the Geological Survey of Canada, who
had stated, and who has since repeated the statement before the
Geological Society of America, that the land around Hudson Bay
is now rising at the rate of from seven to ten feet in a century.

Some valuable historical light has just been thrown on this
interesting question by the publication of Jens Munck’s account
of his expedition to Hudson Bay in 1619 a.p., translated from the
Danish and edited by C. C. A. Gosch, and published by the Hakluyt
Society in 1897.

Jens Munck entered Hudson Bay eight years after it had been
discovered by Henry Hudson, and as far as is known he was the
first white man to enter Churchill harbour, on the west side of that
great Bay, or inland sea. Here he spent more than ten months,
from the 7th September, 1619, to the 16th of July, 1620; but as his
account of his expedition was written and published in Danish,
aud has not previously been translated into English, it has remained
almost entirely unknown.

His sailing directions for entering the harbour are as follows :—
“Whoever desires to enter the harbour must leave the beacons (on the
rocks to the west) to starboard and sail in, steering south-west.
A little way inside the entrance there is a sunken rock under the
water, but on the eastern side, so that one can pass it without
difficulty. One may then cast anchor in 7 or 8 fathoms.”

These directions were written nearly three hundred years ago,
and they describe the conditions exactly as they exist at present.
The sunken rock is still in the eastern side of the channel, so that
ships must keep along the western side. As that rock, in 1619,
was a menace to navigators, it could not have been more than
a few feet under water, and if the land had since then been rising
at any such rate as from 7 to 10 feet in a century, it would now be
high out of the water. A difference in the relative elevation of
land and water of even a few feet would have made a great difference
in the character of this channel, but instead it seems to have been
the same then as now. ‘There can be no doubt as to the rock meant
by Munck, for there is only one conspicuously in the channel, and
the banks are otherwise very regular.

After entering the outer channel the depths of 7 or 8 fathoms in
the harbour are almost precisely the same as those shown on the

chart made by the officers of the Canadian Government in 1886,
namely 6 to 81 fathoms.

J. R. Dakyns—Geology of Snowdon. 267

Furthermore, in this book several plates are inserted, one of
which, opposite p. 23, shows Churchill harbour, and Munck’s ships
moored near its western side, one Danish mile (=44 English
statute miles) from its entrance. The ships lay on the tidal flat,
which was ‘nearly 900 fathoms across,” and were ‘not farther
from the shore than about 12 or 14 fathoms.” They evidently lay
a short distance above a high point extending down to the shore of
the harbour from the west, and their position was therefore some-
where in front of where the Hudson’s Bay Company’s Trading Port
is at present situated.

The plate represents a bird’s-eye view of the harbour, and shows
it very much as it would appear in a similar view at the present
time, and not at all as it would appear if the land had been rising
since then at any such rate as from 7 to 10 feet in a century, or say
in all 19-25 feet, for much of the surrounding land is so low that
with such a difference in elevation large areas, which are now dry
land, would have then been submerged.

Mosquito Point, a low rocky point at the head of the harbour,
is distinctly shown on the plate, and Fort Prince of Wales or
Esquimaux Point, which projects beyond the mouth of the harbour
on its western side, is clearly seen to be connected with the more
southern portion of the mainland, as it is now, and there is no sign
of a channel across the connecting neck of land, though the land
is there so low that a depression of a few feet below its present
level would cause the existence of a wide and distinct channel here.
Had this channel existed in Munck’s time there can be little doubt
that it would have been shown on his map.

As these are the oldest historical records obtainable of the former
character of Churchill harbour they are of considerable geological
interest, and they are clearly in line with the arguments which
I adduced in a former paper in this Magazine, that during the
historical period there has been no determinable change in the
relative levels of land and water on this portion of the western shore
of Hudson Bay.

IX.—Firstrruits or A GEOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF SNOWDON.
By J. R. Daxyns, Esq.

A¥S longa, vita brevis. This is especially true when one reaches

the age of 64. I therefore commit to paper some of the results
of a geological investigation of Snowdon on which I am engaged.
I start of course from the work of Messrs. Ramsay and Selwyn
embodied in the Geological Survey Map of Snowdon and Ramsay’s
memoir on North Wales. To make what I have to say clear I may
state that the rocks of Snowdon are by Ramsay and Selwyn divided
into three principal groups, viz.: A, an upper felsitic lava; an
intermediate band (B) of bedded fossiliferous rocks of Bala age,
containing much volcanic material, called the calcareo-felspathic
ashy series; and a lower mass (C) of felsitic rocks. This lower
mass is in some places divided by sedimentary bands consisting of
slates and grits. Below C come blue slates and grits, with

268 J. R. Dakyns—Geology of Snowdon.

occasional volcanic bands, D; and below D the great mass of
volcanic rocks (E) which form Glyder Fach and Y Tryfan.

1. The lower Snowdonian felstones (C) are coloured on the map
as lavas, and are always spoken of as such in the memoir on North
Wales. In many places, however, they are not lavas, but frag-
mentary rocks. Their fragmentary character may be seen (to
mention a few localities) in Cwm Llan, especially west of the copper
vein not far from the stone erected in honour of Gladstone, and also
near the footpath leading from Rhyd-dhu to Snowdon some five
hundred yards or so beyond the half-way house. These rocks, CO, in
fact, consist of three kinds :—First, massive uncleaved rocks showing
fluxion structure and in some places columnar; these are un-
doubtedly lavas: secondly, compact, often close-jointed, rocks of
a smooth fracture, somewhat like lava, but without fluxion structure ;
these are probably tuffs or masses of consolidated felsitic dust:
thirdly, highly cleaved felsitic rocks. These last are in some places
obviously of a fragmentary character, but more often not so; and
in such cases it is difficult to say whether they are so-called volcanic
ash or cleaved lavas. As the obviously fragmentary rocks are part
and parcel of them, my own opinion is that they consist mainly of
ash; but to settle this question definitely microscopic examination is
needed. A slice cut from one of these fine and highly cleaved
felsitic rocks shows (as Mr. Greenly tells me) certain small agere-
gates with igneous structure, which look much more like fragments
than surviving augen from such rocks as the Bala felstones. The
rock also contains a considerable quantity of calcite, much more than
could be expected from the felsitic lavas in question, none of which
have yielded so much as ‘5 per cent. of lime (Harker, “Bala
Volcanic Series,” p. 18). It is probable, therefore, that the rock is
a felsitic tuff or dust.

2. Ramsay has pointed out on p. 150 of “The Geology of
North Wales” how difficult it is to fix on a boundary-line between
these lower felsites and the overlying series (B) on the ridge of
Llechog, west of the peak of Snowdon, because both are felspathic
and both cleaved. In my opinion the difficulty is due to the fact
that both are ashes; but I have not yet had any specimen from
this locality sliced and examined. In many places, the lower rocks
look to me like the ‘ altered ashes’ of the Lake Country.

3. Not only are the lower felsites often intensely cleaved, but
a very striking peculiarity about them in many places is their
sheared appearance; they are often more than cleaved, they are
sheared (or even to a slight extent foliated'), so much so as in
some places to remind me of the quartz-schist of the Western
Highlands. This quasi-foliated appearance is (among other places)
remarkable alongside the road from Rhyd-ddu to Beddgelert.

4, The great mass of these rocks (C) is quite devoid of bedding.
In fact, their unbedded character is the chief distinction between
them and the overlying series. At the same time, it is not always
easy to fix upon a good line of demarcation between the two, as

1 The divisional planes are coated with thin sheets of ‘ sericitic’ mica.

J. R. Dakyns—Geology of Snowdon. 269:

the lower rocks are bedded near the top; or perhaps one should
say it is in places convenient to include some well-bedded rocks
with the lower group for the sake of carrying on a line. In some
places, however, lines of bedding are to be seen in the heart of the
group (C). This is the case just above Glaslyn, on the north side
of the tarn, where the rocks are of an ashy nature, and are dipping
at 60° to the W.S.W. near a fault.

5. Immediately south of the outflow of Llydaw there are some
curious greenish rocks of a fragmentary character, in which, however,
one can rarely find any distinct bedding. They occur apparently
at the base of the calcareous series (B), though very unlike the
basement beds of that series seen hard by, and seem to wrap round
the upper part of C, partly owing to a roll over, but chiefly from
their having, as it seems to me, been deposited against and around
a boss of the lower felsitic rocks. They include one or two bosses
of an intrusive rock also of a greenish hue, which are probably
connected with the great mass of diabase that forms Clogwyn Aderyn
and Clogwyn Pen-llechen.

6. I may state, as I have not seen it mentioned anywhere, that
the beds B are often beautifully false-bedded, or, as I prefer to
say, cross-bedded. ‘This is well seen in Cwm Glas.

7. In the same Cwm the base of the upper felstone (A) is plainly
to be seen running down northward from the ridge of Crib-y-ddysgl
to the northern end of Clogwyn Person; and it is here manifest
that the felstone lies in a hollow in the underlying beds (B), for
it is in contact with higher beds of B on the ridge than at the north
end of Clogwyn Person, where the junction of the two rocks is
clearly seen to be a natural and not a faulted one.

8. On Crib Goch the upper felstone consists entirely of a mass of
blue close-grained columnar felstone showing lines of viscous flow.
On Crib-y-ddysgl the rock consists of two distinct parts, separated
by a thin band of slate or cleaved tuff. The lower part is a massive,
but not always columnar, felspathic rock, containing on the ridge
calcareous seams interbedded with it near its base. This is succeeded
by a thin seam of cleaved tuff, inconstant in occurrence, overlaid by
a columnar felstone exactly like the rock of Crib Goch.

The section at the base, seen on the Cwm Glas side of the ridge,
is very interesting. The interbedded calcareous seams are bent
over thus :—

“a

as if (after consolidation) the rock had been thrust from north to
south over the underlying slates and ashes, against which its layers
had dragged at the junction. I have not yet traced the outcrop of

270 J. R. Dakyns—Geology of Snowdon.

the thrust plane, but it cannot coincide throughout with the junction
of A and B, because, as stated above, that junction is at Clogwyn
Person a natural one.

In the figure, which is merely a diagram, the curved lines in A
represent calcareous seams in the felstone; and in B the gently
sloping lines represent bedding, and the vertical lines cleavage.

9. I had long years ago noticed some peculiar vesicular rocks in
the calcareo-ashy series, which puzzled me. It was Sir Archibald
Geikie who first pointed out that there were andesites on Snowdon.
After reading his account of these, I examined the rocks in the
places on Snowdon mentioned by him, and then found that these
andesites were one and the same with my peculiar vesicular rocks,
so I set about mapping them, and very useful I have found them
in showing where faults do and do not occur. In doing this work
T have found and partly mapped several rocks that bear a family
likeness to one another; some of them are not vesicular, and
I fancy may be fine-grained andesitic tuffs; but whether tuffs or
lavas, they form a group of similar rocks distinct from the rocks amid
which they occur. They are characterized by a splintery fracture,
smooth texture, dull grey colour, rusty weathering, and are often
highly cleaved. Most of the specimens examined show under the
hand lens the characteristic “trachytic meshwork of minute felspar
laths.” At present I look upon them as contemporaneous inter-
bedded rocks: there are, however, places where they might be
supposed to be intrusive, but perhaps this is a deceptive appearance
due to faulting. I do not know yet about this.

The regions where I have mapped, or commenced mapping, them
are on the flanks of Crib-y-ddysgl and beneath the peak of Snowdon,
both above Glaslyn on one side and at the head of Cwm Clogwyn
on the other, and on the ridge leading from the summit of the
mountain to Bwlch-y-maen. I suspect from what I have lately
seen (in unfavourable weather) that similar rocks also occur, as is
but natural they should, in the calcareous series south-east of
Lliwedd, and I know that a rock of this description forms Clogwyn-
y-gysefa on the east side of the road from Pen-y-gwryd to
Beddgelert.

The andesitic rocks lie chiefly in the calcareous series (B), but
one, a well-marked lava, which I had mapped as such before I knew
anything about andesites, occurs amid the lower felsitic rocks (C)
near the head of the rocky spur called the Gribbin or Criman,
which runs down to the foot of Glaslyn from the south. I see that
the tracing of these beds will necessitate a modification of some of
the lines on the Survey map.

10. As far as I know, all the intrusive rocks coloured as Green-
stones on the Geological Survey map are Diabases; but there are
others of a different character, which are not shown on the Survey
map, to wit, a boss of igneous rock of an apparently intermediate
but variable character (as I am informed by Mr. EH. Greenly) on the
south side of Cwm Dyli, a mass of Diorite below Caer-gors (rather
more than a mile from Rhyd-dhu station), and several sills and

J. R. Dakyns—Geology of Snowdon. Pari

dykes of an intermediate character on Mynydd Drws-y-coed. I may
as well say at once that the mineralogical character of all the
above-mentioned rocks, as weil as of others not mentioned, were
determined! for me by my friend Mr. E. Greenly, to whose great
kindness in naming my specimens my warmest thanks are due.

There are also some intrusive felstones, bosses, and dykes in the
Snowdon area. One of these I have already mentioned in a note to
the British Association at Bristol. It is an oblong mass of felstone,
showing lines of viscous flow parallel to its north-western face, and
rudely columnar perpendicular to that face, exactly like the felstone
of Crib Goch, and not like any part of the lower felsitic rocks of the
immediate neighbourhood. I take it to be a plug and root of the
Crib Goch lava. It occurs between Glaslyn and Bwlch Goch.

On the ridge called Llechog, that bounds Cwm Clogwyn on the
south, a band of compact uncleaved felstone, running N.W. and 8.E.,
stands up as a dyke amid the cleaved felsitic rocks (C). In the
Cwm also a felstone dyke running W.N.W. and E.S.E. is seen
rising up the cliff. This may possibly be the lower part of the
dyke mentioned above. I have not decided about this yet.

I may remark that the existence of felstone dykes amid the
Snowdonian rocks is a discovery, for none such have been hitherto
recognized.

11. The great masses of diabase that occur so plentifully in the
neighbourhood of Snowdon are generally massive rocks quite
uncleaved, but they are often cleaved or sheared along their
margins. Ramsay remarks on this feature, and says, on p. 157 of
“The Geology of North Wales”: “At its junction with the felspathic
porphyry the greenstone is often partially decomposed ; its crystal-
line character is gone (probably from rapid cooling at its sides), and
it possesses a flaky structure to so great an extent that it sometimes
looks like some of the cleaved dark-green calcareous ashes, or in
other cases assumes an appearance of a more slaty description.”
This is an excellent description of the diabase along its margin, but
there is evidently some confusion between the phenomenon of
a chilled edge and that of marginal cleavage or schistosity, which
must (as it seems to me) be due to movement or pressure. The
same sort of thing occurs in the Scottish Highlands, where masses
of basic rock among the schists are sheared along their margins,
though in the Highlands the rock is generally reconstructed.
Besides the above-noted deformation along their margins, the
diabases are in some localities deformed and rendered schistose, or
something very like it, throughout nearly their whole extent.
1 first noticed this in Cwm Llan, on the south side of Snowdon,
and took Mr. Greenly to see it, so different in appearance was
the rock from that of the ordinary run of diabases. A precisely
similar rock occurs on the west side of Snowdon near Llyn Nadroedd.
On the Geological Survey map a large mass of greenstone is
represented there, but it really consists of two separate masses

1 Only a few, however, have yet been sliced.

272 J. R. Dakyns— Geology of Snowdon.

of intrusive rock parted by a band of felsite about seventy yards
wide. The upper of these is a massive unsheared diabase of the
ordinary type. The lower is exactly like the Cwm Llan rock, with
which it is doubtless connected underground. Both of these masses
(viz., the Cwm Llan rock and the lower of the basic rocks near Llyn
Nadroedd) are highly complex, including a considerable variety of
material, of the mutual relations of which, as well as of their
relation to the surrounding rocks, I hope to be able some day to give
a detailed account.! The bulk of the rock is a dark-green schist,
with a highly developed parallel structure and a fine silky lustre om
the foliation planes. Under the microscope the rock is seen to be
completely reconstructed and recrystallized, to be a finely felted or
schistose aggregate, in fact, a perfect crystalline schist. Chlorite,
indeed, forms the bulk of the rock, with granules of epidote,
magnetite, and Jeucoxene; but some specimens are largely composed
of minute needles with a much higher double refraction than
chlorite, which can hardly be anything but a pale-green hornblende,
produced apparently at the expense of the chlorite, and the result
therefore of a more advanced stage of metamorphism. A curious
feature is the presence in some of these schists of a large number
of small concretions (up to the size of large peas). These are
composed of a quartz mosaic, with generally a border of radially
arranged needles of a green mineral, chiefly chlorite, though horn-
blende is also present. Some are perfect little radial spherulites.
Many of these concretions can be seen to cut sharply across the
foliations, and no sign of strain has been observed in their minerals,
so that it is clear that they are not amygdules, but that they have
grown since the last deforming stresses to which the rock was
subjected.

The character of these rocks is so different from that of any other
of the Snowdonian rocks that the thought crossed my mind whether
they might not be a boss of Archzean rocks sticking up in the valley
bottom; but this idea, to say nothing of the structural difficulties,
was negatived by finding that the metamorphic rock enveloped
masses of grit, and was therefore intrusive.

12. Before closing this summary of my work, I may as well
mention that there is a mass of basic intrusive rock, not shown on
the Geological Survey Map, amid the rocks of the calcareous series.
8. by E. from Cwm Dyli waterfall and nearly opposite Gwastad
Agnes, which I have not yet mapped; and that I have found and
mapped a boss of diabase of the Siabod type, not shown on the
Survey Map, from 450 to 700 yards N.N.W. of Pen-y-gwryd.

I find, too, that the upper part of the felstones of Glyder Fach on
the southern slope of the hill consist of breccias which pass up
gradually into grits.

13. In conclusion I will briefly state the chief things discovered
by me in the Snowdon area: these are, first, the fact that much of

1 The following mineralogical description has been communicated to me by
Mr. E. Greenly.

H. Warth—Composition of Igneous Rocks. 273

the lower felsitic rock spoken of as lava is really of a fragmentary
character; secondly, the existence of dykes and intrusive masses of
felstone; and thirdly, the highly metamorphic rocks of Cwm Llan
and Llyd Nadroedd. These three things are all new. Fourthly, the
occurrence of diorite in the Snowdon area is a discovery.

X.—Diacram or Composition or Ianeous Rocks.
By H. Wartu, Esq.

ECENT studies about the average chemical composition of larger
numbers of igneous rocks in the aggregate have shown that
figures obtained from any one hundred or more samples are
very similar, in fact practically equal. (See A. Harker, “On the
Average Composition of British Igneous Rocks”: Gon, Mac.,
No. V, May, 1899.) This will be found also the case when com-
paring the following average which I calculated from the analysis
of igneous rocks compiled by Roth in his “ Petrographie der

plutonischen Gesteine.”

Now if it is of interest to discuss these average results, notwith-
standing the wide discrepancies of many individual compositions,
it may also be worth while to find out how on the average the
compositions vary with the relative acidity of the rocks. For this
purpose I have arranged the bulk of Roth’s samples in the order

DracraM-Fice. 1.

of acidity, and after calculating average compositions of eighteen
groups of closely approaching acidity, I constructed from the figures
the subjoined diagrams. The first diagram (Fig. 1) shows the actual
results, the second (Fig. 2) shows them rounded off.

DECADE IV.—VOL, VII.—NO, VI, 18

274 H. Warth—Composition of Igneous Rocks.

The percentage of silica varies from 80 to 40, and the usual
limits between acid, intermediate, and basic rocks are indicated by
the vertical lines on the diagrams. The diagrams show the per-
centage of the different bases which corresponds with the percentage
of silica indicated on the straight diagonal boundary-lines of the
silica which rise from the points marked 80 per cent. on the left of

a
Ss”
&

iS
D5

/

ar
| a

OLE OLN ES LSA TOS,

Diacram-Fie. 2.

each diagram to the points marked 40 per cent. on the right of each
diagram. As it would not be possible to give so many details on
the diagram, smail quantities of other acids have been reckoned
with the silica and treated as such. These acids are titanic acid,
phosphoric, carbonic, and in rare cases also sulphuric acid. In the
case of the bases I also included the manganous oxide, and a few
other rarer metallic oxides with the ferrous oxide. The total number
of specimens which were calculated amounted to 428. About sixty-
six of Roth’s analyses were omitted, partly because they referred
to strongly weathered specimens, and partly to exclude serpentines
and some other more purely magnesian silicates. The specimens as
given by Roth are from generally distributed localities, and the
following are the compositions of extremes and of the total average
in numerical figures :—

Si Al Fe Fe Mg Ca ° Na, KG) ae
Most acid... Face ohoed © tlre ikeit es} 0-7 0:90 226) eZ: ommmOre
Most basic eo O20 SL 22S LOD ee Osea 4: 2/th 010i) erom lei eon
Average ... Se OSL OMmEL DRS 5:0) = 33°6 4-0 By) a SH) | TL

Reviews—Italian Seismological Society. 275

The diagrams show the alumina to be nearly constant, only
slightly diminishing towards both extremes. The soda is also
tolerably constant, diminishing slightly at both ends. The potash
is decidedly stronger at the acid end, whilst the other oxides
increase from left to right so as to show quite a fan-like expansion
from the acid end towards the basic end.

The diagrams show also that the arbitrary boundaries between
acid, intermediate, and basic rocks are very suitably chosen.

IEA WF DE a WW Ss

BotuEettino DELLA SocrerA Srsmonoerca Iratrana, Vol. V
(1899-1900).

XCLUDING two bibliographical notices, the present volume

contains nineteen papers, of which all are interesting and one

is important. In addition, is the catalogue of earthquakes recorded

in Italy during the year 1898, compiled by Dr. G. Agamennone and

his successor Dr. Cancani. The value of this work is abiding, and
increases with every fresh year of its existence.

If we may judge from this volume, the recent energies of Italian
seismologists have been directed less to the invention of new
instruments and more to the study of their records. Nevertheless,
Drs. Vicentini and Pacher have made an important addition in the
form of a vertical component microseismograph. The paper in
which it is described, and the representations of some of its records,
are most interesting. Dr. G. Agamennone has devised a new
seismoscopic clock, and Dr. G. Pericle one more seismoscope.

Professor A. Ricco, of Catania, gives a summary of a report on
the destructive earthquake of November 16, 1894, in Calabria and
Sicily, and on its relations with the earthquakes of 1783. From the
same writer we have also an account of the Htnean earthquake of
May 14, 1898. Dr. Agamennone describes the Balikesri (Asia
Minor) earthquake of September 14, 1896, the Apennines earthquake
of March 4, 1898, and the Modena-Bologna earthquake of
February 2, 1900; while Dr. Cancani studies the Latian earth-
quake of July 19, 1899. In connection with barisal guns
Professor Issel’s supplementary paper on the Umbria Marches
earthquake of December 18, 1897, is deserving of study.

Professor Mercalli contributes observations on Vesuvius (July-
December, 1898), and Mr. R. V. Matteucci others on the Italian
volcanoes generally. On July 19 and 25, 1899, violent explosions
occurred in the central crater of Etna; these are carefully described
by Mr. 8. Arcidiacono, and their effects on the condition of the
crater by Mr. A. Mascari. C. Davison.

276 Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London.

REPORTS AND PROCHHDINGS.

———————

GeoLoGcicaL Socrrry oF Lonpon.

I.—March 21, 1900.—H. W. Monckton, Esq., F'.L.S., Vice-President,
in the Chair. The following communications were read :—

1. “On a Bird from the Stonesfield Slate.” By Professor H. G.
Seeley, F.R.S., F.L.S., V.P.G.S.

During his residence at Oxford the late Earl of Enniskillen made
a collection of Ornithosaurian bones from Stonesfield, which was
acquired by the British Museum in 1866. Among these is one
identified by the author in 1899 as the right humerus of a bird
about as large as a flamingo. The bone is complete, except for
fracture through the proximal articulation, and the specimen is on
the whole well preserved. The chief characters available for com-
parison are the form of the shaft, the character of the proximal end,
especially the ulnar tuberosity and the radial crest, and the form of
the distal end. The character which first showed the fossil to be
a bird was the ulnar tuberosity ; probably the flamingo approaches.
as closely as any living genus to the Stonesfield fossil in this feature.
The radial crest shows affinities with those of the flamingo and the
eider-duck. The impression left by the humero-cubital muscle on
the external surface above the condyles is almost identical with
that seen in the flamingo. “The varied affinities of this large
Carinate bird appear to lie midway between the ducks and geese on
the one side, and the herons and flamingos on the other. It may
be placed in a new family; but its characters are in all respects
such as might have occurred in an existing bird. There is no
indication of affinity to the Archgopteryx, or that the bird diverged
in any way from modern types.”

2. “The Lower Ludlow Formation and its Graptolite-Fauna.”
By Miss Ethel M. R. Wood. (Communicated by Prof. C. Lapworth,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.8.)

After dealing with the literature of the stratigraphical and
paleontological sides of the subject, the author passes to a full
consideration of the sequence and character of the Ludlow Rocks
in the following localities: the Ludlow district, the Builth
district, the Long Mountain; and gives a briefer account of those
of the Dee Valley, the Lake District, Southern Scotland, Dudley,
and the Abberley Hills. While the Wenlock Shales are characterized
by Cyrtograptus and by the Flemingii-type of Monograptus, in the
Lower Ludlow Shales the colonus- and spinose forms of J/onograptus-
such as M. chimera are abundant. The line between Lower and
Upper Ludlow is drawn at the top of the Aymestry Limestone.
The Lower Ludlow Rocks are divided into five graptolitic zones,
which are not constant in character or thickness in the different
areas. The distribution of the zones is given in the annexed table
(p. 277). Two of the zone-graptolites are new species, described in
the latter part of the paper.

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278 Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London.

In the Ludlow area the two lowest zones are rich in graptolites,
but shade into each other, and are therefore less clearly defined than
the higher zones, which each contain practically only one species
and are lithologically distinct. In the Builth area the variation
in the zones in different parts may be due to the conditions of depth
and current under which the graptolites have been deposited, or to
the overlap of higher beds on lower, as has been shown to be the
case with the Wenlock and old Red Sandstone rocks. In the Long
Mountain syncline M. scanicus is practically absent, and the typical
M. Leintwardinensis of the highest zone has not yet been found,
although its place appears to be taken by a varietal form. Two
new species of graptolites are almost confined to this district. The
succession worked out in these districts is confirmed by that in
the Dee valley and the Lake District, but the evidence at present
obtained in the three other areas is only scanty.

The Lower Ludlow sediments become thicker, coarser, and more
arenaceous when traced from the south and south-east to the north
and north-west; but, in spite of this, there is a striking constancy
in the lithological sequence of the sediments. Only two of the
graptolitic zones, those of M. Nilssoni and M. Leintwardinensis, are
present in all the districts. A table is given to show the distribution
of the graptolites in Britain and Europe, and one showing the order
of appearance of the graptolites of the formation.

The Lower Ludlow graptolites present, as a whole, the following
peculiarities, and stand in marked contrast to those from the Wenlock
Rocks in the fact that while the polypary is straight for the greater
part of its length, it is distinctly curved inwards at the proximal
extremity. The apertures of the thece are for the most part either
spinose, or wholly devoid of ornamentation. The number of species
is eighteen, with thirteen varieties, of which six species and nine
varieties of Monograptus and one species of Retiolites are new, and
are described and figured in the paper. All the species and varieties
of Monograptus are arranged round type-species into six groups.
The richest groups in species and varieties are those of M. dubius
and M. colonus. Most of these groups link the Ludlow Series with
Wenlock, and even the genus Refiolites is common to the two
formations. Thus the supposed great palzeontological break between
the two series to a great extent disappears.

IJ.—April 4, 1900.—J. J. H. Teall, Hsq., M.A., F.R.S., President,
in the Chair. The following communications were read :—

1. “Additional Notes on some Eruptive Rocks from New
Zealand.” By Frank Rutley, Hsq., F.G.S.

The rocks described in this paper were, with a few exceptions,
collected by Mr. James Park. A few of the specimens come from
the area of the Hauraki Goldfields, but many of them were procured
from other localities in the North Island, including several from
Rotorua. The silica-percentages of several of the rocks have been
determined by Mr. P. Holland.

The first part of the paper deals with twenty-three rock-specimens
and slides from them. These consist of rhyolites and obsidians,

Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London. 279

with rhyolitic and pumiceous breccias and tuffs, geyserites, and
sinters. The rocks exhibit spherulitic and perlitic textures,
fluxion, devitrification, and impregnation with silica. In one case
the obsidian, after solidification, appears to have undergone the
following changes :—(1) devitrification, with formation of spheru-
lites; (2) increase in temperature sufficient to destroy the double
refraction of spherulites and the earlier formed felspars; (3) the
decomposition of parts of the spherulites, causing them to assume
the characters of a cross-grained felsite. The rocks from Rotorua
exhibit the effect of solfataric action resulting in the production of
a high percentage of silica in the rock, and the development of
hyalite and isotropic opal silica or geyserite. In some cases these
rocks have had silica substituted for portions of the spherulites
which have been dissolved, the fibrous structure being preserved in
opal-silica, which, nevertheless, exhibits double refraction.

In conclusion, the author suggests a comparison of certain ancient
rhyolites of Great Britain with those of New Zealand affected by
solfataric action. As to the causes-which may convert a glassy into
a lithoidal rhyolite we still seem to lack information ; it is possible
that the action of steam may be instrumental in effecting such
a change, but this is probably only an occasional agent, and the
more general cause of such changes must be sought elsewhere.

2. “On the Discovery and Occurrence of Minerals containing
Rare Elements.” By Baron A. E. Nordenskidld, F.M.G.S.

The first mineral referred to is scheelite, and the next cerite, which
contains no less than four rare metals. The incandescent light
produced when the latter mineral is fused with charcoal-powder was
first observed by Cronstedt in 1751. The discovery of glucina,
lithia, selenium, and yttria is next referred to. Minerals containing
yttria and oxides related to it were, at one time, thought to be almost
limited to certain pegmatite-veins running in a broad zone on both
sides of the 60th parallel of latitude. Latterly, fluocerite, orthite,
and gadolinite have been found in Dalecarlia; and among these
minerals Benedicks discovered a silicate of yttrium containing
1:5 per cent. of nitrogen and helium. The author discovered kaino-
site, a silico-carbonate of yttrium and calcium, among minerals from
Hitteré ; and the same mineral was subsequently discovered in the
flucan, fissures, and drusy cavities at the Nordmarken mines. 'The
last-mentioned discovery and others related to it appear to suggest
that the mode of formation of fissure-minerals is not so unlike that of
the pegmatite-veins of the Primary rocks as is generally supposed.

Thorium, discovered by Berzelius in 1829, was originally obtained
from the rich mineral locality of Langesund (called Brevig in
mineralogical literature), but it has since been recorded from other
localities, including Arendal and Finnish Lapland. It is now
obtained from the monazite-sand of rivers in the Brazils and South
Carolina. Thorite contains about ‘5 per cent. of inactive gas,
probably a mixture of nitrogen and helium; but the latter element
was first obtained from the mineral cleveite, also containing thorium,
discovered by the author in 1877. Other minerals bearing nitrogen,

280 Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London.

argon, or helium are referred to; and under the head of minerals
bearing tantalum, mention is made of Giesecke’s discoveries in
Greenland. Among these is fergusonite, one of the richest sources
hitherto known for obtaining that mysterious gas, or mixture of
gases, which on our planet seems to be almost exclusively confined
to minerals containing rare earths. ‘The group of earths, as well
as the group of gases, of which we are here speaking, might
therefore be compared with certain genera among organic beings,
whose species, having not yet fully differentiated, offer to the
descriptive zoologist or botanist difficulties analogous to those with
which chemists meet in endeavouring to separate the rare earths and
rare gases.”

III.—April 25, 1900.—J. J. H. Teall, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., President,
in the Chair.

The President, having requested all present to rise from their
seats, read the following resolution which had been passed unani-
mously by the Council: “That this Council desire to place on record
their deep sense of the loss which both science and literature have
sustained in the death of the Duke of Argyll, who was the oldest
surviving past-President of the Geological Society ;” and stated that
on behalf of the Council he proposed to communicate a copy of the
resolution to the Duchess of Argyll, coupled with an expression of
respectful sympathy.

The following communications were read :—

1. “On acomplete Skeleton of an Anomodont Reptile from the
Bunter Sandstone of Reichen, near Basel, giving new Evidence of
the Relation of the Anomodontia to the Monotremata.” By Professor
H. G. Seeley, F.R.S., F.L.S., V.P.G.S.

This skeleton was originally described by Wiedersheim under the
name of Labyrinthodon Riitimeyert in 1878. The bones are now
differently interpreted :

The reputed humerus is the interclavicle.

nm » scapula is the humerus.

3 », Supra-scapula is the left coracoid.

Ms 5 a A right scapula.

u » Yight and left clavicles are the ribs.

a » Tight and left coracoids are the pre-coracoid and

coracoid of the right side.

Five digits are identified in place of four in 1878. These osteo-
logical identifications are inconsistent with reference of the type to
the Labyrinthodontia, and it is accordingly described as a new genus,
which is placed in association with Procolophon as a separate family
in the tribe Procolophonia.

The author discusses various views which have been expressed
with regard to the position of the Labyrinthodonts. He has already
separated these animals from the Amphibia and combined them with
the Ichthyosauria in a group of reptiles named Cordylomorpha, and
he enumerates a series of characters which constitute so close a link
between the two types “that it is not possible, in the absence of

Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London. 281

evidence, to conceive of their being referred to different classes of
animals.”

“ But if the order Labyrinthodontia is transferred to the Reptilia,
it is then manifest that by including such genera as Branchiosaurus
and Archegosaurus, in which gill-arches are found, it introduces into
the Reptilia a character hitherto unknown, and commonly regarded
as Amphibian. . . . If the osteology of an ordinal type is
Reptilian, it cannot be placed in the Amphibia, because two or
three genera, or the whole group, preserve gill-arches. . . . The
Labyrinthodontia may or may not be a homogeneous sub-class or
order, though the circumstance that many writers have separated
its groups on different principles, and into a varying number of
orders. is some evidence that it includes a wide range in character.
: In no part of the skeleton is there a close correspondence
between living Amphibia, which are probably unknown before the
Tertiary period, and the extinct Labyrinthodontia, which are only
known with certainty in the Carboniferous, Permian, and Triassic
periods of time.”

“If the sub-orders of Labyrinthodontia are sub-orders of Reptilia
and not of Amphibia, the transition which Paredasaurus exhibits
from Labyrinthodonts to Mammals ceases to be an anomaly.”

«The close resemblance of form of the bones in the several parts
of the skeleton now described with Monotremata and Anomodontia
makes the border-line between Reptiles and Mammals more difficult
to define.”

The fossil is identified as an Anomodont reptile, chiefly on the
basis of resemblance to Procolophon and Pareiasaurus. It is shown
not to be a mammal by the large parietal foramen, the composite
structure of the lower jaw, and the presence of the pre-frontal bone.
It differs from known Anomodonts in making a somewhat closer
approximation to Monotreme mammals than has hitherto been
evident, and this correspondence extends to successive segments of
both the fore- and hind-limbs.

The teeth are in sockets placed obliquely, with conical crowns
compressed to sharp lateral margins, and curved inward. The
proportions of the vertebral column are those of Echidna, though
the transverse processes are longer, as in Pareiasaurus. The ribs
are like those of a Monotreme, though the sacral ribs are longer.
The shoulder-girdle resembles that of Procolophon, and differs from
typical Anomodonts in the constituent bones being unanchylosed,
and in the pre-coracoid having a large anterior extension in advance
of the scapula. The sternum appears to have been unossified, as in
Crocodilia. The humerus is widely expanded at both extremities
and twisted, but does not show the peculiar lateral curvature seen
in Monotremes. The ulna gives no evidence of an olecranon-
process ; it is larger than the radius, and appears to articulate with
the humerus. The pelvic bones are without acetabular or obturator
perforations, are not anchylosed together, and the ilium is not
expanded transversely. The hind-limb is no larger than the fore-
limb. The femur is more slender than the similar bone in Zehidna.
The fibula is prolonged proximally beyond the stout tibia round

282 Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London.

which it may rotate. The proximal row of the tarsus is one large
bone, formed of the blended astragalus and os calcis.

In conclusion, the author argues that the points of structure are
so few in which Monotreme mammals make a closer approximation
to the higher mammals than is seen in this fossil and other Anomo-
dontia, that the Monotreme resemblances to fossil reptiles become
increased in importance. He believes that a group Theropsida
might be made to include Monotremata and Anomodontia, the
principal differences (other than those of the skull) being that
Monotremes preserve the marsupial bones and the atlas vertebra.
Ornithorhynchus shows pre-frontal and post-frontal bones, and has
the malar arch formed as in Anomodonts and some other reptiles.

2. “On Longmyndian Inliers at Old Radnor and Huntley
(Gloucestershire).”” By Charles Callaway, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S.

The grits, with some associated slaty bands, forming a ridge near
Old Radnor were considered by Sir Roderick Murchison to be May
Hill Sandstone. The author has discovered that one of the beds of
Woolhope Limestone, dipping westward, is crowded with rounded
and angular fragments of grit bearing a general resemblance to the
arenaceous parts of the Old Radnor Group. The bedding of the
grits is much obscured by crushing, and the rock is sometimes
brecciated. Descriptions of microscopic sections of the rock are
given in the paper, and the specimens are grits, the materials of
which are mainly derived from gneissic and igneous rocks. The
unconformity of the grits to the Woolhope Limestone Series, and the
dissimilarity of the grits to the May Hill Sandstones of Presteign
are the chief facts relied upon by the author to establish the pre-
Cambrian age of the Old Radnor Series; while the occurrence of
the rocks on the strike of the Longmynd, their position with regard
to the prolongation of the Church Stretton Fault, and their relations
to the Ordovician and Silurian rocks of the area are in favour of
a comparison with the Longmyndian rocks. The lithological
resemblances between the Old Radnor Series and the typical
Longmyndian are very well marked. Neither the rocks of the
Old Radnor Series nor those of the Woolhope Series are affected
by any metamorphic change.

The grits and shaly beds of Huntley are unlike the May Hill
Sandstones of that district, and as they occur along the axis of the
anticline, and lithologically resemble the rocks of the Longmynd, it
is highly probable that they also are of Longmyndian age.

IV.—May 9, 1900.—J. J. H. Teall, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., President,
in the Chair. The following communications were read :—

1. “The Pliocene Deposits of the Hast of England. Pt. II:
The Crag of Essex (Waltonian), and its Relation to that of Suffolk
and Norfolk.” By F. W. Harmer, Esq., F.G.S. With a Report on
the Inorganic Constituents of the Crag by Joseph Lomas, Esq., F.G.S.

The term ‘Red Crag,’ including, as it does, beds differing con-
siderably in age, is vague, and, when we attempt to correlate the
East Anglian deposits with those of other countries, inconvenient ;

Reports and Proceedings— Geological Society of London.

283

the Scaldisian zone of Belgium, for example, with its southern
fauna, representing one part of it, and the Amstelian of. Holland,

in which Arctic shells are common, another.

While retaining the

name for general use, therefore, the following more definite classi-
fication of its various horizons, and of those of the English Pliocene
generally, is proposed :—

NEWER PLIOCENE.

So-called Forest-bed Series.

CROMERIAN. Fresh-water & Estuarine.)
Zone of Llephas meridionalis.
Weybourn and Belaugh Crag.
WEYBOURNIAN. Zone of TZellina balthica.
(Marine.)
Chillesford Clay and Sand.
CHILLESFORDIAN. Zone ot Leda oblongoides.
(Estuarine.)
Norwich Crag. (Marine.)
Northern part :
IcEnIAN. Zone ot Astarte borealis.
Southern part :
Zone ot wlactra subtruncata.
ipernity Red Crag of Butley and Bawdsey. AMSTELIAN.
Zone vt Cardium grenlandicum. Upper part.
| Red Crag of Sutton, Newbourn,
NEWBOURNIAN. Waldringtield, ete.
Zone ot Mactra constricta. Lower part.
| Red Crag of Bentley & Tattingstone.
|
Crag of Essex.
Oakley horizon : PoEDERLIAN.
Zone ot Mactra obtruncata.
WALTONIAN.
Walton horizon : SCALDISIAN.
Zone of Neptunea contraria. Zone a Trophon
antiquim (Chryso-
domus contraria).
Coralline Crag. CASTERLIAN,
GEDGRAVIAN. Zone of Lecten Gerardti. Zone a Lsocardia
cor.
OLDER PLIOCENE.
LENHAMIAN. Lenham Beds. Dizstran.

Zone of Arca diluvii.

Boxstone fauna.

Ferruginous sand-
stones of Diest.

Waenrode Beds.

284 Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London.

The line separating the Older and Newer Pliocene is now drawn
by the author between the Lenham Beds, containing Arca diluvit
and other characteristic Miocene species of the North Sea (or of the
Italian Pliocene), and the Coralline Crag, the latter being considered
as the oldest member of a more or less continuous and closely con-
nected series of Newer Pliocene age. The paleontological difference
between the Coralline and Walton Crags is shown to be less than
has hitherto been supposed.

The upper Crag deposits arrange themselves in horizontal and
not in vertical sequence, assuming always a more boreal and more
recent character as they are traced from south to north. They are
the littoral accumulations of a sea retreating, not continuously, but
at intervals, in a northerly direction.

A new horizon of the Crag, represented by some beds at Little
Oakley, between Walton and Harwich, is described, indicating the
period, before the southern mollusca had commenced to disappear,
when a few boreal species were beginning to establish themselves in
greater or less abundance in the Anglo-Belgian basin. Though
hitherto unnoticed, the fauna of this locality has proved to be
exceedingly rich, more than 3850 species and varieties having been
there obtained, from a seam 10 yards long and less than 2 feet in
average thickness.

The three divisions of the Red Crag now proposed (the exact
position of the Bentley bed not having been ascertained at present),
namely, Waltonian, Newbournian, and Butleyan, are distinguished
alike by the difference of their faunas and by the position which
they occupy. The first, with its southern shells, is confined to the
county of Hssex; the second, containing a smaller proportion of
southern and extinct, and a larger proportion of northern and recent
species, occupies the district between the Orwell and Deben, and
a narrow belt of land to the east of the latter river; the third, in
which Arctic forms such as Cardium grenlandicum are common,
is found only farther north and east. All these beds are believed
to have originated in shallow and landlocked bays, successively
occupied by the Red Crag sea as it retreated northward, which were
silted up, one after the other, with shelly sand.

The Norwich Crag (Icenian) occupies an area entirely distinct
from that of the Red Crag, no instance being known where the one
overlies the other in vertical section; the fauna of the former is,
moreover, more boreal and comparatively poor in species. The
Arctic species, Astarte borealis, is confined to the northern part of
the Icenian area; its introduction seems to mark a stage in the
continued northerly retreat of the sea. The Icenian deposits thicken
rapidly northward and eastward, and are believed by the author
to constitute part of the great delta-formation of the Rhine.

The mammalian remains found at the base of the different horizons
of the Crag in a remanié bed, containing material derived from various
sources, are considered to be also derivative from deposits, older
than the Coralline Crag, formerly existing to the south.

The Chillesfordian (estuarine) and Weybournian (marine) deposits,

Reports and Proceedings—G@eological Society of London. 285

the latter characterized by the sudden appearance in the Crag basin,
in prodigious abundance, of Tellina balthica, represent separate
stages in the continued refrigeration of East Anglia during the
Pliocene period; but the so-called ‘“Forest-bed” or Cromerian
(fresh-water and estuarine) with its southern mammalia, and its
flora, similar to that of Norfolk at the present day, clearly indicates
a return to more temperate conditions, and should therefore be
separated alike from the Weybourn Orag on the one hand, and from
the Zeda myalis Sands and the Arctic fresh-water bed of Mr. Clement
Reid on the other. The two latter seem naturally to group
themselves together, and with the Glacial deposits.

The conditions under which the Red Crag beds originated seem
to exist at the present day in Holland, where sandy material
brought down by rivers, with dead shells in great abundance from
the adjacent sea, is being thrown against and upon the coast,
principally by means of the westerly winds now prevalent. From
meteorological considerations, it seems probable that strong gales
from the east may have prevailed over the Crag area during the
latter part of the Pliocene epoch. No other explanation of the
accumulation of such vast quantities of dead shells on the Hast
Anglian margin of the North Sea at that period can be suggested.
At the present day, the eastern shores of Norfolk and Suffolk are
almost destitute of such débris.

Mr. J. Lomas, in his Report on the Inorganic Constituents of
the Crag, states that lithologically the various subdivisions of the
Red Crag are the same. Differences of colour may be traced to
definite lines of flow along which water containing ferruginous
matter has moved.

Among the rarer minerals separated out by high-density fluids,
zircon, rutile, cyanite, ilmenite with leucoxene, garnets, andalusite,
corundum, tourmaline, muscovite, biotite, glauconite, orthoclase,
labradorite, albite, and microcline are found. In the heavy fractions
red garnets are very common. ‘Tourmaline occurs abundantly, and
includes green, blue, yellow, and brown varieties. Muscovite pre-
dominates over biotite, and often includes rounded crystals of
zircon, rutile, ete. Ferro-magnesian minerals, with the exception
of biotite, are absent. Glauconite is very plentiful, and frequently
retains the form of the organisms of which it has formed casts.

In the Norwich Crag the same minerals are present, but musco-
vite is found in excess. The Chillesford Sands differ from the Crags
only in the absence of glauconite. The bulk of the material of the
beds described consists of well-rounded grains of quartz, seldom
showing traces of secondary crystallization. Flint occurs as large
pebbles, and fine angular chips are met with in the sands,

2. “A Description of the Salt-Lake of Larnaca in the Island of
Cyprus.” By C. V. Bellamy, Esq., F.G.S., Assoc. M. Inst. C.H.

After a brief description of the general geology and geography of
the island the author proceeds to deal with the topography of the
Lake, which occurs in a basin shut off from the sea, its deepest part
being about 10 feet below sea-level. The barrier between the salt-

286 Correspondence—R. Ashington Bullen.

lake and the sea is made of stiff calcareous clay associated with
masses of conglomerate resting on plastic clay, that on watery mud,
and that again on stiff calcareous clay. The sea-water appears to
percolate through the highest deposits, meeting with checks in the
conglomerates, and thus reaches the basin somewhat slowly, where
it is evaporated to dryness by the summer heat and deposits its salt.
Artificial channels have been made, to carry the flood-water from the
land direct to the sea, so that it does not dilute the brine of the
lake. The rainfall in the catchment-area round the lake is at
the most only enough to supply 223 million gallons, and as the lake
contains 480 million gallons when full, the balance of 257 million
gallons must be derived from the sea. The lake is probably situated
on what was an extensive arm of the sea at the close of the
Cainozoic era. The salt-harvest begins in August, at the zenith of
summer heat, and it is reported that a single heavy shower at that
time of year suffices to ruin it. Observations are given on the
density of the water, the plants and animals in the water, and the
lake-shore deposits.

CORRESPON DEN CEH.

SHELLS FROM PORTLAND RUBBLE DRIFT.

Srr,—May I ask a few lines space to add to the list of Land and
Fresh-water Shells from Portland Bill Rubble Drift recorded in my
previous letter (Grou. Mac., Dec. IV, Vol. I, 1894, p. 481).

After about three hours’ work there on Feb. 21st last among the
numerous shells of species already recorded, I found the following
new species: Helicella itala, 2 specimens; Limnea truncatula
(dwarfed variety), 4 specimens. These identifications have been
kindly endorsed by Mr. Edgar A. Smith, F.Z.S., of the Zoological
Department, British Museum (Natural History).

On carefully going over the specimens with Mr. B. B. Woodward
and Mr. A. Santer Kennard, two other species must be recorded,
viz., Helix, sp. (protoconch of an indeterminable species), and
Hygromia rufescens (Pennant). The relative abundance of the
species, as found by me, is as under, adding previously recorded
finds (Gro. Mac., 1894, pp. 431, 482) to those of February 21 last
(new records are in italics) :—

Helicella ttala (Linn.) re she oss ae, wo AISDEG:
Hygromia hispida (Linn.) . wisi se aa cr 5,
Hygromia rufescens (Bennant) 568 th ios ely.
Vallonia pulchella (Miill. Me me se A “oh Oe
Helix. Spee ane 3s StH ae Jee sas; dele
Pupa muscorum (Linn. yee bea mee te samy SOL
Succinea oblonga, Drap. ... ae it it Papers)
‘Limnea pereger (Linn.) ... AN sae aan ws, SCHmeS
Limnea truncatula (Miull.) : 1G

Pomatias reflexus Saar ) = Oyelostoma el elegans (MSIL 1
Pisidium, sp. : 1

Correspondence—Hugh J. L. Beadnell. 287

The numbers of Sir Joseph Prestwich’s specimens are not stated,
but the above table is probably the order of frequency of occurrence.

Mr. E. R. Sykes, F.L.S. (President Conchological Society), has
found Z. truncatula in a deposit on the east side of the Isle of
Portland. He considers this latter deposit as comparatively recent,
and derived from a marshy tract which still exists south of
Southwell. If this be so the deposits are not synchronous,
inasmuch as the geological conditions of the deposit at the Bill
are well defined as of late Pleistocene age, not only from the
stratigraphical evidence, but from the abundant occurrence of so
characteristic a Pleistocene form as S. oblonga. Mr. Sykes (Proc.
Dorset Field Club, vol. xvi, p. 171) records L. truncatula from the
‘Bill’ deposit. On referring to Prestwich’s paper on the raised
beaches (Q.J.G.S., vol. xlviii, 1892, p. 278) JZ. truncatula is
determined from the occurrence of opercula only. Probably Bythinia
tentaculata is meant, as it occurs also at Chesilton at the north-west
of Portland, and is an operculate mollusc, whereas Zimnea is
non-operculate (Reeve, “ British Land and Fresh-water Mollusca,”
1868, p. 154). This inadvertence may be a lapsus calami, either on
the part of our author or of Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys, who generally
determined doubtful or critical species for him.

Limnea truncatula is therefore still a new record from this
interesting Pleistocene deposit. R. ASHINGTON BULLEN.

AXELAND, SURREY.

THE CENOMANIAN OF BAHARIA OASIS, EGYPT.

Srr,—I have to thank Dr. Max Blanckenhorn for his letter in
the Grou. Mac., April, 1900, p. 192, disclaiming to have himself
“discovered the existence of rocks of Cenomanian age in Baharia
Oasis.” As Dr. Blanckenhorn maintains that he cannot be held
responsible for the abstract report which appeared in the Zeitschrift
Sir praktische Geologie, I should like to point out that the copy of
this abstract report was sent to the Survey by Dr. Blanckenhorn
himself, and although it contained numerous corrections in ink of
the type matter, the paragraph to which exception was taken, and
which I quoted in my letter of December 7, 1899, was not in
any way corrected or explained; I could therefore only come to
one conclusion.

As I have already stated my opinion as to the age of the series of
beds under discussion, both in my letter of December 7, 1899
(Grou. Mac., January, 1900), and in a paper read before the Cairo
Scientific Society in October, 1899, it is not necessary to discuss
Dr. Blanckenhorn’s assertion that I did not “know the meaning ”
of the fossils collected, especially as this has nothing to do with the
question in dispute. Moreover, as the examination of these fossils
has not yet been completed by the palzontologists of the British
Museum, the exact horizon or horizons to which they should be
referred cannot possibly be indicated with certainty.

Camo, April 14, 1900. Hues J. L. Beapnett.

288 Obituary—G. H. Morton.

Oise PpASEonys-
GEORGE HIGHFIELD MORTON, F.G.S.
Born Jury 9, 1826. Diep Marcu 30, 1900.

Grorce H. Morton, the well-known Lancashire geologist, was
born in Liverpool in 1826, and educated at the Mechanics’ Institute
in that city. From a child he was interested in geology, and
at 16 years of age he commenced to form a collection of fossils,
some Ammonites, obtained at that time, having first excited his
interest. He also purchased, and read with earnestness, an article
entitled “The Mineral Kingdom” in Knight’s “Store of Know-
ledge,” and “The Romance of Geology ” in “‘ Chambers’ Miscellany.”
Other works of more importance were obtained and diligently
studied. In those days textbooks on scientific subjects were few in
number, and there were no science classes in Liverpool which young
Morton could attend. He continued to collect minerals, rocks, fossils,
and shells, which he named at the Royal Institution, Liverpool.

In 1845 Morton examined the Boulder-clay at Egremont, and
the New Red Sandstone quarries at Storeton with their wonderful
footprints of Cheirotherium and other reptiles on the slabs of ripple-
marked sandstone. In 1847 he visited Holywell, where he obtained
a few Carboniferous fossils. In later years he worked at and
described this formation in great detail. He contributed his first
paper of importance to the Literary and Philosophical Society of
Liverpool in 1856, “ On the Subdivisions of the New Red Sandstone
between the River Dee and the rise of the Coal-measures east of
Liverpool.” He also contributed papers to the British Association,
the Geological Society of London, etc. In 1864 he was appointed
Lecturer on Geology at Queen’s College, Liverpool, where he taught
successfully for several years.

Most of Mr. Morton’s published papers relate to home geology or
to the Carboniferous Limestone of North Wales. His ‘‘ Geology of
the Country around Liverpool” was published in 1863, and a second
edition appeared in 1891. This work contains all his previous:
writings on local geology. An appendix was added in 1897, giving
the results of constant and careful observations in the field extending
over fifty years.

Mr. G. H. Morton was a member of numerous scientific societies,
and founded the Liverpool Geological Society in 1859. He was
elected a Fellow of the Geological Society of London in 1858, and
in 1892 was awarded the Lyell Medal by the Council in recognition
of his long and meritorious services to geology in the work which
he had done around Liverpool, especially for the knowledge of the
Triassic and other strata of that district.

‘“‘ The Geology of the Country around Shelve,” “‘ The Carboniferous
Limestone of North Wales,” and “The Country around Llandudno,”
the last-named read before the Geological Society of London, well
illustrate the earnest and careful labours of Mr. Morton’s long and
well-spent life. He passed away very peacefully on the 30th March
in his 74th year.

GHOLOGICAL MAGAZINE.

NEW SERIES)” " DECADE IVS" VOL2UVIE

No. VII.—JULY, 1900.

a= Een Aa Asn Bie Eres. -

—__—_@—___
I.—CotoneL Fernpen’s Contrisutions to GuacraL Gronoay.
By Professor T. G. Bonnzy, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.

N 1877 and the following year Colonel H. W. Feilden published
the results of his scientific investigations on the coasts of Smith

Sound and the channel to the north.1. In 1896 he made contri-
butions to the geology of Kolguev, Waigats, and Novaya Zemlya in
two other papers.” ‘These are reprinted, together with one previously
unpublished, in the appendix to Mr. H. J. Pearson’s book, “ Beyond
Petsora Hastward” (1899). As the earlier work appears to have
been forgotten by some writers upon glacial subjects, and the last-
named might very easily escape their notice, I urged Colonel Feilden
to give a summary of his chief results in some generally accessible
periodical. Shortly afterwards, on being unexpectedly called away
for service in South Africa, he requested me to undertake the task.
For the sake of brevity, I restrict myself mainly to the investigations
which throw light on the formation of Boulder-clay and its associated
sands and gravels, because these establish two points: (1) that such
deposits are sometimes formed beneath the sea; (2) that the land in
these Arctic regions has been elevated, in places not less than
a thousand feet, since either some time in or the close of the Glacial
epoch. I draw especial attention to these points, because I have
noticed in certain writings a tendency to take it for granted that
Boulder-clays can only be the leavings of an ice-sheet upon the land,
and to treat the idea of any such important change of level as an hypo-
thesis so improbable as to be practically impossible. Hence I shall
pass over sundry important observations which show that projecting
rocks can be scratched, polished, and even rounded by the action of
floating ice, and shall not enter upon “ the literature of the subject,”
for it is of Colonel Feilden’s work alone that I am concerned to give
a summary. So, after remarking that he more than once calls
attention to the amount of débris seen on floating ice,’ I proceed to
the observations bearing on these two points, not, however, arranging
them under the separate heads, but giving them in geographical
order.

1 Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. rv, vol. xx (1877), p. 489; Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc., vol. xxxiv (1878), p. 556. See also Nares’ ‘* Voyage to Polar Sea.”’
. 2? Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. lii (1896), pp. 52, 721.

3 «* Beyond Petsora,’’ pp. 250, 269, 270.

DECADE IY.—VOL. VII.—wNO. VII. 19

290 Professor T. G. Bonney—

A. Grinnell Land, etc..—Here we find abundant evidence that this
“part of the land round the North Pole has been affected by
a movement of upheaval since there was any subsidence.” That
statement is justified by the following observations :—(a) Fragments
of mollusca and erratics are scattered over mountain tops and
elevated plateaus. (b) Terminal moraines of ancient glaciers, con-
taining numerous marine mollusca, are found above the present
sea-level. (c) Raised beaches, with remains of such mollusca and
with erratics stranded on their tops and slopes, occur tier above tier
with great regularity. They appear to be frequent up to about
400 feet above sea-level, and the most elevated mentioned is at
about 1,000 feet.’ It consists of a clay containing ice - scratched
erratics, with Mya truncata, Saxicava rugosa, Astarte borealis, and
Pecien Grenlandicus. A similar deposit with the same fossils also
occurs here? just above sea-level ; the latter resting on sandstone of
Miocene age, the former on Azoic slates. Colonel Feilden also
mentions a plateau at 800 feet, in which some remains of Mya
truncata were found. Coniferous wood, still retaining its buoyancy
and just like that stranded on the existing coastline, was found “at
elevations of several hundred feet,” and “there was no evidence in
the mud beds of Grinnell Land to encourage the idea that any of
these trees had grown in situ.” °

B. Arctic Norway.—With this region Colonel Feilden has dealt
briefly, because, as he says, numerous observers have already called
attention to the raised beaches containing marine shells and the
wave-marks on ice-worn crags high above sea-level, so that the fact
of a general glaciation, followed by some submergence, and that by
considerable elevation, can hardly be disputed.* But he mentions
more particularly a conspicuous terrace on the mainland opposite to
Tromso, at the mouth of a valley about a quarter of a mile wide,
which is continued north and south along the present coastline,
its base being a few feet above present high-water mark. In 1894
a good section of this terrace, some 20 feet in height, was exposed.
“From base to summit it is a homogeneous mass of blue clay,
with boulders and stones interspersed throughout.” These are ice-
scratched, and “ mollusca are abundant throughout the bed. Cyprina
Islandica and Pecten Islandicus, partially retaining their colour, are
common, likewise stones to which the ‘bases’ of a #alanus are
attached.” He also cites Professor A. Newton and Mr. Hudleston
as having found in the Varanger Fjord, not far from Vadso, the
bones of a whale, about 50 feet above high-water mark and
200 yards from the shore, which they deemed to have been stranded
in old times.” Colonel Feilden himself found on Vardd a marine
sand deposit, some 40 to 50 feet above sea-level, in which he
collected bones of Halicherus gryphus (grey seal), Phoca hispida

1 Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist., ut supra, p. 483.

2 In Watercourse Bay, Grinnell Land, lat. 81° 44’ N.

5 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxxiv (1878), p. 556; Mares, ut supra, p. 327.

4 A number of instances from different parts of Scandinavia are cited by
J. F. Campbell: ‘‘ Frost and Fire,”’ vol. i, p. 351.

Colonel Feiiden’s Contributions to Glacial Geology. 291

(the ringed seal), and Gadus morrhua, with Buccinum undatum,
Modiola modiolus, and Pecten Islandicus.

C. The Kola Peninsula.—The coast scenery is bold, but the hills
inland seem planed down to a general level, the highest summits
apparently rising to 500 or 600 feet. In bays and indentations
immense raised beaches are noticeable, especially to the westward
of Cape Cherni. A “remarkable and prevailing feature of the
country is the vast number of erratic blocks spread over it in every
direction.” ! These are of local origin, so that they cannot be the
leavings of a circumpolar ice-sheet. Mr. F. G. Jackson is quoted as
having observed raised beaches and coniferous wood, proving an
elevation of something like 250 feet eastward of the estuary of the
Petsora river.

D. Kolguev Island.—This lies about 50 miles away from the main-
land of Europe, and 130 miles south-west of the nearest part of
Novaya Zemlya; the depth of the sea in the one case not being
greater than 80 fathoms, in the other probably 70 fathoms. It is
oval in shape, and about the area of Norfolk, being apparently
“a vast accumulation of glacio-marine beds.” * The highest ground
in the island is about 250 feet above sea-level, but the shore-line is
often formed by low cliffs of a bluish-grey clay, not exceeding 60 to
70 feet in height; the island becomes flatter towards the south-west,
and there a considerable district is overlain by sea-sand. The
ground is furrowed by ravines, often rather short, which have been
eut by rivulets and afford sections of the clay, their beds being
strewn with stones and boulders derived from it. These vary in
form from angular to rounded and polished, a large proportion
being ice-scratched. ‘The medley of rocks represented is remark-
able—granites and gneisses, limestones Silurian and Carboniferous,
grits, quartzites, porphyries, etc. ; they vary in size from walnuts to
large dimensions.’ They do not exhibit the slightest tendency to
form lines of horizontal deposit in the clay,” the matrix of which
shows no signs of stratification or of disturbance. ‘ My opinion is,
that all have been dropped from floating ice intermittently and
tranquilly . . . . Not unfrequently the clays pass into horizons
of a more sandy composition, although so insensibly that the
alteration is evidenced more by the change in colour than by any
definite lines of demarcation.” Deposit has been continuous ; there
are no beds of gravel traversing the clays as in Grinnell Land and at
Smith Sound, where the horizons of clay, sand, and gravel are often
distinctly defined. No drift-wood occurs; the remains of mollusca
are not common, and for the most part fragmentary. The following
were obtained: Natica affints, fragments of gasteropod (Sipho? sp.),
Saxicava arctica, Astarte compressa and borealis, Mya arenaria, and
fragments of Mya, sp. The clay, Colonel Feilden remarks, is not

1 Some peculiarities in their distribution are mentioned, but on these it is meedless
to dwell.

2 No rock of greater solidity was anywhere seen 27 sitw. l

$ One, of a hard yellow sandstone, polished, scored, and striated, measured
15 x 9 x 6 feet.

292 Professor T. G. Bonney—

similar to the “firm, tough, tenacious, strong” material called ‘till ’
in Scotland, but rather resembles the Boulder-clays of the Yorkshire
coast and the Chalky Boulder-clay of Norfolk. He regards it as
a glacio-marine deposit, not that of an ice-sheet, and “‘ formed under
conditions similar to those which at present exist in Barents Sea.”

KH. Waigats Island. — This is about sixty miles in length and
twenty in breadth. Its ridges probably in no case exceed 300 feet,
and, asa rule, are much lower. Specimens collected in sit% repre-
sent: limestones, sometimes dolomitic; argillite and green schistose
rocks, perhaps compact basic igneous rocks modified by crushing.
The first-named bear a general resemblance to some of the Carboni-
ferous limestones of Britain, and contain foraminifera which make
their identification highly probable. The valleys and troughs are
filled by clay and sand, mostly the former, which is of the same
character as that now forming under water in the bays and around
its shores. These deposits at Cape Matinsela exceed 100 feet in
thickness. They were followed for several miles on both sides of
the Cape, forming low hills 50 to 100 feet in height along the coast
(the result of denudation). Where examined, they showed no definite
signs of stratification, and contained large ice-polished boulders ;°
in fact, they resemble the Kolguev clay. No shells of marine
mollusca were found in them, but samples submitted to Mr. Joseph
Wright contained foraminifera and sponge spicules, the latter in
abundance. ‘These Matinsela beds pass by almost imperceptible
gradations into the grey marine clay, with shells of recent mollusea,
that now forms the surface of the present tundra land.” ‘This is
rich in foraminifera, and is the most widely dispersed deposit, for it
is spread over the tundra land of Arctic Russia, over Waigats, and
over Novaya Zemlya up to an altitude of at least 500 feet, always
forming the surface layer. “Precisely the same clay comes up in
the dredge or on the flukes of the anchor in the Straits of Yugov, in
Dolga Bay, and other anchorages on the coasts of Waigats.”
Colonel Feilden also calls attention to the effects of floating ice in
smoothing, polishing, and scoring projecting rocks, and in thrusting
up mounds of gravel “many feet beyond tide line, both here * and in
Novaya Zemlya.” °

F. Novaya Zemlya.—Colonel Feilden landed at places on the west
coast of the southern island, on the east coast of the northern one as
far as Pachtussoff Island, and in Matyushin Shar, the dividing strait.
On Gooseland and the islands in Kostin Shar, deposits of Boulder-
clay lie in their undulations and hollows, a depth of 20 feet
being shown. The clay was of the same colour as the rock on

1 See ‘‘ Beyond Petsora,”’ pp. 238, 239, for a note on the composition of the
Kolguey deposits.

2 Ut supra, pp. 279, 280. Silurian and possibly Lower Devonian rocks occur at
Cape Greben, at the south end of the island; see K. T. Newton, pp. 287-294.

3 The following specimens were taken from erratics: granite (three varieties),
felspathic grit (three varieties), limestone (two varieties, one shown by fossils to be
Carboniferous or possibly Devonian in age); fragment of a guard of a belemnite,
probably Jurassic ; lignite, probably not earlier than Tertiary age.

4 Ut supra, pp. 270, 271.

5 Ut supra, pp. 249-254,

Colonel Feilden’s Contributions to Glacial Geology. 293

which it rests ; the included stones were angular fragments of that
rock; none were rounded or ice-scratched. In many places it is
“full of shells of marine mollusca, Saxicava arctica predominating,
though I found other species common enough. In some localities
one might gather these shells by the bushel, few of them broken,
never triturated, and in some cases the two valves are in contact.”
Raised beaches were observed in all the above-named parts of
Novaya Zemlya, but more particular descriptions are given of those
around Beluga Bay in the Matyushin Shar, and on the eastern outlet
of that strait. The beaches, four or five in number, rise one above
the other in a series of terraces with broad level surfaces, separated
by slopes of about 100 feet in height, the most elevated being about
500 feet above present sea-level. Sections have been cut in them
by streams, which disclosed accumulations of shells, chiefly Saxicava
arctica and Astarte borealis. ‘The 100-foot terrace has a common
origin with a series of outliers in the shape of rounded hills and
eminences, now detached to some distance from the line of terrace
and bordering the present sea-shore. A section in one showed it to
be composed of the same materials, viz., rounded stones, sand,
and gravel.” At elevations up to 1,000 feet on the hillsides
bounding the Matyushin Shar, Colonel Feilden came across “ patches
of rounded waterworn pebbles, that seemed to be remnants of still
loftier sea beaches,” but they were so overwhelmed by the screes
falling from the upper parts of the mountains, that they could not be
traced very far in a horizontal direction.

Mr. Joseph Wright, F.G.S., has written a most valuable report
on the foraminifera from these deposits in Novaya Zemlya and
Waigats Island. The samples of clay, twenty-six in number, twelve
from various parts of the Cape Matinsela terraces, averaged about
24 oz. from each locality. It may suffice to give a brief abstract of
the general results, referring the reader to the report' for particulars.
In Waigats Island, clay or mud with shells at 50 feet elevation
from four localities yielded foraminifera: one, two genera; another,
three ; a third, three genera; individuals in all cases being rare ;
but the fourth locality afforded 8 genera and 14 species, four of
these being common, besides frequent sponge spicules.” Clay with
shells, 100 feet elevation, gave 6 genera and 9 species, only one
of them common. Hleven small samples from the terraces and
deposits of Cape Matinsela, which rise to the height of 150 feet,
furnished only two foraminifera, of the same number of genera,
but sponge spicules were very common. On the Russian mainland,
near Habarova, clay with shells, forming the surface soil of the
tundra, at 25 feet elevation, contained 9 genera and 13 species,
six of them common, besides frequent sponge spicules and very
numerous ostracods. From the same neighbourhood, clay with
shells at 50 feet elevation afforded 3 genera and 4 species. The
specimens from Matyushin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, gave the following
results :—Hast side of Beluga Bay, 100-foot terrace, 3 genera and

1 Ut supra, pp. 297-310.

2 In the remainder of this summary, the omission of any statement means ‘‘rare.’’

294 Prof. Bonney—Col. Feilden’s Contributions to Glacial Geology.

species ; two openings in a terrace, composed of a stiff yellow clay,
at about the same elevation, afforded in one case one genus, in the
other two genera. Clay and sand from a terrace 130 feet high
contained 7 genera, 13 species, with one specimen of an ostracod
and a few sponge spicules. Shell bed, belonging to the 300 feet
mud beds of Beluga Bay, but three miles inland, contained a great
profusion of foraminifera, many of them being large in size and
in fine preservation. They represented 15 genera and 34 species.
A very few echinus spines also occurred. Clay with shells from
the 500-foot terrace contained 10 genera and 24 species, twelve
being common, and half of these estimated as making up between
them 840 specimens, all the rest together amounting to 75.
Ostracods were rare, echinus spines more abundant, the specimens
being large. The last sample comes from Nameless Bay, west coast
of Novaya Zemlya proper, 250 feet elevation. In it foraminifera
were abundant, numbering 8 genera, 13 species. To sum up in
Mr. Wright’s words :—‘ Foraminifera occurred in all Mie het
in nine of them they were very rare or rare, in one of them they
were plentiful, in the other five they were in great profusion.
Sponge spicules in a somewhat fragmentary state were found in
nearly all of them, and ostracods and spines of echinoderms in
several. . . . . Nearly all the stones which occurred in the
clays were more or less rounded, and presented the appearance
of having been worn by marine action; in a few cases they were
smoothed and striated, as if by the action of ice. The conditions
under which these clays were deposited must have been very
varied, as in some of them foraminifera are abundant, whilst in
others they are extremely rare. When they are abundant it may
be inferred that the clays were laid down in quiet water or in
sheltered bays, and not subjected to the rapid running of currents or
tides ; and when they are few it may be presumed that the reverse
was the case.”

In this summary I have restricted myself to Colonel Feilden’s
observations of facts, excluding inferences, except in one or two
cases where they express the impression produced by the general
aspect of a deposit, which, from an experienced observer, has almost
an equal value. I may, however, add that he saw no reason for
attributing any of the deposits on the low islands or the mainland
tundra to the action of a great polar ice-sheet. As Novaya Zemlya,
at least in the centre and north, is mountainous, the summits rising
to not less than 4,000 feet above sea-level, it must have always been
a nucleus of outflowing ice,? so that the materials of its terraces
cannot have made a subglacial journey uphill from the bed of the
sea. Such an hypothesis would be more than ever improbable in
the narrow strait of Matyushin Shar.

1 A few samples of the mud of the sea-bed were collected and examined. They
were found to correspond generally with the above-named.

* The interior of Liitke Land at the present day is covered with ice which
probably forms a single sheet, ‘‘similar to that enveloping Greenland, but on
a smaller scale.’’—Pearson in ‘‘ Beyond Petsora,’’ p. 150.

Prof. Sollas—Consolidation of Minerals in Igneous Rocks. 295

I].—Tue Orper or ConsouipaTiIon oF THE MINERAL CoNnsTITUENTS
oF Igneous Rocks.

By Professor W. J. Soxtas, LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S., V.P.G.S.

(F\HE order in which the various mineral constituents of an igneous
rock may crystallize out from an igneous magma offers to the
petrologist a problem of great difficulty and complexity. It is
generally admitted that the order of consolidation is not wholly
determined by the order of the fusion-points of the constituents,
and with this admission the fusion-points have come to be con-
sistently disregarded, as though they might safely be left out of
account. That this is not the case has of late become strongly
impressed upon me, especially after a consideration of the important
data obtained by Mr. Ralph Cusack, B.A.,! who, by means of
Professor Joly’s meldometer, has determined the precise temperature
of fusion of most of the rock-forming minerals.
In the following table I have arranged the more important of the
minerals in question in the order of their fusion-points, as determined
by Mr. Cusack.

Fusion Pornt.

Zircon ... infusible. Augite ) é a
Quartz saa LHe Hornblende § TIS8" to 1200".
Olivine ... 1868° to 1878°, softens Albite ee) plilifizics

at 1342° C. Microcline ... 1169°.
Leucite son, POS Adularia ... 1164° to 1168°.
Enstatite ... 1295°. Sphene swe LL27° tor 11422:
Labradorite... 1223° to 1235°. Sodalite een LI atopliloor:
Apatite ... 1221° to 1227°. Nepheline .,. 1069° to 1078°.

If for the moment we disregard quartz, there is seen to be on the
whole a general correspondence between the order of fusion-points
and the order of consolidation; but this is by no means constant,
and is subject to several important exceptions. Zircon is well
known as a very early product of most magmas, and this accords
with the very high temperature of its fusion-point. Apatite and
sphene, however, often appear earlier than their fusion-point would
indicate. Olivine, with the highest fusion-point among the silicates,
also usually crystallizes out at an early stage, though not always
before leucite, of which the fusion-point is lower by 100° C. It
is true that petrographers are not wholly agreed as to the relation
in which leucite stands to olivine in this respect, but the balance
of evidence appears to show that both may crystallize out together,
or that leucite may actually precede olivine. It is of importance
to notice in connection with this that the leucite and olivine on
which Mr. Cusack experimented were both derived from Vesuvian
rocks; had this not been the case the argument might have been
maintained that the particular species of these minerals which enter
into the composition of the lavas of Vesuvius may differ in chemical
composition from those of which the fusion-points have been deter-
mined, and therefore may differ also in fusion-point. Enstatite

1 Proc. Roy. Irish Acad., ser. 111, yol. iv, p. 411 (1897).

296 Professor W. J. Sollas—Order of Consolidation

occupies a position in the order of consolidation corresponding with
that of the order of fusion. Similarly labradorite, with a fusion-
point between enstatite and augite, usually follows enstatite and
precedes augite in order of consolidation. That it is as a rule
extricated from the magma before augite, is illustrated by the
frequent occurrence of ophitic structure in dolerite. Albite fuses at
a lower temperature than augito, and usually crystallizes after it.

It would be natural to suppose that the species of felspar inter-
mediate with labradorite and albite in composition would be
also intermediate as regards their fusion-points, and if so, the
irregularities which distinguish the succession of plagioclase and
pyroxene might find an explanation in the fact that the fusion-
point of augite stands almost midway between that of albite and
labradorite.

The potash felspars have a lower fusion-point than albite, and,
as is well known, generally succeed it in order of consolidation.

The order of fusion of orthoclase, sodalite, and nepheline is
repeated in the order of consolidation of these minerals in nepheline
basanite ; but an anomaly is presented in the case of some examples
of eleolite syenite, in which nepheline and leucite precede
orthoclase in order of consolidation. To this allusion will be made
later. The most important exception to the rule that the order
of fusion corresponds to the order of consolidation is afforded by
quartz, which with a fusion-point of 1425° crystallizes later than
orthoclase with a fusion-point of only 1164°-1168°. An explanation,
however, may be found for this, and if admitted may throw light
on some other inversions of the rule. The statement of Zirkel will,
I think, be generally conceded. ‘A mineral may crystallise out
from the molten silicate-magma at the most various temperatures—
naturally, however, never above its own fusion point.” *

The fact to be explained therefore in the case before us is the
consolidation of quartz at a temperature below the fusion-point of
orthoclase, i.e. at least 260° below its own fusion-point. In the report
of the meeting of the British Association for 1882 will be found an
account of some experiments made by Mr. Hunter for a committee of
the Association (p. 239). Some chemically pure silica, “prepared by
precipitation from sodium silicate with hydrochloric acid, evaporation
to dryness, thorough washing, and subsequent ignition, was placed in
a sealed iron-tube and heated with water to 300°C. for two days.
At the conclusion of the experiment the impalpable powder of silica
was found to have caked together into a white opaque granular
mass.” It consisted of anhydrous silica, as was proved by chemical
investigation. The results of an examination which I made under
the microscope were as follows:—‘‘It was found to have passed
into a state of glass. The glass is transparent and colourless and
hard enough to scratch ordinary window glass ; it is, however, filled
with innumerable oval and tubular cavities, so as to resemble pumice,
and it is to them that it owes its whiteness and opacity when seen
by the unassisted eye.”

1 Zirkel : ‘‘ Lehrbuch der Petrographie,”’ 1898, vol. i, p. 728.

of Minerals in Igneous Rocks. 297

These facts prove that in the presence of water anhydrous silica
is rendered fluid at a temperature so low as 300°C. Whether or not
under these circumstances water enters into its constitution is not
known, but after consolidation it consists of truly anhydrous silica
(Si O,), though in a state of glass.

That water is associated with the quartz of granite and other
plutonic rocks is well known, for this mineral is the chief home
of fluid cavities, which recall those described in the glassy silica
of Mr. Hunter’s experiment, though in the quartz of igneous rocks
they are relatively far less abundant. The old explanation of the
late consolidation of quartz, which rested on the suggestion that
solution played as important a part as fusion in contributing to the
fluidity of igneous magmas, is to a certain extent thus supported by
experimental evidence. The mistake of the older school of petrologists
lay in attributing too subordinate a role to fusion, which we now
know plays the chief part; but in making this nearer approach to
the truth there seems to me a possibility that we may have fallen
into the other extreme of neglecting to take into consideration the
influence of water, which may have played an important though
minor part. If this can be shown to be the case we shall be provided
with an explanation of anomalies, which hitherto have resisted all
analysis. To return to the case of eleolite syenite, examples are
known of this rock in which the several minerals have crystallized
out in the order of their fusion-points ; on the other hand, examples
can as certainly be cited in which this order has been reversed, so
that sodalite has followed zleolite; eleolite, orthoclase; and
orthoclase, plagioclase felspar.

No satisfactory explanation has yet been offered of this and
numerous similar cases, but if the order which follows that of the
fusion-points be looked upon as the normal, our task will be
simplified, since it will be reduced to finding special explanations
of particular cases. It is possible that these explanations will not
always be of the same nature, and I do not propose now to enter
into a detailed study of this question, but I may perhaps be allowed
to point out that several hypotheses would appear to be excluded.
The influence of the chemical constitution of the magma is sometimes
alluded to in general terms, though rarely analyzed in detail. That
it must be very limited in its application is suggested by the
experiment of Fouqué and Levy, in which they showed that in
the case of two fused mixtures, one consisting of equal parts of
anorthite and augite and the other with twice as much anorthite as
augite, the order of consolidation was the same for both, the
anorthite, as might have been expected from its higher fusion-
point, crystallizing out in both cases before the augite. Change
of pressure is sometimes invoked, and considering the very large
reduction in volume which accompanies the consolidation of fused
silicates this might naturally be supposed to have some effect. If,
however, such were the case some law should be found distinguishing
the order of consolidation of minerals in a plutonic magma from that
in a volcanic flow; but hitherto no constant difference has been

298 Professor H. M. Posnett—On Geological Hypothesis.

discovered. The effects of ‘mixture’ have also been appealed to,
and it is possible that in some cases the minerals which consolidate
out of turn may be ‘ xenocrysts,’ derived from some ingested foreign
rock. But as a general explanation this admittedly cannot be
maintained.

No doubt difficulties will also be found to attend any attempt to
explain anomalies by the presence of water, but it appears to me
that the attempt is worth suggesting. The problem as it now
presents itself is to show why certain minerals retain the fluid state
at a temperature below, often far below, that of the fusion-point:
thus, in the case of some examples of aleolite syenite the question is
why plagioclase felspar crystallized out at a lower temperature than
orthoclase, orthoclase at a lower temperature than sodalite, and sodalite
than zleolite. Can this be due to the effects of included water? To
answer this question definitely might not be difficult by means of
experiment. The determination of the fusion-points having been
accomplished, the next step that awaits us is the determination
of the temperatures at which the minerals in question crystallize
from solution. An investigation in this direction could not fail to
give interesting results.

In conclusion, it may be pointed out that the results definitely
obtained in the case of quartz indicate that the temperature of
consolidation of granite might naturally be expected to be below
that of dolerite. The quartz of granite has consolidated at
a temperature below that of orthoclase and @ fortiori below that
of plagioclase and pyroxene. The temperatures of fusion of these
two rocks, as observed in the laboratory, stand in inverse order to
the temperatures at which they consolidate in nature, owing to the
fact that in the case of fusion by artificial means water plays
no part.

IIJ.—A Worp on Groxtocica, Hyportuests.

By Professor H. Macaunay Posnerr, LL.D., etc.

66 \CIENTIFIC men,” said Professor Thomas H. Huxley,’ “get an

awkward habit—no, I won’t call it that, for it is a valuable
habit—of believing nothing unless there is evidence for it; and they
have a way of looking upon belief which is not based upon evidence,
not only as illogical, but as immoral.”

Quite so. There is no higher conception of truth—the most
exact knowledge attainable at the given time and place—no nobler
practice of truthfulness—the unflinching utterance of the most exact
knowledge we possess—than our best men of science constantly
display. And it is just because they are the world’s highest
guardians of truth, the world’s noblest exponents of truthfulness,
that our men of science are bound by the laws of their order to
set the study of facts before the acceptance or retention of any
theory, to expose in the clearest light any weak points in reasoning
that on the whole receives their approval, to boldly dwell upon the

1 «Science and Hebrew Tradition,” p. 65.

Professor H. M. Posnett—On Geological Hypothesis. 299

hypothetical character of every hypothesis they make, and never to
leave hypothesis or assumption to the tardy discovery of those who
study their works.

There may indeed have been a time when theological dogmatism
was strong enough to provoke a sort of scientific dogmatism by way
of counterpoise. But neither theology nor any other power in the
sphere of popular thought can now restrict the freedom of scientific
discovery or teaching in the British Empire. Science nowadays can
well afford to point out her own shortcomings, and can do so better
than any of her foes. ‘To some of these shortcomings it is my
present purpose to refer.

1. Our geological textbooks sometimes show too much eagerness
to impart the results of discovery or hypothesis without any adequate
statement of the facts or the reasoning upon which these discoveries
and hypotheses rest. Evidences are always the primary, never the
secondary, material of science as a body of more or less probable
truths. Evidences, therefore, are very improperly handled when they
are relegated to a secondary place. If, for example, a geological
writer accepts the theory of the origin of hot springs as due to the
escape of subterraneous gases, it is his duty not merely to state the
theory but to add the evidences for and against its truth. We may
be told that makers of textbooks have not sufficient space for the
statement of evidences, but the answer is plain: either do not put
forward the theory at all, or give as fully as possible what must
always be of higher value—the facts upon which the theory rests.

2. Many of our scientific manuals. suggest, without positively
claiming, a degree of foreknowledge that is not really as yet within
our reach. An experience in New Zealand will illustrate the sort
of claim I have in mind. Shortly after the Tarawera eruption of
June, 1886, some professors .of science proceeded to the Rotorua
district and there held a Maori meeting. The Maoris were told
that, the lines of volcanic energy having such and such directions,
they need entertain no fears of a recurrence of the late disaster—
“they might plant their kumeras (sweet potatoes) in peace.”
Hereupon an old Maori chief, with the usual sagacity of his race,
rose and remarked, “If the voleano-doctors know so much about
what is to be, what a pity it was they did not come and forewarn
us of the eruption.” Needless to say, the ‘ volcano-doctors’ had no
reply; and in our civilized views of volcanic forces it would be far
better to own ignorance than to even hint a claim to foresight where
it does not as yet exist. It is worth adding that, not very far from
the Rotorua district, in the now famous goldfields of the Thames, an
eminent but dogmatic and hasty geologist many years ago prophesied
that no gold could there ever be found.

3. The points at which geological study touches other sciences
and needs their aid are too frequently obscured, understated, or
even completely omitted in some geological textbooks. I have now
before me a textbook written by a very able geologist. I open
it at the chapter entitled “The Marliest Conditions of the Globe.”
Here I find a lucid statement of the Nebular Hypothesis — but

300 Professor H. M. Posnett—On Geological Hypothesis.

unaccompanied by any detail of the grounds upon which that
hypothesis rests—and of the accepted periods of the geological
record ; but not a word about the astronomer’s theory of the
diminishing velocity of the earth’s rotation produced by tidal friction,
not a word on the important bearing of this theory on the primary
geological problem, the age of the earth.

I choose this example—the time problem—because there are other
sciences dependent for the settlement of this problem on the joint
labours of geologist, astronomer, and physicist, and my example
therefore illustrates the paramount importance of such joint study.
«The biologist,” said Professor Huxley,’ “‘ knows nothing whatever
of the amount of time which may be required for the process of
evolution. . . . . A biologist has no means of arriving at any
conclusion as to the amount of time which may be needed for
a certain quantity of organic change. He takes his time from the
geologist.”

This interdependence of scientific studies must be fully recognized
by the geologist, both for his own sake and for the sake of others.
He cannot afford to ignore any knowledge possessed by any other
science if that knowledge has an important bearing on his own
pursuits. Always he must be ready to learn from astronomer,
physicist, chemist; and though to the last of these three he has
been generally willing to acknowledge his many obligations —
obligations likely to be increased in the near future—he has but too
often displayed a desire to avoid the physical and astronomical
aspects of geological science. If I am told that I am asking too
much from the geologist—making him a kind of universal genius
like the ideal poet described in Johnson’s “ Rasselas”—I reply,
‘Nothing of the sort; I am merely insisting upon the absolute
necessity that any first-rate geological discoverer or teacher shall
keep steadily in view the points at which other sciences may
increase his light, and never rest satisfied with either his discoveries
or his teaching until he has assured himself that he has borrowed
whatever light they can at present afford him.”

4. Sir Archibald Geikie* reminds us that the various processes
of geological changes occurring at the present day “ gain enormously
in interest for the student of nature when he reflects that in watching
the geological operations of the present day he is brought face to
face with the same instruments whereby the very framework of the
continents has been piled up and sculptured into the present out-
lines of mountain, valley, and plain.”

Quite so. The hypothesis of the unchanging laws of nature may
not only be regarded as the geological postulate, but as the postulate
of all science as at present conceived. We are fully justified, too,
in assuming, e.g., that the facts summarized by what we call the law
of gravitation have been as we know them for a vast period of
time. But we can lose nothing by candidly admitting the hypo-
thetical character of even this great postulate of all science, and

1 « Science and Hebrew Tradition,”’ pp. 134, 185.
* Class-Book of Geology, p. 299.

Professor H. M. Posnett—On Geological Hypothesis. 301

the possibility that new knowledge may ultimately modify the
principle as at present held. To keep an open door for all increase
of knowledge cannot but aid the cause of scientific progress. Only
the survival of dogmatism beyond the conditions that gave it birth
and the need of dogmatic teaching in our schools and colleges can
account for the continued readiness of some men of science to repeat
the old watchword, “It cannot be conceived.”

Let me illustrate my meaning by an anecdote. At Takapuna,
near Auckland, is a fresh-water lake, nearly at sea-level, regarded
by popular theory as the crater of an extinct volcano. Here, one
day, discussing the origin of the lake with some Auckland University
students, I was asked, ‘“‘ Has the earth’s water-envelope been greater
or less in past ages? Are we justified in assuming the relative
conditions of land and water to have been in the past as they are
now? May not both the igneous and the aqueous forces observed
by our geologists differ both in degree and kind from the similar
forces of a primitive age?” And led on by these questions we soon
ventured upon all sorts of heterodoxy, drew imaginary pictures of
an evolution of water, of air, of combustion, until we at last came to
a conclusion that nature had intended us for the founders of a new
science which was to be named “The biology of the elements ancient
and modern.”

Twelve years have elapsed since our ideal conversation, and
physicists need not be reminded of certain signs now visible on the
horizon of knowledge which seem to dimly foreshadow the partial
realization of our Takapuna dreams. But it is not my present
purpose to discuss new physical hypotheses; it is merely to say
what I then said to our Auckland students: ‘There is no finality in
any hypothesis or law of science, and for this reason, if for no
other, it is the duty of every man of science to plainly state every
assumption on which his science rests, and to put these statements
not in out-of-the-way corners, but in the very front of his scientific
teaching or writing.” How much the advance of discovery could be
aided by the student’s early acquaintance with the hypothetical and
provisional character of his principles—by the constant reminder of
an open door for new observations and new inferences—none but
those who hold exaggerated views of the need of dogmatic teaching
for the young will fail to perceive.

The dogmatism of some geological textbooks deserves the more
severe censure because there are no textbooks of science more
eagerly read by that omnivorous person, ‘the general reader ’—none,
consequently, more likely, if they contain loose thinking, to diffuse
unscientific thought under the name of science. For your ‘ general
reader,’ be it noted, is almost as intolerant of hypothesis, plainly
stated as such, as an ancient Hebrew would have been if his rulers
had boldly told him, “These useful changes in your barbarous
customs we assume to be the will of a divine Lawgiver, because we
know that you will not accept the improvement unless it comes to
you through the door of this fiction.” But rational faith in hypo-
thesis—i.e. faith ready at any moment to accept new knowledge and

302 Professor H. If. Posnett—On Geological Hypothesis.

to modify the hypothesis accordingly—is just the essential quality of
a truly scientific mind, just the quality that the ‘general reader,’
with his eternal haste for generalization and his eternal zeal for
dogma, can never understand.
“* For such the story of the race—
Chance oft has found what System lost ;

For System claims too high a place,
And oft too high a price has cost.”

5. There are other directions in which the candid statement of
hypotheses can only minister to the real strength and interest of
geological science. The various. classifications of rocks, for example,
lose none of their value by being openly reduced to their true level
of tentative work, instead of aping a ‘natural’ origin. Botanical
and zoological systems of classification can lose nothing by the same
straightforwardness. But there is another aspect in which the
deficiencies of our geological textbooks disclose themselves.

The historical study of geology may not at first sight appear
a fruitful field for research. A science comparatively young seems
to possess as yet but little history, though this fact should by no
means excuse the total absence of any sketch of such history in
almost all textbooks of geology. But though geology, under its own
name and working by scientific methods, is of such recent origin,
geological thinking of some sort is found all over the world and in
all the literatures of the world from the earliest times. When, for
example, Hebrews described their God as ‘‘ moulding mountains ”
or “cleaving the earth with rivers,” as “putting forth his hand
upon the flint” or ‘breaking down the rocks,” it is clear that
the geologists’ earth-sculpture was being observed, though very
differently explained, by these primitive thinkers.

If it be said that such primitive thinking is not nowadays worth
our study, I answer that even our wisest men of science are liable
to gross blunders if they neglect such historical work. Professor
Huxley, for example, in his “ Physiography,” not long ago confused
the modern theory of atmospheric circulation with the ancient
thought of that Hebrew writer who speaks of the rivers “returning
to the place from whence they come.” The author of “ Hcclesiastes,”
as I have elsewhere proved, was referring to an entirely different kind
of water-circulation by which ancient Hebrew thought accounted
for the origin of springs as an outlet of their “waters beneath the
earth,”’ waters upon which they conceived their earth to rest. If it
were for no other purpose than to guard ourselves against a wild
confusion of modern with ancient thinking, we must study primitive
geology as expressed or implied in the writings of ancient times.
A fascinating study, this primitive geology, but needing not only
patient research but also large linguistic knowledge. Yet I see
no reason why our handbooks of the future should not contain
both a brief history of geology as a science and an outline of the
beginnings of thought on geological subjects, alike in ancient
literatures and in uncivilized peoples now living.

Geol. Mag 1900.

GMWoodward del.et lith. Wesbt,Newman imp

Salter’s Undescribed Trilobites fPart 1.)

F. R. Cowper Reed—Undescribed Trilobites. 303

I1V.—Woopwarpian Museum Notes: SAtter’s UNDESCRIBED
SPECIES,
By F. R. Cowper Rzzp, M.A., F.G.S.
(PLATE XII.)

N the “Catalogue of the Cambrian and Silurian Fossils in the
Woodwardian Museum,” compiled by J. W. Salter, F.G.S., and
published in 18783, many new specific names occur, in some cases
accompanied by a few words of description, but frequently by none
at all. Although several of these species have been described by
subsequent writers, there yet remains a large number which are only
known by their names, some of which have found their way into
geological literature. It therefore seemed desirable to rescue these
forms from their present unstable position, and to issue a detailed
account of their characters to avoid future confusion. The original
specimens are in the Woodwardian Museum, and though in many
instances they are in a poor state of preservation, rendering the
precise and minute diagnosis of the species difficult, yet the sub-
sequent acquisition of further specimens of the same forms has
enabled me to make the descriptions more complete.

TRILOBITA.

Oxenvs (s.c. PARABOLINELLA) Puantt, Salter. (Pl. XII, Fig. 1.)
1873. Olenus Plantii, Salter: Cat. Camb. Sil. Foss. Woodw. Mus., p. 11 (@ 272).
1877. Olenus Plantit, H. Woodward: Cat. Brit. Foss. Crust., p. 47.

1891. Olenus Planti, Woods: Cat. Type Foss. Woodw. Mus., p. 149.

Salter described this species (loc. cit. supra) as follows :—“ An oval
species, much flattened and expanded. Mr. J. Plant, who discovered
it, has distributed casts and photographs of this fine and well-marked
fossil.” In addition to the almost complete specimen labelled a, 272,
from the Upper Lingula Flags of Moel Gron, Upper Mawddach,
there are two casts and a photograph of the same, and two casts and
a photograph also of an imperfect head-shield, showing the free
cheek attached, from the same beds at Craig y Dinas. These were
presented to the Woodwardian Museum by Mr. Plant. On the
specimen a, 272 the name “Conocoryphe Plantii” is written in white
paint, but by whom or at what date is uncertain. From this
material the following diagnosis of the species is possible :—

Dracnosts.—General shape oval. Head-shield almost semicircular
in outline, the curve being slightly flattened in front; about twice
as broad as long. Genal angles spined. Glabella subquadrate,
nearly as broad as long, slightly narrowing anteriorly ; about three-
fourths the total length of the head-shield; gently convex and raised
above cheeks, from which it is sharply marked off by straight
regular axal furrows which converge a little towards the front end
round which they curve and meet, defining it from the flattened
pre-glabellar common portion of the fixed cheeks. Surface of
glabella marked with two distinct pairs of lateral furrows. The
furrows of the posterior pair run obliquely backwards with rather
an irregular wavy course at angles of about 45° to the axal furrows,

304 FE. R. Cowper Reed—Undescribed Trilobites.

and unite in the middle at a distance from the neck-furrow equal to
the width of the occipital ring, thus forming a broad U-shaped
groove across the glabella. The furrows of the anterior pair have
a similar wavy backward course parallel to the posterior pair, but
they meet in the middle at an acute angle in a broad V instead of U
at a point situated at just half the total length of the glabella. The
outer ends of both pairs of furrows, particularly of the posterior pair,
curve backwards just before reaching the axal furrows, and diminish
considerably in strength.

Frontal lobe of glabella subtriangular in shape and large,
being just half the length of the glabella. Neck-furrow nearly
straight, marking off a rather broad occipital ring of regular width
ornamented with a small median tubercle, and divided obscurely
into three portions by two faint oblique arched furrows arising from
the posterior angles and meeting in the middle on the neck-furrow.
Hye rather small, equal in length to the width of the middle glabellar
lobe; situated just opposite or a little in front of this lobe, a short
distance from the axal furrow and near the front end of the glabella,
with which it is connected by a weak ‘ eye-line.’

Facial sutures cut the front margin of the head-shield at angles of
rather more than 60°, and at a distance apart of about one and a half
times the width of the glabella. From the point of section each
suture takes a backward and inward course in nearly a straight line
to the eye, round the projecting lobe of which it sweeps; thence
it bends obliquely backwards in a weak outward curve to cut the
posterior margin of the head-shield at an angle of about 45° and
at a distance from the axal furrow nearly equal to the basal width of
the glabella and at about two-thirds the distance to the genal angle.

Border present round the anterior edge of the head-shield, of
moderate width and rounded, marked off by a distinct marginal
furrow. Neck-ring behind the fixed cheeks about equal in width
to this anterior border, but only half the width of the occipital ring.

Free cheeks (shown in the specimen from Craig y Dinas attached
to a portion of the middle-shield) roughly triangular in shape,
and furnished with a short straight genal spine less than half the
length of the head-shield and directed slightly outwards.

Thorax, incompletely known. Only ten segments are preserved
in our specimen from Moel Gron, two of these being attached to the
head-shield and separated from the rest of the body by a space of
7mm. in length, which is equal to about five segments. It is clear
from an examination of the specimen that this space was originally
occupied by segments of the body which are now missing, for the
axis of the second segment attached to the head is nearly one and
a half times as wide as the axis of the first segment of the detached
posterior portion, and the two portions did not therefore fit together.
There does not seem to have been any movement or separation of the
two portions of the specimen, for if the axial furrows of the anterior
part be continued in their course backwards across the gap they
are found to exactly meet those of the posterior part and to preserve
the regular tapering of the axis. We may therefore conclude that

F. R. Cowper Reed—Undescribed Trilobites. 305

the thorax was composed of the ten segments which we now see
plus five segments to fill up the existing gap.

Axis of thorax gently convex, unornamented, and gradually
decreasing in width posteriorly. Pleural portions on each side about
one and a half times as wide as the axis, but showing posteriorly
a slight increase in relative width. Pleurez straight with parallel
margins as far as the distant fulcrum, at which they bend backwards
to end in a short broad falcate free point. Each pleura is marked
by a strong straight continuous diagonal furrow, curving round at
the fulcrum to end at the point.

Pygidium transverse in shape, broadly semicircular, with a regular
rounded margin, and with a distinct marginal furrow marking off
a narrow border. Axis convex, bluntly pointed, very slightly
tapering, composed of four rings; length about two-thirds that of
the pygidium, connected with the posterior edge of pygidium by
a short, sharply pointed, unsegmented, and less elevated appendix,
which interrupts the continuity « of the border. On the lateral portions
of the pygidium four pairs of pleuree with their diagonal furrows
are present, and of these the anterior pair has the furrows the most
strongly marked.

MEASUREMENTS.
mm.
Length of trilobite 453 a3 mes ee 37:0
Length of head-shield . ae Ra 12-0
Width (estimated) of head-shield 2
Width of middle-shield at base 1

Width of fixed cheek at base
Length of glabella ;
Width of ditto at base ...
Length of pygidium
Width of ditto .. BK a ee
Remarks.—The subgenus of Olenus to which this species appears
to belong is that named Parabolinella by Brodgger.' The sub-
quadrate. ” elabella not reaching the front margin, the wide pre-
glabellar portion of the head-shield, the rounded margin, the course
of the facial suture, the position and relative size of the eyes, the
characters of the occipital ring, the genal spines of the free cheeks,
the pygidium with regular bordered edge, not furnished with spines,
with a 5-4 jointed axis, and lateral lobes marked with distinct
furrows, are the most important features in common between
O. Planti and the subgenus Parabolinella as defined by Brégger.
The presence of only two instead of three lateral furrows on the
glabella is a point of difference, but perhaps not of much importance
in this case, as we see on examining Brégger’s figure of P. rugosa
(loc. cit., tab. iii, f. 3) that an indefinite number of furrows seem
to be present in that species, and their irregular character and
tendency to unite in the middle also reminds us of O. Planti. In
the case of the pleure their shape and straight diagonal furrow
resemble more closely those of Parabolina spinulosa, but the short

to OINIO MDM DN
acoenocodo

—_

' Die Silur. Etag., 2 and 3 (1882), p. 102, tab. iii, f. 2a, 6, 3, and 4a.
DECADE IY.—VOL. VII.—No. YL. 20

306 F. R. Cowper Reed—Undescribed Trilobites.

falcate instead of long spinose ends distinguish them. Moreover,
the characters of the pygidium and head-shield completely separate
O. Planti from the subgenus Parabolina.

The only other British forms calling for any comparison are the
so-called ‘ Conocoryphe’ Williamsoni (Belt),1 the species of Para-
bolinella described by Miss Crosfield and Miss Skeat,? and Olenus
triarthrus (Callaway) from the Shineton Shales. Belt’s species
probably belongs to Parabolinella, the only important point of
difference being the presence of two instead of three pairs of
glabellar furrows. The pygidium of ‘Conocoryphe’ Williamsoni
seems to be almost identical with that of O. Planti, and the
pleuree are very similar, but the characters of the glabella and
head-shield are sufficient to warrant their specific separation.

The species of Parabolinella from the Tremadoc of Nant y
Glasdwr, described by Miss Crosfield and Miss Skeat (loc. cit.), is
only known by an imperfect head-shield. It differs from O. Planti
by the greater number of glabellar furrows, by the larger eyes, by
the course of the facial sutures, and by the narrower fixed cheeks.

The only other British species of Parabolinella is P. [ Olenus|
triarthrus (Callaway),° from the Shineton Shales, and it differs from
P. Planti by its broader glabella, by the union of the posterior and
anterior pairs of glabellar furrows, by the tubercles on the axial
rings of the thorax, and by the characters of the pygidium. But it
is evidently a closely allied species.

Oxenus (CTENOPYGE?) EXPANSUS, Salter. (PI. XII, Figs. 2 and 3.)

1878. Olenus (Spherophthalmus) expansus, u.sp., Salter: Cat. Camb. Silur. Foss.
Woodw. Mus., p. 12 (a 275).
1877. Olenus (Spherophthalmus) ecpansus, Woodward: Cat. Brit. Foss. Crust., p. 47.
1891. Olenus abereniialras) expansus, Woods: Cat. Type Foss. Woodw. Mus.,
p. 149.
The two specimens on which Salter founded this species are
exceedingly imperfect and fragmentary, and consist only of a few
broken thoracic rings attached in one case to a portion of a pygidium
showing the margin. This specimen, though crushed and flattened
out, is the less incomplete of the two, but is extremely unsatisfactory
for a specific description. Salter (loc. cit. supra) describes the species
thus: “A very narrow axis and enormously wide flanks distinguish
this.” The long narrow pleure, of which 7-8 are visible in the
better and larger specimen and 7 in the smaller one, are straight,
with parallel sides, extend at right angles to the axis, and bend
sharply close to the ends to terminate in short points, not projecting
outwards nor produced into spines. Hach pleura is apparently
furnished with a narrow raised rounded ridge running along its
anterior margin, with a distinct groove behind it. The general

1 Grou. Mae., Dec. I, Vol. V (1868), p. 5, Pl. II, Figs. 7-11. Salter’s Cono-
coryphe Williamsoni (Cat. Camb. Sil. Foss. Woodw. Mus., p. 12) is distinct from
Belt’s form.

2 Q.J.G.8., vol. lii (1896), p. 537, pl. xxvi, figs. 11 and 12.

3 Callaway: Q.J.G.S., vol. xxxiii (1877), p. 666, pl. xxiv, fig. 6. Brégger :
Nyt Magazin fiir Naturvidenskaberne, vol. xxxvi (1897), pp. 178-185, 200.

F. R. Cowper Reed—Undescribed Trilobites. 307

surface of the pleura bears no furrow or ridge, but close to the
posterior margin are two equal raised thread-like lines parallel to
the margin and to each other and separated by a narrow groove.

The axis of the thorax is very narrow relatively to the pleura;
it is cylindrical as in Ctenopyge pecten (Salter), not tapering at all
posteriorly, so far as is seen in the smaller specimen. In the larger
specimen the axis is too imperfectly preserved to make out any
feature clearly. The pygidium, according to the latter specimen,
appears to be broadly parabolic and slightly pointed or apiculate
posteriorly, but this appearance may be due to distortion and crushing.
Its lateral lobes are flat and marked by straight pleura similar to
those of the thorax, and like them distinctly furnished with the ridge
and thread-like lines. They terminate on the margin in free ends,
bluntly pointed and backwardly directed, of which six or seven are
distinguishable. The axis of the pygidium is not preserved.

It is extremely doubtful to what subgenus or even genus this
imperfect fossil should be ascribed. It however seems more allied
to Hurycare or Ctenopyge than to Spherophthalmus. The long,
straight spinose pleurz of the thorax, the narrow axis, the numerous
segments of the pygidium, with the free pointed terminations of the
pleurz on its margin, resemble Cfenopyge, but the shorter length of
these spines and their falcate shape distinguish them. It is not,
however, possible to fix with certainty the true generic position of
this imperfectly known species.

The specimens (a, 275 of Salter’s Catalogue) were found in the
Upper Lingula Flags of Moel Gron.

Length of pygidium of larger specimen 508 12°0
Width of ditto ... sae Pe an ss 23°0
Width of thorax one 30 ~ Roe 25°0
Width of axis of thorax 4:0

N.B. These measurements are only approximate, owing to the
bad state of preservation of the specimen, and its distortion.

NESEURETUS RECURVATUS (Hicks)? (Pl. XII, Fig. 4.)

1873. Calymene vexata, Salter: Cat. Camb. Sil. Foss. Woodw. Mus., p. 22 (@ 469).
1888. Calymene vexata, Etheridge: Pal. Foss. Brit. Isl., p. 46.
1891. Nesewretus, sp., Woods: Cat. Type Foss. Woodw. Mus., p. 148.

The small pygidium named by Salter Calymene vewata occurs on
a slab with Niobe [ Asaphellus, Brégger] menapiensis, Neseuretus
quadratus, Ctenodonta menapiensis, and Ctenodonta cambriensis from
the Tremadoc Beds (= Arenig, according to Salter) of Ramsey Island.
The species is somewhat doubtful, but the pygidium appears to
resemble that of Neseuretus recurvatus (Hicks).'

NESEURETUS QUADRATUS (Hicks)? (PI. XII, Fig. 5.)

1873. Calymene ultima, Salter: Cat. Camb. Sil. Foss. Woodw. Mus., p. 22 (a 469).

1888. Calymene ultima, Etheridge: Pal. Foss. Brit. Isl., p. 46. :

1891. Calymene ultima, Woods: Cat. Type Foss. Woodw. Mus., p. 141. (Specimen
supposed to be lost.)

The slab of rock on which Salter’s Calymene vexata occurs also
contains his original specimen of Calymene ultima. It consists of

1 Hicks: Q.J.G.S., vol. xxix (1872), p. 45, pl. iii, figs. 5, 6.

308 F.. Chapman—Tertiary Foraminifera

a good head-shield only slightly distorted, and corresponds in
character to Neseuretus quadratus (Hicks),’ but apparently belongs
to a young individual, as it is of comparatively small size (13 mm.
long). The glabella is too narrow to ascribe it to N. ramseyensis,
Hicks. The basal lobes are well shown, and there is a faint indication
of the two anterior pairs of lateral furrows. The punctation of the
surface also corresponds to that of VV. quadratus.

Nesevretvs, sp. (Pl. XII, Fig. 6.)

1878. Homalonotus monstrator, Salter: Cat. Camb. Sil. Foss. Woodw. Mus., p. 22
(a 482).

1888. Homalonotus monstrator, Etheridge: Pal. Foss. Brit. Isl., p. 54.

1891. Neseuretus, sp., Woods: Cat. Type Foss. Woodw. Mus., p. 148.

Salter gave the name Homalonotus monstrator to a trilobite from
what he considered the base of the Arenig Beds (=Tremadoc,
according to Hicks) in Ramsey Island. The single original
specimen (a 482) on which this species was founded consists of
an imperfect and badly-preserved pygidium, which obviously belongs
to the genus Nesewretus,” though the species is indeterminable.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XII.

[All the figures are of Salter’s original specimens in the Woodwardian Museum. ]
Fic. 1.—Olenus (Parabolineila) Planti, Salter. Upper Lingula Flags, Moel Gron.

a, 272.

Fies. 2 and 3.—Olenus (s.g. ?) expansus, Salter. Upper Lingula Flags, Moel Gron-
a, 275

Fic. 4.—WNeseuretus recurvatus, Hicks? Tremadoc, Ramsey Island. a, 469.

Fie. 5.—Neseuretus quadratus, Hicks? Tremadoc, Ramsey Island. a, 469.

Fic. 6.—Nesewretus, sp. Tremadoc, Ramsey Island. a, 482.

V.—Tertiagy ForRAMINIFERAL LimEsTONES FROM SINAI.
By Freperick Cuapman, A.L.S., F.R.M.S.
(PLATES XIII anp XIV.) 3

HE following descriptions are based upon a collection of
foraminiferal limestones, chiefly nummulitic, from Sinai, which
were sent to the British Museum for description and determination
by Captain H. G. Lyons, R.H., F.G.S., Director of the Geological
Survey of Egypt.

Our previous knowledge of Sinaitic foraminifera has been some-
what scanty. It was pointed out, however, chiefly by Bauerman,
that the Nummulitic Series is very well developed in this particular
area, the country on the east side of the Gulf of Suez.

The occurrence of Nummulites and Operculina is recorded in
Mr. Bauerman’s paper! mainly from a locality south of Wadi
Gharandel. Professor Rupert Jones supplied a note to that paper,
and from the latter locality recorded Nummulites Gizehensis (large

1 Hicks: Q.J.G.S., vol. xxix (1872), p. 45, pl. iii, figs. 11-18.

2 Hicks: Q.J.G.S., vol. xxix (1872), p. 44.

3 The Plates will appear with Part II, in the August Number.

4 *«Note on a Geological Reconnaissance made in Arabia Petrzea in the Spring of
1868’’: Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxv (1868), p. 38.

in Limestones from Sinai. 309

and small), N. Ramondi, N. curvispira, and N. intermedia; whilst
from “the lowest rock seen just beyond Pharaoh’s Fall” he records
remains of Nummulites Ramondi and Operculina canalifera (?).

Foraminifera have been recorded from Sinai also by Ehrenberg.’
These were principally obtained from washings of the rocks, and
consequently are exceptionally minute forms.

Other occurrences of foraminifera from the adjacent country,
chiefly Palestine, are noted by Fraas,? who described a form under
the name of Nummulites cretacea from the Hippurite Limestone
near Jerusalem, and which from the figure given is certainly not
a nummulite, but bears some resemblance to a turgid Orbitoides, and
is most probably of Tertiary age.* The same author mentions two
other species, Nummulites variolaria and N. Arabiensis.

Lartet has figured and noted three species of Nummulites from
Wadi Gharandel,' namely, N. Lyelli, N. Guettardi, and VV. Lucasana.

Lastly, a series of specimens collected by the Palestine Exploring
Expedition in 1865 from Gerizhem have been identified by Professor
T. Rupert Jones,’? who enumerates ten species, and some of these are
comparable with our Sinaitic specimens.

The specimens dealt with in this paper were collected by
Mr. Barron, of the Egyptian Geological Survey, between January
and June, 1899.

The following is an epitomized account of the rock-specimens,
with their contents :—

No. 4,111, 1/.—“ Foraminiferal limestone; top of Jebel Abyad,
south of Wadi Gharandel, Sinai.” Mokattam Series (Middle Eocene).

A dense cream-coloured limestone, largely composed of Nummulites
subdiscorbina and N. curvispira, associated with a fair number of
N. Gizehensis, var. Pachoi. The nummulites in these rock-specimens
lie massed together, forming a kind of bank, which is in turn covered
with fine detrital mud containing smaller foraminifera, such as
Bolivinu, Globigerina, Discorbina, and Rotalia. One of the nummu-
lites in this rock has been partially transformed into beekite.

The genera and species found in these rock-specimens are :—
Bolivina punctata ?, d’Orbigny ; Globigerina bulloides, d’Orb.; G. con-
globata, Brady; G. cretacea?, d’Orb.; Discorbina rugosa (d’Orb.) ;
D. globularis (d’Orb.) ; Rotalia calcariformis (Schwager) ; Nummulites
subdiscorbina, De la Harpe; N. curvispira, Meneghini; N. Gizehensis,
Ehr., var. Pachoi, De la Harpe; Orbitoides dispansa (Sow.); O.
ephippium (Schlotheim) ; and O. papyracea (Boubée).

No. 4,112, 2/.—*“ Foraminiferal limestone, beach deposit (later) ;°

1 Mikrogeologie, vol. ii (1854), pl. xxvc. Also Parker & Jones: Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist., vol. ix (1872), p. 289.

2 Aus dem Orient, 1867, pp. 82-4, pl. i, figs. 8a—c.

3 See also Lartet: ‘*‘ Explor. géol. Mer Morte,’’ 1877, pp. 157-9.

4 Lartet, ‘‘ Essai sur la Géol. Palestine,’’ pt. ii, Paléontologie: Ann. Sci. géol.,
vol. iii (1872), p. 89, pl. ix, figs. 23, 25, 26.

5 Catal. Foss. Foram. Brit. Mus., 1882, p. 49.

6 Mr. Barron writes (March, 1900) with regard to this deposit: ‘‘It has the

characters of a beach deposit in that it is gritty and contains well-marked con-
glomerate beds. There is no doubt, however, that it is part of the Eocene series.”’

310 FE. Chapman—Tertiary Foraminifera

Jebel Abyad, Sinai.” ? Bartonian (Upper Hocene) or ? top of
Mokattam Series (Middle Hocene).

A soft-textured, pale cream-coloured rock. Thin sections of this
specimen when viewed under the microscope show the rock to
be finely granular to crystalline, and to contain a fair number of
foraminifera, some of which are broken and worn (? derived).

The foraminifera in this rock are :—Globigerina bulloides, d’Orb. ;
Opereulina complanata (Defr.), var. discoidea, Schwager ; Nummulites
planulata (Lamarck) ; N. variolaria (Liam.) ; and Orbitoides dispansa
(Sowerby).

Nos. 4,135, 31, and 4,113, 47. —“Foraminiferal limestone ; junction
of Wadi Baba and Wadi Shellal.” Libyan Series (Lower Hocene).

This rock has a whitish chalky appearance, and is seen under the
microscope to be almost completely recrystallized as dolomite, the
rhomb-sections of that mineral being very perfect. The foraminifera
have retained generally their shape and structure, but in many
instances their tests are bitten up by dolomite rhombs. The
chambers of the foraminifera are also often filled up by the crystals.
Besides foraminifera numerous fragments of polyzoa (unaltered)
are scattered throughout the rock.

The foraminifera seen in these specimens are:—Teatularia agglu-
tinans, W’Orb.; Operculina complanata (Defr.), var. canalifera,
d’Archiac; and Nummulites Ramondi, Defr.

No. 4,163, 51.—‘“ Nummulites near top of Jebel Safariat, Sinai.”
Mokattam Series (Middle Eocene).

A collection of nummulites of the type N. complanata, comprising
N. Gizehensis (Forskal), var. Lhrenbergi, De la Harpe; N. Gizehensis,
var. Lyelli, d’Archiac & Haime; and N. Gizehensis, var. Pachoi,
De la Harpe.

No. 3,598, 137.—‘“Nummulitic bed, Wadi Khadahid, Sinai.”
Mokattam Series (Middle Eocene).

An ochreous - coloured, incoherent limestone, consisting almost
entirely of nummulites (chiefly N. curvispira).

The following foraminifera were found :—Truncatulina umbonifera
(Schwager) ; Nummulites Gizehensis, var. Pachoi, De la Harpe ;
N. curvispira, Meneghini; N. Barroni, sp. nov.; and N. Ramondi ?,
Defrance.

No. 3,902, 157.— “ Foraminiferal limestone, Jebel Krer (same
range as Jebel Abyad), Sinai.”” Libyan Series (Lower Eocene).

An impure chalky limestone, with many included fragments of an
older rock, possibly Cretaceous in age, which includes Globigerina
eretacea ?, d’Orb. When viewed microscopically, this limestone
appears to have originally been a fine-grained calcareous mud, with
numerous specimens of foraminifera. We find here Miliolina cireu-
laris (Born.); Alveolina Boscii (Defr.); A. decipiens, Schwager ;
Bigenerina? nodosaria, d’Orb.; Globigerina cretacea ?, d’Orb. ; Opercu-
lina complanata (Defr.), var. canaliculata, d’Archiac; Nuwmmulites
Guettardi, d’Arch. & Haime, var. antiqua, De la Harpe; Orbitoides
dispansa (Sow.) ; and O. papyracea (Boubée).

in Limestones from Sinai. oll

In the following descriptions, especially with regard to the
nummulites, I have had the advantage of consulting Professor
T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S., to whom J am much indebted.

FORAMINIFERA.
Family MILIOLIDZ.
Subfamily MILIOLININ A.
Minronina, Williamson [1858].
Miooliolina circularis (Bornemann). (Pl. XIV, Fig. 1.)

Triloculina circularts, Bornemann, 1855: Zeitsch. deutsch. Geol. Gesell., vol. vii,
p. 349, pl. xix, fig. 4.

Miliolina circularis (Born.), Sherborn & Chapman, 1886: Journ. Roy. Micro. Soc.,
ser. II, vol. vi, p. 742, pl. xiv, figs. 2a, 0.

A Miliolina occurs in a section of one of the Sinai limestones.
It perfectly agrees in outline and the disposition of the inner
chambers with the above species, especially those found in Tertiary
clays elsewhere, as the London Clay and the Septarian Clay of
Hermsdorf.

Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt, No. 3,902, Box No. 151. Libyan Series
(Lower Eocene) : Jebel Krer, Sinai.

Subfamily ALVEOLININ &.
ALVEOLINA, d’Orbigny [1826].
Alveolina Boscii (Defrance). (Pl. XIII, Fig. 6a.)
Oryzaria Boscii, Defrance, 1820: Dict. Sci. Nat., vol. xvi, p. 106; Atlas Zooph.,
pl. xlviii, fig. 4.
Alveolina Boscii (Detr.), d’Orb., 1826: Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. vii, p. 306, No. 5;
Modeéles, No. 50. Brady, 1884: Rep. Chall., vol. ix, p. 222, pl. xvii,
figs. 7-12.

The elongate and more or less fusiform specimens of Alveolina in
the oldest Tertiary limestones of Sinai may be referred to the above
species. Schwager figures an allied form, 4. frumentiformis,' which
is more slender than 4. Boscii, from the Egyptian limestone of the
Libyan Series.

Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt, No. 3,902, Box No. 151. Libyan Series
(Lower Hocene) : Jebel Krer, Sinai. Rare.

Alveolina (Flosculina) decipiens, Schwager. (Pl. XIV, Fig. 2.)

Alveolina (Flosculina) decipiens, Schwager, 1883: Paleontographica, vol. xxx, Pal.
Theil, p. 103, pl. xxvi (iil), figs. la—-/.

This interesting species appears to be similar to some Alveoline
from India, associated in like manner with Nummulites and Orbitoides.
It was found by Schwager in the Libyan Series of Nekeb-el-Farudj
and El-Guss-Abu-Said.

Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt, No. 8,902, Box No. 151. Libyan Series
(Lower Eocene) : Jebel Krer, Sinai. Frequent.

1 Palwontographica, vol. xxx (1883), Pal. Theil, p. 100, pl. xxv (ii), figs. 4a-7.

312 F.. Chapman—Tertiary Foraminifera

Family TEXTULARIID.

Subfamily TEXTULARIIN A.
Textunaria, Defrance [1824].
Teatularia agglutinans, d’Orbigny. (Pl. XIV, Fig. 3.)
Textularia agglutinans, VOrb., 1839: Foram. Cuba, p. 144, pl. i, figs. 17, 18, 32-34.

A specimen of the above was met with in one of the sections,
which has the aboral end somewhat more attenuate than is usual
in the typical form. The texture of the shell- wall is coarsely
arenaceous, and the limestone in which it occurs was probably
deposited in quite shallow water.

Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt, No. 4,113, Box No. 41. Libyan Series
(Lower Eocene) : junction of Wadi Baba and Wadi Shellal.

Brieenerina, d’Orbigny [1826].
Bigenerina nodosaria ?, d’Orbigny. (Pl. XIII, Fig. 7b.)
Bigenerina nodosaria, d’Orb., 1826: Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. vii, p. 261, No. 1, pl. xi,
figs. 9-11; Modéles, No. 57.
Dimorphina nodosaria, V Orb., 1846: Foram. Foss. Vienne, p. 221, pl. xii, figs. 21, 22.
Bigenerina nodosaria, @Orb., Brady, 1884: Rep. Chall., vol. ix, p. 369, pl. xliv,
figs. 14-18.

A vertical section of a stout bigenerine’ form occurs in one of the
sections, and is most probably referable to the above species.
B. nodosaria has been recorded from various deposits dating from
Middle Tertiary times.

“ Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt, No. 3,902, Box No. 15]. Libyan Series
(Lower Hocene) : Jebel Krer, Sinai.

Subfamily BULIMININ i.
Boutvina, @Orbigny [1839].
Bolivina punctata?, @Orbigny. (Pl. XIV, Fig. 4.)

Bolivina punctata, V Orb., 1839 : Voyage Amér. Mérid., vol. v, Foraminiféres, p. 63,
pl. viii, figs. 10-12.

B. phyllodes (Ehrenberg), Schwager, 1883: Paleontographica, vol. xxx, Pal. Theil,
p- 1138, pl. xxix (vi), fig. 10.

The specimen under notice is a vertical section of a narrow form
cut at such an angle as to give a chevroned aspect to the chambers.
It is possibly referable to the well-known Tertiary species Bolivina
punctata, and similar specimens have occurred in both the Libyan
and Mokattam Series of Egypt.

Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt, No. 4,111, Box No. 1l. Mokattam Series
(Middle Hocene): top of Jebel Abyad, south of Wadi Gharandel,

Sinai.
Family GLOBIGERINIDK.
GuopicERInA, d’Orbigny [1826].
Globigerina bulloides, d’Orbigny. (PI. XIV, Fig. 5.)
Globigerina bulloides, d’Orb., 1826: Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. vii, p. 277, No. 1;

Modéles, No. 76. Schwager, 1883: Palzeontographica, vol. xxx, Pal.
Theil, p. 118, pl. xxvii (iv), figs. 5a—-c.

Several undoubted specimens of this form were detected in the
fine material of the sections made from rock-specimen No. 4,112.

in Limestones from Sina. 313

Schwager found G. bulloides in both the Libyan and the Mokattam
Series in Egypt.

Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt, No. 4,112, Box No. 2/. Bartonian Series
(Upper Eocene) or top of Mokattam Series (Middle Eocene) : Jebel
Abyad, Sinai.

Globigerina conglobata, Brady. (PI. XIV, Fig. 6.)
Globigerina conglobata, Brady, 1879: Quart. Journ. Micro. Sci., vol. xix, p. 72.
me? os Rep. Chall., vol. ix, p. 603, pl. Ixxx, figs. 1-5; pl. Ixxxi,
2. 5.

This species is occasionally seen in the sections of No. 4,111, but
the specimens are somewhat fragmentary. It has previously
occurred in beds as old as the Oligocene or Miocene, notably in
the limestones of Christmas Island. It is distinguished by the
fewness of the chambers and the comparative thickness of the
shell-walls.

Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt, No. 4,111, Box No. 1l. Mokattam Series
(Middle Eocene): top of Jebel Abyad, south of Wadi Gharandel,
Sinai.

Globigerina cretacea ?, d’Orbigny. (Pl. XIV, Fig. 7.)
Globigerina cretacea, V Orb., 1840: Mém. Soc. géol. France, ser. 1, vol. iv, p. 34,
pl. iii, figs. 12-14.
G. cf. cretacea, VOrb., Schwager, 1883: Paleontographica, vol. xxx, Pal. Theil,
p. 119, pl. xxix, figs. 13a-d.

Numerous small specimens of a small-chambered, neatly coiled
Globigerina, very closely resembling G. cretacea, occur in the pre-
sumably oldest nummulitic beds of Sinai. This species has also
been doubtfully referred to as occurring in the argillaceous beds
(Libyan Series) of El-Guss-Abu-Said by Schwager.

It is of great interest to note this occurrence here, since if the
species be proved by specimens isolated from the rock, they will
either have been derived from neighbouring Cretaceous beds or
otherwise show an upward range for the species, typical examples
of which are not known out of the Cretaceous formations.

Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt, No. 4,111, Box No. 11. Mokattam Series
(Middle Eocene): top of Jebel Abyad, south of Wadi Gharandel,
Sinai. Also No. 3,902, Box No. 151. Libyan Series (Lower
Eocene: Jebel Krer (same range as Jebel Abyad), Sinai.

Family ROTALITD Ai.
Subfamily ROTALIINZ.
Discorpina, Parker & Jones [1862].
Discorbina rugosa (d’Orbigny). (Pl. XIV, Fig. 9.)

Rosalina rugosa, @ Orb., 1839: Voyage Amér. Mérid., vol. v, pt. 5, Foraminiféres,
p: 42, pl. ui, figs. 12-14. -

Discorbina rugosa (d’Orb.), Brady, 1884: Rep. Chall., vol. ix, p. 652, pl. lxxxvil,
figs. 1, 4. Sherborn & Chapman, 1889: Journ. Roy. Micro. Sci., p. 487,
pl. xi, fig. 33.

This neat little shallow-water organism is fairly well known in
Kocene strata, and is a characteristic form in the London Clay.

314 EF, Chapman—Tertiary Foraminifera

Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt, No. 4,111, Box No. 11. Mokattam Series
(Middle Hocene): top of Jebel Abyad, south of Wadi Gharandel,
Sinai.

Discorbina globularis (d’Orbigny). (Pl. XIV, Fig. 8.)
Rosalina globularis, W’ Orb., 1826: Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. vii, p. 271, No. 1, pl. xiii,
figs. 1-4; Modeles, 1826, No. 69.
Discorbina globularis (d’Orb.), 1897, Jones & Chapman, in Professor Judd’s
Second Report on specimens of the deposits of the Nile Delta: Proc.
Roy. Soc., vol. lsi, p. 38.

The specimen seen in section is that of a simple, strongly inflated
Discorbina, similar to the above-named species. It has already been
recorded from slices of Eocene pebbles from the Nile Delta, and it
is also known from the Hocene of Grignon. It occurs in nearly all
fossiliferous strata dating from Tertiary times to the present. In
recent deposits D. globularis is most abundant in shallow water,
averaging about 50 fathoms.

Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt, No. 4,111, Box No. 1. Mokattam Series
(Middle Eocene): top of Jebel Abyad, south of Wadi Gharandel,
Sinai.

TruncatuLina, d’Orbigny [1826].
Truncatulina umbonifera (Schwager). (PI. XIV, Figs. 10a, b.)

Discorbina umbontfera, Schwager, 1883: Paleontographica, vol. xxx, Pal. Theil,
p- 126, pl. xxvii (iv), figs. 14a-d.

The specimen obtained from the limestone of Sinai is apparently
a depauperated or irregularly grown individual of the above species.
The affinities of the original specimens and also of the present appear
to be nearer Truncatulina than Discorbina. Schwager’s specimens
came from the Libyan Series of El-Guss-Abu-Said, Egypt.

Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt, No. 8,598, Box No. 13/. Mokattam
Series (Middle Eocene) : Wadi Khadahid, Sinai.

Roratta, Lamarck [1804].
Rotalia calcariformis (Schwager). (Pl. XIV, Fig. 11.)

Diseorbina calcariformis, Schwager, 1883: Paleontographica, vol. xxx, Pal. Theil,
p- 120, pl. xxvu, figs. 9a—d.

The specimens seen in these sections show a true rotaliform
structure in the shell-wall, with an interseptal canal system.
Schwager’s figures also show secondary shell-thickening, and we
therefore refer them to the genus Rotalia. R. calcariformis is not
far removed in outline from R. calear of the present day, but since
the latter species shows a marked tendency to vary in the direction
of the elongation of the cuspid processes on the outer segments,
and R. calcariformis has a somewhat blunt cusp, the two series of
specimens may reasonably be kept distinct.

R. calcariformis was found in the argillaceous beds of El-Guss-
Abu-Said (Libyan Series), Egypt.

Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt, No. 4,111, Box No. 1/1. Mokattam Series
(Middle Eocene): top of Jebel Abyad, south of Wadi Gharandel,
Sinai. Frequent.

in Limestones from Sinai. 316

Family NUMMULINIDZ.
Subfamily NUMMULITIN.
Opzercuuina, d’Orbigny [1826].
Operculina complanata (Defrance), var. canalifera, d’Archiac.
(Pl. XIII, Figs. 3a, 4a; Pl. XIV, Fig. 12.)

Operculina ammonea, Leymerie (pars), 1844: Mém. Soc. géol. France, ser. 11, vol. i,
p- 359, pl. xiii, fig. 11.

O. canalifera, d’ Archiac, 1850: Hist. Prog. Géol., vol. iii, p. 245. D’Archiac &
Haime, 1853: Descr. Anim. groupe nummulitique Inde, p. 182, pl. xii,
figs. la-c; and vol. ii (1854), p. 346, pl. xxxv, fig. 6@; pl. xxxvi,
figs. 15a, 16a.

O. libyca, Schwager, 1883: Paleontographica, vol. xxx, Pal. Theil, p. 142,
pl. xxix (vi), figs. 2a-g.

After a careful comparison of the various specimens of the large
and compressed forms of Operculina which are often so abundant in
the nummulitic series and subsequent formations of Asia, Africa,
Europe, and the West Indies, we have arrived at the conclusion that
the so-called species, so numerously described and figured, can only
be regarded as varieties of the type form O. complanata (Defrance).
These varieties, nevertheless, when confined within certain limits of
characters, determined probably by the influence of local conditions,
will prove of value in determining facies and minor series of strata
in given areas.

O. complanata, var. canalifera is characterized by the rapid
increase in the width of the whorls in the last turn or so. The
surface of the central area of each chamber is slightly excavate, and
the sutural lines of the segments are often marked out by a thick
secondary shell growth. Greatest length of test in the specimens
from Sinai, 2 inch (10 mm.); diameter at oral extremity, ;%; inch
(7 mm.) ; thickness, ;45 inch (‘5 mm.).

The original specimens, described by d’Archiac, were from the
yellow limestone, Hala range, province of Cutch, India, where it
was associated with Nummulites Ramondi. O. complanata, var.
canalifera, has also been recorded from the nummulitic beds of Beni
Hassan and Cairo, Egypt, and from Palestine and Bulgaria. De-
scribed under the name of O. libyca by Schwager, and recorded by
him from the Libyan Series of Hl-Guss-Abu-Said.

Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt, Nos. 4,115 and 4,185, Box Nos. 41
and 3l respectively. Libyan Series (Lower Eocene): junction of
Wadi Baba and Wadi Shellal, Sinai. Abundant and typical. Also
No. 3,902, Box No. 151. Libyan Series (Lower Eocene): Jebel
Krer, Sinai. Frequent, but somewhat dwarfed specimens.

Operculina complanata (Defrance), var. discoidea, Schwager.
(Pl. XIV, Fig. 13.)
Operculina discoidea, Schwager, 1883: Paleontographica, vol. xxx, Pal. Theil,
p. 146, pl. xxix (vi), figs. 5a—d.
O. cf. canalifera, d’ Arch., id., 1883: ibid., p. 144, pl. xxix (vi), figs. 3a, 0.

This variety is distinguished from the foregoing by the even
width of the whorls of the shell, which increase but slightly in each
turn of the series.

316 J. Parsons—Brown Mica developed from Augite.

Giimbel has figured a somewhat similar variety from the nummu-
litic series of Kressenberg, Bavaria, which he has referred to
d’Archiae’s Operculina canalifera.'

The specimens from Sinai measure 3% inch (7 mm.) in the
diameter of the shell, and its thickness is 35 inch (‘d mm.).

Schwager’s specimens were obtained from the white clay of Aradj
(Mokattam Series), Egypt.

Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt, No. 4,112, Box No. 2/. ? Bartonian
Series (Upper Eocene) or ? top of Mokattam Series (Middle Hocene) :
beach deposit, Jebel Abyad, Sinai. Common.

Hererostecina, d’Orbigny [1826].

Heterostegina depressa, d’Orbigny. (PI. XIII, Fig. Ta.)
Heterostegina depressa, d’Orb., 1826: Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. vii, p. 305, No. 2,
pl. xvii, figs. 5-7; Modéles, No. 99.

The specimens now under description are very distinctly coiled
at the commencement, and in general aspect resemble those speci-
mens which belong to the microspheric form ; and which are rare in
our modern marine dredgings. This species is more commonly found
in the later Tertiaries, but it is not entirely absent from the base of
the Hocene.

Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt, No. 3,902, Box No. 151. Libyan Series
(Lower Eocene) : Jebel Krer, Sinai. Rare.

(To be continued in our next Number.)

VI.—Tse Devetopment or Brown Mica From AUGITE BY
Reaction with Fernseataic MATERIAL.

By James Parsons, B.Se. (Lond.).

HE conversion of augite or hornblende into brown mica appears

to take place from three causes :—

1. By crushing of pyroxenic minerals and felspar, as has been
observed by Professor Bonney in sundry schists of the Alps.’

2. By the intrusion of felspathic material into a rock containing
augite or hornblende, as in the Harz, where granite invades diabase,
converting the augite into biotite? A similar change has been
observed in the gabbro. of the Barnavave Mountain, in the Carling-
ford district, the diallage being wholly or in part replaced by biotite
owing to the invasion of granophyric magma.‘ In Sark the intrusion
of an aplitic magma into almost pure hornblende has resulted in the
formation of biotite.’

3. By the corrosive action of a residual felspathic magma on
previously consolidated augitic constituents. This method of forma-
tion has been noted by Mr. T. H. Holland in the augite-diorites

1 Abhandl. bayer. Akad. Wiss., vol. x (1868), 1870, p. 664, pl. ii, figs. 112a, bd.

2 Q.J.G.S., vol. xlix, p. 104.

3 K. A. Lossen: Congrés Internat. Géol. Comptes Rendues de la 4™° session,
1888, p. 184.

# Sollas: Trans. Roy. Irish Acad., vol. xxx (1894), p. 477.

> Bonney: Q.J.G.S., vol. xlviii, p. 122 et seq.

J. Parsons—Brown Mica developed from Augyite. oly

of Southern India. In this instance, after augite and plagioclase had
consolidated a hydrous magma was left, which ultimately solidified
as micropegmatite; this magma acted readily on the augite, con-
verting it into biotite! Under this head the following observations
on some Norwegian rocks should probably be classed.*

(1) A granite from Almiis shows a similar process of change to
that observed in the above-mentioned augite-diorites. The principal
constituents of the rock are, oligoclase, orthoclase, augite of the
pale-green non-aluminous type (sahlite), which commonly occurs in
granite, biotite, and sphene. The biotite is developed round the
augite, which is much corroded, passing into it along its cleavage
cracks, in such a way that, in many cases, the line of division is
fixed with difficulty. The two minerals are curiously intergrown,
but not in such a way as to suggest simultaneous crystallization, for
while the biotite invades the augite from the outside it does not
form isolated inclusions in the latter. The quartz and orthoclase
occur as a mosaic of varying coarseness and of later date than the
oligoclase, and locally form patches of micropegmatite. The mosaic
extends in narrow seams between the oligoclase crystals, broadening
out at their angles to fill the intercrystalline spaces. It is largely
developed round the augite-biotite aggregate, the grains separating
the flakes of biotite at the margins of the main masses. Appearances
suggest that the magma, from which the quartz and orthoclase
formed, effected the corrosion of the augite and subsequent develop-
ment of the biotite in the manner suggested by Mr. Holland. The
sphenes occur as idiomorphic crystals, and are the earliest con-
stituents of the rock, for they are included in the augite, which
is itself earlier than the oligoclase. Where present in the biotite
or in its immediate neighbourhood they are much corroded and
cracked. The iron of the augite appears to be completely used up
in forming the biotite, for though a few grains of magnetite occur,
these are due to the subsequent hydration of the mica accompanied
by the formation of a chloritic mineral. A little hornblende is
present, apparently secondary, after augite.

(2) An augite-syenite from Svenédre well shows the conversion
of augite into dark mica. This rock is closely allied to the well-
known Lauvigite. The felspars are orthoclase, apparently of two
varieties, with a little plagioclase. They exhibit microperthitic
intergrowth, and this in many places at their margins passes into
micropegmatite. The augite is of two types: (i) Pale brown, slightly
pleochroic, showing, in the central portions of the crystals, good
cleavage marked by the deposition of iron oxide in the cracks, which
occasionally assumes the form of negative crystals. Incipient
diallagic cleavage may be observed, traversing the earlier prismatic
one. This augite is much corroded by the felspars, its margin
being in some places curiously broken up and intergrown with the

1 Q.J.G.S., vol. liti, p. 405.
2 Tam indebted to Professor Bonney for the opportunity of studying these slices,
which belong to his collection.

318 J. Parsons—Brown Mica developed from Augite.

surrounding felspar in a manner approaching micropegmatite.
(ii) A pale-green augite, irregularly cracked, probably sahlite.
It occurs in rounded fragments, which in places have been broken
up and separated. Biotite is chiefly developed round the first-
named augite, and it occurs only when that mineral is in contact with
the felspar, and has been manifestly corroded by it. With ordinary
light it is often impossible to say where the passage of augite into
mica commences, for its first manifestation is a very faint brown
tinting. With crossed nicols the first indication of its development
is a marked increase of intensity in the polarization tints, along
a narrow zone at the junction; this presently shows the characteristic
mica cleavage, and varies in colour from a very light brown to
a dark bright brown. Beyond the latter magnetite is developed.
On the other side of the mass of magnetite the augite shows irregular
cracks in which the magnetite is deposited, and beyond this the
regular cleavage sets by marked iron oxide, as mentioned above.
it should be understood that though this order of sequence is
apparently constant, yet any stage owing to the irregularities of
the decomposition may be locally very poorly shown or even absent.
In some cases the augite is completely decomposed, and there
remains only a core of magnetite with a corona of mica, darker in
colour near it and lighter in contact with the felspar. The pale-
green augite does not so readily develop mica as the other variety,
though its smaller fragments show in places an abundant marginal
growth.

Much serpentinization occurs along its cracks, accompanied by
the formation of a little mica. Both these facts confirm the idea
that this is a non-aluminous augite. It is, however, rich in iron
oxide, which is largely excreted in the formation of mica and the
serpentinization. Apatite is an abundant constituent of the rock,
the larger crystals acting as the nuclei round which the augite
consolidated.

(8) A similar formation of dark mica from augite may be observed
in Lauvigite, which closely resembles the Svenére syenite described
above. The rock is too well known to require detailed description,
but in the present connection the following points may be noted.
The augite is of two types: (i) pale-brown, slightly pleochroic, with
incipient diallagic cleavage; (ii) pale-green sahlite, irregularly
cracked, some serpentine and a little biotite forming along the
cracks. This is earlier than the first-named augite and in many
places is enclosed by it. The felspathic mixture (anorthite,
microperthite) has much corroded the augite, with which at its
margins it is in places intimately intergrown. Round the augite
mica is developed, the one passing almost insensibly into the other
as already described, and the same darkening of the mica and final
formation of magnetite occurs as the distance from the felspar
increases. The felspathic magma has in places invaded the augite,
producing in its centre patches of dark mica which appear at first
sight to be isolated inclusions. Here also the mica is only formed
with difficulty in the sahlite.

J.. Parsons—Brown Mica developed Jrom Augite. 319

(4) A gabbro from Humlebik affords an interesting example of
the corrosion of a felspar by augitic magma, resulting in the
formation of brown mica. In this case the felspar is labradorite,
occurring in idiomorphic crystals, round which the augite, a colour-
less variety, extends in ophitic fashion. The felspars are much
corroded and in part melted down, thus enclosing small portions of
the augite. Round the edges of the felspar, mica is developed,
appearing at the outset as a faint brown tinting of the augite. At
first the cleavage of this mineral is alone apparent as a rule, though
occasionally traces of the mica cleavage may be discovered parallel
to one of the cleavage planes of the augite. There are indications
that at this earliest stage a mixture of augite and mica is present,
or rather, a solution of mica in the augite is suggested. In one
instance where a felspar lath is surrounded by biotite, obviously
derived from augite, it has lost almost half its bulk by corrosion,
and the remainder appears to be permeated by augitic material,
converting it into a colourless mica whose cleavage planes are
continuous with those of the biotite on each side. The mica when
traced inwards from the margin of the augite loses its scaly
appearance, due to the cleavage of that mineral, becomes more
compact, and develops its own cleavage. At first it is a straw
colour, then it becomes a dark bright brown, and finally magnetite
is formed; and in the larger augite grains this is followed by an
irregularly cracked zone which passes into a central portion showing
fine cleavage striation. With this, as a rule, the outer portion is in
optical continuity. When the augite is more remote from and
unaltered by the felspar, it is twinned sometimes more than once
parallel to the orthopinacoid; this, combined with basal cleavage
striation, giving the well-known herring-bone structure. In the
smaller augite grains the conversion into mica and magnetite is
sometimes complete, a corona of light mica surrounding the bright
brown mica, and in most cases a core of magnetite occupying the
centre of the grain. The following explanation may be offered of
the transition shown in this rock and the syenites :—where the
felspar is in contact with the augite a mica is formed, poor in iron
and rich in alumina, probably phlogopite, while, as the distance
from the felspar increases, ferric oxide takes the place of alumina,
resulting in lepidomelane, biotite being formed as an intermediate
stage, and finally, beyond the limit to which the felspathic magma
permeated, magnetite is excreted.

Thus the normal order of change seems to be as follows
(commencing from the side of the felspar): (1) fusion of felspar
and augite with faint brown tinting of the augite, due to incipient
development of mica; (2) pale-brown mica (phlogopite); (38)
biotite; (4) dark red-brown mica (lepidomelane) ; (5) intimate
mixture of dark mica and magnetite; (6) mass of magnetite; (7)
augite with irregular cracks in which magnetite is excreted, which
is followed by augite with fine cleavage striation.

320 C. C. Brittlebank—Rate of Erosion of River Valleys.

VII.—Tue Rare or Erosion or some River VALLEYS.
By C. C. Brirrrzsanx, Esq.

(Read before the Geological Section of the Australasian Association for the
Advancement of Science, Melbourne Meeting, January, 1900.)
HE district in which these observations have been made is
a very suitable one for such experiments, and is situated from
2 to 12 miles from Bacchus Marsh and from 32 to 54 miles west of
Melbourne.

The chief streams which pass through the above area are the
Werribee and Lerderderg Rivers with their tributary creeks. The
country is somewhat rough, being intersected by numerous deep
gorges and wide flat-bottomed valleys.

Harly in 1892, when working on the glacial deposits of Bacchus
Marsh, I was greatly astonished at the immense amount of work
done by those puny streams, which have in places cut fairly
narrow gorges and valleys through solid rock, to a depth in one
place of at least over 1,000 feet.

It occurred to me that, if by any means I was able to ascertain the
amount of rock worn off the river bed within a given time, I should
be able to arrive at an approximate estimate of the time the rivers
have been cutting their channels. Even without detailed observa-
tion we should expect that a vast period had elapsed since the
streams first ran on the surface of the basaltic tableland. I was,
however, hardly prepared for the enormous time which my observa-
tions show, more especially as the erosion is subsequent to the flow
of newer basalt.

After thinking the matter over, and striving to devise some
method other than the level, I hit on a somewhat rough and ready
plan, and it is from these measurements, taken over a period of five
years, that my provisional estimate has been obtained. My method
is as follows:—A number of holes are drilled in lines across the
river bottom—if in soft rock, one inch in diameter by three inches
deep, and one inch by two inches in hard dense rocks. Into these
holes are placed a number of wires which have been carefully
measured, cut, and fastened by solder. into small bundles containing
from 20 to 100 according to the hardness of the rock. The wires
being placed in the holes with the longest wire exactly flush with
the rock surface, cement is poured in and allowed to harden. As
various kinds of wire have been used in the softer rocks, a strip of
slate pencil of equal length to the longest wire is placed in each
hole; this acts as a check on the wire in case of corrosive action.

Now as the surface of the river bed is worn away the end of
a fresh wire is exposed for every hundredth part of an inch removed
from the harder rocks, and one for every fifth or twentieth of an inch
in the softer rocks.

There is reason to suspect from geological evidence that the gorge
of the Lerderderg River above the alluvial flats is of much greater
age than that of the Werribee. Prior to the flow of newer basalt
the Lerderderg had cut a fairly deep channel, as had also the

C. C. Brittlebank—Rate of Erosion of River Valleys. 321

ancient Werribee, but the latter was blotted out of existence by the
flows of basalt. The Lerderderg, being guarded by high Silurian
ranges on the south over which the lava did not rise, continued in
the same channel as it now occupies. I will therefore confine my
remarks to the Werribee and tributary creeks.

The formations through which the Werribee has cut are: Lower
Silurian (Ordovician), granite, Glacial Series, fresh-water ‘ Miocene’
gravels, and basalts, both older and newer. The newer basalt has
at one time formed an extensive plateau from Mt. Blackwood, the
Lerderderg Ranges, and Ballan on the W. and N.W. to the Brisbane
Range and the plains on the S.and §.E. The surface slope is to the
8.E., and is broken here and there by ridges and hills of the various
older formations which stand at a higher level. In making my
observations I have used the present surface of the basaltic plateau
as a bench mark. Careful measurements have been taken from the
surface to the river bed at all places where erosive action is being
checked.

The different rocks through which the rivers have cut their
valleys greatly influence the amount and direction of erosion and
denudation. I find that the resistance offered by the various geological
formations to the erosive power of river action is in the following
order: Basalt, Silurian Granite, Glacial Series, Miocene ferruginous
gravels. Jointing, dip, strike, dykes, and bands of hard rock have
considerable influence in aiding or retarding the river action.
Fallen rock masses, especially huge blocks, check erosion to a con-
siderable extent. A band of hard rock crossing the river valley
acts in two ways, first by contracting the channel and second by
checking vertical erosion below its own level on the up side.
Numbers of these bands cross the stream, and many of my observations
have been taken from them. Probably the best position for observing
the wearing of any river channel is at the outer angle of a sharp
bend. At such places the bed is almost always free from boulders,
gravel and sand. Moreover, by the constant undermining action
of the river an almost vertical cliff is formed on the outer bend.
The greatest advantage, however, lies in the fact that the upper
part of the river rarely moves from side to side, but cuts a fairly
straight course through the country.

I had expected that the erosion of the river valleys would be
carried on at a comparatively rapid rate, but after many observations
along their courses I find the amount removed in a period of five
years is very small, so small in fact that had the amount not been
checked at numerous points I should hesitate to place on record
the results, but having undertaken the observations with this object
in view I give the average obtained at many separate stations on
the Werribee and tributary creeks.

Basalt ae bee 0:02 inches in 5 years=1 inch in 250 years.
Silurian... dys 0:03 FA 3 = i 166% ,,
Granite ... _ 0-04 “ Ke = sel Oe a5
Cla e ie eee OCOD, toy hop at iat lOO nats

Having ascertained the amount of erosion over a given period, it
DECADE IV.—VOL. VII.—NO. VII. 21

322 R. J. L. Guppy—Naparima Rocks, Trinidad.

is necessary to calculate the time taken to cut the cliff sections. To
be as brief as possible I have selected three sections on the Werribee
between Bacchus Marsh and Ballan.

Thickness. Time required for cutting.

(1) Glacial sae a 195 feet 586 200 234,000 years.
Silurian eee Ki 415 ,, a3 és 830,000 ,,
otal ee sis 610 ,, ous mes 1,064,000 ,,
(2) Basalt shee aaa PE 55 S58 Bes 705,000 ,,
Glacial sae Abs 60 ,, a aes 72,0008) 55
Granite bos ae WB 55 he S33 264,000 ,,
Totaly iste eee Ei ci aN 5.
(3) Basalt 300 as 240 ,, nee sie 720,000 ,,
Glacial B06 a: OS 55 ae dis 117,600 ,,
Silurian eee “as 22 ee Ets aes 244,000 ,,
Totalie, weramipe sq a GOlE: “iy old seco ll OSIGCOO—EEe

In compiling these notes I have assumed that the rainfall has not
been greater in past ages, say since the flow of newer basalt, than it
is on the average at the present time.

VIII.—On tHe Naparimma Rocks, TrInIDAD.
By R. J. Lecumere Guppy, Esq.

HAVE received a copy of the paper by Messrs. Harrison and
Jukes-Browne on the Oceanic Deposits of Trinidad, and wish
to place on record a few remarks on it.

In the first place I must compliment these gentlemen upon the
manner, at the same time courteous and impartial, in which they
have dealt with my work.

Our authors state that my writings leave both the nomenclature
and the succession of the Trinidad Tertiaries in a very uncertain
state. I am afraid that there is much of truth in this statement; and
I should feel satisfaction could I clear up the uncertainty either by
producing evidence of a nature distinctly confirming or distinctly
refuting Professor Harrison’s opinion that the Nariva Series is older
than the other Naparima beds, and that the Sanfernando beds are
closely connected with and are probably an upward continuation of
the Nariva Series. I have not been able to satisfy myself with
positive certainty either one way or the other. Our authors admit
themselves that no sections were seen showing the junction of the
two formations, but they consider that there is abundant evidence
that the two series occupy the relative positions assigned to them
by the geological surveyors. JI am not so wedded to my own
opinion that I would not welcome theirs if I could be satisfied about
this evidence. But so far as I know, no evidence of a conclusive
nature is forthcoming, as in no place is the junction of the two series
seen. <A similar doubt formerly prevailed respecting the junction of
radiolarian and foraminiferal beds; but this has been dispelled,

R. J. L. Guppy—Naparima Rocks, Trinidad. 3238

and we are now aware that these two series pass gradually and
conformably one into the other. A similar result may hereafter
happen in regard to the Naparima marls and the Nariva Series. In
the meantime my opinion is based mainly upon conjecture, though
one point weighs a good deal with me, that is, the strong resemblance
of the Nariva beds to the strata now being deposited in the gulf
derived from the degradation of the Naparima beds; and if this
inference is correct the Nariva Series must be later in date than
the foraminiferal marls. The resemblance I refer to is one not
only of mineral composition and mechanical aggregation, but of
organic contents, inasmuch as some of the deposits now being laid
down and (notably those off the mouth of the Sipero river) contain
foraminifera of the same character and in similar condition and of
similar frequency of occurrence as the Nariva beds. To take an
example, Globigerina is a very abundant organism, both in the mud
deposits off Sanfernando and in the Nariva beds, but in both these
deposits it is relatively much less abundant than in the foraminiferal
marls; and the relative infrequency of occurrence is due to the
destruction of the fossils in the course of the denudation and
redeposition of the marls. No such foraminifera now exist or can
exist in a living state in the gulf, though in my very first dredgings
off Sanfernando I recorded Globigerina at every haul in shallow
water near the shore. That was before I had recognized Globigerina
in the rocks of Naparima, and, as I have already stated, the
foraminifera so dredged by me were fossils derived from the
Naparima marls. Also, I consider that the abundance of gypsum
in the Nariva Series is due to the breaking down and redeposition
of the foraminiferal marls, in course of which the carbonate of lime
existing in the latter was partly changed into sulphate.

Respecting the nature and origin of the Argiline of Naparima
Hill, I somewhat timidly expressed my opinion in former papers.
As I find that Messrs. Harrison and Jukes-Browne are substantially
of the same opinion as myself on the subject, I may take the
opportunity of restating it. The nature and origin of the Argiline
are similar to those of the Naparima foraminiferal and radiolarian
marls, and it contained similar Radiolaria and Foraminifera. But
the Argiline has undergone a change consequent upon an alteration
in the form of its silica; a change analogous to that which has
taken place in part of the so-called ‘cement’ of the White Hills
of Bendigo, Australia, described by me in the Proceedings of the
Geologists’ Association of London, 1864, p. 409, and which consists
in an induration by probably a partial solution and redeposition of
the siliceous constituents. The whole mass of Naparima Hill is
thus affected; but a similar change has partially and locally affected
other portions of the Naparima rocks.

To my description of the Argiline of Naparima Hill published
in the Geological Society’s Journal, November, 1892, p. 526, should
be added the remarks contained in my paper in the Trinidad Field
Naturalists’ Journal, 1893, p. 7, as follows: ‘Beds of different
texture occur in the Argiline, some being more sandy in composition.

324 R. J. L. Guppy—Naparima Rocks, Trinidad.

In these I have found very evident organic remains, though I cannot
yet say exactly what they are. In another stratum of the same rock,
{I found two or three identifiable Foraminifera, namely, Pullenia
and Spheroidina, both deep-water forms.” J. W. Gregory found
indeterminable fragments of Radiolaria in this rock, and I can
confirm this observation, such remains being abundant.

It is singular that no attempt was ever made to ascertain whether
water could be obtained from beneath the Naparima Rocks. Previous.
to my arrival in the island (1859), the Government offered a reward
of £2,000 for the discovery of water by means of an artesian well
in Naparima. One would have thought that that would have been
sufficient encouragement for such an attempt. A close examination
of the physical features and geology of the country might afford
to an observant eye and a sanguine mind further encouragement
for a prosecution of the search for subterranean water. In my
paper on the water-bearing capacities of Trinidad Rocks (published
in the Trinidad Agricultural Record, 1891), also in my paper in the
Journal of the Geological Society already quoted, I gave a description
of the marls of Naparima, showing that these rocks do not yield
springs, nor do they contain water except in union with the rock.
It is true the rock (marl) is capable of union with any quantity of
water, but it will not give up this water except by the process of
evaporation. I had not mentioned the fact, however, that in one
or two places in Naparima there are at the bottom of ravines or
gullies springs of water which, though too small to give rise to any
stream, being rapidly absorbed by the soil or dissipated by evapora-
tion, serve to a very limited extent for drinking and washing
purposes. Their existence is usually obvious to the wayfarer, for
they assail his senses by the view of linen spread on bush and grass,
the smell of foul water, and the noise of banging and beating of
clothes characteristic of the Creole way of washing. Now it has
occurred to me that these springs arise from the rock vertically
underlying the marls, and that they only occur where the depth of
the marl above the underlying rock is not great. This underlying
or hypogene rock I suppose to be an extension of the hypogene or
granitoid rocks of South America.

Tam satisfied now that the Naparima deposits are not a continuous
series of formations of several thousands of feet in thickness, but
that the rocks as shown in section are several repetitions of the
same beds or series of beds. As these beds are now almost vertical,
it is evident that the movements which have brought about the
alteration in position have been very extensive, and the inter-
mediate and connecting portions of the strata have been removed
by denudation.

In my paper on the Gulf of Paria, printed in the Proceedings of
the Victoria Institute of Trinidad, 1894, p. 106, I touched cursorily
on the remarkable depression between Trinidad and Venezuela
passing through the Bocas. I reproduce here what I there wrote :—

“The Bocas are narrow channels connecting the Gulf of Paria
with the Caribean Sea. These channels have had their origin

F. Chapman— Ostracoda from Austria. 325

as suberial valleys, now submerged. (See papers in Proceedings
Scientific Association, 1877, p. 103, and Agricultural Record, 1891,
p. 79.) The first Boca (Boca de Monos) is barely half a mile wide,
the second (Boca Huevos) a little wider. The third (Boca Navios,
so called, I suppose, because ships do not use it), about the same.
The Grand Boca is about six miles wide. These widths may be
taken to be the clear widths in the narrowest parts. The rapid
currents through these channels have kept them scoured out, and
the depth reaches 120 fathoms. No mud or sand of any kind is
deposited in these Bocas. The bottom is one of rocky inequalities
whose existence is evidenced in the violent eddies and ripples of the
so-called ‘remu,’ a phenomenon which occurs when the water
outside the Bocas is at its lowest and consequently the water surface
gradient from the middle parts of the Gulf the greatest. Outside
the Gulf the Caribean Sea varies in depth from 20 to 60 fathoms
except in the line of the great downthrow passing along the axis
of the Grand Boca. Here the depth attains 120 fathoms, and is
probably not less than 90 in any part. This line of depression
seems to be a terrestrial feature of some magnitude. Its extension
north-eastward from the Boca Grande, between the islands of
Grenada and Tobago, is indicated by deep water marking the
boundary between the volcanic region of the Antilles and the
non-voleanic region to the south and east thereof.”

It is strange now to myself that in writing my paper on the
Microzoic Deposits of Trinidad I should have given so little weight
to the bearing the existence of this depression must have on any
theory of the movements of the earth’s crust in this region. J am
unable now to go further into this subject, but I cannot forbear
pointing out that this great depression of a portion of the earth’s
surface, which evidence clearly shows to have been formerly a con-
tinuous land surface, had most probably an intimate connection with,
or rather was part of, those movements, which among other events
broke up and elevated the Naparima Rocks and tilted them on edge.

IX.—Two New Sprciges oF Ostracopa oF TITHONIAN AGE FROM
NESSELSDORF, AUSTRIA.

By Freperick Cuapman, A.L.S., F.R.M.S.

‘F\HE following descriptions of Ostracoda from the Tithonian of
Austria relate to specimens kindly forwarded to me by Dr. M.
Reme’. They were obtained, together with numerous other fossils,
including Foraminifera, from the Red Limestone of Nesselsdorf.
The Ostracoda seem to be very rare in these beds, for the two
specimens now described were the only forms obtained by Dr. Remes,
whilst other microzoa were fairly numerous.

Byrnocyrris, G. 8. Brady [1880].
“Bythocypris (?) Jurassica, sp. nov. (Figs. la-c.)
Carapace somewhat compressed; from the side subreniform, the

greatest height a little in front of the middle, anterior extremity
broad and rounded, posterior rounded but narrower. Hdge view,

326 Reviews—Dr. H. O. Forbes—Stone Implements of Egypt.

anteriorly rather sharp, posteriorly slightly swollen. End view,
dorsal edge acute, ventral well-rounded. Surface of shell finely
punctate; this latter feature renders the generic determination as
Bythocypris a little doubtful. Length, ‘56 mm.; height, -26 mm. ;
thickness of carapace, 18 mm.

From the Red Limestone of Nesselsdorf, Austria (Tithonian).

This species approaches B. reniformis, Brady,’ in general form,
but in the side view of the latter, the posterior extremity is more
broadly rounded.

Fie. 1.—Bythocypris Jwrassica, sp.nov. Fic. 2.—Bairdia Nusseldorfensis, sp. nove
x 30. x 30.

Barrpia, McCoy [1844].
Bairdia Nesselsdorfensis, sp. nov. (Figs. 2a-c.)

Lateral view of carapace subtriangular, dorsal margin boldly
arched, ventral nearly straight, but slightly incurved near the lowest
third. The postero-dorsal margin incurved, postero-ventral angle
rounded. The antero-dorsal margin with numerous smali and
pointed tubercles. Edge view elliptical, with rounded ends; edges
of right valve embraced by the left. End view subcircular.

Length, ‘6 mm.; height, -25mm.; thickness of carapace, ‘26 mm.

From the Red Limestone of Nesselsdorf, Austria (Tithonian).

dS) Ja Wh ae JS WA Se

J.—On a Coxunection oF StTonE IMPLEMENTS IN THE Mayer
Museum, mape BY Mr. H. W. Serron-Karr in tHe Mines
OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS, DISCOVERED BY HIM ON THE
PuaTEaAux or THE Nite VattEy. By Henry O. Forsss,
LL.D., Director of Museums to the Corporation of Liverpool.
Reprinted from Bulletin Liverpool Museum, II, Nos. 3 and 4
(20th January, 1900). With Illustrations.

E. have here the results of Mr. H. W. Seton-Karr’s examination

and survey of the district where he collected stone implements

in two of his Egyptian journeys (1896 and 1897), together with his
account of the conditions under which they occur on the surface of
a part of the Hastern Egyptian Desert, traversed by the Wady el
Sheikh, about 50 miles long, from S.H. to N.W., and entering the

1 Rep. Chall., 1880, Zool., pt. iii, p. 46, pl. v, figs. 1a—l.

Reviews—Dr. H. O. Forbes—Stone Implements of Egypt. 327

right bank of the Nile opposite El Fent, which is on the Cairo-
Assiout railroad, half-way between the stations of Feshn and
Maghagha. Rising up from the Wady el Sheikh are the escarpments
of three successive plateaux (the lowest about 400 feet high, the
highest about 700 feet). They consist of Cretaceous (latest) lime-
stone below and Hocene (Nummulitic) limestone above, all bearing
flint nodules.

The worked flints occur in either isolated or continuous heaps of
débris thrown out from the many quarries or mines, either on the
edges or the surface of the plateaux, mostly on the right side of the
Wady. Flint-workings had been cursorily noticed in this region by
Greg and Johnson. Mr. Seton-Karr, however, designedly visited
them, and made a careful survey. The mines or pits are about
two feet in diameter, and not deep, nor showing lateral galleries.
They are more or less choked with blown sand. ‘The excavated
material has been piled up around the mouth of the pit and the
implement-maker’s workshop. Similar pits were examined by
Mr. H. Seton-Karr in 1896 in the Wady Sojoor, about ten miles
to the south. A serviceable map and six excellent photographic
views of the plateaux and their special features (pp. 81, 101-104)
enable the reader to master the topographical details.

Dr. H. O. Forbes gives careful descriptions of a selection of
47 from the 2,000 specimens (pp. 78-80 and 97-105), together
with good clear figures, after photographs (pp. 82-96). The heaps
of refuse at the different sinkings for the most part contained
different kinds of implements. The author’s conclusions as to the
relative age and origin of the mines and specimens are careful,
liberal, and sound.

Judging from the plates and the descriptive notes, we can
enumerate the several kinds of flint-work treated of. The author’s
grouping is preserved :—

a. Thin-edged discs; in many cases neatly dressed on the surface
and perforated in the middle, the central opening being widened
until a narrow delicate ring has been worked out, for bangles, etc.
(Pages 78-80.)

b. Axes, chisels, hoes, etc.; of triangular shape (6 in. to 9 in.
long), broad at one end and tapering at the other (butt end). Broad
end sometimes subacute or somewhat narrowed by rounding ; thus
figs. 14 and 16 are variants; the former has the broad end subacute,
the latter is narrower throughout. (Pages 80 and 97.)

c. Leaf-shaped ; figs. 18 and 19 more symmetrically chipped ;
almost equally convex on the two faces; more rounded at one end
than at the other. (Page 97.)

d. Knife-like; figs. 20 to 85 (pages 97, 98). Many carefully
dressed flakes (about 6 in. to 9in. long) good for cutting, flaying,
scraping, etc., with sharp edges, and having one edge more convex
than the other, but in some cases almost symmetrical and even quite
equal (fig. 24). Some, neat in shape, are like the Danish knives
and daggers ; others have a sharp-edged portion irregular in shape
(figs. 30-33), and the other part reduced by chipping to a narrow

328 Reviews—Dr. H. O. Forbes—Stone Implements of Egypt.

handle or tang. Fig. 34 is a roughly chipped three-sided piece of
flint, ‘partly blocked out” for a knife possibly. Fig. 35 is a flat,
curved, sharp-edged blade, probably broken in the making.

e. Agricultural implements, etc. Fig. 36 is a nearly symmetrical
truncheon or beater, of a thick spatula-shape, with a knob at the
narrow end; it is very common. Fig. 37 has a coarse, thick blade,
triangular in section and sharpened along one edge, and the butt
end is deeply chipped fora tang. This large chopper-like implement
(84 in. by 2} in.) is of common occurrence, and must have been an
efficient tool in the hands of the old labourers. Fig. 58 (from
Wady Sojoor), p. 99, another large anomalous tool (812 in. by 75%sin.)
flat and quadrangular or diamond-shaped, with the angles distinct,
one of them very prominent, is carefully chipped along its edges.

f. Figs. 89 and 40 are two small subglobose hammer-stones
(3 in. by 24in.), bearing marks of wear.

g. Scrapers (p. 99). Fig. 45, large, comma-shaped; broad and
rounded at one end, tapering and curved at the other, where one
edge has been hollowed as a concave and hooked scraper. Fig. 46
(from the Plateau of Thebes) is a rough and irregular flake, broad
at one end, narrow at the other; dressed along the edges, one of
which bears a small semicircular hollow. Fig. 47 is a roughly
dressed, somewhat semicircular flake, with a definite concave hollow
at the middle of the edge, suitable for scraping and shaping round
staves and sticks.

h. Cores, and the narrow flakes struck off from them, are common ;
one long hoof-shaped core is shown by fig. 42.

i. Nondescripts. Fig. 41 is a long, narrow, and very coarsely
dressed, three-sided flake (17in. by 34in.), sharp at the ends.
Fig. 43 is a rough flake, possibly an early state of some such an
implement as that of figs. 26 or 27.

Dr. Forbes now takes into consideration ‘“ What is the age of
these implements from Wady el Sheikh and Wady Sojoor, and how
long probably were the mines worked?” “No find of implements
so extensive as the one which is the subject of this paper has ever
been made in Egypt; nor had any previously been found in relation
to the mines which supplied the material, or to the workshops in
which they were fabricated.” Therefore archeologists may expect
much from the careful study of this undisturbed locality.

Introducing these very ancient Egyptian relics to the people of
to-day, who may be looking at them in the Liverpool or other
Museums, the author explains first of all, briefly, that implements
of stone have been in use down to the present from very early,
even geological, times; more especially (1) as rough and merely
chipped and flaked pieces of siliceous rock (flint, quartzite, and
other varieties), so abundant in certain old gravel beds that they
characterize a long-past period of time called the Paleolithic Age.
(2) Instead of stones merely chipped into useful shapes, in many
places gravels and loams deposited in much later times contain well-
dressed and polished implements of stone ; and these, being character-
istic of newer periods, are termed ‘Neolithic.’ (3) As stone tools,

Reviews—Dr. H. O. Forbes—Stone Implements of Egypt. 329

in process of making, pass through rough-chipped to more finished,
smoother, and polished shapes, it happens that sometimes all sorts
occur together; and, indeed, prejudice and fashion, as well as con-
venience, kept old forms in use until, as at the present day, the
more finished and best adapted stone implements only are used,
after having been made from such natural material as is most fit
and ready to hand.

The relative age or chronology of old worked stones can be
decided only when the natural deposit, or artificial heap of débris,
in which they are found can be definitely referred to some unit in
a geological or historical standard. The shape by itself is a guide
of limited value, except for neoliths ; the colour and the patination are
other guides that cannot be taken alone. ‘The varieties of patination
and tint, due to exposure on the desert, are carefully dealt with at
pages 106, 107, 110, and 111, and are not found serviceable in
fixing the age of this crowd of Egyptian specimens.

Forms similar to many of them have been found (as the author
insists) in the ruins of Kahum (explored by Professor Petrie),
which was built in the T'welfth Dynasty, at least 2660 B.c.
{pages 108-110); and, just as neoliths are found there with
paleolithic forms, so in the Wady el Sheikh and Wady Sojoor the
fine workmanship of bangle-rings (pl. i) and very neat dagger-knives
(figs. 24, 26, and 28) is associated with the many rude and very rude
examples among the other figures. The latter may be more or
less exactly matched with specimens of neolithic and early historic
periods from localities at home and abroad. ‘The few that approxi-
mate to the so-called ‘ spear-head’ and ‘leaf-shape’ forms (figs. 11,
18, 14, 16, 18, and 19) found in real Paleolithic gravels are not
proofs that Palolithic Man worked these stone-pits; they are
variants in the old Egyptian workshops, and may be matched with
neolithic and historic finds in museums and archeological books.

It may be noticed that the Egyptian paintings of the flint-knife
manufacture, in the tombs of Beni Hasan (reproduced at pages 108,
109), present outlines comparable with some of Dr. Forbes’s figures,
and are said to be of the same age as the Kahum ruins.

Other occurrences of stone tools, flakes, and flint nodules, have
been noted by Petrie, Quibell, and Seton-Karr, on the Egyptian
plateaux bordering the Nile. ‘They lie in groups scattered around
working places; and the author doubts if the great pluvial denu-
dation since the time of the Huropean Paleolithic age would not
have carried away the loose débris, whilst cutting the Wadys down
from the plateaux into the great Nile Valley.

Dr. Forbes has done good service in giving us this example of the
value of the indestructible direct evidence of the past, better than
the best papyrus and parchment of versatile history. He shows
that these veritable evidences of Early Man in Egypt, though not
much less than 5,000 years old, are not, like those from the old

gravel found by the late Pitt-Rivers, of real Paleolithic age.
Ut deel

330 © Reviews—Dr. C. W. Andrews on Christmas Island.

II.—A MonocrapnH or Curisrmas Istanp (InpraAn Ocran):
PuysicaL Fratures anp Gerotocy. By C. W. Anprews.
With descriptions of the Fauna and Flora by numerous con-
tributors. 8vo; pp. xiii, 337, 22 plates, 1 map, text illustrated.
(London: printed by order of the Trustees of the British
Museum, 1900.)

HE present work is the first monograph issued by the Trustees
of the Natural History Branch of the British Museum dealing
with the fauna and flora, the geology and paleontology, of a
single geographical unit of the globe, and owes its inception to the
advocacy of the Assistant-Secretary, Mr. Charles E. Fagan, F.R.G.S.,
who has, we learn, greatly interested himself in its publication.

The little island that forms the subject of this monograph lies
to the south of Java, 190 miles from its shores, and must not be
confused with its namesake in the Pacific Ocean.

This almost undisturbed little spot of land, 12 miles by 9, is
now being opened up for commercial purposes, and it seemed
desirable that before its primitive fauna and flora were ousted by
man, a careful record of them should be made, whilst at the same
time it appeared likely that its geological investigation would throw
light on the origin of coral islands, of which it was manifestly
one. Accordingly, Sir John Murray having agreed to provide the
requisite funds, the Trustees of the British Museum granted the
necessary leave of absence to Dr. C. W. Andrews, whose selection
for the purpose of carrying out the investigation is seen by the
present volume to have been most amply justified.'

With the zoological and botanical results of the expedition,
interesting and important though they be, we have nothing to do
in these pages. The facts ascertained concerning the geological
structure of the island show that it presents some important
peculiarities, differentiating it from other oceanic islands, and
difficult to explain. It is, in fact, the flat summit of a submarine
mountain, whose steep slopes sink rapidly to a depth of over
14,000 feet below the sea. The summit of this mountain peak is
formed of a succession of tertiary limestones ranging in age from
the Eocene (or Oligocene) up to recent reef-deposits, with inter-
calations in the older beds of volcanic rocks.

The tertiary beds, especially the Miocene orbitoidal limestones,
end abruptly on the coast in vertical cliffs, sometimes 250 feet high:
they must therefore at one time have covered a far wider area, and
have been reduced by peripheral faulting.

The principal volcanic rocks are the basalts and basic tuffs at the
base of the Miocene limestone, separating it from the Eocene (or
Oligocene) beds below, and the basalts and trachytes underlying the
latter. These older eruptive rocks form the basis of the island,
which basis Dr. Andrews considers “is almost certainly a voleanic

1 We published some Notes of an expedition to Christmas Island by C.W. Andrews
(reprinted from the author’s paper read before the Royal Geographical Society,

November 28, 1898) in the Grotoaicat Maeazinz, Dec. IV, Vol. VI (1899),
pp. 19-27.

Reviews—Great Indian Earthquake. ool

peak.” We venture to think, however, that this assertion, qualified
though it be, is still rather stronger than the evidence.

Owing to the dolomitization and phosphatization of the limestones
the paleontological collections were not rich. The few Molluscan
remains obtained are described by Mr. R. B. Newton. The corals,
which were more abundant, but still not in so satisfactory a condition
as could be desired, were carefully worked out by Dr. Gregory, and
include representatives of nineteen determinable species, of which
eight are new. ‘Their general character is typically Indo-Pacific.

The Foraminifera, of which the limestones, especially the Miocene
(orbitoidal), are largely composed, had mainly to be studied from
sections, and are reported on by those past masters of the subject,
Professor T. Rupert Jones and Mr. F. Chapman, who have made
their work as comprehensive as possible in the time, and hope at
some future date to furnish further details. Unfortunately, beyond
a ‘list of species of Orbitoides” there is no summary of the results
set forth in the thirty-nine pages to which their report extends.

A “note on the composition of some dolomitic and other lime-
stones” from the island, by Mr. H. W. Skeats, completes the
geological matter in the monograph.

As regards the get-up of the work, we are glad to note that the
“print is better than in many Government publications with which
we are acquainted, whilst the plates, although somewhat closely
cut, are of the quality which we have become accustomed to expect
in the publications of the British Museum. Concerning the views
reproduced in the text, however, we prefer to be silent: our remarks
might be considered libellous. 5B: Bo W.

III. — Report on tHE GReAtT Harruquake oF June 121u, 1897.
By R. D. Oxpuam, A.R.S.M., F.G.S., Superintendent, Geological
Survey of India. Mem. Geol. Survey of India, vol. xxix.
(Calcutta, 1899.)

HYSICAL geologists will with one accord be grateful to
Mr. Oldham for his admirable report on the Indian earthquake
of 1897. Chief among modern shocks, if not among all recorded
shocks, the wonderful phenomena which it presented, and the wide
area over which they were observed, combined to render the earth-
quake in every way remarkable and deserving of the most careful
study. Fortunately, it was possible to give to it the attention which
its exceptional character demanded. Four officers of the Indian
Geological Survey were despatched to different parts of the area
chiefly affected, and, about six months later, Mr. Oldham made as
thorough an examination of the epicentral tract as his limited time
and the impracticable nature of the country would allow. The
results of all this labour are as important as they are novel and
interesting ; and those who have been engaged in similar work will
be the first to recognize that we are here presented with a record
report as well as a record earthquake.
The study of such an earthquake must have been an almost
unalloyed pleasure to its investigator. There was no need to spend

332 Reviews—Great Indian Earthquake.

three or four months in flooding the disturbed area with circulars,
though work of this kind had of course to be done. ‘The materials
to be collected were not the fleeting impressions of a transitory
phenomenon ; they were for the most part permanent effects that
could be examined without haste, suffering little from the lapse of
time and nothing at all from defects of the human mind. They had
to be observed, disentangled, and classified,—no light work, rather
one requiring, and, what is more, obtaining, the best energies of
a capable field-geologist.

It would not be easy within moderate limits to refer to all the
points of interest that are to be found in this report. Though filling
a complete volume of the Memoirs, and extending to more than
400 pages, it should be read from cover to cover, not by seismologists
alone, but by every geologist who wishes to study the mechanics of
mouutain-building or to realize the scale on which the operations of
nature are sometimes carried out. In doing this, he will no doubt
be struck by some passages more than by others. Among them he
will probably include the descriptions of the fissures that were formed
in alluvial ground far away from river-banks, ete. (pp. 88-94), of
sand-vents and the forcing up of river-beds and the bottoms of wells
(pp. 99-107), and of the numerous landslips (pp. 111-128); the
chapter on the earthquake-sound and on Barisal guns (pp. 191-207) ;
the investigation of the velocity of the earth-wave within the
disturbed area (pp. 53-77), and the tracking of the unfelt vibrations
through the body of the earth and of the surface-undulations almost
completely round the globe (pp. 227-256). ‘To the physicist the
last-named chapter will prove the most interesting; but the geo-
logist will probably regard with the highest favour that which deals
with the permanent changes in the epicentral tract. Here we have
described the Chedrang fault-scarp (pp. 188-147), which crosses
many times the river of that name, forming a series of waterfalls
and lakelets along its course; the Bordwar fracture (pp. 148-151) ;
numerous pools, due to a reversal of drainage, but without any
visible connection with faulting (pp. 152-157); changes of level
evidenced by the visibility of rivers and roads formerly hidden by
intervening hills (pp. 157-163) ; and, in an appendix which properly
belongs to this chapter, an account of the re-survey of certain
trigonometrical stations within the epicentral area (pp. 361-371),
the chief result of which is to show the urgent need of its repetition
on a much larger scale.

Exceptional as the Indian earthquake was, one cannot read without
astonishment of the vast district over which these permanent changes
took place. Mr. Oldham estimates that it was about 200 miles in
length, not less than 50 miles in breadth, and more than 6,000
square miles in area. ‘The fault-scarps and fractures discovered
within it are merely evidences of displacements continued up to the
surface. They manifest the extreme complexity of the earthquake’s
origin, which Mr. Oldham traces to a slide along a huge, but hidden,
thrust-plane, inevitably accompanied by nearly simultaneous and
more or less visible movements along the minor faults connected
with it.

Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London. 833

The volume is illustrated by 44 plates and 3 maps, in addition
to a large number of woodcuts. There are pictures of damaged
and utterly ruined houses, monuments overthrown and twisted on
their bases, railway lines crumpled as if they were made of wire,
and fissures, sand-vents, and fault-scarps, as well as the diagrams of
distant magnetographs and horizontal pendulums. Many of these
are worthy of a wider circulation, and will doubtless live again in
books made better by their presence. C. Davison.

Pa Ores AND 2 ROC hh DrInNG:S-

GeroLogicaL Socrrty or Lonpon.

I.—May 28, 1900.—J. J. H. Teall, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., President,
in the Chair. The following communications were read :—

1. “ The Igneous Rocks of the Coast of County Waterford.” By
F. R. Cowper Reed, Esq., M.A., F.G.S.

The first part of this paper is devoted to a discussion of the field-
evidence, as shown by the coast-sections from Newtown Head to
Stradbally. The igneous rocks there exposed are divided into the
following six categories :—(a) The felsitic rocks; (b) necks of non-
volcanic materials; (c) the basic sills and vents; (d) intrusions of
dolerite; (e) intrusions of trachyte, andesite, etc.; (f) intrusions of
other types. In regard to the age of the rocks, there appear to
have been two main periods of volcanic activity: the first, in
Ordovician times, was marked solely by outpourings of a felsitic
nature ; the second, post- Ordovician but pre-Upper Old Red
Sandstone, was characterized by a succession of several distinct
types of igneous rocks. The lavas and tuffs, interbedded with
fossiliferous rocks, have been already described. 'These are overlain
by other felsites and ashes, developed near Great Newtown Head,
which show the same dip and strike and partake in the same move-
ments. Next occurred an outburst of green and pink felsites, tuffs,
and coarse agglomerates, developed from Great Newtown Head to
Garrarus; and possibly the xenolithic felsites and greenish tuffs
belong to the same series. It is doubtful whether these were
poured out before the first folding of the Ordovician beds, but their
strike, when traced inland, agrees with that of the series last
mentioned. The intrusion of some irregular masses of felsite-
porphyry took place subsequently to the folding; it was followed
by small veins of trachyte and andesite; these by basic sills,
diabases, etc., and by a few dolerite-dykes and veins. Subsequently
the igneous intrusions assumed an acid character, and the felsitic
masses of Newtown Head, Knockmahon, ete., were extruded ;
probably at this time, too, were formed the isolated necks filled with
brecciated fragments of the earlier rocks. The felspar-porphyry
dykes and isolated felsitic sheets and veins which pierce the folded
rocks, particularly west of Kilfarrasy, probably belong to this late
period.

334 Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London.

The relative age of some of the peculiar types of intrusive
rocks is indicated in the paper in those cases in which it can be
determined. That those rocks which are later in date than the
folding of the Ordovician are older than the Upper Old Red Sand-
stone is shown (1) by the unconformity of the Upper Old Red
Sandstone; (2) by the fact that the latter rock does not contain any
interbedded igneous rocks; and (5) by the absence of felsitic or
other intrusive rocks from the Old Red Sandstone of the district.

The second part of the paper is devoted to petrological notes on
the different rock-types. The felsites are classified by means of
their groundmass into microcrystalline, cryptocrystalline, and micro-
poikilitic and other types; potash-felsites, potash-soda-felsites, and
keratophyres, all appear to be present; some of these rocks are
linked to the trachytes and bostonites. The diabases and dolerites
are sometimes ophitic, but more usually allotriomorphic in texture.
The trachytes and andesites are of various types, and some are
probably keratophyres. Quariz- and felspar-porphyries, augite -
porphyrites, and several miscellaneous types are also described.

2. “On a new Type of Rock from Kentallen and elsewhere, and
its Relations to other Igneous Rocks in Argyllshire.” By J. B. Hill,
Hsq., R.N., and H. Kynaston, Hsq., B.A., F.G.S. (Communicated
by permission of the Director-General of H.M. Geological Survey.)

A rock originally described by Mr. Teall from Kentallen is used
by the authors as a type round which they group a peculiar series
of basic rocks discovered in several localities. The rocks consist
essentially of olivine and augite, with smaller amounts of orthoclase,
plagioclase, and biotite, while apatite and magnetite are accessory.
The peculiar feature of the rocks is the association of alkali-felspar
with olivine and augite, and the group is related to the shonkinite
of Montana and the olivine-monzonite of Scandinavia. The occur-
rence of the rocks is connected with four neighbouring but distinct
areas of intrusion, each characterized by granites and diorites, and
by dykes and sills of lamprophyres, porphyrites, etc. In these areas
the new rock is the most basic type, and it occurs in the marginal
portions of the areas. Close relationships exist between the different
intrusive rocks in each area, so that it may be concluded that these
constitute a ‘ rock-series’ ranging from granite through augite-
diorite towards the olivine-bearing rocks, in the plutonic phase, and
from orthoclase-porphyry and porphyrite to augite-lamprophyre, in
the dyke-and-sill phase. The whole assemblage appears to have
been derived by a process of differentiation from one parent magma ;
and the order of intrusion has been, in the main, one of increasing
acidity. There is further a ‘facies-suit’ in each intrusion, showing
progressive increase in basicity from centre to magma, due to con-
centration of the more basic oxides in the cooler portions of the
magma, which was originally of intermediate composition ; from
this ‘complementary rocks’ were produced. It is extremely probable
that the underlying magmas of the four intrusive areas resembled
one another more or less closely in composition.

Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London. 385

IJ.—June 6, 1900.—J. J. H. Teall, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., President,
in the Chair. The following communications were read :—

1. ‘‘Mechanically-formed Limestones from Junagadh and other
Localities.” By Dr. J. W. Evans, LL.B., F.G.S.

After reviewing the conditions under which granular limestones
may be accumulated by current- or wind-action, the author proceeds
to describe the limestone of Junagadh, a deposit some 200 feet
thick, resembling in hand-specimens the Oolites of this country,
though less firmly cemented together. It is mainly formed of grains
consisting of a nucleus of a fragment of a marine organism or
foraminiferal test, surrounded by a layer of deposited carbonate of
lime. Particles derived from the igneous rocks of the neighbour-
hood and rounded quartz-grains also occur, but amount to only
a small percentage of the rock. The whole is bound together by
colourless calcite-cement. The deposit is situate at a distance of
30 miles from the sea, and contains no large fossils of any kind.

Calcareous rocks of similar character are described from other
parts of Kathiawad, Kach, the south-eastern coast of Arabia, and the
Persian Gulf; some of these contain unbroken marine shells and
other fossils. These beds are included by Dr. H. J. Carter under
the name of miliolite, on account of the frequent presence in them of
the genus Miliola.

The author discusses the origin of these deposits, and comes to
the conclusion that the grains were formed in sea-water saturated
with carbonate of lime: some being deposited by currents in shallow
water, and others thrown up as a calcareous beach, from which
a portion were sifted out by the wind and blown inland to form
eolian deposits, as contended by Professor Blake in the case of
certain superficial limestones in Kach. The Junagadh limestone
falls into the last group, but must have been formed when the land
was at a low level and the sea-shore was at no great distance.

A rapid survey is then taken of similar rocks in other parts of
the world, which may be grouped into the same three classes. The
remarkable wind-blown foraminiferal deposit of Dog’s Bay (Galway)
is referred to in some detail; and the author concludes by suggesting
that in the Oolites of the Jurassic period we have representatives of
all three groups.

2. “ Note on the consolidated Molian Sands of Kathiawad.” By
Frederick Chapman, Esq., A.L.S., F.R.M.S. (Communicated by
Dr. J. W. Evans, LL.B., F.G.S.)

The name miliolite-formation was originally given by Dr. H. J.
Carter to certain granular calcareous deposits occurring on the coast-
line between the peninsula of India and the mouth of the Indus.
The foraminifera and other organic remains in the rocks must have
inhabited moderately shallow to littoral marine areas. The minute
granules are worn and polished; the prevailing genera of foraminifera
are roundish, and would be easily moved by wind; remains of
larger organisms are absent; and the deposits are false-bedded.
All these phenomena are explicable if the deposits represent the
accumulation of material derived from littoral calcareous sand of

336 Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London.

marine origin, mixed with mineral detritus from adjacent hills.
he rocks can hardly be older than Pliocene; and there is nothing
in the general character of their organic remains which is incon-
sistent with a still more recent date. The tests of some of the
foraminifera have been filled with limonitic substances or with the
yellow, brown, or green varieties of glauconite. Six specimens are
described in detail, and lists of the contained foraminifera given.
In one instance the granules are all invested with a thin, dark
layer, which seems to be the first stage towards an oolitic structure.
A note is appended on the foraminiferal wind-borne sands of Dog’s
Bay (Galway), discovered by Welch.

3. “On Ceylon Rocks and Graphite.” By A. K. Coomara Swamy,
F.G.S.

Ceylon is surrounded by raised beaches, and has been elevated in
recent geological times; fluviatile deposits also occur: the gems for
which Ceylon is famous are obtained from gravels in the Ratnapura
district. With the exception of these recent deposits, the island
probably consists entirely of ancient crystalline rocks. Pyroxene-
granulites are recorded from several localities; they are dark in
colour and greasy in lustre. Foliation is not evident, but it may
appear in thin slices. The minerals most frequently present are
augite or hypersthene, or both, plagioclase (usually labradorite),
orthoclase-microperthite, garnet, quartz, amphibole, magnetite, apatite,
zircon, and biotite—the pyroxene and felspar alone being essential
constituents. Varieties approach gabbro and eclogite. The texture
is granulitic or granular. Centric structures are very characteristic,
probably resulting from the corrosion of garnets. Normal granulites
are white or grey, and usually contain red garnets. The minerals
are quartz, orthoclase- and microcline-microperthite, plagioclase, and
garnet ; biotite, magnetite, ilmenite, apatite, and zircon are often
present ; and the texture is granulitic. Microcline-gneiss, sometimes
with hornblende, occurs in conical hills, originating the term domoid
gneiss employed by Professor Walther. The minerals include
orthoclase- and microcline-microperthite, quartz, plagioclase, biotite,
pyroxene, amphibole, pyrite, magnetite, apatite, and zircon.
Anorthosite-gneiss, gneissic granite, and pegmatite are also described.
Dark diorites (containing amphibole, plagioclase, quartz, pyroxene,
biotite, magnetite, apatite, and zircon), dolerite, hornblende-gabbro,
and ophitic quartz-norite are also present. The white, crystalline
limestones usually contain pale mica and blue apatite; sometimes
also colourless pyroxene. Banded scapolite- and wollastonite-bearing
rocks are found at Galle. Certain rocks, apparently vein-products,
are also described, which contain quartz and calcite micrographically
intergrown. .

Graphite occurs chiefly in branching veins in igneous rocks, which
at Ragedara are granulites and pyroxene-granulites. The relations
to the matrix are described, and are held to favour the idea of the
deposition of the mineral as a sublimation - product (Walther), or
from the decomposition of liquid hydrocarbons (Diersche). Analyses
of several of the minerals, including manganhedenbergite, are given ;
and a bibliography of the geology of the island is appended.

THE

GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE.

NEW SERIESs* “BECADE’ IV." ‘VOB. (MII:

No. VIII.—AUGUST, 1900.

OREGEIN AT: Am TiCmesS.

I.—On THE Fauna or tHE Urprger Casstan Zone IN FALzAREGo
VaLuey, SoutH TyrRou.

By M. M. Oaitvre Gorpon, D.Sc.

AVING the opportunity of revisiting Munich, I have drawn
up a list of the fossils which formed the basis of the ‘“‘ Upper
‘Cassian Zone,” erected by me in 1893. These fossils,’ when
I discovered them in Falzarego Valley in 1891, were then for the
most part unknown. The tuffs and breccias in which they occur
had been referred by Loretz to the fossiliferous Raibl horizon of
the Schlern Plateau, and by Mojsisovics to the much lower horizon
of Wengen strata. I found, by careful collection from strata in
position, that the fauna, in addition to a fair proportion of St. Cassian
types and a few Raibl types, comprised a number of types common
both to Cassian and Raibl horizons and a still greater number of
species which had not been found elsewhere (Q.J.G.S., 1898, pp. 31,
44, 46, 47).
_ Judging both from the transitional Cassian-Raibl character of the
fauna and from the stratigraphical position of the fossiliferous series
‘In the field, above a zone containing typical St. Cassian fauna,
‘I concluded that this Falzarego Valley fauna represented a palzeonto-
logical zone younger than the typical St. Cassian fauna as known at
‘Stuores and Prelongei, and older than the lower Raibl fauna as
known at Schlern Plateau and described by von Wo6hrmann and
,Koken.? I therefore placed it as an independent paleontological
zone, naming it Upper Cassian.’ This determination of an Upper
Cassian zone in South Tyrol practically demonstrated the same
gradual faunistic transition from Cassian to Raibl zones in South
Tyrol which had been demonstrated by von Wohrmann* in the
‘Cardita and Raibl strata of North Tyrol.

1 My zonal collections from the Enneberg and Ampezzo Upper Trias are in the
Paleontological Museum in Munich. .

* von Wéhrmann und Koken: ‘‘ Die Faunen der Raibler Schichten von Schlern-
plateau’’: Zeitschr. d. D. geol. Ges., 1892.

3 Ogilvie: ‘*On the Wengen and Cassian Strata in Southern Tyrol,’’ Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc., 1893; ‘Coral in the Dolomites,’? Grou. Maa., 1894.

# von Woéhrmann: ‘* Die Fauna der sogenannten Cardita u. Raibler Schichten
in den Nordtiroler u. bayerischen Alpen’’: Jahrb. der k.k. geol. Reichs., 1889.

DECADE IV.—vVOL. VII.—NO. VIII. 22

3388 WU. Ogilvie Gordon—Fauna of Upper Cassian, South Tyrol.

After the publication of my paper in 1893, at Dr. Bittner’s
request I sent to him in Vienna my private collection of the
Falzarego Valley fauna. I hoped that in Vienna, among the South
Tyrol collections of the Austrian Geological Survey, a nearer
identification of the material might be attained. Thus the fauna
has had the advantage of Dr. Bittner’s close examination and
judgment, and I am now in a position to publish a list of the
types named in accordance with the most recent advances in the
literature of Alpine Trias.1 The Lamellibranchs have for the
most part been described and illustrated in Dr. Bittner’s “ Mono-
graph.” The Roman numerals and figures entered in the list
refer to that work, and the bivalves are enumerated in the order
adopted there.

LIST OF FOSSILS.

Abbreviations. —C* = occurrence in Stuores-Cassian zone; R* = occurrence in Raibl
zones. S.Pl. after R = occurrence also in the Raibl beds of Schlern Plateau.

C R
LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. —_—-
Cuspidaria siliqua, Bittn. (i, 19, 20) -... 806 Bap sae *
Gonodon (Corbis) plana, Must., sp... ee 308 €
Laubeia (Megalodus) strigilata, Klipst., sp. (ii, 18-18) * ie
Astartopis Richthofeni, Stur... te ane ass ae *S.Pl.
Myophoriopis lineata, Must., sp. (xiii, 1-6) « x (P)
Myophoria decussata, Must., sp. (xii, 1-8) .. Bs bes ® «S.Pl
5, fissidentata, von Wohrm. Sas AGE Ane 400 6 «S.PL
Myophoria (?) solitaria, Bittn. (xxiv, 27) cee
Trigonodus Rablensis, Gredl., sp. Pes oe BE — ie «x 8.PI.
Cucullea (Macrodon) impressa, Must., sp. (xv, 1, 2) ... Sho ® « 8.PI.

Pinna, sp. mn. (v, 15, 16) she B06 S60 A960 309 ane sac
Avicula Sturi (= pars A. Gea, D’Orb.), Bittn. (viii, 3, 4) ... ® « 8.PIl.

», Cassiana (= pars A. Gea, D’Orb.), Bittn. (viii, 6) ... €

», Cortinensis (aff. A. Gea, D’Orb.), Bittn. (viii, 5) ... ood c

», Lofane, Bittn. (viii, 9-11)... aes Be 560 a
Cassianella euglypha, Lbe. (vii, 1) 900 00 « *

», decussata, Mnst., sp. (vii, 6-15, 20) ... & «5.Pl.

» angusta, Bittn. (v, 28-26) .... 300 *

», <Ampezzana, Bittn. (vi, 10, 11) ope igs aes sd 300
Hoernesia Johannis Austrie, Wipst. (x, 10-15) 5 S00 se « S.PI.
Gervillia angusta, Gdf. (ix, 18) 500 000 o0c a6 a *«

5, angulata, Mnst. (ix, 11-17) ... So we Ba * * (?)

» Ogilvie, Bittn. ss aes ae Gh ae
Pecten tubulifer, Must. (xix, 18-15)... 306 &

», Cf. auristriatus, Must. (xix, 23-26) ...

: 8

5, aff. Saccoz, Par. (xix, 22) ae 500 an ae
», aff. sebdemissus, Bittn. (xix, 29) ce as we «
», Landranus, Bittn. (xix, 21)

" Bittner: ‘‘ Die Brachiopoden der Alpinen Trias,’’ Abhandl. der k.k. geol. Reich-
sanstalt, Wien, 1890; ‘‘ Die Lamellibranchiaten der Alpinen Trias,”’ Theil i, ‘‘ Revision
der Lamellibranchiaten von St. Cassian,’’ Wien, 1895. Kittl: ‘‘ Die Gastropoden
der Schichten von St. Cassian der Siid-Alpinen Trias,’’ Annalen des k.k. naturhist.
Hofmuseums, Wien, 1891; ‘‘ Die triadischen Gastropoden der Marmolata u. verwandt.
Fundstetten in den weissen Riffkalken Siidtirols,’? Jahrb. k.k. geol. Reichs., 1894 ;
“« Die Gastropoden der Esinokalke nebst einer Revision der Gastropoden der Mar-
molatakalk,’? Annalen des k.k. naturhist. Hofmuseums, Wien, 1899. Salomon u.
Bohm: “ Fauna der Marmolatakalk,” Paleontographica, 1895.

NM. Ogilvie Gordon—Fauna of Upper Cassian, South Tyrol. 339

Lima angulata, Must. (var. opulenta, Bittn.) ...
», (Plagiostoma) subpunctata, D’ Orb. (xxi, 19, 20)
», (Aysidioptera ?) spinigera, Bittn. (xx, 32) 6
Mysidioptera att. vixcostata, Stopp. (xx, 20) 500

», cf. tenella, Bittn. (xxi, 1)
Plicatula solea, he 1:

55 Ogilvie, Bittn. (xxiii, 20, 21).
Placunopsis, sp. indet. (xxiii, 16)

Solen, Mytilus, Anaplophora, and My yacites (in poor specimens).

GASTEROPODA.
Dentalium simile, Must. .

Acmea (Patella) campaneformis, Klipst., sp. oe

Patella capulina, Braun (? g) eee Le,
Neritopsis decussata, Must., sp. .

x» armata, Mnst., sp.
Neritina imitans, Kittl ...
EBucycloscala (Scalar ia) ornata, Mnst. 18D.
Collonia cincta, Mnst., sp. Be 3
Delphinulopsis, sp indet. e
Naticopsis neritacea, Must., sp. ...

3, expansa, Lbe., sp. 500

», aff. Cassiana, Wissm., sp. ...
Ptychostoma pleusotomoides, Wissm., Pe
Ptychostoma, u.sp., aff. COE Kittl ..
Hologyra Ogilvie, Bohm = Gor
Loxonema, sp. ; :
Goniogyra, n.sp.
Natica plicatilis, Klipst.
Spirostylus subcolumnaris, Mnst., , sp.

>, columnaris, I Mnst. mSDae

Euthystylus hastile, J. Bohm (Orthostylus ef. f. Fuels, Kitt)

Hypsipleura subnodosa, Klipst., sp.
Celostylina crassa, Mast. 5 SPetees
sp., ef. infrastriata, Kittl

Promathildia (LTurritella) subornata, Must.,
?

s

p-
Pseudomelania (Turritetla) cf. similis, Mast., sp.

CEPHALOPODA.
Aulacoceras inducens, Mojs. :
Orthoceras elegans, Must. ane ove
Nautilus, sp. indet.
Lobites (Clydonites) nautilinus, Mnst., p.
Trachyceras Aon, Mnst., sp. ...
Pinacoceras Philopater PG eh" "oe

BRACHIOPODA.
Cyrtina Buchii, Klipst., sp.
Amphiclina scitula, Bittn.

Thecospira tenuistriata, Bittn. (aff. tt. Gimbal

Rhynchonella cf. tricostata, Must., sp. .
Terebratula, n.sp., aff. Cassiana, Bittn.
Waldheimia, n.sp. se

EcuINoDERMATA.
Cidaris parastadifera, Schafh.
5, dorsata, Braun ...

», Glata, Ag.

> 8 *

Dol R OL KR KARR KH

RRS:

2

wi:

*

FM Ee aed toa

840 MM. Ogilvie Gordon—Fauna of Upper Cassian, South Tyrol.

Ca R
Cidaris Hausmanni, Wissm. ulpease
», decorata, Must. * aoe
», Braunii, Desor.... # *
>, . flexuosa, Must. * Bae
», . Liagora, Mnet. . ES : * :
Entrochus (Encrinus) Cassianus, Lbe., Sp. 4 * «S.Pl.-
es a gr anulosus, Mnst., Sparen: * *
5 es VArLans, Mnst., sp. * ee
5, (Pentacrinus) Tirolensis, Lbe., sp. * *
. ee propinguus, Mnst., sp. ... * *
C@LENTERATA.
Cladophyllia sublevis, Must., sp. *
Tsastrea Giimbeli, Lhe. ... *%
Thamnastrea Zitteti, von Wohrm. *
Toechastrea Oppeli, Volz. *

Stylina, n.sp., and several Thecosmilia, § sp. ind.

Reckoning the percentages from the Lamellibranchs as a sure
standard, the result yields 34 per cent. new species not yet known
in any of the Cassian or Raibl zones of Alpine Trias; 25 per cent.
species present in the Stuores-Cassian fauna but not in Raibl
horizons; 25 per cent. species common both to Stuores-Cassian
and to Raibl faunas; and 16 per cent. species present in Raibl
horizons but not in the Stuores-Cassian fauna. The thick-shelled
larger habitus of the bivalves at once marks a difference from the
Stuores-Cassian fauna, and presents a striking resemblance to the
character of recognized Raibl faunas in this district, e.g. the Tra-
vernanzes Raibl fauna at the higher horizons in Falzarego Valley
and the Schlern Plateau Raibl fauna farther west. This faunistic
transition in the bivalves is undoubtedly attributable to renewed
local accumulations of tuff and volcanic dust, to strong current
-action, and the frequent reconstitution of littoral molluscan colonies
at one place or another as the eruptive invasions permitted. The
same transition seems to have taken place simultaneously in the
neighbouring localities of Rimbianco, Misurina, and Seeland Alpe
(Q.J.G.S., 1893, pp. 24, 33, 36).

While the list shows clearly the close affinities of this fossiliferous
zone with the older Stuores-Cassian fauna, a few observations may
be made regarding the affinities with the younger Raibl fauna.

The most commonly occurring genera among the bivalves are
Avicula and Cassianella. According to Dr. Bittner’s terminology,
two species, A. Sturt and A. Cassiana, represent the older name of
A. Gea, while A. Cortinensis has close affinity with these species.
On the actual ground it was A. Stwt which distinguished itself by
the number of. its representatives. On the other hand, Avicula
Tofane is a more distinctive local type. A. Sturi occurs in North
Tyrol at a high horizon of the Cardita strata, and continues in the
upper (Torer) “Raibl fossiliferous series. Hoernesia Johannis Austrice
and Gervillia angusta likewise continue, both in North and South

M. Ogilvie Gordon—Fauna of’ Upper. Cassian, South Tyrol. 341

‘Tyrol, in the Upper Raibl zone (von Wéhrmann, loc. cit., N. Tyrol,
1889, p. 250).

Cassianella decussata and Cucull@a impressa are present in the
Schlern Plateau strata, which von Wohrmann regards as con-
temporaneous with the ‘Upper Cardita’ or ‘Lower Raibl’ series
in North Tyrol.' Opinions differ regarding the absolute identity of
the two species Myophoria decussata and Myophoriopis lineata, in
the Falzarego fauna, with the types described by von Wéhrmann
at Schlern Plateau, but the affinity is certainly close. Myophoria (?)
solitaria has, according to Dr. Bittner, nearest resemblance toa Raibl
form, M., sp. Tommasi. The Gervillias and Pectens are genera which
are relatively exceedingly rare in the Stuores-Cassian zone, but here,
as in Raibl strata, they are of common occurrence and comprise
a few species identical with, or closely related to, Raibl species.

Thus, the close examination which the Cortina Lamellibranchs
have now undergone has served to prove that the evidence which
I gave in 1893 of an Upper Cassian or Cassian-Raibl transition
zone was well-founded. Previously to 1893 the only intermediate
Lamellibranch fauna known in South Tyrol between the Stuores-
Cassian zone and the typical Torer Raibl zone was the Schlern
Plateau fauna, but a paleontological gap existed between it and the
‘Stuores-Cassian zone.
~ With regard to the Gastropods in the foregoing list of the Upper
Cassian fossils in Falzarego Valley, the majority of the species are
identical with Cassian species. This is natural, since the Stuores-
‘Cassian fauna is characterized by the extraordinary number of small
‘Gastropod species and individuals, whereas the Raibl fauna is
characterized by a greater number of Lamellibranchs in proportion
‘to the number of Gastropod species. As a local feature it may
be noted that certain species, e.g. Neritina imitans and Scalaria
ornata, are present in relatively far greater number of individuals
in the Falzarego area than in the Stuores Meadowland. More
important as a sign of transition is the occurrence in large number
of individuals of two species, Weritopsis decussata and armata, which
are common both to the Stuores-Cassian zone (in small number) and
to the Schlern Plateau and other Raibl faunas. Ptychostoma pleuro-
tomoides* is a species numerously represented in the Upper Cassian
zone in Falzarego Valley and at Heilig-Kreuz, and is one which
continues in Raibl horizons.

Another interesting feature in connection with the Gastropods
is, that several species are identical with species found in the
Marmolata-Kalk or calcareo-dolomitic facies south of this area, and
that the beds of dolomitic limestone which immediately overlie
the Falzarego tuffs are locally full of Gastropod fossils. The
transitional Cassian-Raibl relations of the other groups call for
less remark. Amongst the Brachiopods, Amphiclina scitula, amongst

1 yon Woéhrmann, ‘ Die Raibler Schichten,’’ m. Uebersichtstabelle : Jahrb. k.k.
Reichs., 18938, p. 768. :

2 See Kittl, ‘‘ Die Gastropoden der Schichten von St. Cassian der Siid-Alpinen
Trias’’: loc. cit., pp. 157-8.

342 IM. Ogilvie Gordon—Fauna of Upper Cassian, South Tyrol.

the Echinoderms, Pentacrinus Tirolensis and Cidaris parastadifera,
continue in the highest Raibl horizons. In all groups the revised
list is found to fulfil the requirements of a paleontological bridge
between the Stuores-Cassian and the Schlern Plateau (or Upper
Cardita) strata, and therefore to merit the place I assigned to the
fauna in the percentage table and accompanying remarks of my
earlier paper (Q.J.G.S., 1893, p.44; also Guox. Maa., 1894, p. 10 seq.).

I now submit the complete series of Upper Triassic zones in
Falzarego Valley.

PALZHONTOLOGICAL AND STRATIGRAPHICAL SERIES.

Locatity: ScunEeRn.

Comparative extract from Locauity: FatzaArEGo VALLEY AND
von W6hrmann’s ‘‘ Die Raibler TRAVENANZES.
Schichten’’: Uebersichtstabelle, (Ci. Ogilvie, 1893-4.)
1893.
MadEE ata CaNace Horizon @ (von Wohr.). ( Dolomite bands and variegated marls.
Numerous Megalodus fossils: Megalodus
. o triqueter ; Megalodus cf. compressus.
I Dolomite banks 4 | Thin band of dolomite weathered as terrace.
i with a ‘ Ostrea marls’ and limestones: leading
3) species of Megalodus. 2 type, Ostrea montis caprilis.
re 4 | Thick-bedded limestones, full of imper-
5 m4 fect Pectenfossils: Pecten Hallensis, etc.
ra Dolomite with coral Pe ‘Cipit Limestone’ bed with coral and
8 growths, etc. 2 | echinoderm remains.
a a Soft, flaky limestone, with ammonite and
S a nautiloid sp.
= Gypsum, red marls, dolomitic flagstones,
rauchwackes.
\\ ( Hardarenaceous limestones, poorin fossils.
Horizon e (von Wohr.). ( Brown sandstones, the chief horizon of
Red Schlern Plateau Myophoria Kefersteinii & M. Whate-
fossiliferous strata with leye ; Myophoria fissidentata, Myo-
Myophoria fissidentata phoricardium lineatum, Physocardia
and Kefersteinii, Ogilvie, Trigonodus Rablensis,
Pachycardia Haueri, Hoernesia Johannis Austria ; Pecten,
Trigonodus Rablensis, 2 sp.; Turbo, n.sp.; plant stems;
Hoernesia _ Johannis| numerous coaly fragments, and specks
Austrie, Patella J. a of various mineral ores ; ‘ Cipit Lime=
Boehmi, Tretospira Bot stones’ interbedded with sandstones.
mnultistriata, Joannites Sl Thin band of dolomite weathered as terrace.
cymbiformis, etc. < Red nodular marls of tufaceous character.
(Sphzerocodien, coral =a
growths, plants, etc.) a Quartziferous sandstones with Trigonodus
e Rablensis, Myophoria fissidentata, etc.,
Re passing into upper horizons of

Horizon 4 (von Wohr.).
oe Cliff of stratified dolomite, and finely inter-
Stratified dolomite. layered volcanic sand ; locally de-
veloped as dolomitic limestone, with
many Gastropods ; in lower horizons
interbedded with

—

MM. Ogilvie Gordon—Fauna of Upper Cassian, South Tyrol. 348

Horizon a (von Wohr.). ‘Cipit Limestones’ and volcanic tuffs ;
tufaceous marls, impure limestones,
lignite, and aragonite. Spirostylus
subcolumnaris, Ptychostoma pleuroto-
moides, Neritopsis decussata, armata,
Astartopis Richthofeni, and crowded
fragments of species of Solen, Plicatula,
Placunopsis, Avicula, etc.

Pale-greenish tufaceous shales, reddish-
brown tufaceous breccias with quartz
grains, glassy and metalliferous ore
inclusions, limestones with uneven
bedding surfaces. These are the chief
horizons of Upper Cassian bivalves :
Avicula Cortinensis, Tofane, Sturi,
Cassiana ; Cassianella decussata ;

| Gervillia Ogilvie, angulata; Myo-
|
|
\

Augite porphyry
and tuffs.

Urprrer Casstan SERIES.

phoria decussata ; Hoernesia Johannis
Austrie; Lima angulata; Peeten
Landranus, tubulifer ; Trigonodus
Rablensis ; etc.

Irregular crags and blocks of ‘ Cipit
Limestones’ in tuffs.

Dark tufaceous earth and marls; thin-
beddedshales and limestones containing
rich fauna of small forms, in typical
‘Stuores’ character: Cardita crenata,
Koninckina Leonhardti, Trachyceras
Aon, Nucula lineata, — strigtlata,
Schizogonium subcostatum, etc.

Gypsiferous marls, aragonite, tufaceous
grits and shales with ‘Cipit Lime-
stones’ ; sponges, corals, echinoderms,
Posidonomya Wengensis, etc.

Lower Rarsu Serres (= Carpita Strata, Nortu Tyror).

LowER OR
Sruores-CassiAN SERIES.

Ashy and felsitic series, black tufaceous

ae earth, occasional dark bituminous
oR limestones: Halobia Lommeli, Posido-
Ae nomya Wengensis, plants, ete. (for
a Stuores-Cassian and Wengen Series,

—— SO

ef. aut., 1893, p. 16).

The Lower and Middle Cassian horizons, distinguished by me in
1893, are here combined as one paleontological zone, the Lower or
Stuores-Cassian zone; since, although the subdivision is useful in
field survey, the horizons are not paleontologically independent.

The stratigraphy of the Upper Cassian zone in Enneberg and
Ampezzo is more difficult than the paleontology, since the lower
Raibl fossiliferous sandstones are replaced by various local facies,
wholly dolomitic (as at Lagazuoi), or developed as a series of
dolomitic limestones and irregular banks of dolomite, interbedded
with marls and sandstones (as at Roces Alpe).

In Falzarego Valley the Upper Cassian tufaceous series rests
conformably upon Cassian strata containing the typical Stuores
fauna, and is succeeded by a bed of dolomite of varying thickness, in
some places fossiliferous, with Gastropod colonies, coral banks, alge,
etc., in others unfossiliferous and interlayered with volcanic sand

344 Uf. Ogilvie Gordon—Fauna of Upper Cassian, South Tyrol.

and nodular iron ore. Sometimes the sandy material occurs. in
patches, sometimes in layers a few inches thick, sometimes in
layers as fine as the finest dust. The chemical decomposition of the
calcareous and the volcanic material and the weathering-out of the
finely and coarsely interlayered sands and tuffs from the rock
largely account for the frequent occurrence of toothed and fantastic
erosion forms at this horizon of the Schlern Dolomite. Le

The relations of these dolomitic and sandy layers are such:as
are presented to us in recent descriptions of volcanic and organic
muds in the vicinity of oceanic islands, or more generally of ‘Red
Clay’ and pelagic ‘Oozes.’ I have always held that the deposits
of Raibl age represented the actual sediments in South Tyrol in:
which a dolomitic character may be regarded as original (“ Coral
in the Dolomites,” 1894, pp. 11-18, 20-22), and that it was there
associated with chemical decomposition going on contemporaneously
with sedimentation. My specimens from this horizon are under
examination in Prof. Armstrong’s laboratory at South Kensington.

The chemist is confronted in the dolomites with the same
possibilities of chemical decomposition and interchange, both in
the past submarine and in the present subaerial conditions, which
were clearly set forth by Sir John Murray in his Presidential
Address to the Geographical Section, British Association, 1899,
from which I quote the following passages: ‘The inorganic con-
stituents of the Pelagic Deposits are for the most part derived
from the attrition of floating pumice, from the disintegration of
water-logged pumice, from showers of volcanic ashes, and from
the deébris ejected from submarine volcanoes, together with the
products of their decomposition. . . .+. If the whole of the
carbonate of lime shells be removed by dilute acid from a typical
sample of Globigerina Ooze, the inorganic residue left behind is
quite similar in composition to a typical Red Clay. . . . . The
volcanic materials in a Red Clay having, because of the slow
accumulation, been for a long time exposed to the action of sea-
water, have been profoundly altered:—Fhe-massive- manganese-iron
nodules and zeolitic crystals present in the deposit are secondary
products arising from the decomposition of these volcanic materials.”

The development of organic and inorganic muds, with all possible
variations in the alternative bedding, is the normal character of the
Schlern Dolomite within Enneberg and Ampezzo. And, as I pre-
viously pointed out, the contemporaneity of this dolomitic series,
in whole or in part, “with fossiliferous Raibl strata elsewhere (e.g.
the Schlern Plateau strata) would in nowise afford evidence of the
Coral Reef Theory, but only of the familiar fact of Raibl heteropism.”
(“Coral in the Dolomites,” 1894, p. 13.)

The dolomite cliff and marls in Falzarego Valley, Roces Alpe,
and Travenanzes are succeeded by a well-defined group of sand-
stones, shales, and shaly limestones, in which a typical Raibl
fauna occurs. The fossils enumerated at this horizon, in the above
table of Upper Trias, were all personally collected from a number
of places along this high mountain terrace above the valley. Strange

MM. Ogilvie Gordon—Fauna of Upper Cassian, South Tyrol. 346

to say, I never found Pachycardia Haueri, which is such a numerously
represented type in the Schlern Plateau strata. The limited colonial
aspect of local faunas seems to have been the leading paleontological
feature of the Cassian-Raibl period.

Whilst the age of the intervening calcareo-dolomitic and sandy
series is quite securely fixed by the presence of the Myophoria and
Ostrea fossil zones above, and the Avicula Tofane and Cortinensis
fossil zones below, I have always referred to it in previous
papers as “Schlern Dolomite,” following the original intention of
von Richthofen, who applied this term to any dolomitic facies of
Upper Triassic tufaceous series in the district. The fossiliferous
Upper Cassian tuffs are present at Pec di Palu, south of the
Falzarego road, and may be followed over Valparola, Pordsi, and
Sella Pass to the south of Langkofl and Mahlknecht. Remnants
of the series occur at Cra di Mont, Crap di Sella, Freina Meadow,
and elsewhere farther north. ;
_ I already showed, in 1893-4, that throughout Enneberg and
Ampezzo the horizons of Raibl time were those which displayed the
most extreme and complex facies relations. All Raibl zones pass
now at one place, now at another, into local massive developments
of Schlern Dolomite (e.g. Lagazuoi, Diirrenstein, etc.). The Upper
Cassian zone also presents varying local facies relations within
Enneberg and Ampezzo, but the Wengen and Stuores-Cassian zones
underlie the dolomitic deposits in Enneberg and in all parts of
Ampezzo which I have examined. Thus, the identification of
successive paleontological zones proves that the tufaceous invasions
overspread the floor of the Enneberg and Ampezzo areas more
generally in the earlier periods of the Upper Trias epoch in South
Tyrol. And the passage-limit between the tufaceous material and
the ordinary sediments was at that time locally situated within
that wide ‘ Buchenstein-Mahlknecht’ series of lavas and tuffs which
represents one of the chief local areas of contemporaneous eruptive
fracture-planes. These are the heteropic conditions which I have
depicted in a series of diagrams, showing the successive stages in
‘the accumulation of deposits, and the intermixture from time to
time of volcanic material during the Wengen, Cassian, and Raibl
periods (‘Coral in the Dolomites,” 1894, Guon. Maa., Pl. II).

In the second part of the same paper (in the Guon. Maa.), Sasso
Pitschi (a small mountain that occurs in the Buchenstein-Mahlknecht
passage-area of facies) was selected as an example of the tendency
displayed by later differential movements to coincide with the
original passage-areas between different lithological groups of strata,
whether these areas occurred in the horizontal extension of different
rock facies, as at Sasso Pitschi, or in the ordinary geological suc-
cession. My publication' in 1899 rests on the same standpoint.

1 «¢ Torsion - Structure of the Dolomites’?: Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1899.
Attention may be directed here to a printer’s slip that unfortunately evaded me in
the proofs, and which causes some confusion: see p. 580, under ‘4,’ near the
bottom of the page: ‘‘ A and C to be moved counterclockwise, B and D clockwise,”’
should read ‘‘ A and C to be moved clockwise, B and D counterclockwise.”’

346 UL. Ogilvie Gordon—Fauna of Upper Cassian, South Tyrol.

Subordinate movements have readily taken place at the planes
where the more rigid and the more plastic rock-groups have been
next one another. Thus local conditions have produced local
modification of the more general movements due to compression
and cross-compression of this district in subsequent epochs of Alpine
upheaval.

In addition to its use in the solution of the stratigraphy, the value
of an Upper Cassian fauna is in the link it adds to the Upper Trias
chain of faunas in South Tyrol. Its discovery and its identification
by me in 1893 as a transitional Cassian-Raibl zone established, for
the first time in South Tyrol, a closely connected series of palzeonto-
logical zones traceable through Wengen-Cassian-Raibl periods. The
Upper Cassian zone has therefore given important evidence of the
impracticability of placing a paleontological limit between Middle.
and Upper Alpine Trias anywhere within that series. The transition
from Raibl horizons to Dachstein Dolomite in Enneberg and Ampezzo
also takes place quite gradually, as evidenced by species of the genus
Megalodus. Hence the only subdivision between Middle and Upper
Trias which seems natural in the ‘ Dolomites’ is between the Upper
Muschelkalk (Buchenstein strata of some authors) and the Wengen
series, that is, at the horizon of Triassic time, when eruptive material
began to be incorporated with the local sediments of that area.
(Cf. von Wéhrmann, “Die Raibler Schichten,” 1893; Rothpletz,
“ Querschnitt,” 1894; Salomon, ‘“ Palzontographica,’ 1895; von
Zittel, ‘‘ Zeitschrift,” 1899.)

A farther confirmation of the presence of a transitional Cassian-Raibl
fauna in the ‘Dolomites’ has been given by the fauna in the ‘ Pachy-
cardia Tuffs’ of the Seiser-Alpe. Geheimrath von Zittel, who made
the discovery, during a geological excursion with his students, that
these tuffs contained a large number of Raibl forms in addition to
Cassian forms, has since published a short account of the faunal
characteristics of these tufaceous horizons at the Seiser-Alpe (von
Zittel, “ Zeitschrift,” 1899; also Rothpletz, “ Zeitschrift,” 1899).
The preliminary notes on the stratigraphy given by Prof. Rothpletz
show that these tuffs at the Seiser Alpe rest conformably upon strata
containing a Stuores-Cassian fauna, so that in this important feature
their position at the Seiser-Alpe agrees with that which I determined
at Falzarego Valley and other localities. The ‘Cipit Limestones’
also occur, as blocks or irregular banks, at various horizons, in the
way that I described for other localities along the Buchenstein-
Mahlknecht area of eruptive invasions. “Along the hem of this
volcanic girdle communities of Corals and Echinoderms settled and
formed a series of small barrier reefs (Cipit Limestones), frequently
interrupted in their growth by fresh lavas” (aut., l.c., 1894).

But, compared with the Falzarego Valley fauna, the ‘ Pachycardia-
tuff’ fauna bears a distinct local impress. For example, just as
I never found Pachycardia Haueri in the higher Raibl horizons of
Falzarego Valley, so I never found Pachycardia rugosa, the leading
fossil of the Pachycardia tuffs, in the Upper Cassian zone of
Falzarego Valley. Both may be there, as my personal collection

M. Ogilvie Gordon—Fauna of Upper Cassian, South Tyrol. 347

can only represent a small part of the fauna, but they at least cannot
be common.

A similar impression of narrow spacial limitation is given by each
of the local developments of a fossiliferous Upper Cassian zone, at
Heilig Kreuz, Seeland Alpe, Misurina, and Rimbianco. This horizon
of Upper Triassic time is characterized, therefore, not only by
marked differences in the local lithological facies, but also by
marked local specializations in the aspect of contemporaneous faunas
inhabiting neighbouring seas and lagoons. Many of the fossils have
affinity with Cassian or Raibl species, yet can neither be identified
with, nor clearly distinguished from these. Hence, we may regard it
as probable that those specialized Upper Cassian faunas included,
amongst the species peculiar to themselves, certain types due to
strong adaptation or to retrogression. And we may learn from
the faunas of the Upper Cassian zone, no less than from those of
the higher Raibl zones, that there are biological questions in South
Tyrol which concern the occurrence of pelagic and of littoral faunas
as local colonies in a neighbourhood of very unequal depth and
subject to volcanic interruptions in the form of lavas, tuffs, and fine
volcanic sand. These questions are one with the consideration of
lithological facies in the same district.

The following table of Upper Trias strata in South Tyrol repre-
sents the zonal succession and local occurrence of facies as described
in former papers (cf. Grou. Maa., 1894, Pl. II, and Q.J.G8.,
1893, p. 16).

Fassa-ScHLERN, Within ENNEBERG AND AMPEZZO,

aye Bucheusteln- north of the Buchenstein-Mahlknecht eruptive
P fractures.

fractures.

if Dachistein Dolomite.
Raibl series. ( or Upper Raibl series (von Wohrmann),
| with Ostrea and Megalodus beds.
or Lower Raibl series (von Wohrmann),
equivalent to Upper Cardita series im
Schlern North Tyrol, represented by ‘red
Dolomite 4 Schlern Plateau fossiliferous series” or
by a varying thickness of stratitied
dolomite in South Tyrol.
| or Upper Cassian tufaceousseries(Ogilvie),
| with Avicula beds.
Cassian series in ‘ Stuores’ development.
Wengen series, with Halobia Lommeli.

Schlern Dolomite.

aa

Uprer Trias (South Tyrol).

ae

Upper Zone of Muschelkalk or Middle Trias.

As, however, Baron von Wohrmann, in his comparative work on
“The Raibl Strata,’ found the paleontological transition quite
gradual throughout the Cardita and Raibl zones in South Tyrol, he
included the whole series from the Halobia Lommeli to the Ostrea
beds as Raibl strata in wider sense (cf. “ Uebersichtstabelle d.

348 UD. Ogilvie Gordon—Fauna of Upper Cassian, South Tyrol.

Raibler Schichten’’: Jahrb., 1893). Hence, to continue to call the
‘Red Schlern Plateau’ series ‘Lower Raibl’ would undoubtedly
cause confusion. The distinction of Upper, Middle, and Lower
Zones in a series of ‘Raibl strata’ (using the term in the now
wider sense given by von Wéhrmann), might be locally possible,
but at the present time it is more important to arrive at a clear
presentation of the complete series of paleontological zones in each
Alpine locality. Thus in South Tyrol we have: .

LEADING FOSSIL-TYPES
in the Wengen-Cassian-Raibl series (‘ Raibler-Sch.’ in wider sense, von Wéhrmann).

( ‘Torer’-Raret Zone: Ostrea montis caprilis, Mega-
lodus trigueter, etc. (diverse local developments of
volcanic marlsand sand, limestone, gypsum, dolomite),

‘Rep ScuterN Puateav’ Rarst Zone: Pachycardia
Haueri, Myophoria Kefersteinii, Myophoricardium
lineatum, etc. (diverse local developments of volcanic
sand and calcareo-dolomitic facies; molluscan faunas
contain almost exclusively Raibl species).

All pass into the Upper Cassian or TransiTionaL Turr Zone: Avicula
Calcareo - dolomitic Sturi, Tofane, and Cortinensis, Pecten Landranus,

facies in South Tyrol ;
von Richthofen’s
“ScHieRN Dotomire.’

ete. (diverse local facies of Upper Cassian series,
containing a mixed fauna of Cassian and Raibl
species).

{
| Sruores-Casstan ZoNE: Koninckina Leonhardti, Cardita
ria = Mien ts crenata, Nucula~strigitata (tufaceous, marly, and
calcareous series, containing almost exclusively
Cassian species). .
L

Wencen Zone: Halobia Lommeli, Monophyllites
Wengensis, Trachyceras..Axchelaus, Posidonomya
Wengensis, etc.; series of shales and limestones,
erits, tuffs, and lavas.

SuMMARY.

(1) Conformably above strata containing the typical or Stuores-
Cassian fauna as known before my paper of 1893, and below any
palzontologically well-defined Raibl horizon, so regarded before
von Wohrmann’s paper of 1893, I found in Falzarego Valley in
1891 a series of tufaceous breccias, shales, and quartziferous sand-
Stones, containing a transitional Cassian-Raibl fauna, and passing
upward into interstratified dolomite, dolomitic limestone, and volcanic
sand and marl, or into a wholly dolomitic group of strata. The
latter I termed ‘Schlern Dolomite,’ stating it to be the time-
equivalent in part, or wholly, of the ‘red Schlern Plateau fossiliferous
strata’ which von Woéhrmann had in 1892 called a Lower Raibl
zone in South Tyrol. Revised identifications of my Falzarego
Valley material, carried out in accordance with the recent special
monographs on Alpine Molluscan faunas by Dr. Bittner, Dr. Kittl,
Dr. J. Bohm, and others, have fully corroborated the palzontological
position which I gave to the fauna in 1893-4 as a local ‘ tuff? facies

A. Vaughan Jennings—Geology of Bad Nauheim. 349

of part of the Schlern Dolomite, comprising a gradual transition from
a typical Stuores-Cassian fauna to the ‘Travenanzes’ Raibl fauna of
the Falzarego district.

(2) The Wengen and Stuores-Cassian fossiliferous tufaceous series
are present throughout the district of Enneberg and Ampezzo in
complete zonal development. These palzontological zones are
therefore not, as has been said, the tufaceous facies of the dolomitic
rock composing the massives in these areas. On the other hand, the
Upper Cassian zone and the higher Raibl zones are developed in
varying degree within Enneberg and Ampezzo as local facies of local
dolomitic sediments. ‘Cipit Limestones’ (the true coral-reefs of the
district) occur both in the tufaceous and in the dolomitic facies at
all horizons as occasional local beds of comparatively small thickness
(loc. cit., Gron. Maa., 1894).

(3) The Wengen and Stuores-Cassian tufaceous and calcareous
series of Enneberg and Ampezzo represent time-equivalents of part
of the calcareo-dolomitic series south of the Buchenstein-Mahlknecht
passage-area of facies, that area having been one of the chief localities
of contemporaneous eruptive fracture-planes.

(4) In many cases tht passage-areas between facies of different
lithological character, as well as the passage-bands between sub-
jacent rock-groups of different lithological character, have been the
seat of subsequent differential movement or distortion. So that the
complex local developments of passage-areas and passage-bands in
the Upper Trias of South Tyrol have induced many local effects of
cross- movement which now complicate the stratigraphy of that
district.

(5) The more general movements associated with Cretaceous-
Tertiary upheaval in the Eastern Alps have called forth an east-
west strike, which must be regarded as fundamental in the district,
and also a cross-compression from east and west or slightly oblique
directions. The complex resultant system of folds, faults, and
overthrusts has been cut by subsequent faults associated with local
subsidences.

IIl.—Tue Gerontocy or Bap NavHemm anp ITs THERMAL SALT-
SPRINGS.
By A. Vaucuan Jennines, F.L.S., F.G.S.
I. Introduction.
iI. General Physiography.
III. The Rock- Formations present.
IV. The Springs, Borings, and ‘ Salines.’
V. The Geological Problems involved.

I. InrrRopuction.

HE eastern extremity of the wooded range of the Taunus, where
its last spurs slope down to the Wetterau Plain and the
streams from its valleys give up hurrying and wander lazily
across the fertile flats towards the Main, has been a spot rich in
interest since at least pre-Germanic times. The ancient Kelts, when

350 <A. Vaughan Jennings—Geology of Bad Nauheim.

overwhelmed by their Germanic foes, left behind them, now deep in
the detritus at the foot of the Johannisberg, their hearths, chisels,
and millstones, mixed up with shells and bones. In addition to these
typical relics of the race, there have also been found special forms of
earthen vessels, used evidently for evaporating the waters of the
saline springs. The tribes described by Tacitus as being in
possession at the end of the first century do not seem to have been
similarly enterprising, but it is known the victorious Romans of
the third century resorted thither for medicinal baths.

Fic. 1.—Bap Navuerm. View looking west. In the foreground the Grosser
Sprudel and Friedrich- Wilhelm’s Quelle [Borings 7 and 12]. The Johannisberg
in the distance.

The place was, in fact, a Roman sanatorium sixteen centuries
before the modern Teuton evolved the ‘Kur’ to music, or the
somewhat over-subtle phonendoscope whispered in the doctor’s ear
of fell diseases that are at work below, and perhaps, occasionally,
of some that are not. In mediaeval times and throughout the later
centuries its ancient reputation was sustained and increased. The
nineteenth has seen the opening of a system of baths in 1835, which
has so advanced in public estimation that the number of visitors has
risen in 60 years from 189 to 17,760, and of baths from some
112,000 in 1890 to over 227,000 in 1897.

It is not, however, the object of this paper to give statistics or
to advertise a health resort. The above figures are quoted only to
indicate the growth of the place as a justification for giving some
account of its geological features in English. Several thousands of
the visitors annually are British, and I have found that there really
is a small percentage, even of these, who would be glad to know
something of the structure of the country which produces the
waters they seek to benefit by.

A. Vaughan Jennings—Geology of Bad Nauheim. 351

It is a matter of great difficulty to obtain information on the spot,
as the geological map and its description are old and out of print;
while the excellent guide, written in 1888 by Herr Bergrath Otto
Weiss’ and Dr. Groedel, contains in its geological chapter some
views as to the order of succession of strata which later research
has corrected, and is insufficiently illustrated to give a clear idea of
structural features. This is my excuse for attempting to give some
sort of account of the district, though an imperfect one. For many
of the details I am of course indebted to the older works mentioned
at the end, but on the other hand a considerable part of the following
notes are from personal observation, though made only on short
excursions under conditions of a necessarily limited activity.

| —— ES Ss ao \
eet 7 eect os epee

—, ——_ —, -— ——_ Miede~ S16KLER x Ns
a — oF?

| are ee ANS NS Wis 5

oe = iiss:

\ eet: iv = NPS
= \S Wok a Ae
We im

Sy Qo ==

—<———— ee

\

| \Wer En Yoin

| Fic. 2.—Geological Sketch-map of country around Bad Nauheim.
| B. Blattersandstein. O. Orthoceras-schiefer.

| D. Devonian series. Sp. Spiriferen-sandstein.

| T. Taunus-quarzit.

| II. Genera PuysioGraPHy.

The old village of Bad Nauheim, and the new town which has grown
up beside it round the springs, lie at the foot of the Johannisberg.
The hill, rising 858 feet above the sea and about 390 feet
above the plain, is wooded at the top and on the northern slopes ;

1 Herr Weiss has been identified with the history of the locality from the earliest
days of organized baths, and knows more than anyone else as to the various borings.
He was most courteously willing to give all information, but untortunately his illness
prevented my profiting by his store of know ledge, except in a few minutes interview
when I was on the point of leaving.

352 A. Vaughan Jennings—Geology of Bad Nauheim.

vine-clad on its steeper southern aspect, but scarred here and there
by reddish rock patches where the iron-stained quartzites of which
it consists have been quarried for building material or for road-metal.
From the summit there is a drop on the south and west to the saddle
at Hasselheck, and then a steady rise to the Winterstein and the
general mass of the Taunus. Towards other points of the compass
one looks over a wide valley-country with rich fields and scattered
villages and trees, so that our hill of observation constitutes as it
were a promontory running out from the high ground into the plain.
- On the south the plain stretches away twenty miles to Frankfurt,
merging into the broad valley of the Main. The plain is not,
however, a monotonous level, as in the foreground rises the low
hill on which stands the old town of Friedberg, with its picturesque
turreted tower rising above the ancient fortress. Northward the
low country extends past Weisel and Butzbach to the blue distance
round the Vogelsberg. To the east the landscape is similarly varied
by the low rises behind the railway and the more distant Mtinzenberg
with its double-towered castle.

Taking thus a comprehensive view of the whole district, the
geologist will note that there are three distinct scenic elements to
be considered. First, the Taunus range which stretches south and
west from his point of observation; secondly, the relatively low
land on the south, east, and north-east; and lastly, the detached and
separated elevations which rise from the plain. To understand the
meaning of these three features it becomes necessary to examine
the rocks of which they are composed.

A superficial examination of specimens in the immediate neighbour-
hood shows that the rock is a white or reddish ‘quartzite,’ using
the term in its widest sense; more accurately, a series of compact
sandstones and grits which have suffered greater or less alteration.

There is in many places a well-defined flaggy structure, indicating
the sedimentary character of the formation. It has a distinctly
Paleeozoic aspect, and in many places recalls some of the British
Devonian strata to the mind. Such is, in fact, the age ascribed to it,
as it belongs to the ‘Taunus-quarzit,’ which, though here devoid
of fossils, is now known, by observations elsewhere, to belong to
the Lower Devonian series.1

The dip of the beds is here a very steep one to the south and east,
but many variations will be found in the districts lying to the west.
In fact, the whole range is much contorted and the strata doubled
up in sharp folds, as has been shown by Koch, Kayser, and others.

Leaving for future consideration the question of the presence of
other strata than the ‘quartzite’ in this Paleozoic ridge, and
descending to the lower ground, one meets with a marked change
in the character of the rocks, though the wooded condition of the
ground and the accumulation of detritus and Post-Tertiary deposits
have to a great extent obliterated the abruptness of the transition.

' The suggestion of Gesselet (Ann. Soc. Geol. Nord, xvii, p. 800) that the

base of the series is Archzean does not seem to be accepted by English or Continental
geologists.

A. Vaughan Jennings—Geology of Bad Nauheim. 3538

In the quarries south of Bad Nauheim or round the village of
Ockstadt there is a series of sands, sandstones, pebble-beds, and
loosely cemented conglomerates, which are horizontally stratified
and evidently of far later date than the rocks of the hill. They are,
in fact, Tertiary beds representing the infilling of a great lake which
once occupied the whole of the western district.

If one crosses the broad zone of fertile fields covering these later
strata, the hill at Friedberg shows another abrupt change. Here,
though the outer slopes of the hill are green and gradual, there are
rough black crags under the castle of distinctly basaltic appearance.
Round Schwalheim and Wisselsheim there are less prominent
exposures, but it is easy to ascertain that these eastern elevations
are of the same lithological nature.

III. Tae Rockx-ForMAtvIoNs PRESENT.

It is therefore evident that the three scenic features above referred
to have a definite geological meaning, and that the component
parts of the whole area may be classed under three corresponding
headings—

A. The Paleozoic Ridge.
B. The Tertiary Strata.
C. The Igneous (basaltic) Series."

Before proceeding to a study of the position of the salt springs
and borings it will be well to notice in somewhat greater detail the
characteristics of these different formations.

A. The Pal@ozic Ridge.

As has been already observed, the Paleozoic rocks are of
Devonian age; a series of flaggy, more or less ferruginous, altered
sandstones, grits, and ‘quartzite.’ They are evidently of sedi-
mentary origin and belong to the ‘Taunus-quarzit’ group; over-
lying the ‘Sericit-schiefer,’ but stratigraphically below the other
members of the Devonian system. Fossils are apparently absent,
though some obscure plant remains are said to have been found near
the Winterstein. The strike is N.E.-S.W., and the dip varies from
28° S.E. to 72° or more in the same direction. It is not probable
that the student will meet with any other form of Palzeozoic rock in
the neighbourhood, but if he bas an opportunity of consulting the
geological map he will find certain other formations recorded.
Thus the ‘Stringocephalen-kalk’ is mapped as occurring near
Hasselheck. I have been unable to find it there, and in suggesting
a doubt as to its presence I am glad to find I have the support of
Professor Wittich. The ‘ Orthoceras-schiefer’ are similarly marked
as cropping out by the Teich and north of Nieder Morlen, but
I have not been able to identify them in either locality. The

1 Throughout this paper the Post-Miocene deposits are left out of consideration.
There is doubtless much interesting matter awaiting study in this direction, and
Herr Professor E. Wittich (see list of references at end) has studied what he regards
as Pliocene and Glacial beds in the neighbourhood.

DECADE IV.—VOL. VII.—NO. VIII. 23

354 A. Vaughan Jennings—Geology of Bad Nauheim.

‘Spiriferen-sandstein ’ is recorded from the borings, but has not been
mapped as appearing at the surface in the immediate neighbourhood.”
In the concluding section of this paper the relationship of these:
formations will be again referred to, and a possible explanation of

their position in the borings suggested. Even if, however, there:
have been errors of observation in the field, it is probable that the’
evidence of the borings may be trusted in showing the existence

of these formations below the surface. Comparison with other
districts would lead one to expect them here, as the usual succession

for North Germany is as follows :—

._ ¢ Cypridinen-schiefer
_(A) Upper Devonian 1 Goniatiten-kalkc } Absent.

; : Stringocephalen-kalk.
~ \B) Middle Devonian { Cale-schiefer = ‘ Orthoceras-schiefer.’

-( Koblenzer Grauwacken
Hunrtickschiefer
Taunus-quarzit.
Taunus-phyllite =‘ Sericit-schiefer.’ Os

B. The Tertiary Strata.

The softer, almost horizontally stratified, beds which form the
fertile fields of the Wetterau belong, as already stated, to Oligocene
times. In the south-west the whole series of strata is well seen,
but at Bad Nauheim itself it is only the upper part that is repre-
sented at the surface. In the quarries south of the town and round
Ockstadt this portion, however, is typically developed and easily
observed. In places there are loosely compacted sands, beautifully
colour-banded, and reminding one of those at Alum Bay. Other
beds consist of coarse quartz-sand with some ferruginous cement,
but infiltrated with calcite, the shining cleavage faces of which.
often extend over considerable areas. Selenite and chalybite are also
commonly present. In the coarser beds the pebbles of older rocks
are frequently coated with concentric pellicles of yellow, brown, or-
brilliantly red iron oxides, and a remarkable ferruginous con-
glomerate results. a

In spite of their varied character these strata appear to belong
all to the ‘Blittersandstein.’ Though unfossiliferous here, they
contain at Miinzenberg such mollusca as Litorinella, Cyrena, Unio,
Cyclas, and Helix, as well as leaves of plants such as Cassia, Rosa,
Acer, Ficus, Cinnamomum, Sapindus, Amygdalus, and Cratagus.

Below the Blattersandstein comes the ‘Litorinellen-kalk,’ a
yellowish limestone with fossils; again partly of fresh and partly
of brackish water habit. Succinea, Pupa, Helix, and Neritina occur

} =O Spiriferen-sandstein.’
# (C) Lower Devonian

1 The nearest is a little west of Ober Mérlen, where it is said to occur with a dip
of 40°-50° S.E. in the same strike line as the Oppershofen-Krausbere. outerop,
where characteristic fossils occur. A patch of schiefer, believed to be equivalent to
those of Pfaffenwiesbach containing Orthoceras, is mapped as occurring immediately
south of the sandstone.

? All these strata are unfossiliferous at Bad Nauheim, but in the Koblenz district
contain characteristic types, such as Rensseleria, Meganteris, Pentamerus, and
Ctenocrinus. In other parts there occur Stromatopora, Calamopora, Fenestella, and
Chonetes sarcinulata.

A. Vaughan Jennings—Geology of Bad Nauheim. 356

together with Cyrena and Mytilus. A specially interesting feature
is the occurrence at Binstadt of porous limestones, evidently formed
by incrustation of Algw such as Vaucheria and Chara, with shells
bearing a fibrous overgrowth, apparently due to incrustation of
Chetophora.

Under this lies the ‘Cerithienkalk,’ with Nerita, Mytilus, and
Iitorina in association with familiar friends of the Hampshire
Basin, such as Cerithium plicatum, Lam., and Cytherea incrassata,
Sow.; passing gradually below into the ‘Cerithiensand and Sand-
stein.’ In this case also there are beds with typical land or fresh-
water shells—Helix, Bulimus, Pupa, and Planorbis—but these occur
in narrow and unimportant bands, while the associated strata contain
not only the brackish-water genera but also such marine forms as
Perna, Fusus, and Bulla.

At the base of the series lies the ‘Cyrenenmergel,’ a blue or
yellow, clayey or sandy deposit, in which the proportion of marine
shells is still greater, and includes, in addition to those above
mentioned, Nucula, Buccinum, and Mures.

C. The Igneous Series.

The hills formed by the third group of rocks in the Nauheim
neighbourhood have been spoken of as interrupting the continuity of
the Tertiary plain, but they do not rise with the striking abruptness
of, for instance, the phonolitic Hohentwiel and neighbouring basaltic
hills in Southern Baden. They are low, rounded elevations, except
at the north end of the Friedberg outcrop, evidently parts of lava
flows rather than denuded volcanic necks.

The rock itself appears to be a typical dark basalt; often compact
and without crystals distinguishable by the eye, but at times with
distinct clear green olivines. It is rarely slightly vesicular,’ but
shows a slight tendency to columnar jointing in places. Weathering
results in the usual pale-brown crust, and often a rough spheroidal
structure is revealed in the process.

Surface accumulations seem everywhere to mask its actual contact
with the Tertiary beds, but I have been unable to observe any
phenomena of metamorphism in the latter. This at first sight gives
one the impression that the basalts are older than the Oligocene
strata, but there is evidence elsewhere to show that such is not the
case, At Wickstadt, for example, the Litorinellen-kalk is overlaid
by basalt.

IV. Tue Springs, Bortnes, anD ‘ SALINES.’

Having thus obtained some insight into the nature of the strata
of the district, one is led to consider what is the relationship between
the character of these rocks and the presence of the thermal and
saline springs to which the locality owes its fame. With this in
view it will be necessary to note in some detail the position and

1 There is a brownish-grey scoriaceous rock, which is used in Nauheim for kerb-
stones, etc., but which I could not find im sité. Closer observation showed the
presence in it of clear blue Hauyn crystals, and it probably comes from the well«
known quarries of Niedermendig.

356 A. Vaughan Jennings—Geology of Bad Nauheim.

depths of the various borings and some of their characteristic
phenomena. As, however, a good deal of statistical information
is obtainable from the guidebooks published on the spot, an attempt
is here made to direct attention only to such facts as bear on the
geological questions involved.

BAD NAUHEI/T
[00d Tour]

Kur brunnren

Aarlsbrunnen

Ludwigsbrunnes
Pumping statiare i,

std a9 > SOARS

Gradirwerke

Lad view or Seclte

Fic. 3.—Ground-plan of Bad Nauheim showing site of Old Town and New Baths:
and Park, with Springs and Borings.

The various borings which have been made during the present
century in order to obtain a larger supply than that yielded by the
small natural springs, have been numbered from 1 to 12.

That known as No. 1 (ignoring an attempt made in 1816) was
made in 1823; it was carried down 18 metres, and gave a spring

A. Vaughan Jennings—Geology of Bad Nauheim. 357

yielding 284,500 litres a day, with 25 per cent. of salt and a
temperature of 25° R. The second, made in 1824, was 155 metres
in depth; it gave water of similar composition at 21° R. Nos. 3
and 4 were stopped at 31 and 22 metres respectively.

These four’ were bored near together in a N.E.—S.W. line on
the south-east side of the circular ‘platz’ which now occupies the
centre of the park. No. 5 seems to have been a little north-
west of these, and was undertaken in 1838, At 52 metres it gave
a supply of 397 cubic metres per day, with 3°55 per cent. of solid
matter and with a temperature of 26° R. The ‘Alte Kurbrunnen,’
known as No. 6, was situated about 100 yards further east, and at
19 metres produced a similar spring with temperature 18° R.

The great boring made in 1839, No. 7, going down to a depth
of 159 metres, shares with the last of all (12) the responsibility of
supplying the great system of baths. It had been carried down to
a depth of 159 metres when, as there was no result, the works
were abandoned. In December, 1846, after violent thunderstorms
and heavy rains lasting for some days, there was a sudden rush of
water up the deserted shaft, and the supply has never stopped since.
The water contains a large quantity of carbon dioxide, and solids
to the extent of 3-5 per cent., with a temperature of 26-29 R.

Numbers 8 and 9 were experimental borings made a short distance
to the northward (between the ‘ Waitz’ tower and the Teich) ; but
the temperature of the water was much lower and the general result
unsatisfactory.

The tenth attempt, made a mile south by the third ‘ gradirwerk,’
could only be carried to 65 metres, when it gave an effervescent
water with much bicarbonate of soda. It is much used as a
medicinal drinking water, and is known as the Ludwig’s Quelle
(Ludwigsbrunnen).

The eleventh was a small boring 29 metres deep, which sub-
sequently ceased to give any supply.

Lastly, the twelfth, now the Friedrich-Wilhelm’s Quelle, was
bored in 1855 to a depth of 180 metres, with an 18cm. diameter.
The water did not rise spontaneously at first, and two hand-pumps
were employed. In about half an hour a column of water charged
with carbon dioxide rose suddenly in the boring, blowing up the
pumping apparatus and rising 16 metres above the ground. It was
found to give 1,214 cubic metres in the 24 hours, with a temperature
of 30° R. and 4:3 per cent. of dissolved solids. The boring is situated
only 4 metres east of No. 7, and the two together supply practically
the whole bath system. The ordinary thermal brine baths are derived
mainly from 12, but there are underground pipes from both sources
to supply the effervescent baths, or ‘sprudel-biider,’ in the bath-
houses 1 and 6.

1 In the plan (Fig. 3) I have unfortunately numbered these four from west to east,
instead of in the reverse order, as correctly shown in the sections (Figs. 4 and 4), but
their close proximity and the fact that 2 is the only deep one renders the error of
no importance.

3858 A. Vaughan Jennings—Geology of Bad Nauheim.

Such is a brief summary of the history and nature of the Nauheim
borings. From the geologist’s point of view the features of interest
fall into two series: first, the strata traversed by the borings; and
second, the temperature and contents of the waters themselves.

The former question may be more conveniently dealt with in the
concluding section of this paper, but it may be noted, in passing,
that those borings which are likely to give most help in explaining
the subterranean structure are Nos. 1-7, 11, and 12. An almost
straight line can be drawn through these, approximately at right
angles to the general strike of the rocks.

The results of chemical analysis of the contents of the different
springs are given in many of the books of local and medical
information published on the spot, and there is no necessity to
investigate the numerous variations here. With a view to geological
considerations, however, it may be well to reproduce the details of
one typical analysis, that of the Friedrich-Wilhelm’s Quelle (No. 12).

AmounT PER 1,000 Grammes or Water.!

Sodium chloride ... oe ae ane ee 229
Lithium chloride ... oH 4) ae 434 “05
Potassium chloride aoe te soe Ros paebaleilalt
Ammonium chloride ae one oe Aah 07
Calcium chloride ... ante Asp s86 Ba OO,
Magnesium chloride 900 ae ee bc "52
Calcium sulphate ... 00 Bic go sis 03
Strontium sulphate 300 sist eas 090 “04
Calcium carbonate Lae ee ae soo OO
Tron carbonate ... ie ae ae Aas “04
Silica ao woe oe Sha ai es “02

At the risk of seeming to break the promise given above to keep
entirely to such matters of detailed description as bear on the
geology of the district, I am tempted to insert here a note on the
process by which the concentrated brine, and subsequently the dry
salts, are obtained. It is distinctly difficult at first for the enquiring
visitor to understand the meaning of the curious structures round
the town; and the process is not only interesting from the com-
mercial, chemical, and mechanical points of view, but in some of
its features is very suggestive to the biologist and geologist as well. .

About the middle of the century the old method of simple
evaporation in troughs was discarded and a more elaborate system
adopted. A short distance south of the town a number of long tanks
across the plain of the Usa were constructed, and above each an
immense erection of heavy timber frameworks. The interspaces of
these massive structures are entirely filled in with what may in
general be termed ‘brushwood,’ but which consists almost entirely
of close-packed bushes of blackthorn. Along the top of each of
these ‘gradirwerke,’ as they are termed, runs a trough containing
the water from the springs with nearly all its lime, iron, and salts;
and this is allowed to percolate down through the brushwood

1 These are the chief constituents of the dissolved solids. There are traces of

various other substances, but those given here are such as can be recorded in the
second decimal place.

A, Vaughan Jennings—Geology of Bad Nauheim. 359

masses below. As the water trickles over the twigs the lime and
remaining iron oxides are deposited as a stalagmitic crust upon the
‘wood; but the more soluble salts remain, and the water which drips
into the underlying tank is a more or less concentrated brine. |
_. Such is the principle of the process, but it takes one a little time
on the spot to discover how the mechanical difficulties are overcome.
The method seems to be this. The saline waters from the two great
‘sprudels’ are directed into an open trench, which empties them
into.a large round tank situated in the fields south of the town.
To raise this water to the top of the ‘ gradirwerke’” would appear
a difficult task; and yet, in spite of the flat country, the very small
quantity of water in the Usa, and the almost imperceptible current,
it is performed by means of two water-wheels. The three western
‘works’ are supplied by a large double pump by the Ludwig’s
Quelle. There is not sufficient force of water to turn the wheel
directly, but having been once started it is able to pump up sufficient
water to resupply itself as well as to pass on the remainder up two
great pipes to the top of the framework. The eastern ‘works’ are
similarly supplied, but in this case the wheel is as far away as
the village of Schwalheim beyond the railway on the east. The
‘connecting -rod,’ if such it can be called, between the wheel
and the nearest of the Gradirwerke is a long series of hollowed
tree trunks placed end to end. These are supported at intervals on
the axles of pairs of iron wheels, which run on rails laid on the
top of low stone walls. The whole row moves backward and
forward some eighteen inches with the turning of the wheel.
A mechanical system distinctly cumbrous, but as there is no haste
necessary in the process it is probably as effective as any other and
more economical.

The first of the solid contents of the spring water to separate are
the iron oxides, with which the basin of the Great Sprudel is coated.
In the trench leading off the waters to the Gradirwerke there is
a similar deposit of a powdery red oxide on twigs, leaves, ete., that
have fallen in. With the exception of a few diatoms and filaments
of cyanophyceous alga there seems little life here. I had expected
to find Leptothrix ochracea, but was unsuccessful. Further on,
when the lime begins to precipitate, a red porous ‘travertine’ is
produced. Almost ail the remaining iron seems removed after
passing the tank, as the stalagmite on the brushwood is very
rarely tinged with red. {

At the present time there is little evident incrustation of the
brushwood, owing to its having been comparatively recently
renewed, but the lately removed material often shows a crust
nearly two inches in thickness, and blocks of it are used all over
the neighbourhood as ornamental rockwork for gardens. :

In the western salines the brine, freed from lime and iron,
undergoes some evaporation, and at times very delicate, hollow,
-salt stalactites are formed, as well as imperfect or hollow salt
crystals like the ‘hopper-shaped’ crystals, seen by evaporation

1 T understand that the period of renewal is about every ten years.

360 A. Vaughan Jennings—Geology of Bad Nauheim.

of salt solution under the microscope. The brine in the tank at
this point is clear, and contains but little life. A few floating
patches of a green alga (Rhizoclonium?) are, however, generally
present.

In the last or most westerly tank the appearance is very different.
The water has a stagnant and turbid aspect, and is often covered with
bacterial scum. Dense masses of Vaucheria form rounded cushion-
like growths at the bottom, and the filaments become completely
incrusted except at the growing tips. If these had been formed
under natural conditions, and subsequent infiltration by lime had
occurred, a formation would be produced which can be paralleled
by the oblique limestones already referred to as found at Bonstadt
in the Northern Wetterau.

The algal masses are crowded in the spring by larval cases of
a dipterous insect, some half an inch long, and later in the year the
surface of the water swarms with small black flies. As the cases
become similarly incrusted they would contribute to rock formation
and produce a rich ‘indusial’ limestone deposit. As the water here
contains a high percentage of salts the luxuriant growth of these two
organisms is remarkable; and doubtless microscopic study, which
I was unable to undertake, will reveal other forms of interest.

V. GEoLoGicaL PRoBLEMS INVOLVED.

Leaving here this brief description of the distribution of the
various formations and of the general character of the springs

433/50 62/2

Fia. 4.—Geological explanation of the data furnished by the borings as given by
Dieffenbach (Desc. of Geol. Map of Hesse, Darmstadt, 1856).

B. Blattersandstein. L. Litorinellen-kalk.
T. Taunus-quarzit. S. Spiriferen-sandstein.
O. Orthoceras-schiefer. S.k. Stringocephalen-kalk.

and borings, we may turn, in conclusion, to some consideration of
the geological problems involved. The chief of these may be
enumerated as follows :—(a) the underground structure as indicated

A. Vaughan Jennings—Geology of Bad Nauheim. 361

by the data given by the borings; (6) the extent and character
of the ancient lake; (c) the reasons for the chemical and physical
characteristics of the springs; and (d) the connection between the
eruptive rocks and the general phenomena of the district.

In discussing these points it is scarcely possible in any case to
make dogmatic statements, and the following remarks must be
regarded only as a statement of the case for investigation.

(a) When one examines the published details of the different
borings one cannot fail to be struck by the wide differences which
exist, in so small an area, between the depths at which the
Palzeozoic rocks were encountered.

432/ $4 672

Fic. 5.—Geological explanation of the data furnished b7 the borin ys here suggested.

B. Blattersandstein. L. Litorinellen-kalk.
T. Taunus-quarzit. S. Spiriferen-sandstein.
O. Orthoceras-schiefer. S.k. Stringocephalen-kalk.

Although the Devonian rocks of the Johannisberg are dipping
south-east at a high angle where they disappear below the Tertiary
beds, and are met with at 120m. in boring 4, yet they are not
touched at all in borings 5 and 11. The deep boring 2, on the
other hand, while it meets Paleozoic rock at 130m., does not
touch the Taunus-quarzit, but traverses some 165 m. of ‘ Orthoceras-
schiefer’ and terminates in ‘Spiriferen-sandstein.’ Borings 7 and
12, on the other hand, strike the ‘Stringocephalen-kalk’ immediately
below the Tertiaries, and terminate in that formation.

These facts appear to show that in the first place the old land-
surface on which the Tertiary beds were deposited has a distinctly
irregular contour, and secondly, that by some agency, either folding
or faulting, the members of the Middle Devonian series are present
under Nauheim at no great depth, but with very limited horizontal
extension.

The explanatory section published in connection with the old
geological map, a copy of part of which is given on p. 351, looks

3862 A. Vaughan Jennings—Geology of Bad Nauheim.

fairly satisfactory at first sight, but on study is found to contain
serious difficulties. The ‘Stringocephalen-kalk’ on the right can
hardly be accounted for without any corresponding mass on the
left; and the theory requires that the dip of the ‘Taunus-quarzit ’
on the east slope of the Johannisberg should be represented in exactly
the reverse direction to what is actually the case. More serious still
is the difficulty that it places the ‘ Taunus-quarzit’ above the other
members of the Devonian, whereas it really underlies all but the
‘Sericit-schiefer.’

Under these circumstances I thought one might try to make
a hypothetical section which would better fit in with the known
data; and it seems to me that some such structure as is shown in
Fig. 5 would meet the requirements.of the case. It is not necessarily
true, as there may be considerable faulting, but until there is evidence
of the presence of faults it is as well to try to explain matters
without their help.

An infolding such as this is just what might be expected from
the structure of the Taunus range as a whole. The peculiarities
of the boring records are easily accounted for on this supposition,
and several other isolated facts fall readily into place. Thus, if it is
true that boring 10 in the plain on the east passed through ‘ Sericit-
schiefer’ and then touched the ‘Taunus-quarzit,’ such is what
might have been expected, as is shown in Fig. 5. Similarly, the
reported outcrop of ‘Orthoceras-schiefer’ near the Teich-haus is
by no means impossible; while the patches of the same rock and
of ‘Spiriferen-sandstein’ mapped to the west of Ober Mérlen can
also be accounted for as an infold similar to that below Nauheim.

(6) Passing on from the question of these contorted Devonians to
the simply and conformably stratified Tertiary beds of the Wetterau
plains, one expects a simplification of the task of explanation.
Such there is to a certain extent ; but, on the other hand, there are
new questions of a totally different character which crop up in the
endeavour to follow out the history of the country.

While there can be no doubt that the area over which these
deposits extend was in Middle Tertiary times an enclosed lake, yet
the stages which preceded the isolation of this extent of water are
not so easily recognizable.

The fact that mollusca characteristic of brackish water—such as
Cyrena, Cerithium, and Litorinella—are found in beds as high as the
Blattersandstein, is somewhat remarkable in itself. When we find,
moreover, that in the deeper layers there is a much larger percentage
of such types, and finally in the lowest strata we have to deal with
typically marine genera, it is evident that the succession of beds
records a series of great physiographic changes. It seems almost
certain that in Oligocene times these districts were covered by
sea-waters from the south ; and the contours of Central and Northern
Europe suggest a similar communication with the ocean on the north.

It seems probable that the district was a dry land area, while the
Cretaceous rocks of other parts of Germany were being deposited ;
that an Eocene or post-Eocene subsidence let in the sea- water from

A. Vaughan Jennings—Geology of Bad Nauheim. 363

a long northward extension of the Mediterranean reaching from. the
Marseilles neighbourhood up the Rhéne and Rhine valleys, perhaps
establishing communication with the North Sea; and that the earth-
movements which subsequently completed the upheaval of the
Alpine chain separated the northern gulf from the sea to which it
had formerly belonged.

The process of severance was doubtless gradual, and allowed of
a transition period in which the marine Murex and Perna were slowly
displaced by the brackish-water Cerithium and Cyrena. In the
upper strata there are narrow bands in which the fossils indicate
the prevalence of purely fresh-water conditions, but the brackish-
water types continued to exist apparently through Miocene times.
__(c) As to the chemical and physical questions connected with the
Nauheim springs, anything like a complete discussion is beyond the
scope of this paper. Those who wish to know how far the con-
sideration of the amount of soluble salts in springs, rivers, and seas
may lead them in the discussion of the geological age of our planet,
should read Professor Joly’s interesting paper in the Transactions of
the Royal Dublin Society for 1899.

So far as the local questions are concerned we can only make
a note or two on, firstly, the chemical contents, and secondly, the
physical conditions.

In the first case it is evident that we are not dealing with
‘special’ types of springs—saline, chalybeate, or calcareous—but
with a combination of all. It would be interesting to know the
sources of the different contents, but it is difficult to make anything
but the vaguest suggestions.

As to the iron, it is evident that a certain amount may come from
denudation of the Devonian rocks on the west, and more from the
breaking up of the basalts. The extraordinary amount of iron
oxides in some beds of the ‘ Bliittersandstein’ suggests that they may
have contributed large quantities to the underground supply from
which the springs now rise, but they, in turn, must have derived
it from neighbouring Paleozoic or igneous rocks in Tertiary times.

With respect, again, to the calcareous contents, there seems a much
larger proportion than the geological features of the surrounding
country would lead one to expect. The limestone strata are of
small extent, and anything contributed by the decomposition of the
felspars in the basalt would be insignificant. There is, on the other
hand, a great quantity of calcareous matter in the Tertiary beds,
derived at that date, most likely, from a greater distance and from
a larger extent of since denuded limestone in the district. Much of
this has been and is still being gradually carried down through
fissures to the subterranean reservoirs which the borings have
‘tapped.’ The lime was doubtless largely separated through the
agency of organisms, but in beds of this character the shells would
almost certainly be to a large extent redissolved.

It is possible, however, that we have not here sufficient to account
for the surface phenomena, especially when we also take into con-
sideration the enormous amount of carbon dioxide in the waters
of the Sprudel. Probably there are deep-seated calcareous strata,

364 A. Vaughan Jennings—Geology of Bad Nauheim.

beyond the reach of the borings, where a high temperature prevails
and intense chemical reaction is still in progress.

The soluble saline constituents again offer us much the same
problem. The physiographic changes of Tertiary times must have
been slow, gradual, and constantly varying, and the alternations of
marine, brackish, and fresh-water conditions probably resulted in
a large residue of salt in the strata then being deposited. The
minerals present in such formations as the Blattersandstein certainly
suggest this; but whether or not such a residue is still present, a vast
amount has probably been washed down into the subjacent rocks.

If this be considered insufficient as a source of the present regular
supply, one is obliged to fall back again on the supposition that
there exist below the deepest borings either great salt beds or
a stratum of immense chemical activity.

Turning from the question of chemical contents to that of physical
conditions, one meets again with questions more easily asked than
answered. ‘The most obvious are the cause of the high temperature
of the waters, and the reason for their expulsion. As to the former
one might suggest a very great depth of origin, but we have no
evidence that these springs rise from a stratum deep-seated enough
to account alone for their heat. Mechanical pressure, added to such
strong chemical activity as may exist at a relatively high level in
the earth’s crust, even locally, might also account for it in part.
In addition to such conditions, however, we have to remember the
proximity of great basaltic masses which were themselves in a state
of fusion at a period not, geologically speaking, so very remote.
As the presence of thermal springs is so commonly correlated all
the world over with the existence of comparatively recent volcanic
action, it is probable that we are safe in here regarding the present
temperature of the brine-springs as residual from volcanic times.

With respect to the cause of the expulsive force with which the
waters of the two great ‘sprudels’ are thrown up, it seems that
the German geologists, as a rule, are inclined to follow their great
leader Bunsen, who studied the district early in the century and
ascribed the effects entirely to the freeing of the carbon dioxide.

That the sudden liberation of gas, with the diminishing pressure
as the water rises in the tube, must have a very great effect in
producing the violence of the final escape, cannot be denied ; but this
does not necessarily justify a neglect of hydraulic pressure altogether.
The great drainage area of the Taunus, its large rainfall, and the
fissures and cavities it contains all seem to suggest the probability
of a very efficient hydraulic system at work; and the history of
the Great Sprudel, where the first outburst only occurred some years
after the construction of the boring, as a consequence of heavy rains,
would appear to support this view.

Also, as Professor Cole has pointed out to me, why neglect
“residual pressure’? Just as we may attribute high temperature
to the survival, in extremis, of volcanic conditions, so the tectonic
‘ Alpine’ movements are not to be regarded as entirely dead, but the
remaining strains and pressures in the earth’s crust may stili be
factors in the ejection of these heated waters.

A. Vaughan Jennings—Geology of Bad Nauheim. 365:

(d) With regard, lastly, to the agency of the basaltic eruptions,
the considerations involved have been already referred to, and my
own observations have been too limited to permit of a definite
opinion. A superficial study of the country would lead one to the

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conclusion that the basaltic masses had been consolidated before

the Oligocene seas or lakes deposited sediments round their bases,

and that they formed islands in the waters of Middle Tertiary times.

There is, however, I understand, evidence elsewhere for the

Miocene age! of the eruptions, and of a still later date for part of
1 See note on p. 339.

366 A. Vaughan Jennings—Geology of Bad Nauheim:

those of the Vogelsgebirge. One can only conclude that the patches
in the immediate neighbourhood of Bad Nauheim represent lava-
flows at a considerable distance from the active centres, and that’
they forced their way through the sedimentary rock, with com-°
paratively little disturbance or metamorphism.

| The fact that there are reappearances of basalt between Homburg
and Ober Erlenburg and on towards Wiesbaden, suggests the
existence of a very wide zone which may have a far greater
subterranean extent than the minor surface exposures lead one
to expect.

In conclusion, I have to express my thanks for assistance to
Professor Kinkelin, of Frankfurt; Professor Brauns, of Giessen ;
Professor Wittich, of Darmstadt; and Professor Denckmann, of
Berlin; to Herr Bergrath Otto Weiss, of Nauheim; and lastly,
and very gratefully, to Herr Samiteneeart Dr. Fordinand Credner,
who, in the interests of geology, treated with a generous leniency
a somewhat disobedient patient.

The works mentioned below cannot, of course, be regarded as
a complete bibliography. I have only recorded such as were
brought to my notice during a brief visit as a starting-point for
the next student who has the good or bad luck to find himself at
Nauheim.

“Geologische Specialkarte des Grossherzogthume Hessen.” Descrip-
tions of (a) Giessen section by Dieffenbach, 1856 ; (b) Friedberg
(including Nauheim ) section by Ludwig, 1855.

Bad Nauheim: Guide by Herr Bergrath Otto Weiss & Dr. Groedel,

1888. (This edition is mentioned here as it contains
a chapter on the geology of the district more complete than:
that of the ordinary guides.)

Kinkelin.—(a) “ Brlaiiterungen zu den geologischen Ubersichtskarten
der Gegend zwischen Taunus und Spessart ”: Sencken-
bergischer Bericht, Frankfurt, 1889. (6) “Die Tertiar u.
Diluvialablag. d. unteren Mainthales”: Abb. z. geol.'
Specialkarte von Preussen, Bd. ix, Heft 4, 1892. (c).
“Geol. Tektonik d. Umgebung v. Frankfurt”: Sencken-'
bergische Naturforsch. Gesellschaft, 1885.

Wittich.—“ Bericht tiber die geologische Aufnahme der Umgegend
von Bad Nauheim”: Vereins fiir Erdkunde und der Grossh..
geol. Landesanstalt zu Darmstadt, Folge iv, Heft 19, 1898. |

Denckmann.—“ Silur und Unterdevon im Kellerwalde”: Jahrb. der!
konigl. preuss. geol. Landesanstalt, 1896. :

Wagner.—* Chronik von Bad Nauheim,” Nauheim, 1897.

Lepsius.—“ Geologie von Deutschland,” Bd. i (1892).

Koch.—Jahrb. Preuss. Geol. Landesanstalt, Bd. i (1881), Taf. vi,

Fig. 1.

Bunsen. — Stud. der Géttingischen Vereins Bergminnischen
Freunde, Bd. iv, Heft 3 (‘Uber de Nauheimer Thermal-
quellen’’).

Bromeis. — Jahresbericht. d. Wetterauischen Gesellschaft f. d.
Naturkund. (“ Grosse Soolsprudel v. Nauheim ”).

hy WOE, WAVE IRIE, Sih

DEc.

1900.

GEOL. MaG.,

H
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TERTIARY FORAMINIFERAL LIMESTONES From SINAI.

FE. Chapman—Tertiary Foraminifera in Limestones, Sinai. 367

I1].—Tertrary Foramrstrerat Limesrones From Srwat.
By .Freprrick Cuapman, A.L.S., F.R.M.S.
(PLATES XIII anp XIV.)
(Concluded from the July Number, p. 316.)
Nummotires, Lamarck [1801].

~ Preliminary remarks on the genus.—The interesting observations
on the dimorphism of the: genus Numimulites, which iho been made’
from time to time by special investigators, such as Von Hantken,
Munier-Chalmas & Schlumberger, De la Harpe, Rupert Jones, and
Van den Broeck, have resulted in the establishment of couples of
so-called species, constituting a species in the zoological sense, in
which the smaller form, with a large central chamber, is eines
to.as form A, whilst form B usually Shee a larger test and invariably.
possesses a diminutive central chamber. The two forms are other-
wise spoken of as the megalospheric and microspheric forms. In
some cases there may be little doubt as to the accuracy of the
assignment of the two forms to one species, especially since they
may be the only examples present in the rock. In the case of
a stratum containing more than two species, however, there may
be no, small difficulty i in coupling the actual forms which constitute
the species, for there is often little in either.the internal or external
characters to guide one in linking the forms. In our present state
of knowledge, therefore, it appears to be most convenient to describe
the forms under their, specific denominations as already known, at
the same time pointing out their relationship to one another. Some
good suggestions as to the naming of. Nummulites and_ other
canes apes which exhibit the twat modes of growth and shell
form have lately been made by Dr. A. Silvestri.’

With regard to the older method of grouping the Nummulites
according to their superficial appearance and texture, this can be
at the eet only an artificial method of arrangement, for it some-
times happens that two different forms constituting a zoological
species may be found to belong to two of the separated so-called
groups; as, for instance, N. curvispira, which has been placed in the
granulate group, and M. complanata or N. complanata, var. Pachot,
in the group of smooth forms. Moreover, it will be seen by
referring to Rupert Jones’ Catalogue of Fossil Foraminifera in the
British Rieder > that N. curvispira is an example of the granulate
group which does not invariably exhibit the characters ascribed to it.

Nummulites planulata (Lamarck). (PI. XIII, Fig. 2a.)

Lenticulites planulata, Lamarck, 1894: Annales du Muséum, vol. v, p. 187.
Nummutlites planulata (dV Orb.), @ Archiac & Haime, 1853: Descr. Anim. groupe
nummulitique Inde, vol. i, p. 142, pl. ix, figs. 5a, 6a-c, 7a-h, 8a-d,
9a, 6, 10a-c.
One recognizes this form by the minute or almost invisible central

chamber, onal the flatness of the test. In section it exhibits from
1 Atti dell’ Accad. Pont. Nuovi Lincei, Anno liii (1900), pp. 1-10. See also

Van den Broeck: Bull. Soc. Belge Géol. Pal. Hydr., vol. x (1896), 1899.
2 Op. cit., pp. 46, 47, specimens P 1014 and P 890.

368 F. Chapman—Tertiary Foraminifera

four to six whorls, which increase rapidly in breadth (in median
section), especially towards the last.

The specimens here dealt with are very typical when compared
with d’Archiac’s figures. Those forms of the same group or type
recorded by De la Harpe from Egypt! differ chiefly in their umbonate
centre and comparatively sharp peripheral edge.

N. planulata appears to be distributed chiefly through the Lower
and Middle Eocene beds of Europe, but it is occasionally found with
a higher range. This species has been recorded by Dr. Fraas from
Egypt.

Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt, No. 4,112, Box No. 2/7. ? Bartonian
(Upper Eocene) or ? top of Mokattam Series (Middle Eocene) : Jebel
Abyad, beach deposit (later). Common.

Nummulites Guettardi, d’Archiac & Haime, var. antiqua, De la Harpe.
(Pl. XIII, Fig. 60.)
Nummulites Guettardi, @ Archiac, var. antigua, De la Harpe, 1883: Paleonto-
graphica, vol. xxx, Pal. Theil, p. 172, pl. xxx (i), figs. 37-42.

The central chamber in our specimens from Sinai is fairly large,
agreeing in this particular with the typical examples of the species
figured by d’Archiac.? De la Harpe, however, states that his speci-
mens have a small central chamber, so that it is possible that we
have here the two forms A and B confused by the above-named
authors.

The variety antiqua differs from the typical N. Guettardi in having
a lenticular and more compressed shell. The type form was found
by De la Harpe only in the Upper Eocene beds of Egypt.

The above variety was found by De la Harpe in rocks of the
Libyan Series (Lower Eocene) of Nekeb, east of Farifrah, and of
El-Guss-Abu-Said.

Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt, No. 3,902, Box No. 15/. Libyan Series

(Lower Hocene): Jebel Krer, Sinai (same range as Jebel Abyad).
Common.

Nummulites Ramondi, Defrance. (Pl. XIII, Figs. 3b, 40.)

NV. Ramondi, Defrance, 1825: Dict. Sci. Nat., vol. xxxv, p. 224. D’Archiac &
Haime, 1853: Descr. Anim. groupe nummulitique Inde, vol. i, p. 128,
pl. vii, figs. 18a-d, 14a, 15a, 16a, 17a, b.

This is a small species, but has no large central chamber. The
peripheral edge is sharper than that of NV. Guettardi, and the test is
much thinner.

N. Ramondi is one of the most widely distributed of the nummu-
lites; amongst many localities it has been found in France, the
Alps, the Pyrenees, Egypt, the Crimea, and India. From Hgypt
De la Harpe obtained it in the Lower Libyan Series of Jebel Tér.

Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt, Nos. 4,113 and 4,135, Box Nos. 41 and 31
respectively. Libyan Series (Lower Eocene) : junction of Wadi

1 Paleontographica, vol. xxx (1883), Pal. Theil, pp. 161-4, pl. xxx, figs. 1-18:
NV. Fraasi, N. Rutimeyeri, and N. Chavannesi.

* Deser. Anim. groupe nummulitique Inde, vol. i (18538), p. 130, pl. vii,
figs. 18a-e, 19a, b.

in Limestones from Sinai. 369

Baba and Wadi Shellal, Sinai. Common. ? No. 3,598, Box No. 181.
Mokattam Series (Middle Eocene): Wadi Khadahid. Rare.

be Nummulites Heberti, d’Archiac & Haime.

Nummulites Heberti, V Archiac & Haime, 1853: Descr. groupe nummulitique Inde,
: vol. i, p. 147, pl. ix, figs. 14a-g, lda. De la Harpe, 1883: Paleonto-
oan graphica, vol. xxx, Pal. Theil, p. 178, pl. xxxi (ii), figs. 26, 27.

_ This is a very minute nummulite, having an umbonate centre and
a-sharp peripheral edge. The central chamber is almost invisible.
The specimens from Sinai measure about 2mm. in diameter and
‘85 mm. in thickness. N. Heberti was found by Schwager in both
the Libyan and Bartonian Series of Egypt... —_-

Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt, No. 4,112, Box No. 2/. ? Bartonian
(Upper Eocene) or ? top of Mokattam Series (Middle Hocene) :
Jebel Abyad, Sinai, beach deposit (later). Frequent. Also No. 3,902,
Box No. 15/. Libyan Series (Lower Hocene): Jebel Krer (same
range as Jebel Abyad), Sinai. Rare.

Nummulites variolaria (Lamarck). (Pl. XIII, Fig. 26.)

Lenticulites variolaria, Lamarck, 1804: Ann. du Muséum, vol. v, p. 187, No. 2.
Nwnmularia variolaria (Lam.), Sowerby, 1829: Mineral Conchology, vol. vi, p.76,
pl. pxxxviii, fig. 3.
Nummulites variolaria (Sow.), d’Archiac & Haime, 1853: Descr. Anim. groupé
nummulitique Inde, vol. i, p. 146, pl. ix, figs. 13a-g.
N. variolaria (Lam.), De la Harpe, 1883: Paleontographica, vol. xxx, Pal. Theil,
a p- 179, pl. xxxi (ii), figs. 28-86.

This is one of the most widely distributed nummulites. It occurs
in Hampshire, near Brussels, Biarritz, in Hungary, Asia Minor,
Kurdistan, etc. It is usually characteristic of the Middle and Upper
Eocene. In Egypt it has been found in the Lower and Upper
Eocene (De la Harpe).

It is fairly common in the specimen from Sinai, No, 4,112, and is
associated with N. planulata. The characters by which one recog-
nizes it in section are the lenticular outline and sharp peripheral
edges. In the tangential aspect the sections exhibit the regularly
striated shell surface. The central chamber is moderately large.

Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt, No. 4,112, Box No. 2l. ? Bartonian
Series (Upper Eocene) or ? top of Mokattam Series (Middle Hocene) :
beach deposit, Jebel Abyad, Sinai. Frequent.

Nummuilites subdiscorbina, De la Harpe. (Pl. XIII, Fig. 1.)

Nummulites subdiscorbina, De la Harpe, 1883: Paleeontographica, vol. xxx, Pal.

This species is not unlike N. Guettardi, var. antiqua, but differs in
the greater proportionate breadth of the test; it also exhibits
strongly developed double cones of tubuli at the umbilical axis.
This species is relatively larger than N. Guettardi, var. antiqua.

De la Harpe states that N. subdiscorbina usually accompanies the
larger species NV. discorbina, but this is not the case with those of the
Sinaitic limestones. The Egyptian specimens were found near Cairo,
at Beni Hassan and Minieh.

. Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt, No. 4,111, Box No. 1l. Mokattam Series
(Middle Eocene): top of Jebel Abyad, south of Wadi Gharandel,
Sinai. Abundant.

DECADE IV.—VOL. VII.—NO. VIII. 24

370 F. Chapman—Tertiary Foraminifera

The group of Nummulites Gizehensis (Forskal), Ehrenberg.

From a zoological standpoint the various forms of nummulites so
closely associated in certain beds of the Mokattam Series in Egypt
and neighbouring areas, referred to under the name of N. Gizehensts
and its varieties, are clearly local modifications of the more widely
distributed Nummulites complanata, Lamarck. In consideration of
the practical use of distinctive terms for local varieties in relation to
their stratigraphical distribution, it is here proposed to retain the
grouping of this series so minutely and carefully worked out by
Dr. De la Harpe.

Nummulites Gizehensis (Forskal), Ehrenberg, var. Zhrenbergt,
De la Harpe. (PI. XIV, Fig. 15.)
Nautilus Gyzehensis, Forskal, 1775: Descriptiones Animalium, p. 140. 1776:
Icones rerum naturalium, etc.
Nummulites Gyzehensis, Ehrenberg, 1838: Abhandl. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, p. 938.
NV. Gyzehensis, Ehr., d’ Archiac & Haime, 1853: Descr. Anim. groupe nummulitique
Inde, vol. i, p. 94, pl. ii, figs. 6a-f, 7a, 8.
N. Gizehensis Ehrenbergi, De la Harpe, 1883: Paleontographica, vol. xxx, Pal.
Theil, p. 190, pl. xxxii, figs. 16-25; pl. xxxiii, figs. 1, 2.

This is the well-known form with the thick disc and rounded
edge. The septa between each chamber are unusually thick and
inclined.

This variety has been chiefly obtained from Egypt, but it has also
been recorded from Sinai, Syria, Anatolia, and Vicentin. In Sinai it
occurred at Wady Gharandel (Rupert Jones and Bauerman). It has
also been doubtfully recorded from Biarritz.

Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt, No. 4,163, Box No. 51. Mokattam Series
(Middle Eocene): near top of Jebel Safariat, Sinai. Several
specimens.

Nummulites Gizehensis (Forskal), Ehrenberg, var. Lyelli, d’Archiac &
Haime. (PI. XIV, Fig. 14.)

Nummulites Lyelli (pars), d’ Archiac & Haime, 1853: Descr. Anim. groupe nummu-
litique Inde, vol. i, p. 95, pl. iii, figs. 1a, 0, 2. Fraas, 1867: Aus dem
Orient, p. 129.

NV. Gizehensis Lyelli, d Archiac, De la Harpe, 1883: Paleontographica, vol. xxx,
Pal. Theil, p. 192, pl. xxxiii (iv), figs. 3-10.

This is a large variety, and perhaps approaches the type JV. com-
planata most closely. It is rather regular in outward form, and has
the peripheral edge fairly sharp and thin. The septa, seen in
section, run nearly straight across from whorl to whorl, especially
in the later turns of the shell, instead of being arcuate and inclined,
as in the variety previously mentioned. The chambers are irregularly
spaced. The specimens from Sinai measure as much as 38mm. in
diameter and about 6 mm. in thickness,

NV. Gizehensis, var. Lyelli, has been recorded from Hgypt, near
Cairo; and from Syria, in the white limestone of Gerizhem.

Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt, No. 4,163, Box No. 51. Mokattam Series
(Middle Eocene) : near top of Jebel Safariat, Sinai. Very common.

Nummulites Gizehensis (Forskal), Ehrenberg, var. Pachoz, De la Harpe.

Nummulites Gizehensis Pachoi, De la Harpe, 1883: Paleontographica, vol. xxx,
Pal. Theil, p. 193, pl. xxiii (iv), figs. 14-18; pl. xxxiv (y), figs. 1-6.

iis
G.

Geol Mag. 1900.

ae

1b .x2 eee

Ghapman del.ad nat.
M Woodward lith.

Focene

Decade IV.Vol VII. PL.XTV.

10a x30

i

AL5

West,Newman imp.

Foraminifera from Sinai.

in Limestones from Sinai. 371

This variety is large, or moderately large compared with others
of the same type; discoid, compressed, and with rounded, blunt, or
sharp edges. The cross section shows the sides to be parallel.

De la Harpe has recorded this variety from the Pyramids of
Gizeh, in the Wadi Emsid-el-Flis, between Mér and Farafrah, on the
Garet-el-Daileh, and near Rajan, between the Fajiim and Beharieh.

Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt, No. 4,111, Box No. 11. Mokattam
Series (Middle Eocene): top of Jebel Abyad, south of Wadi
Gharandel, Sinai. Frequent. No. 4,163, Box No. dl. Mokattam
Series (Middle Eocene) : near top of Jebel Safariat, Sinai. Frequent.
Also No. 3,598, Box No. 181. Mokattam Series (Middle Eocene) :
Wadi Khadahid, Sinai. Frequent.

Nummulites curvispira, Savi & Meneghini. (Pl. XIII, Fig. 5.)
Nummulina curvispira, Savi & Meneghini, 1851: Consid. Geol. Toscana, p. 137.
Nummulites curvispira (Menegh.), d’Archiac & Haime, 1853: Deser. Anim. groupe

nummulitique Inde, p. 127, pl. vi, figs. lia-d. Fraas, 1867: Aus dem
Orient, p. 130. De la Harpe, 1883: Palzontographica, vol. xxx, Pal.
Theil, p. 200, pl. xxxiv (v), figs. 42-67.

This nummulite, although very variable, is generally of a flattened
lenticular shape, with rounded peripheral edge, sometimes more or
less sharp. In the latter feature it approaches N. Rouaulti, d’Arch.
and Haime. Clean fresh specimens often show the flexuose striation
which is characteristic of N. Gizehensis. The surface of specimens
slightly weathered is radially or sinuously striate, with granulations
sparsely scattered between them. ‘The central chamber is usually
very large, and is followed by a semilunar segment. The whorls
are somewhat irregular, and there are usually six turns on a radius
of 3mm. The chambers are elongate and greatly curved.

N. curvispira has already been recorded from Sinai (Wadi
Gharandel) by Rupert Jones. It is commonly found at most of the
localities in Egypt in the Mokattam Series, at Mokattam, Gizeh,
Minieh, Beni Hassan, and the Libyan Desert.

Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt, No. 4,111, Box No. 11. Mokattam Series
(Middle Eocene): top of Jebel Abyad, south of Wadi Gharandel,
Sinai. Frequent. No. 3,598, Box No. 131. Mokattam Series (Middle
Eocene) : Wadi Khadahid, Sinai. Very common.

Nummulites Barroni, sp. nov. (Pl. XIV, Figs. 16a, b, .)

Test lenticular, swollen in the centre, hollowed near the periphery,
edge quite sharp. Surface striate and sometimes feebly granulate.
Average diameter, 5 mm.; thickness at the centre, 2 mm.; shell
with from 4 to 5 whorls; 4 turns in a radius of 2mm. Septa
strongly arched. Central chamber subspherical and very large, one
measuring ‘75 mm.

This species recalls N. Rouaulti by its general shape, but the
edge is much sharper, and the thickness at the centre is greater in
relative proportion to size. :

The three species N. curvispira, N. Rouaulti, and N. Barroni are
probably related, and represent a group of the megalospheric type
which has a dimorphic relationship with N. Gizehensis and its
varieties.

372 F. Chapman—Tertiary Foraminifera

This species is named after Mr. T. Barron, F.G.S., who collected
the specimens during his work in Sinai, January to June, 1899.
Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt, No. 3,598, Box No. 13/. Mokattam
Series (Middle Eocene) : Wadi Khadahid, Sinai. Common.

OrsrtorpEs, d’Orbigny [1847].

Orbitoides (Discocyclina) dispansa (Sowerby). (PJ. XIII, Figs. 6c, Tc.):
Lycophris dispansus, Sowerby, 1837 [1840]: Trans. Geol. Soc. Lond., ser. 11, vol. v,

pp- 327, 718, pl. xxiv, figs. 16, 16a, b. ’
Orbitoides dilabida, Schwager, 1883: Paleontographica, vol. xxx, Pal. Theil, p. 140,
- pl. xxix, figs. 7a-e.'
' Schwager records this species under the name of O. dilabida from
both the Libyan and the Mokattam Series of Egypt; Dr. Carter
found it in Scinde, Kutch, and Arabia.

Nearly all our Sinaitic examples are slightly abraded, as if rolled
by current agency, and in one of the specimens, No. 4,112, of later
age, they are quite fragmentary.

Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt, No. 4,111, Box No. 1/. Mokattam Series
(Middle Eocene) : top of Jebel Abyad, south of Wadi Gharandel,
Sinai. Frequent. No. 4,112, Box No. 2l. (Derived) ? Bartonian
Series (Upper Eocene) or ? top of Mokattam Series (Middle Hocene) :
beach deposit, Jebel Abyad, Sinai. Rare, broken. No. 3,902, Box
No. 151. Libyan Series (Lower Hocene): Jebel Krer, Sinai.
Common.

Orbitoides (Discocyclina) papyracea (Boubée).

Nummutlites papyracea, Boubée, 1832: Bull. Soc. géol. France, ser. 11, p. 446.
Orbitoides (Discocyclina) papyracea (Boubée), Giimbel, 1868 [1870]: Abhand]. M..
ph. Cl. k. bayer. Ak. Wiss., vol. x, p. 690, pl. ili, figs. 3-12, 19-29.
O. papyracea (Boubée), Schwager, 1883: Paleontographica, vol. xxx, Pal. Theil,
5 Nes

0. nudimargo, Schwager, 1883: op. cit., p. 139, pl. xxix, figs. 8a-e.

' The specimens in the Sinaitic limestones show every deviation
between the forms figured by Schwager as 0. nudimargo and
ordinary specimens of O. papyracea, which sometimes have a slightly
thicker test. Our examples are seen in section and are generally
more or less fragmentary.

O. papyracea has been found in both the Libyan and Mokattam
Series in Egypt.

Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt, No. 4,111, Box No. 1l. Mokattam Series.
(Middle Kocene) : top of Jebel Abyad, south of Wadi Gharandel,
Sinai. Frequent. No. 8,902, Box No. 15/. Libyan Series (Lower
Eocene) : Jebel Krer, Sinai. Rare.

Orbitoides (Discocyclina) ephippium (Schlotheim).
Lenticulites ephippium, Schlotheim, 1820; Die Petrefactenkunde, p. 89.
Orbitoides (Discocyclina) ephippium (Schlotheim), Giimbel, 1868 [1870]: Abhandl.
Tea m. ph. Cl. k. bayer. Ak. Wiss., vol. x, p. 696, pl. iii, figs. 15, 16, 38, 39.
Orbitoides ephippium (Schlotheim), Schwager, 1883: Paleeontographica, vol. xxx,
‘ Pal. Theil, p. 139. ¥

A few characteristic examples of the above species occur in our
sections. It was recorded by Schwager from the Mokattam Series
of Egypt.

in Limestones-from Sinai. i 373

Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt, No. 4,111, Box No. 11. Mokattam Series
(Middle Eocene): top of Jebel Abyad, south of Wadi Gharandel,
Sinai. Rare, somewhat fragmentary.

SPECIES DESCRIBED IN THIS PAPER.

. Miliolna cireularis (Bornemann). Libyan Series: Jebel Krer.
. Alveolina Boscii (Detrance). Libyan Series: Jebel Krer.
A. decipiens, Schwager. Libyan Series: Jebel Krer.
. Textularia agglutinans, @ Orbigny. Libyan Series: junction of Wadi Baba and
Wadi Shellal.
. Bigenerina nodosaria?, d’ Orb. Libyan Series: Jebel Krer.
. Bolivina punctata?, d’Orb. Mokattam Series: Jebel Abyad.
. Globigerina bulloides, V Orb. Bartonian or top of Mokattam Series: Jebel Abyad.
. G. conglobata, Brady. Mokattam Series: Jebel Abyad.
. G. cretacea?, VOrb. Mokattam Series: Jebel “Abyad. Also Libyan Series :
Jebel Krer.
. Discorbina rugosa (d’Orb.). Mokattam Series: Jebel Abyad.
. D. globularis (Vv Orb.).. Mokattam Series: Jebel Abyad.
. Truncatulina wnbonifera (Schwager). Mokattam Sener Wadi Khadahid.
Rotalia caleariformis (Schwager). Mokattam Series: Jebel Abyad.
- Operculina conplanata (Detrance), var. canalzfera, d@’Archiac. Libyan Series =
junction of Wadi Baba and Wadi Shellal; Jebel Krer.
. O. complanata, var. discoidea, Schwager. ? Bartonian or top of Mokattam
Series: Jebel Abyad. :
: Heterostegina depressa, d’Orb. Libyan Series: Jebel Krer.
- Nummulites planulata (Lamarck). ? Bartonian or top of Mokattam See
Jebel Abyad.
. N. Guettardi, d’ Arch. & Haime, var. antigua, De la Harpe. Libyan Sarees
Jebel Krer. , 7
19. NV. Ramondi, Defrance. Libyan Series: junction of Wadi Baba and Wadi
Shellal. : :
20. WV. Heberti, d’ Arch. & Haime. ? Bartonian or top of Mokattam Series: Jebel
Aby: ad.’ Also Libyan Series: Jebel Krer. <3 :
21. NV. variolaria (Lamarck). ? Bartonian or top of Mokattam Series : Jebel Abyad.
22. N. subdiscorbina, De la Harpe. Mokattam Series: Jebel Abyad.
23. N. Gizehensis (Forskal), var. Ehrenbergi, De la Harpe. Mokattam Series :
* Jebel Satariat.
24. N. Gizehensis, var. Lyelli, d’ Arch. & Haime. Mokattam Series: Jebel Safariat.
25. NN: Gizehensis, var. Pachoi, De la Harpe. ‘Mokattam Series: Jebel Abyad ;
Jebel Safariat ; Wadi Khadahid. ;
26. N. curvispira, Savi & Meneghini. Mokattam Series: Jebel Abyad; Wadi
Khadahid.
27. N. Barroni, sp. nov. Mokattam Series : Wadi Khadahid.
28. Orbitoides dispansa (Sow.). ? Bartonian or Mokattam Series: Jebel Abyad.
Libyan Series: Jebel Krer. }
29. Orbitoides papyracea (Boubée). Mokattam Series: Jebel Abyad. Libyan
Series: Jebel Krer.
30. O. ephippium (Schlotheim). Mokattam Series: Jebel Abyad.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIII.

Fic. 1.—Nummulites subdiscorbina, De la Harpe. Mokattam Series: in nummu-
litic limestone top of Jebel ae a No. et i Re nee
artonian or okattam Series: in
Fic. ar Nenana tlenniaty (Lam.). Foraminiferal limestone, Jebel Abyad,
Fie. 2b.—N. variolaria (Lam.). Sinai. No. 4,112. x 12.
Fies. 3a, 4a.—Operculina complanata (Defr.), var. canalifera, W Archiac. )
Figs. 3b, 46.—Nummulites Ramondi, Defrance.
Libyan Series: in dolomitized foraminiferal limestone, junction of Wadi
Baba and Wadi Shellal, Sinai. Nos. 4,185 and 4,113. x_16.
Fic. 5.— Nummulites curvispira, Savi & Meneghini. Wadi Khadahid, Sinai.:
No. 3,598. x44.

OOD Or Oo bo

a
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Bm oo bo

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_
co

374 Notices of Memoirs—Museums Association.

Fries. 6, 7.—Libyan Series: foraminiferal limestone, Jebel Krer, Sinai. No. 3,902.
6a, Alveolina Boscii (Defrance); 64, Nummulites Guettardi, d’ Arch.
and Haime, var. antigua, Dela Harpe ; 6c, 7¢, Orbitozdes dispansa (Sow.) ;
‘a, Heterostegina depressa, @Orb.; 7b, Bigenerina? nodosaria, d’ Orb.
xmlGe

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIV.

Fic. 1.—Wiliolina cireularis (Bornemann). Transverse section. Libyan Series:
Jebel Krer, Sinai. No. 3,902. x 380.

Fic. 2.—Alveolina decipiens, Schwager. Transverse section. Libyan Series: Jebel
Krer, Sinai. No. 3,902. x 15.

Fic. 3.—TZextularia agglutinans, @’Orb. Longitudinal section. Libyan Series:
junction of Wadi Baba and Wadi Shellal, Sinai. No. 4,113. x 16.

Fic. 4.—Bolivina punctata?, d’Orb. Longitudinal, peripheral section. Mokattam
Series: Jebel Abyad, Sinai. No. 4,111. x 30.

Fic. 5.—Globigerina bulloides, d’Orb. Section of test. Mokattam Series: Jebel
Abyad, Sinai. No. 4,111. x 30.

Fie. 6.—Globigerina conglobata, Brady. Section of test. Mokattam Series: Jebel
Abyad, Sinai. No. 4,111. x 30.

Fic. 7.—G. cretacea?, d’Orb. Section of test. Mokattam Series: Jebel Abyad,
Sinai. No. 4,111. x 380.

Fic. 8.—Discorbina globularis (d’Orb.). Section of test. Mokattam Series: Jebel
Abyad, Sinai. No. 4,111. x 30.

Fic. 9.—D. rugosa (d’Orb.). Section of test. Mokattam Series: Jebel Abyad,
Sinai. No. 4,111. x 80.

Fies. 10a, 6.— Truncatulina umbonifera (Schwager). Mokattam Series: Wadi
Khadahid, Sinai. No. 3,598. x 30.

Fig. 11.—Rotalia caleariformis (Schwager). Section of test. Mokattam Series :
Jebel Abyad, Sinai. No. 4,111. x 15.

Fic. 12.—Operculina complanata (Defrance), var. canalifera, d’Archiac. Libyan
Series: junction of Wadi Baba and Wadi Shellal, Sinai. No. 4,135.
x 3.

Fie. 13.— 0. complanata (Detr.), var. discoidea, Schwager. ? Bartonian or
? Mokattam Series: Jebel Abyad, Sinai. No. 4,112. x 3.

Fie. 14.—Nwmmulites Gizehensis (Forskal), var. Lyelli, d’ Archiac & Haime. Section
on the fifth and sixth whorls. Mokattam Series: Jebel Safariat, Sinai.
No. 4,163. x 15.

Fic. 15.—Nummulites Gizehensis (Forskal), var. Ehrenbergi, De la Harpe. Section
on the eleventh and twelfth whorls. Mokattam Series: Jebel Satariat,
Sinai. No. 4,168. x 16.

Fies. 16a, 6, e—Nwmmulites Barroni, sp. nov. 16a, superficial aspect of test ;
16), edge view; 16c, median section. Mokattam Series: Wadi Kha-
dahid, Sinai. No. 3,598. x 2.

WOTLICHS OF MEMOTRS-

Tue Muszums Assoctation: EteventH ANNUAL Metin,
CANTERBURY, JULY 9-12, 1900. President, Henry Woodward,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., V.P.Z.S, P.Pal.Soc., of the British
Museum (Natural History) ; Treasurer, Alderman W. H.
Brittain, J.P., F.R.G.S. (Museum, Sheffield) ; General Secretary.
KE. Howarth, F.R.A.S., F.Z.S. (Museum, Sheffield).

[J\HIS useful and deservedly successful Association—supported by

the presence of the Right Rev. the Bishop of Dover; the

Very Rev. the Dean of Canterbury; the Rev. Canon Routledge;

the Worshipful the Mayors of Canterbury and of Dover; the

Deputy - Mayor, Mr. Alderman Mason, J.P.; by F. Bennett-

Goldney, Esq. (Hon. Curator of the Royal Museum, Canterbury) ;

Mr. Sebastian Evans, M.A.. LL.D.; Mr. Stephen Horsley,

Notices of Memoirs—Museums Association. 375.

Sheriff; Mr. Henry Fielding, Town Clerk; and fifty Delegates
and Associates from various Museums throughout the country—
opened its public proceedings on Tuesday morning at 10 a.m.
with an address of welcome by His Worship the Mayor of
Canterbury, Alderman Geo. J. Collard, J.P.

Alderman W. H. Brittain—in the absence of the outgoing
President of the Association—then proposed the election of
Dr. Henry Woodward, F.R.S., of the Natural History Branch of the
British Museum, as President for 1900-1901, and paid an earnest
tribute to that gentleman’s work in connection with Museums.

The election having been carried unanimously,

Dr. Woodward rose to return his thanks and proceeded to read
his Presidential address.

It was, he said, a happy omen—he had almost said inspiration—
which led the founders of that Association to invite its organizing
Committee, twelve years ago, to meet in the ancient Hboracum, the
city of “the White Rose of York,” once the capital of Roman Britain,
which, blazoned down the long roll of history for eighteen hundred
years, still firmly stood its ground, like some ancient warrior, all
scarred and weather-beaten by time, by wars, and by revolutions,
a landmark in our history and a light to science. Such was the
fair archiepiscopal city of York, the birthplace of the Museums
Association, which in 1831 gave origin to the great British Association
for the Advancement of Science, and still earlier (1822) founded
the Yorkshire Philosophical Society. After visiting Liverpool,
Cambridge, Manchester, London, Dublin, Newcastle, Glasgow,
Oxford, Sheffield, and Brighton, the members of the Museums
Association had set out this year upon a pilgrimage to Canterbury,
the Mother-City of the English people—the “Cant-wara-byrig,”
the capital city of the “Cant,” the ‘“ Angul,” or corner of Britain
nearest to the Continent, towards which the immigration of those
Belgic tribes into Britain in pre-Roman times was directed, and
the later invasion of Julius Cesar, p.c. 54. The Cathedral, which
dated back to a.p. 602, was recovered by St. Augustine, its first
Archbishop, there having been, it was said, a church already on the
spot built by early Roman Christians. Like York, Canterbury had
been an archiepiscopal See from the earliest times to the present
day, and many of its primates lay buried within its precincts.

But it was not his duty to descant upon the merits of their present
happy meeting-place, or to attempt to record its history. Those
were matters he could safely leave in far abler hands, for among
their Vice-Presidents he saw the names of the Very Rev. the Dean
of Canterbury, the Worshipful the Mayor (Mr. Alderman George
Collard, J.P.), Mr. Alderman Mason, J.P., and many other gentlemen,
including Mr. F. Bennett-Goldney, the Honorary Curator of the
Royal Museum, Canterbury. They had also to be thankful for
the assistance of Mr. Henry Mead as Local Secretary. Upon the
kindness and hospitality of those gentlemen during their visit,
he felt sure they might safely rely, and indeed their programme
held out many agreeable promises of pleasant visits both here

O16" Notices of Memoirs—Museums Association.

and in Dover during their brief sojourn in Kent. The newly-*
elected President thanked the members for the high compliment ’
they had paid him in installing him in that office, and pro-’
ceeded to refer to his forty-two years’ association with the British’
Museum, and to the many changes and developments which had
taken place there during that period under the management of.
its numerous present and past officers and assistants. Referring
to various means by which additional interest may be introduced
into public museums, the speaker said that among the objects.
commenced to be carried out by the new Director, Professor H. Ray’
Lankester, was the formation of a museum to illustrate animals
under domestication. The Director hoped to be able to obtain
examples of the various breeds of animals which were the result’
of the invention of man—giving rise to what in Nature would
almost amount to the “origin of species.” But it did not appear’
that those varieties could ever remain permanent without artificial’
environments. All the immense varieties of the dog, for example,’
would speedily disappear or degenerate into mongrels if not strictly’
preserved by man. The same was true of the various breeds of:
fancy pigeons; if neglected, the offspring would again revert to the’
common blue rock pigeon from which they had sprung. Breeds’
of horses and cattle, when removed from care and the influence of:
domestication, were also found to lose their distinctive points of
difference, and to revert to the common wild form best adapted to~
its surroundings. Professor Lankester hoped to secure examples’
of some of those, and photographs of others to serve as records,
as a basis for future investigations. Dr. Woodward pointed out’
that in order that they might benefit permanently by the great’
advances made of late in natural knowledge, they must be prepared’
to make great changes, and sacrifice many cherished ideas, ‘and’
might find themselves travelling along new lines, guided by new
lights, or, perchance, might have to make their own lines, and
even to advance under hostile opposition to carry out their new’
ideas. This led the President to enter into various details of museum
arrangement, in which he suggested several improvements and’
gave results of other scientists’ and naturalists’ observations in this’
direction. Dr. Woodward particularly referred to the most valuable’
set of publications of Monographs, Catalogues, and Guides, issued’
by the authority of the Trustees of the British Museum, of which
he exhibited some examples on the table. Also to the use of
printed descriptive labels for all the more important groups of
animals, and for all objects of special interest and novelty exhibited’
to the public in the Museum Galleries. Bees:

The President dealt with the subject of arranging specimens in
museums and the difficulty of displaying recent and fossil forms”
together in one series. He referred to an earlier discussion of this
subject which took place at the British Association Meeting in
Manchester in 1887. In adopting such a radical alteration in the
arrangement of objects, first, there was ‘public opinion’ to be
considered; secondly, in a great public museum like that of the

Notices of Memoirs—Museums Association. 377

British Museum of Natural History there was the organization of
the staff, which, like the collections, was divided into departments ;
thirdly, there was the cost of making such alterations, which was
very great; and fourthly, there was the matter of convenience.

‘* Public opinion,” said Dr. Woodward, ‘is, I find, very largely in
favour of keeping the Geological and Zoological Collections distinct
from one another, principally because the people who use the
collections are still interested in them according to the special:
line of research in which they are engaged, and the books which’
they have been reading. They come expressly to see the Birds,
or the Beetles, or Butterflies, the African Antelopes, or Recent
Shells, and don’t want to see the fossil ones. Or, again, they are’
interested in Ammonites, or in Trilobites, or Fossil Fishes, and wish
to see what we have exhibited of one or other of these. For, after
all, the human intellect is restricted, and we cannot, many at least
of us, hope to attain to the wisdom of Solomon, who discoursed of.
trees from the cedars of Lebanon to the hyssop that springeth out,
of the wall, and spake also of beasts, and of fowls, and of creeping;
things, and of fishes. The necessities arising out of the greatness,
of the subject has made most of us specialists, and we are, as a rule,,
content to know one group fairly well. As a consequence, we,
rarely, nowadays, meet with the all-round Naturalist who has a wide
knowledge of most branches of Zoology and of Botany. Many.
of the members of this Museums Association have, however, com-,
pulsorily, to keep up such an all-round acquaintance with Natural
History, and not unfrequently to undertake the intelligent arrange-
ment of an Art-Gallery and perhaps a Gallery of Antiquities as well.
They have, in fact, to be more learned than the Professors of
Natural History. in the Queen’s Universities, who less than 50 years
ago were required to lecture on Geology, Mineralogy, Botany, and.
Zoology, in all their varied branches! and to give demonstrations
also to their classes in the field.

“The organization of a Museum into Departments, each under its
own special head, is almost fatal to any scheme of amalgamation,
and although under the late Sir William Flower, and the present
Director, Professor Ray Lankester, much has been done towards
breaking down the hard lines of demarcation, still the Departments
of Paleontology and Zoology remain as such to the present day.

“The late Director commenced in 1896 to remodel the Zoological
Department, working specially at the Mammalia, up to the time of
his retirement in September, 1898, and with the active co-operation
of Mr. Richard Lydekker, F.R.S. (who has continued the task down
to the present time). Still the great work remains unfinished.

“Sir William Flower’s last efforts were devoted to complete
the exhibition of Cetacea in the new whale-room, which contains
models, skins, and skeletons of thirty-eight of these huge marine
mammals. The present Director has just added all the fossil forms,
so that in this one group the biologist is able to see the living and
extinct members of the Cetacea placed side by side, and can realize
how far such a plan is a success,

078 Reviews—The Eighth International

“In the other groups of the Mammalia Mr. Lydekker has been
unable to introduce the whole of the fossil forms, and has been
content to indicate their existence by drawings, by coloured casts,
or by parts of specimens, wherever he could make room for them.
Explanatory labels have been introduced in each group, and
skeletons also of each type of mammal. Coloured maps showing
the geographical distribution of each family are also placed with
them. To do all this the actual number of exhibited specimens has
of necessity been greatly reduced. This limited exhibition of recent
and extinct forms together in one series had been advocated by me
in 1887, and may be seen carried out, as far as I have been able to’
obtain specimens, in the paleontological galleries under my care.”

e & a a tt e a ii

Dr. Woodward referred to the two great epoch-making events which
had so widely affected all the sciences, and which saw the light just
forty-two years ago, namely, the discoveries in prehistoric archzology,
by which the age of man has been carried back into Newer Tertiary
time, and the extinct Mammalia had been shown to have survived
down to the human period, and to have been contemporary with
early man and with many of the surviving forms of animals of
to-day; uniting the latest chapter of geological history to the oldest
records of our race, and joining the sciences of Geology and
Archeology together. Secondly, the enunciation at the same period
of Darwin’s origin of species and the doctrine of evolution, which
linked into one the whole chain of life from the earliest records
in Archean Rocks to the full tide of existences which now
surround us.

“ ® ts te a te i ts

The President, in conclusion, advocated the desirability of the
publication by the Association of a handbook giving an account
of every provincial museum throughout the country, with full
particulars as to each, not only as to its officers, organization, and
its plan of arrangement, but also what were the chief features of
its exhibits, and especially to print any records concerning ‘ types”
and ‘figured specimens’ preserved in its collection and any other
particulars of general public and scientific interest.

REVI Hw Ss.

I.—Tae Eitenta Internationa GroLiogicaL Coneress, Pants,
1900. Livret-Guide des Excursions en France du viiie Congrés
Géologique International. Avec 872 figures dans le texte et
25 planches. (Paris, 1900.)

HE “Comité d’organisation du viii¢ Congrés Géologique Inter-
national,” under the presidency of the venerable Professor

Gaudry, has just issued a “ Livret-Guide des Excursions en France

du vile Congrés Géologique International.” To judge from this

publication, the preparations for the impending Congress, which is
to meet at Paris from the 16th to the 28th August, have been

Geological Congress in Paris. 379

exceedingly well made. The “ Livret-Guide” forms a bulky octavo
volume of over 900 pages, with no less than 872 beautiful text-
figures and 25 plates (geological maps, sections, views, etc.).

The introduction contains notices of the geological, mineralogical,
and paleontulogical museums and collections of Paris— Muséum
d’Histoire Naturelle, Ecole des Mines, Sorbonne, Ecole Libre des
Hautes Etudes Scientifiques, Collection Pellat—drawn up by the
respective keepers.

The choice of the regions to be visited has been made in such
a manner that the Guide contains, as a matter of fact, a description
of all the ‘terrains’ of France, thus giving a summary of our actual
knowledge of the detailed geology of the country. So that this book
will be welcome not only to the members of the Congress, whether
excursionists or not, but for several years to come it will remain
a useful geological ‘ Baedeker’ of France.

There will be two categories of excursions, ‘Excursions générales’
and ‘ Excursions spéciales.’ In the latter the numbers are limited
to twenty, being intended for specialists only, who are supposed to
be at the same time good walkers and not to consider comfort as the
primary condition of a scientific excursion. The following are the
‘Excursions spéciales ’ :—

August 31 to September 9: Alps of the Dauphiné and Mont-Blanc
(Directors, MM. Marcel Bertrand and W. Kilian).
August 6 to 14: Aquitaine (Dir., M. Ph. Glangeaud).
August 6 to 14: Ardennes (Dir., M. Gosselet).
August 30 to September 6: Tertiary basins of the Rhone
(Dir., M. Depéret).
August 4 to 14: Bretagne (Dir., M. Ch. Barrois).
August 29 to September 4: Caves of the Causses
(Dir., M. E. Martel).
August 3 to 9: Gironde (Dir., M. E. Fallot).
August 30 to September 12: La Mure, Dévoluy, Diois, Valentinois
(Directors, MM. Lory, Paquier, Sayn).
August 9 to 14: Mayenne (Dir., M. D. P. Oehlert).
August 11 to 14: Miocene of Touraine (Dir., M. G. Dollfus).
August 29 to September 6: Montagne-Noire (Dir., M. Bergeron).
August 29 to September 6: Mont-Dore (Dir., M. Michel Lévy).
September 11 to 20: Mont-Ventoux and Montagne de Lure
(Directors, MM. W. Kilian and Léenhardt). ;
August 29 to September 8: Morvan (Directors, MM. Vélain, Peron,
and Bréon).
August 31 to September 9: Pelvoux and Briangonnais
(Dir., M. P. Termier). =
September 8 to 8: Picardie (Directors, MM. Gosselet, Ladriere,
and Cayeux).
September 238 to October 2: Provence (Directors, MM. Marcel
Bertrand, Vasseur, and Ziircher).
August 4 to 14: Pyrenees—crystalline rocks (Dir., M. A. Lacroix).
August 30 to September 8: Pyrenees—sedimentary formations
(Dir., M. L. Carez).

380 Reriews—Dr. J. W. Gregory’s Fossil Bryozoa

September 7 to 11: Secondary and Tertiary formations of the Basses-’
Alpes (Dir., M. E. Haug).

August 11 to 14: Turonien of Touraine and Cénomanien of ais
Mans (Dir., M. de Grossouvre).

Under the beading ‘Excursions générales’ are (1) three large’
excursions, Viz. :
August 29 to September 7: Coal-basins of Central France

(Directors, MM. Fayol and Grand’Kury).

August 30 to September 8; Primary and Secondary formations of
the Boulonnais and Normandy (Directors, MM. Gosselet,.
Munier-Chalmas, Pellat, Rigaux, Bigot, and Cayeux).

August 29 to September 15: Central Massif of France (Directors,

_ MM. Michel Lévy, Marcellin Boule, G. Fabre, and H. A.
Martel).

(2) Short excursions which will enable members to visit, during
the Congress, the Tertiary fossiliferous formations of the nei P Oia
hood of Paris.

From the dates given above it will be seen that the excursions
take place before, duri ing, and after the Congress. The directors.
of the excursions are the authors of the respective notices on the,
same, which are issued in twenty-three separate fascicules for ae
convenience of the excursionists.

In connection with the above it may be mentioned that at the feet
meeting of the Geological Society of London on June 2%, a letter
was ad from Protec Gaudry, the President of the Organizing*
Committee of the Congress, to the Foreign Secretary of the
Geological Society, conveying a very warm: and cordial invitation
to the Fellows of the Geological Society to attend the Congress, and*
assuring to them a hearty welcome from their geological brethren of
France. It is to be hoped that this generous invitation will find,
a ready response from our British Geologists.

JJ.—Catatocve or tHe Fossmn Bryozoa In TUE DEPARTMENT OF
GxroLocy, British Mussum (Narurat History). Tur Cre-
Tackous Bryozoa. Vol. I. By Dr. J. W. Gregory, D.Sce., F.G.S.
8vo; pp. xiv, 457, 17 plates, text illustrated. (London: printed:
by order of the Trustees of the Museum, 1899.)

OUR years ago we had the pleasure of noting (GEOL. Mac.,
1896, p. 378) the first of what it was hoped might be a series,

of Catalogues of the Fossil Bryozoa in the national collection. That
volume, Algo by Dr. Gregory, dealt with the Jurassic forms, which it
was seen would supply the key to those that came after. Now we
have before us the first instalment of the Cretaceous Bryozoa. The
work is on the same lines as its predecessor, with such changes in
nomenclature (e.g. Diastoporidee for Tubuliporidee) as experience has:
shown to be necessary, and is severely technical, consisting as it
does of descriptions of the species, with discussions as to synonymy;,
and so on. ‘The general introduction to the Cretaceous Bryozoa,
with other interesting questions, such as lists of localities with their

>. Correspondence—J. G. Goodchild. 38h

horizons, have been deferred for a second volume, and we can only
hope that though, greatly to the regret of his colleagues at the
Museum, Dr. Gregory has taken himself to fresh fields, the work he
has so ably begun may yet be carried to a successful end.

. The Bryozoa are notoriously a difficult group, though they are
a most fascinating study owing to the beauty of their forms, which
must strike even the most casual observer on turning over the
admirably executed plates which conclude the volume.

CORRESPONDENCE.

ee

FORMATION OF MARITIME PEAT.

Srr,—It may interest some of the readers of this Magazine to
Jearn that a remarkable illustration of the mode of formation of beds
of maritime peat is at present to be seen on the shore in a small bay
near the Bucket Rocks to the east of this town. During a heavy
flood one day late in the past autumn great quantities of leaves were
washed into the Tweed from the numerous woodlands, parks, and
hedgerows adjoining its banks, and in course of time were drifted
out to sea. A svuth-east wind prevailed at the time, and the flotilla
of leaves, on reaching the quieter water of the sea off the river
mouth, were gently wafted shorewards in the direction of the
sheltered bay referred to. As they floated they were evidently
first sorted out, in accordance with their buoyancy, and then were
quietly deposited at the foot of the cliff as the tide fell. They form
a sodden mass of leaves quite five feet in thickness at several places,
which extends along the shore for several hundred yards.

An old resident, long acquainted with the coast there, tells me

that the same thing happens almost every year; but that each year’s
deposit is generally washed seaward again, sooner or later, after it
has been laid down.
_ As might be expected from the nature of the deposit, the con-
stituents of which have been arranged solely with reference to ‘their
powers of flotation, it includes a small percentage of dried materials
which the sea-water has floated from various parts of the shore.
Bits of paper, straws, dried fronds of Fucus vesiculosus and F. serratus,
coated with Spirorbis, and pieces of Laminaria encrusted with
Membranipora, occur in small proportion, and there are a few
fragments of corallines. Talitrus locusta, both dead and living, is
rather common.

The mass is not divided by any beds of mud or sand. The
general aspect of the deposit differs but little from that of such
beds of maritime peat as occur, for example, at Elie in Fifeshire
and at Maryport in West Cumberland, both of which are usually
regarded as evidences of former changes of level of the land. Yet
it must be obvious, from a consideration of the facts above noted,
that similar deposits must frequently be laid down in the vicinity
of large rivers, in quiet nooks both at the sea-level and beneath it,
if the vegetable remains in the latter case have soaked long enough
to become water-logged. J. G. Goopcn Ip.

Berwicx, July 4, 1900.

382 Obituary—John Young, LL.D., F.G.S.

@ iS OeASeury a=
JOHN YOUNG, LL.D., F.G.S. a
Born 1828. Diep Marcu 18, 1900.

Joun Youne was born at Lennoxtown, in the parish of Campsie,
1823. His father, Thomas Young, was employed in the wright-
shop of Lennox Mill, the bleaching-field and calico-printing works
of Dalglish, Falconer, & Co. When 10 years old he was taken
from school to be a message-boy in the Bleachfield. This was
before the employment of children was ameliorated and regulated
by the Legislature; and then he was taken on in the Mill, where
16 hours a day (at sixpence a day and a penny an hour for over-
work), whether in the hot or cold works (both extreme), were more
than he could bear; and his mother took him away. Afterwards he
was apprenticed for seven years to print-cutting.

He was in the employment of the firm for 26 years, until he went
to live in Glasgow in 1859, but before then he utilized what little
time his hard work allowed him for study, attending the Mechanics
Institute and reading what books he could get to see on Geology,
his favourite science, and becoming well known among geologists.

In 1855 the British Association met at Glasgow, under the presi-
dency of the Duke of Argyll, and a collection of the rocks and fossils
of the West of Scotland was to be an important feature at the meeting.
Mr. Robert Dalglish, partner in-the Bleachworks, etc., knew of John
Young’s geological taste and competence, and arranged to let his
employé go to Glasgow to superintend and classify the collection.
For five months he was engaged on this work, and was brought into
contact with some of the leading geologists of the time. So thoroughly
qualified was he for this task, that shortly afterwards the Senatus
of Glasgow University offered him the position of Keeper of the
Hunterian Museum. In 1859 he removed to Glasgow with his wife
and young family, and entered on his new duties, living at the Old
College in the High Street of Glasgow.

He successfully fulfilled an onerous duty when the College of
Glasgow was removed from the High Street to Gilmorehill. He
carefully packed and removed the thousands of specimens—patho-
logical, physiological, and antiquarian—contained in the Hunterian
Museum, arranging and classifying them in their new location, with
the co-operation of his colleague, Professor John Young, M.D., the
Head Keeper of the Museum.

The Campsie district in Stirlingshire, between Glasgow and
Stirling, especially around Lennoxtown, his birthplace (about
seven miles north-east of Glasgow), had always attracted John
Young; indeed, at an early period he studied its features and its
geological structure assiduously and with success. He made himself
acquainted with all the natural and artificial exposures of its rocks
and strata, learning the mineralogical nature of the greenstones
and ash-beds of the trap-formation, and the fossil contents of the
sedimentary limestones, shales, and sandstones, some of which,
equivalent to the ‘“ Calciferous Sandstone Series,” are intercalated
with the trappean rocks.

Obituary—John Young, LL.D., F.G4.S. 383

From the Old Red Sandstone, lying below, he carefully noted the
sequence of the several members of (1) the ‘“Calciferous Sandstone
Series,” including the Ballagan Limestone Series and the Trap
Series; and (2) the several members of the ‘“ Lower Limestone
Series,” belonging to the great Lower Carboniferous Formation,
and equivalent in part to the Mountain Limestone of England. The
successive members of this ‘ Lower Limestone” group in ascending
order and divisible by their constitution and their fossils, he defined
as that of Mill Burn, of Balgrochen Burn, of Balglass Burn, of
Craigen Glen, of the Main Limestone and Coal, of the Hosie Lime-
stone, and of Corrie Burn. The Balquarhage Series, belonging to
the ‘‘ Upper Limestone,” also occurs.

In the above-mentioned groups of strata there are several seams of
coal, of not very good quality. There are some good cement-stones;
and a large proportion of the Campsie shales contain useful iron-
stone. Others of them are good oil-shales, in which the crowded
organisms, such as Entomostraca, have supplied, as he shows, the
hydrocarbon. Marine shells are abundant in many of the strata,
but in some limestones and shales they are wanting, only remains
of plants, fishes, and Entomostraca remaining in evidence of what is
regarded as estuarine conditions of these particular deposits. By
further research John Young and his colleagues elucidated the
relationship of these interesting strata of Campsie to those of other
parts of Western Scotland and elsewhere. Faults, causing a dis-
placement of the strata, were carefully observed by John Young in
the Campsie valley (the greenstone dyke at Milton for instance),
and the great Eddlewood fault in the Lanarkshire Coalfield.

The uppermost deposits in the region referred to belong to tha
Erratics of the Quaternary period, such as the boulder-till and the
sands and gravels that were washed out of old moraines; and these
have been cut into and variously modified by river-action since the
last uprise of the country. Surface scratchings and other glacial
markings are frequent. A striking monument to John Young’s
industry and acumen in glacial geology exists in the Hunterian
Museum, where he accumulated and laid out carefully for inspection
a well-selected and extensive series of boulders and striated stones
(190 varieties) excavated from the local Boulder-till in digging the
foundations of the noble University on the crown of Gilmore Hill.
In the Museum there they now constitute a valued ‘memorial of the
great variety of travelled rocks found on the site,” as John Young
intended (Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow, vol. iii, 1871, p. 804). Indeed,
he showed that the hill itself comprises a characteristic succession of
the Lower and Upper Limestone Series, mentioned above as having
been elucidated by his researches at Campsie and elsewhere.

In collecting and determining the multitude of fossils from the
Carboniferous strata, not only of the vicinity of Glasgow, but
throughout the rich middle basin of Scotland, from the Firth of
Clyde to the Firth of Forth, he greatly advanced his favourite
science. He gained much experience in the discrimination of
Lamellibranchiata and Brachiopoda, studying their shell-structure
minutely under the microscope. Polyzoa were frequently described

384 Obituary—John Young, LLD., F.G.S.

by him, and he made a long list of Foraminifera from the shales and
limestones. In particular, he published (1874) an account of the
discovery of the interesting Saccammina Cartert in the “ Lower
Limestone” Series of the Lanarkshire Coalfield and elsewhere. Of
the Entomostraca of his finding, many he submitted for examination
to his friends J. W. Kirkby and T. R. Jones, and his name was
frequently used by them in the nomenclature of genera and species:
The last instance of this friendly co-operation is in the treatment of
the unique specimen found by him long ago at Robroyston, near
Glasgow, and determined by his two friends Rupert Jones and
Henry Woodward to be a peculiar phyllopod or phyllocarid, with
the appellation of Chenocaris .Youngii (Monogr. Pal. Soc., 1899,
p- 181, pl. xxii, figs. la—e). Directions for collecting and mounting
microzoa from the Carboniferous strata of West Scotland were:
clearly given by John Young in the Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow,
vol. ii (1867), p. 185.

His published papers are numerous (see the Royal Society’s.
Catalogue of Scientific Papers) in the Transactions of the scientific
societies of Glasgow and Edinburgh, the Annals of Natural History,
the GrontocicaL MaGazrng, and the Journal of the Geological Society.
Many of them are joint papers, with his colleague John Young, M.D.,.
Keeper of the Hunterian Museum, Robert Craig, James Armstrong,
David Robertson, D. Corse Glen, and other Glasgow geologists.
One of his last contributions in association with friends (Jones and
Kirkby) appeared in the Trans. Edinburgh Geol. Soc., vol. viv
(1899), treating of one of his favourite lines of research in the
distribution of the Carboniferous Entomostraca, especially Carbonia-
' The inestimable “Catalogue of the Western-Scottish Fossils,”
published in 1876 for the use of the British Association, bears much
of the fruit of John Young’s work, as indicated by Professor John
Young, M.D., in his introductory and general notes in that volume.
The lists of Ostracoda and Foraminifera were subsequently revised in
the Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow, vol. ix (1891).

- John Young was for many years an active member of the
Glasgow Mechanics Institute, the Glasgow Geological Society, and
an Associate of the Geological Society of Hdinburgh; he was
elected a Fellow of the Geological Society of London in 1874; and
in 1888 was honoured with the award of the Murchison Donation
Fund for his long-continued and successful researches in the fossil
Polyzoa and in the shell-structures of other fossils. Lastly, the
well-deserved Honorary Degree of LL.D. was conferred on him
by the Glasgow University in April, 1893.

. A man of conspicuous ability, fully appreciating the beauties of
Nature and successfully elucidating some of her secrets, he had
wonderful energy and perseverance. He was full of information,
and willingly gave the benefit of it to all enquirers: indeed, he
spread the knowledge of geology widely by his teachings in
Glasgow and by his many communications to various journals.
He was indeed one of the good old sort of North British naturalists.
and geologists, who are now unfortunately too rapidly diminishing
in number. , ;

THE

GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE.

MEW SERIES. DECADE .V.; \WOL.. VIE

No. IX—SEPTEMBER, 1900.

©: GEN AE, Ack ir CGinrnS:

—_———

J.—On NEPHELINE-SYENITE AND ITS ASSOCIATES IN THE NorTH-
WEST OF SCOTLAND.

By J. J. H. Teall, M.A., F.R.S., Pres.G.S.
(Communicated by permission of the Director-General.)

[ 1892 I described, in conjunction with my colleague Mr. Horne,

a peculiar rock, essentially composed of orthoclase and melanite,
under the name of borolanite.1 The type-specimens came from the
plutonic mass which lies to the north of Loch Borolan, in Sutherland-
shire (1 in. sheet 101). During the preparation of the paper on
borolanite our colleague Mr. Gunn discovered two dykes of a closely
related rock traversing the Torridon Sandstone in the Coigach
district of West Ross-shire. The rock of these dykes was described
in an appendix to our paper. It contains nepheline and egirine, in
addition to orthoclase and melanite, and is therefore allied, both as
regards mode of occurrence and mineralogical composition, to the
Tinguaite group of Rosenbusch; but as melanite is an important
constituent it was classed with the borolanites.

At the conclusion of our paper we say: “ The affinities of
borolanite are unmistakeable. It is a member of the foyaite (eleolite-
syenite) family. The occurrence of melanite as an important
accessory in certain rocks belonging to the nepheline-leucite group
has long been recognized. In our rock we have melanite raised
to the rank of an essential constituent. Borolanite, as we have
already shown, is intrusive in the Cambrian rocks of Sutherland-
shire. The nearest rocks in any way allied to it are the eleolite-
syenites of the Christiania district, which are also intrusive in Lower
Paleozoic strata.”

Since this paper was written I have had the privilege of visiting
the Christiania district, under the guidance of Professor Brégger, and
the experience thus gained has been of the greatest service in
a re-examination of the post-Cambrian igneous rocks of the north-
west of Scotland — a re-examination rendered necessary by the
preparation of the Geological Survey memoir on that district. Some
of the results thus brought to light, especially the recognition of
true nepheline-syenites, as well as other rocks closely allied to types
described by Prof. Brogger in his classic memoirs on the Christiania

1 «Qn Borolanite: an Igneous Rock intrusive in the Cambrian Limestone of
Assynt, etc.’’: Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxvii (1892), pp. 163-178.

DECADE IY.—VOL. VII.—NO. IX. 26

3886 J.J. H. Teall—Nepheline-Syenite in N.W. Scotland.

district, appear to be of sufficient interest to justify a brief preliminary
notice, which it is the purpose of this communication to supply.

The work of previous observers on the rocks in question is
described in the paper on borolanite above referred to, and need not
therefore be repeated in detail; but there is one name I desire
especially to mention in the present connection, namely, that of
Dr. Heddle. In one of his papers on the geognosy and mineralogy
of Scotland? he gives chemical analyses of the porphyritic felspars
and of the groundmass of a “ hornstone porphyry ” from the south-
east spur of Ben Brachaid. Both agree very closely with albite in
composition. Thus the credit of establishing the existence of rocks
formed by the consolidation of an alkaline magma exceptionally rich
in soda, in the Assynt district, unquestionably belongs to Dr. Heddle.

The post-Cambrian igneous rocks of the north-west of Scotland
occur in two forms—as plutonic masses and as sills and dykes;
or, in other words, as abyssal and hypabyssal rocks. No lavas
or effusive rocks of any kind are known. The only important
plutonic mass is the one stretching from Ledbeg for about five miles
in a south-easterly direction, with an average width of about one
mile. Cnoc na Sroine (1,306 feet) forms the culminating point. The
dominant rock of this mass is a red granite or syenite, remarkably
free from ferro-magnesian or any other dark-coloured constituents.
It was described by Nicol as a red felspar porphyry, and by
Murchison as a syenite. Dr. Heddle pointed out that true
porphyritic structure is absent,? and that the rock is composed
mainly of red felspar, often much stained and decomposed; quartz
being always subordinate to the felspar and sometimes absent
altogether.

The specimens in the Survey collection agree with Dr. Heddle’s
descriptions. Those in which quartz is present have the aspect
of somewhat coarse-grained binary granites, while those in which
it is absent resemble syenites. Ferro-magnesian constituents are
extremely rare in the main mass of Cnoc na Sroine, but they occur
abundantly in some of the peculiar rocks found on the margins.
A specimen from the burn behind the inn at Aultnacallagach
(3,082) * is a coarse-grained red granite or quartz-syenite, composed
mainly of felspar, but containing also a few blebs of quartz and
some insignificant dark specks representing a ferro -magnesian
mineral. Under the microscope two felspars are recognizable. The
plagioclase occurs in more or less idiomorphic crystals, which are
often zoned and always twinned on the albite plan. The twin
lamellz are numerous and very narrow. ‘The second felspar occurs
in large, irregular plates, and shows moiré-structure under crossed
nicols. It is often twinned on the Carlsbad plan, and frequently
contains inclusions of idiomorphic plagioclase. Quartz ocours in

1 Mineralogical Magazine, vol. v (1884), p. 141.

> A specimen in the Survey collection (3,081) from the summit of Cnoc na
Srdine shows a half-porphyritic structure such as is occasionally found on the
margin of Brogger’s nordmarkite.

* The numbers in parentheses refer to the registered specimens in the collection of
the Geological Survey.

J. J. H. Teall—Nepheline-Syenite in N.W. Scotland. 387

irregular grains. The ferro-magnesian mineral is represented by
minute scales of a bright green chlorite.

When the powder of the rock is placed in a Sollas’ diffusion
column three well-marked bands are formed: one corresponding
to quartz, which is present only in small quantity (2:65) ; another
corresponding to albite (2°62) ; and a third at a level just below the
point at which orthoclase floats. Although the specific gravity of
the plagioclase corresponds very closely with that of albite, the
extinctions on M-flakes are not quite equal to albite—15° to 17°
as against 19°. The difference is so slight that in the descriptions
which follow the term albite! will be used. The second felspar,
being slightly denser than orthoclase, is probably rich in soda, and
may be cryptoperthite or anorthoclase, but the optical characters,
so far as I have been able to determine them, agree with orthoclase,
and in the absence of analyses I prefer to use that term. Of the two
felspars albite is the more abundant.

Another specimen from Cnoc na Srdine (3,090) is very similar
in general appearance to the one just described, but contains less
quartz. Two felspars are recognizable under the microscope, but
they are more intimately intergrown, and often assume the character
of microperthite. Both are deeply stained with ferric oxide, and
opaque iron-ore occurs as an accessory constituent.

Other red rocks from the same mass are true syenites without
quartz, and these sometimes contain pseudomorphs after nepheline
with accessory melanite (3,083). The felspars in these cases are
either orthoclase or microperthite.

The more acid varieties of the red rocks have affinities with the
nordmarkites of Professor Brégger. They resemble them in the
abundance of alkali-felspars and in the paucity of both quartz and
ferro-magnesian minerals. When the two felspars are intergrown
microperthitically the resemblance is very close, but when the albite
is independently developed as idiomorphic crystals it is not so close.
Taking the mass as a whole, the alkali-granites or quartz-syenites
appear to shade into quartzless syenites, and these again into
nepheline-syenites.

In the red rocks which form the main mass of Cnoc na Srdine no
fresh nepheline has been detected; but a coarse-grained dark-green
rock (3,095) from the foot of the north slope of the mountain
contains this mineral in abundance, and is, in fact, a true nepheline-
syenite. Tho weathered surface is rough owing to the more rapid
weathering of the nepheline, which has a dull green, waxy
appearance. The alkali-felspar is developed in flat tables with
conspicuous development of the clinopinacoid, and the crystals

1 It may be of interest to mention that in the metamorphic rocks (albite-schists
and gneisses) I have always found the albite to give the theoretical extinction of
19° on M-flakes. The mineral appears to be perfectly homogeneous and ideally pure,
except as regards inclusions. But I have never observed the theoretical extinction
of 19° in a plagioclase occurring as a normal constituent of an igneous rock. In the
case above described the breadth of the band in the diffusion column, the zonal

structure seen in the sections, and the slightly varying extinctions on the M-flakes,
all indicate that the mineral is not perfectly homogeneous.

888 J.J. H. Teali—Nepheline-Syenite in N.W. Scotland.

are often twinned on the Carlsbad plan. Under the microscope
the rock is seen to be composed of nepheline and alkali-felspar in
approximately equal proportions. A greenish biotite and melanite
occur as accessory constituents. Both felspar and nepheline are
present as large individuals, measuring half an inch or more across.
The occurrence of melanite as an accessory constituent serves to
emphasize the close relation between nepheline-syenite and
borolanite.

The typical borolanites have been described in the paper above
referred to. They are extensively developed to the east of
Aultnacallagach in the low ridge on the north-eastern side of the
road leading from Oykell Bridge to Inchnadampf, and occur also
at other points on the borders of the plutonic mass. One specimen
(3,737) may be briefly referred to as a type. It is a massive rock
composed of white patches, measuring one-quarter to three-quarters.
of an inch across and often polygonal in outline, embedded in a dark,
almost black matrix. The white patches correspond to the pseudo-
leucites described by Derby, Hussak, and J. F. Williams. They are
composed mainly of orthoclase, which is often micrographically
intergrown with an alteration product after nepheline. Biotite
and sgirine-augite occur sparingly in these patches. The matrix
is composed of orthoclase and melanite with some sgirine-augite
and biotite. Micrographic intergrowths of orthoclase and the
alteration product after nepheline are also present.

The rocks most nearly allied to these peculiar borolanites are
unquestionably the ‘leucite-syenites’ from the igneous complex
of Magnet Cove, Arkansas, described by the late J. F. Williams,*
whose early death was such a severe loss to American petrology.
Williams speaks of these and other rocks of the complex as forming
dykes; but the geological map of the district accompanying his
memoir clearly shows that they do not occur as ordinary dykes.
According to Dr. Washington? the complex represents a laccolite in
which differentiation has produced a mass varying in composition
from a highly basic jacupirangite at the centre to foyaite at the
margin. The different types—foyaite, leucite-porphyry, shonkinite,
ijolite, biotite-ijolite, and jacupirangite— succeed each other in
concentric zones from the margin to the centre, the rock most nearly
allied to borolanite coming second in the series, reckoning from the
outside. This rock is described by Williams as “a hypidiomorphic
granular combination of pseudo-leucite, eleolite, orthoclase, and
basic silicates, which presents a more or less perfect granitic
structure and is genetically connected with the eleolite-syenite
dike rocks.” The pseudo-leucites are composed mainly of orthoclase
and nepheline, as are those of our borolanite, but they are more
perfect inform. It must, however, be remembered that the borolanite
area has never been searched for specimens showing the forms of

* “The Igneous Rocks of Arkansas’?: Annual Report of the Geological Survey of
Arkansas for 1890, vol. ii.

> “Teneous Complex of Magnet Cove”: Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. ii (1900),
pp. 389-416.

J. J. H. Teall—Nepheline-Syenite in N.W. Scotland. 3889

Jeucite. Those specimens which have been collected frequently
show polygonal outlines strongly suggestive of icositetrahedra, and
it is highly probable that more perfect forms will be found. The
groundmass of the leucite-syenite consists principally of eleolite,
black garnets, and orthoclase. A green pyroxene, biotite, and
sphene are also present. Melanite, according to Williams, “is found
in varying quantities in the different specimens. In some it is almost
entirely wanting, while in others it forms a very important factor.
It is of a rich brown or yellowish-brown colour, decidedly zonal
in its structure, and isotropic in its optical properties. . . . .
In some cases more than half the area inclosed within the boundaries
of the section consist of melanite material.”

This description leaves no doubt that those portions of the
‘leucite-syenite’ of Magnet Cove in which melanite is most
abundant are practically identical with the borolanite of Assynt.
This conclusion is confirmed by a comparison of the chemical
analysis of the borolanite dyke discovered by Mr. Gunn with that
of the rock described by Williams.

It. 16
$i 0, 47°8 50°96
Al, 05 20-1 19°67
ee os 7°76

e : 03
Mg 0 i197] 0°36
Ca O 5:4 4°38
Naz O 6:5 ne
K. O (foal 6:
H, O (Ig.) 2-4 1°38
Ti Og oY “62
S 03 “4 a
Mn O *b tr.
Ba O ets ae 8 ae AG mee
Cl AGE ae oa nies a 25

99°3 100°01

I. Borolanite dyke, Camas Hilean Ghlais. Analysis by Player.

II. ‘ Leucite-syenite,’ Magnet Cove. Analysis by Noyes.

Another rock somewhat allied to borolanite is the ijolite of
Ramsay and Berghell.! It is essentially composed of nepheline,
pyroxene, and a titaniferous melanite (jiwaarite).? i

In addition to borolanite there are some other interesting
modifications of the syenitic magma, apparently detached from the
main mass, near Ledbeg at the contact with the marble. One of
these (4,288) is a dense, dark-green rock, composed of a green
pyroxene and orthoclase or moiré-microcline with sphene as an
important accessory ; another (3,088), also dark in colour, is
composed of zgirine-augite, orthoclase, pseudomorphs after idio
morphic nepheline, and rich brown sphene. Both are augite-syenites,
one containing nepheline and the other not.

1 < Die Gesteine von Jiwaara in Finland’’: Geol. Foren. Stockholm Forandl., xiii,
(1891), p. 300.

2 It is quite possible that some varieties of the melanite of the borolanite may be
titaniferous, but in order to prove this the material analyzed would have to be very
carefully examined under the microscope, as the mineral is not unfrequently crowded
with minute inclusions of sphene.

390 J.J. H. Teali—Nepheline-Syenite in N.W. Scotland.

The facts above described clearly prove that we have in the
plutonic complex of Loch Borolan a connected group of rocks
formed by the consolidation of alkaline magmas rich in soda. At
one end of the series is the alkali-granite or quartz-syenite forming
the main mass of Cnoc na Sroine, and at the other end of the series
the basic augite-syenite, nepheline-syenite, and borolanite. The
basic varieties occur on the margin and the acid varieties in the
centre. This arrangement is the opposite of that occurring in
the igneous complex of Magnet Cove.

To what extent the different rocks represent successive intrusions,
differentiation in sitt, or the result of a modification in the
composition of the original magma by the absorption of adjacent
limestones, has not been clearly made out. It is quite possible that
all three operations will have to be taken into account in explaining
the phenomena observed. The evidence available suggests that the
quartz-syenites shade into quartzless syenites, and these again into
nepheline-syenites. Albite is abundant in the most acid rocks,
either in the form of independent crystals or as microperthitio
intergrowths with orthoclase. But as nepheline comes in, albite
disappears, and in the more perfect types of nepheline-syenite no
soda-felspar is recognizable. It is clear, even without chemical
analyses, that the presence of nepheline is determined by the ratio of
silica to alumina to soda. With excess of silica albite is formed,
and when there is a deficiency of silica nepheline is produced. In
the more acid rocks albite, or an extremely acid oligoclase, shows
a strong tendency to idiomorphism, and precedes both orthoclase and
quartz. In the less acid varieties it frequently occurs intimately
intergrown with orthoclase.

There is ng constancy in the order of appearance of nepheline and
orthoclase. In some specimens idiomorphic nepheline occurs as
inclusions in large patches of orthoclase (micropecilitic structure),
in others orthoclase is idiomorphic with respect to nepheline, while
in the pseudo-leucites and even in the groundmass of certain
borolanites the two minerals form beautiful micrographic inter-
growths. Thus, nepheline may precede orthoclase, orthoclase may
precede nepheline, or the two minerals may crystallize simultaneously.
Similar relations between alkali-felspar and nepheline have been
described by Professor Brégger as occurring in the laurdalites of the
Christiania district.

But the series does not end with nepheline-syenite. This rock
sometimes contains agirine-augite and melanite. By an increase in
the former it passes into augite-syenite, and by an increase in the
latter into borolanite. The borolanites and augite-syenites may or
may not contain nepheline.

The general result of this re-examination of the specimens
collected at various times from the plutonic mass of Loch Borolan
has been to confirm and extend the conclusion arrived at by
Mr. Horne and myself as to the relations between the igneous
rocks of Assynt and those of the Christiania district. Quartz-
syenites, syenites, augite-syenites, and nepheline-syenites are all

J. J. H. Teali—Nepheline-Syenite in N.W. Scotland. 391

represented either in the main mass or in its immediate neighbour-
hood. But the resemblance extends still further to some of the
hypabyssal rocks—the dykes and sills. A glance at the maps
(Sheets 101 and 107) will show that the Cambrian area to the north
of the plutonic mass is traversed by numerous sills and dykes.
These belong to two strongly marked types — dark - coloured
hornblendic rocks (camptonites or vogesites) and light - coloured
felspathic rocks (felsites). A description of the hornblendic rocks
has already appeared in the pages of this Magazine,' and they need
not further be referred to at present. A full description of the
felsites must be postponed until analyses are available, but one or
two varieties may be briefly described, as they are clearly allied to
certain peculiar rocks occurring in the Christiania district.

The first of these is a dyke from Poll an Droighinn, near
Inchnadampf (2,324). The rock is a pale-green felsite, with
somewhat obscure indications of porphyritic felspars and decided
traces of parallel structure. Under the microscope it is seen to
be composed of polysynthetic aggregates, representing original
porphyritic alkali - felspars, streaks of microcrystalline quartz
(scarce), and a crypto- or microcrystalline felspathic matrix
crowded with acicular microlites of egirine. Similar microlites occur
in the polysynthetic aggregates, as they do in the phenocrysts in
Professor Brégger’s grorudite, but they are far less numerous than
in the matrix, where they are often so thickly crowded together
as to form a felt-like mass. The larger microlites are green, but the
smaller ones are colourless ; both show the characteristic optic
characters of sgirine when isolated from the felspathic material.
This rock is a variety of grorudite.

Another very interesting type of felsite, found by Mr. Peach, is
intrusive in the Lewisian gneiss in a burn one-quarter of a mile
north of the top of Sgdnnan More (8,370). This consists of
numerous phenocrysts of pink felspar, usually giving rectangular
sections and measuring about a quarter of an inch across, embedded
in a compact light-grey felsitic matrix. Under the microscope the
phenocrysts are seen to consist of intergrowths of albite and
orthoclase, similar to those observed in the plutonic mass of
Cnoc na Sréine. The groundmass is a micro- or cryptocrystalline
ageregate of alkali-felspar, containing a few minute, ragged prisms
of egirine. A little free quartz is probably present, but cannot
be identified with certainty under the microscope. ‘This rock
contains much less egirine than the typical grorudites, and in this
respect more closely resembles the linddites of Professor Brogger.

Analyses of these rocks will be made, and until this has been
done a further discussion of their affinities seems scarcely desirable.
This much is certain. They are composed mainly of alkali-felspar
with some free quartz and egirine, and they are closely allied to
grorudites, from which they differ chiefly in containing rather less
eegirine.

1 « Notes on some Hornblende-bearing Rocks from Inchnadampf,”’ by J. J. H.
Teall: Guou. Maa., 1886, pp. 346-353.

392 Dr. H. Woodward—Cretaceous Canadian Crustacea.

The grorudites of Professor Brigger form the acid extreme of
a well-defined rock-series of which, so far as the Christiania district
is concerned, tinguaite is the basic extreme. No rocks answering
to tinguaites in chemical composition have been found in the north-
west of Scotland. The dykes discovered by Mr. Gunn in west
Ross-shire, to which the term borolanite was extended, not without
hesitation, as melanite is far less abundant than in typical borolanite,
are composed mainly of nepheline, orthoclase, and egirine, and
therefore allied to tinguaites in mineralogical composition; but thé
rock analyzed contains over 5 per cent. of lime—a fact which sharply
differentiates it from typical tinguaites. Another point which
differentiates these dykes from tinguaites is their structure. Nephe-
line, egirine, melanite, and biotite occur as idiomorphic crystals in
large irregular patches of orthoclase (micropecilitic structure)
But if these dykes do not fit into the grorudite-tinguaite series they
correspond very well with some of the more basic members of the
plutonic mass of Cnoc na Sroine, with the nepheline-melanite
syenites, just as the grorudite-like rocks correspond with the more
acid portions of the same mass. It is probable, therefore, that
both are aschistic, in Professor Brégger’s sense, and that they
represent the dyke forms of the magmas which gave rise to the
plutonic mass.

In the foregoing account of this small but extremely interesting
petrographical province, special emphasis has been laid on its
relations to the Christiania district; but it might equally well be
compared with other districts in which nepheline-syenites occur.
Each of these districts has its own special features. The occurrence
of borolanite is a peculiarity which the district in question shares, so
far as we know at present, only with that of Magnet Cove.

IJ.—Furrurr Nores on PoporutHanmous CRUSTACEANS FROM THE
Uppae Creracrous Formation or Brirish CoLuMBIA, ETC.

By Henry Woopwarp, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., etc., of the British Museum
(Natural History).

(PLATES XV and XVI.)

t 1896 I described some decapod Crustaceans found in the

Cretaceous formation of Vancouver and adjacent islands, British
Columbia, which, with the approval of Dr. G. M. Dawson, C.M.G.,
BRS. the Director, had been most kindly placed in my hands for
examination by Dr. J. F. Whiteaves, F.G.S., Palzontologist to the
Geological Survey of Canada. They were referred by me to the
genera Callianassa, Homolopsis, Paleocorystes, and Plagiolophus (see
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1896, vol. lii, pp. 221-228, with 6 figures).

From the same source I have since received a further and much
larger collection of specimens from the Nanaimo and Comox Group
(Upper Cretaceous). Like the earlier series, all these Crustaceans
are preserved in hard concretionary nodules, which render their
examination in detail often extremely difficult and disappointing, as

Decade IV. Vol VII.PLXYV.

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Dr. H. Woodward—Cretaceous Canadian Crustacea. 893

they split unevenly with a jagged fracture, and have also a tendency
to divide up into cuboidal fragments.

The material which has now been placed in my hands may be
summarized thus :—

No. 1. One specimen of a dark nodule, split into halves
(3" x 12”), exposing the cephalothorax and portions of the limbs of
a Crustacean referred to Linupdrus (Podocrates) Vancouverensis by
Whiteaves (Pl. XV, Fig. 1), described in Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada,
ser. 11, vol. i (1895-6), sect. 4, pp. 182 and 133. Formation: from
the Nanaimo Group (Upper Cretaceous), Museum Geol. Surv. Canada.
Locality : from two miles up the Puntledge (called also the Comox)
River, Vancouver Island; collected by the Rev. G. W. Taylor, 1889.

No. 3 (labelled also 58 in white paint). A large dark nodule,
split in halves (62” x 32), exposing the dorsal aspect of a second
specimen of Linupdrus (P.) Vancouverensis, W., showing the cephalo-
thorax and a portion of the base of the left antenna. The three
characteristic longitudinal ridges, the small central pear-shaped
area in front of the neck-furrow on the carapace, and five of the
abdominal segments can also be seen (Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada,
op. cit.). Formation: Upper Cretaceous. Locality: Hornby Island ;
coll. by W. Harvey, 1893.

No. 4. A long, dark, and rather cylindrical nodule (64” x 2%”),
split in halves and also broken across transversely, exposing the
interior of the cephalothorax and five segments of the abdomen of
Linuparus (P.) Vancouverensis, W. (Pl. XV, Fig. 3). The upper
surface of the carapace is not preserved, but the bases of the
mandibles (m.) are exposed, the monodactylous walking-legs, and
the bases of the antennules. The epimeral portions of the abdominal
segments are serrated behind, and bear small tubercles on the
surface. Formation: Upper Cretaceous. Locality : Comox River,
Vancouver Island; coll. by J. B. Bennett, 1895.

No. 6. Half of a nodule only (7” x 43”), containing an obscurely
preserved Crustacean, Zinuparus (P.) Vancouverensis, showing
characteristic traces of the carapace and limbs and the nearly entire
abdomen, including remains of the caudal appendages. The posterior
borders of the epimera are spinous. The right antenna is preserved
for a length of 24 inches. Formation: Upper Cretaceous. Locality :
Hornby Island; coll. by W. Harvey, 1895. (Specimen also marked
No. 1 in ink.) ;

No. 55 a and b. Two sides of a dark egg-shaped nodule split
open (42” x 33”), exposing the dorsal aspect of a specimen of
Linuparus (P.) Vancouverensis, W. (Pl. XV, Fig. 2), showing the
carapace and the five abdominal segments, also the remains of the
caudal appendages and the thoracic limbs. The three characteristic
ridges are well seen, also the cervical furrow, with its pear-shaped
tuberculated area just in front. Formation: Upper Cretaceous.
Locality : Hornby Island; coll. by Mr. Robbins in 1896, Provincial
Museum, Victoria, British Columbia.

A few additional specimens from the same series are referred to
later on.

394 Dr. H. Woodward—Cretaceous Canadian Crustacea.

Notes on THE Genus Linupdrus, A. White, 1847.

Before proceeding further it seems desirable to say a few words
upon the nomenclature of this genus, which, like the materials
illustrating it, has greatly increased and become somewhat com-
plicated.

In 1884 Dr. Whiteaves first called attention to these interesting
Palinurids in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada
(vol. ii, sect. 4, pp. 287, 238) under the provisional generic name
of Hoploparia (?), with the specific designation of Canadensis for
- the form then under discussion, obtained from the Cretaceous of
Highwood River, a tributary of the Bow River.

This fossil was again described by Dr. Whiteaves (in 1885)
under the name of Hoploparia (?) Canadensis in “ Contributions
to Canadian Paleontology,” 1885, vol. i, pp. 87-89, where it is
figured for the first time (pl. xi). It appears that some time
afterwards (1890) Dr. C. Schliiter, of Bonn, stated that the so-called
Hoploparia (?) Canadensis was closely allied, if not identical with,
his Podocrates Dulmenensis, a name proposed by Becks (without
description), but described fully by Dr. .Schliiter in 1862 (in the
Zeitsch. der Deutsch. Geol. Gesellsch., xv, pp. 710-716, taf. xii).
This genus Podocrates was also adopted’ by Fritsch & Kafka in
their “Crustacea Bohm. Kreidform.,” pp. 20, 21, taf. iii, figs. 1 and 2
and text-fig. 44, Prague, 1887.

In 1895 Dr. J. F. Whiteaves added a new species of Cretaceous
Palinurid to the series of Crustaceans already recorded by him from
the Cretaceous of Vancouver (Proc. and Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada,
ser. 11, vol. i, sect. 4, pp. 182, 133), under the name of Podocrates
Vancouverensis, thus accepting and acknowledging the correctness of
Dr. Schliiter’s earlier determination in 1862.

Two years later, Dr. A. E. Ortmann described a new species
of Palinurid, from the Upper Cretaceous of Dakota, under the
generic name of Linuparus, Gray (1847), a monotypic genus con-
taining only the single living Japanese species Palinurus trigonus of
De Haan (see De Haan, in Siebold’s “Fauna Japonica,” Crustacea,
1841, p. 157, pls. xxxix and xl). This genus Linuparus,) attributed
to Dr. John Edward Gray (“List of Crustacea in the British
Museum,” p. 70), as pointed out by the Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, F.R.S.
(“A History of Crustacea,” 1898, p. 197), (spelt by him Linuparis),
is not Dr. Gray’s name, but was given by Adam White in 1847;
“the characters of the new genus being left to be inferred from the
known species (as described by De Haan), a very slovenly method
of definition which is much to be deprecated” (Stebbing, op. cit.).

Linvpirvs Vanoouverensis, Whiteaves, sp. (Pl. XV, Figs. 1-3.)

1841. Palinwrus trigonus, De Haan, Fauna Jap. Crustacea, p. 157, pls. xxxix, xl.

1847. Linuparus trigonus, White (gen. emend.), List Crustacea Brit Mus., p. 70.

1857. Zhenops, Bell, Foss. Malacost. Crust., pp. 33, 34, pl. vii: Pal. Soc.
Mon., 1857.

‘ This name is an anagram on Fabricius’s genus Palinwrus, from which Linuparus
was separated by Adam White, the real author of the ‘‘ List of Crustacea in the
British Museum,’’ 1847. ,

Dr. H. Woodward—Cretaceous Canadian Crustacea. 395

1862. Podocrates (Becks, nom. nud.), Schliiter, Zeitsch. der Deutsch. Geol.
a Gesellsch., xiv, 1862, pp. 710-716, taf. xii.
/ 1887. Podoerates, Fritsch & Katka, Crust. Bohm. Kreidform., pp. 20, 21, taf. iii,

i-y figs. 1 and 2 and text-fig. 44.

1893. Linuparis (sic), Stebbing, Hist. Crustacea, p. 197.

1896. Podocrates, Whiteayes, Trans. and Proc. Roy. Soc. Canada, 1895, ser. 11,
vol. i, sect. 4, pp. 132, 133.

1897. Linuparus, Ortmann, Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. tv, vol. iv, pp. 290-297,
figs. 1-4in text~___ ]_

At the meeting of the Royal Society of Canada, May, 1895,
Dr. J. F. Whiteaves gave descriptions of the fossils from the
Nanaimo group of the Vancouver Cretaceous series, and among
others described a new species of Crustacean, of which description
I subjoin a copy.

Linuparus (Popocrates) VaNcouveRENsIs, Whiteaves, sp.

“‘Carapace flattened, rectangular, longer than broad, marked by
three low angular tuberculous or spinose longitudinal ridges, one
in the median line and one near each of the lateral margins, and
divided at about one-third the distance from the front by an obtusely
subangular cervical groove, which is rather broad but not very deep.
On the anterior portion or cephalic arch the lateral longitudinal
ridges are well developed, and armed with larger and more spinose
tubercles than those on the corresponding ridges of the posterior
portion, one a little behind the mid-length on each ridge being
larger than any of the others, but the central ridge is obsolete. In
its place, just in advance of the cervical groove, there is an ovate
lanceolate or narrowly spear-shaped area, which is elevated at the
pointed end anteriorly, shallowly depressed posteriorly, and margined
with a single row of small tubercles. Immediately in front of this
area there is a pointed or spinose tubercle, almost in a line with
the largest tubercle on each of the lateral ridges, and still farther
forward there are two similar tubercles at a short distance from the
anterior margin and about seven millimetres apart. On the posterior
portion, or scapular arch, the three longitudinal ridges are minutely
tuberculated, and extend from the posterior margin to the cervical
groove, where they each terminate in a pointed tubercle larger than
any of the rest, but the central ridge is shorter than either of the
two lateral ridges. Anterolateral angles of the carapace each armed
with a nearly straight but slightly divergent spine. Rostrum,
central portion of the anterior margin, and position of the eyes
unknown. External antenne broad and flattened at their bases,
inner antenns cylindrical at theirs. Walking feet slender, as is
usual in the genus. In addition to the spines and tubercles on the
lateral ridges and elsewhere, as already described, the whole of the
upper surface of the carapace is minutely granulose and apparently
setose, numbers of minute objects, which seem to be detached seta,
being plainly visible under an ordinary lens.”

“Two miles up the Puntledge River, Vancouver Island, Rev. G. W.
Taylor, 1889: a good specimen of the carapace, with the rostrum
and a small piece of the anterior broken off, but with considerable

396 Dr. H. Woodward—Cretaceous Canadian Crustacea.

portions of the ambulatory feet and the bases of the inner and outer
antennee preserved. This interesting fossil is now in the Museum .
of the Geological Survey of Canada. [See Pl. XV, Fig. 1.]

[No. 3.] “Hornby Island, W. Harvey, 1893: a less perfectly
preserved specimen, showing most of the carapace (but not the
rostrum), portions of the ambulatory feet, and the dorsal aspect of
five segments of the abdomen (their margins were denticulated).

“Tn 1884 (Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada) the writer [ Dr. J. F. Whiteaves |
described a long-tailed decapod crustacean from the Cretaceous rocks
at the Highwood River in Alberta, under the provisional name
Hoploparia (?) Canadensis. Dr. C. Schliter, of Bonn, Germany,
in a letter dated February 20, 1890, expresses the opinion, which
appears to be well founded, that this species, which is figured on
plate ii of the first part of the first volume of ‘Contributions to
Canadian Paleontology,’ is a Podocrates, closely allied to, if not
identical with, the P. Dilmensis of Becks. P. Vancowverensis seems
to differ from that species in the much smaller proportionate size of
the tubercles on the three longitudinal ridges on its carapace,
especially posteriorly, and in the different arrangement of the
distant spinose tubercles on the anterior moiety of its cephalic arch.”

The publication of Dr. Ortmann’s paper (American Journal of
Science, ser. Iv, vol. iv, 1897, pp. 290-297, figs. 1-4) makes us
acquainted with another species of Palinurid, which he names
Linuparus atavus, from the Upper Cretaceous of Cotton Wood
Creek, Mead Co., South Dakota.

There is no doubt that this form is closely related generically
with P. Canadensis, P. Vancouverensis, Whiteaves, and also with
P. Dulmenensis, Schliter, and that for all these species Adam White’s
genus Linupdrus (1847) takes priority over the other genera to
which they have heretofore been referred by various authors.

Formation : Upper Cretaceous.

Locality: Puntledge or Comox River (Fig. 1), Hornby Island
(Fig. 2), Comox River (Fig. 3), British Columbia.

In the “Contributions to Canadian Paleontology ” for 1885,
vol. i, pp. 87-89, pl. xi, Dr. J. F. Whiteaves, F.G.8., published the
following description of P. Canadensis, a decapod Crustacean from
the Upper Cretaceous of Highwood River, Alberta, N.W.T., which
we here reproduce :—

Linuparus (Popocratus) CANADENSIS, Whiteaves, sp. fi

Hoploparia (?) Canadensis, Whiteaves, 1884.1 & D ~
“The fossil, which it is the more immediate object of this paper .
to describe, is a rather remarkable example of a macrourous decapod
crustacean, collected by Mr. R. G. McConnell in 1882 from the
Cretaceous shales of the Highwood River, a tributary of the Bow,
ten miles west of the first fork.
“The specimen originally consisted of an elongate-oval and

1 Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, vol. ii (1884), sect. 4, pp. 237, 238.
}
- P | 7 uw ry

} | pun
oO » A /\ t f
\ ny \ Al poet
Nie, vars Ue ; Ay A-ha +}
mA ¢ Qrvuntgy’ Carty
Say ool fe ‘ j dl Mane

Ct }-€
Kye

Dr. H. Woodward—Cretaceous Canadian Crustacea. 397

flattened concretionary nodule of soft argillite, with a small piece
_ broken off from one end, but enough of the matrix has been
removed to show most of the carapace and the upper surface of
a few of the abdominal segments. The anterior extremity of the
carapace, with the rostrum, is unfortunately not preserved, and the
tail, with some of the posterior abdominal segments, was broken off
when the nodule was found. The ambulatory feet are preserved,
but it was found to be scarcely possible to remove the soft shale
from around them without running the risk of spoiling the specimen.

“The carapace, like that of most of the macroura, is elongated and
comparatively narrow, with nearly parallel sides, and, when perfect,
its length must have been about twice as great as its breadth.
A little in advance of the mid-length a single, broadly V-shaped,
deep, and rather wide cervical furrow crosses the carapace trans-
versely. The posterior half of the carapace is depressed and rather
distinctly three-keeled in a longitudinal direction. In the specimen
collected by Mr. McConnell a central keel, or narrow but prominent
raised ridge, about three times as broad posteriorly as it is anteriorly,
and which is bounded on each side by a deep and angular furrow,
extends from the posterior end of the carapace to the centre of the
V-shaped (cervical) groove which transverses it. This central keel
is much more strongly marked than the broad and comparatively
obtuse lateral keels near the outer margin of each side. The surface
of the posterior half of the carapace (and perhaps that of the
anterior also) is covered with rather distant, small, isolated conical
tubercles, which occasionally are surrounded by a minute annulus at
the base; and the three keels each have a single series of larger
conical tubercles, whose pointed apices are directed forward.

“Tn front of the transverse and V-shaped (cervical) furrow the
carapace is very badly preserved, and the anterior margin with the
rostrum is broken off. The two lateral and tuberculated keels
appear to be prolonged to within a short distance of the front
margin of the carapace, though they are somewhat less distinct in
front of the (cervical) furrow than they are behind it. On the
anterior side of the furrow the central keel is absent, and the median
portion of this part of the carapace bears a number of comparatively
large and prominent, distinct and conical tubercles, which are some-
what peculiarly arranged. Next to the furrow, and in advance of it,
in the median line, there are five tubercles arranged in two con-
vergent rows of two pairs and an odd one, which, if connected by
lines, would have much the shape of an isosceles triangle, with its
base near to the furrow. Between the space bounded by these
five tubercles and each lateral keel there is a shallow, concave, and
rather broad depression of the carapace. In front of these five
tubercles, again, there are four others and still larger ones (the two
anterior ones apparently of considerable size), arranged somewhat in
the form of a square, any of whose sides would be greater than the
base of the isosceles triangle indicated by the other five.

“The upper surface of each of the abdominal segments bears
a tubercle in the centre, on its anterior edge, and another one on the
margin of each of the sides. The most prominent characteristic

398 Dr. H. Woodward—Cretaceous Canadian Crustacea.

of the species, in fact, is the possession of three widely distant,
longitudinal, and tuberculated keels, which extend over nearly the
whole length of the upper surface of the body.” Ua ©

“Judging by the invertebrate fossils alone, it would seem probable
that the friable and fissile shales at Mill Creek, which hold typical
examples of Inoceramus problematicus, may represent the ‘ Niobrara
Group’ of the Upper Missouri section. On similar evidence, also,
the rocks of the two localities on the Waterton River, which have
yielded respectively Ostrea congesta and Volviceramus exogyroides ;
those at the Highwood River, which contain Inoceramus undabundus
and Scaphites Warreni; those on the north-west branch of the
north fork of the Old Man River, from which Inoceramus undabundus,
Pholadomya papyracea, Scaphites Warreni, and S. vermiformis were
collected; and those at the entrance to the North Kootanie Pass,
which are characterized by Volviceramus exogyroides, Scaphites
Warreni, and S. vermiformis, would appear to be as nearly as
possible the Canadian equivalents of the ‘Fort Benton Group.’

“Tn conclusion, it may be remarked that the invertebrate fauna
of the ‘Belly River Series’ seems to be essentially the same as
that of the ‘ Laramie’ of the United States and Canada, unless more
than one formation has been confounded under the latter name, and
that it is at present scarcely possible to separate the ‘ Lower Dark
Shales’ of Dr. Dawson’s Bow and Belly River Report from the
‘Fort Pierre and Fox Hills’ Groups on purely paleontological
grounds.” }

Additional note on Linuparus Canadensis (Pl. XVI, Fig. 1), by
H. Woodward.—No. 55 c. One half of a dark nodule (6}” x 4”),
exposing the under side of a large Crustacean, showing the five
sternites and the bases of the thoracic limbs. I have referred this
specimen to Dr. Whiteaves’ species L. Canadensis, with which it
agrees in size, being one of the largest specimens of the fossil
Palinurids from this locality.

It exhibits the under surface of the cephalothorax, with the
sterna and the basal joints and portions of the five pairs of
ambulatory appendages, one or more being nearly complete. The
sternum forms a rather broad and somewhat triangular area, in
front of which the mandibles and the labrum are seen, with the
spinous stout basal joints of the long stiff antenna. There are also
traces of the antennules visible.

Each sternite, carrying the thoracic limbs, is ornamented with
a pair of rounded, sub-central tubercles, except the first, which has
only a single central one.

Upper Cretaceous: Hornby Island; collected by Mr. Robbins,
preserved in the Provincial Museum at Victoria, B.C.

Here I would also place a second specimen, preserved in a half
nodule, No. 7 (marked 2 in ink), which I refer to L. Canadensis.
The half nodule measures 6” x 4”, and displays one of the large
antenne and five of the walking-legs very well preserved. The

1 Added from Dr. Whiteaves’ Contrib. Canad. Paleont., vol. i (1885), p. 88.

Dr. H. Woodward—Cretaceous Canadian Crustacea. 399

surface of the appendages is rugose. Three of the body-segments
can be seen. Locality : Hornby Island; W. Harvey, 1895.

Although not refigured, it seems desirable, in order to complete
this record, to reproduce Dr. Whiteaves’ description of this additional
Cretaceous form.
“‘ PALHASTAOUS (?) oRNATUS, Whiteaves.

Paleastacus (?) ornata, Whiteaves, 1887, Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv. Can. Ann.
Rep., n.s., vol. ii, p. 161 E.

Paleastacus (?) ornata, Whiteaves, 1889, Contrib. Canad. Palont., vol. i, pt. ii,
p- 188, pl. xxv, fig. 3.

“The foregoing was suggested as a provisional name for a rather
remarkable specimen of a macrouran decapod which evidently
belongs to the family Astacomorpha of Zittel [1885]. Of Cretaceous
representatives of this family it seems to come nearest to such
genera as Palgastacus and Hoploparia, though it differs from each
in some important particulars. In many respects it appears to the
writer to be still more nearly related to the recent fresh-water
genera Astacus and Cambarus, but there is good reason for supposing
that it will eventually prove to be the representative of a new
generic type, which at present there is not sufficient material to
define satisfactorily.

“Nearly the whole of the under surface of the cephalothorax of the
specimen is buried in the matrix, the front margin of the carapace is
very imperfect, the caudal plates, as well as the under part of the
five abdominal segments, are broken off, and only small portions of
the chelz and of the other ambulatory legs are presérved or exposed.

“The carapace is moderately convex and slightly depressed, and
not quite twice as long as broad. It is divided into two nearly
equal parts by a single, well-marked, and deeply impressed cervical
furrow, which is arched forward in a shallow, concave curve.
Behind this furrow the lateral margins of the carapace are slightly
expanded, the branchial region is moderately inflated, and the
posterior margin is slightly concave in the middle. A short distance
in advance of the cervical furrow, on the outer and lower portion of
the carapace, on each side, there is a very short and transverse groove
or narrow constriction, which may possibly be confluent with the
neck-furrow on the strongly curved lateral margins of this part of
the carapace. The exact outline of the anterior margin of the
carapace cannot be ascertained, and the tip of the rostrum is broken
off. The basal portion which remains is about seven or eight milli-
metres long. At the base it measures 5mm. in breadth, and at the
broken anterior extremity its breadth is 2mm. Its outer margins
are defined by two linear and acute, tuberculated, and raised longi-
tudinal ridges, between which the surface is smooth and concavely
excavated.

«The whole of the outer surface of the carapace is ornamented
by rather distant, isolated tubercles. In its posterior moiety these
tubercles are somewhat irregularly disposed, thongh there is a low,
very narrow, and rather inconspicuous keel on the median line, on

400 Dr. H. Woodward—Cretaceous Canadian Crustacea.

either side of which the cardiac region is comparatively smooth. On
the anterior portion of the carapace the tubercles are grouped
somewhat obscurely in two or three longitudinal rows on both
sides of the narrow median keel, which is continued with greater
or less distinctness up to the commencement of the rostrum.

“The anterior chele appear to have been short and robust, while
their surface is distinctly tuberculated. The portions of the posterior
ambulatory legs that happen to be preserved, on the other hand,
are very slender, and their surface is minutely granulated. The
abdominal segments are badly preserved, but their outer surface
seems to have been smooth, though a narrow median keel can be
traced throughout the greater part of their dorsal surface.

“Locality : Sounding Creek, Township 30, Range 8; west of the
4th Principal Meridian, 1886.

“At the same locality and date, five detached chelw, apparently of
a second species of decapod Crustacean, were collected in as many
concretionary nodules. These claws resemble those of P. ornatus
in the comparative shortness and robustness of their terminal
segments, but the outer surface of the latter is finely granulated
rather than coarsely tuberculated.”’

Eryma Dawsowt, H. Woodw., sp. nov. (Pl. XVI, Fig. 2.)

Among the specimens which form a second collection sent by
Dr. J. F. Whiteaves (24th September, 1898) from the Geological
Survey of Canada, is the half of a nodule containing an Astacidean
from the Upper Cretaceous of the north-east side of Hornby Island,
British Columbia, collected by Mr. J. B. Bennett in 1898 (No. 55D).

The Crustacean is seen in profile on the split surface of a nodule,
and exhibits the cephalothorax, with its stout pair of chelate limbs
(or forceps) attached, and the remains of the four pairs of succeeding
ambulatory legs, the six abdominal somites, and the telson, but
the lateral lobe of the tail-fin was probably preserved in the other
half of the nodule not sent. The branchiostegite (covering the
branchiz) is broad and tumid, and the branchiocardiac groove is
strongly marked. Starting from the median dorsal line as a V-shaped
furrow, about 12 millimetres from the posterior border, it bends
rapidly forward, becoming deeper on each side, and reaches the
lateral border 24mm. in advance; here it unites, close to the
hepatic lobe, with the equally deep but more transverse cervical
furrow, which crosses the carapace 10mm. nearer to the front.
In advance of the cervical groove the postcrbital ridge and spine
can be seen, also the base of one of the antennules, with part
of one of its flagella, beneath the somewhat short rostrum, and
lower down the base of one of the outer and larger antenne.
The surface of the branchiostegite is marked by numerous small
tubercles scattered irregularly over the surface. The branchial,
cardiac, and hepatic regions are also similarly tuberculated, and
very tumid. Length of carapace 48mm., depth of side 25mm.
The ambulatory limbs are fairly long and slender; the chelate
limbs measure about 60mm. in length; iength of penultimate

_ Geol.Mag.1900.

6.M Woodward & H.B. Potter

stan
AW

: Decade IV.Vol VII.P1.XVI.

West,Newman imp

ecapod Crustaceans

U. Cretaceous Comox & Hornby Id. BC.

Naat ie o

ae

Dr. C. W. Andrews—Fossil Mammalia from Egypt. 401

joint 35mm., breadth 15 mm., length of ultimate joint 20 mm.
The fingers are long and slender, the inner edge of the forceps
being denticulated ; wrist 6mm. long by 10mm. broad. The
epimeral border of each abdominal segment is falcate in contour.

The general form and details of this Crustacean, so far as
preserved, clearly mark its place among the Astacidea, or under
the Astacomorpha (as defined by Huxley, 1881), and I would
suggest that Oppel’s name of Hryma is appropriate for it, seeing that
it agrees very closely in the divisions_of its carapace and its tubercu-
lated surface, in the antenna, the form of the first pair of forcipated
chelw, and the proportions of its abdomen, with H. Perront and other
Jurassic species.

Oppel observes! that no examples of the genus Eryma have been
found in rocks younger than the Jurassic, and that the Astacide of
the Chalk are placed in McCoy’s genera Hoploparia and Enoplo-
elytia, but in this instance the form in question agrees much more
closely with Oppel’s genus Eryma than with other forms. I therefore
propose to relegate it to that genus, and to designate it by the specific
name of Dawsoni, in honour of Dr. G. M. Dawson, C.B., F.R.S., the
eminent Director of the Geological Survey of Canada, who has done
such splendid work in the field in mapping the geology of British
Columbia.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES XV AND XVI.
(All from the Upper Cretaceous formation, and drawn of the natural size.)
Prate XY.

Fig. 1. Linuparus Vancouverensis, Whiteaves. Dorsal aspect of eephalothorax,
showing some of the ambulatory legs. Puntledge or Comox River,
Vancouver Island, British Columbia.

,, 2. Linuparus Vaneouverensis. Hornby Island. Shows cephalothorax and
abdomen united and smaller walking limbs.

5» 3. Linuparus Vaneowerensis. Comox River. Shows inner surface of thorax,
with the mandibles (m.) and the walking-legs; also bases of the
antennules and upper surface of abdominal somites.

Prate XVI.

Fig.1. Linuwparus Canadensis, Whiteaves. Under side of cephalothorax.

»» 2. Eryma Dawsoni, H. Woodw. Hornby Island. Specimen imbedded in
a nodule seen in profile. Geological Survey Museum, Ottawa.

(To be continued.)

III.—Fossm Mammanra rzom Heyer. Part II.

By Cuas. W. Anprews, D.Sc., F.G.S., British Museum (Nat. Hist.).
ie addition to the remains of the large Anthracotheroid (Brachyodus

africanus) described in the first part of this paper (Gzox. Maa.,
Dec. IV, Vol. VI, 1899, p. 481), the collection of mammalian
bones from the Lower Miocene of Moghara also includes portions
of tho skeleton of a small rhinoceros. Unfortunately this is very
poorly represented, there being only an incomplete scapula and an
atlas vertebra, and in the absence of any portion of the skull or
teeth it is impossible to determine the species to which it may have
belonged. As was pointed out in Part I, tho ago of the deposit is
Burdigalion (Lowest Miocene), and it is therefore contemporary
with the Sables de l’Orléanais and the fresh-water deposits of

1 Palaeontol. Mittheilung., 1862, p. 22.
DECADE IV.—VOL. VII.—NO. IX. 26

402 Dr. O.W. Andrews—Fossil Mammalia from Egypt.

Eeggenburg. From the latter no rhinoceros remains are recorded,
but from the former several species seem to have been obtained.
Of these only one, Aceratherium aurelianense, has been described and
figured.1 Gervais, on the authority of the Abbé Bourgeois,’ has given
a list of five species from the Sables de l’Orléanais, but none of these
seem to be true Burdigalien forms, some being Middle Miocene,
others Upper Oligocene. More recently Mermier* has described and
figured a fine skull and mandible of an <Acerathertwm from the
Burdigalien of Pont-de-Manne in Royans (Dréme), South-Hastern
France. Of this species, to which the name A. platyodon has been
given, nothing beyond the skull and mandible has been described
and figured, so that it is not possible to compare the Hgyptian
specimens with it. Not improbably, when further remains are
obtained from Moghara it will be found that this Egyptian rhinoceros
is identical with A. platyodon, A. aurelianense, or with one of the
other species which actually occur in the Sables de VOrléanais, but
seem to have been so far confused with forms from other horizons.
The extreme hardness and generally good state of preservation of
the Egyptian bones render it highly probable that excavations at
Moghara would yield very complete and valuable specimens, and it is
to be hoped that such a systematic search may sooner or later be made.

The atlas is somewhat smaller than that of any recent rhinoceros,
but at the same time it is relatively longer; moreover, the cups for
the occipital condyles are much deeper and are separated by a deeper
notch, and the surfaces for articulation with the centrum of the axis
are inclined to one another at a more acute angle than in any
rhinoceros atlas with which I have been able to compare it. The
transverse processes are much broken at their extremities, which
seem to have been expanded to a considerable degree; near their
bases they are perforated by a very oblique vertebrarterial canal, the
ventral opening of which is near their middle point, the dorsal near
their anterior border just external to the outer angle of the articular
surface for the axis. A similar canal is seen in the atlas of some
specimens of #. bicornis, but is absent in others, so that it cannot
be regarded as a character of much importance. The neural arch
is narrow from before back, and is perforated by a large foramen for
the first spinal nerve ; the impressions of the nuchal ligament are not
strongly marked, probably indicating that compared with that of the
recent horned rhinoceroses the skull was light.

The only atlas vertebra of any of the older forms of rhinoceros
with which I have been able to compare this specimen is that of
f. schleirmacheri, described and figured by Kaup, and of which
there is a cast in the British Museum. From this atlas our
specimen differs as widely and in the same points as from those
of recent forms.

1 Nouel, ‘‘ Mémoire sur un nouveau Rhinocéros fossile,’’ pls. i-v: Mém. de la
Société d’agriculture, sciences, belles-lettres, et arts d’Orleans, viii, 1866, p. 241.

? Gervais: ‘‘ Zool. et Pal. générales,’’ ser. i (1867-9), p. 157.

3 Mermier, ‘‘Sur la découverte d’une nouvelle espéce d’Acerotherium”’: Ann.

a Lyon., tom. xlii (1895), p. 168. Also, op. cit., tom. xliii (1896), pp. 225
and 257.

Dr. OC. W. Andrews—Fossil Mammalia from Egypt. 403

The dimensions of the atlas are:

mm.
Greatest width across articulation for skull... Ses ee ee el 40
Greatest width across articulation for axis... BaD sec aoe AGS
Antero-posterior width of base of the transverse process 56e cae 04
Height of neural canal ... 58 Ee aes ont Wes =e sO

Width of neural canal ... Aor 62

In the imperfect right scapula, probably belonging to the same
species, the supra-scapular border, the upper edge of the spine, and
the upper portion of the glenoidal border have been broken away.
The most notable points about this bone are: (1) the straightness
of the coracoid border, which for the greater part of its length is
parallel to the base of the spine; and (2) the comparative narrow-
ness of the prescapular fossa. In both these points the fossil
scapula resembles that of R. bicornis more nearly than those of
other living species, but its coracoid border is still straighter and
the spine is less inclined backward than in that species. In
R. unicornis the width of the bone above the coracoid tuberosity
is relatively considerably greater, the coracoid border more convex,
and the prescapular fossa somewhat wider than in the fossil; but
on the other hand, in the general backward curvature of the blade
there is considerable similarity in the two forms. The scapula of
R. sondaicus is widely different, being much more expanded and
having a strongly convex coracoid border. In RK. simus also the
coracoid border is convex, the prescapular fossa wider, and the
coracoid tuberosity much more massive. Another point which dis-
tinguishes this scapula from those of recent types is the form of the
glenoid articulation, which is ovate, with the narrow end towards
the coracoid border; in recent forms this surface is nearly circular,
although in R. indicus there is some indication of an ovate form.

Comparison with fossil forms is difficult, owing to the fact that
the scapula is seldom figured, and that there are scarcely any
specimens in the Natural History Museum. Amongst the scapule
of which figures are available our fossil seems to approach most
nearly to that of R. pachygnathus, from the Upper Miocene of
Pikermi, figured in Gaudry’s “Animaux fossiles et Géologie de
PAttique,” pl. xxxi, and from this it differs in much the same points
as from the scapula of R. bicornis.

The scapula is too incomplete to give any accurate measurements,

but its approximate dimensions are as follows :—
mm,

Glenoid surface, long diameter ... tis Sc ner Pre JAG
Glenoid surface, short diameter... ae ae oa as -- 62
Width immediately above coracoid tuberosity ... “at os 2 95
Approximate length _... ae a : ie Fas .. 360

As was remarked above, the remains here noticed are far too
incomplete and the material for comparison too scanty, for it to be
possible to say more than that the bones are those of a rhinoceros ;
but at the same time the general similarity of the scapula to that
of R. bicornis and R. pachygnathus suggests the probability that this
Miocene type will prove to belong to the same series of which those
species are members.

404 F.. Chapman—Constituents of Sands and Loams,

TV.—On toe Constituents oF THE Sanps AND LOoaAms OF THE
Pruatrav GRAVEL OOOURRING IN THE Pit Sections NEAR AsH,
SEVENOAKS.

By Freprerick Cuapman, A.L.S., F.R.M.S.

I AM indebted to the Rev. Ashington Bullen, B.A. (London),

F.G.8., for eight samples of sands and loams from the Plateau
Gravel of Kent, which he has placed in my hands for examination
with the microscope. They were carefully collected by Mr. B.
Harrison, of Ightham; and for convenience they are here lettered
A-H.

The sections of these and other pits, made under a grant from
the British Association in 1895, are published in the Report of the
British Association for that year.

A.—A greyish or mottled clay, at 3ft. 6in. The proportion of
argillaceous material washed from this sample was 73 per cent.,
leaving a residuum of 27 per cent. of fine and coarse sand. The
sandy residue consists of very fine angular quartz and pale
glauconitic fragments. There is also a large proportion of accreted
sand-grains, some of which simulate rhizopodal tests, if they are
not actually such, and resemble genera which affect sandy and
shallow marine areas.

B.—A pebbly loam, from Pit No. 2, at 3 ft. 6 in. (“ Ash, 18967’).
A large proportion of this material consists of well-rounded pebbles
of flint, with an occasional subangular fragment. The sandy residue
after washing is seen to be composed of angular chips of flint and
quartz, with some ferruginous matter.

C.—A grey sandy loam from Pit No. 1, at 5 feet. This material
is excessively fine. After the finest sand and clay was removed
by washing, the residuum amounted to 45 per cent. A part of
the washings was treated for heavy minerals, of which there is
a noticeable quantity. The average size of these mineral particles
is about ‘05 mm. in diameter. They consist of (1) Hornblende, a few
fragments, some with a decided blue tint suggestive of Riebeckite ;
(2) Chlorite, several flakes; (3) Tourmaline, numerous and in very
perfect crystals grey to greenish-brown; (4) Kyanite, a few flakes ;
(5) Glauconite, numerous rounded granules; (6) Zircon, exceedingly
common, some well-formed crystals with prism of 1st order and
pyramids of 2nd order; also badly developed crystals with
rounded angles, good examples of zoning, cavities, and inclusions ;
(7) Rutile, many examples, including both short and long prisms,
of a fine red-brown colour. The above-mentioned minerals are
much smaller than any others I have met with, either in the Bagshot
Sands or the Lower Greensands, but in many respects are like those
from the first-named deposits. The quartz grains are very minute
and perfectly angular. There are also a few cherty and accreted
fragments present. :

D.—A pebbly loam, from Pit No. 2, at 8 feet. Somewhat similar
to the preceding; with a difference in the character of the pebbles,
which, although rounded, are split apparently by frost action. The

The Plateau Gravels, Sevenoaks. 405

fine sand is interesting on account of its diverse nature, consisting
chiefly of angular fragments of quartz, with numerous subangular
and partially rounded quartz and flint grains, and very rarely
a probably wind-polished grain of quartz. A sponge-spicule was
noticed in this sample.

E.—An umber-coloured clay, from Pit No. 2, at 8 feet. This
specimen yielded a residuum, on washing away the fine argillaceous
portion, of 42 per cent. This consists of fine angular quartz sand,
and a smaller proportion of accreted particles, of an umber-brown
colour.

F.—A bright ochreous yellow sandy rock, of fine texture, from
Pit No. 2, at 8 feet. The fine argillaceous and ochreous portions of
this rock were separated by decanting after stirring and allowing
the washings to settle for 20 seconds. This gave a residuum of
72 per cent. The fine portion consists of minute grains of quartz,
very angular, and associated with them were some flakes of limonitic
material. A small proportion of the residue is much coarser and
floats easily. It consists of tubular and reticulose or pitted fragments
of a purple-brown colour, somewhat of the nature of ‘race.’ The
reticulate surface may possibly be due to the impress of sand-grains.
Some of the particles in this residue have a chalky appearance, and
are doubtfully comparable with worn specimens of foraminifera ;
there are also a few fragmentary sponge-spicules. The rarer
minerals are also present in some abundance in this sand, such
as zircon, tourmaline, rutile, and kyanite.

G.—A pale ochreous sandy clay, from Pit No. 2, at 8 ft. 2 in.
The residuum after washing was 40 per cent. The chief part of
the sand consists of angular and subangular quartz grains, with
a smaller quantity of flinty particles, and with a few larger accreted
fragments of a dark umber colour. Some of the large quartz grains
show evidence of wind-polishing. .

H.—Sand with iron-oxide cemented to an eolith, from-a pit at
Ash in the gravel that occurs at 8 feet. The separated sand-grains
carry a more or less thick covering of ferruginous cement. The
finer sand-grains consist of sharply angular quartz fragments; the
larger grains are angular, subangular, and rounded, or even highly
polished, fragments of quartz, chert, and flint. Several of the
particles noticed are of foraminiferal origin, consisting of pale
glauconite. One very perfect cast, in apple-green glauconite, was
here noticed, and identified as that of Globigerina cretacea, D’Orb.

Relics of minute marine fossils (some certainly from the Chalk)
occur in the samples of loams and sands, D, I, and H. The sand-

ains of flint, chert, glauconite, and quartz are referable, of course,
to the Chalk, Greensands, and to some more ancient rocks, and may
have passed through several stages of erosion and sedimentation
before their deposition in these gravel-beds. The presence of the
rarer ‘heavy minerals’ indicates very much older rocks as their real
source; but they probably formed part of other beds in succession,
as, for instance, in the Bagshot Sands, to which allusion is made in

406 S. H. Warren—Paleolithic Implements, I. of Wight.

the note on B. Indeed, it has occurred to me that the brown clay-
seam on the top of the Raised Beach at Aldrington, near Brighton,
and which contains so many ‘heavy minerals’ in the residue, has
been derived, similarly to the plateau drift here described, from an
older bed common to both areas.

V.—Patmonmitaic Furst ImpteEMENTs FROM THE CHALK Downs
oF THE Iste of WIGHT AND THE VALLEYS OF THE RIVERS
WESTERN YAR AND STOUR.

By 8. Hazztepinr Warren, F.G.S.

N taking my first walk over West High Down, near Freshwater
Bay, in May of last year, I found that the ground had been
ploughed up by traction engines drawing heavy guns to some
new forts on the Needles Point, then in course of construction.
Thinking that there might be some Neolithic implements turned
up, I examined the ruts, when almost the first thing I saw was
a Paleolithic implement. It was ovate in form, 3} inches long
by 2% inches broad, thin, very slightly twisted, well made and
symmetrical though not elaborately finished, and ochreous and
almost unabraded in condition. So far as I am aware, this is the
first Palzeolithic implement that has been found in the district.?

Not a single stone had been thrown down to make a road, and
from the first I felt sure that it had been turned up on the spot.
The following day I took a trowel with me, and discovered that
there was a drift of stony clay ; in this I found a Paleolithic core
at a depth of 19 inches from the surface, though the width of my
hole at that depth was scarcely larger than the size of the core.

Through a mutual friend I obtained the consent of the owner of
the land, Mr. Granville Ward, of Weston Manor, Totland, and
Northwood, Cowes, to dig further. The following sections will
show the general character of the deposit.

Hole A, about 385 yards north of where the first implement was
found, and at a slightly lower level.

feet inches.
4. Surface soil ... 560 500 330 an 300 360 1 0
3. Loam, with stones similar to those in the layer below... 0 6-9

2. Layer of stones: composed of flint nodules; fractured,
unabraded, whitened flints; fractured, red-stained,
seratched, and brown abraded flints; ‘Tertiary flint
pebbles and ironstone ; and Paleolithic implements ... 0 3
[1a. In places, over an area of from 1 to 3 square feet, the
stained and scratched flints were found in the yellow clay
below the layer of stones. Here implements were most
ae the flakes sometimes almost touching each
other.
1. Yellow clay, with yellowish white, or grey, fractured,
unabraded flints, and some Tertiary flint pebbles and
ironstone... 500 360 200 sige Seen to 1 9

3 6
' Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. xvi (1900), p. 266.
* For an account of the discoveries at the other extremity of the island, see
T. Codrington, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxvi (1870), p. 542; and Sir John
Evans, ‘‘ Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain,’’ 2nd ed. (1897), p. 626.

S. H. Warren—Paleolithic Implements, I. of Wight. 407

Hole B, very near where the first implement was found.

feet inches.

4. Surface soil ... as nae Fe Se Soc ee 0 8
3. Layer of stones: composed of whitened, unabraded flint

fragments ; Tertiary flint pebbles and ironstone ; some

ochreous flint fragments; and Paleolithic implements 0 24
2. Yellow clay: full of small, yellowish-white, unabraded

fragments of flint ; flint nodules; a good many Tertiary

pebbles; and some ironstone... Bee lft. 3in.to1l 10
1. Rolled chalk rubble, with a very uneven surface F

Seen to 2ft. 4in. to 1 9

4 6
Between these two sections I found—
feet inches.

5. Surface soil ... oe tas st sa zai ee 0 8
4. Layer of stones, as in hole B was ase os a0 0 2
3. Loam, asin hole A ... eis “it aia he eee 0 9
2. Layer of stones, as in hole A Sa8 ace ae Bets 0 3
1. Yellow clay, asin holes AandB ... SoC ae ont touched

1 10

It is thus seen that the lower layer of stones and the loam above
disappear just beyond where the upper layer of stones comes on.
I have traced this upper layer for a distance of 80 or 100 yards
to the south, while at some 70 yards beyond this point I found
stony clay, with no definite stratification, to a depth of 2 ft. 6 in. ;
how much deeper it may be I do not know. The lower layer of
stones I found to preserve its character over an area of more than
100 square yards, with no sign of its termination to the north
or west.

The implements are generally abraded, sometimes only very
slightly, but often to a considerable extent. Many of them are
much altered and corroded, and rough and unpleasant to the touch.
These are stained either of a dirty reddish-brown or yellow colour,
and are often very blotchy in appearance. But in and above the
lower layer of stones (bed 2 of hole A) many of them, though
abraded on the edges, are not so altered; some of these are stained
of a fairly rich red, but a larger number are nearly of their original
colour. It is not improbable that these may belong to a later
phase of the Paleolithic period than the corroded forms, but my
collection is not large enough to warrant a definite conclusion on the
matter. The Stoke Newington district, so admirably worked out by
Mr. Worthington Smith, affords an excellent standard of comparison
for three phases of the Paleolithic period. I have a considerable
collection from that district, and the corroded implements from
High Down certainly suggest a parallelism with the oldest of Stoke
Newington; while the non-corroded examples suggest the latest or
Le Moustier phase rather than the intermediate or River Drift
proper, though no definite Le Moustier types have been found by
me on High Down. One of those from the lower layer of stones
on High Down, a pointed implement, 5 inches long by 2 inches
broad, and possessing the peculiarity of being triangular in section,

408 8. H. Warren—Paleolithic Implements, I. of Wight.

is similar in type to one of the Le Moustier period of Stoke
Newington in my collection. Both owe their form, in great part,
to the natural fracture of the flint, and are merely trimmed to
a serviceable shape by a small number of blows.

The original ovate implement that I first found came from the
upper layer of stones, and, like several others (flakes and cores)
from that level, it is stained of a yellow colour, though not deeply
altered, and practically unabraded ; but one, a straight-edged scraper,
belongs to the corroded series, and its surfaces are covered with
the characteristic scratches. From bed 1a of hole A I have an
excellent core, 84 inches long by 2} inches wide, showing three
straight parallel facets, flaked with a skill that is rarely seen among
earlier Palzeolithic finds.

The corroded examples, like the earlier Paleolithic implements
from Stoke Newington and elsewhere, nearly always bear evidence
of having been twice abraded: once before, and again after, they
received their ochreous patina; showing them to have been derived
from an earlier drift.

The greatest depth at which I have dug an implement in the
High Down drift is 3 ft. 6in.; I have several from about 3 feet,
but the greater number are from 1 ft. 6 in. to 2 feet.

The position in which this drift occurs is interesting and
suggestive. The range of the chalk downs is breached down to
sea-level at Freshwater Bay by the former course of the Western
Yar. From this point westward the downs rise steadily to 488 feet
above Ordnance Datum at the summit of Hast High Down, on
which eminence the Tennyson memorial cross has been erected.
From this point the ridge of the downs falls steeply to 361 feet O.D.,
and thence rises gradually to 462 feet O.D., the summit of West
High Down, not far from the Needles Point. It is in the low part,
between East and West High Down, that the Paleolithic drift
occurs. So far as I can make out, the actual lowest point is
361 feet O.D.; but there is little or no drift here. The main mass
of it occurs at from 75 to 150 yards to the west of the lowest point,
and at a level of perhaps 4 or 5 feet above it. This spot I shall for
convenience refer to as ‘the drift area.”

This drift area extends only for about 75 yards from east to west,
or along the ridge of the downs, but I have traced it for a much
greater distance, both southward towards the sea and also northward
down the steep dip slope of the chalk on to the ridge across the
Kocene valley presently to be mentioned.

Opposite the drift area on the chalk downs is Headon Hill,
397 feet in height, formed of Oligocene strata capped by 30 feet
of drift gravel. Between Headon Hill, the highest ground on
the Tertiary area, and the drift area, there is a ridge across the
intervening Hocene valley at about 270 to 280* feet’ O.D. This
ridge forms a water-parting between the stream flowing westward
into Alum Bay and that flowing north-eastward into Totland Bay.

| The levels for this district are not published by the Ordnance Survey. Those
with an asterisk are approximate aneroid levels taken by myself.

S. H. Warren—Paleolithic Implements, I. of Wight. 409

As already mentioned, the implementiferous clay drift extends down
from the chalk downs on to this ridge, and I have found a number
of rude, ochreous, and much abraded Paleolithic implements on
a ploughed field here.

There can be little doubt that the gap in the chalk downs with
its Palzolithic drift, the ridge across the Hocene valley, and the
large mass of gravel capping Headon Hill, are closely connected
with each other in their origin. The Headon Hill gravel is
stratified in irregular, confused masses; it is composed of flint
nodules, often more or less battered and rolled on their projecting -
branches, fractured fragments of flint that are practically unabraded,
together with a certain number of flint pebbles derived from the
Tertiary beds, but no débris from strata below the chalk nor any
foreign erratics. Headon Hill is now quite isolated, with the
exception of the ridge at about 270* feet O.D. that connects it with
the chalk downs, so that the gravel capping it is evidently a very
early drift, possibly Pliocene, but certainly long anterior to the
Paleolithic drift on High Down. It appears to me to be
a terrestrial and not a marine deposit; and to have been swept
down along the line of the col, if I may so term it, that now forms
the gap between Hast and West High Down, at a time when the
chalk range was several] hundred feet higher than it is now.

It seems to me that this is the simple and natural explanation of
the Headon Hill gravel ; but I find a greater difficulty in explaining
the Paleolithic drift on the downs. J at first thought that it belonged
to a stream flowing northward into the old Solent River from land to
the south that had since been destroyed by the sea. But there are
various objections to this view. Firstly, the surface of the downs
slopes southward from the drift area at about 865* feet O.D. down to
about 290* feet O.D., where it is cut off by the present sea-cliff ; and
has apparently continued to slope downwards to a still lower level
before the sea had encroached to its present position. So that from
the contours of the downs the difficulty of a stream flowing from the
south is quite as great as that of one flowing from the north (or
north-west), and from other considerations far greater. Secondly,
the very abundant remains of Tertiary strata, in the shape of flint
pebbles and ironstone, that are found in the drift, would necessitate
the supposition of Tertiary outliers to the south, if it had come from
that direction, which a glance at the geological structure of the
district shows one to be an unjustifiable assumption ; without going
back to a time long anterior to the Paleolithic drift. Supposing the
drift to have come from the north or north-west, the difficulty is
only one of some 90** feet, that is, the difference between the ridge
of the Eocene valley and the level of the drift. And as the ridge
is being cut back on both sides by the streams flowing westwards
into Alum Bay and north-eastwards into Totland Bay, the difficulty
is not a great one. Further, it appears to me that not only Alum
Bay Chine itself, but the whole valley from the ridge westwards,
which is only ? mile long, is comparatively modern ; that it was
formerly occupied by Tertiary beds, and that the drainage flowed

410 S. H. Warren—Paleolithic Implements, I. of Wight.

eastwards and then north-eastwards through what is now Totland
Bay into the old Solent River. At the time the Headon Hill gravel
was deposited, at least, it is manifest that this valley could have had
no existence, but that the base-level of the Headon Hill gravel
at 360 to 370 feet O.D. was then the lowest ground at the foot of
the chalk range, flanked by Tertiary beds. The great mass of this
gravel would resist the forces of erosion much more powerfully than
the soft Eocene sands, and thus gradually become isolated by the
cutting away of those strata. If this view be correct, the Paleolithic
drift on High Down belongs originally to an early stage in the
formation of the Hocene valley, though it has, in part, been re-
drifted at various later times.

I have also found Paleolithic implements in the gravels of the
Western Yar. In Pleistocene times this river flowed about a mile
to the south of Brightstone and Brook, then over what is now
Compton Bay, and through the gap in the Chalk downs at Fresh-
water Bay, to join the old Solent River near Yarmouth. The
Pleistocene gravels, with their accompanying brickearth, seen along
the cliff section from Brightstone Grange Chine to Compton Bay,
occur in terraces at from 60 to 120 feet O.D. The highest terrace
is called ‘Plateau Gravel’ by the Geological Survey, but I cannot
agree with thus giving it a separate title, especially as it has little
in common with those drift deposits that usually go by that name.
I have not been successful in finding any implements along the cliff
here, but I think if they were carefully watched as falls take place
from time to time, that implements would very probably be found in
them, perhaps most abundantly in the upper terrace.

On the other side of Freshwater Gate I have found Paleolithic
implements in a patch of gravel, not marked on the Survey Map,
that caps an isolated knoll at about 95* feet O.D. It is evidently
a remnant of a river terrace that has been almost entirely destroyed
by denudation. Nearer Freshwater Church there is another knoll
which forms the highest ground for some distance round. This is
also capped by gravel, though not so coloured on the Survey Map.
The elevation of this knoll is about 10 or 15* feet below the level
of the other patch; but as the thickness of the gravel here appears
to be only 4 or 5 feet, whereas the thickness in the other knoll is
10 feet or more, the level of the two very closely corresponds, and
they are evidently remnants of the same terrace. There are also
terraces at lower levels about Freshwater, but I have not at present
succeeded in finding any implements on them.

Both the gravels of the cliffs near Brook and Brightstone, and
also those of Freshwater, contain occasional pebbles of Paleozoic
rocks. These, I think, have most probably been derived from
Lower Cretaceous strata. In the gravels on the left bank of the
old Solent River about Bournemouth erratics are far more numerous ;
and they have doubtless been derived from the west, as maintained
by Mr. A. E. Salter In going over the gravels of that district

' Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. xv (1898), p. 277; see also R. Godwin-Austen,
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xiii (1857), p. 45.

S. H. Warren—Paleolithic Implements, I. of Wight. 411

I noticed in the Plateau Gravels from Canford Heath to heyond
Talbot Village, and also on the isolated St. Catherine’s Hill! near
Christchurch, that erratic pebbles are very abundant, though flint
forms the bulk of the gravel so far as the larger stones are con-
cerned ; but with the coarse grit (pieces of from 4+ to 4 inch in
diameter) a large proportion of its bulk is composed of those
erratics. The same is the case with the gravels already mentioned
belonging to the old Solent River that are exposed in the cliffs from
Branksome to Southbourne, and in many pits about Bournemouth.
But as soon as one crosses the ridge, capped by Plateau Gravel,
into the valley of the Stour, one finds that the bulk of the grit is
composed of flint with some quartz; indeed, I looked a long time
before I found a single erratic in the grit, though I had found one
or two of larger size. This was surprising to me, as I had previously
thought that the lower terrace gravels were formed out of the
materials of those at a higher level, merely relaid at a lower level
as the excavation of the valley proceeded. But this is evidently
not the case in this instance. One sees from the great difference
in the composition of the grit that the gravels of Moordown and
Winton, in the Stour valley, are quite independent in their origin
of those of Canford Heath, from which one would naturally have
imagined them to have been derived.

About Moordown there is a very well developed terrace at 70 or
80 feet above the River Stour, in which I have obtained a number of
Paleolithic implements, both pointed and ovate. One is of a rather
rare type, with an almost adze-like cutting edge, 13 inches wide,
the whole blade being 6 inches long by 34 inches wide. I am
not aware that Paleolithic implements have previously been re-
corded from this locality. Indeed, Sir John Evans, in the last
edition of his “ Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain” (1897,
p- 634), says: ‘In the basin of the Stour, which joins the Avon
at Christchurch, but one discovery has been made.” ‘This, he
proceeds to say, was in gravel dug near Wimborne Minster, but not
in sitt. In the gravel of Little Down Common I also found a flake,
though I visited the pit but once, and then for a short time only ;
I have no doubt that a more extended search would be fully
rewarded. This gravel also belongs to the valley of the Stour,
and the grit is wanting in erratics.

From the gravels of the Western Yar about Freshwater, I have
obtained a number of much abraded brown flints, with battered
edges, resembling the so-called ‘ Holithic’ implements from the
chalk downs of Kent. I feel no little hesitation in attributing the
majority of these to human agency. Both from Freshwater and
elsewhere, I have Kolithic types (whether they be implements or
not), the chippings upon which are contemporary with the River
Drift series proper, that is, later than the earlier Paleolithic forms.’

1 There is danger in visiting the pits on the summit of this hill, owing to the
proximity of the rifle-butts, and there is nothing to warn one. I narrowly escaped

being shot here in February last. : nae
2 I have some in which the chippings are contemporary with Neolithic

implements.

412 Notices of Memoirs—Sherborn’s Index Animahum.

So that the finding of a few Holithic types, even supposing them
to be truly worked by man, would not, apart from other evidence,
prove any great antiquity. A certain number of undoubted im-
plements, similar to the (derived) earlier Paleolithic types of the
river gravels, have certainly been found in the high-level drift of
Kent. I at first hoped that. some light might be thrown on the
question of Holithic man by the drift on High Down; but I have, at
present at least, no evidence to offer bearing very directly on this
problem.

IN|jOR TCA S 7 @iet Vie E@ arse

SHeRBoRN’s InpEx ANimaLium.—Report of a Committee, consisting
of Dr. H. Woopwarp (Chairman), Mr. P. L. Sctarmr, the
Rev. T. R. R. Strppine, Mr. R. MoLaonnan, Mr. W. HE. Hoyts,
and Mr. F. A. Barurr (Secretary), appointed to superintend the
Compilation of an Index Animalium.

Nes, examination of the literature published from 1758 to 1800

inclusive has been continued by Mr. C. Davies Sherborn, to
whom facilities have, as heretofore, been granted by the authorities
at the British Museum (Natural History). Between July, 1898,
and June, 1899, he has seen and indexed 1,528 volumes and tracts,
and has now reduced the list of desiderata to about 500 items.
Of these scarcely 100 are likely to be of any importance to the
systematic zoologist ; but every effort will be made to consult them,
so as to be certain that everything has been recorded.

The Committee desires to express its grateful thanks for the loan
of rare and valuable books, and for information concerning them, to
the following :—The Hof-naturalien Kabinet of Vienna, Dr. Eduard
Suess, and Dr. Steindachner; Dr. F. A. Jentink, of Leyden;
Akademiker F'. Schmidt, of St. Petersburg; the Stadt-Bibliothek of
Zurich, Dr. Eschner, and Professor Renevier; the Hon. Walter
Rothschild and Mr. Hartert; Sir Edmund Loder; Mr. Du Cane
Godman and the late Mr. O. Salvin; Lord Walsingham and
Mr. J. H. Durrant; Professor Amalitzky, of Warsaw; Prof. Anton
Fritsch and Dr. Jan Perner, of Prague; Professor Alfred Newton ;
Mr. W. HE. de Winton; Mr. Gerrit S. Miller, of Washington;
Mr. A. C. Seward, of Cambridge; and Prof. H. A. Miers, of Oxford.
Dr. Philippe Dautzenberg, of Paris, has also greatly aided the
compiler in his efforts to obtain the loan of a rare catalogue. The
editors of “ Nature ” and “ La Feuille des jeunes Naturalistes ” have
lent valuable aid in publishing lists of desiderata. Of the generosity
of the Vienna Kabinet, the Ziirich Library, and Dr. Jentink, all of
whom have sent over their treasures for inspection, the Committee
cannot speak too highly.

Again the special and hearty thanks of the Committee are due to
the Zoological Society of London for pecuniary assistance, which
will, as in the past, greatly facilitate the work of procuring access to-
this rare literature.

Reviews—Marr’s Study of Scenery. 413

The reference slips themselves are now in alphabetical order, and
the work of checking previous reference books and of eliminating
duplicate entries will be proceeded with as quickly as possible.

The following reports on dates of publication of various books
have been published by Mr. Sherborn during the year :—

De Blainville, “ Ostéographie” : Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist. (7),
ii, 1898.

Hiibner, “Samml. europiischer Schmetterlingen”: Annals and
Mag. Nat. Hist. (7), ii, 1898.

C. d’Orbigny, “ Dictionnaire Universel”: Annals and Mag. Nat.
Hist. (7), iii, April, 1899.

Humboldt & Bonpland, ‘Obs. de Zoologie”: Annals and Mag.
Nat. Hist. (7), iti, 1899.

Lichtenstein, “Catalogus rerum naturalium ”: Annals and Mag.
Nat. Hist. (7), iii, 1899.

“The Dates of the Paléontologie Francaise”: Grou. Mae., 1899,
pp. 228-225.

Temminck & Laugier, “ Planches coloriées”” : Ibis, Oct., 1898.

It may also be mentioned that Mr. Sherborn has prepared an
“Index to the generic and trivial names of animals described by
Linneus in the 10th and 12th editions of the Systema Nature,” and
the thanks of zoologists are due to the Manchester Museum, Owens
College, for issuing this through Messrs. Dulau & Co., London, as
its “‘ Publication 25.”

In the full belief that the first section of the Index (1758-1800)
will soon be ready for publication as a tangible result of the
compiler’s labours, the Committee earnestly recommends its
reappointment.

ee et WV ae Es VV Se

I.—Tue Sorentirio Stupy or Sonnery. By J. H. Mare, M.A,
F.R.S. S8vo; pp. 868. (London: Methuen & Co., 1900.
Price 6s.)

OT long ago we had the pleasure of noticing Mr. Marr’s
admirable introduction to “The Principles of Stratigraphical
Geology,” and now students of the physical side of that science
are to be congratulated on a further contribution in book form from
the same pen.

The volume is described in the Preface as “An introductory
treatise on Geomorphology, a subject which has sprung from the
union of geology and geography.” It is a terrible word to hurl at
the head of the unoffending general reader, whose interest in the
subject the book is intended to arouse, and we fear that some readers
will be so disheartened at the outset that they will lay down the
book before reading the first chapter. Fortunately most people
avoid the preface (we do so ourselves) and begin by looking at
the illustrations, in which case the reader is sure to get interested
and the author will be saved. Unfortunately ‘physiology’ (the

414 Reviews—Marr’s Study of Scenery.

obvious portmanteau word for physical geology) has already been
annexed, and the meaning of the term ‘ physiography’ has apparently
expanded indefinitely, like the atmosphere, losing in attraction as it
departs further and further from any ‘solid ground.’ But surely
some more popular term might be found for the science of scenery.

After a brief introduction on the attributes of scenery, the author
proceeds to discuss the nature of the earth’s exterior, which he
considers under the heads of Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, and Litho-
sphere; the greater part of chapter ii being taken up with the
description of the mode of origin of the rocks composing the
Lithosphere, and the changes they have subsequently undergone
in position and structure.

In chapter iii we have a short essay on the production of
dominant forms due to accumulation, elevation, depression, and
sculpture, and the similarity in form assumed by the Atmosphere, -
Hydrosphere, and Lithosphere is strongly emphasized; we think,
however, that the parallel instituted between the formation of cloud,
sea, and earth-waves is open to misconception, and that the student.
might very easily close the book with the idea that the form of the
earth-waves was originated by meteoric agents, as in the case of
clouds and sea-waves, when he reads on p. 24, “similarly the
earth-waves are carved out by the graving tools of nature, and the
effects are generally similar to those produced on ocean-waves by
the wind.”

Chapter iv deals with the atmosphere, but is practically taken up
with a description of the form and mode of origin of clouds. It is.
difficult, no doubt, in treating of a subject like Scenery for the
author to decide exactly how much to take the reader into his
confidence regarding the causes which produce the visible effective
scenery, and we think that compared with the rest of the subjects
dealt with in the book, the atmosphere has a distinct grievance
with regard to the space allotted to it, though the description of the
various forms of clouds is unusually clear and full.

In chapter v we have a description of the continents and ocean
basins. In the consideration of their main features the author
adopts Professor Lapworth’s very suggestive views as propounded
in his remarkable address to Section C at the Edinburgh Meeting of
the British Association. If the exigencies of space permitted we
should like to see the subject of this chapter dealt with at’
somewhat greater length. We have, for instance, no allusion to
the Hemihedral Tetrahedral theory (of Lowthian Green, 1875,
and J. W. Gregory, 1899), which alone attempts to account for the
curious wedge-like termination of the continents to the south.

The three following chapters are devoted to the origin and
structure of mountains, the first being confined to mountains of
upheaval, among which the ‘ Laccolite’ of Gilbert and the Alpine
form of folding of Heim are taken as types; mountain uplift
generally being classified under symmetrical, unsymmetrical (sic),
and compound types. The second of this group treats of the
sculpture of mountains, forestalling, somewhat, the subsequent

Reviews—Marr’s Study of Scenery. 415

chapter on the formation of valleys; and the last of the chapters
on mountains deal very fully and clearly with the origin of certain
forms. The observations on p. 82 regarding the tendency of
vegetation to convert the typical concave denudation curve into
@ convex curve is, we believe, here suggested for the first time,
and a study of photographs, depicting forest-clad valleys, appears
completely to bear out this theory of Mr. Marr. Admirable as
is the description of the development of a typical mountain range,
it would, we think, be still more easily followed by the reader
were orographical sketch-maps of the Monta Rosa and Scawfell
districts added in a future edition.

In the chapters which follow on valleys, the reader is introduced
to the latest American nomenclature of consequent, subsequent,
obsequent, inconsequent, and antecedent valleys; corrasion, com-
minution, peneplain, etc. Many of these terms are, no doubt,
useful, but it is interesting to note that the very inexpressive term
‘watershed ’ is still retained, and that no Anglo-Saxon word has yet
been coined to denote the course of a river represented by the
German word ‘ Thalweg.’

Chapters xi and xii, which deal with lakes, are perhaps the most
interesting in the book, our author himself having written largely
on the subject, and being our greatest authority on our own lake
district. In this connection we are glad to see Mr. Marr referring
to the work of that excellent old author Jonathan Otley.

The chapters on Plains and Deserts are also very fully treated
of, and a long way ahead of the chapters on these subjects usually
found in textbooks; in fact, it is wonderful how much up-to-date
information the author has compressed into his little book.

The chapters devoted to Ice are perhaps a little curtailed compared
with other portions of the subject, and we would call attention to
the scant notice given to the work of avalanches, although it has
been estimated by Inspector Coaz that one-third of the snow which
annually falls on the St. Gothard range is removed by avalanches.
We should like also to see a reference to Heim’s work on
‘Gletscherkunde’ and the observations of the Rhdne Glacier
Commission. Upon the vexed question of the coincidence of lake
basins and ancient glaciers, we are glad to see Mr. Marr reminding
his readers of a fact long ago pointed out by Sir Charles Lyell, viz.,
that in a region undergoing elevation glaciation will often prevent
the water-ways from being kept open by rivers during the uplift;
and in this way lakes may be formed. Such lakes, then, will be
caused, not by the erosion of ice, but by the absence of erosion
by water, owing to the presence of the ice.

The book has been designed to interest the general reader as well
as to assist the student, and the changes of styles in neighbouring
paragraphs are in consequence perhaps occasionally rather abrupt.

On the whole, if we might offer a suggestion on what is evidently
a very conscientiously written work, it would be in favour of
a somewhat less technical treatment, with, however, full references
to works where the details of the subject may be consulted, bearing

416 Reviews—Osborn’s Tertiary Mammal Horizons.

in mind the requirements of the intelligent general reader whom
it is desired to convert into a student of the subject. That the
writer is imbued with a true love of scenery is abundantly evident
in many passages, and the feeling of the book is throughout
conceived in the spirit of such classical exponents of the scientific
beauties of scenery as Forbes, Tyndall, Ruskin, and Geikie; and in
passages, as for instance on p. 201, in which the play of colours
observed on Windermere is described, and again in his concluding
chapter on the preservation of natural beauties, the author shows
himself capable of the highest appreciation for the poetry of his
subject.

the verbal slips in the book are few and insignificant. We would
call attention to ‘windward’ on p. 264, for which ‘leaward’
is evidently intended; the letter S has been omitted in fig. 14,
although alluded to in the legend ; it would facilitate reference from
the text if the plates were numbered; on p. 278 the reader might
conclude that the hexagonal and rhombohedral systems were
separate and distinct. In alluding to the evaporation of snow
and camphor the process is referred to as ‘sublimation.’ In Waitt’s
Dictionary of Chemistry sublimate is defined as “‘a body obtained in
the solid state by the cooling of its vapour.” Again, on p. 278 we
have a curious sentence on the angle of accumulation of snow which
concludes “the latter” (the aiguilles), “being at an elevation
inferior to that of the topmost dome.” Surely, as the Germans say,
“das versteht sich.”

The photographic illustrations have been carefully selected and
excellently reproduced; they are all to the point, and fully described
in the text, an innovation on the usual method, on which we beg to
congratulate the author, as indeed we do most heartily on the whole
work, and we recommend it most thoroughly to all true lovers of
scenery, both general and scientific.

TJ. — CorrenaTIoN BETWEEN TERTIARY Mammat Horizons oF
KuropE anp Amertoa. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE MORE EXAOT
INVESTIGATION oF TERTIARY ZoOGEOGRAPHY. Preliminary Study
with Third Trial Sheet.—Two Presidential Addresses before the
New York Academy of Sciences.—By Hunry Farrrirtp Osporn.
(Annals N.Y. Acad, Sci., vol. xiii, No. 1, pp. 1-72, July 21, 1900.)

E heartily agree with Professor Osborn that no-one can oppose
the immediate adoption of the fundamental principle that the
old and new world paleontology should be studied as a unit:
although considerable time must elapse before a consensus of opinion
can be arrived at, there is no doubt that the best way is to set
to work viribus unitis. Professor Osborn has taken the lead, and
well he may ; for he is better acquainted with the Tertiary mammal
horizons of Kurope than any one of his European colleagues with
those of the new world.
In 1897 and 1898 he drew up and circulated for criticism
amongst old-world paleontologists two successive trial sheets
‘of the typical and homotaxial Tertiary horizons of Europe” ;

Reviews—Osborn’s Tertiary Mammal Horizons. 417

a third trial sheet was issued in connection with the first of the
two addresses above quoted. We here transcribe the “ Preliminary
Table of European and American Tertiary Horizons,” being an
abbreviation of the third trial sheet.
Lyetu’s System.

Upper: Post-Glacial
Pleistocene | Middle: Glacial and Interglacial

APPROXIMATE AMERICAN PARALLELS.

Lower: Preglacial ... non ? Hquus beds.
Upper : Sicilien me ae ? Blanco.
Pliocene Middle { Astion.
Plaisancien.
Lower: Messinien co Upper Loup Fork.
Upper: Tortonien en ee Loup Fork.
Miocene Middle: Helvetien . aa Lower Loup Fork and
Lower: Langhien sie ..._ Upper John Day.
Upper: Aquitanien Lower John Day (Diceratherium
Oligocene Stamni Layer).
Lower { altprel é \ ‘os White River.
Infra Tongrien $

, Upper: Ligurien
: Bartonien

Middle { Lutétien
Lower: Suessonien
Thanetien

Basal eee

Eocene

Bridger and Uinta.
Lower Bridger.
Wind River.
Wasatch.
Torrejon.

Puerco.

“In all the levels above the Stampien the parallels are

imperfectly established.” “Our Pliocene record, as compared
with the magnificent Pliocene of Europe, is extremely meagre,
and our Miocene succession, rich as it is, is not as fully understood
as the Miocene of France.”

In Part I the parallels between Tertiary horizons are discussed.

The Burdigalien, Lower Miocene, calls fora few remarks. Gaudry
was the first to place the Calcaire de Montabuzard and the Sables
de V Orléanais in a lower level than Sansan, ‘ Anthracotherium’ not
being found and the ruminants being more evolved in the Sansan
deposit. The Proboscidea and Monkeys appear for the first time, no
trace of them being found in the Upper Oligocene (Saint-Gérand-le-
Puy, etc.).

Owing to the extreme scarcity of the Burdigalien fossils in other
than a few French museums, most paleontologists were prevented
from forming an opinion of their own; the Burdigalien for these
reasons was omitted from the “Table of Contemporary Deposits,
with their Characteristic Genera of Mammalia,” published in the
GrotocicaL Macazine (1899, p.61). The general tendency has been
to leave the Sables de l’Orléanais in the same horizon as Sansan,
La Grive, Steinheim, with which they were and still are supposed
to share such characteristic Tortonien species as Dinotherium
bavaricum, Mastodon angustidens, and Anchitherium aurelianense.
The more recent researches of Depéret, the results of which are
endorsed by Osborn, have confirmed Gaudry’s views. Some
vertebrates from the Burdigalien of Moghara (Lower Egypt)
have of late been described by Andrews.

DECADE IV.—VOL. VII.—NO. IX. 27

418 Reviews—Osborn’s Tertiary Mammal Horizons.

The Burdigalien fauna will doubtless appear more distinct when
the remains of the above-mentioned genera and others have been
more closely examined.

Both the Proboscideans from the Sables de ? Orléanais, mentioned
above, are smaller than the species of the Tortonien from which
their names have been borrowed; furthermore, the Dinotherium of
the Burdigalien received a specific name (D. Cuviert, Kaup) long
ago. The late Abbé Bourgeois’ collection in the College of
Pontlevoy (Loir-et-Cher) contains, it is true, in addition to undoubted
Burdigalien forms, several Mastodon-teeth from the Faluns of.
Pontlevoy and Thenay, which seem indistinguishable from those
of Mastodon angustidens. The Faluns belong to the Helvetien,
and the presence of Burdigalien forms must be accounted for by
supposing that they have been derived from that deposit, the fauna,
in fact, apparently including both derived and contemporary forms
of terrestrial Mammalia.

The Anchitherium was named (A. aurelianense) after the specimens
from the Calcaire de Montabuzard: the detailed descriptions are
based on specimens from the Tortonien. The Anchitherium remains
from the Sables de ? Orléanais will presumably prove to be a less
specialized stage in the Equine series than those of the Tortonien.

As to the Suidz from the Sables de I Orléanais, they have been
shown by H. Stehlin to be distinct from those of the Aquitanien
as well as from the Tortonien Suide.

The Lagomorphous Rodent of the Burdigalien is not a Titanomys,
for it has rootless cheek-teeth; it is not a Prolagus, for its lower
cheek-teeth are five in number, not four. In the above characters
and in the general conformation of the upper middle premolar,
it agrees with Lagopsis and Lagomys. But it differs from Lagomys
and from the only known species of Lagopsis (Z. verus from the
Tortonien) in the pattern of the anterior lower premolar.

Part II deals with the “ Faunal Relations of Europe and America
during the Tertiary Period and Theory of the successive invasions
of an African Fauna into Europe.” In the chapter “Tertiary
Geographical Distribution” we notice the omission of two important
papers bearing on the subject. Referring to the hypothetical -
“Continent Antarctica,” the author says: “Following Blanford
(1890), Forbes (1893) made the first strong plea for this continent.”
The first strong plea, and with several sounder arguments than
some of those advanced in recent years, was made as long ago as
1867 by Riitimeyer,' whose masterly sketch is at the same time the
strongest possible appeal to set zoogeography on a palzxontological
basis. Riitimeyer ultimately divides the world in a northern and
southern division (op. cit., p. 15 and map), which do not quite
coincide with the Northern and Southern Hemisphere, and are
therefore in better agreement with the known facts than Huxley’s
Arctogea and Notogea (1868). Riitimeyer’s dual division is also
more consistent with the hypothesis of an Antarctic continent than
Blanford’s three divisions.

1 “Uber die Herkunft unserer Thierwelt, Eine zoogeographische Skizze”’ (1867),

Reviews—Report on the U.S. National Museum. 419

Osborn’s theory of successive invasions of an African fauna into
Hurope seems at first sight a very bold one. ‘It thus appears
that. the Proboscidea, Hyracoidea, certain edentata, the antelopes,
the giraffes, the hippopotami, the most specialized ruminants, and
among the rodents, the anomalures, dormice, and jerboas, among
monkeys the baboons, may all have enjoyed their original adaptative
radiation in Africa.” Three, or rather four, successive migrations
are supposed to have taken place, the first in the Upper Hocene,
the last in the Upper Pliocene. A similar theory cannot, of course,
be imagined if the permanence of continents and oceans is main-
tained, so that Osborn’s theory is in the main a clever elaboration of
the ‘ Lemuria’ hypothesis, in its original form, as conceived by P. L.
Sclater.1_ This is the second of the two papers above referred to as
having been omitted by the author. A southern origin has, moreover,
been advocated for the Proboscidea in Neumayr’s ‘‘ Erdgeschichte,”’
and for the Cercopithecide in the Gronocican Maaazine (1896,
p. 436), partly with the same arguments advanced by Osborn (p. 58).

But, if South Africa is a great centre of independent evolution
(p. 57), and has supplied South America with the edentates, as well
as the “stem forms of its Ungulates” (p. 54), why leave it in the
Arctogea, whilst ‘Neogsa’ is made to stand apart? This is our
reason for objecting to ‘ Neogza.’ C. F. M.

Il]. — Annvuant Report oF THE Boarp or REGENTS OF THE
SmrrHsonraN INSTITUTION FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 80, 1897.
Svo; pp. 88 and 1,024. 8. P. Lanauey, Secretary Smithsonian
Institution. (Washington, 1899.)

Part I. Report upon the Condition and Progress of the U.S.
National Museum during the year ending June 30, 1897, by
Charles D. Walcott, in charge of the U.S. National Museum.
pp. 1-246.

Part II. Papers Describing and Illustrating Collections in the U.S.
National Museum.

(A) Recent Foraminifera. A descriptive Catalogue of specimens
dredged by the U.S. Fish Commission Steamer “ Albatross,” by
James Flint, M.D., U.S. Navy, Hon. Curator Division of Medicine,
U.S. National Museum. pp. 247-850, and 80 plates.

(B) Pipes and Smoking Customs of the American Aborigines, based
on material in the U.S. National Museum, by Joseph D. McGuire,
Ellicott City, Maryland. pp. 351-646, 4 plates, a frontispiece,
and 239 figures in the text.

(C) Catalogue of the series illustrating the Properties of Minerals,
by Wirt Tassin, Assistant Curator of Mineralogy. pp. 647-688.

(D) Te Pito Te Henua, known as Rapa Nui; commonly called
Easter Island, South Pacific Ocean. Latitude, 27° 10'S. ; longitude,
109° 26’ W. By George H. Cooke, Surgeon U.S.N. pp. 689-724.

1 < The Mammals of Madagascar ” : Quart. Journ. Science, vol. i, pp. 213-219
(1864). The four cautiously worded deductions at which Sclater arrived may be
almost entirely endorsed at the present day.

420 Reviews—Smithsonian Institution, Washington—

(E) The Man’s Knife among the North American Indians, a study
in the collection of the U.S. National Museum, by Otis Tufton
Mason, Curator Division of Ethnology. pp. 725-746, with 17
illustrations.

(F) Classification of the Mineral Collections in the U.S. National
Museum, by Wirt Tassin. pp. 747-810.

(G) Arrow- points, Spear-heads, and Knives of Prehistoric
Times, by Thomas Wilson, LL.D., Curator Division of Prehistoric
Archeology, U.S. National Museum. pp. 811-988, 65 plates, and
201 illustrations in the text. pp. 989-1022 are devoted to a general
index to the whole volume.

The Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution are to be
congratulated upon the production of an imperial octavo volume of
1,062 pages, embracing a report upon the Museum, with seven
memoirs describing and illustrating various sections of the National
Collection, four of which are profusely and beautifully illustrated
by 149 plates and 457 process-block illustrations in the text.

Part I.

The Report itself occupies 246 pages, and is drawn up by.
Mr. C. D. Walcott, the Acting Assistant Secretary in charge of the
U.S. National Museum. The Departments are—ANTHROPOLOGY,
with 17 curators and assistants; Animal Bronocy, with 27 curators
and assistants and 8 honorary associates; Division of Puants
(National Herbarium), with 8 curators and assistants; GmoLocy
and Mineranoey, with 18 curators and assistants. 'The administra-
tive staff is represented by Mr. 8. P. Langley, the Secretary and
Keeper; Mr. C. D. Walcott, Acting Assistant Secretary ; Mr. F. W.
True, Executive Curator; and a staff of ten officers, including
a photographer, a registrar, two librarians, an editor, a chief of
correspondence and documents, and a chief of buildings.

Here is a sample of the work of the Museum. During the year
- covered by this report nearly 27,000 geological and biological
specimens, selected from the duplicates, were distributed to uni-
versities, colleges, and schools. The publications of the Museum
were also distributed at home and abroad. Identification of speci-
mens is also undertaken, except when analyses of geological
specimens are desired; these the Museum cannot perform.

Letters containing requests for information on every conceivable
topic are all carefully answered. These number from 12,000 to
15,000 a year. Public lectures are also frequently provided, or the
lecture-hall placed at the disposal of Societies desiring to hold their
meetings in the Museum.

To sum up, the aims of the U.S. National Museum are to promote
the advancement of scientific research (1) through the medium of
the collections exhibited; (2) by affording to specialists access to
the ‘reserve’ collections; (8) by the identification of specimens;
(4) through the agency of the library; (5) by the donation of
specimens to educational institutions; (6) by the donation of its
publications; (7) by its lecture courses; and (8) by imparting

Report on the U.S. National Museum. 421

special information through correspondence. Such is an epitome
of the work carried out by the U.S. National Museum under the
direction of the Smithsonian Institution.

An annual report, however good and satisfactory, is generally
admitted to be a somewhat dull but necessary document, and
certainly not to be classed with novels and such light literature
as holiday reading: but behind the report come seven admirably
prepared memoirs, which the authors have endeavoured to render
as attractive as possible, not only by the varied subjects treated of,
but in several instances by the excellent and abundant illustrations
given.

Part II.

(A) Dr. James M. Flint, of the U.S. Navy, furnishes a descriptive
catalogue of the Foraminifera dredged by the U.S. steamer
“Albatross.” Materials from about 125 stations have been carefully
studied, and specimens from more than one hundred localities have
been preserved and identified. Fifty-eight localities are in the
North Atlantic Ocean, twenty-one in the Gulf of Mexico, seven in
the Caribbean Sea, one in the South Pacific, and five in the North
Pacific. The depths vary from 7 to 2,512 fathoms. The illus-
trations are all made from mounted specimens on exhibition in
the U.S. National Museum, and have a uniform enlargement of
about fifteen diameters; by this plan they mark distinctly the
relative size of the objects. The classification followed is that of
the late Mr. H. B. Brady in his Report on Foraminifera collected
by H.M.S. “Challenger.”

The series are mounted expressly for the public, the specimens
of each species being attached to the bottom of a shallow, concave,
blackened disk of brass, arranged in concentric rows upon a large
circular metal plate forming the stage of an ordinary microscope.
The circular plate has a rotary and a to-and-fro movement by means
of a friction roller and a rack and pinion, so that all the mounts
may be successively brought under the microscope. The apparatus
has been in use by the public, both by adults and children, and
has stood very severe tests successfully for seven years, with only
the occasional presence of an Attendant in the room. ]

Dr. Flint gives a description of what Foraminifera are, which
would do admirably for a popular guidebook. He then proceeds
to explain, simply and clearly, how these minute shells are to
be mounted and how sections may be prepared. For the
literature he refers to Carpenter’s ‘Introduction to the Study of
the Foraminifera,” to Brady’s Report on the Foraminifera collected
by H.M.S. “Challenger,” and to C. Davies Sherborn’s “Index to the
Genera and Species of the Foraminifera.” Then comes an analytical
key to the families, followed by a descriptive catalogue of the genera
and species. The eighty plates are superb, and demonstrate what
can be satisfactorily done by photography direct, without the inter-
vention of any artist. The photographs are only ‘ processed,’ and
then printed on good plate paper.

422 Reviews—Smithsonian Institution, Washington—

The figures of Astrorhiza (plates i-iii), whose chambers and tubes
are built up of agglutinated grains of sand, are remarkably effective,
as are also those of Pilulina Jeffreysi. Where all are so excellent it
would be difficult to specially select for praise certain plates ; but we
may mention Reophaw (plates xvi-xviii), Haplophragmium (xix-xxi),
Ammodiscus (xxiii), Hormosina (xxv), Cyclammina (xxvii), Gaudryina
(xxxiii), Clavulina (xxxiv—-xxxvi), Biloculina (xxxviii-xl), Spiro-
loculina (xlii, xliii), Peneroplis (xlix), Orbitoides (1-lii), Nodosaria
(lv-lviii, superb), Cristellaria (Ixvi, Ixvii), Pulvinulina (lxxv),
Rotalia (Ixxvi). We agree with the author in thinking that some of
the more minute forms, such as Truncatulina, Anomalina, Discorbina,
Uvigerina, etc., would have shown to greater advantage if they had
been magnified more highly, but the work is, as a whole, most
excellent.

(B) Under the division of Ethnology Mr. Joseph D. McGuire
gives us an interesting and well-illustrated memoir on “ Pipes.
and Smoking Customs of the American Aborigines,” based on
materials in the U.S. National Museum and elsewhere. ‘There are
239 illustrations of pipes in the text, a frontispiece, and 4 maps
showing the distribution of objects over the United States.

Tobacco cannot be considered a geological product (although

largely consumed by geologists!), yet the material out of which
the ancient stone pipes of North America were manufactured is not
without interest, from a strictly scientific point of view, to non-smokers.
among geologists and antiquaries. Indeed, in fig. 64 is depicted
a fossil pipe from Pottawatomie, Kansas, made of the outer whorl of
an Ammonite (probably Schlenbachia Peruviana or acuticarinata),
the shape of which probably attracted the curiosity of the Indians.
_ Another material largely used was ‘Catlinite,’ a red clay forming
beds of considerable extent in Pipestone County, in the south-
western part of Minnesota (named after the writer on the American
Indians, George Catlin). In addition, we may quote banded green
slate, steatite, greenstone, a concretion, volcanic tuff, sandstone,
pipe of stalagmite, of mica, obsidian, jade, porphyry, and Oolitic
limestone as among the materials used. But clay of various kinds
(moulded and afterwards kilned) was also very largely in demand.

Of the figure pipes many were no doubt ‘totems’ of the tribes,
as the hawk, dog, frog, turtle, raccoon, eagle, duck, pigeon, swan,
snake, human hands and head. A pipe shaped like an elephant’
is very puzzling, for it implies, if genuine, that the designer was
acquainted with the animal, which seems incredible for a Mound-
Indian of Iowa, or that it was of later date, in fact a European
workman’s fabrication of the same dishonest type as the ‘antiquities’
made by the celebrated English impostor known as ‘ Flint Jack.’ Of
other materials for the manufacture of pipes we may mention wood,
wood and stone, wood and lead pipe, a combination of clay, copper,
and wood, a pipe of willow, a pipe of bone, of copper, of lead,
a combination of stone and bone, a bronze pipe, a brazed iron pipe,

joy : t SUN, :
: Could it have been a mammoth or a mastodon which the artist had seen, or Was
it a modern Indian elephant he had copied ?

Report on the U.S. National Museum. 423

a tomahawk and pipe combined of iron or steel. The simplest form
of pipe known is that in use in Ladak and Thibet, where the natives,
in travelling, make a small, smooth hole in the ground, which they
fill with tobacco, and then make a connecting hole through which
they draw the smoke directly into the mouth, the ground itself
serving the part of a pipe. The present writer was informed by
Sir John Kirk that the Kaffirs in East Africa do precisely the same
when travelling; the ground being first wetted, then the bowl is
formed by the thumb being pressed vertically into the earth, and the
tube for inhaling the smoke is made by the little finger, which is
pressed in obliquely until it touches the base of the larger hole.

Of the religious, civil, military, trade, and domestic functions in
which the ‘calumet’ or peace-pipe was introduced amongst the
North American Indians, forming an important part of all such
ceremonies, let those who are interested to learn, read Mr. Joseph
McGuire’s admirable memoir. We have room for only one quotation
by way of illustration: “In 1682, when William Penn landed in
New Jersey, he received the lighted calumet or pipe, which was
smoked out of by all; the great sachem first taking a whiff, then
William Penn, and subsequently the sachems and warriors and
squaws of every tribe. A second smoke closed the bargain for the
purchase of land; and 300 tobacco pipes, 100 hands of tobacco,
20 tobacco boxes, and 100 jew’s-harps were a portion of the articles
given in exchange” (p. 461). We had no idea that the jew’s-harp,
or indeed any other musical instrument, had been ‘traded’ by the
Quakers to the North American Indians. It suggests that our quiet
friends must have secretly had a taste for music, even two hundred
years ago!

(C) The next memoir is a catalogue illustrating the properties
of minerals, by Wirt Tassin, Assistant Curator, Department of
Mineralogy, Smithsonian Museum.

The plan of arrangement followed deals with (1) chemical
mineralogy, such as the chemical composition or atomic structure
of a mineral and the chemical relations of the several kinds of
minerals ; and (2) physical mineralogy, which treats of those
properties relating to form or molecular structure of a mineral,
and the action of the various physical forces upon the several
kinds of minerals.

Under chemical mineralogy the author treats of the elements, and
explains that all minerals are composed of either an element alone
or two or more elements in combination; that such combinations
of simple substances may produce a new substance, differing from
and possessing properties not the mean of those of its constituents.
This is illustrated by the gases hydrogen and oxygen, which under
proper conditions combine to form water, a liquid. Then follow
examples of various minerals, as zinc and its combinations, tin
and its combinations, lead and its combinations, sulphur and its
combinations, iron and its combinations, and so on. The author
next gives types of minerals and examples of native elements, as
carbon, sulphur, the metals platinum, mercury, copper, silver, and

494 Reviews—Smithsonian Institution, Washington—

gold, and the alloys of each, Next the variations in composition
are considered, and the relation of water to composition and to
physical properties; then the relation of composition to physical
properties, such as density, magnetism, and lustre.

Physical mineralogy is next treated of, and we have a brief essay
on the crystal, on crystallographic axes, on crystal form and
crystal systems, etc. ; characters relating to cohesion and elasticity,
characters depending upon mass or volume; properties relating to
heat, magnetism, and electricity; optical characters depending
upon the action of light, etce., and characters depending upon the
action of the senses, as touch, taste, odour; and lastly, on resistance
to chemical action.

(F) By an accident of arrangement, Mr. Wirt Tassin’s second
part, “Classification of the Mineral Collections in the U.S. National
Museum,” has been separated by the interpolation of two other
essays (D and E): we will, however, notice this part (F) next to
part C. Classification 1, Elements. Of the seventy or more
elements at present known to chemistry, but eighteen, excluding
those occurring only in the gaseous state, are found native. With
the native elements are included the native alloys, or compounds
and mixtures of elements belonging to the same groups in the
periodic system.

A list of these native elements is then given, with their native
alloys and compounds, in groups, as (1) diamond, bort, carbonado,
graphite, schungite, graphitoid, cliftonite; (2) sulphur (and its
compounds), selenium, tellurium, etc.; (3) arsenic, etc., antimony,
bismuth; (4) tin, lead; (5) iron, catarinite, etc.; (6) platinum,
platiridium, iridium, osmiridium, palladium, ete.; (7) mercury,
amalgam, copper, silver, gold, electrum, porpezite, rhodite.

These are followed by compounds of the elements, as (A) compounds
of halogens-fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine ; (B) compounds
of sulphur, selenium, and tellurium, also arsenic, antimony, bismuth,
and germanium ; (C) oxygen compounds; (D) compounds of organic
origin (as mineral wax, fossil resins), asphaltum, mineral oils, coals,
etc., and the salts of the organic acids, oxalates, and mellates.
A full index of minerals is given at the end.

These papers by Mr. Wirt Tassin are likely to prove useful to the
curators of minerals in other museums seeking a plan of arrangement
for their collection. We can also strongly recommend (1) the
admirable Introduction to the Study of Minerals, by L. Fletcher
(price 38d.), British Museum (Natural History), with a guide to
the Mineral Gallery (pp. 120, 8vo) ; (2) Introduction to a Study of
Meteorites, by L. Fletcher (price 3d., pp. 92, 8vo) ; (8) Introduction
to a Study of Rocks, by L. Fletcher (price 6d.), British Museum
(Natural History), (pp. 118, 8vo).

(D) Mr. George H. Cooke, surgeon, U.S. Navy, supplies us
with an interesting account of Haster Island in the South Pacific
Ocean. The U.S. steamer “Mohican” sailed from Callao, Peru,
March 6th, 1868 (? 1886), under orders for a protracted cruise, on
special duty, among the islands of the South Pacific, with instructions

Report on the U.S. National Museum. 425

on her return passage to the South American coast to call at Easter
Island, make certain investigations desired by the Smithsonian
Institution, and especially to bring away one of the colossal stone
images.to be found upon the island. The stone image, stone crown,
and stone head having been successfully transported over the island
to the beach and thence transferred on board, the ship sailed on
the last day of the year for Valparaiso, Chile, arriving on
January 14th, 1887. There appears to be a misprint in the first
year recorded here, for on p. 692 the author says: ‘“ The
investigations upon which this report is based cover a period of
twelve days from December 19 to December 30, 1886, inclusive.”

On December 18th the extinct crater of Rana Kao was visited,
and a general inspection was made of the stone huts, the painted
slabs in their interior, the sculptured rocks, etc., and of the crater
itself, in the immediate vicinity of which these objects of interest are
located. Here numerous finished and unfinished images, some
standing, others prostrate, were seen scattered over the slope of
the crater and the great plain at its base, where there is every
reason to believe once stood a populous town. ‘The quarries, or
‘workshops,’ were also visited, and the many partly completed
monoliths still attached to the original rock were examined. As in
Egypt, where in the quarries at Syene, near the First Cataract,
the largest obelisk still lies unfinished, so here, in one of the
excavations on the outer slope of the crater, may be seen the largest
of the stone images to be found on Rapa Nui in an incomplete
condition, still adherent to the bed rock, and measuring 69 ft. 9 in.
in length! carved in trachyte. Mr. Salmon and Mr. Brander
seem at present to be the sole proprietors on the island, with
a stock of 18,000 head of sheep and many cattle. The population
now consists of 155 natives and 11 foreigners (two English, two
Americans, one Frenchman, and six Tahitans), yet from 1850 to
1860 the number of inhabitants was said to be 20,000. In 1863 the
Peruvians carried off 5,000 of the inhabitants to work the guano
deposits of the Chincha Islands. Some few only of these returned
alive, smallpox having broken out on the return voyage; it also
ravaged the island, many deaths resulting therefrom.

With regard to the ancient inhabitants —the makers of the trachyte
quarries, the builders of the stone houses, and the carvers of the
colossal stone images—the number and extent of their works are
so great that one is led to ask how they came suddenly to an end,
which must have been the case judging by the large number of
images in all stages of development seen at Rana Roraka, where
the ancient town once existed, and in the quarries in an unfinished
condition both inside and outside of the adjacent crater slopes. The
present natives neither carve, nor quarry stone, nor build.

If we take note of the vast number of volcanic stones evenly
scattered over the surface of the island, especially the eastern half,
one is led to the inevitable conclusion that either the volcano of
Rana Roraka, or one of the neighbouring volcanoes, suddenly became
active and threw out these showers of stones, probably destroying

426 Reviews—Report on the U.S. National Museum.

many lives, and so stopped the labours of the workmen, which
were thenceforth never resumed. Perhaps, too, the same calamity
overthrew, by an earthquake, many of the idols (of which not
one is now standing on its pedestal), laid waste the island, and
wrought the destruction of the trees which once adorned it, and
from the period of that disaster probably dates the decadence of the
ancient people of Tepito Te Henua. The island contains several
distinct craters, the highest point being 1,970 feet. The great
crater of Rana Kao has a lake in its centre 300 feet in depth,
with a circumference at its surface of 24 miles, so that good
drinking water sufficient for a large population exists on the island.

(EK) Mr. Otis Tufton Mason describes the man’s knife among
the North American Indians as illustrated by the collections in the
U.S. National Museum. Knives, strictly speaking, are adapted for
industrial purposes, and therefore belong to the category of tools, not
weapons. If, however, a knife is used as a weapon for destruction,
it should be classed as a dagger, but when employed as an
edged tool it is properly described as a knife. The edge tool
works by pressure, by friction, or by a blow. One used by
means of a blow is an axe if the edge is in a line with the handle,
and an adze if it lies across the handle; an edged tool working by
friction is a scraper, but one working by pressure is a knife.
Although the iron or steel-bladed knife has been only in the hands
of Eskimo, of Canadians, and tribes of the United States and the
North Pacific, for a century or two they seem to have thoroughly
mastered its use as a tool. They are nearly all curved-bladed, and
the hafting is always native, the blade alone (whether of steel or
iron) being foreign. Before the possession of iron there is meagre
evidence that any of these native races possessed other than the most
trivial carvings in hard material. Their best works were in soft
wood and slate, by means of the beaver’s tooth or shark’s tooth
knives. Mr. Mason does not mention the use of flint or obsidian,
but one knife with a glass blade from Patagonia is recorded.

(G) ‘“Arrow-points, Spear-heads, and Knives of Prehistoric
Times,” by Dr. Thomas Wilson, Curator of Prehistoric Archeology,
U.S. National Museum. Dr. Wilson’s memoir is one of the most
elaborate in this volume and covers 177 pages. It describes and
illustrates spears and harpoons in the Paleolithic period; the origin
of the bow and arrow; superstitions concerning arrow-points and
stone implements. In the island of Guernsey the stone implements
are called ‘lightning-stones’ and ‘thunder-stones’ (pierre de foudre or
prerre de tonnerre), and are firmly believed in as a protection against
fire. The flint mines and quarries in Europe and America are
described ; a most interesting account is given (illustrated by many
plates) of the materials used in making arrow-points and spear-
heads, showing the microscopic structure of the materials. The
manufacture of arrow-points and spear-heads is explained, and
the various scrapers, grinders, and straighteners used in making
arrow and spear shafts. All the varied patterns of arrow-heads
and spear-heads are arranged, classified, and elaborately figured,

Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London. 427

and some 25 types are enumerated. Flint knives are next
considered. Large implements of arrow-point or spear-head form
are described, and the making of arrow-points is shown. Sixty-
five plates and 201 text-figures are devoted to the illustration of this
valuable memoir. It is impossible to give an adequate idea of the
beauty and excellence of the illustrations, but we commend
Dr. Wilson’s memoir to all who are interested in the subject of
Prehistoric Archeology.

PORES AAD PROCEEDINGS.

GroLtoaicaL Society or Lonpon.

June 20, 1900.—J. J. H. Teall, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., President, in
the Chair.

The President announced that the Foreign Secretary had received
the following letter from Professor A. Gaudry, F.M.G.8., President
of the Organizing Committee of the Highth International Geological
Congress :—

“My dear Friend,—We have just published the Guide-book to
the excursions in France of the International Geological Congress.
It occupies over 1000 pages, and is full of beautiful illustrations and
of geological sections and maps. The excursions will extend over
the whole of France from the North as far as the Central Plateau,
the Alps, and the Pyrenees. As you are the Foreign Secretary of
the Geological Society of London, equally honoured and loved in
England and in France, I think that no one is in a better position
than you to beg of the Fellows of the Geological Society of London
to come in large numbers to Paris. All our geologists will be
honoured in seeing them, and will be happy to receive their
opinions. To have any great authority it is necessary that an
International Geological Congress should have your country —
where Geology has been so magnificently studied—largely repre-
sented. You can tell our brethren of the Geological Society of
London that the President of the Organizing Committee of the
Congress of 1900 is the oldest of the Foreign Members inscribed
upon their list, that he is a former recipient of the Wollaston Medal,
a Foreign Member of the Royal Society of London, and that among
his scientific acquaintance he has not a better friend than you.
This will be as much as to tell them that I am attached to them
by the bonds of deep gratitude, and that it will be a happiness for
me to welcome them in our ancient city of Paris. I reckon upon
you.—Yours most sincerely, ALBERT GAUDRY.”

ae following communications were read :—

1. “Qn the Skeleton of a Theriodont Reptile from the Baviaans
River ie. Colony).” By Professor H. G. Seeley, F.R.S., F.L.S.,
V.P.G.S

The fae described in this paper was discovered by Mr. W.
Pringle at Haldon, in the bed of the Baviaans River, a tributary

428 Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London.

of the Great Fish River. It is now preserved in the Albany
Museum. The slab containing it is of hard siliceous sandstone, and
is 81 inches long by ten inches wide. It is split so as to expose
a portion of the skull, the vertebral column and ribs as far as the
pelvis, the scapula, part of the humerus, the femur, and parts of the
tibia and fibula. The tail and left hind-limb, and apparently part
of the right fore-limb, are lost, owing to the jointed condition of the
rock. The bones have decomposed, and are represented by natural
moulds from which a beautiful cast was obtained by means of
a gelatine mould prepared in the Geological Department of the
Natural History Museum, before the specimen was returned to
Grahamstown. It indicates an animal about 2 feet long, exclusive
of the tail, and standing probably about 8 inches high; it was
not more than 6 inches wide in the fore part of the body. The
animal was of great mobility, capable of easily bending the body,
and, by straightening the limbs, of occasionally raising its height
to 10 inches or more. It is a new type of Theriodont reptile,
contributing important facts to the osteology of the group, and
especially in regard to the natural association of the bones. It
is possibly to be included in the Cynodontia, from which it differs
in characters of the ilium, scapula, and skull.

2. ‘Fossils in the Oxford University Museum. —IV. Notes gn
some Undescribed Trilobites.” By H. H. Thomas, Esq., B.A., F.G.S.

Two new species of Dalmania from the Wenlock Shales and one
of Olenus from the Shineton Shales of Shropshire are described in
this paper. ‘The specimens on which the first species of Dalmania
is founded were collected by the late Dr. Grindrod at Malvern
Tunnel. The species has a strong resemblance to certain varieties
of D. caudatus, especially those more nearly approaching D. longi-
caudatus; its nearest ally seems to be D. nexilis. Among its
characters are spines round the head, the height of the head-shield,
and the distance between the eyes. The type-specimen of the
second species came from the Wenlock Shale of Builth. The
Shineton specimen was presented to the Oxford Museum by the
Right Rev. Bishop Mitchinson.

92

3. “On Radiolaria from the Upper Chalk at Coulsdon (Surrey).”
By W. Murton Holmes, Esq. (Communicated by W. Whitaker,
Hsq., F.B.S., F.G.S.)

The radiolaria described in this paper were contained in the
cavities of two small flints which were thrown out of the new
cutting between Coulsdon Station and the new Merstham Tunnel on
the L.B. & §8.C. Railway. They were probably derived from the
zone of Holaster planus. After treatment with hydrochloric acid,
the material yielded silicified casts of foraminifera as well as radio-
laria. The surface of the radiolaria is so much altered by corrosion
that specific identification is in most cases impossible. Twenty
genera have been recognized, and the organisms appear to belong to
forty-one Species of these genera. A list of the radiolaria is given,
accompanied by a short description of each form, and four new

Obituary. 429

species are described. The Discoidea appear to have the pre-
dominance, and the species of Dictyomitra come next in numerical
order.

The next Meeting of the Society will be held on Wednesday,
November 7th, 1900.

(Sn = 7 EO ee Sp a

PROFESSOR’ M. LOUIS LARTET.
Born 1840. Diep 1899.

Prorerssor Lours Larter was the son of a former distinguished
Foreign Member of the Geological Society of London, Monsieur
Edmund Lartet. In 1863 he assisted De Verneuil in the publication
of two papers, and from 1864 to 1868 he published several others,
chiefly on the Holy Land, leading up to his lengthy essay of 1869
on the Geology of Palestine and of the neighbouring countries,
followed, three years later, by a shorter paper on the Paleontology.
In 1877 his work was presented in a more elaborate form in the large
quarto volume entitled “Geological Exploration of the Dead Sea,
of Palestine, and of Idumea,” with two geological maps, three plates
of sections, and eight of fossils and of stone implements. By these
works he is chiefly known. Professor Louis Lartet was elected
a Foreign Correspondent of the Geological Society of London in
1882, and died in 1899.

SIR DOUGLAS S. GALTON; K.C.B., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Born 1822. Diep Marcnr 10, 1899.

Dougias GaLton was born in 1822 at Hadzor House, Worcester-
shire. At the age of 15 he went to the Royal Military Academy,
and in 1840 got his commission in the Royal Engineers, greatly
distinguishing himself and gaining the first prize in every subject of
examination. He was engaged in the attempt to raise the “ Royal
George.” He served on the Ordnance Survey and did much work
in connection with railway engineering, metropolitan drainage,
submarine cables, and the sanitary condition of the Army, serving
on various Royal Commissions, etc. In 1860 he was made Assistant
Inspector General of Fortifications, and in 1862 Assistant Under
Secretary of State for War, a post which he held eight years, when
he became Director of Public Works and Buildings (under the Board
of Works), in which official capacity he served until 1875. He was
General Secretary of the British Association from 1871 to 1895, and
in the latter year he became President. In 1894 he was made Hon.
Mem. Inst. C.E.; many other honours were conferred upon him,
including various foreign orders. The later years of his life were
specially devoted to sanitary science, for which he did very much,
and his last official appearance in public was as president of a meeting
of the Sanitary Institute, for the reading of a paper on the water-
supply of London. He was then rather indisposed, though nothing
serious was suspected ; but he got weaker, and blood-poisoning set

430 Obituary.

in. He was buried at Hadzor, Worcestershire. Douglas Galton was
amongst the oldest Fellows of the Geological Society, having been
elected in 1848, and served on the Council from 1870 to 1874.

FRANZ RITTER VON HAUER.
Born, VIENNA, JAN. 30, 1822. Dizp Marc 20, 1899.

RirrEr von Haver has been called the Nestor of Austrian
geologists, having been for many years Director of the Geological
Survey and Intendant of the Imperial Natural History Museum.
He was born in Vienna in 1822, and educated there until he went to
the Berg-Akademie at Schemnitz from 1839 to 1843. He afterwards
became a mining official in Styria, and in 1846 was made Assistant
to Haidinger at the Imperial Mineralogical Museum in his native
city, when he began original paleeontological work. He succeeded
Haidinger as chief of the Museum, and held that post from 1867
to 1885. On the death of F. von Hochstetter he was made Curator
of the Imperial Natural History Museum, in which post he did
important work, retiring at last on account of old age and ill-health.
He was the first to classify the Alpine sedimentary rocks on
a strictly stratigraphical basis, and published a work on the
Cephalopoda of the Triassic and Jurassic beds of the eastern
Alpine regions. His general map of the Austrian Empire (in
twelve sheets, published 1867-71, reaching a fourth and extended
edition in 1884), and his account of the geology of that empire,
published in 1875, crown his life’s work. Franz Ritter von Hauer
was elected a Foreign Correspondent of the Geological Society of
London in 1863, a Foreign Member in 1871; and he was awarded
the Wollaston Medal in 1882. He died on March 20, 1899. Von
Hauer received many orders and. honours, held various offices, and
was revered as a teacher and leader in science.

CHARLES JULES EDME BRONGNIART.
Born 1859. Diep Aprit 18, 1899.

M. Cartes Bronentart was the grandson of the illustrious
French Botanist, Adolphe T. Brongniart, who in 1841 received
the Wollaston Medal from the Geological Society of London. He
was an Assistant at the Museum of Natural History, Paris, and was
one of the chief European authorities on Fossil Insects, on which he
wrote a number of papers from 1876 onward. His principal work
was published in 1893, in the form of two large quarto volumes
with atlases of plates. One of these is the third volume of
“Studies on the Coal-measures of Commentry,” which is devoted to
the Entomological Fauna of the Carboniferous epoch. The other is
‘‘ Fossil Insects of Primary Times.” Several of his papers appeared
as translations in the Gmontoaican Macazing. (See Gron. Maa,
1879, Dee. II, Vol. VI, pp. 97-102, Pl. IV; 1885, Dec. III, Vol. II,
pp. 481-491, Pl. XII; 1888, pp. 422-425, one page illustration ;
1895, pp. 283-236.) It is sad that so distinguished a career, from
which we had reason to expect so much more valuable work, should

Obituary. 4351

have been ended so early. CuartEs Bronenrart was elected
a Foreign Correspondent of the Geological Society of London in
1888, and died April 18, 1899, aged 40.

TOWNSHEND MONCKTON HALL, F.G.S.
Born Marcn 22, 1845. Disp Jury 1, 1899.

TownsHenp Hatt was born at Torquay in 1845, and studied for
a short time at Wadham College, Oxford. On leaving there he gave
himself up to science, and especially to geology. A paper by him on
the distribution of fossils in the North Devon Series was printed
in the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society (1867, vol. xxiii,
pp. 871-881); but his chief contributions to the geology and
mineralogy of his native county are in the Trans. Devon Association
(of which he was a member from the first), and include papers
on mineral localities, raised beaches, submerged forests, concentric
lamination, mineral oil, classification of North Devon rocks, and
various matters of local geology. He also contributed to the
GrotogicaL Magazine and to the Mineralogical Magazine, and
wrote several sketches of the Geology of Devonshire or parts thereof,
and the “ Mineralogists’ Directory.” He became, indeed, well known
as our chief local authority on North Devon.

PROFESSOR ROBERT W. BUNSEN, Pu.D.
Born Marcu 13, 1811. Disp Aveust 16, 1899.

AurHoucH Bunsen achieved his great reputation as a chemist,
and held the Chair of Chemistry in the University of Heidelberg for
many years, he wrote (especially in his earlier life) several papers
on minerals and on mineral waters, as well as on various geological
subjects, notably on the chemico-geology of Iceland. To the
scientific world he is largely known for his work on spectrum
analysis, resulting in the discovery of the elements cesium and
rubidium; whilst to the world at large he is known by the
invaluable gas-burner that bears his name and the principle of
which he discovered. Professor R. W. Bunsen was elected a Foreign
Member of the Geological Society of London in 1856, holding the
honorary distinction for 43 years. He died at the age of 88 years.

JOHN BALDRY REDMAN, F.G.S., Memes. INST. C.E.
Born 1816. Diep DrecEemsBeEr 21, 1899.

JouHN Batpry RepMAn was elected an Associate of the Institution
of Civil Engineers in February, 1839, and a Member in March,
1846, his name being the earliest on the roll of over 6,300 Members
and Associates at the time of his death. He was elected an F.G.S.
in 1882. He did much service to geology by his important papers,
read to the institution above-named, ‘On the Alluvial Formations,
and the Local Changes, of the South Coast of England,” and “ The
East Coast between the Thames and the Wash Estuaries,” published
in 1854 and 1865, which were the first systematic account of the
changes along a great length of our coast, in this case from Norfolk
southward to Dorsetshire. Much other work of the kind was also

432 Miscellaneous.

done by him, for instance in the Reports of the British Association
Committee on Coast-erosion, and his knowledge was always at the
disposal of those interested in the subject. He died at the good old
age of 88.

WILHELM HEINRICH WAAGEN.
Born June 28, 1841. Diep Marcu 24, 1900.

Tur celebrated paleontologist Wilhelm Heinrich Waagen was.
born at Munich, 23rd June, 1841, and educated there and at Ztirich.
In the latter place he specially studied natural history, for which
he had early shown great taste.

In 1864 his first paper, ‘Der Jura in Franken, Schwaben, und der
Schweiz,” made its appearance, and gained a prize.

He established himself first at Munich, and for one year was.
natural history tutor to Prince Arnulph and Princess Therese of
Bavaria. In December, 1870, Waagen was appointed palzontologist
to the Indian Geological Survey. The Indian climate, however,
did not suit him, and he was obliged to retire in August, 1875. The
previous year he had contracted a fortunate and happy marriage
with Sophie, Baroness von Gross-schedel.

Shortly after quitting India, Waagen settled in Vienna and
became a Tutor at the University. The following year he went
to Prag to occupy the Chair of Mineralogy and Geology at the
German Technical High School. There, on the death of Barrande,
he assisted in editing the continuation of the ‘Systéme Silurien de
Bohéme,” and in association with Professor J. Jahn wrote the section
Crinoids for that work.

On Neumayer’s death, Waagen became in 1890 Professor of
Paleeontology at the University of Vienna, a post which he held till
his death on 24th March, 1900.

Waagen was by no means a prolific writer, less than a score of
papers in various journals being written by him.

His principal works were on the Jurassic Cephalopoda of
Kutch and on the Salt Range Fossils, both forming part of the
“Palaeontologica Indica,” and the latter incomplete at the time of
his decease.

Of the value of these works from a systematic point of view it
is perhaps as yet too early to speak; but of his enthusiasm and
industry, and of the fact that he greatly advanced our knowledge
of Indian paleontology, there can be no doubt.

IMGES Cais A IN HOU TS:

Tue University or Lonpon.—It gives us great pleasure to
announce that the Senate of the University of London has conferred
the degree of Doctor of Science upon Mr. C. W. Andrews, B.A.,
F.G.8., of the British Museum (Natural History), and has also
awarded him the Sherbrooke Scholarship, founded by the late
Lord Sherbrooke, Trust. Brit. Mus. This is the first occasion ov
which this scholarship has been presented.

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GEOL. MAG., 1900. Dec. IV, Vol. VII, Pl. XVIT-

BIH

G. M,. Woodward del. S. Austin & Sons imp.

Cretaceous Crustacea, N.W. Territory of Canada.

,/

~/ joint of one of the chelate fore-limbs (c), occurring in detached frag-

THE

GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE.

NEW SERIES. DECADE IV. VOL. VII.
No. X.—OCTOBER, 1900.

ORIGINAL ARTICLES.
———
I.—Furturr Notzs on PoporputHaLMous CRUSTACEANS FROM THE
Urrrer Cretacnous Formation oF British CoLumMBiA, ETC.

By Henry Woopwarp, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., of the British Museum (Natural
History).

(PLATE XVII.)
(Concluded from the September Number, p. 401.)

Hoproparia Westonl, sp. nov. (Pl. XVII, Figs. 1a, }, c.)

MONG other specimens received from the Geological Survey

of Canada are the fragmentary remains of a Crustacean
(enumerated in Dr. Whiteaves’ list as No. 10), comprising the
abdomen (a), a small part of a carapace (b), and the penultimate

ments (probably parts of a concretionary nodule). They are labelled
Red Deer River, Alberta Range 15, Township 23, west of the 4th
principal meridian; collected by Mr. T. C. Weston, 1889. Although
in so fragmentary a condition these specimens are of much interest,
and are characteristic in their details.

The abdominal segments are united and display the characteristic
markings and raised ridges on the segments seen in the living
Nephrops Norvegicus and in Hoploparia Saabyi and other English
Cretaceous forms. The epimeral portions of each segment are roundly
falcate, and divided from the tergum by a well-marked ridge. The
sixth segment and the telson are more rugose and marked by parallel
ridges. The cephalothoracic portion is too obscure for description ;
the surface is tuberculated. The penultimate joint of the great
claw is very coarsely and strongly tuberculated, as much so as in
Enoploclytia and in Hoploparia scabra.

Length of abdomen (measured along dorsal line), 54 inches ;
width over third segment, 21 inches. Length of penultimate
segment of great claw, 21 inches; breadth, 2 inches.

I have designated this form as Hoploparia Westoni, after the
discoverer. The specimen is from the Upper Cretaceous of the
North-West Territories.

Horroparta BENNETTI, sp. nov.

This species is based on a very imperfectly preserved specimen,

ey vaee. Ee ee ‘ , ,

No. 4 in list, contained in a dark nodule (measuring 5” x 2”) split
) 8 Pp

DECADE IV.—VOL. VII.—NO. X. 28

a,

/

434 Dr. H. Woodward—Cretaceous Canadian Orustacea.

in halves very irregularly, and exposing the dorsal aspect of five
posterior abdominal somites and the telson with two swimmerets
on the left side still attached. The abdominal segments are smooth,
and the epimera broadly falcate and pointed as in Homarus. Length
of five abdominal segments, 40mm.; length of telson, 13 mm. ;
breadth of abdomen, 25 mm.

The sternites are still attached to the abdomen, but the carapace
has been removed, exposing the inner and upper surface of the
cephalothorax, with the bases of five pairs of ambulatory appendages
still attached. Length of cephalothoracic portion, 30 mm. Some of the
small ambulatory legs on the left side are preserved nearly to their
extremities, and the bases of the large (chelate) fore-legs can also be
seen, one joint of which shows a tuberculated surface. Length of
base of area of sternites, 25 mm.; greatest breadth, 15mm. There
is no trace whatever of the presence of large palinurid antenne. This
and the general character of the thoracic appendages and the form of
the abdomen, resembling the modern Homarus rather than Palinurus,
lead me to refer this fossil to the genus Hoploparia. I have added
the specific name of Bennetti after its discoverer.

Formation: Upper Cretaceous.

Locality : Comox River ; collected by Mr. J. Bennett in 1895.

EXNOPLOCLYTIA MINOR, Sp. NOV.

The evidence for this species consists of a nodule (4” x 8”,
No. 9 in Dr. Whiteaves’ list, marked also 59 in white paint) split
into two parts, but affording little comfort to the investigator. One
can make out an imperfectly preserved carapace (cephalothorax),
with a tuberculated surface from which two pairs of imperfectly
preserved antenne take their origin and the flagella of which can
be indistinctly traced. These are followed by a pair of long and
slender chelate appendages, with finely tuberculated surfaces, the
fingers of the forceps being very attenuated as in Hnoploclytia
Leachiit. Two pairs of slender ambulatory legs follow; these also
have forcipated or chelate extremities. The abdominal segments
are narrow and only imperfectly preserved.

The specimen is from the Upper Cretaceous of Hornby Island,
and was obtained by Mr. W. Harvey in 1893.

Mryeria? HArveyt, sp. nov.

The evidence of this species rests on a single specimen exposed on
the half of a fractured nodule (84 inches x 24 inches), marked
No. 8 in list. It is also marked 3 in ink. It was obtained by
Mr. W. Harvey in 1895 at Hornby Island, and shows the remains
of the abdominal somites and the long slender rugose fore-limbs
of the cephalothorax (24 inches in length by 2 inch in thickness).
They do not appear to have possessed forceps at their extremities,
but were monodactylous. The form of the epimera of the abdomen
agrees with Meyeria vectensis in shape.

From the Upper Cretaceous. Named after its discoverer, Mr. W.
Harvey.

Dr. H. Woodward—Cretaceous Canadian Crustacea. 4385

DECAPODA—BRACHYURA—CALLIANASSIDZ.
CALLIANASSA, Leach, 1814.

Cattranassa Wuiteravesit, H. W., 1896. (PI. XVII, Figs. 2a, b.)
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. lii, p. 223, figs. 1, 2.

In addition to the Macrouran Decapods already noticed as received
from Dr. J. F. Whiteaves, F.G.S., on behalf of the Geological Survey
of Canada, I find the following :—

No. 2. Nodule in four pieces collected by the Rev. G. W. Taylor
‘on the Puntledge or Comox River, Vancouver Island, in 1889.

The four parts of this nodule display on the split surfaces the
remains of a Callianassa, or possibly parts of two individuals, but so
broken up and detached as to be difficult to describe. The large
fore-limbs are seen (in parts), and the smaller limbs and segments of
the abdomen are also present, but in a very fragmentary state. These,
no doubt, are referable to one and the same species, viz. Callianassa
Whaiteavesii (see Q.J.G.S., 1896, vol. lii, p. 223, figs. 1, 2).

Formation: Upper Cretaceous.

Locality : Comox River, Vancouver Island.

No. 11. Eight portions of nodules (a and 6, ¢ and d being
counterparts; e and f are halves of distinct nodules; g and h are
pieces of the rock itself, not nodules). a and b, c and d,e and f
display the well-preserved flattened chelate hands of Callianassa
Whiteavesii (Pl. XVII, Figs. 2a, b); g contains a fragment of a
hand; h is not a Crustacean fragment, but an undoubted fish-bone.

All these specimens are from the North-West Territory, Town-
ship 30, Range 8, west of 4th principal meridian, and were collected
by Mr. J. B. Tyrrell, F.G.S. (May 25th, 1886).

Notre on Norta Amertoan Cretaceous Sprrorss or Callianassa.

Dr. J. F. Whiteaves calls my attention to a paper by Mr. W. M.
Gabb in the Geological Survey of California, vol. i, Paleontology
(1864, 4to), Section iv, Description of the Cretaceous Fossils,
p- 57, pl. ix, figs. la, b, c«. Here Mr. Gabb describes and figures
three small Crustacean fragments, under the name of Callianassa
Stimpsoni, from Chico Creek and Clayton, Contra Costa County, and
also found near Canada de las Uvas ftom both divisions of the
Californian Cretaceous. PI. ix, fig. la, is correctly described as three
segments of abdomen, and may very likely belong to a Callianassa,
but figs. 1b and ¢ are pieces of an ornamented chela and do not agree
with any known Callianassa. Callianassa Stimpsoni may therefore
properly remain on the list represented by fig. la, but the other
figures do not belong to the same Crustacean, and should be
separated from it in future. The chela may even have belonged
to a Brachyuran decapod.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVII.

Fic. 1.—Hoploparia Westoni, H. Woodw., sp. nov. Upper Cretaceous: Red Deer
River, Alberta Range, North-West Territories. («) Parts of carapace or
cephalothorax ; (4) the segments of the abdomen; (c) the penultimate
joint of one of the chelate fore-limbs. (One-third less than nat. size.)

Fie. 2.—Calhanassa Whiteavesii, H. Woodw., 1896. Upper Cretaceous: North-
West Territory. (a) Shows a complete fore-limb with its five-jointed
chela; (4) another example with three joints united. (Drawn nat. size.)

436 Professor K. Buss—Granophyre Dyke in Scotland.

IIl.—On a GRANOPHYRE DYKE INTRUSIVE IN THE GABBRO OF
ARDNAMUROHAN, SCOTLAND.

By Professor K. Busz, Ph.D., of Munster.

AST year, while on an excursion to Scotland, I visited the
Ardnamurchan peninsula, which, as is well known, consists to
a great extent of rocks belonging to the gabbro family. On the road
leading from the little village of Kilhoan, opposite the Isle of Mull,
on the north coast, a small quarry has been opened for road-metal,
which shows an exquisite section of a granophyre dyke intrusive in
a dark and almost black fine-grained rock, which the microscopic
examination proved to be a gabbro. This is, therefore, a similar
occurrence to that of Barnavave, Carlingford, Ireland, which has been
admirably described by Professor Sollas, and also that of Strath
in the Isle of Skye, of which Mr. Harker has given us a detailed
account. As occurrences of this kind seem to be rather rare and, as
far as lam aware, hitherto not known from Ardnamurchan, I may be
excused for calling your attention to the following short description
of these rocks, although there is but little to be added to the results.
attained by the skilful researches of the above-mentioned authors,
and it only shows again that on Ardnamurchan we are to expect
very nearly the same geological phenomena as in the adjacent
islands, in particular in Skye and Rum.

I will now describe, firstly, the gabbro and try to explain its.
alterations due to the intrusion of the granophyre dyke, and
secondly, the granophyre, and the effect which the gabbro, through
having been partly absorbed, had upon its composition.

1. Gabbro. The rock under consideration is, as far as I can
judge, a dyke-rock, and is exactly like some of the dykes which
occur in connection with the large gabbro masses of the Odenwald
Mountains in Germany, which have been carefully examined and
described by Professor Chelius, of Darmstadt. Owing to the very
unfavourable weather and the fact of the whole neighbourhood
being covered by deep moorland, I was unable to trace the extension
of the dyke, and can therefore now only give an account as to how
it is exposed in the quarry. The centre of the latter shows the
_dyke to a width of about two yards, and it is then covered on both
sides by débris, so that the entire thickness is certainly greater.
The composition and structure of the rock is not the same in all
its parts.

The main mass consists of a rock almost black and of a fine
sugar-grained structure, similar to some dense quartzites, and
contains no microscopically visible excretions. By the aid of a lens,
however, the rock is seen to consist of small grains of a grey and
black colour,

The structure as exhibited in the microscope is exquisitely panidio-
morphic, according to Rosenbusch’s nomenclature, the essential
constituents being felspar and pyroxene, both in grains of about
equal size. Both in structure and composition it coincides exactly
with those dyke-rocks of the Odenwald district which Chelius named

Professor K. Buss—Granophyre Dyke in Scotland. 487

‘beerbachite, after the village Beerbach, where they occur, and so
this rock may also be termed beerbachite.

The felspar, according to its optical orientation, is very nearly
a pure anorthite, the maximum extinction angle on the basal
plane being between 33° and 34°. It is perfectly clear and
colourless, and exhibits no traces of decomposition or any alteration
whatever, and only in some parts contains a number of inclusions,
which are principally small grains of pyroxene and magnetite, often
accumulating in the centre. Pyroxene is present in two varieties,
the one being diallage, the other common augite, both about in equal
‘quantities.

The diallage shows the characteristic structure parallel to the
orthopinacoid, and contains numberless thin needle-shaped inclusions
of black or brown colour, which are imbedded parallel to the vertical
axis as well as to the basal plane, thus producing two intersecting
systems of striation; in some instances they accumulate in the
centre, leaving the margin almost free. The colour of the crystals
is dull grey, owing to these inclusions. In sections perpendicular
to the vertical axis they appear as minute black points, giving the
crystals a dust-like appearance.

The common augite is very pale greyish-green, and almost
colourless in thin slices. It contains only very few inclusions,
principally grains of magnetite, and can therefore easily be dis-
tinguished from diallage. There is no rhombic pyroxene present
in this rock.

The third essential constituent is magnetite, occurring in grains
as well as in octahedral crystals, of the same size as the pyroxene
and felspar individuals. There are also a few larger patches of
quite an irregular form and intergrown with the other constituents.
Olivine is rare; it appears in grains, which through decomposition
are always partly, and sometimes entirely, altered into green serpen-
tine with magnetite dust. There are only very few accessories ; they
consist of thin colourless needles of apatite and small light-brown
patches of biotite, the latter usually intergrown with augite.

This gabbro, as mentioned before, does not exhibit the same
composition and structure throughout. There exists also a porphyritic
variety, which may be termed gabbro-porphyry, or in this case
beerbachite-porphyry. This variety, however, was not found in sitd ;
but numerous xenoliths, to adopt Professor Sollas’s term, in the
granophyre show this structure. Although having to refer to these
xenoliths later on, I will give here a short description of them,
in order to show how the porphyritic variety differs from the
fine-grained gabbro. The colour of both is the same, the only
difference being small black patches as a rule not more than half
a centimetre in diameter. They are formed of crystals or crystalline
aggregates of triclinic felspar, showing distinctly the cleavage and
the twinning lamelle. Their colour being the same as that of the
rock, they are not easily discernible at a first glance.

The groundmass is in many parts of exactly the same composition
and appearance as in the fine-grained gabbro, only the felspar

438 Professor K. Buss—Granophyre Dyke in Scotland.

individuals are in so far somewhat different as they exhibit a more
lath-shaped form.

In other parts rhombic pyroxene appears in considerable quantity,
and generally in large crystals, showing the characteristic pleo-
chroism of hypersthene—pale green, yellow, pink—and the parallel
extinction; the individuals are not homogeneous, but show a poikilitic
structure, being intergrown with numerous, irregularly disseminated,
lath-shaped, plagioclase crystals.

The microscopic examination of the porphyritic plagioclase crystals.
shows that they are also nearly pure anorthite, like the plagioclase
in the groundmass and in the above-described beerbachite, the
maximum extinction angle being about 34° on the basal plane. The
black colour is due to a great quantity of black dust-like inclusions
(similar to the plagioclase in some diorites from Sweden, commonly
known as black Swedish granite). They are in some parts of the
crystals more densely distributed than in others, and so give them
a cloudy appearance.

We have now to consider how these constituents of the gabbro-
have been altered by the intrusion of the granophyre dyke. The
latter, of a grey colour, is on an average one foot wide, and has
been almost vertically intruded into the surrounding gabbro. It
contains a great number of xenoliths, which belong to the fine-
grained gabbro as well as to the porphyritic variety. A detailed
description of the granophyre will follow later on; for the present
it may suffice to say that the acid magma has absorbed a great
quantity of the gabbro, and the xenoliths can be studied in every
stage of absorption.

The alteration of the plagioclase can be studied best on the
xenoliths of the gabbro-porphyry. On the margin towards the
granophyre they first lose their transparency, and the outer zone
becomes a dull greyish-brown similar to decomposed orthoclase in
granite; the examination by crossed nicols shows that actually
a gradual alteration into orthoclase has taken place, the zones being
like those in the Bytownite from Barnavave, not sharply defined, but
gradually passing into one another. The centre of the crystals does.
not show much of this alteration, there being only more or less thin
threads of the brownish substance. Further away from the line of
junction, where the granophyre meets the gabbro, the plagioclase
hardly shows any alteration at all.

Much more conspicuous are the alterations which have taken place
in the augite—a fact quite in accordance with the observations
made by Professor Sollas and Mr. Harker. Here, as in the
Barnavave gabbro, there are principally three different products
of alteration, those being green, rarely brownish-green hornblende,
biotite, and granular augite, to which in some cases steatite may be
added. The last-named occurs only in the gabbro-porphyry, and is
the alteration product of the rhombic pyroxene. Near the junction
line of the two rocks the outer zone of the hypersthene assumes
a green colour and becomes less transparent; this alteration increases
towards the granophyre until the entire hypersthene substance is

Professor K. Buszs—Granophyre Dyke in Scotland. 489

changed into very finely striated and distinctly, though not strongly,
pleocbroic steatite of a light-green colour.

The alteration of both diallage and augite seems to begin with
the excretion of round or oval-shaped grains of magnetite or titanic
iron-ore, sometimes in such quantities that the augite seems to be
nothing but an agglomerate of them; then there appears on the
margin a broader or narrower border of green or brownish-green
hornblende, which in the end entirely replaces the augite. This
hornblende shows mostly the characteristics of uralite, but there
also occasionally occur well-defined crystals which show no signs
of the fibrous structure so characteristic of uralite, and to judge
from their peculiar brownish-green colour they may perhaps be
identical with the variety called barkevikite. The formation of
biotite is less common and generally occurs in connection with
green hornblende, intergrown with which it forms reddish-brown
lamelle or irregular patches. Also the alteration described by
Professor Sollas as the breaking up of the crystals into numerous
granules has been observed in some cases, always accompanied by
the formation of magnetite; in this case a perfect recrystallization
has taken place.

These are, in short, the results of the examination of the gabbro
and the gabbro-porphyry.

We must now turn to the granophyre. It is a rather fine-grained
rock of grey colour. According to its macroscopic appearance it
might be termed a microgranite or aplite. It contains numerous
black patches of gabbro of various size up to several inches in
diameter, and is spotted with minute black specks; felspar crystals
are visible in great numbers, and reach up to 2 mm. diameter.

Under the microscope the rock presents a somewhat peculiar
appearance, due to the remarkable way in which quartz occurs. It
forms, as a rule, small crystals, with usually well-defined outlines,
whereas the orthoclase appears as the interstitial matter. The quartz
crystals are perfectly clear and contain but few inclusions, amongst
those many sharply defined, small crystals of zircon, only terminated
by the tetragonal pyramid.

The orthoclase, owing to decomposition, is of a dull grey colour.
It not only appears, as mentioned before, filling up the spaces between
the quartz crystals, but also forms rectangular crystals up to two
millimetres in size; the greater part of the rock, in fact, is made
up of such larger crystals, while quartz and the interstitial ortho-
clase form a kind of groundmass.

The orthoclase crystals exhibit in the centre a fairly fresh appear-
ance, and are sometimes even quite colourless, while the outer
zone shows exactly the same features as the felspar of the ground-
mass. Under crossed nicols this clear centre in many cases is seen
to consist of twinned triclinic felspar, showing the same optical
properties as that in the gabbro. ‘These parts may therefore
undoubtedly be regarded as remains of xenocrysts of the gabbro-
plagioclase, which by the effect of the acid magma have on
their outer parts been transformed into orthoclase; this alteration

440 Professor K. Buse—Granophyre Dyke in Scotland.

has often gone so far that nothing of the plagioclase material is left,
and only the still clear appearance of the centre of the crystals
indicates that originally plagioclase has been present. By this we
are led to the following consideration as regards the solidification
of the granophyre. The acid magma, when intruding into the
gabbro mass, has broken up a great quantity of the basic rock, and
being in a state of high temperature and great fluidity was able
to absorb a great part of the gabbro xenoliths. The plagioclase
xenocrysts had also been partly absorbed when the solidification
of the rock began to take place, the first separation being the
orthoclase, which crystallized in parallel intergrowth with what had
been left of the plagioclase crystals. Thus a very acid magma being
left, quartz crystallized next in small crystals, whereas the inter-
stitial orthoclase, filling up the spaces between the quartz individuals,
must be considered the last excretion.

As further constituents of the granophyre, hornblende, pyroxene,
mica, and magnetite are to be mentioned. They are present in
considerable quantity, and disseminated throughout the whole
mass of the rock. They must, however, not be regarded as
originating from the granophyre magma, but are either xenocrysts of
the adjacent gabbro, or result from the absorption of basic material.

Augite, occurring as diallage or as common augite, shows all
the same features as in the gabbro rock, with the difference that
the alteration here appears in a more advanced stage. Often the
whole of the augite or diallage crystal has been entirely altered into
green, uralitoid hornblende, whereas in other cases one or several
grains of the unaltered substance remain enclosed in the alteration
product. A decomposition of the uralite into a chloritic substance
can often be observed.

There is also another variety of hornblende present, showing
a darker, brownish-green colour and also a more intense pleochroism.
It occurs in irregular patches and also in well-defined crystals,
which exhibit the characteristic cleavages and the outlines of the
hornblende prism. They are, therefore, not uralite, but must
be considered as separations, or recrystallizations, which can only
originate out of the granophyric magma after it had been altered
by the absorption of the basic rock. This conclusion is corroborated
by the fact that such hornblende crystals can often be observed on
the junction line between the two rocks.

The hornblende shows the peculiar colouring which can often be
observed in the variety named barkevikite, the outer part being
brownish-green, which gradually changes towards the centre into
reddish-brown. Biotite appears always in connection with hornblende.

From this description the granophyre is seen to be very similar
to the one of Barnavave, in Ireland, which Professor Sollas described
as a diallage-amphibole-augite-granophyre.

To sum up the results of the examination of the rocks from
Ardnamurchan—

1. The gabbro is presumably a dyke-rock, belonging to the group
which has been termed beerbaehite, and also partly a porphyritic
variety of the same—beerbachite-porphyry.

R. H. Tiddeman—Age of Gower Raised Beaches. 441

2. It was solidified before the intrusion of the granophyre, as the
latter contains a great number of xenoliths of it, which have under-
gone great alterations through the action of the acid magma.

3. The granophyre has absorbed a considerable quantity of the
basic material, thereby altering its own composition and giving rise
to the crystallization of hornblende and mica, two constituents which
we have to consider as not belonging to the original granophyre
magma.

4. In the solidification of the granophyre two stages can be
distinguished, the first giving rise to the formation of the rectangular
-orthoclase crystals, which crystallized in parallel intergrowth with
the plagioclase xenocrysts, the second forming a kind of groundmass
in which fresh quartz crystallized, while the orthoclase filled up the
remaining spaces.

II].—On tue Ace or tue Ratsep Bracu oF SouruEern Britain
AS SEEN IN GowER.'
By R. H. Trppzman, M.A., F.G.S., of H.M. Geological Survey.
(Communicated by permission of the Director-General of the Geological Survey.)

OWER has a reputation for its caves with their bone-beds, and
for its raised beaches, but to the matter of its Glacial Drifts
very little attention has been paid.

Some of the caves were known to and noted by Dean Buckland?
‘The caves were long and diligently explored by Colonel Wood of
Stout Hall, and the results carefully coilated by Dr. Falconer. A
great number of the bones are exhibited in the Swansea Museum.
Mr. Starling Benson, who lived at Swansea, has left an account of
Bacon Hole, and Dr. Falconer has incidentally alluded to other caves
in describing the animal remains.

These three observers noted the fact that the cave fauna, which
included Hyena, Elephas antiquus, and Rhinoceros hemiteechus, was
found in bone-beds in the shore caverns and rested on or above a
cemented shelly conglomerate, which was evidently a raised beach,
for it formed a floor across the cave at from 10 to 30 feet above the
level of the present beach. This conglomerate was found to contain
shells which could not be distinguished from those of the littoral
zone on the present beach.

It was recognized that the beach must have been made when the
sea was at that higher level, and that the bones could not have been
accumulated until the coast had been raised above the old beach-
level. But the further reasoning, which was chiefly concerned with
the age of the bones, was that, the beach being evidently rather
recent, the bones must be more recent. Falconer did not appear
quite content with this, and called in Prestwich to assist in finding
out what relation, if any, the bone-deposits and raised beach bore to
the Glacial deposits.

Prestwich appears to have worked from the west along the coast
to Bacon Hole, but not to the east. He reported: “ With respect to

1 Read before the British Association, Section C (Geology), Bradford, Sept., 1900.
2 « Reliquie Diluviane.”’

442 R. H. Tiddeman—Age of Gower Raised Beaches.

the point I had particularly in view, viz., the relation of the Gower
caves to the Boulder-clay, I am as yet unable to form a decided
opinion. I got the Boulder-clay within a mile of the raised beach,.
but on opposite sides of the Point of Rhos-sili the subject requires
further and more lengthened inquiry.” On this Falconer summed
up as follows :—

1. That the Gower caves have probably been filled up with
mammalian remains since the deposition of the Boulder-clay.

2. That there are no mammalian remains found elsewhere in the
ossiferous caves of Britain referable to a fauna of a more ancient
geological date.

It is very singular how near these two eminent men were to
making a discovery for which they were even looking. To the east
of the rich colony of caves between Minchin Hole and Bacon Hole,
at which they were specially working, the Drift-beds come on in
force, and the succession which they were looking for might have
been very well seen.

It is true that the proper succession was gradually hammered out
by explorations in other places by the Victoria Cave Exploration
Committee, by the late Dr. Hicks in the caves of North Wales, and
at a later day by the Rev. G. C. H. Pollen, but their researches and
the facts evolved by them received a long and well-sustained fire
of hostile criticism which has not long come to an end.

The survey of Gower has now established, I think I may say,
incontestabl y—

1. That the raised beach is Pre- or Interglacial.

2. That the bone-beds which rest upon it in the caves are
continuous with the earlier ‘head’ or débris which lies above it
along the coast, and which consists of limestone fragments.

3. That Glacial Drift again lies over this.

4, This in turn is often covered by a later deposit of ‘head.’

Frequently, immediately above the raised beach is a deposit of
sand which is probably blown sand. It contains in places land-
snails which are abundant on the blown sands of Glamorganshire.
It is of a foxy-red colour, and its lower part is often cemented
together into calcareous concretions, containing little nodules of
manganese and iron. The sand is interesting in this way, that it is
seen in many places where sand could not blow now. The upheaval
of the coast implied by the raised beach would necessarily subject
a wide fringe of foreshore to the action of the sun and wind, and the
blown sand would result. It is just where we might reasonably
expect it.

The section is not always complete. Sometimes the Drift is
absent, sometimes it rests on rock, sometimes one member is absent,
sometimes another, but this represents the succession in which they
always occur when present. It is astonishing how very regular
they are, considering the steep irregularity of the cliffs and coasts.

It will of course be suggested that the Drift may have slipped
down from the cliffs above on to the ‘head.’ This hypothesis is
fairly negatived by the very strong contrast in material between the

G. W. Lamplugh—Age of English Wealden Series. 443.

‘head’ and the overlying Drift. The latter is full of rounded stones
of Carboniferous Sandstone and Old Red pebbles and fragments,
with scarcely a trace of limestone, whilst on the contrary the under-
lying débris contains nothing but fragments of limestone. The
change is exceedingly sudden, and forbids the possibility of the
Drifts resting on the cliffs for long previously, and later slipping
down on to the débris. Scattered boulders would certainly have
occurred in the débris.

The Drift is evidently the ordinary Glacial Drift of Glamorgan-
shire, such as abounds further to the north-east, nor can we doubt
that it is about the same age as that which sealed up in the Victoria
Cave at Settle, and other caves, the fauna which has been so
abundant in the caves of Gower, a fauna which if not Pre-Glacial
was certainly Interglacial.

On the other hand, the discovery of the antiquity of the raised
beach, which does not appear to have been even hinted at, is one
which, from the wide range of that physical feature, must necessarily
be of importance. It will assist in building up the relations of late
formations to the Glacial Period into a consecutive system, and
establish relations with other successions in lands to which Glacial
phenomena have not extended.

IVY.—Nore on tHe AGE or THE ENGLISH WEALDEN SERIES.!
By G. W. Lamptvuen, F.G.S., of H.M. Geological Survey.

[* recent discussions arising from the renewed attempts to define

more closely the boundary between the Jurassic and Cretaceous
systems in Russia, Germany, Belgium, and France, and also in North
America, constant reference has been made to the English Wealden
deposits as affording a standard of comparison. But, meanwhile,
doubt has been thrown, by paleeontologists who have studied certain
portions of the Wealden flora and fauna, on the hitherto accepted
classification of these English deposits with the Lower Cretaceous,
on the grounds that the fossils showed strong Jurassic affinities.
This opinion has been expressed by the late Professor O. C. Marsh
in regard to the reptiles, by Dr. A. Smith Woodward in regard to
the fish, and by A. C. Seward in regard to the plants. To prevent
further confusion it is therefore desirable that certain facts which
have been overlooked in this discussion, though for the most part
already published, should be restated, since these facts seem sufficient
to prove that, at any rate, the greater portion of the English Wealden
series nust remain as part of the Lower Cretaceous.

It has not always been sufficiently borne in mind that the accumu-
lation of the Wealden Series must have required a period of very
long duration. The sands of the Hastings Beds may indeed have
been deposited rather rapidly, but the shaly clays, with layers of
shells and cyprids, interstratified with these sands, indicate slower
sedimentation, and the great mass of Weald Clay, reaching 1,000
feet in thickness, must represent an epoch of great length. Hence,

1 Read before the British Association, Section C (Geology), Bradford, Sept., 1900.

444. G. W. Lamplugh—Age of English Wealden Series.

since it is universally acknowledged that the fresh-water conditions
did not set in until the closing stages of the Jurassic period, it seems
inevitable from this consideration alone that such conditions per-
sisted into Lower Cretaceous times.

Again, nearly all the ‘ Wealden’ fossils in which Jurassic affinities
have been observed have been obtained from the lower part of the
Wealden Series, i.e. from the Hastings Beds, and very little is known
respecting the corresponding fossils from the Weald Clay, which
probably represents the major portion of the Wealden period.

Moreover, the argument from the Jurassic affinities of the land
and fresh-water fossils alone inspires no confidence, since if we
eliminate the Lower Wealden fossils from the Lower Cretaceous
lists our knowledge is practically limited to the marine life of this
period; and it may be legitimately asked whether the land and
fresh-water fossils of the Hastings Beds are not, after all, of the
character proper to the lowermost part of the Cretaceous, wherein
a close relationship to the immediately preceding period seems quite
appropriate.

It is from the stratigraphical evidence, however, that the Lower
Cretaceous age of at least the greater portion of the English
Wealden Series can be most satisfactorily established by its relation
to the marine sequence which must form the ultimate basis of the
classification. ‘The marine beds directly overlying the Weald Clay
in the South of England represent only the latest stage (Aptien) of
the Lower Cretaceous period; and although there is a sharp line
of demarcation at their base, this seems to denote a rapid change of
conditions and not a lengthy time-interval, since the incoming of
marine or brackish-water shells near the top of the Wealden strata
in Dorset, Hampshire, and Surrey, foreshadowing the termination of
the fresh-water episode, indicates that the series is practically com-
plete, and had undergone little, if any, erosion in these parts before
the deposition of the overlying marine strata. Such erosion may,
however, have taken place locally towards the easterly and westerly
terminations of the basin of deposition, where the topmost beds of
the Wealden Series are not found.

In the Speeton Clay, where the Lower Cretaceous marine sequence
is fully represented, the equivalents of the Lower Greensand and
Atherfield Clay of the South of England are comprised within
a relatively narrow compass in the sparingly fossiliferous upper
part of the sequence ;1 and therefore, by far the greater portion of
the Lower Cretaceous period, if represented at all in the South of
England, must be represented in the Wealden Series. The portion of
the Speeton Clay unrepresented by marine sediments in the south
includes the lower part of the zone of Belemnites Brunsvicensis and
the whole of the zone of Bel. jaculum, both undoubtedly Lower
Cretaceous (Barrémien, Hauterivien, and Valanginien), together with
the whole of the zone of Bel. lateralis, the fauna of which shows
Jurassic affinities. Furthermore, in tracing this marine series south-
ward from Yorkshire, through Lincolnshire into Norfolk, the author

* See Summary of Progress of the Geological Survey for 1897, p. 129.

Notices of Memoirs—Papers read before British Association. 445

has found that in the latter county the lower zones are apparently
absent, and the remaining portion, representing, probably, the lower
part of the zone of Bel. Brunsvicensis, is characterized by the presence,
among the marine fossils, of plant remains, chiefly fragments of a
Wealden fern, Weichselia (Mantelli?), and by other indications of
fluviatile influence, suggesting the beginning of a lateral change into
Wealden conditions.

With the well-recognized gradual development of fresh-water
conditions in the Purbeck beds of the Wealden area towards the
close of the Jurassic period, and somewhat similar indications of the
reversal of this process in the top of the Weald Clay during the later
stages of the Lower Cretaceous, and with the above - mentioned
evidence for a lateral passage of part of the Lower Cretaceous
marine sediments of the North of England into estuarine deposits
further south, there seems every reason to believe that in the fresh-
water or estuarine strata of the English Wealden the whole of the
time-interval between the Portlandian and Aptien stages is repre-
sented, and that it would be equally erroneous to classify the series
entirely with the Jurassic system or entirely with the Cretaceous if
the hitherto recognized boundary of these systems in the equivalent
marine deposits of other areas is to be maintained.

The deposits classed as Wealden in Belgium, Germany, and France
appear to be much more restricted in vertical range than the English
series, and to represent different parts of the period in different
places, but nowhere to imply the same long continuance of fresh-
water conditions in a single area.

NO TiC S Oi Ve VE@sAR Se

J.— British AssoctaTionN FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SOIENOE.
Seventieth Annual Meeting, held at Bradford, September 5-12,
1900.

List or Papers READ IN SEoTIon C (Groxoey).
Professor W. J. Sorias, F.R.S., President.
President’s Address. (See p. 449.)
Professor W. B. Scott.—Notes on the Geology and Palaontology of
Patagonia. (See p. 470.)
Professor J. Joly, F.R.S.—On the Viscous Softening of Rock-forming
Minerals at Temperatures below their Normal Melting Points.
On the Geological Age of the Earth, as indicated by the
Sodium-contents of the Sea.
———— Some Experiments on Denudation by Solution in Fresh
and Salt Water.
On the Inner Mechanism of Marine Sedimentation.

Vaughan Cornish.—On Tidal Ripplemarks above Low-water Mark.

Dr. H. Woodward, F.R.S.—Remarks on a Table of Strata. (p. 474.)

Professor J. Milne, F.R.S.—Report of the Committee for Seismological

Observations.

1 See Survey Mem. ‘‘ Borders of the Wash,”’ o.s., sheet 69, pp. 21-25.

446 Notices of Memoirs—Titles of Papers read before

C. Reid, F.R.S. — Geological Notes on the Upway Disturbance
(Appendix to the above Report).

S. W. Cuttriss—The Caves and Potholes of Ingleborough and the
District.

Rev. W. Lower Carter. — Report on the Underground Waters of
North-West Yorkshire—the Sources of the Aire.

A. R. Dwerryhouse-—Report of the Committee on the Movement of
Underground Waters of Craven. JI. The Ingleborough District.
E. Greenly.—On Ancient Land-surfaces of Anglesey and Carnarvon-

shire.

—— On the Form of some Rock-bosses in Anglesey.

Dr. G. Abbott.—The Concretionary Types in the Magnesian Lime-
stone of Durham.

Prof. T. Groom.—Pebbles of the Hollybush Conglomerate. (p. 471.)

On the Igneous Rocks associated with the Cambrian
System of Malvern. (See p. 473.)

The President.—On a Concealed Coalfield beneath the London Basin.

R. H. Tiddeman.—On the Formation of Reef Knolls.

J. Lomas.—On the Construction and Uses of Strike Maps.

W. Gibson—On Rapid Changes in the Thickness and Character of
the Coal-measures of Staffordshire.

A. Smith Woodward.—Report of the Committee on the Registration
of 'Type-specimens.

Rev. J. F. Blake.—Suggestions in regard to the Registration of Type
Fossils. (See p. 471.)

C. B. Wedd.—The Outcrop of the Corallian Limestone of Elsworth
and St. Ives.

H. Bolton—Report of the Committee on Caves at Uphill, near
Weston-super-Mare.

R. Lloyd Praeger.—Report of the Committee for the Exploration of
Irish Caves.

Joint discussion with Section K on the Conditions during the Growth
of the Forests of the Coal-measures. The discussion was opened
by Mr. A. Strahan and Mr. J. E. Marr, F.R.S., on behalf of
Section C, and by Mr. R. Kidston and Mr. A. CO. Seward, F.R.S.,
on behalf of Section K.

Dr. £. D. Wellburn.—On the Fossil Fishes of the Yorkshire Coalfield.

—— On the Fish Fauna of the Millstone Grits of Great Britain.

J. J. H. Teall, F.R.S., Pres. G.S.—On the Plutonic Complex of
Cnoc na Sroine, and its bearing on current Hypotheses as to the
Genesis of Igneous Rocks.

Professor K. Busz.—On a Granophyre Dyke intrusive in the Gabbro
of Ardnamurchan, Scotland. (See p. 436.)

Professor H. A. Miers, F.R.S.—Report of the Committee on the
Present State of our Knowledge of the Structure of Crystals.

Dr. Wheelton Hind.—Report of the Committee on Life Zones in
British Carboniferous Rocks.

Miss Iyerna B. J. Sollas, B.Sc.—On Naiadites from the Upper
Rheetic of Redland, Bristol.

Lf. W. Harmer.—The Influence of the Winds upon Climate during

the British Association. 447

past epochs: a Meteorological Explanation of some Geological
Problems.
Dr. J. Monckman.—Notes on some recent Excavations in the Glacial
Drift in Bradford.
J. EF. Wilson.—On a Glacial Extra-Morainic Lake occupying the
Valley of the Bradford Beck.
A. Jowett and H. B. Muff.—Notes on the Glaciation of the Keighley
and Bradford Districts.
J. W. Stather.—The Source and Distribution of the Far-travelled
Boulders of East Yorkshire.
On the Glacial Phenomena of the North-East Corner of
the Yorkshire Wolds.
R. H. Tiddeman.—Raised Beaches of Gower, South Wales, and their
relation to the Glacial Deposits. (See p. 441.)
Professor P. F. Kendall.—Report of the Committee on the Erratic
Blocks of the British Isles.
Professor A. P. Coleman. — On a Ferriferous Horizon in the
Huronian north of Lake Superior.
Final Report of the Committee on the Pleistocene Beds of
Canada.
J. R. Dakyns.— Notes on the Glacial Geology of Snowdon.
hh. D. Oldham.—Beach Formation in Thirlmere Reservoir. (See p. 473.)
Basal (Carboniferous) Conglomerate of Ullswater and its
Mode of Formation.
Professor W. W. Watts.—Report of the Committee for the Collection
and Preservation of Geological Photographs.
W. H. Crofts.—New Dock-sections at Hull.
A. C. Seward, F.R.S.—On the Jurassic Flora of the Yorkshire Coast.
G. W. Lamplugh.—The Age of the English Wealden Strata. (p. 443.)
P. M. C. Kermode.—Report of the Committee on the Irish Elk in the
Isle of Man.

There was an excellent exhibition of geological specimens in the
Museum adjoining the Section Room.

PAPERS READ IN OTHER SECTIONS BEARING UPON GEOLOGY.

Section A (MarnematicaL and Puysicat SCIENCE).

J. W. Gifford.—A Quartz-Calcite Symmetrical Doublet.
Professor A. W. Bickerton.—Cosmic Evolution.
Section B (CuHeEmistRy).
HT, M. Dawson, D.Sc.—On the Influence of Pressure on the Formation
of Oceanic Salt Deposits.
W. Ackroyd.—On a Limiting Standard of Acidity for Moorland Waters.
Srotion D (Zootocy, txcLupInG Puystooey).
President's Address (Dr. R. H. Traquair, U.D., LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.G.S.).—The Bearings of Fossil Ichthyology on the Problem of
Evolution. (See p. 463.)

Index Animalium.—Report by Committee: Dr. H. Woodward, F.R.S.
Chairman ; C. Davies Sherborn, Reporter. (See p. 473.)

448 Notices of Memoirs—Papers read before British Association.

Plankton Investigation.

Professor W. B. Scott.—The Miocene Fauna of Patagonia.

J. Stanley Gardiner.—Investigations upon the Coral Reefs of the
Indian Region (Report).

Srotion EH (GrocRara#y).

Vaughan Cornish.—On Snow Ripples and Sastrugi.

J. E. Marr, F.R.S.—The Origin of Moels, and their subsequent
Dissection.

Dr. H. R. Mill.—The Treatment of Regional Geography.

E. G. Ravenstein.—Foreign and Colonial Surveys.

J. Milne, F.R.S.—Large Harthquakes recorded in 1899.

Report of Committee on Physical and Chemical Constants of Sea
Water.

R. T. Giinther.— On the possibility of obtaining more Reliable
Measurements of the Changes of the Land-level of the Phlegraean
Fields.

Section F (Kconomic Sciencr anp STATISTICS).

Professor W. Saunders, LL.D.—Results of Experimental Work in
Agriculture i in Canada under Government Organization.

Srotion G (Mxcwanican Screncr).

J. Watson. —Water Supply, with a Description of the Bradford
Waterworks.

J. H. Glass—The Coal and Iron Ore Fields of Shansi and Honan,
and Railway Construction in China.

Srotion H (AnrTHROPOLOGY).

President’s Address (Professor John Rhys, M.A.).—The Prehistoric
Ethnology of the British Islands.

J. Paxton Moir.—Stone Implements of the Natives of Tasmania.

Professor £. B. Tylor, F.R.S.—The Stone Age in Tasmania as.
related to the History of Civilization.

D. G. Hogarth.—The Cave of Psychro in Crete.

A. M. Bell.—On the occurrence of Flint Implements of Paleolithic:
type on an old Land-surface in Oxfordshire, near Wolvercote and
Pear-tree Hill, together with a few Implements of various.
Plateau types.

A. €@. Haddon, Sc.D., F.R.S.—Reiics of the Stone Age in Borneo.

Srotion K (Borany).

Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S.—On the presence of seed-like organs in
certain Paleeozoic Lycopods.

The Primary Structure of certain Paleozoic Stems referred
to Araucarioxylon.

A. C. Seward, F.R.S., and Elizabeth Dale.-—On the Structure of
Dipteris conjugata, Rein, with notes on the geological history of
the Dipteridine.

Professor Bower, F.R.S.—Illustrations of Sand-binding Plants.

W. C. Worsdell.—The Origin of Modern Cycads.

Notices of Memoirs—Prof. Sollas’s Address to Section C. 449

IIl.—British ASsS00IATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SOIENOE.
Braprorp, 1900.

AvpRESs To THE GroLoaIcaL Suction, by Professor W. J. Soxuas,
D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., President of the Section. (Slightly abridged.)

Evolutional Geology.

HE close of one century, the dawn of another, may naturally
suggest some brief retrospective glance over the path along
which our science has advanced, and some general survey of its
present position from which we may gather hope of its future
progress; but other connection with geology the beginnings and
endings of centuries have none. The great periods of movement
have hitherto begun, as it were, in the early twilight hours, long
before the dawn. Thus the first step forward, since which there
has been no retreat, was taken by Steno in the year 1669; more
than a century elapsed before James Hutton (1785) gave fresh
energy and better direction to the faltering steps of the young
science; while it was less than a century later (1863) when Lord
Kelvin brought to its aid the powers of the higher mathematics and
instructed it in the teachings of modern physics. From Steno
onward the spirit of geology was catastrophic; from Hutton onward
it grew increasingly uniformitarian; from the time of Darwin and
Kelvin it has become evolutional. The ambiguity of the word
‘uniformitarian’ has led to a good deal of fruitless logomachy,
against which it may be as well at once to guard by indicating the
sense in which it is used here. In one way we are all uniformi-
tarians, i.e. we accept the doctrine of the “ uniform action of natural
causes,” but, as applied to geology, uniformity means more than
this. Defined in the briefest fashion it is the geology of Lyell.
Hutton had given us a “ Theory of the Earth,” in its main outlines
still faithful and true, and this Lyell spent his life in illustrating
and advocating; but, as so commonly happens, the zeal of the
disciple outran the wisdom of the master, and mere opinions were
insisted on as necessary dogma. What did it matter if Hutton, as
a result of his inquiries into terrestrial history, had declared that he
found no vestige of a beginning, no prospect of an end? It would
have been marvellous if he had! Consider that when Hutton’s
“Theory ” was published William Smith’s famous discovery had
not been made, and that nothing was then known of the orderly
succession of forms of life, which it is one of the triumphs of geology
to have revealed ; consider, too, the existing state of physics at the
time, and that the modern theories of energy had still to be formu-
lated ; consider also that spectroscopy had not yet lent its aid to
astronomy, and the consequent ignorance of the nature of nebula -
and then, if you will, cast a stone at Hutton. t oke
Our science has become evolutional, and in the transformation
has grown more comprehensive: her petty parochial days are done,
she is drawing her provinces closer around her, and is fusing them
together into a united and single commonwealth—the science of
the earth.

DECADE IV.—VOL. VII.—-NO. X. 29

450 Notices of Memoirs—Professor Sollas’s Address

Not merely the earth’s crust, but the whole of earth-knowledge is
the subject of our research. To know all that can be known about
our planet, this, and nothing less than this, is its aim and scope.
From the morphological side geology inquires not only into the
existing form and structure of the earth, but also into the series of
successive morphological states through which it has passed in
a long and changeful development. Our science inquires also into
the distribution of the earth in time and space; on the physiological
side it studies the movements and activities of our planet; and not
content with all this, it extends its researches into etiology and
endeavours to arrive at a science of causation. In these pursuits
geology calls all the other sciences to her aid. In our common-
wealth there are no outlanders; if an eminent physicist enter our
territory we do not begin at once to prepare for war, because
the very fact of his undertaking a geological inquiry of itself
confers upon him all the duties and privileges of citizenship.
A physicist studying geology is by definition a geologist. Our
only regret is, not that physicists occasionally invade our borders,
but that they do not visit us oftener and make closer acquaintance
with us.

Karly History of the Earth: First Critical Period.

If I am bold enough to assert that cosmogony is no longer alien
to geology, I may proceed further, and taking advantage of my
temerity pass on to speak of things once not permitted to us.
I propose therefore to offer some short account of the early stages
in the history of the earth. Into its nebular origin we need not
inquire—that is a subject for astronomers. We are content to
accept the infant earth from their hands as a molten globe ready
made, its birth from a gaseous nebula duly certified. If we ask, as
a matter of curiosity, what was the origin of the nebula, I fear even
astronomers cannot tell us. There is an hypothesis which refers it
to the clashing of meteorites, but in: the form in which this is
usually presented it does not help us much. Such meteorites as
have been observed to penetrate our atmosphere and to fall on to the
surface of the earth prove on examination to have had an eventful
history of their own, of which not the least important chapter was
a passage through a molten state; they would thus appear to be the
products rather than the progenitors of a nebula.

We commence our history, then, with a rapidly rotating molten
planet, not impossibly already solidified about the centre, and
surrounded by an atmosphere of great depth, the larger part of
which was contributed by the water of our present oceans, then
existing in a state of gas. This atmosphere, which exerted a pres-
sure of something like 5,0001b. to the square inch, must have
played a very important part in the evolution of our planet. The
molten exterior absorbed it to an extent which depended on the
pressure, and which may some day be learnt from experiment.
Under the influence of the rapid rotation of the earth the atmosphere
would be much deeper in equatorial than polar regions, so that in
the latter the loss of heat by radiation would be in excess. This

to Section C (Geology). 451

might of itself lead to convectional currents in the molten ocean.
‘The effect on the atmosphere is very difficult to trace, but it is
obvious that if a high-pressure area originated over some cooler
region of the ocean, the winds blowing out of it would drive before
them the cooler superficial layers of molten material, and as these
were replaced by hotter lava streaming from below, the tendency
would be to convert the high- into a low-pressure area, and to
reverse the direction of the winds. Conversely, under a low-
pressure area, the in-blowing winds would drive in the cooler
‘superficial layers of molten matter that had been swept away from
the anticyclones. If the difference in pressure under the cyclonic
and anticyclonic areas were considerable, some of the gas absorbed
under the anticyclones might escape beneath the cyclones, and in
a later stage of cooling might give rise to vast floating islands of
scoria. Such islands might be the first foreshadowings of the future
continents. Whatever the ultimate effect of the reaction of the
winds on the currents of the molten ocean, it is probable that some
kind of circulation was set up in the latter. The universal molten
ocean was by no means homogeneous: it was constantly undergoing
changes in composition as it reacted chemically with the internal
metallic nucleus: its currents would streak the different portions
out in directions which in the northern hemisphere would run from
N.E. to §.W., and thus the differences which distinguish particular
petrological regions of our planet may have commenced their
existence at a very early stage. Is it possible that as our know-
ledge extends we shall be able by a study of the distribution of
igneous rocks and minerals to draw some conclusions as to the
direction of these hypothetical lava currents? Our planet was
profoundly disturbed by tides, produced by the sun, for as yet
there was no moon; and it has been suggested that one of its tidal
waves rose to a height so great as to sever its connection with the
earth and to fly off as the infant moon. This event may be regarded
as marking the first critical period, or catastrophe if we please, in
the history of our planet. The career of our satellite, after its escape
from the earth, is not known till it attained a distance of nine
terrestrial radii; after this its progress can be clearly followed.
At the eventful time of parturition the earth was rotating, with
a period of from two to four hours, about an axis inclined at some
11° or 12° to the ecliptic. The time which has elapsed since the
moon occupied a position nine terrestrial radii distant from the earth
is at least fifty-six to fifty-seven millions of years, but may have
been much more. Professor Darwin’s story of the moon is certainly
one of the most beautiful contributions ever made by astronomy to
geology, and we shall all concur with him when he says, “ A theory
reposing on vere cause, which brings into quantitative correlation
the length of the present day and month, the obliquity of the
ecliptic, and the inclination and eccentricity of the lunar orbit,
must, I think, have strong claims to acceptance.”

The majority of geologists have long hankered after a metallic
nucleus for the earth, composed chiefly, by analogy with meteorites,

452 Notices of Memoirs—Professor Sollas’s Address

of iron. Lord Kelvin has admitted the probable existence of some
such nucleus, and lately Professor Wiechert has furnished us with
arguments—“ powerful” arguments Professor Darwin terms them—
in support of its existence. . . . .

The outer envelope of the earth which was drawn off to form the
moon was, as we have seen, charged with steam and other gases-
under a pressure of 5,000 Ib. to the square inch; but as the satellite
wandered away from the parent planet this pressure continuously
diminished. Under these circumstances the moon would become
as explosive as a charged bomb, steam would burst forth from
numberless volcanoes, and while the face of the moon might
thus have acquired its existing features the ejected material might
possibly have been shot so far away from its origin as to have
acquired an independent orbit. If so, we may ask whether it may
not be possible that the meteorites, which sometimes descend upon
our planet, are but portions of its own envelope returning to it.
The facts that the average specific gravity of those meteorites which
have been seen to fall is not much above 3:2, and that they have
passed through a state of fusion, are consistent with this suggestion.

Second Critical Period: ‘‘ Consistentior Status.”

The solidification of the earth probably became completed soon
after the birth of the moon. The temperature of its surface at the
time of consolidation was about 1170° C., and it was therefore still
surrounded by its primitive deep atmosphere of steam and other
gases. ‘This was the second critical period in the history of the
earth, the stage of the “consistentior status,” the date of which
Lord Kelvin would rather know than that of the Norman Conquest,
though he thinks it lies between twenty and forty millions of years
ago, probably nearer twenty than forty.

Now that the crust was solid there was less reason why move-
ments of the atmosphere should be unsteady, and definite regions of
high and low pressure might have been established. Under the
high-pressure areas the surface of the crust would be depressed ;
correspondingly, under the low-pressure areas it would be raised ;
and thus from the first the surface of the solid earth might be
dimpled and embossed.

Third Critical Period: Origin of the Oceans.

The cooling of the earth would continuously progress, till the
temperature of the surface fell to 870° ©., when that part of the
atmosphere which consisted of steam would begin to liquefy; then
the dimples on the surface would soon become filled with super-
heated water, and the pools so formed would expand and deepen till
they formed the oceans. This is the third critical stage in the
history of the earth, dating, according to Professor Joly, from
between eighty and ninety millions of years ago. With the growth
of the oceans the distinction between land and sea arose—in what
precise manner we may proceed to inquire. . . . .

The ocean when first formed would consist of highly heated
water, and this, as is well known, is an energetic chemical reagent.

to Section C (Geology). 453

when brought into contact with silicates like those which formed
the primitive crust. As a result of its action saline solutions and
chemical deposits would be formed; the latter, however, would
probably be of no great thickness, for the time occupied by the
ocean in cooling to a temperature not far removed from the present
would probably be included within a few hundreds of years.

The Stratified Series.

The course of events now becomes somewhat obscure, but sooner
or later the familiar processes of denudation and deposition started
into activity, and have continued acting uninterruptedly ever since.
The total maximum thickness of the sedimentary deposits, so far as
I can discover, appears to amount to no less than 50 miles, made up
as follows :—

Feet.
Recent and Pleistocene ... 4,000... son Wulf.
Pliocene... 500 506; DAU) Bok ... Pithecanthropus.
Miocene ... Sls .- 9,000
Oligocene ... 560 ... 12,000
Eocene... was soo. ONO) sae ... Hutheria.
Cretaceous ... toe ... 14,000
Jurassic... es soo, eA XOX)
Trias sae sea seet Los O00 We an ... Mammals.
Permian ... saa wexe T2000) Wes. ... Reptiles.
Carboniferous ase doo, PHO) Soo ... Amphibia.
Devonian ... eae “oo PPITO "Nose See Ishi.
Silurian ... “Ss seen 0.000
Ordovician ... ate wee 7,000:
Cambrian ... aoe 506 NWEROOD Son ... Invertebrata.
Keweenawan oats ... 60,000
Penokee ... Ba ..» 14,000
Huronian ... 18,000

Geologists, impressed with the tardy pace at which sediments
appear to be accumulating at the present day, could not contemplate
this colossal pile of strata without feeling that it spoke of an almost
inconceivably long lapse of time. They were led to compare its
duration with the distances which intervene between the heavenly
bodies; but while some chose the distance of the nearest fixed star
as their unit, others were content to measure the years in terms of
miles from the sun.

Evolution of Organisms.

The stratified rocks were eloquent of time, and not to the geologist
alone, they appealed with equal force to the biologist. Accepting
Darwin’s explanation of the origin of species, the present rate at
which form flows to form seemed so slow as almost to amount to
immutability. How vast, then, must have been the period during
which by slow degrees and innumerable stages the protozoon was
transformed into the man! And if we turn to the stratified column
what do we find? Man, it is true, at the summit, the oldest fossili-
ferous rocks 34 miles lower down, and the fossils they contain
already representing most of the great classes of the Invertebrata,
including Crustacea and Worms. ‘Thus the evolution of the Verte-
brata alone is known to have occupied a period represented by

454 Notices of Memoirs—Professor Sollas’s Address

a thickness of 34 miles of sediment. How much greater, then,.
must have been the interval required for the elaboration of the
whole organic world! . . .

Geologic Periods of Time.

Before proceeding to the discussion of estimates of time drawn
from a study of stratified rocks, let us first consider those which
have been already suggested by other data. These are as follows :—
(1) Time which has elapsed since the separation of the earth and
moon, fifty-six millions of years, minimum estimate by Professor
G, H. Darwin. (2) Since the “consistentior status,” twenty to
forty millions (Lord Kelvin). (8) Since the condensation of the
oceans, eighty to ninety millions, maximum estimate by Professor
J. Joly.

It may be at once observed that these estimates, although
independent, are all of the same order of magnitude, and so far
confirmatory of each other. Nor are they opposed to conclusions.
drawn from a study of stratified rocks; thus Sir Archibald Geikie,.
in his Address to this Section last year, affirmed that, so far as these
were concerned, 100 millions of years might suffice for their
formation. There is, then, very little to quarrel about, and our
task is reduced to an attempt, by a little stretching and a little
paring, to bring these various estimates into closer harmony. :

A review of the facts before us seems to render some reduction in
Dr. Joly’s estimate imperative. A precise assessment is impossible,
but I should be inclined myself to take off some ten or thirty
millions of years.

We may next take the evidence of the stratified rocks. Their
total maximum thickness is, as we have seen, 265,000 feet, and
consequently, if they accumulated at the rate of one foot in
a century, as evidence seems to suggest, more than twenty-six
millions of years must have elapsed during their formation.

Obscure Chapter in the Earth’s History.

Before discussing the validity of the argument on which this last
result depends, let us consider how far it harmonizes with previous
ones. It is consistent with Lord Kelvin’s and Professor Darwin’s,
but how does it accord with Professor Joly’s? Supposing we reduce
his estimate to fifty-five millions: what was the earth doing during
the interval between the period of fifty-five millions of years ago
and that of only 264 millions ago, when, it is presumed, sedimentary
rocks commenced to be formed? Hitherto we have been able to
reason on probabilities; now we enter the dreary region of
possibilities, and open that obscure chapter in the history of the
earth previously hinted at. For there are many possible answers to
this question. In the first place, the evidence of the stratified rocks
may have been wrongly interpreted, and two or three times the
amount of time we have demanded may have been consumed in
their formation. This is a very obvious possibility, yet again our
estimate concerning these rocks may be correct, but we may have
erroneously omitted to take into account certain portions of the

to Section C (Geology). 455

Archean complex, which may represent primitive sedimentary
rocks, formed under exceptional conditions, and subsequently
transformed under the influence of the internal heat of the earth.
This, I think, would be Professor Bonney’s view, Finally, Lord
Kelvin has argued that the life of the sun as a luminous star is even
more briefly limited than that of our oceans. In such a case, if our
oceans were formed fifty-five millions of years ago, it is possible
that after a short existence as almost boiling water they grew
colder and colder, till they became covered with thick ice, and
moved only in obedience to the tides. The earth, frozen and dark,
except for the red glow of her volcanoes, waited the coming of the
sun, and it was not till his growing splendour had banished the long
night that the cheerful sound of running waters was heard again in
our midst. Then the work of denudation and deposition seriously
recommenced, not to cease till the life of the sun is spent. Thus
the thickness of the stratified series may be a measure rather of the
duration of sunlight than of the period which has elapsed since the
first formation of the ocean. It may have been so—we cannot tell
—but it may be fairly urged that we know less of the origin,
history, and constitution of the sun than of the earth itself, and that,
for aught we can say to the contrary, the sun may have been shining
on the just-formed ocean as cheerfully as he shines to-day.
Time required for the Evolution of the Living World.

But, it will be asked, how far does a period of twenty-six millions
satisfy the demands of biology ? Speaking only for myself, although
I am aware that eminent biologists are not wanting who. share this
opinion, I answer, “amply.” But it will be exclaimed, “surely
there are ‘comparisons in things.’” Look at Egypt, where more
than 4,000 years since the same species of man and animals lived
and flourished as to-day. Examine the frescoes and study the living
procession of familiar forms they so faithfully portray, and then tell
us, how comes it about that from changes so slow as to be
inappreciable in the lapse of forty centuries you propose to build
up the whole organic world in the course of a mere twenty-six
millions of years? To all which we might reply that even
changeless Egypt presents us with at least one change — the
features of the ruling race are to-day not quite the same as those
of the Pharaohs. But, putting this on one side, the admitted
constancy in some few common forms proves very little, for, so long
as the environment remains the same natural selection will conserve
the type, and, so far as we are able to judge, conditions in Egypt
have remained remarkably constant for a long period.

Change the conditions, and the resulting modification of the
species becomes manifest enough; and in this connection it is only
necessary to recall the remarkable mutations observed and recorded
by Professor Weldon in the case of the crabs in Plymouth Harbour.
In response to increasing turbidity of the sea-water these crabs have
undergone or are undergoing a change in the relative dimensions of
the carapace, which is persistent, in one direction, and rapid enough
to be determined by measurements made at intervals of a few years.

456 Notices of Memoirs—Professor Sollas’s Address

Again, animals do not all change their characters at the same
rate: some are stable, in spite of changing conditions, and these
have been cited to prove that none of the periods we look upon as
probable, not twenty-five, not a hundred millions of years, scarce
any period short of eternity, is sufficient to account for the evolution
of the living world. If the little tongue-shell, Zingula, has endured
with next to no perceptible change from the Cambrian down to the
present day, how long, it is sometimes inquired, would it require for
the evolution of the rest of the animal kingdom? The reply is
simple: the cases are dissimilar, and the same record which assures
us of the persistency of the Lingula tells us in language equally
emphatic of the course of evolution which has led from the lower
organisms upwards to man. In recent and Pleistocene deposits the
relics of man are plentiful: in the latest Pliocene they have dis-
appeared, and we encounter the remarkable form Pithecanthropus ;
as we descend into the Tertiary systems the higher mammals are
met with, always sinking lower and lower in the scale of organiza-
tion as they occur deeper in the series, till in the Mesozoic deposits
they have entirely disappeared, and their place is taken by the
lower mammals, a feeble folk, offering little promise of the future
they were to inherit. Still lower, and even these are gone; and in
the Permian we encounter reptiles and the ancestors of reptiles,
probably ancestors of mammals too; then into the Carboniferous,
where we find amphibians, but no true reptiles; and next into the
Devonian, where fish predominate, after making their earliest

appearance at the close of the Silurian times; thence downwards,

and the vertebrata are no more found—we trace the evolution of the
invertebrata alone. Thus the orderly procession of organic forms
follows in precisely the true phylogenetic sequence: invertebrata
first, then vertebrates, at first fish, then amphibia, next reptiles,
soon after mammals, of the lowlier kinds first, of the higher later,
and these in increasing complexity of structure till we finally arrive
at man himself. While the living world was thus unfolding into
new and nobler forms, the immutable Zingula simply perpetuated its
kind. ‘To select it, or other species equally sluggish, as the sole
measure of the rate of biologic change, would seem as strange
a proceeding as to confound the swiftness of a river with the
stagnation of the pools that lie beside its banks. It is occasionally
objected that the story we have drawn from the paleontological
record is mere myth or is founded only on negative evidence.
Cavils of this kind prove a double misapprehension, partly as to
the facts, partly as to the value of negative evidence, which may be
as good in its way as any other kind of evidence.

Geologists are not unaware of the pitfalls which beset negative
evidence, and they do not conclude from the absence of fossils in the
rocks which underlie the Cambrian that pre-Cambrian periods were
devoid of life; on the contrary, they are fully persuaded that the
seas of those times were teeming with a rich variety of invertebrate
forms. _ How is it that, with the exception of some few species
found in beds immediately underlying the Cambrian, these have

to Section C (Geology). 457

left behind no vestige of their existence? The explanation does
not lie in the nature of the sediments, which are not unfitted for the
preservation of fossils, nor in the composition of the then existing
sea-water, which may have contained quite as much calcium
carbonate as occurs in our present oceans; and the only plausible
supposition would appear to be that the organisms of that time had
not passed beyond the stage now represented by the larve of
existing invertebrata, and consequently were either unprovided
with skeletons or at all events with skeletons durable enough for
preservation. If so, the history of the earlier stages of the evolution
of the invertebrata will receive no light from paleontology ; and no
direct answer can be expected to the question whether, eighteen or
nineteen millions of years being taken as sufficient for the evolution
of the vertebrata, the remaining available eight millions would
provide for that of the invertebrate classes which are represented
in the lowest Cambrian deposits. On @ priori grounds there would
appear to be no reason why it should not. If two millions of years
afforded time enough for the conversion of fish into amphibians,
a similar period should suffice for the evolution of trilobites from
annelids, or of annelids from trochospheres. The step from
gastrulas to trochospheres might be accomplished in another two
millions, and two millions more would take us from gastrulas
through morulas to protozoa.

As things stand, biologists can have nothing to say either for or
against such a conclusion: they are not at present in a position to
offer independent evidence; nor can they hope to be so until they
have vastly extended those promising investigations which they are
only now beginning to make into the rate of the variation of species.

Unexpected Absence of Thermal Metamorphosis in Ancient Rocks.

Two difficulties now remain for discussion : one based on theories
of mountain chains, the other on the unaltered state of some ancient
sediments. The latter may be taken first. Professor van Hise
writes as follows regarding the pre-Cambrian rocks of the Lake
Superior district: ‘“‘'The Penokee series furnishes an instructive
lesson as to the depth to which rocks may be buried and yet
remain but slightly affected by metamorphosis. The series itself
is 14,000 feet thick. It was covered before being upturned with
a great thickness of Keweenaw rock. This series at the Montreal
River is estimated to be 50,000 feet thick. Adding to this the
known thickness of the Penokee series, we have a thickness of
64,000 feet. . . . . The Penokee rocks were then buried to
a great depth, the exact amount depending upon their horizon and
upon the stage in Keweenaw time, when the tilting and erosion,
which brought them to the surface, commenced.

“That the synclinal trough of Lake Superior began to form before
the end of the Keweenaw period, and consequently that the Penokee
rocks were not buried under the full succession, is more than
probable. However, they must have been buried to a great
depth—at least several miles—and thus subjected to high pressure

458 Notices of Memoirs—Professor Sollas’s Address

and temperature, notwithstanding which they are comparatively
unaltered.” ?

I select this example because it is one of the best instances of
a difficulty that occurs more than once in considering the history of
sedimentary rocks. On the supposition that the rate of increment
of temperature with descent is 1° F. for every 84 feet, or 1° C. for
every 150 feet, and that it was no greater during these early
Penokee times, then at a depth of 50,000 feet the Penokee rocks
would attain a temperature of nearly 333° C.; and since water
begins to exert powerful chemical action at 180° C. they should, on
the theory of a solid cooling globe, have suffered a metamorphosis.
sufficient to obscure their resemblance to sedimentary rocks. Hither,
then, the accepted rate of downward increase of temperature is
erroneous, or the Penokee rocks were never depressed, in the place
where they are exposed to observation, to a depth of 50,000 feet.
Let us consider each alternative, and in the first place let us apply
the rate of temperature increment determined by Professor Agassiz.
in this very Lake Superior district: it is 1° C. for every 402 feet,
and twenty-five millions of years ago, or about the time when we
may suppose the Penokee rocks were being formed, it would be
1° C. for every 305-5 feet, with a resulting temperature at a depth
of 50,000 feet of 168° C. only. Thus the admission of a very low
rate of temperature increment would meet the difficulty ; but, on the
other hand, it would involve a period of several hundreds of millions.
of years for the age of the “consistentior status,” and thus greatly
exceed Professor Joly’s maximum estimate of the age of the oceans.
We may therefore turn to the second alternative. As regards this,
it is by no means certain that the exposed portion of the Penokee
series ever was depressed 50,000 feet: the beds lie in a synclinal,
the base of which indeed may have sunk to this extent, and entered
a region of metamorphosis; but the only part of the system that
lies exposed to view is the upturned margin of the synclinal, and as
to this it would seem impossible to make any positive assertion as
to the depth to which it may or may not have been depressed. To
keep an open mind on the question seems our only course for
the present, but difficulties like this offer a promising field for
investigation.

The Formation of Mountain Ranges.

It is frequently alleged that mountain chains cannot be explained
on the hypothesis of a solid earth cooling under the conditions and
for the period we have supposed. This is a question well worthy
of consideration, and we may first endeavour to picture to ourselves
the conditions under which mountain chains arise. The floor of the
ocean lies at an average depth of 2,000 fathoms below the land, and
is maintained at a constant temperature, closely approaching 0° C.,
by the passage over it of cold water creeping from the polar regions.
The average temperature of the surface of the land is above zero, but.
we can afford to disregard the difference in temperature between it

? Tenth Annual Report U.S. Geol. Survey, 1888-89, p. 457.

to Section C (Geology). 459°

and the ocean floor, and may take them both at zero. Consider next
the increase of temperature with descent, which occurs beneath the
continents: at a depth of 13,000 feet, or at the same depth as the
ocean floor, a temperature of 87° C. will be reached on the supposition
that the rate of increase is 1° C. for 150 feet, while with the usually
accepted rate of 1° C. for 108 feet it would be 120°C. But at this
depth the ocean floor, which is on the same spherical surface, is at
0° C. Thus surfaces of equal temperature within the earth’s crust
will not be spherical, but will rise or fall beneath an imaginary
spherical or spheroidal surface according as they occur beneath the
continents or the oceans. No doubt at some depth within the earth
the departure of isothermal surfaces from a spheroidal form will
disappear; but considering the great breadth both of continents and
oceans this depth must be considerable, possibly even forty or fifty
miles. Thus the sub-continental excess of temperature may make
itself felt in regions where the rocks still retain a high temperature,
and are probably not far removed from the critical fusion-point.
The effect will be to render the continents mobile as regards the
ocean floor; or, vice versd, the ocean floor will be stable compared
with the continental masses. Next it may be observed that the
continents pass into the bed of the ocean by a somewhat rapid
flexure, and that it is over this area of flexure that the sediments
denuded from the land are deposited. Under its load of sediment
the sea-floor sinks down, subsiding slowly, at about the same rate
as the thickness of sediment increases; and, whether as a con-
sequence or a cause, or both, the flexure marking the boundary of
land and sea becomes more pronounced. A compensating movement
occurs within the earth’s crust, and solid material may flow from
under the subsiding area in the direction of least resistance, possibly
towards the land. At length, when some thirty or forty thousand
feet of sediment have accumulated in a basin-like form, or, according
to our reckoning, after the lapse of three or four millions of years,
the downward movement ceases, and the mass of sediment is sub-
jected to powerful lateral compression, which, bringing its borders
into closer proximity by some ten or thirty miles, causes it to rise
in great folds high into the air as a mountain chain.

It is this last phase in the history of mountain-making which has
given geologists more cause for painful thought than probably any
other branch of their subject, not excluding even the age of the
earth. It was at first imagined that during the flow of time the
interior of the earth lost so much heat, and suffered so much con-
traction in consequence, that the exterior, in adapting itself to the
shrunken body, was compelled to fit it like a wrinkled garment.
This theory, indeed, enjoyed a happy existence till it fell into the
hands of mathematicians, when it fared very badly, and now lies in
a pitiable condition neglected by its friends.’

For it seemed proved to demonstration that the contraction con-
sequent on cooling was wholly, even ridiculously, inadequate to

1 With some exceptions, notably Mr. C. Davison, a consistent supporter of the
theory of contraction.

460 Notices of Memoirs—Professor Sollas’s Address

explain the wrinkling. But when we summon up courage to
inquire into the data on which the mathematical arguments are
based, we find that they include several assumptions the truth of
which is by no means self-evident. . . . .

We shall boldly assume that the contraction at some unknown
depth in the interior of the earth is sufficient to afford the explana-
tion we seek. The course of events may then proceed as follows.
The contraction of the interior of the earth, consequent on its loss
of heat, causes the crust to fall upon it in folds, which rise over the
continents and sink under the oceans, and the flexure of the area
of sedimentation is partly a consequence of this folding, partly of
overloading. By the time a depression of some 30,000 or 40,000 feet
has occurred along the ocean border the relation between continents
and oceans has become unstable, and readjustment takes place,
probably by a giving way of the continents, and chiefly along the
zone of greatest weakness, i.e. the area of sedimentation, which thus
becomes the zone of mountain-building. It may be observed that at
great depths readjustment will be produced by a slow flowing of
solid rock, and it is only comparatively near the surface, five or ten
miles at the most below, that failure of support can lead to sudden
fracture and collapse ; hence the comparatively superficial origin of
earthquakes.

Given a sufficiently large coefficient of expansion—and there is
much to suggest its existence—and all the phenomena of mountain
ranges become explicable: they begin to present an appearance that
invites mathematical treatment; they inspire us with the hope that
from a knowledge of the height and dimensions of a continent and
its relations to the bordering ocean we may be able to predict when
and where a mountain chain should arise, and the theory which
explains them promises to guide us to an interpretation of those
worldwide unconformities which Suess can only account for by
a transgression of the sea. Finally, it relieves us of the difficulty
presented by mountain formation in regard to the estimated duration
of geological time.

Influence of Variations in the Eccentricity of the Earth’s Orbit.

This may perhaps be the place to notice a highly interesting
speculation which we owe to Professor Blytt, who has attempted
to establish a connection between periods of readjustment of the
earth’s crust and variations in the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit.
Without entering into any discussion of Professor Blytt’s methods,
we may offer a comparison of his results with those that follow from
our rough estimate of one foot of sediment accumulated in a century.
Table showing the time that has elapsed since the Beginning of the Systems in

the first column, as reckoned from Thickness of Sediment in the second
column, and by Professor Blytt in the third:—

Years. Years.

Eocene ae sit eee 00 5000 uen ee ... 98,250,000
Oligocene 500 000 Seo 0.005000) secs ... 1,810,000
Miocene... ee meee 50,050 00 eee Maree eee GOSOO0
Pliocene: (625) 322) 50005000" a oO onD

Pleistocene ... 386 ran 400,000... bets 350,000

to Section C (Geology). 461

It is now time to return to the task, too long postponed, of
discussing the data from which we have been led to conclude that
a probable rate at which sediments have accumulated in places where
they attain their maximum thickness is one foot per century.

Rate of Deposition of Sediment.

We owe to Sir Archibald Geikie a most instructive method of
estimating the existing rate at which our continents and islands are
being washed into the sea by the action of rain and rivers: by this
we find that the present land surface is being reduced in height to
the extent of an average of 33455 foot yearly... If the material
removed from the land were uniformly distributed over an area
equal to that from which it had been derived, it would form a layer
of rock 35> foot thick yearly, i., the rates of denudation and
deposition would be identical. But the two areas, that of denudation
and that of deposition, are seldom or never equal, the latter as a rule
being much the smaller. Thus the area of that part of North
America which drains into the Gulf of Mexico measures 1,800,000
square miles; the area over which its sediments are deposited is, so
far as I can gather from Professor Agassiz’ statements, less than
180,000 square miles, while Mr. McGee estimates it at only 100,000
square miles. Using the larger number, the area of deposition is
found to measure one-tenth the area of denudation; the average
rate of deposition will therefore be ten times as great as the rate
of denudation, or ;},5 foot may be supposed to be uniformly dis-
tributed over the area of sedimentation in the course of a year. But
the thickness by which we have measured the strata of our geological
systems is not an average but a maximum thickness; we have
therefore to obtain an estimate of the maximum rate of deposition.
If we assume the deposited sediments to be arranged somewhat after
the fashion of a wedge with the thin end seawards, then twice the
average would give us the maximum rate of deposition: this would
be one foot in 120 years. But the sheets of deposited sediment are
not merely thicker towards the land, thinner towards the sea, they
also increase in thickness towards the rivers in which they have
their source, so that a very obtuse-angled cone, or, better, the down-
turned bowl of a spoon, would more nearly represent their form.
This form tends to disappear under the action of waves and currents,
but a limit is set to this disturbing influence by the subsidence
which marks the region opposite the mouth of a large river. By
this the strata are gradually let downwards, so that they come to
assume the form of the bowl of a spoon turned upwards. Thus
a further correction is necessary if we are to arrive at a fair estimate
of the maximum rate of deposition. Considering the very rapid rate
at which our ancient systems diminish in thickness when traced in
all directions from the localities where they attain their maximum,
it would appear that this correction must be a large one. If we
reduce our already corrected estimate by one-fifth, we arrive at
a rate of one foot of sediment deposited in a century.

? According to Professor Penck yq1ro foot.

462 Notices of Memoirs—Prof. Sollas’s Address to Section C.

It may be objected that in framing our estimate we have taken
into account mechanical sediments only, and ignored others of equal
importance, such as limestone and coal. With regard to limestone,
its thickness in regions where systems attain their maximum may
be taken as negligible; nor is the formation of limestone necessarily
a slow process. The successful experiments of Dr. Allan, cited by
Darwin, prove that reef-building corals may grow at the astonishing
rate of six feet in height per annum.

In respect of coal there is much to suggest that its growth was
rapid. ‘The Carboniferous period well deserves its name, for never
before, never since, have carbonaceous deposits accumulated to such
a remarkable thickness or over such wide areas of the earth’s
surface. The explanation is doubtless partly to be found in favour-
able climatal conditions, but also, I think, in the youthful energy
of a new and overmastering type of vegetation, which then for the
first time acquired the dominion of the land. If we turn to our
modern peat-bogs, the only carbonaceous growths available for
comparison, we find from data given by Sir A. Geikie that a fairly
average rate of increase is 6 feet in a century, which might perhaps
correspond to one foot of coal in the same period.

The rate of deposition has been taken as uniform through the
whole period of time recorded by stratified rocks ; but lest it should
be supposed that this involves a tacit admission of uniformity,
T hasten to explain that in this matter we have no choice; we
may feel convinced that the rate has varied from time to time, but
in what direction, or to what extent, it is impossible to conjecture.
That the sun was once much hotter is probable, but equally so that
at an earlier period it was much colder; and even if in its youth all
the activities of our planet were enhanced this fact might not affect
the maximum thickness of deposits. An increase in the radiation of
the sun, while it would stimulate all the powers of subaérial
denudation, would also produce stronger winds and marine currents ;
stronger currents would also result from the greater magnitude and
frequency of the tides, and thus while larger quantities of sediment
might be delivered into the sea they would be distributed over wider
areas, and the difference between the maximum and average thick-
ness of deposits would consequently be diminished. Indications of
such a wider distribution may perhaps be recognized in the Paleozoic
systems. ‘Thus we are compelled to treat our rate of deposition as
uniform, notwithstanding the serious error this may involve... . .

If one foot in a century be a quantity so small as to disappoint
the imagination of its accustomed exercise, let us turn to the
Cambrian succession of Scandinavia, where all the zones recognized
in the British series are represented by a column of sediment 290
feet in thickness. If 1,600,000 years be a correct estimate of the
duration of Cambrian time, then each foot of the Scandinavian
strata must have occupied 5,018 years in its formation. Are these
figures sufficiently inconceivable ?

In the succeeding system, that of the Ordovician, the maximum
thickness is 17,000 feet. Its deposits are distributed over a wider

Notices of Memoirs—Dr. R. H. Traquaw’s Address. 463

-area than the Cambrian, but they also occupied longer time in their
formation ; hence the area from which they were derived need not
necessarily have been larger than that of the preceding period.

Great changes in the geography of our area ushered in the Silurian
system: its maximum thickness is found over the Lake district, and
amounts to 15,000 feet; but in the little island of Gothland, where
all the subdivisions of the system, from the Llandovery to the Upper
Ludlow, occur in complete sequence, the thickness is only 208 feet.
In Gothland, therefore, according to our computation, the rate of
accumulation was one foot in 7,211 years.

With this example we must conclude, merely adding that the same
story is told by other systems and other countries, and that, so far as
my investigations have extended, I can find no evidence which would
suggest an extension of the estimate I have proposed. It is but an
estimate, and those who have made acquaintance with ‘estimates’
in the practical affairs of life will know how far this kind of
computation may guide us to or from the truth.

III.—Tue Bearines or Fossiz IcnrHyvotoey on THE PROBLEM OF
EvoLuTion; BEING THE ADDRESS TO THE ZOOLOGIOAL SECTION.
By Ramsay H. Traquair, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., President of the
Section. (Slightly abridged.)

HAVE been told that an idea is prevalent in the minds of recent

biologists that the results of Paleontology are so uncertain, so
doubtful, and so imperfect, that they are scarcely worthy of serious
attention being paid to them. The best answer I can make to such
an opinion, if it really does exist, is to try to place before you some
evidence that Paleontology is not mere fossil shell hunting, or the
making up of long lists of names to help the geologists to settle
their stratigraphical horizons, but may present us with abundance
of matter of genuine biological interest.

Since the days of Darwin, there is one subject which more than
all others engrosses the attention of scientific biologists. I mean
the question of Evolution, or the Doctrine of Descent. From the
nature of things it is clear that the voice of the paleontologist can
only be heard on the morphological aspect of the question, but to
many of us, including myself, the morphological argument is so
convincing that we believe that even if the Darwinian theory were
proved to-morrow to be utterly baseless, the Doctrine of Descent
would not be in the slightest degree affected, but would continue to
have as firm a hold on our minds as before.

Now as Paleontology takes us back, far back, into the life of the
past, it might be reasonably expected that it would throw great
light on the descent of animals, but the amount of its evidence is
necessarily much diminished by two unfortunate circumstances.
First, the terrible imperfection of the geological record, a fact so
obvious to anyone having any acquaintance with geology that it
need not be discussed here; and secondly, the circumstance that save
in very exceptional cases only the hard parts of animals are pre-
served, and those too often in an extremely fragmentary and disjointed

464 Notices of Memoirs—Dr. R. H. Traquair’s Address.

condition. But though we cannot expect that the paleontological
record will ever be anything more than fragmentary, yet the constant
occurrence of new and important discoveries leads us to entertain
the hope that, in course of time, more and more of its pages will
become disclosed to us.

Incomplete, however, as our knowledge of Evolution as derived
from Paleontology must be, that is no reason why we should not
appraise it at its proper value, and now and again stop for a moment
to take stock of the material which has accumulated.

You are all already acquainted with the telling evidence in favour
of Evolution furnished by the well-known series of Mammalian
limbs, as well as of teeth, in which the progress, in the course of
time, from the more general to the more special is so obvious that
I cannot conceive of any unprejudiced person shutting his eyes to
the inference that Descent with modification is the reason of these
things being so. Suppose, then, that on this occasion we take up
the paleontological evidence of Descent in the case of fishes. This
I do the more readily because what original work I have been able
to do has lain principally in the direction of fossil ichthyology ; and
again, because it does seem to me that it is in this department that
one has most reason to complain of want of interest on the part of
recent biologists, even, I may say, of some professed paleontologists
themselves. I shall in the main limit myself to the consideration of
Paleozoic forms.

Here I may begin by boldly affirming that I include the Marsipo-
branchii as fishes, in spite of the dictum of Cope that no animal can
be a fish which does not possess a lower jaw and a shoulder-girdle.
Why not? The position seems to me to be a merely arbitrary one;
and it is, to say the least, not impossible that the modern Lampreys
and Hags may be, as many believe, the degenerate descendants of
originally gnathostomatous forms.

To the origin of the Vertebrata Paleontology gives us no clue, as
the forerunners of the fishes must have been creatures which, like
the lowest Chordata of the present day (Tunicata, Balanoglossus,
Amphioxus), had no hard parts capable of preservation. And though
I shall presently refer again to the subject, I may here affirm that,
so far as I can read the record at least, it is impossible to derive from
Paleontology any support to the view, recently revived, that the
ancient fishes are in any way related to Crustacean or merostomatous
ancestors.

What have we, then, to say concerning the most ancient fishes
with which we are acquainted ?

The idea that the minute bodies known as Conodonts, which occur
from the Cambrian to the Carboniferous, are the teeth of fishes and
possibly even of ancient Marsipobranchs may now be said to be
given up. They are now accepted by the most reliable authorities
as appertaining to Invertebrata such as Annelides and Gephyrea.

More recently, however, Rohon! has described from the Lower

’ “Ueber untersilurische Fische’?: Mélanges Géol. et Paléont., vol. i
(St. Petersburg, 1899), pp. 9-14.

Notices of Memoirs—Dr. R. H. Traquair’s Address. 465

Silurian of the neighbourhood of St. Petersburg small teeth (Palgodus
and Archodus) associated with Conodonts, and which seem to be
real fish teeth, but not of Selachians, as is shown by the presence of
a pulp cavity surrounded by non-vascular dentine. It is impossible
to say anything more of their affinities.

Obscure and fragmentary fish remains have been obtained by
Walcott, and described by Jackel, from rocks in Colorado supposed
to be of Lower Silurian or Ordovician age.’ But doubts have been
thrown on their age, and the fossils themselves, which have, it must
be owned, a very Devonian look about them, are so extremely
fragmentary that they do not help us much in our present purpose.

Tt is not till we come to the Upper Silurian rocks that we begin
to feel the ground securely under our feet, though we may be certain,
from the degree of specialization of the forms which we there find,
that fishes lived in the waters of the globe for long ages previously.

Characteristic of the ‘ Ludlow bone-bed’ are certain minute scales
on which Pander founded the family Ccelolepide, having a flat or
sculptured crown, below which is a constricted ‘neck,’ and then
a base usually perforated by an aperture leading into a central pulp
cavity.

The genera Thelodus, Cvlolepis, and others were founded on these
dermal bodies, and complete specimens of Thelodus have now been
found in the Upper Silurian rocks of the South of Scotland, from
which it is evident that the fish, though somewhat shark-like, can
hardly be reckoned as a true Selachian.? Thelodus Scoticus, Traq.,
has a broad flattened anterior part corresponding to the head and
forepart of the body, very bluntly rounded in front, and passing
behind into right and left angular flap-like projections, which are
sharply marked off from the narrow tail, which is furnished with
a deeply cleft heterocercal caudal fin. Under the flap-like lateral
projections are representatives of pectorals ; no other fins are present,
neither do we find any teeth or jaws, nor any trace of internal
skeleton; and it is only a few days since Mr. Tait, collector to the
Geological Survey of Scotland, pointed out to me in a recently
acquired specimen a right and left dark spot at the outer margins of
the head near the front, which spots may indicate the position of the
eyes. A previously unknown genus, Lanarkia, Traq., also occurs in
which the creature has the very same form, but instead of having
the skin clothed with small shagreen-like scales, possesses in their
place minute, sharp, conical, hollow spines, without base and open
below. What we are to think of those two ancient forms, apparently
80 primitive and yet undoubtedly also to a great extent specialized,
we shall presently discuss.

Let us now for a moment look at the genus Drepanaspis, Schliiter,
from the Lower Devonian of Gmiinden in Western Germany. We

1 Bulletin Geol. Soc. America, vol. iii (1892), pp. 153-171.

* R. H. Traquair, ‘‘ Report on Fossil Fishes collected by the Geological Survey
in the Silurian Rocks of the South of Scotland’’?: Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.,
vol. xxxix (1899), pp. 827-864.

3 R. H. Traquair: Grou. Maa., April, 1900.

DECADE IV.—VOL. VII.—NO. X. 30

466 Notices of Memoirs—Dr. R. H. Traquair’s Address.

have here a strange creature whose shape entirely reminds us of
that of Thelodus, having the same flat broad anterior part, bluntly
rounded in front and angulated behind, to which is appended
a narrow tail ending in a heterocercal caudal fin, which is, however,
scarcely bilobate. But here the dermal covering, instead of con-
sisting of separate scales or spinelets, shows a close carapace of
hard bony plates, of which two are especially large and prominent
—the median dorsal and the median ventral—other large ones being
placed around the margins, while the intervening space is occupied
by a mosaic of small polygonal pieces. The position of the mouth,
a transverse slit, is seen just at the anterior margin; it is bounded
behind by a median mentum or chin-plate, but no jaws properly so
called are visible, nor are there any teeth. Then on each margin
near the front of the head is a small round pit, exactly in the
position of the dark spot seen in some examples of Thelodus, which,
if not an orbit, must indicate the position of some organ of sense.
Again, the tail is covered with scales after the manner of a ‘ ganoid’”
fish, being rhombic on the sides, but assuming the form of long
deeply imbricating fulcra on the dorsal and ventral margins. The
position of the branchial opening, or openings, has not yet been
definitely ascertained.

All these plates are closely covered with stellate tubercles, and
we cannot escape from the conclusion that they are formed by the
fusion of small shagreen bodies like those of Thelodus, and united to
bony matter developed in a deeper layer of the skin.

If the angular lateral flaps of Thelodus represent pectoral fins,
then we would have the exceedingly strange phenomenon of such
structures becoming functionally useless by enclosure in hard un-
yielding plates, though still influencing the general outline of the
fish. Be that as it may, can we doubt that in Drepanaspis we have
a form derived by specialization from a Coelolepid ancestor ?

This Drepanaspis throws likewise a much desired light on the
fragmentary Devonian remains known since Agassiz’s time as Psam-
mosteus. ‘These consist of large plates and fragments of plates,
composed of vaso-dentine, and sculptured externally by minute
closely-set stellate tubercles, exactly resembling the scales of some
species of Thelodus. These tubercles are also frequently arranged in
small polygonal areas, reminding us exactly of the small polygonal
plates of Drepanaspis, and, like them, often having a specially large
tubercle in the centre. That Psammosteus had an ancestry similar to
that of Drepanaspis can also hardly be doubted.

Finally, in the well-known Pteraspis of the Upper Silurian and
Lower Devonian formations we have a creature which also has the
head and anterior part of the body enveloped in a carapace, to which
a tail covered with rhombic scales is appended behind, and, though
the caudal fin has never been properly seen, such remains of it as
have occurred distinctly indicate that it was heterocercal in its
contour. The plates of the carapace have a striking resemblance
in general arrangement to those of Drepanaspis, though the small
polygonal pieces have disappeared, and there is a prominent pointed

Notices of Memoirs—Dr. R. H. Traquair’s Address. 467

rostrum in front of the mouth; and it is to be noted that the small
round apertures usually supposed to be orbits are in a position quite
analogous to that of the sensory pits in Drepanaspis. ‘The plates of
‘the carapace of Péeraspis are not, however, tuberculated, but orna-
mented by fine close parallel ridges, the microscopic structure of
which, along with their frequent lateral crenulation, leaves no doubt
‘in our minds that they have been formed by the running together in
lines of Thelodus-like shagreen grains. An aperture supposed to be
branchial is seen on the plate forming the posterior angle of the
carapace on each side.

Until these recent discoveries concerning the Cololepide and
Drepanaspide, Pteraspis and its allies, Cyathaspis, and Palgaspis
‘constituted the only family included in the order Heterostraci of
the sub-class Ostracodermi, distinguished, as shown by Lankester,
by the absence of bone lacuns in the microscopic structure of their
plates. It is now, however, clear that we can trace them back to an
ancestral family in which the external dermal armature was still in
the generalized form of separate shagreen grains or spinelets.

But the Ostracodermi are usually made to include two other
groups or orders, namely the Osteostraci and the Asterolepida.!

The Osteostraci are distinguished from the Heterostraci by the
possession of lacunz in their bone structure, and by having the
eyes in the middle of the head-shield instead of at the sides. Cepha-
laspis, which occurs from the Upper Silurian to the top of the
Devonian, is the best known representative of this division. Instead
of a carapace, we find a large head-shield of one piece, though its
structure shows evidence of its having been originally composed of
a mosaic of small polygonal plates, and it is also to be noted that
the surface is ornamented by small tubercles, there frequently being
one larger in size in the centre of each polygonal area. The
posterior external angles of the shield project backwards in a right
and left pointed process or cornu, scarcely developed in C. Murchisoni,
internal to which, and also organically connected with the head-
shield, is a rounded flap-like structure, which strongly reminds us
of the lateral flaps of the Cololepide. The body is covered with
scales, which on the sides are high and narrow; there is a small
dorsal fin, and the caudal, though heterocercal, is not bilobate. It
is scarcely necessary for me to add that we find just as little evidence
of jaws or of teeth as in the case of the Heterostraci.

The association of the Heterostraci and Osteostraci in one sub-
class of Ostracodermi has been strongly protested against by Professor
Lankester and Dr. O. M. Reis, but here the Scottish Silurian strata
come to the rescue with a form which I described last year under
the name of Ateleaspis tessellata, and of which some more perfect
examples than those at my disposal at that time have recently come
to light through the labours of Mr. Tait, of the Geological Survey of
Scotland.

1 To these I myself recently added a fourth, the Anaspida, for the remarkable

Upper Silurian family of Birkeniide, but as these throw no light as yet on the
problem of Descent they may at present be only mentioned.

468 Notices of Memoirs—Dr. R. H. Traquair’s Address.

Here we have a creature whose general form reminds us strongly
of Thelodus, but whose close affinity to Cephalaspis is absolutely
plain, were it only on account of the indications of orbits on the top-
of the head.

The expanded anterior part which here represents the head-shield
of Cephalaspis shows not the slightest trace of cornua, but forms
posteriorly a gently rounded lobe on each side, clearly suggesting
that the cornual flaps of Cephalaspis are homologous with and
derivable from the lateral expanses in the Coelolepides. This cephalic
covering is composed of numerous small polygonal plates like those
of which the head-shield in Cephalaspis no doubt originally con-
sisted, and the minute tubercles which cover their outer surfaces
also suggest that the superficial layer was formed by the fusion
of Coelolepid scales. The body is covered with rhombic scales,
sculptured externally with tubercles and wavy transverse ridges,
and arranged in lines having the same general direction as the scutes.
of Cephalaspis, from which we may infer that the latter originated
from the fusion of scales of similar form. The fins are as in
Cephalaspis, there being one small dorsal situated far back, and
a heterocercal caudal, which is triangular in shape, and not deeply
cleft into upper and lower lobes as in the Coololepidee. Finally, the
scales, on microscopic examination, show well-developed bone lacunse
in their internal structure.

That Ateleaspis belongs to the Osteostraci there is thus not the
smallest doubt, but its general resemblance to the Ccelolepide in its
contour anteriorly led me to regard it as an annectent form, and
consequently to believe that there is after all a genuine genetic con-
nection between the Heterostraci and the Osteostraci. And I have
not seen reason to depart from that opinion even though Ateleaspis
turns out to be still closer to Cephalaspis than was apparent in the
original specimens.

If this be so, then Cephalaspis, as well as Pieraspis and its allies,
is traceable to the Ccelolepide, shark-like creatures in which, as we
have already seen, the dermal covering consists of small shagreen-
like scales, or of minute hollow spines, and consequently all theories
as to the arthropod origin of the Ostracodermi, so far as they are
founded on the external configuration of the carapace in the more
specialized forms, must fall to the ground. And from the close
resemblance of these scales of Thelodus to Elasmobranch shagreen
bodies—for forty-five years they had been, by most authors, actually
referred to the Selachii—I concluded that the Coelolepide owed their
origin to some form of primitive Elasmobranchs. That is, however,
not in accordance with the view of the late Professor Cope, that the
Ostracodermi are more related to the Marsipobranchii, and that, from
the apparent absence of lower jaw, they should be placed along with
the last-named group in a class of Agnatha, altogether apart from
the fishes proper. And Dr. Smith Woodward, who is inclined to
favour Cope’s theory, has expressed his view that the similarity of
the Coelolepid scales to Elasmobranch shagreen is no proof of an
Elasmobranch derivation, but that such structures, representing the

Notices of Memoirs—Dr. R. H. Traquair’s Address. 469

simplest form of dermal hard parts, may have originated inde-
pendently in far distant groups... Knowing what we do of the
occurrence of strange parallelisms in evolution, it would not be
safe to deny such a possibility. But as to a Marsipobranch affinity,
I would point out that the apparent want of lower jaw among the
hard parts which nature has preserved for us is no proof of the
absence of a Meckelian cartilage among the soft parts which are
lost to us for ever; and also, as Professor Lankester has remarked,
that there is no evidence whatever that any of the creatures classed
together as Ostracodermi were monorhinal like the Lampreys. The
only fossil vertebrate having a single median opening, presumably
nasal, in the front of the head is Palgospondylus, but, whatever
be the true affinities of this little creature, at present the subject
of so much dispute, I think we may be very sure that it is not an
Ostracoderm.

The Devonian ‘ Antiarcha’ or Asterolepida, of which Pterichthys
is the best known genus, are also usually placed in the Ostracodermi,
with which they agree in the possession of a carapace of bony plates,
in the absence of distinct lower jaw or teeth, in the non-preservation
of internal skeleton, and in having a scaly tail furnished with a
heterocercal caudal fin, and, as in the Cephalaspidx, also with
a small dorsal. But they have in addition a pair of singular jointed
thoracic limbs, evidently organs of progression, which are totally
unlike anything in the Osteostraci or in the Heterostraci, or indeed
in any other group of fishes. These limbs are covered with bony
plates and hollow inside, but though I once fancifully compared
them in that respect with the limbs of insects, I must protest
strongly against this expression of mine being quoted in favour of
the arthropod theory of the derivation of the Vertebrata !

Nor do I think that there is any probability in the view published
‘by Simroth nine years ago,” namely, that Pterichthys may have been
a land animal which used its limbs for progression on dry ground,
and that the origin of the heterocercal tail was the bending up of
the extremity of the vertebral axis caused by its being dragged
behind the creature in the act of walking. ‘That view was pro-
mulgated before the discovery of the membranous expanse of the
caudal fin in this genus.

But though the Asterolepida are apparently related to and in-
lusible in the Ostracodermi, the geological record is silent as to
their immediate origin, no intermediate forms having been found
connecting them more closely with either the Heterostraci or the
Osteostraci. In the possession of bone lacunz and of a dorsal fin
they have a greater resemblance to the latter, but it may be looked
upon as certain that they could have had no direct origin from that
group.

As regards the Ostracodermi as a sub-class, they become extinct
at the end of the Devonian epoch, and cannot be credited with any

1 Grou. Mac., March, 1900.
* «« Die Entstehung der Landthiere’’; Leipzig, 1891.

470 Notices of Memoirs—Paleontology of Patagonia.

share in the evolution of the fishes of more recent periods, not evem
if we restore the Coccosteans or Arthrodira to their fellowship. To
the latter most enigmatical group, which I shall still continue to-
look upon as fishes, I shall make some reference further on.

(To be continued in our next Number.)

IV.—Nortzs on THE GroLocy AND PaLmonrToLoGy or PATAGONIA.
By Professor W. B. Scorr, Princeton University."

OR the past four years Princeton University has been conducting
explorations in Patagonia under the direction of Mr. J. B.
Hatcher. The large expenses of the undertaking have been defrayed
by the generosity of friends in New York and Baltimore, and Mr. J.
Pierpont Morgan has given the sum of £5,000 for the publication of
the important results which Mr. Hatcher has obtained.

The oldest sedimentary formation observed is a marine Cretaceous
found in the Cordillera; the Ammonites of this horizon have been
studied by Mr. Stanton, and he reports that they indicate Gault age
and show close relationship to the Uitenhage beds of South Africa.

The oldest marine Tertiaries are given in the section near the
Straits of Magellan, and my assistant, Dr. Ortmann, informs me
that the fossils point to a late Hocene or Oligocene age for these
beds, which he has called the Magellanian beds. These are overlain
by the great Patagonian formation, which is of wide extent, of
marine origin, and richly fossiliferous. The 200 species of marine
invertebrate fossils obtained from this horizon have been studied by
Dr. Ortmann, and lead to some very interesting conclusions. In
the first place they unequivocally demonstrate the Miocene age of
the beds (not Cretaceous and oldest Hocene as Ameghino has main-
tained), and in the second place they display the closest resemblance:
to the Miocene of Australia and New Zealand, pointing to a shore
connection with those countries in Miocene times. The Patagonian
and supra-Patagonian stages are shown not to be distinguishable.

The Santa Cruz beds, a fresh-water and terrestrial formation,
overlie and partially dovetail in with the Patagonian. They contain
an incredibly abundant and varied mammalian fauna, of which a vast.
collection was brought home. This fauna has only a very remote
connection with the Miocene mammals of the northern hemisphere,
and strongly confirms Riitimeyer’s contention of a southern centre
of distribution. The presence of numerous carnivorous marsupials
(there are no true Carnivora) is additional evidence of a connection,
direct or indirect, with Australia. Unconformably overlying the
Santa Cruz is another marine formation, discovered by Mr. Hatcher
and by him named the Cape Fairweather beds. The fossils indicate.
the Pliocene age of these beds.

Mr. Hatcher’s labours have thus resulted im proving that Pata-
gonian geology is in complete accord with the system established for
the northern hemisphere, and that it is not of such exceptional
character as has been supposed.

1 Read before the British Association, Section C (Geology), Bradford, Sept., 1900.

Notices of Memoirs—Prof. Groom—Hollybush Conglomerate. 471

V.—Tue PEesBLes oF ‘THE HoutyspusH CONGLOMERATE, AND THEIR
BEARING ON Lowerr AND CamBRIAN PatmoamuoarapPHy.'! By
Professor THrEoDoRE Groom, M.A., D.Sc.

(J\HE Malvern Hills are commonly supposed to have formed part
of an old coast during the deposition of the Lower Palaeozoic

beds. A preliminary examination of the materials of the Hollybush

Conglomerate by the author does not support this view.

The most abundant pebbles consist of quartz; these vary from
a coarse mosaic of crystals to a fine quartz-schist. Most of the
varieties are probably of metamorphic origin; some appear to be
merely vein-quartz, and some represent the quartzose portions of
granites and other rocks. Red granites and granophyres, often
crushed, are tolerably abundant; these often contain microcline.
Mica-schist and chlorite-schist occur rarely. Very abundant are
different varieties of felsite. These appear to be mostly micro- or
cryptocrystalline, and often micrographic, rhyolites, compact or
porphyritic ; sometimes banded, and occasionally spherulitic. Some
of the varieties may represent crushed intrusive felsites. Far rarer
than the rhyolites are microlithic andesites, or andesitic basalts.
Other pebbles, and the grains of the groundmass, consist of materials
derivable from the rocks mentioned above.

The resemblance of these materials to the rocks of the Malvern
range is sufficiently close to prove the Pre-Cambrian age of the
latter. But striking differences in microscopic structure and in the
proportionate numbers of corresponding rocks in the two series, and
the absence of any relation between the local nature of the con-
glomerate and that of the Archean mass nearest to it, can hardly be
explained except on the assumption that the range itself did not
furnish the materials.

The stratigraphical relations of the conglomerate and Archean
mass, moreover, appear to indicate that the Malvern Hills —the
southern portion at least—in Cambrian times formed part of an
area of deposition, and not of denudation.

The author maintains, then, that the Malvern Hills did not form
a coastline in Cambrian times, a conclusion which is in agreement
with his former contention that they arose at a much later date.

VI.—SuaeEstions IN REGARD To THE Registration oF TyPE
Fosstus.'_ By the Rev. J. F. Buaxs, M.A., F.G.S.

HEREAS :
1. There is now in existence, and has been for some time,
a Committee of the British Association ‘to consider the best
methods for the registration of all type-specimens of fossils in the
British Isles.”
2. There is as yet in course of production no general register of
such specimens.
3. The original types are in many, perhaps the majority of, cases
either lost, inaccessible, or inadequately preserved or described.

1 Read before the British Association, Section C (Geology), Bradford, Sept., 1900.

472 Notices of Memoirs—Rev. J. F. Blake—Type Fossils.

4, Many names in common use have a foreign origin, which have
not been adopted after actual comparison with the original foreign
types.
ae. Paleontological nomenclature consequently still remains
burdened with names of uncertain value.

It is therefore advisable that :

1. The above-named Committee recognize and register a new class
of ‘types,’ which may be either original or adopted, but which satisfy
certain conditions laid down to ensure their having a definite value.

2. A register be published annually of such types, so that an
author in using a name may have the option of quoting this
register, instead of the original author’s name.

3. This register should give references (1) to the author or
authors, and their publications thereupon, who have first satisfied
the required conditions; (2) to the museum where the type is
deposited.

4. The limitation of types, registered by the British Association,
should have reference to the type-specimens, whatever their origin,
which are deposited in museums within the United Kingdom
(possibly to be enlarged at a future date to the British Empire).

5. The Committee should, from time to time, determine the
conditions required for registration, but should be in no way
responsible for the validity of the ‘species’ to which the type
may be said to belong, nor for the name under which it is registered,
which registration should apply to the ‘specific’ name only, and not
be affected by its reference later to another genus; the only care
of the Committee, beyond seeing that the required conditions are
satisfied, being to secure that identical diagnoses are not registered
under different names, and that the same name is not used at
different times for different diagnoses.

The suggested conditions for registration are as follows :—

1. A single specimen must be selected as the type, but two or
more co-types may be admitted, which are identical in all other
respects save in the preservation of different necessary characters.

2. The exact horizon and locality of the specimen thus selected
must be known.

3. All the commonly called ‘specific’ characters required, in the
class to which it belongs, must be known by the type or by the co-
types together, and also described, and also the generic ones when
the genus is not obvious. [N.B.—The determination whether this
condition is carried out in any particular case will rest with the
member of the Committee charged with the class. ]

4. All characters capable of numerical statement, including size,
proportion of parts or lines, angle, etc., must be so given. [N.B.—
Adequate figures may suffice for this. ]

5. The type-specimen must be permanently placed in a public
museum in the United Kingdom.

N.B.—It is not necessary that the type-specimen in the above
sense should be the first anywhere described under the registered
name, but only the first that satisfies the above conditions.

Notices of Memoirs—Malvern Rocks—Beach Formation. 473

It is suggested that registered types should be quoted as B 1,
B 138—e.g. Terebratula biplicata, B 1, or Phacops caudatus, B 13—B
standing for British, and the number for that of the year of the
century. Specimens differing notably from the type, but included
in the same species, might be quoted as (B 1).

VII.—On tue Ianeous Rocks assocIaATED WITH THE CAMBRIAN
Brps or Matvern.'’ By Professor Tueoporr Groom, M.A., D.Sc.
HE igneous rocks of the Cambrian beds of the Southern Malverns
have commonly been regarded as of volcanic origin. The author,
after a careful examination of the rocks under the microscope, and
of the ground, concludes that the scoria and tuffs previously
described are non-existent, and that the whole of the igneous rocks
are probably intrusive. They consist of sills and small laccolites
of basic and ultra-basic olivine diabase and olivine basalt, in which
olivine is often extremely abundant, and of bosses and dykes of
peculiar amphibole bearing andesites and andesitic basalts. Intrusion
probably took place in Ordovician times.

VIII.—Beacn Formation 1n THE THIRLMERE Reservorr. By R. D.
OxrpHaM, F.G.8., Geological Survey of India."
EADERS of Mr. Marr’s book on the “Scientific Study of Scenery”
will recall the comparison made by the author between the
irregular and angular outline of the Thirlmere Lake Reservoir,
due to the submergence of a land surface shaped by subaérial
denudation, and the more gracefully curved outline of the natural
Jakes, where wind, waves, and streams have combined to round off
the angularities by wearing away the prominences and filling up the
re-entering angles. This reproach seems to the author to be some-
what exaggerated, as the shore-lines of the Cumberland Lakes have
only been partially remodelled by wave action and delta formation,
and the original outlines due to simple submergence are still to be
seen. However this may be, the reproach, such as it is, is in
process of removal. All along the shore of the Thirlmere Lake
incipient beach erosion is to be seen, and towards the northern end
of the lake, where the shores close in and are exposed to the force of
the waves driven along the length of the lake by the prevailing
southerly winds, typical beaches and beach-curves are being
developed. [Lantern-slides showing the as yet incompleted transition
from the irregular outlines produced by submergence to the regular
curves of beach-formation were exhibited, and attention drawn to
this interesting opportunity of witnessing the gradual formation and
growth of a beach. |

JX.—Report or THE CoMMITTEE APPOINTED TO COMPILE AN INDEX
Animatium: Dr. Henry Woopwarp (Chairman), Mr. W. E.
Hoye, Mr. R. MacLaontnan, Dr. P. L. Sctatsr, Rev. T. R. BR.
SressineG, and Mr. F. A. Barner (Secretary)."

{J\HE Committee has the honour to report that this work has made

very satisfactory progress in the hands of Mr. C. Davies

Sherborn, and that the literature down to the year 1800 has now

1 Read before the British Association, Section C (Geology), Bradford, Sept., 1900.

474 Reviews—Summary of Progress—- si

been sought out and indexed. The manuscript of this portion: will
be ready for the printer in a few weeks, and the Committee is:
considering the best form of publication and estimating the cost.
Meanwhile the indexing of literature after 1800 is being continued.
At this stage the Committee would be glad to receive suggestions or
offers of help for the publication of this great work, since the sums
hitherto so generously awarded to it are only sufficient for the
necessary current expenses, which continue as before. The Com-
mittee therefore earnestly requests its reappointment with a grant
of £100.

The following report on dates of publication has been issued by
Mr. Sherborn during the year: Lacepéde’s “‘Tableaux des Mammi-
féres et des Oiseaux,” Natural Science, December, 1899. The
Committee desires to thank M. Gadeau de Kerville, Dr. Rudolph
Burckhardt, of Basel, Mr. F. Justen (Dulau & Co.), and the
Smithsonian Institution of Washington for assistance concerning
rare books wanted by the compiler.

X.—Woopwarp’s Tasie oF Brirish STRATIGRAPHIOAL GEOLOGY
AND PALHONTOLOGY ; SHOWING THE Hiconomio Propucts OF EACH
Formation.!

R. HENRY WOODWARD exhibited on behalf of Mr. Horace
Woodward and himself a coloured Table of British Strata,
showing the major and minor subdivisions of the strata, with their
thicknesses, the characteristic fossils met with in each, also their
economic products, and the places throughout the British Isles where
the several formations are exposed at the surface and can be studied.
The Table will be published by Messrs. Dulau & Co., 37, Soho
Square, W.

153 02h) Wh DE I WW Se

SumMMARY oF Progress oF THE GEOLOGIOAL SURVEY OF THE
Unitep Kinepom ror 1899. pp. 214. (London: printed for
H.M. Stationery Office, 1900. Price 1s.)

HIS, the third issue of the “Summary of Progress,” has the
merit of being a trifle shorter than the previous number; and
contains, as an Appendix, a very useful “Catalogue of Types and
Figured Specimens from the Hocene and Oligocene Series preserved
in the Museum of Practical Geology,” compiled by Mr. H. A. Allen.
We hope that further instalments of this Catalogue will be published
at as early a period as possible.

With regard to the “Summary” of the field-work, we venture to:
rejoice if it is a few pages shorter, because there is a tendency to
print an excessive amount of detail, and thereby to obscure the
character of the work done. Those interested in the progress of
science want to know clearly and readily the advances which have
been made, not simply the observations made, by officers of the

1 Exhibited and explained before the British Association in Section © (Geology),.
at\the Bradford Meeting, September, 1900.

Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. 475.

Geological Survey, and it should be more distinctly shown how far
the observations recorded are new, or simply confirmatory of what
others have made known. No doubt, to a large extent, it is the
very detail itself which is new, but this for the most part is
interesting only to the geologist who knows the ground or is
working at it, and the greater part might perhaps profitably be kept
for the memoirs illustrating the maps.

The field-work has ranged over most of the formations, with the
exception of Cambrian and Permian. The pre-Cambrian rocks of
the counties of Ross and Inverness have received a good deal of
attention: they include certain displaced masses of Lewisian gneiss
and the schists known as the “ Moine series.” The “ Dalradian or
younger schists of the Scottish Highlands” receive separate treat-
ment, and it is remarked that we may conveniently retain the
provisional name “ Dalradian ” for the younger schists of the region
east of the line of the Great Glen. If it shall be shown, as seems
probable, that the Moine-schists of the north-west pass into and
form part of the Dalradian series of the Central Highlands, a step
will be gained towards the solution of the problem as to the age
and origin of the schists of both regions. We know that the
Moine-schists of the north-west have been pushed into their present
positions, and probably have acquired their present crystalline
characters, since Cambrian time. The Survey has detected bands
of what appear to be Arenig rocks wedged in among’ the schists
and grits along the southern border of the Highlands. It thus
seems possible that the plication and metamorphism of the High-
land schists were not concluded until Lower Silurian time, and that
these schists may have originally consisted partly of older Paleozoic
as, well as pre-Cambrian sediments.

In the island of Arran evidence which tends to support the
above suggestions has been obtained. A strip of rocks that can
be separated from the ordinary schists of the island has been found
to be well developed in the valley known as North Glen Sannox.
It crosses the glen from south to north at a distance of rather more
than a mile from the sea. It is upwards of a mile and a half long,
and from 100 to 400 yards broad, having its narrower width at
the northern end. The rocks in this strip of ground, so far as can
be seen, are not separated by any structural line from the ordinary
schistose grits of the Highland series, which they follow with no
apparent break. Nor do they differ in degree of metamorphism
from the contiguous Highland schists. A closer examination, how-
ever, reveals some characteristic features which have not been met
with among the schists, but which precisely resemble those already
detected in the supposed Arenig rocks of the Highland border.
They consist of black shales or schists and cherts, with some
intercalations of igneous rock, which probably include both volcanic
and intrusive bands.

In the section on Silurian rocks we have some interesting
references to the igneous rocks, and to the establishment of the
eruptive nature of what were believed to be tufis and agglomerates

476 Correspondence—R. I. Deeley, F.G.S.

in the south-east of Ireland. Vigorous efforts have been made to
determine the relative ages of the great groups of grits and slates
in Devonshire and Cornwall. Important details are given of the
work done in the Coalfields of North Staffordshire and South Wales.
The discovery of Rheetic fossils in the island of Arran is of great
interest, although it appears that the specimens were not found
actually in sit, but enclosed in a coarse conglomerate that fills
a volcanic vent, probably of Tertiary age. Other fossils, of Rhetic
aspect, have been found in Skye, and some interesting records are
given of the strata in South Wales, where evidence has been
noticed of the local recurrence in Rhetic beds of the sedimentary
conditions which attended the deposition of the Keuper Marls.

Brief references are given to work in Jurassic and Cretaceous
areas, and a list of fossils from the Sandgate beds near Midhurst is
worthy of mention.

The further work on the Tertiary igneous rocks of Skye leads to
the belief that the great gabbro laccolite has a maximum thickness
of about 3,000 feet or more. The survey of the Cuillin Hills has
been nearly completed. The detailed study of the western part of
the range shows the great complexity of its structure, and the very
considerable part played by portions of the basaltic lavas entangled
in the gabbro and highly metamorphosed. The gabbro itself consists
of numerous distinct intrusions in the form of wedges, sheets, and
tongues.

Many interesting facts relating to the Glacial Drifts and newer
deposits have been gathered. Especially noteworthy is the con-
clusion that the raised beach of the Gower promontory in South
Wales, between Bacon Hole and Mumbles Head, is pre-Glacial or
Interglacial. The bone-beds which rest upon the raised beach in
the caves are continuous with a layer of ‘head’ which overlies the
beach. Glacial Drift lies upon these deposits.

Records of the petrographical and paleontological work and lists
of publications are given at the end of this “Summary of Progress,”
which displays throughout the evidence of much painstaking and
enthusiastic labour.

eee

CORRESPONDENCE.

FINE SECTION OF BOULDER-CLAY AT CRICH.

Sir,— Geologists interested in the glacial deposits of the Midland
Counties will no doubt be glad to hear that a very fine section of
Boulder-clay, which rests upon a striated floor of Mountain Limestone,
is now to be seen in Derbyshire near the village of Crich (Matlock
Baths). The presence near this place of a great mass of Boulder-clay
containing erratics foreign to the county has been known for a number
of years. Recently the quarry cutting into this clay has been re-
worked, a steam navvy having been set to work to clear the clay off
the limestone. Mr. Arnold-Bemrose and I visited the quarry on
November 25, 1899, and found that an excellent section of ‘till’

Obituary—Dr. H. B. Geinits. 477

resting upon limestone was exposed. The ‘till’ reached a thick-
ness of at least 40 feet in places, and rested upon a striated floor of
limestone rock. The Boulder-clay is a tough reddish or bluish
deposit, with streaks or patches of sand, sandy gravel, or sandy clay.
The whole deposit is thickly studded with boulders, both large and
small, most of which are finely polished, striated, and grooved.
Limestone, gritstone, sandstone, and quartzite are the most common
rocks, but toadstone and various greenstones and granites are by
no means rare. On the last occasion on which we visited the
quarry we found that the clay had been cleared off the limestone
over a large area, exposing a floor finely striated, polished, and
grooved over its whole extent. The striations run N. 20° W.,
indicating an ice-flow coinciding roughly in direction with the
neighbouring Derwent Valley. Mr. Arnold-Bemrose and I have
been at work for some years examining the numerous Boulder-clay
deposits and erratics this ice-flow has left behind it at points higher
up the valley than Crich, and we hope to be in a position to deal
somewhat fully with the glaciation of North Derbyshire in the near
future. The deposits formed by the ice which crossed the watershed
into the Wye Valley near Buxton have already been traced over
large areas south of the Trent. In these deposits the boulders are
“such as would be brought down by glaciers descending the
valleys of the Wye, Derwent, and other northerly and westerly
tributaries of the Trent, debouching into and crossing the valley
of the latter river.” } R. M. Des.ey.

38, CHARNWooD STREET,
Dersy.

OFS Or Acke y=

PROFESSOR HANS BRUNO GEINITZ.
Born Ocroser 16, 1814. Diep January 28, 1900.

H. B. Gernirz was born at Altenburg on October 16, 1814, and
studied at the Universities of Berlin and Jena, taking the degree of
Ph.D. in 1837, with a thesis on the Muschelkalk of Thuringia. He
went to Dresden in 1888 to take part in the work of the Royal
Technical High School, in which he became Professor of Mineralogy
and Geognosy in 1850, maintaining his connection with that
establishment until 1894. In 1857 he was made Director of the
Royal Mineralogical and Geological Museum, which post he also
held until 1894. His work related chiefly to Saxony, and to it
we are specially indebted in regard to the palwontological relations
of that kingdom, but it also extended over other parts of Europe.
Amongst his more notable works are those on the Fossils of the
Coal-measures of Saxony, on the Cretaceous Formations of Saxony,
comparing them with those of England, on the Animal Remains
of the Dyas, and on the Elbthalgebirge of Saxony, and these are
the more valuable from being well illustrated. He was one of the
editors of the “‘ Neues Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie und Geologie” from

1 Q.J.G.8., 1886, p. 440.

478 Obituary—Dr. A. Miine- Edwards.

1868 to 1879. Professor Hans Bruno Geinitz was elected a Foreign
Member of the Geological Society of London in 1857, and was
Murchison Medallist in 1878.

ALPHONSE MILNE-EDWARDS.
Born OctToBER 13, 1830. Diep Aprit 21, 1900.

By the unexpected death of Milne-Edwards a gap has been
created in the foremost ranks of noted paleeontologists and zoologists
that it will be hard to fill; indeed, so long has his familiar name been
a household word with us that it is still impossible to realize our loss.

Sprung from English stock, being the grandson of Bryan Edwards,
M.P., a West Indian planter who settled at Bruges, Alphonse Milne-
‘Edwards, son of the celebrated Henri Milne Edwards (1800-1885),
was born in Paris, 18th October, 1835, and in his career followed
closely in his father’s footsteps.

He took his degree of Doctor of Medicine in 1860 and of Science
in 1861; became an Assistant Naturalist at the Muséum d’Histoire
Naturelle in 1862; Assistant Professor at the Hcole supérieure de
Pharmacie in 1864, and Professor there in 1865; Assistant Professor
of the Zoological Laboratory of the Ecole des Hautes Etudes in
1869, and Director in 1880; he was also appointed Professor of
Zoology at the Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle in 1876, and finally
its Director in 1892. He was elected a member of the Academy
of Science, Section Anatomy and Zoology, in 1879, and of the
Academy of Medicine in 1885. He was elected a foreign member
of the Zoological Society of London in 1876, and in 1882 a Foreign
Correspondent of the Geological Society.

His earliest papers were physiological, but he next turned to
the study of Crustacea, both recent and fossil, while in 1863 he
published his first paper on fossil birds, entitled ‘“‘Mémoir sur la
distribution géologique des Oiseaux fossiles.” Three years later
the first part of his monumental work, ‘“ Recherches anatomiques
et paléontologiques pour servir a histoire des Oiseaux fossiles
de la France,” was issued, a work which when completed in 1871
extended to two volumes of text and two of plates. In it he
showed the possibility of forming a classification of birds by means
of their “long bones.” Concurrently there appeared (1866-73)
his “Recherches sur la Faune ornithologique éteinte des Iles
Mascareignes et de Madagascar.”

While these are the more important of his paleontological works
they by no means represent a tithe of his scientific writings. He
was associated with his father in bringing out the ‘“‘ Recherches pour
servir & V’histoire naturelle des Mammiféres”’ (1868-74), and with
Grandidier in the volumes (1878-81) on Birds in the latter’s
“ Histoire physique, naturelle, et politique de Madagascar.” He was
also keenly interested in the question of the distribution of animal
life at great depths in the ocean, and it was at his instance and
under his superintendence that the submarine surveying vessels the
“Travailleur” and “Talisman” were sent out by the French
Government ; his work receiving acknowledgement in 1884 in

Obituary—James Thomson, F.G.S8. 479

the award of the gold medal of the Société Géographique de France,
‘Of minor papers on zoological and paleontological subjects contributed
to various scientific journals and the proceedings of different learned
societies, he must be credited with upwards of one hundred and
fifty, dealing with nearly every group of the animal kingdom.

This busy and useful life was brought to a close after a short
illness on 21st April, 1900. Alphonse Milne-Edwards will be as
sincerely mourned by us as by his own countrymen, for the man
of science belongs to the world.

JAMES THOMSON, F.G.S.
Born DecumsBer 18, 1823. Diep May 14, 1900.

Ir is well known that the natural taste or instinct of observing
and trying to explain the manifold phenomena of Nature, animate
and inanimate, is strongly developed in many individuals; and
that, in spite of great and various difficulties, it has produced good
results to the scientist in particular and to society in general.

The late Mr. James Thomson, of Glasgow, was a notable example
of the energy and persistence in the line of research that he chose to
follow, in the long uphill struggle of hard work against penury and
family misfortune. Snatching a few hours from early morning
sleep, he got a little schooling; and this was all the basis he had for
a scanty education. His strong self-reliance helped him much in
after-life, but became inseparable from his self-opinionatedess, when
advised by the Editors of the Scientific Journals in which the
results of his workings on the structure of corals were published.
Not fully appreciating grammatical accuracy, and sadly wanting
in a knowledge of Latin, which language naturalists use for genera
and species, his mistaken obstinacy led to disagreements and
disappointments between him and his willing literary helpers in
Glasgow and London. For some years he had taken up the study
of the fossil corals abounding in the Carboniferous Limestone of
Western Scotland ; indeed, in his native town he had noticed, when
a boy, these fossils in the ‘ Bed of Kilmarnock Water.” Ultimately,
a goodly set of memoirs were produced (upwards of twenty before
1883, and others since), enriched with illustrations of the peculiar
structures of the several kinds of corals described therein. Of these
illustrations, very many were delicate outlines produced by a process
kept secret by Mr. Thomson, who (like Dr. J. A. R. Hunter-Selkirk,
of Braidwood), having a small water-power at hand, applied it to
cutting and slicing of thousands of Carboniferous fossils. To the
polished surfaces of the corals, Mr. Thomson probably applied such
a solvent as removed the matrix, but left the organic tissue of walls
and septa sufficiently prominent to serve for impressions and
printings, and for transference to copper-plates and lithographs.
His last two papers on the Scotch Carboniferous Corals in the
Transactions of the Geological Society of Glasgow (vol. xi, pt. 1,
1897) are especially illustrated by this process.

Mr. Thomson had a good general knowledge of geology, and his
natural acumen in that research was shown in his account of the

480 Obituary—James Thomson, F.G.S.

Campbeltown district in Cantire in 1867; in his “Geology of Islay,”
published in 1877; and in his paper on the Geology of Arran, read
in 1875. The last-named, which had to withstand much criticism,
was ultimately printed in 1897 (Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow, vol. x1).
His geological knowledge was acquired by assiduous application, and
supported by a clear-sighted persistence in his own views, as shown
by his paper on Arran. His characteristic intenseness and earnest-
ness of purpose are traceable from an early date.

Born at Kilmarnock, the twelfth child of poor parents, his life
of hard work began early. Before he was seven years old he insisted
on seeking work in order to help his parents. At last, with some
knowledge of carpet-weaving, he got employment in Glasgow.
Here, as a youth, his intense earnestness to learn something of
geology is stated to have made him listen at a keyhole to a lecture
on Coal in very cold weather. In his progress in life he became
a commercial traveller; and in this business he continued until over
seventy years of age.

Any leisure time that occurred he always devoted to his studies ;
gathering personal knowledge of natural history and geological
facts during his long wanderings over the British Islands, and in
some parts of the Continent; collecting fossils and getting them
named by experts in museums, and wherever possible. In 1884 he
went to Canada with the British Association ; and in North America
widened his experiences in the mineral and metalliferous districts of
Idaho. (Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow, 1884.)

Mr. Thomson had long known the value of well - arranged
collections and of really classified natural- history objects to
students; and he had made up his mind that, when he should
have got sufficient means to guarantee a small competence, he would
hand over his museum to his native town.

He knew the personal pleasure of adding treasure to treasure
to a growing collection, if really valued in view of the ultimate
recognition and explanation of the endless phenomena in nature,
and thus often pointing to facts and notions of either material or
philosophical value to his fellow-man. With this view, Mr. Thomson
liberally gave his great collection to Kilmarnock ; and Mr. James
Dick has munificently provided for its proper housing in the Library
and Museum Buildings at Elmbank.

Mr. James Thomson was an old member of the Glasgow
Geological Society, and was an honorary fellow of societies at Jena
and Liége. In 1868 he was elected a fellow of the Geological
Society of London. On February 9, 1899, he was presented with
the Freedom of the Burgh of Kilmarnock; but not being well
in health, he was represented by his son, Dr. Gemmell Thomson,
of Ayr.

Thus, another of the fine old stalwart, self-educated, and strong-
willed North-men has passed away; rough and hard in some aspects,
but good-hearted, and ambitious to be in the front with those that
know and help others to know. James Thomson’s death leaves
a gap among scientists to be filled up by some earnest student in the
present generation. T.R. J.

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n> r=, |"

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ae Ape.

Ss =

ee

=. =F

—

GEOL. MAG., 1900. Dec. IV, Vol. VII, Pl. XVIII.

ration of S¢ylonurus Lacoanus (Claypole).

Length nearly five feet. Original from the Upper Devonian (Catskill Group),
Pennsylvania, United States.

THE

GHOLOGICAL MAGAZINE.

NEW SERIES. DECADE IV. VOL. VII.
No. XI—NOVEMBER, 1900.

OnRLG EIN AT Ak TiCnimsS.

ou ae
J.—ReEstoratTion oF SryLtovurus Lacoanus, A Gtiant ARTHROPOD
FROM THE Upper Devontan oF THE Unrrep Starss.!
By Professor Cuartzs E. Brecuer, Ph.D., of Yale University, New Haven, U.S.A.
(PLATE XVIII.)

N the animal kingdom the attribute of bigness has come to be
regarded as one of the prerogatives of the vertebrates. On this
account, invertebrates seldom receive credit for having a size of
more than a fraction of a cubit, and are looked upon as objects to be
held in the hand or viewed under a lens. Asa matter of common
experience, and probably also of congratulation, large invertebrates
are rare, and some whole classes cannot furnish a single individual
measuring more than a few inches in greatest diameter.

In a list of arthropod giants the subject of the present note must
be included, and will take equal rank with the Giant Spider-Crab
of Japan (Macrocheira Kaempferi) and the great ‘Seraphim’ of the
Scotch quarrymen (Pterygotus anglicus). The former can safely
claim to be the largest representative of the Brachyurans that has
ever existed, and to the latter may be accorded the same distinction
among the Merostomes.

The living species of the Merostomata comprise only the American
and Molucecan Horse-shoe Crabs, Limulus polyphemus and L. moluc-
canus. The latter sometimes attains a length of three feet and
measures eighteen inches across the carapace. To find other species
in this order worthy of comparison with the huge Brachyuran of
Japan it is necessary to go back to the Palaeozoic forms, and among
these the larger species of Pterygotus and the Stylonurus here noticed
fill all the requirements. It should be borne in mind, however, that
these statements are based upon comparative lengths and breadths,
If bulk alone were considered, the common lobster (Homarus
americanus and H. vulgaris) should be mentioned, though in length
and extent of limbs it would be considerably smaller.

Concerning the size of the Scotch ‘Seraphim,’ Dr. H. Woodward ”
states that “From our present knowledge of the almost perfect

! Reprinted from the American Journal of Science, vol. x, August, 1900,

pp. 145-150. ;
* H. Woodward, ‘‘ A Monograph of the British Fossil Crustacean belonging to

the Order Merostomata,’’ pt. i, 1866; pt. iv, 1872, pp. 1-264, pls. i-xxxvi:
Palontographical Society, vol. xix.
DECADE IV.—VOL. VII.—NO. XI. 31

482 Professor OC. E. Beecher—On Stylonurus Lacoanus.

remains of Pterygotus anglicus, and on the evidence of the numerous
detached portions of this extinct genus, we are justified in concluding
that it attained a length of six feet and a breadth of nearly two feet
at the widest part of its body.” This huge Merostome has been
found in the Lower Old Red Sandstone of Scotland, at a horizon
nearly equivalent to the one furnishing the remains of Stylonurus in
America. Thus what seem to be the two largest species of this class
were contemporaries, though not associates.

Historical.

The first specimen found in America that can be referred to the
genus Stylonurus was collected by the writer about 1870, and loaned
to Professor James Hall. It remained in his hands unnoticed until
1884, when he described it as Eurypterus Beecheri.' The specimen
preserves the abdomen and portions of two of the large posterior
limbs. No species of Hurypterus known possessed such greatly
elongated limb joints, and there seems to be no good reason for not
referring it to Stylonurus, in which there is a normal character. The
specimen of Stylonurus Beechert is uncompressed, and apparently
retains the proportions of form and convexity as in life. On this
account it was of considerable importance in the restoration of the
larger species.

In 1882 Hall was furnished with a plaster cast of the carapace of
a large arthropod by Dr. Cook, then State Geologist of New Jersey.
The original specimen was from the Catskill group at Andes,
Delaware County, New York, and had been sent to the museum
at Rutgers College, New Brunswick, New Jersey. Professor D. S.
Martin? made the first reference to this species in some remarks
on ‘A New Eurypterid from the Catskill Group,” before the New
York Academy of Sciences, October 16, 1882, an abstract of this
note appearing in the transactions of the same society some time
after June, 1885. In this abstract the species is neither described
nor figured, and Hall is not mentioned in any connection. Martin
states that he saw the specimen (= cast sent to Hall) in the State
Museum at Albany, and it bore the name Stylomurus eacelsior
{evidently a misprint for Stylonurus).

The next reference to this form in point of time and the first
publication of a generic and specific name, accompanied with
a description and accurate illustration, was given by E. W. Claypole,$
in a paper read before the American Philosophical Society, Sept. 21,
1883, under the title “‘ Note on a large Crustacean from the Catskill
Group of Pennsylvania.” It is stated on the signature containing
this paper that it was printed Nov. 2, 1883. Claypole’s description

1 J. Hall, ‘‘Note on the Eurypteride of the Devonian and Carboniferous
Formations of Pennsylvania’’: Second Geol. Surv. Penn., PPP, 1884.

* D. S. Martin, ‘“‘A New Eurypterid from the Catskill Group’’: Trans. N.Y.
Acad. Sci., vol. xi (1882-1883).

* E. W. Claypole, ‘ Note on a large Crustacean from the Catskill Group of
Pennsylvania”’ : Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., vol. xxi, April, 1883, to January, 1884.

Professor C, E. Beecher—On Stylonurus Lacoanus. 483

was based upon a second specimen found in Wyoming County,
Pennsylvania, which preserves about three-fourths of the cephalo-
thorax, and belonged to the collection of R. D. Lacoe, of Pittston.
This was given the name Dolichocephala Lacoana, and rightly
classified with the Merostomata. It therefore appears that, up to
this time, the name Stylonurus excelsior was simply nomen nudum,
and as such cannot be recognized as valid.

In 1884 Hall' published his description and figure of the New
York specimen in the thirty-sixth Annual Report of the New York
State Museum, in a paper entitled “Description of a New Species
of Stylonurus from the Catskill Group.”? It is here that the New
York specimen was first figured and a description given, and the
date of publication of this paper is the one to be considered in
deciding the claims of Stylonurus excelsior as Hall’s species.

At the Philadelphia meeting of the American Association for
the Advancement of Science, September, 1884 (Proc. A. A. A. S.,
vol. xxxili, published 1885), Hall® presented a note on Stylonurus
excelsior, merely referring to its occurrence, and citing Martin’s
abstract with page and month of publication. This citation is
repeated by Hall in each of his notices of this species, for only by
thus establishing the species could he have any claim to priority.
As already mentioned, Martin’s paper does not attempt any descrip-
tion of this form, and Hall] is not mentioned. Hall further says: “The
carapace is described and figured in the 36th Report of the N.Y.
State Museum of Natural History,” without reference to plate, page,
or year, and it is therefore quite possible that this description was
not published until after the meeting of the Association. In any
case, it appeared some months later than Claypole’s paper, and the
name Dolichocephala Lacoana has priority over Stylonurus excelsior,
and must be recognized.

Claypole failed to point out the affinities of this form with
Stylonurus, and proposed a new generic term for his species.
Although there are differences that may prove of generic value
when more complete specimens of the American species have been
studied, yet at the present time there seem to be no strong reasons
why the specimen in question should not be considered as belonging
to Stylonurus, and it is upon this ground that the present restoration
is attempted.

Material available for a Restoration.

Restorations of extinct organisms are largely exhibits of mental
architecture, based upon the personal interpretation of a certain

1 J. Hall, ‘‘ Description of a New Species of Stylonwrus from the Catskill
‘Group”’: Thirty-sixth Ann. Rep. N.Y. State Mus. Nat. Hist., 1884.

2 J. Hall & J. M. Clarke, ‘‘ Trilobites and other Crustacea of the Oriskany,
Upper Helderberg, Hamilton, Portage, Chemung, and Catskill Groups’’: Geol.
Surv. of the State of New York, Paleontology, vol. vii (1888).

3 J. Hall, ‘‘ Note on the Eurypteride of the Devonian and Carboniferous
Formations of Pennsylvania, with a supplementary note on Stylonwrus eacelsior’? :
Proc. Am. Assoc. Ady. Sci., vol. xxxiii (1885), Philadelphia Meeting (held
September, 1884).

484 Professor C. E. Beecher—On Stylonurus Lacoanus.

number of real things. Some statement. therefore, should be given
of the character and amount of the material that has been collated to
furnish a restoration of Stylonurus Lacoanus.

(1) The specimen of the cephalothorax described by Hall shows
the complete outline and upper surface of this part, and a cast from
the original was taken to represent this portion in the restoration.
(2) The type of S. Zacoanus, Claypole, includes a large part of the
cephalothorax of an individual nearly the same in size as the
preceding. (3) Dr. J. M. Clarke discovered that this specimen also
preserved considerable evidence as to the nature of the appendages,
and he succeeded in developing what appear to be the chelate
antenne, the first pair of gnathopods, and the mandibular bases of
at least three others. (4) The length and number of joints in the
limbs are taken from the English species S. Zogani and S. Powriei,
of which quite complete, though smaller, individuals have been
described by Woodward.' (5) The outline and proportions of the
abdomen follow closely those of the English forms and of S. Beecheri.
the latter giving the natural convexity. (6) A portion of a large
abdominal segment found by the writer in the Chemung group at
Warren, Pennsylvania, and apparently belonging to a nearly related
species, has an ornamentation closely approaching that on the
cephalothorax of the type, and was used to elaborate the sculpture
over the abdomen of the restoration. (7) The form and character
of the telson spine correspond to S. Zogani and also to some large
fragments found by F. A. Randall at Warren and Ackley, Penn-
sylvania, in the Chemung group, and probably belonging with the
abdominal somite already mentioned.

With the data furnished by the foregoing material, the restoration
was undertaken. The first model in relief was constructed in clay,
and from it a plaster mould was taken. A number of casts have been
made since, and a photograph of one of them is represented in the
accompanying plate (Plate XVIII).

In this connection, it may be suggested that the type-specimen of
Stylonurus (?) (Eechinocaris ?) Wrightianus (Dawson, sp.) represents
two proximal joints of one of the large crawling feet of a form
related to Stylonurus, and not two somites of the abdomen as
indicated by Hall.? Any reference is at present somewhat uncertain,
owing to lack of positive knowledge, and the fact that the specimen
in question was first described as a plant (Hquisetides*), then referred
to the Phyllocarida (Zehinocaris*), and lastly appeared as a possible
Merostome, shows how this form may be interpreted by different
observers. No one can doubt its arthropod nature, on account of

' Loc. cit.

* J. Hall: Note to explanation of plate xv of paper on Geology of Yates
County, N.Y., by B. H. Wright: Thirty-fifth Ann. Rep. N.Y. State Mus. Nat.
Hist., published 1884.

| J. W. Dawson, ‘Notes on New Erian (Devonian) Plants’?: Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc. London, vol. xxxvii (1881).

4 T. R. Jones & H. Woodward, ‘Notes on Phyllopodiform Crustaceans, referable
to the Genus Echinocavis, from the Paleozoic Rocks?’ : Grou. Mae., n.s., Dec. III,
Vol. I, September, 1884.

ee -—— = ——

Professor C. E. Beecher—On Stylonurus Lacoanus. 485

the characteristic surface markings. Its elliptical or ovoid section
without any flattening of the epimera, the very considerable over-
lapping of the joints, and the configuration of the suture, are more
strongly indicative of the nature and requirements of a limb than of
abdominal segments.

The Relief Model.

In this restoration the animal is represented as lying on a slab,
with the entire dorsal surface exposed. The cephalothorax has an
axial length of 25 cm. and a width of 22 cm.

The chelate antennz were doubtless carried in a folded position,
as in most related genera, and seldom were visible from the dorsal
side. They are, therefore, not shown. The three pairs of short
gnathopods, serving partly as swimming organs, are seen extending
outward from the antero-lateral margins of the cephalothorax.
Several of their distal joints are each provided with a pair of flat,
ridged, spinous processes, and a similar spine at the termination of
the limb.

The two pairs of great crawling feet extend outward and backward
from the postero-lateral margins of the cephalothorax. The anterior
pair expose 109 cm. of length, and the posteror pair about 108 cm.
The elements of the limbs are represented as grooved, as this
character seems necessary to give the needed strength to long
slender joints, and also because a similar conformation is present
in S. Beecheri.

The abdomen measures 30cm. in greatest width at the fifth
segment, and 66 cm. in length exclusive of the telson. The posterior
abdominal segments are represented without detachable epimera, as
this feature is not as yet known to be constant for the genus, although
present in some species.

The telson spine agrees proportionally in length with the same
member in S. Logani and S. Powriei as described by Woodward,"
and was given a slight upward curvature as in Limulus. It
measures 54cm. in length and 7:5 cm. across at the proximal end,

Altogether the animal as restored has a length of nearly five feet
(147 em.), and with the legs extended it would measure about eight feet
(242 cm.) across.

It is not intended to claim any high degree of accuracy for this
restoration, but merely to represent in some graphic form an animal
approximating in size and character an individual of the species
Stylonurus Lacoanus. Its size alone was the chief incentive for
attempting a reconstruction, and some sacrifice of exact detail may
well be allowed in order to make any presentation of this magnificent
arthropod.

1 Loe. cit.

486 Professor R. Burckhardt—On Hyperodapedon Gordont.

Il.—On Hyrprropapevon Gorpont.

By Prof. Rvpotr Burckuarpr, Ph.D., of the University of Basel, Switzerland.
(PLATE XIX.)

HE fossil to be discussed in the present memoir is the specimen
which formed part. of the classical material used in the
discussion which was carried on amongst British geologists during
the second half of the present century. So important a controversy
could hardly be restricted to the geographical limits of England
alone.

In the question of the age of the Elgin Sandstones, considered
by Sir Roderick Murchison to be Paleozoic, it was Huxley who
pronounced upon it finally,’ after the discovery of and in his
subsequent description of Hyperodapedon. His decision in this
geological controversy was given on the evidence derived from a far
less perfect specimen than the one represented on Plate XIX. It
also supplied Huxley with an opportunity for speculations concerning
the affinities of the animal with Sphenodon, from New Zealand,
a reptile which Dr. Giinther had just then presented in all its
‘scientific aspects. On the other hand, these speculations carried
Huxley far out upon an ocean of geographical as well as of
geological hypotheses.

A second specimen, which was obtained much later, afforded
Huxley a welcome opportunity to supplement his earlier description
of Hyperodapedon as regards its most prominent differences from
Sphenodon, the details of its skull and diverse other anatomical
points of no less importance. The motives which have impelled
me ‘to undertake a re-examination of the subject may appear scarcely
obvious and require some explanation.

_ During the perusal of the literature relating to the Rhynchocepha-

lians I was confronted very frequently by differences, essentially
anatomical in character, tending to a separation of the Rhyncho-
sauride from the Sphenodontide. In the first place I was unable
to assign any valid reason for a closer relationship existing between
them, whilst, on the other hand, the Rhynchosaurians appeared to
me to possess characters important enough to justify the conclusion
of a complete connection between Chelonians and the remaining
Theromorphz. Further investigation into the literature of the
subject and the material available disclosed so many enigmas, that
T at last decided to visit London and obtain permission to study the
original specimens in the Natural History Section of the British
Museum.

According to Huxley’s illustration of the skull I expected: the
original object to be only a cast of the coarsest description, but in
this I was speedily undeceived after a personal inspection, and to
my great delight I perceived that I had one of the choicest of
originals before me which grace the grand collection of fossil reptiles
in the British Musewn. ;

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1859, vol. xv, p- 460.
? Op. cit., 1887, vol. xliii, pp. 675-693, pls. xxvi-xxyii.

GEOL. MAG., 1900. Dee. IV, Vol. VII, Pl. XIX.

k, Burckhardt del,

Hy perodapedon Gordoni, Huxley; ventral aspect. One-fifth nat. size. The right
anterior extremity being absent, the left, which is preserved in the counterpart,
has been added to this plate. Original in the British Museum (Natural History).

Ne

ERT ete yoy Wh Se!

k E oe ia J rl ats
Cer roy A : 7
i u 2 5
Fi es ; ae é y ; 25)
Wig Pete Bees ne noe Wiehe Ai)a tle emt salve delnadutg

Professor R. Burckhardt—On Hyperodapedon Gordoni. 487

I very much doubt whether it would have been possible to comply
with my request in a more generous manner than was done by the
respected Keeper of the Geological Department of the British
Museum, Dr. Henry Woodward, F.R.S., to whom, as to Drs.
A. Smith Woodward and C. W. Andrews, of the same Department,
and to Mr. G. A. Boulenger, F.R.S., of the Zoological Department,
it gives me the utmost pleasure to tender my heartiest thanks for
their ever ready assistance and advice.

As might be supposed, a re-preparation of such a valuable original
object was totally out of the question, though I have no doubt that, if
performed with the necessary care, many minute anatomical details
would be brought to light.

In my drawings, therefore, I filled in with black all those parts
which were left untouched by the chisel like the rest of the matrix
of the stone. The artist employed on Huxley’s sketch has failed to
convey any precise information as to which is stone and which is
bone, and has produced as structures shapes which only existed in
the imagination of the mason as having belonged to the skull itself.

In my drawing of the skeleton in siti I have carefully confined
myself to a representation of the exposed portions of the actual
bones, thus avoiding the risk of reproducing anything foreign to it
on the face of the stone. This ought to remove all doubts that may
exist as regards serious mistakes, especially where parts are con-
cerned which are of importance.

An ordinary photographic reproduction of the fossil would not
have been a great gain for the student, as the observer would have
been under the necessity of making out the details of the actual
fossil for himself, not to mention the disturbing effect of countless
ochre spots which are distributed all over the surface of the matrix.

Plate XIX is a photographic reproduction of the entire skeleton,
reduced to + of its natural size, from the original in the British
Museum. With the exception of the distal part of the left limb,
which is better preserved on the counterpart, no other portions of
the skeleton are seen on that slab. I therefore have transferred it
from that side on to the plate also, as otherwise I should have had
to dispense with its reproduction altogether. This plan, moreover,
had the advantage of completing the representation of the skeleton
in one view.

It should also be pointed out here that in consequence of having
had recourse to photographs, the lower part of the leg, and the foot,
are diminished in size by + on account of the focal distance from
the main portions of the skeleton, which further tends to increase
the disparity already existing between the two extremities.

For a general description of the skeleton I would refer the reader
to Huxley’s memoir (see Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1887, vol. xliii,
pp. 675-693, pls. xxvi and xxvii, and 8 text-figures). To this
1 am obliged to add merely that I feel by no means sure of his
statement that the presacral portion of the vertebral column
terminates with the 23rd vertebra, or even with the 22nd; but
of this I feel confident, that there are not twenty-four vertebra, as

488 Professor R. Burckhardt—On Hyperedapedon Gordoni.

asserted by that author, who also gives the number in Sphenodon as
twenty-five. Apart from this, the entire pelvic region appears to
me to be scarcely well enough preserved to positively assign to it
two sacral vertebre.

Whether the above inference was possible from the first specimen
at Huxley’s disposal, or not, I do not know, as he does not express
himself on this point in his first description of this portion of the
skeleton of Hyperodapedon in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1859, vol. xv,
p. 460. From analogy in Sphenodon, Huxley has estimated the
length of its tail to be about 110mm., though no reliable data are
obtainable from the fossil itself. I would also wish to remark here
that the sacral vertebra are only # the length of the hindmost
thoracic vertebre, and from this fact alone it may be seen that
Huxley’s computation of the length of the tail appears to be an
over-estimate.

Of the remaining portions, the shoulder- girdle alone calls for
some remarks here. The position assigned by Huxley to the inter-
clavicle is the correct one, but there is an error as regards the
spatulate shape of its posterior margin which requires modification.
Posteriorly the episternum terminates in quill - like processes,
separated from each other by a deep incision, as is the case in a great
number of Lacertilians. Besides this, but noticeable only on the
right side, its clavicular margin bifurcates into two pointed pro-
jections, as in Rhynchosaurus. The bone which Huxley designated
the coracoid is really composed of two parts, the coracoid and the
preecoracoid.

The most important part of this fossil is its skull, and it is here
principally that I dissent from Huxley’s interpretations. I therefore
felt compelled to refigure and re-describe it, a proceeding to which
I shall add also those inferences which I have been enabled to draw
from other fragmentary specimens deposited in the British Museum
(Natural History).

The general topography of the skull has been admirably rendered
by Huxley. As a further adjunct to his admission that, although
Hyperodapedon was essentially terrestrial in habits, yet it had at the
same time a predilection for leading an aquatic life, may be mentioned
the anomalous position of the orbits, which are so strangely directed
upward and situated forward as to deserve to be specially pointed
out here.

The first attempt towards a more precise knowledge of the com-
ponent parts of the skull than that by Huxley was by Dr. A. Smith
Woodward, who partly traced the boundaries of the nasals, the
postorbitals, the jugular and other bones. It has been a great
satisfaction to me, as the result of my endeavours to make out the
sutures, to find myself so entirely in accord with Dr. Smith Woodward,
without any deviations whatever, the more so as I did not consult
his sketch at the time. Numerous fresh details having come to
light, during a more protracted study of the fossil, a fresh illustra-
tion of the skull cannot be dispensed with under the circumstances.

I have therefore executed the accompanying drawings from photo-
graphs taken by myself.

Professor R. Burckhardt—On Hyperodapedon Gordoni. 489

In these figures I have also blackened those parts of the matrix
which have not yet been laid bare, in order to avoid any misconcep-

tions arising from the supposed shape of the most important parts
of the slab.

Outlines of the skull of Hyperodapedon Gordoni, dorsal (D) and ventral (V)
aspects, from photographs and drawings by the author. One-half nat. size.
A. atlas; Art. articular; Fr. frontal ; Hy. hyoid; Ju. jugal; La.
lachrymal ; Md. mandibular ; Mz. maxillary; Na. nasal; Pa. parietal ;
Pal. palatal; Pmz. premaxillary ; Porb. postorbital ; Pof. postfrontal ;
Prf. prefrontal ; Psp. presplenial ; Qu. quadratum ; Q7. quadratojugal ;
Sa. supra-angular ; So. supraoccipital ; Sp. splenial; Vo. vomer. The
cross shows the centrum of crushing, which disordered the surrounding bones.

490 Professor R. Burckhardt—On Hyperodapedon Gordoni.

The general impression which these figures convey is that, even
on a more complete development of the skull than has already been
executed, the dorsal side, at any rate, would not present very
massive proportions. Yet, the surfaces of the bones themselves
are of a very hard and dense structure, and are possessed of ridges
and protuberances which leave no doubt as to their homogeneity
with the respective bones, even where their sutures are more
indistinct. These anatomical characters are especially well defined
on the maxillary and the jugular.

The sutures form slightly serpentine lines, except between the
parietal and the prefrontal, where they are serrated. The pra-
maxillaries, which enclose the nasal cavity, as mentioned elsewhere,
terminate caudally in blunted points, which are broken off, but the
original form of which is preserved still as an imprinton the przfrontal.
The margin of the nasal impinges somewhat on the median contours
of the premaxillaries, apparently to lend them additional strength,
and to prevent their breaking out easily. Laterally they are held in
position similarly, by a coarsely indented margin of the maxillary.

The limits of the lachrymals are more difficult of determination ;
firstly, because their ventral sides are embedded in the stone,
and secondly, because their dorsal surfaces are damaged. Their
existence, however, cannot well be doubted, if we may judge from
analogy in Rhynchosaurus, where they are most clearly defined.

I fully concur with Dr. Smith Woodward in his determination of
the middle of the cranium, although the lateral margin of the
prefrontal appears to me to be clearly enough circumscribed.

Features actually new as to their interpretation appear again only
behind the orbit, where the postorbital is conspicuous both by its
shape, its position, and by being entirely excluded from participation
in the orbital foramen. It forms the whole of the anterior portion,
and part of the lateral contour of the temporal fossa. Its posterior
end is unfortunately broken off, but no doubt can be entertained
as regards its original shape, from the evidence supplied by the
surface of its underlying squamosal, on which the outlines of its.
margin can be identified distinctly.

The squamosal itself is in a very imperfect state of preservation.
It is connected with the preeorbital, and participates in the formation
of the supratemporal foramen; a ramus of the quadrato-jugular
ascends to the latter, on the outer side of the squamosal. The
squamosal is represented in its greater part only by the mould which
it has left in the stone. It is quite probable that a posterior temporal
fossa was formed by the squamosal and a branch of the quadrate
bone, but on this point the information to be obtained from literature
Is of too vague a nature to allow our arriving at any definite
conclusions thereon.

The quadrate itself is a broadish, disk-like bone, deepened in
the centre. Its. complete immobility can be ascertained from the
fact that it is joined to the squamosal and the quadrato-jugular
by suture. Jt could not have participated in the formation of the
lateral temporal foramen ; that office was reserved to the quadrato-

Professor R. Burckhardt—On Hyperodapedon Gordoni. 49%

jugular lying in front of it, which in its turn is connected again:
with the peculiarly shaped jugular. This latter bone borders the
anterior portion of the temporal fossa, and forms, as far at least as it
is exposed, the base of its posterior limits. ‘T'wo strongly developed
longitudinal ridges stretched across it, of which the lateral one,
which is the shorter of the two, is projected towards the quadrato-
jugular by means of rough spines. Its normal situation on the
skull is preserved only on the left side, from which it has been.
figured. Leaning against it and to the front of it, is the maxillary,
which I found to deviate considerably from previous descriptions.
The maxillary is edentulous, and separated from the exclusively
dentigerous palate-bone by a distinct suture, which is not only the
case in this skull, but I have been enabled to verify it in another
separate fragmentary bone in excellent preservation. Only a narrow
branch of it separates the anterior margin of the palatine from the
premaxillaries, without any indication of a ridge on the inner nasal
foramen. Dorsad it interlocks by means of a small angle only with
the premaxillary and the lachrymal bone.

Not more than three bones are discernible in the roof of the mouth.

The vomers join each other along the median line, but both their
anterior as well as their posterior margins are covered in this case
by matrix. On the right side they are in their natural relationship.
to the palatal bone, the maxillary, and the premaxillary. Not so on
the left, where the original contact has been disturbed by crushing
in such a manner that Huxley was tempted to suggest the existence
of inner nares in this particular place. For my own part I find
it most difficult to adopt this view, as I opine that they are more
likely to be found in the gap between the posterior margin of the
palate-bones, if the lower jaw could be separated from the rest of
the skull.

The palatine bones themselves are curved, thinnish plates, with.
their anterior margins rounded off. Their posterior margins articulate
with the subcircular pterygoids, of which only the right one is com-
pletely preserved.

The mandibular ramus is composed of several separate bones
similar to many other reptiles. They do not articulate on their
margins by means of jointed sutures, but overlap each other like
flakes, and therefore render a clear and precise description somewhat
difficult. No doubt can prevail about the mandibulars. ‘Their
curved sulci, placed at a short distance from the apices, appear to me
to be a good indication of the limits to which the horny sheaths
come in close contact with the bone, which, however, is not so far as.
might have been assumed at first sight. ‘Their posterior margin is
very indistinct, through injury to the outer crust of the bone, and
can therefore only be guessed. The mandibulary at this place is in
contact with two bones, one of which I take to be the articular,
from the fact that it articulates with the quadrate bone, whilst the
other, the supra-angular, though represented only by its impression,
nevertheless agrees with Owen’s statement in regard to the corre-
sponding bone in Rhynchosaurus. The ventral margin of the

492 Dr. Forsyth Major—Extinct Primates of Madagascar.

inframaxillaries is formed by the splenials. It is these latter
which contribute principally to the formation of the symphysis,
at least externally. Indeed, they are so strongly united as to form
a process on their posterior margin.

The angulary is not preserved here, but it is present in Hypero-
dapedon minor,! in which a portion of the coronoid bone seems to be
also partly preserved. In the latter species the position of the
opercular can be made out with tolerable clearness. It reaches to
about the middle of the inferior ridge of the lower jaw.

The remains of the hyoidal bones have already been referred to by
Huxley.

(To be continued.)

Tl].—A Summary or our Present KNowLenGe oF Extinct
PRIMATES FROM MADAGASCAR.

By C. I. Forsyru Mayor, M.D., F.Z.8.

LTHOUGH the present summary covers the same ground
A reviewed only a few months ago by the junior bearer of the
name which will always be gratefully and prominently remembered
in connection with the scientific conquest of Madagascar,’ the
following lines will show that, short as the interval has been, the
new additions are not unimportant.

If it might be regretted that many of the new facts are being
served out, as it were, by driblets, this in most cases is scarcely
to be avoided, as many of the specimens on which the evidence
rests are very fragmentary, and besides dispersed in various
Museums. In the case of more complete materials, the preparation
for publication requires, for obvious reasons, a longer time, so that
the provisional sifting of the material may not be out of place, were
it only to keep as much as possible within reasonable limits the
often unavoidable increase of synonymy.

As far as the remains recorded by M. G. Grandidier? are con-
cerned, mention is made in the present notice only of those about
which I have something new to say.

I. MEGALADAPIS.

_ «At the December meeting of the Zoological Society * I briefly

noticed under the name of Megaladapis insignis a new species of this
genus, based on fragments of the upper and lower jaw, which
I have fully described in another place. The Geological Depart-
ment of the British Museum has since acquired the anterior portion
of another skull of the same species, probably 9, which shows that
in the adult condition, at any rate, this animal was devoid of upper

* I wish to give this name to a fragment mentioned by Huxley, Q.J.G.S., 1859,
p- 146, and specifically different from H. Gordoni.

* Guillaume Grandidier, ‘‘ Sur les Lémuriens subfossiles de Madagascar ”’ :
€. R. Ac, Sci. Paris, 28 Mai, 1900.

; Free Zool. Soc. London, 1899, p. 988.
_“* Extinct Mammalia from Madagascar. I. Megaladapis insignis, sp.n.?? :
Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, vol. exciii (1900), p. 47. ; i hee

Dr. Forsyth Major—Extinct Primates of Madagascar. 493:

incisors. This is another agreement with the recent Malagasy
genus Lepidolemur, attested also by the similarity in the pattern
of the molars. The strongly curved nasals of this Megaladapis:
protrude forward more than in any other Lemuroid.

Dr. v. Lorenz has of late' published under the name of Megaladapis
brachycephalus, sp.n., the upper and the side view of the skull of a
Megaladapis taken from photographs which had been communicated
to various museums and zoologists by the collector, Sikora, who
had discovered the remains in a cave near Fort Dauphin on the
south-east coast. This skull is, in my opinion, of the same species
as the above-mentioned remains in the British Museum, which are
from the same locality. In the same paper* Dr. Lorenz publishes
another photograph, representing the side view of a Lemurine skull
from the same cave near Fort Dauphin; the figure is briefly
described, and named “ Mesoadapis destructus, gen. nov. spec. nov.”
The original of the photograph had been previously acquired by the
British Museum,’ and will be described in detail shortly. It belongs
to a young individual of Megaladapis insignis : the three cheek-teeth
visible are the deciduous molars ; the caniniform tooth, exhibited
in profile in the photograph, is the anterior protruding portion of
the permanent canine. This skull confirms the opinion formerly
expressed by me, viz., that young specimens of Megaladapis would
show a much closer approach to the ordinary Lemurine type than
the adult in the conformation of the brain cavity and its walls.*
From what has been stated above, the synonymy of the species is as
follows :—

MEGALADAPIS INSIGNIS, Maj.*
Syn. Megaladapis brachycephalus, Lor.®
Paleolemur destructus, Lor.’
Mesoadapis destructus, Lor.*

From the well-known locality Ambolisatra, on the south-west
coast of Madagascar, G. Grandidier has described two femora, the
larger of which he considers as belonging to Megaladapis mada-
gascariensis, whilst the smaller is provisionally called Megaladapis (?)
Filholi2 Both the bones share the same general characters,
viz., shortness and extreme antero-posterior flattening ; but the
differences, as has been pointed out by Mr. Grandidier, are sufficient
to warrant their being referable to two different although closely
allied genera.

1 Ludwig Ritt. Lorenz v. Liburnau, ‘‘ Uber einige Reste ausgestorbener Primaten
von Madagaskar’’: Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. Wien., xx (1900), p. 8, pl. ii.

2 Op. cit., p. 10, pl. ili, fig. 3. J

3 Dr. vy. Lorenz, when writing his paper, was not aware of this circumstance.

4 Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, B, vol. elxxxv (1894), p. 27; Proc. Roy. Soc.
London, vol. lxii (1897), p. 49.

5 Proc. Zool. Soc. London, December 19, 1899, p. 989.

6 Op. cit.,.1900, p. 8, pl. ii.

7 Anzeiger Akad. Wiss. Wien., 1900, No. 1, p. 8 (este Lorenz).

8 Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. Wien., Ixx (1900), p. 10, pl. ili, fig. 1.

9 Bull. Mus. d’hist. nat. Paris, 1899, No. 6, pp. 272-275.

494 Dr. Forsyth Major—Extinct Primates of Madagascar.

The smaller of the two bones does not seem to me to be out of
proportion with the skull of Megaladapis madagascariensis: if
this supposition is right, the larger femur may prove to belong
to Peloriadapis, a new genus allied to Megaladapis, based by
G. Grandidier on some teeth from the same locality.’

A decided approach towards the Nycticebinz, especially the West
African Perodicticus and Arctocebus, is the flattening of the shaft of
both these femora, and the slight curvature with the concavity
forwards, together with the large head and the very large plate-like
‘lesser’ trochanter of the smaller of the two, a specimen of
which, from the same locality, is in the British Museum. These
resemblances may or may not be an indication of closer relationship ;
on the other hand, the locomotion can scarcely have been the same
in the two groups. If the sluggish Nycticebinz are to some extent
comparable in their habits and locomotion with the Bradypodide, the
clumsy Degaladapis can scarcely be supposed to have been climbers
at all. The remarkable shortness and flattening of the Megaladapis
femur calls to mind the same bone of aquatic Mammalia; the
elevated position of its orbit would point in the same direction.

As to the affinities of Megaladapis with other Lemuroids, I now
hold that its specializations are not a sufficient reason for its being
removed into a separate family. There are in the first place
undoubted affinities in the pattern of the cheek-teeth with Lepido-
demur and also with the Indrisine. Relying chiefly on the
vertebral column, Mivart long ago submitted that Lepidolemur
“‘seems to be that genus of the Lemurine which most approximates
to the Indrisinz.”’* In this I fully concur, as the characters of the
molars and the leg-bones point in the same direction. On the other
hand, Winge has insisted on the relationship of Chiromys with the
Indrisinz, and in my opinion he is, as usual, right here also. It
will thus be possible to show that these four groups, at first sight so
very different from each other, because each of them is specialized
in a different direction, are closely related to each other, and pre-
sumably had a common origin. There are, besides, reasons for the
assumption—the molar pattern for one—that they were derived
from a common stem with the Cebide. Whether this is the right
‘view, the future will show. -*

II. PALAOCHIROGALUS.

Another recent addition to our knowledge of extinct Malagasy
Lemurids is equally due to M. G. Grandidier. He describes and
figures two teeth, which “recall in their general form the two last
upper molars of Chirogalus,” and accordingly calls them Paleochiro-
galus Jullyi (nov. gen. et nov. sp.).2 These teeth, from the marshes
of Sirabé, belong, in my opinion, to an extinct form of the genus
Lemur, the figure to the right representing the first or second left
upper true molar, whilst the figure to the left appears to be the

’ Bull. Mus. @hist. nat. Paris, 1899, No. 6, p- 275; No. 7, p. 344.

* Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1873, p. 490.
° Bull. Mus. Whist. nat. Paris, 1599, No. 7, p. 345.

Dr. Forsyth Major—Extinct Primates of Madagascar. 496

posterior upper deciduous molar. A peculiar feature of these teeth
is the strong development of the antero-external cusp, Von Lorenz
has figured, after photographs received from Sikora, the upper and
side view of an imperfect skull of apparently the same species, from
the cave of Andrahomana, near Fort Dauphin.’

Ill. NESOPITHECUS and allies.

Under various generic denominations, viz., ZLophiolemur, Filh,
(1895), Nesopithecus, Maj. (1896), Globilemur, Maj. (1897), Brady-
lemur, G. Grandid. (1899), Protoindris, Lor. (1900), a certain
number of more or less fragmentary skulls and lower jaws of
apparently very closely allied extinct Primates from Madagascar
have been briefly noticed during the last few years.

It is quite possible that, when more completely known, these
remains may in fact deserve to be classed in more than one genus;
on the other hand, some of the specific names will be reduced to
synonyms; for the present, or at least for the purpose of the present
notice, this is unessential. Should they prove to belong to one
genus, the name JZophiolemur would have the priority, or rather
probably Archzolemur, a name based by Filhol on some leg-bones
from Belo on the west coast;? the few characters given of the
humerus of Archgzolemur agree with those of two species of
Nesopithecus. The primary question, however, refers to their
relationship with other Primates.

The first noticed of all these remains is the cranial portion of
a skull, which I described and figured in 1893,° approximating it to
Hapalolemur ; the name Globilemur assigned to it dates from 1897.*
In the marshes of Sirabé (Central Madagascar) I subsequently found
the anterior portion of a skull and other remains, which I shortly
described under the name of Nesopithecus Roberti, establishing for
them a separate family of Anthropoidea, ‘‘intermediate in some
respects between the South American Cebide and the Old-World
Cercopithecidx, besides presenting characters of its own.” °

Meanwhile Filhol had published the new genus Lophiolemur
(L. Edwardsi), chiefly on two mandibular rami discovered long ago
by M. A. Grandidier at Ambolisatra (south-west coast).© These
rami, which I have been able to examine owing to the kindness of
Professor Filhol, are undoubtedly closely related, if not generically
identical, with Nesopithecus ; it seemed to me that their molars were
slightly more lophodont than in the latter genus. G. Grandidier, in
his turn, has discovered at Belo an upper and a lower jaw, the
characters of which justify in his opinion the creation of the new
genus Bradylemur (B. robustus), related to Lophiolemur and _ to
Nesopithecus.’

» Op. cit., p. 14.

2 Bull. Mus. @hist. nat. Paris, 1895, No. 1, p. 13.

8 Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1893, p. 532.

4 Proc. Roy. Soc. London, vol. lxii (1897), p. 46.

° Grou. Maa., Dec. IV, Vol. III, October, 1896, p. 436.

§ Loc. cit., p. 13.
7 Bull. Mus. d’hist. nat. Paris, 1899, No. 7, pp. 8346-348, with five text-figures.

496 Dr. Forsyth Major—Extinct Primates of Madagascar.

A beautifully preserved skull in the British Museum, from a cave
near Fort Dauphin (south-east coast), briefly described by me
under the name of Nesopithecus australis,’ showed first of all that
Globilemur is a member of this group and probably not generically
distinct from JVesopithecus,? and that Nesopithecus shared with the
lemurs, especially those of Madagascar, a certain number of cranial
characters. It also shows that I was mistaken in supposing that
Nesopithecus Roberti had the orbits separated from the temporal
fossee by a bony wall; and although the absence of the latter
is not, strictly speaking, a character which can find a place in
the diagnosis of lemurs, as distinguished from the monkeys, it.
certainly is a more primitive feature than the presence of a bony
septum. And so are the lemurine features of the Nesopithecus
skull, viz., the conformation of the basis cranii, especially of the
bulla tympanica, the character of the malar bone reaching the
lachrymal, ete.

One lemurine feature of Nesopithecus, the position of the lower
caniniform tooth, which does not bite in front of the upper, may be
considered to be a transition between the condition exhibited by the
New World monkeys on the one side and the Old World monkeys.
on the other. This on the following grounds.

The commonly received view that the lower caniniform tooth of
recent Lemuride is not a ‘canine’ but a premolar, because it is not
placed in front but behind the upper canine, dates from Geoffroy
Saint-Hilaire. Objections have been raised from time to time,
e.g. by Moseley and Ray Lankester,* and about the same time by
Donitz. The latter pointed out that the tooth in question is not
situated in the diastema between the upper canine and the upper
anterior premolar, but acts with its cusp against the inner side of
the upper canine. Similar remarks have been of late made by
Von Lorenz.’ A. Grandidier, on his side, believes that the presence
in young Indrisinz of a canine de lait, which is not replaced, settles.
the question once for all in favour of Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire’s view.®
However, this tooth of Indrisine being the evident homologue of
the outer of the three incisiform teeth of other Lemuridz, or rather
of its deciduous predecessor, it proves nothing more or less than
does this supposed ‘ lower canine’ of other members of the family.

‘Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1899, p. 988. Protoindris globiceps, Lorenz
(Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. Wien., lxx, 1900, p. 11, pl. iii, fig. 2), is based on
a photograph from Mr. Sikora representing the reduced side view of the type of
Nesopithecus australis.

* It is possible that my Globilemur Flacourti from the neighbourhood of Nossi-Vé
on the south-west coast may prove to be specifically identical with Bradylemwu-
Bustardi, G. Grand. (Bull. Mus. d’hist. nat. Paris, 1900, No. 5, p. 215), from
Ambolisatra.

* Journ. Anat. & Physiol., iii, 1868, pp. 73-80 (1869).

* “Uber die Eckzahne der Lemuriden’’: Sitzungsber. Ges. Naturf. Freunde,
Berlin, 15th December, 1868, p. 32.

© Op. cit., p. 7.

° “ Histoire physique, naturelle, et politique de Madagascar,’’? Mammiferes, i,
p- 32, footnote 3 (1876).

Dr. Forsyth Major—Extinct Primates of Madagascar. 497

The lower caniniform tooth of Mammalia is generally anterior
to the upper caniniform ; if, however, for some reason or other the
upper premolar series should become lengthened, or the lower
premolar series shortened, the position of the lower ‘canine’ may be
altered. Bateson has described and figured an instance of the first
kind. A skull of Ateles marginatus in the British Museuny
(No. 1,214), collected by Bates) exhibits the unusual number of four
premolars on either side of the upper jaw. ‘As a consequence the
lower canines bite on and partly behind the upper canines.” ! The
skull is before me: on the right side the lower canine, in fact, acts
on the inner side of the upper canine ; on the left side its position is
almost normal.

The Cercopithecide, and in general all the monkeys with only
two premolars, are evidently derived from older forms with three
premolars. As often happens, the loss of the lower premolar may
have preceded in time that of the upper jaw, so that we may
imagine a transitional stage in which there were three premolars
above and two below. In that case the lower canine might slide
slightly backwards, and would in that case act on the inner side
of the upper canine; this is precisely the condition of things in
Nesopithecus and also in the majority of recent Lemuride. When
finally one of the three upper premolars comes to be lost, the lower
‘canine’ might come again to occupy its original position in front
of the upper, as is the case in all Old World monkeys.

There are, therefore, as good reasons for the assumption that
the caniniform lower tooth of Nesopithecus and of most of the
Lemuridz is the homologue of the lower ‘canine’ of Old World
monkeys, as for the generally received view. Nesopithecus has
approached nearer than most of the Lemuride to the monkeys
by retaining only two lower incisors. For, of course, as a con-
sequence of the hypothesis propounded here, the six incisiform lower
teeth of the majority of Lemuridze would have to be considered
as the homologues of the six lower incisors of the majority of
Placentalia. This constitutes, for the present, its weak point, because
most of the Tertiary Lemuride are supposed to have—and Adapis
certainly has—only four lower incisors.

It is obvious that the position of Nesopithecus in the system cannot
be discussed without reference to the relations between lemurs and
monkeys generally. The general question being too large for
discussion here, I must limit myself to the following remarks.

A. Milne-Edwards and A. Grandidier have, contrary to Mivart,
considered the Lemuroidea as forming a distinct order. Although in
the ‘‘ Histoire de Madagascar,” up to the present day, the description
of the Indrisinz alone has been published, this was believed to fully
settle the question at issue. The Indrisinz being, as far as brain
development is concerned, the highest of recent lemurs, and thus
approaching, more than the rest, the Anthropoidea, the conclusions
as to their relationship with the latter, derived from the comparison

1 W. Bateson: ‘‘ Materials for the Study of Variation, etc.,’? 1894, pp. 206,
207, fig. 38.

DECADE IV.—VOL. VII.—NO. XI. 32

498 Dr. Forsyth Major—Extinct Primates of Madagascar.

of their other characters, seemed a fortiori to apply to all the other
lemurs.

The careful and detailed comparisons between Indrisinze and
Anthropoidea! show in fact a great amount of difference between
both in all the organs. But it would be an error to infer from this,
without closer examination, that the same holds good with regard
to all the Lemurids. In osteological characters, Lepidolemur and, to
a somewhat lesser extent, Chirogale, range with the Indrisine; but
the genera Lemur and Hapalolemur, to limit myself to Malagasy
Lemuridz, tell quite another tale. Take, for instance, the humerus.
In most of the features of this bone, which have been pointed out as
characteristic of the monkeys in opposition to the Indrisine, Lemur
and Hapalolemur range on the side of the former, and this applies
with greater force still to the humerus of Nesopithecus. 'The same
holds good, more or less, for most parts of the skeleton, but I have
purposely quoted the humerus as an example, because it is one of
the few bones known of the Tertiary Adapis. Filhol describes it
in Adapis as approaching closely to the ‘Makis,’ having in view,
I suppose, first of all the genus Lemur. At any rate the description
and the figures of the Adapis humerus agree very nearly with the
same bone of Lemur and Hapalolemur.

Part of the Lemuride therefore come in their skeleton closer to
the monkeys than is generally believed,” and Nesopithecus goes a step
farther in the same direction. In the latter we may distinguish
four sets of characters.

1. Primitive characters which Nesopithecus shares with Adapis and
with part at least of the Lemuride generally ; e.g., cerebellum not
overlapped ; large bulla tympanica, tympanic ring free; orbits not
closed behind by a bony septum; entepicondylar foramen of the
humerus. These two last characters might with almost equal reason
find a place under 2.

2. Characters which Nesopithecus has in common with the less
specialized lemurs and with monkeys as well, and which nevertheless
are comparatively primitive, for I submit that in a certain number
of characters the monkeys are less specialized than numbers of
lemurs ; e.g., more or less vertical insertions of lower incisors, many
features of the appendicular skeleton.

3. Simian characters, absent in the Lemuride, and which Neso-
pithecus shares exclusively with the monkeys, and some of them
more particularly with the Cercopithecide; e.g., voluminous brain,
with the arrangement of the convolutions approaching those of
monkeys; steep facial profile of the skull; orbits directed straight

ie physique, naturelle, et politique de Madagascar,’? Mammiféres, i
2 ««Tf, in accordance with the traditional views of zoologists, the Lemurs are still
considered to be members of this order [i.e. Primates], they must form a sub-order
apart from all the others, with which they have really very little in common except
the opposable hallux of the hind foot, a character also met with in the Opossums,
and which is therefore of very secondary importance.” —Flower & Lydekker: ‘An
Introduction to the Study of Mammals, living and extinct,’’ 1891, p. 680.

Dr. Forsyth Major—Extinct Primates of Madagascar. 499

forward; position of the lachrymal foramen inside the orbit (at
least in one species, viz. N. Roberti) ; conformation of the internal
pair of upper incisors; number of lower incisors; limb-bones
as a whole in several features intermediate between monkeys and
lemurs (entepicondylus of humerus strongly developed and directed
backwards, etc.).

4, Characters which, being proper to Nesopithecus, mark its
specialization ; e.g., preponderance of ante-molars over the true
molars, especially in the upper jaw; blade-shaped premolars ;
beginning of lophodonty in the true molars, the latter character
being apparently more pronounced in some species than in others.

The first three sets of characters united are precisely such as must
have been possessed by the immediate ancestors of the Cerco-
pithecidae. It is therefore difficult to imagine that the simian
characters of Nesopithecus do not indicate any nearer relationship
to the Cercopithecide, but that they have been independently
developed in the former as a sort of simian mimicry.

The position thus taken up by the writer will have to be
expressed in classification by giving up the two separate suborders
of Primates, thus going one step farther than Mivart. Nesopithecus,
with Hadropithecus (see below), appear to form a side-branch of the
evolving line from lemurs to monkeys, branching off close below the
Cercopithecidee.

IV. HADROPITHECUS.

A further interesting addition to our knowledge of extinct
Malagasy Primates is Hadropithecus stenognathus, Lorenz.! I under-
stand from Dr. v. Lorenz that he now holds this genus to be closely
related to Nesopithecus, a view with which I fully agree. The
imperfect mandible upon which the genus is based shows the
number of teeth to be the same as in Nesopithecus, viz., on each
side six cheek-teeth, of which the three posterior are undoubtedly
true molars, and two incisors inserted in a still more erect position
than in the latter genus; in fact, they are well-nigh vertical. Of
the cheek-teeth, the true molars preponderate in horizontal extension
over the ante-molars, the opposite being the case in Nesopithecus.

In their pattern the true molars are not very different from those
of the last-named genus, the difference appearing to be mainly the
result of a more hypselodont character in the teeth of Hadropithecus.
The posterior premolar of the latter is almost molariform, and the
ante-molars as a whole are not blade-shaped, a character which gives
quite a peculiar appearance to the dentition of Nesopithecus, recalling
to mind the Plagiaulacide, as well as Thylacoleo and Potorous

(Hypsiprymnus).

1 “«Uber einige Reste ausgestorbener Primaten von Madagaskar’’: loc. cit.,
pp. 2-8, pl. i, figs. 1-7.

500 R. Bullen Newton—Shells from Raised Beaches, Red Sea.

TV.—P.LeIstocENE SHELLS FROM THE RatseD Bracn Deposits oF
THE Rep Sra.

By R. BuLuen Newton, F.G.S., of the British Museum (Natural History).
(PLATES XX-XXTT.)}

N interesting collection of shells, numbering more than fifteen
hundred specimens, obtained by the officers of the Geological
Survey of Egypt from the raised beach deposits of the Red Sea, has
recently been examined by the writer at the request of Captain
Lyons, R.E., the Director-General of the Survey.

With the exception of certain specimens collected by Dr. Hume
from the western shore of the Gulf of Akaba, this important
collection was acquired by Mr. Thomas Barron, F.G.S., from
various localities situated on the western side of the Red Sea and
the Gulf of Suez during the survey of that region in the years
1897-1898.

The majority of the shells belong to modern species and are well
preserved, many of them retaining their original colour-markings
and other characteristic features. The species exhibit the true
Red Sea or Indo-Pacific facies, with a very slight commingling
of Mediterranean forms, a fact which confirms the work of most
previous observers, who recognize marked differences in the two
faunas. A few of the specimens are quite unknown in present seas,
whilst others date their origin from Miocene times, but as all are
accompanied by undoubted modern species they must be admitted
as their contemporaries in time. Among such may be mentioned
Alectryonia Virleti, Chlamys latissima, Chlamys Reissi, Pecten Vasseli,
Lithophaga Avitensis, Cassis levigata, etc. This association of
modern and extinct forms has already been observed by Professor
Mayer- Kymar, Dr. Theodore Fuchs, and others in deposits of
similar age near Cairo (Wadi Mellaha, etc.) and to the north of
Suez (Bitter Lakes, etc.).

The marine portion of the terrace beds surrounding the Bitter
Lakes resembles the raised beaches of the Red Sea in possessing
a fauna of Indo-Pacific character, whereas the Cairo deposits
contain an assemblage of species bearing a large percentage of
Mediterranean or Atlantic forms: facts which indicate that in
former times the Mediterranean extended further southwards and
the Red Sea further northwards than now obtains.

In dealing with the age of these deposits it seems apparent that
they should be regarded as Pleistocene on account of the large
number of recent species they contain, and the comparative scarcity
of extinct forms. This is in agreement with the views of most
authors, who, although under different designations, acknowledge
the same horizon, as, for instance, “Saharian” of Mayer-Eymar ;
“Recente Ablagerungen (Pseudo-Sarmatischen Ablagerungen) ” of
Fuchs ; and “ Jiingere Meeresbildungen ” of Fraas. It should be
mentioned, however, that Fraas only uses his term in connection

* These plates will appeer with Part II in the December number.

R. Bullen Newton—Shells from Raised Beaches, Red Sea. 501

with the Red Sea beach deposits, recognizing the Wadi Mellaha beds
as of Miocene age, whilst Neumayr and Beyrich both regard them
as Pliocene.

Some importance may be attached to the identification of Pecten
Vasseli, a species originally described by Fuchs from the terrace
formation of the Bitter Lakes, and which is doubtless the same
shell referred to by Fraas under the name of Pecten radula, var.
subfossilis, found in the beach deposits near Kosseir. Examples
of this species, with its peculiar dichotomizing ribs and minute
striated sculpture, are represented from the following localities in
this collection: (a) Raised beach, Northern Wadi Gueh, Camp 6,
240 feet above sea; (b) raised beach north of Kosseir; (c) Upper
Coral terrace (Pecten-bed) between Nebk and Sherm, South-East
Sinai. At (c) Pecten Vasseli is associated with Chlamys latissima ;
at (a) with a fragment of Chlamys opercularis; and at (b) with
modern Red Sea forms, Codakia exasperata, etc., and some extinct
ones, such as Lithophaga Lyellanus. In its typical locality this
shell is found with Circe pectinata and other familiar Red Sea species
(see Fischer post ‘Literature”’), although not known in the living
state.

Among the more abundant shells of modern species in this
collection, and which occur repeatedly at various localities, are:
Conus nussatella, Natica melanostoma, Strombus fasciatus, Turbo
radiatus, Anadara antiquata and radiata, Chama nivalis, Circe
pectinata, Codakia exasperata, etc.

List of the Pleistocene Mollusca from the Raised Beach Deposits of the
Red Sea, collected by Mr. Thomas Barron, F.G.S.

The identification of the following species has been carried
out after careful comparison with the finely arranged series
of modern shells in the Zoological Department of the British
Museum. To Mr. Edgar Smith, the Assistant Keeper of that
section of the Museum, the writer records his indebtedness for
much help, especially with regard to some of the more difficult
determinations that have arisen during the progress of this work.
The classification of the families is that adopted at the British
Museum, and originally suggested by Pelseneer in his “ Introduction
& Pétude des Mollusques” (Ann. Soc. Roy. Malac. Belgique, 1894,
vol. xxvii, pp. 81-243).

The following explanation of bracketed names, etc., quoted under
“Distribution,” should be noted:—(B.M.) = British Museum (Recent
Shell Department) ; (Barron) =a small collection of unnumbered
specimens from Ras Gharib and Jebel Zeit, sent separately by
Mr. Barron in August, 1898; (Tryon, Issel, etc.) = authorities
for distribution of the species, vide “ Literature” appended.

Class GASTEROPODA.
Family PATELLIDA.
Helcioniscus variabilis, Krauss.

Patella variabilis, Krauss: Die Siidafrikanischen Mollusken, 1848, p. 35, pl. iii,

fig. 12.

502 R&R. Bullen Newton—Shells from Raised Beaches, Red Sea.

Disrrisution.—Natal (Tryon); Red Sea (B.M.). Coll. Geol.
Surv. Egypt: 50 foot beach deposit at Gemsah (No. 2,043, Box
No. 637).

Family HALIOTIDZ.

Haliotis cruenta, Reeve.
Haliotis cruenta, Reeve: Conchologia Iconica, vol. iii (1846), pl. xv, fig. 56.
Distrisution.—Gulf of Suez and New Zealand (B.M.). Coll.
Geol. Surv. Egypt: Ras Gharib (Barron); raised beach 20 feet
above sea at Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,058-2,098, Box No. 187).

Family FISSURELLID.

Capiluna‘! Ruppelli, G. B. Sowerby.
Fissurella Ruppelli, G. B. Sowerby: Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1834, pt. ii, p. 128 5
Conchological Illustrations, 1841, pl. Ixxviti, fig. 65, and pl. Ixxx,.
fig. 76.

DistriputTion.—Near Suez and beach deposits of Red Sea (Issel) ;
Red Sea to Cape of Good Hope (Tryon) ; Aden, Red Sea, Mauritius,
East Africa, Mergui (EH. A. Smith). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: Ras.
Gharib (Barron); raised beach 20 feet above sea at Gharib light-
house (Nos. 2,058-2,098, Box No. 187); beach against old island
west of Camp 51, south of Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,021—2,080,
Box No. 577).

Capiluna Ruppelli, var. Barroni, var. nov. (Pl. XXII, Figs. 1-4.)

The above varietal designation is applied to a number of forms.
which are nearly circular in outline, besides being more conical
and elevated than the typical species. Sculpture characters,
however, are identical ; the numerous raised beaded ribs and riblets.
exhibiting the usual beautiful structure of this shell. The oblong
perforation is also normal, and shows a slight enlargement at the
posterior end. The basal margin is denticulated and laterally
excavated. Size variable. Dimensions of largest specimen : height,
15 mm.; length and width, 18 mm.

This variety is represented by about a dozen specimens which
were found associated with the true C. Ruppelli. It is to be seen.
in an unnamed condition in the Recent shell section of the British

Museum, labelled as from the Red Sea, although the specimens have-

all the appearance of coming from the beach deposits of that area.
Probably the form is extinct.

Disrrisution.—OColl. Geol. Surv. Egypt: Ras Gharib (Barron) ;

raised beach 20 feet above sea at Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,058—

2,098, Box No. 187).

Emarginula incisura, A. Adams.
Emarginula incisura, A. Adams: Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1851, p. 84.
Disrrisution.—Apparently unknown. Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt =
Ras Gharib (Barron); raised beach 20 feet above sea at Gharib
lighthouse (Nos. 2,058-2,098, Box No. 187).

i Capiluna, Gray, 1857 = Glyphis, Carpenter, 1856, non Agassiz, 1848; vide
Harris & Burrows, Paris Basin Eocene Mollusca (Geol. Assoc.), 1891, p. 111.

R. Bullen Newton—Shells from Raised Beaches, Red Sea. 503

Scutum unguis, Linnzeus.
Patella unguis, Linneus: Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 783 (= Parmaphorus
granulatus, Blainyille, vide Issel).

Distrisution.— Red Sea to Cape of Good Hope, Australia,
Philippines, etc. (Tryon); Gulf of Suez, south of Réunion, and
Red Sea deposits (Issel). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: Ras Gharib
(Barron); raised beach 20 feet above sea at Gharib lighthouse
(Nos. 2,098-2,105, Box No. 207).

Family TROCHIDA.

Trochus (Cardinalia) virgatus, Gmelin.
Trochus virgatus, Gmelin: Systema Nature, 13th ed. (1790), p. 3,580.
Disrripution.—Beach deposits on western borders of Red Sea
(Gray & Frembley) ; Red Sea and Indian Ocean (Tryon). Coll.
Geol. Surv. Egypt: Ras Gharib (Barron); raised beach 20 feet
above sea at Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,058-2,098, Box No. 187).

Trochus (Infundibulops) erythrzus, Brocchi.
Trochus erythreus, Brocchi: Catalog. una ser. Conchiglie Africana, etc., 1819-1823
(fide Tryon).
Distrisution.—Beach deposits of Red Sea and in the Gulfs of
Akaba and Suez (Issel) ; Red Sea (Tryon) ; Aden, Red Sea, Gulf of
Suez (E. A. Smith). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: Jebel Zeit (Barron).

Trochus (Lamprostoma) maculatus, Linnzeus.
Trochus maculatus, Linneeus: Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 756.
Distrrpution.—Beach deposits of the Red Sea (Gray & Frembley
and Issel) ; recent forms from the Red Sea (Issel) ; Indian Ocean
to the Philippines (Tryon). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: Jebel Zeit
(Barron) ; raised beach 80 feet above sea at Camp 6, north of Wadi
Gueh, west of Kosseir (Nos. 1,649 and 1,650, Box No. 787).

Clanculus Pharaonius, Linneus. (Pl. XX, Figs. 4, 5.)
Trochus Pharaonius, Linneus: Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 757.

Distripution.—Beach deposits of the western borders of Red Sea
(Gray & Frembley); Red Sea, Gulfs of Akaba and Suez (Issel) ;
Red Sea (Tryon); Red Sea, Aden, Gulfs of Suez and Akaba (E. A.
Smith). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: Ras Gharib and Jebel Zeit
(Barron).

Priotrochus obscurus, Wood.

Trochus obscurus, W. Wood: Index Testaceologicus, 1828, Suppl. pl. v, fig. 26.

Disrrisution.—Indian Ocean (Fischer); South Africa (B.M.).
Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised beach east of Jebel Esh (Nos.
2,172-2,190, Box No. 647).

Family TURBINIDA.

Turbo radiatus, Gmelin. (Pl. XX, Fig. 1.)
Turbo radiatus, Gmelin: Systema Nature, 13th ed. (1790), vol. i, pt. 6, p. 3,694
(= Chemnitzianus, Reeve).
Disrripution.—Red Sea, Madagascar, and Philippines (Tryon) ;
Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and Madagascar (E. A. Smith). Coll. Geol.
Surv. Egypt: Ras Gharib (Barron) ; raised beach 80 feet above sea

504 BR. Bullen Newton—Shells from Raised Beaches, Red Sea.

at Camp 6, north of Wadi Gueh, west of Kosseir (Nos. 1,655-1,657,
Box No. 81j); beach east of Gharib (Nos. 2,227-2,254, Box No.
17j); raised beach 20 feet above sea at Gharib lighthouse (Nos.
2,058-2,098, Box No. 187; Nos.: 2,090-2,105, Box No. 207) ;
raised beach, Camp 6, Wadi Gueh (No. 1,594, Box No. 28k; No.
1,587, Box No. 49%; Nos. 1,559 and 1,561, Box No. 60k; Nos.
1,574, etc., Box No. 62h).

Family NERITID.

Nerita albicilla, Linnzus.
Nerita albicilla, Linneus: Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1768), p. 778.

According to Tryon this species includes sanguinolenta, Menke ;
marmorata, Reeve; and crassilabrum, H. A. Smith.

Disrrisution. —Beach deposits of Red Sea (Issel); Red Sea to
Philippines (Tryon); Aden, Red Sea, Indian and Pacific Oceans
(E. A. Smith). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: beach south of Gharib
(Nos. 2,227-2,254, Box No. 177); beach against old island west of
Camp 51, south of Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,021—2,030, Box No.
57j); raised beach 80 feet above sea, Camp 6, Wadi Gueh (No.
1,569, Box No. 31k; No. 1,612, Box No. 58k); raised beach,
Camp 6, Wadi Gueh (Nos. 1,574, etc., Box No. 62h),

Family HIPPONYCIDA.
Hipponyx barbatus, G. B. Sowerby.
Hipponyx barbatus, G. B. Sowerby: Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1835, p. 5.
Disrripurion. —- Mazatlan, Galapagos Islands, Polynesia, Japan,
Cape of Good Hope (Tryon); Society Islands (B.M.). Coll. Geol.
Surv. Egypt: Ras Gharib (Barron); raised beach 20 feet above sea
at Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,058-2,098, Box No. 187).

Family CYPRAMIDA.

Cyprea annulus, Linneus.
Cyprea annulus, Linneus: Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 728.
Distrisution.—Gulf of Akaba, Mediterranean and beach deposits
of Red Sea (Issel) ; Indian and Pacific Oceans, and fossil in
Southern Europe (Tryon); Aden (E. A. Smith). Coll. Geol. Surv.
Egypt: raised beach, Wadi Gueh, Camp 6 (No. 1,568, Box No. 29h) ;
raised beach east of Jebel Esh (Nos. 2,172-2190, Box No. 647).

Cyprea Arabica, Linnzeus.
Cyprea Arabica, Linnxus: Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 718.
Distripution.—Beach deposits of Red Sea (Gray & Frembley,
Issel) ; Gulf of Akaba and Ras Benass (Issel) ; Indian and Pacific
Oceans (Tryon); Aden (E. A. Smith). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt:
beach east of Gharib (Nos. 2,227-2,254, Box No. 17)).

Cypreza caurica, Linnzus.
Cyprea caurica, Linneus: Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 728.
Disrripurion.—Beach deposits of Red Sea (Gray & Frembley) ;
Gulf of Akaba (Issel) ; Indian and Pacific Oceans (Tryon) ; Aden

(EK. A. Smith). Goll. Geol. Surv. Eevopt : é of \GhanihaaNee
2,227-2,254, Box No. 17)). BYE t | Obst et Gee

R. Bullen Newton—Shells from Raised Beaches, Red Sea. 505

Cyprea cylindrica, Born.
Cyprea cylindrica, Born: Testacea Mus. Cvesarei Vindobonensis, 1780, pl. viii,
fig. 10.
Distrisution.—Amboina, etc. (B.M.); Ceylon, Australia, New
‘Caledonia (Tryon). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised beach, Camp 6,
Wadi Gueh (Nos. 1,591 and 1,567, Box No. 30k).

Cyprea erosa, Linnzus.

Cyprea erosa, Linnwus: Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 725.
Disrripution.—Beach deposits of Red Sea (Gray & Frembley,
Issel) ; Gulf of Akaba (Issel) ; Indian and Pacific Oceans (Tryon) ;
Aden (BE. A. Smith). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised beach
80 feet above sea, Camp 6, north of Wadi Gueh, west of Kosseir
(Nos. 1,649 and 1,650, Box No. 787; Nos. 1,591 and 1,567, Box

No. 380k) ; 50 foot beach, Gemsah (No. 2,038, Box No. 627).

Cypreea fimbriata, Gmelin.
Cyprea fimbriata, Gmelin: Systema Nature, 13th ed. (1790), vol. i, pt. 6, p. 3,420.
Distrisution. — Indian Ocean to Australia (Tryon); Aden
(E. A. Smith). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised beach 20 feet
above sea at Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,058—2,098, Box No. 18)).

a Cyprea isabella, Linnzus.
Cyprea isabella, Linneeus: Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 722.

Disrripurion.—Beach deposits and recent forms in Red Sea
(Issel) ; Indian and Pacific Oceans (Tryon); Aden (EH. A. Smith).
Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: Ras Gharib (Barron) ; raised beach 20 feet
above sea at Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,058-2,098, Box No. 187);
raised beach, Camp 6, Wadi Gueh (Nos. 1,591 and 1,567, Box
No. 30k).

Cyprea turdus, Lamarck.

Cyprea turdus, Lamarck: Hist. Nat. Anim. sans Vert., vol. vii (1822), p. 392.

Distripution.—Beach deposits on the western borders of the Red
Sea (Gray & Frembley) ; Gulf of Akaba and Indian Ocean (Issel) ;
Aden (E. A. Smith); Persian Gulf (Tryon). Coll. Geol. Surv.
Egypt: beach east of Gharib (Nos. 2,227-2,254, Box No. 17j) ;
raised beach 20 feet above sea at Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,058-
2,098, Box No. 187) ; 50 foot beach at Gemsah (Nos. 2,031-2,057,
Box No. 587).

Cyprea vitellus, Linneus.
Cyprea vitellus, Linneus: Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 721.

Distripution.—Aden (E. A. Smith); beach deposits, western
shores of Red Sea (Gray & Frembley); Indian Ocean, Australia,
New Caledonia (Tryon). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised beach,
Camp 6, Wadi Gueh (Nos. 1,574, etc., Box No. 62k).

Family NATICIDA.

Natica (Mammilla) melanostoma, Gmelin.
Nerita melanostoma, Gmelin: Systema Nature, 13th ed. (1790), vol. i, pt. 6,
p- 3,674.
Distripurion. — Beach deposits of Red Sea (Fraas, Gray &
Frembley) ; Red Sea and Indian Ocean (Issel) ; Mauritius,

506 &. Bullen Newton—Shells from Raised Beaches, Red Sea.

Madagascar, East Indies, Polynesia (Tryon) ; Aden, Red Sea,
Indian Ocean, and parts of the Pacific (H. A. Smith). Coll. Geol.
Surv. Egypt: Jebel Zeit (Barron) ; raised beach 20 feet above sea
at Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,058-2,098, Box No. 187); recent
beach south of Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,198-2,216, Box No. 587) ;
50 foot beach at Gemsah (Nos. 2,031—2,057, Box No. 587).

Family CERITHIIDA.
Cerithium ceruleum, G. B. Sowerby.

Cerithium ceruleum, G. B. Sowerby: Thesaurus Conchyliorum, vol. ii (1855),
p- 866, pl. clxxix, figs. 61, 62.

Disrripution.—Red Sea (Issel); Red Sea and Indian Ocean
(Tryon) ; Aden, Red Sea, Indian Ocean, China, Tonga Islands
(E. A. Smith). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: Jebel Zeit (Barron) ;
recent beach south of Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,198-2,216, Box
No. 537); raised beach, Camp 6, Wadi Gueh (Nos. 1,559 and 1,561,
Box No. 60k; Nos. 1,574, ete., Box No. 62k).

Cerithium columna, G. B. Sowerby.

Cerithium columna, G. B. Sowerby: Genera of Shells, 1834, No. 42, fig. 7.

Distrisution. — Mauritius, Philippines to Central Polynesia
(Tryon) ; Aden, Red Sea, Indian Ocean, Philippines, ete. (H. A.
Smith). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: Ras Gharib (Barron).

Cerithium erythrezonense, Lamarck.

Cerithiun erythreonense, Lamarck: Hist. Nat. Anim. sans Vert., vol. vii (1822),
p-. 70 (=tuberoswm, Reeve, and omisswm, Bayle).

DistriputTion.—Desert of Attaka, Suez, Gulf of Akaba, Red Sea,
Madagascar (Issel); Red Sea (Tryon). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt:
Ras Gharib (Barron) ; beach east of Gharib (Nos. 2,227-2,254,
Box No. 177) ; raised beach 20 feet above sea at Gharib lighthouse
(Nos. 2,090-2,105, Box No. 207); recent beach south of Gharib
lighthouse (No. 2,204, Box No. 247); raised beach, Camp 6, Wadi
Gueh (Nos. 1,559 and 1,561, Box No. 60k).

Cerithium Ruppelli, Philippi.
Cerithium Ruppelli, Philippi: Zeitsch. Malakozoologie, 1848, p. 22.

Disrrisution.—Gulf of Suez (Issel) ; Red Sea (Tryon) ; Red Sea,
Aden, Seychelles (E. A. Smith). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: Recent
beach between Jebel Mellaha and Jebel Zeit (Nos. 2,162-2,167,
Box No. 217); 50 foot beach at Gemsah (Nos. 2,031-2,057, Box
No. 587); beach against old island west of Camp 51, south of
Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,021-2,080, Box No. 57,).

Vertagus asperum, Linneus (var.).
Murex asper, Linneeus: Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 756.

Distripution.—lI. of France (B.M.); beach deposits of the Red
Sea (Issel). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised beach, Camp 6, Wadi
Gueh (Nos. 1,574, etc., Box No. 62h).

Vertagus fasciatus, Bruguiére.
Cerithiun fasciatum, Bruguiére : Encyclop. Méthodique, 1792, vol. i (vers.), p. 474.

Disrrisution.—Red Sea, Gulf of Akaba, Indian Ocean, Philippines
(Issel, Tryon). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: Jebel Zeit (Barron) ;

R. Bullen Newton—Shelis from Raised Beaches, Red Sea. 507

50 foot beach at Gemsah (Nos. 2,031-2,057, Box No. 58 ); raised
beach east of Jebel Esh (Nos. 2,172—2,190, Box No. 64,7).

Vertagus Kochi, Philippi.
Cerithium Kochi, Philippi: Zeitsch. Malakozoologie, 1848, p. 21.
Distrisution.—Hast coast of Africa (Tryon); Aden, Red Sea,
Indian Ocean, Japan (HE. A. Smith). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt :

Jebel Zeit (Barron) ; raised beach east of Jebel Hsh (Nos. 2,172-
2,190, Box No. 647).

Vertagus recurvus, G. B. Sowerby.

Cerithium recurvum, G. B. Sowerby: Thesaurus Conchyliorum, vol. ii (1855),
p. 854, pl. clxxvi, figs. 16-18.

Distripution. — Red Sea (Tryon). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt:
beach east of Gharib (Nos. 2,227-2,254, Box No. 177); raised
beach 20 feet above sea at Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,058-2098,
Box No. 187); 50 foot beach at Gemsah (Nos. 2,031-2,057, Box
No. 587) ; raised beach east of Jebel Esh (Nos. 2,172-2,190, Box
No. 647).

Pirenella mammillata, Risso.
Cerithium mammillatum, Risso: Hist. Nat. Europe Méridionale, vol. iv (1826),
p. 158

Tryon includes in this species conica of Blainville, cinerascentis
of Pallas, Cailliaudi of Pot. & Mich.

DistrrpuTion.—Mediterranean and Red Sea (Tryon); Alexandria,
Suez, Egypt (B.M.). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: Recent beach south
of Gharib lighthouse (No. 2,217, Box No. 527; Nos. 2,198—2,216,
Box No. 537); beach against old island west of Camp 51, south of
Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,021-2,050, Box No. 57).

Family MODULID.
Modulus tectum, Gmelin.

Trochus tectum, Gmelin: Systema Nature, 13th ed. (1790), vol. i, pt. 6, p. 3,569.

Distripution.—Red Sea, Mauritius, Indian Ocean, Sandwich and
Viti Islands (Tryon). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: east of Gharib.
(Nos. 2,227-2,254, Box No. 177).

Family VERMETID.

Vermetus, sp. indet.

Disrripution.—Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised beach 20 feet
above sea at Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,058-2,098, Box No. 187).

Family TURRITELLID 2.

Turritella trisuleata, Lamarck.
Turritella trisuleata, Lamarck: Hist. Nat. Anim. sans Vert., vol. vii (1822), p. 58.
Distripution.—Gulf of Suez and in the beach deposits of the
Red Sea (Issel); Red Sea (Tryon). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt:
Gemsah, 50 foot beach (Nos. 2,031-2,057, Box No. 587); east of
Jebel Esh (Nos. 2,172-2,190, Box No. 647).

508 R. Bullen Newton—WShells from Raised Beaches, Red Sea.

Family STROMBID&.

Strombus fasciatus, Born. (Pl. XX, Fig. 3.)
Strombus fasciatus, Born: Testacea Mus. Cwsarei Vindobonensis, 1780, p. 278
(= lineatus, Lam.).

Distripution.—Red Sea, Gulf of Akaba, and beach deposits of
the Red Sea (Issel) ; Red Sea to Philippines (Tryon). Coll. Geol.
Surv. Egypt: Recent beach between Jebel Mellaha and Jebel Zeit
(No. 2,159, Box No. 107, and Nos. 2,162-2,167, Box No. 217) ; east
-of Gharib (Nos. 2,227-2,254, Box No. 17/) ; south of Gharib light-
house (Nos. 2,198-2,216, Box No. 537); Gemsah, 50 foot beach
(Nos. 2,0381-2,057, Box No. 587); east of Jebel Esh (Nos. 2,172-
2,190, Box No. 647); camp north of Wadi Gueh, west of Kosseir,
80 feet above sea (Nos. 1,655-1,657, Box No. 817); Ras Gharib
and Jebel Zeit (Barron) ; raised beach 80 feet above sea, Camp 6,
Wadi Gueh (No. 1,571, Box No. 38k) ; raised beach, Camp 6, Wadi
Gueh (No. 1,572, Box No. 52k, and Nos. 1,574, ete., Box No. 62k).

Strombus floridus, Lamarck.

Strombus floridus, Lamarck: Hist. Nat. Anim. sans Vert., vol. vii (1822), p. 211.

Distrisution.—Beach deposits near Kosseir (Fraas); Kosseir
and Akaba Gulf (Issel) ; Zanzibar, Japan, Australia to Viti Islands
(Tryon) ; Red Sea, Indian Ocean, Philippines (H. A. Smith). Coll.
Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised beach 80 feet above sea, Camp 6, Wadi
‘Gueh (No. 1,871, Box No. 38k) ; raised beach, Camp 6, Wadi Gueh
(Nos. 1,574, etc., Box No. 62k).

Strombus fusiformis, G. B. Sowerby.
Strombus funfornts, G. B. Sowerby : Thesaurus Conchyliorum, vol. i (1847), pl. ix,
gs. ; 2.

Distripution.—Gulf of Akaba and beach deposits of the Red
Sea (Issel) ; Aden, Red Sea, Indian Ocean, North Australia (HE. A.
Smith). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: Gemsah, 50 foot beach (Nos.
2,031-2,057, Box No. 587) ; Ras Gharib and Jebel Zeit (Barron).

Strombus tricornis, Lamarck.

Strombus tricornis, Lamarck: Hist. Nat. Anim. sans Vert., vol. vii (1822), p. 201.

Distripurion.—Red Sea, Kosseir, Hast Indies, etc. (Issel); Red
Sea, Bourbon, Seychelles, Philippines (EH. A. Smith). Coll. Geol.
Surv. Egypt: raised beach 80 feet above sea at Wadi Gueh,
Camp 5 (No. 1,607, Box No. 847). A large cast in sandstone of
most probably this species from raised beach north of Kosseir (No.
2,187, Box No. 307) ; another cast which may have belonged to this
species or to S. Bonelli, Brongniart, from raised beach 380 feet
above sea near Camp 7, Wadi Shigeleh (No. 1,613, Box No. 65k).

Canarium dentatum, Linneus, var. erythrynum, Chemnitz.
Strombus dentatus, Linnzus: Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 745.
Strombus erythrynum, Chemnitz: Conchylien-Cabinet, vol. xi (1795), p. 146,
pl. exey, figs. 1,874, 1,875.
Disrrisution.—Red Sea to Australia (Tryon); Red Sea, Indian
Ocean, ete. (E. A. Smith). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: east of
Gharib (Nos. 2,227-2,254, Box No. 17j); raised beach 20 feet

R. Bullen Newton—Shells from Raised Beaches, Red Sea. 509

above sea at Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,058-2098, Box No. 187) ;
Ras Gharib (Barron); 50 foot beach, Gemsah (No. 1,626, Box
No. 65k).
Canarium gibberulum, Linneus. (PI. XX, Fig. 2.)
Strombus gibberulus, Linnwus: Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 744.

DistriputTion. — Beach deposits near Kosseir (Fraas, Gray &
Frembley); Red Sea (Issel); Red Sea, Zanzibar to Philippines
(Tryon) ; Aden, Red Sea, Indian Ocean, etc. (E. A. Smith). Coll.
Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised beach 80 feet above sea, Camp 6, Wadi
Gueh (Nos. 1,655-1,657, Box No. 81j, and No. 1,571, Box No. 88k) ;
raised beach, Camp 6, Wadi Gueh (No. 1,598, Box No. 59k, and
No. 1,574, etc., Box No. 62k) ; Jebel Zeit (Barron).

Pterocera millepeda, Linnzus.
Strombus millepeda, Linneeus: Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 7438.
Distrrpution.—Red Sea and Indian Ocean (Issel) ; Indian Ocean
to Philippines (Tryon). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt : 50 foot beach at
Gemsah, south of Jebel Zeit (No. 1,819, Box No. 547).

Family LAMPUSHDA (=TRITONID).

Lampusia pilearis, Lamarck.

Triton pileare, Lamarck: Hist. Nat. Anim. sans Vert., vol. vii (1822), p. 182.

DistrreuTion. — Beach deposits of the Red Sea (Gray &
Frembley, Issel) ; Red Sea to Philippines (Tryon) ; Aden, Red Sea,
Indian and Pacific Oceans, etc. (H. A. Smith). Coll. Geol. Surv.
Egypt: 50 foot beach at Gemsah, south of Jebel Zeit (Nos. 2,081-
2,057, Box No. 587).

Apollon tuberculatum, Broderip.
Ranella tuberculata, Broderip: Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1882, p. 179.

Distrisution.—Red Sea, Indian Ocean, ete. (Tryon). Coll. Geol.
Surv. Egypt: Recent beach between Jebel Mellaha and Jebel Zeit
(Nos. 2,162-2,167, Box No. 217) ; raised beach, Wadi Gueh, Camp 6
(No. 1,587, Box No. 49k).

Family CASSIDIDA.

Cassis (Casmaria) nodulosa, Gmelin.
Buecinum nodulosum, Gmelin: Systema Nature, 13th ed. (1790), vol. i, pt. 6,
p- 3,479.
(Vars. = torquata, Reeve, vide Tryon.)
Distripution.— Red Sea (Issel) ; Port Jackson, Australia
(Tryon); Aden, Red Sea, Mozambique, Andaman Islands (E. A.
Smith). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised beach 20 feet above sea
at Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,090-2,105, Box No. 207).
Cassis (Semicassis) levigata? Defrance.
Cassis levigata, Defrance: Dict. Sci. Nat. (Paris), 1817, p. 210 (= sadwron, Hornes,
non Lamarck).
This species is represented by casts only, hence its identification
is a little doubtful.
Distripution.—Miocene: Vienna Basin. Pliocene: Italian Basin.
Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised beach east of Jebel Esh (Nos.

510 Rk. Bullen Newton—Shells from Raised Beaches, Red Sea.

2.172-2,190, Box No. 647); raised beach 380 feet above sea near
Camp 7, Wadi Shigeleh (No. 1,642, Box No. 42k).

Family DOLITD®.
Dolium variegatum, Lamarck.
Dolium variegatum, Lamarck: Hist. Nat. Anim. sans Vert., vol. vii (1822), p. 261.
DistripuTion.—Gulfs of Suez and Akaba (Issel) ; North Australia

(Tryon). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised beach 2 or 3 feet above
sea-level at Gemsah Bay, near Jebel Zeit, collected by Dr. Hume,

Dolium (Perdix) perdix, Linnzus.
Buccinun perdix, Linneus: Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 734.
DistR1BuTIoN.—Beach deposits on the western shores of the Red
Sea (Gray & Frembley); Indian Ocean to Polynesia (Tryon) ;
West Indies, West Africa, Indian and Pacific Oceans (E. A. Smith).
Ooll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: beach near Dahab, Sinai (No. 4,825, Box
No. 481).

Family FASCIOLARIIDA.
Fusus polygonoides, Lamarck.
Fusus polygonoides, Lamarck: Hist. Nat. Anim. sans Vert., vol. vii (1822), p. 129.

’Disrripution.—Red Sea (Issel); Hastern seas (B.M.); Hast
Indies (Tryon). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: Ras Gharib (Barron) ;
Recent beach south of Gharib lighthouse (No. 2,203, Box No. 237) ;
beach against old island west of Camp 51, south of Gharib light-
house (Nos. 2,021-2,030, Box No. 577); raised beach 380 feet
above sea near Camp 7, Wadi Shigeleh (No. 1,642, Box No. 42k).

Latirus turritus, Gmelin.
Voluta turrita, Gmelin: Systema Nature, 13th ed. (1790), vol. i, pt. 6, p. 3,456.
DistripuTion.—Red Sea, Philippines, Australia, Polynesia (Tryon).
Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised beach, Camp 6, Wadi Gueh (No.
1,597, Box No. 55k).

Family TURBINELLIDZ.

Melongena (Volema) paradisiaca, Reeve.
Pyrula paradisiaca, Reeve: Conchologia Iconica, vol. iv (1847), fig. 17 (= Pyrula
nodosa, Lamarck).

Distripution.—Desert of Attaka and Red Sea (Issel) ; Red Sea
and Ceylon (Tryon) ; Aden, Red Sea, Mozambique, Natal, Ceylon,
Bourbon (HK. A. Smith). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt : Recent beach
between Jebel Mellaha and Jebel Zeit (No. 2,159, Box No. 107) ;
50 foot beach at Gemsah (Nos. 2,081-2,057, Box No. 587).

Vasum cornigerum, Lamarck. (Pl. XX, Fig. 12.)
Turbinella cornigera, Lamarck: Hist. Nat. Anim. sans Vert., vol. vii (1822), p. 105.

Distripution.—Beach deposits near Kosseir (Fraas); Red Sea
and Indian Ocean (Issel) ; Philippines (Tryon). Coll. Geol. Surv.
Egypt: raised beach 80 feet above sea, Camp 6, north of Wadi
Gueh, west of Kosseir (Nos. 1,653, 1,654, Box No. 807); raised
beach, Camp 6, Wadi Gueh (No. 1,595, Box No. 32k).

R. Bullen Newton—Shells from Raised Beaches, Red Sea. 6511

Family MITRIDA.

Mitra Bovei, Kiener.
Mitra Bovet, Kiener: Spécies Général Icon. Coq. Vivantes, monograph Jitra,
p- 9, pl. ii, fig. 5.
DistrisuTion.—Red Sea (Issel, Tryon); beach deposits of the
Red Sea (Issel). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised beach 20 feet
above sea at Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,058-2,098, Box No. 187).

Mitra (Chrysame) rubiginea, A. Adams.
Mitra rubiginea, A. Adams: Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1854, p. 184.
DisrriputTion.—Mauritius and New Caledonia (Tryon). Coll.
Geol. Surv. Egypt: Recent beach between Jebel Mellaha and
Jebel Zeit (Nos. 2,162-2,167, Box No. 217).

Mitra (Chrysame) Ruppelli, Reeve.
Mitra Ruppelli, Reeve: Conchologia Iconica, vol. ii (1844), pl. xxiii, fig. 179.
DistripuTion.—Beach deposits of the} Red Sea (Issel) ; Gulf of
Akaba (Issel) ; Red Sea (Tryon). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised
beach 20 feet above sea, Gharib, lighthouse (Nos. 2,058-2,098, Box
No. 187).
Family BUCCINID.

Pisania ignea, Gmelin.
Buceinum ignewum, Gmelin: Systema .Nature, 18th ed. (1790), vol. i, pt. 6,
p- 3,494.
DistrisutTion.—Red Sea to Philippines (Tryon). Coll. Geol.
Surv. Egypt: raised beach 20 feet above sea, Gharib lighthouse
(Nos. 2,058-2,098, Box No. 187).

Columbella fasciata, G. B. Sowerby.
Columbella fasciata, G. B. Sowerby: Cat. Shells Coll. Tankerville, Appendix,
1829, p. 25.

Disrripution.—Java (Tryon). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: 50 foot
beach, Gemsah (Nos. 2,031-2,057, Box No. 587); raised beach
20 feet above sea at Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,058-2,098, Box
INa-187').

Nassa pulla, Linneus.
Buccinum pullus, Linneus: Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 737.

Distrisution.—Red Sea (Issel) ; Red Sea to Philippines (Tryon) ;
Aden, Red Sea, Java, Philippines (E. A. Smith). Coll. Geol. Surv.
Egypt: east of Gharib (Nos. 2,227-2,254, Box No. 177); raised
beach, Camp 6, Wadi Gueh (No. 1,587, Box No. 49h).

Nassa (Alectryon) glans, Linnzus.
Buceinum glans, Linneus: Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 737.

Distrisution.—Japan, Philippines, Australia (Tryon). Coll. Geol.
Surv. Egypt: Ras Gharib (Barron).

Family MURICIDA.
Murex ternispina, Lamarck.
Muree ternispina, Lamarck: Hist. Nat. Anim. sans Vert., vol. vii (1822), p. 158.

Distripution. — Red Sea to Philippines (Issel, Tryon) ; Red
Sea, Indian Ocean, China, Philippines, Japan (E. A. Smith). Coll.

512 R. Bullen Newton—Shells from Raised Beaches, Red Sea.

Geol. Surv. Egypt: beach against old island west of Camp 51,
south of Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,021—2,080, Box No. 577).

Chicoreus anguliferus, Lamarck. (Pl. XX, Fig. 11.)
Murex anguliferus, Lamarck: Hist. Nat. Anim. sans Vert., vol. vii (1822), p. 171.
Distrisution.—Gulf of Akaba and beach deposits of the Red
Sea (Issel); Red Sea and Indian Ocean (Tryon); Aden, Red Sea,
Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean, Seychelles, Ceylon (EH. A. Smith).
Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: Recent beach south of Gharib lighthouse
(No. 2,201, Box No. 227).

Sistrum cancellatum, Quoy & Gaimard.
Murex cancellata, Quoy & Gaimard: Dumont d’Urville’s ‘‘ Voyage lAstrolabe,””
vol. ii (1832), p. 563, pl. xxxvii, figs. 14, 16.

Distripution.—Philippines to Sandwich Islands (Tryon). Coll.
Geol. Surv. Egypt: beach east of Gharib (Nos. 2,227-2,254, Box
No. 177).

Sistrum elatum, Blainville.
Purpura elata, Blainville: Nouv. Ann. Mus. (Paris), vol. i (1832), p. 207, pl. xi,
fig. 1.

DisrrisuTion.—Philippines, etc. (Tryon); Red Sea, New Holland,
Philippines (HE. A. Smith). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: Ras Gharib
(Barron) ; beach east of Gharib (Nos. 2,227-2254, Box No. 177) ;
raised beach 20 feet above sea at Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,058—
2,098, Box No. 187); recent beach between Jebel Mellaha and
Jebel Zeit (Nos. 2,162-2,167, Box No. 217); 50 foot beach,
Gemsah (Nos. 2,031-2,057, Box No. 587).

Family CORALLIOPHILID.

Magilus antiquus, De Montfort.
Magilus antiquus, De Montfort: Conchyliologie Systématique, vol. ii (1810), p. 42.

Piercing a coral, Celoria Arabica.

DistriputTion.—Red Sea (Issel, Tryon). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt =
Jebel Zeit (No. 780, Box No. 497); beach east of Gharib (Nos.
2,227-2,254, Box No. 177).

Family OLIVIDA.

Oliva (Carmione) inflata, Lamarck.
Oliva inflata, Lamarck: Hist. Nat. Anim. sans Vert., vol. vii (1822), p. 429.

Distripution.—Beach deposits of the Red Sea (Issel) ; Red Sea,
East Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles (Tryon); Red Sea, Persian
Gulf, Madagascar, Zanzibar, Mauritius, Ceylon, ete. (i. A. Smith).
Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: Recent beach between Jebel Mellaha and
Jebel Zeit (Nos. 2,162-2,167, Box No. 217); shore and raised
beach, Ras Mohamed, Sinai (No. 3,530, Box No. 457).

Oliva (Ispidula) ispidula, Linneus.
Voluta ispidwla, Linneus: Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 730.

Distrisurion.—Indian Ocean, Philippines (Tryon). Coll. Geol.

Surv. Egypt: raised beach east of Jebel Hsh (No. 2,172-2,190,
Box No. 647).

R. Bullen Newton—Shells from Raised Beaches, Red Sea. 5138

Ancilla cinnamomea, Lamarck.
Ancillaria cinnamomea, Lamarck: Hist. Nat. Anim. sans Vert., vol. vii (1822),
p. 413 (=erassa and albisuleata, G. B. Sowerby, vide Tryon).

Disrrisution.—Red Sea (Issel) ; Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Zanzibar
(Tryon) ; Aden (E. A. Smith). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised
beach 20 feet above sea at Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,090-2,105, Box
No. 207).

Ancilla (Sparella) acuminata, G. B. Sowerby.
Ancillaria acuminata, G. B. Sowerby: Thesaurus Conchyliorum, vol. iii (1866),
pl. cexiy, figs. 66, 67.

Distrrsution.—Red Sea, Aden, Indian Ocean (HE. A. Smith) ;
Red Sea, Zanzibar (Tryon). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised
beach, Camp 6, Wadi Gueh (Nos. 1,574, etc., Box No. 62k).

Family PLEUROTOMIDE.
Pleurotoma Garnonsi, Reeve. (Pl. XX, Fig. 10.)
Pleurotoma Garnonsi, Reeve: Conchologia Iconica, vol. i (1843), pl. i, fig. 4.

Distripution.—Red Sea to Java (Tryon). Coll. Geol. Surv.

Egypt: Gemsah, 50 foot beach (Nos. 2,031-2,057, Box No. 587).
Family TEREBRIDL.
Terebra Babylonia, Lamarck.

Terebra Babylonia, Lamarck: Hist. Nat. Anim. sans Vert., vol. vii (1822), p. 287.

Distrisution.—China, Viti Islands (Tryon). Coll. Geol. Surv.
Egypt: Jebel Zeit (Barron).

Terebra cancellata, var. columellaris, Hinds.
Terebra cancellata, Quoy & Gaimard: Dumont d’Urville’s ‘‘ Voyage 1’ Astrolabe,”’
vol. ii (1832), p. 471, pl. xxxvi, figs. 27, 28.

Terebra columellaris, Hinds: Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1843, p. 151.

Distrisution. — Moluccas, Philippines, Viti Islands, Sandwich
Islands (Tryon). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: Jebel Zeit (Barron).

Terebra consobrina, Deshayes.
Terebra consobrina, Deshayes: Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1859, p. 306.

Distrisution.—Red Sea (Issel, Tryon). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt :
Recent beach between Jebel Mellaha and Jebel Zeit (Nos. 2,162—
2,167, Box No. 217); Gemsah, 50 foot beach (Nos. 2,031-2,057,
Box No. 587) ; Sinai (Box No. 3,516).

Terebra crenifera, Deshayes.
Terebra crenifera, Deshayes: Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1859, p. 298 (= cingulifera,
Lamarck, vide Tryon).

Distrreution. — Philippines, New Ireland, Viti Islands, China
(Tryon) ; China Sea (B.M.). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: 50 foot
beach at Gemsah (Nos. 2,031-2057, Box No. 587).

Terebra duplicata, Linneus. (Pl. XX, Fig. 6.)

Buccinum duplicatum, Linnzus : Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 742.

Distrisution.—Beach deposits of the Red Sea (Gray & Frembley,
Issel); Gulf of Akaba, Zanzibar, China, Madagascar, Moluccas
(Issel, Tryon). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: east of Gharib (Nos.
2,227-2,254, Box No. 177); Gharib lighthouse, 20 feet above sea
(Nos. 2,090-2,105, Box No. 207); Gemsah, 50 foot beach (Nos.
2,031-2,057, Box No. 587); Jebel Zeit (Barron).

DECADE IV.—-VOL. VII.—NO. XI. 33

514 G. CO. Crick—Locality of Nautilus truncatus, Sby.

Terebra (Subula) maculata, Linneus. (Pl. XX, Fig. 7.)
Buccinum maculatum, Linneeus: Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 741.
Distrreution.—Gulf of Suez, Gulf of Akaba, Society Islands,
Moluccas, Australia (Issel, Tryon). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt:
lower coral reef north of Ras Mohamed or Ghazlandi Bay (No.
3,502, Box No. 411).

(Zo be concluded in our next Number.)

V.—Nore on THE Horizon anv Locauiry or SowErsy’s TYpE-
SpecIMEN OF NAUTILUS TRUNCATUS.

By G. C. Crick, F.G.8., of the British Museum (Natural History).

N4 UTILUS TRUNCATUS was described and figured by

J. Sowerby in the “Mineral Conchology,” vol. ii, p. 49,
pl. cxxiii, April, 1816, his description and remarks being as
follows :—

“Spec. char. Thick, flatted, plain, umbilicate; back flat, mouth
elongated, four-angled: siphuncle nearest to the inner margin of
the septum.

“Syn. Lister, 1048.

“Thickness rather less than half the diameter; the sides are
rather conical and even. Mouth above half the diameter of the
shell, long, narrowest towards the back, siphuncle oval. Septa very
numerous, not recurved towards the umbilicus.

“A fine specimen of this species is figured by Lister, measuring
ten inches in the longest diameter; no doubt, when perfect it is
sometimes much larger: mine is eight inches, I figure a part of it,
as sufficient ; the remainder is a broken continuation of it. I have
never seen the last chamber. This is composed of a mixture of
dark lias limestone and pyrites, found at Keynsham, S.E. of
Bristol. It is also said to be found in the blue lias of Bath, ete.
Lister does not say where his specimen was found ; his figure shows
about three whorls, mine did not expose them; possibly when the
shell is removed the whorls may be uncovered. Mine has fragments
of the shell of considerable thickness about it, indicating that it was
smooth when perfect.”

Sowerby’s type-specimen, of which only a portion was figured,
is now in the British Museum collection (register No. 44,117a).
In his remarks, Sowerby says he had never seen the last chamber,
by which statement he must mean that he had not seen the whole of
the last chamber, for half of the unfigured portion of the specimen
is an internal cast of a portion of the body-chamber, the rest being
composed of internal casts of the last four loculi! or camer. The
umbilicus was evidently closed.’

In his “Supplemental Index” (p. 251) to vol. ii of Sowerby’s
“‘Mineral Conchology,” Farey gives for this species the localities
“Bath W, and Keynsham.”

Usually called ‘ air-chambers.’

* The specimen figured by Lister evidently had an open umbilicus, and, judging

by the figure, it was, I believe, from the Calcareous grit, and is referable to J. de C.
Sowerby’s Nautilus hexagonus (Min. Conch., vol. vi, 1826, p. 55, pl. pxxrx, fig. 2).

G. C. Crick—Locality of Nautilus truncatus, Shy. 515

On account of the horizon and locality that Sowerby ascribed to
this specimen, the species has been usually regarded as of Lower
Liassic age, but the matrix differs entirely from that of the
Ammonites from Keynsham that are in the British Museum
collection, and Mr. Etheridge, who is well acquainted with the
rocks at Keynsham, after examining the specimen, tells me that
it is certainly not from that locality. Moreover, if the specimen had .
been found at Keynsham it seemed to me most probable that there
would be examples of the species in the Bristol Museum, but
Mr. Bolton, the Curator of that Museum, having at my request
looked over all the Liassic Cephalopoda there, tells me that he cannot
find an example of Wautilus truncatus.

During an examination of some Jurassic Nautili in the British
Museum, Mr. 8. 8. Buckman, some time since, suggested to me that
the specimen was not from the Lias, but possibly from ‘the
Fullers’ Earth in the neighbourhood of Midford, containing
Rhynchonella like varians.” With reference to this suggestion
I can only state that there is no record of a Nautilus from
the Fullers’ Earth in H. B. Woodward’s Memoir on the Lower
Oolitic rocks of England and Wales (Mem. Geol. Survey), and so far
as J am aware no example has yet been recorded from that deposit.

Fortunately there are remains of other fossils in the infilling of
the body-chamber of the specimen; these include Rhynchonella,
Myacites, Astarte, Isocardia, Ostrea, a Gasteropod (probably HLulima),
and a portion of a fish-tooth which Dr. Smith Woodward has
identified as Strophodus.

The matrix of the specimen, the mode of preservation, and the
associated fossils led me to think that the fossil was of Cornbrash
age. I therefore carefully examined the Cornbrash Nautili in the
British Museum collection. With one exception these came from
a small pit,! which was temporarily opened some years ago in the
neighbourhood of Bedford, where they occurred with such charac-
teristic Cornbrash fossils as ‘Ammonites’ discus, Waldheimia obovata,
Nucleolites clunicularis, Holectypus depressus, Pygurus Michelini, etc.,
and on comparison I found them to agree in all respects so perfectly
with Sowerby’s type-specimen that there cannot be the slightest
doubt as to the identity of the species. The largest example of this
species in the collection is about 134 inches in diameter.

My conclusions, then, with regard to Sowerby’s type are (i) that it
is not of Liassic age, (ii) that it did not come from Keynsham, and
(iii) that it came from the Cornbrash, but from what locality I do
not venture to suggest.

Mr. E. T. Newton, of the Geological Survey, and Prof. J. F. Blake,
who has quite recently made a special study of the Cornbrash, have
examined the fossil, and I am pleased to be allowed to state that both
support me in my conclusions as to the age of the specimen.

1 This pit was known to the writer as the ‘‘ Midland Railway Pit”’ ; it was on the
south-western side of the town, on the small piece of ground on the western side of,
and adjoining, the main line of the Midland Railway, and between the Kempston

Road and the river. I believe the stone was excavated for building a wall at the
northern end of the Ampthill ‘Tunnel.

516 Notices of Memoirs—Dr. R. H. Traquair’s Address.

INTO MBSR AS) (sy AVVO Liss SS -

athe eae

British Association FoR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE,
Braprorp, 1900.

Appress To THE ZootogicaL Suction. By Ramsay H. Traquatr,
M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., President of the Section. (Slightly abridged.)

(Concluded from the October Number, p. 470.)1

OMING now to say a word regarding the Hlasmobranchii, it is
C plain from the fin-spines found in Upper Silurian rocks that they
are of very ancient origin, and that if we only knew them properly
they would have a wonderful tale of evolution to tell. But their
internal skeleton is from its nature not calculated for preservation,
and for the most part we only know those creatures from scattered
teeth, fin-spines, and shagreen, specimens showing either external
configuration or internal structure being rare, especially in Paleozoic
strata. But from what we do know, there is no doubt that the
ancient sharks were less specialized than those of the present day,
and that the recent Notidanids still preserve peculiarities which
were common in the Selachii of past ages.

If we ask whether the fossil sharks throw any light on the
disputed origin of the paired limbs, whether from the specialization
of right and left lateral folds, or whether that type of limb called
‘archipterygium’ by Gegenbaur, consisting of a central jointed axis
with pre- and post-axial radial cartilage attached, was the original
form, I fear we get no very definite answer from Elasmobranch
paleontology. The paired fins of the Upper Devonian shark,
Cladoselache, as described by Bashford Dean, Smith Woodward, and
others, seem to favour the lateral fold theory, and Cope pointed to
the right and left series of small intermediate spines which in some
Lower Devonian Acanthodei (Parexus and Climatius) extend between
the pectorals and ventrals as evidence of a former continuous lateral
fin. So also, if I am right in looking on the lateral flaps of the
Ccelolepidze as fins, the evidence of these ancient Ostracodermi would
be in the same direction.

But, on the other hand, we have the remarkable group of
Pleuracanthide, extending from the Lower Permian back to the
Upper Devonian, in which the paired fins are represented by an
‘archipterygium ’ which in the pectoral at least is biserial.

From this biserial ‘ archipterygium’ in the Pleuracanthide,
Professor A. Fritsch, ten years ago,” derived the tribasal arrange-
ment of modern sharks, much according to the Gegenbaurian method,
effecting, however, a compromise with the lateral fold theory by
assuming that the Pleuracanth form originated from one, consisting
of simple parallel rods, like that described in Cladoselache.

* The reader is requested to note the following errata in the part of this Address
published in our last number, namely, at p- 465, line 30, tor ‘* Under’’ read
‘* Unless,” and in line 31 delete the semicolon after “ pectorals.”’

* «Fauna der Gaskohle und der Kalksteine der Permformation Béhmens,”’
vol. iii, pt. 1 (Prague, 1890), pp. 44-45.

Notices of Memoirs—Dr. R. H. Traquair’s Address. 517

In my description of the pectoral fin of the Carboniferous Cladodus
Neilsoni,' I have shown that the cartilaginous structures apparently
present an uniserial archipterygium inter mediate between the arrange-
ment in Pleuracanthus and that in the modern sharks, but I felt
compelled to acknowledge that the specimen might also be interpreted
in exactly the opposite way, namely, as an example of a transition
from the ‘ptychopterygium’ of Cladoselache to the Pleuracanth and
Dipnoan limb. And so, in fact, this fin of Cladodus is claimed in
support of their views by both parties in the dispute.

When we add that Semon emphatically denies that there is any
proof for considering that the pectoral fin of Cladoselache is primitive
in its type,’ and that Campbell Brown, in his recent paper on the
Mesozoic genus Hybodus,> supports Gegenbaur’s theory, it will be
seen that Elasmobranch paleontology has not as yet uttered any
very clear or decided voice on the question as to whether the
so-called archipterygium is the primary form of paired fin in the
fish, or only a secondary modification. We shall now inquire if we
ean obtain any more light on the subject from the Crossopterygii
and Dipnoi.

The Crossopterygii are a group of Teleostomous fishes characterized
externally by their jugular plates and lobate paired fins, and repre-
sented in the present day only by the African genera Polypterus and
Calamoichthys, which together form the peculiar family Polypteride.
The. Crossopterygii appear suddenly in the middle of the Devonian
period, their previous ancestry being unknown to us.

Four families* are known to us in Paleeozoic times—the Osteo-
lepide, Rhizodontide, Holoptychiide, and Ccelacanthidee—but it
is only with the first three that we have at present to deal. The
Osteolepidee and Rhizodontide, which appear together in Middle
and die out together in Upper Palaeozoic times, resemble each other
very closely. In both we have the paired fins, more especially the
pectoral, obtusely or subacutely lobate ; there are two separate dorsal
fins, one anal, and the caudal, which is usually heterocercal, though
in some genera it is more or less diphycercal. In both the teeth are
conical and have the same complex structure, the dentine being
towards the base thrown into vertical labyrinthic folds, exactly as
in the Stegocephalian Labyrinthodonts, and this along with the
lung-like development of the double air-bladder in the recent
Polypteridz has given rise to the view that from these forms the
Stegocephalia have originated. The nasal openings must have been
on the under surface of the snout, as in the Dipnoi.

Of these two so closely allied families we must conclude that the
Osteolepide are the more primitive, as in them the scales are acutely
rhombic and usually covered with a thick layer of ganoine, while

1 Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow, vol. xi, pt. 1 (1897), pp. 41-40.

2 “ Die Entwickelung der paarigen Flossen des Ceratodus Forsteri’”’ ; Jena, 1898.

3 “Ueber das Genus Hybodus “und seine systematische Stelle” ’: Paleonto-
graphica, vol. xlvi (1900).

4 Five, if we include the singular and still imperfectly known Tarrasiide of the
Lower Carboniferous.

518 Notices of Memoirs—Dr. R. H. Traquair’s Address.

in the Rhizodontide they are rounded, deeply imbricating, and
normally devoid of the ganoine layer, which, however, occasionally
recurs on the scales of Rhizodopsis and the fin-rays of Gyroptychius.

What, then, of the structure of the paired fins? Fortunately, in
the Rhizodont genera Tristichopterus and Eusthenopteron the internal
skeleton of the lobe was ossified, and what we see clearly exhibited
in the pectoral of some specimens is striking enough. We have
a basal piece attached to the shoulder-girdle and followed by a median
axis of four ossicles placed end to end. The first of these shows
on its postaxial margin a strong projecting process, while to its
preaxial side, close to its distal extremity, a small radial piece is
obliquely articulated, and a similar one is joined also to the second
and third segments of the axis. The arrangement in the ventral fin
is essentially similar.

In fact, we have in the Rhizodontide a short uniserial
‘archipterygium,’ and the question is, Has this been formed by the
shortening up and degeneration of an originally elongated and
biserial one, or on the other hand, do we find here a condition in
which the stage last referred to has not yet been attained? This.
question is inseparable from the next, whether the Rhizodonts or
the Holoptychians form the most advanced type.

The Holoptychiide resemble the Rhizodontide extremely closely
in their external head-bones, in their rounded, deeply imbricating
scales, and in the form and arrangement of their median fins. But
the teeth show a more complex and specialized structure than those
of the Rhizodontide ; the simple vertical vascular tubes formed by
the repeated folding of the dentine in that family being connected
by lateral branches around which the dentine tubules are grouped in
such a way as to give rise in transverse sections to a radiating
arborescent appearance; hence the term ‘dendrodont.’? In this
respect, then, the Holoptychiidee show an advance on the Rhizo-
dontidze—what then of the paired fins? While the ventral remains
subacutely lobate, as in the previous.family, the pectoral has now
assumed an elongated acutely lobate shape, with the fin-rays arranged
along the two sides of a central scaly axis exactly as in the Dipnoi;
and though the internal skeleton has not yet been seen, yet, judging
by analogy, we cannot escape the belief that it was in the form of a
complete biserial ‘ archipterygium.’

What, then, is the condition of affairs in the oldest known
Dipnoan ?

The oldest member of this group with whose configuration we
are acquainted is Dipterus, which likewise appears in the middle of
the Devonian period simultaneously with the Osteolepide, Rhizo-
dontide, and Holoptychiide. In external form it closely resembles
a Holoptychian, having a heterocercal caudal fin, two similarly
placed dorsals, one anal, and circular imbricating scales, which,
however, have the exposed part covered with smooth ganoine. But
now we have the ventrals as well as the pectorals acutely lobate
in shape, and presumably archipterygial in structure; the top of
the head is covered with many small plates, there is no longer

Notices of Memoirs—Dr. R. H. Traquair’s Address. 519

a dentigerous maxilla, the skull is autostylic, and the palatopterygoids
and the mandibular splenial are like those of Ceratodus and bear
each a tooth-plate with radiating ridges.

Now, comparing Dipterus with the recent Ceratodus and Protop-
terus, the first conclusion we are likely to draw is, that the older
Dipnoan is a very specialized form, that its heterocercal tail and
separate dorsals and anal are due to specialization from the con-
tinuous diphycercal dorso-ano-caudal arrangement in the recent forms,
that the Holoptychiidz were developed from it by shortening up of
the ventral archipterygium, as well as by the changes in cranial
structure, and that the Rhizodontide and Osteolepide are a still
more specialized series in which the pectoral archipterygium has
also shared the fate of the ventral in becoming shortened up and
uniserial.

Five years ago, however, M. Dollo proposed a new view to the
effect that the process of evolution had gone exactly in the opposite
direction ;' and after long consideration of the subject I find it
difficult to escape from the conclusion that this view is more in
accordance with the facts of the case, though, as we shall see, it also
has its own difficulties.

I have already indicated above that we are, on account of the
more specialized structure of the teeth, justified in considering the
Holoptychians, with their acutely lobate pectorals, a newer type
than the Rhizodonts, even though they did not survive so long in
geological time. What, then, of the question of autostyly ?

We do not know the suspensorium of Holoptychius, but that of the
Rhizodontide was certainly hyostylic, as in the recent Polypterus.
Now, as there can be no doubt that the autostylic condition of skull
is a specialization on the hyostylic form, as seen also in the
Chimeroids and in the Amphibia, to suppose that the hyostylic
Crossopterygii were evolved from the autostylic Dipnoi is, to say the
least, highly improbable ; in my own opinion, as well as in that of
M. Dollo, it will not stand. And if we assume a genetic con-
nection between the two groups it is in accordance with all analogy
to look on the Dipnoi as the children and not as the parents of the
Crossopterygii.

M. Dollo adopts the opinion of Messrs. Balfour and Parker that
the apparently primitive diphycercal form of tail of the recent Dipnoi
is secondary, and caused by the abortion of the termination of the
vertebral axis as in various ‘ Teleostei,’ so that no argument can be
based on the supposition that it represents the original ‘ protocercal ’
or preheterocercal stage. Very likely that is so, but it is not of so
much importance for the present inquiry, as both in the Osteolepide
and Rhizodontide we find among otherwise closely allied genera
some which are heterocercal, others more or less diphycercal.
Diplopterus, for example, differs from Thursius only by its diphy-
cercal tail, and in like manner among the Rhizodontide Tristi-
chopterus is heterocercal, Husthenopteron is nearly diphycercal, and

1 “Sur la Phylogénie des Dipneustes’’: Bull. Soc. belge géol. paléont. hydr.»
vol. ix (1895).

520 Notices of Memoirs—Dr. R. H. Traquair’s Address.

there can be no doubt that in spite of this their caudal fins are
perfectly homologous structures.

But of special interest is the question of the primitive or non-
primitive nature of the continuity of the median fins in the recent
Dipnoi. Like others I was inclined to believe it primitive, and that
the broken-up condition of these fins in Dipterus was a subsequent
specialization, and in fact gave the series Phaneropleuron, Scau-
menacia, Dipterus macropterus, and D. Valenciennesii as illustrating
this process of differentiation. This view, of course, draws on the
imperfection of the geological record in assuming the existence of
ancient pre-Dipterian Dipnoi with continuous median fins, which
have never yet been discovered. But Dollo, using the very same
series of forms, showed good reason for reading it in exactly the
opposite direction.

The series is as follows :—

1. Dipterus Valenciennesii, Sedgw. & Murch., from the Oreadian
Old Red, and the oldest Dipnoan with whose shape we are acquainted,
has two dorsal fins with short bases, a heterocercal caudal, and one
short-based anal.

2. Dipterus macropterus, Traq., from a somewhat higher horizon in
the Orcadian series, has the base of the second dorsal much extended,
the other fins remaining as before.

3. In Scaumenacia curta (Whiteaves), from the Upper Devonian
of Canada, the first dorsal has advanced considerably towards the
head, and its base has now become elongated, while the second has
become still larger and more extended, though still distinct from the
caudal posteriorly.

4, In Phaneropleuron Andersoni, Huxley, from the Upper Old Red
of Fifeshire, the two dorsal fins are now fused with each other and
with the caudal, forming a long continuous fin along the dorsal
margin, while the tail has become nearly diphycercal, with elonga-
tion of the base of the lower division of the fin. But the anal still
remains separate, narrow, and short-based.

5. In the Carboniferous Uronemus lobatus, Ag., the anal is now
also absorbed in the lower division of the caudal, forming likewise
on the hemal aspect a continuous median fin behind the ventrals.
There is also a last and feeble remnant of a tendency to an upward
direction of the extremity of the vertebral axis.

6. In the recent Ceratodus Forster’, Krefft, the tail is diphycercal
(secondary diphycercy), the median fins are continuous, the pectorals
and ventrals retain the biserial archipterygium, but the cranial roof-
bones have become few.

7. In Protopterus annectens, Owen, the body is more eel-like, and
the paired fins have lost the lanceolate leaf-like appearance which
they show in Ceratodus and the older Dipnoi. They are like slender
filaments in shape, with a fringe on one side of minute dermal rays ;
internally they retain the central jointed axis of the ‘ archipterygium,’
but according to Wiedersheim the radials are gone, except it may be
one pair at the very base of the filament.

8. Finally, in Lepidosiren paradoxa, Fitz., the paired fins are still

Notices of Memoirs—Dr. R. H. Traquair’s Address. 521

more reduced, having become very small and short, with only the
axis remaining.

From this point of view, then, Dipterus, instead of being the most
specialized Dipnoan, is the most archzic, and the modern Ceratodus,
Protopterus, and Lepidosiren are degenerate forms; and instead of
the Crossopterygii being the offspring of Dipterus-like forms, it is
exactly the other way, the Dipnoi owing their origin to Holoptychiide,
which again are a specialization on the Rhizodontide, though they
did not survive so long as these in geological time. Consequently
the Ceratodus limb, with its long median segmented axis and biserial
arrangement of radials, is not an archipterygium in the literal sense
of the word, but a derivative form traceable to the short uniserial
type in the Rhizodonts. But from what form of fin that was derived
is a question to which paleontology gives us no answer, for the
progenitors of the Crossopterygii are as yet unknown to us.

Plausible and attractive as this theory undoubtedly is, and though
it relieves the paleontologist from many difficulties which force
themselves upon his mind if he tries to abide by the belief that the
Dipnoan form of limb had a selachian origin, and was in turn handed
on by them to the Crossopterygii, yet it is not without its own
stumbling-blocks.

First as to the dentition, on which, however, M. Dollo does not
seem to put much stress, it is impossible to derive Dipterus directly
from the Holoptychiide, unless it suddenly acquired, as so many of
us have to do as we grow older, a new set of teeth. The dendrodont
dentition of Holoptychius could not in any way be transformed into
the ctenodont or ceratodont one of Dipterus: both are highly
specialized conditions, but in different directions. Semon has
recently shown that the tooth-plates of the recent Ceratodus arise
from the concrescence of numerous small simple conical teeth, at first
separate from each other.’ Now this stage in the embryo of the
recent form represents to some extent the condition in the
Uronemidz of the Carboniferous and Lower Permian, which stand
quite in the middle of Dollo’s series.

Again, the idea of the origin of the Dipnoi from the Crossopterygii
in the manner sketched above cuts off every thought of a genetic
connection between the biserial archipterygium in them and in the
Pleuracanthide, so that we should have to believe that this very
peculiar type of limb arose independently in the Selachii as a
parallel development. It may be asked, Why not? We may feel
perfectly assured that the autostylic condition of the skull in the
Holocephali arose independently of that in the Dipnoi, as did like-
wise a certain amount of resemblance in their dentition. But those
who from embryological grounds oppose any notion of the origin of
the Dipnoi from ‘Ganoids’ might here say, if they chose, If so,
why should not also the same form of limb have been independently
evolved in Crossopterygii ?

Accordingly, while philosophic paleontology is much indebted to
M. Dollo for his brilliant essay, and though we must agree with him

1 “« Die Zahnentwickelung des Ceratodus Forsteri”’.; Jena, 1899

522 Notices of Memoirs—Dr. R. H. Traquair’s Address.

in many things, such as that the Crossopterygii were not derived
from the Dipnoi, and that the modern representatives of the latter
group are degenerate forms, yet as to the immediate ancestry of
the Dipnoi themselves, and the diphyletic origin of the so-called
archipterygium, we had best for the present keep an open mind.

In his “Catalogue of the Fossil Fishes” in the British Museum
(vol. ii, 1891) Dr. Smith Woodward, following the suggestion of
Newberry in 1875, classified the Coccosteans or ‘ Arthrodira’ as an
extremely specialized group of Dipnoi. At first I was much taken
with that idea, but after looking more closely into the subject
I began to doubt it extremely. My own opinion at present is that
the Coccosteans are Teleostomi belonging to the next order, Actino-
pterygii; but Professor Bashford Dean, of New York, will not have
them to be even ‘fishes,’ but places them in a distinct class of
‘ Arthrognatha,’ which he places next to the Ostracophori (=Ostraco-
dermi), even hinting at a possible union with them, whereby the
old ‘ Placodermata’ of McCoy would be restored. It will, therefore,
be better to leave them out of consideration for the present, pending
a thorough re-examination of their structure and affinities.

We come then to the great order of Actinopterygii, to which
a large number of the fishes of later Paleozoic age belong, as well
as the great mass of those of Mesozoic, Tertiary, and modern times..
Of these we first take into consideration the oldest sub-order, namely,
the Acipenseroidei or Sturgeon tribe, in which the dermal rays of
the median fins are more numerous than their supporting ossicles,
while the tail is, in most, completely heterocercal. The oldest
family of Acipenseroids with which we are acquainted is that of the
Palzoniscide, which, in addition to well-developed cranial and facial
bones, has the body normally covered with rhombic ganoid scales
furnished with peg-and-socket articulations. It endures up to the
Purbeck division of the Jurassic formation, and in the Carboniferous.
Cryphiolepis, the Lower Permian TZrissolepis, and the Jurassic Cocco-
lepis we find the same degeneration of the rhombic scales into those
of a circular form and imbricating arrangement, which we find
repeated in other groups of ‘ Ganoids.’

In these Palzeozoic times we notice also a side branch of the
Palzeoniscide, constituting the family Platysomide, in which, while
the median fins acquire elongated bases, the body becomes shortened
up and deep in contour. A most interesting series of forms can be
set up, beginning with Hurynotus, which, though it has the platy-
somid head contour and a long-based dorsal, has only a slight
deepening of the body, and still retains the paleoniscid squamation
and a short-based anal fin. In Mesolepis, which resembles Hurynotus
in shape, being only slightly deeper, we have now the characteristic
platysomid squamation, and the base of the anal fin is considerably
elongated. Platysomus has a still more elongated anal fin, and the
body is rhombic; while in Cheirodus the body is still deeper in
contour, with peculiar dorsal and ventral peaks, long fringing dorsal
and anal fins, while the ventrals seem to have disappeared altogether.
Here also, as in the allied genus Cheirodopsis, the separate cylindro-

Notices of Memotrs—Dr. R. H. Traquair’s Address. 523.

conical teeth characteristic of the family are, on the palatal and
splenial bones, replaced by dental plates, reminding us of those
of the Dipnoi. Certainly the Platysomida seem to me to form
a morphological series telling as strongly in favour of Descent as
any other in the domain of paleontology.'

If we now return to the Paleoniscide we find that they dwindled
away in numbers in the Jurassic rocks, and finally became extinct
at the close of that epoch. But already in the Lias (leaving the
Triassic Catopteridz out of consideration for the present) we find
that they have sent off another offshoot sufficiently distinct to be
reckoned as a new and separate family, namely, the Chondrosteide,
in which the path of degeneration, in all but the matter of size,
seems to have been entered on.

In the genus Chondrosteus, though the paleeoniscid type is clearly
traceable in the cranial structure, there is marked degeneration as
regards the amount of ossification, and though the suspensorium
is still obliquely directed backward the toothless jaws are com-
paratively short, and the mouth seems now to have become tucked
in under the snout as in the recent sturgeon. Then the scales have
entirely disappeared from the skin except on the upper lobe of the
heterocercal caudal fin, where they are still found arranged exactly
as in the Paleoniscide.

Chondrosteus in fact conducts us to the recent Acipenseroids—the
Polyodontide: (Paddle-fishes) and Acipenseride (Sturgeons). So
the sturgeons and paddle-fishes of the present day would seem to be
the degenerate, though bulky, descendants of the once extensively
developed group of Paleoniscide, even as the modern Dipnoi are
degenerated from those of Palaeozoic times.

In the Upper Permian occurs the genus Acentrophorus, whose
fellowship with Semionotus, Zepidotus, and all the rest of the series.
of Mesozoic semi-heterocercal ‘Ganoids’ is at once obvious. If
we look at the configuration of a typical Jurassic member of this
series, such as Lepidotus or Hugnathus, we shall at once see that we
are a stage nearer the modern osseous fish. Though the scales are
bony, rhombic, and ganoid, we are struck by the ‘Teleostean ’-like
aspect of the external bones and plates of the head, the rays of the
dorsal and anal fins are fewer and correspond in their number to that
of the internal supports or ‘interspinous’ bones, while in the caudal
we see the semi-heterocercal or abbreviate-heterocercal condition.

Then, if we refer to the tail of Lepidosteus itself, we shall observe
how few are its rays and how evident it is that we have here to do
only with the lower lobe of the original paleeoniscoid caudal fin.
For a convincing corroboration of this we have only to look at the
tail of the embryo Zepidosteus as described and figured by Professor
A. Agassiz to see that it in reality passed through an Acipenseroid
stage, and the last we see of the upper lobe of this tail is in the
form of a filament which projects from the top of the original lower
lobe and then disappears.

1 R. H. Traquair, ‘‘ Structure and Affinities of the Platysomide ’’: Trans. Roy.
Soc. Edin., vol. xxix (1879), pp. 348-391.

524 Notices of Memoirs—Dr. R. H. Traquair’s Address.

Again, in these Lepidosteid forms we havea repetition of the same
tendency for the thick rhombic, peg-and-socket articulating scales to
become rounded and imbricating, as we saw in the Crossopterygii
and again in the Paleoniscide. ‘To such an extent does this go that
in the recent Amia, whose skeletal structure so clearly shows it to
belong to this group, the rounded scales are so thin and flexible that
after it was removed from the Clupeoid family, or Herrings, and
placed among the ‘Ganoids,” it was considered to be the type of
a distinct sub-order of ‘ Amioidei.’

As the Acipenseroids dwindled away after the close of the great
Paleozoic era, and are now scantily represented only by the
degenerate paddle-fishes and sturgeons, so the Lepidosteid series,
flourishing greatly in the Trias and Jura, in their turn declined in
the Cretaceous, and in the Tertiary period became about as much
a thing of the past as they are now, the North American Lepidosteus
and Amia, of which remains of extinct species have also been found
in Eocene and Miocene rocks, only remaining. These two genera,
can, however, hardly be called ‘degenerate.’

But that the fishes which succeeded the Lepidosteids in populating
the seas and rivers of the globe were evolved from them there can
be no reasonable doubt, while it is equally clear that they branched
off at an early period, as already in the Trias we find the first
representatives of the order of Isospondyli, which contains our
familiar Herrings, Salmonids, Elopids, Scopelids, ete. For Dr. Smith
Woodward has not only definitely placed the Jurassic Leptolepida
and Oligopleuride in the Isospondyli, but also the Pholidophoride,
which appear in the Trias and extend to the Purbeck. And it is of
special interest that in the Pholidophori the scales are still brilliantly
ganoid, and mostly retain the peg-and-socket articulation, while in the
allied Leptolepid, although they have become thin and circular,
a layer of ganoine mostly remains.

With the Isospondyli we now get fairly among the bony fishes
of modern type—Teleostei as we used to call them—to which other
sub-orders are added in Cretaceous and Tertiary times, and which
in the present day have assumed an overwhelming numerical pre-
ponderance over all other fishes. The prevalent form of scale
among these is thin, rounded, deeply imbricating, and with the
posterior margin either plain (cycloid) or serrated (ctenoid). But
that these ‘cycloid’ and ‘ctenoid’ scales are modifications from the
rhombic osseous ‘ganoid’ type we cannot doubt after what we have
seen. It is indeed strange that the same tendency to the change
of rhombic into circular overlapping scales should have occurred
independently in more than one group.

Incompletely as I have treated the subject, it cannot but be
acknowledged that the paleontology of fishes is not less emphatic
in the support of Descent than that of any other division of the
animal kingdom. The modern type of bony fish, though not so
‘high’ in many anatomical points as that of the Selachii, Cros-
sopterygii, Dipnoi, Acipenseroidei, and Lepidosteoidei of the

Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras, is more specialized in the direction
of the fish proper.

Reviews— Professor Lankester’s Zoology. 525

d5% 22 Wh BEBE We Si

A Treatise oN Zootocy. Edited by E. Ray Lanxkesrer.
Part III: Tue Porirera anp Cauentrerata. By KE. A.
Mincnin, M.A., G. Herserr Fowrer, B.A., Ph.D., and
Gitpert C. Bourne, M.A., with an Introduction by HE. Ray
LANKESTER. pp. vi and 368, with 227 figures in the text.
(London: Adam & Charles Black, 1900.)

ROFESSOR LANKESTER is to be congratulated on the speedy

appearance of another part of his “Treatise on Zoology,” and

it is to be devoutly hoped that the remaining eight parts will

appear with even greater rapidity if the work is to be completed
before the first volumes are out of date.

The present part is of special interest to students of comparative
morphology, since it contains a chapter by the editor on the much
vexed subject of the ccelom. Speculations concerning the origin
and homologies of the variously developed body-cavities found
among the Metazoa have so long been associated with Professor
Lankester’s name that an article giving his latest views on this
subject will command careful attention from all, even although
some may be of the opinion that the present state of our knowledge
concerning these cavities is not sufficient to justify all his con-
clusions. As an argument against the too previous introduction
of the ccelom as a feature of classificatory value, we may compare
the use made of it in the present work with that adopted by
Sedgwick in his recent textbook: the latter authority would exclude
the Platyhelmia, the Nematoidea, the Nemertina, and the Rotifera
from his Ccolomata, whereas Lankester includes all these in his
grade Coelomoccela, a term which he proposes to substitute for the
well-known Ccelomata.

With reference to these new terms, of which there are several,
we should have thought that Professor Lankester’s long experience
as a teacher would have shown him the futility and undesirability
of overburdening a science with new words, especially when they
only serve to replace terms long sanctioned by use, solely on the
grounds that his new words are more expressive than the old ones.
If we were once to commence to replace all the old morphological
terms at present in use which, being invented by our more fanciful
forefathers, are now found through our increasing knowledge to be
deprived of some of their meaning, we should find ourselves lost,
like the modern systematist, in a maze of words, and all solid
work would be at a standstill. While we would deplore the mere
substitution of terms like Coelomoccela for Coelomata and Enteroccela
for Coelenterata, we find no objection to the invention of terms to
express fresh ideas, and it is possible that the term Phlebcedesis,
as applied to the origin of the body-cavity in the Arthropoda and
Mollusca, may be found a very useful one. At any rate, Professor
Lankester’s exposition of his theory of Phlebcedesis is very
instructive.

526 Reviews—Professor Lankester’s Zoology.

This volume is about equally divided between the Porifera and
the Coelenterata, a division which appears to us to be somewhat
unfair, for the components of the latter group differ so much more
from one another than do the various classes of the Porifera, that
in our opinion they should have been allotted a larger ‘space. At
the same time we should not like this to have been done at the
expense of Professor Minchin’s article, which appears to be a most
admirable one, and one that will long serve as a valuable intro-
duction to the study of the Porifera. This article contains a large
amount of original observations and many new figures, but so great
is Professor Minchin’s modesty that only those who have worked
at sponges will recognize the new matter. In dealing with the
histology we are glad to see that Professor Minchin throws con-
siderable doubt upon the special sense-organs and nerve-cells as
described by Stewart, Sollas, and von Lendenfeld, and we could
only wish that Mr. Fowler, in dealing with the so-called ganglionic
cells of the last-mentioned observer in the Hydroids, had been
equally bold.

The great difficulty in these composite textbooks is to mete out
equal treatment to the various groups of animals dealt with, as
each writer has his own ideas on the style of article required, and
we are afraid that both the articles on the Hydromeduse and the
Anthozoa suffer somewhat from a comparison with that on the
Porifera. Those on the Hydromeduse and the Scyphomedusz
especially appear to be far too condensed and hardly critical
enough for this ambitious work; the illustrations of these parts,
too, are for the most part very antiquated.

Perhaps the part which appeals most nearly to the palzontologist
will be that dealing with the Anthozoa by Mr. Bourne. Here,
at any rate, no fault can be found with the age of the illustrations,
almost all of which appear to have been specially drawn for the
article. Unfortunately, owing to the adoption of the half-tone
process, the printing of these beautiful figures has not been always
successful. Mr. Bourne’s article obviously suffers from delayed
publication, and consequently much important work dealing with
the formation and nature of the coral-skeleton has to be briefly
referred to in an appendix. Mr. Bourne has done considerable
work on the relation of the hard and soft parts in the corals, but
we cannot help asking for his authority in his representation of
the epitheca in fig. 28 as a saucer-like structure surrounding the
theca but separated by a distinct interval into which a hollow
reduplication of the body-wall extends.

The present volume contains six chapters, which, with the
exception of chapters iv and v, are separately paginated, and the
contained figures are separately numbered; each, further, is pro-
vided with an index: these indices are sometimes difficult to
find, and we personally should have preferred a continuous
pagination and a general index at the end of the volume.

Correspondence— Captain F. W. Hutton, F.R.S. 527

CORRESPONDENCE.

—

GEOLOGICAL HYPOTHESIS.

Sir,—In the July number of your Magazine, just received, there
is an article called ‘A Word on Geological Hypothesis,” by
Professor H. Macaulay Posnett.t After some admirable platitudes
on the subject of scientific dogmatism, he proceeds to explain why
he has been forced to tender this kindly advice by the following
illustrations.

“Shortly after the Tarawera eruption of June, 1886, some
professors of science proceeded to the Rotorua district and there
held a Maori meeting. The Maoris were told that, the lines of
voleanic energy having such and such directions, they need
entertain no fears of the recurrence of the late disaster— they
might plant their kumeras in peace.’ Hereupon an old Maori chief,
with the usual sagacity of his race, rose and remarked, ‘If the
volcano-doctors know so much about what is to be, what a pity it
was they did not come and forewarn us of the eruption.’ Needless
to say, the ‘volcano-doctors’ had no reply; and in our civilized
views of volcanic forces it would be far better to own ignorance
than to even hint a claim to foresight where it does not as yet exist.”

Now as I am one of the ‘volcano-doctors’ referred to, and
Professor Posnett was at the time in Auckland, 170 miles away,
I suppose I know more about what took place than he does. The
following is a plain statement of the facts. Professors Thomas and
Douglas-Brown, of the Auckland University College, and myself
were commissioned by the N.Z. Government to report upon the
eruption. The Maoris, naturally, were in a great state of alarm.
Many had left and quartered themselves on neighbouring tribes;
and the remainder wanted to leave, but had no land to go to. Under
these circumstances the Resident Magistrate at Rotorua asked us
whether we could help in dissipating these fears. We consented to
try. He called a meeting, and I, as senior, was deputed to make the
speech. I pointed out that as the eruption had only lasted for a few
hours and had been over for more than a week, it was not likely that
it would recur in the near future, as time must be allowed for the
subterranean forces to again accumulate. Even, I said, if a second
eruption should take place it would probably not be a severe one,
like the first, for an opening had been made through which the steam
could now escape. I said nothing about lines of volcanic energy.
The Maoris saw the common-sense of these reasons; their fears
ceased, the runaways returned, and crops for the coming season
were planted. I do not remember being asked why we had not
forewarned the Maoris of the eruption—it sounds like a newspaper
yarn—but if I was so asked, no doubt I made it clear to my audience
that the two things were very different; a point which Professor
Posnett appears not to see.

1 Grou. Maa., 1900, pp. 298-802.

528 Oorrespondence—Mr. F. Chapman.

He then goes on to say: “It is worth adding that, not very far
from the Rotorua district, in the now famous gold-fields of the
Thames, an eminent but dogmatic and hasty geologist many years ago
prophesied that no gold could there ever be found.” As the Thames.
gold-fields were well established fifteen years or more before
Professor Posnett came to Auckland, this charge must rest on second-
or third-hand evidence; for, to the best of my knowledge, the
prophecy was never published. As I was living in Auckland at the
time of the discovery of the fields (1867), I should certainly have
heard of it if any scientific man had said publicly that no gold
would be found at the Thames. When Professor Posnett was in
Auckland be could easily have investigated the truth of club gossip,
and he should have done so before repeating it as a well-attested
fact. I therefore call upon him either to produce his evidence or
to acknowledge that he has done the very thing he is blaming.
geologists for doing, namely, made dogmatic statements without
giving any hint that they may not be true. F. W. Hurron.

CuristcuurcH, New ZEALAND.
8lst August, 1900.

THE AGE OF THE RAISED BEACH OF SOUTHERN BRITAIN.

Srr,—Mr. Tiddeman’s extremely interesting note in the October
Number “On the Age of the Raised Beach as seen at Gower” seems
to be supported by several facts, which I had observed and already
published with regard to the Raised Beach in Sussex. The section
to the west of Brighton exhibits, near the top, a distinctly festooned
arrangement of the lines of bedding, which can be best explained
on the supposition of the occurrence of interbedded ice-masses.’
Another important point is the discovery of two species of Ostracoda
of northern habit in the Sussex Raised Beach. And further, the
Rubble-Drift immediately above the Raised Beach at Aldrington
shows decided evidence of a continuation of a rigorous climate, for
here there are some blocks of almost pure foraminiferal sand, very
friable, but with their own wavy bedding preserved, which leads.
one to conclude that these fragments were transported in a frozen
condition.? I may also, perhaps, be allowed to draw attention to.
the excellent sections of the Raised Beach and Rubble-Drift which
can now be visited at Copperas Gap, near Portslade-by-Sea, but.
which is being rapidly cut away by the work of sand excavation.

FrreprrRiIcKk CHapman, A.L.S.

111, Oaxuitt Roan,
Putney, 8.W.

1 Transactions of the Union of South-Eastern Scientific Societies, 1900, p. 58.
2 Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. xvi, pt. 6, p. 2638.
3 Tbid., pp. 267, 268.

THE

GHOLOGICAL MAGAZINE.

NEW cSERIES.’: DECADE..'V.. VOL: Vill.
No. XII—DECEMBER, 1900.

Srey EG ING Aces ASE LE CGrneesS-

——__>—_—_
J.—On Hyprroparrepon Gorponi.
By Prof. Rupotr Burckuarpt, Ph.D., of the University of Basel, Switzerland.

(Continued from the November Number, p, 492.)

PP the foregoing description I have confined my remarks to the right

side of the skull. The observer will not fail to notice from the
figures the disparities existing in the two sides. This asymmetry
is particularly conspicuous ventrally, the region from which Huxley
principally deduced the arguments in support of his more important
speculations. The area of dislocation, the centre of which apparently
lies in the crater-like opening of the left praesplenial, extends from
the left preemaxillary to the pterygoid in the skull, and as far as the
splenial on the lower jaw. Its place of greatest intensity has been
marked by a + on the figure, where not only the surface of the
bones is most damaged, but where the mandible has been so much
compressed that a crest has actually been formed below the row of
teeth on its outer wall.

The splenial too has been displaced; the pterygoid is broken
across; a deep fissure separates the three inner rows from the
regularly placed outer rows of teeth on the palate-bone.

This dislocation is partly responsible for the deception it caused
in the location of the posterior nares, and for the supposed boundary
of the palate-bone and the maxillary. Huxley himself, in his first
paper, inaugurates the description of the dentition by stating his
inability to find any suture in the roof of the mouth, but he supposed
such to exist somewhere in the groove of the hard gum, into which
the lower jaw is received when at rest.

In his second paper he lays particular stress on the fact of there
being only a single row of teeth tending in a forward direction on
either the palatine or the maxillary. Certainly some of the smaller
fragments show no suture within the denticulated space, but there is
one which runs parallel with and is situated laterally to the outer-
most row of teeth, which can be traced without cutting a cross
section through it.

This leads us to a consideration of the dentition itself. Lydekker
was the first to make known the existence of one to two rows of
detached teeth on the posterior margin of the oral surface in the
lower jaw of the Indian species, next to the palisade-like row of

DECADE IV.—VOL. VIL[.—NO. XII. 34

580 Professor R. Burckhardt—On Hyperodapedon Gordoni.

teeth. Huxley considered that the Indian specimens probably did
not differ specifically from the English specimens, but merely
exceeded them in point of size.

As the two fragmentary specimens of undoubtedly British origin
show exactly the same arrangement in the dentition of the lower
jaw, Lydekker’s contention as to the specific value of the character
of his Indian specimens therefore breaks down.

The study of the lower jaw of Hyperodapedon minor is particularly
instructive in this respect, as the principal row of mandibular teeth
extends backward considerably further than in H. Gordoni.

The dentition of the palate-bones has been accurately described by
Huxley, except in the case of the anterior portion of the right side,
which he states has three rows, of which the middle one is decayed
away, being indicated only by the empty sockets of the teeth. The
regularity in distribution of the teeth is somewhat indistinct on the
left side of the fore-part of the palate-bone, and it appears to me to
depart from the normal plan, a circumstance which I am inclined to
attribute to the local displacement already mentioned. In size the
teeth increase consecutively from the front backwards. Neither from
this fact alone, nor from sections made at a right angle to their
longitudinal line of distribution, is information available as regards
a succession of teeth. But judging from a fragment of H. minor,
containing the germs of the teeth, which have as yet not cut through
the bone, I should infer that this does not point to a real change of
the teeth, but that it rather suggests the mode of a successive
supply of them from the rear, which would continue during the
whole of the animal’s lifetime.

Now, therefore, that the purely palatine nature of the dentition has
been proved, there is no further occasion for assuming a change of
teeth to apply to it in the same manner as that in which it is
accomplished in the maxillaries. Whether or not such a change
of teeth, in its actual sense, takes place in other palatal bones, is
a matter for further examination. Whatever its outcome, it is not
likely to furnish direct counter-evidence against Hyperodapedon,
the apparatus for prehension in which is so markedly different.

The peculiar anatomical structure of this apparatus implies a
number of physiological derivations capable of throwing light into
the vast abyss which divides its dental arrangement from that
of Sphenodon. It would be wrong to imagine the cutting edge of
the lower jaw to move backward and forward in the masticating
furrows opposing it. This would be an utter impossibility on
account of the two furrows converging towards the front. It is more
likely that during the process of attrition, they moved obliquely
across the upper part of the apparatus, and that the furrows received
the lower jaws when at rest, for which purpose they seem to be
provided. This is probably the reason too why the tooth-rows
which flank them are ground down. In further support of this
view of a gradual expansion of the attritive surface in the posterior
portion of the lower jaw, is the fact that it was achieved by an
increase of the tooth-rows. Another reason why this expansion has

Professor R. Burckhardt—On Hyperodapedon Gordoni. 531

been confined to this particular place is, that the mandibular teeth are
in correlation with the presence of a true horned beak, which would
have been a natural obstacle to any development of teeth. In this
way, and further too by the continuous renewal of teeth, another
useful means has been contrived for the process of mastication.

By way of compensation, during the individual development the
dentulous surface was so modified that no disadvantage would accrue
to the animal through the incapacity of the mucous membrane to
remove the worn-down acrodont teeth.

To look for a physiological parallel of this peculiar kind of
dentition it is necessary to go to the Placodontia. Of these latter,
however, the material at my disposal did not permit of a detailed
comparison, but it should be mentioned here that in the Placodonts
the maxillary appears to me to bear no teeth, and to be divided from
the tooth-row by a suture.

Referring specially to the tendency to expansion, within the
dentigerous portion of the posterior part of the lower jaw, by the
introduction of new elements, I remember a parallel case, having
noticed on the vomer-plate of a species of Pycnodon, which is in
the Museum at Basle, that the otherwise regular quinto - serial
arrangement was augmented by an additional tooth in its widest
posterior part.

From the character of the teeth in Hyperodapedon, the question
arises once more as to the natural haunts of the animal. What
is the kind of food required in the case of a placodont animal ?
Generally this consists of Crustacea, Molluscs, Echinoderms, and
other hard-shelled animals. If we take into consideration the
dentition alone, coupled with the extraordinary position of the eyes,
to which may be added the reduction in size of the posterior
extremities, one feels inclined to attribute to it a marine existence ;
more particularly would this be the case if Huxley’s supposition
as regards the length of its tail were confirmed. On the other hand,
the structure of the manus, in which no tendency to a lengthening
of the phalanges can be perceived, is in direct contradiction to this
interpretation.

Hyperodapedon, therefore, and probably also Rhynchosaurus, will
have to be regarded as inhabitants of the littoral. What other
terrestrial animal is equipped with a similar dental structure? Or
what else could have induced Hyperodapedon to frequent the sandy
Triassic shores, from whose strata up to the present no signs of
petrefactions have been procured, except fossil reptiles.’

1 The writer desires to refer to the remarkable discoveries made prior to 1892
in the Elgin Sandstone, Morayshire, which were described by Mr. E. T. Newton,
F.R.S. (Proc. Roy. Soc., Dec. 15, 1892, vol. lii, pp. 389-391; Phil. Trans.,
vol. elxxxiv), in which he enumerates Gordonia Traquairi, G. Huxleyiana, G. Duffiana,
G. Juddiana, Geikia Elginensis, and Elginia mirabilis. Reference was also made
to a form resembling tosawrus (Grou. MaG., 1893, p. 557) named Ornithosuchus
Woodwardi, and to Erpetosuchus Granti (see Proc. Roy. Soc., Dec. 7, 1893,
vol. liv, pp. 437, 438; Phil. Trans., 1894, vol. clxxxv B, p. 573, pls. liii-tvi).
There were probably also two species of Zhecodontosaurus from the Trias of Bristol,
and perhaps a third from Leamington.

582 Professor R. Burckhardt—On Hyperodapedon Gordoni.

I carefully sought for any evidence of dermal ossification, and
detected a few vague signs here and there: for instance, on the
eighth rib of the left side, and on the opposed surface, in the vicinity
of the ends of the eleventh and the twelfth ribs; also, some small
plates of an oval shape on the humeri. Under favourable light the
contours of the body, too, seemed to be indicated, notably in the
interspaces between the ends of the ribs. Finally, as may be seen

from our figure of the counterpart of the right side, a heart-like-

projection can be observed in the blank space near the fourth rib,.
differentiating it from other parts, through absence of matrix in
that place, from which a fibre of the thickness of a finger starts,
tending towards the neck in a decided manner, where it disappears.
again in the slab. I suspect it to have been a visceral organ,
probably the stomach, to judge from its position.

It may be mentioned that there are two specimens of Rhyncho-
saurus in the British Museum in which indications of the skin can
also be traced. lLortet has also already described such structures:
in Sauranodon. In one of the Rhynchosauri, viz. the type from
which Huxley figured its hind-foot (pl. xxvii, fig. 5), the skin is so-
unmistakable that I have reproduced it here.

Fic. 3.—Skin from the posterior abdominal region of Rhynchosaurus articeps-
Two-thirds nat. size. From the specimen ‘preserved in the British Museum
(Natural History).

It belongs to the abdominal region, and vividly recalls a fragment
from the skin of a Lepidosaurian. But on this head I will not
venture upon any evidence of a closer relationship with either the
latter or any of the Rhynchocephalians, since we are yet quite
ignorant as to the skin structures of the Theromorphe. A more
intimate knowledge of the Lepidosauria from this point of view may
even necessitate a change of the name.

Professor R. Burckhardt—On Hyperodapedon Gordoni. 533

The second specimen, disclosing impressions of the skin, is that
which supplied Huxley with the type for tab. xxvii, fig. 2. I have
been able to detect some smaller scales on this near the remains of
the caudal vertebre, but not so clearly to be seen as in the other
example.

I cannot conclude my account of Hyperodapedon without making
afew remarks on the systematic position of the Rhynchosaurians.
Although in the beginning of Huxley’s second treatise he strongly
supports the theory of an intimate relationship existing between this
extinct group and the living Sphenodon, his conclusions, however,
are that they have only the following characters in common with
each other :—

1. A premaxillary rostrum.

2. A longitudinal series of palatine and maxillary teeth, of which
‘the posterior ones receive between them the mandibular row.

3. An abdominal sternum.

4. Absence of proccelous vertebre in the presacral portion.

Of the foregoing characters, number 1 breaks down at once, being
based upon a supposed identity of origin in two totally distinct
structures ; and the second no less so, as will have been seen in our
previous discussion. There remain only the third and the fourth
points, upon which it would be futile to base characters for the
establishment of a closer relationship between them.

Von Zittel, too, ascribes to the Rhynchosaurians affinities with
Sphenodon, and places them nearer the latter than to the remaining
groups of Rhynchocephalians, as does also Smith Woodward.

Boulenger unites the Proterosauride with the Paleohatteride to
form his Proterosauria. Some of the characters which he assigns
to this group are shared also by the Rhynchosaurians, such as the
flattened bone composing the pelvis, and especially the opisthoccelous
vertebra of the Proterosauride. The Rhynchosaurians and the
Champsosaurians are brought under one heading too, with the latter
of which, except through convergence of similarities, they have
really nothing in common. For the reasons mentioned, then, the
classification as proposed cannot be said to be wholly satisfactory.

Recently Fiirbringer brought to a conclusion his comprehensive
systematic treatise on Reptiles, wherein, following Baur, he
separates Hyperodapedon from Rhynchosaurus, and places the family
Hyperodapedontide near that of Proterosauria, and the Rhyncho-
sauridee with the Rhynchocephalia vera. I can only follow the
views of these authors in so far as they are restricted to the closer
relationship existing between Hyperodapedon and the Proterosauridz,
and on account of its being already connected with the latter by the
possession of opisthoccelous vertebra. Otherwise I consider a
separation of Hyperodapedon from Rhynchosaurus entirely erroneous,
and I can find no apology for it on the part of these authors, except
in the insufficiency of the published materials on which they based
their conclusions.

After what has been stated as to the dentition and the characters
of the skull of Hyperodapedon, there exists no further ground for

534 Professor R. Burckhardt—On Hyperodapedon Gordoni.

trying to effect a closer union of the Rhynchosaurians with Rhyncho-
cephalia vera. We ought rather to regard the former family as
a branch, in a wider sense, of the Rhynchocephalian stem, totally
independent of the true Rhynchocephalians, and linked in all
probability in a more direct manner to the lowest organized
Proterosauridee. So long, therefore, as the inferior zygomatic arch
is held to be a differentiating character for the Rhynchocephalians,
the Rhynchosaurians will have to be attached to them and not to
the Theromorpha. At the same time it should be borne in mind
that latterly Baur and Case have excluded Dimetrodon from the
Theromorpha, and have subsequently included it with the Rhyncho-
cephalians, chiefly on account of this character, and it is possible also
that a similar transfer awaits the Hndothiodontide under similar
circumstances. It is to the latter that the Rhynchosaurians appear
to bear the greatest resemblance, but in this case also the resemblance
may be based upon analogy alone.
The principal conclusions I have arrived at are as follows :—

1. All the bones in the skull of Hyperodapedon Gordoni, as seen
in the specimen in the British Museum (apart from the occipital
region), can be identified, except such as may be still embedded
in the matrix.

2. The upper side of the skull agrees with the one known for
Rhynchocephalians, with this difference, that the postorbital is
rather large and removed in position from the orbital.

3. In the lower jaw five bones can be clearly distinguished, to
which an angular should be added, analogous to Rhynchosaurus.

4, The maxillaries are edentulous; the palatines possess numerous
rows of teeth in serial arrangement, which increase in size from
the front to the back. They are not changed, but their number
is augmented in their hinder margins; their complete wear is
prevented by alteration in the position of the attritive surfaces.
The suture between the palate-bone and the maxillary lies to the
outside of the dentigerous portion, and is probably the same in the
Placodontia.

5. Hyperodapedon, together with Rhynchosaurus, forms a separate
group of the Rhynchocephalians, viz. the Rhynchosaurians, which
are connected in a direct line with the lowest forms. This group
has no affinity with the Rhynchocephalians in a stricter sense ;
its analogies with the Chelonians, the Endothiodontide, and the
Champsosauridze are physiological ones.

LITERATURE.

1. Owen, R.—‘‘ Description of an Extinct Lacertian Reptile, Rhynchosaurus
articeps’’: Trans. Cambridge Phil. Soc., vol. vii (1842).

. Huxtry, T.—I. Postscriptum to Sir Rod. Murchison, ‘‘On the Sandstones.
of Morayshire (Elgin, etc.) containing Reptilian Remains’’: Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc., vol. xv (1859), p. 435. Il. “On Hyperodapedon’’: ibid.,
vol. xxv (1869), p. 188. III. “ Further Observations upon Hyperodapedom

, Gordoni’’: vol. xliii (1887), p. 675.

. GuntTHER, A.—‘“‘ Contributions to the Anatomy of Hatteria’’?: Phil. Trans.,.

vol. clvii (1867).

bo

[vS)

Thomas Sheppard—Cryptocleidus in Kellaways Rock. 535

4, Woopwarp, A. SmirH.—Discussion on A. Irving, ‘‘The Red Rock Series,
ete. ’’: Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xliv (1888), p. 163.
5. Lyprexxer, R.—I. ‘‘ Note on some Gondwana Vertebrates’? : Rec. Geol. Surv.
India, vol. xiv (1881), p. 177. II. ‘‘Indian Pretertiary Vertebrata”’ :
Paleontologia Indica, ser. tv, vol. i (1885). III. ‘‘ Catalogue of the
Fossil Reptilia and Amphibia in the British Museum ’’ ; London, 1888.
. ZrtrEL.—‘‘ Palaeozoologie,’’ iii (1890).
. Boutencer, G. A.—‘‘ On British Remains of Homeosawrus, with Remarks on
the Classification of the Rhynchocephalia’’?: Proc. Zool. Soc., 1891,
p. 167.
8. Newron, E. T.—‘‘ On some new Reptiles from the Elgin Sandstones”’: Phil.
Trans., vol. clxxxiv (1893) and vol. clxxxv (1894).

9. Woopwarp, A. Smiru.—‘‘ Outlines of Vertebrate Paleontology,’’ pp. 186-189 ;
Cambridge, 1898.

10. Newton, E. '[.—‘‘ On a remarkable Bone from the Chalk of Cuxton’’: Proc.
Geol. Assoc., vol. xvi (1900).

11. FUrprincer.—Tenaische Zeitschr. fiir Naturw., 1900.

“1m

IJ.—Notes oN some Remains oF CRYPTOCLEIDUS FROM THE
Ketuaways Rock or Hast YORKSHIRE.

By Tuomas SHepparp, F.G.S.

N visiting Brough a short time ago I noticed a small section had
been made on the western slope of Mill Hill, about twenty or
thirty feet below the top. The excavation is made in soft white
sand, which is very ferruginous in places. Beds of hard sandstone,
varying in thickness from one to three inches, traverse it in the
upper part of the section. These beds of sandstone are practically
horizontal, and contain casts of Belemnites Owenti, Gryphea bilobata,
Trigonia, and other characteristic Kellaways Rock fossils. In not
a single instance was a portion of a shell remaining, the whole of
the calcite having been dissolved away. There is only a thin
covering of soil; and this contains numerous pebbles of doubtful
origin, and some pieces of Roman pottery.

The excavated material is sent to Leeds, where it is used by an
engineering firm for moulding.

On examining the pit I noticed a piece of very ferruginous
material. It was of rather peculiar shape, however, and on picking
up further pieces it became evident that they were small fragments
of bone. They had been thrown on a heap on one side, and such
bones as were found had to be picked from this heap ; consequently
their exact horizon could not be determined. Subsequent visits
were the means of finding still further specimens, chiefly whole and
broken vertebra, pieces of ribs, etc. On one of these occasions
a vertebra was noticed protruding from the quarry face, at a depth
of about seven feet; this was in close proximity to the heap from
which the other remains had been obtained. This vertebra was
extracted, and several others were found on the same level, fitting
close together. These vertebrae were nearly circular, and were
without the prominent processes which occurred on some of the
earlier specimens found on the refuse heap. Evidently, therefore,
this was the tail end of the animal, and unfortunately the most

536 Thomas Sheppard—Cryptocleidus in Kellaways Rock.

important remains had already been excavated and were not
preserved. However, the find in the quarry face enables the exact
horizon of the animal to be fixed, and there can be little doubt that
the almost complete skeleton of a huge saurian had been buried,
where it had rested undisturbed from the day it was deposited in
Jurassic times. The disposition of the remains suggests quiet
waters, and subsequent undisturbed conditions.

Below the remains the sand is much whiter and finer, and more
resembles the pure white sand exposed in a section near Sancton
church, a few miles away.

Having been informed that some time previously, when the bones
were first excavated, a few of the larger specimens had been sent to
Mr. W. Richardson, of South Cave, I called upon that gentleman
and found that he possessed three very large paddle-bones, obviously
from the same skeleton as my specimens; these he has been good
to hand over to me.

A selection from the collection of bones has been sent to Mr. E. T.
Newton, F.R.S., of H.M. Geological Survey, and he has kindly
examined the specimens for me. Mr. Newton reports that they
“belong to some animal allied to the Plesiosaurus, and probably
to the one which has been named Cryptocleidus, but the broken
condition of the specimens prevents a certain determination.”
Mr. Newton adds, “such reptiles are known from the Oxford
Clay, but not from the Kellaways Rock,” and in this opinion
Mr. C. Fox-Strangways, who has recently completed a volume on
the Jurassic Rocks of Yorkshire, concurs.

Twenty-five specimens were sent to Mr. Newton, and he has
determined them as under :—

Nos. 1 & 2. Parts of one paddle-bone, femur or humerus.
fe 3. Part of another.
» 4-10. Pieces of above.
c 11. Piece of a jaw.
Be 12. Paddle ossicles.
, 13-21. Portions of vertebre.
» 22-25. Ribs.

No. 11 is very interesting, but unfortunately it is only the
anterior half of the lower jaw, and does not contain any teeth.

In addition to the above there are some dozens of pieces of bone,
principally vertebree and ribs.

The condition of the remains is interesting. Being found in a soft
sandy deposit they were easily extracted, a chisel not being required.
There has been little labour, therefore, in freeing the bones from
the matrix, an operation that would have been exceedingly difficult
had they been in hard rock. It is no doubt due to the fact that the
Specimens are very ferruginous (some being almost like cast iron)
that they are in such a good state of preservation.

Seeing that remains of Cryptocleidus have not previously been
recorded from the Kellaways Rock, it would perhaps be as well
if a word or two were said on the stratigraphical position of these

Thomas Sheppard—Cryptocleidus in Kellaways Rock. 537

particular specimens. The geology of Mill Hill is simple, and may
‘be briefly stated as follows :—

|

ForMATIONS. DESCRIPTION. Wuere EXposeED.

1. Superficial Gravels. | Loose waterworn gravel and In a quarry on the top of the

sand. hill.
2. Kellaways Rock. Hard sandstone with fossils , In the quarry where the
3. Kellaways Sand. Ferruginous sands. 5 | Saurian bones occurred.
4. Great Oolite Clay or | Sand and clay. In a well-section lower down
Sandy Oolite. | the hill.

Or

. Millepore Oolite. | Hard limestone with fossils. | At the base of the hill.

The fact that thin beds of sandstone, with well-known Kellaways
Rock fossils, occur some six feet above the bed containing the
remains, clearly indicates that the bones were found in what is
known as the Kellaways Sands. These beds are well exposed in
the railway cutting at South Cave, a short distance away, though of
this section Mr. Fox-Strangways says,! “the beds [of the Great
Oolite Clay] are so similar to the sands of the Kellaways Rock
above that it is difficult to fix an exact horizon between them.”

The question arises, does the lower part of the section on Mill
Hill, in which the Cryptocleidus remains were found, belong to the
Kellaways Sands or the Great Oolite Clay series? The beds of the
‘Great Oolite Clay (sometimes called the ‘Sandy Oolite’) consist
mostly of sands, clayey in parts.2 This rock, however, occurs
further down the hill. In a previous paper? I have described a well
section that was being made in 1895, which was sunk in the Great
‘Oolite Clay. It showed six feet of stiff blue clay, greatly mottled
and stained with yellow, containing no fossils or stones. Below
this was about three feet of yellow clay; the standing water pre-
vented me from seeing further, but at one end of the heap of
excavated material at the top of the well was a quantity of fine
yellow sand, which had no doubt been taken from below the yellow
clay. This section was some distance down the hill.

At the bottom of Mill Hill are some small exposures in the
Millepore Oolite, whilst at the top I have frequently observed slabs
of Kellaways Rock in the floor of the gravel-pit, hard masses of
this rock evidently occurring in a few places towards the top of
the hill. Taking all into consideration, therefore, there can be little
doubt that the Saurian occurred in the Kellaways Sand, and the
discovery of these relics of Cryptocleidus give that animal a much
earlier and longer period of sojourn upon this earth than previous
‘records, from the Oxford Clay, have warranted.

In searching for records of similar finds previously obtained from

1 «The Geology of the Country between York and Hull’: Geol. Survey Mem.,
1886, p. 22.

2 Loe. cit., p. 22.

3 « Notes on Elephas antiquus and other remains from the Gravels at Elloughton,
near Brough, East Yorkshire’’: Proc. Yorks. Geol. and Polyt. Soc., 1897, p. 222.

538 W. S. Gresley—Coal Plants.

the Kellaways series, I noticed that Phillips, in his “Geology of
Yorkshire,” ! in a list of “ Fossils from the Kellaways Rock,” refers-
to a “coracoid bone? of a saurian animal,” and this is the only
record of any kind that I have been able to find. I thought it
possible that the specimen referred to by Phillips might be in the
York Museum. On communicating with Mr. Platnauer, the Curator,
however, on the matter, he states — ‘Phillips’ ‘ Undetermined
Coracoid’ from the Kellaways is not in our Museum. Indeed, our
collections have no vertebrate remains from the Kellaways Rock
at all.”

It should be mentioned that whilst at Scarborough recently
I noticed two lumps of hard ferruginous rock in the Museum
grounds, the matrix and general appearance of which very much
resembled that of the Kellaways Rock, which is exposed in several
places in the neighbourhood. Hach piece on its broken face ex-
hibited the section of a huge bone, somewhat resembling the paddle-
bones from Mill Hill, just described. A portion of an articular
surface also protruded from one of the pieces. Of course it is
possible that these two Scarborough blocks were found together
in the Kellaways Rock, and it is not even improbable that they
represent the specimens referred to by Phillips. In the absence
of labels or other information, however, we are left in the dark on
these points, but it seems desirable that the specimens should be
recorded.

I1I.—Coant Puants. Inconrrovertisne Evyipence or Growth
IN SITU.
By W. 8. Gresuey, F.G.S., F.G.S.A.

HE fossils to which this communication relates were described
and the deductions drawn from their mode of occurrence in a
paper I submitted to the Geological Society of London in 1896, but as
that paper was not printed in eatenso (see Q.J.G.S., vol. liii, p. 245),

with the Editor’s kind permission the gist of it appears as follows.

I am not aware that entirely satisfactory evidence showing that
any of the coal-forming plants® grew exactly where they occur
to-day as fossils, has as yet been produced. What authenticated
cases of demonstrated growth-in-place coal-forming plants have been
admitted by reliable or competent workers and teachers in this.
connection? While many instances of tree stumps with root-
processes and other forms of vegetation more or less in contact with
beds of coal have been cited in many countries, in no case do they
seem to have contributed coal to the seam, or been found to be
composed of but little else than material foreign to coal (stone,
pyrites, clay, shale, etc.). Many trustworthy observers have pointed
out the danger in taking it for granted that erect fossil stumps met

' 1829 edition, p. 142.

* The term ‘coal-forming’ used in this paper means entering more or less
extensively into, or contributing, material of a coal-like aspect and chemical com-
position, practically the same as the coal-bed in which occurring, with which to help
to pile up or add thickness to the seam.

W. S. Gresley—Ooal Plants. 539°

with in or upon (very rarely in) a coal-bed grew where they now
are; but if a case of growth in place in coal has been or can be
established, notwithstanding the substance of the fossil is rock or
shale, nobody will dispute that the tree or the plant, whatever it
was, did contribute some coaly material to the coal-bed in which it
flourished. Be this as it may, the object of this paper is to record
the occurrence of forms or fossils composed of coal in actual contact
with beds of coal, that unquestionably were plants that grew
absolutely in sit, and thus to establish the fact that some coal-seams,
and typical ones too, are partly, at any rate, composed of vegetal
remains that have lived and died exactly on the spots now occupied
by them. I also want to make it quite evident that the forms to
which special reference is here made grew under water.

Coal.

- Fireclay.

* Black shale.

A’ Coal.

Fic. 1.—Section of Coal and Clay-slate.

The coal-seam A, Fig. 1 (the uppermost few inches of which
appear), is about 6 feet thick: it is overlain by a layer of black,
tough shale (called ‘bone’), B, which is about 2 inches thick.
Over this ‘bone’ comes 10 to 11 inches of mottled fireclay, C, and
the clay is followed by strata of coal and shale for several feet.
These alternations of Coal-measures (Carboniferous), with trifling
local differences, obtain for a very large portion of the area of the
seam, which is the ‘ Pittsburg’ bed in 8.W. Pennsylvania.

An examination of the horizon A-A’—the top of the seam of
coal proper—reveals the phenomenon of the bright, brittle, pitch-
like coal laminz, sending out, or more properly, having developed,
upward swellings, expansions, and horn-like processes D, not only
into the black shale B, but also into the clay C, and in those two
strata dividing, branching, curving, and expanding in a peculiar
but uniformly characteristic manner. This phenomenon is a very
common one; and since these coaly forms extend very much farther
horizontally than vertically, and possess their limbs, lobes, expansions,
branches, leaves, or whatever their parts or processes should be
called, in ever varying shape, position, and trend, any section or
exposure of them shows change and difference in form. In some
places they appear in great profusion, in others are scattered or of
less development and therefore less conspicuous. As to chemical
composition and physical aspect, these strange meandering forms in
the top of the coal-seam differ but little, if at all, from the black brittle

540 W. S. Gresley—Coal Plants.

laminze lower down in the seam, where the forking and curving
phenomena are very much less in evidence. Occasionally one notices
suggestions of a core or centre in these fossils—a little clay or pyrites,
for instance—but the majority of them are composed of compact,
bright, brittle, apparently structureless coal. The exteriors, when
the fossils enter the clay, are always filmed with clay, but seem
quite devoid of markings—are very smooth. A noticeable feature
of the terminals or extremities of the leaves or processes is a tendency
to thicken or become slightly bulbous there. Complete pockets of
clay are sometimes seen in them. When embedded in the coal-seam
they cannot be separated from the matrix. The longest individual
measured over 12 feet; the thickest part of any one, about 4 inches,—
and all compact coal. Rarely one reaches to the base of the coal
above the fireclay C; and here and there specimens seem wholly in
the latter stratum. From an examination of a very large number of
these forms, extending over many years of my professional work
(that of a mining engineer), underground in coal-mines and in clay-
mines, as well as in open-cast workings in coal and fireclay districts,
my conclusion is that in form or shape these fossils resemble, more
than anything else I know of, the fronds of the Elk-horn fern.
Fish teeth, scales, etc., have been found in contact with these coaly
forms.

Viewed or regarded as veins, or in a purely stratigraphical and
physical light, wholly apart from botanical considerations, these
forms or shapes of coaly material, since they intersect the beds B
and C, would be regarded as having been formed there or placed there
since those beds were deposited. But as those forms are presumed
to be of vegetable origin, fossil plants or parts of plants which
evidently contributed coal to the seams A~—A’, two explanations of
their origin are possible, viz.: (1) That they are the drifted and
buried remnants of shrunk-up parts of trees, etc.; and (2) that they
are plants which grew and died where they now are. If the former,

= —S._ ——————— —_ =

——_

1anG Ye

then they became buried before the coal A was fully accumulated,
and therefore before B and before C were deposited ; if the latter,
then we ought to find some tangible proof of the fact in connection
with them. That there is this proof is the burden of this paper—of
my argument. When these forms or fossils are strongly in evidence
and protrude stout processes up into the clay O, two things are

W. S. Gresley—Coal Plants. 541

noticeable: one is that the black shale or ‘bone’ bed is, as it were,
ploughed up and overturned along the sides of the coaly intruders
(see Fig. 2) ; and the other is that ruptured masses of the ‘ bone’ are
seen to lie upon the backs and tops of the more prominent expansions
(see D, Fig. 2), making it perfectly plain that these plants, in pushing
their way upwards, carried patches or strips of the layer B with
them in the water (they must have been under water) or slime in
which they were growing. I fail to see how one could wish for
a more striking demonstration of expansive or upward growth of
plants absolutely in place of growth than such as this figure is typical
of. What other explanation, I ask, will be satisfactory ?

But if we would attempt to account for this phenomenon by
supposing the forms were in place before the bone layer was
deposited, its deposition would have been a horizontal, even, or
unbroken one, and the projecting (? woody) processes, such as D,
Fig. 2, would have stood up through or been left bare of it, as
suggested in Fig. 1. But we are not left to conjecture upon this
point. Look at the conditions or the phenomenon sketched in Fig. 8,

Idnés, Bh

for clearly here we have one of these forms, D, actually arrested as
it were in the act of rupturing the bone layer B. That that stratum
was undergoing Jateral stretching, amounting to tearing it asunder
at E and F, as well as crumpling or thrusting it aside at G, when
overwhelmed or when solidification took place, and that the cause of
the rending and twisting was the lateral thrust from the extension
towards G of the form, or coal-plant growth, D, is to my mind
perfectly clear, admitting of no other explanation when taken in
conjunction with the phenomena illustrated in Figs. 1 and 2, besides
other facts to be noted.

Having these forms of coaly material interlaminated or inter-
stratified with the body of the coal-seam in a descending direction,
and inseparably connected stratigraphically and physically in the
opposite direction with the beds immediately overlying the coal-
seam, to draw a hard and fast line between the coal-bed and the
clay above it is impossible. The conclusion, then, is, that growth
in siti, for a part at least, of the seam of coal, must be granted, even
by those who would prefer what we call the ‘drift theory.’ Another

542 W. S. Gresley—Coal Plants.

point that seems to admit of no question is this: that since these
coaly forms grew in place, that ‘place’ cannot have been other than
under water, for the reason that the black slime, the stratum B,
must have been an aquatic deposit : so that our ‘coaly forms’ were
denizens of mud and presumably of water too.

Other facts may be cited in this connection. The underclay or
‘seat earth’ of the No. 2 coal-bed in Illinois—a seam far-reaching in
extent and of wonderfully uniform thickness and character as regards
floor, coal, and roof—in very many places is penetrated-by ‘coaly
forms’ possessing the same facies and characteristics as those we
have been considering in the ‘Pittsburg’ seam. If the reader will
look at Figs. 1, 2, and 3 upside down, and disregard the bed B, the
general aspect of these forms, in vertical sections, will appear. In
other words, they are grown to the coal-bed, and protrude twisty and
horny sheets of compact bright coal in every variety of shape and
direction into the underclay ; thus making it evident that they were
formed exactly where they are now, and that some of the laminations
of the coal-bed also, as plants or parts of plants, lived and died in
place of growth. The characteristic markings of Siigmaria have also
been observed in this underclay, but so totally different are the two
fossils or objects and their state of preservation, that to get confused
in tracing them is impossible. Here, then, also we cannot escape the
inference that these coaly forms were plants of aquatic habitat ; and
although admitting some shrinkage or reduction in bulk to have
taken place during conversion from vegetal matter into brittle
material resembling coal, it is evident that comparatively little
shrinkage did obtain.

Besides the above localities that have produced this kind of coal-
bed formation phenomena, the author has discovered very similar
fossils in contact with three or four coal-beds in the Leicestershire
and South Derbyshire Coalfield ; in fact, it was in the mines in this
district that they first attracted his attention.

Doubtless similar forms exist in other regions, and the discovery
and study of them will yet furnish valuable facts in this line. I am
fully aware that if the paleobotanist and microscopist were to pass
judgment on my observations and conclusions, they would say the
case was ‘not proven’; but my contention or claim is this: that no
matter what the anatomy and internal organization of these forms
was and may yet be found to show, the stratigraphical evidence is
clearly pronounced, unmistakable, and altogether in favour of my
contention. Further, I hold this: that science does not demand
a demonstration—a knowledge—of the anatomical structure of an
extinct plant or animal to prove or claim the existence or discovery
of a new species or genus when the shape or form (cast or mould, etc.)
of such make it evident that something new has turned up. But
time will show whether or not I have come upon something new or
important in this interesting question of coal-bed formation. If
I have made my claim good, it is for those who may refuse to accept
it to show that these fossils did not have the attributes and environ-
ment herein described or suggested.

H. B. Woodward—Greywether or Sarsen-stone. 543

TV.—A GREYWETHER At SoutH KeEnsIneTon.
By H. B. Woopwarp, F.R.S.

N the Grotoeican Macazine for March, 1891, p. 119, I drew
attention to the occurrence of a large Greywether in Moscow
Street, Bayswater. Another and smaller example has lately been
discovered in the foundations for the new buildings of the Victoria
and Albert Museum, South Kensington. The excavations show :
Made ground and soil, about 5 feet.
Gravel, full thickness about 20 feet.
London Clay with cement stones.

Greywether or Sarsen-stone from the Gravel. Victoria and Albert Museum, South
Kensington. (One-twelfth natural size.)

The Greywether was found at the south-western part of the site,
ten feet trom the surface, and at a depth of five feet below the top
of the undisturbed gravel. In size it is 3 ft. 10in. by 3 ft. 3in. and
2 ft., according to the greatest measurements, but the stone is
somewhat irregular in shape and the bulk is less than these full
measurements would indicate.1 The stone is a somewhat coarse
sandstone, with the grains more distinct than in many examples
of Greywether or Sarsen-stone. One side is much smoothed and
almost polished, as if by wind-drifted sand. The block may have
been formed in the Bagshot Sand, and may have long remained on
the surface of the land in Pre-Glacial times, a relic of Eocene strata
the denudation of which took place partly during the Miocene and

1 Mr. C. Barlow, Mason-Formatore in the Geological Department, estimates the
cubic contents of the ‘ Sarsen-stone’ at from 10 to 11 feet, and its weight from
135 cwt. to 14 cwt.

544 R. Bullen Newton—Shells from Raised Beaches, Red Sea.

Pliocene periods. It may have been shifted and incorporated im
glacial drift, and afterwards dislodged and transported by river-ice,
and thus transferred to the wide-spreading gravels of the Thames.
Valley. It is, however, impossible to speak precisely of its past
history. The fact of its occurrence is interesting, as Mr. Whitaker
has remarked -that such blocks ‘‘ occur somewhat rarely in our River
Gravel.” An example fully three feet across was, however, noticed
by Mr. J. Allen Brown at Alperton, in the Brent Valley, and other
records have been published.’

The specimen to which attention is now directed was observed by
Colonel C. K. Bushe, F.G.S., and he lost no time in securing it and’
in presenting it to the British Museum of Natural History, Cromwell
Road, where it will be preserved and placed in the Garden on the
eastern side near the Fossil Tree from Craigleith, Edinburgh, and
not very far from the spot where it was discovered in the Gravel.

V.—PLEISTOCENE SHELLS FROM THE RatsED Beacnu Deposits oF
THE Rep Sra.
By R. Burien Newron, F.G.S8., of the British Museum (Natural History).
(Concluded from the November Number, p. 514.)
(PLATES XX-XXIT.)
Family CONID/E.
Conus flavidus, Lamarck.
Conus flavidus, Lamarck: Hist. Nat. Anim. sans Vert., vol. vii (1822), p. 468.
Distrisution.—Red Sea, East Africa, Ceylon, Java, ete. (Tryon) ;.
Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Hast Africa, Polynesia, Fiji Islands, ete.
(KE. A. Smith). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised beach 80 feet.
above sea, Camp 6, north of Wadi Gueh, west of Kosseir (Nos..
1,651, 1652, Box No. 797).
Conus miliaris, Hwass.
Conus miliaris, Hwass.: Encyclop. Méthodique, 1792, vol. i (vers), p. 629.
Distrrpution.—Red Sea to Sandwich Islands (Tryon). Coll.
Geol. Surv. Egypt: beach east of Gharib (Nos. 2,227-2,254, Box.
No. 177).

Conus monachus, Linnzeus.
Conus monachus, Linneus: Systema Natur, 10th ed. (1758), p. 714.
Distrisution.— Philippines and New Caledonia (Tryon). oll.
Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised beach 80 feet above sea, Camp 6, north
of Wadi Gueh, west of Kosseir (Nos. 1,651, 1,652, Box No. 797);
raised beach, Camp 6, Wadi Gueh (Nos. 1,591 and 1,567, Box
No. 30k).
Conus nussatella, Linneus. (Pl. XX, Fig. 8.)
Conus nussatella, Linneus: Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 716.
Distripution.—Beach deposits of Red Sea (Gray & Frembley,
Issel) ; Red Sea to Polynesia (Tryon); Aden, Red Sea, East Africa,
Ceylon, Java, Philippines, North Australia, Polynesia (E. A. Smith).
Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: beach east of Gharib (Nos. 2,227-2,254,
* See Whitaker: ‘Geology of London,”’ vol. i, pp. 330, 362, 449 ete.

Geol. Mag. 1900. Decade IV.Vol.VII.PILAX.

AF

San weer eens

G.M Woodward del.et lith

Modern Shells from Red Se

Z

R. Bullen Newton—Shells from Raised Beaches, Red Sea. 545

Box No. 177); raised beach 20 feet above sea at Gharib lighthouse
(Nos. 2,058-2,098, Box No. 187); raised beach 80 feet above sea,
Camp 6, north of Wadi Gueh, west of Kosseir (Nos. 1,653, 1,654,
Box No. 807); raised beach, Wadi Gueh, Camp 6 (Nos. 1,591 and
1,567, Box No. 30k).

Conus omaria, Hwass. (PI. XX, Fig. 9.)
Conus omaria, Hwass.: Encyclop. Méthodique, 1792, vol. i (vers), p. 743
(= pennaceus, Born, vide Tryon).

Disrripution.—Red Sea, Philippines (Tryon). Coll. Geol. Surv.
Egypt: 50 foot beach, Gemsah (Nos. 2,031-2,057, Box No. 587);
raised beach, Camp 6, Wadi Gueh (Nos. 1,591 and 1,567, Box
No. 30k).

Conus generalis, Linnzus.

Conus generalis, Linneeus: Systema Nature, 12th ed. (1767), vol. i, pt. 2, p. 1,166.

Distrrsution.—Beach deposits of the western shore of Red Sea
(Gray & Frembley); Red Sea, Ceylon, Hast Africa, Philippines,
New Caledonia (Tryon); Aden, Red Sea, Ceylon, Hast Africa,
Philippines, etc. (E. A. Smith). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: Ras
Gharib (Barron).

Conus textile, Linnzus.
Conus textile, Linneeus: Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 717.

Distripution.—Red Sea, Indian Ocean, Philippines, Polynesia,
Aden (E. A. Smith); beach deposits, western borders of Red Sea
(Gray & Frembley) ; Red Sea, Mauritius, Philippines, etc. (Tryon).
Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised beach 80 feet above sea, Camp 34,
Wadi Gueh (No. 1,608, Box No. 54k).

Conus tessellatus, Bruguiére.

Conus tessellatus, Bruguiére: Encyclop. Méthodique, 1792, pl. ecexxvi, fig. 7.

DistriputTion.—Beach deposits, western shores of Red Sea (Gray
and Frembley) ; Gulf of Akaba and Red Sea beach deposits (Issel) ;
Aden, Pidang, Sumatra (HE. A. Smith); Red Sea (B.M.); Red Sea,
Mauritius, Ceylon, Philippines, etc. (Tryon). Coll. Geol. Surv.
Egypt: raised beach 80 feet above sea, Camp 5, Wadi Gueh (No.
1,608, Box No. 54k).

Conus virgo, var. emaciatus, Reeve.

Conus virgo, Linneus: Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 713.
Conus emaciatus, Reeve : Conchologia Iconica, 1849, Suppl., pl. v, fig. 248.

Disrrisution.— Philippines (B.M.) ; Java, Philippines, Australia,
Polynesia (Tryon). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised beach, Wadi
Gueh, Camp 6 (Nos. 1,591 and 1,567, Box No. 30k).

Family BULLIDA.
Bulla ampulla, Linnzus.
Bulla ampulla, Linneus : Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 727.

Distrieution.—Beach deposits western borders of Red Sea (Gray
and Frembley); desert of Attaka, near Suez (Issel) ; Aden, Indian
and Pacific Oceans (H. A. Smith). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: Jebel
Zeit (Barron) ; raised beach 20 feet above sea at Gharib lighthouse

DECADE IV.—VOL. VII.—NO. XII. 35

546 BR. Bullen Newton—Shells from Raised Beaches, Red Sea.

(Nos. 2,058-2,098, Box No. 187); beach against old island west of
Camp 51, south of Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,021-2,030, Box No.
57); raised beach 80 feet above sea, Camp 6, north of Wadi Gueh,
west of Kosseir (Nos. 1,651, 1,652, Box No. 797).

Class SCAPHOPO DA.
Family DENTALIID.

Dentalium octogonum, Lamarck.
Dentalium octogonum, Lamarck: Hist. Nat. Anim. sans Vert., vol. v (1818), p. 344.
DistriputTion.—Red Sea and Persian Gulf, and Red Sea beach
deposits (Issel). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: Ras Gharib (Barron) ;
raised beach 20 feet above sea, Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,058-2,098,
Box No. 187).

Class LAMELLIBRANCHIATA.

Family ARCIDA.

Arca imbricata, Bruguiére.

Arca imbricata, Bruguitre: Encyclop. Méthodique, 1789, vol. i (vers), p. 98.

Distripution.—West Indies, Fernando Noronha, South Africa,
Indian Ocean, Australia, Aden (EH. A. Smith); Philippines, Zanzibar,
etc. (B.M.). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised beach 20 feet above
sea at Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,058-2,098, Box No. 187) ; 50 foot
beach, Gemsah (Nos. 2,031-2,057, Box No. 587); raised beach,
Camp 6, Wadi Gueh (Nos. 1,562 and 1,564, Box No. 614).

Arca rotundicostata, Reeve.

Arca rotundicostata, Reeve: Conchologia Iconica, vol. ii (1844), pl. vii, fig. 46.

Disrrisurion. — Locality unknown (B.M.). Coll. Geol. Surv.
Egypt: plain between Ras Gemsah and Jebel Zeit (No. 2,224, Box
No. 127).

Arca squamosa, Lamarck.

Area squamosa, Lamarck: Hist. Nat. Anim. sans Vert., 1819, p. 45, vol. vi, pt. 1.

Distripution.—Suez, Australia (Issel). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt:
raised beach 20 feet above sea at Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,058—
2,098, Box No. 187).

Anadara antiquata, Linneus. (Pl. XXI, Fig. 6.)
Areca antiquata, Linneeus: Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 694.

Distripution.—Beach deposits, western shore of Red Sea (Gray
and Frembley) ; Australia, Indian Ocean, Mozambique (E. A. Smith).
Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: Recent beach south of Gharib lighthouse
(Nos. 2,198-2,216, Box No. 537); raised beach 80 feet above sea,
Camp 6, north of Wadi Gueh, west of Kosseir (No. 1,644, Box
No. 747); raised beach, Camp 6, Wadi Gueh (No. 1,601, Box
No. 56k; Nos. 1,562 and 1,564, Box No. 61h).

Anadara radiata, Reeve.

Arca radiata, Reeve: Conchologia Iconica, vol. ii (1844), pl. vi, fig. 40 (=scapha,
Issel, non Chemnitz).

Disrripution.—Gulf of Akaba, Suez (Issel). Coll. Geol. Surv.
Egypt: plain between Ras Gemsah and Jebel Zeit (No. 2,228, Box

R. Bullen Newton—Shells from Raised Beaches, Red Sea. 547

No. 97); young forms from raised beach east of Jebel HEsh (Nos.
2,172-2,190, Box No. 647); 50 foot beach, Gemsah (Nos. 2,031-
2,057, Box No. 587); beach No. 2, north-west of Camp 40, plain
east of Jebel Mellaha, east of Red Sea Hills (No. 2,256, Box
No. 26h) ; Ras Shokair, west coast of the Gulf of Suez, north-east of
Camp 50 (No. 2,267, Box No. 37h).

Barbatia lima, Reeve.
Area lima, Reeve: Conchologia Iconica, vol. ii (1844), pl. xv, fig. 101.

Distrreution.—Philippine Islands, Cape York, Aden (H. A. Smith).
Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: beach east of Gharib (Nos. 2,227-2,254,
Box No. 177); raised beach 20 feet above sea at Gharib lighthouse
(Nos. 2,058-2,098, Box No. 187; Nos. 2,090-2,105, Box No. 207) ;
raised beach, Camp 6, Wadi Gueh (No. 1,601, Box No. 56k; Nos.
1,562 and 1,564, Box No. 61k).

Glycymeris' pectunculus, Linneus. (Pl. XXI, Fig. 7.)
Arca pectunculus, Linneus: Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 695 (=pectini-
formis, Lamarck).

DistrrpuTion.—Bengal, Suez Bay, Gulf of Akaba, Persian Gulf,
Madagascar (E. A. Smith) ; beach deposits, western shore of
Red Sea (Gray & Frembley, Issel); Gulf of Akaba, Suez Bay,
Philippines (Issel). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: beach east of
Gharib (Nos. 2,227-2,254, Box No. 17/7); Recent beach south of
Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,198-2,216, Box No. 537) ; 50 foot beach,
Gemsah (No. 2,043, Box No. 637); big bay south of Sherm, Sinai
(No. 8.527, Box No. 441) ; a young form from raised beach east of
Jebel Esh (Nos. 2,172-2,190, Box No. 647).

Family MYTILIDA.

Septifer bilocularis, Linnzus.
Mytilus bilocularis, Linneeus: Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 705.
Distrisution.—Africa, etc. (B.M.). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt:
raised beach 20 feet above sea at Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,058-
2,098, Box No. 187).
Septifer excisus, Wiegmann.
Tichogonia excisa, Wiegmann: Archiv Naturgeschichte (Wiegmann), 1837, p. 49.
DistripuTion.—Beach deposits of the Red Sea (Issel); Aden,
Madagascar, Mauritius, Mozambique, etc. (E. A. Smith). Coll.
Geol. Surv. Egypt: beach east of Gharib (Nos. 2,227—-2,254, Box
No. 177).
Volsella® auriculata, Krauss.
Modiola auwriculata, Krauss: Die Siidafrikanischen Mollusken, 1848, p. 20, pl. ii,

ge.

Distrrpution.—Aden, South and East Africa, Gulf of Suez
(E. A. Smith); Red Sea (B.M.). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised
beach 20 feet above sea, Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,058-2,098, Box
No. 187).

1 Glycymeris, Da Costa, 1778 = Peetunculus, Lamarck, 1799, and Avinea, Poli,

95

2 Volsella, Scopoli, 1777 = Modiolus, Lamarck, 1799.

548 R. Bullen Newton—Shells from Raised Beaches, Red Sea.

Lithophaga Avitensis, Mayer-Eymar.
Lithodomus Avitensis, Mayer-Eymar, in Hornes’ “‘ Foss. Moll. Tert.-Beck. Wien.”:
Abhandl. k.k. geol. Reichs., 1867, p. 364, pl. xlv, fig. 12.

This species is represented by some excellent casts showing
ornamentation and form.

Disrrrpution.—Miocene of Germany (Mayer-Eymar); Pliocene
of Italy (Pantanelli, etc.). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: Ras Shokhair,
west coast of the Gulf of Suez, north-east of Camp 50 (No. 2,265,
Box No. 35h); raised beach 380 feet above sea, near Camp 7, Wadi
Shigeleh (No. 1,662, Box No. 64k).

Lithophaga Lessepsianus? Vaillant.
Savieny’s Desc. de l’Egypte, 1817, pl. xi, fig. 3.
Lithophagus Lessepsianus, Vaillant: Journ. Conchyliologie, 1865, p. 11d.
Represented by a cluster of young forms in coral crypts, resting
on matrix, probably belonging to this species.
Disrrisution. —Gulf of Suez (Vaillant). Coll. Geol. Surv.
Keypt: raised beach north of Kosseir (No. 2,111, Box No. 467).

Lithophaga Lyellanus, Mayer-Hymar.
Lithodomus Lyellanus, Mayer-Kymar: in Hartung’s ‘‘Geol. Beschr. Madeira,’”
1864, p. 218, pl. iv, fig. 23.

A species of less cylindrical shape than L. Avitensis, otherwise
closely related; represented by casts only.

Disrrisurion.—Tertiary : Madeira (Mayer-Eymar). Coll. Geol.
Surv. Egypt: raised beach north of Kosseir (Nos. 2,121-2,138, Box.
No. 507).

Family OSTREID.
Alectryonia cucullata? Born.
Ostrea eee, Born: Testacea Mus. Ceesarei Vindobonensis, 1780, p. 114, pl. vi,
gs. 11, 12.

Represented by some young examples of a plicated oyster, which
may probably belong to this species.

Disrrrpution.—Red Sea, etc. ; and in the later Tertiary formations
of Italy, Algeria, Egypt, etc. Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised
beach 20 feet above sea, Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,058-2,098, Box
No. 187; Nos. 2,090-2,105, Box No.. 207).

Alectryonia crenulifera, G. B. Sowerby.
Ostrea Rye G. B. Sowerby: Conchologia Iconica, vol. xviii (1871), pl. xxvii,.
g.

An example consisting of a single valve externally covered with
several small Balani.

Distrisution.—Red Sea (B.M. and G. B. Sowerby). Coll. Geol.
Surv. Egypt: raised beach north of Kosseir (Nos. 2,121-2,138, Box
No. 507).

Alectryonia plicatula, Gmelin.
Ostrea plicatula, Gmelin: Systema Naturx, 13th ed. (1790), p. 8,336.

Distrisution. — Mediterranean, Atlantic and Indian Ocean ;
Miocene to Saharian of Italy, Egypt, ete. (Mayer-Hymar). Coll.
Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised beach north of Kosseir ; an adult

R. Bullen Newton—Shells from Raised Beaches, Red Sea. 6549

‘specimen and some young forms (No. 2,109, Box No. 327; Nos.

2,121-2,138, Box No. 507).

Alectryonia, allied to crista-galli, Linneus. (Pl. XXII, Figs. 5, 6.)
Mytilus crista-galli, Linneeus: Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 704.

A short, deeply plicated form, ornamented with wide transverse
lamella. Cardinal line horizontal, with a small central triangular
ligamental area. There is only one specimen of this shell in the
collection, both valves being in contact, one being rather fragmentary.
It is, however, particularly well marked, and appears to be inter-
mediate between A. crista-galli and A. turbinata, Lamarck (Hist.
Nat. Anim. sans Vert., 1819, vol. vi, pt. 1, p. 212), both of which
are Indian Ocean species and prominently plicated. This example
is probably an extinct form.

Drvenstons.—Height 45 mm., width about 40 mm.

Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised beach north of Kosseir (Nos.
2,121-2,158, Box No. 507).

Alectryonia Virleti, Deshayes.
Ostrea Virleti, Deshayes: Expéd. Sci. Morée, vol. iii (1833), pt. 1 (Mollusques),
pp- 122-124, pl. xxi, figs. 1-6.

This species is accompanied by casts of Anadara radiata, Dosinia
radiata, Levicardium like oblongum, etc.

Distrisution.—Miocene of Morea (Deshayes); Armenia (Abich) ;
Persia (Fuchs); Egypt (Fuchs, etc.); Pliocene of Italy (Gregorio,
etc.). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: plain east of Jebel Mellaha, low
range east of Red Sea Hills (No. 2,255, Box No. 33h); beach No. 2,
north-west of Camp 40, plain east of Jebel Mellaha, east of Red Sea
Hills (No. 2,193, Box No. 30h); foothills of Jebel Dara, Wadi Dara
(No. 2,261, Box No. 3h). The specimen from the last-mentioned
locality consists of a fragmentary valve, and is therefore of doubtful
determination.

Family PECTINIDA.

Pecten lividus, Lamarck.
Pecten lividus, Lamarck: Hist. Nat. Anim. sans Vert., vol. vi (1819), pt.1, p. 178.

A fragment of this species partly encrusted with a small form of
Balanus.

Disrrrpution.—Red Sea, Mauritius, Aden (E. A. Smith); Red
Sea (Issel). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised beach north of Kosseir
(Nos. 2,121-2,138, Box No. 507).

Pecten Vasseli, Fuchs. (Pl. XXII, Figs. 7-9.)
Pecten Vasseli, Fuchs: Denksch. Math. nat. Cl. k. Ak. Wiss., vol. xxxvili (1877),
p. 40, pl. ui, fig. 3.
Syn. Peeten radula, var. subfossilis, Fraas: Aus dem Orient, 1867, p. 189.

This species is distinct from all others, and is not known in
existing seas. It is a rounded, shallow shell, characterized by
possessing dichotomizing ribs, which, together with the intermediate
grooves, are finely sculptured with almost microscopic, closely-set,
transverse striations. In worn examples the strie are scarcely
evident on the ribs themselves. Dimensions of an adult lower
valve: height 57, width 63, depth 15 mm.

550 R. Bullen Newton—Shells from Raised Beaches, Red Sea.

Distrisution. — Pleistocene deposits from near Kosseir (Fraas)
and the Bitter Lakes (Fuchs). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised
beach north of Kosseir (Nos. 2,121-2,138, Box No. 507); raised
beach, Northern Wadi Gueh, Camp 6, 240 feet above sea (No. 1,636,
Box No. 22k); upper coral terrace (Pecten-bed) between Nebk and
Sherm, South-Hast Sinai (No. 3,540, Box No. 401).

Chlamys Reissi, Bronn. (Pl. XXII, Fig. 10.)
Hinnites Reissi, Bronn: Reiss’ *‘ Santa Maria,’’ in Neues Jahrb., 1862, p. 44, pl. i,.

fig. 18.
Pecten Reissi, Mayer-Eymar: in Hartung’s ‘‘ Geol. Besch. Madeira,”’ etc., 1864,
p. 227, pl. v, fig. 32.

Testa subequivalvi rotundato-oblonga, compressa, costis radiantibus.
circiter 30, inequalibus, irregularibusque, rotundatis ; squamulosis,
sepe binis; auriculis inequalibus radiatis, antica major, obliqua.
(Mayer-Eymar. )

The numerous elevated, rounded cost, covered with close squamu-
lose ornamentation, appear to be the distinguishing features of this
shell. The structural characters are well displayed in the specimen
figured, although the marginal line has been fractured in places, and
a central breakage rather spoils its otherwise elegant appearance.

Dimensions.—Height 46, width 42 mm.
_Disrrisution. — Modern limestone of the Azores and Madeira
(Bronn, Mayer-Eymar, etc.) and near Kosseir (Fraas). Coll. Geol.
Surv. Egypt: raised beach north of Kosseir (Nos. 2,121-2,188,
Box No. 507); raised beach east of Jebel Esh (Nos. 2,172-2,190,
Box No. 64

Chlamys varia, Linnzeus.
Ostrea varia, Linneus: Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 698.
Distrisution.—Recent in the Mediterranean, etc.; Tertiary of

Italy and other parts of Europe. Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised
beach north of Kosseir (No. 2,111, Box No. 467).
Chlamys (Gigantopecten) latissima, Brocchi.

Ostrea latissima, Brocchi: Conch. Foss. Subapennina, vol. ii (1814), p. 581.
The specimens are small and apparently very young forms.
Distripurion. — Species extinct, and ranging from Miocene

(Helvetian) to Pleistocene times (Mayer-Eymar, etc.). Coll. Geol.
Surv. Egypt: raised beach east of Jebel Esh (Nos. 2,172-2,190,
Box No. 647); Pecten-bed, upper coral terrace between Nebk and
Sherm, south-east of Sinai (No. 3,540, Box No. 401).

Chlamys (Aiquipecten) opercularis, Linnzus.
Ostrea opercularis, Linneus: Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 698.
A fragmentary specimen, exhibiting the usual structure of this.
Species, associated with Pecten Vasseli of Fuchs.
Disrrisurron.—Recent in the Mediterranean and other European
seas, and ranging from Miocene (Helvetian) to Pleistocene times
(Mayer-Hymar, etc.). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised beach,

ea ae Gueh, Camp 6, 240 feet above sea (No. 1,686,

R. Bullen Newton—Shells from Raised Beaches, Red Sea. 551

Family SPONDYLIDAL.

Spondylus aculeatus, Chemnitz.
Spondylus aculeatus, Chemnitz: Conchylien-Cabinet, vol. vii (1784), p. 74, pl. xliv,
fig. 460.

Distrisution.—Beach deposits, Red Sea (Issel); Suez Bay, Gulf
of Akaba (Issel). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: 50 foot beach at
Gemsah (Nos. 2,054-2,036, Box No. 617); Recent beach west of
Jebel Zeit (No. 2,157, Box No. 727).

Spondylus, sp. indet. (A fragmentary valve.)

Distrisution.—Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: 50 foot beach at Gemsah
(No. 2,038, Box No. 62/). :

Plicatula ramosa, Lamarck.
Plicatuia ramosa, Lamarck: Hist. Nat. Anim. sans Vert., vol. vi (1819), pt. 1,
p. 184

Distripution. — Beach deposits of the Red Sea (issel); Hnruk
Katah el Kebir and desert of Attaka, etc. (Issel). Coll. Geol. Surv.
Egypt: raised beach 20 feet above sea at Gharib lighthouse (Nos.
2,058-2,098, Box No. 187; Nos. 2,090-2,105, Box No. 207); Recent
beach south of Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,198-2,216, Box No. 537) ;
beach against old island west of Camp 51, south of Gharib light-
house (Nos. 2,021-2,030, Box No. 577).

Mantellum (allied to) inflatum, Chemnitz. (Impression of valve
in matrix.)
Lima inflata, Chemnitz : Conchylien-Cabinet, vol. vii (1784), pl. Ixviii, fig. 649.
Distrripution.—Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised beach north of
Kosseir (No. 2,151, Box No. 337).

Family CARDITIDA.

Cardita calyculata, Linnzus.
Chama calyculata, Linnzus: Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 692.
Distripution.—Beach deposits western border of Red Sea (Gray
and Frembley). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised beach 20 feet
above sea at Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,058-2,098, Box No. 187).

Cardita (Beguina) gubernaculum, Reeve.

Cardita gubernaculum, Reeve: Conchologia Iconica, vol. i (18438), pl. ii, fig. 9.

Distrisution. — Beach deposits of Red Sea (Issel, Gray &
Frembley); Red Sea (Issel); Aden, Zanzibar, and Madagascar
(E. A. Smith). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised beach 20 feet
above sea at Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,058-2,098, Box No. 187;
Nos. 2,090-2,105, Box No. 207); 50 foot beach at Gemsah (Nos.
2,081-2,057, Box No. 587); young form from raised beach east of
Jebel Esh (Nos. 2,172-2,190, Box No. 647).

Venericardia Cumingi, Deshayes.
Cardita Cumingi, Deshayes: Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1852, p. 102, pl. xvii,
fig. 15.
Distrisurion.—Aden (B.M.); Aden and Borneo (KE. A. Smith).
Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: 50 foot beach at Gemsah (Nos. 2,031-—
2,057, Box No. 587).

552 R. Bullen Newton—Shells from Raised Beaches, Red Sea.

Family ARCTICIDA (=CYPRINIDA).

Libitina oblonga, Linnzus.
Chama oblonga, Linneus: Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 692 (=Guinarca,
Lamarck).

DistripuTion.—Beach deposits of the Red Sea (Issel) ; Andaman
Islands and Polynesia (B.M.). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised
beach 20 feet above sea at Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,090-2,105,
Box No. 207); raised beach 80 feet above sea, Camp 6, north of
Wadi Gueh, west of Kosseir (Nos. 1,646, 1,647, Box No. 767).

Family LUCINID.

Loripes globosa, Forskal.
Venus globosa, Forskal: Desc. Animalium, 1775, No. 53, p. 122.

Distrisution.—Beach deposits western border of Red Sea (Gray
and Frembley); Gulfs of Akaba and Suez (Issel); Red Sea (B.M.).
Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: beach east of Gharib (Nos. 2,227-2,254,
Box No. 177).

Codakia exasperata, Reeve. (Pl. XXI, Fig. 4.)

Lucina exasperata, Reeve: Conchologia Iconica, vol. vi (1850), pl. i, fig. 4.

Distrisution.—Honduras (Reeve—this locality is doubted by
Mr. H. A. Smith); North Australia, Aden, Red Sea, etc. (H. A.
Smith). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: beach east. of Gharib (Nos.
2,227-2,254, Box No. 177); raised beach 80 feet above sea, Camp 6,
Wadi Gueh (No. 1,645, Box No. 57h; No. 1,584, Box No. 28k; No.
1,557, Box No. 25k); raised beach, Camp 6, Wadi Gueh (No. 1,574,
etc., Box No. 62k); raised beach north of Kosseir (No. 2,130, Box
No. 457; No. 2,111, Box No. 467; Nos. 2,121-2138, Box No. 50; );
raised beach 3800 feet above sea, Camp 5, Wadi Hamrawen (No.
1,558, Box No. 18k).

Codakia fibula, Reeve.
Lucina fibula, Reeve: Conchologia Iconica, vol. vi (1850), pl. vii, fig. 33.
Disrripution. — Red Sea (B.M.). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt:
raised beach 20 feet above sea, Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,058-2,098,
Box No. 187); raised beach 80 feet above sea, Camp 6, Wadi Gueh
(No. 1,557, Box No. 25k).

Family TELLINID.

Tellina remies, Linnzus.
Tellina remies, Linnzus : Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 676.
Distrrisution. — Australia (B.M.). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt:
raised beach 80 feet above sea, Camp 6, north of Wadi Gueh, west
of Kosseir (No. 1,645, Box No. 757).

Tellina rugosa, Born.
Lellina rugosa, Born: Testacea Mus. Ceesarei Vindobonensis, 1780, pl. ii, figs. 3, 4.
Distrreution.—Beach deposits on the western shore of Red Sea
(Gray & Frembley) ; New Caledonia, ete. (B.M.). Coll. Geol. Surv.
Egypt: raised beach 80 feet above sea, Camp 6, north of Wadi
Gueh, west of Kosseir (Nos. 1,646, 1,647, Box No. 767); raised

Decade IV. Vol VII. Pl. XXI.

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R. Bullen Newton—Shells from Raised Beaches, Red Sea. 5538

‘beach, Camp 6, Wadi Gueh (No. 1,600, Box No. 57h; Nos. 1,574,
-ete., Box No. 62k).

Tellina (Tellinella) sulcata, Wood.
Tellina suleata, W. Wood: General Conchology, 1815, p. 178, pl. xlvii, fig. 1.
Distripution.—Red Sea, Aden, Philippines (EH. A. Smith). Coll.
‘Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised beach, Camp 6, Wadi Gueh (Nos. 1,574,
etc., Box No. 62k).

Eutellina (Peronea= Psammotella) rosea, Gmelin.
Tellina rosea, Gmelin: Systema Nature, 13th ed. (1790), p. 3,238.

Distriputrion. —Red Sea (B.M.). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt:
Recent beach south of Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,198-2,216, Box
No. 537); 50 foot beach at Gemsah (Nos. 2,031-2,057, Box No.
587); an abnormal form from beach east of Gharib (Nos. 2,227-
2,254, Box No. 177).

Arcopagia scobinata, Linneus. (Pl. XXI, Fig. 1.)
Tellina scobinata, Linneus: Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 678.

Disrrisution.—Isle of Réunion; Gulf of Akaba (Issel). Coll.
Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised beach 80 feet above sea, Camp 6, Wadi
Gueh (No. 1,584, Box No. 23k).

Family DONACID.

Donax trifasciatus, Reeve.
Donax trifasciatus, Reeve: Conchologia Iconica, vol. viii (1854), pl. ii, fig. 7.
Distrisution.—Philippines (B.M.). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt:
beach against old island west of Camp 51, south of Gharib light-
house (Nos. 2,021—2,030, Box No. 577).
Family MACTRIDA.
Mactra olorina, Philippi.
Mactra olorina, Philippi: Abbild. und Besch. Conchylien, vol. ii (1847), p. 72,
pl. ui, fig. 2.
Distrisution.—Gulf of Suez and in the Red Sea beach deposits
(Issel). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: Recent beach south of Gharib
lighthouse (Nos. 2,198-2,216, Box No. 537).

Family VENERIDA).

Venus reticulata, Linneus. (Pl. XXI, Fig. 2.)
Venus reticulata, Linneus: Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 687.

Distrtpurion. — Red Sea beach deposits (Gray & Frembley) ;
Gulf of Akaba, Madagascar, Philippines, Society Islands, and the
Red Sea beach deposits (Issel); Red Sea, Aden, Persian Gulf,
Indian Ocean, etc. (E. A. Smith). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised
beach 80 feet above sea, Camp 6, north of Wadi Gueh (No. 1,648,
Box Nos. 87 and 777; No. 1,563, Box No. 26k); Recent beach
between Jebel Mellaha and Jebel Zeit (No. 2,168, Box No. 67);
raised beach 20 feet above sea at Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,090—
2,105, Box No. 20))); raised beach No. 2, west of Kosseir, 520 feet
above sea (No. 1,579, Box No. 13k); raised beach 300 feet above
sea, Camp 5, Wadi Hamrawen (No. 1,553, Box No. 18h); raised

554 BR. Bullen Newton—Shells from Raised Beaches, Red Sea.

beach, hil] north-west of Camp 7, Wadi Abu Shigeleh, 560 feet.
above sea (No. 1,627, Box No. 19k).

Chione costellifera, Adams & Reeve.
Venus costellifera, Adams & Reeve: Zool. Voy. ‘‘Samarang,’’ 1848, p. 79, pl. xxi,.
fig. 18.

Distrisution—Philippines (B.M.). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt:
raised beach 20 feet above sea at Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,058—
2,098, Box No. 187).

Callista florida, Lamarck.

Venus florida, Lamarck: Hist. Nat. Anim. sans Vert., vol. v (1818), p. 602.

Distripution. — Suez, Madagascar, Mozambique, Pacific Ocean,.
New Holland, and Red Sea beach deposits (Issel) ; Red Sea, Aden,
Persian Gulf, Mozambique, Madagascar, Seychelles (H. A. Smith).
Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: Recent beach south of Gharib lighthouse
(Nos. 2,198-2,216, Box No. 537).

Callista (like) costata, Chemnitz.
Venus apres Chemnitz: Conchylien-Cabinet, vol. xi (1795), p. 226, pl. cecil,
g. 1,975.

Distrisution. — Philippines (B.M.). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt:
raised beach north of Kosseir (No. 2,111, Box No. 467); beach
No. 2, north-west of Camp 40, plain east of Jebel Mellaha, east of
Red Sea Hills (No. 2,258, Box No. 29h).

Circe sequivoca, Chemnitz.
Venus Sree e Chenin Conchylien-Cabinet, vol. xi (1795), p. 229, pl. ccii,.
g. 1,980.

Disrrisution.—Philippines (B.M.). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt =
raised beach 80 feet above sea, Camp 6, Wadi Gueh (No. 1,557,
Box No. 25k).

Circe corrugata, Chemnitz.
Venus corrugata plana, Chemnitz: Conchylien-Cabinet, vol. vii (1784), p. 25,
pl. xxxix, figs. 410, 411.

Distripution.—Suez (Issel); Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Aden,
Madagascar, New Holland (E. A. Smith). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt :
raised beach 80 feet above sea, Camp 6, Wadi Gueh (No. 1,557,
Box No. 25k).

Circe callipygia, Born.

Venus callipygia, Born: Testacea Mus. Ceesarei Vindobonensis, 1780, p- 68, pl. y,.
GS Ile

Disrripution.—Gulf of Akaba, Red Sea, and beach deposits of
Red Sea (Issel); Red Sea and Aden (E. A. Smith). Coll. Geol.
Surv. Egypt: raised beach east of Jebel Esh (Nos. 2,172-2,190,
Box No. 64,7).

Circe (Lioconcha) lentiginosa, Chemnitz.
Venus lentiginosa, Chemnitz: Conchylien-Cabinet, vol. xi (1795), p. 223, pl. cci,.
figs. 1,963, 1,964.

Distrrpution.—Red Sea and beach deposits of Red Sea (Issel) ;
Red Sea and Madagascar (B.M.). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: Recent
beach south of Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,198-2,216, Box No. 5387) 5.
beach against old island west of Camp 51, south of Gharib lighthouse-

R. Bullen Newton—Shelis from Raised Beaches, Red Sea. 555

(Nos. 2,021-2,080, Box No. 57/); raised beach 80 feet above sea,
Camp 6, Wadi Gueh (No. 1,610, Box No. 27k).

Circe (Crista) pectinata, Linneus. (Pl. XXI, Fig. 3.)
Venus pectinata, Linneus: Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 689 (= Cytherea
Savignyi, Jonas).

DistrrBution.—Suez and Red Sea beach deposits (Issel) ; Red
Sea, Indian Ocean, Aden, Moluccas, etc. (E. A. Smith). Coll. Geol.
Surv. Egypt: plain between Ras Gemsah and Jebel Zeit (No. 2,224,
Box No. 127); beach east of Gharib (Nos. 2,227-2,254, Box No.
177); Recent beach between Jebel Mellaha and Jebel Zeit (Nos.
2,162—2,167, Box No. 217); Recent beach south of Gharib light-
house (Nos. 2,198-2,216, Box No. 537); beach against old island
west of Camp 51, south of Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,021—2,030,
Box No. 577); raised beach east of Jebel Esh (Nos. 2,172-2,190,
Box No. 647).

Tapes virgineus, Linnzeus.
Venus virginea, Linneeus: Systema Nature, 12th ed. (1767), vol. i, pt. 2, p. 1,136.

Distripution.—Aden, New Holland, China Sea (EH. A. Smith).
Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: Recent beach south of Gharib lighthouse
(Nos. 2,198-2,216, Box No. 537).

Sunetta effossus, Hanley.
Cytherea effossa, Hanley: Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1842, p. 123.

Disrrisution. — Philippines (B.M.). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt :
raised beach 20 feet above sea at Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,058—
2,098, Box No. 187).

Dosinia laminata, Reeve.
Artemis laminata, Reeve: Conchologia Iconica, vol. vi (1850), pl. vii, fig. 41.
Distripution. — Philippines (B.M.). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt:
50 foot beach at Gemsah (Nos. 2,031-2,057, Box No. 587); raised
beach east of Jebel Esh (Nos. 2,172-2,194, Box No. 647).

Dosinia radiata, Reeve. (Pl. XXI, Fig. 5.)

Artemis radiata, Reeve: Conchologia Iconica, vol. vi (1850), pl. vii, fig. 37.

DistrisutTion.—Bay of Suez (Issel). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt:
plain between Ras Gemsah and Jebel Zeit (No. 2,222, Box No. 87);
Recent beach south of Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,198—2,216, Box No.
537); raised beach east of Jebel Esh (Nos. 2,172-2,190, Box No.
647); raised beach 300 feet above sea, Camp 5, Wadi Hamrawen
(No. 1,553, Box No. 18%); beach No. 2, north-west of Camp 40,
plain east of Jebel Mellaha, east of Red Sea Hills (No. 2,257, Box
No. 29h).

Family CARDIID.

Cardium leucostoma, born.
Cardium leucostoma, Born: Testacea Mus. Cisarei Vindobonensis, 1780, pl. iil,
figs. 6, 7.

Disrripution.—Indian Ocean (B.M.). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt :
Recent beach south of Gharib lighthouse (No. 2,198-2,216, Box
No. 537); a cast allied to this species from beach No. 2, north-west
of Camp 40, plain east of Jebel Mellaha, east of Red Sea Hills

556 Rk. Bullen Newton—Shells from Raised Beaches, Red Sea.

(No. 2,257, Box No. 27h); cast of probably this species from raised
beach, hill north-west of Camp 7, Wadi Abu Shigeleh, 560 feet
above sea (No. 1,627, Box No. 19k).

Cardium rubicundum, Reeve.

Cardium rubicundum, Reeve: Conchologia Iconica, vol. ii (1844), pl. ix, fig. 44
(=C. magnum, Chemnitz, vide Issel).

Distrisution. — Gulf of Suez (Issel); Aden, Zanzibar (HE. A.
Smith). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised beach east of Jebel Esh
(Nos. 2,172-2,190, Box No. 647).

Levicardium (like) oblongum, Gmelin.
Cardium oblongum, Gmelin: Systema Nature, vol. 1 (1790), pt. 6, p. 3,254.

Distrisution. — Mediterranean (Gmelin). Coll. Geol. Surv.
Heypt: beach No. 2, north-west of Camp 40, plain east of Jebel
Mellaha, east of Red Sea Hills (No. 2,258, Box No. 29h).

Hemicardium (Opisocardium) auriculum, Forskal.
Cardium auricuhun, Forskal: Desc. Animalium, 1775, No. 52, p. 122.
Distrisution.—Gulf of Akaba, Bay of Suez, and beach deposits
of the Red Sea (Issel). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised beach
20 feet above sea at Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,090-2,105, Box No.
207); Recent beach west of Jebel Zeit (No. 2,157, Box No. 727).

Family TRIDACNIDA.
Tridacna gigas, Linneus. (Young forms.) (Pl. XXI, Fig. 8.)
Tridacna gigas, Linneus: Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 691.

DisrriBuTion.—Beach deposits near Kosseir (Fraas, B.M.). Coll.
Geol. Surv. Egypt: Recent beach between Jebel Mellaha and Jebel
Zeit (No. 2,161, Box No. 77): Recent beach south of Gharib light-
house (Nos. 2,198-2,216, Box No. 537).

Family CHAMIDAi.
Chama cornucopie, Reeve.
Chama cornucopia, Reeve: Conchologia Iconica, vol. iv (1846), pl. iv, fig. 22
(=C. Corbierei, Jonas, vide Issel).

Distrrsution.—Beach deposits of the Red Sea (Issel); Gulf of
Akaba and Suez (Issel); Red Sea (B.M.). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt:
raised beach 20 feet above sea at Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,090-
2,105, Box No. 207); Recent beach south of Gharib lighthouse (Nos.
2,198—2,216, Box No. 537).

Chama Jukesi, Reeve.
Chama Jukesi, Reeve: Conchologia Iconica, vol. iv (1847), pl. vii, fig. 39.

Distrisution.—Isle of Luzon, Philippines (B.M.). Coll. Geol.
Surv. Egypt: raised beach 20 feet above sea at Gharib lighthouse
(Nos. 2,058-2,098, Box No. 187).

Chama nivalis, Reeve.
Chama nivalis, Reeve: Conchologia Iconica, vol. iv (1846), pl. iv, fig. 17.
Distripution. — Australia (B.M.). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt:
beach east of Gharib (Nos. 2,227-2,254, Box No. 177); Recent
beach south of Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,198-2,216, Box No. 537) ;
50 foot beach at Gemsah (No. 2,038, Box No. 627); raised beach

R. Bullen Newton—Shells from Raised Beaches, Red Sea. 557

east of Jebel Esh (Nos. 2,172-2,190, Box No. 647; No. 2,179,
Box No. 667); raised beach 80 feet above sea, Camp 6, north of
Wadi Gueh, west of Kosseir (Nos. 1,655-1,657, Box No. 81/);
raised beach No. 2, west of Kosseir, 520 feet above sea (No. 1,581,
Box No. 16k).
Family GARIDA (= PSAMMOBIID/).
Asaphis deflorata, Linnzus.
Venus deflorata, Linneus: Systema Nature, 10th ed. (1758), p. 687.

Distrirpution. — Red Sea, Indian and Pacific Oceans, Aden
(E. A. Smith). -Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised beach 20 feet
above sea at Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,090-2,105, Box No. 207).

Family MYID/E.

Lutraria intermedia (Deshayes MS.), Reeve.
Mesodesma intermedia, Reeve: Conchologia Iconica, vol. viii (1854), pl. iii, fig. 17.
Disrrisution. — Zanzibar (B.M.). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt:
Recent beach south of Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,198-2,216, Box No.
5387); 50 foot beach at Gemsah (No. 2,031, Box No. 597).

Corbula cuneata, Hinds.
Corbula cuneata, Hinds: Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1843, p. 55.
Distrisution.—Philippines (B.M.). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt:
raised beach 20 feet above sea at Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,090-
2,105, Box No. 207).
Corbula Taheitensis, Lamarck.
Corbula Taheitensis, Lamarck: Hist. Nat. Anim. sans Vert., vol. v (1818), p. 496.
Disrrizution.—Tahiti, New Guinea, Philippines, Aden (E. A.
Smith). Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: raised beach 20 feet above sea
at Gharib lighthouse (Nos. 2,090-2,105, Box No. 207); Ras
Shokhair, west coast of the Gulf of Suez, north-east of Camp 50
(No. 2,267, Box No. 87h).
Family PHOLADIDZ.
Martesia, sp.

Distripution.—Coll. Geol. Surv. Egypt: Ras Shokhair, west coast
of the Gulf of Suez, north-east of Camp 50 (No. 2,269, Box No. 39h).

LITERATURE.

Several papers have been written on the conchological fauna of the beach deposits
of the Red Sea and other parts of Egypt, but as the subject is so interwoven with
the history of the actual living forms of the Red Sea, the following list of titles is
compiled so as to include the more important contributions dealing with both aspects
of the subject.

Beyrich, E.—‘‘ Ueber geognostische Beobachtungen G. Schweinfurth’s in der
Wiiste zwischen Cairo und Sués’’: Sitz. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1882,
pp. 163-178. wee

Brocchi, G. B.—‘‘ Catalogo di una serie di conchiglie raccolte presso la costa
Africana del Golfo Arabico dal signor G. Forni’’?: Mem. inserita nella
Biblioteca Italiano [about] 1820. (A rare work not seen by present writer ;
it is reviewed and abstracted in Issel’s ‘‘ Malacologia del Mar Rosso.”’)

Caramagna, G.—‘‘ Catalogo delle Conchiglie Assabesi’? (= Southern Red Sea) :
Bull. Soc. Mal. Italiana, vol. xiii (1888), pp. 131-141, pl. viii.

558 Rk. Bullen Newton—Shells from Raised Beaches, Red Sea.

Caramagna, G.—‘‘ Conchiglie raccolte in Aden Berbera e Zeila”: Bull. Soc. Mal.
Ttaliana, vol, xiii (1888), pp. 142-148.

Cooke, A. H.—‘‘ On the Molluscan Fauna of the Gulf of Suez in its relation to that
of other seas’’: Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. v, vol. xviii (1886), pp. 880-397.

Fischer, P.—‘‘ Note sur les Faunes Conchyliologiques des deux rivages de l’Isthme
de Suez”: Journ. Conchyliologie, 1865, pp. 241-248.

———— ‘‘ Sur la Faune Conchyliologique marine des Baies de Suez et de Akabah”’ :

Journ. Conchyliologie, 1870, pp. 161-179. (This paper includes a list of the

species found in the Quaternary deposits surrounding the Bitter Lakes.)

‘Sur la Faune Conchyliologique marine de la Baie de Suez’: Journ.

Conchyliologie, 1871, pp. 209-218.

Fraas, Oscar.—‘‘ Aus dem Orient. Geologische Beobachtungen am Nil, auf der
Sinai-Halbinsel, und in Syrien,” 1867, pp. 174-195. (Gives a list of species
found in the raised beaches near Kosseir and Sinai.)

Fuchs, Theodor.—‘‘ Die Geclogische Beschaffenheit der Landenge von Suez’’:
Denksch. k. Akad. Wiss. (Wien), vol. xxxviii (1877), pt. 2, pp. 25-42,
pls. i-iii (figures of Pleistocene shells and geological map of district).

Gray, J. E., & Frembley.—‘“‘ Fossil Shells from the Western Borders of the Red
Sea”: in Lyell’s “ Principles of Geology,” 1st ed., vol. iii (1833), appendix 2,
p- 57. (This appears to be the earliest published list of molluscan remains
from the Red Sea deposits.)

Issel, A.—‘‘ Considerazioni generali sulla Fauna Malacologia del Mar Rosso
e suoi rapporti colle Faune limitrose’’: in Issel’s ‘‘ Malacologia del Mar
Rosso,’’ 1869, pp. 3-45.

— ‘‘Conchiglie fossili delle spiagge emerse’’: in Issel’s ‘‘ Malacologia del

Mar Rosso,’’ 1869, pp. 17-28.

‘« Catalogo dei Molluschi raccolti nel Mar Rosso ’’: in Issel’s ‘* Malacologia

del Mar Rosso,’’ 1869, pp. 49-242, 379-387.

——— ‘‘Spiegazione delle Tavole di Molluschi e di Conchiglie eseguite sotto la

direzione di G. C. Savigny, comprese nell’ opera intituolata ‘ Description de

Egypte’ ’’: in Issel’s ‘* Malacologia del Mar Rosso,’’ 1869, pp. 809-375.

‘*Catalogo delle Conchiglie fossili raccolte sulle spiagge emerse del Mar

Rosso ’’: in Issel’s ‘‘ Malacologia del Mar Rosso,’’ 1869, pp. 246-303,

pls. iii-v. (Contains figures of new species and map showing Quaternary

deposits of district.)

— ‘‘Kssai sur ]’Origine et la Formation de la Mer Rouge’’: Bull. Soc. Belge
Géol., vol. xiii (1900), pp. 65-84.

Jonas, J. H.—‘‘ Unbeschriebene Konchylien des Rothen Meeres’’?: Zeitsch.

Malakozoologie (Menke & Pfeiffer), 1846, pp. 65-67.

‘* Beitrag zur Erklarung der in der ‘ Description de l’Egypte’ abgebildeten,
nebst Beschreibung einiger anderer im rothen Meere und den angrenzenden
Landern lebender Mollusken’’: Zeitsch. Malakozoologie (Menke & Pfeiffer),

1846, pp. 59-64, 120-127.

Jousseaume, F.—‘‘ Description des Mollusques recueillis par M. le Dr. Faurot
dans la Mer Rouge et le Golfe d’Aden’’: Mém. Soe. Zool. France, vol. i
(1888), pp. 165-223.

MacAndrew, R.—“‘‘ Report on the Testaceous Mollusca obtained during a Dredging
Excursion in the Gulf of Suez in the months of February and March, 1869”? :
Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. tv, vol. vi (1870), pp. 429-450. (This author
supports Issel’s theory that the Mediterranean and Red Sea were united
durimg Eocene and Miocene times.)

Martens, E. von.—‘‘ Verzeichniss der von Dr. E. Schweinfurth im Sommer 1864
auf seiner Reise am rothen Meere gesammelten und nach Berlin eingesendeten
zoologischen gegenstiinde’’?: Verhandl. k.k. Zool. Bot. Ges. Wien, vol. xvi
(1866), p. 381.

Mayer-Eymar, K.—‘‘ Systematisches Verzeichniss der Fauna des unteren Saharianum
(Marines Quartaer) der Umgegend yon Kairo, nebst Beschreibung der neuen
Arten’’: Paleeontographica, vol. xxx (1898), pt. 2, pp. 60-90, pl. xii.

Neumayr, M.—‘ Pliocane Meereskonchylien aus Aegypten’’?: Verhandl. k.k.
geol. Reichs, 1887, p. 350. (Gives lists of shells from deposits at Wadi
Mellaha.)

ganas eat) . NOs to Audoun’s ‘‘ Description de l’Egypte,’’ 1817 (Hist. Nat.,
vol. ii).

R. Bullen Newton—Shells from Raised Beaches, Red Sea. 559

‘Smith, E. A.—‘‘ Shells from the raised Sea-bed at Moses’ Wells’’ (‘¢ Ayun Musa,”’
at the head of the Gulf of Suez): in Hull’s ‘‘ Memoir on Arabia Petrzea,
Palestine, etc.,’’ 1886, p. 72.

— ‘On a collection of Marine Shells from Aden, with some remarks upon the
Relationship of the Molluscan Fauna of the Red Sea and the Mediterranean ”’ :
Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1891, pp. 390-436, pl. xxxiii.

Tristram, H. B.—‘‘ Report on the Terrestrial and Fluviatile Mollusca of Palestine’? :
Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1865, pp. 530-545.

Tryon, E. W.—‘ Manual of Conchology,’’ 1880-1891, vols. ii—xiii.

‘Vaillant, L.—‘‘ Recherches sur la Faune Malacologique de la Baie de Suez’’ :
Journ. Conchyliologie, 1865, pp. 97-127, pl. vi (pars).

Woodward, S. P.—‘‘ Geographical Distribution of the Mollusea,’’ Indo-Pacific
Province (Red Sea and Persian Gulf) : in ‘‘ A Manual of the Mollusca,’’ 1880,
4th ed., pp. 71-74.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XX.

Fic. 1.—Turbo radiatus, Gmelin. 20 feet above sea, Gharib lighthouse. Back
view of medium-sized specimen.

Fie. 2.—Canarium gibberulum, Linneus. Jebel Zeit. Back view of specimen
with varicosed spire.

Fic. 3.—Strombus fasciatus, Born. Between Jebel Mellaha and Jebel Zeit.
Specimen showing colour-markings and characteristic tuberculations at
the shoulder.

Fie. 4.—Clanculus Pharaonius, Linnzeus. 20 feet above sea, Gharib lighthouse.
Specimen exhibiting the typical granulate ornamentation.

Fie. 5.—Basal view of same, with umbilicus surrounded by radial plice.

Fie. 6.—TZerebra duplicata, Linneus. Jebel Zeit. Front view of shell, showing
the smooth, depressed ribbing of this species.

Fie. 7.—Terebra maculata, Linneus. North of Ras Mohamed or Ghazlandi Bay.
Front aspect of specimen, with original colour-bands.

Fie. 8.—Conus nussatella, Linneus. East of Gharib. Specimen showing the
closely-set, granulated striations of this species.

Fie. 9.—Conus omaria, Hwass. Wadi Gueh, Camp 6. <A well-marked specimen,
bearing the triangular white spots peculiar to this shell.

Fig. 10.—Pleurotoma Garnonsi, Reeve. 450 foot beach at Gemsah. Shell showing
small brown spots on the raised spiral ribs.

Fie. 11.—Chicoreus anguliferus, Lamarck. South of Gharib lighthouse. Specimen
exhibiting a prominent node between each of the varices.

Fig. 12.—Vasum cornigerwm, Lamarck. 80 feet above sea, Camp 6, north of
Wadi Gueh. A medium-sized specimen, showing the typical sculpture of
this species.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXI.

Fie. 1.—Arcopagia scobinata, Linneus. Northern Wadi Gueh, Camp 6, 80 feet
above sea. Exterior of right valve, showing the rasp-like character of
the ornamentation.

Fic. 2.—Venus reticulata, Linneus. 80 feet above sea, Camp 6, north of Wadi
Gueh. Exterior of a right valve. p j

Fic. 3.—Circe pectinata, Linneus. South of Gharib lighthouse. Medium-sized
example, showing characteristic sculpture. :

Fic. 4.—Codakia exasperata, Reeve. 80 feet above sea, Camp 6, north of Wadi
Gueh. External view of a left valve.

Fie. 5.—Dosinia radiata, Reeve. South of Gharib lighthouse. External view ot
a left valve, showing strong concentric striations and the growth periods
of the shell.

Fic. 6.—Anadara antiquata, Linmeus. Camp 6, Wadi Gueh. External surface
ot left valve. Ait

Fie. 7.—Glycymeris pectunculus, Linneus. Big Bay, south of Sherm, Sinai.
Exterior of valve, showing striped colouring. :

Fic. 8.—Tridaena gigas, Linneus. Between Jebel Mellaha and Jebel Zeit.
External view of a left valve belonging to a small example of this
species.

560 G. CO. Orickh—“ Nautilus clitellarius.”

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXII.

Fic. 1.—Capiluna Ruppelli, var. Barroni (var. nov.). Ras Gharib. Front view of
specimen, showing the elongate perforation.

Fic. 2.—Lateral aspect of same specimen.

Fic. 3.—Internal view of same shell, showing a nearly circular basal margin.

Fic. 4.—Details of external sculpture, magnified.

Fic. 5.—Alectryonia, allied to crista-galli, Linneeus. North of Kosseir. Fractured
view of specimen, with parts of both valves attached, exposing the
ligamental area.

Fie. 6.—Another aspect of the same shell.

Fic. 7.—Pecten Vasseli, Fuchs. Northern Wadi Gueh, Camp 6, 240 feet above
sea. External view of a lower valve.

Fie. 8.—Pecten Vasseli, Fuchs. Upper coral terrace between Nebk and Sherm,
S.E. Sinai. External view of an upper valve belonging to another
specimen.

Fic. 9.—Pecten Vasseli, Fuchs. Magnification of external sculpture.

Fic. 10.—Chlamys Reissi, Bronn. North of Kosseir. External view of a left
valve with numerous ribs ornamented by thin, transverse, elevated strize.

(Except where otherwise mentioned, the figures on all the Plates are drawn
natural size.)

VI.—Nore on Hpairrioceras CLITELLARIUM, J. DE C. SOWERBY, SP.,-
and EH. cosratumu, A. H. Foorp.

By G. C. Cricx, F.G.S., of the British Museum (Natural History).

HE name Nautilus clitellarius was given by J. de C. Sowerby * to
a Nautiloid from the Coal-measures, Coalbrookdale, Shropshire,
and the description was accompanied by three figures, each repre--
senting a different specimen. In 1884” the species was included
by Professor Hyatt in his new genus Ephippioceras. In 1891
Dr. A. H. Foord*® found a new species, Ephippioceras costatum,
which was said to be ‘distinguished from E. clitellarium (to which
it is, however, very closely related) by the character of the septa
and by the surface ornaments. The septa in EH. costatum do not
form such an acute lobe upon the periphery as do those of
E. clitellarium, and they are also a little wider apart in the former
species than they are in the latter. Moreover, HE. costatum is provided
with prominent transverse coste, which are strongest upon the sides
of the shell where they swell out into heavy folds. These cost are
directed obliquely backwards, and cross the septa at an acute angle,
passing across the periphery and forming a shallow sinus in the
middle. None of the specimens in the British Museum have the
test preserved, so that the ribbing has only been observed upon
casts. The coste are equally well developed upon the body-chamber
and upon the septate part of the shell in the adult, but they were either
very feeble or altogether absent in the young.” A re-examination
of the specimens in the Museum collection shows that the separation
of the two forms is quite justifiable.
Since Dr. Foord’s species was instituted the British Museum
collection has been enriched by the addition of two of Sowerby’s
figured specimens, viz., the originals of his figs. 5a and 5b.

* Trans. Geol. Soc., vol. v, pt. 3 (1840), expl. of plates, etc., pl. xl, figs. 5, 5a, d.
* Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. xxii (1884), p. 290.

2

° Cat. Foss. Ceph. Brit. Mus., vol. ii (1891), p. 108.

Decade IV Vol VII Pl. XXII.

Geol. Mag.1900.

We st Newman imp.

lith.

GM Woodward delet

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Seach Dep

ied Sea |

Fixtinet Shells from

Cr

G. C. Crick—Zieten’s Types of Ammonites.

Sowerby’s description of his species is as follows :—

“ Globose, umbilicated, septa numerous, much bent in the middle,
truncated and not recurved at the ends; siphuncle central ; umbilicus
small; aperture above twice as wide as long.

«The length of the aperture is 1} inch, the width 22 inches.”

In regard to the angle of the septa on the ventral or peripheral
area, the presence of obscure coarse cost, and the general form of
the shell, the original of Sowerby’s fig. 5a agrees exactly with the
type of Foord’s E. costatum ; the costze appear to be almost wanting
on the earlier portion of the outer whorl, but the fossil is here
somewhat imperfectly preserved.

The specimen represented in Sowerby’s fig. 5b is a fragment of
an apparently smooth shell, the septa of which form an angle on the
ventral or peripheral area corresponding almost exactly to that in
the specimen figured by Dr. Foord as E. clitellariwm. It appears,
however, to have belonged to a rather more rapidly expanding shell
with slightly more depressed whorls than the fossil which Dr. Foord
has figured and referred to that species; in fact, in these respects it
agrees better with the earlier portion of the outer whorl of the
original of Sowerby’s fig. 5a. Still, the form of the septa and the
apparent smoothness of the shell lead us to regard the specimen as
specifically identical with the example figured by Dr. Foord as
E. clitellarium, J. de C. Sowerby, sp.

As we have not seen the original of Sowerby’s fig. 5, we can
make no observations on that specimen.

From the foregoing remarks it will be seen that the specimens
figured by Sowerby probably belong to at least two distinct species ;
the original of his fig. 5b agreeing with Foord’s interpretation of
E. clitellarium, whilst the specimen represented in his fig. 5a is
specifically identical with Foord’s E. costatum. It would then be
of great interest to know where the fossil represented in Sowerby’s
fig. 5 is, and to learn whether its characters correspond to those of
the original of that author’s fig. 56, or to those of the example
depicted in his fig. 5a, for if it be specifically distinct from the
fossil represented in his fig. 5a (= E. costatum, Foord), we think it
should, owing to the fragmentary nature of the original of his fig. 5b,
be regarded as the type of Sowerby’s species (H. clitellarium).

VII.—Nore on Zieren’s Type-SPEcIMENS OF AMMONITES POLYGONIUS
AND AMMONITES DISCOIDES.
By G. C. Crick, F.G.S., of the British Museum (Natural History).

HE presence of Zieten’s type-specimen of Ammonites calcar* in
the British Museum (Natural History) among some fossils
which were bought of Dr. Bruckmann naturally suggested an
examination of the other fossil Cephalopoda obtained from the
same source, in the hope of finding other type-specimens. Thus far,
the result of this examination has been the discovery of two more

1 See Grou. Mac., December, 1899, p. 554.
DECADE IV.—VOL. VII.—NO. XII. 36

562 G. C. Orick—Zieten’s Types of Ammonites.

of Zieten’s types; these are the type-specimens of (i) Ammonites
polygonius and (ii) Ammonites discordes.*

(i) Ammonites polygonius, C. H. v. Zieten, Verstein. Wtirttembergs,
Heft iii (1831), p. 21, pl. xv, figs. 6a, 6, c. This specimen [register
number 39,699] is labelled in Dr. Bruckmann’s handwriting as
follows: ‘ Ammonites pustulatus Suevicus, Quenst. (Amm. polygonius,
Ziet.) Selten. Brauner Jura ¢ (Ornatenthon), Gammelshausen”; and
on the label there has been written in pencil the letters “[Dr. O.],”
signifying “ Dr. Oppel,” as I have been able to ascertain from other
labels in this Museum that are also in Dr. Bruckmann’s handwriting.
The specimen agrees so well in size, form, and colour with Zieten’s
figure (except that the latter is reversed), that there cannot be any
doubt whatever about its being the type-specimen, the imperfection
of the anterior part of the fossil being accurately represented in
Zieten’s fig. 6a. The periphery, however, is not so sharp as Zieten’s
fig. 6b indicates, but is slightly truncated? owing to the absence of
the keel. The specimen is entirely septate, but the suture-line is
only imperfectly displayed ; its complete course cannot be traced.

Zieten described the species as follows :—‘“ Ricken scharf, die
sehr dicken, der Linge nach feingestreiften Windungen bilden einen
tiefen Nabel, welcher mit spitzigen Knotchen umgeben ist. Rippen
theils einfach, theils gegabelt. Nach dem vieleckigen Durchschnitt
seiner Windungen benannt. Verkiest im Lias-Schiefer von Zell,
unweit Boll.”

[‘‘ Back (periphery) sharp; the very thick longitudinally finely-striated whorls
form a deep umbilicus, which is surrounded by pointed tubercles. Ribs sometimes

simple, sometimes bifurcated. Named after the polygonal shape of the cross-section
of its whorls. Pyritized in the Lias shales of Zell, not far from Boll.’’]

From the above remarks it will be seen that Zieten’s statement as
to the horizon and locality does not agree with the label which now
accompanies the specimen, for the fossil is labelled “* Brauner Jura €
(Ornatenthon), Gammelshausen,” which is a short distance south-east
of Boll, in Wirttemberg, whilst Zieten states that the species
occurred in the ‘ Lias-Schiefer von Zell,” i.e., a little to the north-
east of Boll. According to Oppel (“Juraformation,” p. 560), the
species occurs pyritized in the “‘Zone of Ammonites anceps” [ =the
Brauner Jura ¢ in part] at Oberlenningen and Gammelshausen, near
Boll; and Quenstedt, in his work on “‘ Die Ammoniten des schwab-
ischen Jura” (Bd. ii, Heft 14-15, 1887, p. 755, tab. Ixxxvi, fig. 10),
describes and figures the species, under the name Ammonites pustu-
latus suevicus, from the Brauner Jura ¢ of Gammelshausen. It is
most probable, then, that the specimen is accurately labelled ; for it
is quite evident that some other species which Zieten attributed to
the Lias are certainly not of Liassic age.

It may be mentioned that this species has been referred * to Denys

: Briefly alluded to in Grou. Mac., December, 1899, p. 556, note 1.

* See F. A. Quenstedt’s “Die Ammoniten des schwabischen Jura,’? Bd. ii,
Heft 14-15 (1887), tab. Ixxxvi, fig. 10.

° See Waagen’s ‘‘ Jurassic Fauna of Kutch,” vol. i (Cephalopoda), 1873, p. 41.

G. C. Crick—Zieten’s Types of Ammonites. 563

de Montfort’s genus Amaltheus, but Parona and Bonarelli! include it
in the genus Lophoceras instituted by them in 1897.

(ii) Ammonites discoides, C. H. v. Zieten, Verstein. Wiirttembergs,
Heft iii (1831), p. 21, pl. xvi, figs. la, b, c. This specimen [register
number 62,568] is accompanied by a label in Dr. Bruckmann’s
handwriting to the following effect: ‘From Zieten’s collection.
Ammonites capellinus jurensis, Quenst. (Amm. discoides, Ziet., T. 16,
F. 1). Selten. Jurensismergel. Heiningen in Wiirttemberg”’; and on
the label there has been written in pencil the letters “[Dr. O.],”
signifying “Dr. Oppel.” Its size, general form, and colour agree so
well with Zieten’s figure (except that the latter is reversed), that there
can be no doubt whatever as to its identity. At about the com-
mencement of the last third of the outer whorl a small piece is
broken away at the periphery, and although this imperfection is not
figured, yet the shape of the anterior portion of the specimen is so
accurately represented in Zieten’s figure that there cannot possibly
be any doubt as to the identification of the specimen.

Zieten’s description is as follows:—‘Riicken sehr scharf, die
inneren Windungen stark bedeckt, Rippen sichelformig, welche auf
der scharfen Riickenkante in spitzigen Winkeln zusammenlaufen.
In der Hauptform dem Ammonites discus (Sow.), ahnlich. Aus dem
Lias-Sandstein von Reichenbach im Thal.”

[*« Back (periphery) very sharp, the inner whorls strongly ornamented, ribs falei-
form and meeting on the sharp periphery in acute angles. In general form similar
to Ammonites discus, Sowerby. From the Lias sandstone of Reichenbach in the
Valley.””] :

In this case also there seems to be a discrepancy between the label
and Zieten’s statement as to the locality of the fossil; Heiningen,
the locality given on the label, being about three miles south of
Goppingen, whilst “Reichenbach im Thal,” the locality given by
Zieten, is north of Donzdorf and almost due east of Goéppingen.
Quenstedt, in his work on “Die Ammoniten des schwabischen
Jura” (Bd. i, Heft 8-9, 1885, pp. 416-7, tab. liii, figs. 1 and 3),
records the species from the Jurensis-beds at both places.

It may be remarked that this species was placed by Hyatt’ in his

1 Mém. Acad. Sci., etc., Savoie, sér. 1v, vol. vi (1897), p. 122.
2 A. Hyatt: Bull. Mus. Comp. Zodl., vol. i, No. 5, p. 102. The whole volume,
consisting of Nos. 1-13, is dated 1863-9; No. 4 was published in June, 1869, and
No. 6 is dated December 26, 1867, but the copies of No. 5 that I have seen are not
dated. This number, however, was published towards the end of December, 1867.
For this date I am indebted to Mr. S. S. Buckman, who tells me that he has a copy
of Prof. Hyatt’s paper bearing a date-slip, of which the following is an exact copy :—
Boston Society of Natural History.
March 23, 1868.
[Extract from Records of Jan. 3, 1868. ]
‘Mr. A. Hyatt laid upon the table No. 5 of the BuLLerin or THE MusEUM OF
Comparative Zoéioey, published about a week since, but accidentally bearing no

date of publication,’’ etc.
S. H. ScuppEr,

See. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist.

Please attach this to the copy of the Butuerin sent to you.
A, Hyarr.

564 Notices of Memoirs—R. D. Oldham—Rocks of Ullswater.

genus Lioceras,' but Buckman” has made it the type of a new genus,
Polyplectus. The Museum, then, is fortunate in possessing this type-
specimen, for it is not only the type of Zieten’s species Amm.
discoides, but also the type of Buckman’s genus Polyplectus.

NOTICES O MEMG@EzRS=
I.—Tue Basan (CaRBONIFEROUS) CONGLOMERATE OF ULLSWATER:
AnD Irs Mops oF Ortcatn. By R. D. OxpHam, Geological Survey
~ of India.®

N the western shore of Ullswater, near its lower end, a good
section has recently been exposed of the basal conglomerates
variously ascribed to Old Red or lowermost Carboniferous age. This:
conglomerate has been considered as glacial in its origin, but does
not appear to the author to present any true glacial characteristics.
Tt contains angular and subangular blocks of all sizes, which are not
scattered indiscriminately, but are arranged with a distinct, though
obscure, banding. In the admixture of blocks of all sizes and the
absence of rounded boulders, it differs from the known river deposits.
of temperate climes, and more closely resembles the accumulations of
débris which result from cloud-bursts than any other form of deposit
which can be observed in the British Isles at the present day. The
conglomerate cannot, however, be reasonably attributed to any such
local deposits; its true analogue must be looked for in the dry
regions of Western and Central Asia, where all rainfall rushes off
the bare hills, producing an effect very like that of a cloud-burst in
our own climate, and causing a mixed mass of water, silt, and stones
to rush down the river channels, which are dry or carrying only
a feeble stream in ordinary times. This mass of material is carried
out from the hills, and forms a deposit with a gently sloping surface
extending for miles into the open country. Carried along in this
manner the rock-fragments do not undergo the rounding which they
suffer in a more permanent torrent, and are deposited, on the sudden
subsidence of the flood, in a mixed mass of fragments of all sizes.
The sections exposed along the roadside near the foot of Ullswater
not only exhibit a rude trending, due to the action of successive
floods, but also show patches of current- bedded, fine - grained,
gravelly material, representing the action of the feebler stream

which continued after the passage of the flood.

The conclusion drawn is that the conglomerate is a torrential
deposit, formed on dry land, near the foot of a range of hills, in
a generally dry climate, varied by seasonal or periodical bursts of
rain. The red colour of the fine-grained material suggests tropical
or sub-tropical conditions, as the formation of red soils is at the
present day so much more common in tropical than in temperate
regions that it may almost be regarded as a characteristic of a hot
climate.

1 Originally spelt Leioceras.

* 8. 8. Buckman: Inf. Oo. Amm. (Mon. Pal. Soc.), pt. iv (1890), p. 214.

* Read before the British Association, Section © (Geology), Bradford, Sept., 1900.

Notices of Memoirs—F.W. Harmer—Winds and Climate. 565

4].—Tur Inruvence or tHe Winns upon CLIMATE DURING Past
Eprocus: a MrerroronocicaAL EXPLANATION OF SOME GEOLOGICAL
Prositems. By F. W. Harmer, F.G.S.' (Abstract.)

HIS paper is a summary of a communication the author hopes

to make to the Geological Society of London during the present

winter, and is in continuation of one read at Dover in 1899, on

“The Meteorological Conditions of North-Western Europe during
the Pliocene and Glacial Periods.”

The irregular distribution of the isotherms in the northern
hemisphere is largely due to the direction of the prevalent winds.
In regions where these are constantly varying, as, for example, in
Great Britain, the climate varies diurnally, one day being often dry
or cold and the next rainy or warm. In others, where the wind
changes seasonally, one part of the year is rainless and another
pluvial. Permanent alterations in climate would equally result
were the course of the prevalent winds permanently changed.

The direction of the winds, which must always be more or less
parallel to the isobars, depends on the relative position, and on the
form and alignment of areas of high and low barometric pressure.
The movements of the latter being largely interdependent, any
important meteorological disturbance, however caused, may make its
influence felt at a considerable distance from the focus of its origin.

The winds blow round areas of high and low pressure ; outwards,
from the former, and to the north of the Equator, from left to
right ; and inwards, towards the latter, from right to left. Hence,
in the northern hemisphere, southerly winds prevail to the east of
a cyclonic centre, and northerly winds to the west of it, the contrast
between the temperature of the two areas being usually in proportion
to the distance the aerial currents may have travelled from the south
and the north respectively. Warm and cold winds must therefore
necessarily coexist, causing differences in climate in countries having
the same latitude. The winter temperature of Hudson’s Bay is, for
example, 60° F. colder than that of Great Britain. Similar climatal
conditions must have also existed during the Pleistocene epoch.

The continental regions of the northern hemisphere, being at
present warmer during summer than the ocean, are cyclonic ; in
winter they are colder, and consequently anticyclonic. Over the
great ice-sheets of the Glacial Period, however, high pressure must
have prevailed, more or less, at all seasons, and, generally, the
meteorological conditions, including the direction of the prevalent
winds, and local variations in climate must then have been widely
different from those of our own times. Oceanic winds, with copious
rainfall, may have prevailed in regions now arid, and mild winters
where they are now excessively severe. Such cases of anomalous
climate as those of the pluvial conditions of the Sahara, and of
Arabia and Persia, during the Pleistocene era, may be satisfactorily
explained by the changes in the relative positions of cyclonic and
anticyclonic systems which were caused by the gradual growth and

1 Read before the British Association, Section C (Geology), Bradford, Sept., 1900.

566 Notices of Memoirs—F. W. Harmer— Winds and Climate.

disappearance of the great ice-sheets, as may be the alternate
humidity and desiccation of the great basin of Nevada, the former
existence of the mammoth on the shores of the Polar Sea, ete.

It is difficult, however, to restore hypothetically the meteorological
conditions of the Pleistocene epoch, on the theory that the maximum
glaciation of the eastern and western continents was contemporaneous.
At present the influence of the Gulf Stream, and the south-west
winds caused by the Icelandic cyclone, carries in winter a com-
- paratively warm climate, and low pressures, northwards into the
Arctic Circle, but no permanent ice-sheet could have existed in
Great Britain under such circumstances. Cyclones and anticyclones.
in regions more or less contiguous are, however, necessarily com-
plementary, in order that the vertical circulation of the atmosphere
may be maintained. The existence of an enormous polar anticyclone,
extending southwards over a great portion of Hurope and North
America, would have involved also that of a cyclonic system of
corresponding importance in the North Atlantic, a region which
must have been at all seasons warmer than those covered with ice;
but this would have caused south-west winds over Great Britain,
and have prevented the permanent existence of an ice-sheet in these:
islands. If Europe and North America had been glaciated at the
same time, which for the reasons given, however, seems improbable,
the Icelandic cyclone, which now lies (statistically) in winter near
to the south-east coast of Greenland, would have been forced to
the south; but the further south it went the warmer would have:
been the southerly winds which blew east of its centre towards
Great Britain and Western Europe. Conditions similar to those
which may have prevailed during the maximum glaciation of North
America occurred during the early part of 1899—for information as
to which the author desires to acknowledge his indebtedness to
Mr. W. N. Shaw, F.R.S., of the Meteorological Office. At that
time a great low-pressure system, which sometimes extended from
Europe to America, and from Iceland to the Canary Islands,
occupied the North Atlantic. Vast volumes of cold air from the
Arctic regions were consequently poured over North America, while
Western Europe was flooded by warm aerial currents from the
sub-tropical zone. At the beginning of February temperatures of
from — 40° F. to —60° F. were commonly registered in different
parts of North America; at the same time the thermometer rose in.
London to 66° F., in Liége to 70° F., and in Davos, more than
5,000 feet above the sea, to 62° F., the average maximum for that
month at the latter place being 388° F. For some weeks storms of
exceptional violence occurred almost daily in the Atlantic. These
coincident phenomena are directly traceable to the same cause.

No meteorological difficulties arise if we adopt the hypothesis that
glacial and interglacial periods alternated in the eastern and western
continents. If the ice-cap extended from Greenland to Scandinavia,
the North Atlantic cyclone would have been forced to the south-west,
towards the American coast, producing warm south-east winds over
Labrador ; if, on the contrary, it stretched from Greenland to North.

Reviews—Dr. D. H. Scott—Studies in Fossil Botany. 567

America, the cyclone would have been driven in the direction of
Europe, causing mild weather in the latter, as in the case just given.

Such a view affords a simpler explanation of the geological facts
than those usually adopted. Instead of supposing that the climatic
changes of the Great Ice Age, several times recurrent at intervals of
a few thousand years only, were due to astronomical causes, it is
here suggested that the climate of the Pleistocene epoch being
uniformly colder than that of our own era, conditions of comparative
warmth or cold may have been local, as they now are, affecting the
great continental areas at different periods.

15%) Je WA IG Ja WW tS)

I.—Srupies in Foss Botany. By Duxinrietp Henry Scort,
M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Honorary Keeper of the Jodrell
Laboratory, Royal Gardens, Kew. pp. xiii, 553, with 151
illustrations. (London: A. & C. Black, 1900.)

S the title of Dr. Scott’s work implies, “Studies in Fossil
Botany ” is not a ‘textbook’ in the ordinary acceptation of the
term, giving a systematic course of the entire range of fossil plants,
but contains thirteen lectures devoted to the microscopical structure,
morphology, and affinities of Carboniferous plants, and one on the
Mesozoic Gymnosperms. The groups studied are not chosen at
random, but follow each other in natural sequence.

Lectures i-ili are devoted to the Hquisetales. The Calamites are
first described, and here, as in the subsequent groups, a description
ot the external characters of the group is given. These descriptions,
however, take a subordinate place to the description of the internal
organization of the plants, which forms the main subject of the
lectures. The development of the young Calamite is traced through
its early stages, and the different structures which go to make up
the complete plant are described in detail. One of the important
results of Dr. Scott’s examination of the Calamites is to prove
that the carinal canals of Aquisetum and Calamites are homologous,
both resulting from the rupture of the primary wood. After the
description of Arthropitys, the common English form of Calamite,
the two other types of Calamite stem structure, Arthrodendron and
Calamodendron, are considered. The Calamite fructifications, Calamo-
stachys, Palgostachya, and Cingularia, are then dealt with and their
morphology discussed; then follow notes on Archgocalamites and
Macrostachya.

In Lecture iv the Sphenophyliales are considered. In this group
are placed the two genera Sphenophyllum and Cheirostrobus. This
is a specially interesting chapter, dealing with types of plant
structure which disappeared with Carboniferous times. Fortunately,
the structure of stems, roots, leaves, and fructification of Spheno-
phyllum is known. The two British species showing structure—
S. plurifoliatum, from the Lower Coal-measures, and S. insigne, from
the Calciferous Sandstone series—are fully described. Sphenophyllum

568 Reviews—Dr. D. H. Scott—Studies in Fossil Botany.

Dawsoni is taken as the type of Sphenophyllum fructification, and is
fully described. It might be remarked here, that S. Dawsoni is
almost certainly the fruit of S. cuneifolium, Sternb., sp., of which
probably S. plurifoliatum is the stem. The fructifications of other
species of Sphenophyllum are described or referred to, and though
the vegetative organs of all the species of Sphenophyllum have
a great similarity, the arrangement of the sporangia in some of
the species varies considerably: so much is this the case, that the
genus as presently employed must be regarded more in the light of.
a group than a genus; but in vegetable paleontology the imperfect
knowledge of many critical characters makes it most unwise to treat
fossil genera in the restricted manner in which one would proceed
in dealing with existing plants. Although Cheirostrobus is here
placed in the Sphenophyllales, its connection with Sphenophyllum does
not appear to be very close.

The Lycopodiales occupy Lectures v—vii, and contain descriptions
of Lepidodendron, Lepidophloios, Sigillaria, and Stigmaria. We
cannot agree with Dr. Scott’s treatment of Halonia and Ulodendron.
Halonia is ccrrectly referred to Lepidophloios as its fruiting branch
(p. 156), and Ulodendron in part to Lepidodendron and Sigillaria
(p. 152); but, again, it is said: “ What, then, was the nature of
the Halonial branches, which were evidently not characteristic of
a separate genus, but occurred as terminal ramifications on ordinary
Lepidodendroid stems?” (p. 158). Again, “ Williamson, however,
described a specimen with multiseriate, quincuncially arranged scars
of the Ulodendron character, and also a Halonia with the tubercles
in two series, so this distinction loses its value” (pp. 158-159).
As references for this statement Dr. Scott mentions Williamson’s
figures given in Mem. xix, pl. vi, figs. 22 and 25a. Now the
“cortex of Lepidophloios, with rows of Ulodendroid fructiferous
scars, arranged as in Halonia regularis” (Williamson, l.c., p. 33),
shows a typical specimen of a fruiting branch of Lepidophloios
with leaf and cone scars, and does not possess a single Ulodendroid
character ; whereas Williamson’s fig. 22, “a young fructiferous
Halonial branch, with its tubercles in two lateral series” (l.c., p. 83),
is decorticated, and does not exhibit any characters by which it can
be referred with certainty to either Lepidophloios, Lepidodendron, or
Sigillaria ; and as all the specimens with two rows of large scars
which have shown the leaf-scars, have invariably belonged to Lepido-
dendron, Sigillaria, or Bothrodendron, there seems little warrant for
referring this specimen to Lepidophloios, especially when no specimen
has ever been described or figured wherein a distichous arrangement of
the fructiferous scars has been found associated with the Lepidophloios
leaf-scar. We also know the specimen referred to on p. 160, and
here, also, there is absolutely no evidence for including it in Lepido-
phioios rather than referring it to Sigillaria discophora, where the
fructiferous scars were in two rows, and the other characters of this
Specimen would seem to refer it to this species. We would naturally
expect to find that the internal organization of two such closely
allied genera as Lepidodendron and Lepidophloios possessed an

Reviews—Dr. D. H. Scott—Studies in Fossil Botany. 569

almost identical structure. We believe it is now recognized that
isolated vascular axes of Sigillaria and ZLepidodendra cannot be
distinguished apart from the structure of the cortex and its leaf
cushions.

The internal structure of the Lycopodiales is admirably described.
‘The material for the study of the Zepidodendra, being plentiful and
-exceptionally well preserved in the Yorkshire and Lancashire Coal-
field and a few other localities, has given exceptional facilities for
_ a description, which could be little more perfect had it been drawn
up from the living plant. The description of the internal organiza-
tion of Sigillaria is also good, although specimens of undoubted
Sigillarian stems showing structure preserved are very rarely found.
“The two lateral points on the surface of the leaf cushion below the
leaf-scar”’ of Lepidodendron are supposed to have some connection
with the parichnos. This conclusion may possibly be correct, but as
the point is said to have been investigated by Potonié in a Lepido-
phlotos, where the curious structures known as the parichnos do not
occur on the cushion, it is probable that the specimen investigated
was a Lepidodendron.

It might, perhaps, have been better if Dr. Scott had substituted
the name of Lepidodendron Veltheimianum for that of L. brevifolium,
given under the figure on p. 133, as the plant there shown really
belongs to that species, and especially as the cones of the same stem
are named Lepidostrobus Veltheimianus in figs. 67, 68, 69, and TOc-d.
Professor Williamson subsequently corrected his error in identifying
the Pettycur plant with Ettingshausen’s Lepidodendron brevifolium,
which latter is a Lepidophloios (= Lepidophloios acerosus, L. & H., sp.).
In the same lecture Lepidostrobus and Spencerites find a place;
the latter, known only from its cones with curious winged spores, is
a most peculiar and interesting genus.

The Ferns occupy Lectures viii and ix, and are admirably treated.
Here, we believe, is given the best and most concise account of the
structure of Paleozoic ferns with which we are acquainted, for
though the space devoted to their consideration is not large, their
characteristics and structure are most clearly described.

Lecture viii serves somewhat as an introduction to the study of
the chief fern genera and their fructifications, and concludes with
a description of the anatomy of Psaronius. Lecture ix is reserved
for the consideration of the Botryopteridx, the two forms described
being Zygopteris Grayi and Botryopteris hirsuta, which belong to the
herbaceous monostelic type of fern structure. The petioles of
Z. Lacattii and Z. bibractensis have long been known as common
fossils in the Yorkshire and Lancashire Coal-balls. Thanks to the
labours of M. Renault, in some respects Zygopteris is one of our
most completely known fossils, but its affinities are difficult to
determine, the annulate sporangia of Zygopteris and Botryopteris
being very different from any fructification known to occur amongst
recent ferns.

The Cycadofilices occupy Lectures x and xi, and comprise one of
the most interesting groups of Paleeozoic plants with which the

570 Reviews—Dr. D. H. Scott—Studies in Fossil Botany.

paleontologist has to deal. The group contains ferns belonging to.
several ‘genera’ as determined by the impressions of their fronds,
for we find members of the Brongniartian genera Sphenopteris,.
Alethopteris, and Newropteris among the Cycadofilices. Sphenopteris
Honinghausi is the frond of Lyginodendron Oldhamium, and M. Renault
has shown that the petioles of certain Alethopteris and Neuropteris
have the structure of DMyeloxylon, which in turn has been found
attached to the stem of Medullosa, one of the Cycadofilices.

In dealing with these interesting plants, Lyginodendron Oldhamium,
one of the monostelic forms, is first described. It is treated very
fully, the stems, branches, roots, and foliage being very common
in the ‘Coal-balls.’ The only point of interest unknown is its
fructification, which, however, Dr. Scott presumes may have been
Calymmatothecous, as shown in his restoration in the frontispiece.
The evidence on which Dr. Scott arrives at this conclusion is derived
from the reference to Sphenopteris (Calymmatotheca ?) Stangeri, Stur,
of a Calymmatothecous fructification, and his belief that this fern is
specifically identical with Sphenopteris Honinghausi—a view we are
unable to share, as we regard these two species as essentially distinct.

Lyginodendron—or perhaps better, Lyginopteris Oldhamia, as re-
named by Potonié—is followed by a description of Heterangium,
another monostelic form with Sphenopteroid foliage, at least in the
case of H. Grievi. Calamopitys Saturni, whose generic name gives
a very false idea of its true position, the Cycadoaxylee, and Protopityea,
are next considered, and these lead us up to the genus Medullosa, the
type taken for description being the J/edullosa anglica, Scott, the
oldest known member of the genus, and one possessing a less
complex structure than those occurring in later Carboniferous rocks.
Medullosa exhibits a polystelic type of structure. All the Cycado-
filices show the remarkable character of a normal development of
secondary bast and xylem. The fern petioles originally named
Myeloxylon are now known to belong to Medullosa. The complex
organization of these ferns has been worked out in admirable detail,
and the occurrence of cycadaceous characters in association with the
fern type of structure is fully dwelt on.

The Poroaylon and Cordaitee fall to be considered in Lecture xii.
The Cordaitee are only now beginning to be understood. Some
species of so-called Araucarioxylon, which must be referred to the
Cordaitee, have been shown to possess a primary wood arranged in
a circle round the periphery of the pith. For our knowledge of the
structure of the flowers of Cordaites we are indebted to M. Renault,
who has worked them out in great detail. The anatomy of the
leaves and roots is also known and described. The position of
Cordaites seems to lie between Cycads and Conifers, though at the
Same time it holds individual characters which prevent it being.
united with either.

Lecture xiii gives an account of the Mesozoic Gymnosperms, and
Lecture xiv is devoted to the “General Results” derived from the
foregoing course of study. The last lecture is therefore in some
respects the most important of all, for it gives us the conclusions.

Reviews—The Calabro-Sicilian Earthquake. 571

arrived at regarding the affinities of the various groups described,
and contains the views of one than whom there is none more
competent to express an opinion on the subject under discussion.

The results attained from the study of the Paleozoic flora lead to
most interesting conclusions as to the antecedents of our existing
flora, and certain points are prominently brought out. The first of
these that strikes one is the entire disappearance of the traditional
simple type of structure which was supposed to characterize the
Carboniferous flora, the truth being that the Paleozoic plant type
(at least as far back as the basement beds of the Carboniferous
formation) is of a much more complex nature than is found to occur
in the representatives of the similar groups at present existing ; it is
also further seen that it is quite possible that the recent Hquisetacee
are not derived from the Calamites, but are descendants of a simpler
type which was contemporary with them, and there seems to be
even less room for doubt that our Zycopodium and Selaginella have
descended from a group of herbaceous Lycopods which existed side
by side with the Zepidodendra, of which we have clear evidence
as far back as the basement beds of the Carboniferous formation.
The Lepidodendra appear to have entirely disappeared with Paleozoic
times and to have transmitted no descendants to later formations.

“Studies in Fossil Botany ” is one of the most valuable additions
to the literature of Paleozoic botany which has appeared for many
years, and shows the advance made during the last decade in the
knowledge of the structure and classification of fossil plants. The
student of recent botany also profits from such a volume as that
issued by Dr. Scott, for it is impossible to fully understand the
existing vegetation without a knowledge of the source from which it
has been derived.

Dr. Scott possesses the great faculty of clear description and
ability to grasp the salient structural features of the plants about
which he writes, and this, coupled with his great knowledge of
Paleozoic plant structures, makes his ‘“ Studies” indispensable to
all students of botany; and we can only congratulate the author on
the issue of a work the appearance of which has been looked for
with so much interest.

The illustrations, 151 in number, are well chosen and excellent in
every respect, and many of them have been specially prepared for
the author. The Index, a most important adjunct, is also very
complete. R. K.

I].—Tue Carasro-Sicinian Eartaquake or Novemper 16, 1894.

(1) G. Mercalli, ‘I terremoti della Calabria meridionale e del
Messinese”’: Memorie della Soc. Ital. delle Scienze, vol. xi
(1897), pp. 1-154.

(2) A. Riccd, “ Riassunto della sismografia del terremoto calabro-
siculo del 16 novembre, 1894”: Rend. della R. Accad. dei
Lincei, vol. viii (1899), pp. 8-12, 35-46.

572 Reviews—The Calabro-Sicilian Earthquake.

(3) P. Tacchini, “'Terremoto calabro-messinese del 16 novembre,
1894.” : ibid., vol. iii (1894), pp. 275-277.

(4) P. Tacchini, “Sulla registrazione a Roma del terremoto calabro-
messinese del 16 novembre, 1894”: ibid., vol. iii (1894),
pp. 065-867.

(5) Boll. Meteor. dell’ Uff. Centr. di Meteorologia e Geodinamica,
Supplemento 1138.

Shortly after its occurrence, a Government Commission was
appointed to study the disastrous earthquake of November 16, 1894,
in Sicily and Southern Italy. The work was divided into sections,
the seismological part being undertaken by Prof. A. Ricco, the
director of the observatory of Catania. Prof. G. Mercalli has also
completed a valuable memoir on the seismic history of the district,
the final chapter being devoted to the earthquake series of 1894.

Both the writers mentioned furnish maps of the isoseismal lines,
Prof. Riccd making use of the Rossi-Forel scale of intensity and
Prof. Mercalli of that which bears his name. In the central portion
of the disturbed area, the two series of lines agree fairly closely,
but they differ somewhat as regards those of lower intensity.
Discrepancies in the latter are, however, to be expected on account
of the smal] number of observations collected and the large portion
of the area occupied by the sea.

The epicentral district, which overlaps that of the great Calabrian
earthquake of February 5-6, 1783, lies about twenty miles north-east
of Reggio Calabria. To the west and north-west, there is a notable
expansion of the isoseismal lines; but in the opposite direction they
are closely grouped, showing that the intensity of the shock died
out rapidly in crossing the crystalline masses of Aspromonte and
towards the Ionian Sea. The outermost isoseismal, according to
Prof. Ricco, includes an area of 43,890 square miles.

The damage to property was confined to an area of 3,540 square
miles in the provinces of Reggio Calabria and Messina; more
than three-fourths occurring in the former province, where it was
estimated to amount to about a million pounds. It was due chiefly
to the very poor materials employed, the insufficient foundations, the
imperfect connection between the different parts of the building, and
the exceedingly heavy roofs. Altogether, 922 houses were completely
ruined, and 44,493 more or less seriously injured; about a hundred
people were killed and nearly one thousand wounded.

In nearly all parts of the disturbed area, the shock consisted of
two distinct series of vibrations ; the first and weaker series being
separated from the other by an interval of rest lasting two or three
seconds. Within and near the epicentral district, the concluding
vibrations were vorticose, being subject to rapid changes of direction.
Both Etna and Stromboli were strongly shaken, but neither showed
any sign of increased volcanic action. A puteometer at Catania
(70 miles from the epicentre) indicated an abrupt rise in the water
of 17 mm., followed by a fall of 14 mm., after which it returned

Reviews—Metamorphie Rocks, ete., in Tyrone and Donegal. 573

nearly to its original level. The shock was also recorded by
seismographs at Catania, Portici, Ischia, Rocca di Papa, Rome, Siena,
Pavia, and Nicolaiew (1,009 miles from the epicentre); and the
diagrams given by several of these instruments show two or more
groups of oscillations.

Prof. Ricco has made some attempts to determine the depth of
the seismic focus, but the results do little more than illustrate the
imperfection of the methods employed. From the recorded times at
Catania, Ischia, and Rome, he estimates it at 99 miles ; and from the
time-curve corresponding to eight good observations, at 107 miles.
Mallet’s method was inapplicable, and Dutton’s gave values ranging
from 15 to 100 miles.

Prof. Mercalli’s numerous observations on the direction of the
shock have an important bearing on the origin of the earthquake.
He shows that there are two small areas in which the directions
intersect, one on the north-west slope of Montalto d’Aspromonte,
between Plati and Delianova; the other in the sea, a few miles from
the coast, between Palmi and Cape Peloro. Recalling the double
character of the shock, he concludes that the earthquake originated
in two foci, the one beneath the sea being the last in action and
giving rise to the strongest part of the shock. C. Davison.

II1J.—On Meramorruic Rocks in HAstern Tyrone AND SOUTHERN
Donrcat. By G. A. J. Coun. Trans. Roy. Irish Acad., 1900,
vol. xxxi, pp. 431-472.

On ceRTAIN Rocks stYLED ‘FELsSTONES’ occuRRING as Dykegs
IN THE County or Donrcau. By G. A. J. Cone and J. A.
Cunnineuam. Scientific Proc. Roy. Dublin Soc., 1900, vol. ix
(n.S.), pp. 314-324.

HE problems presented for investigation in the complex regions
of crystalline rocks near Pomeroy in Tyrone, and Pettigo in
Donegal, are stated, in the first paper, as a series of questions—

(i) Is the intrusive granite distinct from the gneiss, or is the
former merely an offshoot from the latter ?

(ii) Is the gneiss itself an igneous rock, and if so, has it assumed
its local richness in ferromagnesian minerals by absorption of basic
and other rocks adjoining it ?

(iii) If the gneiss is distinct from and older than the granite,
what claim has it to be regarded as Archzan and fundamental ?

The author favours the view that the gneiss has been produced
by the intricate intrusion of a granitic magma into ancient schists,
which may originally have been of sedimentary origin. The gneisses
thus produced, as well as the less altered schists, are traversed by
and included in the granite of the Slieve Gallion type, which also
cuts an overlying basic igneous series, the latter giving rise to
‘eyes’ of amphibolite. The paper is illustrated by two plates, one
of them coloured.

574 Reviews—Papers by Professor W. I. Davis.

Three series of igneous dykes occur in the schists and quartzites
of the north-west of Ireland; those belonging to the series inter-
mediate in age are described in the Survey publications as ‘felstones,’
put they have since been shown by Hyland and others to include
various rocks of the lamprophyre group (camptonite, vogesite,
minette, kersantite). In the second paper quoted above these
determinations are confirmed, and a glassy olivine-basalt belonging
to the same series is also described.

TV.—Some Recent Papers spy Proressor W. M. Davis.

HEN ascending the valley of the Ticino on the way to
\ St. Gothard, Professor W. M. Davis observed that the side
valleys opened into the main valley several hundred feet up, and
streams cascaded down in sharp-cut shallow clefts. Such dis-
cordance between main and lateral valleys appears to be the rule
in Alpine regions, and in all valleys which have been strongly
glaciated ; and the attention which Professor Davis has given
to the subject dispelled the doubts which he had long felt as
to the ability of ice to erode deep. valleys and basins. It is not
surprising to learn that the features are, in his opinion, of so much
importance that a special name, that of ‘hanging valleys,’ suggested
by Professor Gilbert, is employed to designate these side valleys.
The peculiar features to which he draws attention are ascribed to
the action of the heavy ice-stream that once filled the valley to
a great depth: this trunk glacier at times rose so high that the
small lateral glaciers were held back and prevented from deepening
their channels, while the main valley was continuously subject to
erosion. (‘ Appalachia,” vol. ix, March, 1900.)

The recognition of the competence of glaciers thus to deepen and
widen their valleys is regarded by Professor Davis as an important
supplement to the belief that they can excavate lake basins. He
therefore pursues the subject of ‘overdeepened main valleys and
hanging lateral valleys,” in an article on Glacial Erosion in France,
Switzerland, and Norway (Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. xxix,
July, 1900). He points out that if the existing breadth of the
glaciated valleys, which are broad-floored, had been acquired in
the ordinary manner by the lateral swinging of the main stream
and by the weathering of the walls, the long time required for such
a change would have amply sufficed for the side streams to cut down
their valleys to grade with the main valley. He concludes that the
troughs were deepened and widened by ice-action. Similar features
occur on the borders of Lake Lugano and other Alpine lakes, in our
own Lake District, and in Norway. Irregularities along the main
valleys eroded by glaciers may have arisen through the greater
destruction of softer or more jointed rocks; and if the glacier
should vanish by climatic change while in this condition a lake
would occupy the deepened reach, and its outlet would flow forward
over rocky ledges to the next lower reach or lake. As the energy

Correspondence—Mr. J. R. Dakyns. 579

of a glacier is declining, it becomes in its lower course only
a transporting, not an eroding agent, and this would facilitate for
a time irregular erosion. Professor Davis discusses the origin of
Corrie Basins, and concludes with a review of previous writings on
the subject of glacial erosion. This and the previously mentioned
paper are illustrated by excellent photographic plates.

Professor Davis gives a graphic account of a fault scarp in the
Lepini Mountains of Italy (Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. xi, April,
1900). The region, as described by Signor Viola, consists of
Cretaceous limestone, capped here and there with Eocene beds,
uplifted and separated from the Eocene of the Sacco Valley by
a fault of considerable magnitude. Extinct Quaternary volcanoes
occur on the southern part of the fault line. The fault scarp may
be seen from Morolo station to occur along the mountain base. If
the original uplift of the mountain mass ever produced a great fault
cliff all traces of it are now destroyed, for the front is carved into
a succession of buttressing-spurs and ravines. ‘ Rock-fans’ or
débris due to the retrogression of the escarpment are described.
The fault scarp, in Professor Davis’ opinion, is much more recent
than the great dislocation which upraised the mass of the mountain
front, and was probably due rather to an irregular depression of the
Piedmont Eocene mass than to a further elevation of the Cretaceous
mountain block.

In an article on the Fresh-water Tertiary Formations of the
Rocky Mountain Region (Proc. Amer. Acad., vol. xxxv, March,
1900), Professor Davis maintains that sufficient attention has not
been given to the fact that rivers deposit as well as erode, and that
in consequence the probable fluviatile origin of most Piedmont
plains has not been generally realized. He gives reasons for
believing that mere continuity of even-bedded deposits, such as
occur in the Tertiary formations of Western America, even if
occupying many square miles, should not alone be taken as con-
clusive evidence of lacustrine origin. The object of his paper is to
promote consideration of the subject.

CORR nS 2 OmsDznNC.2-

———

A FELSTONE DYKE ON LLECHOG.

Srr,—In my paper published in the GronogicaL Macazine under
the title “Firstfruits of a Geological Examination of Snowdon,”?
I said that the Felstone Dyke on Llechog might possibly be the
same as are seen in Cwm Clogwyn at the foot of Llechog. I have
now satisfied myself that such is the case, and I give a diagram (not
drawn to scale) showing how the dyke rises through the cleaved
felsitic rocks of the mountain, and a sketch-map of the area
where it occurs. The dyke is from 15 to 20 yards wide where

1 Grou. Mac., 1900, June, p. 267.

576 Miscellaneous— Victoria Institute.

the section is drawn, but on the top of the cliff it rapidly thins.
away towards the south-east. In the cwm below it can be traced
for about two hundred yards till it is lost to sight under débris.

Dracram.
D, dyke; V, cleaved volcanic rocks.

SKETCH-MAP.
D, dyke ; V ////, cleaved volcanic rocks. Strike of cleavage, N.E.

This arm of Snowdon called Llechog must not be confused with
that overlooking the Pass of Llanberis. The word Llechog means:
a ‘slaty place,’ and is applied to more than one such place.

J. R. Daxyns.

Ruyp-ppvu, Carnarvon.

MIiSCHiLiOUAN HOUS.-
ne
Victoria Instrrurz.—At a special general meeting of the Victoria
Institute held at Adelphi Terrace on Monday, 5th November, Sir
G. Gabriel Stokes, President, in the chair, Professor Edward Hull,
F.R.S., was unanimously elected Secretary to the Institute, in the
room of the late Captain Francis Petrie.

INDEX.

ADD

DDRESS to the Geological Section
of the British Association, 449.

Address to the Zoological Section of the
British Association, 463, 516.

/Kolian Sands of Kathiawad, 335.

Age of the Earth, 220.

Age of the English Wealden Series, 443.

Age of the Later Dykes of Anglesey, 160.

Age of the Raised Beaches as seen in
Gower, 441, 528.

Ammonites, Inferior Oolite, 85.

Ammonites of the Lias (types), 561.

Ammonites discordes, 563.

Ammonites polygonius, 562.

Andrews, C. W., On Podoenemis egypti-
aca, 1; A Monograph of Christmas
Island, 330; Fossil Mammalia from
Egypt, 401; Sherbrooke Scholarship
and D.Sc. Degree given to, 432.

Anglesey, On the Geology of Northern,
135.

Annual General Meeting of the Geo-
logical Society of London, 184.

Annual Meeting of the Museums Asso-
ciation, 374.

Annual Report of the Smithsonian In-
stitution, 419.

Anomodontia, Relations of the, to the
Monotremata, 280.

Apatokephalus and Tyramoria, The
Genera, 46.
Ardnamurchan, A Granophyre Dyke

intrusive in the Gabbro of, 4386.
Arthropod, A Giant, from the Upper
Devonian, U.S.A., 481.
Augite, Brown Mica developed from, 316.
Australian Association for the Advance-
ment of Science, 320.
Ayrshire and Lanarkshire, Railway
Sections on the, 142.
AD NAUHEIM and
Salt-Springs, 349.
Bardia Nesselsdorfensis, Chapman, sp.
noy., 326.

its Thermal

DECADE IV.—VOL. VII.—NO. XII.

BRI

Bala Lake and River System of North
Wales, 141, 204, 241.

Baroda State, The Geology of the, 77.

Bather, F. A., Studies in Edrioasteroidea,
193; Report on the Index Animalium,
437.

Beach Formation in Thirlmere Reservoir,
473.

Beadnell, H. J. L., The Geological
Survey of Egypt, 46; The Ceno-
manian of Baharia Oasis, Egypt, 287.

Bearings of Fossil Ichthyology on the
Problem of Evolution, 463, 516.

Beecher, C. E., Restoration of Stylonwrus
Lacoanus, 481.

Belinurus grandevus, Notes on, 177.

Bellamy, C. O., The Salt-Lake of Lar-
naca in the Island of Cyprus, 285.

Blake, J. F., Fossils in the Devonian
Rocks of North Cornwall, 239 ; Regis-
tration of Type Fossils, 471.

Blanckenhorn, M., The Geological Sur-
vey of Egypt, 192.

Blantord, W. T., Form of Surface seen
on Loch Lochy, 135.

| Blue Amphibole in a Hornblende Ker-

santite from Co. Down, 257.

Bollettino della Societa Sismologica
Italiana, 275.

Bonney, T. G., Plant-stems in the
Guttannen Gneiss, 215; The Bunter
Pebble-Beds of the Midlands, 235 ;
The Parent-rock of the Diamond,
246; Colonel Feilden’s Contributions
to Glacial Geology, 289.

| Boring through the Chalk and Gault

near Dieppe, 25.

| Botany, Scott’s Studies in Fossil, 567.

Boulder-clay at Crich, 476.

Brongniart, Charles Jules Edme, Obituary
of, 430.

Brown Mica developed from Augite, 316.

British Association for the Advancement
of Science, 445.

British Earthquakes of 1893-9, 106, 164.

37

578
BRI

British East Africa, Contributions to the
Geology of, 138, 139.

British Stratigraphical Geology and
Paleontology, 474.

Brittlebank, C. C., Rate of Erosion of
some River Valleys, 320.

Bryozoa, Catalogue of the Fossil, 380.

Buckman, S. S., Inferior Oolite Am-
monites, 85.

Bullen, R. Ashington, Shells from Port-
land Drift, 286.

Bunsen, R. W., Obituary of, 431.

Bunter Pebble-Beds of the Midlands,
235.

Burckhardt, R., On Hyperodapedon
Gordoni, 486, 529.

Busz, K., A Granophyre Dyke intrusive
in the Gabbro of Ardnamurchan,
Scotland, 436.

Bythocypris (?) Jwrassica, Chapman, sp.
nov., 320.

ALABRO-SICILIAN Earthquake,
571.

Calcisponges from the Kocene Tertiary
of Victoria, 41.

Callaway, C., On Longmyndian Inliers
at Old Radnor and Huntley, 282.

Cambrian Faunas, Studies on, 88.

Canada, Annual Report of the Geo-
logical Survey of, 177.

Canadian Paleozoic Corals, A Revision
of the Genera and Species, 182.

Capiluna Rappellz, var. Barroni, R. B.
Newton, var. nov., 502.

Carboniferous Lamellibranchiata, 84.

Cassian Zone, Fauna of the, in Fal-
zarego Valley, 337.

Cenomanian of Baharia Oasis, Egypt,
287.

Cephalopod, A new Carboniferous, 105.

Ceylon Rocks and Graphite, 336.

Chapman, F., On a Patellina-limestone
from Egypt, 3, 96; Foraminifera from
the Upper Cambrian Horizon in the
Malverns, 140; Foraminiferal Lime-
stones from Sinai, 308; Two New
Species of Ostracoda, 325; Note on
the AMolian Sands of Kathiawad, 335;
Constituents of Sands and Loams of
the Plateau Gravels, Sevenoaks, 404 ;
Age of the Raised Beach of Southern
Britain, 528.

Chelonian, New, from Egypt, 1.

Christmas Island, A Monograph on, 330.

Climate Influenced by Winds in Past
Epochs, 565.

Coal Plants, Growth in situ, 538.

Cole, Professor G. A. J., Metamorphic
Rocks, East Tyrone, 573; Felstones,
Co. Donegal, 573.

Index.

DRI

Composition of Igneous Rocks, 273.

Conocoryphe, On the British Species of
the Genus, 250.

Coomara-Swamy, A. K., On Ceylon
Rocks and Graphite, 336.

Correlation between Tertiary Mammalian
Horizons of Europe and America, 416.

Crag of Essex, 282.

Cretaceous Canadian Crustacea, 392, 433.

-Cretaceous Lamellibranchia, 83.

Crick, G. C., A Correction to the Cata-
logue of Fossil Cephalopoda, 93; On
the Horizon and Locality of Sowerby’s
Type-Specimen of Nautilus truncatus,
514; Note on Nautilus clitellarius,
Sby. (= Ephippioceras clitellariwm),
560; On Zieten’s Types of Ammonites
polygonius and Amm. discoides, 561.

Cryptocleidus from Kellaways Rock,535.

Cunningham, J. A., & Cole, G. A. J.,
Felstones of Co. Donegal, 578.

AKYNS, J.R., Modern Denudation in
North Wales, 18; Some Snowdon
Tarns, 58, 143; Colour of Glaslyn
and of Llyn Llydaw, 92; A Geological
Examination of Snowdon, 267; A
Felstone Dyke on Llechog, 575.

Dana, E.S., Appendix to Dana’s System
of Mineralogy, 86.

Davis, Professor W. M., Recent Papers
by, 574.

Davison, C., Some Minor British Earth-
quakes, 106; Some British Earth-
quakes, 1893-99, 164; Bollettino
della Societa Sismologica Italiana,275;
The Calabro-Sicilian Earthquake,
Nov. 16, 1894, 571.

Dawson, G. M., Geological Survey of
Canada, Annual Report, 177.

Deeley, R. M., Fine Section of Boulder-
clay at Crich, 476.

Dendrites, The Formation of, 137.

Denudation in North Wales, 18.

Derived Limestones, 248.

Devonian Rocks on the North Coast of
Cornwall, 145.

Dewitz, J., Red Colour of the Salt Lakes
in the Wadi Natroun, 64.

Diabase Intrusion into Permo-Carboni-
ferous Rocks of Tasmania, 91.

Diamond, The Parent-rock of the, 246.

Dieppe, A Boring through the Chalk and
Gault near, 25.

Diprotodon australis, 28.

Distribution of Rhadinichthys monensis
in the Yorkshire Coalfield, 260.

Drepanaspis Gmiindenensis, Schliter,
153.

Drift at Moel Tryfaen, 115.

Drift-gravels at West Wickham, 45.

Index.

DWL

Dwlban Point, Anglesey, Sandstone Pipe
in Carboniferous Limestone, 20.

Dwlban Point, Anglesey, Deflected
Glacial Striz at, 24.

Dyke on Llechog, 575.

Dykes of Anglesey, Age of the Later, 160.

ee - MOVEMENTS, Effect of,
in the Isle of Man, 89.

‘Karthquakes, British, 99, 164.

Earthquakes, Some Minor British, 106.

Earthquakes in Italy and Sicily, 571.

Eastman, C. R., New Fossil Bird and
Fish Remains from the Eocene,
Wyoming, 54.

Echinoderma, The, 233.

Edrioaster Buchianus, Forbes, sp., 198.

Egypt, Foraminiferal Limestone from,

’

Egypt, Fossil Mammalia from, 401.

Egypt, New Chelonian from the Lower
Miocene of, 1.

Kgypt, Stone Implements from, 326.

Kgypt, The Geological Survey of, 192.

Egyptian Geological Survey of Raised
Beach Deposits of Red Sea, 500, 544.

Elles, Gertrude L., Zonal Classification
of the Wenlock Shales, 90.

Eminent Living Geologists, 49.

Enoploclytia minor, H. Woodward, sp.
noy., 434.

Ephippioceras clitellarium, 560.

Erosion of some River Valleys, The Rate
of, 320.

Eryma Dawsonii, H. Woodward, sp.
noy., 400.

Etcheminian Fauna of Cape Breton, 87.

Eurycarpus Oweni, Further Evidence of
the Skeleton of, 236.

Evans, J. W., Mechanically - formed
Limestones from Junagadh and other
Localities, 335.

Extinct Primates from Madagascar, 492.

‘Tipe DER GASKOHLE, 36.

Feilden, Colonel, Contributions to Glacial
Geology, 289.

Felstones, Co. Donegal, 573.

Firstfruits of a Geological Examination
of Snowdon, 267.

Fisher, Rey. O., Eminent Living Geo-
logists, 49; Geological Age of the
Earth, 124.

Foote, R, B., Indian Geology, 77.

Foraminifera from the Chalk, A Cata-
logue of, 225.

Foraminifera from the Pleistocene Beds
at Moel Tryfaen, 122.

579
GRE

Foraminifera from the Upper Cambrian
Horizon in the Malverns, 140.

Foraminifera of the Formby and Leasowe
Marine Beds, 97.

Forbes, H. O., Stone Implements from
Egypt, 326.

Fossil Botany, Studies in, 567.

Fossil Fish and Bird Remains from the
Kocene of Wyoming, 54.

Fossil Mammalia from Egypt, 401.

Fossils in Devonian Rocks of North
Cornwall, 239.

Fossils in the University Museum, Ox-
ford, 137, 138.

Fox, Howard, Geology and Fossils of
the Devonian Rocks on the North
Coast of Cornwall, 145.

Fritsch, A., Fauna der Gaskohle, 36.

ALTON, Sir Douglas 8., Obituary
of, 429.
Gault of Folkestone, A new Crustacean
from the, 61.
Geinitz, H. B., Obituary of, 143.
Geography, The International, 38.
Geological Age of the Earth, 220.
Geological Hypothesis, 298, 527.
Geological International Congress, 378.
Geological Society of London, 41, 135,
184, 235, 276, 333, 427.

Geological Survey, Memoirs of the, 234.
Geological Survey of Egypt, 1, 3, 46,
192, 287, 308, 367, 401, 500, 544.

Geological Survey of India, 77.

Geological Survey of the United Kingdom,
474.

Geology and Fossils of some Devonian
Rocks in Cornwall, 145.

Geology and Paleontology, History of,
73

Gilgit, Notes on the Geology of, 236.

Glacial Geology, Colonel Feilden’s Con-
tributions to, 289.

Glacial Strize, Deflected, 24.

Glacial Subaerial Erosion seen on Loch
Lochy, 135.

Goodchild, J. G., Formation of Maritime
Peat, 381.

Gordon, M. M. Ogilvie, Fauna of the
Upper Cassian Zone in Falzarego
Valley, South Tyrol, 337.

Granophyre Dyke Intrusion in the Gabbro
of Ardnamurchan, 436.

Graptolite Fauna of the Lower Ludlow
Formation, 276.

Greenly, E., Sandstone Pipe in Carboni-
ferous Limestone, Anglesey, 21; De-
flected Glacial Strize at Dwlban Point,
24; On the Drift at Moel Tryfaen,
115; Age of the Later Dykes of
Anglesey, 160.

580
GRE

Gregory, J. W., Geology and Fossil
Corals and Echinids oft Somaliland,
44; The Geology of Mount Kenya,
138; The Eleolite Lignite and Four-
chites intrusive in the Coast Series,
139 ; Catalogue of Fossil Bryozoa, 380.

Gresley, W. S., Coal Plants, Growth
in sith, 538.

Greywether at South Kensington, 543.

Griesbach, C. L., Geological Survey of
India, General Report, 81.

Groom, T., Pebbles of the Hollybush
Conglomerate, 471; Igneous Rocks
and Cambrian Beds at Malvern, 473.

Gunn, W., Geology of Belford, Holy
Island, and the Farne Islands, 234.

Guppy, R. J. L., On the Naparima
Rocks, Trinidad, 322.

Guttannen Gneiss, Plant-stems in the,
216.

Gypsina crassitesta, Chapman, sp. nov.,
13.

ALL, T. M., F.G.8., Obituary of,
431.

Hall & Clarke, On Paleozoic Reticulate
Sponges, 230.

Harmer, F. W., The Pliocene Deposits

of the Kast of England, 282; Influence
of the Winds on Climate in Past
Epochs, 565.

Hauer, Franz Ritter von, Obituary of,
430.

Helicoprion—Spine or Tooth ? 33.

Hill, J. B., & Kynaston, H., A new Type
of Rock from Kentallen and elsewhere,
304.

Hind, Wheelton, Paleoneilo, in British
Carboniferous Rocks, 45; A Mono-
graph of the British Carboniferous
Lamellibranchiata, 84.

Hinde, G. J., Fossil Radiolaria, 29;
Remarkable Calcisponges from the
Eocene Tertiary of Victoria, 41.

Holmes, W. M., Radiolaria from the
Upper Chalk of Coulsdon, Surrey, 428.

Hooley, R. M., On a Tortoise from the
Wealden of the Isle of Wight, 263.

Hoploparia Westoni, H. Woodward, sp.
noy., 433.

Horizon and Locality of Sowerby’s Type-
Specimen of Nautilus truncatus, 514.

Hornblende Kersantite, Blue Amphibole

in, 257.

Hudson Bay, Stability of the Land

around, 266.

Hull, E., The Sub-Oceanic Valley of the
River Congo, 94.

eee F. W., Geological Hypothesis,
527.

Hyperodapedon Gordoni, 486, 529.

Hypothesis, A Word on Geological, 298.

Index.

LAN

GNEOUS Rocks associated with the
Cambrian Beds of Malvern, 473.
Igneous Rocks, Diagram of Composition
of, 273.

Igneous Rocks of the Coast of County
Waterford, 333.

Igneous Rocks, Order of Consolidation
of Mineral Constituents in, 295.

Index Animalium, 412, 473.

Indian Earthquake of June 12th, 1897,
331.

International Geological Congress, 378.

Isle of Wight, A Tortoise from the
Wealden of the, 263.

Isle of Wight, Paleolithic Implement
from Chalk Downs, 406.

Joa. Notes on the Minerals of,
65.

Jennings, A. V., The Geology of Bad
Nauheim and its Thermal Salt-Springs,.
349.

Jersey, The Rocks of the South-Eastern
Coast of, 237.

Joly, J., An Estimate of the Geological
Age of the Earth, 124 ; The Geological
Age of the Earth, 220.

Jones, T. R., Catalogue of the known
Foraminifera from the Chalk, ete.,
225.

Jones & Woodward, On Palozoic
Phyllopoda, 82; Note on Belinurus
grandevus, 177.

Jukes-Browne, A. J., A Boring through
the Chalk and Gault near Dieppe, 25.

Junagadh, Mechanically-formed Lime-
stones from, 335.

ARPINSKY, A., Helicoprion—Spine
or Tooth? 33.

Kellaways Rock, Cryptoclezdus from, 535.

Kotora Jimbo, Note on the Minerals of
Japan, 65.

Kynaston, H., & Hill, J. B., New Type
of Rock from Kentallen and elsewhere,
304.

lee B., Bala Lake and River-System
of North Wales, 141, 204, 241.

Lambe, L. M., Contributions to Canadian
Paleontology, 182.

Lamplugh, G. W., Effects of Earth-
movements on the Volcanic Rocks of
the Isle of Man, 89; Age of the
English Wealden Series, 443.

Langley, S. P., Annual Report of the
Smithsonian Institution, 419.

Lankester, E. Ray, A Treatise on
Zoology, 2383, 520.

Index.

LAP

Lapworth, H., The Silurian Sequence of
Rhayader, 42.

Larnaca, Salt-Lake of, in the Island of
Cyprus, 285.

Lartet, Louis, Obituary of, 429.

La Saline, The Rocks of, 238.

Lewis, W. J., A Treatise on Crystallo-
graphy, 85.

Limestones, Derived, 248.

Loams and Sands of the Plateau Gravel
near Ash, Sevenoaks, 404.

Lomas, J., Report on the Inorganic
Constituents of the Crag, 282.

Longmyndian Inliers of Old Radnor and
Huntley, 282.

Neos: C. A., Notes on the
Geology of Gilgit, 236.

Madagascar, Summary of our Knowledge
of the Extinct Primates from, 492.

Major, C. I. Forsyth, Extinct Primates
of Madagascar, 492.

Maritime Peat, Formation of, 381.

Marr, J. E., The Scientific Study of
Scenery, 413.

Matley, C. A., On the Geology of
Northern Anglesey, 135.

Matthews, G. F., The Etcheminian Fauna
of Cape Breton, 87; Studies in Cam-
brian Faunas, 88.

Medals and Awards, Geological Society,
92.

Meeting of the British Association at
Bradtord, 445, 576.

Mesodromilites Birleya, H.Woodw., gen.
et sp. nov., 61.

Metamorphic Rocks of KE. Tyrone, 573.

Meyeria? Harveyi, H. Woodw., sp. nov.,
434.

Mill, H. R., The International Geo-
graphy, 38.

Milne-Edwards, Alphonse, Obituary of,
478.

Mineralogy, Appendix to Dana’s System
of,

Moel Tryfaen, Drift at, 115.

Morton, G. H., Obituary of, 288.

Museums Association Annual Meeting,
374.

hoe Rocks of Trinidad, 322.

Nautilus elitellarius, Sby., 560.

Nautilus truncatus, Horizon and Locality |

of Sowerby’s Type-Specimen, 514.
Nepheline-Syenite and its Associates in
the North-West of Scotland, 385.
Nesselsdorf, Two New Species of Ostra-
coda from, 326.

Newport, Monmouthshire, The Country |
' Patellina-limestone from Egypt, 3, 96.

around, 86.

581
PAT

Newton, R. B., Pleistocene Shells from
the Raised Beach Deposits of the Red
Sea, 500, 544. :

Nordenskiéld, A. E., Discovery and
Occurrence of Minerals containing
Rare Elements, 279.

Nummutlites Barroni, Chapman, sp. nov.,
371.

BITUARIES, John Ruskin, 94;

Dr. Hans Bruno Geinitz, 143 ;
George H. Morton, 288; John Young,
382; Louis Lartet, 429; Sir Douglas
S. Galton, 429; Franz Ritter von
Hauer, 430; Charles Jules Edme
Brongniart, 430; Townshend Monck-
ton Hall, 431; Robert W. Bunsen,
431; John Baldry Redman, 431 ;
Wilhelm Heinrich Waagen, 432;
Alphonse Milne- Edwards, 478 ; James
Thomson, 479.

Oldham, R. D., Report on the Great
Earthquake of June 12th, 1897, 331 ;
Beach Formation in Thirlmere, 473 ;
The Basal Conglomerate of Ullswater,
564,

Order of Consolidation of Minerals in
Teneous Rocks, 295.

Organic Remains from Cambrian Rocks
at Bray, 48.

Osborn, H. F., Presidential Address
before the New York Academy of
Sciences, 416.

Ostracoda, Two New Species of, 325.

Oxford University Museum, Fossils in,
428.

ALMOLITHIC Flint Implements
trom Chalk Downs, Isle of Wight,
406.
Paleoneilo
Rocks, 45.
Paleontographical Society of London, 82.
Paleontology, Textbook of, 232.
Paleozoic Phyllopoda, 82.
Paleozoic Reticulated
Memoir on the, 230.
Papers read before Section C (Geology)

in British Carboniferous

Sponges, A

at Bradford, 445; before other
Sections, 447.
Parent-rock of the Diamond, 246.
Parkinson, J., Rocks of the South-

Eastern Coast of Jersey, 237; The
Rocks of La Saline, Northern Jersey,
238.

Parson, J., The Development of Brown
Mica from Augite, etc., 316.

Patagonia, On the Geology and Palzon-
tology of, 470.

Patellina Eqgyptiensis, Chapman, sp. noy.,
11, 96.

582
PEB

Pebbles of the Hollybush Conglomerate,
471.

Plant-stems in the Guttannen Gneiss, 215.

Pleistocene Shells from the Raised Beach
Deposits of the Red Sea, 500.

Plesiochelys vectensis, Hooley, sp. nov.,
265.

Pleuronautilus? scarlettensis, sp. Nov.,
108.

Podocnemis egyptiaca, sp. nov., 1.

Podolia, The Fauna of the Silurian of,
132.

Podophthalmous Crustaceans from the
Cretaceous of Canada, 392, 488.

Polytrema papyracea, sp. nov., 13.

Porifera and Ceelenterata, 525.

Posnett, H. M., A Word on Geological
Hypothesis, 298.

Post-Glacial Geology, 97.

Pteroconus mirus, Hinde, sp. noy., 149,
239.

Ree Fossil, 29.

Radiolaria from the Upper Chalk at
Coulsdon, Surrey, 428.

Raised Beach Deposits of the Red Sea,
Shells from, 500, 544.

Raised Beach seen in Gower, Age of,
441, 528.

Rate of Erosion of some River Valleys,
320.

Reade, T. Mellard, A Contribution to
Post-Glacial Geology, 97.

Redman, J. B., Obituary of, 431.

Reed, F. R. Cowper, The Genera Apato-
kephalus and Tramoria, 46; On a
new Carboniferous Cephalopod, 105;
On the Genus Conocoryphe, 250 ;
Salter’s Undescribed Species, 303;
The Igneous Rocks of the Coast of
County Waterford, 333.

Registration of Type Fossils, 471.

Rhadinichthys monensis, Kgerton, 260.

Ruskin, John, Obituary of, 94.

Rutley, F., Eruptive Rocks from New
Zealand, 278.

ALT Lakes in the Wadi Natroun, Red
Colour of the, 64.

Salt-Springs, Geology of Bad Nauheim
and its Thermal, 349.

Salter’s Undescribed Species, 303.

Sandstone Pipe in Carboniferous Lime-
stone, Anglesey, 20.

Sarsen-stone or Greywether at South
Kensington, 643. —

Scenery, The Scientific Study of, 413.

Scotland, Nepheline-Syenite and its
Associates in the North-West of, 385.

Scott, Dr. D. H., Studies in Fossil
Botany, 567.

Index.

TEA

Scott, W. B., Geology and Paleontology
of Patagonia, 470.

Seeley, H. G., Further Evidence of the
Skeleton of Ewrycarpus Owent, 236 ;
On a Bird from the Stonesfield Slate,
276; Anomodont Reptile from the
Bunter Sandstone of Reichen, 280 ;
Skeleton of a Theriodont Reptile from
the Baviaans River, Cape Colony, 427.

Sevenoaks, Sands and Loams of the
Plateau Gravels from Ash, 404.

Seymour, H. J., Occurrence of a Blue
Amphibole in Hornblende, 257. .

Shells from Portland Rubble Drift, 286.

Sheppard, T., Cryptocleidus in Kellaways
Rock, 5385.

Sherborn’s Index Animalium, 412.

Siberia, Contributions to a Knowledge
of the Cambrian of, 133.

Silurian Fishes, 66.

Silurian Sequence of Rhayada, 42.

Sinai, Tertiary Foraminiferal Limestones
from, 308, 316.

Smith, J., Railway Sections in Ayrshire
and Lanarkshire, 142.

Snowdon, Firstfruits of a Geological
Examination of, 267.

Snowdon Tarns, 58.

Sollas, W. J., On two New Genera and
Species of Crinoidea, 1387; A New
Worm-track from the Slates of Bray
Head, 138; Derived Limestones, 248 ;
Order of Consolidation of Minerals in
Igneous Rocks, 295 ; Address to the
Geological Section at Bradford, 449.

Somaliland, The Geology, Fossil Corals,
and Echinoids of, 44.

Stability of the Land around Hudson
Bay, 266.

Stephens, T., Intrusion of Diabase into
Permo-Carboniferous Rocks, 91.

Stirling & Zietz, On Diprotodon australis,
28.

Stonesfield Slate, On a Bird from the,
276.

Strahan, A., Geology of the South Wales
Coalfield, 86.

Studies in Edrioasteroidea, 198.

Studies in Fossil Botany, 567.

Stylonurus Lacoanus, A Restoration ot,
481.

Sub-Oceanic Valley of the River Congo,
94.

Summary of Progress of the Geological
Survey for 1899, 474.

dpa Some Snowdon, 58, 1438.
Teall, J. J. H., Nepheline-Syenite and

its Associates in the North-West of
Scotland, 385.

Index.

TER

‘Tertiary Foraminiferal Limestones from
Sinai, 308, 316.

Testimonial to the Rey. Prof. Wiltshire,
96.

Theriodont Reptile from the Baviaans
River, Cape Colony, 427.

Thomas, H. H., Fossils in the Oxford
University Museum, 428.

Thomson, James, Obituary of, 479.

Tiddeman, R. H., Age of the Raised
Beach of Southern Britain as seen in
Gower, 441.

Toll, E. von, Contributions to the Know-
ledge of the Cambrian of Siberia, 133.

Tortoise from the Wealden of the Isle of
Wight, 263.

Traquair, R. H., On Silurian Fishes, 66 ;
Address to the Zoological Section at
Bradford, 463, 516.

Treatise on Zoology, 525.

Trinidad, On the Naparima Rocks of,
322.

Tyrol, South, Fauna of the Upper
Cassian Zone of, 337.

Tyrone Metamorphic Rocks, 573.

Tyrrell, J. B., Stability of the Land
around Hudson Bay, 266.

LLSWATER, The
glomerate of, 564.

Basal Con-

ENYUKOV, P. N., Fauna of the
Silurian of Podolia, 132.

\ \ JAAGEN, Wilhelm Heinrich,
Obituary of, 432.
Wadi Natroun, Red Colour of the Salt
Lakes in the, 64.
Wales, Bala Lake and the River System
of North, 204, 241.

Wales, Modern Denudation in North, 18.
Warren, 8S. H., Paleolithic Flint Imple-
ments from the Isle of Wight, 406.
Warth, H., Diagram of Composition of

Igneous Rocks, 273.

583
ZOO

Watkins, O., The Formation of Den-
drites, 137.

Wealden Series, Age of the English,
443.

Wellburn, E. D., On Rhadinichthys
monensis, 260,

Whidborne, G. F., Pteroconus mirus,
Hinde, 239.

Wiltshire, Rev. Professor, Presentation
of a Testimonial to the, 96.

Wood, E. M. R., Lower Ludlow Forma-
tion and its Graptolite Fauna, 276.
Woods, Henry, Cretaceous Lamelli-

branchia, 83.

Woodward, Henry, Note ona Crustacean,
Mesodromilites Birleye, from the Gault
of Folkestone,61 ; Presidential Address
to the Museums Association, 374 ;
Podophthalmous Crustaceans from the
Upper Cretaceous of British Columbia,
etc., 392, 433.

Woodward, Horace B., A Greywether at
South Kensington, 543.

Woodward & Jones, On Palozoic
Phyllopoda, 82; Note on Belinurus
grandevus, 177.

Woodwardian Museum Notes, 105, 250,
308.

W oodward’s Table of British Strata, 474.

Wright, Joseph, List of Foraminifera of
the Pleistocene Bed at Moel Tryfaen,
122.

Wyoming, Fossil Bird and Fish Remains
trom the Eocene at, 49.

Dees John, Obituary of, 382.

IETZ & STIRLING, On Fossil Re-
mains of Lake Callabonna, 28.
Zittel, K. A. von, History of Geology

and Paleontology, 73 ; English Edition

of Textbook of Paleontology, 232.
Zonal Classification of the Wenlock

Shales of the Welsh Borderland, 90.
Zoology, A Treatise on, 238.

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fElurosaurus felinus, Owen. Imperfect skull and mandible.

Bothriceps Huxleyi, Lydekker. Skull.

Cynognathus leptorhinus, Seeley. Anterior portion of skull.
50). platyceps, Seeley. Skull.

Delphinognathus conocephalus, Seeley. Skull and mandible.

Gomphognathus polyphagus, Seeley. Cranium showing
palate, etc.

5 sp. Skull.
Mesosaurus tenuidens, Gervais. Anterior portion of skeleton.
Ptychognathus Maccaigi, Seeley. Skull.
Theriodesmus phylarchus, Seeley. Forefoot.
Tritylodon longeevus, Owen. Skull.
Trirachodon Kannemeyeri, Seeley. Skull and mandible.

The above Twelve interesting Coloured Casts can be supplied for the sum of
£10 9s. Gd. (Packing included).

Cynognathus crateronotus, Seeley. Skull and Skeleton. £10.

5% ts Seeley. Skull only. £8 10s.
Pareiasaurus Baini, Seeley. Skeleton. £50.

Full list of COLOURED CASTS sent free on application.

ADDRESS—

ROBT. F. DAMON, WEYMOUTH, ENGLAND,

No. 430. New Series.—Decade IV.—Vol. VII—No. IV. Price 1s. 6d. nett.

THE

GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE

OR,

Sonthly Journal of Geology.

WITH WHICH IS INCORPORATED

“THE GEOLOGIST.”

EDITED BY

HeNRY WOODWARD, LL.D., F.R.S., F.6:S> te

ASSISTED BY

BOBERT. ETHERIDGE, F.RS.L. & 6, F.G6. &

=
yey

WILFRID H. HUDLESTON, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., &c

bt!

GEORGE J. HINDE, Pu.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., &c., AND

eRe Sry FE .G.S
gonian Instity es
i dR 6> 3 19 ’ H
APRIL, 1900. \ APH © 1900)
SSS Nation al Wi iS& Y a
S22
GO) AN ae esse
I. Onternau ARTICLES. PAGE | II. Norices or Mrmorrs. PAGE
1. Notes on the Geology and Fossils | Note on Belinurus grandevus,
of Devonian Rocks of the North T. R. Jones & H. Woodward. 177
Coast of Cornw all. By Howarp III. Reviews.
Fox, F.G.S. (Plate VII.) ... 145 1. Geological Survey of Canada—
2. Notes on Drepanaspis Gintinden- Annual Report. _ By G. M.
ensis, Schliiter. By Dr. R. H. Dawson, C.M.G., LL.D.,
Traquair, F. R.S. (With 3 F.R.S., Director, and his Staff. 177
Illustrations. )\. Saeae ee merann epee 153 2. Contributions to Canadian Pale- |
9 - | ontology: Canadian Paleozoic
2 Mes ey ake et Corals. B y Li wwrence | ie Lambe, |
y, | eet
GREENLY, rae Co S. (With 3 | EMSGAS Ee eos hc ere ee ee 182 |
Diagrams.) Pee te ay olf Reroute AND PROCEEDINGS.
4. On some British Earthquake | Geological Society of London— |
. ea ee 5 Anniversary Meeting, Feb. 16... 184
of the Years 1893-99. ; By TC Nee ee
Dr. Cuartes Davison, F.G.S. ORRESI
(With 4 Diagrams.)............... 164 | Dr. M. Blanckenhorn .........<.: 192

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{= The Volume for 1899 of the GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE is ready,

price 20s-nett. Cloth Cases for Binding may be had, price ls. 6d. nett.

COLOURED CASTS

FOSSILS FROM AFRICA,

SUPPLIED BY

ROBT. F. DAMON, Weymouth, England,

ZElurosaurus felinus, Owen. Imperfect skull and mandible.

Bothriceps Huxleyi, Lydekker. Skull.

Cynognathus leptorhinus, Seeley. Anterior portion of skull.
45 platyceps, Seeley. Skull.

Delphinognathus conocephalus, Seeley. Skulland mandible.

Gomphognathus polyphagus, Seeley. Cranium showing
palate, ete.

Ke sp. Skull.
Mesosaurus tenuidens, Gervais. Anterior portion of skeleton.
Ptychognathus Maccaigi, Seeley. Skull.
Theriodesmus phylarchus, Seeley. Forefoot.
Tritylodon longeevus, Owen. Skull.
Trirachodon Kannemeyeri, Seeley. Skull and mandible.

The above Twelve interesting Colourcd Casts can be supplied for the sum of
£10 9s. Gd. (Packing included).

Cynognathus crateronotus, Seeley. Skull and Skeleton. £10.

te ae Seeley. Skullonly. £38 10s.
Pareiasaurus Baini, Seeley. Skeleton. £50.

Full list of COLOURED CASTS sent free on application.

ADDRESS —

ROBT, F. DAMON, WEYMOUTH, ENGLAND.

oe

No. 481.

New Series.— Decade IV.— Vol. VII.—No. V. Price 1s. Gd. nett.

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OR,

Sbonthly .

WITH WHICH IS INCORPORATED

Journal of Geology.

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ASSISTED BY
ROBERT ETHERIDGE, F.R.S. L. & E., F.G.S., &c.,
WILFRID H. HUDLESTON, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., &c.,
GEORGE J. HINDE, Pu.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., &c., AND
HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S., F.G.S.
MAY, 1900. (is

vi \
‘\ WA
\

\ 4; 7
CO IN IN Ne

I. OxternaL ARTICLES.

PAGE | II]. Reviews. PAGE
1. Studies in Edrioasteroidea. II. | ’ 1. Professor James Hall & John M.
Edrioaster Buchianus Forbes | Clarke on Paleozoic Reticulate

sp. By F. A. Barner, M.A.,

Sponges of the Family Dictyo-

Prof. T. Rupert Jonss, F.R.S.,

2. The Rey.

J. F. Blake,

M.A.,

F.G.S. (Plates VIII, IX, and BPOn Oud ee: eee scehivew)- der cee seicees 230
Xe Pands (MVVOOdCUtS:)) css. -...2-s 198 | 2. Prof. K. A. von Zittel’s English
2. Bala Lake and the River | Edition of his Text-Book of
System of North Wales. By Ralecontology 22ai.s.-..0cs-eesees 20g
Pritie Laxz, M.A., F.G.S. irom enol. E. R: ay Lankester: A
(With’5 Woodcuts:)) .:.......:.. 204 | Treatise on Zoology Sar eas shes 233
8) Plant-estems in the Guttannen | 4. Memoirs of the Geological
Gneiss. By Prof. 'T. G. Bonney, | SENG, eo xdoadsoneacododtododocncasos 234
DENe. bls; By RSs s8 ssa 215 | III. Reports anp ProceEpines.
4, The Geological Age of the Earth. Geological Society of London—
By Prof. J. Joxy, M.A., D.Sc., 1. February 21, 1900 ............... 236
[SEIS Pa Se eee ae 220 2. March 7, 1900 ............:.--e0ee 236
5. Catalogue of the known Fora- TV. CornEsPONDENCE.
minifera from the Chalk, etc., | 1. The Rev. G. F. Whidborne,
of S.and 8.K. of England. By MAYS. Gian enc tacsaesanaecsemans 239

IBS Ga Ros teh eee esas sts cule osetia 225

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ID aiden ocapace acbosneacbosbaduecGr 239

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—————<_——————————————

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BEGS TO CALL ATTENTION TO HIS STOCK OF

NATURAL HISTORY
SPECIMENS, ete.

RECENT SPECIMENS.
| Aves — Reptilia — Amphibia — Pisces — Insecta — Arachnoidea —
Crustacea — Vermes — Mollusca — Tunicata — Bryozoa—Ccelenterata —
| Echinodermata—Porifera—Protozoa.
| A number of Mounted Birds, Fishes, Reptiles, etc., to be sold at
a very low figure.

100 species of Foreign Fishes in spirits. £4 4s.
50 species of Foreign Amphibia and Reptilia in spirits. £1 10s.
100 species of Foreign Crustacea in spirits. £2 10s.

Several Cabinets of Recent Shells.

FOSSILS.

A Large Assortment of British and Foreign Fossils.
Sets of British Fossils suitable for Museums. £100 and upwards.
| Students’ Collections. Stratigraphical, 7s.; Paleeontological, 6s. ;
| Petrological, 6s. ; Mineralogical, 5s., and upwards.
| Micro- Slides of Rocks, etc., for Students, 12 in cloth ease, 18s.

MINERALS, ETC.

An extensive stock, including two private collections.
Thirty Models oe Natural Crystals of Diamonds and Coloured
| Precious Stones. £38 3

Facsimiles of 28 of - most celebrated White and Coloured Diamonds,
executed in crystal glass. Price £6 6s.

ETRUSCAN and PHCENICIAN GLASS from Tyre and Sidon.
ANTIQUE POTTERY from Cyprus, etc.

COLOURED CASTS OF RARE FOSSILS.

R. F. Damon’s COLOURED CASTS can be seen in many English and
Colonial and Continental Museums. List can be had on application.

An interesting set of HUMAN REMAINS can now be supplied.

ADDRESS—

ROBT, F. DAMON, WEYMOUTH, ENGLAND.

No. 432. New Series.—Decade IV.—Vol. VII.—No. VI. Price 1s. 6d. nett-

GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE

’

Stlonthly Joumal of Geology.

WITH WHICH IS INCORPORATED

> PEM GHOMmOGIST.”
EDITED BY

HENRY WOODWARD, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S

ASSISTED BY

ROBERT ETHERIDGE, F.R.S.L. & E., F.G.S., &c.,
WILFRID H. HUDLESTON, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., &c.,
GEORGE J. HINDE, Pu.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., &o., AND
HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R<S; F.G.S.

., &e.

JUNE, 1900.
Gro) aN Sale SEIN. “SE ase

I, OxternaL ARTICLES. PAGE | ORIGINAL ARTICLES—continued. PAGE

1. Bala Lake and the River 9. A Geological Examination of
System of North Wales. By Snowdon. By J. R. Daxyns,
Puinre Laxer, M.A., F.G.S. Esq. (With an Illustration.)... 267
(Plate XI.) Continued from 10. Diagram of Composition of
Tape hamorsee Marnik hese tt ster vese se 241 Igneous Rocks. By H. Warrn,

2. The Parent-rock of the Diamond. Esq. (With two Illustrations ) 273
By Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc.,
TEAL EOE RES sca iene nts aces 246 | UH. Reviews.

3. Derived Limestones. By Prof. Bollettino della Societ’ Sismo-
Wee sonmas, Disc, HRS. 202400) logica Italiana, Vol. V. By

4. On the Genus Conocoryphe. By Dr. Cuartes Da vison, F.G.S. 275
F. R. Cowrrtr Reep, M.A.,
1D (Sr ahSBe cheep aodaann ere adame: LARGE 250 | III. Reports anp Procrepines.

5. eee ne aoe qa etnele Geological Society of London—
SEYMOUR, BAY F.G.S. (With ot ree SPatak ola, 0 e[e/eiels eiweiainetntapie pil
two Ilustrations.)..............600. 257 = Gea Poe hitg we ter wi

6. On Rhadinichthys monensis. By 4. teens (ae eS bs

7 E. D. WELLBURN, aay iP, | « ay > Oe soscaae ok atone eee $2
fry ete. (With an Illustra- oan IV. GornEsPonDENCE.

7. Tortoise from the Wealden of | 1. The Rey. R. Ashington Bullen,
the Isle of Wight. By R. W. ; 1A 6 ots Bratericg Se aeoceide Bab Suis atec 286
Hoousy, Esq. (With a full- 2 Mr. _Hugh J. L. Beadnell, ‘
page Illustration.) ............0- 263 BEGGS ofc c chseepis nieeecs 24 daeea eee 287

8. Stability of the Land around wa ogee ;

Hudson Bay. By J. B. Tyrrect, Been 8D
IW Tiles alot (Gann) del 6 sie anenpaennoe 266 Mr. G. H. Morton, F G.S....... 288

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¢+ The Volume for 1899 of the GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE is ready,

price 20s nett. Cloth Cases for Binding may be bad, price 1s. 6d. nett.

ROBT. F. DAMON, Weymouth, England,

BEGS TO CALL THE ATTENTION OF

DIRECTORS OF MUSEUMS AND PROFESSORS OF BIOLOGY
AND GEOLOGY IN UNIVERSITIES

TO HIS FINE SERIES OF

132 COLOURED CASTS

OF RARE AND INTERESTING

FOSSILS.

The complete set, except Nos. 1 and 28 (Paretasaurus and Dinornis) will
be sent carriage paid for the sum of

/ £150

Any Museum acquiring such a grand series of Casts would possess
much, not only to interest the Student, but also to attract the General
Public.

A town about to establish a Museum would find that these specimens,

when properly mounted and displayed in glass cases, with instructive |

labels to each, would form a substantial basis for a Public Museum at
a very small cost.

Directors or Curators and Professors of Colleges can obtain by return
of post, if desired, a list of the Museums in Great Britain, Australia,
Africa, America, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Denmark, France,
Germany, Greece, Holland, India, Italy, Japan, Norway, New Zealand,
Portugal, Russia, and Switzerland, where these Casts can be seen which
R. F. D. has supplied.

Lust of the Specimens and references to the works, where figured and described,
etc., may also be obtained on application.

ADDRESS—

ROBT. F. DAMON, WEYMOUTH, ENGLAND,

whipdindie

No. 433. New Series.—Decade IV.—Vol. VII.—No. VII. Price 1s. 6d. nett.

THE

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R,

Stlonthly Jounal of Geolog

WITH WHICH IS INCORPORATED
“THE GHRHOLOGIST.”

EDITED BY

memhy WOODWARD, LL.D., F.R.S.; F.G:S.; i &e-

ASSISTED BY

ROBERT ETHERIDGE, F.R.S. L. & E., F.G.S., &c.,
WILFRID H. HUDLESTON, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., &e.,
GEORGE J. HINDE, Pu.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., &c., AND
HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S., F.G.S.

JULY, 1900.

© ANUS IN Sie

I. OntetnaL ARTICLES. PAGE ORIGINAL ARTICLES—continued. PAGE |
1. Colonel Feilden’s Contributions 7. Rate of Erosion of some River
to Glacial Geology. By Professor Valleys. By C.C. BrirrLeBank, |
. G. Bonney, D.Sc., LL.D., | BSG eassneececersed.ss alate vin deans 320
TETRIS SSS Sian 8 5 ene ee ree ae 289 8. On theNaparimaRocks, Trinidad.

2. Order of Consolidation of By R. J. Lecumere Gurpry, |
Minerals in Igneous Rocks. By FS | ophios Saieet ae os = caiendee a te tae 322 |
Professor W. J. Sornas, LL.D., 9. Two New Species of Ostr acoda, |
D.Se., F R.S. Railee teats ttomoe. et iaaeice 295 By FREDKE. Cu APMAN, A.L-S t

3. Awordon Geological Hypothesis. F.R.M.S. (With six Figures.) 325 |
By Professor H. MacavuLay I ;
ROSNE DT: Sic. es cc deneveccens 298 E Sith we

4. Woodwardian Museum Notes : 1. Dr ne D Revat Stone Imple- aon
Salter’s Undescribed Species. bs Dr. C. Ww. a ae * Clie 5
By F. R. Cowper Resp, M.A., 5 ana ndrews’ Christmas

; 5 Island Monogr: iph sehen eec eee 330
BAGS. oo (Platemxlilic) iis... <asss 303
: ; <a% 3. R. D. Oldham’s Great Indian

5. Foraminiferal Limestones from ae 29
ee IBpE tA QUAI {Fc aciontcay =r ees coer 381
Sinai By Preperick CHAPMAN,

DE STS ae ee 30g | Ill. Rerorrs anp ProceEpines.

6. The Development of Brown Mica | Geological Society of London—
from Augite, ete. By James | Lapa 23 LO Ome i sets se sate ae 335
PARSONS; Btse, ond. 22f......2- 316 Ds sume: Gy VO 00 Tea, see esecne mateeeae cee 385

LONDON: DULAU & CQ,., 37, SOHO SQUARE.

¢s The Volume for 1899 of the GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE is ready,
price 20s. nett. Cloth Cases for Binding may be had, price Ls. 6d. nett.

COLOURED CASTS OF RARE FOSSILS

SUPPLIED BY

ROBERT F. DAMON, Weymouth, England,

Archeopteryx macrurus.

BS (second species).

Acrodus Anningie, Ag. Lower Lias: Lyme Regis. Teeth. Figured
in Geological Magazine, vol. 1. pl. il.
4.- Anthracotherium magnum, Cuv. Miocene: Hessen Darmstadt.
Palatal portion of Skull, with dentition. Length 40 cm.

5. Asaphus tyrannus, var ornata, Murchison. Llandeilo Flags:
Llandeilo, S. Wales. Figured in Murchison’s ‘ Siluria,”’ pl. xxiv. Length
of specimen, 21 cm.

6. Astropecten orion, Forbes. Kelloway Rock: Pickering. Original
in the British Museum (Natural History). Size of specimen, 19 cm.

7. Zlurosaurus felinus, Owen (imperfect skull and mandible).
Described and figured in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxvii_ (1881),
pp. 261-264, pl. ix, figs. 1-8. Karoo Formation: Gouph District, Beaufort
West, Cape Colony.

8. Bothriceps Australis, Huxley. Skull described and figured in
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xv (1859), p. 647, pl. xxii, fig. 1. Hawkesbury
Beds (Permian): New South Wales.

9. Bothriceps Huxleyi, Lydekker. Skull. Karoo Beds: Orange
River Colony.

10. Bothriolepis Canadensis, Whiteaves. Devonian: Canada. Two
specimens showing dorsal and ventral aspect. The largest and finest that have
been discovered. ‘The originals in the British Museum (Natural History).
Size, 18 cm. by 18 cm.

11. ————— Head only, showing eyes. The original in the Science
and Art Museum, Edinburgh.

12. Cancrinus latipes. Lithographic Stone: Solenhofen, Bavaria.
Length of specimen, 18 cm.

13. Cephalaspis Lyelli, Ag. Old Red Sandstone: Forfarshire, N.B.
The origiual in the British Museum (Natural History). Length 22 em.

14. Cephalaspis Salweyi, Egerton. Old Red Sandstone : Abergavenny.
Head-shield. Largest known specimen. Figured in Transactions Wvolhope
Naturalists’ Field Club, 1868. Original in British Museum.

15. Cheirolepis Canadensis, Whiteaves. Upper Devonian: Dalhousic,
Canada. Length 49 em.

16. Cyamodus laticeps, Owen. Muschelkalk : Baireuth, Bavaria.
Cranium. Figured in Philosophical Transactions, 1858, pl. ix, figs. 1 and 2;
Ole Se, tale, Ie

17. Ccelodus ellipticus, Egerton. Gault: Folkestone. Right Mandibular |

Kamus. Figured in Geological Magazine, vol. iv, 1877, pl. iii, fig. 1.

18. Colodus gyrodoides, Egerton. Greensand: Pinney Bay, Lyme
Regis. Vomerine or Upper Teeth. Figured and described in Geological
Magazine, vol. iv, 1877, pl. iv, fig. 3.

|

0.402. New Series.—Decade IV.—Vol. VII.—No. VIII. Price 1s. 6d. nett

THE

GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE

oR,

dtonthly Jounal of Geology.
“THE GEOLOGIST.”

HENRY WOODWARD, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., &e.

ASSISTED BY

ROBERT ETHERIDGE, F.R.S.L. & E., F.G.S., &c.,
WILFRID H. HUDLESTON, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., &.,
GEORGE J. HINDE, Pu.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., &c., AND

HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.PS. F.G.S.

AUGUST, 1900.

Cr@ NE We eS oS

I. OnternaL ARTICLES. PAGE | II. Notices or Memorrs. PAGE |
1. On the Fauna of the Upper Museums Association: Eleventh
Cassian Zone in Falzarego Annual Meeting, Canterbury,
Valley, South Tyrol. By M. M. July 9-12, 1900. Presidential

OGILVIE Gorpon, D.Se. ...... 337 Address by Dr. H. Woodward,

FR RSD S oe Re ibe Ree 374
III. Reviews.

to

. The Geology of Bad Nauheim
and its Thermal Salt-Springs.

By A. Vaucuwan JEnx1NGs, 1. Eighth International Geological |
F.L.S., F.G.S. (With six Congress: Paris, August, 1900. 378 |
MMPGsiratiOng:) 9. séd....ceesdecdecc 349 | 2. Dr. J. W. Gregory’s Catalogue

of Fossil Bryozoa. Vol. I....... 380 |

3. Foraminiferal Limestones from mah
IV. CorrEsponvENCE.

Sinai By Frepgerick CHAPMAN,

A.L.S., F.R.M.S. (Plates Mr. J. G. Goodchild, F.G.S.... 381
XIII and XIV.) Concluded V. Oprrvary.
EROWIE TCS LOGS.., 58h tbcetat so co's 367 | John Young, LL.D., F.G.S.... 382

LONDON: DULAU & CO., 37, SOHO SQUARE.

ts The Volume for 1899 of the GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE is ready,
price 20s. nett. Cloth Cases for Binding may be had, price 1s. 6d. nett.

COLOURED CASTS OF RARE FOSSILS

SUPPLIED BY

ROBERT F. DAMON, WEYMOUTH, ENGLAND.

1
3

6h a athe

19. Cynognathus crateronotus, Seeley. Skull and skeleton. Described
and figured in Phil. Trans., vol. 1868 (1895), p. 59, figs. 1-5, 13-18. Karoo
Formation : Lady Frere, Cape Colony.

20. leptorhinus, Seeley. Anterior portion of skull.
Described and figured, ibid., pp. 141-144, figs. 31, 32. Karoo Formation :
Cape Colony. [Albany Museum. ]

21 platyceps, Seeley. Skull. Described and figured,

ibid., p. 139, fig, 30. Karoo Formation: Wonderboom, Cape Colony.
[Albany Museum. 4 4

22. Delphinognathus conocephalus, Seeley. Skull and mandible.
Described and figured in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xlvii (1892),
pp. 469-475, figs. 1, 2. Karoo Formation: Cape Colony. [South African
Museum. |

23. Diprotodon Australis, Owen. Skull. Figured in Phil. Trans.,
1870, pl. xxxy, figs. 1-4. Pleistocene: Queensland, Australia.

Owen. Ramus of mandible. Figured ibid. Ibid.

25. Didusineptus. Sternum. Mauritius.

—— Head only. Mauritius. Jength 23 cm.

27. Dinotherium giganteum, Kaup. Cranium and mandible. Upper
Miocene : Eppelsheim, Hessen Darmstadt. Length 122 cm.

28. Dinornis maximus, Owen. Height 340 cm.

29. - Skull only.

30. Eurypterus nanus. Lower Silurian: Gothland. Size 13 em.
by 7 cm.

31. Elasmotherium Fischeri, Desm. Upper and lower jaw.
Noyousenk, Russia. Length of cranium, 102 cm.

Tooth.

33. Eurypterus lanceolatus, Salter. Figured and deseribed by
Dr. Henry Woodward, F.R.S., etc.. in Pal. Soc. Monograph *‘ Merostomata,’’
part iv, pl. xxviii, fig. 1. Upper Silurian: Lesmahagos, N.B.

34, Eurypterus Securleri, Hibbert. Fresh-water, Carb. Limestone :
Kirkton. (a) Head-shield and anterior body-segments. (0) Posterior body-
segments (8) of the same. Figured and described by Dr. H. Woodward,
F.R.S. -, in Paleontographical Society’s Monograph ‘‘ Merostomata.’’ Part iy,
1872, pls. xxvi and xxvii.

35. Twelve Casts (11 teeth and left humerus) of the Pigmy Elephants
of Malta. (Elephas Falconeri, Busk, and E. Melitentis, Fale.). Figured in
Trans. Zool. Soc., vol. vi, pls. xlix and lit.

36. Eusthenopteron Foordii, Whiteaves. Length 64 cm. Upper
Devonian: Dalhousie, Canada. ;

37. Gastornis Klaasseni, Newton. Right tarso-metatarsus. Figured
and described in Trans. Zool. Soc., vol. xii, pl. xxxiii, fig. 3. Length 43 em.

Lower Eoceue: Croydon. Distal end of left tarso-
metatarsus. Figured ibid., pl. xxix, fig. 7. Length 13 em.

39. Ganorhynchus Woodwardi, Traquair. Anterior portion of skull.
Figured in Geol. Mag., vol. x, 1873, pl. xiv.

40. Gomphognathus polyphagus, Seeley. Cranium showing palate, ete.
Figured and described in Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, vol. 186 (1895),

: pp. 11-19, figs. 6-8. Karoo Formation: Lady Frere, Cape Colony.
41. Gomphognathus, sp. Skull. Figured in Phil. Trans., vol. 1863

(1895), pp. 20, 21, 24, figs. 9-11. Karoo Formation: Lady Frere, Cape
Colony.

ss
No. 485. New Series.—Decade IV.—Vol. VII.—No. IX. Price 1s. 6a. nett.

%

GHOLOGICAL MAGAZINE

oR,
Sitonthly Journal of Geol *O 7
‘THE GEOLOGIST“, Dp 44 19001

HENRY WOODWARD, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.5., Sc.
ASSISTED BY

ROBERT ETHERIDGE, F.R.S. L. & E., F.G.S., &c.,
WILFRID H. HUDLESTON, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., &c.,
GEORGE J. HINDE, Pu.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., &c., AND
HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S., F.G.S.

SEPTEMBER, 1900.

© I ase Ss

I. OnternaL ARTICLES. PAGE | III. Reviews. PAGE |
1. On Nepheline-Syenite and its 1. J. E. Marr: The Scientific |
Associates in the North-West of Study of Scenery .............00608 413
Scotland. By J. J. Harris 2. H. F. Osborn: Tertiary Mammal
sane oe POR, yLres: i Horizons of Europe and America 416
COL. SOC. LONG. .......e sees ee eee 2) 3. Annual Report of the Board of
2. Further Notes on Podophthal- Regents a the Smithsonian
mous Crustaceans from Upper Institution,ts.. .<«.+ ae... 419
Cretaceous of British Columbia,
ete. By Henry Woopwarp, IV. Reports AND PROCEEDINGS. |
pees ae ry” F.G.S. (Plates i Geological Society of London... 427 |f
AN GEA Vp Me) aot caliente Seine ce 92 ‘
8. Fossil Mammalia from Eeypt. V. Oxrrvary.
(Part Il.) By C. Ae ANDREWS Se Deere
D.Sc., F.G.8., F.Z.S., of the Per ee uae a etrcerist pe |
British Museum (Nat. Hist.) . SE eee) aie eck eee (anes
Franz Ritter von Hauer ......... 430 }
4. Constituents of Sands and Loams, ae aebioeaes anil
Charles J. E. Brongniart ........ 430 |
Plateau Gravels, Sevenoaks. By T. M. Hall 5 431
FREDERICK CHAPMAN, ALS, >: * : a = PEELS ORL PESOS S
IProfashts Wve SUnSeN sc ccseeie cee 431
Ioana eee amen ea 404 je Beate 431
. Paleolithic Flint Implements WIL W: ie cies eo wae 432 |
from the Isle of Wight. By Selden he Mage ee ng ge |
a Ss. Hazziepinz WARREN, F.G.5. 406 | VI. Misce,LaNnxovs. |
II. Norices or Memoirs. University of London— |
| Sherborn’s Index Animalinm ... 412 Dr. C. W. Andrews, B.A., F.G.S. 482

q LONDON: DULAU & CO., 37, SOHO SQUARE

t+ The Volume for 1899 of the GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE is ready,
price 20s. nett. Cloth Cases for Binding may be had, price 1s. 6d. nett.

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46.
47.
48.

AG).
50.

COLOURED CASTS OF RARE FOSSILS |

.. SUPPLIED BY, on,

Peery ery

Holoptychius nobilissimus, Agassiz. Ventral aspect of fish.
Figured in Agassiz’s Rech. Poiss. Foss. V. G.R. ae xxii. Old Red Sandstone :
Clashbennie, 2 near Perth: -

Homalonotus delphinocephalus. - Sieank Dudley: hength 17 em.

Hyperodapedon Gordoni, Huxley. Keuper: Lossiemouth, Elgin, |
N.B. Skull. Figured in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. sliii, pl. xxvi. ;

Hoplosaurus ? Tooth. (Ornithopsis Hulker, Seeley.) Figured in
Quart. Journ: Geol. Soc., vol. xliv, pl. ii, fig. 4. ‘Wealden : Brixton, Isle of
Wight.

Hyracotherium leporinum, Owen. Skull. (Pliolophus vulpiceps,
Owen) > Described ~and figured in SOE Journ. Geol. Sie, vol. xiv, pl. il.
‘London Clay : Harwich;

Iguanodon (young). Left. ramus of mandible. Figured in Owen’s
ae ae Weald and Purbeck Formations,” sav iii: Mon. Pal. Soc., 1864.
Wealden: Brixton, Isle of Wight. . Ey:

: Iguanodon Hollingtoniensis, Tsui wee ‘Wealden : Hastings.

Sternal apparatus. Figured and described by J. W. Hulke, Esq., in. Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soe., vol. xli (1885), Size 41cm. by 46 cm. ;

Loxomma Almanni, Huxley. Skull and mandible. Figured in |:
Kep. Brit. Assoe., 1873, pls. i and ii. _Coal-measures: Coalbrookdale.

Laricsaurus Balsami, Curioni... ‘T'rias:. Perledo, Lake Como,
lombardy. Figured and described by G. A. Boulenger, F.R.S., in Trans.
Zool. Soc. London, vol.- xiv (1896), pt. 1, pl. i. Original in Frankfort
Museum. Size 29 cm. by 18 em.

Lithomantis carbonarius, Habaded. Coal-measures: Scotland.
Figured in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. xxXil (1876), pl. ix, p. 60. Size of
specimen 12.cm. by 9 em.

Lithosialis Brongniarti, Scudder. Coal-measures: Coalbrookdale.
Impression of wing. Figured in Geol, Mag., 1894, pl. xiv. “Length of
specimen 6 em. ‘Two casts.

Megalosaurus Bucklandi, Meyer. Ramus of mandible. Described
and figured in Trans. Geol. -‘Soc., 1824, pls. xl, xli, figs. 1-8. Great Oolite:
Stonesfield. Oviginal in Univ ersity Museum, Oxford. nr ae

Mastodon elephantoides, Clift. Molar tooth, ‘‘ transitional form.”
Upper Miocene: Ava. Original in Paris Museum.

Mesosaurus tenuidens, Gervais, ‘Trias: Albania, South Africa.
Anterior portion ef skeleton. The original figured and described by Prof.
H.-G. Seeley, F.R.S., in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xlviii (1892),
pp. 586-664, pl. xviii, fig. 5.

Meiolania Oweni, A.S. Woodw. Skull. Figured in Phil. Trans.,
1880, pl. xxxvii, fig. 1, and pl. xxxviii. Pleistocene: Queen-land, Australia.

Part of tail. Figured loc. cit., 1881, pls. lxiv, Ixv.
Pleistocene: Queensland, Australia.

Meiolania platyceps, Owen. Skull. Figured in Phil. Trans., 1888,
pl. xxxi.. Pleistocene: Lord Howe Island. Australian Museum, Sydney.

-—— Caudal sheath. Figure dibid., pl. xxxvii. Pleisto-
cene: Lord Howe Island. Australian Museum, Sydney. -

Megalania prisca. Owen. Dorsal vertebra. Figured in Phil.
‘Trans., 1880, pl. xxxiv, figs. 1, 2. Pleistocene: Queensland, Australia.

Portion of occiput. Figured in Phil. Trans., 1880,
pl. xxxvi. Pleistocene: Queensland, Australia.

Macropus anak, Owen, sp. Right upper dentition. Figured Cat.
Foss. Mamm. B.M. septs Ve pe ilps fig, 36. Pleistocene: Queensland.

ee ee

‘ No. 438. New Series.—Decade IV.—Vol. VII.—No. X. Price: Is. 6d. nett.

GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE

dtlonthly Journal of Geology,

WITH WHICH IS INCORPORATED

‘THE GEOLOGIST.”’

EDITED BY

HENRY WOODWARD, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., &c.

ASSISTED BY

ROBERT ETHERIDGE, F.R.S.L. & E., F.G.S., &c.,
WILFRID H. HUDLESTON, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., &c.,
GEORGE J. HINDE, Pu.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., &c., AND
HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S., F.G.S.

OCTOBER, 1900.
0 aay SE a IN a.

J. OnternaL ARTICLES. PAGE | Notices or Memorrs—continued. PAGE

1. Further Notes on Podophthal- | 4. Geology and Paleontology of
mous Crustaceans from Upper | Patagonia. By Professor W. B.
Cretaceous of British Columbia, Seott ;
etc. By Henry Woopwarp, SR te etre hs See
LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Plate BONES a Une OU yas Cou
ara : ; oe elomerate. By Professor ‘T.
XVII.) (Continued fromp. 401.) 43: Guigahk GMeAaNe

. Ona Granophyre Dyke intrusive The gs RE, ee
in the Gabbro of Ardnamurchan, ne eae .: pe Fossils.
Scotland. By Professor K. Busz, | ae S. Rev. J. F. Blake, M A.,
PheD: § . DO.

3. The Age of the Raised Beach . Igneous Rocks and Cambrian
of Southern Britain as seen in Beds of Malvern. By Professor
Gower. By Rk. H. Tippeman, ie Grooms Nie A. sD Cni ce oes
M.A., F.G.S., of H.M. Geo- - Beach Formation in Thirlmere.
logical Survey Byekee Os OldhammekeGs Stes <a

. The Age of the English Wealden . Report on the Index Animalium:
Series. By G. W. LaMPLuGH, F. A. Bather, M.A., F.G.S.,
F.G.8., of H.M. Geological Secretary
Survey . Woodward’s Table of British

IJ. Notrces or Menorrs. Strata
British Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science : . Reviews.

. Papersreadin Section C (Geology) | Summary of Progress Geological
ae ae cme Bradford, Survey of the United Kingdom 474
september, 190 ‘

. Address to Geological Section by IV. CorrEspONDENCE.

Professor W. J. Sollas, D.Sc., ; ae hye? ae
EL: Ds, BRS: President of Mr. ine M. Deeley, F.G.S iteisleie bie 476
the Section Vv

. Address to the Zoological Section f
by Ramsay H. Traquair, M.D., 1. Professor H. B. Geinitz ......... 477
LL.D., F.R.S., President of 2. Professor Alph. Milne-Edwards 478
the Section 5 3. James Thomson, F.G.S. ......... 479

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¢& The Volume for 1899 of the GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE is ready,
price 20s. nett. Cloth Cases for Binding way be had, price ls. 6d. nett.

63.

64.

66.

67.

68.

69.

70.

teal

Um

76.

(aie

‘COLOURED CASTS OF RARE FOSSILS

SUPPLIED BY

ROBERT F. DAMON, WEYMOUTH, ENGLAND.

Neusticosaurus pusillus, Frass. Upper Trias: Letten Kohle,
Hoheneek, near Stuttgart. Described and figured in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,
vol. xxxvili, pp. 350-366, pl. xiii. Two casts.

Procoptodon Rapha, Owen. Right mandibular ramus. Figured in

hil, Trans., 1874, pl. lxxviii, figs. 1-3. Pleistocene: Australia. Australian
Museum, Sydney.

Phascolomys (Phascolonus) gigas, Owen. Portion of mandible
Figured in Phil. Trans., 1872, pl. xl, fig. 1. Pleistocene: Queensland,
Australia. Australian Museum, Sydney.

Pliosaurus grandis, Owen. Tooth. Figured in Owen’s ‘‘ Foss.
Rept. Kim. Clay’’?: Mon. Pal. Soc., 1862, pl. xii. Kimmeridge Clay:
Kimmeridge. ;

Ptychognathus Maccaigi, Seeley. Skull. Karoo Formation :
Tarka River, South Africa.

Paleotherium magnum. Complete set of upper grinding teeth.
From the Bembridge Limestone, Headon Hill, I.W. The teeth, in beautiful

preservation and fine condition of wear, are those of a young adult, and consist
of premolars 1, 2, 3, and 4, and molars 1, 2, and 3 of each side.

Placodus gigas, Agass. Muschelkalk: Baireuth. Palate restored.
Length 18 cm.

Plesiosaurus Hawkinsi, Owen. Lower Lias: Street. Slab showing
skeleton. Figured in Hawkins’ ‘‘Sea Dragons,’’ pl. xxiy. Size of slab
182 em. by 107 cm.

Plesiosaurus macrocephalus, Conybeare. Skull and mandible.
Figured in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. li, pl. ix. Lower Lias: Lyme Regis.

Conybeare. Lower Lias: Lyme Regis. Slab
showing skeleton. Figured in Trans. Geol. Soc., vol. v, pls. xliii and xlv.
Size of slab 91cm. by 76 em.

Pterodactylus crassirostris, Goldfuss. Solenhofen. Size of slab
18 em. by 25 cm.

Ptychogaster emydoides, Pomel. Imperfeet shell (restored), from
the Lower Miocene of St. Gerand-le-Puy, Allier, France. Length 23 em.

Pareiasaurus Baini, Seeley. Skeleton. Karoo Formation (Trias) :
Bad, near Tamboer Fontein, Cape Colony. The original preserved in the
British Museum (Nat. Hist.). Described and figured in Phil. Trans., 1892,
B, pp. 311-879, pls. xvii-xix, xxi-xxiii. Coloured reproductions of this
magnificent and remarkable reptile, measuring 7 ft. 9 in, in length and 4 ft. in
breadth, fitted with ironwork ready for mounting for a museum.

Phororhacos, sp. Symphyseal portion of mandible. Miocene:

Patagonia.

Phororhacos longissimus, Ameghino. Length 60cm. The
mandible has been slightly restored from the actual specimen, and the skull
has been modelled from that of the somewhat smaller species Ph. inflatus,
figured by F. Ameghino (1895), Buenos Ayres, from the Tertiary Deposits
(Miocene?), Santa Cruz, Patagonia. Described by C. W. Andrews, Esq., F.G.S.,
in the Idis, January, 1896, pp. 1-12. The original specimens are in the Geo-
logical Department of the British Museum (Natural History).

4 No. 437. New Series.—Decade IV.—Vol. VII.—No. XI. Price 1s. 6d. nett.

GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE

oR,

Silonthly Journal of Geology.

WITH WHICH IS INCORPORATED

“THE GEOLOGIST.”

EDITED BY

HENRY WOODWARD, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., &c.

ASSISTED BY

Reopen ETHERIDGE, F.R-S..L2& BE. F.G:S.. dcr

WILFRID H. HUDLESTON, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., &c.,

GEORGE J. HINDE, Pu.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., &c., AND
HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S., F.G.S.

NOVEMBER, 1900.

C@ ANSP Bora | Be Se

I. OntGInaL ARTICLES. PAGE | OriGInAL ARTICLES—continued. PAGE

1. Restoration of Stylonwrus Laco- 4. Pleistocene Shells from the
anus, a Giant Arthropod from ies Beach Deposits of the
the Upper Devonian, United Re i Bee sy KR. Burien 3
Siee ey Profcsson’ Caanrns u Niowion, FGiS i... cnr saens --- 500
PeGwvcnnn, Ph.D Yale. Une 5. Note on the Horizon and Locality
versity Now Hanes U.S.A. ot Nautilus truncatus of Sowerby.
(Pls KVIIM,))...:.. es, 481 By G. C. Crick, F.G.S.......... 514
| II. Norices or Memorrs.
2. On Hyperodapedon Gordoni. By 2s Association, Bradford,
Prof. Rupour Burckuarpr, 1900: Address by R. H. Tra-
Ph.D., University of Basel, quair, MD DED eS
Switzerland. (Plate XIX and President of Zoological Section.
two Text Illustrations.) ......... 486 (Concluded from p. 470.)......04. 516
III. Reviews.
3. A Summary of our Present Professor Lankester’s Zoology... 525
Knowledge of Extinct Primates IV. CorxEsponDENce.
from Madagascar. By C. I. 1. Captain F. W. Hutton, F.R.S. 527
ForsytH Masor, M.D.,F.Z 8S. 492 2. Mr. Frederick Chapman, A.L.S. 528

LONDON: DULAU & CO., 387, SOHO SQUARE.

«= The Volume for 1899 of the GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE is ready,
price 20s. nett. Cloth Cases for Binding may be had, price 1s. 6d. nett.

COLOURED CASTS OF RARE FOSSILS

SUPPLIED BY

ROBERT F. DAMON, WEYMOUTH, ENGLAND.

78. Proterosaurus Speneri, Meyer. Slab, measuring 30 cm. by 28 cm.,
showing greater part of skeleton. Figured in Von Meyer’s ‘Fauna der
Vorwelt.”” Upper Permian: Thuringia. Original in Royal College of
Surgeons’ Museum, London.

79. Paleopithecus Sivalensis, Lydekker. Maxille with teeth.
Figured and described in Rec. Geol. Sury. Ind., vol. xii, p. 33, pl. i, figs. 1, 5.
Upper Miocene (Siwalik): Punjab, India.

80. Pycnodus Bowerbanki, Egerton. Right mandibular ramus.
London Clay: Sheppey. ‘[ype-specimen figured in Geol. Mag., vol. iv (1877),
pl. iti, fig. 2.

81. Pterygotus Anglicus. Devonian: Scotland. Length 63 em.

82. Rhinoceros antiquitatis, Blum. Cranium and detached horn.
Obtained from a frozen mud-cliff at the mouth of the River Lena in Siberia.
The cranium, which is well preserved, is that of a very old animal, having four
molar teeth preserved on the right side and three on the left side of the head.
It is 75 cm. long and 345 broad. The detached horn is 46 cm. long.

83. Rhamphosuchus crassidens (Falconer & Cautley). Pliocene:
Siwalik Hills, India. ‘Type-specimen. Greater part of rostrum, showing
upper and lower jaws in apposition. Length of cast 2 ft. 6in. = 76 cm.

84. Sapheosaurus laticeps, Wagner. Kimmeridgian. Length 35 cm.
85. Scaphognathus Purdoni, Newton. Upper Lias: Whitby. Cranium,

showing brain. Figured in Phil. Trans., 1888, pl. Ixxviii. Described and
developed by E. T. Newton, Esq., F.R.S.

86. Strophodus medius, Owen. Oolite: Caen, Normandy. Mandibular
teeth. Figured in Geol. Mag., vol. vi (1869), pl. vii.

87. Stylonurus Powriei, Woodward. Devonian: Scotland. Length
30 cm.

88. Stylonurus Scoticus, Woodward. Devonian: Scotland. Length
102 cm.

89. Sivatherium giganteum, Falconer & Cautley. Skull, with horn-
cores restored. Lower Pliocene: Siwalik Hills, India.

90. — Left ramus of mandible. Lower Pliocene: Siwalik
Hills, India.

91. Right ramus of mandible. Lower Pliocene: Siwalik
Hills, India.

92. Upper milk dentition. Lower Pliocene: Siwalik

Hills, India.

93. Tapirus priscus, Kaup. Portion of skull, with dentition. Figured
in Palxontogr., vol. xv, pl. xxv. Miocene: Eppelsheim.

94. Theriodesmus phylarchus, Seeley. Fore-foot. Figured in Phil.
Trans., 1888, B., p. 141, pl. xxvi. Karoo Formation: Cape Colony.

95. Thylacoleo carnifex, Owen. Restored skull, reconstructed from
Brit. Mus. Nos. 39,271 and M. 1,958. Pleistocene: Australia.

a

Er ae

No. 438. New Series.— Decade IV.—Vol. VII—No. XII. Price 1s. gi wetter

GHOLOGICAL MAGAZINE

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“THE GEHKOLOGIST.”

EDITED BY

HENRY WOODWARD, LL.D., FR.S., F.G.S., &e.

ASSISTED BY

ROBERT ETHERIDGE, F.R.S.L. & E., F.G.S., &o.,
WILFRID H. HUDLESTON, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., &c.,
GEORGE J. HINDE, Pu.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., é&., AND
HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S., —G.S.

DECEMBER, 1900.

SES AS GS SO a BS a Oe

| I. Orternan ARTICLES. PAGE OrIGINAL ARTICLES—cop/ined. PAGE

1. On Hyperodapedon Gordoni. By | 6. Note on Nautilus clite llarius of
Prof. Rupour Burckuarpt, J.deC. Sowerby, ete. By GAC:
| Ph.D., University of Basel, | Crick, F.G.S. «.... Peeceer Cats: 560
Switzerland. (With a Process- | 7. On Zieten’s Types of Ammonites. |
block.) | Concluded from the By G. C. Cricx, F.G.8. 0.0.0... 561 |
Ravember- Number. .:..2..0-....-629 | TT.. Novices or Memoirs.

bo

. Onsome Remains of Cryptocleidus

|
1. The Basal (Carboniferous) Con-
from the Kellaways Rock. By |

glomerate of Ullswater. By

a = aa eine R. D. Oldham, F.G.S. ......... 564
_ Tuomas Surrrarp, F.G.S. ... 535 | 2. Influence of Winds on Climate |
38. Growth in sité of Coal Plants. in Past Epochs. By F. W.
By W. S. Grestey, F.G.S. | SES GATS) eal Ds 622k, A le Bl 565 |
(With three Illustrations.) ...... 538 TTT. eunere
4. A Greywether at South Ken- | 1. Dr. D.H. Scott, F.R.S. : Studies }
sington. By H. B. Woopwaxp, imsHossil Botany, «2.4.0 -c eee 567 |
F.R.S., F.G.S.. (With a Pro- 2. The Calabro-Sicilian Earth- |
| Pees DLO) ce est cde core cvace Sueee 543 | quake, Nov. 16, 1894 ............ 571 |
5. Pleistocene Shells from the | 38. Metamorphic Rocks, ete. , Tyrone d73 |
Raised Beach Deposits of the Wane: Some Recent Papers by Professor ats
Red Sea. By R. BULLEN | We M. Davies er tak eee 074
Newton, F.G.S., of the British TV. CorrEsponpence.
Museum (Nat. Hist.). (Plates Mr. J. R. Dakyns ............... 575 |
XX-XXII.) Concluded from V. MisceL.anzous.
the November Number ......... 544 Professor E. Hull, F.R.S. ...... 576

With this Number is presented an Extra Sheet, containing Index and Title
for Decade IV, Vol. VII, 1900.

LONDON: DULAU & CO., 37, SOHO SQUARE.

és The Volume for 1899 of the GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE is ready,
price 20s. nett. Cloth Cases for Binding may be had, price 1s. 6d. nett.

COLOURED CASTS OF RARE FOSSILS

SUPPLIED BY

ROBERT F. DAMON, WEYMOUTH, ENGLAND.

96. Tetraconodon magnum, Falconer. Pliocene: Siwalik Hills, India.
Portion of mandible. Figured by R. Lydekker, Esq., F.G.S., ete., in
‘« Palzontologia Indica,” ser. x, vol. i, pt. 2, pl. x. This genus, allied to
Elotherium, is remarkable for the great size of ‘the premolars relatively to the
true molars. Length 20 cm.

97. Tritylodon longevus, Owen. Skull. Figured in Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc., vol. xl, pl. vi, figs. 1-7. Triassic (?) : South Africa.

98. Trirachodon Kannemeyeri, Seeley. Skulland mandible. Described
and figured in Phil. Trans., vol. 186B (1895), p. 48, pl. ii, figs. 1-4. Karoo
Formation: Burghersdorp, Cape Colony. Albany Museum.

99. Rhytina gigas, Linn. Cranium and lower jaw. Size 68 em.
Behring’s Island. Original in the British Museum (Natural History). This
interesting specimen, forming part of a nearly perfect skeleton, was described
in the Quart. Journ. Geol. "Soc., vol. xli (1885), pp. 457- 472, by Henry
Woodward, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G. 8., ete.

The following parts of the skeleton of RHYTINA have also been reproduced :—
100. Cast of brain-cavity ase wale a |

101. Set of auditory ossicles 8
102. Atlas and axis and five other cer ral nies 7
108. Dorsal vertebra with transverse processes Boo!
104. Lumbar do. ee ae oy cea ees |:
105.° Caudal do. ant eas ‘isle sae wR
106. Scapula ... “56 Ee bo ier |
107. Radius and ulna conjoined. 1
108. Humerus ee sale ane eee 1

A SERIES OF CASTS TAKEN FROM THE
ELGIN SANDSTONE.

Figured and described by E. T. Newton, Esq., F.R.S., in Phil. Trans. Roy. Soe.
London, 1893.

109. Elginia mirabilis. Cranium.

110. Geikia Elginensis. Cranium.

irs Mandible.

112. Gordonia Huxleyana. Left side of cranium, with part of mandible.

113. Scapula, humerus, and clavicle.

114. Gordonia Juddiana. Left side of cranium.

: = Gordonia Traquairi. Left side of cranium, with part of mandible (a).
6, ——— : b).

ULF Scapula, humerus, ulna, and radius. a

118. Sacrum, ete. (Genus ae mined. )

HUIS). Herpetosuchus Granti. Cr 9 eck s of mandible (1894).
Bb PASC. i

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