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THE 


GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE. 


NEW SERIES. 


DECADE Y. VOL. I. 


JANUARY—DECEMBER, 1904. 


ae 


1 


Nt RES TOE OF ee OG Tg Pe 


i LdE 


GEOLOGICAL wWAGAZINE 


oR, 


Monthly Journal of Geology : 
“THE GEOLOGIST.” 


NOS. CCCCLXXV TO CCCCLXXXVI. 


EDITED BY 


HENRY WOODWARD, LL.D., F.R.S., Pres. R.MS., 
TGR, VAR, 


LATE OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY; 
PRESIDENT OF THE PALONTOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, VICE-PRESIDENT 
OF THE MALACOLOGICAL SOCIETY } 


MEMBER OF THE LYCEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, NEW YORK; AND OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL 
SOCIETY, PHILADELPHIA; HONORARY MEMBER OF THE YORKSHIRE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY; 

OF THE GEOLOGISTS’ ASSOCIATION, LONDON; OF THE INSTITUTION OF MINING AND 
METALLURGY, LONDON; OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETIES OF EDINBURGH, 
GLASGOW,-HALIFAX, LIVERPOOL, AND SOUTH AFRICA; CORRESPONDING 
MEMBER OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF BELGIUM; OF THE 
IMPERIAL SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY OF MOSCOW; OF 
THE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY OF MONTREAL; 

AND OF THE MALACOLOGICAL 
SOCIETY OF BELGIUM. 


ASSISTED BY 


WILFRID H. HUDLESTON, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.C.8. 
GEORGE J. HINDE, Pu.D., F.RS., F.G.S., &c. 


AND 


HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S., V.P.G.S., &c. 


NEW SERIES. DECADE V. VOL. I. 
JANUARY—DECEMBER, 1904. 


LONDON: 


MESSRS. DULAU & CO., 37, SOHO SQUARE, W. 
1904. 


HERTFORD : 
PRINTED BY STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS, LTD. 


QE 
XVII. 
SXQV AILS 


LIST OF PLATES. 


FACING PAGE 


Cupressinoxylon hookeri, Arber, sp. nov. 7 
Examples of erosion of rocks in Corsica 12 
Portrait of the late R. Etheridge, F.R.S. L. & E., F.G.8., ete. . 49 
Portrait of the late Professor K. A. von Zittel 90 
Phacops Robertsi, Reed, sp. nov. 109 
Mammals of the Eocene of Egypt 162 
Borings at Cunapo Coalfield, Trinidad . 198 
Trinidad Foraminifera . 249 
Trinidad Foraminifera . 250 
Portrait of the late Charles Emerson Beecher, Ph.D. . . . . . 284 
Eocene Kchinoids from Sokoto 304 
Sketch-map of River System of Equatorial Africa 344 
Sketch-map of Lake Tanganyika 368 
Phacops and Enerinurus 383 
Eroded Granite Boulder, near Ajaccio, Corsica 390 


Portrait of W. H. Hudleston, J.P., M.A., F.R.S. 


Linthia oblonga (Orbigny) . 
Desoreila elata (Desor) 
Shell of Zestado Ammon, Andrews . 


Natural Arch in Limestone, Torquay 


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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT. 


PAGE 
Cupressinoxylon hooker, E. A. Newell Arber, sp.nov. . . . . - - + -9, 10 
Partially Silicified Crystalline Limestone . . . - - - - +» + + = ; a 
Suture-line of Pericyclus fasciculatus . . . . . + - « « - + 29,30, 81 
Thenagne Of Oleny iin Challe Gu a GL alo) Ga 6 GP euciiid so Amommce mean U/C 
Maddlesportion’of above, enlarged =. 5 5 2 ee ele ll le CL 
kl opal Conic Hemet. ae es Weigh edie fe ompoMaer eo al mere won ten re nl O 
Shaul af Jaleo ee els oa 6 Vpn 5 hos oe 95) ana oe) Us: 
Section showing junction between the Lias and Cretaceous. . . . - - - 125 
‘Tenewll Seviion of Wkgde Wan 4 4G 5 ie 6 oo 46 5 6 6 6 6 6 — LMM 
Junction between the Selbornian and Lias of Black Ven . . . . . . . 128 
Secnonumithelselbornianot Black Ven). . = . 2 - = = = « = = L380 
Lower Keuper basement-beds. . . . no) SMM ee L SURE ReMeammesi pigs |i 
Sketch-map of Afon Seiont below Pont Seiont . . . . .... =. ~~. 201 
Skeichemaplot Nant Rhos Ddwie. 40 «64. 2)  - «+ = 9. 1 20d 
Seanon aoross Nem nas Welh 5 5 on 6 6 Oo Ie 
Miaeram-Section of Gonatosphena (a=. 2 i 2 2 ee eee 
Diagram to illustrate the Phylogeny of Nodosarza and allied forms . . . . 249 
Succession of beds in the folded region of Cape Colony . . . . . . - . 253 
Doesne OuiroRayy itn Cnt been 5 6 ee 6 6 a 6 eo ul 
Plesiolampas Sahara, Bather, sp.nov. . . . . ... . . . . . . 294 
Contorted pegmatite vein in granite, Sweden . . . . . . =... =. =~. 3810 
Molded pegmatite'in a sett quarry, Sweden. . . . . . . . =.=. ~- ~- 310 
Contorted pegmatitein gneiss; Sweden = - = - . - =. - - - =.=. ~ Olt 
Rec Malenvellnn Gralites SWwedel) ws. yey as fos es kg ON 
Curves showing the frequency of branching in Stomatopora . . . . . . 820 
Diagram showing method of branching in Stomatopora and Proboscina . . . 321 
Plan of the Graben System and its relation to the Congo Basin . . . . . 355 
Section across British East Africa . . . . . Piles) poduets eae oe ROBT 
Section of the Lower Congo between the Atlantic and 1 Stanley OO 5 6 o 6 déll 
Structure of a Graben : Se ee ME eMaraa Pe ecRan ain sles eT OOS. 
Hollowainigraniticsblockmmee waa Me) tae ail, we sal ys ME eee Toe e. hs 389 


Sections to illustrate Dr. Bonney’s paper » . . . . =... - . 389, 390 


Vill List of Iilustrations in the Text. 


Section from Fremington and Eastcombe to Clayhanger, ete. . . . . . .* 394 
Section through Coddon Hill Beds, Barnstaple . . . .. =... =. =. 396 
Diagram of longitudinal sections of forms of Actinocamax . . . . . . . 409 


Sketch-map of zircon granites near Balangoda, Sab, Ceylon . . . . . . 419 


Structure ofallanitevoramite <9... we Gs ls 
Diagram to illustrate Mr. Vauchan’s paper - . . . . . . . =. ss 427 


Cipridinandntigqua. JONES, Sp. MOV... = as hye) = pecs? 
pechioniat Clapham morinolbedtord = 2) eee = ile) 2) en ein tenn saneeenemnete ED 
Bones of Algoasaurus Bauri, Broom, gen. et sp.noy. . . . . . . . « 446 


ApicAlbdisclok Mesoneaclaca (Iesor) 2 5 tae te) ns) ena 


Map of Earthquake-area near Penzance rr errs LSE 
Section from Idak to Miran Shah 3) go. rae ee ae ote oe ek 


Belemnite and Crioceras (2) from Mesozoic rocks, Miram Shah, N.W. India . 492 
Diagram of carapace of Testudo Ammon, Andrews . . . . . - « 2) 2028 
Diagram Map ot HessleBarthquake . . . . . «. « = « =e eeeemaeee 
Diagram Map of Strontian Earthquake. . . ... . =... =. % « « 8B 
Diagram Map of the Kishon and Jordan Valleys . . . . . . . . . . 877 
Figure of skull of Notochampsa Istedana, sp.nov. . . . . . . . . . 588 
View of Unconformable Junction of Hornstones with Highland Schists, Arran. 594 


Diagram Figure of Natural Arch, Torquay 


y | 
No. 475: 


New Series.—Decade V.—Vol. XI.—No.I. Price 1s. 6d. nett. 


GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE. 


Slonthly Journal of Geology. 


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“THE GROLOGIST.” 


BDITED BY 


HENRY WOODWARD, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., &c. 


ASSISTED BY | 
WILFRID H. HUDLESTON, F.R.S., &c., Dr. GEORGE J, HINDE, F.R.S., &c., ano 
HORACE B. WOODWARD, F.R.S8., &c. 


JANUARY, 1904. 


G7@r ING aly 2B IN ee. 


I. OriGinaL ARTICLES. PAGE | Ornicinan ArricLEs—continued. PAGE | 
He. A Retrospect of Geology in the 8. The Toarcian of Bredon Hill. | 
last Forty Years. (Partl.) ... 1 By 8.8. Buckman, F.G.8S. ... 25 
2. Cupressinoxylon hookeyi, sp.nov. , Be ee on Fi ey a 

a Silicified Tree from Tasmania. F Re ee aot Pe age 

By E.A. Newett Aner, M.A -G.S., British Museum (Nat. 
F.L.S., F.G.S8., Trinity @allese Hist.). (With 4 Process Blocks.) 27 
Cambridge. (Plate leans Il. Notices or Memorrs. 

PEP WROOH CUTS: \e/p.1).. 0. (eiacbeB2ckkl ear sa 7 On the Igneous Rocks of the 

3. Remarkable Atmospheric Erosion Berwyns. By T. H. Cope and | 
of Rocks in Corsica. By F. F. Jey Ponsa. hoe. sce cee cree eee eas 33 | 
Tucxert, F.R.G.S. (PlateII.) 12 | II. Reviews. 

4, Note on the Keratophyres of the 1. The Paleontographical Society 
Breidden and Berwyn Hills. By of London, vol. lvii, for 1903... 34 
H. Sranury Jevons, M.A., 2. Memoirs of the Geological Sur- 
F.G.S., University of Sydney... 13 vey of England and Wales— 

5. Contributions to the Geology of (1) The Geology of the Country 
Ceylon: II. Silicification’ of meaty @hichesteneen.s1stee eee 35 
Crystalline Limestones. By (2) The Geology of the Country 4 
A. K. CoomAraswAmy, B.Sc., <  gunowiaG! MonGiWENA ——canatoscaccecok 37 
F.L.S., F.G.S., Director of IV. Reports AND PROGEEDINGS 
the Mineral Survey of Ceylon. 1. Geological: Sotiefy of Ldagdon = 
(With a Process Block.) ......... 16 November USth O03 ea) t aes 89 

6. Recent Tufaceous Deposit of Dh. Royal Microscopical Spgiety— 
Totland Bay, Isle of Wight. By Degember 16th, 1903 -:2)/4...... 40 
A. 8. Kennarp and 8. H. 3. Mineralogical Society — 

AV CASEIN pe Ge seine) sctactiete 19 November Avth, L908; hams 41 

7. The Ophite of Biarritz. By P. V. Oxrrvary_ |= ; 

W. Sruart-Menteatu, Assoc. Robert Etheridge, EER-S=L. &E., 
IR IS Mim es: meee, cmt sacle aatvoe teen 22 NG Semen See een sits oot ak Samat 42 
LONDON: DULAU & CO., 37, SOHO SQUARE 


¢+ The Volume for 1903 of the GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE is ready, 


Price 20s. nett. 


Cloth Cases for Binding may be had, price Is. 6d. nett. 


ROBT. F. DAMON, Weymouth, England, 


Has now in stock for Sale, besides many others, the following 


BRITISH FOSS] Use 


s 
100 Species Chalk Polyzoa.). 
2.0 mane Tertiary Mollusca . a8 
Tei cls: (500 Specimens) Red Crag Fossils. 
VOU. from the Upper Green Sand. 
AO 155 », Folkestone Gault 
Sole ee », Lower Green Sand... 
BOW <5, »,  Portlandian 
DOL aa: »,  Kimeridge Clay 
Bis ns Coralline Oolite 
TOOmeas,, Jurassic Brachiopoda a 
Ones. Inferior Oolite Brachiopoda ... 
ZOO) 4855 Inferior Oolite Fossils ... I 
ON ep Liassic Mollusca 


25 Permian Fossils 
Collection of Lower Carboniferous Fishes an Eskdale, ‘Scotland! 


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16 Species (88 Specimens)... § 8 
Collection of Lower Carboniferous Fossils from Eskdale, Scotland : 
POMS Pectess (95 SPECIMENS) eH ISES me.) ewes | 
MO (hye (60 Specimens) Crustacea... MEMeteec os 6S 
ZR 35 (74 Specimens) Mollusca, &c., &e. | 
AGO) +55 Carboniferous Fish Palates”...  . TS ise) 
5) els Carboniferous Conchifera and Brachiopoda... eres 
Collection! of Old Red Sandstone Wigitas <.-° -.. 0 <5, 2. acs os ee 
Collection of Wenlock Crinoidea Wie iisiae Saat). ws, ieee edly 1 see es 
200 Species Silurian Mollusca, &c. .. 7 
Slab (30 cm. by 68 cm.) of Trigonia ‘clavellata, from the Coral ‘Rag, 
Weymouth : fo) 
Fine Slab (61 cm. by 71 cea.) containing Characteristic Fossil "Shells 
from the Inferior Oolite, Dorset . Sol ueet. Bfeds | eee muestat eens 
Another Slab, 36 cm. by 54 cm. S. TTR AEs co TS 
Polished sections of Parkinsonia Dorsetensis BES ace dbs tees py ree OSE IRS 


The following Specimens are from the Lias of Lyme Regis:— 


Ichthyosaurus. 173 cm. oe 6 6 
as Head. 47 cm. ee hame Oates 3c Zane 

x Head in frame. 152 cm. by 60 cm. oS 

BA platyodon (head). 153cm.  ... 1202 

ay feNiise BGG angetata. = Aeks pode I 35 

s Jaw. 75cm. .. mot tsar I 15 
Raddlevnsframe. “42icmbe- ct (ht.s0 see. ne -ce) o- ae 

Ammonites obtusus ... Sor GSE west ounavenapine oS eh Goalies anaes 
A. stellaris. Polished section. “52 Closer ene Tia 
i: * Pair. 58 cm. 2 10 

Nautilus. - Pair. 20cm. O 15 
Slab of Extracrinus briareus, 68 cm. by 38 cm., » showing several heads 4 4 
Another Slab, 44 cm. by 28cm. .. Me apa Whe I 10 
46 cm. by 30 cm. ... I 15 

Ink Bag and Tentacles of Sepia ... O 12 


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THE 


GHOLOGICAL MAGAZINE. 


NENW SERIES. — DIEGAIDIS We WOES. Il 
No. I—JANUARY, 1904. 


ORIGINAL ARTICLES. 


—_—_@—_—_ 


J.—A Rerrospecr oF GEOLOGY IN THE LAST Forty YEARS. 
(Parr I.) 


HE completion of the 40th volume of the GrotocicaL Macazinz, 

and the commencement of its Fifth Decade under the Hditorship 

of one who has been responsibly associated with the undertaking 

since 1864, and has been Hditor-in-chief since July, 1865, furnishes 
a fit opportunity for a retrospect. 

In the opening pages of this Magazine Professor Rupert Jones 
dealt with “The Past and Present Aspects of Geology.” He 
remarked on the tendency to encroach upon the theory of Uniformity, 
upon the right “to call in the agency of forces which, though not 
seen in operation in nature, may be evoked in the laboratory.” He 
further referred to “recent discussions respecting the origin of 
granite, the mode of formation of river-valleys, the excavation of 
lake-basins, the doctrine of ‘ homotaxis,’ and the origin of species.” 
At that time, owing to the teachings of Huxley, there was more 
scepticism than there is now as to the exact truth of “the con- 
temporaneity of strata which contain the same or similar fossils, and 
which are geographically far apart.” 

All these and many other subjects at home and abroad have been 
discussed in our pages, the aim (as stated in the January Number, 
1866, p. 1) having been “to enlarge the opportunities of pre- 
serving the results”’ of the labours of the ever-increasing number of 
geologists, and ‘‘to supplement, as far as possible, the authoritative 
and old-established Journal of the Geological Society.” 

Throughout this long period the material at our disposal has been 
abundant, and the importance of the greater part of it has been 
acknowledged : indeed, we may claim to have published many an 
essay that is now regarded as a classic ; while among them we may 
count perhaps a few of the ‘Rejected Addresses’ that a too con- 
servative element in former Councils of the Geological Society 
thought right to discountenance. 

Looking back over the forty volumes, our pride and satisfaction 
are not unalloyed with a reasonable amount of humility, such as 
everyone naturally feels with a work that has been accomplished. 


DECADE V.—VOL. I.—NO. I. 1 


2 A Retrospect of Geology for Forty Years. 


Some articles, indeed, might with benefit have been curtailed, a few 
might perhaps have been omitted without detriment to science, while 

here and there asperities in correspondence might have been softened 
or removed with evident advantage. 

Our First Decape was characterized by many articles and much 
discussion on various forms of Denudation, in which Scrope, John 
Ruskin, Jukes, Colonel George Greenwood, O. Fisher, D. Mackintosh, 
Huli, Whitaker, Green, Kinahan, Topley, and others took part. 
Escarpments and valleys, lakes, and the relative importance of 
sea versus rivers came again and again to the front, the last- 
named subject being dealt with in a masterly way by Whitaker 
in his classic essay on Subaérial Denudation. The origin of the 
Chesil Beach and the adjacent features was considered, and even the 
ancient valley system of Pre-Triassic times in the Bristol area and 
Charnwood Forest, which has quite lately been a subject of interesting 
observations, was briefly discussed by G. Maw. 

Glacial geology and the causes of changes of climate occupied the 
attention of 8. V. Wood, jun., James Geikie, James Croll, W. Boyd 
Dawkins, and D. Mackintosh ; and Geological Time was also brought 
before our readers. 

The study of Igneous rocks with microscopic aid came into 
prominence. Interest was stirred up by P. H. Lawrence’s trans- 
lation of B. von Cotta’s work, ‘ Rocks Classified and Described.” 
David Forbes and Samuel Allport dwelt on the importance of the 
study and gave an impulse to research. Forbes and Sterry Hunt 
entered into controversy on certain questions of chemical geology. 

The recognition of ‘ Hozoon’ as a foraminifer was in these early 
days largely accepted. It was held to have built up in reef-like 
masses the limestones since altered into marbles in the great 
Laurentian gneiss of Canada. Eozoonal structure was also seen 
in the green and white marble of Connemara. 

Sir Roderick Murchison wrote on the Laurentian rocks of Britain, 
Bavaria, and Bohemia; and cores of the ancient gneiss (now grouped 
as Archean) were recognized by H. B. Holl at Malvern and by 
others elsewhere. 

Hicks, aided at first by Salter, commenced his brilliant researches 
among the Lower Paleozoic rocks of Wales, and the results of some 
of these, together with the now classic paper of T. Belt on the 
Lingula Flags, are included in the volumes. Hughes dealt with 
the break between the Upper and Lower Silurian rocks of the Lake 
District, in a paper which (if we are rightly informed) found little 
favour in the eyes of Murchison. 

Other topics received treatment; J. Ruskin wrote on Banded 
and Brecciated Concretions, S. P. Woodward on Banded Flints, 
John Morris on the Oolites and Lower Cretaceous rocks, and Meyer 
on Cretaceous rocks, while G. Maw described interesting pockets 
of white clay, etc., in the Carboniferous Limestone of North Wales, 
Derbyshire, and North Staffordshire. 

In the Seconp Decapr the desirability of having a detailed 
record of geological and paleontological literature was brought 


A Retrospect of Geology for Forty Years. 3 


prominently before the Editor. A small Committee met in his 
study during the winter of 1873-74, and as a result brief abstracts 
of geological papers were for a time contributed with sume regularity 
to the Gronocican Magazine. The Committee consisted of Henry 
Woodward, Prof. Williamson, F. W. Rudler, L. C. Miall, W. Topley, 
W. Whitaker, G. A. Lebour, W. Carruthers, and H. B. Woodward. 
It soon became obvious that the GronogicaL MaGazinE was not 
large enough te embody all the abstracts that were forthcoming. 
This led on to the establishment of the ‘‘ Geological Record ” under 
the editorship of Whitaker, and for a few years an excellent and 
carefully edited annual volume was published, with the aid of 
a grant from the British Association. Difficulties, however, arose, 
and that work was ultimately abandoned when the “ Record” was 
brought up to 1884. 

In this Decade Pleistocene geology again occupies a prominent 
position in the Magazine, and Sir Henry Howorth appears on the 
scene with essays on the Mammoth in Siberia and its extinction, 
and on the evidences which he pictured of a great Post-Glacial 
Flood. The Loess is discussed by Baron von Richthofen, Howorth, 
and Nehring. Jce-work in Newfoundland is described by J. Milne, 
and special attention is called to the action of coast-ice. R. D. 
Darbishire discourses on the drifts at high levels at Macclesfield ; 
and the Recent and Pleistocene geology of Cornwall was treated 
of in essays by W. A. E. Ussher. 

The subjects of Climate, Continents, Mountains, and Escarpments 
are again discussed; and W. Flight discourses on the History of 
Meteorites. Judd deals with the study of Volcanoes, and in an 
article on the origin of Lake Balaton, in Hungary, he so far questions 
the glacial origin of certain lakes as to rouse a storm of opposition 
from Ramsay, J. Geikie, and others. J. Milne turns from the 
subject of Glaciers to Volcanoes, and finally to Harth Movements. 

Among the older rocks, and especially in the structure of the 
Scottish mountains, a great advance is made: in the classic paper 
by Lapworth on the Secret of the Highlands, and in papers by 
Hudleston on Assynt, and Hicks on parts of Ross-shire. 

The older Paleozoic rocks are dealt with by Hicks and Lapworth, 
and the Devonian by Champernowne. 

The relations of Permian and Bunter are freely discussed ; while 
the paleontology of the Yorkshire Oolites forms the subject of 
another classic paper by Hudleston. 

In Petrology we have the important essay by Teall on the Cheviot 
Andesites and Porphyrites; while of general papers, that on the 
geology of Spitabergen, by A. H. Nordenskiéld, and the “ Travelling 
Notes ” of J. Milne, across Kurope and Asia, are specially noteworthy. 

In the Tatrp Decaps the subject of Metamorphism is largely 
dealt with, the effects both of contact with intrusive masses and of 
earth stresses being discussed. Serpentine in particular comes in 
for treatment. Teall deals with the origin of Banded Gneisses 
and with the metamorphism of the Lizard Gabbros—a subject into 
which Bonney and McMahon enter in discussion. The schists of 


4 A Retrospect of Geology for Forty Years. 


Bolt Head are dealt with by A. R. Hunt, and he is not suffered by 
Bonney to go free from criticism. 

Kozoon again comes up, Sir J. W. Dawson making one more 
appeal in favour of its organic origin. 

Callaway deals with Archean. The ‘Monian’ system of J. F. 
Blake is also discussed, and Hughes writes on the Cambrian of 
North Wales. 

Notable are the articles by Lapworth on the Close of the Highland 
controversy, on the Cambrian rocks of Nuneaton, and on the 
Olenellus Fauna in Britain. He likewise defines his Ordovician 
System, and writes on the Ballantrae rocks. Nicholson and Marr 
deal with the Lower Paleozoic rocks of the Lake District. 

The Culm-measures of Devonshire, Coal in the south-east of 
England, the Trias, the Neocomian, and the Bagshot Beds come in 
for a good deal of attention. 

A. Harker, as well as T. H. Holland, appears on the scene, and 
they, together with G. A. J. Cole, describe various igneous rocks ; 
while Judd writes on the lavas of Krakatoa, and Teall on the Cheviot 
quartz-felsites and augite-granites. 

The mineralogical constitution of calcareous organisms forms the 
subject of an important paper by V. Cornish and P. F. Kendall. 
Pisolite is dealt with by Wethered ; explosive slickensides by 
Strahan ; Earthquakes, the creeping of soil-cap, and the stone-rivers 
of the Falkland Islands by Davison; Dust and Soils by C. Reid; 
while W. M. Hutchings writes on Slates and fire-clays. Landscape 
Marble, the flexibility of rocks, faults, jointing, and cleavage also 
receive consideration, Howorth continues to write on the Mammoth 
and the Glacial Drift; others deal with the Caves of North Wales, 
and with Moel Tryfaen, while Geological Time, the permanence of 
Continents, and geological nomenclature attract several writers. 

In the Fourra Dercapr the life-zones of Carboniferous and 
Cretaceous rocks are specially dealt with, while those of earlier 
and later date come in for a certain amount of discussion. The 
zones of the Carboniferous system had been neglected, but Marr, 
Garwood, and Wheelton Hind come to the rescue, and it is well 
known that Traquair and Kidston are also keenly interested in the 
subject. The admirable work of A. W. Rowe on the Chalk zones 
is reviewed, and Jukes-Browne discusses the possibility of making 
‘chronological maps,’ which no one has yet attempted except on 
a small scale or in a general way. 

The nomenclature of Igneous rocks is discussed by H. Stanley 
Jevons, and the new American classification is criticized without 
favour. The order of consolidation of minerals in igneous masses 
receives attention from Sollas, while Harker describes the sequence 
of igneous rocks in Skye. Greenly gives accounts of various 
Anglesey rocks; Bonney and Miss Raisin deal with rocks from 
Kimberley in Cape Colony, Teall with Nepheline-syenite from 
north-west Scotland, McMahon with the granite of the Himalayas, 
and A. R. Hunt with that of Dartmoor. J. Parkinson and H. J. 
Seymour describe sundry igneous rocks. Hutchings discourses on 


A Retrospect of Geology for Forty Years. 5) 


the Great Whin Sill, on clays, shales, and slates, and on contact 
metamorphism, T’. H. Holland on Laterite, W. F. Hume on the 
Black Earth of Russia, and A. P. Pavlow on Sandstone dikes. 

Miss Ogilvie (Mrs. Gordon) gives some results of her researches 
on the Dolomites of the Tyrol. Marr treats of the Skiddaw Slates, 
©. A. Matley of the Arenig rocks, while W. Gibson deals with the 
Paleozoic rocks of South Africa. 

The fossils discovered by Hicks in what were regarded as the 
unfossiliferous Morte Slates receive attention, and Howard Fox 
records new localities for fossils in the Devonian of Cornwall. 
Wheelton Hind discourses on the Yoredale Series, and W. Gunn on 
the Lower Carboniferous rocks of northern England and Scotland. 

The age of the Wealden, whether Jurassic or Cretaceous, comes 
under discussion. The Chloritic Marl and Warminster Greensand 
are dealt with by Meyer and Jukes-Browne, and interesting notes 
are given of the Cretaceous fossils from the Drift of Aberdeen. An 
important paper on the structure of Creechbarrow, in Dorset, is 
contributed by Hudleston, who shows that this remarkably prominent 
hill owes its preservation to the occurrence of an Hocene or possibly 
Oligocene limestone. 

The origin of erratic blocks in the Drift of Yorkshire leads to 
an amusing correspondence between Howorth and Harker, in part 
relating to the supposed carrying of stones by the Vikings. Many 
pages of the Magazine are occupied by Howorth in essays on the 
Surface Geology of North Europe, on the Scandinavian Ice-sheet, on 
recent changes of level, and on the Glacial Drifts of Eastern England, 
the power of water versus ice being dwelt upon; while Dugald Bell 
writes on the question of submergence during the Great Ice Age. 
R. M. Deeley and G. Fletcher deal with the Structure of Glacier 
Ice, and Mr. E. P. Culverwell contributes an important article on 
the Theory of the Ice Age. 

The glacial phenomena and denudation of the Skye mountains are 
dealt with by Harker, who has spent many field-seasons in this 
grand region. Howorth, writing on the Earliest Traces of Man, 
rouses up some discussion on Kent’s Cavern and Buckland, while 
Mr. 8. H. Warren contributes a suggestive paper on the relative age 
of Stone Implements, and the Rev. R. A. Bullen deals with Koliths. 
Scharff describes the caves of county Sligo. The subject of Dene- 
holes comes in for discussion. 

An interesting essay is contributed by H. W. Pearson on 
Oscillations of Sea-level, and Holst deals with Oscillations of land 
during the Glacial period in Scandinavia. In connection with this 
subject Hull’s paper on the Submerged Platform of Western Europe 
roused up discussion by J. W. Spencer and Jukes-Browne, and led 
to an important essay by Hudleston on the Hastern Margin of the 
North Atlantic Basin. 

The determination of the pre-Glacial age of the raised beach in 
Gower by R. H. Tiddeman finds interesting support elsewhere in 
the similar sequence of deposits off Cork Harbour, quite lately 
described by H. B. Muff and W. B. Wright. 


6 A Retrospect of Geology for Forty Years. 


River development attracts much attention, and 8. 8. Buckman 
leaves his Ammonites and his ‘Hemera’ to take part in the dis- 
cussion. The subject was introduced in a paper on Bala Lake and 
river system by Philip Lake, and Callaway contributes articles on 
the general question, while W. M. Davis writes on the peneplain of 
the Scottish Highlands and discusses the meanders of rivers. 

The ancient glacier-dammed lakes of the Cheviots are described 
by Kendall and Muff, while Bonney writes on moraines and mud- 
streams in the Alps. Parkinson discusses the origin of certain 
Canadian Lake-basins. Rock-basins, indeed, come in for considerable 
notice. 

Watts deals with the ancient rocks of Charnwood Forest and 
their physiography, and Mellard Reade continues to discourse on 
mountains. 

Among general papers those by Cowper Reed on the Geology of 
Waterford, and by Beadnell, Barron, and Hume on Egypt, may 
be mentioned. 

Our old friend Rupert Jones gives a full History of Sarsens. 

The subject of Geological Photographs is brought prominently 
into notice by Watts, and a number of excellent examples are 
reproduced. Judd gives an interesting history of the earlier British 
geological maps. 

Finally, much attention is again given to Geological Time, the 
question having been considered by Joly in reference to the circu- 
lation of salt. Sir A. Geikie deals generally with the subject in his 
address to the British Association. 

Turning to the topics that are occupying much attention at the 
present day, we find that the chief discussions are on subjects some- 
what similar to those mentioned by Professor Rupert Jones in the 
first number of the Magazine. The origin of the crystalline schists, 
the genesis of rivers and the formation of their valleys, the 
excavation of lake-basins, the correlation of strata by means of 
special assemblages or zones of fossils, and the evolution of species 
are subjects which engage continued attention and upon which 
much has yet to be learnt. 

Throughout the history of the Magazine, now one topic, now 
another has become dominant for a time. The relative importance 
of marine and subaérial denudation, the origin and development of 
rivers, the formation of crush-conglomerates, and the subject of 
dynamic metamorphism are instances. But if these subjects have 
again and again been brought forward, it is because someone gives 
the key to what was previously an enigma, and many are ready to 
use it; or another has gained a position from which a clearer view 
of a subject has been gained. From every fresh summit our ideas 
of the expanse of unacquired knowledge are constantly enlarged— 
a statement which is well known to apply to every branch of 
learning—and this being the case there is a constant demand for 
careful, earnest observers and workers, and there should be a constant 
demand for the Grotocican Magazine. 


(Zo be continued.) 


GEOL. MAG. 1904. Dye WEY IIS 15s WeAGS Me 


Cupressinoxylon hookert, sp. nov., 


a large silicified tree from Tasmania, preserved in the Geological 


Department, British Museum (Natural History). 


E. A. Newell Arber—Large Silicified Tree from Tasmania. 7 


II.— CurressiInoXYLON HOOKERI, SP. NOV., A LARGE SILICIFIED 
Tree From TASMANIA. 


By E. A. Newett Arser, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., Trinity College, Cambridge 
_.. University Demonstrator in Paleeobotany. 


(PLATE I.) 


Ory of the most striking objects exhibited in the Gallery of 

Fossil Plant remains in the Geological Department of the 
British Museum (Natural History) is a large trunk of a Coniferous 
tree from Tasmania, of which a photograph is reproduced on Plate Il 
This specimen? is one of the largest in the gallery, being nearly nine 
feet in height, and three feet in diameter. The woody tissues are in 
excellent preservation, the specimen being silicified, and in part 
opalized. 

The history of this tree is an interesting one. It was discovered, 
apparently early in the last century, on the estate of a Mr. Richard 
Barker at Macquarie Plains, New Norfolk, Tasmania. When found, 
the tree was embedded in an upright position in a basaltic lava. 
Although silicified wood is of common occurrence in that neighbour- 
hood, the large size of the trunk—the specimen being then at least 
three feet longer than at present—appears to have created general 
interest. Among others, Sir Joseph (then Mr.) Hooker, while on 
a voyage of discovery in the Southern seas in H.M.S. ‘“ Wrebus,” 
visited the locality to examine this fossil. Sir Joseph Hooker” con- 
tributed a most interesting description of the specimen to the first 
volume of the Tasmanian Journal of Natural Science, published in 
1842, from which the following quotation is taken :—‘“‘One of the 
most remarkable circumstances connected both with the Geology and 
Botany of Tasmania, is the occurrence of vast quantities of silicified 
wood, either exposed on the plains, or imbedded in rocks both of 
igneous and aqueous formations. Those of the former, in particular, 
are the most striking, from their singular beauty, and the very perfect 
manner in which the structure of the living wood is retained. Soon 
after my arrival in this Colony, magnificent specimens of a fossil 
tree were shown me, dug out of a volcanic rock, and which, as far 
as my memory serves me, were unequalled even in what I had seen 
of the rich collection of Brown.” * . 

A few years later the tree was brought to England and exhibited 
in the Tasmanian Court of the Great Exhibition of 1851.4 At the 
close of the Exhibition it-was presented to the British Museum by 
the Tasmanian Commissioners, but owing to the large size of the 


1 Registered number, V. 332. A smaller specimen (V. 9,606) of a similar tree from 
the same locality is exhibited side by side with that described here. 

2 Hooker: Tasmanian Journ. Nat. Sci., vol. i (1842), p. 24. 

3 Robert Brown (1773-1858), first Keeper of Botany at the British Museum, 
gathered together a large collection of petrified woods trom different parts of the 
world. Most of these specimens are now incorporated with the plant collections m 
the Geological Department of the British Museum. é 

4 Official Catalogue, Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of all Nations, 
1851, vol. ii, p. 999 (No. 348). 


8 E. A. Newell Arber—On a large Silicified Tree, 


specimen and the crowded nature of the Natural History exhibits, 
then at Bloomsbury, it was not possible to exhibit it until their 
removal to the more suitable and spacious quarters at South 
Kensington had been completed. 

From the geological standpoint, this tree is especially interesting 
in the manner of its occurrence. The Basalts of the Macquarie 
Plains are of Tertiary age, but there seems to be some difference of 
opinion as to whether they belong to the earlier! or later* period. 
MclLachlan’s* description of this specimen states that the tree “ was 
imbedded in lava, and distinctly surrounded by two flows of scoria.” 

The association of plant remains with volcanic outpourings, 
especially with the more basic tuffs and lavas, is by no means of 
rare occurrence. Excellent illustrations may be found in the rocks 
of this country. In the Tertiary leaf-beds of Mull,‘ well-preserved 
impressions of leaves, similar to Platanus and other recent genera, 
occur in gravels closely associated with sheets of basaltic lava. 
Calcified stems and other fragments of plants of the greatest botanical 
importance have been discovered in beds of volcanic ash in the 
Lower Carboniferous rocks of Petticur, near Burntisland, and at 
Laggan Bay in the island of Arran.’ Silicified stems in association 
with basalts and other igneous rocks are known from many parts 
of the world, especially from South America, where their occurrence 
has been described by Darwin.‘ 

The vertical position in which the tree was found is emphasized 
by Hooker and by McLachlan. It would be of some interest to know 
whether this trunk once formed part of a forest which, at some 
period or other, was overwhelmed by showers of ashes and lava-flows. 
On this point there is, however, little information. McLachlan 
suggests that the vertical position is more or less accidental, and 
states that the base of the tree was embedded in sand. 

The tree, as it stands now, is decorticated, only the woody tissues 
being seen. The outer portion is opalized and fairly hard, but the 
more internal tissues crumble away to a fine white powder at the 
slightest touch. This powder consists of the isolated woody fibres 
of the stem. Sir Joseph Hooker has so graphically described the 
condition and structure of the specimen that I cannot do better than 
quote his remarks.’ “The bark (?) is of a different colour and more 
consolidated than the interior, resembling the most beautiful agate. 
The woody part reminded me of the lignite, so common in Lough 
Neagh, in the north of Ireland. . . . . The most remarkable 
circumstance, however, connected with this fossilized tree, is the 
manner in which the outer layers of wood, when exposed by the 


1 Johnston: ‘* Geology of Tasmania,’’ 1888, pp. 215 (table) and 294. 

2 Stephens: Papers and Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasmania for 1897, p. 54 (1898). 

3 See note 4, previous page. 

# Starkie Gardner: Q.J.G.S., vol. xliii (1887), p. 270. 

° Wunsch, Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow, vol. ii (1865), p. 97; and Bryce, ‘ The 
Geology of Arran,” 4th ed. (1872), p. 123. 

§ Darwin: ‘‘ Geological Observations,’’ 2nd ed. (1876), p. 394, etc. 

7 Hooker: ibid., p. 25. 


Cupressinoxylon Hookert, from Tasmania. g 


removal of the bark, separate into the ultimate fibres of which it 
is composed, forming an amianthus-like mass on the ventricle of 
the stump in one place, and covering the ground with a white 
powder, commonly called here native pounce. The examination of 
a single concentric layer from this part shows that it may be 
detached from the contiguous layers of the preceding and following 
years’ growth; there being no silicious matter infiltrated into the 
intervening spaces. A portion of each layer is found to have 
a second cleavage, not concentric with it, but in the direction of 
its radius, or of a line drawn from the centre to the bark of the 
tree. Such a cleavage is to be expected from the fact, that it is 
in the direction of the medullary rays that traverse every where 
the woody tissue. Each of these laminew is of extreme tenuity, of 
indeterminate length, and of the breadth of the layers of wood ; 
and is formed of a single series of parallel woody fibres, crossed 
here and there by the cellular tissue of the medullary rays, which 
do not generally interfere with their regularity. These plates, 
again, are separable into single minute fibres, which are elongated 
tubes of pleurenchyma or woody tissue, tapering at either end into 
conical terminations of indefinite length. ‘They lie together in such 
close approximation that the microscope does not detect an interstice, 
though the least force separates them.” 


Fic. 1.—Cupressinoxylon hookeri, sp. noy. Transverse section, x 100. 


Sir Joseph Hooker concluded that the tree was undoubtedly 
Coniferous, as could be ascertained by a microscopic examination 
of the isolated fibres, without the preparation of sections. It may 
be interesting in these days, when microscopic sections are a constant 
necessity to those who are working on the subject of fossil plants, 
and readily obtained at a cost of a few shillings, to quote a further 
sentence of Sir Joseph Hooker’s description, as illustrating the 


10 Ei. A. Newell Arber—On a large Silicified Tree, 


progress in this respect during the last sixty years. He says, 
“Such slices have hitherto only been prepared by the most skilful 
lapidary, and at great cost.’’} 

Sections of the harder parts of the tree have recently been made 
with the object of determining, if possible, the group of Coniferae 
to which this specimen belongs. The preservation is exceedingly 
beautiful, the pits on the walls of the woody elements being 
well preserved. 

The conclusion arrived at from an examination of these sections 
is that the woody tissues of the tree possess a structure of the type 
known as Cupressinoxylon, Goepp. As this species has not, apparently, 
been named hitherto, I propose to call it Cupressinoxylon hookert, in 
honour of the great Botanist whose description of this specimen 
formed one of his earliest scientific contributions. 


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Fic. 2.—Cupressinoxylon hookeri, sp. nov. 

(2) Radial longitudinal section showing the medullary rays with simple pits, and 
spring tracheides with bordered pits. 7.p. resin parenchyma; a.t. tracheides of 
autumn wood. x 200 (slightly restored). 

(2) Tangential longitudinal section. 7.p. resin parenchyma. x 200. 


It has been Jong known that it is not possible to refer coniferous 
woods, by a study of the anatomy of stems, whether recent or fossil, 
to genera based on the natural affinities of such plants. This was first 
clearly pointed out by Goeppert* in his treatises on the structure of 
living and fossil Conifers: published in 1841 and 1850. Several 
recent genera belonging to such widely different families as 
Cupressacez, Abietacee, and Taxoidiacex, possess a woody structure 


1 Hooker: ibid., p. 26. 
® Goeppert : ‘‘ De Coniferarum, structura anatomica,”’ Breslau, 1841 ; and ‘¢ Mono- 
graph der fossilen Coniferen,’’ Leiden, 1850. 


Cupressinoxylon Hookeri, from Tasmania. Il 


closely similar to that of the Tasmanian tree, and such woods are 
usually included in the form-genus Cupressinoxylon.' 

In Cupressinowylon the annular rings are well marked. The 
bordered pits of the tracheides are separate, usually uniseriate ;. 
when biseriate the pits are opposite one another. Resin canals 
are absent, but resin parenchyma is abundant. 

Cupressinoaylon hookeri, sp. nov., may be recognized by the following 
characters. A tree more than 12 feet high, and 3 feet in diameter. 
Only the woody tissues are known. Annular rings distinct; the 
- autumn tracheides’ being markedly narrower than the ‘spring’ 
elements. Rings narrow, varying somewhat in size, but averaging 
about :7 mm. in width. ‘Summer wood’ containing about 15 elements. 
on an average in the ray. ‘Autumn wood’ with 4 to 9 or more 
elements; dense. Tracheides of considerable length, with uniseriate- 
bordered pits on the radial walls, and often also on the tangential 
walls. The pits on the latter are sometimes smaller than those on. 
the radial walls. Occasionally the pits are biseriate, and then the 
two pits are always opposite. Medullary rays numerous, composed 
of similar elements, uniseriate or occasionally biseriate, 3 to 14 or 
more cells in height. The medullary rays communicate with the 
tracheides, usually by a small simple pit on the radial walls. 
Occasionally in large medullary ray cells more than one pit occurs. 
Resin parenchyma, consisting of continuous rows of thin-walled 
cells, frequent, especially in the younger elements of the ‘spring: 
wood’ and in the ‘autumn wood.’ Usually only one resin cell in 
each ray of the annular ring. 

This type of woody stem is known from rocks of Jurassic age 
onwards, and is especially abundant in the Tertiary period. 
Perhaps the species which is known in most detail is that 
described very thoroughly a few years ago by Mr. Barber® from 
the Lower Greensand of Shanklin in the Isle of Wight, under 
the name of Cupressinoaylon vectense. Numerous species have also 
been described by Knowlton from the Potomac series (Neocomian) 
of North America, and many others are known from the Tertiary 
rocks of Europe, North America, and elsewhere. Conifers pos- 
sessing this type of woody structure are abundantly represented in 
Australasia at the present time by such genera as Podocarpus and 
Dacrydium, both of which occur in Tasmania. 

I wish to express my indebtedness to Dr. Smith Woodward, F.R.S., 
Keeper of the Geological Department, for permission to describe 
this interesting fossil, and for having sections prepared for the 
examination of its structure. J am also indebted to Dr. Henry 
Woodward, F.R.S., for having suggested to me an inquiry into the 
history and nature of the specimen described here. 


1 The grouping together of coniferous woods by their anatomical characters is fully 
dealt with by Schenk in Zittel’s ‘‘Traité de Paléontologie,” pt. ii, Paleophytologie,, 
1891, p. 838. 

2 Barber: ‘‘ Annals of Botany,” vol. xii (1898), p. 329. 


12 F.. F. Tuckett—Erosion of Rocks in Corsica. 


ale —REMARKABLE EXAMpPues oF ATMOSPHERIC EROSION OF Rocks 
IN’ Corsica. 


By F. F. Tucxert, F.R.G.S. 
(PLATE II.) 


fe the course of repeated visits to Corsica I have been rich 
struck by the extraordinary erosion, not only of cliffs, but even 
more so of ‘detached masses or boulders, from near: sea-level to 
heights of 5,000 to 6,000 feet; and, having taken some photographs 
last January of specimens of the kind last referred to, I sent them 
to my friend Professor Bonney, who informed me that he had never 
met with any instances of erosion of such a peculiar and unusual 
character, and asked whether I could furnish him with a are! 
of the rock. 

Unfortunately, owing to the inaccessibility of two of the objects 
photographed, and my hesitation to break away any of ‘the third 
(«Téte de Chien”’), I was only able to send him a piece obtained 
from a cliff by the roadside at some distance, which had~ been 
scooped out by erosion into overhanging eaves and other curious 
forms; and his report on this, after having a microscopic section 
prepared from it, was as follows :— 

“The specimen is about 43 in. long, 2 in. wide, and 1 in. in 
maximum thickness, weathered on both sides and on the blunter 
edge, apparently having been broken from a thin, flake-like pro- 
jection such as would form the edge of one of the peculiar cavities 
in the photograph. ‘The weathered surface is irregular, lumpy, and 
inclining to be flaky, of a dull dark-brown colour in the less 
prominent parts, elsewhere a pale brownish-green. The rock itself, 
quite close to the exterior, is a rather pale greenish-grey colour, 
somewhat mottled with small whiter and one or two darker patches, 
showing elsewhere a fibrous structure. 

«Microscopic examination of a slice cut from one end, transverse 
to the Jength of the flake, proves the rock to consist largely of 
microlithic minerals, and to have been greatly affected by pressure 
—probably almost crushed. It exhibits two or three small grains 
of rhombic pyroxene, probably bastite ; a number of small grains of 
augite, probably residual ; a large quantity of rather minute actinolite, 
and perhaps a few flakes of a greenish to white mica. Some small 
grains, however, of a colourless, slightly flaky mineral, like bastite, 
but with oblique extinction, are certainly secondary, occurring 
somewhat after the manner of albite in certain crushed Alpine 
schists.: Brown iron oxide is present only as an occasional staining 
or in granules, and sphene (possibly) in the latter condition. The 
rock has undergone so much secondary change that its original 
condition has been obliterated. I think it most probably has been 
a pyroxenite, with a little enstatite and possibly a few grains of 
olivine, allied to, but hardly to be classified with, the peridotites. 
It reminds me a little of some of the augite-serpentines of the Valais 
Alps, but in it actinolite practically takes the place of the mineral 
serpentine.” 


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H. S. Jevons—The Breidden and Berwyn Rocks. — 18: 


I may add that the first specimen I saw during an ascent of Monte 
Rotondo was a huge boulder, or bloc perché, perhaps 12 to 15 feet 
in diameter, at a height of 5,000 to 6,000 feet on a narrow spur of 
the peak, the interior of which reminded me of an ant’s nest in an 
old oak beam, and so completely was it honeycombed that I was 
able to penetrate into the heart of the mass, where I was practically 
invisible to my companion. 

Can any geologist suggest a cause for this extraordinary and, both 
in altitude and area, widely distributed erosion? It can hardly be 
decomposition, for, in the specimen described above, the rock seems 
in good condition just beneath the outer surface, and, at any rate in 
some instances, the situation appears to make the action of sand 
very improbable. Neither Professor Bonney nor I have seen any- 
thing in the Alps at all comparable to it, nor remember to have 
read a description of its occurrence in other places. 

Norer.-—Since writing the foregoing my attention has been drawn, 
through the kindness of the Editor and of Dr. C. I. Forsyth Major, 
F.Z.S., to a passage at pp. 127-128 of “ La Corse,” by M. Ardouin- 
Dumazet, forming the 14th series of a “‘ Voyage en France.” This 
writer very accurately and pictorially describes the extraordinary 
weathering or erosion of the ‘ Red Granite,’ or granitoid rocks of the 
Calanche, but only briefly alludes to the hollowed out, bomb-like 
forms specially referred to by me, if indeed they may be recognized 
in the phrase ‘La forme la plus générale de ces bizarreries est un 
évidement en forme de niches.” He also speaks of ‘‘ Des silhouettes 
d’animaux fantastiques.” 

As already stated, the rock from which my specimen was taken, 
instead of on the spot as it ought to have been, was at some distance 
to the south-west of the limited region of the Calanche, and, though 
much eroded or undercut, was probably of a different geological 
character from the sometimes almost spherical, bomb-like blocks such 
as that in the stream near Porto. I am inclined to think that the 
Calanche themselves are a rose or brick-coloured granite, as the 
writer just quoted and Joanne’s ‘‘ Guide en Corse” state them to be. 

EXPLANATION OF PLATE II. 
Fic. 1.—Eroded dome, ‘‘ Téte de Chien”’ (8 to 10 feet long), ‘‘ Le Calanche,”’ near 


Piana, west coast of Corsica. 
Fic. 2.—Eroded boulder in stream near Porto, west coast of Corsica. 


IV.—Note on tHe KeErRaTopHyRES OF THE BREIDDEN AND 
Berwyn HI ts. 
By H. Srantzy Jevons, M.A., F.G.S., Lecturer in Mineralogy and Demonstrator 
in Geology in the University of Sydney. 

T may be of interest to note the occurrence of a somewhat rare 
| and interesting rock, named keratophyre, at two easily accessible 
localities in a district where it has been hitherto unknown—at 
Moel-y-Golfa, in the Breidden Hills, and in the Berwyn Hills. 


Tur Bretppen HItts. 


Moel-y-Golfa was visited by me in 1899, and I collected a few 
specimens, which, however, remained unexamined until a few days 


14 H. 8. Jevons—The Breidden and Berwyn Rocks. 


-ago when I needed one for teaching purposes.! On examination of 
a thin section the plagioclase proved to be albite, idiomorphic and 
tabular in form, set in a matrix of chloritic decomposition products, 
doubtless the remains of pyroxene. ‘The ratio of albite to pyroxene 
must have been about two or three to one. This composition is 
sufficient to place the rock in the keratophyre group,? but con- 
firmation was obtained by comparison with a slide of the well- 
known keratophyre of Hiittenrode, in the Harz, the rocks proving 
almost identical both in structure and composition. The determi- 
nation of the felspar was made by Becke’s bright line method, which 
proved its refractive index to be everywhere slightly lower than 
that of balsam. 

The igneous rocks of the Breidden Hills have been ably described 
by Professor W. W. Watts,* but I am not aware of any later reference 
to them. He believed the rocks of Moel-y-Golfa to be mostly lavas, 
and their plagioclases to be probably labradorite, and therefore 
named them andesites. His failure to recognise albite is to be 
attributed solely to the want of the refinements of petrographical 
investigation which exist to-day, Becke’s bright line method having 
been known only since 1893. 

The intrusive rocks of the Breiddens, described by Professor Watts 
as the ‘ Newer Series’ of igneous rocks, and named by him diabases, 
may prove to be keratophyres when their felspars are closely 
examined. I have unfortunately no specimens available. The 
specific gravities quoted by Professor Watts are of little use as 
a guide owing to the decomposed condition of the rocks. Should 
they turn out to be dolerites (diabases), we should have another 
example of the interesting association of keratophyres with dolerites 
noted by Rosenbusch.* 

Tut Berwyn Hitts. 


Since 1897 I have been from time to time engaged in investigating 
the igneous rocks of the Berwyn Hills, which le to the south of the 
Dee Valley, between Corwen and Llandrillo. The igneous mass 
occupying the highest stratigraphical position is a series of quartz- 
keratophyre (soda-rhyolite) tuffs, with a lava of the same composition 
at its base. The fact that sections across the tuffs a mile or less 
apart invariably show different successions of quartz-keratophyre 
tuffs, the latter being distinguished from one another by colour and 
slight corresponding differences in composition, points to a large 
number of centres of eruption as their source. One of these lay 
near Blaen Llynor, as shown by the agglomerate to be seen in the 
bed of that stream. 

The four great sills marked ‘greenstone’ on the Geological 
Survey Map of the district, together with their associated dykes 


1 The two specimens available are labelled :—568, Crags N. of Ty-bryn Farm, 
N. of Moel-y-Golfa summit ; 572a, 8. of road between ‘‘ Plough and Harrow” and 
Trewern Farm, 8. of Moel-y-Golfa. 

2 See definition, Rosenbusch, ‘‘ Elemente der Gesteinslehre,”’ 2nd ed., 1901, p. 287. 

3 Q.J.G.S8., vol. xli (1885), p. 532. 
~ 4 « Kilem. d. Gesteinslehre,” 1901, p. 288. 


H. S. Jevons—The Breidden and Berwyn Rocks. 15 


‘to be seen on the cliff above Llyn Llync-caws, were found to have 
the composition of a keratophyre ;’ that is to say, they are essentially 
composed of albite and diopside. The proportion of diopside to 
albite was found to vary somewhat, and to be generally greater 
than in the case of the keratophyre of the Breiddens. Other 
minerals rarely make up as much as 10 per cent. of the rock. The 
texture is never porphyritic, and is generally that characteristic of 
the dolerites (diabases), from which these keratophyres are only to 
be distinguished by the refractive index or extinction angles of their 
felspars. As I believe this to be the first description of keratophyre 
as an intrusive rock, I may state that in this case there can be no 
question as to its intrusive character. The slates are distinctly 
metamorphosed above and below each sheet, the spotted slate so 
well exposed above having been mistaken for tuffs in 1850 by 
officers of the Geological Survey. The crag on Carnedd-y-Ci shows 
the hanging wall rent and penetrated by minute tongues of the 
igneous rock, and fragments of the sedimentary rock have been 
floated off into the magma. 

No dolerites of the keratophyre facies (i.e. containing diopside) 
occur in the Berwyn district so far as I have been able to discover. 
The only basic rock in the neighbourhood is an olivine-dolerite with 
titaniferous augite forming a dyke trending north-west and south- 
east in Nant Llwyn Gwern, near Craig Wen. ‘This is erroneously 
mapped as a triangular patch on the Survey Map, but is simply 
a coarse-grained dyke, probably to be connected with the Post- 
Carboniferous dykes of Anglesey and Carnarvonshire. 


GENERAL. 


The superficial resemblance of the intrusive keratophyres here 
described to the dolerites (diabases) so common in Carnarvonshire 
may be regarded as a significant fact. The felspars of the latter 
rocks have in a few instances been determined,? and were found 
to belong generally to the andesine-labradorite series. Albite has 
not been recorded. I would suggest that an interesting field of 
research lies open to some one more favourably situated than myself 
in determining the felspars of a large number of the Welsh pre- 
‘Carboniferous dolerite intrusions. Should albite be proved present 
in Carnarvonshire, we should have the association of keratophyres 
and dolerites confirmed, and it would be interesting to discover 
whether there was a passage between the two rocks, and, if so, 
whether horizontally or vertically. On the other hand, should 
albite be absent in Carnarvonshire, the existence of a series of 
rocks all of the same facies, basic in the north-west but acid in the 
south-east, would have to be explained. 

A complete petrographical description of the rocks mentioned in 
this note is in hand, and will be published in another place as soon 


1 Thin sections of some 60 specimens taken from various parts of these masses 
have been examined. 

2 Harker: Q.J.G.S., vol. xliv (1888), p. 449; and ‘‘ Bala Volcanic Series of 
Carnaryonshire,”’ p. 81, Cambridge, 1889. 


16 A. K. Coomdraswimy— Geology of Ceylon. 


as the pressure of other duties permits. I would like to add that 
my work in the Berwyn Hills was assisted by a grant from the 
Government Grant Committee of the Royal Society. 


APPENDIX. 


Confirmation of the determination of the felspars in the kerato- 
phyre of Moel-y-Golfa was obtained by uncovering a portion of 
one of the slides and immersing the thoroughly cleaned edge of the 
section in ethylene bromide (4 = 1:5355, by the Fuess Refractometer, 
Model II). The felspar showed ¥ a little above » of the liquid, 
a distinctly below. The extinction angles on sections perpendicular 
to 010 of twins on the albite and carlsbad laws also confirmed albite, 
the measurements on four sections being :—[20 : 22] [18 : 21]; 
flv: 16], [17.< 21]; [94:94] (18. 16];. [5 : 6] (Bese 
determination of the felspar of the Berwyn keratophyre was also 
confirmed by refractive index measurements, and extinction angles 
on cleavage chips as well as on symmetrical sections twinned on the 
albite and carlsbad laws. 

Brief descriptions of Becke’s bright line method of determining 
small differences of refractive index, and of Michel Levy’s method 
of determining the plagioclase felspars by the extinction angles on 
sections perpendicular to 010 of crystals twinned on both albite and 
carlsbad laws, will be found in the Appendix to Iddings’ Translation 
of Rosenbusch’s “ Microscopical Physiography of the Rock-making 
Minerals,” 4th ed., New York, 1900. 


V.—ContTRIBUTIONS TO THE GEOLOGY oF CEYLON: 
II. SruiciFIcaATIoN OF CRYSTALLINE LIMESTONES. 


By A. K. CoomaraswAmy, B.S8c., F.L.S., F.G.S., Director of the Mineral Survey 
of Ceylon. 

HE occurrence of small quantities of chert and opal, usually in 

or near exposures of crystalline limestone, but very often in 
fragments or boulders not quite dn siti, is not unusual in Ceylon. 
For some time the origin of these siliceous rocks remained obscure ; 
observations made within the present year (1903), however, enable 
me to give a more detailed account of their mode of occurrence. 
I have had the advantage of my colleague Mr. James Parsons’ 
company in examining many of the exposures, and have been able 
to discuss with him the problems raised. 

A band of chert occurs in sité on the path descending from the 
ambalam just 1 mile W.N.W. of Uduwela trigonometrical station 
(about 3 miles south-east of Kandy), and about 4 to 5 yards below 
the fourth of the six bands of limestone which are crossed in 
descending the hill.1_ The width of the band of chert is about 5 feet ; 
it includes a number of varieties, all with good conchoidal fracture. 
These are: homogeneous green opal; homogeneous brown chert 


1 The locality can be identified on the map, Q.J.G.S., vol. lyiii (1902), pl. xiii, but 
the position of the bands of limestone is not correctly indicated there. 


A. K. Coomdraswamy—Geology of Ceylon. 17 


(these two with very smooth fracture) ; brown mottled chert, with 
phlogopite, spinel, and graphite; green chert, with abundant mica 
and graphite, and less frequent spinel; and whitish decomposed 
chert, with the same accessory minerals in addition to blue apatite. 

Specimens of limestone with identical accessory minerals occur 
quite near. On its north side, the chert band appears to pass into 
decomposed limestone which shows green spots suggestive of partial 
silicification. It was not quite certain that these apparent transition 
types occurred in siti. There were, however, many specimens which 
could only with difficulty be definitely named as chert or limestone. 
A thinner band of brown chert occurs on the path a little below the 
main band. 


Partially silicified crystalline limestone. x 22. 
C, carbonate (dolomite) ; M, mica; 8, spinel ; remainder, opaline silica. 


Five thin sections of these cherts were prepared. One of the 
green opal (1056) shows merely a green, structureless, homogeneous, 
isotropic rock. The brown chert (1052) consists of chalcedonic silica, 
in characteristic spherulitic aggregates ; there is a colourless trans- 
parent base in which are scattered very numerous tiny ferruginous 
aggregates which give the brown colour to the whole rock. Certain 
eracks are filled with characteristic chaleedonic infiltrations. 
Rounded spots containing fewer of the ferruginous specks, and 
appearing rather dark between crossed nicols, call to mind the 
appearance presented by structureless radiolarian casts ; the presence 
of radiolaria is, however, quite out of the question. The greenish 
micaceous chert (1055) consists of opaline and chalcedonic silica in 
roughly equal proportions, enclosing numerous individuals of well- 
preserved phlogopite and a flake of graphite. In another, very 
similar specimen (1054) the mica is much hydrated, and silica has 
been deposited between the laminz, which are swollen and dis- 
placed. In the mottled chert (1053) chalcedonic chert is much 
more abundant than chalcedony, and the accessory minerals include 
graphite and abundant and characteristic spinel, colourless in the 

DECADE V.—VOL. I.—NO. I. 2 


18 A. K. Coomdraswimy—Geology of Ceylon. 


thin section but pink in the hand specimen. In none of these slides 
are any remains of carbonates to be found. 

Some specimens collected from blocks resting on crystalline 
limestone, but not quite in siti, on Upper Rajawela estate (about 
11 miles from Kandy on the Teldeniya road), about a third of a mile 
H.S.E. of Rajawela trigonometrical station, were also sliced. Of 
these one (1074) evidently consisted of partially silicified limestone ; 
the section showed disintegrated and corroded crystals of dolomite 
embedded in an isotropic siliceous matrix, in which an abundance of 
hydrated phlogopite and a few grains of spinel are also found. 

The silica has penetrated along the cleavage cracks of the 
carbonates, with every appearance of corrosion. The dolomite 
individuals are thus broken up into irregular fragments, often more 
or less rhombohedral, and these graduate into the smallest specks 
which remain scattered in the siliceous base, sometimes indicating 
by their disposition the rough outline of the original carbonate. 

Another specimen (1073) from this locality consisted entirely of 
brown chert and resembled No. 1053. 

The amount of chert present in any locality is always small, and 
quite insignificant in comparison with the total amount of crystalline 
limestone present ; nor can the occurrences of chert be followed for 
any distance. They are also met with in other parts of Ceylon, 
e.g. in the Uva Province, although their connection with crystalline 
limestone is not always traceable; but there is no direct evidence of 
their occurrence as a replacement of any other rock. 

From the foregoing observations I conclude that these opaline 
cherts result from the alteration of crystalline limestone, the car- 
bonates being dissolved and replaced by opaline or chalcedonice silica, 
or a combination of the two. Very possibly the pure siliceous rocks, 
free from accessory minerals, do not so directly replace the limestone, 
but are siliceous deposits similar to the chalcedony deposited in cracks 
in the other cherts, which must already have had time to harden and 
develop cracks, previous to the introduction of a further supply of 
silica. The silicification is probably the result of the presence of 
heated waters containing silica in solution introduced after the con- 
solidation of the crystalline limestone in its present form. In other 
words we have here a metasomatic transformation. A number of hot 
springs are known to occur in Ceylon, e.g., at Badulla, Alupota, 
Bubule, and Bibile, in the Uva Province’; and near Koggala, Magam 
Pattu, in the Southern Province.? The occurrence of these springs 
lends support to the probability of such alterations having taken 

lace. 
‘A It is of interest to notice the bearing of these observations on the 
origin of cherts in general *; we are here dealing with cherts which 
are certainly of inorganic origin. The mica, spinel, and graphite met 
with in the chert are proof that the original rock was a crystalline 


1 Uva Manual, by H. White, Colombo, 1903, p. 82. 

2 Ceylon Administration Reports, 1902, Survey Department, p. B. 30. 

3 For a discussion of this question, see C. A. Raisin, Proc. Geol. Assoc., xviil 
(1903), pp. 71-82. 


Kennard & Warren—Tufa Deposit in Totland Bay. 19 


limestone quite similar to those still met with in large quantity ; no 
source of abundant silica can be found in these rockon so that we are 
driven to conclude that it has been introduced from without. It is 
simplest to suppose that the silica was introduced in solution in the 
waters of hot springs. It may have been deposited at first in the 
colloid form and subsequently have become chalcedonic in parts ; or 
the two forms of silica may have been deposited more or less simul- 
taneously. It seems likely, however, that, at least to some extent, 
there has been a transformation from opai to chalcedony. 

In conclusion, the cherts described represent a secondary condition 
of a rock originally different, viz. crystalline limestone; the silica 
has been introduced from without, and is of inorganic origin; the 
silica has been chemically deposited, chiefly in the colloid form, and 
replaces the carbonates which have been removed in solution. 


VI.—On tHe Recent Turacrous Deprosir or Tornanp Bay, 
Ista or WIGHT. 


By A. Santer Kennarp and §. Hazzuepinn Warren, F.G.S, 


N the top of the cliff between Headon Hill and Widdick Chine, 

in Totland Bay, there is a Recent tufaceous deposit containing 

land and fresh-water shells. It extends along the cliff for nearly 

3800 yards in a north-easterly direction from the base of Headon 
Hill, and is about 60 feet above the sea-level. 

It was first described by Mr. Joshua Trimmer," and subsequently 
by Professor Hdward Forbes? and Mr. H. W. Bristow.® In the 
more recent memoir on the Isle of Wight * the earlier descriptions 
are quoted, but the section is described as being then almost entirely 
overgrown. 

The deposit is described as being of very variable character, as 
the following details will show. At the base of Headon Hill 
Mr. Trimmer states that it presented the following section :— 

feet. 
e. Warp-drift: brown sandy loam without lamination, containing 
fragments of flint and Tertiary limestone. Filling furrows 

in the bed below... ... 1 to3 
ac. Alternations of cream-coloured marl, ‘calcareous s tufa, and sand 
and clay blackened by organic matter ; the calcareous tufa 


being in beds 6 inches to 2 feet thick, and the sand and 
clay forming bands of 2 to 6 inches in thickness... ... 12 or more 


This author also states that Professor Edward Forbes obtained 
shells of the genus Unio in a layer of flint gravel which occurs in 
places beneath the tufaceous deposit. Possibly this should be 
Anodonta rather than Unio, but no fresh specimens have been found 
to settle the point. Not far from the termination of the deposit 


1 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1854, vol. x, p. 

2 «On the Tertiary Fluvio- Marine ioe te of the Isle of Wight’’; Mem. 
Geol. Survey, 1856, p. 8. 

3 Thid., p. 105. 

4 «The Geology of the Isle of Wight,’’ by Messrs. H. W. Bristow, Clement 
Reid, and Aubrey Strahan: Mem. Geol. Survey, 1889, p. 229. 


20 Kennard & Warren—Tufa Deposit in Totland Bay. 


(that is, as seen in the cliff section), in a north-easterly direction, 
or away from Headon Hill, Mr. Trimmer gives the section as 
follows :— 


ft. ins. 
e. Warp-drift of brown loam... 5 0 
e. Cream-coloured marl, with caleareous concretions, and a few thin 
black seams coloured by vegetable matter ; land-shells 
b. Sand blackened by organic matter ; caleareous concretions and 
land/=shtells metas sia sald ‘sos Whsaes Me eee ts 4 inches tol 0 
a. Calcareous tufa; land-shells ... ... 20.0 ss ss. 10 inches to2 0 


In describing the calcareous concretions, Mr. Trimmer states that 
some are cylindrical and others sub-globular. The former have 
often a cavity through the middle, which is occasionally filled with 
decayed vegetable matter; thus showing them to have accumulated 
round the twigs and stems of plants, as their form suggests. He 
also considers that many of the sub-globular concretions may have had 
land-shells for their nuclei. This author records: Helix [ = Helicigona } 
arbustorum or nemoralis; Helix [ = Hygromia] hispida; Cyclostoma 
elegans [ = Pomatias refleaus |. 

Professor Edward Forbes confirms Mr. Trimmer’s account, and 
gives the following section, though without stating its exact position 


in the cliff section :— 
ft. ins. 
e. Loam, with scattered Helices, fraements of flints Sasi) sea gee OMG 
Helix {= Helicigona| arbustorum or nemoralis, Cyclostoma elegans 
[= Pomatias reflecus|, abundant. 
d. Clay-bed more full of shells. 
Limnea palustris, Helix [| = Vallonia| pulchella, Helix 
ericetorum | = Helicella itala), Helix [ = Hygromia] hispida, 
Zua | = Cochlicopa|lubrica, Achatina[ = Gacileen acicula. 
c. Bluish carbonaceous marl, shells most plentiful... . ee, 
Succinea oblonga, Cyclas. 
a-b. White tufaceous marl, sandy in places, becoming eal towards 
base, and somewhat stratified ...° ... 635 Retry (ROE NES 
Cyclostoma elegans | = Pomatias reflecus], “Clausilia, Succinea 
oblonga, Cyclas or Pisidiwn, Helix hortensis, Helix (fe Pyra- 
midula| rotundata, Helix | = Vitrea] cellaria. 


Mr. H. W. Bristow describes the deposit generally as con- 
sisting of :— 
e. Brown loam, of unequal thickness, with scattered angular flints. 
d. Brown clay with perished shells. 
a-c. Calcareous tufa, 4 to d feet thick, sometimes equalling the Limnian limestone 


in hardness, finer at the top and coarser below, and with a few black 
lines caused by decayed vegetable matter. 


Since these last-named authors examined the deposit for the 
memoir of 1856 on “The Tertiary Fluvio-Marine Formation of the 
Isle of Wight,” no further information concerning it appears to 
have been obtained. 

It was largely owing to a remark in a former paper! that one 
of us was led to collect from this deposit. Though the cliff was 


1A. Santer Kennard and B. B. Woodward, ‘‘The Post-Pliocene Non-Marine 
Mollusca of the South of England”: Proc. Geol. Assoc., 1901, vol. xvii, p. 281. 


Kennard & Warren—Tufa Deposit in Totland Bay. 21 


found to be overgrown, but little difficulty was experienced in 
finding a place where the turf had slipped so as to expose the 
calcareous tufa beneath. Nothing, however, was seen of any of 
the beds of clay or sand associated with it. The spot from which 
the present collection was taken was at a very short distance to the 
-south-west of Widdick Chine, and at about 8 or 10 feet below the 
top of the cliff. All the shells were obtained from about the same 
level, within a foot or so, but as no clear section was seen, and the 
bed collected from may have slipped somewhat from its original 
level, there is no reason to correlate it with one of the beds of 
tufa, as described by previous authors, rather than with another. 
Seventeen species of mollusca were obtained, viz. :— 


Vitrea crystallina (Miill.). Helix hortensis (Mill.). 

»  nitidula (Drap.). Cochlicopa lubrica (Miill.). 

»  radiatula (Alder). Jaminia muscorum (Linné). 
Zomtoides nitidus (Mill.). Vertigo substriata (Jeff.). 
Fuconulus fulous (Mill.). » pusilla (Mill.). 
Sphyradium edentulum (Drap.). Clausilia bidentata (Strom.). 
Pyramidula rotundata (Miill.). Carychium minimum (Mill). 
Helicigona arbustorum (Linné). Limnea truncatula (Miill.). 


Helix nemoralis (Linné). 


It will be noticed that only six of these species have been hitherto 
recorded, whilst several listed species did not occur in the material. 
Two species, Vertigo substriata and V. pusilla, are as yet unrecorded 
diving from the Isle of Wight or Hampshire, though they are known 
to occur in tufaceous deposits in Hampshire. It is noteworthy that 
the examples of Helix nemoralis are without bands, whilst the 
‘specimens of Helix hortensis possess all the bands. Mr. Clement 
Reid, F'.R.S., has noted that in the tufaceous deposit at Blashenwell 
a similar state of things occurred.’ The great variation in these 
species is well known, and this variation is to be found amongst the 
fossil examples as well as recent, but with the shells from these 
two similar deposits there is no variation whatever. It affords an 
extremely interesting problem for which we can offer no solution. 

The deposit lies on an uneven surface of the Potamomya Sands, 
which underlie the Limnzan limestone and belong to the Upper 
Headon Beds. Both Professor Edward Forbes and Mr. H. W. 
Bristow describe it as lacustrine, though land-shells are characteristic 
and fresh-water forms comparatively scarce, as had previously been 
noticed by Mr. Joshua Trimmer. Both the molluscan fauna and the 
nature and position of the deposit itself clearly indicate a damp land- 
surface, over which oozed the water, highly charged with carbonate 
of lime, which was thrown out of the Headon Hill limestones by 
springs. It is noteworthy, in this respect, that Mr. Trimmer 
describes it as being thickest under Headon Hill, and thinning 
away, and finally disappearing, in a distance of little more than 


1C. Reid, ‘‘An Early Neolithic Kitchen Midden and Tufaceous Deposit at 
Blashenwell” : Proc. Dorset Nat. Hist. and Ant. Field Club, 1896, vol. xvii, p. 74. 


22 P. W. Stuart-Menteath—The Ophite of Biarrits. 


300 yards in a north-easterly direction. The springs to which this 
tufa owed its origin have been tapped by the recession of the cliffs,’ 
so that no calcareous deposit now takes place, or has done since the 
deposition of the ‘ Warp-drift.’ From the presence of a certain 
proportion of fresh-water forms, and from the beds of sand and clay 
which are interstratified with the tufa, there were most probably 
one or more small streams meandering through the area, with 
frequently changing course, but there does not appear to be any 
evidence of lacustrine conditions. 

There can be no doubt that the deposit belongs to the Holocene 
Period, but no evidence has been obtained to enable us to fix its age 
with any greater precision. 


VII.—Tse Opaite or Biarritz. 
By P. W. Srvarr-Menteatnu, Assoc. R. 8. Mines. 


ee articles in the Biarritz Association Bulletin, and a series 

in the last publications of the Soc. Géol. de France, discuss the 
problem of Pyrenean ophite by conjectures regarding the obscure 
points of greenstone in the shifting sands of the Biarritz coast. 
When first seeking new facts at Biarritz, I discovered the red marls 
and gypsum that accompany the ophite to be recurrent in the 
undisputed Upper Cretaceous of Croix d’Ahetze, and I followed 
the Biarritz rocks to Zumaya and Loyola in the attempt to trace 
their relations. Having subsequently proved that the other red 
clays mapped as Trias are brick clay of post-Glacial origin, con- 
temporary with a tooth of Hlephas primigenius and anterior to flint 
implements described as Pliocene, and having vainly demonstrated 
the continuity of the rocks of the Spanish coast by both maps and 
fossils, I would invite geologists to profit by the light railways and 
other advantages which to-day enable the fundamental section of 
Pyrenean geology to be easily studied in its unmistakable continuation. 

Ideal constructions represent the Biarritz rocks as sharply trun- 
cated by an effondrement of the Atlantic basin. Observation proves 
that they skirt the coast, form the promontory of Abadia, present 
three species of Nummulites at Pasages, and, although stripped by 
the waves beyond Zumaya, recur in patches to far beyond Santander. 
The confusion resulting from treating as a transverse section the 
almost longitudinal exposures of Biarritz is an example of not 
uncommon tectonics. 

The fossiliferous red limestones and marls which extend by 
Abadia and Fontarabia to Zumaya are rich in Ammonites, worked 
for cement, recognizable by lithologic character, and regularly 
affected by sharp local plications and dislocations along the thirty 
miles of coast in question. Marine erosion between Bidart and 
Abadia produces the only important break. Exactly as at Biarritz, 
so also at Fontarabia, the fossiliferous Danien summit of the Cre- 
taceous is overlain by Flysch that represents the Lower Hocene and 


1<«The Geology of the Isle of Wight,” by Messrs. H. W. Bristow, Clement Reid, 
and Aubrey Strahan: Mem. Geol. Survey, 1889, p. 229. 


P. W. Stuart-Menteath—The Ophite of Biarritz. 23 


insensibly passes to the Nummulitic sandstones of the Biarritz cliffs. 
But at Fontarabia all formations are inclined at 15°, and the red and 
green clays that irregularly occur towards the junction of Hocene 
and Cretaceous are here, as along the whole thirty miles to Zumaya, 
obviously normal beds of Hocene or Cretaceous, whose vivid 
coloration and lithologic character explain these supposed intrusions 
of the Trias. The clearly local character of the sharp plications and 
dislocations is proved along thirty miles; the incorrectness of 
assuming the same to be gigantic faults at Biarritz is hence 
apparent. But many years ago I further urged the fact that the 
opposed dips and strikes, regularly quoted at Caseville as proof of 
a gigantic fault, are visibly local and gradually vanish towards the 
‘fault,’—which fault is moreover inferred logically from the erroneous 
supposition of Jacquot that its continuation at Fontarabia is indicated 
by a recurrence of Cretaceous, marked as such on every map except 
mine of Comptes Rendus Ac. Sc. of June, 1894, and that published 
in 1900 by the author of the Spanish Geol. Survey map of 1884. 
The Nummulites found at Pasages were recognized as unquestionable 
by Munier-Chalmas and other special authorities. As such decisive 
points are ignored in the entire discussion, and as the geologist who 
concludes it has classed the Flysch as Cenomanien by fossils at 
Gotein whose head and tail project on opposite sides of the decom- 
posed limestone rolled pebbles that contain them, I need hardly 
discuss the siliceous Orbitolina which occur in the Flysch con- 
glomerates, both beneath the Danien at Ciboure and above the 
Danien at Caseville, in rolled pebbles of that Cenomanien limestone 
whose outcrops to the south bristle with those indestructible 
organisms. From the central Pyrenees to the Ocean I have found 
Hippurites, Plagiopticus, and other shells of Turonien character in 
the uppermost beds of the Cenomanien limestone, which is the usual 
basis of the Flysch. My best collection of Turonien fossils is from 
the base of the Flysch of Roncesvalles and Oroz, which visibly 
overlies the Cenomanien limestone. M. Seunes discovered in my 
Cenomanien both Gault and Lower Aptien, respectively characterized 
by two names of one shell, found by both Sowerby and Davidson in 
the Cenomanien, but at first inadvertently christened with a name 
already monopolized by a Jurassic brachiopod. 

South of Zumaya the red Danien and the Senonien of Bidart, 
largely worked at both places for cement, rest normally, as at 
Biarritz, on the Turonien Flysch. From beneath this rise irregular 
bosses of Cenomanien limestone, which, precisely as at Arette, 
Atheray, and many intermediate places, furnish a black and a flesh- 
coloured marble abounding in characteristic fossils. The polished 
slabs which line the sanctuary of Loyola, and are largely employed 
in the neighbourhood, present innumerable sections of Radiolites 
Cantabricus, Douvillé, R. foliaceus, Lamk., and other shells which, 
here as elsewhere, prove a Cenomanien age. In the recurrence of 
the Flysch above this limestone between Loyola and Zumarraga, 
I have counted fourteen intrusions of ophite in eight miles of the 
road. These intrusions, together with intermediate slices of usually 


24 P. W. Stuart-Menteath—The Ophite of Biarrits. 


metamorphosed but often freshly marly Flysch, compose a mountain 
mass nine miles in length and 2,000 to 3,000 feet in height, whose 
central portion is solid, and is mapped as solid ophite by the 
Spanish Survey on a transverse diameter of over three miles. The 
several intrusions strike in the four directions which in 1886 
IT summarized from a detailed survey of the mineral lodes of the 
neighbouring Pyrenees. As these lodes are very certainly of 
Tertiary age, the ophitic intrusions indicate a similar origin. Here 
only crush and contact breccias are noticeable, and the intrusions 
are of every variety from typical ophite to typical melaphyre and 
highly vesicular spilites. The uniquely valuable investigations of 
Dr. Ogilvie Gordon are especially applicable to this case, which 
affords ample evidence touching the intrusive character of the 
Biarritz ophite and its independence of any special formation in 
spite of constant association with the peculiar facies of the Flysch. 

Kast of Biarritz a mass of ophite four miles in diameter, between 
Anglet and Villefranque, resembles that of Loyola in cutting across 
the Upper Cretaceous beds, and in the freshly irruptive character 
which enables both to be largely employed for metalling roads. At 
the Villefranque salt-work the same Nummulitic species are in 
contact with the gypsum, salt, and ophite as are in similar contact 
on the Biarritz coast. At both points the rocks of the Lower Eocene 
are metamorphosed and dislocated as at other Pyrenean localities. 
The oldest rocks of the neighbourhood are those containing the 
abundant Greensand fauna which I discovered and described in 
1887 in Bull. Soc. Geol. The subsequent maps and papers of 
Captain Gorceix (1894), being filled with new and decisive facts, 
are never quoted by those who best know them. Tho salt deposits 
of Villefranque are analogous to those of Cardona, Suria, Pinos, etc., 
whose obviously Eocene age has been doubted only in consequence 
of speculations regarding Biarritz. 

The ophite of Loyola is connected with the similar mass adjoining 
Biarritz, not only by the coast rocks, but also by two bands of Upper 
Cretaceous which, constantly accompanied by numerous ophite 
intrusions, cut across all the rocks of the western Pyrenees. One 
runs between Tolosa and Cambo, the other between Tolosa and 
St. Jean Pied de Port. In indifferent contact with rocks of every 
age, these bands independently connect the Flysch of Loyola with 
that of Biarritz, and show the intimate relation of the ophites which 
I have mapped along their unsuspected course. They habitually 
skirt the Trias; but the Muschelkalk of that formation, which 
I have compared by fossils and lithologic character to that of 
Goslar, is constantly broken into three or four strips separated by 
ophite outcrops, whereas the Upper Cretaceous exhibits con- 
temporary volcanic conglomerates containing fossiliferous fragments 
of every age. These conglomerates abound in the Cambo district, 
and are thence traceable to Biarritz, as habitual constituents of the 
Upper Cretaceous Flysch. In both the ophitic outcrops of 
Mouligna and Caseville the ophite is only visible as isolated blocks 
and fragments in the metamorphosed horizon between the Danien 


S. S. Buckman—The Toarcian of Bredon Hill. 20 


and the Middle Eocene. Attempts to explain these outcrops as 
intrusions of Trias from below, or as carted caps from above, are 
-equally opposed to the entire analogies of the neighbouring Pyrenees 
and to all serious observation of the ophites from the Pyrenees to 
Portugal, Italy, and Switzerland. They are hence instructive as 
explaining the paradoxes which their identical authors have each 
and all asserted regarding other districts of both the Alps and 
Pyrenees. I should add that the Spanish Survey maps, although 
fully recognizing my earlier observations, require considerable modi- 
fication through those made since 1884, as their able authors would 
be the first to acknowledge. 


‘VIII.—Tue Toarctan or Brepon Hitt: A Repry to Pror. Hutt? 
By 8. 8. Buckman, F.G.S8. 


‘i criticising my paper Professor Hull “regrets very much to 
have found it necessary to make these remarks.” I regret it 
too, because he only raises issues which have been discussed, and, 
I hoped, settled years ago. But I fear that Professor Hull has not 
given attention to modern Jurassic literature. He says that Midford 
Sands is ‘a name unknown to geologists in general.” Whereas, as 
the Editor points out, Professor Phillips was the author who amused 
himself with inventing this fanciful name, to adopt my critic’s 
language. And in the 1879 edition of Sheet 44, at the foot of 
which appears the name KH. Hull, there is on the margin this legend, 
“G 4, Midford Sand.” 

With similar neglect of literature the Professor states that “the 
much-debated question” about the sands “was settled [in favour of 
the Lias] by Dr. Wright in 1856, and was accepted by the Geological 
Survey.” Yet in the Survey memoirs, “The Jurassic Rocks of 
Britain,” vols. iii, iv, 1893-94, the Midford Sands are grouped with 
the Lower Oolitic series. Sir A. Geikie says in his “Textbook of 
Geology,” 3rd ed., p. 898: “The upper stage [of the Lias] is com- 
posed of clays and shales . . . . surmounted by sandy deposits, 
which are perhaps best classed with the Inferior Oolite””—the view 
adopted by most Jurassic geologists. 

If my critic had read my paper carefully he would have seen that 
what I claim to have settled is quite different from what Dr. Wright 
did. That author considered the sands of the Cotteswolds, of 
Somerset, and of Dorset, to be all on the same horizon, a later 
deposit than the Upper Lias Clay, but with Liassic affinities. He 
had no idea that the sands of one district were actually earlier in 
‘date than the Upper Lias Clay elsewhere. Evidently, too, the 
Survey Officers had no idea that what they mapped as G 3 in Dorset 
was much later than what they called G 4 in Gloucestershire, and 
was the same horizon as some that was mapped G 5 in Somerset. 

It is my discovery that “in different localities the Sands are of 
different dates” (Q.J.G.S., vol. lix, p. 456). It is my discovery 


1 Grou. Maa., Dec. IV, Vol. X, No. XII, p. 641. 


26 S. S. Buckman—The Toarcian of Bredon Hill. 


exactly what Ammonite faunas are found in the sands of Somerset 
and Dorset, about which nothing precise was known a few years ago. 
It is my discovery that the Sands and Cephalopod Bed contain some 
half-dozen distinct Ammonite faunas, which maintain always the same 
sequence, now proved widely on the Continent. By this sequence 
I can date the different sands with precision, as I have done in 
p- 406 op. cit. This is largely against Wright’s “discovery.” He 
claimed all the sands as Lias. I am able, taking the arbitrary line 
which Wright himself accepted, to show that certain of “these 
various sands” are Lias, and others Oolite. I can claim to have 
settled the much-debated question, because I have been able to give 
the facts—the faunal sequence. 

Professor Hull asks where I ‘got hold of the idea” about the 
comparative thickness of the Upper Lias at Wotton and Bredon. 
Not from Survey publications, he is positive. I quote from “Geol. 
Country around Cheltenham” (Mem. Geol. Surv., 1857, pp. 24, 25) : 
“The Upper Lias Shale . . . at Leckhampton Hill .. . 
is 230 feet [in thickness] . . . At Cleeve Cloud . . . 800 

-»/ At) Bredon, (Hill ....|. 100. deet or Groner 
Towards the south . . . it thins gradually away to Wotton- 
under-Edge, where it is about 10 feet thick.” In Sheet 44, 
Geological Survey, the outcrop of Upper Lias is 300 feet, measured 
by the contour-map of the Ordnance Survey. H. B. Woodward 
says: ‘“ In Gloucestershire the Upper Lias varies from about 
10 feet at Wotton-under-Hdge, to about . . . . 3880 feet at 
Bredon Hill.”? 

Professor Hull asserts that he knew ‘‘the sands [G4] of Wotton 
with the clays below [G3] were representative in time of the Upper 
Lias [G38] of Bredon Hill.” If this was his opinion, why did he 
not record it in his map? If the value of G38 changes from place 
to place, it is not consistent mapping. If G3 means G3 at some 
localities, and G 38+G 4 at others, who is able to interpret the map ? 

A plea put forward during the discussion of my paper tried to 
justify the changing value of a symbol on the ground that it was 
the object of the Survey maps to record lithology for the guidance 
of agriculturalists. This seems to imply that the Survey maps were 
not intended to be geological documents, but merely charts showing 
the outcrop of the various clays, sands, or limestones. And if the 
benefit of agriculturalists was so much considered, why were the 
Vales of Evesham and Gloucester mapped as Lower Lias Clay, when 
nearly their whole surface is thickly covered with sands or gravels ? 
What use is such a map to agriculturalists? I said that, for their 
good, the superficial deposits should have been mapped first. Pro- 
fessor Hull derides this idea: he implies that so much would be 
blank. He forgets that, in the few places where the solid rocks 
are not marked by technical ‘drift,’ from the farmers’ and from 
a strictly scientific point of view the soil and subsoil are superficial 
deposits, whose varying phases are quite as capable of being mapped 
as anything else. There need have been no blanks. 


1 “* Geology of England and Wales,’’ 2nd ed., p. 276. 


G. C. Crick—Pericyclus fasciculatus, I‘ Coy. Pa 


Professor Hull resents the suggestion that a map done fifty years 
ago naturally requires considerable modification. Yet that must be 
a truism. ‘l’o admit it, allows one to offer cordial congratulation on 
the work accomplished. To deny it, is to claim superhuman in- 
fallibility, and to receive a rude awakening. For if the Professor 
had studied modern Jurassic literature he must have seen many 
cases where the facts show the boundaries on Sheet 44 incorrect — 
cases like the one just recorded by Mr. Richardson, that what is 
mapped as Inferior Oolite at Condicote, near Stow, is Great Oolite.' 
Then there are differences in interpretation. Advance in knowledge 
has shown that boundaries drawn by lithological characters cannot 
be maintained ; that to a greater extent than was formerly antici- 
pated, lithic change does not imply sequent deposits; that clay, 
sand, and limestone are but regional phases of contemporaneous 
deposition, not to be indicated, as formerly, by sequent symbols 
G38, G4, G5, but to be marked by the same symbol with modi- 
ficatory additions, say Ag., Ar., C. for Argillaceous, Arenaceous, 
Calcareous. 

Professor Hull’s remark about ésprit de corps is regrettable. 
When one meets Officials out of office hours, and especially at 
the rooms of the Geological Society, one expects to meet, not officiais, 
but scientific men, who would not put the Survey first and scientific 
accuracy second, but who desire, above all else, the advancement 
of science. 


. IX.—Nore on Pericyctus rascrcutatus, F. M‘Coy, sp. 
By G. C. Crick, F.G.8., of the British Museum (Natural History). 


1B 1844, in his ‘‘ Synopsis of the Carboniferous Fossils of Ireland,” 

F. M‘Coy described and figured the species Goniatites fasciculatus 
(p. 13, pl. ii, fig. 8), a Goniatite referable to the genus Pericyclus, 
Mojsisovics.2 The type-specimen is preserved in the “Griffith 
Collection”? in the Museum of Science and Art, Dublin, and has 
been re-figured (as Pericyclus fasciculatus) by Dr. A. H. Foord 
in his “ Monograph on the Carboniferous Cephalopoda of Ireland” 
(pt. iv, 1901, pl. xxxvii, figs. 5a, b); where its locality is given as 
Millicent, Clane, county of Kildare. 

In the same work M‘Coy also describes the species Nautilus 
(Temnocheilus) furcatus (p. 21, pl. iv, fig. 13). The type-specimen 
was most probably from Cork, for it was lent to M‘Coy by Dr. Haines 
of that place, and judging from M‘Coy’s figure it was much distorted 
and compressed like so many of the fossils from that locality. Its 
present location is unknown. Dr. Foord states that it is not in the 
‘¢ Griffith Collection ” in the Museum of Science and Art, Dublin, in 
which many of M‘Coy’s types are contained, but says that “the 
excellent figure of it in the ‘Synopsis’ renders it easy of identification.” 
Although this species has been previously referred to Mojsisovics’ 


1 Grou. Mac., Dec. IV, Vol. X, No. 471, September, 1903. 
2 Abhandl, d. k.-k. geol. Reichsanst., Wien, vol. x (1882), p. 141. 


28 G. C. Crick—Pericyclus fasciculatus, M* Coy. 


genus Pericyclus,! Dr. Foord has shown (op. cit., pt. iv, 1901, pp. 187, 
188) that the specimens described as P. furcatus are only examples 
of P. fasciculatus that have lost the test; he has therefore united the 
two species, adopting M‘Coy’s name /asciculatus for two reasons, 
““(1) because it was the first to be described in the ‘Synopsis,’ and 
(z) because it shows the ornaments on the test, whereas the name 
furcatus was applied merely to the cast of the shell.” 

The following is Dr. Foord’s emended description of the species :— 

‘“‘ Shell discoidal, somewhat inflated, umbilicated; greatest thick- 
ness at the umbilical margin, where it is two-thirds of the diameter 
of the shell ; height of outer whorl two-fifths of the diameter of the 
shell. Whorls not fewer than five (exact number not ascertainable) ; 
inclusion about one-half; umbilicus somewhat less than one-half of 
the diameter in width, with subangular margin, deep, partly ex- 
posing the inner whorls. Whorl reniform in section, about twice as 
wide as high, not much indented by the preceding whorl ; periphery 
broadly convex, continuous with the convex sides; inner margin 
rather wide, well defined, very steep. 

“ Body-chamber occupying at least one whorl ; aperture not seen. 
Chambers of moderate depth; suture-line as in pl. xxxvii, fig. 6. 
Test ornamented with strong, rounded, transverse ribs, which 
generally begin to bifurcate at or near the umbilical margin, the 
bifurcation in some specimens not taking place till the middle of the 
side is reached. The ribs form a broad, shallow sinus in crossing 
the periphery, the sinus sometimes becoming sharply concave in the 
median line; the intervening concave spaces wider than the ribs. 
Covering the ribbing and interspaces there are a series of very 
distinct, sharp, raised lines, disposed irregularly as regards their 
distance apart ; on the ribs about two of the lines occupy the space 
of 1mm., but between them the lines are a little more spread out. 
The tendency of these fine ribs to form bundles is well marked, and 
made the name ‘fasciculatus’ given by M‘Coy to the specimen 
bearing the test singularly appropriate.” 

The reference to the suture-lines is rather misleading, because the 
figure which Dr. Foord gives is taken from an immature specimen, 
and shows neither the characteristic pointed lateral lobe nor the 
existence of a second smaller pointed lobe on the inner area of the 
whorl. These suture-lines are stated to be those “of a small 
specimen where the diameter of the shell is about 30 mm.,” but it 
correctly drawn they appear to have been taken from the young 
stage of a rather large individual, because the lateral lobe is still 
rounded, whereas in some of the specimens described below this lobe 
is distinctly pointed at a diameter of less than 30mm. (See 
Figs. 2, 3, and 4.) The suture-line of the original of Dr. Foord’s 
pl. xxxvii, figs. 2a, 6, which is in the National Collection 
[No. C. 5983], is therefore given in the accompanying drawing 
(Fig. 1). In the figure in the ‘Catalogue of Fossil Cephalopoda, 
British Museum,” pt. iii, p. 150, fig. Tle, the lobe on the inner 
margin of the whorl should have been represented a little deeper and 
more acute. 

1 See Cat. Foss. Ceph. British Museum, pt. ili (1897), p. 149. 


G. C. Crick—Pericyclus fasciculatus, I‘ Coy. 29 


M‘Coy gives only two measurements of his G. fasciculatus, viz., 
diameter one inch six lines [ = 38 mm. ], and thickness of last whorl 
eleven lines [= 23:°5mm.], but according to Dr. Foord’s figure of 
the type-specimen the other dimensions are :—radius,’ 22°5 mm. ; 
width of umbilicus, 11 mm.; and height of last whorl, 17 mm. 
The dimensions of furcatus, examples of which are, he says, generally 
elliptical, M‘Coy states to be as follows :—diameter, two inches 
seven lines [655 mm.]; diameter [or height] of last whorl, thirteen 
lines [27°5 mm.]; thickness, eleven lines [23°5 mm. ]. 


SO UY 


Fic. 1.—Suture-line of Pericyclus fasciculatus. Drawn of the natural size from 
a specimen in the British Museum [No. C. 5933] from the Carboniferous 
Limestone, Clane, co. Kildare, Iveland. In this and the following figures the 
short dotted lines crossing the suture-line indicate the position of the 
umbilical margin, the short line at each end marking the position of the 
suture of the shell, or ‘ line of involution.’ 


In his Monograph Dr. Foord gives no dimensions of the species, 
but figures four examples. Of these one (pl. xxxvii, figs. 2a, b) is 
the undistorted specimen from Clane belonging to the British 
Museum and referred to below; another is M‘Coy’s type of 
fasciculatus (pl. xxxvii, figs. 5a, b), the dimensions of which are 
given above; a third is a somewhat distorted example from 
Midleton, in the county of Cork; whilst the fourth is a smaller 
specimen from Glenbane Hast, in the county of Limerick. For the 
sake of comparison with the English examples recorded below the 
dimensions of the third and fourth specimens are here given. The 
measurements of the Midleton specimen are:—diameter, 65 mm. ; 
radius, 40 mm.; width of umbilicus, 21:5 mm.; height of outer 
whorl, 28-5 mm.; thickness of outer whorl, 35:5 mm.: those of the 
example from Glenbane being :—diameter, 34 mm. ; radius, Z0 mm. ; 
width of umbilicus, 10mm.; height of outer whorl, 145 mm. ; 
thickness of outer whorl, 21°5 mm. 

In Ireland, according to Dr. Foord (op. cit., pt. iv, 1901, p. 188), 
the species occurs at Cork, Midleton, Blackrock, in the county of 
Cork; Glenbane, in the county of Limerick; and Clane, county of 
Kildare. The species, however, is rare in England; hence the 
following particulars respecting English examples which have come 
under the writer’s notice may not be without interest. In the list of 
fossils appended to the Geological Survey memoir on “The Geology 
of the Carboniferous Limestone, Yoredale Rocks, and Millstone Grit. 
of North Derbyshire,” 1887, the species is recorded from North 
Staffordshire (p. 182), the specimen referred to being from Beeston 
Tor, in North Staffordshire, about 1 mile east of Grindon, and now 
preserved in the Museum of Practical Geology, Jermyn Street. 

Until comparatively recently the British Museum contained only 
one example of this species [No. C. 5933] having the locality 


1 A line drawn from the centre of the coil to the periphery of the shell. 


30 G. C. Crick—Pericyclus fasciculatus, M‘Coy. 


recorded; this was from the Carboniferous Limestone of Clane, 
co. Kildare, Ireland, and was presented to the Collection by Dr. A. H. 
Foord. It was figured (under the name Pericyclus furcatus) in the 
“ Catalogue of the Fossil Cephalopoda in the British Museum 
(Natural History),” pt. ili, p. 150, fig. 71, and has been re-figured 
(under the name Pericyclus fasciculatus) by Dr. Foord in his 
“Monograph on the Carboniferous Cephalopoda of Ireland,” pt. iv 
(1901), pl. xxxvii, figs. 2a, b, its suture-line being given in Fig. 1 
accompanying this paper. Its dimensions are:—diameter of shell, 
51 mm.; radius, 29°5 mm.; width of umbilicus, 17 mm.; height of 
outer whorl, 20 mm. ; thickness of outer whorl, 35 mm.; height of 
outer whorl above preceding whorl, 17mm. As nearly as can be 
ascertained the outer whorl bears 34 ribs. It lacks the test and 
agrees with M‘Coy’s type of furcatus. Besides this, the National 
Collection contains two examples [No. C. 5773], 34 and 175mm. 
in diameter respectively, like M‘Coy’s type of fasciculatus, but 
unfortunately the locality whence they were obtained has not been 
recorded. 

In 1901, however, a well-preserved but imperfect example from 
the Carboniferous Limestone of Kniveton, 2 miles north-east of 
Ashbourne, Derbyshire, was presented to the British Museum 
[No. C. 7961] by the Rev. F. St. John Thackeray, M.A., F.G.S. 
Jt is a natural internal cast, and consists of the inner whorls up to 
a diameter of about 22 mm. that are entirely septate, and of about 
one-half of the succeeding whorl, which is about 40 mm. in diameter, 
and belongs to the body-chamber. At its greatest diameter, 40 mm., 
the other dimensions appear to have been :—radius, 23 mm.; width 
of umbilicus, 14 mm.; height of outer whorl, 14mm.; thickness of 
outer whorl, 27mm. There are eighteen or nineteen ribs in the last 
half-whorl. At a position on the inner whorls where the shell has 
a radius of 9 mm. the suture-line is displayed on both the peripheral 
area and the umbilical margin, and somewhat less clearly on the inner 
area or umbilical zone of the whorl. It is represented in the 
accompanying figure. Compared with ‘“ the suture-lines of a small 


Ww 


Fre. 2.—Suture-line of Pericyclus fasciculatus. Drawn of the natural size from 
a specimen (where radius is 9 mm.) in the British Museum [No. C. 7961] 
from the Carboniferous Limestone, Kniveton, 2 miles N.E. of Ashbourne, 
Derbyshire. 

specimen where the diameter of the shell is about 30 mm.,” given by 

Dr. Foord (op. cit., pl. xxxvii, fig. 6), we note in the present specimen 

that where the radius is only about 10 mm. and the diameter therefore 

not more than about 18 mm., the sides of the external lobe are more 
nearly parallel, the external saddle is rounder, the lateral lobe is even 
at this diameter distinctly pointed, whilst a pointed, acutely V-shaped 
lobe is present on the inner area or umbilical zone of the whorl. No 
such lobe as the last-mentioned is indicated in Dr. Foord’s figure, but 
it may be that the short line at each end of the suture-line is intended 


G. O. Crick—Pericyclus fasciculatus, I‘Coy. ol 


to denote the position of the umbilical margin, and not that of the 
‘line of involution,’ or, as it is generally termed, the ‘suture of the 
shell.’ 

Besides four specimens from Irish localities—two from Ireland, 
but locality uncertain; one from Limerick ; and one from Kildare— 
the Museum of Practical Geology contains two English examples, 
one being the specimen from Beeston Tor, 1 mile east of Grindon, in 
North Staffordshire, already referred to, and the other from near 
Matlock, in Derbyshire.* 

The Beeston Tor specimen [No. 8860] is a small natural internal 
cast bearing portions of the test in a very eroded condition. Its 
dimensions are :—diameter of shell, 20 mm. ; radius, 12 mm.; width 
of umbilicus, about 7mm.; height of outer whorl, 6°5 mm. ; thick- 
ness of outer whorl, 16 mm.; height of the outer whorl above pre- 
ceding, (?). There are about 30 ribs in the outer whorl, the last 
half-whorl bearing 14. The specimen does not appear to be at all 
crushed, but, as will be seen from its dimensions, it is relatively 
thicker than any of the other examples. The suture-lines are not 
shown. 

The example from near Matlock [No. 6696] is also a natural 
internal cast; besides the outer whorl, which is a little imperfect on 
one side, about a quarter of the penultimate whorl is displayed, the 
rest of the inner whorls being probably present, though occluded by 
matrix. Its dimensions are:—diameter of shell, 52mm.; radius, 
18mm.; width of umbilicus, 12 mm. ; height of outer whorl, 12mm.; 
thickness of outer whorl, 21mm.; height of outer whorl above 
preceding, about 9mm. ‘There are 34 ribs in the outer whorl. 
A little less than one-half of the outer whorl is occupied by the 
body-chamber ; several suture-lines are well displayed ; the last is 
represented in the accompanying figure. This specimen is relatively 


yO Ww 


Fic. 3.—Suture-line of Pericyclus fasciculatus. Drawn of the natural size from 
the last septum of an example (at a radius of 13°5 mm.) in the Museum of 
Practical Geology .[No. 6696] from the Carboniferous Limestone, near 
Matlock, Derbyshire. 

thinner than the Beeston example, for at a radius equal to the 

greatest radius of that specimen this shell is only 18 mm. thick. 

Through the kindness of Dr. Wheelton Hind I have been able to 
examine two examples in his collection that came from Bradbourne, 
about 2 miles north of Kniveton, Derbyshire. Both are internal casts. 

One is a fairly well preserved cast of the outer whorl, with the inner 

whorls present, although broken on one side and obscured by matrix 

on the other; it has the following dimensions :—diameter, 54°5 mm. ; 
radius, 20mm.; width of umbilicus, 16°>mm.; height of outer 
whorl, 11:(0mm.; thickness of outer whorl, 21:5 mm.; height of 
outer whorl above preceding whorl, Imm. About five-sixths of the 


1 My best thanks are due to Mr. E. T. Newton, F.R.S., for the facilities given me 
to examine these fossils. 


32 G. C. Crick—Pericyclus fasciculatus, M‘Coy. 


last whorl is occupied by the body-chamber; the last three suture- 
lines are clearly visible at the commencement of the outer whorl 
(see accompanying figure). Towards the anterior end of the body- 
chamber one side of the shell bears traces of an injury during the 


Fic. 4.—Suture-line of Pericyclus fasciculatus. Drawn of the natural size from 
the last septum (at a radius of 13°5 mm.) of an example in the collection of 
Dr. Wheelton Hind, from the Carboniterous Limestone of Bradbourne, about 
2 miles north of Kniveton, Derbyshire. 


life of the animal that has interfered somewhat with the regular 
sculpturing of the shell, but the original number of the ribs crossing 
the periphery can be ascertained to be 86. As will be seen from the 
dimensions, this specimen is more widely umbilicated than the 
example from Kniveton. 

The other specimen consists of about one-half of the outer whorl 
of a rather more finely sculptured example of about the same 
diameter as the fossil just described, that has been distorted into an 
elliptical form. It exhibits no septa, and most likely formed part of 
the body-chamber; the ribbing is a little irregular at the anterior 
part of the specimen, but in the half-whorl there appear to have 
been about 22 ribs on the central portion of the peripheral area. 

The following table enables the type-specimen of M‘Coy, the 
British Museum example from Clane, and the English examples 
referred to in the present paper to be more readily compared with 
one another, the specimens being arranged according to their 
respective diameters. (i) is the example from Beeston in the 
Museum of Practical Geology [No. 8860]; (ii), the specimen from 
near Matlock in the same collection [No. 6696]; (iii), the nearly 
complete example from Bradbourne in the collection of Dr. Wheelton 
Hind ; (iv), M‘Coy’s type-specimen of ‘G.’ fasciculatus in the Museum 
of Science and Art, Dublin; (v), the specimen from Kniveton in the 
British Museum Collection [No. C. 7961]; (vi), the example from 
Clane in the same collection [No. C. 5953]. The measurements are 
in millimetres. 


i i iil iy Vv 

Diameter of shell ......... '20 (100) |32 (100) 34:5 (100) |38 (100) |40(100) |51 (100) 
Radius of shell ............ 12 (60-0) |18 (56-2) 20 (57:9) |22°5 (59-2) | 23 (57-8) 
Width of umbilicus ...... 7 (85:0) |12 (37°5)| 16-5 (47-8) |11 (28-9) | 14 (35-0) 
Height of outer whorl ... | 6°5 (82°5) | 12 (37°5) | 11 (81°8) |17 — (44°7) | 14 (85°0)) 20 ( 
Thickness of outer whorl |}16 (80-0) |21 (65°6) | 21°5 (62°3) | 23°5 (61°8) | 27 (67°5)| 385  ( 
Height of outer whorl 

above preceding whorl. | ? c.9(28°1)| 9 (26°0)]| P ? ikep 
No. of ribs in outer whorl | ¢. 30 34 3 ¢. 33? 36 34 


From the above table of measurements, it will at once be seen, 
firstly, that the Beeston example is relatively thicker than the others, 
and secondly, that there is some irregularity in the height of the 
outer whorl and of the width of the umbilicus in specimens iii and iv. 
In iii (Dr. Wheelton Hind’s specimen from Bradbourne) the umbilicus 
seems to be relatively wider and the height of the whorl narrower 


Notices of Memoirs—Cope & Lomas—The Berwyns. Oo 


than usual, whereas the reverse is the case in iv (M‘Coy’s type- 
specimen of ‘ G.’ fasciculatus). The former does not appear to be 
distorted, and is therefore a more evolute form than the rest, but in 
the absence of other similar specimens it is provisionally at least 
included in M‘Coy’s species. M‘Coy’s specimen is distorted, and the 
irregularity noted may be due to this distortion, for, judging from 
Dr. Foord’s figure of the fossil (pl. xxxvii, fig. 5a), the anterior 
extremity of the outer whorl appears to be abnormally high. It may 
be mentioned that the examples of the species figured by Dr. Foord 
differ considerably in their relative dimensions. 

The English localities, then, of Pericyclus fasciculatus, so far as 
known to the present writer, are confined to the western part of 
Derbyshire and the adjoining part of Staffordshire. They are :—(i) 
near Matlock, Derbyshire ; (ii) Kniveton, 2 miles north-east of 
Ashbourne, Derbyshire; (iii) Bradbourne, about 2 miles north of 
Kniveton and about 10 miles south-west of Matlock, Derbyshire ; 
and (iv) Beeston Tor, in North Staffordshire, about 1 mile east of 
Grindon and about 7 miles west of Bradbourne. 


IN(QunMteswsS) Qi AMEIMLOnestS, JH. 


On tHE Icneous Rocks or tHE Berwyns. By T. H. Corr and 
J. Lomas.! 


WING to cross folding a dome-like structure has been impressed 

on the Berwyns. From the axis which lies about Llanrhaiadr- 

yn-Mochnant and Craig-y-Glyn the beds dip outwards on every side. 

The arch of the dome has been denuded, so that we get shales and 

limestones of Llandeilo age occupying the central area, while slates, 

grits, and limestone of Bala age form an almost continuous ring of 
hills on the margins. 

Igneous rocks are associated with the sedimentaries. Three bands 
in the peripheral series can be traced continuously for a distance of 
thirty miles from the Mountain Limestone beds which overlap the 
series on the east, through the hills above Corwen and Bala to the 
Vyrnwy watershed. A fourth band also occurs in this series about 
Llanarmon. 

In the central area other igneous rocks are exposed, generally of 
a more acid type. 

The igneous series have been regarded as contemporaneous 
volcanic ashes, and recorded as such in the Survey maps. We have 
failed to find any instance of undoubted contemporaneous action, and 
regard all the igneous as intrusive. In places they are seen to cut 
across the sedimentaries at right angles to the strike. 

In this paper we only deal with a small part of the peripheral 
series as displayed about Llansantffraid-Glyn-Ceiriog where the river 
Ceiriog in cutting a deep gorge across the strike of the beds has 
exposed magnificent sections. 

! Abstract of a paper read before the British Association, Southport, Section C 
Geology), September, 1903. 

DECADE V.—VOL. I.—NO. I. 3 


34 Reviews—The Paleontographical Society. 


Sheet No. 1.—The outermost bed is well seen in the quarries at 
Coed-y-Glyn, on the west side of the valley, and in a small cutting 
on the hillside on the east side. It is 45 feet thick on the level of 
the road, but thins out rapidly to the north, as at a short distance 
away it only measures 28 feet. Baked slates lie in contact on both 
its upper and lower surfaces. 

The rock consists of a felted aggregate of felspar microliths, and is 
aphanitic in texture. The upper margin for 5 feet and the lower 
part for 2 feet are amygdaloidal. Near the upper surface the micro- 
scope reveals flow-brecciation, broken fragments of the rock lying in 
a bond of grey translucent chalcedony. 

Sheet No. 2.—This band, about 165 feet thick, has been quarried 
extensively on the face of the steep crags overlooking Pandy, at Cae 
Deicws, and in the large quarry opposite Coed-y-Glyn. Indurated 
slates and grits border the sill on both surfaces, and large masses of 
slate occur as inclusions. A band of white rock of very varying 
thickness occupies the middle, which under the microscope shows 
large idiomorphic quartz and orthoclase felspar crystals in a felsitic 
ground-mass. ‘The margins are intensely sheared, grey in colour, 
and include a great number of slate and limestone fragments along 
with angular pieces of the white uncleaved central portion. 

Sheet No. 8.—This sheet is well seen in Coed Errwgerrig, and can 
be traced across the bed of the river to the east side of the valley at 
Cwm Clwyd. While the main mass resembles Sheet No. 2 in com- 
position, it includes fragments of quartz felsite, felsite breccias, and 
nodular rhyolites arranged in parallel bands. 

It is 190 feet thick, and has caused intense metamorphic action on 
the grits above and slates below. 

Sheet No. 4 is best seen at Hendre Quarry, where it is worked 
extensively, and locally known as the Glyn ‘ Granite.’ 

It is an analcite-diabase, 96 feet thick, of coarse texture in the 
middle and finer grained towards the margins. The slates in contact 
are converted into compact spotted slate. 

Intrusions of similar age and almost identical character have been 
described from Counties Donegal, Armagh, Wicklow, and other parts 
of Ireland, and a close parallelism can be drawn between these 
rocks and those in the Berwyns. The intrusions of Sheets Nos. 1, 2, 
and 3 probably date from the interval between the deposition of the 
Bala series and the overlying slates and grits of Wenlock age. No. 4 
may be of a later date. 


ee) aE V7) EVE SE 


J.—TuHeE PALMONTOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY. 


HIS Society, founded in 1847 for the publication of monographs 
on British fossils, has just completed its fifty-seventh volume, 

for 1903, which is now being issued to subscribers. It is one of 
the largest and most varied volumes hitherto published by the 
Society, and is illustrated with no less than 48 plates. It contains 


Reviews—Creological Survey of England and Wales. 30 


instalments of six monographs devoted to Fishes, Mollusca, Trilo- 
bites, and Graptolites. The second part of Dr. Smith Woodward’s 
Monograph of Chalk Fishes resembles the first part in being illus- » 
trated by explanatory restored sketches in addition to the usual 
lithographs of fossils. Mr. Woods completes the first volume of 
his Cretaceous Lamellibranchia; and Dr. Wheelton Hind finishes his 
Monograph of Carboniferous Lamellibranchiata, apart from a brief 
Appendix which is to appear in 1904. Dr. A. H. Foord is to be 
congratulated on finishing his important Monograph of the Car- 
boniferous Cephalopoda of Ireland; and subscribers will express 
the hope that he may soon supplement it by another volume treating 
of the similar fossils of Great Britain. Mr. Cowper Reed begins 
a new Monograph of the Lower Paleozoic Trilobites of Girvan, 
which are very numerous, though for the most part fragmentary. 
The Misses Elles and Wood contribute another valuable section of 
their Monograph of British Graptolites, the descriptive portion this 
year relating to the family Leptograptide. The Annual Report of 
the Society 1s now prefixed to the volume, and from it we learn that 
during the year ended 31st March, 1908, there was a serious 
reduction in the income. New subscribers are needed to replace 
many recent losses by death, and we commend the Paleeontographical 
Society’s guinea’s-worth to the notice of all geologists who are not 
yet acquainted with it. The Secretary of the Society, from whom 
all information may be obtained, is Dr. A. Smith Woodward, British 
Museum (Natural History), South Kensington, London, 8.W. 


i1.—Memotrrs oF THE GEOLOGICAL SuRVEY : ENGLAND AND WALES. 


1.—The Geology of the Country near Chichester. (Explanation of 
Sheet 317.) By Cuiement Rup, F.R.S., F.G.S., ete.; with 
contributions by G. W. Lampxucu, F.G.8., and A. J. Juxns- 
Browns, F.G.8S. 8vo; pp.iv and 52, paper cover; price Is. 1908. 
Colour-printed sheet, No. 317, price 1s. 6d. (separately sold). 


2.—The Geology of the Country around Torquay. (Explanation of 
Sheet 350.) By W. A. HE. Ussuer, F.G.S. 8vo; pp. iv and 
142; paper cover, price 2s. 1903. [The map (New Series, 
No. 350) was published in 1898; the present memoir is issued 
as an explanation of that map. | 


1.—The publications of the Geological Survey of England and 
Wales again claim our attention, the first of the present series 
relating to the country near Chichester. This memoir takes in an 
area of 216 square miles, all in the county of Sussex, and includes 
a large tract of the South Downs, which presents a bold escarpment 
of Chalk stretching from east to west and fronting to the north, 
overlooking the great Wealden area, a portion only of which is 
represented on the map (Sheet 317). It embraces the picturesque 
regions of Midhurst, Petworth, and Pulborough, on the north, and 
the low-lying fertile tracts of drift-gravel and brickearth on the 
south. The Chalk Down descends gradually southwards to a low 


36 Reviews—Geological Survey of England and Wales. 


level, and forms a syncline in the hollow of which Lower Eocene 
strata are preserved. On the south the Downs usually end in 
a lower bluff which marks the position of an ancient, partly 
obliterated sea-cliff, and below this is a flat coastal plain which 
extends continuously to the sea. 

One river of importance, the Arun, traverses the country from 
north to south, and with its tributaries drains about two-thirds 
of the area. Over the remaining area most of the water escapes 
by underground courses to the Lavant, or drains into small streams 
which reach the sea near Bognor, and at Pagham Harbour—where 
a submarine forest has been observed, and a deposit of Scrobicularia 
clay occurs—since reclaimed. 

Within the area lies the ancient town of Chichester, with its 
cathedral and its seven churches and other ancient relics; Arundel, 
with its castle (both giving titles to earldoms); with several other 
towns, and numerous villages. All through this district the 
population has taken up its abode where water was easily obtainable, 
no place of importance lying on the Weald Clay or Gault, nor on 
the high Downs, where water can only be obtained by means of 
deep wells. 

Most of the district is devoted to agriculture and to sheep pasture, 
but also contains much woodland—beech on the Downs and oak in 
the Weald. 

The Weald Clay forms wet and rather poor land, much of it 
being laid down in pasture. In former times it was extensively 
covered with forests (called hursts), hence the suffix to the names 
of many towns, as Penshurst, Staplehurst, Midhurst, etc. It was 
termed ‘QOak-tree Clay’ by William Smith, although the term 
was more generally used by Smith for the Kimeridge Clay, but 
sometimes also for the Gault. The oak was chiefly used in 
obtaining charcoal for the old iron furnaces once common in the 
Weald. The ironstone was largely smelted, particularly in the 
western part of the area (H. B. Woodward’s Geology, pp. 363-364). 
Of course, with the introduction of coal for iron-smelting the very 
limited production of the highly superior charcoal-made Sussex iron 
ceased as an industry, and neither mines nor manufactures any 
longer exist within the district. 

The once famous ‘ Petworth’ or ‘Sussex Marble,’) a fresh-water 
limestone composed almost entirely of two or more species of Paludina, 
P. sussexiensis and P. fluviorum, appears to be no longer worked. 
It was extensively used in ecclesiastical buildings, monuments, and 
altar-pieces in medieval times. Some of the recumbent figures 
of Knights Templar in Winchelsea Church are carved out of 
Petworth marble. 

The formations represented on Sheet 317 embrace Recent Alluvial 
deposits; Pleistocene, Brickearths, Gravels, Flint-rubble, Clay with 
Flints (overlying the Chalk) ; Eocene, comprising London Clay, 
Pebble Beds, and Reading Beds; Upper Cretaceous Series, Upper, 


1 Known also as ¢ Bethersden Marble’ and ‘ Laughton Stone.’ 


Reviews—Geological Survey of England and Wales. OV 


Middle, and Lower Chalk ; Selbornian, Upper Greensand, and Gault ; 
Lower Cretaceous or Lower Greensand, Folkestone Beds, Sandgate 
Beds, Hythe Beds, Atherfield Clay, and lastly the Weald Clay. 

Nothing is yet known about the strata which underlie the Weald 
Clay ; but as far as can be judged from neighbouring areas, a great 
thickness of Lower Cretaceous and Jurassic rocks would be met 
with. It is not probable that any minerals worth mining occur 
within several thousand feet of the surface. 

Figures of fossils from the Gault, the Lower Chalk, the Middie 
- and the Upper Chalk are given in the text, together with lists 
of fossils and sections. Two sections north and south across the 
area (1) from Hasebourne across Heyshott Down (745 feet) and 
Goodwood Racecourse (542 feet) to Rumboldswyke, and (2) from 
Broadford Bridge across Kithurst Hill (700 feet) to Highdown 
Hill (266 feet), form the frontispiece to this little memoir, which is 
clearly written, but less interesting geologically than one would 
have expected, considering its well-marked physiography. The 
colour-printed geological map is extremely well executed and clear. 

Referring to some of the steep slopes of the Lower Chalk (p. 22), 
Mr. Clement Reid observes : ‘Some parts of the slopes are too steep 
for cultivation, and are clothed, and seem always to have been 
clothed, with ancient hanging woods, locally known as ‘hangers,’ 
principally of beech, with some undergrowth of holly and hazel. 
So little of the primeval forest is anywhere left in Sussex, except 
on the heavy clay lands of the Weald, that it is interesting to find 
these small outliers still remaining. They contain rare woodland 
animals and plants, such as one does not find in the forests of the 
Weald. Among the mollusca both Helix obvoluta and Clausilia 
Rolphit are to be found, and among the plants Solomon’s seal and 
Herb-Paris. In one of these woods the zigzag connecting the Roman 
Stone Street with the lowlands is well seen.” 


2.—Mr. W. A. E. Ussher, the author of the present Explanatory 
Memoir, has had the advantage of following in the footsteps of 
one of our most able and distinguished of early Devonian geologists, 
R. A. C. Godwin-Austen, whose map appeared in 1840. Another 
able worker, Dr. Holl, brought out a map in 1868, with some 
additional details, and he was followed a few years later by 
Mr. Arthur Champernowne, who commenced a careful survey of 
the neighbourhood of Totnes. Mr. Horace B. Woodward, at Torquay, 
and Mr. Ussher, at Paignton, commenced the official re-examination 
of the district in 1874-75. 

Mr. Champernowne, shortly before his death, generously handed 
over the results of his geological labours to the Survey, and to 
Mr. Ussher was entrusted the task of embodying these results in 
the official publications. 

The new map (Sheet 350) was published in 1898, and the present 
memoir is issued as an explanation of that map. 

The district is one of exceptional difficulty owing to the want of 
persistence in well-marked lithological horizons, and to stratigraphical 


Reviews— Geological Survey of England and Wales. 


38 


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Reports and Proceedings—G'cological Society of London. oo 


complications of a most intricate character, due to folding and 
faulting. Much detailed work was therefore necessary before even 
the broader tectonic features could be deciphered. 

The three main divisions of the Devonian formation have now 
been made out and their boundaries ascertained with approximate 
accuracy, and brought into line with their Continental equivalents. 

Seventeen sections in the text serve to illustrate the numerous 
faults, folds, and contortions which the Devonian series of Torquay 
have undergone, and graphicaliy express the difficulties in tracing 
out and mapping this varied and complicated area. The annexed 
table may serve to show the several subdivisions which are recognised, 
together with their foreign equivalents and localities (see p. 38). 

The author furnishes lists of fossils from Lummaton (pp. 66-68), 
and refers to the Rev. G. F. Whidborne’s monograph on the Devonian 
Fauna (Pal. Soc. Mon.) for authorities. Summarised, they show: 
Trilobita 17, Phyllocarida 1, Ostracoda 9, Entomides 2, Cephalopoda 
16, Gasteropoda 48, Lamellibranchiata 30, Brachiopoda 72, Discina 1, 
Crania 1, Bryozoa 14, Echinodermata 10. In chapter vii, under 
Post-Tertiary and Recent Deposits (p. 13), there is given a summary 
of cavern deposits, including the historic caves of Kent’s Hole, 
Torquay, and Brixham Cave. Lists of the animals discovered are 
given, and, under the account of the Raised Beaches, carefully 
prepared lists of the Mollusca. 

There are no economics to deal with in this area beyond Building- 
stones, Road-metal, and Ornamental Marble works in which slabs 
of Devonian Coral limestone are chiefly employed, good examples 
of which may be seen in the Survey Museum and the Geological 
Gallery of the Natural History Museum in Cromwell Road. 

The six-inch maps of this area have been deposited in the Survey 
Office for reference, and copies may be obtained at cost price. 


JIMS Oise) - ANIND) ASOT ADs NKetS 


J.—GeronogicaL Society or Lonpon. 


November 18th, 1908.— Sir Archibald Geikie, D.Sc, F.R.S., 
Vice-President, in the Chair. The following communications 
were read :— 


1. “Notes on some Upper Jurassic Ammonites, with special 
reference to Specimens in the University Museum, Oxford.” By 
Miss Maud Healey. (Communicated by Professor W. J. Sollas, 
M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.) 


In the course of rearranging the Upper Jurassic fossils in the 
Oxford University Museum, the attention of the authoress has been 
called to the large amount of prevailing misconception with regard to 
Sowerby’ s species Ammonites plicatilis and Am. biplex. The type- 
specimen of Perisphinctes plicatilis (Sow.) is refigured and described. 
It is in the form of a cast, but only an indefinite statement exists as 


40 Reports and Proceedings—Royal Microscopical Society. 


to the locality from which it was derived. It appears to be an Upper 
Corallian form, and is usually taken as the zone-fossil of that horizon. 
Sowerby’s two figures of Perisphinctes biplex represent different 
specimens, one of which is dismissed from consideration. The other, 
probably from a Kimmeridge Clay nodule found in the Suffolk Drift, 
is refigured and described. The authoress considers that it would 
be wisest to abandon the name altogether, or at least to restrict it to 
the abnormal specimen to which it was first attached. The original 
specimen of Perisphinctes variocostatus (Buckland) came from the 
so-called Oxford Clay at Hawnes, 4 miles south of Bedford ; but the 
authoress gives evidence in favour of her belief that it was really 
derived from the Ampthill Clay. Sowerby’s Ammonites rotundus is 
the last species figured, and it is doubtfully identified as a variety of 
Olcostephanus Pallasianus (D’Orb.). It was derived from the 
Kimmeridge Clay of Chippinghurst, 64 miles south of Oxford, and 
is the zone-fossil of the Upper Kimmeridge Clay. 


2. “On the occurrence of Hdestus in the Coal-measures of Britain.” 
By Edwin Tulley Newton, Esq., F.R.S., V.P.G.S." 


This genus was originally described from the United States, and 
was afterwards recognized in beds of similar age in Russia and 
Australia. The genus was afterwards placed with Helicoprion and 
Campyloprion in the family Edestida. The specimen described in 
the present paper was obtained by Mr. J. Pringle from one of the 
marine bands which occurs between the ‘Twist Coal’ and the 
‘Gin Mine Coal,’ in the Smallthorn sinking of Messrs. Robert 
Heath & Son’s pits at Nettlebank (North Staffordshire). Several 
other marine bands, chiefly met with during the sinking of shafts in 
this coalfield, have been studied by Mr. J. T. Stobbs, who called the 
attention of the Geological Survey to the exposure from which this 
specimen was obtained. The specimen is a single segment of a 
fossil very closely resembling /destus minor, and consists of an 
elongated basal portion, bearing at one extremity a smoothed, 
enamelled, and serrated crown. A description of the fossil shows 
that it is not to be referred to any existing species, and a new name 
is given to it. While it seems most in accordance with present 
knowledge to regard the ‘spiral saw’ of Helicoprion as the enrolled, 
symphysial dentition of an Elasmobranch, possibly allied to the 
Cestracionts, it does not seem nearly so probable that the forms 
referred to Edestus are of the same nature. In the opinion of the 
author the latter are more likely to be dorsal defences. The paper 
concludes with a bibliography of the subject. 


IJ.— Roya Microscoricat Soctrery. 


At the ordinary meeting on December 16th, 1903, Dr. Henry 
Woodward, F.R.S., President, in the chair, the following paper 
was read :— 


‘ Communicated by permission of the Director of H.M. Geological Survey. 


Reports and Proceedings—Mineralogical Society. 41 


“On the Structure and Affinities of the genus Porosphera, Stein- 
mann.” By Dr.G. J. Hinde, F.R.S. The well-known rounded and 
thimble-shaped fossils, of common occurrence in the Chalk of this 
country, which were named and figured as Millepora? globularis 
and Lunulites urceolata by the late Professor John Phillips, have 
been, by different authors, referred alternately to Foraminifera, 
Siliceous Sponges, and Cyclostomate Polyzoa. In 1878 the first- 
named species was placed by Dr. Steinmann as the type of 
a separate genus of the Hydrocorallina, which he named Porosphera, 
and its structure was stated to resemble that of Millepora and 
Parkeria. From an examination of 2,900 specimens collected by 
Dr. A. W. Rowe and by the author from the different zones of the 
English Chalk, and of a singularly perfect specimen in flint 
discovered by Mr. H. Muller, it has been ascertained that the 
anastomosing fibres of Porosphera are composed of four-rayed 
spicules which are fused together so as to form a firm, strong 
skeleton. In the form of the spicules and in their mode of union 
there is the closest resemblance to those of Plectroninia, Hinde, 
from the Hocene Tertiary of Victoria, Australia, and to the recent 
Peirostroma, Déderlein, from the Japanese Sea, and with these 
genera Porosphera belongs to the Lithonine group of Calcisponges. 
‘The author further discovered fragments of an outer spicular crust or 
dermal layer on a very few specimens, which consisted of delicate, 
simple, rod-like, and three-rayed spicules, irregularly agglomerated, 
but not fused together. It is probable that a similar crust was 
originally present in all the forms, though it has now to a large 
extent been removed. 

The following species were recognized and described: P. globu- 
dJaris, Phill., P. nuciformis, von Hagenow, P. Woodwardi, Carter, 
P. pileolus, P. patelliformis, sp.n., and P. arrecta, sp.n. The relative 
distribution and the range of size of each of these forms in the, 
respective zones of the English Chalk are also given. 


IIT. — Mineratocicat Socrety, November 17th, 1903. — 
Dr. Hugo Miiller, F.R.S., President, in the chair. Mr. R. H. 
Solly gave a detailed description of various minerals from the 
Binnenthal, five of which had not been identified with existing 
species. These five minerals all contain lead, arsenic, and sulphur, 
but sufficient material for complete analyses has not yet been 
obtained. Three of them are red transparent minerals having each 
one perfect cleavage and a similar vermilion streak, but differing 
erystallographically : one is apparently orthorhombic with (100), 
(110) = 39°16’, (010), (011) = 52° 57’, and (001), (101) = 42° 42’ ; 
another is oblique with 6 = 78° 46’, (100), (101) = 42° 22’, and 
(010), (111) = 37° 38’; while the third has a zone at right angles to 
the perfect cleavage with angles of approximately 30° and 60°. The 
other two minerals, which could not be identified with any of the 
other sulpharsenites of lead previously described by the author, are 
black with metallic lustre. One of these is oblique with B = 81° 11’, 


42 Obituary—Robert Etheridge, . RS. L. & E., F.GS. 


(100), (101) = 40° 7’, (010), (111) = 55° 26’: it has a perfect 
cleavage (100), and like Liveingite exhibits no oblique striations on 
the planes in the zone [100, 001]. The other mineral is also 
oblique with B= 89° 40’, (100), (101) = 46° 18’, and (010), 
(111) = 59° 56’: it has a perfect cleavage (100), and like Rathite 
exhibits numerous oblique striations on the planes in the zone 
[100, 001]. On fine brilliant crystals of Sartorite recently obtained 
by the author he has been able to confirm the oblique symmetry 
which he had previously announced and to determine accurately the 
elements 8 = 88°31’, (100), (101) = 54° 45’, (010), (111) = 69° 522’. 
Amongst other specimens from the dolomite of the Lengenbach in 
the Binnenthal, the author exhibited and described peculiar rounded 
crystals of Galena resembling Seligmannite, Hyalophane crystals 
twinned according to the Carlsbad law and showing three new 
forms, a green mica which was determined to be anorthic, Albite 
and Biotite, minerals which have not been hitherto recorded from 
the locality, and Barytes in green crystals. Of specimens from the 
Ofenhorn, the author exhibited some remarkably fine crystals of 
Anatase, and crystals of Laumontite, a mineral new to the locality. — 
Mr. L. J. Spencer described crystals of Adamite from Chili, which 
were remarkable for their strong pleochroism.—Mr. G. F. Herbert 
Smith discussed the prismatic method of determining indices of 
refraction. From observations of the angles of incidence and 
deviation the refractive index and direction of the wave-front in the 
crystalline medium could be found. By using pairs of faces in the 
same zone and different angles of incidence a series of refractive 
indices is obtained, which, when plotted with the direction angle as 
ordinate, gives in general a double curve. Three of the critical 
values are the principal indices, the fourth corresponding to the 
direction parallel to the zone-axis. The angles of polarisation with 
respect to the zone-axis provide a means of discriminating between 
the doubtful values. A description was given of an inverted 


goniometer whereby observations could be made in media other 
than air. 


GS IPIG OLN SY Se 
ROBERT (ETHERIDGE, (F.RISUE GE. FG 
Born December 3, 1819. Diep Drcremper 18, 1903. 


In the closing days of the old year another veteran geologist has 
laid aside his hammer and gone to his rest, working up to the very 
last of his long and active life at his favourite science. 

The name of Robert Etheridge is well known to all the older 
geologists, and, until his retirement from the public service on the 
31st December, 1891, he had been a familiar figure for 84 years in 
the London geological world, 24 of which he was one of the 
Paleontologists to the Geological Survey and Museum in Jermyn 
Street, while for ten years he was attached to the British Museum 


Obituary—Robert Etheridge, FP. RS. L. & £., GS. 43 


(Natural History), Cromwell Road, as Assistant Keeper of Geology. 
To the readers of the Grotocicat Macazine his name must have 
been very familiar, having appeared on the cover as one of the 
Assistant Editors since the Ist July, 1865, a period of 39 years. 

Mr. Htheridge was a Herefordshire man, having been born at Ross 
on 3rd December, 1819. 

His public career may be said to have commenced with his 
appointment in 1850 as Curator to the Museum of the Philosophical 
Society in Bristol, an office which he held with distinction for seven 
years. During five years of this period he also occupied the post of 
Lecturer in Botany in the Bristol Medical School, then a highly 
esteemed centre of medical instruction. He was besides a frequent 
lecturer on Geology and Paleontology in the Bristol Philosophical 
Institution. In 1856, when paying a visit to the Earl of Ducie, who 
is himself an excellent geologist, Mr. Etheridge was introduced to 
Sir Roderick I. Murchison, then Director General of the Geological 
Survey of Great Britain, as a promising geologist deserving of a 
more important post than Bristol could offer him, and in the following 
year (1st July, 1857) Etheridge, through Murchison’s interest, was 
appointed to the Geological Survey as Assistant Paleontologist 
under J. W. Salter in the Museum of Practical Geology. 

During the 24 years in which he was attached to the Survey,. 
Mr. Etheridge travelled over a very large portion of the United 
Kingdom in assisting the younger Surveyors in their work in the 
field by means of his paleontological knowledge. He prepared 
numerous Paleontological Reports and Lists of Fossils to accompany 
the Memoirs of the Geological Survey upon various parts of 
England and Wales; he also wrote a Report on the Paleontology 
of Jamaica. For fifteen years he gave demonstrations annually in 
Paleontology to the students of the Royal School of Mines, at that 
time attached to the Museum of Practical Geology, Jermyn Street. 
With the assistance of his colleague, Mr. George Sharman, he 
rearranged the entire Paleontological Collection, and prepared 
a catalogue of the specimens which was published with a preface by 
Professor Huxley. 

Mr. Etheridge contributed numerous papers to the Geological 
Society of London, which appeared in the Quarterly Journal of 
that Society from 1863 to 1889; the most important being his 
memoir “On the Physical Structure of North Devon,” being a detence 
of the unity of the Devonian system, which had been disputed by 
Professor J. Beete-Jukes. It occupied 200 closely printed pages 
of the Journal, with lists of all the known fossils as well as of 
those personally collected in the field during an examination of 
the North Devon area, extending over several months. 

He prepared a description of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic fossils 
of Queensland, Australia, 1872, collected by Mr. R. Daintree, F.G.5., 
and later on, in 1878, of the fossils brought home by the Arctic 
Expedition under Captain Sir George Nares, R.N., which formed 
a most important addition to our knowledge of the paleontology of 
the Polar lands. 


44 Obituary—Robert Etheridge, PRS. L. & E., F.GS. 


When President, Mr. Etheridge delivered two most valuable 
addresses to the Geological Society of London, that in 1881 “On the 
Distribution of British Paleozoic Fossils,” and in 1882 “On the 
Distribution of British Jurassic Fossils.” 

His other papers include descriptions of British Oolitic and 
Liassic Mollusca (1863) ; Jurassic Fossils of the Himalayas (1864) ; 
the Rheetic beds and sections (1865-66); Geology of the Bristol 
Coal-Basin (1866); the Stratigraphical position of Irish Laby- 
rinthodonts (1866-67) ; the Geological position of the Bristol 
Conglomerate (1870); a new species of Echinoid from North 
Africa (1872) ; the Geology of the Watchet Area (1873) ; a Table 
of British Fossils, in Lyell (1874); Fossil Plants from Kosloo, 
Black Sea (1877) ; some New Tertiary Mollusca from Brazil 
(1879) ; on Lepidotus maximus (1889). 

Probably the most important of Mr. Etheridge’s labours has been 
the preparation of a Catalogue of the Fossils of the British Isles, 
stratigraphically and zoologically arranged— published by the 
Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1888 (4to, pp. 468)—of which it is to be 
regretted that only vol. i, comprising the Paleozoic fossils, has ever 
appeared, vols. ii and iii being still in manuscript, although com- 
pleted up to 1888. In this work the author has catalogued 18,000 
species of fossils. 

Mr. Etheridge was elected a Fellow of the Geological Society of 
London in 1854, and served on the Council from 1863 to 1868, 
from 1872 to 1878, and from 1880 to 18838. He was elected 
President in 1880, and held the office until February, 1882. He 
received the Award of the Wollaston Fund from the Geological 
Society in 1871, and the Murchison Medal and Fund in 1880. 

Mr. Etheridge was President of Section C (Geology) at the Meeting 
of the British Association, Southampton, 1882. 

He became a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1855, 
and of the Royal Society, London, in 1871, and served on the 
Council of the latter Society in 1884. 

In 1890 he was elected an Honorary Fellow of King’s College, 
London. 

He has served on the Council of the Paleontographical Society 
for many years, and was made Treasurer in 1880, an office he 
retained up to the time of his death. 

On the 20th October, 1881, Mr. Etheridge’s services were trans- 
ferred, with the sanction of the Treasury, from the Geological 
Survey and Museum to the British Museum (Natural History), 
where, in association with his friend Dr. Henry Woodward, F.R.S., 
the Keeper of the Department of Geology, he occupied the post of 
Assistant Keeper for ten years. One of the most interesting pieces 
of work which Mr. Etheridge accomplished was the preparation of 
a Stratigraphical Collection to illustrate by sections, maps, and 
specimens all the British sedimentary rocks. This is exhibited 
in Gallery XI, and is much valued by students of geology. 

Mr. Etheridge was always distinguished by his courtesy and his 
readiness to impart scientific information to students and the public 


Obituary—Robert Etheridge, PRS. L.§ #., EGS. 45 


at large, and he was greatly esteemed as an officer in the Museum, 
whilst his energy and activity of disposition enabled him to accomplish 
a very large amount of scientific work daily. 

He retired from office at the end of 1891 (under Clause X of the 
_ Order in Council of 15th August, 1890). He continued, however, 
to be employed by the Trustees until the 3lst March, 1895, when 
the Treasury vetoed any further engagement. A year later, on the 
26th April, 1894, his old colleagues and friends, to the number of 
85, gave him a complimentary dinner at the Imperial Institute, the 
chair being taken by Sir William Flower, K.C.B., the Director of 
the Museum of Natural History. 

In 1896 he was presented with the first Bolitho gold medal by 
the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall in recognition of his 
distinguished services to geology, especially in the Western Counties. 

But his retirement from office by no means retarded his scientific 
work, for he continued independently to pursue his geological and 
paleeontological labours up to the close. 

He devoted much of his time during the last twelve years to the 
duties of Consulting Geologist to the Dover Coal Boring, and 
patiently and accurately recorded foot by foot every core and sample 
of material brought to bank by the engineers. Many of these speci- 
mens are deposited in the Geological Department, British Museum 
(Natural History), where he continued to carry on his researches up 
to the end. He was deeply interested in the Coal Commission, 
was a well-known authority on the Bristol Coalfield and on that 
of the Kentish and the Franco-Belgian area, which he had 
carefully studied. In 1897 he read a paper before the Engineering 
Conference on “The Kent Coalfield,” in which he affirmed his 
belief in the existence of an extensive and valuable coalfield in the 
South-East of England or near Dover, and explained its relation to 
the coalfields of the South-West of England (Bristol and Somerset), 
and to those of the North of France and Belgium. He made 
excursions to Belgium, Germany, and Austria, examined the volcanic 
phenomena of the Auvergne and of the Hifel districts, and wrote 
a short account of his visit to Central France. 

He was an authority upon water-supply, and was frequently 
associated with the late Mr. Hawksley and his son, Mr. Charles 
Hawksley, M.I.C.E., and other eminent Civil Engineers, in con- 
nection with supplies for Bristol, Plymouth, London, and other 
large centres of population. 

Mr. Etheridge was author of a Report, dated 22nd June, 1857, on 
Thames Mud and Thames Water, being based upon a microscopic 
examination of eighteen samples of mud and detrital deposits and 
two or more samples of water taken from the River Thames; giving 
a detailed account of each sample, both for the living organisms, 
the organic matter in a state of decomposition, and the inorganic 
mineral residuum; issued as Appendix II to Report relating to 
the Main Drainage of the Metropolis (folio, pp. 61-72). Ordered to 
be printed by the House of Commons, 3rd August, 1857. 


46 Obituary—Robert Etheridge, ERS. L. & £., F.4S. 


He was also engaged to prepare Maps and Sections, and to give 
evidence before the ‘‘ Royal Commission on Coal” (15th March, 
1868) in relation to the Somersetshire Coalfield, and especially in 
reference to the probability of finding coal under the Permian, New 
Red Sandstone, and other superincumbent strata. [See Report of 
the Royal Commission on Coal, vol. i, pp. 419-422 (D. 7-10), 
folio; 1871.] 

He leaves an only son, Mr. Robert Etheridge, jun., who has 
occupied the post of Curator of the Australian Museum, Sydney, 
N.S.W., since 1887, and was from 1879 to 1887 an Assistant 
under Dr. H. Woodward, F.R.S., in the British Natural History 
Museum, London, and previously on the Geological Survey of 
Scotland, with Sir A. Geikie, F.R.S. Like his father, Mr. Robert 
Etheridge, jun., is a distinguished paleontologist and geologist, and 
commenced his career as one of the staff of the Geological Survey 
of Victoria, Australia, under the late Dr. A. R. C. Selwyn, F.R.S. 

Among his other literary labours it may be mentioned that 
Mr. Etheridge greatly assisted Dr. J. J. Bigsby, F.R.S., F.G.S., in the 
preparation of his great works (see author’s prefaces to works)— 
(a) “Thesaurus Siluricus,” 1868, 4to, pp. 268; (b) ‘Thesaurus 
Devonico-Carboniferus,” 4to, 1878, pp. 459. He edited the third 
edition of Part i of “ Illustrations of the Geology of Yorkshire,” 4to, 
1875, pp. x and 354, by Professor John Phillips, F.R.S., who died 
24th April, 1874. He also assisted Mr. J. W. Lowry to construct 
his Chart of Characteristic British Tertiary Fossils, stratigraphically 
arranged ; London, EK. Stanford, 1866. 

Mr. Robert Etheridge was a Corresponding Member of the Imperial 
Institute of Vienna, an Honorary Member of the Geological Society 
of Belgium, of the New Zealand Institute, the Royal Geological 
Society of Cornwall, the Philosophical Societies of Yorkshire and 
Bristol, the Geologists’ Association, the Norwich Geological Society 
(since defunct), the Cotteswold Naturalists’ Field Club, of the 
Hertfordshire Natural History Society, the Dorset Natural History 
and Antiquarian Field Club, and the Northamptonshire Natural 
History Society and Field Club. 

A severe cold and an attack of bronchitis terminated his busy and 
useful life after a brief illness of three days. 


List or Titnes oF Works anp Memorrs sy Ropert ETHERIDGE, 
ERS: in Go, EGS. 


1. ‘Geology; its Relation and Bearing upon Mining.” (Lectures, Bristol Mining 
School.) 8vo; Bristol, 1859. 

. “ Descriptions of new species of Mollusca, ete.’’ [Ceromya gibbosa, Astarte 
dentilabrum, and Pollicipes liassicus|: Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xx 
(1864), pp. 112-114. 

3. ‘* Note on the Jurassic Fossils collected by Captain Godwin-Austen”’ [in the 

N.W. Himalayas]: Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xx (1864), pp. 387-388. 

4. ‘On the Rhetic or Avicula contorta Beds at Garden Cliff, Westbury-upon- 
Severn, Gloucestershire ’’?: Proc. Cotteswold Club, vol. iii (1865), pp. 218-234. 

. “A Catalogue of the Collection of Fossils in the Museum of Practical Geology, 
Jermyn Street.” (Preface by Professor Huxley, pp. i-Ixxix.) Catalogue, 
pp. 1-882. 8vo. 1866. 


bo 


oO 


Obituary— Robert Etheridge, FP. RS. L. & E., F.G.S8. 47 


. “On the Paleontology of the Caribbean Area,’? bemg Appendix V to the 


Geology of Jamaica, by Jas. G. Sawkins, F.G.S., 1866. 8vo; pp. 306-839. 
(Published as a Colonial Memoir ot the Geological Survey. 


. “Section of the Rhetic Beds at Aust Cliff’? ; Proc. Cotteswold Club (1866), 


pp. 13-18. 


. ‘On the Physical Structure of the Northern Part of the Bristol Coal-Basin, 


chiefly having reference to the Iron Ores of the Tortworth Area’: Proc. 
- Cotteswold Club (1866), pp. 28-49. 


- ‘On the Discovery of several new Labyrinthodont Reptiles in the Coal-measures 


of Ireland”’: Grou. Mac., Vol. ITI (1866), pp. 4-5. 


. “On the Stratigraphical Position of Acanthopholis horridus, Huxley’’: Grou. 


Mae., Vol. IV (1867), pp. 67-69. 


- “‘On the Physical Structure of North Devon, and on the Paleontological Value 


of the Devonian Fossils”: Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxiii (1867), 
pp- 251-252, abstract, (full text) 568-698; Phil. Mag., vol. xxxiv (1867), 
pp- 317-818. 


. ““Supposed Permian Beds at Portskewet”: Proc. Cotteswold Club, vol. iv 


(1868), pp. 256-258. 


- **On the Geological Position and Geographical Distribution of the Reptilian or 


Dolomitic Conglomerate of the Bristol Area’? : Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 


vol. xxvi (1870), pp. 174-191; Phil. Mag., vol. xi (1870), pp. 136-187. 


- ‘Description of a new genus (Rotuloidea) of Fossil Scutelloid Echinoderm 


from Saffe, N. Atrica’’: Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxviii (1872), 
pp. 97-101. 


. ‘Description of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic Fossils of Queensland”: Quart. 


Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxviii (1872), pp. 317-350, pls. xili-xxviii. 


- ‘On the Rheetic Beds of Penarth and Lavernock”’: Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc., 


vol. ii (1872), pp. 389-64. 


- ‘“Notes upon the Physical Structure of the Watchet Area, and the Relation of 


the Secondary Rocks to the Devonian Series of West Somerset’’: Proc. 
Cotteswold Club, vol. vi (1873), pp. 85-49. 


. “‘Table of British Fossils illustrative of the Successive Appearance and Develop- 


ment in Time of the Chief Orders, Classes, or Families of Animals and Plants 
in Britam”’: pp. 623-645. Printed as a Supplement to Sir Charles Lyell’s 
Students’ Hlements of Geology, 2nd ed., 1874; 3rd ed., 1878. 


. Appendix. [Mesozoic fossils found by the Rey. J. E. Cross in N.W. Lincoln- 


shire.] Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxxi (1875), pp. 126-129. 


. ‘* Notes on the Fossil Plants from Kosloo”’ [Black Sea]: Quart. Journ. Geol. 


Soe., vol. xxxiii (1877), pp. 532-533. 


- ‘Paleontology of the Coasts of the Arctic Lands visited by the late British 


Expedition under Capt. Sir George Nares, K.C.B.”: Quart. Journ. Geol. 
Soc., vol. xxxiv (1878), pp. 568-636, pls. xxv—xxix. 


. “‘Notes on the Mollusca collected by C. Barrington Brown, Esq., from the 


Tertiary Deposits of the Solimées and the Javary Rivers, Brazil’’?: Quart. 
Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxxv (1879), pp. 82-88, pl. vii. 


. Presidential Address to the Geological Society of London, Feb. 18, 1881, ‘‘ On 


the Analysis and Distribution of the British Palzozoic Fossils’? : Quart. 
Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxxvii (1881), Proceedings, pp. 37-235. 


. ‘Ona New Species of Zrigonia trom the Purbeck Beds of the Vale of Wardour’’: 


Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxxvii (1881), pp. 246-248. 
Appendix. [Nematophycus Hicksii.| Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxxvii 
(1881), pp. 490-495. 


. Presidential Address to the Geological Society of London, Feb. 17, 1882, ‘‘ On 


the Analysis and Distribution of the British Jurassic Fossils’’: Quart. Journ. 
Geol. Soc., vol. xxxviii (1882), Proceedings, pp. 46-236. 


. Presidential Address to the Geological Section of the British Association, South- 


ampton, August 23, 1882. 


. ‘*Stratigraphical Geology and Paleontology ’’ (being a new and revised edition 


of Phillips’s Manual, entirely rewritten). 1885. 8vo; pp. 712, with 
33 plates. 


. ‘Fossiis of the British Islands, Stratigraphically and Zoologically arranged ”’ : 


vol. 1 (1888), Paleeozoie Species. 4to; pp. vii and 468. f 
Vol. ii, Mesozoic, and vol. iii, Cainozoic, completed, but still in manuscript. 


48 = Obituary—Robert Etheridge, PRIS Gass 


30. (With Mr. H. Willett) ‘On the Dentition of Lepidotus maximus (Wagner), 
as illustrated by specimens trom the Kimeridge Clay of Shotover Hill, near 
Oxford’? : Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xly (1889), pp. 356-358, pl. xv. 

31. Letter on Dr. Wheelton Hind’s Carboniferous Lamellibranchiata: GEou. Mace., 
Dec. IV, Vol. IV (1897), p. 94. 

32. “On the Relation between the Dover and Franco- Belgian Coal Basins’’: Rep. 
Brit. Assoc. for 1899 (1900), pp. 730-734. 


GEOLOGICAL Survey Memoirs to wuich Mr. EruertpGe HAS 
CONTRIBUTED THE PAaLMONTOLOGY. 


1, 1858. Geology of parts of Wilts and Gloucestershire (Sheet 34). Lists of Fossils 

by R. Etheridge. 

. 1859. Geology around Woodstock, Oxon (Sheet 45). List of Fossils by 

R. Etheridge. 

3. 1860. Geology of part of Leicestershire (Sheet 63). List of Fossils by 
R. Etheridge. 

4. 1861. Geology of part of Northampton and Warwick (Sheet 53). List of 
Fossils by R. Etheridge. 

5. 1862. Geology of the Isle of Wight (Sheet 10). List of Fossils by 
R. Etheridge. 

6. 1862. Geology of part of Berks and Hants (Sheet 12). Lists of Fossils by 
R. Etheridge. 

7. 1864. Geology of Banbury, Woodstock, ete. (Sheet 45). Lists of Fossils by 
R. Etheridge. 

8. 1875. Geology of the Burnley Coalfield (Sheets 88, 89, and 92). Table of 
Fossils by R. Etheridge. 

9. 1875. The Geology of the Weald, by W. Topley, F.G.S., ete. Lists of Fossils 
by R. Etheridge. 

10. 1875. The Geology of Rutland, by J. W. Judd, F.G.S. Appendix and 
Tables of Fossils by R. Etheridge. 

11. 1876. Geology of East Somerset, by H. B. Woodward, F.G.S. Lists of Fossils 
by R. Etheridge. 

12. 1876. Geology of the Lake District, by J. C. Ward, F.G.S. Appendix on 
New Species of Fossils by R. Etheridge. 

13. 1877. Superficial Geology of South-West Lancashire, by C. E. De Rance, 
F.G.S. Lists of Fossils revised by R. Etheridge. 

14. 1878. Catalocue of the Cambrian’ and Silurian Fossils in the Museum of 
Practical Geology (the <‘ Wyatt-Edgell Collection’’). ‘* The specimens have 
been named by ‘Mr. Etheridge, F.R.S., Paleontologist. to the Geological 
Survey.” The Catalogue drawn up by Mr. E. T. New ton, F.G.S. 

15. 1880. Geology of the South of Scarborough (Sheet 95). List of Fossils 
revised by R. Etheridge. 

16. 1881. Geology of the Country round Norwich (Sheet 66). Lists of Fossils 
revised by R. Ether idge. 

17. 1881. Geology of the ‘Oolitic and Liassic Rocks, Malton. Lists of Fossils 
revised by R. Etheridge. 

18. 1881. Geology of the Neighbourhood of Cambridge. Paleontological Appendix 
by R. Etheridge. 

19. 1881. Geology of North Wales, by A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S. (second edition). 
J. W. Salter’s Appendix on the Fossils, revised and greatly enlarged by 
R. Etheridge (pp. 351-567). 


ho 


Nore.—Although, owing to Mr. Etheridge’s death having occurred 
so very near before Christmas, the Publishers were prevented from 
issuing a portrait of him in this (January) Number, yet his friends 
will, we feel sure, be glad to be informed that an excellent and, 
as yet, unpublished photograph of him—quite lately taken by 
Miss Constance E. Power (daughter of Edward Power, Hsq., one 
of Mr. Etheridge’s oldest and most valued friends)—will appear 
in the February Number of the Grotocicat Macazine.—H. W. 


for 


GHOLOGICAL MAGAZINE 


Monthly dHoumal of Geology. 


WITH WHICH IS INCORPORATED 


“THE GEKEOLOGIST.” 


EDITED BY 


HENRY WOODWARD, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., &c. 


ASSISTED BY 
WILFRID H. HUDLESTON, F.R.S., &c., Dk. GEORGE J. HINDE, F.R.S., &c., ann ! 


HORACE B. WOODWARD, F.R.S., &c. 


FEBRUARY, 1904. | 


Gow Mae S 


ReEviews—continued. i} PAGE 


As FRONTISPIECE t0 Decade V, | 
Vol. IE Pl. ILI, Portrait of R. .3. Recent Researches on the Seottish 
ce Etheridge, F.R.S. (to accompany Carboniferous, Rocks. “By Dr. 
his obituary, pp. 42-48). RK. H. »Praquait, 2: R.S., and 
I. OriernaL ARTICLES. PAGE y i eee aye 82 

1. A Retrospect of Paleontology in Se a ee EC 
the last Forty Years. (Part II.) 49 Sandstone. By A.G. M. Thom- 

2. Relations of the ‘ Writing Chalk’ son, F.G.S8. a het = ootgeupedeus . 84 
of Scania to the Drift Deposits. 5. Geological Rambles in East 
By Professor Nits Oxor Host. 56 Yorkshire. _ By Thomas Shep-  _ 

8. The Fingers of Pterodactyls. pard, RAG ASie cearaeesaeeee Ls 85 
By Professor S$. W. Witzisron. 59 | III. Rurorrs anp Procexprves. 

4. Notes on the Cephalopoda be- Geological Society of London — 
longing to the Strachey Collec- 1. December 2nd, 1903" .......--... 86 
tion.. By G. C. Crick, F.G.S. 61 - 14th 7 

2, ID aeeuMlo ere WGN «acanennabseassncoe 87 

5. Stevn’s ila By Rey. E. a 
Hint, M.A., F.G-S. (With IV. CorrisponDENCE. 

2 Ilustrations.) Beene een cists 70 Philip Lake, M.A., F.G.S. ... 89 
I]. Reviews. VY. OBITUARY. 

1. Round Kanchenjunga. By Douglas 1. Geheimrath Prof. Karl Alfred 
WeiBiceshitvel dist teeter te: 74 vou Zittel, For. Memb. Geol. 

2. The Evolution of Earth Structure. oes Wondes e(elatew Vi) cess. 90 
By T. Mellard Reade ............ 79 Dip Vinee Allie de Colle tiie esrs. cece. se eee On) 


LONDON: 


DULAU & CO., 37, SOHO SQUARE. 


(= The Volume for 1903 of the GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE is ready, 
price 20s. nett. Cloth Cases for Binding may be had, price 1s. 6d. nett. 


ROBT. F. DAMON, Weymouth, England, 


Has now in stock for Sale, besides many others, the following 


BRITISH FOSSILS. 


os 
100 Species Chalk Polyzoa... 4 
210m iss Tertiary Mollusca . : 5 
75,9 lop (500 Specimens) Red crag Fossils 8 
70 ,, from the Upper Green Sand... 3 
40-5; », Folkestone Gault 2 
SOmis, », Lower Green Sand... 2 
Boia iss »  Portlandian I 
FO > inp »» Kimeridge Clay I 
Soares »,  Coralline Oolite 2 
OOM Eas Jurassic Brachiopoda 0 3 
COmame. Inferior Oolite Brachiopoda .. I 
200m Inferior Oolite Fossils .:. 10 
70: us, Liassic Mollusca 4 
25 Permian Fossils I 
Collection of Lower Carboniferous Fishes from Eskdale, "Scotland : 
16 Species (88 Specimens)... 8 
Collection of Lower Carboniferous Fossils from Eskdale, Scotland : 
Io Species (35 Specimens) Fishes ... ... ... | 
TO ays, (60 Specimens) Crustacea aah 10 
20ers: (74 Specimens) Mollusca, &c., &e. 1) 
FQ) op Carboniferous Fish Palates ... . Sees) eee 
Thy pia Carboniferous Conchifera and Brachiopoda... me so5: 
Gollectioniot @ldsRed Sandstone) HisheS-=..suecel e.<) + | ees sense 
Collection of Wenlock Crinoidea Peer Or OMT C Tr o55. cs 1S 
200 Species Silurian Mollusca, &c. .. 
Slab (30 cm. by 68 cm.) of Trigonia ‘clavellata, from the ‘Coral ‘Rag, 
Weymouth sist 
Fine Slab (61 cm. by 71 cm.) containing “characteristic Fossil Shells 
from the Inferior Oolite, Dorset . wae ones Ueebeniae ae 
Another Slab. 36 cm. by 54 cm. at PO eee Kio cad 
Polished sections of Parkinsonia Dor setensis Reid eae ere ee OSLO 


The following Specimens are from the Lias of Lyme Regis: 


Ichthyosaurus. 173 cm. ... .... 6 
a5 Head. 47 cm. witon acct sietuaese 3 

DS Head in frame. 152 cm. by 60 cm. eure. 

ie Dlatyodont(nead)) sass 27cin. week sence en jecdacion teria etennmTED 

of TEI! VEG IORES eG, foal ange bod- eed ge in ui 

s Jaw. 75M. we ee oe I 
Paddle in frame. 42 cm. LT ER oss 

Ammonites obtusus ... Boo soot aod: MARE OP OReMR et COs 0 WG: 
A. stellaris. Polished section. “52 cm. ae I 
*p x Pair. 58 cm. 2 

Nautilus. Pair. 20cm. fe) 
Slab of Fxtracrinus priareus, 68 cm. by 38 cm., +» showing several ‘heads 4 
Another Slab, 44 cm. by 28cm. .. ores : wis, Ones 
46 cm. by 30 cm. ... I 

Ink Bag ’and Tentacles of Sepia ... fe) 


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GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE, 


Vey 


NEW SERIES. DECADE V. VOL, 1. 


No. IJ.— FEBRUARY, 1904. 


ORIGINAL ARTICLES. 


I,.—A Retrospruct oF PALHONTOLOGY IN THE LAST Forty YBARS.! 
(Part IT.) | 


N any retrospect of scientific progress there are always special. 
points, ‘golden milestones,’ along the road by which we travel, 
which mark unusual stages in our journey. Zittel, in his “ History 
of Geology and Paleontology,” fixes the ‘heroic period’ from 1790. 
to 1820, when the great masters of our science, Werrer, Pallas, 
Saussure, Hutton, Playfair, William Smith, Leopold. von Buch, . 
Alexander von Humboldt, Alex. Brongniart, and Cuvier arose and 
laid the foundations of Geology. 

The more recent development from. 1820 to the oloses of ‘he? 
century may seem like an unbroken line of advance: in geology and : 
paleontology ; but such is not the case. Special events of scientific: 
interest from time to time, like the arrival of reinforcements, have 
given us fresh support and encouragement. The establishment of | 
Geological Surveys in this country, in America, and on the Continent 
added an enormous onward impulse to such investigations, as did - 
also the meetings of the Geological Society of London and its publi-’ 
cations. The establishment of the British Association in 18380, and: 
the increasing tendency to teach Natural Science in our: great» 
Universities, have stimulated and encouraged a very large number. 
of ardent workers to enter the geological field. Nor must we forget - 
the interest which the writings of Sedgwick, Buckland, Murchison, | 
Lyell, Phillips, Forbes, Ramsay, Geikie, and many others, ren naet. 
in the minds of students who came under their influence. 

But the most powerful and wide-spreading impulse given to 
geological and paleontological investigations was undoubtedly due | 
to the publication by Charles Darwin of his “Origin of Species,’ 
and the revolution caused by the introduction of the doctrine of ‘the 
variation of species,’ which the older naturalists had never admitted, 
having always treated them as permanent and immutable ideas. 
Only those of us who have lived through the period between 1858 
and 1878 can fully realize the vast and radical change in the current 

1 Part I, of ‘‘ A Retrospect of Geology,’’ appeared in our January number, 1904, 
pp. 1-6. —Eprr. Gon. Mac. 

DECADE V.—VOL. I.—NO. II. 4 


50 A Retrospect of Paleontology for Forty Years. 


of scientific thought which was brought about in the minds of men 
by Darwin’s teaching. In making a retrospect of the work recorded 
in this journal from 1864 to the present time, the evolution of 
geological and palzontological ideas is most marked, and it is no 
small gratification to feel that the Gronoaican MaGazrne has been 
enabled to incorporate in its pages so much valuable material in aid 
of the progress of both these sciences. 

As has been stated in the earlier part of this Retrospect, the 
GeotoercaL Magazine has had the satisfaction of publishing articles 
from a large number of early and celebrated geologists, many of 
whom alas are now no longer with us. 

Fossiz Prants.—We record with pleasure the name of Professor 
John Phillips, who, in 1865, described an interesting specimen of 
fossil wood bored by Teredo and enclosed in flint, from the Chalk 
of Winchester, preserved in the Oxford Museum. Professor HE. W. 
Claypole, of Ohio, described and figured the oldest known tree, 
Glyptodendron Eatonense, from the Upper Silurian, Eaton, Ohio, 
U.S.A. No fewer than eighteen valuable contributions on Palzeo- 
botany (from 1865 to 1885) have been made by our old colleague, 
William Carruthers, on Carboniferous plants; Mesozoic Cycadean 
stems and fruits; on the petrified forest near Cairo; and the plants of 
the Brazilian Coal-beds; nor must we omit to mention his admirable 
lecture at the Royal Institution “On the Cryptogamic Forests of the 
Coal Period” (1869, pp. 289-300). Another distinguished botanist, 
Sir W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, wrote in 1872 on the Coniferz from 
Solenhofen, and on fossil wood from the Hocene of Herne Bay and 
the Isle of Thanet. In 1868 George Maw described some flower- 
like forms from the leaf-bed of the Lower Bagshot, Studland Bay. 
Professor H. A. Nicholson recorded the existence of plants in the 
Skiddaw Slates. Dr. O. Feistmantel contributed notes on the Fossil 
Flora of Eastern Australia and Tasmania, dealing with those from 
the Tertiary, Secondary, Carboniferous, and Devonian formations. 
Walter Keeping described some early plant-remains from the 
Silurian of Central Wales, in which he endeavoured to dis- 
criminate between tracks and markings made by annelids and other 
animals and those left on these old rocks by seaweeds and other 
simple plants. Dr. Constantine Baron von Ettingshausen wrote on 
the Tertiary Floras of Australia and New Zealand, and J. S. Gardner 
on the Mesozoic Angiosperms and Flowering or Phanerogamous 
Plants, in which an exhaustive examination is made of the Oolitic, 
Cretaceous, and Tertiary Plants of the British Isles, as known to 
the author in 1886. Henry Woodward described some fragmentary 
Mesozoic plant-remains from South Australia. 

In later years A. C. Seward took up the subject of Fossil Botany, 
described the stems of Calamites undulatus, the leaves of Cyclopteris 
from the Coal-measures of Yorkshire, and wrote on the specific 
variation in Sigillarie; EK. A. Newell Arber followed and defined 
the Glossopteris flora, and discoursed on Homceomorphy among Fossil 
Plants. Plant-remains from British Columbia and from Argentina 
have also been described. 


A Retrospect of Paleontology for Forty Years. ol 


ForAMINIFERA.—Sir William Logan was the first to announce the 
discovery (November, 1864, p. 225) of the Foraminifer ‘ Hozoon’ in 
the Laurentian rocks of Canada, and Sir J. W. Dawson contributed 
“new facts” (in 1888), and ‘“‘evidence for the animal nature of 
Hozoon Canadense” (in 1895). But the inorganic nature of this 
supposed most ancient fossil seems to be now very generally 
admitted, although Dr. Carpenter and Sir William Dawson long and 
valiantly laboured to maintain its integrity as one of the Protozoa. 

The Nestor of Paleontology, Professor T. Rupert Jones, wrote on 
Foraminifera from the Bridlington Crag; Orbitoides from Malta and 
the West Indies; on Jurassic Foraminifera of Switzerland and the 
Chalk and Chalk Marl of South and South-East of England; in 
company with Professor W. K. Parker he elucidated those of the 
Chalk of Gravesend, and listed Hley’s Foraminifera from the English 
Chalk ; whilst with C. D. Sherborn he described the Jurassic 
Microzoaof Wiltshire, etc. Dr. H. B. Brady enumerated and figured 
Involutina liassica from the Lias of England, and 8 species of Tertiary 
and Carboniferous Foraminifera from Sumatra. He reported upon 
some 28 species from the ‘ Chalk’ of the New Britain group, of which 
he observed: “ After washing this Chalk it could not possibly be 
distinguished, by its organic remains, from a washed sample of 
‘ Globigerina-Ooze’ dredged in 1,500 to 2,500 fathoms in the South 
Pacific. May not the rock (he asks) be part of a recent sea-bottom 
disturbed by volcanic or other agency.” He also wrote on those 
remarkable flask-shaped Foraminifera of the genus Zayena, from 
the Upper Silurian of Malvern. A. Vaughan Jennings described 
the Orbitoidal Limestone of North Borneo. Professor W. J. Sollas 
defined two new species of the genus Webbina and other Foraminifera 
from the Cambridge Greensand, and Walter Keeping the zone of 
Nummulina elegans at White Cliff Bay, Isle of Wight. F. Chapman 
and C. D. Sherborn discoursed on the Foraminifera of the London 
Clay, and F. Chapman on Hyaline forms from the Gault, also 
upon Patellina and 23 other genera and species from the Tertiaries 
of Egypt. A. K. Coomaraswamy wrote on the Radiolaria 
Spongodiscus and Dictyomitra from the Upper Gondwana series 
near Madras. 

Porirera—Sponces. — Dr. H. B. Holl contributed a carefully 
written article on Fossil Sponges, in which, after describing their 
various structures in considerable detail, he strongly advocated 
their minute microscopic examination and comparison with living 
forms, and said: “In conclusion, the Sponges appear to have 
endured through a long range of time, subject only to modifications 
which scarcely amount to specific distinctions.” Dr. G. J. Hinde 
explained the structure of Archeocyathus minganensis from the 
Paleozoic (Mingen) strata of Canada; Sponge-remains from the 
Chert and Siliceous Schists of Permo-Carboniferous age of Spitz- 
bergen; wrote on Stephanella sancta, a new genus of sponge 
from the Lower Silurian, Ottawa, Canada; and on Palgosaccus 
Dawsoni, a new Hexactinellid sponge from the Quebec group 
(Ordovician), Little Mitis, Canada. The discovery of this fossil 


52 A Retrospect of Paleontology for Forty Years. 


by Sir William Dawson made known an abundant sponge-fauna 
in rocks previously considered to be unfossiliferous. Professor 
Sollas figured and described a Vitreo-hexactinellid sponge from 
the Cambridge Coprolite-bed, which he named Eubrochus clausus. 
Dr. G. J. Hinde (1886) showed that Hophyton? explanatum, Hicks, 
and Hyalostelia fasciculus, described by Dr. Hicks as plants, were 
really sponges, and he illustrated their microscopic structure. 

Graprotites.—Among the authors who have coniributed to the 
study of this group of organisms must be specially mentioned the 
names of Professor H. Alleyne Nicholson, William Carruthers, 
John Hopkinson, Professor Chas. Lapworth, Linnarsson, and Holm. 
Lapworth wrote on the Classification of the Rhabdopora (1873) and 
on the Scottish Monograptidee (1876) ; Hopkinson on Dicranograptus, 
Dicellograptus, and on Scottish Graptolites; Carruthers on the 
systematic position of Graptolites, and a revision of British species. 
Nicholson described the Graptolitic shales of Dumfriesshire and the 
Lower Silurian Graptolites of South Scotland, and noticed some 
associated reproductive bodies. EH. T. Newton figured Graptolites. 
from Peru. Dr. G. Holm, of Stockholm, described and figured some 
most beautiful Swedish Graptolites belonging to Didymograptus, 
Tetragraptus, and Phyllograptus. 'T.S. Hall wrote on the Graptolite- 
bearing rocks of Victoria, Australia; while Dr. O. Hermann con- 
tributed an important paper on the Organisation and Economy of 
Graptolites, and Dr. G. Linnarsson gave their vertical range inSweden. 

Corats.—One of the most valuable papers on Corals was that 
by Dr. Gustav Lindstrom (1866) dealing with those remarkable 
operculated forms from the Silurian — Goniophylium pyramidale, 
Rhizophyllum Gotlandicum, and Hallia calceoloides, found at Wisby, 
I. of Gotland, and from our own Wenlock Limestone—closely related 
to Calceola sandalina, Lamk., from the Eifel Devonian, found 
also at Torquay, Devonshire, and described in 1873 by the Rev. 
T. R. R. Stebbing. These fossils were formerly placed with the 
Brachiopoda. Professor H. A. Nicholson contributed eight papers 
on Cystiphyllum, Hemiphyllum, Favosites, Cleistopora, ete., and R. F. 
Tomes seven essays on the Madreporaria. Professor P. Martin 
Duncan wrote on Axosmilia longata from the Inferior Oolite. 
Dr. G. J. Hinde described some Corals and Polyzoa from Western 
Australia; Dr. J. W. Gregory on fossil Madreporaria and Millestrome 
from Egypt. H. A. Nicholson and Robert Etheridge, jun., figured 
a small coral, Cladochonus, parasitic on the stems of crinoids. 

SrromatroporaA.—Dr. Alexander Brown, working in the Aberdeen 
University laboratory, made a most important contribution on the 
structure and affinities of the genus Solenopora, and described and 
figured seven new species. 

SrarrisHes (Asteroidea and Ophiuroidea).—H. Woodward an- 
nounced a new and very interesting fossil Ophiuroid from the Silurian 
of Dudley named Eucladia Johnsoni; and Helianthaster filiciformis, 
another new species of starfish from the Devonian of South Devon. 
Dr. P. Hebert Carpenter figured and noticed a group of beautiful 
bulbous-armed starfishes from the Chalk of Bromley, Kent. A paper 


A Retrospect of Paleontology for Forty Years. 593 


was contributed by the late Dr. Wright on a new Ophiurella nereidea 
from Calciferous Grit, near Weymouth. The Rev. J. F. Blake noticed 
a new Solaster (S. Murchisoni) from the Lias, Yorkshire, closely — 
resembling Solaster moretonis; and Dr. J. W. Gregory wrote on 
Lindstromaster antiqua and Paleasterina Bonneyi from the Ludlow 
beds of Shropshire, and Protaster brisingoides from Victoria, Australia. 

Crinoipra. — G. HE. Roberts communicated a note on the 
Mountain Limestone of Yorkshire and its Crinoids, and gave an 
excellent chromo-lithographic plate of Woodocrinus expansus, found 
near Richmond. J. Rofe monographed five genera of Crinoids 
from the Mountain Limestone of Jancashire and Yorkshire, 
giving a plate illustrating the structure of these forms; he 
also noticed the curious swellings on stems of Crinoids due to 
small investing Corals, known as Cladochonus, which he described 
(1869). Ten years afterwards Nicholson and Etheridge redescribed 
this coral. Mr. Rofe had a further paper on the minute structure 
observable in the column of Pentacrinus, illustrated by excellent 
figures, and in yet another paper he described the structure in the 
stems of Rhodocrinus, Platycrinus, and Huryocrinus. Professor G. de 
Koninck gives an account of new and remarkable Hchinoderms 
from British Paleozoic rocks, figuring the genera Palechinus, 
Placocystites, and Haplocrinus. HW. Billings called attention to 
Placocystites = Ateleocystites Hualeyi, from Dudley, while H. Wood- 
ward added a note and figures of the same, and in 1880 more fully 
discussed and figured this remarkable Cystidean. J. H. Lee noted 
the occurrence of Cupressocrinus in the Devonian Limestone near 
Kingsteignton. Dr. F. A. Bather figured Merocrinus Salopie from 
the Ordovician of Shropshire, Hapalocrinus Victorie, a new Silurian 
Crinoid from Melbourne, Victoria; he added studies in Edrioasteroidea, 
and gave an account of his search for Uintacrinus in England and 
Westphalia. 

Ecutnorpra.—Professor P. Martin Duncan had a note on Galerites 
albogalerus, Lamk. Dr. J. W. Gregory described Rhyncopygus Woodt 
from the English Pliocene, and some Australian fossil Echinoderms, 
Archeodiadema, a new genus of Liassic Hchinoidea, and Egyptian 
fossil Echinoderms. T. Roberts noticed two abnormal Cretaceous 
Hehinoids from the Lower Chalk of Cambridge. 

Annewipa. — J. Hopkinson figured Dewxolites gracilis, a new 
Silurian Annelid from Moffat; H. A. Nicholson, two new species 
of Tubicular Annelids; and R. Etheridge, jun., wrote on British 
Carboniferous Annelida and noticed some 25 species (1880). 

Crustacza.—The Crustacea have always occupied a very important 
position in the pages of the Geonocican Macazine. Sir J. William 
Dawson described and figured Homalonotus Dawsoni from the Upper 
Silurian, Pictou, and Anthrapalemon Hilliana from the Carboni- 
ferous of South Joggins, Nova Scotia. C. Spence Bate figured 
Archeastacus Willemesii (which is really equivalent to Hryon 
crassichelis) from the Lias of Lyme Regis. James Carter refers 
to Orithopsis Bonneyi from the Upper Greensand of Charmouth, 
mear Lyme Regis, Dorset; and notices fossil Isopods from the 


54 A Retrospect of Paleontology for Forty Years. 


Upper Greensand of Cambridge. Professor T. T. Groom gave 
figures and descriptions of a minute Trilobite, Acanthopleurelia 
Grindrodi, from the Dictyonema shales (Cambrian) of Malvern. 
Professor C. E. Beecher sent (1900) a restoration of the great long- 
legged Eurypterid, Stylonurus Zacoanus, from the Devonian of 
Pennsylvania, U.S. Professor G. A. J. Cole noticed Felinurus 
kiltorkensis from Ireland; and Dr. Anton Fritsch described Pro- 
limulus Woodwardi from the Permian ‘Gaskohle’ of Bohemia. 
R. Etheridge, jun., noticed a Turrilepas from the Upper Silurian 
of New South Wales, and Professor W. B. Benham figured 
a gigantic form of Cirripede (Pollicipes Aucklandicus) from 
the Tertiary beds of New Zealand. Wyatt - Edgell described 
and figured Lichas patriarchus from the Llandeilo Flags, also 
Asaphus Corndensis and other species of Trilobites in a second 
paper (1867). Thomas Belt in two papers illustrated several new 
Trilobites of the genera Olenus, Agnostus, and Conocoryphe, from 
the Cambrian of North Wales. Professor Lapworth announced the 
discovery of the Olenellus fauna in the Lower Cambrian rocks of 
Britain, and described Olenellus Callavet from Shropshire. Professor 
Clay pole recorded Dalmanites in the Lower Carboniferous of Ohio, U.S. 
Professor C. D. Walcott and C. E. Beecher sent three papers on the 
appendages and structure of Trilobites ; and W. K. Spencer wrote on 
the hypostomic eyes of Bronteus. §. H. Reynolds figured Dindymene 
Hughesi@ and three other Trilobites, from the Lower Paleozoic of 
Wharfe, Yorkshire. F. R. Cowper Reed contributed eleven papers on 
Trilobites from the Cambrian, Silurian, and Carboniferous, including 
Oryctocephalus Reynoldsi from the Cambrian of North America. 
He noticed a new species of Cyclus (C. Woodwardi) from the 
Carboniferous of Settle, Yorkshire. Henry Woodward in six papers 
described and figured numerous species of Carboniferous and Culm 
Trilobites from Yorkshire and Devonshire. 'T'wo papers are devoted 
to Homalonotus, and six papers to Cambrian and Silurian Trilobites 
from Australia, Canada, and Britain. Of Brachyuran Decapod 
Crustaceans Dr. Woodward has monographed Goniocypoda Edwardsi, 
anew genus of shore-crab from the Lower Hocene of Hampshire ;. 
several species of crabs from the Upper Cretaceous of Faxe, 
Denmark, and from the Cretaceous of Vancouver Island, British 
Columbia ; Prosopon mammillatum, a true crab from the Great Oolite 
of Stonesfield. Of Macrouran forms he wrote on Scyllaridia Belli, 
on two species of Palemon from the Eocene of the Isle of Wight, 
and on Meyeria Willetti from the Chalk of Sussex. Dr. Woodward 
wrote seven papers on Preatya scabra, Eryon antiquus, E. Stoddart, 
Glyphea, and Peneus, and on two species of Ager, all from the Lias 
formation of Dorset and Warwickshire, and on the genus Anthra- 
palemon from the Coal-measures. 

On fossil Isopops H. Woodward added three papers, one on 
Palega Carteri from the Grey Chalk of Bedfordshire and Folkestone, 
and Cyclospheroma from the Great Oolite of Northampton and the 
Purbeck beds of Aylesbury ; ten species of the genus Cyclus from the 
Carboniferous Limestone and the Lower Coal-measures are defined 


A Retrospect of Paleontology for Forty Years. 5)5) 


in three papers (1870, 18938, and 1894). The Cirripede originally 
described by H. Woodward (in 1868) as Pyrgoma cretacea, from the 
Chalk of Norwich, proved to be intermediate between the sessile 
and pedunculated groups. This new form, named Brachylepas 
cretacea, was discovered by Dr. Rowe, and described and figured by 
H. Woodward in 1901 (p. 145). Two species of Turrilepas from the 
Silurian are enumerated by the same author, one from Canada and one 
from Dudley. The gastric teeth and shields of Carboniferous, Devonian, 
and Silurian Phyllopods, especially of the genera Dithyrocaris and 
Ceratiocaris, received attention and description in five well-illustrated 
papers by the same author; while eight papers were devoted to 
the description and figuring of various genera of Merrosromata, 
Eurypterus, Stylonurus, Hemiaspis, and Neolimulus, the last-named 
being the earliest king-crab known, coming from the Upper Silurian 
of Lanarkshire. 

Enromostraca.—Mr. Sherborn and Mr. Chapman had papers on 
the Ostracoda of the Gault of Folkestone and the Tithonian of 
Nesselsdorf. Fourteen papers on ‘Tertiary, Cretaceous, Wealden, 
Carboniferous, and Silurian Ostracoda from North and South 
America, South Africa, and Britain, have been contributed by 
Professor 'T. Rupert Jones. Four others, in conjunction with J. W. 
Kirkby and one with Mr. Sherborn, treat of the same subject. 
Professor Rupert Jones had also five papers on fossil Hstheri@ from 
North America, South Africa, and Siberia; and eight papers in con- 
junction with H. Woodward on fossil Poytuoropa from the Paleozoic 
rocks. Messrs. Brady and Crosskey described in 1871 Post-Tertiary 
Ostracoda from Canada and New England; and Miss Partridge 
described Hchinocaris Whidbornei and #. Sloliensis from Devonshire. 

Insecta.—It is pleasant again to record the name of Professor 
John Phillips (1866), who, under the title of ‘Oxford Fossils,” 
figured a dragon-fly’s wing as ibellula Westwoodi, from the 
Stonesfield Slate, and compared it with the wing of Aschna Brodiet 
from the Lias of Dumbleton. J. W. Kirkby figured some insect- 
remains (part of wing of a species of Blatta and part of wing of 
an Orthopterous insect related to the Phasmide) from the Coal- 
measures of Durham. A. G. Butler illustrated the wing of a fossil 
butterfly from the Stonesfield Slate (1873), Palgontina oolitica, to 
which he again referred (in 1874), maintaining its Lepidopterous 
character against the opinion of S. H. Scudder, who considered it 
to be an Homopterous wing allied to the Cicada. 8S. H. Scudder 
described and figured a tinted Neuropterous insect - wing (Brodia 
priscotincta) from the Dudley Coalfield, and two other Carboniferous 
insects, Archgoptilus and Ade@ophasma, from Lancashire. He added 
some notes on European species of LHtoblattina, of which he 
enumerated 28 species (1896), also a new form, &. Deanensis, from 
the Forest of Dean, and gave an account of the Insect fauna of the 
Miocene of Oeningen, of which 876 had been described by Professor 
O. Heer and five figured by Scudder (1895). His earliest paper 
(not illustrated) was in 1868, on the fossil insects of North America 
(published by special request of Sir Charles Lyell). In 1867 


56 = Prof. N. O. Holst—Writing Chalk of Scania, Sweden. 


Sir J. W. Dawson wrote upon, and S. H. Scudder gave diagnoses 
of, an insect-wing from the Coal-shale of Cape Breton, and four 
insect-remains from the Devonian of St. John’s, Brunswick. In 
1874 A. H. Swinton figured a fossil Orthopter of the genus 
Gryllacris (= Corydalis Brongniarti, Buck.) from Coalbrookdale. 
Charles Brongniart described (1879) a new genus of Phasmide 
(Protophasma Dumasii) from the Coal-measures of Commentry, 
Central France, and (in 1885) described various insects from the 
Primary rocks. H. A. Allen described (1901) Fouquea cambrensis 
(near to Lithomantis) from the Coal-measures of South Wales, 
The Rev. P. B. Brodie (1893) noticed the Eocene Tertiary Insects 
of Gurnet Bay, Isle of Wight, collected by A’Court Smith. 
Henry Woodward (1884) described the wing of a Neuropterous insect 
from the Cretaceous Limestone, Flinders River, North Queensland. 
He discoursed on British Carboniferous cockroaches and on their 
larval forms (Etoblattina Peachii), etc. (1887, pp. 49 and 481). 
He also described a Neuropterous insect (Palgotermes Ellisii) from 
the Lower Lias, Barrow-on-Soar, in which the clouded colour of the 
wing had been preserved in the fossil (1892). 

Aracunipa.—Henry Woodward described in 1871 a remarkably 
perfect Arachnid, Hophrynus Prestvici, from the Coal-measures near 
Dudley, preserved in a nodule of clay ironstone. He also figured 
Architarbus subovalis from the Coal-measures of Lancashire in 1872. 
R. I. Pocock redescribed Hophrynus and figured two new Arachnids, 
from the Coal-measures. 

Myrropopa.—Henry Woodward illustrated some remarkable spined 
Myriapods from the Carboniferous rocks of England and Scotland. 


(To be continued.) 


I].—Ow tue Retations or tHe ‘ Writing CHALK’ oF TuLLSTORP 
(Swepen) To THE Drirr Deposits, WITH REFERENCE TO THE 
‘ INTERGLACIAL’ QUESTION. 


By Nits Oxor Hotsr.! 


iF the district of Tullstorp in Scania (Southern Sweden) the 
white ‘ Writing Chalk’ is dug rather extensively, and in 
exploring the ground numerous borings have lately been made 
which have shown that this Chalk is not actually in place as 
supposed by Angelin, B. Lundgren, J. Jénsson, J. C. Moberg, 
W. Dames, and others, but occurs only in extraordinarily large 


1 Dr. N. O. Holst’s researches in Greenland on the Inland Ice and his views 
on Post-Glacial earth-movements in Scandinavia are already well known to 
English readers. The recently published paper of this eminent Swedish geologist, 
“*Om_ skrifkritan i  Tullstorpstrakten och de bada moraner, i hvilka den 
dr inbaddad: ett inlagg i Interglacialiragan’’ (Sveriges Geol. Undersikning : 
Afhandlingar och uppsatser, ser. C, No. 194, 1903), is of such general interest to 
all glacial geologists, that I have been glad to have had the privilege of rendering 
some little assistance to the author in his preparation of this English abstract of his 
paves. The doubts as to the validity of the evidence for even a single Interglacial 

eriod, which have been expressed recently in several countries, are here put forward 
with great force, and it is clear that a general re-discussion of this very important 
question is rapidly becoming imperative.—G. W. LampLucu. 


Prof. N. O. Holst— Writing Chalk of Scania, Sweden. 57 


transported masses or boulders (Schollen), up to 850 metres long, 
300 metres broad, and 15 metres thick, which are embedded in 
the glacial deposits. 

The true bed-rock of the district is the ‘Saltholms Limestone,’ 
i.e. a Chalk newer than the‘ Writing Chalk.’ The ‘Saltholms Lime- 
stone’ is not reached at a less depth than 33 to 70 metres, while the 
‘Writing Chalk’ is met with at acouple of metres below the surface. 

The transported masses of ‘ Writing Chalk’ seem at first glance 
to be almost intact and undisturbed. But when more closely 
examined, they are found to be crushed and to form a brecciated 
chalk; and further, it is seen that the flint-bands are ground to 
pieces, that the thin clayey partings of the Chalk are slightly con- 
torted, and that the moraines (boulder-clay) and the glacial gravels 
are sporadically carried down and sometimes squeezed into the 
Chalk to a considerable depth. Still more remarkable is the 
occurrence of portions of the antlers of Cervus elaphus, which are 
-occasionally found entirely isolated in this Chalk; in one case, 
-a piece of antler of this kind was found at a depth of 6 metres from 
the surface of the ‘ Writing Chalk.’ 

The transported masses of the ‘Writing Chalk’ rest upon the 
‘lower moraine’ (‘lower boulder-clay’). In a few instances they 
are also covered by this moraine, but as a rule their covering consists 
-of the ‘upper moraine’ (‘upper boulder-clay’) and fluvio-glacial 
-deposits. 

The phenomena in the Tullstorp district have been compared by 
the author with the much discussed phenomena of similar character 
at Moen, Riigen, and Finkenwalde, and with the numerous transported 
masses or ‘ Schollen’ which are found at so many places among the 
glacial deposits of Northern Germany. The resemblance between 
the mode of occurrence of these masses and that of the displaced 
“ Cyprina-clay’ has also been discussed, and for several reasons, 
partly borrowed from the well-known paper of Johnstrup on this 
deposit, the author has concluded that the ‘ Cyprina-clay ’ is decidedly 
pre-Glacial. 

The bearing of these facts as an argument against the hypothesis 

-of an Interglacial Period will now be summarized. 

The ‘ Writing Chalk’ of Tullstorp occurs under the same conditions 
-as many of the so-called ‘ Interglacial’ deposits, i.e. between the two 
moraines (boulder-clays). But if we are to regard these morainic 
deposits as two separate ground-moraines belonging to two distinct 
Glacial episodes, there would be no good reason for refusing to 
assign the ‘ Writing Chalk’ to an ‘Interglacial’ period, along with 
the other so-called ‘Interglacial’ beds which occur under the same 
conditions. The author holds, however, that only the ‘ lower 
moraine’ is true ground-moraine, and that the ‘upper moraine’ 
consists of material which was originally incorporated in the ice- 
sheet as ‘internal moraine’ and was set free on the melting of its 
lower part. Indeed, the two moraines are so dissimilar in character 
that if, as is generally acknowledged, the lower deposit is a ground- 
moraine, the upper must have had a different origin. 


58 Prof. N. O. Holst—Writing Chatk of Scania, Sweden. 


The differences between the two moraines have elsewhere beer 
fully discussed by the author. He has himself observed in Greenland 
that, whereas the lower or ‘ground’-moraine is characterized by 
its rounded, often striated stones, and its clayey matrix of a bluish- 
grey colour, the upper or ‘internal’ moraine, on the other hand, 
is characterized by its more angular, rarely striated stones, its looser, 
more gravelly texture, and its weathered aspect due to oxidization 
during the melting of the ice. And the same difference exists. 
between the two moraines in Germany and Sweden also. In the 
latter country this difference is just as conspicuous in the northern 
districts as in the country at the outer margin of the Scandinavian 
ice-sheet. The chief conclusions to be drawn from this difference 
may be recapitulated under the following five heads :— 

1. As a rule, both in Germany and in Sweden, the thickness of 
the ‘upper moraine’ is too small and too uniform to represent 
a separate ice-age, being sometimes a couple of metres, sometimes 
3 to 4 metres, and only exceptionally attaining a slightly greater 
thickness. 

2. The ‘upper moraine’ enwraps the uneven contours of the 
underlying deposits, even when these are loose gravels and occur 
in abrupt ridges and mounds, so that the ‘upper moraine’ often 
reflects rather closely the contours of its underlying floor. No 
ground-moraine can behave in this manner. 

3. The ‘upper moraine’ is less compressed and less coherent 
than the ground-moraine, because no ice-sheet has passed over it. 
It contains few stones, and not rarely has a more or less definite 
stratification, which shows that it has to some extent been acted 
upon by ‘ water of melting’ (Schmelzwasser) during its deposition. 
The few striated stones which it contains have probably been derived 
from the ‘lower moraine.’ 

This distinction has frequently been laid stress upon by other 
authors. James Geikie remarks upon it as follows: “One may 
note in many cases that the till which overlies interglacial deposits 
is not infrequently a somewhat looser clay than the generally 
excessively tough lower till that clings to the rocks underneath. 
Often, too, the stones and boulders of the overlying till are, as 
a whole, less well smoothed and striated than those in the boulder- 
clay below.” The latter deposit he calls “unstratified” and the 
upper “indistinctly bedded.” 

This conspicuous difference also induced Johnstrup to regard the 
‘upper moraine’ as having been formed in a special way, viz., by 
drifting or floe ice. 

4. If the ‘upper moraine’ had been a separate and distinct 
ground-moraine originating from a separate ice-sheet, it ought to- 
possess a definite outer limit marking the greatest extension of this- 
ice-sheet. Such a limit has certainly been diligently sought, but 
it has never been found and will never be found, because it has- 
never existed. 

One of the most striking features in glacial geology is the great 
terminal moraine of the European ice-sheet, but its importance has 


Prof. S. W. Williston—The Fingers of Pterodactyls. 59 


been obscured by the idea of an ‘Interglacial’ period (Interglazial- 
ismus), which has diverted the attention of most observers chiefly to 
the two moraines, with the supposition that these have originated 
at widely different times. 

5. If the ‘upper moraine’ had represented a separate ice-age, 
preceded by a long Interglacial epoch with an ameliorated climate, 
it ought to contain abundant vegetable remains. Plentiful traces 
of forest-growth should, in this case, have been found embedded 
in the moraine, for this ‘upper’ drift, unlike the ‘lower moraine,’ is 
not thick enough to bury and conceal the débris of any land-surface 
that might have existed outside the ice. 


The stratified deposits of sand and gravel which iie between the 
two bouldér-clays are most readily explicable as being, from the 
beginning, of intermorainic origin. In many cases they have 
probably been formed in ice-dammed water-filled’ basins over which 
the thin border of the ice-sheet was buoyed up, thus allowing the 
subglacial streams to deposit their sand and gravel below the ice 
which contained the internal ‘upper’ morainic material. 

To this series of deposits belongs also the Rixdorf Sand. The 
great extent and thickness of the latter, as well as the manner of 
its stratification (sand alternating with coarse gravel and shingle, 
frequently showing conspicuous false bedding), clearly indicate that 
this deposit is glacial; for what streams could deposit such thick 
beds, including coarse gravel and shingle, on a plain, except under 
Glacial conditions! The fauna of the Rixdorf Sand is a mixed 
fauna; the fossils are exclusively, or at least principally, found in 
the coarse gravel, and must be derivative. This opinion regarding 
the Rixdorf Sand is maintained also by W. Wolff and G. Miiller 
(Protokoll der Januarsitzung, 1902, der Deutsch. Geol. Gesellsch.). 

Thus, in the opinion of the writer, the evidence tells strongly 
against the idea of an Interglacial Period. The crux of the matter 
lies in the correct interpretation of the two moraines. It has been 
shown that these belong to one and the same period of glaciation ;. 
and it is further held that the so-called ‘Interglacial’ deposits 
themselves, when correctly interpreted, afford confirmatory evidence 
to the argument against the ‘ Interglacial’ hypothesis. 


IlJ.—Txue Finerrs or Preropacryts. 
By Professor 8. W. Witutston, University of Chicago. 

we is well known, all pterodactyls have three small, unguiculate 

fingers on the radial side of the patagial finger, evidently used 
in the support of the body, possibly also in prehension and ambulation. 
In the older forms these fingers were relatively much better 
developed than in the later ones, the metacarpals of the former, 
of considerable strength, all articulating with the carpus, whereas 
in the more specialized forms of later geological age the proximal 
ends of these bones had become either greatly attenuated or entirely 
lost. In Nyctosaurus, for instance, the very small anterior metacarpals 
were not more than one-eighth of the length of the wing-metacarpal, 


60 Prof. S. W. Williston—The Fingers of Pterodactyls. 


and were in life loosely attached by the soft parts only to the 
distal part of that bone. | 

Recently, in the examination of a specimen of Pteranodon or 
Ornithostoma, in which all the bones of the hand had been preserved 
in nearly their original positions, I have observed that these three 
small fingers have two phalanges in the first, three in the second, 
and four in the third, the terminal one of each a much curved and 
sharp claw. So far as I can learn, all known pterodactyls have 
the same number and arrangement of these bones. In any event, 
I believe that any possible variation will be found in a lessened rather 
than an increased number. Seeley (‘‘ Dragons of the Air,” p. 129) 
confirms this arrangement of the phalanges in these animals. The 
patagial finger has, as is well known, four phalanges, probably in 
all known forms. It seems very probable, however, that in the 
evolution of this finger for the support of the volant membrane, the 
original clawed phalange had become lost, not that it had become 
greatly elongated as the fourth phalange. More especially does 
this seem probable from the fact that in-the later, more specialized 
forms of these animals there is a marked tendency toward an 
increase in length of the proximal membrane-supporting bones, 
and a shortening of the distal ones. In aspecimen of Rhamporhynchus, 
as stated by Seeley (op. cit.), the first wing-phalange measured 
33 inches in length, while the fourth phalange had a length 
of 2 inches. In a specimen of Péeranodon now before me the 
proximal wing-phalange measures nearly 27 inches, while the fourth 
is only a little over 5 inches in length. A still greater dis- 
proportion exists between the fingers in Rhamphorhynchus and 
Nyctosaurus. Now, if my reasoning is correct, the phalanges in 
the four definitely known fingers of pterodactyls originally numbered, 
in succession from the radial to the ulnar side, 2, 3, 4, 5. It is well 
known that in all reptiles, save the turtles, the anomodonts, and 
certain extinct hyperphalangic forms, as well as in the birds, this 
phalangeal formula applies to the first four digits of both the hands 
and the feet, and it certainly does to the feet of pterodactyls. The 
conclusion, therefore, seems to me incontestable that the wing-finger 
of pterodactyls is the fourth, as was formerly held by all writers 
on these animals. In 1878, however, Oscar Fraas suggested that 
the so-called pteroid bone really represented the first finger, and 
that the wing-finger is the fifth. This view was adopted by both 
Marsh and Zittel, and is the one now universally accepted by 
paleontologists. 

It therefore seems evident that the ‘pteroid’ is not a vestigial, 
abnormally reflexed metacarpal or phalange of the first digit, but 
an entirely distinct ossification. Just what this ossification is; 
it may be premature to suggest, but there is nothing unreasonable in 
the supposition that it isa carpal or sesamoid. This conclusion seems 
more probable from the fact that it was progressively developed in 
the later, more specialized forms reaching its maximum in JVyctosaurus, 
thereby subserving some progressively increasing functional use, 
which would hardly be expected were it a reflexed finger. 


G. C. Crick—Strachey’s Cephalopoda from Himalaya. 6% 


TV.—Nortrs on THE CEPHALOPODA BELONGING TO THE STRACHHY 
’ COLLECTION FROM THE Himataya. Parr |: Jurassic. 


By G. C. Cricr, Assoc. R.S.M., F.G.S., of the British Museum (Natural History). 


c 1851 Captain (now Sir) Richard Strachey? communicated to 
the Geological Society of London a paper “ On the Geology of 
Part of the Himalaya Mountains and Tibet,” based upon the 
observations which he had made during the years 1848 and 1849. 
The Paleozoic and Secondary fossils therein mentioned were 
described in 1865 by J. W. Salter and H. F. Blanford respectively 
in a work of which the title-page reads as follows: “ Paleontology 
of Niti in the Northern Himalaya: being descriptions and figures of 
the Paleozoic and Secondary Fossils collected by Colonel Richard 
Strachey, R.H. Descriptions by J. W. Salter, F.G.S., A.L.S., and 
H. F. Blanford, A.R.S.M., F.G.S. Reprinted with slight corrections 
for private circulation from Colonel Strachey’s forthcoming work ” 
on the Physical Geography of the Northern Himalaya. Calcutta : 
O. T. Cutter, Military Orphan Press. March, 1865.” 

On p. 2 of this work Salter says: “ The [Strachey] collection 
was brought home numbered and catalogued, but still required 
months of patient work in breaking up and chiselling out the 
specimens. When finally arranged upon tablets, with localities, 
he [Colonel Strachey] placed them all in the colonial collections, 
of the Museum of Practical Geology, and left me the more pleasant 
task of comparing and describing them”; and in a footnote on 
p- 80 Salter adds that “all the figured specimens of Colonel 
Strachey’s collection have been liberally presented by that 
gentleman to the Museum of Practical Geology, London.” In 
1880 the foreign collections (and among them the Strachey Col- 

_ lection) were transferred from that Museum to the British Museum. 
As many of the figured specimens were not marked as such, and 
having regard to the importance of this collection and in view of 
the interest which is now being manifested in the sedimentary 
deposits of the Himalaya, it seemed desirable that the collection 
should be carefully examined and the described and figured 
specimens identified and marked. ‘The following notes are based 
on an examination of the collection as it now exists in the National 
Museum. The present part refers only to the Jurassic Cephalopoda ; 
these were described by Professor H. F. Blanford in the work 
already mentioned (pp. 74-88 and 105-111). The systematic 
position of the species has not been discussed; this is being done 

~by Professor V. Uhlig, of Vienna, who is preparing from a much 
larger amount of material a memoir on the fauna for publication in 
the Palgontologia Indica. 

In Salter & Blanford’s work on the “ Paleontology of Niti,” 
the plates are numbered from i to xxiii and are all marked vol. ii; 
of these the first nine are photographs of engraved plates, whilst 
the rest (x—xxiii) were lithographed and printed in Calcutta. As 


1 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. vii (1851), pp. 292-310. 
* This work was neyer published. 


62 G.C. Crick—Strachey’s Cephalopoda from Himalaya. 


I have stated elsewhere,’ besides a complete copy of the work, 
the library of the Geological Department of the British Museum 
contains a set of plates presented by Sir Richard Strachey in 1892. 
The first nine are engraved, and it is evident that it was from 
precisely similar imprints that the photographs issued with the 
work were taken; plates x—xlii, xvi—-xviii, and xxi-xxili were 
drawn and lithographed by W. H. Baily, the others, xix and xx, 
by C. R. Bone; and they were all printed by Ford & West, 
evidently in England. ‘The two sets of plates present, in the 
drawing of the specimens, sufficient differences to show that the 
‘English’ set was not copied from the ‘ Indian,’ but that most of 
the figures at any rate were re-drawn from the actual specimens, 
additional details being given in several instances.? General 
Sir Richard Strachey informs me that the ‘ English’ set of plates 
has never been “formally published,” so far as he knows, “ certainly 
not in England.” The additional details given in this set of 
drawings has assisted in the identification of some of the figured 
specimens. 

The majority, and probably the whole, of the figures are reversed. 
Some of them have been so much restored that the identification of 
the originals is attended with great difficulty. That they did not 
entirely meet with the approval of Professor Blanford is evident from 
Salter’s remark at the end of the author’s descriptions (p. 88) that 
reads as follows: ‘‘Since this was in type the figures have been 
corrected (as far as the state of the lithographic stones would allow) 
in conformity with Professor Blanford’s instructions.—J. W. 8.” 

In the first volume of his work entitled “ Illustrations of Indian 
Zoology ; chiefly selected from the collection of Major-General 
Hardwicke,” published in 1830-32, J. E. Gray figured on plate c 
four figures of three species of Ammonites which he named 
Amm. Nepaulensis (figs. 1, 2), 4. Wallichii (fig. 3), and A. tenuistriata 
(fig. 4). According to the legend on the plate, which is stated 
to have been “ published [in] 1829,” they all came from “ Sulgranees, 
Nepaul.”* Three of these specimens, viz., the originals of figs. 1, 3, 
and 4, are in the British Museum collection [No. C. 5052 = 
A. Nepaulensis; OC. 5041 = A. Wallichit; and C. 5051 = A. tenui- 
striata], but the fourth, viz. the original of fig. 2 (4. Nepaulensis), 

1G. C. Crick: Proc. Malac. Soc., vol. v, part 4 (April, 1903), p. 286. 

* Compare, for example, in the two sets, pl. xi, figs. le, 2c; pl. xiii, fig. la; 
pl. xv, fig. la; pl. xvi, figs. la, 2a; pl. xvii, figs. 2a, 6; pl. xxi, fig. 10. 

3 Respecting the locality of these Ammonites Dr. W. I’. Blanford, who was for 
many years connected with the Geological Survey of India, writes (Proc. Malac. Soc., 
vol. v, No. 6, October, 1903, p. 345) :—‘‘So far as I am aware, no such place as 
‘Sulgranees’ is known, and I may add that it is very doubtful whether the 
Ammonites represented in the ‘ Illustrations’ came originally from Nepal at all; 
it is more probable they were brought from further west, from the region whence 
Ammonites have been supplied to India in all probability for ages. It is certain 
that there has long been an importation of small Ammonites into India from the 
Tibetan side of the Himalayas, chiefly from the Spiti district, N.N.E. of Simla, or 
trom the neighbourhood of the Niti pass, north of Kumaun. These Ammonites, 
together with certain other stones, are known to Hindus by the name of ‘ Saligram.’ 


I think it is probable that this name, slightly modified and written Sulgranees, has 
been mistaken for the locality of the fossils.”’ 


G. C. Crick—Strachey’s Cephalopoda from Himalaya. 63 


I have not been able to trace. The example of 4. Wallichii can 
be easily recognized as the figured specimen; and, although some of 
the matrix has been removed from the examples of A. Nepaulensis 
and A. tenuistriata since Gray’s figures were drawn, there is 
abundant evidence as to the identity also of these specimens. 

I have already shown elsewhere that Blanford refigured Gray’s 
types of A. Wallichit and A. tenuistriata (in part) in pl. xv, figs. la—e, 
and pl. xv, figs. 2b, c, respectively. I also considered Gray’s type 
of A. Nepaulensis (fig. 1) to have been refigured by Blanford in 
pl. xiv, figs. la, b, but quite recently I have seen the original of 
Blanford’s figure in the Museum of the Geological Society of London 
(R. 10,116).!. Professor Blake thought it possible that this was 
Gray’s figured specimen, but such is not the case. The Geological 
Society’s collection also contains the original of Professor Blanford’s 
pl. x, fig. 7 (Belemnites sulcatus). 

In the following notes the species are arranged in the order in 
which they were described in the “‘ Paleontology of Niti,” pp. 74-88. 


1. Benemnites sutcatus, J. 8. Miller. 
(H. F. Blanford, in J. W. Salter & H. F. Blanford: Paleont. Niti, 1865, p. 76, 
pl. x, figs. 1-8.) 

Of the eight figured specimens seven are now in the National 
collection. These are the originals of figs. 1-6 [Nos. C. 2566 - 
C. 2571]? and of fig. 8 [No. C. 2572]. They are accompanied by 
a Jermyn Street Museum label bearing the inscription ‘Oolitic: 
Niti Pass. Belemnites sulcatus. Stra. Him. Pl. 10. Pres. by 
Col. Strachey.” The original of fig. 6 [No. C. 2571] is marked 
in ink “lL” with a cross; the specimen represented in fig. 3 
[ No. C. 2568] is numbered in ink “1015”*; the original of fig. 5 
{ No. C. 2570] is numbered “1691” in a similar manner, and each 
of the originals of fig. 1 [No. C. 2566], fig. 2 [No. C. 2567], and 
fig. 4 [No. C. 2569] is similarly numbered “1692.” The original 
of fig. 8 [No. C. 2572] is numbered in ink “1720”; it has been © 
broken across and shows a subcentral siphuncle ; it does not exhibit 
any depression near the margin such as is indicated in the figure. 
It seems, therefore, to be referable to the genus Orthoceras, and is 
most probably of Triassic age. This age of the specimen is supported 
by its lithological character, which agrees with that of the example 
of Orthoceras pulchellum—a Triassic species—represented in pl. viii, 
fig. 100. 

The specimen depicted in fig. 7 is now in the Museum of the 
Geological Society of London * (R. 10,252). 


' See Professor J. F. Blake, ‘‘ List of the Types and Figured Specimens in the 
Collection of the Geological Society of London,” 1902, pp. 34 and 55. 

* The numbers in square brackets refer to the Registers in the Geological Depart- 
ment, British Museum (Natural History). 

* From a comparison with the Silurian Cephalopoda in the Strachey Collection it 
is quite evident that these numbers refer to Colonel Strachey’s Catalogue of Localities 
referred to by Salter on p. 4 at the end of his description of Asaphus emodi. 

4 The specimen is duly recorded in Professor Blake’s ‘‘ List of the Types and 
Figured Specimens in the Geological Society of London,”’ 1902, p. 55. 


64 = G. C. Crick—Strachey’s Cephalopoda from Himalaya. 


Besides these seven specimens five fragments were also transferred 
from the Museum of Practical Geology as part of the Strachey 
Collection. They are accompanied by a Jermyn Street Museum 
label bearing the inscription “Oolite: Niti Pass. Belemnites 
sulcatus, var. canaliculatus. Stra. Him. PI.10. Pres. by Col- 
Strachey,” and are now numbered C. 2565a-e. Only two of these 
have any original ink-marks on them; the specimen No. C. 2565¢ 
is numbered “1015,” like the original of fig. 38, and the example 
No. C. 2565) is marked “ Laptet.” The “L” of the word Laptet 
is in the same handwriting as, and precisely like, the “‘L” on the’ 
specimen represented in fig. 6 [No. C. 2571]. It is therefore 
possible that the ‘ L” on that specimen may stand for ‘ Laptet.” 


On p. 106 of the “ Paleontology of Niti,’ H. F. Blanford puts 
Oppel’s Belemnites Gerardi as a synonym of the present species, 
for which he retains Miller’s name . sulcatus, this claiming 
priority of publication. 

With regard to the dimensions of the specimens Professor Blanford 
says: “The largest specimen in Colonel Strachey’s collection 
measures as ine :—length, 3°6in.; antero-posterior diameter, 
0-9in.; transverse diameter, 0-9in.” There appears to be some 
mistake here, because the largest guard at present in the collection, 
the original of fig. 1, has the following dimensions :—length, 
1265mm. (nearly 5 inches) ; antero-posterior diameter, 30mm. 
(1:2 in.) ; transverse diameter, 28mm. (about 1:1lin.). The 
specimen represented in fig. 2 is nearly of the same size, its 
measurements being :—length, 115 mm. (4°5 in.) ; antero- -posterior 
diameter (at about ¢ 30 mm. from the anterior end), 27mm. (1°05 in.) ; 
transverse diameter (at same place), 27 mm. (1:05 in.). 


2. AmMonirEs aLatus (R. Strachey MS.), H. F. Blanford. 


(H. F. Blanford, in J. W. Salter & H. F. Blanford: Paleont. Niti, 1865, p. 76, 
pl. xvii, figs. 3a, 0.) 

Of this species three fragments belonging to the Strachey 
Collection are now in the British Museum. Two of these 
[Nos. C. 7364a and 6b] are accompanied by a Jermyn Street 
Museum label bearing the inscription ‘ Oolitic. Niti Pass. Ammonites. 
alatus. Coll. by Col. Strachey,” but they are not numbered in ink 
like many of the Strachey specimens. With them there is a 
guttapercha squeeze of the example numbered C. 73864a. To the 
third specimen [No. C. 7865], which is numbered “1834” in ink, 
there is attached a label bearing the words “alatus. Spiti Shales ” 
written in pencil. 

One specimen [No. C. 7364b] is merely the impression of the 
half of one side of a shell; the other two [No. C. 7364a and 
No. 7565] are evidently “the two fragmentary casts” from which 
was “compiled ” the ‘restoration ” that is represented in Blanford’s 
pl. xviii, fig. 8a. There is no specimen in the collection which can 
be identified with Blanford’s fig. 3b, the original of which possibly 
furnished the dimensions given by the author. 


G. C. Crick—Strachey’s Cephalopoda from Himalaya. 65 


Although two of the specimens [ Nos. C. 7364a and 6] are labelled 
“ Niti Pass” and the third [No. C. 7865] merely “Spiti Shales,’’ 
yet the matrix and mode of preservation of the specimens are 
such as to lead one to believe that they all came from the same 
locality. 


3. Ammonites Nepautensis, J. HE. Gray. 


(A. Nepaulensis [sic], J. E. Gray: Illustr. Indian Zool., vol. i, 1830-1832, pl. c, 
figs. l and 2. A. Nepalensis [sic], H. F. Blantord, in J, W. Salter & H. F. 
Blantord: Paleeont. Niti, 1865, pl. xiv, figs. la, b.) 


There are two examples of this species in the National collection 
[ Nos. C. 5052 and C. 7687]. 

One | No. C. 5052] is undoubtedly one of the specimens figured 
by Gray (op. cit., pl.c, fig. 1).' It is accompanied by a label 
belonging to the Museum of Practical Geology bearing the 
inscription ‘Oolitic; Niti Pass. Ammonites Nepalensis. Coll. by 
Col. Strachey.” This is certainly an error; it could not have 
been collected by Colonel Strachey, because the specimen was 
figured in 1880-32 by Gray, whereas Colonel Strachey’s specimens 
were not obtained until the years 1848 and 1849.” 

The fossil is imbedded in a nodule, the greater part of one side 
only of the specimen being exposed. Since Gray’s figure was drawn 
an attempt has been made to develop the fossil. A little more of 
the anterior part of the outer whorl has been uncovered, and some 
matrix has been removed in front of the aperture so as to display 
the commencement of the outer whorl, but only a little piece of this 
—a length of 12 or 13 mm.—has been successfully exposed close to 
the aperture. The surface of the rest of the first third of the outer 
whorl that was covered by matrix when Gray’s figure was drawn 
has been injured during development. A small piece of the pen- 
ultimate whorl bearing five principal ribs has been uncovered 
immediately beneath the aperture. The ribbing is well preserved 
over a little more than half of the outer whorl; it is very regular, 
and there are eighteen principal ribs in the last half-whorl. Not- 
withstanding the attempt at development there is no difficulty 
whatever in recognizing the fossil as the original of Gray’s fig. 1. 
A specimen in the Museum of the Geological Society of London 
(R. 10,116) is thought possibly to be Gray’s type (fig. 1), but an 
examination of the fossil clearly shows that such is not the case.* 
The dimensions of the exserted portion of the fossil, as nearly as can 
be measured, are :—diameter of shell, 101mm.; height of outer 
whorl, 46°5mm.; thickness of outer whorl, estimated at about 
37mm.; width of umbilicus, 23 mm. 

The other specimen in the Museum collection [No. C. 7687] 
bears a label on which is written in pencil simply the name 
“A, nepalensis” ; thereis no other information with the specimen, 


1 G. C. Crick: Proc. Malac. Soc., vol. v, pt. 4 (April, 1903), p. 285. 

2 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. vii (1851), p. 294. 

3 See Professor J. F. Blake’s ‘‘ List of the Types and Figured Specimens in the 
Collection of the Geological Society of London,’’ 1902, p. 34. 


DECADE Y.—VYOL. I.—WNO. II. 


66 G.C. Crick—Strachey’s Cephalopoda from Himataya. 


but from its lithological character there can be no doubt whatever 
that it came from the Himalaya; it forms part of a nodule, like'so 
many of the Niti fossils. It is 91 mm. in diameter. 

I have not been able to recognize in the collection the original 
of Gray’s pl. c, fig. 2. 

I have elsewhere expressed the opinion that the original of 
Gray’s fig. 1 was also the original of Blanford’s pl. xiv, figs. la, 6," 
but this statement is incorrect, the original of Blanford’s figures 
being in the Museum of the Geological Society of London (R. 10,116).? 
Blanford’s figure is reversed. Both sides of the fossil are free from 
matrix, and well preserved, the side opposite to that which is figured 
being the better preserved of the two. On the figured side the 
surface of the first third of the outer whorl has been injured just as 
in the example figured by Gray; this was evidently the septate 
part; no septa are visible on the remaining two-thirds of the whorl, 
which therefore most probably constituted the body-chamber. The 
inner whorls, though incomplete, are better preserved than in Gray’s 
type-specimen. There is a slight irregularity in the ribbing of the 
outer whorl, but not nearly so much as is indicated in the figure; 
on the side of the specimen opposite to that which is figured there 
are 33 or 34 principal ribs in the outer whorl, nineteen of these 
being in the last half-whorl. The measurements given by Professor 
Blanford are as follows :—diameter, 4:8 inches [ = 122 mm.] ; 
diameter [or height] of outer whorl, 2-2 inches [ =56mm.]; 
thickness, 1-9 inches [= 48°5mm.]. My own measurements of the 
fossil are :—diameter, 121 mm.; height of outer whorl, 55 mm. ; 
height of outer whorl above preceding, 38°5 mm. ; thickness of outer 
whorl, 48 mm. ; width of umbilicus, 29 mm. 


4, AMMONITES TENUISTRIATUS, J. H. Gray. 

(A. tenuistriata, J. EK. Gray: Illustr. Indian Zool., vol. i, 1830-1832, pl. e, fig. 4. 
A, tenuistriatus, J. E. Gray: H. F. Blantord, in J. W. Salter & H. F. 
Blanford, Palzont. Niti, 1865, p. 78 [pl. xiv, fig. 2 ?], pl. xv, figs. 2a-e.) 

The British Museum collection contains Gray’s type-specimen 

[No. C. 5051]. It is accompanied by a label belonging to the 

Museum of Practical Geology bearing the following inscription : 

“Oolitic; Niti Pass. Ammonites tenuistriatus. Coll. by Col. Strachey 

(belongs to Brit. Mus.),”’ but the statement that it belonged to the 

Strachey Collection is obviously incorrect, for, as we have already 

stated in regard to A. Nepaulensis, Gray’s figures were published 

many years before Colonel Strachey’s specimens were collected. 

Although some of the matrix has been removed since Gray’s figure 

was drawn, there are still indications on the fossil of the original 

extent of the matrix, and there can be no doubt whatever about its 

being the figured specimen. I have already shown elsewhere * 

that a portion of this specimen in its present condition formed the 

original of Professor Blanford’s pl. xv, figs. 2b, ¢. 
1G. C. Crick: Proc. Malac. Soc., vol. v, pt. 4 (April, 1903), pp. 286-7. 
2 Professor J. F. Blake: ‘‘ List of the ‘Types and Figured Specimens in the 


Collection of the Geological Society of London,’’ 1902, p. 34. 
3G. C. Crick: Proc. Malac. Soe., vol. vy, pt. 4 (April, 1903), pp. 288-9. 


G. C. Crick—Strachey’s Cephalopoda from Himalaya. 67 


The National collection also contains the original of pl. xiv, fig. 2 
[No. C. 5039] and the natural mould [No. C. 5036] from which 
the guttapercha impression figured in pl. xv, fig. 2a was taken; 
both specimens belonged to the Strachey Collection, and were 
transferred from the Museum of Practical Geology in 1880. Their 
exact locality is not recorded; they probably came from the Niti 
Pass, because this is the only locality given by Salter & Blanford 
in their “List of the Himalayan Oolitic Fossils from the Niti and 
Spiti Passes” (p. 102). The specimen No. C.5039 was accompanied 
by a label bearing simply the name “ Amm. Jubar, Strachey.” 


5. AMMONITES umBO (R. Strachey MS.), H. F. Blanford. 


(H. F. bnew, in J. W. Salter & H. F. Blanford: Paleont. Niti, 1865, p. 78, 
pl. xvii, figs. 2a—d.) 

Professor Blanford states that ‘the only specimen in the 
[Strachey] collection is a fragment of the whorl represented 
two-thirds of the real size.” The fragment is now in the British 
Museum cotiection [C. 5040]; it was transferred from the Museum 
of Practical Geology, labelled “Oolitic. Niti Pass. Ammonites umbo 
(Stra.). Coll. by Col. Strachey.” It is numbered in ink “1690.” 
It is entirely septate: the suture-line is well shown, but is very 
difficult to follow ; its details are not quite correctly represented 
in the figure (2d). The suture-lines are not indicated in the figure 
in the ‘Indian’ set of the plates of Salter & Blanford’s work, 
but in the ‘ English’ set they are distinctly represented. 

The measurements of the specimen, taken at about its centre, are 
as follows :—height of whorl, 1:5in. or 88mm.; width of ditto, 
excluding nodes, 1:9 in. or 48 mm. ; width of ditto, including nodes, 
2-25in. or 57mm. The dimensions given by Blanford are :— 
diameter [= height] of whorl, 1:7in.; thickness [or width], 2:1 in. 

On p. 106 Blanford places this species, as well as Oppel’s 
A. Seideli," as a synonym of the species A. Hyphaspis, which he 
himself described in 1863.? 


6. AMMoNITES GUTTATUS (R. Strachey MS.), H. F. Blanford. 
(H. F. Blanford, in J. W. Salter & H. F. Blanford: Paleont. Niti, 1865, p. 79, 
pl. xi, fig. 2.) 

The example that was in the Strachey Collection is described by 
Professor Blanford as “an imperfect external cast of one side of 
a shell.” This specimen is now in the British Museum collection 
[No. C. 7858], having been transferred in 1880 as part of the 
Strachey Collection from the Museum of Practical Geology. It was 
labelled “Oolitic. Niti Pass. Ammonites guttatus. Coll. by Col. 
Strachey.” The figure given in the “ Paleontology of Niti” is 
a somewhat restored, and very unsatisfactory, representation of 
a cast taken from this natural mould; its unsatisfactory character 
was recognized by the author, who states that “the restoration here- 
with given at Plate 13, fig.2,is . . . . erroneous, the diameter 


* Pal. Mittheil., 1863, p. 283, pl. Ixxx, figs. 3a, 0. 
2 Journ. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, vol. XXXii, No. 2 (1863), p- 132, pl. iv, figs. 2, 2a, 20. 


68 = G. C. Crick—Strachey’s Cephalopoda from Himalaya. 


of the whorls being probably at least half as much again as they are 
represented, while from each tubercle springs a bundle of 4 or d 
ribs, which cross the ventral region with a slight convex curve 
towards the mouth.” 

Owing to the imperfection of the external part of the outer whorb 
it is impossible to give accurate dimensions of the specimen. 

This species was first described in 1863 by Professor Blanford,’ 
who regarded Oppel’s Ammonites Cautleyi? as a synonym.’ 


7. AMMONITES BIPLEX, J. Sowerby. 
(H. F. Blanford, in J. W. Salter & H. F. Blantord: Palewont. Niti, 1865, p. 79,. 
pl. xi, figs. la-c; pl. xii, figs. 1a-c.) 

Professor Blanford says:—‘‘'T'wo specimens of this Ammonite 
occur in the collection, together with some impressions of the shell 
on black siliceous nodules. I can detect no difference between them 
and the characteristic Oxford clay specimens of Europe. They are 
identical also in all respects (mineral character included) with those 
from Spiti, lately described by myself, from Dr. Gerard’s collection.” 

From the Museum of Practical Geology were transferred two 
specimens [Nos. C. 5053 and C. 5034] belonging to the Strachey 
Collection, labelled, with one of that Museum’s labels, ‘‘ Oolitic. Nit 
Pass. Ammonites biplex. Coll. by Col. Strachey”; and two frag- 
ments [Nos. C. 7683a, b] accompanied by a label, “A. biplex. 
Spiti Shales,” but it is not recorded how these were obtained. 

To one of the two Strachey specimens [No. C. 5053] is attached 
another M.P.G. label, on which is written in ink simply the name 
‘‘Ammonites biplex.” This is evidently the original of pl. x1, 
fig. la, the figure being reversed and considerably restored; its 
anterior end, however, does not exhibit a septal surface such as is. 
shown in fig. 1b, nor is its suture-line visible; it cannot, therefore, 
have formed the originals of the figures 1), c. Nor are these 
characters displayed on the other specimen [C.5034] in the Strachey 
Collection. This is numbered in ink ‘“ 1082a,” and it also bears a small 
square white label, originally bearing the number “24,” but this has 
been crossed out and the number “1052a” substituted. There is 
no specimen in the collection agreeing with figs. la-c of pl. xii. 
Perhaps fig. la is in part a restoration of the example No. C. 5084, 
but this is far from certain. 

The larger of the two fragments from the “ Spiti Shales ” exhibits 
the suture-line somewhat indistinctly, but I do not think it could 
have furnished the drawing of the suture-line given either in pl. xi, 
fig. 1c or pl. xii, fig. le. 

8. AMMONITES TRIPLICATUS, J. Sowerby. 
(H. F. Blanford, in J. W. Salter & H. F. Blanford: Palewont. Niti, 1865, p. 80, 
pl. xiii, figs. 1a—c.) 

Professor Blanford says :—‘‘ This Ammonite is only distinguished 


1 Journ. As. Soe. Bengal, vol. xxxii, No. 2 (1863), p. 131, pl. iv, figs. 1, la, 10. 
According to F. Stoliczka, the type- specimen SOs pensiied in the Asiatic Society’ = 
collection, Calcutta ”’ (Mem. Geol. Surv. India, vol. v, 1866, p. 104, footnote). 

2 Pal. Mittheil., iy y (1863), p. 279, pl. Ixxviii, figs. la, d, Da, b, 

3 Paleont. Niti, 1865, p. 106. 


G. C. Crich—Strachey’s Cephalopoda from Himalaya. 69 


from the preceding by the fasciculate character of the ribs in adult 
Specimens, young shells of the two species being undistinguishable.” 
- Two specimens are represented on pl. xiii. Figs. la, b are the 
lateral and front views (reversed and somewhat restored) of the 
specimen in the British Museum collection bearing the register 
number C. 5042. This fossil was transferred from the Museum of 
Practical Geology, but there is neither one of that Museum’s labels 
nor any other original label with it, nor can I see any numbers 
written upon the fossil. But its agreement with Blanford’s figure 
cannot be doubted fora moment. ‘lhe author gave no dimensions 
of the fossil. The measurements are :—diameter of shell, 85 mm. ; 
height of outer whorl, 28mm.; thickness of outer whorl, 31 mm. ; 
width of umbilicus, 37°65 mm. The sutures are not shown. 

Fig. le has been drawn from a guttapercha cast of a natural 
mould; both the cast and the natural mould are in the national 
collection [Nos. C. 5031 and 5081a]. They were transferred from 
the Museum of Practical Geology, and are accompanied by one of 
that Museum’s labels as follows :—‘ Oolitic: Niti Pass. Ammonites 
biplex (Sow.). Coll. by Col. Strachey.” This was written in ink, 
but the word “ biplex ” has been crossed out in pencil, and above it 
has been written in pencil the name ‘triplicatus.” The fossil is 
clearly the original of Blanford’s figure, but this represents only 
a part of the specimen, and has been somewhat restored. 


9. Ammonites rorquatus, J. de C. Sowerby. 
(H. F. Blanford, in J. W. Salter & H. F. Blanford: Paleont. Niti, 1865, p. 80, 
no fig.) 

Professor Blanford’s observations on this species are as follows :— 

«The only character by which I can distinguish this species from 
A. biplex, Sow., are :—Its thicker and more depressed whorls, and 
a slight notching of the ribs above the siphuncle. These characters 
are exhibited by the typical Cutch specimens, as well as by those in 
Colonel Strachey’s cabinet, and also by the specimens described and 
figured by me, in the Spiti collection of Dr. Gerard. The distinctness 
of the notching and the depression of the whorls vary, however, in 
different specimens, and a more extensive comparison is requisite to 
decide whether A. torquatus be really distinct from A. biplea. 

“‘ Mr. Sowerby, in his description of the figured specimens from 
Cutch, states that they are distinct from ‘a Himalayan species,’ in 
having an ‘incurved inner margin.’ On comparison of the speci- 
mens, I can, however, detect no such difference, nor, indeed, any 
other than that the Himalayan specimens have uniformly more 
numerous (about 55) ribs than those from Cutch, which have 
about 45.” 

Among the specimens which were transferred from the Museum 
of Practical Geology as the Strachey Collection there are four 
examples [ Nos. C. 7676a—d] labelled “ Oolitic: Niti Pass. Ammonites 
torquatus (Sow.). Coll. by Col. Strachey ”; of these, three have the 
broad whorls characteristic of 4. torquatus, whilst the fourth has 
somewhat more compressed and more finely ornamented whorls 


70 Rev. EB. Hili—Stevn’s Klint, Denmark. 


and is certainly specifically distinct. The largest specimem 
[No. C. 7676a], a broad-whorled form, has scratched upon it the 
locality ‘‘ Lakur.” Its dimensions are :—diameter of shell, 59°5mm. ; 
height of outer whorl, 18-5 mm.; thickness of outer whorl, 31 mm. ;. 
width of umbilicus, 25°5mm. The largest specimen but one is 
a little better preserved, with sharper and somewhat coarser orna- 
ments, but is not such a broad-whorled form as will be seen from 
its dimensions, which are :—diameter of shell, 57-5 mm.; height of 
outer whorl, 17°56 mm.; thickness of outer whorl, 26°5 mm.; width: 
of umbilicus, 27°5 mm. 
(Lo be continued.) 


V.—Srevn’s Kuinv. 
By the Rey. EK. Hitt, M.A., F.G.S. 


HE fine cliff of Stevn’s Klint on the Danish coast is seldom. 
mentioned in English geological writings. As it presents 
a clean section several miles long of the uppermost Danish Chalk, 
and is easily visited in a day’s excursion from Copenhagen, a short 
sketch may have some interest for readers of this Magazine. It has 
none of the astonishing scenery displayed by the coasts of Moen 
and Riigen ; the land is level and bare, the cliff is not broken and 
not wooded : yet it possesses a prettiness of its own. 

A railway running south from Kjoge, a town south-west of 
Copenhagen, forks at Haarlev: the western branch leads to the 
famous inland quarry of Fakse,' the eastern to a coast hamlet called 
Rodvig. The Chalk in the cliff here is only a few feet high, but 
it rises in the eastward direction and may be followed along its- 
edge for the full length. Or the train may be left at Storre 
Hedinge, a little town with a respectable hotel, whence four miles 
of road lead to the cliff at Hojerup, where the section is most 
accessible. 

The ancient church here stands on the cliff, closer to the edge 
than those at Dunwich or Sidestrand, and, unlike those, in full use 
still. Guidebooks print a local legend that it would have fallen 
long ago but that every Christmas night it shifts itself a hands- 
breadth (hanefjed, a cock’s step) inland, to remain as_ before 
uninjured on the brink. 

The country traversed from Storre Hedinge is level, almost with- 
out undulation, to the cliff edge. The cliff section shows this to be 
the upper surface of Glacial Drift, here a somewhat earthy or silty 
clay, containing stones and occasional boulders up to a foot across. 
Clean sections are not very frequent. In these, as elsewhere in 
Baltic Drifts, there is sometimes an appearance of divisions; e.g., 
about 1 or 14 miles north of the Lighthouse I noted (in descending 
order): red earthy clay, 3 feet; light-brown, dry, cracked clay, with 
chalk and large boulders, 4 feet or more; pale chalky clay, tougher 
and less cracked, with more stones and flints, and with a boulder 


1 Commonly, but wrongly, Faxoe. See Grox. Maa., i901, p. 486. 


Rev. FE. Hili—Steen’s Klint, Denmark. ral 


at its base, 8 feet or more; then chalk: the line between the 
second and third members is sharp. One object of my visit was to 
examine whether any disturbances in the Chalk had affected over- 
lying beds. At Héjerup the upper surface of the Chalk is irregular, 
somewhat following the wavings of certain flint bands in it. There 
was a good section of a drift-filled hollow, where the drift showed 
an appearance of two members with streaks like bedding near the 
division. These streaks did not bend down into the hollow. If 
they marked beds, I concluded that here was a hollow filled by 
subsequent deposition, not Chalk with drift bent conjointly. The 
evidence would probably not have convinced a leader of opposition, 
but it will presently be seen that debate is silenced by a ‘ previous 
question.’ 

The Drift lies on an irregular surface of a white limestone, a rock 
which nothing I have seen in England represents or resembles. 
Nothing represents it, for here are the very highest beds of the 
Danish Chalk. Nothing resembles it, for we see white limestone 
seamed with bands of grey flint. Not flints, but flint (or ought 
I to say chert ?) in solid continuous sheets. The flint is as continuous 
as the thicker sheets of white limestone which it divides. The 
flint bands may reach as much as 8 inches in thickness, and at 
Héjerup there may be six or eight in about 25 or 80 feet vertical. 
Elsewhere they are often further apart and, I think, fewer. Their 
colour varies from light to dark grey. The limestone resembles 
clunch in colour and texture. It is extensively worked all along 
the cliff for building material. It is sawn on the spot into rectangular 
blocks, which are hoisted up to the cliff edge and carted inland for 
cottages and farm buildings. 

The flint bands in the limestone do not lie horizontal or straight. 
They undulate gently: I estimated one arc to have 50 feet of chord 
to 10 feet of vertical height (what when we studied Newton’s 
“Principia” we were taught to call Sagitta). While considering 
these undulations I gradually became aware that they were not 
always parallel. The wavy bands were not identically bowed and 
wavy; the intervals between them thickened and thinned ; here 
and there a band forked or died out. I had always supposed that 
flint beds marked original horizontal surfaces of deposition, but 
here were surfaces which hardly could have been all originally 
horizontal. Flint sometimes fills cracks and joints. I began to 
speculate on bowed surfaces of yielding to stress; segregation 
of silica along bending lines of weakness. But this would throw 
doubt on many conclusions, and undermine some theories, perhaps 
some of my own as well as others. While so “revolving sweet 
and bitter thoughts” my eye fell on a guidebook remark—“ Geologists 
regard the Fakse Chalk as a coral-reef.” Stevn’s Klint is only some 
fifteen miles from Fakse. So, after all, these waving layers, I suppose, 
do indicate surfaces of an old sea-floor, but an uneven one. 

I find that Ussing (‘Danmark’s Geologi,” p. 82) regards only 
a few inches near the base as representing the proper Fakse beds. 
He designates the 30 or 40 feet above as Limsten, and considers 


72 Rev. H. Hill—Stevn’s Klint, Denmark. 


this a deep-water deposit; though in earlier days Forchhammer 
had attributed the irregularity to shallowness and nearness to land. 
The series as a whole is designated the Newer Chalk. 

At the base of this Newer Chalk I noticed a few inches of 
brecciated rock, possibly the part said to represent the Fakse beds. 
All below is often hid by a talus-slope, some thirty or forty feet 
high. Where this has been cleared away there is exposed also 
chalk, but a different chalk. It is softer, whiter, and shows lines of 
flints (flints, not flint; the black nodules with white skins that 
we know so well in our cliffs of Albion). It is designated by the 
Danish geologists Writing Chalk (Skrivekalk, translating the 
German Schreibekalk). The boundary between it and the over- 
lying Newer Chalk is straight, and the lines of flints in it are 
straight also. This disposes of the question, mooted above, as to 
the origin of a drift-filled hollow. It shows that such hollow cannot 
be due to bending, for the Writing Chalk is not bent. My hope of 
evidence on the question whether the Drift has been affected by 
movements in underlying beds was destroyed. The chalk, however, 
has been slightly moved. A distant view of a long stretch of cliff, 
south of Hojerup, seemed to show a straight junction-line between 
the two chalks, with a straight line of flints in the lower, which rose 
northwards, approximating to the junction-line. (This would 
indicate some interval of time between the two.) Also, the top of 
the Writing Chalk, which at Hojerup is perhaps 30 feet above sea- 
level, some three miles north, at Eskesti, has risen to the top of the 
cliff, about 80 feet high. Though the Newer Chalk is absent 
there, it again caps the cliff a little further north, at Mandhoved 
Pynt, 120 feet high, the highest ground of the cliff. At Eskesti is 
an extensive quarry in which the straight parallel lines of flints are 
numerous and conspicuous. 

This lower Writing Chalk yields to the sea-waves, and leaves the 
Newer Chalk overhanging it as a great cornice along most of the 
cliff. In consequence the beach can seldom be reached except by 
aid of ladders. In five or six miles of cliff there were only five or 
six spots where I found paths continuous down to the sea. The 
waste, however, must be slow, as the legend quoted above will show. 
Signs of landslip were rare. Even gullies in the cliff edge were 
shallow and short; only one ran 100 yards inland. The contrast 
between this level platform and the broken surfaces of Méen and 
Riigen was as great as that of Riigen’s steeply dipping flint lines or 
Méen’s contorted and shattered strata with these even, regular beds. 
The three localities have, however, much in common. They are all 
Chalk mantled with Drift; they all face east; they all stand out 
into the Baltic, lofty bastions against its assault. 

The level strata of this cliff suggest one important reflection. 
Stevn’s Klint presents vertical faces, sometimes over 100 feet high, 
to the south, east, and north. I saw the greater part, and saw no 
dislocation or disturbance of beds. Not twenty miles off, across the 
sea, is the mainland of Sweden. Where were these cliffs when 
a Northern Ice-sheet advanced ? Or, what was the Northern Ice-sheet 


Rev. E. Hill—Stevn’s Klint, Denmark. 1G) 


when it advanced against these cliffs? Were the cliffs then safe 
beneath the sea? Or, was the ice-sheet accommodating and pliable ? 
The beds are undisturbed. ‘Facts bein’ stubborn and not easy 
drove,” says Mrs. Gamp. Was Stevn’s Klint stubborn? At any 
wate, it is a fact. 

A Tongue of Glacial Clay. 


At Rédvig, on the west side of its little port, the top of the Stevn’s 
Klint Chalk is only about eight feet above sea-level. Over it lies 
eight or ten feet of Glacial Clay. The line between Chalk and 
‘Clay was clean and clear, roughly but not perfectly level. At 
one spot a tongue of clay ran into the chalk, about twelve feet 
long, not more than three inches at its thickest. Such tongues are 
often to be seen at such junctions, but this attracted my attention. 
The cliff faced south; the point of the tongue was on my right hand, 
and its connection with the mass of clay on the left; the tongue 
therefore entered the chalk from the west. Any ice-sheet at this 
spot may have been moving from north or east, but no one would 
imagine a movement from the west. The tongue was not thrust in 
by an ice-sheet. 


clay 
a ere 


chalk 


Fie. 1.—Tongue of Clay in Chalk. 

In the clay of this tongue were two or three flints; one, pear- 
shaped with a narrow stem-end, had this narrow end imbedded in 
the lower surface of the chalk, while its thicker part extended nearly, 
but not quite, to the top of the clay. It was in siti, but any thrust 
would have displaced it. So this clay had not been introduced by 
thrust, neither had any horizontal pressure acted on the flint. 
The fissure filled with clay may have been made by solution of 
water percolating along a crack, or by repeated freezing and 
expanding of water in such a crack, or by some lifting of an attached 
cake of ice ; but certainly by no horizontal force. 


chalk 


clay 
chalk flint — flint 


Fic. 2.—Middle portion of above, enlarged. 
[Figures represent tracing of diagrams in notebook made on the spot. | 
It may be worth while to notice carefully such tongues elsewhere, 
in case some of them may afford evidences of their causes. Here 
the Danish Clay seems to have put out its tongue against a 
Baltic Glacier. 


74 Reviews—D. W. Freshfield— Round Kanchenjunga. 


Recent Ice-Transport. 

The following extract from a sixpenny Danish Tourist’s Guide- 
to Kjoge and Stevn’s Klint seems worth reproducing :—[Near 
Vemmetofte] ‘in the shore-wood there lies some distance from 
the water a vast block, called Musestenen, as large as a labourer’s. 
hut; in the severe winter of 1895 this was carried by the ice 
several hundred alen (al, about two feet) away from the water, 
inland.” 


D5¢, dal WA JE ast WA Se 


J.—Rounp Kanonensunea, A Narrative oF Mountain TRrAven. 
AND Expioration. By Doveras W. Fresurintp; with an 
Appendix on the Geology, etc., by Professor Garwoon, F.G.S. 
pp- xvi and 367; 42 illustrations and 8 maps. (London: Edwin. 
Arnold, publisher to H.M. India Office, 1903. Price 19s. nett.) 


HE somewhat restricted territory of Sikhim, lying as it does 
between the native Himalayan States of Nepal and Bhotan, is 
yet extensive enough to enable the European traveller to penetrate 
into the heart of the mountainous region of the eastern Himalayas, 
which is dominated by the stupendous mass of Kanchenjunga. The 
most ordinary globe-trotter nowadays can take his trip to Darjiling 
and there enjoy the world-famed view of the monarch of the Sikhim 
mountains. Nay, more, from a point in the neighbourhood easily 
accessible he may, under favourable circumstances, obtain a telescopic: 
view of the still mysterious Everest group, which the jealousy of 
the Khatmandu Government is reserving, perhaps, for the mountain- 
climbers of the middle of the twentieth century. 

Returning, however, to the subject of Kanchenjunga, it is one 
thing to admire a mountain, and another thing to go round it, as did 
Messrs. Freshfield, Garwood, and the Sellas, during the early Autumn 
of 1899. Mr. Freshfield is a mountaineer and traveller of great 
experience, and he states emphatically his conviction that nowhere 
else on the earth’s surface can there be found, within so small 
a radius, a combination of tropical luxuriance, sylvan beauty, and 
mountain sublimity equal to that which meets the traveller’s eyes 
among the valleys and highlands of Sikhim and Eastern Nepal. 
It is small wonder, therefore, that such a country should have 
attracted a certain amount of notice from previous writers. Of 
these he principally mentions two, viz. Sir J. D. Hooker and 
Major Waddell, both of whom have contributed largely, with pen 
and pencil, to the description of this wonderful region. There is. 
probably no one interested in ‘earth-science’ who has not at some 
time of his life read with delight ‘‘ Hooker’s Himalayan Journals,” 
written in the middle of the nineteenth century. With good reason 
has the author of the present work thought fit to dedicate it to 
«The pioneer of mountain travel in the eastern Himalayas,” whose 
graphic pages and characteristic illustrations are by no means. 
superseded even at the present day, whilst in the comparative- 


Reviews—D. W. Freshfield—Round Kanchenjunga. 75 


facility with which he could at that time travel in eastern Nepal 
he enjoyed advantages denied to more recent explorers. 

In the present case photography has largely contributed to the 
value of “ Round Kanchenjunga,” and for most of these illustrations 
the author is indebted to Signor Vittorio Sella, who had previously 
proved his skill as a mountain photographer in the Alps, in the 
Caucasus, and in Alaska. Prints of the original photographs have 
already been in the hands of the public, and some of the illus- 
trations have appeared in scientific periodicals. As regards maps, 
Mr. Freshfield complains of the inadequate delineation of the 
glaciers of Kanchenjunga. <“ Hven Sir Joseph Hooker,” he says, 
“had not approached near enough to it to explore its glaciers, which 
had consequently never been described by any competent hand ; 
while many of them had never been visited by Englishmen. In 
the sheets of official surveys they had been alternately ignored 
and caricatured. There was no map in existence which even 
pretended to show the snows and glaciers of the region on any 
system recognized in modern scientific surveys.” Consequently we 
are presented with what Mr. Freshfield considers a glacier-map of 
Sikhim should be, and in the construction of this he has mainly 
been indebted to his companion Professor Garwood. This map is 
a well-executed piece of work, and we doubt not that it attains to 
a fair accuracy of detail in those glacier-basins which the travellers. 
themselves explored. 

So far as we are aware, no glacier region of the Himalayas has. 
been more characteristically delineated, and certainly in the eastern 
Himalayas nothing approaching the execution of this glacier-map 
of Kanchenjunga has ever been attempted. The topography of this: 
huge mountain-knot, the ridge and valley system, the crests that 
are crowned with perpetual snow, and the hollows that are filled with 
ever-moving ice, all are brought out in a way which should rejoice 
the chartographer. Roughly speaking, Kanchenjunga is a gigantic 
cross, where a north and south ridge intersects with an east and 
west ridge. The north summit of Kanchenjunga, 28,150 feet, results 
from the intersection of the northern aréte, whose buttress may be 
taken as the Pyramid, 23,350 feet, with the very crooked western 
aréte, whose buttress is the wonderful mountain Jannu, 25,300 feet. 
The southern summit of Kanchenjunga, 27,280 feet, distant rather 
less than a mile from its neighbour, results from the intersection 
of the southern aréte, whose buttress is Kabru, 24,115 feet, with the 
eastern aréte, whose buttress may be taken as Simvu, 22,300 feet ; 
or, if we extend the point a little further to the eastward, we reach 
Siniolchum, 22,570 feet, a most picturesque mountain, which serves 
both Waddeil and Freshfield for a frontispiece. In the hollows 
between these arétes we have, on the east, the gigantic Zemu glacier, 
on the north-west the Kanchenjunga glacier, on the south-west 
the Yalung glacier, on the south-east the Talung glacier,—all four, 
not to speak of minor ice-flows, radiating from the central massif 
of Kanchenjunga. 

The first attempt of the party to round the mountain was by way 
of the Zemu glacier, and they attained an elevation towards the 


76 Reviews—D. W. Fresh field—Round Kanchenjunga. 


upper part of this immense mer de glace, which placed them face 
to face with its precipitous eastern cliffs. At that time it would 
seem that one of their possible objectives was to cross a depression 
in the northern aréte, known as the Nepal gap, 21,000 feet, and so 
descend on the western or Nepal side. All these hopes were 
frustrated by an unprecedented snowstorm, and ultimately they 
had to make a long detour north-eastwards into the Lhonak valley, 
where the lines of the landscape are those of an ice-protected region. 
“The gentle, smooth surfaces of the lower slopes are obviously 
due to their long protection by snow and ice from the destructive 
agencies of air and water, and the rapid alternations of frost and 
heat that have carved out the loftier ridges and deeper valleys 
further south. It is a land of moraines, the monuments of departed 
or diminished glaciers. Their vast dykes stretch along the hill- 
sides or cross the valleys, enclosing flats that were first glacier-basins 
and afterwards lake-basins.” Further on he says of the Lhonak 
landscape: ‘The rock surfaces are protected by a coverlet of snow, 
formerly permanent, even now raised only for a few weeks in the 
year. The action of water is consequently insignificant. The 
process of valley formation is checked, and the hillsides are scored 
by no deep lateral ravines.” This is a valuable lesson in rock 
erosion which geologists may gladly accept from so experienced 
a mountaineer as Mr. Freshfield. 

After toilsome journeyings in this region the party began to 
approach the continuation of the northern ridge or aréte of Kanchen- 
gunja, taking to the ice once more at a considerable elevation, and 
gradually working their way upwards until they attained a height 
of 20,207 feet on the Jonsong La, on whose further side they had 
their first peep into Nepal. This was the supreme moment. It 
was doubtful if their native guide had ever been there before, whilst 
the prospect on the western side of the pass had all the appearance 
of an appalling eul de sac, whose possible outlet was completely 
concealed by the sinuosities of its containing walls. ‘ Lasciate 
ogni speranza voi, che’ntrate” might well have been the feeling 
of some members of the expedition, but the stern determination of 
the leader prevailed, and down they all went into the abyss. 

They were presently rewarded, however, by a view of the north- 
western face of Kanchenjunga, hitherto unseen by European eyes. 
“ From this point of view,” the author says, “as from all others, except 
the Guicha La, it appears as a colossal screen; but here, in place of 
gigantic rock precipices, it shows a snowy face.” Continuing their 
descent, they obtained evidence that the gorge they were traversing 
had an opening into the lower world, and they ultimately encamped 
at an angle known as Pangperma, where they found themselves 
face to face with the glacier which descends directly from Kanchen- 
junga and joins the one by whose course they had come down. 
From this point was obtained the famous panoramic photograph 
which faces p. 172, and which may be regarded as a complete 
picture of the Kanchenjunga group as seen from the north-west. 
Continuing down the gorge of the Kangchen river, they passed from 
the U-shaped valley of ice erosion into the V-shaped valley of water 


Reviews—D. W. Fresh field—Round Kanchenjunga. ai 


action, and finally reached the inhabited village of Khunza, where 
the party found themselves on Hooker’s track of fifty years ago. 
Having thus far stolen a march on the Nepalese authorities, it was | 
advisable to return into Sikhim as quickly as possible. This was 
effected by way of the Chunjerma pass, immortalized by Hooker 
in his famous view of Jannu, and finally by way of the Kang La, 
16,313 feet, where they crossed the continuation of the southern 
ridge into territory under British protection. From Jongri they 
reconnoitred the southern approaches of Kanchenjunga. 

Professor Garwood contributes an appendix on the geological 
structure and physical features of Sikhim, which country, he says, 
consists entirely of crystalline rocks for the most part of a uniform 
and commonplace type. But to the physical geographer and 
petrologist the country is rich in suggestive facts, whilst the 
theoretical problems raised must await a more detailed survey. He 
does full justice to the accuracy of Hooker’s original observations, 
and refers to attempts which have been made by Sherwill and 
others to study the geology of the region. He has prepared what 
he calls “ material for a geological map of Sikhim,” which is, im 
fact, a good unshaded topographical map with the local geological 
features marked in red ink. 

Limiting our remarks to the western side of the deep Teesta 
valley, and more especially to the neighbourhood of Kanchenjunga, 
we note the prevailing dips to be about east-north-east, the rocks: 
denoted being mainly varieties of gneiss with some mica-schists and 
quartzites. Frequently it happens that the higher grounds present 
the smallest degree of inclination. Thus, on or near Jannu dips to 
the eastward of 5° and 10° are noted. The curious rock-tower on 
the summit of Jannu, judging from pictures, has almost the appear- 
ance of a horizontal sedimentary series, but since the actual nature 
of the rock is probably unknown the appearance taken for dip may 
be deceptive. Selecting another buttress of the central massif, viz. 
Kabru, this is marked as augen-gneiss dipping east-north-east 20°. 
The mighty precipices north-east of Kanchenjunga towards the 
head of the Zemu glacier are marked as ‘fine gneiss, intrusive 
sheets of white granite and pegmatite,” dipping 5° to the westward. 
On the other hand, very high dips, approaching the vertical, are 
noted towards the termination of the Zemu glacier in rock described 
as “oneiss with pegmatite.” This, of course, is in a comparatively 
low position ; we likewise notice in the principal valley of Lhonak 
dips of 30° to the southwards in quartzose gneiss. Again, in the 
deep valleys of the Rangit river-system, between Darjiling and 
Jongri, are shown high dips in all directions, though not seldom to 
the westwards, in mica-schists and gneiss. In these crystalline 
rocks the observed dip is more or less an unknown quantity ; 
nevertheless, in the sedimentary beds of portions of the north-west 
Himalayas the feature of high dips in the valleys and lower dips on 
the hill-tops is by no means uncommon. 

The petrology of Kanchenjunga and its buttresses is made out 
partly by way of inference from boulders in the moraines, and 


78 Reviews—D. W. Freshfield—Round Kanchenjunga. 


partly from observations in siti. No one, we presume, has hitherto 
closely approached the actual throne of the monarch, which probably 
consists of fine white or grey granite in a setting of augen-gneiss, 
which latter is by far the most abundant rock variety throughout 
the immediate vicinity of this mountain mass. Of actual granite 
the indications are by no means numerous. During the descent 
of the Jonsong glacier the party had good opportunities for observing 
the northern precipices of Kanchenjunga. “In their lower portion, 
at all events, they appear to be formed of massive augen-gneiss 
penetrated by pegmatites, these being the only rocks found on the 
moraines of the Kanchenjunga glacier. Sometimes the gneiss is 
finer and contains hornblende, but this mineral is absent from the 
Kanchenjunga gneiss, and it is probable that the hornblende-bearing 
variety belongs to a different rock into which the augen-gneiss is 
intruded. This gneiss forms the cliffs of the Kangbachen and 
Khunza valleys, and is recorded by Hooker as occurring also further 
west in the Yangma valley as far north as he penetrated. The same 
rocks again appear to form the massive walls of Jannu, and to 
stretch south-east to Kabru and the Guicha La.” This class of rock 
Professor Garwood regards as a foliated granite intrusion. Its 
composition is simple, consisting almost entirely of porphyritic eyes 
of white orthoclase embedded in a foliated matrix of biotite, quartz, 
and plagioclase felspar. Crystals of tourmaline, hornblende, and 
garnet are invariably absent from the typical augen rock, but are 
plentiful in the pegmatites associated with it. 

‘here remains one more subject for consideration with reference 
to the geology of this region, viz. the absence of specifically recog- 
nizable fossils, although there are evidences of altered limestones 
in connection with the gneissic masses. Three distinct and widely 
separated localities are marked on the geological map as follows :— 

(1) In the far north-east, near the Donkhya Pass and Cholamo 
Juake, where Hooker observed *“‘ fossil limestone, much foliated and 
faulted; blue pisolitic conglomerate; shale and iron pyrites, some 
crystalline with encrinites, and (?) nummulites too altered for 
determination.” This is at an elevation of over 18,000 feet on the 
borders of Thibet. 

(2) Still on the Thibetan frontier, near the Chortenima La, which 
has an elevation of 18,650 feet, and only a little to the north of 
the track to the Jonsong Pass, are ‘‘ altered limestones with Crinoid 
stems; sandstone altered into quartzites, and tourmaline-calcite 
rocks.” One might be inclined to believe that these are limestones 
of Carboniferous age which have undergone alteration from contact 
with an igneous mass. Supposing them to be Carboniferous and 
not Eocene limestones, their presence has no particular bearing 
on the age of this part of the Himalayan uplift, though there is no 
reason to suppose that such uplift is otherwise than Tertiary in date. 

(3) On the western slopes of Pandim (22,020 feet) we find 
indicated on the map “metamorphic sedimentary rock, with 
intrusive pegmatites and hornblende gneiss.” These appearances 
had already been described by Hooker from a distance as looking 


Reviews—T. Mellard Reade—Earth Structure. 79 


like a stratified series into which veins of igneous rock had been 
injected—an inference much to the credit of his powers of observance, 
the more so since the feature seems to have escaped the notice of. 
subsequent investigators. The rocks of this series show great 
variety in hand specimens, but two types predominate, one of which 
as of considerable mineralogical interest. Under the microscope 
this green-bedded rock is found to contain, in addition to garnet and 
epidote, a considerable quantity of scapolite and white augite, which 
latter is plentiful together with numerous crystals of sphene. 
“The abundance of scapolite in an undoubtedly altered calcareous 
shale is perhaps the most noteworthy feature of this rock.” Thus 
we find that if this metamorphic series has so far contributed nothing 
organic which might throw any light on its age or origin, yet as 
a contact rock it produces a greater variety of minerals than the 
more massive gneisses which surround it. 

The general conclusion to which Professor Garwood arrives is, 
that the bulk of the gneiss, and particularly the augen-gneiss, must 
be regarded as an igneous rock, and he is disposed to attribute the 
metamorphism of the sedimentary series directly to its intrusion. 
‘The evidence is in favour of the sedimentary series, in two cases 
at least, being of Paleozoic age, and he suggests that the gneiss was 
intruded as a huge laccolitic mass during the folding which accom- 
panied the elevation of the range. Such a fan-like fold would help 
to account for the inverted dip of the beds towards the roots of the 
‘chain, a feature which seems to be in accordance with the inward 
dip of the foot-hills in parts of the north-west Himalayas. 

We Ee 


i].—Tue Evorution or Barra Structure, WITH A THEORY OF 
GEOMORPHIC CHANGES. By T. Metiarp Reaps, F.G.S., etc. 
pp- Xv, 342, with forty plates. (London: Longmans, Green, &Co., 
1908. Price 21s. net.) 


'{\HE volume before us may be taken as the sum and substance 
of the author’s observations and conclusions with respect to 
the structure of the earth, the changes which the rocks have 
undergone, and the origin of the movements which have effected 
the earth’s crust. While he claims that “Nearly the whole of 
the matter is original, and the greater part quite novel,” it is 
understood that this applies to work that has extended over some- 
thing like forty years, and that much has previously been printed 
in Journals and Proceedings of Scientific Societies, in his essay 
on “Chemical Denudation in relation to Geological Time” (1879), 
and in his volume on “The Origin of Mountain Ranges considered 
experimentally, structurally, dynamically, and in relation to their 
Geological History”? (1886). This last work was reviewed by 
the Rev. Osmond Fisher in the GzorogicaL Magazine for 1887 
(pp. 229-233). 
The present work is divided into three ‘books,’ of which the first 
deals with geomorphic changes. he subject is illustrated by 
a useful diagram, drawn to scale, showing half the sphere ; with 


80 Reviews—T. Mellard Reade—Earth Structure. 


(1) its interior spheroid or nucleus, ‘considered by many physicists 
to be mainly iron,” (2) a 500-mile zone or shell of igneous magma, 
and (8) the lithosphere, 30 miles thick. The ten-mile zone of 
elevation and depression is shown by a strong line; within it “alk 
the denudations, depositions, depressions, and elevations of the 
surface of our planet take place.” A diagram of this kind is always. 
useful. We have one before us now, printed in 1851, by James 
Nasmyth. It represents an arc of a circle 64 feet in diameter on 
which are indicated the relative magnitude of several mountains, 
the deepest mine, and the probable mean elevation of dry land. 
Nasmyth rightly remarked that ‘“‘ In contemplating Geological 
Phenomena, nothing more directly aids the mind in arriving at 
correct conclusions than the useful practice of comparing the 
magnitude of all such phenomena to that of the Earth itself.” 

Mr. Mellard Reade starts with the recorded instances of elevation 
and depression, making special though brief reference to those of 
Pleistocene and later times, such as Raised beaches, Submerged 
forests, and ‘Drowned valleys.’ These in some cases may have 
been contemporaneous; the 40 ft. beach at Irvine. in Ayrshire, 
being linked with a 10ft. beach in the Isle of Man, and with 
a depression on the shores of the Bristol Channel. In other cases 
the evidence of ‘raised beaches,’ which indicate a former submersion 
of four or five thousand feet, requires confirmation. 

Admitting movements of 1,000 feet, the author proceeds to show 
that these oscillations of level cannot be due mainly to the shifting 
of weight by denudation and sedimentation, thongh such changes 
exert influence in combination with other agencies. He believes 
that the relative proportions of land and water have been fairly 
constant throughout the ages, and that regional changes of level 
are due to alterations in the bulk of certain portions of the lithosphere 
without movement in mass. 

The researches of various observers on the diffusion of metals, 
the differentiation of igneous magmas, the effects of temperature 
and pressure, and the change of physical properties and of volume 
with changed conditions, show that “the conception of the earth 
simply as an divert mass cooling in space is a fallacious one.” 

In his “ Origin of Mountain Ranges ” the author maintained that 
as the volcanic pipes from which lava emissions proceed are probably 
in communication with the subterranean heated matter, there would 
necessarily be some mixture of material differing in constitution and 
thermal condition. Consequent upon internal changes, the volumes 
and specific gravities of the mineral masses of the lithosphere would 
be subject to increase and decrease over large sections of the 
globe. Increase of volume by expansion would lead to continental 
uplifts, while the ‘deeps’ of the ocean would be depressions below 
the true spheroid, due to the superior density and less volume of 
the underlying masses of the earth. 

On the other hand, the expansions and contractions to which 
mountain-building is due “are mostly lateral and intermittent, 
creating creeps of the lithosphere and surface rocks, ending in the 


Reviews—T. Mellard Reade— Earth Structure. 81 


folding and permanent ridging-up and corrugations of the earth’s 
surface.” These movements, it is held, may be initiated by a long 
course of sedimentation, causing a sinking of the sea-bed. 

In connection with this subject the author points out that 
‘“‘a depression of the ocean bottom will draw the waters from the 
land and increase the land areas, while a rise of the sea-bed will 
cause a transgression of the oceanic water over the land.” Here 
it may be remarked that in 1868 Mr. H. B. Medlicott observed that 
“The assumption of the absolute permanence of the sea-level (that 
its level has permanently maintained the same radial distance from 
the centre of the earth) has quietly taken the position almost of 
a postulate in geological induction. The notion is inconsistent with 
any progressionist doctrine, essentially so with Laplace’s theory.” * 
Mr. Mellard Reade. however, sees no evidence of enormous con- 
traction of the earth’s radius, although he observes that “‘in every 
known instance where proof is possible, the continents are at lower 
levels now with respect to the sea than they were on some former 
occasions during their lengthened history.” The explanation given 
in these cases is that there has been a rise of portions of the floor 
of the ocean basins. 

After referring to the persistence of certain lithologic characters in 
formations over wide areas, notably among the Carboniferous, Triassic, 
and Oolitic groups, the author remarks that the land areas grow 
by accretion from existing land, the ruins of former continents 
having added to their extent, and thereby securing the continuity 
of land areas throughout geologic time. ‘That ‘“‘ New lands are the 
consequents of sedimentary loading and recurrent expansion” is 
a subject he dealt with in his “ Origin of Mountain Ranges.” 

Turning to the sub-oceanic configuration, the author gives reasons 
for believing that the bed of the Atlantic is not a plain, “ but 
a diversified surface like that of the dry land, and that a large 
portion of it has at some former. geological age been carved out by 
sub-aerial agencies.” These diversified contours lie beyond the 
continental shelves, which are mainly sedimentary. 

In Book ii the author discusses the dynamics of mountain structure 
and experimental geology, a subject more fully treated in his work 
on the “Origin of Mountain Ranges.” Herein he brings to bear 
his experience as an architect and engineer, and the practical 
experiments he has made combine to give weight to his conclusions. 
The results of experiments are depicted in numerous plates, illus- 
trating compression, shearing, and contortion of various kinds. 
Microscopic sections of rocks are also given. The time has perhaps 
long passed when anyone would sympathize with Ramsay, who 
(in 1877), while A. Geikie and J. Clifton Ward were examining 
thin slices of rock under the microscope, exclaimed, “I cannot see 
of what use these slides can be toa field-man. I don’t believe in 
looking at a mountain with a microscope.” * 


1 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxiv, p. 37. 
2 “Memoir of Sir A. C. Ramsay,” by Sir A. Geikie, 1895, p. 343. 


DECADE V.—YOL. I.—NO. II. 6 


82 Reviews—Scottish Carboniferous Rocks. 


The author rightly seeks help from all quarters, and as a result 
of his deliberations he maintains that if a belt of rocks of varied 
character and some miles in thickness be subjected to fluctuating 
increases in temperature, then both vertical and horizontal expansion 
will ensue; but the principal forces will act horizontally. He 
points out the stresses and strains, the shearing, the faults and 
foldings, and the torsion-structure that would be produced by 
complex movements; and he observes that slaty cleavage is always 
accompanied by mineral changes in the body of the rock, which give 
the foliaceous character and supply the necessary cement to bind the 
overlapping constituent grains. 

His experimental investigations lead to the belief that the forces 
affecting the earth’s crust have been gradually applied, “ that 
mountain ranges are built up by gradual and successive creeps, 
and that a sudden release of pent-up forces takes place on a scale not 
larger than what is experienced in a great earthquake.” 

Book iii comprises Reprints, Speculations, and Closing Remarks. 
Here the author refers to the supposed permanence of oceans and 
continents. While the very slowness of the processes has given 
practical permanency to the main features, yet “The conclusion is 
forced upon us that movements and interchanges of such magnitude 
have occurred in the distribution of the oceans and land masses 
during geologic time that it would be a misnomer to call them 
‘permanent’ . . . . the changes are essentially forms of 
development, the permanence is that of land connection.” 

The volume is not one which can be looked upon as eminently 
readable or popular, nor on the whole is the subject-matter well 
arranged; but it comprises a mass of valuable data and of con- 
clusions based upon observation and experiment that cannot fail 
to be of service to every student of ‘Geomorphology’ and to aid 
materially in the elucidation of the subject. 


I]].— Recent RESEARCHES ON THE ScorrisH CARBONIFEROUS Rocks. 


1.—On the distribution of fossil Fish-remains in the Carboniferous 
rocks of the Edinburgh district. By Ramsay H. Traquatr, M.D., 
LL.D., F.R.S. Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xl, pt. 3, pp. 687-707, 
with two plates (tables of strata). 


2.—The Canonbie Coalfield: its geological structure and relations 
to the Carboniferous rocks of the north of England and central 
Scotland. By B. N. Peaca, LL.D., F.R.S., and J. Horns, LL.D., 
F.R.S.  Ibid., pt. 4, pp. 885-877, with four plates. 


‘fTVHE appointment in 1895 of a Committee of the British Association 
I to inquire into the possibility of dividing the Carboniferous 
rocks of Britain into life-zones, and the special researches of 
Dr. Wheelton Hind on the mollusca, of Dr. Traquair on the fishes, 
and of Mr. Kidston and Mr. Newell Arber on the plants, have 
aroused exceptional interest in the subdivisions of the Carboniferous 
system, and in the correlation of these divisions in different areas. 
A great deal has been learned, and while the two papers before us 


Reviews—Scottish Carboniferous Rocks. 83 


form substantial contributions to our knowledge, “there is abundance 
of room,” as Dr. Traquair observes, for further investigation. 

In dealing with the Carboniferous fish-remains of the Edinburgh 
district, Dr. Traquair remarks on the general similarity in the . 
lithological characters and in the facies of the organic remains of 
the Scottish strata, which in mass are of estuarine origin. Hlsewhere 
in Britain the Upper Carboniferous rocks are also mainly of 
‘estuarine’ or ‘lagoon’ formation, but the Lower, except in the 
extreme north of England, are almost as exclusively marine in their 
origin; and in this grouping Dr. Traquair takes the Millstone Grit as 
the base of the Upper division. His researches, which have extended 
over a period of thirty years, show that in the Edinburgh district 
different assemblages of estuarine fishes characterize the two Car- 
boniferous divisions. Indeed, it is remarkable that not one of the 
species from the Upper Carboniferous rocks ‘‘can safely be identified 
as occurring in the rocks below; we have evidently got into quite 
a new ichthyological stage.” 

Further, the Lower Carboniferous fish-remains found in the 
limestones of open-sea origin differ from those occurring in the 
estuarine beds, and belong to the marine fish-fauna characteristic 
of the Mountain Limestone of Hngland and Ireland. Rarely is 
there any commingling of these types of fishes. At the same time 
the number of marine species is greater and of estuarine species 
less in the Lower Carboniferous series of Lanarkshire and Ayrshire, 
than in the rocks of the Lothians and Fifeshire. 

Turning to the evidence obtained in other areas, Dr. Tagen 
points out that, whether in Northumberland, Yorkshire, or North 
Staffordshire, nearly all the common Upper Carboniferous estuarine 
fishes have a wide range in the Coal-measures, so that “it is 
not possible to divide these strata into ichthyological life-zones.’ 
Elsewhere also he finds a great difference between the species which 
occur below and above the Millstone Grit. “Only two species can 
with certainty be named as common to the two divisions, namely, 
Callopristodus pectinatus and Acrolepis Hopkinst.” 

In the Scottish Millstone Grit no determinable fish-remains have 
been found, but among the fishes recorded by Mr. EH. D. Wellburn 
from this division in Yorkshire and Lancashire, there are both 
Lower Carboniferous marine species and Upper Carboniferous 
estuarine species. The occurrence of the latter in the Millstone 
‘Grit coincides with the evidence of the plants, which according to 
Mr. Kidston “are entirely Upper Carboniferous in aspect.” 
Dr. Traquair is thus led to ask, ‘‘ Did the marine fish-fauna of the 
Carboniferous epoch change less rapidly than that of the estuaries 
and lagoons ?”’ 

The fact, however, remains that a great and wide-spread change 
took place in the fish-fauna at about the time of the Millstone Grit. 

Dr. Traquair directs attention to a peculiar fish-fauna in the 
estuarine Lower Carboniferous beds of Eskdale. At Glencartholm, 
near Langholm, more than thirty species of fishes have been obtained, 
and of these only one, Tristychius minor, is found in the Lower 


84 Reviews—A. G. M. Thomson—Old Red Sandstone. 


Carboniferous beds of Central Scotland. On this interesting point, 
which Dr. Traquair leaves unexplained, we turn to the later paper 
by Dr. Peach and Dr. Horne. These authors deal with the 
structure of the Canonbie Coalfield, which occupies a small tract 
between the Liddel Water and the river Esk in the south-eastern 
part of Dumfries-shire. They describe the Glencartholm shales as. 
occurring in a volcanic group, above the Fell Sandstones, and 
probably below the horizon of the Scremerston coals of the eastern 
border counties. The shales form a rich palzontological zone, which 
was discovered by Mr. A. Macconochie, and found to contain a large: 
number of new genera and species, including plants, brachiopods, 
lamellibranchs, cephalopods, scorpions, eurypterids, ostracods and 
other crustacea, as well as fishes. The zone has not elsewhere 
been detected, but some of the many species have been found in the 
Calciferous Sandstone group elsewhere in Scotland, and Dr. Peach 
is confident that other species will likewise be found away from 
the Canonbie district. 

In their description of this district the authors begin with the 
Old Red Sandstone, which has yielded scales of Holoptychius ; and 
they then give details of the strata and fossils of the Lower and 
Upper Carboniferous, the Millstone Grit being taken as the base 
of the Upper division. Workable coals occur at various horizons 
above the Glencartholm beds; and some estimates are given of 
the coal-supply in concealed portions of the area. The work is well 
illustrated by a coloured geological map and sections, and it contains 
an exhaustive account of what is known of the area from a scientific 
and practical point of view. 


IV.— Tue Positron oF THE OxLp Rep SANDSTONE IN THE 
GwrotocicaL Succrssion. By A. G. M. Txomson, F.G.S. 8vo; 
pp. vi, 224. (Dundee: John Leng & Co., 1903.) 


fW\HIS book is divided into five sections, but otherwise it has no 

headings, no illustrations, no details of sections, not even an 
index. The object of the author is to suggest “certain hypotheses, 
well supported by circumstantial evidence,’ and he proceeds to 
state that ‘These hypotheses, in the first place, are intended to 
show that the conditions under which the Old Red Sandstone was 
produced may not have been of the character of inland lakes without 
free connection with the sea; and, in the second place, that the 
conditions which produced the Old Red Sandstone may not have 
begun only after the close of the conditions which produced the 
youngest of the Silurian beds, nor have terminated before the date 
of deposition of the oldest of the Carboniferous beds.” 

The entire work appears to us to be a case of much ado about 
nothing. There is not a single reference to any other published 
view, otherwise the author might have spared himself the long and 
laboured arguments to support hypotheses with which perhaps. 
a good many geologists would be inclined to agree. He might at 
any rate have fortified himself with reference to Hypothesis No. 1 
by quoting the Rev. W. 8. Symonds, ‘“‘ Records of the Rocks,” 1872, 


Reviews—T. Sheppard—Geological Rambles, E. Yorkshire. 85 


p. 215, and Professor Hull, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., xxxviii, 205. 
With regard to his second Hypothesis, the passage between Silurian 
and Old Red Sandstone and between Old Red Sandstone and Carbon- 
iferous has been pointed out by numerous geologists, although the 
evidence of passage between Silurian and Old Red Sandstone in 
South Wales and Monmouthshire has not been confirmed by the 
recent work of the Geological Survey. 

The author dwells a good deal on “the suddenness with which 
vertebrate life, in well-developed types, appears within the British 
area in the uppermost beds of the Silurian system,” and in order to 
make clear his phraseology he adopts ‘the rather awkward specific 
terms of, respectively, ‘ Prevertebrate Silurian,’ ‘ Vertebrate Silurian,’ 
«Prevertebrate Old Red,’ and ‘Vertebrate Old Red,’ as also the 
generic terms ‘ Prevertebrate Paleozoic’ and ‘ Vertebrate Palzo- 
zoic.” He recognizes that certain “‘ Prevertebrate Old Red’ 
fresh-water, or, at least, brackish-water estuarine areas, were devoid 
of animal life,” but maintains that some of these basal beds “ were 
being formed when ‘ Prevertebrate Silurian’ sediments were being 
laid down beyond the limits of the estuaries, and therefore under 
marine conditions.” Here, as in other cases, we fail to find the 
precise evidence which would make the author’s contentions of 
value, and we regret that we cannot recommend the work as 
likely to prove either attractive to our readers or of serious help to 
students. We can, in fact, only wonder why such a work has been 
published. 


Y.—GeronogicaL Rampies in Hast Yorxsuire. By Tomas 
Suepparp, F.G.S., Curator of the Municipal Museum, Hull. 
8vo; pp. xi, 235, with geological map and many illustrations. 
(London: A. Brown & Sons [1903 ].) 


TT\HERE are few districts that can offer so many attractions to 

the geologist and to the collector of fossils as that described in 
this volume. From Spurn Head to Redcar, a good deal beyond the 
limits of the geological map of the Hast Riding which accompanies 
this work, the author takes us in a series of rambles; and under his 
guidance we see and learn much about the Recent and Pleistocene 
-deposits, the White and Red Chalk, the Speeton Clay, the many 
divisions of the Oolites, and the Lias of Robin Hood’s Bay, Whitby, 
and Redcar. The information is imparted in a pleasant style, and 
is thoroughly ‘up to date,’ due regard being paid to the work of the 
geologists of old, to William Smith, Young and Bird, John Phillips 
and Leckenby (though we miss a reference to Martin Simpson), as 
well as to that of Judd, Tate and Blake, Hudleston, Fox-Strangways, 
Reid, Lamplugh, Kendall, Stather, and others. The author himself, 
too, has laboured with much enthusiasm on the geology of the newer 
deposits, and we can cordially recommend his book as a handy and 
reliable guide to this interesting region. The work is well illus- 
trated, and mostly from photographs. There is a good index, but 
curiously enough no date is affixed to the volume. 


86 Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London. 


Rr PORTS Aas) re @ Caen hee Se 


——————— 


J.—GEeroLoGIcAL Soorety or Lonpon. 


J.— December 2nd, 1903.—Sir Archibald Geikie, D.C.L., D.Se., 
Sec. R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair. The following com- 
munications were read :— 


1. “Notes on the Garnet-bearing and Associated Rocks of the 
Borrowdale Volcanic Series.” By the late Edward Eaton Walker, 
Esq., B.A., B.Sc. (Communicated by J. E. Marr, Esq., M.A., F.B.S., 
F.G.8.) 


The first portion of the paper is occupied with an account of various. 
intrusive rocks. A detailed description of sills and dykes of garnet- 
bearing rocks in the Langstrath Valley is given; and similar rocks. 
are described occurring as dykes and sills around the Eskdale granite 
and the Buttermere granoplhyre, and also in the Armboth-Helvellyn 
area. These rocks vary in degree of acidity. They consist of diabase, 
porphyrite, and granophyre. Evidence of their characters being 
dependent upon differentiation accompanied by some absorption is 
offered. They appear to be related to the Eskdale and Buttermere 
masses of intrusive rocks. 

The volcanic rocks are next considered. Garnets are found in the 
Falcon Crag Group, in a group of rocks below the great banded 
ashes and breccias of the Scawfell Group, and in the rocks of the 
Scawfell Group itself; but do not seem to occur, except as the result 
of contact-metamorphism, in the Eycott Group. The most interesting 
garnetiferous volcanic rocks are those which occur below the Scawfell 
ashes and breccias. These rocks often have a streaky structure 
which exhibits four distinct types: resulting from (a) infiltration 
along planes of weakness, (6) lamination of ash, (c) flow of igneous 
material, and (d) dynamic action on included fragments. The rocks 
are not intrusive, but consist of lavas and ashes, often exhibiting 
alternating bands of rhyolite and andesite. 

The banded ashes of the Scawfell Group also contain garnets. 

In the Haweswater district there is an intercalation of rocks of the 
Eycott type with rocks possessing the ‘streaky’ structure. This 
intercalation appears to be original, and not the result of subsequent 
earth-movements. 

The garnets are of the almandine type. They often have a ring 
of felspar around them, which, when the intrusive rocks are studied, 
suggests that the mineral is original ; but similar rings occur around 
garnets in the ashes, showing that the felspars may be formed in 
solid rock. In certain ashes of the Haweswater district, the existence 
of cavities in the garnets suggests a metamorphic origin for the 
mineral, but it is difficult to understand how the metamorphism has. 
been produced. 

The paper closes with a description of certain undoubted meta- 
morphic changes. 


Reports and Proceedings— Geological Society of London. 87 


2. “A Contribution to the Glacial Geology of Tasmania.” By 
Professor J. Walter Gregory, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.GS. 

On reading the literature on the glaciation of Tasmania, the author 
came to the conclusion that, except for such traces of high-level — 
glacial action as those of Mount Sedgwick recorded by HE. J. Dunn 
and T. B. Moore, and those near the summit of Mount Ida recorded 
by Officer, Balfour, and Hogg, the evidence consisted of material 
that was either not of glacial origin or was due to glacial action at 
some upper Paleozoic date. After giving a detailed analysis of the 
previous contributions to this subject, the author describes the 
evidence obtained by himself personally in the northern portion of 
the island. The town of Gormanston stands on a glacial moraine of 
recent geological age, formed later than the excavation of the Linda 
Valley, and occurring as a bank projecting from the southern side of 
the valley and nearly damming it across. The moraine is composed 
of typical Boulder-clay, and behind it are bedded clays which 
probably accumulated in a glacier-lake above the moraine-dam. An 
erratic of fossiliferous limestone, 43 by 33 by 2} feet, scratched all 
over and partly polished, is mentioned, while the North Lyell 
Railway has cut through an enormous boulder of black Carboniferous 
Limestone at least 16 feet in length. The northern face of Mount 
Owen appears to be ice-worn to the height of about 1900 feet, while 
the basis of the glacial deposits is not more than 700 feet above the 
sea. The general evidence suggests that the Eldon Range and the 
Central Plateau formed the gathering-ground of the ice which flowed 
westward and south-westward. A map is given to show the range 
of Pleistocene glaciation so far as it has been recorded, and also to 
indicate localities at the glacial deposition which probably dates from 
the Carboniferous Period. The lowest level at which evidence of 
Pleistocene glaciation has been found is 400 feet on the Pieman 
River. This latest glaciation is later than the formation of the 
peneplain of North-Western Tasmania, and occurred after the 
dissection of this peneplain had begun. Many of the deposits are 
little more altered than those of Northern Hngland, despite the 
heavy rainfall; and the aspect of some of the rock-scoring is very 
recent, 


II.—December 16th, 1903.—Sir Archibald Geikie, D.C.L., D.Sc., 
Sec. R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair. The following com- 
munications were read :— 

1. “The Igneous Rocks associated with the Carboniferous Lime- 
stone of the Bristol District.” By Professor Conwy Lloyd Morgan, 
LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., and Professor Sidney Hugh Reynolds, M.A., 
EGSS: 

Evidence for the contemporaneous origin of the igneous rocks is 
given for the following localities :—Middle Hope, or Woodspring ; 
Spring Cove, near Weston-super-Mare ; above Kew Stoke, Milton 
Hill; Uphill; Goblin Combe; and near Cadbury Camp. At 
Middle Hope the ejectamenta thin to the east, and lava is only 
found to the west; at Spring Cove small lapilli were found in the 


88 Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London. 


limestone 8 feet above the basalt. At Goblin Combe there is the 
most characteristic and convincing section of ashy beds in the 
district : the lenticular bands of coarse greenish tuff, the limestone 
intercalations, the close admixture of lapilli, limestone fragments, 
and oolitic grains are stamped with the hall-mark of submarine 
voleanic action; lava closely underlies these breccias and tuffs. 
There is evidence of only one volcanic episode, which occurred in 
all cases after the Zaphrentis-beds had been laid down, and before 
the strata characterized by Chonetes and Streptorhynchus were 
deposited. (A table of certain broadly-marked horizons in the 
Carboniferous Limestone, by Mr. A. Vaughan, F.G.S., is given for 
reference.) The lavas are olivine-dolerites or basalts ; with pheno- 
crysts of olivine or augite. They are frequently amygdaloidal, 
sometimes variolitic; and in the variolites highly altered felspar- 
phenocrysts oceur. The rocks vary in grain, the coarsest being 
those from Uphill and near Cadbury Camp, of the contemporaneous 
character of which there is no direct evidence. The tufts are all 
highly calcareous, and most of them are best described as “ashy 
limestones.” The bulk of the lapilli varies from one-hundredth 
part of the rock to about one-third, and their composition is closely 
related to that of the basaltic lavas of the district. Quartz-grains 
are abundant in the Goblin Combe rocks, and these rocks are 
frequently oolitic. 


2. “The Rhetic Beds of England.” By A. Rendle Short, Esq., 
M.B., B.Sc. (Communicated by Prof. 8. H. Reynolds, M.A., F.G.S8.) 

The paper opens with a description of four new exposures of these 
rocks: one at Redland rests upon Carboniferous Limestone, and is 
interesting because the ‘ Bone-bed’ is very ill-developed on receding 
from the old shore; a second is at Stoke Gifford, with a continuous, 
well-developed landscape marble, the Insect Bed, and no bone-bed ; 
a third at Cotham Road (Bristol) yields baryta, celestine, and 
Naiadita at special horizons containing no other fossils; and the 
fourth, at Aust, has given measurements of the uppermost 18 feet, 
which are inaccessible from below. Next an account is given of the 
constituent beds, with special reference to the conditions of deposition. 
The Bone-bed is of wide distribution ; it frequently occurs in pockets 
on a flat surface, or spread out over that surface; it contains frag- 
ments of rolled marl, rounded pebbles of Carboniferous Limestone, 
and pebbles of quartzite and well-rounded quartz. The author 
concludes that it was formed during a stormy period, alter the sea 
had made its first irruption into the dried-up or silted-up level 
surface of the Keuper Lake. The Naiadita-beds appear to have 
been formed in very shallow, and perhaps only slightly saline, water, 
and the calcareous matter associated with them may have been mud 
washed from the Carboniferous Limestone. Only after the White 
Lias period did the water finally become moderately deep. The 
area of deposit appears to have been a gigantic shallow lagoon 
connected with the open sea to the south, and the fauna was derived 
from the direction of Germany. A short account is given of some 
of the Continental Rhetic formations, followed by a list of Rheetic 


Correspondence—Mr. Philip Lake. 89 


‘fossils recorded in England, with the range of each. A consideration 
-of this list enables the author to suggest that the lower limit of the 
formation should be drawn at the first evidence of Rheetic life after 
‘the deposition of the gypsiferous and red or green marls, which (at 
any rate in their lower part) are certainly of Keuper age. ‘lhe upper 
limit may, for convenience, be drawn at an finden level where 
Modiola minima and Pleuromya crowcombeiana become very rare, and 
‘the ammonitic and Liassic fauna begins. Further discussion of the 
lithoiogical, physical, and paleontological evidence leads the author 
to recognize that the affinities of the Rheetic, thus defined, are rather 
with the Jurassic rocks than with the ‘Trias. The following zones 
are suggested, in descending order :— 

Zone of Pleuromya crowcomberana = White Lias. 
Monotis decussata = Cotham Marble and just above. 
Estheria minuta var. Brodieana, and Naiadita. 
5,  Lecten valoniensis. 


»,  Avicula contorta = Black Shales and a limestone bed. 
»,  Bone-bed. 


These zones seem to be fairly constant throughout England, and 
harmonize well with those of Germany, although they cannot be 
expected to fit in with the oceanic type of the Alps and the 
Mediterranean. Further consideration shows that the fossils give 
evidence of migration, but very little of evolution. The paper closes 
with the description of a new species of Anomia and a bibliography. 


CORRESPONDENCE. 


ATMOSPHERIC EROSION IN CORSICA. 


Srr,—The remarkable mode of erosion described by Mr. Tuckett 
dn the GrotogicaL MaGaazine for this month is not uncommonly met 
with in the drier regions of the globe, and excellent examples are 
described and figured by Walther in his “ Die Denudation in der 
Wiiste” (Abh. k. sachs. Ges. Wiss., Math.-Phys. Classe, 1891) and 
“Das Gesetz der Wistenbildung” (Berlin, 1900). Fig. 7 in the 
latter work presents a particularly close resemblance to the Téte de 
Chien. It is a reproduction of a photograph taken near the Indian 
-desert. 

Walther attributes the peculiar mode of erosion in these regions 
to the relative persistence of dew and other moisture on the shady 
side of the boulder or cliff, and its rapid evaporation on the sunny 
side. The shaded side consequently weathers much more quickly 
than the other, and the weathered material is removed by the wind. 

In the Northern Hemisphere the cavities formed are generally, 
though not always, on the northern or western side of the rock; but 
from the shadows shown in Mr. Tuckett’s beautiful photograph of 
the Téte de Chien, I infer that in this case the cavity does not face 
the north. 

It would be interesting to learn whether the Corsican examples 
‘support Professor Walther’s view. Puinie Lake. 


13, Park STREET, CAMBRIDGE. 
January 1dth, 1904. 


90 Obituary —Professor Karl A. von Zittel. 


(ASIF IOI NB Sy NE 


PROFESSOR KARL ALFRED VON ZITTEL. 


Born SEPTEMBER 25, 1839. Diep Janvary 5, 1904. 


Ir would be difficult to estimate the loss sustained by geological 
and paleontological science through the lamentable death of 
Professor K. A. von Zittel, of Munich, who for many years has- 
occupied so eminent a position as a writer and teacher in these 
subjects, and has been rightly regarded as the most eminent of 
all exponents in the domain of paleontology. To those who are 
acquainted with the splendid work of von Zittel, the sudden termi- 
nation of his brilliant career will come as a shock ; among all who 
had personal dealings with the man himself, more especially the 
fortunate ones who, in the capacity of pupils, were privileged to- 
enjoy the advantages of daily intercourse with a teacher so inspiring 
and so lovable, there will not be one who does not experience 
poignant regret and a genuine sense of personal bereavement. 

To the’ Professor’s rare personal qualities and the unfailingly 
cordial and courteous attitude he displayed towards colleagues and 
students, must in no small measure be attributed the great success 
achieved by the Munich school of paleontology during the long 
period of von Zittel’s tenure of the chair. By his zeal and 
thoroughness in handling the subject to which he patiently and 
strenuously devoted so great a part of his energies, he directly 
accomplished much for science, but also affurded an example which 
must clearly have borne valuable fruits, especially when we note 
that his teaching was a reflection of his own admirable method. 
An exceptionally lucid and eloquent lecturer, Professor von Zittel 
regarded palzontology primarily in its correct aspect as an im- 
portant branch of biology, and his influence was in no slight degree 
responsible for the important status which his special subject has 
attained among the sciences in Germany, a position which even 
yet seems to be most reluctantly accorded to it in this country. 
A striking feature of the late Professor’s discourses on paleeozoology 
consisted in the remarkably even treatment which he devoted to 
all parts of the subject ; he seemed to possess an equally extensive 
knowledge when dealing in turn with each class of animals, while 
throughout his lengthy course of lectures his deliverances were: 
frequently brightened by an inspiring enthusiasm. 

Scrupulous thoroughness, accurate observation, and cautious. 
interpretation were the principles upon which Professor von Zittel 
most strongly insisted; and if he hesitated to express himself 
concerning the philosophic and speculative aspects of his subject, 
and, in his published writings, maintained in regard to these 
a somewhat conservative attitude, we may perceive in this reticence 
evidence of that cautious and judicial spirit which has ensured 
soundness and lasting value in his own work and in that of many 
of his disciples. In an excellent article recently contributed to the 
columns of Nature, to which the present writer is indebted for 


GEOL. Mac. 1904. Dec. V, Vol. I, Pl. IV. 


va) 


eee 


«eee ate So 


rd oon 


ers 


Obituary— Professor Karl A. von Zittel. Of 


some of the following biographical details, a passage is quoted 
from an address delivered by Professor von Zittel before the Inter- 
national Congress of Geologists in 1894, illustrating his attitude 
towards certain modern tendencies in the treatment of biology. 
In this he says: ‘‘The domination of the Linnzean and Cuvierian 
principles threatened systematic biology with soulless paralysis : 
the unbridled subjectivity of recent times may easily lead to 
anarchy.” It is regrettable to have to add that in some depart- 
ments of paleontology this prophecy seems already to have become 
fully realized. 

Professor von Zittel distrusted voluminous and hastily produced 
work; to one so painstaking as himself, unsoundness owing to 
lack of care was sufficiently abhorrent. Yet he was a lenient 
and generous critic of work which, though imperfect, had been 
conscientiously achieved, and he looked with the greatest disfavour 
upon the kind of criticism which, betraying a needless spirit of 
antagonism, is couched in terms that might prove offensive or 
injurious. It is delightful to recall the kindly encouragement with 
which this gifted man assisted the circle of students at work in the 
paleontological laboratory at Munich and in the field, and to note that, 
however busily occupied with his own researches, he was at all times 
willing to lay his work aside in order to answer a question or to discuss 
some point with even the humblest of his students. This ready 
accessibility, coupled with his modest bearing and the deferential 
manner in which he expressed his own opinions or offered criticism 
in discussion, served to endear Professor von Zittel to the many 
who, attracted by his fame, journeyed from almost every quarter 
of the globe in order to pursue their studies under his direction. 
The confident and independent attitude which he directly encouraged 
by making his pupils feel that he discussed subjects with them as 
equals, would have been fostered in less degree by the adoption of 
a more purely didactic tone, and must be reckoned among the most 
valuable results of the training he imparted. It may be remarked 
that he entertained very liberal views on the subject of education, 
and warmly advocated the admission of women to the full privileges 
of the university courses in Germany. 

Karl Alfred Zittel was born at Bahlingen, in Baden, on Sept. 25th, 
1839, and was the youngest son of Dean Zittel, a well-known 
Protestant divine. In the latter end of 1857 he entered the 
University of Heidelberg, where he studied under Bronn and 
Leonhard, afterwards devoting a year to complete his academic 
studies in Paris under Hébert. While still there, during 1861, 
he published, in collaboration with E. Goubert, his first palaonto- 
logical paper, a short pamphlet dealing with the description of 
fossils from the Corallian rocks of Glos. After leaving Paris, 
Zittel joined the Geological Survey of Austria as a voluntary 
assistant, and commenced active work in Dalmatia. In 1863 he 
qualified himself as a ‘ Privatdozent’ in the University of Vienna, 
and, refusing the offer of a professorship in Lemberg, accepted 
a post as assistant in the Mineralogical Museum in Vienna (now the 
Royal Natural History Museum). In the same year Zittel left 


92 Obituary—Professor Karl A. von Zittel. 


Vienna to occupy the position of Professor of Mineralogy in the 
Polytechnic at Carlsruhe, but here also his sojourn was a brief one, 
and on the death of the renowned Albert Oppel he was appointed in 
the Autumn of 1866, at the early age of 27, to fill the vacant chair of 
paleontology in the University of Munich, at the same time taking 
over the charge of the State paleontological collection preserved in 
the Old Academy. It is interesting to record that the selection of so 
young a candidate for this important position was warmly supported 
by C. W. von Giimbel, who, as the revered veteran among Bavarian 
geologists, lived almost long enough to follow to its untimely 
termination the brilliant career of the man upon whom he so 
wisely bestowed his patronage. In 1880 the chairs of geology 
and paleontology became combined in the Munich University, and 
ten years later, on the death of Schafhiutl, Professor von Zittel was 
appointed keeper of the State geological collection also. It is well 
known with what enthusiasm he laboured in order to enlarge and 
perfect the museum under his charge, and how far, in face of great 
initial difficulties, he succeeded in bringing the Munich palzonto- 
logical collection into the very first rank among similar institutions. 

It may be said that from the time of his appointment at Munich 
Professor von Zittel’s life was one of restless and fruitful activity. 
He had already completed a monograph on the lamellibranch 
molluscs of the Gosau beds, a memoir which amply illustrated his 
painstaking and precise method of work, and this was followed by 
his able and comprehensive study of the fauna and relationships of 
the Tithonian stage (1868-1873). Various other works in the 
field of paleontology showed the versatility of the writer, and 
included papers on representatives of vertebrate classes. Researches 
of a geological character resulted in the publication of a treatise on 
the glacial phenomena of the Upper Bavarian plain (1874-1875), 
and after accompanying the Rohlfs Expedition to the Libyan Desert 
(1878-1874), von Zittel in 1880 produced his well-known work 
“Ueber den geologischen Bau der Libyschen Wiiste.” The fuller 
results of his fruitful journey have appeared in the pages of 
Paleontographica, and include special studies of the collections of 
fossils obtained, the investigation of which was entrusted to several 
collaborators, and has only been recently concluded (1883-1902). 
In addition to his other labours Professor von Zittel, in the capacity 
of principal editor, successfully conducted the publication of the 
important Pal@ontographica from the year 1869 until the time of 
his death. 

The work by which the late Professor made his name most widely 
known, however, was the great “ Handbuch der Palaeontologie,” 
which, begun in 1876, required seventeen years of strenuous labour 
for its preparation. An enormous amount of original investigation 
was necessitated during the compilation of this wonderfully com- 
plete compendium, and the most important of these incidental 
researches, that which dealt with the classification of the sponges, 
occupied no less than three years of the author’s time, and resulted 
in the production of a monograph of great value, which was 


published by the Royal Bavarian Academy (1877-1879). The 


Obituary—Professor Karl A. von Zittel. 93: 


“Handbuch” appeared in five volumes, four of which inciude the 
whole range of palzozoology, while the fifth volume, comprising 
paleobotany, was contributed by Schimper and Schenk. The 
publication of this work was the greatest service rendered by its 
author, and the famous “ Handbuch” still remains the most com- 
prehensive and trustworthy treatise of reference on the subject 
with which it deals. It was translated into French by Professor 
Charles Barrois. 

Prompted, no doubt, by his own requirements as a lecturer, the 
Professor directed the publication of an extensive series of paleeonto- 
logical wall-diagrams to illustrate generic characters (1879-1891), 
which have been very widely appreciated by teachers. ‘To meet 
a long-felt want, he published in 1895 the ‘“Grundziige der 
Palaeontologie,” a volume most admirably adapted to the require- 
ments of students, which embodies, though with some revision, the 
principal outlines of the author’s larger treatise on paleeozoology. 
The translation of this work into the English language was under- 
taken, with the collaboration of several specialists, by Dr. C. R. 
Kastman, and thus under American anspices the first part of it, 
comprising the Invertebrata, was published separately, though with 
such far-reaching modifications as to render the volume for practical 
purposes an almost entirely new work. Professor von Zittel himself 
only lived to superintend the issue of that part of the second German 
edition which deals with the Invertebrata, but in order to preserve 
those features whereby, according to his belief, the work would best 
retain its utility as a student’s manual, he adhered to the scheme 
employed in the first edition. 

A little book adapted to supply the needs of a wider circle of 
readers had been many years previously published by the Professor, 
under the title «‘ Aus der Urzeit,” and in this the author attractively 
described and illustrated the progress of development in the organic: 
world from the earliest times onwards. This work became much 
in request, and, having passed through a second edition, has for 
some time been out of print. One other work from the pen of 
von Zittel calls for. special mention. This is his well-known and 
valued History of Geology and Paleontology, in itself a striking 
monument of conscientious toil, which demanded several years of 
steady application in its compilation. The preparation of this 
volume was a labour of love with the author, whose wide literary 
knowledge, proficiency as a linguist, and keen interest in tracing 
out the course of development in the study of these sciences, specially 
qualified him for such a task. This reliable, comprehensive, and 
well-written work has been translated into English by Mrs. M. 
Ogilvie Gordon, and issued in somewhat abridged form. It has 
with some justification been maintained that in this book, as in 
so much of von Zittel’s purely scientific writings, the character of 
the work suffered in a certain degree from the author’s too strictly 
objective method of treatment; it was not that he lacked the critical 
or imaginative faculties, but we must rather suppose that the 
exercise of these was often purposely held in check in the endeavour 
to ensure an entirely truthful and precise presentation of facts. 


G4 Obituary—Professor Karl A. von Zittel. 


Professor von Zittel’s ability and industry were rewarded by the 
bestowal upon him of abundant honours; he received various orders 
and medals, and was elected an honorary member of numerous 
learned societies. He became a foreign member of the Geological 
Society of London in 1889, and in 1894 was the recipient of the 
Wollaston medal. In 1875 he was made an ordinary member of 
the Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences, and in 1899, on the 
retirement of von Pettenkofer, was chosen to fill the presidency of 
the Academy, with the position of Conservator-General of the State 
scientific collections. An honorary member of the Royal Academy 
of Sciences in Berlin, he became a foreign associate of the United 
States National Academy of Sciences in 1898, and a corresponding 
member of the Paris Academy of Sciences in 1900. He was 
Rector of the University of Munich in the year 1880, and in that 
capacity delivered an able inaugural address which afterwards 
appeared in print, entitled ‘“ Arbeit und Fortschritt im Weltall.” 
Some time afterwards he was awarded a knighthood, and it is many 
years since he was made a Privy Councillor. 

Rest and change during last year seemed to have warded off the 
dangerous cardiac trouble with which Professor von Zittel had for 
a time been threatened, but before he had completely recovered 
from the effects of an unfortunate accident which befell him last 
October, he suffered a return of the serious symptoms, and passed 
away on January dth, at the age of 64. A large and very repre- 
sentative gathering assembled to pay a last honour to the memory 
of the man who had so well merited the impressive eulogium which 
was delivered at the graveside on behalf of his sorrowing colleagues 
of the Academy of Sciences. F. L. Krreuiy. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


1. ‘* Analyse des Arendaler Orthits’”’: Liebig, Annal., cxii (1859), pp. 85-88. 
2. ‘ Beitrage zur Palaontologie von Neuseeland’’: Leonhard u. Bronn, N. Jahrb., 
1863, pp. 146-159. 
3. ‘Die obere Nummulitenformation in Ungarn”’: Wien, Sitzungsb., xlvi (1863), 
Abth. 1, pp. 353-3895; Pressburg, Korresp. Blatt, ii (1863), pp. 127-132. 
4. ‘* Die fossilen Bivalven der Gosaugebilde in den nordéstlichen Alpen”’: Wien, 
Sitzungsb., xlvin (1863), Abth. 1, pp. 432-436. 
5. (et E. Goubert) ‘‘ Description des fossiles du Coral-rag de Glos (Calvados) : 
Lamellibranchiata et Gasteropoda”’?: Journ. Conchyl., ix (1861), pp. 192- 
208, 373-374. 
6. [‘‘ Ueber eine Sammlung Spanischer Versteinerungen aus den Jura- und Kreide- 
schichten der Provinzen Teruel und Castellon’’]: Wien, Verhandl. Geol., 
1864, pp. 158-140 ; Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxi (1865), pt. 2, pp.1-2. 
. ‘*Die Bivalven der Gosaugebilde in den nordéstlichen Alpen’’ [1863]: Wien, 
Akad. Denkschr., xxiv (1865), Abth. 2, pp. 105-178; xxv (1866), Abth. 2, 
pp. 77-198 ; Wien, Anzeiger, ii (1865), pp. 127-128; Wien, Akad. 
Sitzungsb., lii (1866), pp. 226-234; Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xx 
(1864), pt. 2, pp. 28-24. 
8. ‘‘ Ueber seine geologischen Aufnahmen in Baden im Seekreis’’: Neues Jahrb. 
Min., 1865, pp. 832-835. 
9. ‘Ueber die geologischen Verhaltnisse von Dalmatien’’: Carlsruhe, Verhandl. 
Naturwiss. Ver., ii (1866), pp. 2-3. 
10. *‘ Ueber das Steinsalz in Oberésterreich und im Salzkammergut”’: Carlsruhe, 
Verhandl. Naturwiss. Ver., ii (1866), pp. 3-6. 
11. ‘‘Schilderung einer auf die Kreideformation beschrankten Familie der Mollusken”’: 
Carlsruhe, Verhandl. Naturwiss. Ver., ii (1866), p. 8. 


“I 


Obituary—Professor Karl A. von Zittel. 95 


. ‘‘Labrador-Diorit von Schriesheim bei Heidelberg’’: Neues Jahrb. Min., 1866, 


pp. 641-646. 


. ‘‘Obere Jura- und Kreide-Schichten in den Allgéuer- und Vorarlberger-Alpen ”’ 


[1867]: Wien, Verhandl. Geol., 1868, pp. 1-4. 


. ‘ Diploconus ein neues Genus aus der Familie der Belemnitiden”’: Neues Jahrb. 


Min., 1868, pp. 547-552. 


. *Palaontologische Notizen tiber Lias-, Jura-, und Kreide-Schichten in den 


Bayerischen und Oesterreichischen Alpen’’?: Wien, Jahrb. Geol., xviii 
(1868), pp. 599-610. 


. ‘‘Die Cephalopoden von Stramberg’”’: Wien, Verhandl. Geol., 1868, p. 165. 
. “Jura- und Kreide-Horizonte in den Central-Apenninen’’?: Wien, Verhandl. 


Geol., 1868, pp. 414-415; Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxv (1869), 
pt. 2, p. 10. 


. *Bemerkungen tiber Phylloceras tatricum, Pusch., sp., und eimige andere 


Phylloceras-Arten’’: Wien, Jahrb. Geol., xix (1869), pp. 59-68. 


. ‘Ueber den Brachial- Apparat bei einigen jurassischen Terebratuliden, und uber 


eine neue Brachiopodengattung Dimerella’’ [1870]: Paleeontographica, 
vol. xvii (1867-1870), pp. 211-224. 


. ‘Studio geologico nell’ Appennino Centrale”’: Firenze, Boll. Com. Geol. Ital., 


i (1870), pp. 17-28; Neues Jahrb. Min., 1870, pp. 790-794. 
‘‘ Die Fauna der iltern Cephalopoden fiihrenden Tithonbildungen”’: Palzonto- 
graphica, 1870 (Suppl.). 


. ‘*Grenzschichten zwischen Jura und Kreide’’?: Wien, Verhandl. Geol., 1870, 


pp. 113-116. 


3. ‘*Die Rauberhéhle am Schelmengraben, eine prahistorische Hohlenwohnung in 


der Bayerischen Oberpfalz’’?: Mimchen, Akad. Sitz., 1872, pp. 28-60 ; 
Archiv f. Anthropol., v (1872), pp. 325-846. 


. “L’étage tithonique’’: Revue Cours Scient., ii (1872), pp. 606-608. 
. “Ueber Ed. Hébert’s ‘ L’étage tithonique et la nouvelle école Allemande’”’: 


Wien, Verhandl. Geol., 1872, pp. 133-137. 


. ‘*Die altere Steinzeit und die Methode vorhistorischer Forschung’’: Deutsch. 


Gesell. Anthropol. Corresp., 1878, pp. 51-55. 


7. ‘‘Die Gastropoden der Stramberger Schichten’’: Palwontographica, 1873 (Suppl.). 
5. (und A. Oppel) ‘‘ Die Cephalopoden der Stramberger Schichten”’ [1868]: Neues 


Jahrb. Min., 1869, pp. 251-255. 


. (and H. Vogelgesang) ‘‘ Geologische Beschreibung der Umgebungen yon 


Moéhringen und Mésskirch”’ :’ Neues Jahrb. Min., 1868, pp. 490-492. 


. **Beobachtungen tiber Ozon in der Luft der libyschen Wuste”’?: Munchen, 


Akad. Sitzber., iv (1874), pp. 215-230. 


. “Ueber Gletscher-Erscheinungen in der Bayerischen Hochebene”’: Munchen, 


Akad. Sitzber., iv (1874), pp. 252-283; Wien, Verhandl. Geol., 1875, 
pp- 61-62; Neues Jahrb. Min., 1875, pp. 971-972. 


2. ‘* Nachtragliche Bemerkungen zu dem Autsatz uber die Gletschererschemungen 


in der bayerischen Hochebene”’: Wien, Geol. Verhandl., 1875, pp. 46-48. 


3. “Sur des silex taillés trouvés dans le désert libyque’’: Congres Anthropol. 


Compt. Rend., Sess. 7 (Stockholm, 1874), 1876, pp. 76-79. 


. “Ueber Celoptychium; ein Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Organisation fossiler 


Spongien’’: Miinchen, Akad. Abhandl., xii (1876), Abth. 3, pp. 1-80; 
Neues Jahrb. Min., 1876, pp. 578-579. 


. “Ueber einige fossile Radiolarien aus der norddeutschen Kreide”’: Deutsch. 


Geol. Gesell. Zeitschr., xxviii (1876), pp. 75-86 ; Neues Jahrb. Min., 1876, 
p- 968. 


. [‘* Untersuchungen fossiler Hexactinelliden’’?]: Neues Jahrb. Min., 1876, 


pp. 286-289. 


. **Bemerkungen tiber die Schildkréten des lithographischen Schiefers in Bayern” 


[1877]: Paleontographica, vol. xxiv (1876-1877), pp. 175-184 ; Neues 
Jahrb. Min., 1877, pp. 978-979. 


38. ‘Ueber Squalodon bariensis aus Niederbayern”’ [1877]: Palontographica, 


vol. xxiv (1876-1877), pp. 283-246. 


. ‘‘Ueber den Fund eines Skeletes von Archeopteryx im lithographischen Schiefer 


von Solenhofen’’: Miinchen, Akad. Sitzber., vii (1877), pp. 155-156. 


. [‘¢ Ueber Schildkrétenreste aus den lithographischen Schietern von Eichstadt”’]: 


Neues Jahrb. Min., 1877, pp. 280-281. 


96 Obituary—Professor Karl A. von Zittel. 


41. [‘‘ Ueber seine Untersuchungen der fossilen Spongien und iiber Quenstedt’s- 
Publicationen’’]: Neues Jahrb. Min., 1877, pp. 705-709. 

42. [** Ueber Juraspongien und tiber Quenstedt’s Vermuthungen’’]: Neues Jahrb. 
Min., 1878, pp. 58-62. 

43. ‘‘ Zusatz zu [ Woeckener’s Aufsatz ‘Ueber das Vorkommen von Spongien im 
Hilssandstein’ ’’]: Deutsch. Geol. Gesell. Zeitsch., xxxi (1879), pp. 665-667. 

44. ‘Studien tiber fossile Spongien’’ [1877-1879]: Miinchen, Akad. Abhandl., 
xiii (1880), Abth. 1, pp. 1-68, 65-154; Abth. 2, pp. 1-48; Neues Jahrb. 
Min., 1877, pp. 337-378 ; 1878, pp. 561-618; 1879, pp. 1-40 [imcom- 
plete]; Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. xx (1877), pp. 207-273, 405-424, 
501-517; vol. ii (1878), pp. 113-135, 235-247, 324-341, 385-394, 467— 
482; vol. ii (1879), pp. 304-312, 364-379; vol. iv (1879), pp. 61-73, 
120-135. 

45. ‘* Ueber Plicatocrinus’’ [1881]: Mtinchen, Akad. Sitzb., xii (1882), pp.105—-113.. 

46. ‘‘ Ueber Flugsaurier aus dem lithographischen Schiefer - Bayerns”’ [1882] : 
Paleontographica, vol. xxix (1882-1883), pp. 47-80. 

47. ‘* Die anthropologische Bedeutung der Funde in Frankischen Héhlen’’: Beitr. 
Anthrop. Bayern, 11 (1879), pp. 226-228. 

48. ‘‘ Das Saharameer”: Ausland, lvi (1883), pp. 524-529. 

49. ‘‘ Ueber den geologischen Bau der libyschen Wiiste’’: Festrede, Munchen, 1880, 
pp. 1-47. 

O0r es Teper Arbeit und Fortschritt im Weltall’?: Munchen, 1880, pp. 1-27. 

51. ‘‘ Beitraege zur Geologie und Palaeontologie der libyschen Wiiste und der 
angrenzenden Gebiete von Aegypten,”’ Bd. in (1883). 

52. ‘* Bemerkungen tiber einige fossile Lepaditen’’: Mtimchen, Akad. Sitz., 1884, 
pp. 577-889. 

58. ‘* Ueber Astylospongidee und Anomocladina’’: Neues Jahrb. Min., 1884, Bd. ii, 
pp. 745-80. 

54. (und in VY. Rohon) ‘‘ Ueber Conodonten ’’: Munchen, Akad. Sitz., 1886, 
pp. 108-186. 

55. *‘ Ueber Ceratodus’’: Miinchen, Akad. Sitz., 1886, pp. 253-265, with plate. 

56. ‘‘ Ueber Labyrinthodon Riitimeyeri, Wiedersheim”’: Neues Jahrb. Min., Bd. 11 
(1888), pp. 257-258 

57. ‘*Vulcane und Gletscher im nordamerikanischen Westen’: Wien, Zeitschr. 
deutsch. u. oesterr. Alpenvereins, Bd. xxi (1890), pp. 1-20. 

58. ‘* Die geologische Entwickelung, Herkunft, und Verbreitung der Saugethiere ”’ = 
Miinchen, Akad. Sitz., 1893, pp. 187-198; Gron. MaGc., 1893, pp. 401— 
412, 455-468. 

59. ‘ Paleontology and the Biogenetic Law’’: Natural Science, vol. vi (1895), 
pp- 806-312. 

Books. 

1. ‘‘ Aus der Urzeit: Bilder aus der Schépfungsgeschichte ’?: Muiinchen, 1873- 
2te Auflage, 1875. 

2. ‘*Handbuch der Palaeontologie,’’ vols. iiv: Munchen, 1876-1893. 

3. ‘*Grundziige der Palaeontologie (Paleeozoologie)’’: Miinchen, 1895. 2te Auflage, 
Abteilung i, Invertebrata: Miinchen, 1903. 

4. ‘‘Geschichte der Geologie und Palaeontologie bis Ende des 19 Jahrhunderts ”’ : 
Miinchen, 1899. 


[The very admirable portrait of Geheimrath Prof. Karl Alfred 
von Zittel, Ph.D., For. Memb. Geol. Soc. Lond., accompanying this 
notice (Plate IV), is reproduced by kind permission of the Walter 
Scott Publishing Company (Limited), Felling R.S.O., co. Durham, and 
Paternoster Square, London, E.C.; and appeared as the frontispiece to 
the English edition of Zittel’s “ History of Geology and Palzontology ” 
in their Contemporary Science Series. —Eprr. Grou. Mae. | 


In memory of ALFRED GuiLLETT, an excellent geologist, and 
a very dear friend of many years, one of the founders of the Street 
Geological Museum, who died at his residence, Overleigh, Street, 
Somerset, on the 24th January, 1904, in his 90th year. 


Decade V.—Vol. I.—No. III. Price 1s. 6d. nett. 


GKOLOGICAL MAGAZINE 


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MARCH, 1904.) 


GON SP om any ae aes 


I. Orternat ARTICLES. PAGE | Notices or Memorrs-—continuwed. PAGE 
1. A Retrospect of Paleontology in (0) Report on the Raised Beaches 
the last Forty Years. (Part III.) 97 of the Northern Hemisphere. By 
2. Sedgwick Museum Notes. By Sir Archibald Geikie, D.C.L., 
F. R. Cowrzr Reep, M.A.,. RNS UASX1Oa a els Msrsetiacedacuos sear oeaceroe s 135 
EEGs in (labor Vi)! scesee cesses. 106 ene 
3. Further Notes on the Mammals HL. Tbprueris. i 
of the Eocene of Egypt. (Part I.) The Marine Tertiary Fauna of 
By C. W. Anprews, D.Sc., Americaand Kurope. By Clement 
F.G.S. (With 4 Text Illus- Reid, F.R.8. (A Review of Dall’s 
(ESTOS Va pe eee alee ne eer ee 109 Tertiary Fauna of Florida.) ... 136 
4. On the Cephalopoda in the IY. Reports anp PRocEEDINGs. 
Strachey Collection from the IDR GH GIN HE MIES ORE Lend 
ney? By G. C. Crick pe cates clely or: London 
Assoc. R.S.M., F.G.S ou ans January 6th, 1904 ............... 138 
5. Zone of Honlites interruptus eae oe eee erat as A 
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trations. ) Oe cece nett een eee eee tensees 124 ie Bibliographer Sects ea Be ape hae ON aaa 142 
II. Noriczs or Memorrs. 2. Dr. C. I. Forsyth Major......... 143 
1. Singleness of the Ice Age. By VI. Oxrrvary. 
KK. Geinitz, Rostock............... 131 Ts aN 
2. International Geological Congress. : oe Room ge roreriren’ oe, 
(a) On InternationalCo- -operation 2 Dr ok. J. aba SORES Ob REN COS 144 
in Geological Investigation. By EGR Ok gee aS 
Sir Archibald Geikie, D.C.L., Vil. LOSE, 
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COLOURED CASTS 
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Which now number 229.° 


This interesting and attractive series will form a most valuable 
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A town about to establish a Museum would find that these specimens, when 
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An Interesting Set of Human Remains, £11 8s. 6d. 


Also Set of Models and Casts illustrating the descent of the 
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1,600 species of BRITISH FOSSILS. £100. 

Fine Slab of Trigonia clavellata from the Coral Rag, and Slabs of 
characteristic Fossils from the Inferior Oolite. 

Old Red Sandstone Fishes, Silurian Crinoids, etc., etc. 

Various Reptilian Remains and Ammonites from the Lias of Lyme Regis. 

Slab of Extracrinus briareus showing several heads. 

A collection of British Crustacea, in handsome mahogany cabinet, drawers 
glazed. Size of cabinet, 4ft. 8in. by 2ft. 3 in. 

Various 21s. sets of Recent Mollusca. 

A collection of Recent Mollusca, contained in several cabinets (nearly 300 
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250 species of Foreign Fishes in spirits. £20. 

50 species of Foreign Amphibia and Reptilia in spirits. £1 10s. 

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Over 200 drawers of Minerals, including two collections containing over 4,000 
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Post-Tertiary Fossils from Barbadoes. 

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Tertiary Mollusca from Muddy Creek, Victoria, Australia. 

Vertebrate Remains from the Pliocene Tertiary, Siwalik Hills, India. 

Rudistes, Hippurites, Requienia, etc.: Cretaceous (Senonien), Dordogne. 

A Grand Collection of Fishes, beautifully preserved, from the Cretaceous Beds 
of the Lebanon, Syria. (Described by Mr. J. Davis and others.) 

St. Cassian Fossils (123 Species). 

Plants from the Trias of Austria. 

Bothriolepis, Eusthenopteron, Phaneropleuron, etc., from the Devonian of 
Canada. 

Crinoids from the Carboniferous of Russia and America. 

AA 43 Devonian of France. 

Various Russian Fossils. (Collection £8 8s.) 

200 Specimens of Rocks from Puy-de-Dome. 

100 A of Rocks and Minerals for Schools, etc. 


GHOLOGICAL MAGAZINE. 


NEW SERIESS DEGAIDIE Wie) AOS ails 


No. III.— MARCH, 1904. 


ORIGINAL ARTICLES. 


——»—__—_ 


J.—A Rerrospect oF PaLMONTOLOGY IN THE LAST Forty Yrars. 
(Continued from the February number, p. 56.) 


Pontyzoa. etc.—Among our early contributors stands the well- 
known name of George Busk, author of a “Catalogue of Polyzoa 
in the British Museum ” (1852-54) and a most valuable monograph 
on the “Polyzoa of the Crag” (Pal. Soc. 1859). Busk sent 
a paper (in 1866) to this Magazine on “ Polyzoa from the London 
Clay of Highgate,” describing three genera and species new to 
science. Professor H. A. Nicholson wrote on Callopora incrassata 
from the Devonian of Canada; on Heterodiciya from the Devonian 
of Ontario; and on the geological distribution of Solenopora 
compacta (1885). Professor Dr. Ferdinand Roemer (in 1880) 
recorded the genus Caunopora in the Devonian of South Devon. 
Robert Etheridge, jun. (1873), figured and described Carinella, 
a new genus from Carluke, Lanarkshire, and Ramipora from the 
Caradoc Beds of Corwen, North Wales. G. R. Vine discoursed on 
Carboniferous Polyzoa (in 1880); F. D. Longe on Oolitic Polyzoa 
(in 1881); and Dr. J. W. Gregory on some Jurassic species of 
Cheilostomata (in 1894). 

Bracuropopa.—The historian of the Brachiopoda, Dr. Thomas 
Davidson, who finished his great work in 1885, and who was 
equally facile with pencil and pen, was a large contributor to the 
pages of our journal for twenty years. His great monograph on 
British Brachiopoda, published by the Palzontographical Society, 
fills five large quarto volumes, illustrated by over 200 plates drawn 
by the author’s own hands. He was author of the article 
Brachiopoda for the ‘‘ Encyclopedia Britannica,” and monographed 
the specimens collected by the “Challenger” expedition. He wrote 
in this Magazine on the genus Thecidium (1864); on perforate 
and imperforate Brachiopoda (1867); on the earliest forms of 
Brachiopoda in British Paleozoic rocks (1868); Italian Tertiary 
‘Brachiopoda (1870); Tertiary species from Belgium, and on the 
genus Porambonites (1874) ; Scottish Silurian Brachiopoda, and on 
“What is a Brachiopod?” (1877); on those of the Boulonnais 
(1878) ; on Lower Llandeilo forms from Brittany (1880); on 


DECADE YV.—VOL. I.—NO. III. 4 


98 A Retrospect of Paleontology for Forty Years. 


spiral - bearing forms and on the genus Merista (1881); on 
Scottish Silurian species (1883); also joint papers with Professor 
W. King on Trimerella, Dinobolus, and Monomorella; and. with 
George Maw on Silurian Brachiopoda from Shropshire. Professor 
E. Ray Lankester (1870) wrote on a new large Terebratula from 
the Drift of Suffolk, which he named Terebratula rea (p. 413). 
C. J. A. Meyer (1864) on the Lower Greensand Brachiopoda, 
Surrey; (in 1868) on the development of the loop and septum in 
Terebratella ; Professor William King (1867) on perforated Paleozoic 
Spiriferide. John Francis Walker, in the same year, described new 
Terebratulide, Waldheimia Davidsoni, W. Woodwardi, and T. Dallasii ; 
and in 1868 twelve other species of Brachiopoda, all from the Lower 
Greensand of Upware; he added two varieties of T. depressa and 
two new species, T. Seeleyi and Rhynchonella Crossii, also from 
Upware, in 1870. That author noticed (1878) the occurrence of 
T. Moriert in England, and in 1892, the discovery of T. substriata 
near Scarborough, Yorkshire. The well-known Canadian paleonto- 
logist Elkanah Billings (born 1820 and died 1876) achieved 
admirable work in his busy life in monographing Corals, Brachio- 
poda, Crinoids, Trilobites, Graptolites, and plants (see Decades of 
Survey on “Canadian Organic Remains”). He contributed an 
excellent paper and plate in 1868 on Stricklandinia Davidsoni and 
S. Saltert (p. 59). Professor G. Lindstrom, of Stockholm, wrote on 
the genus Trimerella (in 1868); the Rev. N. Glass described the 
modifications in the spirals of fossil Brachiopoda (1888), and of the 
loop in Athyris leviuscula (1891); S. 8. Buckman had a paper on 
Jurassic Brachiopoda in 1886; H. Westlake on Terebratula from the 
Upper Chalk of Salisbury in 1887; Dr. John Young on the minute 
shell-structure of Hichwaldia Capewelli, and on the shell-structure 
of Chonetes Laguessiana from the Lower Carboniferous Limestone 
series of Lanarkshire. Dr. A. H. Foord noticed West Australian 
Brachiopoda; J. L. Lobley the range of British fossil Brachio- 
poda; R. Bullen Newton (1892) wrote on Chonetes Pratti from 
the Carboniferous rocks of West Australia; F, R. Cowper Reed 
on some abnormal forms of Spirifera lineata, Martin (1893), and on 
Eumetria (?) serpentina, a Carboniferous Brachiopod new to Britain 
(1898). Dr. G. F. Matthew described and figured the oldest known 
Siphonotreta (Protosiphon) Kempanum from Cambrian, Division 16 of 
the St. John Group, N.B. Canada (1897). Agnes Crane gave, in a 
clever paper, the evolution of the Brachiopoda (1895) ; and R. Etheridge 
noticed the fossils of the Red Beds, Lower Devonian, Torquay (1882). 

Moxiusca.—Many of the earlier and more important papers on 
Mollusca dealt with this class from a geological aspect, such as that 
by R. D. Darbishire (1865) on the fossil shells obtained from the 
Drift-beds of Macclesfield. The author refers to the Moel Tryfaen 
shells near Carnarvon at 1.350 feet above sea-level, from which 
60 species of mollusca were obtained; to those of Gynn, between 
Blackpool and Fleetwood, Lancashire. The highest points about 
Macclesfield discovered by Sir J. Prestwich was at the Setter Dog Inn, 
on the Buxton Road, 1,200 feet above sea-level. Mr. Darbishire’s 


A Retrospect of Paleontology for Forty Years. 99 


specimens were obtained from the Free Park Cemetery, Macclesfield, 
where about 50 species were collected. 

Dr. S. P. Woodward wrote (in 1864) on Plicatula sigillina from 
the Upper Chalk of Cambridge, and on the fossil shells from the 
Bridlington Crag (1864) ; 44 species were enumerated. In a later 
list (1881) supplied by C. W. Lamplugh, some 67 species were 
recorded. An admirable memoir by Mrs. McKenny Hughes was 
contributed in 1888 on the Mollusca from the Pleistocene Gravels 
of Barnwell, Cambridge, which dealt with both the geology and the 
shells, 80 species being accurately listed, also many other forms 
both of vertebrate, invertebrate, and plant-remains. G. Sharman 
and EK. T. Newton (in 1896) recorded the occurrence of Cretaceous 
fossils in the Drift of Moreseat, Aberdeen, of which they gave a 
carefully prepared list of 40 species of Mollusca, besides Brachiopoda, 
Echinodermata, etc. A. J. Jukes-Browne (in the same year) noticed 
the fossils from the Warminster Greensand. J. Starkie Gardner 
(1873 and 1875) described the genus Aporrhais, and noticed other 
Gault Gasteropoda in a series of six papers (1876, 77, 84, 85). 
H. Woodward figured Rostellaria Pricet trom the Grey Chalk, and 
F. G. H. Price Rostellaria maxima from the Gault, both extracted 
from the Folkestone cliffs. W. H. Hudleston discoursed on the 
Palzontology of the Yorkshire Oolites (1880), and on the Gasteropoda 
of the Portland Beds of the Vale of Wardour (1881). Edward Wilson 
(1887) figured and recorded 15 new species of Liassic Gasteropoda, 
and with W. D. Crick in 1889 wrote on the Gasteropoda from 
the Lias Marlstone of Tilton. E. Wilson also published in 1890 
alist of types in the Bristol Museum; H. HE. Quilter (1886) fossils 
from the Lower Lias of Leicestershire; and R. Tate from the Lias 
of Banbury (1875). Dr. John Lycett discussed (in 1881) the 
generic distinctness of Purpuroides and Purpura. R. Htheridge, jun., 
described (in 1873-74) new species of Lamellibranchiata from the 
Carboniferous of Scotland, the genus Conularia (1878), Modiola 
lithodomides (1875), and contributed five other papers (1876-79) 
on Carboniferous Mollusca. F. R. Cowper Reed (1901) figured and 
noticed some of Salter’s undescribed Mollusca in the Woodwardian 
Museum. 

The first article in 1864 was by J. W. Salter on the fossils 
from the Old Red pebbles at Budleigh Salterton. H. Woodward 
wrote upon an Upper Silurian Chiton from the Girvan district, 
upon recent and fossil Pleurotomarie (both in 1885), and on 
Pleurotoma prisca (1901). The Rev. G. F. Whidborne described 
in the same year some Devonian fossils from Devonshire. Ralph 
Tate (in 1868) defined the genus Aminopsis. In 1871 Professor 
J. W. Judd gave an interesting account, with figures, of the 
anomalous mode of growth of certain oysters from the Cornbrash of 
Scarborough, Weymouth, and Peterborough, parasitic on Ammonite 
shells, etc. KR. B. Newton contributed a paper on the genus Leveillia. 
F. E. Edwards (in 1865) described some new species of Cypr@a and: 
Marginella. In 1902 General McMahon and W. H. Hudleston figured 
aseries of fossils from the Hindu Khoosh, and the latter communicated 


100 A Retrospect of Paleontology for Forty Years. 


(1884 and 1890) two papers on fossil Mollusca from South Australia. 
Professor T. Rupert Jones (1890) described bivalved shells from 
the Karoo formation of South Africa; R. B. Newton (1898-99) 
some Oretaceous and Miocene shells from Egypt; a large number of 
Pleistocene shells from a raised beach on the Red Sea (1900) ; 
Mesozoic fossils from Borneo (1897); and lastly, Trematonotus, 
an American Paleozoic Gasteropod, found in Britain (1892). 
R. J. L. Guppy gave a list of Tertiary fossils from Trinidad 
(1865) ; described Crepitacella and six new species of Mollusca from 
the Caribbean Miocene (in 1867) ; and some West Indian Tertiary 
fossils, chiefly Mollusca (in 1874). H. Woodward (in 1879) 
described a series of 74 species of Tertiary Mollusca, obtained by 
M. Verbeek from Sumatra (pp. 385, 441, 492, 535). Dr. A. H. 
Foord (1890) figured a number of fossils from the Kimberley 
District of Western Australia. H. M. Jenkins (1866) wrote on 
Trigonia from the Tertiary deposits of Victoria, Australia; and 
Professor M’Coy replied to his criticism on the species of Trigonia. 
Dr. O. A. L. Mérch (in 1871) described the Mollusca of the Crag 
formation of Iceland, giving a list of 61 species. ‘“ At present ” 
(wrote Dr. Morch) ‘ the north coast of Iceland is quite Arctic, but 
in the Crag period the temperature must have been much milder, 
at least as mild as at present on the west coast of Reikiavik.” The 
change had, the author believed, resulted from an elevation of the 
land, which had prevented the free passage northwards of the great 
equatorial current of the Gulf Stream. Sir J. Prestwich wrote, in 
1882, on Cyrena fluminalis found at Summertown, near Oxford, and 
R. G. Bell, in 1884, on Land-Shells from the Red Crag. 
CrpHaLopopa.—During the past forty years the class Cephalopoda 
received special attention from many expert writers, as will be seen 
from the following summary:—An excellent general history of 
the Cephalopoda, Recent and Fossil, was contributed in 1878 by 
Agnes Crane, which may still be read with pleasure and profit. 
In 1887 Dr. F. A. Bather wrote on “The Growth of Cephalopod 
Shells,” and carefully described and figured the internal structure 
of the shell, giving his own views on the subject as well as 
Dr. Riefstahl’s. Another article of general interest was that com- 
municated by Dr. A. H. Foord describing the Cephalopod Gallery 
of the British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell Road (1898, 
p- 391), illustrated by 27 figures; it still serves as an excellent 
guide to the series of Ammonites exhibited. Among the dibranchiate 
forms abundantly represented among the living Cephalopoda, but 
so rare in a fossil state, there is a charming little form which was 
figured and described by H. Woodward under the name of Dora- 
teuthis syriaca, from the Cretaceous beds of Sahel Alma, near Beirit, 
Lebanon, Syria (1883). Other and larger forms have since been 
recorded by that author and by G. C. Crick from the same locality. 
The remarkable thing is the preservation on the slab of the outlines 
and much of the details of the soft structures of the animal as was 
observed in Belemnoteuthis and other forms from the Oxford Clay of 
Chippenham, and described in 1842 by Pearce & Owen. G.C. Crick 


A Retrospect of Paleontology for Forty Years. 101 


wrote in 1901 upon Ammonites Ramsayanus from the Chalk of Chard- 
stock, Somerset; A. euomphalus (1899) from the Lower Chalk, 
near Lyme Regis, collected by Dr. Rowe and Mr. C. D. Sherborn; 
and on a deformed Hoplites from the Gault of Folkestone. 
Messrs. Foord & Crick wrote (in 1891) on the identity of 
N. neocomiensis with N. Deslongschampsianus from the Grey Chalk, 
and on JV. elegans from the Lower Chalk and Greensand 
(1890). Dr. Blackmore (in 1896) endeavoured to prove that 
some of the bodies known as Aptychi, from the Chalk of Salisbury, 
belonged to Belemnites. His conclusion was that (1) Aptychus 
rugosus is the pro-ostracum of Belemnitella mucronata; (2) Aptychus 
Jeptophyllus is the same part of B. lanceolata; (8) Aptychus Portlock 
is the pro-ostracum of B. quadrata; (4) the large, coarsely punctate 
Aptychus from the Marsupite zone is the true Aptychus of Ammonites 
leptophyllus. HE. H. L. Schwarz wrote on Aptychus in Ammonites, 
and supported the conclusion of §. P. Woodward (see The 
Geologist, 1860) and H. Woodward (GronogtcaL, Maeazine, 
1885) that the Aptychus is really equivalent to the calcified and 
coalesced pair of dorsal arms which form the ‘hood’ or operculum 
in the living Nautilus. He has a second paper in 1895 on the shell- 
structure in the Ammonoidea. In 1886 8. 8. Buckman wrote on the 
lobe-line of Lias Ammonites, in 1887 and 1889 he described some 
Jurassic Ammonites, and in 1894 he discussed the species belonging 
to the genus Cymbites from the Lower Lias of Lyme Regis. LE. T. 
Newton wrote (in 1891) on Ammonites jurensis from the ironstone of 
the Northampton Sands; G. C. Crick on some Jurassic Cephalopoda 
from Western Australia (1894), on Coccoteuthis hastiformis (1896) 
and Acanthoteuthis speciosa (1897), both from the Lithographic Stone 
of Solenhofen ; he pointed out that Nautilus truncatus, referred to the 
Lias, really belongs to the Cornbrash; he defined Ammonites calcar 
from the Lower Oxfordian (in 1899), and Ammonites polygonus, 
A. discoides, and Tmaegoceras (1902) from the Lias, and a Jurassic 
Belemnite from Somaliland (1896). R. Tate discovered and 
recorded the oldest British Belemnite (&. prematurus) from the 
Lower Lias, Antrim (1869). A. H. Foord and G. C. Crick 
figured in 1889 the muscular impressions of  Celonautilus 
cariniferus; described Pleuronautilus (1891); Vestinautilus and 
Discites Hibernicus in 18938; described and figured Pro/ecanites, 
Temnochilus from the Carboniferous of Cork, Ireland, in 1894; 
and Nautilus robustus from the Middle Lias of Les Moutiers, 
Normandy, in 1902. G. C. Crick wrote on Goniatites evolutus and 
Nautilus tetragonus in 1896, and Ephippioceras (1900); and A. H. 
Foord figured Acanthonautilus bispinosus (1897). F.R. Cowper Reed 
described Pleuronautilus Scarlettensis, sp. nov., from the Carboniferous 
Limestone of the Isle of Man, in 1900. F. Roemer (1880) and 
J. HK. Lee (in 1877) noticed the occurrence of Goniatites, etc., 
in the Upper Devonian of Torbay. The late Professor H. A. 
Nicholson gave, in 1872, a description and figure of Hndoceras 
proteiforme, Hall, from the Coniston series (Silurian), Skelgill Beck, 
Ambleside. Dr. A. H. Foord (1887) wrote on Salter’s genus 


Se, 


102 A Retrospect of Paleontology for Forty Years. 


Piloceras from the Tremadoc Slates, and on the perforated apex and 
siphuncle of Actinoceras from the Black River Formation (Silurian), 
Canada. Professor G. Lindstrém (1888) described Barrande’s genus 
Ascoceras from the Upper Silurian of Gotland, and announced the 
discovery of an earlier or WVautilus stage in the growth of this 
Cephalopod shell, which was evidently decollated in the later period 
of its life, leaving the Ascoceras form behind. This was more fully 
illustrated by Dr. A. H. Foord (in 1889). The earlier part of the 
shell seems to have been composed of a series of air-chambers, 
which were periodically thrown off by natural truncation. It is 
interesting to notice that some modern land-shells (e.g. Bulimus 
decollatus) throw off the apex of their spiral shells, living after- 
wards in a truncated shell, the top of which is closed by 
a diaphragm. In 1891 Dr. A. H. Foord discussed Orthoceratites 
vaginatus, Schl., from the Silurian of Sweden; and in 1903 
G. C. Crick described some new forms of Orthoceras from the 
Silurian of the Province of Shantung, North China. In 1897 
Dr. Gerhard Holm figured Baltoceras, a new genus of Ortho- 
ceratitidz from the grey Zituites Limestone of the I. of Oland, a form 
of Orthoceras with a marginal or sub-marginal siphon. 

Pisces.—In our retrospect of Vertebrate Palaeontology we find 
in the GronocicaL Macazinge a vast store of most important 
contributions to all the great sections, that of fossil fishes being par- 
ticularly rich and varied. Foremost among writers in Ichthyology 
stands the name of the veteran zoologist, Dr. Albert Gtinther, who 
from 1856 to 1895 devoted himself specially to the study of Reptiles 
and Fishes in the British Museum, and was Keeper of Zoology for 
20 years (1875-95). He wrote a description in vol. i, 1864, of 
a new fossil fish from the Lower Chalk of Folkestone, which he 
named Plinthophorus robustus; and in 1876 described 10 species 
of fishes from the Tertiary Marl-slates and Carbonaceous shales of 
the Padang Highlands, Central Sumatra, collected by R. D. M. 
Verbeek, illustrated by five large folding plates. Our old chief, 
Professor Owen, who for 27 years (1856-83) held the post of 
Superintendent of the Natural History Departments in the British 
Museum, contributed numerous papers to the Magazine, six being 
devoted to fossil Ichthyology. In 1865 he described a jaw of 
Stereodus melitensis from the Miocene of Malta; he figured and 
named a sauroid fish from the Kimmeridge Clay, Oxfordshire, 
Ditaxiodus impar (1866); Thlattodus suchoides from the same 
horizon at Downham, Norfolk. In 1867 he made a large number of 
genera and species of fishes from the coal-shales of Northumberland ; 
many of these minute fish-remains were later on (p. 379) suggested 
to be dermal ossicles of large fishes, and others to be the teeth of 
fishes already described by Agassiz and others. In 1869 Owen 
noticed a fine jaw of Strophodus from the Oolite of Caen, Normandy, 
a fossil shark closely related to the living Port Jackson shark, 
Cestracion Philippi, of which a woodcut was given on p. 286. 
He also described and figured a spine of Zepracanthus Colei, from 
the Coal-measures, Ruabon, North Wales (1869). Professor Ray 


A Retrospect of Paleontology for Forty Years. 108 


Lankester, now Director of the British Museum of Natural History, 
began in 1867 to write on fossil fishes, and, described a new 
Cephalaspid (probably an Auchenaspis from Malvern); Didymaspis 
Grindrodi from the Lower Old Red of Ledbury ; a new Cepha- 
laspis (C. Dawsoni) discovered in Lower Devonian beds, Gaspé 
Bay, Canada (1870) ; and on Péeraspis and Scaphaspis (1873-74). 
_In 1878 Professor Dr. Frederic Schmidt had a note on Péeraspis 
Kneri, pointing out that Scaphaspis is the ventral shield of Pteraspis | 
Lankester wrote also (in 1873) on Holaspis sericeus from the 
Cornstones of Abergavenny, and on the relationships of Pteraspis, 
Cyathaspis, and Scaphaspis; and on Holaspis (p. 831) and Pieraspis 
(p. 478). J. HE. Lee described (1882) some Pteraspidean plates from 
the Devonian of Gerolstein, in the Hifel; and H. Woodward (1881) 
figured a head-shield of the genus Zenaspis from Old Red, 
Abergavenny. An old and highly esteemed member of the Staff of 
the Geological Department, William Davies, in 1871 contributed 
a catalogue of the type-specimens of fossil fishes in the British 
Museum. (A list of the ‘types’ in the Egerton Collection appeared 
in 1869, and those of the Enniskillen Collection in the same year. 
Both these most valuable collections have been acquired for the 
nation, and are now added to the Geological Department.) An 
important paper by William Davies was published in 1872 on the 
rostral prolongations of Squaloraia polyspondyla, Ag., from the 
Lower Lias of Lyme Regis; these are organs for holding the female, 
being only present in the male, and correspond to the rostral 
claspers of the male Chimeridee. The frontal spine and rostro-labial 
cartilages of Squaloraia and Chimera formed the subject of an 
important paper by O. M. Reis in 1895, in which a large amount of 
anatomical details was given, with careful figures and sections. 
Mr. Davies wrote also (1878) on Saurocephalus lanciformis and 
S. Woodwardii from the Chalk of Kent and Sussex, and on Pholido- 
phorus purbeckensis and P. brevis from the Purbeck of Dorset. 
E. C. H. Day (1864) described and figured a very beautiful and 
perfect jaw of Acrodus Anningiz, and dorsal spines belonging to the 
same shark, which must have been closely related to the living Port 
Jackson shark, having the mouth provided with numerous rows 
of crushing teeth (known by the quarry men as ‘fossil slugs’). 
Sir Philip Egerton (1877) defined four species of Pycnodonts : 
Celodus ellipticus, Gault, Folkestone; C. gyrodoides, Greensand, near 
Lyme; Pycnodus Bowerbankii and P. pachyrhinus, both from the 
London Clay, Sheppey ; illustrated by two excellent plates. James 
Powrie, of Reswallie, Forfarshire, wrote (1867) on the genus Cheiro- 
lepis from the Old Red Sandstone. T. P. Barkas figured teeth of 
Ctenodus from the Coal Shale of Newsham Colliery; and our old 
colleague, Professor John Morris, figured and described Aichmodus 
orbicularis from the Lias of Lyme Regis. The Rev. Professor 
H. R. Lewis, of the Syrian Protestant College, Beirtit, gave 
(in 1878) an excellent account of the localities in the Cretaceous 
beds of the Lebanon where fossil fishes could be obtained. His 
collection from Hakel and Sahel Alma now enriches the British 


104 A Retrospect of Paleontology for Forty Years. 


Museum Geological Collection. In 1886 James William Davis 
noticed a number of teeth of fishes from Tertiary beds of New 
Zealand, comprising Lamna, Carcharodon, Notidanus, Myliobatis, etc. 
He gave a further note on New Zealand Tertiary fishes in 1888, 
which he referred to the genus Scymnus. He recorded thirteen species 
of fish-remains from the Carboniferous Limestone of Derbyshire, 
mostly palatal teeth of Petalodus, Petalorhynchus, Streblodus, 
Psephodus, etc. This bright and promising naturalist and geologist 
passed away at the early age of 47 years, a victim to overwork. 
A very interesting Ichthyodorulite named Hdestus Davisii, discovered 
on the Gascoyne, Western Australia, was figured and described by 
Henry Woodward in 1886; this form is now supposed to be the 
coiled dentition of a Carboniferous shark. Entire coiled examples 
have been obtained from deposits of similar age in Russia by 
A. Karpinsky. 

Nearly fifty separate papers on fossil fishes have been contributed 
by two authors in about equal proportions. Dr. R. H. Traquair’s 
extended over 31 years, from 1871 to 1902, and number twenty-three ; 
Dr. Arthur Smith Woodward’s over 17 years, from 1886 to 1903, and 
number twenty-two. 

Dr. Traquair’s first paper, in 1871, dealt with the genus 
Phaneropleuron from the Lower Carboniferous (Burdiehouse Lime- 
stone) of Edinburgh, of which genus he gave an excellent plate and 
a restored outline (for Dr. Traquair, like Dr. Davidson, is equally 
facile with pen and pencil, his blackboard sketches as ‘‘ Swiney 
Lecturer” being unsurpassed by anyone). In 1875 he described 
a new Dipnoid fish, Ganorhynchus Woodwardi; and in 1874 
Cycloptychius carbonarius from the Coal-measures of N. Staffordshire. 
The fish-remains from Borough Lee, near Edinburgh, engaged 
Traquair’s attention, when he published three papers (in 1881), 
and a fourth one, upon Pleuracanthus horridulus, in 1882. In 
1884 he wrote on Ctenacanthus costel/atus from Eskdale, and on 
the genus Megalichthys from the Hugh Miller Collection; and 
in 1885 on Psephodus magnus from the Carboniferous Limestone 
of East Kilbride. In 1886 and 1888 Dr. Traquair wrote on 
the English Paleoniscide, and on Chondrosteus acipenseroides, 
a sturgeon-like fish from the Lias of Lyme Regis, in 1887; on 
Carboniferous sharks and on the nomenclature of Old Red Fishes 
in 1888; on Homosteus and Coccosteus and on Dipterus macropterus 
in 1889. In 1890 Traquair discussed in two papers the Devonian 
Fishes of Scaumenac Bay and Campbelltown, Canada, including 
very perfect remains of buckler-coated fishes like Bothriolepis 
canadensis, Ooccosteus, Cephalaspis, and many other genera. He 
wrote again on fishes from Borough Lee (1890); on Myriolepis 
from the Kilkenny Coalfield in 1898, and on Diplacanthus in 1894. 
In 1900 Traquair gave restorations of Drepanaspis, a wonderful 
new Cephalaspid fish from the Devonian Slates of Gmiinden in 
Western Germany, and he added further and corrected figures in 
1902. His Address (1900) to the British Association (p. 463) on 
the bearings of fossil Ichthyology on Evolution was a very important 


A Retrospect of Paleontology for Forty Years. 105 


contribution to our science, and treated most philosophically 
by the author. In his paper on the Lower Carboniferous Fishes 
of Fifeshire, Traquair enumerated 37 fishes from the Calciferous 
Sandstone and Carboniferous Limestone series. These extraordinary — 
fishes, with others from the Silurian of Lanarkshire (pp. 67-69, 
1900), add to and complete a splendid record of Ichthyological 
research, to which must be added his memoirs in the Paleonto- 
eraphical Society’s volumes and in those of the Geological Survey 
and elsewhere. 

Science gained greatly when Arthur Smith Woodward, following 
in the steps of the veteran William Davies, took up the study of 
fossil fishes, for not only did he, by constant energy and perseverance, 
-accomplish a vast amount of admirable work in this branch of 
science, but he was instrumental in inspiring his senior fellow- 
worker, Dr. Traquair, of Edinburgh, with a spirit of generous 
rivalry, which stimulated that very deliberate and careful anatomist 
to abandon his long accustomed habits of reserve and extreme 
caution, and to publish in an unusually brief time many new and 
important contributions to fossil Ichthyology. Dr. Arthur Smith 
Woodward commenced to write on fossil fishes in this Magazine in 
1886, by giving an account of the Selachian genus Notidanus, a shark 
still living and extending back to the Lias; fourteen fossil species 
-of which were duly recorded. Post-Liassic species of Acrodus and 
Holocentrum from Malta followed, also in 1887. A beautiful jaw of 
the Cretaceous shark Synechodus in the Brighton Museum was figured 
.and described in 1888. A gigantic species of Rhinobatis, one of the 
Rays (commonly called ‘old maids’), a Selachian fish from the 
Lithographic Stone of Bavaria, was delineated and noted by A. Smith 
Woodward; urycormus grandis and seven other British Jurassic 
fishes, and Onychodus from the Devonian of Spitzbergen, were 
recorded in 1889. In 1890 the same author described the head 
of Hurycormus from Hly; and remains of a huge fish, Leedsia 
_problematica, from Peterborough. Fossil fish-teeth from the Cre- 
taceous and Tertiary of Belgium and Pholidophorus from the Lias 
of Whitby were noticed in 1891; papers on Lower Devonian 
fish from New Brunswick, on the Devonian fish fauna of Canada, 
-and on a fossil saw-fish, Sclerorhynchus atavus, from the Lebanon 
Cretaceous, followed in 1892. <A gigantic Eocene Skate (Myliobatis) 
from Hgypt, a Greensand Pycnodont fish (Athrodon), and other 
Upper Jurassic species appeared in 1893; a second British Jurassic 
Eurycormus in 1894; the fossil fish fauna of the English Purbeck 
beds, and Synopsis of Ganoid fishes of the Cambridge Greensand, in 
1895 ; Wealden fishes in 1896; and as a companion to Rhinobatis 
a still grander specimen, a Squatina, the ‘angel-fish’ or monk-fish, 
a metre in length, most beautifully preserved, from the Lithographic 
Stone of Wurtemberg, showing the entire outline and skeleton of 
the fish; and lastly, a Carboniferous Listracanthus in 1903. In 1874 
R. Etheridge, jun., described a Petalorhynchus from H. Kilbride ; 
T. Stock a Rhizodus (nearly entire) from the Wardie shales (1881) ; 
the late J. C. Mansel-Pleydell a Purbeck Histionotus (in 1889). 


106 F. R. Cowper Reed—Sedgwick Museum Notes. 


J. H. Cooke recorded the remains of Stereodon melitensis from Malta 
(1891); E. T. Newton wrote on Onychodus from the Old Red of 
Forfarshire (1892) ; H. Bolton on Listracanthus spinatus from the 
English Coal-measures (1896); E. D. Wellburn on Rhadinichthys 
from the Coal-measures, Yorkshire (1900), and the fish fauna of the 
Millstone Grit (1901). Lastly, Professor C. R. Hastman wrote on 
a new Hdestus-like form of fish-dentition named Campyloprion, from 
the Coal-measures of Nebraska, U.S., 1902. 


(To be concluded in our next Nunber.) 


II. — Sepewick Museum Norss.! 
By F. R. Cowrer Rzep, M.A., F.G.S. 
(PLATE Y.) 
New Fossits From THE Haverrorpwest Districv. 


HE recent gift to the Museum of a fine series of Lower Palzeozoic 
fossils from the Haverfordwest area by Mr. V. M. Turnbull, M.A., 

who has personally collected them with much care, has at length 
provided us with the means of determining many of the interesting 
species which were mentioned without specific names (on account 
of their imperfect preservation) by Messrs. Marr and Roberts in 
their paper on this district.» The collections from which their lists 
were drawn up are in the Sedgwick Museum. 

Several species new to science or to the locality can now be- 
accordingly described, but others must still await the acquisition of 
better material. 


J. Puacors Ropertst, sp. nov. (Plate V.) 


A large number of specimens of a species of Phacops were 
collected by Messrs. Marr and Roberts from the Sholeshook Lime- 
stone and Redhill Beds, but the material was scarcely good enough 
for a sufficient diagnosis of specific characters. Mr. Turnbull’s new 
specimens of the same form have now supplied this want. 

Description.—Head-shield nearly semicircular or broadly para- 
bolic, obtusely pointed in front, about twice as broad as long, gently 
convex from back to front, strongly convex from side to side with 
the cheeks bent down ; anterior border present. 

Glabella elongated, expanding gradually towards the front to 
about double the basal width; rather narrow in relation to head- 
shield, the base being only about a quarter its width; nearly three 
times as long as wide at base; sides nearly straight behind frontal 
lobe, converging posteriorly at about 20°; gently and uniformly 
convex, rising but slightly above cheeks. 

Frontal lobe of glabella not reaching front margin of head-shield, 
with rounded lateral angles projecting slightly at the sides; about half 


1 The series of articles in this Magazine which have been long known as 
‘‘Woodwardian Museum Notes ” will in the future be continued under the title 
of ‘‘Sedgwick Museum Notes,’’ in consequence of the removal of the geological 
collections at Cambridge to the new Sedgwick Memorial Museum. 

2 Q.J.G.8., vol. xl (1885), pp. 476-490. 


F. R. Cowper Reed—Sedgwick Museum Notes. 107 


as long as whole glabella or rather more; transversely subquadrate 
in shape, with arched front end; not rising above general level of 
rest of glabella, nor detached from it; lateral angles circumscribed 
by facial sutures. Three pairs of lateral glabellar lobes present; — 
first pair the largest, triangular in shape, extending back along axial 
furrows to middle of eyes; second and third pairs of lateral lobes of 
subequal size, and with subparallel anterior and posterior sides. 

Three pairs of lateral glabellar furrows present; the basal pair 
the strongest. First pair straight, obliquely inclined to axial 
furrows at about 45° or 50°, arising a little in front of eyes and 
extending inwards for about two-fifths of the width of the 
glabella on each side ; scarcely widening at their outer extremities. 
Second pair equal in depth and width to the first, horizontal, nearly 
straight or slightly arched forwards, arising nearly opposite middle 
of eyes and extending inwards for about one-third or rather more of 
the width of the glabella on each side. Third or basal pair deeper 
than the preceding pair, horizontal or slightly: oblique, straight, 
situated half-way between second pair and occipital furrow, and 
extending on each side inwards for about one-third of the width of 
the glabella. 

Occipital furrow strong, arched forwards in middle. Axial 
furrows rather weak, especially round lateral angles of frontal 
lobe; diverging anteriorly at about 20° in a slight concave curve 
from base of glabella to anterior end of eyes, in front of which they 
sweep outwards round the frontal lobe, merging imperceptibly into 
the nearly obsolete marginal furrow of the head-shield. 

Fixed cheeks with anterior wing much reduced in size owing to 
lateral projection and width of frontal lobe; posterior wing with 
a basal width equal to about one and a half times that of the glabella 
at its base; posterior margin gently arched; neck segment marked 
off by strong deep furrow dying out before reaching lateral margin ; 
lateral marginal furrow nearly obsolete. Genal angles measuring 
about 60° or more, and furnished with small sharp spinules. EHye- 
lobes large, prominent, semicircular, horizontally extended at same 
level as glabella. 

Facial sutures with anterior and posterior branches making angle of 
about 70°; anterior branches curve round, defining lateral angles 
of frontal lobe, and unite in regular convex curve in front of it, 
which they thus bound; posterior branches curve slightly forward 
in a sigmoidal manner from base of eye to cut lateral margin a little 
behind the level of second lateral glabellar furrows. 

Free cheeks small, triangular, united in front by the narrow, 
flattened, horizontal anterior border of the head-shield. Hyes large, 
prominent, high, strongly curved, but not angulated; extending 
from a little behind first lateral furrows to third lateral furrows of 
glabella; distant from posterior margin of head-shield about two- 
thirds their length; nearly touching side of glabella at their front 
end, but more remote at their posterior end; lens-bearing surface 
steeply inclined or vertical, with about 30-35 vertical rows of 
lenses having 10-12 lenses in the middle rows. Surface of glabella 


108 F. R. Cowper Reed—Sedgwick Museum Notes. 


granulated, with small tubercles interspersed. Faint traces on the 
frontal lobe of the v-shaped mark found in Chasmops. 

Thorax (imperfectly known) about twice as long as head-shield ; 
axis regularly semi-cylindrical, prominent, convex, with slightly 
swollen lateral nodes on axial rings. Pleure strongly arched, with 
deep diagonal furrow; fulcrum situated about half-way out; extra- 
fulcral part sharply bent down and slightly curved forwards ; 
extremities of pleuree rounded. 

Pygidium semicircular to semi-elliptical, gently convex, with | 
regular margin. Axis prominent, convex, conical, tapering to 
a pointed extremity, not quite reaching posterior margin ; composed 
of 9-11 rings, of which only the first 5-6 are usually well marked. 
Axial furrows straight, converging posteriorly at about 20°—25°. 
Lateral lobes gently arched downwards on each side, showing 5-8 
regular, slightly curved pleure, dying out towards the margin and 
each with weak median pleural furrow. Border smooth, not crossed 
by pleurz, but not marked off on upper surface by marginal furrow. 
Infra-marginal doublure (seen in casts) convex, of moderate width, 
extending inwards to tip of axis. 


DimeEnsrons. 
mm. 
Length of head-shield... we a ae 18-20 
Width of head-shield ... bed ch bt 36-40 
Length of pygidium ... atic t33 Bae 13-23 
Width of pygidium ... aos age oe 22-33 


Arrinities.—The general characters of this species indicate a close 
relationship to the Ordovician forms of Da!manites (Barrande)* found 
in Bohemia. Hoernes? has carefully pointed out the characters which 
differentiate them from the typical Silurian and Devonian members 
of this genus as understood by Barrande, and they constitute 
a group which in one direction appears to lead to that of 
D. Hausmanni of Stages F, G, and H, and in the other direction 
to the typical forms of Phacops, sens. str., of the same Stages. 

The chief points which distinguish this older group of Dalmanites 
are the rudimentary or absent frontal border, the slight separation 
of the frontal lobe from the rest of the glabella, the smallness 
or absence of the genal spines, the rounded or scarcely pointed 
extremities of the pleura, and the fewer segments in the pygidium. 

In Ph. Robertsi the head-shield with its distinct frontal border, the 
lobation and shape of the glabella, and small genal spines resemble 
those forms leading on to the D. Hausmanni group; but the rounded 
extremities of the pleure and the non-mucronate, semicircular 
pygidium connect it with the species which seem to be the 
ancestors of the typical Phacops group. JD. socialis, Barr. (and 
its varieties), D. Deshayest, Barr., and D. Hawlei, Barr.—all from 
Stage D in Bohemia—show strong points of resemblance in the head- 
shield, but D. Phillipsi, Barr. in the thorax and pygidium. It is 


' Barrande: Syst. Silur. Bohéme, vol. i, p. 299 et seq. and p. 528 et seq. 
* Hoernes, Jahrb. Geol. Reichsanst. Wien, Bd. xxx (1880), Heft 4, pp. 651-686 ; 
and Kosmos, Jahrg. tv, Bd. viii (1880), pp. 20-32. 


Geol.Mag 1904. Decade V.Vol.I.PL.V. 


G.M Woodward del.et lith. 


West,Newman imp. 


Phiacops: Roberisi. sozor- 
Ordovician. Haverfordwest 


Dr. C. W. Andrews—WNotes on Egyptian Eocene Mammals. 109° 


obvious, therefore, that this Haverfordwest species belongs to this. 
group of Dalmanites, in which there existed a combination of the 
subsequently well - differentiated characters of the later typical 
Dalmanites and Phacops. 

The specific name, Ph. Robertsi, has been chosen in memory of 
the late Mr. T’. Roberts, M.A., F.G.S. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE V. 


Fic. 1.—Phacops Robertsi, sp. noy. Head-shield. Redhill Stage, Prendergast 
Place, Haverfordwest. x 12. 
», 2.—Ditto. Head-shield. Redhill Stage, Redhill Quarry, Haverfordwest. 
Nat. size. 
», 3-—Ditto. Head-shield. Sholeshook Limestone, Prendergast Place, Haver- 
fordwest. x 1. 
», 4.—Ditto. Free-cheek. Sholeshook Limestone, Prendergast Farm, Haver- 
fordwest. x 13. i 
5.—Ditto. Head-shield with portion of thorax. Same horizon and locality. 
Nat. size. 
6.—Ditto. Pygidium. Redhill Stage, Redhill Quarry, Haverfordwest. Nat. size. 
>, 7@-—Ditto. Pygidium. Sholeshook Limestone, Prendergast Place, Haver- 
fordwest. x 1d. 


Il].—Furtuer Notes on tHe MammMats or tHe Hocenr or Heyev.. 
By C. W. Anvrews, D.Sc., F.G.S., British Museum (Natural History). 
Parr J. 


URING the last few months I have been engaged in examining 
the remains of the fossil Vertebrates from the Middle and 
Upper Eocene of the Fayim district of Egypt, with a view to the 
preparation of the detailed monograph which it is proposed to publish 
on this subject. As it will be some months before this can appear, 
it seems desirable to give a brief account of some of the more 
important results arrived at, and preliminary descriptions of such 
new forms as have come to light in the course of the work. The 
collections examined include all the material belonging to the 
British Museum, as well as many of the more important specimens. 
from the Geological Museum of Cairo. There still remains in Cairo 
a large collection of bones, which I hope to have an opportunity 
of working out during the next few weeks. 


Meritherium. 


The figure of the skull and mandible of Meritherium dyonsi lately 
published (Phil. Trans., vol. 196 B, figs. 14-17) was reconstructed 
from portions of a number of skulls from the Middle Hocene. Since 
then Mr. H. J. L. Beadnell has found an almost complete skull of 
a nearly adult animal from the Upper Hocene, and from this the 
accompanying restoration (Fig. 1) has been made, showing the 
boundaries of many of the bones, but otherwise differing in no 
important points from the earlier figure. The mandible has been 
reconstructed from several Middle Hocene specimens. 

The most striking character of the skull as a whole is the great 
elongation of the cranial as compared to the facial region. The 


110 Dr. C. W. Andrews—Notes on Egyptian Eocene Mammals, 


upper edge of the supra-occipital forms the lambdoidal crest and 
extends on to the roof of the skull, sending a wedge-shaped process 
between the hinder ends of the parietals, but there seems to be no 
trace of a distinct interparietal bone. The parietals are long, 
extending nearly to the front of the temporal fossa. Their most 
peculiar character is that they send back on to the occipital surface 


——————— SSB 


| 


Fic. 1.—Skull of Meritherium.—A, from above; B, from side. * ant.ord. 
antorbital foramen ; ex.oc. exoccipital; fr. frontal; ju. Jugal; mx, maxilla ; 
n. nasal; pa. parietal; pav.oc. paroccipital; pmax. premaxilla; pt. post- 
tympanic process of squamosal; s.oc. supra-occipital; sg. squamosal. 71, <2, 
43, mcisors; ¢, canine; pm2, pms, pm4, premolars; m1, m2, m3, molars. 


a short process which is wedged in between the supra-occipital 
and the squamosal. The cranial part of the squamosal, as well as 
the neighbouring region of the parietals, is considerably swollen 


Dr. C. W. Andrews—Notes on Egyptian Eocene Mammals. 111 


through the development of sinuses which communicate with the 
outside of the skull by a number of irregularly arranged foramina. 
The frontals are comparatively short; they are slightly marked by 
supra-orbital ridges, which run along the upper borders of the 
orbits; anteriorly they are cut off from the premaxille by the union 
of the maxillze with the nasals. These latter bones are short, and 
overhang the narial opening to a very small extent; from behind 
forwards they form sutures with the frontals, maxille, and pre- 
maxille; in fact, their relations to the surrounding bones are exactly 
as in the later Proboscidea. 

The nasal opening is large and looks forward, not upward as in 
Elephas. It is not at the end of the snout, and the upper surface of 
the premaxille in front of it is deeply grooved, probably indicating 
the presence of a short proboscis as in the Tapir. The orbit is very 
small, and there is a mere trace of supra-orbital processes. 

In the young specimen above referred to, the last molar is still 
uncut, and from its position it is clear that the rest of the cheek 
teeth must move considerably forward in order to allow it to come 
into position. 

The occurrence of a species of Meritherium, probably identical 
with M. lyonsi, in the Upper Eocene beds in association with 
Paleomastodon raises the question of whether Meritheriwm can be 
ancestral to Palgomastodon. If it is not, at least it must be extremely 
similar and very closely related to the actual ancestor, for it presents 
all the proboscidean characters in exactly the more generalised 
condition that one would expect to find. Moreover, it may be 
pointed out that Palzomastodon does not occur in the Middle Hocene 
beds in which Merithertum is abundant, while in the upper beds 
Palgomastodon is common, and but few Meritherium remains have 
been found. 

From the vertebral column of a large, and at present unnamed, 
species of Maritherium the number of the vertebra in the different 
regions can be ascertained with reasonable certainty. These are: 
cervical, 7; thoracic, 20; lumbar, 3; sacral, 3; caudal, number 
unknown, but the tail must have been of moderate length. The 
axis has a peg-like odontoid, the lower surface of which bears 
a large facet for articulation with the atlas; the neural spine is 
high. The centra of the other cervicals are rather short, but longer 
in proportion to their size than in the later proboscideans. 

The scapula is oval in outline; the coracoid process is large, and 
the glenoid surface for the humerus is continued on to its lower 
face. The humerus. is in some respects more like that of some 
carnivores than that of an ungulate. Its most remarkable feature 
is the extreme compression of the shaft from side to side. The 
ent-epicondyle is very large, and there is no ent-epicondylar foramen. 
The supinator ridge is well developed. The femur is flattened from 
before backwards; the great trochanter rises a little above the 
head, and there is no third trochanter. The distal articular end 
is relatively small, and the condyles are as in Elephas. The feet are 
at present quite unknown. 


112) Dr. OC. W. Andrews—Notes on Egyptian Eocene Mammals... 


Among the specimens collected by me last season is a portion of 
the right ramus of a mandible containing the three molars: of these- 
m. 3 is in perfect and unworn condition, while m. 2 and m. 1 have 
lost portions of their outer sides. The character of the teeth here- 
preserved proves the existence in these beds of another small 
proboscidean related to Meritherium, but differing from it so con- 
siderably that when better known it may be necessary to refer it to 
anew genus; for the present it may be called Meritherium trigodon. 

The characters of the teeth are as follows :— 

M. 1 was a bilophodont tooth with a small posterior lobe; each 
transverse crest consisted of two tubercles. Most of the outer half 
of the tooth is wanting; the inner half consists of a high anterior 
cusp and a somewhat lower posterior one, separated by a deep 
valley. The half of the posterior lobe still remaining is nearly flat. 

M. 2 also wants a great part of its inner half. It is similar to 
m. 1, except that the posterior lobe bears a large blunt tubercle, 
which lies immediately behind the outer tubercle of the posterior 
crest. These two teeth are very similar to the corresponding ones. 
of Meritherium. 

M. 3 is quite unworn; it differs widely from m. 3 of Meritherium. 
Like the other molars, it consists of two transverse ridges and 
a talon. The transverse ridges are placed somewhat obliquely ; the 
anterior one consists of a high pointed outer tubercle and an inner 
one, on the outer face of which a small secondary tubercle is present. 
In the posterior crest the outer lobe again consists of a pointed 
tubercle, but the inner half is formed by two subequal tubercles. 
The talon is composed of a large tubercle in the same antero- 
posterior line as the outer cusps of the crests, and on its inner side 
there are several small tubercles; on its outer side the cingulum is 
well developed. The talon as a whole is thus triangular in outline, 
its posterior angle being on the outer side of the tooth. In 
Meritherium lyonsi, on the other hand, the talon is much broader, 
and consists of an outer and an inner tubercle, which form a third 
transverse crest, thus converting the tooth into a trilophodont one. 
This difference in the talons appears to justify the separation of the 
present form as a distinct species at least, and, as already remarked, 
further material will probably show that a new genus will have to 
be established. The enamel of the whole tooth is raised into 
irregular ridges and small tuberosities. 

The dimensions of the specimen are :— 


Length. Breadth. 
mil ae Aue 26mm. es is re 
m. 2 ne Ae 32 mm. aa ek ? 
m. 3 ns sft 40 mm. ee ap 24 mm. 
Palzomastodon. 


The structure of the skull in this genus is now almost completely 
known. The most complete specimens yet found are (1) an adult 
skull wanting part of the occipital and most of the facial regions ; 
(2) the anterior half of a young skull collected by Mr. Beadnell, and 


Dy. 0. W. Andrews—Notes on Egyptian Eocene Mammais.. 113. 


showing the whole of the facial portion in a perfect state of : 
preservation. The figures here given have been constructed from : 
these two specimens, and are sufficient to convey a general idea of 
the chief characters. It will be seen that in all essential respects | 
this skull is proboscidean, and, in fact, it might almost be described 
as that of an exceedingly dolichocephalic elephant. 


Fie. 2.—Skull of Paleomastodon. -A, trom above; B, from side. ai. alisphenoid ; 
al.pt. pterygoid wing of alisphenoid ; a/.c. alisphenoid canal ; Zac. lachrymal. 
The other letters are as in Fig. 1. 


The supra-occipital surface slopes somewhat forward, and has 

a deep median fossa for the attachment of muscles and ligaments, , 

exactly like that found in Elephas. The region of the lambdoidal 

crest, both in the squamosal and the parietal, is considerably swollen 

by the development of sinuses which communicate with the exterior 
DECADE Y.—YOL. I.—NO. III. 8 


114. Dr. C. W. Andrews—Notes on Egyptian Eocene Mammals. 


and probably with the auditory meatus by several foramina. The 
swelling of the back of the head has not yet gone far enough to lead 
to the disappearance of the sagittal crest, which is fairly prominent, 
and divides anteriorly into the temporal ridges, which run out 
on to the post-orbital processes of the frontals. The nasals are 
short, and their relations to the surrounding bones much as in, 
Elephas. The nasal opening has already been shifted back 
a considerable distance behind the anterior end of the snout, but 
not to the same degree as in the elephants, since it is still in 
front of the anterior border of the orbits, while in the later 
forms it has come to lie behind it and at the same time looks more 
upwards. The premaxillaries have exactly the same relations to 
the nasal opening and to the neighbouring bones as in Elephas, but 
the form of their anterior portion is quite different, owing to the 
fact that the tusks are still small, so that the great alveoli and 
the broad truncated anterior border of these bones, so characteristic 
of the elephants, are here unnecessary, and they terminate anteriorly 
almost in a point. The maxilla is greatly elongated. It bears 
a stout zygomatic process, the base of which is perforated by 
a large antorbital canal, which opens on the face by two foramina. 
The lachrymal is exactly as in Elephas. The jugal is large, and 
extends from the orbit back beneath the zygomatic process of the 
squamosal as far as the glenoid surface for the mandible. The 
cranial portion of the squamosal is considerably swollen by the 
presence of air sinuses; it completely surrounds the auditory 
opening, sending down behind it a post-tympanic (p.t.) process. The 
articular surface for the mandible is very large; it is slightly 
concave from side to side, and very convex from before backwards ; 
the mandible must have much freer play both from side to side and 
up and down than in the recent elephants. The alisphenoid is 
perforated by an alisphenoid canal (al.c.), and sends down on to the 
pterygoid a pterygoid wing (al.pt.), the anterior edge of which 
forms the outer border of a deep groove, which is continued upwards 
and forwards towards the post-orbital process of the frontal. At the 
bottom of this groove are the anterior openings of the alisphenoid 
canal, the foramen lacerum anterius and the optic foramen, as in 
Elephas. ‘The tympanic is small, less inflated than in the later type, 
and does not extend into the mandibular articulation. 

There is no distinct condylar foramen ; it appears to be confluent 
with the foramen lacerum posterius. The opening of the internal 
nares is higher than wide; the maxilla, palatines, and pterygoids 
which form its side walls are all to some extent thickened by the 
development of coarsely cellular bone, which is particularly 
abundant in the portion of the maxilla immediately behind the last 
molar. The axis of the palate is somewhat bent up with regard to 
the basi-cranial axis, so that the two make a very obtuse angle with 
one another: in the elephants this character is carried still further. 

The limb bones of Paleomastodon are comparatively rare, most 
of the very large number of bones now collected belonging to 
Arsinoitheriwm. Such specimens as can be referred with certainty to 


G. C. Crick—Strachey’s Cephalopoda from Himalaya. 115 


Pale@omastodon differ in no important points from the corresponding 
bones of Elephas. The calcaneum, however, is less short and stout 
than in the recent forms, the tuber calcis being more elongate ; some 
calcanea from the Miocene of France, probably belonging to Tetra- — 
belodon angustidens, approximate most nearly to the Hgyptian 
specimen. 


A portion of the right ramus of a mandible shows that there 
existed in the Upper Hocene beds a species of Palgomastodon 
considerably smaller than P. beadnelli, even allowing for a very 

wide range of individual variation in size in that species. The 
specimen in question consists of part of the ramus and the coronoid 
process of an immature mandible, in which m. 3 has not yet been 
cut, although it is completely developed. M. 3 differs from the 
same tooth in P. beaduelli in having the outer half of the third 
transverse crest more clearly composed of two distinct tubercles, 
and in the presence of a short fourth transverse crest separated from 
the third by a fairly deep valley and composed of three small 
tubercles. M. 2 is trilophodont, the anterior valley being partly 
blocked by an accessory tubercle; as usual in this genus, the second 
molar is considerably larger than the first. This latter, which is 
already considerably worn, is.also trilophodont. Pm. 4is bilophodont, 
the anterior crest being considerably the higher. Pm. 3 consists of 
a single high anterior cusp and a low heel. This Species may 
be called Paleomastodon minor; its dimensions compared to those of 
P. beadnelli are shown in the following table, which in the first 
column gives the length of the teeth in the type of P. minor, in the 
second of those of a small individual (? female) of P. beadnelli, and in 
the third of those of the type of that species :— 


P. minor. P. beadnelli P. beadnelli 


(? female). (type). 
m. 3.. bed 47 mm. is 65 mm. de 78 mm. 
m. 2.. eta 45 8 Sot Ge Rk Panes 
m. 1.. Meteors Re ie eee ioe bee aa 
pm. 4 Ae 20 Bis we i ES Oe sho a 
[ou 3 at 2S 30 4, ? 


IV.—NotTrEs oN THE CEPHALOPODA BELONGING TO THE STRACHEY 
CoLLecTION FROM THE Himataya. Parr I: Jurassic. 


By G. C. Crick, Assoc. R.S.M., F.G.S., of the British Museum (Natural History). 
(Concluded from the February Number.) 
10. Ammonites scriptus (R. Strachey MS.), H. F. Blanford. 
. (A. F. Blanford, in J. W. Salter & H. F. Blanford: Palwont. Niti, 1865, p. 81, 
pl. xvi, figs. 2a-c.) 

According to Professor Blanford the only example of this species 
in the Strachey Collection was the fragment which he figured. 
This is now in the British Museum collection [No. C. 5045]; it was 
transferred from the Museum of Practical Geology, labelled with one 
of that Museum’s labels “ Oolitic: Niti Pass. Ammonites scriptus 
(Stra.). Coll. by Col. Strachey.” The figures, which are all reversed, 


116 G. C. Crick—Strachey’s Cephalopoda from Himalaya. 


are not good. The portion of the fossil that is figured is entirely 
septate; the anterior part of the specimen that formed the base 
of the body-chamber is not included in the figure, nor does the 
figure show the shorter intermediate ribs which extend over the 
outer half of the lateral area of the whorl. 

Blanford (p. 106) regarded this species as a synonym of Oppel’s 
A. Stanleyi,! a species which he considered to have priority of 
publication. 


11. Ammonites suBar (R. Strachey MS.), H. F. Blanford. 


(H. F. Blanford, in J. W. Salter & H. F. Blanford: Paleont. Niti, 1865, p.. 82, 
pl. xx, figs. 2a-c; pl. xxi, figs. 1a-c.) 

The British Museum collection contains three examples of this 
species, numbered C. 5048, C. 5044, and C. 5030 respectively. 

The specimen numbered C. 5048 is the original of plate xx, 
figs. 2a, b. The posterior half of the outer whorl, that is, the 
portion to the right of the break indicated in fig. 2a, is now missing, 
but the cement still adhering to the fossil indicates its former 
presence; it was possibly from the now missing part that the 
suture-line depicted in fig. 2c was drawn. About one-third of the 
rest of the outer whorl is septate, whilst the remainder formed part of 
the body-chamber. As part of the Strachey Collection this specimen 
was transferred from the Museum of Practical Geology, labelled 
with one of that Museum’s labels “ Oolitic: Niti Pass. Ammonites 
jubar. Coll. by Col. Strachey.” 

The example No. C. 5044 is the natural mould, of which a gutta- 
percha impression (also preserved) is figured in pl. xxi, fig. la. 
Belonging to the same collection it was also transferred from the 
same Museum. It is labelled with one of that Museum’s labels 
“Oolitic: Niti Pass. Ammonites jubar (Stra.). Coll. by Col. Strachey.” 
To it is fastened a small white label on which is written in ink 
« Ammonites jubar, R.S. Budarinathix” ; but the word ‘jubar ’ has 
been crossed out in ink. 

The specimen No. 5030 also belonged to the Strachey Collection 
and was transferred from the Museum of Practical Geology, but 
the precise locality of the specimen is not recorded. It is the 
original of plate xxi, fig. 1b, and probably also furnished the restored 
outline given in fig. le. 

I have not been able to recognize the original of the suture-line 
which is figured on pl. xx and numbered 2d; this appears not to 
be referred to in the text. 

On p. 106 Professor Blanford placed this species as a synonym 
of Oppel’s A. Sabineanus,* a name which he considered to have priority 
of publication. 


1 A. Oppel, ‘‘ Ueber ostindische Fossilreste aus den secundiren Ablagerungen von 
Spiti und Gnari-Khorsum in Tibet”’: Pal. Mittheil., iv (1863), p. 282, pl. lxxix, 
figs. la-e. 

"2 A. Oppel, ‘‘ Ueber ostindische Fossilreste aus den secundiren Ablagerungen you 
Spiti und Gnari-Khorsum in Tibet’’: Pal. Mittheil., iv (1863), p. 288, pl. Ixxxii, 
figs. la-e, 2a, 6. 


G. C. Orick—Strachey’s Cephalopoda from Himalaya. 117 


AMMONITES JUBAR, var. A. MULTIRADIATUS (R. Strachey MS.), 
H. F. Blanford. 


(H. F. Blantord, in J. W. Salter & H. F. Blanford: Palzont. Niti, 1865, p. 82.) 


Professor Blanford states that “this differs from the normal form 
in the greater number of its ribs (55), which are consequently more 
close set and filiform. The variation probably occurs only in young 
shells.” In the Strachey Collection transferred from the Museum 
of Practical Geology, and labelled with that Museum’s label ‘“ Oolitic : 
Niti Pass. Ammonites triplicatus (Sow.). Coll. by Col. Strachey,” 
there is a fairly complete specimen [C. 7366], 46°5 mm. in diameter, 
which agrees very well with Blanford’s description of this variety. 
It has about 52 ribs in the outer whorl, and although labelled 
‘ Ammonites triplicatus ’ it certainly does not agree with that species. 
This is the only specimen in the collection that corresponds to 
Blanford’s description, and it is therefore most probably the variety 
referred to. 

12. Ammonrrus ocragonus (R. Strachey MS.), H. F. Blanford, 
(H. F. Blanford, in J. W. Salter & H. F. Blanford: Palsxont. Niti, 1865, p. 83, 
pl. xii, figs. 2a, 6.) 

According to Professor Blanford’s description, “the only specimen 
of this Ammonite in Colonel Strachey’s Collection is a fragment, but 
of larger dimensions and in better preservation than that previously 
described from Spiti.” This fragment is now in the British Museum 
collection [C. 5032], having been transferred from the Museam of 
Practical Geology, accompanied by one of that Museum’s labels 
on which was written in ink simply the name “Am. octagonus, 
Strachey,” without any record of either horizon or locality, and 
without any indication that it was the figured specimen. But of 
this fact there cannot be the slightest doubt; fig. 2a representing 
a lateral aspect of the fragment (reversed), and fig. 2b a much 
restored transverse section of the whorl. 

Later in the same work (p. 106) Blanford united Strachey’s 
A. Hookeri with the present species under the name A. octagonus, 
this species having been described some two years previously.’ 


13. Ammontres Hooxert (R. Strachey MS.), H. F. Blanford. 
(H. F. Blanford, in J. W. Salter & H. F. Blanford: Paleont. Niti, 1865, p. 88, 
pl. xvui, figs. 1a-d.) 

The figures illustrating Professor Blanford’s description (pl. xvi, 
figs. la-d) have been drawn (reversed) from two specimens, which 
are now in the British Museum collection [C. 5048 and CO. 5049]. 
Fig. la has been drawn from the example bearing the register 
number C. 5048, and the other figures have been taken from the 
specimen No. C. 5049. Both specimens were transferred, in 1880, 
from the Museum of Practical Geology, the smaller one [C. 5048] 
labelled ‘ Oolitic: Niti Pass. Ammonites Hookeri (Stra.). Coll. by 
Col. Strachey.” There is now no Jermyn Street Museum label 
with the larger specimen, but there is no doubt, whatever as to its 


1 Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, vol. xxxii, No. 2 (1863), p. 128, pl. i, figs. 5a-c. 


118 G. C. Crick—Strachey’s Cephalopoda from Himalaya. 


being the other specimen figured by Blanford. Each fossil has been 
numbered in ink “1830”; this is Strachey’s original number, and 
indicates that the two examples came from the same locality, viz. 
the Niti Pass, this being the only locality mentioned in the list of 
fossils given on p. 102 of Salter & Blanford’s work. 

The posterior third of the outer whorl of the smaller example 
(fig. 1a) appears to be septate, whilst the rest seems to have formed 
part of the body-chamber. ‘The larger example (figs. 1b-d) is 
entirely septate; it is part of a whorl which must have been at least 
70mm. in diameter. The suture-line has been painted in, and 
evidently formed the original of fig. ld. The transverse section 
depicted in fig. 1c has been much restored. 

On p. 106 Professor Blanford places this species as a synonym of 
Strachey’s A. octagonus, to which species he also refers Oppel’s 
A. Sommerringi.' 

14, Ammonires mEpEA (R. Strachey MS.), H. F. Blanford. 
(H. F. Blanford, in J. W. Salter & H. F. Blanford: Paleont. Niti, 1865, p. 84, 
pl. xix, figs. 5a, 0.) 

Professor Blanford says: “‘The only specimen of this MSS. 
species of Colonel Strachey in his collection is the fragment figured, 
from which it is difficult to pronounce upon its affinities. It may 
be either, as surmised by Colonel Strachey, a species allied to 
A. Jason, Zieten, or a portion of a large specimen of the tuberculate 
form of A. Wallichii, Gray.” 

This specimen is now in the British Museum collection [C. 5047 ], 
having been transferred from the Museum of Practical Geology, in 
1880, labelled with one of that Museum’s labels ‘‘ Oolitic: Niti Pass. 
Ammonites medea. Coll. by Col. Strachey.” It bears the number 
“18” in white paint. It is not well represented in the figures : 
the spines are not nearly so much elevated as shown in fig. 5b ; 
and further, they are symmetrically disposed in regard to the median 
line of the flattened (i.e. the peripheral) area, and not irregularly 
placed as might be supposed from fig. 5a; the two rows of spines 
are 13 mm. apart, the spines being exactly opposite each other and 
arranged in each row at intervals of about 65mm. ‘The fragment 
shows no traces of septa, and appears to have formed part of the 
body-chamber. 

15. Ammonites Watticuit, J. E. Gray. 
(H. F. Blanford, in J. W. Salter & H. F. Blanford: Palsont. Niti, 1865, p. 84, 
pl. xv, figs. la-c; pl. xix, figs. la-c, 2a-c.) 

Besides the specimen [C. 5041] which was originally figured by 
Gray (Illust. Indian Zoology, 1830-82, pl. c, fig. 3) and refigured, 
as elsewhere shown,” by Blanford (op. cit., pl. xv, fig. 1), and the 
example [31,106] referred to by Blanford (p. 84, footnote) as 
measuring “not less than six inches in diameter,” the British 


1 A. Oppel, ‘‘ Ueber ostindische Fossilreste aus den secundaren Ablagerungen von 
Spit: und Gnari-Khorsum in Tibet”’: Pal. Mittheil., iv (1863), p. 280, pl. Ixxx, 
figs. la, 6. 

2 G. C. Crick: Proc. Malac. Soc., vol. ¥, pt. 4 (April, 1903), p. 287. 


G. C. Crick—Strachey’s Cephalopoda from Himalaya. 119 


Museum contains six specimens which were transferred from the 
Museum of Practical Geology. Five of these [Nos. C. 7675a-e] 
belonged te the Strachey Collection, and were labelled with one of 
that Museum’s labels ‘Oolitic: Niti Pass. Ammonites Wallichii.. 
Coll. by Col. Strachey,” but on one [ No. C. 7675d] there has been 
written in ink the locality “nr. Chirchun.” The sixth specimen 
[No. C. 7684] was labelled “A. Wallichii, var. y. Spiti shales,” but 
though there is no record as to its having formed part of the 
Strachey Collection, there is good reason to believe that it did, since 
it is numbered “11” in white paint exactly like the specimen 
No. 7675d." 

Professor Blanford’s figures of this species represent several 
individuals. His pl. xv, figs. la, b represent Gray’s type-specimen, 
to which also belongs the suture-line lettered in the published copies 
of the plate 2b,” evidently a mistake for le. 

The specimen in the British Museum numbered C. 7675a is the 
original of pl. xix, figs. la and b; the figures, besides being reversed, 
have been very much restored, the first third of the outer whorl 
being very imperfect in the original. As it does not exhibit the 
suture-line, fig. le must have been drawn from another specimen ; 
this we have not yet been able to identify in the collection. 

The example in the same collection numbered C. 76756 is the 
original of pl. xix, figs. 2a, 6; both figures have been reversed and 
restored ; part of the matrix has been omitted, the first part of the 
outer whorl is now absent, and the peripheral terminations of the 
ribs are represented much too strong. ‘The suture-line has been 
painted in and was evidently copied in fig. 2c, but this specimen 
does not exhibit the portion of the suture-line on the inner area 
of the whorl at all clearly ; this portion of the line, however, is 
well shown and has been marked on the example No. C. 7684. 
It is concluded, therefore, that figs. 2a, b were drawn from the 
example No. C. 76756, and that fig. 2c was taken chiefly from 
the same specimen, but partly also trom the fossil No. C. 7684. 
Although there is no record that this specimen originally belonged 
to the Strachey Collection, there is, as we have already stated, good 
evidence for believing that such was the case. 

Blanford (p. 106) regards Oppel’s A. Mérikeanus* as a synonym 
of this species. 


16. Ammonites Rosustus (R. Strachey MS.), H. F. Blanford. 


(H. F. Blanford, in J. W. Salter & H. F. Blanford: Paleont. Niti, 1865, p. 85, 
pl. xvi, figs. la-c.) 


Professor Blanford figured two specimens which he referred to 
this species; they are both in the British Museum collection 


1 Other specimens are similarly numbered. Thus, 4. medea [C. 5047], pl. xix, 
figs. 5a, b, is marked ‘18°’; 4. Wallichii [C. 7675a], pl. xix, figs. 1a, b, is marked 
“12”?; and A. Wallichii [C. 5041], pl. xv, figs. la-c (which is also one of Gray’s 
type-specimens), is marked ‘‘ 10.”’ 

2G. C. Crick: op. cit., p. 288. 

3 A. Oppel, ‘‘ Ueber ostindische Fossilreste aus den secundaren Ablagerungen von 
Spiti und Gnari-Khorsum in Tibet”’?: Pal. Mittheil., iv (1863), p. 281, pl. lxxx, 
figs. 2a, b. 


120) G. C. Crick—Strachey’s Cephalopoda from Himalaya. 


[ Nos. C. 5050 and C. 5046]. They were regarded as of Jurassic age, 
but they are much more probably Triassic fossils, and have been 
elsewhere described as such by the present writer.’ 


17. Ammonites Grirrirutr (R. Strachey MS.), H. F. Blanford. 
(H. F. Blanford, in J. W. Salter & H. F. Blanford: Paleont. Niti, 1865, p. 86, 
pl. xx, figs. la—c.) 

This species was founded upon a single specimen, which, as 
described by Professor Blanford, “is an imperfect shell, and bears 
the remains of three-fourths of another whorl. The figure is three- 
fourths of the real size of the specimen.” This fossil is now in the 
British Museum collection [No. C. 5038]; it was transferred from 
the Museum of Practical Geology, labelled with one of that 
Museum’s labels “ Oolitic: Niti Pass. Ammonites Griffithi. Coll. 
by Col. Strachey.” The specimen is entirely septate; the suture- 
line (fig. 1c) seems to have been taken from quite close to the 
anterior end of the fossil, where it has been traced in white paint. 

According to Blanford (p. 106) this species is a synonym of 
A. Theodorii, Oppel,’ a name which claims priority of publication. 


18. Ammontrres striciuis, H. F. Blanford. 
(H. F. Blanford, in J. W. Salter & H. F. Blanford: Paleont. Niti, 1865, p. 87.) 


Professor Blanford refers to an example in the Strachey Collection 
in the following terms:—‘“A single specimen (cut in half and 
polished) of this Ammonite (without specified locality) only differs 
from the original Spiti specimen in its somewhat larger size. 
Diameter of shell, 24 in. Diameter of outer whorl, 14 in.” 

I have not been able to identify an example of this species in 
the Strachey Collection in the British Museum, but the National 
collection contains the specimen [39,797], to which, when describing 
this species in 1863 (Journ. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, vol. xxxii, 1868, 
p- 126) from the half of a cut specimen, Blanford refers as possibly 
the fellow of the type-specimen. It is labelled ‘‘ Himalaya”’; but 
its history and exact locality are unrecorded. 


19. AmmoniTEs acucrinctus (R. Strachey MS.), H. F. Blanford. 

(H. F. Blanford, in J. W. Salter & H. F. Blanford: Paleont. Niti, 1865, p. 87, 
pl. xviii, figs. la—-e ; pl. xix, figs. 4a-d; var. a (4. mundus, R. Strachey MS.), 
pl. xviii, figs. 2a, b.) 

Of this species the British Museum collection contains five more 
or less incomplete examples [Nos. C. 7360a-e] that belonged to 
the Strachey Collection and were transferred from the Museum of 
Practical Geology, labelled with one of that Museum’s labels 
“Oolitic: Niti Pass. Ammonites acucinctus (Stra.). Coll. by Col. 
Strachey ”’; also two other examples [ Nos. C. 7361a, b], with a plain 


1G. C. Crick: Proc. Malac. Soc., vol. v, No. 4 (April, 1903), pp. 290 et seq. 

2 A. Oppel, ‘‘ Ueber ostindische Fossilreste aus den secundaren Ablagerungen von 
Spiti und Gnari-Khorsum in Tibet’’: Pal. Mittheil., iv (1863), p. 280, pl. xxviii, 
figs. 3a-c (and pl. lxxxin, figs. 2a, 4). 


G. C. Crick—Strachey’s Cephalopoda from Himalaya. 121 


Jabel bearing in pencil the words “A. acucinctus Spiti shal[es],” 
that were also transferred from the same Museum, but there is no 
record whether they belonged to the Strachey Collection or not. 
Amongst the specimens that undoubtedly belonged to the Strachey 
Collection there is no single specimen from which all the figures la—c 
on pl. xviii could have been drawn. Allowance must, however, 
‘be made for the illustrations, for in his description of the species 
Blanford says ‘The figure of this species given in plate 18 is, 
im some respects, erroneous. The ribs in fig. la should conform 
to the shape of the mouth, instead of being but slightly flexuous, 
and the periphery should be ornamented with minute sharp teeth, 
instead of crenulations.” 

The specimen registered C. 7360a appears to be the original of 
fig. 1b, the figure being reversed ; its size agrees also with fig. la, 
but its sculpture is much less distinct, and its suture-line is not 
visible. The sculpture of the species is best shown upon the 
fragment registered C. 7360d, and numbered in ink “1840,” which 
at one time appears to have another piece attached to it; this 
fragment also exhibits traces of the suture-line, but these are quite 
insufficient to have furnished the drawing of the suture-line given 
by Blanford (fig. 1c). The form of the peristome indicated in 
fiz. la appears to have been drawn from the example No. C. 73608, 
which is, however, only about one-half of the size of the figure. 
The sculpture could not possibly have been taken from this specimen, 
the surface of which is nearly smooth; nor the suture-line, for although 
feebly indicated it is not sufficiently preserved to have formed the 
-original of fig. le. 

Of the two other examples of this species [C. 736la, 6] which 
were also transferred from the Museum of Practical Geology, and 
‘which most probably belonged to the Strachey Collection, although 
direct evidence of this is wanting, one [C. 7361b] exhibits the 
suture-line very clearly, and there is every probability, not only that 
‘these specimens originally formed part of the Strachey Collection, 
but that the specimen C. 73616 furnished the original of the suture- 
line represented in fig. le." 

With regard to the figures of this species in the ‘“ Paleontology 
of Niti,” I conclude, therefore, that fig. 1b has been drawn from the 
specimen No. OC. 7360a; that fig. la has been drawn in part from 
the example No. C. 7360b, and possibly in part also from the 
specimens O. 7360a and C. 7360d; and that fig. le has been taken 
from the specimen ©. 7361b. I have not been able to recognize 
in the collection the original of figs. 4a-d on pl. xix. 

The species was originally described by H. F. Blanford in 1863 
(Journ. Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. xxxii, 1863, p. 126, pl. 1, 
figs. 8, 8a). He considered (p. 106) A. Lymani, A. Oppel (Pal. 
Mittheil., iv (1863), p. 272, pl. Ixxvi, figs. 3a—c), to be a synonym. 


1 FB, Stoliezka (Mem. Geol. Surv. India, vol. v, pt. 1, 1865) says (p. 93), ‘‘ Fig. le 
in Strachey’s Pal. pl. 18 gives no good idea of the true form of the lobes and 
pee The figure was evidently taken from a specimen with a very much eroded 
surface.” 


122) G. C. Crick—Strachey’s Cephalopoda from Himalaya. 


Var. a (=Ammonites mundus, R. Strachey MS.). 


In his description (p. 88) of this variety Professor Blanford states: 
that “the two fragments in the [Strachey] collection are those of 
larger shells than any of the normal form.” Amongst the examples 
forming part of the Strachey Collection which was transferred from 
the Museum of Practical Geology, this variety is represented by 
a single imperfect specimen [No. C. 5035] enclosed in a portion of 
a nodule in association with a part of the phragmocone of a Belemnite 
(probably the form which Blanford referred to Miller’s B. sulcatus), 
and a fragment of a thick-whorled biplicated Ammonite (like 
A. torquatus) ; it is labelled with a Jermyn Street Museum label 
“Oolitic: Niti Pass. Ammonites acucinctus (Stra.), Ammonites. 
biplex (Sow.), Belemnites sulcatus (Mill.).” The specimen com- 
prises only about the last third of the outer whorl; this seems to 
have formed part of the body-chamber, as no septa are visible; of 
the rest of this whorl and of the earlier whorls there is an 
impression on the nodule that shows clearly the character of the 
ornaments of the test. This fossil is most probably the figured 
example, the figure having been reversed and very much restored. 
The direction of the striz has been indicated on the fossil in pencil, 
probably to assist the artist. The dimensions of the specimen 
appear to have been:—diameter of shell, about 53 mm.; radius of 
shell, 51 mm.; height of outer whorl, 24:5 mm.; thickness of outer 
whorl, 14 mm.; width of umbilicus, 12mm. 


The following are figured among the Jurassic Cephalopoda, but 
are not referred to in the text of the work :— 


20. Ammonites Barrent (R. Strachey MS.), H. F. Blanford. 

(H. F. Blanford, in J. W. Salter & H. F. Blanford: Paleont. Niti, 1865, pl. xi, 
figs. 2a-c.) 

These figures are placed among the illustrations of Jurassic 
Ammonites, and are named at the foot of the plate ‘Am. Batteni,” 
but the species appears not to be referred to in the text. The 
original of the figures is in the British Museum collection 
[No. C. 4867]; it was transferred from the Museum of Practical 
Geology labelled with one of that Museum’s labels “Oolitic : 
Niti Pass. Ammonites Batteni. Coll. by Col. Strachey”; but 
I think there can be no doubt about its being, as has already 
been pointed out, a Triassic species referable to the genus Gymnites." 
It will therefore be more fully dealt with among the Triassic 
species belonging to the Strachey Collection. 

21. AMMONITES, sp. 
(H. F. Blanford, in J. W. Salter & H. F. Blanford: Paleeont. Niti, 1865, pl. xix, 
figs. 3a-c.) 

The original of these figures—fig. 3a representing the specimen 
of the natural size—is in the British Museum collection [No. C. 7677 ]. 
It is not referred to in the text. The specimen was transferred 


1 See C. Diener: Mem. Geol. Surv. India, Pal. Indica, ser. xv, vol. ii, pt. 2: 
(1895), p. 53 et seq. 


ALPHABETICAL List oF THE STRACHEY CotLEcTIonN or JURASSIC CEPHALOPODA 
figured and described by Professor H. F. Blanford, in Salter & Blanford’s Palzont. Niti, 1865. 


19 | Ammonites acucinctus (R. Strachey MS.), H. F. Blanford 


2 2? 
99 
20 is 
7 be) 
2? 
2? 
7 ” 
6 » 
13 O59 
11 55 
9) 
99 
ee} 
bb) 
iP) 
14 a 
99 
9 
3 9 
12 . 
16 Es 
99 
10 ss 
18 - 
4 


9 9? 
8 ” 
2? 
5 99 
16 HD 
99 
29 
21 


sp. a6 
1 Belemnites sulcatus, J. S. Miller 


»  var.a (A. mundus, R. Strachey MS.) 
alatus (R. Strachey MS.), H. F. Blanford ... 


Batteni, H. F. Blanford i 
biplex, J. Sowerby 


9 9 


Gr “iffithii (R. ” Strachey MS. 1b HH. F. Blanford 


guttatus 19 39) 
Hookeri of is 
Jubar 39 9) 


bi) ? 2? 


be) oie) 29 


var. a, Tle adiatus 
(R. Strachey 1 MS.), H. F. Blanford 
medea 5 
multiradiatus 39 
mundus 5 
Nepalensis, J. H. Gray a sis fn 
octagonus (R. Strachey MS.), H. F. Blanford 


robustus 9 Ps 


99 
vy. A. jubar, var. a 
v. A. acucinetus, var. a 


99 99 99 
seriptus : 59 
strigils, H. F. Blanford 
tenuistriatus, J. K. Gray 

29 29 


99 99 
torquatus, J. de ©: Sowerby is 
triplicatus, J. Sowerby 
umbo (R. Strachey MS.), H. F. Blanford ... 
Wallichii, J. KH. Gray 5a ute se 


Xiil 


Xvi 


XIX 


HMM Hed Ee 


Location and 
registered number 
of specimen. 


C..73600- 
B.M. 3 ?C.7360a 
?C.7360d 
B.M., C. 73604 
B.M., C. 73616 
? 
B.M., C. 5035 
C. 73644 
BM. { 0. 7365 
B.M., C. 4867 
B.M.,; C. 5033 
2 
? 
B.M., C. 5038 
B.M., C. 7358 
B.M., C. 5048 
B.M., C. 5049 
B.M., C. 5043 
B.M., ?C. 5043 
? 
B.M., C. 5044 
B.M., ©. 5030 
?B.M., C. 7366 
B.M., C. 50947 
G.S.M., R.10116 
B.M., C. 5032 
B.M., C. 5050 
B.M., ©. 5046 
B.M., C. 5045 
P 
B.M., C. 5039 
B.M., C. 5036 
B.M., ©. 5051 
B.M., ©. 5042 
B.M., C. 5031 
B.M., C. 5040 
3B.M., C. 5041 
B.M., C. 7675a 
2 
B.M., C. 16758 
16756 
B.M. oh 684 
B.M., C. 7677 
B.M., C. 2566 
B.M., C. 2567 
B.M., C. 2568 
B.M., ©. 2569 
B.M., C. 2570 
B.M., C. 2 
G.S. ae R. 1025 
B.M. 6. 9572. 


. 


1 Triassic specimens. 


* This figure has been wrongly lettered ; 


it belongs to A. Wallichii and should be 1e. 


3 This figure should have been letter 1c, since it belongs to A. Wallichii and not to A. tenwistriatus. 


124. W. D. Lang—Zone of Hoplites interruptus, Charmouth. 


from the Museum of Practical Geology apparently with the rest 
of the Strachey Collection, although there is now no information 
with the fossil. There is, however, a loose Jermyn Street Museum 
label, without any specimen, to the following effect :—‘ Oolitic: 
Niti Pass. Ammonites orbiculatus. Coll. by Col. Strachey.” I have 
not met with this specific name in any descriptions of Himalayan 
fossils, but the form of the present specimen would most likely 
suggest such a specific name, and I therefore think there is every 
probability of this label having belonged originally to this example, 
although direct evidence of the fact is wanting. If, however, the 
name A. orbiculatus has been used in connection with any Jurassic 
Cephalopod from the Himalaya, it probably refers to this specimen. 


V.—Tue Zone or Horirres iwrerrveros (BRUGUIERE) AT BLACK 
Ven, CHARMOUTH. 


By W. D. Lane, B.A., F.Z.8., British Museum (Nat. Hist.). 


YING unconformably upon the well-known Liassic beds of 
Black Ven, the cliff which overhangs the sea-shore between 
Lyme Regis and Charmouth, occur beds of Cretaceous age, repre- 
senting the Gault and Upper Greensand of other localities. The 
lower beds consist of loams, dark and almost black where the clay 
predominates over the sand, and lighter where the sand is present 
in larger quantities. Above these loams are yellow sands containing 
indurated nodules called ‘ Cowstones,’ which, with the ‘ Foxmould ’ 
sands above them, have been considered to represent the zone of 
Schlenbachia rostrata (Sowerby).' The dark loams below them 
represent, therefore, the zone of Hoplites interruptus (Bruguiére). 

Of this zone some account has been given in the Survey Memoir ;? 
but as the section given, measured in 1895, agrees only generally 
with those measured by the author in 1901 and 1902, differing 
conspicuously in the absence of the hard shales to be described 
later; and as the two last-mentioned sections, though separated 
for some distance, are obviously continuous, it may not be out of 
place to describe the sections that are exposed at the time of writing. 
For the cliff frequently falls, causing the covering up of old sections 
and the exposure of new. And though, until it was measured in 
detail, the western section was thought to be that described in the 
Survey Memoir and measured in 1898, the author now thinks that 
a new section is exposed, showing three bands of hard shaly loam 
unrecorded before. 

Concerning the eastern section, which shows the junction with the 
Lias, it may be that described as having been found by Mr. C. Reid 
in 1875.2 At present, however, it is not at all obvious, being 
covered by some thickness of ‘rainwash,’ so that to expose the 
junction some amount of digging has to be performed. 


1 A. J. Jukes-Browne: ‘‘The Gault and Upper Greensand of England,’’ 1900, 
p- L838. 

2 Jukes-Browne: loc. cit., pp. 187-189. 

3 Jukes-Browne: loc. cit., p. 189. 


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126 W. D. Lang—Zone of Hoplites interruptus 


The reason why this zone is so rarely exposed in section is that 
the beds above it are sandy and pervious to rain, and those belonging 
to it are also to a large extent pervious. On the other hand, the 
Lias clay upon which it rests is extremely impervious. Consequently 
the line of junction between this zone and the underlying Lias is 
marked by a succession of springs, forming boggy ground covered 
with overgrowth. Sections are therefore of rare occurrence. 

This tract of boggy ground lies on Black Ven at a height of over 
300 feet above sea-level, and from 50 to 100 feet below the new 
Lyme road. This it crosses on its descent, eastwards of Charmouth 
cutting, and is not very noticeable as it turns northwards over the 
old Lyme road. Thence it sweeps round the hillside above and 
parallel with the Axminster road, and becomes very obvious in the 
fields below “ Fernhill,” where the springs which supply the village 
lie. Further, this boggy tract can be traced across the Axminster 
road, in the neighbourhood of Hogchester farm, and so up the 
valley; but no inland sections have been found. 

On the eastern side of the Char valley, on Stonebarrow cliff and 
round Stonebarrow hill, this tract of land is not so obvious, doubtless 
because the line between the pervious and the impervious is not s0 
clearly defined. For the Cretaceous beds on Stonebarrow cliff rest 
on the lowermost beds of the zone of Amaltheus margaritatus, 
Mont., known as the “Three Tiers,” ! which are loamy; whereas 
on Black Ven they overlie the lower beds of the zone of Liparoceras 
capricornus (Schlotheim),? which consist of impervious clays. 

The more eastern section on Black Ven shows the junction 
between the Cretaceous and the Lias. It lies on the cliff face, at 
a height of about 315 feet, directly beneath the Charmouth end of 
the Charmouth cutting, where the descent to the village begins. It 
is covered with fallen Greensand, and was found as follows :— 

The edge of a steep precipice just below the section is formed by 
the outcrop of a limestone a foot thick, the ‘Belemnite Stone.’ 
Above this the cliff face slopes backwards at a moderate angle, 
and on this slope Lias fossils and worm-tubes from the Cretaceous 
beds are found mixed. This slope was followed upwards until the 
highest Lias fossil was found. A foot or so above this a hole was 
dug, and after clearing away perhaps a foot of loose fallen sand, the 
junction was hit. The section was measured in December, 1902, 
and the hole dug was still visible in December, 1903, and easy to find. 

The details of the section are given in Fig. 1 (p. 125). 

Bed 1. The pebbles at the base of the black loam do not form 
a continuous bed, but occur in pockets, which may be six inches 
thick at the widest part. Between these pockets are spaces where 
no pebbles occur, but the dark green-black loam is directly super- 
imposed upon the blue clay of the Lias, forming a contrast, and 
contains itself so much clay that it is coherent enough to allow quite 
small specimens to be dug out, showing the junction as a sharp 
wavy line (see Fig. 3, p. 128). 

1 H. B. Woodward: ‘‘The Lias of England and Wales,’’ 1893, pp. 195, 196. 

2 H. B. Woodward: loc. cit., p. 68. 


127 


at Black Ven, Charmouth, 


Lias. 


SELBORNIAN. 


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128 W. D. Lang—Zone of Hoplites interruptus 


In these specimens there is a very thin layer of clay varying frony 
about } inch to an almost imperceptible thickness, of paler colour 
than the clay below. The upper boundary of this layer is the 
jagged, wavy, but sharply defined line already mentioned, and the 
lower boundary a much less clearly defined though comparatively 
straight line. This pale layer is described from dried specimens, and 
it was not seen whether it was noticeable when they were freshly cut- 


Fic. 3.—SPrcIMEN SHOWING THE JUNCTION BETWEEN THE SELBORNIAN 
AND Lias on Brack VEN, NATURAL SIZE. 


. Selbornian Loam. 
. Pale band at the top of Lias Clay. 
. Lias Clay. 


wnNnre 


The pebble bed is not easy to see, as the pebbles are very incon- 
spicuous, but its presence is easily detected by the grating of the 
pebbles against the trowel when the bed is dug into. 

The pebbles vary in size from that of a pigeon’s egg to that of 
coarse sand. They are mostly subangular, but some are well 
rounded, and are nearly all of silica in various forms. Vein quartz 
is the chief of these, forming the largest pebbles. Others are of 
brown chert with a very smooth pale-green altered surface. A few 
were of white limestone and of black grit. A few fragments of 
Belemnite were also found. The constituents of a washed sample 
are given in the Survey Memoir." 

The matrix in which the pebbles lie is a loam of dark greenish 
colour, the darkness being due to the presence of blue clay, and the 
green to that of a small quantity of glauconite. The loam also 
contains a little mica. The bed becomes sandier towards the top, 
gradually passing into the next bed. 

No fossils were found in this bed, nor in bed 2. 

Bed 2. This is like bed 1, but sandier, and consequently lighter 
in colour. Yellow patches of comparatively pure sand occur in it. 

A few feet up this bed is overlain by a mass of yellow sand fallen 
from the higher beds, upon which rests the soil of the cliff slope 
above. This slope is very slight, and is marked by a tract of over- 
grown land from 50 to 100 yards wide, backed by a cliff of yellow 


1 Jukes-Browne: loc. cit., p. 189. 


at Black Ven, Charmouth. 129 


sand of the beds known as ‘ Foxmould’ in the zone of Schloeenbachia 
rostrata. This cliff immediately underlies the road, and is the 
seaward face of a large mass of land which has slipped bodily down 
the cliff, forming the fault shown in the diagrammatic section of — 
Black Ven (see Fig. 2, p. 127). 

About 250 yards west of that just described is a section showing 
the upper part of the zone of Hoplites interruptus and the lower part 
of the zone of Schlenbachia rostrata. The cliff arises from the 
platform of boggy ground mentioned early in this paper, and is 
about 70 feet high, the top being formed of ‘Foxmould’ just above 
the highest layer of ‘Cowstones.’ The details of the beds in the first - 
mentioned zone are shown in the following figure (Fig. 4, p. 130). 

Bed 2. This bed agrees lithologically with that numbered 2 in 
the eastern section; and being, as far as can be determined, at the 
same height, is obviously identical with it. Thus the two sections 
are continuous, and the whole thickness of the zone is exposed. The 
total thickness of this bed is probably about ten feet, and so the 
sections overlap for three feet, two feet being hidden below the 
western section, and three having been removed above the eastern. 

Bed 3. This is the most interesting bed in the zone, for it 
abounds in fossils in its lowest part. The nearest locality whence 
abundance of Gault fossils has been obtained is distant about thirty 
miles at Okeford Fitzpaine, where the lower beds have been 
recognised! as belonging to the zone of Acanthoceras mammillatum 
(Schlotheim), which is there five feet in thickness. So it is possible 
that beds 1 and 2 may represent this zone on Black Ven, but the 
absence of fossils makes this point impossible to decide. 

Of the fossils from bed 38 a list is given in the Survey Memoir.” 
But in addition the British Museum has the following species 
located from here :— 


Astarte sp. Nucula albensis, d Orbigny. 

Orassatellites gracilis, Sowerby. Pecten (Syneyclonema) striatopunctatus (Mantell). 
Gervillia Forbesiana, Sowerby. Pholadomya sp. 

Lucina sp. Tellina sp. 

Meretrix sp. Thetis minor, Sowerby. 

Modiola albensis (d’ Orbigny). Thracia sancte-crucis, Pictet & Campiche. 


Modiola aff. subsimplex, WV Orbigny. 


The following, too, have been found by the author, which are 
neither in the list in the Survey Memoir nor in the British 
Museum :— 

Cuspidaria sancte-crucis, Pictet & Campiche.  Lingula subovalis, Davidson. 
Ostrea sp. Shell of a Cirripede, ? Scalpelium, sp. 
Avellana inflata, V Orbigny. 

By far the commonest fossils are Pecten orbicularis, Sowerby, Lima 
parallela, d’Orbigny, and Inoceramus concentricus, Parkinson; but 
Grammatodon carinatus (Sowerby), Pinna sp., and a small Gasteropod, 
? Fusus, were plentiful. 


' R. B. Newton, ‘‘ Cretaceous Zones in Dorset’”’?: Gon. Mac., 1896, p. 198, and 
Proc. Dorset Nat. Hist. and Ant. Field Club, vol. xviii (1897), p. 66. 
* Jukes-Browne: loc. cit., p. 188. 


DECADE V.—VOL, I.—NO. III. 9 


FIG. 4.-SECTION IN THE SELBORNIAN OF BLACK VEN. 


10. Grey, loamy, micaceous sand, with very little 
glauconite, and with small patches of bright 


: : : 3 10 ft. 
red iron oxide; becoming more argillaceous 
lower down, and containing a few worm-tubes. 
9. Blue, loamy, glauconitic clay, with a little mica. | 2 ft. 
No fossils. 
3414 ps : 
ee 8, Very hard, shaly loam. A few fossils. 4in 
: TT. = 2} 7. Blue, loamy, glauconitic clay, with a little mica. | 9in 
SS SS 6. Very hard, shaly loam. [No fossils.| 4 in 
_-—— 5. Blue, loamy, glauconitic clay, with a little mica. | 9 in 
3390 = 4. Very hard, shaly loam. A few fossils. [No fossils.| 4 in 
—— -——: —" /3. Bluish-black loamy clay, containing a little mica, 
—— : with fossils, becoming more argillaceous and 10 ft. 
much more fossiliferous lower down. 
2. Dark-green glauconitic loam, becoming sandier | 8 ft. 
lower down. No fossils. shown. 


32 ft. 6 in. 


“PIDLYSOL 


pryanquanz yoy 


yo ouo7z 


‘sngdniaque sapydoyy {0 suo7 


Notices of Memoirs—Singleness of the Ice Age. 13l 


Bed 3 is again exposed in two little sections a few feet high, about 
twenty yards further west. These yielded specimens of Turritella. 

Beds 4, 6, and 8. These three beds are like each other, and in 
composition resemble closely the last bed and beds 5, 7, and 9, but — 
‘differ from them in their structure, which is hard and difficult to 
break with the hammer, owing to the rock immediately beneath the 
hammer-head becoming pulverised and acting as a cushion to the 
rest of the mass. Moreover, it does not break along bedding-planes 
(though the existence of these can be seen on a weathered surface), 
but into irregular lumps. These beds are conspicuous on the face 
of the section, for being harder they weather back less quickly than 
those above and below them. They contain traces of fossils, and 
a cast of Thetis minor, Sowerby, was found in a fallen block from 
-one of them, lying in the bog beneath the section. 

-Beds 5, 7, and 9. These beds are like the last in composition, 
only not indurated, but rather sticky and coherent. No fossils were 
found in them. 

Bed 10. This bed ushers in sandy conditions again, being really 
a passage bed between this zone and the zone of Schlenbachia 
vostrata above, which consists of slightly loamy sands throughout, 
its base being marked by the lowest layer of Cowstones. As this 
layer is approached, bed 10 becomes more sandy, being more 
argillaceous in its lower part and containing a few fossil worm-tubes. 
In places it is characterised by small bright patches of blood-red 
iron oxide. 

To sum up :—On the face of Black Ven the total thickness of the 
zone of Hoplites interruptus is about 88 feet, and lies between 
315 feet and 353 feet above sea-level. The whole is seen in two 
sections. The beds are loams with varying proportions of sand 
and clay. They are sandiest at the top, becoming more argillaceous 
on descending, the predominance of the clay reaching a maximum 
in bed 3, at about 15 feet from the base of the zone. The bottom 
few inches of the zone also contain much clay, and are characterised 
by an impersistent pebble bed. Fossils occur sparingly throughout 
the zone above bed 3, but become abundant at the base of this bed, 
simultaneously with the maximum amount of clay. The bottom 
two beds may represent the zone of Acanthoceras mammillatum, but 
‘there is not a particle of fossil evidence to justify the assertion. 


INK @ RIES AsHS)) (Osa) AVE WO wa ShS), AHA ee 


$$ —<—<>__ 


J.—SInGLeness or THE Ick AGE. 


(Die ErNaeiriicuKeit DER Quarraren Erszeit. Von EH. Geinirz 
in Rostock. Aus dem Neuen Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie und 
Palaeontologie. Beilage-Band xvi, S. 1-98. Stuttgart, 1902.) 

H* who attempts to collect, harmonize, and arrange into a scheme 

of classification the accounts of the North European Drift 
in separate areas is confronted with divergence of view in every 

‘direction. The number of Glacial and Interglacial periods, their 


132 Notices of Memoirs—Singleness of the Ice Age. 


importance, their equivalence, all present difficulties. He finds 
adjacent and probably equivalent fossiliferous beds ranked differently 
by different authors; a series will by one be designated Interglacial 
which another calls no more than a local deposit of sand or clay. 
The latest researches in Quaternary geology have led to the following 
conclusions :—For Sweden it has been shown that the Ice Age there 
was single, unbroken by Interglacial periods. Examination of the 
moraines south of the Baltic shows that these are no boundaries 
of ice-extension, but only mark stages of retreat. The so-called 
‘First Ice Age’ covered a narrower area than the ‘Second or 
Principal Glaciation’; the ‘Third,’ again, less than the Second. 
Views on the importance of the ‘ Upper’ and ‘ Lower’ Boulder-clays 
are more and more extending the domain of the Upper. The list 
of the fossiliferous ‘ Interglacial beds’ is continually increasing. 

It must be remembered that while in the northern districts 
removals of material will have predominated, accumulations will 
have been the rule in the centre, fluvio-glacial formations in the 
southern border-region. Glaciers, and in like manner ice-floes and 
ice-packs, will have produced plentiful disturbances of beds. 

Considering everything, the author is driven to the conclusion 
that ‘for the southern area of glaciation as for the northern, the 
whole Drift is to be treated as a single sequence, only broken by 
oscillations” ; that ‘‘only one Ice Age has existed, instead of the 
supposed three (or four) sandwiched in with Interglacial periods 
of long duration. Consequently the facies accepted as intermorainic 
must be ascribed only to somewhat larger oscillations of the ice-front, 
not to periods wholly free from ice.” 

He quotes Holst’s views on an elevation of Scandinavia, which 
would increase its glaciers; while the increase of ice would produce 
depressions ; and discusses the probable sequence and consequences. 

Depressions would extend areas of submergence; connection with 
cold-water seas would bring deposits of Arctic forms ; with warmer 
waters, temperate. On land, animals and plants would follow 
advances and retreats of the ice-froni. 

Discussing the records, he decides that “the fauna and flora 
of the Quaternary period indicate a climate like the present, only 
slightly warmer.” But the mighty mass of ice affected climate, 
lowering it over North Europe. The northern ice advanced, with 
many oscillations, pushing forward especially into bays and valleys, 
leaving intervening areas free of ice. Consequent alterations of 
level would produce or remove submergences. Finally, the period 
of retreat seems a time of somewhat greater warmth than the present, 
and lasted considerably longer than the period of advance. 

One may say that the Ice Age to a certain extent worked its own 
downfall—rise of Scandinavia and vast development of glaciers ; 
consequent depression; access of warm currents and rise of 
temperature ; commencement of melting. 

The same considerations are applicable to Great Britain, where 
the marine deposits, in close relation to the Boulder-clay, play a yet 
more important part. 


Notices of Memoirs—International Geological Congress. 133 


The author proceeds to give reasons for these views. Under a 
heading “First and Third Ice Age,” he discusses the formations 
which have been attributed to these. There is no characteristic, he 
says, which can be relied upon for assigning a particular Boulder- 
clay to the Upper or the Lower Drift. 

He enumerates and discusses in detail “the Fossiliferous Drift 
Deposits of North Germany and Denmark,” classifying them as— 
(1) Lacustrine deposits: (a) Pre-Glacial, (a) River, (8) Subsidence 
deposits (these, he remarks, collectively lie along a line which he 
describes) ; (b) Interglacial fresh-water formations, (a) Peat-beds, 
(8) Diatom-beds, (vy) Beds with fresh-water shells. (2) Marine 
Diluvium or Pleistocene Drift: (a) Cimbrian Peninsula (the 
occurrences collectively indicate an extension of the Elbe Estuary 
100 km. inland from Hamburg, also access of the North Sea to 
the Baltic, affecting Moen and Riigen); (8) Prussian Province 
(the occurrences collectively indicate an arm of the sea extending 
into the heart of Hast Prussia). 

A folding page at the end gives the Author’s Scheme of Inter- 
pretation :—(1) Rise of the Scandinavian Archean massif, increase 
of ice, and production of the Norwegian and Baltic Ice-stream. 
{2) Floes and bergs in Atlantic and Baltic, with deposit of various 
materials. (3) Advance of ice into Germany. (4) Ice reaching 
maximum extension in Holland, Saxony, Silesia, Central Russia. 
Then a short period of rest. (5) Long period of melting, leaving 
remains of terminal moraines. (6) Further retreat of the ice, 
leaving well-known terminal moraines of the Baltic ridges. 
(7) Retreat to the Scandinavian terra firma. (8) Circumstances 
of to-day. A map marks the positions and natures of fossiliferous 
localities, lines of terminal moraines, areas indicating marine 
submergence, and southern limits of glaciation. K. H. 


I].—InTERNATIONAL GEOLOGICAL CONGRESS. 


1.—Report or THE Commission ON INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION IN 
GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION LAID BEFORE THE INTERNATIONAL 
GerotocicaL Congress at Vienna 1n 1903. By Sir ARcHIBALD 
GEIKIE£, President of the Commission. 


AVING been appointed at the last Congress to preside over the 
Commission formed at Paris in 1900 for international co-operation 
in geological research, I wrote individually to each of the members 
of this Commission asking them to be good enough to give me their 
views and suggestions on the subjects submitted to our consideration. 
To these letters I have only received two replies. I cannot 
therefore to-day—and it is to be regretted—submit to the Congress 
the conclusions of the full Commission. Nevertheless, the importance 
of the subjects proposed is such that it justifies me in recapitulating 
them to you. The questions submitted to the Commission were 
the following :—(1) What are the branches of geological research 
in which international action appears the most desirable; and 
(2) what are the best means of ensuring uniformity of method in 
the investigations ? 


134 Notices of Memoirs—Sir A. Geikie— 


1. With regard to the first of these questions it is obvious that 
international co-operation may be profitably adopted for the con- 
sideration of problems connected with dynamical geology—such as 
earthquakes, the movements of the terrestrial crust, the course, 
fluctuations and geological functions of glaciers, the rate of 
progress of denudation under the action of epigene agents in 
different climates. 

2. The reply to the second question ought to be treated from 
two points of view. In the first place, there are international 
scientific investigations which by reason of their special character 
ought to be undertaken by geologists properly so called. For this 
kind of research the Congress has only to follow the lines already 
laid down by it, and the end will be attained by the organization 
of special commissions similar to those now in operation for the 
geological map of Europe, glaciers, petrography, which have already 
obtained such important results. New special commissions may 
have to be appointed, but this is not the place to propose them. 

But there is a second series of international researches of capital 
importance to geology, the prosecution of which appears to me 
to require an organisation and resources superior to those of our 
Congress. For some years several scientific Associations have existed 
which, like our own, have proposed international combination for the 
furtherance of different branches of science. I think our Congress 
might profit by this tendency, and endeavour to effect a collaboration 
for the study of the problems which interest us and whose solution 
involves varied technical knowledge and considerable expense. 
Thus it is a problem of the greatest interest to geologists, whether 
a chain of mountains subject to earthquakes undergoes at the same 
time slow movements of elevation or depression. The solution of 
this question necessitates particular measurements, both numerous 
and prolonged. But why should geologists undertake it alone ? 
It is as interesting for geodesists as for geologists; the accuracy 
of their methods would be most valuable to us. Now there already 
exists an “International Geodetic Association,” established for the 
study of the shape of the earth. Why should we not seek the 
co-operation of our colleagues for investigations like these, where 
geodesy plays an all-important part, but which have also great 
geological value? On the other hand, since the Geological Congress 
met at Paris the “ International Association of Academies,” composed 
of delegates from all the Academies of the world, has been founded. 
It has the double object of co-ordinating scientific investigations and 
of obtaining from the Governments of the different countries definite 
and effectual support. This powerful Association appears to be 80 
well adapted to deal with international scientific questions that we 
may well ask ourselves if it would not more easily and fully than 
our Commission determine the questions that I have submitted to 
the Congress. 

If such should be your opinion, and the Congress should judge 
it fitting to apply to the ‘International Association of Academies,” 
I would suggest that a Committee be appointed to define the 


International Geological Congress. 185 


mecloniten ee ne to be undertaken and to indicate the mibthode 
suitable for arriving at the desired end. 

This programme, sanctioned by the authority and prestige of an 
International Geological Congress, would be submitted to the Inter- 
national Association of Academies at its next meeting, which will 
be held in London at Whitsuntide, 1904. 


2.—Report oF THE ComMMISSION ON THE RaIseD BEACHES OF THE 
NortHern Hemispuerse. Presented to the International Geo- 
logical Congress at Vienna in 1903, by Sir ARcHipaLpD GEIKIE, 
President of the Commission. 


The Commission submits the following propositions for the con- 
sideration of the Congress :— 


1. Hitherto the height of old coastlines (raised Reaction) has been 
measured from high-water level, mean sea-level, from the zone of 
Fucus, etc. But no one of these boundaries is precisely defined, 
and they vary perceptibly in the same district. To determine them 
exactly it is necessary to have a point or level for each country 
cut, or marked in some durable manner, on the solid rock near the 
high tide. From this fixed point all the altitudes along the coast- 
line should be measured or calculated. 

2. Note should be taken of all the possible variations of the mean 
level of the sea, and to this end the archives of the ports should be 
consulted. 

3. The height of a raised beach or strand-line should always be 
calculated from its interior or superior margin, where this is visible, 
but the height of the exterior or inferior edge should also be given 
when it can be observed, as an indication of the extent of tide at the 
time of that coastline. 

4, It is important to follow the horizontal extent of a coastline 
from one end of a country to the other. 

5. The variations in altitude of a coastline should be measured 
in two directions where that is possible: (1) along the coast, 
i.e. parallel to the axis of a country; (2) transversely to this axis, 
in the bays or fjords. 

6. It should be ascertained if a coastline or a series of these lines 
disappears in a given direction, and the conditions under which this 
disappearance takes place should be exactly stated. In Scotland, 
for example, the raised beaches, so clearly defined along the west and 
east coasts, disappear towards the northern extremity of the kingdom 
in the county of Caithness, and in the islands of Orkney and Shetland. 

7. The diversities of character in a line of raised beach deserve 
to be registered. Parts have perhaps been cut in the solid rock 
(seter of Norway), others have been formed of deposits of detritus. 
The relations of these diversities to the contours and to other 
varieties of topographical configuration should be examined. 

8. In a successive series of raised beaches it is important to 
determine with precision their relative variations in level, in such 
a manner as to demonstrate whether or not the movements to 


136 Reviews—Dall’s Tertiary Fauna of Florida. 


which they owe their origin have been unequal, and to show the 
direction of these inequalities. Differences in the depth of the 
erosion of the solid rocks and in the breadth and the thickness of 
the detritic deposits should also be noted. 

9. It is obvious that great importance attaches to the organic 
remains of the raised beaches. Not only should the detritic deposits 
be carefully looked over, but research should also be made in the 
rocky platforms, the cliffs, and caves, where one might find boring 
shells, cirripedes, or adherent corals. 


cee, ges) Ve Ee EV Se 


T.—Tue Marine Tertiary Fauna oF AMERICA AND HuROPE. 
By Crement Ret, F.R.S. 


HE completion of Professor W. H. Dall’s monograph on the 
Tertiary Fauna of Florida, begun in 1885, places in our hands 
exceedingly valuable material for the study of certain problems that 
have much exercised European geologists.! It is at last possible 
to make some sort of comparison between the molluscan faunas 
inhabiting the two sides of an ocean in Tertiary times; fresh light 
is thrown on the vexed question of the connection or isolation of 
the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans at various periods; and incidentally 
we may perhaps learn something as to the former course of the 
Gulf Stream. 

We are not prepared to criticise, and it is impossible to analyse 
in detail, the descriptions of the mollusca in so large a monograph. 
Attention should be drawn, however, to the beautiful way in which 
the book is printed and illustrated ; and we must congratulate the 
Wagner Free Institute on the high standard which has been kept 
up. The only complaint that might be made from an artistic 
standpoint is that the numerous plates look perhaps a trifle hard. 
But anyone who has worked much at the critical determination of 
closely allied species will recognise that this, if a fault at all, is 
a fault on the right side; these illustrations, for scientific purposes, 
are far better than the soft and somewhat woolly lithographs to 
which we often have to refer. 

The deposits which yield the mollusca range in time from Eocene 
to Pliocene, and include various strata on the western side of the 
Atlantic besides those of Florida. Almost all the species differ from 
those of Europe; and thus they do not support the idea, suggested 
by a study of the echinoderms, that during Oligocene times the 
Mediterranean region may have been connected with the Antilles by 
a continuous coast or belt of islands. 

The discordance between the mollusca and the echinoderms, just 
referred to, raises a question of some interest. Is it not a discordance 


1 “* Contributions to the Tertiary Fauna of Florida,’’ by Professor W. H. Dall, 
Wagner Free Institute of Science, Philadelphia, pp. 1620 and pls. lx (1890-1908). 


Reviews—Dall’s Tertiary Fauna of Florida. 137 


‘between free-swimming and sedentary forms, or rather between 
sedentary forms and forms that go through a floating or free- 
swimming stage lasting some time? On looking through Professor 
Dall’s monograph we are disappointed to find, though it is no fault 
of his, that practically the whole of the molluscan faunas described 
consist of sedentary forms. If we could compare the pteropods, 
Tanthina, ship-worms, barnacles, sharks, and such like on the two 
sides of the Atlantic, we should probably discover the true ‘ Atlantic’ 
fauna for each period, which would leave no doubt as to the exact 
correlation. At present, for instance, we only know the American 
and European Kocene faunas of the shallow seas, we are only 
slightly acquainted with the true Atlantic Eocene fauna. In time 
these gaps will be filled up, and we shall be able to correlate with 
greater certainty. 

The careful and sober account of the physical changes in the 
Antillean region, given in the “Discussion of the Geology” 
(pp. 1541-1620), needs close study and cannot easily be condensed ; 
it is in striking contrast with much of the wild speculation that has 
been rife. The physical and climatic changes are traced step by 
step, evidence being given for each statement. In Eocene times 
the two oceans were separate. The Oligocene deposits of Florida 
are of enormous thickness, and there is evidence of a connection 
between the Atlantic and the Pacific. In Miocene times the two 
Americas became again connected, and the fauna of the Gulf coast 
changes completely. ‘The change was not only in the species and 
prevalent genera of the fauna, but a change from a subtropical to 
a cool temperate association of animals. Previously, since the 
beginning of the Hocene, on the Gulf coast the assemblage of 
genera in the successive faunas uniformly indicates a warm or 
subtropical temperature of water. . . . . With the incursion 
-of the colder water the change becomes complete. Not only do 
northern animals compose the fauna, but the southern ones are 
driven out, some of them surviving in the Antilles to return later. 
Some change along the northern coast permitted an inshore cold 
current to penetrate the Gulf. .’ A cool Miocene sea in 
the Gulf of Mexico is a phenomenon which will have to be taken 
into account by the student of geographical distribution. In con- 
junction with a temperate Miocene climate in the Arctic regions 
it may help to explain the occurrence of closely allied land-animals 
and plants on the two sides of the Atlantic, and in the northern and 
‘southern hemispheres. 

As to subsequent changes, Professor Dall writes: “I concur with 
Hill in the belief that, whatever changes of level may have taken 
place since, no discontinuity of the link between North and South 
America from the Miocene to the present time is probable, and 
certainly none amounting to a free communication between the 
two oceans.” 

Towards the close of the Miocene period Florida became united 
to the continent, and the influx of ccld water into the Gulf of 
Mexico ceased. Gradually the temperature rose, and the exiled 


138 Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London. 


subtropical species began to return; a still warmer sea-temperature 
inaugurating the Pliocene. “The end of the Pliocene is the 
beginning of the Glacial epoch. The Pleistocene of Florida shows 
a change for a cooler and an elimination of the most purely tropical - 
forms from the fauna, but nothing like the clean sweep at the 
beginning of the Miocene. ‘The latter is the sharpest and most 
emphatic faunal change since the Cretaceous on our coasts.” The 
curious discordance between Tertiary climatic changes, as evidenced 
in America and as recognised in Europe, is a striking commentary 
on any attempts to trace secular climatic variations in successive 
faunas in a limited district. The influence of changes in physical 
geography must be enormous; but probably in the case of Florida 
quite exceptional, as is recognised by Professor Dall. One wonders, 
however, whether any echo of these geographic changes reached 
our shore, diverting ocean currents and perhaps reversing the 
climatic changes on this side of the Atlantic. 


REPORTS AND PROCEEDINGS. 


I.—Geoxtoeicat Soorrry or Lonpon. 


1.—January 6th, 1904.—Sir Archibald Geikie, D.C.L., D.Sce., 
Sec. R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair. The following com- 
munications were read :— 
(1) “Ona Paleolithic\ Floor at Prah Sands, in Cornwall.” By 
Clement Reid, Esq., F.R.S.\ F.L.S., F.G.S., and Eleanor M. Reid, B.Sc. 
Prah Sands lie about 7\miles east of Penzance, and have long 
been known as exhibiting a yeed-section of ‘head’ or rubble-drift, 
over raised beach, which rests on a wave-worn rocky platform. 
Recent storms have cleared away the talus at the foot of the cliff, 
and have exposed, between the ‘head’ and the raised beach, a Paleo- 
lithic land-surface, consisting of loamy soil penetrated by small 
roots. In and above this occur black seams full of small fragments 
of charcoal and bone; these are particularly abundant round groups 
of large flat stones, which seem to have formed ancient hearths. 
The black seams contain implements made of vein-quartz. For 
a few feet above this land-surface the angular ‘head’ consists 
mainly of loam with fragments of vein-quartz, some of which are 
worked. This seems to be the first record of Paleolithic man in 
Cornwall. 


(2) “Implementiferous Sections at Wolvercote (Oxfordshire).”’ 
By Alexander Montgomerie Bell, Esq., M.A., F.G.S. 

This section shows the following beds :—(1) Oxford Clay ; (2) old 
surface, in which are pits or troughs chiefly filled with gravel and 
enveloped in weathered clay; (3) a large river-bed, containing 
gravel at the base, and layers of clay above; (4) Neolithic surface- 
layer, 2 feet thick. The gravel of the river-bed contains quartzite 
pebbles, some of exceptional size, and is covered by a thin lenticular 
layer of peat and sand, yielding thirty flowering plants and many 


Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London. 139° 


mosses; the clays over this have probably been formed in a lake, 
possibly due to a beaver-dam. In the gravel-bed are found imple- 
ments formed of flint quarried from the Chalk, or of quartzite from. 
pebbles of the Northern Drift, all remarkable for their size, beauty, 
and freshness, together with the remains of large mammals, including 
the mammoth. The old surface, from which the river-bed has been 
eroded, has also yielded implements associated with quartzites, 
quartz-pebbles, and lydianstone, gravel from the Thames Valley, 
limestone pebbles, Oolitic fossils, and sand. This deposit is regarded 
as remanié from the Northern Drift, probably laid down under the 
action of ice, as shown by the flask-like shape of the pits, the vertical 
position of some of the pebbles, and the jamming-in of masses of 
sand, probably in a frozen condition. Further, the Oxford Clay 
beneath the surface is weathered and shaken to a depth of 10 or 12 
feet, except where cut off by the descending depth of the river-bed. 
The implements are small, ordinary in shape, and made of flint, not 
quarried, but mostly taken from the Drift, and they are much 
weathered, stained, and patinated. The occurrence of an older set 
of implements, differing so markedly from those of the river-drift, 
leads the author to explain the peculiar implementiferous drift of 
Iffley as containing implements of two kinds and two dates. Those 
that are unweathered are contemporaneous with the deposit, and like 
those of the Wolvercote river-bed ; while those that are stained with. 
ochre, or deeply patinated, have been derived, like the Oolitic fossils, 
Tertiary conglomerate, quartzites, and volcanic rocks, from an older 
deposit. The author believes that the frequent occurrence of 
weathered and unweathered implements in a single deposit may be 
explained generally in this way; and he further infers that the time 
between the Drift and the river-bed was prolonged, and that the 
interval may“have been as long as that which separates the epoch 
of the river-bed from the present day, his evidence being simply the. 
patination of the flints. In conclusion the author suggests that there 
are three classes of implement-bearing drifts, the ice-drifts being the 
earliest and the river-drifts the latest, while the wash-drifts may 
belong to more than one stage. 


2.—January 20th, 1904.—Sir Archibald Geikie, D.C.L., D.Sc., 
Sec. R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair. 


The Secretary announced that the Council had communicated the 
following resolution of sympathy to Mrs. Etheridge :— 

‘‘That the Council desire to place on record their great regret at the death of 
Mr. Robert Etheridge, F.R.S., formerly President of this Society, who did so much 


during his long life to advance Geological Science and to promote the interests of 
the Society.” 


The following communications were read :— 


(1) “On the Jaws of Ptychodus from the Chalk.” By Arthur 
Smith Woodward, LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. 

Hitherto no traces of the cartilaginous jaws of this fish have been 
found in association with the dentition; but Mr. Henry Willett 


140 Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London. 


has recently found a specimen of Ptychodus decurrens in the zone 
of Holaster subglobosus of the Lower Chalk at Glynde (Sussex). 
Fragmentary remains of both jaws are seen in the specimen, each 
bearing many of the characteristic teeth arranged in natural order. 
There are four series, and one small displaced tooth (probably 
belonging to the fifth series), on the left of the large median series in 
the lower jaw ; while in the upper jaw the teeth are clearly arranged 
in six paired series. The specimen proves that the peculiarly 
effective disposition characteristic of the living Myliobatide had 
not been assumed, but that Ptychodus more nearly resembled the 
Trygonidw in its jaws. The probable explanation of the new 
discovery is, that in the Cretaceous Period the great rays of the 
‘families’ Myliobatide and Trygonide had not become fully 
differentiated. Professor Jekel has already arrived at a similar 
conclusion from general considerations, and has proposed to place 
all these fishes in one comprehensive family, termed Centrobatide. 
If this arrangement be adopted, Ptychodus represents a primitive 
sub-family, which still awaits definition from lack of complete 
specimens ; while the Trygoninz, Myliobatine, and Ceratopterinz 
are equivalent sub-families which survive at the present day. 


(2) “On the Igneous Rocks at Spring Cove, near Weston-super- 
Mare.” By William §. Boulton, Esq., B.Sc., A.R.C.S., F.G.S. 

A traverse from end to end of the exposure at the locality shows 
that the ‘ basalt-mass’ varies in structure and appearance, and that 
it is by no means a simple lava-flow. It may be roughly divided 
into three portions. Beginning at the cliff end to the north, the 
rock for the first 30 yards is a pillowy basalt, with tuff and 
limestone often occupying irregular spaces between the spheroids 
of amygdaloidal basalt ; then, for about 20 yards, the rock is mainly 
a coarse ‘agglomerate,’ with lapilli and bombs of basalt and lime- 
stone; while the remaining 100 yards or so is an ordinary basalt- 
coulée, with very few and always small lumps of burnt limestone. 
The limestone below is reddened and altered, and although tuffy- 
looking, does not contain indubitable lapilli; the limestone above 
contains lapilli. The pillowy basalt probably represents a river 
of agglomeratic material carrying finer Japilli, larger and plastic 
masses of scoriaceous basalt, and lumps of limestone, possibly ejected 
from a vent. he intervening tuff may present an analogy with 
the ‘volcanic sand’ of the West Indian eruptions. There is no 
evidence of the quiet deposition of ashy material, but rather of the 
tumultuous aggregation of a fluxion-tuff taking place under some 
depth of sea-water. The large and irregular fragments of limestone, 
oolitic and fossiliferous, found mainly in the lower part of the 
basalt-mass, have not come in from above through cracks in the 
lava, but seem to have been picked up while in a soft and powdery 
state from the sea-bed in which it had been accumulating, and to 
have been involved with and altered by the volcanic material. The 
conditions existing in submarine flows appear to be very like those 
in a sill or intrusive sheet. 


Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London. 14k 


3.—February 3rd, 1904.—Sir Archibald Geikie, D.C.L., D.Sc.,. 
Sec. R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair. The following com- 
munications were read :— 

(1) ‘On a Deep-Sea Deposit from an Artesian Boring at Kilacheri, 
near Madras.” By Professor H. Narayana Rau, M.A., F.G.S8. 

The village of Kilacheri is about six miles due south of the 
railway station of Kadambattur. Here permeable beds of sandstone 
and felspathic grits dip at low angles seaward, and are overlain by 
impervious clays and shales. The boring, after penetrating the 
upper clays and sandstones, passed through carbonaceous shales, 
and at a depth of about 400 feet reached a blue homogeneous rock, 
effervescing with acid and showing radiolarian tests under the 
microscope. Most of the latter display the inner reticulate structure 
in thin sections, and some of them, when isolated, show radiating 
spines as well; they are, however, not capable of specific determi- 
nation. One or two specimens of foraminifera have also been seen. 
The deposit underlies beds of the Upper Gondwana Stage. The bed 
also contains palagonite, volcanic glass, pumice, mineral fragments 
(such as plagioclase, quartz, augite, and possibly hornblende), and 
black metallic spherules of iron and manganese. ‘The last some- 
times partly fill the radiolarian tests, and sometimes encrust the 
pumice and palagonite; they give the manganese reaction with 
a borax-bead. The author concludes that the deposit is of truly 
abysmal origin, similar to those described in the ‘ Challenger” 
Reports; and he points out the remarkable interest of such an 
_ occurrence in Peninsular India, a region which appears to have been 
a land-area since Palaeozoic times. 


(2) “The Rhetic Beds of the South Wales Direct Line.” By 
Professor Sidney Hugh Reynolds, M.A., F.G.S., and Arthur 
Vaughan, Esq., B.A., B.Se., F.G.S. 

After a reference to the literature of the subject the following 
exposures are described: the Stoke Gifford and the Lilliput or 
Chipping Sodbury sections. From the first section the Bone-bed is 
completely absent. The beds here rest upon tea-green marl, and 
are covered by the Cotham Marble. A section to the east of Lilliput 
Bridge shows two large rounded hummocks of Paleozoic rock 
projecting into the Rheetic, and in both cases the Black Shale 
is deposited on if in an arched manner, forming an anticline of 
deposition. There is also a very rich Bone-bed at the base, which 
is not uniformly distributed. The upper beds correspond with 
those of Stoke Gifford. In correlating these rocks with those of 
neighbouring areas, a table of general sequence is given, in which 
the Lower Rhetic is divided into three and the Upper into two 
stages, which are correlated with the notation of Richardson and 
Wilson. This is followed by a range-table of the typical Rhetic 
mollusca: Cardium rheticum and C. cloacinum, Schizodus Ewaldi, 
Pecten valoniensis, and Avicula contorta. Paleontological notes on 
the invertebrata and vertebrata follow. New species of Anomia, 
Plicatula, Modiola, and Cardinia are described ; notice is given of 


142 Correspondence—Bibliographer. 


other Rhatic mollusca; and a range-table is appended of the 
commonest mollusca that occur at Sodbury and Stoke Gifford. 
The reptiles, amphibia, and fishes referred to are all known species. 
A general account is given of the distribution of the Bone-bed 
in the Bristol district. In Somerset, except at Emborough and 
Watchet, no true Bone-bed has been recorded; in the district 
immediately north of Bristol there is a single, well-marked Bone- 
bed at the base of the Black Shale series, or very slightly above it ; 
while in the Gloucester district the principal Bone-bed tends to lie 
at a greater distance from the base of the Black Shales. For these 
reasons, the authors think that the principal Bone-beds in the 
various sections cannot be regarded as homotaxial equivalents. 


1].—Mineratoeican Socrery, Feb. 2nd, 1904.—Dr. Hugo Miller, 
F.R.S., President, in the chair. Mr. Harold Hilton contributed 
a paper on the Gnomonic net. This net consists of lines giving 
equal longitudes and latitudes for every ten degrees on a plane 
touching a point on the equator, the former being hyperbole and 
the latter straight lines. The author pointed out how the net could 
be used for the graphical determination of angles between poles on 
the sphere.—Mr. G. T. Prior described a new sulphostannite of lead 
from Bolivia, to which he gave the name Teallite, in honour of the 
Director of the Geological Survey. The mineral in its graphite-like 
appearance resembles franckeite and cylindrite, but differs from 
them in not containing antimony. It has the simple formula 
Pb Su §,, and is orthorhombic with angles ¢ (001) A o (111) =62°, 
¢ (001) A p (221) = 75°, and m (110) a m’” (110) = 86°. It has 
a perfect cleavage parallel to c (001), and a specific gravity of 6°36. 
In connection with the investigation of this mineral, new analyses 
were made of franckeite and cylindrite—Mr. W. F. Ferrier gave an 
account of his discovery of deposits of corundum in Canada; and 
Professor H. A. Miers described a visit to the Rashleigh Collection 
of Minerals now deposited in the Museum of the Royal Institution 
of Cornwall at Truro. 


CORRESPONDENCE. 


MR. A. G. M. THOMSON’S BOOK ON THE OLD RED SANDSTONE. 


Srr,—Without dissenting from the opinions expressed by your 
Reviewer (this vol., p. 84, Feb.), may I suggest that the expression 
of them is not quite fair? You give the name of John Leng & Co., 
Dundee, as that of the publishers, and you “can only wonder why 
such a work has been published.” J have, however, the highest 
authority for stating that the work has not been published, but 
distributed privately, as a gift by the author, while Messrs. Leng 
are only the printers. It seems to me that the proper way to treat 
unpublished communications is to ignore them: if such a course be 
agreeable to the author, well and good ; but if it is not agreeable to 
him—so much the better! BIBLIOGRAPHER. 


Obituary— William Vicary, F.G.S. 143 


ABSENCE OF LEPUS EUROPAUS, PALLAS, FROM BRITISH 
PLEISTOCENE DEPOSITS. 


Sir,—Having had an opportunity of examining the remains of 
Hares from the Pleistocene of this country, preserved in the Natural 
History Museum, I find that all the specimens which are deter- 
minable, including the originals of Buckland’s and Owen’s figured 
specimens, belong to the Mountain Hare (Lepus timidus, L.), there 
being no evidence of the common Hare (Lepus europeus, Pallas). 
In consequence, I am inclined to assume that the latter has been 
introduced into this country by man, possibly as late as the Roman 
period. I ask you kindly to give publicity to this letter in the hope 
that if there is conclusive evidence of Pleistocene remains of the 
Lepus europeus in some public or private collection it may be 
forthcoming. C. I. Forsyra Magor. 


@iS ta OPA Rae 


WILLIAM VICARY, F.G.S. 
Born Jury 26, 1811. Diep OcrosEr 22, 1903. 


Wi1iam Vicary was born in 1811 at Newton Abbot in Devonshire. 
Karly in life he removed to North Tawton, where he started business 
as a tanner, and with so much success that he retired in 1856 and 
removed to Exeter, where he resided for the remainder of his long 
life. He was one of the founders of the Devonshire Association, 
established in 1862, and an original contributor to Symons’ 
“ British Rainfall,” the first volume of which, for the year 1860, 
was published in 1861. He was elected a Fellow of the Geological 
‘Society of London in 1864. Mr. Vicary was an enthusiastic 
collector of fossils, and his museum was especially rich in the 
fossils from the Upper Greensand of the Haldon and Blackdown 
Hills. He is best known to geologists by his discovery of fossils 
ain the quartzite ‘popples’ of the ‘I'riassic pebble-bed of Budleigh 
Salterton. The fossils were described and figured by Salter in 
a joint paper brought before the Geological Society, while Salter 
dealt more generally with the subject in the first Original Article 
published in the Grorocican Magazine (July, 1864). The species, 
all new to British geology, were identified with forms found in the 
‘older rocks of Normandy, some belonging to the Grés Armoricain 
(Arenig group). Mr. Vicary’s valuable collection, embracing a large 
number of type-specimens, was bequeathed by him to the Natural 
History Museum, Cromwell Road. 


1864. ‘‘ On the Pebble-bed of Budleigh Salterton’’ ; with a Note on the Fossils 
by J. W. Salter: Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xx, p. 283. 

1865. ‘* On the Feldspathic Traps of Devonshire’’?: Trans. Devon Assoc., vol. i, 

. 45. 

1867. ‘‘ On the Source of the Murchisonite Pebbles and Boulders in the Triassic 
Conglomerates of Devonshire ’’: Trans. Devon Assoc., vol. ii, p. 200. 

1872. ‘* Fossil Coral allied to Merulina (Ehrenberg), from the Upper Greensand of 
Haldon Hill, near Exeter’’: Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. rv, vol. ix, 
p. $4. 


144 Obituary—W. D. Crick—E. J. Chapman. 
WALTER DRAWBRIDGE CRICK, F.G.S. 


Born DecremMBer 15, 1857. Drep DEcEMBER 23, 1903. 

By the death of Mr. W. D. Crick, of Northampton, geological 
science has lost an earnest and amiable local worker. Born at 
Hanslope, in Buckinghamshire, he was educated for a business 
career, and became in 1880 a partner in the firm of Latimer, Crick, 
and Co., manufacturers, in Northampton. His interest in geology 
and natural science in general was aroused by Mr. Beeby Thompson, 
F.G.S.. who was then headmaster at the old Science School at 
Northampton. Together they noted the strata and collected the 
fossils of the Lias and Oolites for many a mile around the town. 
One new species from the Upper Lias of Heyford was named 
Mathilda Cricki by Mr. Hudleston, and another from the Middle 
Lias of Daventry was named Trochus Cricki by Mr. E. Wilson. 
Mr. Crick took up the special study of Foraminifera, and was 
locally the best authority on this subject. We are indebted for 
these particulars to an Obituary by Mr. B. Thompson, Journ. 
Northamptonshire Nat. Hist. Soc. (1903), xii, 134 (with portrait). 
He was author or joint author of the following geological papers :— 


1883. ‘* Notes on the Geology of Wymington Tunnel”: Journ. Northamptonshire 
Nat. Hist. Soe., ii, 272. 

1887. ‘Note on some Foraminifera from the Oxford Clay at Keyston, near 
Thrapston”’: ibid., iv, 233. ' 

1889. ‘*The Lias Marlstone of Tilton, Leicestershire” (with EK. Wilson): Gxox-. 
Mag., Dec. III, Vol. VI, 296, 337. 

1891, 1892. ‘‘On some Liassic Foraminifera from Northamptonshire ”’ (with C. D. 
Sherborn): Journ. Northamptonshire Nat. Hist. Soc., vi, 208; vii, 67. 


E. J. CHAPMAN, LL.D., Px.D. 

WE notice the death on the 28th of January at The Pines, Hampton 
Wick, of Mr. EK. J. Chapman, LL.D., Ph.D., who was formerly 
professor of mineralogy and geology at the University of Toronto. 
The Canadian Journal of Industry, Science, and Art, of which, during 
the fifties and sixties, he was general editor, contains a large number 
of his notes and papers. Among these may be mentioned ‘“‘A New 
Species of Agelacrinites (A. Billingsiz),” “ Rib-formule in Brachio- 
pods,” and “ A Popular Exposition of the Minerals and Geology of 
Canada,” which was subsequently revised and republished as an 
independent work. He is also responsible for one of the many 
classifications of the Crinoidea. 


ProGress oF THE MINERALOGICAL SuRVvEY oF CEYLoN.—We learn 
from a correspondent in Kandy, Ceylon, under date 2nd February, 
1904, that a new room has recently been set apart in the Colombo 
Museum as a Mineral Gallery, and has been arranged by A. K. 
Coomaraswamy, Director, and James Parsons, Assistant Director of 
the Mineralogical Survey of Ceylon. The exhibit is formed entirely 
of Ceylonese rocks and minerals; a large part of the specimens has 
been collected by the two officers of the Mineral Survey. Diagrams 
and geological photographs find a place upon the walls. Two wall- 
cases are devoted to economic specimens, amongst which a series 
illustrating the manufacture of iron and steel by the Sinhalese (now 
quite given up) is of special interest. 


~'No.478. ——-——“dDecade V.—Vol. I.—No. IV. Price 1s. 6d. nett. 


THE 


GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE 


OR, 


dilonthly Jounal of Geology. 


WITH WHICH IS INCORPORATED 


“THE GEOLOGIST.” 


EDITED BY 


HENRY WOODWARD, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., kc. 


ASSISTED BY 


WILFRID H. HUDLESTON, F.R.S., &c., Dk. GEORGE J. HINDE, F.R.S., &c., snp 


HORACE B. WOODWARD, F.R.S., &c. 


APRIL, 1904. 


(DING A ASS SES ee 


I. Ornierxan ARTICLES. PAGE | Reviews —continued. PAGE 
1. A Retrospect of Paleontology 2. Textbook of Paleontology. By 
in the last Forty Years. (Con- Dra he As yOnw Atihelawee (sas 178 
GIIUIGIEGLS) Sho eeonsaceetne badons aaneeee 145 3. Fossil Plants of the Carboniferous 
2. Further Notes on the Mammals Rocks of Canonbie, Dumtries- 
of the Eocene of Egypt. (Part IT.) shire, ete. By R. Kidston, 
By C. W. Anvrews, D.Sc., ERG ey eee 180 
Gace CRlate- Vil.)\) vase.) <02: 157 4. Batrachian Footprints. By Dr. 


2 Note on Ammonites. By Rev. Ge Ha Viatthewrecrenccdsnace see 181 
J. F. Buans, M.A., F.G.S....-162 | III. Reports anp ProcrEDINGs. 


4. Notes on the Trias of Devon- Geological Society of London— 
shire. nthe ALEXANDER IRVING, 1. February 19th, 1904, Annual 
D-Se., , ete. (With Illus- Mice rimotie aes nt Neeser atkt eet caee 182 
tration. : SRA e Sane GRO AEE eRe RRERTS 166 Dee Rie bruatyy, 2 Ahlen eo aesesee ace 187 

5. The Upper Chalk of North Lin- is Ui Levaelel Ohilal ., Gadboqueeanotsosanuaaco: 190 
colnshire. By AnTHUR BurRNet. 172 iW. Onna. 

IJ. Reviews. =| Frieut,-Gen. Charles Alexander 
1. apes of the Geological Sur- wae wid ole atte RReSapen ses ere 192 
vey of the United Kingdom . Prof: Charles Emerson Beecher, 
The Cretaceous Rocks, af IDES 7KG Ph.D., of Yale University ...... 192 


LONDON: DULAU & 00., 37, SOHO SQUARE. 


¢& The Volume for 1903 of iter GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE is ready, 
price 20s. nett. Cloth Cases for Binding may be had, price 1s. 6d. nett. 


ROBT. F. DAMON, Weymouth, England, 


Begs to call the attention of Directors of Museum and Professors of 
Biology and Geology in Universities to his fine series of 


COLOURED CASTS 


OF 


RARE & INTERESTING FOSSILS 


Which new number 229. 


This interesting and attractive series will form a most valuable 
addition to any Museum of Zoology or Comparative Anatomy, and 
cannot fail to prove of the greatest interest alike to men of Science 
and to all Students of Natural History as well as to the general body 
of educated visitors to a public collection. 


A town about to establish a Museum would find that these specimens, when 
properly mounted and displayed in glass cases, with instructive labels to each, would 
form a substantial basis for a Public Museum at a very small cost. A full list will 
be sent on application. 


An Interesting Set of Human Remains, £11 8s. 6d. 


Also Set of Models and Casts illustrating the descent of the 
Horse, £25. 


1,600 species of BRITISH FOSSILS. £100. 

Fine Slab of Trigonia clavellata from the Coral Rag, and Slabs .of 
characteristic Fossils from the Inferior Oolite. 

Old Red Sandstone Fishes, Silurian Crinoids, etc., etc. 

Various Reptilian Remains and Ammonites from the Lias of Lyme Regis. 

Slab of Extracrinus briareus showing several heads. 

A collection of British Crustacea, in handsome mahogany cabinet, drawers 
glazed. Size of cabinet, 4ft. 8in. by 2ft. 3 in. 

Various 21s. sets of Recent Mollusca. 

A collection of Recent Mollusca, contained in several cabinets (nearly 300 
drawers), for disposal. 

250 species of Foreign Fishes in spirits. £20. 

50 species of Foreign Amphibia and Reptilia in spirits. £1 10s. 

100 species of Foreign Crustacea in spirits. £2 10s. 

Over 200 drawers of Minerals, including two collections containing over 4,000 
specimens and one with a very large number, to be sold separately or in 
one lot. 

Post-Tertiary Fossils from Barbadoes. 

Tertiary Fossils from Croatia, Dalmatia, and Slavonia, etc., etc., etc. 

Tertiary Mollusca from Muddy Creek, Victoria, Australia. 

Vertebrate Remains from the Pliocene Tertiary, Siwalik Hills, India. 

Rudistes, Hippurites, Requienia, ete.: Cretaceous (Senonien), Dordogne. 

A Grand Collection of Fishes, beautifully preserved, from the Cretaceous Beds 
of the Lebanon, Syria. (Described by Mr. J. Davis and others.) 

St. Cassian Fossils (123 Species). 

Plants from the Trias of Austria. 

Bothriolepis, Eusthenopteron, Phaneropleuron, etc., from the Devonian of 


Canada. 
Crinoids from the Carboniferous of Russia and America. 
53 ve Devonian of France. 


Various Russian Fossils. (Collection £8 8s.) 
200 Specimens of Rocks from Puy-de-Dome. 
100 “p of Rocks and Minerals for Schools, etc. 


THE 


GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE. 


NEW SERIES. “DECADE Wo “VAIS Me 


No. IV.— APRIL, 1904. 


ORIGINAL ARTICIES. 


Ss 


I.—A Rerrospect oF PALMONTOLOGY IN THE LAST Forty Y@rars. 
(Concluded from the March Number, p. 106.) 


Reprinta et Aves.—Our two greatest Anatomists of the past 
century, Owen and Huxley, both contributed to this section of our 
paleeozoological record. Owen (in 1865) described some remains of 
a small air-breathing vertebrate, Anthrakerpeton crassosteum, from the 
Coal-shales of Glamorganshire, corresponding with those described 
by Dawson from the Coal-measures of Nova Scotia; and in 1870 he 
noticed some remains of Plesiosaurus Hoodii (Owen) from New 
Zealand, possibly of Triassic age. 

Huxley made us acyuainted with an armed Dinosaur from the 
Chalk-marl of Folkestone, allied to Scelidosaurus (Liassic), Hyl@o- 
saurus and Polacanthus (Wealden), the teeth and dermal spines of 
which he described and figured (1867), and in the following year 
he figured and determined two new genera of Triassic reptilia, 
Saurosternon Bainii and Pristerodon McKay, from the Dicynodont 
beds of South Africa. 

R. Etheridge recorded (in 1866) the discovery by Dr. EH. P. 
Wright and Mr. Brownrig of several new genera of Labyrinthodonts 
in the Coal-shales of Jarrow Colliery, Kilkenny, Ireland, com- 
municated by Huxley to the Royal Irish Academy, an account of 
which appeared later on in the GEotogicaL Macazine in the same 
year by Dr. EH. P. Wright (p. 165), the genera given being 
Urocordylus, Ophiderpeton, Ichthyerpeton, Keraterpeton, Lepterpeton, 
and Anthracosaurus. Besides these genera there were indications 
of the existence of several others (not described), making at that 
time a total of thirteen genera from the Carboniferous formation in 
general. 

In 1872 the distinguished Canadian geologist, Professor Sir Wm. 
Dawson, gave an account of and figured Sauropus unguifer, being the \/ / 
footprints of an unknown labyrinthodont reptile from the Carbon- 
iferous Sandstone of Nova Scotia; and in 1891 he announced in two 

DECADE V.—VOL. I.—wNO. Iy. 10 


146 A Retrospect of Paleontology for Forty Years. 


separate papers the discovery of new specimens of Dendrerpeton 
acadianum and Hylonomus Dawsoni from the South Joggins Coalfield, 
Nova Scotia. - 

Our old friend William Davies gave an account (in 1876) of the 
exhumation and working out of a large Dinosaurian, named by Owen 
Omosaurus armatus, from the Kimmeridge Clay of Swindon, Wilts. 
This specimen is preserved in the Natural History Museum, Cromwell 
Road, and is a good example of the heavy vegetable-feeding land 
reptiles of the Jurassic period. In 1880 he described the remains of 
an Upper Miocene Ostrich from the Siwalik Hills, India. 

Professor Prestwich (1879) recorded the discovery of a species of 
Iguanodon in the Kimmeridge Clay near Oxford. In the same year 
K. T. Newton described mys lutaria from the fluviatile deposit 
at Mundesley on the Norfolk coast; an Iguanodont tooth from the 
‘Totternhoe Stone’ at Hitchin; ‘ British Pleistocene Vertebrata 
in Britain” (1891) ; and Dicynodont and other reptiles from the Elgin 
Sandstone. He noticed the occurrence (1883) of the Red-throated 
Diver, Colymbus septentrionalis, at Mundesley. j 

W. H. Twelvetrees (1882) figured some Theriodont reptilian 
teeth from the Permian of Russia; this formation quite lately has 
yielded a marvellous series of remains to Professor Amalitzky, of 
Warsaw. Professor A. Liversidge gave (in 1880) an analysis of 
Moa egg-shell from New Zealand. So long back as 1864 the 
veteran anatomist, W. K. Parker, made some important remarks 
on the skeleton of Archgopteryx. He pointed out that although this 
primitive bird had, in the adult state, 21 caudal vertebrae, a recently 
hatched duckling possesses 22 caudals if we count the fifth post- 
femoral as the first of the caudal series; so that, after all, this large 
number of free caudals is only an embryonal character retained in 
the adult. 

The late Professor O. C. Marsh, of Yale College, New Haven, 
Connecticut, who died in 1899, was for 23 years a contributor to the 
pages of this journal, and a very constant visitor to this country ; 
indeed, from his return after his student days in 1864 to the end of 
his life he was a familiar figure in the British Museum and at the 
meetings of our scientific societies. 

In 1876 Marsh contributed a paper on birds with teeth 
(Odontornithes) from the Cretaceous of Kansas. The most interesting 
is perhaps the Hesperornis regalis, a gigantic diver. The brain was 
quite small; the maxillary bones, which were stout, had throughout 
their length a deep inferior groove thickly set with sharp pointed 
teeth. The vertebra were like those of recent birds. The sternum 
was without a keel, and the wings were quite rudimentary. It has, 
in fact, been described as a swimming ostrich. In Ichthyornis the 
teeth were in distinct sockets, the vertebra were biconcave; the 
sternum possessed a keel; and the wings were well developed for 
powerful flight. 

In 1881 Marsh wrote on the structure of the skeleton in the 
Archeopteryx, and pointed out the many interesting features in which 
this earliest known bird approaches to the reptilian type and 


A Retrospect of Paleontology for. Forty Years. 147 


especially to the Dinosauria. In 1882 he proposed a classification 
of the Dinosauria which (with some modifications) is still followed 
by palaeozoologists. 

In the same year this author discussed the wings of Pterodactyls, 
basing his remarks on the specimen discovered at Hichstadt, Bavaria, 
‘in 1873. This long-tailed form, named Rhamphorhynchus phyllurus 
‘by Marsh, has both the wing membranes preserved, and shows that 
the long stiff tail had a broadly expanded extremity like the blade 
of a paddle, which was evidently used as.a rudder. We have 
a similar form named Dimorphodon, which was obtained from the 
Lias of Lyme Regis (see 1870, p. 97, Pl. IV). In 1884 Marsh 
figured and described the skull of the great toothless American 
Pterodactyl from the Chalk of Kansas (named Péeranodon), with 
a skull a yard in length, and wings having an expanse of about 
18 feet across !—as large as our great toothed Pterodactylus Cuviert 
and P. giganteus from the English Chalk of Burham, Kent. 

He also (1884) named Diplodocus longus, a new Jurassic Dinosaur, 
from Canon City, Colorado, giving figures of the skull, teeth, ete. 
It possessed one of the most remarkable heads of this singular group 
-of land reptiles and the weakest possible dentition, the teeth being 
entirely confined to the front of the jaws and of simple slender 
peg-like form, and they must have been easily detached from their 
shallow sockets. The nasal opening was at the apex of the cranium, 
-and the brain was of the very smallest dimensions possible. 

Then followed an account, with figures, of various other new 
forms of Jurassic Dinosaurs—Allosaurus, Celurus, Labrosaurus, and 
Ceratosaurus. ‘These were all carnivorous forms (Theropoda), the 
last-named being near to our own Megalosaurus, the teeth and 
claws both displaying their predaceous character. Allosaurus had 
extremely diminutive fore-limbs and long slender hind ones, adapted 
evidently for springing upon its quarry. 

Passing from these lithe and active beasts of prey, we come 
(in 1888) to one of quite another character, namely, Marsh’s 
Stegosaurus, a huge plated lizard of the Jurassic period. It had 
the smallest brain of any known land vertebrate. All its bones 
were solid, the vertebra biconcave. Its body was defended by 
a row of twelve flattened dorsal bony plates, the largest being 
nearly four feet in height and of equal length; with four pairs 
-of sharply pointed spines fixed erect like bayonets on the caudal 
ae A restoration was given by Marsh of this huge herbivore 
in 1891. 

A further comparison of the principal forms of Dinosauria of 
Hurope and America was given by Marsh in 1889, in which he 
defined the group Sauropopa or lizard-footed forms. Many of 
these are known in Europe as well as America, but here they are 
more fragmentary. A large part of one has just been set up from 
the Oxfordian of Peterborough, whilst limb-bones of Cetiosaurus (as 
large as those of Atlantosaurus) may be seen in the Oxford Museum 
and in the British Museum (Natural History), London. The section 
STEGOSAURIA is represented by Omosaurus, from Swindon; Hylo- 


148 A Retrospect ot Paleontology for Forty Years. 


saurus, Wealden ; Polacanthus, Acanthopholis, and Scelidosaurus (all 
British forms) belong to the armoured Dinosaurs. 

The section of the great bird-footed Orn1rHopopa is well represented 
by Iguanodon and its allies in this country and in Belgium, while 
that of the Turropopa was known here by Megalosaurus since the 
days of Buckland (1824). 

In 1890-91 Marsh brought before the public his gigantic 
Creratorsipm, horned Dinosaurs, with skulls of marvellous form, 
nearly 6 feet from the tip of the pointed snout to the edge of the 
huge bony frill which expanded between 3 and 4 feet in breadth, 
like an immense Elizabethan collar, over the creature’s neck behind. 
The skull had three horns, two over the orbits and one on the nasal 
bone (hence the generic name Triceratops); the jaws had sharp 
horny beaks in front and two-fanged molar cheek teeth. It had 
besides a covering of dermal armour. 

An interesting investigation as to the makers of the footprints, so 
long attributed to Dinornis-like birds, met with upon the slabs of 
fine-grained sandstone in the Connecticut valley, resulted in the 
discovery by Marsh of a small light-footed Dinosaur named Anchi- 
saurus colurus, a little over 4 feet in height, which, although not 
tridactyle, only impressed three of its four toes on the wet sands in 
running, touching the tip of the nail only of the fourth toe on the 
ground. The restoration of this early Dinosaur in 1898 is accom- 
panied by two others, a large carnivorous form like our Megalosaurus, 
the Ceratosaurus, and a bird-footed and beaked form, Claosaurus, near 
to our Iguanodon, with which it also agrees in size. 

A restoration of Camptosaurus dispar from the Upper Jurassic 
of Wyoming appeared in 1894, also footprints of Coal-measure 
Labyrinthodonts from Kansas. Other restorations of European 
genera were continued to be published in 1896. First and smallest 
of all these is the Compsognathus longipes, Wagner, preserved on a 
slab of Lithographic Stone from Bavaria. Next follows Scelidosaurus 
Harrisoni (Owen) from the Lias of Charmouth. Then another very 
small Dinosaur named Hypsilophodon Fowii (Huxley) from the 
Wealden of the Isle of Wight, and Iguanodon Bernissartensis from 
Belgium. 

These were followed by a final classification of the Dinosaurs, 
with twelve beautifully executed figures, and a note on the Sauropoda 
which appeared in 1899. Marsh gave the results in 1898 of his 
visit to St. Petersburg, Moscow, Vienna, Munich, Paris, Caen, 
Havre, and London, and additional notes on Dinosaurian remains 
seen during his tour. 

Professor H. G. Seeley wrote in 1881 on the Ornithosaurians of 
the Cambridge Greensand; in 1895 on Pareiasaurus Baini from 
the Karoo formation (Trias) of Cape Colony, obtained by him in 
1889 at Bad, near Tamboer-Fontein ; the most perfect Anomodont 
reptilian skeleton then known, only equalled by the specimens 
recently discovered by Professor Amalitzky in the Trias of Russia. 
In 1898 Seeley described two Rhetic Dinosaurs, Avalonia Sanfordi 
and Picrodon Herveyi, from Wedmore Hill, Somerset ; and in the 


A Retrospect of Paleontology for Forty Years. 149 


same year the skull of a Triassic Anomodont (Oudenodon pithecops), 
a small toothless reptile obtained by Mr. McKay, of Hast London, 
from the Dicynodont Beds of Cape Colony. In 1881 Seeley gave 
an account and figure of the Berlin Archgopteryx, and discussed the | 
affinities of this second example of long-tailed Oolitic bird when 
compared with the original example in the British Museum (Natural 
History), obtained in 1861. 

Henry Woodward described and figured Iguanodon Mantelli in 
1885, and Iguanodon Bernissartensis in 1895; he gave in 1885 an 
account of ‘* Wingless Birds,” recent and fossil, with their characters, 
species, and distribution, both geographically and geologically. 

Arthur Smith Woodward gave, in 1885, an excellent summary 
of the literature and nomenclature of British fossil Crocodilia, 
with a table of genera and species. In 1891 he noticed a tooth 
of an extinct Alligator from the Danian of Ciply, Belgium ; 
a Microsaurian (Hylonomus Wildi) from the Burnley Coalfield, 
Lancashire; and noted the occurrence of Pseudotrionyx from the 
Bracklesham Beds. In 1897 he figured and described Stereosternum 
tumidum, a small lizard-like Triassic reptile from San Paulo, 
Brazil, related in some undetermined way to the ancestry of the 
Plesiosauria; and a new specimen of Ceraterpeton Galvani from 
the Coal-measures, Kilkenny, Ireland. 

In 1887 G. A. Boulenger wrote, with R. Lydekker, some notes 
on Chelonia from the Purbeck Beds and London Clay. 

R. Lydekker, in the same year, wrote on Crocodilians from 
Hordwell and other species from the Wealden, etc. He also published 
a note on Hylgochampsa. In 1888 he published notes on Tertiary 
Lacertilia and Ophidia, and discussed their affinities ; he also wrote 
on the classification of the Ichthyopterygia; quoting from the 
late Sir William Flower in favour of the restriction of generic 
terms, and urging that their multiplication tends to make us lose sight 
of the mutual relationship of allied forms, a view in which the author 
then fully agreed, but subsequently he appeared rather to favour 
the creation of new species, not merely in extinct, but in recent 
forms of life. Ifa small fee for registration had to be paid for every 
new name proposed to be introduced into currency, and a large one 
imposed on the alteration of old and well-established names, in 
order to replace them by some lost or unknown name unearthed 
from the dusthole of the past, zoology would be greatly the gainer, 
and much time might be saved with advantage and devoted to 
really useful scientific work. Lydekker gave some interesting 
notes on Sauropterygia from the Oxford and Kimmeridge Clay, from 
the Leeds Collection at Eyebury. He does some useful ‘lumping’ 
of species established upon insufficient data, and mentions a delight- 
ful case in which a newly described Plesiosaurus presented some 
wery striking peculiarities in its skeleton, arising from the simple 
mistake made by the author, who had placed the head on the 
extremity of the tail—the so-called cervicals being indistinguishable 
from the caudals of other forms. R. Lydekker, in 1889, recorded 
some remains of a new Ceeluroid Dinosaur from the Wealden of 
the Isle of Wight, which he named Calamospondylus Foxt. 


150 A Retrospect of Paleontology for Forty Years. 


Boulenger and Lydekker called attention to a curious case of 
“the unscientific use of the imagination,” in which the Abbé G. 
Smets, in Belgium, figured and described some remains of a new 
Dinosaur, which, upon examination, proved to be merely a mass of 
fossil wood. 

Lydekker figured and described part of a left pectoral paddle of 
Ichthyosaurus intermedius from the Lower Lias of Barrow-on-Soar, in 
which the integument is preserved, as in a paddle figured and 
described by Owen in 1841. In 1891 the same author delineated 
and noticed a most perfect skeleton of Ichthyosaurus tenuirostris, 
obtained by Alfred Gillett from the Lower Lias of Street, Somerset, 
and presented by him to the British Museum (Natural History), 
where it still holds a premier place among its fellows. 

Dr. C. W. Andrews, in 1885, gave a note on the skull of 
Keraterpeton Galvani, Huxley, a small Labyrinthodont from the 
Coal-measures of Staffordshire, originally described by Huxley from 
the Kilkenny Colliery, Ireland. In the same year he described the 
skeleton of a young Plesiosaur from the Oxford Clay of Peterborough, 
and in 1896 the pelvis of a large Plesiosaur (Oryptoclidus oxoniensis), 
also forming part of the Leeds Collection. 

In 1895 Andrews discussed the Stereornithes, a group of extinct 
birds from Patagonia, and made some interesting remarks on the 
recurrence of flightless or wingless birds in groups, as those of South 
America and of New Zealand, and the Gastornithide in the Eocene of 
Europe. He contended that there seemed no reason why such groups 
of flightless birds should not arise at any period and in any region, 
providing the conditions of life were favourable. In 1896 he noticed 
the nearly complete skeleton of Aptornis defossor, a gigantic flightless 
rail from New Zealand, of which an excellent figure was given, 
followed later by an account of Diaphorapteryx Hawkinsi, Forbes, 
a large extinct rail from the Chatham Islands, 500 miles east of New 
Zealand. All these flightless birds shared the same fate as the Dodo 
and Dinornis, having been eaten up by man. 

Another interesting insular flightless bird was described by 
Andrews in 1897, the pyornis Hildebrandti trom Madagascar, 
a restored skeleton of which was set up in the British Museum 
(Natural History), from remains obtained by Dr. C. I. Forsyth Major 
at Sirabé, Central Madagascar. 

Lastly, in 1899 he figured the nearly complete skeleton of Dinornis 
maximus, obtained by C. A. Ewen near Invercargill (South Island), 
New Zealand, one of the most genuine specimens obtained; those 
sent home by the late Sir Julius von Haast having been mostly 
composite skeletons, not belonging to one bird. 

Professor Seeley gave in 1887 some interesting notes on Louis 
Dollo’s work on the Dinosauria of Bernissart, especially in reference to- 
the Iguanodon Bernissartensis and the relation of Dinosaurs to Birds. 
Mr. Dollo also contributed an article on some Belgian fossil reptiles, 
with special reference to Hyleochampsa and Bernissartia. In 1888 
the same author wrote on the humerus of Euclastes, and discussed 
the relationship of the Propleuridz with the Chelonie. 


A. Retrospect of Paleontology for Forty Years. 151 


In 1899 Dr. G. Baur reviewed HE. T. Newton’s memoir on the 
skull of Scaphognathus. 

The egg of a large Struthious bird (Struthiolithus chersonensis) 
found in a Post-Tertiary deposit at Kalgan, North China, was 
described and figured in 1898 by C. E. Eastman, of Cambridge, 
Massachusetts, United States. As no bones of any ostrich-like bird 
have been met with in China, we must receive the evidence of the 
ege alone with some reserve, although the account is very well 
authenticated. 

In 1900 Eastman described a fossil bird (Gallinuloides Wyomingensis) 
from the Middle Hocene, Wyoming, with short beak, stout legs, and 
about the size of a gallinule, rail, or small coot, and resembling 
those birds in general characters. 

In 1903 Professor R. Broom figured the palate of Scylacosaurus 
Sclateri, a new primitive Theriodont from South Africa, and a new 
Stegocephalian reptile from Ariwal North, Cape Colony. 
In 1900 Professor Burckhardt gave a description and excellent 

figures of Hyperodapedon Gordoni from the Trias of Elgin; and 
G. A. Boulenger, in 1903, described the palate of Hyperodapedon 
and of a new genus, Stenometopon, also from the same deposit. 

Baron Francis Nopesa, jun., had an article in 1903 on the origin 
of the Mosasaurs, and discussed the question as to whether Mosasaurs 
were highly specialized aquatic Varanoids, or sprang from the 
Neocomian Dolichosaurs, or were an offshoot from some ancient 
Lacertilia. 

Mammatia.— Professor Owen, who was among our earliest 
contributors, wrote in 1865 on Miolophus, a new genus of Hocene 
mammals. <A year later the specimen so described by Owen 
proved to be the type of Platycherops Richardsoni (Charlesworth), 
(Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1854, p. 80), from the London Clay, Herne 
Bay (see Grou. MaG., 1866, p. 48), and was claimed for the York 
Museum, to which it belonged. In 1866 Owen described the lower 
jaw and teeth of a small Oolitic mammal from the Purbeck beds 
of Dorset, which he named Stylodon pusillus, probably a small 
Insectivore. He next wrote in 1869 cn Castor and Trogontherium, 
and gave figures of the limb-bones and teeth of the gigantic beaver 
of the Nortolk Forest Bed series. This great beaver occurred also 
in the Thames Valley (see Grou. MaG., 1902, p. 885) ; in the Depart- 
ment l’Hure et Loire in France; at Taganrog, on the Sea of Azof; 
and near Odessa, on the Black Sea. In the same year he recorded 
the occurrence of the Elk (Alces palmatus) from the North Tyne 
River, Northumberland, and from the Hast London Waterworks 
at Walthamstow, Essex. A. Smith Woodward, in his “ British Fossil 
Vertebrates” (1890), gave no fewer than thirty-two localities, to 
which may now be added Keiss, Caithness, and Cleveland, Yorkshire. 
In 1888 Owen figured and described a newly discovered skull of 
Thylacoleo from Queensland, Australia, a palatal view of which is given. 

In 1865 Harry Seeley described the cervical vertebra of a whale, 
Palocetus Sedgwickii, from the Boulder-clay of Ely, in the 
Woodwardian Museum. 


152 A Retrospect of Palwontology for Forty Years. 


In the same year Dr. A. Leith Adams gave an account of the 
first discovery, in 1857, by Dr. 8. Agius, of the bones and teeth 
of fossil elephants, associated with the great dormouse, Myoxus 
melitensis, in the Gandia Fissure, Malta. But the best-preserved 
remains of the pigmy elephant were obtained by Captain Spratt, 
R.N., from the Zebbug Cave in 1859. 

In 1867 Professor Sir Frederick McCoy noticed the occurrence 
of Squalodon Wilkinsoni, from the Miocene Tertiary of Victoria, 
Australia, a primitive whale with teeth provided with bicuspid 
fangs. Teeth of this whale have also been found in the Red Crag 
of Suffolk, in Malta, France, and North America. 

Henry Woodward, in 1864, described the discovery and exhumation 
of a skull and tusks of Hlephas primigenius from the Brick-earth at 
Ilford in Essex, and in 1868 figured the skull and tusks in order 
to show that their normal curvature in the aged Mammoth was 
imwards at their extremities, not outwards, as had hitherto been 
depicted by Waterhouse, Hawkins, and others. In 1869, under the 
title of “‘Man and the Mammoth,” the same writer gave an account 
of the animals found associated with early man in Britain during pre- 
historic times, in which a table was also given of the species which 
are extinct or have been killed, have migrated or are still living in 
this country. An article in the same year recorded the animals 
found in the fresh-water deposits of the Valley of the Lea near 
Walthamstow, Essex. 

In 1871 Henry Woodward described the Mammoth skeleton from 
Lierre, Belgium, set up in the Royal Museum of Natural History at 
Brussels, and gave a brief account of the other objects of interest in 
that collection. In 1874 the same writer gave an account of the very 
perfect skull of Rhinoceros leptorhinus, from the Pleistocene Brick- 
earth of the Valley of the Thames at Ilford. The author pointed out 
that Falconer’s name of R. hemitechus must give place to Owen’s 
h. leptorhinus, inasmuch as the species had a completely ossified 
nasal septum. In 1885 he recorded the addition to the British 
Museum of a nearly complete skeleton of Steller’s sea-cow, Rhytina 
gigas, from Behring Island, and a restored skeleton of Halitherium 
Schinzi, from the Miocene of Hessen Darmstadt, and he pointed out 
that at present the living Sirenia were all confined within a band 
30° north and 30° south of the equator, but in late Tertiary times 
they extended to 60° north, about 28 species being met with in 
North America, England, France, Belgium, Holland, Italy, Germany, 
and North Africa; affording additional evidence, if such were required, 
of the former northern extension of warmer conditions of climate in 
Europe in the near past. 

In 1886 H. Woodward gave an account of recent and fossil 
Hippopotami. In 1898 he described the great red-deer antlers 
from Bakewell, Derbyshire; a year later he figured the skull and 
tusks of the famous Zlephas ganesa, which forms so striking an 
object in the centre of the Geological Gallery of the British Museum 
(Natural History). In 1903 he noticed some recent cave-hunting 
in Cyprus by Miss Dorothy M. A. Bate. 


A Retrospect of Paleontology for Forty Years. 153 


W. Boyd Dawkins discussed, in 1868, the value of the evidence for 
the existence of the Mammoth in Europe in pre-Glacial times, and 
he concluded that the evidence forthcoming did not, in his opinion, 
support the contention of the pre-Glacial age of the Mammoth, which 
must be considered to be of later date. 

In 1870 Professor Huxley contributed a paper on the milk- 
dentition of Palgotherium magnum, in which he pointed out that the 
genus Paloplotherium was founded upon a mistake, and it disappears 
from zoological nomenclature. Professor James Geikie described 
the occurrence in 1868 of Bos primigenius in the Lower Boulder- 
clay of Scotland. 

EH. Ray Lankester announced (1869) the discovery of a new 
Trilophodont Mastodon in the Suffolk Bone-bed at Woodbridge, and 
in the same year the finding of a portion of the tusk of the great 
sabre-toothed tiger Machairodus from the Forest-bed at Cromer, on 
the Norfolk coast. In 1899 he returned to the subject of the 
Trilophodont Mastodon from the Suffolk Crag, and refigured his 
Mastodon angustidens as var. latidens, the obscuring phosphatic 
matrix having been removed. 

Professor Robert Harkness (1870) mentioned the occurrence of 
elephant-remains in Ireland. He concluded that there is good 
evidence of the Mammoth having been met with in Shandon Cave, 
Dungarvan, co. Waterford. 

In 1871 Dr. James Murie gave figures of the skeleton and an 
admirable restoration of Sivatherium giganteum, a type of Miocene 
‘Tertiary short-necked horned ruminants, which with Helladotherium, 
Bramatherium, Samotherium, and some others belong to the Giraftide, 
and of which the long-necked giraffe and the recently discovered 
short-necked Okape alone survive. 

William Davies (1878) recorded the animals obtained by J. J. 
Owles, of Yarmouth, from the Dogger Bank in the North Sea, an 
old Pleistocene or Post-Glacial land lying off the east coast and once 
a part of these Islands when they were joined to the Continent, 
and the bear, wolf, hyana, the Irish deer, the reindeer, red deer, 
urus, bison, horse, rhinoceros, mammoth, beaver, elk, musk-ox, etc., 
were common British animals. He noticed a fine jaw of mammoth 
dredged from the Dogger Bank in 1887, and in 1879 mentioned the 
occurrence of the musk-ox (Ovibos moschatus) from the Thames 
Brickearth at Crayford in Kent. In 1880 Davies announced the 
discovery (by James Backhouse, of York) of the northern lynx 
(Felis borealis) in a cave in Teesdale, Durham. He added a new 
British carnivore in 1884, the civet (Viverra Hastingsie), from the 
Kocene of Hordwell, Hampshire. 

In 1880 EH. T. Newton commenced a series of papers on the 
Vertebrata of the Pre-Glacial Forest Bed series of the Hast of 
England. In his first paper he recorded the wolf, fox, Jachairodus, 
Felis, marten, glutton, bear (two species), walrus, and a seal. 
In his second paper he gave the horse, the ass, four species of 
Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, two species of pig, ox, bison, sheep, goat, 
thirteen species of deer, and the reindeer (Rangifer tarandus). In 1882 


154 A Retrospect of Paleontology for Forty Years. 


he noticed the occurrence of the marmot, Spermophilus, beneath the- 
Glacial Till of Norfolk. In 1883 he described the teeth of Zyene 
crocuta, var. spelea, from the Forest Bed at Corton, Suffolk. In 
1887 he figured remains of the otter, the eagle, owl, shoveller duck, 
and cormorant, all from the Forest Bed series. 1. T’. Newton added, 
in 1889, descriptions of Cervus rectus, Bison bonasus, Phoca barbata,. 
Delphinapterus leucus, and Phocena communis. In 1890 the same 
author noticed the occurrence of Lemmings and other rodents in 
the Brickearth of the Thames Valley, Crayford. Lastly, in 1902, 
he recorded the discovery of Trogontherium, the giant beaver, from 
near Greenhithe, Kent, in the valley of the Thames. 

Sir Henry Howorth wrote in 1880 on the Mammoth in Siberia, 
giving a number of interesting facts to prove the very early date 
in history when, by the trade-routes, Mammoth ivory was brought 
south-west into Europe from Siberia. In 1901 he wrote of ‘the 
earliest traces of Man,” taking as his text the evidence of Paleolithic 
Man in Africa, by Sir John Evans, H. O. Forbes on the stone 
implements from Egypt and Somaliland, Ashington Bullen on 
Kolithic implements, ete. 

Richard Lydekker had a series of three papers on the Artiodactyla, 
etc., in 1885, and on the teeth of Hy@nodon in 1890. 

Professor O. C. Marsh (in 1887) wrote on American Jurassic 
mammals, and figured and described many forms closely resembling 
our Purbeck and Jurassic microtheres, of which he made us 
acquainted with no fewer than 26 species. In 1889 he illustrated 
the skeleton of the great Brontops (Titanotherium), a huge bony- 
horned Rhinoceros with two blunt bony prominences on its snout near 
the extremity, placed side by side. He figured Coryphodon hamatus 
in 1893, a huge Amblypodous ungulate allied to Dinoceras, from the 
Lower Hocene of Wyoming, U.S.A. In 1894 he gave a restoration 
of Elotherium crassum, a pig-like animal from the Miocene of North- 
Eastern Colorado, only surpassed in bulk by the Rhinoceroses and 
Titanotheres, its contemporaries. In 1899 Marsh published his 
Address on the Origin of Mammals (delivered at Cambridge 
August 25th, 1898). On the 18th March he passed away in his 
68th year, having done a day’s work and done it well. 

Dr. C. I. Forsyth Major wrote in 1890 on the Pliocene Mammalian 
Fauna at Olivola in the Carrara Mountains, and recorded Felis, 
Machairodus, Hyena robusta, Canis, Ursus etruscus, Rhinoceros 
etruscus, Hquus stenonis, Mastodon arvernensis, Sus Strozzi, Cervus 
dicranius, Leptobos elatus, Castor, etc. In 1899 he described Seiurus 
Bredai and S. sp., Lagopsis verus, and Cricetodon minus, from the 
Middle Miocene of Oeningen; fossil dormice, Muscardinus san- 
saniensis, and ELliomys Hamadryas, from Sansan and La Grive Saint- 
Alban, and on Pliohyrax grecus from the Upper Miocene of Samos 
and Pikermi. 

In 1900 Forsyth Major gave a summary of what was known of 
the extinct primates of Madagascar—Megaladapis, Palgochirogalus,. 
Nesopithecus, and Hadropithecus ; and in 1901 an interesting article 
on the transference of secondary sexual characters of mammals from 


A. Retrospect of Paleontology for Forty Years. 155: 


males to females, the horns of the Giraffide, the antlers of the 
deer tribe, and the horns in the Bovine and Capride being considered, 
the reindeer and roedeer and sometimes the red-deer having. 
antlered females, and the tusks also in the Suide (in the Potamocher?) 
being almost equal in size and shape to those of the males. Also he 
wrote on a supposed camel and a nilghai (nylghau) from Samos ; the 
former proved to be a hornless skull of the female Palgotragus- 
Rowenti, a small Giraffoid form, and the nilghai to be another of the 
Giraffide, Paleotragus vetustus. 

During his visit to Madagascar, in 1895, Forsyth Major was 
fortunate in obtaining a nearly complete skeleton of Hippopotamus 
madaguscariensis, which is now set up in the British Museum 
Geological Gallery, and was photo-engraved in 1902 and described 
by the discoverer. Like H. liberiensis, it is a pigmy form of the 
great ZZ. amphibius of Africa. Besides the above there are in the 
Mediterranean islands H. Pentlandi, H. melitensis, and H. minutus, all. 
pigmy forms. In 1905 the same author wrote on some new 
Carnivora from the Middle Miocene of La Grive Saint-Alban, Isére, 
France, and defined Progenetta certa, Leptoplesictis sp., Trocharion 
albanense, and Trochictis Depreti. 

Numerous mammalian remains from Egypt have from time to 
time been sent by Captain Lyons, the Director-General of the 
Geological Survey, to the British Museum for determination, and 
Dr. C. W. Andrews during the last five years visited Egypt several 
times in order to collect further material, which he has described 
in a series of papers. In 1899 he noticed and figured Brachyodus 
africanus, a large anthracotheroid ungulate, of which a number of 
allied forms have been described from European deposits ; he also 
mentions the remains of a small species of Rhinoceros. 

Dr. Andrews made numerous expeditions with H. J. L. Beadnell 
to the western desert, which resulted in the discovery of a number 
of important mammalian remains of Zeuglodonts, Sirenians, and 
_ Probescidea;—of _ these may be suontionede Hotherium egyptiacum, 
~ Zeuglodon osiris, Paleomastodon Beadnelli, Meeritherium Lyons, 
M. gracile, Bradytherium grave, and LHosiren libyca. Also from 
the Wadi-Natrun remains of a small hippopotamus, a hipparion, 
a small pig-like animal; various antelopes were also obtained, 
likewise remains of Hippotragus Cordieri. 

In 1905 Andrews offered suggestions on the evolution of the 
Proboscidea, and described the gradual increase in the complexity of 
the molar teeth, the loss of incisors Nos. 1 and 3, and the great 
increase in size of incisor No. 2, which eventually formed the tusk ; 
the canines are also early lost; in the earliest forms some of the 
cheek-teeth (milk-molars) are replaced by premolars in the usual 
manner from beneath, and these teeth remain in wear simultaneously 
with the true molars. In later forms no vertical succession takes 
place ; as the milk-molars are worn they are shed, being replaced 
jfrom behind by the forward movement of the molars. Of these also 
the anterior may be shed until, in old individuals of the later types, 
the last molar is alone functional. The molar teeth increase in 


156 A Retrospect of Paleontology for Forty Years. 


complexity from the earliest to the latest type, beginning as simple 
quadritubercular molars in Meritherium and ending with the complex 
tooth found in Elephas; in Palgomastodon the molars are trilophodont, 
as are the first and second molars in Tetrabelodon. In the Stegodonts 
a further increase in the height of the crests of the molars takes 
place, the teeth being covered by a thick coat of cement; in still 
later forms these crests become highly compressed laminz united by 
cement; as many as twenty-seven plates being present in one tooth 
in the Indian elephant. 

By these researches we are made acquainted with a series of 
forms in the direct ancestral line of the Proboscidea, taking as 
(1) Meeritherium, Middle Eocene; (2) Palgomastodon, Upper Eocene; 
(5) Tetrabelodon, Miocene; (4) the Stegodonts, Pliocene; (5) the 
Mammoth, lephas primigenius, Pleistocene; and (6) the living 
Indian elephant. 

In the same year Andrews gave an account of further discoveries 
in the Fayim, Egypt. The commonest forms met with were 
Palgomastodon and Arsinoitherium. <A fine skull of the latter and 
of Meritherium were obtained ; the author also described and figured 
Megalohyrax eocenus and Pterodon africanus. 

Professor E. D. Cope gave an account of a new type of Perisso- 
dactyle Unguiate, Phenacodus primevus, from the Eocene of Wyoming, 
U.S.A., believed to be a primitive ancestor of the horse. In 
1899 Cope discussed the development of the Proboscidea, but the 
discoveries made by Andrews more lately in Egypt give us fuller 
information on this subject. 

P. M. C. Kermode gave in 1898 some interesting particulars of 
the exhumation of the gigantic Irish deer in the Isle of Man; the 
first specimen, having been obtained at Ballaugh in the Isle of Man, 
was in 1819 and is now preserved in the Edinburgh Museum ; the 
recently discovered specimen has been set up in Douglas Castle. 


Should our retrospect of the life-history of the GroLoercaL 
MaGazine in the past forty years seem hardly to justify so large 
a space having been devoted to it, nevertheless we may plead that it 
serves to show what an important part this journal has taken, and 
still takes, in the progress of geology and paleontology, not only 
in this country and in our colonies but abroad generally, whilst the 
splendid list of eminent men among its contributors still stands 
unrivalled. In the matter of illustrations we have a right to feel 
proud. Seven hundred excellent plates adorn the journal, and 
seventeen hundred illustrations will be found in the text. 

The increase in recorded fossil remains has been enormous, but 
the increase in names and the changes brought about in their 
application have been even far greater. We have only to compare 
A.S8. Woodward and Sherborn’s Vertebrata with that part of Morris’s 
Catalogue (1856), or to consider for a moment the great additions 
made to our Oolitic species of Gasteropoda recorded by Hudleston 
of late years since Professor Morris’s time. 

After all, it is not the length of the paleontological road which is 
so trying, but its inequalities. For example, how can the perplexed 


Dr. C. W. Andrews—Notes on Egyptian Eocene Mammals. 157 


student follow the zigzag and tortuous nomenclature of the Ammon- 
ites, as he views them to-day by the light of modern writers on this: 
group? Or, to take a less perplexing branch, the British non-marine 
Mollusca (as recorded by B. B. Woodward, 1908). What becomes 
of our knowledge, derived from the past, if out of 167 names defined 
by Forbes and Hanley, only 51 remain intact ? Such metamorphoses 
are too startling. 

One pressing matter remains to be mentioned, that is, a GuNERAL 
Inpex to the forty annual volumes of the GrotocicaLn MagGazrne. 

The Index is prepared in MS. by Mrs. Woodward. The question 
is, shall it be printed? If, say, 300 of our readers are prepared to 
subscribe one guinea each for a copy, this work of reference might 
be published. It would unquestionably prove of the greatest value 
to all workers in geology and paleontology. 

Hvery year Time strikes off some name from our list of old and 
valued friends, and each year gives us some new ones to add, but we 
crave more subscribers in order to be uble to give more illustrations. 
and so add new interest to our journal. In conclusion, we trust 
that the fifth decade may be brighter and more successful than 
the four already completed, for our readers and subscribers as 
well as for our kind-hearted and always encouraging and helpful 
friend the Publisher, and lastly for ourselves that we may be 
permitted to witness the Jubilzeum of the Grotoetcan Magazine. 


H. W. 


I].—Furtuer Notes on tHe Mammats or tHe Kocener or Heyrpr. 
By C. W. Anprews, D.Sc., F.G.S., British Museum (Natural History). 
Part II. 

(PLATE VL.) 

Arsinoitherium. 


HE skull of one species (A. Zitteli) of this remarkable ungulate 
has already been figured by Mr. Beadnell, and also in this 
Magazine (December, 1903), where its general form is well shown. 
Details of the structure of the skull and skeleton will be given in 
the monograph, so that only a few of the more important characters 
need be referred to here. 

The pedunculate occipital condyles are very large and prominent ; 
the occipital surface slopes strongly forwards and is bordered by 
a massive lambdoidal ridge, which on either side (in old animals at 
least) rises into a prominent backwardly directed boss of bone, 
almost like a blunt horn. The parietal region of the cranial roof 
is flat and is at right angles to the side walls of the skull, being 
sharply marked off from them by well-defined ridges, which form 
the upper limits of the temporal fosse. The suture between the 
parietals is obliterated in the youngest skull examined. The pair 
of small posterior horns over the orbits are borne exclusively by 
the frontals, while the great anterior pair seem to be formed entirely 
_ by the enormously developed nasals. 

The squamosal takes a large share in the formation of the side 


158 Dr. C. W. Andrews—Notes on Egyptian Eocene Mammals. 


wall of the cranium. It bears a large post-tympanic and also 
a large post-glenoid process, the two approaching one another, 
though not meeting, beneath the auditory meatus. The glenoid 
surface is very broad from side to side, but narrow and deeply 
concave from before backwards. The orbits are not marked off 
in any way from the temporal fosse; there are large antorbital 
foramina. The pre-nasal buttress of bone, running from the pre- 
maxilla to the nasals and helping to support the front of the great 
horns, seems to be formed mainly by the premaxille. The pterygoids 
form extremely large palatine plates, and the palate is very deeply 
concave from side to side, particularly in front. 

In the mandible the ascending ramus is high, and the coronoid 
‘process rises considerably above the transversely elongated condyle. 

The teeth (Plate VI, Figs. 1-3). The dental formula is i. 2; ¢.4; 
pm.+; m.%. The tooth series is closed, and in the mandible at 
least the crowns all wear to a common level, and there is no clear 
line of distinction between the premolars, canines, and incisors ; 
but, on the other hand, in both upper and lower jaws the difference 
between the premolars and molars is most striking. The molars 
are especially remarkable for the height of their crown, particularly 
on the outer side. Each molar (see Figs. 1 and 8) consists of two 
columns (pe. and ac.) flattened antero- posteriorly, and with the 
posterior face slightly concave from side to side. The enamel - 
covered portion of the outer side of these elements is very much 
higher than on the inner side. These main columns are united 
on the inner side of the tooth only, where also are developed the 
smaller accessory crests marked # and y in the figures. In wear 
(see m. 2 of Fig. 1) these accessory elements, together with the 
inner ends of the main columns, unite to form an inner wall, 
which, except just at first, is not covered with enamel (Fig. 1). 
The premolars present a totally different appearance. In them there 
is an outer wall covered with enamel and consisting of two, or more 
probably three, united elements. There are two inner cusps, the 
anterior of which soon becomes united with the ectoloph, as in very 
worn teeth the posterior one does also; anteriorly the element 
marked x in the molar is present. The peculiar arrangement of the 
roots in the cheek teeth and the probable homologies of their cusps 
will be described later. It seems probable that we have here an 
extreme modification with great hypselodonty of one of the types 
occurring among the earlier Amblypoda. The canines and two 
posterior incisors are simple columnar teeth with a cingulum on the 
inner side, wearing to a flat surface continuous with that of the 
cheek teeth. The anterior pair of incisors are not well known to me, 
but they appear to have been separated by a considerable interval in 
the middle line, and to have possessed curved and pointed crowns 
with a shelf-like development of the cingulum posteriorly. 

The lower molars are at first bilophodont, each consisting of a pair 
of obliquely transverse crests, the anterior faces of which are slightly 
concave from side to side and not covered by enamel. The outer 
angle of the posterior crest is united by a ridge with the inner 


Dr. C. W. Andrews—Notes on Egyptian Eocene Mammals. 159 


angle of the anterior one, from the outer angle of which another 
ridge runs forwards and inwards to the anterior face of the tooth. 
The pattern assumed in wear is shown in Fig. 2. These molars in . 
some respects resemble those of some species of Coryphodon (e.g. 
C. simus!), but are more hypselodont. 

The premolars are much more compressed laterally than the 
molars; they seem to consist essentially of a pair of crescents, 
but the details of their structure cannot be discussed here. The 
canines and incisors are simple columnar teeth wearing to a common 
level and forming a closed series both in the middle line and with 
the premolars. Altogether the dentition in this genus seems to be 
one of the most remarkable known, at least among the Ungulata. 
The teeth here specially referred to and figured are those of the 
type-specimen of Arsinoitherium andrewsi, Lankester. 

The skeleton is almost completely known, but in the case of 
some of the bones there may be some danger of confusion with 
those of Palcomastodon. 

The axis has a blunt peg-like odontoid process; its centrum and 
still more those of the cervical vertebre behind it are very broad 
and short, so that the neck must have been nearly as short as in 
the elephants. 

The scapula is much like that of Dinoceras as figured by Marsh 
in his monograph of the Dinocerata. 

The humerus differs considerably both from that of Zlephas and 
of Dinoceras. It is especially remarkable for the extreme antero- 
posterior compression of the lower part of its shaft and distal 
end, and for the presence of a very prominent deltoid process. 

The radius and ulna are very short and stout, and do not differ 
widely in their main features from those of EHlephas, while in 
‘some points, e.g. the distal articulation of the radius, they are unlike 
the corresponding parts of Dinoceras. The distal articulation of 
the ulna is still larger in proportion to that of the radius than 
in the elephants. In these latter, in some cases, the lunar has 
a surface for the trapezoid as well as for the magnum, there being 
apparently some displacement of the proximal row of carpals to 
the pre-axial side, instead of post-axially as usual. Whether this 
is sO in Arsinoitherium or not in the case of the lunar is not known 
at present, but there is some evidence that the cuneiform extended 
pre-axially a short distance over the magnum. Weithofer ascribes the 
peculiar displacement in the elephants to the preponderating size of 
the ulnar articulation, and the same cause may have been efficient here. 

The short stout metacarpals are somewhat displaced outwards ; 
the third has a small contact with the unciform which entirely 
supports the fourth and fifth. 

The femur is chiefly remarkable for the great antero-posterior 
compression of its shaft, the outer border of which is a thin sharp 
edge without any distinct projection representing the third trochanter. 
The distal articulation is much as in Dinoceras. 


' See Osborn, ‘‘ Evolution of the Amblypoda,” pt. i: Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. 
Hist., vol. x (1898), p. 192, fig. 16. 


160 Dr. C. W. Andrews—WNotes on Egyptian Eocene Mammals. 


The tibia is extremely similar to that of Dinoceras. 

It is in the tarsus that the relationship with the Amblypoda is 
most apparent. The astragalus in general shape is much like 
that of an elephant, but closer examination shows that its distal 
articulation is divided by a well-marked ridge and angle into two 
surfaces, one, much the larger, for the navicular, the other for the 
cuboid. Internal to the navicular surface there is a small facet 
which seems to indicate the presence of a distinct tibiale. In all 
essential respects the astragalus is very nearly like that of Coryphodon 
or Dinoceras. The calcaneum is very short and stout; there is 
a large fibular facet, and the surface for the cuboid is small. 
A navicular attributed to this animal is very similar to that of 
Coryphodon. Detailed descriptions and figures of the foot-bones 
and other parts of the skeleton will be given in the monograph. 

The dimensions of the figured specimens (Figs. 1 and 2) are :— 


Length of upper molar series $25 23°5 cm. 
Length of the three posterior upper premolars oe IE Ome 
Leneth ot lower molar series res a oie 230 ys 
Length of lower premolar series aS on ae 14: hes 


All that is at present known of the structure of Arsinoitheriun 
leads me to believe that it is a highly specialised, probably terminal, 
member of a subdivision of the Amblypoda, probably most nearly 
related to the Coryphodontidz, though belonging to a separate family, 
the Arsinoitheriidz. Iam also inclined to think that Barytherium, 
though widely different in many respects, may have somewhat 
similar relationships. and may belong to still another family of 
the same sub-order. 


Geniohyus mirus, gen. et sp. nov. 


During the season 1902-3 a large part of the right ramus of the 
mandible of a pig-like animal was collected by Mr. Beadnell. This 
specimen, which is the anterior part of the right ramus of the 

mandible together with the symphysis, presents some very remarkable 
characters. ‘The symphysial region is narrow both from side to side 
and from above downwards and behind it, just where the rami begin 
to diverge; the ventral border of the jaw is produced downwards on 
either side into a long decurved and backwardly directed process of 
bone, quite unlike anything Iam acquainted with in any other animal. 
The hinder border of the base of this process is connected with the 
outer edge of the ramus itself by a thin plate of bone. The ramus 
is incomplete ventrally, but was evidently very narrow from above 
downwards. The function of this remarkable paired ventral process 
is very doubtful, but possibly it may have served as a protection 
for the projecting portion of a long upper tusk like the similarly 
situated process on the mandible of the Dinoceras. 

The molars and premolars are in an excellent state of preservation, 
the only part wanting being the greater portion of the talon of m. 3. 
The characters of the molars are those of a primitive member of 
the Suide in which the selenodont character of the outer cusps 
is very well marked. Each molar consists of two pairs of cusps, 


Dr. C. W. Andrews—Notes on Egyptian Eocene Mammals. 161 


the outer one of each pair being distinctly selenodont. In the first 
molar the antero-external cusp is somewhat worn. It consists of 
the main tubercle, which is the apex of a V of which the arms are 
slight ridges, which rise at their ends into small tubercles ; of these 
the anterior is situated on the anterior border of the tooth, while 
the posterior is connected bya slight ridge with the postero-external 
angle of the inner cusp. The postero-external cusp shows the 
selenodont character still more plainly : its small anterior accessory 
tubercle partly closes the main transverse valley; the posterior 
accessory tubercle is on the hinder border of the tooth. The internal 
cusps are trihedral in form, so that in wear they also show a tendency 
to a V-shaped surface, the opening of the V of the anterior cusp 
looking backwards and outwards, that of the posterior forwards 
and outwards. There is a slight development of the cingulum on 
the outer side of the tooth, most marked opposite the opening of 
the transverse valley and near the anterior end of the tooth. The 
next molar is similar, except that on the hinder border there is 
a minute additional tubercle lying internal to the posterior accessory 
tubercle of the posterior cusp. In the last molar the structure is 
similar as far as it is preserved, but the talon is almost entirely 
wanting. 

The premolars. The anterior premolar is a compressed tooth 
consisting of small anterior and posterior tubercles and a high main 
cusp. In the next there is a small cingular ridge in front of the 
tooth, and the main cusp is much larger and shows a tendency 
towards division into an outer and an inner tubercle. In wear it 
gives a triangular surface, from the outer angle of which a ridge 
runs down the outer face of the tooth, while from its front angle 
there is a small ridge connecting it with the anterior cusp, and 
similarly posteriorly a small crest unites it with the posterior cusp. 
The next tooth is similar, except that the posterior lobe is larger 
and shows a tendency to give a V-shaped surface in wear. In 
pm. 4 the division of the main cusp is complete; the inner element 
is small and rounded, the outer larger and V-shaped in wear. From 
the anterior point of the V a ridge runs to the small anterior cusp, 
while from the posterior a low ridge unites it with the anterior 
limb of the V-shaped hinder lobe. ‘To the inner side of this last 
there is a trace of an inner cusp corresponding in position to the 
postero-internal cusp of the molar. This remarkable mammal is 
clearly entitled to generic distinction, and it may be called Geniohyus 
mirus in allusion to the remarkable character of the process on its 
mandible. 

The dimensions of the teeth in the type-specimen are :— 


Length. Breadth. 
pm. 1 12 mm. ase 7 mm. 
pm. 2 1D) 609 S) op 
pm. 3 135, shy ORS 
pm. 4 eco a iit sah 1B) 56 a > 
is J BDA one S00 Boe i) 5 Age TL oe 
m. 2 bt are ane Ae ME a5 ee 13 ,, 
m. 3 Shc wal toe san ? ado 15 


DECADE VY.—YOL. I.—NO. IY. il 


162 Rev. J. F. Blake—On Ammonites. 


Geniohyus fajumensis, sp. nov. 


Another specimen, consisting of a portion of the mandible con- 
taining the premolars in a perfect state of preservation, was also 
collected. This may be taken as indicating the existence of a second 
species of Geniohyus, since the teeth, though similar in general form, 
differ considerably in many details. The chief of these differences 
are that the main cusp is already distinctly divided in pm. 2, and 
the hind lobe in all the teeth is much larger and more distinctly 
selenodont. 

The structure of the teeth is as follows :—Pm. 1 is strongly com- 
pressed with a very small anterior cusp and a high main cusp, from 
which three ridges diverge posteriorly, one running down the 
outer face of the tooth, a second back to the anterior arm of the 
V-shaped posterior cusp, the third inwards down the inner face 
of the tooth. The posterior lobe is distinctly selenodont. 

In pm. 2 the anterior cusp is larger, and the ridge running inwards 
from the main cusp bears a small tubercle at its inner end. The 
posterior lobe is larger than in pm. 1. Pm. 3 has a larger anterior 
tubercle, and the cusp on the inner side of the main cusp is now 
nearly as large as that element and is clearly separated from it. The 
posterior V is still larger. Pm. 4 is similar, except that the small 
anterior cusp is doubled, the posterior lobe is still larger, and there 
are traces of a small postero-internal cusp. 

The dimensions of the premolars are :— 


Length. Breadth. 
pm. 1 13 mm. 300 7 mm. 
pm. 2 WS: 935 Eats Sites 
pm. 3 115); 350 LO es 
pm. 4 Gi. as WA 96 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE VI. 


Fic. 1.—Left upper molars and premolars of Arsinoitherium andrewsi, Lankester, 
2.—Lett lower molars and premolars of the same. 
The two specimens figured belong to one individual, which is the type of the 
species. About one-fourth nat. size. ; 
», 93.—Outer face of last upper molar of the left side of Arsinoitherium zitteli, 
Beadnell. 
In Figs. 1, 2, and 3: a.c. anterior column of molar; p.c. posterior 
column of molar; «, anterior inner cusp; y, posterior inner cusp. 
3, 4.—Upper and side views of part of the mandible of Gentohyus mirus, gen. et 
sp. nov. ‘T'ype-specimen. About two-thirds nat. size. 
sym. symphysis of mandible; zx, backwardly directed process on lower 
border of mandible. 


9 


IIT.—Note oN THE SPECIES ‘ AM. PLICATILIS’ AND ‘AM. BIPLEX’ 
oF SoweErsy. 
By Rev. J. F. Buaxg, M.A., F.G.S. 

HE old question of the proper interpretation of these names, 
which was raised by Professors Nikitin and Pavlov, after 
their visit to this country for the Geological Congress in 1888, 
to whom no reply was made, for their conclusions could scarcely 
be denied, has been raised again by Miss Healy in a communication 


GEOL. MAG. 1904. Dees Wo Wolk It, 1B Wl 


outer face 


Fig.2. 


| my 
inner Jace 


== = 

Fic. 4 sym. = 
ae —_—*\) 
eee 


pra SSS) SS 
aie \ 


G. M. Woodward del. 


Mammals of the Eocene of Egypt. 


Rev. J. F. Blake—On Ammonites. 163 


to the Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Feb. 1904. As these conclusions 
do not appear to be well known, it may be as well to quote them. 
Nikitin! says: “Having found in the British Museum the original 
of Am. biplex, Sow. (tab. 293, fig. 1), I assured myself that. that 
original presented absolutely the “Oxfordian form of Perisphinctes 
of ie group of P. plicatilis, by the character of its numerous 
straight rounded ribs, by the mode of earolment, by the constriction 
of its perfectly visible whorls, and lastly by the matrix ; it 
showed no resemblance to the Kimmeridgian and Portlandian 
forms described in France and England under this name Ait ab 
Mr. Loriol had not seen the original of Sowerby . but 
having received from England, under the name of A. biplea, ‘Sow., 

the Portlandian forms, he was justified in giving this name to the 
same form from Boulogne. On studying the English Kimmeridgian 
forms placed in the museums of England under the name of 
A. biplex I found amongst them the typical form of A. Pallasi, D’Orb.” 

Professor Pavlov deals only with the latter species,’ saying, 
“« Perisph. biplex (Pallasianus) is the commonest form of our virgatus- 
beds, and its synonymy with the English form has for a long time 
been recognized”; and again, ‘“‘ Amongst these fossils [enumerated 
by Phillips] Am. biplex can, according to all appearances, be placed 
in synonymy with our Perisph. Pallasi.” 

These, then, by the concurrence of two well-qualified observers, 
may be considered settled points in any revision of our Upper 
Jurassic Ammonites. But it may well be asked how came so many 
English geologists thus to misname their own species. It would 
appear to have been in this way. Geologists of old cared less for 
the names than for the specimens themselves, and when Fitton ® 
submitted his fossils to J. de C. Sowerby, the son of J. Sowerby and 
successor in the Min. Con., and was told that the characteristic 
Ammonite of the Kimmeridge Clay and Lower Portland was called 
Am. biplex, it became so to him, and to all who followed him, without 
inquiring into the name. This name being thus occupied, Phillips 
used for the common Malton fossil the other name,‘ as the only 
one unoccupied, referring to a somewhat similar and not well-~ 
distinguished Ammonite. It thus became ‘ Am. plicatilis,’ and was 
so understood even by Nikitin himself. 

Leaving, however, names alone, which, though useful, may some- 
times mislead us, it is common knowledge that one species figured 
by Loriol, Damon, Phillips (Geol. Oxf., pl. xv), and Woodward, is 
characteristic of the Upper Kimmeridge, while another species, figured © 
by Sowerby in pl. 298, figs. 1, 2, is the characteristic fossil of the 
Coralline Oolite; but as to the species figured by him in pl. 166, 
it has never to my knowledge been found in siti, so that its exact 
horizon is not known. This being the state of affairs, we will see 
how much further we are carried by the observations of Miss Healy. 

1 “Excursions dans les Musées, etc., de |’ Europe occidentale’’: Bull. Soc. Belge 
'Géol., tom. iii. 

2 « Etudes sur les couches J urassiques et Crétacées de la Russie.’ 


3 “Strata between the Chalk and the Oxford Oolite.’’ 
4 “Geology of Yorkshire,’’ p. 102, 


164 Rev. J. F. Blake—On Ammonites. 


With regard to Sowerby’s Am. plicatilis, we seem as much in the 
dark as ever. We cannot be sure that the type has been found. 
The specimen figured by Miss Healy is one which “ bore no label,” 
and it by no means appears to be the original specimen when we 
can “compare it with Sowerby’s original figure’ ;_ though perhaps. 
the presence of “a few crystals of carbonate of lime about it” could 
prove that it 7s the type; nor can we even be certain that it belongs 
to the same species, though this may be probable. If there is one: 
thing on which Sowerby may be depended, it is to give indications 
by which his specimens may be recognized. He seldom, if ever, 
‘restores’ his pictures; but in this case we find a broad band along 
the periphery which he would have to imagine, he has made the 
bifurcations originate often towards the inner half of the whorl, he 
has run them quite across some suture-lines and has omitted all 
suture-lines except those at the end, even omitting to mark two 
deep holes which are left by them, and he has added even a pro- 
jecting keel beneath the siphuncle, though this may be from another 
specimen. Nevertheless, the description is also at variance with 
the figure, but agrees better with the description of A. biplew, as 
shown by placing the latter in italics beneath it. 

Discoid radiated, sides flat, front round, plain in the centre, 

Discoid costated, sides depressed, front is round, 


volutions exposed, radii numerous, equal, straight, 
volutions exposed, costé numerous, small, nearly straight, 
furcate, aperture square with rounded angles. 


split over the front,aperture oblong, narrower near the front, whichis round. 
The radii do not branch till they begin to turn over the front, 
Coste are divided into two branches a little before they pass over the front. 
in the centre of which they are nearly obliterated. 

It is seen that the main difference indicated is in the character 
of the centre of the periphery, but somewhat similar features may 
be seen in some of those corresponding to tab. 293. I think, 
however, they are specially characteristic of shells of the type of 
tab. 166 (though they seem to be referred by Miss Healy to 
wearing only) ; for the ends of the half ribs are obscurely seen in 
the photograph to be swollen on each side of the median line; the 
other differences are mismatched, as :—‘small’ for ‘equal,’ ‘nearly 
straight’ for ‘straight,’ and ‘a little before’ for ‘not till they begin.’ 

We shall never know for certain where Sowerby’s figured 
specimen came from till one like it has been discovered in sitit in 
the same sandy stratum at Dry Sandford or Marcham with the 
several associates recorded, including ‘ Am. excavatus,’ but Phillips says 
nothing about that locality, and speaks only of Headington. Mean- 
while the new figure most resembles two specimens in my collection 
from the summit of the Trigonia-beds of Weymouth (whence, 
in fact, Buckland may have brought his unlabelled specimen), in 
which case it represents the highest zone of the local Corallian. 
Its nearest foreign equivalent, already recognized in the British 
Islands, is Am. Achilles of D’Orbigny (Terr. Jurass., pl. 206), which 


Rev. J. F. Blake—On Ammonites. 165 


shows when young the same peculiarity of the periphery, and 
whose sutures, as drawn in the adult, show the same kind of 
development as one might expect from the smaller examples, 
provided that both figures really belong to one species. With 
regard to Sowerby’s figure on tab. 293, fig. 1, matters are plainer : 
it represents, as already stated, the typical form of the Yorkshire 
fossil known as Am. plicatilis, acknowledged to be so from the 
intended representation of it in pl. iv, fig. 29 of the 3rd edition of 
the ‘Geology of Yorkshire,” revised by R. Htheridge ; it corresponds 
also to Sowerby’s description of A. plicatilis of tab. 166, which, as 
already noted, so far agrees with that of tab. 2938, fig. 1. It was 
for this reason I supposed Sowerby’s specimens had probably been 
interchanged, being guided by Agassiz’s translation of his work, 
but Miss Healy has drawn attention to the character of the matrix, 
which I had entirely overlooked, which puts an end to this idea 
and at the same time opens up new considerations. By no possibility 
could any fossil in such a matrix be found in any bed at Dry 
Sandford, nor in any of the Corallian beds at Headington. ‘The 
fossil in itself is, however, perfectly normal, but it has been 
separated septarially along a calcite-filled crack running principally 
nearly parallel to the median plane. This has raised the upper 
surface and separated the lower, as pointed out tome by Mr. Crick ; 
but the small central portion is quite continuous with the outer 
whorls, on the upper side at least. 

But the problem is, where to find a septarian matrix containing 
a Corallian fossil. Looking over all the fossils referred to Corallian 
or Oxfordian strata in the British Museum, one only was noted with 
asimilar, very similar, matrix. It was the matrix of ‘Am. varicostatus,’' 
and the locality given was ‘‘ Hackleton,” which is in a drift-covered 
district about 5 miles from Northampton towards Bedford or 15 miles 
from Hawnes. My own purchased specimen, locality unknown, 
but horizon stated as “Oxford Clay,” and perfect to the centre, has 
also been preserved in a septarium.? The specimen of Sowerby’s 
pl. 293 has evidently been knocked out of a similar rock, and the 
second fragment has a similar matrix.? On the other hand, we may 
naturally look for such specimens in localities where Corallian rocks 
are represented by clays, and especially where septarian doggers 
are recorded as occurring. Such are found near the summit of the 
Corallian clays at Ampthill (see Woodward, “Jurassic Rocks of 
Britain,” vol. v, p. 106). 

From these considerations we may safely conclude that the fossils 
figured as A. biplex, but usually called A. plicatilis, are the inside 
whorls, very likely broken out of the middle, of larger specimens 
called 4. varicostatus. The latter retain the old age characters, 
though such characters are common to several species. There 


The spelling of Buckland, probably an oversight, as corrected by Phillips. 
Supposed at first to be from Osmington, but this shows that.1t was not so. 

’ After the proof afforded by Mr. Crick of the Cornbrash age of Nautilus truncatus, 
stated by Sowerby to be from the Lias of Keynsham, we cannot place too much 
reliance on the localities given by the latter. i 


1 
2 


166 Dr. Alexander Irving—The Trias of Devonshire. 


is the same association of inner and outer whorls at Headington, 
Malton, Pickering, and elsewhere, at least in different specimens. 
The most perfect representation of this species is the figure given 
by D’Orbigny under the name 4. biplex on tab. 191, 192 of the 
Terr. Jurassique, corresponding in every respect down to the smallest 
size with my own specimen.’ It corresponds also with the sutures 
as drawn by Miss Healy, if these were taken from the opposite 
side of the shell, were drawn in the usual manner with the lobes 
pointing downwards, and shaded dark in contrast with the saddles. 
The suture-line is rather remarkable for the breadth of the dorsal 
saddle, and I doubt it would ever broaden out from such as 
characterize A. plicatilis of Sowerby, though we must allow some 
liberty to the poor Ammonites while growing. 

As to the name that is to be applied to this fossil, I must leave 
that to those who are more interested in the question, for there is 
plenty of choice. If we could be sure that Mautilus colubrinus of 
Reinecke, which came from Staffelstein, had an old age like that of 
ours, its name might be the earliest (1818) ; on the same condition 
A. planulatus of Schlotheim might be the next (1820). Sowerby’s 
name of biplew was the earliest English name (1821), but it included 
only the earlier whorls. -Am. instabilis of Phillips (1829-85) was 
the next, but it was not very fully described and it was unaccompanied 
by a figure.” Buckland in 1836 gave the first complete description 
and figure as 4. varicostatus. D’Orbigny, in 1846 (?), figured it as 
A. biplex, but described it in the text as A. plicatilis; and finally 
Oppel in 1862 divided it and gave the name A. Martelli to the perfect 
form. For myself I think that the use of Buckland’s name, though 
it has not the priority, would cause the least confusion, in which case 
both of Sowerby’s names might become obsolete, as ill-distinguished 
and of doubtful reference. Possibly the object of nomenclature 
may not be, after all, the establishment of the earliest and least 
understood names, but the prevention of confusion as to what you 
are talking about. 


IV.—Furraer Nores on tue Trias oF DEVONSHIRE, WITH SPECIAL 
REFERENCE TO THE DIvistONAL LINE BETWEEN THE BUNTER AND 
THE KEUPER IN THAT REGION. 


(Reply to some Criticisms by Mr. Alexander Somervail.) 


By ALEXANDER Iryine, D.Sc., B.A. 


\ Rk. ALEXANDER SOMERVAIL has been so good as to send 
‘i me lately a paper read by him before Section C of the British 
Association at Southport, September, 1903, and printed in the 
GroLocicaL Magazine, Dec. IV, Vol. X, No. 472, October, 1908. 
The paper contains certain criticisms on the published work of 


1 Tt is marked as triplicate, but obviously it is usually biplicate. 

2 In 1874, in the 38rd edition of the ‘‘ Geology of Yorkshire,’’ this name was 
abandoned tor Buckland’s, reference being made to “ pl. xiv, fig. 10,”’ but the reference 
is obviously to the ‘‘ Geology of Oxford,’’ where it is figured with Buckland’s name 
in the legend. 


Dr. Alexander Irving—The Trias of Devonshire. 167 


Professor Hull, F.R.S., and myself among the Red Rocks of the 
South Devon coast, with especial reference to ‘‘the Base of the 
Keuper in South Devon.” I desire to reply here to Mr. Somervail, 
and in so doing shall have to refer frequently to the three papers 
of my own published in the Quarterly Journal of the Geological 
Society in the years 1888, 1892, 1893, and to the paper by 
Professor Hull in the same Journal in the year 1892. For the sake 
of convenience and brevity I will refer to these papers by certain 
letters, as below.? 

Mr. Somervail states (p. 460) : “There is only one point in which 
I differ from these authors ; it is in relation to the rocks forming the 
base of the Keuper in this area.” He states further that “in the 
last of these papers both authors agree to regard certain breccias 
occurring at the mouth of the river Otter, and again at the mouth 
of the Sid on its eastern side, as the basement beds of the Keuper.” 
This is not quite an accurate statement, seeing that the base of the 
Keuper along the Otter Valley was definitely worked out by me 
after Professor Hull’s paper (H) was published, and the results 
given in paper C a year later. In the discussion which followed the 
reading of paper C at the Geological Society Professor Hull repeated 
his assent to my reading of the district so far as the basement-line 
of the Keuper was concerned; and at the same time gave up his 
previous contention that the great marl series of the district further 
west, and below the Budleigh Salterton Pebble-bed, was the 
representative in the Devon area of the Lower Bunter of the 
Midlands and the Severn country.’ 

Mr. Somervail tells us that I have described the breccias near 
the mouth of the Otter ‘as calcareous or dolomitic breccias or 
conglomerates.” Here there are two slight inaccuracies; for (1) 


1 (A) A. Irving, ‘The Red Rocks of the Devon Coast-Section”: Q.J.G.S., 
vol. xliy (May, 1888). 


(B) ————— “Supplementary Note on the Red Rocks of the Devon Coast- 
Section”: Q.J.G.S., vol. xlvin (Feb. 1892). 
(C) ———— ‘The Base of the Keuper Formation in Devon’’: Q.J.G.S., 


vol. xlix (Feb. 1893). 

(H) E. Hull, F.R.S., ‘A Comparison of the Red Rocks of the South Devon 
Coast with those of the Midland and Western Counties’’?: Q.J.G.S., 
vol. xlviii (Feb. 1892). 

2 In a letter to me afterwards Professor Hull went even further, and declared 
himself inclined to view, in the light of these later facts, all the so-called Lower 
Bunter of the Midlands as more closely related to the Permian than the Trias. For 
my part, I should, in the light of my work in Central Germany in 1883 (see Q.J.G.S. 
for August, 1884), hesitate to go so far as that. It would tend to drag us back into 
the Murchisonian confusion of thought, arising from insufliciency of observation, 
which it was the definite purpose of that paper (and of one supplementary to it in 
the Grou. Mac. of that year) to clear away. My contention was, and 1s, simply 
that the marl series of Devon are the equivalents of the identically similar marls, 
which are interbedded with the Magnesian Limestone beds of the Permian in the 
regions to the east of the Pennine Chain, and conspicuously so im Notts ; and that 
the Lower Bunter of the Midlands is wanting in the basin south of the Mendip Axis, 
even as Professor Hull, in his work on ‘“‘'The Permian and Triassic Rocks of the 
Midland Counties,’ has shown it to be wanting in various successions in the Severn 
country, to which references are given in my papers. See further my paper 
“Twenty Years’ Work at the Younger Red Rocks” (Guon. Mac., August, 1894). 


168 Dr. Alexander Irving—The Trias of Devonshire. 


I have never described (I believe) the breccias as ‘dolomitic,’ and 
(2) I am not aware that I ever spoke of them as ‘ conglomerates’ ; 
on the contrary, I took particular pains in recording my close 
observations of the breccia at the Otter mouth (A, p. 153) to show 
that it could not be called a conglomerate, on account of the extreme 
paucity of rounded included fragments. Further, I had no evidence 
of the presence of magnesium carbonate in the rock, without which 
the term ‘ dolomitic’ would not be justified. 

We come now to the main point. Mr. Somervail goes on to say : 
“This description certainly does not apply to the alleged breccias on 
the left bank of the Sid,” emphasizing by italics this categorical 
denial. This requires severe examination. 

Mr. Somervail’s caricature of my description of the breccias 
(supra) does not apply with scientific precision to either of them at 
the mouth of the Sid or the mouth of the Otter ; but my description 
applies to them at both places, although at the Sid there is just this 
difference, that the breccia is not so massively developed, and is not 
quite so strongly calcareous, owing probably to the fact that the 
carbonate of lime has been partly leached out from the matrix by 
longer exposure. I have, as I write, lying before me six specimens 
of the breccias in question,’ which were labelled at the time when my 
work in Devon was done, and have only lately been again brought 
to light. Four of these are labelled “ Basal Breccia of the Keuper, 
left bank of the Otter,” and on two of these is written the reference 
“Q.J.G.S., vol. xliv, 153” (paper A); the fifth is labelled “ basal 
breccia of the Keuper at Harpford”’; and the sixth is labelled 
‘“‘Calcareous breccia, base of the Keuper, mouth of the Sid.” Of 
these specimens, as judged by the rough test of the same dilute acid, 
the one from Harpford and two of those from the Otter mouth are 
very strongly calcareous (one, indeed, to such an extent that the 
matrix is in places macrocrystalline) ; the specimen from the mouth 
of the Sid effervesces rather less strongly with the acid than those, 
but more strongly certainly than the remaining two specimens from 
the Otter mouth. Again, a comparison of them reveals the fact that 
while the breccia-structure of the specimen from Harpford and of 
two of those from the Otter is more conspicuous than in that from 
the Sid (owing to the larger size of the contained fragments), in the 
remaining two from the Otter that is not the case. I need not 
repeat here what I wrote some fifteen years ago as to my hesitation 
to fix upon the Sid breccia as the base of the Keuper at that spot, 
until confirmed in that view by so experienced an observer as 
Professor Hull, who brought to the subject his trained experience 
of more than twenty years’ work in the Red Rock Series of the 
Midlands and the Severn country. But I may add that, in my 
annotated copy of paper A, I find the following marginal note, 
made at the time of my visit with Hull :—‘ There is a more definite 
breccia (true base of the Keuper) forming the shelf of rock, on 
which the ladder rests at the eastern end of the foot-bridge across 


1 These were exhibited at the meetings of the Geological Society when my papers 
were read. 


Dr. Alexander Irving—The Trias of Devonshire. 169 


‘the Sid. It contains fragments of grit and quartzite, and is 
calcareous.” ? 

So the bed described by Professor Hull (H, fig. 2) as ‘a basement- 
bed of hard calcareous breccia”? may be seen to be no fiction, as 
as implied in Mr. Somervail’s remarks. The hammer told me it 
was hard as compared with these red rocks in general. Recollecting 
that the rocks which furnished the fragments lay probably to the 
westward, we should expect to find the brecciated structure less 
pronounced, and the rock itself more feebly developed, as we work 
eastwards. 

Mr. Somervail makes a remark in his paper (p. 460) as to difference 
of the line of strike of the beds in the Otter and the Sid valleys. 
That is, however, but a glimpse of the obvious, it adds nothing to 
-evidence either way and need not detain us. 

He goes on to say: ‘The Otterton breccias are not again brought 
up . . . . at the fault at the Chit rock.” Of course they 
are not found there on the east side of the fault, but that rock—as 
both Hull and I have recognised, and as sections in and about 
Sidmouth show to an unprejudiced observer—is Bunter, and there- 
fore at a lower horizon in the series. They do not, however, 
“occupy a much lower horizon,” though they are hidden (doubtless) 
underground some distance below sea-level, as my reading of the 
section implies, on the western side of the fault; and they crop out 
in the Otter Valley two miles to the west at about 70 feet O.D. at 
places mentioned in paper C, just as we should expect, when the 
faulting visible in the cliff-section (to which I have drawn attention 
in my three papers) and the slight easterly dip of the Lower Keuper 
‘beds between the Chit Rock fault and the Otter are allowed for. 
Mr. Somervail appears to have overlooked the faulted synclinal 
(A, p. 152) visible in the Keuper strata to the west of the Chit 
Rock fault; but even allowing for that, I do not think I have 
greatly over-estimated the fault-throw at the Chit itself, with its 
mural western face; the estimation being based on a comparison 
of what is seen at the Chit Rock and to the west of it, with what 
is seen in the open daylight succession in the cliffs to the east of 
the Sid; and I venture to say there need be no great difficulty in 
establishing the identity of horizons on both sides of the valley 
in which Sidmouth lies if the observations recorded in my paper A 
(pp. 150, 152) are duly considered. It is extremely unlikely that, 
if we could restore the strata which have been destroyed in the 
erosion of the intervening valley of the Sid, and restore the rocks 
on either side of the fault to their original planes of deposition, we 
should find the 150 feet or so of strata marked by calcareous con- 
eretions (A, p. 150) thinning out in such a series of strata to the 

1 T recollect noticing at the time how the mouth of the Sid was blocked by a dam 
-of shingle, through which the water percolated in reverse directions at high and low 
tide. Is it worth while to ask if, in the course of fifteen years or so, this shingle- 
bank may not have been driven by tidal action further east, and covered up the lower 
portion of the section as Hull and I saw it, with the obliquely bedded Bunter Sand- 


stone below the breccia? That question any resident in the locality can answer 
for himself. 


170 Dr, Alexander Irving—The Trias of Devonshire. 


few feet which Mr. Somervail’s computation requires in a distance 
of less than half a mile, unless we assumed some great unconformity 
and overlap, of which there is no evidence so far as I know. 

Mr. Somervail’s statement (p.461) ‘From Otterton Point eastwards- 
these [the Otterton| breccias are overlain by a series of red sand- 
stones,” etc., is misleading. No such succession exists, since from 
Otterton Point the coast trends nearly due north, and therefore nearly 
along the line of strike of the beds. To truly estimate the thickness. 
of that series—in which I have definitely recognised (paper C) the- 
basement beds of the Keuper, with the Otterton breccia marking 
their downward limit—we must take a section due west from the 
Chit Rock fault to the Otter, a distance of only two miles, instead. 
of that of four or five miles along the line of coast. No one has. 
thought of applying (as he seems to suppose ') ‘the term breccia ” 
to these sandstones, but near their base, in sections described by me 
in the Otter Valley (paper A, p. 153, and paper C, pp. 80, 81), they: 
have the character, not of breccias, but of “brecciated sandstones,” 
the contained fragments being sparsely scattered in the rock, while 
even the basal breccia itself is here and there repeated in them for 
a short distance in the upward succession. I have also noted 
(paper A, p. 149) that on the eastern escarpment of the Sid (above 
the breccia at that place) the same current-bedded sandstones (which 
in paper A were erroneously referred to the Bunter, but in paper C 
were referred to the Keuper basement beds) are “slightly brecciated,” 
and contain subordinate ‘‘ current-bedded breccias in a marly matrix, 
the contained fragments being mostly of indurated red marl.” * 
These fragments may with little doubt be considered as derived 
from the red marls of the Permian; and their presence (if that 
derivation be admitted) tends to emphasize the stratigraphical break, 
as I have maintained in my papers as existing below the great 
pebble-bed, which runs inland from Budleigh Salterton, and con- 
stitutes the terrain of the Aylesbere Hills. 

It is not clear to my mind what Mr. Somervail may mean when 
he says (next paragraph), “The effect of the fault at the Chit rock 
isto bring up . . . . the higher portion of these current-bedded 
sandstones.” If he means that the Chit Rock is a portion of them, 
both Hull and I are at direct issue with him; if he does not mean 
that, it is difficult to see the logical force of the remark. Of course, 
the beds on the east of the Sid are “‘ higher in the series’ than those 
of the Chit Rock, according to the recognised succession of the 
Bunter and Keuper everywhere. At the bottom of p. 461 he seems 
to dogmatise as to the thickness of the sandstones east of the Sid, 
without, so far as I can see, any data as to the limit of their down- 
ward extension. Perhaps it may be useful to append here the 


' Had he weighed the meaning of the footnote to p. 153 of paper A, he might 
have seen that it was intended to suggest an explanation of the ‘‘nobbly and 
concretionary structure’’ of which he makes mention. I observed it as a later 
development on the face of the cliff (?). Those familiar with the splendid natural 
sections of the Himlack Stone (Notts) will see the force of this all the better. 

7 From my notebook. 


Dr. Alexander Irving—The Trias of Devonshire. 171 


following note (transcribed from my notebook) made on the spot in 
September, 1887 :— 

“ Hscarpment of the Sid.—Massive false-bedded sandstones ; inter-. 
calated marly beds, very strongly false-bedded and _brecciated 
(mainly with indurated fragments of red marl). Just east of the 
Sid [in the coast-section] the same (marls more developed with 
pale-green layers); next sandstone of pale-grey colour (though 
reddened on the cliff-face by rain-wash) containing angular frag- 
ments of dark-red marl, the surfaces of these being grey, from the 
leaching out of the irony colouring matter.” 

Here we have a record surely of evidence indicating the gradual 
transition from shallower to deeper water at the time of deposition 
of the beds in question. ‘These more or less brecciated false-bedded 
sandstones I take to be on the same horizon as those near the base 
of High Peak Hill, where in the Lade Rock they visibly underlie 
the more compact and massively bedded sandstones, so characteristic 
of the Lower Keuper, both in the Devon sections and in the Midlands 
(see paper A, pp. 150,' 151), and are in one or two places bored 
through by the surf. The same succession may be observed at 
Badfield’s Point, beyond which, as we follow the coastline (trending 
in a 8.S.W. direction), these irregularly bedded soft sandstones form 


SEcTIoN Across THE River OTTER NEAR OrtTeRtToN Pornt, Devon. 


L.K. Lower Keuper basement-beds, in which pebbles and fragments are sparsely 
scattered. B. Breccia. B.S. Bunter Sandstone. 


the cliff-face all the way to Otterton Point. There we recognise 
below the breccias the reappearance of the Bunter beds, which are 
faulted up at the Chit Rock and described by me (see paper A, p. 153, 
and C, p. 81). Mr. Somervail (p. 462) speaks of these breccias as. 
“only a small portion of still lower beds of the same nature seen 
on the west side of that [the Otter] river, and extending along the 
Promenade” at Budleigh Salterton. In this Iam unable to follow 
him. In my notebook I find the accompanying sectional drawing 
across the Otter, made on the spot, which represents the breccia 
with the overlying brecciated sandstones as exposed on the same 
horizon in the Esplanade section. The beds below these I have 
already relegated to the Bunter of the section further to the west 
(paper A, p. 153). It reminds one of sections in the Nottingham 
district. 

In conclusion, I cannot admit that Mr. Alexander Somervail has 
attained the object of his paper in showing “sufficient evidence 
for the conclusions that the Sidmouth section has been misread by 


1 There is a misprint in line 10, p. 150, where ‘‘more fully developed’’ should 
read ‘‘ more feebly developed.”’ 


172 Arthur Burnet—The Upper Chalk of North Lincolnshire. 


Professor Hull and Dr. Irving.” By the irony of fate he has chosen 
for the reading of his paper the very place (Southport) at which 
a paper by the present writer (after a Summer’s work in Germany) 
carried conviction to the mind of Professor Hull as to the true 
divisional line between the Permian and the Trias in England and 
on the Continent. See Report of the British Association, Southport 
Meeting, 1883. 

Mr. Somervail has been good enough to send me also a copy of 
a paper read at Sidmouth last Summer.' There is much in that 
paper that one appreciates, and not much to criticise beyond what 
one has already dealt with. He seems, however, to speak of the 
‘Waterstones’ as forming the base of the Keuper in the Midlands, 
which scarcely harmonises with the use of that term by previous 
writers, and notably by Professor Hull in his classic memoir on the 
Permian and Trias, to which reference has been made above. It 
does not reveal any intimate acquaintance on the writer’s part 
with the Midland Red Rocks, or even with inland sections of the 
Devon series. 

As to Mr. Somervail’s failure and that of his “friend who was 
visiting Sidmouth” to find the breccia east of the Sid, no more 
remains to be said here, each reader being left to draw his own 
inferences. JI must, however, traverse his statement that ‘the 
succession of beds above it” is not the same in both sections (of 
the Otter and the Sid). A perusal of the remarks in the foregoing 
paper will show why here I am also at issue with him. I admit 
that there is not such a full development of the false-bedded base- 
ment beds of the Keuper in the Sid section as in the Otter sections 
23 miles further west; but that is only a quantitative difference, not 
at all surprising in these red rocks considering the conditions under 
which they were deposited. He speaks of an “alleged fault” at 
the Chit Rock, when the existence of the fault is “as plain as a pike- 
staff’ (or was 15 years ago) to any unprejudiced observer. Of 
course, the sequence east of the Sid is not repeated at the Chit, 
because the beds have been destroyed by the erosion of the valley 
in which Sidmouth lies. 


V.—Tue Uprrer Cuark oF North LINCOLNSHIRE. 
By ArrHur Burner. 


N the Summer of 1902 I commenced an exploration of the chalk- 
pits on the eastern border of the Lincolnshire Wolds, starting 

at Louth and working northward. Mr. W. Hill had previously 
visited this locality, and had proved the existence of the zone of 
Holaster planus at Boswell, three miles north-west of Louth, and 
also at Kirmington, much farther north. Mr. Jukes - Browne 


1 “The Red Rocks of the South Devon Coast,” by Alexander Somervail (Trans- 
actions of Devonshire Association for the Advancement of Science, etc., vol. xxxv, 
pp- 617-630). : 

2 W. Hill, ‘‘ Note on the Upper Chalk of Lincolnshire”: Groz. Mae., Dec. IV, 
Vol. IX (1902), p. 404. 


Arthur Burnet—The Upper Chalk of North Lincolnshire. 178: 


suggested to me that I should try and obtain fossils from the 
intermediate pits, and thus extend the work commenced by Mr. Hill. 
As the resuit of visits to about thirty pits, ranging from near 
Louth to Barrow-on-Humber, I have obtained further evidence of | 
the zone of Holaster planus, and also some indications of the zone 
of Micraster cortestudinarium. 

I was unable to find any other sections showing beds which 
could be regarded as the exact equivalent of those seen at Boswell. 
These latter probably belong to the lowest part of the Holaster 
planus zone, and the paleontological evidence now available seems 
to show that the outcrop of the base of this zone lies further west 
than was originally supposed to be the case. In the quarry at 
Boswell (from which Mr. Hill obtained Holaster planus, Micraster 
Leskei, and Ananchytes scutatus) I found a good specimen of Holasier 
placenta and a Micrasier (species doubtful). 

The quarry at Acthorpe, a mile and a half north-west of Louth, 
is the most southerly point in Lincolnshire from which Upper 
Chalk fossils have been obtained. There I found the following :— 
Inoceramus Cuvier, Rhynchonella limbata, Rhynchonella Cuviert, and 
Terebraiula carnea. Infulaster eccentricus, Echinoconus globulus, and 
Ehynchonella limbata had been previously found here by Mr. Rhodes, 
of the Geological Survey. 

The beds exposed in the quarry three-quarters of a mile west- 
south-west of Fotherby are typical of those seen in most of the 
pits to be afterwards mentioned in this article. The section is as 
follows :—! 


ft. im. 
Broken white chalk... ibe Bey a6 4 0 
Layer of grey fuller’s earth... me 2s 03 
Hard white chalk with flint nodules ... ce 6 0 
Course of continuous flint aes me abe OG 
Hard creamy chalk without flmts —... 590 8 6 
Here I found several fossils, viz. :— 
Serpula, sp. (small spiral). Rhynchonella Cuvieri. 
Hlolaster planus. Ostrea normaniand. 
5 placenta. 5, vesicularts. 
Goniaster (ossicle). 59 SD 
Cyphosoma (spine). Inoceramus Brongniarti ? 
Terebratula carnea. Plicatula sigillina. 
Terebratulina lata. Septifer lineatus. 


Iingena lima. 


A pit near Fotherby Grange, and about three-quarters of a mile 
north of the above, yielded the following :— 


Serpula, sp. (small spiral). Rhynchonella Cuvieri. 
Terebratula carnea. Holaster planus ? 


Terebratulina lata. 


A pit half a mile north-west of Lambcroft shows white chalk 
with flint bands of a peculiar nature, the flint being intermingled 
with lumps of white chalk. I found here Rhynchonella Cuvieri,. 
Kingena lima, and a spine of Cidaris perornata. 


1 “Geology of part of Kast Lincolnshire,’’ p. 69. 


174. Arthur Burnet—The Upper Chalk of North Lincolnshire. 


Similar beds also occur in the upper part of a pit a quarter of 
a mile south-west of North Ormsby. At the base of the pit, below 
the lowest band of imperfect flint, there is a bed of cream-white 
chalk, which yielded Micraster Leskei. Other fossils found in this 
pit were :— 


Holaster, sp. Ostrea vesicularis. 
Magas pumilus. 3 ED! 
Rhynchonella Cuvieri. Inoceramus, sp. 


Terebratulina lata. 


It is not improbable that the upper beds of this pit, together 
with those seen at Lambcroft, belong to the zone of IMicraster 
-cortestudinarium. 

A quarry half a mile east-south-east of North Ormsby yielded 
the following :— 


Terebratula carnea. Rhynchonella Cuvieri. 
Kingena lima. Inoceramus Cuvieri. 
Terebratulina lata. Holaster placenta. 


Another quarry in the same village, to the north of the church, 
showed a similar section to that seen at Fotherby, with the following 
fossils :— 

Terebratula carnea. Ananchytes scutatus. 
Rhynchonella Cuvieri. Inoceramus, sp. 
Serpula, sp. (small spiral). 

The same lithological features were visible in a large quarry about 
half-way between North Ormsby and Wyham, from which I obtained 
Rhynchonella Cuviert, Kingena lima, Holaster planus (or placenta), and 
a spine of Cidaris. I also found spines of Cidaris sceptifera in 
a small pit at Wyham. 

There are two quarries at Cadeby, both of which show a course 
of the imperfect flint previously mentioned. The only fossil that 
I could find was Ostrea vesicularis; the lithological character of 
the beds, and their extremely unfossiliferous nature, suggest the 
possibility that they belong to the zone of Micraster cortestudinarium. 

Further west, in a quarry at Wold Newton, I found Magas pumilus, 
Rhynchonella Cuviert, Holaster planus, and Inoceramus, sp. 

Few fossils could be found in the pits at Hawerby, Ravendale, 
and Hatcliffe. At Hawerby I found Terebratula carnea, Ostrea 
wesicularis, and Inoceramus, sp. From East Ravendale I obtained 
a broken echinoderm, which is possibly Ananchytes scutatus. 

The quarry near Beelsby Church yielded Terebratula carnea, 
Rhynchonella Cuvieri, and a species of Inoceramus. 

The quarry half a mile south-west of Irby Church shows a section 
of hard chalk with tabular flints, and scattered flint nodules. Here 
I found :— 


Holaster planus (or placenta). Spondylus latus. 
Terebratulina lata. Inoceramus Cuvieri. 
Rhynchonella Cuvieri. 


Continuous bands of dark flint are also seen in a pit to the 
south-east of Riby. The fossils found here were Holaster planus 


Arthur Burnet—The Upper Chalk of North Lincolnshire. 175 


(or placenta) and Rhynchonella Cuviert. Judging from the easterly 
position of this quarry, and also that at Irby, it seems possible that 
they are in the zone of Micraster cortestudinarium. 

The quarry a quarter of a mile west of Great Limber Church 
is of interest, as it yielded some rather striking specimens, viz. :— 
Tnfulaster eccentricus, Parasmilia centralis, Rhynchonella octoplicata, 
and Rhynchonella Cuviert. The Infulaster is a fine well-marked 
‘specimen, and is the second which has been found in Lincolnshire, 
confirming the occurrence of the species at this low horizon. 

In another pit about half a mile east-south-east of the same 
village I found Spondylus latus, Terebratula carnea, and Ananchytes 
scutatus. 

From the quarry at Limber Parva I obtained Holaster planus (or 
placenta) and Serpula, sp. The section here is very much overgrown, 
and a better exposure of the same beds is to be found in the quarry 
half a mile south-east of Kirmington, where Mr. Hill obtained 
Holaster planus. IJ also found here a specimen of that echinoderm, 
together with Inoceramus Cuvieri, Kingena lima, and Rhynchonella 
Cuwieri. 

In a quarry three-quarters of a mile south of Ulceby I found 
Magas pumilus, Terebratula carnea, Rhynchonella Cuvieri (or reedensis), 
and Ostrea vesicularis. 

The quarry a mile west of Ulceby shows soft white chalk with 
flint nodules and several layers of imperfect flint similar to those 
seen at Lambcroft and Cadeby. The fossils obtainable here have 
consequently a special interest, and those I found were :— 


Micraster cortestudinarium. Terebratulina lata ? 
Holaster planus (or placenta). Rhynchonella Cuvierr. 
Ostrea vesicularis. : Terebratula carnea. 


Rhynchonella reedensis. 


It is probable that this pit and the tract of chalk which lies between 
Ulceby and Barrow is in the zone of Micraster cortestudinarium. 

Similar beds with tabular flints are seen at Wootton, and also in 
a large quarry three-quarters of a mile west of Thornton, but the 
only fossils found were:—Inoceramus Cuvieri, Rhynchonella Cuvieri, 
Rhynchonella reedensis? and Terebratulina, sp. 

From a large quarry south of Barrow I obtained a number of 
fossils as follows :— 


Terebratulina lata. Rhynchonella reedensis. 
Terebratula, sp. Holaster placenta. 

Magas, sp. Echinocorys (Ananchytes) scutatus. 
Kingena lima. Inoceramus, sp. 


Ehynchonella Cuvieri. 


Although the exact correlation of these beds with the chalk zones 
in other parts of England is necessarily a matter of some difficulty, 
Mr. Jukes- Browne considers that the paleontological evidence which 
I have obtained establishes the existence of the zones of Holaster 
planus and Micraster cortestudinarium in North Lincolnshire. The © 
extreme rarity of fossils, and the fact that we have to deal with 

isolated exposures separated from each other by a distance of a mile 


176 Reviews—Cretaceous Rocks of Britain. 


or two, renders it an extremely difficult task to fix the dividing 
lines between the two zones and between the Middle and Upper 
Chalk. Further research in this district will no doubt throw 
additional light upon this subject and help to solve some of the still 
doubtful problems respecting the Lincolnshire Chalk. 

All the fossils referred to in this article have been examined and 
named by Mr. Jukes-Browne, to whom I am in many ways greatly 
indebted for advice and assistance. 


CLASSIFIED LIST OF FOSSILS. 


LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. 


Inoceramus Cuvieri, Sby. Plicatula sigillina, Woodw. 
nS Brongniarti, Sby. Septifer lineatus, Goldt. 

a (an unnamed species). Ostrea vesicularis, Lam. 

ee sp. :, normaniana, Orb. 
Spondylus latus, Sby. So. ESD: 

BRACHIOPODA. 
Rhynchonella Cuvieri, V Orb. Kingena lima, Detr. 

5a limbata, Schloth. Terebratula carnea, Sby. 

55 veedensis, Eth. Terebratulina lata, Eth. 

;. octoplicata, Sby. Magas pumilus, Sby. 

EcurNnopERMATA. 
Micraster Leskei, Desm. Holaster planus, Mant. 

fy cortestudinariun, Goldt. An placenta, Ag. 

a sp. Ananchytes scutatus, Leske. 
Cyphosoma, sp. Cidaris sceptifera, Mant. 
Goniaster, sp. »  perornata, Forbes. 
Infilaster excentricus, Forbes. a sp. 

ANNELIDA. 


Serpula, sp. (small spiral). 


ACTINOZOA. 
Parasmilia centralis, Mant. 


d= Gey W/E BE WAY SE 


I.—Memoirs OF THE GEOLOGICAL SuRVEY OF THE UNITED 
Kinepom. 


Tur Cretacrous Rocks or Britain. Vol. I]: Toe Lowsr anp 
Mippie Cuark or Eneianp. By A. J. Jukus-Brownu, with 
contributions by Wrii1am Hiri. 8vo; pp. xiil, 568, map, 
8 plates, illustrated. (London, 1908. Price 10s.) 


MWVHE first volume of this series of memoirs on the Cretaceous 
Rocks was reviewed at considerable length in the GroLoGicaL 
Magazine for February, 1901. In that review some idea of the 
lan of the work was given, and it will now only be necessary to 
sketch the contents of the present volume, which brings the subject- 
matter up to the zone of Terebratulina gracilis in the White Chalk. 
The volume opens with a general account of the Chalk as a whole 
and a history of its subdivision into parts ; an account of considerable 


Reviews—Cretaceous Rocks of Britain. 177 


historical interest and valuable as defining the position taken by 
the authors in dealing with their subject. 

Defining next the ‘ Lower’ Chalk, the authors point out that this 
is divided into two zones, that of Ammonites varians and that of 
Hotaster subglobosus. They also include in the latter the Actinocamax 
plenus marls, which “do not constitute a zone, and have no distinct 
zonal fauna,” and they follow with a description and lists of the fossils 
which are characteristic of the beds. ; 

Chapter iii deals with the ‘ Lower’ Chalk of the Kentish coast, 
the classical section of which is to be found between Folkestone and 
Dover, and was the subject of the especial study of Mr. Hilton Price, 
who divided the two zones up into nine beds. Some slight modi- 
fications of Mr. Price’s work is suggested; beds 3 and 4 are 
united, but the rest seem to have stood the test of recent research. 
Leaving the coast, a general description of these beds in the inland 
parts of Kent and Surrey is given, and Hampshire and Sussex are 
similarly treated, attention being called to the section between 
Beachy Head and Hastbourne, the beds in which are, however, too 
much disturbed to allow of a definite section being given. 

Chapter vii introduces us to the Isle of Wight, and includes 
several important observations both as to the sections and the fossils, 
made since the second edition by Strahan and Reid of the memoir 
on that island, which was published in 1889. It is pointed out 
that the use of the words ‘‘Chloritic Marl” is continued because 
it is convenient and has been so long in use, but at the same time 
the green grains are not chlorite and the matrix is not a marl. 

Chapters viii-xix deal in similar manner with the counties of 
Dorset, Somerset, Devon, Wilts, Berks, Oxford, Bucks, Beds, Herts, 
Cambridge, Suffolk, Norfolk, Lincolnshire, and Yorkshire ; and 
Chapters xx and xxi provide a useful sketch of the beds of similar 
age in the north-east and north-west of France. 

The Middle Chalk (the lowest beds of the White Chalk) is 
defined as consisting of the zones of Rhynchonella Cuviert and of 
Terebratulina. This latter zone has long been known as the zone 
of Terebratulina gracilis, but Dr. Kitchin is quoted as pointing out 
that the true gracilis is confined to the higher beds of the White 
Chalk, and that the form so common in the Terebr atulina zone seems 
to be that called T. gracilis, var. lata, of Etheridge. The ‘ Middle’ 
Chalk is then described in similar detail to the ‘ Lower’ Chalk, the 
authors proceeding county by county and tabulating a vast amount 
of valuable material in the several chapters. We see here for the 
first time the influence of the careful zoological work done in recent 
years by Dr. Rowe, of Margate, whose collecting has more definitely 
prcned the boundaries of the several zones of the White Chalk. 
The ‘ Middle’ Chalk portion of the memoir closes with a chapter 
on the French equivalents, allowing a comparison to be made at 
once useful and convenient. 

Chapters xxii, xxiii and xlii, xliii are written by Mr. Hill, and 
treat of the microscopical structure of the rocks described in the 
memoir. Mr. Hill describes the macroscopic aspect of the rocks and 

DECADE V.—VOL. I.—NO. IV. 12 


178 Reviews—Zittel’s Palwontology. 


the microscopic aspect of thin sections, giving photomicrographs 
on pls. iv—vili. He describes the examination of the residues after 
washing, lists the minerals found, and tabulates the results. He 
gives a summary of the chemical analyses, and lists the Foraminifera, 
the species of which were determined by Mr. Chapman. The 
amount of valuable information thus brought together enables the 
authors to discuss the ‘“‘ Kvidence of current action at the base 
of the Chalk,” “ Limits of the Chalk Sea,” “Sedimentation,” and 
the ‘Depth of Water” beneath which the several zones were 
accumulated. This last consideration is naturally a difficult problem, 
and no definite statement is possible. But the general considerations 
drawn from recent sources and the internal evidence available for 
observation ‘make it probable that the Chalk marl of the south- 
eastern and south-central counties was formed at a depth approaching, 
but probably rather less than 400 fathoms.” Quoting Dr. Hume’s 
conclusions, the authors continue—“it would seem that in passing 
upwards from the Chalk marl to the beds of nearly white chalk 
which underlie the Belemnite Marls, we are tracing the effects of 
a subsidence which carried the area through the bathymetrical limit 
of 400 fathoms, and that the zone of Holaster subglobosus was formed 
in water which finally approximated to a depth of 500 fathoms.” 
Passing on to the lower beds of the White Chalk, the authors admit 
that the difficulties are greater. ‘‘No inference as to depth can 
be drawn from consideration of the mineral particles,” beyond that 
“it [the ‘ Middle’ Chalk] was formed in clear water of some depth 
at a considerable distance from land and in a region where there 
were no volcanoes.” The evidence of the animal life seems to be 
conflicting, according to our present-day knowledge, and “it is very 
probable that during part of the Middle Chalk time the depth 
exceeded 500 fathoms; but . . . . there seems to have been 
a recovery by upheaval during the formation of the Chalk rock 
(zone of Holaster planus), consequently the time of greatest depth 
was probably that when the lower part of the Terebratulina zone 
was being accumulated.” 


I].—Grunpztcr per PaLsonronoain (PaLAozootoatn), von Karn 
A. von Zirren, Professor an der Universitit zu Miinchen. 
Abtheilung I: Invertebrata. Zweite verbesserte und vermehrte 
Auflage. Mit 1405 in den Text gedruckten Abbildungen. 
Miinchen und Berlin, Oldenbourg, 1903. 

TrexrBook or PaLwonronogy (PaLmozootoagy). By K. A. von 
ZirreL, Professor at the University of Munich. Part I: In- 
vertebrata. Second edition, revised and enlarged, with i405 
figures printed in the text. 8vo; pp. vili,558. (Price 16s. 6d.) 
HAT a second edition of a work so valuable to all students of 

Palzontology as the “ Grundztige” of the late Professor von 

Zittel should be called for, after the lapse of nine years since 

the issue of the original, is not a matter of surprise. It is greatly 

to be lamented that the author should have been snatched away by 
his fatal malady whilst the revision was in progress, so that he was 


Reviews—Zittel’s Paleontology. 179 


only able to complete the first part, relating to the Invertebrate 
fossil fauna, and see it through the press. On account of the 
increased amount of subject-matter this new edition is to be brought 
out in two volumes, the first of which is now before us; it is 
furnished with an index so as to be complete in itself. 

It is well known that about four years ago an English translation 
of the “Grundziige” appeared under the title of ‘Textbook of 
Paleontology.” It was edited by Dr. C. R. Eastman, of Harvard 
University, a former student of von Zittel, assisted by several 
collaborators, who were, with two exceptions, American authorities 
of special eminence in their respective subjects. By these authors 
most of the fossil groups in the “‘Grundztige” were revised to such 
an extent that the system of classification in the new T'extbook could 
mot rightly be claimed as the same as that in the “ Grundziige.” 
And that it-was so regarded by American paleontologists is shown 
in a published review of it, by one of their number, from which the 
following is an extract :— 

“ Paleontological science is certainly beholden to Wachsmuth, 
Sladen, Ulrich, Schuchert, Dall, and others for their labours of love 
in trying to make this an authoritative and trustworthy textbook. 
How well they have succeeded remains to be determined after the 
book has been used in the laboratory. The improvement is so 
marked over the German edition, the ‘translation’ contains so little 
from the original, and the ‘ revision’ is so complete, that the question 
naturally arises whether Dr. Wastman could not just as well have 
gone a little further in his work and made it a textbook by 
American authors, which would have held the same place among 
English-speaking people as the original Handbuch does among 
Europeans.” ? 

That Professor von Zittel did not agree with the extensive and 
important alterations introduced in the translation (so-called) of his 
““Grundziige” is shown in his preface (in German) to the Textbook, 
in which he points out some of the difficulties and discrepancies 
resulting from the collaboration of a number of specialists whose 
views on systematic classification agreed neither with his own nor 
with each other. As a specially unfortunate instance he quotes the 
fact that in the Textbook the Cheetetidee and Fistuliporide are in one 
part treated as belonging to Corals and in another referred to the 
Bryozoa! In this new edition, moreover, von Zittel rejects most of 
the alterations made in the Textbook, and holds fast to the classi- 
fication of the first edition of the “‘ Grundziige,” which is more in 
accord with the views of German paleontologists than with those 
of America. 

Without pretending to any detailed criticism, a few remarks may 
be made on the contents of this volume. And, first, it is noticeable 
that no addition or alteration appears to have been made in the 
description and distribution of Foraminifera, Radiolaria, and Porifera, 
which remain the same as in 1895, though we should have looked 
for some reference to the fresh discoveries of Radiolaria in the 


1 Journal of Geology, Chicago, vol. iv, 1896, p. 738. 


180 Reviews—R. Kidston—Fossil Plants. 


Paleeozvic rocks of this country and other regions in the interval ; 
and no mention is made of the occurrence of fossil representatives of 
the Lithonine Calcisponges. 

In the chapter on the Corals a valuable addition has been made 
by the very clear description of the microscopic structure of their 
skeleton, accompanied by excellent figures, which has been con- 
tributed by Mrs. Dr. Ogilvie Gordon. Von Zittel still retains the 
Tetracoralla or Rugosa as a distinct order of the Madreporaria 
sclerodermata, on the ground of its possessing a combination of 
characters, including that of the feather-like arrangement of the septa, 
which never occur in the Hexacoralla. The classification of the 
Hexacoralla follows the system of Dr. Ogilvie Gordon, and the 
Aporosa and Perforata are not continued as independent groups. 

The families of the Favositidee, Cheetetide, and Monticuliporidae 
are placed, with some others, near the Alcyonaria, but their 
systematic position is considered doubtful. The Monticuliporide 
and its allies are treated very briefly, in strong contrast to the 
elaborate description of the group by Ulrich in the Textbook, where 
they are referred by him to the Bryozoa, and the evidence strongly 
supports this view of their position. 

The recent work of Bather and of Jaekel on the Cystoidea has 
necessitated a rearrangement of this division, which is now placed 
in the orders of Thecoidee, Jaekel, Carpoide, Jaekel, and Hydro- 
phoridze, Zittel. 

The classification of the Brachiopoda in the first edition of the 
“ Grundziige”’ was based on that of Thomas Davidson, and it is 
continued substantially the same in the present one, though, of 
course, due mention is made of the systems of Beecher and of 
Schuchert, which depend mainly on the embryological features 
of these organisms. 

Also with respect to the Cephalopoda, in the description of which 
the author was assisted by his friend Dr. Pompeckj, the classification 
of 1895 is retained with some needful modifications, and that of the 
late Professor Hyatt in the Textbook is passed over, the author 
remarking that it might be considered as an original treatise, much 
of which related to facts which had not previously been published. 

In conclusion, we venture to think that apart from its own merits 
this volume will be highly valued by paleontologists as the final 
work of a great master of the science, who spared no efforts in his 
devotion to it, and died, as he had lived, in its service. 


IlJ.—Tuae Fosstn Prantrs or tHe Carsontrerous Rocks oF 
CANONBIE, DUMFRIESSHIRE, AND OF Parts oF CUMBERLAND AND: 
NortuumBerLand. By R. Kipsron. Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, 
vol. xl, pt. 4 (No. 31), pp. 741-883, with 5 plates. 


N the February number of the Grotocicat MaGazine (p. 82), a 
notice appeared of a memoir by Messrs. Peach and Horne on 

the geological structure of the Canonbie Coalfield of the Scottish 
borderland. The present paper by Mr. Kidston forms an important 


Reviews—Dr. G. F. Matthew—Batrachian Footprints. 181 


contribution to the fossil flora of the same district. The succession 
ot Carboniferous rocks, both Upper and Lower, is here very 
perfect, ranging from the Calciferous Sandstone to the Upper Coal- » 
measures. ‘The presence of true Upper Coal-measures in this 
coalfield, with its characteristic flora, is especially remarkable. 
This horizon has previously only been found in Britain in the three 
Southern coalfields of South Wales, Somerset, and the Forest 
of Dean. 

Mr. Kidston’s paper also contains the most important contribution 
to the Lower Carboniferous flora of Britain which has so far been 
published. A large number of species are described from the 
Calciferous Sandstone series, or its geological equivalents, of 
Dumfries, Cumberland, and Northumberland. Figures of several 
of these plants are given, in addition to new species of Sigillaria, 
Stigmaria, Pinakodendron, and Palaostachya, and a new genus 
Hskdalia from various horizons. 


JV.—Awn Arrempt ro Ciassiry Patmozoic BaTRACHIAN FooTPRINTS. 
By Dr. G. F. Marranw. ‘Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, ser. 1, vol. ix, 
sec. iv, p. 109. 


New Genera or Barracutan Foorrrints OF THE CARBONIFEROUS 
System rn Hasrern Canapa. By G. F. Martrauw, LL.D. 
Canada Ree. Sci., vol. ix, No. 2, p. 99, 1908. 


fV\HESE two articles are complementary. The first is a survey 

of the described Carboniferous and Devonian footprints of 
America, with an attempt to classify them under generic heads. 
It was found that diverse genera had been described under one 
generic name, and that closely related tracks had been described 
under different yeneric names by various authors. A table is given 
to exemplify this; in the table the genera are divided into related 
groups, based on the number of toe-marks and the general aspect 
of the footprint. The principal authors who have described these 
tracks are King, Leidy, Lea, Butt, Marsh, and Dawson. The chief 
places where these footprints have been found are the coalfields of 
Hastern Pennsylvania, of Kansas, and of Nova Scotia. Some of the 
types are common to several of these regions. 

In his second article Dr. Matthew gives figures and descriptions 
of a number of new genera of Batrachian footprints from the Lower 
Carboniferous and the Coal-measures of Nova Scotia. The smaller 
forms are from the Joggins Coalfield, a larger one from the coalfield 
of Sydney, Cape Breton, and another large one from the Lower 
Carboniferous of Parrsboro’, N.S. ‘The figures show great diversity 
of type, and justify the reference to different genera. 

The material described is mostly in the Redpath Museum of 
McGill University, Montreal, and is a part of the large collections 
made by the late Sir J. W. Dawson. ‘Three plates of figures 
accompany the first article and one the second. 


182 Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London. 


ee Ome TS: AAD 2 2OGi wD LEG Sa 


GEOLOGICAL Society or Lonpon. 


I.—February 19th, 1904.—Sir Archibald Geikie, Se.D., D.C.L.,. 
Sec. R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair. 


AnnuauL GerneraL Meetina. 


The Chairman read the following letter which had been addressed 
to him by the President :— 

February 9th, 1904. 

“< Dear Sir Archibald, 

“Please kindly convey to the Council, the Officers, and the Fellows of the 
Geological Society my sincere regrets that I am not yet well enough to attend 
the Anniversary Meeting, and personally thank them for the honour they paid 
me in making me their President, and for their unfailing goodness to me during 
my tenure of office. 

*¢T shall also be grateful if you will congratulate on my behalf the new President 
and the recipients of Medals and Awards; and assure the Fellows of my constant 
sympathy with, and faith in, the continued progress of the Society, and of my hope 
to be soon once more amongst them as a fellow-worker. 

“Thanking Mr. Teall and yourself for your great kindness in taking over my 
Presidential work for me during my illness, and so relieving me of all responsibility, 

“*T remain, dear Sir Archibald, 
Sincerely yours, 
‘< Sir Archibald Geikie, D.C.L., Sec.R.8.”’ Charles Lapworth. 

A telegram expressing the Society’s sympathy with Professor 
Lapworth and good wishes for his prompt convalescence was, with 
the approval of all the Fellows present, despatched to him. 


The Reports of the Council and of the Library and Museum 
Committee for the year 19038, proofs of which had been previously 
distributed to the Fellows, were then read. 

The reports having been received and adopted, the Chairman 
handed the Wollaston Medal, awarded to Professor Albert Heim, 
of Ziirich, to Mr. J. J. H. Teall, M.A., F.R.S., for transmission to- 
the recipient, addressing him as follows :—Mr. Teall,— 


The Council of the Geological Society of London have awarded to Professor Heim 
the highest honour which they have to bestow, the Wollaston Medal, in recognition 
of the value of his researches concerning the mineral structure of the Earth, and 
more especially of his contributions towards the elucidation of the structure of 
mountain-masses, as illustrated in the chain of the Alps. In his great monograph, 
the ‘‘ Mechanismus der Gebirgsbildung,”’ he traced with remarkable skill the imtluence 
of plication in the terrestrial crust, following this influence step by step from the 
distortion and fracture of organic remains in hand-specimens up to the most gigantic 
foldings which have comprised a vast mountain-chain in their embrace. His 
researches, however, have not been confined to the internal structure of the Alps. 
He has devoted himself with not less enthusiasm and success to the study of their 
glaciers and their landslips. Gifted with no ordinary artistic power, he has been able 
to enrich geological science with a valuable series of landscape drawings and sections, 
in which the intimate relations of geology and topography are admirably delineated. 
His latest achievement in this department is a large model of the massif of the 
Hohe Santis, which was exhibited at the recent meeting of the International 
Geological Congress in Vienna. It was admitted by the assembled geologists to 
be probably the most accurate and beautiful model of a mountain-group that had 
ever been constructed. We may judge of the labour and enthusiasm spent on it 
from the fact that, besides climbing to every crest of that rugged tract, Prof. Heim 
made many ascents in a balloon, so as to obtain detailed and comprehensive bird’s-eye 
views of the whole region which he wished to depict. In asking you to be so good 
as to transmit to him this Medal, I would request you to convey with it an expression 


Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London. 188 


of our warmest wishes for a long continuance of the mental and bodily activity which 
he has so unsparingly devoted to the interests of our science. 


Mr. Teall, in reply, read the following translation of a letter 
which had been forwarded by the recipient :— : 


“*T much regret that my duties here make it impossible for me to be present 
at your annual meeting, and that I am therefore unable in person to express my 
thanks for the honour which you are conferring upon me. 

“¢ Tt may perhaps interest you to know the circumstances which led me to turn my 
attention to geology. When, at the age of nine years, I visited the Alps for the 
first time, in company with my father, the mountains appealed to my youthful 
imagination, and I then conceived the idea of representing them not only on paper 
but also in relief. I accordingly attempted to model them in clay, working at first 
directly from nature, and afterwards by the aid of the topographic maps which 
were then appearing. I soon found that one can only represent correctly that which 
one understands, and I was thus led to study the internal structure as well as the 
external form of the mountains. 

** At the age of sixteen years I had prepared a model of the Tédi group on a scale 
of 1: 25,000. Arnold Escher yon der Linth heard of this model, and came to see it 
at my own home. This was the first time that I saw that illustrious man. He 
invited me to accompany him on a geological excursion, and from that time onward 
I looked up to him as my revered master. Thus the pleasure which I derived from 
my early visits to the mountains and my desire to represent them in relief led me 
naturally to the study of geology. 

“(In receiving this high honour at your hands, I remember with heartfelt 
gratitude the instruction and encouragement that I have derived from a study of the 
literature and geology, and especially from personal intercourse with the fellow- 
workers, of the great nations which lie beyond my own small fatherland. Among 
these I reckon the British Empire as especially deserving of my gratitude. More 
than 35 years ago I derived inspiration as a student from a study of the works 
of Sir Charles Lyell, and since that time have continued to hold intercourse with 
British geologists—many of them Fellows of your Society—and to study their 
writings and collections. 

“T am conscious that my work is very imperfect, and that in it error is mixed 
with truth. My life is unfortunately so overburdened with official and private 
duties that I have but little time for original research; yet I am filled with an 
earnest desire to do more, for I recognise that in such research is to be found the 
greatest happiness that human life can afford. 

“Tt seems to me that the work which I have accomplished does not entitle me to 
this honour. I prefer rather to regard it as the recognition of a sincere effort to 
extend our knowledge, and I can assure you that, so far as in me lies, the remainder 
of my life shall be devoted to this object. You have given me a fresh stimulus— 
a new encouragement. I thank you from the bottom of my heart.” 


The Chairman then presented the Murchison Medal to Professor 
George Alexander Lebour, M.A., M.Sc., addressing him in the 
following words :—Professor Lebour,— 

The Council have this year awarded to you the Murchison; Medal, in recognition of 
the importance of your contributions to our knowledge of the Carboniferous and other 
rocks of the North of England. For thirty years you have been engaged in these 
researches, which have resulted in more accurate determinations of the stratigraphy 
ot the Carboniferous System of Northumberland, and more satisfactory correlations 
of the various divisions of that system throughout the northern counties. In 
conjunction with Mr, Topley you brought forward convincing evidence that the 
famous Whin Sill is an intrusive sheet, and not, as some observers had supposed, an 
intercalated lava. Your papers on the salt-measures and on the Marl Slate and 
Yellow Sands of your district have likewise added to our knowledge of these 
formations. This original work, however, has for many years been carried on in 
the intervals of a lite primarily devoted to the teachig of geology, and we wish 
to mark our sense of the value of your educational labours as a Professor in the 
University of Durham. As one who in former days served under Murchison, you 
will doubtless value this medal as another link connecting you with that great 


184 Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London. 


master of our science. I may perhaps be permitted to add an expression of my own 
gratification that, looking back on my early association with you as a colleague 
in the Geological Survey, it has fallen to me to hand you to-day this mark of 
appreciation from the Council of the Geological Society. 


Professor Lebour replied as follows :—Sir Archibald Geikie,— 


My feelings on this occasion are divided between regret at the absence of my 
old friend Professor Lapworth and_ gratification at receiving the Medal which 
commemorates my first chief, Sir Roderick Murchison, from the hand of one 
who was his favourite colleague, his successor, and his biographer. An award 
such as this is of the ereatest value to a teacher: it confirms his pupils in the 
trust which they place in 1 him, and at the same time gives him confidence im carrying 
on his own work. In my ease, I will not be so presumptuous as to question the 
propriety of the Council’s decision, however it may have surprised me. I am 
especially pleased that in the too kind words that you have uttered, the name 
of my dear friend and colleague of long ago, William Topley, has once more been 
coupled with mine. I am sure that no one would have rejoiced more than he at my 
good fortune this day. I beg most heartily to thank the Council for the honour 
which they have done me. 


In handing the Lyell Medal, awarded to Professor Alfred Gabriel 
Nathorst, of Stockholm, to Baron C. de Bildt, Envoy Extraordinary 
and Minister Plenipotentiary of H.M. the King of Sweden and 
Norway, for transmission to the recipient, the Chairman addressed 
him as follows :—Baron de Bildt,— 


Your Excellency has been good enough to come here to-day to receive for your 
countryman, Professor Nathorst, ot Stockholm, the Lyell Medal, which has been 
awarded to him this year by the Geological Society in recognition of his long and 
distinguished labours to advance our knowledge of the vegetation which at successive 
periods i in the history of the earth has flourished in Northern Europe and the Arctic 
regions. These labours range from the oldest to the youngest ages of geological 
time. Among the most ancient rocks various curious m markings, which had “generally 
been regarded as traces of marine plants, were shown many years ago by Protessor 
Nathorst, after an ingenious series of experiments, to be probably not of vegetable 
origin. But while he thus cut off what had been supposed to be an early marine 
flora, he has greatly extended our acquaintance with the terrestrial floras of 
Paleozoic time in the Arctic regions. His papers on the extension of the vegetation 
of the Upper Old Red Sandstone as far north as Bear Island, continuing the earlier 
work of Heer, are of special interest. He has thrown much light on the flora 
of the Triassic deposits that extend into the south of Sweden. From the far 
northern King Charles Land he has made known the existence of a Jurassic 
and a Cretaceous flora. His researches among Pleistocene and recent deposits, 
and the history which he has thence deduced of plant-migration and changes of 
climate in Europe, are singularly interesting and suggestive. Though it is as 
a student of fossil plants that Professor Nathorst is most widely known, it was 
his keen eyes that detected for the first time casts of medusze in the Lower Cambrian 
rocks of Scandinavia. In transmitting to him our Lyell Medal, your Excellency will, 
I hope, accompany it with an expression of our best wishes for his health and 
the long continuance of his scientific energy. 


Baron de Bildt, in reply, read the following letter which he had 
received from Professor Nathorst :— 


“* Allow me to express my heartiest thanks to the Council for the great and quite 
unexpected honour which they have conferred upon me by the award of the Lyell 
Medal. I regard this mark of approval of my geological and paleontological labours 
as a most gratifying distinction, and it encourages me to hope that, as the end of 
my lite approaches, I may have the satisfaction of feeling that I have not lived 
altogether in vain. 

““My gratification at receiving this honour is increased by the fact that it is 
associated with the name of Sir Charles Lyell. I vividly remember the enthusiasm 
with which, as a mere youth, I read the Swedish edition of his admirable and 
fascinating ‘ Principles of Geology’; and it is only right to add that it was this 


Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London. 188 


aork which first excited my love for geology ; a branch of science which the 
Geological Society of London has vigorously promoted for almost a century. 

‘« During my first visit to England in 1872, at the age of 21, I was fortunate 
enough to be introduced to the great English geologist ; and I still cherish a vivid 
remembrance of his kind and noble personality, and of his keen interest in my then 
recent discovery of the remains of Salix polaris and other Arctic plants in the Glacial 
deposits of the Nortolk coast. The meeting with Sir Charles forms one of the most 
highly prized reminiscences of my youth. 

‘Let me also express my great satisfaction at receiving this Medal through so 
illustrious a geologist as Sir Archibald Geikie, whose writings have served as 
a source of information to the majority of geologists throughout the world.”’ 


The Chairman then handed the Balance of the Proceeds of the 
Wollaston Donation Fund, awarded to Miss Ethel Mary Reader 
Wood, M.Sc., to Dr. J. E. Marr, F.R.S., for transmission to the 
recipient, and addressed him in the following words :—Dr. Marr,— 


The Council have awarded to Miss Wood the Balance of the Proceeds of the 
Wollaston Donation Fund as an acknowledgment of the value of her contributions 
to our knowledge of the Graptolites and of the rocks in which these organisms occur. 
Her papers furnish an excellent example of the application of zonal stratigraphy 
to groups of rocks which were thought to be already known with tolerable complete- 
ness. Much still remains to be done in this department of investigation. We had 
looked forward with pleasure to seeing her among us here to-day, but she has 
been unavoidably prevented from coming to London. In sending the award to 
her, you will be so good as to express to her our hope that she will regard it as 
-a token of the interest which we take in her work, and as an encouragement to her to 
continue to devote herself to the cause of science with the same skill and enthusiasm 
which have hitherto so eminently distinguished her career. 


In presenting the Balance of the Proceeds of the Murchison 
Geological Fund to Dr. Arthur Hutchinson, M.A., F.C.8., the 
Chairman addressed him as follows :—Dr. Hutchinson,— 


The Balance of the Proceeds of the Murchison Geological Fund has this year been 
awarded to you, in acknowledgment otf the ability which the Council recognise in 
your published memoirs on mineralogical subjects, and to encourage you in further 
work. We especially desire to recognise the skill and industry displayed by you in 
two important memoirs. Your paper on the Diathermancy of Antimonite introduced 
and successtully applied a new method of crystallographic investigation, wherein an 
opaque mineral is examined between crossed nicols, by means of transmitted heat-rays, 
-corresponding to the usual optical examination of transparent minerals. Your memoir 
on Stokesite records the discovery of a new mineral, of which you found only a single 
erystal wpon a specimen of Cornish axinite. Your analysis proved it to be a compound 
-of most unusual type—a silicate containing tin. 


The Chairman then presented a moiety of the Balance of the 
Proceeds of the Lyell Geological Fund to Professor Sidney Hugh 
Reynolds, M.A., addressing him in the following words :—Professor 
Reynolds,— 


This award is made to you in special recognition of the value of your contributions 
to our knowledge of the Palwozoic rocks of Ireland and of the geology of the Bristol 
district, and to encourage you in further work. During the past eight years the 
Society has received from you a series of important papers which have appeared 
in its Quarterly Journal. In association with Mr. Lake you presented some 
interesting facts in regard to the Zngula-Flags ot the Dolgelly district. In 
conjunction with Mr. Gardiner you have carried out a series of researches among 
the Silurian rocks of the South-East and of the West of Ireland, and have thrown 
tresh light on their associated volcanic rocks. Together with Professor Lloyd 
Morgan, you have worked out the geology of the ‘lortworth district, and have 
cleared up the interesting history of its volcanic eruptions; while you have more 
recently studied the Carboniferous volcanic rocks of the neighbourhood of Weston- 
super-Mare. In addition to all these geological undertakings, you are still further 


186 Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London. 


widening the range of your studies by continuing the Palontographical Society’s 
memoir on the Pleistocene Mammalia. We cordially hope that many long years. 
of active scientific work are in store for you, and that you will continue to enrich our 
Quarterly Journal with the results of your researches. 


In handing the other moiety of the Balance of the Proceeds of the 
Lyell Geological Fund, awarded to Dr. Charles Alfred Matley, to 
Professor W. W. Watts, M.A., M.Sc., Sec. G.S., for transmission to 
the recipient, the Chairman addressed him as follows :—Professor 
Watts,— 


The other moiety of the Lyell fund has by the Council been assigned to 
Dr. Matley, as an acknowledgment of the value of his work in elucidating the geology 
of Anglesey, and to encourage him in further work. The complicated structure of 
that part of North Wales has lone been recognised, but the nature and extent of 
the complication have only been realised in recent years, since more enlarged and 
accurate views of geological tectonics have been reached. It would be rash to 
assert that all the difficulties have been cleared away, but Dr. Matley has made 
a notable forward step in removing them. Besides his work in Anglesey, he 
has devoted time and thought to the Cambrian formations of Pembrokeshire, 
and to the Keuper Marls and Sandstones of Warwickshire. We wish him many 
years of health and continued geological industry. 

The Chairman then handed the Proceeds of the Barlow-Jameson 
Fund, awarded to Mr. Hugh John Llewellyn Beadnell, to Major 
C. E. Beadnell, late R.A., for transmission to the recipient, addressing 
him in the following words :—Major Beadnell,— 

The Barlow - Jameson fund is awarded to your son, Mr. Hugh John Llewellyn 
Beadnell, in recognition of the value of his memoirs on the topography of the Oases 
and other districts of the Libyan Desert, and for his important collections of 
vertebrate fossils made in Egypt during the last three years. The enthusiasm 
with which he has prosecuted his researches in the Geological Survey of Egypt 
led some time ago to an attack of fever which nearly proved fatal. We hope 
that he will be able henceforth to ward off all such attacks, and to continue the 
career which he has so successfully begun. In transmitting to him this award of 
the Council, you will not fail to convey to him an expression of our interest in 
his researches, and of our hope that he will be encouraged to continue to pursue them. 


The Chairman then proceeded to read the Anniversary Address 
that he had prepared, giving first of all obituary notices of several 
Fellows deceased since the last annual meeting, including Mr. W. T. 
Aveline (elected a Fellow in 1848), Mr. R. Etheridge (el. 1854), 
Sir Charles Nicholson (el. 1841), Mr. W. Vicary (el. 1864), Dr. W. 
Francis (el. 1859), the Rev. H. Maxwell Close (el. 1874), and 
Dr. H. Exton (el. 1883); also of Professor J. P. Lesley (el. For. 
Memb. 1887), Geheimrath K. A. von Zittel (el. For. Memb. 1889), 
Professor A. F. Renard (el. For. Memb. 1884), and Herr Felix 
Karrer (el. For. Corresp. 1890). 

He then dealt with the bearing of the evidence furnished by the 
British Isles as to the problem whether in the so-called secular 
elevation and subsidence of land it is the land or the sea which 
moves. The first section dealt with the proofs of emergence of land, 
as displayed in raised beaches or strand-lines. Objection was taken 
to the explanation given by Professor Suess of the strand-lines of 
the Norwegian fjords, which, the author maintained, do not mark 
the levels of ancient ice-dammed lakes, but former margins of the 
sea. A comparison was made of these strand-lines with the raised 


Reports and Proceedings— Geological Society of London. 187 


beaches of Britain, and it was contended that the Seter or rock- 
shelves of Norway, which were claimed as the results of weathering 
caused by diurnal variations of temperature, could be paralleled in 
the rock-shelves of undoubtedly marine origin round both sides of 
Scotland. The second section of the address was devoted to the 
proofs of submergence furnished by fjords and sunk forests. It was. 
shown that in the South of England and Wales a remarkable 
oscillation had taken place, the raised beaches being first brought 
much higher than their present level above the sea, and standing at 
that higher level when the lowest sunk forests existed as land- 
surfaces; while, by a subsequent submergence, these forests were 
placed under low-water mark and the raised beaches were brought 
into their present relations to the sea-level. The third section 
briefly pointed out the inferences to which the facts seemed most. 
naturally to point. It was argued that the variations in the develop- 
ment and height of the raised beaches could not be satisfactorily 
explained by any conceivable variation in the level of the sea; while, 
on the other hand, the proofs of submergence in the south of our 
island in Neolithic time and of emergence in the north, were only 
intelligible on the supposition of unequal movement of the land. 
The conclusion thus reached was in favour of the generally accepted 
view that changes of level, such as those of Pleistocene and Post- 
Pleistocene time, in the British area, have been primarily due, not to: 
any oscillation of the surface of the ocean, but directly to movements 
of the terrestrial crust. 

The ballot for the Council and Officers was taken, and the following were declared 
duly elected for the ensuing year :—Cowneil: The Right Hon. Lord Avebury, P.C., 
D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.8.; F. A. Bather, M.A., D.Sc.; W. T. Blanford, 
C.1.E., LU.D., F.R.S.; Professor T. G. Bonney, Sc.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A.; 
Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.; Professor E. J. Garwood, 
M.A.; Sir Archibald Geikie, Sc.D., D.C.L., LL.D., Sec.R.S. ; Professor T. T. 
Groom, M.A., D.Sc.: Alfred Harker, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.; R. S. Herries, Esq., 
M.A.; Professor J. W. Judd, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S.; Percy F. Kendall, Esq. ; 
Philip Lake, Esq., M.A.; Professor Charles Lapworth, LL.D., F.R.S.; Bedford 
McNeill, Esq., Assoc. R.S.M.; J. E. Marr, Sc.D., F.R.S.; Professor H. A. 
Miers, M.A., F.R.S.; H. W. Monckton, Esq., F.L.S.; E. T. Newton, Esq., 
F.R.S.; G. T. Prior, Esq., M.A.; Professor W. W. Watts, M.A., M.Sc.; the 
Rey. H. H. Winwood, M.A.; and H. B. Woodward, Esq., F.R.S. 

Officers :—President: J. E. Marr, Sc.D., F.R.S.  Vice- Presidents : Professor 
T. G. Bonney, Se.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A.; Sir Archibald Geikie, Se.D..,. 
D.C.L., LL.D., Sec.R.S.; E. T. Newton, Esq., F.R.S.; and H. B. Woodward, 
Ksq., F.R.S. Secretaries: R. S. Herries, Esq., M.A.; and Professor W. W. 
Watts, M.A., M.Sc. Foreign Secretary: Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., 
LL.D., F.R.S., F.U.8. Treasurer: W.T. Blanford, C.1.E., LL.D., F.R.S. 


IJ.—February 24th, 1904.—J. E. Marr, Sc.D., F.R.S., President, in 
the Chair. 


The President read the following resolution of the Council, which 
had been forwarded to Mrs. McMahon :— 


«That the Council desire to place on record their regret at the death of General 
C. A. McMahon, F.R.S., who for so many years was one of their colleagues, 
and took so active an interest in the affairs of the Society; and the Council 
further wish to express their sincere sympathy with Mrs. McMahon and the 
family in their bereayement.’’ 


188 Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London. 


The President also announced that Professor T. G. Bonney, Sc.D., 
F.R.S., and Mr. H. W. Monckton, F.L.S., would represent the 
Society at General McMahon’s funeral on the following day. 

The President stated that Professor Lapworth had written, 
thanking the Fellows for their kind expression of sympathy with 
him in his illness, and for the telegram despatched to him in 
the course of the annual general meeting. 


The following communications were read :— 


1. “ Kocene and Later Formations surrounding the Dardanelles.” 
By Lieut.-Col. Thomas English, late R.E., F.G.S. 


Our present knowledge of the older rocks, upon which the 
Tertiary beds surrounding the Dardanelles rest, only suffices to 
indicate the positions of the outcrops of a succession of schists, 
crystalline limestones, granites, and serpentines, which can be 
traced from the Aigean district into the Marmora, where they 
formed an archipelago in the Hocene sea. 

The Eocene deposits surrounding these old rocks commence with 
sandstones, conglomerates, and clays, which become calcareous and 
nummulitic upward, and are about 2,000 feet thick in the aggregate. 
They are succeeded by 3,000 feet of lacustrine sandstones, clays, 
and schists, interstratified with volcanic rocks, and containing coal- 
seams. These beds have yielded Anthracotherium, plant-remains, 
and Corbicula semistriata at the coal-horizon, which is near the 
middle of the series. ‘They are widely spread in Southern Thrace, 
and are cut off to the eastward by the falling-in of the Marmora 
sea-bed. The author has traced them along the Gallipoli Peninsula 
to Imbros Island—Lemnos and Samothrake are partly composed 
of similar beds; and he considers that all these deposits represent 
the uppermost Eocene and the Oligocene, and that the coal-seams 
belong to the latter. 

The folding of the Lower Tertiary strata is plainly marked, and 
prolongs the direction of the Greek ‘flysch’-deposits into the 
Marmora, forming basins in which the Miocene beds accumulated. 

There are three main folds, all passing east-north- eastward 
through the Hocene channel between the old rocks of Thrace and 
those of the Troad. 

The central fold developed farther eastward in post-Sarmatic 
times, rising into a ridge at Dohan Aslan, which dammed the outlet 
for the Marmora water to the west, and was the proximate cause of 
the formation of the Bosphorus in the Pontic Period, and of the 
Dardanelles at the end of the Pliocene. Volcanic eruptions were 
prolonged from Cretaceous to Miocene times in Thrace, Imbros, 
Lemnos, and Mitylene. Strati Island is entirely volcanic, and the 
greater part of Imbros also. 

Marine Miocene (Helvetian to Tortonian) deposits appear north 
of the Gulf of Xeros and in the Marmora, and are probably vestiges 
of a Lower Miocene sea connection between the Ponto-Caspian and 
the Mediterranean. 

Sarmatic deposits, first fresh-water, then marine, result from the 


Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London. 189 


development of a lake, with a narrow opening north-eastward to the 
Pontie area, which occupied a large portion of the district. The 
fresh-water beds are still nearly horizontal in the Dardanelles, but 
are much dislocated along the northern shore of the Sea of Marmora, 
where they contain naphtha and lignite. The overlying marine 
(Mactra) limestones fringe the fresh-water beds as a shore-belt for 
30 miles along this coast, and extend through the Dardanelles to 
the Southern Troad. 

Brackish and fresh-water Pontic strata occur in numerous detached 
lake-basins which drained north-eastward. The Bosphorus was 
probably cut by river action through the rim of the lowest of 
these basins, on the recession of the Sarmatic Sea, and the Algean 
drainage then passed into the large, closed, brackish lake described 
by Andrussov as occupying the Black Sea area from the Pontic 
to the beginning of the Diluvial Period. 

The water-line of this sea lake finally receded to nearly 200 feet 
below its present shore-line, when the Sea of Marmora stood about 
80 feet higher. Then the water began to rise again during the 
Pliocene, the Sea of Marmora regained its former westerly extension 
to Gallipoli, and deposited the bed of Caspian shells on which that 
town is built. 

The lacustrine beach at Hora, 130 feet above sea-level, com- 
memorates the last high-water mark of the Ponto-Caspian closed 
basin. The Algean land bad meanwhile settled down, forming 
a large depressed area, probably bounded to the south by the 
chain of the Northern Cyclades, and the Sarmatic beds dipped 
westward, reversing the drainage of the country south-west from 
Gallipoli. When the watershed of a river occupying the Dardanelles 
Valley was worn down to the level of the Marmora, in early 
Pleistocene times, the channel was rapidly widened and deepened 
to its present section by the outflow of Pontic water. The 
Mediterranean also passed the barrier of the Cyclades during the 
Pleistocene Period, and when equilibrium was restored, the water 
in the Sea of Marmora stood somewhere near its present level. 
There have been various oscillations since, of which the positive 
changes of level are indicated by Pleistocene Mediterranean deposits 
at Samothrake up to 650 feet, and a raised beach at Hora at 400 feet, 
also by numerous shell banks and terraces up to 100 feet above the 
present sea-level. There is, moreover, abundant evidence of a rise 
to 1000 feet during or after the Glacial Period, by which a red 
stony clay, formed at the expense of the surface-soil of a land area, 
has been widely spread. 

The paper is accompanied by three appendices, one on the rock- 
specimens, by Dr. J. S. Flett; one on the collection of Tertiary and 
Post-Tertiary fossils, by Mr. R. Bullen Newton; and a third, by’ 
Mr. R. Holland, on species of Nummulites. 

2. “The Derby Earthquakes of March 24th and May 3rd, 1903.” 
By Dr. Charles Davison, F.G.S. 

The undoubted earthquakes of this series were four in number. 
The first and strongest occurred on March 24th, 1903, at 1.30 p.m., 


190 Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London. 


and was felt over an area of about 12,000 square miles, its centre 
coinciding with the village of Kniveton, near Ashbourne. The 
shock consisted of two distinct parts, separated: by an interval of 
about three seconds, which coalesced, however, within a narrow 
rectilinear band running centrally across the disturbed area at right 
angles to the longer axes of the isoseismal lines. The isacoustic 
lines (or lines of equal sound-audibility) are very elongated curves, 
distorted along the rectilinear band. The earthquake, it is con- 
cluded, was caused by simultaneous slips within two detached foci 
situated along a fault-service running from north 33° east to south 
33° west, hading to the north-west, and passing close to the village 
of Hognaston. The strongest after-shock occurred on May 3rd, its 
focus lying along the same fault, for the most part between the two 
foci of the principal earthquake, but much nearer the surface. 

Observations of the principal earthquake were made in many of 
‘the mines near the epicentral district. The sound, in such cases, 
was a much more prominent feature than the shock; it appeared 
to travel through the overlying strata, and in one pit in which 
observations were made in four seams at different depths, it was 
more distinctly audible in the lower than in the shallower seams. 

The principal earthquake was registered by an Omori horizontal 
pendulum at Birmingham, by a Milne seismograph at Bidston (near 
Birkenhead), and by a Weichert pendulum at Gottingen (502 miles 
from the epicentre). The larger waves travelled with a velocity of 
“2-9 kilometres per second. 


T1J.—March 9th, 1904.—J. E. Marr, Se.D., F.R.S., President, in the 
Chair. The following communications were read :— 


1. “On the probable Occurrence of an Focene Outlier off the 
‘Cornish Coast.” By Clement Reid, Esq., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S." 

An extensive deposit of subangular Chalk flints occurs near 
Marazion, opposite a deep and wide valley which connects St. Ives 
Bay and Mount’s Bay. This valley, though containing at St. Erth 
‘Lower Pliocene beds, is shown to be of much earlier date, and is 
probably an Kocene river- valley. Eocene rivers seem to have 
radiated from Dartmoor westward as well as eastward. The flint- 
and-chert gravel corresponds closely with the Eocene gravel of 
Haldon, and is apparently derived from a deposit under the sea off 
St. Michael’s Mount. Continuing the direction of the Eocene valley 
seaward, the isolated mass of phonolite of the Wolf Rock is met 
with. The evidence suggests that, underlying the western part 
of the English Channel, an Hocene basin may occur comparable in 
importance with that of Hampshire. 


2. “The Valley of the Teign.” By Alfred John Jukes-Browne, 
Bsq., B.A., F.G.S. 


The Teign Valley is one of the most remarkable in the British 
Tslands, because it is not a transverse valley preserving a general 
direction in spite of opposing ridges, nor is it a longitudinal valley 


1 Communicated by permission of the Director of H.M. Geological Survey. 


Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London. 191 


running parallel to a dominant ridge, nor is it a simple combination 
-of one with the other, as often happens; but it apparently consists 
of parts of two transverse valleys linked by a longitudinal one. 

The Teign runs off Dartmoor through a gorge which takes an 
easterly direction, as if it were going to join the Exe; it is then 
deflected southward into what, with respect to the Permian 
escarpment, is a longitudinal valley; this ends in a low-lying 
plain, and from this plain it escapes eastward to the sea through 
a transverse valley, which has been cut across the ridge of Permian 
and Cretaceous rocks. 

Several attempts have been made to explain the anomalies of the 
course taken by the Teign; but none of them is satisfactory, because 
the writers have not sufficiently considered the probable conditions 
of the surface on which the river-valleys were originated, or the 
extent to which the older rocks around Dartmoor may have been 
covered by Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits. 

The author considers these points, and concludes that in Oligocene 
time a thick mantle of soft Neozoic strata must have stretched across 
Devon and the adjacent parts of the English Channel; that this 
mantle consisted mainly of Selbornian Sands and of the later Hocene 
deposits, the latter overlapping the former and passing on to the 
surface of the Paleozoic rocks; further, that these Eocene deposits 
covered all the central parts of Devon, and were banked up against 
the northern, eastern, and southern sides of Dartmoor. He assumes, 
moreover, that the post-Hocene elevation of the region gave this 
surface a general easterly slope; and consequently that, although 
streams ran off Dartmoor in all directions, those which drained 
eastward had the longer courses and passed from the moorland 
area on to a plain, the drainage of which was directed eastward to 
the shore of the Oligocene sea. 

The general direction of the Upper Teign where it flows over the 
granitic area is east-north-easterly ; the direction of its gorge as far 
as Clifford Bridge is nearly due east, and if the conditions were as 
above described, the precursor of this river is not likely to have 
followed the course of the present river beyond Clifford Bridge. 
There is not likely to have been any ridge or obstacle that would 
have deflected it so far to the southward, nor anything to prevent it 
from continuing its easterly course towards, and probably across, 
the valley of the Exe. 

The valley of the Lower Teign below Dunsford is not likely 
to have existed in Oligocene time, but was part of the eastward 
sloping plain; the local drainage, however, may have been carried 
by a little brook flowing southward or south-eastward to join the 
river which was then initiating the valley of the Teign estuary. 
The erosion of the present longitudinal valley out of the Paleozoic 
rocks must have been accomplished in much later times, and was 
probably due to the development of the Permian escarpment. 

The valley through which the Teign now flows from Newton to 
Teignmouth traverses this escarpment; and its excavation can only 
be attributed to a stream that flowed eastward from higher ground 


192 Obituary—General McMahon—Prof. C. E. Beecher. 


than the summit of Little Haldon. Such a stream is the Lemon or 
Leman, which rises on the east side of Dartmoor at a level of 
about 1200 feet above the sea. The ancester of this stream must 
have carved its channel out of the ancient plain of Eocene deposits ; 
and it.is suggested that the valley of the Teign estuary is a portion 
of this ancient valley, which has survived all subsequent changes, 
except that of being cut down to modern base-levels. 

The change which led to the diversion of the Upper Teign into 
this more southern valley is attributed to the later earth-movements, 
which gave a southerly tilt to the whole region, and a still greater 
local tilt owing to the formation of the Bovey syncline. This tilt 
would increase the velocity and erosive power of the stream which 
was then carving out the valley west of the Haldon Hills, and 
as it gradually cut down to a lower base-level, the little affluents 
which formed its head-waters would cut back northward into the 
watershed which separated them from the eastward course of the 
Upper Teign. It is supposed that the portion of the Teign Valley 
which lies between Dunsford and Clifford Bridge was formed 
by one of these affluents, and that it was deepened till the 
separating ridge at its head was reduced to a col or pass leading 
from the one valley into the other. A flood or the damming-up 
of the river by a landslip might send down the waters of the Upper 
Teign, and once this was accomplished the capture and diversion 
of the Upper Teign would be permanent. 

The theory of the capture of one river by another has been 
accepted as an explanation of similar difficulties in the case of 
other rivers, and its application to the course of the Teign furnishes 
an intelligible explanation of the facts. The author thinks that 
some other river-courses and geographical features in Devon can 
be explained on the same theory of an easterly incline modified by 
a subsequent southerly tilt. 


@iS EOP ASE Ae 


We regret to record the death of Lieut.-General CuHaruns. 
Auexanprr McManoy, F.R.S., F.G.8., who died at his residence, 
20, Nevern Square, South Kensington, $.W., Sunday, 21st February, 
1904, in his 74th year. He was a member of Council of the 
Geological Society of London, and was the author of numerous. 
papers on geology. We hope to publish a notice of General 
McMahon’s geological work in our next number. 

We have also to notice with sorrow the death of a valued friend and 
fellow-worker in America, Professor Cuartes Emerson Brrcuer, 
Ph.D., Professor of Paleontology and Curator of the Geological 
Collections in Yale University, who died from heart-failure on 
Sunday, 14th February, in his 52nd year. He was one of the 
Editors of the American Geologist and the author of numerous 
papers on palewontology. We trust to be able suitably to record 
his lifework in our next issue. 


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“THE GEOLOGIST.” 


EDITED BY 


HENRY WOODWARD, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., &e. 


ASSISTED BY 


WILFRID H. HUDLESTON, F-.R.S., &c., Dr. GEORGE J. HINDE, F.B.S., &c., AND 
HORACE B. WOODWARD, F.R.S., &c. 


MAY, 1904 


Y SM M0 NN 
ah! 


ra 


| f/f & 
eo N TENTS. 


I. Orreinat ARTICLES. PAGE | Norices \0F Memorrs.—continued.. PAGE 
1. On Samples of Rock from . - 6. A. J. Jukes-Browne, The 
Borings in Trinidad. By R. J. Geology 0f-Chard-..-c20.0 0. ....... 217 
LecumMere Guppy. (With 7. 8.8. Buckman, TheCottes- | 
Folding Plate VII.) ............ 193 woldeballsyaccnscuestne ene tao sca 218 
2. Graptolite Zones in the Arenig 8. Dr. F. A. Bather, Museum 
Rocks of Wales. By GERTRUDE Wabel ser ee see oi Miev ace sccdsacees 218 
L. Exixs, Newnham College. g | 
(With 3 Illustrations.) ....... ©. 199 ae ae eer Rare Betas | 
3. Further Notes on the Mammals of : a ae ota Gaal sper 
dhe Worguec Deine (Come) (Royal Society, IDOLS) paeseceace 219 


ae EES De 911 2. Dr. A. W. Rowe on the Zones of 
. . See eee eee eee eee eee ete eee ee eeeee = the White Chalk of Yorkshire. ee 928 
II. Notices or Memorrs. V.R p | 
1. Paleontology in the National eeu een nl 


Museum, Melbourne ............ 215 1. Geological Society of London— 
9. Various Short Notices :— March 23rd, 1904 © <.0oeteeesenos 234 
1. J. F. Newsom on “‘ Clastic 2. Mineralogical Society— 
Dhiicesy eS oc ase car 216 March 22nd, 1904 ............... 236 
9. Dr. F. H. Hatch, Boulder VY. CorrEspoNDENCE. 
Beds, Ventersdorp ............... 217 e 
3. Ab W. Rogers, The Goantz fe G. W. Lamplugh, F.G.S8. 237 
River System, set cs 217 | VI. Ozrrvary. 
4. Devonshire Geological Papers 217 1. Lieut.-Gen. Charles Alexander 
5. A. J. Jukes- Browne, Lower McMahon, F.R.S., F.G.S. ... 237 
Chalk, Devonshire ............... 217 2. Charles Ricketts, M.D., F.G.S. 240 


LONDON: DULAU & CO., 37, SOHO SQUARE. 


«= The Volume for 1903 of the GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE is ready, 
price 20s. nett. Cloth Cases for Binding may be had, price 1s. 6d. nett. 


ROBT. F. DAMON, Weymouth,England, — 


Begs to call the attention of Directors of Museum and Professors of 
Biology and Geology in Universities to his fine series of 


COLOURED CASTS 


RARE & INTERESTING FOSSILS > 


Which now number 229. 


This interesting and attractive series will form a most valuable 
addition to any Museum of Zoology or Comparative Anatomy, and 
cannot fail to prove of the greatest interest alike to men of Science 
and to all Students of Natural History as well as to the general body 
of educated visitors to a public collection. 


A town about to establish a Museum would find that these specimens, when 
properly mounted and displayed in glass cases, with instructive labels to each, would - 
form a substantial basis for a Public Museum at a very small cost. <A full list. will 
be sent on application. 


An Interesting Set of Human Remains, £11 8s. 6d. 


Also Set of Models and Casts illustrating the descent of the 
Horse, £25. 


1,600 species of BRITISH FOSSILS. £100. 

Fine Slab of Trigonia claveliata from the Coral Rag, and Slabs of 
characteristic Fossils from the Inferior Oolite. 

Old Red Sandstone Fishes, Silurian Crinoids, etc., etc. 

Various Reptilian Remains and Ammonites from the Lias of Lyme Regis. 

Slab of Extracrinus briareus showing several heads. 

A collection of British Crustacea, in handsome mahogany cabinet, drawers 
glazed. Size of cabinet, 4ft. 8in. by 2ft. 3 in. 

Various 21s. sets of Recent Mollusca. 

A collection of Recent Mollusca, contained in several cabinets (nearly 300 
drawers), for disposal. 

250 species of Foreign Fishes in spirits. £20. 

50 species of Foreign Amphibia and Reptilia in spirits. £1 10s. 

100 species of Foreign Crustacea in spirits. £2 10s. 

Over 200 drawers of Minerals, including two collections containing over 4,000 
sp¢cimens and one wiih a very large number, to be sold separately or in 
one lot. 

Post-Tertiary Fossils from Barbadoes. 

Tertiary Fossils from Croatia, Dalmatia, and Slavonia, ete., etc., ete. 

Tertiary Mcllusca from Muddy Creek, Victoria, Australia. 

Vertebrate Remains from the Pliocene Tertiary, Siwalik Hills, India. 

Rudistes, Hippurites, Requienia, ete.: Cretaceous (Senonien), Dordogne. 

A Grand Collection of Fishes, beautifully preserved, from the Cretaceous Beds 
of the Lebanon, Syria. (Described by Mr. J. Davis and others.) 

St. Cassian Fossils (123 Species). 

Plants from the Trias of Austria. 

Bothriolepis, Eusthenopteron, Phaneropleuron, etc., from the Devonian of 


Canada. 
Crinoids from the Carboniferous of Russia and America. 
pe nn Devonian of France. 


Various Russian Fossi.s. (Collection £8 8s.) 
200 Specimens of Rocks from Puy-de-Dome. 
100 7 of Rocks and Minerals fur Schools, etc. 


THE 


GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE. 


NEW SERIES. DECADE V. VOL. I. 


No. V.— MAY, 1904. 


ORIGINAL ARTICLIES. 


——— id 


J].—On somE SAMPLES or Rock rrom Borines AT SANGREGRANDE, 
Trrnipap.—Part I. 


By R. J. LecHMERE Guppy. 
(FOLDING PLATE YII.) 


HAVE been favoured by P. N. H. Jones, Esq., engineer of the 
Waterworks, with specimens from a boring at Sangregrande 
undertaken by the Government of Trinidad with a view to ascertain. 
the extent and position of the Tertiary coal-seams of that district and 
other facts. The specimens consist of a dark-coloured (blackish) 
sand-rock, finely (but slightly irregularly) laminated, the lamination 
being at an angle of about 50° from the horizontal. The samples 
came from 150, 250, 400, 500, and 600 feet deep below the surface. 
I examined each one separately, but as the differences between them, 
whether as regards mineral constitution or organic contents, are only 
slight, and in fact two portions from the same depth show often as 
much difference as samples from different depths, I shall describe the 
whole together. These specimens are from boring No. 3, Plate VII. 
The rock is of a blackish or dark-grey colour, and is principally 
composed of very fine sand with particles of mica. When washed 
and passed through fine muslin only about jo part remains. 
Calcareous matter is under 10 per cent. in quantity, and exists 
almost entirely as shells of Foraminifera and Mollusca. Crustacea 
and echinoderm remains also occur, and there are numerous Polyzoa, 
a few Ostracoda, and scales, teeth, and ear-bones of fishes. I could 
not detect coccoliths or calcaroma, but the nature of the material is 
unfavourable for their detection. The material of this rock is not 
of any economic value, but it is interesting as throwing light upon 
geological questions and upon the conditions which prevailed at the 
time of its deposition. The neighbourhood of land is indicated by 
the quantity of clastic material, but the fineness of the grains and 
the tenuity of the lamine of deposition show that it was at some 
distance off. Data exist for an approximate estimate of the position 
of such land, and the elementary facts are indicated in my papers in 
DECADE V.—VOL. I.—NO, V. 13 


194 R. J. L. Guppy—Rock-borings, Trinidad. 


the Proceedings of the Victoria Institute, Trinidad, 1902, and the 
Journal of the Geological Society of London, 1892. 

With one exception the rock appears to be of the same quality 
and consistence throughout. At 500 feet occurs a harder bed 
composed of similar: material to the other beds, but indurated and 
not liable, as the other beds are, to disintegration by water. This 
harder bed contains only traces of calcareous matter, and much fewer 
organic remains than the others. 

I have no particulars of the material found at intermediate depths, 
but presuming that it is uniform or nearly uniform throughout it 
would appear that we have here a thickness of more than 500 feet 
in depth of very fine sedimentary material, probably deposited in 
a sea somewhere about 20 to 50 fathoms deep. It might even have 
been more, but to ascertain this other circumstances not at present 
known would have to be taken into account. The deposition of so 
extensive a stratum of such material implies a long period of time 
during which the conditions of the area on which deposition was 
taking place remained generally the same. 

The molluscan and other organic remains exist entire within the 
matrix, but being for the most part in the state of powder they 
cannot be extracted. The Foraminifera and a very few Mollusca and 
Ostracoda alone are of a sufficiently compact consistency to stand 
extraction by washing, which is the only mode of operation practicable, 
as any attempt by more forcible means results in the complete 
disintegration of the fossils. 

Doubtless also here, as in the Naparima and Pointapier beds, 
many Foraminifera appear as fragments only, such as Rhabdammina, 
Haliphysema, Dendrophya, ete. But leaving apart such organisms 
as these, there will be, if occasion serves in the future, an enormous 
extension of this list of fossils. 


MOLLUSCA. 
Balantium. Plenrotoma. 
Bulla. Nucula. 
Dolium. 4 
Fusus. Pecten. 


The only specimens extracted were a Pecten and a Nucula (single 
valves). One valve of a Pecten is ornamented with radiating 
elongate-elliptical blotches of purplish-brown colour, showing how 
persistent the original colouring must have been to have been 
preserved in such decolorizing material as that of which these beds 
are composed. 


POLYZOA. 


The only generically identifiable one is Cupularia, but others 
seem to be Membranipora, etc. 


OSTRACODA. 


Bairdia woodwardiana, Brady ; Cytherella polita, Brady. There 
is also a prawn-like crustacean over an inch long. 


R. J. L. Guppy—Rock- borings, Trinidad. 195 


FORAMINIFERA.* 


I deal in greater detail with the fossils of this group, as they 
present determinable specimens belonging to known forms. 


Cravunina (Haprosricue) Sorpanr, Parker & Jones. 
(Pk, IOS, les ile) 


This species is numerous at all depths, but especially at 150 and 250 
feet. It does not occur in the Naparima (oceanic) beds, but I have 
examples from the Ditrupa-bed of Pointapier, which I originally 
identified as Olavulina cylindrica. The length of the longest example 
from the Sangregrande boring is 3mm., its breadth being 1 mm. ; 
the stoutest example is 25 mm. long by 1:5 mm. in diameter. 
There are many smaller examples of varying forms. 


Reopuax scorpiurus, Montf. (PI. IX, Fig. 2.) 


This is not quite as common as H. ( Cl.) Soldanii, but is nevertheless 
fairly abundant in some samples. It has not hitherto been met with 
by me in any of the other Microzoic rocks of Trinidad. It is usually 
about 2 mm. in length. 

AmopIscus INCERTUS, Orb. 

A single specimen somewhat like that figured in Ann. Nat. Hist., 

vol. iv (1869), pl. xiii, figs. da, b. 


CycLAMINA CANCELLATA, Brady, var. DEFoRMIS, nov. (PI. IX, Fig. 3.) 


Most specimens of this form are distorted by a sudden change in 
the axis of growth of the last whorl, whereby the shell acquires a sort 
of humpbacked appearance. It is often very thin, seldom indeed as 
thick as the forms found abundantly in some of the Naparima 
oceanic beds. It is one of the largest Foraminifera in the 
Sangregrande boring, being mostly 3 mm. in diameter, and occurs at 
all depths in the boring. 


Mrinionina mactLENTA, Brady. (PI. IX, Fig. 4.) 
Diameter 1:0 mm. 


MinioLina SEMINULUM, Linné. 
Diameter 2:0 mm. 


SPIROLOCULINA TENUISEPTATA, Brady. (PI. IX, Fig. 5.) 


Longest diameter 10mm. It is questionable if this is distinct 
from Sp. limbata, Orb. 


Bouivina puncorata, Orb. 


Minute Boliving are as abundant in this rock as in most of the 
Microzoic formations of the island. 


' Plates VIII and IX, illustrating the Foraminifera, will appear in the concluding 
part of Mr. Guppy’s paper. 


196 R. J. L. Guppy—Rock-borings, Trinidad. 


BuLIMiIna INFLATA, Seguenza. 


TEeXxTULARIA SAGITTULA, Defrance. (PI. IX, Fig. 6.) 
Length 10mm. Fairly abundant in some samples. 


TEXTULARIA GRAMEN, Orb. (PI. IX, Fig. 18.) 

Length 1:0 mm. 

TEXTULARIA CARINATA, Hantk. (Pl. IX, Fig. 7.) 

Length 1:5 mm. 

TeXTULARIA TROCHUS, Orb. (PI. IX, Fig. 8.) 

Diameter 1-0mm., heightl-6 mm. I take 7 turris and T. Bareté 
to be merely varietal forms of this species. 

TEXTULARIA ASPERA, Brady. (Pl. IX, Fig. 17.) 

Only three examples were found, of which one (much the largest) 
measured 3mm. in length. 

Noposarta RAPHANISTRUM, Linn. (PI. IX, Fig. 9.) 

The form found here is identical with N. bacillum, Defr., as found 
in the Vienna Basin and elsewhere. The synonymy of the species 
includes raphanus, Zippei, badenensis, acuta, and many others. It is 
probably not distinct from N. obliqua, the larger and more strongly 
ribbed forms being found in shallow water, while the smaller, more 
delicately costate forms come from deeper water. WV. raphanistrum 
is not found in the oceanic beds. The longest specimen from the 
Sangregrande boring is 5°5mm. in length; it is broken. Some 
smaller examples are perfect. 

Noposaria opiigua, Linn. (Pl. TX, Fig. 10.) 


The form found in the Sangregrande boring is N. vertebralis, 
Batsch, which is only one of the many names conferred upon more 
or less distinct varieties of this species. T’he length of our longest 
specimen is 8°5 mm. 

Noposaria sotuta, Reuss. (PI. IX, Fig. 11.) 

Our specimens are generally of the curved variety, with little or 
no constriction between the segments except perhaps one or two of 
the later ones. It is exactly the same as N. elegans of the Vienna 
Basin. The examples are usually about 2°5 mm. long. 


CRISTELLARIA RoTULATA, Lam. (PI. IX, Fig. 12.) 


Under this I include C. calcar and C. cultrata, as the forms found 
here are somewhat intermediate. It is mostly small, the largest 
being 2 mm. in diameter. 


CRISTELLARIA ACULEATA, Orb. (PI. IX, Fig. 15.) 
Similar to the Pointapier specimens, except that the last whorl is 
seldom so much produced. Longest diameter 2 mm. 
Uvierrina (Sacrina) RAPHANUS, Parker & Jones. (PI. IX, Fig. 14.) 


The specimens are about 1:3 mm. in length. The species is very 
abundant at all depths in the Sangregrande boring. It is the short 


R. J. L. Guppy—Rock-borings, Trinidad. 197 


form resembling fig. 23 of pl. Ixxv of the “Challenger” Report. 
Brady says it is essentially a coral-reef foraminifer, but the conditions 
of the Sangregrande deposit would not admit of coral-reefs. Our form | 
may be said to be indicative of shallow water, and a depth of 10 to 
50 fathoms would probably suit it best. A very few specimens of 
the long form have occurred to me in the Naparima oceanic beds, and 
I think that this long form belongs to deep water. 

Brady (“Challenger ” Report, p. 580) admits that the term Sagrina 
is not required. 

UVIGERINA CANARIENSIS, Orb. 
Length about 0-6 mm. Specimens sometimes slightly costate. 


PoLYMORPHINA LANCEOLATA, Reuss. 


A few very minute examples for which the above name may stand 
until fuller information is obtained. 


GLOBIGERINA BULLOIDES, Orb. 
The forms found at Sangregrande resemble most the Vienna Basin 
specimens, and do not attain the great development in number, size, 
or variety that we find in the Naparima oceanic beds. 


SPH#ROIDINA BULLOIDES, Orb. 
Not very common. 


PLANORBULINA (DiscoRBINA) ELEGANS, Orb. (Pl. IX, Fig. 15.) 


Diameter about 0'5mm. This agrees fairly well with the figure 
of D’Orbigny’s Modéle No. 42 given by Parker & Jones, but not 
quite as well with the figure given by Goés (Carib. Rhiz., pl. vii, 
figs. 269-71), which is R. complanata, Orb. It suggested itself to 
me as a small and delicate modification of Planorbulina Wullerstorfi, 
a common and well-developed foraminifer in the oceanic beds of 
Naparima. 

It has been proposed to dispense with the genus Anomalina, and 
to include the species classed under that name, together with those 
comprised under Zruncatulina, in the genus Planorbulina. In my 
lists no species from the oceanic beds appears under the name 
of Planorbulina, but some five species are recorded under that of 
Anomalina. Pl. larvata, a remarkable form, is recorded from the 
shallow-water beds, and I have since found it in the Ditrupa-bed of 
Pointapier. 

PLANORBULINA UNGERIANA, Orb. 

One or two small specimens of this species occur. 


PULVINULINA ELEGANS, Orb. (Pl. IX, Fig. 16.) 
Specimens few and small; the largest was 1mm. in diameter. 
This species as a fossil can always be distinguished by its coloration, 
its white septal bands, marginal rings, and umbilical boss, contrasting 
with the chocolate-brown interspaces. The Sangregrande specimens 
are perhaps referable to the var. partschiana. 


198 R. J. L. Guppy—Rock-borings, Trinidad. 


Tue SANGREGRANDE Bortnes.—Parr II. 


Since writing Part I of this paper I have been favoured by the 
Hon. Walsh Wrightson, C.M.G., Director of Public Works, with 
reduced diagrams of the three borings made at Cunapo, near 
Sangregrande, for the purpose of ascertaining particulars relative to 
the coal-seams in that neighbourhood, and with access to the samples 
of the cores brought up. These extend our knowledge of the 
geological conditions very considerably. In Part I of this paper 
I gave a description of the rocks and fossils of boring No. 3. The 
diagram of this boring (Plate VII) shows that from 200 feet to the 
bottom of the boring at 600 feet the composition of the strata is 
nearly uniform, being the foraminiferal sandstone I have described. 
This deposit probably recurs in boring No. 2 (82 to 182 feet) and 
boring No. 1 (90 to 486 feet). At 12 to 18 feet in boring No. 3 
there is an ancient river-bed with very hard compact cherty stones, 
similar to those found in some of the existing river-beds. 1 do not 
think that the material of these stones exists anywhere in the form 
of a continuous layer or stratum, or, if they do, such layer is not of 
any great extent. It probably exists as lenticular or nodular 
masses varying in size, and when the containing softer material is 
carried off these hard stones remain in the river-beds. So with 
the Naparima rocks near Sanfernando, the harder masses remain 
heaped upon the beach, while the softer material in which they were 
imbedded is carried away. 

With the exception of two small seams, one of 6 inches at 29 feet, 
and one of 2 inches at 89 feet, no coal was encountered in any of the 
borings. Nevertheless, the composition of the strata at the top of 
each of these borings indicates perhaps littoral conditions or at least 
shallower water than the material deeper down in the borings. The 
bed underlying the coal-seam at 89 feet in boring No. | is a soft 
black argillaceous rock with very fine sand, impressions of plant 
remains, and small bits of coal. This stratum, less than 3 feet 
thick, is confusedly bedded, and represents, I think, the bottom bed 
and very beginning of the coal series. 

The problem of the relation of the strata pierced by these borings 
to the coal-bearing series is now before us. These strata are, with 
a slight exception, of marine formation: are they above or below the 
coal series ? 

So far as we can judge from the information now at hand, it would 
seem that they are below. If they were above it would follow that 
there had been a depression of land since the deposition of the coal 
in order to admit of the deposit of a marine formation above it. But 
taking all the known circumstances into account, I think this unlikely. 
There was probably a movement of upheaval continued throughout 
the Miocene period which raised the Cretaceo-Tertiary series of 
Montserrat (including the Manzanilla Hocene formations) above the 
level of the sea, leaving an arm of the sea between the Montserrat 
Range and the Parian Range. Into this channel the river Guarapiche 
(taking its rise and upper course in Venezuela) emptied itself, and 


= 
DT] 


i=) 
20 
lo) 


o 
oO 
fas} 
SH 
5 
mM 
Ee 
fo) 
= 
o 
HH 


{t. 


clay, soft. 


Large stones, 


very hard. 


REGRANDE, TRINIDAD 


92 
9b 


110 


GEOL, 


MAG. 1904. 


ft. 
110 
Surface sand, 
solt. 
White clay, 
soft. 
Black coal and 128 
clay, mixed, 
solt. 
Black coal, hard 
and brittle. 
White sand, 150 
yery soft. 152 
162 
Grey sand, soft. 169 
170 
173 
Grey sand with 175 
pebbles, harder. 
186 


Purple sandstone, 
very hard, 


Purplish-black sand- 196 
stone, very hard. 

Black coal. 

Black shale, soft. 201 

White clay, soft. 

Whitish clay, soft. 


Whitish sandstone, 


hardish, then soft. 
harcdish, the 0. 216 


in. 
0 


coow 


3 


0 


Diagram of Bore No. 1. 


Whitish sandstone, 


hardish, then soft. 


Grey sand, soft. 


Grey quicksand. 


Grey sand, soft. 
Grey sand, hard 


and soit. 
Grey sand, stony. 


Ditto, soft and hard. 


Grey quicksand 
with gas. 


Grey conglomerate, 
yery hard, 


Grey sand, soft. 


Brownish shale, 
fairly soft. 


Whitish grey 
limestone, hard. 


216 0 


ft. in. ft. in. 
323 10 
Darkish grey 
shale, softer. 


Whitish 
grey 
slate, 
hard. 


Bluish shaly slate, harder. 


Bluish 
shaly 
slate, 
fairly 
hard. 


it. 
431 


447 
449 


486 


287 5 Ditto, very 
288 0 hard. 
406 0 
Blue shaly 
slate, Blue shaly 
fairly slate, 
soft. fairly 
hard. 


431 0 


CUNAPO COALFIELD. 


Diagram of Bore No. 2. 


in, 


7) 


et) 


0 


Blue shaly 
slate 


Black ditto, 
very sott. 


Blue shaly 
slate, 
fairly 
hard. 

Ditto, very 
hard. 

Blue shaly 
slate, 


hard. 
Blue shaly 


slate, 
fairly 
hard. 


ft. in. ft. 
() (0) 98 
Top clay, 
sott. 
¢ 
Gravel, 
hard, 
iy, 0) 
102 
Blue clay, 
soft. 
130 
132 
45 0 
Blue shale, 
fa harder. 
= 
iy 
| 
| 
= 
= 
SS 
= 
82 0 | 
FE Grey shale, 
= harder. 
96 0 
Dark shale, 
harder. 
98 6 


in. tt. in. 
6 0 0 
Dark shale, tend) 
inedium. 12 0 
17 0 
6 
Dark shale, 
harder. 
0 Grpy shale, 
0 hard. 
1 0 
98 0 


tt. im. 
95 0 
Yellow surface 
clay, soft. 


Gravel, hard, 


Large stones, 
very hard. 


Blue clay, 


solt. 


Blue shaly 
clay, 
medium 


hard, 


2000 0 


DIAGRAM OF THE BORINGS MADE AT GUNAPO, NEAR SANGREGRANDE, TRINIDAD: 


TO ILLUSTRATE MR. R, J. LECHMERE GUPPY'S ARTICLE. 


DECADE VY, 


Diagram of Bore No. 3. 


tt. in. tt. in, 


Vou, 


tt, 
200° 0 x 310 0 420 
3 
EI 
a 
a 
a 
1p 
re 
s 
oS 
| 
=| 
ad 
220 0 8 
a 
3 
E 
oS 
a 
| 
=| 
3 
A be) 
2 5 
iS a 
a” bes 
= : 3 
a on | 
& cl i=) 
a 
oa 
a 
A 
9 53 
310 0 120 0 530 0 


in, 


0 


PLATE 


tt. 


580 


Dark shale, hard. 


608 


in, 


VIl. 


0 


Dark shale, hard. 


oi) oe 


G. L. Elles—Graptolite Zones in Arenig Rocks. 199 


as this channel was filled up by the fossiliferous sands and other 
deposits the coal-bearing series followed under estuarine and fluviatile 
conditions. Therefore I think that these borings pierce strata 
inferior to the coal series. 

In some parts of the Caroni and Oropuch country occurs a large 
estuarine formation which, in my opinion, succeeded the Miocene 
formation, and was deposited by the Miocene and Pliocene extension 
just mentioned of the river Guarapiche (see my papers in Geological 
Society’s Journal, 1892; Guonocican Macazine, 1900; and Pro- 
ceedings Victoria Institute, Trinidad, 1902). It is a very fine- 
grained argillaceous formation, frequently capped by fresh-water 
gravels, and this may very probably overlie the coal series in places. 

Note.—I am informed that at the site of the borings near the 
Cunapo river, about seven miles from Sangregrande, the surface is 
about 150 feet above sea-level. 

Second Note.—In reference to the conclusions arrived at from 
this imperfect study of the geology of the Sangregrande district, 
I may quote a remark by 8. A. Miller in his “North American 
Geology,” etc., that ‘‘a general knowledge of geology is probably 
of greater importance to the people of the United States than a like 
amount of information in any other department of natural science,” 
a remark which might be extended to a larger area than the 
United States. 

EXPLANATION OF FOLDING PLATE VIL. 

Diagrams showing the strata passed through in the Sangregrande Borings 

Nos. 1, 2, 3 
(Lo be continued.) 


Il.—Some Graprouits Zones in tHE ArEniG Rocks or WALES. 
By Gerrrupe L. Exuus, Newnham College, Cambridge. 


fWVHE Arenig Series, as originally defined by Sedgwick, has 

undergone much subsequent modification by its founder and 
other authors. There have been separated off from it the Tremadoc 
Series at the base, and the Llandeilo Series above, and a certain 
amount of ambiguity has arisen as to what constitutes the Arenig 
thus restricted ; possibly, therefore, the recognition of three well- 
defined graptolite sub-faunas within the series in certain districts 
may help in some degree towards the solution of the problem. 

In both North and South Wales there appears to be a well-defined 
belt of rocks characterised by graptolites of the ‘tuning-fork’ type 
(dependent series). In South Wales this constitutes Hicks’ Llanvirn 
Group; it comprises two zones— 


1. Zone of Didymograptus Murchison. 
2. Zone of Didymograptus bifidus. 


The upper zone of D. Murchisoni is the equivalent of the beds 
forming the lower part of the Llandeilo Series, including the 
Llandeilo Limestone, in part at any rate; the lower zone of D. bifidus 
is the uppermost limit of the Arenig Series. 


200 G. L. Elles—Graptolite Zones in Arenig Rocks. 


While the occurrence of one or other, or both, of these zones has 
been indicated by Matley! and Fearnsides* in North Wales, and 
by Marr & Roberts,’ Crosfield & Skeat,‘ and the officers of 
the Geological Survey® in South Wales, so far as I am aware, 
it has not been so generally recognised that this belt of rocks 
characterised by ‘tuning-fork’ graptolites gives place downward 
to a belt of rocks characterised by graptolites of the ‘ extensiform ’ 
type (horizontal series) wherever the graptolitic facies of the rocks 
is developed. This belt characterised by ‘extensiform’ graptolites 
may also be divided into two zones— 


1. An upper zone of Didymograptus hirundo. 
2. <A lower zone of Didymograptus extensus. 


The succession of these zones has been determined in widely 
separated areas, and other localities will no doubt be found in 
the future, so the object of the following notes is to indicate 
where they are at present known to occur, and the characteristic 
association of the graptolites which constitute the sub-faunas. 

There are then, three well-defined graptolite zones in the Arenig 
rocks of Wales— 

1. The zone of Didymograptus bifidus. 
2. The zone of Didymograptus hirundo. 
3. The zone of Didymograptus extensus. 


These probably represent the upper part of the series only. 
The following are the principal localities where they may be 
studied :-— 
River Sgtont. (Fig. 1.) 


The occurrence of fossils in the rocks in the neighbourhood of 
Pont Seiont was indicated long ago by Ramsay ° and later by Marr.’ 
The rocks present a certain amount of variation in lithological 
character, but have a practically identical fauna; they are for the 
most part sandy or slightly micaceous blue-black shales with a few 
calcareous bands. They are well exposed on the left of the road 
before reaching the white gates into the Public Park, and again 
just beyond the gates, though at this point they have been 
somewhat altered by the intrusion of a dyke of diabase. The fossils 
collected from these beds include— 


Didymograptus bifidus, Hall (very Climacograptus confertus, Lapw. 
common). Cl. Scharenbergi, Lapw. 
Diplograptus dentatus, Brong. Caryocaris, sp. 


The beds clearly, therefore, must be regarded as belonging to 
the zone of D. bifidus. 


1 Grou. Maa., 1902, p. 118. 

Brit. Assoc., 1903. 

Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1885, p. 476. 
4 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1896, p. 523. 
5 Summary of Progress, 1902. 

& Mem. Geol. Survey, vol. iii, p. 161. 

7 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe., 1876, p. 134. 


ce Ww 


G. L. Elles—Graptolite Zones in Arenig Rocks. 201 


Marr also recorded fossils from the old tramway near Pont 
Seiont on the left bank of the river, but so far as ] am aware the 
beds exposed from Pont Seiont to the mouth of the river have never 
been described in detail, and since they contain three clearly defined 
graptolitic faunas the succession is not devoid of interest. 


ou 


Zone of 


Calcareous Flags 
and Shales 


Micaceous Jandy =. 
Flags xshales <i Le 


Tough Calc. 
Flags 


Slalty 
Flagstones 


EB 
Sandy Shale\A€& 
with Lmestone 
bands & few 
thin aykes 
of diavase 


—-% 


PARK 


\ 


¥#ic. 1—Sketch-map of Afon Seiont below Pont Seiont. Scale, 6 inches = 1 mile. 


(a) Left Bank. 


The beds are first seen below the bridge to the west of the 
railway, along the cutting made for the Nantlle Tramway, long 


202 G. L. Elles—Graptolite Zones in Arenig Rocks. 


disused, and now much overgrown. For 200 yards north-west 
of this point a, the beds consist of sandy or slightly micaceous- 
bluish-black shales with narrow limestone bands, dipping S.E. at 
angles of 40°-50°; they are invaded by a few thin dykes of diabase 
not exceeding one foot in thickness; between points a—e indicated 
on the map they have yielded numerous specimens of Didymograptus. 
bifidus, Hall, Zglina (Cyclopyge) binodosa, Salt., Placoparia, sp... 
Caryocaris Wrightit, C. Marri, Hicks, Entomidella Marri, Hicks, sp., 
Acrotreta ? and Lingula, sp. ; they therefore belong to the zone of 
D. bifidus. Beds somewhat more slaty in character underlie these 
to the north-west, and at a point f due east of the bend in the road 
above, have yielded a characteristic assemblage of graptolites. 
Here, however, the fauna has changed its character; the ‘ tuning- 
fork’ graptolites are found no more, while the predominant forms 
are those of the ‘extensiform’ or horizontal type, Didymograptus. 
hirundo, Salt., and D. nitidus, Hall, being the characteristic fossils of 
the beds exposed between the points f and g of the map. At this 
point g, due south of the Gasworks, the tramway cutting ends, and 
Opposite the Gasworks the section is much obscured by drift ; 
descending to the shore it is, however, soon continued in a north-west 
direction by a series of tough calcareous flags with concretions /, 
in which, however, no identifiable fossils were found. These highly 
calcareous beds are underlain by a series of micaceous sandy flags. 
and shales 7, which extend round the bend of the river; they 
have yielded numerous specimens of D. hirundo and D. nitidus, 
a solitary specimen of D. extensus, Placoparia, sp., and numerous 
Phyllopods. <A little further to the north-west bluish calcareous 
flags weathering brown are seen to pass under the micaceous beds ; 
these beds have also yielded D. hirundo and D. nitidus, but fossils 
are not abundant, except at k, where in a more shaly band D. hirundo- 
is especially common. From this point to the Boatyard a series 
of calcareous flags with shaly partings is exposed in continuous. 
downward succession ; they dip slightly more HK. than the higher 
beds, but the inclination is the same in amount. ‘The fauna 
also changes its character somewhat, for while the beds from k to. 
the old tramway contain D. hirwndo as the characteristic fossil, and 
therefore constitute the zone of D. hirundo, in the beds from k to 
the Boatyard D. hirundo is rare, and the common graptolite still of 
the ‘extensifurm’ or horizontal type is D. extensus itself; this fossil 
is found in abundance at m, and less commonly at / and n; with 
it at m are also found D. hirundo (rare), Azygograptus suecicus, Mbg. 
(one specimen), glina (Cyclopyge) binodosa, Salt., and numerous 
Phyllopods. These flagey beds must therefore be regarded as 
belonging to the zone of D. extensus. 

Beyond the Boatyard some calcareous flags occur, which have, 
however, yielded no organic remains other than Phyllopods; they 
are seen to be dipping W.N.W. in an opposite direction to those 
above the Boatyard, and are probably the same beds slightly 
disturbed by the proximity of the Bangor-Carnarvon fault. There 
is then a break in the succession, and the next beds, seen at the 


G. L. Elles—Graptolite Zones in Arenig Rocks. 203: 


corner beyond the ferry house and bridge, are much contorted and 
disturbed, and of a nature totally different from any of those just 
described. The Arenig Series seems to be terminated by the 
Bangor—Carnarvon fault, which crosses the river close to the 
Castle and brings on the contorted beds. 


(b) Right Bank. 


A similar but less complete succession may be found on the right 
bank of the river below the beds previously described by Marr 
(loc. cit.). Flags which seem to belong to the zone of D. hirundo 
are exposed in the railway cutting at two points, and below the 
Castle the calcareous flags, which form the lowest visible members 
of the Arenig Series in this district, are seen again. 

The zone of D. bifidus is also seen in a quarry by the mill near 
the Brickworks, where the river makes a big bend, doubling back 
on itself for a short distance and then continuing in a direction 
almost at right angles to its previous course. The beds are here 
bent into a slight fold, the centre of which is occupied by greatly 
slickensided calcareous flags; graptolites are found in the associated 
thinly bedded shales, which are much iron-stained ; in general the 
fauna resembles that of the beds at Pont Seiont, but the Didymograpté 
are rarer and the Diplograptide relatively more abundant. The 
beds have yielded — 

Didymograptus bifidus (Hall), rare. Climacograptus confertus, Lapw. 
Diplograptus dentatus, Brong. 


Beds on approximately the same horizon are also exposed at 
Peblig Mill, where greasy blue-grey calcareous mudstones are seen 
in the quarry below about 20 feet of drift. They are underlain at 
the north end by a series of lighter-coloured ochreous flags with 
darker bands, which give place downward to blue-grey mudstones. 

The only fossils obtained from this locality were Didymograptus 
bifidus and Diplograptus dentatus, both found only after much searching. 


Menat Srratts. 


Closely connected with the lowest beds seen in the Seiont River, 
though shifted slightly to the north-west by the Bangor—Carnarvon 
fault, are the beds which come out on the Menai Straits beneath 
the Carboniferous rocks, and to which attention was first directed by 
Greenly (Guon. Maa., 1898, p. 560). The beds are well exposed 
at- low tide between the Suspension and Tubular Bridges. Working 
westwards from the Suspension Bridge, the nearly horizontal 
Carboniferous beds are at first all that is visible, but shortly some 
fissile red-coloured slaty beds appear beneath them with a general 
E.S.H. dip. They are at first only observable on the foreshore, but 
soon rise into a low cliff, then disappear beneath the Carboniferous, 
to reappear before reaching the rocky point opposite the rocks 
in the Strait known as the Swillies. ‘They form the rocky point 
itself, and an examination of them shows that the red colouring 
characteristic of the higher beds is merely due to staining; the 


204 G. L. Elles—Graptolite Zones in Arenig Rocks. 


lower beds are uncleaved fissile blue-black shales with some 
calcareous flaggy bands. Numerous graptolites can be obtained 
at this point, and are particularly abundant in the more shaly 
bands, especially in a band close below the limit of staining. 

I have collected the following fossils from this locality :— 


Didymograptus eatensus, Wall. Tetragraptus serra, Brong. 
D. Nicholsoni, Lapw. T. Amii, Lapw. 

D. nitidus, Hall. Caryocaris, sp. 

D. gibberulus, Nich. Lingulella, sp. 

D. ch. uniformis, Elles & Wood. Trilobite (indet.). 


Didymograptus extensus is an abundant form, and the beds seem 
therefore to belong to the zone of D. extensus, though I consider 
the presence of Tetragrapti indicates that the beds are somewhat 
lower down in the zone than those of the Seiont River. 


Luryn Peninsuta. 


In the neighbourhood of Aberdaron Matley has described several 
localities where Arenig rocks may be found (loc. cit., p. 118). 
He groups these into two districts, the eastern and the western. 


(a) Eastern District. 


The succession and mutual relation of the beds is best indicated 
in the eastern district near Llanfaelrhys. 

As Matley (and previously Tawney) have indicated, the Penarfynydd 
shales contain numerous and excellent specimens of Didymograptus 
bifidus, as well as some trilobites and other fossils ; these, therefore, 
represent the zone of D. bifidus. They are well exposed on the north 
side of Mynydd Penarfynydd, south and south-east of Penarfynydd 
Farm, and Matley has shown that the same shales are again seen 
on the coast between Porth Llawenan and Porth Alwm. They 
occur here between two dolerite sills, and seem to be faulted slightly 
out of their normal position. Further west excellent exposures 
of a series of slaty shales, mudstones, and ironstones are seen in 
the little gorge of Nant y Gadwen, and are termed by Matley the 
Nant y Gadwen shales. These shales belong to the zone of D. hirundo 
and the zone of D. extensus. The upper, more slaty beds, which 
are now best seen on the east side of the gorge and contain 
Didymograptus hirundo, D. nitidus, and Azygograptus suecicus, constitute 
the zone of D. hirundo; while the lower, more sandy beds of the 
extreme west side of the gorge seem to belong to the zone of 
D. extensus, since they have yielded the following graptolites :— 


Didymograptus extensus, Hall. Tetragraptus Amii, Lapw. 
D. nitidus, Hall. T. ct. Headi, Hall. 

D. gibberulus, Nich. Trinucleus Gibbsi, Salt. ? 
D. uniformis, Elles & Wood. Calymene, sp. 


These lower beds have a fauna almost identical with that of the 
Arenig beds of Menai Straits. 

The fauna of the beds of the manganese-works of Benallt, near 
Rhiw, seems to be that of the zone of D. hirundo. 


G. L. Elles—Graptolite Zones in Arenig Rocks. 208 


(b) Western District. 


In the western or Aberdaron tract the masses of shale are for 
the most part faulted patches, and the only idea of their place in 
the succession is obtained from the fauna they contain. 

The shales seen at Parwyd, since they contain Didymograptus 
hirundo and Azygograptus suecicus, seem to represent the zone of 
D. hirundo, while the lower zone of JD. extensus appears to be 
represented by the beds at Porth Mendwy, though the graptolites 
here are rather fragmentary, and it is certainly exposed in the 
quarry opposite Dwyrhos Farm, where numerous, though badly 

reserved, specimens of the zone fossil may be obtained. 


Argnig. (Figs. 2 and 3.) 


In the Arenig district there are two graptolite-bearing shale bands 
associated with the volcanic group. One occurs in the middle of 


Fre. 2.—Sketch-map of Nant Rhos Ddu. Seale, 6 inches = + mile. 


the volcanic series, the other underlies it, and both have hitherto 
been regarded as being of Arenig age. The upper shale band, 
known to some as the Daear Fawr shale, contains Diplograptide 
and a few Dicranograptide: the Diplograpti, which are chiefly 


206 G. I. Elles—Graptolite Zones in Arenig Rocks. 


Diplograptus foliaceus, var., and Diplograptus angustifolius, Hall, are 
not of the type commonly met with in the Arenig beds of other 
localities, but, on the contrary, are of the type characteristic of the 
beds of other areas now generally regarded as being of Llandeilo age ; 
the occurrence of Dicellograptus Moffatensis, Carr, and a Dicranograptus 
points the same way. With this shale band, therefore, I am not 
at, present concerned, though its fauna is clearly of interest as bearing 
on the age of the volcanic group as a whole; it is possibly the 
equivalent of the middle and upper slates of the Moelwyn district.' 
The lower shale band underlies the main volcanic group and 
contains two zones, the zone of DY. bifidus above and the zone of 
D. hirundo below. 'The succession may be studied on the slopes 
of Arenig Fach and Arenig Fawr. 

On the side of Arenig Fach there rises a little stream, Nant rhos ddu, 
which flows at first in a §.15° W. direction, then bends abruptly, 
running approximately south-south-east for a short distance, but 
soon resuming its former direction, crosses the Bala—Ffestiniog road 
about 160 yards below Taihirion Farm, and ultimately runs south 
to join the river Tryweryn. A series of shales, impure limestones, 
and gritty beds are exposed in the little gorge made by the stream 
when it runs south-south-east, and also where it resumes its south- 
west direction above and below the road. 

The general succession is as follows (Figs. 2 and 6) :— 

feet. 
8. Felspathic ash of main voleanie group. 
- Banded slates with light- ene ashy bands (fossiliferous) 6 


eo 
\ 6. Blue-black slates with graptolites in bands ... 

5. Impure limestones with few shale partings containing a few 
( 


rom 


graptolites =e ene a Spc Age Boe 4 
. Grit with shale wisps ... ae are By ate aa 4 


2. Ash. 


4 
( 3. Caleareous flags. 
2 
( 1. Caleareous slates and flags (fossiliferous). 


Fic. 3.—Diagrammatic Section across Nant Rhos Ddu. Vertical scale exaggerated. 


The Arenig beds dip EH. 25°N. at 20°, they are strongly cleaved, 
the cleavage making with the bedding an angle of about 20°. Some 
of the ashy bands of the uppermost series have yielded Ogygia 
Selwyni (Salt.) and other fossils, and the blue-black slates which 
underlie them have yielded graptolites characteristic of the zone 
of D. bifidus, namely, D. bifidus, Hall, Diplograptus dentatus, Brong., 
and Climacograptus confertus, Lapw. The only fossiliferous band 
among the impure limestones is at the very base where it rests 


1 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1891, p. 368. 


G. L. Eiles—Graptolite Zones in Arenig Rocks. 207 


upon the grit, and this has yielded a few specimens of D. hirundo 
-and seems to indicate the highest bed of that zone. The grit which 
underlies the limestones appears to rest unconformably upon 
calcareous flags, and in these and the beds beneath it is worthy 
of note that the dip practically coincides with the cleavage, and 
hence the difference in dip between the two series, while similar 
in direction, differs to the amount of about 20°. There may also 
be some faulting along this line. The ash of the lower series seems 
to be a lenticular patch; it never crosses Nant rhos ddu, and its 
presence seems to be the factor determining the south-south-east 
course of the stream, for with its appearance the stream turns 
south-south-east, and with its disappearance resumes its original 
direction. The age of the lower series seems to be sufficiently 
determined by the presence of Asaphus Homfrayi, Salt., Agnostus, 
sp., and Olenus triarthrus, Walc., which have been found in several 
localities in beds dipping 40° E.N.E. They seem to be the beds 
designated Lower Arenig by the officers of the Geological Survey.! 
The Arenig beds are probably present below the ash band on the 
slopes of Ffridd Bwlch-llestre; they are, however, only exposed 
at one other locality, namely, in the stream north-east of Bryn- 
maenllifo, where they are found beneath the basal agglomerate of 
the main volcanic group. 

On the other side of the valley the most continuous exposure of 
the Arenig beds is found on the north-west slopes of Arenig Fawr, 
in the stream running down to Hafodty Milltir Cerig (Hafody 
Filltir Gerig). Here the succession is as follows :— 


Felspathic ash (?) of main volcanic group. 

Thickly bedded ashes, ashy flags, and shales, with Ogygia Selwyni 
(Salt.), Monobolina (Obolelia) plumbea, Maclurea, sp., Calymene, sp. 

Thinly bedded slates and flags with D. bifidus. 

Grits. 

Finely bedded banded shales. 

Diabase intrusion. 


The thickly bedded ashes, ashy flags, and shales are very like those 
of the Taihirion side, but somewhat thicker, and the underlying 
slates contain D. bifidus and seem to represent the zone of D. bifidus. 
The lower zone of D. hirundo is probably also present, since in 
a collection made by Professor Hughes from this locality there are 
several specimens of Azygograptus suecicus in an impure limestone, 
and Az. suecicus is commonly found associated with D. hirundo 
elsewhere ; I have not myself, however, detected the zone in situ. 
The rocks below the diabase intrusion seem to be of Tremadoe age. 


SoutH WaAtLns. 


The graptolite-bearing beds of South Wales, for the sake of 
convenience, may be considered as belonging to two districts— 
(1) Western or St. Davids District. 
(2) Eastern or Haverfordwest-Carmarthen District. 


1 “ Geology of North Wales,’’ vol. iii. 


208 G. L. Elles—Graptolite Zones in Arenig Rocks. 


(1) Western District. 


Hicks? and Hopkinson ® long ago drew attention to the graptolite- 
bearing beds of the St. Davids district, and recorded fossils from the 
mainland and also from Ramsey Island, but while recent work 
tends to confirm Hicks’ view that the beds of Llanvirn and Porth- 
Hayog were of Upper Arenig age, it tends to modify his conclusions. 
respecting the age of the other graptolite-bearing beds. 

(a) Abereiddy Bay. 

The relation of the lowest Llandeilo beds, forming the zone of 
D, Murchison, to the uppermost Arenig slates, constituting the zone 
of D. bifidus, is particularly clear in this western district and worth 
notice. At the extreme south end of Abereiddy Bay a es 
of much cleaved black slates, dipping a few degrees W. of N., 
seen crowded with Didymograptus Murchisoni ; ascending the olitt 
a well-marked band of felspathic ash separates these black slates 
from an underlying series of lighter-coloured slates, which can be 
observed for a considerable distance along the track leading from 
the spring to Nant; they also dip a few degrees W. of N. at 
a high angle, and have been extensively quarried i in the past. The 
ance faeiitcnae beds, as indicated by Hicks, are those in the 
middle quarry, and from this place and the ‘tips’ lying north-west 
of it most of my fossils were obtained. 

The beds contain - 


Didymograptus bifidus, Hall. Cryptograptus tricornis, Carr. 
D. nanus, Lapw. Glossograptus ciliatus, Emmons. 
D. Nicholsoni, Lapw. Diplograptus dentatus, Brong. 
D. patulus, Hall. Placoparia cambrensis, Hicks. 


D. enodus, Lapw.} 


This light-coloured slate series therefore clearly represents the 
zone of PD. bifidus ; it is underlain by a succession of grits and flags 
well exposed in the old quarry near Nant. 


(b) Ramsey Island. 


Beds with a fauna very similar to that just described, but differing 
somewhat in their lithological characters, were found by Hicks and 
Hopkinson (loc. cit.) on Ramsey Island at the head of a little creek 
on the south-west known as Porth-Hayog or Porth Llanog. The 
beds here are soft black shaly mudstones, sometimes highly 
micaceous ; they dip N.W., and have yielded an abundant fauna, 
including the following graptolites :— 


Didymograptus bifidus, Hall. Didymograptus acutidens, Lapw. 
D. stabilis, Elles & Wood. D, patulus, Hall. 

D. artus, Elles & Wood. Diplograptus dentatus, Brong.. 

D. Nicholsoni, Lapw. Climacograptus Schar enbergi, | apw- 
D. affinis, Nich. Cl. confertus, Lapw.* 


1 Hicks, Brit. Assoc. Rep., pane 1873; Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1875, p. 167- 

2 Hopkinson, Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1872, 1878. 

3 Cf. lists of Hicks and Hopkinson, loe. cit., and Hopkinson and Lapworth, Quart- 
Journ. Geol. Soc., 1875, p. 631. 


G. L. Elles—Graptolite Zones in Arenig Rocks. 209 


Possibly the shales, which seem to be responsible for the formation 
of the little bay south of T'rwyn Gaelic, and thence run south-east, 
belong also to this zone of D. bifidus, but I have been unable to 
determine this with certainty. 

The greater part of the black slaty beds forming the cliffs at 
Road Uchaf and Road Isaf have the fauna characteristic of the 
higher part of the zone of D. extensus ; the beds dip landwards at 
a very high angle, and run approximately north and south. The 
following fossils occur :— 


Didymograptus extensus, Hall. Dendrograptus arbuscula, Salt. 
D. sparsus, Hopk. D. flecuosus, Hall. 

D. pennatulus, Hall. D. divergens, Hall. 

D. gibberulus, Nich. D. diffusus, Hall. 
Trigonograptus ensiformis, Hall. D. Homfrayi, Hopk. 

T. truncatus, Lapw. Ptilograptus Hicksi, Hopk. 
Callograptus radiatus (Salt.). P. cristata, Hopk. 


The higher beds seen possibly represent the lower beds of the 
zone of D. hirundo, since they are crowded with a species of graptolite, 
D. sparsus, closely allied to D. hirundo, if not merely a variant of it, 
and the typical fossil, so far as lam aware, has not yet been recorded 
from the island; the higher beds of the zone of D. hirundo may be 
present west of Aber Mawr, but they are not well exposed owing 
to the nature of the country. The rocks may be faulted as Hicks’ 
map would indicate, yet it is remarkable that the graptolite zones 
occur precisely where they might be expected were the succession 
normal. 


(c) Whitesand Bay. 


Slaty beds containing an abundant Dendrograpius fauna! are found 
on the mainland in Whitesand Bay, north of Trwyn Hwrddyn ; they 
were considered by Hicks to be of the same age as the beds of 
Road Uchaf and Road Isaf, but the evidence tends, I think, to 
show that these Whitesand Bay beds are considerably lower in the 
Arenig Series than any seen on Ramsey Island. 

These slaty beds are highly inclined, and dip a few degrees 
west of north at a high angle, they pass upward into a series of 
well-bedded slates with gritty bands seen in the old quarry in Porth 
Llenog, and from these beds there have been obtained— 


Azygograptus Hicksi, Hopk. Dendrograptus arbuscula, Hall. 
Tetragraptus Amii, Lapw. D. flexuosus, Hall. 

T. quadribrachiatus, Hall. Callograptus elegans, Hall. 
Didymograptus (extensus type). C. Salteri, Hall. 


Clematograptus implicatus, Hopk. 


This fauna suggests the lower part of the zone of D. extensus, and 
hence these beds are rather lower than any seen on Ramsey Island ; 
thus the beds which underlie them to the south must be still lower 
in the series. 

These slates pass up into others containing a rich fauna, Trilobites 
and Brachiopods, but no identifiable graptolites. These are also 
seen at Porth Melgan, east of St. Davids Head. 


' Cf. lists of Hicks and Hopkinson, loc. cit. 
DECADE Y¥.—VOL. I.—NO. Y. 14 


210 G. L. Elles—Graptolite Zones in Arenig Rocks. 


(2) Eastern District. 


Further east in South Wales, in the eastern part of the Haverford- 
west district, Marr & Roberts ' have indicated in their ‘ Didymograptus 
shales’ the extension eastwards of the zones of D. Murchisoni above 
and D. bifidus below. And a collection of fossils made long ago by 
the late 'I’. Roberts, and now in the Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge, 
seems clearly to point to the existence of the zone of D. extensus at 
Talfan, near Whitland, since the beds there have yielded D. extensus, 
Hall, D. nitidus, Hall, Tetragraptus serra, Brong., T. Amii, Lapw., 
T. Headi, Hall, Dendrograptus fruticosus, Hall,! Callograptus per- 
sculptus, Hopk., and C. Salteri, Hall. 

In the Carmarthen district Crosfield & Skeat? have mapped the 
zones of D). Murchisoni and D. bifidus over a considerable tract of 
country, and the fauna of the shales of Hafod Wen, which they have 
courteously permitted me to examine, containing as it does both 
D. hirundo and PD. nitidus, leads me to believe that the Hafod Wen 
shales represent the zone of D. hirundo; the beds of Glan Pibwr 
possibly indicate the still lower horizon. 


CorRRELATION AND CoNCLUSIONS. 


WaALEs. SHROPSHIRE. Lake Disrrict. SCANIA. 
Zone of Upper Hope Pe ; an Zone of 
D. Murchisoni. Shales. Millburn Beds § D. geminus. 
Zone of 
: ae Glossograptus. 
aonee See ee Ellergill Beds. ¢ Zone of 
peentes. Ra aie | Phyllograptus 
cl. typus. 
Zone of Upper Mytton \ 
wb D. hirundo. | 4 Flags. wi Upper Zone of 
ia 3 2 I 
S| 3 & Tetragraptus LIsograptus 
A Zone of & Shelve Church } | 4 Beds. gibberulus. 
D. extensus. Beds. pee 
o) a is 
3 5 z | Zone of 
a a A Phyllograptus 
L B & | Lower Mytton | 8 Dichograptus | densus. 
: f Flags. - Beds. Zone of 
Didymograp- 
| \ tus balticus. 
at vet ; Lower Zone of 
Garth Grit ? Wiese Tetragraptus Tetragraptus 
‘i i Beds. phyllograptoides. 
Tremadoc Shineton Bryograptus Bryograptus 


Beds. Shales. Beds. Beds. 


The correlation of the Welsh Arenig Series with beds of other 
areas is indicated in the above table. 

The facts noticed about the beds would lead us to suspect that 
the series is incomplete in Wales, and a comparison with other 
areas tends to confirm this suspicion. 

1 Loe. cit. 2 Loe. cit. 


Dr. C. W. Andrews—WNotes on Egyptian Eocene Mammals. 211 


With the possible exception of the lowest beds of the series seen 
in Whitesand Bay, there is, so far as our present knowledge goes, 
nothing comparable with the Dichograptus beds of the Lake District 
or the Lower Mytton Flags of Shropshire. In the Lake District 
the many branched graptolites are characteristic of this horizon. 
It is always possible that the beds may not be represented in Wales 
by the graptolitic facies, but up to the present time no graptolite- 
bearing beds of true Arenig age have been recorded resting con- 
formably upon the Garth grit of Garth (Portmadoc) and its true 
equivalents. The beds of Ty Obry and Ty Fry have a fauna more 
closely allied to that of Llandeilo rocks than to that of any Arenig 
beds with which I am acquainted. Hence there is the possibility 
of a break in the succession between the grit of Garth and higher 
beds ; there may be other grits in the series indicating recommence- 
ment of deposition, but these are not strictly the equivalents of the 
grit of Garth. 

TABLE sHowING Extent or Zones ry WALES. 
7 | 
Menai | River | Aber- | Arenig. | St. Car- 


| Straits. | Seiont. | daron. | || Davids. | marthen. 


Zone of D. bifidus ... | SNS aD | rae te Ge eae as 


Zone of D. hirundo ... | val | i] ies ec isp | ae RRR 


LONG O: Ds CRISIS. cool = oo ol | {|e st LD 


In conclusion, I offer my grateful thanks to Dr. Matley for the 
Joan of his maps of the Lleyn Peninsula, and for advice concerning 
the working of it; to Dr. J. EH. Marr for allowing me to examine 
his collection of fossils; to Miss H. Drew, of Newnham College, 
and Mr. W. G. Fearnsides, of Sidney Sussex College, for help in 
collecting fossils in various places. 


T]].—Furtuer Notes on tHE Mammats or tHe Hocenr or Eayrpt. 
Parr III. 


By C. W. Anprews, D.Sc., F.G.S., British Museum (Natural History). 


MONG the collections now in Cairo I find several new mammals, 

the remains of which have been collected by Mr. Beadnell, for 

the most part during the last few months. Brief descriptions of 

these new forms are now given in order that the names may be 

included in the lists in Mr. Beadnell’s forthcoming report on the 
geology of the Faytm area. 


Pterodon macrognathus, sp. nov. 


This creodont is known from the nearly complete left ramus 
of the mandible. The last molar, the first premolar, and the 
incisors are represented by the alveoli only, but the other teeth, 
with the exception of the canine, the crown of which is broken off, 


212 Dr. C. W. Andrews—Notes on Egyptian Eocene Mammals. 


are in fairly good condition. The mandible is long and narrow 
from above downwards, the distance between the last tooth and 
the condyle being remarkably great. The transversely elongated 
cylindrical condyle is about on a level with the alveolar border, 
and is separated from the prominent angle by a deep notch; the 
coronoid region is imperfect. The teeth are not very unlike those 
of Pterodon, but it may subsequently be found necessary to establish: 
a new genus for the present species. The last molar is represented 
by the alveolus only. M. 2 consists of a high blunt main cusp, 
a small antero-internal cusp, and a large talon with a blunt cutting 
edge near its outer side. M.1 is much smaller than m. 2, but the 
talon is relatively larger and consists of a distinct tubercle, on the 
inner side of which there is a prominent cingular ridge. The last 
premolar (pm. 4) is much larger than m. 1; it consists of a high 
cusp and a small talon; the cingulum i is distinctly developed on the 
inner side of the tooth. Pm. 3 and pm. 2 are simple conical two- 
rooted teeth, the crowns being eon in comparison with the roots, 
at least in pm. 3. Pm. 1 was a small one-rooted tooth, squeezed 
outwards by the large canine, which was oval in section. The three 
incisors were so crowded together that the median one was situated 
behind and above the other two. 

On the outer side of the jaw beneath the premolars there were 
four foramina separated by equal intervals. The dental foramen 
lies far back and is very small. This species may for the present 
be referred to Pterodon under the name P. macrognathus. 

The dimensions of the type-specimen (No. 8982, Cairo) are :— 


mm. 
Total length of the jaw ... se ee ele, 
Depth of ramus at hinder end of the sy mphy sis.. ae 300 32 
Depth of ramus beneath m. 3... a at Sse 32 
Length of symphysis Aas Zi 435 a eos axe 58 
Width of condyle ... 23 
Distance between hinder border of the alveolus of m. 3 and the 
posterior angle of the condyle Ee a5 tap eeu LOe, 
Length of the ‘alveolus of m.3. ... dak aie ame abi 16 
- Meas discs one a aes sae 500 Ser 16 
5 mi esas 386 — ase se Bre nae 13 
pm. 4 ... Be sie 335 see ea: me 17 
PIN eles 406 ae 306 ne 300 sie 14 
eeaapm Oi. isp Uglta2 Br eich A de Bc MMe 
Antero-posterior diameter of canine Sac 20 


Geniohyus major, sp. nov. (No. & 8980, Cairo). 


Three beautifully preserved premolars (pm. 1, 2, 5) indicate the 
existence of an animal closely similar to Geniohyus fajumensis, but 
much larger, the antero-posterior length of the teeth in the two. 
species being — 


Geniohyus major. G. fajumensis. 
pm.1 ... BOS ce 18 mm. ene 536 13 mm. 
1) eee 550 siete Lo” C. ade a5 145. 
(NG cas eis 54 FADE 55 at eee IG yeas 


In fact, the length of the three anterior premolars in the present 
species is the same as that of the whole premolar series in G. faywmensis. 
In structure these teeth differ from those of G. fajuwmensis in much: 


Dr. C. W. Andrews—Notes on Egyptian Eocene Mammals. 213 


the same way as the latter differ from the premolars of G. mirus, 
that is to say, their selenodont character, particularly of the posterior 
cusp, is more distinct. 


Megalohyrax minor, sp. nov. 


A left maxilla (No. 8188, Cairo) with the very well preserved 
molars and premolars may be taken as the type of this species. 
Except for their smaller size the teeth are very similar to those of 
Megalohyrax eocenus. The chief differences are that the premolars 
are somewhat simpler. Thus, pm. 1 has an elongated crown without 
a postero-internal cusp, and is very similar to the canine of the 
larger form, and in the same way the succeeding premolars each 
resembles the tooth in front of it in IZ, eocenus. Another peculiarity 
is that the parastyle is better developed. The molars are much 
alike in the two species. 

The dimensions of the upper teeth in the type-specimens of 
Megalohyraxz minor and I. eocenus are given below :— 


Length. M. minor. M. eocenus. 

m. 3 29 mm. ey: ei 37 mm. 

mee? 2B hee 23 37 -,, (approx.). 
Wi, Ile 2) yak 406 ail) op 

pm. 4 .. Wiser. Bae Rac — 5 

ON, 8) bc NO) gp uy nas ZOE 

[DN ZZ o06 209 Sa Meh oe Ban She 23 4, 

[Bie Lb 15 18 


The total length of the molar-premolar series is 13 em. 


Portions of a mandible perhaps referable to this species also occur in 
the collection. The specimen consists of two pieces, one the greater 
part of the right ramus with pm. 2—4 and m. 1-3, the other the anterior 
portion of the left ramus with part of the symphysis, containing 
pm. 3—4, m. 1-2, and in front two incisors, probably i. 1 and i. 2. 
The incisors have very broad, short spatulate crowns, greatly com- 
pressed from within outwards, and bearing a continuous wear-surface 
along their edges. It is difficult to see how such teeth could have 
bitten against the large upper incisor, which it has been suggested 
was present in Megalohyrax, but it is not impossible that they may 
have worked against a ledge on the hinder surface of a tusk-like 
incisor. Further material is necessary, particularly the anterior 
portion of a skull of one of the species of this genus. 

The molars and premolars each consist of two crescents, and from 
the inner end of the hinder limb of the anterior crescent a short 
ridge runs back on the inner side of the tooth, partly closing the 
opening of the hinder v of the tooth. The posterior premolars and 
anterior molars are alike. The dimensions of the teeth are :— 


Length. Greatest width. 
ifily Boe ds ce 33 mm. a3 008 20 mm. 
WM, Bo onc soc ane DB | ip. ae 360 Nie) ge 
1 eee Bh a 1G) ip. 3 Sbe NO” 66 
pm: 47. gos ec Si See 500 Gi 
pm. 3 ... ae ae IG 5. vet oo Wa op 
[eB occ : Pee Wars, ie Il ;; 


Length of series from pm. 2 to m. 3 inclusive, 12-7 em. 4 
The width of the crowns of the incisors are: i. 1, 14 mm.; i. 2, 16 mm. 


214 Dr. C. W. Andrews—Notes on Egyptian Eocene Mammals.. 


Saghatherium magnum, sp. nov. 


Further examination of the type of Saghatherium antiquum in the 
museum at Cairo shows that a specimen of the upper dentition 
preserved in the British Museum, which I had regarded as belonging” 
to that species, is actually much larger and differs slightly in some 
other points. I propose, therefore, to make this specimen the type of 
a new species, Saghatherium magnum. The approximate dimensions,,. 
compared with those of the type of S. antiquum, are :— 


Length. S. magnum. S. antiquum. 
Cheek teeth (molars, premolars,and canine) ... 78 mm. sic 62 mm. 
Premolar series ... Je aie S00 ol ROC AR ite 2563, 
Molar series... see B30 ae COU MEES Sue 3H Sp 
lye 58. ti ais hd Soe ee! bi uke U3) gs 
m2 | | /3.. aes 3 a ay ipa ab. ee 14s G8 
HL Wass ae am dee Bie sor lONU a Il 3, 
pm. BEE stes ee 505 565 see eee 10 ” tee Sosy 
jp 3 Aas ads 585 aes wa Bes Omar a lees 
THING G56 yeaa as Gr 
pm. 1 Shes Mee Glens 


The separate teeth are measured along their outer wall. 

One of the most striking differences between the two species, 
other than size, is that in the last molar of S. magnum the metastyle 
is much less developed than in S. antiquum. 

The anterior portion of the upper jaw showing the large incisor,,. 
figured in the GgotocicaL Magazine, 1908, p. 340, under the name 
S. antiquum, is actually part of the type-specimen of the present 
species. 

All the species described above are from the Upper Eocene beds 
of the Fayim. 


Zeuglodon isis, Beadnell MS. 


The existence of a large species of Zeuglodon other than Z. osiris, 
Dames, in the beds beneath the Qasr-es-Sagha series has already 
been referred to by Stromer ! and also in this Magazine (1901, p. 437). 
Mr. Beadnell refers to this species in his memoir on the geology of 
the district, which will be published shortly, as Zeuglodon isis, and 
this name is here adopted. The most important specimen, which 
may be taken as the type, is a right ramus of the mandible complete 
as far as the back of the tooth series; this was collected from the 
Birket-el-Qerun beds of the Middle Eocene. The teeth in the 
anterior portion are lost, but the hinder ones are present, though 
somewhat broken and obscured by matrix which cannot be removed. 

The total length of the specimen is 83cm. In front it terminates. 
in a blunt point, and is convex from above downwards on its outer 
face, while the inner face forms a flat symphysial surface for union 
with the opposite ramus. The depth of the ramus at the second 
alveolus is about 64mm., but posteriorly it deepens, till behind 
the last molar it is about 220mm. The extreme anterior end is 
occupied by an empty alveolus, and behind this there are three 


' «« Zeuglodon-reste aus dem Oberen Mitteleocaen des Fajum” : Beitr. Pal. u. Geol. 
Oster.-Ung. u. d. Orients, Bd. xv, Heft 2 and 3 (1903), p. 83. 


Notices of Memoirs—Paleontology in Melbourne. 215 


other alveoli for single-rooted teeth; these occupy the anterior 
26 centimetres of the jaw. The next tooth is in siti; its anterior 
border is 32cm. from the tip of the jaw. The crown is high. 
and conical, somewhat compressed from side to side, with sharp 
anterior and posterior edges and slightly curved backwards. On 
the anterior edge near the base of the tooth there are five or six 
blunt, upwardly directed denticulations, while on the posterior 
edge there are four or five larger ones. The height of the tooth 
crown was 6°5 cm., the length ‘of its base 5cm. ‘The next tooth, 
separated from the last by an interval of about 5cm., was broad 
and double-rooted; its crown is somewhat broken, but it can be 
seen that on its anterior and posterior edges there were several 
large and sharp denticulations. The length of the tooth at its base 
was about 66cm. The next tooth, which is separated from the 
last by an interval of 4:5cm., is similar, as also is the next, which 
is in contact with that in front. The last three teeth (the molars) 
differ considerably from those just described. They are closely 
crowded, and have a nearly straight anterior border, denticulations 
occurring on their posterior edge only. On the whole the dentition 
closely resembles that of Zeuglodon osiris as figured by Stromer.' 

A number of very large vertebra have also been found ; the 
dimensions of one of these are:—Length of centrum, DEE alin < ; 
transverse diameter, 17-7. cm.; vertical diameter, 15 cm. 


P.S.—In reference to my account of the teeth of Arsinottherium 
given in the last part of these notes, my attention has been drawn 
to the fact that in a footnote to one of his geological papers 
Blanckenhorn has mentioned the similarity between this dentition 
and that of Coryphodon. 

Catro, April, 1904. 


ISTQB S AES) (aE AMEIEHIMEOALISyS\, J=avae(S- 


J.—PatmontoLtocy In tHE Nationa Musrtum, MELpourne. 


fJ\HE following Report of the Paleontologist of the National 

Museum, Melbourne, Mr. Frederick Chapman, has recently 
been issued, and gives a good general idea of the material available 
for study in that Institution :— 

After the preliminary work of unpacking and generally inspecting 
the collections of fossils placed in my charge, the work of selecting 
a series of specimens to illustrate Australian, and particularly 
Victorian, paleontology was commenced. ‘This has been pro- 
gressing, in conjunction with other necessary work, with the result 
that there are now on view 15 table-cases of typical Australian 
fossils, including the Cambrian, Ordovician (Lower and Upper), and 
the Silurian. I have introduced certain noteworthy features, such 
as explanatory diagrams and illustrations, into the arrangement of 
these cases, in order to make them more interesting, both to students 


1 Op. cit., pl. viii, fig. 2 


216 Notices of Memoirs— Various Short Notices. 


and the public. Our collections of Paleozoic fossils have been con- 
siderably enriched by the purchase of the valuable series formed 
by the Rev. A. W. Cresswell, M.A., and Mr. F. Spry respectively, 
and the donation by Mr. G. Sweet, F.G.5., of the entire series of 
Cambrian fossils now on exhibition. The large fossils and casts 
have been repaired and repainted, and the whole labelled in 
accordance with the latest nomenclature. These exhibits are arranged 
in the Upper Gallery of the Museum on the north-east side, which 
was thrown open to visitors last November. 

I have prepared and hung in the Gallery two long, coloured 
geological sections, one illustrating the geology of Victoria, running 
through the State in a west to east direction, and the other taken 
through Melbourne from Brunswick to Ormond Point, near St. Kilda. 
Every care has been taken to render these correct according to the 
latest information, and in working out these details I have been 
greatly assisted by the friendly help of Professor Gregory, F.R.S., 
and Mr. T. S. Hall, M.A. One thousand and thirty-seven fossils 
have been determined, most of which are now exhibited. 

Since a large number of the Paleozoic fossils of Victoria are still 
awaiting description, this work has been taken in hand, and I have 
figured and described (Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., vol. xv, pt. 2) fourteen 
fossils in the National Museum, ten of which are new to science ; two 
new genera have also been established to receive two of these fossils. 

The very comprehensive and valuable collection of fossils in the 
Museum, brought together under the direction of the late Sir 
Frederick McCoy, was a distinct and agreeable surprise to one 
who, although familiar with the English national collection, did 
not anticipate meeting with anything at all comparable in the 
southern hemisphere; and these, chiefly the foreign specimens, 
will be most valuable for purposes of comparison with those of 
Victoria. 


II.—Various Suort Novices. 


1. Tue subject of “ Clastic Dikes” is dealt with by Mr. J. F. 
Newsom (Bull. Geol. Soc. America, xiv, 227, 1903). He describes 
a number of sandstone dikes in San Luis Obispo and Santa Cruz 
counties, California. The rocks of San Luis Obispo are Cretaceous 
sandstones, overlain by Miocene shales, which are cut by sandstone 
dikes. These dikes occur near the axis of a low synclinal fold, 
where former conditions were probably favourable to great hydro- 
static pressure. The author is of opinion that soft sands were forced 
up from below along joint planes, and that the sands were afterwards 
firmly cemented by calcium carbonate. Near Santa Cruz there are 
dikes of sandstone, varying from mere films along joint planes to 
intruded masses several feet thick. These cut the Miocene shales 
at various angles on the western side of a faulted monoclinal fold. 
The smaller films are usually bituminous. In the author’s opinion 
there is evidence that the underlying sandstones were formerly oil- 
bearing, and that the oil-bearing sands were forced into joints in 
the shales. The larger dikes formed the avenues of escape for the 


Notices of Memoirs— Various Short Notices. 217 


petroleum, and subsequently for water which carried the oil and oil 
vesidues from the intrusions. The author concludes with a very full 
summary of the literature of Clastic Dikes. 


2. Dr. F. H. Harcu has written a brief description of “ The 
Boulder Beds of Ventersdorp, Transvaal” (Trans. Geol. Soc. 
S$. Africa, vi, 95, 1904). The boulder (‘banket’) beds consist of 
pebbles and large masses of slate, conglomerate, and quartzite, 
identical with rocks occurring on the Rand and belonging to the 
Witwatersrand Beds; and they include also various igneous rocks. 
Some of the banket boulders have been found to contain gold in 
payable quantity, but these occurred amid many non-auriferous 
masses, the fact being that the boulder beds have been derived 
chiefly from the Witwatersrand Beds upon which they rest uncon- 
formably. Dr. Hatch remarks that the boulder beds include not 
only conglomerates but igneous breccias, and the formation appears 
to have been initiated by the outpouring of vesicular lavas known as 
the Klipriversberg Amygdaloid. For the group he applies the term 
“«Ventersdorp Beds.” 


3. “ Tae Geological History of the Gouritz River System” is the 
title of an essay by Mr. A. W. Rogers (Trans. 8. African Phil. Soc., 
xiv, 875, 1903). This river system drains the country southwards 
from the Nieuweveld Ranges, and the principal rivers, after crossing 
a broad tract of less elevated ground, traverse in succession the 
mountainous tracts of the Zwartebergen and Langebergen. The 
author describes the physical changes to which the area has been 
subjected, and which have led to the present drainage system. 


4, An InpEx To GroLoaicaL Parers.—Many valuable papers on 
the geology of Devonshire are scattered through the first thirty-four 
volumes of the Transactions of the Devonshire Association for the 
Advancement of Science, etc. Vol. xxxv (1903) contains a con- 
tinuous alphabetical index to these, by Mr. J. G. Hamling, who has 
placed each paper under three headings, viz., subject, locality, and 
author. Geologists will be grateful to the compiler, and it is only 
because he asks for intimation of any mistakes or omissions that we 
venture to suggest the desirability for an extension of the subject 
entries ; for example, there are only eight entries under ‘ Caverns’ 
and only eight under ‘ Fossil,’ although the number of papers dealing 
with those subjects is vastly greater. 


5. * Devonsuire in the time of the Lower Chalk” is the title 
of a paper by Mr. Jukes-Browne (Trans. Devon Assoc., xxxv, 787, 
1903). An accompanying map shows the probable geography of 
the south-west of England and north-west of France in the 
Jenomanian (Lower Chalk) age. Exmoor is represented as an 
island, while the country south-west of Tintagel and Dartmoor is 
regarded as part of ‘the Western Land” connected with Brittany 
and Normandy. 


__6. In another paper on ‘The Geology of the Country around 
Chard” (Proc. Somerset Arch. and Nat. Hist. Soc., xlix, 1903) 


218 Notices of Memoirs— Various Short Notices. 


Mr. Jukes-Browne gives a particular account of the Selbornian 
Sands (Upper Greensand) and Chalk, with an excellent photographic: 
view of the quarry at Snowdon Hill, Chard, famed for its rich fossil- 
bed at the base of the Chalk. 


7. In an article on “ The Cotteswold Hills” (Proc. Cottesw. Club, 
xiv, 205, 1903) Mr. S. S. Buckman discusses the area of the 
Cotteswolds, the spelling of the name, and other matters of topo- 
graphical interest—entering fully into the literature of the subject. 
A map on the scale of an inch to 4 miles accompanies the article, 
and on it he has marked the limits he is led to assign to the 
Cotteswold Hills and the names of the bordering vales. Tio aid 
in his decision he has sought the best advice from residents and 
others. The greatest difficulty in fixing a boundary was in the 
region east of Burford, a tract sometimes spoken of as the Oxford 
or Oxfordshire Downs. With regard to this term Lord Moreton. 
writes that it is not a geographical expression, but “simply means. 
the sheep of Oxfordshire of a down character.” The Cotteswold 
Hills as now marked out extend from Ebrington Hill on the north 
to Lansdown by Bath on the south. The western limit is naturally 
bounded by the escarpment of the Oolites. The eastern limit is taken 
to include Badmintou (but not Malmesbury), Tetbury, Cirencester, 
Fairford (but not Witney), Leafield, and the western side of the 
Vale of Moreton. Names of places where the Cotteswold Club has 
held field-meetings are marked on the map, showing plainly that the 
Club has trespassed far and wide into bordering tracts. A full list 
of the field-meetings, drawn up by Mr. L. Richardson, is appended. 
—H. B. W. 


8. LABELLING oF OpsEcTs IN THE GxoLocgicaAL DEPARTMENT, 
British Museum or Narurat Hisrory.—Much attention has been 
paid of late years to the question of explanatory labels for the 
exhibition cases, and among those who have given special thought 
to this important subject is Dr. F. A. Bather, M.A., F.G.S., the: 
Assistant Keeper of Geology. The subjoined is a specimen of 
a recently printed label prepared by him for the Echinoderm case, 
which serves to show how much information may be imparted to 
the student of geology and to the public at large by this means. 


“ How Sea-Urchins are turned into Flint. 


Silica, the substance of which flints are made, is scattered 
through the Chalk formation in very minute particles, which are 
dissolved to some extent by water, especially if it be slightly 
alkaline. Consequently, as rain-water sinks into the Chalk it dissolves. 
the silica and carries it with it through the Chalk. When the 
sea-urchins died and were buried in the chalky ooze, the inside 
of their shell or test was sometimes filled with the ooze, but 
sometimes it remained empty. In the latter case, when the Chalk 
became hardened and raised out of the sea, a cavity was left, into 
which flowed the dissolved silica. It may have been deposited 
on the walls of this cavity (i.e. the inside of the urchin’s test) as. 


Reviews—The Atoll of Funafuti. 219 


minute crystals of quartz (rock-crystal) ; or, as was more usually 
the case, it filled the cavity with a formless mass of the impure 
chalcedony that we call flint. So was fashioned in silica a cast . 
of the inside of the sea-urchin test; and later on, as the Chalk was 
worn away by rain and rivers, and as its fossils thus came out on 
the surface, then the relatively soft and soluble test was worn or 
dissolved off. Therefore it is that many of these flint casts turn 
up on the surface of the downs or in gravel-pits. In some cases, 
however, the test itself became impregnated with silica; for the 
limy substance, of which the test is made, is very porous. The 
pores usually are filled in fossil specimens with crystalline carbonate 
of lime; but sometimes the silica got in first. When the flint was 
_once deposited in this way, so long as it remained in the Chalk there 
was a tendency for further flint to be deposited round it, and so the 
sea-urchins are occasionally found embedded in masses of flint. 
Sometimes one finds only this surrounding flint with the impression 
of the outer surface of the urchin.” 


dy Ja OW JE ER WAY Sc 


1.—Tue Aroxt or Funarurt. Borines into aA Corat REEF AND 
THE Resutts. Burne THE Report or THE CoraL Reer Com- 
MITTEE OF THE Royat Society. 4to; pp. xiv and 428, with 
6 plates at end of text and folding chart of soundings, 69 cuts 
in text, also with 19 plates in a separate portfolio. (Published 
by the Royal Society, 1904.) 


fV\HE much-discussed question as to the origin of Atolls has, of 

late years, been left a moot point, because the adherents to 
this theory or to that have recognised that no- satisfactory con- 
clusion can be come to without much further evidence, particularly 
that which would probably be supplied by a deep boring into an 
atoll. Such an undertaking, advocated by Charles Darwin, who 
first made the question of the origin of atolls notorious, has at 
last been accomplished by expeditions during three consecutive 
years, sent. out under the control and at the expense of the Royal 
Society and the Government of New South Wales, and aided by 
private donations. 

The Report of the Coral Reef Committee of the Royal Society 
on these expeditions occupies the pages of the volume under con- 
sideration. It has been edited by Professor T. G. Bonney, D.Sc., 
F.R.S., who became responsible for passing the volume through the 
press, and was also Chairman of the Coral Reef Committee. In the 
preface he gives a brief history of the various stages of the enter- 
prise from its inception in 1893 to its completion. Its primary 
object, as defined in the instructions to its first leader, Prof. Sollas, 
was to investigate, by means of a boring, the depth and structure of 
a coral-reef, and all other work undertaken in furtherance of natural 
knowledge was to be considered as secondary to this object, whilst 


220 Reviews—The Atoll of Funafuti. 


with regard to the publication of the results, the Council of the 
Royal Society authorised the preparation of a monograph of which 
the main feature should be a description of the whole core from the 
points of view of the naturalist and the chemist. The cores and 
loose material were brought to London for detailed examination, 
and subsequently the hall-cylinders of core and duplicate portions 
of the loose material have been returned to Sydney, and the part 
retained in England has been placed in the British Museum (Natural 
History) at Cromwell Road, South Kensington. 

Professor Bonney further states, ‘that into the controversies about 
the development of coral-reefs, those who have been concerned in the 
preparation of this volume have not attempted to enter. They have 
endeavoured to state facts, and leave it to readers to interpret these 
for themselves. . . . . Atany rate the composition, zoological 
and chemical, of an atoll down to a depth of 1,114 feet has now, 
for the first time, been made known.” The final success of the 
undertaking is attributed by Professor Bonney to the zeal, energy, 
and liberality of friends in New South Wales, more especially of 
Professors Edgeworth David and Anderson Stuart, and of the 
Government of that Colony. 

The Report is divided into fourteen sections, in which each author 
gives an account of the observations in his own branch of the 
work and of the results obtained, and in many cases inferences 
from these results are drawn. It is, however, desirable to bear in 
mind that these inferences represent the views of the individual 
authors of the respective sections, as in some instances they appear 
to be rather speculative. 

The narrative, by Professor W. J. Sollas, D.Sc., F.R.S., of the 
first expedition, sent out under him in 1896, occupies the first 
section. The expedition was of little importance, except as paving 
the way for those that followed, and enabling them to succeed 
throngh the knowledge gained by its failures. For a failure 
it was as far as its main object was concerned; although two 
borings were aes ie the first reached a depth of only 105 feet, 
and the second 7 They failed mainly through the inability of 
the machinery to iaea with alternations of hard cavernous rock and 
loose sand. 

To quote Prof. Sollas :— Although the boring proved a failure, 
several other objects of the expedition were attained with complete 
success. Messrs. Hedley and Gardiner made a thorough investigation 
of the flora and fauna, both land and marine. Dr. Collingwood 
obtained a good deal of information of ethnological interest, and we 
all made a fairly complete collection of native implements and 
manufactures. A daily record was kept of maximum and minimum 
temperatures, and of the readings of dry and wet bulb thermometers. 

The most important contribution, however, is afforded 
by the investigations of Captain Field, who made a complete topo- 
graphical survey of the Atoll, and a vast number of soundings both 


in the lagoon and the outer sea; he also carried out magnetic and 
tidal observations.” 


Reviews—The Atoll of Funafuti. 221 


A general description of the atoll is given, of its submarine slopes 
and of its surface features. ‘The latter present six zones from the 
ocean to the lagoon, namely: (1) the Nullipore Rim; (2) the reef- 
flat; (8) the glacis of coral rock ; (4) the Hurricane Beach ; (5) the 
central flat of the islet; (6) the lagoon mound. 

The features of the glacis of coral rock, especially its isolated 
outliers, are discussed, and also the mode of growth and the horizon 
of Heliopora and Porites now growing in the lagoon, as bearing on 
the former condition of the island; and the conclusion is arrived 
at that the island has undergone oscillations of level, which may 
possibly be correlated with a preglacial, glacial, genial, and present- 
day period in geological time. — 

Section ii, by H. C. Russell, C.M.G., F.R.S., gives an account of 
the meteorological observations made during the stay of Professor 
Sollas on the island; and section iil, by Captain E. W. Creak, 
R.N., F.R.S., is the report on the results of the Magnetic Survey 
of the atoll made by the officers of H.M.S. ‘“ Penguin,” the ship 
which conveyed the expedition under Professor Sollas to Funafuti. 

Section iv is the narrative, by Professor T. W. Edgeworth David, 
B.A., F.R.S., of the second and third expeditions made during the 
years 1897 and 1898. 

After the failure of the expedition in 1896, Professor David, of 
Sydney, incited those interested in New South Wales to make a further 
effort to bore Funafuti, with improved boring-plant. By means of 
generous gifts of £650 from Miss Hadith Walker, of Sydney, and 
£100 from Mr. Ralph Abercromby, together with the loan of a diamond 
drill from the New South Wales Government, it was possible to send 
out a second expedition in 1897. A main bore was started, and, 
while this work was proceeding, an attempt was made to bore the 
floor of the lagoon. This lagoon boring proved a failure, and the 
raft on which the plant was erected was wrecked during a gale. 
Meanwhile the main bore proceeded slowly, and when it became 
necessary to return a depth of 698 feet had been reached. 

In addition to the boring a geological survey was made of the 
various islets of the atoll, and a collection formed of various 
organisms living on the seaward slope of the atoll from depths of 
between 20 and 200 fathoms. 

In the next year, 1898, “it was considered very desirable that 
an attempt should be made to deepen the main bore, and accordingly 
the Government of New South Wales and the Royal Society of 
London were approached on this subject. ‘They both generously 
responded,” and a third expedition was sent out under the leadership 
of Mr. A. K. Finckh. The Admiralty detailed H.M.S. “ Porpoise,” 
Captain F. C. D. Sturdee, for the work of again attempting a boring 
through the lagoon floor. This was accomplished successfully by 
Mr. G. H. Halligan, who sank two bores, one reaching 144 feet and 
the other 1138 feet below the floor of the lagoon. The main bore, 
started during the previous year, was reopened, and a depth of 
1,114 feet was attained. In addition to these results, permanent 
marks were left on the island by Mr. Halligan. 


222 Reviews—The Atoll of Funafuti. 


Section v, written by Professor David and Mr. G. Sweet, F.GS., 
deals with the geology of the Funafuti atoll. Describing first its 
shape as a whole, they suggest that its elongation in a meridional 
direction is due rather to its being situated in a volcanic zone or 
fold-ridge, than to any influence of prevalent winds and ocean 
currents. The prevalent winds are the north-west monsoons and 
the south-east trades, the former being the stronger, and the storms 
caused by both result in the formation of the hurricane beaches of 
the islets. 

The islets, as shown on the maps and sections accompanying the 
volume, may be divided into zones as already stated. A glance at the 
maps, however, shows a much more detailed division of the surface 
of the land than was given by Professor Sollas. It is to be regretted 
that Professor Sollas’ divisions and those of Professor David are not 
compared, for in casually reading the account of one and then of 
the other the correlation is not obvious. However, the order from 
the ocean to the lagoon, and the correlation with the divisions of 
Professor Sollas, seem to be as follows. The symbols on the maps 
are given in brackets. 


1. The outermost rim of living Lithothamnion (O.L. 10) = the Nullipore Rim of 


Sollas. 
2. Zone of dead Lzthothamnion (O. 3) = the reef-flat of Sollas. 
3. Old reef of Heliopora and Porites (O.L. 1) \ = glacis of coral rock 
4. Breccia which overlies 3 (0.2 B., 0.2C., O0.2D.) J of Sollas. 
5. Hurricane beach (O. 4) = hurricane beach of Sollas. 


6. Old reef of Heliopora and Porites and breccia, ) 
together with various newer and older > = central flat of islet of Sollas. 


superficial deposits (L. 6, L. 7, ete.) ) 
7. Inner hurricane beach (O. 4), not always present. 
8. Various superficial deposits of lagoon beach (LL. 8, L. 9). \ 
9. Old reef of Heliopora and Porites and breccia, cropping out on |] 
lagoon side. Not mentioned 
10. Zone of living Lzthothamnion, present in channels leading into by Sollas. 
the lagoon, and in some places on the lagoon side of the 


islets. 


The reef of ZZeliopora and Porites is the oldest rock which crops 
out on the island, and is in most places covered by the breccia. 
All the other deposits are superficial, and lie irregularly on these, 
which thus form the primitive reef-platform. 

The sequence of events, which is not very clearly stated, seems to 
have been as follows:—First the Heliopora and Porites reef was 
formed, and then there was an uplift of from six to ten feet, during 
which time the breccia was formed by the marine denudation of the 
reef. The land then sank about 8 feet, and the breccia became 
cemented by Lithothamnion. Then another. elevation occurred, 
allowing the breccia to come under the action of the waves which 
made breaches in the breccia barrier; and.so the several islets were 
formed, and subsequently the Hurricane banks were piled up from 
the material of the breccia. Minor oscillations of level occurred, 
the present subaerial deposits were laid down, and the present fauna 
was introduced; a deposit of silt killed the Heliopora near the 
lagoon shore. Finally, there was an upward movement of 6 or 


Reviews—The Atoll of Funafuti. 223 


7 inches which killed the Zithothamnion, then living in the zone now 
marked as ‘dead’ Zithothamnion (O.3). At the same time the 
Hurricane beaches were pushed further back. 

In the future, probably, the lagoon will be filled up by the — 
growth of Halimeda, and the islets will be gradually levelled by 
marine denudation. Against this destruction may be set a present 
upward movement of the land, as well as a very slowly widening 
rim of Zithothamnion. But another levelling factor is the subaerial 
denudation caused by the torrential tropical rains. 

The biology of the reef-forming organisms, by Alfred E. Finckh, 
forms the subject of the next section. 

Three main marine biological zones are noted, namely: (a) that 
of living Lithothamnion; (b) a zone of less active growth between 
the former zone and that line which marks the limit of the waves at 
low-water spring-tides; (¢) the lagoon in which occur all forms 
found outside and in addition Heliopora caerulea. The bottom of 
the lagoon is formed mainly of Halimeda sand. 

The organisms of the reef now forming, in the order of their 
importance, are as follows: (a) Lithothamnion, (b) Halimeda, 
(c) Foraminifera, (d) Corals and Hydrocorallines. Lithothamnion 
occurs in three forms, two encrusting and one frondose. Halimeda 
is the most important organism in the lagoon. The chief use of 
the corals and hydrocorallines in reef-building is to form a base- 
work on which Lithothamnion can grow. ‘There are five main 
groups of corals and hydrocorallines occurring as follows in order 
of importance in reef-building: (a) Heliopora cerulea, (b) the 
Millepores, (c) the Porites family, (d) Madrepora, (e) Pocillopora. 

Mention is made in this section of the enemies of the reef-formers. 
Hxcluding Lithothamnion, which, by its cementing action, constructs 
the reef more than it destroys it by its swamping effects on the other 
reef-forming organisms, the chief enemies are two Gephyrean 
worms, one of which is a Sipunculoid (Aspidosiphon). Holothuroids, 
supposed by Darwin to be destructive to the reef-formers, are 
acquitted of this charge, for it was found that their food was entirely 
composed of microscopic organisms. 

A series of experiments are next described, carried out to ascertain, 
if possible, the rate of growth of the reef-forming organisms. The 
lack of experience in such experiments, their novel character, and 
the consequent absence of suitable apparatus caused the results to be 
somewhat vague. The situation of the camp precluded experiments 
upon the branching form of Zithothamnion and upon Heliopora. 
Four methods were employed, namely, weighing at intervals, 
measuring at intervals areas marked out on the coral by glass pins, 
measuring the distance of approaching portions of a coral and noting 
how long they took to meet, and causing the organism to grow 
through a hole in a board. Many of these specimens are now 
exhibited in the Geological Department of the British Museum, 
South Kensington. Experiments were also made on the amount of 
exposure to the sun needed to kill the various reef-formers. Less 
than two hours sufficed in the case of all except Porites. 


224 Reviews—The Atoll of Funafuti. 


Section vii is a short report of the dredging at Funafuti, by 
Professor David, G. H. Halligan, and EK. A. Finckh. 

In the lagoon seventeen out of eighteen dredgings were composed 
of detrital Halimeda and fragments of shells intermixed with 
a little seaweed. In the ocean living Halimeda only occurred 
down to 45 fathoms, the limit of penetration of red and yellow 
light. No pieces of an ancient coral-reef were dredged. 

The branching form of Zithothamnion was found only to occur 
in shallow water. Thus it was thought that its presence in the 
cores might be of use in determining the depth at which any 
particular piece was formed. However, Dr. Hinde is of opinion 
that the exact form of Zithothamnion in the cores cannot be satis- 
factorily determined, that is, whether the branching, nodose, and 
incrusting forms correspond with the similar growth-forms from 
the reef-slopes. 

Section viii is a report on the lagoon borings by G. H. Halligan. 

Two borings were made at spots in the floor of the lagoon where 
the depth at low water spring tides was 101 feet. The first passed 
through 814 feet mostly of Halimeda débris, next through 18 inches. 
of hard coral, 35 feet of coral fragments, 18 inches of coral, and, 
finally, again through 264 feet of coral material, thus in all 144 feet 
beneath the floor of the lagoon, or 245 feet below the sea-level. 
The second boring, a short distance from the first. went through 
914 feet of Halimeda débris, next through 3 feet of hard coral 
with intermediate bands of softer material, and then entered coral 
gravel and sand, to a depth altogether beneath the lagoon floor 
of 944 feet, or 196 feet below the sea-level. Mr. Halligan finishes 
his report with the following words :—‘“ It is perhaps only fair to 
mention that the lagoon borings here described were undertaken 
without the least idea of the formation to be expected, and were 
carried out under the most unfavourable circumstances possible. 
: Had it not been for the co-operation and energy of the 
captain, officers, and men of H.M.S. ‘ Porpoise,’ the work could not 
have been carried out at all.” 

Section ix, by the same author as the last, describes the permanent 
marks left by him on the island of Funafuti, to register for future 
reference the present levels of different spots. These marks were 
made of iron pipes let into the coral rock. 

Section x is the general report by Professor J. W. Judd, C.B., 
LL.D., F.R.S., on the materials sent from Funafuti and the methods. 
of dealing with them. The cylindrical cores and fragments of 
solid rock from the different borings were, on their arrival in 
London, slit longitudinally, and from those in the main boring to 
a depth of about 800 feet from the surface a thin slab of the whole 
size of each core was cut out of its middle. This slicing proved 
a very arduous task, particularly in the nearly continuous solid cores. 
of the lower 400 feet of the boring, but it was very effectively done 
by means of a lapidary’s wheel driven by an electro-motor. The 
slit surfaces of the hard cores when thus treated were sufficiently 
well polished to allow of the determination of the iarger organisms 


Reviews—The Atoll of Funafuti. 225: 


by means of a lens, whilst for the examination of the minute forms 
and of the mineral characters of the rock, more than 500 microscopic 
sections were prepared. 

In addition to the materials from the borings, large collections 
of the existing fauna and flora of the atoll were made by Mr. Stanley 
Gardiner and Mr. Hedley, and Professor David and Mr. G. Sweet 
made strenuous efforts, at no small personal risk, to dredge up the 
organisms existing on the steep ocean slopes of the present reef to 
a depth of 200 fathoms. As a description of the existing organisms 
of the atoll was not included in the scope of the undertaking, the 
collections made have been, in part, studied by different specialists 
in this country and in Australia, and the results published in 
various scientific journals. A list of these memoirs is given by 
Professor Judd. 

Section xi, by Dr. G. J. Hinde, F.R.S., contains the report on 
the materials from the borings at the Funafuti Atoll. 

The main achievement of the later expeditions to Funafuti, under 
the direction of Professor David and Messrs. Finckh and Sweet, 
was the penetration of the reef at the main boring to a depth of 
1,114 feet and obtaining materials which showed distinctly the 
nature of the rock to this depth. These materials were subjected 
to very careful scrutiny, and a detailed record of the various 
organisms recognized in each separate portion of the cores and their 
general mineral condition is given in this section of the Report. 
The nature of the material varied greatly in different parts of the 
boring. To the depth of 748 feet from the surface the greater part 
of the rock seems to have been of a friable and incoherent character, 
which in the process of boring was reduced to fine granular particles 
usually called sand, whilst the aggregate length of the solid portions 
of the core only reached 73 feet, or about one-tenth of the distance 
passed through. On the other hand, the lower third of the boring 
from 748 feet to the bottom at 1,114 feet was to a very large extent 
solid rock, forming a nearly continuous cylindrical core 311 feet 
in length. The friable upper portion down to 687 feet was mainly 
of calcium carbonate, whilst the lower solid third of the core was 
of dolomitic limestone. 

No true oolitic grains were met with in any part of the cores, 
nor was any pumice or other volcanic material recognized. The 
presence of silica was not detected, though siliceous boring sponges 
were originally very numerous. Lines of stratification were not 
distinguished in the cores. 

The rock throughout was entirely organic, derived from the 
calcareous skeletons of marine invertebrate animals and calcareous 
alge; the principal rock-formers belong to Foraminifera, Corals, 
and Algz, and with these are associated detached spines and test- 
plates of echinoderms, annelid tubes, crustacean tests, spicules of 
calcisponges and tunicates, and the shells or casts of lamellibranchs. 
and gasteropods. The only vertebrate remains found in the cores was 
a single fragment of fish-bone or spine less than an inch in length. 

Of the Foraminifera 35 genera are represented in the main boring ; 

DECADE V.—VOL. I.—NO. Y. 15 


226 Reviews—The Atoll of Funafuti. 


they are equally as abundant in the cores and loose materials 
throughout the boring as in the beds at the surface of the reef 
now forming. The most important rock-forming genera in the 
order of their relative abundance are Amphistegina, Polytrema, 
Orbitolites, Heterostegina, Carpenteria, Gypsina, and Calcarina. All 
the forms belong to genera still existing, and no examples of 
characteristic Tertiary species were recognized. For the determi- 
nation of critical forms the author acknowledges the invaluable 
assistance of Mr. F. Chapman. 

Corals, including Alcyonaria and Hydrocoralline as well as the 
Madreporaria in this term, are present throughout the main boring, 
but, especially in the lower 350 feet, they are more numerous and 
varied than in the upper part. They have suffered greater changes 
in fossilization than any other group of organisms, and below a depth 
of 180 feet in the boring their walls and other structures have been 
for the most part dissolved and removed, and only casts in sedi- 
mentary or crystalline materials remain. In many instances they 
appear to be in the position of growth. Twenty-eight genera have 
been recorded from the borings; 22 of these are living at the 
present time on the reefs or in the lagoon at Funafuti. The 
commoner genera such as Millepora, Lobophytum, Stylophora, 
Pocillopora, Astrea, Orbicella, Fungia, Madrepora, -Astreopora, 
Montipora, and Porites range from the top to the bottom of the 
main boring, but not continuously, for a particular form which 
has flourished through a series of consecutive cores will often dis- 
appear for a variable interval and then come in again. All the 
forms met with are reef corals; no examples of deep-water forms 
have been recognized in any of the cores. 

Of the calcareous Algee the most important genus, Lithothamnion, 
is represented by branching nodular, and, more especially, by 
encrusting forms which grow over corals and other organisms so 
as to bind them fast together and form layers of very compact 
dense rock. Another genus, Halimeda, is widely distributed through- 
out the cores; in some parts of the main boring and in the boring 
beneath the floor of the lagoon the rock is mainly composed of 
their detached segments. 

Though the main boring reached to a depth of 1,114 feet it did 
not penetrate through the reef-rock, and the cores from the bottom 
were as distinctly reef-like as those from any other part of the 
boring. 

The last three sections, dealing with the chemical and mineralogical 
composition of the cores, are of great interest. 

First, Professor Judd describes the chemical aspect of the cores 
as shown in numerous analyses made by his assistants, Dr. C. G. 
Cullis and Dr. E. W. Skeats, and by Mr. Hart Smith, and this may 
be generally stated as follows. As far as 637 feet from the surface 
the core consists of calcium carbonate with a small proportion of 
magnesium carbonate. Below 687 feet the proportion of magnesium 
carbonate rises fairly suddenly to nearly 40 per cent. of the whole. 
Calcium phosphate is present throughout in minute quantities. 


Reviews—The Atoll of Funafuti. — 227 


Volcanic rock is entirely absent. The proportion of magnesium 
carbonate between the depths of 10 and 20 feet rises considerably, 
and then falls away again. Professor Judd shows that under 
certain conditions calcium carbonate is more soluble than magnesium 
carbonate, and he thinks that “down to 637 feet the degree of 
enrichment of the rock by magnesium carbonate may be probably 
ascribed to the leaching out of calcium carbonate,” and this accounts 
for the friability of the upper part of the core. 

The presence of the large percentage of magnesium carbonate in 
the lower part of the boring is considered by Professor Judd to be 
due to some such segregation as has produced flints in the Chalk, 
and the iron disulphide nodules of other formations. The material 
of a reef “‘is everywhere permeated and acted upon by sea-water, 
containing a very notable proportion of magnesium, principally in 
the condition of chlorides and sulphates. May not these materials, 
enriched by the magnesium carbonate, exercise an attractive action 
on the magnesium salts of the ocean waters, giving rise to double 
decomposition and the gradual replacement of a part of the calcium 
in the carbonates by magnesium ? ” 

Section xiii consists of some remarks by H. C. Sorby, LL.D., Kaos 
concerning the production of aragonite and dolomite in the coral 
rock. Dr. Sorby thinks that there “ may be special conditions not 
fully understood under which carbonate of lime may crystallise as 
aragonite at such a temperature as would be met with in coral 
rock.” Obviously this must be so, for Dr. Cullis has found secondary” 
aragonite in the cores. Dr. Sorby was not able by artificial means 
to replace calcium carbonate by dolomite; he only succeeded in 
replacing it by magnesium carbonate. 

The last section is the account; by C. Gilbert Cullis, D.Sc., F.G.S., 
of the mineralogical changes observed in the Funafuti borings. 
Near the surface the cores consist of calcite and aragonite according 
to the composition of the skeletons of the organisms of which it is 
made. The magnesium carbonate and other chemicals present in _ 
the cores are not perceptible in a microscope-section as crystals. 

The first change that occurs as a greater depth is reached is that 
the cavities in the organisms composing the cores become filled with 
secondary calcite and aragonite. Next the secondary aragonite 
becomes converted into calcite, and finally the primary aragonite 
also becomes similarly converted. Thus at 220 feet the cores 
consist entirely of calcite. From 637 feet dolomite begins to 
replace the calcite, and from 650 to 820 feet pure dolomite is present. 
From 820 to 875 feet, and again from 1,050 to 1,070 feet, calcite is 
again present with the dolomite. Apart from this the core from 650 
to 1,114 feet, the lowest point reached, is of pure dolomite. 

This section is excellently illustrated with figures of microscope- 
slides of sections from different depths, and also by diagrams 
illustrating the mineralogical changes. 

The volume is illustrated by six plates, a number of woodcuts, 
and charts of the atoll. Accompanying it is a portfolio with 
geological maps and sections of the islands. Printed in large, clear 


228 Reviews—Dr. Rowe on the White Chalk of Yorkshire. 


type, and finishing with a good index, it has all the requirements of 
a book of reference. 

The evidence of the borings shows that, in the case of Funafuti,. 
with small temporary oscillations of level, there must have been 
a steady downward movement for a very long time to account for 
1,100 feet of coral rock of comparatively recent accumulation. 
Another noticeable conclusion is that, at any rate in the case of 
this ‘coral island,’ corals are not the most important reef-formers. 

It is a matter for regret that the Royal Society should be unable 
to afford a larger sum for carrying out an undertaking of the 
importance of that described. The expeditions in consequence had 
to depend largely on private donations and individual help, and 
without these the second expedition would never have been started. 
On the other hand, all scientific men will read with pleasure how 
willingly assistance of all kinds was rendered by those private 
persons with whom the expedition came in contact. 

W. Dak: 


IJ.—Dr. A. W. Rowe on tHE Zones oF THE Wuitr CHALK OF: 
Yorxsuire. (Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. xviii, pt. 4; 104 pp. 


24 plates and 2 text-figures.) (London: E. Stanford, 1904. 
Price 3s.) 


N this breezy record of his work in Yorkshire Dr. Rowe has 
compounded a bracing tonic for all geologists, and especially 
for those whose appreciative faculties may have become so impaired 
by the undigested load of accumulated facts that they have lost 
that keen relish for discovery which should be the never-failing 
reward of the investigator. We are made to feel as we read this 
paper that to its author every fresh discovery still comes, as it 
should come, with the force of a revelation, and is honoured as such. 
Surely, whoever reads that exciting dramatic episode—so well told 
and withal so refreshing in technical literature—of the finding of the 
prognosticated Micraster after a venturesome voyage to a well-nigh 
inaccessible part of the coast must realize that there are moments 
when it is indeed good to be a geologist! The importance of 
our discoveries in science, where not directly ‘practical,’ depends. 
mainly upon the force with which they appeal to our imagination, 
and herein lies the strength of Dr. Rowe’s method. His naive 
surprise when the new knowledge happens to burst the bounds 
of his previous experience, and his satisfaction when it happens to 
conform to that experience, are admirably expressed and equally 
delightful. The whole process by which dead facts become vital 
thoughts is exemplified as Dr. Rowe picks up shred after shred 
of evidence and pieces it into his fabric. We are forcibly reminded 

of Browning’s fine description of the scientific method— 

** Up and down, inch by inch, with the taper his reason 

No torch, it suffices—held deftly and straight. 
Eyes purblind at first, feel their way in due season.” 

The author knows that he is doing work worth doing and is doing it 
well, and he is happy in doing it. No wonder, then, that geologists. 


Reviews—Dr. Rowe on the White Chalk of Yorkshire. 229 


and palzontologists alike have watched his progress with admiration 
and with critical interest! The results which he has already 
achieved are of far-reaching importance, and the paper before us 
shows that he has not yet reached the zenith of his powers. 

The zonal correlation of the Yorkshire Chalk with the Chalk 
of the South of England presents many difficulties, and in spite 
of the brave attempt made by Dr. C. Barrois over a quarter of 
a century ago, it has been long recognized by local workers that 
the problem was still unsolved. This problem Dr. Rowe has taken 
as his latest holiday task, and with the aid of his trusty coadjutor, 
Mr. C. D. Sherborn, has shown that by proper methods even the 
sturdily resistant mass of Flamborough Head may be sliced up into 
zones more or less closely equivalent to those of the south, with 
well-nigh the same ease as the less obdurate cliffs that overlook 
the Channel. 

On taking his giant-stride northward, however, Dr. Rowe has 
found himself confronted by many conditions that were new to 
him and by many problems that for the present he is content to 
waive. He has wisely concentrated his forces upon the establish- 
ment of the broad correlation, and has regarded other matters as 
side-issues to be dealt with when the opportunity occurs. 

The keynote of his attitude is struck in the introduction to his 
paper and is well sustained throughout. ‘We have long cherished 
a furtive ambition,” he writes, “‘to explore this mysterious and 
legendary coast.” And again, “There is a glamour and fascination 
attached to the unknown, which, coupled with the acknowledged 
difficulties of a coast like this, greatly adds to the zest of the work. 
For this coast is unknown. It is a veritable terra incognita.” 

Now, this last sentence will seem a hard saying to the assiduous 
local investigators to whom Dr. Rowe warmly expresses his in- 
debtedness; and even to anyone knowing only the previously 
published literature it may appear high-pitched. But the author 
justifies his statement in the context, by explaining that the only 
kind of information which he himself desired was not available 
until he had explored the land. After all, he has only taken the 
customary privilege of the explorer of new regions, with whom the 
uncoordinated local knowledge of the aborigines does not count. 
And in similar manner it may happen in the future that Kent itself 
will prove a terra incognita to a worker carrying some special line 
of investigation southward from the Northern Chalk, for it is certain 
that there is still an open field for research in every part of the 
formation. 

Dr. Rowe’s Yorkshire work is of peculiar interest inasmuch as it 
reveals not only the strength but also the weakness of the zonal 
method of correlation when applied to districts lying apart. We find 
that again and again is the author startled by the strangeness of his 
northern experiences, until at last he is constrained to declare— 
«““The record of the fauna in this area constitutes a veritable zoo- 
logical romance. Verily it is a land of strange zonal occurrences and 
of still more strange zonal omissions. It is, indeed, the remarkable 


230 Reviews—Dr. Rowe on the White Chalk of Yorkshire. 


absence of some of the commonest zonal fossils, together with the 
unreliability of others which do exist, which has rendered the task 
of zoning this Chalk so difficult, but, withal, so fascinating.” That 
is how the scanty ill-preserved fauna of the Yorkshire Chalk appeals 
to one who has the art to read its lesson ! 

Now, the meaning underlying this and other similar sentences 
evidently is that Dr. Rowe, having been able to define the range of 
most of the Chalk fossils in the cliff-sections of the South of England 
within fixed limits, and having found them persistent within these 
limits in that region, had begun to have faith in these zonal 
boundaries as representing the full life-history of the species. But 
his journey northward has impressed upon him that the range of 
many of his zonal species is not everywhere the same. It is true 
that he has still managed skilfully to extract sufficient evidence to 
re-establish Barrois’ system of correlation on a firmer basis, and to 
prove, what was indeed already acknowledged, that the general 
zonal succession in Yorkshire corresponds to that in the South of 
England. In studying the range of the individual species, however, 
and their grouping, he finds that some cherished guides have 
wandered far from the path of zonal rectitude. Thus we read— 
“The vertical range of certain fossils, usually restricted in their 
distribution, is so vast that their very persistence is bewildering. 
As instances of this contention we may quote a range of 800 feet 
for Actinocamax granulatus, and 650 feet for Actinocamaxz verus; 
while Cardiaster ananchytis has been traced for 640 feet, and 
Infulaster rostratus for nearly 700 feet.” 

“That Actinocamax verus should be found in the quadratus-chalk ; 
that Actinocamax granulatus should be found some 350 feet up in 
the same zone; that Infulaster rostratus should range from the 
zone of Micraster cor-testudinarium to that of Actinocamaz quadratus ; 
and that Cardiaster ananchytis should extend from the Micraster 
cor-anguinum-zone to the same horizon, are facts sufficiently unusual 
to warrant special comment.” 

Therefore, although Dr. Rowe and Mr. Sherborn have been able 
to prove the presence in the Flamborough cliffs of all the zones 
from that of Rhynchonella Cuvieri to that of Actinocamaaz quadratus, 
inclusive, it is acknowledged that for some of these zones the guide- 
fossils on which they had been accustomed to rely are inadequaie 
in this district for the identification of the divisions. 

To meet this difficulty Dr. Rowe suggests, though with evident 
reluctance (p. 219), that in certain cases the name of some other 
fossil, locally abundant, should be associated with the established 
name-fossil as its ‘local equivalent.” We commend the wisdom 
of this course, for however much it may be desirable to adhere to 
established zonal nomenclature for purposes of wide-reaching cor- 
relation, it is unnecessarily perplexing to the student and irritating 
to the stratigrapher to find that a particular zone is marked by the 
absence of its name-fossil ! 

Hence the choice of the characteristic Inoceramus lingua as the 
local guide for the zone of Actinocamax quadratus, since the last- 


Reviews—Dr. Rowe on the White Chalk of Yorkshire. 231 


named form appears not yet to have been found at all in Yorkshire, 
will meet with the approval of every local worker. 

The choice of Infulaster rostratus to serve a similar purpose for 
the zone of Micraster cor-anguinum is, however, open to question, 
although when first suggested it seemed to the present writer to 
be well adapted. But its range has been so greatly extended by 
Dr. Rowe’s researches, both above and below the belt in which it is 
most abundant, and with which its name is now associated, that its 
unsupported presence seems inadequate to determine the zone, and 
we should feel less confident than the author in assigning a smal 
inland pit “ without hesitation ” to the zone of Micraster cor-anguinum 
on the strength of the discovery of this fossil alone (p. 233). 

And here we may note that in respect to Dr. Rowe’s demarcation 
of the zone of Micraster cor-anguinum there appears to be a certain 
arbitrariness, perhaps unavoidable but still unsatisfactory, especially 
since the zone as now defined is made to bestride the only lithological 
line traceable in the Yorkshire Chalk, namely, that separating the flinty 
from the fiintless Chalk. Indeed, with regard to several of the zonal 
boundaries Dr. Rowe will no doubt himself be ready to allow that in 
these Yorkshire sections, when the evidence is often so imperfect, the 
chosen line reflects in its particular location an opinion or deduction 
rather than an absolute fact, even though it represent the best con- 
ventional line that is likely to be attained. The position is precisely 
that in which the mere stratigrapher often finds himself in tracing 
boundaries that he knows to lie within certain limits but to be in- 
determinable within these limits. And just as the stratigrapher’s line 
when drawn on the map sometimes gives an unwarranted impression 
of finality, so may these zonal boundaries if too rigidly interpreted. 

One important deduction to be drawn, then, from Dr. Rowe’s 
experiences in the Yorkshire Chalk —a deduction that has also 
impressed itself upon the present writer in extending the area of 
his investigations in the Lower Cretaceous rocks—is that, although 
the general succession of life-forms that go to the making of 
‘zones’ remains constant over wide areas, the range and association 
of individual species, however sharply defined at one spot, can 
rarely be traced far without showing disintegration and change. 
Thus the difficulties that beset the stratigrapher owing to gradual 
change in the lithological character of sediments have their 
counterpart in the difficulties that beset the zonal paleontologist 
in the gradual change of zoological assemblages. 

The diversity between the fauna of the southern and northern 
Chalk has long been recognized, but it has never before been so 
definitely formulated as by Dr. Rowe, and we regard this detailed 
comparison as the most valuable part of his paper. For the present 
he is content to state the differences without attempting further to 
discuss the cause than to state (p. 280) that they afford ‘‘ convincing 
evidence of the working of variation in geographical distribution.” 
It is indeed astonishing that in such a continuous and homogeneous 
mass as the Chalk, which seems to postulate that the physical 
conditions of the sea-floor must have been well-nigh identical over 
the whole region covered by the deposit, there should be this great 


232 Reviews—Dr. Rowe on the White Chalk of Yorkshire. 


difference between the fauna of corresponding horizons in Yorkshire 
and in Kent. It is true that in the Lower Cretaceous the difference 
between the two areas is even more conspicuous, but in this case 
we are dealing with beds of diverse lithological composition, and 
with complex geographical conditions that are sufficient to explain 
the anomalies. 

What is the meaning of this extraordinary diversity within the 
same geographical province? We can scarcely believe that climatic 
variation due to the trifling difference in latitude could make itself 
directly felt at the bottom of the comparatively deep Upper Cre- 
taceous sea. Can it have been due to the influence of cold-water 
currents creeping down from the north? Or may we surmise that 
some of the life-forms themselves in spreading from separate centres 
of dispersal have exerted a mutually antagonistic effect upon each 
other, so that they could not pass freely beyond their respective 
frontiers? Or is it, after all, only that ever-present mischief-maker, 
‘the imperfection of the geological record,’ that is to blame for our 
difficulties ? 

We hope that at some future time Dr. Rowe will deal more fully 
with this fascinating problem, for assuredly he is peculiarly well 
qualified for the task. And in doing so we shall expect that he 
will give us that comparison of the Yorkshire fauna with the fauna 
of the equivalent beds in Germany which is referred to (p. 284), 
but at present withheld. This comparison is likely to be of singular 
interest, for apparently some portions of the Yorkshire Chalk have, 
like portions of the Speeton Clay, closer faunistic affinities with the 
equivalent rocks of Germany than with those of the South of England. 

In laying stress upon this aspect of Dr. Rowe’s results we must 
not omit to call attention also to the discoveries of the author 
which go to strengthen the correlation between the northern and 
southern Chalk. Thus, his recognition of the plentiful occurrence 
of Uintacrinus in Yorkshire in its customary position at the base of 
the Marsupites-zone is a notable bond in the correlation and an 
advance on our previous knowledge. Several other southern fossils 
not hitherto recorded from Yorkshire have now been identified and 
are included in the new list. 

The value of the author’s method from the stratigraphical point 
of view is strikingly exemplified by his discovery that the zone of 
Rhynchonella Cuvieri is absolutely crushed out for a space by the 
overthrust fault in the Buckton Cliffs. The character of the dis- 
turbance at this place had been previously recognized, but its effect 
upon the sequence was unknown until established by the paleeonto- 
logical evidence. 

Another result given in this paper which the local geologists will 
be eager to apply in the field is the demonstration of a progressive 
deepening in the alveolar cavity of Actinocamaz granulatus when 
this fossil is traced upward through the quadratus-zone. We con- 
gratulate Dr. Rowe on his acumen in seizing upon practically the 
only organism of the Yorkshire Chalk which is sufficiently abundant 
and well-preserved to allow its zonal variation to be worked out. 


Reviews—Dr. Rowe on the White Chalk of Yorkshire. 233 


_ As the author expressly disclaims that his paper should be taken 

as more than “a preliminary attempt to bring the fauna of the 
Yorkshire coast into line with that of our southern sections,” and 
as he has so successfully achieved this object, it would be both 
unjust and ungrateful to consider his work in any other light, Now 
that the way is made clear we shall expect that the group of 
persistent investigators dwelling in the Hast Riding will push 
forward the work with renewed energy, not only testing what has 
been done but also adding to it where necessary. specially should 
we like to hear of the establishment of local zones of less extensive 
dimensions than those which Dr. Rowe has given us. The value 
of a narrow zone to the stratigrapher was strikingly manifest in the 
above-cited instance at the Buckton overthrust fault. Here the 
author had the advantage of having to deal with the only narrow 
zone in his category—that of Rhynchonella Cuviert. The thickness 
of this zone in the Buckton cliffs is no more than 11 feet, whereas the 
next in dimensions, those of Micraster cor-testudinarium and J. cor- 
anguinum, are given as 120 feet and 125 feet; and all the others 
range between 200 and 800 or more feet. Moreover, even with 
‘such extensive bounds allotted to them some of the zonal forms 
are still not content, but manage to invade their neighbour’s territory. 
Thus we learn that “ Holaster planus is as common in Yorkshire in 
the zone of Ter. gracilis as at its own horizon.” Faults of considerable 
magnitude may remain undetected in the interior uniess we can find 
means to identify belts of strata of much narrower limits. Indeed, 
‘we are reminded by the coloured map which accompanies Dr. Rowe’s 
paper of a long-standing suspicion that there is likely to be some 
disturbance of the normal succession at Speeton between the railway 
line and the coast, to which the pinching in of the zones in this 
quarter may be due; and the reviewer would recommend this area, 
with the country to the south and west, to further consideration. 

The Cenomanian or ‘ Lower Chalk’ in this as in his former papers 
does not come within the range of Dr. Rowe’s investigation. We 
think, however, that it would have been well at least to include it 
in giving estimates of the total thickness of the White Chalk of 
Yorkshire, since in this region the division is essentially part of the 
lithological mass which we mean when we refer to the ‘ Yorkshire 
Chalk.’ Moreover, this part of the series had previously been worked 
out with great care by Mr. W. Hill, so that accurate measurements 
were already available. It is true that passing reference is made 
to Mr. Hill’s paper, but there would have been a distinct advantage 
if we had had a few sentences giving a summary of this work in 
the present publication, so that some account of the whole section 
might have been contained under one cover. 

The lavish wealth of illustration to which Dr. Rowe has ac- 
customed us in his previous works is again granted to us and 
deserves our gratitude. The magnificent series of photographic 
reproductions (in most eases from originals for which the author 
tenders his acknowledgments to Professor H. E. Armstrong) brings 
up vivid reminiscences of this noble coastline. 


234 Reports and Proceedings—G@eological Society of London. 


The sections, prepared by Mr. C. D. Sherborn, are effective, though 
somewhat crudely diagrammatic. We notice, however, that the 
displacement by the fault at Selwicks is not indicated. The 
coloured map already referred to, also prepared by Mr. Sherborn, 
is a useful guide to the probable range of the zones in the interior 
of the headland, though in drawing the boundaries it is probable 
that insufficient allowance has been made for the relief of the 
ground in view of the prevalent low dip. The Appendices to the 
paper include the description by Mr. G. C. Crick of a curious. 
Belemnite, probably deformed by some injury to the living animal ; 
and there is also a short note by the present writer on the state 
of preservation of some of the Chalk fossils. 

In conclusion, let it be acknowledged that no adequate criticism» 
of work of this kind could be made except by one whose knowledge 
of the subject transcended that of the author. And our only hope, 
therefore, of ever obtaining such a criticism is that Dr. Rowe may 
himself undertake it some time in the future, when he has completed 
his examination of the separate districts and reviews his previous 
work as a whole. G. W. LameLueu. 


REPORTS AWD, ROC fea» ea=- 


——————— 


J.—Groxnoaioat Soorrry or Lonpon. 


March 23rd, 1904.—J. E. Marr, Sc.D., F.R.S., President, in the 
Chair. The following communication was read :— 


“On the Moine Gneisses of the East Central Highlands and their 
Position in the Highland Sequence.””! By George Barrow, Esq., F.G.S. 


The paper is divided into two parts. The first deals with the 
parallel banded grey gneisses or gneissose flagstones of the Perth- 
shire and Aberdeenshire districts, which, in their field-characters as 
well as in their composition and structure, are identical with the 
Moine gneisses of the North-West Highlands. A description is- 
given of these gneisses, as seen in and about the Garry in Perthshire, 
and this is followed by a brief account of the same rocks in the 
ground to the east and north-east, extending to the Forest of Inver- 
cauld, north of Braemar in Aberdeenshire. Special attention is 
drawn to the fact that towards the eastern end of the area large 
masses of highly quartzose gneiss occur, which are really part of the 
Central Highland quartzites in what the author conveniently describes. 
as a ‘ Moine phase,’ and should not strictly be included in the typical 
banded grey gneisses at all. 

In the second part, dealing with the mode of ending off of these 
gneisses to the south-east, it is shown that they cease to be recog- 
nizable as Moine gneisses, owing to the fact that they thin away and 
also become more finely banded, while at the same time they become 
less crystalline or cease to be gneisses. To prove this, an account 


1 Communicated by permission of the Director of H.M. Geological Survey. 


Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London, 235 


is given of a series of sections lying along a belt of 40 miles in 
length, extending nearly from Blair Atholl to the east of Balmoral, 
in Aberdeenshire. The first and most important of these occurs 
about Gilbert’s Bridge (in Glen Tilt), where the parallel banded 
Moine gneisses can be traced passing slowly into the honestones, in 
which parallel banding is equally well shown. This is a well-known 
horizon in the Central Highland sequence, lying next the white 
edge of the Highland Quartzite, forming, in fact, its orginal flaggy 
margin. These parallel banded rocks are in many cases succeeded 
directly by a very impure phase of the Main or Blair Atholl Lime- 
stone ; but in places patches of other material intervene, of which 
the most important is a dark schist: this suggests a small hiatus 
at the margin of the Limestone, and a photograph was exhibited to 
show this hiatus. The conclusions drawn from this section are 
supported by the section seen below Gilbert’s Bridge, and a somewhat 
similar one in the Banvie Burn, north of Blair Castle. As before, 
there is clearly a small hiatus at the base of the Limestone. 

In order to ascertain the meaning and extent of this break in the 
sequence, an account is next given of the complete succession near 
Braemar, and it is then seen that at Gilbert’s Bridge the Little 
Limestone and part, or at times the whole, of the Dark Schist is 
missing. The hiatus always tends to occur as an area is approached 
where the material forming the Moine gneiss thickens, and was 
originally of a rather coarser or more sandy nature. 

Where, however, the section is complete, it is seen that the 
material of the Moine gneisses is the flaggy margin or top of the 
Central Highland Quartzite; it is succeeded by the Little Lime- 
stone, above which is the Dark Schist, and then the Main or Blair 
Atholl Limestone. 

Other sections along the line of change are described, showing the 
varying phases of the honestones, and in two instances their passage 
into Moine gneiss. There is a constantly varying hiatus at the base 
of the Main Limestone, but in the whole 40 miles this never exceeds 
the omission of the entirety of the Black Schist and the Little Lime- 
stone (of no great original thickness). This break in the sequence 
is of small importance, and, as already stated, often disappears as 
the material from which the Moine gneisses were formed became 
thinner and finer, or more of the nature of a mud. 

Hvidence is then given to show that the honestones tended to 
become more sandy and to thicken south-eastward again, or in 
the opposite direction to that in which the Moine gneisses come on. 
From this the author concludes that the parallel banded material 
was deposited in a series of fans; in the larger fans we have the 
material of the Moine gneisses; in the smaller that of the honestones. 
Both are simply the flaggy top of the sandstone now forming the 
Central Highland Quartzite, and are in fact a passage rock on its 
margin. Anything like an unconformity between the two is 
obviously impossible. 


236 Reports and Proceedings—Mineralogical Society. 


TJ.—Mrneravocicat Society, March 22.— Professor H. A. Miers, 
¥.R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair. The following papers were 
read :—Irregularly developed crystals of zircon (specific gravity 4-0) 
from Ceylon: L. J. Spencer. The crystals were sent recently by 
Mr. A. K. Coomaraswamy to the British Museum for determination, 
and at first were thought to be rutile. They are of a dark-brown 
‘colour and almost opaque; the specific gravity is 4°09, and is 
unaltered by heating. A section cut perpendicular to the principal 
axis shows interesting variations in the optical characters, successive 
portions being isotropic, uniaxial, and biaxial; the mean refractive 
index is about 2:0. After being heated to redness and cooled, the 
material is bright-green in colour, and a crystal section is now 
entirely biaxial, although the interference figures and birefringence 
vary in different parts.—Notes on ‘Feather Ore,’ identity of 
‘domingite’ (= ‘ warrenite’) with jamesonite: LL. J. Spencer. 
‘Feather-ore’ is usually considered to be a variety of jamesonite ; 
but, since the latter has a good cleavage perpendicular to the 
length of the fibres, only brittle ‘feather-ore’ can be included in 
this species ; on the other hand, ‘ feather-ore’ the fibres of which are 
flexible may be either stibnite, zinckenite, plumosite (2 PbS, Sb, 8s), 
boulangerite, or meneghinite. ‘ Warrenite’ is a brittle ‘ feather- 
ore,’ and further has the same chemical formula (8 PbS, 2Sb, 8,) as 
that originally given for the cleavable Cornish jamesonite.—Note 
on the indices of refraction of antimonite: A. Hutchinson. A prism 
of refracting angle 8° 51’ was found sufficiently transparent to 
red light for the refractive indices to be determined in the usual 
way. The results obtained are 4:129 and 3°873 for rays vibrating 
parallel to the axes of z and a respectively. Measurements of the 
deviation of the ultra-red rays indicate high dispersion in this 
region of the spectrum. The investigation is being continued. 
The connection between the atom arrangements of the crystals of 
certain allied carbon compounds: W. Barlow. Using balls of the 
same relative size as employed in his previous work, for instance 
in models of calcite, the author forms a carboxyl slab. By uniting 
such slabs with balls representing barium, a structure is obtained 
which has the symmetry of barium formate. Again, by uniting 
the slabs with balls representing hydrogen, a structure with the 
symmetry of oxalic acid is formed. The author showed that in 
certain cases, in order to effect close packing, a relative shift was 
necessary between successive layers. He also briefly discussed the 
tartaric acids.—On the construction and use of the moriogram: 
G. F. Herbert Smith. The moriogram is a diagram devised by the 
author for the graphical determination of the angles between tautozonal 
poles, obeying the law of rational indices.—Note relative to the 
history of the Caperr meteorite: L. Fletcher, F.R.S.—On the 
meteoric irons of Bethany, Lion River, Springbok River, and Great 
Fish River, South Africa: L. Fletcher, F.R.S.—Professor J. W. 
Judd, F.R.S., exhibited two Gardette twins of quartz. 


ms 


Correspondence—G. W. Lamplugh. 23 


C@ virus Si @aNa® Beni @ ibs. 


BRIDLINGTON CRAG. 

Srr,—The shelly patches in the Basement Boulder-clay at 
Bridlington, known as the “ Bridlington Crag,” have been so long 
inaccessible that it may interest glacial geologists to know that these 
beds are being temporarily exposed in the foundations for a new 
sea-wall. It is now twenty-one years ago since these shelly patches: 
were last seen, in a brief exposure on the foreshore, and when the 
new wall is built they will be more hopelessly hidden than ever. 

The excavations are carried on between tide-marks, in short 
lengths which are filled in at once. The section which I saw three 
weeks ago during a hasty visit to Bridlington showed about 5 feet of 
Boulder-clay with narrow streaks and dabs of richly glauconitic 
sand full of broken shells. I learn that, in other places, larger 
patches of the sand, with some unbroken shells, have been found,. 
like the masses which I saw and described in 1882-3. 

It is satisfactory to be able to add that the Hast Yorkshire 
geologists are alive to the opportunity, and are taking steps to. 
secure material for the further study of this exceptionally interesting’ 


Arctic fauna. G. W. LampLuGu. 
Dvusuin. un 
@rS tae RASE Ra 
LIEUT.-GENERAL CHARLES ALEXANDER McMAHON, 
F.R.S., F.G.S. 
Born Marcu 23, 1830. Diep Frprvary 21, 1904. 


WE regret to record the loss of an excellent geologist and petro- 
logist, and a prominent Fellow of the Geological Society of London. 

The name of General McMahon suggests the thought of the 
number of Army officers who have taken up our science as a pursuit 
and achieved distinction, either in geology, paleontology, or in 
mineralogical geology, often without any early scientific training, 
as was the case with General McMahon. We recall the names 
of General Portlock, Sir Roderick Murchison, General Strachey, 
General Sir Proby T. Cautley, General Hardwicke, General F. T.. 
Hobson, Colonel Godwin-Austen, Captain Hutton, Major Brickenden, 
Major Broom, Captain H. G. Lyons, Dr. Leith Adams, and many 
others. How great would be the list if our cadets at Woolwich, 
Sandhurst, and elsewhere were encouraged to work at such subjects 
by means of lectures, laboratories, museums, and field-work, pro- 
ficiency to be rewarded by suitable marks in examinations ! 

Charles Alexander McMahon was born at Highgate 25rd March, 
1830, and was the son of Captain Alexander McMahon, of the 
H.E.I.C. Service. He served for eight years in the 39th M.N.L., 
and for thirty years on the Punjab Commission. He was late 
Commissioner of Lahore and a Fellow of Lahore University. 

Although, outside his official life, Lieut.-General C. A. McMahon 
was well known as an ardent and able geologist, his name is 


238 Obituary—Lieut.-General C. A. McMahon. 


remembered in India for the thirty years of excellent work as 
a Commissioner and Civil Judge. The most exciting period of 
his career was at the time of the Indian Mutiny, when, as a young 
man under thirty, he was suddenly called upon to assume charge 
of the Sialkot district, just at the moment (May, 1857) when the 
native troops rose in revolt. Lieutenant McMahon managed to 
send off a few lines to General John Nicholson, who was taking 
a movable column to Delhi. This prompt action led to the 
mutineers being met and destroyed by Nicholson at the action of 
Trimmos Ghat. 

When Commissioner of Hissar, in 1871, General McMahon took 
up the study of geology and petrology; and when on furlough to 
England in 1879-80 he joined the Royal School of Mines, studying 
geology under Professor Judd, mineralogy under Sir Warington 
Smyth, and biology under Professor Huxley. Professor Judd 
writes :—‘“ On his return to India he took up a series of geological 
studies of the granites and other rocks of the Himalayas, the result 
of his labours being given to the world in a number of papers 
published in the Records of the Geological Survey of India. 
After his retirement he continued these researches with the same 
enthusiasm as before, devoting special attention to petrological 
and mineralogical investigations. Even after the failure of his 
health, and when afflicted with almost complete blindness, he not 
only maintained an interest in his favourite pursuit, but dictated 
a paper which appeared quite recently in the GkoLocican Magazing.”! 
He became a Fellow of the Geological Society in 1878, and received 
the Lyell Medal in 1899 “in recognition of the value of his services 
to petrology, and more particularly of the work done by him in 
India.” He served on the Council, was a Vice-President of the 
Geological Society; and President of the Geological Section of 
the British Association at Belfast in 1902. He was elected President 
of the Geologists’ Association in 1894-95. Dr. W. T. Blanford, 
a valued friend of General McMahon’s, and for 30 years connected 
with the Geological Survey of India, says :—“In the exploration 
of the principal rock groups in the Western Himalayas he was 
a pioneer, and his discoveries were of great scientific importance. 
From 1877 to 1887 General McMahon contributed 24 papers 
to the Records of the Geological Survey of India, for the most 
part descriptive of the geology and petrology of districts in the 
Simla area, thence northward to Spiti, and around Dalhousie and 
Chamba, and in a few other localities. The so-called Himalayan 
Central Gneiss he showed to be an intrusive granitic formation.” 
The death of General McMahon closes a strenuous life of recognized 
service to Government in his administrative career in India, and of 
fruitful scientific research in geology, a combination testifying to 
intellectual equipment unusually varied and to uncommon mental 
energy maintained until the very last. 

General McMahon married, first, Elizabeth, daughter of Colonel 
‘C. F. Head, late Queen’s Royal Regiment, and secondly, Charlotte 


1 November, 19038, p. 492. 


Obituary—Lieut.-Gencral C. A. McMahon. 209 


Emily, daughter of Mr. Henry Dorling, of Stroud Green House, 
Oroydon, who survives him. The distinguished Indian frontier 
political officer, Lieutenant-Colonel A. H. McMahon, C.8.1., C.1.E., 
FE.R.G.S., F.G.S., Judicial Commissioner at Quetta, Beluchistan, is 
his eldest surviving son. (In part from The Times.) 


LIST OF PAPERS BY LIEUT.-GENERAL C. A. McMAHON. 


“<The Blaine Group and the ‘ Central Gneiss’ in the Simla Himalayas’’: India, 
Geol. Survey Records, x (1877), pp. 204-228. 

“Notes of a Tour through Hangrang and Spiti”’: India, Geol. Survey Records, 
xii (1879), pp. 57-69. 

<* Notes on the Section from Dalhousie to Pangi, vid the Sach Pass”: India, Geol. 
Survey Records, xiv (1881), pp. 305-310. 

<The Geology of Dalhousie, North-West Himalaya”: India, Geol. Survey Records, 
xv (1882), pp. 34-61. 

«¢On the Traps of Darang and Mandi in the North-West Himalayas’’: India, Geol. 
Survey Records, xv (1882), pp. 154-164. 

‘“Some Notes on the Geology of Chamba’’: India, Geol. Survey Records, xvi (18838), 

p. 30-42. 

“On the Basalts of Bombay’’: India, Geol. Survey Records, xvi (1883), pp. 42-40. 

“‘On the Microscopic Structure of some Dalhousie Rocks’’: India, Geol. Survey 
Records, xvi (1883), pp. 129-144. 

“On the Lavas of Aden’’: India, Geol. Survey Records, xvi (1883), pp. 145-158. 

«*On the Altered Basalts of the Dalhousie Region in the North-Western Himalayas”’: 
India, Geol. Survey Records, xvi (1883), pp. 186-192. 

“¢On the Microscopic Structure of some Sub-Himalayan Rocks of Tertiary Age’’: 
India, Geol. Survey Records, xvi (1883), pp. 186-192. 

“Note on the Foliation of the Lizard Gabbro”?: Grou. Mac., Dec. III, Vol. IV 
(1887), pp. 74-77. 

«<The Gneissose Granite of the Himalayas’: Grou. Mac., Dec. III, Vol. IV 
(1887), pp. 212-220; Vol. V (1888), pp. 61-65. 

“On a mode of using the Quartz Wedge for estimating the strength of the Double 
Refraction of Minerals in thin slices of Rock’’: Grox. Mac., Dec. III, Vol. V 
(1888), pp. 548-553. 

““Notes on the Hornblende-Schists and Banded Crystalline Rocks of the Lizard ”’ : 
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xlv (1889), pp. 519-544. 

“¢ Notes on the Culm- Measures at Bude, North Cornwall’’: Grou. Mac., Dee. III, 
Vol. VII (1890), pp. 106-117 and 222-226. 

(With Bonney, T. G.) ‘‘ Results of an Examination of the Crystalline Rocks of the 
Lizard District’: Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xlvii (1891), pp. 464-499. 

“‘The Manufacture of Serpentine in Nature’s Laboratory: a Reply’’: Guon. Mae., 
Dec. III, Vol. 1X (1892), pp. 71-76. 

“*Notes on Dartmoor”: Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xlix (1893), pp. 385-397. 

“<Trachytes, Metamorphic Tuffs, and other Rocks of Igneous Origin on the West 
Flank of Dartmoor”: Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. u (1894), pp. 338-366. 

““The Rape of the Chlorites’’?: Gro. Mac., Dec. IV, Vol. I (1894), pp. 111-114. 

(With Hurcuines, W. M.) ‘‘ Note on Pseudo-Spherulites”?: Gnon. Mac., Dec. IV, 
Vol. II (1895), pp. 257-259. 

Presidential Address to the Geologists’ Association, February 1st, 1895. 

Appendix to W. H. Hupiesron’s paper on Indian Geology: Proc. Geol. Assoc., 
vol. xiv (1896), p. 292. 

““Notes on the Age and Structure of the Gneissose Granite of the Himalayas with 
reference to Mr. Middlemiss’s Memoir on the Geology of Hazara’’: Grou. MaG., 
Dec. IV, Vol. IV (1897), pp. 304-313 and 345-355. 

“*Notes on some Volcanic and other Rocks which occur near the Baluchistan-Afghan 
Frontier, between Chaman and Persia’’: Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. lit 
(1897), pp. 289-309. 

“On the occurrence of Allanite in the Hornblende-Granite of Lairg, Sutherland- 
shire”: Grou. Mac., Dec. IV, Vol. VI (1899), pp. 194-196. 

“Notes on the Geology of Gilgit”: Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. lvi (1900), 
pp. 337-369. 

Presidential Address to Section C (Geology), British Association, Belfast, 1902. 

“* Further Remarks on Granite’’: Grou. Mag., Nov. 1903, pp. 492-499. 


240° Obituary—Dr. C. Ricketts, F.GS. 


CHARLES: RICKETTS; M.D!, FsG.S: 
Born 1818. Dirp Feprvary 29, 1904. 


Born about 1818 at Tichfield, Hants, Charles Ricketts was. 
educated at Bath, having previously attended a preparatory school at 
Stubbington, where he appears to have shown an interest in geology, 
as he treasured in his collection the first fossil he obtained from 
the Hampshire cliffs. 

After graduating in Medicine he went to the North of England 
in 1845 or 1846, and although he was some time in Lancaster and 
the neighbourhood, the principal part of his life since then was 
spent in Birkenhead, where he practised as a physician. 

He was elected a member of the Geological Society of London in 
1867 ; he frequently attended the meetings, and in 1885 contributed 
a paper “On Erratics in the Boulder-clay of Cheshire, ete., and the 
Conditions of Climate they denote” (Q.J.G.S., vol. xli, pp. 591-8). 

The bulk of his papers were read to the Liverpool Geological 
Society, of which he became a member in 1868. He was elected 
to the Council in 1865, and served as President in 1870-2 and again 
in 1889-90. He read his first paper to the Liverpool Geological 
Society in 1865 “On a Wooden Implement found in Bidston Moss,” 
and in it he incidentally refers to the action of deposition and 
depression, a subject on which he held original views, which were 
fully elaborated in his Presidential addresses of 1871 and 1872. In 
these addresses he strove to prove that the relation of denudation 
and deposition to elevation and depression were those of cause and 
effect. The convolution of strata caused by the differential weight 
of overlying deposits was illustrated by numerous models, some of 
which were exhibited at one of the conversaziones of the Royal Society. 
These were constructed by him and are still in existence. He 
further developed his ideas in a communication to the GroLocicaL 
Magazine “On some Physical Changes in the Earth’s Crust” in 
1889 (pp. 49, 115, and 165), in which he discusses the views of 
some leading geologists on the same subject. It was in his 
Presidential address of 1872 that he attributed earthquakes to 
movements of faults, and anticipated the theory now generally held. 
He also wrote on the Carboniferous Limestone and on glacial 
phenomena, to which he gave much attention. Twenty-five of his 
papers are printed in the Proceedings of the Liverpool Geological 
Society. He was an active member of the Naturalists’ Field 
Club and other Societies. On leaving the neighbourhood he pre- 
sented his valuable and extensive collection to University College 
(now the University of Liverpool). 

He was a careful observer, an original thinker, and an indefatigable 
worker in the field, till absolutely prevented by the weight of 
increasing years. His kindly and unselfish disposition endeared 
him to all who knew him, and had he been less unobtrusive his 
work would probably have attracted more general notice. 

On leaving Birkenhead about four years ago for his native county 
he was elected an honorary member of the Liverpool Geological 
Society. He died at Curdbridge, Hants, on 29th February last, at 
the advanced age of 86. pis Katee 2 


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I. OnternaL ARTICLES: 


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PAGE ,©ORIG! AL ARTICLES —continued. 


PAGE 


1. Foraminifera of the Oceanic 
Rocks of Trinidad. By R. Jj 
LecuMers Guppy. (Concludgd 
from the May Number.) (Plats 
VIII and 1X and 2 Figs. in the 


2. Miocene Rocks in Eastern Sinai. 
By W. F. Hume, D.Sc. (Lond.), 
A.R.S.M., F.G.S., of the Geo- 
logical Survey of Egypt 
Hot Springs. By Ernest H. L. 
Scuwarz, A.R.C.8., F.G.S., 


250 


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the Pyrenees. By P.W. Stuart- 
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a Obit rs — 
é ‘4 cone Me (Zoning of the Culm in 


1, 8: Note’ on the 


t 


South Getmany,, By Dr. J. H. 
PARKINSON 


Mine, Trinidad: 
Gu 


=vey : The Upper Chalk of Eng- 
land. By A. J. Jukes-Browne 
euiol \\Waillibienin 28 blll Gps es8ssneeao vos 

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5. The Average Composition of the 9. Mr. John Smith ................05 283 
Igneous Rocks. By F. P. V. Oprruary. 
Mennett, F.G.S., Rhodesia 1. Professor C. E. Beecher, Ph.D. 
Museum, Bulawayo ............... 263 (With a Portrait, Plate X.) 284 


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No. VI.— JUNE, 1904. 


ORIGINAL ARTVICLIHS. 


——————— 


I.—OBSERVATIONS ON SOME OF THE FORAMINIFERA OF THE 
Ocrantc Rocks or TRINIDAD. 


By R. J. Lecumerr Guppy. 
(Concluded from the May Number, p. 199.) 
(PLATES VIII AND IX.) 


HE oceanic beds of Naparima, in Trinidad, contain numerous 
forms of Foraminifera of great interest, and I propose to make 
some observations on a few of them. These rocks and their contents 
were described by me in the Journal of the Geological Society of 
London, 1892 (vol. xlviii, p. 519). Messrs. Jukes-Browne and 
Harrison treated of the same subject in the same journal in 1899 
(vol. lv, p. 177), and I have given further particulars in the 
Proceedings of the Zoological Society, 1894 (p. 647), in the 
Proceedings of the Trinidad Field-Naturalists Club, 1893, and in the 
GrotocicaL Macazine, 1900, p. 322. A few further observations 
are published in the Proceedings of the Victoria Institute. 


On Gonarospuara. (PI. VIII, Figs. 1-7.) 


In the Proceedings of the Zoological Society, 1894, I described 
a new genus and species from the Ditrupa-bed of Pointapier, in 
Trinidad, under the name of Gonatosphera prolata. The specimens 
then discovered and described did not enable me to ascertain with 
any certainty the relationships of the form. Since then I have 
discovered other specimens which may throw additional light upon 
these relationships, and I think that there is sufficient interest 
attached to the subject for me again to bring it forward. The 
specimens originally discovered were either almost spherical (this 
being the young form) or a more or less prolate spheroid with 
a ridge encircling it, as shown in the figs. 14, 16, 19 of the plate 
appended to the paper quoted. This ridge is the remnant of the 
wall of the last chamber, which has been broken away in these 
specimens; while in figs. 15, 17, 18 the last chamber has not been 
added. The shell begins its existence as a small spherical chamber 
which in the adult generally shows as a protuberance more or less 

DECADE V.—VOL. I.—NO. VI. 16 


242 R. J. L. Guppy—Foraminifera of Trinidad. 


marked at the initial or aboral end of the shell. The next segment 
invests this almost entirely, leaving only a small part of the initial 
chamber uncovered, and each succeeding segment invests the portion 
of the shell already formed in the same manner until the last 
segment is added. This last segment is of a size equal to or larger 
than the whole of the previous segments together, and does not 
(as the previously formed ones did) completely invest the preceding 
segments, but only to the extent of about one-half of the longer 
diameter or length of the shell. This chamber further differs from 
the preceding ones in being oval in cross section instead of circular. 
The mature shell thus described (PI. VIII, Figs. 1-4) recalls to mind 
Lingulina, which appears to be its nearest relation. From the first 
the aperture of Gonatosphera is an elongate slit, while the section of 
the shell at right angles to the axis of its growth is circular. It is 
therefore evident that an elongate aperture is not necessarily induced 
by a flattened or compressed contour of the shell, as in Vaginulina. 


Diagram-Section of Gonatosphera. 


As to Zingulina, Carpenter says (Introd., p. 164) that it is nothing 
but a compressed Nodosaria whose transverse section is oval, and 
whose aperture has undergone a corresponding elongation. But the 
case of Gonatosphera shows that a shell of a circular section may 
have an elongate slit-like aperture, and that moreover a shell having 
such a character in its younger stages may develop a subsequent 
segment of compressed or oval contour, as if indeed the shape of the 
aperture had ultimately a greater controlling influence than the 
shape of the shell. I think these facts tend to establish the validity 
of Lingulina as a generic group near which Gonatosphera might be 
placed in the family Nodosaride. 

As regards the minuter structure of Gonatosphera, the test is 
minutely and closely tubulated like that of the unornamented 
Nodosarig, but it seems to be composed of two or more layers of 
shell-substance. 

Brady (Chall. Rep.; p. 517) regards Lingulina as representing 
transition stages between Nodosaria and Frondicularia. This may 


R. J. L. Guppy—Foraminifera of Trinidad. 243 


be so; but if so, Lingulina comes earlier on the line of development 
still, retaining more of a frondicularian character than Nodosaria. 
But I could not assert that any of these forms are on the exact line 
of development: they each represent side branches of such a line of © 
which Nodosaria is the last and highest development in its own 
direction. Cristellaria, Frondicularia, Uvigerina (including Sagrina) 
are forms which have branched out of the main line of development 
between Polymorphina and Nodosaria. 

I should doubt if the fig. 16 of pl. Ixv of the “Challenger” 
Report is Lingulina carinata; it looks more like a Nodosaria. Goés 
gives a good figure (“ Caribean Rhizopoda,” pl. i, fig. 67). Brady’s 
figs. 14, 15 of pl. Ixv have the fissurine aperture of the typical 
Lingulina, while 16, 17 have the polymorphine aperture. 

This will be an appropriate place to refer to the resemblance 
between Fissurina and Lingulina. On consulting Reuss’s monograph 
of Lagena (1862, Taf. vi and vii) I noticed at once the resemblance 
of the aperture and other features of Fissurina to Gonatosphera, 
and I find since that Goés (Carib. Rhiz., p. 58) considers Fissurina 
to be the young of Zingulina. Iam not by any means sure that this 
is not so; but the young of Gonatosphera, while possessing the slit- 
like aperture, differs from Fissurina in being spherical instead of 
compressed. out 

Remarks on NoDOSARID#. 

Dentalina is not a genus at all, as has been shown by Parker, 
Brady, Rupert Jones, and Carpenter. Indeed, it is not even a variety. 
Yet, while maintaining Dentalina as a group distinct from Nodosaria, 
rhizopodists formerly included under the latter name several entirely 
distinct forms which are now known under different generic names, 
e.g., Lituola (Haplostiche), Reophaz, Clavulina, Pleurostomella, 
Ellipsoidina, ete. Possibly a form like that I have named 
Stilostomella may have been the original of Linné’s N. radicula. 
Even so lately as 1882 Goés (whose splendid memoirs on Caribean, 
Arctic, and Scandinavian Rhizopoda are so highly to be valued) has 
included Nubecularia under the name of Nodosaria (see Carib. Rhiz., 
Ola ty WieR Eh Oy Zo 

Ludwig Rhumbler (in Verhandlung der deutschen zoologischen 
Gesellschaft, 1897) has pointed out the distinguishing characters of 
Nubecularia and the relationships of that form, which is admittedly 
distinct from Nodosaria. He there explains clearly the transition 
of Ophthalmidium on the one hand into Sptroloculina, and on the other 
into Nubecularia. His explanation is well supported by the facts. 
And here we may ask if Articulina is not the same generically as 
Nubecularia? 

Amphicoryne is no more a genus than Dentalina. It is simply 
a Nodosaria in which the embryonic character of Polymorphina 
passing into Oristellaria has been retained until a late stage in the 
growth of the organism. And it is this occasional persistence of an 
embryonic character which shows us the true phylogeny of an 
organism, in this case Nodosaria, as indicated in my paper of 1894 


(P.Z.S.). 


244 R. J. L. Guppy—Foraminifera of Trinidad. 


The term Sagrina is superfluous, as pointed out by Brady (Chall. 
Rep., p. 580). The name Uvigerina sufficiently covers the forms so 
named. Uvigerina as well as Spiroplecta shows a cristellarian 
commencement. Uvigerina is the form connecting Polymorphina 
through Cristellaria with Nodosaria, while Spiroplecita is the 
analogous arenaceous form. The biserial and triserial forms of the 
arenaceous Foraminifera passing into uniserial forms are due to their 
descent from Polymorphina. Very minute Textularians as well as 
Bolivina often show a similar kind of commencement. 

Goés (‘Arctic and Scandinavian Rhizopoda,” p. 6) gives figures 
of three forms of Frondicularia, two of which closely resemble those 
I have given in P.Z.S8., 1894, pl. xli, figs. 3,4. His observations are 
entirely in accordance with mine. He says: “Thus in this instance 
we have before us the plainest proceeding of evolution from one 
type to another, in which an earlier type becomes larva for another 
type. At last the larval condition is reduced to a single segment, 
and a new form has originated seemingly standing without much 
morphological connection with its origin.” He further remarks that 
the smallest embryo segments do not always give rise to a dimorphous 
form, but at once assume the mature arrangement of the segments. 
This is exactly what I pointed out in my paper above referred to. 
Thus Flabellina is not a genus, but merely represents those 
Frondicularias that retain an embryonic cristellarian commencement. 
That these were more abundant in the past than they are at present 
is natural, for the tendency would ever be for the embryonic form to 
pass at once to the mature form. And this condition is not confined 
to Foraminifera, but is exhibited in species belonging to Crustacea, 
Insecta, and Mollusca. These, as they increase by interstitial and 
not by incremental growth, do not permanently show the embryonic 
form, though Mollusca do so to some extent. They pass through 
the embryonic stages, and the embryonic condition can only be 
observed while they are passing through it. But Foraminifera, 
growing by stages and each stage being retained as part of the 
mature organism, show more or less all the stages they have passed 
through from the first segment. 

We have not yet arrived at a true appreciation of the full 
significance of the various characters of Foraminifera. Doubtless 
we shall do so after careful study and comparison. Without being 
able myself to point out all the significance of the facts, I may still 
advert to some of them. 

The close affinity between Nodosaria, Uvigerina, and Polymorphina 
has long been acknowledged by rhizopodists. It is stated by 
Carpenter (Introd., p.168). It is only the order of their development 
and affinity that has been matter of doubt. The aperture of 
Nodosaria is normally circular with radiating fissures or grooves. 
This aperture is characteristic of Polymorphina, Cristellaria, and 
Frondicularia. In some Nodosarians the radiating fissures are 
obsolete or disappear, and the aperture becomes simply circular, 
often at the end of a neck which is usually everted and encircled by 
ridges spiral or circular. In other forms, the test being oval in 


R. J. L. Guppy—Foraminifera of Trinidad. 245 


transverse section, the aperture becomes a slit, the animal taking on 
a compressed form, e.g. Vaginulina. 

The old ideas about the phylogeny of Nodosaria arose from the 
fact that it was so easy to imagine the unicellular Zagena budding 
another segment on to itself, which process, if continued, would result 
in an organism resembling a Nodosaria. Carpenter says (Introd., 
p- 165) that the relationship of the Modosaria to the unilocular 
Lagena “is extremely obvious, many forms of Nodosaria being in 
all essential particulars Zagen@, of which the segments that are 
successively formed by gemmation have remained in continuity with 
each other.” But I have seldom found a Lagena that I could 
mistake for the chamber of a Nodosaria, or the broken-off chamber 
of a Nodosaria which I could mistake for a Lagena. And, indeed, if 
such were the descent of Nodosaria the existence of the amphicoryne 
form would be inexplicable. In order to supply an explanation 
rhizopodists have been compelled to assume an extreme instability 
of character in Foraminifera which is beyond the fact. It may be 
added that the aperture of a typical Lagena seldom resembles that of 
a Polymorphina or Nodosaria. The fine series of figures given by 
Goés (“Arctic and Scandinavian Foraminifera,” pls. ix-xili) shows 
the persistency of the polymorphine aperture in forms descended 
from the polymorphine type. ‘The “Challenger” figures are not 
excelled by any in fidelity to nature, and they show the same feature. 
So likewise with the figures given by Flint (“‘ Recent Foraminifera,” 
Smithsonian Institution, 1899). And Rupert Jones, in the Monthly 
Microscopical Journal (1876), gives some good figures showing the 
typical form of the nodosarian aperture to compare with that of 
Lingulina costata which he figures at pl. cxxix, fig. 11. 


NoposaRIA HISPIDA and others. 


I have retained the name of Nodosaria hispida for one of the most 
abundant Nodosarians of the oceanic beds of Naparima in Trinidad, 
and though I was at first doubtful of this determination, it seems 
confirmed by Flint’s fig. 1 of his pl. lvii and fig. 4 of pl. lvi. In 
our N. hispida (PI. VIII, Figs. 10, 11) the segments, though spherical 
internally, and therefore of the same shape as those of the typical 
N. hispida, are closely connected externally by shell-substance filling 
up the sutures, one or two only of the latter segments being distinctly 
separated by a sunken suture or constriction. The shell is thus 
somewhat fusiform in outline; it is often straight, but occasionally 
curved or dentaline. The surface is covered with tubercles or 
spines, and this character is pretty evenly maintained. The aperture 
is circular, and is situated in a short doubly-lipped neck as in 
N. abyssorum and other species. In beds which seem to have been 
deposited in shallower water the tubercles become bolder and more 
elongate, and this form is called N. conspurcata (Reuss, Tert. Foram., 
pl. ii, figs. 10-12). Many of the specimens recall N. verruculosa, 
Neug., and are not distinguishable by any trustworthy character. 
NV. rugosa, Orb. (For. Cuba), appears to be a poor example of the 
same species. N. hirsuta, Orb., Parker, Jones & Brady (Ann. & Mag. 


246 Rh. J. L. Guppy—Foraninifera of Trinidad. 


Nat. Hist., Sept. 1871, pl. ix, fig. 45), is another form of the same 
species ; indeed, it is by those authors (p. 154) assigned to hispida. 
The minute structure of the test is probably similar to that of other 
Nodosarians, that is to say, minutely and closely tubulated. But the 
appearance under the microscope is similar to that of Orbulina, as 
figured by Carpenter (Introduction, pl. xii, fig. 8). What appear to 
be large pores are probably the transparent shell-substance of the 
tubercles. 

Other Nodosarians of the Naparima oceanic beds are worthy of 
a notice. These are specially N. abyssorum, N. longiscata, and 
N. arundinea. Neither N. longiscata nor N. arundinea are noticed in 
the “Challenger” Report, but both are recorded from the London 
Clay and Vienna Basin; also from the oceanic beds of Barbados. 
N. arundinea (PI. VIII, Figs. 14, 15) consists of a long tube-like body 
with occasional slight constrictions and inflations. In its general 
form it resembles Rhabdammina, while N. longiscata resembles 
Hyperammina. The shell-structure of both species is minutely and 
closely tubulated as in other Nodosarians, and shows no sign of any 
arenaceous condition. I have not access to avy satisfactory figures of 
either species. N. longiscata (P1. VIII, Figs. 12, 13) generally consists 
of a sub-globular initial segment succeeded by one or two, rarely 
three, extremely elongate segments, scarcely separated by a more or 
less evident constriction. Some of the simpler forms recall certain 
forms of Lagena vulgaris, although they cannot be mistaken for 
Lagene. It is possible that N. arundinea is really the same as 
N. longiscata, but I have not been able to prove this. The specimens 
of the former showing the nearest approach to the latter are some- 
what like a thermometer-tube in shape. 

Nodosaria abyssorum (Pl. VIII, Figs. 8, 9) was described by Brady, 
who in Chall. Rep., p. 504, says of it, “It is not by any means 
certain that it really belongs to the genus Nodosaria, that it is not 
rather a deep-sea variety of Sagrina.” I am of opinion that it is 
a Nodosaria, the polymucronate apex, by which character it is dis- 
tinguished from all other Nodosarias, being in no way like the 
apical portion of a Sagrina (Uvigerina). 

Nodosaria abyssorum was found at Challenger Station 296, south- 
west of Juan Fernandez, at a depth of 1,825 fathoms, and, so far as 
I can ascertain, it is not recorded from any other locality. It is not 
mentioned either by Brady or Chapman in their lists of Barbados 
Fossil Foraminifera. It occurs in the Naparima oceanic beds, and 
specimens in all respects similar to those figured by Brady (Chall. 
Rep., pl. 1xiii, figs. 8, 9) are common. Indeed, that and N. hispida 
are the two most abundant and easily recognized Nodosarias found 
in these rocks, and it was owing to the frequency of their occurrence 
that I called some of the beds Nodosaria beds. The non-occurrence 
of WV. abyssorum in the Barbados oceanic beds is remarkable, as their 
fauna is almost identical with that of the Naparima beds of Trinidad. 

In the identification of Reuss’s species retrorsa, it appears to me 
that Brady has not made use of his usual acumen. Brady’s figure 
(Chall. Rep., pl. Ixiii, fig. 7) represents what I take to be a slender 


R. J. L. Guppy—Foraminifera of Triudad. 247 


form of abyssorum. Reuss’s figure (Sitzungsb. d. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien, 
vol. xlviii, 1863, p. 46, pl. iii, fig. 27) shows a very different form. 
The species seems to have been based on a single fragment with 
imperfect first and last chambers; there is therefore nothing from 
which to infer a polymucronate apex. But this is the essential character 
of N. abyssorum, and such an apex is clearly shown in Brady’s figure 
above quoted, and I know of no other Nodosaria which exhibits this 
feature; I take it, therefore, that Brady’s retrorsa (not Reuss’s) must 
be considered a variety of abyssorum, and thus the range of distribution 
of N. abyssorum (in a varietal form) is extended to the Ki Islands at 
a depth of 580 fathoms. Nodosaria abyssorum is so distinct a species 
that one seldom has any doubt about any specimen of it. The 
character of its apex or initial end isso marked, and its other 
characters are usually constant. 

It is remarkable that the nearest relation of an echinoderm 
(Cystechinus) found in the oceanic rocks of Barbados is also from 
the neighbourhood of Juan Fernandez, at a depth of over 2,000 
fathoms. 


ConcLuDING REMARKS. 


I have at the present only a few further remarks to make about 
the Foraminifera of the oceanic beds. Pulvinulina Menardi and 
Virgulina are remarkable for their absence from these deposits. The 
record of the occurrence of an example of P. Menardi by me was an 
error. Pulvinulina canariensis (a near relation of P. Menard) occurs 
in the Pointapier Ditrupa-bed and in the Radiolarian marls of 
Naparima, and it is recorded from one locality in Barbados, but 
T have not found it in the foraminiferal beds of Naparima. (See the 
observations of Parker & Rupert Jones, “North Atlantic and Arctic 
Foraminifera,” 1864, p. 395.) Virgulina has not occurred either in 
Barbados or Trinidad. Is it possible that this may be an indication 
of the age of these beds, while the absence of Pulvinulina Menardi 
may be due to the extension of the continent to the north-eastward, 
as indicated in my papers of 1892 and 1902? 

The list of Foraminifera from Bissex Hill, Barbados, given by 
F. Chapman (Journ. Geol. Soc. London, 1898, p. 550), is almost 
identical with ours from the Naparima oceanic beds. The few 
differences are mainly due to the determination of forms under 
different names by each of us. The only significant difference is the 
absence of Orbulina from the Barbados oceanic beds. It is abundant 
in the oceanic beds of Trinidad and in the Pointapier Ditrupa-bed. 

It may be useful to repeat here the conclusions as to depth of 
water and other physical conditions arrived at by Messrs. Harrison 
and Jukes-Browne as the result of their examination of the 
geology of Barbados (published by authority of the Barbadian 
Legislature, 1890). 

“In the calcareous earths the shells of Foraminifera are common, 
most of them belonging to species which are now found at con- 
siderable depths . . . . the assemblage of species being such 
as might now be found in Atlantic ooze at a depth of 1,000 fathoms. 


248 R. J. L. Guppy—Foraminifera of Trinidad. 


There can be no doubt, therefore, that these chalky earths and 
limestones were formed in the same manner and at the same depths 
as the chalky muds which are now being formed in many parts of 
the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The siliceous radiolarian earths 
indicate even a greater depth than the calcareous deposits. Radio- 
larian ooze does not exist in the Atlantic, but is found in the Pacific 
and Indian Oceans at depths of from 2,000 to 4,000 fathoms. Its 
existence in Barbados therefore suggests the idea that it was formed 
in a deep basin which was open to the Pacific as well as to the 
Atlantic, and consequently at a time when the Isthmus of Panama 
did not exist.” 

These conclusions are exactly applicable to the Naparima oceanic 
beds. But it must be admitted that the enormous amount of change 
in the physical geography of this portion of the earth’s surface 
which would be required to satisfy these conclusions makes one feel 
inclined to be contented to accept a less depth of water than that 
above indicated, if other circumstances can be shown to admit of 
this. And I think that this can be done; for the amount of clastic 
material found in certain of the beds (Nariva Series) betokens (as 
I may hereafter have an opportunity of showing) nearness of land 
and a shallower sea than might apparently be indicated by the 
Microzoic fauna. 


NorE ON THE FOREGOING PAPER. 


Ludwig Rhumbler has (in Nachrichten Gesellschaft der Wissen- 
schaften zu Géttingen, 1895, p. 51, and the paper before cited) two 
very noteworthy papers on the phylogeny of Foraminifera. In the 
first of these papers he has propounded a very ingenious systematic 
arrangement of the families. My researches have not enabled me 
to say how much of his system is founded in fact, but the observations 
in the foregoing paper show that so far as regards the phylogeny of 
Nodosaria the system is not exactly applicable. Indeed, it is most 
likely that all triserial and biserial Foraminifera have been evolved 
from Polymorphina, their triserial and biserial nature being in fact 
due to that parentage, the primordial form being a unicellular 
Polymorphina. 

The theory that Nodosaria is derived directly from Lagena, and 
that Cristellaria and related forms are derived from Wodosaria, is the 
result of an idea that complex forms must be evolved from simpler 
ones, and that a simple form cannot be evolved from a composite one. 
The fact cannot be denied, however, that in Clavulina, Bigenerina, 
Uvigerina, ete., the simpler form follows on the more complex one. 

Rhumbler’s observations tend, I think, to confirm mine respecting 
the so-called gemmation or colony-building of Foraminifera. This 
theory appears to me to be founded on a misconception of the real 
mode of growth of the foraminifer. The body of the foraminifer, 
like that of the mollusc, grows by interstitial increase, while the sheli 
is extended by incremental increase. To accommodate the integument 
to the increase of size, the insect and the crustacean exuviate their old 
shells and form new ones. But the molluse and the foraminifer, 


Geol. Mag 1904. Decade V.Vol 1 Pl VIL 


hee 


21 
ef 
i 
i 


eel 


ae 


L.Guppy jr. del. West,Newman imp. 
G.M.Woodward lith. 


Trinidad Foraminifera. 


R. J. L. Guppy—Foraminifera of Trinidad. 249 


instead of doing this, develop an additional portion, segment, or cell 
to accommodate the increased size of the body. This is incremental 
growth as contrasted with the interstitial growth of the soft parts. 
The idea, therefore, that a polythalamous foraminifer is a colony and 
not a single organism is not well founded. No doubt the idea is 
derived from the ccelenterata, where separate polyps are developed 
one from another, the whole mass of polyps nevertheless remaining 
in union and forming what is designated as a colony. In one sense 
perhaps every animal may be regarded as a colony. But the 
foraminifer is not more so than a Nautilus. 


Nodosaria. 
Uvigerina 
Sagrina 
Ellipsoidina x Lingulina 
Pleurostomella ‘ 
Frondicularia 
Textularia 
Spiroplecta 
: Cristellaria 
Miliolina 
Polymorphina 


Lagena 


Primordial form. 


DIAGRAM TO ILLUSTRATE THE PHYLOGENY OF Nodosaria AND ALLIED FORMS. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATES VIII AND IX. 
Prare VIII. 


(Fics. 1-4.—Gonatosphera prolata. Views of different specimens of the perfect 
adult form. 

,, 5-+7.—Specimens in which the last chamber has been broken away, leaving the 
ridge where the wall of the last chamber was adherent to the previous 
segment. In Fig. 7 a portion of the wall of the last chamber still 
remains. 

,, 8, 9.—Nodosaria abyssorum. Fies. 12, 138.—Nodosaria longiscata. 

», 10, 11.—Nodosaria hispida. » 14, 15.—Nodosaria arundinea. 


230 Dr. W. F. Hume—Miocene Rocks in Eastern Sinai. 


Puate IX. 


Fic. 1.—Clavulina Soldanii. Fic. 10.—WNodosaria obliqua. 
3, 2.—Reophax scorpiurus. », 11.—WNodosaria soluta. 
9) 3 —Cyclamina deforinis. 5, 12.—Cristellaria rotulata. 
>», 4.—WMiliolina macilenta. », 13.—Cristellaria aculeata. 
>, 0.—Spiroloculina tenuiseptata. 5, 14.—Uvigerina raphanus. 
», 6.—Textularia sagittula. y, 15.—Planorbulina elegans. 
>» @.-—TLextularia carinata. 3, 16.—Pulvinulina elegans. 
>, &—TLextuiaria trochus. », 1l7.—Textularia aspera. 
», 9.—Nodosaria raphanistrum. 5, 18.—Textularia gramen. 


II.—Occurrence oF Miocenrt Rocks 1n Hastern SInNat.} 
By W. F. Hume, D.Sc. (Lond.), A.R.S.M., F.G.S. 


(J\HE study of Egyptian geology during the last few years has 
thrown a flood of light on the former extension of the 
Mediterranean southward in Miocene times. Th. Fuchs,” in 
examining the rich collections from the Cairo—Suez desert and 
the oasis of Siwah, recognized that the Miocene strata had a close 
resemblance to those of the Vienna Basin, and corresponded to 
the Grunder Beds at the base of the second Mediterranean stage, 
or the lower portion of the Middle Miocene. Later L. H. Mitchell,® 
when studying the neighbourhood of Ras Jemsa and Jebel Zeit 
in 1887, obtained a number of large oysters, which Meyer-Eymar 
recognized as Ostrea crassissima and Ostrea gigantea, and which 
were regarded as proving the existence of strata of Upper Miocene 
age along the western border of the Suez Gulf. From these results 
Blanckenhorn‘ concluded that the Gulf of Suez must have been 
a Mediterranean bay in Miocene times, and further noted (Zeitsch. 
Deutsch. Geol. Gesell., Band liii, 1901, p. 79) that characteristic 
Miocene Pectens, viz. Pecten Sub-Malving, occurred in the collection 
made by Barron at Abu Sha’ar. He further formed the opinion 
that all the marine Miocene strata in Egypt were of the age assigned 
to them by Fuchs (see also Barron & Hume, “Miocene Rocks in 
Eastern Desert,” Memoir of Egypt. Geol. Surv., 1902, pp. 159-165). 
Strata of similar age were first found in the Sinai Peninsula by 
Bauerman in 1868 (“ Note on a Geological Reconnaissance in Arabia 
Petreea,” Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., xxv, pp. 24 and 37), and were sub- 
sequently examined by Rothpletz (‘‘ Stratigraphisches von der Sinai- 
Halbinsel,” N. Jahrb. fiir Min., 1893, i, p. 103) and Blanckenhorn 
(Zeitsch. Deutsch. Geol. Gesell., Bd. liii, 1, 1901, p. 75), the latter 
tracing them from Wadi Gharandel to the mouth of Wadi Tayiba. 
When examining the southern end of Eastern Sinai, the present 


1 Published by permission of Sir W. Garstin, Under-Secretary of State for Public 
Works, Egypt, and Captain H. G. Lyons, R.E., Director-General Survey Depart- 
ment, Cairo. 

2 Th. Fuchs, ‘‘ Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Miocaenfauna, etc.,’’ in Zittel, 
“¢ Ertorschung der Libyschen Wiiste,’’ p. 36. 

3 1. H. Mitchell: ‘‘Ras Gemsah and Jebel Zeit: Report on their Geology and 
Petroleum”’ ; Cairo, 1887. 

4M. Blanckenhorn, ‘‘ Die Struckturlinien Syriens und des Rothen Meeres’”: 
Richthofen Festschrift, Berlin, 1893. 


Geol. Mag 1904. Decade V VoLI.P1.IX. 


UE Ry jr. del. West,Newman imp. 


_M.Woodward lith. 


Trinidad Foraminifera. 


Dr. W. F. Hume—Miocene Rocks in Eastern Sinai. 251 


writer was surprised to find beds of large oysters in the terraces 
a few kilometres south of Sherm, at the foot of a marked transverse 
range, the Jebel Zafara, these being especially marked in Wadi 
Khoraiyah. On comparing these with the oysters from the Miocene 
west of the Suez Gulf, there seemed little doubt that the species 
were identical, but to fully establish the point the specimens were 
submitted to Dr. Blanckenhorn, who has recognized the oysters 
of Wadi Khoraiyah as Ostrea Virleti, Desh., and typical Ostrea 
gingensis, var. setensis, Blanck., while Ostrea Virleti was further 
recorded from a limestone above brown sands between Nebk and 
Sherm. The latter was evidently derived from the older Miocene 
series, but is now associated with Pleistocene fossils. 
In a paper on the geology of Eastern Sinai (International Geol. 
Congress, Paris, 1901) the writer called special attention to the 
existence of certain highly tilted beds occurring at the southern end 
of the peninsula, in most cases standing well back from the sea and 
having undergone extreme alteration. South of Jebel Zafara these 
are well developed, forming a series of yellow hills close to the 
junction of the igneous rocks, and rising nearly 200 metres above 
the sea. Here the beds have been tilted to an extraordinary extent, 
in some cases dipping from 30° to 60° E., and being apparently 
connected with a longitudinal fault of importance. In the paper 
above-mentioned it was further pointed out that their appearance 
recalled the altered coral-reefs of this region, and that they still 
contained oysters and casts of Pecten, but their age was not then 
definitely stated. The identification of the oysters of Khoraiyah leaves 
little doubt, however, that these beds also are of Miocene age, and we 
therefore arrive at the conclusion that the Older Tilted Reefs at the 
southern end of the Gulf of Akaba are Miocene in age and agree 
with those on the western side of the Gulf of Suez. Dr. Blanckenhorn 
has made some observations in sending the specimens which it may 
be of interest to quote here. “It is to be assumed that Lithodomus: 
(Botula) cinnamomea, Gastrochena Retzi, oysters of the crassissima— 
gingensis group, Lucina sp. aff. tigrina, and corals like Cyphastrea 
chaleidicum, etc., persisted from Miocene to Pleistocene times in the 
Erythrean region in a salt ‘ Binnensee’ situated somewhere in the 
deepest part of the Gulf of Suez. In the Upper Pliocene there was 
the second invasion of Mediterranean forms into the Hrythrean 
region. At this point there came in Pecten varius, Pecten benedictus, 
Cerithium conicum, Ostrea cucullata and plicatula, Arca laciea, etc. 
Possibly in the neighbourhood of Sinai there may be a place 
which still contains remains of this more continental transition 
period between the Middle Miocene (Helvetian) and the Upper 
Pliocene. Might the No. 4798 [this is the above-mentioned Osirea 
ginyengis, var. setensis, of Wadi Khoraiyah ] be included here ?”’ 

Having seen the deposits from both the Eastern Desert of Egypt 
and Hastern Sinai, it seems to me impossible to separate the two, 
and if the former are Helvetian the latter must also be of the same 
age, so that the conclusion is forced on us that the Gulf of Akaba: 
(at least in part) was already occupied by the sea at this early 


252 FE. H. L. Schwarz—Hot Springs. 


period. The question thus opened is a wide one, and whatever 
its solution demands far-reaching hypotheses. Did the Miocene 
sea extend over the whole peninsula, and are these but faulted 
relics of this Mediterranean advance, or was the present con- 
figuration of this district so far outlined that two arms of the sea 
already bounded the Sinai peninsula, though connected with the 
Mediterranean instead of the Red Sea, as at the present day? In 
the Central Sinai ranges no traces of such strata have been met 
with in the fault-valleys, and the final answer will probably only 
be obtained when the plateau of El Tih has been more closely 
examined. The other alternative appears to be that fault or rift 
action had begun at a far earlier date than is usually assumed. 

In any case it can now be definitely stated that Miocene strata 
of well-marked character are also present in the Gulf of Akaba 
area, and Barron permits me to add that he has found Pecten, 
Ostrea, and Heterostegina beds of the same age to be present in 
the whole sedimentary area of the west of Sinai. We both agree 
in regarding the raised reef at Ras Mohammed as belonging to the 
same stage, a view which is supported to a certain extent by 
Blanckenhorn’s identification of the fossils sent from this locality, 
though the latter are always poorly preserved. 


IlI.—Hor Springs. 


By Ernest H. L. Scuwarz, IMIBACH Shs INA ER Shs 
Of the Geological Survey, Cape of Good Hope. 


f{\HROUGH the great kindness of Professor Suess I have received 

the full text of his paper on Hot Springs, read before the 
Congress of Naturforscher und Aerzte! held last year in Karlsbad, 
in which he adduces very strong arguments in favour of their 
being due to vapours given off from the molten interior of the 
earth as it gradually cools. I have for a long time been observing 
the hot springs that occur in the Cape Colony, and had come to the 
conclusion that they were surface-waters that had sunk deep into 
the earth’s crust, and were returned heated in consequence of their 
having been in the neighbourhood of potential fusion of the rocks. 
This latter view I alluded to in a recent paper,? and I do not like 
to have to give up a long-cherished idea before submitting to the 
public a statement of the reasons that led me to my view of 
the subject. 

The first point is the position in which we find the hot springs 
of the Colony. Those at Aliwal North occur apparently in the 
Beaufort Beds, and those at Malmesbury in the old clay-slates and 
granite, but all the others come out at or near the junction of the 
Table Mountain Sandstone with the Bokkeveld Beds. The following 
is a list of those that I have visited :—Caledon; Montagu; Brand 
Vlei, on the Worcester—Villiersdorp road; Warm Water, on the road 

1 «« Prometheus,’’ vol. xiv, Nos. 690, 691, 692, beginning p. 209, Berlin, 1903 ; 
abstract in Geographical Journal, vol. xx, p. 517. 


2 


2 «* An unrecognised Agent in the Deformation of Rocks’: Trans. 8. African 
Phil. Soc., p. 391, Cape Town, 1903. 


E. H. L. Schwarz—Hot Springs. 253: 


from Montagu to Ladismith; Warm Water, a spring in the bed of 
the Ondtshoorn Oliphant’s River, just before it enters the gorge 
through the Samka Hills; Tover Water in Uniondale Division, 
south of the Zwartebergen; and Warm Water in the upper part 
of the Clanwilliam Oliphant’s River. Brand Vlei is the hottest 
spring, the water being sufficient to scald pigs with—an unscientific 
way of expressing things, perhaps, but preferable, I think, to giving 
the readings from the thermometer of commerce ; the water from 
the spring in the valley of the Clanwilliam Oliphant’s River has 
to be cooled down before one can get into it; but the rest are just 
so hot that one can cautiously enter the water as it issues. Most 
of them contain iron in solution, but Brand Vlei does not deposit 
anything. In the same position there are very many ordinary 
springs, and, in fact, the hot springs are each accompanied by a cold 
spring that issues alongside. In the next two series of beds, the 


ne 
o> SS L Yy 


Fic. 1.—The succession of the beds in the folded region of the Cape Colony. 
T.M.S., Table Mountain Series; Bv., Bokkeveld Series (Devonian) ; 
W., Witteberg Series; Ds., shales below the Dwyka Conglomerate, Dw. 
X indicates the position where most of the hot springs of the colony come 
out; it is a well-recognized water-zone. Y is a corresponding water-zone 
but no hot springs come out here, though some are highly ferruginous. ‘ 


Witteberg and the Dwyka: series, the former corresponding in 
character to the Table Mountain Sandstone, and the latter, as far 
as the lower shales are concerned, to the Bokkeveld Beds, there is 
a water-zone at the junction, but owing to the less porous nature 
of the sandstones the springs are very weak and scarce, though 
some of them are charged with iron, as at Hartnek’s Kloof in fine 
Ceres Karroo; the Witteberg-Dwyka springs are never warm. 
Besides the hot and the cold and the ferruginous springs, we have 
in the Colony what are known as sand-fountains, which are, as it 
were, quicksands inverted, for if a stone is pressed into the moist 
sand it is promptly returned to the surface; should, however, the 
spring dry up, owing to the drought, the sand-fountains become true 
quicksands, and cattle going down to drink are quickly entombed. 
The sand-fountains occur on the junction of the sandstone formations 
with the overlying shale beds, but the kruid- or stink-fountains 
that is to say, those giving off sulphuretted hydrogen, usually occur 
away from the mountains. Hot springs occur also in the Table 
Mountain Sandstone in the bed of the Umzimvubu River, near 
Pont St. John’s, and in the Molteno Beds in the bed of the Kenigha 
River, near the trading station called Kenigha, but these occur 
irregularly, without any apparent general cause for their appearance. 
What I wish to call attention to is that there is a great water-zone 


254 E. H. L. Schwarz—Hot Springs. 


at the junction of the Table Mountain Sandstone and the Bokkeveld 
Beds, and that ordinary springs, which are certainly the water 
returned to the surface after a short course underground, occur 
plentifully along it; the hot springs, instead of taking advantage 
of veins or fissures, come up in exactly the same way. In other 
words, the hot springs at the surface occur in the same manner as 
the cold ones, though it is probable that the hot water reaches the 
water-zone through underground fissures. When there is a good 
exposure of the Malmesbury clay-slates, from which the Table 
Mountain Sandstone has been removed by denudation, the veins 
of quartz are seen everywhere traversing the rock; north of Van 
Rhynsdorp, indeed, the surface of the ground is so covered with 
the white quartz which has weathered out of these veins that it 
looks as if there had been a heavy fall of snow. My first point, 
therefore, will depend on whether these fissures are being filled by 
materials from solution in water which is essentially different in 
origin to that of the surface springs. 

As far as I am aware, no heavy metals, such as gold or mercury, 
have been found in connection with lavas.’ Dykes are known to 
contain them in workable quantities, as in some of the acid veins 
in Australia; I have even found gold in the dolerite traversing the 
banket-reefs on the Rand; also the precious metal occurs in some 
of the volcanic tuffs of Australia, for instance on the Lyndhurst 
goldfield, but in all these cases there is a very strong suspicion, 
or some would say conclusive proof, that the gold has got into 
the rock by absorption and infiltration, and is not original. At 
Ongeluk’s Nek, in the Drakensberg, there was a very great gold- 
rush at one time, and the lavas were prospected to the topmost 
peaks of the range, but without result.* Should volcanoes be the 
orifices of pipes that go down to the inmost recesses of the earth, 
then one would expect oceanic islands and volcanic areas to be the 
best places to prospect in, instead of the older sedimentary rocks, 
and the difference to my mind proves that the mineralized beds 
have been carried beneath the earth’s surface to greater depths than 
those at which volcanoes have their origin. All this seems to point 
to an essential difference between volcanoes and hot springs. The 
latter do deposit gold and other heavy metals from solution, as one 
can actually see now in progress at the Steamboat Springs in 
Nevada,’ though the process is one that usually goes on at a very 
great depth. The hot springs may be due to expulsion by super- 
heated vapour, and it seems an obvious explanation when we see 
the enormous pressure which steam will exert. In the interior of 


[? Reference may be made to the occurrence of native iron, which has been 
discovered in considerable quantities at Ovitak, Disko Island, Greenland, and which 
was at one time supposed to be of meteoric origin, but has since been shown to be 
disseminated through an eruptive basaltic rock on the spot, and must therefore have 
come to the surface from a deep-seated source in the interior of the earth. (See 
K. I. V. Steenstrup in Mineralogical Magazine, July, 1884, vol. vi, p. 1.)— 
Epir. Grou. Mae. | 

2 Ann. Report Geol. Commission for 1902, Cape Town, 1903, p. 46. 

3 Becker: U.S. Geol. Sury., Mon. 13, 1888. 


E. H. L. Schwarz—Hot Springs. 259 


the earth, however, things are in equilibrium; enormous pressures 
do exist, but they are produced by the superincumbent masses of 
rock, and the heat that there is at great depths only exists as a mode 
of energy which helps in balancing the stress. In other words, 
looked at from an isostatic point of view, there is no surplus energy 
in the earth’s interior to expel the large quantities of water that come 
up in hot springs; these must rise in accordance with hydrostatic 
laws. The argument from the permanency of such springs, which 
would seem to imply that they are independent of supplies from the 
surface, can be met with the counter argument that, as they are hot, 
and must therefore come up from great depths, the area with which 
they are in hydrostatic connection is sufficiently large to ensure 
a constant average. 

The third point is that raised in my paper on the deformation of 
rocks, referred to above. It is that though lavas do undoubtedly 
contain a large quantity of water-vapour, nevertheless this 
water-vapour is held up in occlusion, and is unavailable unless 
the lava has cooled down to a certain point. My inference was 
drawn from a study of the Drakensberg lavas, in which there are 
very large vesicles in the shape of branching pipes; these occur 
only on the bottom of the lava-flows, the topmost portions having 
got rid of most of their water-vapour and show only the normal 
rounded vesicles. This seemed to me a sufficient proof that the 
water-vapour was held in actual occlusion, just as gases are held 
in occlusion in furnace slag.1_ For when the lava was flowing, the 
pressure on the surface being reduced from that of many atmospheres 
in the chimney of the volcano to that of one atmosphere, one would 
naturally expect that all the water-vapour would explosively escape ; 
this, however, was not the case, or else the vesicles would not have 
been formed. What happened was this: the topmost layers of the 
lava-flow cooled down to the expulsion point, and then only gave 
off their occluded water-vapour; later, the lower layers cooled 
down and endeavoured to get rid of their water-vapour, but the 
upper layers had already cooled below the expulsion point, and 
were therefore unable to absorb and pass on that which the lower 
layers tried to get rid of; the consequence was that the water-vapour 
was obliged to come out from the body of the molten rock, and 
had to force this apart in the shape of the very large vesicles in 
order to accommodate itself. From a study of the microscopic 
characters of the lavas I was led to infer that the temperature of 
the extrusion of the water-vapour was a little above the melting- 
point of labradorite, that is to say, somewhere in the neighbourhood 
of 1200°C. The whole of this question is one that can be settled 
by laboratory experiment, and I am earnestly hoping that there will 
be early opportunities of doing such work. 

My fourth point is in connection with the moon. That body was 
separated from the earth at a time when the water now existing 
on the surface of the earth formed part of the atmosphere. It has 


1 Sir Lowthian Bell: Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, No. 11, 1881. 


256 E. H. L, Schwarz —Hot Springs. 


been calculated that the pressure on the earth’s surface was 327 
times that at present exerted,! and, therefore, much water-vapour 
must have been forced into the liquid rock-mass. If the principle 
of occlusion is confirmed, then the molten magma must have been 
able to take in far greater quantities than that which would be due 
simply to pressure. 

However this may be, away went the moon into space, and 
immediately both the enormous pressure of the earth’s atmosphere 
was removed and the mass was cooled below the expulsion point. 
The surface of the moon then became subjected to enormous volcanic 
activity, sufficiently violent, as some have imagined,’ to throw out 
materials beyond the attraction of itself, and which are only now 
occasionally falling on our earth in the form of meteorites. What 
became of the water-vapour? If large quantities of water are con- 
tained in molten rock, as much, for instance, as comes out in the 
eruptions of Vesuvius, would there not be some trace of water on the 
moon, seeing that practically the whole of the surface is one vast field 
of volcanoes? One can account for much by the evaporation into 
space and attraction by the earth, but an entire hydrosphere to 
disappear and leave no traces behind seems impossible. On the 
other hand, if we imagine that the moon only took away a small 
amount of water occluded in the molten rock, then we have 
a quantity which can be more reasonably’ treated in this way. The 
form of the lunar volcanoes approaches that of the quiet caldera- 
form of which Kilauea is the type on earth, but we cannot attach 
much weight to an argument based on mountains that one can 
only see and which we cannot ascend hammer in hand. 

I am painfully aware of the weakness of much of my reasoning, 
but most of this is due to the want of knowledge of the fundamental 
facts of earth-structure. The stresses and strains in a ship of war 
are known in the smallest detail, but those existing on the earth 
are little known, although the comparative times during which the 
two have been under observation are monstrously disproportionate. 
If geologists could start from the beginning with a certain knowledge 
that the earth cooled from the centre, and that the whole is in 
isostatic equilibrium, it would not be possible to be in doubt on such 
a subject as hot springs; but are not these two facts, as I might 
almost call them, still in dispute ? 

If we descend to the bottom of a mine on the Rand one is 
astonished at the coolness of the workings, as compared with what 
would naturally be expected from the rate of increase of under- 
ground temperature that is usually assumed, that is, 1° F. for 
every 50 or 60 feet; and it is a well-established fact that in 
many mineral countries, like Minas Geraes in Brazil, the rate 
of increase is very small. A study of the British Association 
Reports on underground temperature leaves one with a sense of 
despair: how are such divergent results to be sorted out and 
explained ? If one is to regard the earth as a rigid structure, 


1 Rey. O. Fisher: ‘* Physics of the Earth’s Crust,’’ 1899, p. 148. 
* Sollas: Pres. Address, British Association, Bradford, 1900. 


E. H. L. Schwarze—Hot Springs. 257 


I have always thought an explanation impossible, but accepting 
the principle of isostacy, the whole matter appears simple and the 
irrecularities such as would necessarily be produced. For, regarding 
the earth as a body that will respond to the smallest stress, provided 
that it lasts long enough to make itself felt, we see a natural cause 
for constant differential movement in the outer layers of the globe. 
Rock is carried from the mountains and deposited in the sea as 
sediment, ice weighs down the Poles, and even the waters of the 
ocean in the ages seem to heap up at different places and produce 
an additional weight on the crust. The differential movements 
caused by this accommodation to varying stresses leads to the 
formation of folds and faults; and while these are developing, some 
of the motion is translated into a certain amount of heat. This has 
been for many years our stock explanation of the origin of the heat 
in the hot springs of the Colony, which occur for the larger part in 
the folded mountain ranges, and I do not see any vital impediment 
to pushing this principle somewhat further in order to explain 
volcanic action as the result of earth-movements. 
In my recent survey of the Division of Willowmore I found 
evidence of large movements which had affected the rocks near the 
surface of the ground. The movement was a tearing one in two 
directions, north and south, and east and west, and followed certain 
lines which were separated by a considerable distance; where the 
two sets crossed each other some very wonderful effects were pro- 
duced, the most remarkable being the brecciation of enormous 
masses of quartzite belonging to the Table Mountain Series. In 
One instance, at Land Kraal, in Baviaan’s Kloof, there was in sight 
a mass of this crush-breccia a cubic mile in extent, but how much 
more of it was underground it was impossible to estimate. The 
rock was in places coarsely brecciated, in others ground to fine 
rock-powder like pounded glass; it was either quite loose and 
friable, or cemented together with silica or iron compounds.’ One 
cubic inch of such a rock in the fresh state requires a load of 
twenty tons to crush it up, but I am utterly unable to form an idea 
of the force requisite to crush up even the amount that one could see 
and measure at Land Kraal; it must have been stupendous. This 
case is very much more wonderful than any amount of contortion, 
because the latter is aided by solution, and a very moderate tem- 
perature and pressure will suffice to bend up the most resistant 
rock, provided that it is allowed to remain under their influence 
for a sufficient length of time. Had this enormous force been 
concentrated over a less extensive area, and had the rock contained 
a flux or been composed of a less resistant material than quartzite, 
there is little doubt that the brecciation would have been converted 
into fusion and a volcano would have been formed. The distribution 
of the volcanoes, too, under this mode of origin would have closely 
imitated that which we find in some actual volcanic areas, the 


1 These crush-breccias will be described in the forthcoming Annual Report of the 
Geological Commission, Cape Town, 1904. 


DECADE Y.—VOL. I.—wNO. VI. 17 


258 E. H. L. Schwarz—Hot Springs. 


Galecpagos Islands for instance, in which the principal craters lie on 
points where two seis of fissures cross each other.’ 

The idea that lavas are remelted portions of the crust is an old 
one,? but seems to have been abandoned for the assumption that 
voleanoes bring up to the surface material that has never been 
there before, or at any rate since the crust became solid. A re- 
discussion of the whole of the phenomena of volcanoes on the 
principles of isostacy seems urgently called for, if only to settle 
the following questions:—(1) Why do not volcanoes bring up the 
heavy metals from the interior? (2) Why is the temperature 
increase measured in stable areas like the Witwatersrand, which 
would seem to indicate the normal increase, enormously exceeded 
in some areas, if these are not heated up by differential movements 
of the crust? (8) Why cannot a force that is sufficient to crumble 
up a resistant, infusible rock like quartzite, melt one which is fusible 
and produce a volcano ? 

The bearing of these speculations on the question of hot springs 
is to endeavour to show that there is some reason for the explanation 
that I have been giving for the origin of their heat; for if it be 
found that volcanoes do not get their material from the primordial 
magma, then the question of original water will be ruled out. 
What water the lavas do contain will on this hypothesis be simply 
that which was once held up in its interstices when solid, with the 
addition of any that the breaking of the rocks may bring them into 
communication with. 

In this connection it is interesting to notice what very large 
underground conduits must exist which discharge their waters in 
the bottom of the sea. We have very few large springs in the 
Colony, the largest being that at Uitenhage; there are, however, 
large tracts of country similarly situated in respect to their geology, 
superficial area, and rainfall, which do not contain anything like 
so large an output of spring-water. Boreholes also are continually 
tapping large sources of water without lessening the flow of 
neighbouring springs, and it seems certain, though difficult of perfect 
demonstration, that a large part of the water that sinks underground 
does find an outlet in the bottom of the sea. On the coast we have 
several fountains that emerge below high-water mark ; for instance, 
all along the sandy coast east of Cape Agulhas. An inverse case 
occurs also at Eastbourne in England, where an increased pumping 
from wells situated a mile from the sea brought the salt-water 
soaking through the greensand.*? In the Colony, however, we do 
not have to deal with porous rocks; all underground seepage, 
outside the infinitesimally slow one through the substance of the 
rock, takes place through fissures. Conceive now a system of 

1 See C. Darwin, ‘‘ Observations on Volcanic Islands,” in ‘‘ Geological Observa- 
tions,” 1851, p. 116; and also ‘‘ More Letters of C. Darwin,’’ 1903, vol. ii, p. 148. 

2 C. E. Dutton: ‘‘ High Plateaus of Utah,’’ 1880, p. 125. 

3 It would be interesting to know in this connection whether increased pumping 
from the boreholes that were put down in granite near the sea along the Swedish 


coast would bring the salt water through the crevices. See C. R. Markham: Geogr. 
Journ., vol. x (1897), p. 465. 


E. H. L. Schwarz—Hot Springs. 259 


fissures through which, on the one hand, the underground water 
of a continent passed downwards; and on the other, a system 
beneath the sea connecting with the first, in which at one time 
fresh water, at another salt water, infiltrated, according to the mutual 
pressure exerted by each. Then imagine a differential movement 
in the crust: the land fissures would be disconnected, and the sea- 
water would press downwards along the established lines of flow 
until stopped by the rock in the zone of the movement which had 
become melted by pressure and friction. This crude explanation 
would account for the water in lavas, and for their occasional high 
content in sodium-chloride, that is to say, each volcanic line in 
which the rock was melted up by earth-movements, if near the 
sea, would be enclosed on either side by a system of fissures which 
had long been the conduits for considerable bodies of water, on the 
one side sending down fresh, on the other salt water. One would 
think that if this was actually the case, the water once reaching the 
molten rock would be instantly returned along the way it came 
in the form of superheated steam. But underground fissures are 
intricate; they wind upwards and downwards, and the water usually 
percolates by a system of syphons which will work one way but 
not the other. Capillarity also comes into play, and, as Daubrée has 
shown,' this works only one way, namely, towards the hotter portion 
of the rock that contains the capillary interstices. Thus we have 
the water forced into the zone of molten material, and what little 
can escape does so in the form of hot springs. 

The final result of this line of reasoning is that the water that 
was pressed into the molten surface of the globe by an atmosphere 
consisting of the whole of the present hydrosphere is still there, 
and cannot escape, because, apart from the still doubtful occlusion 
of the water, this primordial magma is so covered with later deposits 
that it never has an opportunity of coming to the surface and cooling 
itself sufficiently to allow the water-vapour to escape. We must look 
to the veins of quartz, filled with the heavy metals like gola, for the 
evidences of the very slight extravasation of this primordial water 
in bygone ages, and we must suppose that deep beneath the surface, 
far below the zone from which the volcanoes derive their material, 
such extravasation is now going on, but that it can never be felt at 
the present surface of the globe. The gold-bearing hot springs of 
Nevada may be regarded either as an exceptional case of the 
primordial water having come into connection with the surface 
system of water supply, or, what is more probable, that the hot 
Springs traverse a mineralized area in which the precious metal 
had already been deposited, and from which the water has leached 
out its unaccustomed burden. The reason for considering the latter 
the more probable is that it seems to me that if the water is the 
primordial vapour condensed, the heat at which it exists in the 
interior is a function of the depth, and by coming to the surface it 
would pass through layers each of which would be heated according 
to its depth ; the water would therefore arrive above ground at the 


1 “ Géologie Expérimentale,’’ 1879, p. 258. 


260 Dr. T. Stacey Wilson—The Making of Geological Models. 


temperature of the surface-rocks, and not in a heated condition at 
all; but if it is water that has soaked in originally from the surface, 
and has got into the neighbourhood of deep displacements of the 
rock-crust, then we have a source of energy that is capable of being 
dissipated to draw upon for our supply of heat, and hydrostatic 
pressure to bring it back to the surface. We have not been forgetful 
of the presence of radium in the waters and deposits from hot springs, 
but as yet there are no results to communicate from South Africa. 


IV.—Notes rrom tHe GrotocicaL LABoratory oF BIRMINGHAM 
University. On a ConveniIENT AND Simple Meruop oF MAKING 
GrEoLoagicaL Mops ts. 

By T. Stacry Witson, M.D., B.Sc., F.G.S. 


ANY ingenious methods and materials have been used for the 

making of geological models, to show the internal structure 

and outcrop of a stratified sequence, to furnish maps and lines of 
section, and to indicate the direction and effects of faults. 

Such materials and methods as those of Mr. Sopwith, while most 
instructive and interesting, are powerless to deal with problems 
of curved strata, and no material has yet been found by which 
satisfactory stratigraphical models can be made of folded districts. 
Such a material must have several properties :— 

1. It must be easily made into large plastic sheets of even 
thickness and of distinguishable colour. 

2. It must bend readily and adapt itself sweetly to any surface 
to which it may be applied. 

3. Successive layers must adhere together fairly quickly and 
quite firmly. 

4, The material should set into a rigid but not brittle mass in 
the end, and yet not be too hard, so that it can be carved readily, 
or if necessary moulded into any required shape. 

d. It would be an advantage if it was cheap. 

Casting about for such a substance I have found one which 
satisfies a good many of these requirements. Not only does it 
allow of the building up of models out of definite stratigraphical 
elements in exact imitation of the natural geological structure, but 
it may possibly be of use in solving certain obscure structural 
problems. It is also likely to be of considerable use to teachers 
and students, as models can be built up by or before a class, and 
it may even have some applications outside geology itself. 

The material used is felé of various colours, steeped in melted 
paraffin wax that has a melting-point of about 110° F. 

The solid paraffin is melted slowly over a spirit-lamp or, better, 
in a jacketed saucepan or water-bath. Layers of felt are soaked in 
the melted paraffin and then squeezed fairly dry. The low melting- 
point allows of this being done by hand. Layers of coloured cloth 
may be used for thinner beds. 

The layers are then superposed one on another to the desired 
thickness. They adhere together, and the composite mass may be 
cut with a knife to any shape required. The best tools for further 


Dr. T. Stacey Wilson—The Making of Geological Models. 261 


shaping are gouges and chisels, and for the smaller work a sharp 
penknife, the material having the consistency of rather hard cheese. 

On account of the ease with which the waxed felt can be cut 
the surface of a model can be carved into a much better representation 
of the relief of a country than is the case with wood or other 
materials, and outcrops can be rendered in a much less conventional 
manner than hitherto. Aue 

Faulting can be shown by cutting the model clean through along 
any given line and joining the severed edges together after heating 
them slightly ; they reunite with the utmost ease into a solid block, 
which can be carved into shape as before. 

Folding may be produced in two ways. Hither the complete 
thickness of several layers may be kept warm and bent as a whole 
into the desired shape; or else, and this is always necessary when 
complicated folding has to be rendered, a basal model of the fold 
types may be carved in wood or cast in plaster, and the waxed felt 
laid on it and fitted in layer by layer. The surface is, of course, 
worked up afterwards with the knife or gouge. 

Obviously the faults of folds and faults, unconformity, and 
thrusting can be readily dealt with on the same lines. 

A modification of the method must be employed in cases where 
it is important to deal with beds of varying thickness or those which 
thin out altogether. This method is also of great use in treating 
a complicated country such as that to be immediately referred to. 
For this purpose wool-clippings from a carpet factory, or ordinary 
felt scraps cut up and teased out, are folded in muslin, soaked in 
melted paraffin, squeezed out, and then spread out into a layer of 
the requisite thickness, pins having been previously driven into the 
base on which one is working, of a height corresponding to the 
thickness of the stratum. Sculpture is carried out as before. | 

In order to show the application of this process to the modelling 
of a particular district it will be most convenient to describe the 
actual making of a model which I made in 1901 to illustrate 
a paper on the Harlech district by Professor Lapworth and myself, 
read before the Geological Section of the Birmingham Natural 
History and Philosophical Society, March 28th, 1900. 

1. The lowest bed on the series dealt with was taken as the 
floor of the district, and the depth of its base below a convenient 
plane or base-level (parallel to the sea-level) was calculated at 
a sufficient number of points in the map to permit of the drawing 
of contour-lines on the bed so as to give the general character of 
the folding and faulting. 

2. A vertical scale was chosen and _contour-lines showing a depth 
of 4, 4, 2 inch, ete., below base-level were drawn on the surface of 
a block of wood. 

3. This surface being taken as the base-level, holes were bored with 
a bradawl along the contour-lines to depths of 4, 3, ? inch and so on. 

4. With a gouge and chisel the surface of the block was now cut 
down to the bottom of the holes, as is done by a sculptor in roughing 
out his marble. 


262 Dr. T. Stacey Wilson—The Making of Geological Models. 


Thus a model of the floor of the district is obtained with the 
gentle rise and fall of its folds and the abrupt drop of its faults. 

It is quite evident that a similar base might be built up with 
cardboard or wax sheets, or modelled in clay, or cast in plaster, 
or obtained in a less laborious way than the carving of a wood 
block. The only essentials are rigidity and accuracy. 

5. On this carved surface the successive geological formations 
were built up to scale by means of layers of differently coloured 
paraffin wax or waxed felt of the proper thickness. 

6. In order to ensure the first layer being of the proper thickness. 
the following method is employed. Pins with small heads 
(entomolegical pins) a little longer than the thickness of the 
stratum (or cut to the requisite length) were driven in all over 
the wooden base. A convenient way of securing the right height 
was to take a strong metal pencil-case, remove the lead, and draw 
back the stop till the lead chamber was just the required depth. 
On inserting the pins’ heads into the lead chamber the pencil-case 
was used to drive the pins in exactly the right distance with the 
minimum expenditure of time and trouble. 

7. The wood is next thoroughly wetted to prevent the paraffin 
sticking to it, or it may be covered with wet tissue paper, and 
the coloured wax is spread over the model to the level of the 
pin heads. Small strips of wet stiff paper or pieces of tin should 
be inserted along the fault planes so as to give sharpness to the 
edges of the strata there. 

8. As soon as the first layer sets the pins are removed and more 
pins inserted in the same way to give the thickness of the next 
stratum of coloured wax. To strengthen the model some of the 
layers should be put on with waxed cloth or felt in sheets, but 
this, though desirable, is not absolutely necessary. 

9. Where a bed crops out on the surface the coloured wax is 
carried a little beyond the area occupied by the bed, as shown on 
the geological map. 

10. When all the layers have been put on and have set fairly firm 
the surface is modelled with the gouge and penknife so as to 
show the hills and valleys. If this could be done quite accurately, 
and if the structure and thicknesses were quite correctly rendered, 
it is evident that the surface of the model should exactly 
correspond with the country. In practice, however, both the known 
contour of the country and the known outcrops of the beds are 
utilised for making the surface of the model approximately accurate. 

Before beginning the modelling of the base of a country it is 
best to indicate by long pins the position of the chief landmarks 
in the area dealt with. These can be maintained in position as 
guides throughout the whole process, and removed when the model 
is finished. 

Slight modifications of this process which might easily be devised 
will obviously render it applicable to problems related to intrusive 
and volcanic rocks. 


F. P. Mennell—Composition of Igneous Rocks. 263 


V.—Tue Averace Composition or THE Ianrous Rocks.' 
By F. P. Mennett, F.G.S., Curator of the Rhodesia Museum, Bulawayo. 


HE average composition of the igneous rocks is a point of 
considerable interest in its relation to the problem of their 
differentiation, and several attempts have been made to solve it by 
the collation of analyses. Thus, Mr. Clarke estimated the American 
rocks to average 59°77 per cent. of silica (which may be taken as 
representative), and Mr. Harker came to very similar conclusions 
as regards the British rocks, obtaining 58:46 as his figure. The 
process followed was to add up the results of all the obtainable 
analyses and take their mean. If each class of rock analysed 
occupied the same average amount of space—if, for example, the 
basic intrusions were approximately equal in bulk to the acid ones— 
such a process would give results of considerable value. As it is, 
however, very little consideration will show that unless due weight 
is attached to the relative abundance of the different classes, the 
results will be very far removed from the truth. Even in Britain, 
where the development of igneous rocks is comparatively insignificant 
compared to the sedimentary ones, there are quite enough exposures 
of the different types to demonstrate this fact. If a geologically 
coloured map be examined, and the nature of the various patches 
of igneous rock be enquired into, the immense preponderance of 
granite becomes obvious, even though the basaltic lavas make 
a great show on account of their horizontal extension. In fact, the 
Dartmoor granite mass, if it be assumed to extend to a depth of only 
one mile, would probably suffice to weigh down the scale against all 
the other non-granitic igneous rocks combined. Yet, on the method 
indicated above, the smallest dyke would be of something approaching 
equal account, even if a number of analyses of the Dartmoor rock 
were included. 

In other parts of the world where igneous rocks are far more 
largely developed than in England, the predominance of granites 
is even more striking. In Africa and Australia there are many 
single granite masses which are exposed at the surface over areas 
of not only hundreds but thousands of square miles. The Matopo 
granite mass of Rhodesia, forming the hills now famous as the 
burial-place of Mr. Rhodes, covers a horseshoe-shaped tract of 
country certainly not less than 5,000 square miles in extent; in fact, 
it may be two or three times as much, as only its northern and 
north-eastern limits are yet known with certainty. And this is 
only one of many; in fact, out of the 250,000 square miles covered 
by Southern Rhodesia and the adjacent territories, it is certainly 
safe to say that 100,000 are granite, while there is scarcely any 
other class of igneous rock with even a single outcrop large enough 
to be visible if inserted in its true proportions on an ordinary map. 

The district immediately surrounding Bulawayo may be taken as 
representative. I have mapped, in the course of nearly two years’ 
work, an area of 2,000 square miles with as near an approach to 


1 Read at the Southport Meeting of the British Association. 


264 F. P. Mennelli—Composition of Igneous Rocks. 


accuracy as can well be attained with the present imperfect topo- 
graphical maps. By dividing the map into small squares an estimate 
is readily made of the areas covered by the different rocks, with the 
following result :— 

Square miles. 


Sandstones, probably Tertiary (including some lava-flows) ... 215 
Metamorphic rocks aa Roe Sot Le fl: BRA 730 
Plutonic igneous rocks... Ses — Seis 2 se 1,058 

2,000 


It will be seen that the plutonic rocks outbalance all the other rocks 
put together. They comprise portions of four masses, of which 
one is chiefly syenite (with 63 per cent. of silica) covering 15 square 
miles. The others, with a combined area of 1,040 square miles, 
are granite with a silica percentage probably averaging about 70 per 
cent. It must not be thought that basic rocks are absent; they are, 
on the contrary, well represented by numerous dykes of dolerite and 
basaltic flows. We shall, however, be making a generous allowance 
for them if we suppose there are 1,000 dykes a mile long and five 
feet wide, with 10 square miles of basalt 20 feet thick. We will 
further suppose that these rocks contain about 50 per cent. of silica. 
There are a few intrusions of porphyrite and orthophyre, but they 
are of little importance and may be reckoned as allowed for amongst 
the dolerites. 

Now let us see what results these figures lead to. We will 
assume that each dyke and plutonic mass extends vertically to sea- 
level, that is to say, goes down about a mile. (Bulawayo stands 
at an elevation of 4,500 feet above the sea, and much of the district 
is higher.) We have therefore :— 


$1 O, Area, Volume, 
Rock. per cent. 69 miles. Depth. cubic miles. 
Granite as 70 ae 1,040 Rote 1 mile ots 1,040 
Syenite ae 63 Set 15 dd 1 mile 503 15 
Basalt Ee 50 es 10 A: 20 feet ) 1 
Dolerite... 50  ~—...-—*nearly 1 Sis 1 mile f 
Total si a 1,056 


Multiplying each silica percentage by the volume of the respective 
rock, adding up the products and dividing by the total volume, we 
obtain an average of 69°88 for the whole. Whatever composition is 
assigned to the granites, the general average will, in fact, approach it 
within a few parts per thousand. We thus arrive at the conclusion 
that if all the other rocks of the area were to be fused into the 
granite masses the difference they would make would be quite 
imperceptible lithologically, and scarcely noticeable in a chemical 
analysis. Such a result would, I believe, hold good for the entire 
African continent and certainly for the whole of Rhodesia. There 
is nothing to indicate that a different conclusion would be reached 
in any other extensive area where the plutonic rocks are adequately 
represented, and there is accordingly reason to believe that granite 
substantially represents the magma from which even the most basic 
rocks have been developed by some process of differentiation. 


P. W. Stuart-Menteath—Salt Deposits of Dax, ete. 265 


VJ.—Tue Satt Deposits or Dax anD THE PYRENEES. 
By P. W. Stvart-Menteatu, Assoc. R. S. Mines. 


(\N the rail to Biarritz the roots of the Pyrenees first appear at 

Dax, and are accompanied by those ophites and thermal 
springs which are special features of the entire chain. Vast deposits 
of salt, to whose first development I contributed, have added an 
important industry to the resources of this ancient capital of Aque 
Tarbellice, where the exact harness depicted on Roman medals 
is still characteristic of every cart. Beneath the existing ditch of 
the Roman fortifications rock-salt was accidentally discovered by 
a boring for mineral water, and the salt is now worked at three 
miles to the south-east, and is indicated by springs for a distance of 
seven miles. The deposit is known to be about 100 feet in thickness, 
but is of unknown depth beneath the existing borings. 

Along the entire outskirts of both sides of the Pyrenees similar 
salt deposits abound, and they are often similarly accompanied by 
igneous rocks. 

The salt formation of Dax is distinctly limited by the valley of the 
Adour, which here ceases to wander among the sands of the plain, 
and is suddenly and sharply diverted along a tectonic depression, 
running towards the Pyrenees in a south-west direction. Precisely 
parallel to this course, in the Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks of the 
Pyrenees, there runs, at a dozen miles to the north-west, the most 
remarkable example known of a tectonic valley sunk beneath the 
ocean. The Gouf de Capbreton, sinking with steep sides to over 
8,000 feet beneath the even bottom of the Atlantic skirt, and 
affording evidence of igneous rocks in its surroundings and in the 
irregularities of its floor, is a perfect analogue of the neighbouring 
tectonic portion of the Adour. One is disposed to attribute the 
salt deposits of the Pyrenees to an episode in the past history of 
such valleys, whereby they were upraised, with salt lagoons in 
their irregular hollows, and with rapid evaporation of the brine 
by volcanoes such as accompany salt lakes of Eastern Africa. The 
disposition of Pyrenean salt accords fairly with such a theory; but 
matters of engineering importance are not usually decided by any 
royal road of first impressions, however plausible or fascinating. 

Still more important than the salt of Dax are those thermal springs 
which, along ten miles of the tectonic valley of the Adour, form 
a western limit to the salt by an emanation of over 5,000 tons daily of 
mineral water at a temperature of 147° Fahrenheit. This water, by 
impregnating the mud of the Adour, excites a growth of conferve, 
diatoms, and other organisms, that may develop to even half the 
weight of the whole material. They transform the complex mass, 
with production of nascent oxygen from the carbonic acid that 
accompanies the abundant nitrogen which bubbles from the springs. 
Such actions, as explained by Bischof, doubtless originate the powertul 
therapeutic action of the Dax mud baths. One may attribute to such 
mud the variegated marls which accompany the salt deposits and 


266 P. W. Stuart-Menteath—Salt Deposits of Daz, ete. 


which closely resemble those of the Trias formation. A classical 
investigation of the Iceland springs, by Bunsen, proves that such 
variegated marls are in active production beside volcanic rocks at 
the present day. And beside the Baignots establishment at Dax 
a limestone containing fossils of the Upper Chalk is transformed to- 
dolomite and traversed by the hot springs. But although the 
springs can furnish by their constituents and effects a satisfactory 
explanation of both the salt and all its accompaniments of Triassic 
facies, it would be rash to ignore the splendid investigations of 
Ochsenius on the relations of sea-water to salt deposits throughout 
the world. Wherever and whenever I have heard the Triassic 
theory of Pyrenean salt expounded by its foremost representatives, 
they have ignored such helpful assistance. It is therefore useless 
to urge their attention to the fact that either the origin from springs 
or the origin from sea-water can equally be advanced as alternatives 
to the arbitrary assumption of wedges of Trias introduced by 
paradoxical contortions that are demonstrably absent in many cases 
with which they deal. 

The thermal springs of the Pyrenees were long since analyzed 
by Filhol, and their accompanying rocks patiently interpreted by 
Leymerie. These eminent observers, in 1866, showed me a car- 
bonaceous metorite whose fall was witnessed, and whose fragments 
are preserved in the Museum of Toulouse. They furnished me with 
specimens of its material, and assured me that a portion of its 
substance had yielded the formula of humus. Filbol explicitly 
remarked to me that it apparently carried vestiges of the life of the 
original body to which it belonged. I had previously suggested 
to tellow-students the convenient theory of meteoric origin for every 
residual difficulty of geology in general. Personally invented theories 
are thus often crystallized by a fascinatingly confirmatory apparent 
fact. The practical geologist notes and discards such suggestions 
in every excursion. Of course, it was practically impossible to 
ascertain whether the organic matter was originally present or was 
introduced in the hot meteorite from the soil into which it penetrated 
deeply when it fell. 

I have found the main problems of the Pyrenees to be con- 
veniently represented at Dax. The abundant fossils of the Tertiary 
plain here meet the similarly abundant fossils of the outermost 
Cretaceous, so that the relative dispositions are defined by independent 
evidence of every kind. Desiring to leave something for later 
observers, I would nevertheless remark that the problems are even 
here less easily and rapidly solvable than recent innovators have 
found them to be at points where none of the means of solution 
available at Dax have troubled the even course of their decisions. 

Hitherto the entire work of the observers most familiar with the 
Dax district has shown that the apparently Triassic marls and salt 
are independent of any special horizon of the Cretaceous fundamental 
rocks, and it has proved equally impossible to identify them with 
any special horizon of the Tertiary. It is only certain that they 
closely accompany the igneous ophites (diabase or dolerite), and that 


P. W. Stuart-Menteath—Salt Deposits of Dax, etc. 267 


they are arranged on lines that exhibit remarkable independence 
towards the general disposition of the visible rocks. The salt 
deposits of the neighbouring portion of the Pyrenees exhibit a similar 
independence, and the latest theory—that they are shovelled from the 
mountains by vast processes of superficial charriage—is a recognition 
of the general result of observation thus admitted. It coincides 
practically with the view of Dufrenoy, of anomalous and eruptive 
origin, for which I have long vainly claimed respect. 

But in the treatment of salt deposits it is impracticable to rely on 
those details of arrangement which are regularly advanced as con- 
clusive by representatives of the new theoretical geology. Hvery 
mining engineer is aware that salt is practically plastic and is in 
nearly every salt-mine subject to contortion by hydration of 
anhydrite as well as by squeezing. In such recognition of ex- 
perience the observations of practical engineers, such as Crouzet and 
De Freycinet, are valuable at Dax, while much other evidence is 
obviously out of court. The doctrine that the upper gypsum of 
a salt-mine must be due to a different sea, and therefore to a different 
formation, because sea-water deposits gypsum first and salt last 
when boiled down in a pot, was gravely expounded at Cardona by 
a foremost creator of the charriage theory in the Pyrenees and else- 
where; but such views merely exhibit ignorance of the elements of 
the problem as revealed by Bischof, Bunsen, Ochsenius, etc. Crouzet 
and De Freycinet plausibly argued that the salt was bedded between 
horizons about the junction of the Cretaceous and Tertiary as known 
in their day. Subsequent observation tends to prove that it frequently 
fills hollows on the surface of the Cretaceous and beneath the 
Tertiary, the latter being of any age from the Lower Eocene to the 
Upper Miocene, and probably even to Recent, according to the local 
circumstances of its deposition above the salt. Of course, no practical 
geologist would affirm that Triassic salt may not also exist. I have 
found it existing as the cause of salt springs at Camou, Arrigorriaga, 
and other places. But the actual Trias of the Pyrenees is singularly 
unsuited to the purposes of the theorist, and he consequently com- 
pares the Pyrenean beds he would class as such to that of Germany 
and Lorraine. Yet in these last neither bipyramidal quartz, nor 
arragonite, nor oligist, nor ophite are cited, and it can hardly be 
argued that gypsum is peculiar to any special formation. 

Such being the general situation of the problem, it should be added 
that the best exposed and most clearly related salt deposits of the 
Pyrenees are, along the whole Spanish slope, decisively of Hocene 
or Oligocene age.* The attempts of theorists to deny this at Cardona 
are conclusive regarding the character of their observations, while 
at every point they have treated on the French slope they have 
admittedly urged the contrary of what they to-day propound. 

The main difficulty at Dax and elsewhere lies in the thick mantle of 
marine, fluviatile, and xolian sands which cover the surface of the 
plain, and, accumulating to even hundreds of feet in thickness, drowns 
the ancient valleys and extends across the plateaux of the Pyrenean 
roots. These sands are so obviously undistinguishable in detail, and 


268 P. W. Stwart-Menteath—Salt Deposits of Daz, ete. 


so certainly misleading as regards their age at special points, that they 
have been selected as a favourite quarry of evidences for the existence 
of Pliocene man. In the Appendix to the French edition of Lyell’s 
‘“« Antiquity of Man” an example is cited from Biarritz as clearly 
beneath the Pliocene Sables des Landes. In thirty pages of the Bul. 
‘Soc. Ramond of 1878, together with a section of unusual detail, I proved 
that the remains in question were from modern peat, and later than 
beds which have since supplied me with a tooth of Elephas primigenius. 
At both Biarritz and throughout the Landes, the sand classed as 
Pliocene is separated from the underlying Tertiary and Glacial 
Diluvium by a remarkable Brick-clay, similar to that of Portobello, 
near Edinburgh. This clay is described as strangely anomalous 
in position, because it always appears to overlie the Sables des Landes, 
for the simple reason that it does overlie them, as amply proved by 
local observers. At Biarritz it caps the hill beside the Negresse 
Station, while the coarse Glacial Diluvium lies beneath it to the 
margin of the Negresse lake. Blown sands above this supposed 
Tertiary have furnished the human remains of Biarritz and Dax, 
whose real age is consequently indeterminate, but trifling. My 
conclusions were stigmatized as lamentable, but my facts have 
remained unquestioned, and the Pliocene man in question is regularly 
cited like his colleague of the Lisbon Congress, who was condemned 
as spurious both at Lisbon and at Paris by the judges specially 
selected to report upon the facts. In the Bull. Soc. Géol. of 1896 
I have further dealt with the Sables des Landes, and I was in 
agreement on the point with the regretted Munier-Chalmas. Their 
Pleistocene age is admitted in the last edition of De Lapparent’s 
treatise. 

For further details I must refer to the first volume of the 
«‘Mémoires pour servir 4 l’explication de la Carte Géologique détailée 
dela France” (1903), published by the Ministére des Travaux Publics, 
in which ample references to my original papers, and a tabulation 
of the fossils of the Pyrenean Trias which finally rewarded persistent 
search, are conveniently arranged for every scientific library. 

In the first place, I succeeded in finding beside the salt-mines 
of Villefranche (near Biarritz) abundant and unsuspected deposits 
of the fossils previously classed as Neocomian, and which are 
now admitted to represent the base of the Upper Cretaceous of 
the Pyrenees. This formation further supplied me, south of Irun, 
with sixteen species of Cephalopoda of the Cretaceous horizon of 
Ammonites inflatus, comparable to that of Portugal, and in the middle 
of rocks mappedas Trias. In all the Western Pyrenees this formation 
rests unconformably on all previous rocks, and is in direct contact 
with the Trias, Jurassic, etc., by a bitumen or lignite horizon 
representing an ancient land or coast surface. To this bituminous 
horizon one can attribute the important bitumen of Bastennes, near 
Dax, which was formerly worked by an English company to supply 
the earliest Parisian asphalt, and is largely described in Ure’s 
Dictionary. It flowed into Tertiary beds in the neighbourhood 
of an ophitic intrusion, and supplies beautiful moulds of the Tertiary 


P. W. Stuart-Menteath—Salt Deposits of Dax, etc. 269 


fossils in black asphalt, in great abundance beside the ruins of the 
old workings at Bastennes. At Tercis, near Dax, the same horizon 
of abundant Greensand fossils forms the lowest visible beds above | 
the variegated marls which contain ophite, salt, and gypsum. But 
from beneath these variegated marls there outcrops, at Le Hour, 
at a trifling distance to the south-west of the salt-mine, a thick band 
of dolomitic limestone and breccias, alternating with beds of ash, 
and pinched between extensive outcrops of ophite. This limestone 
is absolutely identical with the Muschelkalk, which I have found 
fossiliferous from St. Michel to Ascain, along many miles of the 
nearest Pyrenees. It is strangely identical with the most typical 
Muschelkalk of the Hartz, it presents both the peculiar dolomitic 
breccias and the blue and green Aerinite which characterize Triassic 
beds accompanying ophite at Camarasa in Catalonia, and it abounds 
in moulds of Gastropods, etc., such as peculiarly characterize the 
Muschelkalk of the Pyrenees. In a former paper I denied this 
identity, because the most characteristic portions of the rock had 
been largely removed by quarrying; but having found them by 
repeated later visits, I can recognize the identity in both character 
and relative situation of this typical Muschelkalk. This rock was 
found to be fossiliferous by Crouzet and De Freycinet, and its fossils 
classed as Tertiary ; Raulin and others classed it as Cretaceous ; 
Jacquot compared it to the Muschelkalk in 1888; M. Seunes 
declared its fossils to be of the infra-Liasin 1890. As both at Le Hour, 
Ascain, and many other localities, it is beneath a considerable thick- 
ness of Keuper marls, and as the fossils habitually resemble those of 
the Muschelkalk, the last-mentioned determination is inadmissible 
and misleading. The real infra-Lias, with Hstheria minuta, fish 
spines, and other remains, I have found at Elduayen, Villabona, etc., 
and it is different in appearance, as well as closely connected with 
the Lias, containing Gryphea arcuata at Narvarte in the Bastan. 

At Dax we have consequently the Trias with salt, gypsum, etc., 
rising in ridges and bosses from beneath all later rocks, and these 
outcrops are occasioned by the presence of igneous intrusions that 
have given rise to abundant thermal springs charged with salt. 
Obviously this machinery can transfer the salt and gypsum to any 
depressions or lagoons formed even to the present day, and we 
have consequently a sheet of salt and gypsum laid down in the 
extensive depression which borders the tectonic valley of the Adour. 
This sheet appears to date from the latest vicissitudes of the district, 
and certainly from later than the last upheaval of the Pyrenees. 
Wherever we find similar machinery of Triassic bosses below, 
igneous intrusions breaking and dislocating that Trias, springs con- 
veying its contents to the surface, and tectonic irregularities and 
barriers occasioned by the movements of the Pyrenees, we may 
naturally find salt deposits of any age later than the Trias. The 
detection of their presence, and the estimation of their depth and 
extent, is a problem special to each particular district, and depending 
on the entire geological history which can be worked out on the spot. 

The vast sheets of gypsum and salt that extend from Olot to 


270) =P. XW. Stuart-Menteath—Salt Deposits of Daz, ete. 

| 

Logrono along the Spanish side of the Pyrenees are clearly deposited 
from evaporated lagoons formed during the uprise of the chain 
in Tertiary times. The salt deposits of the French Pyrenees are 
of a more local and varied character. There is a general contrast 
between the two series which reflects the general contrast between 
other features of the two slopes. In the salt deposits of the Pyrenees 
one finds every variety of lagunar character on the Spanish side, 
and every variety of tectonic and local character on the French side. 
Among the French deposits one may trace actual craters of explosion 
filled with salt, old valleys filled with spring deposits, and small 
accidental hollows that have preserved patches of salt water in 
rising from the sea. Sunk valleys, like the Gouf de Capbreton, 
have naturally preserved sunk deposits, when buried beneath 
Tertiary accumulations ; and the ancient surfaces of the Cretaceous 
formation and of the Oligocene land are naturally marked by such 
vestiges of their irregular uprise from the sea—especially where 
the innumerable igneous bosses, that have visibly traversed the 
Upper Cretaceous of the Pyrenees, have roughened the surface and 
given rise to later fracture and irregular denudation. As salt and 
gypsum can only resist solution under peculiarly favourable circum- 
stances, it is certain that such solution must have produced extensive 
dislocation. In the mountains of Persia and South America, gypsum 
is over 1,000 feet in thickness across distances of over 50 miles. 
No borings have yet fathomed the salt and gypsum of the Pyrenees, 
although 1,082 feet has been reached at Salies du Salat without signs 
of change. Such facts are a mere suggestion of what observation 
might yield if not referred to one current theory. 

Not only the whole of the varied phenomena in question, but 
even such local chemical productions of gypsum in the Flysch as 
are visible near Biarritz at Croix d’Ahetze and elsewhere, have been 
treated as characteristic of the Trias formation. In the Alps, as in 
the Pyrenees, the gypseous beds of the Trias have been credited 
with all the salt and gypsum of later beds of every age. The 
stratigraphy which results from attempting to unite Oligocene and 
Triassic beds into one formation is naturally astounding. 

Round Biarritz, more conveniently than at Dax, the diversity of 
the gypseous and red clays classed as Trias by Parisian geologists 
may be verified. At Laduch, west of Villefranche, the fossiliferous 
base of the Cretaceous may be seen resting on the gypseous marls 
of the Villefranche salt-mine. At Caseville similar red clays, with 
ophite and gypsum, are distinctly intercalated between the 
fossiliferous Danien and Lower Eocene, and at Fontarabia they are 
inclined at only 15° to the horizon. Beside the Negresse Station 
the red brick-clay, of post-Glacial age, is now largely worked, and is 
above the Glacial Diluvium that descends to the level of the lake, while 
over it there is nothing but the modern blown sands of the spurious 
Pliocene man. At Croix d’Ahetze the similar gypsum and clays, 
formed by decomposition of iron pyrites in the Flysch, thickly 
cover the almost horizontal surface of a quarried sheet of fucoidal 
Flysch limestone. All the diverse formations thus enumerated, as 


P. W. Stuart-Menteath—Sailt Deposits of Dax, ete. 271 


well as superficial red clays formed by decomposition in quarry 
fissures and ancient drains, have been gravely classed as Trias by 
the creators of the charriage theory in the Pyrenees and the Alps. — 
And it matters nothing that the disposition of the real Trias in the 
neighbouring mountains is as flatly opposed to their theory as it is 
possible to imagine. 

The presence of the Muschelkalk at Dax and other points of the 
sub-Pyrenean plain immediately beneath the base of the Cenomanien 
is curious as evidence of the absence of the entire series between 
that horizon and the Keuper marls. But in the whole Western 
Pyrenees I have found these intermediate rocks to be largely 
represented at one point and entirely absent at another, in the most 
irregular and closely contrasting fashion. The explanation lies in 
the extensive transgression of the Cretaceous, which is attested 
by the lignites that alternate with Gault fossils between Ascain and 
St. Pe, and at Hernani, Cestona, etc., and which, with abundant 
Orbitolina concava, rest directly on the Trias south of Roncesvalles. 
Extensive and irregular denudation appears alone to fit the facts. 
Such denudation implies that the Pyrenean area was, in Lower 
Cretaceous times, as irregular and mountainous as it is to-day. 

The best examples of the Muschelkalk can be seen in the valley 
of the Bastan above Elizondo, and at Urdax and the basin of 
St. Jean Pied de Port. It alternates with sheets of ophite that 
usually overlie it and occupy the place of the Keuper. It is thrown 
into repeated strips by faults that let down bands of Cenomanien 
fossiliferous limestone, forming long canal-like intercalations, as in 
the Alps of Gosau. Both the faults and the ophitic intrusions are 
consequently of an age later than the Cenomanien. A desire to 
class the ophites as Triassic, on grounds of micrographic theory, 
has long hampered the recognition of the facts. 

The salt of the Dax mine is arranged in lenticles coinciding in 
both dip and strike with the Muschelkalk and the ophite which 
adjoins it. I have found the same coincidence with the ophite in 
the similar salt mass of Bassussary, near Biarritz, and it has been 
ascertained in the mine of Villefranche. In the last two cases the 
disposition is directly across the strike of the Cretaceous rocks, and 
in the earlier workings at Dax, described by M. Genreau, the 
disposition was similarly independent of the Cretaceous. 

The lesson derivable from the Pyrenean salt-mines is that of the 
extreme danger of hasty generalization, and of the necessity for 
studying each particular case as it is studied in the practice of the 
mining engineer. It affords a striking warning against the facile 
assumption that old rocks must be superposed by superficial 
transport from a distance, because apparently insuperable difficulties 
seem to exclude their intrusion from beneath. The most experienced 
geologists have, after repeated observation, classed the Dax Muschel- 
kalk as Cretaceous or Tertiary. When that rock is recognized as 
Triassic it does not follow that it is superposed on later beds. Its 
relations are merely such as are constantly recognizable within the 
dislocated and contorted area of the Pyrenees, and these complex 


272 = Dr. J. H. Parkinson—The Culn in South Germany. 


relations can be recognized as extending to Biarritz and to Dax. 
The latest observations on the Carpathians and the Eastern Alps 
amply establish the protrusion of the Klippen from beneath, and 
the latest surveys of Algeria prove that, where the plastic Trias is 
in question, local and unsuspected intrusion and protrusion have no 
such limits as are assumed in the theory of charriage. 

It is more than thirty years since I first discovered the decisive 
example of Cretaceous gypsum at Croix d’Ahetze. Since then 
I have found decisive examples of the production of gypsum, in 
place, in rocks of any age from the Muschelkalk to the Tertiary. 
Yet in both the Alps and the Pyrenees the assumption that gypseous 
beds represent the Trias is the selected and regular basis of strati- 
graphical paradoxes which claim to reverse geology. It has been as 
easy to ascertain the truth as in the case of the Pliocene man, but 
no single observer has cared to verify the facts. The latest theory 
rests upon the assumption that salt and gypsum are of fixed age. 
It has thus selected for its basis precisely those materials which are, 
both chemically and mechanically, plastic and transferable to such 
a degree that any stratigraphical inference founded upon them 
must be essentially arbitrary. At Dax, Biarritz, and Cardona the 
opposition between fact and fancy can be recognized. 


VII.—Tue Zonrine or tHe Cutm 1n SoutnH GERMANY. 
By Dr. J. H. Parxrnson. 


‘* Ueber eine neue Culmfauna von Konigsberg unweit Giessen, und ihre Bedeutung 
fiir die Gliederung des rheinischen Culm.’’ Von Herrn Harold Parkinson 
aus Halstead (Kssex). Zeitsch. d. deutsch. geol. Ges., Jahre. 1903, Heft 3, 
pp. 1-46, pls. xv, xvi. 

‘On anew Culm Fauna at Koénigsberg near Giessen, and its significance for the 
division of the Rhineland Culm.”’ 


T has been suggested to me that a brief résumé of an illustrated 
article published last year in the Zeitschrift der deutschen 
geologischen Gesellschaft might be of general interest. The article 
in question embodies a piece of research work undertaken at the 
instance and under the direction of Professor Kayser, of Marburg, 
who during the Summer of 1900 observed in the neighbourhood 
of Konigsberg, not far from Giessen, a bed of rock differing 
palzontologically and petrographically from the surrounding Culm 
slate. The rock, a slaty breccia with a considerable limestone 
content, furnished even on cursory examination a fauna deviating 
considerably from that generally associated with the Culm. Type- 
fossils of the Posidonia Slates (the ‘‘Culm of Herborn’’), such as. 
Posidonia Becheri, Orthoceras striolatum, and Goniatites crenistria, 
were not met with, but on the other hand Crinoid stems together 
with fragments of large Producti and of Trilobites of the genus 
Phillipsia appeared plentiful. 
In order to obtain a fuller knowledge of the fauna of this 
remarkable niveau, Professor Kayser, under whom I was at the 


Dr. J. H. Parkinson—The Culm in South Germany. 278 


time studying, most kindly handed over to me its further examin- 
ation; consequently, in the Autumn of 1902, I devoted several 
weeks to the study of the Culm rocks in the neighbourhood of 
Kénigsberg, and especially to the collection of fossil remains from 
this particular bed. The general composition of the Culm in this 
locality is similar to that elsewhere in Hessen, that is to say, 
directly over the late Devonian diabase lies a thin zone of flinty slate, 
accompanied here and there by small beds of limestone; next 
above occur the well-known greenish-grey Posidonia slates (as at 
Herborn) ; and, still higher, darker slates, much resembling those 
used for roofing—indeed, about half a mile east of Konigsberg 
they have actually been quarried for this purpose. ‘To these slates 
belong the fossiliferous beds which form the subject of this article ; 
above them are found the beds usually known as Culm Grauwacke. 

Passing at once to the occurrence of the slaty breccia, it should 
be stated that the beds were recognised in this neighbourhood at 
two or three distinct spots. At one they lay horizontally among 
the roofing-slates already mentioned, several outcrops occurring on 
the side of the roadway connecting Konigsberg with the village 
of Frankenbach. Though I only succeeded in finding fragments 
of organic remains here, this was by no means the case at the 
second spot, where the breccia-bed occurs under conditions more 
favourable for observation. Here, directly north of the township, 
either it forms a small fold, the limbs of which incline gently west 
and east, and are interrupted by a fault of inconsiderable extent, or, 
as I am inclined to think more probably the case, we have to do 
with the outcrops of two breccia-beds separated from each other 
by grauwacke-slates. One is the more inclined to the latter opinion, 
because the larger outcrop (about 7 yards long and 14 feet thick) 
is characterized by a deep brown coloration, due to the presence 
of iron and manganese compounds, wholly lacking in the smaller, 
which moreover possesses greater limestone content, less thickness 
and greater hardness, in these respects resembling the beds already 
referred to as occurring eastward of this spot; only in the former 
of these outcrops do fossil remains occur at all abundantly. A third 
but unfossiliferous bed of the rock was also observed at no great 
distance. 

This slaty breccia is not, however, confined to the neighbourhood 
of Konigsberg. Dr. Drevermann, assistant in the Geological 
Institute at Marburg, first called my attention to its occurrence 
near Battenberg on the Eder, about 30 miles north of Konigsberg, 
and there I succeeded in locating five or six outcrops, with, however, 
only few organic remains, and those in most fragmentary condition. 

I had to rely, therefore, chiefly on the material collected at 
Konigsberg, the examination of which was rendered additionally 
difficult by the fact that the fossils occurred almost always as casts 
and moulds, and in a most crushed and distorted state. Though 
much of the material, therefore, was from a paleontological standpoint 
valueless, I was able to attain to the specific determination of the 
following forms with tolerable certainty :— 

DECADE V.—VOL. I.—NO. YI. 18 


A Comparison or the Curm Fauna or K6NIGSBERG WITH THAT OF THE 
Rune Disrrict, THE Harz, AND ENGLAND, ALSO WITH THE FAUNA OF 
THE CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE OF BELGIUM. 


The Culm Fauna of 
Kénigsberg, etc. 


Phillipsia Eichwaldi, Fischer, var. 
Hassiaca, n.var. . 1 aes 

Iz. gemmulifer it, Phillips ae 

Griffithides seminifer, Phillips. . 

Bellerophon reticulatus, M’Coy_ . 

Loxonema cf. acuminata, Goldtuss 

Pleurotomaria ct. piswm, De Kon. 

P. ct. sublevis, De Kon. . ig: 

P. ct. subvittata, De Kon. . . . . 

P. blanda, De Kon. . . . 

P. cf. subgranosa, De Kon. 

Conocardium aliforme, Sow. 

Aviculopecten, sp. 1 

Aviculopecten,sp.2. . 

Scaldia globosa, De Kon. 

Nucula gibbosa, Fleming. 

Macrodus cf. reticulatus, M’ Coy 

M. squamosus, De Kon... 

M., multilineus, De Kon. eee eae 

HM. cf. bistriatus, Portlock . . . . | 

Productus giganteus, Martin | 

P. punctatus, Martin . 

P. semireticulatus, Martin 

P. scabriculus, Martin 

P. plicatilis, Sow. 

P. mesolobus, Phill. 

P. fimbriatus, Sow. . 

P. pustulosus, Phill. . 


P. costatus, Sow. SoU one) ce ee erey| 
= Ce GVH 3 0 6 
Fb Bc 
Cee papilionacea, Phill. 
C. Hardrensis, Phill. . . 


OC. Buchiana, De Kon. . . 

O. Buchiana,var. interstriata, Davidson 
C. cf. Daimaniana, Deg konsiiewe 
Leptena rhomboidalis, Wilckens 
Orthothethes crenistria, Phill. 

Osh 5 6 

Orthis rv esupinata, “Martin 

O. Michelini, L’ F'veille . 

Spiriferina inseulpta, Phill. 

Spirifer ef. trigonalis, Martin . 
Athyris squamosa, Phill. 

A. planosulcata, Jwile 5 

A, Royssii, L’ E'veillé 

A. cf. expansa, Phill. 

Camarophoria, sp. 

Fenestella plebeja, J M’ Coy 

Hemitrypa oculata, M’Coy . 
Archeocidaris Regimontana, 0.sp. 
Pleurodictyun LA eat Kayser . 
IES a's ee Saat : 
Zaphrentis, sp. . 

Asterocalamites scr obiculatus, Schloth. 
C@rinoidalremams. . | =. « = 


Plant remains . 


1 Occurs in the Waulsort Beds. 


Carb. L., Belgium. 


E’troeungt 
Beds 


Tournai 


Beds. 


Visé Beds. 


x * * *¥ * K¥ HH KK *K * 


* 


tL) 


Culm of Rhine 
Schietergeb. 


A 
SS | ag 
mie | oa 
— oS 
Go | 8S 
os Taek 
es 
£2 |o8 
af 
Os 
* * 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 


2 Mourlon (Géol. de la Belgique, ii, p. 41) 
mentions the occurrence of this species in Belgium, but does not give the horizon. 


Dr. J. H. Parkinson—The Culm in South Germany. 275 


The foregoing list contains no single species in common with the 
Cephalopod Limestone of Erdbach-Breitscheid,' universally recognised 
as the lowest niveau of the Culm in South Germany. Only eight: 
of the enumerated fossils, moreover, have been found in the next 
succeeding horizon, i.e. in the Posidonia Slates of Herborn and 
Aprath (among them the English forms Chonetes Hardrensis, Leptena 
rhomboidalis, Orthothethes crenistria, Orthis Michelini, and Pleuro- 
dictywm Dechenianum), nor are the best known species of the Posidonia 
Slates of Germany and of the Culm Measures of England found at 
Konigsberg. We must conclude, therefore, that we have to do with 
a new fauna of the Culm, so far as these localities are concerned. 

Crossing the Rhine, however, we meet with a remarkably 
corresponding fauna in the Carboniferous Limestone of Belgium. 
This limestone is now divided into three main horizons, those of 
Etroeungt (transitional between the Upper Devonian and the 
Carboniferous), Tournai, and Visé. Only eight Kénigsberg forms 
occur in the lowest, 12-138 in the central, but no less than 40 in the 
uppermost of these; in other words, 83 per cent. of the species 
found at Konigsberg are also met with in the Visé horizon of the 
Carboniferous Limestone, amongst them many forms which are 
in Belgium confined to this niveau, such, to name no others, as 
Productus giganteus, P. plicatilis, P. punctatus, P. fimbriatus, Chonetes 
papilionacea, and Griffithides seminifer. We are consequently un- 
doubtedly justified in regarding the slaty breccia of Kénigsberg as 
the equivalent of the Visé horizon of the Carboniferous Limestone. 
This result affords us a means of zoning the Culm on the basis of 
the division of the Lower Carboniferous in Belgium. In the 
Rhine district two different Culm faunas have up to the present 
been recognised, that of Erdbach-Breitscheid and that of Herborn, 
Aprath, ete. The Cephalopod Limestone of Hrdbach-Breitscheid 
has been shown by Holzapfel to be the equivalent in age of the 
Htroeungt beds in Belgium, identical or similar Prolecanites occurring 
in both. Recently, too, Dr. Drevermann has described a similar 
fauna from Ratingen, on the right side of the Rhine. The Marwood 
and Pilton beds of North Devonshire, which are of transitional 
character, are possibly also of similar age. Since the Konigsberg 
breccia must be regarded as the equivalent of the Visé horizon, 
and at the same time lies stratigraphically higher than the Posidonia 
Slates, the latter must be regarded as approximately corresponding 
to the beds of Tournai, i.e. to the middle division of the Carboniferous 
Limestone, and the same must also be true of the Posidonia Slates 
of the English Culm Measures. We may summarize the results 
arrived at in the following table :— : 

ZONES OF THE CULM oN THE RiGHT ZONES OF THE CARBONIFEROUS 


BANK OF THE RHINE. Limestone oF BELGIum. 
3. Slates with the Kénigsberg breccia. 3. Visé horizon. 
2. Posidonia Slates of Herborn, etc. 2. Tournai horizon. 
1. Limestone of Erdbach-Breitscheid and 1. Etroeunet horizon. 
basal flinty slate. 


1 Cf. Holzapfel, “‘ Die cephalopodenftihrenden Kalke des unteren Carbon von 
Breitscheid-Erdbach bei Herborn,” Dames und Kayser, Palaont. Abt., Bd. v, 1889. 


276 R. J. L. Guppy—The Marbela Manjak Mine. 


A further consequence of this discovery must be the removal of 
that very great series of compact conglomeratic Grauwacke-beds so: 
common on the right bank of the Rhine and elsewhere—in Devon- 
shire, for example '—from the Culm to the Upper Carboniferous, thus. 
reverting to the view held some years ago by H. von Dechen and 
R. Ludwig. This follows from the fact of their lying near 
Battenberg still higher than the Kénigsberg strata, shown to be the 
equivalents of the Visé horizon, i.e. of the Upper Carboniferous 
Limestone, and that the expression ‘Culm’ can only be employed to 
express equivalence with the Lower Carboniferous. We must look 
upon the Grauwackes, containing the well-known flora (Lepido- 
dendron, Archeocalamites, etc.), as an equivalent of the Millstone 
Grit of England and the Flotzleere Sandstein of Westphalia. 

It remains only to be added that the originals of the fossils 
mentioned in this sketch are preserved in the museum of the 
Geological Institute of the Imperial University at Marburg. 


VIIJ.—Note on tue Marpeta Mangax Mine, TRINIDAD. 
By R. J. LecuMere Gurry. 


HAVE been favoured by James Wilson, Esq., with samples of 
material from the Marbela Manjak Mine. They are— 


No. 1. Clay from No. 1 Gallery, 75 feet deep. 
No. 2. . No. 2545), 27 ss 
No. 3. 5 foot of shaft, 150 * 
No. 4. Sand-rock. 


There is no essential difference between Nos. 1, 2, and 3, and No. 4 
only differs in being harder, not liable to disintegration by water, 
and in containing more arenaceous and less argillaceous matter than 
the other samples. Calcareous matter in all the samples is from 
15 to 20 per cent., and consists almost entirely of shells of 
Foraminifera. There is a considerable amount of sulphur, chiefly 
as pyrites, greatest perhaps in No. 3, and fragments of Manjak’ 
occur in No. 1. 

In appearance there is much resemblance between this material 
and that of the Naparima oceanic beds, though the latter is generally 
of a lighter colour. But on examination a very considerable 
difference is found to exist between the two formations. Both are 
extremely fine-grained substances, indicating deposition in some 
depth of water. But the proportion of argillaceous and arenaceous 
matter in the Marbela samples is very much greater than in the 
oceanic beds. This betokens in the former case the greater nearness 
of land and the influence of rivers. In the Marbela samples the 
sandy matter mostly occurs in the form of lumps or irregular small 


1 Ussher: ‘* The Culm Measure Types of Great Britain’? ; London, 1901. 

2 Manjak is a substance originally found in Barbados. It is geologically coal, 
but chemically a form of bitumen. It is described in Schomburgk’s ‘‘ History of 
Barbados,’’ pp. 551, 569; and (as coal) in Proc. Sci. Assoc. Trinidad, 1877, p. 110 
(see Guppy on Coal, etc., Proc. Vict. Inst. Trinidad, p. 507). 


Reviews—A. J. Jukes-Browne— Upper Chath of England. 277 


masses or patches. The Foraminifera are all of species found in the 
oceanic beds. This might indicate that the deposits were laid down 
on the ocean border, occupying a position intermediate between the 
truly oceanic deposits and the shore. The fossils frequently show 
signs of decay and wear—this is particularly noticeable in the case 
of Pulvinulina pauperata. A very noticeable difference is that the 
material of the oceanic beds when washed yield a residue consisting 
almost entirely of Foraminifera (chiefly Globigerina), while that of 
the Marbela deposit consists mostly of small pieces of slaty-looking 
and ferruginous materials, the foraminiferal fauna being much 
scantier than that of the oceanic beds, and it shows no relation either 
to that of the Pointapier beds or to that of Sangregrande. 

As the Marbela Mine is in the Nariva Series (see my paper in 
Guo. Mac., 1900), this series is possibly newer than the oceanic 
beds, and was formed during the upheaval of the latter, being 
partly composed of material derived from the oceanic beds. I admit 
that this opinion is chiefly conjectural—it is in opposition to that of 
Messrs. Harrison and Jukes-Browne. The conditions generally of 
the Marbela deposit would suit a depth of water of 100 fathoms or 
less, and thus it would appear that the Manjak was deposited or 
formed on a bottom of that depth. It is easy to conceive that the 
heavy tropical timber brought down by the rivers might sink to 
that depth. Moreover, such timber is susceptible of being borne 
along by currents in the same manner as clastic material generally, 
and hence we find it in the same region as finely-grained arenaceous 
and argillaceous deposits derived from the degradation of the 
continent. This explanation further admits of application to the 
ease of Barbados. 


dey a WF JE eH WY SS. 


J.—Memorrs oF THE GEOLOGICAL SuRVEY oF THE UNITED 
Kinepom. 


Tue Cretacrous Rocks or Brirain. Vol. IJ]: Tar Upper Caark 
or Hnenanp. By A. J. JuKes-Browne, with contributions by 
Wiuutam Hitzi. 8vo; pp. x, 566, plate, illustrations. (London, 
1904. Price 10s.) 

HE Geological Survey are to be congratulated on completing 
their Official Report on the Cretaceous Rocks of England, 

for with the publication of this third and last volume the results 
of many years’ work have been given to the public. It is to 
be regretted that an account of the Irish and Scottish Cretaceous 
rocks was not included. This volume deals with the White 

Chalk alone, and of the White Chalk the upper portion only. 

The beds dealt with are defined by the authors as ‘ Upper’ Chalk, 

and consist of the following zones:—Zone of Holaster planus, of 

Micraster cor-testudinarium, of Micraster cor-anguinum, of Marsupites 

testudinarius, of Actinocamax quadratus, of Belemnitella mucronata, 

and of Ostrea lunata. Since the description of the Chalk Rock by 

W. Whitaker in 1859, the ‘Upper’ Chalk of the Survey has 


278 Reviews—A. J. Jukes-Browne—Upper Chalk of England. 


generally been defined as all that part of the Chalk which overlies 
that rock wherever it can be identified. Mr. Whitaker’s Chalk 
Rock, which possesses a typical structure and is characterised by 
a peculiar fauna, occurs towards the upper part of the Holaster 
planus zone, but in this memoir the whole of this zone is included 
in the ‘Upper’ Chalk. Other hard beds, similar in lithological 
aspect to the Chalk Rock but devoid of the peculiar fauna, occur, 
especially in the zone of Zerebratulina gracilis of the Dorset coast. 
Precise limits to the various zones have been defined in the series 
of papers recently published by Dr. Rowe, by means of the dis- 
tribution of the fauna; and generous recognition of the work of 
that author and his colleague, Mr. Sherborn, has been accorded by 
the authors themselves, as well as by the Director, Mr. Teall, in 
his prefatory remarks. 

We need therefore merely remark on the new zone of Ostrea 
lunata, which is founded on the admirable paper published by 
Mr. Brydone, and on the unpublished researches of Mr. Clement 
Reid, on the Trimingham area in Norfolk. This small but interesting 
area consists of beds of Chalk, lying upon the strata of the mueronata- 
zone, and characterised by a fauna comparable in many respects with 
that of the Chalk of Riigen and Maestricht. The occurrence of 
a small oyster in great profusion has led to the adoption of Ostree 
lunata as the distinguishing name for the zone. Personal observation, 
however, would have shown that the oysters occur only in one of 
the beds. 

After defining the various zones the authors discuss the typical 
fossils, special attention being called to the forms of the genus 
Micraster, whose value, first pointed out by Mr. C. J. A. Meyer, was 
fully worked out by Dr. Rowe. Condensed diagnoses of these 
forms and rough sketches of the ambulacral areas and of the labral 
plates are supplied. 

Chapters iii to xx deal with the description of the beds proper, 
and contain a vast amount of valuable material concerning the 
various exposures from Devon to Yorkshire, especially with regard 
to the inland areas, not yet subjected in many cases to critical zonal 
division by means of their fossils. It is unfortunate that Dr. Rowe’s 
paper on the Yorkshire coast was not published in time for quotation, 
the Yorkshire chapter being the poorest in the volume. 

A sketch of the “‘Upper Chalk in France” occupies chapter xxi, 
and allows of easy comparison with the corresponding beds in 
England. Some interesting remarks communicated to the authors by 
M. Grossouvre, who has zoned the Chalk of France with reference 
to the Cephalopod fauna, are quoted. M. Grossouvre writes: ‘The 
classification established by the evolution of the Ammonite-faunas. 
represents, in my opinion, the ideal theoretical classification or 
standard for comparative purposes, to which all regional classi- 
fications should be referred for the purpose of correlating and 
synchronising the strata of different countries. . . . . On the 
other hand, for the practical purpose of establishing the stratigraphy 
of the Cretaceous series of any given country, we shall be obliged to 


Reviews—A. J. Jukes-Browne—Upper Chatk of England. 279 


found it upon the study of the special fauna which the beds contain. 
Thus, where Micrasters and Kchinocorys are the predominant fossils, 
we must base our zones on the succession of different species of these 
Echinoderms; elsewhere the Hippurites or other shells may furnish 
the requisite data. But when the various local or regional classi- 
fications have been thus established, and we wish to compare them 
with one another, then they can be referred to the standard strati- 
graphical scale which I propose to establish by means of the succession 
of Ammonite-faunas.” 

Mr. Hill continues his series of observations on the microscopic 
structure and components of the Upper Chalk in chapters xxii and 
xxiii, the lists of Foraminifera being supplied by Frederick Chapman. 
Mr. Hill finds the microscopic structure of the typical Chalk Rock 
from Dorset and Wiltshire so characteristic that it is hardly possible 
to mistake it for chalk from any other horizon. A slice cut from 
the rocky chalk at the base of the H. planus-zone at Pinhay shows 
all the characteristics of Chalk Rock ; and where the Chalk Rock is 
absent, as in Kent, Surrey, and Sussex, and the zone of H. planus 
consists of rough, lumpy, and nodular chalk, the nodules near the 
base of the zone present a similar structure to that of the Chalk 
Rock. On the other hand, the Chalk in which Holaster planus has 
been found in Norfolk, Lincolnshire, and South Yorkshire, differs 
entirely in structure both from the Chalk Rock and from the nodular 
chalk of this zone. 

The authors find from an examination of the bathymetrical 
conditions prevailing during the formation of the Upper Chalk 
that there is distinct evidence of a shallowing of the chalk sea, 
during the deposition of the Molaster planus-zone, succeeded by a 
gradual deepening which culminated possibly during the deposition 
of the Marsupite-zone, again to be succeeded by a progressive 
shallowing up to the final passage of the Chalk into the Tertiaries. 
While not presuming to affix a definite limit to the depth of the 
sea during Marsupite times, the diagram accompanying the Report 
suggests 700 fathoms as the probable extent of the depression. 
Dr. Smith Woodward’s researches among the fishes of the Chalk 
have shown that “the majority of the deep-sea fishes of the Cre- 
taceous period are more or less closely related to the Scopeloids 
and Berycoids, which still form so conspicuous an element in the 
abyssal fauna.” They possess luminous organs. 

We are glad to notice that chapter xxv is devoted to “ Economic 
Products of the Chalk,” a subject omitted in vol. ii. The officers 
of the Geological Survey have exceptional opportunities for amassing 
this kind of information, which is not only of importance to the 
public but tends to the completeness of their work. We looked 
in vain in vol. ii for a sketch of the important industry in 
Portland cement, which occupies so large a business feature in the 
Medway area, and it is but briefly mentioned in vol. iii. 

The “‘ Physical Features of Chalk Districts’ forms an interesting 
chapter, and the “ Water Supply from the Chalk,” even in so 
condensed a form, is of great general importance. In this latter 


280 Reviews—W. J. Harrison—A Text-book of Geology. 


chapter the views of Dr. J. C. Thresh on the “Saline Constituents of 
Chalk Waters ” receive especial attention and criticism. Appendix I 
contains critical remarks on some species of fossils by Messrs. E. T. 
Newton and A. J. Jukes-Browne, and a list of fossils from the 
Chalk of England, compiled from various authors. We do not 
propose to say anything about these lists beyond asking on whose 
authority Uintacrinus westfalicus, Schlueter, is quoted on pp. 8 and 
508. Dr. Rowe in his careful papers has nowhere attached a specific 
name to this Crinoid, nor has Dr. Bather, in whose hands the bulk 
of the material has been for years, done so. The matter is still 
sub judice, and those who, without special knowledge and without 
seeing the material, have definitely identified the English specimens 
with the form from Westphalia, have incurred the grave responsibility 
of introducing into our lists yet another name at present meaningless 
and confusing. 

The volume concludes with a Bibliography, in which we are glad 
to see an old friend, the Rev. J. Townsend, who wrote on Wiltshire 
in 1813, and who is the special subject of a note as to the interest of 
his book on p. 198. 

This memoir on the Cretaceous rocks of Britain, projected in 
two volumes, has been concluded in three, and will form a com- 
panion to Mr. H. B. Woodward’s memoir on the Jurassic rocks. 
Of the indefatigable energy and trouble taken by the authors we 
have had abundant evidence, and of the selfless co-operation of their 
colleagues, still more. We congratulate Mr. Jukes-Browne and 
Mr. Hill on the completion of their labours, which cannot fail to 
tend to that progress which is ever continuous in geology. 


I].—A Text-Book oF GEOLOGY: INTENDED AS AN INTRODUCTION 
TO THE StTupY oF THE Rocks AND THEIR ConTENTs. By 
W. Jerome Harrison, F.G.8. 8vo; pp. vii, 350. Fifth edition. 
(London: Blackie & Son, 1903.) 

E welcome the fifth edition of this handy guide to geology, 

not simply because it is the work of a painstaking and 
enthusiastic worker, but because it is a thoroughly reliable intro- 
duction to the science. Although the greater part of the work 

remains as in the last edition (noticed in the Grou. Mac. for 1897, 

p. 829), revisions of names of fossils and other revisions or additions 

have been made here and there. In the Appendix there is added 

a Table showing the range in time of the principal genera of fossil 

invertebrates. The examination papers in geology comprise some 

of the later questions set by the Board of Education. The work is 
one eminently suited to the requirements of those working for 
examination, though we believe that the halcyon days for students 
and teachers, for examiners and assistant examiners, under the 

Board of Education are over! 

There are a few slips which might be avoided in a subsequent 
edition. 

P. 15. The Thames does not discharge into the English Channel, 
but into the North Sea. 


Reports and Proceedings— Geological Society of London. 281 


P. 274, fig. 2. Nucleolites dimidiatus, Phil., a well-known Corallian 
“species, is enumerated amongst the fossils characteristic of the Chalk. 

P. 264. Waterhouse-Hawkins’ incorrect restoration of Megalo- 
-saurus might with advantage be replaced by Marsh’s figure of 
Ceratosaurus, which was most probably identical with our Jurassic 
Dinosaur, and was no doubt (judging by its skeleton) bipedal, having 
very small fore-limbs, only of use in seizing its prey (see Gro. MaG., 
1896, p. 392, Fig. 3): 


J IIF OI IS) ANVANMD) 123s OQ'S AISA scIN Ke TS) 


GEOLOGICAL Socirrry or Lonpon. 
April 13th, 1904.—J. E. Marr, Se.D., F.R.S., President, in the 


Chair. The following communications were read :— 

1. “The Discovery of Human Remains under the Stalagmite 
Floor of Gough’s Cavern, near Cheddar.” By Henry Nathaniel 
Davies, Esq., F.G.S. 

Gough’s Cavern opens at the base of the cliffs on the south side 
-of Cheddar Gorge. Various human and animal remains have been 
discovered at different times in the clearing out of parts of the 
main cavern. ‘The principal deposits are a stalagmite-like travertine 
overlying cave-earth, and the latter at one place encloses a tabular 
limestone block surrounded with flint chips. During draining 
Operations it was necessary to excavate part of a fissure running 
northwards out of the vestibule of the cavern, when a human 
skeleton was found, associated with flakes, scrapers, and borers of 
flint, embedded in cave-earth, which overlay a lower bed of 
stalagmite and was overlain by a second bed five inches thick. The 
skeleton was nearer the top than the bottom of the deposit, and the 
remains excavated comprise the skull, the bones of an arm, a leg, 
and part of the pelvic girdle. The other bones were allowed to 
remain in siti and may now be seen. ‘The position of the skeleton 
was that which would have been assumed by a drowned man. 
Interment is out of the question because of the narrow and ship- 
shape of the fissure, which was choked up with undisturbed débris 
-and calcareous deposits. The stature of the man was 5 feet 5 inches; 
he was of muscular build, with prognathous jaws, a straight thigh, 
and a thick dolichocephalic skull. The animal remains found in 
the cave-earth of other parts of the Cavern, and held by the author 
to be contemporaneous with that in the fissure, are those of mid 
and late Pleistocene age ; and this evidence, together with that from 
the position of the skeleton, the shape of the cranium, and the form 
and workmanship of the flakes, points to a period towards the close 
of the Paleolithic or the opening of the Neolithic age. 

2. ‘History of Volcanic Action in the Phlegreean Fields.” By 
Protessor Giuseppe De Lorenzo, of the Royal University of Naples. 
(Communicated by Sir Archibald Geikie, Sc.D., Sec.R.S., V.P.G.S.) 

In an introductory section the author sketches the general 
-geological structure of the district around Naples, and shows the 


282 Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London. 


disposition of the chief lines of fracture by which the Triassic, 
Cretaceous, and older Tertiary formations were traversed previous 
to the commencement of volcanic activity in this part of Italy. 
He recognizes three chief periods in the volcanic history of the 
district. 

I. The eruptions of the first series took place under the sea during 
the Pleistocene period. Their surviving products can be grouped 
in two distinct divisions, each recording a different eruptive phase. 
The older of these (a) is represented by the piperno and grey 
pipernoid tuffs of the Campania, which extend under the broad 
plain into the valleys of the Apennines. These deposits consist of 
grey trachytic tuff, with scattered black scoriw, and with a varying 
proportion of non-volcanic sediment washed down from the hills. 
The vents whence they were ejected are now no longer to be traced, 
as they have been obliterated or covered up by later accumulations. 
The piperno, well developed at the foot of the hill of Camaldoli, 
has given rise to some difference of opinion as to its nature and 
origin. The author is disposed to regard it as a trachytic lava with 
schlieren, the dark lenticles being made up of such minerals as 
augite, egerine, and magnetite, while the lighter matrix is felspathic 
(anorthose) with a spherulitic structure and microlites of egerine 
and augite. 

The second phase (b) of the first eruptive period is represented 
by ashes, lapilli, pumice, and sands, intercalated with marine shell- 
bearing clays and marls, and also with conglomerates and breccias, 
these coarser kinds of detritus overlying them and varying in 
thickness according to their proximity to or distance from the 
vents whence the materials were ejected. The accumulations of 
this epoch were pierced through in the artesian boring at the Royal 
Gardens, Naples, where they were 330 feet thick. 

II. Above the records of the first volcanic period lie those of the 
second—the yellow tuff, which forms the most wide-spread and 
most characteristic of all the volcanic formations of the Phlegrean 
Fields. It is a yellow or cream-coloured, compact, well-stratified 
aggregate of trachytic detritus, through which are scattered fragments 
of tuff and lava. Its average thickness exceeds 300 feet. hat it 
was a submarine accumulation is shown by the occurrence in it 
of oysters, pectens, and other organisms. Owing to the general 
uniformity of its lithological characters, the yellow tuff has not 
furnished any satisfactory evidence of a definite order of succession 
in the eruptions to which it was due. In spite of prolonged 
denudation and of successive later volcanic vicissitudes, it is still 
possible to recognize some of the separate vents from which the 
tuff was discharged, such as the islet of Nisida, the hills of Posillipo, 
Vomero, Capodimonte, and Camaldoli and Gauro. 

IJ. After the discharge of the yellow tuff from numerous cones 
and craters scattered over the sea-floor where the Campi Phlegrai 
now extend, the volcanic tract appears to have been upraised into 
land, and to have been thereafter exposed to a prolonged period of 
subaerial denudation. But the volcanic activity was not extinct, for 


Oorrespondence—Alex. Somervail—J. Smith. 283: 


a number of vents made their appearance and discharged a succession 
of fragmental materials, which differ from the yellow tuff in showing 
both macroscopically and microscopically a greater variety of com-. 
position, and in the proofs which they furnish of a succession of 
eruptions both in space and time and a gradual southward shifting 
and diminution of the vigour of the eruptive energy. The largest 
and most ancient of the volcanoes of this latest period is that of 
Agnano, the crater of which is built up of layers of pumice, ashes, 
lapilli, soft grey tuff, and beds of scoriz. Not improbably it was 
from this eruptive centre that the trachy-andesitic lava of Caprara 
issued. Other volcanoes of the same series are Astroni, Solfatara, 
the two small vents of Cigliano and Campana behind the north- 
western slopes of Astroni, the last-named example showing three 
concentric rings, within the innermost of which a beautifully perfect 
little crater marks the last efforts of this vent. The crater-lake of 
Avernus belongs likewise to the latest group, and perhaps it was. 
the water percolating from this basin to the thermal springs of 
Tripergole which, in September, 1538, gave rise to the explosion 
that built up Monte Nuovo, the youngest of the cones of the 
Phlegrean Fields. 


CJO1 11D SISO faD JIN (Cash 


THE BASE OF THE KEUPER IN SOUTH DEVON. 

Str,—In replying to Dr. Irving’s article in your April number, 
I must preface the same by regretting my use of the term 
“dolomitic ”’ which somehow crept in; but which, I think, hardly 
amounts to a “caricature” of his description. I would further add 
that I never doubted the existence of the fault at the Chit rock. 

On the main issue I still hold that the Otterton Breccias are not 
again brought up on the east side of the river Sid; and that the 
beds here described as such, occupy a much higher horizon, being 
separated from the former by a considerable thickness of red sand- 
stones. On this point, however, I am willing to wait—with an open 
mind—the results of other observers who may choose to devote 
their attention to this matter. ALEX. SOMERVAIL. 


Torauay N.H. Society. 
16th April, 1904. 


MARINE FOSSILS IN UPPER COAL-MEASURES. 


Str, — On the 23rd April I found in the Craigmark Burn, 
Dalmellington, Ayrshire, some marine shells in the Upper Coal- 
measures. They occur in a cliff on the right bank of the stream, 
about half a mile up from the village of Craigmark. The cliff is 
about 80 feet high, its upper part composed of dark shale, and its 
lower part of lighter-coloured shale with nodules and bands of 
‘curly’ ironstone. About the middle of the cliff there is a 9 inch 
band of bituminous shale with fish-remains, and in the centre of 
it the marine band occurs. 


284 Obituary—Professor C. E. Beecher. 


The fossils are dwarfed and starved-looking, but from their perfect 
preservation they have evidently lived on the spot where now found, 
and occur with a few indistinguishable plant-remains. The following 
are the species I collected :—Productus semireticulatus, var., largest 
one + inch, but generally much smaller; common. <Athyris ambigua, 
largest $inch; scarce. Lingula mytiloides, rare, and very small, 
The late R. W. Skipsey many years ago found marine shells in the 
Coal-measures near Coatbridge, but the specimens were of fair size. 

The marine shells I obtained on the 23rd April appear to be 
pretty high up in the coal strata; and in the stream and on the 
side of the glen may be seen the Gillyhole Coal, at: this part 
converted into columnar carbonite four feet thick by a small Trap 
sill; it is one of the finest examples of a ‘burnt coal’. bed in the 
west of Scotland. In the same glen there is also a small sill which 
has assumed a spheroidal structure. I saw no specimens of 
Carbonicola or any other Coal-measure shells in the marine band. 
I am sending some specimens to the British Museum. 


MonxkriIppine, Kinwinnine. J. Sura. 
25th April, 1904. ; 


O32 sree PASE Na 


PROFESSOR CHARLES EMERSON BEECHER, Pu.D. 
Born OctroBer 9, 1856. Dizrp Frpruary 14, 1904. 
(WITH A“ PORTRALE: “PEA PH Of) 

By the death of Professor Beecher, American paleontology and 
geology have sustained a great loss, and one which is also sincerely 
felt by many friends and fellow-workers in England and on the 
Continent. Although only 47 years of age, he had attained to a high 
degree of eminence in his University as a teacher and lecturer, 
whilst his published researches, especially on Trilobites, the Mero- 
stomata, and Phyllocarida, entitled him to the first rank as an 
original investigator in paleozoology ; nor had he neglected the 
higher forms of extinct life, as is shown by his reconstruction of 
Dinosaurs in the Peabody Museum at Yale. 

Charles Emerson Beecher was born at Dunkirk, New York, Oct. 9th, 
1856. _ He was educated in the High School at Warren, Pa., and 
graduated at the University of Michigan, taking his B.S. in 1878. 
During the ten succeeding years he was engaged as an assistant 
to the veteran geologist, Professor James Hall, upon the staff of 
the Geological Survey of the State of New York, and many specimens 
now exhibited in the State Museum at Albany testify to his ability 
as a collector and his skill in developing and mounting invertebrate 
fossils. 

Professor Beecher was appointed in 1888 to the charge of the 
invertebrate fossils in the Peabody Museum, under the late Professor 


1 Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow, vol. ii, p. 52. 

* For permission to reproduce Professor Beecher’s portrait we are much indebted 
to Mr. J. McK. Cattell, of Zhe Popular Science Monthly Garrison on Hudson, 
New York, U.S.A.—Eprt. Grou. Mac. 


ecw) Vols Ie) Rikexe 


GEOL. Mac. 1904. 


CHARLES EMERSON BEECHER, Pu.D., 


YALE UNIVERSITY. 


a 


(he mene te 


Ly 


ek ard =o ia hs ge ome eS ad 


+ a ee SR is a 8 SE naga Se meee) ees IE ee nee hs es anes Ue acne eee Pel ee 


Obituary—Professor C. E. Beecher. 285 


O. C. Marsh, and in 1889 he received the degree of Ph.D. from Yale 
University for his memoir on the Brachiospongidx, a remarkable 
group of Silurian sponges. In the July of this year he made his 
first geological trip to the far West, being sent by Professor Marsh 
to join a party of collectors in Converse County, Wyoming, where 
he remained till September. During this trip he obtained one of 
the largest complete skulls of Triceratops, now in the Yale Museum. 
Shortly after this Professor Marsh arranged for Dr. Beecher to visit 
England and make studies in the British Museum, accompanied by 
the late Dr. Baur. [Here he made the writer’s acquaintance, and 
became an intimate friend and correspondent respecting their mutual 
studies upon the Arthropoda.—H. W.]| He also, with Dr. Baur, visited 
France and Germany. During the preparation for his degree at Yale, 
Beecher had taken geology under the late Professor Dana, and in 
1891-92, when the latter was ill, Professor Beecher conducted the 
classes in geology for him. In 1892 he was made Assistant- Professor 
of Historical Geology in the Scientific School, holding the post till 
1897, when he was appointed Professor of Historical Geology and 
a member of the Governing Board in the Sheffield Scientific School. 
On March 10th, 1902, he was made University Professor of 
Paleontology at Yale. 

Professor Charles Schuchert writes: —‘‘In 1893 there was 
discovered in Lower Silurian shales near Rome, New York, a thin 
band not more than one-fourth of an inch thick, in which nearly all 
the Trilobites (Triarthrus and Trinucleus) preserve antenne and legs. 
Trilobite legs had been known before in a few isolated and very 
imperfectly preserved specimens, and from a series of about 250 
sections cut from more than 3,000 enrolled individuals of a species 
found near Trenton Falls. Antenne had not previously been seen. 
This important discovery by a local worker induced Professor 
Beecher to take out several tons of the shale, and later many 
hundred individuals were developed by mechanical means to show 
the ventral anatomy. But few can appreciate the great amount of 
time and the remarkable skill required to free these Trilobites from 
the adhering black shale, and to Beecher we owe our detailed 
knowledge of the ventral anatomy of Triarthrus and Trinucleus. 
He published thirteen papers on these very primitive Crustacea, 
including a classification in which all Trilobites are arranged in 
three orders.” [Special mention should also be made of his enlarged 
models of the appendages of Triarthrus, and of the great Stylonurus 
Lacoanus, which are most valuable and instructive for Museums.— 
H. W.| “He was at work on an extensive treatise on these forms, 
in which he proposed to bring together all that is known regarding 
their anatomy. Unfortunately, this work had not progressed beyond 
the mechanical stage of preparation of material and the making of 
drawings.” 

In 1899 Professor Beecher succeeded the late Professor O. C. 
Marsh as curator of the entire geological collections in the Peabody 
Museum at Yale, and became a member of the Board of Trustees of 
that Museum. He also held the position of Secretary to the Board, 


286 Obituary—Sir Clement Le Neve Foster. 


and was a member of the Executive Committee. He was elected 
a member of the National Academy of Sciences, a Foreign Corre- 
spondent of the Geological Society of London, and a Fellow of the 
Geological Society of America. In 1900 he was elected President 
of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, and filled the 
office for two years. 

“Tn 1899 he presented his entire collection of fossils, containing 
upwards of 100,000 specimens, to Yale Museum. The gift was 
without conditions, and was given ‘in grateful recognition of the 
honours and favours conferred upon me during my connection with 
the University.’ 

“ Although Professor Beecher was interested in stratigraphic and 
descriptive paleontology, he published almost nothing in either 
branch of the science. Of stratigraphic and faunal papers he has 
five. Of new species apparently not more than thirty-one were 
described by him. Besides these he proposed seven new genera 
and seven new orders. 

“His most philosophic paper, and the one which he himself 
thought best, is entitled ‘The Origin and Significance of Spines. 
A study in evolution.’ He states here that all spinose species when 
young are devoid of spines, and are derived from non-spinose 
ancestors. Forms attaining the limit of spine differentiation leave 
no descendants, and out of spinose types no new types are developed. 

‘Charles E. Beecher’s scientific writings amount to about sixty-five 
in number. His standing among biologists and paleontologists was 
high, and he was the leader among the students of Brachiopoda and 
Trilobita. His palesontological work at Yale was essentially of a 
biological and philosophical character. As a preparator of fossils he 
had no equal, and as a collector was one of the best. He had the 
artistic temperament, and made most of the illustrations for his 
publications. He was a slow and very careful worker. Those who 
knew him well saw in him an enthusiast, but his exuberance was 
always held in check by his judicial qualities, which character made 
him also an excellent counsellor. He travelled extensively, read 
wisely, was a lover of the English masters and of Herbert Spencer’s 
philosophy. He was orderly in his work, and, as he had the 
‘museum instinct’ well developed, he made one of the best of 
museum curators.” — Professor Charles Schuchert. 

His past students bear the highest testimony to his worth as 
a teacher in science, both as a lecturer and as a demonstrator in the 
laboratory. Asa friend, all who knew him appreciated his many 
excellent qualities and his sterling worth. 


{ Kindly favoured by Miss Lucy P. Bush from the Vale Alumni Weekly, New Haven, 
Conn., March 2nd, 1904. ] 


SIR CEEMENT EE NEVE FOSTER, “D:Sc., Rubee: 
Born Marcu 23, 1841. Diep Aprit 19, 1904. 


In the death of Sir Clement Foster we mourn the loss of a 
geologist the most distinguished in this country for his scientific 
and practical knowledge of metalliferous mining, and of all matters 
relating to stone quarries and slate-mines. 


Obituary—Sir Clement Le Neve Foster. 287 


The second son of Peter Le Neve Foster (for many years 
Secretary of the Society of Arts), he was born at Camberwell, and 
received his early education at Boulogne and Amiens. He then 
studied successively at the Royal School of Mines and at the Mining 
College of Freiberg, in Saxony, and eventually took the degree of 
Doctor of Science at the University of London. 

In 1860 he was appointed an Assistant Geologist on the Geological 
Survey, working for a few years in the Wealden area and among 
the Carboniferous rocks of Derbyshire. Conjointly with his 
colleague William Topley, the now classic paper “On the Super- 
ficial Deposits of the Valley of the Medway, with remarks on the 
Denudation of the Weald,” was read before the Geological Society 
in 1865. The authors sought to prove that old gravel of the 
Medway occurs 300 feet above the present level of the river, and 
that, granting this to be the case, there was no difficulty in admitting 
that the present features of the Wealden area were sculptured by 
vain and rivers. Later on Foster was part author of the Memoir 
on the Geology of North Derbyshire (Geol. Survey, 1869). He 
retired from the Geological Survey in 1865, not without much 
personal regret at leaving the congenial and active field-work of 
that institution ; he retired simply because the prospects of earning 
a reasonable income were too remote. He now devoted his attention 
especially to mineralogy and mining—lecturing on these subjects in 
Cornwall, and examining several important mineral districts in 
different parts of the world. He brought before the Geological 
Society notes on Celestine in Egypt (with H. Bauerman), and an 
account of the Caratal goldfield in Venezuela. In 1872 he was 
appointed an Inspector of Mines under the Home Office, and served 
for about eight years in the south-west of England. The results of 
his observations on mines in Cornwall and Devon were brought 
before the Geological Society and before local Societies in Cornwall. 
In 1880 he was given charge of the North Wales district, and 
resided at Llandudno until his retirement from the Home Office in 
1901. Meanwhile, on the death of Sir Warington Smyth, Foster 
was appointed in 1890 to the professorship of mining at the Royal 
College of Science, a post which he held until the time of his death. 
The work of his later years is largely embodied in the Reports on 
Mines and Quarries issued annually by the Home Office. He was 
author also of an important treatise on ‘“‘ Ore and Stone Mining,” of 
which five editions have been issued, and only last year he published 
an excellent handbook on “‘ The Elements of Mining and Quarrying.” 

His wide knowledge and the charm of his personal character 
made him known and beloved by a large circle of friends, while 
his services on committees and as a juror were in frequent request. 
His last important function was as a member of the present Royal 
Commission on Coal supplies. He was elected a Fellow of the 
Royal Society in 1898, and last year the honour of knighthood was 
conferred upon him. 


288 Miscellaneous. 


MIiSCHULIULA WN BHOUS.- 


——$———— 


Mr. W. W. Fisuer, in a paper “On the Salinity of Waters fron» 
the Oolites” (Analyst, Feb., 1904), remarks that the study of these 
waters leads to the general conclusion that the uncovered beds 
of limestone yield calcareous waters of a hard character, while the 
deep beds, and especially the beds covered by clay, yield saline 
or alkaline supplies. In his opinion the alkalies are normal con- 
stituents of the strata from which the waters are obtained. The 
chemical argument appears absolutely destructive of the hypothesis 
that the constituents are derived from the infiltration of sea-water. 
The alkaline carbonates probably owe their origin to the decay of 
organic matter originally deposited in and with the rock material, 
part of which still remains, and from which the products of 
decomposition have not been removed by the circulation of under- 
ground waters. It is precisely in situations where there is little 
or no movement possible that saline waters are met with. 


‘Nores on Mintne 1n IRELAND” are contributed by Mr. G. H. 
Kinahan (Trans. Inst. Mining Engineers, 1904). He sums up what 
is known of the iron, silver, copper, and tin ores, of gold, and 
also of salt, steatite, fuller’s earth, pyrophyllite, and molybdenite. 


Mr. D. A. MacA.tstTEr, in dealing with “ A Cross-Section and some 
notes on the Tin and Copper Deposits of Camborne ” (Trans. Roy. 
Geol. Soc. Cornwall, vol. xii), remarks that while all the lodes 
produce both tin and copper ores, those in the killas yield mainly 
copper, and those in the granite mainly tin. In the Camborne areas 
the lodes are ore-bearing fissures in the vicinity of elvan dykes, 
and they must be regarded as having been a later product of the 
same magma as that which gave rise to the elvans. The lodes 
indeed appear to be influenced in the direction of their underlie 
by the elvans, and like them they appear to converge in depth. 
The richest tin zone in a series of ore fissures bears a fairly definite 
position with regard to the surface of the granite, being more or 
less parallel to it, and bending with it. The lodes are not uniformly 
productive to the deepest points reached by mining. Generally 
speaking, the conditions assisting the deposition of cassiterite from 
its solutions were more favourable near the periphery of the granite 
than those nearer their source, and solutions reaching the cooler 
regions near the contact deposited the whole of that cassiterite which 
they had managed to retain in the upward journey. The author 
deals with the secondary enrichment of lodes that may accompany 
denudation of the area, and this appears to especially affect the copper 
ores. In conclusion he is hopeful that with modern engineering 
methods there will be a revival in Cornish mining. 


Mr. T. V. Homes calls attention to “Some Greywethers at Grays 
Thurrock, Essex” (Essex Naturalist, vol. xiii). They were met 
with in the old Thames Valley drift, and were probably derived 
from the Woolwich and Reading Beds. 


. Origin of Pegmag 


. Jurassic Polyzoa. 


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Discovery of Silurian Fossils of 
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UrprieLtp GREEN, F.G.S. ...... 289 


. Eocene Outcropin Central Africa. 


By Captain P. 8. Lutzan, 
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. Eocene Echinoids from Sokoto. 
_ ByF. A. Barner, M.A., D.Sce., 


ete. (Plate XI and a page of 
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CONSISTING OF 


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etc., etc., Dry and in Spirit. 


A Large Stock of Fossil Fishes. 


His COLOURED CASTS, now numbering 229, and of which 
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N.B.—R. F. D. desires to restrict the number of branches of 
Science represented in his Museum, and now offers for Sale his 
Entire Stock of Minerals and Recent Shells, retaining in 
future only his Geological Collections and Reproductions of famous 
Fossils; also his collections illustrating Anthropology and all relating 
to early Man—including Cabinets and Glass Cases. These two 
collections, which can be treated for singly or together, contain 
several thousand specimens, and are well worthy of examination. 


Although intending purchasers can view the above at any time, 
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NEW SSERIESS (DECADE Vi VOL. JI. 
No. VII.— JULY, 1904. 


@OHeG TsINPAL sy | Aske iS ae sea 


—— 


I.—On tHe Discovery or Siturtan Fosstts or Luptow AGE 
IN CoRNWALL. 


By Urriztp Green, F.G.S. 


HIS is merely a brief note to record the discovery of fossils of 
undoubted Silurian age in the “ Black Slates with limestone 
lenticles” which occur on the shore and in the cliff at Fletching’s 
Cove, near Porthalla, and at Porthluney, near Gorran, in Cornwall. 
For many years the most careful search in these beds for fossils 
has been unsuccessful beyond minute ossicles of crinoids and 
indeterminable fragments of Orthocerata. I have spent many 
weeks each year hunting for fossils, often alone, but sometimes in 
the company of Dr. Barrois, Mr. Teall, Messrs. Vassell, Sherborn, 
Howard Fox, and others, and beyond finding the well-known 
Brachiopoda in the quartzites of Gorran and Carne, our search has 
seemed almost in vain. Some four years ago, however, Mr. Sherborn 
found in the Black Slates of Fletching’s Cove an impression, which 
he identified as a fragment of Serpulites longissimus, J. de C. Sow., 
of Ludlow age. This fragment is now in the Museum of Practical 
Geology. This Spring, in company with Messrs. H. Dixon, of the 
Geological Survey, and Mr. G. T. Prior, of the British Museum, 
I paid my usual visit to Cornwall, and was rewarded by finding 
at Porthluney in these Black Slates a limestone lenticle which 
contained Orthocerata in quantity. It was only on the 6th June 
that I showed this to Mr. Sherborn, who at once took it to Mr. G. C. 
Crick, who recognised two of the fossils therein contained as com- 
parable with Actinoceras baccatum, H. Woodw., and Barrandeoceras 
holtianum (Blake), together with other fragments also of Upper 
Silurian age. These two Cephalopods taken together with the 
Serpulites stamp the rock as of uppermost Silurian, probably Ludlow 
age. ‘The specimen is in the British Museum (Nat. Hist.). 
I think I may now venture to state that we have at last succeeded 
in establishing a definite fact in the geology of this part of Cornwall, 
thus fixing a base-line for the rocks intervening between it and the 


DECADE V.—VOL. I.—NO. VII. 19 


290 Captain P. S. Lelean, R.A.W.C.— 


Taunusian beds of Looe and Fowey. These rocks I propose to 
correlate with the Gedinnian of the Continent in a subsequent paper. 
I may mention that at Looe I have at last found the most 
characteristic fossil of the Taunusian series, Onychia (Kochia) 
capuliformis, Sandberger, as well as Spirifer mercurit (Gosselet). 


I].—An Eocene Ovurcrop In Centrat AFRICA. 
By Captain P. 8. Lerzan, R.A.M.C., F.R.C.S. Eng. 
(With a Map in the text.) 


T the heart of Africa lies a vast area, so remote, so inaccessible, 
and hence so little known, that for the explorer it possesses 
a fascination all its own. The interests of the geologist have perhaps 
received less recognition than those of his fellow-scientists from the 
pen of the traveller; and there must be much that he would wish 
to know lying hidden in these distant regions awaiting discovery 
and publication. There is thus an encouragement to make known 
any facts which may throw light upon the geological structure of 
those parts, however small the contribution may be. 

While serving recently with the Anglo-French Boundary Com- 
mission (Niger-Chad) we found an outcrop of a fossil-bearing 
stratum in the region of the Sokoto, having, as shown in the 
accompanying map, giving its latitude and longitude, a position near 
the verge of the Great Sahara Desert. On my return, the specimens 
secured were submitted to the paleontologists of the British 
Museum, one of whom, Dr. F. A. Bather, has kindly drawn up the 
description which follows in a separate paper. For me it only 
remains to give a few particulars of the general and localized 
formation to supplement his account. 

Generally, the country consists of sandy plains, roughly estimated 
as lying some 500 or 600 feet above sea-level. These plains are 
traversed by watercourses, which contain running water only for 
some five or six weeks in the year, the rainfall of 535 mm. lasting 
during three months. A permanent water-supply is obtained by 
deep wells, which in some places reach a depth of 400 feet before 
tapping a constant source. 

From the plains rise hills in isolated masses or in chains, with 
abrupt slopes, often almost precipitous, and with summits ending 
at from 800 to 400 feet in plateaux of remarkably uniform height, 
unbroken by further elevations. These hills consist mainly of 
laterite, marl, and limestone, but in places are found outcrops of 
syenitic granite; among minerals are some calcite, a little quartz, 
and considerable quantities of mica. 

The accompanying map, kindly furnished by Capt. C. St. Foulkes, 
R.E., shows to the east of Garadimi a plateau with the characters 
described. Its steep sides are covered by boulders and detached 
rocks of all sizes, and the formation is of laterite throughout. From 
this plateau a long promontory reaches out towards Garadimi, falling 
abruptly for some distance to merge into a spur composed entirely 


Discovery of Eocene Rocks in Central Africa. 291 


of fossil- bearing limestone, whence at the spot marked + were 
obtained remains of Mollusca, Echinoidea, and Foraminifera, which, 
according to the determinations by Dr. Bather and Mr. R. Bullen 
Newton, suggest a Middle Hocene age for the rock. This spur was 
evidently more resistant than the promontory; it was less than 
200 feet thick, and between it and the general plain level below lay 


BOY BEY 
SAMUI 


A\Garadime ‘\. 


4 a 


\ 


TBUSN 87 
a Scale of Hulometres 
ey 4 ro) 5 10 15K. 
a a 
EO 


145°E Gr 


695 | 
Roads —.-—-Uppermargin of plateaux 
~—~~—Water courses ---- Base of slopes of filateawt 

+ Spot from which specimens were taken. 


another stratum of laterite, while the limestone itself was markedly 
stratified. Similar discoveries of fossils ascribed to the Middle 
HKocene period have been made by the French at Zinder, some 
300 miles to the east of Garadimi, and have been commented on by 
Professor A. de Lapparent. 


292 Dr. F. A. Bather—Eocene Echinoids from Sokoto. 


IIJ.—Eocent Ecarnoips rrom Soxoro. 
By F. A. Baturr, M.A., D.Sc., British Museum (Natural History). 
(PLATE XI.) 


T is fortunate that Captain Lelean not merely discovered these 
fossils at Garadimi in Sokoto, but that he had enough sense of 
their importance to spend some time and trouble in their collection, 
and that now he has generously presented them to the British 
Museum. The collection includes four echinoid tests, five natural 
casts of Mollusca, and a few rock-specimens containing Operculina 
and other Foraminifera. The Mollusca, so far as their state of 
preservation admits, have been determined by Mr. R. Bullen Newton 
as: 3 Lucina cf. gigantea Deshayes, 1 Voluta cf. cithara Lamarck, 
and 1 undetermined Gastropod. The Echinoidea were partly covered 
by an impure limestone closely adherent to the test. The portions 
not so covered were in many places considerably worn, and the 
calcite was split by cracks, probably due to alternations of tempera- 
ture, and rendering it very difficult to follow the course of the 
sutures. The appearance of these and the other specimens shows 
clearly that they have been lying on the surface of the ground for 
some time, and, in fact, Captain Lelean informs me that they were 
not picked out of the solid rock, but from the talus at the foot of the 
cliff. The notable variations in the matrix of the different specimens 
are thus accounted for. None the less it will be seen in the sequel 
that all the specimens are consistent with the ascription of a Middle 
Eocene age to the mass of limestone from which they were derived. 
Of the four echinoids, two have been determined as belonging to the 
genus Plesiolampas and two to the genus Hemiaster. In each case 
there is a larger and better preserved specimen referred to as A, 
and a smaller one referred to as B. 


[The MS. of this paper was sent in on March 14th, 1904. After the proof had 
been received, Captain Foulkes, R.E., kindly presented to the British Museum 
a further collection of fossils from this region. It included two more specimens otf 
the Plesiolampas, referred to as C and D; and twelve more of the Hemiaster, lettered 
according to their decreasing size from C to 0. The accompanying label reads: ‘‘In 
bed of indurated chalk running into grey limestone underlying laterite. Found near 
road just above Tamaské, where it descends from plateau.’? These specimens have 
confirmed the main conclusions already set down, while affording a wider basis for 
the diagnoses. Beyond this, a few allusions or illustrations are all that it has been 
possible to introduce at this more than eleventh hour.—June 9th, 1904. | 


Puersto~tampas Duncan & Sladen, i882. 


Pal. Ind., ser. xtv, vol. i, pt. 3, Foss. Ech. W. Sind, pp. 9, 54, pls. i, xiii-xv 
(non Plesiolampas, Pomel, 1883, ‘‘ Genera des Kch.,”’ p. 62). 


The two specimens agree entirely with the diagnosis of this genus 
of Cassidulide (subfam. Echinolampadine) as drawn up in the 
above-quoted work, and as repeated in P. M. Duncan’s “ Revision 
of the Kchinoidea” (J. Linn. Soc. Zool., xxiii, p.193; 1889). They 
have not the crenulate and perforate tubercles of Oriolampas 
Munier-Chalmas. They differ, however, from the six species which 
Duncan & Sladen described from the Eocene of Sind, and I am 


Dr. F. A. Bather—Eocene Echinoids from Sokoto. 298 


unable to find any other valid species of the genus. Pomel’s 
Cassidulid genus of the same name would, if accepted, belong to 
the Echinanthinz. Conoclypeus rostratus R. Tate, 1894, was referred 
by its author to Plesiolampas in 1898 (J.R. Soc. N.S. Wales, xxxi, 
p- 412), but Mr. J. Lambert in the same year showed that it was an 
Echinolampas, and named it H. Tatei (Rev. Crit. Paléozool., ii, 
p. 164). Even if Palgopneustes conicus Dames, 1877, could, as 
Duncan suggested, be referred to Plesiolampas, it could not possibly 
be related to the present species, which I therefore propose to 
describe as 


Plesiolampas Sahare, u.sp. (PI. XI, Figs. 1-5.) 


Diagnosis.—Outline oblong, rounded in front, slightly rostrate 
behind ;. margins tumid ; dorsal surface in transverse profile slightly 
conoid ; length 100,! width 87-91, height 51-53. Ambulacral areas 
raised ; petals do not reach margin, posterior pair being most remote, 
their greatest width from 11 to 16, interporiferous area not quite 
twice width of poriferous ; pores conjugate and sloping adactinally. 
Peristome deeply sunk, transversely elongate, eccentric in front. 
Periproct at extreme actinal margin. Ornament of tubercles sunk 
in scrobicules of thrice their diameter, irregularly scattered on dorsal 
surface, more regularly crowded actinally. 

Description of specimen A (B.M. registered E 4824).—Test 
almost complete, rubbed on left side, fractured in other places. 
This is the holotype. 

General Form.— Ambital outline approaches an oblong, with 
gentle curve in front, passing into wide curves on the sides, which 
are further apart posteriorly, then more tapering behind and very 
slightly truncate. Margin tumid, very slightly rostrate behind. 
Actinal surface deeply sunk round peristome, to fully 5 mm. below 
base-plane,” otherwise gently convex. Peristome slightly eccentric 
in front, circa 24mm. from anterior vertical plane. Height of 
ambitus above base-plane, circa 10 mm. in front, circa 7 mm. behind. 
Total length, 52°3mm. Greatest width, 45°6 mm. at circa 28 mm. 
from anterior vertical plane. Here also is the vertex, 27 mm. above 
base-plane. Dorsal surface slightly conoid in transverse profile; in 
longitudinal profile, slopes down with a sharper and more convex 
curve anteriorly than posteriorly. (See Text-figures 1-3, p. 294.) 

Apical System.—Slightly anterior to vertex, its centre being circa 
23mm. from anterior vertical plane. The 4 gonopores are circular 
and about equal; posterior pores 1:9mm. apart, anterior pores 
1:25 mm. apart. Oculars and their pores minute and almost indis- 
tinguishable. As usual in the genus, the 4 genital plates are fused, 


1 Tn the diagnoses relative measurements are given in hundredths of the length ; 
in the descriptions the actual measurements are given in millimetres. Here length = 
36-60°5mm. The radii and interradii are numbered on Loven’s system. 

2 The base-plane is the flat horizontal surface on which the denuded test assumes 
stable equilibrium in its natural posture. The anterior vertical plane is at right 
angles to this and to the sagittal plane, and parallel to the transversal. The height 
of the vertex or any other part should always be measured from the base-plane. 


294 Dr, F. A. Bather—Eocene Echinoids from Sokoto. 


Rae 


mouth 


Plesiolampas Sahare. 


Fic. 1.—Outline and petals of abactinal surface of A. 
5, 2.—Outline of A from posterior end. 


>, 3.—Outline of A from left side, showing position of peristome as though in 
section. 


», 4.—Actinal surface of B, roughly indicating peristome and incipient phyllodes. 


All figures are natural size. 


Dr. F. A, Bather—Eocene Echinoids from Sokoto. 295 


and all the space within the gonopores is filled with hydropores ; 
the madreporite does not, however, extend backwards between the 
posterior oculars. (Pl. XI, Fig. 2.) 

Ambulacra.— At the ambitus and on the tumid margin of the 
actinal surface the whole ambulacral area is slightly raised ; within 
the petals the raising is almost confined to the interporiferous area, 
the poriferous areas being slightly depressed along their outer 
borders. ‘The petals do not reach the ambitus, the posterior pair 
being the most remote from it. Angle included by rays II and IV, 
135°; by rays I and V, 60°. The petals widen equably to near 
their ends, then close in slightly ; the actual measurements are :— 


III. II & IY. IT&V. 
Length of petal ... 20°7 mm. 20°0-21°6 mm. 24°0-25°0 mm. 
Greatest width ... 6°9 mm. 8:0— 7-5 mm. 8°4— 8:0 mm. 
Width at distal end 5:0 mm. 4-3 mm. 5°3 mm. 


Structure of petals :—In all lateral petals the posterior ‘poriferous 
area curves more than the anterior (Pl. XI, Figs. 4 and 5). In 
ray IV, at the widest part of the petal, the width of the inter- 
poriferous area is 3°Smm., while that of the poriferous area is 
2:1mm.; the widths of both diminish slightly towards the apex and 
more slightly towards their distal ends. The inner pores of an 
area are almost circular, the outer pores pyriform on the surface but 
becoming more circular deeper down, as is seen when the surface 
has been worn. This appearance is connected with the distinct 
conjugation of the pores. In the interporiferous area the sutures 
between the ambulacrals are almost at right angles to the perradius, 
with a tendency to slope adactinally from it. In the poriferous 
areas the adactinal slope of the suture is conspicuous, the angle 
contained by the two regions of the suture being 150°. Number of 
pore-pairs in petals: III, circa 48; II and IV, circa 51; I and V, 
circa 60. But there are a few slight irregularities: thus, in the 
anterior poriferous area of ray 1V, reckoning from the distal end of 
the petal, the outer pores are missing from sutures 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 
the inner pores remaining normal, except 3 and 4, which are 
diminished; outer pore 5 is larger than usual (Pl. XI, Fig. 4). 
Occasional atrophy or suppression of a pore occurs in the other rays. 
From the contracted ends of the petals the ambulacra widen again 
towards the ambitus, and then lessen in width towards the peristome, 
widening slightly just before they reach it. The series of double 
pores of the petals changes very rapidly, if not quite abruptly, into 
a series of minute single pores which appears to continue the inner 
row of the double pores. It passes over the ambitus on to the 
actinal surface of the test ; as it approaches the peristome the pores 
increase in size, and at the oral end of the ambulacrum appear to be 
some half-dozen supplementary pores on each side, forming a rudi- 
mentary phyllode. This is more clearly seen in B (Text-fig. 4). 
but the structure in A seems to have been similar. 
Interradials. —In the upper part of the abactinal surface, the 
sutures between these plates are straight ; in the lower part the 
sutures have a downward bend in the middle. The number of 


296 Dr. F. A. Bather—Eocene Echinoids from Sokoto. 


ambulacrals abutting on a single interambulacral is about 7 half-way 
down a petal, fewer nearer the apex, and more at the distal end. 
The arrangement of the interradials on the actinal surface cannot be 
distinguished. 

Peristome. — Not fully exposed, but enough matrix has been 
worked away to show that it is about 1:5 mm. in front of the middle 
line, transversely elongate, narrow antero-posteriorly, and deeply 
sunken. 

Periproct.—At extreme margin of actinal surface, invisible from 
awe ; longitudinally elongate, oval or subpyriform; circa 7-7 x 
4-2 mm. 

Ornament.—Small primary tubercles, varying slightly in thickness, 
non-crenulate, imperforate, sunk in a scrobicule of thrice their 
diameter, to such a depth that their summits are flush with the 
general surface ; irregularly disposed on abactinal surface, both on 
interambulacral and interporiferous areas, at distances varying from 
about half the width to twice the width of the scrobicule; more 
regularly disposed in rows on actinal surface, very slightly wider, 
and crowded so that the space between them equals about one-third 
the width of the scrobicule. Miliary granules, crowded and often 
‘confluent, fill all spaces between the scrobicules, and tend to form 
a slightly defined scrobicular circle ; they cover the ridges dividing 
the conjugate podial pores; between periproct and peristome they 
are larger, and seem here to cover a median tract from which 
tubercles are almost, if not wholly, absent. (Cf. Pl. XI, Figs. 1 and 3.) 

Specimen B (B.M. regd. E 4825).—Much smaller than A, but 
of the same general shape: length 36-8 mm., width 35 mm., height 
175mm. The length and height, however, have been much 
reduced by erosion of the test, which has also caused the excavation 
around the peristome to appear relatively less than in A, while the 
periproct can scarcely be distinguished. 


[Specimens C & D(B.M. regd. E 4833 and E 4854).—From Tamaské. C, which 
is fairly well preserved, has length 60-5 mm., width 55 mm., height 32 mm. This 
indicates a slight increase in relative width and height with age. Otherwise C agrees 
closely with A. Its measurements are taken into account in the diagnosis. D is 
a mere fragment, but shows the ornament so much more clearly than the other specimens 
that it has been selected for figuring (Pl. XI, Figs. 1, 3). On the actinal surface, the 
tubercles are in places more crowded than shown in the figure. ] 


Relations to other species.—Generally speaking, Plesiolampas 
Sahare is stouter, wider, more tumid at the margin, and more loftily 
domed than any of the Indian species described by Duncan & Sladen. 
Thus, P. elongata is much narrower and flatter; P. prelonga is much 
more elongate, more rostrate, and has narrower poriferous areas in 
the petals ; P. ovalis is also more rostrate, and has relatively shorter 
and narrower petals; in P. rostrata, which has wide petals, scarcely 
convergent distally, the periproct is more elongate and removed 
from the margin, while the low test slopes gently from the vertex 
to the margin and has a slight posterior ridge; the outline of 
P. polygonalis, though somewhat reminiscent of P. Sahara, is nearer 
a pentagon, and is wider in front instead of behind, the low upper 


Dr. F. A. Bather—Eocene Echinoids from Sokoto. 297 


surface is gently domed, the petals narrow and very slightly con- 
vergent ; P. placenta is the nearest to our species and particularly 
resembles B, but, as compared with the unworn A, it is much thinner 
and flatter, while its ornament is said to be larger and scantier on. 
the actinal surface, the reverse of P. Sahare. 

Evidence as to age.—All species of this genus previously 
described are found in Sind. PP. elongata comes from the Strata 
below the Trap, which appear to be at the base of the Tertiary. 
‘The other species, some of which are more like P. Sahare, come 
from the top of the Ranikot Series, which is thought to be Lower 
Hocene. There are in P. Sahare no signs of more advanced 
-evolution such as might suggest for it a later date. 


Hemiaster Desor, 1847. 


Ann. Sci. Nat. (3), vill, p. 16. 
Syn. Zrachyaster Pomel, 1883, Genera des Ech., p. 38. 

There has been much discussion and uncertainty about the limits 
of this genus, and a summary of the position in the year 1889 is 
given by Duncan (Revision of Echinoidea, p. 225). However 
the genus be dismembered, it should retain as genotype the species 
described by A. Brongniart (1822) as Spatangus bufo, which was 
the first in Desor’s list, and was subsequently referred to by him as 
characteristic of the genus. For present purposes it is unnecessary 
‘to consider whether or not Abatus, Tripylus, Ditremaster, and many 
-other forms at one time or another placed with Hemiaster, should be 
left in the genus. The only one with which the specimens before 
us have anything to do is Trachyaster. In the genotype and other 
characteristic species of Hemiaster, the apical system is compact and 
ethmophract (the madreporite bounded posteriorly by genitals 1 
and 4), and the compact nature of the system was recognised in 
Desor’s revised diagnosis (Synopsis, 1858, p. 367). In certain 
species that would otherwise fall into Hemiaster, the apical system 
is ethmolysian (the madreporite extending backwards between 
genitals 1 and 4 and oculars I and V). For such species the genus 
Trachyaster, proposed by Pomel, was adopted by Cotteau (1887, 
Paléont. franc., Terrains Tert., Echinides Kocénes, p. 400). Duncan 
and Sladen (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. [6], ii, p. 829; 1888) rejected 
this genus for reasons partly bibliographic, partly morphological. 
Their objections of the former class were, however, based on an 
incomplete acquaintance with Pomel’s writings, many of which 
were not accessible in this country till the death of their author. 
They stated, in fact, that the genus had been proposed without any 
genotype; and it is true that in the section of his work first pub- 
dished (1888) Pomel merely said “ Le type est fossile du miocéne 
-supérieur.” But from the 2¢ Livraison, p. 108 (1888), it is clear that 
the species intended was Trachyaster globulus Pomel, which was 
‘figured as T. globosus in the plates, first issued in 1887. There can 
therefore be no technical objection to the acceptance of Pomel’s 
name. If there were, one would merely fall back on Cotteau’s 
-diagnosis and the genotype T. Heberti Cott. But Duncan & Sladen 


298 Dr. F. A. Bather—Eocene Echinoids from Sokoto. 


further maintained that, as had already been shown by Mr. V. 
Gauthier, the ethmolysian apical system was merely a stage of 
development, connected by imperceptible gradations with the 
ethmophract stage, and that an individual might be ethmophract 
in youth and ethmolysian in old age. An objection of this nature 
could be brought against almost any character, except the few: 
which may have arisen per saltum. When, however, a slowly. 
evolving character affords the only distinction, and when the 
intermediate stages are many, as in the present case, it certainly 
does not seem advisable to base a generic division upon it alone. 
As a provisional subgeneric denomination for ethmolysian Hemiasters 
with four gonopores, the name Trachyaster has its conveniences. 
In such a sense, then, we may say that the specimens from Garadimi. 
belong to Trachyaster. 

Now according to the usual diagnoses, the only distinction between 
Trachyaster and Linthia (Desor, 1858, genotype L. insignis Merian) 
is that Linthia has a lateral fasciole passing beneath the periproct. 
The fact that in the majority of fossils it is very hard to distinguish 
this lateral fasciole is no argument against its taxonomic importance. 
But the researches of Mr. Alexander Agassiz seem to show that 
a lateral fasciole is the remains of what was once a single fasciole 
enclosing both petals and periproct, the latter structure being nearer 
the apex in early stages. As the periproct passes downwards 
from the apex, we may suppose that it carries the posterior region 
of this primitive fasciole downwards with it; and then that the 
peripetalous fasciole is recompleted above the periproct by a secondary 
posterior half. Whatever may be the function of the fasciole, it is 
reasonable to suppose that it is interfered with by this transportation 5. 
hence the appearance of a new fasciole in its place. Therefore one 
might anticipate for the lateral fasciole an early disappearance ; and 
that there is actually such a tendency seems to be indicated by the 
frequent tenuity of the lateral fasciole and by the suppression of 
portions of it, producing the ‘diffuse’ state recognised in many 
well-preserved specimens. The lateral fasciole may therefore be 
regarded as a degenerate and disappearing structure, and as such 
it seems an unsafe character on which alone to base a distinction. 
between two forms so extraordinarily alike as Trachyaster and 
Linthia. This was the opinion of Duncan (1889). 

Fortunately there is another character, far more fundamental and 
far more constant, and this lies in the heteronomy of interradius. 
1 on the actinal surface, as described by Lovén (Ktudes sur les 
Echinoidées, pp. 50, 51; 1875), and as first introduced into the 
formal diagnoses by Duncan (1889). According to these two 
authorities, the heteronomy in Hemiaster is of normal type, that 
in Linthia of ancient type. It is greatly to be regretted that so- 
little attention has been paid to this feature by paleontologists, 
and that it is impossible to judge from either descriptions or drawings 
how far the normal and ancient heteronomies coincide with the 
absence and presence respectively of a lateral fasciole. Specimens. 
of Hemiaster bufo in the British Museum (registered 34662) from. 


Dr. F. A. Bather—Eocene Echinoids from Sokoto. 299 


the type-locality, Havre, show normal heteronomy. It is desirable 
that the genotype of Linthia also should be examined on this point. 
Till that has been done, we must be content to follow the diagnoses. 
of Duncan in this respect also. 

On the preceding interpretation of the genera, the specimens from 
Garadimi belong to Hemiaster. While the peripetalous fasciole 
of A is visible quite clearly in places, the most minute and prolonged 
scrutiny has failed to reveal any trace of a lateral fasciole. Con- 
sidering, however, that its absence might just conceivably be due 
to the weathering of the specimens, I investigated the structure 
of the actinal surface, with the result that in B there was traced 
normal heteronomy of interradius1. Among the Tamaské specimens, 
several show the lateral fasciole passing beneath the periproct, and 
would therefore be referred to Linthia by most paleontologists. 
But they all have distinct normal heteronomy (Pl. XI, Fig. 12). 
Therefore I place them in Hemiaster. At the same time I have 
thought it advisable, for the reasons given above, to compare them 
with species of Zinthia as well as of Hemiaster (Trachyaster). 
Finding nothing under either name with which they could be 
placed, I venture to refer them to 


Hemiaster sudanensis, n.sp. (PI. XI, Figs. 6-13.) 


Diagnosis.—Ethmolysian, with 4 gonopores (= Trachyaster). 
Outline elongate subovoid, with slight posterior truncation and deep 
anterior sulcus. Length 100;! greatest width, at level of apical 
system, which is eccentric in front, from 95 in young to 87 in adult ; 
greatest height, at about 65 from anterior margin, from 68:7 to 
71°8, average 68°6. Posterior truncation slopes upwards and 
inwards, so that periproct is visible from above. Posterior interradius 
subcarinate above, inflated on actinal surface. Margins of actinal 
surface rounded, so that ambitus is at one-quarter the height above 
base-plane. Summit depressed. Anterior ambulacral groove increases 
in depth towards margin and continues to peristome. Paired 
ambulacra increase in depth to one-third their length from apex, 
and then decrease to almost flush at ends of petals; II and 1V 
subtend 110°, length of petals about 53 to 45, adult number of 
pore-pairs in series 26-28; I and V subtend 60°, length of petals 
about 82 to 39, adult number of pore-pairs in series 19-21. Pores 
conjugate, mostly elongate, outer twice length of inner. A line of 
miliaries on the intervening ridges. Peristome depressed anteriorly, 
with a projecting labrum. Periproct broadly lanceolate, more pointed 
above. Primary tubercles crowded on dorsal surface, larger on actinal 
surface, intermingled with secondaries on ambulacra I and V; bosses 
finely crenulate; scrobicular areas depressed, with circle of miliaries 
on abactinal surface, but with an inner raised rim on actinal surface. 
Miliaries closely set on all intervening space. 

Description of the specimens.—A (B.M. registered EK 4826) 
is well preserved, with some adherent hard marly matrix ; the test, 


1 See footnote, p. 2938. Length here = 21-32°3 mm. 


300 2 =©Dr. F. A. Bather—Eocene Echinoids from Sokoto. 


however, is abraded on the actinal surface and on the right posterior 
quarter of the upper surface; this is the holotype. B (E 4827) is 
much more abraded, as well as cracked; C to O (E 4835-4846) are 
mostly well preserved, but G is crushed. 

General Form.—The subovoid ambital outline is cut into by the 
anterior groove to a depth of 2°3 mm. in A, and 1:8 mm. in B, and 
is flattened posteriorly by a truncation about 9mm. wide in A, 
65mm. in B. Length of A, 30°5mm., of B, 25mm.; greatest 
width, A, 26°6mm., B, 22:1mm.; greatest height, A, 21:9 mm., 
B, 18°2mm.; distance of vertex from the anterior vertical plane 
in A, 19°5 mm., but since the test is here eroded, it may have been 
further back, as in B, where the distance is about 16°5mm., the 
ratios to length=100 being A, 64, B, 66. In determining the vertical 
anterior plane, ambiguity arises from the fact that the specimens are 
not bilaterally symmetrical, but all project forward more on the 
right; one must therefore measure from where this plane cuts the 
sagittal plane.' 

Summit depressed. Interradii swollen, all forming a strong 
convexity, as seen in transversal section, then falling away rapidly 
to the ambitus, which is at one-quarter the height above the base- 
plane. In this species the base-plane* is touched solely by the 
swollen plastron; and, owing to the asymmetry above noted, 
equilibrium is attained in these specimens only when they have 
fallen over to the right; in measuring, therefore, the sagittal plane 
must be fixed at right angles to the base-plane. ‘The vertex lies 
just opposite the middle of the posterior petals; from it the sub- 
carinate interradius curves gently down to the summit of the 
posterior truncation. 

Actinal surface.—Plastron inflated, especially posteriorly, with 
a tendency to carination. Margin equably rounded, except posteriorly 
in median line, in ambulacra I and V, which are slightly depressed, 
and in anterior suleus. (PI. XI, Fig. 12.) 

Apical System.—Gonopores 4, conspicuous, circular ; anterior pair 
smaller than posterior, and closer together. Genital plates of each 
side abut, pushing outwards oculars II and LV; but ocular III comes 
between the main portions of genitals 2 and 3. Genital 2, however, 
stretches backwards in a madreporite, between and far behind 
genitals 1 and 4, also separating oculars V and I, while genital 3 
sends a broad tungue down to the madreporite. The system is 
therefore compact and ethmolysian. Ocular pores very small. The 
centre of the system, or apical pole, is 13:8 mm. from anterior vertical 
plane in A, 12:4 mm. in B. (PI. XI, Fig. 7.) In 1 is)am 
abnormality, gonopore 2 being on the left of ocular III. 

Ambulacra.—Anterior feebly developed ; attains a width of 4mm. 
in A. In the proximal 5 pairs of plates the pores are not dis- 
tinguishable ; in the next 7 pairs they are minute and wide apart ; 


1 Since noting the asymmetry in Hemiaster sudanensis, I have detected it in 
specimens of the genus from widely separated localities and horizons. It can be no 
mere individual abnormality. 

* See footnote, p. 293. 


Dr. F. A. Bather—Eocene Echinoids from Sokoto. 301 


after that none are distinguishable. Pore-pairs, not conjugate, 
slightly oblique, the outer pores being adapical and depressed in 
a slight peripodium. 

The paired ambulacra are relatively deeper and wider in B than 
in A, suggesting that B was female and A male. They are almost 
straight, subpetaloid, and asymmetrical, the anterior half of IL and 
IV, the posterior half of I and V, becoming the narrower towards 
the apex. IL and IV subtend 110°. Length of petal, in A, 13-5 mm. 
(distance to margin along curve being 19°5 mm.), in B, 11-3 mm. 
(distance to margin, 14:8 mm.). Greatest width in A, 3°S mm. at 
about 4mm. from distal end of petal; in B, 3°5 mm. at about 
5:3 mm. from end. Width at distal end of petal, 2°3 mm. in A, 
2-1 mm. in B. Deepest part of petal at 6 mm. from apical system. 
Poriferous areas broad, extending almost to outer margin of ambu- 
lacrum, especialiy on posterior side. Pores conjugate; elongate, 
except 2 adapical pairs in the posterior half, 7 adapical pairs in the 
anterior half, and the extreme distal pair, all of which are circular. 
Outer pore of each pair slightly more distal and twice length of 
inner pore. Height of ambulacrals, 6 mm. in A,‘Omm.in B. In 
A the pores lie in the distal half of each plate, and the proximal half 
is marked with a line of six miliaries; B differs in having the pores 
nearer the middle of the plate. Hach series contains 28 pore-pairs 
in A, 26 to 27 in B. Interporiferous area narrow (‘75 mm. in A) 
and slightly grooved. (Pl. XI, Fig. 10.) 

Ambulacra I and V subtend 60°. Length of petal, in A, 10 mm., 
in B, 83 mm. Greatest width at about half the length, 3-2 mm. 
in A, 5'4mm.in B. Width at distal end of petal, 2°2 mm. Hach 
series contains 21 pore-pairs in A, and 19 in B; of these the 3- 
proximal in both specimens, the 6 distal in B, and the extreme distal 
in A are circular. In all other respects these ambulacra resemble 
II and IV. 

Interradials.—As previously stated, B affords evidence of normal 
heteronomy in 1. The number of petal-ambulacrals abutting on an 
interambulacral of 1 in Ais 6. The small labrum is succeeded by 
two large sternals, which swell up to the median line; at the end of 
the sternum, about 15°5 mm. from the peristome in A, the inter- 
radius curves gently round to the margin, where it meets the 
posterior truncation. These structures are more clearly shown in 
the Tamaské specimens (Pl. XI, Fig. 12). 

Peristome.—In A the transverse diameter is 3:2 mm., the sagittal, 
16mm. The anterior sulcus is continued right up to its anterior 
margin, which is 7-6 mm. from the anterior vertical plane. Anteriorly 
and laterally is a slightly raised rounded rim. Posteriorly, the 
labrum projects over the opening, and is raised about 1-4 mm. above 
the level of the anterior lip. (Cf. specimen I; Pl. XI, Fig. 12.) 

Periproct.—Vertically elongate, broadly lanceolate, more pointed 
above, situate at upper end of posterior truncation, at about 11-5 mm. 
above base-plane in A, with length 4-8 mm., and width 3:3 mm. 

Ornament.—Primary tubercles best preserved on the sides of the 
anterior groove, where they are larger, and on its floor, where they 


302 Dr. F. A. Bather—Eocene Echinoids from Sokoto. 


are smaller. They appear to have covered thickly the whole dorsal 
surface. On the actinal surface they are rather larger, and, on the 
periplastronal ambulacra, are interspersed with secondaries. The 
bosses are low, rounded, and where well preserved finely crenulate. 
No signs of perforation can be traced, but this is not enough to 
prove that the tubercles were not slightly perforate. Traces of the 
peripetalous fasciole are clearly seen in A, crossing the anterior 
groove at 15mm. from the apex, and at the end of petal V, well 
beyond the poriferous area; also, less clearly at the end of petal IV. 
There is not the smallest trace of any other fasciole, but all regions 
where such might be expected are crowded with tubercles. 

[On the other hand, all the Tamaské specimens, except the crushed and abraded 
G and N, show the lateral fasciole distinctly. It is linear, but incised, continues the 
line of the peripetalous fasciole from the ends of petals II and IV, till opposite the 
ends of petals I and V; here it dips to nearly the base of the posterior truncation. 
The posterior tract of the peripetalous fasciole leaves the main line about the middle 
of interambulacral series 14 or 4a respectively, runs parallel to petals II and IV, 
then parallel to the lateral fasciole, till it reaches the ends of petals I and V, whence 
it cuts straight across the carina of 5 (Pl. XI, Fig. 13).] 

Relations to other species.—Thenumberofspeciesof Hemiaster 
is large, but the majority are either distinctly ethmophract, or, if 
ethmolysian, have less than 4 gonopores. Taking those that remain, 
it appears that our species differs from them all in the greater 
elongation or narrowness of the adult test, and from most also 
in the deep excavation of the ambitus by the anterior sulcus, while, 
from the few that have this character, it differs in the shallowness 
of the same groove near the apex. One or other of these features, 
combined with others mentioned in the diagnosis, separates it so 
definitely from all species of Trachyaster type, that detailed com- 
parison is needless. 

In general form the Sokoto fossils approach more nearly some 
species of Linthia, and, in view of a possible confusion, the differences 
may be pointed out. Thus Linthia bisulea Peron & Gauthier has 
petals more equal in size and a smaller posterior truncation ; Cotteau’s 
figure of this (Pal. Franc., tom. cit., pl. 1xxx, fig. 5) shows neither 
the heteronomy said to characterise Zinthia nor that found in 
Hemiaster. In ZL. Cotteaui Tournouer and Z. dubia Cotteau, the 
posterior truncation is vertical and the periproct invisible from 
above; in the latter also it is transversely elongate. L. Pomelz 
Cotteau is rather elongate, but the angle subtended by ambulacra II 
and IV is greater, and petals] and Vare much longer. ZL. Ducrocqut 
Cotteau is somewhat elongate, but width: length:: 95: 100; the 
posterior truncation slopes downwards and inwards so that the 
periproct is invisible from above; the pores are circular and not 
conjugate; for this species also Cotteau’s figure (tom. cit., pl. lxvi, fig. 3) 
does not show ancient heteronomy. J. sindensis Duncan & Sladen 
has a greater slope to its posterior truncation, and width: length: : 
108: 100. No other species of Zinthia seems to present greater 
resemblances than do those mentioned. 

Evidence as to age.—The genus Hemiaster, in its typical 
-ethmophract form, ranges from Cretaceous times to the present day, 


Dr. F. A. Bather—Eocene Echinoids trom Sokoto. 303 


‘but the ethmolysian form did not appear, so far as we know, till 
the Eocene period. These specimens therefore confirm the view 
that the stratum from which they came is of Tertiary age. More 
than this it were not safe to say. 


GENERAL GEOLOGICAL CoNCLUSIONS. 


The fossils collected by Captain Lelean had already been de- 

termined by Mr. Bullen Newton and myself, and the importance 
of their discovery recognised, before I learned that attention had 
previously been drawn by Professor A. de Lapparent’ to similar 
fossils collected in the same district by French officers. The 
following are the main facts recorded by him. 
- Kehinoids, which may or may not have been of the same age, 
were collected by the late Captain Pallier near Zinder [450 km. 
W. of Lake Chad, and about the same distance H. of Sokoto], but 
have since been lost. Subsequently Captain Gaden collected at 
Tamaské, 400 kilometres west of Zinder [and apparently not far 
from Garadimi], a Nautilus allied to N. Lamarcki of the Calcaire 
grossier, five casts of Nerita (Velates) Schmideliana, belonging to 
the variety characteristic of the Middle Hocene, and four Hchinoids 
determined by Mr. Victor Gauthier as one Plesiolampas sp. nondescr., 
one Leiocidaris, badly preserved but clearly of Tertiary age, and two 
specimens of Linthia ‘so closely resembling L. Ducrocqui Cotteau, 
of the Hocene limestone of Saint-Palais (Charente-Inférieure), that 
it is hard to separate them from it.” It appears that the Plestolampas 
and Leiocidaris are not well enough preserved to be capable of 
description; otherwise Professor de Lapparent would doubtless 
have included in his paper a recognisable diagnosis. I have, there- 
fore, thought it advisable to publish a description of the excellent 
specimens brought home by Captain Lelean. As for the specimens 
of Linthia, it occurred to me that Mr. Gauthier might have had 
before him the same species as that found by Captain Lelean and 
described above as Hemiaster sudanensis. But, for the reasons 
already given, I am unable to consider our specimens as resembling 
L. Ducrocqui, or even as belonging to the genus Linthia. 


[ Examination of the Tamaské specimens presented by Captain Foulkes necessitates 
no modification of the preceding remarks. | 


It is therefore interesting to find that, just as the French and 
English observers in the field independently made similar discoveries, 
so the paleontologists of the two countries have independently 
arrived at similar conclusions, each confirming the other. 

To French observers are also due other recent discoveries, which 
throw much light on the geological history of the present specimens. 
The occurrence of Plesiolampas, a genus hitherto unknown outside 
Sind, suggests a continuous westward extension of the Eocene Indian 
Ocean ; and this idea is confirmed by an Egyptian fossil of the same 


1 << Sur les traces de la mer lutétienne au Soudan,” C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris, exxxvi, 
pp. 1118-1120; 11 May, 1908; and ‘‘Sur de nouveaux fossiles du Soudan,” tom. 
cit., pp. 1297-8; 2 June, 1903. 


304 Dr. F. A. Bather—Eocene Echinoids from Sokoto. 


age, identified by Mr. Gauthier as Plesiolampas. That a large part 
of the intervening area was filled by the Lutetian sea is proved by 
the occurrence of Nauéili and Hchinoidea, believed by Captain Gaden 
to be of the same species, at Zinder and in Damergu, where the 
beds are more marly. Professor de Lapparent further recalls the 
occurrence of Echinolampas of Lutetian age at Dakar [near Cape- 
Verde], and supposes the inward extension of an Atlantic Gulf on 
this side. If the Eocene limestones and marls ever extended 
northwards, they have now been denuded, and in their stead are 
found outcrops of Cretaceous rock, which have in Damergu yielded 
to Captain Gaden an ammonite allied to the Turonian Mammites 
and Vascoceras, while 450 km. north of Lake Chad, at Bilma, 
Colonel Monteil found an echinoid of Maestrichtian age, described by 
Mr. V. Gauthier! as Noetlingia Monteili. This fossil also indicated 
a connection with north-west India. The same connection may 
have remained open for several geological ages ; and while, on the 
one hand, the Lutetian sea may have extended northwards over 
Bilma and even into the Libyan desert, so on the other hand the 
Cretaceous rocks may pass southwards and underly the Lutetian of 
Sokoto and Damergu. 

The modesty of the English officers of the Niger-Chad Boundary 
Commission will be the less offended, and my own awkwardness 
the less exposed, if Professor de Lapparent will permit me to borrow 
his concluding paragraph, all but one word: ‘Je crois devoir 
terminer en exprimant une vive gratitude & l’égard des vaillants. 
officiers qui, sous un ciel de feu, au milieu de fatigues et de pré- 
occupations de toute sorte, ne négligent pas de recueillir au passage, 
pour le plus grand bien de la Science......... , des documents. 
d’un pareil intérét.” 

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XI. 


PLESIOLAMPAS SAHARA. 


Fie. 1. Tubercular ornament on an interradius of abactinal surface of D: x 10 diam. 
2. Apical system of A: x 10 diam. 

., 8. Tubercular ornament on an interradius of actinal surface of D: x 10 diam. 
4. Distal.end of petal TV of A, surface abraded: x 3 diam. 

,, 5. Distal region of petal III of A: x 3 diam. 


HEMIASTER SUDANENSIS. 


6. Abactinal surface of A: nat. size. 
,, 7 Apical system of A: x 10 diam. 
8. Posterior view of A: nat. size. 
9. Distal end of petal V of A, showing fasciole: x 5 diam. 
,, 10. Distal region of petal II of A: x 5 diam. 
, ll. Left side view of A: nat. size. 
12. Actinal surface of specimen I, mainly to show normal heteronomy : 
x 2 diam. 
,, 13. View ot H trom left posterior interradius, to show peripetalous and lateral 
fascioles: nat. size. 


1 Bull. Soc. Geol. France (4), 1, p. 189; 1901. See also A. de Lapparent, C.R-. 
Acad. Sci. Paris, exxxii, p. 388; 1901. 


Geol Mag.1904:. Decade V.Vol.1. Pl. XI. 


G.M Woodward del.et hth. West,Newman imp. London. 


Tiocene Echinoids from Sokoto. 


~ 


a 


rr / ke 


1, Rogers & E. A. Newell Arber—Culm of West Devon. 305 


IV.—Note on a new Fosstuirerous Limestone 1N THE UPPER 
Cutm Measures or West Devon. 


By Inkermann Rocers, and E. A. Newent Arser, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. 


T the present time we are only fully acquainted with the 
A geology and paleontology of one division of the great 
Carboniferous Series developed in Devon and the adjacent counties, 
the Lower Culm Measures. This division, while representing only 
a small fraction of thickness of the Calm Measures as a whole, 
is of special interest both lithologically and paleontologically, as 
was shown by Messrs. Hinde & Fox' in an admirable paper 
published in 1895. Above the limestones and cherts of the Lower 
Culm Measures lie the great thickness of sandstones and shales 
which constitute the Upper of the twofold primary division of these 
rocks instituted by Sedgwick & Murchison * in 1840. The Upper 
Culm Measures occupy an area of more than 1,000 square miles, 
and are of Upper Carboniferous age. 

With the exception of the researches of the late Townshend Hall, 
and more recently of Mr. Ussher, comparatively little has been 
added to our knowledge of these beds since the days of Sedgwick & 
Murchison, and of De la Beche. An inquiry with regard to the 
paleontology, and more especially the palzeobotany, of these rocks 
has, however, been in progress for some time past, with the result 
that sufficient material has been gathered for a contribution to the 
fossil flora of the Upper Carboniferous rocks of Devon, which it 
is hoped will be published shortly by one of us. While examining 
the sandstones and shales of this series, other discoveries have been 
made, incidental to the work of collection of plant-remains. Among 
these the discovery of fossiliferous calcareous nodules, and, in one 
locality, of a limestone band, seems to warrant special notice. 

So far no limestones have been known to occur in the Upper 
Culm Measures. Even in the Lower Carboniferous portion of the 
Culm Measures the general absence of calcareous deposits is somewhat 
sharply contrasted with the Lower Carboniferous sequence developed 
elsewhere in Britain. Limestones do, however, occur in this series. 
They form inconstant and impersistent bands, seen at Swimbridge 
and Venn near Barnstaple, and in other localities, and are generally 
believed to underlie the Coddon Hill beds, though Mr. Ussher? 
is inclined to regard them as superior to the cherts. On the other 
hand, the only calcareous sediments known from the Upper Culm 
Measures are the calcareous shales and shaly nodules containing fish 
and Goniatite remains occurring at Instow, near the junction of 
the Taw and Torridge, which were described in 1876 by the late 
Townshend Hall‘ in the Gzonocican Magazine. 

The Instow beds lie, so far as we have been able to ascertain, 
near the base of the Upper Culm Measures, and, although the 


1 Hinde & Fox: Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. li (1895), p. 609. 

2 Sedewick & Murchison: Trans. Geol. Soc. -, Ser. 11, vol. v (1840), p. 633. 
3 Ussher: Proc. Somerset Arch. and Nat. Hist. Soc. , vol. xxxvili (1892), | 
4 Hall: Grou. Mac., Dec. II, Vol, III (1876), p. 410. 


DECADE VY.—VOL. I.—NO. VII. 20 


806 J. Rogers & HE. A. Newell Arber—Culm of West Devon. 


district has been thoroughly searched by one of us, we have been 
unable to find any other calcareous rocks. Such deposits have also 
proved to be absent on the higher horizon in which the impure coal 
or culm occurs in the neighbourhood of Bideford. The thorough 
examination of these beds, which has been made during the collection 
of the plant-remains already mentioned, has not resulted in the 
discovery of any trace of a calcareous nodule. 

More recently attention has been turned to yet higher beds in 
the Upper Culm Measures, which are stated by Mr. Ussher! to 
be somewhat dissimilar to the Culm Measures of the Bideford 
district, and which he has distinguished as the Eggesford Grits. 
In this work we have been assisted by a grant recently made 
to one of us by the Royal Society Government Grant Committee, 
and we may here express our great indebtedness for the removal 
of many difficulties by this means. 

The Eggesford grits of Mr. Ussher consist of even-bedded sand- 
stones and shales, and these may be studied in the fine coast-section 
between Portledge Mouth and Windbury Point, a district which 
may be conveniently termed the Clovelly district. This portion 
of Devon is practically unexplored geologically. With the exception 
of a brief notice of the Culm Measures near Clovelly, published 
by Conybeare * in 1814, there is, so far as we are aware, no evidence 
to show that it has ever been studied in detail. It may be pointed 
out that Conybeare makes no mention of any calcareous deposits, 
although such occur within a few yards of Clovelly pier. Pengelly* 
and Townshend Hall also overlooked these beds, although well 
acquainted with the district. 

Calcareous nodules have recently been found in several localities 
along the coast to the west of Clovelly. They occur a short distance 
from Clovelly, also below Gallantry Bower (on the south-east side), 
and they have been found in association with the limestone described 
here near Mouthmill, and also beyond Mouthmill in Beckland Bay 
on the western side of Windbury Point.t They are found in certain 
beds of shale, usually of 1-2 feet in thickness, which alternate 
with the sandstones. The nodules are oval in form and of all sizes, 
a rather large nodule measuring nine inches or more along its 
greater axis. They effervesce freely with acid, and are crowded 
with casts of Goniatites, similar to those mentioned below, which 
are often preserved in calcite, although usually in rather indifferent 
preservation. The thickest of these conglomeratic beds is that 
associated with the limestone band at Mouthmill. 

In one locality the nodular beds are overlain by a thin band of 
limestone,’ which is of special interest as being the only limestone 


1 Ussher: Trans. Inst. Min. Engineers, vol. xx (1901), p. 362; see also the 
excellent geological map of Devonshire on pl. xvi. 

2 Conybeare: Trans. Geol. Soc., ser. 1, vol. ii (1814), p. 495. 

3 Pengelly: Trans. Devon Assoc., vol. xvii (1885), p. 425. 

4 The Western Coast Section has not as yet been explored, but calcareous nodules 
have been found a short distance to the south of Hartland Point. 

® The limestone was discovered by Mr. Rogers in August, 1903, when searching 
for plant-remains on my behalf.—E. A. N. A. 


I. Rogers & E. A. Newell Arber—Culm of West Devon. 307 


known in the Upper Culm Measures. Some 300 yards from Black- 
church Rock and Mouthmill, and about one and a half miles by the 
coast to the west of Clovelly, the even-bedded grits and shales, 
which in this neighbourhood consist of alternating beds of a few 
feet in thickness, are thrown into a well-preserved sharp anticlinal 
fold. This anticline differs from the others which are found all along 
this coast, by the fact that a thick bed of splintery shale occurs 
between the grits, and resting on this shale is an inconstant and 
impersistent band of limestone. The axis of the anticline lies 
roughly east and west. The crest is faulted with a downthrow of 
one or two feet, or perhaps more, to the north; the faulting being 
obscured in the lower portion. At the base of the anticline, a fine- 
grained sandstone is seen, similar in character to the other sandstones 
in the neighbourhood. Next in order comes the thick bed of shale, 
which is somewhat obscured below, and consequently its exact 
thickness is difficult to ascertain. It is probably more than ten feet 
thick. Near the top of the shale, on the northern side of the 
anticline, numerous calcareous nodules occur. These begin at 
a distance of two.to three feet from the summit of the bed, the 
lower nodules being smaller and more scattered, whereas those 
. near the top of the bed are larger and crowded together. On the 
opposite side of the anticline the nodules are equally prominent 
and abundant. 

On the northern side, the highest bed seen is a dark-coloured 
limestone, from 9 to 20 inches in thickness, resting on the con- 
glomerate described above. The limestone is also seen near the 
crest on the southern side of the anticline, where it is overlain by 
sandstones and shales of the usual type. Itis, however, impersistent, 
and does not occur at the base of the anticline on this side, where the 
sandstones rest directly on the shales with nodules. A microscopic 
section of the limestone has been very kindly examined for us by 
Mr. Howe, who has confirmed the conclusion that this rock may be 
correctly termed a limestone. It may be also remarked that there 
appears to be here a gradual transition from an arenaceous rock 
with little or no calcareous material to a fairly pure limestone. 
Whether this is really the case or not, we must leave to those 
who possess a more special knowledge of petrology to determine. 

The limestone and the calcareous nodules contain numerous casts 
of Cephalopoda and Lamellibranchs. We are indebted to Mr. Crick, 
and to Dr. Wheelton Hind, for the determination of the following 
‘Species :— 

Gastrioceras earbonarium (von Buch). Dimorphoceras Gilbertsoni (Phill.). 

Gastrioceras Listeri (Martin) ? Orthoceras, sp. 

Pterinopecten (Aviculopecten) papyraceus (Sow.). 

The same species of Gastrioceras were obtained by the late 
Townshend Hall from the calcareous shales at Instow, already 
mentioned ; and his specimens are now in the Geological Department 
of the British Museum (Nat. Hist.).‘ These species have also been 


1 Registered numbers C. 1613 and C. 16132, see Hinde & Fox, ib., p. 655, table ii. 


308 J. V. Elsden—Origin of Pegmatite Veins. 


found by us in the same beds at Instow quite recently. These, 
and two fish-remains from Instow, Calacanthus elegans, Newb., 
and Elonichthys Aitkeni, Traq., also in the British Museum! are 
practically all the determinations, with the exception of plant- 
remains, which have so far been made from the Upper Culm 
Measures of Devon. 

In conclusion, we believe that the calcareous nodules and the 
limestone of the Clovelly district belong to a much higher horizon 
in the Upper Culm Measures than the Instow beds. Whether the 
nodules, now found in a number of scattered localities in the former, 
are really confined to a single bed, or occur on different, but not 
distant, horizons, we are unable to ascertain, as the severe folding, 
faulting, and crushing which the rocks have undergone render it 
rarely possible to trace any bed for more than a few yards. At 
any rate, the occasional occurrence of calcareous nodular beds seems 
to be in some measure characteristic of the Culm Measures of the 
Clovelly district. 

It would seem that, in Devonshire, marine Cephalopoda such as 
Gastrioceras carbonarium, which ave usually regarded as more 
restricted vertically than other paleontological types, have a con- 
siderable range in the Upper Culm Measures, occurring in what 
are probably the lowest and highest beds of that series. It may 
be also pointed out that the occasional occurrence of marine calcareous 
bands is an important point of agreement between the Upper Culm 
Measures and the Coal-measures of other British coalfields, more 
especially those of North Staffordshire * and South Lancashire.* 


V.—On THE ORIGIN OF CERTAIN PEGMATITE VEINS. 
By J. Vrycent Etspen, B.Sc., F.G.8. 


| eae a visit to the South of Sweden in the Summer of 1902 

I noticed the frequent occurrence in granite of pegmatite veins 
showing a succession of small but very regular foldings, which, 
however, did not affect the parent rock. In sett quarries where 
these folded veins existed the rift of the rock was perfectly regular 
on each side of the pegmatite, proving conclusively to my mind that 
the contortion of the veins took place prior to the consolidation of 
the main mass. The granite of this district occupies a wide area, 
and possesses a very uniform mineralogical constitution, although it 
varies much in texture between a rather coarse-grained granitite 
and a fine-grained, compact, gneissose rock possessing well-marked. 
foliation. The pegmatite veins are fairly numerous, but are generally 
rather insignificant in width, occasionally thinning out to mere 
streaks not more than a few inches in thickness. 

The origin of pegmatite veins has been much discussed, but most 
of the various theories hitherto advanced almost invariably attribute 


1 Registered numbers P. 6100, P. 5379, and P. 6268. 

* Ward: Grou. Mac., Vol. IT (1865), pp. 234 and 286. 

3 Hull & Green, Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc., vol. iii (1862), p. 348; and Hull & 
Salter, ‘* Geology of the Country round Oldham,” 1864, p. 64. 


J. V. Elsden—Origin of Pegmatite Veins. 309 


them to the infilling of cracks and fissures formed subsequently to 
the consolidation of the parent rock. Charpentier, in his examination 
of the Pyrenees in 1823, conceived the view that pegmatites are 
true fissure veins, injected by portions of the still fluid part of the 
magma from below. This view has been largely adopted by the 
French geologists, and also by De La Beche in this country, and by 
Naumann, Gtimbel, and others in Germany. Such veins would 
seem to form the “Injectionsschlieren” of Reyer,’ and are similar 
to what are sometimes termed contemporaneous veins. De Saussure, 
G. vom Rath, and others, however, maintained that these veins were 
deposits from watery solutions; while Forchhammer, Sandberger, 
and Oredner advocated the theory of lateral secretion, involving the 
assumption that pegmatite veins are true fissures filled up with 
minerals leached out from the surrounding rock. Rosenbusch? 
associates pegmatite veins with drusy and miarolitic structures, or 
vein-like cavities filled up by secondary crystallisation, a view also 
briefly suggested by Teall. Later observers have modified these 
theories with a view to the explanation of the marked acidity of 
pegmatite veins in comparison with that of the parent rock. Thus 
Brogger, in his well-known work on the rocks of the Christiania 
district, found evidence to show that these veins represent true 
eruptive outpourings, the last aufpressungen of a differentiated magma 
basin. This view somewhat corresponds to the hysterogenetische 
schlieren of Reyer, or the ausscheidungstriimmer referred to by 
Kalkowsky® in his description of the pegmatites in the granulite 
of Saxony. Later observations of Messrs. Gunn, Hinxman, Barrow, 
Kynaston, Clough, Cunningham-Craig, and Wilson, in the Highlands 
of Scotland,® have led in the majority of cases to the conclusion that 
the pegmatite veins are subsequent intrusions, although in a few 
cases they are referred to as of segregative origin; but whether 
these segregations were of a magmatic type or merely the results of 
subsequent metamorphism is not always clearly indicated. Keilhau, 
writing in 1888 on the Christiania pegmatites, attributed them to 
simultaneous separations of the surrounding eruptive mass, and not 
to the filling up of fissures; but no one, so far as I am aware, has 
described evidence of the original existence of such veins in the 
form of acid streaks in a viscous magma, prior to consolidation. 

The remarkable agreement in the characters of pegmatite veins in 
widely separated areas points to some general law governing their 
mode of origin. It is, therefore, somewhat strange that the views 
advanced concerning their formation should still remain so much at 
variance. It seems at least certain that the pegmatites of Blekinge 
province, in Sweden, present peculiarities which absolutely preclude 
the suggestion that these are subsequent fissure injections of the 


See Zirkel, ‘‘ Lehrbuch der Petrographie,’’ vol. i, p. 787 et seq. 
Mikroskopische Physiographie d. Mass. Gesteine, ii, p. 39. 

“« British Petrography,’’ p. 291. 

‘‘ Die Mineralien der Syenit pegmatiteaiuge,’’ etc., Leipzig, 1890. 
Zeit. d. d. geol. Ges., vol. xxxiii (1881), p. 653. 

See ‘‘ Summary of Progress,” 1899, 1900, 1901, 1902. 


aanrk wN 


310 J. V. Elsden—Origin of Pegmatite Veins. 


type described by Brogger in the Christiania district. Unfortunately, 
the time at my disposal did not allow an exhaustive examination of 
this large district, and my present remarks are written rather with 
the hope of eliciting further information than with any claim to the- 
establishment of a final conclusion. 


Fic. 1.—Contorted pegmatite vein in granite, Gungvala, near Carlshamn, Sweden. 
Scale, 1 inch = 2 feet. 


At Gungvala, on the railway running inland from Carlshamn, 
I saw thin pegmatite veins, often not more than a few inches wide, 
sharply folded as in the accompanying diagram (Fig. 1). The 
amplitude of the folds is seldom more than a couple of feet, but 


Fic. 2.—Folded pegmatite in a sett quarry, Gungvala, Sweden. The parallel lines 
are joint planes. Scale, 1 inch = 10 feet. 


there is no sign that these folds influence the parent rock. A striking 
example is shown in Fig. 2, where the folds taper downwards, 
diminishing in amplitude, while the veins themselves contract in 
width. The junction between the granite and pegmatite is clean 
and complete, without any druses or other interruptions that could 


J.V. Hlsden—Origin of Pegmatite Veins. dll 


be discovered. As previously stated, well-defined rifts exist in the 
granite. These rifts ran not only parallel to the joint planes, but 
also along well-defined though faint foliation planes in the granite, 
usually cutting transversely across the direction of the folded 
pegmatites. I do not, therefore, think it possible that there can be 
any mistake in the conclusion that the folding of the pegmatites 
occurred before the main mass crystallised. 

In the Moérrum district, a few miles to the south-west, similar 
phenomena can be observed, but here the pegmatites are sometimes 
disposed in very regular planes, about six feet apart, parallel to the 
well-defined foliation in the parent rock. Whether these are un- 
contorted, or whether they owe their appearance to being cut 
transversely, viz., parallel to the axes of the folds, is not certain. 
At Matvik, on the coast, a few miles east of Carlshamn, I noticed 
similar veins of pegmatite, parallel to highly inclined foliation planes, 
dividing so as to enclose a ‘horse’ of the country rock, but without 
any disturbance of the regular foliation of the parent mass. Very 
striking relations between the folded veins and the foliation planes 
of the granite were seen at Kiilleron, to the west of Carlshamn. 
Here the appearance was as represented in Fig. 8. It is difficult to 


Fic. 3.—Contorted pegmatite in gneiss, Kiilleron, near Carlshamn, Sweden. The 
double arrow indicates direction of foliation of the gneiss. Scale, about 35. 
escape from the conclusion that the pressure which induced the 
foliation also operated in the production of the contortions in the 
pegmatites while the mass was still in a viscous condition. Nor can 
any theory of subsequent vein filling adequately account for the 
phenomena. It must be mentioned, also, that the pegmatite veins 
are not themselves foliated, which is probably to be attributed to the 
fact that the solidification of the veins took place subsequently, under 
different conditions from those prevailing during the crystallisation 
of the main rock, as 1 shall endeavour to explain later. This result 
might readily be produced if we assume that the foliation was 
produced by a gentle shearing force at a time when the minerals of 
early consolidation were already formed, while the substance of the 
veins still remained in a state of viscous fluidity. This would also 
account for phenomena noticed in the neighbouring island of Gunon, 
where the foliation planes appear to be slightly deflected by contact 
with the margins of the pegmatites. Nearer Carlshamn I saw many 


312 J. V. Elsden—Origin of Pegmatite Veins. 


other examples of similar contortions, as also in the district around 
Sélvesburg, from which locality, at Siritorp, I noted the appearance 
represented in Fig. 4. 

The explanation demanded by these phenomena seems to be that 
the granite magma was traversed by streaks and bands of different 
composition from it. Now a streaky or banded magma can only 
occur in one of two ways. It may be due to the unequal mixing of 
the magma in the first instance, forming the so-called constitutions- 
schlieren, or mischungsschlieren of Reyer; or it may be caused by an 
originally homogeneous magma becoming streaky in the final stages 
of its existence in a molten state. With regard to the first of these 
causes, we are reminded of the phenomena observed in the process 
of glass manufacture, and of the difficulty experienced in obtaining 
glass free from striation or wreath. It would, however, be very 
difficult, on such an assumption, to explain why the striz are so 
uniform in mineralogical character; so that we are driven to a con- 
sideration of the second hypothesis. 


17 


Fe 
Pee 


SN 
\ 


Fic. 4.—Pegmatite vein in granite at Siritorp, near Sélvesburg. Scale, 1 inch = 
4 feet. 


An examination of a number of thin slices prepared from the 
above-mentioned rocks throws light upon the order of the different 
consolidation phases. The normal rock has a simple constitution. 
Biotite and sphene are the chief products of the earliest crystallisa- 
tion; while felspar, chiefly microcline, and quartz seem to have 
struggled together for the mastery in the final stages. Accessory 
minerals, such as occasional hornblende, some magnetite, apatite, 
and a little zircon do not occur in sufficient quantity to affect the 
character of the rock, and the same may be said of certain pneumato- 
lytic minerals, of which chalcopyrite is the most conspicuous 
example. Dark basic secretions are abundant, and are distinguished, 
like the pegmatites, by evidences of considerable movement during 
consolidation. They are frequently drawn out into irregular elon- 
gated forms, and at Hasteryd they may be seen pressed out into 
lenticles along the foliation planes. These dark patches are typical 
quartz diorites, containing an abundance of well-formed brown 


J. V. Hisden—Origin of Pegmatite Veins. 313 


-hornblende, biotite, plagioclase, some orthoclase, and a little quartz. 
No microcline was observed in the slices examined. ‘These dark 
segregations, therefore, differ essentially from the normal rock, and 
may be safely regarded as a result of the first phase of consolidation. 
The deformation of these basic secretions is in accord with previous 
observations in other localities,' and would be expected to occur 
under the influence of magmatic movements. Although these dark 
patches are usually regarded as true results of magmatic segregation, 
the primdren ausscheidungsschlieren of Zirkel, it may be mentioned 
that Reyer and others regard even these as having resulted from an 
original imperfect mixing of a more or less heterogeneous magma. 
The junction between them and the normal rock is well defined, and 
in a slide showing the contact the transition is sudden from the 
diorite to the microcline granitite. 

Passing now to the pegmatites, these are very coarsely crystalline 
mixtures of large microcline crystals and quartz, representing the 
pegmatite of Haiiy, although there is not any conspicuous orientation 
of the quartz. Accessory minerals are not altogether wanting, and 
in some examples the pneumatolytic species seem to be more 
abundant than in the parent rock, a feature which was also noticed 
by Brogger in the Christiania district. 

It is obviously conceivable that we might consider these veins 
to be a product of magmatic differentiation, which began with the 
consolidation of the dioritic patches, and concluded with the streaks 
and veins of pegmatite, something after the nature of the streaks 
-of low freezing eutectic observed in some alloys. But it would be 
difficult on this assumption to account for the regular, wavy con- 
tortions, which could scarcely have been formed otherwise than 
in a still viscous mass. On the other hand, differentiation in a liquid 
magma of such a nature as to develop such streaks is at least purely 
conjectural. We do not yet know the limits of miscibility of 
silicate magmas, nor whether it is possible for a binary mixture, 
containing quartz and felspar, to segregate in distinct layers in 
the midst of an ordinary ternary granitic magma. At the same 
time, physical chemists are gradually extending our knowledge of 
the series of liquids which only mix in all proportions between 
certain well-defined limits of temperature,’ as, for example, in the 
case of molten zinc and lead. But in the present state of our 
knowledge it would be unsafe to assume that a magma can become 
streaky by mere hysterogenetic differentiation.® 

But another explanation is possible. The magma may have been 
subjected to an invasion by streams from contiguous areas, These 
currents, if regarded as the acid residuum forced out from regions 
where partial consolidation had already taken place, would be 
differentiated as regards the liquid which they invaded, and might 


1 See Frosterus, ‘‘ Uber ein neues Vorkomniss von Kugelgranit,”’ etc.: Tschermak’s 
Min. und Pet. Mittheilungen, xii (1892), p. 177. 

2 See Findlay, ‘‘ The Phase Rule,’’ chap. xiv (1904). 

3 Ct. Morozewiez, ‘‘Experimentelle Untersuchungen tiber die Bildung der Minerale 
im Magma’”’: Tschermak’s Min. und Pet. Mittheilungen, xviii, pp. 232-3. 


J14 J. V. Elsden—Origin of Pegmatite Veins. 


easily form such streaks as would, on crystallisation, form pegmatite. 
veins. Slowness of diffusion in a viscous mass would prevent any 
appreciable mingling of the solutions, except perhaps at their 
margins. They would form thin bands, like a mixture of syrup 
and water, and they would suffer deformation and contortion in 
consequence of any magmatic movements to which they might be 
exposed. This would explain the formation of contorted bands in 
the midst of an uncontorted rock. 

We have next to account for their coarsely crystalline texture, 
a feature usually taken to indicate slow cooling. Slowness of growth 
undoubtedly tends to the development of large crystals; for owing 
to the influence of surface tension it can be shown that in any 
solution in which crystals are forming, while the solution is super- 
saturated with regard to the larger crystals it may be unsaturated 
with regard to the smaller ones. The latter, therefore, may be 
resorbed and deposited upon the former, which will then continue 
to grow at the expense of their smaller brethren. But it may be 
taken as an established fact that the formation of large crystals 
depends upon other factors than the rate at which cooling takes 
place. Thus, at Ofvra Trensum, in the neighbourhood of Carlshamn, 
may be seen a well-marked irregular junction between a very fine- 
grained blue granite and a coarse porphyritic pink rock. These 
were evidently part of one and the same cooling mass, but the 
junction shows no relation to any conceivable isothermal planes. 
Variations in texture are, indeed, a common phenomenon in plutonic 
masses. It may be safely assumed that the pegmatites crystallised 
at a later stage than the parent rock. Whether we look upon them 
as true eutectic mixtures or not, the circumstances of their origin, 
as assumed above, would indicate a freezing-point lower than that 
of the main mass. Pressure probably plays an important part in 
crystallisation, but we are only beginning gradually to realise the 
direction of its influence. The experiments of Oetling! seem to. 
show that the chief rédle of pressure is to promote superfusion. 
Now Tammann? has shown that the velocity of crystallisation 
increases with degree of superfusion up to a certain maximum, and 
then diminishes. The larger and more perfect crystals are formed 
near the minimum of superfusion. Another factor which comes into 
play is the number of crystalline nuclei present, upon which the 
influence of certain catalysers or ‘agents mineralisateurs’ must 
be considered. Jam aware that the action often ascribed to these 
mysterious agencies has been called in question by some recent 
observers, notably by Lagorio and Morozewicz; but our knowledge 
of the ionic dissociation of fused salts is still so incomplete that for 
the present it would seem advisable to retain as a useful hypothesis 
the conception of catalytic action by such agents under certain 
conditions. 


1 “Vergleichende Experimente iiber Verfestigunge geschmolzener Gesteinsmassen 
unter Erhéhtem und normalem Druck ’’: Tschermak’s Min. und Pet. Mittheilungen, 
Xvi, p. 331. 

* Zeit. fur physikalische Chemie, xxvi (1898), p. 307. 


W. D. Lang—Jurassic Polyzoa. old 


In the case of these pegmatites it is probable that the contraction 
of the parent rock on consolidation would diminish the pressure 
upon the still fluid veins. These would, therefore, at last consolidate 
under conditions of temperature, pressure, and also concentration, 
very different from those under which the main mass crystallised, 
and a marked difference in texture might then be expected. 

On the whole, I am inclined to think that we have in these 
Blekinge pegmatites merely a local modification of Brogger’s theory. 
The contorted pegmatites may indeed be the ‘aufpressungen’ of 
a differentiated magma ; not, it is true, in this case, invading cracks 
and fissures of a consolidated rock, but streaming into the still fluid 
portions of a neighbouring molten mass. But while differentiation 
has thus played an important part in the process, it must not be 
overlooked that, if this view should prove correct, the final result 
was, to a still larger degree, due to the imperfect integration of 
a streaky magma. 


_VI.—TnHe JURASSIC FORMS OF THE ‘GENERA’ STOMATOPORA AND 
PROBOSCINA. 


By W. D. Lane, B.A., F.Z.S., of the British Museum (Natural History). 


ETER many months’ work at the Polyzoa in the British Museum, 

the author has been driven to the conclusion that the relation- 

ships of the Jurassic forms of the ‘genera’ Stomatopora and Proboscinw 

have been misunderstood, and that consequently their present 

arrangement, as put forward in the British Museum Catalogue, 
is unsatisfactory. 

A detailed examination of all the material available has resulted 
in the following conclusions :— 

1. The division of the forms into the genera Stomatopora and 
Proboscina is unnatural. 

2. The development of a colony (the zoariwm of Polyzoa) is 
comparable with and follows the same laws as the development 
of the individual (the zowcium of Polyzoa). 

3. Therefore the diagnosis of a form, whether ‘species’ or 
‘circulus,’* is incomplete, and for practical purposes useless, unless 
the part of the zoarium with respect to its age is specified. 

4, In the ‘genera’ Stomatopora and Proboscina the method of 
branching is of paramount importance. 

It is intended to take each of the above conclusions and explain 
by what observations it has been reached, and to what rearrangement 
of the specimens it tends. To upset the existing order may seem 
revolutionary, but if by this means a natural grouping is arrived 
at, if evolutionary series are found, such as have been demonstrated 
among Brachiopods and Ammonites, if when a new form occurs 
it is found to fit into one of these series, then the orderly result will 
justify the radical alterations. 


1 J. W. Gregory: Brit. Mus. Cat. Jur. Bryozoa, 1896, p.22; and Mem. Geol. 
Surv. Ind., 1900, ser. 1x, vol. ii, pt. 2, pp. 17-22. 


316 W. D. Lang—Jurassie Polyzoa. 


The first point, namely, the artificiality of the genera Stomatopora 
and Proboscina, has already been discussed by Gregory,’ who, while 
admitting that the line which divides them is arbitrarily drawn, 
since it is obvious that the forms constitute a natural series, main- 
tains that, if this be done, the genera Berenicea, Reptomultisparsa, 
Iimonea, Diastopora, Entalophora, and Spiropora must for similar 
reasons be merged. And since the retention of these genera is 
convenient for working purposes, he leaves them as they are. 
But he does not suggest, what the author believes to be the case, 
that these ‘genera’ are polyphyletic in origin, and that in some 
cases a given species of Proboscina may be at the head of a series 
of forms, the simplest of which are undoubted Stomatopora. 

In such a case the series would form a natural genus parallel 
with, and having a common origin with, other series. These 
would constitute new genera, starting from the point at which they 
branched from the first series. 

Given sufficient material, such series can be found, and in one 
or two cases have been found, by tracing the development of the 
different characters of a colony from the first zocecium, and by this 
means finding genetic relationships. 

And this question of zoarial development leads to the second 
proposition, namely, that the development of the colony is com- 
parable with and follows the same laws as the development of the 
individual. 

It was the observation of this fact that led the author to doubt 
the validity of the ‘genera’ under consideration, and the matter 
was fully treated of in a paper. This paper, however, was not 
published, because it was considered a poor thing to put forward 
an idea having such a destructive tendency without providing an 
alternative scheme whereby a natural classification could be con- 
structed. And the latter would involve much further detailed work, 
some of which has since been done. 

Cumings,* however, in January of this year, in a paper on the 
development of Fenestella and other Paleozoic forms, has in a 
masterly manner shown that the zoarium has a developmental 
history, exactly comparable with that of the individual. He says:* 
“The now generally accepted classification of the stages of growth 
and decline, proposed by Alpheus Hyatt, has never been consistently 
applied to a colonial organism, such as are the Bryozoa, nor to 
one whose ontogeny presents the retrograde metamorphosis which 
characterizes the latter class.” He further proposes a nomenclature 
for the stages in the development of the colony analogous to the 
nepionic, neanic, ephebic, and gerontic, or the infantile, youthful, 
mature, and old-age stages, proposed by Buckman & Bather* as 
modifications of Hyatt’s original terms for the individual. These 


J. W. Gregory: Brit. Mus. Cat. Jur. Bryozoa, 1896, pp. 14-22. 

E. R. Cumings: Amer. Journ. Sci., vol. xvii, pp. 49-78. 

Cumings: op. cit., p. 50. 

S. S. Buckman & F. A. Bather, ‘‘The terms of Auxology’’: Zooglischer 
Anzeiger, 1892, p. 421. : 


1 
2 
3 
4 


W. D. Lang—Jurassic Polyzoa. 317 


colonial stages he terms nepiastic, neanastic, ephebastic, and 
gerontastic, formed from the stem of the first terms suffixed with 
the termination -astic, from 70 dovv, ‘ the city.’ 

Cumings also terms the first-formed zoarium, which has hitherto 
been known as the ‘primitive disc’ in Oyclostomata and the 
‘ancestrula’ in Cheilostomata, the ‘protcecium,’ analogous to the 
‘protegulum’ and ‘protoconch’ in Brachiopods and Ammonites 
respectively. 

Among the Jurassic forms of Siomatopora and Proboscina, it has 
been found that when any given character, such, for instance, as- 
the ratio of the length of the zocecium to its breadth, is followed 
from the first zocecium until the last, that it has a progressive 
development, or anagenesis, reaches a maximum or acme, and often 
may be seen to have a retrogressive development, or katagenesis, 
in the ultimate branches of the zoarium. 

To illustrate this point, some examples of the character mentioned, 
namely, the ratio of the length of the zocecium to its breadth, are 
given below, the points of dichotomy of the zoarium being taken 
as fixed points, and referred to by the numbers 1, 2, 3, etc., No. 1 
being the point in the zoarium marked by the first dichotomy, and 
so on. The numbers with the names are the British Museum 
register numbers of the specimens. 


Ratio of length of zocecium 
compared with its breadth at the 
Ist, 2nd, 3rd. . . nth dichotomies. 
SPECIMEN. ———_—_— eee 


Lhe) 8 18) 6 lw 

1. Stomatopora Waltoni, No. 97,083... ... | 35 | 44 | 3 | 22 | 24 | 22) 2 
Cornbrash, Wilts. 

2. Stomatopora dichotoma, No. 60,535... ... | 23 | 22 | 34 | 3 -2t) 2 | 2 
Cornbrash, Wilts. 

3. Stomatopora dichotoma, No. 46,218... ... | 14 | 14 | 1$) 13 | 12} 13 
Bathonian, Ranville. 

4. Stomatopora dichotoma, No. B. 4,832... | 23 | 23 | 23 | 25 | 2 | Oy 
Cornbrash, Wilts. 

5. SUODUMORGRU So don 008 aca 1 conn’ cog | PP | BW ee Bh Bw 
Cornbrash, Wilts. | | 

6. Stomatopora Waltom, No. B. 2,287 ... | 22 | 22 | 27 | 27 | 22 | 2 | 2 
Inf. Oolite, Gloucestershire. | | 


The numbers in the above table, representing the length of the 
zocecium (the breadth being taken as 1), are, of course, averages ; 
for at each dichotomy are three zocecia; and if is the number 
of the dichotomy, the theoretical number of the zocecia of which the 
average is taken will be 5 (2”-'). Practically, however, the number 
is smaller, owing to the loss of certain branches. 

The specimens whose zocecial lengths are given in the table are 
chosen because they illustrate so well the regular changes of this- 
character. Other specimens are more irregular, but all show to 
some extent a definite plan of development. In the first four cases 
given it will be seen that this character is anagenetic at first, and. 


318 W. D. Lang—dJurassic Polyzoa 


reaches its acme at the third dichotomy, after which it is katagenetic. 
‘The fifth example reaches its acme at 2, while the sixth is at its 
acme at the first dichotomy, and declines after the second. 

As far as actual length is concerned, numbers 2, 4, 5, and 6 are 
practically the same, while No. 1 has much longer and No. 8 much 
shorter zocecia than the rest. 

This particular character was chosen only as an example. Other 
characters show a similar regularity in development, according 
to the part of the zoarium in which they are situated. Those which 
have been observed and treated in the same way as the length of 
the zocecium are four, two zoarial and two zocecial. The zoarial 
are the method of branching, which will be treated later, and the 
frequency of branching, which is measured by the number of 
peristomes between two dichotomies. The zocecial are the shape 
of the zocecium, and its ornamentation by transverse ribs. 

Two characters which have been used by former workers have 
been found by the author so unpractical that they have been given 
up as useless; these are the height of the peristome and the punctation 
-of the zocecium. 

The first of these, though doubtless an excellent character where 
the state of preservation of the fossil is such that its presence may 
be counted on, becomes useless in the fossils here dealt with, because 
‘in the majority of cases the whole peristome has been broken off, 
leaving it impossible to say whether this structure was high or low 
when the organism was alive. 

Again, the appearance of the punctation of the zocecium seems 
to depend to such a large extent upon the state of preservation 
of the zocecial wall, that its presence is of little use for systematic 
work. Nor does it appear to show any variation during the growth 
of the zoarium. 

The results obtained from the study of the development of the 
characters previously mentioned, namely, the frequency of branching, 
the shape of the zocecium, and the transverse ribbing of the zocecium, 
show that the rule in the majority of cases is as follows :— 

1. Frequency of branching.—The number of peristomes between 
the first two or three dichotomies is small (nearly always 1 or 2), 
then suddenly increases largely, and finally becomes small again. 

2. Shape of zowecium.—Generally the zocecia are either cylindrical 
or pytiform. In many of those forms which have cylindrical 
zocecia throughout the greater part of the zoarium, the zocecia 
between the first and third dichotomies tend to be slightly pyriform ; 
while in those forms with pyriform zocecia, the zocecia between 
the first and third dichotomies are generally more pyriform than 
the rest. 

3. Transverse ribbing of the zoecium.—Ribbing, when present, 
is usually faint at its first appearance, becoming stronger later on, 
and in some cases becoming fainter again finally. The point at 
which the acme is reached varies a great deal. 

The systematic value of any one of these characters and the 
-amount that the consideration of them affects the question of species 


W. D. Lang—ZJurassie Polyzoa. 319 


‘the author hopes to consider in a future paper; all that is wished 
at present is to demonstrate the importance of following each 
character through its own development in the zoarium, and by this 
means determining its value as an index to the relationship 
-of one zoarium to another. The fact that each character has a 
developmental history makes it clear that the diagnosis of a form 
is incomplete, and for practical purposes useless, unless the part 
-of the zoarium with respect to its age is specified. 

The last point to be considered is the method of branching in 
the Jurassic forms of the two ‘ genera’ Stomatopora and Proboscina. 

In a single series of zocecia, such as is typical in the genus 
Stomatopora, two ways of branching may be noticed, namely, lateral 
branching and dichotomy. 

In lateral branching a new zocecium arises from any point in 
a chain of old zocecia, and generally diverges at a wide angle (see 
Diagram IT, Fig. 1, p. 321). It is common in Silurian and Cretaceous 
forms, but has not been observed (except in one doubtful case) in 
any Jurassic form. 

In dichotomy, which always occurs in Jurassic forms, two new 
zocecia arise from the end of an older zocecium, the angle at which 
they diverge varying from 180° to 20° or 30°, and varying in 
a definite manner. (See Diagram II, Figs. 2-9, p. 321.) 

Dichotomy in the forms under consideration occurs in three types, 
one of which is intermediate between the other two. In that termed 
Type I the two new zooscia are separate from one another throughout 
their whole length (Diagram II, Figs. 2, 3, 9, p. 321), only touching 
at their bases. In Type II they are contiguous throughout their 
length (Figs. 4, 5, 8); and they are contiguous for part of their 
length in the Intermediate Type (Figs. 5, 6, 7). 

To a large extent correlated with the type of branching is the 
angle of divergence of the two new branches. This angle tends 
to diminish distally. But that it is not wholly dependent upon 
the type of branching may be seen in cases where the new branches 
diverge at an angle of as much as 60° after branching according 
to Type II (Fig. 5), while in other cases .(Fig. 8) the two new 
branches may remain contiguous until they branch again. In the 
majority of cases, however, the angle of divergence and the type 
of branching are so closely correlated that for practical purposes 
they may be considered together. 

Starting from the first zocecium, which arises directly from the 
primitive disc, one or two zocecia generally follow before the first 
dichotomy takes place. This in all Stomatopora and in a few 
Proboscina (e.g. P. Cunningtoni, Gregory, B.M. No. 23,852, zoarium 
marked 1) is after Type I with a wide angle nearly always 180° 
(Fig. 9). The second dichotomy in the great majority of cases is 
on Type I, with an angle of divergence of 120°. The angle of the 
next dichotomy is commonly 90°, of the next 60°, of the next 45°, 
Type I being still the mode of dichotomy. 

In primitive forms (eg. S. Waltoni, Haime, B.M. No. B. 2,287) 
the branching never gets beyond Type I with a small angle. In the 


320 W. D. Lang—ZJurassie Polyzoa. 


majority of forms, however, sooner or later the Intermediate Type- 
of branching comes in, and in a great many forms this type is the 
final one. In a few cases of Stomatopora, and in all Proboscina, 
Type II is at some time or other reached, and remains the ultimate 
form of branching of the zoarium. 

This sequence, namely, Type I—Intermediate Type—Type II, is 
invariably followed. For, although an individual dichotomy may 
occasionally occur of slightly more primitive order than its pre- 
decessor, it is only an irregularity, and the general scheme of 
development is in no wise obscured. 

In more primitive forms this evolution in branching does not 
progress beyond Type I with a small angle. 

In the commoner forms of Stomatopora the ultimate branches are 
formed on the Intermediate Type and on Type II. 


Dracram I.—Curves sHow1nG THE FREQUENCY OF BRANCHING IN STOMATOPORA.. 


Number of peristomes between each dichotomy. 


{ 2 3 4 5 6 
Number of dichotomies from the first zooecium. 


In a few forms of Stomatopora (e.g. B.M. No. B. 4,822) Type IT 
occurs after a few dichotomies, while it comes in very soon in some 
primitive Proboscina (e.g. Proboscina Cunningtoni, Gregory, B.M. 
No. 97,617). 

In typical forms of Proboscina the early stages have been so 
condensed, according to the law of acceleration (Tachygenesis),' that 
the first dichotomy is formed on Type II (Fig. 10). Sometimes 


1 A. Hyatt, ‘‘ Bioplastology and “the related branches of Biologie research’? : 
Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. xxvi (1898), p. 77. 


W. D. Lang—ZJurassic Polyzoa. 321 


Dracram II, to show the method of branching in Jurassic forms of the two 
‘genera’ Stomatopora and Proboscina. 


These figures are diagrammatic reproductions of pieces of specimens in the British 
Museum. The Museum register number is given with each. 


Fie. 1. 
ai 
Sage Lee 
Ap, ae 
oh oe 
say Os 
ee es 
spi ee 
Pe 9) 
-» We 
35) lide 


Lateral branching; B. 4,238. Stomatopora granulata (Milne Edwards) : 
Chalk, England ; loc.2 x about 5. ‘ 
Type I with large angle; B.2,287. Stomatopora Waltoni, Haime: Inferior 
Oolite, Crickley Hill. Dichotomy 2. x about 4. ; 
Type I with small angle ; B. 2,287, same specimen as the last. Dichotomy 8. 

x about 4. 

Type II with small angle; B. 4,247. Stomatopora dichotomoides (D’ Orb.) : 
Cornbrash, Wiltshire. x about 6. 

Type II with large angle, preceded by Intermediate Type with large angle ; 
B. 4,832. | Zoarium marked 2. Stomatopora dichotoma (Lamouroux) = 
Cornbrash, Wiltshire. x about 6. 

Intermediate Type with small angle; B. 4,382, same specimen as the last, 
but the zoarium marked 1. x about 7. 

Intermediate Type with large angle ; 60,536. Stomatopora, sp.: Cornbrash, 
Wiltshire. x about 6. 

Type II with an angle of 0°; 97,617. Proboscina Cunningtoni, Gregory : 
Cornbrash, Chippenham. x about 5. 

Type I with angle of 180°; D. 2,064. Zoarium marked 5. Stomatopora 
dichotomoides (D’Orb.): Cornbrash, Midland Railway Pit, Bedtord. 
x about 13. 

The first dichotomy is after Type TE with an angle of 0°; D. 7,185. 
Proboseina, sp.: Inferior Oolite, Crickley Hill. x about 7. 

The arrangement of the peristomes is irregular from the first; D. 1,843- 
Proboscina Eudesi, Haime: Inferior Oolite, Gloucestershire. x about 7. 


DECADE V.—VOL. I.—NO. VII. 21 


322 W. D. Lang—Jurassic Polyzoa. 


a second dichotomy on Type II follows, but often the arrangement 
of peristomes is quite irregular after the first dichotomy. 

In the most advanced types of Proboscina, e.g. P. Kudesi, Haime, 
B.M. No. D. 1,843, the arrangement of peristomes is irregular from 
the first (Fig. 11)—the arrangement typical for Berenicea, the next 
‘genus’ in the series of which Stomatopora and Proboscina are the 
first two terms. 

The absolute regularity of the sequence of these different types 
of branching and the condensation of the more primitive types in 
the more advanced forms show of how much importance this 
character is in determining the relationships of different forms. 
Moreover, it is worthy of notice that, while in the Jurassic forms 
of Stomatopora Type II is not very common, it becomes extremely 
common in the Cretaceous forms, though the sequence in these is 
considerably obscured by the superimposition of lateral branching 
upon the dichotomy. 

In the case of the Cretaceous Stomatopora the lateral branching 
seems to be the reappearance of a character which was formerly 
present and has been lost, for it occurs in Silurian forms of Stomato- 
pora, and is apparently absent in Jurassic forms. 

Taking the type of branching as a character of primary importance, 
and following this and the other characters in their development 
from the beginning of the colony, series can be traced and natural 
relationships established. The true genera will probably be found 
to correspond to some extent with the present ‘species.’ But before 
this can be done at all satisfactorily it will be necessary to work 
through a great deal more material, carefully collected according 
to horizon and locality. 

It is easy to represent graphically the evolution of the characters 
of two forms for comparison by means of curves. Diagram I, on 
p. 820, gives an example. 

The writer of this paper, intending only to introduce his idea 
and method of dealing with this difficult group, as a means of 
establishing a natural classification, has purposely avoided entering 
into much detail, and confined himself rather to general statements. 
But illustrations are taken from actual specimens, and these may 
be seen in the British Museum. What is needed is more material 
which shall test the above propositions. What has been attempted 
is not arbitrarily to select a character and invest it with specific 
or generic importance, but by tracing the development of the 
character to assign it to its appropriate rank. The terms genus 
and species can then be applied with some meaning, and new 
forms, as they occur, will fall into their proper places in a natural 
scheme. 


Notices of Memoirs—Coal at Cheadle, Staffordshire. 323 


INPOuBIECiwS! Cis! IMeash IVES als; Sy | Dan aaS- 


I.— Tue GeronocicaL Survey oF ENGLAND AND IMPORTANT 
Coat-DrvELOPMENTS IN NortH STAFFORDSHIRE. 


AST week the important announcement was made that the 
Dilhorne seam of coal had been recovered at the Klondyke pit ~ 
No. 7, near Draycott Cross, Cheadle. For years sinking operations 
have been conducted with the object of winning what was known 
to be one of the most valuable seams of coal in the district, and 
considerable sums of money have been spent in the quest. It had 
always been held by old miners that although the Dilhorne seam 
did exist at Dilhorne, it did not exist in or about Cheadle proper. 
But from the inspection which was made of the Cheadle district 
about two years ago by Mr. George Barrow, F.G.S., of the Geological 
Survey, he came to the conclusion that the Dilhorne seam did exist 
at Cheadle, and that there was an area of some four square miles 
of it waiting to be worked.! This conclusion was borne out by 
Mr. Stobbs, the County Council lecturer in mining, from his 
examination of the fossils found in the strata overlying the 
eoal-seams. In addition to these assurances, Mr. James Lockett, 
Chairman of the Cheadle Park Colliery Company, who has undertaken 
the researches that have at last proved successful, had the advantage 
of the observations which were made by his son, Mr. William 
Lockett, of the sections of strata which were penetrated by a borehole 
on the estate of the Cheadle Park Colliery, as well as in the Foxdale 
shaft and the Major Barn sinking, to assure him in his own con- 
viction that the Dilhorne seam would be eventually won at the 
Draycott Colliery. Mr. Lockett commenced sinking from the 
Four-feet seam at the Draycott pit on January Ist this year. The 
difficult work of sinking through the water-bearing strata which 
lay beneath that seam has since been carried out efficiently, until 
on the 16th inst. the Dilhorne seam was reached, lying at a depth 
of 74 yards below the Four-feet seam and 150 yards from the 
surface, the seam at this point being about 5 ft. lin. thick and 
clean and bright. It is understood to be Mr. Lockett’s intention 
to proceed with the opening out of the seam without delay, and it is 
expected that there will be an output from the Draycott Colliery 
within three years of a thousand tons a day. The land leased by 
Mr. Lockett amounts to 710 acres, owned partly by Sir Thomas 
Pilkington, Mr. F. Bolton, Oakamoor, and Mr. F. Mather, Betley, 
and if Mr. Barrow is right in his estimate there should be in the 
four square miles which comprise the Cheadle district a quantity 
of coal, taking the Four-feet and the Dilborne seams together, of 
from 20 to 25 million tons. In addition to this, there are two 
seams below the Dilhorne seam which have not yet been tapped. 
First, there is the ‘cobble’ vein, which is 2 feet thick, and then 
there is the Woodhead seam, 2 ft. 10 in. in thickness. 


1 [See ‘‘The Geology of the Cheadle Coalfield,” by George Barrow, F.G.S., 
Mem. Geol. Survey, 1903, pp. 27, 28.—Epit. Gzou. Mac. | 


324 Notices of Memoirs—D. M. A. Bate—Caves in Cyprus. 


An encouraging feature about the new recovery is there is every 
indication of the seam being worked practically free from water- 
The coal is valuable for household purposes, and will be put upon 
all the principal markets, the pitbank being situated close beside 
the Cheadle Railway, to which sidings have already been laid down, 
and the colliery premises thus placed into communication within 
a very few miles of the North Staffordshire Railway Company’s main 
line between Crewe and Derby.— Colliery Guardian, May 27, 1904. 


I].—Ow tue Osstrerous Cave-Derosits or Cyprus. By 
Dororny M. A. Bars. 


REVIOUS to 1901 no systematic search of the cave-deposits of 
Cyprus appears to have been attempted. The geology was 
studied by M. Albert Gaudry, who published an elaborate work in 
1862 with a geological map, and Drs. Unger and Kotschy in 1865: 
also gave a geological map of the island, differing somewhat from 
their predecessor. 

As long ago as 1700 the Dutch traveller Corneille le Brun (Van 
Bruyn) published an account of his wanderings in Cyprus and the 
Levant, and mentions having visited a bed of bones, supposed to be 
those of saints, not far from the Monastery of Haghios Chrysostomos. 
A drawing of one of these bones is given, which Dr. Forsyth Major 
has since shown to be that of Hippopotamus minulus.* 

The author started in 1901 in expectation of discovering an 
extinct fauna in this ossiferous breccia, and this expectation was 
amply fulfilled, for no fewer than twelve ossiferous caves were 
found, five at Cape Pyla in the south-east and seven on the southern 
slopes of the Kerynia Hills in the north of the island. 

Two caves (mentioned by General di Cesnola in 1877, at Cape 
Pyla, as containing human fossilised bones) were first visited by 
the author. The rock is here composed of Miocene (probably 
Helvetian) limestone, weathered to a very great extent, and full of 
marine shells and corals, as well as numerous Hehinoids (Clypeaster 
portentosus), also met with in the Miocene limestones of Malta. 

Here a number of caves were discovered in the cliffs, five of 
which yielded remains of Hippopotamus minutus. 

The author then describes these caves in detail. The caves 
explored at Cape Pyla were: (1) The Red Cliff Cave; (2) the 
Great Anonymous Cave; (38) the Small Anonymous Cave ; 
(4) Haghios Jannos; (5) Haghios Saronda. This is the cave to 
which formerly pilgrimages were made and candles burned in 
honour of the sacred remains of saints. 

The cave-deposits of the Kerynia Hills are of uncertain geological 
age, no fossils having been obtained from the limestone rock of 
which they are chiefly composed. Professor Gaudry concludes that 
the rock is of Cretaceous age, and, therefore, the oldest sedimentary 
deposit in the island. The seven caves discovered were all on the 

1 Being the abstract of a paper read before the Royal Society, June 9th, 1904. 
Communicated by Dr. H. Woodward, F.R.S., F.G.S. 

2 Proe. Zool. Soc., June, 1902. 


Notices of Memoirs—D. M. A. Bate—On Elephas cypriotes. 325 


southern side of the range, between the Aghirdhir Pass and the 
village of Kythreea, in a low broken line of cliffs parallel with the 
main ridge. These are called the Kerynia caves, and are named— 
(1) Coutzaventis; (2) Haghios Chrysostomos; (3) Anoyero Spelios; 
(4) Dikomo Mandra; (5) Haghios Elias; (6) the Elephant Deposit; 
(7) the Western Cave. 

Most of these caves have, by reason of long atmospheric erosion, 
partially or wholly disappeared, leaving the stalagmitic flooring 
containing mammalian remains unprotected and exposed often at 
a considerable distance from the face of the cliffs. But although 
many of them are now almost obliterated by the falling in of the 
roof and walls, the author points out that wherever this has 
happened the limits of the floor are sharply defined by the hard 
ossiferous deposit and the stalagmitic floor. In close proximity are 
caves still preserved containing precisely similar deposits. 

The fauna of the caves is comparatively scanty, the only other 
important extinct form besides the dwarf elephant and hippopotamus 
being a new species of Genet (Genetta plesictoides), described in the 
Proceedings of the Zoological Society. 


II.—Furturr Nore on tHe Remains oF ELEPHAS CYPRIOTES, 
Bars, From A Cave-Deposit 1n Cyprus. By Dororny M. A. 
Bats." 

fJ\HIS paper is a continuation of one already published? “On the 

Discovery of a Pigmy Elephant in the Pleistocene of Cyprus,” 
and enters into a detailed description of the teeth of this small 
proboscidean whose remains are now in the British Museum of 

Natural History. 

The collection includes incisors, milk molars, and permanent 
molars. Several of the latter still retain their position in the jaws, 
and in some instances the teeth of both sides of the same individual 
were found. 

The permanent incisor tusks of two forms, presumably belonging 
to males and females, were found. They differ from the same teeth 
of the Maltese dwarf elephants in being considerably compressed 
laterally. The largest specimen measures 29'7cm. along the 
outside of the curve, with a maximum diameter of 3-7 cm. 

Of the upper cheek teeth the third and fourth of the milk series, 
as well as the three permanent molars, are described in detail. 
There was a small third milk molar (mm. 2) implanted by a single 
root, but no specimen was collected. 

Of the lower series, the third and fourth milk molars and the 
three permanent teeth were represented by numerous examples and 
are fully described. 

An almost entire left ramus of one young individual and the 
symphysial portion of another are also described. The only limb 
bone obtained was the distal portion of a femur. 

1 Bemg the abstract of a paper read before the Royal Society, June 9th, 1904. 


Communicated by Dr. H. Woodward, F.R.S., F.G.8. 
2 Read betore the Royal Society, May 7th, 1903; see Groz. Mac., 1903, p. 241. 


326 Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London. 


A corrected ridge formula for the molars of E. cypriotes is 
furnished, which, exclusive of talons, will stand as follows :— 


5 7-8 7—8 8—9 11—12 


es ae: ee 
Dr. Leith Adams gives £. melitensis as follows :— 
3.5 8=9 8—9 10 12 
35 89 8—9 10 12 

There appears to be a strong resemblance between the teeth of 
E. cypriotes and those of the Maltese and Sicilian pigmy forms, 
more especially Z. melitensis, but the marked lateral compression of 
the tusks in E. cypriotes, which is a constant character in all the 
specimens so far obtained, would in itself be almost sufficient to 
distinguish this species from the other pigmy elephants of the 
Mediterranean region. There seems to be good evidence that 
E. cypriotes was isolated and subsequently differentiated at an 
earlier period than the other small Mediterranean species in Malta 
and Sicily, the zoological evidence giving considerable support to 
the belief that Cyprus became an island at an earlier period, an idea 
which is further strengthened by the fact that the whole island is 
surrounded by deep water, and is not connected with the neigh- 
bouring lands by submerged banks, as is the case with the Maltese 
Islands. 

The Maltese pigmy species have been considered most closely 
allied to HE. antiquus and £. Africanus. On the other hand, it seems 
probable that #. cypriotes, which shows no affinity to the African 
species, is connected rather with E. antiquus and Z. meridionalis. 

It may be remarked that the remains of £. cypriotes and of 
Hippopotamus minutus, with which it is associated, vary but little in 
size, whereas in the dwarf species of elephants and hippopotami 
from Malta and Sicily a considerable variation in size is observable, 
so much so indeed that molars may be seen intermediate in size 
connecting /7. melitensis (=minutus), H. pentlandi, and H. amphibius. 


PORTS. .AINDD, 1-20 Ci DD EANGaSe 


—_— ».—— 
GEOLOGICAL Society or Lonpon. 


T.—April 27th, 1904.—J. E. Marr, Sc.D., F.R.S., President, in the 
Chair. The following communications were read :— 


1. “Ona New Species of Hoscorpius from the Upper Carboniferous 
Rocks of Lancashire.” By Walter Baldwin, Hsq., F.G.S., and 
William Henry Sutcliffe, Esq., F.G.S. 

The specimen described was found in an ironstone nodule occurring 
on a fairly well marked horizon, about 135 feet above the Royley 
Mine (or Arley Mine) coal-seam, at Sparth Bottoms, about half a mile 
south-west of Rochdale Town Hall. The nodules occur in a band 
of blue shale, in which are well-preserved remains of Carbonicola 
acuta, ferns Calamaria, Prestwichia rotundata, and Bellinurus bellulus. 


Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London. 327 


The animal is well represented by both the intaglio and relievo 
impressions: these, however, only show its dorsal aspect. A de- 
scription of the specimen is given, and it is referred to a new species. 
Dr. Peach is of opinion that, like the recent scorpions, the ancient 
species visited the sea-shore in search of the eggs of invertebrates 
left bare by the tides, and the association of this new scorpion 
with king-crabs at Sparth Bottoms is in favour of this view. The 
specimen has been presented to the Manchester Museum. 


2. “The Genesis of the Gold Deposits of Barkerville (British 
Columbia) and the vicinity.” By Austin J. R. Atkin, Esq. (Com- 
municated by the Secretary.) 

The gold-bearing area of Cariboo (British Columbia) is roughly 
confined within a radius of 20 miles of Barkerville, to the band of 
varied crystalline rocks known as the Cariboo Schists, generally 
assigned to the Lower Paleozoic group. The veins follow the strike 
but not the dip of the rocks, the gangue is similar to that associated 
with the nuggets in the placers, and the reefs show very little or 
no oxidized ore. While all the reefs carry gold in greater or less 
quantities, none have been found rich enough to account for the 
placer-gold. It is the opinion of the author that the placer-gold 
has probably been derived from the enriched outcrops of the veins 
which once existed above water-level. Such enrichment is due to 
two causes: firstly, the leaching-out of pyrites leaving the less 
soluble gold in lighter, honeycombed quartz; and, secondly, to actual 
enrichment by precipitation. This may be due to the solubility of 
gold in solutions of ferric sulphate, derived from the decomposition 
of the pyrites. While the enriched zone was being formed, the 
weathering of the surface kept removing the leached outcrop, and 
constantly exposing fresh surfaces to atmospheric influences. To 
the weathering of these outcrops the rich placers are attributed. 
Some of the nuggets in the latter show no signs of attrition, as 
though they had been carried to their present position enclosed in 
a soluble matrix which was afterwards removed. The denudation 
of the reefs and the deposition of gold in the gravels appear to have 
taken place in Tertiary times. 


Il.—May 11th, 1904.—Horace B. Woodward, Hsq., F.R.S., Vice- 
President, in the Chair. 


The Chairman referred in feeling terms to the grievous loss sus- 
tained by the Society in the death of Sir Clement Le Neve Foster, 
F.R.S., Professor of Mining at the Royal College of Science. He 
was elected a Fellow in 1863, and as early as 1865 he communicated 
to this Society, conjointly with William Topley, the now classic 
paper on the Medway Gravels and the Denudation of the Weald— 
a paper which had largely influenced the views of geologists on 
the physiography of the South-Hast of England. 

The Chairman announced that the Council had resolved to award 
the proceeds of the Daniel-Pidgeon Fund for 1904 to Mr. Linsdall 
Richardson, F.G.S., of Cheltenham. 


328 Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London. 


The following communications were read :— 

1. “On some Quartzite Dykes in Mountain Limestone near 
Snelston (Derbyshire).” By Henry Howe Arnold-Bemrose, Esq., 
M.A., F.G.S. 

At Snelston, 34 miles south-west by south of Ashbourne, there 
is an inlier of Mountain Limestone surrounded by Keuper Marl. 
It is roughly elliptical in shape, the major axis extending for 
a distance of about half a mile north-north-east and south-south- west. 

The limestone is generally massive, with a few chert nodules in 
the upper parts; the rock in many places has a broken appearance, 
and it contains small hollow spaces ; and large portions of the lime- 
stone have been partly or completely dolomitized. The floor and 
faces of the quarry are traversed by vertical veins or dykes of 
calcite, fluor-spar, barytes, calcareous sandstone, and quartzite. 

The quartzite of these ‘dykes’ is described microscopically. It 
consists of angular detritus, quartz-grains with enclosures, a few 
small grains of felspar, and a tew shreds of mica. The grains are 
cemented by silica, and sometimes by calcite. The rock in contact 
with the dykes sometimes contains quartz in isolated bipyramidal 
crystals and granular aggregates. The silica is present in the lime- 
stone in two forms, which have had an entirely different origin. 

Reference is given to examples of sandstone dykes hitherto 
described, and then the origin of the quartzite dykes at this locality 
is discussed. An important bed of sandstone was found by sinking 
for a well at Marston Common Farm; and the same bed is found 
also in a quarry about 800 feet south of the farm. The microscopic 
aspect of the rock is precisely similar to that of the dykes. It is 
at a period later than the Keuper that the silica which cemented 
the sandstone of the dykes and of the Common Farm appears to 
have been introduced. 


2. “ Phenomena bearing upon the Age of the Lake of Geneva.” 
By C. 8. Du Riche Preller, ‘M.A., Ph.D., A.M.I.C.E., M.LE.E., 
F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 

Following up his investigations concerning the age of the 
principal Alpine lake-basins, the author has, during a_ recent 
prolonged stay on the Lake of Geneva, examined the low-level 
gravel-beds and other alluvia to the Rhone Valley, from Geneva 
to the Jura bar near Fort de I’EKcluse, as well as the high-level 
gravel-beds of La Céte above Rolle and of the Jorat district above 
Lausanne, and, further, the rock-formations on both sides of the 
lake, in view of evidence of flexures as the primary cause of the 
formation of the present deep lake-basin. 

After describing the phenomena around the Lake of Geneva. and 
comparing them with those around the Lake of Zurich, he is led 
to the following conclusions :— 

(1) The low-level gravel-beds of the Rhone Valley near Geneva 
are, like the deep-level gravel-beds of the Limmat Valley 
near Zurich, fluviatile deposits of the second interglacial 
period, and were formed before the present deep lake-basin 
came into existence. 


Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London, 329 


(2) The high-level gravel-beds of La Céte above Rolle and of the 
Jorat district above Lausanne are, like the corresponding 
deposits of the Uetliberg near Zurich, and of the Dombes 
and of Lyons, true Deckenschotter. Hence the term 
‘alluvion ancienne,’ should, in its proper acceptation, only 
apply to the high-level deposits. 

(3) The formation of the present deep lake-basin of Geneva was, 
like that of Zurich, primarily due to the lowering of the 
valley-floor by flexures of the Molasse and its contact- 
zones, posterior to the maximum glaciation, as evidenced 
more especially by the reverse dip of the old erosion 
terraces. 

The author holds that the concord of evidence in the two cases 
strengthens the conclusion, already arrived at by analogy in his 
previous paper, that the Lake of Geneva, together with the other 
principal zonal lakes between the Alps and the Jura, was formed 
under similar conditions and at the same time as the Lake of Zurich, 
that is, towards the close of the Glacial Period; indeed, the 
phenomena in support of that view are, in the case of the Lake 
of Geneva, on a grander scale, more striking, and, if anything, 
more conclusive. 


G1I1.—May 25th, 1904.—J. E. Marr, Sc.D., F.R.S., President, in the 
Chair. The following communications were read :— 

1. “On the occurrence of a Limestone with Upper Gault Fossils 
at Barnwell, near Cambridge.” By William George Fearnsides, Hsq., 
M.A., F.G.S. 

The section in the great Gault pit worked by the Cambridge 


Brick Company at Barnwell is as follows :— 
Thickness in feet. 


5. Surface-soil with gravel and Chalk Marl, disturbed ...... 15 to 17 

4, Dull leaden clay, almost devoid of determinable fossils 
but with a few phosphate nodules, ete.  ............2.08++ 39 

3. Compact, well-jointed, homogeneous clay, with large 
ammonites of the rostratus- or Bouchardianus-type ... 3 

2. Hard calcareous bed with Inoceramus, Schlenbachia 
varicosa, and Terebratula biplicatd.......cecccscecceneneeeees 0 to 1 

1. Blue, well-laminated clay, with fossil fragments and pale 
ONG F ONES MOGIIES — ooosocdcoonsodsoonadoonsn095090000GUD0000N0 4 seen 


The limestone is variable in thickness, and is largely made up of 
comiinuted shells of Inoceramus. It occurs in a series of flattened 
lenticles, a few yards in diameter and about a foot thick. It 
contains abundant phosphate nodules of at least three types—green, 
pale, and dark-brown in colour. Foraminifera are abundant, as also 
fragments of lamellibranchs, brachiopods, small gastropods, echinoids, 
and crustacea. A fibrous material, possibly chitin, chips of quartz, 
a little orthoclase, and glauconite are also recognized microscopically. 
The fauna is not markedly different from that of the underlying 
clay. A list is given which shows that this fauna has been recorded 
from the Upper Gault of Folkestone, and agrees most closely with 
that from Bed ix of Mr. Hilton Price’s paper on that locality. As 


330 Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London. 


these fossils are obtained 40 feet below the upper surface of the 
Gault seen in the section, it is clear that the whole of the Upper 
Gault of Cambridge was not used up in the making of the 
‘Cambridge Greensand’; and this fact, together with the northward 
thinning of the Gault as it passes into the Red Chalk, necessitates 
a modification in the view commonly held as to the origin of this 
‘Greensand’ deposit. 


2. “On the Age of the Llyn Padarn Dykes.” By James Vincent 
Elsden, Esq., B.Sc., F.G.S. 

The paper produces evidence which seems to suggest that the 
bulk of the greenstone dykes of this area belong to an earlier period 
of eruption than has been generally assigned to them; and there is 

roof that some of them may even be older than the quartz-felsite 
of the Llyn Padarn ridge. The greater part, if not actually of Bala 
age, seem to have been intruded before the great post-Bala crush- 
movements, which produced the folding of the Lower Cambrian 
rocks of Llanberis, had entirely ceased. At the same time, the 
evidence does not exclude the possibility that some of the intrusions 
may be of later date. The evidence on which these conclusions 
rest is based mainly on the signs which the intrusions exhibit 
of having been considerably modified by earth-pressures, more 
especially in those portions which protrude into Cambrian strata. 
Petrographical considerations, also, make it impossible to separate 
these rocks from the diabase sills of Bala age occurring farther to 
the south and south-west of this area; and there is a strong pre- 
sumption that they represent the last residuum of the magma from 
which Bala sills were derived. 

The north-western portions of the dykes, enclosed in the older 
rocks of the Llyn Padarn ridge, are comparatively free from 
dynamic metamorphism; but when traced into the more yielding 
Cambrian grits and slates, they become structurally deformed and 
often so highly sheared as to be hardly recognizable as parts of 
the same dyke. It is suggested that such highly sheared greenstones 
as occur in the ridge are of still older date. One section is described 
in which a sheared greenstone is pierced by a tongue of felsite 
about 2 inches wide and 2 feet long. The felsite is undistinguishable 
from that of the rest of the ridge and on the borders of the green- 
stone. Full petrographical descriptions of the minerals of the 
rocks in their altered and unaltered state are given, the minerals 
being taken in the order of their consolidation, and the rocks con- 
sidered in the ‘dynamic’ or crush-zone of the sediments and in 
the ‘static’ or pressure-zone of the Llyn Padarn ridge. These 
minerals are apatite; iron-ores altered to sphene and leucoxene, 
and to a mineral which is apparently perowskite ; felspars 
belonging to the albite-anorthite series of one generation under- 
going ‘albitization,’ and the formation of felspar-mosaic ; two 
pyroxenes, one possibly rhombic and the other like malacolite, 
granulitized and associated with secondary albite in the crush-zones, 
or passing into amphiboles and chlorites ; original amphiboles rare, 
but common as actinolite, tremolite, and asbestos alteration-products: 


Reports and Proceedings—Paleontographical Society. 331 


of pyroxene; biotite uncommon; chlorite; quartz; epidote; and 
calcite. In the least altered rocks the minerals are comparatively 
unchanged; then there is, first of all, molecular rearrangement 
under pressure without movement; next, mylonitization and 
recrystallization; and lastly, the whole rock becomes cataclastic, 
with partial or complete obliteration of its original structure. The 
gradual appearance of these features towards the east is proof that 
the deforming agency operated from that direction. 


MineratocicaL Society, June 7th, 1904.—Dr. Hugo Miller, 
President, in the Chair. The Rev. Mark Fletcher contributed 
a note on mispickel from Sulitjelma mine, Norway, containing about 
1:32 per cent. of cobalt, and showing the forms [011], [012], [110]. 
—Mr. G. F. Herbert Smith exhibited a hand-refractometer of the 
Bertrand type in which the curvature of the focal surface has been 
reduced by means of a correcting lens, with a consequent improve- 
ment in the definition of the shadow edges.—Professor H. A. Miers 
gave an account, illustrated by numerous lantern slides, of the 
development of the Kimberley Diamond Mines. He traced the 
changes in the methods of working from the first surface diggings 
to the time when the blue-ground was brought to the edge of the 
pit by a ‘cobweb’ of wire ropes stretching from the numerous 
independent claims into which the mines were split up, and showed 
how the increasing difficulties involved in this method led to the 
final consolidation of the mines under Beit & Rhodes, and the 
initiation of the present system of mining, which consists in sinking 
shafts on the edge of the pit and running cross-cuts into the blue- 
ground. He referred finally to the recent discovery of blue-ground 
in the neighbourhood of Pretoria. 


PALMONTOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY. 


The annual general meeting of the Paleontographical Society 
was held at the Geological Society’s apartments, Burlington House, 
on Friday, 17th June, Dr. Henry Woodward, F.R.S., President, 
in the Chair. The fifty-seventh annual report of the Council and 
the balance sheet were submitted for the approval of the members. 
The report began by alluding to the activity at present prevailing 
in the study of British fossils, and stated that the Paleeontographical 
Society’s Council continued to receive more offers of matter than 
they were able to accept for immediate publication. The volume 
for 1903 was unusually large, and was illustrated with no less 
than 48 plates. It comprised the concluding parts of Dr. Foord’s 
Monograph of Irish Carboniferous Cephalopoda, and vol. i of 
Mr. Woods’ Monograph of Cretaceous Lamellibranchia. It also 
contained instalments of the Monograph of Chalk Fishes, Car- 
boniferous Lamellibranchiata, and British Graptolites, besides the 
first part of a new Monograph by Mr. Cowper Reed on the Paleozoic 
Trilobites of Girvan. The publication of this volume involved an 
expenditure of over £200 beyond the income received during the year. 
The report, indeed, showed a gradual decrease in the income of the 
Society during recent years, and referred to the necessity of filling 


332 Correspondence—J. Allen Howe—A. R. Hunt. 


the numerous vacancies caused by death with the younger students 
of fossils, on whom the future prosperity of the Society depends. 
The loss of the Treasurer, Mr. Robert Etheridge, of Dr. C. H. Gatty, 
and of Mr. William Vicary, was especially deplored. Dr. Henry 
Woodward, F.R.S8., was re-elected President; Dr. George J. Hinde, 
F.R.S., was elected Treasurer; and Dr. A. 8. Woodward, F.R.S., 
was re-elected Secretary. Bishop Mitchinson, Rev. G. F. Whidborne, 
Mr. W. H. Hudleston, F.R.S., Mr. T. Leighton, and Mr. A. Strahan, 
F.R.S., were elected new members of Council. 


CORRESPONDENCE. 


THE ‘YOREDALE’ ROCKS OF NORTH DERBYSHIRE. 


Str,—A few days ago I enjoyed the privilege of attending the 
excursion of the Geologists’ Association to North Derbyshire, and 
I was impressed by the tenacity with which many of the members 
of the party—including geologists of repute—adhered to the use 
of the term ‘Yoredale’ for the strata seen in the excavations of 
the Derwent Valley Water Board and elsewhere. 

In Derbyshire and North Staffordshire there is a well-marked 
group, consisting of dark shales with thin limestones and sandstones, 
situated above the massive Mountain Limestone and below the 
lowest of the Millstone Grits. 

I should like to ask those who still consider the name ‘ Yoredale’ 
to be applicable to this group in this area to be so kind as to state 
the foundations of their belief. Are the paleontological or the 
lithological characters their guide ? 

From either point of view, I think it has been clearly shown 
that the deposits in question are sufficiently differentiated from the 
typical Yoredales to justify a distinctive appellation. 

The name ‘ Yoredale’ is a good one so long as it is confined to 
the type of deposit that exists in and about the Yorkshire Yoredale 
district ; in addition to its historic interest it has an intrinsic value 
in connoting a set of conditions pre-eminent in that area; but to 
continue to use it for this rock in North Staffordshire and Derbyshire 
is to maintain a stumbling-block in the way of all workers who are 
not familiar with the two areas. 

The name ‘ Pendleside Group ’ has been proposed by Dr. Wheelton 
Hind and myself, but if there are objections to this there still 
remains the choice of the non-committal ‘Shales with limestones’ 
and ‘ Shales with sandstones’ of the Geological Survey. 

Call them what you will; but if the name Yoredale is to stand 
for these beds let it be on the basis of solid paleontological evidence. 


Museum or Practican Gronocy, Lonpon. J. Aruen Howe. 
May 28th, 1904. 


NEOLITHIC FLINT FLAKES AT HOPE’S NOSE, TORBAY. 
Sir,—On the 4th of last May I found four flakes or chips of flint 
about two feet deep in the earthy head or landwash capping the low 
cliff on the eastern side of the raised beach at Hope’s Nose. The 


Obituary—Firank Rutley. Byaia) 


fragments were exposed on the face of the section. Sir John Evans 
kindly informed me that he considered two of the flints to be 
artificially made, and probably of Neolithic date. The soft earthy 
capping of the cliff is about the same height as the highest beach 
deposits, but is clearly much more recent. The flints did not 
overlie the beach, but were to the eastward of the eastern end of 
the raised beach. 

I see that Sir Archibald Geikie mentions the fact that the 20 foot 
terrace on the north-east coast of Ireland has produced many worked 
flints, regarded as Neolithic (Q.J.G.S., vol. lx, p. xevi). These 
Hope’s Nose flints are clearly more recent than the raised beach 
(about equivalent to a 24 foot terrace), and it is likely enough that 
they were made out of the flints which occur in the beach, but are 
not elsewhere found in the immediate neighbourhood. I am far 
from wishing to trouble your readers with any remarks of my own 
on this rather perplexing subject, but the mere fact of the discovery 
of Neolithic flakes newer than the adjacent beach at Hope’s Nose, 
Torbay, may be worth a bare record. A. Rh. Hunt. 


SoutHwoop, Torauay. 
June 14th, 1904. 


QS IFAS OL IAI S3 SFe 


RRANK RU TREY. 
Born May 14, 1842. Diep May 16, 1904. 


Tue son of a medical practitioner at Dover, Frank Rutley became 
early in life interested in geology, and studied at the Royal School 
of Mines from 1862 to 1864. In 1867 he was appointed an Assistant 
Geologist on the Geological Survey, under Sir Roderick Murchison 
and Professor Ramsay. Tor a few years he was engaged in field- 
work with W. TIT’. Aveline in the Lake District. There he gave 
some attention to the subject of glaciation, but, probably through 
the influence of his colleague, the late J. Clifton Ward, he began 
to undertake the special study of rocks and rock-forming minerals. 
The importance of the microscope in the examination of rocks was. 
at this period becoming recognized, and Mr. Rutley was transferred 
to the Geological Survey Office in Jermyn Street, to undertake the 
determination and description of the igneous rocks that were collected 
in the course of the geological survey; he took charge also of the 
rock-collection in the Museum of Practical Geology. His first 
official work dealt with the volcanic rocks of East Somerset and the 
Bristol district (1876), and he later on wrote special memoirs on 
the eruptive rocks of Brent Tor (1878), and on the Felsitic Lavas 
of England and Wales (1885). 

He was author in 1874 of a small but exceedingly useful work 
on Mineralogy for Murby’s “Science and Art Department” series 
of text-books, of which a twelfth edition was issued in 1900. In 
1879 he wrote an elementary text-book of Petrology, the first work 
of the kind published in this country, entitled ‘The Study of Rocks,” 


304 Obituary—Frank Rutley. 


and illustrated by many of his own excellent drawings. Of this 
a second edition was issued in 1881. Lateron in 1888 he published 
a work on ‘ Rock-forming Minerals,” and in 1894 ‘ Granites and 
Greenstones: A series of Tables and Notes for Students of Petrology.” 

In 1882 Mr. Rutley was appointed Lecturer on Mineralogy in 
the Royal College of Science, a post which he occupied for about ten 
years, when he was unfortunately forced to retire through disable- 
ment by paralysis. For several years, so far as his strength permitted, 
he continued to work with unabated enthusiasm at petrological 
subjects ; and until the end he never ceased to take great interest 
in his favourite studies. He was a man who in early life was 
endowed with great vigour, but his habits were somewhat erratic; 
he burned the midnight oil far too much, toiling into the early 
morning when he should have slumbered, and finding it difficult 
in consequence to conform to the regulations of official life; but he 
was a genial companion, full of dry humour, and ever ready to 
assist others. His published work shows how assiduous and pains- 
taking he was, and the accompanying list gives the best idea of 
the special researches which he carried on for a number of years. 
He was awarded the Murchison Fund by the Council of the 
Geological Society in 1881, and later on he served for a few years 
as a member of the Council :— 


1865. [Letter on a Subsidence at Lexden, in Essex]: Guront. Mac., Vol. II, 
pp. 231-2. 
1870. riietior on] Geology of the Lake District: ibid., Vol. VII, pp. 584-5. 
1871. [Letter on] Glaciation of the Lake District: ibid., Vol. VIII, p. 98. 
1873. ‘*Ona New Method of Writing Crystallographic Formule ’’: ibid., Vol. X, 
pp. 299-801, 527-8. 
1875. ‘*Notes on some peculiarities in the Microscopic Structure of Felspars”’ : 
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxxi, pp. 479-487. 
1876. ‘‘On some Structures in Obsidian, Perlite, and Leucite’’?: Micr. Journ., 
vol. xv, pp. 176-183. 
1877. ‘‘On Microscopic Structures in Tachylite from Slieve-nalargy, Co. Down, 
Treland’’: Journ. Roy. Geol. Soc. Ireland, ser. 11, vol. iv, pp. 227-282. 
1879. ‘‘On Community of Structure in Rocks of Dissimilar Origin’’: Quart. 
Jown. Geol. Soc., vol. xxxv, pp. 327-340. 
“On Perlitic and Spherulitic Structures in the Lavas of the Glyder Fawr, 
North Wales’’: ibid., pp. 508-9. 
1880. ‘‘On the Schistose Volcanic Rocks occurring on the West of Dartmoor, with 
some Notes on the Structure of the Brent Tor Volcano”: ibid., 
vol. xxxvi, pp. 285-294. 
[Letter on] The term ‘ Schist’: Guou. Mac., Dec. II, Vol. VII, pp. 239-40. 
1881. ‘‘ The Microscopie Characters of the Vitreous Rocks of Montana, U.S.A.”’: 
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxxvu, pp. 391-399. 
“‘On the Microscopie Structure of Devitrified Rocks from Beddgelert and 
Snowdon; with an Appendix on the Eruptive Rocks of Skomer Island”? : 
ibid., pp. 403-412. 
“Visit to the Museum of Practical Geology [Rock Collection]’’: Proc. 
Geol. Assoc., vol. vii, pp. 114-16. 
1884. ‘On Strain in Connexion with Crystallization and the Development of 
Perlitic Structure”? : Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xl, pp. 340-346. 
1885. ‘On Fulgurite from Mont Blanc; with a Note on the Bouteillenstein, 
or Pseudo-Chrysolite of Moldauthein, in Bohemia’’: ibid., vol. xli, 
pp. 152-156. 
“¢On Brecciated Porfido-rosso antico’’: ibid., pp. 157-161. 
[Letter on] The Enstatitic Lavas of Eycott Hill: Grox. Mac., Dee. III, 
Vol. II, p. 285. 


Miscellaneous. 339 


1886. ‘On some Eruptive Rocks from the Neighbourhood of St. Minver, Corn- 
wall’’: Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xlii, pp. 392-400. 
“‘The Igneous Rocks, etc., of the Neighbourhood of the Warwickshire 
Coal-field’’?: Got. Mac., Dec. III, Vol. III, pp. 557-565. 
1887. ‘‘On the Rocks of the Malvern Hills’’?: Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xliii, 
pp. 481-614. 
1888. ‘On Perlitic Felsites, probably of Archean Age, from the Flanks of the 
Herefordshire Beacon ; and on the possible Origin of some Epidosites”’ : 
ibid., vol. xliv, pp. 740-744. 
1889. ‘On Fulgurites from Monte Viso”’: ibid., vol. xlv, pp. 60-66. 
‘‘On Tachylite from Victoria Park, Whiteinch, near Glasgow’’: ibid., 
pp. 626-682. 
1890. ‘*On Composite Spherulites in Obsidian from Hot Springs near Little Lake, 
California’: ibid., vol. xlvi, pp. 423-428. 
‘On a Specimen of Banded Serpentine from the Lizard, Cornwall”’: Trans. 
Roy. Geol. Soc. Cornwall, vol. xi, p. 239. 
[ Notes on Anglesey Rocks]: Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc., vol. vi, p. 2. 
1891. ‘‘On a Spherulitic and Perlitic Obsidian from Pilas, Jalisco, Mexico”’: 
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xlvii, pp. 530-532. 
‘©On some of the Melaphyres of Caradoc, with Notes on the Associated 
Felsites’’ : ibid., pp. 534-543. 
“* Notes on Crystallites’?: Min. Mag., vol. ix, p. 261. 
1892. ‘*Ncte on Crystals of Manganite from Harzgerode’’: ibid., vol. x, pp. 20-1. 
1893. ‘*On the Dwindling and Disappearance of Limestones”’: Quart. Journ. Geol. 
Soc., vol. xlix, pp. 372-382. 
1894. ‘On the Sequence of Perlitic and Spherulitic Structures: a Rejoinder to 
Criticism ’’: ibid., vol. 1, pp. 10-13. 
“On the Origin of certain Novaculites and Quartzites’’: ibid., pp. 377-391. 
“« Note on a Zircon from Expailly, Haute Loire’’: Min. Mag., vol. x, p. 278. 
**On Fulgurites from Griqualand West”’: ibid, p. 280. 
“¢ Note on some Inclusions in Quartz’’: ibid., p. 285. 
1895. ‘‘On a Sandy Ironstone occurring above the Chalk at Capel, near Dover”’: 
Gzou. Mac., Dec. IV, Vol. II, pp. 227-229. 
1896. ‘‘On the Alteration of certain Basic Eruptive Rocks from Brent Tor, Devon’’ 
(abstract) : Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. lii, p. 66. 
1899. **Ona Small Section of Felsitic Lavas and Tuffs near Conway (Caernarvon- 
shire)’: ibid., vol. lv, pp. 170-175. 
(With J. Park.) ‘‘ Notes on the Rhyolites of the Hauraki Goldfields (New 
Zealand)”: ibid., pp. 449-468. 
1900. ‘* Additional Notes on some Eruptive Rocks from New Zealand”: ibid., 
vol. lvi, pp. 493-510. 
1901. ‘*On some Tufaceous Rhyolitic Rocks from Dufton Pike (Westmorland) ” : 
ibid., vol. lvii, pp. 31-37. 
[Note] ‘On the Olifant Klip from Lydenburg and Ladysmith’’: Grou. 
Mae., Dec. IV, Vol. VIII, p. 555. 
1902. ‘*On an Altered Siliceous Sinter from Builth (Brecknockshire) ’’: Quart. 
Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. lviii, pp. 28-34. 


Mins Cree ASIN EO S= 


—$ —o——— 


Bripiincton Crac.—The fauna of the Bridlington Crag, described 
by Mr. G. W. Lamplugh in the Gronocican Magazine for 1881, 
has always been of special interest to geologists! The following 
account by Mr. Thomas Sheppard of recent excavations at Bridlington 
exposing this deposit will be of special interest to our readers. 

Recently an opportunity has presented itself of examining the 
shell patches, and a party of geologists left Hull for an examination 

1 See also his letter in May No., p. 237. 


336 Miscellaneous. 


of the excavations now being carried on in connection with the new 
sea-wall and promenade being built at Bridlington. For the purpose: 
of making secure foundations, large square holes of about 8 feet 
sides are dug into the beach at some distance from the present sea- 
wall, north of the promenade. These excavations are made to extend 
about 63 feet into the basement clay—the dark, leaden-coloured, 
compact deposit containing foreign stones and occasional shell 
fragments. At irregular intervals in the clay occur pockets or 
streaks of the ‘Crag,’ which are not welcomed so much by the 
contractors as by the geologists. These pockets sometimes consist 
of a slightly greenish-coloured sand, crowded with shell fragments, 
and in other cases the sand is of a ferruginous nature, due to 
a quantity of iron oxide. Whilst shells usually occur in profusion 
in these pockets, their condition, number, and variety differ. In 
one the shells are found to be broken up into very small fragments ; 
in another they occur not so plentifully, but in fairly perfect condition ; 
another will principally contain portions of one particular species, such 
as Cyprina islandica. Another contained several large Pectunculi. 

Mr. Matthews, the borough surveyor of Bridlington, who has 
interested himself in the matter, has done his best to assist the local 
geologists, and a fine collection which he has got together has been 
presented to the Hull Museum, through Mr. Stather, the Secretary 
of the Hull Geological Society. Amongst the material is a small 
heap of broken shell fragments, some far-travelled pebbles (an 
examination of which will doubtless yield interesting results), a few 
fairly perfect shells, and a single tooth of probably a small shark. 
These represent the careful washing of two bucketfuls of material. 
In addition Mr. Matthews kindly conducted the visitors round the 
excavations, where, fortunately, much of the shell material had 
recently been thrown out, and from this many fairly perfect 
specimens were obtained, and a large quantity of the shell-bearing 
sand was brought away for detailed examination. Among the 
shells secured the following have been identified, and many more 
will be added to this list after the material has been properly 
examined: Anomia ephippium, Pecten islandicus, Mytilus edulis, 
Nucula cobboldia, Pectunculus glycymeris, Cardium, Cyprina islandica, 
Astarte compressa, Tellina balihica, Mactra, Mya, Saxicava rugosa, 
Pholas, Dentalium entales, Scalaria, Fusus, and Pleurotoma. 

The collection made by the late Judge Bedwell, together with 
those recently acquired, will be exhibited in a case in the Museum. 
[ Hull Mus. Publ., No. 19, 1904. | 


Proressor KE. Kinou, of Cirencester, discusses the question of 
‘‘The Thames Head” (Agricultural Students’ Gazette, April, 1904), 
and maintains that the true head is at Trewsbury Mead, Coates, near 
Cirencester. 


“Nores on the Glacial Phenomena of part of Wharfedale” form 
the subject of an article by Mr. J. R. Dakyns (Proc. Yorksh. Geol. 
and Polytech. Soc., vol. xv, pt. 1). He finds no evidence of foreign 
ice, but all the facts indicate huge confluent glaciers, or ice-shafts 
(if that term is preferred) of home-made ice. 


SUPPLEMENT TO THE 


GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE 


FOR JULY, 1904. 


ON THE ORIGIN OF THE MARINE (HALOLIMNIC) 
FAUNA OF LAKE TANGANYIKA. 


By W. H. Hupueston, M.A., F.R.S. 


(Vice-President, Victoria Institute.) 


[With Two Plates.] 


A Paper read before a Meeting of the Members and Associates of the Victoria 
Institute, on May 25th, 1904, and published in this Magazine, by kind 
permission of the Council, in advance of the annual volume of their 
Transactions for 1904. 


CONTENTS. 


Part [.— GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS: ZOOLOGY AND PALZONTOLOGY. 


Introductory. 

History of the subject and statement of Mr. Moore’s views. 

The argument limited to the halolimnic gasteropods—Appendix on the 
Conchology. 

Distribution of Jurassic faunas in intermediate areas— African Jurassics. 

Character of freshwater faunas. 

On the possible transference from marine to freshwater conditions. 

Jurassic fossils of the Mediterranean basin. 


Part [J.—OvurTrLINEs or AFRICAN GEOLOGY. 


The three principal geographical divisions. 

The Plateau-range of East Africa (the Great Central Range of 
Mr. Moore). 

Geology of British East Africa. 

Geological structure of the Congo basin. 

The periphery of the Congo basin. 

Suggested correlation of the beds composing the interior of the basin. 

Structure of a Graben. 

Geology of Lake Tanganyika. 


Part III.—Concuvusions. 


1. The zoological aspect. 
2. The paleontological evidence. 
3. The argument from-geology. 


VICTORIA INSTITUTE TRANSACTIONS. A 


338 WwW. H. HUDLESTON, ESQ., M.A., F.R.S., ON THE ORIGIN 


Norr.—It should be observed that the title of this paper is rather 
unfortunate since it starts by begging the question of a marine origin. 
I consented to write a paper for the Victoria Institute on the “Tanganyika 
Problem,” and this I have endeavoured to do, so far as available infor- 
mation will allow me, but I admit at the outset that manv years of 
observation must elapse ere the Tanganyika Problem is fully solved. 


PARTE, 
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS, ZOOLOGY AND PALAONTOLOGY. 


Introductory.—F¥ifty years ago Central Africa itself presented 
a problem, which as far as geographical exploration extends, 
was ripening for solution at the hands of the bold explorers of 
the latter half of the nineteenth century. By degrees the 
wonders of the Dark Continent were revealed to the geo- 
erapher and the naturalist, and even the geology of those 
regions has received some share of attention, rather by way 
of | comparison with the already known features of more acces- 
sible districts, such as the Cape, than for any detailed and 
systematic description of the rocks which constitute their 
surface. Although missionaries of German origin contributed 
materially to our early knowledge of East Central Africa, still 
the larger share of exploration has fallen to the lot of our own 
fellow-countrymen.* 

When the geographical features became better known, it 
was ascertained that this once mysterious region contained 
numerous lakes of immense size, some of them situated in deep 
chasms of the earth’s crust. And, more unexpected still, it 
was found that there were voleanoes both extinct and active, 
constituting lofty mountains ; and furthermore that on some of 
these mountains glaciation had been developed on a consider- 
able scale, and that glaciers even now exist on the higher 
peaks, actually under the equator. 

What wonder, then, that Equatorial Africa, and particularly 
the eastern portion of it, should present problems, both in 
geology and zoology, which are difficult of solution? As for 
ourselves we rust admit at the outset that we are entirely 
dependent on the descriptive portion of those numerous and 
excellent works, which tell us of this country; and if we 
venture in any case to hesitate at accepting all the inferences 


* One of the greatest of whom, Sir H. M. Stanley, has just passed 
away ; to the general regret of all from the King downwards. Sir 
Henry Stanley was a Hon. Corresponding Member of the Institute.— 
KE. H. (Ep.) 


OF THE HALOLIMNIC FAUNA OF LAKE TANGANYIKA. 339 


which their authors have drawn, it must be with bated breath 
and with the full consciousness ever present in our minds that 
they have been there and that we have not. In the light of 
so much that las recently been revealed, it is only natural that 
many controversies should arise and some of these perhaps 
may be ultimately settled by more extended investigations 
leading to further knowledge of the subject. As a case in 
point, I may mention the remarkable circumstance which has 
ereatly exercised the minds of certain zoologists, viz. :—that 
there are some species of fishes in the waters of the Upper 
Nile which also occur in the hydrographic basin of the Jordan 
-in Palestine, and yet are not found in the waters of the Lower 
Nile in Egypt. When zoologists are desirous of accounting for 
anything which seems abnormal or difficult of explanation, 
they are quite prepared to make the earth’s surface undergo 
considerable modifications in order to suit their special line of 
argument, and indeed they can generally find a sufficient 
number of geologists to back them in such a course. This 
subject may crop up again when we proceed to consider the 
geological structure of eastern Equatorial Africa, and, there- 
fore, it will be sufficient at the present moment merely to refer 
to the hypothesis, which connects the drainage of the Jordan 
system, through the Gulf of Akabah and the valley of the Red 
Sea, then supposed to be a fresh-water river, with a portion of 
the “Rift Valley” system, and ultimately with the drainage 
of the Upper Nile. Far be it from me to say that such an 
explanation is incorrect, but it certainly ignores all existing 
hydrographic arrangements most completely.* 

The case I have just quoted is perhaps more difficult of 
solution than the problem which we are now called upon more 
especially to consider, viz. :—the origin of the halohmnic fauna 
of Lake Tanganyika, or in other words what Mr. Moore very 
aptly calls the “Tanganyika Problem.” In attempting to 
grapple with this very curious and interesting question, be- 
sides the zoological evidence, it will be necessary to consider 
the geological structure of Equatorial Africa as far as the scanty 
details of our present knowledge permit; and if we venture in 
this connection to attempt to trace any portion of its physical 
history in times past, such reconstruction should harmonize as 
much as possible with known facts and existing features. 


* On this subject the reader is referred to a paper “On the physical 
conditions of the Mediterranean Basin, which have given rise to a 
community of some species of fresh-water species in the Nile and in the 
Jordan Basins.” Trans. Vict. Inst., vol. xxxi, p. 3 (with map).—E. H. (Ep.) 

A 2 


340 Ww. H. HUDLESTON, ESQ., M.A., F.R.S., ON THE ORIGIN 


History of the subject and statement of Mr. Moore's views.-—The 
history of the recognition of the halolimnie fauna is important 
as tending to show what were men’s views from time to time 
as each step in the progress of discovery was made. It will be 
remembered that Lake Tunganyika was discovered by Burton 
in 1857, and that his companion, Speke, picked up a few dead 
shells from the shores and brought them to England. The 
well-known conchologist, Dr. Sam. P. Woodward "(Proe. Zool. 
Soc., 1859, p. 348, Pl. XLVI) was struck with the peculiar forms 
of some of the gasteropods, which he considered had a certain 
marine look about them. Subsequently when further supplies 
were procured, Mr. Edgar Smith (Proc. Zool. Soc., 1881, p. 276), 
in a paper on a collection of shells from Lakes Taneanyika and 
Nyassa, expressed an opinion that they might turn out to be the 
relics of a former sea. The subsequent discovery of medusee in 
Lake Tanganyika seemed to confirm these views as far as that 
lake was concerned. Hence before Mr. Moore appeared upon the 
scene most of those who had paid attention to the subject had 
expressed themselves as favouring the view of the marine origin 
of this peculiar fauna. 

Mr. Moore, as a result of his first journey in 1896, found 
“that in Nyassa and Shirwa there were no jelly-fishes, nor 
anything except purely fresh-water forms; while in Tangan- 
yika there were not only jelly-fishes, but a whole series of 
molluses, crabs, prawns, sponges, and smaller things, none of 
which appeared 3 in any of the lakes he then knew, and all of 
which were distinctly marine in type.* Further than this, 
however, he found that none of these strange marine looking 
animals were to be compared directly with any living marine 
forms, yet, in their structure, some of them certainly seemed 
to antecede a number of marine types in the evolutionary 
series, and, in consequence, they appeared to hail from the 
marine fauna of a departed age. The most definite result of 
the first Tanganyika expedition, therefore, appeared to be that 
the sea had at some former time been connected with the lake, 
but when or how remained a mystery.” 

The above are Mr. Moore’s own words in explanation of his 
views after the termination of his first expedition. It should 
be borne in mind that at this period, viz., in 1898, when his 
inferences were laid before the Royal Society (Proc. Roy. Soc., 
vol. 62), there was an idea then partially and perhaps generally 
prevailing, that owing to the peculiar structure of the Rift- 


* J. E.S. Moore, The Tanganyika Problem (1903), p. 3. 


OF THE HALOLIMNIC FAUNA OF LAKE TANGANYIKA. 341 


Vailey system and its obvious physical connection with the 
ereat Red Sea depression, that the “halolimnic” fauna might _ 
have entered Lake Tanganyika trom that quarter, and would 
consequently be found in some of the hift-Valley lakes to the 
northwards, and especially in Lake Kivu, with which at the 
present day Tanganyika is hydrographically connected through 
the River Rusizi. It was therefore indeed a surprise when 
Mr. Moore had to announee as the result of his second expe- 
dition, commenced in the spring ot 1899, that no trace of the 
“halolimnic” fauna had been discovered in any of the lakes, 
such as Kivu, the Albert Edward, or the Albert Nyanza, 
which lie to the northward of Tanganyika in the western arm 
of the Rift-Valley system. Nay, more, it would seem that no 
such thine as the halolimnic fauna was to be found in the 
ereat upland basin of the Victoria Nyanza, nor in the chain 
of lakes associated with Lake Rudolf (Basso Narok), which lie 
towards the northern termination of the eastern arm of the 
Rift- Valley system.* 

To quote Mr. Moore’s own conclusions on this point: “It 
has been shown that throughout Equatorial Africa, as mn other 
ereat continents, there is a normal fresh-water fauna which has 
nothing peculiar about it . . . Subsequently, the fauna of L. 


* There appears to be no longer any doubt as to the presence in Lake 
Victoria Nyanza ot medusz indistinguishable from those of Lake 
Tanganyika, and the fact cannot be without its effect upon the 
acceptance of the view put forward. by Mr. J. E. 8S. Moore that the fauna 
of Lake Tanganyika differs from that of the other East African lakes in 
alone possessing evidences of a marine origin. On December 1, 19(3, 
Prof. Ray Lankester exhibited at the Zoological Society some medusze 
from Victoria Nyanza obtained by Mr. Hobley on August 31, 1903, and 
sent to London by Sir Charles Eliot. A doubt being raised by some 
supporters of Mr. Moore’s theory as to these medusz having really come 
from Lake Victoria and not from Lake Tanganyika, Sir Charles Kliot, in 
a letter dated Mombasa, December 20, 1903, wrote to Prof. Lankester 
saying that the medusz were collected by Mr. Hobley himself, in the 
Kavirondo Gulf, by the side of which the raiiway terminus is situated, 
and that the water was full of them. Mr. Hobley, at the request of 
Sir Charles Hliot, had endeavoured to study the life-history of the 
medusx, but he failed to keep them alive for more than a few days. The 
specimens sent to London were said by Mr. R. T. Giinther to be 
indistinguishable from the Limnocnida tanganyicae of Lake Tanganyika. 
It is interesting in this connection to note that the Victoria medusz were 
discovered quite independently in the same locality (Kavirondo, in the 
Kisuma district), and apparently at about the same time of year. 
According to Globus (January 28, p. 84), M. Ch. Alluaud, on the day of 
his arrival at Lake Victoria, discovered a marine medusa similar to that 
of Lake Tanganyika, and communicated an account of his discovery to 
the Paris Geographical Society on September 19, 1903.—WVature. 


342 Ww. H. HUDLESTON, ESQ., M.A., F.R.S.. ON THE ORIGIN 


Tanganvika has been examined in detail, and it has been shown 
that this lake, like all other great lakes of Central Africa, 
contains the ordinary fresh-water fauna of the continent ; but 
that im Tanganyika, and in Tanganyika alone, there are a number 
of organisms possessing definitely marine and somewhat archaic 
characters. Along with these, the halolimnic members of the 
Tanganyika fauna, there are others, such as the prawns, sponges 
and protozoa which 1, although not like the previous types, 
unique in being found in Tanganyika for the first time as fresh- 
water forms, are notwithstanding probably portions of the same 
group, for they are peculiar to Tanganyika, and are not 
characteristic of the general fresh-water fauna of the African 
continent.” He further suggests that the African ganoids and 
certain other members of the African fish fauna may be portions 
of the “halolimnic” fauna. Lastly, he points to the significance 
of the similarity which subsists between the shells of the 
halolimnic easteropods and “ the remains of those found in the 
deposits of the old Jurassic seas.’ 

Thus far Mr. Moore. When we ourselves attempt to face the 
Tanganyika Problem, it is obvious that it will have to be 
considered both from a zoological and a geological point of view, 
and the question is which shall we consider first, the zoology or 
the geology? We are dealing with an exceptional fauna, 
occurring ‘under peculiar conditions and in what was, until quite 
recently, a most out-of-the-way place. Perhaps the first 
question we should ask ourselves is this: Do we consider that 
there is sufficient evidence of the marine origin of the halolimnic 
fauna? This fauna is placed by Mr. Moore himself under two 
different categories. (1) The halolimnic gasteropods, which are 
thought to be homeomorphie with certain shells from beds of 
the Inferior Oolite formation in Western Europe, and are thus 
inferentially regarded as descendants of those forms. (2) 
fauna, not so thoroughly exceptional as the halolimnic 
gasteropods, made up of prawns, sponges, protozoa, etc., which 
are archaic in type and may be portions of the same group of 
marine derivatives. The presence ot Medusa also is held greatly 
to strengthen this view. As regards the portion of the argument 
relating | to the fishes it has been stated by a competent authority 
that the fishes described by Mr. Boulenger in Mr. Moore’s 
beautiful book are all essentially present day types, and do 
not im any way represent survivors from the seas of the 
Mesozoic period.* 


* Geological Magazine, September, 1903, p. 418. 


OF THE HALOLIMNIC FAUNA OF LAKE TANGANYIKA. 343 


The argument iimited to the halolimnie gasteropods.— Although, 
therefore, the subsidiary fauna of exceptional character may 
help. to strengthen the argument in favour of the marine origin 
of the entire halolimnic group, yet the most important link in 
this chain of evidence is to be sought in the halolimnic gasteropods, 
which are considered so greatly to resemble Inferior Oolite 
forms, and which on the strength of this resemblance are held 
to be derived from a well known gasteropod fauna of Jurassic 
age. The malacological evidence, as regards the Tanganyika 
species, has been well worked out by Mr. Moore, and the 
conclusions as to the pecuhar mixed and to a certain extent 
archaic structure of their anatomy must undoubtedly have 
great weight. But at this point the argument fails us, for when 
we are disposed to institute a comparison between living and 
fossil species we must in the main fall back on conchology alone. 
One point of importance must be noted here, viz., that, since 
the connection between the halolimnic fauna of Tanganyika and 
the old Jurassic marine fauna is confined to univalves, one 
might almost have expected that some lamellibranchs, and 
particularly Zrigona, if only in a modified form, might have 
accompanied their molluscan relatives. For it can hardly be 
contended that Zrigonza would sutfer more from translation to 
fresh-water conditions than the numerous species of gasteropods 
which are correlated with Jurassic forms. Moreover, if conchology 
is to be our guide in this matter, it is to be regretted that the 
author of the “Tanganyika Problem” should have endeavoured 
to minimize the value of a branch of science on which his 
conclusions with reference to the Jurassic origin of these 
Tanganyika shells must in the main be based.* 

The above considerations apart, it must be admitted that 
there are some genera of Tanganyika gasteropods which have 
a striking external resemblance of form and ornamentation to 
certain well-known genera which more especially characterize 
the Inferior Oolite of the Anglo-Norman basin; and if such 
resemblance is not fortuitous there seems a fair reason for 
regarding them as the possible descendants of such genera or 
their allies. Consequently, some portions of Mr. Moore’s 
latest work are devoted to a detailed comparison between the 
Tanganyika shells and their presumed Jurassic analogues. The 
text is accompanied by excellent illustrations, the shell and 
the fossil being drawn side by side. As a detailed criticism 
of these comparisons might be somewhat tedious to the members 


* Geographical Journal for 1903, p. 682 et seg. 


344 Ww. H. HUDLESTON, ESQ., M.A., F.R.S., ON THE -ORIGIN 


of this Society, it will be sufficient to relegate this portion of my 
paper to an appendix, and briefly to state the impressions which 
a careful examination of both sets of shells, the fossil and the 
modern, have left upon my mind.* 

As a result of this detailed examination I find on con- 
chological grounds, that the evidence of an ancestral connection 
between certain fossils of the Inferior Oolite of the Anglo- 
Norman basin and the following halolimnic genera, viz., 
Typhobia, Bathanalia, Limnotrochus, Chytra, Paramelania, 
Bythoceras, Tanganyicia, Spekia, and Nassopsis, is not nearly 
so strong as I had anticipated from the inferences already 
drawn and from what I had read in several publications. There 
are two Jurassic genera, chiefly developed in the Lower 
Oolites, viz., Amberleya and Purpurina, which have their 
conchological analogues in Lake Tanganyika, and in some cases 
the resemblance is very striking. But this is scarcely sufficient 
to justify the assumption that the oceanic character of these 
Tanganyika molluscs will more or less necessitate that the 
Tanganyika region of to-day must have approximated in 
character to an arm of the deep and open sea in ancient times, 
and the inference is in Jurassic times. Indeed some people, 
I believe, have gone so far as to describe Tanganyika as an arm 
of the Jurassic sea. On biological grounds alone this is not at 
all probable; because under any circumstances this would 
have been a different zoological province from that occupied 
by the Anglo-Norman basin in Jurassic times. 

It is further pointed out in the appendix, that, besides the 
resemblance between Jurassic and Tanganyikan gasteropods 
noted by Mr. Moore, there are other cases of what I have 
regarded as mere mock resemblances ; but in order to appreciate 
such cases it will be necessary to study the appendix closely, 
which the majority of the members probably will not be 
inclined to do. 

On the whole, taking the evidence of the Medusa, and the 
other semi-marine forms, as well as that of the halolimnic 
gasteropods themselves, a fairly good primd facie case for the 
originally marine origin of these exceptional organisms has 
been made out, nor do these curious gasteropods appear to be in 
any degree of close relationship with their ordinary fresh-water 
companions, although most of them undoubtedly bear traces of a 
long probationary experience of life in fresh-water. . This may 


* Appendix to Part I. 
+ Proceedings Royal Society, 1898, p. 455. 


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OF THE HALOLIMNIC FAUNA OF LAKE TANGANYIKA. 34 


be seen in the texture of the shells, the colouring, the condition 
of the epidermis, etc., which may be noted in some of, but not 
in all, the genera. 

The strongest argument of all in favour of an exceptional 
original is the fact that, so far as is known at present, the 
halolimnic gasteropods are confined entirely to Lake Tanganyika, 
and this circumstance will incline us to look to the Congo basin, 
as being the place where the mystery may some day be solved.* 

Before attempting to grapple with this part of the subject 
which will involve the study of the geological structure of large 
portions of Equatorial Africa, there are two independent con- 
siderations on which I might say a word. 

Distribution of Jurassic faunas in intermediate areas.—The 
first of these considerations relates to the distribution of known 
Jurassic faunas in areas intermediate between the Anglo- 
Norman basin and Lake Tanganyika, so far as such an 
investigation can be made, and thus endeavour to ascertain 
if this will throw any light upon the possible Jurassic origin 
of the halolimniec gasteropods themselves. From the quarries 
of Dorset to the depths of Tanganyika is a far cry and there 
should be some half-way houses, some stepping stones, as it 
were, to bridge over the vast distance that les between them. 
Mere zoological conjecture, as I lave already pointed out, is 
not sufficient. We must have some paleontological evidence in 
corroboration of the intimate relationship claimed to exist 
between the two gasteropod faunas, 7.¢., between the real fossils 
and those molluses which are csnly archaic in their internal 
development. In the first place, then, I may say that in this 
country the peculiar gasteropod fauna which characterises the 
Inferior Oolite of the Anglo-Norman basin can hardly be 
traced above the Lower Oolites, though a stray form may linger 
in the Callovian or even the Corallian of Yorkshire. In 
middle France a repetition of this peculiar fauna is seen in the 
Callovian of Montreuil-Bellay. When we trace the Jurassic 
faunas into the south-west of France, although there is much 
in common with parts of the Inferior Oolite of our own 
country, yet the analogy, as far as gasteropods are concerned, 
is mainly confined to such genera as Nerinca. 


* The fact that a species of jelly-fish identical with the one in 
Tanganyika has recently been discovered in the Victoria Nyanza, but 
slightly affects the argument as regards the halolimnic gasteropods. We 
can scarcely doubt that the more mobile organisms have had opportuni- 
ties of establishing themselves from the great centres of distribution in 
a way which is denied to the more sedentary molluscs. 


346 W..H. HUDLESTON, ESQ., M.A., F.R.S., ON THE ORIGIN 


Out of about thirty genera of gasteropods quoted in Dr. 
Glangeaud’s list from the Lower Oolites of the south-west of 
France the genus Purpurina does not appear at all, whilst the 
genus Amberleya is restricted to a single unnamed species. On 
the other hand the genus Purpur oidea is recognised.* Going 
further south again, we look to Choffat for information as to 
the Jurassic faunas of the Iberian peninsula. Hitherto, I have 
been unable to come across any systematic list of the gasteropod 
fauna of the Jurassic beds, though I note in the Fauwne 
Cretacique du Portugal,t a species of Purpuroidea described by 
that author. There are, however, throughout Choffat’s numerous 
publications many lists of Jurassic fossils, yet I can find nothing 
which might lead one to suppose that. the peculiar Anglo- 
Norman facies of Inferior Oolite gasteropods can be traced in 
the peninsula. 

There is one very rich gasteropod fauna of Lias-Oolite age in 
sicily which inspired the famous monograph of Gemmellaro : 

“Sui fossili del calcare cristallino della Montagna del Casale e 
di Bellampo, nella provincia di Palermo.” “The gasteropod 
facies of these beds possesses some forms which appear 
specifically identical with those of tie Anglo-Norman Inferior 
Oolite. However, there is no Purpurina and ouly one species 
of Amberleya. 

On a higher Jurassic horizon in the same island, we recognise 
an Amberleya-like form in Hucyclus alpinus. On the whole, 
however, there is nothing in this assemblage which would help 
us to connect this gasteropod fauna specially with the halo- 
limnic gasteropods of Tanganyika. 

The above enumerations may be regarded in the light of a. 
search after the stepping stones between the Anglo- “Norman 
basin and Lake Tanganyika; and if there has ever existed, 
either in Jurassic, Cretaceous, or Tertiary times, any such 
connection, direct or second hand, between the region in which 
Lake Tanganyika is situated and the sea, as is claimed by 
Mr. Moore, such connection has most probably been from the 
northwards and ultimately by way of the Congo basin. At any 
rate the physical configuration of Africa seems to point in this 
direction ; and since this is the case, any discovery of Jurassic 
faunas, such as those of Madagascar, though very interesting in 
themselves, and in reality much nearer Tanganyika, is of less 


* Bulletin des services de la Carte Géologique de France (No. 50) 
vol. viii. (1896-7) p. 118. 
t Vol. i (1886), p. 6, Plate I, fig. 1. 


OF THE HALOLIMNIC FAUNA OF LAKE TANGANYIKA. 347 


importance in considering the origin of the halolimnic fauna, 
being outside any possible connection with the Congo basin. . 

Africun Juwrassics (Madagascar and Abyssinia).—Briefly 
referring to a valuable paper by Messrs. Baron and Newton on 
fossils from Madagascar,* we may note that the Jurassic fossils 
of that region are fairly numerous, the following horizons 
having been determined by means of the ammonites: viz., 
Oxfordian, Callovian, Bathonian, Bajocian and Lias. Amongst 
the Gasteropoda were two species of Cerithium from the 
Oxfordian. The remainder of the gasteropods were mostly 
from the equivalents of the Great Oolite (Bathonian), and 
included Nerita Buvigniert, M. and L. together with species of 
Nermea and Natica described by Morris and Lycett; also 
Solarium and Trochus, and likewise a new species of Opistho- 
branch of large size referred by Mr. Newton to T’rochactwomna. 
Along with this limited assemblage of gasteropods occur a very 
considerable number of lamellibranchs. A peep at Jurassic 
times almost under the equator is interesting in this connection, 
but there is nothing in the Madagascar fauna which particularly 
reminds us of the halolimnic gasteropods of Tanganyika. 

The very important development of Jurassic limestones in 
Abyssinia described by Dr. Blanford, is extremely interesting 
from the fact that undoubted marine beds of Jurassic age 
have been raised, in a district situated about 10° N. of the 
equator, to plateau elevations of 8,000 feet. Nevertheless, owing 
to their apparent poverty in gasteropods, these beds throw no 
light upon the question with which we are at present 
concerned.t 

Character of Fresh-water Faunas.—The second independent 
consideration of which I propose to treat relates to the character 
of fresh-water faunas, and more especially of the mollusca, and 
this, though a large subject, must be treated briefly. Without 
going back into the very remote past, we possess a considerable 
number of fresh-water forms, interlarded as it were with those 
of marine origin, in the Coal-measures. This subject has 
received much attention from Dr. Wheelton Hind, and it is 
interesting to note that most of these forms are lamellibranchs, 
hence they are, to a certain extent, outside the subject more 
especially under consideration. Gasteropoda in the really 
fresh-water beds of the Coal-measures are rare. 

The earliest appearance of Paludina (Vivipara) in this 


* Quarterly Journal, Geological Society, vol. 51, pp. 57-92. 
t+ Blanford, Geology and Zoology of Abyssinia, 1870. 


348 WwW. H. HUDLESTON, ESQ., M.A., F.R.S., ON THE ORIGIN 


country occurs towards the top of the Inferior Oolite, where 
it is extremely local; and as a proof of the conservative 
character of some fresh-water organisms, always supposing 
them to have lived in fresh-water, this form is almost identical 
with the Paludina vivipara of the present day. I mention 
this genus as being very characteristic of fresh-water; and on 
the higher horizen of the Purbeck beds the genus is represented 
by two other species in great abundance, together with many 
other fresh-water genera. Nevertheless in the Purbecks, as 
in the Coal-measures, there are estuarine intercalations when 
a different set of fossils are found, and in the ease of Paludina 
langtonensis from the Lower Oolites of Oxfordshire marine 
gasteropods occur in the same bed. The above statements supply 
a tew facts as to the appearance in time of certain fresh-water 
organisms ; but the question of their origin seems scarcely to 
have got beyond the range of conjecture. However, it is in 
the Coal-measures and in some members of the Jurassic 
system that the question of the origin of fresh-water molluscs. 
can best be studied at present. The remarkable uniformity 
in general character of these organisms over very wide spaces 
is itself a problem as yet by no means solved. 

Before proceeding to study the geology of Equatorial Africa 
as in any way affording a possible clue to the origin of the 
halolimnic fauna and especially the gasteropods, which present 
such a contrast to the average fresh-water molluscs of 
Tanganyika or of any other African lake, we might consider 
a possible explanation, which has already been put forward, 
viz., that some of the halolimnie genera, such as Paramelania, 
for instance, might be related to such a stock as Pyrgulifera,* 
a fossil from fresh-water beds of the Upper Chalk in southern 
Europe. As far as external appearances go, the halolimnic 
Paramelania resembles the Cretaceous fresh-water Pyrgulifera 
quite as much as it does the Jurassic Purpurina, and since 
Pyrgulifera was nearer in time and moreover a fresh-water shell, 
it might with more probability be regarded as an ancestral 
form. Too much stress should not be placed on the resem- 
blance of a single genus, but it is a fact of some importance 
that a fresh-water genus of the Cretaceous period is concholo- 
gically as like the old Purpurina as any of the Tanganyika 
shells. 

On the possible transference from marine to fresh-water con- 


* Figured on p. 343 of the Zanganyika Problem, and yveferred to on 
p- 335. 


OF THE HALOLIMNIC FAUNA OF LAKE TANGANYIKA. 349 


ditions.—If we accept, merely for the sake of the areument, the 
marine origin of the Tanganyika halolimnic gasteropods, and 
still further if we suppose that they are derived from certain 
indicated Jurassic forms, 1t becomes a question when and where 
the transference from marine to fresh-water conditions was 
effected ; in other words, when and where did their ancestors 
cease to be marine molluscs and become fresh-water ones. I 
have already said that it is to the immense Congo basin that 
we must look for any indications on the subject ; but before 
making any attempt in this direction it may be as well to point 
out the difficulty in supposing that this transference was 
effected anywhere in the Tanganyika region itself. If such a 
transference ever took place we should seek for it rather in 
some region where Jurassic beds are known to occur, or at 
least in their neighbourhood, unless we leave everything to mere 
conjecture. Again the question when, ae. to say, at what 
geological period, did the transference take place is equally 
important. The original Jurassic stock of our hypothesis must 
have existed as Cretaceous molluses during the Cretaceous 
period and as Tertiary molluscs during the Tertiary period. It 
may be argued that these considerations are in favour of an 
early separation from a marine area, since fresh-water conditions 
are held to be conservative of form, and consequently the more 
remote in time the transference took place the less likelihood of 
change in the morphology of the shells. 

Undoubtedly, in the long run, these questions of when and 
where, which I have put before the members of the Institute, 
must be determined by geological and above all by paleontolo- 
gical considerations. The nearest known Jurassic fauna of any 
importance which has hitherto been described is that of north- 
west Madagascar distant in an air-line from the south end of 
Lake Tanganyika about 1,400 miles, and almost on the same 
parallel of south latitude. The improbability that the halo- 
limnic stock was derived from this source has already been 
indicated, owing to the physical structure of East Equatorial 
Africa, which we shall presently proceed to study. It is on 
the whole a fortunate circumstance for the hypothesis of a 
Jurassic origin for the Tanganyika stock that this is the case, 
for in these Jurassic deposits, which would have the advantage 
of being under the same conditions with respect to latitude and 
presumably in the same zoological province as the area of 
Tanganyika in Jurassic times, there is not a single genus of 
gasteropods which has any especial resemblance to the halolinnic 
gasteropods of Tanganyika. See ante, p. 347. 


350 Ww. H. HUDLESTON, ESQ., M.A., F.R.S., ON THE ORIGIN 


Jurassic fossils of the Mediterranean basin —Hence, if we still 
cling to the notion of a Jurassic origin, we must go further 
afield and direct our attention to other Jurassic deposits and 
especially to those of the Mediterranean basin, as being more 
likely to give us some inkling of a possible derivation in this 
direction. I have already referred to the very rich deposits of 
the Lias-Oolite in Sicily, but we may come to Africa itself, 
where, in the extreme north, marine Jurassic and Cretaceous 
beds have been fairly well exploited, both in Algeria and 
Tunisia. Now, as a proot of the apparent poverty of 
the Jurassic beds in Gasteropoda, I would observe that 
Coquand* was only able to enumerate one species, although 
the Cretaceous and Tertiary beds of this region account 
for over fifty species of. Gasteropoda. It may be noted 
that Voluta, Strombus, Fusus and Buceinwm, are quoted 
from beds of Cretaceous age in Algeria, but this Gasteropod 
fauna in its entirety has nothing in common with the 
Tanganyika halolimnics beyond a doubtful shell referred to 
Trochus. In Tunisiat the most ancient formations are those of 
Jurassic age, forming some of the mountain cores such as 
Zaghouan. In that country the ammonite fauna is charac- 
teristic of certain stages of the Jurassic system, but no 
gasteropods are mentioned. Still following the Mediterranean 
coast, when we come to Egypt the Jurassics fail us entirely, 
and beds of Cretaceous age rest directly on the Archean.t 

It is not necessary to pursue this line of investigation further 
beyond observing that if there are any stepping stones between 
the Anglo-Norman basin and Central Africa qud Gasteropods, 
they remain to be discovered. 1 will now direct attention to 
another aspect of the Tanganyika problem, viz., the Geology of 
Equatorial Africa, more especially in connection with the 
physical history of the Congo basin. 


* Géologie et Paléontologie de la region sud de la Province de Con- 
stantine, Marseilles, 1862. 

+ Expl. de Carte Geol. Provisoire, par Aubert, circa 1890. 

+ By this name I propose, without prejudice, to indicate the 
Crystalline complex which is the foundation-stone of the African 
continent. 


OF THE HALOLIMNIC FAUNA OF LAKE TANGANYIKA. 351] 


IeAime IIL 


OUTLINES OF AFRICAN GEOLOGY WITH ESPECIAL REFERENCE 
TO THE CENTRAL REGIONS IN WHICH LAKE TANGANYIKA 
IS SITUATED. 


It need hardly be observed that Africa is an extensive 
though well-defined continent, and from its size it might be 
expected to exhibit considerable variety of rock formation. 
Wee was ag by no means the case, since the proportion of 
erystalline rocks and barren sandstones is so great that its 
life history has been, for the most part, but obscurely written. 
If the medals of creation were ever struck here in any con- 
siderable quantity they have since been in a great measure 
destroyed. The absence of fossil evidence is especially 
noteworthy in the equatorial regions, which form the special 
ground of our inquiry. 

Roughly speaking for gevlogical purposes the whole of 
Africa might be divided into three divisions of very unequal 
size. 

(1) The Northern Division —This may be considered as part. 
of the Mediterranean basin, and indeed, almost as European 
for geological and orogenic purposes, always regardine the 
Atlas range and its dependencies as being under the same 
tectonic system as the Alps. Although they precise boundaries 
of this division can scarcely be defined, it is a limited area and 
by no means deficient in marine fossiliferous rocks. In Part Il, 
under the heading of Algeria and Tunisia, some of the 
paleontological features of this division have already been 
indicated. Marine beds of Mesozoic and Tertiary age constitute 
the bulk of these rocks. Morocco may be included in this 
category. 

(2) The Region of the Great Deserts constitutes the principal 
part of the second division. Prof. Cornet* tells us that this 
is characterized by the horizontality of the paleozoic beds, as 
though the area had not been one of disturbance for a long 
period. He also says that there is a great hiatus in the 
formations of this region, extending in time from the Car- 
boniferous to the Cretaceous. 


* “Formations postprimaires du bassin du Congo,” Ann. Soc. Geéol. 
Belge, vol. 21 (1893-4). 


352 W. H. HUDLESTON, HSQ., M.A., F.S.A.. ON THE ORIGIN 


Egypt might be included in this district, where, as in the 
ease of the Nubian sandstone, beds of Cretaceous age rest on 
the Archean. Altogether the Cretaceous and Tertiary beds of 
this region are analogous to those of Syria and of countries still 
further to the eastward. The southern extension of the great 
Cretaceous overlap in this area is not exactly known; but 
De Lapparent* has recently announced the discovery of Eocene 
fossils on the frontier of Sokoto due west of Lake Tchad. He 
also announces the discovery of an upper Cretaceous echinoid, 
believed to be from Belina, which is 300 miles north of the 
same lake. 

The full significance of these discoveries can only be realised 
by the aid of a map; but among the results thus obtained we 
find that marine deposits of Mesozoic and Tertiary age, as proved 
by their fossils, are now known to exist within 14° north of 
the Equator. Indeed there is no reason why a considerable 
portion of the basin of Lake Tchad should not be underlain by 
Cretaceo-Eocene formations, which in all probability extend 
from the Atlantic coast of Senegal to the crystalline rocks of 
the Ethiopian Highlands. The effect of this would be that a 
much larger portion of Northern Africa than hitherto supposed 
must be included in our second division, though the lmits 
between this and the third, or peninsular division, cannot yet 
be defined. There is, however, one marked difference between 
our second and third divisions, which cannot be too soon 
realised, viz., that in the second division fossiliferous marine 
beds of Mesozoic and Tertiary age penetrate into the heart of 
the continent, whereas in the third division such beds occupy 
but a narrow fringe between the sea and the peninsular massif. 
Thus, the physical history of the two regions is entirely 
different: 

(3) Peninsular Africa—Constitutes the third division, and 
this may be divided as follows :— 

Section a. The Cape Beds, which have now been studied for 
a long time, and which it is necessary in some measure to refer 
to, if we would endeavour to understand the geology of 
Equatorial Africa. There is a useful summary of these beds 
in a recent issue of the Geological Magazine,t which I condense 
as follows :— 


* Bull. Soc. Géol. France (4) III, No. 3, p. 299 (1903). 
+ December, 1903, p. 569. See also Seward, op. cit. November, 1903, 
who deduces the age from plant evidence. 


OF THE HALOLIMNIC FAUNA OF LAKE TANGANYIKA. 353 


Beds. Age. 
Superficial Deposits __.... Recent, etc. 
(Canal Pondoland Series sti Cretaceous. 
Uitenhage Series cook Wealden. 
Stormberg Series ies Rhetie. 
Beaufort Series seat Triassic. 
Karoo Teen, Sorch 
i afer } Permo-Carboniferous. 
Dwyka Series 
Cape System sees ? Old Paleeozoic. 
Pre-Cape Rocks es Archzean. 


The beds above referred to the Cretaceous and Wealden are 
simply strips along the coast, and it may be said generally of the 
principal system, viz., the Karoo, that its fauna and flora are 
entirely fresh-water or terrestrial. The older beds on which 
the great Karoo system unconformably rests contain no marine 
fossils. It is probable that the beds marked as Rhetic were 
formerly regarded as Triassic. 

Section b.— We now come to consider the geological structure of 
Hquatorial Africa adjoining the Cape Beds, which he to the 
south. With ceriain exceptions presently to be described, the 
beds of this region coincide geographically with the Congo 
basin. Cornet says of this region that it is constituted by 
depressed massifs, formed of Archzean and Paleozoic beds inuch 
folded ; these are covered by beds almost horizontal extending 
over immense distances, consisting of conglomerates, sandstones 
and clay schists, all utterly unfossiliferous. This is the 
unpromising region which we have to study with some degree of 
detail, but before doing so it will be necessary to glance at the 
history and structure of the peculiar mountain chain, which 
though it hangs to the eastern side of the continent, is called 
by Mr. Moore the great Central Range. 

The mountain-chain or plateau-range of Hast Africa—In 
the above geological disquisition we must not lose sight of our 
main object, which is to account, if we can, for the presence of 
the peculiar halolimnic fauna of Lake Tanganyika. Now this 
lake, which has a lengtli from north to south of 400 miles, lies 
at the junction of the Great Central Range with the enormous 
Congo basin. We shall consider the structure of the Congo 
basin in some detail presently, but a few words as to the 
peculiar mountain system with which the lake is connected 
ought to be useful. If we want to account for anything, we 
must understand the position on all sides. 

This mountain chain is largely volcanic in its composition, 
and it will be sufficient for our purpose if we take our start from 
the great voleanic mountain mass of Abyssinia, whose geological 

B 


354 Ww. H. HUDLESTON, ESQ., M.A., F.R.S.. ON THE ORIGIN 


features, to a certain extent, resemble those of the peculiar 
mountain plateau-region which is characteristic of Equatorial 
East Africa. Isolated volcanoes, now extinct, such as Elgon, 
Kenya and Kilima- Njaro rise to heights, in the two latter cases, 
of over 18,000 feet, but the most characteristic feature is the 
double chain of depressions which contain the numerous 
longitudinal lakes of Equatorial Africa. This system, which 
may be said to commence with Lake Rudolf, just south of 
Abyssinia, bifurcates, the eastern and smaller arm conte 
such lakes as Baringo (5,200 feet), and Navaisha (6,200 feet), 
whilst the western, or more important arm, imcludes the 
uppermost Nile- -valley and such lakes as the Albert Nyanza 
(2,300 feet), the Albert Edward (3,240 feet), and Kivu (4,900 
feet). This latter lake, as Mr. Moore has shown, formerly 
belonged to the Nile-valley system, but owing to voicanic 
extravasations the drainage has been reversed and its waters 
now find their way into Lake Tanganyika (2,700 feet). The 
two arms of this double series of longitudinal depressions are 
regarded as to a certain extent coalescing in the great lake of 
Nyassa (1,500 feet), where the system of these peculiar 
longitudinal depressions may be said to terminate. The 
mountain system of Kast Africa, in another form, is renewed 
in the Drakensberg, where the surveyors have lately found 
numerous indications of voleanic action. A sketch- -map of the 
East African Lake-Chain (after Suess), modified from Gregory’s 
The Great Rift Valley, is appended. (Fig. 1.) 

Between the two arms of the system of longitudinal 
depressions (“ Graben ” of Suess) is situated, the wide basin of the 
pee Nyanza (3,900 feet) which has an area in miles of 

270 x 225—a veritable inland sea. This constitutes a sort of 
Bioad and shallow depression in complete contrast to the 
Graben with their vertical walls and succession of trough 
faults. 

Our brief sketch of the Great Central East African Range 
would not be complete without allusion to two very remarkable 
features in connection therewith, which characterize the 
uppermost Nile-valley system in the neighbourhood of the Lake 
Albert Edward. The first of these is the still active voleanic 
range of Mount M’fumbiro which crosses the great western arm 
of the Graben system at aright angle, and rises to a height of 
14,000 feet in Karisimbi (extinct), whilst the rim of the 
crater of the still active Kirungo-cha-Gongo Mr. Moore found 
to be 11,350 feet. As he observes, this mass acts hke a dam to 
the original drainage of the Graben. The chief points to note 


OF THE HALOLIMNIC FAUNA OF LAKE TANGANYIKA. 355 


ye gs 
wf 7 = 
Sf 5 SWW-0 
w¥ 8 2 
peo 4) s 
= 51 
8¢E ) 
S gv 


ro) 
©) 
&, 


glen op 


24 
S » VW Ns 
ee eas. 
ae 
l2 8 
y 

Lar G62 u y 

ie 8 y) 


FIG. 1.—PLAN OF THE GRABEN SYSTEM AND ITS RELATION TO THE 
: CONGO BASIN. 


Eastern Arm. Western Arm. 
1. Lake Stefanie. 7. Lake Albert. 
Dy on Abvodlolbi. 8. , Albert Edward. 
3. ,, Baringe. ogg RGA 
4. ,, Navaisha, 10. ,, Tanganyika. 
Danes Nabors ll. 4, Rukwa. 
6. ,, Manyora. 


12. Lake Nyassa. 


in this case are: (1) The existence of volcanic action within 

the containing walls of the great western Graben. (2) The 

fact that volcanic action is not extinct in this region, though it 
B 2 


356 Ww. HW. HUDLESTON, ESQ., M.A., F.R.S., ON THE ORIGIN 


is probably fast dying out. There are yet some traces of 
volcanic activity in the eastern arm of the Graben, where the 
mountain, Longonot (9,350 feet), still shows a fresh looking 
crater and emits steam. The facts in regard to the existence of 
modern volcanic action in the Graben system is of importance in 
connection with any attempt to estimate the age of this mountain 
plateau-system, in which the Graben themselves are situated. 

The second feature in connection with the equatorial portion 
of the Great Central chain is the existence of the short, but 
loftv Ruwenzori Range, whose southern extremity lies actually 
on the equator. Whilst the axis of the volcanic chain of Mount 
M’fumbiro hes at right angles to the northerly trend of the 
great western Graben, that of the crystalline system of 
Ruwenzori is approximately parallel to it. “These ranges, 
which rival the Alps in magnitude and in the sublimity of their 
scenery, lhe along the eastern edge of the depression, and appear, 
in fact, to stand out into it beyond what was originally its 
eastern face.”* We recognise the importance of the above 
observation, as it tends to show that this portion of the Graben 
is older than the Ruwenzori Range itself. The adjacent Victoria 
Nyanza plateau is mainly composed of schists and gneiss, 
and this class of rock usually terminates abruptly at the 
eastern edge of the Graben where the depression ensues. But 
opposite Ruwenzori, instead of being broken off at the edge of 
the depression the gneiss and schists are bent and piled upon 
the steep flanks of the mountains themselves, which in their 
more central portions are found to consists of massive old 
amphibolites. These latter are, most probably, the base of the 
Archean, as developed throughout the greater part of Equatorial 
Africa, and these amphibolites seem to have been thrust up 
through the overlying gneissic and schistose layer. 

Geology of British Kast Africa-—Having paid some attention 
to the physical structure of the Central Range with its 
associated Lake Chains, it would not be amiss just to glance at 
the geology of the equatorial region of East Africa and its 
relations to the remarkable system of Graben already partly 
described. In this respect we cannot do better than follow 
Gregory in his description of the region between the Indian 
Ocean and the Victoria Nyanza, which includes the eastern arm 
of the Graben system. The subjoined section, which les 


* Moore, The Tanganyika Problem, p. 94. He gives the altitude of 
the highest peaks at about 16,500 feet. 

+ Amphibolites are igneous rocks in which hornblende is a chief 
constituent ; diorite is a common variety.—E. H. (Ep.) 


OF THE HALOLIMNIC FAUNA OF LAKE TANGANYIKA. 307 


almost on the Equator, will serve not only as a description 
of the immediate region, but may in many respects be regarded 
as typical of Peninsular Africa, both east, south and west. 

In particular the section shows : 

(1) That fossiliferous deposits are a mere coastal fringe, or 
at least get no further inland than the Foot Hills, 
and, 

(2) The enormous development of old crystalline and more 
recent voleanic rocks. 


FIG. 2.—SECTION ACROSS BRITISH EAST AFRICA (AFTER GREGORY : “ RIFT 
VALLEY,” p. 222.) 


; Primitive 
Victoria Volcanic crystalline 
Nyanza. Graben. chain. mountains. Foot hills. 


GEE 
AS 
Vaan’ 
Ag 
ror EARTNS 


b 
hy 
ve 

e Can 


1 
5 en 


GEOLOGICAL SIGNS. 


(a) Coastal deposits : raised coral-reefs and old sea beaches with much 
wind-borne sand. ; 

(6) The foot plateau. The seaward portion consists of shales, etc., of 
middle Jurassic age as proved by their ammonites; the middle 
portion of bright coloured sandstones, probably of Triassic age, but 
without marine fossils ; the western portion of shales of probably 
Permo-Carboniferous age, with land plants and fresh-water mollusca 
(Palaeanodonta). 

(c) The portion of the Archean rocks to the eastward of the volcanic 
region. 

(d) Volcanic region, consisting of plateaux, mountains (Kenya, IGilima 
Njaro, etc.), and Graben. 

(c’) Archeean rocks west of the volcanic region. N.B.—The Archean 
system is said to cover something like two-thirds of British East 
Africa, and there can be little doubt that it underlies the greater 
part of the rest. 

(e) Lower Paleozoic rocks without fossils on the horizon of the Karagwe 
series—here and there on the shores of the Victoria Nyanza. 


An old crystalline axis is well shown in the above generalized 
section, and, as we perceive, these crystalline rocks are stated 
to cover two-thirds of this part of the country. Indeed it has 
always been an idea of mine that the immense extent of old 


3508 W. H. HUDLESTON, ESQ., M.A., F.R.S., ON THE ORIGIN 


erystallines in Peninsular Africa helps us to understand the 
sandy and unfossiliferous nature of the bulk of its sedimentary 
rocks. What we now see are merely the eroded stumps of 
crystalline masses which onze towered in the air, but which 
have been riven for ages by equatorial storms and rains, and 
their material distributed by torrents, rivers, and backwaters, 
so as to help to level up the surface. In this particular case 
the crystalline system has been invaded by an enormous 
extent of volcanic extravasations, and if we wish to discover 
the age of the Great East African Central Chain, as it now 
exists, we must endeavour to ascertain the period during which 
these phenomena have been in operation. The origin of Lake 
Tanganyika itself depends upon these considerations. That 
this peried is post-Jurassic, there can be little doubt, for the 
strip of Jurassic rock near Mombasa is traversed by dykes, 
which seem to be connected with the general mass of extra- 
vasated matter on the central plateau. It is probable, how- 
ever, that a much later date may be assigned. In this con- 
nection I would refer to Dr. Gregory,* who places the first 
plateau-eruptions in the Cretaceous, probably towards the close 
of that period, as is the case with the ereat basaltic outpourings 
of Western India. From this time up to the Pleistocene there 
have been, according to this author, a succession of eruptions 
aud coast-movements, and he places the first series of Ritt- 
Valley faults (Graben) in the Upper Eocene and the second 
series in the Phocene. These statements are made, principally 
with reference tc the eastern arm of the Graben system, bus it 
would probably apply also to the western. arm in which Lake 
Tanganyika is situated. It is pretty clear, however, that 
voleanic eruptions have taken place, as we now know, down to 
the present time, and that earth movements have continued, 
for some of the fault scarps, Dr. Grezory observes, are so bare 
and sharp that they must be of very recent date. 

Enough has now been said with regard to the anomalous 
history and condition of the Great East African Central Chain 
and its double string of lakes of depression. Tanganyika is 
the largest and most peculiar of all these, and its origin is 
intimately connected with the above considerations. We may 
believe that its initiation may have taken place in early 
Tertiary times, but that both its drainage area and also the 
great Lift im which it occurs have undergone some modification 
owing to the instability of the earth’s crust in that region. 


* The Great Rift Valley, p. 235. 


OF THE HALOLIMNIC FAUNA OF LAKE TANGANYIKA. 309 


Geological structure of the Congo basin—The above considera- 
tions present to us only one phase of Tanganyika’s history. If 
we desire even to try to account for its peculiar fauna we must 
now turn to another factor in the case, viz., the geological 
structure of the Congo basin, with which it seems, almost by 
accident, as it were, to be connected. This is a very large 
subject, and the region under consideration is quite the son- 
verse of the one previously described; for we are about to deal 
with an immense circular area having only an elevation of 
from 1,000 to 2,000 feet above sea level, and which, for the 
most part, seems to have been free from tectonic disturbance. 
It might be thought there would be immense variety of forma- 
tions in this region, but if the Beleian and French geologists, 
whom I shall presently quote, are correct, we have the old 
story over again :—a rim of crystalline and, possibly, paleozoic 
rocks, with absolutely unfossiliferous sedimentaries, largely 
consisting of sandstones, dun:ped down in the centre. 

The best evidence we obtain of the general structure of the 
Congo basin is derived from the writings of Professor Cornet, 
of Mons, supplemented for the French Congo by those of Mons. 
Barrat, a mining engineer, and inspector of public works.* 
Lhe first entioned author is a geologist of great experience, 
and his earliest work in this region (Katanga) relates cto the 
geology of the Uppermost Congo in the basin of the Lualaba, 
which is almost in touch with Tanganyika itself. Before ven- 
turing, however, to deal with this ground, [ will bring to your 
notice Professor Cornet’s experiences on the Lower Congo. 
The railway from Boma to Stanley Pool has materially helped 
the engineer to obtain a fairly accurate idea of this piece of 
country. It is true that this railway is only 350 kilometres 
(216°35 miles) in length, and that the distance from the outlet 
of the Lukuga on Lake Tanganyika, measured in a straight 
line along the sixth parallel of south latitude, is nearly 1,300 
miles, yet the section traversed by the railway and prolonged 
to about the neighbourhood of Bolobo, appears to be the key to 


* Cornet. “Terrains anciens du Katanga (expédition de 1891—93),” Liége 
(1897). 

Cornet. “ Observations sur la géologie du Congo occidental.” Bull. Soe. 
Géol. Belg., vol. x (1896). 

Cornet. ‘‘ Etudes sur la géologie du Congo occidental.” Op. cit., vol. xi 
(1897). 

Cornet. “ Les formations post-primaires du bassin du Congo,” Ann. Soe. 
Géol. Belg., vol. 21 (1893-4). 

Barrat. “La géologie du Congo Frangais.” Ann. des Mines, Livraison 
d@avril (1895). 


360 Ww. H. HUDLESTON, ESQ., M.A., F.R.S., ON THE ORIGIN 


the struccure of nearly the whole basin of the Congo. I may 
be pardoned, therefore, if I dwell upon this section on the 
Lower Congo in some detail. 

The western Congo may, from a geological point of view, be 
divided into four zones from west to east as follews (see 
Fig. 3, page 361.) 

I. The Maritime Zone. 
Il. The Crystalline Zone. 
III. The Calcareo-schistose Zone. 
IV. Zone of the Sandstones. 


LI. The Maritime Zone. — This consists of old estuarine 
deposits, and more particularly of fragments of Tertiary beds, 
Cretaceous beds, and of continental pre-Cretaceous sandstones. 
It is interesting to note that the only fossiliferous beds whose 
age may be known from their contents, constitute a narrow 
and insignificant fringe on the borders of the Atlantic, just as 
we have seen to be the case on the east coast of equatorial 
Africa (see Fig. 2, p. 357). All the other zones are without 
any definite traces of organisms. 

II. The Archean end metamorphic beds—The Archean is 
well represented on the Lower Congo from the granitoid 
gneisses of Boma, in the west, to the chlorite and _ sericite 
schists of the higher portions. The dip is generally towards 
the west at variable angles, which are sometimes low. Both 
north and south of the Congo this zone can be traced for some 
distance. The so-called metamorphic beds are less crystalline, 
and in some cases calcareous. 

ITI. The calcareous-schist system.—There is a massive con- 
glomerate at the base, and this is succeeded by schistose argil- 
laceous limestones. The middle member consists largely of 
marbles, whilst the highest beds are calcareous schists with 
silicious concretions. The beds of this system exist in a series 
of synclinal basins indicative of a thrust towards the west, and 
with a diminution of folding as one advances eastwards, until 
the beds pass under the felspathie grits of the fourth zone 
with a slight dip to the eastwards. The age of these beds is 
uncertain, but it is thought that part of them may represent in 
time the Devonian of other countries. 

Zones II and IIT represent the rim of the basin in which 
the nearly horizontal sandstones of the fourth zone were 
deposited. 

Zone IV. Zone of the Sandstones, or beds of the Congo basin 
proper. These are the beds to which Professor Cornet more 


361 


OF THE HALOLIMNIC FAUNA OF LAKE TANGANYIKA. 


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362 Ww. H. HUDLESTON, ESQ., M.A., F.R.S.,. ON THE ORIGIN 


particularly alludes in his paper on the “ Formations post- 
primaires.” The lowest, or Red Felspathic Grits, is divided 
into two sections by a slight unconformity. It reposes in 
complete discordance upon the flanks of Zone II]. There is a 
great variety of detrital matter in this formation, including 
conglomerates, fine grained sandstones and arcillaceous schists, 
but one of its characteristics consists of thick beds of grit 
largely charged with big grains of altered felspar causing a 
reddish or brownish tinge. These beds correspond to the 
“couches de Kundalungu” of the highest Congo (Lualaba), and 
form part of the margin of Lake Tanganyika, as we shall see 
presently. On the Lower Congo the Red Felspathie Grit series 
extended to the westward of its present outcrop. as shown by 
outliers, possibly as far as the crystalline zone. 

The upper portion of Zone IV, d of the section, which is 
strongly in evidence near Stanley Pool, extends up the river 
as faras Bolobo. It consists of white or yellowish silicious 
sandstones, very pure, soft and friable under the fingers, 
forming beds several hundred metres in thickness and having 
a wavy and current-bedded stratification. Enormous sarsens 
attest the former presence of these beds in areas where the 
softer material has been removed by denudation. The beds of 
this system, in this region, are nearly flat, or with a sheht dip 
to the eastward. They correspond to the “ couches de 
Lubilache” of the Lualaba district, and may be known as the 
White Friable Sandstones. 

It will not be necessary to carry the geological résumé of the 
Lower Congo any further, beyond pointing out one or two 
matters which may have a bearing in future discussion relative 
to the fauna of the Middle Congo, and, in consequence, of Lake 
Tanganyika. In the first place it must be borne in mind that 
from Stanley Pool to Boma the present river Congo has cut for 
itself a passage through what may be regarded as the western 
coastal range in a series of falls and rapids which precludes 
any present connection with marine conditions. We cannot 
doubt that during the initiatory stages of this escape from the 
interior, the waters of the Congo basin selected the most de- 
pressed portion of the coastal range, which thus presents an 
appearance, in section, of less importance than would be the 
case either to the north or the south of the river’s course; also 
denudation has been active in lowering the rim of the original 
basin. It may be mentioned in this connection that the 
coastal range in the north of the French Congo (province) 
attains elevations of 1,500 metres in the “Monts de Cristal,” 


OF THE HALOLIMNIC FAUNA OF LAKE TANGANYIKA. 363 


which are of granite. Secondly, it must be remembered, that, 
as far as what we may term the solid geology is concerned, the 
White Friable Sandstone series is the highest in the sequence | 
of the beds which form the vast interior. These are often 
eoncealed by horizontal beds of clayey and sandy alluvium 
(silt), dating from a period when the mean level of the river 
was higher; also by spreads of what the French geologists 
call “Laterite.” Even these alluvial beds seem devoid of 
organic remains, except that in one case shells of Wtheria are 
mentioned.” 

Having thus briefly considered in some detail the rnaterial of 
which the Congo basin, in a geological sense, is constituted, we 
are now in a position to glance at the structure and pliysical 
history of that immense area, including some attempt to fix the 
chronology and parallelism of the two great sandstone systems, 
which probably cover more ground than any other sedimentary 
beds throughout Africa. Cornet, in speaking of the physio- 
graphy of the Congo basin, describes it as an immense “ vat,” 
whose peripheral inargms are always higher than the central 
region. 

The periphery of the Conyo basin (Plate 1)—The western 
portion we have already studied in the traverse from Boma to 
Stanley Pool. Although the topography varies throughout this 
immense circle, the geological sequence is pretty much what we 
have seen. Thus, on the southern margin, the watershed between 
the Congo and the Zambesi, towards the sources of the Lualaba, 
runs from elevations of 4,000 feet to 5,000 feet. On the south- 
east the headwaters of the Congo-Luapula proceed from a 
region of gneiss, mica schists aml argillaceous schists with 
granitic massifs, which extend between lakes Nyassa and 
Tanganyika. The “ancient rocks” of Katanga, so well described 
by Cornet, of course form a part of the general periphery in 
these regions. It would be well to mention here that, although 
such ancient rocks are, in the flatter parts of the basin, covered 


* There is an article by Stainier (7rans. Inst. Mining Engineers, 
vol. 15 (1898) p. 491), in which the author, besides summarizing the 
results of Cornet and others on the solid geology of the Congo basin, 
gives a very useful abstract of the superficial formations of this immense 
area. These include ( (1) Products of the alteration cn situ of subsoil 
rocks ; (2) Products of decomposition on slopes under the influence of 
rainfall ; (3) Alluvial deposits in watercourses ; and (4) Ancient alluvial 
deposits. It can readily be understoed that the solid geology of the 
Congo basin is largely masked by some one or other of the above 
conditions, to say nothing of vast districts under water and swamps. 


364 Ww. H. HUDLESTON, ESQ., M.A., F.R.S.. ON THE ORIGIN 


by one or other of the sandstone systems (formations post- 
primaires), yet the latter have been cut clean through by 
streams in many places so that the framework and bones of the 
skeleton are occasionally displayed throughout the vast region 
under description. 

The eastern margin of the periphery calls for especial notice, 
as Professor Cornet considers Tanganyika to be within the 
limits of the original basin, since the Red Felspathic Grits extend 
to the east as well as to the west of the lake. Its eastern 
affluents descend from a granitic or metamorphic district 
stretching towards the east and also bordering the lake for a 
considerable distance. When we come to deal more especially 
with the geology of the shores of Lake Tanganyika it will be 
seen that these Red Felspathic Grits, almost horizontal in many 
places, are occasionally tilted in this region, showiug that 
Tanganyika is within the influence of the disturbances in 
connection with the Great Central or East African Range, 
whereas the Congo basin, as a whole, is outside these influences. 
The south end of the lake is bordered with red and variegated 
erits belonging to the Red Felspathic series which are horizontal 
and have been transformed by metamorphism into a kind of 
quartzite with intercalation of eruptive rocks. At the outflow 
of the Lukuga are seen grits and red schists (of the Red 
Felspathic group) which continue for a distance of 120 kilo- 
metres westward from Tanganyika. At this point (Wabenza) 
they are covered by the white friable schists (White Friable 
Sandstone) of the centre of the basin. This formation also 
prevails at Nyangwe, but the Red Felspathic Grits reappear at 
Stanley Falls. 

The mits on the north-east of the periphery are constituted 
by the western lp of the western arm of the Graben, which 
contains the lakes belonging to the Upper Nile. The region of 
the sources of the Aruwimi consists of crystalline rocks. On 
the north gneiss occurs at several points between the basin of 
the Uellé and the White Nile. 

On the north-west there is a sandstone plateau of an altitude 
of 2,000 to 2,800 feet, which occupies the meeting ground of 
the Shari, Congo and Nile basins, and falls to the north in a 
plain some 400 feet lower, watered by the Auk, an eastern 
branch of the Shari, the principal feeder of Lake Tchad.* 


* Chevalier, quoted in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, 
vol. 22, p. 569 (November, 1903). 


OF THE AHALOLIMNIC FAUNA OF LAKE TANGANYIKA. 365 


This completes the periphery of the Congo basin as at present 
constituted. 

Suggested correlation of the beds composing the interior of the 
basin.—Having completed the circuit of the Congo basin, we 
must next endeavour to ascertain something of the geological 
history of this vast tract and its constituent elements. The 
first question we ask ourselves must be, what is the approxi- 
mate age of these two great interior sandstone formations ? 
Without fossils, terrestrial, fresh-water or marine, to euide us, 
this can only be done by way of inference and analogy.* 
Cornet calls them post-primary, 7.2. to say, they rest in almost | 
horizontal layers, for the most part, either on crystalline rocks 
or on old paleeozoic rocks inclined at high angles. This is very 
much the case with the Karoo beds at the ‘Cape, which are in 
position analogous to the two sandstone series of the Congo. 
The Karoo beds fortunately contain a fairly abundant fauna 
and flora, which is wholly terrestrial and fresh-water. The 
geological position of the Karoo beds is pretty well known, and 
I must refer to a previous statement on this subject (see page 
303). We are not altogether without links in the chain of 
evidence. 

A paper appeared lately in the Quarterly Journal of the 
Geological Society by Mr. Molyneuxt on “The Sedimentary 
Deposits of Southern Rhodesia,” where a provisional classifica- 
tion of the several formations, down to the Zambesi, was 
sugeested. Beneath a series of sandstones and grits, capped by 
voleanic rocks, occur some’ 800 feet of beds containing 
workable and impure coal and also some recognizable fossils 
(Matobola beds). The interest of these consists in the fact that 
scales of the fish Acrolepis were recognized, the genus also 
occurring in the Lower Karoo, and likewise in the so-called 
“ Drummond’s beds” on Lake Nyassa. A very few lamelli- 
branchs were obtained from the Sengwe coal-field and were 
described by Dr. Hind. These are small, oval, gibbose bivalves 
belonging to the genus Palacomutela, similar to species from the 
Permian of the Volga. A few plant remains were collected, 
and amonest others fronds of the fern-like plant Glossupteris 
Lrowniana, Brongn, and of some of its varieties. There can be 
very little doubt, therefore, that the Matobola-beds of Southern 
Rhodesia may be referred to the terrestrial and fresh-water 
Lower Gondwana system of Permo-Carboniferous age. The 


* This was Prof. Cornet’s view at the time he wrote. 
+ Vol. 59 (May, 1903) p. 266. 


366 Ww. H. HUDLESTON, ESQ., M.A., F.R.S., ON THE ORIGIN 


“Drummond's beds ” towards the northern end of Lake Nyassa 
present similar traces of this fauna in association with a series 
of conglomerates, red grits and shales, and as they are not far 
from the south-east rim of the Congo basin their evidence is all 
the more valuable.* 

There is good reason, on the whole, for supposing that the 
Red Felspathic Grits of the Congo basin are the equivalents in 
time, and to a certain extent in composition, of part of the 
Karoo system of the Cape. If this view be accepted we might 
roughly correlate the White Friable Sandstone series with the 
Upper Karoo which may possibly extend upwards as high as 
the Rhietic period. It should be distinctly borne in mind that 
no marine organisms occur in any of these beds referred to the 
Karoo. Mons. Barrat, in his map of the Congo basin, boldly 
correlates the whole of the post-primary sandstone systems of 
that basin with the Karoo, and in a general sense he is probably 
not far wrong. Cornet himself considers that the “ Bassin 
primitif du Congo,” at the period of the horizontal deposits, 
was separated by a chain of mountains from a region lying 
towards the south, south-east and east, where the beds of the 
real Karoo were being deposited.f 

It is difficult to conceive the precise physical conditions 
under which these lfeless masses were accumulated during a 
period which may be regarded as very early mesozic (including 
the Permo- Carboniferous). That the mountainous periphery 
already described was being ground down by atmospheric 
causes and its products distributed by some sort of water action 
thoughout the central depressed area seems certain, and it is 
also highly probable that during the greater part of the 
time there was no drainage outlet, so that this part of 
Equatorial Africa became the dumping ground of a mass of 
mechanical sediments, which had no means of escape by the 
usual method of rivers flowing towards the ocean. But a time 
came, perhaps towards the middle of the mesozoic epoch, when 
deposit ceased to be the order of the day and these intermin- 
able sandstones themselves became subject to the laws of 


* The Drummond’s beds of Nyassa are described as a small system of 
grits, schists and limestones with fish (Acrolepis), molluscs (Mutela 
oblonga) and plant remains. Other localities are quoted where the Red 
Felspathic Grits contain remains of vegetation, according to the 
traveller, Thompson. 

+ It is admitted that the Karoo beds of the Cape constitute a 
somewhat indefinite system, yet within certain limits their horizon may 
be accepted as fairly well understood. 


OF THE HALOLIMNIC FAUNA OF LAKE TANGANYIKA. 367 


denudation. A new era had arrived, and some faint shadow of 
modern conditions was inaugurated. Unfortunately, there is 
no evidence, as far as I can make out at present, of what took © 
place between the close of the White Friable Sandstone period 
and that of sub-recent and recent deposits. This interval 
doubtless was, during part of the time, a period of great inland 
waters, where the basins of the Congo, Shari and White Nile 
inosculated and where the fauna now exisiting in Equatorial 
Africa was to a considerable extent evolved, and the rivers 
themselves partly marked out. But enough perhaps has been 
said on this subject, and I must now conclude this geological 
disquisition with a brief description of the more immediate 
surroundings of Lake Tanganyika itself, inasmuch as a proper 
understanding of the peculiar physical features of this lake 
may help us to consider, if not to explain, the origin of its 
still more remarkable molluscan fauna. 

Structure of a Graben.—Before proceeding to consider the 
geological features of Lake Tanganyika, I would draw the 
attention of members to the structure of a Graben as depicted 
by Mr. Moore, in the case of Lake Nyassa. This traverse which 
is taken through Mount Waller towards the north end of the 
lake, shows the relation of the Red Felspathic Grits to the 
underlying granitoid rocks (Archean); and it also exhibits the 
system of trough-faulting which may be taken as one form of 
the structural arrangement of a Graben. 

Geology of Lake Tanganyika.—As regards Tanganyika itself 
the lake occupies the principal depression in the western 
arm of the Graben-system of Equatorial Africa, running due 
north and south for 400 miles, and the present elevation 
of the surface of the water is stated to be 2,700 feet. 
There are several affluents, the principal one being the Ruzizi 
at the head of the lake, whilst there is only one effluent, 
viz., the Lukuga, which escapes through a chasm in the 
western walls (? wide Gregory, The Great Rift Valley, p. 3), 
and ultimately joins the Congo drainage system, to which 
at present it belongs. The discharge of the Lukuga seems to 
be a precarious one, and it is clear that there have been times 
when the water does not escape, in which case one would expect 
an increase in its salinity. Great depths are reached in this 
lake, and Mr. Moore considers that it is not all of one age, the 
central portion between Karema and Ujiji being regarded as 
the oldest. This circumstance is also true of Lake Nyassa, 
where in some places the bottom is so bare of recent deposit as 
to suggest that such portions may have been added to that lake 


368 Ww. H. HUDLESTON, ESQ., M.A., F.R.S., ON THE ORIGIN 


URRIPIV 3 SY90yY prozuvsy 


Qa ang 


WARS eaay 


a eal 


SOAR L AT REREKSE 


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‘NHEVUN V JO CUNLONULS— "Ff “N14 


NI 
NB. 74miles to the westward — 


EE) Allavium. 
== Old lake-deposits. 


v KEE 

ss Soe at) Voleante. 

os amburas  peesse 

ss SAAS K ett Hed Felspathic Grits. 
aK Ce OK Metamorphosed Rocks. 


ANUS WA Y og 7 Cn a) oF 
is AS ERK Granttoid (Archean) 


? a PNG : ace 
Oe ae ich 


ie 


Felsnathic Grits are ~' ~ - 
succeeded by The White ~ c 


friable Sandstones. 


of the lake Ihe hked 


Generalized Geological sketch-map of 
Lake Tanganyika and its surround- 
ings, based upon the researches of 
Moore, Ferguson, Cornet, Barrat, 
Kohlschiitter, &c. 


IV.B.—The orientation of the Lake 
itself represents the principal Graben: 
this is continued northwards up the 
valley ofthe Ruzizt. Thelongitudinal © 
slices included between the broken 
lines, are intended to represent sub- 
sidiary Graben. 


Gy SM 
yyy AYO \A A ° 
GEC Sy | 8 


ARK \ 


\ 


HARRISON £ SONS LITN.ST MARTING (| ZNE WC. 


7 Ax . 


to we core 


ae ‘is - “ae = 


OF HE HALOLIMNIC FAUNA OF LAKE TANGANYIKA. 369 


at a comparatively recent period. Oscillation of the floor and 
containing walls of both these great Graben lakes is noticeable 
in places. 

In attempting to construct a geological map of Tanganyika I 
must be guided by Mr. Moore to a certain extent, not forgetting, 
however, to consult the works of Cornet, Bornhardt, Kohls- 
ehiitter and other distinguished scientists. If there is obscurity, 
in the geology of Equatorial Africa, still there is a certain 
degree of simplicity as far as the composition of the several 
formations with which we have to deal. Around Tanganyika, 
though not to the same extent as around Nyassa, the basement 
granitoid rocks (Archean) are strongly in evidence. Upon 
these at the south and south-east end of the lake in complete 
unconformability reposes the great sandstone and_ shale 
formation, which, we have seen, Cornet in his numerous 
writings on the Congo basin calls the Red Felspathic Grits, or 
“couches de Kundelungu” of the Lualaba district, and which 
constitute the lower division of his “ formations post~primaires.” 
Beds of this character also extend to the east as well as the 
west of the lake, and this part of the area now occupied by 
Tanganyika must have been within the limits of the original 
basin of deposition (see ante, p. 564). These Red Felspathic 
Grits, so horizontal for the most part throughout the basin of 
the Congo, are tilted in portions ot the western wall and notably 
at Mount M’rubi, where they are said to have an inclination to 
the eastward. As previously observed, this shows that Lake 
Tanganyika is within the influence of the movements connected 
with the East African Plateau Range, whereas the bulk of the 
Congo basin is without the sphere of those influences. At the 
south end of the lake the Red Felspathic Grits are shown for 
the most part as horizontal, although, according to Mr. Moore’s 
mapping, much cut up by subsidiary Graben which carry on 
the principal Graben of Tanganyika in a southerly direction. 
In one of these subsidiary Graben, towards the south-west, is 
situated both the true and the salt lake Mwero of the higher 
Congo, and that perhaps is about as far west as the Graben- 
system can be traced. In the neighbourhood of Cameron Bay 
there are considerable indications of voleanic eruptive matter, 
and, according to Cornet, much of the Red Felspathic Grits 
have been transformed into quartzites with intercalation of this 
eruptive material. These most probably are the “ metamorphic ” 
beds of Mr. Moore, which seem to occupy both sides of the 
southern third of the lake. 

Towards the northern termination of the series which has 

C 


370 w. H. HUDLESTON, ESQ., M.A., F.R.S., ON THE ORIGIN 


been subject to this kind of metamorphism, the great Rukwa 
Graben strikes the Tanganyika fissure at an acute angle, and 
it is extremely probable that this longitudinal depression, as 
pointed out by Mr. Moore, extends across the lake and 
reappears as the great gap in the western wall through which 
the drainage of Tanganyika has been effected. Possibly 
subsequent erosion may have had something to do with the 
deepening of the primary fissure, which thus becomes a “ rift- 
valley” in the true sense of the term. After passing over 
modern lake deposits, the Red Felspathic Grits are encountered 
on the Lukuga as previously stated (p. 364), and extend for a 
distance of 120 kilometres from Tanganyika,and beyond this point 
are covered by the White Friable Sandstones which constitute 
the upper member of Cornet’s “ formations postprimaires.” 

It seems doubtful whether any fossils occur in connection 
with the Red Felspathic Grits of Lake Tanganyika. There can 
be no doubt whatever that the Red Felspathic Grit series of 
Cornet is the same as the sandstone series of Mt. Waller and 
Amelia Bay on Lake Nyassa, which is identified by Bornhardt 
with the Karoo formation, and with which are associated the 
so-called “Drummond’s beds” with their Glossopteris flora and 
fresh-water fauna (see pp. 565 and 366). At more than one spot 
in the vicinity of the northern end of Lake Nyassa indisputable 
evidence of coal, fossil plants, shells and fish scales of 
fresh-water origin have been found. It seems unfortunate that 
the eorresponding beds (2.¢., the Red Felspathic Grits) of 
Tanganyika and the Congo basin seem to be barren in this 
respect. At least such appears to have been Cornet’s opinion, 
and he accounts, as we have seen, for the barrenness of these 
beds on the supposition that they were laid down in a basin on 
the west side of the primary mountain range of what is now 
East Central Africa.* 


* Reymond (Bull. Soc. Géol. France, 1885) speaks of certain “ schistes 
fossiliferes,” collected by Giraud in 1881, at some distance from Mpala on 
Lake Tanganyika, which were said to contain a Cyrera and fish 
remains (Lepidosteus). This alleged discovery on Tanganyika may be the 
same as that mentioned by Drummend (Tropical Africa), where he 
observed that three days north of Nyassa Giraud found in the schists 
certain fossils which Bertrand referred to Lepidosteus and Cyrenda. 
Moreover, Moore considers that ‘‘ Drummond’s beds” occur at two 
or three localities on or near Tanganyika, but as he mixes these up with 
modern lake deposits, it is not very easy to get at bis meaning, the 
more so, since no organic remains are mentioned, other than those of 
the lake itself. On the whole, I conclude with Cornet, that no good 
evidence of fossils belonging to the Red Felspathic Grit series has 
hitherto been found in the Congo basin, of which L. Tanganyika at 
present forms a part. 


OF THE HALOLIMNIC FAUNA OF LAKE TANGANYIKA. onl 


The next formation in order of time is the volcanic series to 
which allusion has already been made towards the south-west 
corner of the lake, and with this may be associated the metamor- 
phosed sandstones, etc., which appear, in fact, to be portions of the 
Red Felspathie Grits and not “ primary metamorphies,” such as 
those described by Cornet in Katanga. These voleanics most 
probably belong to the graben-system, and must be approxi- 
mately of the same date as similar volcanics towards the north 
end of the great Nyassa-graben and elsewhere. 

The latest formations in point of time are deposits derived 
from the lake itself, and these are of especial interest as 
containing the remains of the existing haloliranic molluscs. 
It is probable that they may be met with at many places along 
the shore. Mr. Moore refers especially to the line of coast 
between Ujiji and Usambora, where layers of modern lake- 
deposit, somewhat shattered, are found dipping 20° to the east 
conformably to the sheets of Old Sandstone on which they 
repose. According to the same author the flat floor of the 
Ruzizi valley (at the head of the lake) is composed chiefly of 
modern sandstones and alluvium. Higher up the valley, to 
about 200 feet above the present surface of the lake, his party 
kept passing over older and older ground, and the plains thus 
traversed were found to be intersected by water-courses in some 
eases to a depth of 90 feet, so that the older stratified materials 
were exposed. These strata were found to consist of brown and 
yellow sandstones, having a slight dip to the south, and 
contained many shell fragments and also sore fossilised shells 
which could be identified as Neothawma, Nassopsis and Para- 
melana. The age of the deposit is probably Pleistocene, and: 
not only has the water Jevel of the lake fallen, but he thinks 
that the valley-flat north of 'Tanganyika has undergone elevation 
also since those days. It should not be forgotten that Mr. 
Moore (Tanganyika Problem, p. 90) states that the water of the 
lake is somewhat salt. He observes that it seems to be fresher 
now than when Livingstone and Stanley examined it. More- 
over, as both these explorers aver, there are traditions among 
the Arabs that, within the recollection of living men, it was a 
lake which never flowed out at all. 


372 W..H. HUDLESTON, ESQ., M.A., F.R.S., ON THE ORIGIN 


Part IJ1I.—ConcLusions. 


1. The zoological aspect. 
2. The paleontological evidence. 
3. The argument from geology. 

To a certain extent the probable conclusions have already 
been indicated in Parts I and II, of this communication, but a 
brief summary at the final stage may be of use. On the whole 
we have three main factors to guide us in the investigation, 
and these we will take in the order above indicated. 

The zoological aspect of the question—This is mainly studied 
by means of conchological comparison, and it will be seen on 
referring to Part I, and more particularly to the Appendix, 
that, in my opinion, the resemblance between the Tanganyika 
shells and those of our British Inferior Oolite is not sufficiently 
close to warrant any theory as to the derivation of the former 
from the latter. But, on the other hand, there is the malaco- 
logical evidence derived trom the study of the anatomy of the 
existing mollusc, which reveals a peculiar archaic character, 
and also a singular blending of attributes usually held to he 
distinct. Such peculiarities, whilst pointing to the exceptional 
character of this assemblage of gasteropods, fail altogether to 
establish any connection with the Inferior Oolite of the Anglo- 
Norman basin. Yet the very existence of a group of halo- 
limnic gasteropods limited to Tanganyika, is in itself a proof 
that there is something remarkable about these molluscs and 
such a view is further confirmed by anatomical investigation. 
Hence these gasteropods may, in some way, have had a remote 
marine origin, although that need not have been Jurassic. 

It has always seemed to me that the most hopeful line of 
research is to be sought in the waters of the Congo basin, and 
particularly in Lakes Bangweolo and Mwero. If the halolimnie 
gasteropods had their origin in the vast inland seas of this 
immense system, as they existed formerly, there should be 
some trace of them in the lakes of the Upper Congo. This, 
Mr. Moore informs us, is unfortunately not the case, although 
in Lake Mwero a genus closely approaching the Neothawma of 
Lake Tanganyika has been found. I am rather inclined to 
consider that the zoological evidence points to a local and 
restricted origin for these Tanganyika shells, and if we accept 
the theory of their special marine derivation, whether Jurassic 
or more recent, it must always be with a certain degree of 
doubt. 

The paleontological evidence——Since the hypothesis of a 


OF THE HALOLIMNIC FAUNA OF LAKE TANGANYIKA. 373 


Jurassic origin for the Tanganyika shells has been mooted, the 
Paleontological evidence brought forward in Part I may now 
be briefly recapitulated. I must confess that the possibility of 
tracing a connection between the Inferior Oolite fauna of the 
Anglo- Norman basin and the fauna of Lake Tanganyika had a 
considerable fascination for me, and I rather hoped that as we 
approached the Mediterranean basin there might have been 
some evidence in favour of these views. On the contrary, 
except in Sicily, no really important gasteropod fauna has been 
discovered in the intermediate areas, and even in the case of 
the Sicilian fossils the prevailing assemblage of gasteropods 
lends but little countenance to any theory of a Jurassic origin 
for our halolimnice shells. 

These considerations were originally based upon a hope that 
there might be some evidence ot a Jurassic derivation by way 
of the Congo basin, but the more I studied this part of the 
question the less faith I had in my original expectations. 
Supposing, as is by no means improbable, that there may have 
been a communication with Tertiary and even with Mesozoic seas 
on the northern side of the Congo basin at some period of its 
history, the misfortune is that we obtain no paleontological 
evidence in the direction required. If we take North Africa, 
the Iberian Peninsula, or even the south-west of France, where- 
ever Jurassic deposits are known, they have never yielded a 
fauna approaching that of the Anglo-Norman basin, and 
therefore do not help us in the least towards covering the 
immense distance in space which exists between that classical 
region and the centre of Equatorial Africa. As regards 
Jurassic deposits within the limits of the African tropics, such 
as those of Abyssinia and Madagascar, we have already seen 
that their fauna, so far as known, has no analogy with the 
Tanganyika gasteropods. This, however, is a fact of minor 
importance, since the Madagascar deposits especially occupy a 
region which there is good reason for believing on geological 
orounds, has never had any connection with the Congo basin, i in 
which Lake Tanganyika is situated. 

The argument from geology.—Since neither the zoological 
nor the paleontological evidence favours the notion of an 
Inferior Oolite origin for the halolimnic gasteropods, we must 
endeavour to ascertain how far the geological history of this part 
of Equatorial Africa tends to throw any light upon the subject. 

In Part IJ, I have endeavoured to sketch a brief outline 
of this history, dwelling more especially on the geological 
structure of the Congo basin, and of that portion of the East 


374 WwW. H. HUDLESTON, ESQ., M.A., F.R.S., ON THE ORIGIN 


African Plateau-chain which flanks it on the east. The 
importance of Lake Tanganyika in a physiographic sense is 
based largely upon the fact that it hes at the junction of these 
two very different regions, the latter a disturbed, and the 
former a quiescent one. As constituting a part of the western 
arm of the Graben-system I am inclined to the belief that it is 
by no means an ancient feature of the earth’s crust. Much 
depends upon the date assigned to the East African voleanic 
plateau, which was probably initiated towards the close of the 
Cretaceous period. The Graben-system is of necessity more 
recent, and if this system has any connection, as regards time, 
with the Jordan-valley fissure it must be post- -Eocene in date. 
I think that we may provisionally accept this date for the 
initiation of the Graben-system, though I should be disposed 
on other grounds to make it more recent still, bearing in mind 
that its activities are not yet extinct. 

Lake Tanganyika, as Mr. Moore points out, was formed 
at different times, but since its existence could not precede 
that of the Graben-system, the oldest date that we can 
assign to any portion of it is Middle Tertiary. It is not 
contended, however, that there were no large lacustrine sheets 
of a different character at the time of its formation in the 
neighbourhood, and notably in the area now occupied by the 
eastern portion of the Congo basin. The geological history of 
tliis vast territory is unfortunately a blank since the deposition 
of the “White Friable Sandstones.” All we can say is. that 
nothing which could indicate the presence of a Jurassic Sea or 
even of a Cretaceous Sea has been discovered therein. There 
ean be little doubt that the “ Red Felspathic Grits” of Cornet, 
which underlie the “ White Friable Sandstones,” may be 
comprehended under the very wide term of Karoo, which gives 
us an approximate date. The overlying “ White Friable 
Sandstones ” will, therefore, be Mesozoic in age, and probably 
like the Karoo beds non-marine in origin. 

We now come to the consideration of a very interesting 
question, viz., the connection between Lake Tanganyika, which 
is a fissure lake, with the wide and quiescent area of the Congo 
basin. For several years, as you are aware, geographers were 
in doubt as to whether Lake Tanganyika had an outlet, and 
when the outflow of the Lukuga was at last established it was 
thought that the outflow was intermittent. The conditions 
vary even now, I believe, according to the supply of water in 
the lake. But what I especially wish to point out is the 
peculiarity of the Lukuga outlet in a fissure lake surrounded 


OF THE HALOLIMNIC FAUNA OF LAKE TANGANYIKA. 379 


for the most part by lofty enclosing walls. Was this outflow 
caused by a cross-fissure (Graben) such as might be produced by 
the prolongation of the great Rukwa-Graben in the way indi- 
cated by Mr. Moore? At any rate these drainage facilities may not 
always have existed, and in that case Tanganyika during part 
of its history would be a closed water, and consequently more 
or less saline. Whether such conditions as these had anything 
to do either with the origin or conservation of the halolimnic 
vasteropods I do not venture to say. My endeavour has been to 
tind any geological evidence in favour of the view that they 
were derived either primarily or secondarily from a Jurassic 
stock of Inferior Oohte age. It must be confessed that thus 
far my efforts have been without success. At the same time 
mere negative evidence must not be accepted as final. 

In conclusion, then, since neither the zoological, the 
paleontological nor the geological evidence affords much 
support to Mr. Moore’s theory, we must regard the Tanganyika 
problem in its main features as unsolved. In the present state 
of our knowledge we are not bound to submit an alternative 
hypothesis. .Yet, if we still cling to the notion of a specially 
marine origin for the halolimniec gasteropods, the most promising 
quarter for a solution of the riddle is to be sought along the 
northern margin of the Congo basin, where it adjoins that of 
the Shari. This opens up the notion of a possible communication 
through the depression in which Lake Tchad is situated with 
the undoubted marine deposits of the second geological division 
of Africa. That the so-called “post-primary” deposits of 
Equatorial Africa, like their equivalents at the Cape, are, with 
the exception of coastal strips, mainly of terrestrial and fresh- 
water origin, I entertain no doubt. The only exception to 
this rule appears to be a Jurassic formation in Abyssinia known 
as the Antalo limestone. 

It should be distinctly understood that I have not taken up 
this investigation in a controversial spirit; nor indeed, in the 
first instance, with a view to controverting the theory of a 
Jurassic origin for the Tanganyika gasteropods. If, during the 
course of the inquiry, I have been unable to find evidence in 
favour of that hypothesis, it has at least been a source of 
gratification to follow Mr. Moore’s lead in his character of 
explorer and naturalist. In this way both myself and those 
members of the Victoria Institute who have taken the trouble 
to follow me must feel indebted to him for having awakened a 
more than passing interest in one of the many problems of 
Equatorial Africa. 


376 Ww. H. HUDLESTON, ESQ., M.A., F.R.S., ON THE ORIGIN 


APPENDIX TO PART I. 


NovTES ON THE COMPARISONS BETWEEN THE HALOLIMNIC GASTEROPODS 
AND CERTAIN FOSSILS FROM THE INFERIOR OOLITE—TOGETHER WITH 
AN ABSTRACT OF Mr. Moork’S STATEMENTS REGARDING THE 
MOLLUSCA OF TANGANYIKA GENERALLY. 


* Forty-six species of mollusca are enumerated (The Tanganyika 
Problem, p. 138), consisting entirely of Gasteropods and Lamellibranchs, 
the former preponderating. Of the latter are a number of distinct 
specific forms supposed to be related to Unio. Many of the Gasteropods 
belong to normal genera, such as Limnea (fovr species), Jstdora (two), 
Phyopsis (one), Planorbis (three), Ampullaria (two), Vivipara (one), 
Cleopatra (one), Melania (three). There is also the very fine Vivipara- 
like genus, Veothawma, Smith, which cannot in any sense be regarded as 
halolimnic. Mr. Moore further observes that the normal fresh-water 
molluscs found in Tanganyika are specifically distinct from the represen- 
tatives of the same genera occurring in the neighbouring lakes. Exclud- 
ing Neothauma there are fourteen Gasteropodean types (p. 218) judged by 
their conchological characters, generically distinct, as follows, viz. :— 


Typhobia. Spekia. 
Bathanalia. Nassopsis. 
Limnotrocus. Syrnolopsis. 
Chutra. Stanleya. 
Paramelama. Reymondia. 
Bythoceras. Horea. 
Tanganyicia. Ponsonbya. 


Out of these the following are regarded as specially representing the 
halolimnic molluscs, and are classified in six groups, viz. :— 

Typhobia and Bathanalia, Tanganyicia, Limnotrochus and Chytra, 
Spekia, Paramelania and Bythoceras, Nassopsis. 

It is more especially the avdove forms which are regarded as 
homzomorphic with certain fossils, chiefly of the Inferior Oolite, and 
this resemblance has impressed Mr. Moore so strongly, that he is 
disposed ic consider these groups as the partially modified descendants 
of the old Jurassic molluscs. 

As most of these comparisons were made with fossils in my own 
collection, I have endeavoured, in those cases where it has been possible 
to procure the particular Tanganyika shells, to check the resulting 
determinations, of course on conchological lines solely. 


1. Melania admirabilis, Smith, with Cerithium subscalariforme, D’ Orbigny. 
N.B.—These shells are not referred to in the above list. On pp. 219 
and 353 of the Tanganyika Problem are back and front views of the 


* It is probable that this is not an absolutely full list. 


OF THE HALOLIMNIC FAUNA OF LAKE TANGANYIKA. Bi 


Medania admirabilis of Lake Tanganyika—at least, I suppose that both 
of these cuts are intended for the Tanganyika shell, and not for the 
Jurassic fossil. The likeness is by implication only, for on referring to 
page 273 for the affinities of Melania admirabilis I find no 1ecognizable 
account of that species. It is true that on page 269, the author makes a 
general attack upon the genus Melania ; but this is rather with a view 
of criticising the suggested relationship of Typhobia to Melanopsis. 

The shape and ornamentation of Melania admirabilis (judging from 
the figures) and Oerithium subscalariforme are singularly identical. 
There is some difference in the apertures, for in UV. subscalar:forme there 
is a well-formed anterior spout slightly reflexed. Not having any 
specimen of MV. admirabilis in my possession, I cannot pursue the 
comparison any further. 


2. Typhobia horei, Smith, with the genus Purpuroidea, Morris and Lycett. 


Mr. Moore in this case does not institute any close comparison, but 
rather suggests (p. 350) that Zyphobia is matched by the Oolitic fossil 
genus, Purpuroidea, “from which it is difficult, if not impossible, on 
conchological grounds, to distinguish it.” I select Purpwroidea Morrisii, 
Buvignier, a characteristic Great Oolite fossil, to exemplify the genus. 

Here the ornamentation and general strombiform character of the 
shell in each case is strikingly apparent. On comparing the apertures 
we find that, instead of the short notch of Purpurocdea, the inner lip of 
Lyphobia is produced anteally into a narrow and reflexed spout. In 
other respects both the outer and inner lip in Typhobia and Purpuroidea 
greatly resemble each other and equally ditfer from Strombus. Whilst 
recognising a considerable degree of homzomorphy between the two 
shells from Tanganyika and Minchinhampton respectively, a comparison 
of the shell substance seems to suggest important differences. So far as 
we are able to judge from the usual calcite replacement of the fossil shell, 
one would say that Purpuroidea hada thick and heavy shell. On the 
other hand Vyphobia has a very thin and fragile shell, and, despite its 
identification as a halolimnic shell, has all the appearances of a fresh- 
water genus—so much so, indeed, that its affinities with Melania have 
been suspected by some, though this would seem to be negatived by 
internal characters. As regards the history and distribution of 
Purpuroidea, the genus makes a doubtful appearance in the Inferior 
Oolite of the east of England ; it is fairly abundant in limited districts 
of the Great Oolite and is last seen, so far as England is concerned, in 
the Corallian of Yorkshire. It would seem also to be fairly abundant in 
the Corallian beds described by Buvignier. It does not occur on a 
higher horizon in this part of Europe. 


3. Bathanalia howesi, Smith, with Amberleya orbignyana, Hudl. 


Bathanalia is figured on pp. 227 and 348. Of this peculiar genus 
Moore says (p. 228) that it is an inhabitant of deep water throughout 


378 Ww. H. HUDLESTON, ESQ., M.A., F.R.S., ON THE ORIGIN 


the southern third of the lake, and he considers that, in conchological 
characters, it is identical with several marine Jurassic fossils, described 
under Amberleya. He further remarks that except for its widely 
different shell, Bathanalia is structurally identical with T'yphobia. 
Referring to the diagnosis of Amberleya, quoted in p. 346, Moore says 
that this would absolutely answer for Bathanalia. According to his 
view the thin shell, the absence of all trace of epidermis, and the 
character of the whorls, as well as the sculpture and character of the 
mouth, are all essentially the same in Bathanalia as they are in 
Amberleya. 

Judging from figures only, this is the most striking of all the 
resemblances. I gather, however, that there are some differences in the 
aperture. 

On p. 348, Moore has figured the back only of my specimen of 
Amberleya orbignyana. The right hand upper figure on this page is 
intended for an Amberleya, which I do not quite recognise. The two 
lower figures represent Bathanalia, back and front, It is unfortunate 
that no good front aspect of Amberleya is presented to the reader, for if 
the aperture in Bathanalia is correctly drawn, it does not possess the 
straight pillar lip, coming forwards almost to a point, which is so 
characteristic of Amberleva. In all other respects the resemblance is 
most striking, even to the angular outline of the outer lip, which in 
Bathanalia is prolonged into a short process. It should be observed, 
however, that there is somewhat of an umbilical opening in Bathanalia, 
whereas the shell of Amberleyu is entirely closed. 

Amberleya (including Luecyclus, which latter, if not a synonym, has a 
close relationship) is eminently characteristic of the Lias. It comes up 
from the Lower Lias, and culminates in the Inferior Oolite, especially in 
beds having a Cephalopod facies, as in the Anglo-Norman basin. Occurs 
also in the Great Oolite, and seems to have left this country with bed of 
Corallian age.* 


4. Limnotrochus thompsoni, Smith, with Littorina sulcata, Hebert and 
Deslengchamps. 

See pp. 233 and 349. It 1s also compared with JZ. dorsetensis, Hudl. 
In the possession of a black epidermis and in its general aspect 
Limnotrochus thompsoni has a certain fresh-water character. The 
aperture, however, is more like that of Littorina than of Trochus. The 
trochiform outline of the shell and the ornamentation, especially the 


* Since writing the above, I have had an opportunity of inspecting a 
specimen of Bathanalia through the courtesy of Mr. Da Costa. Iam 
more than ever impressed with the extraordinary resemblance of the 
spire to that of Amberleya pagoda, but the character of the mouth is so 
very different, that I conclude the resemblance of the spire to be 
fortuitous. 


OF THE HALOLIMNIC FAUNA OF LAKE TANGANYIKA. 379 


strongly bicarinate body whorl, have a singular resemblance to L. sulcata, 
H. and D. The aperture, however, presents considerable differences, and 
in this respect Limnotrochus thompsoni more nearly approaches some of 
the many varieties of “ Littorina” dorsetensis, the chief difference being 
that in the latter, the umbilicus is closed and the aperture is not free as 
in the former case. Nevertheless, the general resemblance is sufficiently 
striking. 


5. Chytra (Limnotrochus) kirkii, Smith, with Onustus ornatissimus 
D Orbigny. 

See pp. 229 and 350. Originally the empty shell had been described 
and figured by Mr. Smith (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1881), who classed it under 
Limnotrochus. Mr. Moore has founded for this species the genus, Chytra, 
and further observes that the shell of Chytra kirkii is remarkably solid, 
resembling both that of Solarium and Zenophora (Onustus). 

The resemblance of Chytra to the Jurassic species referred to Onustus 
is very slight indeed, beyond the general pyramidal shape of the shell. 
One of the leading characteristics of the Jurassic Onustus is the imbricate 
overlapping of one whorl over the next one, and this feature is equally 
seen in the Onustus pyramidatus, Phillips, as in Onustus ornatissimus 
D’Orbigny. There is no traze of this kind of overlapping in Chytra, 
which, to my notion, has more the character of Solarium. The basal 
characters in Chytra are also different to those in the Jurassic species of 
Onustus. 

Hence I fail to trace any marked resemblance between Chytra and 
Onustus. Nevertheless Chytra is perhaps the most thoroughly marine in 
aspect of all the halolimnic series, the shell being thick and more or less 
free from epidermis. Indeed, most conchologists, if they did not know its 
habitat, would hardly suspect that it was anything more than a some- 
what aberrant Solarium. 


6. Paramelania damoni, Smith, with Purpurina bellona, D Orbigny. 

See pp. 245 and 345, for figures. There are three species of 
Paramelania mentioned by Moore (index, p. 366) viz., P. crassigranulata, 
Smith, P. crassilabris, von Martens, and P. dumoni. Other species also 
have been described by Bourguignat, some of which possibly belong to 
Wass ysis. ‘The species of Paramelania selected by Moore for comparison 
with the Jurassic Purpurina is LParamelania damon, of which 
unfortunately I do not possess a specimen, and must therefore rely 
solely on Moore’s figures, pp. 245 and 345. The comparative figures are 
to be found on p. 345. The particular Purpurina there drawn is 
P. aspera, Hudl. from the Concavus-beds of Bradford-Abbas. This is a 
very rugose form of Purpurina, and its resemblance to Paramelania 
damon (judging from the figure) is very striking ; only that in P. aspera 
and indeed in Purpurina generally, the anterior notch or channel is more 
in evidence, and also more reflexed than in the majority of specimens of 


380 Ww. H. HUDLESTON, ESQ., M.A., F.R.S., ON THE ORIGIN 


Paramelania. In this respect the regulation Purpurina bellona (which 
occurs on a higher horizon than P. aspera) more resembles the average 
Paramelanias of Tanganyika. It should be remarked also that most 
species of Paramelania have a considerable amount of brown scaly or 
epidermal matter, and are generally thick and nassoid or purpuroid in 
the texture of the shell. Reference is made to the conchological 
similarity of Pyrgulifera, a genus of fresh-water shells (p. 343) of the 
Upper Chalk, to Paramelania, and this casual identification opens up 
several interesting questions. 


7. Nassopsis nassa, Smith,* with Purpurina inflata (? auctor). 

See pp. 250 and 347. During life this mollusc, we are told, inhabits 
the surface rocks of Tanganyika and its shells are always richly 
encrusted with the green algze which clothe the rocks for a considerable 
depth. It is sluggish and appears to browse within a very limited area, 
like the Patellas of the Ocean beach. 

As regards the Jurassic fossil figured for comparison (upper figures, 
p- 347) under the name of Purpurina inflata, I should point out that this 
specimen is not Purpurina inflata, Tawney, but a peculiar unnamed form 
which was figured in Plate I of the “ Jurassic Gasteropoda.” The true 
P. inflata has a very different figure and ornamentation, but possesses a 
rounded and almost unchannelled aperture, having in fact the least 
indented mouth of all the Purpurine. 

The real value of these comparisons is an unknown quantity, but the 
conchological resemblance of both Paramelania and Nassopsis to certain 
named and unnamed forms of Purpurina is clearly pointed out by 
Mr. Moore, and admitted, as I understand, by Mr. Edgar Smith. Such 
resemblances are interesting, but if Paramelania and Nassopsis are really 
different genera, as their internal structure would imply, one learns two 
things from this fact: (1) that the outward form of the shell is not 
always indicative of the character of the animal within, and (2) that two 
different genera of existing molluscs are compared with the one Jurassic 
genus, Purpurina. 

It may be mentioned here that the genus Purpurina was somewhat 
loosely constituted by D’Orbigny, and was more carefully reconstituted 
by Piette and Deslongchamps, who regarded it as having relations on the 
one side with Zwurbo and on the other with Cerithium and Purpura, 
Fischer places Purpurina among the Littorinide, but its real family 
relationship is by no means clear. In the Jurassics of this country 
Purpurina first makes its appearance in the Marlstone (Middle Lias), 
culminates in the Inferior Oolite, is rare in the Great Oolite, and dies out 


* T possess a specimen supplied by Sowerby and Fulton, marked 
“ Paramelania coronata,’ Bourguignat ; which greatly resembles the 
figures of Vassopsis nassa. 


OF THE HALOLIMNIC FAUNA OF LAKE TANGANYIKA. 381 


in the Callovian of Yorkshire. It is also represented in the Callovian of 
Montreuil Bellay, where a gasteropod fauna, greatly resembling that of. 
the Inferior Oolite of the Anglo-Norman basin, is found to occur. 


8. Bythoceras, Moore. 


See pp. 238 and 242. There are two species figured, but, so far as I 
know, no special comparison with Jurassic forms is invited. 


9. Tanganyicia, Cross. 

See p. 246, 7. rufofilosa. In this case also, no special comparison with 
Jurassic forms is instituted, but its general resemblance to Watica is 
pointed out. The fine spiral coloured lines are characteristic of this very 
pretty little shell, which though naticoid in its outline is certainly 
different as regards shell-substance to the regulation Watica. It is said 
to be a littoral form and occurs in abundance. 


10. Spekia. zonata, Cross or Smith, with the Jurassic genus, Neridomus 
MM. and L. 

See pp. 256 and 351. On p. 257, Moore remarks on its naticoid 
appearance, and considers it so “completely similar to that of numerous 
fossil naticoid forms that, had it appeared fossilized instead of having 
been found living in a great fresh-water lake, there is not the slightest 
doubt that it would have been placed in one of the numerous fossil 
genera which are supposed to group themselves about the living Naticas.” 
Yet on p. 349 (the figures are on p. 351) he says: “ Again we find that 
the shells of the Tanganyika genus, Spekia, are practically indistinguish- 
able from the fossil remains of the marine Jurassic genus, Veridomus.” 

In this latter conclusion he is partly correct, for there is no doubt that 
the affinities of Spekia are with the Nerites rather than with the Naticas. 
Spekia is neritoid, not naticoid, but I fail to trace any especial 
resemblance to Neridomus. If the reader turns to the illustrations on 
p- 351, he will perceive that the two representations of Syekia are back 
views, whereas the two intended to represent Veridomus are front views, 
nor does the author assist the comparison in the text. But if we take a 
typical Jurassic WMeridomus such as N. Hemispherica from the Great 
Oolite of Minchinhampton, which may be regarded as the type on which 
Neridomus was founded, we at once find that the columellar region is 
convex and the shell imperforate, whereas in Spekia zonata the columellar 
region is extremely concave, and in some specimens a peculiar umbilical 
slit is noticeable. Hence, beyond the fact that both Spekia and 
Neridomus belong to the Neritidze there is very little resemblance so far 
as the anterior aspect is concerned. It may be remarked, in conclusion, 
that Spekia zonata is related to Neritina rather than to Nerita. There ig 
nothing naticoid about it, and moreover its thick epidermis and general 
aspect are highly suggestive of fresh-water conditions, although its shape 
may be somewhat unusual. 


382 Ww. H. HUDLESTON, ESQ., M.A., F.R.S.. ON TANGANYIKA. 


Of the remaining genera of Gasteropods enumerated, none are especially 
correlated with Jurassic forms, although they are regarded as belonging 
to the halolimnic group. Syrnolopsis is a genus of small elongate 
shells represented by two species, and there is stated to be an almost 
exact conchological identity (p. 219) between these shells and the marine 
genus Syrnola. It is not necessary here to comment on all the remaining 
halolimnic genera, consisting mostly of small forms, but I would point 
out certain conclusions with reference to some of them, e.g., Reymondia, 
Smith. There are several species, mostly small, but £&. horez, Smith, is 
the most conspicuous form, and may be taken as the type. I mention the 
circumstance because of the very considerable conchological resemblance 
between this very smooth shell and some of the Jurassic species such as 
“ Phasianella” elegans, M. and L., and other sub-elongate forms. This 
identification seems to have escaped Mr. Moore. I don’t attach any 
importance to it, since neither Reymondia horei nor “ Phasianella” 
elegans have any special features of ornamentation like Amberleya and 
Purpurina. There is also another case of mock resemblance, where Horea 
ponsonbyi, Smith, presumably a Prosobranch, bears a strong likeness to 
some of the striated Actaeonine of Jurassic age; whilst the remarkably 
straight columellar lip of Horea reminds one of Orthostoma, which is, I 
believe, a synonym of D’Orbigny’s genus, Actaeonwa. 

Not the least interesting of the Tanganyika molluscs is the handsome 
viviparoid shell, Veothauma, whose varieties are figured on p. 261. This 
of course is a thoroughly fresh-water genus, and has no connection with 
the halolimnic fauna beyond sharing the hospitality of the same lake. 
One of the most remarkable characteristics of Veothauma is the extra- 
ordinary difference, judging from the figures, between shells from the 
south of the lake, and those from the middle and the north. If the 
internal structure is the same in all three, we have again an instance of 
the difficulty of recognizing an animal by means of its shell even in living 
creatures. Here again is a singular instance of mock resemblance to a 
Jurassic species, since the strap-like or bicarinate variety of Neothawma 
would also do for the figure of Cloughtonia cincta, Phillips, a well known 
fossil of the Inferior Oolite of Yorkshire and the East Midlands. 

Postscript. This appendix was written before I had the advantage of 
hearing Mr. Edgar Smith’s presidential address to the Malacological 
Society, delivered in February last. It was highly satisfactory tu find 
that the chief conchological authority in this country had arrived at 
pretty much the same conclusions as myself, with regard to the presumed 
connection between the halolimnic gasteropods of Tanganyika and certain 
shells of the Inferior Oolite. 


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3. Homotaxial Equivalents of the North Polar Seas ................-- 422 
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Atractilites, Link. By ras sO ie oe PROCEEDINGS. 
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ata Rex teu AUT 1 5 Lutte a (sol ee 426 

6. Nomenclature of Ripple-mark Iv. ¢ / 

By A. R Hunt, M.A\E.L.S. Re RENCE: 
1S CHS BS reece Sao N§I8 nh 


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GMWoodward del.et lith. West, Newman imp. London. 


Phacops and Encrinurus. 


GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE. 


NEW "SERIES. saDECADIE V.. VOL. a: 
No. VIII.— AUGUST, 1904. 


ORIGINAL ARTICIES. 


J.—Srpawick Museum Nortss. 
New Fosstts rrom tHE Haverrorpwest District. II. 


By F. R. Cowrrr Reep, M.A., F.G.S. 
(PLATE XII.) 
Puacops (DatmanitEs) socrais, Barrande, var. (PI. XII, Fig. 2.) 


fW\HERE is one complete individual of a species of Phacops from 

the Orthis-argentea zone of Prendergast Lane, Haverfordwest, 
showing certain interesting characters which make it worthy of 
notice. The head is somewhat crushed and imperfect, but the 
glabella is seen to be large and broad and to expand regularly 
towards the front; the frontal lobe is transversely rhomboidal and 
nearly half the total length of the glabella; there are three pairs of 
lateral lobes, of which the anterior pair is the largest ; the second pair 
is narrower, and the third pair is subequal to the second in size. The 
first pair of lateral furrows is oblique; the second pair is horizontal 
and slightly arched forwards; the third pair is slightly oblique and 
the most strongly marked of all; the occipital furrow is strong and 
curved forwards in the middle. There is only a narrow median 
strip of the glabella not crossed by the lateral furrows, for they are 
rather long and all reach inwards to about the same extent. 

The thorax has a prominent axis about three-fourths the width 
of the pleure, which are bent downwards and backwards beyond 
the fulcrum, which is situated at about half their length. Their 
extremities are slightly bent forwards and apparently rounded or 
bluntly pointed ; a deep diagonal furrow traverses the whole length 
of each pleura. 

The pygidium is nearly semicircular, with a regular rounded 
margin, except behind the axis, where there is developed a long, 
pointed, straight posterior spine, about two-thirds the length of the 
pygidium. (In this specimen it is bent to one side, owing to 
subsequent. crushing.) The axis is about one-fourth the width 
of the pygidium at its anterior end, and tapers rather rapidly to 

DECADE V.—VOL. I.—NO. VIII. 22 


384 F. R. Cowper Reed—Trilobites from Haverfordwest. 


its middle, and then scarcely at all to end with a blunt (?) 
extremity just within the margin; it is completely annulated to its 
tip and shows 11-12 strong rings. The lateral lobes consist of 
8 pairs of pleure, of which the first seven are prominent, gently 
curved, and separated by deep interpleural furrows, and each is 
marked by a weak pleural furrow. The pleure and furrows die 
out before reaching the rounded margin, but there is no independent 
border or marginal furrow to the pygidium. The whole surface of 
the head, thorax, and pygidium is ornamented with granulations, and 
there are also a few large tubercles on the frontal lobe of the glabella. 


DiMEnsions. mm. 
Length of whole trilobite 82:0 
Length of head ... aes a0r as ae 27-0 
Width of head ... os Pr ... (about) 56°0 
Length of thorax a aS ate Aa 33°0 
Length of pygidium (without spine) sus 22°0 
Width of pygidium Bae (about) 33°0 


AFFINITIES.—This species clearly belongs to the early group of 
Dalmanites of Barrande, of which D. socialis is the type. Our 
specimen is closely comparable with the variety of this species 
termed proeva.! In the characters of the head, so far as it is 
preserved, there seems to be no difference; the pygidium, except 
in the shape of the axis, is identical, and the ornamentation is 
quite similar. The species recently described by the author as 
Ph. (Dalmanites) Robertsi? ditters by the narrower and more elongate 
glabella, by the shape and fewer segments of the pygidial axis, and 
especially by the absence of the terminal spine of the pygidium. 

Ph. (Dalm.) appendiculatus, Salter,’ has a somewhat similar glabella, 
but the pygidium is more elongate and tapers to the mucronate 
extremity; the axis tapers regularly, and has fewer rings and an 
appendix; the ribs on the lateral lobes are falcate and undulate 
the margin. 


Puacops (Datmanirss) aff. 1ncertus, Deslongchamps. 
(Pl. XII, Fig. 4.) 

There are several pygidia from the Slade Beds of the quarry 
at Upper Slade, Haverfordwest, which seem to indicate a new 
species of Phacops, the description of which may be given as 
follows :—Pygidium broadly subtriangular, bluntly pointed behind ; 
surrounded by narrow, depressed, concave, smooth border, not 
mucronate, but slightly elevated and upturned behind axis. Axis 
conical, tapering rather rapidly at first and then more slowly to 
blunt apex, not reaching posterior margin; extending about four- 
fifths the length of the pygidium, and with a width at front end 
a little more than a quarter that of pygidium; gently convex, 
annulated for whole length with about 12 or more rings, but only 
the first 9 or 10 are distinct. Lateral lobes gently convex, each 
consisting of a half pleura at front end followed by six simple, 

1 Barrande: Syst. Silur. Bohéme, vol. i, p. 552, pl. xxi, fig. 32. 
# Reed: Grou. Mae., Dec. V, Vol. I, p. 106, Pl. V. 
3 Salter: Mon. Brit. Trilob., p. 46, pl. iv, figs. 11, 12. 


FE, R. Cowper Reed—Trilobites from Haverfordwest. 385 


slightly curved pleure, ending abruptly at concave border, and not 
corresponding to the axial segments. Each pleura has a short 
oblique furrow on its outer half. Interpleural furrows distinct 
and of uniform strength for their whole length. Axial furrows 
moderately strong. 


DIMENSIONS. 
mm. 
Length of pygidium ... 500 bd 9-0 
Width ... Hee a ee ie 15:0 
Width of axis at frontend ... se 4:5 


AFFINITIES.—This species in its shape and number of axial rings 
and pleure recalls Ph. appendiculatus, Salter.) but the pleura in the 
latter are deeply furrowed along their whole length and undulate 
the margin. In Ph. Weaveri, Salter,” the segments are more 
numerous, though the contour and proportions of the pygidium are 
not dissimilar. Ph. incertus, Deslongchamps, as recorded by Salter ° 
from the Budleigh Salterton pebbles, has a pygidium almost identical, 
and apparently it differs only in the possession of a more produced 
and mucronate posterior end. The Slade form is undoubtedly more 
closely allied to it than to any other. Salter (op. cit.) correctly 
recognised that Ph. incertus belonged to the group characterised 
by D. socialis in Bohemia, and it is difficult therefore to see why 
he ascribed it in the same work to the subgenus Acaste. 


PuHacors (CHASMOPS) CONICOPHTHALMUS, Boeck. (PI. XII, Fig. 1.) 


No member of the subgenus Chasmops appears to have been so far 
described or recorded from the Haverfordwest district. Mr. Turnbull’s 
collection, however, contains two examples, one consisting of a fine 
head from the Slade Beds of Upper Slade, which may be confidently 
referred to the British form termed Chasmops con| ic |ophthalmus 
(Boeck) by Salter and others, though it is doubtful if it is really 
identical with Boeck’s species. The Slade specimen consists of a cast 
and external impression, the latter of which shows the surface- 
characters fairly well. In the shape and proportions of the glabella 
and of the frontal lobe, ‘cat’s ear’ lateral lobes, and third lateral 
lobes, it is identical with Salter’s figured specimen (op. cit., pl. iv, 
fio. 25) in the Sedgwick Museum; there is likewise to be noticed 
the practical absence of the second lateral lobes, which are in most 
species represented by small nodules; the convexity of the cheeks, 
position and size of the eyes, and deep furrow round their base also 
agree, but in our Slade specimen the eye is well preserved and 
shows the lenses, which are arranged in about 25 rows, with a total 
number of about 150 lenses in all. The eye-lobe is elevated, 
prominent, and almost angulated, as Angelin’s‘ figure shows, and the 
genal angles are similarly produced into long, broad, flattened spines, 
steeply inclined to the general plane of the head-shield and extending 


1 Salter: Mon. Brit. Trilob., p. 46, pl. iv, fig. 12. 
2 WOO. 10s Ol, Dh thy, We, Wo 

3 [bid., p. 30, pl. 1, figs. 27, 28. 

4 Angelin: Pal, Scand., p. 9, pl. vii, figs. 5, 6. 


386 F. R. Cowper Reed—Trilobites from Haverfordwest. 


backwards for a distance at least equal to its length. The points 
of the spines are broken off. Salter (op. cit.) described the genal 
angles as ‘‘short-spinous,’ but his figured specimens have the 
angles of the head-shield broken off short, so that their true 
character could not be determined. 

The whole surface of the head-shield in our specimen is minutely 
granulated, but the glabella and neck-ring possess also numerous 
minute inconspicuous tubercles, regularly distributed over the surface. 
Salter’s figures show the head-shield as coarsely tuberculated, though 
he expressly states that it is ‘‘ granular and not tubercular.” His 
figured specimen (op. cit., pl. iv, figs. 5, 6) and other specimens. 
named by him show numerous small low tubercles; so that the 
description is misleading. 

Of other species resembling this British form the one named 
Ch. maxima, Schmidt,' may be mentioned; the shape of the glabella 
and first lateral lobes agrees closely in some specimens, and the 
proportions as given by Schmidt are similar; but the presence of 
distinct second lateral lobes, the more numerous lenses in the eye, 
and the absence of a tubercular ornamentation mark it off. 

DIMENSIONS. 


Length of head-shield fas 350 a cas 19-0 
Width of head-shield... nie Sa sas ae 50°0 
Leneth of glabella... ee S06 oa ae 15:0 
Width of glabella (anterior end)... ie sis 25°5 
Width of glabella (at base) ... ace ane sae 12:0 
Length of frontal lobe Sis sae oe 11:0 


Puacops (CHasmMops) MacRouRA (Sjogren) ? (PI. XII, Fig. 3.) 


The second example of the subgenus Chasmops is a specimen of an 
imperfect pygidium from the Sholeshook Limestone of the Sholes- 
hook Railway cutting. It shows the typical characters of the form 
attributed by Salter? to Ch. macroura, Sjogren, but which is believed 
by Schmidt* to belong to Ch. Hichwaldi, Schmidt. It appears to me 
highly probable that the English form is distinct from both these 
species, and perhaps more than one species has been included by 
Salter and others under this name. But the species of this sub- 
genus are so closely allied to each other that when dealing with 
imperfect and fragmentary specimens it is almost impossible to 
separate them with certainty. 

In this Sholeshook specimen there is a faint row of pits visible 
along each pleural furrow on the lateral lobes, such as was described 
by McCoy? in the pygidium of Ch. macroura, but this feature was 
not mentioned by Salter in his specific description and is not 
observable in the majority of British specimens, though perhaps 

1 Schmidt: Rev. Ostbalt. Silur. Trilob., pt. i (1881), p. 112, pl. iii, fig. 11; 
pl. iv, figs. 1-8 (especially fig. 2), etc. 

2 Salter: Mon. Brit. Trilob., p. 37, pl. iv, figs. 18-23. 

3 Schmidt: Rey. Ostbalt. Silur. Trilob., pt. i (1881), p. 117, pl. iv, fig. 
pl. v, figs. 8-10, 16; pl. x, fig. 21. 

4 McCoy: Syn. Brit. Pal. Foss., p. 162, pl. iG, fig. 20 (Odontochile truncato- 
caudata). 


45. 


F. R. Cowper Reed—Trilobites from Haverfordwest. 387 


this may be due to their state of preservation. It is present in 
Ch. amphora, Salter,’ but in other respects this species is distinct. 


ENCRINURUS MULTISEGMENTATUS (Portlock). (Pl. XII, Fig. 6.) 


This species was not recorded by Messrs. Marr and Roberts from 
the Haverfordwest area, but in the Turnbull Collection there are 
several well-preserved pygidia and one cranidium from the Slade 
Beds of Cuckoo Grove Lane. 

The cranidium of this species, which was described by Portlock ” 
as Ampyx (?) baccatus, has a characteristic circlet of about ten large 
projecting tubercles in front of the pear-shaped convex glabella, 
which in our specimen (a cast) shows distinct traces of two pairs 
of lateral lobes. The tumid fixed cheek is about half the length of 
the glabella, and is ornamented, like it, with large tubercles. The 
pygidium, upon the characters of which Portlock * based his species 
Amphion | E. | multisegmentatus, 1s of an elongated triangular shape, 
with a long tapering axis annulated to its tip with 24-380 rings, 
which are quite continuous across the axis, though between the 
posterior ones the intervening furrows are less deep in the middle. 
No tubercles are present on the axis. The lateral lobes consist of 
12 simple pleuree (8-10 only show in our specimens, which are 
imperfect posteriorly) ; the anterior ones are curved gently back- 
wards, while the posterior ones are successively more strongly 
directed backwards till the last few lie almost parallel to the axis. 
The whole surface of the pygidium is finely granulated, and there 
are 1-3 large tubercles on each pleura. 


DIMENSIONS. mm. 
Length of cranidium ... es HS. Aa 8°5 
Leneth of pygidium 000 od 14:0 
Width of pygidium (at front end) 2 ys 12°5 


Remarks.—A form under the same specific name, comparable or 
identical with Portlock’s species, has been described by Schmidt * 
from the Lyckholm Beds of the Russian Baltic provinces, and by 
Tornquist® from the Leptena Limestone. The species has also 
recently been recognised in the Whitehouse and Drummuck groups 
of the Girvan district. It is closely allied to £. Seebachi, Schmidt,° 
from the Wesenberg Beds. 

The points of difference between EH. multisegmentatus and the allied 
E. multiplicatus have been previously given by the present author? 
in describing the latter. The type of Portlock’s #. multisegmentatus 
is in the Jermyn Street Museum, where I have had the privilege 
of examining it. 

1 Salter: op. cit., p. 42, pl. iv, fig. 16. 

2 Portlock: Geol. Rep. Londonderry, p- 262, pl. i, fig. 11. 

3 Tbid., p. 291, pl. iu, fig. 6. 

4 Schmidt: Rev. Ostbalt. Silur. Trilob. , pt. i (1881), p. 227, pl. xiv, figs. 14, 15; 
pl. xv, figs. 19, 20. 

5 Tornquist : Undersokn. Siljansom. Trilobitf. (Sver. Geol. Undersdkn., ser. C, 
No. 66), 1884, p. 24, pl. i, figs. 18, 19. 

6 Schmidt: op. cit., p. 229, pl. xiv, figs. 16-26; pl. xiv, figs. 21- 

7 Reed: Grou. Mac., Dec. IV, Vol. VIII (1901), Pp: 107, Pl. VII, Fig. 3 3. 


388 Professor T. G. Bonney—Eroded Rocks in Corsica. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE XII. 
Fic. 1.—Phacops (Chasmops) conicophthalmus, Boeck. Head-shield. Slade Beds, 
Upper Slade, Haverfordwest. x 1}. 
>, 2.—Phacops (Dalmanites) socialis, Barr. Var. Nearly complete individual. 
Orthis argentea zone, Prendergast Lane, Haverfordwest. Nat. size. 
5, 3.—Phacops (Chasmops) macroura, Sjégr.? Portion of pygidium.* Sholeshook 
Limestone, Sholeshook Railway Cutting, Haverfordwest. Nat. size. 
4.—Phacops (Dalmanites) aft. incertus, Desl. Pygidium, Slade Beds, Upper 
Slade, Havertordwest. x 23. 
5 O—Enerinurus multisegmentatus, Portl. Pygidium. Slade Beds, Cuckoo. 
Grove Lane, Havertordwest. x 23. 


IJ.—Somr Eroprep Rocks 1n Corsica. 
By Professor T. G. Bonney, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. 
(PLATE XIII.) 


S I have recently seen certain cases of the curious hollowing 
a out of rocks in Corsica, described by Mr. F. F. Tuckett (with 
a note from myself) in the January number of this Magazine, for 
which Mr. Lake suggested an explanation in the following number, 
I will add something to that note and intimate why I did not 
refer to desert regions for an explanation. The case which Mr. Lake 
mentions (‘‘ Das Gesetz der Wiistenbildung,” fig. 7) undoubtedly 
much resembles Mr. Tuckett’s photographs, and so, to some extent, 
do figs. 16 and 17, more especially the latter. With these I was 
not then acquainted, perhaps having overlooked the book, because 
I wrote a notice of “Die Denudation in der Wiiste,” when it 
appeared in 1891, and had formed the opinion that the author 
was disposed to work his hypothesis for rather more than it would 
stand. As, however, I knew there would shortly be a chance of 
my getting a glimpse of the Egyptian desert, I postponed stating 
why I had not suggested that kind of atmospheric erosion. In this 
region, however, I saw no more than I already knew, but on onr 
return, owing to an unexpected change of plans, we spent an 
afternoon and part of the next day in harbour at Ajaccio, when, 
by a lucky chance, I hit upon some curious instances of erosion, 
which I think may be worth a brief description. 

After strolling through the town, I walked from the Place 
Bonaparte to a quarry which has been opened at the foot of the 
hills. ‘These rise rather steeply from the town, and must be sloping 
just at this point roughly to the south-east. The rock was a fairly 
coarse porphyritic granite, grey with a tinge of pink, with the surface 
but slightly decomposed.t' I rambled up the slope, on which out- 
crops of granite are often frequent, attracted by the beauty of the 
wild-flowers, until I reached a road running along the hillside, 


1 A thin slice shows the rock to be, for a granite, in good preservation. Enough 
to say that it consists (apart from minor details) of quartz, biotite, and felspars, 
some of which (probably orthoclase), by enclosing smaller crystals of another species 
(usually a plagioclase), and by a peculiar mottling and streaking (perhaps a result of 
strain), recall the felspars of one or two Alpine granites, such as the protogine of the 
Mont Blane range or that on the upper part of the St. Gotthard Pass. 


Professor T. G. Bonney—Eroded Rocks in Corsica. 9889 


perhaps 400 feet above the sea.'! Along this I strolled for a short 
distance to enjoy a yet wider view; the slope rising rather 
steeply on one hand, occupied partly with tillage, partly with 
trees, but showing here and there a small knoll or boulder of 
granite, and descending on the other hand, being overgrown, in the 
immediate neighbourhood, with herbage and trees.? On this slope, 
and a short distance below the road, my eye was attracted by 
a block of granite, apparently a boulder several cubic yards in 
volume, on the lower part of which was a curious excavation. 


Fie. 1.—Hollow in Granitic block, outer Fic. 2.—Section along the 
surface dotted. A, mouth of inner line C-D in Fig. 1. 
hollow ; B, hole into it. 


The annexed sketches (Figs. 1 and 2), though very rough, for the 
subject was difficult to draw, will save a long description. The 
hollow (as the section in Fig. 2 shows) was on rather the under 
side of the boulder, against which a smaller one was lying. From 
C to D (Fig. 1) was about 30 inches (estimate), and the deepest 
part (at A) perhaps 16 inches. From this, however, a funnel-like 
cavity went upwards with a circular opening into it at B, about 
2 inches in diameter. Holding the head of my hammer, I thrust 
the handle up the funnel till its end passed this opening. How 
much higher it may go I cannot say, for when I have a defective 
knowledge of the aggressive fauna of a country 1 am not over 
curious in exploring dark hollows. The part drawn looked roughly 
west, and on the opposite side of the block was a smaller hollow. 

A few yards lower down the slope a block of granite, measuring 
rather more than a yard one way and a little less the other, is built 
into a low wall. On its surface are no less than eleven basin- 
like hollows, most of them about 4 inches in diameter; two being 
from 8 to 10 inches deep, and others 4 or 5 inches. As I scrambled 
downwards through the wood I saw many more hollows, either 
in boulders or in outcrops of granite, sometimes one, sometimes 
several on a block. Some were mere ‘potholes’ like those made 
by water, others short channels, rudely resembling the cast of 
a slug, which not seldom deepen in one part to a kind of basin; 


1 Perhaps it was part of the Salario Road. I had no map of Ajaccio. 
2 The majority were wild olives, as Sir W. T. Thiselton- Dyer, after examining 
a specimen, has kindly informed me. 


390 =©Professor T. G. Bonney—Eroded Rocks in Corsica. 


others again sink deep into the stone, certain of them running 
either upwards or sideways; occasionally they reminded one, 
though of course they were much larger, of the borings made 
in limestone by snails.1. One resembled those photographed by 
Mr. Tuckett (except that the eroded hollow was higher up the side 
of the block), and I think a big lad might have curled himself up 
inside. The surface of the blocks was in fair preservation, for 
though the felspar was rather dulled and whitened it was not at 
all rotten ;* that of the hollows was smoothed, occasionally almost 
glazed, but the porphyritic felspar-crystals were often just prominent 
enough to catch the eye and be felt by the finger. ‘The majority of 
the hollows looked towards the west; the remainder faced to the 
other points of the compass, sometimes more than one way on the 
same block, and they were at various heights from the ground. 
The group represented in P]. XIII, though not one of those which 
I saw, gives an excellent idea of some of the hollows. I am 
indebted for it to Sir C. W. Wilson, K.C.B., F.R.S., to whom I had 
mentioned the discovery, and from whom I received it after this 
paper was in type. He tells me that it was on the slope, a few 
yards from a wall boundary and pathway, and, as far as he can . 
remember, within a hundred yards of the garden wall of the Hotel 
Continental (in the Boulevard Grandval). The dimensions are, at 
a rough estimate, 5 x 6 feet. 

I saw from the vessel some granite blocks on the northern slopes of 
a valley which comes down to the sea a little to the north of Ajaccio, 
so I walked there next morning. They are not far from the 
Pénitencier de Castelluccio. Here, however, the blocks were not 
so numerous or accessible, and I found but one good example of 
these hollows, of which a diagram is annexed (Fig. 3); this occurs 


NY) {\ A \. 
HRI sheT > (tn 
Ne wi, 

o ¥ 

Fie. 3. 


on the front face of a rudely quadrangular block, defined by rough 
joints, which rises to a height of 9 or 10 feet above the ground, 
being perhaps 5 feet wide near the top. In form the hollow 
slightly resembles the outstretched head of a duck with a rather 


1 See Gron. Mac., 1869, Pl. XVII, and the Fig. on p. 486. 

* Ina specimen obtained from a block on a more exposed part of the hillside, in 
we i one hollow, the cleavage-planes of the larger felspars still reflect light 
airly well. 


GEOL. MAG. 1904. Dec. V, Vol. I, Pl. XIII. 


Froded Granite Boulder, near Ajaccio. 


Corsica. 


From a photograph by Sir C. W. Wilson, K.C.B., etc. 


mt 
i 
{ 
| 


ea ta ee eens 


+ 


Professor T. G. Bonney—Evroded Rocks in Corsica. 391 


pointed bill; it was about a yard long, 16 inches in greatest breadth, 
and 14 inches in greatest depth, the lowest point being about 74 feet 
from the ground. All the figures are estimates, the hollow being 
inaccessible. In it were two basins, one in the head (the deeper, 
I think), the other at the end of the ‘neck.’ ‘This face of the rock 
looked a little south of east. 

Since my return to England I have ascertained that an account of 
these curious hollows was published in 1882 by Prof. H. H. Reusch 
(Bull. Soc. Géol. France, sér. 111, t. xi, p. 53).’ He states that they 
occur in both granite and schists, the smaller being called tafoni, 
the larger groties, and thinks they indicate soft places in the mass, 
thus being the converse of the weathered out blocks which simulate 
erratics. He remarks that he has seen some approach to the structure 
in the old sea caves of Norway. They are also mentioned, with 
other cases of peculiar erosion, in Professor Penck’s “‘ Morphologie 
der Hrdoberfliiche” (1894, pt. i, pp. 214-216), and by him attributed 
to local decomposition, but these in several cases appear to be 
only basins of the ‘sacrificial’ type. Signor Paul Choffat, how- 
ever, gives an excellent description of some examples in Portugal 
(“‘Communicacoes da Direccao dos Trabalhos Geologicos de Portugal,” 
t. ili, p. 17) with four good illustrations. They occur in a porphyritic 
granite at two localities very different in situation. One, in the 
‘Gerez, is nearly 15 leagues inland on barren hills, almost 3,000 feet 
above sea-level ; the other, at Faro d’Anha, at heights of from 500 
to 050 feet in a thick wood of tall pines. There are three types: 
‘simple basins, basins with a linear arrangement and more or less in 
communication by destruction of the intervening walls, and, thirdly 
(only at Faro d’Anha), varied forms, such as I have described above, 
one of them being undercut, though to a less extent than that 
figured by Mr. Tuckett; the sides, not in this case only, exhibit 
a slight, rudely horizontal ridging, with an approach to a glaze. 
Signor Choffat attributes these hollows to local decomposition, though, 
if I rightly understand him, he would not exclude the possibility 
of some having been ‘touched up’ by prehistoric man. He states 
that the basins (of the Dartmoor type) are not unfrequently sur- 
rounded by a slight rim, as if the adjacent rock were slightly harder 
than the rest, mentioning a suggestion by Professor Heim that this 
might be due to percolation of silica liberated by decomposition 
of the felspar—an ingenious idea, worth careful consideration, for 
it would also explain the occasional approach to a glazing of the 
surface, but not quite free from difficulty, for this percolation would 
have sometimes to extend almost against gravitation, and one would 
expect the hardening of the silica to check the enlargement of the 
cavity. 

Decomposition seems the natural explanation, but in some of the 
cases described this must have acted in a singularly selective 
way; the granite also, as I have said, shows no sign of anything 

1 J was set on the track of this and other references by Sir A. Geikie’s valuable 


“Text Book”? (p. 456). Protessor Reusch also published in a Christiania scientitic 
periodical (1878), but I have not been able to consult the paper. 


392 Dr. Wheelton Hind—Lower Culm of North Devon. 


like rottenness, and the schist, as implied on p. 12, is in good 
condition close to the very outside. The state of the surface 
suggests that mechanical forces may have co-operated with chemical, 
for it is not unlike that produced by blown sand; yet to gouge out 
some of these, for instance that first described, the winds would 
have to eddy in a very queer fashion, for the holes occasionally 
run deep into the rock both sideways and upwards. Nor does the 
action of dew or of moisture in any form seem a promising explana- 
tion, for they occur on both sheltered and exposed sides of the 
blocks and look to all points of the compass, though more commonly 
westwards. 

This brings me to the difficulty, which, owing to my general 
knowledge of Corsica and Mr. 'Tuckett’s descriptions, had prevented 
me from seeking an explanation in Indian or any other desert regions. 
Its scenery, so far as I know it, is at least as luxuriant as that 
around the subalpine Italian lakes. There was not a trace of grit 
or sand about the Ajaccio blocks, and to reduce an island in this 
part of the Mediterranean to the conditions of a desert or steppe 
would demand changes of geography or climate which are almost 
startling, and we must also suppose that since the arid epoch 
ended the surfaces of the hollows have undergone little or no 
alteration. Neither atmospheric corrosion nor any form of wind 
abrasion seems to satisfy all the conditions of the problem, and 
until I can spend some time in Corsica to study other examples 
I prefer to restrict myself to this statement, negative though it be. 


III.—On tue Homoraxran EquivaLents oF THE LOWER CULM or 
Norra Drvonsuire. 


By WueeEttTon Hinp, M.D., B.S., F.R.C.S., F.G.S. 


ie the paper on the Pendleside group at Pendle Hill, Q.J.G.S., 

vol. lvil, p. 577, I said, “The further facts of the distribution of 
Glyphioceras spirale and Posidonomya Becheri set forth in the fore- 
going pages open up the wide question of the age of the Culm beds 
of Devon and Germany.” Since then I have had the great advantage 
of examining suites of fossils from the Lower Culm of Devonshire, 
collected by Mr. Hamling, of Barnstaple, and Mr. Coomaraswamy, 
from the Coddon Hill Beds and other localities in North Devon. 
I was so interested in the fossils that I found it necessary to 
go down and examine the beds in which they occurred, and 
Mr. Hamling gave me the inestimable advantage of his guidance. 
In this way we examined the Lower Culm and the underlying 
Pilton Beds in detail from West Leigh to Fremington, and the 
so-called Middle Culm of Bideford and other places. I was able 
to see the Hall collection of fossils at Barnstaple, and again to 
renew my acquaintance with Mr. Hamling’s collection. This visit 
to Devonshire, it seems to me, was fortunately planned after a visit 
last Summer to the Devono-Carboniferous succession in the south- 
west of Ireland, and a study of the fauna in the collection of 
the Geological Survey at Dublin and in the Museum of Queen’s 
College, Cork. 


Dr. Wheelton Hind—Lower Culm of North Deron. 393 


If paleontology is of any value, and the distribution of fossils 
does indicate homotaxis, then we are particularly fortunate in the 
Culm, which, though it is not richly fossiliferous, yet contains 
peculiar and well-marked species, which do indicate well-marked 
horizons in the Carboniferous series further north. 

There are certain stratigraphical facts which are well known, 
such as the general succession of the Devonian series and its 
relation to the Culm. It is agreed that the geological structure 
of Devonshire is a synclinal, and that in the north the rocks are 
all very highly tilted and dip steadily south at high angles; that 
the dip is not simple, but that in each member of the series there 
are many secondary folds, owing to which it is impossible to 
estimate the thickness of each division. ‘There appears to be no 
unconformity between the Upper Devonian or Pilton Beds and the 
Lower Culm. 

The Lower Culm consists of two very distinct series of rocks: 
the Coddon Hill Beds, which are composed of thin-bedded, hard, 
siliceous, or cherty, light-grey or fawn-coloured rocks, full of 
radiolarian remains, and containing a small but distinctive fauna, 
and the Venn or Black limestones, of hard, splintery, black, semi- 
crystalline limestone and calcareous shales with Posidonomya Becheri 
and Glyphioceras crenistria. - 

The first and important point to settle is the true succession in 
the Lower Culm, that is to say, what is the relation between the 
peculiar thin siliceous beds of Coddon Hill and the Black limestones 
yielding Posidonomya Becheri of Venn, Bampton, and West Leigh ? 

Sedgwick (‘Trans. Geol. Soc., ser. v1, vol. v, p. 670) thought that 
the Coddon Hill Beds were below the Posidonomya beds. Phillips and 
-many others thought the reverse; but Mr. Ussher (‘‘ Culm-measure 
Types of Great Britain,” Trans. Inst. Min. Engineers, vol. xx, 1901, 
p: 362), in his table of the classification of strata, favours the view 
that the Coddon Hill cherts are below the Posidonomya beds. ‘This 
Mr. Hamling tells me has been his opinion, and together we examined 
the ground carefully with a view to ascertain the evidence for this 
succession. 

Mr. Hamling writes me as follows:—‘“I see at the reading of 
Hinde & Fox’s paper on ‘A well-marked horizon of Radiolarian 
Rocks in the Lower Culm of Devon, etc.,’ I expressed agreement 
with their conclusions, which suggest that Venn beds are below 
Coddon Hill (Q.J.G.S8., vol. li, 1895, p. 609). I have worked these 
beds very closely since then, and now believe the Coddon beds are 
below Venn. Perhaps you can explain this change of opinion 
since 1895.” 

Standing on Coddon Hill and looking north and east, it is to be 
noted that the Coddon Hill range runs east to beyond the village of 
Swimbridge, and that it meets east of that village a ridge which 
runs into it from the west, forming a Y ; ie., there is a synclinal of 
Coddon Hill Beds which west of Swimbridge has the beds contained 
in the syncline gradually pinched out in succession, so that the two 
limbs of the synclinal come together. The contour of the surface of 


394 .Dr. Wheelton Hind—Lower Oulm of North Devon. 


the synclinal trough is important. Tracing the rocks from north to 
south, Coddon Hill beds form an east to west line of elevation, 
succeeded by a hollow trough. In this hollow the Venn limestones, 


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with Posidonomya Becheri, have been worked. In the centre of 
the synclinal is an east to west line of elevation, sections of which 


Dr. Wheelton Hind—Lower Culm of North Devon. 395 


show grits and rocks of a Middle Culm type: South there is. 
a hollow parallel with the strike between these grits, the main 
Coddon Hill range, which I think indicates the Black limestone 
of Venn, and immediately south is the Coddon Hill range. This 
would make the succession— 

Middle Culm grits. 


Posidonomya beds. 
Coddon Hill beds. 


Unfortunately no limestones have been worked in the hollow south 
of the Middle Culm, although the depression which exists parallel 
to and between the Coddon Hill Beds and Middle Culm grits seems 
to indicate calcareous beds. 

There is no doubt that the dips taken in various quarries show 
that the beds on the north are dipping south, and those of the main 
Coddon Hill range dip north. Also the Venn limestones are dipping 
south at a very high angle, conformable to the Coddon Hill Beds. 
of Venn Cross quarry on the north side of the synclinal. So that 
in the valley between Venn Cross, where the beds dip south, and 
Coddon Hill, where the beds dip north, is situated the Venn limestone 
with Posidonomya Becheri and the Middle Culm grits. Traced east, 
in the gradually vanishing synclinal, first of all the feature formed 
by the Middle Culm grits disappears near Hannaford, and in the 
hollow between this terminating feature and the junction of the two 
limbs of the Coddon Beds, the Posidonomya limestones crop out rich 
in fossils and occupying a hollow with beds of Coddon Hill type 
to the north and south of it. 

Kast of Swimbridge, from Filleigh to Marsh, are a line of old 
workings in the Black limestones, but the Coddon Hill Beds 
become faulted out, so that apparently in turn, first Posidonomya 
beds and then the Middle Culm beds rest on the Pilton series or 
Upper Devonian. At Headon, quarries of well-marked Coddon Hill 
Beds, here associated with much wavellite, are dipping south and 
are north of the line of the Filleigh limestones, but a little east of 
North Aller Farm they have disappeared and the limestones are 
faulted against Pilton Beds. For the next 17 miles eastward 
Lower Culm beds have been cut off by faults, but near Dulverton 
- Station beds of Coddon Hill type are to be seen having the same 
strike as at Coddon Hill east and west, dipping almost vertically 
but with a southerly trend. 

Close to Dulverton Station, near Brushford village, is a quarry in 
Pilton Beds whence Phillips obtained many of the fossils which he 
described, and south of this village is Kent’s Hill quarry with 
thin siliceous beds of the Coddon Hill type. About half a mile 
further east is the Hulverton Hill quarry. This hill has the curious 
contour which seems to be typical of Coddon Hill Beds elsewhere, 
and the beds themselves are characteristic. Nowhere are beds of 
Posidonomya limestone seen between Pilton and Coddon Hill Beds. 
Still further east, at Ashbrittle, are Coddon Hill Beds, and these 
are apparently lying on Pilton Beds. 


396 Dr. Wheelton Hind—Lower Culm of North Devon. 


If the geological map made by Mr. Ussher and published in his 
paper in the Transactions of the Institute of Mining Engineers 
(op. supra cit.) be examined, it will be seen that from south to 
north the Lower Culm beds tend to form a succession of small 
evanescent synclinals due to folding. Tongues of Middle Culm 
measures invade the Lower Culm, lying in small troughs which 
become lost as they pass east. One of these troughs runs up 
between Hulverton Hill and Westbrook, but in this trough I think 
I am right in saying no limestones have been found. But at West- 
brook Farm and near the road from Brushford to Bampton, beds of 
Coddon Hill type are to be seen dipping south, to pass beneath the 
Posidonomya limestones so fully exposed in the many Bampton 
quarries. In the railway cutting north of Bampton Station the 
beds are distinctly thin and cherty, and approach closely to the 
Coddon Hill type. 


Coddon Hil Sy 
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A Datum wey Pak B 


Fie. 2.—Section through Coddon Hill Beds, Barnstaple, on the line A-B in Fig. 1. 
Scale: horizontal, 4 inches = 3 miles, or 2 inches = 14 miles; vertical, 
4 inch=150 feet. 

At Holcombe-rogus and Westleigh the well-developed limestones 
all crop out south of the general strike of the Coddon Hill Beds, 
but the time was too short, in this immediate neighbourhood, to 
examine the ground in sufficient detail. 

West of Barnstaple an examination of the succession at Fremington 
seems to point to similar conclusions. The river bank at Fremington 
shows a series of fossiliferous shales with numerous Brachiopods and 
corals of a Carboniferous type, but containing no fossils which could 
be used as an index of horizon. These beds evidently are either at 
the top of the Pilton series or immediately overlie that series, but 
for our present purpose it is important to note the relation of the 
strike of these beds to that of the Pilton series, for they afford 
a base-line for the determination of the beds immediately above 
them. These are seen at Pen Hill quarry, immediately south of the 
railway line, where there are thin platy beds with cherts in bands 
and siliceous beds, but also there is here a development of calcareous 
beds of some few feet in thickness. The limestones and shales, 
however, have not been found to contain Posidonomya Becheri, and 
the whole section bears a close lithological resemblance to the 
Coddon Hill Beds. The beds are dipping south at an angle of 
28°. At Fremington Pill, near Gaydon’s Cottage, thin-bedded 


Dr. Wheelton. Hind—Lower Culm of North Devon. 397 


siliceous rocks of light fawn colour, with numerous chert bands, 
here decomposed, strongly recall Coddon Hill Beds. These lie 
above the beds seen in Pen Hill quarry, and in the upper portion 
of them, 90 yards from the wall of Gaydon’s Cottage, occurs 
Posidonomya Becheri in abundance. A short distance further south 
the Black Posidonomya limestones have been worked. 

On the foreshore west of Fremington Station are beds dipping 
50° 8. which have a Coddon Hill character; they are apparently 
on the top of the limestone band in Pen Hill quarry, which crops 
out on the shore at low water. This would make the succession at 
Fremington as follows :— 


Posidonomya Becheri Limestones ... ... ... Venn Limestones. 
Dark shales with P. Becheri. 


Lighter-coloured shales with cherts a: ) 

Band of limestone ... ... ... ... ... «.. ¢ Coddon Hill Beds. 
Shales Br Neuteate) ha atueoca gc easste eect 

Fossiliferous shales Too ea) May esuessat Geassamer beds: 
Pilton{Series\is.ql eee eee eens eet lO ppers)evonian’ 


Following the beds along the strike westward, no beds of Coddon 
Hill type are to be seen between the Fremington limestones and the 
Middle Culm beds at Instow. 

The beds at Instow are of great importance; they consist of 
a series of sandstones, shales, and clays, including calcareous nodules 
crammed with fossils. I was fortunate enough to find two species 
which had not previously been recorded from these beds. 


Pterinopecten papyraceus, Sow., sp. Dimorphoceras Gilbertsoni, Phill., sp. 
Posidoniella levis, Brown, sp. Colacanthus elegans. 
Gastrioceras Listeri, Martin, sp. Elonichthys Aitkeni. 


Gastrioceras carbonarium, V. Buch., sp. 


These beds seem to succeed the sandstones and shales at the base 
of the Middle Culm, and the fauna indicates unmistakably the Lower 
Coal-measures of the horizon of the Bullion Mine of Lancashire. 

Quarries between Instow and Bideford show indurated clays, 
shales, and grits, which have a very familiar aspect to anyone well 
acquainted with the Coal-measures of the Midlands. 

Roberts’ Quarry, east of Bideford, is an important horizon, because 
here in indurated clay and fawn-coloured shales abundant plant- 
remains occur, which are identical with ferns and plants found in 
the Coal-measures of the Midlands. Immediately above the plant- 
bed is an indurated light-coloured clay, with iron stains in its joints, 
in which the typical Coal-measure shell Carbonicola acuta is not 
uncommon. Unfortunately, time did not allow further work in the 
beds above the Lower Culm, but the fauna and flora bear out 
Sedgwick’s view (op. supra cit., p. 682), “The Upper Culm strata 
of Devon are the geological equivalents of the ordinary Bristol 
coalfields.” 

Paleontology. — The fossils of the Lower Culm are, with the 
exception of some new species of Trilobites described by Dr. Henry 
Woodward, not confined to Devonshire, but are known to have 
a fairly definite and constant distribution in other Carboniferous areas. 


398 Dr. Wheelton Hind—Lower Culm of North Devon. 


In that area of England between Cracoe in Craven and Leicester- 
shire where the Pendleside series is developed, it is found that 
immediately on the top of the massif of Carboniferous Limestone 
at Warsoe, at the foot of Pendle Hill, in the River Hodder, near 
Stoneyhurst, and at Astbury limestone quarry at the foot of Congleton 
Edge, Cheshire, are beds containing Prolecanites compressus and 
Trilobites of various species. Higher up in the series are beds with: 
Posidonomya Becheri. Then at Congleton Edge and Pendle Hill 
some 300 feet below the Millstone Grit beds are marine shales with 
Glyphioceras spirale. Such a succession has been found to occur in 
many localities, and I take it to be a normal one, and that the fossils 
mentioned above indicate definite zones in the Pendleside series. 
Seeing that these fossils occur in the Lower Culm series, it is 
important to ascertain whether there is any stratigraphical reason 
for supposing a different succession of these fossil zones; if not, 
the known relation of the fossil zones in other areas may be used 
as an argument for a similar succession in the Culm area. 

In the Lower Culm series there are two distinct faunas, one 
contained in the Coddon Hill Beds, the other characterising the 
Venn limestones. 


Beps oF Coppon HIu tTypr. 


In the Coddon Hill Beds the following important fossils have 
been obtained :— 


TRILOBITES. 
Phillipsia Leei. Griffithides acanthiceps. 
35 Mino? . 3,  longispinus. 
ah Cliffordi. Proetus, sp. 
? *Phillipsia Pollen. 
Corats. 
* Paleacis humilis, Hinde. * Pleurodietywn Dechenianum, Kayser. 
* Petrava ct. paucirvadialis, Phill. 
CEPHALOPODA. 
_Prolecanites mixolobus, Phill., sp. * Nomismoceras spirorbis, Phill., sp. 
35 compressus, SOW., Sp. * Pericyclus, sp. 
LAMELLIBRANCHS. 


*Chanocardiola Footii, Baily, sp. 
BRACHIOPODA. 
*Chonetes Laguessiana, and shells either crushed or varieties alluded to by Von 
Koenen as C. deflexa and C. rectispina. *Productus plicatus, Sarres. 
*Several RADIOLARIA. 


The species marked * are all found at the base of the Pendleside 
series in the Bolland district of Yorkshire. The exact locality 
where Phillips obtained P. mixolobus is unknown, as he only gives 
Bolland, which is a large district in which are beds belonging to the 

Carboniferous Limestone, Pendleside series, and Millstone Grit. 

Paleacis humilis, says Dr. G. J. Hinde, is “fairly common in 
shale or mudstone, associated with limestones and chert exposed on the 

banks of the river Hodder, below Stoneyhurst College, Lancashire ; 
according to Mr. R. H. Tiddeman the rocks . . . . come in 
between the Clitheroe limestones and the Pendleside limestones.” 


Dr. Wheelton Hind—Lower Culm of North Devon. 399 


This is so, the beds forming the base of the Pendleside series. It 
occurs in the Lower Culm only in beds of the Coddon Hill type. 

Chenocardiola Footii is a shell always associated with a lower 
Pendleside fauna in the Midlands and Ireland ; its occurrence in 
the Lower Culm of Hannaford quarry is important. Mr. J. G. 
Hamling has some fragments in his collection, but I was particularly 
fortunate to find two valves in the trilobite beds of Hannaford 
quarry. In my monograph on British Carboniferous Lamellibranchs, 
vol. i, p. 476, I quoted Coal-measures as the horizon for this species. 
I think Roscliff, co. Clare, is below that horizon, and should be 
Pendleside series. 

Prolecanites compressus.—Although I feel strongly the value of this 
species as a zonal form, there is no doubt that it is not absolutely 
confined to the base of the Pendleside series, for it occurs in the 
Carboniferous Limestone of Little Island, co. Cork, and in the lower 
limestones of Scarlett Quarry, Isle of Man. Still, there is a definite 
and well-defined series of rocks, of no very great thickness, 
immediately at the base of the Pendleside series, which is characterised 
by this shell, and it does occur below shales and black limestones 
with Posidonomya Becheri. 

Nomismoceras spirorbis.—The type of this species was obtained 
from the Black limestone of Black Hall, Bolland, Pendleside series ; 
and it is of great interest to note that the strike of the beds 
and their relation to the Millstone Grits at Black Hall would make 
these beds below a series quarried at Cold Coates which contain 
P. Becheri in abundance. 

Pericyclus, sp.—I1 have obtained similar examples from the 
Pendleside series of Yorkshire and the Lower Culm. 

Trilobites.—Dr. H. Woodward described two Trilobites from the 
base of the Pendleside series (R. Hodder, Got. Mac., 1894, Dec. IV, 
Vol. I, pp. 481-489), Phillipsia Pollenit and P. Van-der-Grachtit. 
Subsequently I found the latter associated with Prolecanites compressus 
at Ashbury quarry, Cheshire, and Dr. H. Woodward recognises 
P. Polieni, though with some hesitation, in the cherty beds of Coddon 
Hill (Grou. Maa., 1902, Dec. IV, Vol. IX, p. 482). It is important, 
however, to note the occurrence of species of Trilobites at the horizon 
of the base of the Pendleside series and Lower Culm, the majority 
of which do not occur in the Carboniferous Limestone. 

Brachiopoda.—There is no very important evidence afforded by 
the Brachiopoda found in the Lower Culm and Pendleside series. 
I have always regarded the varieties of Chonetes occurring in the Culm 
of Germany and described under different names to show no greater 
difference from each other than is found to obtain amongst a number 
of individuals collected from the same bed and horizon. Certain 
species of Productus may be peculiar, but unfortunately the specimens 
are not well enough preserved to say whether the differences are 
due to dwarfing and crushing or to specific characters. All the other 
Brachiopods, Discina nitida, Leptena analoga, Orthotetes crenistria, 
Athyris ambigua, occur at many horizons in the whole Carboniferous 
series. 

DECADE V.—VOL. I.—NO. VIII. 23 


400 Dr. Wheelton Hind—Lower Culm of North Devon. 


Radiolarian rocks also are found in the Pendleside series. There 
is, therefore, a very remarkable and close resemblance in the faunas 
of the Coddon Hill Beds of the Lower Culm and the Pendleside 
series: so practically identical, indeed, are they, that there can be 
little or no doubt that they are the homotaxial equivalents of 
each other. 


Tue Venn, or Posidonomya Becheri Limustone. 


The fanna contained in the black limestones of North Devon is 
not so rich in species as that of the Coddon Hill Beds, but the 
following species are abundant :— 


Posidonomya Becheri. Glyphioceras striatum. 

Pseudamusium fibrillosun. Ac sphericun. 

Glyphioceras spirale. Orthoceras cylindraceuin. 
55 crenistria. 


Priant Remarns: Oordaites, sp. 

Posidonomya Becheri.—I only recognise one species. The examina- 
tion of a large number of specimens has convinced me that the forms 
P. tuberculata and P. lateralis are accidental, due to conditions of 
preservation and degree of flattening by compression. 

Iregard P. Becheri as an important zonal form, indicating a horizon 
somewhat above that of P. compressus. I have found this zone 
constant in position from Old Head of Kinsale in the south of Ireland 
to Clavier and Visé in Belgium. The zone has no great vertical 
depth, and I am unable to indicate the precise thickness, but in the 
Midlands, beds characterised by G. spirale extend some hundreds of 
feet above P. Becheri. 

I have, as in the case of Prolecanites compressus, found specimens 
of P. Becheri at a lower horizon. It occurs in the Yoredale series of 
Wensleydale above the Great Scar Limestone, and I have found it 
actually in the top beds of the Carboniferous Limestone at Castleton, 
but in these places it has, with it, a typically Carboniferous Lime- 
stone fauna. 

At Poolvash, Isle of Man, P. Becheri occurs in black limestone 
and shales, which succeed the shelly white upper beds of the 
Carboniferous Limestone. With it is the following fauna :— 


Solenomya costellata. Glyphioceras crenistria, and a crushed 
Orthoceras Morrisianwn. Cephalopod which Mr. Crick identifies 
suleatum. as Stroboceras suleatum. 


I have not been able to get at the beds at the base of the series, 

where I should expect to find Prolecanites compressus and Trilobites. 
Some curious beds containing P. Becheri occur at Budle, North- 

umberland, the real horizon of which is very doubtful and vague. 


IRELAND. 

In co. Dublin the Pendleside series succeeds the Carboniferous 
Limestone near Sherries; at the former horizon P. Becheri is found 
in abundance. At Old Head of Kinsale, south-west of Cork, 
P. Becheri occurs in hard shaly beds in a curious sequence of 
shales and thin indurated calcareous beds. In South-West Cork, 
as in Devonshire, the Carboniferous Limestone is absent, and there is 


Dr. Wheelton Hind—Lower Culm of North Devon. 401 


a passage from Devonian rocks into Carboniferous without a strati- 
graphical break. Curiously enough, beds with a Devonian fauna, 
Cucullea unilateralis and Ptychopteria Damnoniensis, which in Devon- — 
shire are recognised as the Cucullea beds and occur below the Pilton 
Beds, are classed as Carboniferous in Ireland. It appears to me 
that a similar sequence occurs in both South-West Cork and Kerry 
and Devonshire. The Coomhola grits with Cucullea unilateralis and 
Ptychopteria Damnoniensis, are the equivalents of the Pickwell Down 
and Baggy Point Beds, and the beds with P. Bechert, the equivalents 
of the Venn Limestone series of the Lower Culm. It would be well 
if stratigraphical lines, based on paleontology, were identical in 
the two countries. The fauna of the Coomhola grits is typically 
Devonian, and not Carboniferous. The absence of Carboniferous 
Limestone in North Devonshire and further west along the line of 
strike, at Old Head of Kinsale and the part of Ireland west of that 
point, shows that this absence in both localities is due to the same 
conditions of deposit. The succession in both countries is the same. 


DEVONSHIRE. Soutu-Wesr IRELAND. 
Lower Culm 200 as Posidonomya beds, Pendleside series. 
Pilton Beds Bah aio Coomhola grits 


Baggy Beds do 650 Cucullea zone \ Uggs Dison, 


The absence of Carboniferous Limestone in both areas is very 
definite, and the recognition that the sequence in North Devon and 
South-West Ireland is identically the same not only broadens the 
question, but at the same time demonstrates that the Culm of 
Devonshire is not merely a local condition, and that the absence of 
Carboniferous Limestone in South-West Cork and in the Carboniferous 
series of Devonshire is due to the same series of causes. 


Pseudamusium fibrillosum.— This species is, as far as I know, 
never found below the Pendleside series, but it passes up into 
Coal-measures. This is an important species, because it has been 
obtained from the Culm of Herborn and Magdeburg. For the 
synonymy of this species vide my monograph on British Car- 
boniferous Lamellibranchs, vol. ii, p. 106. 

Glyphioceras spirale.—This species is very plentiful, occurring in 
thousands, in a blackish shale about 500 feet below the third grit 
at Congleton Edge, Cheshire. I have found it at various other 
localities in Yorkshire, but I always consider that it denotes a zone 
higher up in the series than that of P. Becheri. The species appears 
to be more common in South Devonshire than in the north of the 
country, and I can say nothing definitely about its actual position in 
the series there, but it is stated that it occurs with Posidonomya, 
Ussher, “ British Culm Measures,” Somerset Arch. and Nat. Hist. 
Soc., vol. xxxvili (1892), p. 132; he says, “The Posidonomya in 
these beds are, as a rule, smaller than those occurring in the beds 
which in the Chudleigh and Bovey Tracey districts carry on the 
calcareous horizon.” In Cheshire G. spirale occurs with Posidoniella 
levis. The other Goniatites found in the Becheri beds are not typical 
of the horizon, for they occur at various horizons in the Carboniferous 


402 Dr. Wheelton Hind—Lower Culm of North Devon. 


Limestone series, but are specially plentiful in the upper shelly 
limestone of Derbyshire, Staftordshire, and Yorkshire. 

Paleontological evidence is therefore decidedly strong in favour 
of the Posidonomya Becheri beds overlying the Coddon Hill Beds, 
especially when such a sequence of fossil zones is found to obtain 
over large areas at a distance. 

The occurrence of flinty deposits at a definite horizon in the 
Carboniferous beds may be adduced for what it is worth. In 
Wensleydale the chert beds come on immediately on the top of 
the Yoredale series. In Derbyshire and Yorkshire the chert horizon 
is found at the base of the Pendleside series. At Bishopton, near 
Gower, a series of white cherty beds, containing Trilobites and 
Brachiopoda, occur on the top of the upper beds of the Carboniferous 
Limestone, the Oystermouth Beds. The cherty beds are here overlain 
by black shales, with Posidoniella levis and Glyphioceras bilingue, 
fossils which occur low down in the Pendleside series. These cherty 
beds are, I believe, homotaxial with the Coddon Hill Beds. Similar 
cherty beds, but much less well developed, are to be seen at Clavier, 
near Dinant, in Belgium, where a typical lower Pendleside fauna, 
Prolecanites compressus and Chenocardiola Footii, etc., is obtained. 
The beds at Clavier rest in hollows in the Carboniferous Limestone, 
and are therefore on the horizon of the Pendleside series, a fact 
which cannot be doubted if the collection of fossils made by the 
Geological Survey of Belgium, and now placed in the Musée Royale 
at Brussels, is examined. I was enabled by the kindness of Professor 
Dupont, Director of that Museum, to study all the fossils collected 
from Clavier, and I identified the following. It was, however, 
impossible for me to determine in what position they occurred in siti, 
but it is doubtless on record. 

Phillipsii, sp., with long cheek spines. Orthoceras, sp. 


Pseudanusiun fibrillosum. Prolecanites compressus. 
Posidoniella levis. Glyphioceras bilingue. 
Posidonomya inembranacea. Glyphioceras spirale. 
Pteronites angustatus. ? G. diadema. 
Chenocardiola Footii. Celonautilus suleatus. 
Athyris anbigua. Lestracanthus Beyrichii. 
Chonetes Laguessiana. Crinoid joints. 
Productus seabriculus. Plant remains. 


Productus semireticulatus. 
And from shales at Visé I determined 
Posidonomya Becheri. 
Pterinopecten papyraceus. 
Posidoniella levis. 

Whether or not the Coddon Hill Beds are below the Posidonomya 
limestones, it cannot be denied that the palxontological evidence 
shows that the Lower Culm is the homotaxial equivalent of the 
Pendleside series, and that the Instow Beds indicate Lower Coal- 
measures, and the Carbonicola acuta and plant beds near Bideford 
represent Coal-measures of a higher horizon. The Culm series, then, 
represents the whole Upper Carboniferous series of the Midlands, 
and in this case the idea of workable coal being found in Devonshire 


Upfield Green—The Cornish Beds and the Gedinnian. 403 


is very improbable. It seems to me that the beds of Culm represent 
the total result of the attempt to form coal, and nothing more is to 
be hoped for. The views expressed in this paper are the result | 
of a profound belief in the value of certain Carboniferous fossils as 
zonal indices, based on careful observation in the Midlands. The 
zones are not quite so well defined as those which obtain in older 
and newer formations, a result probably due to conditions of deposit, 
but nevertheless I find these life zones to be of economic importance 
to the mining engineer. 

A paper in the Gxonocican Macazine for June by Dr. J. H. 
Parkinson, pp. 272-276, on ‘“‘The Zoning of the Culm in South 
Germany,” is of interest, because from an examination of the fauna 
of the Culm of Kénigsberg he arrives at the conclusion that this 
Culm witha Visé Limestone fauna lies above the Posidonomya shales 
of Herborn. 

This is very improbable. The Herborn fauna is identical with 
that which is found in the Pendleside series of England, which is 
definitely kuown to succeed beds with a Visé limestone or a Productus 
giganteus fauna. At Visé also shales with P. Becheri succeed the Visé 
Limestone, and lastly the Tournai Limestone, to which Dr. Parkinson 
refers the Posidonomya beds of Herborn, does not contain the fauna 
characteristic of the Lower Culm, but has an altogether different 
assemblage of fossils. Judging from the fauna of Konigsberg Culm, 
I think he is quite correct in referring the beds to the Visé horizon, 
but beyond that I beg to join issue with his conclusions. 

Through the kindness of Dr. H. Woodward I have been favoured 
with the précis of Mr. Newell Arber’s paper on “ The Fossil Flora 
of the Culm Measures of North-West Devon,” read before the Royal 
Society on June 9th. This paper conclusively proves from the 
evidence of the flora that “the horizon in the Upper Carboniferous 
represented by that portion of the Upper Culm Measures in which 
the Coal or Culm occurs in the Bideford district is equivalent to the 
Middle Coal-measures in other British coalfields.” That this is so 
I have also attempted to demonstrate by the known presence of 
Carbonicola acuta at Bideford, and a Gannister or Lower Coal-measure 
fauna at Instow. 

I greet this work of Mr. Newell Arber with delight, because it 
tends to prove the subject-matter of this paper from an entirely 
different point of view. 


IV.—NotTE on THE CORRELATION OF soME CoRNISH BEDS WITH THE 
GEDINNIAN OF CoNTINENTAL EKUROPE. 


By Uprietp Green, F.G.S. 


f{\HE group of beds which I propose to identify and correlate with 

those known in France, Germany, and Belgium by the name of 
*Gedinnien,’ forming the lowest member of the Devonian system, 
extends in its full development from the Lizard peninsula in the 
west to Gorran and St. Austell on the east, and thence to near 
Newquay on the north. The upper beds, at least, may be traced 


404 Upfield Green—The Cornish Beds and the Gedinnian. 


through Fowey and Looe along the coast, and across the Start 
peninsula as far as Babbacombe, south of Dartmouth in Devonshire. 
They are referred to by Ussher! as ‘Dartmouth Slates.’ They exist 
also on the north of the Devonian basin, and are mentioned by 
Etheridge* as underlying the Lower Devonian. 

Reference has of course been made to them by various English 
authors, but few have attempted to assign to them a definite 
stratigraphical position, and fewer still have studied them in detail 
or made any investigation of the Continental equivalents occupying 
a similar position in the Devonian series. 


LITERATURE. 


The earliest reference I can find is by Berger® in 1811, the next 
by Sedgwick * in 1821-2, who was followed by Conybeare® in 1823. 
In 1832 Boase® published an exhaustive petrological description of 
the district (according to the light of that time), founded on no 
less than 1,085 specimens deposited in the Museum of the Royal 
Geological Society of Cornwall, with a series of sections. He also 
attempted an extension of the hitherto accepted nomenclature of 
the components of the rocks (pp. 369-425 of his paper), which he 
termed ‘ Ocrynian.’ 

In 1888-40 Sedgwick and Murchison,? De la Beche,® and the 
Rev. D. Williams* made the first serious attempts at unravelling the 
structure of the county, while 'T’. Weaver ' commenced a comparison 
with Continental areas. Since then no comprehensive description 
has appeared, but isolated papers may be found in the Proc. Roy. 
Geol. Soc. Cornwall, Roy. Inst. Cornwall, and the Quart. Journ. 
Geol. Soc. London, by J. H. Collins, 1872-1903, Howard Fox, 
1885-1903, and others. 

Collins" considered the whole of the beds at the extreme south- 
west of the county, from Penhale to Breage, as pre-Silurian ; a small 
strip, extending from Penhale to the Van and St. Austell, and the 
area south of Porthmellin and Gwennap to Mullion and Porthalla, 
as Lower Silurian; Newquay and Ladock and a small extent of 
ground on the coast to the north of Porthalla as ‘ Ladock beds’= 
Upper Silurian. For a comparison of the northern exposures in 
Devonshire with other areas, Sharp, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe., ix 
(1853) ; Jukes, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., xxii (1866), and Additional 


Summary Progress Geol. Survey, 1902, pp. 160-165. 
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., xxiii (1867), p. 585. 
Trans. Geol. Soc., i, p. 98. 
Trans. Cambridge Phil. Soc., i, pp. 89, 291. 
Annals Phil., ser. 11, v, p. 184, and vi, p. 35. 
Trans. Geol. Soc. Cornwall, iv, pp. 234-264. 
Trans. Geol. Soc., ser. m1, v, p. 633. 
Geol. Survey. 
* Proc. Geol. Soc., iii, pp. 115 and 158; and Phil. Mag., ser. 111, xvi, pp. 59-64. 
10 Phil. Mag., ser. 1, xvi, pp. 59-64. 
11 Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornwall, vii (1881), p. 37, and Traus. Roy. Geol. Soe. 
Cornwall, x (2), 1880, p. 51. 


AAR Oo fF WH WH 


a 


Opfield Green—The Oornish Beds and the Gedinnian. 405 


Notes (Dublin, 1867); Etheridge, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., xxiii 
(1867) ; and Hull, Gzor. Maa., Dec. II, V, may be consulted. 


‘GEDINNIEN’ OF THE CONTINENT. 


These beds have been described by many eminent geologists in 
their respective countries. Among them may be mentioned Gosselet 
and Barrois in France; Dumont, Dewalque, and Malaise in Belgium ; 
Von Dechen, Koch, Kayser, Holzapfel, Rothpletz, and Lossen in 
Germany. To Professors Gosselet, Barrois, Kayser, and Holzapfel 
I am gratefully indebted for personal guidance and much information. 

Speaking generally, the beds comprised in the Continental 
Gedinnien in descending order are as follows :— 

1. Slates, mostly variegated and phyllitic, underlying the ‘'Taun- 
usian,’ with fish remains either in the base of the latter or in the 
slates themselves. 

2. Arkose or Felspathic Grits, locally, and more especially on the 
south border (Taunus, etc.), sericitic and metamorphous. 

3. Conglomerates with pebbles of more ancient rocks in a felspathic 
and quartzose matrix. These conglomerates seem to follow the 
sinuosities of the old coastline, and only appear intermittently in 
their original form, being as a rule much altered by hydrothermal 
action induced by pressure and folding. The latter subject has been 
treated at great length by Lossen.' 

A comparison of this description with that given by Hull? of the 
Dingle and Glengariff Grits of Ireland may be of interest. He 
records— 

1. Conglomerate. 

2. Red and green grits. 

3. Purple slates passing unconformably below the (? Lower) Old 
Red of Cork. And he suggests that the Foreland group of North 
Devon, of which the base is not seen, described by Jukes* as ‘thick 
massive grits of green and red colour, with purple slates similar 
to many parts of the (? Lower) Old Red of the south-west of 
Ireland,” corresponds with these grits. 


THe CoRNISH GEDINNIAN. 


Turning now to the Cornish beds, and commencing east at Looe, 
where the variegated slates of the Upper Gedinnian are in undoubted 
apposition to the beds referred to by Collins‘ as Upper Silurian, 
and by Ussher?’ inadvertently as ‘Gedinnien,’ but which I consider 
are undoubtedly Taunusian of the ‘Siegener Grauwacke’ facies, as 
evidenced by the following typical fossils found by myself and 
others :— 


1 Z. deutsch. Geol. Ges., 1867, 1877, 1883. 

2 Grou. Mac., Dec. II, V (1878), p. 529. 

3 Additional Notes (Dublin, 1867). 

4 Journ. Roy. Inst. Cornwall, viii (1884), p. 167. 
® Summary of Progress Geol. Survey for 1900. 


406 Upfield Green—The Cornish Beds and the Gedinnian. 


Onychia capuliformis, Koch. ? Capulus Rhynchonella livonica, v. Buch. 


subquadratus, Frech. Rensellaria ? strigiceps, Roem. 
Pleurotomaria (?) striata, Goldt. Spirifer primevus, Stein. 
Conocardium, sp. Spirifer mercurvi, Goss. 
Limoptera (?) lepida, Sandb. Stropheodonta gigas, M‘Coy. 
Lodanelia mira, Kays. Athyris undata, Det. 
Orthis circularis, Sow. Tentaculites grandis, Roem. 
Orthis personata (hipparionyx), Zeill. Nereitopsis cornubicus, Green. 
Strophomena murchisoni, A. & V. Petraia. 
Strophomena explanata. Pleurodictyon problematicum, Goldf. 


We find the Dartmouth slates referred to by Williams! as ‘ichthyo- 
ferous killas’ running along the coast to Old Mills, near Hendrasick, 
with cleavage planes dipping south. A fault there would seem to 
carry the strike of the beds north-west, and on the western side of 
the fault they are tilted at a very high angle, 80-85° north-west, 
the inclination gradually diminishing to 60-75° towards Talland 
(where the variegation is well seen) and Polperro, continuing on 
to a little west of Lantivet Bay (where the remains of Pteraspidian 
fishes are unusually abundant). From this point they are deflected, 
but have the same dip, leaving the Taunusian beds of Fowey to the 
south, and continue on in a north-west direction through Tywardreath 
and St. Austell to St. Stephens, as described by De la Beche.? 

Until now we have only encountered the upper beds of the series, 
but at St. Austell Bay a complicated system of faults alluded to by 
De la Beche* has apparently caused an upcast of the country to the 
west, and from this point the lower beds of the series, and at some 
places even the subjacent older rocks, are exposed. These lower 
beds consist chiefly of grits varying much petrologically, but mostly 
felspathic. This variation in a coast deposit, which would naturally 
vary according to the rocks from which it is derived, is not surprising. 
Subsequent earth-movements, folding, and overthrust faults, well 
described by Hill* in his sketch of the Porthscatho and Falmouth 
beds, account in many places for the immediate contiguity and 
alternation of grits and slates, while during deposition sea currents 
must have had a great local influence. 

The trend of the main northern mass of these grits is well 
described by A. K. Barnett,> who records ‘the occurrence of several 
beds of arenaceous rocks approaching a conglomerate distinct from 
the red and variegated sandstones and argillaceous slates associated 
with them.” ‘The most western of these beds at Petervale 
St. Agnes, dip south with same dip at Callestock, in Chiverton 
Valley. Beds having same line of strike at Marhasan Voaz, Tre- 
worgan, St. Erme, Trehane Vean, Trewadra, and Cuskain, also in 
the railway cuttings from Venton Glidor to Tarnoweth Wood, in 
the road cutting between Grampound and Probus, and east from 
Grampound to Pentuan Cliffs. ‘These beds have the same general 


1 Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Cornwall, vi (1841), p. 124. 

* Report on Cornwall, pp. 80, 82. 

3 Report on Cornwall, p. 303. 

4 Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Cornwall, xii (6), 1908, . 406. 
° Proc. Miners’ Assoc. Devon and Cornwall, 1873, p. 93. 


G. C. Crick—Note on Actinocamax, ete. 407 


appearance and composition throughout their length. The con- 
‘stituent detritus at Ladock, Trevalsa, and Pentuan is as large as 
peas or nuts.” De la Beche also refers to these beds! flanked by | 
the slates of St. Stephens and Probus respectively north and south 
of them. 

The main southern mass of these grits passes from Mevagissey, 
Gorran, Caerhayes, Portholland, north of Portlooe and Carne to 
‘Treworlas, from which point it has been traced and described by 
Hill? as Porthscatho beds, south of Falmouth by Helford to Looe 
Pool and Helston. 

The succeeding lower beds have been described by the same 
author under the name of ‘ Veryan Beds,’ and he includes in them 
apparently the coarse conglomerates which I consider to be the base 
of the Gedinnian and corresponding to the base of the Devonian 
system on the Continent. 

The discovery of fossils of Ludlow age in the Caerhayes limestone, 
referred to in the Gmonogicat Magazine for July, 1904, tends to 
confirm this view. ‘The unconformity of these conglomerates with 
the underlying rocks would appear probable from the included 
fraements of similar slates and quartzites. The junction of the 
‘Gedinnian with the underlying beds seems to be in many instances 
accompanied by pillow-lavas, a note on which will be given by 
Mr. Prior later on. 


V.—Nore on Acrrinocamax, Miter; its IDENTITY WITH 
ATrAcTILiITES, Link. 


By G. C. Cricx, Assoc. R.S.M., F.G.S., of the British Museum (Natural History). 


ioe a paper entitled ‘“‘ Observations on Belemnites,’ which was 
communicated to the Geological Society of London in April, 
1823,° J. S. Miller defined the genus Belemnites thus :—‘ A cepha- 
lopodous? molluscous animal provided with a fibrous spathose 
conical shell, divided by transverse concave septa into separate 
cells or chambers connected by a siphuncle; and inserted into 
a laminar, solid, fibrous, spathose, subconical or fusiform body 
extending beyond it, and forming a protecting sheath.” In May 
of the same year Mr. Miller contributed to the same Society 
another paper‘ in which he instituted the genus Actinocamax for 
‘“‘spathose bodies which resemble the belemnitic guard in general 
appearance, but are distinguished from it by presenting, instead of 
the terminal cavity intended for the reception of the chambered 
shell, a protruding and convex base.” 

Miller defined the genus in the following words:—“A club- 
shaped spathose concretion, consisting of two nearly equal longi- 
tudinal adhering portions. Apex pointed; base a convex but 
obtuse cone. The whole formed of a series of enveloping fibrous 


1 Report on Cornwall, 1839, p. 83. 

2 Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Cornwall, xii (6), 1903, p. 406. 

3 Trans. Geol. Soc., ser. 11, vol. ii, pt. 1 (1826), pp. 45-62. 
4 Tbid., pp. 63-67. 


408: G. C. Crick—Note on Actinocamaa, ete. 


lamin.” The only species mentioned, A. verus, is characterized’ 
as follows :—‘‘A club-shaped spathose semitransparent horn-coloured 

concretion ; base convex, obtuse, conical ; apex submamillar. Sides. 
depressed towards the lower end, showing two longitudinal, towards. 
the apex branching, impressions of blood-vessels.” This was stated 

to be from the ‘‘Chalk, and sometimes inclosed in the flints imbedded 

in it,” of Kent, Wiltshire, and Sussex. 

Although subsequently united by some authors with the genus 
Belemnitella and by others merged in the genus Belemnites, Actino- 
camaz is now usually employed as a distinct genus to include certain. 
belemnites from the Chalk. 

Mr. C. D. Sherborn has, however, called my attention to H. F, 
Link’s “ Beschreibung der Naturalien-Sammlung der Universitat zu. 
Rostock,” of which the third part, published 25th December, 1807, 
is devoted to “ Fossile Ueberbleibsel organischer Kérper, sogenannte 
Versteinerungen.” After defining (p. 8) the genus Belemniies as. 
‘“‘a conical, internally radiate crystalline shell, within which is 
found another many-chambered (the alveolus),”! Link proceeds to 
describe (p. 9) a new genus Aéractilites thus :—? ‘A spindle- 
shaped, internally radiate crystalline shell, without alveolus,” the 
only species given being A. belemniticus, respecting which he states : 
‘“‘the spindle-shaped Belemnites are quoted by many authors, but 
often confounded and not exactly described. We possess specimens. 
completely pointed at each end. On one there are distinct traces. 
of a foliaceous texture, in other respects they are quite similar to 
the usual Belemnite. I have broken a specimen and found 
internally the radiate structure of the Belemnite, but absolutely no 
alveolus, therefore they cannot be referred to the former genus” 
[ Belemnites ]. 

From the extracts given above it is quite clear that Miller’s 
Actinocamaz is a synonym of Link’s Aftractilites. Link’s name has 
priority of publication, his work having been published in 1807, 
whilst Miller’s paper was not read before 1823, and not published 
before 1826. The name must not, however, be confounded with 
the Belemnoid genus Aéractites of Giimbel* from the Lower Lias 
and Upper Trias. 


‘ The term ‘alveolus’ is here used for the chambered part of the shell, but this is 
now known as the phragmocone, the term ‘alveolus’ being applied to the conical 
cavity in the guard that receives the phragmocone. 

2 As Link’s work is very rare we have thought it advisable to give the description 
in Link’s own words ; it is as follows :— 

** Atractilites. Atyractilit. Kine spindelférmige, inwendig strahlig krystallisirte 
Schale, ohne Alveole. 

“A. belemniticus. Belemnitischer Atr: Die spindelférmigen Belemniten werden 
von vielen Schriftstellern angetiihrt, aber oft verwechselt und nicht genau beschrieben. 
Wir besitzen an beiden Enden véllig zugespitze Exemplare. An dem einen bemerkt 
man deutliche Spuren einer blattrigen Textur, sonst sind sie den gewdhnlichen 
Belemniten ganz ahnlich. Ich habe ein Stiick zerschlagen und inwendig die 
strahlige Bildung der Belemniten aber durchaus keine Alveole gefunden, daher man 
sie nicht zu der vorigen Gattung bringen kann.”’ 

°C. W. Giimbel: ‘ Geognostische Beschreibung des bayerischen Alpengebirges,”’ 
etc., 1861, p. 475. 


G. C. Crick—Note on Actinocamax, ete. 409 


Some of the forms that are referred to the genus Actinocamaxz do 
not exhibit the convex alveolar end referred to by Miller; a short 
explanation may therefore perhaps be of interest. 

The form of the alveolar end of the guard in this genus depends: 
upon the forward extent. of the calcification of the component layers 
of the guard. All the species of Actinocamaz possessed phragmocones. 
In the typical form A. verus the alveolar end is convex or more or 
less conical, the apex of the cone being sometimes occupied by 
a minute rounded shallow depression, indicating the position of the 
protoconch or commencement of the phragmocone. During the 
growth of the guard the alveolar portion of each component layer 
remained uncalcified, the extent of the uncalcified portion increasing 
with each successive layer (see Fig. a). Consequently, when 
during fossilization the uncalcified portion decayed and was lost, 
the phragmocone became detached, and the alveolar end of the 
guard assumed a convex or pyramidal form. 


Diagram of longitudinal sections of different forms of Actinocamar. The dotted 
lines indicate the uncalcified part of the guard that is lost during fossilization. 
a, typical form, 4. verus; b, A. granulatus; c, A. quadratus. 


If during the growth of the guard the alveolar portion of each 
component layer remained uncalcified, whilst the extent of the 
uncalcified portion gradually increased with each successive layer, 
but much less rapidly than in the typical form, then the fossilized 
portion of the guard would have a conical hollow alveolar end 
(Fig. 6) having an angle greater than that of the alveolus or of 
the phragmocone. Such a form is A. granulatus. 

Again, if the earlier (inner) layers of the guard were completely 
calcified, and the rest remained uncalcified in the neighbourhood 


410 A. R. Hunt—Nomenclature of Ripple-mark. 


of the alveolus, whilst the extent of the uncalcified part increased 
with each successive layer, but less rapidly than in the typical form, 
then the removal of the unealcified portion during fossilization 
would produce a guard having a more or less funnel-shaped alveolar 
end (Fig. ¢), of which the apical or posterior portion only would 
form part of the alveolus, whilst the anterior part of the cavity 
would have a greater angle than that of the alveolus or of 
the phragmocone. This form of alveolar end is illustrated by 
A. quadratus.' 

It may also be noted that the alveolar end is frequently less 
dense and more friable than the rest of the guard, having probably 
been originally less perfectly calcified; it is therefore easily broken, 
causing the alveolar end to present the foliaceous appearance by no 
means uncommonly found in A. quadratus. 

It would therefore seem that during the progress of development 
calcification of the alveolar end extended further and further 
forward, producing a progressive deepening of the alveolar cavity. 
This course of development is indicated also by the observations of 
Dr. Rowe,’ who points out that in the examples which he refers to 
A. granulatus there is a progressive deepening of the alveolar cavity 
as the Belemnite ascends in the zone. 


VI.—Tue Descriptive NoMENCLATURE OF RIPPLE-MARK. 
By A. R. Hounz, M.A. E.G.S. 


VER twenty years ago, in 1882, I ventured to controvert 

a doctrine which was at the time maintained with remarkable 

unanimity by all geologists, and which was taught in all the current 

textbooks. It was that the ordinary ripple-mark of the seashore 

was formed by continuous water-currents of some kind; the current 

of water taking the place and performing the office of the current of 
wind which ripples the surface of sand-dunes. 

As if was a question of authority and textbooks I ventured to 
join issue with those of perhaps the greatest weight, viz., the 
series of which several editions were published by Mr. Jukes and 
Sir Archibald Geikie. I stated my thesis, and the object of my 
paper, in the following plain words :— 

‘‘T shall endeavour in the present paper to prove that ripple-marks 
formed under water are, as a rule, completely independent of the 
rise and fall of tides, of tidal currents, and of sea beaches; and that 
they have little in common with the current-mark, that owes its 
origin to a continuous current of air or of water” (Proc. Roy. Soc., 
1882, p. 2). 


‘ This is the type-species of Bayle’s Goniotewthis. Explication de la carte 
géologique de la France, publiée par ordre de M. le Ministre des travaux publics, 
Tome quatriéme, Atlas, Premiére partie—Fossiles principaux des terrains, E. Bayle, 
1878, pl. xxiii, figs. 6-8. 

* Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. xviii, pt. 4 (1904), p. 271, fig. 12. 


A. R. Hunt—Nomenclature of Ripple-mark. 411 


In my recapitulation I wrote, ‘‘ Marine ripple-marks are formed by 
alternate currents set up by waves” (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1882, p. 18). 

In 1883 three very important papers were published on the 
subject by MM. De Candolle and Forel and by Professor G. H. 
Darwin, F.R.S. Thus, in March, 1884, less than two years after 
the publication of my own pioneer paper, I was able in a paper on 
Sea Beaches and Sea Bottoms to direct the attention of students of 
wave-action to the three important papers referred to above, and 
also to some earlier observations of Professor Forel published in the 
Bulletin de la Société Vaudoise, ete., for February and March, 1878. 
The last-named publications give Prof. Forel the right of priority 
so far as wave-current ripple-mark is concerned. 

Professor Darwin went further than any previous experimenter 
by demonstrating the action of eddies and vortices in collecting 
loose sand into ripple-mark, as soon as the incipient ripple-marks 
are established. Previous observers had indicated the agents, 
viz. wave-currents, but Professor Darwin demonstrated their mode 
of action. 

As soon as the above papers appeared Sir Archibald Geikie 
allowed them their full weight, as will appear by a comparison 
ef the third and fourth editions of his textbook with earlier works. 
For instance, to be as brief as possible, in the Manual of 1872 
(Jukes & Geikie) we read :—Ripple-mark “is produced on the 
sea-beach . . . . because of the moving current of water as 
the tide advances or recedes” (p. 192). 

In Sir Archibald’s first edition of his Textbook we read :— 
“Water (or air) gently agitated in a given direction [italics mine | 
throws the surface of sediment into ripples. . . . Their 
general direction . . . suffices to indicate the quarter whence 
the chief movement of the water has come”’ (p. 483). 

In the Textbooks of 1895 and 19038 there is a complete revolution. 
We now read: “They have been produced by an oscillation of the 
medium (water or air) in which the loose sand has lain. In water 
an oscillatory movement, sometimes also with a more or less marked 
current, is generated by wind blowing on its surface. The sand 
grains are carried backwards and forwards. By degrees inequalities 
of surface are produced which give rise to vortices in the water. 
Swe In regular ripple-mark the forms are produced by water 
oscillating relatively to the bottom and the consequent establishment 
of a series of vortices.” 

No one without a minute study of ripple-mark could appreciate 
the extreme accuracy of phraseology and description in the above 
few lines. I may, however, remark that the ‘alternate currents,’ 
for which I contended single-handed in 1882, are the actual currents 
in opposite directions set up by waves, and not the reversal of the 
direction of a steady current of wind or water created locally by 
vortices. 

I need scarcely express my deep sense of gratitude to Sir Archibald 
Geikie for having so promptly recognised the importance of very 
unorthodox doctrines at a time when it was almost impossible to 
obtain a patient hearing for them in England. 


412 A. R. Hunt—Nomenclature of Ripple-mark. 


In the present article I propose to call attention to the extreme 
ambiguity of the phraseology in common use in the discussion of 
‘sand-ripples and cognate phenomena. 

With reference to the meaning of ‘breadth’ and ‘amplitude’ 
a distinguished mathematician writes, “I cannot regard these 
questions of phraseology of much importance.” It no doubt matters 
nothing when the ideas are clear, but I feel sure that inaccurate or 
inadequate terms, and especially when they are avowedly descriptive 
terms, must end in confusion of thought. 

In the case of ‘ripple-mark,’ Sir Archibald Geikie summarily 
disposes of the difficulty by rejecting all such expressions as ‘ current- 
mark’ and ‘ripple-drift,’ which, though accurate as far as they go, 
are calculated to mislead. Both expressions might lead the reader 
to suppose that ripple-mark can only be produced by the drifting 
action of a continuous current of air or water, whereas current-mark 
and ripple-drift might well be regarded as specific forms of the 
genus ripple-mark. 

The foregoing three terms, together with ‘ wave-marks’ as used 
by Dana, are a truly misleading quartette. ‘Ripple-marks’ are 
collections of sand in the form of water-ripples. There is no 
pretence that they are made by water-ripples. But current-mark, 
a completely parallel expression, professes to describe collections 
of sand in the form of ripples made by a current. The ‘current’ 
here is avowedly the agent, whereas the ‘ripple’ is merely the 
illustration of the effect. In Dana’s ‘wave-marks,’ an expression 
even more closely allied to ‘ ripple-marks,’ the ‘ wave’ is the agent 
and not merely the illustration. In ‘ripple-drift’ we have a still 
further element of confusion, as here ‘ripple’ is not the illustration, 
but has come to mean the actual sand, which has been collected in 
ripple-like forms by drifting. 

« Wave-mark ’ would be an excellent term descriptive of ordinary 
marine ripple-mark were it not that ‘ wave ’ would indicate the agent, 
whereas ‘ripple,’ which is no more than a small wave, would be 
used in an entirely different sense. Moreover, Dana has used ‘ wave- 
marks’ for a very unimportant marine phenomenon, viz., the faint 
mark which is very occasionally left by a wave on a sandy beach. 

If ripple-marks and waves are to be subjects of discussion, 
it is absolutely necessary that some definite meaning should be 
attached to descriptive terms such as height, length, breadth, and 
amplitude. 

We will now inquire how these terms are actually used in the 
case of real waves. 

What do we understand by the height of a sea-wave? A sailor 
undoubtedly measures height from trough to crest. For instance, 
in October, 1887, the Admiralty communicated to the Press a letter 
from Captain Fisher descriptive of a voyage of the battleship 
“Inflexible.” He mentioned that ‘the waves were occasionally 
twenty-four feet high and three hundred feet in length.” This 
height is obviously from trough to crest, and even so, very high 
for the wave-length. 


A. R. Hunt—Nomenclature of Ripple-mark. 413 


Physicists, on the other hand, regard height as from mean water- 
level to crest, unless the height from trough to crest is distinctly 
‘stated. In a letter to me in "1884, the late Professor G. G. Stokes 
refers to “the elevation or depression above or below mean level ”’ ; 
and again, “Taking it [the wave] as eight feet above or below 
mean level in the shoal, sixteen feet from crest to trough in all”’ 
(Trans. Devon Assoc., vol. xix, pp. 518, 514). Yet in the paper to 
which Professor Stokes? letter was appended, I, from force of habit, 
whenever I used the term height, referred to height from trough to 
crest. The one measurement is of course treated as being exactly 
double the other, though it is not necessarily so with breakers in 
shallow water. 

What is understood by the ‘length’ of a wave? In the case of 
sea-waves, which are fairly uniform in size at the same time, 
English writers mean by ‘length’ the distance from crest to crest. 
If, however, we have to regard a wave as isolated, it has then but 
one crest, and we may treat the total length as the length of the 
elevated water added to the length of the depressed water, both 
at the level of repose of the water. What, then, is understood by 
the ‘breadth’ of a wave? This is a term rarely met with, but 
would probably mean the extent of a wave measured along its crest. 
We now come to ‘amplitude.’ What is the amplitude of a wave ? 
So far as I am aware, ‘ amplitude’ with physicists is always connected 
with the idea of motion, the amplitude of a wave of ether, air, or 
water being regarded as the extent of the oscillation or vibration 
of the medium, caused by the passage of a wave. 

In the course of my correspondence with Lord Rayleigh and 
Sir G. G. Stokes on the question of sea-waves, although both those 
eminent physicists supplied me with much information, I do not 
remember a single instance of their use of the term amplitude. 
If used for ‘height’ it would be redundant, and for shore-breakers 
inaccurate, as in shallow water the crests contract in length, and 
the height of the wave from trough to crest greatly exceeds the 
relative height in deep water, where it is equal to the amplitude 
of vibration of the water itself.. The increasing height of the 
shortening crest came out clearly in tank experiments. 

We note, then, that even in the well-studied case of sea-waves, 
which are real waves, we have to be careful that we do not confound 
the height from mean level with the height from trough, and that — 
we do not confound amplitude with either of those terms. 

A difficulty has arisen owing to the indiscriminate application 
of the simple terms height, length, and amplitude (which in the 
case of true waves are technical terms with stereotyped meanings) 
to forms which simulate waves, such as ripple-mark, snowdrifts, and 
even mountains and valleys. And even so, the terms are not always 
used in the same sense by different authors. It is always necessary 
to ascertain the exact meaning of each author. 

Professor Forel, in describing his ripples and experiments, speaks 
of the ‘longeur’ of his tank, and of the ‘hauteur’ and ‘largeur’ of 
his ripple-mark, but strictly limits ‘amplitude’ to the extent of the 


414 A. k. Hunt—Nomenclature of Ripple-mark. 


water-oscillation which forms the ripple-mark. What to an English 
observer is the crest to crest length of ripples, is to Professor Forel 
their ‘ largeur ’ or ‘ breadth.’ 

Professor Darwin speaks of a “ rotational oscillation with a jerking 
motion of small amplitude”; of the height of ripples, and of the 
‘wave-length’ of ripples. With him also ‘amplitude’ expresses 
the idea of motion. 

Ripple-marks so closely imitate in form motionless water-ripples 
(such as may be seen in a sharp current) that it is most natural to- 
describe them by the phraseology used for true waves, such as 
‘height’ and ‘ wave-length.’ But even here we do well to remember 
that the height of a sand-ripple can never be synonymous with the 
height of a water-ripple, since the latter is referred to the level 
of repose of the water. The sand-ripple reposes corrugated as 
comfortably as it does flat. In fact, the height of ripple-mark is 
from trough to crest, and therefore does not even correspond with 
the ‘height’ of water-ripple, which is from crest to mean level. 

In 1900 I was nominated by Section C a member of a joint 
committee with Section E to investigate ‘Terrestrial Surface Waves.’ 
I was reluctant to accept the nomination, which had been made im 
my absence, because, as I at once pointed out, I could see no geological 
bearing in the subject, which related in the first place to snow 
phenomena, and I knew nothing about it. On receipt of the first 
report I found that I was quite uncertain as to the meaning attached 
by the committee to the technical terms used in describing the 
dimensions of snowdrifts. In fact, I might go further, as I do not 
understand the terms used to describe the object of the committee’s 
researches, viz. ‘terrestrial surface waves.’ I found that both 
snowdrifts and snow-ripples were described exactly as though they 
were real waves, and not merely wave-like forms. The following 
quotation will indicate my difficulty :— 

“The height of these waves [of snow] was generally not more 
than six inches. They are flatter than the homologous zolian sand 
ripples, the wave-lengths being often forty or fifty times the 
amplitude. . . . There are also regularly undulating surfaces 
carved by the wind in more coherent snow . . . it is pro- 
posed to call them undulates”” (Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1901, p. 398). 

It will be observed that the geographers have captured the 
entire wave-nomenclature, ¢.g., ripples, wave-length, height, ampli- 
tude, and undulating. If we refer to Murray’s Dictionary we shall 
find that the primary meaning of amplitude is width or breadth; 
that its astronomical meaning is angular distance; and that its 
physical meaning is the vibration of a particle. With regard to the 
word ‘undulating,’ we have Pope’s line “Through undulating air 
the sounds are sent.” The geographical and geological use of 
‘amplitude’ to express height forces the word into a meaning in 
direct conflict with both its ordinary use and its derivation. 
Professor Lapworth, in his address to Section C, points out that the 
form of the “wave or fold of the geologist resembles that of the 


1 Proc. Roy. Soc., 1883, p. 2. 


A. R. Hunt—Nomenclature of Ripple-mark. 415 


wave of the physicist, as also does the form of the surface-wave of the 
geographer” (Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1892, p. 701). No doubt geographers 
and geologists have as much right to the dictionary as physicists, . 
but in the present case, the investigation of ripple-mark, the result 
is inconvenient for the following reason, viz., that as it is now 
admitted that marine ripple-mark is to a great extent made by waves, 
if we attempt to discuss the formation of ripple-mark in any detail 
the waves will require their own terminology for their own use. 

The following incident illustrates the importance of exact phrase- 
ology. My Ripple-mark paper, though promoted to the rank of 
a much cited authority, survived eighteen years scatheless, until in 
1900 my friend Dr. Vaughan Cornish stated in Section C that an 
error therein had misled German students. I was not surprised 
at the detection of an error, but at its having escaped so long. 
I pointed out that the alleged error was in a quotation. Dr. Cornish 
replied that I was held responsible for it. On referring to Pro- 
fessor Forel’s paper I noted that he had actually quoted the censured 
passage, but only on the authority of its author, the Rev. John Gilmore, 
as cited by me. The passage had clearly not misled Prof. Forel, 
nor did he hold me responsible for it. What, then, had misled the 
German students? It was simply this. The Rev. John Gilmore, 
in describing the struggles of the lifeboat men on the Goodwin 
Sands, wrote, ‘“‘The heavy seas have driven the sands into high 
ridges, and the gullies between these are waist-deep and full of 
running water with the sand soft and quick at the bottom.” And 
again, “On the Goodwins where . . . . the waves break and 
the tide rushes with tenfold power, the little sand ripples of the 
smoother shore become ridges of two or three feet high.” In 
referring to these ridges and gullies made by “heavy seas” and 
rushing tides in quicksands, I used the expression ‘ wave-marks,’ 
carefully avoiding the technical term ‘ripple-mark.’ But, alas! 
I was unaware that the German equivalent for ripple-mark is 
‘ wellenfurschen,’ or wave-furrows, so the German students must 
naturally have concluded that when I described ridges and gullies 
as ‘wave-marks’ I meant to describe their own German wave- 
furrows, which are no more than the ordinary English ripple-mark 
and Professor Forel’s ‘rides du fond,’ otherwise wrinkles on the 
bottom. I was unaware that Dana had previously appropriated the 
term ‘wave-marks’ for another purpose. No doubt it would have 
been more accurate to have described the ridges and gullies on the 
Goodwins as wave-and-tidal-current-marks; but the quotation of 
a record of a fact, far too valuable to lose, could not have misled 
experimentalists, and in fact did not do so. 

It is by no means always easy to distinguish offhand true 
ripple-mark from corrugations in fine-grained rocks caused by 
pressure, and in a well-known case at the east end of Meadfoot 
Sands, Torquay, the evidence is conflicting. If only a squeeze it 
is a remarkably good imitation of the genuine article. If genuine, 
and a case of rippleemark complicated by pressure in finest grits 
associated with slates, it is interesting as occurring in the Lower 

DECADE V.—VOL. I.—NO. VIII. 24 


416 A. R. Hunt—Nomenclature of Ripple-mark. 


Devonian rocks without a trace of shallow-water conditions. Asso- 
ciated with these corrugated rocks there is a band of some inches 
of badly preserved shells suggestive of some great destruction of 
the submarine fauna; what Gwyn Jeffreys would have described 
in modern seas as a charnel-house of shells. The currents were 
clearly sharp, but transitory, as the grit and slate beds are not 
confused, and the thickness of the shell band very regular. The 
corrugations are symmetrical, so must be wave-formed and not 
continuous current-formed, that is, if they are ripple-mark at all. 
Now in considering such a case as this we have to realise the 
presence of waves heavy enough to disturb depths at which fine 
silt and mud can accumulate. This depth, disturbed only on rare 
occasions, will depend on the height (crest to trough) of the waves. 
The amplitude of the reciprocating currents over the bottom will 
depend on the height (crest to trough) of the waves and the depth 
of the water, while the number per minute of the double currents, 
or their frequency, will depend on the period of the waves. Now 
the technical terms required for this description are height (crest 
to trough), length, amplitude, period, and frequency. The terms 
height and length will apply to ripple-marks equally well ; but with 
amplitude, period, and frequency ripple-marks have nothing to do. 
If we use amplitude for the height of a ripple-mark we use a stereo- 
typed wave-term in a different sense; while, if we use the term 
wave-length for the ripples, our thoughts are at once directed to the 
true waves which formed them, waves which really possessed 
wave-length, which the ripple-marks only possess by courtesy. 

My own work in ripple-mark, which was undertaken solely to 
establish the doctrine of alternate wave-currents, received its full 
fruition when Sir Archibald Geikie accepted the doctrine of the 
“oscillation of the medium” in his textbook of 1893. That fact 
accepted, all the rest, the interesting consequences, must follow in 
time. But they will follow sooner if we can avoid confusion of 
ideas being. perpetuated by ambiguous and even conflicting nomen- 
clature. Were this a paper on ripple-mark itself it would be easy to 
run through the great textbooks and manuals and indicate where 
the different authors have followed the wrong trail. I will, how- 
ever, quote one very useful and popular dictionary of scientific 
terms. In Webster’s Dictionary, ed. 1876, we read, “ Ripple-mark. 
(Geol.) A mark on the surface of a rock resembling that made by 
receding waves on a sea beach.” Now waves on a falling tide have 
often effaced ripple-marks on the flats of a sea beach, but have never 
created them. The efficacy, or even the existence, of a receding 
wave is as imaginary as that of the efficacy of the advancing or 
receding tide, moving towards or from the shore at the rate of a few 
hundred feet or less in some six hours. The wave has ceased to 
exist before any water recedes from off the beach. 

So far as I am aware, no paper on ripple-mark has appeared in 
any geological publication since Dr. Sorby’s “Structures produced 
by the Currents, etc.,” in the Geologist in 1859. The literature 
is scattered far and wide. Sir Archibald Geikie has given the 


A. R. Hunt—Nomenclature of Ripple-mark. 417 


references to the papers of Messrs. Sorby, De Candolle, Forel, and 
Darwin. To these I would add the shrewd observations of that 
king among observers, De la Beche, in his “Geological Observer,” 
and several papers by Dr. Vaughan Cornish in the publications of 
the Geographical Society which have appeared since I retired from 
the fray. 

In May, 19038, Iconcluded a paper on Vein Quartz with a quotation 
from a letter written by Dr. Sorby in 1889—“There are many 
things connected with it [granite] about which we know much less 
than is desirable.” Let me conclude this paper with the last few 
lines of the same author’s 1859 paper on the “Structures produced 
by Currents”: ‘Those [experiments] which I have made already, 
though not nearly sufficient to clear up many highly important 
questions, are still sufficient to give very great encouragement; 
and I therefore feel anxious to induce others to turn their attention 
to this branch of research, being convinced that it cannot -but yield 
a bountiful harvest of fact when studied with perseverance and 
zeal.” To this conviction, now forty-five years old, we may still 
add our fervent Amens. 


P.S.—Since the above was written, I received, on the Ist of July, 
Nature for June 30th, and Dr. Nansen’s “ Bathymetrical Features 
of the North Polar Seas,” etc. Dr. Nansen observes (p. 137), 
“yipple-marks, however, are not merely formed by waves, but also by 
currents.” Nature, referring to experiments made by Mr. F. Ayrton 
at the Royal Society conversazione, asserts, with the emphasis of 
italics, “It was also shown that ripples are noé produced by a steady 
current of water flowing over sand.” Dr. Vaughan Cornish writes: 
«The true current-formed sand-wave I find to be produced as soon 
as the velocity of the stream causes the water to be turbid with 
a heavy charge of sand in eddying suspension. The process can 
be watched in the shallow streams of sandy tidal foreshores ” 
(Geographical Journal, August, 1901, p. 198). I have noticed this 
result myself. 

In the same paper (p. 200) Dr. Cornish writes, “ Professor Osborne 
Reynolds found that in his model estuaries the rippies ‘formed by 
the alternating action of the tide’ had a wave-length equal to twelve 
times their amplitude (4 = 12 H).” 

If Professor Reynolds used the terms wave-length and amplitude 
I should have to retire discomfited, as I had the honour to serve 
on his committee; but I find that what Professor Reynolds wrote 
was, “Some of the ripples were from hollow to crest as much as 
one-fourth the mean-rise of the tide, the distance between. them 
being twelve times their height” (Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1889, p. 343). 
Professor Reynolds avoids the technical wave terms. 

The apparent contradictions of writers on ripple-mark are so 
surprising that one fails to see how the student, or even the text- 
book writer, can find his way through the mist. However, the 
contradictions are easily explained, as there are several ways of 
producing rippled sand-surfaces. If not trespassing too much on 


418 A. K. Cooméraswémy—The Balangoda Group. 


the patience of the readers of the Grotocican Magazine I should 
like some day to make an attempt to show how the trick is done, 
and how ripple-mark concerns geologists, not as a mere unimportant 
detail of rock-structure, but as an important factor and index in the 
great problem of marine erosion. In the meantime I may refer to 
Dr. Nansen’s admirable epitome of the evidence of marine erosion in 
his work above referred to, and also to Dr. Cornish’s papers in the 
Geographical Journal. 


VII.—Contrisutions To THE GEOLOGY oF CEYLON : 
IIJ. Tue Batancopa Grovp. 


By A. K. CoomaraswAmy, B.S8c., F.L.S., F.G.S., Director of the Mineralogical 
Survey of Ceylon. 
([\HE name ‘ Balangoda group’ is proposed for a series of granitic 
and pegmatite-like rocks, intrusive in, but distinct from, the 
Charnockite series; first met with in the Balangoda district, but 
evidently widely distributed over a large area between Balangoda 
and Hatton. The rocks are best described as granites, but occur 
most often in rather narrow dykes, after the manner of pegmatites. 
Yet there is no reason for separating the smaller from the larger 
masses, and the term granite is applied to both. The group (of 
which a more detailed account will ultimately be needed) includes 
in particular zircon granite, allanite granite, magnetite granite, and 
granite without conspicuous accessory minerals; as well as the 
probably similar rocks in which the hitherto unlocated minerals 
geikielite, baddeleyite, rutile, fergusonite, thorite,’ thorianite, ete., 
may be looked for; and the vein of pegmatite at Gampola, which 
consisted of quartz, felspars, and biotite, with apatite, ilmenite, 
tourmaline, and the new mineral described as thorianite * as accessory 
minerals, 

These granites are intrusive in the Charnockite series, and though 
frequently occurring in lenticular masses (Denagama) with a dis- 
position parallel to that of the foliation planes of the charnockites, 
have often been observed to transgress these foliation planes and to 
behave as intrusive rocks. Contact phenomena have not, however, 
been observed, except perhaps in a slight tendency to a peripheral 
fineness of grain in the intrusive rocks. At the junctions granite 
and charnockite are usually welded together, there being no 
absolutely hard line of separation, although the junction may be 
called sharp; in the case of the larger masses no good junctions 
have been seen. 

A description of the rocks is given below, with special reference 
to the localities where they can be seen :— 

Zircon granite.—This rock was seen in siti at several points, and 
is the best known member of the group. The finest and longest 
exposure is on Massena estate, six miles from Balangoda; here 
a considerable mass of granite, fully two miles in length and 


' W. Dunstan, Nature, 1904, p. 510. ; 
2 “Spolia Zeylanica,” vol. i, pt. 4 (1904), p. 112; and Nature, loc. cit. 


A. K. Cooméraswamy—The Balangoda Group. 419 


averaging perhaps a hundred yards in width, runs, parallel to the 
Charnockite foliation-strike, along the trough-like strike valley 
of the Massena Oya, in which the main part of the estate is found. 
The rock occurs in enormous masses, both in siti and in great 
boulders, amongst which the Massena Oya finds its way. Two rows 
of curiously weathered masses stand out of the swamp below the 
bungalow; good specimens very rich in zircon can be collected 
here. The rock usually shows no trace of foliation in small 
specimens; but foliation (vertical, with strike about 15° N. of W.) 
is evident in an exposure in siti near the middle of the estate, near 
the ‘ lines.’ 

The rock consists essentially of quartz, felspar, and biotite, with 
zircon and ilmenite as characteristic accessory minerals, and apatite 
as a microscopic constituent. The content of zircon varies greatly 
from specimens in which a crystal can hardly be found to others 


ALUTNUWERA _ Wao : 


” 


Fig. 1.—Rough sketch-map of zircon granites near Denagama Oya bridge, near 
Balangoda, Sab, Ceylon. Xxx zircon granites; fT zircon granites well 
foliated. Scale, 5 inches=13 miles. 

in which it forms a noteworthy proportion of the rock. The zircon 
occurs in moderately good, idiomorphic, stumpy, prismatic crystals, 
generally terminated, the forms m (110), a (100), p (111), e (101) 
being certainly present; the colour is hair-brown, often quite pale ; 
in thin section no colour is seen; the longest individuals exceed 
2 inch in length, but most are somewhat smaller. The rock itself 
is relatively fine-grained, the quartz and felspars rarely exceeding 
in diameter the length of the longest zircons. The felspars include 
orthoclase (sometimes microperthitic) and an acid plagioclase with 
s.g. near to that of orthoclase. The biotite occurs in ragged crystals, 
macroscopically nearly black, but brown in thin section, and with 
pleochroism from warm brown to pale straw colour. Ilmenite is 
common, occasionally moulding the zircons, and generally partly 
altered to ‘leucoxene.’ Apatite is fairly abundant in six-sided 
terminated prisms about #5 inch in length. ‘The general structure 
is hypidiomorphic, only the zircon and apatite occurring in well- 
developed crystals. 


420 A. K. Coomaraswémy—The Balangoda Group. 


Another exposure (Map, Fig. 1) is seen near the bridge over the 
Denagama Oya, about 6 miles from Balangoda on the Haputale 
road. Small idiomorphic zircons (-’s inch) are scattered sparingly 
in the rock, which resembles that of Massena estate, but is of 
somewhat coarser grain. Ilmenite is common, the zircon quite 
scarce. Other exposures are found along the line of strike on the 
left bank of the stream. The granite seems to form a series of 
lenticular masses. At one point the rock becomes well foliated 
(as if by pressure), the small crystals of biotite being closely packed 
and sweeping round the augen orthoclase. Well-formed zircons 
2 inch in length are to be found. 

A similar foliated zircon granite is exposed by the roadside 
134 miles further on, just beyond the 91st milepost ; the zircons vary 
from ;'; to $ inch in length, and are of the usual light-brown colour. 

No junctions were observed in the instances above referred to. 

Near Haldummulla and about 18 miles from Balangoda a small 
granitic dyke was seen in the Weli Oya valley about half a mile 
above the road, crossing foliation in the Charnockite series and 
containing a few minute zircons just visible to the naked eye. 

In the Bamberabotuwa district a large number of small intrusive 
pegmatites or granite dykes were examined on Hopewell estate 
(15-16 miles from Balangoda), where they are well exposed, and 
cross the foliation of the Charnockite series in all directions; only 
two were found to contain minute crystals of zircon sparingly dis- 
tributed. Zircon may occur in others, but so rarely as to be 
overlooked. This exhausts the list of localities where macroscopic 
zircons have been seen in siti. 

Zircons of all sizes (up to 14 inches or more) occur abundantly 
in every stream and river gravel, and are found in quantities when 
gemming operations are carried on, joining a large proportion of 
the heavy residue (nambu') at the bottom of the gemming- basket : 
the clear-coloured varieties are of value as gems; the remainder 
is rejected. The irregular zircons described by Mr. Spencer” occur 
in this way in various parts of the Balangoda and Bamberabotuwa 
districts. Near Kondrugala zircon is very abundant in large 
individuals. Well-developed twins on e (101) are found. With 
the zircon are associated ‘thorianite,’ thorite, ilmenite. Large 
zircons have also been found in gemmings from the Hatton district. 
Zircon is also abundant over a wide area in the Southern Province 
in the Galle, Matara, and Morawaka districts, and no doubt also 
at Rakwana; the same rocks may be expected to be met with in 
these districts. 

Allanite granites.—Allanite granites are well exposed in two 
places in the Balangoda districts. It is some years since Mr. W. D. 
Holland discovered a granite or pegmatite dyke, crossing foliation 
in the Charnockite series, in the bed of the Wewel Dola near the 
lower end of his estate of Dik Mukulana, and containing allanite 
in some abundance. The determination of allanite was confirmed 


1 A Sinhalese term which may with advantage be adopted. 
* Nature, April 14th, 1904, p. 575. 


A. K. Coomdraswémy—The Balangoda Group. 421 


by a partial analysis made for Mr. Holland, and by Mr. G. T. Prior, 
to whom a sample was submitted. The granitic dyke is composed 
of quartz, felspar, hornblende, allanite, biotite, pyrite. 

The felspars include porphyritic orthoclase and also a series — 
of smaller individuals of orthoclase and plagioclase (some of the 
latter are porphyritic like the orthoclase), forming with quartz the 
finer-grained portions of the dyke. Allanite and hornblende occur 
in varying amount, both being locally very abundant. Biotite is 
scarce. Pyrite occurs chiefly in secondarily deposited films. 

A better exposure of allanite granite is found in the lower part 
of Denagama estate, about seven or eight miles from Balangoda. 
A conspicuous dyke, three to four feet thick, crosses the left branch 
of the stream, which runs through the tea below the path, and 
forms a conspicuous ledge inclined at a low angle to the foliation. 
The granulites are inclined at a very similar angle, but it can be 
seen clearly that the dyke does not keep strictly to the foliation 
planes; moreover, a few short processes, six inches to a foot in 
width, project into the rock underlying the dyke, clearly showing 
the intrusive character of the latter. The dyke is coarse-grained, and 
consists mainly of orthoclase (porphyritic idiomorphic individuals 
often about 8 x 1 inches), quartz, and biotite, the latter in long thin ° 
crystals (measuring e.g. 9 X 1 x + inches) scattered in all directions 
through the rock. 

In these two dykes the allanite is very unevenly distributed, 
being in places very abundant, and elsewhere almost or quite absent. 
The allanite forms thin tabular idiomorphic as well as more irregular 
individuals; the largest attain a length of three inches, those of 
medium size measure about 1x 4x +inch. A curious point is 
that the allanite seems to form a centre for radiating cracks in the 
rock, giving it a rather conspicuous appearance, of which a diagram 
is given in Fig. 2 (Denagama). 

The allanite is macroscopically black (in thin section brownish 
olive-green), and: has a resinous lustre and conchoidal fracture ; 
hardness about 6; sp. gr. 3:2 to 8-5; before the blowpipe it 
intumesces strongly. 

Magnetite granite.—A smali dyke 2 inches wide and of the usual 
character, but containing irregular individuals of magnetite about 
# inch in diameter, was seen in the bed of the Wewel Dola at Dik 
Mukulana. Another dyke 6 inches wide, containing similar 
magnetite, was observed on Hopewell estate. 

The Gampola pegmatite.\—This rock consisted mainly of orthoclase, 
quartz, and biotite, and contained apatite, tourmaline, ilmenite, and 
uraninite (‘thorianite’) as accessory minerals. 

Granites without conspicuous accessory minerals.—These are of 
fairly general distribution in the Balangoda district, sometimes 
occurring in the form of dykes (usually less than three feet in 
width) in very considerable abundance. It is possible that a much 
more extended search might reveal the presence of macroscopic 
zircons in some of these rocks; for the most part, however, they 


1 “¢ Spolia Zeylanica,”’ vol. i, pt. 4 (1904), p. 512. 


422 Reviews—Dr. Nansen’s North Polar Sea. 


are similar to the granitic rocks described above, but without the 
characteristic accessory minerals. There is a considerable exposure 
of reddish granite on the Ratnapura road about a mile below 
Balangoda, and this is known as a locality for ‘graphic granite.’ 
A tendency to graphic structure was noticed in many of the rocks 
already described. Smaller masses (dykes) are common at Dik 
Mukulana (11 miles from Balangoda) and on Hopewell estate, 


Fic. 2.—Structure of allanite granite; Denagama estate, Balangoda. A, allanite ; 
B, biotite; O, orthoclase; remainder quartz and felspar. Present 
seale, x 53 times. 

15 miles from Balangoda, and at many other points. These granites 

(as well as others containing zircon) are also well exposed on 

Herimitegala estate, about 8 miles from Balangoda. 

The list of types of rock belonging to the Balangoda group 
actually met with is now exhausted. There can be no doubt that 
many other varieties will be found, and it is evident that some are 
likely to be of great interest. Since, however, detrital zircon is 
exceedingly abundant, yet is known in sitd in a few localities only, 
it is clear that the chance of finding any particular one of the other 
and rarer minerals in sit must be rather small. 


15% 22H WA a6 J WW Se 


-J.—Dr. Friptsor Nansen’s ReskARCHES INTO THE BATHYMETRICAL 
Fratures oF THE NortH Powar Sxas.! 


HIS elaborate volume is the outcome of Dr. Nansen’s Arctic 
Explorations, of which we have narratives in his ‘‘ First Crossing 
of Greenland” (1890) and his ‘“ Farthest North” (1897), both 


1 Published by the Fridtjof Nansen Fund for the Advancement of Science (with 
29 plates). Christiania, 1904. 


Reviews—Dr. Nansen’s North Polar Sea. 423 


delightful works of travel and adventure in inhospitable and little- 
known regions, and fortunately for most of us Britishers written in 
the English language. The most recent volume here under our 
notice deals with those great problems of submerged lands and 
ocean basins for the most part held fast in the embrace of perennial 
ice, and of which the depth can only be known by the sounding 
line let down through the ice-cap itself. As well known, “ Nansen’s 
Farthest North” was reached on the 7th April, 1895, in N. lat. 
86° 13’ 6”, where the depth of the ocean reaches 3,000 metres, 
.a depth which may be presumed to extend to the pole itself. Certain 
it is that deep ocean water is under the North Pole; not “an open 
sea,” as was once announced by Kane, the American Arctic explorer. 
The whole structure and arrangement of land and sea, whether 
ice-covered or open, is admirably represented in the bathymetrical 
chart of the North Polar Seas which accompanies Nansen’s recent 
volume, and under its guidance I propose to consider some of the 
suboceanic features which arrest attention. The centre of the chart 
being the pole, it embraces in its circumference all the region 
bordering on both sides the Arctic circle; and on looking at the 
chart we are at once struck by three leading features indicated by 
distinctive colours—the lands, by dark shade; the continental shelf 
or platform, by yellow; and the deep ocean, by various shades of blue. 
The varying depths are all worked out by isobathic lines founded 
-on the soundings, a system of suboceanic delineation hitherto much 
neglected by British cartographers, but capable of opening up 
many new facts of suboceanic geography; this, indeed, is the only 
way of placing before us in a graphic manner the various physical 
features below the waters of the ocean, whether they be terraces, 
old river valleys, gulfs, or deep ocean. Of this system of illustration 
Dr. Nansen has made abundant use both for pourtraying the form 
of the sea-floor and for plotting transverse sections similar to those 
which may be drawn by means of contour-lines to illustrate the 
form of the land. 

The continental shelf is continuous all round the margin of the 
land with the exception of one remarkable interval lying along 
the meridian of Greenwich between Spitzbergen and the north-east 
corner of Greenland, where the floor of the ocean bed rises to within 
‘786 metres of the surface in the form of a narrow bank descending 
rapidly into the deep water of the Arctic Ocean on the one side and 
into that of the Norwegian Gulf on the other. It is, in fact, a sub- 
merged saddle. The narrowest part of the continental shelf lies 
off the Lofoten Islands, but spreads in a broad nearly level sheet all 
round the coast of the Europe-Asian Continent to that of the North 
American Continent. From its surface rise the Spitzbergen and Franz 
Josef groups of islands, together with Novaia Zembla and the 
New Siberian Islands. Its average depth near the outer margin may 
be taken at 200 metres, but in some places it is over 300 metres. 
All the way from Spitzbergen along the Europe-Asian Continent 
it breaks off in a steep declivity, descending into the Arctic Ocean 
by gradients varying from 54 to 20 degrees in steepness; the 


424 Reviews—Dr. Nansen’s North Polar Sea. 


steepest portion of the declivity being situated between depths of 
200 and 1,000 metres. Thus it will be seen that there is a remarkable 
similarity in the bathymetrical conditions of the polar regions and 
those of the North Atlantic ; in both there is the continental shelf, 
and the steep exterior slope or declivity, leading down to the floor of. 
the outer ocean at depths of about 2,500 metres (8,140 feet). But 
another point of similarity is the existence of channels or ‘ fjords,” 
traversing the platform and opening out on the ocean at great 
depths. Some of these submerged fjords decrease in depth towards 
their outlet on the deep ocean, as for example the Vardos Murman 
Channel along the coast of East Finmarken, resembling in this respect 
the Norwegian fjords. The cause of this shallowing of the sub- 
marine fjords is necessarily obscure, but is in all probability partly 
attributable to glacial moraine matter piled up at the Glacial Period 
upon the melting of the ice. On a former occasion I have dwelt 
upon this remarkable feature in the case of the Norwegian fjords.’ 

In addition to the continental shelf, there occurs a feature not 
generally recognised on the Atlantic border, called by Nansen 
“the coast platform” (strand fladen), descending to only a few 
metres (10 to 15) below sea-level and covered by numerous shoals 
and sunken rocks. The coast-platform is often incised by channels 
parallel to the coast or outer margin of the platform itself. The 
formation of the marginal shelf is discussed by the author, who 
regards it as ‘a comparatively young formation, the greater part 
of which must have been formed after the Norwegian Continental 
Shelf” (p. 112). If this be so, the coast-platform would appear 
to be a “‘raised beach,” formed after the continental shelf during 
the period of the rise of the land at the close of the Glacial Period. 

Those who doubt the existence of suboceanic river valleys will 
not find support from Dr. Nansen. According to this author, the 
EKuropasian continental shelf is seamed by numerous submerged 
channels. The Norwegian fjords are often continued under the 
waters of the outer sea, descending to depths of 400 metres (1,312 
feet) or more. In the neighbourhood of the Franz Josef Islands 
good examples of submerged valleys are indicated; others occur 
north of Andoe. At the same time the author considers that in 
some cases the deep channels may be due to faulting. The sub- 
merged valleys are not shown on the bathymetric map, which is on 
too small a scale for the purpose, but they are shown on the sections, 
of which there are many in the volume of great interest. It is to 
be regretted, however, that Dr. Nansen has adopted a scale so 
exaggerated as 1 in 50 for the vertical; the result of which is to 
cause the hills and elevations on the land side to take the appear- 
ance of the spires of churches! A scale of 1 in 10 would have been 
sufficient for the delineation of the features, and would have 
appeared less unnatural. 

The volume is accompanied by a fine geological map of Norway, 
and the isobathic contours by which the features of the submerged 


1} «The Physical History of the Norwegian Fjords’’: Trans. Victoria Institute,. 
vol, xxxiy (1902). 


Reviews—A. O. Seward—Fossil Floras of Cape Colony. 425 


lands and sea-bed are determined are carried out all over the ocean 
as far as the soundings have permitted. There can be no question 
that this work is the most important contribution to our knowledge 
of the Arctic submarine features which has yet appeared, and the 
author embodies in it as far as possible the work carried out in 
the same field by other explorers. Epwarp HUuLt. 


I].—Foss1n Fioras or Cape Cotony. By A.C. Sewarp, M.A., F.R.S., 
etc. (Annals of the South African Museum, vol. iv, part 1; 
122 pages, pls. i-xiv, and 8 text-figures. 1903.) 


fe memoir is undoubtedly one of the most important and 

complete that has yet appeared on the South African fossil 
floras. 1t contains a full description and many figures of the 
specimens collected by the Geological Commission of Cape Colony — 
from four distinct formations. 

Beginning with the flora of the Uitenhage series, among the ferns 
described and figured may be noticed Onychiopsis mantelli and 
Cladophlebis browniana, both of which occur in the Wealden of 
Sussex. Numerous fronds of the Cycadophyta are figured, especially 
of the genus Zamites, and also a new species of Nilssonia. Araucarites 
Rogersi is described as a new form of Araucarian cone. The author 
concludes that the “ Uitenhage plants include types in part charac- 
teristic of Wealden and in part indicative of Jurassic floras. On 
the whole there is a balance in favour of a Wealden horizon.” 

The next flora described is that of the Stormberg beds. The 
following new species are among the plants figured :—Schizoneura 
krasseri, also known from China, Callipteridium stormbergense and 
Chiropteris zeilleri, two fine fern-like fronds, the latter being known 
from a single specimen in the British Museum, and Baiera storm- 
bergensis, a large leaf of the Ginkgo type. Species of Thinnfeldia, 
Teniopteris, and other genera typical of the Rheetic period, are also 
described and figured. 

Among the plants of the Ecca series, in addition to Glossopteris 
and other well-known members of the Glossopteris flora, several 
genera of considerable importance are described from South Africa 
for the first time. Neuropteridium validum, already known from 
beds of similar age in India and South America, is represented by 
a large frond of which a figure is given. A new species of Psygmo- 
phyllum, P. kidstoni, is described; a type of leaf doubtfully referred 
to the Ginkgoales, which also occurs in the Permo-Carboniferous 
rocks of Hurope. The Lycopodean genus Bothrodendron, represented 
by a new species, Bothrodendron leslii, is recorded for the first time 
as occurring with members of the Glossopteris flora; a further 
example of the association of northern and southern generic types in 
the Permo-Carboniferous rocks of South Africa. 

Lastly, from the Witteberg series (? Devonian), an obscure fragment 
of a Lepidodendroid plant and examples of Spirophyton are figured. 
The nature of the latter is discussed, and the conclusion is held that 
these ‘ fossils’ do not represent the remains of plants. 


426 Reviews—Annals of the South African Museum. 


IJJ.—Awnnats or tHe Sourn Arrican Museum, Vol. IV, Part 3: 
BRACHIOPODA FROM THE BokKEveLD Bens (pls. xx—xxiii); by 
F. R. C. Resp, M.A., F.G.S.—Part 4: Tur TriLopites oF 
THE BokKEVELD Beps (pls. xxiv-xxvili); by Purzrp Laxg, 
M.A., F.G.S.—Part 6: Motiusca From THE BoKKEVELD Brps 
(pls. xxx-xxxii); by F. R. C. Rep, M.A., F.G.S. 1903-1904. 


f]\HESE three papers on the fauna of the Bokkeveld Beds of 

South Africa introduce to us a number of interesting forms, 
many of which are new species. The plates of illustrations are good, 
and the text bears evidence of very careful work on the part of the 
two authors. The Devonian age of the Bokkeveld Beds is apparently 
settled, and the authors agree in stating that the South African 
species of this date show a remarkable agreement with the forms of 
both North and South America, and yet a dissimilarity from those 
of Europe. This is the conclusion of Mr. Reed (pp. 192, 193) from 
a study of the Brachiopods, and he gives a comparative table of 
the South African and South and North American species. Then 
Mr. Lake says of the Trilobites that they show “that the beds 
may be referred with certainty to the Devonian, and it is probable 
that they belong to the lower division of that formation. Few of the 
forms have any near allies in Europe. . . . . The Phacopide, 
on the other hand, are much more closely allied to the forms which 
have been described from Brazil and Bolivia” (p. 202). And of 
the Mollusca Mr. Reed says, “‘lhe evidence of the Mollusca points 
the same way as that of the Brachiopoda, and emphasizes still 
more strongly the affinities of the fauna with that of the American 
Continent” (p. 269). 

One irritating practice we should like to bring to the notice of 
the editor of these Annals—that the explanations do not face their 
own plates; such is the case in Parts 3 and 4, but in Part 6 it is 
accomplished by turning one plate the wrong way and making one 
leaf do double duty. Even this is bad, and surely it is not worth 
the paper saved. In our opinion all plates should face the same 
way; and each plate should have its own flyleaf, bearing its own 
explanation and no more, opposite to it. With this exception both 
authors and editors may be congratulated on an excellent publication. 
And we may ask why the British Museum of Natural History does 
not publish similar Annals, and so make known to the world the 
wealth of new species which it contains ? S. 5. B. 


RG P Om hs Aina -ROCh DEN GS. 


GEOLOGICAL Soctety or Lonpon. 
June 8th, 1904.—J. E. Marr, Se.D., F.R.S., President, in the 


Chair. The following communications were read :— 


1. “The Paleontological Sequence in the Carboniferous Limestone 
of the Bristol Area.” By Arthur Vaughan, Esq., B.A., B.Sc., F.G.S. 


The zonary divisions established by the author are given in the 


Reports and Proceedings— Geological Society of London. 427 


table on p. 101 in the form in which they are finally set out, after 
emendation and further revision of a preliminary working system. 
For several reasons the author chooses the corals and brachiopods. 
as zone and sub-zone fossils, and he has selected genera for zone- 
indices and circuli (or species-groups) for sub-zonal indices. A 
circulus is defined as an aggregate of all the species which possess, 
in common, a large number of essential properties, and are the 
results of similar chains of evolution. To secure definiteness 
photographic figures are introduced, not only to illustrate new 
specific names, but to convey the precise sense in which well-known 
specific names are employed in the paper. The relative acceleration 
of the two groups employed is not identical in different localities, 
and there is a small relative displacement of one group upon the 
other, even within the area considered by the paper. The strata in 


ZONES. Sus-zonges AND Horizons. 
€ 
2S z le (D.) Lonsdaleia floriformis. 
A DisuNoPHYLLUM { (D,) Dibunophyllum, sp. nov. 
- Gee (S.) Products Cora (mut.). 
BMINU LAS Seer | \ (S;) Productus semireticulatus. 
eee 6 
5 We ~< ‘3 mH 
(C) Syringothyris, sp. nov. (Cassese) 
we xy XS 
x , (Zy). Schizophoria resupinata. 
<q | ZAPHRENTIS ...... { (Z,) Spirifer aff. clathratus. 
Z \ We 
= ~ 
ea B 
=) 
5 whe De 
oH 
(K,) Spiriferina octoplicata. 
CLEISTOPORA...... { (K,) Productus, sp. nov. 
a | 
i 
y, 
Moptona ......... (M) Modiola lata. 


1 Employed throughout the preliminary working system. 


428 Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London. 


which the indices of two successive zones are found to overlap one 
another are referred to as ‘ horizon. a, f, y,’ ete. 

The detailed stratigraphical portion of the paper deals with all 
the important sections and isolated exposures in the Bristol area :— 
The Avon section, the Sodbury section, the Farland area, the 
Tytherington section, the Clevedon and Portishead area, isolated 
exposures, and the Backwell-Wrington mass. In each case there 
is given (1) a description of the position at which each zone or sub- 
zone is exposed and of its lithology ; (2) a list of the corals and 
brachiopods found in the zone or sub-zone, with notes on their 
abundance; (3) a comparison with the same horizon in other parts 
of the Bristol area, and notes on the peculiarities of the section 
under discussion. In dealing with the Avon section an analysis is 
given of Stoddart’s paper, and reference is made to his collection. 
The details of this portion of the paper are next summed up in 
tables and discussions of the ranges and maxima of the corals and 
brachiopods within the Bristol area. This is followed by a com- 
parison of the last-named area with that of the Mendips, resulting 
in the conclusion that, when allowance is made for small variations 
(which are tabulated) the paleeontological sequence agrees remarkably 
in the two areas. 

The author next gives a summary of M. Lohest’s discussion of 
the parallelism of the Belgian sequence with that of the Avon 
section, and adopts the Belgian divisions of Tournasian and Viséan 
for the lower and upper parts of the Carboniferous Limestone. 
A comparison is also instituted with M. Mourlon’s grouping, and it 
is remarked that the Brachiopods mentioned by M. Mourlon and 
Professor Dewalque occur in the same order in the Bristol area as 
in Belgium, and are correspondingly characteristic of the beds. 
The author claims that in the area with which he deals, his table 
of ranges is sufficient to enable any worker to zone any exposure 
with a considerable degree of accuracy. In conclusion, notes are 
‘given on all the important species and circuli dealt with; and 
descriptions of a number of new species, circuli, and mutations. 


2. “On a small Plesiosaurus Skeleton from the White Lias of 
Westbury-on-Severn.” By Wintour Frederick Gwinnell, Esq., F.G.S. 

The remains described were found on the beach, and had evidently 
recently fallen from the cliff above, which is made up of the Upper 
Rheetic beds, including the Hstheria-bed and the White Lias Lime- 
stone. The matrix of the specimen corresponds with the White 
Lias in colour, texture, and material, and it is similarly traversed 
by fissures often coated with dendrites. The remains include more 
than twenty small dorsal vertebra, with spinous and transverse 
processes, lying in natural sequence. A pseudomorph of the spinal 
cord in calcite occurs also in position. Several slender ribs, and 
indications of other bones, probably from the pectoral or pelvic 
arches, also occur in the slab, but are not yet worked out. Hitherto 
only single vertebree or fragmentary bones of Plesiosawrus have been 
recorded from this horizon in Britain. At present it has not been 
found possible to assign the fossil to any existing species. 


Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London. 429 


3. “The Evidence for a Non-Sequence between the Keuper and 
Rheetic Series in North-West Gloucestershire and Worcestershire.” 
By Linsdall Richardson, Esq., F.G.S. 

The section at Wainlode Cliff shows a transition in the ‘ Bone- 
bed’ from a thin pyritic stratum of an inch or so in thickness and 
crowded with fish-remains to a micaceous sandstone-bed, usually 
devoid of such remains and about a foot thick, but containing 
Strickland’s Pullastra arenicola. 'This sandstone is seen in many 
Worcestershire sections, and may be called the ‘ bone-bed equivalent.’ 
Thus, as the bed which is full of vertebrate remains, or the Bone-bed 
(Bed 15 of the author’s sections), can be traced in a single section 
laterally into a sandstone-bed devoid of those remains, the con- 
temporaneity of the two developments is considered satisfactorily 
established. Particular stress is laid upon the fact that above this 
main ‘ Bone-bed’ the component deposits of the Rhetic are remark- 
ably persistent, while below it such persistency is not found. Black 
shales are generally present below the Bone-bed or its equivalent 
in Worcestershire, but in places there comes in a sandstone between 
them and the ‘Tea-green Marls.’ At Dunhampstead the Rhetic 
rocks are thicker than at any other locality in Worcestershire. At 
Denny Hill, near Gloucester, the ‘Bone-bed’ rests directly on the 
‘Tea-green Marls’; there is no infra-Bone-bed deposit of Rhetic 
date. At Garden Cliff, however, a comparatively thick accumulation 
is seen in that position. The anticlinal and synclinal areas established 
in the Mid and North Cotteswolds by Mr. 8. 8S. Buckman are 
referred to; and it is found that the greatest thicknesses of the 
Rhetic rocks under the Bone-bed coincide with synclines, and 
the least thicknesses with anticlines. The Moreton and Birdlip 
anticlines are especially mentioned, as also the syncline of Cleeve 
Hill and that between Painswick and Stroud. Thus Dunhampstead, 
where the Rheetic deposits below the Bone-bed are thicker than 
anywhere else in Worcestershire, is situated on a continuation of the 
Cleeve Hill synclinal axis; Denny Hill, where the ‘ Bone-bed ’ rests 
directly upon the ‘Tea-green Marls,’ is near the westward con- 
tinuation of the Birdlip anticline; and Garden Cliff, where the 
infra-Bone-bed deposit is thickest, is situated on a continuation of 
the synclinal axis which runs near Painswick. Thus the earth- 
pressures recognized in later times were probably at work at the 
close of the Keuper Period. As the area, once covered by the waters 
of the Keuper sea and the diminished representatives of that sea 
in the form of lakes, gradually sank, the Rhetic ocean slowly 
encroached upon the land-surface, flowing up the depressions in 
the undulating expanse of marls, and successive overlaps of the 
several infra-Bone-bed deposits resulted: the greatest overlap 
apparently taking place during the formation of the Bone-bed. 
At those localities where the distribution of the infra-Bone-bed 
deposits indicates elevation of the Keuper Marls in immediate pre- 
Rhetic times, it is noticeable that there is also a non-sequence at 
the base of the Lias. 


430 Correspondence—John T. Stobbs. 


CORRESPONDENCE. 


THE ‘YOREDALE’ ROCKS OF NORTH DERBYSHIRE. 


Sir,—I was pleased to see in your last issue Mr. J. A. Howe’s 
protest against the application of the term ‘ Yoredale’ to the series 
of rocks which are found between the Millstone Grits Series and 
the Massif of North Derbyshire. 

The name ‘ Yoredale’ was first used geologically by Phillips in 
his ‘‘ Geology of Yorkshire,” pt. ii, pp. 36-7, and he leaves no doubt as 
to the character of the group of rocks to which he applied the term. 
‘«¢ We shall choose as a general standard of reference for this complex 
series of rocks, that district where this character of complexity is 
the greatest. The upper end of Wensleydale is adopted. The total 
thickness of the Upper Limestone Series in this situation is about 
one thousand feet, and it consists of the following groups—constituting 
what I term the Yoredale Series.” Hereafter follows the succession 
of the beds from the Main Limestone to the shales below the 
Hardraw Scar Limestone of that district, a series having perfectly 
definite lithological and paleontological characters, and anyone who 
has visited the vale of the river Ure will have been delighted with 
the ‘country ’ selected as the ‘ type.’ 

Unfortunately for students, however, Phillips also described, as 
belonging in part to the Yoredale Series, another and widely different 
development of rocks, whose position had evidently puzzled him 
greatly, for their description, with peculiar inconsistency on the 
author’s part, comes under the heading “ Millstone Grit Series in 
Craven” (p. 72). It is this development whose correlative occurs 
in the Peak District, but which is totally unrepresented in the 
Yoredale area, and which, for that reason, it is wrong to denominate 
‘Yoredales.’ Farey’s term, ‘the limestone-shales,’ although by no 
means an ideal name for the group, has right of priority, and at 
any rate possessed the negative virtue of causing no confusion or 
misconception as to the character or position of the measures ; nor 
did it commit the user to any theories. 

The series under discussion is a very important one, whose 
thickness in places is 1500 feet; it gives to the localities of its 
development surface features which are totally different to those 
of the typical Yoredale country ; it contains a characteristic fauna ; 
and it is worth a distinctive name. 

Familiarity with both types leads me to commend the wisdom 
of selecting such a name as ‘Pendleside Series’ for this group, 
and I believe the distinction thus marked cannot fail to be of service 
to workers in the science. Joun T. Srosss. 


Dune in, BAsrorp Park, StoKE-on-TRENT. 
21st July, 1904. 


No. 483. — 


I. Orie1nat ARTICLES. 
1 


Decade V.—Vol. I.—No. IX. 


THE 


dilonthly Journal of Geologn. 


WITH WHICH IS INCORPORATED 


“THE GEOLOGIST.” 


EDITED BY 


HENRY WOODWARD, LL.D., 


ASSISTED BY 


&c. 


SEPTEMBER, 1904. 


Gi@® aN ae aN aS: 


PAGE 


Eminent Living Geologists : 
Witrrip Hupieston Hupue- 


SnONAMU es. MGA CR RS:, 
Bee See Ee GaSe. eben. (Wath! 
a Portrait, Plate XIV.) ......... 431 


. Note on a Paleozoic Cypridina — 


from Canada. By Professor T. 
Rurert Jonszs, F.R.S., F.G.S. 
(With a Text-Figure.) 438 


. A Small Anticline in the Great 


Oolite Series north of Bedford. 
By Horace B. Woopwarp, 


F.R.S. (With a Section.)...... 439 


. Linthia oblonga from the Sinai 


Peninsula. By R. Buen 


Newron, F.G.8. (Plate XV.) 441 


. On Algoasaurus Bauri, gen. et 


sp-noy., fromthe Cretaceous Beds 
of South Africa. By R. Broom, 
M.D., B.Sc., Corr.M.Z.S.Lond. 


(With 3 Text- Figures.) 445 


See ici) 


. Note on Pillow- Lava from 


Mullion Island to Gorran eae 
Cornwall. 
M.A., F.G.8. 


ae 307) lan ie 


Ee aaa some | 


II. Norrczs or Memorrs. 
1. British Association, Cambridge. 
Address to Geological Section by 
Aubrey Strahan, M.A., F.R.S., 
President of Section C......... 
2. Short Notices of Memoirs :— 
South African Geology. Ceylon 
Mineral Survey. Euceratherium. 
Geology and the Planetesimal 
Hypothesis. The Frank Landslip 

. Reviews. 


1. Dr. J. F. Whiteaves, Cretaceous 
Fossils from Vancouver ......... 
2. N. Jakowlew, the Morphology 
and Morphogeny of the Rugosa 
3. C. Fox-Strangways, Oolitic and 
Cretaceous Rocks South of Scar- 


4. Professor Dr. A. Fritsch’s Pa- 
leeozoic Arachnida ............... 


IV. Reports AND PROCEEDINGS. 
Geological Society of London... 
V. CoRRESPONDENCE. 
Drs cA EVAN Os, asssiesercie.teseeees 
VI. MiscELLANEOUS. 


Museum of Practical Geology... 478 


LONDON : DULAU &* cos NY SOHO SQUARE. 


it 


Price 1s. 6d. net. 


GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE 


R, 


F.R.S., F.G.S., &c. 


WILFRID H. HUDLESTON, F.R.S., &c., Dr. GEORGE J. HINDE, F.R.S., &c., anp 
HORACE B. WOODWARD, F.B.S., 


PAGE 


449 


475 


é& The Volume for 1903 of the GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE is ready, 


price 20s. net. 


Cloth Cases for. Binding may be had, price 1s. 6d. net. 


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NATURAL HISTORY SPECIMENS, 


CONSISTING OF 
Minerals, Fossils and Recent Shells, also 
Fishes, Reptilia, Crustacea, Echinodermata, 
etc., etc., Dry and in Spirit. 


A Large Stock of Fossil Fishes. 


His COLOURED CASTS, now numbering 229, and of which 
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All Musewms should possess the following : 
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b. A splendid set of Models and Casts to 
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N.B.—R. F. D. desires to restrict the number of branches of 
Science represented in his Museum, and now offers for Sale his 
Entire Stock of Minerals and Recent Shells, retaining in 
future only his Geological Collections and Reproductions of famous 
Fossils; also his collections illustrating Anthropology and all relating 
to early Man—including Cabinets and Glass Cases. These two 
collections, which can be treated for singly or together, contain 
several thousand specimens, and are well worthy of examination. 


Although intending purchasers can view the above at any time, 
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ci 


THE 


GEHEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE. 


NEW SERIES. DECADE V. VOL. I. 
No. IX.—SEPTEMBER, 1904. 


ORIGINAL ARTICLES. 


= 
J.—Eminent Livinc GEroLoaists: 


Witrrip Hupieston Hupueston, J.P., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., 
F.G.8., F.C.S., etc., 


(WITH A PORTRAIT,! PLATE XIV.) 


KOLOGY is a science which owes, not only its inception, but its 
continued existence largely to its non-professional disciples and 
lovers. In fact, of the two classes existing at the present time, the 
‘amateur’ and the ‘professional,’ it would by no means be difficult 
to show that the former gave birth ta the latter, and that some of 
the best living professional geologists have been recruited from the 
ranks of the amateur class. To a small band of early amateurs we 
are indebted for the foundation alike of the Geological Society and 
the Geological Survey in this country. 

At the beginning of the last century—indeed, during the first half 
of it—geological teachers were scarce, and Natural Science had not 
attained a recognised position in our public schools. But for the 
early training received from William Smith (known as “the father 
of English geology ”) we might never have heard of his distinguished 
nephew, Professor John Phillips. Nor can we omit to recall the 
illustrious names of Hutton, Macculloch, Greenough, Conybeare, 
Fitton, Broderip, Darwin, Godwin-Austen, Fisher, Sorby; with 
Buckland, Sedgwick, Phillips, Forbes, Morris, Prestwich, Green, 
Bonney, and Nicholson, among our past University Lecturers ; 
and De la Beche, Griffith, Portlock, Murchison, Ramsay, Jukes, 
and Geikie, as leaders of Surveys; and Hutton. Lyell, Poulett- 
Scrope, Huxley, Geikie, and others, among our classical geological 
writers, most of whom studied geology and paleontology in their 
early years as amateurs, and several of whom remained so all 
their lives. 

Now, all is changed. Owing to the numerous centres for public 
instruction and the introduction of Natural Science teaching in our 
Universities, a large number of fully trained geological students is 


1 The portrait of Mr. Hudleston is reproduced by kind permission of ‘‘ The 
Biographical Press Agency,” 16, Henrietta Street, Strand, W.C.—Ep. Gro. Mac. 


DECADE V.—VOL. I.—NO. IX. 25 


432 Eminent Living Geologists—W. H. Hudleston. 


being turned out annually ‘for home and colonial consumption,” 
and we need no longer rely altogether upon the casual crop of 
young men having an innate love of the science, which may prompt 
them to take up geology because they are interested in it. Many, 
indeed, nowadays may be “called,” but possibly not all those 
“chosen” have a genuine love for the science they affect. 

It is pleasant to record the scientific services of one who, while he 
belongs to the non-professional class of geologists, has yet achieved 
a very large amount of most excellent work, both in geology and 
paleontology, and has, by his merit, won for himself the blue ribbon 
of the science. Wilfrid Hudleston Hudleston (formerly Simpson) 
was the son of Dr. John Simpson, of Knaresborough, who married 
Elizabeth Ward, heiress of the Hudlestons of Cumberland, and by 
letters-patent assumed the name of Hudleston in 1867. Wilfrid, the 
eldest son, was born at York on June 2nd, 1828, being the descendant 
of three generations of Yorkshire ‘medicine-men.’ From 1831 to 
1834 his parents resided at Harrogate, where he remembers meeting 
his first playfellow, Henry Clifton Sorby—afterwards a distinguished 
geologist, an LL.D., F.R.S., and President (1878-80) of the 
Geological Society of London—then a schoolboy in the neighbourhood. 
Young Simpson received his early education at St. Peter’s School, 
York, from which he was transferred to Uppingham School, and 
subsequently entered St. John’s College, Cambridge, where he 
graduated B.A. in 1850. As a boy and an undergraduate he 
evinced no special predilection for geology beyond a strange boyish 
curiosity to know what the earth was made of. In his last term at 
Cambridge he attended Sedgwick’s lectures, and was much impressed 
with the manner and appearance of that distinguished geologist. On 
leaving Cambridge he devoted some time to the study of the Law, 
and was called to the Bar in 1858, but never practised. A consider- 
able portion of the twelve years 1850-1862 was spent in foreign 
travel in various parts of Europe and North Africa. 

Mr. Simpson accompanied Professor Alfred Newton, of Cambridge, 
and Mr. John Wolley, in the pursuit of Ornithology, to Lapland, 
spending the Summer of 1855 in that country. He subsequently 
explored the Eastern Atlas, Algeria, in company with Canon 
Tristram and Mr. Osbert Salvin. Afterwards, more than twelve 
months were occupied in travels and collecting in Greece and 
Turkey. During this time attention was given to the physical 
and geological features of the various countries visited, but 
Ornithology occupied a foremost place. 

From 1862 to 1867, his long period of distant travel being mostly 
over, Mr. Simpson began a special course of scientific studies, 
selecting more particularly Natural History and Chemistry. During 
this time he studied at Edinburgh under Playfair and Stephenson 
Macadam, and subsequently for three sessions at the Royal College 
of Chemistry in London under Hoffmann, Frankland, and Valentine. 
At that time he was undecided whether to take Chemistry or 
Geology as his principal subject, when an accident determined his 
studies in favour of the latter. Mr. Simpson had the good fortune to 


Eminent Living Geologists—W. H. Hudleston. 433 


meet Marshall Hall at Chamounix in the Summer of 1866, and on 
their return to England he was speedily introduced to many persons 
interested in geological science, of whom Professor John Morris 
may be regarded as the chief. There are still many who can recall 
the remarkable magnetic attraction of Morris over his pupils and 
associates, and this was just the kind of influence which Mr. Simpson, 
now become Mr. Wilfrid Hudleston, required to enlist him as a 
geological recruit and in due course to make him a “knight of the 
hammer” for the rest of his life. A close friendship was at once 
formed, which was only terminated by the death of Morris in 1886. 
In 1867 Mr. Simpson (a fortnight only before he changed his name 
to Hudleston) was elected a Fellow of the Geological Society of 
London, and four years later he became a member of the Geologists’ 
Association. 

About this period, 1867-71, Professor Morris was in the habit of 
extending his geological excursions far into the country, and out 
of this practice grew the improved excursions of the Geologists’ 
Association, which, under various leading geologists, offered, with- 
out exception, the best instruction in geology which could be 
obtained, “at the bed-side”! Mr. Hudleston was not slow to profit 
by these excursions, and when he became Secretary in 1874 his 
interest was further enhanced by preparing reports on the various 
districts visited, some of which attain the dimensions of a respectable 
memoir. It was not until 1872 that he ventured on publication, 
and it may be noticed of many of his earlier papers that they have 
a decided bias towards chemical geology, in which subject he always 
took a deep interest. His papers on “The Yorkshire Oolites” (1873-8) 
and ‘The Corallian Rocks of England ” (written in conjunction with 
Professor J. F. Blake, 1877) soon established his reputation as one 
of our leading geologists. 

In 1881 Mr. Hudleston was elected President of the Geologists’ 
Association, in which body he had already served the office of 
Secretary for three years, from 1874 to 1877, during which time, 
besides the duties of his office, he organised the excursions, prepared 
the reports, and carefully recorded the scientific work accomplished, 
earning for himself (said Mr. Carruthers) “the lasting gratitude of 
the Association”? (see Annual Report, 1877, vol. v, p. 75). The 
Reports of Excursions directed by him are full of original 
observations, notably those relating to the Vale of Wardour (1881) 
and the West Riding of Yorkshire (1882). The cordial relations 
which have always existed between Mr. Hudleston and_ the 
Geologists’ Association were further evinced in March, 1892, when 
an illuminated address of congratulation on his recent election to 
the chair of the Geological Society, signed by a numerous body of 
members, was presented to him by Professor Blake, then President 
of the Association. 

Mr. Hudieston resided for many years in Cheyne Walk, Chelsea, 
but in 1883 he removed to Oatlands Park, Surrey. This rustication, 
however, interfered with his scientific engagements, and he again 
took up his residence in town, at 8, Stanhope Gardens, South 


434 Eminent Living Geologists—W. H. Hudieston. 


Kensington. In 1890 he married Miss Rose Benson, second 
daughter of the late William Heywood Benson, Esq., of Littlethorpe, 
near Ripon. 

On the death of his old friend, Professor Morris, in 1886, Mr. 
Hudleston succeeded him as one of the Editors of the GronocicaL 
MaGazine, to which, since 1879, he has been a frequent contributor. 

He is a keen student of recent and fossil mollusca, and was one 
of the founders of the Malacological Society. 

In 1886 accompanied by his friends Dr. Henry Woodward, F.R.S., 
and Mr. C. E. Robinson, Memb. Inst.C.E., Mr. Hudleston made 
some experimental dredgings, with the aid of a Brixham trawler 
and her crew, along the English Channel and in and near Torbay, 
for the purpose of studying marine mollusca and observing their 
living habitats; and in the following year he engaged a Grimsby 
steam-trawler and her crew, and, accompanied by Mr. C. E. Robinson 
and the late lamented Martin F. Woodward, of the Royal College 
of Science (second son of Dr. Henry Woodward), he spent three 
weeks in a dredging cruise in the English Channel to the west of 
Portsmouth and along the French coast. 

In 1886 Mr. Hudleston became one of the Secretaries of the 
Geological Society of London, an office which he continued to 
hold until 1890. Following Sir Archibald Geikie, D.Sc., LL.D., 
F.R.S., Mr. Hudleston was in 1892 elected to fill the office of 
President, and during the two years in which he occupied the chair 
he delivered two important Addresses, dealing with the recent work 
of the Geological Society, which he passed critically in review, 
taking the papers on Tertiary and Secondary formations in 1893 and 
those on the Paleeozoic and Fundamental rocks in 1894. 

Three years later, in 1897, Mr. Hudleston was awarded the highest 
honour which the Council could bestow, the Wollaston Gold Medal of 
the Geological Society, in recognition of his valuable contributions to 
our knowledge, treating of chemical, mineralogical, paleontological, 
and stratigraphical geology. Special reference was made to his 
‘Monograph on the Inferior Oolite Gasteropoda,” which contained 
no less than 514 quarto pages of letterpress and 44 quarto plates of 
fossils. The labour involved in collecting, cleaning, and developing 
the Oolitic Gasteropoda procured for this work, all of which are now 
arranged in his private Museum in Stanhope Gardens, occupied 
Mr. Hudleston, with the co-operation of A. H. Bloomfield, Henry 
Keeping, B. Reynolds, Peter Cullen, and others, over a period of 
twenty years, fresh excavations having occasionally been made 
in quest of new species or to obtain better examples of those already 
known. In addition to this, some private collections, including those 
of Mr. 8. 8. Buckman and Mr. Darrel Stephens, were acquired by 
purchase. The Gasteropoda alone number many thousand specimens, 
carefully labelled and arranged, the ‘types’ being all specially 
marked. It is not too much to say that this was in all respects 
a model of what a monograph should be. No previous author had 
taken such pains to verify in the field the horizons from which the 


Eminent Living Geologists—W. H. Hudleston. 435 


fossils had been obtained, nor studied more fully the Continental 
types figured from equivalent strata. 

Early in January, 1895, Mr. Hudleston, accompanied by his wife 
and his friend Professor J. F. Blake, F.G.S., left London for 
Bombay, where they arrived towards the end of the month. After 
leaving Professor Blake duly installed as organizing Curator of 
the Museum at Baroda, to which he had just been appointed, 
Mr. Hudleston continued his journey towards the north-west frontier 
of India. The geological results of this expedition are embodied 
in the second part of his paper ‘“‘ Notes on Indian Geology,” read 
before the Geologists’ Association during the presidency of the late 
General C. A. McMahon, December, 1895 (see Proc. Geol. Assoc., 
xiv, pt. 6, February, 1896), who himself contributed an appendix 
on some of the rock-specimens collected. After making a rush for 
Simla, which is by no means an agreeable place in February, 
Mr. and Mrs. Hudleston proceeded across the Punjab to the banks of 
the Jhelum. Here they had an opportunity of ascending Mt. Tilla, 
the eastern extremity of the Salt Range, and thence transferred 
their base of operations to Rawal Pindi, whence Jamrood, Abbotabad, 
Murree, and finally Srinagar itself were visited. 

Mr. Hudleston has been invited to preside over or take part in 
the Councils and Committees of numerous scientific Societies. He 
was elected President of the Devonshire Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science, Literature, and Art, of the Yorkshire Naturalists’ 
Union, and of the Malton Field Naturalists’ Society; and has for 
some years past acted as a Vice-President of the Dorset Natural 
History Field Club. He has been a member of the Council of the 
Royal Geographical Society, and was President of the Geological 
Section of the British Association at Bristol in 1898. 

Quite recently Mr. Hudleston achieved an excellent piece of 
field geology by investigating the structure of Creechbarrow-in- 
Purbeck (see Guox. Maa., 1902, pp. 241-256, and 1903, pp. 149-154, 
197-208), which affords an object-lesson for younger hammerers 
to take pattern by. 

The accompanying list of Mr. Hudleston’s more important papers 
will best attest the energy and ability of their author, and the pleasure 
which he still continues to take in all the scientific questions of 
the day. 

Of these 58 memoirs and papers, extending over a period of 32 
years, the last appeared so recently as July of the present year 
(see GrotocicaL Magazine, No. 481, pp. 387-882), and deals 
with “the Tanganyika problem,” and is a most valuable con- 
tribution to, as well as a criticism of, Mr. J. E. S. Moore’s 
recently published work on this subject. Indeed, we have 
the testimony of Professor Cornet himself upon this point. In 
the first place Mr. Hudleston enters upon a critical examination 
of the peculiarly marine-looking gasteropod shells which are 
thought by Mr. Moore to be homeeomorphic with certain shells 
from beds of the Inferior Oolite of Western Europe, and are thus 
inferentially regarded as descendants of those forms. Mr. Hudleston 


436 Eminent Living Geologists—W. H. Hudleston. 


finds that the evidence of an ancestral connection between certain 
of these halolimnic genera (namely, Typhobia, Bathanalia, Limno- 
trochus, Chytra, Paramelania, Bythoceras, Tanganyicia, Spekia, and 
Nassopsis) is not nearly so strong as was anticipated from tlie 
inferences already drawn by Mr. Moore; nevertheless, a fairly good 
prima facie case for the originally marine origin of these exceptional 
organisms has been made out by Mr. Moore, but the supposed 
connection, in long ages past, of Lake Tanganyika with an arm 
of the Jurassic sea is held to be highly improbable, if not wholly 
impossible. In the second place Mr. Hudleston has collected together 
much of the scattered evidence as to the geological history of this 
vast Lake-area, some of which had escaped Mr. Moore’s notice, 
especially the works of Professor Cornet of Mons, M. Barrat, and 
Mr. Molyneux, ete. 

From a general consideration of the case it is apparent that the 
great longitudinal faults, folds, furrows, or “graben,” as they are 
named, in which Tanganyika and the other lakes lie, are not older 
than the Tertiary period, and cannot therefore have formed a refuge 
in Secondary times for the remnant of an old Jurassic marine fauna 
in its hollows. Indeed, it seems probable that a large portion of 
the elevated interior region (composed of Archean, Granitoid, and 
other ancient rocks) may have been a land-area from Triassic times 
or even earlier. 

A magistrate and a landed proprietor in Dorsetshire and the 
West Riding of Yorkshire, Mr. Hudleston is a keen sportsman, 
loving both fishing and shooting, and divides his time between his 
country house at West Holme, near Wareham, Dorset, and his town 
residence, and still enjoys the meetings of the Geological, the 
Geographical, and other Societies, in the work of which he feels 
the same enthusiasm as of old. 


LIST OF GEOLOGICAL PAPERS, ETC., sy WILFRID H. HUDLESTON. 


1872. (With Mr. F. G. H. Price) ‘‘ Excavations on the Site of the New Law 
Courts’’: Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. iii, p. 43. 

1873-8. ‘‘The Yorkshire Oolites’”’: Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. iii, p. 283; vol. iv, 
p- 853; vol. v, p. 407. 

1874. Reports of Excursions to Oxford and Northamptonshire: Proc. Geol. Assoc., 
vol. iv, pp. 91 and 123. 

1875. Reports of Excursions to the Isle of Thanet, to Charnwood Forest, and to 
East Yorkshire: Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. iv, pp. 254, 307, and 326. 

1875. Appendix. [On the Occurrence of Phosphates in Cambrian Rocks.] Quart. 
Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxxi, p. 376. 

1876. Reports of Excursions to the Medway, to Reading, and to Swindon—Faringdon : 
Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. iv, pp. 503, 519, 543. 

1877. (With the Rev. J. F. Blake) ‘‘The Corallian Rocks of England’’: Quart. 
Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxxiii, p. 260. 

1877. pie as Davey) Report of an Excursion to Wantage: Proc. Geol. Assoc., 
vol. v, p. 137. 

1877. Appendix. [Chemical Composition of some Lizard Rocks.] Quart. Journ. 
Geol. Soc., vol. xxxiii, p. 924. 

1878. Report of an Excursion to Chipping Norton: Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. v, p.378. 

Uso O° Sao arin of the North-West Highlands’’: Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. vi, 
pale 

1879. Review of Daubrée’s ‘‘ Géologie expérimentale’?: Gzou. Mac., Dee. II, 
Vol. VI, p. 421. 


Eminent Living Geologists—W. H. Hudieston. 437 


1879. Review of Sterry Hunt’s Chemical and Geological Essays: Grou. Mag., 
Dee. II, Vol. VI, p. 554. 

1880. Reports of Excursions to Oxford and Aylesbury: Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. vi, 
pp- 338 and 344. 

1880-1. ‘‘Corallian Gasteropoda of Yorkshire’’: Grou. Mag., Dec. II, Vol. VII, 
p. 241; Vol. VIII, p. 119. 

1881. Report of an Excursion to Salisbury, Stonehenge, etc.: Proc. Geol. Assoc., 
vol. vii, p. 134. 

1881. ‘On the Geology of the Vale of Wardour”: Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. vii, 


p. 161. 
1881. Review of Wallace’s ‘‘Island Life’’: Gzon. Mac., Dec. II, Vol. VIII, 
p. 84. 
1881. ‘‘Gasteropoda of the Portland Rocks”: Grou. Mac., Dec. II, Vol. VIII, , 
389d 


1881. Notes on the Geology of Keswick, and Report of an Excursion to the Lake 
District: Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. vii, pp. 213 and 236. 

1881. Presidential Address on ‘‘ Deep Sea Investigation’: Proc. Geol. Assoc., 
‘vol. vii, p. 245. 

1882-5. ‘ Gasteropoda of the Oxfordian and Lower Oolites of Yorkshire”: Grou. 
Maa., Dec. II, Vol. IX, pp. 145, 193, and 245; Dec. III, Vol. II, 
pp. 49, 121, 151, 201, and 252. 

1882. Review of King and Rowney’s work on the so-called Hozoon Canadense: 
Grou. Maa., Dec. II, Vol. IX, p. 281. 

1882. Report of an Excursion to the Isle of Purbeck: Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. vil, 
p- 377. 

1882. Report of an Excursion to the West Riding of Yorkshire: Proc. Geol. Assoc., 
vol. vii, p. 420, and Proce. Yorks. Geol. Soc., vol. for 1882, p. 113. 

1882. ‘‘ First Impressions of Assynt’’?: Gnon. Maa., Dec. II, Vol. IX, p. 390. 

1882. Presidential Address on ‘‘ The Geology of Palestine’’: Proc. Geol. Assoc., 
vol. viii, p. 1, and Proc. Yorks. Geol. Soc., vol. for 1883, p. 174. 

1883. ‘‘Notes on the Diamond Rock of South Africa’’: Proc. Geol. Assoc., 
vol. viii, p. 65. 

1883. ‘‘On a recent Hypothesis with respect to the Diamond Rock of S. Africa”’ : 
Min. Mag., vol. v, p. 199. 

1883. ‘On a Collection of Fossils and Rock-specimens from West Australia ”’: 
Quart. Journ, Geol. Soc., vol. xxxix, p. 582. 

1883. Review of Barrois’ ‘‘ Geology of the Asturias, etc.”?: Guo. Mac., Dee. II, 
Vol. X, p. 278. 

1884. Review of Sterry Hunt’s ‘‘ Geological History of the Serpentines’’: Guo. 
Mage., Dec. III, Vol. I, p. 276. 

1884. <‘‘ Mollusca from South Australia”: Grou. Mac., Dec. III, Vol. I, p. 339. 

1884. Presidential Address to the Malton Field Naturalists’ Society ; Malton, 1885. 

1885. ‘‘ Further Notes on the Geology of Palestine’’: Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. ix, 
p- 77. On p. 101 of this volume the analogy between the Jordan Valley 
fissure and the East African fissure lakes, such as L. Baringo, is suggested. 

1885. (With Mr. H. B. Woodward) Report of an Excursion to Sherborne and 
Bridport: Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. ix, p. 187. 

1886-7. ‘On a Recent Section through Walton Common,’’ and further notice : 
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xlii, p. 147, and vol. xliui, p. 448. 

1887-96. oe of the Gasteropoda of the Inferior Oolite: Palaontographical 
Society. 

1887. Report of ae Excursion to Aylesbury: Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. x, p. 166. 

1889. Report of an Excursion to Weymouth: Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. xi, p. 49. 

1889. ‘‘ Geological History of Iron Ores’’ (being the Presidential Address delivered 
to the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union at Sheffield in November, 1888) : 
Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. xi, p. 104. 

1889, Presidential Address to the Devonshire Association (Tavistock) : Trans. Dev. 
Assoc., vol. xxi, p. 25, and Grou. Mac., Dec. III, Vol. VI, pp. 500 
and 558. 

1890. ‘‘ Mollusca from South Australia’’: Gron. Mac., Dec. III, Vol. VII, p.241. 

1892. (With Mr. E. Wilson) ‘‘A Catalogue of British Jurassic Gasteropoda”’ : 
Dulau & Co. 


438 Professor T. Rupert Jones—A Paleozoic Cypridina. 


1893-4. Two Presidential Addresses to the Geological Society of London on ‘‘ Some 
Recent Work of the Society’’: Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xlix, Proc., 
p- 65, and vol. ut, Proc., p. 58. 

1895. ‘Notes on Indian Geology, including a Visit to Kashmir”: Proc. Geol. 
Assoc., vol. xiv, p. 226. 

1896. (With Mr. Monckton) Report of an Excursion to Swanage, Corfe Castle, 
Kimeridge, etc.: Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. xiv, p. 312. 

1897. Review of Dr. C. Irons’ ‘‘ Life and Work of Dr. Croll’’: Grou. Mae., 
Dee. IV, Vol. IV, p. 71. 

1898. Address to the Geological Section of the British Association at Bristol : 
Report (Trans. Sect. C), p. 852, and Grot. Mac., Dec. IV, Vol. V, 
p. 408. 

1899. “On the Eastern Margin of the North Atlantic Basin’”?: Grou. Mae., 
Dec. IV, Vol. VI, pp. 97 and 145. 

1901. (With others) ‘‘A Day in West Purbeck’’: Proc. Dorset Field Club, 
vol. xxii, p. liv. 

1902. (With General C. A. McMahon) ‘‘ Fossils from the Hindu Khoosh ’’: Grou. 
Mac., Dec. IV, Vol. IX, pp. 3 and 49. 

1902. ‘‘Creechbarrow; an Essay in Purbeck Geology ’’: Proc. Dorset Field Club, 
vol. xxiii, p. 146. See also Geox. Mac., Dec. IV, Vol. 1X, p. 241, and 
Vol. X, pp. 149, 197. 

1902. Review of Bertrand’s ‘‘Panama’’ (a memoir published in 1899): Gzot. 
Maa., Dec. IV, Vol. IX, p. 419. 

1908. ‘Chesil Beach ’’: Proc. Dorset Field Club, vol. xxiv, p. 1. 

1993. Review of Tempest Anderson’s ‘‘ Volcanic Studies’? : Gron. Mac., Dec. IV, 
Vol. X, p. 160. 

1904. Review of Messrs. Freshfield & Garwood’s ‘‘ Round Kanchenjunga”’: Gxou. 
Mace., Dec. V, Vol. I, p. 74. 

1904. ‘On the Origin of the Marine (Halolimnic) Fauna of Lake Tanganyika”: 
Trans. Victoria Inst. for 1904, and as a Supplement in the July number 
of the Grout. Maca., Dec. V, Vol. I. 


Mr. Hudleston is also the author of a considerable number of reviews and notices, 
some of which have appeared in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History, and 
others in the Grotoaicat Macazing, for the most part anonymously. 


II.—Norte on A Patmozo1c CypriprvA FROM CANADA. 
By Professor T. Rupert Jonezs, F.R.S., F.G.S. 


N the Annals and Magazine of Natural History, ser. vi, vol. i 
(1898), pp. 833-334, pl. xxvii, a numerous series of fossil 
Ostracoda, with bivalved carapaces, having more or less resemblance 
to those of Cypridina, were described and figured. The specimens 
selected had been collected by various observers in different regions ; 
and comprised two from the Tertiary of France, two from the 
Cretaceous of Belgium, one from the Permian of Durham, seven 
from the Carboniferous of Britain, three from the Devonian of 
Devon, three from the Upper Silurian and two from the Lower 
Silurian (Ordovician) of distant regions. References were made to 
several allied Paleozoic forms; and one other species from the 
Carboniferous of North America (Ulrich) and two from the Upper 
Silurian of Scania (Moberg) ought to have been mentioned. 

We have now to notice another old Cypridinal form (the internal 
cast of a left valve), probably of Ordovician age. It has come to 
hand from Colonel C. C. Grant, of Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, who 
exposed it in breaking up some blocks of limestone, probably 
belonging to the Trenton series, from a ‘glacial drift’ at Wenoma, 
on the shore of Lake Ontario, not far from Hamilton. 


H. B. Woodward—A Small Anticline near Bedford. 489 


This limestone is largely composed of a small gregarious variety of 
Tsochilina Ottawa, Jones (see Guon. Maa., July, 1903, pp. 300-804) ; 
and in this condition it resembles other specimens collected by 
Colonel Grant, and sent by him to the British Museum. 

The particular specimen under notice is shown in Fig. 1. It 
approaches in lateral outline to Cypridina brevimentum, Jones, Kirkby, 
and Brady (Foss. Entom. Carbonif., pt. i, 1874, p. 16, pl. ii, figs. 
15-19, especially fig. 15a). It differs, however, from that species 
in the following particulars :— 

It is more definitely oblong; straight on the back, with its postero- 
dorsal angle, and not the postero-ventral part, projecting. The 
hook or hood is narrower and sharper than in C. brevimentum ; 
attenuated partly by loss of substance. 

The notch below is deeper than in the figures quoted ; and it has 
a bold outline with an ogee curve. The cast itself has suffered 
a slight damage by having lost some of its convex surface, and the 
middle part of both its ventral and its dorsal edge, when it was 
being detached from the block. : With the above-mentioned dis- 
tinctive characters we may regard it provisionally as a separate 
species, with the name of Cypridina antiqua, sp. nov. 


Fic. 1.—Cypridina antiqua, T. R. Jones, sp. nov. Magn. 3 diam. Of Ordovician 
age? From Glacial Drift (limestone of the Trenton series), Wenoma, on the 
shore of Lake Ontario, near Hamilton, Canada. 

This internal mould of a left valve (Fig. 1) is somewhat decorticated 
across the middle of its convexity. The cast consists of dark-grey, 
fine-grained, and slightly micaceous mudstone, distinct from the 
limestone to which it is attached. It measures 15 millimetres in 
length and 10 in height (from dorsal to ventral edge). 


III.—Nore on a sMALL ANTICLINE IN THE GREAT OOLITE SERIES 
AT CLAPHAM, NORTH OF BEDFORD.' 


By Horace B. Woopwarp, F.R.S. 


N the broad Alluvial tract which borders the Ouse between Oakley 

and Clapham, north of Bedford, there is a gravel-pit in which 

a small anticline of the Great Oolite was abruptly encountered amidst 

the regularly stratified river-deposits. The pit is situated immediately 
north of the Oakley road and east of the Midland Railway. 

The trend of the fold was N.N.W. and §.8.E., and the upraised 
strata consisted of Great Oolite Limestone and Clay, with bordering 
portions of Cornbrash, and probably also of Kellaways Beds. The 
ridge was exposed over a space about 20 yards in length, and the 
arch of Oolite strata, about 18 yards in breadth, was clearly displayed 
in a transverse section, flanked on either side by undisturbed beds 


1 Read betore the Meeting of the British Association, Cambridge, August, 1904. 


440 H. B. Woodward—A Small Antieline near Bedford. 


of river gravel and sand; the whole being opened up to a depth of 
10 or 12 feet. Prior to the excavation there was no indication 
of the disturbed strata, although they actually reached the surface. 
The arch, however, was coated with Great Oolite Clay, which had 
been disarranged superficially and intermixed with gravel. 


SEcTION AT CLAPHAM, NORTH oF BEDroRD. 


feet. 

Soil and | E. Brown loam and stony loam and clay, and irregular 

gravel, ete. pockets of brown and white gravel intermixed with C. 
Cornbrash. D. Marly and flaggy limestone with Ostrea flabelloides ... 2 
Great Oolite | C. Dark-blue clay : bc 6 Sete up to 3 

Clay. | ‘ 
Creat Oblate B. Grey limestones es vse oe i 406 5 to 6 

Limestone, | 2: Marly clay with Ostrea Sowerbyi. 

Tel Marls and limestones (seen in pit, further south). 


The Great Oolite Clay, less disturbed on the flanks of the anticline, 
was thinner than that exposed by the Bedford waterworks, south 
of Clapham: an attenuation possibly resulting from the flexure. 
The limestones below were bent into an arch and slightly broken, 
while the lowest strata of marly clay with Ostrea Sowerbyi were 
much squeezed up. The Cornbrash, a flaggy limestone with Ostrea 
flabelloides, was seen at the base of the pit on the eastern side of the 
arch, and traces of sands (resembling those of the Kellaways Beds) 
were noticeable a little distance away on the western side. 

The adjacent deposit, a white gravel, with brown decalcified 
portions resting irregularly on a ‘piped’ surface of it, was made 
up mainly of Oolite limestone, together with rolled Oxfordian and 
other fossils, quartz, quartzite, jasper, flint pebbles, and subangular 
and angular flints. 1t yielded also a partially decomposed block of 
rhomb-porphyry, evidently derived from the Boulder-clay which 
covers the higher grounds; and the occurrence of this Scandinavian 
rock is of interest, as hitherto no example has been recorded south 
of Norfolk.!. A portion of a molar of Elephas primigenius was like- 
wise obtained from the gravel—the age of which is evidently 
subsequent to the Boulder-clay of the district. 

With regard to the age and origin of the small anticline, there is 
no particular evidence. It must have been formed prior to the 


1 See Professor P. F. Kendall: ‘‘ Eighth Report of Committee on Erratic Blocks 
of the British Isles,’ Rep. Brit. Assoc. tor 19038, 


R. Bullen Newton—An Echinoid from Sinai. 441 


accumulation of the gravel, and unfortunately little more can be 
said with confidence. 

The Ouse follows a serpentine course from the neighbourhood of 
Sharnbrook to Bedford, a distance in a direct line of rather more 
than six miles, and all the way the bed of the river lies practically 
on the Great Oolite Series—the normal dip being locally counter- 
acted by slight undulations and occasional faults. It is possible that 
the small anticline may be connected with these earth-movements, 
but as its direction is contrary to that of the gentle folds above 
noted, this supposition does not appear to be probable. 

Again, it might be surmised that the flexure was purely local and 
superficial, that perhaps glacial action had been the cause; but of 
this there is no distinct evidence either for or against. All that can 
be reasonably inferred is that the superincumbent portions of 
Kellaways Beds and Cornbrash—the latter but a thin band of 
rock in the immediate district—had been planed off the dome prior 
to or during the period of maximum glaciation, when the Boulder- 
clay which crowns the adjacent plateau was laid down. The 
erosion of the softer strata flanking the anticline was perhaps due 
to the action of the river, if not to torrential. waters in the later 
phases of the Glacial period; and possibly the arch of Qolite 
limestones stood out as a low ridge or islet in the broad course 
of the river, until the inequality was levelled up by the accumulation 
of the valley deposits. 


IV.-- Linrura opLonGA (ORBIGNY) FROM SINAl. 
(PLATE XY.) 
By R. Burien Newron, F.G.S8. 


N a collection of Cretaceous fossils from Sinai obtained by Mr. T. 
Barron, F.G.S., which has been entrusted to me for determination 
by the Geological Survey of Egypt, I found several specimens 
of Linthia oblonga, a form of Hchinoid which appears to have escaped 
the attention of modern writers on the paleontology of the Sinai 
Peninsula. In tracing the history of this species it is ascertained 
that d’Orbigny first figured and described it under the genus 
Periaster during the year 1856 in the Pal. Frangaise Terr. Crétacés 
Kchinodermes, pl. 900, pp. 275, 276, where it is referred to as 
having been collected by M. Lefébvre at Mount Garébe, near 
Suez, from rocks regarded as of Turonian age, in association with 
Radiolites. 

Dr. Martin Duncan! next determined the species among Mr. 
Bauerman’s fossils from Sinai, which are preserved in the Museum 
of the Geological Society of London. It was collected at Wady 
Nagh el Bader (= Wadi Budra), Duncan listing it as one of the 
commonest forms of the collection found in association with Radiolites, 
and belonging to an horizon equivalent to the Cenomanian of France. 


1 Duncan, P. M., ‘‘ Note on the Echinodermata, etc., etc., from the Cretaceous. 
Rocks of Sai”: Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxv (1869), pp. 44-46. 


442 R. Bullen Newton—An Echinoid from Sinai. 


At a later date, M. Cotteau! recognized this Echinoid as occurring 
in the Turonian rocks of Algeria under the name of Linthia oblonga. 
On this occasion a change in the generic title was effected, without, 
however, any explanation being given by the author. This change 
was obviously necessary on grounds of priority, since Desor’s Linthia 
of 1858 (detes Soc. Helvétique, vol. xxxviii, p. 278) was synonymous 
with Periaster, founded by d’Orbigny in 1856. 

During the year 1899 M. Fourtau® published a revision of the 
fossil Echinoids of Egypt, containing a reference to Linthia oblonga. 
Besides quoting its occurrence in Algeria, he stated that the species 
was common in the neighbourhood of Angouléme, France, where 
it had been found at the base of the Angoumian deposits, and was 
consequently Upper Turonian. Moreover, M. Fourtau furnished 
a remark on the original locality given by d’Orbigny which is of 
interest to reproduce here: “Je ne connais point de Gebel Garébe, 
prés de Suez, seule une petite Eminence au pied de l’Abou Daragué * 
porte le nom de Krouéba, c’est peut-étre 14 que Lefebvre Va 
yécoltée & moins que ce ne soit dans les couches qui bordent le 
massif central granitique du Gebel Garib & 220 kilométres au sud 
de Suez sur les cotes de la mer Rouge, entre cette montagne et 
Gebel Zeit.” 

As this appears to embrace all the important references to Linthia 
oblonga, we will now attempt to solve the position of the original 
locality as given by d’Orbigny. According to his account M. Lefébvre 
collected the species at “Mont Garébe, prés Suez,” a spot which 
appears to be unknown to M. Fourtau. An examination of the 
map, however, demonstrates that there is an eminence called Jebel 
Gharbi or Gharabi in a slightly south-easterly direction from Suez, 
which is in the neighbourhood of Wadi Budra, overlooking the 
Ramleh plain of Sinai. Although the specimens could not have 
been obtained from Jebel Gharbi itself, that being of granitic 
structure, it is quite possible that Lefébvre collected his material 
at Jebel Dhalal, which is in the vicinity, and where Mr. Thomas 
Barron knows the Cenomanian rocks to be present. Some of the 
best specimens of Linthia oblonga in the collection of the Geological 
Survey of Egypt have been obtained at Wadi Budra, as were 
Duncan’s in previous years. This area of Sinai may therefore be 
regarded as the special habitat of the species, rather than those 
localities situated in the Eastern Desert of Egypt bordering the 
Gulf of Suez and the Red Sea, as suggested by M. Fourtau. 

The Turonian age of Linthia oblonga as determined, at any rate, 
for the Sinai occurrence by d’Orbigny, is not now accepted, more 
especially as that author described Hemiaster cubicus and Clavaster 

' Cotteau, Peron, & Gauthier: ‘ Echinides Foss. Algérie,”’ vol. 11 (1879), fase. 6, 
p 75 (no figure given). , , 

_,” Fourtau, R., ‘‘ Révision des Echinides Fossiles de Egypte’’?: Mém. Instit. 
Egyptien, vol. iii (1899), fase. 8, pp. 631, 632. 

% These place-names, which are difficult to find on ordinary maps of the district, 

will be found in an excellent topographical map accompanying M. Fourtau’s paper, 


“* Voyage dans la Partie Septentrionale du Désert Arabique’’: Bull. Soc. Khédiviale 
Geographie (Caire), 1900, ser. v, No. 9, p. 576. 


R. Bullen Newton—An Echinoid from Sinai. 443 


cornutus also from Mont Garcbe, which are true Cenomanian species ; 
and, moreover, we have it on the authority of Professor Rothpletz ! 
that no Turonian rocks have been identified in the Sinai Peninsula, 
thus fully confirming the previous work of Duncan, who from an 
examination of the assemblage of fossils in this region was led to 
regard it as generally of a Cenomanian character. This horizon 
is also supported by the specimens collected by the Geological 
Survey of Egypt, which contain such fossils in association with 
Linthia oblonga as Huxogyra Africana and Exogyra Olisiponensis. 

In connection with Hemiaster cubicus it is interesting to note that 
according to modern writers that species is a frequent Cenomanian 
fossil of Sinai; yet Duncan never identified it in the Bauerman 
Collection, nor has the present writer been able to recognize it among 
the specimens collected by Mr. Barron. Professor A. Rothpletz* 
noted the occurrence of HZ. cubicus in the Cenomanian beds of 
Sinai during 1893 ; M. Fourtau® recognized it at Wadi Budra, etc., 
in beds of Lower Cenomanian age; Dr. Blanckenhorn‘ has also 
listed the species from similar regions of Sinai; whilst Dr. Hume * 
has met with it at Jebel Gunnah, in the eastern part of the peninsula, 
associated with Pseudodiadema variolare and Heterodiadema libycum. 
M. Fourtau’s latest contribution on this subject calls attention to 
the eccentricity of the apex in #. cubicus, and the varieties of form 
that he has observed in the species, his examples coming from the 
neighbourhood of the Convent of St. Paul in the Arabian Desert, 
where the species is said to be characteristic of the base of the 
Cenomanian of Egypt. But it is not likely that any confusion 
could have occurred in the identification of these echinoids when 
the details of the test are considered. There is the great 
difference in form, as also in the pore structure of the anterior 
ambulacrum, whilst the presence in Zinthia oblonga of a lateral as well 
as the peripetalous fasciole creates even a more striking separation. 
This lateral fasciole, which in the posterior region is situated beneath 
the anal orifice, is, unfortunately, not always definable, so much 
depending upon the state of preservation of the test; but it is 
traceable on Duncan’s specimens in the Geological Society and also 
on some of those collected by Mr. Barron. There is a stratigraphical 
distinction also which deserves to be mentioned. According to 
M. Fourtau, H. cubicus belongs to the base of the Egyptian Ceno- 
manian, whereas JZ. oblonga, from its association with Hxogyra 


' Rothpletz, A., ‘‘Stratigraphisches von der Sinaihalbinsel’?: Neues Jahrbuch, 
vol. 1 (1893), pp. 102-104. 

* Rothpletz, A., ‘‘ Stratigraphisches von der Sinaihalbinsel’’: Neues Jahrbuch, 
vol. i (1893), pp. 102-104. 

° Fourtau, R., ‘‘La Cote Ouest du Sinai,’? Bull. Soc. Khédiviale Géographie 
(Le Caire), 1898, ser. v, No. 1, pp. 1-35; ‘‘ Révision des E’chinides Fossiles de 
PE'eypte,” Mém. Instit. K’gyptien, vol. iii (1899), fasc. 8, pp. 605-608, 628; ‘* Note 
sur Hemiaster cubicus, Desor, et ses variations,” Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat. [Paris], 
1903, No. 3, pp. 177-180. 

* Blanckenhorn, Max, ‘‘ Neues zur Geologie und Palaontologie Aegyptens” : 
Zeitsch. Deutsch. Geol. Ges., vol. lii (1900), see chart facing p. 33. 

® Hume, W. F., “‘ Geology of Hastern Sinai’: Guon. Mac., 1901, p. 203. 


444 R. Bullen Newton—An Echinoid from Sinai. 


Africana and E£. olisiponensis, is of Upper Cenomanian age. In fact, 
no Lower Cenomanian fossils have been recognized in the collection 
of the Geological Survey of Egypt, and, moreover, several of the 
species are found to pass up into the Turonian stage in other 
countries, as Dr. Choffat ' has proved in connection with his researches 
in Portugal. 

In conclusion, therefore, it is hoped that this note may claim the 
attention of the paleontologists of Egypt, and that Zinthia oblonga 
may take its place in all future faunistic lists connected with the 
paleontology of Sinai. 

I am indebted to my colleague, Dr. F. A. Bather, of the British 
Museum, for some useful suggestions during the preparation of 
this paper. 

Linruta oOBLoNGA, Orbigny. 

Periaster oblongus, Orbigny: ‘‘ Pal. Francaise Terr. Crétacés Echinodermes,”’ 1856, 
pl. 900, pp. 275, 276. P. M. Duncan, ‘‘ Note on the Echinodermata, etc., 
from the Cretaceous Rocks of Sinai”’: Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxv 
(1869), pp. 44-46 (no figure or description). 

Linthia oblonga, Cotteau, Peron, & Gauthier: ‘‘ E’chinides Foss. Algérie,’’ vol. ii 
(1879), fase. 6, p. 75 (not figured). Fourtau, ‘* Révision E’chinides Foss. 
E'gypte”’: Mém. Instit. E’gyptien, vol. iii (1889), fase. 8, pp. 631, 632 
(not figured). 

The test measurements of the three specimens selected for 
illustration are as follows :— 


(9004) (9003) (S32) 
nenotihweees. cose ose sceoee SHE i canBan Yun BacosG 30 mm 
SWaidtie3.© Secs cee tcccn DA Seiden JHE Sager 27 mm. 
TSS EINF Gogqacascadcdscoos 2D) peadoc UST yaaelnse 19 mm. 


Nos. 9003 and 9004 represent Duncan’s two principal specimens, 
and S 8; is one of the Wadi Budra examples collected by Mr. T. 
Barron. All these are of the average size, although larger and even 
smaller ones are among the specimens of the Egyptian Survey 
‘Collection. The details of structure, so amply given in the original 
description, are well seen, although in the majority of the specimens 
it is not always possible to trace the lateral fasciole and its course 
beneath the anal aperture. This feature is, however, preserved in 
specimens represented by Figs. 4 (=$ 4%) and 6 (= 9008). The 
structure of the pores, as observed in the anterior ambulacrum (PI. XV, 
Fig. 8) and in the antero-lateral ambulacra (Pl. XV, Fig. 7), corre- 
sponds with that figured by d’Orbigny. The largest of Duncan’s 
specimens (Fig. 1 = 9004) shows well-preserved apical characters, 
whilst the pores of the madreporite are observable on some eroded 
specimensobtained by Mr. Barron from the topof Jebel Safariah (S4%s). 

The apex is anterior or nearly central in this species, although 
the abactinal views of the specimens selected for figuring present 
the idea of great eccentricity, a feature which has been brought 
about through slightly tilting the specimens so as to include the 
anal orifice. It is noticeable also that the right anterior corner of 
some of the specimens appears to be slightly higher than the left, 


1 Choffat, Paul: ‘‘ Recueil de Monographies Stratigraphiques sur le Systeme 
Crétacique du Portugal,’’ 1900. 


GEOL. MAG. 1904. Decy VenvVioleel abl exer 


8 


Shae Fae ong: 


Linthia oblonga (Orbigny). 


Cretaceous (Cenomanian) : Sinai. 


Dr. R. Broom—A Dinosaur from South Africa. 445 


a fact which is more than usually accentuated in the case of Duncan’s 
largest specimen (see Pl. XV, Fig. 1), and although such a phenomenon 
may be due to some kind of deformity it is possible, as suggested 
by Dr. Bather, that it may have a wider and more structural. 
explanation. 

Locatitres.—Duncan’s specimens collected by Mr. Bauerman 
were obtained at Wadi Nagh el Bader, and are preserved in the 
Museum of the Geological Society bearing the numbers 9003 
and 9004. ‘The specimens in the Geological Survey of Egypt 
‘Collection were obtained by Mr. Barron from the following places :— 
Wadi el Araba (S 2, 4117); Wadi Budra (8-3, 3614), examples 
numerous and associated with Zxogyra Africana; south end of Wadi 
el Araba (S33;, 3815), also found with the above-named shell ; 
head of Wadi Esba (S3%;, 8870), found with Hemiaster Heberti and 
Exogyra olisiponensis; Wadi Sifa (S33;, 4021); near top of Jebel 
Safariat (S.8;, 4066), specimens numerous, but with eroded and 
worn tests, which are generally devoid of detailed characters, except 
that some of them show the madreporite. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE XV. 
LINTHIA OBLONGA. 
Cretaceous (Cenomanian): Sinai. 


Fig. 1.—Abactinal view of Duncan’s largest specimen (9004), slightly tilted to show 
the anal region. 

2.—Left side view of same specimen. 

3.—Abactinal view of Duncan’s second specimen (9003), also slightly tilted to 
show anal region. 

4,—left side view of same, exhibiting the peripetalous and lateral fascioles. 

5.—Abactinal view of one of Mr. Barron’s specimens (S 3°), tilted as before, 
for anal characters. 

6.—Left side view of same, showing obscure fascioles. 

7.—Pores of the antero-lateral ambulacra, enlarged. 

8.—Pores of the anterior ambulacrum enlarged, showing their oblique character 
and the dividing calcareous band. 

Figs. 7 and 8 represent enlargements, whilst the remaining figures are of the 

natural size. 


V.— On vee OccuRRENCE OF AN OPISTHOC@HLIAN D1InosAuR 
(Ateoasaurus BAvrri) IN THE Cretaceous Beps or Souru 
AFRICA. 

By R. Broom, M.D., B.Sc., Corr. M.Z.S. Lond. 


AST year, while the Port Elizabeth Brick and Tile Company 
were quarrying a clayey rock at Despatch, near Uitenhage, 

a number of bones were discovered in the rock. Though the 
discovery created some little interest, no one seems to have 
appreciated the scientific value of the find, and large numbers of 
the bones were made into bricks. A few fragments of vertebra 
and ribs have been collected by the Port Elizabeth Museum, and 
recently an attempt has been made to rescue some more of the bones 
that still remain in the rock. So far a number of very imperfect 
fragments of vertebree—cervical, dorsal, and caudal—a fairly good 
femur, an imperfect scapula, portions of many ribs, and an ungual 


446 Dr. R. Broom—A Dinosaur from South Africa. 


phalanx, have been discovered. The examination of these remains 
leaves no doubt that the skeleton is that of an Opisthoccelian 
Dinosaur of moderate size. 

The scapular fragment represented the larger portion of the lower 
half of the bone of the right side. The posterior border is missing, 
but as the coracoid border is preserved, as well as a portion of the 
anterior, a very good idea can be obtained of the shape of the bone. 
As will be seen by the figure, it resembles considerably the scapula 
of Brontosaurus, though of very much smaller size. When complete, 
the greatest breadth from the prescapular border to the posterior 
part of the glenoid process would probably be about 200 mm. 


br 


—_-- 


‘ 
4 
. 


ul 


Fie. 1.—Left femur of Algoasaurus Bauri. x F- 
Fic. 2.—Posterior dorsal vertebra of Algoasaurus Bauri. x +. 
Fic. 3.—Right scapula of Algoasaurus Bawi. x F. 


The femur has lost the upper and lower ends, but otherwise is 
perfect. Indications of both condyles can be seen at the lower end, 
so that a clear idea can be obtained as to how much is missing. 
A considerable portion of the upper end is lost, but it is probable 
that the upper end was shaped as in Diplodocus. The fourth 
trochanter for the femoro-caudal muscle is of much smaller size 
than in either Brontosaurus, Diplodocus, or Morosaurus, from which 
we may probably infer that the tail was less powerfully developed 
in the South African than in the American forms. When complete, 
the femur is estimated to have been 500mm. in length, or about 
one-third the size of that of Diplodocus. Across the narrowest part 
the femur measures 120 mm. 

Most of the vertebrae are too fragmentary to warrant description, 
but from the fragments it is manilest that the vertebre have borne 


G. T. Priovr—Pillow-Lava in Corneall. 447 


considerable resemblance to those of Diplodocus. The few fragments 
of centra of the body vertebrz show the peculiar excavations seen 
in the centra of the American types. The best preserved vertebra 
is the one figured. It is probably one of the posterior dorsals. 
The spine shows a complicated arrangement of laminz very similar 
to that of the spines of the posterior dorsals of Diplodocus, but 
owing to the condition of the specimen it is difficult to represent 
this in the figure. The height of the vertebra, when complete, 
would probably be about 450mm., or less than half the size of 
the last dorsal of Diplodocus. 

I propose to name this new reptile Algoasaurus Bauri, after the 
late George Baur, whose early death removed from the ranks of 
investigators one who could ill be spared. 


VI.—Nortr on a PILLOW-LAVA APPARENTLY FORMING A CONTINUOUS 
HORIZON FRoM Mutuion Isnanp To GoRRAN HAVEN IN CORNWALL. 


By G. T. Prior, M.A., F.G.S. 


I\HE basalt of Mullion Island, with the intercalated radiolarian 

chert, is well known from the descriptions of Teall and Howard 
Fox.! It is a fine-grained minutely vesicular basalt, consisting 
mainly of radiating felspar laths and interstitial pale purplish-brown 
augite, and occurring in peculiar pillowy or bale-like masses. 
Owing to this curious structure and its intercalation with the chert 
the basalt is considered to be a submarine lava. 

A well-marked horizon of radiolarian chert similar to that of 
Mullion Island has been traced by Mr. Howard Fox? from that 
island across the Lizard peninsula to Porthallow, and thence to 
the other side of Falmouth Bay to Pendower and Gorran Haven. 

Lately, in the company of Mr. Upfield Green, I have made 
a collection of igneous and other rocks from the north of the Lizard, 
south of Helford river, and from the neighbourhood of Gorran and 
Caerhayes on the other side of Falmouth Bay. Many of the volcanic 
rocks are almost precisely similar, both in pillow structure and in 
microscopical characters, to the Mullion Island basalt. The following 
is a list of the localities, besides Mullion Island, at which this. 
particular kind of basalt was found :— 

Tregidden.—The basalt occurs here in two quarries on opposite 
sides of the stream ; in one of them to the east the pillow structure 
of the rock is well marked. In microscopical characters the basalt 
is precisely similar to that of Mullion Island. It is finely vesicular, . 
and shows minute interlacing felspar laths with much interstitial 
pale purplish-brown augite, and little or no iron-oxides. It varies 
in coarseness of grain, and in parts is much altered, so that the 
augite is unrecognizable. To the west of Tregidden, nearer to 
Mullion Island, precisely similar basalt was met with at Trethewy 


1 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xlix (1893), p. 211. 
2 Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Cornwall, xii (1), 1896, p. 39. 


DECADE V.—VOL. I.—NO. IX. 26 


448 G. T. Priovr—Pillow-Lava in Cornwall. 


and near the Methodist Chapel at St. Martin, but at Trethewy- 
the specimen obtained, which was coarsely vesicular, was found 
loose on a heap of pebbles, and at St. Martin there is some doubt 
whether the rock was actually in siti. 

Still further west, at Lower Garras ‘ gravel-pit,’ was found a crushed 
and brecciated radiolarian chert, exactly similar in microscopic 
characters to that of Mullion Island. 

Roskruge Lane and Higher Boden.—In the lane leading from 
Roskruge to Higher Boden, on the right-hand side, occurs an 
andesitic basalt showing large porphyritic felspars. Under the 
microscope these phenocrysts are seen to occur in a groundmass 
consisting of a mesh of felspar laths with interstitial dark grains 
of what is probably altered augite. Some yards distant, on the 
same side of the road, to the east of a small stream, was found 
a basalt consisting of felspar laths and interstitial brown augite, 
precisely similar to the Mullion Island rock, but of slightly coarser 
grain. Similar basalt occurs in a quarry farther up the lane on 
the left-hand side near Higher Boden. The association of a basalt 
like that of Mullion Island with a markedly porphyritic variety is 
repeated on the other side of Falmouth Bay in a quarry near Tubbs 
Mill (see below). 

Porthallow.—The rock at Porthallow is similar to some of the 
varieties of basalt found at the quarries near Tubbs Mill on the 
other side of Falmouth Bay (see below). It shows a trachytic 
mesh of felspar laths with dark interstitial grains of altered augite, 
and passes on the margin into a spherulitic glass. 

Nare Head (east side of Falmouth Bay).—On the top of Nare 
Head was found a basalt consisting, like the Mullion Island rock, 
of felspar laths and interstitial purplish-brown augite, but containing 
also a few porphyritic felspars. It was associated with a variety 
of much coarser grain, approaching a dolerite in character. At 
Pennare Wallas, north of Nare Head, occurred a radiolarian chert 
similar to that of Mullion Island. 

Quarries near Tubbs Mill (north of St. Michael Caerhayes).—In 
a quarry east of Trevennen, on the right-hand side of the road 
leading to Tubbs Mill, occurs a basalt showing fairly well-marked 
pillow structure. The rock is like the Mullion Island basalt, and 
consists of felspar laths and altered interstitial augite. As in the 
case of the Porthallow rock, it passes on the surface of the pillows 
into a glass showing well-marked spherulitic structure. In the 
large quarry just north of Tubbs Mill is seen the close association 
of a finely vesicular basalt, consisting of felspar laths and pale 
purplish-brown augite, precisely similar to the Mullion Island rock, 
with a variety showing a similar groundmass, but with numerous 
fairly large porphyritic felspars. A similar association of a basalt 
like the Mullion rock with a porphyritic variety occurs also in an 
overgrown disused quarry amongst osiers to the east of Trevennen 
on the left-hand side of the road leading to Tubbs Mill. 

Great Perhaver Beach.—A mass of basalt showing well-marked 
pillow structure and microscopic characters, similar to those of the 


Notices of Memoirs—British Association—A. Strahan. 449 


‘Mullion Island basalt, forms the projecting headland at the south 
end of the Great Perhaver Beach, north of Gorran Haven.! 

These localities mark out almost precisely the same horizon as 
the radiolarian cherts of Mr. Howard Fox. The curve followed by 
this pillow-lava is also fairly parallel to that of the well-known 
quartzite of the Meneage and Gorran districts, to the slate containing 
limestone lenticles with Upper Silurian fossils, and to that of the con- 
glomerate placed by Mr. Upfield Green at the base of the Gedinnian. 
Fragments of an altered basalt very similiar to the Mullion Island 
rock were found in this conglomerate along Gillan Creek, at Flushing 
and Lestowder Beaches. 


INGER TOAyS) (ORE IMVIAMEOunsyS5 dase 


—_——-—=—___ 


J.—British ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 
CamBripce Merrrine, 1904. 


ADDRESS TO THE GEOLOGICAL SEcTION BY AUBREY Srranan, M.A., F.R.S., 
F.G.S., President of the Section. 


T is forty-two years since the British Association last met in 
Cambridge, and we may turn with no little interest to the record 
of what was taking place at a date when the science of geology was 
-still in its infancy, and in a University where its promise of develop- 
ment was first recognised. Dr. John Woodward, the founder of the 
Woodwardian Chair, had been dead 176 years, but his bequest to the 
‘University had not long begun to bear fruit, for the determination to 
house suitably the collection of fossils and to provide for the reading 
-of a systematic course of lectures was not arrived at until 1818. In 
that year Adam Sedgwick, on his appointment to the Woodwardian 
Chair, began a series of investigations into the geology of this 
country, which made one of the most memorable epochs in the 
history of British geology. At the Cambridge meeting of 1862 he 
had therefore held the Professorship for forty-four years, a period 
sufficient to spread his reputation throughout the civilised world 
as one of the pioneers of geological science. 

Towards the close of his life Sedgwick gave expression to the 
objects which he had had in view when he accepted a Professorship 
in a science to which he had not hitherto specially devoted his 
attention. ‘There were three prominent hopes,” he writes, “ which 
possessed my heart in the earliest days of my Professorship. First, 
that I might be enabled to bring together a collection worthy of the 
University, and illustrative of all the departments of the science it 
was my duty to study and to teach. Secondly, that a geological 


1 Toneous rocks occur at the top of Greeb Head and at Little Perhaver Beach, but 
they are of more acid trachytie type than the Mullion Island rock, and show large 
porphyritic crystals of oligoclase in a fine-grained felspathic base with little or no 
development of ferromagnesian minerals. Fragments of somewhat similar trachytic 
rocks, but containing shreds of opacite suggestive of altered soda-pyroxenes or 
-amphiboles, were found in a crushed breccia of grit and slate on the north-east of 
, Porthluney Cove. 


450 Notices of Memoirs—British Association— 


museum might be built by the University, amply capable of 
containing its future collections; and lastly, that I might bring 
together a class of students who would listen to my teaching, 
support me by their sympathy, and help me by the labour of their 
hands.” 

We, visiting the scene of his labours more than thirty years after 
he wrote these words, witness the realisation of Sedgwick’s hopes.. 
The collection is not only worthy of the University, but has become 
pne of the finest in the kingdom. It is housed in this magnificent 
memorial to the name of Sedgwick, on the completion of which 
I offer for myself, and I trust I may do so on behalf of this Section. 
also, hearty congratulations to the Woodwardian Professor and his. 
staff. Finally, I may remind you that at this moment the Director- 
ship of the Geological Survey and the Presidential Chair of the 
Geological Society are held by Cambridge men; that the sister 
University has not disdained to borrow from the same source; and 
lastly, that it is upon Cambridge chiefly that we have learned to 
depend for recruiting the ranks of the Geological Survey, as proofs 
that Cambridge has maintained her place among the foremost of the 
British schools of geology. 

Though he had taken a leading part at former meetings of the 
Association, Sedgwick’s advanced age in 1862 necessitated rest, and 
this Section was deprived to a great extent of the charm of his 
presence. It benefited, however, in the fact that the Presidential 
Chair was occupied by one of his most distinguished pupils. Jukes 
was one of those men the extent of whose knowledge is not readily 
fathomed. It has been my experience, and probably that of many 
others in this room, to find that some conclusion, formed after 
prolonged labour and perhaps fondly imagined to be new, has been 
arrived at years before by one of the old geologists. Such will 
be the experience of the man who follows Jukes’ footsteps. Turning 
to his Address given to this Section in 1862, we find much of what 
is now written about earth-movement and earth-sculpture forestalled 
by him, with this difference, however, that whereas the custom is 
growing of using a phraseology which may sometimes be useful, but 
is generally far from euphonious, and not always intelligible, he 
states his arguments in plain, forcible English. 

It may raise a smile to find that Jukes thought it necessary in 
1862 to combat the view that deep and narrow valleys had originated 
as fissures in the crust of the earth, and that the Straits of Dover 
must have been formed in this way, because the strata correspond on 
its two sides. But we shall do well to remember that the smile will 
be at the public opinion of that day, and not at Jukes himself. Inno 
branch of geology have our views changed more than in the 
recognition of the potency of the agents of denudation. In 1862 it 
was necessary to present preliminary arguments and to draw 
inferences which in 1904 may be taken as granted. 

The evidences of the prodigious movements to which strata have 
been subjected, and of the extent to which denudation has ensued, 
cannot fail to strike the most superficial observer. Both mountain 


A. Strahan’s Address to Section C, Geology. 451 


and plain present in varying degree proof that sheets of sedimentary 
material originally horizontal are now folded and fractured. But 
after a momentary interest aroused by some example more striking 
than usual, glimpsed, it may be, from a train-window, the subject is 
probably dismissed with an impression that such phenomena are due 
to cataclysms of a past geological age and have little concern for the 
present inhabitants of the globe. These stupendous disturbances, it 
might be argued, can only have taken place under conditions 
different from those which prevail now. We are familiar with 
mountain-ranges in which their effects are conspicuous ; we have 
carried railways over or through them and have been troubled by no 
cataclysmic movements of the strata. Apparently the rocks have 
been fixed in their plicated condition, and are liable to no further 
disturbance. Parts of the world, it is true, are subject to earth- 
quakes accompanied by fissuring and slight displacement of the- 
crust, but not even in earthquake regions can we point to an example 
of such thrusting and folding of the strata being actually in progress 
as have taken place in the past. Nor, again, can volcanic activity 
be appealed to, for some of the most highly disturbed regions are 
devoid of igneous rocks. Volcanic eruptions are more probably the 
effect than the cause of the disturbances of the crust. Nowhere in 
the world therefore, it will be said, can we see strata undergoing 
such violent treatment as they have experienced in the past. How, 
then, can we dispute the inference that the forces by which the 
folding was produced have ceased to operate ? 

Before accepting a conclusion which would amount to admitting 
that the globe is moribund and that the forces by which land has 
been differentiated from sea have ceased to act, we shall do well to 
look more closely into the history of the earth-movements to which 
any particular region has been subjected. The investigation is one 
which calls for the most intimate knowledge of the geological 
structure, and, as time will admit of my dealing with a small area 
only, I shall confine my observations to England and Wales, 
‘selecting such facts as have been established beyond dispute. 

At the outset of the investigation we find reason to conclude that 
the movements, so far as any one region is concerned, have been 
intermittent. Evidence of this fact is furnished wherever any 
considerable part of the geological column is laid open to view. 
Sheets of sediment, aggregating perhaps thousands of feet in 
thickness, have been laid down in conformable sequence, all bearing 
evidence of having been deposited in shallow seas. The inference is 
inevitable that that period of sedimentation was a period of 
uninterrupted subsidence. But sooner or later every such period 
came to an end. Compression and. upheaval took the place of 
subsidence, and the strata lately deposited were plicated and brought 
within the reach of denudation. Illustrations of the recurrence 
of these movements abound, and I need dwell no further upon them 
than to remark that movements of subsidence and upheaval may 
be seen to have alternated wherever opportunity is afforded for 
observation. 


452 Notices of Memoirs—British Association— 


On extending our observations we are led to infer that the 
movements of the crust were developed regionally, not universally. 
The areas of subsidence, for example, evidenced by the marine 
formations had their limits, though those limits did not coincide 
with the shores of existing seas, nor has reason been found to 
believe that the proportion of land to sea has varied greatly in 
past times. The limits of the area affected by any one movement 
of upheaval are more difficult to determine, but the effects were 
manifested in the crumpling up of comparatively narrow belts of 
country, and are easy of recognition. 

Further than this, we ascertain that the movements of one region 
were not necessarily contemporaneous with those of adjoining 
regions. The forces operating upon the crust of the earth came 
into activity in different places at different times, and, while some 
Continental tracts have been but little disturbed from early geological 
times, there are parts of the globe which have been the scene, so to 
speak, of almost ceaseless strife. Among the latter we may include 
the British Isles. 

These are commonplaces of geology, and I mention them merely 
to emphasise the fact that the geological structure of these islands 
is the result of movement superimposed upon movement. Obviously, 
therefore, in order to gain a comprehensive view of the operations 
which were in progress in any one region during any one epoch, we 
have to find some means of distinguishing the movements of that 
epoch and of eliminating all which preceded or followed it. This, 
briefly, is the problem which has engaged the attention of geologists 
for many years past, and upon which I propose to touch. 

The determination of the age of a disturbance is seldom easy, and 
among the older Paleozoic rocks is often impossible; but at the 
close of the Carboniferous period, during the great Continental 
epoch which led to and followed upon the deposition of the Coal- 
measures, there came into action a set of movements of elevation 
and compression, which generally can be distinguished both from 
those which preceded them and from those which have been super- 
imposed upon them. The distinction depends upon the determination 
of the age of the rocks affected by the movements. For example, 
a movement by which the latest Carboniferous rocks have been 
tilted from their original horizontal position is obviously post- 
Carboniferous. On the other hand, if Permian rocks lie undisturbed 
upon those tilted Carboniferous rocks, it is equally obvious that the 
movement was pre-Permian. Now it happens that earth-movements 
of the date alluded to were particularly active in the British Isles, 
and played an important part in shaping the platform on which the 
Permian and later rocks were laid down. Though they have been 
more completely explored than others in the working of coal, their 
further investigation is of the greatest economic importance. I have 
attempted, therefore, briefly to sketch out the principal lines along 
which earth-movements of that age came into operation in England,. 
premising, however, that by Permian I mean the Magnesian Lime- 
stone series, and not the ‘ Permian of Salopian type,” which is now 


A, Strahan’s Address to Section C, Geology. 453 


known to be partly of Triassic but principally of Carboniferous age. 
In the course of the investigation we shall find reason to conclude 
that several at least of the movements followed old axes of 
disturbance, lines of weakness dating from an early period in the 
history of the habitable globe; and, again, that some of the latest 
disturbances of which we have cognisance were but renewals of 
movement along the same general lines. 

One of the most clearly proved examples of pre-Permian faulting 
in the Carboniferous rocks occurs in the Whitehaven Coalfield. The 
fault forms the south-eastern limit of the Coal-measures, and has 
been precisely located for a distance of six miles. In its course 
towards the south-west it passes under five outliers of Permian 
rocks, and finally is lost to sight under the Permian and Trias 
of St. Bees. The dislocation in the Carboniferous rocks amounts 
to about 400 yards, but the Permian rocks have not been even 
cracked; though broken and displaced by numerous faults of 
later date, they pass undisturbed over this great dislocation, the 
movement along it obviously having ceased before they were 
deposited. This fault forms part of the upheaval which brought 
the older rocks of Cumberland and Westmoreland to the surface, 
and in that sense it may be said to form the north-western frontier 
of the Lake District. 

On the north-eastern side also of the Lake District the Permian 
rocks rest upon uptilted Carboniferous strata, but the axis of up- 
heaval runs in a north-north-westerly direction and defines what 
we may regard as the north-eastern frontier. Along this frontier 
much movement has taken place in post-Permian times, but the 
unconformable relations of the Permian and Carboniferous rocks 
enable us to distinguish that part of the tilting which intervened 
between the two periods. On the south-eastern frontier also the 
Carboniferous rocks had been upheaved and denuded before the 
Permian sandstones were laid down. A huge fault, along which 
Carboniferous rocks have been jammed from the east in a multitude 
of plications against Silurian, runs from Kirkby Stephen by Dent 
to Kirkby Lonsdale, and thence trends south-eastwards by Settle. 
It is highly probable, though it has not been proved, that this 
fault is of pre-Permian age. That the Pendle axis which upheaves 
the Lower Carboniferous rocks between Settle and Burnley is 
pre-Permian is placed beyond doubt by the fact that an outlier of 
Permian rests upon the denuded crest of the anticline near Clitheroe. 

The south-western frontier is defined by a still more marked 
unconformable overlap by the Permian strata, which here pass 
over the edges of the lowest members of the Carboniferous series 
and come to rest upon the Lake District rocks. 

We have thus defined the sides of an oblong tract which was 
upheaved in the period we are considering. The older rocks 
forming the northern part of that tract had already had imposed 
upon them a dominant north-easterly strike by a pre-Carboniferous 
movement of great energy. As a result also of that and other 
movements they had been subjected to vast denudation, not only 


454 Notices of Memoirs—British Association— 


in the Lake District, but throughout the north-west of England 
generally. But while it is doubtful whether any of the physical 
features then produced have survived, it seems to be beyond dispute 
that it was in consequence of the pre-Permian movements that the 
older rocks of the Lake District were freed from their Carboniferous 
covering, and that to this extent the district may be said to have 
been blocked out in pre-Permian times. The detailed sculpturing 
resulted from later movements, with which we are not now concerned. 

During this same period there rose into relief that part of the 
Pennine axis which runs between Lancashire and Yorkshire. The 
doming up of the Lower Carboniferous rocks and the wildness of 
the moorlands which characterise their outcrops have impressed 
all who have had occasion to cross from the one populous coalfield 
to the other, and have gained the name of the ‘ backbone of England ’ 
for this anticlinal axis. Whether, however, it can be regarded as 
one axis or as the result of several movements is doubtful, but 
not material for our present purpose. Regarded as a geological 
structure it is not continuous with that part of the Pennine axis 
which runs along the north-eastern frontier of the Lake District. 

Passing westwards from the Pennine axis, we cross the deep and 
broad Triassic basin of Cheshire, which may be regarded as the 
complement of the dome of elevation of Derbyshire. To the west 
of this, again, we reach a part of North Wales which was more or 
less shaped out by the earth-movements which came into action 
between the Carboniferous and Permian periods. Two leading 
faults traverse the district. The one runs in a north-north-westerly 
direction across Denbighshire and introduces that little bit of 
“Cheshire in Wales” known as the Vale of Clwyd. Though there 
has been some later movement along this fault, it was in the main 
pre-Triassic, which statement, in view of the perfect conformity 
between the Permian and Trias, amounts to saying that it was 
pre-Permian. The other passes across Wales in a north-easterly 
direction along the Dee Valley at Bala, and reaches the Triassic 
basin between Chester and Wrexham. The date of this fault has 
not been worked out in detail, but the fact that it is associated 
with a pre-Triassic anticline, where it reaches the Triassic margin, 
proves that it is in part at least of pre-Triassic age. In Anglesey 
also there has been strong post-Caboniferous folding in the same 
north-east to south-west direction. 

It is to be noticed, further, that the Carboniferous rocks maintain 
their characters to their margins on the flanks of the Clwydian Hills 
and other ranges of Silurian rocks in North Wales. Both along the 
coast, and even in a little outlier preserved near Corwen by an 
accident of faulting, they show a persistence of type and of detail 
in sequence which could hardly have been maintained had the 
Silurian uplands existed in Carboniferous times. The inference 
that the uplands of Denbighshire and Flintshire are the result of 
post-Carboniferous upheaval is strengthened by the fact that the 
Carboniferous rocks reposing on their flanks are tilted at an angle 
which would carry them over their tops. This part of North Wales, 


A. Strahan’s Address to Section C, Geology. 455 


therefore, presents a history corresponding in its main events with 
that of the Lake District. Ithad undergone elevation and denudation 
in pre-Carboniferous times on a scale so vast that rocks showing 
slaty cleavage and other indications of deep-seated metamorphism 
had been laid bare. But in both cases it was in consequence of 
the post-Carboniferous movements that the leading physical features 
as they exist to-day began to take shape. 

In both these regions pre-Carboniferous movements had been 
extremely active. For example, an axis of compression and upheaval 
ranges from north-east to south-west, involving the Lake District, the 
Isle of Man, and Anglesey. It belongs to the Caledonian system of 
disturbances which is developed on a large scale further north, and 
which sufficed here to cause slaty cleavage and presumably the 
extrusion of the Shap granite. I mention this pre-Carboniferous 
axis to point out that it offers an explanation of the direction taken 
by the post-Carboniferous disturbances of Whitehaven, Pendle, 
Anglesey, and possibly Bala. With the exception of the last-named 
they lie well within the region affected, and alone among the post- 
Carboniferous axes take that particular direction. 

The Pennine axis ends as a particular feature in South Derbyshire 
and North Staffordshire on the margin of a deep channel filled with 
Triassic marl, which extends westwards from Nottingham into 
Shropshire. In this part of England there springs into existence 
a remarkable series of disturbances tending to radiate southwards. 
The westernmost of these is the great fault which forms the western 
boundary of the North Staffordshire Coalfield. Recent work by 
Mr. W. Gibson has shown that the vertical displacement of the 
Coal-measures amounts to no less than 900 yards, but that it is far 
less, though recognisable, in the Trias, proving that the disturbance 
was in the main pre-Triassic. The fault ranges from Macclesfield 
in a south-south-westerly direction, is lost to view under the Trias 
near Market Drayton, but is recognisable further on in the great 
dislocation which passes along the western side of the Wrekin, and 
thence through Central Shropshire by Church Stretton to Presteign 
in Radnorshire, and thence into Brecknock. 

The second is the Apedale Fault of the North Staffordshire 
Coalfield. In working the coal this disturbance has been found to 
possess the structure of a broken monocline, a fold with fracture 
such as may be regarded as an early stage in the formation of an 
overthrust from the east. It runs through the coalfield in a direction 
slightly east of south, and then passing under the Trias of Stafford 
ranges for Wolverhampton and Stourbridge. This fault is mainly 
pre-Triassic, but what Mr. Gibson believes to be a continuation of 
it, following the same direction as far south as Hanbury, certainly 
effects a great movement in the Trias. 

The third disturbance runs on the east of the Forest of Wyre 
Coalfield in a direction a little west of south. Here, as I learn from 
Mr. T. C. Cantrill, the thrust from the east is obvious, for Old Red 
Sandstone has been pushed from that direction against and even 
over Coal-measures, while the strata have been forced up into 


456 Notices of Memoirs—British Association— 


a vertical position for some miles. In South Staffordshire all the- 
Carboniferous rocks, including the “Salopian Permian,” are involved 
in this and the previously mentioned movement, proving that both 
disturbances were of post-Carboniferous date. 

Traced southwards this disturbed belt leads to Abberley, and 
there connects itself with the well-known Malvernian axis. The 
broken belt known by that name runs north and south, and may 
be followed almost continuously from Worcestershire to Bristol. 
It presents evidence of having been a line of weakness through: 
a large part of the world’s history, as shown by Professor Groom, 
and of having yielded repeatedly to earth-stresses; but there is 
seldom difficulty in distinguishing the movements which were 
effected during the period under consideration. For example, near~ 
and south of Abberley the Coal-measures are clearly involved 
in a thrust from the east, which was sufficiently energetic to turn. 
over a great belt of Old Red Sandstone and other rocks beyond 
verticality for some miles. Further south, again, among repeated 
proofs of the ridging up of the old axis in several pre-Carboniferous 
periods, we find evidence of post-Carboniferous elevation along the 
same general line. Throughout this same region there has been 
also post-Triassic dislocation, which, however, is on a comparatively 
small scale. That the Carboniferous rocks were greatly disturbed 
before the Trias was laid down is proved by the great unconformity 
between the two formations. 

The Malvernian axis continues southward by Newent, but perhaps 
with diminishing intensity. On its west side a broad syncline rolls 
in the tract of Carboniferous rocks which underlies the Forest 
of Dean. The syncline trends north and south, and is shown to 
be of pre-Triassic age by the fact that the Triassic strata on the 
banks of the Severn do not share in the synclinal structure. Here 
we must leave the Malvernian axis for the present. 

The fourth disturbance ranges along the Lickey Hills, which, 
diminutive as they are, tell a story of great geological significance, 
They range in a south-south-easterly direction, and in the fact that 
they are formed of extremely ancient rocks furnish evidence of 
immense upheaval. From the relations of these ancient formations 
to one another we may gather also that the upheaval was due to 
a recurrence of movement along the same axis at more than one 
geological date, but at the same time we find no difficulty in 
distinguishing that part of the movement which took place between. 
Carboniferous and Triassic times, for the Coal-measures are tilted 
up on end along the flanks of the axis, while the Trias passes 
horizontally over all the tilted rocks. A clue to the southward 
extension of the axis under the Secondary rocks is furnished by some 
faulting as far as Redditch, here also there having been a renewal 
of movement on a small scale in post-Triassic times. 

The fifth disturbance runs through Warwickshire, and includes 
the low ridge of ancient rocks which ranges through Atherstone 
and Nuneaton in a south-easterly direction. About fifteen miles 
to the north-east Archean rocks form the parallel ridge or series 


A. Strahan’s Address to Section C, Geology. 457 


of ridges of Charnwood Forest, while the intervening space is over- 
spread by Trias, resting partly on Carboniferous and partly on 
older strata. he structure of the Carboniferous and older strata 
is dominated by what is known as the Charnian movement, which 
includes disturbances of several ages ranging in a south-easterly 
direction. ‘hat part of the movement which was post-Carboniferous: 
is identifiable by the fact that Coal-measures are tilted on either 
side of the ridges of old rocks. They once overspread both ridges, 
but were removed by denudation as a consequence of upheaval 
before the Trias was deposited. It has been found also in working 
the coal, as I am informed by Mr. Strangways, that there are large 
faults having the south-eastward or Charnian direction which shift 
the Coal-measures, but do not break through the overlying Trias. 
The evidence, therefore, of a great Charnian movement having taken 
place during the period under consideration is conclusive. The 
disturbance ranges as a whole in the direction of Northampton, 
where, in fact, borings have reached the Charnwood rocks at no 
great depth. 

The five great disturbances which I have briefly indicated tend 
to converge northwards, but their exact connection with the Pennine 
axis is not known. What may be only a part of that axis trends. 
for Charnwood through a tract of Lower Carboniferous rocks exposed 
at Melbourne, between the Yorkshire and Leicestershire Coalfields, 
but the Triassic channel I have already mentioned intervenes, and 
the structure of the rocks underlying the red marl is unknown.. 
The channel itself appears to be of Triassic age, for not only is the 
depth of marl in it suggestive of its having been a strait in 
the Triassic waters, but its northern margin has been found by 
Mr. Gibson to coincide with, and perhaps to have been determined 
by, faults known to be mainly of pre-Triassic age. One of these, with 
a downthrow of 400 yards to the south, runs from Trentham through 
Longton, and south of Cheadle, while another ranges from near 
Nottingham to the north of Derby. 

We come now to the south-west of England, where we find 
striking proofs of a still more energetic movement than any yet 
mentioned having intervened between the Carboniferous and Triassic 
periods. -The central part of the Armorican axis, as it has been 
called, after the ancient name of Brittany, trends nearly east and 
west, and keeps to the south of our South Coast; but we have 
opportunities in Devon and Cornwall of seeing .some of the 
stupendous effects produced along its northern side. A belt of 
country measuring some 1380 miles in width has been completely 
buckled up. Slaty cleavage was superimposed upon the intricate 
folds into which the strata were being thrown, while after or 
towards the close of these phenomena granite was extruded at 
several points along the belt of disturbance, a little north, however, 
of the line along which the oldest rocks were brought up to the 
surface. In Devon the Culm-measures are fully involved in the 
movement, but on the other hand the Permian strata, while con- 
taining fragments of the cleaved and metamorphosed rocks, are 


458 Notices of Memoirs—British Association— 


themselves wholly free from such structures. The age of the 
folding, cleavage, and extrusion of the granite is thus definitely 
fixed as having been subsequent to the deposition of the Culm- 
measures, but previous to that of the Permian rocks. 

But we may fix the age still more closely. A broad syncline of 
Carboniferous rocks traverses Mid-Devon, and is succeeded north- 
wards by an anticline and by an extrusion of granite at Lundy 
Island, the age of which, however, has not yet been definitely 
ascertained. Still further north in a series of folds and overthrusts 
which traverse the southern margin of South Wales we can recognise 
the last effects of the great Devonshire movement at a distance of 
not less than 130 miles from the central axis, the ground-swell, 
so to speak, subsiding as it receded from the distant storm-area. 
Here the higher Carboniferous rocks are involved, and thus prove 
that this part at least of the Armorican disturbance was of post- 
Carboniferous age. 

In Dorset, Somerset, and Gloucestershire the Paleeozoic rocks pass 
eastwards under Secondary formations, and are seen no more in the 
south of England. That the disturbance continues, however, is 
inferred from the fact that it has been traced across a large part of 
the continent of Europe in the one direction and across the south of 
Ireland in the other. The determination of its position therefore, 
and especially of the effects of its intersection with the Midland 
disturbances, is of the greatest importance in view of the possible 
occurrence of concealed coalfields under the Secondary rocks. One 
such intersection is open to observation. 

The Malvern and Devonshire disturbances intersect in Somerset. 
On investigating their behaviour as they approach we may notice in 
the first place that the subsidiary axes which form the northernmost 
part of the Devonshire disturbance in South Wales die away one 
after the other towards the east. Thus an east and west disturbance 
at Llanelly runs a few miles and disappears. The more important 
Pontypridd anticline, which traverses the centre of the coalfield, 
fades away near Caerphilly, while the coalfield itself terminates 
a little further east, its place on the same line of latitude being taken 
by the Usk anticline, which trends southwards and south-westwards. 
So far it might be inferred that the east and west folds die away on 
approaching the north and south Malvernian axis. But the Cardiff 
anticline, which lies south of and was more energetic than those 
mentioned, crosses the Bristol Channel and, emerging on the other 
side in a complicated region near Clevedon and Portishead, passes 
to the north of Bristol and holds its course right across the coalfield 
at Mangotsfield. The coalfield, however, lies in what is part of the 
Malvernian disturbance, for it occupies a syncline running north and 
south along the west side of the main axis of the upheaval. Though 
the interruption is local and the strata recover their north and south 
strike to the south of it, yet the east and west axis obviously holds 
its course right through the Malvernian structure. 

Still further south, in the direction in which the east and west 
movements gradually increase in energy, a series of sharp folds is 


A. Strahan’s Address to Section C, Geology. 459 


well displayed in the coast of South Wales and in an island in the 
Bristol Channel, ranging for that part of the east and west disturb- 
ance which is known as the Mendip axis. This name has been 
applied to a series of short anticlines which are arranged en échelon 
along a line ranging east-south-east, but each of which runs east and 
west. Among them we may distinguish the Blackdown anticline, 
the Priddy anticline, the Penhill anticline, north of Wells, and the 
Downhead anticline, north of Shepton Mallet. With one exception 
they all die out eastwards after a course of two to ten miles, but the 
Downhead anticline holds its course into the Malvernian disturbance, 
the two engaging in a prodigious mélée south of Radstock. From 
that much shattered region the Downhead anticline emerges, but the 
Malvernian axis is seen no more, and, so far as can be judged under 
the blanket of Secondary rocks, comes to an end. 

Mention has been made of the fact that many of the subsidiary 
east and west folds die away on approaching the Malvernian axis. In. 
a general way we may attribute their disappearance to the influence 
of the north and south movement, for it is commonly to be observed 
in these great belts of disturbance that they are composed of 
a number of parallel anticlines or elongated domes of upheaval, 
constantly replacing one another; it is a common feature also that 
these subsidiary folds replace one another not exactly in the direction 
in which they point, but that they lie en échelon along a line slightly 
oblique to it. The behaviour of the South Wales and Mendip folds 
is in accordance with these observations, and may be taken to indicate 
that the effects of the east and west disturbance reached further 
north in South Wales than they did in Somerset, or, in other words, 
that they failed to penetrate as far into the region where north and 
south movements were in progress as in the region where there were 
no movements in that direction. 

The fact that the east and west folds keep their course across 
the north and south wherever the two actually meet comes out 
prominently, and supports the inference that they dominate the 
structure of the Paleozoic rocks which lie hidden beneath the 
Secondary rocks of the south and south-east of England. Somewhere 
under this blanket of later formations the east and west axis 
presumably intersects the other disturbances which traverse the 
Midlands. To ascertain where and how the intersections takes 
place will be going far towards locating any concealed coalfields 
which may exist; but the knowledge can be obtained only by 
boring, and the number of such explorations as yet made is wholly 
insufficient. The majority have been made in search of water, 
and have been stopped as soon as a supply was secured. Near 
Northampton the older rocks were reached at a small depth on 
what is believed to be the underground continuation of the Charnian 
axis, and a boring at Bletchley traversed what is thought to have 
been a great boulder of Charnian rock, suggesting that the axis 
is not far off; but with these exceptions the counties of Oxford, 
Buckingham, Bedford, Huntingdon, Cambridge, and Norfolk are 
unknown ground. Yet under these counties the axes must run 


460 Notices of Memoirs—British Association—. 


if they keep their course. Where exposed at the surface each post- 
‘Carboniferous syncline between two axes contains a coalfield. It 
remains to future exploration to ascertain whether similar conditions 
hold good under the Oolitic and Cretaceous areas of Central England. 

In speaking of the north and south disturbances I have in more 
than one case stated that the post-Carboniferous movement was but 
a renewal of activity along an old line of disturbance. The fact is 
proved by the unconformities visible among the pre-Carboniferous 
rocks, and it is important for the reason that the geography of this 
part of the globe at the commencement of the Carboniferous period 
had been determined by these movements. It has long been known, 
for example, that the parts of the counties of Stafford, Warwick, and 
Leicester traversed by the axes of upheaval were not submerged till 
late in the Carboniferous period. On the other hand, some of the 
area lying immediately west of the Malvernian axis was submerged 
at an earlier date, as is shown by the existence of Carboniferous 
Limestone at Cleobury Mortimer and, in greater development, in the 
Forest of Dean. The borings near Northampton also proved the 
presence of Carboniferous Limestone, a fact which is in favour of 
the occurrence of concealed coalfields, in so far as it indicates that 
the whole Carboniferous series may have once existed there. It is 
remarkable that none of the borings in the south and east of England 
have touched Carboniferous Limestone, all having passed into older 
or newer rocks. The existence of that formation is neither proved 
nor disproved. 

The determination of the age of these disturbances and a discussion 
of the pre-Carboniferous geography may seem at first sight to be 
only of scientific interest, but that problems of great economic 
importance are involved has been shown recently. It has long 
been known that the principal coal-seam of South Staffordshire 
deteriorates westwards as it approaches the pre-Carboniferous ridge 
evidenced in the neighbourhood of Wyre Forest. There seemed, 
however, to be no theoretical reasons why it should not keep its 
characters on either side of the fault which forms the western 
boundary of the South Staffordshire Coalfield, inasmuch as that fault 
came into existence after the deposition of the Coal-measures. A shaft 
recently sunk has proved the correctness of the inference. The seam 
has been found to be well developed to the west of the fault, and 
a considerable addition has been made to our productive coalfields. 

So much has been written about the range of the Devonshire 
disturbance under the south of England that I shall add no more than 
a brief comment on some of the evidence on which reliance has been 
placed. We have seen that there has been some post-Triassic move- 
inent along old lines of disturbance in North Wales and the Midlands 
and along the Malvern axis. It is suggestive, therefore, to find that 
in the region which we believe to be underlain by the east and west 
disturbance east and west folding forms the dominant structure of 
the Secondary and Tertiary rocks. 

The anticlines of the Vales of Pewsey and Wardour, the London 
syncline, the Wealden anticline, the Hampshire syncline, and the 


A. Strahan’s Address to Section C, Geology. 461 


anticline of the Isles of Wight and Purbeck, not only lie in the 
range of the axis, but show an increasing intensity southwards, 
towards what we may suppose to have been the most active part of 
that axis. A similar structure prevails in the Oolitic rocks also. 
They too had been thrown into east and west folds before the 
‘Cretaceous period, and this earlier set of movements also grew in 
intensity towards the south. It would seem, then, at first sight that 
the structure of the later rocks gives an easy clue to the structure of 
the older rocks buried beneath them. This is by no means the case. 
‘That the movements manifested in the Oolitic and Cretaceous rocks 
followed the same general line as the older movement admits of 
little doubt, but that the later structures correspond in detail with 
the earlier is improbable. . 

A brief examination of the region where the Carboniferous rocks 
disappear under the Secondary formations will give the grounds 
for this statement. There we find that the Trias passes over the 
‘complicated flexures of the Mendip axis in undulations so gentle 
as to prove that those flexures had been completed before it was 
deposited. Nor, again, do the members of the Oolitic group of the 
rocks cropping out in succession further east show any such folds 
as those visible in the Carboniferous, and it is not till we have 
passed over a considerable tract of Secondary rocks in which 
there are no signs of east and west folding that we reach the 
anticlines of the Vales of Pewsey and Wardour. Nor can we 
then fit these folds in the Cretaceous formation on to any visible 
axes in the Carboniferous rocks. Under these circumstances it 
would be unjust to suppose that such synclines and anticlines as 
those of the London and Hampshire basins, or of the Weald, 
coincide with previously formed synclines and anticlines in the 
older rocks. They give a clue to the position of the old axis, but 
not necessarily to the details of its structure. Yet it is upon the 
determination of the position of the older anticlines and synclines, 
and of their intersection with the north and south disturbances, 
that we must depend for locating concealed coalfields. So far but 
little has been done in the forty-eight years since the question 
was first mooted by Godwin-Austen. The existence of a coalfield 
in Kent has been proved, and what appears to be a prolongation 
of a disturbance from the Pas de Calais along the south-western 
side of it. The other borings which have reached the Palzozoic 
floor round London and at Harwich have thrown but little light 
on the details of its structure. By far the greater part of the ground 
remains yet to be explored. 

In this brief review of the earth-movements of one period, as 
manifested in one small part of the globe, we have found reason to 
conclude that they were the result of compression and upheaval ; 
that the crust yielded to the compression by overthrusting and 
buckling along certain belts; that these belts in the north of 
England and the Midlands ran for the most part north and south, 
‘diverging, however, to the south-west and to the south-east, while in 
the south of England they took an east and west direction and 


462 Notices of Memoirs—British Association—A. Strahan. 


concentrated themselves along a belt of country which presents: 
the phenomena of crushing on a stupendous scale. We have 
touched in two cases the flanks of a mountain-range, the Caledonian, 
which was built and ruined before the Carboniferous period; the 
Armorican, which was built after that period, and which, though 
it has stirred so recently as the late Tertiary period, and so 
energetically as to initiate the physical features and river-system of 
the south of England, yet expended the greater part of its energy 
before the Permian period. Lastly, we have found evidence, in the 
majority of cases, that the disturbances were but renewals of 
movement along lines of weakness long before established, and that 
in several cases there has been further renewal along the same lines. 
during successive periods later than the one we have considered. 
With such a history before us, and with the knowledge that 
mountain-ranges have been built in other parts of the world by the 
upheaval of strata of almost recent date, we have more cause to: 
wonder that the internal forces have left this quarter of the globe 
alone for so long, than reason to believe that they have ceased to 
exist. Changes of level, however, have taken place in comparatively 
recent times, and are now in progress. Though almost imperceptibly 
slow, they serve to remind us that a giant lies sleeping under our 
feet who has stretched his limbs in the past, and will stretch them 
again in the future. Nor in view of the fact that the structures 
I have described have only been revealed by the denudation of vast 
masses of strata does it seem unreasonable to suppose that they are 
deep-seated phenomena. ‘The slow changes of level may be the 
outward manifestation of more complicated movements being im 
progress at a depth. 

It is interesting to speculate on what appearance the globe would 
have presented had it not been enveloped in an atmosphere and 
covered for the most part with water. Owing to those circumstances 
it possesses the power of healing old wounds and burying old scars. 
In their absence we may suppose that the belts of crushing and 
buckling would have given rise to ridges growing in size at every 
renewal of movement, for they would have been neither levelled 
by denudation nor smoothed over by sedimentation. This globe, 
we may suppose, would have appeared to the inhabitants of another 
planet as being encompassed in a network, and we are prompted 
to ask whether our astronomers can distinguish in any other planet 
markings that may be attributable to this cause. I must remind 
you, however, how much more remains to be done than I have been 
able to touch upon to-day. The map (exhibited) represents one 
episode only in a long series of events, and a series of such maps 
would be required to illustrate the first appearance of lines of 
weakness in the earth’s crust, the subsequent renewals of movement 
along those lines, and the formation of new lines in successive 
geological periods. With the case thus set out we shall be 
justified in appealing to the physicists for an explanation of the 
restlessness of this globe. 


Notices of Memoirs—Short Notices. 463 


II.—Suort Norticszs. 


1. Sourn Arrican Grotocy.—Dr. F. H. Hatch extends our know- 
ledge of the geology of the Transvaal by describing in Trans. Geol. 
Soc. South Africa (vii, 1904) the Marico district. This is stated 
to be a great syncline formed by the Pretoria beds, the Dolomite 
and Black Reef Formations, and the underlying Ventersdorp beds. 
Dr. Hatch describes the interesting igneous complex to which 
reference has been made by Molengraaff under the name of the 
“Plutonic Series of the Bush Veld.” In this complex the great 
development of pyroxenite with associated peridotites would appear 
to constitute an outer ultra-basic zone. For, as one travels east- 
wards, one traverses successively zones of a more and more acid 
type, until rocks are reached in which quartz plays the predominant 
réle. A rough map attached to the paper explains this succession. 

Dr. Corstorphine, in dealing with the Central South African 
Coalfield (Trans. Geol. Soc. South Africa, vi), considers that the 
coal of Vereeniging and that of the Orange River Colony, as well 
as that of the Eastern Transvaal and the neighbouring portion of 
Natal, is of Eeca Age. Molengraaff (ibid.) concludes that the 
remarkable tectonics of the Vredefort mountain-land have been 
caused by the intrusion of a huge granite boss, the Vredefort granite, 
which phenomenon took place after the deposition of the rocks of 
the Cape System (Black Reef series, Dolomite series, and Pretoria, 
or Gatsrand, series), and before the deposition of the strata of the 
Karroo System; and in the discussion which followed, Hatch said 
he agreed, and that Molengraaff was also probably correct with 
regard to the overtilting of the Witwatersrand beds. 

J. P. Johnson has described (ibid.) some implement-bearing 
gravels in the neighbourhood of Johannesburg. These show facies 
of true Eoliths, Paleoliths, and Neoliths, as compared with 
European examples, and the author comes to the conclusion that 
the Bezuidenhont Valley drift must be much newer than the hill- 
drift of Rordekop, and that the close of the Neogene era in South 
Africa saw much the same evolution in the culture of its stone-age 
as did that of the Thames basin and the rest of Britain and Western 
Kurope, and that such progress must have taken an approximately 
equal length of time. 

J. Kuntz (ibid.) gives an interesting example of the pseudo- 
morphosis of quartz pebbles into calcite. T. N. Leslie, in reviewing 
the fossil flora of Vereeniging, carefully points out the many errors 
that have occurred in recording various plants from these beds, and 
gives Seward’s final list of plants as showing the Permo-Carboni- 
ferous age of these plants as compared with those of India and 
South America. 

The Annual Reports for 1901 and 1902 of the Geological 
Commission of the Cape of Good Hope provide much matter of 
special interest. Messrs. Rogers and Schwarz report on a journey 
from Swellendam to Mount Bay, on a general survey of the rocks 
in the southern part of the Transkei and Pondoland, including 

DECADE V.—VOL. I.—NO. IX» 27 


464 Notices of Memoirs—Short Notices. 


a description of the Cretaceous rock of Hastern Pondoland, and on 
a geological survey of the Kentani division. The shells and bones 
in the Cretaceous appear to be rolled and rounded in the lowest 
beds. The bones include those of Chelonia, and a lower jaw 
resembling that of Mosasaurus, while sharks’ teeth also occur. 
Further reports by the same authors deal with the Matatiele 
division, with an account of the petrography of the volcanic rocks, 
and on the divisions of Beaufort West, Prince Albert, and Suther- 
land. The authors propose a slightly different classification of 
the Karroo System, in that they separate the Dwyka series from 
the Keca. 


2. Cryton.—The Report of the Director of the Mineralogical 
Survey of Ceylon Administration Reports, 1903, pt. iv (Miscellaneous), 
has just reached us. The Mineralogical Survey was established 
in the latter part of 1902 for three years, the objects being an 
examination of the occurrence of economic minerals in the island 
with a view to their further development and the preparation of 
a report descriptive of the mineral resources, as well as the arrange- 
ment of the geological collections in the Museum and the accumu- 
lation of further specimens, a duplicate series being reserved for 
exhibition at the Imperial Institute. A separate guide to the 
geological collections is to be ultimately prepared. 

The staff consists of a Director, A. K. Coomaraswamy, an 
assistant director, James Parsons, an office peon, two overseers, 
a ‘collector’ (sic), and eight coolies. ‘The staff is sanguine enough 
to suggest that 1,000 square miles can be superficially surveyed in 
the course of a year. Perhaps we under-estimate the capacity of 
the peon. 

The greater part of Ceylon consists of ancient crystalline rocks, 
granulites, or, in a wide sense, gneisses, which belong to the 
Charnockite series. Mica seems to be the most important economic 
mineral in the area reported upon, and includes muscovite, biotite, 
and phlogopite, of which the latter is of chief commercial importance. 
Graphite, the most important of all the mineral resources of the 
island, is chiefly distributed in areas outside the range of this report, 
but sketches of several mines are given. Working, however, 
depends on the price of the graphite, which is at present low. 
Tron is the only metal treated of. The precious stones mentioned 
are Corundum, Moonstone and Garnet, and the other mineral 
mentioned is Pitchblende (Uraninite), but a footnote states that the 
materials from Bambarbotuwa and Gampola are probably not 
Uraninite but a new mineral, whose detailed composition is not yet 
certain. Mr. Coomaraswamy does not believe in the reported 
discoveries of Cinnabar, he thinks Sindurankanda was < salted,’ and 
that there is no geological probability of there being ore of mercury 
at Kotte. 

The arrangement of the Museum goes on slowly but surely, and 
the Director asks for a special grant to enable him to secure and 
exhibit a representative collection of gems. 


Notices of Memoirs—Short Notices. 465 


3. HucerarvEertuu.—This is a singular quaternary ungulate found 
by W. J. Sinclair and HE. L. Furlong in the caves of the Shasta 
country, California. Its affinities are not clear. It may be placed 
in the Ovinz, but cannot be regarded as intimately related to any 
existing North American member of that group. The cranium is 
larger than in the big-horn sheep, while the horn-cores are smaller, 
are situated much further behind the orbits, and differ greatly in 
form and curvature. Although there is a resemblance to Ovibos 
in dental structure, the horn-cores are of an entirely different type. 
A relationship with the cattle is excluded by fundamental differences 
in dental structure. It is separated from the goats by the presence of 
a lachrymal pit. This character serves to distinguish Huceratherium 
from Haplocerus, from which it differs also in greater size, in the 
shape and position of the horn-cores, and in the exclusion of the 
parietal from the cranial roof. The description and plates appear 
in Bull. Geol. Univ. California Publications, iii, 1904. 


4, GEOLOGY UNDER THE PLANEeTEsIMAL Hypotuesis or Harru- 
Oricin.—In the Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. (xv, 1904) H. L. Fairchild 
discusses the bearings on several problems in geology of the new 
hypothesis of earth-origin recently formulated by T. C. Chamberlin. 
This hypothesis will shortly be printed in full in a new text-book 
by T. C. Chamberlin and R. D. Salisbury. Its comparison with 
the nebular theory is thus given by Fairchild: ‘The old hypothesis 
assumes the existence of a mass of incandescent vapour, with or 
without a nucleus, which by condensation and rotation was 
differentiated into successive rings, the latter being eventually 
gathered into the planets while still retaining intense heat. From 
this postulate there necessarily follows the conception of a cooling 
earth, and hypogeic geology has been founded on the idea of crustal 
solidification on a molten globe. The new hypothesis holds that 
the disseminated planet-forming matter had lost its heat while yet 
existing in the loose form, as rings or wisps of the parent nebula, 
and that the globular planets were formed by the slow accretion 
or infalling of cold discrete bodies or particles (‘ planetesimals’). 

‘‘The old hypothesis assumes an originally hot globe with 
shrinking on account of cooling. The new regards the globe as 
originally and always cold at the surface, and the interior heat 
as the product of gravitational condensation. The old view requires 
continuous cooling of the globe, while the new allows the conception 
of increasing internal heat. The old hypothesis makes the earth 
of largest size at birth and of constantly diminishing volume. The 
new regards the earth as beginning with a small nucleus and slowly 
growing by surface accretion, but with large reduction of volume 
by compression during and subsequent to the accretionary process. 
The old hypothesis involves the recognition of a primal heated 
atmosphere and ocean consisting of the more volatile substances 
of the earth’s mass. The new derives the present fluid envelopes 
from the earth’s interior by a slow process of expulsion due to 
pressure and heat.” 

Having thus distinguished the new theory from the old, Fairchild 


466 Reviews—Dr. J. F. Whiteaves— 


discusses on the new basis the following points :— Origin of 
the atmosphere and ocean ; earliest sedimentary rocks ; volcanic 
phenomena; source of the hydrocarbons; genesis of metalliferous 
deposits ; origin of gypsum and salt; climates; glaciation ; 
diastrophic movements ; irregularities of the earth’s figure; and 
life on the earth. 


5. Tae Frank Lanpstre.—The Department of the Interior of the 
Dominion of Canada, in their Annual Report for 1903, has issued 
a report on the disastrous landslide at Frank, by Messrs. R. G. 
McConnell and R. W. Brock. Turtle Mountain, the eastern face 
of which gave way on 29th April, 1903, consists of Devonian 
Limestones resting on Cretaceous shales and sandstones. The 
Devonian beds dip to the west at an average angle of 50°. The 
fall occurred about 4.10 a.m., and consisted of a mass of rock half 
a mile square, and 400 to 500 feet thick. The mass broke across 
the bedding planes almost at right angles, and therefore the slide 
falls under Balzer’s heading of ‘ Bergstiirtz,’ of which it is a typical 
example. The mass appears to have been shattered into fragments 
during its descent, and the material seems to have travelled by 
a succession of great leaps, or ricochets, rather than by a true slide. 
The bulk of the fallen mass is calculated at nearly 36,000,000 cubic 
yards, equal in weight to some 80,000,000 tons. The primary 
cause of the breaking away of the mass from Turtle Mountain is 
to be found in the structure and condition of the mountain itself. 
It was ripe for a slide. The steep slopes, the shattered and 
fractured nature of the rocks, particularly of the basal beds of the 
limestone series, overlying a thrust-fault, coupled with unusually 
heavy precipitation, are causes which in themselves are quite 
sufficient to have produced the slide, and, unaided, the loosened 
masses would sooner or later have fallen. The report points out 
the probability of further slides in the same area, and advises the 
inhabitants of Frank to move up the valley. 


ae EV, Een WV SS 


I. — On some AppitronaL Fosstns FROM THE VANCOUVER 
CRETACEOUS, WITH A REvisep List oF THE SPECIES THEREFROM. 
By J. F. Wurrravus, LL.D., F.G.S., etc. Geological Survey 
te ota part v, pp. 809-416, pls. 40-51. (Ottawa, August, 


HIS is the concluding part of the first volume of illustrated 
reports upon the Cretaceous fossils from the Queen Charlotte 

and Vancouver Islands, the first part of which appeared in 1876. 
It deals more particularly with the fossils which have been obtained 
from Vancouver and the adjacent islands since 1879. The rocks 
containing these fossils were named the Nanaimo group by the late 
Dr. Dawson, and, as now understood, this group appears to be the 
equivalent, not only of the Chico group of California, but also. 


Cretaceous Fossils from Vancouver. 467 


of the Pierre-Fox Hills or Montana formation of Manitoba, the 
North-west Territories, and the Upper Missouri country; also, in | 
a general way, of the Upper Chalk of England and the Senonian . 
of the Continent. Dr. Kossmat correlates it more particularly with 
the upper part of the Senonian. The fossils of this group are very 
similar to those of the higher beds of the Upper Cretaceous in the 
Island of Saghalien, in Japan, and Southern India. On the other 
hand, they very distinctly differ from those in the somewhat older 
‘Cretaceous rocks of the Queen Charlotte Islands, and only a few 
species are common to both formations. 

With the exception of a single species of Unio and a few doubtful 
gasteropods, the Nanaimo fauna is exclusively marine. The following 
are the more salient features of the fauna as enumerated by the 
author : 

Fishes.—These are very few, and only comprise vertebre of 
teleosts, the centrum of a vertebra of a Selachian which, in an 
earlier part, had been described as a new species of Discina, and 
teeth of Zamna appendiculata. The fish remains had been submitted 
to Dr. A. Smith Woodward, F.R.S. 

Crustacea.—The Decapoda are fairly numerous, and nine species 
have lately been described by Dr. Henry Woodward, F.R.S. They 
belong to the following genera: Plagiolophus, Palgocorystes, 
Callianassa, Hoploparia, Enoploclytia, Eryma, Meyeria?, Glyphea, 
and Linuparus. 

Ammonitide.—The genus Pachydiscus is largely developed, and 
no fewer than eight species are enumerated or described. They 
have been studied by Dr. F. Kossmat of Vienna, and directly 
compared with allied species from Southern India and Europe. 
No species of Pachydiscus has yet been discovered in the Cretaceous 
of the Queen Charlotte Islands. Baculttes likewise does not occur 
in these Islands, though one species is very common in the Nanaimo 
group. 

eee eg small smooth species of Cyprea is present ; 
there are also three large species probably belonging to Mesostoma, 
Deshayes; a Solariella hardly distinguishable from S. radiatula, 
Forbes, from the Cretaceous rocks of Saghalien and Southern India ; 
and a large limpet-like shell, which is probably only a variety 
of Helcion giganteus, from the Cretaceous of Saghalien. 

Pelecypoda.— A considerable reduction has been made in the 
number of species of Inoceramus, as both the I. undulatoplicatus, 
Roemer, and JI. mytilopsis, Conrad, are now considered to be 
synonyms of I. digitatus, Sowerby, which occurs in the Cretaceous 
of Texas, Nebraska, and Saghalien. Also a species of Unio has 
been found, apparently distinct from U. Hubbardi, Gabb, from the 
Queen Charlotte Island Cretaceous. 

The new forms are illustrated in the accompanying plates, and 
a list of the fossils of the Nanaimo group is appended; there is 
also an index to the generic and specific names occuring in the 
volume. 


468 Reviews—DHonsieur N. Jakowlew— 


IJ.—“ Usser pie Morpuotocie unp Morpxocente DER Rucosa.” 
On THE Morruotocy anp THE MorPHOoGENY OF THE Rucosa. By 
N. Jakowtew. From the “Verhandlungen der Russisch- 
Kaiserlichen [Mineralogischen Gesellschaft,” Bd. xli, Lief 2: 
St. Petersburg, 1904. | 


N a paper under the above title N. Jakowlew deals with the 

structural peculiarities of the Rugose Corals, seeking to explain 

these peculiarities in the light of possible relationships between 
the Rugosa and the Hexacorals. 

The most remarkable characteristic of the Rugosa compared with 
the Hexacorals is their bilateral symmetry, of which the chief 
expressions are the bent corallum, the presence of a main septum 
(‘ hauptseptum ’), and of a fossula (‘ septalgrube ’). 

As many as four fossule have been claimed as occurring in some 
forms of Rugosa, but it is shown that the depressions at the alar 
septa (‘seitensepten’) are not to be distinguished by any morpho- 
logical difference from other interseptal loculi, so that no fossula 
occurs except in the plane of symmetry of the coral. Nor can any 
instance be found of two fossula: occurring in the plane of symmetry. 
And when one occurs, the septum situated in it has always been 
found to be the main septum. Therefore the presence of a fossula 
always indicates the presence of the main septum. 

Some would define the main septum as that primary septum which 
occurs on the convex side of the coral. Nicholson is quoted as an 
author who does so. It is shown, however, that the peculiarities. 
which distinguish the main septum are the behaviour of the other 
septa towards it, as shown by their outcrops on the surface of the 
corallum after the epitheca has been removed. From this aspect 
the outcrops of the secondaries are seen to be pinnately arranged 
with regard to that of the main septum, and parallel to that of the 
counter septum (‘ begenseptum ’); also those between the alar 
septum and the main septum (i.e. those in the main quadrants) are 
parallel to the former, while those between the former and the counter 
septum (i.e. those in the counter quadrants) meet the alar septum 
at an angle. Again, the outcrops of the secondary septa in the main 
quadrants meet the plane of the mouth opening (or, what is the same 
thing, the lines of growth) at an oblique angle, while those in the 
counter quadrants meet the lines of growth at right angles. 

Thus defined, the main septum is found to occur, often in the 
same genus, now on the concave and now on the convex side of 
the corallum. That is to say, the two chief expressions of bilateral 
symmetry in the Rugosa (the presence of the fossula having been 
shown to be bound up with that of the main septum), namely the 
bending of the coral—what might be called ‘external bilateral 
symmetry ’—and the presence of the main septum—what might 
be called ‘internal bilateral symmetry ’—occur independently of 
each other. The question naturally arises, which appeared first ? 
Whether the bending caused the bilateral symmetry, or whether 
“the bending . . . . arises from a tendency in the coral 
towards bilateral symmetry.” 


the Morphology of the Rugosa. 469 


If the bilateral symmetry is the result of the bending, we must 
imagine a young form, having a hereditary tendency towards radial 
symmetry, varying from its ancestral type by growing in a curved 
manner instead of straight. This curved growth became fixed in 
its descendants, the curved form having been selected owing to some 
advantage it gained over its straight fellows, possibly by presenting 
a mouth more or less perpendicular to a horizontal current bearing 
the food supply. The curvature of the corallum, caused perhaps 
by unequal growth, perhaps by the falling over of the coral as its 
bulk increased, or by some unknown agent, induced bilateral 
symmetry in the soft parts by causing them to gravitate towards 
the lower side of the mouth opening. The skeleton thenceforward 
secreted was, therefore, bilaterally symmetrical, because it could only 
take the shape of the soft parts by which it was formed. This is 
in the main H. M. Bernard’s view, who says that the formation of 
the fossula would be a natural outcome of this gravitation of the 
soft parts. 

On the cther hand, Duerden has suggested that the bilateral 
symmetry arose from the abortion of two of the six original primary 
septa. The ancestors of the Rugosa (yet to be discovered!) were 
radially symmetrical Hexacorals. Variations in these, whereby two 
primary septa failed to grow above a certain size, were seized upon 
by natural selection, for the possession of some unknown advantage, 
and became fixed. The two defective septa were those primaries 
adjacent to the counter septum. Moreover, in the loculi between these 
and the counter septum no secondaries appeared. By subsequent 
growth the secondary septa grew as large as the two defective 
primary septa, and so the appearance of four primary septa arose. 

Of course the abortion of two septa may have been caused by 
the bending of the corallum, in which case the two hypotheses 
would only differ in that in the former a radially symmetrical 
Tetracoral was the original ancestor, while in the latter a radially 
symmetrical Hexacoral. And the settlement of this point might 
have some bearing on the question whether the Hexacorals are the 
descendants of the Rugosa, or whether both had a common ancestor, 
and, if the latter, whether this ancestor was a Hexacoral or a 
Tetracoral. 

Whatever view of the origin of the bilateral symmetry is taken, 
the fact remains that the position of the main septum with regard 
to the bending of the coral has no connection with the origin of 
that bending. It is only suggested in explanation that the com- 
parative rarity of corals having the main septum on the concave 
side may be due to the fact that in these the lower part of the 
mouth opening might be brought too near the sea-bottom to be clear 
of the injurious sediment rapidly accumulating thereon. And, 
further, uncertainty is expressed as to the value of the position 
of the main septum as a systematic character; whether to regard 
it as of specific or of varietal importance. 

A new explanation of the origin of the fossula is suggested. 
There would be a natural tendency for the soft parts to sink in the 


470 Reviews—Geological Survey South of Scarborough. 


spaces between the main septum and the adjacent septa, where 
the new septa are inserted when, by the growth of the coral, the 
space became larger than the other interseptal loculi, just before 
the insertion of a new septum. 

Such, we think, are the chief facts brought forward and the chief 
questions touched upon in this paper, which, while containing new 
and interesting observations, and raising important questions, does 
not do much towards solving these questions, and is lacking in 
arrangement; so much so that it is exceedingly hard to follow any 
thread of argument running through the whole; and beyond giving 
a clear definition of the main septum, and showing that it occurs 
indifferently on the convex and concave side of the corallum, the 
paper does little but put forward suggestions bearing on the origin 
of the peculiarities of the Rugosa. 


III.—Tur Guotocy or tHe Ooxrric anD CreTaceous Rocks souTH 
or Scarporoven. By C. Fox-Straneways, F.G.S8. . Ed. 11. 
Memoirs of the Geological Survey England and Wales. pp. i-iv, 
1-119. With 11 plates and numerous woodcuts. (London, 1904. 
Price 4s. 6d.) 

HIS memoir is designed to illustrate and explain sheets 54 and 

55 (New Series) of the Geological Survey. It contains a great 

amount of most useful and interesting information, not only 
concerning the Secondary Rocks, from the Lower Oolites to the 
Upper Cretaceous, of the district covered by these sheets, but 
also deals with various superficial deposits. Further, there are 
certain remarks concerning the physical and geographical features, 
but these are somewhat disappointing reading : the author gives the 
impression that he lacks a firm grip of the principles of these 
subjects, which have been so ably handled in various modern 
text-books. 

The chief value of the memoir lies in its geological and 
paleontological information. Looking at it from the foreigner’s 
point of view, we may regret that the author does not indicate his 
zones more fully throughout his various sections, so that the stranger 
may see at a glance with what rocks at home he may compare 
these Yorkshire strata. But a great help to such a stranger 
are the excellent plates reproduced from photographs, showing 
characteristic sections. Only here one must be allowed a regret 
—that the tracing-paper plans covering the plates were not more 
carefully lettered. A fine feature is spoiled by a small detail; for 
these plans are not always legible. They lack care in their 
preparation. 

In the matter of illustration the paleontological portion of this 
memoir has not been liberally treated. The indifferent woodcuts are 
not creditable to the author’s work, for in many cases they fail to 
give recognizable pictures; and, what is more serious, they are not 
illustrations made from local fossils. They are just stock woodcuts, 


and it is plain that they have had a past. They should not be 
allowed a future. 


Reviews—Dr. Anton Fritsch’s Paleozoic Arachnida. 471 


The palzontological nomenclature claims to be brought up to 
date. In the phytological portion this it must be admitted has been 
done—Seward’s Catalogue has very properly been followed ; but 
in the zoological part it can hardly be granted. We might suggest 
that, as authors of such memoirs cannot possibly be specialists in 
all branches of nomenclature, they would be well advised to follow 
the latest text-book. They might reasonably plead “Theirs not 
to reason why,” and simply trust the specialists who had contributed 
to the text-book: on these specialists would fall praise or blame as 
the case might be. Such a text-book we have now in the Hastman 
translation of Zittel; but, tested by that, the nomenclature in this 
memoir is certainly not up to date. For instance, generic names 
which have been discarded from the text-book on account of prior 
use, meet us throughout the pages of this memoir, while names 
which have been in use for many years, and are to be found even in 
the old Zittel of twenty years ago, are lacking. Only the Ammonite 
names seem to be up to the modern standard, tested by Hastman, 
but there is one failure here, viz., the figure given as Ammonites 
humphriesianus, on p. 18, is not that species, for it was separated by 
Oppel some fifty years ago, and taken by him as the type of his 
A. bayleanus. We are credibly informed, and Oppel himself says 
the same, that the species does not occupy the same zone as 
A. humphriesianus. It is, therefore, very doubtful if this figure 
represents a fossil which occurs in Yorkshire at all. It clearly 
proves the necessity of illustrating each memoir with special figures 
taken from actual local fossils. 

When the reader has been safeguarded in reference to such matters 
as these to which we call attention, then he will find the memoir 
an extremely interesting and useful guide to a very important 
district. A. B. L. 


IV.—Patmozorc Aracunipa. By Professor Dr. Anron Frirscu. 
4to, with pp. 88, 15 plates, and 99 figures in the text. (Prag, 
Selbstuverlag, Fr. Rivnac, & Buchdruckerei Dr. Ed. Grégr a Syn, 
1904. See also Sitzungsber. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien., cxii.) 

HIS work forms one of a series of Memoirs to the preparation of 

which Dr. Fritsch has devoted so many years of his long and 
laborious life in illustration of the fauna of the Coal-formation of 

Bohemia. 

In the present monograph, which is published under the auspices 
of the Imperial Academy of Vienna, the author has extended the 
field of his researches, and examines and describes and figures the 
fossil Arachnida in the Museums of London, Paris, Dresden, Breslau, 
and Vienna, visited by him in 1903, in order to embrace the whole 
of the known forms of paleeozoic Arachnida from all countries. 

The 15 quarto plates and the greater number of the 99 illus- 
trations in the text are drawn by the author’s own hand. 

Thirty-nine’ genera and 67 species of Arachnida are here recorded 


1 One genus and species, Adelocaris peruvianus, should be cancelled: see p. 473, 
No. 28.—H. W. 


472 Reviews—Dr. Anton Fritsch’s Paleozoic Arachnida. 


and more or less fully described by the author. Of these, 37 
Carboniferous and Permo-Carboniferous species are from Bohemia, 
6 Carboniferous are from Silesia, 1 in the Dresden Museum, 1 from. 
the Coal-measures of Bavaria, 2 from France, 1 from Belgium, 
1 from Scotland, 5 from England, 1 from South Wales, 1 from 
Arkansas, and 7 from Illinois, U.S., North America (and 1 very 
doubtful from Peru); these are Coal-measure forms; whilst of air- 
breathing Silurian scorpions Gotland has yielded 1, Scotland 2, and 
North America 1. 

The following list may serve to give an idea of the fossil genera 
and species known at the present time :— 


Order ARANEA. 


Suborder ARTHARACHN &, Haase. 
Family ARTHROLYCOSID (Harger), Fr. 
1.—Genus ArtHROLYCcosA, Harger. 


antiqua, Harger: Coal-m., Illinois. 

carbonaria, Kusta, sp.:  ,, Rakonitz, Bohemia. 
fortis, Fritsch : 59 3 a 
Lorenzi, Kusta, sp. : Ae 93 5 
palaranea, Fritsch: 55 Radnitz, 7 
Beecheri, Fritsch : 3 Rakonitz, _,, 


2.—Prorotycosa, Fritsch. 

anthracophyla, Rém.: Coal-m., Silesia. 
3.—GrrRaLycosa, Kusta. 

Fritschii, Kusta: Coal-m., Rakonitz, Bohemia. 
4,—RakovniciA, Kusta. 

antiqua, Kusta: Coal-m., Rakonitz, Bohemia. 
5.—Eorarzis, Kusta. 

litoralis, Kusta: Coal-m., Rakonitz, Bohemia. 


Suborder PLEURARANE A, Fr. 
Family HEMIPHRYNIDA, Fr. 
6.—Hemipurynvs, Fritsch. 
longipes, Fr.: Gas-coal, Nyran, Bohemia. 
Hofimanni, Fr.: - “e 4 


Family PROMYGALIDA, Fr. 

7.—PromyeGate, Fritsch. 

bohemica, Fr.: Gas-coal, Nyran, Bohemia. 

rotundata, Fr.: 

elegans, Fr.: 

8.—PeErnerta, Fritsch. 

salticoides, Fr.: 
9.—Eoruotcvs, Fritsch. 

pedatus, Fr.: Coal-m., Nyran, Bohemia. 
10.—PiEvRoLycosa, Fritsch. 

prolifera, Fr.: Gas-coal, Bohemia. 
11.—Bracuytucosa, Fritsch. 

carcinoides, Fr.: Gas-coal, Bohemia. 
12.—PyriTARANEA, Fritsch. 

tubifera, Fr.: Gas-coal, Nyran, Bohemia. 


Order OPILIONES, Sund. 
Suborder OPILIONIDA,, Veri. 


13.—NeEMASTOMOIDES, Thevenin. 

elaveris, They.: Coal-m., Commentry, France. 
14.—Drvoprttio, Fritsch. 

gigas, Fr.: Coal-m., Rakonitz, Bohemia. 


LOWER COAL-MEASURES 
(STEINKOHLEN Formation). 


9? 9? > 
9 9) 9? 


99 99 ? 


PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS SERIES. 


COAL- 
MEASURES. 


—— —_——$—$<—— A... 
nao errr wT ee i 


Reviews—Dr. Anton Fritsch’s Paleozoic Arachnida. 473 


Suborder MERIDOGASTRA, Thorel. 
Family POLIOCHERID A, Scudder. 


15.—Po.tocHera, Scudder. 
punetulata, Scudder: Coal-m., Illinois, U.S.A. 


Family ARCHITARBIDA, Karsch. 
16.—GERAPHRYNUs, Scudder. 
carbonartus, Scudder: Coal-m., Illinois, U.S.A. 
elongatus, Scudder, sp.: Coal-m., Illinois, U.S.A. 
17.—ARcHITARBUS, Scudder. 
rotundatus, Scudder: Coal-m., Illinois, U.S.A. 
subovalis, H. Woodward: Coal-m., Lancashire. 


Family, ANTHRACOMARTIDA. 


18.—ANTHRACOMARTUS, Karsch. 
Krejeii, Kusta: Coal-m., Rakonitz, Bohemia. 


minor, Kusta, an 55 0 

afinis, Kusta, 5 . - 

socius, Kusta, 5 A 50 
volkelianus, Karsch: Coal-m., Silesia. 

granulatus, Fr.: Coal-m. (in Dresden Museum). 
trilobitus, Scudder: Coal-m., Arkansas. 

palatinus, v. Ammon: Coal-m., Palatinate, Bavaria. 


19.—Bracuypyce, H. Woodward. 

celtica, Pocock: Coal-m., Cardiff, South Wales. 

carbonis, H. Woodw.: Coal-m., Mons., Belgium. 
20.—AntTHRACOsIRO, Pocock. 

Woodwardi, Pocock: Coal-m., Coseley, Dudley. 

Fritschi, Pocock : aH 5f ua 
21.—Eorrocutuus, Thevenin. 

Fayoli, Thev.: Coal-m., Commentry, France. 
22.—VratIsLayiA, Fritsch. 

silesiaca, F. Roemer: Coal-m., Silesia. 


Family EOPHRYNIDA, Karsch. 


23.—Kopurynus, H. Woodward. ” 

prestwicii, Buckland, sp.: Coal-m., Coalbrook Dale, 

Shropshire. 

(Stenotrogulus) Salmii, Stur.: Coal-m., Silesia. 
24.—CyctLorrocutLus, Fritsch. 

Sturii, Haase, sp.: Coal-m., Mahrisch Ostrau, Silesia. 
25.—KRuEISCHERIA, Geinitz. 

Wiedei, Gein.: Coal-m., Zwickan, Bohemia. 
26.—HEMIKREISCHERIA, Fritsch. 

Thevenini, Fr.: Coal-m., Westphalia. 
27.—PeETRovicIA, Fritsch. 

proditoria, Fr.: Coal-m., Petrovic, Rakonitz, Bohemia. 
28.—ADELOCARIS peruvianus, Packard [said not to be an Arachnide, but 

a Macruran-Crustacean]: loc. incog. (Jurassic ?), Peru. 


Order PEDIPALPI, Latr. 
Tribe Uropryet, Thor. 


Family THELYPHONIDA, Auctorum. 


29,—PrRoTHELYPHONUS, Fr. 
bohemicus, Kusta, sp.: Coal-m., Rakonitz, Bohemia. 
| [GERALINURA (syn. of Prothelyphonus ?)| 
Scudderi, Kusta; Coal-m., Rakonitz, Bohemia. 
| noctua, Kusta: +5 Bp 99 


COAL-MEASURES. 
ss 


5 a ss 


erassa, Kusta: 99 Ae 95 
(Prothelyphonus) Cordai, Fr.: Coal-m., Radnitz, 5 


474 Reviews—Dr. Anton Fritsch’s Paleozoic Arachnida. 


Order SCORPIONES. 
Suborder Apoxypropss, Th. & L. 


Family PALZMOPHONIDA, Th. & L. 


(30.—PaLtmornonvs, Th. & L. 

| nuncius, Th. & L.: Upper Silurian, Gotland. 

4 Hunteri, Pocock : Upper Silurian, Lesmahagow. 

| loudonensis, Laurie: Upper Silurian, Pentland Hills. 

{ (PRoscorpius) Osborni, Whitfield : Upp. Silur., N. America. 


SILURIAN. 


Family ANTHRACOSCORPII, Th. & L. 


( 31.—CycLoprHatmus, Corda. 

senior, Corda: Coal-m., Bohemia. 
32.—Microtastis, Corda. 

Sternbergii, Corda: Coal-m., Bohemia. 


33.—IsoBUTHUS. 
kralupensis, Th. & L., sp.: Coal-m., Kralup, Bohemia. 
34.—Eonuruus, Fr. 
Rakovnicensis, Fr.: Coal-m., Rakonitz, Bohemia. 
4 35.—AntHrascorrio, Kusta. ; 
juvenis, Kusta: Coal-m., Rakonitz, Bohemia. 
36.—Eoscorrivus, Meek & Worthen. (U.S.A. 
carbonarius, M. & W.: Coal-m., Mazon Creek, Illinois, 
anglicus, H. Woodw.: Coal-m., near Dudley. 
37.—Mazoni1a, Meek & Worthen. (U.S.A. 
Woodiana, M. & W.: Coal-m., Mazon Creek, Illinois, 
38.—Gtyproscorrius, Peach. 
caledonicus, Peach, sp.: Carb. R., Eskdale, Scotland. 


| 
( 39.—FEISTMANTELIA, Fritsch. 


CARBONIFEROUS FORMATION. 


ro) 

aa 
Ss ° 
ne ornata, Fr.: Permo-Carboniferous, Lebach, Bohemia. 
Bc | (IsonuTHus ?) Nyranensis, Fr.: Permo-Carboniferous, Nyran, Bohemia. 
a =) 


There is not the least reason to assume that the Arachnida were 
better represented in the Carboniferous and the Permo-Carboniferous 
of Bohemia than in any other Coal-areas of Europe and America; 
it merely shows that more careful attention has been directed 
towards the collecting of the fossil fauna of these beds there than 
elsewhere, and that Dr. Fritsch has been more energetic in describing 
them than the paleontologists of some other Coal-regions. Much 
splendid work has, however, been done with the Insect fauna of 
North America by 8. H. Scudder and by the late lamented Charles 
Brongniart in that of Commentry, France, as well as by the workers 
in other countries, and we may look forward with confidence to great 
accessions to our knowledge in this field of research as soon as the 
splendid material obtainable becomes better known. 

Of the Bohemian specimens of special interest may be recorded 
the remains of Arthrolycosa carbonaria, Kusta, from Rakonitz, a genus 
also met with and described by Harger from the Coal-measures of 
Illinois, U.S.A., of which good material for four other species have 
likewise been obtained in Bohemia. It is extremely interesting to 
record the discovery of a specimen of this genus, 4. palaranea, Fr., 
still attached to a leaf of Cordaites as in life. 

Protolycosa anthracophyla, described by F. Roemer in 1866 from 
the Coal-measures of Silesia, is also reproduced with care. 


Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London. 475 


Another spider, Geralycosa, from Rakonitz, admits of being ably 
restored by the author, in whose honour it is named by Professor 
Kusta. 

The genus Hemiphrynus is also well preserved in a fossil state, 
showing many details of its anatomy. 

Promygale with 83 species has much of its structure preserved 
both on the upper and under side, especially in P. elegans from 
Nyran, which is honoured with a plate, 2 text-figures, and a vignette 
on the cover; Hophlocus, a long-legged spider from Nyran, shows 
the reproductive organs and limbs and the general form well 
preserved. 

Anthracomartus is another well preserved type represented by 
8 species; 4 from Bohemia, 3 from Germany, and i from Arkansas, 
U.S.A. This round-bodied and very distinctly segmented type is 
closely allied to Brachypyge and EHophrynus; in most of these forms. 
the dorsal surface of the body-segments is ornamented by a pattern 
of minute raised granules. Anthracosiro appears not to have 
possessed this ornamentation on the dorsal surface. 

Among the Pseudoscorpions Prothelyphonus bohemicus, Kusta, is. 
a remarkably well preserved species, giving nearly every detail of 
its structure and its attenuated series of abdominai segments. 

Good figures are also given of the Carboniferous and Silurian 
scorpions of Bohemia, England, Scotland, Sweden, and America, of 
which much has already been written in this country by Woodward, 
Peach, Pocock, and others. 

But space does not admit of our dwelling more fully on this. 
interesting group of terrestrial air-breathing tracheated paleozoic 
Arthropods, the direct descendants of the still more remote aquatic 
branchiated Merostomata, Pterygotus, Slimonia, Stylonurus, and their 
allies. 

We congratulate Dr. Fritsch upon this interesting monograph, and 
wish him health and strength to pursue his studies on the fossil 
fauna of his beloved country of Bohemia which he has done so much 
to illustrate. 


ISI POI IS) AWISIb) 123K II ID ICA SySe 


—— 


GeroLoGicaL Society or Lonpon. 


June 22nd, 1904.—J. HE. Marr, Sc.D., F.R.S., President, in the 
Chair. The following communications were read :— 


1. “The Igneous Rocks of Pontesford Hill (Shropshire).” By 
Professor William 8. Boulton, B.Sc., Assoc. R.C.8., E.G.S. 


This paper is confined to a description of the characters and 
sequence of the rocks within the limits of Pontesford Hill, and no 
attempt is made to correlate them with those of the Uriconian 
areas. The hill is a ‘plagioclinal ridge,’ bounded on all sides by 
faults ; it is made up entirely of igneous rocks, but some of the fine 
tuffs and volcanic grits show unmistakable signs of deposition in 


476 Reports and Proceedings —Geological Society of London. 


water. There are two distinct groups of igneous rocks: a bedded 
group, consisting of rhyolites and acid tuffs, with andesites and 
andesitic tuffs; and an intrusive group of olivine-dolerites. The 
general strike of the bedded rocks is north-north-easterly and south- 
south-westerly, parallel to that of the neighbouring Longmyndian 
rocks; the average dip is about 80° east-south-eastward, but at the 
extreme south-east of the hill the rhyolite and associated breccias 
dip in the opposite direction (west-north-westward) at about the 
same angle. The northern end of the hill consists of rhyolite (the 
‘northern rhyolite’), about 1,000 feet thick, a pale pink and purple 
rhyolite with much epidote, chlorite, and secondary quartz, showing 
vesicular, spherulitic, pyromeridal, and banded structures. Macro- 
scopic and microscopic descriptions of the rocks are given, and the 
origin of the spherulitic and nodular structures is fully discussed. 
In many cases, though certainly not in all, the nodules appear to 
have begun as a vesicle, often irregular in shape, and sometimes 
with crescentiform spaces round the main cavity, and separated from 
it by similarly-shaped portions of the glass. The spherulitic fibres 
appear to develop, not from a central point outward, but locally 
from vesicles or other cavities, crystals, etc., coalescing finally to form 
larger and longer growths. The spherulitic type of devitrification 
is not all of the same age, for fibrous growths traverse small and 
earlier-formed spherulites, which have been dissolved out and 
replaced by quartz. The andesitic group is made up of felsitic- 
looking, gritty pink and green tuffs, passing up into and inter- 
bedded with andesitic glassy (palagonitic) and crystal tuffs, 
hilleflintas, and lavas; the thickness is about 1,600 feet. A thick- 
ness of about 150 feet of rhyolite-breccias (glassy and crystal tuffs) 
and grits succeeds; and this is followed by the south-eastern 
rhyolite, about 250 feet thick, a dark red or purple, coarsely 
vesicular, well-banded rock, often with light-green and white 
amygdules. The andesites consist of oligoclase and malacolite, 
embedded in a hyalopilitic groundmass containing palagonite, in 
which ilmenite, leucoxene, and magnetite are embedded. A table 
of the silica-percentages and specific gravities of the bedded rocks 
shows that a gap occurs between the ‘northern rhyolite’ and the 
more acid of the andesite-tuffs that immediately follow; this, 
together with a discordance in strike, may indicate a break in 
volcanic history, a disturbed junction, or that this rhyolite is 
intrusive. From this point onward, the tuffs and lavas form 
a continuous series, despite the difference in the average silica- 
percentage of the andesite group and the rhyolite-breccias. The tufts 
thin out to the north-eastward, their lapilli diminish in size, and 
they become more gritty and washed in aspect in the same direction; 
facts which all point to the inference that the volcanic vent may 
have been to the west of the hill. The intrusive rocks are basic, 
and often amygdaloidal; they are granular or ophitic, and compare 
in composition with such olivine-dolerites as those of Rowley, the 
Clee Hills, and Little Wenlock, while they differ considerably from 
the intrusive dolerites of North Wales. 


Reports and Proceedings— Geological Society of London. 477 


2. “The Tertiary Fossils of Somaliland, as represented in the 
British Museum (Natural History).” By Richard Bullen Newton, 
Ksq., F.G.S. 

Since the publication, in 1900, of Prof. Gregory’s paper, founded 
on specimens in the Natural History Museum, mostly collected and 
presented by Mrs. Lort Phillips, the National Collection has been 
enriched by further series of fossils: the Donaldson-Smith Collection 
and one presented by Major R. G. Edwards Leckie. The new material 
is, generally speaking, better preserved than that previously dealt 
with. The large Lucinide and specimens of Campanile (previously 
considered as Nerinea) are very typical of Hocene rocks generally, 
and they agree with the foraminifera in the Somaliland Limestones 
in supporting the reference of these rocks to this period. The 
matrices of these limestones correspond with those surrounding the 
corals described by Professor Gregory as belonging to the Uradu and 
Dobar Limestones. ‘Two limestones seem to be represented in the 
collections—an upper, massive and cherty, often coloured reddish- 
brown externally ; and a lower, of less cherty character and lighter 
colour. The limestones appear to be capable of correlation with 
those of the south-eastern corner of Arabia, as well as with those of 
Sind and Cutch; they can also be traced in connection with the 
Hocene areas of Egypt and other regions of North Africa, through 
Europe to the Paris Basin, and so to the Bracklesham Beds of 
England. The new collections contain some older fossils, but they 
are not considered in the present paper. 

A review of the literature of the subject is given, and the author 
then proceeds to the description of species of gasteropods, lamelli- 
branchs, echinoids, and corals. Six new species are described and 
named, and sixteen species or varieties described but not named. 
An account of the foraminiferal structures of the limestones follows, 
and the paper closes with a list of the known Tertiary fossils from 
Somaliland. 


3. “The Caernarvon Harthquake of June 19th, 1903, and its 
Accessory Shocks.” By Charles Davison, Sc.D., F.G.S. 


The Caernarvon earthquake of June 19th, 1903, was the strongest 
earthquake indigenous to the county for more than five centuries. 
Its disturbed area contained about 25,000 square miles, and included 
nearly the whole of Wales, the North-West of England, the Isle of 
Man, and several of the eastern counties of Ireland. The centre of 
the innermost isoseismal (intensity 7) was situated beneath the sea, 
about 4 miles west of Pen-y-groes, and the longer axis of the 
isoseismal ran from N. 40° BH. to S. 40° W. It is concluded, 
from the seismic evidence, that the earthquake was caused by a slip 
of about 16 miles in length along a fault running in the above 
direction, hading north-westward, and passing either through 
Clynnog or a mile or two either to the north-west or south-east. 
In the former case the fault-line might be submarine; and it is 
pointed out that, if the fault which runs in a south-westerly direction 
from Aber to Dinlle (on the coast of Caernarvon Bay) were continued 


478 Correspondence—Dr. A. Irving. 


underneath the sea to the neighbourhood of Nevin, it would occupy 
the position assigned to the parent fault by the discussion of the 
earthquake phenomena. 

The principal shock was preceded by an earth-sound, and followed 
by at least five shocks, originating apparently at the north-western 
extremity of the principal focus. In addition, six slight shocks and 
two earth-sounds were recorded by single observers; and, if these 
be included in the earthquake series, it follows that seismic action 
was gradually withdrawn from the extremities of the focus and 
ultimately confined to its central region. 


CORRESPONDENCE. 


THE KEUPER BASEMENT BEDS. 


Srr,—My recent paper in the Gror. Mae. (April, 1904) on the 
Keuper of Devon recalls the difficulty of tracing horizons in those 
beds, which I have found in common with other workers in the 
field in former years. An illustration of this came before me when 
the British Association met at Bath in 1888. An excursion into 
the country some miles from Bath had been planned, and was 
carried out under the conduct of a well-known local ‘ geologist.’ 
The sections that came under our observation included those of 
a rather deep cutting on a railway, which, as I understood, had not 
been long constructed. These sections were very fresh and of quite 
a mural character, the bare rock being exposed almost everywhere. 
Yet a strange error of observation was made by almost all the 
company present; all, I believe, except Professor Boyd Dawkins 
and myself. The attention of some forty or fifty people—not all 
amateurs, by any means—was called by the director to some irregu- 
larities of bedding in the massive Keuper sandstones, as indicating 
the line of unconformity between them and the Old Red Sandstone, 
by that overlap, which we know to be of frequent occurrence. It 
was nothing of the sort; for after most of the company had been 
hurried on, on account of the trains, Professor Boyd Dawkins and 
I made a careful observation of the true line of unconformity near 
the level of the railway-line. There the Keuper sandstones were 
seen lying horizontally upon the planed-off, upturned edges of Old 
Red sandstones and shales, furnishing as typical a case of normal 
unconformity as one could wish to see. A.. IrvinG. 


——»——— 


Museum or Practican GroLtocy.— We are glad to hear that the 
Museum of Practical Geology will not be closed in future during 
cleaning. So many people from the country are up in town this 
time of year that we are surprised that such a sensible concession 
has been so long delayed. The Museum in future will be open 
all the year round. 


No. 484. 


Decade V.—Vol. IL—No. X. 


THE 


GHOLOGICAL MAGAZINE 


Sitonthly Jounal of Geology. 


WITH WHICH IS INCORPORATED 


“THE GERHOLOGIST.” 


EDITED BY 


HENRY WOODWARD, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., &c. 


ASSISTED BY 


WILFRID H, HUDLESTON, F.R.8., &c., Dr. GEORGE J. HINDE, F.R.S., &., anv 
HORACE B. WOODWARD, F.R.S., &c. 


OCTOBER, 1904. 


GO. sera, eS. 


I. OrrernaL ARTICLES. 
1. The Genus Desorella. By Hunry 
Woops, M.A., F.G.S. (Plate 
XVI and Text-figure.) ......... 

2. The Barypoda, a new Order of 
Ungulate Mammals. By C. W. 
Anprews, D.Se., F.G.S8. ...... 

3. The Zone of Marsupites in the 
Chalk near Croydon. By GEorGE 

dq Lebasmyes JEnsID 5 Anatase ceneea 


4. The Penzance Harthquake. By 
Cuartes Davison, S8&e.D, 
IP CrSo (CNVaMEO Gy WWlEHO.)) oecoceen 


5. Two Cephalopods from North- 
West India. By G. C. Cricx, 
F.G.S. (With a Section and 
5 Text-figures.) 

6. The Dolomites of Eastern Lowa. 
By Nicuouas KnicgHt............ 

7. Compression of the LEarth’s 
Crust. By the Rey. O. Fisurr, 
INBGAV ROE GS Satias.inc soos ss neeee 

8. The Plateau Grayels on the North 
of the Thames. By ALEXANDER 
iV GS BAY DESC 5. caacteeeee 

- 9. Patches in Mount Sorrel Granite. 
By R. H. Rastatt, B.A., F.G.S. 

10. Recent Coast Erosion in Suffolk. 
- By Joun SpruueEr, F.C.S. ...... 


11. Glaciation of Holyhead Mountain. 


By Epwarp Green.y, F.G.S. 


LONDON: DULAU & CO., 87, SOHO § 


PAGE 


481 


497 


504 


II. Nortces or Memorrs. 
Ue 


2. 


oO 


PAGE 
Titles of Papers read at the 
British Association, Cambridge. 506 
The Geology of Cambridgeshire. 
By J. KE. Marr, Sc.D., F.R.S.; 


Jemesh MEO ISOS Saocapsectoceobise 508 
- The Great Eastern Glacier. By 

Ie Wo alemarnere, IPG IS. cocsoncos 509 
. Depth of Stour Valley Drift. By 

We Wabiitakkers Han Snecceseeee 511 
. Some Cambridgeshire Wells. By 

We Wihitalen sHaRe Sit sceroncres 511 
. Fossiliferous Deposits in Lincoln- 

shire. By G. W. Lamplugh and 

Je AWig: SHEMINI 27 Searmancuscoumecece 512 
. Geology and Agriculture. By 

F. J. Bennett, F.G.S............. 515 


. Brief Notices of various Memoirs 517 


II. 


Reviews. 
History of the Natural History 
Branch of the British Museum. 


NOT ea aasiisen ce nene eee cee 521 
IV. CorrEsPONDENCE. 
1. Rey. George Crewdson, M.A.... 524 
2. Mr. G. E. Dibley, F.G.S. ...... 525 
3. Dr. Wheelton Hind, F.G.S. ... 526 
VY. MiscreLLANzovs. 
Koliths near Ightham ............ 526 


ee 
ARE, incfit, 4 
Sean dis 
A 


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{+ The Volume for 1903 of the GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE is ready, 


price 20s. net. 


Cloth Cases for Binding may be had, price 1s. 6d. net. 


Price 1s. 6d. net. 


Robert F. Damon, 
WEYMOUTH, 


Begs to call attention to his Varied Stock of 


NATURAL HISTORY SPECIMENS, 


CONSISTING OF 


rinerals, Fossils and Recent Shells, also 
Fishes, Reptilia, Crustacea, Echinodermata, 
etc., etc., Dry and in Spirit. 


A Large Stock of Fossil Fishes. 


His COLOURED CASTS, now numbering 229, and of which 
lists can be had on application, are to be seen in all the chief 
English, Colonial, and Foreign Museums. 


All Museums should possess the following : 
&G soot 
a. An interesting set of Human Remains from 


Caves, etc. Ate a ae ee ie ome 


6. A splendid set of Models and Casts to 
illustrate the descent of the Horse a 255 Oe 


N.B.—R. F. D. desires to restrict the number of branches of 
Science represented in his Museum, and now offers for Sale his 
Entire Stock of Minerals and Recent Shells, retaining in 
future only his Geological Collections and Reproductions of famous 
Fossils; also his collections illustrating Anthropology and all relating 
to early Man—including Cabinets and Glass Cases. These two 
collections, which can be treated for singly or together, contain 
several thousand specimens, and are well worthy of examination. 


Although intending purchasers can view the above at any time, 
in order to avoid disappointment it would be advisable to give a few 
days’ notice. 


THE 


GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE. 


NEW SERIES. DECADE V. VOL. I. 
No. X.— OCTOBER, 1904. 


QiInienaswAse AsSarscGiccS. 


I. — THe Genus D2zsoreLta. 
By Henry Woops, M.A., F.G.S. 
(PLATE XVI.) 


HE genus Desorella' was founded by Cotteau in 1855 to 
include four species from the Corallian named D. icaunensis, 
D. Orbignyana, D. elata, and D. Drogiaca, and one from the 
Neocomian—D. incisa. The first and the last of these five species 
were subsequently shown to belong to the genus Pyrina, the second 
was placed by Etallon® in a new genus, Pseudodesorella, whilst the 
fourth has been referred to Hyboclypeus. So that of the five species 
originally regarded as belonging to Desorella, one only, D. elata, is 
left in that genus. Another species, described in 1862 as Desorella 
Guerangeri,> was afterwards shown to be a Pyrina. Cotteau* 
accepted these modifications, and, in 1873, gave an emended 
diagnosis of the genus, naming as the type Desorella elata, and 
describing another species, D. Grasi. M. Jules Lambert is of the 
opinion that Pachyclypeus semiglobus (Goldfuss*) should be placed 
in the genus Desorella. 

All the specimens of Desorella elata and D. Grasi which have yet 
been described are in the form of internal moulds, consequently the 
characters of the genus have been hitherto only imperfectly known, 
so that there was some justification for Duncan’s remark, “This is 
now a very unsatisfactory genus.”° The description of Desorella 
given below is based on a specimen with the test preserved which 
was found in the Corallian of Upware. An examination of this 
specimen supports the view that Desorella is closely allied to 
Pyrina, from which it is readily distinguished by its depressed and 
suborbicular form. Duncan® placed Desorella in the Nucleolitide, 

1 Originally Desoria. 

2 F'tudes paléont. Terr. Jurass. du Haut-Jura, pt. ii (1859), p. 16. 

3 Cotteau: Rev. et Mag. de Zool., ser. 11, vol. xiv (1862), p. 193. 

4 Paléont. Frang. Terr. Jur., vol. ix, pp. 333, 384. 

® Desor: Synopsis E’chin. Foss. (1857), p. 195, pl. xxxvii, figs. 3, 4. Cotteau: 
Paléont. Frang. Terr. Jur., vol. ix (1873), p. 390, pl. ci. Desor & De Loriol: 
E’chinol. Helvet. Jurass. (1871), pp. 300, 405, pl. xlvi, fig. 6. 


§ “ Revision of the Kchinoidea’’?: Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool., vol. xxiii (1889), 
p- 179. 


DECADE V.—VOL. I.—NO. X. 28 


480 Henry Woods—The Genus Desorella. 


but as of uncertain position. The simple ambulacra and elongate 
apical disc clearly separate it from that family. There can, I think, 
be no doubt that it should be referred to the HWchinoneide, as was 
done by Desor, De Loriol, and Cotteau. Desorella is also related 
to Hyboclypeus, but is distinguished from it by the absence of 
a dorsal sulcus. 


DeEsoRELLA ELATA (Desor). (Plate XVI.) 


Synonymy. 


1847. Hyboclypus elatus, Desor: in Agassiz & Desor, ‘‘ Catal. raisonné des 
E’chinides,”’ Ann. Sci. nat., ser. 11, vol. vii, p. 152. 

1855. Desoria elata, Cotteau: E’chin. Foss, de l’Yonne, vol. i, p. 228, pl. xxxiv, 
figs. 1-3 (Desoreila on p. 344). 

1855. Desoreila elata, Cotteau: Bull. Soc. géol. France, ser. 11, vol. xii, p. 718. 

1857. Desorella elata, Desor: Synopsis H’chin, Foss., p. 194. 

1873. Desorella elata, Cotteau: Pal. Frang. Terr. Jur., vol. ix, p. 386, pls. xeviii, 
xeix, figs. 1, 2. 

Description.—Test large, subcircular, subrostrate and slightly 
truncate posteriorly, flattened, aboral surface regularly convex, 
margins rounded. Apex slightly posterior to the centre. Base 
concave, distinctly undulating; peristome sub-pentagonal, oblique, 
placed a little in front of the centre. Periproct large, ovate, at the 
posterior end and extending to the margin of the aboral surface ; 
dorsal .suleus absent, the test depressed around the lower part of 


the periproct. 


Fie. 1.—Apical dise of specimen shown in Plate XVI. x 3. 


Apical disc elongate, slightly depressed, all the plates bearing 
small granules. Anterior ocular indistinctly shown. Madreporic 
plate large, in contact with the left anterior genital, which is divided 
into two parts. Right antero-lateral ocular smaller than the left, 
and separated from it by a large, nearly hexagonal, complementary 
plate which touches, in front, the madreporic plate and the left 
anterior genital plate. Postero-lateral genitals large, separated 


GEOL. MAG. 1904. 


Desorella elata (Desor). 


Corallian: Upware, near Cambridge. 


Nat. 


size. 


Dec. V, Vol. I, Pl. XVI. 


Dr. C. W. Andrews—A new Order of Ungulate Mammals. 481 


from the anterior genital plates by the antero-laterals and the 
anterior complementary plate. Another large complementary plate, 
which is elongate and hexagonal, separates the postero-lateral genitals. 
The posterior oculars are small, the left being larger than the right ; 
between them comes the posterior genital, of which the posterior 
boundaries are indistinctly seen. 

Ambulacra not petaloid. The pores of each pair are slightly 
oblique, the outer being aboral to the inner. The inner pore is 
rather larger than the outer. On each plate one or more small, 
sunken tubercles, which are perforate, increnulate, scrobiculate, and 
well-spaced. Between the tubercles are many granules. 

Interambulacra broad, the postero-laterals being rather larger 
than the antero-laterals. Plates with many tubercles and granules 
similar to those of the ambulacra. 

The specimen was found in the Coralline Oolite of the lower 
part of the south quarry at Upware, and is now preserved in the 
Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge. The genus has not hitherto been 
recorded in England. The types of Desorella elata came from the 
Lower Corallian (Calcaire & chailles) of Yonne. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVI. - 


Desorella elata (Desor). Corallian: Upware, Cambridgeshire. Aboral and posterior 
views. Natural size. 


IJ. — Nore on rue Barypopa, A NEW ORDER OF UNGULATE 
MamMALs. 


By C. W. Anprews, D.Sc., F.G.S., British Museum (Natural History). 


N a notice published on page 160 of the present volume it was 
suggested that Arsinoitherium, of which a brief description was 
there given, must be placed in the order Amblypoda, constituting 
a new family, the Arsinoitheriide. Having further considered the 
evidence available, and having, moreover, had the advantage of some 
discussion on the subject with Professors H. F. Osborn and W. B. 
Scott, J have now come to the conclusion that Arsinoitherium differs 
from the Amblypoda in so many points that it seems necessary to 
refer that remarkable mammal to a new subdivision of the Ungulata 
of equal value with the Amblypoda and Proboscidea, to both of 
which a certain degree of relationship may exist. For this new 
order the name Barypoda is proposed, in allusion to the massive 
character of the limbs in the species at present known. The 
existence of two orders so marked as the Proboscidea and the 
Hyracoidea in the Hocene beds:of Egypt, and their absence at that 
period from the rest of the world (with the possible exception of 
South America), at least make it seem likely that in an area so 
isolated there were other equally distinct groups which died out 
before circumstances became favourable to allowing them to pass 
over to other regions. That Arsinoitherium may be the repre- 
sentative of such an order is probable, for its great size and 
highly specialised character point to its being the closing member 
of a long line, of which the earlier forms are at present quite 


482. Dr. G. J. Hinde—Discovery of Marsupites, ete. 


unknown, and must be sought in earlier horizons in the Ethiopian 
region. 

The chief characters of the Barypoda are :—Full eutherian dentition 
without diastemata ; molars bilophodont, a character probably pro- 
duced by the infolding of the ectoloph of increasingly hypselodont 
teeth. In Arsinoitherium the molars are extremely hypselodont. 
Premolars differ widely from the molars. In the skull the occipital 
surface is strongly inclined forwards, and there are palatal and nasal 
horns, the latter of enormous size in Arsinoitherium. The orbits 
are open posteriorly. An alisphenoid canal is present. The brain 
cavity is relatively much larger than in the Amblypoda. 

There is no entepicondylar canal in the humerus, and no third 
trochanter in the femur. 

The fore-foot is much like that of the Proboscidea; thus the 
metacarpals alternate to the same extent as in Hlephas, and the 
scaphoid is closely similar. In correlation with the fact that 
the radius is much smaller than the ulna, the difference in size 
being greater than in Hlephas, the cuneiform is large and seems to 
have overlapped the magnum, while the scaphoid is relatively small- 

The hind-foot differs widely from the Proboscidean type and 
approaches that of the Amblypoda. The astragalus and calcaneum 
both bear large fibular facets. The low and broad astragalus 
articulates distally with the navicular and cuboid, the latter having 
only a small surface of contact with the calcaneum. There was 
probably a small tibiale. 

The feet were no doubt pentadactyl, the metapodials being short 
and stout. From the form of the calcaneum it seems probable that 
the heel sometimes rested on the ground. 

The systematic position of the other genus, Barytherium, is still 
doubtful. It is clear that, from the character of its dentition, it 
cannot come within the limits of the Barypoda as above defined ; 
moreover, as far as can be judged from the distal end of the radius, 
the carpal structure must have been widely different from both 
that of the Barypoda and Proboscidea, and was more similar to 
that of the Dinocerata. The humerus is of a most remarkable 
form, and its peculiar character indicates that possibly the fore- 
limb was used for digging or burrowing. For the present it will 
perhaps be safest to place this genus quite provisionally in a sub- 
division of the Amblypoda, the Barytheria, equivalent in value to 
the Dinocerata. 


III.—On tue Zone or W4rsvrrres 1x tHE Cuatk at BEDDINGTON, 
NEAR Croypon, SuRREY. 


By Grorcr Jennines Hinpg, Ph.D., F.R.S. 


(* hearing that Mr. G. E. Dibley, F.G.S., had exhibited at the 
June meeting of the Geologists’ Association some test-plates 
of Marsupites from the Chalk of a new road near Russell Hill, 
I made inquiries of him, and he most kindly told me the particular 
locality where he and others had obtained these fossils. As the 
place was within an easy walk of my home, I visited it, in company 


Dr. G. J. Hinde—Discovery of Marsupites, ete. 483 


with the younger members of my family, on an evening in June, 
and found, as Mr. Dibley had told me, that the greater part of the 
Chalk had been refilled into the sewer-trench, and the residue had 
been spread over the roadway and was now partly trodden down 
by the traffic. We patiently broke a number of the remaining 
blocks of chalk, and, in spite of the fact that Mr. Dibley had already 
carefully worked at the place, succeeded in finding not only a couple 
of plates of Iarsupites with Echinocorys scutatus, etc., but also some 
smaller inconspicuous plates which, when cleaned from the matrix, 
proved to be test-plates of the unstalked, free-swimming crinoid, 
Uintacrinus, Grinnell. These showed the existence at this place of 
the lower portion of the Marsupites-zone, which has been designated 
by Dr. Rowe’ the “ Band of Uintacrinus.” 

Since last June another trench for sewerage, more than a mile 
in length, and from 20 to 25 feet in depth, has been in course of 
excavation along the northern half of Plough Lane, a road leading 
from Purley to Beddington, to which I have made repeated visits 
during the last two months, searching the Chalk exposed throughout, 
and the subjoined list gives the names of the fossils obtained. 

The southern end of the trench is situated at the summit-level 
of the Chalk ridge between Purley and Beddington, where the new 
road mentioned above (known as Peak Hill Road) is given off, and 
it is about 200 yards south of the Keeper’s Cottage, shown on the 
6 inch Ordnance Map. The summit is about 325 feet above O.D., 
and from it there is a gentle slope towards the north, in the direction 
of Beddington as far as where Plough Lane is crossed by the 
Stafford Road, leading to Croydon, at a level of 193 feet O.D., and 
at this point the trench stops. The entire area is included in the 
boundary of Beddington parish. - 

At the summit-level of the ridge the Chalk is near the surface, 
being only covered by a few inches of brownish sandy soil, but 
lower down the northern slope it gradually passes beneath beds 
of brownish sandy loam, shown in the trench to a depth of 3-4 feet, 
which represent the lower portion of the Eocene Thanet Sand, and 
between the sandy loam and the Chalk there is in places a thin layer 
of the unworn, green-coated flints, known as the Bull’s Head bed. 
The dip of the Chalk from the summit towards the north is probably 
about the same as that of the general slope of the surface. As far 
as can be seen, the Chalk in the Plough Lane trench is of the same 
soft, white character throughout; it contains but a moderate number 
of black, solid, nodular flints, with a thin white crust, which, I am 
informed, are principally from one layer, but small nodules are 
occasionally present elsewhere in the beds. 

Fossils are very inequally distributed in this Chalk; in some 
parts of the section they are fairly common, whilst in others one 
may split open a number of blocks without finding any. The list 
given below is by no means complete, for the Microzoa have not 
‘been worked out. In determining the various forms I wish to 


1 Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. xvi (1900), p. 291. 


484 


Dr. G. J. Hinde—Discovery of Marsupites, etc. 


acknowledge the assistance freely given to me by my friend 
Mr. E. T. Newton, F.R.S., of the Jermyn Street Museum, by 
Dr. Bather, Mr. R. B. Newton, and Mr. W. D. Lang, of the 
British Natural History Museum, and by Mr. C. D. Sherborn. 


List or Fosstts. 


PLANTS. 


Linear markings resembling the foliage 
of Pinus, Mant. R.! 


SPONGIDA. 


Cephalites longitudinalis, T. Smith. R. 
Pharetrospongia Strahani, Sollas. R. 
Plinthosella squamosa, vy. Zitt. C. 
Plocoscyphia convoluta, T. Smith. C. 


sp. C. 

”” 

Porosphera globularis, Phill. C. 
Bs nuciformis, v. Hag. C. 


5 patelliformis, Hinde. R. 


ACTINOZOA. 


Parasmilia centralis, Mant. R. 
aA granulata, Dune. R. 


ECHINOIDEA. 
Cidaris hirudo, Sorig. (spine). R. 
»>  perornata, Forbes (spine). R. 
Cyphosoma Koenigi, Mant. (spine). R. 
Echinocorys scutatus, Leske. 


55 - yar. pyramidatus, 


iRortlee Ce 
53 re var. striatus, Lam. 
Re 


Galerites globulus, Desor. R. 
Micraster cor-anguinum, Leske. RK. 


CRINoOIDEA and ASTEROIDEA. 


Asteroidea (marginal ossicles). C. 
Bourgeticrinus ellipticus, Miller. R. 

55 sp. (nipple-shaped). R. 
Marsupites testudinarius, Mill. C. 
Uintacrinus sp. C. 


ANNELIDA. 


Serpula ampullacea, Sow. R. 
»,  turbinella, Sow. C. 


CRUSTACEA. 


Bairdia subdeltoidea, Minst. 
Pollicipes glaber, Roem. R. 
Scalpellum maximum, Sow. RK. 


Ponyzoa. 
Actinopora papyracea, V Orb. 
Berenicea polystoma, Roem. 
»  reguaris, d’Orb., var. elliptica,. 
Greg. 
Eschara Lamarcki, Hag. 
Proboseina radiolitorwm, @ Orb. 

»,  anomala, Reuss. 
Stomatopora granulata, Milne Ed. 
Spinipora Dixon. 

BraACHIOPODA. 
Kingena lima, Detr. KR. 
Rhynchonella plicatilis, Sow. KR. 
Terebratulina Rowei, Kitchin. RK. 

3 striata, Day. 
LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. 

Exogyra sp. 
Inoceramus Cuvieri, Sow. C. 
Ostrea vesicularis, Sow. C. 

», Wegmanniana, VOrb. C. 
Pecten cretosus, Detr. R. 
Plicatula sigillina, Woody. 
Spondylus latus, Sow. RK. 

i spinosus, Sow. C. 

GASTEROPODA. 
Hipponyx Dixoni, Desh. R. 


CEPHALOPODA. 

Ammonites leptophyllus, Sharpe. R. 
Actinocamax granulatus, Blainy. 

a verus, Miller. R. 

Piscts. 

Corax faleatus, Ag. 
Enchodus sp. 
Lanna ? 


Notes on THE FossIts. 


Plante. — The only plant-remains found belong to the species 
figured by Mantell as resembling the leaves of Pinus (Geology of 


Sussex, 1822, p. 157, pl. ix, figs. 2 
have been properly described and named. 


north end of the road section. 


rae). 


I am not aware that they 
They were found at the 


Spongida.—Siliceous sponges are very abundant, and there appears: 


to be a band of the rock filled with their remains. 


Their skeletons- 


1 R. = rare; C. = common. 


Dr. G. J. Hinde—Discovery of Marsupites, etc. 485 


are now replaced by iron peroxide, and consequently they are in 
bad preservation. In addition to the species recognized, there are 
fragments of Tetractinellid, Lithistid, and Hexactinellid forms, but 
too imperfect even for generic identification. Calcisponges are not 
so common, but are better preserved. Porosphera is represented by 
specimens from 2 to 18 mm. in diameter. 

Echinoidea.—Echinocorys scutatus, var. pyramidatus, is the pre- 
dominant sea-urchin, and it occurs throughout the section, but more 
abundantly in association with Marsupites. The large depressed or 
dome-shaped form of £. scutatus, the var. striatus, is less common. 
Micraster cor-anguinum occurs at both ends of the section, but it is 
somewhat rare. Galerites globulus is rare, and I have only met with 
it near the south end of the trench. Galerites albogalerus (=conicus) 
does not seem to be present in the road section, though it is not 
uncommon in the Chalk of a road cutting a little further to the south 
of the present one. 

Asteroidea.—The detached marginal ossicles of this group are 
present in all parts of the section, and they probably belong to 
several species. . 

Bourgeticrinus ellipticus.—The cylindrical and barrel-shaped stem- 
joints are frequent; usually single, but occasionally two are con- 
nected together; the heads of this species are rare. The peculiar 
nipple-shaped heads of another species of Bourgeticrinus, figured by 
Dr. Rowe,! but apparently not yet named, are occasionally found. 
Dr. Rowe states that he has not found this form outside the 
Marsupites-zone. 

Marsupites testudinarius.—Detached plates of the test occur in 
various parts of the road section; they are fairly numerous at the 
higher south end between the Keeper’s House and the end of the 
trench, and also near the north or Beddington end, below the New 
Barn Farm, whilst in some of the intermediate portions, where 
Uintacrinus plates are abundant, I have failed to find any of 
Marsupites. No complete specimens have as yet been discovered 
in this Chalk, but not unfrequently several plates occur in close 
proximity, as if they had belonged to a single individual. There 
are notable differences in the size and ornamentation of the plates 
from different parts of the section; thus, at the south end the plates 
are large and thick, reaching a maximum of 32 mm. in width, and, 
as a rule, they are strongly ribbed or striated, whilst those met with 
at the northern end are relatively thin and not over 14 mm. in 
width, and their upper surfaces are quite smooth, with occasionally 
a low fold near the margins. The brachial joints of Marsupites are 
rare, they are considerably larger than those of Uintacrinus, and they 
differ also in form and in the ornamented exterior surface. 

Uintacrinus sp.—The irregularly polygonal plates of the test are 
fairly numerous, more particularly in those parts of the road section 
between the Keeper’s House and the New Barn Farm, where 
Marsupites seems rare or absent. Only single detached plates are 


1 Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. xvi (1900), p. 297, pl. vill, fig. 6. 


486 Dr. G. J. Hinde—Discovery of Marsupites, ete. 


found ; they range from 4 to 10 mm. in width. The horseshoe-shaped 
brachial plates or joints are, as one may suppose, more abundant 
than the test-plates ; in some cases several occur in a series as if 
belonging to the same arm; they range from 2 to 6 mm. in width. 
Some of these small brachial joints closely resemble those of 
U. socialis, Grinnell, from the Chalk of Kansas, as figured by 
Dr. Bather,! and others correspond as closely with those of U. West- 
falicus, Schl., from Recklinghausen, in Westphalia, as shown in 
Schliiter’s figures.2 Whether the forms in our English Chalk 
belong to either of the above or to a distinct species is, at present, 
an open question. 

Polyzoa.—In addition to the species named in the list, which have 
been determined by Mr. W. D. Lang, there are several species of 
Cheilostomata not yet worked out. 

Brachiopoda. —'This group is very poorly represented in the 
Beddington section; I have only seen single examples of each of 
the four species in the list. 

Lamellibranchiata.—These are more numerous than the Brachiopods. 
Inoceramus is common in places, and large but imperfect examples 
occur; small forms of Ostrea are distributed generally. Spondylus 
spinosus is not infrequent, and large, well-preserved specimens are 
met with. 

Ammonites leptophyllus is represented by an impression, on a block 
of chalk, of a portion of the septal sutures of an individual which, 
in Mr. Crick’s opinion, may have been from 2 to 3 feet in diameter, 
corresponding with those present in the Marsupites zone near 
Margate. It was found at the southern end of the road section 
near the Keeper’s House. 

Actinocamax verus.—I only obtained a fragmentary specimen, 
which was determined by Mr. Crick. It came from near the New 
Barn Farm, about midway in the road section, where Uintacrinus 
plates are abundant. Two specimens of A. granulatus were found 
by Mr. W. M. Holmes at the higher south end of the trench. 

Pisces.—In addition to the teeth named in the list, the Chalk 
throughout this road section contains great numbers of the scales 
and bones of small fishes, and one can hardly break up a block 
without meeting with them, either scattered singly or in small 
groups of irregularly commingled and compressed bones and scales, 
without showing any definite outlines of the fish to which they 
belonged. The fishes were evidently small, and, judging from the 
number of their remains, they must have swarmed in the sea of 
the period. 

The fossils present in this Plough Lane road cutting prove 
unmistakably that the Chalk in this part of Beddington belongs to 
the zone of Marsupites and that the Uintacrinus band is also well 
represented. It may also reasonably be inferred that this zone will 
be found on the same line of strike in South Croydon, where indeed 


! Proc. Zool. Soe., 1895, pl. liv, figs. 2-138. 
* Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges., xxx (1878), pl. iv. 


Dr. C. Davison—The Penzance Earthquake. 487 


its presence has already been anticipated.' There appears to be 
a very close resemblance in the characters of this zone at Beddington 
and those of the corresponding zone in the coast sections near 
Margate, so well described by Dr. Rowe.? With hardly an exception 
the same characteristic fossils enumerated by Dr. Rowe and a definite 
sponge bed are present in both. 

Hitherto the highest Chalk in this part of the county has been 
considered to belong to the zone of Iicraster cor-anguinum, and in 
the third volume on the Cretaceous Rocks of Britain, lately issued, 
it is stated (p. 179) that in the eastern part of Surrey the zone 
of Marsupites is either concealed beneath the Eocene or more 
probably was removed from the summit of a low anticlinal flexure, 
formed and eroded before the deposition of the Tertiaries.* Professor 
Barrois included the Purley beds of Caleb Evans in the zone of 
Marsupites, but no specimens of this crinoid have ever been found 
in them, and it is probable that there is a considerable thickness 
of Chalk between them and the Chalk of the Beddington ridge in 
which this fossil abounds. 


IV.—Tue Penzance Harraquake or Marcy 38, 1904. 
By Cuartrs Davison, Sc.D., F.G.S. 


URING the last fifteen years slight earthquakes have occurred 
in Cornwall on eight occasions, the dates being Oct. 7, 1889 ; 
Mar. 26, 1891; May 16 and 17, 1892; Jan. 26,1896; and Mar. 29, 
April 1 and 2, 1898. The Pembroke earthquakes of Aug. 18, 1892 
(0.24 and 1.40 a.m.), and Nov. 2, 1893, and the Hereford earthquake 
of Dec. 17, 1896, were also felt in the county. Local earth-shakes, 
probably connected with mining. operations, occur occasionally, as 
on June 4 and 10, 1902. Under the same heading should perhaps 
be included the shock of Aug. 27, 1895, near Blisland, which I was 
led to class as seismic on account of its very elongated, though 
small, disturbed area.* 

The Penzance earthquake of March 3, 1904, occurred at about 
1.5 p.m.° Isoseismal lines of intensities 5 and 4 are represented on 
the accompanying map, and these show at a glance that the 
epicentre was submarine. Little more than half of each curve 
traverses the land, and the form of the remaining portions over the 
sea-area can only be conjectured from their trend before leaving the 
land. If, however, the isoseismal 5 be completed, the centre of 
the curve must be close to a point (indicated by a cross on the map) 
in lat. 50° 4:2’ N., long. 5° 27-6’ W., or about 33 miles south of 
Marazion. This curve is 135 miles long, and probably 10 miles 


1 Journ. Roy. Micros. Soc., 1904, p. 7. 

2 Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. xvi (1900), pp. 294-301. 

3 Terrain crétacé supérieur de |’ Angleterre et de l’Ivlande, 1876, p. 139. 

4 Guo. Maa., Dec. IV, Vol. VII (1900), pp. 164-5. 

5 The following account is based on 76 records from 46 places, and 13 negative 
xecords from 12 places. The cost of the inquiry was defrayed from a grant received 
from the Government Research Fund. 


488 Dr. C. Davison—The Penzance Earthquake. 


wide and 110 square miles in area. The isoseismal 4 is 19 miles 
long, about 154 miles wide, and 230 square miles in area, its 
distance from the preceding isoseismal towards the north being 
24 miles. The longer axes of the isoseismals are directed from 


p 
2 
‘u 
a 


Porthleven 


Clowance 
oO 


9 


Scale of Miles 


a Marazton 


° 
Penlee Pt 


Zennor 
Penzance 


Map of Earthquake-area near Penzance, Cornwall. 


Sennen 


a few degrees north of east to a few degrees south of west. The 
earthquake was also observed at a few places outside the isoseismal 4, 
the sound being heard at Clowance, Sennen, St. Just-in-Penwith, 


Dr. C. Davison—The Penzance Earthquake. 489) 


and Zennor, which are respectively 4, #, 1, and 14 miles from the 
curve, and a slight shock being also felt at Clowance, Sennen, and 
Zennor. 

The shock consisted of a single series of vibrations, which 
gradually increased in intensity and then faded away, the average 
of 11 estimates of the duration being about 4 seconds. The sound, 
as is usual in slight earthquakes, was heard by all the observers. 
In 18 per cent. of the descriptions it is compared to passing vehicles, 
in 22 per cent. to thunder, in 2 to wind, in 3 to the fall of a load 
of stones, in 2 to the fall of a heavy body, in 52 to explosions or the 
firing of a heavy gun, and in 2 per cent. to miscellaneous sounds. 
Thus, in 58 per cent. of the records, the type of comparison 
employed is one of short duration. The beginning of the sound 
preceded that of the shock in 58 per cent. of the records, coincided 
with it in 48, and followed it in 4 per cent.; while the end of the 
sound preceded that of the shock in 2 per cent. of the records, 
coincided with it in 74, and followed it in 24 per cent. ‘The 
duration of the sound was greater than that of the shock in 58 
per cent. of the records, and equal to it in 42 per cent. 

From the above account, it will be seen that the disturbance 
possesses some resemblance to those which are either wholly or 
partially artificial in their origin. In particular, the brevity of the 
sound, as shown by the frequent comparison to explosions of various 
kinds, is suggestive of heavy gun-firing from a ship about three 
or four miles south of Marazion. Several correspondents, however, 
state that no battleships were in the bay on March 3; and I am 
indebted to the Secretary of the Admiralty for the information that 
“there is no record of any firing having occurred in that locality 
on the day in question.” 

Nor can the disturbance be connected with a fault-slip precipitated 
by mining operations. For though, as Mr. Clement Reid kindly 
informs me, there are old workings under the sea near Marazion, 
Penzance, and Penlee, none of these is in the required position. 
And, moreover, the isoseismals are farther apart, and the disturbed 
area larger, than is usually the case with such an origin. 

It may therefore be concluded, I think, that the observed 
phenomena were not due to artificial causes, but rather to a slip, 
three or four miles in length, along a submarine fault about 8 miles 
south of Marazion. In several ways—especially in the small 
disturbed area, the closeness of the isoseismals, and the brevity of 
the sound —the Penzance earthquake resembles an after - shock 
of a moderately strong earthquake, and it is probable that the 
focus was situated at no great depth. The exact direction of the 
earthquake-fault is somewhat uncertain, owing to the incompleteness 
of the isoseismals; but it cannot have deviated widely from that of 
the lodes in the neighbourhood of Marazion. 

In an interesting paper,! Mr. Clement Reid has suggested that an 


1 «¢Qn the probable occurrence of an Eocene outlier off the Cornish Coast”: 
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. lx (1904), pp. 113-117. 


490 G. C. Crick—Cephalopods from N.W. Indian Frontier. 


Eocene basin may lie under the sea in Mount’s Bay and the western 
part of the English Channel. It is by no means impossible that 
the last of the series of movements resulting in the formation of 
the suggested basin was that which caused the recent Penzance 
earthquake. 


V.—Nore on Two CEPHALOPODS OBTAINED BY Lieut.-Con. SKINNER, 
R.A.M.C., From THE VALLEY OF THE TocHr RIVER ON THE NORTH- 
WEST FRONTIER OF INDIA. 


By G. C. Crick, F.G.S., of the British Museum (Natural History). 


IJ\HE valley of the Tochi River is an outlying corner of the British 
Empire in India forming a portion of Waziristan, the boundary 
of which was delineated in 1894-5 by an Anglo-Afghan Commission 
from the Afghan provinces of Khost on the north and Birmul on 
the west... Mr. F. H. Smith, of the Geological Survey of India, 
accompanied this Commission as geologist, and his observations “ On 
the Geology of the Tochi Valley’ were published in 1895 in the 
“Records of the Geological Survey of India” (vol. xxxviii, pt. 3, 
pp- 106-110, pl. iii). On p. 109 he says:—“The range of hills 
between Idak and Miran Shah? is formed by an anticlinal ridge 
which approximately strikes north and south, and which is composed 
of these lower eocene beds. In the core of the anticlinal a con- 
siderable thickness of massive dark grey limestone is exposed, in 
which I could find no fossil remains; the age of this limestone is 
therefore doubtful, and there is no evidence of any kind to show 
whether it belongs to the lowest tertiary or upper mesozoic age.” 

In 1897 the Tochi Valley was visited by an expedition sent there 
to avenge an assault upon our troops that was made at Maizar in 
June of that year by the Madda Khel, a section of the tribe of the 
Darwesh Khel Waziris who inhabit the locality. Major (now 
Lieut.-Col.) B. M. Skinner, R.A.M.C., who accompanied this 
expedition, was fortunate enough to obtain from the anticlinal ridge 
referred to by Mr. Smith, besides several fragments of coral, the 
two Cephalopods (an Ammonoid and a Belemnite) which form the 
subject of the present note. 

The information accompanying the Ammonoid (No. 213) is as 
follows:—‘ Derived: found in the Alveolina limestone at Miram Shah, 
E. of Dandi plain”; whilst the locality of the Belemnite (No. 225) 
is recorded as ‘EH. of Miram Shah, halfway to Idak.” The portion 
of Mr. Smith’s section referring to this locality is reproduced in the 
accompanying figure, and Lieut.-Col. Skinner has been so good as 
to indicate on the section the localities of his fossils. The fragments 
of coral were found at the spot marked a; the Ammonoid was 
obtained from the débris in the neighbourhood of the limestone at 0; 
whilst the Belemnite was found zn siti at the point marked d. At 
the spot marked ¢ Lieut.-Col. Skinner tells me that he observed in 


' See Major (now Lieut.-Col.) B. M. Skinner, R.A.M.C., ‘‘ The Valley of the 
Tochi River,”’ Science Gossip, November, 1899, pp. 163-4. 
2 Also spelt Miram Shah. 


G. C. Crick—Cephalopods from N.W. Indian Frontier. 491 


the rock a huge branching coral which it was quite impossible for 
him to extract. 

Although the fossils are very frag- 
mentary and difficult satisfactorily to 
determine, they are of great importance yj 
as showing the Mesozoic age of the rocks 
forming the core of the anticlinal between 
Miram Shah and Idak. 

The Belemnite (see Text- figure 1, 
p: 492) is partially imbedded in a light 
greenish-grey, in places buff-coloured 
limestone, and its exposed surface has 
been very much weathered. It was found 
in siti at a spot which Lieut.-Colonel 
Skinner describes as ‘‘ EH. of Miram Shab, 
halfway to Idak,” and which is marked d 
on the section reproduced herewith. The 
specimen is about 47mm. long, but has 
been broken across, and the two parts, 
20 and 27mm. long respectively, have 
been so dislocated that they are now some 
5 or 6mm. apart. The smaller fragment 
is part of the alveolar end, a portion of the 
alveolus being preserved. The exposed 
surface of the fossil is ventral. The 
ventral surface of the alveolar portion of 
the guard appears to have been provided 
with a median groove, but precisely how 
far this extended backward cannot be 
ascertained on account of the eroded state \\A 
of the fossil ; it was probably confined to 9-}A\ 
the alveolar region. The guard, as now \ 
preserved, is nearly circular in cross- 
section, its dorso- ventral and transverse 
diameters being each about 9 mm. ; 
allowing for the erosion of the ventral 
surface, the guard seems originally to 
have been a little compressed and nearly 
cylindrical or possibly a little fusiform. 
Unfortunately the posterior part of the 
guard is wanting. The specimen is also 
so much eroded that a definite determina- 
tion is quite impossible. 

The fragment of an Ammonoid (see Text- 
figs. 2a-d, p. 492) consists of the posterior 
part of the body-chamber. Lieut.-Col. 
Skinner’s note respecting it is as follows :— 
“ Derived, found in the Alveolina lime- 
stone at Miraém Shah, E. of Dandi plain.” ,; 
It was found in the débris in the S 


4, 4, Middle and Lower Nummulitie beds; 6, Mesozoic (?) Limestone. 


(After F. H. Smith, Records Geol. Survey India, vol. xxxvili, pt. 3, 1895, pl. ili.) 


MIRAN SHAH 


Section from Idak to Mirfin Shah. 


492. G. O. Crick—Cephalopods from N.W. Indian Frontier. 


neighbourhood of the limestone at the locality marked b in the 
section reproduced herewith. Its greatest length is 44mm.; it is 
depressed, subtrapezoidal in cross-section, and has its greatest width 
near the margin of the periphery; its dorso-ventral diameter (or 
height of the whorl) is 245 1mm., its greatest width being 84mm. 
including the ribs, or 62 mm. excluding the ribs. Although con- 
siderably eroded the specimen appears to be not quite symmetrical, 
one margin of the periphery being much more angular than the 
other ; consequently on one side the most prominent part of the 
whorl appears to be close to the peripheral margin, whilst on the 
other the most prominent part is at about one-third of the height of 
the whorl from the periphery. 

The shell was almost entirely evolute, and was scarcely impressed 
by the preceding whorl; the sides of the whorl are convex, sioping 


Fic. 1.-—Belemnite from Mesozoic rocks (Neocomian ?) between Miram Shah and 
Idak, Tochi River District, N.W. India. The fissure traversing the 
specimen longitudinally is of the nature of a crack and not a groove. 
Drawn from the specimen [register number C. 9296] in the British Museum 
(Natural History). 

Fic. 2.—Ammonoid (Crioceras ?) from Mesozoic rocks (Neocomian ?) between 
Miram Shah and Idak, Tochi River District, N.W. India. a, peripheral 
or ventral aspect; 4, lateral aspect; ¢, dorsal aspect; d, transverse section 


showing asymmetry of the whorl. Drawn from the specimen [register 
number C. 9297 | in the British Museum (Natural History). 


gradually from near the margin of the periphery into the umbilicus, 
the umbilical margin being imperfectly defined. The fragment 
bears six rather coarse prominent ribs, each about 2 mm. wide, 
separated by interspaces of about twice their own width. The ribs 
rise at the inner third of the lateral area, extend rather obliquely 
forward to the margin of the broad periphery, which they traverse 
ina straight course without interruption or bifurcation, or apparently 
without any flattening. The base of the body-chamber is preserved, 
and, though imperfect, gives the general form of the septal surface 
and of the suture-line. The septal surface is a little asymmetrical ; 
when the surface is viewed posteriorly the siphonal lobe is seen to 
be a little to the left of the median line. 


N. Knight—Dolomites of Eastern Iowa. 493 


The affinities of the fossil are obscure ; they seem to be with some 
forms of the comprehensive ‘genus’ Crioceras, but compared with 
-such Neocomian forms as Crioceras aegoceras, v. Koenen,’ and 
C. capricornu (Roemer),? which bear simple prominent ribs, the 
present specimen has broader, more depressed whorls, and more. 
forwardly-inclined ribs than either of these species. It bears 
a resemblance to some forms of the Upper Jurassic genus Simoceras, 
but in that genus the transverse section of the whorl is more com- 
pressed, whilst the ribs on the peripheral area are strongly curved 
forward, and the form of its septal surface is different. The last- 
mentioned character suggests affinity with the Lower Cretaceous 
forms of Douvilléiceras (D. mammillatum, D. Martinianum, etc.). On 
the whole we are inclined to refer the specimen to the ‘genus’ 
Crioceras with a query. 

As the two Cephalopods were not found at the same spot and under 
the same conditions (the Belemnite being obtained in sité, whilst the 
Ammonoid was picked up in débris on “the surface of the ground), 
it is quite possible that they are not of the same age geologically, 
although their lithological character leads one to infer that such is 
the case. They indicate, however, the existence of Mesozoic rocks, 
possibly of Neocomian age, in the anticlinal between Miram Shah 
and Idak; and now that the existence of fossils in this limestone 
has been recorded it is to be hoped that at some future time other 
Specimens may be obtained which will enable the exact age of these 
rocks to be determined. In conclusion, it may be stated that the 
fossils referred to in this note have been presented to the British 
Museum (Natural History). 


VI.—Tue Dotomitss or Hastern Iowa. 


By Nicnonas Knicur. 


HE experimental work of this investigation was done by Grace 
D. Bradshaw in the chemical laboratory of Cornell College. 
The purpose was to determine whether the silica exists in a free 
condition or is in the form of a silicate; also to ascertain whether 
the iron is in the ferrous condition as carbonate or is in the form 
of ferric oxide. The rocks abound in many parts of Jowa, and 
belong to the Niagara formation. The stratified character even 
in a small section is apparent, and the layers differ somewhat 
in composition, as shown by the varying amounts of iron visible in 
different portions. The rocks are used as building stone to manu- 
facture quicklime and in MacAdam paving. 
1. To answer the first question as to the condition of the silica 
six pairs of determinations were made as follows :— 
(a) A gram of the finely powdered rock was placed in a small 
beaker and covered with a watch-glass, a small quantity of dilute 
hydrochloric acid was added, and the carbonates were dissolved by 


1 Abhandl. d. k. Preuss. Geol. Landesanst., etc., Neue Folge, Heft 24 (1902), 
p. 328, pl. xxxvi. 
2 Tbid., p. 316, pl. xvi, figs. 1-4. 


494 NV. Knight—Dolomites of Eastern lowa. 


carefully heating to the boiling-point. The insoluble portion, which 
is the silica, was filtered off, dried in an air-bath, and the weight 
determined. 

(b) A gram of the fine powder placed in a porcelain evaporating 
dish of 100 c.c. capacity was treated with dilute hydrochloric acid 
and covered with a watch-glass. It was warmed on the water- 
bath until there was no further evolution of carbon dioxide. The 
watch-glass was removed, and the dish was kept on the water-bath 
until crystals began to appear. As the drying continued the 
substance was constantly stirred with a glass rod, until a fine dry 
powder resulted. The powder was next moistened with a few 
drops of concentrated hydrochloric acid and 20 c.c. dilute hydrochloric 
acid (equal parts concentrated hydrochloric acid and water), and 
about the same quantity of water was added. The contents of 
the dish were then filtered and the silica determined. 

The results for the two methods were as follows :— 


(a) (2) 


On(Sipercent yer 508 0°75 per cent. 
O76 5, a hse. pOKOOMe aeee 
0°81 ty Se a 0°85 5 
0°87 Ap oe sac SEL 5 
094 |. a iit Os8i) cree 
0:94 0°73 


9 


The treatment described under (b) would decompose a silicate, 
while the method under (a) would not. As the two series of results. 
are fairly concordant, the conclusion is that the silica exists as a fine 
sand disseminated through the rock. A private communication from 
W. H. Norton, of the Cornell College department of geology, states 
that he came to the same conclusion while studying the rock with 
a petrological microscope. The method described under (a) is 
simpler than (b), and the work can be done in a much shorter time. 
It is therefore to be preferred in the analysis of rock of this kind. 

2. The condition of the iron. A gram of the substance was 
introduced into a flask of 120c.c. capacity, fitted with a bulb tube 
and Bunsen valve to prevent oxidation of the iron. It was dissolved 
in dilute hydrochloric acid. A few drops of the cooled solution 
were then withdrawn with a capillary tube, placed on a watch-glass, 
and tested with a crystal of potassium ferricyanide. No suggestion 
of a blue colour resulted, showing the iron to be in the ferric 
condition. This increases the value of a rock as a building material, 
as ferrous carbonate is an unstable substance with a tendency to 
change to the ferric condition. A complete analysis of the specimen 
resulted as follows :— 


Ca Co., arts ae as aie ate ... 53°62 per cent. 
Me Cos oc abe L) Genie: Waieene soe 
Si O2 ae SAE Sera ae See eo LOIS 
AIO OR OS ee eran 0. eee eee a 2s 
Bre; Ogae! 4 GER par eee STE: eae EO 
100-00 


The specimen is nearly a true dolomite, which contains 54:35 
per cent. CaCo, and 45°65 per cent. MgCo,. This method of 


Rev. O. Fisher—Compression of the Earth’s Orust. 495 


analysis was employed:—After removing the silica according to 
(a) a grain or two of pure ammonium chloride is added to the 
filtrate to prevent the precipitation of magnesium. It is then 
heated to boiling, and a small excess of ammonia added, which 
precipitates iron and alumina. They are determined together, and 
then dissolved in the crucible with warm dilute hydrochloric acid. 
The solution is treated with caustic potash, which precipitates the 
iron and dissolves the alumina. The iron is filtered off and dis- 
carded, because it cannot be thoroughly washed from the caustic 
potash. The filtrate is slightly acidified with hydrochloric acid, 
and the alumina is precipitated with freshly prepared ammonium 
sulphide. The aluminum sulphide, when heated in a crucible, becomes 
AlzO;. The filtrate from the iron and alumina, containing the calcium 
and magnesium, was heated to boiling and precipitated with a ¢ 
solution of ammonium oxalate, care being used to avoid much excess 
of the reagent. The precipitate was allowed to stand eight or 
twelve hours before filtering. The well-washed precipitate of 
calcium oxalate, containing also a small quantity of magnesium oxalate, 
was dissolved in warm, dilute hydrochloric acid, and the solution 
was made alkaline with ammonia. This precipitates the calcium 
oxalate, and leaves the magnesium in solution. This with the main 
portion of the magnesium is precipitated as magnesium-ammonium 
phosphate, and weighed as magnesium pyrophosphate. 


VII.—On tHe Cause or Compression OF THE Hartu’s Crust.! 
By the Rey. O. Fisurr, M.A., F.G.S. 


USED to think that the corrugations of the earth’s crust were 
due to compression through the shrinking of the interior. ‘To 
judge of the sufficiency of this cause the first thing to be done is 
to seek a measure of the compression, and then to compare the 
result of the effects of cooling with the actual amount of compression. 
The most satisfactory measure appears to be the thickness of the 
layer which the corrugations would form if levelled down. The 
question then becomes one of how much. In 1863 Lord Kelvin 
(then Sir W. Thomson) formulated a law of secular cooling upon 
the hypothesis that the interior is solid. Adopting a probable 
value for the contraction of rocks in cooling, I calculated the 
thickness of the layer which would be produced by the corrugations 
resulting, and found it far short of that which the existing inequalities 
would form if levelled down. Mr. Mellard Reade and Dr. Davison 
subsequently discovered the existence of a level of no strain within 
the crust, and this greatly reduces the possible amount of corrugations. 
The conclusion at which I arrived was that, on the hypothesis of 
a solid globe, secular contraction through cooling would not account 
for the corrugations. 
Numerous phenomena suggest to the vulcanologist that the sub- 
stratum is a liquid magma holding water-gas in solution. The free 


1 Read before the British Association, Cambridge, Section C (Geology), Aug., 1904. 
DECADE V.—VOL. I.—NO. X. 29 


496 Rev. O. Fisher—Compression of the Earth’s Crust. 


yielding of the substratum is also testified by the phenomena of 
isostacy. I have therefore endeavoured to estimate the amount 
of corrugations which would be produced by a cooling globe also 
on this hypothesis. But although they would be slightly greater 
than in the case of a solid globe, they still fall far short of those 
actually existing. JI therefore argue that the corrugations of the 
crust are not due to the shrinking of the interior away from the 
cooled crust, whether we regard the interior as solid or liquid. 

If it be asked what my views are upon this vexed question, I may 
be allowed to say that I have published them fully in my “ Physics 
of the Earth’s Crust.” In it I have given reasons for believing that 
the substratum is affected by convection currents, and that these 
ascend beneath the oceans, and flowing horizontally towards and 
beneath the continents, and descending beneath mountain chains, 
are the cause of the compression of the crust, and other disturbances, 
of which we are in search. 

Before giving my reasons for believing that upward convection 
currents exist beneath oceans, it is in the first place necessary to 
combat the dictum of leading physicists that the interior of the 
earthis solid. It has been asserted that, unless the earth is extremely 
rigid, bodily tides would be produced, and that there would be no 
rise and fall of the water relatively to the land. If the earth was 
a smooth spheroid covered with a uniformly deep ocean this would 
no doubt be true. But as matters stand, the tides of short period 
are affected by local irregularities known as the establishment of 
the port. If the substratum of the crust is liquid, isostacy requires 
large protuberances of its underside, which would cause irregularities 
in the tides in the magma analogous to those in the ocean, and, 
unless these agree in time, in height, and in place, with the water 
tides, the latter will not be obscured by them, and may even be 
augmented. 

Of tides of long period the fortnightly is the most important ; 
but I think I have shown in the Appendix to my “ Physics of the 
Earth’s Crust” that it had not been proved by fifteen years 
of observation that any such tide existed,’ which would be an 
argument in favour of the liquidity of the interior. 

The peculiarities of the transmission of earthquake waves to great 
distances through the body of the earth have been appealed to, as 
approving to all, ‘except some geologists,” * that the earth is solid. 
The disturbance first arrives as a series of minute tremors. These 
have been considered to be waves of compression. They are soon 
followed by somewhat larger disturbances, which have been con- 
sidered to be waves of distortion. Since waves of distortion could 
not be propagated in a liquid, it is maintained that the earth is 
hereby proved to be solid. In reply to this argument I have shown 
that, if a liquid magma holds gas in solution, two types of waves 
will be propagated through it with different velocities. Tremors 
will first arrive due to the compressibility of the magma, and 
subsequently waves caused by the extrusion of gaseous vesicles due 


i, Bee 2 Darwin’s ‘‘ Tides,” p. 236. 


Dr. A. Irving—The Thames High-level Plateau Gravels. 497 


to the changes of pressure. If my argument is valid, that for 
solidity loses its force.? 

I will now give my reasons for thinking that the substratum, 
if a liquid, is not a still liquid, but is affected by convection currents. 

Availing myself of Sir Arthur Riicker’s observed values of the 
melting temperature and specific heat of Rowley rag, I have calculated 
that, if the substratum of the crust be a still liquid, the thickness 
of the crust comes out 22 miles, and the corresponding time since 
it began to solidify about eight million years. This is a much 
shorter time than geologists would admit. This result proves that 
the substratum is not a still liquid, and must therefore be affected 
by convection currents, bringing up heat from below and delaying 
the thickening of the crust. he existence of convection currents 
being thus, as I submit, established, I will add my reason for 
believing that they ascend beneath the oceans. 

By a somewhat complicated calculation, which, although criticised 
by Mr. Blake,” has been ably defended by Mr. Brill,? I have, I think, 
proved that the substratum beneath the oceans is less dense than 
beneath the land. This shows that the upward currents are beneath 
the oceans. I have at the same time proved that the suboceanic 
crust does not reach quite so deeply down as the continental crust, 
and that its upper layer is thin and very dense, from which I infer 
that it consists of basic lava-flows* the oxydation of which would 
afford the red clay, which covers the bottom of the deeper oceans. 

These convection currents, ascending beneath the oceans and then 
flowing horizontally towards and beneath the continents, till they 
descend, are in my opinion the cause of the compression of the 
continental crust. 


VIII.—Tse Hies-Ltevet Puareau GRAvELs ON THE Norts SIDE oF 
THE T'amIsIAN AREA, AND THEIR CONNEXION WITH THE TERTIARY 
History oF CentTraL HNGLAND.® 


By ALEXANDER Irvine, B.A., D.Sc. 


f{\HE author refers to his work in former years among the High- 
[ level Plateau Gravels south of the Thames, chiefly in Berks 
and Surrey, the results of which were given in various papers from 
ten to twenty years ago.° The present note may serve as a supple- 
ment to those papers, in which the conclusion was arrived at that 
the gravels in question were to be regarded as distinctly of riverine 
origin and, upon the whole, of Pliocene age. Occupying original 


1 Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc., 1904. 

2 Phil. Mag., 1894. 

3 Thid., 1895. 

4 «Physics of the Karth’s Crust,’’? Appendix, p. 8. 

> A paper read before the British Association, Cambridge, Section C (Geology), 
August, 1904. 

6 «<The Bagshot Strata and their Associated Gravels,’’ Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. viii 
(1883) ; ‘‘On the High Level or Plateau Gravels,’’ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 
vol. xlvi (1890) ; Lecture at Windsor on ‘‘ The Geological History of the Thames 
Valley,” Science Gossip, May and June, 1891; ‘‘ On Surface Changes in the London 
Basin,’? Grou. Mac., May, 1893. 


498 Dr. A. Irving—The Thames High-level Plateau Gravels. 


lines of drainage, they now cap the higher parts of the terrain of 
the Bagshot country, having preserved those parts from degradation, 
while the intervening portions have been removed by ordinary 
agents of denudation to form the present southern upland valley- 
system of the Thames Basin. 

This view, first propounded in 1883, was endorsed by the late 
Sir Joseph Prestwich, F.R.S., in his papers on the Mundesley 
and Westleton beds, which were given to the Geological Society 
in the year 1890. The author is not aware that that view has been 
seriously combated.' 

In the present communication the term ‘Plateau Gravels’ is 
used in the same sense as in that earlier literature of the subject 
by the author and other writers. It denotes a series of altogether 
different age from that denoted by the term as it is used in the 
Handbook to the Natural History of Cambridgeshire written for 
the use of members of the British Association at the Cambridge 
meeting of 1904. They are of pre-Quaternary age, and are overlain 
by Boulder-clay. They may be regarded as the lower stretches 
of the series which cap the higher ground of Herts and the adjoining 
counties, which was doubtless a continuous sloping plateau before 
the present trough-like valleys, such as those of the Stort and the 
upper Lea, were incised upon it.2 The term ‘plateau gravel,’ 
therefore, here, as in the case of the other series to the south of the 
Thames, seems to be appropriate. The gravels themselves repose 
upon the Tertiary strata of the district. In séructure and in their 
relation to the Eocene formations they correspond completely with 
the high-level plateau-gravels to the south of the Thames, that 
structure having been minutely described by the author in the 
papers referred to.’ But the composition of these gravels on the north 
side is totally different from that of those on the south side of the 
Thames Valley. There everything points to the derivation of the 
materials from the once much higher country formed by the Wealden 
and Kingsclere axes of elevation; here the materials are such as 
could only have come from the north or north-west. Their most 
marked characteristic is the abundance of quartzite pebbles, together 
with quartz, chert, and Lydian stone, from the Bunter of the north 
and west Midlands. Along with these rolled fragments of Millstone 
Grit, Coal-measure Sandstone, Carboniferous Limestone, Magnesian 
Limestone are of less common occurrence, while even pebbles of 
felstone and gneiss, probably from the Malvern crystallines, may be 
recognised. All these materials may have been derived immediately 
from the Bunter Sandstone as the author is acquainted with it; and 
along with these the more durable rocks of the intermediate Jurassic 
series of the Mercian area are represented, together with Belemnites 
and Grypheas rolled into pebbles; telling us that the peneplane 


1 This is now generally recognised, yet in a referee’s note to the original MS. in 
1883 it was pronounced ‘‘ new to geology and baseless ”’ ! 

2 The valley in which Much Hadham lies affords a good example of this trough- 
like form on a smaller scale. 

3 See especially ‘‘ Note on the Plateau Gravels, etc.’?: Q.J.G.S., Nov., 1890. 


Dr. A. Irving—The Thames High-level Plateau Gravels. 499 


of the Chalk extension to the north-west, across which these rivers 
flowed, had been already so deeply furrowed by them that they had 
even then begun to saw down into the Jurassic rocks. Rolled 
fragments occur of basic igneous rocks and other crystallines, the 
origin of which it is not easy to determine, though they may have 
come from Charnwood or from the igneous intrusions of Warwickshire 
and Worcestershire. Sarsens and flinty detritus are common enough 
in the gravels as well as Tertiary flint pebbles. 

Not only are these gravels much older than the Boulder-clay 
(and its equivalents), superimposed upon them, but their relation 
to the present river-drainage shows that they are older than even 
the pre-Glacial valleys of erosion in the Chalk, now buried beneath 
alluvial detritus, which has been proved by a well in the valley of 
the Stort to a depth of 170 feet; while on the watershed between 
the Stort and the Cam (also a buried valley) a well-section 
close to Hlsenham Station has proved a depth of 90 feet of drift 
before the Chalk is reached. We do not know that we have there 
reached the lowest line of the submerged valley, the original Thalweg. 

The author regards these plateau gravels as the deposits of 
Mercian rivers, which flowed through the gaps in the present 
Chalk range, such as those of Elsenham and Hitchin, towards the 
ancient arterial Tamisian line of drainage of southern England 
during the great Miocene elevation of north-western Europe, long 
before the present escarpment of the Chalk was formed, and there- 
fore before the initiation of the Mercian river-system, as it exists 
to-day with its convergence towards the Wash and the Humber. 
In one section at Stansted a fault of five feet throw cuts through 
the Chalk, the Reading Beds, and the stratified gravels, showing 
their common participation in later earth-movements, while the 
Glacial deposits above are unaffected. The author conceives these 
well-stratified and indurated gravels, splendid examples of which 
may be seen at Thorley and by the Hallingbury road on the opposite 
site of the Stort, to be the deposits of a river, at a time when the 
now buried valleys of the Stort and the Cam in the initiatory stages 
of their erosion formed perhaps one continuous channel, and before 
the axial movement took place, which has had much to do with 
differentiating the present Tamisian and Mercian systems of river- 
drainage. That movement probably dates from the close of the 
Miocene period, the corresponding subsidences to the north-west 
and south-east of the axis of anticlinal flexure being indicated by 
the ingress of the sea and the consequent Crag deposits in Hast 
Anglia on the one side, and by the northerly dip of the strata 
(with perhaps a true dip to the north-west) as seen in the cliffs 
at Hunstanton on the other side. This latter subsidence, together 
with the recession of the Chalk escarpment by denudation, 
determined probably the present system of drainage towards the 
Wash in Pliocene times. The nature of the detritus which has 
buried the ancient Stort Valley is exhibited at the present time in 
two open gravel-pit sections at Stansted on a magnificent scale, one 
on either side of the valley, the section in the largest pit showing 


500 Dr. A. Irving—The Thames High-level Plateau Gravels. 


a vertical face of forty to fifty feet. The data we possess in the 
well-sections at Elsenham and Bishop’s Stortford show a gradient 
sloping to the north of less than one degree between those two 
places, a distance of about five miles; the presumed reversal of 
drainage of the ancient Cam Valley is therefore comparatively 
a small matter. The present head-waters of the Cam and the 
Stort have doubtless been determined by later developments in 
the configuration of the country.! The absence of all traces of 
Tertiary marine deposits north of the Mercian Chalk escarpment 
furnishes evidence of the continental elevation of north-western 
Europe during Miocene time, as mapped by Professor Zittel in his 
work “Aus der Urzeit.”* But the physiographical agencies of 
nature were not suspended; and rivers gathering their head-waters 
from a much higher gathering-ground to the north-west than exists 
to-day, with contours of the land over the Mercian area furnishing 
gradients sufficient to keep their middle courses pretty free from 
detritus, could not fail to do their work in laying down extensive 
stretches of shingle on the northern slopes of the ancient Thames 
Valley, as we see it done in modern times by the floods of the 
Alpine rivers which debouch upon the plains of Bavaria in their 
course to join the upper Danube. 

Taking all the facts together, and taking into account the further 
fact that observations of them by the present writer for the last 
ten years and by other observers has failed to detect any signs of 
glaciation in these stratified gravels, even on the rolled sarsen 
blocks included in them, it seems impossible to regard them by 
any stretch of scientific imagination as ‘interglacial.’ It will be 
seen that the author’s work has proceeded on lines parallel with 
that of Dr. A. E. Salter and Mr. Osborne White, and leads to 
similar results.’ 

The differential earth-movements, which culminated in the Miocene 
continental elevation, may be traced back even to Hocene time by 
the abundant evidence that we have of the attenuation, as we work 
northwards, of the Middle and Lower Bagshot strata. High-level 
stratified gravels of a type differing from those described here are 
found, as we get away from the ancient transverse lines of drainage, 
composed chiefly of redistributed pebbles and sand of the Bagshot 
beds, of the quondam extension of which northwards we have 
evidence in a considerable outlier near Sudbury in Suffolk; but 
with these the present communication is not intended to deal. 

This short paper suggested itself as an addendum to the admirable 
lecture by Dr. J. E. Marr, F.R.S., on the Geology of Cambridgeshire 
at the meeting of the British Association at Cambridge, dealing, as 
it does, with a district only a few miles removed from the county 
boundary, physiographical relations being more important to 
geologists than such artificial limitations. 

1 Fuller details are given by the present writer in a paper read before the 
Geologists’ Association in 1897 and published in its Proceedings, vol. xv, Feb., 1898. 

* Published by R. Oldenbourg, of Munich. 

3 See Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. xiv, Aug., 1896; vol. xv, Aug., 1897. 


R. H. Rastall—Mount Sorrel Granite. 501 


IX.—On Basic Patrcues 1n tHE Mount SorreL GRANITE. 
By R. H. Rasrattz, B.A., F.G.S. 


URING a visit to Mount Sorrel at the end of last year I collected 

a number of specimens of the dark-coloured patches which 

are s0 common in the granite. I have had about a dozen of these 

sliced, and an examination of them has yielded some results which 
seem worthy of a brief description. 

These dark patches vary a good deal in character, and may be 
divided into three fairly well-defined types, as follows :— 

(1) Small black or grey, generally angular patches, without 
porphyritic felspars. 

(2) Somewhat larger and usually ovoid patches of a brown colour, 
generally enclosing felspars of porphyritic habit. 

&) Rather large black bodies, distinctly banded and often 
penetrated by parallel veins of granite, in the manner usually 
described as lit-par-lit injection. ‘These have an obvious outward 
resemblance to blocks of banded or bedded rock. 

Corresponding to this macroscopic classification are distinct 
differences in the microscopic structure, and the special character 
of each type may be shortly described. 

Type 1. The patches of this class consist essentially of felspar 
and hornblende with only a little interstitial quartz. The felspar 
is usually a plagioclase, in rather narrow lath-shaped sections, of 
the habit usual in basic intrusive rocks. The hornblende also 
occurs in small prisms, and is often chloritised; in places it has 
a distinctly ophitic character. Near the centre of the patch these 
two minerals, with a very little quartz, make up the whole 
mass, but towards the outside the crystals become more widely 
separated and are enclosed in poecilitic fashion in large plates of 
orthoclase or perthite. These are often continuous with the felspars 
of the normal granite. It is very noticeable that in such patches 
the minerals are often much decomposed, forming ‘saussurite ’ 
chlorite, epidote, and other secondary products, while the normal 
granite surrounding them is very fresh. 

Type 2. Brown patches with large pink felspars. The structure 
here is very similar to that just described, but more quartz is present ; 
the quartz is interstitial, and in parts has a sort of pseudogranophyric 
appearance. The large felspars are often much rounded and also 
show internal zones of corrosion. 

In both the black and the brown patches there are often to be 
seen large crystals of sphene of a very peculiar habit. The sphene 
is moulded on crystals of felspar, etc., in an interstitial manner, and 
in a slice numerous disconnected patches extinguish simultaneously 
over a large area. Sphene of this kind must almost of necessity 
be of secondary origin. 

Another noteworthy point is the almost total absence of biotite 
in the dark patches, although it is more abundant than hornblende 
in the normal rock. 


502 John Spiller—Coast Erosion in Suffolk. 


This part of the subject may be summed up by saying that both 
the dark grey and brown patches strongly resemble in their micro- 
scopic structure certain altered rocks of the kind commonly described 
as Diabase, and if taken alone they would be most accurately 
described as epidiorite. 

I have only one slice of the banded type of inclusion, and this 
differs entirely from those above described. It consists of an 
ageregate of flakes of strongly pleochroic brown biotite and grains 
of magnetite, enclosed in poecilitic fashion in large plates of felspar, 
which at the margin are continuous with the felspars of the 
normal granite. These plates are of variable character—orthoclase, 
microcline, or more commonly plagioclase. 

This is obviously something very different from the cases before 
described, and I am inclined to regard it as an altered slate fragment 
caught up during intrusion, and metamorphosed by the granite. 

The foregoing brief descriptions show that these dark patches 
in all cases possess some of the characters of a metamorphic rock, 
and it is even possible to form an opinion as to what the original 
rock may have been. The most promising case is what has been 
spoken of above as the ‘diabase’ type. In these the absence of 
biotite is sufficient to show that they are not mere centres of con- 
centration of the basic molecules of the magma, as they do not 
consist of the same minerals as the rest of the rock in different 
proportions. The abundance of secondary sphene is also suggestive. 

I therefore conclude that the dark patches in the Mount Sorrel 
granite are, in all cases yet examined, much altered fragments of 
other rocks caught up by the magma during intrusion, and I suggest 
that it is possible to discriminate to a slight extent between those of 
igneous and of sedimentary origin. 


X.—Recent Coast Erosion 1n SurrotK: Dunwicu to CovEeHITHE. 
By Joun Spruier, F.C.S.! 


thes communication brings up to date the record of losses on the 

Suffolk coast, and continues the report presented at the Ipswich 
Meeting, 1895, of which details were published in the GroLoGicaL 
MaGazine for January, 1896. Since that time scarcely a year has 
passed without the winter gales and high tides doing mischief at 
one or more points of the coast embraced within the above-mentioned 
limits; but whilst Lowestoft and Pakefield, Covehithe and Easton 
have all suffered very considerably, the cliffs at Dunwich remained 
until quite recently almost unaffected. 

The losses may be summed up as follows :— 


Dunwicu. 
All Saints Church ruins and graveyard.—The 48 feet of land 


" Read before the British Association, Cambridge, Section C (Geology), Aug., 1904. 


John Spiller—Coast Erosion in Suffolk. 503 


xeported by Mr. Whitaker, September, 1880,1 became 25 feet by 
the Director’s (Dr. Teall’s) measurement in August, 1902. Now 
all gone, and about 6 feet of the northern buttress of the church 
‘dropped into the sea. Total loss, 31 feet in two years. 

Footpath at Temple Hill_—At same date Mr. Whitaker says, 
“40 yards outside the wood.” The Director in 1902 made it 
38 yards, equal to 114 feet. It has now diminished to 59 feet. 
Actual loss, therefore, 55 feet in two years. 

The cliffs extending away north and south have lost more than 
this except at Misner. The lifeboat at the Coastguard Station 
cannot be used at present, for much of the shingle beach is gone 
and the boathouse left perched on a terrace. Ordinary tides reach 
the foot of the cliffs and further losses may be expected. 


WALBERSWIOCK. 


The high shingle beach is cut back all the way from Dunwich 
to the mouth of the river Blyth. 


SouTHWOLD. 


A good result has followed the lengthening of the old North Pier 
at the Harbour by 60 feet, a considerable quantity of sand and 
shingle having been thrown up; but the benefit of this extension 
does not reach to the Lifeboat House, which is practically useless 
and barricaded for further protection. It has been suggested that 
an additional 50 feet might be built on to the pier, and that the 
old jetty near the centre cliff should be reconstructed with perhaps 
an intermediate strong groyne. ‘The timber breastwork in front 
of the town has stood well since it has been continued to Buss 
‘Creek and strengthened at critical points by double piling. The 
new pier, 880 feet long, erected by the Coast Development Company 
at the North Cliff has acted like a groyne, and vastly increased the 
width of beach on both sides of it, so that the bathing station 
threatened with destruction in 1895 is better than ever. 


HAston. 


The low land extending from Buss Creek to the southern slope 
of Easton Cliff remains as before protected by a huge bank of 
shingle, but from this point onward to the Broad great losses have 
occurred. The site of the gun battery is buried out at sea, with 
the powder magazine behind it now left in ruins on the shore 
-50 feet outside the present edge of cliff. The rifle range has been 
shortened by 100 yards and a new butt constructed, so that the 
total loss may be estimated at 350 feet since 1895. The effect 
of this demolition is to bring Covehithe Ness prominently into view, 
whereas it was formerly almost invisible from Southwold. Another 
necessary consequence is that the coastline, straight in the Ordnance 
Map, has once more become curved inwards, corresponding with 


1 See Memoir of the Geological Survey, ‘‘ Southwold and the Suffolk Coast,”’ by 
W. Whitaker, F.R.S., p. 48. 


504 Hdward Greenly—Glaciation of Holyhead Mountain. 


the original Sole Bay. The seam of shelly crag at the foot of 
Easton High Cliff was uncovered a year ago for the length of 
40 yards, but is now entirely hidden by masses fallen from the cliff. 
The measures of loss (nine years) are as follows :— 


Easton Cliff, southern end ... ae ... 300 feet. 
Roadway, Haston Bavents ... ae soe) USS 
Easton High Cliff... on 


”? 
77 
dé ” 


CovEHITHE. 


Beyond Easton Broad the cliffs leading to Covehithe are con- 
stantly presenting new faces with bright yellow and pink colouring, 
suggestive of Alum Bay. The losses would probably have been 
greater but for ledges of hard sand rock projecting some 10 to 
12 feet, and acting as benches for the support of the upper 
strata. At Covehithe roadway, starting from the hedge and cliff 
barrier, frequent measurements have been taken since 1895, showing 
gradual diminution in length from 62 yards to aremnant of 19 yards. 
Total loss in nine years = 129 feet.? 


XI.—Tue Goacration or Hotyneap Mountain. 
By Epwarp GREENLY, F.G.S.? 


fJ\HE bare and rocky hill known as Holyhead Mountain is of 

considerable interest in connection with recent geological events, 
standing as it does some thirty miles out from the highlands of 
Carnarvonshire into the Irish Sea Basin; and in such remarkable 
isolation, for it is much the highest of the five hills which rise above 
the general level of the platform of Anglesey. 

Its height is only 721 feet, but so strongly featured is it, especially 
towards the west, that one feels the term ‘mountain’ to be no 
misnomer, and can hardly believe it to be really lower than many 
of our smooth wolds and downs of Oolite and Chalk. Being 
composed, moreover, of white quartzite (or more properly of 
quartzite-schist), and being so bare of vegetation, it recalls much 
more vividly certain types of scenery in the Scottish Highlands 
than anything in those Welsh mountains that one sees from its 
sides. ‘Towards the east it slopes at a moderate angle, but a little 
west of the summit it is traversed by a very strong feature, due to 
a fault, running nearly north and south, along which is a line of 
great crags, facing west, and prolonged northwards into the still 
greater sea cliffs towards the North Stack. Beyond this the land 
still remains high, but is smoother in outline, a somewhat softer 
series of rocks extending from the fault to the South Stack, where 
the high moors end off in great cliffs above the sea. 


1 The author’s communication was illustrated by maps and photographs, and 
a discussion followed as to the best means of artificial protection. 
? Read before the British Association, Cambridge, Section C (Geology), Aug., 1904. 


Edward Greenly—Gtlaciation of Holyhead Mountain. 505: 


The whole mountain is strongly rubbed and moutonnée on the 
north-east side, every boss having the characteristic outline. (The 
outline of the whole mass, indeed, is like that of a gigantic roche 
moutonnée.) On many of these surfaces, which are often polished 
and shine in the sun, the hard and enduring quartzite still retains 
fine strie, while towards sunset on a summevr’s evening they can 
be detected almost everywhere. The rocks of the South Stack 
series have not retained them so well. ‘The general direction is. 
N.E.-S. W., with local variations and deflections ranging from S. 35° W. 
to W. 40° S. A more marked deflection is S. 10° W. near the flag- 
staff above the South Stack. On the South Stack itself they run 
S.S.W., fanning out to south-west on the slope of the boss. Along 
the southern slopes of the mountain they tend to west of south-west. 

Striz cross the summit itself running 8. 40° W. The ridge at the 
summit and towards the North Stack falls steeply westward for 50 or 
100 feet before breaking into the crag and sea-cliff alluded to above,. 
and at the brow of this vertical cliff the rocks are still polished and 
traversed by striz running in the usual N.E.—-S.W. direction, in spite 
of being under the lee of some 50 or 100 feet of steep rock. 

Undercut furrows have not been observed on the mountain itself, 
but it may be worth while to note that they occur at Ffynnon 
Gorlas, on the lower ground at its eastern foot, where, also, a surface 
facing south-west and overhanging, as much as 40°, and in one place 
60°, from vertical, is rubbed and smoothed. 

The mountain proper (excluding the South Stack moors) is very 
bare of drift, but a little till occurs in the hollows, with débris 
chiefly from the eastward so far as yet recognized. Many large 
boulders of the quartzite occur on the South Stack moors. 

At the summit are many small fragments of the well-known green 
mica-schists of the neighbourhood of the town, with other erratics. 
These schists do not occur in sitt at a greater elevation than about 
220 feet; and in the direction from which the striz indicate ice- 
movement, not more than 100 feet. The fragments have therefore 
been lifted 500 feet at least, and almost certainly 600 feet, during 
their journey. 

Although it has long appeared to me that we have much to- 
learn from research in Arctic and Antarctic lands, and cannot hope 
yet to be able to explain many of the glacial phenomena of the past, 
yet a group of facts like these of Holyhead seem to be more easily 
explained by the passage of land-ice than by any other hypothesis. 

The general direction of glaciation, it may be observed, is parallel 
to that of the mainland of Anglesey so far as I have yet examined it. 

In conclusion, there are some banks and mounds on both sides. 
of the mountain, the most marked being on the south-west side, 
which have much of the appearance of moraines; and are, moreover, 
so far as I can make out, composed almost exclusively of quartzite 
débris. It would be interesting if, in spite of the comparatively 
slight elevation, one or two small local glaciers had lingered, or 
perhaps for a short time formed, upon this exposed and lonely hill. 


506 Notices of Memoirs— Titles of Papers read at 


WOTECES OFF MEMOS, are. 


i 


TI. — Brirish ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 
Seventy-FourtH ANNUAL MEETING, HELD AT CAMBRIDGE, 
Avucusr 18-24rTH, 1904. 


List oF PAPERS READ IN Section ©, Geonoey. 
AUBREY SrrauHAn, F.R.S., President. 


Presipent’s AppRESS. (See p. 449. 

Dr. J. E. Marr, F.R.S.—The Geology of Cambridgeshire. (See p.508.) 

F. W. Harmer.—The Great Eastern Glacier. (See p. 509.) 

W. Whitaker, F.R.S.—On a Great Depth of Drift in the Valley of 
the Stour, Suffolk. (See p. 511.) 

W. Whitaker, F.R.S.—Some Cambridgeshire Wells. (See p. 511.) 

H. B. Woodward, F.R.S.—Note on a small Anticline in the Great 
Oolite Series, north of Bedford. (See p. 489.) 

J. Spiller.—Recent Coast Erosion in Suffolk : Dunwich to Covehithe. 
(See p. 502.) 

J. W. Stather.—Report of the Committee on the Drift Deposits at 
Kirmington, Lincolnshire. (See p. 512.) 

Professor W. J. Sollas, F.R.S.—On the Structure of the Silurian 
Ophiurid Lapworthura Miltoni. 

Dr. B. N. Peach, F.R.S., and Dr. J. Horne, F.R.S.—The Base-line of 
the Carboniferous System round Edinburgh. 

Dr. R. H. Traquair, F.R.S.—Note on the Fish-remains recently 
collected by the Geological Survey of Scotland at Salisbury Crags, 
Craigmillar, Clubbiedean Reservoir, and Torduff Reservoir, in the 
Edinburgh District. 

Dr. R. H. Traquair, F.R.S.—On the Fauna of the Upper Old Red 
Sandstone of the Moray Firth Area. 

G. W. Lamplugh.—Note on Lower Cretaceous Phosphatic Beds and 
their Fauna. 

G. W. Lamplugh.—Marine Fossils from Ironstone of Shotover Hill. 

E. A. Newell Arber.—-On the Fossil Plants of the Upper Culm 
Measures of Devon. 

H. A. Newell Arber.—On derived Plant-petrifactions from Devonshire. 

Professor H. G. Seeley, F.R.S.—On Fossil Footprints of Reptiles 
from the Stormberg Beds of the Karroo of Cape Colony. 

Dr. J. EK. Marr, F.R.S.—Report of the Committee on Life-Zones in 
the Carboniferous Rocks. 

J. Lomas.—Report of the Committee on the Fauna and Flora of 
the Trias. 

Discussion on the Nature and Origin of Earth Movements, opened by 
the President, Dr. J. Horne, F.R.S., Professor W. J. Sollas, F.R.S., 
and Mr. J. J. H. Teall, F.R.S. 

Professor P. F. Kendall.—Evidence in the Secondary Rocks of 
persistent movement in the Charnian Range. 

Rev. W. Lower Carter.—River Capture in the Don System. 

E. Greenly.—The Glaciation of Holyhead Mountain. (See p. 504.) 

Rev. O. Fisher.—On the Elephant-trench at Dewlish, Dorset. 


British Association, Cambridge. 507 


Professor P. F. Kendall.—Report of the Committee on Hrratic Blocks. 

Professor H. Béckstrém.—On the Origin of the Great Iron Ore 
Deposits of Lappland. 

A. Harker, F.R.S.—Exhibition of specimens of Tertiary Plutonic 
Rocks (including Gneisses) from the Isle of Rum. 

E. Greenly.—The Lava-domes of the Hifel. 

Professor W. W. Watts, F.R.S.—Report of the Committee on Geo- 
logical Photographs. 

Professor H. A. Miers, F.R.S. — Concretions as the Result of 
Crystallisation. . 

&. H. Rastall.—Basic Patches in Mount Sorrel Granite. (See p. 501.) 

L. J. Spencer.—On the different modifications of Zircon. 

Rh. H. Solly.—A preliminary description of three new Minerals and 
some curious Crystals of Blende from the Lengenbach Quarry, 
Binnenthal. 

Professor K. Busz.—On the Granite from Gready, near Luxullian in 
Cornwall, and on some Contact Rocks. 

A. W. Dwerryhouse.— Report of the Committee on Underground 
Waters of North-West Yorkshire. 

Professor P. F. Kendall.—Exhibition of a Model of the Cleveland 
Area, showing Glacier-lakes. 

Rev. W. Lower Carter.—On the Glaciation of the Don and Dearne- 
Valleys. 

H. N. Davies.—On the Discovery of Human Remains under Stalag- 
mite in Gough’s Cave, Cheddar, Somerset. 

Dr. Scharff and G. W. Lamplugh.—Report of the Committee to 
Explore Irish Caves. 

J. Parkinson.—The Geology of the Oban Hills, Southern Nigeria. 

A. W. Gibb.—On the occurrence of Pebbles of White Chalk in 
Aberdeenshire Clay. 

W. G. Fearnsides and Rk. H. Rasétall.—On Boulders from the 
Cambridge District collected by the Sedgwick Club. 

Rev. Dr. Irving.—On Stratified High-level Gravels and their Relation 
to the Boulder-clay. (See p. 497.) 

J. N. Shoolbred.—Tidal Action in the Mersey in Recent Years. 

Rev. O. Fisher.—The Cause of Compression of the Earth’s Crust. 
(See p. 495.) 

Papers bearing on Geology read in other Sections :— 
Section D.—Zootoey. 

Professor W. B. Scott (Princeton, U.S.A.).—The Hoofed Animals of 
the Santa Cruz Beds of Patagonia. 

Dr. C. W. Andrews. — Egyptian Hocene Vertebrates and their 
Relationships, particularly with regard to the Geographical 
Distribution of Allied Forms. 

Professor H. F. Osborn (Columbia University, New York).—The 
Evolution of the Horse. 

Section H.—GrocraruHy. 


President’s Address (D.W. Freshfield).— On Mountains and Mankind. 
Moritz von Déchy.—The Glaciers of the Caucasus. 


508 Notices of Memoirs—J. E. Marr—Cambridgeshire Geology. 


R. T. Giinther.—Changes of Level on the Italian Coasts. 

R. H. Yapp.—Vegetation features of the Fen District. 

H. Y. Oldham. —Changes in the Fen District. 

Dr. Vaughan Cornish.—Report of Committee on Terrestrial Surface 
Waves. 

Dr. Tempest Anderson.—The Lipari Islands and their Volcanoes. 

A. W. Andrews.—A Geographical Object-lesson : Passes of the Alps. 


Sus-Section or ANTHROPOGRAPHY. 
Professor A. Macautster, F.R.S., Vice-President, in the Chair. 
Dr. Valdemar Schmidt. — The Latest Discoveries in Prehistoric 
Science in Denmark. 
Miss Nina F. Layard.—Further Excavations on a Paleolithic site at 
Ipswich. 
Report.—The Lake-Village at Glastonbury. 


Secrion K.—Borany. 
Francis Darwin, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., President. 


Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S.—A New Type of Sphenophyllaceous Cone 
from the Lower Coal-measures. 

Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S., and E. A. Newell Arber.—On some New 
Lagenostomas. 

E. A. Newell Arber.—A new feature in the Morphology of the Fern- 
like fossil Glossopteris. 

Francis J. Lewis.—Interglacial and Post-Glacial Plant Remains from 
the Peat of England and Scotland. 

Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S.—Semi-popular Address on a New Aspect of 
the Carboniferous Flora. 


II. — Tue Gerotocy or CampripGesHirE. By J. EH. Marr, 
Se.D., F.R.S., Pres. Geol. Soe.! 


fY\HE main physical features of the county are the Chalk uplands 

of the south-eastern and southern part, the curious plateau 
on the west, the Cam Valley between them, and the fenland of 
the north. 

Of Jurassic rocks, the Oxford Clay is not well exposed save near 
Whittlesea. The Corallian rocks are of considerable interest. Two 
types occur—the Ampthill Clay facies of the western outcrop and 
the Calcareous facies of the Upware Inlier. The Elsworth rock 
forms the base of the deposits of each of these types, and its 
relationship to the members of the Calcareous facies is a subject 
still under discussion. The Upper and Lower Kimeridge Clay are 
found at Ely and in the neighbourhood of that city. 

Of Cretaceous rocks the Lower Greensand is well seen near 
Gamlingay. The old phosphate workings of Wicken are now closed. 
The Gault is seen in many exposures. Most of the sections exhibit 
Lower Gault, but Mr. Fearnsides has recently detected the Upper 
Gault in the Barnwell brick-pit. The basal member of the Chalk, 


1 Abstract of paper read before the British Association, Cambridge, Section C 
(Geology), August, 1904. 


| Notices of Memoirs—F. W. Harmer—The Eastern Glacier. 509 


the well-known Cambridge Greensand phosphatic seam, lies uncon- 
formably upon the Gault. It is succeeded by various divisions of 
the Chalk up to the zone of Micraster. 

The glacial deposits consist chiefly of the Chalky Boulder-clay ; 
the great boulder at Ely is also of interest. 

The Pleistocene gravels include the plateau gravels on the Chalk 
hills and the well-known mammaliferous gravels forming terraces on 
the valley-sides. The March marine gravels are usually correlated 
with the gravels of one of these terraces. 

Alluvium is found on the valley-bottoms, and in the fenland peat 
occurs with intercalated patches of Scrobicularia clay. The peat 
contains the fauna of Neolithic and later times. 


IJI.—Tue Great Hastern Guacirr. By F. W. Harmer, F.G.S.1 


HIS name is proposed for the great ice-stream the moraine 

of which, the Chalky Boulder-clay, covers an area of more 

than 5,000 square miles in the east of England, frequently attaining 
a thickness of more than 100 feet. 

As far back as 1858, Trimmer, a pioneer in glacial investigation, 
pointed out that the county of Norfolk had been twice invaded 
by ice, first from the North Sea and then from the west, the 
resulting detritus in the one case being characterised by igneous 
blocks, some of them of Scandinavian origin; and in the other 
by a predominance of Jurassic material. The first invasion is 
represented by the Cromer Till and the Contorted Drift of the 
Norfolk coast; the second, by the Chalky Boulder-clay, the subject 
of the present paper, which does not occur in north-east Norfolk. 

The region covered by the latter deposit, which extends over 
a great part of the eastern counties of England, has a palmate 
outline, its lobes, which radiate from the great depression of the 
Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire Fens, being of unequal length. 
The latter region was not only the centre whence the Chalky Boulder- 
clay of the southern part of the area was distributed, but also the 
quarry out of which was excavated most of the enormous mass of 
Jurassic material of which the matrix of this deposit is so largely 
composed. 

The present physiographical features of the east of England 
resemble, more or less, those which obtained in Glacial times, the 
Drift deposits not only covering the plateaux between the valleys 
in which the rivers of the district now run, but descending into 
them, sometimes to below sea-level. Hence by the study of the 
existing contours, aided by that of well-borings, it is possible to 
obtain a general idea of the pre-Glacial topography by which the 
movements of the ice must have been determined or influenced. 

Although the erratics of the Chalky Boulder-clay are more or less 
of a similar character over a wide area, indicating that it was 
distributed from a common centre, the predominant character of its 


1 Abstract of paper read before the British Association, Cambridge, Section C 
(Geology), August, 1904. 


510 Notices of Memoirs—F. W. Harmer—The Eastern Glacier. 


detritus varies in different districts, in accordance with that of the 
strata over which the ice had moved. The matrix of the Boulder- 
clay of South Norfolk and North Suffolk, for example, has been 
largely derived from the Kimmeridge Clay. Over this region, 
which formed in Glacial times a shallow trough running east and 
west, corresponding with the present depression of the basins of 
the Little Ouse and the Waveney, as well as with the gap in the 
Chalk escarpment between Swaffham and Newmarket, the ice 
evidently poured in great volume, planing down the surface of the 
Chalk and carrying its Kimmeridgian material fifty miles to the 
east from its original source in the Fen basin. On the other hand, 
although the Fen ice was sufficiently thick to enable it to overflow 
the Chalk hills between Newmarket and Royston, it only travelled 
thence to the south-east for about half that distance. In this region 
the Boulder-clay is chalky near the escarpment, while beyond the 
outcrop of the London Clay it is mainly composed of detritus from 
that formation. 

Along the basin of the Ouse, where its matrix is largely Oxfordian, 
the ice to which it was due advanced much further, to Buckingham 
and beyond, as it also did along that of the Nene, in the direction 
of Northampton, where Liassic débris is common. On the contrary, 
the high land near the head waters of the Welland obstructed the 
ice-flow, so that but little Boulder-clay seems to have found its way 
into the area comprised in Sheet 53 of the Ordnance map. The 
greater part of Sheet 65, however, is covered by it, and it there 
reaches an elevation of 730 feet above the sea-level. Much of the 
Boulder-clay of this region, in the author’s opinion, was due to the 
ice-stream of the Trent Valley, having been piled up upon the high 
land to the east of Leicester by the pressure of ice descending from 
the Pennines. 

It seems probable that the whole of the low-lying region between 
the Lincolnshire Wolds and the Pennines was filled with ice during 
the period of maximum glaciation. It is not physically possible 
that any considerable thickness of ice could have existed on one 
side only of the Lincolnshire ridge, which does not often exceed an 
elevation of about 200 feet above the lower ground adjoining it. 

The author hopes to make the ultimate source of the Chalky 
Boulder-clay ice the subject of a future paper. The prevalence of 
Carboniferous débris in the East Anglian region seems to indicate, 
however, that a part of it at least was of Pennine origin; another 
part may have been due to an overflow from the North Sea across 
the lower part of the Chalk Wolds, and the ice may also have been 
reinforced by the abundant precipitation to which this district was 
subject during the Glacial period; the moisture-bearing cyclonic 
disturbances from the Atlantic, to which the enormous accumulation 
of ice in the Baltic region was due, must have passed near the 
eastern counties of England. There is no evidence to show that 
any considerable amount of ice entered East Anglia through the 
Wash gap during the Chalky Boulder-clay period, all the facts 
known to the author appearing to point in an opposite direction. 


Notices of Memoirs—W. Whitaker—Drift in Stour Valley. 511 


IV.—On a Grear Deprs or Drirr In THE VALLEY OF THE STOUR. 
By W. Wuiraxer, F.R.S.' 


EVERAL cases of great irregularities in the thickness of the 
Drift have been shown by borings in Suffolk, and the existence 
of deep channels filled with Drift has been practically proved, as 
also in the neighbouring counties of Essex and Norfolk. In some 
cases these channels cannot be shown on the map, the Glacial Drift 
being hidden by deposits of later age, and this is markedly the case 
in the upper part of the valley of the Cam, where at one place 
(Newport) the Drift has been pierced to the depth of 340 feet 
without reaching the bottom. 
In Suffolk the greatest amount of Drift recorded is at Brettenham 
Park, where apparently a thickness of 312 feet has been found. 
But this and all other records in East Anglia are now put into the 
shade by the result of a boring near Glemsford railway station. 
This is at a low level in the valley of the Stour, in the tract formed 
by the sand and gravel that crop out from beneath the Boulder-clay 
of the higher ground. Here one would have expected, perhaps, 
some 50 feet of Drift, but certainly not more than 100. No less 
than 477 feet have been passed through before reaching the Chalk. 

The gravel and sand that form the surface reached to a depth of 
51 feet, as might have been expected; but then the unexpected 
occurred, no less than 228 feet of Boulder-clay (partly sandy) having 
been found, with a mass of sand and clayey sand beneath. 

We seem here, then, again to have evidence of a very deep Drift- 
filled channel. A well in the village, at a higher level, has reached 
Chalk after passing through 120 feet of Drift; so the channel does 
not reach far northward, nor does it reach to Foxearth, in Essex, 
about a mile to the south, where there is a still less thickness of 
Drift. As to its direction or extent, however, we can say little 
as yet. 

One may add that a boring (? unfinished) in Euston Park has 
proved over 150 feet of Drift, at a spot where no Drift is shown on 
the map. This may be simply a huge pipe. 


V.—Some Campripcesuize Weis. By W. Wuiraker, F.R.S.' 


INCE the publication of the latest Geological Survey memoir 
dealing with the county further records of nineteen additional 
well-sections at sixteen places have been obtained. 

These vary in depth from 40 to 284 feet, and pass through various 
formations from Drift to Lower Greensand. None have any special 
interest; but the whole forms a useful addition to our knowledge of 
the geology and water-supply of the county. 


1 Abstract of paper read before the British Association, Cambridge, Section C 
(Geology), August, 1904. 


DECADE V.—VOL. I.—NO. X. 30 


512 Notices of Memoirs—Lamplugh and Stather— 


VI.—Report oF THE COMMITTEE TO INVESTIGATE THE FossILi- 
FEROUS Deposits At KrirMiIneron, LINCOLNSHIRE, AND AT 
VARIOUS LOCALITIES IN THE Hast Ripinc oF YORKSHIRE. 
Chairman, Mr. G. W. LampiucH; Secretary, Mr. J. W. 
STaTHER.} 


T has only been found possible during the present year to 
i. complete the investigation of the deposits at Kirmington and 
Great Limber, but it is hoped in the future to extend operations to 
Bielbecks and several other sections that require further elucidation. 


Kirmington Section. 


The work on this important section, which was begun last year, 
has now been carried to a successful conclusion; and the results 
show that in some respects this section has no known parallel in 
English drift sections. It will be remembered that, as described 
in last year’s report, a brickyard is worked at this place in a mass 
of warp or clay containing estuarine shells, with a fresh-water bed at 
its base, and that this deposit is overlain by a bed of coarse flinty 
shingle, above which in one part of the pit there is found a few feet 
of red stony clay believed to be a boulder-clay. The boring last 
year proved the presence of a glacial clay at some depth beneath the 
warp. The chief object of our investigation has been to discover 
the relationship of the fossiliferous warp to the Glacial Series, and 
to carry the boring through the superficial deposits to the chalk, 
which was not reached last year. 

During June of the present year a new boring was carried out 
under the personal supervision of the Chairman and Secretary, with 
the assistance of Mr. G. W. B. Macturk. Mr. Villiers, well engineer, 
of Beverley, undertook to put down the boring, and the Committee 
desire to express their indebtedness to him for the ready manner in 
which, at considerable personal inconvenience, he met their wishes 
as to the time and conditions of the work. 

In order to secure a section in another part of the pit, the site of 
the new boring was fixed at a point 80 yards north-east of last 
year’s boring. Although at the spot chosen the warp used for 
brickmaking had been excavated to a depth of 5 feet below the level 
of its base at the former site, this material was passed through in 
the new boring to a further depth of 3 feet, so that its base is here 
8 feet below its position in the former boring. The total depth 
attained by the new boring, combined with the height of the open 
section, was 96 feet, or 41 feet lower than was reached last year. 
The surface of the chalk lay much deeper than was anticipated, and 
the borings seem to prove that the surface features of the locality 
are not due to the presence of chalk, as hitherto supposed, but that 
the rising ground has been formed by the erosion of a thick and 
complex mass of drift. 


Cambridge, Section C 


¢ 


1 Abstract of paper read before the British Association, 
(Geology), August, 1904. 


Fossiliferous Deposits, Lincolnshire, etc. o13 


The diameter of the second boring was at first 4 inches, narrowing 
to 3 inches at a depth of 15 feet. It was found necessary to line the 
boring with the tubes throughout. 

The section seen in the brickyard and proved in the borehole was 
as follows :-— 


eb 
Om eS 


Surface soil (at 95 feet above O.D.).. 

Clay with foreign stones (see NotE A) 

Well-worn shingle, principally of battered flints 

Laminated warp > with estuarine shells, and at its base a thin seam 
of peat associated with a sandy. warp ContaEINS fresh-water 
shells in one part of the pit (see Norz B) : 

Clean yellow sand, with pebbles of chalk and flint .. : 

Red clay passing downwards into tough reddish- brown clay 

Purple clay, streaked with silt and Toam, passing downwards into 
tough purple roe with small stones, including some erratics (see 
Note C) ... 23 

Stoneless purple clay . 

Stoneless yellow clay .. 

Flinty gravel ... 

Yellow ‘clay and loam with small drift pebbles : 

Yellow sand, full of well-rounded quartz grains and specks ‘of chalk 

Yellow sand and laminated clay Be 

Tough compact bluish-grey or lead- coloured clay, with a few small 
“foreion pebbles (see Norz D)_... ae 600 BA 

Tough yellow clay streaked with chalk 

Solid chalk and flint... 


cooof 


= 
a~J = 0 
(oro wer) 


Co he OY OOH DO © 
cow ooooooam 


Total 066 000 O86 coo 8 


Nott A.—Among the erratic stones which this clay contains the following were 
identified: basalt, porphyrites, rhomb-porphyry, grits, etc. 

Nott B.—Mr. Clement Reid records from this bed Scrobicularia piperata, Rissoa 
ulve, Tellina balthica, Cardiwn edule, Mactra subtruncata, Mytilus edulis, and 
abundant Foraminifera (see Mem. Geol. Survey, Holderness, p. 58). 

Norz C.—In general appearance this clay resembles the Purple Clay of Holderness. 
Among the pebbles washed out of 30 lb. of the clay brought up by the augre, chalk 
and flint greatly predominate, but the following rocks were also represented : 
red chalk, black flint, Spilsby sandstone, ferruginous pebbles, quartz, basalt, and 
porphyrites, besides many undeterminable ‘small pebbles. 

Nore D.—This clay is hard and tough, and very different from A and C both in 
texture and colour. It resembles in colour the Basement Clay of Holderness. 
The pebbles are smaller in size than in C, and there is a still higher proportion of 
‘chalk and flint. Among the erratic pebbles the following are recognizable : basalt, 
porphyrite, sandstone, black flint, grit, quartz, etc. 


Mr. Reid has examined the plant remains obtained by the 
Committee from the band at the base of the warp, and reports as 
follows :—“ The plant remains obtained by Mr. Stather from the 
peaty warp belong to the following species :— 


Ranunculus sceleratus, Linn. Atriplex ? 

Hupatorium cannabinum, Linn. Zannichellia pedunculata, Reichb. 
Aster Tripolium, Linn. Scirpus setaceus, Linn. 

Lapsana communis, Linn. », maritimus, Linn. 

Mentha aquatica, Linn. SDs 

Labiate (much crushed) Carex incurva, Lightt. 


“The list is a small one, but it indicates estuarine conditions, and 
suggests a sub-arctic climate. With one exception the plants are 
still to be found in the neighbourhood of the Humber; but one of 


514 Notices of Memoirs—Fossiliferous Deposits. 


them, Carex incurva, is a sea-coast sedge not now ranging south of 
Holy Isle. 

“A striking peculiarity of the deposit is the abundant remains of 
the estuarine sedge, Scirpus maritimus, a plant which, growing out 
of a few inches of water, tends to form a thick belt through which 
few drifted seeds would find their way. In view of the abundance 
of this sedge in the bed now examined and of the like-growing reed, 
Phragmites communis, in the deposit which I searched some years 
ago, the small number of other plants yet detected is not surprising. 
Land plants are only represented by two fruits of Lapsana, perhaps 
brought by birds. These fruits of Lapsana, as well as those of the 
sea-aster, are considerably smaller than my recent specimens, but 
I have not yet had an opportunity of comparing them with fruits of 
the same species near their northern limit.” 

From the fresh-water shell-bed associated with the peat, Mr. E. T. 
Newton has determined Planorbis spirorbis, Bithynia tentaculata, with 
probably Candona (an Entomostracan). 


Great Limber Section. 


A boring was also put down under the supervision of Mr. G. W. B. 
Macturk, who kindly undertook to aid the Committee in this manner, 
at the Great Limber brickyard, three miles south-east of Kirmington, 
where there is a further development of warp and sand, believed 
by Mr. C. Reid to be of the same age as the Kirmington deposit, 
though no fossils have been found in it. The section seen in the 
brickyard and proved in the boring was as follows :— 


ft. in. 

Surface soil and clay with stones (at 110 feet above O.D.) 4 0 
Loamy sand contorted and mixed with warp ~~ ike WO 
Laminated blue warp with sandy streaks ... 10 0 
Pan . : 20 é Le 
Current-bedded sand 4 9 
Sharp sand . Sa 
Flint, sand, and rounded chalk pebbles 5 0 
Solid chalk with flints : y(t) 
Total ae sas ae “5 BOD 


In comparing this section with the one at Kirmington it should 
be noted, (1) that no'shells have been found in the laminated warp 
at Limber; (2) that the warp does not rest on glacial clays; and 
(3) that the base of the Limber warp is 92 feet above O.D., or 28 feet 
higher than that of Kirmington. 

It would be premature to discuss the problems raised by these 
interesting sections until the work of the Committee has been carried 
further. For the present, therefore, we desire only to record the 
data thus far obtained. 

The thanks of the Committee are due to Mr. W. H. Crofts and 
Mr. G. W. B. Macturk for practical help in many ways; also to the 
Earl of Yarborough (landlord), E. P. Hankey, Esq. (agent), and the 
occupiers of the brickyards—Mr. Hervey and Mr. John Housan— 
for permission to put down the borings. 


Notices of Memoirs—F. J. Bennett-—Geology & Agriculture. 515 


VII.—Grotocy anp Acricutture. By F. J. Bennett, F.G.S. 


[ Abridged from article contributed to the Land Agents’ Record (August 20th, 1904) 
on the uses to which Ordnance Maps might be put for Estate Records. ] 


UCH valuable information is lost, both to the landowner and 
farmer, to say nothing of the geologist, for want of recording 
it at the time. How often is land drained and no record made 
of the soil turned out, and the courses of the drains not laid down 
on the estate maps? Post-holes and excavations of all kinds are 
made and no record kept at the time. And yet how easy to put 
all these down on the map itself, a record for all future time, and 
constantly under the eye of the owner and occupier. The map 
itself, the back as well as the front, is most obviously the proper 
place for these notes. Yet how very few persons use these maps 
in this way. 
_ Scotch farmers seem to succeed in England where our farmers 
cannot, and why is this? One great reason is that they are far 
more systematic than ours are, and they record the results of each 
field year by year. 

Let us take the case of a person purchasing an estate. To a large 
extent he would, in a usual way, be very much in the dark as to 
the real nature of the property he had purchased. He would, of 
course, have all the information the seller could afford him, and 
that would vary very much according to the way in which the estate 
had been managed. He might be able to obtain 1 in. or even 6 in. 
maps of the Geological Survey, both Solid and Drift, with, in many 
cases, the accompanying memoirs; and, according as he was able 
to understand them, they would give him much or little information. 
Yet to most this would be of a superficial or vague nature on many 
points, and perhaps could not give the details most useful to him. 
But if he had followed the plan adopted, I believe, in the best 
estate offices, the 25 in. Ordnance maps would have been used, and 
on these maps all the divisions of the fields would have been marked 
at the time the survey was made, and the estate maps would, no 
doubt, have been brought up to date by marking on them any 
alteration subsequently made. There would, no doubt, be a schedule 
of the amount of arable and pasture and woodland, with the kind 
of trees, water, and roads, and there might be a rough division of 
the soil into heavy and light. 

Soil.—Now, let us suppose that the late owner had made these 
maps in the way this paper suggests. Say, that on each field 
division be noted the nature of the soil and subsoil, whether clay, 
sand, loam, gravel, chalk, etc., and the qualifying character of these. 
Of course difficulties would arise as to how this information could be 
obtained. Here, then, I would suggest that a visit should be paid 
to the Geological Survey Office to ascertain what information was 
available. As a very useful preliminary to this visit, trial holes, or 
trenches preferably, could be dug, especially in the pasture lands, so 
that the subsoil could be exposed. In this way a kind of soil map 
could be made and recorded on the map or schedule accompanying 


516 Notices of Memoirs—F. J. Bennett—Geology § Agriculture. - 


it. Field names should also be noted, with their oldest and latest 
ways of spelling these, with the dates. 

Wells.—These should be all marked on the map, whether in use 
or not, and all measured, and their total depth given, and that of 
the water and the variation of this, and, where possible, a record 
of the soils and subsoils met with when this well was sunk and 
the name of the sinker. 

Springs.—All these should be marked, and their variations and 
highest point in any special year, going as far back as possible. 

Quarries.—All these should be noted, and characters recorded 
on the map. 

Pits.—Where old pits exist, often, of course, grown over, it will 
be found of the utmost importance, where all record has been lost, 
that they should be cleared and their true character ascertained. 

Drains.—Now, perhaps, the most important detail has been left 
to the last. I am informed that, in most cases, where land has 
been drained the courses of the drains have not been laid down 
on the estate maps, so that very often much of the money thus 
expended has, for practical purposes in after years, been lost, and 
where the drains have ceased to work much time and expense have 
been incurred, sometimes to no purpose, in seeking the outlets, ete. 
All this would have been avoided had their courses been laid down 
on the maps. To record the nature of the soil dug out, when drains 
are being made, is of the utmost importance to the agriculturist and 
geologist, and this should be especially noted on the map. As the 
Government indirectly lends large sums of money for land drainage 
I would suggest that the Government stipulate in the future that 
the courses of all land drains should be laid down on the estate 
maps, and the nature of the soil recorded, and that a copy and 
tracing of the drains be deposited with the Government Department- 

I would here suggest a further use of these 25in. maps for 
the recording on them by farmers of certain agricultural notes 
relating to crops, ete. 

On each of the field divisions year by year, and in one line if 
possible (so that the records of several successive years might be 
placed on the same division for reference, especially if contractions 
were used), should be noted the amount of seed sown, the kind 
and quantity of manure used, and the weather at the time; also 
the result of the crop, such as weight of grain, length of straw, etc., 
and the same with other crops. If the results of seven years were 
thus recorded they could be taken in at a glance and the reason 
often seen for success in one year and failure in another, and the 
varying results where different manures had been used could also 
be noted in a field-book. The different kinds of trees and their 
growth in relation to the soil should be noted both by farmers and 
landowners. Many farmers, no doubt, would object to all this 
as an additional and useless labour on their part; but I would 
suggest that such information would be of the utmost value to 
the incoming farmer, and would, of course, be the private property 
of the late occupier. The incoming tenant should be very glad to 


Notices of Memoirs— Various Brief Notices. 517 


pay a very substantial sum for this accumulated information, as, 
without this, he might have to spend years and lose much valuable 
time and money in finding it out. Thus the late occupier would 
find that he had not only been getting together much valuable 
information for himself, but information of such a nature that the 
incoming tenant would be glad to buy it. 


VIII.—Brirer Noriczs. 


1. Tue Yorxksurre PHiLosopHicaL Socirry.—The Annual Report 
of this Society for 1903 is a trifle more bulky than usual, separate 
copies of Dr. Anderson’s paper on the West Indian Eruption, which 
was published by the Royal Geographical Society, together with the 
12 plates and map which accompanied the original paper, being 
inserted. 


2. CamBRIAN OF PortuGau. — A fine series of fossils from the 
calcareous schists of Alemtejo is described by J. F. Nery Delgado 
(see Comm. Serv. Geol. Portugal, 1904, 6 pls.). Delgado considers 
the fauna nearly allied to that of Olenellus, and that it is more 
ancient than the Cambrian fauna of Spain, which certainly belongs 
to the zone of Paradoxides. The tauna contains Paradowides, 
Olenopsis, Hicksia, Microdiscus, Metadoxides, and Olenellus among 
the Trilobites, Lingulella, Obolella, Acrothele, Hyolithes, and many 
Lamellibranchs. ‘he plates contain photographic figures and are 
excellently produced. 


3. RECLASSIFICATION OF THE Repritta. — Professor Osborn has 
printed in the American Naturalist for February, 1904, his paper 
on the reclassification of the Reptilia, read before the Society of 
Vertebrate Palzontologists at Philadelphia in December, 1903. He 
arrives at the following conclusions :— 

The birds probably originated from a group of Diaptosauria 
identical with or closely related to that which gave rise to the 
Dinosauria. It is not true that birds have descended from Dinosaurs, 
but there is very strong evidence that birds and Dinosaurs are 
descended from a common stock. 

There is no question that the mammals are affiliated with the 
subclass Synapsida rather than with the Diapsida; both in skull 
and shoulder-girdle structure and in the phalangeal formula they 
are Synapsidan. As to their nearer relationships they appear to be 
rather with the superorder Anomodontia and with the order Cyno- 
dontia or Theriodontia. The divergence of the mammal stem from 
these typical reptiles will probably be found to have occurred in the 
Permian or Trias of South Africa. 

4, Grotocy or Tunis.—Under the title “Etude géologique de la 
Tunisie centrale,” Dr. L. Pervinquiére has written a detailed mono- 
graph around a really magnificent map of the country, geologically 
coloured. The formations dealt with range from the Pleistocene 
to the Trias, the fossils themselves being referable to the Lias, 
Oxfordian, Portlandian, Neocomian, Aptian, Arbian, Cenomanian, 


518 Notices of Memoirs— Various Brief Notices. 


Turonian, Senonian, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, and Pliocene. The 
country seems remarkable for the isolated Triassic hills which stand 
up boldly from the surrounding country. A list of previous works 
on Tunis is given, and M. Pervinquiére deserves our thanks for 
a valuable addition to African geology. The book is issued from 
Paris (Direction Générale des Travaux Publics), 1903. Price 15 frs. 


5. Mzryconvs.—A fine and perfect skeleton of the hypsodont 
group of ruminants has been described and figured by W. D. Matthew 
(in the Bull. Amer. Mus. N.H., xx, 1904). This is Merycodus osborni, 
a form related to the antelopes, but with branching, deciduous 
antlers like those of the deer. The specimen came from the Middle 
Miocene (Pawnee Creek Beds) of north-eastern Colorado, and was 
found by Mr. Barnum Brown, of the American Museum Expedition 
of 1901. The paper sketches the other known species of the 
genus as well as species of the genera Blastomeryx, Lapromeryx, and 
Paleomeryx. 


6. Tur Mines or Huvatcayoc, Pervu.—Situated in a volcanic 
region, in which the sedimentary rocks seem to be of Cretaceous age 
from their fossil contents, the mines of Hualgayoc yield an abundance 
of minerals. Those chiefly worked are lead and copper, and this 
paper (published in the Bol. Cuerpo Ingen. Minas Peru, No. 6, 1904), 
by F. Malaga Santolalla, is mainly devoted to them. Hualgayoc 
is a province of Peru, and the author prefaces his description of the 
mines with a sketch of the geography, history, and geology of 
the area. The paper is well illustrated and has a topographical map. 


7. Tertiary Fauna or Frioripa.—Dr. W. H. Dall has recently 
published in the Transactions of the Wagner Free Institute of Science 
the concluding part of his ‘Contributions to the Tertiary Fauna 
of Florida.” This consists of the molluscan fauna of the Silex 
beds of Tampa and the Pliocene beds of the Caloosahatchie river, 
and includes in many cases a complete revision of the generic groups 
treated of and their American Tertiary species. This part vi runs 
from p. 1219 to p. 1654, pls. xlviii-lx, and with an index brings 
a laborious and valuable work to a successful conclusion. 


8. Norra Potar Expepition, 1893-96.— Messrs. Longmans & Co. 
have published vol. iv of the scientific results of this expedition, 
edited by Dr. Fridtjof Nansen. The volume before us contains 
Dr. Johan Kieer’s paper in the Lower Silurian at Khabarora. The 
age of the beds appears to be of the Scandinavian Hsthonian type, 
and praise is due to Dr. Kieer and Dr. Brogger for successfully 
dealing with such unpromising material. Dr. Nansen contributes 
to this volume his “ Bathymetrical features of the North Polar seas, 
with a discussion of the continental shelves and previous oscillations 
of the shore-line,” illustrated by maps and plates.’ 


9. Reximr Map or Norte America.—Although dated as long ago 
as 1901, it may be worth while to call attention to a publication of 
the Geological Survey of Canada entitled ‘‘ Altitudes in the Dominion 


* See Professor Hall’s Review in our August Number, p. 422.—Ep. Grou. Mae. 


Notices of Memoirs— Various Brief Notices. O19 


of Canada, with a Relief Map of North America.” This is ona scale 
of 200 miles to an inch, and shows elevations at 100, 1000, 5000, 
10,000, and above 10,000 feet, and does not seem to be generally 
known. 


10. Primitive Foss, Fisnes.—M. Ad. Kemna contributes to 
the Bull. Soc. Belge Géol., xvii, 1903 (1904), a general review of 
recent discoveries in fossil fishes of the earliest period. The writer 
bases his review on the papers of Dr. Traquair and Dr. Smith 
Woodward, and after pointing out the importance of the more 
ancient fishes, refers to their zoological position, and sketches in 
some detail the families Heterostracidze, Osteostracide, and Anaspidee. 


11. Excursions 1n Butcrum.—M. Rutot has provided a full report 
of the excursion of the Belgian Society of Geology, Paleontology, 
and Hydrology to Hainaut and the environs of Brussels in 1902. 
It is published in the Bulletin, xvii (5), 1904. The district traversed 
was from Erguelinnes to Leval-'Trahegnies, Mons, Vaulx lez- 
Tournai, Blaton and Hautrage, Brussels and environs; and the 
jaded British geologist might do worse than spend his four days 
over this ground. The geology covers the Landenian, Bruxellian, 
Ypresian, and Montian, and fossils are abundant. 


12. Ottcocenn or Potanp.—M. K. Wojcik has found in a small 
valley in Kruhel Maly, near Przemysl, on the northern border of the 
Middle Carpathians, a dark clay or sandy clay-bed with Mollusca and 
Foraminifera. Of the forms found 46 out of 60 belong to the Lower 
Oligocene of North Germany, as described by Von Koenen, and 
8 of the 14 remaining species are found in the Vicentinian beds 
described by Fuchs and Oppenheim. The whole fauna is com- 
parable to that of the Clavulina szaboi beds of Von Hantken. 
Accompanying the paper, which appears in the Bull. intern. Ac. Sci. 
Cracovie, 1893, No. 10, are two plates of shells and Foraminifera. 


13. Mrnerats oF Cotompia.— A new journal has reached us 
from the Republic of Colombia, ‘‘Trabajos de la Oficina de Historia 
Natural,” Bogata, 1904. This tract of 27 pages contains an account 
of the alkaline and earthy minerals of Colombia, by Ricardo Lleras 
Codazzi, chief of the section of Mineralogy and Geology. 


14. CrynaBark From PErv.—Augusto F. Umlauff publishes in the 
seventh “ Boletin del Cuerpo Ingenieros de Minas del Peru” a long 
account of the Huan Cavelica mercury deposits, with map and 
sections. The ore seems to occur indiscriminately throughout the 
mass, as at Santa Barbara it is described and figured as occurring 
in Andesites, Amphibolites, Basalts, Sandstones, Limestones with 
Cretaceous mollusca, and Conglomerates. No description of the 
fossils is given; it being merely stated “molluscs and others very 
abundant.” 

15. ‘Exortc Buocks’ oF tHe Himanayas.—In the Comptes Rendus 
of the Ninth Congress of Geologists held at Vienna in 1905, just 
published, we find Dr. C. L. Griesbach’s note on the ‘ exotic blocks’ 
of the Himalayas. These are masses of limestones of Nummulitic 


520 Notices of Memoirs—Various Brief Notices. 


age, often converted into marble, which rest, and in some cases. 
are enclosed in, igneous rocks. They occur in the Tibetan area. 
These blocks would appear to be the result of the action of huge 
igneous flows, which, passing through the dislocated rocks, tore off 
and bore to the surface masses of rudimentary rock, together with 
other loose masses, the result of the dislocating and faulting itself. 
Dr. Griesbach thinks that all this was part of the general Himalayan 
upheaval, which falls into the period after the deposition of the 
Upper Cretaceous system and prior to the deposition of the younger 
Tertiaries, and fits into the period during which the great flows of 
Dekkan Trap took place in India. 


16. Braprorp GuactaL Laxes.—The Bradford Scientific Associa- 
tion have started a new quarterly called the Bradford Scientific Journal 
(No. 1, July 1904), and the opening paper deals with “The Glacial 
Lakes of the Bradford District,” by J. E. Wilsen. The author 
gives a map, and states that a note of his conclusions appeared in 
the Report of the British Association for 1900. 


17. Persimmon Crevrx Merterortre.—This iron came from North 
Carolina in 18938, and is now in the U.S. National Museum. It is 
described in the Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., xxvii (1904), by Wirt Tassin, 
as ‘‘a more or less continuous matrix of iron containing troilite, 
schreibersite, and carbon.” Its present weight is 9 lb. 60z., but 
a fragment weighing about 1 lb. 13 oz. has been broken off. 


18. Musrums.—It may be well to call attention to the Vorberichte 
fiir die xii Konferenz (Centralstelle fiir Arbeiter - Wohlfahrtsein- 
richtungen), 1905, in Mannheim, which contains Gill Parker’s 
account of the Ruskin Museum and Lehmann’s account of the 
Altona Museum, among other papers. 


19. Fresu Fosstz Eag.—Messrs. W. C. Morgan and M. C. Tallman 
described in Bull. Geol. Univ. Calif. Publications (iii, 1904) an egg 
from a pebble in a placer deposit on the Gila river in Arizona. 
The egg formed the centre of a rounded mass of hard calcareous 
rock, which was removed so as to allow of an examination of a fresh 
surface of the shell. The authors say that the egg corresponds 
fairly well to the type of egg laid by a cormorant, and with that 
and some photographic illustrations we must content ourselves. 


20. Erratic Brocks.—Special attention should be called to the 
Eighth Report of the Committee on the Erratic Blocks of the British 
Isles (Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1903, 1904), as in it the Secretary, 
Professor Percy F. Kendall, has drawn up a summary of the records 
accumulated during the past thirty-two years from England, Wales, 
the Isle of Man, and Scotland. 


21. Tux “ Records of the Geological Survey of India,” established 
in 1868, published hitherto in yearly volumes until 1897, when it 
was amalgamated with the “Memoirs.” With a view to the rapid 
publication of short papers and notes on Indian geology, it is now 
being continued again as before. Private workers are invited to 
contribute. The current number (vol. xxxi, pt. 1, 1904) contains 


Reviews—Natural History Musewn. O2k 


papers of economic importance; on an occurrence of copper ore in 
the Darjiling district. and on coal deposits in Punjab and Assam. 
Various mineralogical notes and technical assays are appended. 


22. Srrionvrus in THE Batic Sttur1an.—The genus Stylonurus 
has not hitherto been recorded from the Baltic region, but Dr. F. 
Schmidt, in examining a specimen collected from the uppermost 
Silurian of Rotzikill on the Island of Oesel, has come to the con- 
clusion that it represents a fragment of this Merostomatous Arthropod. 
He bases this conclusion on the general form of the body, which 
tapers somewhat rapidly backwards, the shape of the four-jomted 
limb fragment with terminal spines, and the ornament of the body- 
segments. At the same time the species, which he names Stylonurus (?): 
Simonsoni, after the collector, may belong to some hitherto undescribed 
genus. The specimen presents some interesting features, especially 
two grooves on the dorsal side of the carapace, giving it a somewhat 
trilobed appearance. Portions of the underside of the head-shield 
are preserved, including a complete metastoma, a structure hitherto 
unknown in Stylonurus ; it is distinguished by its pyriform outline. 
Dr. Schmidt’s paper, which appeared in the /ulletin of the Imperial 
Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg for March, 1904, is illustrated 
by a plate. 


23. A LaRGE Presrwicura4.—Among the papers of the late Pro- 
fessor C. E. Beecher was found a manuscript which has been printed 
in the Amer. Journ. Sci., July, 1904. ‘his manuscript describes 
(and figures) a cephalothorax of Prestwichia signata, sp.u., from the 
Fort Riley Limestone of the Lower Permian, three miles west of 
Stockdale, Kansas. The specimen has a length of 45 mm., and is 
of especial interest as coming from a higher horizon than any other 
American species yet known. 


I=, del} Wh JE Jah WY Se 


————_- 


Tue History or THE COLLECTIONS CONTAINED IN THE NaTURAL 
History Departments or THE British Musrum. Vol. I: 
The Libraries—The Department of Botany—The Department of 
Geology—The Department of Minerals. 8vo; pp. xviii and 442. 
(London: printed by order of the Trustees of the British 
Museum. Sold by Dulau & Co., 87, Soho Square, W., and 
others. 1904. Price 15s.) 


HIS volume contains the history of the libraries and of the 

collections in the Departments of Botany, Geology, and 

Minerals. A second volume (not yet issued) will contain the 
history of the collections in the Department of Zoology. 

“The possibility of producing such a history as the present is,” 
says the Director in his Preface, ‘“‘a remarkable evidence of the 
care and efficiency with which the records of the Museum have 
been kept during the past century. The value of the book to 
workers in the various branches of Natural History will be very 


22 Reviews—Natural History Departments 


great. It not only furnishes an interesting record of the names 
of hundreds who have contributed to build up our science during 
the nineteenth century, but it will prove to be of assistance to 
investigators who are anxious to discover the present depository 
of specimens or collections referred to in old publications and to 
compare them with later examples. It will also furnish to a very 
large number of persons, who at present are not informed on the 
subject, a correct idea of the variety, extent, and importance of the 
immense series of collected specimens which are here carefully 
guarded and kept in orderly arrangement, ‘not only’ (according 
to the terms of Sir Hans Sloane’s will) ‘for the inspection and 
entertainment of the learned and curious, but for the general use 
and benefit of the public to all posterity.’ 

‘Mr. B. B. Woodward has written the history of the libraries ; 
Mr. George Murray, assisted by Mr. Britten, that of the Department 
of Botany; Dr. Arthur Smith Woodward, with valuable help from 
the late Keeper, Dr. Henry Woodward, and from the present 
Assistant Keeper, Dr. Bather, that of the Department of Geology ; 
and Mr. Fletcher, that of the Department of Minerals.” 

The actual foundation of the British Museum dates from the year 
1753, when an Act of Parliament was passed “for the purchase of 
the Museum or Collection of Sir Hans Sloane, and of the Harleian 
Collection of Manuscripts, and for providing one general repository 
for the better reception and more convenient use of the said 
Collections and of the Cottonian Library and the additions thereto.” 

The collection of Sir Hans Sloane contained in his residence, ‘lhe 
Manor House, Chelsea, consisted of “books, drawings, manuscripts, 
prints, medals and coins, ancient and modern antiquities, seals, 
cameos and intaglios, precions stones, agates, jaspers, vessels of 
agate and jasper, crystals, mathematical instruments, pictures, and 
other things,” which last included numerous zoological and geo- 
logical specimens and an extensive herbarium of dried plants 
preserved in 3810 large folio volumes. 

The Cotton Manuscripts were already the property of the nation, 
having been acquired by gift in 1700. The Harleian Collection 
was obtained by purchase at the same time as the Sloane Collection, 
and the three were brought together under the designation of “ the 
British Museum,” placed under the care of a body of Trustees, and 
lodged in Montagu House, Bloomsbury, purchased for their reception 
in 1754. 

Admission to visit the Museum was limited by ticket, issued 
only on application in writing, and to not more than ten persons 
for each of three hours in the day; the hours were subsequently 
extended, but it was not until the year 1810 that the Museum was 
accessible to the general public for three days in the week from 
10 o’clock to 4. The present daily opening, with longer hours 
in Summer, dates only from 1879. The collections soon outgrew 
the limits of the original Montagu House and also its successor, the 
present classical building, completed in 1845. The erection of the 
magnificent reading-room in 1857 disposed for a time of the difficulty 


of the British Museum. 523° 


of finding accommodation for the ever-growing library, but the 
keepers of the other departments continued urgent in their demands 
for more space ; and after much discussion of rival plans for keeping 
the collections together and obtaining the needful extension of room 
by acquiring the property immediately around the old Museum, or 
for severing the collections and removing a portion to another 
building on a fresh site, the latter course was finally decided upon. 
In 1868 the House of Commons sanctioned the purchase of part 
of the site of the International Exhibition of 1862, in Cromwell 
Road, South Kensington, with a view to appropriating it to the 
purpose of a Museum of Natural History. 

The considerations of the various plans for the new buildings. 
occupied a long period of time, Mr. Alfred Waterhouse, the architect, 
finally obtaining for his design the approval of the Trustees in 1871. 
The present building was commenced in 1873, and was handed over 
to the Trustees completed, but without internal fittings, in June, 
1880. The great labour of removing the collections to the new 
building was commenced, and a part of the Departments of Geology 
and Mineralogy were opened to the public on April 18th, 1881. 

The history of the growth of the great collections in the British 
Museum runs parallel to the growth of natural knowledge, as 
exemplified by the establishment of the various learned Societies. 
which have been founded for its promotion. Thus, in 1756 the 
National Museum consisted of three departments only, (1) Printed 
Books, (2) Manuscripts, (3) Natural History; strange to say, this. 
last department included antiquities, coins, and medals! In 1807 the 
last-named department was divided into the Department of Natural 
History and Modern Curiosities and of the Department of Antiquities. 
and Coins. 

In 1827 Robert Brown was appointed Keeper of Sir Joseph 
Banks’ Botanical Collection, and by adding to this the Sloane 
herbarium and other dried plants a separate Department of Botany 
was formed. In 1837 the Mineralogical and Geological branch, 
under Mr. C. Konig, Keeper, and the Zoological branch, under 
Mr. J. G. Children, were created. ‘The last subdivision occurred 
in 1857, when Mineralogy and Geology were split up into two 
departments, and the four departments so formed have remained 
intact to the present time. 

Originally, the Royal Society, which was founded in 1660,' 
represented all the Natural Sciences till 1788, when the Botanists. 
seceded, with others, and formed the Linnean Society. The Geo- 
logists made another separate Society in 1807, and the Astronomers. 
in 1821. The Zoological Society commenced its existence in 1826. 
The Chemists founded a separate Society in 1841. Many others. 
might be named, as the Entomological Society founded in 1833, 
while the Mineralogical and Malacological Societies have a still 
more recent origin. But the swing of the pendulum of time seems 
now changing in favour of reunion, or perhaps of reorganisation ; and 

1 The Antiquaries formed a Society in 1572, were dissolved in 1604, reconstituted 
in 1717, and obtained their charter in 1751. 


524 Correspondence—Rev. G. Crewdson. 


one would not be surprised to learn that Zoology and Paleontology 
in the Natural History Museum had been recombined together as 
representing Animal Biology ; in fact, the late Director, Sir William 
Flower, and the present Director, Professor Ray Lankester, have 
both strenuously aimed at bringing the recent and extinct forms of 
animal life together into one series. It is remarkable that not- 
withstanding the various attempts to change the existing order of 
things (as e.g. that of the Kew authorities to absorb the Botanical 
Department into the Kew Herbarium, and the plan suggested 
by Professor Maskelyne, many years ago, to transfer the Mineral 
Collections to the Royal College of Chemistry, or to the Royal 
School of Mines), they all failed, and these departments still remain 
firmly united to the Natural History Museum, and the Geological 
Department still enjoys a separate and distinct existence. 

It would be impossible in a brief notice like the present to give 
an adequate notion of the amount of labour bestowed in working 
up the historical records of the Museum in the past 150 years, 
presented to us in this interesting volume, bringing out as it does, 
in an orderly and succinct form, the story of the three great 
Departments and of the Libraries attached to them; but to any 
person interested in the progress of Natural History in this country 
this book will afford the greatest pleasure, not only to read, but to 
possess, as a most valuable work of reference for all time. - 


C@ikesevsen Sa @ ANS sBeN i @aee 


ICE-ACTION ON WINDERMERE. 


Str,—As one of the party that visited the cliffs in the neigh- 
bourhood of Cromer in connection with the recent meeting of the 
British Association, I was greatly interested, as we all were, with 
what we saw and with the able exposition given by Mr. Clement 
Reid ; and it occurred to me that what I have observed of ice-action 
on a small scale when Windermere, in 1895, was completely frozen 
over might be of some interest to students of ice-action on a far 
grander scale in past ages, of which we see traces in the present day. 
I was encouraged in this view by some of the members of Section C 
to whom I mentioned what I had seen. I will simply state the facts 
without attempting to found any theory upon them. 

During the Winter in question Windermere was frozen throughout 
its entire extent, the ice attaining a thickness in many places of seven 
to eight inches or more. Wherever there was a considerable expanse 
of water, as for instance between Thompson Holme and the northern 
shore of Miller Ground Bay, a distance of about two miles, the 
expansion which takes place in freezing forced the ice up on the 
shore wherever the slope was sufficiently gentle to permit of this. 
The striation produced by this glaciation was clearly to be seen 
below the ice where the bottom was chiefly composed of clay. 
Where the shore was composed of loose shingle the ice in its 
progress ploughed its way through it, raising a bank of from one 


Correspondence—G. EH. Dibley. 525 


to two feet in height. Where the shore presented miniature cliffs 
of clay capped by turf, the soil was turned over by the ice as by 
a ploughshare. Along the greater part of the shore-line, but 
especially where the shore was steep or rocky, the pressure forced 
the ice up into hummocky fragments. Great cracks, the edges of 
which were similarly thrown into hummocks, extended right across 
the lake at two points between Bowness and Ambleside. When the 
thaw set in and the ice contracted, the position of these two loci 
of compression was marked by wide lanes of open water, while the 
ice on either side was still strong enough to bear the weight of 
a man. Other more local evidences of compression were seen in 
funnel-like depressions in the ice, in some cases with a dangerous 
hole in the centre, though the ice surrounding the hole was so 
strong that a man was able without risk to reach the hat of a skater 
who had fallen through. Evidences of the motion of the ice in 
the direction of the greatest pressure was also to be seen in bent 
and broken piles and landing-stages. ‘These phenomena were not 
to be seen where from any cause the ice did not attain to any great 
thickness, as, for instance, at the mouth of Troutbeck, where the 
flow of the river checked the formation of the ice. 

Scarcely less remarkable than the effects of the ice-action them- 
selves was the short time that it took for denudation to remove 
all traces of them. 

These are the facts that I observed; and I think they may be 
worth putting on record, especially because the opportunities of 
observing them are so rare, Windermere being seldom frozen over 
more than three or four times in a century. Gro. CREWDSON. 


Sr. Mary’s VicaraGe, WINDERMERE. 
September 1st, 1904. 


THE DISCOVERY OF MARSUPITES IN THE CHALK OF THE 
CROYDON AREA. 

Str,—Some few weeks ago I received a letter from Messrs. 
Wright & Polkinghorne (of the Battersea Field Club and Geologists’ 
Association) to the effect that while cycling from Purley to Beddington 
they observed some chalk that had been thrown out while laying 
the sewer in one of the new roads at the top of Russell Hill. 

Upon examining the chalk they were rewarded by finding plates 
of Marsupites. The following Thursday evening I accompanied 
Mr. Wright to the spot, when we found that the chalk had been 
put back; however, after a diligent search among the blocks on 
the surface, we succeeded in obtaining five or six plates, two of 
which were embedded in flint nodules. 

The nipple-headed form of Bourgueticrinus and the pyramidated 
form of Hchinocorys vulgaris, both characteristic fossils of the 
Marsupite zone, were also obtained. 

The chalk is of a very soft nature, quite different to that of the 
other zones in the district. I spent four hours the following Saturday 
at excavations at a lower horizon in the hope of finding Uintacrinus, 
but without success. Iam bound to admit that the appearance of 


526 Correspondence—Dr. Wheelton Hind. 


this zone at this spot is quite a surprise, for, standing at Russell Hill 
one turns to the left, where at the Haling Pit the bottom beds of the 
M. coranguinum beds are exposed; while immediately facing us 
at the Purley Junction pits (now ceased to be worked) we have the: 
M. cortestudinarium zone; the dip, as revealed by the successive 
zones to the Chalk escarpment, being to the north and disappearing 
under the Tertiaries at South Croydon. 

One can only account for this zone by a fold in the Chalk, as we 
have at Beddington, a little further south-west, the upper part of the 
. coranguinum beds exposed which are at a lower level, according 
to ordnance datum, than Russell Hill. 

Subsequent discoveries will be watched with interest by all 
workers in Chalk geology. G. E. Disrey. 


7, Cuampion Crescent, Lower Syprennam, S.E. 
August 29th, 1904. 


EQUIVALENTS OF THE LOWER CULM. 


Str,—Mr. Jukes-Browne has pointed out to me that in my paper 
on the Homotaxial Equivalents of the Lower Culm I have left it 
uncertain what remains in North Devon as the representative of 
the Lower Carboniferous series, and that I might be understood to 
mean that there is absolutely no representative of the Carboniferous 
Limestone in that area. He also reminds me that Salter in 1863: 
mentioned the existence of soft fossiliferous shales containing Car- 
boniferous fossils above the Pilton Beds to the north of Barnstaple, 
which I noted as passage beds (p. 397). He further suggests that 
my table of comparative succession (p.401) might be amplified thus :— 


DEVONSHIRE. Sourn-West IRELAND. 
Lower Culm ... S: saz Posidonomya beds. 
Fremington Beds... uy Carboniferous shales 
Soft shales ) ... 2 se Carboniferous slate } 
Pilton Beds f ... ee tes Carboniferous, lower part | Upper 
Baggy Beds ... 2 Coomhola Beds Devonian. 


I am quite prepared to admit the possibility that the Lower 
Carboniferous series is represented in North Devon and in South- 
West Ireland, but at present I am not sufficiently conversant with 
the paleontology of the Pilton Beds to discuss the question. For its 
settlement, moreover, some further field-work would be required. 

Wueetton Hinp. 


STOKE-oN-TRENT. 
September 13th, 1904. 


MISCHILGAN HOUS. 


——=—— 


Eonrrus: a Cuance ror Coriectors!—We have learnt from 
Mr. Benjamin Harrison, of Ightham, that, with the kind permission 
of Sir Mark Collett, the present owner of the property, he has 
recently opened a fine section in the Holithic Drift on Terrys Lodge 
crest. Mr. Harrison hopes that anyone desirous of studying this 
drift for themselves will take advantage of this opportunity. 


N 0. 485. Decade V.—Vol. I.—No. XI. Price 1s. 6d. net. 


THE 


GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE 


oR, 


ditonthly Jounal of Geologn. 


WITH WHICH IS INCORPORATED 


“THE GEOLOGIST.” 


EDITED BY 


HeaN RY WOODWARD, LEDs) /F.R.S:, F:G.Si, &e 
ASSISTED BY 
WILFRID H. HUDLESTON, F.R.S., &c., Dk. GEORGE J, HINDE, F.R.S., &c., AND 
HORACE B. WOODWARD, F.R.S., &c. 


NOVEMBER, 1904. 


CP @ GING FE eEn INES 


. OniernaAL ARTICLES. PAGE , Notices or Mremorrs—continued. PAGE 
1. A Gigantic Land Tortoise from 3. Plant Petrifactions trom Devons 


Egypt. By C. W. Anprews, 
D.Se., F.G.S. (With Plate 
XVII and Figure in the text.) 

. The Lower Culm of North 
Devon. By A. Vauenan, B.A., 
D.Sc., ete. 

. The Rhetic Rocks at Charfield. 
By L. Ricwarpson, F.G.8. ... 

. Minor British Earthquakes of 
1901-1903. By C. Davison, 
Se.D., F.G.S. (With 2 Text- 
Illustrations.) 


shire. By EK. A. N. Arber, M.A., 
F.L.S., F.G.S. 

. Fossil Plants in Culm of Devon. 
By E. A. N: Arber, -M.A., 
F.L.S., F.G.S. 

. Chalk in Aberdeenshire. 
A. W. Gibb, F.G.S. 

. Edenvale Caves. By Dr. R. F. 
Scharff, F.1..S., ete. 

. Brief Notices 


. REVIEWS. 


. Boulders from the Cambridge b AY 1 
Dritts.9 By KR. H. Rasratt, : oe of ae By Heke 
B.A., F.G.S. _ Stanford’s Geological Atlas 


: ae Capture in the Don . Guide to the Natural History 


. and (4) Glaciation of the Don and 
Dearne Valleys. By the Rev. 5 h " 
BE Coon, Mek GS. 548 | 7 ag ee Se ee 

II. Nortczs or Memorrs. 
1. Cretaceous Phosphatic-beds and . OBITUARY. 
their Fauna. By G. W. 1. R. F. Tomes, J.P., F.G.S8. 


Mampluche GS.) c<2..- esos: 551 2. Professor J. B. Hatcher 
2. Modifications of Zircon. By 


L. J. Spencer, M.A., F.G.S.... 552 | V. MiscELLANEOuS 
LONDON: DULAU & CO., 37, SOHO SQUARE:~ 


. Huxley’s Physiography 


ts The Volume for 1903 of the GEOLOGICAL MAGAZINE is ready, 
_ price 20s. net. Cloth Cases for Binding may be had, price 1s. 6d. net. 


Robert F. Damon, 


WEYMOUTH, 


Begs to call attention to his Varied Stock of 


NATURAL HISTORY SPECIMENS, 


CONSISTING OF 


rlinerals, Fossil and Recent Shells, also 
Fishes, Reptilia, Crustacea, Echinodermata, 
etc., etc., Dry and in Spirit. 


Mounted Reptilia and Fishes (Lidth de Jeude Collection) To ba woliates 
Cabinet of Insects, etc., in 24 glazed drawers (Godeffroy Collection) \ very low figure. 
100 Species of Foreign Fishes in Spirits (Godeffroy Collection) ses * : 
250 do. do. do. acs ZO RSO UG 

50 Species of Foreign Amphibia and Reptilia do. = 110 0 
100 do. Crustacea do, ae 210-0 


The following also in Spirits : 

Sphenodon punctatum, Metopocerus cornutus, Crocodilus acutus, 
Clemmys rugosa, Homalochilus striatus, Alsophis anomalus, 
Hydrallmania, etc., etc., etc. 

1,600 Species of British Fossils, £100. 
Various Reptilian Remains and Ammonites from the Lias of Lyme Regis. 
Slab of Extracrinus briareus, showing several heads. 


10 Species (35 Specimens) Fishes tae ane : £ Visage 
16 Species (60 Specimens) Crustacea ... Lower Carboniferous, 10 0 0 


29 Species (74 Specimens) Mollusca, etc., etc. Beoulnd. 
Collection of Old Red Sandstone Fishes... Ne ia As .. Loree 
200 Species Silurian Mollusca, etc. ; & sh18 
Slab (30 cm. by 68 cm.) of Trigonia clavellata, Eee ite Coral Hue 

Weymouth ae 3 0 0 
Fine Slab (61 cm. by 71 cm. i: poniene aiee Giese Fossil Shells ion 

the Inferior Oolite, Dorset nome a, exe we ate 32 3) Jo nO 
Another Slab (36 cm. by 54 cm.) 115.90 


Collection of Alpine Fossils, 87 Species (347 Specimens). 

Vertebrate Remains from the Pliocene Tertiary, Siwalik Hills, India. 

Rudistes, Hippurites, Requienia, etc.: Cretaceous (Senonien), Dordogne. 

A Grand Collection of Fishes, beautifully preserved, from the Cretaceous Beds of 
the Lebanon, Syria. (Described by Mr. J. Davis and others.) 


Bothriolepis, Eusthenopteron, Phaneropleuron, etc., from the 
Devonian of Canada. 


200 Specimens of Rocks from Puy-de- Dome. 
100 Specimens of Rocks and Minerals for Schools, ete. 


150 Specimens of Rocks from Great Britain, including 43 Specimens of Igneous 
and Metamorphic Rocks from Scotland. £3 10s. 


‘AZIS [LANIVU YIXIS-9uo jNoqy) 


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ydAsy ‘unARy ‘ous00y addy ! smospuy ‘wommup OpHnysa | 


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ENN al al Pelt a] VOb! VIN LOU*) 


GROLOGICAL MAGAZINE. 


NEW. SERIES. DECADE Vv. VOM TILES 


No. XI.—NOVEMBER, 1904. 


ORIGINAL ARTICLHS. 


I.—Note on THE Gicantic Lanp Tortoise (Zzstupo <Aumuon, 
ANDREWS), FROM THE Upper Hocenr or Heyret. 


By C. W. Anpruws, D.Se., F.G.S., British Museum (Natural History). 
(PLATE. XVII.) 


E the course of his excavations in the Upper Eocene beds of the 
‘Fayim during the early part of 1902, Mr. H. J. L. Beadnell 
unearthed a remarkably fine shell of a very large species of Testudo. 
A brief description of this specimen! was afterwards published in 
Cairo by the present writer, and it was made the type of a new 
species, T'estudo Ammon. At the same time Mr. Beadnell gave | 
a short account of the beds in which it was. found, and of the 
methods employed by him for its preservation and transport to 
the Museum in Cairo. 

Owing to the fact that when the original description was drawn 
up the shell was still imperfectly freed from matrix, some mistakes 
were made, the most important being the statement that there was 
no epidermal nuchal shield. It can now be seen that this was 
present, though it happens that in the type-specimen it is smaller 
and less distinctly marked than in other shells since found, including | 
several specimens in Cairo and two in the British Museum. 

Plate XVITis a side view of the type-specimen, and the diagram in 
the text (p. 528). shows the structure of the carapace in this species. 
Seen from above, the shell is somewhat quadrate in outline, owing 
to the prominence of: the slightly everted antero-lateral and postero- 
lateral portions of the border.. The carapace is strongly arched, 
and the vertebral shields form prominent bosses, separated trom 
one another and from the costals by deep depressions ; the costals 
themselves are also somewhat convex. ‘The anterior border of the 
carapace is slightly emarginate, and there was an epidermal nuchal 
shield. There are seven neural bones and three pygals ; the latter 
form a protective covering for the tail and pEOIE! below the level 


aa Preliminary Notice of a Land Tortoise from the Upier Kocene of the 
Fayaim, Esypt,”’: by C: W. Andrews’and H. J. LL. Beadnell, Survey Department, 
Cairo, 1903. 


DECADE V.—VOL. I.—wNO. XI. 31 


528 Dr. C. W. Andrews—Gigantie Eocene Land Tortoise. 


of the rest of the border of the carapace. They are very convex, 
both from side to side and from above downwards, and were covered 
by the last neural and the pygal shields. 

The sides of the bridge between the plastron and the carapace 
are greatly thickened and form a prominent border. The plastron 
itself is larger, and the openings of the shell were consequently 
smaller, and the soft parts therefore better protected than in most 
of the later gigantic species of the genus; possibly this peculiarity 


Diagram of carapace of Testwdo Ammon. C 1-4, costal shields; MZ 1-11, marginal 
shields; WV 1-4, neural shields; Nw, nuchal shield; Py, pygal shield. 
e 1-8, costal bones; m 1-11, marginal bones; » 1-7, neural bones ; 
nu, nuchal bone; py 1-8, pygal bones. The outlines of the bones of the 
carapace are marked in dotted lines, those of the epidermal shields in 
black lines. 


may be connected with the circumstance that large and powerful 
carnivores coexisted with the present species, while most of the 
more recent types are or were inhabitants of islands in which no 
such powerful enemies are found. In some of the earlier Tertiary 
species of Europe (e.g. Zestudo gigas of the Upper Oligocene of 
France) the plastron is likewise large, possibly for a similar reason. 


Dr. C. W. Andrews—Gigantic Eocene Land Tortoise. 529 


In the type and in several other specimens the epiplastral region 
is produced forwards so as to project considerably beyond the 
anterior border of the carapace; this epiplastral prominence, like 
the deep concavity of the middle portion of the plastron, is probably 
a male character. In the Museum at Cairo there is a beautifully 
preserved shell of which the carapace differs very slightly from 
that of the type (e.g. in the smaller degree of convexity of the 
vertebral shields), while the plastron is very dissimilar. In the 
first place it is only slightly concave, then the epiplastral region, 
though prominent, is not produced forward in the same way, and 
lastly the portion of the xiphiplastrals covered by the anal shields 
is much narrower, so that the posterior emargination of the plastron 
is narrower and its angle more acute ; this specimen may be regarded 
as probably the female form of the present species. 
The dimensions of the type-specimen (Plate XVII) are :— 


Length of the carapace in a straight line ... S38 ase 87 cent. 
Length of carapace along curve... ado 200 sto LIS. 9g 
Width of car apace in str raight line ... Ba He ae IB op 
Width of carapace along curve ths se i: saa eS | Ae 
Length of plastron (greatest) a8 Lee a wes Somes 
Width of anterior lobe of plastron ... 500 SS a BB 59 
Width of posterior lobe a ou fo ee sae BA 
Width of episternal prolongation ... hs re son 15) pe 


The dimensions of the female specimen are much smaller; some 
of these are :— 


Length of carapace 51°3 cent. 
Width of carapace .. Bei) On 
Length of plastron... 45°2 ,, 
Width of anterior lobe of plastron 21 as 
Width of posterior lobe... 2225 5, 


In the former account, owing to the fact that the presence of 
a nuchal shield was not recognised, it was stated that these species 
approached the Galapagos tortoises rather than those of the African 
islands. Now, however, it seems possible that there may be some 
relationship with the species inhabiting Madagascar and the Aldabra 
Islands, a mach more probable suggestion. 

The presence of the nuchai shield, on the other hand, separates this 
form somewhat more widely from some of the Tertiary species with 
which it has been compared. Nevertheless, in many respects it is 
similar to Testudo perpiniana, described by Depéret and Donnezan 
from the Lower Pliocene of Roussillon, and it may also be allied to 
T. léberonis, Depéret, from the Miocene of Mount Lebéron, and 
T. gigas, Bravard, from the Upper Oligocene of the Allier. 

As was suggested in the former note, “it seems probable that in 
the present species we have an early representative of a large group 

_of tortoises, members of which occur at several horizons in the 
Tertiary beds of Europe, and of which 7. pardalis and T. calcarata 
may be modern forms. T. Atlas and T. Cautleyi, of the Siwalik 
Hills, and the still existing 7. Sumeirez, of Mauritius, may also fall 
into this group.” To this it may be added that probably the giant 
species of Madagascar and the Aldabra Islands are also related. 


530 = Dr. A. Vaughan—The Lower Culm of North Devon. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVII. 


Shell of the type-specimen of Zestudo Ammon, photographed from the side. Reduced 
to about % natural size. From the Upper Kocene beds of the Fayam, Egypt. 

Reproduced from a photograph made in the Geological Museum, Cairo: copied with 
the permission of Captain H. G. Lyons, F.G.S., the Director-General of 
the Geological Survey of Egypt. The original specimen was obtained 
by H. J. ibe Beadnell, Esq., F.G.S., of the Geological Survey, during his: 
excavations in the Faytim early in 1902. 


IJ.—Nore on tHe Lower Cutm or Nortu Devon. 
By Artuur Vaucuan, B.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. 


pee the GrotocicaAL Macazine, August, 1904, pp. 892-403, 
Wheelton Hind describes the Lower Culm beds of North 
Det and assigns them to the ‘ Pendleside’ series. 

From the original paper! dealing with that series I gather that in 
the North of England the ‘ Pendleside’ beds lie above the uppermost 
zone of the Carboniferous Limestone, and are the equivalents of 
the Millstone Grit of the South Wales and Mendip areas. Dr. Hind’s 
contention is, then, that the Lower Culm of North Devon was laid 
down at a time subsequent to the deposition of the whole of the 
Carboniferous Limestone of the Mendips and South Wales. 

The Carboniferous Limestone of South Wales, Chepstow, Bristol, 
and the Mendips lies but a short distance N.E., N., and N.W. of the 
Culm crop. It seems then highly probable that, if any difference 
exists, the faunal sequence in North Devon will resemble that of the 
neighbouring areas, rather than that of Lancashire and the Midlands. 

It is, without doubt, an astonishing instance of the geographical 
inversion of the faunal sequence that Brachiopods and Corals which, 
in the North, occur in supra-Viséan beds should, in the South, be 
only characteristic of infra-Viséan rocks. 

Remarkable as this phenomenon unquestionably is, it scarcely 
affects the purpose of this note, which is to demonstrate that, if the 
faunal sequence in North Devon is identical with that in the neighbouring 
areas, the Lower Culm must be placed, not above the Viséan, but 
well below the uppermost limit of the Tournaisian or lower division 
of the Carboniferous Limestone. 

If the Carboniferous Limestone be studied in the extreme west 
at Tenby, in the neighbourhood of Severn Tunnel Junction, or in 
the Forest of Dean, in the Sodbury and Bristol areas, or at its most 
southerly crop in the Mendips, the faunal sequence is essentially 
the same at all points; furthermore, this result is deduced from 
continuous sections in which there is no possibility of misreading 
the order of the beds. Throughout the Carboniferous Limestone 
outcrop which lies nearest to the Culm of North Devon the faunal 
facies varies from zone to zone, but the same fossil assemblage 
always characterizes the same horizon, even if the points at which 


1««The Pendleside Group at Pendle Hill, etc.,” by Dr. Wheelton Hind and 
Mr. J. A. Howe: Q.J.G.8., vol. lvii (1901), p. 388. 


Dr. A. Vaughan—The Lower Culm of North Devon. 531 


it is examined lie 100 miles apart, as in the case of Tenby and 
the Mendips. , 

(The detailed demonstration of this fact is fully set out in 
a torthcoming paper, of which an abstract has already been 
published! From this abstract it is only necessary to extract the 
following information: The Cleistopora zone is succeeded by the 
4aphrentis zone, and the Zaphrentis zone by the laminosa subzone, 
and these three zones make up the Tournaisian or lower division 
of the Carboniferous Limestone.) 

Iam much indebted to Mr. J. G. Hamling, F.G.S., of Barnstaple, 
for his kindness in sending me, for examination at my leisure, 
the Brachiopods and Corals which he has collected from Coddon 
Hill and neighbouring localities. These specimens are mostly 
casts, but this character increases rather than lessens the certainty 
of their determination. The arrangement of the muscular scars 
in the Brachiopods and the grouping of the septa, the nature 
of the fossula, and the cystoid tabule of the Zaphrentes are 
beautifully shown in many of the specimens. I have also been 
able to compare Mr. Hamling’s specimens with a large series of 
very similar casts collected by myself at Undy (about two miles 
west of Severn Tunnel Junction), where a similar faunal assemblage 
is to be found. 

The results of my examination are as follows :— 


Coppon Hitt anp LANDKEY. SoutH or SoutH ALLER; 
Chonetes Hardrensis,” vars. Norru-west or Sout Mouton. 
Leptena analoga. Cleiothyris Reyssii (mut. B). 
Rhipidomella Michelini. Chonetes Hardrensis,? var. 
Cleiothyris glabristria. Spirifer aff. clathratus. 


Orbiculoidea, sp. 
Zaphrentis att. Phillipsi. 


All the specimens from which the above lists are drawn up are 
not merely similar, but are actual duplicates of forms which occur _ 
in the neighbouring areas at the horizons to which I assign the beds ; 
hence the deductions here drawn require no effort of paleontological 
subtilty. 

In the surrounding area every one of the above fossils to 
which I have assigned a specific name (i.e. with the exception of 
Orbiculoidea) is confined to the Tournaisian, and does not occur in any 
higher beds. 

I further deduce from the above faunal lists that the Coddon Hill 
Beds belong certainly to the Zaphrentis zone, but that those near 
South Molton lie at a somewhat lower level, and may be either 
upper Cleistopora zone or the lowest part of the Zuphrentis zone. 
Assuming, then, that the Posidonomya shales lie immediately 
above the Coddon Hill Beds (a fact of which both Dr. Hind and 
Mr. Hamling are convinced), my conclusions seem to be in agreement 


1 Abstract of Proc. Geol. Soc., June 8th, 1904, 
2 Hardrensis is merely used as a connotative term, and for this purpose it is 
preferable to agwessiana, which implies a particular member of the circulus. 


032 L. Richardson—Rhetic Rocks at Charfield. 


with those of Dr. J. H. Parkinson, who refers! similar beds in 
Germany to the Tournaisian division. 


Since writing the above note Mr. T. F. Sibley, B.Sc., has drawn 
my attention to two specimens of a coral which he had himself 
obtained from Coddon Hill, from beds in which he found none of 
the fossils enumerated in the above lists. This coral is, I have 
little doubt, the species of Cyathophyllum which characterizes the 
upper beds of the laminosa subzone in the Mendip, Bristol, and 
South Wales areas. Not only, then, do the Brachiopods and Corals 
of the typical Coddon Hill Beds agree with those which are 
characteristic of the main Zaphrentis zone in the surrounding 
areas, but higher and lower horizons in the Tournaisian division 
seem also to be represented in the immediate neighbourhood. 

It is necessary, however, to state that I am not personally 
acquainted with the Coddon Hill district, and that my knowledge 
of the fossils is entirely derived from specimens collected by other 
geologists. 


III.—Notes on tHe Ruamtic Rocks arounp CHARFIELD, 
GLOUCESTERSHIRE. 


By L. Ricuarpson, F.G.S. 


fJ\HE object of this communication is to record some recently-made 
notes on the Rheetic beds of the neighbourhood of Charfield. 

In 1876 Mr. H. B. Woodward, F.R.S., wrote: “Turning to the 
escarpment of Penarth beds between Tites Point and Wickwar, we 
find them exposed in many places. Long ago Sir Roderick Murchison 
stated that ‘passages from the Lias into the underlying New Red 
Sandstone can be observed in the sides of Whitecliff Park Hills, 
south of Berkeley; but the clearest and best instances are to the 
east of Wickwar, near Sturt Bridge, on the sides of the new road 
ascending to Wotton.’”? This is all that has been written on 
the area now under consideration. As is well known, the junction 
of the Rheetic and Keuper Series is usually marked by a low but 
distinct escarpment. Between Tites Point and Berkeley Road 
Station this physical feature is not pronounced, but becomes 
gradually more prominent to the south of the Junction. 

At Standhill Green, near Stinchcombe, a section of considerable 
interest can be studied in the banks and bed of a small brook. Its 
position is approximately indicated by an arrow on the Geological 
Survey Map, Sheet xxxv. 


Section In Brook at STANDHILL GREEN, STINCHCOMBE. 


1. Limestone mixed with marl. ft. ins. 
Bo 2. Pale-yellow marls much disturbed. 
IS a 3. Estheria-bed, 2to6imches . . 0 4 Lycopodites lanceolatus, 
5 = Estheria minuta, var. 
Ss Brodieana. 
. 4. Pale-yellow marls . . . about 6 0 Full of shell-fragments. 


1 Grou. Mac., June, 1904, pp. 272-276. 
* Mem. Geol. Surv., ‘‘ Geology of East Somerset and the Bristol Coalfields ’” 
(1876), p. 74; see also “ Silurian System,” p. 449. 


LI. Richardson—Rhetic Rocks at Charfield, 833 


ft. ins. 

5a. Shales, dark, marly . . about 1 0 Shell-débris. 

5b. Limestone, hard, aah grey arena- nt 0 2 Gyrolepis Alberti (scale), 

ceous, 0 to 3 inches a { Pecten valoniensis. 

6. Shales, ‘thickly laminated . about 1 6 Cardium cloacinum, Proto- 
cardium rheticum, Schi- 
zodus Ewaldi, Avicula 
contorta, Modiola sp. 


7. Limestone, dark - grey, almost ( Sehizodus, Protocardium 
tubbly, earthy, 2 to 3 inches . 0 8 rheticumn, Piacunopsis 
] alpina. 


8. / Shales, black, somewhat firm, seen 0 6 
[Gap.] 
. ¢ Shales, black, thinly laminated,seen 2 0 Schizodus Hwaldi (rare). 
10. Shales, black, laminated, ‘with 
11. “yellow steaks, gle (oo nt wilh 9 


12. Shales, dark-grey, non-laminated, 
TCREOOUS 5 6 6 bo) 5 4 OO 


Crowded with  Schizodus 
Ewaldi; Pleurophorus angu- 
latus, Protocardium rheti- 
cum, Avicula contorta. 

18. Saudstone, usually very pyritic . 0 1 Scales and teeth of Gyrolepis 
Alberti, Plesiosawrus (small 
tooth), Acrodus minimus ? 


Lower Ruzric. 
ide) 


14. Shales, black, oftensandy . . . 0 2 
15. Sandstone, light-grey, ee 3 


§ Gyrolepis Alberti (scales), 
sometimes pyritic, 2 to 4 inches 


(casts of Schizodus (?). 
Kaurrr. I. ‘Tea-green Marls,’? seen. . . 1 8 


The beds from the ‘Tea-green Marls’ to No. 9 can be studied 
in the side of a small pond. Unfortunately it is impossible to 
obtain the exact thickness of each bed, and the upper portion 
of the section is considerably obscured. The basement bed is 
a conspicuous stratum of grey, calcareous sandstone, sometimes 
pyzitic, but with few vertebrate-remains. It forms the bed of 
the brook at the fence near the little pond. Slightly higher up- 
stream a thin layer of very pyritic rock can be observed, and if 
a piece be removed will be found to be separated by a deposit 
of shale two inches thick from the basal Rheetic bed. This pyritic 
sandstone (13) occasionally occurs in two layers, the lower being 
of ‘bone-bed’ nature. When conjoined, the inferior portion is full 
of fish-remains. Immediately above are dark-grey, non-laminated 
shales, crowded with specimens of Schizodus Hwaldi, especially at 
the base. The Lower Pecten-bed (7) crops out in the stream, 
but contains few fossils. The precise thickness of the shale-deposit 
intervening between this bed and the next limestone band is 
uncertain. Higher up-stream this second limestone band crops 
out, and the shale immediately below is excessively fossiliferous, 
the specimens being very well preserved. Cardium cloacinum is 
especially abundant. Bed 5b, however, is intermittent, occurring 
sometimes in nodule-shaped masses. 

In order to study the lower portion of the Upper Rhetic Stage 
it is necessary to proceed down-stream again, when a steep portion 
of the bank will be noticed on the left-hand side. At the top of this 
bank, under the roots of a tree, is the Estheria-bed. The phyllopod 
and the plant-remains, however, are rare: as is usually the case, 


5384 L. Richardson—Rhetie Rocks at Charfield. 


they occur in the cream-coloured and less compact portion of 
the bed. 

In the more immediate neighbourhood of Charfield and Wickwar 
the Rheetic beds crop out in the sides of ramifying valleys of much 
picturesqueness, but few deeply-cut lanes traverse their sides, and 
consequently there are few exposures of the beds under consideration. 
In a field a quarter of a mile due south of Neathwood Farm is a pond 
in the sides of which limestones and grey marls are exposed, but 
they are somewhat disturbed. No distinctive fossils were found, 
but the deposits belong probably to the upper portion of the Upper 
Rheetic Stage. Fragments of a slightly conglomeratic bed, probably 
on the horizon of the Cotham Marble, yielded crushed specimens 
of Modiola minima and Pseudomonotis decussata and fish-scales 
(Legnonotus cothamensis, Egerton). 

Red Marls, ‘Tea-green Marls,’ and Rheetic black shales are 
exposed in the sides of Chase Hill Lane. Resting directly upon 
the ‘Tea-green Marls’ is the Bone-bed, but it is not a very 
extensive deposit at this locality, since one or two masses were 
all that rewarded the writer’s investigation. But these are crowded 
with vertebrate-remains, the fish-scales being unusually large. The 
matrix in which these fossils are imbedded is a hard, grey, crystalline 
limestone, with irregular, but nevertheless conspicuously rolled 
pieces of what appears to be ‘Tea-green Marl’ marlstone and of 
less compact green marl. Obscure casts of a Schizodus-type of 
Lamellibranch are not uncommon, and a broad form of Modiola 
was also recorded. There are a few small quartz-pebbles, many 
coprolites, Sawrichthys acuminatus, Acrodus minimus, Hybodus minor, 
H. cloacinus, Gyrolepis Alberti, and many other remains in a very 
fragmentary condition. Above are black shales. 

About half a mile to the east of the place where this highly 
fossiliferous bed was discovered the road branches; that to the 
right leads into a little valley and crosses a brook near a cottage. 
In one side of this brook shales are visible underlain by a greenish 
argillaceous limestone about seven inches thick, with a mammillated 
surface. In places the limestone passes into marl. This bed may 
be the equivalent of the Estheria-bed, but no fossils were noted. 

Close at hand, in the stream-side to the east of the cottage, the 
Cotham Marble is well exposed, and this is the most northerly point 
at which the writer has noticed it in its typical form. 


SECTION NEAR CuaAse Hitt, Wickwar. 


{t. ins. 
a (Shales, pale-green, calcareous, with a 
PS | few thin hard layers near base. 
Limestone, dark, earthy 0 1  Ostrea liassica, Modiola 


minima (abundant). 

Shale-parting "(i 3h). 0s ee sr 080 02 

Limestone, hard, dark. . . . . . 0 82 Ostrea liassica (abundant), 

\ Modiola minima. 
Cotham Marble. The top portion is 
very rubbly; the remainder a good 


‘landscape stone’  . . . . . . 0 5  Fish-scales in upper portion. 


Ruztic. Lowrr Li 
aon 


Dr. C. Davison—British Earthquakes. 909 


A little farther up the stream, bluish-grey shaly clays, with layers 
of earthy nodules, are exposed. About three-sixteenths of a mile to 
the south-west of the cottage, Cotham Marble can be seen near 
a spring. 

When stone is required for mending the tracks in the sylvan 
district composed of Stoneybridge, Bays, Litley, Workhall, and 
Hawkesbury Woods, shallow excavations are made, and the Cotham 
Marble is usually laid bare. It is present here in its typical form, 
and in cracks are frequently found iron-pyrites and _ baryto- 
celestine, whilst in the upper layers of the marble Pseudomonotis 
decussata is in places abundant. Ina quarry near the brook between 
Bays and Stoney bridge Woods, the Cotham Marble has been worked, 
and in close proximity to that bed must be limestones with Psiloceras 
Johnstoni. Above are clay-deposits, such as were noted in the stream- 
side near the cottage to the north of Hawkesbury Wood. 

The section in the lane near Sturt Bridge referred to by Murchison 
is overgrown now, unless it be that in Chase Hill Lane. 


TV.— On some Minor Brrirish HartTHquakEs OF THE YKARS 
1901-1903. 


By Cuarurs Davison, Sc.D., F.G.8. 


HE number of earthquakes originating within the area of the 
British Islands during the three years 1901-1908 is 37, of 
which 9 occurred in England, 20 in Scotland, and 8 in Wales. In 
the 15 years 1889-1903 the total number recorded is 152, 39 in 
England,’ 90 in Scotland, and 23 in Wales. So far as I know, not 
a single undoubted earthquake has originated in Ireland during this 
period; but four earthquakes (the Pembroke earthquakes of 1892 
and 1898, the Hereford earthquake of 1896, and the Carnarvon 
earthquake of 1903) were felt in many of the eastern counties. 


List or Harruquakes, 1901-1908. 


1901.—July 9, 4.23 p.m. Carlisle (principal earthquake). 
» about 4.26 p.m. Carlisle. 
,» 4.45 p.m. Carlisle. 
July 11, about 11.10 p.m. Carlisle. 
Sept. 16, 6.4 p.m. Inverness. 
Sept. 18, 1.24 a.m. Inverness (principal earthquake). 


_ about 1.35 a.m. Inverness. 
a about 2a.m. Inverness. 

a about 2.30 a.m. Inverness. 
fe about 5 a.m. Inverness. 

Ms 3.06 a.m. Inverness. 


Sy 9am. Inverness. 
Sept. 23, about 7.50 a.m. Inverness. 


1 Excluding the slight shock felt on Aug. 27, 1895, near Blisland (Cornwall), 
svhich may have been caused by a fault-slip precipitated by mining operations. 


536 Dr. C. Davison—British Earthquakes. 


Sept. 26, 11.40 a.m. Inverness. 
Sept. 27, 1.47 p.m. Inverness. 
Sept. 28, about 4a.m. Inverness. 
Sept. 29, 9.6 p.m. Inverness. 
Sept. 80, 3.59 a.m. Inverness, 
Oct. 1, about 4.35 a.m. Inverness. 
Oct. 6, 4.24 a.m. Inverness. 
Oct. 18, 4.24 p.m. Inverness. 
Oct. 22, about 10.15 a.m. Inverness. 
Nov. 15, about noon. Inverness. 
1902.—April 18, about 11.50 a.m. Hessle (East Yorkshire). 
Oct. 14, 5.15 p.m. Strontian (Inverness-shire). 
1908.— Mar. 24, 1.80 p.m. Derby (principal earthquake). 
B about 1.45 p.m. Derby. 
x about 6 p.m. Derby. 
May 3, 9.22 p.m. Derby. 
June 19, about 4.25 a.m. Carnarvon. 


és 10.4 a.m. Carnarvon (principal earthquake). 
X, 10.9 a.m. Carnarvon. 

“ 10.12 a.m. Carnarvon. 

qi 10.16 a.m. Carnarvon. 

" 11.8 a.m. Carnarvon. 


June 21, 8.6 a.m. Carnarvon. 
July 1, 1.16 am. Bala. 


The four series of earthquakes, including 34 out of the 37 shocks 
recorded, have been described in the following papers :— 

“The Carlisle Harthquakes of July 9th and 11th, 1901”: Quart. 
Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. lviii (1902), pp. 871-3876. 

“The Inverness Earthquake of September 18th, 190i, and its 
accessory shocks”: ibid., pp. 877-897. 

“The Derby Earthquakes of March 24th and May sdrd, 1905” : 
ibid., vol. 1x (1904), pp. 215-282. 

“The Caernarvon Harthquake of June 19th, 1908, and its accessory 
shocks”: ibid., pp. 253-242. 

The other three shocks, together with some doubtful or spurious 
earthquakes, form the subject of the present paper. A few earth- 
shakes in mining districts (at Camborne on June 4 and 10, 1902, 
and Barnsley on October 25, 1903) will be described shorts in 

a separate paper. 


Hesstze EartrHquake: Aprit 13, 1902. 


Time of occurrence, about 11.50 a.m.; intensity, 4; centre of 
isoseismal 4 in lat. 53° 33:4’ N., long. 1° 11:5’ W.; number of 
records, 34, from 28 places, and 77 negative records from 76 
places. (Fig. 1.) 

Hessle lies on the north shore of the Humber, about 4 miles west 
of Hull. As a rule, the shock was felt only in villages, and, as it 
occurred on a Sunday during the morning service, I have found 
it difficult to obtain many records. The only isoseismal that can 
be drawn is that which corresponds to the intensity 4 (Fig. 1). 


Dr. O. Davison—British Earthquakes. Oot 


It is 34 miles long, 223 miles wide, and about 600 square miles 
in area. Its centre lies 15 miles south-west of Hessle, the longer 
axis being directed from EH. 25° N. to W. 25° S. Outside the 
isoseismal 4, a tremulous motion was also felt under favourable 
conditions at Clarborough (84 miles to the south), Hull, Beverley, 
and Beeford (24, 7, and 17 miles to the north-east), and Leeds, 
Horsforth, and Rawdon (24, 28, and 380 miles to the north-west). 
The sound was also heard at Clarborough, Hull, and Horsforth. 

The shock consisted of a single series of vibrations, increasing 
in intensity to a maximum and then dying away. The average 
duration of the shock was about 4 seconds. 


Scale of Miles Hult 


© Crowle 


° Stainforth 


° Belton 


Blyboro ugh 
y ° 
wnitierdy 


Gainsborough 
° 


Fig. 1.—Diagram Map of the Hessle Harthquake: April 13, 1902. 


The sound was heard by 96 per cent. of the observers ; and was: 
compared in 48 per cent. of the records to passing vehicles of various 
kinds, in 38 per cent. to thunder, and in 14 per cent. to wind. The 
beginning of the sound preceded that of the shock in 42 per cent. 
of the records, coincided with it in 50, and followed it in 8 per 
cent. ; the end of the sound preceded that of the shock in 10 per cent., 
coincided with it in 50, and followed it in 40 per cent. 

With regard to the origin of the earthquake, I can offer no 
suggestion, except that the direction of the originating fault was 
probably about E.N.E. and W.S.W. On the Geological Survey 
map of the district (Sheet 86) only one fault is marked, and this 
is 4 or 5 miles from the epicentre and inclined to the longer axis 
of the disturbed area. 


StrontIAN HAarRTHQUAKE: Oct. 14, 1902. 


Time of occurrence, about 5.15 p.m.; intensity, 5; centre of 
isoseismal 5 in lat. 56° 44:4’ N., long. 5° 30:5’ W.; number of 
records, 47, from 38 places, and 88 negative records from 33 
places. (Tig. 2.) 


538 Dr. C. Davison—British Earthquakes, 


The curves in Fig. 2 represent isoseismal lines of intensities 
5 and 4. The former curve, which is the less accurately drawn 
of the two, is 884 miles long, 22 miles wide, and 670 square miles 
in area. Its centre is situated 4 miles N. 10° E. of Strontian, and 
its longer axis runs from E. 36° N. to W. 36° 8. The isoseismal 4 
is 49 miles long, 31 miles wide, and contains 1,180 square miles. 
Its longer axis is parallel to that of the isoseismal 5; the distance 
between the two curves, as drawn, being 5 miles towards the north- 
west and 4 miles towards the south-east. Outside this isoseismal, 
the sound was heard at Kinlochhourn, Roy Bridge, and Fasnacloich, 
the shock being also felt at the last-named place. All three places 
are 4 miles from the isoseismal, and lie respectively towards the 
north, east, and south-east. 


Scale of Miles 


° Kinloch Atlore 
Glenfinnan 


Duisky 


° 
Scameadale 


Drimnin 
° 


S 


° 
> Gare \ 


/\ 


SS, 


Glen Forsa 


Fie. 2.—Diagram Map of the Strontian Earthquake: Oct. 14, 1902. 


The shock consisted of a single series of vibrations, which 
increased in intensity and then died away, the average duration 
of the movement being 3 seconds. 

The sound was heard by 98 per cent. of the observers. It was 
compared to a passing train or heavy vehicle in 43 per cent. of 
the records, to thunder in 48, wind in 8, and to miscellaneous 
sounds in 11 per cent. The beginning of the sound preceded that 
of the shock in 71 per cent. of the records, and coincided with it 
in 29 per cent.; while the end of the sound coincided with that 


Dr. C. Davison—British Earthquakes. 539 


of the shock in 40 per cent. of the records, and followed it in 
‘60 per cent. In every case the duration of the sound was greater 
than that of the shock. 

We may infer, from the seismic evidence, that the mean direction 
of the originating fault is from EH. 36° N. to W. 86° S. Its hade is 
probably to the north-west, and, if so, the fault must pass a short 
distance to the south-east of the centre of the isoseismal 5, and 
probably not far from Strontian. It is possible, however, that the 
course of the isoseismal 5 is not drawn with sufficient accuracy to 
determine the hade of the fault. Mr. Horne kindly informs me that 
“the ground has not been surveyed west of Strontian, but the 
ground between Loch Hil and Glen Gower has been finished and 
west to Glen Strontian.” No faults, he adds, have been detected 
in the position indicated above, though the Great Glen fault sends 
off a branch along the west side of Loch Linnhe. 


Bata Eartaquake: Jury 1, 19038. 


Time of occurrence, 1.16 a.m.; intensity, 4; number of records, 
10, from 5 places, and 3 negative records from 3 places. 

Most of the records on which this brief account is founded 
I owe to the kindness of Mr. T. Ruddy, of Palé, near Corwen. 
The five places at which the shock was felt are Bala, Brynbwlan, 
Llandderfel, Pale, and Tynddynllan (near Llandrillo); and the 
three places from which no records are forthcoming are Bryn 
Tegid, Eryl Aran, and Rhos-y-gwaliau. All of the first five places 
lie close tothe great Bala fault, and it is probable that the earthquake 
was caused by a slip along this fault or one of its branches. The 
connection with the fault cannot, however, be considered as proved ; 
for the observations do not provide sufficient places for determining 
the boundary of the disturbed area. The length of this area in 
the direction of the fault is about 7 miles. 

Mr. Ruddy described the shock at Palé as consisting of a single 
series of horizontal vibrations, lasting 4 or 5 seconds, increasing in 
intensity to a maximum and then dying away, the direction of the 
movement being from west toeast. It was accompanied by a rushing 
noise, which other observers compared to thunder or the beating 
noise of a motor-car. 


DovustruL HARTHQUAKES. 


Two slight shocks were felt on October 19 and 22, 1901, in the 
district surrounding Framlingham, a small town in Suffolk about 
14 miles north-east of Ipswich. 

Framlingham Earth-shake: Oct. 19, 1901.—Time of occurrence, 
about 7.25 p.m.; intensity, 4; centre of isoseismal 4 in lat. 
52° 12:6’ N., long. 1° 15:0’ E.; number of records, 18, from 11 
‘places, and 27 negative records from 23 places. 

With one exception, the places where the shock was felt are 
included within a nearly circular area 63 miles long from east 
to west, 6 miles wide, and containing 31 square miles. Both shock 
and sound were observed at Rendlesham, 23 miles south of the 


540 Dr. C. Davison—British Earthquakes. 


isoseismal; and the sound was also heard, but no shock felt, at 
Dennington, one mile north-west, and Earl Soham, 3 miles west, 
of the same curve. The centre of the isoseismal is situated at 
a point one mile south-west of Swefling and 15 miles north-east 
of Ipswich. 

There was a sudden shock followed by a brief tremulous move- 
ment, lasting for a few seconds. The sound was heard by all 
observers, three of whom compared it to passing waggons, ete., 
one to thunder, one to the fall of a building, three to the fall of 
a heavy body, and six to explosions or the firing of a heavy gun. 
Thus, 9 out of 14 observers make use of types which are of short 
duration. 

Framlingham Earth-shake: Oct. 22, 1901.—Time of occurrence, 
about 9.15 a.m.; intensity, 4; centre of isoseismal 4 in lat. 
52° 12-7’ N., long. 1° 15:2’ E.; number of records, 22, from 13 
places, and 27 negative records from 238 places. 

With two exceptions, the shock was felt within an area of the 
same dimensions, and almost exactly the same position, as in the 
former earth-shake. The shock and sound were noticed at Earl 
Soham, 3 miles west of the isoseismal 4; the shock was also felt 
at Snape, one mile to the south-east, and the sound was heard at 
Cretingham, 34 miles to the west. 

The shock was similar to that of the first earth-shake, consisting 
of one prominent vibration followed by a tremulous motion, and 
lasting altogether about 3 seconds. The sound was heard by 18 
out of 20 observers, and was compared to thunder in 2 cases, to 
the fall of a heavy body in 7, and to explosions or the firing of 
heavy guns in 8 cases; 15 out of 17 comparisons being to types of 
short duration. 

Origin of the Earth-shakes.—While I am unable to point to any 
definite disturbances as the cause of the earth-shakes, their seismic 
origin seems to me doubtful for the following reasons :— 

(1) The shock was a sudden disturbance followed by a brief 
tremulous motion. 

(2) The sound was compared by nearly half the observers to 
that of an explosion or the firing of a heavy gun, and by more than 
three-quarters to types of brief duration. 

(8) While inquiries were made throughout the surrounding 
district, the places from which negative records come are, with 
one exception in each case, absent from the south-east of the 
disturbed area. 

These conditions seem to me to point to the firing of a moderately 
heavy gun some distance to the south-east, probably in the neigh- 
bourhood of Orford Ness, which is 14 miles §.E. of Framlingham. 
The shock and sound are such as would be so produced; and, in 
the immediate neighbourhood, would be assigned at once to their 
true cause. It is only at a distance of some miles from the origin 
that they begin to lead to the suspected occurrence of an earthquake. 
From the intermediate region it is usually difficult in such cases to 
obtain any records, either descriptive or negative. It is known that 


Dr. C. Davison—British Earthquakes. 541 


gun-practice is occasionally carried out in the neighbourhood of 
“Orford Ness ; but my inquiries (made some time after the occurrence) 
failed to establish the fact in this case. 

Church Stretton: April 4, 1903.—A slight shock, lasting about 
-3 seconds, and strong enough to make bedroom-ware rattle, was felt 
at about 2.30 am. A rumbling noise preceded the shock. (I am 
indebted for this notice to Mr. E. §. Cobbold, F.G.S.) 

Pontesbury (near Shrewsbury): May 8, 1903.—A very slight 
shock, without any rumbling noise, was felt at 10.20 p.m. at 
Pontesbury, and also at Worthen, about 6 miles to the west. 
(Information received from Rev. W. J. Lightfoot Harrison.) 

Iikley: May 17, 19038.—At 4.50 a.m, Mr. H. Stuart Thompson 
heard two apparently subterranean reports, like distant explosions, 
which were immediately followed by a shaking of about 2 seconds’ 
duration. 

Saffron Walden: Nov. 1 and 6, 19038.—Under the heading of 
“spurious earthquakes,” reference is made to some supposed earth- 
quakes that were caused by the explosion of fireworks on Novy. 1. 
Mr. Guy Maynard, of the Museum, Saffron Walden, to whom I am 
indebted for this information, has kindly given me the following 
notices of disturbances which were distinct from those caused by 
the fireworks. On Nov. 1, at 7.10 p.m., three distinct series of 
vibrations, each lasting about 5 seconds with intervals of 8 seconds 
between them, were felt at Newport, 4 miles south-west of Saffron 
Walden. No sound was heard with the vibrations. At about 
8.45 p.m. Mr. Maynard, while waiking a few miles from Walden, 
heard a long drawn-out rumbling, with two maxima of intensity, 
and lasting about half a minute. The rolling was too rapid and too 
loud to be caused by a train. Again, on Nov. 6, at 12.10 a.m., the 
serjeant of police and constables on night duty at Walden heard 
a heavy booming noise, lasting about half a minute, and causing the 
pheasants in the preserved woods round the town to cry out for 
about five minutes. ‘This, or a similar noise, was also heard at the 
same time at Stanstead (9 miles to the south of Saffron Walden), 
with the same effect on the pheasants in the neighbourhood. 


Spurious HarrHQuakss. 


Channel Islands and South Devon: April 24, 1901.—Between 1 and 
1.45 p.m. five reported earthquakes were observed in Guernsey, and 
eight at Paignton in South Devon. The disturbance bore a close 
resemblance to those produced by the firing of heavy guns at 
a distance. They were of very short duration; windows were 
shaken, but there was no perceptible tremor of the ground. Ob- 
servers in Guernsey compared the sounds to thunder or the firing 
of very heavy guns; but those on the English coast were, as a rule, 
unconscious of any sound. Yet the impression of an observer at 
Salcombe was that a cannon had been fired to the south, but “too 
far away to bring the noise.” ‘Trials with heavy guns are said to 
have been made along the coast of France on April 24. I have not 
succeeded in ascertaining the place or the hour of the firing; but 


542 R. H. Rastall—Boulders in Cambridge Drift. 


there is little doubt, I think, that the reported earthquakes must 
have been due to a cause of this kind. 

West Essex: June 3, 1902.—During the night of June 3 several 
tremors and rumbling sounds were observed in the west of Essex 
and parts of the adjoining counties. The times given range from 
about 11.15 to 11.45 p.m. The resemblance to earthquakes must 
have been rather close, for several persons accustomed to earth- 
quakes in other countries were convinced that they were of seismic 
origin. They were, in fact, caused by the firing of very heavy guns. 
which, as I am informed by the Garrison Adjutant at Sheerness, 
took place at the mouth of the Medway at the times mentioned 
above. In the north-west quadrant, the places from which records. 
come range without any great break from Chelmsford (22 miles 
from the mouth of the Medway) to North Mimms and Elstree in 
Hertfordshire (46 miles) and Little Shelford, near Cambridge 
(55 miles). At places nearer the Medway than Chelmsford, the 
disturbances were no doubt attributed without hesitation to their 
proper cause. 

North Wales: June 6, 1903.—Three distinct shocks were felt 
about 8.10 p.m. at Llandudno and other places in North Wales, and 
also at Skerries in co. Dublin. So closely did they resemble 
earthquake- shocks that one of my correspondents in Anglesey 
refused to believe that they were caused, as they were no doubt 
caused, by practice with the 58-ton gun and quick-firing guns at 
Seaforth Battery, near Liverpool. The distance of Skerries from 
Seaforth is 128 miles. 

Saffron Walden: Nov. 1, 1903.—Loud reports, resembling the 
tipping of bricks, were heard at 12.20 a.m., at about 1.40 p.m., and 
at 9.30 p.m. They were extremely local, although the first was 
heard by the police on night duty at a distance of 4 miles. There 
was no vibration with them, and they were undoubtedly caused, as 
Mr. Guy Maynard informs me, by large fireworks or dynamite 
exploded by a young Army officer in the town. 

In addition to the above, a few disturbances were felt that were 
attributed in newspapers to earthquakes, but which have so little 
resemblance to these phenomena that they should, I think, be 
regarded as spurious or fanciful, rather than as doubtful, earthquakes. 
Such were the disturbances reported from Cheadle on July 9, 1902, 
and Melton Mowbray on Oct. 26, 1908. 


V.—On Bovu.pers FROM THE CAMBRIDGE DRIFT, COLLECTED BY 
THE SEDGWICK CLUB. 


By R. H. Rasratt, B.A., F.G.S. 


URING the past two years the Sedgwick Club has been at work 

on the glacial deposits in the neighbourhood of Cambridge, 

with special reference to the boulders contained therein. As usual, 
the great majority of the boulders are of local origin, but far-travelled 
rocks are fairly abundant, and several hundred specimens which 
appeared likely to be of interest have been collected. By the 


hk. H. Rastall—Boulders in Cambridge Drift. 543 


kindness of Professor T. McKenny Hughes, F.R.S., about fifty of the 
more promising types have been sliced. 

An examination of this collection shows that a large number 
can be definitely identified as belonging to certain petrographical 
districts. 

Many specimens are clearly referable to the Devonian soda-bearing 
intrusions of southern Norway; in this connection special mention 
must be made of the rhomb-porphyry, of which a considerable 
number of typical.examples have been collected from the district 
lying to the east, south, and west of Cambridge. 

A rather coarse-grained pink rock from Pampisford consists of 
quartz, felspar, and abundant ferromagnesian minerals. Practically 
the whole of the felspar is perthite of various kinds. The most 
common coloured mineral is a green pleochroic soda-pyroxene, 
which is moulded in a characteristic way on the quartz. There 
are also a good many small crystals of a deep blue, intensely 
pleochroic mineral, with an extinction angle up to 14°. This 
sometimes occurs in parallel intergrowth with the pyroxene. It 
is identified as arfvedsonite. This slice agrees, down to the 
minutest details, with Brogger’s soda-granite, from the Christiania 
district. 

A specimen from Newnham shows quartz, felspar, and long 
needles of ferromagnesian mineral. The felspars are very variable 
in character, and include all types of perthite, and especially 
microcline-perthite. The coloured mineral is chiefly egirine; it 
occurs in very long needles, with a very low extinction angle. 
There is also a small quantity of arfvedsonite, like that in the 
rock last described. These two rocks are evidently very closely 
related. 

Another coarse granitic rock from Newnham contains brown 
biotite and arfvedsonite, and is evidently nearly related to Nord- 
markite. A slice from Barnwell shows the peculiar amphibole 
described by Brogger as kataphorite, along with perthite and 
abundant nepheline. Many other examples contain similar charac- 
teristic minerals, and give evidence of relationship. 

Besides the above-mentioned rhomb-porphyries, other acid and 
intermediate intrusives are very common, and in thin slices they 
often show characters that seem to connect them with the Christiania 
family. 

The commonest type of quartz-porphyry shows large corroded 
hexagons of quartz and phenocrysts of perthite, together with some 
ferromagnesian mineral now represented by irregular aggregates 
of deep brown and strongly pleochroic biotite. This method of 
alteration also occurs in some other slightly different rocks. The 
groundmass is microcrystalline, and often micropoecilitic. This rock 
is identified by Professor Sjégren as coming from Dalecarlia. 

Another common porphyritic rock contains abundant phenocrysts 
of felspar, both perthite and plagioclase, with a few rounded quartz 
crystals, in a microcrystalline groundmass of quartz and felspar, 
with numerous radiating groups of minute crystals of tourmaline. 

DECADE V.—YOL. I.—NO. XI. 32 


044 Rev. W. Lower Carter—On River Capture. 


Porphyritic lavas of intermediate and basic character are very 
common in the district, and many of them can safely be referred 
to the Old Red Sandstone volcanic series of the Cheviots and central 
Scotland. The most abundant is an enstatite-augite-andesite of the 
usual character. 

A porphyrite from Lord’s Bridge is remarkable for having a great 
variety of porphyritic minerals: the most prominent are a plagioclase 
near to oligoclase, with a secondary border of orthoclase, original 
orthoclase, biotite, hornblende, and notably sphene; the groundmass 
is microgranitic, with a tendency to orthophyric structure. A few 
rounded quartz grains also occur. 

Mr. G. Barrow has kindly looked over some selected slices, and 
he identifies half a dozen of these as belonging to the Garlton 
plateau and Forth district. These include two specimens of anal- 
cime diabase of the Forth Valley type. Some slices of olivine basalt 
show the glomeroporphyritic structure which is so characteristic of 
this series. 

A rock from Pampisford gravel-pit proves to be an unusually 
fresh example of a very basic lava; it is a porphyritic rock with 
phenocrysts of olivine and augite in a groundmass of augite and 
deep brown glass, with a few laths of felspar. This rock must be 
classed as a limbur site; its place of origin has not been identified. 

Enough work has not yet been done to enable any definite 
conclusions to be drawn as to the glacial phenomena of Cambridge- 
shire, but the facts here shortly summarised are sufficient to indicate 
the presence in this area of a large number of the rock-types which 
are so characteristic of the elacial deposits of other districts in the 
east of England, and especially many of the best known Norwegian 
rocks, So far no rock has been identified from the Lake District or 
any region to the west of the central watershed of Great Britain. 


VJ.—River Carrure In tHe Don System. 
By the Rey. W. Lower Carter, M.A., F.G.S.1 


HE river Don has a remarkable semicircular course. Rising in 
the Middle Grits, west of Dunford Bridge, at 1,500 feet above 
O.D., it flows eastwards to Penistone (700’), where it makes a bend 
to the south-east, quickly deepens its valley to 500’, and at Wortley 
breaks through the great watershed (1000’) of the Grenoside and 
Wharncliffe grits. It then receives the Little Don, the Ewden, 
and the Loxley, on its right bank, and falls into the valley of 
the Sheaf at Sheffield (150’). The Don then makes a rectangular 
bend to the north-east, following the old valley of the Sheaf to 
Conisborough, receiving the Rother on its right bank at Rotherham 
(87’) and the Dearne on its left bank at Denaby (45’). It then 
traverses the Magnesian Limestone escarpment in a fine gorge, and 


1 Paper read before the British Association, Cambridge, Section C (Geology), 
August, 1904. 


Rev. W. Lower Carter—On River Capture. 545 


continues past Doncaster in a north-easterly direction to Thorne, 
where it bends northward towards the Aire. It has, however, been 
artificially diverted by the Dutch River to the Ouse at Goole. 

The history of the present river course is presumed to have 
commenced when the Pennine anticlinal rose from the Cretaceous 
sea, and the original consequent streams commenced to run down 
the dip-slope of the Chalk. Slack Beck (Broadstone Dyke), which 
is diverted south-east at Ingberchworth by a tributary of the Don, 
is considered to be the head-stream of the brook that runs by 
Cawthorne, only a narrow dip in the watershed dividing them. 
The Don at Penistone (700’) faces a watershed of 700 feot, which 
forms a dip between Hoyland Swaine (900’) and Thurgoland 
{810’). Immediately beyond this watershed are the head-waters 
of the Dove, flowing eastward in direct continuation of the course 
of the Don above Penistone. The Dove is thus considered to be 
the beheaded remnant of the Don. The southerly bend of the 
Don and the cutting of the Wharncliffe gorge are explained as 
due to river capture by a feeder of the Sheaf. This Wharncliffe 
stream, with a rapid fall to the Sheaf, was able to capture 
successively the Loxley, the Hwden, and the Little Don, and then 
the watershed at Wortley was attacked by a branch of this stream, 
and on the other side by a feeder of the Don. As the watershed 
was cut through, the Wharncliffe stream, by reason of its steeper 
fall, captured the Wortley feeder of the Don and then the Don itself. 

(2) The Dearne.—At a very early date the Bretton stream must 
have been captured by the Darton feeder of the Cawthorne stream, 
as it flows straight at the Woolley Edge escarpment (527’), and 
therefore must have been captured before the land was reduced to 
this level. The Dearne flows eastwards, by Barnsley to Cudworth 
‘Common, where it makes a rectangular bend southwards, and cutting 
through the Upper Chevet Rock (225’) at Darfield, enters the old 
valley of the Dove (100’). This gorge at Darfield proves the 
extension of the 225-foot contour eastwards, towards Hickleton, 
forming the watershed between the Dearne and the Dove, and there 
is an old river valley at Frickley (200’) between Clayton and 
Hickleton, which was probably the original course of the Dearne, 
which flowed through Hampole gorge into the central plain. The 
Darfield gorge is a case of river capture by a feeder of the Dove. 
The Dove itself had probably been captured by the Sheaf at a period 
before the present level of the Magnesian Limestone escarpment was 
reached by denudation. 

(3) The Rother.—The original consequents of the Rother are Shire 
Brook, the Moss, and the Staveley stream. The Shire and Moss 
probably coalesced and formed the head-waters of the Ryton. The 
two gorges (330’) uniting at Kiveton are plainly traceable, and have 
‘subsequently been used, in all probability, as a channel of glacial 
overflow. The Moss must have captured the Staveley stream before 
it was itself captured by the Rother. 

_ The whole inner Don system is thus explainable by a series of 
river captures, due to the deep cutting of its valley by the Sheaf, 


546 Rev. W. Lower Carter—Glaciation of Don Valleys, ete. 


and its consequent predominant power in capturing consequent 
streams north and south. 

The northwards bend of the Don, after its entrance into the 
central plain, is due to river capture by a feeder of the Aire. The 
course of the old Don river from Thorne, along the north side of 
Hatfield Chase to Adlingfleet on the Trent, is clearly traceable, and 
was the previous channel of the river before its artificial diversion 
by the Dutch River to Goole. ; 


VII.—TuHe Guactation oF THE Don and DeARNE VALLEYS. 
By the Rev. W. Lower Carrer, M.A., F.G.S,! 


N studying the geological history of the rivers of the Don system, 
my attention was specially directed to the evidences of glacial 
action in the area, with the object of ascertaining whether glaciation 
had anything to do with the interesting diversions of the Don, 
Dearne, and Dove. Certain valleys in the area, also, attracted my 
attention as possessing abnormal features with respect to the present 
drainage of the district, and I began to inquire what their relations 
might be to an altered system of drainage during the Glacial Period. 
The present paper is an attempt to piece together the scattered 
glacial evidence, and to ascertain the effect that the advance of 
a glacier from the north and north-east would have on the drainage 
of this district, and how far the present valleys would help to 
explain the water-flow under such conditions. 

1. The Glacial Deposits of the Don System.—These are fragmentary 
and scattered, and probably but relics of considerable deposits of 
drift. There are two considerable areas covered with true Boulder- 
clay in this district—one at Staincross, Carlton, and Royston, near 
Barnsley, and the other at Balby, near Doncaster—each filling 
a small valley which, since the Glacial Period, has been slightly 
removed from the line of direct drainage, and hence has escaped 
denudation. 

The Staincross Boulder-clay, as described in the ‘‘ Memoir on the 
Yorkshire Coalfield,” consists of two beds of stiff, unstratified till, 
separated by a thin seam of warp and sand, the lower containing 
only boulders of Carboniferous Sandstone and Limestone, chert, and 
a blue, close-grained trap. The upper bed is more sandy, and on 
the surface have been found many erratics, including a large Shap 
granite (25 cwt.), Armboth felsite, Threlkeld quartz - porphyry, 
andesitic ash, rhyolite, ete. These beds fill a hollow cut out of the 
Woolley Edge Rock; the junction is much shattered and smashed, 
and large blocks of the sandstone are embedded in the clay. The 
Yorkshire Boulder Committee report that the country to the north 
and east of this patch is covered with erratics, and similar Boulder- 
clays are found at Burton Grange, near Barnsley, and at Ardsley, on 
the opposite side of the river Dearne. Mr. Walter Hemingway, of 


1 Paper read before the British Association, Cambridge, Section C (Geology), 
August, 1904. 


fev. W. Lower Carter—Glaciation of Don Valleys, etc. 547 


Barnsley, has recently traced two tongues of this drift into the valley 
of the Dearne, and has recorded a section of contorted shale with 
pockets of erratics from the excavation for the Barnsley gasometer. 

The Balby Boulder-clay covers an area of about five acres in 
extent. It occupies part of a small valley in the Magnesian Lime- 
stone, which previously was filled with Bunter Sandstone. In three 
large pits a magnificent section of 40 feet of stiff till is shown 
which has yielded many erratics, including a Shap granite (2 cwt.), 
andesites and andesitic breccias, Eskdale granite, St. John’s Vale 
quartz-porphyry, Carboniferous Limestone, chert, Millstone Grit, etc. 
‘he Bunter Sandstone on which this till is seen to rest has been 
scooped out to form a clean, level floor, without any sand or gravel 
intervening under the clay. In the excavations for the workhouse 
a section of this till showed masses of Bunter sandstone torn off and 
embedded in the till. 

About half-way along the are joining Staincross and Balby is 
another patch of Boulder-clay at Adwick-on-Dearne, containing 
Carboniferous Sandstone, quartzite, felstone, and encrinital chert. 
Close to this patch was found a third boulder of Shap granite 
(15 ewt.). Contiguous to this zone are several patches of gravel 
containing Carboniferous Sandstone with quartzite and chert, and 
a boulder of ganister lies on the summit of Wombwell Hill. 

Beyond and to the south of this zone are several scattered patches 
of drift. At Barbot Hall, about one mile north of Rotherham, is 
a little hill covered with clay containing pebbles of quartz, sand- 
stone, Carboniferous Limestone, and Oolitic rocks. At Masbrough 
sand and gravel are found containing pebbles of Carboniferous 
sandstone and quartz rock, and at Sitwell Vale, one and a quarter 
mile south of Rotherham, is a clay with pebbles and boulders of 
Carboniferous Sandstone. Near Hooton Roberts are three or four 
patches of gravel containing Carboniferous Sandstone, with quartz, 
quartzite, and black chert. 

At the western entrance of the gorge of the Don, at Conisborough, 
a bed of Boulder-clay (about 15 feet thick) is shown at the Ashfield 
Brick Works (225 feet above O.D.), including Lake Country andesites, 
Carboniferous Limestone, a talcose schist with garnets, and other 
rocks. About the same level, on the opposite side of the gorge, at 
Cadeby, is a patch of drift with Carboniferous Limestone blocks. 
My. H. H. Corbett, of Doncaster, has also kindly told me of a section 
of Boulder-clay recently exposed in the valley between the railway 
station and Conisborough Castle. At Sprotborough and Cusworth, 
on the north side of the gorge of the Don, are patches of drifted 
sand and pebbles, and from the fields have been ploughed up small 
boulders of diorite, basalt, Mountain Limestone, ganister, and quartz- 
porphyry. At Hexthorpe Flats, near Doncaster, striated Car- 
boniferous Limestone with encrinites has been found, and between 
Hexthorpe and Balby the ground is covered with drifted pebbles 
and fragments of limestone. The Magnesian Limestone escarpment 
south of Conisborough is strewed for some miles with patches of 
drifted pebbles of quartz, sandstone, and Trias. 


548 Rev. W. Lower Carter—Glaciation of Don Valleys, ete. 


This evidence points to glaciation from the north and north-east 
by two movements of ice. ‘I'wo distinct tills, separated by warp and 
pockets of sand, are found at Staincross, the lower with Carboniferous 
boulders and the upper with Lake Country rocks. The drift patches 
are also of two kinds, one set being of a specially Carboniferous 
type and the other rich in Lake Country rocks. It is the latter 
type that forms the Conisborough and Balby clays. In the Balby 
pits there is also found a large percentage of Middle Coal-measure 
material, which forms a perplexing mixture to explain. 

The author suggests that there was a double glaciation of this 
area early in the Glacial Period, first by Pennine ice, and secondly 
by the Tees glacier. 

It seems probable that at the commencement of the Glacial Period, 
before the Irish Sea was filled with ice, the Pennine Chain was an 
area of great snowfall, and extensive glaciers were formed in the 
valleys of Western Yorkshire. These glaciers would probably send 
down considerable streams of ice into the central plain, laden with 
Mountain and Yoredale limestones, cherts, ganisters, and Car- 
boniferous sandstones. As the Glacial Period advanced the pressure 
of the Norwegian ice forced the Tees glacier into the Vale of York, 
and this in its turn would push back the Pennine ice into the 
lowlands of Airedale and over the low watershed between the 
Aire and Don, inside the Magnesian Limestone escarpment, where 
it spreads out westwards and southwards as far as Staincross, 
Rotherham, and Conisborough. This seems to have been the line 
of farthest extent of this glacier, which, though it interfered for 
a time with the drainage of the Don, does not appear to have passed 
through the gorge at Conisborough. 

The country south of Frickley has undergone extensive denudation 
since the cutting of the Darfield gorge, and it seems probable that 
this was effected by this ice, and, on its northward retreat, by the 
deflected drainage of the Aire and Calder, which, as its course 
eastwards would still be blocked by the advancing Tees glacier, 
would find a ready route of flow through Frickley gorge. Thus 
a large quantity of Middle Coal-measures material must have been 
earried through the Conisborough gorge into the plain at Doncaster, 
and would probably be suitably situated for the second glacier to 
carry forward to Balby. As it has been suggested that this material 
might be due to a glacier moving down the valley of the Sheaf from 
Dore and Totley, this question has been carefully considered. The 
geological surveyors do not record any drift in the valley of the 
Sheaf, and a careful search of the 6-inch contour maps has not 
disclosed any valleys which could have carried off the drainage of 
the upper Don if it had been obstructed by such a glacier at Sheffield. 
It is therefore concluded that no glacier capable of advancing to 
Conisborough was formed in the valley of the Sheaf. 

The retreat of the first glacier may have been due to a lessening 
of the snowfall on the Pennine watershed, owing to the shifting of 
the area of greatest precipitation to the west of the Pennine Chain 
as the Irish Sea became filled with ice. The evidence, then, points 


Rev. W. Lower Carter—Glaciation of Don Vulleys, ete. 549 


to a second invasion of the Don and Dearne Valleys by ice, the 
stream this time coming principally from the Tees. This glacier, 
which had advanced down the central plain, was now, by the retreat 
of the Pennine ice, enabled to push over the Aire-Don watershed 
and Magnesian Limestone escarpment. Westwards it abutted against 
the high land of Woolley Edge, and sent down a lobe of ice at 
Staincross and Monk Bretton into the valley of the Dearne. This 
second glacier does not, however, seem to have advanced far south 
of the Barnsley-Adwick-Conisborough curve, and laid down the 
upper clay of Staincross, the Shap granites of Royston and Adwick, 
and the numerous Lake Country erratics of the district to the north 
and east of the Dearne. ‘This glacier seems to have advanced over 
the Magnesian Limestone with a south-westerly movement, gradually 
closing the gorge of the Don and carrying the material of denuded 
Bunter and limestone beds over the escarpment to the south of 
Conisborough, of which the pebble drifts are the relics. 

This movement does not appear to have extended much farther 
southwards, as the Kiveton gorge seems to have presented a clear 
course for the overflow of the lake formed by the damming back of 
the drainage. ‘The second glacier appears to have retreated north 
of the Aire before the overflows at the head of Calderdale were in 
full swing. The Don and Dearne valleys were therefore, in all 
probability, clear of ice during the later part of the Glacial Period, 
and have been subjected to enormous denudation, both during the 
Glacial Period and since, which has cleared away the bulk of the 
Boulder-clay and only left relics of previously widespread deposits. 

2. Glacial Lakes and Overflow Valleys.—Such a series of glacier 
movements as has just been indicated would divert the normal 
drainage of the district and produce lakes in the valleys thus 
dammed up. The Boulder-clay at Ashfield’s Pit, and near the 
railway station at Conisborough, and at Cadeby, on the opposite 
side of the Don, shows that this gorge must have been filled with 
ice up to the 225-foot contour. The scattered patches of drift from 
Edlington to Clifton and Braithwell, reaching up to 400 feet, 
indicate that the gorge was entirely closed above the 3850-foot 
contour, This is the general height of the Midland watershed of 
the Don system, and is only broken through at one point south 
of Conisborough, the Kiveton Valley (380 feet), near the middle of 
which one of the sources of the river Ryton takes its rise. These 
considerations warrant one in assuming the existence of a great 
glacial lake, rising to the level of the 380-foot contour to the west 
and south, and dammed back by ice from Conisborough to Barnsley. 
‘This lake would overflow by the Kiveton gorge towards Worksop. 
One cannot expect to find abundant evidences of lake deposits in an 
area which has suffered so severely by denudation as this; but the 
geological surveyors map from 4 feet to 9 feet of brick-earth and 
clay resting on gravel at Parkgate, and from 38 feet to 7 feet of brick- 
earth near Wombwell. These indicate a lake both in the Don and 
Dearne valleys, covering up the old river gravels. 

Following this line of argument, and taking the various patches 


550 Rev. W. Lower Carter—Glaciation of Don Valleys, ete. 


of drift as the relics of moraines, and therefore as indications of 
periods of rest in glacial movement, I have attempted to map out 
the lakes that would be produced at the different positions of the 
ice-front, and have examined the watersheds to see if overflow 
channels existed such as would be necessary to drain such lakes. 
The whole has been plotted out on the 6-inch contoured maps, by 
which the results have been carefully tested, and a series of lakes 
made out discharging successfully over cols from 175 feet to 335 feet 
above O.D. These overflow valleys are not of the type so character- 
istic of Cleveland and the Cheviots. The long period of subaérial 
denudation to which they have been subjected has worn back their 
sides so that they are now V-shaped, but they are streamless 
either in whole or in part, and often the nearest streams cut across 
their ends. 

In spite of this weathering back there has probably been little 
alteration of their level, and their present levels may be taken 
approximately as those of the Glacial Period. Some of them are 
strike-valleys formed by the denudation of the shales between the 
outcrop of a bed of Carboniferous Sandstone and the dip slope of 
a lower grit. The objections against such valleys as overflows have 
been carefully considered, but as the movement of the ice seems to 
have brought its margin parallel to the general strike of the Coal- 
measures of this area, it is natural that the deflected drainage should 
sometimes escape by such routes. In considering the course of the 
first glacier, it seems probable that it would dam up the Dearne at 
Ardsley and form a lake overflowing by the Stairfoot valley at 
175 feet. A forward movement would carry it to the Wombwell 
ridge, and the overflow would be by the Wombwell and Swinton 
strike-valleys. Further south the ice would probably abut against 
the projecting spur of the 350-foot contour west of Rawmarsh, and 
hence would form a lake about that level stretching up to Hlsecar, 
Cawthorne, and Bretton. In searching the watershed for a possible 
overflow for such a lake, a narrow cut through the 350-foot contour 
was found at the head of the Wentworth Woodhouse valley, sloping 
back to the 400-foot contour on each hand, and with a little stream 
running across each end at right angles to the direction of the col. 
By this valley at 335 feet the Elsecar lake would be discharged into 
a smaller lake held up by the ice in the Wentworth Woodhouse 
valley. When the ice laid down the Masbrough and Sitwell Vale 
patches of drift the Rother valley would be blocked, and the glacial 
drainage would be discharged round the lobe of ice by channels at 
Greasborough and Sitwell Vale at 275 feet, and thence into the Don 
by the Hooton Roberts valley (180 feet). A slight forward move- 
ment of the ice to the gravel patches east of Hooton Roberts would 
close that valley and cause the drainage to discharge by a col on 
Conisborough Parks at 260 feet. 

The second glacier does uot seem to have advanced far beyond 
the curved line stretching from Barnsley through Adwick-on-Dearne 
to Conisborough. This, by damming the Dearne at Ardsley, would 
re-form the Barnsley lake, discharging over the Stairfoot col at 


Notices of Memoirs—G. W. Lamplugh—L. Cretaceous Beds. 501 


175 feet. This drainage would then escape by a narrow notch 
‘between Adwick-on-Dearne and Swinton into the Don at Mex- 
borough. 

_A further advance would bring the Wombwell-Swinton valleys 
into use as overflows, and the Hooton Roberts valley would be the 
route into the Don. The damming of the Dearne at Barnsley by 
a lobe of ice would bring into use a couple of small valleys at 
Barnsley as overflow channels. The gradual advance of the ice 
across the Conisborough gorge would cause the blocking of the Don, 
with the formation of a constantly enlarging lake, which would 
overflow first by the Hooton Roberts valley (180 feet), and then 
by a series of cuts through the 275-foot contour on Conisborough 
Parks, first draining into the Don behind Castle Hill, then, as the 
Warmsworth watershed was reached by the ice, into the Balby 
valley, and, when this was closed by the ice, over the low watershed 
into the Loversall valley. 

The further advance of the ice-front to Edlington caused a shallow 
cut to be made through the 300-foot contour, discharging into the 
Loversall valley and thence into the Trent. This channel, which 
bends round in a semicircle, became the permanent course of the 
Wadsworth drainage on the retreat of the ice, the old channel at 
Balby having been filled up with till. When the ice rose above the 
-380-foot contour the gorge of the Don was entirely closed, and the 
drainage of the great lake, reaching from Bretton Park and Caw- 
thorne, north of Barnsley, to Clay Cross and Heath, south of 
Chesterfield, would all be discharged by the Kiveton gorge into the 
river Ryton. 

This explanation may be thought to rest too largely on suggestions, 
but where the evidence is so scattered and imperfect it is difficult to 
see how this can be avoided if any explanation is to be attempted. 


IN QaBsKOnaHS) (Oa AVES IMEO Ansys, JISHaaO. 


4.—Nore on Lower Oretaceous PHOSPHATIC-BEDS AND THEIR 
Fauna. By G. W. Lampxves, F.G.S. 


T has been customary to regard the fossils more or less imperfectly 
preserved in the condition of phosphatic casts in different parts 

of the English Lower Cretaceous series as derivative from the 
Jurassic rocks. In previous papers the writer has brought forward 
evidence to show that the fauna of such beds at Speeton and in 
Lincolnshire is not derivative, but occurs at its proper horizon and, 
so far as it goes, indicates the life of the period. Personal investi- 
gation of the localities, and of the fossils obtained from the 
‘coprolite-beds’ at Upware, Potton, and Brickhill, has led him to 
-conclude that in these deposits also the greater part of the so-called 
derivatives are really of Lower Cretaceous age. Thus, one of the 


1 Abstract of paper read before the British Association, Cambridge, Section C 
(Geology), August, 1904. 


552 Notices of Memoirs—L. J. Spencer—On Zircon. 


most abundant phosphatic fossils of these places is the ammonite, 
usually fragmentary, which has habitually been named Ami. biplea, 
but belongs in almost every case to one or another of several allied 
species of Lower Cretaceous Olcostephani. Most of the lamelli- 
branchs can likewise be best matched by Lower Cretaceous forms ;. 
and there are good grounds for suspecting that many of the Saurian 
and fish remains from the above-mentioned places and from the 
Faringdon ‘Sponge-Gravels’ which have been classed as Jurassic 
are true Lower Cretaceous forms. 

It is acknowledged that the presence of transported pebbles of 
older rocks in the deposits at Upware, Potton, and Faringdon 
renders the occurrence of derivative fossils at these places more 
probable than in the case of the Speeton and Lincolnshire ‘ coprolite- 
beds’; and in the collections examined a few specimens were 
noticed that seem to have been washed from older rocks. But the 
writer believes that these instances are exceptional, and he urges 
that no fossil should be set down as derivative unless the evidence 
is conclusive, as much confusion has arisen through the unquestioning 
adoption of the hypothesis of derivation. 

While there is still much to be learnt as to the physical conditions 
requisite for the concretion of phosphatic nodules and for their 
segregation into bands, it seems clear that an important determinative 
was the existence of submarine currents occasionally impinging upon 
the sea-floor with sufficient strength to sweep away the matrix in 
which the nodules had been formed, so that there was a gradual 
accumulation of the partially eroded nodular residues. Such residues, 
though of inconsiderable thickness, may represent a long period of 
submarine conditions. The term ‘aggregate deposits’ has been 
suggested by J. F. Blake for beds of this character. 


IJ.—On vHe virrerent Moprrications or Zrrcon. By 
L. J. Spencer, M.A., F.G.S.? 


OME very irregularly developed crystals of zircon from the 
gem-washings of the Balangoda district in Ceylon were 
found to have characters differing widely from those of zircons 
of more common occurrence. Although of low specific gravity 
(4:0), they are not increased in density when strongly ignited, as 
are many zircons of specific gravity below 4:7. They further differ 
from ordinary zircon in their very feeble, or absence of, birefringence. 
The crystals are dark brown in colour and almost opaque, but after 
ignition they are bright green and quite transparent. 

While some of the crystals consist wholly of zircon of this type, 
others contain an intergrowth of a second kind, which may be 
present in greater or less amount. The latter has a higher specific 
gravity, and increases in density when ignited ; it is optically biaxial 
with very strong birefringence. A section cut perpendicular to the 


1 Abstract of paper read before the British Association, Cambridge, Section C 
(Geology), August, 1904. 


Notices of Memoirs—E. A. N. Arber—Culm Plants, 653: 


principal axis of such a compound crystal shows, when moved 
across the microscope-stage in convergent polarised light, a gradual 
transition from a biaxial to a uniaxial figure, the coloured rings. 
at the same time moving outwards and becoming further apart 
owing to the diminution in the strength of the double refraction, 
which is positive throughout; finally, when the rings have all 
moved out of the field of view, the black cross also disappears, 
and the corresponding portion of the section is optically isotropic. 
The mean refractive index has about the same value in all portions 
of the section. 

Zircon of the first type has been previously described by 
Professor A. H. Church (1875) and by Dr. S. Stevanovié (1903), 
and from the researches of these and other authors it would seem 
that there are, at least, three modifications of zircon, viz. :— 


a. Those of specific gravity 4:0, which do not increase in density 
when ignited. 

B. Those of specific gravity 4:7, also not increased in density 
when ignited. 

y- An unstable form of specific gravity about 4:3, which when 
ignited is increased in density to 4°7. 

That these different kinds are often intergrown in the same crystal 
is shown by the frequent occurrence of zonal structures in zircon, 
and further by the behaviour of the crystals when heated. A crystal 
consisting of an intergrowth of a-zircon and y-zircon will be increased 
in density on ignition, but not to the higher limit of 4-7; on the 
other hand, an intergrowth of #-zircon and y-zircon will reach the 
higher limit when ignited. 

In crystalline form and chemical composition (as far as could 
be determined by qualitative tests) a-zircon and #-zircon are 
identical, and these appear to be also the same for q-zircon, 


IIl.—On Derivep Prant Peretractions rrom Duvonsnire. By 
E. A. Newer. Arser, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S.? 


S be interesting plant petrifications in which the structure has 

been to some extent preserved by means of a mineral agent 
have recently been discovered in the higher beds of the Upper Culm 
Measures (Upper Carboniferous) in Western Devon. Although the 
preservation is not sufficiently good to render this discovery of any 
botanical importance, the manner in which the fossils occur is 
interesting from a geological point of view. The plant remains 
consist of small rolled fragments of stems, of an inch or less in 
length, arranged without order in a fine-grained sandstone. They 
are in all probability derived from some pre-existing beds, and are 
not contemporaneous with the sandstone in which they are found. 
Such derived plant remains are very rare, if not unknown, from the 
Paleozoic rocks. 6 


1 Abstract of report read before the British Association, Cambridge, Section C 
(Geology), August, 1904. i ae 


554 Notices of Memoirs—A. W. Gibb—Chalk in Aberdeenshire. 


IV.—On tHe Fossin Puants or toe Urrer Cutm MEASURES 
oF Devon. By E. A. Newett Arser, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S.' 


bbe Upper Culm Measures form by far the largest portion of the 

Carboniferous sequence in Devon and the adjacent counties. 
Fossil plant remains are abundant in these beds, but their preservation 
is rarely sufficiently good to permit of even generic determination. 
A number of well-preserved specimens have, however, recently been 
obtained from the one horizon in which coal or ‘culm’ occurs in 
these beds in the Bideford district. They include Calamites undulatus, 
Calamocladus chareformis, Alethopteris lonchitica, A. Serli, Neuropteris 
obliqua, Sigillaria tessellata, and many others. Neuropteris Schlehant 
and MMegalopteris (?) sp. are also recorded from Britain for the 
first time. 

This flora confirms the previous conclusions with regard to the 
Upper Carboniferous age of these beds, and indicates that the coal- 
bearing beds of the Bideford district are the equivaients of the 
Middle Coal-measures elsewhere in Britain—a higher horizon than 
has previously been assigned to these beds. 


V.—On THE OccURRENCE oF PEBBLES OF WHITE CHALK IN 
ABERDEENSHIRE Ciay. By A. W. Grss, F.G.S.! 


dbs record of the Cretaceous period in the north-east of Scotland 

is a very fragmentary one. The principal traces hitherto 
noted consist of a deposit of the nature of a Greensand—not proved 
to be i siti—at Moreseat, Cruden, and large numbers of flints 
scattered over the surface of the ground in the same locality between 
Buchanness and the Hill of Dudwick. 

Further indications of Cretaceous strata have recently been 
found at Strabathie, in the district of Belhelvie—about five miles 
north of Aberdeen—in a bed of laminated clay close to the sea. 
The clay is found to contain pebbles of white chalk in considerable 
abundance. Some of the pebbles measure nearly a foot in length, 
but the majority are small. Some of them inclose flints. That 
they have been worn off an adjoining land surface is shown by the 
fact that numbers of them are markedly glaciated, and that pebbles 
of other rocks, identical with or similar to the rocks of the district, 
are found in the same pit. These facts indicate that Upper 
Cretaceous beds have once been, and perhaps somewhere are still, 
in sit in the locality. 

It has been ascertained by boring that the clay deposit covers 
a considerable area, and as fresh exposures are constantly being 
made in the process of working the bed further finds may be 
anticipated. 


' Abstract of paper read before the British Association, Cambridge, Section C 
(Geology), August, 1904. 


Notices of Memoirs—Dr. R. F. Scharff—Edenvale Caves. 555 


VI.—Epenvare Caves, Co. Craru.—Finat Report. By Dr. R. F. 
ScHarFF (Chairman), Mr. R. L. Prascer (Secretary), AND 
A COMMITTEE APPOINTED TO EXPLORE Irish Caves, (Drawn 
up by the Chairman.) ' 


INCE onr last report was submitted to the British Association, 
Mr. Ussher has completed the excavations of the extensive 
caves of Edenvale, co. Clare, and sent altogether a collection of 
more than 50,000 bones to be named. Besides these there were 
flints and implements used by primitive man and relics of various 
periods, on which it is proposed to submit a detailed report to the 
Royal Irish Academy during next winter. 

Mr. Ussher has explored other districts of Ireland with the view 
to continuing the cave researches, but this Committee do not propose 
to apply for a further grant. 

The Edenvale remains have not been fully determined, but so far 
they have yielded the following species :— 


Man (Homo sapiens). Arctic Lemming (Dicrostonyx torquatus) . 
Bats (several species). Domestic Ox (Bos tawrus). 
Hedgehog (Erinaceus europeus). Domestic Sheep (Ovis aries). 
Domestic Cat (Felis domestica). Domestic Goat (Capra egagrus). 
Wild Cat (Fels caligata). Domestic Pig (Sus scrofa domestica). 
Dog (Canis familiaris). Wild Pig (Sus scrofa ferus). 

Fox (Vulpes alopex). Red Deer (Cervus elaphus). 

Trish Stoat (Putorius hibernicus). Giant Deer (Megaceros giganteus). 
Marten (Mustela martes). Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus). 

Bear (Ursus arctos). Horse (Equus caballus), 

Badger (Meles taxus). Birds (many species). 

Arctic Hare (Lepus timzdus). . Frog (Rana temporaria). 

Rabbit (Lepus cunicrlus). Fishes (several species). 

Trish Rat (Mus hibernicus). Land Mollusca (many species). 


Field Mouse (Mus sylwaticus). 


VIJ.—Brirr Noriczs. 


1. Pear Moors or tHe Prennines.—In an article entitled “ Peat 
Moors of the Pennines: their Age, Origin, and Utilization ’” 
(Geographical Journal, May, 1904), Mr. C. E. Moss remarks that 
the Pennine peat moors represent a valuable asset which is turned 
to little account: not only is there enormous value in products. 
manufactured from peat, but he believes there is fuel enough to last 
the hillside population for a thousand years. 


2. Nagas in THE Peat.—Mr. Clement Reid records the occurrence 
of Najas marina in the Megaceros-marl of Lough Gur (Irish 
Naturalist, vol. xiii). This little “submerged flowering plant” is 
known to exist in Britain only at a single spot in Hickling Broad, 
in Norfolk. It is found in the Cromer Forest-bed Series, and in 


1 Abstract of report read before the British Association, Cambridge, Section C- 
(Geology), August, 1904. 


596 Reviews—A. Harker—Rocks of Skye. 


later deposits in England and Wales, but has not hitherto been 
recorded from Ireland. 

3. Ruoprsta.—A useful pamphlet on “The Geology of Southern 
Rhodesia,” by Mr. F. P. Mennell, has been issued by the Rhodesia 
Museum at Bulawayo. This is accompanied by pictorial and other 
illustrations, and by a sketch geological map on the scale of an inch 
to four miles. The author deals with the igneous rocks and schists, 
the coal series, superficial deposits, and scenery. 


DSy det) WA IE 2 We S- 


T.—Memorrs OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE Unrrep KInGpom. 


Tur Tertiary Ienrous Rocks or Skye. By Arrrep HaArxeEr, 
M.A., F.R.S., with Notes by ©. T. Crouvcs, M.A., F.G.S. 
pp: xi) 4015 84 text-figures, 27 plates, and one coloured map. 
(Glasgow, 1904. Price 9s.) 


fY\HE appearance of this memoir awakens the echoes of past 

controversies. The region with which it deals shows within 
a narrow compass such a complex group of rocks that diversities of 
opinion might well arise as to their mutual relations. Broadly 
speaking, two series of igneous rocks occur, an acid and a basic, 
ranging in both cases from plutonic masses and intrusive sills and 
dykes to lava-flows ; and the views first enunciated, according to 
which the plutonic masses were regarded as the denuded cores of 
voleanoes from which the lavas (first the acid and then the basic) 
had been poured out, appeared to be a simple and reasonable ex- 
planation of the facts observed. 

As is well known, very different views from the above as to the 
sequence of these igneous rocks were held by the late Director- 
General of the Survey, under whose direction, in fact, was planned 
much of the work the result of which is recorded in the present 
memoir. The result of Mr. Harker’s researches, it may be here 
briefly stated, has been to convince him of the correctness of 
Sir Archibald Geikie’s main conclusions that the basaltic lavas 
which cover such an extent of country in the Western Isles of 
Scotland and in the north of Ireland are amongst the earliest 
voleanic rocks of the region and were probably due to fissure- 
eruptions, that the gabbro-masses were intruded into them and are 
consequently of later date, and that finally these basic rocks were 
invaded by the granites and granophyres. Supporters of the earlier 
views will find, therefore, little encouragement in these pages, 
although here and there a glimpse may be caught of difficulties in 
the case of phenomena easily capable of misinterpretation, such as 
the presence in the earlier basic agglomerates of fragments of gabbro 
and granophyre identical in character with the later rocks which 
constitute the main mass of the Cuillins and the Red Hills, and the 
occurrence of basic dykes which traverse certain rocks freely and 


Reviews—A. Harker—Rocks of Skye. 557 


end abruptly against others (such as granite and agglomerate), not 
because the latter are of later date, but owing to the resistance they 
offered to the passage of the dykes. Like many of the other 
problems which have confronted Mr. Harker in this region, this 
last observation is an important one and capable of wide application ; 
for, as he suggests, it may lead to a reconsideration of the age 
attributed to certain intrusions which intersect the Carboniferous 
and older strata in parts of England and Wales. 

The memoir is confined principally to the area mapped in detail 
by Mr. Harker during the years 1895-1901, comprising the central 
laccolitic masses of gabbro and granophyre and their surroundings, 
the basaltic plateaux to the west and north-west, and some of the 
islands off the east coast; but the south-eastern part of the island, 
which was surveyed by Mr. Clough, also receives consideration in 
the descriptions of the minor intrusions in the older stratified rocks. 

After an introduction dealing chiefly with the general relations of 
the volcanic series, the different rock-groups are treated as far as 
possible in chronological order, and in each case descriptions are 
first given of the field relations and then of the petrographical 
characters. As regards the latter, Mr. Harker has been on the 
whole merciful, and spared us too great detail: in some cases an 
additional interest is given to the description of thin-slices by the 
discussion of the chemical analyses, no less than sixteen of which 
have been made for the purpose of the memoir by Dr. Pollard. 

Although the gabbro and granite masses have been deposed from 
their position as ancient volcanic cores, yet the remains of vast 
craters filled with agglomerates have been detected in Skye. These 
were the vents from which took place the explosive eruptions which 
marked the earliest phase of igneous activity in the island. The 
succeeding tranquil fissure-eruptions of basalt were also accompanied 
and partly succeeded by paroxysmal eruptions of trachyte and 
rhyolite. In comparison with the basalts, however, the pyroclastic 
rocks and more acid lavas play but a very minor role. <A fact with 
respect to the basalts, which Mr. Harker considers has not been 
hitherto sufficiently appreciated, is the extent to which their apparent 
thickness has been increased by the intrusion of dolerite sills of 
later date. The greater part of the alteration {with production 
of amygdules) which characterises these basalt lavas is attributed 
by the author, not to ordinary weathering, but to changes produced 
in them soon after their eruption by the “action of water of volcanic 
origin.” In the subsequent contact-metamorphism by the gabbro 
and granite it is these early formed amygdules which show the 
most interesting effects, viz., a restoration of the minerals (felspar 
and augite) from which the zeolites and chlorites were originally 
derived. 

To the second or plutonic phase of igneous activity are due the 
most picturesque features of the scenery of Skye. This phase 
consisted in the intrusion of laccolitic masses first of ultra-basic 
rocks, then of gabbro, and lastly of granite and granophyre. The 
descriptions of the partial fusion and incorporations of the gabbro 


38 Reviews—A, Harker—Rocks of Skye. 


Or 


by the invading granite magma with the consequent production of 
hybrid rocks of abnormal chemical and mineral composition, and 
the detailed accounts of the peculiar composite sills and dykes. 
outside the mountain tract, form perhaps the most important and 
interesting feature of the memoir. In the case of Skye the author 
finds that the heterogeneity of these intrusions is invariably due, not 
to differentiation subsequent to intrusion, but to successive injections 
of different rock-magmas, the acid magma showing a tendency to be 
guided by a pre-existing basic dyke or sill. 

Of the third and final phase of igneous activity in Skye which 
was characterised by minor intrusions in the form of sills and 
dykes, the most important role was played by the great group 
of basic sills previously referred to, which are intercalated among 
the basaltic lavas to such an extent that they and not the basalts 
really form the salient features of the plateau country. Amongst 
a minor group of basic sills an interesting type is the peculiar 
composite sills of Roineval, to one of the constituents of which the 
author gives the provisional name of Mugearite. This and Marscoite 
(a hybrid of gabbro and granite, produced, however, before intrusion) 
it is a relief to see are the only new rock-names which appear in 
a memoir which deals with so many rocks of exceptional composition. 
To the rocks composing most of the basic dykes and sills we are 
glad to find that Mr. Harker applies the name olivine-dolerite, 
although he has not been able to avoid altogether the use of his 
term diabase for some of the coarser-textured types near to gabbro. 

In an interesting penultimate chapter is given a general review 
of Tertiary igneons activity in Skye. As the cause of this activity 
two distinct elements of crustal strain are recognised, the one 
regional and probably related to the great Atlantic depression, and 
the other local: to the first are attributed the fissure eruptions of 
basalt, the great group of basic sills, and the system of parallel 
dykes, and to the second the central volcanic eruptions, the plutonic 
intrusions, and the radial group of dykes peculiar to the Cuillin 
district. 

In the last chapter, the physical features and scenery of the 
island and their relation to the geology are discussed. A very 
complete bibliography of the geological literature referring to the 
igneous rocks of Skye is given in an Appendix. 

The memoir is illustrated by 84 text-figures and 27 plates. 
References to the figures in the text might have been with advantage 
more often accompanied by indications of the pages on which 
they occur. 

In conclusion, it remains to congratulate Mr. Harker on the 
completion of an arduous but very successful piece of work, and 
the Geological Survey on the production of a volume which with 
its numerous and excellent illustrations can be offered to the public 


at so low a price. 


Reriews—Stanjord’s Geological Atlas. 559 


II.—Sranrorp’s Gronocican Arias or Great Britain [based on 
Reynolds’s Geological Atlas], with plates of characteristic fossils, 
preceded by a Description of the Geological Structure of Great 
Britain and its Counties, and of the features observable along 
the principal lines of Railway. By Horace B. Woopwarp, 
F.R.S., F.G.8. pp. x and 140, with 34 geologically coloured 
Maps and 16 double octavo Plates of Fossils geologically 
arranged. (London, 1904: Edward Stanford, 12-14, Long 
Acre, W.C. Price 12s. 6d.) 


eee. well-informed person at the present day is not necessarily 
a geologist ; nevertheless, there are a vast number of people who 
are more or less acquainted with geology (if it is only “a bowing 
acquaintance,” like Mark Twain’s with the Prince of Wales). To 
those more or less interested in this study, and especially for those 
who have little time to spare, a handy vade-mecum, a small book, not 
too small, as-a pocket-companion, to beguile the tedium of travel in 
an agreeable and intelligent manner, is likely to command the 
attention of the public. ‘The book before us weighs only 18 ounces, 
and measures 5 by 7} inches, just the size for a bicycle bag or 
a side-pocket, and is crammed full of information of the best quality 
and written by an experienced practical geologist, who tells his 
readers what is to be seen of geological interest on every line of 
railway and in every separate county in the kingdom, illustrated 
by 84 maps coloured geologically, so that he who rides, by road or 
rail, can take out his book and look or read as he is so minded. 

Before starting out, the beginner should at least read the first 
34 pages, which in clear and simple language will convey to him 
an outline of what geology teaches about the broad features of our © 
island, and how they have been produced by the agencies of the sea 
or by rain and rivers, or the slow movements of the solid crust, 
during vast periods of past geological time; how the old sediments 
which form our stratified rocks were accumulated and afterwards 
uplifted, and then slowly carved out into earth’s physical features, 
just as a sculptor might carve the features of a man out of a block 
of marble, or, as the same thing is sometimes done now, by means of 
the ‘sandblast’ process—so our hills and dales and great cliffs 

-and rugged mountains have been slowly carved by atmospheric 
agencies, ice, snow, frost, rain, and rivers, nay, even by wind and 
sun, heat and cold. 

The reader will get some notion too of the periods of geological 
time and of the relative antiquity of the various rocks, which he will 
speedily recognise in the handy little maps of the counties by their 
several geological colours, first as expressed in the frontispiece of the 
whole of Great Britain, admirably executed by chromolithography, 
as Stanford’s know so well how to do it. Each geological colour is 
numbered in the Index on the General Map, and on a larger scale on 
the single folding-plate (facing p. 1), which gives at a glance the 
number, colour, and name of each formation and the names of its 
characteristic fossils. Then, if the reader be going to travel from 


DECADE V.—VOL. I.—wNO. XI. 33 


560 Reviews—Stanford’s Geological Atlas. 


London, say, through Middlesex, Hertford, Bedford, or Buckingham- 
shire, he will turn up Map 2, and tracing his intended route will 
easily note, by the colours and the numbers, the formations he wili 
travel over, and so will read with greater interest in the pages 
devoted to each county (pp. 40-101) what are the features of 
each, both physically and geologically ; or in the pages which follow 
(pp. 102-134), after selecting his line of road or railway, he may 
read what are the rocks and the kind of country he is about to 
travel over. 

If travelling by road on bicycle or motor-car (or with knapsack 
and on foot), he may stop a few minutes by roadside section or 
quarry, or even by a heap of native stones picked off the land or 
obtained from an excavation near by, and find here and there a fossil 
which the plates of fossils (xxxv—1) will often enable him to identify. 
All these details are full of interest to the inquiring and intelligent 
student who wants to know the inside of things, and for teaching 
him there is nothing like pictures and colours. The only fear is 
that such aids to intellectual improvement may be made too easy 
and agreeable; but though the full-fledged geologist may feel these 
matters too simple, the less advanced inquirers, of whom there are 
many, will certainly not be disappointed in the pleasure to be derived 
from the companionship of this very useful little book. 

The original work, entitled “ Reynolds’s Geological Atlas,” which 
gave the cue to the present volume, and now renamed “ Stanford’s 
Geological Atlas,” has a history, and has long been known and 
regarded as a useful companion and guide to those journeying on 
business or pleasure in Great Britain who take interest in the 
geology of the country. The first edition, issued in 1860, was 
prepared with the assistance of the late Professor John Morris, F.G.S. 
(for 21 years one of the Editors of the Gzonocican MaGazinr), and 
the second edition, published in 1889, was revised by the late 
Mr. Robert Etheridge, F.R.S. L. & E., F.G.S. (also one of the 
Editors of this journal from 1865 to the present year). 

The present volume has been carried out upon the general plan 
of the older work ; the text has, however, been entirely rewritten 
by Mr. Horace B. Woodward, F.R.S. Fuller descriptions of the 
geological formations, with lists of localities for fossils, have been 
given; the particulars relating to each county have been amplified, 
regard being paid to the more interesting geological facts, irrespective 
of the size or industrial importance of the county, and notes on 
seaside resorts have been appended. 

The descriptions of the geological features observable along the 
main lines of railway is entirely a new feature. A few of the 
original text illustrations are the same as in the earlier edition, the 
others have been borrowed from Sir Andrew Ramsay’s “ Physical 
Geology and Geography of Great Britain.” 

The figures of fossils, forming sixteen double octavo plates, have 
been reproduced chiefly from Lowry’s “Tabular View of British 
Fossils” and from his ‘Chart of Characteristic British Tertiary 
Fossils”’; others have been taken from the ‘Chart of Fossil 


Reviews—Natural History Museum Guide. 561 


‘Crustacea,’ drawn by J. W. Salter, F.G.S., and Henry Woodward, 
F.R.S.; a few are from Ramsay’s “ Physical Geology.” They are — 
very well selected, and will serve to illustrate the forms of the 
leading fossils that are to be met with in the various British 
‘stratified rocks. 

The maps in the original atlas were based to a large extent on 
those published by the Geological Survey, and they have now 
‘been revised, as far as the scale has permitted, from the later 
published maps of that institution and from Sir A. Geikie’s 
‘Geological Map of Scotland. The work reflects credit on both the 
author-editor and publisher, and deserves to prove a success, and 
is certainly a very useful addition to our geological library. 


J.—A Guipe to tHe Fosst. Mammats. anp Brirps IN THE 
DEPARTMENT OF GkrEoLOGY AND PanmontroLocy, Bririsu 
Museum (Narurat History), Cromwxtt Roap, Lownpon, 
S.W. Highth Edition. 8vo; pp. xvi and 100, with 6 plates 
and 88 text-figures. (London, 1904. Price 6d.) 


TT\HE Guides to the Geological Department bid fair to continue 

to be ‘‘the cheap sixpenn’orth” of the Museum. The 
ageregate sales of the seven earlier editions (1881-1896), we are 
told, amounted to about 20,000 copies ; and we may safely prophesy 
that the one issued this year will find equal favour with the public. 

This work has been entirely rearranged and rewritten; 28 of 
the text-figures used in the earlier editions have been withdrawn, 
and 14 new text-figures introduced, 5 octavo plates of fossils, 
a new geological table of fossiliferous deposits giving British 
and European names of strata, also a folding plate-plan of the 
Mammalian and Avian Galleries. 

The new illustrations comprise two views of the same block of 
a Lower Pliocene Bone-bed from Pikermi (near Athens), obtained 
by Dr. A. Smith Woodward, F.R.S.,’ together with a large 
collection of fossil remains in 1901 (see Grou. Mae., 1901, 
pp- 481-486), crowded with bones of mammals and of birds. The 
three-toed Horse (Hipparion), various bones of antelopes, and some 
carnivora make up the great mass of the block. 

A block of flint from Crayford, Kent, broken by Paleolithic man 
in making flint-knives, is illustrated on p. 7 as one of the prehistoric 
series. The restored skull and mandible of the giant lemur, 
Megaladapis insignis, from a cave in Madagascar, is drawn (p. 11), 
and the gaping jaws and outline of head of the sabre-toothed tiger 
(Macherodus) (p. 18) from South America. After such a yawn, 
do you think he could ever shut his mouth again? The skeleton 
of Hyenodon from Dakota (p. 16) is also new. 

Of wonders added to the collection lately is the skull and 
mandible of Arsinoitherium zitteli (fig. 38, p. 47), a mighty 
herbivore of the new order Baryropa (see Dr. C. W. Andrews, 
Grou. Mac., October, 1904, p. 481), from the Upper Hocene of 


1 Author of the present Guide, and Keeper of the Geological Department. 


562 Reviews—Natural History Museum Guide. 


the Fayim, Egypt, a beast off which the royal sabre - toothed’ 
tiger might have dined well after fair fight. The pictured skeleton 
of Phenacodus, like that of Hy@nodon, are both in American Museums. 
Toxodou platensis, a huge herbivore, is represented by a restored 
reproduction in the gallery (T). Of the Elephants, there is a new 
figure of Elephas (Stegodon) ganesa from the Sewaliks of India; 
and near it (p. 64) is figured the four-tusked Zetrabelodon' from 
Sansan, France, the skull and mandible of Palgzomastodon beadnelli* 
and of Meritherium lyonsi,’ both from the Eocene of the Fayim, Egypt. 

A new figure is also added of the skeleton of G/yptodon clavipes 
(case Z, pavilion) from the Pampa formation of Buenos Aires: 
(p. 75), and on plate iv pieces of the skin of the extinct ground- 
sloth, Gryphotherium Listai, nearly as large as the Mylodon, whose 
remains, associated with man, were obtained from a cavern near 
Last Hope Inlet, Patagonia, where these great phytophagous 
mammals appear to have been kept alive, and fed upon cut grass 
(also preserved) by these wild people, who afterwards ate them, 
leaving the bones and skin behind. 

The lower teeth of the existing Monotreme Ornithorhynchus are 
figured (p. 85) to show their multituberculate crowns, which closely 
resemble the teeth of some of the earliest Prototherian mammals 
found fossil. A figure is added (p. 90) of the restored skull of the 
great extinct bird Phororachos, also from Patagonia; and on pl. v 
is given a beautiful figure of the skeleton of the gigantic Moa 
(Dinornis maximus) from New Zealand, set up in the gallery some 
years since. Plate vi gives an excellent figure of the long-tailed and 
toothed fossil bird, the Archgopteryx, from the Lithographic Stone of 
Hichstiidt, Bavaria (described and figured by Dr. Henry Woodward 
in the Intellectual Observer, vol. ii, for 1862). 

In the folding table of stratified rocks the range of each great 
group of organisms is shown in the stratified series, and the 
approximate European equivalents of the British rocks are given 
in parallel columns. 

In a museum the student is more concerned with the succession 
of life than with the succession of stratified rock-masses; and 
a grouping by means of epoch names—that should be used all 
the world over, if possible—is to be commended. 

The fresh column of Ages, as present day, historic, neolithic, 
palezolithic, glacial, would be excellent if all were simple and 
accepted terms, but such names as ‘Priabonian,’ ‘ Artinskian,’ 
‘ Pliensbachian,’ etc., have been very little used in this country ; 
it is, however, possible they may be adopted when known and 
appreciated ; but for the people who buy the Guide they do not 
seem likely to be of much assistance. 

Another new column added gives, diagrammatically, the relative 
lengths of Epochs, with the thickness of each, and anyone who likes 
may colour this part for himself with great advantage. 

See Grou. Mac., Dr. C. W. Andrews, on Tetrabelodon, 1903, p. 225. 


1 
2 Article by Dr. C. W. Andrews, see Grot. Mac., March, 1904, p. 113. 
® See Gnot. Mac., March, 1904, p. 110. 


Reviews—Huxley’s Physiography. 563 


Among the figures eliminated from the Guide, we miss the 
picture of the ‘ Musk-ox,’ and the molar teeth of the Indian and 
African elephants (useful for comparison) ; these are probably 
excluded as living forms, but by the time a new edition is called 
for we may see the whole of the recent and fossil mammalia and 
birds amalgamated in one Guide. Signs are not wanting of what 
Sir Henry Howorth, writing to the Times, described as the coming 
fusion of the Louvre and the Luxembourg Galleries. 


1V.—PuystocrapHy: AN INTRODUCTION TO THE Stupy or NaTurRE. 
By T. H. Huxtry. Revised and partly rewritten by R. A. 
GreGcory, Professor of Astronomy, Queen’s College, London. 
8vo; pp. xi, 423, with 301 illustrations. (London: Macmillan 
and Co., Limited, 1904. Price 4s. 6d.) 


i was in 1877 that Huxley’s “ Physiography ” was introduced to 

the public, and to a certain extent it revolutionized, as was the 
aim of the author, the old method of teaching Physical Geography. 
He sought to convey scientific conceptions by an appeal to observa- 
tion ; to create interest in the study of ‘ Harth-knowledge’ by 
commencing with the local geography, ‘‘until step by step the 
conviction dawns upon the learner that, to attain to even an 
elementary conception of what goes on in his parish, he must know 
something about the universe.” Thus “the knowledge of the child 
should, of set purpose, be made to grow in the same manner as that 
of the human race has spontaneously grown.” 

The original edition of Huxley’s book owed much, as the author 
cordially acknowledged, to the editorial care of Mr. F. W. Rudler. 
The work became at once popular in the best sense of the term, 
a third edition was issued in 1880, and it has continued to hold its 
place with comparatively little alteration until the appearance of the 
present work. The progress of science during the past quarter of 
a century has, however, made necessary many additions and modi- 
fications in detail, while here and there alteration in plan has been 
deemed desirable. 

The most prominent change is in the omission of the special 
reference to the Thames and its basin, which Huxley had taken for 
his ‘text’; instead, the central idea has been transferred to any 
river basin. This difference in treatment is marked when we com- 
pare the index of the present volume with that of Huxley’s third 
edition. In the latter there are more than sixty references to the 
Thames and its basin. In the present index the Thames is not 
recorded. Considering the interest of the subject, a little more space 
might have been given to the ‘‘ Development of a drainage area,” as 
but scant justice can be accorded in a page of print to the views 
enunciated by Professor W. M. Davis; and his nomenclature of 
rivers is not even mentioned. 

A conspicuous feature in the new work consists in the number of 
admirable pictorial and other illustrations, of which six only appeared 
in the old editions; and it is satisfactory to find that while the work 


564 Reviews—Geology of the Transvaal. 


has been thoroughly revised, yet a great deal of the original text has. 
been retained. Moreover, Professor Gregory, whose sympathies may 
be considered to lean towards the astronomical side of physiography, 
has very fairly upheld the balance of power allotted by Huxley to- 
the claims of the several sciences concerned in the subject. Physio- 
graphy is thus kept well within its legitimate bounds of Earth- 
knowledge, or, strictly speaking, Nature-knowledge, despite the 
tendency, as Professor Lapworth observed last year in his address- 
to the Geological Society, for “‘ Physiography to embrace much that 
truly belongs to Astronomy.” Professor Gregory, indeed, commences. 
his work in a way that must delight Professor Lapworth, by dealing 
with “ Maps and Map-reading,” a subject eminently fitted to interest 
and instruct, but hitherto strangely neglected in all spheres of society. 

The chapter on ‘Geological Structure and History” contains 
many effective pictures, but here and there some emendation is 
required in the text. We are at a loss to interpret fig. 254, 
‘Greensand with boulders at Headington, 2} miles below Oxford.” 
The ‘ Lower Greensand’ of Shotover Hill, by Headington, rests on 
Portlandian beds with huge ‘ doggers’; and at a lower level there is 
Kimeridge Clay resting on the Corallian Limestone, strata that answer 
better to the figure than to the legend attached to it. On the same 
page (881) it is stated that “the hills of Middlesex are formed of 
London Clay,” whereas Stanmore Hill, the highest ground, is capped 
by gravel; Hendon, Finchley, and Muswell Hill, by gravel and 
boulder-clay ; Harrow, Hampstead, and Highgate, by Bagshot sand. 
On the next page we find Edge Hill included among the escarpments 
of the Oolites, whereas, to be precise, it is a scarp of Marlstone or 
Middle Lias. These, however, are but trifling defects that may 
readily be put right in a new edition. 


V.—GerotocicaL SuRVEY or THE TRANSVAAL: REPORT FOR THE 
yEAR 1903. (Pretoria, 1904. Price 7s. 6d.) 

IP\HE Geological Survey of the Transvaal, as organized under the 

British Government, was constituted in February, 1905, under 
the direction of Mr. Herbert Kynaston, B.A., F.G.8. The present 
report deals with the first year’s field-work carried on by the 
Director and two geclogists, Mr. E. T. Mellor, B.Se., F.G.8., and 
Mr. A. L. Hall, B.A., F.G.S. It is a folio work of 48 pages, 
accompanied by 24 plates of pictorial views, sections, plans, and 
colour-printed maps, all admirably rendered. The area chosen for 
survey was that to the east of Pretoria, bordering the railway as 
far east as Balmoral on the way to Middelburg; and the main 
results of the field-work are depicted on a map on the scale of 
about 24 miles to an inch. ‘The older stratified rocks include 
(1) a Dolomite Series, (2) shales and quartzites grouped as the 
Pretoria Series, (3) the Waterberg Sandstones and conglomerates, 
(4) the Karroo System, comprising glacial conglomerate, coal- 
measures, etc., and (5) alluvial deposits. Granite, felsite, syenite, 
eleolite-syenite, diabase, and volcanic breccia are likewise repre- 
sented. Evidence is brought forward to show that there is 


Obituary—R. F. Tomes. 560 


a considerable break between the Waterberg and Pretoria Series. 
The glacial conglomerate, which lies at the base of the Karroo 
System, is on the same horizon as the well-known Dwyka con- 
glomerate of Cape Colony. Glaciated surfaces have been met with 
further north than had previously been observed by Dr. Molengraaff, 
and the evidence of the stria and of the boulders indicates that the 
general direction of the ice-movement was from north to south. 
Excellent pictures of glaciated surfaces are given. Investigations 
were made into the diamondiferous deposits of the Schuller, Kaal- 
fontein, and Montrose mines. The diamonds are found in true pipes 
or volcanic vents, and in alluvial and other superficial deposits. 
The pipes appear all to belong to the same geological period, and 
they are evidently younger than the Pretoria Series, into which they 
have been intruded. There is, however, much resemblance in 
behaviour and constitution between the pipes now described and 
those of Kimberley, and if they prove to be contemporaneous the 
Transvaal pipes would be of post-Karroo age. 

Mr. Kynaston and his fellow-workers are to be heartily con- 
gratulated on the results of their first year’s work in the Transvaal, 
showing, as it does, abundant evidence of careful scientific research 
by well-trained observers, who are at the same time keenly alert 
with regard to questions of economic geology on which their labours 
are calculated to throw light. 


@S aU PASE Ea 


ROBERT FISHER TOMES, J.P., F.G.S. 
Born 1823. Dizp Juty 10, 1904. 


Last July the geological world had to mourn the loss of 
a veteran geologist, Robert Fisher Tomes, of South Littleton, 
near Evesham. Although he may have appeared to have lived 
a somewhat secluded life, it was nevertheless an extremely active 
one. The administration of justice, educational matters, parish and 
county work, various branches of archeology, zoology, and geology, 
all received attention; whilst he was an excellent carver of old 
oak and an enthusiastic collector of old china—especially Worcester. 
His collections of fossil corals and birds are particularly fine, and he 
also possessed a number of type-specimens of bats, which unfortunately 
went to decay owing to inadequate preservation. 

Mr. Tomes was born at Weston-on-Avon in 1825, and was the 
brother of Sir John Tomes, Bart., F.R.S., F.R.C.8., L.D.8., who 
died in 1895 (an odontologist of no mean rank, and a friend of 
Sir Richard Owen). He was Vice-Chairman of the Chipping Campden 
School Board for many years; Chairman of the Board of Guardians 
of Stratford-on-Avon for thirteen years (until 1879), when he went 
to live at South Littleton. He was appointed Alderman for 
the County Council of Worcester; subsequently being placed on 


566 Obituary—h. F. Tomes. 


the Standing Joint Committee, on which he remained until his 
death in July of the present year. His knowledge of geology, 
especially of the country around Evesham, enabled him to indicate 
in the Cotteswold Hills places whence water was obtained for the 
supply of thirteen or fourteen villages. His views met with con- 
siderable opposition at first, but were, however, accepted without 
question by the engineer, and the work was accomplished at 
a moderate cost. 

In 1860 Mr. Tomes was made a Corresponding Member of the 
Zoological Society of London, in recognition of the labour spent 
and the excellent results obtained from the examination of the 
Cheiroptera, and for his descriptions of many new species. His 
fine collection of birds from the county of Worcester testify to 
his taxidermic skill and knowledge of ornithology. 

About the year, however, that he was elected a Corresponding 
Member of the Zoological Society, Mr. Tomes directed his attention 
to geological matters, opening the discussion as to the age of the 
Sutton Stone and Lias conglomerates of Glamorganshire. The 
subject was broached in 1863 on account of a Gryphaa having been 
sent by Mr. Tomes to John Jones, of Gloucester, for the purpose 
of figuring and describing in his paper “On Gryphea incurva and 
its varieties’? communicated to the Cotteswold Club; the strati- 
graphical position of the fossil having been given by Mr. Tomes 
as ‘ White Lias of Bridgend, Glamorganshire.” The fact that the 
Gryphea was of great interest if it really occurred in what was 
known as the “ White Lias,” was naturally appreciated by Jones, 
but the fact was contested by Charles Moore, F.G.S., of Bath. 
Moore denied that Rheetic beds were exposed in the Bridgend 
cutting; but admitted that if the Gryphea was associated with 
Ostrea intusstriata (Plicatula intusstriata), then the evidence for 
the Rheetic age of the deposit was strong, as it was then generally 
believed that Plicatula only occurred in the White Lias. Accordingly 
it was agreed that Tomes, Moore, Kershaw, and Gibbs should 
make a fresh examination of the section. Tomes discovered 
the little Plicatula adhering to a lump of Mountain Limestone 
firmly embedded in the Lias rock. Near the same horizon a large 
specimen of Coroniceras Bucklandi was discovered by Moore. After 
an examination, of the coast-section in the neighbourhood of Sutton 
and a re-investigation of the Bridgend cutting (where a Gryphea with 
“no less than six small specimens of Ostrea intusstriata” adhering 
was found), it was agreed that the species had a much more extended 
range in time than had been hitherto thought, and therefore could 
“no longer be looked upon as typical of White Lias.” The matter 
then appeared settled, for Mr. 'lomes submitted that there was 
but one explanation, and that was “that during the period of the 
deposition of the Rhetic beds no such deposition took place at the 
locality in question [Bridgend],” an opinion he re-stated in 1877, 
and added, ‘the Rhetic fauna of that period became in this manner 
mixed up with that of the true Lias, which was subsequently 
deposited.” He held this opinion to the end, reiterating it in 1903 


Obituary—R. F. Tomes. 567 


when dealing with the coral Heterastrea rhetica, from the Avicula 
contorta beds of Deerhurst, Gloucestershire. 

Mr. Tomes became a Fellow of the Geological Society in 1877, 
and communicated numerous papers which appeared in the Quarterly 
Journal of the Society from 1878 to 1903. Whether short or long, 
these papers—all on fossil corals—embodied the results of critical 
examination and accurate field-work, although the results arrived 
at from an examination of the corals were frequently contested by 
Duncan. To the Grotocican Magazine he contributed an even 
greater number of papers on the same subject, always making his 
own drawings, 

L. RicHaRDSON. 


LIST OF TITLES OF PAPERS BY ROBERT FISHER TOMES, F.G.S, 


“On the Position of Gryphea incurva in the Lower Lias at Bridgend’’: Proc. 
Cotteswold Nat. F.C., vol. ii (1865), pp. 192-194. 

<‘On the Straticraphical Position of the Corals of the Lias of the Midland and 
Western Counties of England and of South Wales”: Quart. Journ. Geol. 
Soc., vol. xxxiv (1878), pp. 179-195, and pl. ix. 

“<A List of the Madreporaria of Crickley Hill, Gloucestershire, with Descriptions of 
some New Species’? : Grou. Mac., 1878, pp. 297-305. 

“On the Fossil Corals obtained from the Oolite of the Railway Cuttings near Hook 
Norton, Oxfordshire’’: Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. vi (1879), pp. 152-165. 

4< Description of a New Species of Coral [ Thamnastrea (Synastrea) Walford] trom 
the Middle Lias of Oxfordshire’’: Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxxviil 
(1882), pp. 95, 96, and fig. in text. 

<<On the Madreporaria of the Inferior Oolite of the Neighbourhood of Cheltenham 
and Gloucester’? : Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxxvili (1882), pp. 409-449, 
and pl. xviii. 

“On the Fossil Madreporaria of the Great Oolite of the Counties of Gloucester and 
Beene Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxxix (1883), pp. 168-196, and 
pl. vii. 

«On some new or imperfectly known Madreporaria from the Coral Rag and Portland 
Oolite of the Counties of Wilts, Oxford, Cambridge, and York’’: Quart. 
Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxxix (1883), pp. 555-565, and pl. xxii. 

<< A Comparative and Critical Revision of the Madreporaria of the White Lias of the 
Midland and Western Counties of England, and of those of the Conglomerate 
at the base of the South Wales Lias’?: Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xl 
(1884), pp. 353-374, and pl. xix. 

«« A Critical and Descriptive List of the Oolitic Madreporaria of the Boulonnais” : 
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xl (1884), pp. 698-728, and pl. xxx. 

<<On some new or imperfectly known Madreporaria from the Great Oolite of the 
Counties of Oxford, Gloucester, and Somerset’’: Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 
vol. xli (1885), pp. 170-190, and pl. v. 

“<Qbservations on some imperfectly known Madreporaria from the Cretaceous 
Formation of England’’: Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xli (1885), Abs. of 
Proc., pp. 111, 112. 

“© On the occurrence of Two Species of Madreporaria in the Upper Lias of Gloucester- 
shire”: Gzou. Maa., 1886, pp. 107-111. 

“Qn some new or imperfectly known Madreporaria from the Inferior Oolite of 
Oxfordshire, Gloucestershire, and Dorsetshire’: Gurot. Mac., 1886, 
pp. 385-398 and 443-452. 

“¢ On Paleozoic Madreporaria”’: Gro. Mac., 1887, pp. 98-100. 

‘On Heterastrea, a new genus of Madreporaria from the Lower Lias’’: Guot. 
Mae., 1888, pp. 207-218. 

‘‘ Notes on an Amended List of Madreporaria of Crickley Hill’’: Proc. Cotteswold 
Nat. F.C., vol. ix (1890), pp. 300-307, and plate. 

‘¢ Observations on the Affinities of the Genus Astrocenia”’?: Quart. Journ. Geol. 
Soc., vol. xlix (1893), pp. 569-573, and pl. xx. 


568 Obituary—ZJ. B. Hatcher. 


“¢ Description of a New Genus [ Ste/idiosevis] of Madreporaria from the Sutton Stone 
ot South Wales’’: Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xlix (1893), pp. 574-578, 
and pl. xx. 

“* Observations on some British Cretaceous Madreporaria, with the Description of two 
New Species’: Grou. Mac., 1899, pp, 298-307. 

“ Description of a Species of Heterastr@a trom the Lower Rhetic of Gloucester- 
shire’’: Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., lix (1903), pp. 403-407, and figs. in text. 


JOHN BELL HATCHER.! 


Born Octroner 11, 1861. Diep Jury 3, 1904. 


Tue Editor of the Annals of the Carnegie Museum, Pittsburgh, 
Pennsylvania, U.S., records with deep regret the death, on July 3rd, 
1904, of his trusted associate, Mr. John Bell Hatcher. 

Mr. Hatcher was born at Cooperstown, Brown County, Illinois, 
on October 11th, 1861. He was the son of John and Margaret C. 
Hatcher. The family is Virginian in extraction. In his boyhood 
his parents removed to Greene County, Iowa, where his father, 
who with his mother survive him, engaged in agricultural pursuits 
near the town of Cooper. He received his early education from 
his father, who in the winter months combined the work of teaching 
in the schools with labour upon his farm. He also attended the 
public schools of the neighbourhood. In 1880 he entered Grinnell 
College, Iowa, where he remained for a short time, and then went 
to Yale College, where he took the degree of Bachelor in Philosophy, 
in July, 1884. While a student at Yale his natural fondness for 
scientific pursuits asserted itself strongly, and he attracted the 
attention of the late Professor Othniel C. Marsh, the celebrated 
Naturalist, at that time paleontologist of the United States Geological 
Survey. Professor Marsh, as soon as the young man had received 
his diploma, commissioned him to undertake a paleontological 
investigation in south-western Nebraska. From the summer of 
1884 until the year 1893 he was continuously in the employment 
of Professor Marsh. During these years he conducted explorations 
over a wide area in the States of Nebraska, the Dakotas, Montana, Utah, 
Wyoming, and Colorado. These expeditions to the western country, 
which usually began early in the spring, continued until late in the 
fall, or even into the early winter. He also collected in the winter 
months and early spring in Maryland and North Carolina. His 
success as a collector was phenomenal, and the scientific treasures 
which he unearthed greatly enriched the collections of the United 
States Geological Survey and of the Peabody Museum in New 
Haven. It was upon the collections of vertebrate fossils made by 
J. B. Hatcher that Professor Othniel C. Marsh based to a very 
large extent many of his most important papers, and to Hatcher 
more than to any other man is due the discovery and collection 
of the Ceratopsia, perhaps the most striking of all the extinct 
reptilia. Very little had been known about them, and before 


1 Reprinted, slightly abridged, from Dr. W. J. Holland’s notice in Annals of 
the Carnegie Musewm, vol. ii, No. 4 (1900), pp. 597-604. 


Obituary —J. B. Hatcher. 569 


Hatcher succeeded in discovering a large number of skulls and 
skeletons they were at best represented by a few fragments, the 
nature of which was hardly understood even by the most advanced 
students. At the time of his lamented death Professor Marsh was 
engaged in preparing a monograph upon this material, and it fell 
to his distinguished student, who had discovered these colossal 
creatures, to take up in 1902 the work which Marsh had left 
unfinished, and he was devoting himself to this work at the time 
of his death. 

In 1890 Mr. Hatcher was made Assistant to the Chair of Geology 
im Yale University, and in 1893 he was elected Curator of Vertebrate 
Paleontology and Assistant to the Chair of Geology in the College 
of New Jersey at Princeton. 

While at Princeton he continued his geological and paleontological. 
explorations in the Western States with his usual enthusiasm and 
success. For many years he had cherished the wish to undertake 
the exploration of Patagonia and ‘Tierra del Fuego from a geo- 
logical and paleontological standpoint. He finally undertook the 
collection of a fund to enable him to carry out this object. 
Generous subscriptions were made by a number of the alumni and 
friends of Princeton University, and he himself out of his small 
savings contributed a large portion of what proved to be required 
to undertake the work. His plans were thoroughly approved and 
enthusiastically supported by Professor W. B. Scott, the Professor 
of Geology in Princeton. Three expeditions were made. The 
first extended from March Ist, 1896, to July 16th, 1897. On 
this expedition Mr. Hatcher was accompanied by his brother- 
in-law, Mr. O. A. Peterson, as an assistant. The second expedition 
extended from November 7th, 1897, to November 9th, 1898, 
when he was accompanied by Mr. A. E. Colburn as taxidermist. 
The third expedition was carried on from December 9th, 1898, 
to September Ist, 1899, when Mr. O. A. Peterson again accom- 
panied Mr. Hatcher. The story of these expeditions has been 
published in the first volume of the Reports of the Princeton 
University Expeditions to Patagonia, which are being issued under 
the editorial supervision of Professor William B. Scott upon the 
J. Pierpont Morgan Publication Fund of Princeton University, the 
fund having been generously given by Mr. Morgan in order that the 
scientific information secured by Mr. Hatcher might be made known 
to the world. In the conduct of these expeditions J. B. Hatcher 
strikingly revealed not only his great scientific insight, but his 
undaunted courage and great tenacity of purpose. ‘Twice he nearly 
lost his life, once as the result of a singular accident which 
befell him while taking a lonely road across the pampas, once while 
confined to his tent amidst the deep snows of winter by a violent 
attack of inflammatory rheumatism, from the ill effects of which 
he never quite recovered. 

The results of Hatcher’s explorations in Patagonia were of the 
most important character. ‘The collections of vertebrate fossils 
made by him and his assistants, and now preserved at Princeton 


570 | Obituary—J. B. Hatcher. 


University, are enormous in extent and of the very highest scientific 
value. Some of these collections were made by him at great 
personal risk, the strata in which they were found being only 
exposed for a few hours at low tide on the margin of the ocean. 
Working rapidly he and his assistant took up what they could, and 
then hurried back over the wide beach to the cliffs, to presently 
see the water from fifty to sixty feet deep rolling over the spot 
where they had been excavating. The explorers literally snatched 
their treasures from the hungry jaws of the ocean. In the fields 
of recent zoology and botany he made extensive collections. His 
geographical discoveries were of great importance. He added 
immensely to our knowledge of the interior of Patagonia, traversing 
vast territories upon which civilized man had never before planted 
foot. He discovered motntains and lakes, and traced the course of 
rivers which had never before been mapped. One of the great 
mountain ranges, by the consent of both the Argentine and Chilian 
Governments, bears his name. His decision that the crest of the 
Patagonian watershed in parts of its course lies far east of the crest 
of the southern Andean ranges, had an important bearing upon the 
question of the boundary-line between the Argentine Republic and 
Chile, and in the arbitration of this question, which has happily 
been settled without recourse to arms, as was at one time threatened, 
the discoveries of the young American explorer were brought into 
prominence in diplomatic circles. 

On February Ist, 1900, J. B. Hatcher accepted the position 
of Curator of Paleontology and Osteology in the Museum of the 
Carnegie Institute in Pittsburgh, where his brother-in-law, Mr. O. A. 
Peterson, immediately after his return from Patagonia, had been 
employed as an assistant. Installed in his new post, with the 
assurance of the unqualified and generous support of the founder of 
the Institute in all wise efforts to make his work successful, he began 
to lay out in connection with the Director of the Museum plans to 
create one of the most important paleontological collections in 
America. For four summers in succession he carried on explorations 
in the Western States. In 1905 he was associated for a portion of 
the time with Mr. T. W. Stanton, of the United States Geological 
Survey, in an effort to ascertain the relative position and geological 
age of the Judith River beds, which had been for some time the 
subject of earnest discussion among geologists. His views in relation 
to this subject, which had been opposed by almost every other 
geologist in America, were finally ascertained to be correct, and 
it was a matter of great personal gratification to him, as the writer 
of these lines knows, that the accuracy of his observations and 
of his conclusions, which had been reached many years before, had 
been verified. 

While Professor Hatcher wrote very little in relation to geology, 
he nevertheless was regarded as being one of the very ablest of 
American geologists, his great experience in the field and his close 
attention to the subject having given him a practical knowledge 
such as was possessed by few of his contemporaries. One of the 


Obituary—J. B. Hatcher. ea 


leading geologists in America, in speaking of him said to the writer, 
“J regard Professor Hatcher as one of the best informed geologists 
in the United States. He is pre-eminent in this field, though he sets. 
comparatively small store by his attainments.” 

The last five years of his life, during which he was connected 
with the Carnegie Institute, were not only years in which he proved 
himself remarkably successful as a collector, but in which he 
revealed his ability as a scientific author. A number of important 
papers from his pen have appeared in the Annals and Memoirs of 
the Carnegie Museum. The first volume of the Reports of the 
Princeton University Expeditions was written by him during this 
time. He contributed numerous brief articles to various scientific 
journals, and in 1902 undertook for the United States Geological 
Survey the completion of the Monograph of the Ceratopsia which 
had been left unfinished by Professor Marsh at the time of his 
death. The writer believes that this great work had been brought 
so far that it will be possible to complete it with comparatively 
small effort on the part of some one reasonably familiar with the 
subject. Various other important papers of a monographic character 
had been begun. Unfortunately these for the most part are not 
in such condition that they can be published. 

One of the great undertakings which had occupied much of his 
time and thought during the past eighteen months was the repro- 
duction of the skeleton of Diplodocus carnegiei, a restoration of which 
had been ordered by Mr. Andrew Carnegie for the purpose of 
presentation to the British Museum of Natural History, the Trustees 
of which in February, 1903, had formally signified their acceptance 
of Mr. Carnegie’s kind offer to have such a reproduction made for 
them. The superintendence of this work was a most congenial labour 
to him. On the Ist day of July, 1904, a small company of scientific 
men and women, together with the Trustees of the Carnegie Institute, 
had the pleasure of a private view of this restoration, which had 
been temporarily set up prior to its shipment to England. The 
absence of Professor Hatcher from the little company was feelingly 
alluded to by many. But none of the party dreamed, although he 
was known to be seriously ill, that he had reached the end of his 
life’s work. 

Mr. Hatcher’s position as a paleontologist was unique. He is 
universally admitted by those who are most competent to pass 
judgment to have been the best and most successful paleontological 
collector whom America has ever produced. The larger proportion 
of the choicest vertebrate fossils now in the Peabody Museum at 
Yale University, in the collection of the United States Geological 
Survey, in the Museum of Princeton University, and in the Museum 
of the Carnegie Institute at Pittsburgh were collected by him. To 
a very large extent the American methods of collecting such 
remains, which are now universally admitted to be the best 
known, were the product of his experience in the field and of his 
careful thought. In a letter just received by the writer from 
Professor Henry Fairfield Osborn, the Palzontologist of the United 


572 Obituary—J. B. Hatcher. 


States Geological Survey, he says, alluding to the death of Professor 
Hatcher: ‘‘1 can hardly tell you how shocked and grieved I am. 
T had often thought of the probability of Hatcher’s death while in 
the field when taking great risks and entirely away from medical 
and surgical attendance, but of his death at home I had not 
thought a moment. In his intense enthusiasm for science, and the 
promotion of geology and paleontology, and the tremendous sacrifices 
he was prepared to make, and had made, he was a truly rare and 
noble spirit, the sort of man that is vastly appreciated in England 
and in Germany, but I fear very little appreciated in America. His 
work as a collector was magnificent, probably the greatest on 
record.” 

Professor W. B. Scott, in the columns of Science, says: “‘ Hatcher 
may be said to have fairly revolutionized the methods of collecting 
vertebrate fossils, a work which before his time had been almost 
wholly in the hands of untrained and unskilful men, but which he 
converted into a fine art. The exquisitely preserved fossils in 
American museums, which awaken the admiring envy of European 
paleontologists, are, to a large extent, directly or indirectly due to 
Hatcher’s energy and skill, and to the large-minded help and advice 
as to methods and localities which were always at the service of 
anyone who chose to ask for them.” ‘Testimony of like character as 
to the great achievements of Professor Hatcher has come from many 
other sources. 

Hatcher was an indefatigable student and a very keen observer. 
He was fertile in resources. He had great mechanical aptitudes, 
and succeeded, sometimes when alone, by patient effort in accom- 
plishing apparently impossible tasks in the removal of huge and 
weighty objects from difficult positions, which would not have 
been undertaken by others. The writer recalls one or two 
cases in which he dared great physical risks and even death, 
when alone, far from human companionship, in extracting large 
masses from their original position and moving them by a skilful 
arrangement of levers to points where they could afterwards be 
taken up. One such instance occurred in the autumn of 1908, 
and the writer could not refrain, while admiring the courage and 
skill displayed, from earnestly warning Mr. Hatcher against the 
repetition of such risks as he at that time assumed in attempting to 
handle a block of rock weighing nearly a ton without the assistance 
of other men. 

While accomplishing a vast amount of most important work 
during the last five or six years of his life, there was hardly any 
time in which, as the result of the illness and exposure which he 
had undergone in Patagonia, he did not suffer pain, and at times 
of a most excruciating character, and yet he was patient and 
uncomplaining. 

Perhaps the most striking characteristic of Mr. Hatcher was .his 
extreme modesty. He was always reticent in speaking of what he 
had done, and shunned publicity other than that which came to 
him through his scientific writings. 


Miscellaneous. 573 


Hatcher was a most charming companion, and when he could be 
prevailed upon to relate the story of his adventures in strange and 
distant places, the listener found his companionship fascinating. 

Though living so much of his life in the wilderness, he was 
a man of strong domestic attachments. He loved his home, and to 
none of all the wide circle of his acquaintance does his untimely. 
death bring deeper and more poignant grief than to his wife and 
four young children. To them the writer renews in these lines his 
expression of the deepest sympathy. W. J. Houzanp. 


MISCHIGMANHOUS. 


= 


Destonccuamps’ Types or Jurassic Bracutopopa.—The British 
Museum (Natural History) has received a valuable donation, one 
particularly interesting to students of British Jurassic Brachiopods. 
It consists of about 100 plaster casts of the types (holotypes, hypo- 
types), ete., of the Jurassic Brachiopoda figured by H. Deslongchamps 
in the Paléontologie Francaise Terr. Jurass., with a few other treasures 
of the Deslongchamps Collection figured elsewhere. Among the 
latter is a cast of the holotype of the very rare Rhynchonella 
Deslongchampst, Davidson—the Museum already possesses the historic 
Tesson example of this species; also a cast of the holotype of Terebr. 
biplicata (Brocchi), which is not a Cretaceous fossil at all, but is 
a Jurassic Ornithella. Among the Pal. Frang. specimens the examples 
of T. conglobata, T. Ferry, T. Jauberti, and others of Deslongchamps’ 
species will be of especial interest. The Director, Professor E. Ray 
Lankester, F.R.S., has presented this fine series to the Museum. 


Mr. C. Fox-Straneways, who joined the staff of the Geological 
Survey under Sir Roderick Murchison in 1867, has retired from 
the public service. During the course of his long, detailed, and 
invariably careful work in the field, he has surveyed large areas 
in Yorkshire, including portions of the great Coalfield, the country 
around Harrogate, and most of the moorlands and wolds of the 
North and Hast Ridings. Thence crossing the Humber he continued 
work in North Lincolnshire, and finally passed on to Leicester, 
from which town as a centre he has re-surveyed the Leicestershire 
Coalfield, Charnwood Forest, and a large area extending from the 
borders of the Warwickshire Coalfield across the Liassic vale east 
of Leicester. The results of this work have been published in 
humerous maps, sections, and memoirs, amongst which may be 
mentioned two volumes dealing particularly with the Jurassic 
rocks of Yorkshire. Apart from his official work Mr. Fox-Strangways 
has stirred up much local interest in geology in the localities where 
he has lived and laboured, especially at Leicester, where his services 
in conducting excursions have been frequently given, and have 
always been highly appreciated. 

Correswotp Naturauists’ Fis~p Crus.—The President, Dr. QC. 
Callaway, refers (Proc., vol. xv, part 1) to the loss sustained 
in the death of their old member Robert Ktheridge. After 


574 Miscellaneous. 


giving some account of the excursions made during the year, 
Dr. Callaway contributes a short essay on Pre-Cambrian Volcanoes, 
as evidenced by the Uriconian rocks of Malvern and elsewhere. 
The ‘Charnian’ rocks of Charnwood Forest are regarded as the 
equivalent, at least partially, of the Uriconian. In the same 
Journal Mr. L. Richardson gives an interesting account of the 
Rheetic beds of Worcestershire; and Messrs. J. W. Gray and 
G. W. 8. Brewer contribute an article on evidences of ancient 
occupation on Cleeve Hill, with an appendix on the vertebrate and 
molluscan remains by Messrs. M. A. C. Hinton and A. S. Kennard. 
The human settlement appears to have belonged to the Iron age, 
and the domesticated animals included the horse, ox, sheep, pig, 
and fowl. The Cotteswold Club has also issued (as a Supplement 
to vol. xiv) a useful Table of the Contents of the Proceedings, 
vols. i to xiv, 1847-1903. In this the title of the first printed paper 
should have been given—it is ‘‘On the Geology of the district 
explored by the Cotteswolds Club, and more particularly of the 
Clay subsoil of the [Royal Agricultural] College Farm,” by S. P- 
Woodward, pp. 2-8. 

Tertiary Piutrontc Rocks From THE IstE or Rum.'—Mr. Alfred 
Harker, M.A., F.R.S., writing on the Plutonic rocks of Tertiary age, 
which make up about one-half of Rum, states that the ultrabasic 
group is the most important. It includes various peridotites, some 
essentially of olivine, but others containing pyroxenes, and especially 
anorthite. A noteworthy amount of lime and alumina, giving rise 
to anorthite, is indeed a special characteristic of the group. Equally 
striking is a tendency to separation of the more peridotic and the 
more felspathic portions of the magma, usually with a stratiform 
disposition. With bands of true peridotite alternate others of alli- 
valite, a rock consisting of anorthite (predominant) and olivine, and 
even containing seams of pure anorthite rock. Another peculiar type, 
styled harrisite, is composed essentially of olivine (predominant) and 
anorthite, the olivine occurring here as large lustrous black crystals, 
with good cleavage. 

Later than all these rocks, and intruded beneath them, comes the 
eucrite group, which shows less variety. The rocks are usually 
somewhat rich in olivine; much of the pyroxene is hypersthene, and 
the felspar is near anorthite. Still later comes the granite group, 
mostly hornblendic and often with granophyric structures. The 
acid magma has entered into peculiarly intimate relations with the 
eucrite, not only metamorphosing and impregnating that rock, but 
enclosing and partially incorporating portions of it, large and small. 
The enclosed portions, in a half-digested state, have been streaked 
out by movement, and there has arisen a group of well-banded 
gneisses, closely resembling the Lewisian of the north-western 
highlands. These Tertiary gneisses are all of the nature of hybrid 
and composite rocks, of which the contributing elements are the 
eucrite and the granite, and their genesis can be traced step by step 
in the field. r 


1 Read before the British Association, Cambridge, Section C (Geology), Aug., 1904. 


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ORIGINAL ARTICLES. 


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1.—Tue KisHon anp JorRDAN VALLEYS. 
By Professor T. G. Bonnzy, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. 


HAT broad trench through the Palestine Highlands, an ancient 
highway and battlefield of nations—the plain of Esdraelon or 

the valley of Megiddo, together with the plain of Acre—has for 
long presented to me a difficult problem in Physical Geology, 
for it seemed inexplicable by subaerial denudation under existing 
conditions. Its floor varies roughly from five to eight miles in 
breadth ; running approximately from south-east to north-west, 
it is bounded on the more western side by the limestone mountains 
of Samaria and on the more eastern by those of Galilee. The former 
descend from the ridge of Carmel (1,742 feet at highest) with 
a fairly steep escarpment, which becomes a little less regular as we 
follow it to the bastion-mass of Mount Gilboa; the latter correspond 
in their general outlines with those of the eastern portion of Samaria, 
but the advance of a lower spur towards the south-west divides 
the plain of Esdraelon from that of Acre, by a kind of strait in 
which, so far as I could see, there is but little level ground on either 
side of the Kishon. This spur, however, of the northern hills, 
hardly does more than interrupt the floor of the Kishon valley, for 
above it the great trench is continued between two hill masses, 
much of these ranging from thirteen to sixteen hundred feet above 
sea-level. Beyond the strait the upper basin (plain of Esdraelon) 
quickly broadens out, extending towards the south-east for about 
fifteen or sixteen miles, where it is divided into two arms by Jebel 
Duhy (Little Hermon) (1,690 feet), which is thus isolated from 
Tabor (1,846 feet) on the north, and from Gilboa (1,698 feet) on the 
south ; a broad, rather shallow, grassy valley descending from the 
last-named mass to lose itself in the plain, Neither it nor one 
or two other tributaries from the Galilee hills count for much, but 
the two arms maintain their trench-like form, cutting through the 
limestone isthmus which must once have united Samaria and 
Galilee. These are still, though much narrower than the plain 
of Esdraelon, disproportionately broad; their watersheds are low, 

DECADE V.—VOL. I.—NO. XII. 34 


576 Prof. T. G. Bonney—The Kishon and Jordan Valleys. 


ill-marked, and lie farther west than the natural position. ‘The gap 
between Duhy and Tabor is the narrower, and, so far as I can 
ascertain, a few feet the higher; that between the former and 
Gilboa is between two and three miles wide and about 270 feet 
above sea-level. One position in the ‘strait’ leading to the. plain 
of Acre, according to the Palestine survey map, is 80 feet above 
sea-level, so the average down-slope of the plain of Esdraelon must 
be about four yards in a mile. A plain it is not, however, in such 
a strict sense of the word as the Cambridgeshire fenland ; for the 
bases of the hills of Galilee on one side and of Samaria on the 
other shelve gently down with occasional slight undulations so 
as to fuse imperceptibly with the actually level ground near the 
river brink. All this low land is covered with a thick, rich brown 
earth, a broad fertile expanse of arable land and herbage, in striking 
contrast with the comparatively bare limestone masses on either side. 
Obviously this is a river valley—a trench not less than a thousand 
feet deep cut through the limestone highlands of Palestine—but it is 
on much too large a scale to have been excavated by the present 
Kishon system. The difficulties increase when we examine the 
Jordan valley. That is another trough, seldom less and often more 
than four miles wide. Its bed, where reached by the southern of 
the two passes, must be at least 700 feet below sea-level,’ so the 
drop from the watershed must be quite 950 feet. The Jordan has 
carved its present course through old lacustrine deposits, of which 
we need now only say that they were formed when an unbroken 
sheet of water extended from the divide between the Red and the 
Dead Seas to the northern end of Lake Huleh.? They extend into 
a recess between the roots of Little Hermon and Gilboa, where, 
about 350 feet above the river, is Beisan, the ancient Bethshean. 
The depth of the Sea of Galilee is about 165 feet, and it may 
occupy a true rock basin, for the river, no great distance below its 
outlet, runs, according to Lynch,’ over a rocky bed. The surface of 
the Dead Sea is about 1,292 feet below the Mediterranean, its 
greatest depth being 1,278 feet, and the watershed between it and 
the Red Sea, on which are outcrops of limestone, is 660 feet above 
the latter. As so much has been written on the Jordan valley,‘ it 


1 The Sea of Galilee is 682°5 feet below sea-level. 

2 The water in this ancient lake seems to haye risen to about 1,398 feet above its 
present level, or some 98 feet above the sea; that would be, in round numbers, 90 feet 
above the present surface of Huleh. 

8 «« Rxpedition to the Dead Sea and the Jordan,’’ chs. viii and ix. 

4 The literature connected with this subject is extensive, but I may say that, until 
I formed the conclusion expressed in this paper, I consulted books to ascertain facts 
rather than opinions. I made great use of Professor Hull’s Memoir in the ‘‘ Survey 
of Western Palestine ’’ (though venturing to differ in one or two matters from him). 
Valuable references to literature are to be found in Professor Suess’ classic work 
“‘Das Antlitz der Erde,” Professor Lartet’s ‘‘ Géologie de la Mer Morte,” and 
Professor Gregory’s ‘Great Rift Valley,’? ch. xiii. I may also mention Professor 
I. C. Russell’s paper in this Magazine (1888, p. 338, etc.), and the one by 
Mr. Hudleston on the Central African Lakes in the present volume. I have also 
consulted papers by Dr. Diener and Dr. Blanckenhorn, though to one or two of their 
writings I have not had access. 


Prof. T. G. Bonney—The Kishon and Jordan Valleys. 577 


will suffice to say (1) that all features which meet the eye are 
indicative of subaerial erosion; (2) that examination of its geological 
structure shows it to have been initiated and determined by a series 
of more or less parallel faults, which extend from somewhere south 
of the Taurus range to the junction of the Gulf of Akabah with the 
Red Sea, where they run up against another and still greater system ; 
(3) that some geologists consider the depression, now partly occupied 
by the Dead Sea, and the elevation to the south of it, to be original 
features produced by unequal subsidence during the process of 
faulting, while others maintain that the Jordan once found its way 
southward through the Gulf of Akabah and that the present con- 
figuration of its bed is due to subsequent movements differing in 
direction from the original. 


J ay 
b 
% 
MY 


Fic. 1.—Tur NrricHBouRHOOD OF THE EspRAELON Gap. 


Before proceeding farther I venture to call attention to the mis- 
application (increasing, I think) of the term ‘rift valley’ to the 
Jordan. In the strict sense of the word ‘rift’ (according to good 
dictionaries of our language) such a valley must be, on any large 
scale, a great rarity. One would not, however, quarrel much with 
the application of the term (as by Professor Gregory in Masailand) 
to a valley where the surface of rupture, at least on one side, was 
still comparatively ‘raw ’—unmodified by denudation. That cannot 
be said of the Jordan, where the fault system can only be detected 
on examination. Hvery feature in the landscape speaks of ordinary 
meteoric agencies, so that the Lake of Gennesaret and the Dead Sea 
are no more suggestive of ‘ rifts’ than the Lakes of Orta or of Geneva. 
The Jordan valley, to use the accurate phrase applied to it by Suess, 
is part of a ‘graben versenkung.’ ‘ Rift’ is not an accurate trans- 
lation for ‘graben’; ‘trough’ is far better, and as we speak of 


1 « Antlitz der Erde,” vol. i, pp. 481, 482, ete. (See p. 373 et seq. of the newly 
published translation by Miss & Professor Sollas.) 


578 Prof. T. G. Bonney—The Kishon and Jordan Valleys. 


a ‘trough-fault,’ why not a ‘trough valley,’ or, if we wish to be very 
precise, a ‘trough-fault valley’? But a new word, especially if 
a little improper, seems to be as fascinating to some geologists as it 
is to children ! . 

No one doubts that the physical features of Palestine have all been 
developed since the age of the Nummulitic Limestone; their broad 
outlines were probably determined, as we shall presently see, by 
the beginning of glacial times.’ To excavate the broad ‘ Kishon 
valley ’ requires, in my opinion, not only a heavier rainfall, but also: 
a much larger drainage area than now exists. It is obviously 
a ‘beheaded’ valley ;* the two streams descending to the Jordan 
on either side of Jebel Duhy have trespassed westwards and pushed 
the watershed in that direction. In other words, I consider the 
Kishon valley to be older than that of the Jordan, and still to 
retain, west of the passes, its principal ancient features.° But where 
was the original watershed? If it were to the west—somewhere 
out in the Mediterranean—then Jebel Duhy must have been an 
island dividing the river into two channels; a thing possible, but 
the less probable hypothesis. The features described above appeared 
to me, when I visited the country, to demand a watershed well 
to the east of the line connecting Tabor with Gilboa over Duhy- 
The watershed may have disappeared in the trough-faulting which 
determined the Jordan valley; but I doubt, apart from other 
obvious difficulties, whether that would be far enough to the east, 
and am disposed to place it on the Syrian highlands nearer to that 
from which streams now descend westwards to the Jordan, because 
the lower part of the valley, the present Kishon, seems to me so 
deep, level, and flat that it could only have been made by a stream 
not much less important than that of the Jordan itself. I am 
unable to identify the old course of its upper waters with any 
existing valley; but that is not surprising, because the amount 
of subsidence in the Jordan trough has maintained, if it has not 
accelerated, denudation on its western flank,! while cutting off 
the supply has left the lower part of the ancient valley—the 
Esdraelon—Acre trench—very much as it was.° So I suppose the 
movement which first raised the Syrian highlands (including 
Palestine) above the sea culminated at an axis still indicated by 
the head waters of the Jarmuk, the Zerka, and many other streams, 


1 Tt is almost needless to observe that in this interval much work was done in 
‘making scenery’ all round the Mediterranean border. 

2 My triend Professor J. W. Gregory emphasises this conclusion in his ‘* Great 
Rift Valley ’’ (pp. 253-255), but I may say that each of us reached it independently 
of the other, and we take opposite views as to which was the executioner. The 
sketch-map inserted above (Fig. 1), for which I am indebted to his kindness and 
that of his publisher, Mr. J. Murray, brings out very clearly the extent of the 
trespass. 

2 hhe outlet of the Orontes (Nahr-el-Asi), perhaps also of the Leontes (Nahr-el- 
Litany), may be contemporary features in the structure of Syria. 

* To this, of course, I attribute the westward trespassing of the shorter streams on 
that side. ; 

5 To behead a valley, as we can see in the case of the Inn between St. Moritz and 
the Maloya, practically puts a stop to erosion in the uppermost basin. 


‘Prof. T. G. Bonney—The Kishon and Jordan Valleys. 579 


which formerly made their ways (the final outlets not being 
numerous) westwards to the Mediterranean. 

We come next to the great trough-valley. So much has been 
written about this, which includes the whole course of the Jordan 
and the major part of both the Leontes and the Orontes, that I need 
not enter into minute details. Dr. Blanckenhorn’s section across 
southern Palestine’ makes the general structure perfectly clear. 
The high upland west of the Jordan is formed by a flattened anticline, 
the eastern arm of which is dropped down by three parallel faults, 
the outermost practically forming the west side of that valley. 
A single but greater downthrow does the same on the opposite or 
eastern side, so the higher strata on both sides of the river are nearly 
on a level. The western flexure is prolonged, exaggerated, and 
complicated in the Lebanon range; the eastern in that of Anti- 
Lebanons, which I suppose to have been the earlier of the two.? 
Was the watershed between the Gulf of Akabah and the Dead Sea, 
with the formation of the latter and the peculiar depression of the 
major part of the Jordan valley, mainly determined by unequal 
subsidence of the faulted down trough-blocks, or was this valley, 
after its first definition, excavated down to the live rock which, 
though now generally invisible, must form its true floor, and 
subsequently traversed by flexures, due to forces acting nearly at 
right angles to the former set, which produced the general depression 
at the northern end and the marked barrier near the southern ? 
Most authorities adopt the former view. They consider that the 
limestone, which crops out in ridges near this barrier in the bed 
of the trough, and the fact that the glens north of it trend towards 
the Dead Sea and south of it to the Gulf of Akabah, indicate the 
Arabah—Akabah watershed to have existed from the first. But 
travellers describe the valley bed as if (apart from the lacustrine 
deposits) it agreed very closely with the Ghor itself. But we should 
expect that, if these ridges were the remnants of an ordinary 
watershed, the united streams from each side of it would have carved 
in the floor of the trough a pair of narrow ‘ wadies’ running in 
opposite directions: in other words, that we should find here 
a closer resemblance to the valley of the Jordan north of Lake 
Huleh. As a considerable amount of denudation must have taken 
place while the Jordan Lake was filling, and must have been 
continued while it was shrinking (for I suppose the cutting of 
terminal ravines such as those of the Kedron and the Kelt to be 
distinctly late features),? I am not surprised at the general directions 
of the larger valleys. 


1 Through Bethlehem; see Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. Palest. Vereins, xix (1898), 
op. 1-59. 
ee To compare smaller with larger mountains, the structure here seems generally 
similar to that of Switzerland from the French frontier to the watershed between the 
Rhine and the Inn. 

3 In fact, more than one feature which I observed during my short visit to 
Palestine suggested that in the uplands denudation was proceeding very slowly, but 
became much more rapid in the vicinity of the Jordan. 


580 Prof. T. G. Bonney—The Kishon and Jordan Valleys. 


But the study of its fauna and flora has much strengthened 
the arguments for the former connection of the Jordan valley 
with the Gulf of Akabah. In Canon Tristram’s words,! written 
twenty years ago (which, as we can see from the excellent 
summary given by Professor Gregory,? have been fortified by 
additional evidence), “A review of the botany as well as the zoology 
of the Dead Sea basin reveals to us the interesting fact that we find 
in this isolated spot . . . . a series of forms of life, differing 
decidedly from the species of the surrounding region, to which they 
never extend, and bearing a strong affinity to the Ethiopian region, 
with a trace of Indian admixture. As the species which serve as 
the most striking illustrations of this fact live either in or beside 
fresh water, a river connection is the most natural agency by which 
to account for it, and as these species are absent from the Lower 
Nile valley and from Egypt, the river connection must have been 
established along the eastern side of the range of highlands which 
separates the Nile from the Red Sea.” Professor Gregory, though 
advocating this connection, thinks it unnecessary to assume that 
‘‘a river flowed the whole way from the Jordan to the northern 
end of the Red Sea,” because fish from the south might have 
made their way to a lake, which is shown by its deposits® to 
have existed on the northern side of the watershed and a few 
feet below it, when ‘an occasional flood or a slight earth-movement 
would have enabled them to enter the stream which flowed north- 
wards.” That, no doubt, is possible, though I should think not 
very probable, unless the spawn were conveyed by birds, but it does 
not account for the continuous trench of the Arabah—Akabalh valley. 
Professor Hull is not unconscious of this difficulty, for he says, 
speaking of the valley of the Arabah and this watershed,* ‘it is 
difficult to see how this great valley, which is sometimes seven 
or eight miles in width, especially near its centre,’ could have been 
excavated and levelled down unless the action of the rivers and 
streams of the bordering hills had been originally supplemented 
by the levelling action of the sea waves on the south and the 
inland waters of a great lake on the north of the watershed.” But 
so far as I am aware, there is no proof that the old Jordan 
valley lake ever rose more than about a hundred feet above the 
Mediterranean, and if the sea waves were to approach near to 
this barrier, to cut a fjord from forty to forty-five miles long, 
north of the present shore at Akabah, either the sea must have 
been more than 600 feet higher or the land the same amount” 
lower than at present. In the former case I think that the 
Mediterranean would probably have occupied the valley of Hsdraelon 
and gained access to the inland lake on one or both sides of Jebel 


1 «<The Fauna and Flora of Palestine ’’ (1884), p. xvi. 

2 «The Great Rift Valley ’’ (1896), p. 262. 

° They were discovered by Professor Hull. 

4 Mount Seir (1855), p. 82. 

° In the ‘‘ Survey of Western Palestine ’’ (Geology), p. 18, he says that north otf 
the watershed it is nearly double (6 or 7 miles). 


Prof. T. G. Bonney—The Kishon and Jordan Valleys. 581 


Duhy ; in the latter some sort of upheaval is admitted. Prof. Lartet, 
in his excellent memoir, objects to a differential uplift in the bed 
of the Jordan valley on the ground that there is no disturbance 
of horizontality in the strata exposed in its flanks. But we must 
remember that as the beds on both sides dip (on the west rather 
strongly) towards the valley, a slope at right angles, or in its 
direction, would be masked, especially as this would be small.’ But 
according to Professor Lartet’s map the strata do dip in the required 
direction. Both he and Professor Hull represent Nubian sandstone 
cropping out beneath the Cretaceous limestone very near the Arabah— 
Akabah watershed. The former runs downwards to the south end 
of the Dead Sea, and can be traced beneath the great masses of 
limestone forming the Moab Hills, until it disappears opposite to 
Jebel Kuruntil.* After a time, according to Professor Hull’s map, 
‘ it again crops out, being seen tor the last time nearly due east 
of Shechem. Thus there must be a considerable bending or 
displacement parallel with the east and west fault running from 
near Bethlehem to the Dead Sea. ‘True, this only accounts for about 
one-third of the amount which the flexure hypothesis requires, but 
the beds may have been already somewhat bent down when the 
trough-faulting began. This hypothesis obviously implies that 
the whole region from the Arabah to the sources of the Jordan has 
been considerably depressed. ‘The latter, so far as I can ascertain, 
range from about three to rather over seven hundred feet above sea- 
level, which would be too low if the drainage had ever reached the 
Gulf of Akabah. But this and the ‘sag’ necessary (as indicated above) 
to form the Sea of Galilee (in an east and west line with which are the 
plateau of Asochis and the Bay of Acre; also the marked escarpment 
in the hills west of Safed) all suggest a system of faults and flexures 
almost at right angles to, and so probably not coeval with, the 
north and south system defining the Jordan valley. All geologists 
agree that before the end of the Pliocene period, “the existing land 
surfaces on either side of the Jordan—Arabah valley were in a con- 
dition not very different from that of the present day, at least in 
their main features.” Professor Hull, from whom these words are 
quoted,’ says ‘‘at the close of the Miocene epoch,” but I am doubtful 
whether we can adopt this limit. If, as is very possible, the two 
greater systems of disturbances, which certainly affected a large 
part of the Mediterranean area, extended thus far east, the first 
uplift would occur at the close of the Hocene and the consequent 
sculpture during the Miocene period; the furmation of the Jordan 
trough would belong to the second, or immediately post-Miocene 
movements, by which large parts of the western half of the Alps 
were so profoundly affected; and its sculpture would proceed 
during the Pliocene, the flexure of the trough occurring rather 

1 Taking the watershed as 700 feet above, and the Dead Sea as 1,300 feet below, 
sea-level, we get in round numbers a drop of 2,000 feet in about 70 miles, or on 
a rough average 1 in 175—less than a degree. 

2 The Mount of Temptation, the supposed scene of the Forty Days’ Fast, 


conspicuous from and to north-west of Jericho. 
3 «+ Survey of Western Palestine” (Geology), p. 112. 


682 Dr. R. Broom—New Crocodiles from South Africa. 


later in this period.’ That it was complete before the Glacial Epoch 
began is generally admitted. Dr. Blanckenhorn,’ adopting the three 
epochs of ice-extension recognised in Germany, gives this arrange- 
ment of the later history of the Jordan valley :— 

(1) First ice-age (rain epoch): greatest height of the Jordan 
valley lake. 

(2) First interglacial (dry epoch) : probable sinking of lake to 
about 828 feet above present level, when the salt of Jebel Usdum 
was precipitated. 

(3) Second ice-age: rise of lake and formation of the high terraces. 

(4) Second interglacial : probably the age of the volcanic out- 
breaks,* so conspicuous in the northern part of the valley (also the 
cutting of the Ghor). 

(5) Third ice-age : formation of the lower terraces. 

This chronological scheme is rather hypothetical, but it deserves 
careful consideration. I think, however, I am right in claiming the 
Hsdraelon valley as a fragment of a system older than the Jordan, 
and pronouncing that river guilty of removing its neighbour’s land- 
mark westward. Such a removal is almost inevitable, because the 
descent of its tributaries on the right bank is so much more rapid 
than the slope of the Kishon valley. 


I].—On a new Crocopinran Genus (Norocyaupsa) FROM THE 
Uprer SrormperG Bens oF Soutn AFRICA. 


By R. Broom, M.D., Victoria Coll., Stellenbosch. 
\] k. A. L. DU TOIT, of the Cape Geological Commission, who 


has been for some months engaged in studying the Stormberg 
beds in the eastern part of the Colony, has been fortunate in making 
a number of discoveries of very great interest to the paleeontologist. 
Among Vertebrates his most important finds have been the remains 
of two small crocodiles. 

The first specimen, which was discovered by Mr. A. Isted in the 
Cave Sandstone at Funnystone, Barkly East, consists of the im- 
pressions of the under sides of most of the upper bones of the skull 
and of most of the dorsal armour. ‘There are also preserved the 
remains of a scapula, a humerus, a radius and ulna, a femur, and 
a number of ribs. A restoration of the skull is shown in Fig. 1. 
When complete it probably measured 130mm. in length, and the 
length of the whole crocodile was probably about 600mm. Though 
the skull is too imperfectly preserved to show what are the relations 
to the already known families, enough is preserved to show that the 
crocodile belongs to the suborder Amphiccelia of Owen (= Meso- 
suchia, Huxley). The skull is characterised by the very large size 

1 One is reminded of the east and west flexures of later Pliocene age in the southern 
part of England. 


9 


* «* Entstehung und Gesichte des Todten Meeres”?: Zeitsch. d. Deutsch. Palest. 
Vereins, xix (1896), pp. 1-64. 

* There is nothing left to give a precise date to this period, during which, according 
to Dr. Blanckenhorn, prehistoric man appeared. It is supposed to be contemporaneous 
with that of the German joess. 


Dr. R. Broom—New Crocodiles from South Africa. 588 


-of the squamosal bones, by the moderate size of the supra-temporal 
openings, by the nasals taking little part in the formation of the 
‘snout, and by each maxillary having only a few large teeth— 
probably 6 or 8. 

I propose to call the form Notochampsa Istedana. 


y 
Fu 
Mx 
{fs 


Fig.2 


Fig 4 
Fic. 1.—Restoration of skull of Notochampsa Istedana. ~< 2. Fr. frontal ; 


La. lachrymal; Mz. maxilla; Na. nasal; Pa. parietal; P.O. post- 


orbital ; S.0. supra-occipital ; S¢. squamosal. 


Fig. 2.—Pelvic bones of Notochampsa longipes. x y. Js. ischium; Pu. pubis. 


Fie. 3.—Twelfth dorsal scute of Notochampsa Istedana. x +. 


Fig. 4.—Dorsal scute of NV. lonyipes. x +. 


The second specimen was found by Mr. Du Toit near the top of 
the Red beds at Kraai River, Eagles Crag, Barkly Hast. Though 
less is preserved than in the other specimen, the state of preservation 
is much better. The following bones have been displayed :—the 
almost perfect pubes and ischia, an imperfect ilium, the almost 
perfect right hind-limb, including the foot, the imperfect left hind- 
limb, the imperfect right fore-limb, portions of the dorsal and 
ventral armour, and a few imperfect vertebrae. A comparison of the 
dorsal plates with those of Notochampsa Istedana shows that the 
Specimen from the Red beds belongs to a different species, though 
probably the same genus. The pelvis is typically Crocodilian in 


584 Dr. Wheelton Hind—Equivalents of the Culm. 


that the pubis does not enter the acetabulum. The ilium is of small 
size. The limb bones are unusually long and slender. There are 
only four digits developed in the pes. The vertebra are biconcave, 
but the concavities are shallow. 

For this second species I propose the name Notochampsa longipes. 
If the two specimens are both adult, then N. longipes would probably 
be about two-thirds the size of N. Istedana. 

The Stormberg beds until recently have usually been regarded as. 
Triassic. Seward, however, as the result of his study of the plants. 
of the Lower Stormberg or Molteno beds, has recently shown that 
these beds are of Rhetic age, and as, according to Mr. Du Toit, the 
horizon of the fossil crocodiles is at least 1,000 feet above the 
Molteno beds, we are probably safe in regarding Notochampsa as of 
Lower Jurassic age. 

A full description of the remains will appear in the Annals of the 
South African Museum. 

In view of the great interest of the discovery the Geological 
Commission has kindly granted me permission to communicate this 
preliminary notice to the GronocicaAL MAGaAzINE. 


TII.—On toe Homoraxran EauivaLents oF THE LOwEeR CULM OF 
Norrao Devon. 


By WueEetton Hinp, M.D., B.S., F.R.C.S., F.G.S. 


AM glad that my paper on the Coddon Hill beds, published in 
the GrotocicaL Magazine, August, 1904, pp. 392-403, has. 
aroused criticism, and could only have wished that Dr. Vaughan had 
been familiar with the Carboniferous sequence of the Pennine area 
and Belgium. The matter is not one to be solved by the casual 
appearance in any definite bed of a few Brachiopods, at one only of 
the many horizons at which they are known to occur in other 
localities, for the whole of the fossils, which are quoted by 
Dr. Vaughan as the foundation for his argument that the Coddon 
Hill Beds are low down in the Carboniferous sequence, are equivocal 
as far as their value as zone indices goes. And on the other hand, 
Dr. Vaughan completely ignores those fossils which are unequivocal 
and which denote a well-recognised horizon, and curiously enough, 
too, correspond with a marked change in lithological character of 
the Carboniferous sequence. In the first place, I do not see where 
Dr. Vaughan found any statement in Mr. Howe’s and my paper on 
the Pendleside group at Pendle Hill (Q.J.G.S., vol. lvii) that the 
Pendleside series are the equivalents of the Millstone Grit of South 
Wales and the Mendip areas. The table on the page quoted (p. 388) 
distinctly shows that we consider the Pendieside series to lie 
universally below beds equivalent to Millstone Grit, and we do not 
mention the series of the Bristol and Mendip area because we were 
not well enough acquainted with that district to do so. 
To turn to the evidence afforded by the Brachiopoda and Zaphren- 
toids of Coddon Hill Beds. Every species mentioned in Dr. Vaughan’s 
list occurs in the Pendleside series in the Pendle and Bolland area 


Dr. Wheelton Hind—Equivalents of the Culm. 585: 


and in North Staffordshire and Derbyshire, and my specimens have 
been kindly identified by Dr. Vaughan, with the exception of Leptena 
analoga, and they occur, not only in typical Pendleside beds, in. the 
type area, but Dr. Vaughan recognises the following species in 
a small collection I made at Bishopton, north of Oystermouth, 
Glamorganshire :— 


Chonetes aff. Hardrensis. Spirifer aff. clathratus. 
Cleiothyris glabristriata. 


Talso found there one or more species of Trilobites and a Fenestella. 
The latter Dr. Vaughan recognises as present in his Tournaisian of the 
Bristol area. I have it in my notes that a specimen of a Zaphrentoid 
coral was found in these beds in my presence. In the Summary of 
Progress of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, 1900, 
pp. 86-90, the position of these beds is discussed, and it is stated 
that beds of similar lithological character with rotten stone and 
Radiolarian cherts occur in the north crop of the South Wales 
Carboniferous basin as well as at Bishopton. Moreover, Dr. G. J. 
Hinde is quoted (p. 89) as having found Radiolaria and sponge 
spicules in specimens both from Carmarthenshire and Glamorganshire. 

Further, Dr. Hinde says: “The character of the rock, the mode of 
preservation of the Radiolaria, and the forms themselves, are very 
similar to what are found in the cherts with Radiolaria from the 
Lower Culm of Devon and Cornwall. . . . . And two of the 
Radiolaria showing structure, Porodiscus and Carposphera, are 
identical species with those figured in the Culm cherts.” 

There is therefore very strong evidence from Dr. Vaughan’s own 
standpoint that the Bishopton and Penwyllt beds are the equivalent 
of the Coddon Hill Beds, and these beds overlie the thin-bedded 
limestones of Oystermouth, which lie above the Oolitic beds of the 
Carboniferous Limestone sequence. 

The Bishopton Beds underlie a series of black shales with 


Posidoniella levis. Glyphioceras diadema, 
Glyphioceras bilingue. 


specimens of which I obtained from the bed of a small stream 
immediately north of the Bishopton Beds, a fauna never yet found 
below beds with a Viséan fauna. 

If the Bishopton Beds=Tournaisian, where are the representatives 
of the Viséan in South Wales? ‘This question also is very pertinent 
in the Coddon Hill district if Dr. Vaughan’s views are correct. In 
that area the researches of Mr. Newell Arber have conclusively 
demonstrated that the Upper Culm beds are the homotaxial equiva- 
lents of the Coal-measures, and he has rediscovered at Mouth Mill, 
Clovelly, and Instow the fauna mentioned at p. 897 of my paper, 
which indicate much lower beds. I regret I did not credit him with 
that discovery in my paper, but I was unaware that this discovery 
and rediscovery was entirely due to his work, and I take this, the 
earliest opportunity, of acknowledging my indebtedness to him both 
directly and indirectly. If Dr. Vaughan’s contention is correct that 


586 Dr. Wheelton Hind— Equivalents of the Cul. 


Coddon Hill Beds are Tournaisian, then either there must be a great 
unconformity between Coddon Hill and the Upper Culm, or the 
Viséan beds are represented by beds with a Millstone Grit and Coal- 
measure fauna and flora. 

And yet another question may be asked—Has the fauna which 
I consider to be typical of the Pendleside series ever been found in 
beds of Tournaisian age ? This point Dr. Vaughan entirely ignores. 
I am not aware that this has been the case, and hence another 
difficulty in accepting Dr. Vaughan’s views. 

We know that at Visé and Clavier, and Chokier, in Belgium, and 
in Yorkshire, Derbyshire, Staffordshire, North Wales, and the West 
of Ireland, the Pendleside fauna always succeeds a Viséan fauna, 
and never occurs below it, and I make this statement after personally 
examining De Koninck’s large collection of types in the Musée Royale 
d'Histoire Naturelle at Brussels on many occasions, and many years 
collecting in the Pennine area in England and in the west of Ireland. 

I knew that several similar species of Brachiopoda and Zaphrentis 
occurred both at Coddon Hill and in the Pendle area, but I attached 
no importance to them as indices of horizons, and did not quote them 
because I knew they occurred at several horizons. I know of at 
least three horizons several hundreds of feet apart in the Midlands 
where Zaphrentoid corals occur abundantly, and to go into details 
with regard to the Coddon Hill Brachiopoda :— 

Chonetes Laguessiana (I still prefer this name) occurs at many 
horizons from the Calciferous Sandstone series up to the Gin Mine 
coal, high up in the North Staffordshire Coalfield, being abundant 
in beds about 2,000 or 3,000 feet below this coal in the Midlands. 

Leptena analoga has not such an extensive vertical distribution. 
I do not know of this shell above the base of the Pendleside series, but 
it also occurs very low down in the Carboniferous Limestone series. 

Rhipidomella Michelini occurs from the Calciferous Sandstone series 
up to the base of the Millstone Grits. 

Cleiothyris glabristriata, Phillips.— Davidson considered this species 
to be the interior of Athyris Royssii, and I am not aware that 
Dr. Vaughan has yet published his views as to the rehabilitation of 
this species. At any rate it occurs at Bishopton, and I know 
of shells like the Bishopton specimen at several horizons. 

Spirifer aff. clathratus.—This species must remain, for the present, 
a doubtful one, as we are not yet aware on what grounds Dr. Vaughan 
desires to re-establish the species. Davidson (Brit. Carb. Brachiopoda, 
p- 21), discussing Spirifer striatus, says, ‘ Professor M‘Coy is also of 
opinion that what he described in 1844 as Sp. clathrata must be 
added to the list of synonyms.” M‘Coy’s type has disappeared, and 
he only gave a figure of the large or branchial valve without details 
of beak or area. Also it would be important to know from what 
locality the type came, and whereabouts in the Carboniferous series. 

Spirifer laminosa.—TVhis shell is very common indeed in the 
Redesdale ironstone, in the Ashfell Beds south of Kirby Stephen, 
and Dr. Vaughan recognises a specimen of mine which occurs with 
a Visé fauna at 'Treycliff, Castleton. The Redesdale ironstone is 


W. A. EB. Ussher—Devonian Rocks of Cornwall. 587 


over 1,600 feet below beds with a Visé fauna, and Productus cora = 
P. semireticulatus, and P. giganteus occur with it. So that whatever 
may be the case at Bristol, it is abundantly plain that none of the 
Brachiopoda quoted in Dr. Vanghan’s paper run true over the Pennine 
area in England, and on this account I consider them to be equivocal 
as evidence for the correlation of the two areas ; and to repeat it, is 
the fact that from Visé and Clavier in the east to co. Clare in the 
west, the strata that immediately overlie the Carboniferous Lime- 
stone are characterised by beds containing :— 


Posidonomya Becheri. Orthoceras Morrisvanum. 
3 membranaced. Glyphioceras diadema. 
Posidoniella levis. 55 reticulatum. 
mots muror. 59 sprrale. 

a Kirkmani. Prolecanites compressus. 
Pterinopecten papyraccus. 59 mixolobus. 
Aviculopecten Losseni. Nomismoceras spirorbis. 
Pseudamusiun fibrillosum. Dimorphoceras Gilbertsoni. 
Chenocardiola Footii. Gastrioceras carbonariun, 


Orthoceras Koninckianun. 


and many others, none of which, as far as I know, occur in beds 
below the Viséan limestone. 

I think that Dr. Vaughan has greatly strengthened my case that 
the Lower Culm beds of Devonshire and Cornwall are the homotaxial 
equivalents of the Pendleside series, having emphasised evidence 
which I neglected, and I think he will now admit that the Brachiopod 
and Coral faunas of the Coddon Hill and Bishopton Beds and part of 
the Pendleside series are identical. 


IV.—Tue Devontan Rocks oF Cornwatt. 
By W. A. E. Ussuer. 
[ By permission of the Director of H.M. Geological Survey. | 

EDGWICK and Murchison, the Rev. D. Williams, and Dr. Holl, 

taking the Plymouth limestones as a middle division, placed 
them below the rocks to the south and above those to the north. 
The prevalent southerly dips of schistosity were regarded as ample 
evidence of a downward succession proceeding northward. 

The Staddon grits and other Lower Devonian rocks were thus 
placed above the Middle Devonian, and the slates in which I have 
at various times since 1892 found Upper Devonian fossils (between 
Menheniot and St. Budeaux) were relegated to a position below the 
Middle Devonian. 

Turning from these more general readings of the geology to the 
detailed work of De la Beche, as presented in Chapter iii of his 
Report, we find that this comparatively simple rendering, though 
fundamentally wrong, cannot be applied to Cornwall. 

As regards South-East Cornwall (see p. 79), the fossiliferous Looe 
beds were said to be prolonged toward St. Germans and to become 
merged in the trappean rocks, ete., of St. Stephens and Saltash, both 
being considered as below the Plymouth (Middle Devonian) rocks. 
The calcareous strata of the Tregantle coast (the same series as the 


588 W. A. E. Ussher—Devonian Rocks of Cornwall. 


fossiliferous Looe beds) were taken as the probable westerly con- 
tinuation of the Plymouth limestones. The latter error was endorsed 
by me in recording coast observations some years before I had any 
practical acquaintance with the Devonian rocks of South Devon. 

As regards North Cornwall (see p. 91), we read ‘the slates of 
Watergate Bay rest on the sandstones of St. Eval and St. Breocks 
Down; and the red and variegated beds of St. Kew and St. Minver 
seem to be the same with the red and variegated beds of Watergate 
Bay ; the calcareous rocks of Lower St. Columb Porth, Newquay, 
and the Gannel representing in a general manner the limestones of 
Rock, Padstow, and Permizen.” 

The anticlinal of St. Breocks Down is elsewhere referred to in 
Chapter iii, and as these grits do not crop up to the north, we are 
obliged to assume their identity with the Staddon grits. 

Tt will thus be apparent that, as regards South-East Cornwall, 
De la Beche correlated the Looe beds! of the Looe district with 
rocks in the Saltash district which I have proved to be Upper 
Devonian, and the same Looe beds in the Tregantle district with 
Middle Devonian rocks in the Plymouth district. As regards North 
Cornwall, it will be seen that De la Beche did not treat the 
variegated slates of Watergate Bay as an anticline, but by assigning 
that structure to the Staddon grits he correlated the Lower Devonian 
rocks on the south with the Upper and Middle Devonian rocks on 
the north. 

The Devonian geology of Cornwall prior to 1890 was thus left in 
a state of chaos. In that year, after two years’ careful mapping of 
the Torquay, Totnes, and Newton Abbot area, I endeavoured, by 
a thorough perusal of De la Beche’s Chapter iii with the maps 
before me, to follow his minor subdivisions, and to test his corre- 
lations in order to ascertain how far they might be made to agree 
with the subdivisions I had established by detailed survey. I then 
found that there was no escape from the conclusion that the grits of 
St. Eval and St. Breocks Down and of Boconnoc represented the 
Staddon grits which at Mount Edgecumbe are on the mean latitude 
of their South Devon outcrop. The difference in latitude I conceived 
to be due to the existence of a great north-westerly fault from 
Cawsand, cutting off the Upper and Middle Devonian rocks on their 
westerly strike against the Lower Devonian subdivisions and shifting 
the outcrop of the Staddon grits northward. 

I had recognized the lithological affinities of the variegated slates 
of Mutley to the red and green Entom-yielding Upper Devonian 
slates of Ansteys Cove, Goodrington, and Highweek (Newton Abbot) 
in 1888. So that it became evident that the red and variegated 
slates to the north of the Staddon grits had been confounded with 
the Dartmouth slates in North Cornwall, and that the anticlinal 
structure assigned to the grits of St. Breocks Down was suggested 
by this similarity. 


1 Referred to the Siegener Grauwacke by Dr. Kayser, who established the 
Taunusian age of the fauna in 1882. 


W. A. HE. Ussher—Devonian Rocks of Cornwall. 589 


On the other hand, in South-East Cornwall it became evident that 
the Looe beds had been traced into Upper Devonian on their strike, 
through the great structural fault between them having escaped detection. 

The results of this critical examination were contributed to the 
Royal Geological Society of Cornwall and appeared in the Transactions 
of that Society in 1891. The paper was entitled “The Devonian 
rocks as described by De la Beche interpreted in accordance with 
recent researches.” It was accompanied by a map reduced from 
the linch on which, after tracing De la Beche’s minor sub- 
divisions with infinite pains, as far as the information obtainable 
from the Report enabled me to do, I had remodelled them and referred - 
them to widely different horizons. This map shows the relations of 
the Upper, Middle, and Lower groups of the Devonian for the first 
time, and with approximate general accuracy; it also furnishes the 
key to the Devonian geology of Cornwall. 

Having since mapped the country from Plymouth to St. Austell 
in detail, I have found the inference of great structural faulting to 
be correct, the effect being produced by two or three faults, one of 
which runs in a north-westerly direction from Cawsand, as shown 
in the little map illustrating the results I arrived at in 1891. By 
the discovery of the Upper Devonian Hntomides, Styliole, and traces 
of the Bidesheim fauna, I have proved the occurrence of Upper 
Devonian rocks where shown on the little map east of Liskeard. 

In North Cornwall, the discovery of the Biidesheim fauna by 
Mr. Fox at Trevone and the researches of Mr. Parkinson have proved 
the general correctness of the map as showing the extension of 
Upper Devonian. The general line of the Lower Devonian outcrop 
is correct as far as the occurrence of the Staddon grits could be 
inferred from the materials in Chapter iii. 

These results were achieved by analogy with a carefully mapped 
district, and they are directly contrary to De la Beche’s correlations. 
As regards the run of the Lower Devonian subdivisions, the map 
had to be constructed from totally inadequate materials, so that the 
relative outcrops of the Dartmouth slates and Looe beds, in the 
absence of analogy, were very incorrectly shown. 

An alternative rendering of the structure of Watergate Bay was 
given, showing the Dartmouth slates as an anticlinal, although not 
suggested by De la Beche. ‘This structure has since been worked 
out by Mr. Reid. 

I took the Grampound rocks as a base to the Devonian on account 
of their conglomeratic character and because there is nothing in the 
Report to show that they partake of the south-westerly strike of the 
rocks to the south, so that they appeared to mark the unconformable 
junction of a newer with an older group. 

The revolutionary character of my paper of 1891 was pointed out 
by the late R. N. Worth in an article which appeared in the same 
Transactions (Royal Geol. Soc. Corn.) for the ensuing year, 1892. 
In it he criticized adversely the structure put forward, but in a most 
fair and candid manner. He corrected an error as to the Modbury 
elvan, which in subsequent mapping was found to be a granophyre. 


590° W. A. EB. Ussher—Devonian Rocks of Cornwall. 

So far as I am aware, Mr. Worth’s criticisms on my paper of 1891 
are the only ones that have appeared in print. ‘The title of the 
paper is misleading, as De la Beche’s descriptions merely furnished 
the material, but the Devonian geology was derived from my own 
work in South Devon, which gave the clue for separating his minor 
subdivisions into widely different horizons. 

Mr. Upfield Green, in an article on the correlation of some Cornish 
beds with the Gedinnian of Europe (in the August number of the 
GroLogicaL Magazine), has pointed out my inadvertent use of 
the term ‘Gedinnien’ as applied to the Looe beds in 1900, but he 
has overlooked their correlation with the Siegener Grauwacke in 
the table of classification in the ‘Memoir on the Geology of the 
country around Torquay” in 1905. He has also omitted to state 
that Dr. Kayser first correlated them with the Taunusien in 1882." 
Of this I was well aware, as Dr. Kayser had called attention to 
the fact in a brochure in 1888 giving the results of a trip to the 
North and South Devon Devonian in company with Professor 
Gosselet and others under my guidance. In my paper of 1891 
I suggested the correlation of the Grampound grits with the 
Gedinnien; to this Mr. Green does not refer, although I gather 
from his paper that he places them in the same group that I did 
then, but hesitate to do now. 

In a general way I gather that Mr. Upfield Green places those 
rocks between the Lizard district on the south and the St. Austell 
granite on the north, which are not admittedly Silurian, in the 
Gedinnian, including in that group the Mylor, Falmouth, and 
Portscatho beds of Mr. Hill, and placing the Dartmouth slates at 
the top. There is, however, one objection to this, viz., the assumed 
continuity of the Dartmouth slates ‘through Tywardreath and 
St. Austell to St. Stephens as described by De la Beche.” I, too, 
assumed this continuity from De la Beche, but on investigating the 
ground I found that the Dartmouth slates are cut off by a nearly 
north and south fault near Tywardreath, and do not extend round 
the St. Austell granite, either on the north or south margin, to 
Watergate Bay. 

Mr. Upfield Green has raised a very interesting question in 
claiming the non-Silurian rocks of South Cornwall as Gedinnien, 
but there is no proof that these rocks are below the Dartmouth 
slates. To entertain this suggestion the absence of Dartmouth 
slates on the south of the St. Austell granite would have to be 
explained by a very improbable change in character, or by a fault 
between the Perran Porth and Pentuan coasts throwing Gedinnian 
rocks on the south against the higher beds of the Meadfoot group 
on the north. Without an acquaintance with the district west of 
Grampound and Ladock I should not like to express any very 
definite opinion. Mr. Upfield Green, no doubt inadvertently, states 
that the Dartmouth slates may be traced “across the Start Peninsula 
as far as Babbacombe, south of Dartmouth in Devonshire.” This 


1 Jahrb. d. kgl. preuss. Landesanstalt., p. 128, 1882. 


J. G. Goodchild—Deutozoic Rocks of North Britain. 591 


should read ‘‘as far as Scabbacombe Head, east of Dartmouth.” He 
asserts, moreover, that “‘ they exist also on the north of the Devonian 
basin.” There they are represented, no doubt, and in 1889! 
I tentatively classed them with the Foreland grits as Gedinnien 
but there is no distinct group of similar character in North Devon 
or West Somerset. 


V.—TueE Oper Devrozoic Rocks or Nort Britain. 


By J. G. Goopcurxp, F.G.S., of the Geological Survey, 
Curator of the Collections of the Geological Survey of Scotland in the Royal 
Scottish Museum. 


T appears to be a common belief that there are two Old Red 
Sandstones in Scotland, and only two, which are referred to 
respectively as the Upper and the Lower. It is generally recognised 
that neither of these can be paralleled with any one of the subdivisions 
of the Devonian Rocks, properly so-called; though the fact that 
the Scottish rocks in question occupy a stratigraphical position 
somewhere between the top of the Silurian Rocks and the base of 
the Carboniferous System places their Devonian age beyond the 
possibility of a doubt. The Upper Old Red is considered by most 
persons to graduate upwards into the Carboniferous Rocks, which, 
by the way, is by no means universally the case. It is also stated, 
with equal confidence, and with as little regard to the facts, that 
the Lower Old Red Sandstone graduates downward into the Silurian 
Rocks, which it certainly does not, as will be shown more fully 
in another part of this paper. Furthermore, it is still commonly 
believed that bands yielding Silurian graptolites alternate with the 
base of the Lower Old Red Sandstone, and that Lower Carboniferous 
fossils occur in bands of rock interstratified with true Upper Old 
Red Sandstone. Both of these ideas are well known to have been 
due to errors of observation ; yet the statements in question, having 
found their way into the papers set by examiners, seem destined 
to die a hard death, and therefore need to be contradicted. 

The errors mentioned are by no means the only ones relating 
to the rocks of Devonian age in North Britain. Therefore, as no 
one else who is fairly well acquainted with these rocks has yet 
come forward with the object of stating the actual facts, I propose 
to take advantage of the present opportunity (when I am about 
to present some new suggestions regarding the age of some volcanic 
rocks on the northern margin of the Lake District) to give a con- 
spectus of what is at present known about the Scottish rocks of 
Devonian age. 

As much of the evidence bearing upon this subject is necessarily 
of a paleontological nature, I gladly avail myself of some of the 
published results of the important work done in this direction by 
Dr. Traquair, and accordingly give here lists of such fossils as 
serve to characterise the several horizons referred to. A list of 


1 Proc. Somerset Arch. and Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xv, pt. 2, Table of Classification, 
in which ‘ Gedinnien’ is placed in line with Lynton Beds through a printer’s error. 
DECADE V.—VOL. I.—NO. XII. 35 


592 J. G. Goodchild—Deutozoic Rocks of North Britain. 


such of Dr. Traquair’s papers as bear upon this part of the subject 
is given in an appendix to the present paper.! 

It need hardly be stated here that the Scottish rocks of Devonian 
age differ in almost every respect from the normal type. There 
is no satisfactory reason for regarding any of them as of marine 
origin; and, on the other hand, there is much to be said in support 
of the view that they were all formed under continental conditions, 
and under conditions of climate which, though doubtless varying 
much from time to time, were yet, on the whole, characterised by an 
annual rainfall decidedly below the average in amount. It is this 
feature which has imparted a common character to the whole of 
this series of rocks. 


We may now proceed to review such of the chief points of interest 
connected with each of the Old Red Sandstones as bear more or 
less directly upon the chief matter to be discussed in this paper. 

The newest subdivision of the Old Red Sandstones is the well- 
known Upper Old Red. This, by the way, ¢s usually red in colour, 
and, also, it does consist mostly of sandstones. The remark is not 
altogether uncalled for, as much of the remainder of the Old Red 
is not red, and it does not, by any means, consist exclusively of 
sandstones. The Upper Old Red was formed at a period when 
the geographical conditions were slowly changing from those of 
a continental nature to those of an insular type. The rocks are, 
of course, extremely variable in thickness, because they were laid 
down upon a very uneven surface of the old land. They are also, 
but to a lesser extent, variable in mineral character. But where this 
formation is most fully and typically developed its petrographical 
characters may be described as referable to three types—(1) a basal 
conglomerate, which graduates upward into (2) a variable series 
of red sandstones, often full of desert-sand grains, and highly false- 
bedded in places, like an old desert sand-dune. This part is mainly 
red, with some poikilitic mottling and variegation. A few bands 
of marl* occur here and there. Calcareous matter is usually con- 
spicuous by its absence from this division. Above this group of red 
rocks usually occurs (3) a higher subdivision, in which the sandstones 
are not so deeply coloured, and in which even purplish bands begin 
to occur. This upper group is generally characterised by the 
occurrence in it of some precipitated carbonate of lime. In some 
cases this compound occurs in the form of flakes, which obviously 
represent broken-up sheets of chemically-formed carbonate of lime ; 
in other cases the calcareous matter has segregated into a nodular 
form; while in some few instances the calcareous matter may 
occur as lenticular masses closely resembling some bedded limestones. 


' In here referring to it, I may perhaps be permitted to direct the reader’s special 
attention to the beautiful and lifelike restorations of the fishes of the Orcadian 
Rocks which Dr. Traquair has given in Harvie Brown’s ‘‘ Vertebrate Fauna of the 
Moray Firth.” 

* The word ‘ marl’ in the North means any clay that readily crumbles on exposure 
to the weather. 


J. G. Goodchild—Deutozoic Rocks of North Britain. 593 


This upper subdivision is usually referred to as the Cornstone 
Series. I have suggested in several papers that this chemically- 
formed carbonate of lime of the Upper Old Red Cornstones marks 
a transitional phase of climate. The land had sunk to near the 
sea-level, and consequently humid conditions had set in, and 
vegetation had begun to flourish. The decomposing remains of 
trees, drifted into the lagoons, led to a precipitation of carbonate 
of lime from the sulphate of lime held in solution by the concentrated 
sea-water there. ‘he presence of these cornstones is, therefore, 
useful to the geologist as indicating transitional phases of climate 
from arid to humid. Conversely, seeing that the same climatal 
conditions must have prevailed over wide areas, the occurrence of 
cornstones at several localities within an area of limited extent 
might safely be trusted as evidence of their contemporaneity. The 
validity of this reasoning has lately been put to a very severe test, 
which, I may add, it has successfully withstood. 

The fauna-of the Upper Old Red consists almost exclusively of 
fishes, which probably found their way into the sediments from 
the rivers of upland origin, whose waters were dissipated by the 
excessive evaporation when they reached the lowland areas. The 
fish belong to species, and in some cases to genera, not found 
elsewhere. Hence their remains serve a valuable purpose in 
determining the age of the rocks in which they are found. Amongst 
other fossil fishes may be mentioned such Crossopterygians as 
Holoptychius and some of its allied genera; the Ostracoderms 
Asterolepis, Bothriolepis, and others; such Dipnoans as Phanero- 
pleuron, together with some other genera of equal biological interest, 
but as zonal forms of lesser interest to the geologist. Dr. Traquair 
has shown that the Upper Old Red contains two distinct fish faunas. 
The lower zone is characteristically developed around Nairn, and 
the higher is well seen near Elgin. 

It is not strictly correct to speak of the Upper Old Red Sandstone 
graduating upwards into the Carboniferous Rocks; and, for the 
same reason, it is equally incorrect to describe this formation as 
the “Carboniferous Basement Bed.” There can be no doubt that the 
Upper Old Red is quite a separate formation from the Carboniferous 
System, and it has certainly nowhere been seen to alternate with 
any rocks of undoubted Carboniferous age. In Central Fife there 
is a very marked overlap of the middle of the Lower Carboniferous 
Rocks on to the Upper Old Red Sandstone; and evidence is not 
wanting elsewhere of something like a true unconformity between 
the two formations. 

As regards the base of the Upper Old Red Sandstone, it has long 
been known that, throughout Britain, it lies with a more or less 
violent discordance upon the rocks beneath. In Cumberland and 
Westmoreland the aggregate thickness of the rocks between the 
highest and the lowest horizons of the Protozoic rocks upon which 
it lies amounts to more than seven miles, i.e. 13,000 feet of Silurian 
Rocks, 12,000 feet of the Bala-Arenig volcanic rocks, and fully 
12,000 of the Skiddaw Slates, to say nothing of other formations 


594. J. G. Goodchild—Deutozoic Rocks of North Britain. 


to be presently referred to. One of the most impressive geological 
phenomena I ever witnessed was presented by a section in the 
Basin of the Lune, of the Upper Old Red Sandstone lying in 
a nearly horizontal position upon vertical and highly-cleaved Upper 
Ludlow Rocks, of fragments of which the newer rock was largely 
composed. This was in the course of my first week’s field-work 
on the Geological Survey,in 1867. Ever since then my recollection 
of that enormous hiatus has remained as vivid as at first, and it has. 
added not a little to the pleasure afforded by somewhat extensive 
explorations made in recent years amongst the Scottish rocks which 
partly bridge over the vast gap. An unconformable junction of 
Cornstones on Highland Schists, exposed on the north shore of 
Arran, is hardly less striking; as is the better known case at the 
Siccar Point, where the Upper Old Red lies upon Gala Rocks. ' 


Unconformable Junction of Cornstones with Highland Schists, north shore of Arran, 
east of Loch Ranza. 


It adds still further to the impressive character of the uncon- 
formity at the base of the Upper Old Red Sandstone of the Lake 
District that this rock also contains rolled fragments of the granites, 
elvans, and porphyrites of that part. These plutonic and trappean 
rocks are certainly of later date than the cleavage of the rocks they 
invade and also than one phase of the great denudation that followed 
the development of the cleavage. That is to say, after the Protozoic 
rocks of the Lake District were folded, they were first cleaved, then 
denuded to an enormous extent; after that, great volcanoes rose 
upon the denuded surface, and, finally, the volcanoes themselves 


J. G. Goodchild—Deutozoic Rocks of North Britain. 595 


were gradually worn away to the very cores—all before the Upper 
Old Red Sandstone began to be laid down. 

The full importance of this stupendous unconformity has not yet, 
I think, been adequately realised. When its significance comes to 
be thoroughly grasped much greater interest than is shown at 
present will be felt in the geological formations which help to fill 
im part of the gap. Most of these, as is well known, occur north of 
the Tweed. 

The newest formation of these Old Reds, of prior date to the 
Upper, is the Orcadian Series, which is so extensively developed in 
the north-east of Scotland and in Orkney and Shetland. The 
Orcadian Series has formed the subject of several important memoirs, 
amongst the latest of which may be mentioned those by Messrs. 
Peach & Horne, Sir Archibald Geikie, Mr. Evans, and Dr. Flett. 
Hiven the highest beds of this formation lie unconformably below 
the Upper Old Red; and neither the natural top of the Orcadian 
Series nor its. base has yet been found. Nevertheless, the thickness 
of this older subdivision, where it is most fully developed, has been 
estimated at some sixteen thousand feet. Three well - marked 
fossiliferous horizons occur within it. The highest one occurs in the 
upper beds, or John o’ Groats Flags. This has yielded several 
fossil fish which have not been met with on any other geological 
horizon. Amongst these are T'ristichopterus alatus, Egert., Dipterus 
macropterus, Traq., and Microbrachius dicki, 'Traq. 

Lower down, and on horizons which are near the middle of the 
series, if we have regard to the maximum development of these rocks, 
come the fossiliferous beds of Thurso; and, still lower, those of 
Achanarras and Stromness, as well as at Cromarty and other places 
near the Moray Firth. Below these, again, come the Sandstones of 
Berriedale, the Badbea Breccia, and some local conglomerates. These 
three last-named subdivisions form the lower four thousand feet or 
so of the Orcadian Series; but in the absence of any satisfactory 
paleeontological evidence their position in relation to the highest of 
the rocks forming the next older series cannot be fixed with 
certainty. 

From the Thurso Flags Dr. Traquair has identified Homosteus 
milleri, Ooccosteus decipiens, C. minor, Mesacanthus peachi, Cheira- 
canthus murchisoni, Diplacanthus striatus, Rhadinacanthus longispinus, 
Glyptolepis paucidens, Gyroptychius microlepidotus, Osteolepis micro- 
lepidota, Thursius macrolepidotus and Th. pholidotus, Diplopterus 
agassizt, and Dipterus valenciennesit. 

The lower or Achanarras subdivision contains a fish fauna which 
Dr. Traquair has identified as follows: Diplacanthus striatus and 
D. tenuistriatus, Rhadinacanthus longispinus, Mesacanthus pusillus, 
Cheiracanthus murchisoni and Ch. latus, Pterichthys milleri, Pt. pro- 
ductus and Pt. oblongus, Dipterus valenciennesti, Glyptolepis paucidens, 
Gyroptychius microlepidotus, Osteolepis macrolepidota, Diploterus 
agassizi, Coccosteus decipiens, Homosteus milleri, and Cheirolepis traillt. 

The fossiliferous portions of the Orcadian Old Red do not occur 
to the south of a westerly line drawn through Stonehaven. Whether 


596 J. G. Goodchild—Deutozoic Rocks of North Britain. 


the beds below the lowest of these horizons do so or not cannot 
be determined at present in the absence of any paleontological 
evidence ; but there is a general belief amongst those who have 
the means of forming an opinion that these lowest beds are, like 
those above them, confined to the northern area referred to. 

To the south of the line just indicated there occurs another 
formation, the general biological facies of whose fossils indicate, 
as J. W. Salter pointed out nearly half a century ago, a lower 
horizon than the Orcadian Old Red. In places this formation, also, 
is capped by the Upper Old Red, which here, as elsewhere, lies. 
unconformably upon the rocks below. The formation to which 
reference is now being made has been termed the Lower Old Red 
Sandstone by several writers; but as there is another and still older 
formation which has also received that name, and as even the 
Orcadian Old Red has been also called the Lower Old Red, it is 
obviously better, in referring to these subdivisions, to make use of 
some territorial name, in order to prevent ambiguity. ‘Therefore, 
many geologists who have felt the difficulty referred to have adopted 
the name Caledonian for this southern Scottish formation. ‘This, 
besides being euphonious, and also useful in many ways, is rendered 
the more appropriate because the rocks denoted by that name were 
considered by Sir Archibald Geikie to have been formed in a lake 
to which he gave the name ‘Lake Caledonia,’ and furthermore, 
because this formation is pre-eminently the Old Red of Scotland, 
and because it is typically developed in the region distinguished by 
the Romans as Caledonia, 

Like the Orcadian Old Red, the one under notice attains to a very 
considerable thickness. Sir Archibald Geikie, indeed, estimates 
that thickness at 20,000 feet (Text Book, vol. ii, p. 1008). Its 
natural top is not seen; nor, perhaps, is its base. As regards its 
mode of origin, there appears to be evidence of a satisfactory nature 
that the whole of this vast formation was accumulated under con- 
tinental conditions, partly in large inland lakes, partly as torrential 
deposits of various kinds, partly as old desert sands, and partly 
as the results of extensive volcanic action. The lowest strata 
appear to be those which are exposed near Dundee, where they 
are brought up by a powerful anticlinal fold, whose effects are, 
I think, augmented by a large fault which does not appear to 
have been hitherto recognised. Most of the base on the north is 
faulted in by the Highland Boundary Fault. The newest strata 
are exposed in the western part of the lowland tract of Strathmore, 
along a powerful synclinal, which is correlative to the anticlinal just 
referred to. j 

Looking at the formation broadly, three subdivisions, founded 
upon petrographical characters, can be made out. The highest of 
these is formed by the conglomerates, sandstones, flags, and marls, 
whose outcrops form the great lowland tract of Strathmore. The 
middle subdivision consists chiefly of volcanic rocks, which are 
mostly andesitic lavas, with some quite subordinate beds of tuff. 
This volcanic series forms the Ochils and the Sidlaw Hills, in the 


J. G. Goodchild—Deutozoic Rocks of North Britain. 597 


part of Scotland at present under notice. To the north and north- 
east of Dundee the volcanic rocks pass, by the thinning of the lavas, 
into a series of alternately sedimentary and volcanic rocks—the 
sediments in this case being, therefore, contemporaneous with some 
of the volcanic rocks to the east. The confusion occasioned by 
this feature appears to be further complicated by the anticlinal and 
its accompanying fault just mentioned. It should be noted that 
these volcanic rocks form a very conspicuous feature in the strati- 
graphy of the Caledonian Old Red, and that they are usually present, 
in some form or other, even when the lower beds and the upper 
are entirely absent. 

The Caledonian Old Red volcanic rocks of Perth and Forfarshire 
may well be several thousand feet in thickness where they attain 
their fullest development. Sir Archibald Geikie (loc. cit., p. 1008) 
further regards the volcanic horizon as occurring ‘several thousand 
feet below the highest beds of Strathmore, and also as being several 
thousand feet above the base of the system. 

The volcanic zone certainly overlies a considerable thickness of 
greywackes, flagstones, and mudstones, whose base has not been 
seen. ‘These lowest sedimentary beds, it may be here remarked, bear 
a remarkably close petrographical resemblance to the type which 
forms much of the Silurian rocks; and it may be well to add that 
the physical relationship of these Arbroath Flags (as they may still 
be called) to the volcanic belt has not yet been quite clearly 
made out. 

Turning now to the paleontological evidence, it may be said that 
very few fossils have yet been obtained from the higher parts of the 
Strathmore Sandstones ; so there is no evidence to prove that these 
beds may not be contemporaneous with the very lowest subdivisions 
of the Orcadian Series. Near the base of the Strathmore Sandstones, 
and close to the top bed of the main part of the volcanic rocks, 
occurs an upper fossiliferous band which has yielded myriapods 
such as Kampecaris and Archidesmus, together with imperfectly 
preserved plants, some of which have been referred to Psilophytum 
robustum; while at a slightly lower horizon, and contemporary with 
some of the volcanic rocks, is the zone which has yielded the chief 
Acanthodian fish remains. One of the best known of these 
fossiliferous localities is at Tilliewhamland Quarry, Turin Hill, near 
the town of Forfar. These rocks are there extensively quarried 
for flagstones, and they have yielded fossils which have been cata- 
logued by the late Mr. Powrie as follows:—Mesacanthus mitchelli, 
Ischnacanthus gracilis, Climatius seutiger, C. uncinatus, C. reticulatus, 
Parexus recurvus, P. falcatus, Euthacanthus mitchelli, H. elegans, 
E. gracilis, E. curtus, Cephalaspis pagei, C. asper, Thelodus paget, and 
with Pterygotus anglicus, Stylonurus ensiformis, and also with Parka 
decipiens, ete. Similar beds occur near this horizon at Farnell. 

The beds exposed at Turin Hill are on the north limb of the 
great faulted anticlinal above mentioned. The axis of this anticlinal 
ranges, roughly speaking, from near the confluence of the Harn with 
the Tay, below Perth, through a point about midway between the 


598 J. G. Goodchild—Deutozoic Rocks of North Britain. 


towns of Dundee and Forfar, and thence in the direction of 
Montrose. Hence the fossiliferous horizon represented at Turin 
Hill is repeated to the south of the line mentioned. 

At a geological horizon lower still, as at Auchtertyre, near Newtyle, 
in Forfarshire, but still above the main mass of the lavas, occurs 
a bed which has yielded Cephalaspis lyelli, Pteraspis mitchelli, and 
some few Acanthodians. 

Furthermore, at what I take to be still lower fossiliferous horizons, 
occur the beds of Carmylie, which have yielded most of the finest 
specimens of Eurypterids obtained from Forfarshire. Acanthodians 
of the types occurring at Turin Hill are found with these, as is also 
Parka decipiens. 

What appear to be the lowest fossiliferous horizons occur at 
Myreton, Tealing, and Leoch. 

The general biological facies of these Caledonian Old Red fossils 
indicates, according to Dr. Traquair, a formation of an earlier date 
than the Orcadian Old Red. This view of the relative positions of 
the Caledonian and Orcadian Old Red formations has now again met 
with general acceptance, and it will probably never again be called 
in question. 

The volcanic rocks which have just been mentioned as giving rise 
to the most prominent features of the Caledonian Old Red in the 
Ochils and the Sidlaw Hills present physiographical features of 
even more strongly-marked character in the Pentland Hiils, in Glen 
Coe, and also in the neighbourhood of Oban. The Cheviot Hills, 
again, owe much of their physiographical character to the presence 
of these rocks. St. Abb’s Head, and some other places near that 
part of the Scottish coast, also consist of andesitic lavas and tuffs of 
the same age as those of the Pentland Hills and the Ochils. Here 
and there at several localities south of the Firths of Forth and 
Clyde the older sedimentary rocks below the volcanic zone are to be 
seen. As a well-known locality where such is the case may be cited 
the beautiful river-gorge in which are situated the Falls of Clyde. 
More generally, however, these sediments are absent, and the 
volcanic rocks form the lawest member of the series, and these may 
lie, often with a violent unconformity, upon any rock older than 
themselves. 

Most of the granite bosses of the southern half of Scotland, and 
perhaps nearly all of those in the north of England, appear to have 
originated in connection with the volcanoes from which these 
Caledonian Old Red andesitic lavas and their associated dykes of 
Elvan and Porphyrite have been erupted. Where these Granites 
and Porphyrites occur we may, therefore, expect to meet at no great 
distance with remains of their related volcanic rocks. 

Leaving these details, however, for reconsideration presently, we 
may now go on to consider the nature of the physical relation of the 
Caledonian Old Red to the rocks next older in the series. So far 
from graduating downward into the Silurian rocks, the local base of 
the formation under notice lies with a violent unconformity upon all 
of these rocks, and may repose indifferently upon Silurian, Ordovician, 


J. G. Goodchild—Deutozoic Rocks of North Britain. 599 


or even older strata, including the metamorphic rocks of the Southern 
Highlands of Scotland. What has been taken as the Caledonian Old 
Red in the cases where it has been supposed that a passage exists is _ 
in reality a series of quite different age. These rocks to which 
reference has just been made, being typically exposed in Lanarkshire, 
I have named the Lanarkian Rocks. These are the strata which, 
with part of the Upper Ludlow rocks, have lately been termed the 
Downtonian Series—a particularly ill-chosen name, as it seems to 
me, because the name Downtonian had previously been used to 
denote all the Silurian strata above the top of the Lower Ludlow 
Rocks. These Lanarkian Rocks form the upward continuation 
of the true Ludlow Rocks, and they clearly mark the oncoming 
of the continental conditions which brought the Silurian Period 
to a close, and marked the advent of those geographical conditions 
which ushered in the Devonian Period in what is now the 
northern part of the Kingdom. Their stratigraphical details need 
not be given here, for the reader will find them fully described 
in the Geological Survey Memoir on the Silurian Rocks of the 
Southern Uplands of Scotland—which, by the way, is one of the 
finest memoirs issued by the Department to which I have the honour 
to belong. 

A study of the excellent sections given in the work just referred 
to will suffice to show that the Lanarkian Rocks have shared in all 
the disturbances to which the Silurian Rocks have been subjected. 
These disturbances had ceased, and had been followed by prolonged 
denudation, long before the oldest member of the Caledonian Old Red 
was laid down. Hence it results that the great unconformity, so 
often referred to, passes above what is left of the Lanarkian Rocks. 
There is no clear evidence of any unconformity below them. 

If we take the original red colour of the sandstones in these 
Lanarkian rocks as evidence of their representing the very lowest 
“Old Red’ (which it seems reasonable to do), then it would be these 
rocks which form the true ‘ Lower Old Red,’ and as such they were 
most admirably described many years ago (1860) by Sir Archibald 
Geikie. There are, however, no rocks containing Silurian fossils 
above them, nor do they present anywhere more than an accidental 
appearance of a conformable passage into the Caledonian Old Red ; 
indeed, in the only section where these two have the same dip their 
interrelationship is similar to that of the Trias on the Upper Old 
Red near Elgin. 

I have formerly ventured to speculate (on what seem to me to be 
good grounds) whether these Lanarkian Rocks might not have 
formed the lowest part of a very much thicker series of rocks, whose 
higher portion is.now entirely absent through denudation effected 
prior to the Caledonian Old Red period; and I still think that these 
missing rocks may have included a band of marine limestone closely 
resembling the Devonian Limestone, as this is seen at Plymouth, 
due to a temporary return from continental to marine conditions. 

At any rate, and however this may have been, these Lanarkian 
Rocks, which are certainly posterior in age to the Ludlow Rocks, 


600 J. G. Goodchild—Deutozoic Rocks of North Britain. 


are separated from the strata containing Cephalaspis lyelli by one 
of the most extensive unconformities in the whole geological series. 


It may serve a useful purpose to summarise here, in a tabular 
form, the foregoing statements regarding the stratigraphical relations. 
of the various Scottish Old Reds, which, accordingly, is as follows :— 


Oxver Devrozoic Rocks, as developed in Scotland. 


Approximate 
Urrer Otp Rep SAnpsTone. thickness in feet. 
2. Higher subdivision, or Elgin Beds, 
1. Lower subdivision, or Nairn Beds. O.—1,000. 


[Extensive unconformity. | 
Orcapian Op Rep. 

5. John o’ Groats’ Flags. 

4. Thurso or Rousay Beds. 

3. Achanarras, Stromness, and Cromarty Beds. 

2, LBerriedale Sandstones. 

1. SBadbea Breccias and Basal Conglomerate. O.—16,000. 

CALEDONIAN OLD RED SANDSTONE. 

3. Strathmore Sandstones (the upper part of 
which may be contemporaneous with the 
lowest part of the Orcadian). 

Myriapod Beds. 
Voleanic Rocks. 
Acanthodian Beds of Turin Hill. 
Cephalaspis Beds of Auchtertyre. 
Volcanic Rocks. 
Pterygotus Beds of Carmylie, etc. 
Tealing Beds. 
1. Lower Series of Sandstones, Mudstones, Con- 
glomerates, etc. ; base not seen. Ranging to ? 20,000. 
[Extensive unconformity. | 
The Lanarkian Rocks (Downtonians of the Geological 
Survey, the original Lower Old Red of 
earlier writers). 
Ludlow Rocks. 


bo 


It will thus be observed that what has been called “The Old Red 
Sandstone” in Scotland is by no means a single formation; nor can 
it be regarded as merely two. On the contrary, it must be obvious. 
from a consideration of the foregoing statements that we are dealing 
with a succession of formations, which, it seems to me, must col- 
lectively have required a period of enormous length for their 
accumulation. ‘This, it will be noted, is evidenced not only by the 
great thickness of both sedimentary and volcanic rocks accumulated, 
but also by the extensive unconformities, and equally so by the 
numerous and important paleontological changes which are known 
to have taken place during the period in question. 

In reflecting upon these facts the chief interest centres upon the 
formations which are of older date than the Upper Old Red Sand- 
stone and newer than those of Silurian age. If the remains of so 
varied and important a set of geological formations can be shown 
to exist even yet in Scotland, one is led to enquire whether it may 


J. G. Goodchild—Deutozoic Rocks of North Britain. 601 


not be possible that remnants of some of these may also exist on 
the English side of the Border, perhaps concealed beneath newer 
formations, or, it may be, even exposed at the surface in places 
where their identity has not hitherto been recognised. 

As regards the possibility of these rocks occurring in the Lake 
District, it should be borne in mind that there are two lines of 
evidence which clearly point to the existence, in former geological 
times, of andesite volcanic rocks of the types which occur so widely 
throughout the Caledonian Old Red. One of these is, as I pointed 
out many years ago, the fact that the Upper Old Red of North 
Cumberland partly consists of pebbles and blocks of these lavas. 
These andesite pebbles are so abundant in some places, as. for 
example, near Melmerby, that I have long entertained the belief 
that a large tract of these Caledonian Old Red lavas must exist at 
no great distance, they being covered, of course, by rocks of later 
formation. Then, again, there is the well-known tact that several 
of the granite bosses and Elvan and Porphyrite dykes of the Lake 
District are of later date than the cleavage of the rocks aroun 
them, and are later even than the great denudation which preceded 
the formation of the Upper Old Red. Furthermore, fragments of 
these granites and their apophyses, as already stated above, occur 
in the conglomerates of the Upper Old Red. Lastly, the close 
resemblance in mineralogical constitution of these Lake District 
granites to those of the South of Scotland, which can almost be 
proved to represent the deep-seated parts of the cores of the 
Caledonian Old Red volcanoes, forms an additional link in the 
chain of evidence which points to these Lake District granites. 
being contemporaneous with the later part of the Caledonian Old 
Red, and to their marking the sites of areas from which, at one time, 
andesitic lavas must have overspread the districts around. 


During the past sixteen years it has been one part of my duty 
to arrange for exhibition in the Edinburgh Museum of Science and 
Art a very large series of Scottish Fossils, Minerals, and Rocks, 
amongst which last figure very largely representatives of the 
Scottish rocks of Devonian age. A large proportion of these rocks 
I have also studied in siti, always regarding them when doing so. 
with considerable interest, as represeuting part of the series that 
must, in some one place or another, fill up the great hiatus between 
the Upper Old Red and the Protozoic Rocks of Cumberland and 
Westmoreland. Whenever a suitable opportunity has presented 
itself, I have taken advantage of it to go carefully over the field 
evidence presented by the district just named. There is one part 
of the Lake District in particular to which | have devoted attention 
at various times since 1873, and that is the part lying to the north 
and north-east of Saddleback. A thick series of basic andesite lavas 
with some tuffs occurs there. These pass unconformably beneath 
the Lower Carboniferous Rocks to the north and east; and their 
base, in the opposite direction, comes into contact with sedimentary 
rocks which are certainly very low down in the Skiddaw Slate Series. 


602 J. G. Goodchild—Deutozoic Rocks of North Britain. 


Furthermore, there is a wide divergence in the strikes of the two 
series, and the volcanic rocks dip, as a whole, in the opposite 
direction to that of the sediments. Dr. Marr made a very important 
discovery of sediments of Lower Bala age, the Drygill Shales, near 
the margin of these. I still think that these Drygill Shales may 
lie unconformably upon some part of the Skiddaw Slates, and for 
a long time thought that the set of volcanic rocks at present under 
notice might possibly belong to an horizon near to that of the 
Drygill Shales. However, recent visits to the Caldbeck Fell area, 
with the facts summarised in the foregoing part of this paper in 
mind, have led me to alter that opinion. Therefore, although I am 
not aware as yet of any paleontological evidence which tells 
either the one way or the other, the balance of field evidence seems 
to me now to indicate that the volcanic rocks in question may 
really be of the same age as the Caledonian Old Red. 

The strip referred to is that which, lying within the Carboniferous 
frame on the north side of the Lake District, stretches, everywhere 
with a strike discordant to that of the adjoining Skiddaw Slates, 
from Uldale, past Caldbeck, through the Caldbeck Fell mining 
area, to Carrok Fell, and is continued as faulted inliers at two 
places near Greystoke Park, including the well-known patch which 
is locally called Berrier Nittles, but which Mr. Ward referred to as 
Eycott Hill. 

There is nothing in either the petrographical or the lithological 
characters of these rocks which would definitely link them on with: 
the true Arenig—Llandeilo rocks which occur between Keswick and 
Ambleside, or Ullswater and Shap. On the other hand, the volcanic 
rocks in question agree in both petrographical and lithological 
characters with the volcanic rocks which form the Cheviot Hills, and 
they appear, as the Caledonian Old Red rocks do everywhere, to lie 
with a violent unconformity upon any rocks older in the series with 
which they may come into contact. 

Whether any of the volcanic rocks near Melmerby can also be 
referred to this horizon is a question I hope to be able to answer soon. 


R. H. Traquair, ‘‘ Notes on the Nomenclature of the Fishes of the Old Red Sand- 
stone of Great Britain’?: Grou. Mac., Dec. III, Vol. V (1888), 
pp. 507-517. 

— ‘‘On the British Species of Asterolepide ’’: Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edinb., 
vol. xi (1892), pp. 283-286. 

— ‘On the Discovery of Cephalaspis in the Caithness Flags’’: Ann. Scott. 
Nat. Hist., Oct. 1893, pp. 206-207. 

-——— ‘‘ Achanarras Revisited’’: Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edinb., vol. xii (1894), 
pp. 279-286. 

—— ‘The Fossil Vertebrata of the Moray Firth Area’’: contained in Harvie- 
Brown & Buckley’s ‘‘ Fauna of the Moray Basin,’’ Edinburgh, 1896. 

—— ‘Note on the Fossil Fishes of the Old Red Sandstone of Scotland”: 
contained in Mem. Geol. Surv., ‘‘ Geology of Lower Strathspey ”’ 
(Explanation of Sheet 85), 1902, pp. 81-82. 


T. Barron—Miocene Beds between Cairo and Sues. 603: 


VI.—On tHE occurrence or Lower Mtiocenr Beps BETWEEN 
Catro anp SuEz. 


By T. Barron, A.R.C.S., F.G.S. 


[Published by permission of the Under-Secretary of State and the Director-General 
of the Survey Department, Egypt. } 


i is remarkable that in this district so accessible to geologists 

and visited by so many observers, the presence of these beds 
has not hitherto been noted. When it is understood that the point 
where the main area occurs is only between 8 and 9 kilometres. 
from Cairo, and lies immediately to the north of the Petrified 
Forest—a place visited by nearly all the travellers who come to 
Cairo—one is apt to doubt whether geologists have ever seriously 
examined this district. 

It has been asserted by some geologists that Lower Miocene beds 
have been found at various places in this district, but on investigation 
it has always been shown to be a misinterpretation of the evidence, 
and up to the present no beds have been noted which contain a true 
Lower Miocene fauna. 

In 1900 MM. Fourtau and Depéret published a paper! in which 
they claimed to have found at Gebel Genéffe beds containing a fauna 
belonging to the Upper Burdigalien (first Mediterranean stage), and 
analogous to that found in the basin of the Rhone, of Corsica, and 
still more to the Cartennian Sandstone of Algeria. They based their 
assertion mainly on the presence of Pecten Tournali, de Serres, 
P. prescabriusculus, Font., P. cf. sub-benedictus, Font., and P. Kochi, 
Loc. It is stated that the same beds are found at Dér el Béda 
containing Pecten pseudo-Beudanti, which is identical with the species. 
of the Hornerschichten of Austria; at Wadi Gafra, where Pecten 
pseudo-Beudanti, P. prescabriusculus, Font., and P. geneffensis, Fuchs, 
are found; and these occur in all the district to the east of Cairo. 
These observers publish another section which they regard as the 
continuation of the Miocene series, and the representative of the 
Helvetian-Tortonian (second Mediterranean). 

Blanckenhorn * says that he has not been able to find the above- 
named Pectens (except P. geneffensis) on the spot, or in Schweinfurth’s 
collection or any other material at his disposal, and recognises 
them* as his new species P. submalvine, Blanck., and P. Fraasi, Fuchs, 
whilst P. pseudo-Beudanti he makes P. Schweinfurthi, Blanck., all of 
these being Helvetian fossils. He* also regards the two sections 
of Fourtau and Depéret as not superposable, but parallel to each 
other, and by their fossils belonging to the Middle Miocene. 

In his discussion of all the previous work done on the Miocene 


t << Sur les terrains néogénes de la Basse-Egypte et de l’isthme de Suez’’: Comptes 
Rendus des Séances de I’ Acad. des Sciences, 1900, pp. 402-3. 

2 “Tyas Miocén”’ : Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. geolog. Gesellschaft, 1901, pp. 52-59. 

3 Ibid., pp. 120-127. 

* Tbid., p. 85. 


604 T. Barron—Miocene Beds between Cairo and Suez. 


rocks of Egypt, this author points out that, previous to his own 
examination of the area at Mogara in the Libyan Desert, no Lower 
Miocene beds were known in Egypt. Up to the present this is the 
only occurrence, but he points out that strong probability exists 
that these beds will be found in the district between Cairo and Suez, 
although none have been proved. After discussing and comparing 
the Petrified Forest near Cairo with that occurring at Mogara, which 
this author regards as Lower Miocene, he finally decides to put the 
gritty beds occurring above the basalt to the east of Cairo, together 
with the Petrified Forest in part, into the Lower Miocene. For 
this he has no fossil evidence whatever; and it is only from the 
resemblance between the lithological characters of the beds, and 
the fact that fossil wood occurs at the base of the Miocene in Mogara 
(a fact of little stratigraphical value since fossil trees are known 
from the Upper Eocene, and Oligocene on the other side of the 
Nile Valley), that he ventures to assign to these beds a Lower 
Miocene age. 

In the course of this paper it will be shown that this decision 
is partly right, though in the main it is wrong, while in a later paper 
it is hoped that the much vexed question of the age of the Petrified 
Forest in this neighbourhood, with its associated lava-flows and 
thermal springs, will be definitely settled. 

In order to better understand the occurrence of the beds in 
question, a brief sketch of the geological history of the period 
immediately preceding the Miocene is necessary. After the close 
of the Eocene period, the land on the east side of what is now the 
Nile Valley rose from under the sea and became dry land. This 
was the beginning of a continental period which persisted throughout 
Oligocene times. While in the district round the Fayum the 
sedimentation continued unbroken from the highest Eocene into the 
Lower Oligocene, on the east side of the present Nile Valley 
denudation was at work removing the Upper Eocene beds and 
producing the relief seen wherever the Gebel Ahmar Sands have 
been removed. Then these sands and gravels with drifted trees 
were deposited in a lagoon or estuary. These probably represent 
the upper part of the Lower Oligocene. After the sedimentation of 
these sands had continued for some time, a series of earth-movements 
were set up, by which*these beds with the underlying rocks were 
thrown into ridges and troughs by two sets of folds more or less at 
right angles to each other, the axes of the one lying 8. W.-N.E., and 
the other N.W.-S.E. These folds gave rise to shallow basins by 
their interference with each other, and it was in these that the 
Lower Miocene beds were deposited, after the outpouring of the 
basalt lavas, and the thermal springs which followed the dying out 
of the volcanoes had ceased. Between the deposition of the Gebel 
Ahmar Sands and the transgression of the first Mediterranean sea, 
there was another continental period during which these sands were 
denuded to a certain extent. After the Lower Miocene sea had 
invaded this area and was depositing its sediments, what more 


T. Barron—Miocene Beds between Cairo and Suez. 605 


‘likely than that some of the silicified tree trunks were rolled in 
from the ridges surrounding these basins? Any silicified wood 
seen by the writer in Miocene beds has always been much broken 
up, and presented the appearance of having been moved after 
silicification rather than that of petrifaction in siti. One has only 
to compare the trees in the Petrified Forest with these to see the 
difference. 

According to Blanckenhorn ! the Lower Miocene is a fluvio-marine 
formation characterized in Mogara by Mytilus aquitanicus, Cytherea 
-erycina, and Anthracotherian bones. The Helvetian, on the other 
hand, has a numerous pecten and oyster fauna associated near its — 
base with a more shallow-water assemblage of forms. In fact, 
the Lower Miocene is essentially a fluvio-marine formation, while 
‘the Helvetian is marine. 

This author, in his Table of Miocene Strata in Egypt and Syria,’ 
gives the following fossils as characteristic of the Lower Miocene 
of Mogara :— 

Scutella Zitteli, Beyr.; Mytilus aquitanicus, M.E.; Lucina ornata, 
Ag.; Lucina columbella, Lam.; Cardium cf. taurinum, Micht.; Venus 
ovata, Penn. ; Cytherea erycina, L.; Corbula revoluta, Broce. ; Teredo 
Mediterranea; Turritella terebralis, Lam. ; T. cathedralis, Brongn. ; 
Crepidula cochlearis, Bast.; Galerus chinensis, Lam.; together with 
fossil wood, Podocnemis, Trionyx, Crocodilus, Brachyodus, and 
Rhinoceros. In addition to these the following are given in the table of 
fossils for the Miocene? as occurring only in the Lower Miocene :— 
Cupularia cf. urciolata, Lam.; Anomia ephippium, var. squamula, L. ; 
Cardita rufescens, Lam.; Diplodonta rotundata, Mont.; Cardium 
paucicostatum, Sow.; Dosinia Adansoni, Phil.; Tapes Basteroit, 
Desh. ; | Tellina cf. exigua, L.; Hrvilia pusilla, Phil.; MMactra 
burdigalensis, May.; Corbula Basteroti, Horn.; Tugonia anatina, 
‘Gmel.; Oliva clavula, Lam. 

It is now possible to proceed to the description of the beds for 
which a Lower Miocene age is claimed. 

Between 8 and 9 kilometres east of Abbassia there occurs a series 
of ridges of gritty limestone, calcareous grits, and ferruginous, 
calcareous, sandstones and grits, bounded on the south by a thin 
sheet of basalt, and faulted down on the north along the side of 
the Old Post Road to Suez. They persist to the north of this 
fracture, but are much masked by gravel and downwash. This 
series of beds lies in a shallow basin, and is unconformable to the 
basalt and overlaps on it. After examining these beds at different 
places and collecting the fossils, the following succession was made 
out, although the thicknesses cannot be taken as absolute, the beds 
never being found in an escarpment of any height to allow of 
a careful measurement being made :— 


1 Loe. cit., pp. 54-5. 
2 Loe. cit., p. 53. 
3 Loe. cit., pp. 106-112. 


606 T. Barron—Miocene Beds between Cairo and Suez. 


metres. 
Top. Purplish, hard, gritty limestone ... aa % abe ar 5 
2. Yellow gritty beds ... 5 
3. Porous limestone with few arits containing pieces of Echinolampas 
sp., Pecten sp., casts of Lucina ornata, Ag., and Cytherea 
pedemontana, Brn. wa one aes ae ro : 
Gritty limestone... os 13 
5. Hard, dark, calcareous ¢rit containing Pecien Kochi, Loc.. - * Lucina 
ornata, Ae. a Cardium Michelottii, Desh., C. muilticostatum, 
Broce., Venus islandicoides, Lam., Venus sp., Tapes vetula, 
Bast., Tellina planata, Lam., Mactra corallina, Lam., Corbula 
revoluta, Bast., Turrztella miotaurina, Sacc., Turritella sp. ... 2 
6. Yellow calcareous sand and grit containing Ostrea sp., Pectumculus 
sp., Chama sp., Cardita ef. pinnula, Bast., Cardita sp., Lucia 
columbella, Lam., Lucina (Dentilucina) sp., Lucina sp. (many), 
Cardium paucicostatum, Sow., C. et. paucicostatum, Sow., 
C. multicostatum, Broce., Cardiwm, sp. nov., Cardium sp., 
Venus multilamellata, Lam., Cytherea pedemontana, Broce., 
C. erycina, Lam., Tapes Basteroti, May., T. vetula, Bast., 
Tellina lacunosa, Chemn., Tellina planata, Lam., T. nitida, 
Pol., Zellina sp., Mactra corallina, Lam, = (M. stultorun, 
Lam.), Corbula rervoluta, Broce., Calyptrea chinensis, Lam., 
Turritella miotaurina, Sace., 7. terebralis, Lam., Ficula con- 
dita, Brongn., Oliva sp., Scaphander sp. 11 
Calcareous erits with limestone at the base containing Cytherea ea 
sp., Zellina sp. ... 7 
8. Grits and siliceous limestone containing “Lucina sp., “Cardinm 
SPs ie Tapes sp. ane me ous 6 
9. Yellow silic ue evit containing small Cardia... ene =: 5 
10. Hard, black, calcareous sandstone he o As es 1°8. 
11. Yellow sandstones and erits ne i ae ae ee 13 


a 


Lower Mrocenn. 


- 
‘ 


Basalt underlies this last bed. 

The beds have a general dip of 8° to 5° N.E., but there is also 
a gentle inclination of about 2° to the north-west. 

Further east the following fossils were obtained from the repre- 
sentative of Bed 7 of the above section :—Ostrea sp., Cardita sp., 
Lucina columbella, Lam., Lucina sp., Cardium sp., Tapes vetula, 
Bast., Tapes sp., Mactra sp., Corbula Basteroti, Horn., Corbula sp.. 
Cancellaria sp. 

Round about Station 4 of the Old Post Road to Suez, a calcareous 
grit yielded the following fossils :— Pinna sp., Ostrea sp., Modiola 
sp., Peclunculus sp., Cardita sp., Lucina columbella, Lam., L. ornata, 
Ag., Z. sp. nov., Lucina sp., Cardium sp., Venus ovata, Penn., V. ef. 
islandicoides Lisi Cytherea erycina, Lam., Tapes sp., Tellina lacunosa, 
Chemn., 7. nitida, Pol., T. planata, L., Calyptrea chinensis, Lam., 
Turritella terebralis, Lam., Strombus sp., (?) Panopea sp. 

At the north foot of Gebel el Angobia in calcareous grits and 
marls, Dosinia Adansoni, Phil., is found associated with Tapes vetula, 
Bast., Lucina ornata, Ag., Cardium multicostatum, Broce., Turritella 
terebralis, Lam., T. cathedralis, Brongn., Conus sp., and Pleurotome 
trochlearis, Horn. 

At the base of Gebel Rieshi, 12 kilometres north-east of Bir 
Gendali, there is practically the same assemblage of fossils as in 
the previous case. Below these beds comes a series of conglomerates, 
gravels, sands, etc., lying between Gebel el Angobia and Amuna. 


T. Barron—Miocene Beds between Cairo and Suez. 607: 


These overlie the basalt, and are seen to pass under the fossiliferous 
beds of the Miocene. 

At the Middle Station, Old Railway to Suez, some gypseous 
marls and brown ferruginous limestones are brought up by a fault 
and exposed in a cutting. These contain the following fossils :— 
Pecten sp., Cardita sp., Arca cf. Fichtelli, Desh., Cardium multi- 
costatum, Broce., Cardium sp., Dosinia Adansoni, Phil., Venus ovata, 
Penn. (numerous), V. multilamellata, Lam., V. cf. plicata, Gmel., 
Venus sp., Cytherea erycina, Lam., Trochus tauro-miocenicus, Sacc., 
Turbo tauro-miocenicus, Sacc., Turritella terebralis, Lam., Ficula sp., 
Triton sp., Scaphander lignarius, Lam., Scaphander sp. 

At the foot of the Miocene escarpment to the south-west of Gebel 
Gafeisad or Agleiat Qamr, Lower Miocene fossils were also found 
in some sandy beds, while pieces of mammalian bones in a bad 
‘state of preservation were also seen. 

From the base of the Miocene cliff 15 kilometres east of Dér el 
Béda the following fossils were obtained :—Scutella Deflersi, Gauth., 
Scutella sp., Brissopsis, sp. nov., Pecten Kochi, Loc., P. Schweinfurthi, 
Blanck., P. Zizinig, Blanck., P. submalving, Blanck., P. burdiga- 
lensis, iam., Pecten sp., Pectunculus sp., Cardita sp., Cardium 
paucicostatum, Sow., C. multicostatum, Broce., Cardium sp., Dosinia 
orbicularis, Ag., (?) Venus sp., Cytherea sp., Tapes vetula, Bast., 
Corbula revoluta, Brocc., Turritella sp., Ficula condita, Brongn. 
Here there is undoubtedly a mingling of Helvetian and Lower 
Miocene fossils which marks what may be regarded as the passage- 
bed between these two stages of the Miocene. 

At the foot of Gebel Genéffe a series of unfossiliferous beds 
(brown sandy limestones, gypseous clays, gypsumized limestone, 
and greenish marls) occur ; they form a part of the Lower Miocene, 
as is shown by correlating the overlying fossiliferous beds with 
those in other sections in which these latter are found always to 
overlie the Lower Miocene beds. 

In this district there is abundant proof to show that there was 
a great overlap of the Miocene beds from west to east. Near Cairo 
they lie on a thin layer of basalt which is a good distance from any 
of the known volcanic necks; further east in the immediate neigh- 
bourhood of the vents no basalt is found under the Miocene rocks 
except in very small patches, while the Oligocene sands and gravels 
are much thinner. This, to the writer’s mind, is best explained 
by a gradual overlap from west to east. If it were otherwise, the 
basalt ought to be thickest in the neighbourhood of the volcanic 
vents, while west and east from them it would gradually thin out 
and disappear. The converse is the case, as the main basalt flow 
on the west side is remote from the volcano, while only on the 
flanks of the cone is it found close to the vent, and on the east it is 
entirely absent. The earlier submergence of the area near Cairo has 
protected the basalt from being totally swept away, as was the case 
with the longer exposed area to the east. 

It would seem also as if deeper water existed to the east in 
Helvetian times, while the white limestone found there in such 

DECADE V.—VOL. I.—NO. XII. : 36 


608 Reviews—Geological Photographs. 


thickness was probably never deposited in the neighbourhood of 
Cairo. It is a fact that, as the Miocene is traced eastward, the 
beds thicken and become almost pure limestone, while others that 
were sandstone on the west have passed over into limestone 
further east. 


deg ,der, WF 0 DEH WW Se 


I.— PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST IN THE UniTED Krnepom.! 
(PLATE XVIII.) 


T is again our pleasant task to call the attention of the readers of 
the GrotogicaL MaGazine to the excellent work performed by 
Professor W. W. Watts, F.R.S., and his Committee for recording 
and preserving photographs of places and sections of geological 
interest in the United Kingdom. The report from which most 
of the following statements are taken shows that the past year 
has been exceptionally successful, the number of new photographs 
received having exceeded that of any previous year. The accessions 
number 543; the total number in the collection is 4,314, and the 
yearly average rises to 287. Since issuing the report 100 other 
photographs have been received. 

_ The geographical scheme annexed shows that four counties are 
removed from last year’s ‘ black list —Cambridge, Kildare, Leitrim, 
and Wicklow having now made contributions to the collection. 
There are still 21 non-contributing counties—two in England, one 
in Wales, seven in Scotland, and eleven in Ireland. 

To this year’s list Yorkshire makes, as so often before, the largest 
contribution, 248; Norfolk follows with 48, Kent with 31, and 
Pembroke with 30. Considerable additions are made to the lists 
of Buckingham, Northampton, Suffolk, Fife, Linlithgow, Renfrew, 
Cork, and Sligo. 


Previous Additions 

Collection. (1904). ct 

England... «of ae) 25508 550 415 aoc 2,723 
Wales aS ae A 250 me 41 ae 291 
Channel Islands. ... aa 38 Bad — EA 38 
Isle of Man... oan Are 60 fe 1 Sit 61 
Scotland... ane nee 429 = 3 ae 459 
Treland ais are ay: 597 me 49 an 646 
Rock Structures, etc. ee 96 He — Hee 96 
Total APS AR iil 543 4,314 


1 Fifteenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor James Geikie 
(Chairman), Professor W. W. Watts (Secretary), Professor T. G. Bonney, Professor 
E. J. Garwood, Professor S. H. Reynolds, Dr. Tempest Anderson, Dr. J. J. H. 
Teall, Mr. Godfrey Bingley, Mr. H. Coates, Mr. C. V. Crook, Mr. J. G. Goodchild, 
Mr. William Gray, Mr. W. Jerome Harrison, Mr. Robert Kidston, Mr. J. St. J. 
Phillips, Mr. A. 8. Reid, Mr. R. Welch, Mr. W. Whitaker, and Mr. H. B. Wood- 
ward. (Drawn up by the Secretary, Professor W. W. Watts, M.A., F.R.S., Sec. 
Geol. Soc.) Read before the British Association, Cambridge, Section C (Geology), 
August, 1904. 


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Reviews—Geological Photographs. 609 


It is not easy to pick out any particular series of photographs for 
special mention, but a set of seventeen prints from Mr. Charles C. 
Buckingham and two from Mr. De Vere, all taken under the 
auspices of the Hast Kent Natural History Society, seem to be of 
exceptional interest. They illustrate the course and _ tributaries 
of the Kentish river Stour, and their association with the springs 
known as Bournes. Mr. Buckingham has also photographed 
Reculvers Church from the same points of view as Lyell’s famous 
pictures, and the ‘result brings home the potency of marine denu- 
dation and the need for coast defences. 

Mr. R. Vowell Sherring, working in conjunction with the Bourne- 
mouth and District Society of Natural Science, sends some beautiful 
prints of the Bournemouth cliffs; Mr. Mellard Reade contributes 
some excellent photographs of the well-known gypsum boulder of 
Crosby; and Mr. Topham a series from the gravels of Hye in 
Northamptonshire. The rhythmical fretting of limestone by water 
in Hell Gill is illustrated by Mr. Rodwell under circumstances of 
considerable difficulty, and the marine destruction of the Scarborough 
landslips by Mr. Monckton. Mr. Leach sends photographs of 
a mass of Carboniferous Limestone at Tenby, supposed to show 
10,000 specimens of Productus, and, curiously enough, almost the 
same post brought a notice that “the Corporation have for years 
been breaking up the stone for road repair, and are now in possession 
of a steam stone-breaker which will in the course of time cause this 
natural curiosity to disappear, unless some steps are taken to 
prevent it.” . 

Messrs. Muff & Wright have taken an ideal set of photographs 
of the raised beaches and platforms of Cork, which are buried under 
boulder-clay, blown-sand, and ‘head’; Mr. Pledge continues to 
illustrate Mr. Davies’s work on the Purbeck and Portland of the 
Haddenham district; Mr. Robarts sends further contributions on 
the geology of Kent and Surrey from the Croydon Natural History 
and Scientific Society ; and Mr. Plews gives the first photographs 
recorded from Cambridgeshire. 

The importance of the contributions of members of the Committee 
will be realised from the fact that they are responsible for 426 
photographs out of a total of 543. Mr. W. Jerome Harrison, one 
of the earliest and most earnest of geological photographers, and 
perhaps the pioneer of county photographic surveys, sends no less 
than 270 prints out of his large collection of a lifetime. These 
' comprise a long series of the Yorkshire coast from Bridlington to 
Whitby ; series from Cornwall, Norfolk, and Suffolk; and our first 
connected set from the Cambrian rocks of St. Davids. Mr. Bingley 
contributes 76 prints taken in Norfolk, Suffolk, Yorkshire, Anglesey, 
and Carnarvon. Professor Reynolds’s work is well represented by 
illustrations from Hertfordshire, the Carboniferous area of Somerset, 
and volcanic areas in Fife, Haddington, and Linlithgow. Last, but 
not least, Mr. Welch makes a valuable gift of 85 prints taken in 
‘Lancashire and Ireland, in connexion with the work of the Belfast 
Naturalists’ Field Club and of Mr. Praeger and Mr. Lamplugh. 


610 Reviews—Geological Photographs. 


They include examples from Antrim and Cork, the glacial and 
associated deposits of Down and Dublin, and phenomena connected 
with limestones and caves in Sligo. One of the photographs is both 
botanical and geological, for it shows the formation of tufa in 
a limestone district through the agency of colonies of various mosses. 

To all the gentlemen named the Committee tender their best 
thanks, as well as to the following, who have contributed less in 
amount, it is true, but individual examples or series of high value: 
Mr. Epps, Mr. G. T. Atchison, Mr. Hopkinson, Messrs. Abley & 
Griffith, Mr. Hodson, Professor Armstrong, Mr. Cobbold, Dr. Matley, 
Dr. Flett, Dr. Abbott, and Mr. Smith. 

Mr. Welch points out that one print registered last year (3,289), 
the cemented breccia of quartzite and slate at Howth, which con- 
tained bones of mammals and fishes with land and marine shells, is 
now the only record of an interesting geological fact, as the block 
has been washed away by the sea. 

The third and last issue of the published series of “ British 
Geological Photographs” was sent out to subscribers in May of this 
year. The completion and success of its first publication scheme 
marks an epoch in the history of the Committee and the fulfilment 
of a long-cherished desire of its founders. 

Since the first meeting in 1890 the desirability of publishing 
a selected series of geological photographs has been kept before the 
Committee, but it was only in 1898 and 1894 that publishers were 
approached on the subject. With one consent they recommended 
application elsewhere, and so the matter was allowed to slumber 
till the Dover meeting in 1899. In this year a Sub-Committee of 
selection, consisting of Professor Bonney (Chairman), Professor 
Watts (Secretary and Editor), Professor Garwood, Dr. Mill, Dr. Teall, 
and Mr. H. B. Woodward, was appointed, a self-supporting sub- 
scription scheme drawn up, and a preliminary selection of typical 
photographs made. One hundred and ninety-three subscribers 
undertook to support a series which was to consist of issues of 
twenty photographs each year for three years. It was decided to 
issue the series in three forms—unmounted half-plate platinotypes, 
mounted platinotypes, and lantern-slides—and each issue was to be 
accompanied by descriptive letterpress. 

Various unforeseen circumstances delayed the first issue, but it 
saw the light in September, 1902; issue ii followed in July, 1903 ; 
and the final issue in May, 1904. The actual series, as published, 
comprised seventy-two photographs, fifty-one being standard half- 
plates, ten quarter-plates, and eleven whole-plates, and an equal 
number of lantern-slides. The subjects ranged over most of the 
ordinary geological phenomena, the chief rock formations, and many 
of the more important British localities. The negatives were lent 
by thirty-four photographers, and a descriptive pamphlet of forty- 
two pages was written by thirty-four contributors, amongst whom 
are many of the most famous of contemporary British geologists. 
To both geologists and photographers the Committee express their 
warmest thanks. 


Reviews— Geological Photographs. 611 


The estimates on which the Sub-Committee worked proved to 
have been well founded, and the balance-sheet gives an account 
of all receipts and expenditure to date. It shows a balance in 
favour of the Committee of £95 13s. 2d., and a prospective profit 
of over £130 when all outstanding accounts shall have been paid. 

The balance-sheet, however, does not make one important point 
clear. Hight whole-plate platinotypes and twelve slides beyond the 
number agreed upon have been issued to subscribers. It is estimated 
that these additional photographs have cost £105. If this be added 
to the balance in hand the total profit has been £235, of which 
one-half has been returned to the subscribers and the other half 
retained by the Committee for the purpose of carrying on the work 
for which it was originally established by the Association. 

It was pointed out in the Report for last year that in its fifteen 
years’ work of collecting and storing photographs, the Committee 
had spent £101 10s. of the £130 granted to it by the Association. 
In making a clear profit of £130 the Committee may congratulate 
itself on having “earned its keep,” and perhaps it is the only 
Committee of the Association which has ever succeeded in literally 
doing so. But, besides this, by scattering broadcast over the world 
typical photographs of geological features and phenomena it has 
rendered a service to geological, and perhaps to geographical, teaching 
which cannot be well over-estimated. The British Association 
photographs are forming the nucleus of dozens of teaching collections 
in the universities, schools, and museums of Britain; and numerous 
foreign subscribers write that they are only unable to subscribe to 
a second series because they now want the funds to accumulate 
other examples from their own countries. It is not so difficult to 
obtain geological photographs as it was fifteen years ago, for even 
the ubiquitous picture postcard is sometimes frankly geological. 

About 100 intending subscribers to a new series have sent in 
their names, and the Committee recommend that such a new series 
be undertaken on the same terms as the last. With the smaller 
number of subscribers, however, the margin is narrow, and while 
profit to the Committee will be small, or absent, the subscribers will 
have to be content with the ‘contract number” of photographs. 
Possibly the number of subscribers will increase when it is known 
that the new series will be actually carried out. 

Such a series will naturally be complete in itself, but it will also 
be supplementary to the first series, and in no way a repetition of it. 
The Committee would most warmly welcome any suggestions from 
subscribers and others as to the best points to be considered in the 
new series. 

Examples of the published series of photographs were shown at 
the Exhibition arranged by the Geographical Association in London 
and the provinces this year. Another set was sent by request to the 
Exhibition at St. Louis, and it is proposed to present this collection 
to the Geographical and Geological Department at Harvard University 
when the Exhibition closes. To this set a gold medal in Group 16 
has been awarded. 


612 Reviews—Geological Photographs. 


The duplicate collection of slides has been exhibited and explained 
within the year by Mr. Whitaker at the following local scientific 
societies :—The Christ’s Hospital Natural History Society ; the Greville 
Place Literary Society, Maida Vale; the Stratford Congregational 
Literary Society; and the Ashmolean Natural History Society, 
Oxford. 

Applications by Local Societies for the loan of the duplicate 
collection should be made to the Secretary. Hither prints or slides, 
or both, can be lent, with a descriptive account of the slides. The 
carriage and the making good of any damage to slides or prints are 
expenses borne by the borrowing society. 

The Committee recommend that they be reappointed, without 
a grant. 


Firteenta List or GronocicaL PHotToGRApPHs. 
(To August 12, 1904.) 


This list includes the geological photographs which have been 
received by the Secretary of the Committee since the publication of 
the last report. Photographers are asked to affix the registered 
numbers to their negatives for convenience of future reference. 
Their own numbers are added in order to enable them to do so. 

Copies of photographs desired can, in most instances, be obtained 
from the photographer direct, or from the officers of the local society 
under whose auspices the views were taken. 

The Committee do not assume the copyright of any photographs 
included in this list. Inquiries respecting photographs, and appli- 
cations for permission to reproduce them should be addressed to the 
photographers direct. 

It is recommended that, wherever the negative is suitable, the 
print be made by the cold-bath platinotype process. 

The very best photographs lose half their utility, and all their 
value as documentary evidence, unless accurately described ; and the 
Secretary would be grateful if, whenever possible, such explanatory 
details as can be given were written on the forms supplied by him 
for the purpose, and not on the back of the photograph or elsewhere. 
Much labour and error of transcription would thereby be saved. 
It is well, also, to use a permanent ink for this purpose. A local 
number, by which the print and negative can be recognised, should 
be written on the back of the photograph and on the top right-hand 
corner of the form. 

Copies of photographs should be sent unmounted to Professor 
W. W. Watts, F.R.S., The University, Birmingham, and forms 
may be obtained from him. 


Our Plate XVIII this month is taken from one of the series of 
Photographs of Geological Interest issued by the British Association 
Committee, and represents an excellent view of ‘London Bridge,” 
a natural arch at Torquay, Devonshire (No. 2,938 of the series). 
Photographed and reproduced by permission of Professor S. H. 
Reynolds, M.A., F.G.S. The following description by Mr. W. A. E. 


Reviews—B. Lindemann—Granular Carbonate Rocks. 613 


Ussher, F.G.S., and the block annexed, are taken by permission from 
the letterpress issued with the last set of the first published series 
of “ British Geological Photographs ” :—‘ The natural arch depicted 
in the photograph forms a conspicuous object on the south coast 
of the Torquay Promontory between the Bath Saloons and Daddy 
Hole. It has been tunnelled by the sea through a small headland 
near the axis of an inverted synclinal curve in Middle Devonian 
Limestones. The prolongation of this axis eastward is well 
shown on the coast a quarter of a mile away. In the middle 
and lower part of the limestone masses of Torquay, a partial 
cleavage is often displayed by the beds, consequent on the pressure 


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Diagram figure of Natural Arch, Torquay ; drawn to show inverted Syncline. 


which has produced the folding in them; this structure, as shown 
in the photograph, becomes in certain cases most pronounced at 
and near the axis of the folds, causing a shattering of the rock at 
the point where the direction of strain cleavage approximates to, 
or coincides with, the inverted bedding planes. The dark marking 
extending horizontally on either side of the arch in the photograph 
denotes high-water mark. The railings give a scale. This locality, 
from a slightly different point of view, has been figured in the 
Memoir on the Geology of the Country around Torquay, p. 49 
(Mem. Geol. Surv., 1903), in which the Middle Devonian Limestones 
of that district are also described.” 


IIl.—On sSoME IMPORTANT OCCURRENCES OF GRANULAR CARBONATE 
Rocks, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THEIR ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE. 
By Bernaarp Linpemann. Neues Jahrbuch f. Min. Geol. u. 
Paleont. XIX Beilage Band (1904), Heft 2. 


HIS important paper on crystalline limestones and dolomites 
Ih contains about 9 pages of bibliography, 5 or 6 pages of review 
of older theories of crystalline carbonate rocks, nearly 100 pages 
of descriptions of special occurrences, and 10 pages of discussion of 


614 Reviews—B. Lindemann—Granular Carbonate Rocks. 


the general character and origin of the rocks and of their accessory 
minerals. The second and last sections are briefly reviewed here. 

Cotta held in 1827 that crystalline limestones might be either 
(1) original secretions of calcium carbonate from the fiery fluid planet 
mass, like the plutonic crystalline schists; (2) rocks independently 
erupted from the earth’s interior ; (5) altered compact (sedimentary) 
limestones. 

The second or truly eruptive limestones were characterised by 
their numerous inclusions of fragments of baked schist (or gneiss) 
[such as are common in the crystalline limestones of Ceylon— 
however they got there]; and by their wonderful close and intimate 
relation to the schists or gneisses they are associated with. Later 
on, in 1853, he abandoned the eruptive view and thought that such 
limestones had been more softened by heat than the surrounding 
rocks, and had thus been able to behave as eruptive rocks, and 
force their way under the influence of pressure into the crevices of 
the surrounding rock and even to form dykes and bosses in them, 
and break across their foliation planes. Then followed a gradual 
consolidation to a granular crystalline rock, accompanied by the 
development of contact-metamorphic minerals. [This describes 
with wonderful exactness the sort of thing that seems to have 
happened in connection with the crystalline limestones of Ceylon, 
whatever their actual origin may have been. | 

Naumann, too, believed that crystalline limestones might have 
consolidated from a state akin to fusion (‘‘ aus dem feurig erweichten 
Zustande”’). The ‘ Neptunists,’ on the other hand, thought that 
crystalline limestones resulted from the alteration of organic 
limestones by percolating waters which dissolved and redeposited 
the calcite, and introduced other carbonates and silicates as well ; 
and they ignored the possibility of contact-metamorphism. These 
views seem to result from a confusion of the truly crystalline lime- 
stones of the schists with the ordinary crystallisation and obliteration 
of organic structure that has often taken place in sedimentary 
limestones. 

At the present day a majority of geologists (Giimbel, Lepsius, 
Vogt, etc.) ascribe the characters of crystalline limestones to 
regional or dynamo-metamorphism; some others, to the contact- 
metamorphic effects of intrusive igneous rocks. In regional meta- 
morphism four factors are involved, viz., (1) water as a solvent, 
(2) high temperature, (3) mechanical pressure, (4) long-extended 
time of action. [Certainly pressure alone appears to result in the 
degradation of already crystalline limestones, as in Iowa, and not 
in the development of a crystalline structure. | 

Vogt has attempted to separate regional from contact-metamorphic 
crystalline limestones, on the ground of differences in mineral 
composition and of certain peculiarities of structure. He thinks that 
an interlocked or granulitic (verzahnten) structure is characteristic 
of regional metamorphic limestones, and that it is wanting in almost 
all that are of contact-metamorphic origin; and further, that, in 
consequence of this peculiarity, hardly any marbles save those 


-Reviews—Mesozoic Plants of England. — 615 


of regional metamorphic character are valuable for ornamental 
‘purposes. 

The observations of the author of the paper under review show, 
however, that these distinctions cannot be maintained. Nor does he 
agree with Vogt in regarding certain minerals (garnet, vesuvianite, 
scapolite, wollastonite, pyroxene, amphibole, epidote, chondrodite, 
felspar, tourmaline, spinel, etc.) as characteristic of contact-meta- 
morphic limestones, and others (quartz, actinolite, mica, tale, chlorite, 
rutile, hematite) as occurring in limestone of regional metamorphic 
origin. According to our author, however, the accessory minerals 
do fall into two groups, the first, including garnet, wollastonite, 
vesuvianite, diopside, periclase, and spinel, being characteristic of 
limestones altered by normal contact-metamorphism, and the second, 
including quartz in rounded grains, and members of the mica, 
chlorite, amphibole, and epidote groups, and also corundum, occurring 
in limestones altered by piezo-contact-metamorphism (contact-meta- 
morphism accompanied by pressure) ; here the carbon dioxide being 
unable to escape, the formation of wollastonite is impossible, and 
denser minerals are formed in place of lighter ones, corundum 
e.g. replacing spinel. On the other hand, phlogopite, forsterite, 
epidote, and pyrrhotite occur with either group of contact-meta- 
morphosed limestones. [This classification does not exactly apply 
in Ceylon, where, in spite of the absence of wollastonite, spinel is 
not replaced by corundum.]| All the minerals so far mentioned result 
from the alteration of matter present in the original limestone ; 
magnetite and ilmenite are also primary minerals. 

Other minerals—tourmaline, scapolite, apatite, fluor, topaz, and 
some mica—are probably of pneumatolytic origin, and derived from 
the intrusive magma; and so with pyrites, hematite, and sphene. 
Some lime-bearing silicates — particularly garnet, wollastonite, 
diopside, actinolite, etc., when they occur in concretionary nodules 
and layers near to the intrusive rock—may also be of external 
origin, and not merely developed from materials originally present 
in the limestone. 

The author considers that the granular limestones and dolomites 
are without exception of organic origin, and that—at any rate in 
the vast majority of cases—their mineral composition and crystalline 
structure are the results of contact-metamorphism. ‘The paper ends 
with a list of the accessory minerals that occur in crystalline lime- 
stones and dolomites. AS KERC: 


I1I.—Caranocuse or tHe Mesozoic Piants in THE DEPARTMENT 
or Gxrotocy, Britisa Museum (Nav. Hist.). The Jurassic 
Flora, II: Liassic and Oolitic Floras of England (excluding the 
Inferior Oolite Plants of the Yorkshire Coast). By A.C. Smwarp. 
pp. 192, pls. xili, text-figs. 20. 1904. 

HIS volume constitutes the Second Part of the Catalogue of 
Mesozoic Plants in the British Museum. The First Part, 
published in 1900 by the same author, dealt with the magnificent 
collection from the Inferior Oolite of Yorkshire. The present 


616 Reviews—Hesozoie Plants of England. 


volume gives a full account of the other English plants from the 
Trias, Rhetic, and Jurassic. With the exception of those from 
the Stonesfield Slate of Oxfordshire and the Lias of Dorset, plant 
remains are not at all abundant in any of these formations, and 
such as occur are often fragmentary or ill-preserved. Thus, while 
a number of the specimens dealt with in this volume have proved 
unsatisfactory as records of the plant life of the period, their 
elucidation, as far as it has proved possible, has added considerably 
to what was previously known on this subject, and is therefore 
highly valuable. 

After a brief discussion of the present state of our knowledge 
of the earliest Mesozoic floras in various parts of the world, the 
author passes on to describe in detail the few fragments of Triassic 
and Rhetic age in the collection. The former period is represented 
by only one plant remain, a seed known as Carpolithes sp. From 
the Rhetic, fragmentary specimens are referred to Hgquisetites 
Muensteri (a typical species of the period), ZLycopodites lanceolatus, 
and a fern Clathropteris platyphylla. 

The Lias plants are represented by several specimens of the 
following species among others :—Thinnfeldia rhomboidalis, Cycadites 
rectangularis, Otozamites obtusus, and Pagiophyllum peregrinum. Many 
of these are well-preserved and fairly perfect specimens. A new 
species of fossil wood is described as Cupressinoxylon Barberi. 

A special section is devoted to a discussion on the nature and 
origin of Jet. It is shown that in all probability Whitby jet has 
been produced in large measure by the alteration of wood of the 
Araucarian type. 

The collection from the Stonesfield Slate (Great Oolite) is the 
largest described in this volume. It includes examples of Ginkgo 
digitata and Baiera Phillipsi; several Cycadean fronds such as 
Williamsonia pecten, Zamites megaphyllus, as well as two new species, 
Sphenozamites Belli and Podozamites stonesfieldensis. Coniferous 
remains, especially Thuites expansus, are also fairly abundant. 

Perhaps the most interesting specimen botanically is a leaf, 
described as Phyllites sp., which in several respects closely resembles 
that of a recent Dicotyledon. The author remarks that “had the 
specimen been found in rocks known to contain the remains of 
Angiosperms, there would be no hesitation in identifying it as 
a leaf of a Dicotyledon ; but seeing that we know of no undoubted 
Angiospermous fossil in Jurassic strata, it is of the utmost importance 
to demand satisfactory evidence before identifying a plant, or frag- 
ment of a plant, as an Angiosperm.” 

The remains from the Oxfordian, Corallian, and Kimeridgian 
are few in number, and consist for the most part of Coniferous 
twigs or cones. 

The memoir concludes with tables of the geographic distribution 
of the species described, and a short discussion on the botanical 
features of these floras. A full bibliography is appended. 


Reports and Proceedings—Geological Society of London, 617 


REPORTS AND PROCHHDINGS. 


—— 


GEOLOGICAL Soorrty or Lonpon. 


The opening meeting of the session 1904-5 took place on 
November 9th.—J. H. Marr, Sc.D., F.R.S., President, in 
the Chair. 


Mr. KE. T. Newton, in exhibiting, by permission of the Director 
of H.M. Geological Survey, a specimen of Fayolia near to Fayolia 
grandis, found by Dr. L. Moysey, of Nottingham, in the Coal- 
measures of Ilkeston (Derbyshire), pointed out that Fayolia was- 
first described by Professors Renault & Zeiller in 1884, in their 
monograph on the ‘“‘ Houiller de Commentry.” In 1894 Mr. Seward 
described the first British specimen, from Northumberland, in the 
Leeds Naturalist, but thought that it was not a plant. There was 
some resemblance to certain spiral egg-cases of Elasmobranchs; but 
Dr. Giinther was unwilling to accept the Northumberland fossil as 
the egg-case of a fish. Mr. Kidston had not yet seen the specimen 
now exhibited; but, from a sketch, he recognised its relation to 
Fayolia. At present, there was still uncertainty as to the exact 
nature of this fossil. 

The following communications were read :— 

1. “Notes on Upper Jurassic Ammonites, with special reference 
to Specimens in the University Museum, Oxford: II.!” By Miss 
Maud Healey. (Communicated by Professor W. J. Sollas, Sc.D., 
LL.D., F.R.S.) This was the first occasion in the history of the 
Geological Society when a lady, the author of a paper, was not only 
present, but read her own paper and replied to the discussion 
thereon. 

This paper gives a redescription of the types of Cardioceras: 
vertebrale, Sow., C. scarbrugense, Y. & B., C. cordatum, Sow., and 
C. excavatum, Sow., and their varieties. Four varieties of the first, 
nine of the second, three of the third and fourth, are defined, and 
a description is given of a new species of Cardioceras belonging to 
the same group. Notes on species allied to the group and on others 
which have been wrongly confused with it are added. These species 
are so closely connected by innumerable transitional forms that their 
limits cannot be definitely fixed. The term ‘species’ is therefore 
used as equivalent to Professor J. W. Gregory’s circulus: ‘It includes 
a number of ‘forms,’ which vary along lines radiating outward from 
a central type. Some of the members farthest removed from the 
centre may be within the range of another circulus, for the different 
circuli may overlap or be connected by an indefinite series of 
individuals.” Hach circulus is made up of subcireuli or varieties, 
and several circuli make up a group which need not necessarily 
correspond with a genus. OC. cordatum is retained as the name of 
the whole group, although the type is a most unsatisfactory little 
specimen from the Corallian of Shotover. 

1 For Part I see Grou. Maa., 1904, p. 39. 


618 -Reports and Proceedings—Manchester Literary Society. 


2. “Sarsen-Stones in a Clay-Pit.” By the Rev. E. C. Spicer, 
M.A., F.G.S. 

Near to Bradenham, midway between High Wycombe and Prince’s 
Risborough, certain clay-pits yield a clay for brick-making, in which 
are embedded large angular sarsen-stones, white saccharoidal sand- 
stones with a siliceous cement. This clay is quite flintless: it rests 
upon, and is ‘contained’ by, Clay-with-Flints based upon Chalk, 
and is covered with roughly-mingled material containing horizontal 
bands with worn flint-pebbles and drifted sarsens of smaller size. 
Each patch of the clay fits roughly into a funnel-shaped depression 
lined with Clay-with-Flints. The depressions are probably swallow- 
holes, formed by underground solution of the Chalk, which was 
covered by wet clay and that by sands of the Bagshot Series. As 
the clay oozed out into the hollows the sarsens of these sands broke 
away, and became involved in the clay, much as blocks of the 
Malmstone at Atherfield become involved in the mud-glaciers which 
descend from the underlying Gault in the sea-cliffs. The overlying 
formation is due to much later, and probably Pleistocene, action 
after the flints of the Upper Chalk had been exposed by denudation. 


3. “On the occurrence of EHlephas meridionalis at Dewlish 
(Dorset). Second communication: Human agency suggested.” By 
the Rev. Osmond Fisher, M.A., F.G.S. 

This paper is in continuation of one published by the author in 
1888. The site in which the elephant-remains were found is 
a narrow trench, examined to a depth of 12 feet in places, with 
nearly vertical sides, a smooth, chalk bottom, and an abrupt end. 
It was not a fault or a stream-course, and it was partly filled with 
fine dust-like sand which may have been wind-borne. The trench 
cuts diagonally across the scarp; and, even if it could be accounted 
for by natural agencies, it is difficult to explain how it happened 
that so many elephants fell into it. The author points out that in 
Africa elephants are caught by the natives in pitfalls of similar 
character constructed on the tracts leading to watercourses. This 
trench is in a corresponding position with regard to a stream, and 
it is suggested as possible that the trench may have been of human 
origin. ‘There is, however, no conclusive evidence elsewhere that 
man was contemporary with Hlephas meridionalis, which is character- 
istic of the Pliocene Age. 


Mancuester Lirerary AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. 


Forps 1x Rock Srrara.—Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., 
dealt with a subject of much interest to waterworks engineers in 
a paper entitled “ Notes on the effect of Relaxation of Pressure in 
causing Folds at the Bottom of Valleys” read by him before the 
Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, of which he is 
President. It directed attention to a new cause of folding of the 
rock other than that which has been long recognized by geologists 
as ultimately due to the folding of the outer layers of the earth as 
they follow the contracting nucleus. The deep cuts made through 


Correspondence—A. R. Hunt. 619, 


valleys to make watertight barriers in the construction of reservoirs 
revealed the fact that the bottom of the valleys, wherever it was 
formed of shales and thin sandstones, was more or less folded and 
contorted. These folds and contortions caused the shales to let the 
water through with more or less freedom, and he had been called 
in repeatedly to advise as to how far it was necessary to carry the 
puddle trenches down below the valley bottom. He found, as, 
a matter of experience, that these folds were superficial, and if the 
sinking was made to a sufficient depth below the bottom of the 
valley they disappeared altogether. It was therefore obvious that 
they were not due to deep-seated movements of compression resulting. 
from the contraction of the earth. They are due to the relaxation 
of pressure caused by the removal of the rock by denudation from 
the area of the valley, and are analogous in every particular to 
the ‘creep’ in coal workings, caused by the excavation of coal, 
by which the surrounding strata crush down into the area of 
relaxed pressure and ultimately fill it up. This may be studied 
in any coal-pit where there is a superincumbent pressure, say, of 
more than 1,000 feet. 

Two illustrations of folding and faulting by relaxation of pressure 
are presented by the puddle trench of the Langsett reservoir belonging: 
to the Sheffield Corporation, and by the two reservoirs now under 
construction on the head waters of the Derwent by the Derwent 
Water Board. In the first of these the foldings in question at 
the bottom of the valley in the shale under the first grit are strongly 
marked at the surface. These folds gradually disappear, and are 
based upon a hard black unmoved shale offering a good foundation 
about 60 feet below the bottom of the valley. This is in the valley 
of the Little Don. The thickness of rock removed from the bottom 
of the valley amounted to no less than something like 8,000 feet 
of Coal-measures and Millstone Grit. In the case of the Derwent, 
in which the folding is much more marked and is accompanied by 
faulting, the thickness of rock removed amounted to at least 9,700 
feet (7,200 feet of Coal-measures, 2,000 feet of Millstone Grit, and 
at least 500 feet of Yoredale). In this the movement had not 
extended beyond a depth of 90 feet. In the case of the Derwent 
reservoir lower down the river there are two systems of folding and 
faulting which do not penetrate beyond 60 feet from the surface. 
At that point a good foundation is found for the puddle trench 
of the embankment. These points are of considerable importance 
in considering the sites for reservoirs.—F rom Water, November 15th, 
1904, No. 71, p. 491. 


(@X@Es si Sas SOUND TEIN (GAs 


THE NEW QUESTION OF RIPPLE-MARK. 
Sir,—In the August number of the Gxeotocican Magazine 
I proposed to offer at some future time an explanatory paper on 
the formation of ripple-mark ; writing then under the impression 
that experts were quite agreed upon a subject not generally known. 


620 Correspondence—A. R. Hunt. 


After my August paper was in type, Mrs. 8. Ayrton expounded 
the subject of ripple-mark at the soirée of the Royal Society, and 
subsequently delivered a lecture at Cambridge under the auspices 
and special sanction of Section G. 

In the course of the latter lecture Mrs. Ayrton ignored all previous 
enquirers, except Professor Darwin, whom she considered not to 
have fully appreciated the significance of his own experiments. 
This places me in a difficulty, as I am in doubt whether Mrs. Ayrton 
has considered the work of modern writers, or only the views 
expressed in the older text-books. Then there is another difficulty, 
and that is, that the subject was considered by Professor Osborne- 
Reynolds’ Committee on Tides and Waves, which was a Section G 
committee; while the subject comes within the purview of the 
reappointed Committee on ‘Terrestrial Waves, etc. As a matter of 
fact, Mrs. Ayrton’s views, as endorsed by the Royal Society and 
Section G, are in conflict with the views accepted by two committees 
of the British Association and of all modern workers. Indeed, 
Mrs. Ayrton uses the words ‘Contrary to accepted opinion.” 

I am aware that Bacon declares that unanimity is a very dangerous 
thing, and that, theoretically, it might be safer for me to differ from 
Professors Darwin and Osborne-Reynoids, and Dr. Vaughan Cornish, 
who are the modern authorities who have dealt more particularly 
with the sand-ripples of tidal and other continuous currents ; but, 
except in some microscopic points of details, there seems to me to 
be no room for doubt. 

During the past months of September and October I had the 
little Moorland stream, the river Bovey, under close observation, 
and for eight weeks one particular sand-flat was more or less 
rippled. 

Mrs. Ayrton maintains that a steady current cannot produce 
sand-ripples, and suggests that certain sand-waves on the Goodwin 
Sands are caused by stationary sea-waves. So far as my observation 
goes, there are no stationary waves in the open sea; and it is 
an uncontrovertible fact that a steady current, as understood by 
geologists, viz., a current flowing to all outward appearances 
continuously in the same direction, can, under certain conditions 
of speed, depth, and composition of bottom, form sand-ripples, as 
pointed out by Dr. Sorby, F.R.S., in 1859. 

The point that geologists want decided is whether the sand-ripples 
proved by Monsier Siau in the Indian Ocean, in a depth of over 
100 fathoms, were produced by continuous currents or by wave-action. 
A good deal turns upon the answer. ‘To me the balance of evidence 
seems to be in favour of wave-action, because, as a rule, deep 
currents do not disturb the bottom, but slide over the strata of water 
which are in contact with the bottom; but I come to that conclusion 
in face of the fact that under certain circumstances continuous 
currents have been proved to ripple a sandy bottom. 

I should like to see a committee appointed, to consist of all 
the leading workers who have written upon the subject of current 
ripple-mark, and especially of those who have delivered popular 


Correspondence—Rev. O. Fisher. 621 


lectures. JI think, for instance, that if Professors Darwin, 
Osborne-Reynolds, and Fleming, with Dr. Vaughan Cornish and 
Mrs. 8. Ayrton, were to confer and compare experiences a unanimous 
report might easily be arrived at. Until something of the sort is 
done the exposition of the subject, as endorsed and supported by 
the Royal Society and the British Association in their corporate 
capacities, will either be accepted by the public or cause a great 
deal of perplexity. The question does not touch my own special 
work, as all seem agreed as to the ripple-making powers of reciprocal 
wave-currents. A. R. Hon. 


November 7th, 1904. 


ELEPHAS MERIDIONALIS AT DEWLISH. 


Srr,—I regret that I was unable to be present at the meeting 
of the Geological Society on the 9th inst., when my paper on 
the Dewlish elephant trench was read, suggesting human agency. 
I crave your permission to reply to one or two criticisms as reported 
in the Abstracts of the Proceedings. It is there said that some 
‘eoliths * found there were exhibited by me. If what I did exhibit 
is referred to, they were merely shown as geological specimens from 
the drift of the gravel with which the trench had eventually become 
filled—not as ‘eoliths.’ I have seen some ‘eoliths’ which were 
collected at Dewlish, but in my opinion (whatever that may be 
worth) they do not strengthen my hypothesis that the trench is 
artificial. 

Mr. Hudleston remarked that he understood that the remains 
of only one elephant had been found. There are in existence 
nine well-preserved molars in museums, four at Dorchester, two 
at Salisbury, two at Cambridge, and one at Manchester. I exhibited 
at Cambridge all these except the Salisbury specimens. Mr. Pleydell 
in his paper in the “Dorset Field Club,” 1889, mentions seven 
molars, so that two of the above enumerated must have been 
omitted in his list. In this paper he gives a list of remains. 
He says that isolated plates of other molars were scattered in 
various parts of the deposit, and that in some places fragments 
of ivory were so numerous as to predominate over other materials. 
This I think disposes of Mr. Hudleston’s objection that the remains 
of only one elephant had been found. 

It is obvious that the trench was not wide enough to contain 
the carcase of an elephant. But if such a beast once got his fore 
legs into a narrow trench twelve feet deep, he must have been 
in the “helpless condition” that Sir Samuel Baker refers to, in 
which he might have been dispatched at leisure. It is not likely 
that primitive men would have expended more labour upon their 
pitfall than was absolutely necessary. O. Fisuer. 

Hariron, CAMBRIDGE, 

November 18th, 1904. 


622.  Correspondence—W. Wright & B. C. Polkinghorne. 


THE DISCOVERY OF IZARSUPITES IN THE CHALK OF THE 
CROYDON AREA. 


Sitr,— With reference to Dr. Hinde’s paper on “The Zone of 
Marsupites in the Chalk near Croydon,” we should like to point out 
that though in general his observations corroborate ours, we found 
at least four specimens of Marsupites with nearly complete tests, one 
with brachial joints in position, and a block containing most of the 
test plates and associated brachial plates, which is now in the 
possession of Dr, Bather. We also found several specimens of 
Echinoconus conicus near the Pank’s Hill Road end, and in another 
part Janira quinquecostata. We agree with him that “the dip of the 
Chalk from the summit towards the north is probably about the 
same as that of the general slope of the surface,” and see no occasion 
for Mr. Dibley’s theory of a fold in the chalk. He says that the 
upper part of the Cor-anguinum beds are exposed at Beddington. 
We have questioned him as to this, and he admits he should have 
written Carshalton, and says he meant the section we showed him 
a few months ago which we then thought was no higher than the 
Cor-anguinum zone. Recently we have found there, among other 
fossils, tests and brachial plates of Uintacrinus. 

With all due respect to Dr. Hinde, we cannot help expressing our 
surprise that he did not consider it necessary to refer to us as the 
original discoverers of the Marsupites zone in Surrey. Mr. Dibley 
certainly mentions us in a somewhat casual way, but as Dr. Hinde’s 
paper is page-headed “ Discovery of Marsupites, etc.,” few readers 
will be aware that we made the discovery, spent days and hours 
among the thrown out blocks, inspected the trenches and tunnels, 
and had prepared a paper for the Proceedings of the Geologists’ 
Association. It was unfortunate that our paper was not first in the 
field, as we were, but as we are mentioned in the number of your 
journal which contains Dr. Hinde’s article, we have the satisfaction 
of knowing that the credit, if any, will be equally divided between 
the discoverers and the eminent geologist who has given his valuable 
time to the production of such an interesting and scientific paper. 

W. WriGuHT. 
13, Devereux Roap, B. C. PoLkInGHORNE. 


WanpswortH Common, 8.W. 
Vovember 16th, 1904. 


WES C Bh AWN BO Urs: 


————— 


Tuer Paleontology of the Lower Coal - measures of Lancashire 
is very fully dealt with by Mr. H. Bolton in the Transactions of 
the Manchester Geological and Mining Society (vol. xxviii, part 14). 


Erratum.—In Mr. Coomaraswamy’s paper on the Balangoda 
Group, in the August number, p. 422, the figure was one-half 
natural size, and not 54 times as there stated. 


INDEX. 


ABE 
BERDEENSHIRE, Pebbles in the 
White Chalk of, 552. 
Actinocamax ; its Identity with Atracti- 
lites, 407. 
Address by A. Strahan to Section C at 
Cambridge, 449. 
Africa, Eocene Outcrop in Central, 290. 
America, North, Relief Map of, 518. 
Ammonites, Upper Jurassic, 39. 
Ammonites plicatilis and A. biplex, On 
the species, 162; Ammonites (Cardio- 


ceras) vertebrale, Sby., (€.) scarburg- - 


ense, Y. & B., (C.) cordatum, Sby., 
and (C.) excavatum, Sby., 617. 

Andrews, C. W., Mammals of the 
Kocene of Egypt, 109, 157, 211; 
Note on the Barypoda, 481; Note 
on the Gigantic Land Tortoise, 528. 

Annual General Meeting of Geological 
Society, 182. 

Anticlinal in Great Oolite at Clapham, 
near Bedford, 439. 

Arber, E. A. Newell, Cupressinoxylon 
hookeri, 7; Fossiliferous Limestone 
in the Culm of West Devon, 305; 
Plant Petrifactions from Devonshire, 
553; Fossil Plants of Upper Culm 
of Devon, 554. 

Arenig Rocks, Graptolite Zones in the, 199. 

Arnold-Bemrose, H. H., Quartzite Dykes 
in Mountain Limestone, Snelstone, 328. 

Arsinoitherium Zitteli, 157; A.andrewsi, 
159. 

Atkin, A. J. R., Gold Deposits of 
Barkerville, 327. 

Atmospheric Erosion of Rocks in Corsica, 
12, 89. 

Atoll of Funafuti, Report on Borings 
in, 219. 

Average Composition of the Igneous 
Rocks, 263. 


eae Group, Ceylon, 418, 


Baldwin, W., New Carboniferous Zo- 
scorpius from Lancashire, 326. 

Barnwell, near Cambridge, Limestone 
with Upper Gault Fossils, 329. 


DECADE V.—VOL. I.—NO. XII. 


BRI 


Barron, T., Lower Miocene Beds between 
Cairo and Suez, 603. 

Barrow, G., Moine Gneisses of the East- 
Central Highlands, 234. 

Barypoda, a new Order of Ungulate 
Mammals, Dr. Andrews on, 481. 

Base of the Keuper in South Devon, 283. 

Basic Patches in the Mount Sorrel 
Granite, 501. 

Bate, D. M. A., Ossiferous Cave- Deposits 
of Cyprus, 324; Hlephas cypriotes, 
Bate, from Cave-Deposit in Cyprus, 
325. 

Bather, F. A., Eocene Echinoids from 
Sokoto, 292; Labelling of Specimens, 
218. 

Bathymetrical Features of North Polar 
Sea, F. Nansen on, 422, 518. 

Batrachian Footprints in Carboniferous 
of Canada, 181. 

Beddington, Marsupites in the Chalk 
of, 482. 

Bedford, A small Anticlinal in Great 
Oolite near, 439. 

Beecher, Charles Emerson, Obituary, 
192, 284. 

Belgian Society of Geology, etc., 519. 

Bell, A. M., Implementiterous Sections 
at Wolvercote, 138. 

Biarritz, Ophite of, 22. 

Black Ven, Charmouth, Zone of Hoplites 
interruptus at, 124. 

Blake, J. F., on Ammonites, 162. 

Bonney, T. G., Eroded Rocks in Corsica, 
388; Valleys of the Kishon and the 
Jordan, 575. 


Borings at Sangregrande, Trinidad, 
Roeks from, 193, 241. 
Borrowdale Volcanic Series, Garnet- 


bearing Rocks, 86. 

Boulders trom the Cambridge Drift, 542. 

Boulton, W. S., Igneous Rocks at Spring 
Cove, 140; Igneous Rocks of Pontes- 
ford Hill, 475. 

Bradford Glacial Lakes, 520. 

Breidden and Berwyn Hills, Keratophyres 
of the, 13. 

Bridlington Crag, 237, 335. 


37 


624 
BRI 


Britain, North, The Deutozoic Rocks of, 
591. 

British Association in Cambridge, 449 ; 
List of Titles of Papers read, 506 ; 
Committee on Photographs of Geo- 
logical Interest, 608. 

British Earthquakes during 1901-1903, 
530. 

Broom, R., Algosawrus Bauri, Broom, 
gen. et sp. nov., 445; Notochampsa, 
N. Istedana and longipes, Broom, gen. 
et sp. nov., Stormberg Beds, South 
Africa, 582. 

Buckman, S. S., Toarcian of Bredon 
Hill, 25; The Cotteswold Hills, 218. 

Bunter and Keuper, Divisional line 
between, 166. 

Burnet, A., Upper Chalk of North 
Lincolnshire, 172. 


AERNARVON Earthquake, Dr. C. 
J) Davison on the, 477. 

Cairo and Suez, Lower Miocene Beds 
between, 603. 

Cambrian of Portugal, Prof. Delgado 
on the, 517. 

Jambridge Drift, Boulders from the, 
542. 

Cambridgeshire, Geology of, 508. 

Carbonate Rocks, Granular, 613. 

Carboniferous Limestones of Bristol 
Area, Paleontological Sequence in 
the, 426. 

Carter, W. S., River Capture in the 
Don System, 544; Glaciation of the 
Don and Dearne Valleys, 546. 

Cephalopods from the Valley of the 
Tochi, N.W. India, 490. 

Ceylon, Geology of, 16. 

Ceylon, Irregularly developed Crystals 
of Zircon, 236. 

Ceylon, Contribution to the Geology of, 
418. 

Chapman, E. J., Obituary of, 144. 

Charfield, On the Rhietic Rocks around, 
5382. 

Cinnabar from Peru, 519. 

Coal, Lower, of Lancashire, 622. 

Coast Erosion in Suffolk, 502. 

Compression of the ‘ Karth’s Crust,’ 495. 

Coomaraswamy, A. K., Geology of 
Ceylon, 16, 418. 

Cope & Lomas, Igneous Rocks of the 
Berwyns, 33. 

Coral Reef Committee of the Royal 
Society, Report of, 219. 

Cornish Coast, Eocene Outlier off the,190. 

Cornwall, Silurian Fossils of Ludlow 
Age in, 289. 

Cornwall, The Devonian Rocks of, 587. 

Correlation of some Cornish Beds with 
the Gedinnian, 289, 403, 590. 


Index. 


EAR 


Corsica, Erosion of Rocks in, 12, 89, 388. 

Cretaceous of Vancouver, Fossils from, 
466. 

Crewdson, G., Ice-action on Windermere, 
524. 

Crick, G. C., Note on Pericyclus fascicu- 
latus, 27; Cephalopoda, Strachey 
Collection, 61, 115; Note on Actino- 
camax, Miller, 407 ; Cephalopods from 
the Valley of the River Tochi, N.W. 
India, 490. 

Crick, W. D., Obituary, 144. 

Culm, Lower, of North Devon, 392, 
526, 530, 584, 622. 

Culm in South Germany, 272. 


Culm otf West Devon, Fossiliferous 
Limestone of the, 305. 

Cupressinoxylon  hookeri, Axrber, sp. 
nov., 7 


Cypridina antiqua, 'T. R. Jones, sp. nov., 
439. 
Cyprus, Ossiferous Cave- Deposits of 324. 


ALL’S Tertiary Fauna of Florida, 
136. 

Dardanelles, Eocene and Later Forma- 
tions surrounding the, 188. 

Davies, H. N., Human Remains under 
Stalagmite Cheddar, 281. 

Davison, ©., Caernarvon Earthquake, 
June 19th, 1903, 477; British Earth- 
quakes, 535; Penzance Karthquake, 
487. 

Dawkins, Boyd, Folds in Rocks, 618. 

Dax, Salt Deposits of, 265. 

De Lorenzo, G., Voleanic Action in the 
Phlegrzean Fields, 281. 

Denmark, Stevn’s Klint, 70. 

Desorelia, The Genus, 479. 

Deutozoic Rocks of North Britain, 591. 

Devon, On the Lower Culm of North, 
530, 584. 

Devonian Rocks of Cornwall, 587; of 
Scotland, 591. 

Devonshire in the time of the Lower 
Chalk, 217. 

Dewlish, Elephant Remains at, 618. 

Dibley, G. E., Marsupites in the Chalk 
of the Croydon Area, 520. 

Dinosaur from South Africa, A new, 440. 

Dolomites of Eastern Lowa, 493. 

Don and Dearne Valleys, Glaciation ot 
the, 546. a 

Don System, River Capture in the, 544. 

Du Riche Preller, C. S., Age of the 
Lake of Geneva, 328. 


| aoa Structure, Evolution of, 79. 


| Earthquake, The Penzance, 487. 


Earthquakes, Some Minor British, 539. 


Index. 


EAR 


Harth’s Crust, Cause of Compression of 
the, 495. 

Kast Yorkshire, Geological Rambles in, 
85. 

Eastern Sinai, Miocene Rocks in, 250. 

Edenvale Caves, co. Clare, List of Mam- 
malia from the, 555. 

Edestus in the Coal- -measures of Britain, 
40. 

Egypt, Land Tortoise from the Upper 
Kocene of, 527. 

Esypt, It Barron, Lower Miocene Beds, 
603. 


Elephas cypriotes, Bate, froma Cave- 
Deposit in Cyprus, 325. 

Llephas meridionalis at Dewlish, Dorset, 
618, 621. 

Elles, & L., Graptolite Zones in Arenig 
Rocks, 199. 

Elsden, J. V., 
Dykes, 330. 

Eminent Living Geologists: W. H. 
Hudleston, M.A., RES oile 

English, T., Eocene and Later Forma- 
tions surrounding the Dardanelles, 188. 

Kocene Echinoids trom Sokoto, 292. 

Kocene Mammals of Egypt, 109,157, 211. 

Kocene Outcrop in Central Africa, 290. 

Koliths, 526. 

Hoscorpius trom the Upper Carboniferous 
of Lancashire, 326. 

Equivalents of the Lower Culm of North 
Devon, 584. 

Eroded Rocks in Corsica, 12, 89, 388. 

Erratic Blocks, 520. 

Etheridge, Robert, Obituary of, 42. 

. Huceratherium, 465. 

“Exotic Blocks’ of the Himalayas, 519. 


Age of the Llyn Padarn 


AUNA of the Lower Cretaceous 
Phosphatic-beds, 551. 

Fauna of the Bokkeveld Beds of South 
Africa, 426. 

Fearnsides, W. G., Limestone with 
Upper Gault Fossils at Barnwell, 329. 

“Feather Ore,’ identity with domingite, 
236. 

Fingers of Pterodactyls, 59. 

Fisher, O., Cause of Compression of the 
Earth’s ‘Crust, 495; The Occurrence 
of Elephas meridionalis at Dewlish, 
Dorset, 618, 621. 

Fisher, W. W., Salinity of Water from 
the Oolites, 288. 

Folds in Rock Strata, 618. 

Fossil Fish, Primitive, 519. 

Fossil Floras of Cape Colony, 425. 

Fossil Mammalia and Birds in the British 
Museum Nat. Hist., 561. 

Fossil Plants of the Carboniferous Rocks 
of Dumfriesshire, etc., 180. 


625 

GLA 

Fossiliferous Deposits at Kirmington, 
512. 

Fossiliferous Limestone of the Culm of 
West Devon, 305. 

Fossils from the Haverfordwest District, 
343. 

Foster, Sir Clement Le Neve, Obituary, 
286. 

Fox-Strangways, C., Geology of the 
Oolitic and Cretaceous Rocks of Scar- 
borough, 470; Retirement of, 573. 

Fresh Fossil Eee, 520. 

Freshfield, D. W. , Round Kanchenjunga, 
(ES 

Fritsch, A., Paleozoic Arachnida, 471. 


EDINNIAN of Continental Europe 
and some Cornish Beds, 289, 403. 

Geikie, A., International Co- -operation 
in Geological Investigation, 133 ; 
Raised Beaches in the Northern Hemi- 
sphere, 135. 

Geinitz, E. von, Singleness of the Ice 
Age, 131. 

Genesis of the Gold Deposits of Barker- 
ville, British Columbia, 327. 

Geniohyus fajumensis, Andrews, sp. Nov., 
162. 


Geniohyus mirus, Andrews, gen, et sp. 
nov., 160. 

Genus Desorella, 479. 

Geological Atlas of Great Britain, 569. 

Geological Laboratory of Birmingham, 
260. 

Geological Photographs, Record of, 608. 

Geological Society of London, 39, 86, 
138, 182, 2384, 281, 326, 426, 475, 617. 

Geological Survey of the Transvaal, 564. 

Geology, Text-book of, 280. 

Geology in the last Forty Years, 1. 

Geology of Ceylon, 16. 

Geology of Southern Rhodesia, 556. 

Geology of the Country around Chard, 
217. 

rey of the Country around Torquay, 


37. 
Gorey of the Country near Chichester, 


Gone of Tunis, 517. 

Geology under the Planetesimal Hypo- 
thesis of Earth-Origin, 465. 

Gibb, A. W. , Pebbles i in the White Chalk 
ot ‘Aberdeenshire, 554. 

Gigantic Land Tortoise from Upper 
Eocene, Kgypt, 527. 

Gillett, Alfred, Death of, 96. 

Glaciation of the Don and Dearne Valleys, 
546. 

Glaciation of Holyhead Mountain, 504. 


' Glacier, The Great Eastern, 509. 


626 
GOO 


Goodchild, J. G., Deutozoic Rocks of 
North Britain, 591. 

Granite, Basic Patches in Mount Sorrel, 
501. 

Granular Carbonate Rocks, Occurrences 
of, 613. 

Graptolite Zones in the Arenig Rocks of 
Wales, 199. 

Green, U., Cornish Beds and the Ge- 
dinnian, 403; Silurian Fossils of Lud- 
low Age in Cornwall, 289. 


Greenly, E., Glaciation of Holyhead | 


Mountain, 504. 

Gregory, J. W., Glacial Geology of 
Tasmania, 87. 

Gregory, R. A., New Edition of Huxley’s 
Physiography, 568. 

Greywethers at Grays Thurrock, Essex, 
288. 

Guide to Fossil Mammalia and Birds in 
the British Museum (Nat. Hist.), 
561. 

Guppy, R. J. L., The Marbela Manjak 
Mine, 276; Rocks from Borings at 
Trinidad, 193, 241. 

Gwinnell, W. F., Plesiosaurus Skeleton 
from Westbury-on-Severn, 428. 


ARKER, A., Tertiary Igneous Rocks 
of Skye, 556, 574. 

Harmer, F. W., The Great Eastern 
Glacier, 509. 

Harrison, W. J., Text-book ot Geology, 
280. 

Hatch, F. H., Boulder Beds of Venters- 
dorp, Transvaal, 217. 

Hatcher, J. B., Obituary of, 568. 

Haverfordwest District, Fossils 
the, 106. 

Healey, M., On Upper Jurassic Ammon- 
ites, 39, 617. 

Hemiaster sudanensis, Bather, sp. noy., 
299. 

Hill, E., Stevn’s Klint, Danish Coast, 
70. 

Hilton, H., Gnomonic Net, 142. 

Hind, W., Homotaxial Equivalents ot 
the Lower Culm in Devonshire, 392, 
526, 584. 

Hinde, G. J., Genus Porosphera, Stein- 
mann, 41; Zone ot Marsupites in the 
Chalk of Beddington, near Croydon, 
482. 

History of Collections in Brit. Mus. Nat. 
ste ole 

Holst, N. O., Relations of the ‘ Writing 
Chalk’ of Sweden and the Drift De- 
posits, 56, 70. 

Holyhead Mountain, The Glaciation of, 
504, 


from 


Index. 


JUR 


Homotaxial Equivalents of the Lower 
Culm of North Devon, 392, 526, 530, 
584. 

Hoplites interruptus, Zone of, at Black 
Ven, 124. 

Horne & Peach, Canonbie Coalfield, 82. 

Hot Springs, 252. 

Howe, J. A., ‘ Yoredale’ Rocks of North. 
Derbyshire, 332. 


| Hualgayoc, Peru, Mines of, 518. 
| Hudleston, W. H., Halolimnic Fauna of 


Lake Tanganyika, 337; Biographical 
Notice of, 431. 

Hull, Professor, Reply to, by S. 8. 
Buckman, 25. 

Human Remains under Stalagmite, 
Gough’s Cavern, Cheddar, 281. 

Hume, W. F., Miocene Rocks in Eastern 
Sinai, 250. 

Hunt, A. R., Neolithic Flint Flakes at 
Hope’s Nose, 332; Descriptive Nomen- 
clature of Ripple-mark, 410; the New 
Question of Ripple-mark, 619. 

Huxley’s Physiography, New Edition of, 
562. 


fo on Windermere, 524. 


Igneous Rocks, Average Composition of 
the, 263. 

Igneous Rocks of the Berwyns, 33; of 
Pontestord Hill, 475. 

Important Coal-Developments of North 
Staffordshire, 323. 

Index to Geological Papers, 217. 

Interglacial Question, 56. 

International Geological Congress, 133. 

Towa, Dolomites of Eastern, 493. 


| Irving, A., Reply to Mr. A. Somervail, 


166; Keuper Basement Beds, 478 ; 
High-level Plateau Gravels of the 
Tamisian Area, 497. 


AKOWLEW, N., Morphology of the 
Rugosa, 468. 

Jevons, H. Stanley, Keratophyres of the 
Breidden Hills, 13. 

Jones, T. R., Paleozoic Cypridina trom 
Canada, 438. 

Jordan Valley, The, 575. 

Jukes-Browne, A. J., Valley ot the 
Teign, 190. 

Jukes-Browne & Hill, The Cretaceous 
Rocks of Britain, 176, 277. 

Jurassic Cephalopoda from the Hima- 
laya, 61, 115. 

Jurassic Flora, 617. 

Jurassic forms of the ‘ genera’ Stomato- 
pora and Proboseina, 315. 


Index. 


KAN 
| ANCHENJUNGA, Round, 74. 


Kennard & Warren, Tutaceous Deposit 
ot Totland Bay, 19. 
| Keratophyres of the Breidden and Berwyn 
Wills, 13. 
Keuper Basement Beds, 478. 
Kidston, R., Fossil Plants, 180. 
Kishon and Jordan Valleys, 575. 
Knight, N., Dolomites of Eastern Towa, 
493. : 


I AKE, Philip, Atmospheric Erosion in 

4 Corsica, 89. 

Lamplugh, G. W., Bridlington Crag, 
237; Lower Cretaceous Phosphatic- 
beds and their Fauna, 551. 

Lamplugh & Stather, Report on Fossili- 
ferous Deposits at Kirmington, etc., 
512. 

Lancashire, Lower Coal of, 622. 

Landshp, The Frank, 466. 

Lang, W. D., Zone of Hoplites inter- 
ruptus at Charmouth, 124; Jurassic 
forms of the ‘ genera’ Stonatopora and 
Proboscina, 315. 

Lelean, P.S., Kocene Outcrop in Central 
Africa, 290. 

Lepus europeus absent in British Pleisto- 
cene Deposits, 143. 

Liassic and Oolitic Floras of England, 
618. 

Lincolnshire, North, Upper Chalk of, 
172. 

Lindemann, B 
Rocks, 613. 

Linthia oblonga from Sinai, 441. 

Llyn Padarn Dyke, Age of the, 330. 

Lomas & Cope, Igneous Rocks ot the 
Berwyns, 33. 

“‘London Bridge,” Torquay, 613. 

Lower and Middle Chalk of England, 176. 


., Granular Carbonate 


2 


Mw C. 1. F., Lepus europeus, 
143. 
Mammals from the Eocene of Kgypt, 109, 
157, 211. 
Manchester Philosophical Society, 61S. 
Marbela Manjak Mine, Trinidad, 276. 
Marine Fossils in Upper Coal-measures, 
283. 
Marr, J. E., Geology of Cambridgeshire, 
508. 
Marsupites in the Chalk of Beddington, 
482. 
Marsupites in the Chalk of the Croydon 
Area, 482, 525, 622. 
Matthews, G. F., Batrachian Footprints, 
181. 
McMahon, Charles Alexander, Obituary 
of, 192, 237. 


| 


| Non - Sequence 


627 

OBI 

Megalohyrax minor, Andrews, sp. nov., 
213. 

Melbourne, Paleontology in the National 
Museum, 215. 

Memoirs of the Geological Survey, 39, 
176, 277, 323, 470. 

Mennell, F. P., Composition of Igneous. 
Rocks, 268. 

Merycodus osborm, £18. 

Mesozoic Plants, 616. 

Method of making Geological Models, 260. 

Mineralogical Society, 41, 142, 236, 331. 

Mineralogical Survey of Ceylon, 144, 464. _ 

Minerals of Colombia, 519. 

Mining in Ireland, 288. 

Miocene Rocks in Eastern Sinai, 250. 

Miocene Rocks between Cairo and Suez, 
603. - 

Meritherium, 109. 

Moine Gneisses and their position in the 
Highland Sequence, 234. 

Morgan & Reynolds, Igneous Rocks of 
the Bristol District, 87. 

Mount Sorrel Granite, Patches in, 501. 

Museum of Practical Geology, 478. 


J AJAS in the Peat, 555 
N 


Nansen’s North Polar Sea, 422, 518. 

Natural Arch, Torquay, 613. 

Neolithic Flint Flakes at Hope’s Nose, 
382. 

New Crocodile, South Africa, 582. 

Newsom, J. I'., Sandstone Dykes in 

- California, 216. 

Newton, E. T., Edestus in the Coal- 
measures of Britain, 40. 


| Newton, kh. B., Linthia oblonga trom 


Sinai, 441; Tertiary Fossils of Somali- 
land, 477. 
Nomenclature of Ripple-mark, 410. 
between the Keuper 
and Rhvetic of Gloucestershire and 
Worcestershire, 429. 


| North Polar Expedition, 1893-96, 518. 


Notes on Tim and Copper Deposits of 
Camborne, 288. 

Notochampsa, gen. noy., Stormberg Beds, 
South Africa, 582. 

Notochampsa Istedana, Broom, sp. noy., 
583. 


| Notochampsa longipes, Broom, sp. noy.,. 


584. 


BITUARY of C. E. Beecher, 192, 

284; E. J. Chapman, 144; W. D. 
Crick, 144; Robert Etheridge, 42 ; 
J. B. Hatcher, 568; C. Le Neve Foster, 
286; C. A. McMahon, 192, 287 ; 
C. Ricketts, 240; F. Rutley, 333; 
R. F. Tomes, 565; W. Vieary, 148 ;, 
Karl yon Zittel, 90. 


628 
OLI 


‘Oligocene of Poland, 519. 

Oolitic and Liassic Floras of England, 
615. 

Ophite of Biarritz, 22. 

Opisthoeclian Dinosaur in the Cretaceous 
Beds of South Africa, 445. 

Origin of certain Pegmatite Veins, 308. 

Origin of the Marine (Halolimnic) Fauna 
ot Lake Tanganyika, 337. 

Ossiferous Cave- Deposits of Cyprus, 324. 


ALZHOLITHIC Floor at PrahSands, 
in Cornwall, 138. 

Paleomastodon, 115. 

Paleontographical Society, 34, 331. 

Paleontology, Text-book of, 178. 

Paleontology in the last Forty Years, 
49, 97, 145. 

Paleontology in the National Museum, 
Melbourne, 215. 

Paleozoic Arachnida, 471. 

Paleozoic Cypridina trom Canada, 438. 

Parkinson, J. H., Zoning of the Culm in 
South Germany, 272. 

Peach & Horne, The Canonbie Coalfield, 
82. 

Peat Moors of the Pennines, 550. 

Pegmatite Veins, Origin of certain, 308. 

Penzance Earthquake of March 8rd, 1904, 
487. 

Pericyclus fasciculatus, M‘Coy, sp., 27. 

Persimmon Creek Meteorite, 520. 

Phacops Robertsi, Reed, sp. nov., 106. 

Phenomena bearing upon the Age of the 
Lake of Geneva, 325. 

Phlegrean Fields, History of Volcanic 
Action in the, 281. 


Photographs of Geological Interest, 608. | 
Pigmy Elephant in the Pleistocene of | 


Cyprus, 325. 

Pillow-lava in Cornwall, 447. 

Plant Petrifactions from Devonshire, 543. 

Plesiolampas Sahare, Bather, sp. nov., 
293. 

Plesiosaurus Skeleton from the White 
Lias of Westbury-on-Severn, 428. 

Porosphera, Structure and Affinities of 
the genus, 41. 

Position of Old Red Sandstone in Geo- 
logical Succession, 84. 

Prestwichia signata, Beecher, 521. 

Prior, G. T., Sulphostannite of Lead 
from Bolivia, 142; A Pillow-lava 
forming a continuous horizon from 
Mullion Island to Gorran Haven, 447. 

Pterodactyls, Fingers of, 59. 

Pterodon macrognathus, Andrews, sp. 
noy., 211. 

Ptychodus, Jaws trom the Chalk, 139. 


Index. 


Sco 


UARTZITE Dykes in Mountain 
Limestone, Snelstone, 328. 


| AISED Beaches of the Northern 
Hemisphere, 155. 

Rastall, R. H., Basie Patches on the 
Mount Sorrel Granite, 501; Boulders 
from the Cambridge Drift, 542. 

Reade, T. M., Evolution of Earth 
Structure, 79. 

Records of the Geclogical Survey ot 
India, 520. 

Reed, F. R. C., New . Fossils from 
Haverfordwest District, 106; Trilo- 
bites from Haverfordwest, 343 ; 
Annals of the South African Museum, 
426. : 

Reid, ©., Marine Tertiary Fauna of 
America and Europe, 136; Paleolithic 
Floor at Prah Sands, Cornwall, 1388 ; 
Eocene Outlier off the Cornish Coast, 
190; Najas marina in the Peat of 
Lough Gur, Ireland, 545. ‘ 

Reid, Lamplugh, and Jukes-Browne, 
Geology of the Country near Chichester, 
39 


Reptilia, Reclassification of the, 517. 


| Retrospect of Geology, 1; of Paleon- 


tology, 49, 97, 145. 
Reynolds, S. H., Rheetic Beds of the 
South Wales Direct Line, 141. 
Reynolds & Morgan, Carboniferous 
Limestone of the Bristol District, 87. 
Rhietic Beds of England, 88; of the 
South Wales Direct Line, 141. 
Rheetic Rocks around Charfield, 532. 
Richardson, L., Non-Sequence between 
the Keuper and Rhetic of Gloucester- 
shire and Worcestershire, 429; On the 
Rheetic Rocks around Charfield, 532. 
Ricketts, Charles, Obituary of, 240. 
Ripple-mark, Descriptive Nomenclature 
ot, 410. 
River Capture in the Don System, 544. 
Rogers, A. W., Gouritz River System, 
217. 
Rowe, A. W., Zones of the White Chalk 
in Yorkshire, 228. 


| Royal Microscopical Society, 40. 


Rugosa, Morphology of the, 468. 
Rutley, Frank, Obituary of, 333. 


eG Deposits of Dax, 264. 


Sangregrande, Trinidad, Rocks from 
Borings at, 193, 241. 

Sarsen-Stones in a Clay-pit near Braden- 
ham, 618. 

Schwartz, E. H. L., Hot Springs, 252. 

Scottish Carboniferous Rocks, 82; Deu- 
tozoic Rocks, 591. 


Index. 


SED 


Sedgwick Museum Notes, 106, 343. 

Seward, A. C., Fossil Floras of Cape 
Colony, 425; Mesozoic Plants of 
England, 615; Liassic and Oolitic 
Floras, 615. 

Sheppard, T., Geological Rambles in 
East Yorkshire, 85. 

Short, A. R., Rheetic Beds of England, 
88. 

Silicification of Crystalline Limestone, 16. 

Silurian Fossils of Ludlow Age in 
Cornwall, 289. 

Sinai, Linthia oblonga from, 441. 

Singleness of the Ice Age, 131. 

Skye, Tertiary Igneous Rocks of, 556. 

Smith, J., Marine Fossils in Upper 
Coal-measures, 283. 

Sokoto, Eocene Echinoids from, 292. 

Somaliland, Tertiary Fossils of, 477. 

Somervail, A., A Base of the Keuper in 
South Devon, 283. 

South Africa, On a New Crocodilian 
Genus from, 582. 

South African Geology, 463. 

Spencer, L. J., Irregularly Developed 
Crystals of Zircon, 236; ‘ Feather- 
Ore,’ 236; Different Modification of 
Zircon, 552. 

Spicer, Rey. HE. C., Sarsen-Stones in 
a Clay-pit, 618. 

Spiller, J., Recent Coast Erosion in 
Suffolk, 502. ; 

Stanford’s Geological Atlas of Great 
Britain, 559. 

Stevn’s Klint, Denmark, 70. 

Stobbs, J. T., ‘ Yoredale’ Rocks of 
North Derbyshire, 430. 

Stomatopora and Proboscina, 
forms of the genera, 315. 

Stour Valley, Drift in the, 511. 

Strachey’s Cephalopoda from the Hima- 
laya, 61, 115. 

Strahan, A., Address to Section C, 449. 

Stuart-Menteath, P. W., The Ophite of 
Biarritz, 22; Salt Deposits of Dax, 
265. 

Stylonurus in the Baltic Silurian, 521. 

Suez and Cairo Lower Miocene Beds, 
603. 

Suffolk, Recent Coast Erosion in, 502. 


Jurassic 


eee ES. Origin of the Marine 
Fauna of Lake, 337. 

Tasmania, Glacial Geology of, 87; a 
large Silicified Tree from, 7. 

Tertiary Fauna of Florida, 518 ; History 
of Central England, 497. 

Testudo Ammon, Andrews, 527. 

Thames High-level Plateau Gravels, 497. 

Thomson, A. G. M., Old Red Sandstone, 
St. 


629 


WIL 


Thomson’s Book on the Old Red Sand- 
stone, 142. 

Titles of Papers read before British 
Association, Section C, Cambridge, 
506. 

Toarcian of Bredon Hill, 25. 

Tochi River, Cephalopods from the Valley 
of the, 490. 

Tomes, R. F., Obituary of, 565. 

Torquay, Natural Arch at, 613. 

Totland Bay, Recent Tutaceous Deposit 
of, 19. 

Transvaal, Geological Survey of the, 564. 

Traquair, R. H., Fish-remains in Car- — 
boniferous Rocks of Kdinburgh 
District, 82. 

Trias of Devonshire, 166. 

Trinidad, Marbela Manjak Mine, 27 . 

Tuckett, F. F., Examples of Atmospheric 
Erosion of Rocks in Corsica, 12. 

Tufaceous Deposit of Totland Bay, 19. 


ee Mammals, A new order 
of, 481. 

Upper Chalk of England, 277. 

Upper Chalk of North Lincolnshire, 172. 

Ussher, W. A. E., Devonian Rocks of 
Cornwall, 587 ; Geology of the Country 
around Torquay, 37; description of 
‘« London Bridge,’’ Torquay, 613. 


ALLEYS of the Kishon and Jordan, 


575. 
Vaughan, A., Paleontological Sequence 
in the Carboniferous Limestones, 


Bristol, 426; On the Lower Culm ot 
North Devon, 530. 
Vicary, W., Obituary of, 143. 


ALKER, E. E., Garnet-bearing 
Rocks of the Borrowdale Volcanic 
Series, 86. 

Warren & Kennard, Tufaceous Deposit 
of Totland Bay, 19. 

Watts, Prof. W. W., British Association 
Committee on Geological Photographs, 
608. 

Weston-super-Mare, Igneous Rocks at 
Spring Cove near, 140. 

Whitaker, W., Depth of Drift in the 
Stour Valley, 511; Some Cambridge- 
shire Wells, 511. 

Whiteaves, J. F., Fossils from the 
Vancouver Cretaceous, 466. 

Williston, S. W., Fingers of Ptero- 
dactyls, 59. 

Wilson, T. S., Simple Method of making 
Geological Models, 260. 


630 
WOL 

Wolvercote, Implementiferous Sections 
at, 138. 

Woods, Henry, The Genus Desorella, 479. 

Woodward, A. 8., Jaws of Ptychodus | 
from the Chalk, 139. 

Woodward, Henry, A Retrospect of | 
Paleontology in the last Forty Years, 
49, 97, 145. 

Woodward, H. B., Retrospect of Geology 
in the last Forty Years, 1; A Small 
Anticlinal near Bedford, 439. 

Wright, W., and Polkinghorne, B. C., 
Marsupites in the Chalk of the Croydon 
Area, 622. 


‘Writing Chalk’ of Scania, Sweden, 56. 


"9962 


Index. 


ZON 
‘VW OREDALE’ Rocks of North Derby- 
shire, 332, 430. 
Yorkshire Philosophical Society, 517. 


'EUGLODON ISIS, Beadnell MS., 
214. 
Zircon, Different Modifications of, 552. 
Zittel, Karl von, Obituary of, 90. 
Zittel’s Paleontology, 178. 
Zones of the White Chalk in Yorkshire, 
229. 
Zoning of the Culm in South Germany, 
272 


STEPHEN AUSTIN ANH SONS, LTD., PRINTERS, HERTFORD. 


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