EARTH SCIENCES LIBRARY

s

1

f-NRLF

SCIENCES

trial Supplement to Vol XIV of Proc. of
'Birm. Nat. Hist, and PML Soc,, 1921,]

The

Geological Work
of Charles Lapworth,

M.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.

Professor of Geology and Physiography
at the University of Birmingham,

W. W. WATTS,

Price — Two Shillings.

The Birmingham Printers, Ltd., 42-44 » Hill Street

Special Supplement to Vol. XIV of Proc. of
Birm. Nat. Hist, and Phil. Soc., 1921.]

The

Geological Work
of Charles Lapworth,

M.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.

Professor of Geology and Physiography
at the University of Birmingham.

W. W. WATTS.

The Birmingham Printers, Ltd., 42-44, Hill Street.

-1

EARTH
SCIENCES

EARTH

CONTENTS. **$*

Page
I. LIFE

II.

WORK

j
7

INTRODUCTION

7

A. THE SOUTHERN UPLANDS

•• 7

i Galashiels . . . . . .

2. The Moffat Area

9

3. The Moffat Series . .

. . ii

4. The Girvan Succession

•• 15

5. The Ballantrae Rocks

.. 16

18

B. THE ORDOVICIAN SYSTEM

.. 18

C. THE NORTH-WEST HIGHLANDS OF SCOTLAND . .

.. 19

The Secret of the Highlands

.. 19

D. THE GEOLOGY OF THE MIDLANDS

.. 24

i. Nuneaton and the Lickey Hills

.. 24

2. The Shropshire Ordovician

•• 25

3. The Shropshire Cambrian and Uriconian

.. 26

4. The Hyolithes Limestone . .

.. 27

5. Harlech and the Longmynd

.. 28

6. Other Birmingham Work

.. 29

E. THE GRAPTOLITES

.. 30

i. Morphology and Classification

.. 30

2. Graptolite Papers . .

•• 31

3. The Distribution of the Rhabdophora . .

• • 32

4. The Life of the Graptolites

•• 33

5. Monograph of British Graptolites

•• 33

F. THE FOLD

_ .

i. Geographical Relations

•• 35

2. Time Relations. . . . .

•• 37

3. The Dolomites

•• 37

G. ECONOMIC AND ADVISORY WORK

•• 37

i. The Midland Coalfields

.. 38

2. The Geological Survey

•• 39

H TEACHING WORK

OQ

i Students * . . . .

_

2 Textbooks

3. Old Students and others

.. 42

I. CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY

4O

III.

730

THE GEOLOGICAL WORK

OF

CHARLES LAPWORTH, M.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.

I.— LIFE.

CHARLES LAPWORTH was born on September aoth, 1842, at
Faringdon, in Berkshire. Five years afterwards his parents re-
moved to Lower Newton, one of the farms rented by his grand-
father. He attended the country school of Buckland, about two
miles off, and the Vicar of the parish, the Rev. Joseph Moore,
finding him an omnivorous reader, lent him books from the library
of his beautiful house and practically directed his early education.
His mother's influence supported him in his determination to devote
himself to the profession of teaching. At the age of 15 he became
a pupil teacher in the school, and in the year 1862 entered the
Training College at Culham, near Oxford, passing out thence in
1864 with a first-class Government certificate. Of the posts as
schoolmaster offered to him he selected that connected with the
Episcopal Church at Galashiels, because it would give him a home
and work in the fascinating borderland of Sir Walter Scott. This
post he retained for eleven years, and was married in 1869 to the
daughter of Mr. Walter Sanderson, who survives him, and to whose
lifelong devotion and thoughtful care he owed much that rendered
his work possible.

His holidays and spare time were spent in wandering over
the Border region, and about 1866 or 1867 he appears to have
become interested in geology, zest being given to the work by the
discovery of fossils in rocks which had hitherto been considered
barren. In 1869, m company with his friend, Mr. James Wilson,
he began the study of the geology of the district round Galashiels.
As his work became known he was visited by many eminent
geologists, among whom may be named Sir William Dawson,
Mr. Hopkinson, Professor Harkness, and Professor Nicholson, with
whom he formed a life-long friendship.

In 1875 he was appointed to one of the assistant-masterships
in the Madras College, St. Andrews. While here he not only
continued his study of the Scottish Uplands, but found time to
visit localities in England and Wales of importance to his work.

He was elected a Fellow of the Geological Society in 1872,
and received the Murchison Fund in 1878, a few months after the
reading of his great paper on the Moffat Series.

In 1 88 1 he was elected to the newly established Chair of
Geology and Mineralogy at the Mason College, Birmingham, his
title being afterwards modified at his own request to that of
Professor of Geology and Physiography. Here he took part in
the development of the College which resulted in the establishment
of the University of Birmingham in 1900, received the official degree
of M.Sc., and held the Professorship till his retirement in 1913.
The University conferred on him the title of Emeritus Professor
in 1914.

In 1882, and again in 1884, he was awarded the Lyell Fund,
and in 1887 the very distinguished honour of the Bigsby Medal,
by the Geological Society. On the occasion of the presentation
of this medal the President, Professor J. W. Judd, remarked : —
" The late Dr. Bigsby established a medal to be awarded to one
'not too old for further work, and not too young to have done
much/ That you admirably comply with the latter qualification
every geologist knows, but that your age could possibly fall below
the limit prescribed by the founder of the medal, anyone not
personally acquainted with you might be pardoned for doubting."

Aberdeen University created him LL.D. in 1884, and in 1888
he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, which awarded
him a Royal Medal in 1891 and placed him on the Council in 1895.
In 1892 he served as President of the Geological Section of the
British Association. He went on to the Council of the Geological
Society in 1894 ; in 1899 received the highest award of that Society,
the Wollaston Medal ; and in 1902 became its President. In 1900
he served on the Departmental Committee on the Geological Survey,
and from 1902 to 1905 on the Royal Commission on Coal Supplies.
In 1905 he received the Wilde Medal of the Manchester Philo-
sophical Society, and in 1912 was made honorary LL.D. of the
University of Glasgow.

After an illness lasting several months he died on March I3th,
1920, in his 78th year, and was buried by his own desire at the
Lodge Hill Cemetery, near Birmingham.

II._WORK. ,
INTRODUCTION.

IN order to understand rightly, and to place Professor Lapworth's
geological work, or at least the first part of it, it is necessary to
appreciate the level which knowledge had reached at the time his
work began.

The geology of the greater part of England and a considerable
part of Scotland had been mapped and described. The Geological
Society had been publishing for sixty years, and several other
societies and journals were making known the results of geological
investigation. The series of rocks down to the base of the
Carboniferous were fairly understood and consistently mapped,
their succession and faunas were known in outline, and correlation
was in a fairly satisfactory state. In some cases at home and
abroad detailed zoning of the strata had been carried out.

But the knowledge of the older Palaeozoic rocks, in spite of
the labours of Sedgwick, Murchison, Hicks, Harkness, Nicholson,
and many others, was in a much less satisfactory condition. Neither
subdivision and correlation, nor mapping, was reliable, and there
remained much to be done in the collection of the faunas in an
accurate, detailed fashion. Trilobites and brachiopods had been
mainly used for correlation, but had led to contradictions and
inconsistencies. The graptolites, which Lapworth was to make
so important, were almost neglected, and even their keenest
students — Nicholson, Carruthers, and Hopkinson — had not full
confidence in their value. Nor even was the classification of them
then in use the best possible, for it was founded on imperfect and
imperfectly known specimens, leading to uncertainty and indefinite-
ness in the identification of species, and even of genera and families.

A. — THE SOUTHERN UPLANDS.

The Southern Uplands, in the centre of which, at Galashiels,
Lapworth settled down from 1864 till 1875, was known to be
made up of rocks of greywacke type, somewhat similar to those of
the Lake District and Wales, but singularly barren of fossils. They
were known to dip steadily, but not very regularly, from south to

8

north, off a supposed anticline near Hawick, and were considered
to constitute a single ascending series not less than five miles
(26,000 feet) thick. At intervals there occurred bands of black
shale, never more than five or six hundred feet thick, which seemed
to be part of the conformable series. These shales yielded almost
the only fossils, chiefly graptolites, and very little else.

Now the graptolites collected from one band as a whole were
quite comparable with those found in every other band, and the
fauna of the lowest band was not appreciably different from that
of the highest. Many of these graptolites had been found in the
Llandeilo rocks of Wales. These conclusions, if reliable, led
inevitably to the following deductions : —

(1) As there was no change in fauna or lithological character
the whole series must belong to one Formation.

(2) The recognised fossils were, or were thought to be, Llandeilo
forms — hence that Formation would be the equivalent of
the Llandeilo.

(3) As the same graptolites were found in every shale band
throughout five miles of rock, the graptolites as a class
were useless as time-indices.

(4) As 26,000 feet of rock had been deposited during the life
time of the Llandeilo graptolites, either : —

(a) Deposition had been excessively rapid, although
the greywackes include ten or twelve black shale
bands deposited in deep water ; or

(b) The graptolites presented an example of a group
of organisms which had stood still during the
lapse of a long period of time. They were in
contradiction to the theory of progress and
evolution which was beginning to receive
valuable support from geology, particularly in
rocks of later ages.

From what we know of Lapworth's method oi work we may
feel sure that either before or very soon after beginning his field
work he had got hold of all the published information on the
Uplands, and that his logical mind would soon draw some such
deductions as those outlined above.

Further, from his profound belief in well grounded scientific
principles we may readily suppose that conclusions so much in
conflict with what was then known in other branches of geological
enquiry would be inacceptable, and that he would feel that the
foundations on which they were supposed to rest must be tested
with great care.

It is true Barrande had formulated his theory of ' colonies '
to explain similar anomalies in Bohemia, and that theory had been

invoked in the Uplands. But the theory was almost too ingenious
and it involved a complicated series of migrations, the mechanism
for which it was almost impossible to imagine.

Lapworth's field work showed bit by bit that the foundations
on which such conclusions rested were unsound, and at the same
time placed our knowledge of the Southern Uplands in a position
of remarkable exactitude. It went further, and established a
host of facts and a number of new principles which have proved
to be far-ranging in application.

I. — Galashiels.

Lapworth's field work had probably begun in 1866, but as a
serious study it dates from 1869, and reached the stage of first
publication in 1870, when a paper on the Lower Silurian Rocks of
Galashiels (i)* was read to the Edinburgh Geological Society. From
this we gather that he had detected the intense disturbances which
had affected the rocks. He had found many fossils in strata
supposed to be barren and unpromising, and had begun to realise
that these fossils would be of considerable assistance in his work.
He had also seen that the Gala Series was a large and united
Formation bearing similar monoprionidian graptolites from base
to summit, very different from the more varied graptolite fauna
of the black shales in the underlying Moffat Series. Many of the
Moffat Shale graptolites are peculiar to the Llandeilo, others are
found in the Coniston group ; while the whole of the Gala forms
have been found in the ' Coniston Series,' and in the Upper Silurian
of Bohemia. From this he concluded that the Gala Series was
of Caradoc age. This last view, though it has proved erroneous,
was inevitable at this time, as the opinion held by Nicholson, and
others who had worked on them, was that the * Coniston Flags '
belonged to this period. In a further paper (4) read at the British
Association at Edinburgh, twenty Gala species are recorded, two
being new to science.

2.— The Moffat Area.

A very important paper (2) by James Wilson and Lapworth, in
1871, records the result of three years' work. The great significance
of the graptolites is now well recognised. The shales, the most
important part of the Moffat series, are spoken of as the " metropolis
of the graptolites of Scotland," and the authors feel bound to say,
•f" These peculiar creatures have never yet received the attention
they deserve, and those of Britain have been treated so carelessly
that the real horizon of some of the species cannot be even guessed
at." Forty species of graptolites are recognised from the Moffat

* Figures in brackets refer to the list of published works set out on pages
49-51, in order of date. f 2, p. 463.

10

Shales, nine-tenths of which, including all the branching forms,
have disappeared in the Gala group. Twelve species have been
found in the Riccarton beds overlying the Gala Series. The Moffat
Shales are compared with the Utica and Hudson River beds of
America, and with the graptolitic shales of Wicklow and Wexford,
and are thought to be of Bala or Bala-Llandeilo age. The Gala
group has a fauna approaching that of the Coniston mudstones,
and also Barrande's ' colonies ' and stage E.e.i. of Bohemia. They
seem to be high up in the Lower Silurian, and probably the higher
beds are of Upper Silurian age. The authors demonstrate the
existence of a syncline of Gala rocks with the Moffat Shale north
and south of it, and that on each side the shale band is several
times repeated by folding or faulting.

In a short paper (5) published in 1872, Lapworth categorically
states that he has convinced himself that all the black shale bands
are a single bed 500 to 600 feet thick, recurring again and again in
anticlines between which the conformable Gala greywackes occur
in repeated synclines. The black shales are divided into three
stages — a Lower, parallel with the Llandeilo or Hudson River
beds ; a middle, like the Upper Llandeilo of Builth ; and an Upper,
supposed to be a Caradoc. Some of the groups are further divisible
into zones which can be traced from point to point.

From this paper it is clear that Lapworth was now hard at
work on the Moffat region itself. By this time also his studies had
convinced him that the application of the simple rules and
methods appropriate to little-disturbed rocks, to a region in
which complicated structure might be concealed, would be highly
dangerous and likely to lead to an utterly erroneous interpretation
of the geology. He therefore set to work to map its 300 square
miles in minute detail with the use of topographical maps on the
largest scale he could obtain ; and, where these were not large
enough to record and depict the structures observed, surveying
the ground and constructing his own maps on a sufficient scale.

At the same time he applied himself to the study of all the
literature, English and foreign, on the graptolites, which he realised
were the only organisms likely to afford him any assistance in
identifying horizons in the monotonous black shale bands. He
also visited other graptolite-localities, such as the Coniston and
Stockdale areas, and studied graptolites collected by other geologists,
such as those from Co. Down and St. Davids.

Further stages in his work are revealed in 1876, when he
grouped together the Birkhill and Gala as one Formation, which
he named Valentian (*) and compared with the Lower Llandovery,
May Hill, and Tarannon Series. At this time he also effected
tabular correlations of this and lower divisions.

* 13, pp. 1,2.

II

3.— The Moffat Series (16).

By 1877 he had exhausted his study of the facts in the Moffat
district, completed his map, and prepared his memoir for submission
to the Geological Society. It was published in the Quarterly
Journal for 1878, and at once attracted the interest and sympathy
of the younger men, but the incredulity and even hostility of
holders of the older views.

In this memoir he confirmed the conclusions summarised above
and, among others, established the following :—

(1) The thickness of rocks here is not abnormally great ;
the appearance of thickness resulting from repetition due
to inverted folding and faulting.

(2) Although the graptolite fauna of any one shale band as a
whole is like that of any other, within each band there
are a number of successive graptolite faunas, associated
with variations in lithology, each distinct from the
others.

(3) Within a single shale band two or more of these graptolite
faunas are repeated, sometimes more than once. If in
the repetition the faunas occurred in inverted order,
evidence of overfolding could often be detected ; if the
repetition was not in inverted order, evidence of faulting
could usually be found.

(4) The graptolite faunas of a single shale band fall into
three chief groups : —

(a) A ' central ' (or lower) one, characterised by
didymograptids and nemagraptids, of types
known elsewhere in the Llandeilo series (Glenkiln
Shales).

(b) An ' intermediate ' (or middle) one, with dicello-
graptids and dicranograptids ; comparable with
that of the Bala rocks elsewhere (Hartfell Shales) .

(c) An ' outer ' (or higher) fauna, with mono-
graptids, comparable with those of the Coniston
mudstones (Stockdale Shales) and other rocks of
Silurian or Llandovery age (Birkhill Shales).

(5) He was able to divide the higher part of the shales into
ten graptolite-bearing zones, four in the Hartfell and six
in the Birkhill division.

(6) The rocks are not abnormally thick ; indeed the whole of
the history of the Upper Llandeilo, Bala, and Llandovery
rocks is compressed into 200 or 300 feet of black shale,
which must therefore have been deposited with com-
parative slowness, and, as the lithological characters of
the shale show, in deep water, reached only by very fine
sediment in small quantities.

12

(7) In spite of the great stratigraphical difficulties, rendered
still more severe by the fact that the higher zones of the
Birkhill Shales pass laterally, one by one, into greywacke
undistinguishable from the greywacke above, as the strata
are traced to the northward, we are given detailed measured
sections showing the exact position, content, and extent
of each division of the Moffat shales.

The result of this work, however, was not merely to rectify
knowledge of the geology of the Southern Uplands. It rendered
practically certain a number of inferences of world-wide application,
which are not stated in the paper, those there set out being solely
concerned with the area studied and the Moffat shale. To the reader
is left the task and the pleasure of generalising from the results
presented, and of realising how the foundations on which were based
so many anomalies and contradictions to scientific principles, and
so many obstacles to scientific progress, had crumbled away.

(1) It had become possible to zone the older Palaeozoic rocks
by the same methods as have been used in newer rocks.

(2) Graptolites are at least as valuable for zone-indices as
ammonites and other forms.

(3) If patient and detailed mapping be based on it, such zoning
may be used to unravel the most complicated structures.

(4) The Southern Uplands are proved to be a region which has
suffered from complex earth-movements of the type found
in great mountain regions.

(5) In such a region the old method of ' regional ' mapping,
that is, the large-scale mapping of the greater lithological
formations, is inapplicable, and must lead to wrong
conclusions unless checked and supported by detailed
work in which due weight is given to palaeontological
as well as to lithological evidence.

(6) So far from the evolution of the graptolites having stood
still while thousands of feet of rock were deposited, the
species and assemblages are found to change rapidly in
each few successive feet of rock. Instead of controverting
current theories of life-progress they give to them a new
and firm support.

(7) Ingenious subterfuges such as Barrande's theory of
' colonies ' invented to explain anomalies in the geological
distribution of organisms akin to those of the Southern
Uplands, are untrustworthy and unnecessary.

It should be distinctly understood that this work was not
carried out in the light of preconceived theory, nor was it possible
for Lapworth to refer for guidance to a simple time-scale established
elsewhere. It was the result of a belief in the efficacy of geological
mapping, carried out with a minuteness and delicacy which had

13

never hitherto been attempted in a complicated district. But it
was mapping executed by a man who was the keenest of observers,
and who had by this time made himself perhaps the greatest master
of the craft in the whole world.

Lapworth possessed a very sharp eye for lithological variation,
and a vivid memory for lithological type. These he used in tracking
the beds from point to point. At the same time he collected the
graptolites from each bed as an additional means of recognising
it, and as he acquired skill in their identification each group of
graptolites became the ' hall-mark ' of. its own bed. It was only
when 'this dual means of recognition had unravelled the structure
that the relations and sequence of the strata were revealed.

Thus the Southern Upland work was for the most part self-
contained. Although, as has been already and will be again
pointed out, Lapworth was at this time aware of all that had been
done by others on the rocks and fossils of the Lower Palaeozoic
Group, and had himself begun to carry out work of comparison
in many districts where knowledge was incomplete or inexact,
this knowledge was not allowed to influence him in working out
the detail of his own district, in forming any theories as to its
structure, or in presenting his case to his compeers of the Geological
Society.

The graptolites were used as symbols to help in unravelling
the structure — the structure as it became known revealed the
succession of the beds, and this, in its turn, disclosed the succession
and relation of the faunas.

How welcome these results must have been to Lapworth
we realise from his own words that *" zonal work is probably
destined to effect in the history of geological research a revolution
as great and an advance as rapid as those brought about by the
use of the microscope in the history of biology."

It might have been expected that among scientific men such
a vindication of scientific law would have received the warmest
of welcomes. This, however, was not the case, for Barrande,
whose theory of ' colonies ' had received its deathblow, declined to
acknowledge defeat, and even named a newly discovered ' colony '
after Lapworth. Also in a work published a few years later we find
the following footnote appended to a statement of the old views
as to the Upland sequence : —

" Mr. Charles Lapworth, who has devoted much time to the
study of the graptolites of these rocks, has come to the
conclusion that what is here termed the Moffat shale group,
and regarded as merely a subordinate member of a thick
series of sandy and generally unfossiliferous strata, represents
the whole series of strata from the Llandeilo up into the

* 56, p. 520.

14

Upper Silurian formations ; that is to say, somewhere about
a half of the whole Silurian system is contained in a group
of shales and sandstones, sometimes less than 200 feet
thick ! "

In a review of this work from Lapworth's pen we find the following
retort : — *

" He parallels the famous colonies of Bohemia with the well-
known fossil-bearing bands in the Silurian of South Scotland.
We believe this comparison to be the best that could be made.
In both areas the disputed successions are founded on
corresponding appearances, and in both cases the belief in
the orthodox view is probably destined soon to be confined
solely to its authors. Both are, however, valuable warnings,
with which the future student of historical geology could ill
afford to dispense. One is the fruit of palaeontology without
stratigraphy — the other of stratigraphy without palaeon-
tology."

From 1888 onwards, however, some of the best geologists in
the Scottish Geological Survey were engaged in re-examining and
re-mapping the Southern Uplands and in testing the validity of the
new views. In 1899 the Geological Survey published its great
Memoir on the Geology of the Southern Uplands of Scotland,
a work which has been described as a ' monument to the genius
of the man who made it possible.' In this work, Dr. Home, re-
viewing the history of research, writes as follows (pp. 24-25) : —
" In 1878 appeared Professor Lapworth's memoir on ' The
Moffat Series ' in the Quarterly Journal of the Geological
Society. The publication of this paper marks an epoch in
the history of the Silurian Geology of the South of Scotland.
It remains the greatest and most original contribution to
the study of the life-sequence and structural relations of
these highly convoluted rocks. For nearly ten years the
author had devoted himself to the mapping of the various
outcrops of the black shale series throughout the Southern
Uplands. Selecting the Moffat district as a typical area where
the sub-divisions of the series are admirably exposed, he
unfolded in detail the structure of that interesting region.
The paper is illustrated with maps and sections of the
district extending from Annandale to St. Mary's Loch, and
from the Vale of Ettrick to Hartfell. Taking Dobb's Linn
and Craigmichan Scaurs as typical sections showing the
sequence and palaeontological features of the Moffat series,
he demonstrates the true order of succession of the strata
based on the vertical range of the graptolites. He describes
the prominent parallel bands to the north and south of the

* 29, p. 83.

15

Moffat valley, and by means of confirmatory sections places
his conclusions beyond all doubt. The various sub-divisions,
lithological characters, and fossil zones are treated in great
detail ; a table showing the vertical distribution of the
fossils is given, and the respective faunas of the three divisions
of the Moffat series are compared with their foreign
equivalents/'

4. — The Girvan Succession (26).

In order to submit his Moffat conclusions to the severest test
that he could devise, Lapworth now turned to the Girvan district,
a region so difficult that, in spite of much field work by many
observers, and of the extensive Gray collection of fossils, *" Professor
Ramsay .... unable to reconcile the numberless dis-
crepancies between the apparent sequence, palaeontological and
stratigraphical, as here developed and that worked out by himself
in the regions of Siluria, has been driven to the conclusion that these
Scottish rocks belong to an episode of a date between that of the
Bala and the Llandovery, unrepresented among the fossil-bearing
rocks of the South of Britain." " If/'f Lapworth proceeds, " the
asserted heterogeneous intermixture of fossil assemblages of all
types, elsewhere characteristic of distinct horizons, were actually
found to obtain amongst them, palaeontology might well abandon
her claim to be the unfailing handmaid of stratigraphy among the
more ancient formations. If, on the other hand, the cautious
study of these deposits led to the demonstration of the contrary
opinion — i.e., that their distinct fossil assemblages were restricted,
as in other lands, to different stratigraphical zones, British geologists
would feel justified in attempting the correlation of their own
Lower Palaeozoic subformations with their nearest representatives
all over the world."

Work had apparently been begun in the Girvan district before
1876, but Lapworth now resolved to attack this ground with the
same exhaustive thoroughness as he had evinced at Moffat. He
naturally employed the same methods as before, the individualisa-
tion of mappable bands, detailed stratigraphy and mapping, zonal
collection, and especial attention to the faunas of bands in which
he discovered graptolites. As the result he worked out a complete
succession of strata beginning with the Lower Llandeilo or Arenig
and ranging up into the Tarannon beds. The graptolitic bands
followed one another in the same sequence as those of Moffat.
Not all of them, however, were represented here, and between
and among them were strata bearing brachiopods, trilobites, and
other fossils which could — with some reservations — be compared

* 26, p. 541. f 26, pp. 542-543.

i6

fairly accurately with those found in rock successions of the same
range in Wales and England.

As before, he contented himself with publishing the facts he
had collected, denying himself even the satisfaction of correlation
with Moffat, leaving it to be inferred by those sufficiently interested
to compare the two papers, from the facts brought forward, (i)
that the succession of graptolites was the same ; (2) that, though
the rock-succession was about ten times thicker than at Moffat,
the rock-grouping corresponded in the two areas ; (3) that many
zones in one area were continued into the other ; (4) that for
correlation with other regions the graptolites of Moffat and Girvan
had proved successful where the trilobites and brachiopods of Girvan
had previously broken down.

*" The discovery of these graptolite zones in the Girvan area
threw a flood of light on the stratigraphical horizons of that com-
plicated region. He was thus enabled to demonstrate that
Murchison had been misled by the apparent synclinal arrangement
of the strata on the plateau on the south side of the Girvan valley,
and that he had thus erred in placing the Pentamerus grits of Saugh
Hill on a lower horizon than the graptolitic flagstones of Ardwell
and Penwhapple Glen ( Ardmillan series) . Over much of that region
the beds are inverted and hence no reliable conclusions can be based
on mere superposition."

As this paper was called Part I, it is to be presumed that
Lapworth intended to follow it up with a sequel devoted to the
palaeontology founded on his own and Mrs. Gray's collections,
and probably also to the tectonics of the area, and the correlation
of the rocks with those at home and abroad. The nearest approach
to the former was his list of Scottish fossils prepared in 1876 for
the meeting of the British Association at Glasgow. For the latter
we have his paper on ' the Ballantrae Rocks of South Scotland, 'f
published in 1889 (44).

5. — The Ballantrae Rocks (44).

In this memoir Lapworth not only described his work on the
Ballantrae igneous rocks — associated with which he had found
graptolite-bearing strata of Arenig and early Llandeilo ages — but
he gave detailed comparisons of the sequences in various parts of
South Scotland. To this he added tabular correlations with the Lake
District, Wales, and the West of England, drawing parallels with
the zones so far established in each area, and giving a generalised
account of the variations in lithology and thickness as the rocks
are traced from one locality to another.

* The Silurian Rocks of Britain, vol. I, Scotland (1899), p. 30.
t 44-

The Southern Upland rocks are divided into a ' Moffat
Terrane ' below, with its three divisions, Glenkiln, Hartfell, and
Birkhill ; and a ' Gala Terrane ' above. The Moffat terrane at
its maximum at Girvan is about 4,000 feet thick, but it dwindles
to 300 or 400 feet about Moffat, and is only slightly thicker when it
reappears at the surface in Lakeland. The Gala terrane, 2,500 feet
at Girvan, at first thickens to the east and south-east, but it is
much attenuated in the Browgill or Pale Slates of the Lake Country.

These points are shown in a series of magnificent sections
across the Southern Uplands, which demonstrate clearly the
Author's wonderful grasp of the complicated tectonics of the area,
complications of such a nature and intensity that without detailed
mapping the anticlines would be (and indeed had been) mistaken
for synclines and vice versa, and the succession read in inverted
order. The leading features are a great ' endocline ' (pseudo-
syncline or ' fan structure ') ranging from Port Patrick through
Carsphairn and Lead Hills, the Moorfoot and Lammermuir Hills,
to Dunbar ; and a great exocline (pseudo-anticline or reversed
' fan structure ') from the Mull of Galloway, past Dumfries and
Hawick, to St. Abb's Head. Roughly parallel to these are three
complex anticlinal forms : (i) the Moffat-Melrose band ; (2) the
Leadhills-Moorfoot band ; (3) the western zones of Ballantrae and
Girvan. In the first band the rocks of the Moffat terrane show only
as narrow inliers ' at the most a score or two of yards in width '
in an area consisting of dominating Gala rocks. In the second band
the exposures of the Moffat terrane are often more than a mile
in diameter and are laid bare to a depth of 2,000 feet. In the third
area the exposures of pre-Gala rocks are four or five miles across,
and denudation has cut down to the underlying Ballantrae or
Arenig rocks.

These sections, not published till 1889, which, though of course
somewhat generalised, depict merely deductions from observed
facts, show clearly the thorough understanding of intensely com-
plicated mountain structure which Lapworth at this time possessed,
and indeed must have acquired by the time of the close of his
Upland field-work about 1881. If is most instructive to compare
them with what he called hypothetical sections of exoclines and
endoclines published in the ' Secret of the Highlands ' in 1883.
Nothing could better show on what a firm basis of fact, well known
to himself, but often unpublished, his ' hypotheses ' were always
based.

Finally, he gives a summary of the knowledge so far arrived
at by himself as to the general geological map of South Scotland ;
and a careful comparison of his last paragraphs with the latest
results published by the Geological Survey of Scotland shows
how little that knowledge deserves the depreciation he expresses.

i8

6. — Linnarsson.

It was during the first decade of his scientific activity that
Lapworth's friendship with Linnarsson, the great Swedish
palaeontologist, was formed, though I believe the two men never
actually met. They, however, corresponded frequently and
exchanged publications. Each seems to have told the other
very frankly the work that he was doing and the results he was
obtaining. As a consequence each one encouraged and aided the
other ; sequences worked out in Britain were tested in Sweden,
the zonal work in the two countries proceeded simultaneously,
and the case for graptolitic zoning grew ever stronger.

On two occasions Lapworth took the opportunity of bringing
Linnarsson's work on the older Palaeozoic rocks before English
readers in the pages of the Geological Magazine, and he published
at the same time a correlation table of the British equivalents
of the Scandinavian subdivisions. Lapworth's admiration for
Linnarsson was unbounded, and he has given very fine expression
to it in his notices of Linnarsson's work and in the beautiful tribute
on his untimely death in 1882.*

B. — THE ORDOVICIAN SYSTEM.

In 1879 Lapworth broke new ground, and rendered a very
important service to the advance of geological science. His very
extensive acquaintance with the literature of older Palaeozoic
geology, coupled with his own work on the rocks, had convinced
him of the vital importance of the occurrence of three distinct and
separate faunas in these rocks. Owing to misunderstandings, and
to mistakes both stratigraphical and palaeontological, this great
issue was in danger of becoming obscured. It did not receive due
recognition in the current nomenclature, the confusion of which
was a terror to students and an impediment to scientific work and
discussion (17).

Very tactfully and modestly, but very justly, he reviewed
the history of the great Cambro-Silurian controversy, awarding
to each disputant just as much credit as was due to him, in the
words : f" We shall best promote the interest of the man whose
memory we venerate by modestly claiming for him as much, and
no more, than truth and geological convenience will allow." Then
he suggested that we should J" claim the right of fully recognising
the systematic equality of the three lower Palaeozoic Faunas, by
regarding the three successive rock-groups which contain them as
individually entitled to the rank and denomination of a complete
system." Finally, he proposed that if the lowest division of these

* 20, 24, 27.
t 17. P- I2- + I7> P 8-

19

rocks was to retain the name Cambrian from North Wales, and the
highest that of Silurian from South Wales, it would be appropriate
that the middle division should be named Ordovician from *" the
last and most valiant of the old Cambrian tribes," whose geo-
graphical location was midway between the two areas, t" Every
geologist will at last be driven to the same conclusion that Nature
has distributed our lower Palaeozoic rocks in three sub-equal
systems, and that history, circumstance, and geologic convenience
have so arranged matters that the title here proposed for the central
system is the only one possible." It is quite needless to point out
how completely this forecast has been verified.

C. — THE NORTH-WEST HIGHLANDS OF SCOTLAND.

For many years, as the science of petrology had been growing,
doubt had been felt as to the correctness of conclusions founded
on the apparent succession made out by Murchison in the North-
West Highlands of Scotland. Here four great Systems of rocks —
Lewisian (Laurentian) , Cambrian (Torridonian) , Lower Silurian
(Assynt), and Higher Silurian (Eastern Gneiss) — were supposed to
succeed one another in stratigraphical sequence, broken by two
unconformities. The logical result of this reading of the succession
was inevitably met by the grave difficulty that while the lowest
and highest members of the sequence are crystalline gneisses and
schists, the two middle members are at the most only very slightly
metamorphosed, and indeed are generally ordinary sedimentary
rocks still retaining clastic structures and well preserved fossils.
Alternative explanations applicable to parts of the sections had
been proposed by Nicol, Hicks, Callaway, Bonney, and Hudleston ;
but there was no comprehensive refutation of the basic error.
Lapworth's experience of the mountain structures of the Uplands,
with their deceptive appearance of normal sequence, suggested the
possibility that here, too, the apparent simplicity might be a mere
mask of intense complexity, and that rocks which had undergone
so much chemical change were not likely to have escaped the
violent earth movements which had produced such effects in the
Southern Uplands. This presented a new problem really worthy
of attack on account of the vital principles involved, and in 1882
Lapworth began his Highland work.

THE SECRET OF THE HIGHLANDS (30).

His method of attack was precisely that which had already
led him to success. He saw that if his southern method we're to
be pursued the clue to the structure of the region would be found
by him in the two middle series of sediments rather than in the
complicated crystalline rocks.

* 17. P- M- I 17. P. 15-

20

He very soon discovered that while the broad rock sheets
succeeded and were related to one another in apparent sequence,
precisely as depicted by Murchison, individual parts of the section
gave evidence of disturbance and even inversion. At the same
time, well-weathered specimens of the rocks frequently displayed
an astonishing contortion entirely incompatible with really simple
relations of the greater bands.

Attention was then focussed on the third series, the " Lower
Silurian," which Murchison thought to consist of three members,
a Lower and an Upper Quartzite, with the Durness Limestone
between. The first point was to ascertain exactly what the ' Lower
Quartzite ' consisted of, and to break it up into lithological or
palaeontological zones which could be mapped on the six inch, or,
if necessary, on the 25 inch scale. The section made out by
Lapworth was as follows : —

Under the Durness Limestone :

3. The Salterella (or serpulite) grit or quartzite.
2. The Fucoid beds (in three divisions) —

(c) Quartzose flags.

(b) Fucoid limestone.

(a) Fucoid zone (flaggy grey shales).

i. The Main Quartzite (in four divisions)—

(d) 'Pipe rock.'

(c) White quartzite.

(b) Tinted quartzite.

(a) Basal (conglomerate) zone.

The examination of the ' Upper Quartzite ' showed that it
invariably consisted of rocks exactly comparable with one or more
of these lower quartzite types, but of no others. Further, that
when more than one of the types existed the sequence of types was
that found in the ' Lower Quartzite ' either in normal or inverse
order. Then he was able to trace out synclines of Durness Lime-
stone beyond which beds comparable with some sub-division of
the ' Lower Quartzite ' succeeded ; sometimes as though under-
lying the limestones and therefore older, at other times as though
dipping away from it or overlying it and therefore newer. From
this it became evident that the ordinary rules of simple stratigraphy
led to two diametrically opposite conclusions as to the succession,
and could therefore not be relied upon to give a correct solution.
Finally it was found possible to start upon the ' Upper Quartzite '
and, by walking along its outcrop without ever leaving it, to arrive
on the outcrop of the ' Lower Quartzite/ Thus the view of
Nicol that the ' Upper Quartzite ' had no separate existence, but
was merely the repetition of the ' Lower Quartzite/ was confirmed,
and the complicated nature of the stratigraphy demonstrated.

21

The facts could only be accounted for if inversion due to folding
or faulting had taken place.

Attention was next given to the Durness Limestone, and it
is stated that it, *" though at first sight apparently homogeneous,
of great thickness and of very gentle inclination, is actually made
up of a few distinct lithological zones, repeated again and again
in a series of faults or inverted folds."

Finally, he showed that the conglomeratic base of the quartzite
rested with visible unconformity upon a ' crystalline rock/ which,
though regarded by Nicol as an intrusive rock, was considered by
Murchison, Heddle, and Callaway as "an integral part of the
Upper [Eastern] Gneiss." Therefore rocks of ' Eastern type '
were in position unconformably under the quartzite, and the
Eastern gneisses owed their apparently overlying position not to
superposition but to disturbance.

The rest of this paper (' The Secret of the Highlands,' published
in three parts in March, May, and August, 1883) is occupied with
a discussion of the general and special principles of mountain
structure as developed by Heim in his ' Mechanismus der
Gebirgsbildung ' and illustrated with figures mainly taken from
that work and from Favre's ' Recherches Geologiques.' In intro-
ducing this branch of his subject, the author remarks : •(•" Many
of the points discussed in the following paragraphs will be found in
the truly magnificent work of Professor Heim upon the convoluted
rocks of the Alps. For those not hitherto published, I hold myself
responsible. The latter therefore are the only points open to the
objection of being original or heterodox, and the attempt here made
to summarise a few of the more essential principles of mountain
stratigraphy, and to apply them to the investigation of the High-
land region may be, perhaps, received as a first essay on one of the
most difficult and obscure departments of British geology."

The second part of this revolutionary work was destined never
to be written. The hard work and harder living, coming on the
top of his other duties, resulted in a serious illness from which he
never really recovered sufficiently to regain the abounding health
and vigour which had rendered possible the immense volume and
depth of his earlier work. Before he had recovered health and
leisure {" the whole force of the Geological Survey of Scotland
laid siege to the Highland fortress " (as Professor Blake wrote in
1884)-

The opportunity given, however, by the reading of Professor
Blake's paper, just quoted, at the Geologists' Association in July,
1884, was accepted by Lap worth to communicate, at the suggestion
of Mr. Teall, a few notes on some of the further results at which he

* 30, p. 124. f 30, p. 195.

{ Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. viii, 1883-4, P- 22°-

22

had arrived before his work was broken off. These four or five
pages are so rich in conclusions and suggestions that it is hardly
fair to separate any portion from its context. The whole should
be read in the light of ' The Secret of the Highlands.' The following
quotations will show that Lapworth had followed the work to its
logical issue as to the age and nature of the ' Eastern Schists/ and
had also originated very definite views on the subject of dynamo-
metamorphism (32).

• *" The Sutherland Schistose series is composed of a complete

intermixture of Archaean and Assynt rocks, the two series being

so interfolded and interfelted together that they can never be

separated in the field, but must be mapped simply as ' metamorphic.'

" If I can prove my case, we shall find : — f

(1) That there is no recognisable chronological sequence
(or invariable succession of superposition) in the meta-
morphic Highland area corresponding to that among
the sedimentary formations (for the planes dividing
the truly metamorphic layers are not planes of de-
position, but planes of shearing and cleavage).

(2) Many of its (the Highland) schists are composed of
Archaean materials (rocks) which have received their
present pseudo-bedded arrangement since Ordovician
times.

(3) What proportion of its schists and gneisses is com-
posed of Archaean, sedimentary, or intrusive materials
respectively is in all probability an insoluble question.

(4) Its gneisses may be either Archaean or (some) possibly
formed by intrusion (injection of plutonic rocks) in
later stages.

(5) Its schistsmay be composed either of crushed Archceans,
crushed intrusives, or of a mixture of these with
sedimentaries.

(6) Its (so-called) slates may be (according to the locality,
either normal slates or) crushed rocks not yet re-
crystallised, (and) of either Archaean, sedimentary,
intrusive, or of mixed origin."

Some further details on the metamorphism of these rocks,
which he regarded as having been directed if not caused by pressure,
are given in a short paper read before the British Association in
1885, and published also in Nature of that year, while a summary
of the question and an outline of the " Deformation Theory of
Regional Metamorphism " was also published in Lapworth' s
edition of Page's ' Introductory Textbook of Geology/ which
appeared in 1888 (pp. 106-118).

* 32, P- 438. t 32, pp. 441-2-

23

*" The most intense mechanical metamorphism occurs along the
grand dislocation (thrust) planes, where the gneisses and pegmatites
resting on those planes are crushed, dragged, and ground out into
a finely laminated schist or Mylonite (Gr. mylon a mill) composed
of shattered fragments of the original crystals of the rock set in a
cement of secondary quartz, the lamination being denned by
minute inosculating lines (fluxion lines) of kaolin or chloritic
material and secondary crystals of a micaceous mineral."

f" The mylonites were formed along the thrust-planes, where
the two superposed rock systems moved over each other as solid
masses ; the augen-schists were probably formed in the more central
parts of the moving system, where the all-surrounding weight and
pressure forced the rock to yield somewhat like a plastic body."

The Geological Survey was close on Lapworth's track. Armed
in 1883 with six-inch maps, half a dozen of their most competent
Surveyors soon came into contact with the inexorable facts on
which Lapworth's deductions were founded. In a report printed
in Nature in November, 1884,! illustrated and considerably amplified
on communication to the Geological Society in 1888, they not only
confirmed the work that Lapworth had published, but in some
instances advanced beyond anything he had published. Later
still, in 1907, appeared the great Survey Memoir on the North-west
of Scotland.

It was after the appearance of the report in Nature that
Lapworth published a short note (33) entitled ' On the Close of the
Highland Controversy/ in which he summed up the history and
present position of the work in that region in a generous spirit
and in masterly fashion. In this he states J" the conclusions
at which I arrived seem to me to be identical in all their essentials
with those recently published by Messrs. Peach and Home " ;
and again, referring to his " own results in so far as they affect
the age, composition, and mode of formation of the eastern
schists," *" The officers of the Survey reached their conclusions
in complete ignorance of my results, and from a totally different
direction." A mind not so great might conceivably have been
tempted to express or feel it a hardship that he had not been given
the opportunity of finishing his own work in his own way. Instead,
he welcomes this complete confirmation and vindication of his
work, warmly congratulates his rivals on their success, and — turns
to other matters. I should like to quote, for the white light it throws
on the character of the man, the whole of his closing paragraphs,
but I limit myself to one of them. §" At the present time the
several groups of students of these old rocks are all met together

* 35, p. 1026.

j- Nature, vol. xxxi, 1884-5, pp. 29-35, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xliv.
(1888), pp 378— 441. ~ t 33, P- 98. §33. P- 102.

24

upon one and the same elevated platform of a common opinion,
having climbed up painfully thereto from many different directions.
The old subject of dispute has utterly disappeared, and there is
no longer any reasonable excuse for dissension. We have all been
partly right and partly wrong. It is a time for a hearty laugh
all round, a time to shake hands and be friends."

• D. — GEOLOGY OF THE MIDLANDS.

The time had now come when his residence in Birmingham,
on appointment to the Professorship at the Mason College, gave
Lapworth the opportunity of turning to the study of the rocks
of the Midlands. There is no local group on which he did not do
useful work — from the Archaean to the Drift — but his chief interest
lay naturally with the older rocks.

I. — Nuneaton and the Lickey Hills.

In the discussion at the Birmingham Natural History and
Philosophical Society in 1882, upon a paper on the Drift Quartzites,
by Mr. W. J. Harrison, Lapworth expressed the opinion, founded
on work with Allport in October, 1881, that in all proba-
bility the Llandovery sandstones of the Lickey Hills would prove
to be based unconformably on a quartzite similar to that known
from Callaway's work at the Wrekin. Mr. F. T. S. Houghton
supported this, basing his view on work done at Rubery some years
previously. Early in March, 1882, Lapworth, in company with
Professor M. J. M. Hill, obtained proof of the truth of his forecast,
but he afterwards learnt that Houghton had seen the same facts
and drawn a similar conclusion a little earlier.

A like suggestion as to the age of the Quartzites of Hartshill
and Nuneaton was communicated by Lapworth to W. J. Harrison,
when he found that the latter held similar views. The two worked
the Nuneaton quarries together early in May, 1882, when they
recognised the affinity of the Nuneaton to the Lickey quartzites
and inferred that they were superior to the rocks of Caldecote.
They also reached the conclusion that the overlying shales of
Stockingford, believed to be and mapped as Carboniferous, were
pre-Silurian. Lapworth confirmed this the following day by
rinding Cambrian fossils in them.

Later work, and mapping, often with classes of students,
brought out the details of the Lickey area, enabled Lapworth to
demonstrate the existence of pre-Cambrian igneous rocks under
the (Cambrian) quartzite there, and further suggested to him the
logical conclusion that the materials which constitute the Permian
Breccias, and the fragments in the Bunter Pebble-beds, may not
improbably have been derived from the ancient floor of Palaeozoic

25

rocks lying hidden under the New Red Sandstones of the Midlands.
This latter view he afterwards extended by showing that the
Halesowen Conglomerates (Carboniferous) contained fragments
denuded from the higher rocks of such an area, the Permian Con-
glomerates, fragments from beds lower down in the series, and
the Permian Breccias, masses broken from the lowest rock-stumps,
made of the oldest rocks left when denudation had cut down very
deeply.

Simultaneously the Nuneaton work proceeded. The relation
between the pre-Cambrian Caldecote rocks and the (Cambrian)
Quartzites, at first inferred from conglomerates in the quartzites,
was demonstrated in actual sections, the quartzite was sub-divided,
beds of ' fucoid ' type were found in it, middle as well as upper
Cambrian fossils were discovered in the Stockingford Shales, the
unconformable junction of the Carboniferous basement was revealed
in open section, and at last the famous Hyolithes limestone with its
fossils was discovered near the summit of the Quartzite, the dis-
covery being based on observations communicated by Dr. T. Stacey
Wilson in 1895, and announced in 1897.

2. — The Shropshire Ordovician.

This work, however, slowly developed itself between the years
1881 and 1897. Meanwhile he had other irons in the fire. He
had already — before 1879 — visited the Shelve district of Shropshire,
but in 1885 he took up vigorously the work of mapping, and invited
the writer to make a study of the igneous rocks of that district
in his company. The first outcome of this work was communicated
to the British Association at its meeting in Birmingham in 1886.*
The stratigraphy turned out to be simple in comparison with that
of South Scotland, and the succession proved to be complete from
the base of the Arenig (Skiddavian) rocks to a level high up in the
Bala (Caradocian). Many of the graptolite horizons established
elsewhere were recognised, together with interbedded faunas of
trilobites and shells. At the same time Lapworth took great
interest in the igneous rocks, mapped them carefully, and made
many valuable suggestions, several of which proved valid on the
ground, as to the relations of these rocks to the sediments and as
to their genetic relations among themselves. For example, from
his preliminary work, and from his study of the Geological Survey
map, he anticipated that the intrusive rocks would be laccolitic in
form, as turned out to be the case.

He next extended his researches to the Caradoc country on
the eastern side of the Longmynd, and soon satisfied himself that
the main sedimentary series there rested unconformably on older

* 40.

26

rocks and consisted of representatives of the Bala Series only,
which he was able to compare bed for bed with those of the Shelve
district.

3. — The Shropshire Cambrian and Uriconian.

Naturally the fascinating rocks of Caer Caradoc and the
Wrekin, and those immediately overlying them, claimed some
attention. Callaway had described certain Shineton Shales as of
Upper Cambrian age, and underlying sandstones, which he paralleled
with the Hollybush Sandstone of Malvern, as probably earlier
Upper Cambrian. Below this come quartzites which, on the balance
of evidence, he thought likely to be pre-Cambrian. In a limestone
in the Sandstone at Comley he found fossils, *" the most abundant
being apparently trilobitic ; but it occurs in such a fragmentary
condition, and is of such an unusual type, that I cannot express
any opinion on its generic affinities."

To these fragmentary remains Lapworth devoted his attention.
By the time the International Geological Congress met in London,
in 1888, he had collected enough to convince him that he was in
possession of a species of Olenellus, and when at the same Congress
Walcott stated that the Americans had come into line with the
Swedes in the opinion that Olenellus marked a Lower Cambrian
horizon, Lapworth f announced his discovery, and a little later
figured his fragments and constructed a restoration of the trilobite,
which he named Olenellus (Callavia) Callavei.

Some of the consequences of this discovery were outlined in the
earlier of these two papers, the leading conclusions being :— (i) the
presence of a true Lower Cambrian fauna demonstrated for the
first time in Britain ; (2) the existence of a new Cambrian rock-
facies in England different from that of Wales ; (3) the practical
certainty that the Uriconian rocks of the Wrekin, etc., are pre-
Cambrian ; (4) the very high probability that the Longmyndian
rocks are also pre-Cambrian ; and, if so, (5) the extreme likelihood
that the Torridon Sandstone, so like the rocks of the Western
Longmynd, would also prove to be pre-Cambrian.

Further discoveries followed : (i) That the Wrekin Quartzites,
into which the sandstone containing the Olenellus limestone grades,
are Lower Cambrian and not pre-Cambrian, a conclusion which
carried with it the probability that the Lickey and Hartshill,
and even the Durness, Quartzites were Cambrian too ; (2) the
discovery by Dr. T. T. Groom of a species of Paradoxides in beds
above the Olenellus Limestone proving the existence of Middle
Cambrian beds in Shropshire, a conclusion amply verified by the
subsequent discovery by Lapworth of a Paradoxides limestone

* Quart. Journ., Geol. Soc., vol. xxxiv. (1878), p. 759.
t 41, 46.

27

following the Olenellus Limestone at the Wrekin, and by the beautiful
detailed work of Mr. Cobbold in the Comley area near Caradoc.

Lapworth directed the work of the fossil collectors for the
Geological Survey and for Cambridge University, and large col-
lections were obtained for these institutions from Cambrian and
Ordovician rocks.

Lapworth carried his mapping downward into the Uriconian
and other volcanic rocks of the Wrekin and Caradoc, and the
neighbouring areas, and I believe his large scale maps of these areas
are extant. Most of the Shropshire and Montgomeryshire work is
summed up in a communication to the Geologists' Association on
the occasion of their visit to the region in 1894 (49) and given in
fuller detail in the contribution on Shropshire to ' Geology in the
Field ' (67, 1910).

4. — The Hyolithes Limestone.

These discoveries gave renewed interest to the Nuneaton area.
When Dr. Stacey Wilson noted the probable existence of calcareous
beds and indications of fossils along the junction of the quartzites
and shales, this line was thoroughly searched. A new excavation
revealed the presence here of a limestone bearing remains of
Hyolithes, Coleoloides, and horny brachiopods. A comparison of
these fossils showed that many of them occur in association with
Olenellus in America and elsewhere. But Lapworth was cautious in
correlation, and he stated : *" The exact horizon of the Hyolithes
zone of the Midlands cannot yet be regarded as absolutely fixed.
That it is Lower Cambrian is regarded as more than probable.
That it answers to any special part of the Olenellus zone has yet
to be determined."

In 1898, however, when he wrote his masterly account of the
Geology of the Birmingham District, on the occasion of the visit
of the Geologists' Association, he and Miss Wood (Dame Ethel
Shakespear) reviewed the evidence, and, after comparison with
the Olenellus and Etcheminian faunas of America and Scandinavia,
he was able to go a little further and say : f" The general facies
of the curious fauna of this Hyolithes Limestone speaks strongly
in favour of the view that it is of Lower Cambrian age, answering
in part to the Olenellus zone of other regions." This view has been
subsequently verified by the finding of Olenellus in the shales just
above the limestone. Mr. Illing also has confirmed and extended
Lapworth's conclusions as to the age of the Stockingford Shales,
which prove to contain Lower, Middle, and Upper Cambrian
faunas, an approximately complete succession.

As his knowledge of the Scottish quartzites had been instru-
mental in suggesting to him as a working hypothesis that the

* 53, P. 232. t 55, P. 343-

28

Nuneaton and Lickey quartzites might be much older than had
hitherto been supposed, so the occurrence of quartzites followed by
' fucoid beds ' at Nuneaton suggested the possibility that the
Scottish rocks on this horizon might be of Lower Cambrian age
and might bear Olenellus. The same view occurred to the Scottish
Geological Survey, and was upheld by the discovery of such a
fauna there by Mr. MacConnochie in 1891.

Once again, and for the last time, the Geological Survey paid
Lapworth the compliment of following his work and testifying to
its correctness. In the Nuneaton district they succeeded in finding
seven species, including Dictyonema sociale, not found by Lapworth,
thus raising the known fauna to twenty-one species.* They con-
cluded that the Stockingford Shales " belong to a late Lingula Flag
age, including a portion of the Lower Tremadoc Series." The
Carboniferous colour on the map was changed to ' Silurian/ and in
a later edition to ' Cambrian/ A new edition was also published
of the sheet containing the Lickey Hills.

5. — Harlech and the Longmynd.

Two important pieces of work have not so far been published,
except in barest outline. They were carried on in occasional
leisure intervals after 1890. These are the mapping on the six-inch
scale (with portions done on the 25-inch scale) of the Longmynd,
which he carried out alone ; and that of the Harlech area, which
he did in company with Dr. T. Stacey Wilson. The former area
attracted him as the largest rock group below the Cambrian of the
Midlands, and on account of its relationship to the Uriconian
and Cambrian rocks of Shropshire. His conclusions were outlined
in the ' Geology of Shropshire/ published in f ' Geology in the Field/
He recognised two Series in the Longmynd itself, apparently not
unconformable to one another as supposed by Blake. The higher
of the two — the ' Red ' or ' Western Longmyndian ' — he paralleled
with the Torridon Sandstone of Scotland. The lower he suggested
to the writer might be the equivalent of the rocks of Charnwood
Forest. He also indicated that the Western group of igneous
rocks of Uriconian type — the Linley or Pontesford volcanic series —
might be separate from and newer than the Cardington volcanic
series on the East ; but he never committed himself as to the
mutual relationships of the two series, the stratigraphy of which
is much complicated by faulting and possibly overfolding.

The general classification and succession of the rocks of the
Harlech area were entrusted to Dr. A. R. Andrew for publication
in his paper on the Dolgelly Gold Belt.j These beds Lapworth

* Geol. Mag., Dec., iii., vol. iii., 1886, pp. 547, 548

t 67- PP- 74«, 749.
J Geol. Mag., Dec., v, vol. vii, 1910, p. 161.

29

and Stacey Wilson regarded as Cambrian, and as conformably
underlying beds of known Middle and Upper Cambrian ages.

6. — Other Birmingham Work.

In addition, a number of other areas were mapped, generally
in company with advanced students. The following may be
mentioned: — Dudley Castle Hill, the Wren's Nest, Rowley,
Lilleshall, the Clent Hills.

Lap worth's first connected account of the geology of the
Birmingham District (in his interpretation rather a wide area)
was contained in the ' Handbook of Birmingham ' prepared for
the visit of the British Association in 1886— fifty-three pages with
a bibliography and map.* This was followed by the paper already
referred to (55), published by the Geologists' Association in 1898,
which was re-issued as a pamphlet for the use of students in his
department. fHis last account of the district, practically a third
edition, was prepared for the British Association Handbook,
Birmingham, 1913 — sixty-three pages, with a further bibliography,
and physiographic and geological maps on the half-inch scale.

Little was separately published as to research upon the Upper
Palaeozoic and Mezosoic rocks, and readers may find it difficult
to make out from Lapworth's local publications how much is
original work. He was specially interested in the Carboniferous
rocks, both at the surface and below the Permian and Trias, in
the Permian and its breccias, which he regarded as screes, and in
the very varied development of the Trias as shown at the surface
and in borings. He was keenly alive to the value of all evidence
as to the local origin of Bunter materials, and to the importance
of any light on the physical conditions under which these and
related rocks were formed.

His knowledge of glacial matters, local and otherwise, is shown
by his exhaustive review of Crosskey's work,J as well as by his
own observations made at Birmingham, Wolverhampton, and Church
Stretton. Some of his views on local physiography and river
development will be gathered from his general treatment of the
drainage problems of the ' Black Country '§ ; while his interesting
suggestions on the origin of the present course of the Severn will be
found in the Proceedings of the Geologists' Association. ||

We now pass to two sequels to the stratigraphical work, one
connected with the organisms in which he was chiefly interested,
the other with the larger question of the life history of the Earth
itself.

* 37, 55- t 68.

t 52. § 68, pp. 606, 609. || 55, P- 425.

30

E. — THE GRAPTOLITES.

Reference has been made above to Lap worth's use of
graptolites in his stratigraphical work. It was quite impossible
for him to regard these organisms as mere tools or ' hall-marks.'
He realised that, as once living creatures, they deserve study from
the biological point of view, and that they have their own place
in the chain of evolution of life on the earth. When collecting,
he always had his eyes open for specimens which might throw
additional light on their life history and biological position, and
for anything which might indicate their mode of life and the
conditions which brought about their distribution, evolution, and
eventual disappearance.

His collection became very large, but there was hardly a
fossil in it which he could not readily refer to, or of which he
could not remember the locality, the horizon, and the circum-
stances of its collection, even without reference to its label.

He not only made himself thoroughly acquainted with the
whole literature of the subject, both British and foreign, and
focussed and tabulated the exact state of knowledge of the grapto-
lites themselves, but he made a close study of the living forms
which most nearly approach the graptolites in organisation.

I. — Morphology and Classification.

Apart from one (4) on the ' Graptolites of the Gala Group/ 1872,
the first paper devoted exclusively to this subject is that ' On an
Improved Classification of the Rhabdophora,' 1873, in which was
outlined a grouping that has proved the starting point for later
researches, with minor modifications, has secured world wide
acceptance, and has stood the test of new discoveries, both
geological and biological.

The function of the sicula as the primitive germ from which
the polypary in all graptoloidea is developed is here discovered for
the first time. The nature and position of the bud or buds which
give rise to the polypary are studied, and the ' angle of divergence '
(sicular or dorsal angle) of branching in bilateral graptolites worked
out in relation to the classification of families and genera. The
virgula, the shape of the thecae, and the relation of the latter to the
common body are similarly studied. The families, instead of being
founded on a single structural peculiarity, are *" constituted by
assemblages of species, linked together by a large community of
morphological characters, and grouped around typical genera."

In the case of monoprionidian forms the result is regarded
by the Author as satisfactory, and their families are so well circum-
scribed that *" the slightest fragment of the branch of a mono-
prionidian species can be referred at a glance to its proper family."

* 6, P. 556.

But the author admits that in the case of graptolites with two
ranges of thecse the classification *" although in my opinion the
best possible in the actual state of our knowledge, is to be regarded
as confessedly temporary and provisional." *" All that is attempted
in this department is roughly to prepare the way for the next and
future advance in the proper classification of these species."
Nevertheless he added certain forecasts as to the probable
trend of future research which have been verified in the sequel.

2. — Graptolite Papers.

This was followed by a long series of papers, each one of them
adding something new : — ' Note on the Graptolites discovered by
Mr. John Henderson in the Silurian Shales of Habbie's Howe,
Pentland Hills,' 1874 ; ' On the Diprionidse of the Moffat Series,'
1874 ; ' Descriptions of the Graptolites of the Arenig and Llandeilo
Rocks of St. Davids ' 1875, with John Hopkinson ; ' On the
Scottish Monograptidae/ 1876 ; ' Silurian Rocks of the West of
Scotland ' (with figures of the Graptolites), 1876 ; ' On the Grapto-
lites of County Down,' 1877 ; ' On the Genus Nemagraptus of
Emmons/ 1880 ; ' On New British Graptolites/ 1880 ; ' On the
Cladophora or Dendroid Graptolites collected by Professor Keeping
in the Llandovery Rocks of Mid- Wales/ 1880 ; ' On Graptolites/
1882 ; ' Preliminary Report on some Graptolites from the Lower
Palaeozoic Rocks on the South Side of the St. Lawrence from Cape
Rosier to Tartigo River/ etc., 1886 ; ' Notes on Graptolites from
Dease River, B.C./ 1889 > and, his last paper, never published in
full, ' Balston Expedition to Peru : Report on Graptolites collected
by Captain J. A. Douglas/ 1917.

This list of fifteen papers is not only a testimony to his own
industrious collecting and investigation, but it shows — quite
inadequately, however — something of the help he rendered to his
fellow-workers. In many of these cases, and in an abundance of
others not separately notified except by acknowledgment in the
text of papers by other writers, we learn how much confidence was
reposed in his knowledge, judgment, and good nature. He spent
much time in determining the forms submitted to him, often
describing them if they were new or uncommon, or species
important for working out the horizon they indicated, or for showing
where further local research was necessary. It is true that on
more than one occasion he put a certain strain upon this confidence
when he felt bound to assert that the graptolites did not confirm
the conclusions to which the field work pointed ; but in each case
in which he did this, later research has proved that he and the
graptolites were right and the local observer wrong.

* 6, p. 556.

32

3. — The Distribution of the Rhabdophora.

I have reserved for separate treatment one of the most
illuminating papers ever published, that ' On the Geological
Distribution of the Rhabdophora' (18). This, Lap worth tells us, was
partly written in 1873 as a sequel to that on Classification (6), but
was not published till 1879 m order that he might be able to visit
many of the most important graptolite-bearing regions in the
country and to study specimens sent to him from South Wales,
County Down, and elsewhere, in addition to those of Scotland.
From the paper itself it is clear that he visited and studied
carefully not less than thirteen of the localities with which he deals,
places as far apart as Pomeroy and Shropshire, Llandeilo and
Lakeland.

After discussing classification and difficulties, and passing in
review the earlier and later history of the subject, the Author
under the head of ' Data ' deals with the graptolites found in
each Formation from the Tremadoc up to the Ludlow, separate
zones being recognised where possible or desirable. Then follows
a series of range-tables for all known forms to show the distribution
of species within each Formation, and a single table for all
known genera and species of British Rhabdophora. Next comes
an account of each family and genus in relation to its range and
peculiarities. Finally there is a list of graptolite zones so far
established, and the distribution of graptolite genera within them,
closing with an account and a most illuminating table of the dis-
tribution of known zones over the British Isles, Europe, and
America.

Two important general conclusions formulated in this paper
are quoted below :—

*" The host of proofs formerly supposed to be afforded by the
abnormalities of the vertical distribution of the Graptolithina, in
favour of the doctrine of migration and colonies, vanish into thin

air We have at present no evidence whatever to show

that any single Graptolite group, or even a single species or variety,
made its appearance at an earlier date in one region than in another ;
and, as a consequence, the place of its origin and the direction of
its extension in space are at present equally incapable of recog-
nition."

*" All these circumstances conspire to render the Graptolite
one of the most suitable of fossils for the purposes of the working
geologist and systematist ; its short vertical range affording
elements for the sub-division of the accepted Lower Palaeozoic
formations into their component zones ; its wide horizontal dis-
tribution allowing of the exact parallelism of synchronous deposits

* 18, p. in (of separate).

33

in areas now geographically separated ; and its universal dis-
semination rendering it easy of collection and study."

Even among Lap worth's papers it is difficult to find another
which is such a perfect masterpiece of knowledge, research, and
presentation ; and that is praise indeed. It is not merely a com-
plete vindication of the character of the graptolite as a zone fossil,
and a final justification of the author's method of work. It is a
thoroughly reliable study of the geological relations of the
order, and a store of information mined, refined, and tested to
breaking point, of the steel-like links which he forged to bind
together the lower palaeozoic horizons throughout the world.

4. — The Life of the Graptolites.

By his study of the graptolites in the field and of their nearest
living representatives, Lapworth had gradually built up for himself
a picture of the living graptolite, its life story, its colonial history,
and the conditions and methods which had determined its
survival, evolution, and distribution. This he contributed in
German, ' Die Lebensweise der Graptolithen,' to a paper by Dr.
Johannes Walther, published in the Zeitschrift der deutschen
geologischen Gesellschaft in 1897 (54).

The earliest graptolites, the Cladophora, seem to have grown
upright, attached to stones and heavy objects on the sea bed.
With the incoming of Dictyonema and the rest of the Rhabdophora.
there is attachment by a thread to floating organisms, probably
sea-weeds of Sargasso type. In this way the graptolites secured
an ocean-wide distribution by currents and winds, and there is
explained the presence of their fossil remains in such abundance
in deep sea muds, the carbonaceous matter of which is
provided by the weeds, and at the same time the reason
for the great areas covered by the graptolite zones, and the
value of graptolites, exceeding that of any other pelagic
organism, as time zone indices. Light is thrown on the biological
evolution of the order, on the branching of the colonies, on the
gradual simplification, and on the development of the thecae for
obtaining larger supplies of food and better exposure to sun -light.

From this also follows what he often pointed out — the signi-
ficance of the plenitude of graptolites when their main enemies
were no better equipped than trilobites, and their rapid extinction
when fishes made their appearance on the scene.

5. — Monograph of British Graptolites (62).

It was only fitting that this work should culminate in the
publication of a complete Monograph on the British Graptolites ;
but the time and facilities for this, though it was often contem-
plated and preparations were continually being made for it, could

34

never be found. One of the great difficulties was the illustration
of the fossils. Photographs were impracticable, and yet it was
most undesirable that the personality of the artist should exercise
any influence or bias. Variation in illumination was requisite
to ensure that no structure of importance should pass
unobserved. A new type of instrument — the Lapworth-Parkes
microscope — was devised, and this, under the skilled and artistic
workmanship of Miss Wood, solved the most difficult problem.

It was arranged that the Palaeontographical Society's Mono-
graph should be edited by Professor Lapworth, that the descriptions
should be done by Miss Elles, and in part by Miss Wood, and that
the latter should be responsible for the drawings and for writing the
critical history of the subject. In this way, year by year, the work
was carried on. The eleven parts appeared between 1901 and 1918,
and Lapworth had the satisfaction of seeing this part of his life
work crowned by a monograph which will rank as the classic
work on the subject for many years to come.

One can easily understand the satisfaction with which he
must have regarded the great summary table showing the zonal
distribution of the British Graptoloidea, dated 1914, which *" may
most simply be regarded as the second and greatly extended edition

of a combination of Table X and Table XI as

given in the Memoir ' On the Geological Distribution of the Rhabdo-
phora,' 1879-80. *" In the Memoir some twenty Graptolite zones
were recognised ; that number has now been increased to 36.
In the Memoir some 284 species and varieties of British Grapto-
loidea were referred to ; that number has now risen to 372." But
if between 1879 and 1914 the work of himself, his students, friends,
and imitators, has added but sixteen zones and less than a hundred
species in thirty-five years, what are we to think of the work,
very largely that of a single man, unaided and ' in opposition/
wrought between 1869 and 1879 ?

F.— THE FOLD.

It was not till 1892 that Lapworth allowed himself to follow
up in wider generalisations the tectonic results to which his study
of the works of Rogers, Heim, Suess, Bertrand, and Brogger, and
his own observations in regions of highly folded rocks, had led him.
In that year he was President of the Geological Section of the
British Association at Edinburgh, and gave one of the most striking
addresses which has ever been delivered in that Section (48).

After pointing out that two of the life stages of a Geological
Formation, detrition and deposition, have been studied in the
light of present-day processes, he advocates that the third stage,

* 62, p. 514.

35

deformation, should be similarly studied. The section across a
typical continent and ocean such as America and the Atlantic
shows that the unit form of continent is an arch (sagging in the
middle) and that of ocean a trough (with a central buckle) . These
great earth-features are broken into minor waves, the anticlines
and synclines of the geologist, of every size and grade, but all
composed of arch and trough like the letter S, or Hogarth's ' line
of beauty and grace.' Each wave has an arch limb and a trough
limb divided by a septum, and the steepest septum, as in a wave
at sea, is on the advancing side of the crest. It is this septum
which undergoes the greatest amount of twisting and distortion
as the fold grows until all three parts are crushed together into a
single mass and the fold is dead, but it has given its life to the
thickening and strengthening of the weak part of the earth's crust
at which it originated. The *" period of greatest effective energy
and most rapid movement must be that of middle life," when the
septum is vertical.

I. — Geographical Relations.

Applying these deductions to earth features, the steeper,
or ocean, septa of the great North American folds show
greater crumpling and metamorphism than do those on the
Mississippi sides. Of the two folds, that on the Pacific
side has a steeper septum than that on the Atlantic side, it is
' ablaze with volcanoes, or creeping with earthquakes, 'f and has
in front of it the great Pacific ' deep.' Similarly in the central
buckle of the Atlantic trough the volcanic islands are septal in
position.

A like feature on a still grander scale is the ' land hemisphere '
with its ' central sag,' the Atlantic, opposite to which is the great
trough of the Pacific Ocean with its median buckle the foundation
of the oceanic islands of the central Pacific. Since this fold is
endless and returns upon itself — its septum must likewise be
endless ; it is the ' Volcanic Girdle of the Pacific,' the ' Terrestrial
Ring of Fire.'

Thus the J" wave-like surface of the earth of the present day
reflects .... the wave-like arrangement of the geological forma-
tions below." " The physiognomy of the face of our globe is an
unerring index of the solid personality beneath."

But as the result of other tangential stresses §" the simple
fold becomes a folded fold, and the compound septum twists not
only vertically but laterally." It is this which accounts for domes
and basins, for the sweep of island festoons, and §" for the detailed
disposition of our lands and our waters, for our present coastal
forms, for the direction, length, and disposition of our mountain

* 48. p. 703- t 48, p. 704- J 48, P- 705- § 48. P- 706.

36

ranges, our seas, our plains, and lakes/' The stresses *" account
also for the formation of laccolites, of granite cores, and of petro-
logical provinces ; and they enable us also to understand many of
the more striking phenomena of metamorphism." f" The surface
of the earth of the present day seems to stand midway in its
structure and appearance between that of the sun and that of the
moon, its eddies wanting the mobility of those of the one and the
symmetry of those of the other/'

I" Thus from the microscopic septa of the laminae of the
geological formations we pass outwards in fact to those moving
septa of our globe, marked on the land by our new mountain-
chains, and on our shores by our active volcanoes. Thence we
sweep, in imagination, to the fiery eddies of the sun, and thence to
the glowing swirls of the nebulae ; and so outwards and upwards
to that most glorious septum of all the visible creation, the radiant
ring of the Milky Way/'

These subjects he pursued farther in an address to the Royal
Geographical Society on ' The Face of the Earth/ parts of which
were fortunately reported in Nature. § Here it is pointed out
that the continents are merely the undrowned parts of
the submarine continental plateaux, which are the crests
of the folds and stand antilogous to the ocean troughs, on which
again the deeps correspond to the unsubmerged continents.
The dividing line comes midway down the submarine slope from
1,000 to 2,000 fathoms below sea level, the septum of the fold.
As might be expected from the fold theory, calculation has shown
that the area of the earth's surface on the continental side of this
line is equal to the area on the oceanic side of it ; while the volume
of water below its level is equal to the volume of land above it.

Lapworth showed, too, that as there are three meridional crests
stretching from pole to pole, America, Europe-Africa, and Asia-
Australia, with three corresponding oceanic troughs, so there are
three longitudinal crests met in passing from N. to S., viz., North
America, South America, and the Antarctic Continent (the existence
of which he incidentally predicted on theoretical grounds) .

Then he indicated and illustrated by diagrams that the inter-
ference of these sets of folds accounts for §" (i) the form and
disposition of the terrestrial continents ; (2) the triangular shapes
of their extremities ; (3) the diagonal trends of their shores ; and
(4) the courses of the archipelagic lines." He dealt with the interfer-
ence and superposition of waves, the rhythmic repetition of forms
of lower order, possessing in miniature the characters of major
forms, and on this principle contrasted the straight and simple
West American wave and its deep, with the complex Alpine range

* 48, p. 707. f 48, p. 706. } 48, p. 707. § 50.

37

and its compound Mediterranean depression. Finally, he pointed
out that denudation and deposition were located by, and sub-
ordinated to, the actuating position of the dominant folds.

He returned once again to the physics of the fold in his
Presidential Address to the Geological Society in 1903, where he
sums up his view of deformation as follows : — Its type *" may
be that of undulation, warping, folding, gliding, fracture, or flow,
according as the magnitude of the stress, the speed of the action,
or the relative elasticity of the material may determine ; its
development may range in time from that of an instant to that
of an aeon ; and its extent from microscopic to hemispheric."

2. — Time Relations.

In the address on ' The Face of the Earth/ Lapworth made
a brief allusion to the time-relation of folding as a key to f" the
cycles, systems and transgressions of the geological formations."
This idea he developed more fully in a communication to the
Geologists' Association on ' The Relief of the Globe/ in June, 1894,
which was never published. In this address, among other matters,
he showed how the succession of events revealed by the geological
Systems might be connected with the passage of waves each con-
sisting of a sagging arch and a buckled trough over the site of the
British Isles, thus connecting, as he loved to do, the events of the
past with the physiography of the present.

3. — The Dolomites.

It may be mentioned that at the Edinburgh meeting (1892) of
the British Association at which Baron von Richthofen, the author
of the coral reef theory of the rock-masses of the Dolomites, was
present, he took the opportunity to expound the views to which
he had been led by the study of the literature of that region. He
had concluded that the remarkable and sudden local thickening
of the limestones was probably to be explained by folding and
earth movement, a view which has been entirely justified by the
work of Miss Ogilvie (Mrs. Ogilvie Gordon). J

G. — ECONOMIC AND ADVISORY WORK.

Many phases of Lap worth's work show his voracity for exact
knowledge, which rarely left him satisfied until he had studied the
facts and sections for himself in the field. In nothing is this more
true than in his work on economic and expert lines ; and indeed

* 63, p. 81. f 50, p. 617.

I Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xlix. (1893), pp. 1-78; id. vol. Iv. (1899),

pp. 560-634.

38

one is driven to the conclusion that his main inducement to under-
take such work was that it gave him access to facts otherwise
unattainable.

This work was chiefly concerned with coal-mining, with
foundations, and with water-supply both over and under ground.
He took keen interest in it, not only on its geological side but in the
problems of engineering, transport, and industry involved. His
knowledge of the South Staffordshire and Warwickshire Coal-
fields became very complete as regards the floor on which they
rest, the red-rock cover, and the constitution and variation of the
Measures themselves. There were few of the more critical and
experimental enterprises, where the problem was complicated by
faulting or unconformity, which did not have the advantage of his
guidance, and he secured not a few triumphs by his accurate
predictions, or by his cautious advice. It was in the course of
this work that he began collecting information for a contour map
of the ' Thick Coal ' — work taken up later and brought to a
successful issue by his friend, Mr. Wickham King.

I. — The Midland Coalfields.

This extensive knowledge proved of exceptional value to the
Second Coal Commission (1902-1905), of which he was a member.
He took a very active part in the whole enquiry, undertaking more
especially the details of the central group of coalfields (district
"B"), and writing a lucid and masterly account of the inter-
relations of these fields and their probable continuation as ' concealed
coalfields ' in the areas intervening between them. His description
of the area given in the Commission's Report* was put into graphic
form and dealt with in very lucid fashion in a paper to the
Institution of Mining Engineers, f

The area is bounded east and west by the Shropshire and the
Leicestershire ' platforms/ the latter mainly buried, the former
better exposed. Between them lies the anticline of the South
Staffordshire Coalfield with the Birmingham Basin on one side
of it and the Wolverhampton Basin on the other. To the northward
lies the Staffordshire Basin dividing the South Staffordshire Coal-
field from the southern end of the Pennine Chain. The parts of
these Basins which may be regarded as ' proved' are marked off, and
then the likelihood or otherwise, of the extension of Coal Measures
in the residual areas is worked out and calculated. All existing
evidence on the behaviour of the Coal Measures themselves,
especially in relation to their conditions of formation, the character
of the floor in which they were formed, the nature and thickness
of the red-rock cover, and the folding, fracture, and other accidents

* 64. f 66, pp. 26 — 50.

39

which they have suffered, is considered and is assigned due weight.
Lapworth's general conclusions are that the Coal Measures originally
covered 11,000 square miles in the area he is considering. From
3,000 square miles they are known to have been denuded ;
1,700 square miles are exposed at the surface, 800 are buried but
have been tested or worked. Of the remaining 5,500 square miles,
probably more than half will be eventually reached and worked
within 4,000 feet of the surface of the ground.

His work on foundations, borings, and water-supply is equally
sound, and is based as firmly on scientific principles, but naturally
very little of that is available for description. We may, however,
refer to a short paper on Underground Water-Supply in relation
to Brewing,* to his lectures on water, and to the work he
did for the Birmingham Corporation, for the South Staffordshire
Waterworks Company, and for Harrogate, Gloucester, Leicester,
and many Midland towns.

2. — The Geological Survey.

The national work done by Lapworth in relation to Coal
Supply finds its parallel in his services on the Departmental Com-
mittee which considered the position and work of the Geological
Survey, as a result of which it was decided to modify and extend
the work of that body. For the Committee's Report he wrote an
account of the ' Uses of Geology and the Geological Survey,' in
which he brought out in a popular and easily understood form the
immense importance to the country and the Empire of a thorough
knowledge of the mineral resources on which their wealth and
prosperity are dependent. The most is made of the industrial
progress of the United States and Germany, and the relation of
so much of this to the mineral wealth of those countries and to the
knowledge of it which has been acquired and published either
officially or unofficially. But here, as so often elsewhere, he
insists that f" survey work — whatever its economic applications
may be — is in origin and spirit scientific." J" The first and fore-
most duty of the geological surveyor is to map the country, and to
map as correctly as may be up to the standard of the time, prompted
less by the desire for scientific discovery than by the desire for
scientific accuracy." He is confident that if only this duty be
conscientiously discharged there need be no doubt that economic
results of high value will inevitably follow.

H. — TEACHING WORK.
I. — Students.

In dealing with Lapworth's teaching work, first place must
be given to his College lectures, both those given to his regular

* 60. f 59, p. 13- { 59, p. 14-

4o

students in geology, mining, or engineering, and those delivered
to more popular audiences at afternoon or evening classes. The
first group were very systematic and comprehensive, and in addition
to covering the ordinary routine work they gave special attention to
economic work and to the fitting of students to take part in geological
investigation. The economic geology classes were instinct with
reality, and the students, many of whom, though trained as
engineers or mining men, have found opportunities for geological
investigation, felt that their teacher was intimately acquainted,
as indeed he was, from personal work, with the tectonics of the
Midlands and its bearing on the winning of the coal-seams and on
the water supplies of the area. They were shown the relation
of geological structure and outcrop to the location of industries
.and habitation, and the bearing of the natural ' distribution
of mineral resources on history, economics, and agriculture.
A new departure was made in teaching advanced students what
lie called ' Structural Geology/ in preparation for field-mapping.
This work was very thorough, an attempt being made by Lapworth
to give to his students some of his own unequalled power of
understanding and visualising the geometry of underground
structures. Each class was followed up by a field day in
some selected area — Dudley in one year, Rowley, Nuneaton, or
elsewhere in another, when each student was trained in making
-geological observations, recording them in his map and notebook,
and afterwards, partly in class and partly independently, in working
out a completed six-inch map of the selected area. One of the
things which gave Lapworth the greater pleasure in his local dis-
coveries was his delight in seeing his students discover them anew
(generally with his judicious suggestion or prompting), and one
might almost think that this furnishes a reason in some cases for
lack of haste in publication.

The ' popular ' classes for the most part took some of the
simpler branches of geology or geography or something which
combined the two things ; but in some years more difficult subjects,
such as problems of geophysics or geomorphology or tectonics
were tackled, illuminated by wide reading and personal observation,
and yet made sufficiently simple for the audience to follow if they
were prepared for a certain amount of intellectual effort.

All these lectures, whether regular or occasional, were carefully
prepared and well thought out, but it was no uncommon thing
for the Professor to strike some new vein of thought in the course
of the lecture itself, and then he would lay aside his notes and
plunge into the discussion and illustration of the new problem in
all its intricate bearings. Thus his students were not only impressed
with the living and dynamic aspect of the science he taught, and
with its rapid and continuous growth, but they felt themselves

in the presence of a thinker and discoverer and carried away some
of the sacred fire which inspired him. One of his former students
writes : —

" Lap worth's lectures were unlike any others that I have
ever heard, and many of his students felt strongly the inspiration
of the man. In particular I recall a lecture of his on the Silurian
System. It was indeed a revelation, for the veil of the past was
drawn aside and the sequence of geological events was disclosed
in a series of pictures of a vividness so intense that the hearers
forgot that they were merely listening to words ; they saw the
sinking of the coast lines, the deposition of the sediments, the
floating weed-borne graptolites, the clearing of the waters as the
sea vanquished the land, the marvellous growth of corals, — as if
the speaker were a painter who had been present through the ages
and could show the pictures he had painted and say ' thus and no
otherwise it was.' For, in truth, although he gave with scientific
precision the evidence for his statements, the words were the words
of a poet or an inspired prophet speaking forth the things which
he had seen. And then, at the end of the lecture, some character-
istically humorous remark, accompanied by a twinkle of his piercing
eyes, would suddenly relieve the strain, and with something of a
shock we realised the warm humanity of the prophet . The aeroplane
had come to earth and the pilot was turning round and smiling at
us ! "

What is true of the lectures is still more true of the excursions,
when he was not afraid to ' let himself go ' in the presence of the
facts, by which he could be tested but of which he always knew
so much more than he felt it necessary to tell. Very few men have
ever been able so well as he to visualise the structure of the country
when viewed from some commanding point, and to lay it before his
hearers so that they too seemed to see the rock-framework under
the landscape and the vegetation. He was full of apt analogies,
most happy in crisp and adhesive nomenclature, quick to see
difficulties or possibilities of confusion, and ready in illustrations,
often drawn in the dust with an umbrella, scratched with a knife
on a shard of shale, or modelled on the grass with sticks and stones.
And always there was just the glimpse of something beyond,
towards which the case under consideration was tending but
perhaps did not quite prove, sustaining the interest and ' carrying
on ' to the next observations. Professor J. E. Marr, in his
' appreciation ' in the Geological Magazine, says* "he would explain
the structure of the surrounding country during the frequent
intervals between the relighting of his pipe, until its aspects during
the different geological periods seemed to glow before the hearer's
vision."

* Geol. Mag., vol. Ivii, 1920, p. 197.

42

2. — Text Books.

It is hardly to be expected that much of an author's personality
should permeate his textbooks, but here we have an exception.
Into his editions of Page's introductory textbooks on Physical
Geography and Geology, Lapworth brought much new material,
but in the case of the latter work he freed himself from the shackles
of the old edition when he issued his own ' Intermediate Textbook
of Geology.' The main feature of this book is not only its grasp
of principles but the wonderful way in which the stratigraphical
and historical portion, usually a heterogeneous mass of unrelated
facts, falls into an ordered whole, the picture of each System being
clear and bright, and the history included in it, both at home and
abroad, being vividly told, and brought out in marked individuality
and clear relation to events before and after.

3. — Old Students and others.

But it is not to lectures or books only that we must look for
the effect of Lapworth's influence as a great teacher. His work
was so well known, his judgment and sympathy so highly prized,
his genius so much respected, that old students, scientific friends,
and workers in geology constantly sought his help, advice, and
encouragement. He was one of those rare men who have the
faculty not only of projecting themselves into the interests and
dreams of their friends, but also the marvellous knack of drawing
out their best from them, of inducing them to reveal their inmost
thoughts, and of learning by alluring questions what they know and
believe, and the grounds of their knowledge and belief.

He was himself so full of ideas and so generous in imparting
them, while at the same time he was so eager to hear of new work
and to gauge its value, and so deeply interested in all branches of
his subject, that he made a most delightful confidant, and his
visitors were assured of his sympathy and patience. He hoped
always to acquire new information or new light on old information
which would react on the observations of himself or others. What
he gained for his own work in this way was insignificant in com-
parison with what he gave back to his interlocutor in the form of
suggestion or theory, sympathy and encouragement. No man
was ever so lavish in original ideas, the most precious possession
of a scientific worker, or so generous and trustful in planting them
where he thought or hoped they would bear fruit. His ideas and
suggestions have fertilised the research of a whole generation of
geologists, not only in this country but abroad. When presenting
the Wollaston Medal in 1899, Mr. Whitaker, then President of the
Geological Society, referred to *" the highest of all teaching, the

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. Iv, 1899, p. 40.

43

influence that you have had on your fellow-workers in Geology.
That influence is to be traced in much of the work that we have
had of late years, and during our present session we have had
papers which, I venture to say, would not have been written but
for lines of thought suggested by you."

A fund was raised by Lap worth's Midland friends and others
interested in geology, in order to provide for assistance in some
of his routine work and to give him more time for research. The
fund proved sufficient for this purpose, and as well it provided
some addition to the cramped space previously occupied by the
Geological Department of the University. Through the operation
of the fund Lapworth was able to carry out several researches for
which it would have been impossible otherwise to find time,,
including in particular the Graptolite Monograph, to the editing
of which he gave very close attention.

I. — CONCLUSION.

On reviewing the life and work of Professor Lapworth, it is
impossible to avoid being struck by the salient features of his
character and equipment.

The leading characteristic was his intense mental and bodily
energy, which were so great that they more than once overtaxed
his powers. With this was coupled a burning enthusiasm, which
never allowed him to shirk trouble in acquiring a fact or devising
an explanation ; a living belief in the value of research ; trust, founded
on experience, that problems could be solved ; intense faith in his
own science, and a love of it which glowed in many of his utterances.

His great driving force was derived from two things ; his
overmastering love of truth, and his delight in overcoming obstacles.

Truth was to him a veritable religion, the one great object
that it is in the power of man to compass if his will be but strong
enough. The mainspring of his research was to widen the bounds
of knowledge, true and tested. For honours or advancement he
cared little, except in so far as they enlarged his opportunities
or benefited the science he loved. Nothing short of exact and
exhaustive knowledge satisfied him, and that is why his work
requires so little revision and is so difficult of extension. But as
he grew older and realised how much confidence was placed in his
lightest word by those who knew and trusted him, he grew slower
and increasingly cautious in publication.

With this love of truth was naturally linked distrust in
assumption of authority, unless founded upon a solid basis of
well-proved fact. He fought strenuously against any attempt to
strangle enquiry by authority, to shackle truth by convention, or

44

to cripple advance by rules of nomenclature. At the International
Geological Congress of 1888* he warned the members that no rules
must be drawn up or systems imposed, which would hamper
investigation or impede advance. On another occasion he penned
the following incisive words : — f" The subject [geology] is perfectly
free and open to all. Every investigator has a right to address
himself to any part of the work he pleases, and the right, if he deems
it fitting to exercise it, to demand a full recognition of the import-
ance of his own contribution to the common stock of discovery.
No investigator, or body of investigators, has any claim, beyond
that conceded by courtesy, to a monopoly in any special department
of geology, local or theoretical. The only available geological
possessions of the investigator are his abilities, his opportunities,
and the fruit of the good work he has done in the past. The only
authority he dare recognise with safety is Nature herself. The
extremest penalty for the slightest departure from the course she
has marked out, whether committed wilfully or in ignorance, will
be mercilessly exacted by her tardy but sure-footed avenger — Time."

In the search for truth he realised that the truest things we
have are the principles of science. To these he pinned his faith
as soon as he had satisfied himself that they were well proved,
and he was always willing to devote time and energy to the testing
of the basis of every fact or inference which seemed to him to run
counter to well-established principles. At the same time he was
more than willing to submit his own hypotheses, as well as those
of others, to the crucial test of observation and experiment, and if
necessary to modify them or to suspend judgment until proof was
forthcoming.

His hope and aim were always the establishment of new and
true principles. He held that every effort should be made to
group facts together, provided that the resulting hypothesis were
regarded as one J" not of causes but of the most natural grouping
of effects." One theory after another would be tested and re-
tested against the facts, only to be rejected and replaced if necessary
by one in better accord.

It was here that his wonderful imagination, vivid but
disciplined, came into play. His interest in the structure of the
earth crust was not in the anatomy of a structure, beautiful and
complex but dead. It was that of a biologist in a living
organism, changing and growing, resting or moving, with a long
history, of which he could vividly visualise each stage. Like a
physiologist, he constantly strove to understand the source of
the life energy of the globe and the exact mechanism which has
guided the formation and distribution of its features, and the
changing life of and on its surface.

* 43. P- 223. f 33, p. 102. } 5o, p. 617.

45

From the sequence of Lap worth's papers on the Southern
Uplands and on the Graptolites, it is evident that his energy and
power of work redoubled when he saw that he was up against a
really serious problem. In each of his greater pieces of work we
realise that one of the chief attractions was the difficulty of getting
a solution, and in many cases we are able to see the stages by which
he worked and thought out the several steps of it.

His instinct for crucial tests was a great gift, carefully nurtured.
After reading up a subject in which he was interested he could
readily see the lines on which it was best to attack the problems
Involved, the places where the sections would be most critical, or
which of the consequences of a. theory were the simplest to test
and the most likely to yield an unequivocal answer.

The same instinct led him to vary the direction of attack
whenever he met with repulse or could not get a definite reply.
His papers do not tell us how often he met with preliminary
difficulties ; we only see that at last he succeeded, and then he takes
us first to the most critical and illuminating places, and, by the use
of the evidence there, he lightens our difficulties when we come to
those which give less decisive evidence.

It was this elasticity of attack which so much impressed the
great French geologist, Marcel Bartrand, and led him to write in
1892 as follows :—

*" Peu de carrier es geologiques off rent 1'exemple de succes
comparable a ceux de M. Lapworth. Dans le sud de 1'Ecosse,
c'est a 1'aide des graptolithes, organismes inferieures, dont la valeur
paleontologique pouvait sembler contestable, qu'il a etabli des
horizons dans un serie qui avait defie tous les efforts, et les zones
etablies dans le petit coin de Dobbs Linn se retrouvent maintenant
dans toute 1' Europe et j usque dans 1'Amerique. Pour le nord de
1'Ecosse, c'est avec des donnees moindres encore, avec des traces
de vers, avec des differences lithologiques de couleur et de grain,
qu'il a fixe ses horizons, qui, la encore, se sont trouves d'une con-
stance et d'une extension inattendues. A 1'aide de ces outils qu'il
a forges lui meme et que d'autres eussent de*daignes, il a donne
la clef de la geologic de deux grandes provinces de 1'Ecosse."

Courage and resource in attack were accompanied by patience
and courage of endurance. He could wait years, and had to do
so, for the recognition of the value of his Upland and Highland
work, and longer still for the application of it to bear the fruit which
he knew it was capable of yielding. But when his ideas had been
perforce accepted and his methods adopted there was the courage
of restraint in success.

* Revue generate des Sciences pures et Appliquees, No. 23 (Dec., 1892)'
p. 9 (of separate).

46

It was the same courage which enabled him to deduce to tne
full the logical consequences of his discoveries, and to use these
again as weapons for attacking the next problem and making the
next, advance. But he never allowed this quality to tempt him
into premature speculation ; and it has been found that many
things either offered by him as hypotheses in his own work or
suggested to his students or co-workers, were in reality already
based on a deep substratum of fact stored up in his own memory,
though not necessarily stated or published.

It seems needless to refer to Lap worth's intense joy in the
open air and the love of beautiful scenery which not only led him
into the open but to some extent directed his choice to the Ordo-
vician rocks and to those more ancient still. Combined with this
was a genuine delight in the work of mapping in which he was
willing to spend every hour of leisure he could snatch from his
professional duties.

Lapworth was richly endowed with the mental faculties
which are most needed by a successful geologist. First and fore-
most comes the faculty of observation, a keen eye for a country,
a power to see through the surface by means of the surface, a genius
for spotting where a fossil may be found, a skilled hand in the
extraction of it, and sufficient industry and interest to search,
exhaustively. Then conies the exact and retentive memory
which was always ready for service and very rarely played him
false ; a memory for lithological types or palaeontological characters,
for crucial places and minute features observed or half-observed
in exposures. This was combined with a critical power of dis-
crimination which showed itself in his judgment of things as well
as of men.

He was a remarkably good geometrician with the faculty
of ' seeing solid ' whether into a map or into the ground it portrayed.
In working over his own field maps he was never satisfied until he
had obtained a workable geometrical solution in accordance with
all the facts. The same faculty was of great use to him in judging
the value of the work of others when expressed on maps.

The hand of a skilled draughtsman was no small part of his
equipment, as must be admitted by all who have examined his maps.
His lines are never ' wooden ' or awkward, or unnatural, but
always artistic and beautiful, as they must be in nature. It is
almost impossible to imagine any workmanship more perfect than
his drawings of graptolites, or the sections and drawings with
which he illustrated his Upland work, particularly in the Moffat
paper. The faithfulness and delicacy of his line would have done
credit to Du Maurier himself.

47

The mental power which he possessed had been carefully
trained and cultured by himself. He had a good knowledge of
languages, exceptionally wide reading, a nice judgment in
literature, and a cultivated taste in art and music. He had a
remarkable power of visualising and mapping out mentally the
things and places of which he read. Few men have better possessed
the faculty of tearing the heart out of the literature of a subject.
When he started an investigation he went into it armed with a
thorough knowledge of all that had been said and written, and
with a critical appreciation of the value of each part of it.

He acquired the gift of clear and incisive writing, and a style
which appeared easy and free, though it was often the result of
laborious correction and revision. He held that scientific writing
should be as clear as scientific thinking, and that it was the duty
of a writer both to speak unequivocally and to spend his own
time rather than that of his reader.

His historical knowledge was a part of his scientific equipment,
and he delighted in showing how often old principles and even
exploded theories were to be found dominating modern thought.
How the ideas of the Schools of Werner and Hutton still produced
cleavages in geological opinion ; how Murchison starting out to
break up the ' Transition Greywacke ' into subdivisions gradually
reverted to the tendency to reunite them all again into a single
system ; how catastrophism had not yet been eliminated from
our views and methods of classification ; or how the work of
Lyell had made possible the theories of Darwin.

Finally we have to note the tact with which he unvaryingly
handled difficult matters of scientific controversy. Right through
his writings and his public career, his maxim was to conceal the
iron hand in the velvet glove, to be yielding but firm, to get what
he knew to be the greatest good with the minimum of friction and
resistance.

It is as difficult a task to portray the complex and beautiful
character of the man we are considering as it has been to attempt
an expression of the genius which inspired his labour. It must
suffice to quote what he himself wrote of his friend and
contemporary, Linnarsson, in 1882.

*" His intense scientific ardour gave his body but little real
rest. His mind and pen were never idle, and at the least sign of
renewed health he hurried to the field of his duties again. Absorbed
in the keen delights of his original research, rewarded, as it always
was, with almost instant and brilliant discovery, Linnarsson seems
never to have adequately realised the deadly nature of his disease.
His enthusiastic mind overbore and overtasked the weakly frame,

* 27. p. 3.

48

and in the keen ardour of the scientific chase the proper precautions
for the bodily rest and refreshment seem to have been often over-
looked and forgotten. When we recollect the disheartening and

prostrating effect of these repeated attacks of illness the

remarkable scientific successes he achieved during the last ten years,
and the vast amount of intellectual labour he must have accom-
plished, appear little short of miraculous."

And again —

*" In such a region no one could hope for success but he who
possessed an eye trained to recognise the most minute distinctions
in petrological and palseontological characters in the field, a memory
gifted to retain them, a power of generalisation sufficient to group
them at once in their natural relationships, a faith in his own judg-
ment enough to follow the conclusions they indicated to their
widest issues, and above all an intense delight in the labour itself.
Linnarsson, pre-eminent among his contemporaries, seems to have
possessed all these qualifications, and his success was proportionately
great."

If in these sentences we substitute the name of the writer for
the subject, Lapworth for Linnarsson, we have such a picture of
the man as few could have written and fewer still could have had
the right or authority to pen. Quoting once more from Professor
Marr's " appreciation " — f" We claim Lapworth as one of the

foremost geologists of all time We have lost a great geologist

and withal a man of very beautiful character."

[The writer desires to express his gratitude to Sir Jethro Teall,
Professor J. E. Marr, Dame Ethel Shakespear, Professor Fearnsides,
and Mr. Lamplugh, who have most kindly looked over his
manuscript, and made valuable suggestions ; and to that old
student who has so vivid a memory of a certain Silurian lecture.]

* 27, p. 5. f Geol. Mag., vol. Ivii, 1920, p. 197.

49

III.— BIBLIOGRAPHY.

SCIENTIFIC PAPERS BY CHARLES LAPWORTH.

1. 1870. "On the Lower Silurian Rocks of Galashiels " : Geol. Mag.

Dec. i, Vol. vii, pp. 204-209, 279-284 ; Trans. Edin. GeoL
Soc., Vol. ii (1874), pp. 46-58.

2. 1871. (With James Wilson) " On the Silurian Rocks of the Counties

of Roxburgh and Selkirk " : Geol. Mag., Dec. i, Vol. viii,.
pp. 456-464. Rep. Brit. Assoc., Vol. xli, (1871), p. 103.

3. 1872. " On the Silurian Rocks of the South of Scotland " ; Trans.

Glasgow Geol. Soc., Vol. iv, (1874) pp. 164-174.

4. 1872. " On the Graptolites of the Gala Group " : Rep. Brit. Assoc.,.

Vol. xli (1871), p. 104.

5. 1872. " Note on the Results of some Recent Researches among the

Graptolitic Black Shales of the South of Scotland " : Geol. Mag.,.
Dec. i, Vol. ix, pp. 533-535.

6. 1873. "On an Improved Classification of the Rhabdophora " : GeoL

Mag., Dec. i, Vol. x, pp. 500-504, 555~56o.

7. 1874. " Note on the Graptolites discovered by Mr. John Henderson

in the Silurian Shales of Habbie's Howe, Pentland Hills " :
Trans. Edin. Geol. Soc., Vol. ii, pp. 375-377.

8. 1874. " On the Diprionidae of the Moffat Series " : Pfoc. Geol. Assoc.,

Vol. iii, pp. 165-168.

9. 1875. (With John Hopkinson) " Description of the Graptolites of the

Arenig and Llandeilo Rocks of St. Davids " : Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc., Vol. xxxi, pp. 631-672.

10. 1876. (With Prof. Alleyne Nicholson) " On the Central Group of the

Silurian Series of the North of England " : Rep. Brit. Assoc.,.
Vol. xlv. (1875), pp. 78-79.

11. 1876. " On the Scottish Monograptidae " : Geol. Mag., Dec. n, Vol. iii,

pp. 308-321, 350-360, 499-507, 544-552.

12. 1876. " Llandovery Rocks of the Lake District " : Geol. Mag., Dec. n>

Vol. iii, pp. 477-480.

13. 1876. " Silurian Rocks of the West of Scotland " (with figures of the

Graptolites) : Catalogue of the Western Scottish Fossils
(British Association, Glasgow).

14. 1877. " On the Graptolites of County Down " : Proc. Belfast Nat.

Field Club, 1876-7, Appendix, pp. 125-148 ; three plates.

15. 1878. " Recent Discoveries among the Silurians of South Scotland " :

Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc., Vol. vi (1882), pp. 78-84.

1 6. 1878. " The Moffat Series " : Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Vol. xxxiv,

pp. 240-346.

17. 1879. " On the Tripartite Classification of the Lower Palaeozoic Rocks":

Geol. Mag., Dec. n, Vol. vi., pp. 1-15.

18. 1879-80. " On the Geological Distribution of the Rhabdophora " r

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Vol. iii (1879), pp. 245-257, 449-455 ;
Vol. iv (1879), pp. 333-341, 423-431 ; Vol. v (1880), pp. 45-62,
273-285, 358-369 ; Vol. vi (1880), pp. 16-29, 185-207.

19. 1880. " On the Genus Nemagraptus (Nematolites) of Emmons " :

(1879) Proc. Edin. Phys. Soc., Vol. v, pp. 106-113.

20. 1880. " On Linnarsson's Recent Discoveries in Swedish Geology " :

Geol. Mag., Dec. ii, Vol. vii, pp. 29-37, 68-71, 240.

21. 1880. " On New British Graptolites " : Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Vol. v,

pp. 149-177-

22. 1880. " On the Cladophora (Hopk.) or Dendroid Graptolites collected

by Professor Keeping in the Llandovery Rocks of Mid-Wales " :
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Vol. xxxvii, "pp. 171-177.

50

23. i882. " On Graptolites " [Abstract] : Trans. Geol. Soc., Glasgow,

Vol. vi, Pt. 2 [1882], pp. 260-261.
.24. 1881. " On the Correlation of the Lower Palaeozoic Rocks of Britain

and Scandinavia " : Geol. Mag. Dec. n, Vol. viii, pp. 260-266,

317-322.
.25. 1881. " Introductory Textbook of Physical Geography " : by the

late David Page. Tenth edition. Revised and enlarged by

C. Lapworth.

26. 1882. " The Girvan Succession " : Part i, Stratigraphy [1881] ;

Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Vol. xxxviii, pp. 537-666.

27. 1882. " The Life and Work of Linnarsson " : Geol. Mag., Dec. u,

Vol. ix, pp. 1-7, 119-122, 171-176.

28. 1882. " History of the Discovery of Cambrian Rocks in the neighbour-

hood of Birmingham " : Geol. Mag., Dec. n, Vol. ix, pp. 563-
566 ; Proc. Birmingham Phil. Soc., Vol. iii (1883), pp. 234-238.

29. 1883. " Geikie's Textbook of Geology " : Geol. Mag., Dec. n, Vol. x,

pp. 39-42, 80-86.

30. 1883. " The Secret of the Highlands " : Geol. Mag., Dec. II, Vol. x,

pp. 120-128, 193-199, 337-344-

31. 1884. " The Mason College and Technical Education " : an Address

delivered at the Mason Science College, Birmingham, 1884.

32. 1885. " Stratigraphy and Metamorphism of the Rocks of the Durness-

Eriboll District " : Proc. Geol. Assoc., Vol. viii, pp. 438-442
(read July, 1884).

33. 1885. " On the Close of the Highland Controversy " : Geol. Mag.,

Dec. Ill, Vol. ii, pp. 97-106.

34. 1885? " Books on Historical Geology " : Birmingham Reference

Library Lectures.

35. 1886. " The Highland Controversy in British Geology, its Causes,

Course, and Consequences " : Rep. Brit. Assoc. (Sec. C) (1885),
pp. 1025-1026.

36. • 1886. " On the Sequence and Systematic Position of the Cambrian

Rocks of Nuneaton " : Geol. Mag. Dec. Ill, Vol. iii, pp. 319-322.

37. 1886. " On the Palaeozoic Rocks of the Birmingham District " :

Rep. Brit. Assoc. (Sec. C), Ivi (1886), pp. 621-622 ; see also
British Association Handbook, 1886, pp. 167-184.

38. 1887. " Preliminary Report on Some Graptolites from the Lower

Palaeozoic Rocks on the South Side of the St. Lawrence from
Cape Rosier to Tartigo River, etc." : Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada
(Sect, iv), 1886, pp. 167-184.

39. 1887. " The Cambrian Rocks of the Midlands " : Rep. Brit. Assoc.

(Sect. C), 1886, pp. 622, 623.

40. 1887. " The Ordovician Rocks of Shropshire " : Rep. Brit. Assoc.

(Sect. C), 1886, pp. 661-663 ; Geol. Mag., Dec. Ill, Vol. iv. p. 78.

41. 1888. " On the Discovery of the Olenellus Fauna in the Lower Cam-

brian Rocks of Britain " : Geol. Mag., Dec. Ill, Vol. v, pp.
484-487, and Nature, Vol. 29, p. 213.

42. 1888. " Introductory Textbook of Geology," by David Page : Revised

and in great part rewritten by C. Lapworth.

43. 1888. International Geological Congress, Compte rendu, 4, 1888,

pp. 35, 222-223.

44. 1889. " On the Ballantrae Rocks of South Scotland, and their Place

in the Upland Sequence " : Geol. Mag., Dec. Ill, Vol. vi, pp.
20-24, 59-69.

45. 1889. "Note on Graptolites from Dease River, B.C.": Geol. Mag.,

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46. 1891. " On Olenellus Callavei and its Geological Relationships " :

Geol. Mag., Dec. Ill, Vol. viii, pp. 529-536.
.47. 1891. " The Geology of Dudley and the Midlands " : an Address

delivered to the Midland Union of Natural History Societies :

Proc. Dudley and Midland Geol. and Sci. Soc. and Field Club,

1891.
.48. 1893. Address to the Geological Section of the British Association :

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(1892), pp. 688-697.

49. 1894. (With W. W. Watts] " The Geology of South Shropshire " :

Proc. Geol. Assoc., Vol. xiii, pp. 297-355 ; two plates.

50. 1894. " The Face of the Earth " : Nature, Vol. xlix, pp. 614-617.

51. 1894. " Our Future Coalfields," abstract of Gilchrist Lecture ;

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52. 1895. " Dr. Crosskey and Geology " : Extracted from " The Life

and Work of Henry William Crosskey, LL.D., F.G.S." ; Bir-
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53- I897- " Note on Cambrian Hyolithes Sandstones from Nuneaton " :
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54. 1897. " Die Lebensweise der Graptolithen " : Contributed to " Ueber

die Lebensweise fossiler Meersthiere von Prof. Dr. Johannes
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55. 1898. " Sketch of the Geology of Birmingham District, etc." : Proc.

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56. 1899. " The Survey Memoir on the Southern Uplands " : a review :

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57. 1899. "An Intermediate Textbook of Geology": founded on the

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59. 1900. " On Some Uses of Geology and the Geological Survey " :

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61. 1901. " Presidential Address, Institution of Mining Engineers " :

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63. 1902. " Presidential Address to the Geological Society " : Quart.

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69. 1917. " Balston Expedition to Peru " : Report on Graptolites col-

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