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THE GEOLOGY

OF

NEW HAMPSH:R

A REPORT COMPRISING THE RESULTS OF EXPLORATIONS ORDERED BY
THE LEGISLATURE.

C. H. HITCHCOCK,

STATE GEOLOGIST.

J. H. HUNTINGTON,

PRINCIPAL ASSISTANT.

PART I. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

CONCORD:

EDWARD A. JENKS, STATE PRINTER.
1874.

7.

PREFACE.

It has been found impossible to treat of the subjects of metamorphism,
elevation of mountains, and earthquakes within the limits of this volume,
as originally contemplated, but we hope not to neglect them altogether, as
provision has been made for the printing of another book, devoted more
particularly to geology and mineralogy, in which these topics will be fully
discussed.

Some of the following chapters have been prepared by gentlemen eminent
in their several specialties, not officially connected with the Survey, who
have kindly devoted their time and strength to the work without remunera-
tion for their services. To them our thanks are specially extended.

Mr. Warren Upham, of Nashua, compiled the interesting chapter upon
the History of Explorations among the White Mountains, and the descrip-
tion of the river systems. If the observations upon altitudes constitute the
most thorough and perhaps most useful chapter in the volume, it is due to
the indefatigable diligence of Mr. Upham, in comparing the various railroad
surveys from different parts of the state, sifting out what seemed unreliable,
and matching them together into one connected whole.

With such substantial foundations established for the elucidation of the
water-power of the state as are afforded by these two chapters, it is to be
hoped that the Executive will call to mind an act passed by the legislature
in reference to the appointment of a hydrographic commission. The infor-
mation in this report would be of so much service to that commission, that
the sum appropriated for their work would be sufficient to bring out results
of great benefit to the state, which could not otherwise have been obtained
to so good advantage.

iv PREFACE.

The valuable treatises of Mr. S. H. Scudder, of Cambridge, Mass., upon
the Distribution of Insects, of Dr. A. M. Edwards, of Newark, N. J., upon
the Natural History of the Diatomacea:, and of Mr. W. F. Flint, of Rich-
mond, upon the Distribution of Plants, are well adapted to awaken among
our citizens a new interest in the departments of entomology, microscopy,
and botany. Should this result follow, the several gentlemen will feel them-
selves amply repaid for their exertions in our behalf.

Prof. Quimby's essay upon the use of the magnetic needle in surveying
has been issued separately, for the benefit of students and engineers.

Mr. Isaac N. Andrews, of Nashua, has rendered the appearance of the
volume more satisfactory by allowing us the privilege of copying many of
the elegant wood-engravings, relating to White Mountain scenery, from the
White Hills, by the late Rev. T. Starr King.

The Atlas will show very important contributions to the study of our
topography, in the truthful delineations of outline sketches, from prominent
points, of the White Mountains, prepared by the skilful hand of Mr. Geo. F.
Morse, of Portland, Me., who has devoted much time to their preparation.

It was found impossible to obtain a satisfactory heliotype of the view of
the White Mountain range from Jackson, which was intended for the frontis-
piece. In its place we have inserted the view illustrating the ledges frac-
tured by frost, upon the summit of Mt. Washington. For a similar reason,
the view of the White Mountain Notch from Mt. Willard, accompanying
one of the Willey house, is copied from a hand sketch.

C. H. HITCHCOCK.
HANOVER, Dec. i, 1874.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Chapter. Page.

I. HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE.

BY C. H. HITCHCOCK, 3

II. HISTORY OF THE PRESENT GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

BY C. H. HITCHCOCK 13

III. HISTORY OF THE SURVEY— Continued.

BY C. H. HITCHCOCK, 29

IV. HISTORY OF EXPLORATIONS AMONG THE WHITE MOUN-

TAINS.
BY WARREN UPHAM, 59

V. CLIMATOLOGY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE.

BY J. H. HUNTINGTON, 1 19

VI. THE USE OF THE MAGNETIC NEEDLE IN SURVEYING.

BY E. T. QUIMBY, 147

VII. TOPOGRAPHY.

BY C. H. HITCHCOCK, 169

VIII. TOPOGRAPHY OF COOS COUNTY.

BY J. H. HUNTINGTON, 216

IX. TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS OF THE STATE.

BY C. H. HITCHCOCK, 227

X. ALTITUDES.

BY C. H. HITCHCOCK, 248

XL RIVER SYSTEMS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE.

BY WARREN UPHAM, 298

XII. THE DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE.

BY SAMUEL H. SCUDDER, 331

VI TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Chapter. Page.

XIII. THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE.

BY WILLIAM F. FLINT, 381

XIV. NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACE^.

BY A. MEAD EDWARDS, 416

XV. PHYSICAL HISTORY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE.

BY C. H. HITCHCOCK, 506

XVI. THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY TO AGRICULTURE.

BY C. H. HITCHCOCK 546

XVII. REMARKS UPON THE DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS AND
PLANTS.

XVIII.
XIX.

BY C. H. HITCHCOCK, ....

559

SCENOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY.
BY C. H. HITCHCOCK, ....

586

SCENERY OF COOS COUNTY.

BY J. H. HUNTINGTON, ....

APPENDIX,

. 636
6«

INDEX,

6«

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PRINTED WITH THE TEXT.

Page.

Vignette on title-page, from a photograph of the "Old Man of the Mountains,"
Franconia.

Mts. Madison and Washington, from Shelburne, .3

Fig. i, Dr. Jackson's ideal section, 10

Granite ledge in Bartlett, 12

Castellated ridge of Mt. Jefferson, 28

Fig. 2, Section across the Flume 42

Fig. 6, Ice formed on Mt. Washington with south-west wind, .... 58

Fig. 7, Lancaster and the White Mountains, 68

Fig. 8, Giant's Grave, 72

Fig. 9, The Willey slide and monument, 77

Fig. 10, Summit of Mt. Washington, from the north, in winter, .... 91

Fig. u, Measuring the wind, 95

Fig. 12, Laying the cable on Jacob's Ladder 100

Fig. 13, The home of the winter expedition, 103

Fig. 14, Corona seen April 28 115

Fig. 15, Anemometer, 118

Tracks of storm centres for January, 1874, 120

Fig. 16, Tip-top house in winter, 131

Fig. 17, Velocity of wind in miles per hour, 135

Fig. 1 8, Height of barometer corrected for pressure, 135

Diagram I, Fluctuations in rain- fall on Atlantic coast, . . . .137

Diagram II, Fluctuations in rain-fall of upper Connecticut valley, . . 137

Diagram III, Fluctuations in snow-fall of upper Connecticut valley, . 137

Diagram IV, Fluctuations in rain-fall at Lake Village 137

Diagram V-A, Maximum temperature at Claremont and Stratford, . . 139

Viii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Page.

Diagram V-B, Minimum temperature at Claremont and Stratford, . . 139

Diagram VI, Mean temperature of Exeter, Claremont, and Stratford, . 139

Diagram VII, Mean temperature of Mt. Washington and Lunenburg, Vt., 139

Diagram VIII, Cold period, Jan. 10-14, 1 86r, J4O

Diagram IX, Cold period, Jan. 21-25, I^7I I4°

Diagram X, Velocity of wind at summit and at base of Mt. Washington,

May, 1872, 140

Fig. 19, Mt. Moriah in Gorham, 146

Lines of equal magnetic dip and horizontal intensity, . . . .150

Lines of equal magnetic variation for the year 1856 152

Diurnal variations of the magnetic needle at Hanover, Jan., 1872, . . 158

Magnetic storm at Hanover, Feb. 4, 1872, 160

Fig. 20, Gap between Sawyer's mountain and Soapstone hill, . . . .181

Fig. 21, Mt. Lyon, from Guildhall falls 183

Fig. 22, Mt. Carter, from Gorham, 186

Fig. 23, Mt. Jefferson and Great gulf, . 188

Fig. 24, Ravines on Mt. Washington, from Thompson's falls, . . . .188

Fig. 25, Mt. Washington, from near Fabyan's, 189

Fig. 26, Mt. Crawford, from the north-west, 190

Fig. 27, Outline of Cherry mountain, 191

Fig. 28, Outline of Mt. Osceola, 193

Fig. 29, Outline of Mt. Tecumseh, 194

Fig. 30, Outline of Black mountain, 194

Fig. 31, Summit of Mt. Chocorua 195

Fig. 32, Outlines of mountains between Haystack and Sugar Loaf, . . . 198

Fig. 33, Outlines of mountains between Haystack and South Twin, . . . 198

Fig. 34, Mountain range between Lafayette and Twin, 199

Fig- 35, Franconia Mountains, from Sugar hill, 199

Fig. 36, Franconia Mountains, from Thornton, 200

Fig. 37, Outline of Moosilauke, from Warren, 201

Fig. 38, Outline of Moosilauke, from Wachipaucha pond 202

Fig. 39, Lake Winnipiseogee, from Center Harbor 205

Fig. 40, Map of Warren, 208

Fig. 41, Georgianna falls, Lincoln, 215

Fig. 42, View on the Upper Magalloway, 225

Fig. 43, Ripley's falls, 226

Triangulation of New Hampshire, 243

New Hampshire state seal, 247

Fig. 44, White Mountains, from Berlin bridge, 297

Fig. 45, Old Man of the Mountains, 33o

Fig. 46, Eulophus semideae,

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. IX

Page.

Fig. 47, Encyrtus Montinus, . . 347

Fig. 48, Note of Nemobius vittatus, 364

Fig. 49, Note of CEcanthus niveus by day, 365

Fig. 50, Note of CEcanthus niveus by night, 366

Fig. 51, Note of Phaneroptera curvicauda by day, 367

Fig. 52, Note of Phaneroptera curvicauda by night, ...... 367

Fig. 53, Note of Conocephalus ensiger, 368

Fig. 54, Note of Orchelimum vulgare, 369

Fig. 55, Note of Chloealtis conspersa in the sun, ...... 370

Fig. 56, Note of Chloealtis conspersa in the shade, 370

Fig. 57, Note of Stenobothrus curtipennis, . . 373

Fig. 58, Note of Arcyptera gracilis, 374

Fig. 59, Note of Trimerotropis verruculata, . 378

Fig. 60, Mt. Madison, from Lead Mine bridge, 415

Fig. 61, Squam lake and Mt. Chocorua, 530

Fig. 62, Section from Northumberland falls to Pilot mountain, .... 535

Fig. 63, White Mountain range, from Jefferson hill, 540

Fig. 64, White Mountains, from the Glen, • 541

Fig. 65, Travelling on snow-shoes, 545

Fig. 66, Franconia Mountains, from Campton 551

Fig. 67, Madison and Washington, from Shelburne, 558

Fig. 68, Mt. Hayes 582

Fig. 69, Mt. Madison, as seen over King's ravine 585

Fig. 70, Peabody river and Mt. Washington, 586

Fig. 71, View across the ravine south of Mt. Adams, 598

Fig. 72, Welch mountain, from Campton, 600

Fig. 73, Lafayette range, from the Flume house, 601

Fig. 74, The Profile rock, 603

Fig. 75, Changes of the Profile, 604

Fig. 76, The Sentinel, 606

Fig. 77, White Mountain range, from Milan, 608

Fig. 78, Mts. Adams and Madison, from near Randolph hill, .... 610

Fig. 79, Washington, Clay, and Jefferson, from Adams, 611

Fig. 80, Washington range, from Carroll, 612

Fig. 81, Ravine in Mt. Adams, from Randolph hill, 613

Fig. 82, Head-wall of King's ravine, 614

Fig. 83, Gateway of King's ravine, 615

Fig. 84, Cliffs in King's ravine, 616

Fig. 85, Adams and Madison, from the old Glen path, 621

Fig. 86, Tuckerman's ravine and Mt. Washington, 622

Fig. 87, Snow-arch in Tuckerman's ravine in August, 623

VOL. I. II

X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Page.

Fig. 88, Androscoggin valley, from Peaked hill, Gileacl, Me., .... 627

Fig. 89, Silver cascade in the Notch 630

Fig. 90, Cuba falls, Orford, 631

Fig. 91, Frost feathers, . 635

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS NOT PRINTED WITH THE

TEXT.

HELIOTYPES FROM NATURE.

Page.

Frontispiece, Ledges fractured by frost, Mt. Washington.

White Mountain Notch, from the Crawford house, 79

Mt. Washington Railway, engine on Jacob's Ladder, 82

View of the Carter range and Bourne monument in winter, .... 104
Tip-top house, frosted shrubs, Winnipiseogee lake from Mt. Washington, and

the anemometer, . . . . . . . . . . . .112

Frost-feathers and snow-ice, 132

Crystal cascade 184

Mt. Crawford, from the Willey slide, 192

Mt. Pleasant and Wilkes's ledge, 220

Emerald pool, 232

Jackson's falls, 256

Diana's Bath, .... 272

Walker's falls and Beecher's cascade, 305

Berlin falls, . . . . . . . . . . . . .310

Mt. Washington range, from Fabyan turnpike, 392

White-horse ledge, 592

Mt. Washington summit, from the south-east, 618

White Mountain Notch, from Mt. Willard, and Willey house, .... 625

Glen Ellis falls, 632

Dixville Notch, 640

Percy peaks, Stratford, 644

HELIOTYPE COPIES OF DRAWINGS.

Page.

White Mountains, from Berlin 212

Insects of New Hampshire, 380

Three Plates illustrating Diatomaceae — Albert-types, 500

Carrigain Notch, 596

Fac-simile of Gen. Field's original sketch of the "Old Man of the Mountains," 606

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xi

ELECTROTYPES AND RELIEF PLATES.

Page.

The morning after the Willey slide, 76

Isogonic lines for 1874, . . . . . . . . . . .154

Connecticut River below Ledyard bridge, Hanover, 302

Alpine and sub-alpine districts in the White Mountains 338

Ice currents in the Glacier Period, ......... 542

MAPS.

Page.

Chart I, Yearly isothermal lines, .......... 124

Chart II, Isocliimenal and isotheral lines, ........ 126

Chart III, Mean annual rain-fall, ....... . 128

Natural topographical districts, . . . . . . . . . .171

Hydrographic basins, ............ 300

Distribution of insects, 335

Distribution of trees, 382

No. i, The first dry land in New Hampshire, . 512

2, New Hampshire at the close of the Atlantic period, . . . .516

3, New Hampshire in the Labrador period, 528

4, New Hampshire at the close of the Huronian period, .... 532

5, New Hampshire after the Cobs period, 536

6, New Hampshire in the Helderberg period, 538

Agricultural map of New Hampshire, 548

Boundary between the Canadian and Alleghanian districts, .... 574

The extent of the existing forests, 578

CHARTS IN THE ATLAS ILLUSTRATING VOLUME I.

1. Fac-simile, reduced, of Holland's Map of New Hampshire.

2. Fac-simile, half the natural size, of Carrigain's Map of New Hampshire.

3. Profiles of the White Mountains, as seen from Mt. Pequawket, Mt. Trafton, Cor-

nish, Me., and Pleasant mountain, Me.

4. Profiles of mountains seen from Mt. Chocorua.

5. Profiles of mountains seen from Tremont.

6. Profiles of mountains seen from Mt. Carrigain.

7. Profiles seen from Bill Merrill, Caribou, and Ephraim mountains in Maine.

8. Panorama visible from the summit of Mt. Washington.

9. The White Mountains, in relief.
10. Map showing contour lines.

PART I.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

MTS. MADISON AND WASHINGTON FROM SHELBURNE.

CHAPTER I.

HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE.

iHE first public notice of the importance of examining the mineral
resources of New Hampshire which I can find is contained in a
message of His Excellency Levi Woodbury, governor, to the legislature,
in June, 1823. He recommended the institution of an agricultural sur-
vey, with a view to the chemical analysis of the various kinds of soils.
In support of this proposal he quoted the following passage from the
constitution of the state: "It shall be the duty of legislators and magis-
trates, at all future periods of this government, to cherish the interests of
literature and the sciences." It also inculcates "the promotion of agri-
culture, the arts, sciences, commerce, trades, manufactures, and the natu-
ral history of the country." Had this recommendation been adopted,
New Hampshire would have been the first of the United States to inau-
gurate a scientific survey of its mineral resources.

4 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

About 1837 or 1838, His Excellency Isaac Hill, governor, urged the
propriety of authorizing a geological and mineralogical survey, with a
view to the advancement of agriculture and the arts. This was the
epoch when most of the states had either inaugurated or were consider-
ing the propriety of establishing geological surveys. Massachusetts had
recently so successfully completed a triennial survey of her territory, under
the superintendence of my honored father, the late Professor Edward
Hitchcock, that the utility of such explorations was well appreciated. In
1839, His Excellency John Page, governor, advocated a survey of New
Hampshire with such success that the legislature passed the following
act in reference to it :

AN ACT to provide for the geological and mineralogical survey of the state.

SECTION i . Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives in General
Court convened, That the governor of this state is hereby authorized and required, as
soon as may be after the passage of this act, to appoint a state geologist, who shall be
a person of competent scientific and practical knowledge of the sciences of geology
and mineralogy ; and the said state geologist shall, by and with the consent of the
governor and council, appoint one suitable person to assist him in the discharge of his
duties, who shall be a skilful analytical and experimental chemist.

SEC. 2. And be it further enacted, That it shall be the duty of the said state geolo-
gist and his said assistant, as soon as may be practicable after their appointment, to
commence and carry on, with as much expedition and dispatch as may be consistent
with minuteness and accuracy, a thorough geological and mineralogical survey of this
state, with a view to determine the order, succession, arrangement, relative position,
dip or inclination, and comparative magnitude of the several strata or geological forma-
tions within this state, and to discover and examine all beds or deposits of ore, coal,
clay, marls, and such other mineral substances as may be useful or valuable, and to
perform such other duties as may be necessary to make a full and complete geological
and mineralogical survey of the state.

SEC. 3. And be it further enacted, That it shall be the duty of the said assistant to
make full and complete examinations, assays, and analyses of all such rocks, ores, soils,
or other substances as may be submitted to him by the state geologist for that purpose,
and to furnish him with a detailed and complete account of the results so obtained.

SEC. 4. And be it further enacted, That it shall be the duty of the said state geolo-
gist, on or before the first day of June in each and every year during the time necessa-
rily occupied by said survey, to make an annual report of the progress of said survey,
accompanied with such maps, drawings, and specimens as may be necessary and proper

HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 5

to exemplify and elucidate the same, to the secretary of state, who shall lay such report
before the legislature.

SEC. 5. And be it further enacted, That it shall be the duty of the said state geolo-
gist to cause to be represented on the map of the state, by colors and other appropriate
means, the various areas occupied by the different geological formations in the state,
and to mark thereon the localities of the respective beds or deposits of the various min-
eral substances discovered ; and, on the completion of the survey, to compile a memoir
of the geology and mineralogy of the state, comprising a complete account of the
leading subjects and discoveries which have been embraced in the survey.

SEC. 6. And be it further enacted, That it shall also be the duty of the said state
geologist to forward to the secretary of state, from time to time during the progress of
such survey, such specimens of the rocks, ores, coals, soils, fossils, and other mineral
substances discovered and examined, as may be proper and necessary to form a com-
plete cabinet collection of specimens of geology and mineralogy of the state ; and the
said secretary shall cause the same to be deposited in proper order in some convenient
room in the state capitol, there to be preserved for public inspection.

SEC. 7. And be it further enacted, That for the purpose of carrying into effect the
provisions of this act, the sum of two thousand dollars is hereby annually appropriated
for the term of three years, to be expended under the direction of the governor : pro-
vided, however, that the salaries of the said state geologist and his assistant shall not
commence until they have entered upon the execution of their duties, and, upon the
completion of said survey and of the duties connected therewith, they shall wholly
cease and determine.

MOSES NORRIS, JR.,
Speaker of the House of Representatives.

Approved June 24, 1839.

JOHN PAGE,

Governor.

JAMES McK. WILKINS,

President of the Senate.

In accordance with the provisions of this act, Dr. Charles T. Jackson,
of Boston, was appointed State Geologist September 10, 1839, and en-
tered upon the duties of the office June i, 1840. He devoted the prin-
cipal part of three years to his researches. It was understood and
agreed between the parties that the surveyor should devote four months
to the researches required in the field, and that four months should be
spent in the analysis of the minerals obtained ; but, as the laboratory
work proved more difficult and extensive than was at first apprehended,
nearly the whole remaining four months of the year were occupied in the

6 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

requisite examinations. Additional appropriations were made in subse-
quent years, so that the total cost of the first survey amounted to $9,000,
independently of the expense of publication.

Dr. Jackson employed assistants, whose names and time of service
appear to have been as follows : J. D. Whitney, appointed December 7,

1840, and served during that winter; M. B.Williams, appointed June,

1841, and served during the summer of that year; W. F. Channing,
appointed June 7, 1842, and served during the summer of that year
Eben Baker served in the autumn and winter of 1842; John Chandler
served in the winter of 1842. Their services are said to have been gra-
tuitous, the survey paying only the necessary travelling expenses. Seme
of these gentlemen performed field work other than has been specified, —
which service will be noted presently.

Four volumes and pamphlets appear to have been published, contain-
ing an account of these researches, as follows :

First Annual Report on the Geology of the State of New Hampshire. By Charles
T. Jackson, State Geologist. Svo, 164 pp. Concord: Barton & Carroll, State
Printers, 1841.

Second Animal Report on the Geology of the State of New Hampshire. By Charles
T. Jackson, State Geologist. Svo, 8 pp. 1842. Concord: State Printers.

Final Report on the Geology and Mineralogy of the State of New Hampshire, with
Contributions towards the Improvement of Agriculture and Metallurgy. By C. T.
Jackson, M. D. 4to, 384 pp., u plates. Concord, 1844. Carroll & Baker, State
Printers.

I find, also, in various quarters, reference to another volume published
in the following year, probably at the author's expense.

Views and Maps of Final Report. Reprinted. 4to, 20 pp., 8 plates. Boston,
1845.

The Final Report is made up of the following parts :

Reprint of two Annual, with the Third Annual Report, . . . 136 pages.

Preliminary Remarks on the General Science of Geology, ... 28 pages.

Laws and Official Documents Relative to Survey, 8 pages.

Economical Geology, 72 pages.

HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

Agricultural Geology and Chemistry, 39 pages.

Appendix to Geology, 4 pages.

Barometrical Tables, 35 pages.

Appendix to Agricultural Geology and Chemistry, 45 pages.

Glossary, Index, and Errata, 1 1 pages.

In the first annual report is described the method of proceeding with
the explorations. Knowing that the strata pursue a general north-east
course, Dr. Jackson proposed to cross them several times at right angles,
and also along their line of strike, or a north-east course. These lines of
explorations would divide the territory into triangular areas whose boun-
daries would be known, and various excursions across them would make
the knowledge of each tract more or less accurate. The cross sections
described are from Portsmouth to Claremont through Concord ; from Con-
cord to Wakefield ; from Wakefield to Haverhill, — all measured by Messrs.
Whitney and Williams. Dr. Jackson measured another, from Concord to
Winchester, traversing outside of the line the towns of Amherst, Peter-
borough, Dublin, Keene, and Brattleborough. Messrs. Whitney and
Williams also travelled to the northern corner of the state as far as
Mt. Carmel ; and this section is connected with a longitudinal section
along Connecticut river, measured by Dr. Jackson from Haverhill to
Northfield, Mass. The field work closed after a tour to the White Moun-
tains, including Jackson, Eaton, and Mt. Gunstock.

The pamphlet report of the first year's work contains remarks upon
economical geology and agriculture, but does not exhibit any illustrations
of the sections. Those were reserved for the quarto volume, and consist
of the ones enumerated as measured by Whitney and Williams, and the
longitudinal one along Connecticut river as far as Mt. Carmel (Camel's
Rump). The former are much superior in artistic execution to the latter.
Excepting one theoretical section and the geological map, the material
for the plates seems to have been entirely obtained from the results of
this year's explorations.

Second Years Work. The second year's explorations commenced at
Nashua. A party of assistants explored the southern range of towns
between Nashua and Connecticut river ; but they do not seem to have

8 PTIVSTCAL GEOGRAPHY.

furnished any facts for the text. Dr. Jackson himself took the opposite
direction, exploring between Nashua and Portsmouth. From thence he
travelled to Madison (then a part of Eaton), Mt. Chocorua (Williams and
Channing), Jackson, Randolph, Lancaster, Shelburne, back to Lancaster
and Dixville notch. Next he measured a section through Vermont, from
Lancaster to Lake Champlain. The facts derived from this line of sur-
vey, as well as on a return line farther south, are generalized in a section,
the substance of which I have reproduced in Fig. i. Meanwhile, Messrs.
Channing and E. E. Hale examined the northern frontier, or the Canadian
borders of New Hampshire and Vermont. The rest of the year's field-
work consisted of explorations in Littleton, Franconia, Landaff, Orford,
Lyme, Canaan, Grafton, Amherst, and a hasty trip from Amherst to
Keene.

Third Years Work. The third report states that the towns which had
not been previously visited were examined as far as practicable. Those
mentioned are Epsom, Pittsfield, Barnstead, Strafford, Temple, Richmond,
Winchester, Hinsdale, Guilford, Vt, Warren, Springfield, Enfield, Canaan,
Gilmanton, Sandwich, Jackson, Mt. Crawford, Dalton, Warren, down
Connecticut river to Charlestown, Unity, and an excursion to Mt. Wash-
ington from Jefferson, by Messrs. Channing and Hale. This year's report
closes with a fuller sketch of the previous year's work of measuring sec-
tions across Vermont.

BUILDING MATERIALS, METALLURGY, ETC.

The economical part of the report describes granite, soapstone, slate,
quartz, limestone, scythe-stones, beryl, garnet, infusorial silica, ochres for
paints, plumbago, pyrites, and some other minerals. It is quite full in
metallurgical statements respecting iron, zinc, copper, lead, tin, silver,
gold, molybdenum, manganese, and arsenic. Many original chemical
analyses are given in connection with these economical and metallurgical
descriptions.

The agricultural portion is divided into five parts : i. The origin and
distribution of soils. 2. Nature and origin of the organic and saline
ingredients of soils. 3. Chemical constitution of plants. 4. What ingre-

HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 9

dients are taken from the soil by crops. 5. Best methods of restoring
fertility to exhausted soils, and of improving those that are infertile. It
concludes with descriptions of the methods of conducting agricultural
operations by several eminent gentlemen, as at the Derby farm on Cow
island, Winnipiseogee lake ; the Shaker farm, in Canterbury ; Levi Bart-
lett's farm, in Warner ; David Stiles's farm, in Lyndeborough ; Judge
Hayes's farm, in South Berwick, Maine, and others.

The barometrical observations are incomplete, and in a few cases the
altitudes have been calculated from them. All that are of value I have
had reduced, and given in a list of heights in a subsequent chapter.

The appendix to agricultural geology contains a large number of soil
analyses, mostly original.

GEOLOGICAL MAP.

The state authorities did not think it important to color the geological
map attached to Jackson's report. Hence it has become difficult to un-
derstand many things which otherwise might have been evident. Carri-
gain's map seems to have been the topographical basis, with, no doubt,
many corrections of town boundaries and various minute points, though
the mountains are not reproduced. The scale is exactly half that of
Carrigain's. The geological distinctions are the following : i. Granite,
sienite and gneiss. 2. Mica slate. 3. Hornblende rock. 4. Argilla-
ceous slate. 5. Drift. 6. Alluvium. There are numerous symbols to
denote the location of quartz rock, trap, limestone, talc and soapstone,
peat, iron, lead, zinc, tin, copper, pyrites, silver, gold, titanium, titanic
iron, plumbago, beryl, mica, manganese, arsenic, and molybdenum. Other
symbols indicated the place where mines or quarries were worked, the
dip and direction of strata, and anticlinal axes.

JACKSON'S THEORY OF GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE.

These reports and map being chiefly descriptive of mineral localities,
it is difficult to deduce from them a very satisfactory notion of strati-
graphical structure. In general, he seems to have regarded the rocks of
New Hampshire as " Primary," or the oldest to be met with between

VOL. I. 2.

10

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

U.

«r •

-rf*

JS w
2 o

Nova Scotia and Pennsylvania. His
ideal section represents the New
Hampshire rocks as granite at the
White Mountain centre, with gneiss
upon both sides, dipping on the east
towards Maine, and on the west
towards Vermont. The schistose
rocks adjacent to the gneiss in
Maine and Vermont are called " Cam-
brian." The Green Mountains of
Vermont are made out to be an
immense stratum of quartz rock, dip-
ping westerly. These Cambrian stra-
ta in their turn are flanked on their
outer sides by Silurian, and these in
their turn by Carboniferous rocks, in
the extremes of Nova Scotia and
Pennsylvania.

Not to be misunderstood, I have
reproduced here Dr. Jackson's ideal
section. I shall attempt hereafter
to point out that in this idea there
is an important element of truth,
while many of the details are incor-
rect It is true, for instance, that
in the White Mountain neighbor-
hood the older rocks make their
appearance. This view is derived
from the study of the formations in
the field, and is at variance with
the prevalent opinions of Amer-
ican geologists, as held in 1868,
when our explorations commenced.
The quotation given in Chapter n
shows that our first explorations
about Lisbon led to the conclusion

HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. II

that the White Mountain series were older than those in the Ammo-
iioosuc and Connecticut valleys. In the year following, 1870, Dr. T.
Sterry Hunt published a letter suggesting whether he had not been at
fault heretofore in calling the White Mountain rocks Paleozoic. In 1871
he proposed to call them pre-Cambrian.*

Dr. Jackson's section is wrong in such details as these. The granite
does not constitute the central axis of the White Mountains ; the strata
are not regular in their dips upon both sides of the axis, there being
overturns as well as repetitions of older formations. The Green Moun-
tains are not made up in the mass, nor in any part, of quartz rock in the
position indicated, and the term Cambrian is misapplied.

Territorially, Dr. Jackson's oldest division is made to occupy the prin-
cipal part of the state. The most northern locality specified is at Berlin.
It occupies the greater portion of the breadth of the state in the latitude
of Bristol. South of this line there are only isolated granitic patches
west of the Merrimack river, while a broad band of it extends nearly as
far as Concord on the east side.

The mica slate formation occupies most of the territory south of the
latitude of Franklin, passes up to Jackson on the east and to Columbia on
the west side of the first and fundamental group. There is also a little
represented as lying upon Mt. Washington.

The third division — "hornblende rock" — is very limited, appearing
only in Hanover, Wakefield, and Acworth. The fourth — " clay slate " —
appears along Connecticut river, in Hinsdale, Chesterfield, Dalton, and
Lancaster ; on the east side of Mt. Washington ; along Salmon river,
in Rochester, Somersworth, Newington, Portsmouth, and also Rye.

"Drift" is shown along the Merrimack river, in Hudson, Litchfield,
Pembroke, Northfield, Holderness, and Woodstock. It seems to include
some extensive sandy plains properly belonging to the next division.
" Alluvium " appears in the same valley in Concord, and New Hampton,
in the bend opposite Bristol village ; also on the Connecticut, in Hins-
dale, Westmoreland, Piermont, Haverhill, and Lancaster. The localities
of minerals and ores need not be enumerated.

*Amer. Jour. Sci. II, Vol. L, p. 83. Presidential Address before American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science, at Indianapolis, 1871.

12

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Museum. I understand Dr. Jackson left a collection of rocks and
minerals at Concord to illustrate his explorations. As they were entirely
destroyed by fire a few years since, I have no means of ascertaining what
their value may have been.

GRANITE LEDGE IN BARTLETT.

CHAPTER II.

HISTORY OF THE PRESENT GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.

T the June session of the legislature in 1868, the following statute
was enacted, as taken from Chapter III, Laws of 1868:

AN ACT to provide for the geological and mineralogical survey of the state.
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives in General Court convened:

SECTION i . That the governor of this state, by and with the advice of the honorable
council, is hereby required and authorized, as soon as may be after the passage of this
act, to appoint a state geologist, who shall be a person of competent scientific and
practical knowledge of the sciences of geology and mineralogy ; and said state geolo-
gist shall have power to appoint such suitable person or persons as he may deem neces-
sary to aid him in carrying out the purposes of this act.

SEC. 2. It shall be the duty of said state geologist, as soon as may be practicable
after his appointment, to commence and carry on, with as much expedition and dispatch
as may be consistent with minuteness and accuracy, a thorough geological and mine-
ralogical survey of this state, with a view to discover and examine all beds or deposits
of ore, coal, clay, marls, and such other mineral substances as may be useful or valua-
ble, and to perform such other duties as may be necessary to complete such survey.

SEC. 3. It shall be the further duty of said state geologist to make a brief annual
report of his progress to the secretary of state, who shall submit the same to the legis-
lature, and shall forward from time to time such specimens of mineral substances as may
be proper and necessary to form a complete cabinet collection of specimens of the
geology and mineralogy of the state, as follows, viz. : One complete set to the secre-
tary of state, for preservation at the capitol of the state, which shall be so classified
and arranged as to be accessible to all interested in the mineral capacity of the state,
and one complete set to the museum of the agricultural college, to be used in the
instruction of the young men who may res'ort there for an agricultural education.

14 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

SEC. 4. Whenever said survey shall be completed, a report of the same, accompa-
nied by such maps and drawings as may be necessary to elucidate and exemplify the
same, shall be published under the direction of said state geologist.

SEC. 5. That, for the purpose of carrying into effect the provisions of this act, the
sum of thirty-five hundred dollars ($3,500) is hereby annually appropriated, to be
expended under the direction of the governor and council.

SEC. 6. This act shall take effect from its passage.

[Approved July 3, 1868.]

OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS.

First Annual Report upon the Geology and Mineralogy of the State of New Hamp-
shire. By C. H. Hitchcock, State Geologist. i2mo, 36 pp., i map. Manchester:
John B. Clarke, State Printer, 1869.

Second Annual Report upon the Geology and Mineralogy of the State of New Hamp-
shire. By the same. 8vo, 37 pp., i map. Manchester : John B. Clarke, State Printer,
1870.

Report of the Geological Survey of the State of New Hampshire, showing its pro-
gress during the year 1870. By the same. Svo, 82 pp. Nashua: Orren C. Moore,
State Printer, 1871.

Report of the Geological Survey of the State of New Hampshire, showing its pro-
gress during the year 1871. By the same. Svo, 56 pp., i map. Nashua: Orren C.
Moore, State Printer, 1872.

Report of the Geological Survey of the State of New Hampshire, showing its pro-
gress during the year 1872. By the same. Svo, 15 pp., with heliotype map. Nashua:
Orren C. Moore, State Printer, 1873.

Mt. Washington in Winter, or the experiences of a scientific expedition upon the
highest mountain in New England— 1 870-71. 121110, 363 pp. Boston: Chick &
Andrews, 1871.

Besides these, there have been a few papers read by the state geologist
before scientific associations, and subsequently published, relating to New
Hampshire geology, unfolding more fully than is possible in the annual
reports our ideas of the stratigraphical structure of the state. In fact,
the act specially forbids the presentation of observations at great length,
and therefore we have felt constrained to make the reports very brief. Our
investigations have led to the adoption of new views respecting the geolog-
ical features of New Hampshire, which seem of considerable importance.
They will be unfolded in detail in the volumes now in course of prepara-
tion ; and we must be content at the outset to give a short sketch of the
operations of the survey, as set forth, in the annual reports of progress,

HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 15

partly to trace the rise of the doctrines adopted after much reflection,
and then present the various physical features which lie at the base of
sound geological reasoning.

New Hampshire, in her geographical position and topographical con-
tour-features combined, is unlike any other portion of our land; and,
therefore, it is appropriate to state at the outset what there is peculiar
about her topography, climate, distribution of animal and plant life,
scenery, variation of the magnetic needle, and other points in physical
geography. These involve a history of the artificial boundaries of the
state, notices of maps that have been published, a brief review of scientific
explorations among the White Mountains, a sketch of the theories relat-
ing to the elevation of mountains, earthquakes, and the conclusions that
we have now attained respecting the physical history of the state, or an
account of our territorial limits in the several periods of geological time.
This chapter might be styled an epitome of the geology of New Hamp-
shire.

THE FIRST THREE MONTHS OF LABOR.

The first annual report presents a sketch of the labors of three months
in the field, and is not, properly speaking, an animal report. On the eighth
of September, 1868, I had the honor to receive from His Excellency
Walter Harriman, governor, the notice of my appointment as state geolo-
gist. Though almost too late in the season to commence work, I thought
something might be done, and began the examination of the Ammo-
noosuc gold field. On the ninth of September I started for Lisbon,
stopping on the way at Hanover to arrange for an office and storage
apartment for specimens. As a part of our work, invitations were issued
through all the newspapers of the state, to persons interested in minerals,
to communicate information and forward specimens of interesting and
valuable substances for examination. About eighty answers have been
received to this appeal, from first to last, communicating many facts of
great importance, as well as specimens. The great success of this circu-
lar has satisfied us that the community have been watching the progress
of our work with much interest ; and that those who have been living
among the rocks and hills of New Hampshire will not be satisfied with the

1 6 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

economical results of the survey, but are anxious to understand the causes
of the elevation of the mountains, of the immense foldings and erosions
of the solid ledges, the filling of the rock crevices with metallic ores,
and the formation of the soils.

As soon as possible our corps of observers was organized by the
appointment of George L. Vose of Paris, Me., and J. H. Huntington of
Norwich, Conn., as assistant geologists, and of Prof. E. W. Dimond of
Hanover, as chemist.

Unforeseen circumstances prevented either of the geologists from
entering the field till the spring of 1869. It seemed best to give each of
them a special subject, or a definite area, to investigate. Accordingly the
White Mountain region was assigned to Mr. Vose, and the principal part
of Coos county to Mr. Huntington. Mr. Vose was expected to pay spe-
cial attention to the topography, and, in addition to the delineation of the
geological structure, to furnish the most accurate map of the mountain
region ever drawn.

Inasmuch as Professor Dimond has been continually occupied by other
matters, he has not been able to act as chemist for the survey at any
time. His place in this respect has been supplied by Professor Charles
A. Seely, of New York, and also, to a small extent, by Professor B. T.
Blanpied, of the New Hampshire College of Agriculture and the Me-
chanic Arts.

The third month's exploration was in May, 1 869. Its beginning found
Messrs. Vose and Huntington, with myself, in the field, engaged in deter-
mining the limits of the gold field in the towns of Littleton, Lyman,
Lisbon, Bath, Monroe, Landaff, and Haverhill. There has been little
modification of the results attained at that time, save in greater precision ;
and no portion of our territory has received so much attention as this.

The report proceeds to give the history of the discovery of the gold in
this valley ; a full description of the Dodge gold mining property, with
assays ; a notice of other supposed auriferous openings, with an affirma-
tive answer to the question whether it will pay to mine for gold in New
Hampshire. All these points will be again stated, with additions.

In this pamphlet there appears a colored geological map of the most
interesting part of the gold field, in which, with the accompanying descrip-
tions, may be discerned the germ of our peculiar notions respecting the

HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. I/

structure of all New England. A portion of the map was enlarged, and
hung upon the wall of a room at the state house, near a case of speci-
mens, where those who were interested in the subject could judge of
the correctness of the conclusions.

The description states that "there are two general divisions upon the
map : first, the granitic and gneissic rocks, which appear to be older, and
consequently to underlie the formations of the second or Quebec group?
Explanation is then made of the term "Quebec group," and its use in the
sense in which it was proposed by Sir W. E. Logan stated to be "provi-
sional, and liable to amendment after further explorations shall have made
our knowledge more definite."

The historical importance of the description of the map leads me to
quote it :

A mere glance at the map and accompanying section suggests two conclusions :
First, there is an unusual expansion of the area occupied by the gold rocks north of
Haverliill, which contracts to some extent in the latitude of Littleton. The narrowest
part of the group can be seen by referring to the Vermont Geological Map, and notic-
ing the contracted band, not three miles wide, along Connecticut river. It is not over
four miles wide in any part of its course between Lebanon and Woodville.

Second, the rocks assume the form of a basin or synclinal axis.* To confirm this
view, appeal is made to the general arrangement of the several groups. In the centre
is the auriferous conglomerate, with some of the upper schists. These are inclosed by
a line of dolomite, not represented upon the map ; this by clay slate ; the slate by the
lower green schists which occupy the outer edge of the basin, and adjoin the gneissic
rocks of the White Mountains upon the east, and the calciferous mica schist or supposed
upper Silurian strata on the west in Vermont. Hence the strata in the centre of the
field, the conglomerate, slates, and upper schists lie at the summit of the series, and
were the latest formed. A few words about each sub-division.

1 . Gneissic and Granitic. These rocks consist of gneiss passing into mica schist
and granite. They continue easterly from the gold-field past the White Mountains into
Maine. By way of geographical convenience, they may be called the White Mountain
series. The line of union is irregular, and the bordering rock is not uniform. In Lit-
tleton it is generally granitic ; in Lisbon, gneissic ; more quartzose in Haverliill. A
bed of limestone skirts the border in Lisbon, and its place seems to be taken by soap-
stone in North Haverhill.

2. Staurolite Rock. Adjoining the gneiss, and apparently resting upon it, is a slate
or schist (according to locality) filled with crystals of the mineral staurolite, called

* Shown also farther north. — Geology of Vermont, p. 521.
VOL. I. 3

1 8 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

staurotide in the older mineralogies. Garnets are also present. This rock has not
been seen out of Lisbon and LandafF, and that which lies in Landaff is chiefly garnet-
iferous. More labor is required to fix the limits and proper relations of this rock. At
almost any outcrop good specimens of staurolite may be obtained in abundance.

3. Next are Argillaceous Schists, passing into clay slate. This rock differs from clay
slate farther west, and receives no color on the map to separate it from the next divi-
sion. A line drawn from the south branch of the Ammonoosuc in Lisbon to the
east line of Bath shows its western border. It may contain garnets and staurolite, and
carries quartz veins worthy of examination for gold.

4. Lower Schists. These belong to the lower part of the Quebec group. They are
chiefly a greenish, unctuous schist, sometimes massive, the same with that usually called
" talcose schist." As the unctuous character seems to be derived from the alumina
present, we shall often style them aluminous schists. Marked varieties occur over the
wide area representing this division, as hornblende and chlorite schist, greenish quartz-
ites, sandstones and conglomerates, white quartz, etc. Within it are beds of dolomite,
limestone, buhrstone, the copper belt, and veins of iron pyrites. It would seem as if
there were an anticlinal axis in the west part of the area of this group, followed by a
synclinal in the east.

5. Clay Slate. This rock is abundant in the central part of the series, and carries
the gold veins akin to the Dodge lead. That which lies in Bath is often grayish. Its
distribution is quite irregular, and there are several patches of it, apparently outliers,
in two of which are slate quarries. The dolomite next the conglomerate is frequently
imbedded in this dark slate. In the more northern part of the dolomite, the rock is
more schistose.

6. Auriferous Conglomerate. An immense number of facts of scientific interest in
regard to this curious belt have been obtained, but their publication must be deferred.
The rock is a clear quartz conglomerate, from ten to one hundred feet wide, extending
from the east part of Lyman into Bath. As it can be readily recognized, and resists
decomposition, it furnishes an excellent landmark by which one can discover the won-
derful foldings, overturns, and dislocations in the strata. Instead of following a straight
course, its line of outcrop is sharply tortuous, and a fault has often thrown the rock out
of its line, in one case a distance of eleven hundred feet. These variations are shown
in-the large manuscript map spoken of above, and on the printed map, as well as the
scale will permit, by the red line. That this rock overlies the slate, is shown by the
general synclinal character of the country, and its encirclement by the clay slate which
both accommodates itself to the very tortuous course in Bath, and dips beneath it on
the east, south, and west sides.* That it overlies the lower schists seems proved by the
presence in it of pebbles of quartz containing chlorite, jasper, and buhrstone, all of
•which have been observed exclusively in that member.

7. Upper Schists. These are partly very light colored, and partly quite siliceous as

* This view has been modified by later researches.

HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 19

well as unctuous. They bound the clay slate on the west side, near the Dodge mine ;
while near their eastern limit is the auriferous quartz vein described as the property
of the New Hampshire Gold Mining Company. The color and aspect of this group
change in proceeding southerly.
8. The Copper Belt.

Upon the map is a section from Bronson's lime-kiln to the Connecticut
river, near Stevens village, in Barnet. The dips and general arrangement
are the same with what will be described hereafter. Two faults are rep-
resented, whose extent, but not existence, may be somewhat modified in
future descriptions.

Copper Mines. Next, a considerable space is devoted to a description
of numerous copper veins, chiefly along Gardner's Mountain range. The
general conclusions then reached have been confirmed by subsequent
researches. Only the conclusions need be referred to in this sketch, as
the details will be given hereafter.

In brief, it may be said of the Gardner Mountain range of copper veins,
that they consist of schists charged with the sulphurets of iron and cop-
per, averaging less than five per cent, before concentration ; that they are
conveniently situated with respect to drainage and to water-power. As
several mines are contiguous, adits, mills, and tramways might be con-
structed for the mutual benefit of several proprietors, with a comparatively
small proportionate outlay for each. It was understood that some of these
proprietors had arranged for the concentration of the ores at the new mills
soon to be constructed in the west corner of Lisbon. The working of
these copper veins, if conducted with prudence and wisdom, will undoubt-
edly be remunerative ; and when the enterprise is fairly inaugurated, a
large number of workmen will be employed, and a new impetus given to
the industry of the whole community.

Miscellaneous Topics. Other topics treated of were the zinc or copper
mine at Warren ; the nature and extent of peat deposits ; an enumeration
of beds of limestone suitable for manufacture into quick-lime ; agricultural
deductions for the Coos region ; economical statistics and statements
about the museums. Great interest in the survey among the people was
also spoken of. This manifested itself very pleasantly in acts tending to

2O PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

forward our researches. Some hotel proprietors refused to accept of
compensation for accommodation received ; others reduced the ordinary
rates for our benefit ; many occupants of private houses freely tendered
their hospitalities ; some have gone with us to point out localities of
interest ; and for six weeks so many carriages were placed at our disposal
that there was no occasion to hire a team. Every one with whom we
came in contact, from highest to lowest, expressed an interest in our
work, and no one, to our knowledge, spoke of it disparagingly. These
many favors greatly stimulated us in our work. Acknowledgment was
also made of the important aid furnished by the newspapers. They
promptly circulated our original appeal for aid, and have always been
ready to help us subsequently.

The authorities of Dartmouth college generously provided rooms to
serve as an office and working apartment, as well as for the exhibition
and storage of specimens, till a building could be erected for their accom-
modation. Lastly, a few names of individuals were given who had ten-
dered us special courtesies.

SECOND ANNUAL REPORT.

This continues the history from June r, 1869, for one year. It com-
mences with statements respecting the importance of a new topograph-
ical map of the state, that might serve for the proper delineation of the
geological boundaries. One of the first inquiries made at the beginning of
the New Hampshire explorations, related to the character of the maps in
use, that I might learn with how great precision the position and courses
of the several mineral veins and rock deposits could be delineated. I
found that a map had been issued, under the authority of the state, in 1816,
by Philip Carrigain. This seems to have been a very fair delineation of
the natural and civil boundaries at the time of its appearance. But there
are serious errors in it of latitude and longitude. Nearly half the boun-
dary lines have since been altered, whether of the towns, or the limits
between adjoining territories; and, moreover, the plates are not to be
found. Then the whole face of the country has been altered since 1816;
large tracts of forest have been reclaimed and occupied by village sites ;
numerous roads and railroads have been constructed, — so that Carrigain's
map does not meet the necessities of either practical or scientific pur-

HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 21

poses at the present day. There have been smaller maps also constructed,
most of which are inferior to Carrigain's for accuracy, as they certainly
are in the style of execution.

Besides this, other map material exists. There are, first, the county
maps, prepared chiefly by Prof. H. F. Walling, at an expense of over
$20,000. These present the roads with great accuracy, and likewise the
names of the owners of every house at the time of the surveys. Being
on a large scale, and published mostly about 1860, the boundaries and
names agree essentially with what they are at present, and the surveys
were quite accurate. Secondly, a considerable triangulation has been
effected by the United States Coast Survey over fully a third part of the
state. By means of their triangles a score or more points are definitely
fixed in respect to latitude and longitude, and that as correctly as is pos-
sible, through the unequalled accuracy of the Coast Survey engineers.
Thirdly, there exists a very careful delineation of the boundary between
New Hampshire and Canada, prepared in 1844, under the direction of the
governments of the United States of America and Great Britain, Colonel
Graham being the commissioner on the part of the United States. Lastly,
there are the reports of commissioners concerning the boundaries between
New Hampshire and Maine, between New Hampshire and Massachusetts,
and there are two local maps of the White Mountain region, all of which
are accessible.

On further inquiry it was ascertained that in 1853 the legislature
appointed a commissioner to report upon the expediency of preparing a
new topographical map of the state. The report was presented the fol-
lowing year by Prof. John S. Woodman, of Hanover, who briefly recited
the errors in Carrigain's and other maps, and carefully estimated the
expense of preparing a new draft based upon the government work just
alluded to, and upon new surveys. He showed that such a map would
involve an expense of thirty or forty thousand dollars. No action was
taken upon this report by the legislature.

It appeared to me that the chief part of the surveys requisite for the
proper delineation of a new map of the state had been made since 1854,
so that by a careful collation of the abundant material, coupled with some
additional triangulation and river surveys, a new map might be prepared,
sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes, which would require a very

22 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

small appropriation compared with the sum estimated by the commis-
sioner in 1854. A letter was accordingly addressed to His Excellency
the Governor, and the Honorable Council, in which the foregoing facts
were recited, and the proposal was made that, without asking for any
additional appropriations, the geologist would cause a new map of the
state, upon the scale of two and a half miles to the inch, to be prepared,
and that this work might be considered as involved in the act authorizing
the survey. The council approved of this proposition May 13, 1869; and
since that time measures have been taken to prepare the map, in connec-
tion with the other work.

TOPOGRAPHICAL WORK PERFORMED.

The most important topographical work performed this year is embodied
in a report by Prof. E. T. Quimby, of Dartmouth college, most of which
is presented in the chapter upon topography.

Next should be mentioned the labors of Mr. Vose. He spent a few
weeks among the White Mountains, taking a large number of observa-
tions for the purpose of fixing the exact position of many of the high
mountain peaks. His observations serve to fix the latitudes and longi-
tudes of Mt. Passaconnaway, Waterville ; Mt. Pequawket, Chatham ; Mt.
Whiteface, Waterville ; and Mt. Chocorua, Albany. From Mts. Pequaw-
ket and Chocorua, Mr. Vose drew accurate sketches of all the mountains
as seen along the New Hampshire horizon. The instrument used was a
six-inch theodolite, kindly loaned for the purpose by the United States
Coast Survey. Mr. Vose also made observations upon the geology of
the region, which were mostly printed in the report for 1871. In the
month of August he resigned his position on the survey.

During all the seasons of field work our parties have been supplied
with county maps, and have carefully noted the changes or alterations
required for the perfection of the general map. These will be embodied
upon our large geological map. For the sake of determining the forma-
tions in the Ammonoosuc gold field with accuracy, we commenced during
this season a topographical survey of a few square miles of the most
valuable portion, upon the scale of five hundred feet to the inch. With
the aid of J. H. Huntington, A. C. Page of Center Harbor, and A. A.

HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 23

Woolson of Lisbon, two square miles of the territory were surveyed.
The intention was to set stakes at the corners of every block of five
hundred feet square, and thus to locate the formations with great
definiteness.

At the request of the commissioners appointed to consider the propri-
ety of establishing a survey of the water-power of New Hampshire, we
prepared a map of the state, upon the scale of ten miles to the inch,
showing by colors the areas drained respectively by the Connecticut,
Androscoggin, Saco, Piscataqua, and Merrimack rivers. It was compiled
from our data by Mr. Huntington. The map accompanied the report of
the hydrographic commissioners. A copy from the same plate, with
changes and additions, was presented with our second report, designed
to illustrate the distribution of the granite and the progress of our trian-
gulation, as well as some of the geological formations.

MEASURING HEIGHTS.

In May, 1870, a trip was taken by Mr. Huntington to determine the
relative altitudes of the passes along the principal White Mountain range
between the Crawford house and Waterville. The snow had not entirely
disappeared, so that the expedition was of a very laborious character.
The results are given elsewhere.

A thorough knowledge of the general elevation of the land of the state
being very important, measures were taken early towards the obtaining
of exact altitudes in the interior. Upon examining various railroad
surveys, discrepancies appeared, so that they could not be relied upon.
Two lines of survey running lengthwise of the state were therefore
devised, — one from Portsmouth (or Great bay) through Manchester, Con-
cord, and the Connecticut valley to Connecticut lake; the other from
Lowell, Mass., to connect with the other survey at Lancaster. The
final conclusions appear in another chapter; but the work was com-
menced early in the second season. Messrs. Frank and H. D. Wood-
bridge, of Dartmouth college, obtained, by actual levelling much of the
way, facts which fixed the height of the barometer at the Shattuck obser-
vatory, in Hanover, at 603.71 feet above mean tide-water. A few com-
putations were made, also, by a comparison of barometical observations
at the Shattuck observatory, and the top of Mt. Moosilauke.

24 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

MOUNTAIN EXPLORATIONS.

During the second year, the Moosilauke winter exploration was carried
out by J. H. Huntington and Amos F. Clough. This is sketched, as fully
as needed for our purposes, in the chapter upon the history of explora-
tions among the White Mountains.

Possibly there may be space, in the chapters upon scenery, to quote
from Mr. Vose's report upon an ascent of Mt. Carrigain, made during
this year.

MEASURING SECTIONS.

In a letter directed to Rev. Dr. Asa D. Smith, President of the New
Hampshire College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts, and printed in
his report for 1869, I set forth my views as to the best method of exhib-
iting the specimens of rocks collected during our explorations. It was sug-
gested that these should be collected along lines about fifteen or twenty
miles apart, running east and west, and parallel to one another, amounting
to fourteen in number in all. These lines were called lines of section,
because it was proposed to show, in connection with the specimens, a
geological profile and section. This method of studying the geological
structure of the state readily commends itself to every mind.

We crossed the state eight times during this season in endeavoring to
measure these sections. The lines of section thus measured are, —

I. From Lawrence, Mass., along the south border of the state, to Con-
necticut river.

II. From Seabrook to Chesterfield.

III. From Portsmouth to Walpole.

IV. From Great Falls to Charlestown.

V. From Milton to Cornish.

VI. From Effingham to Hanover.

VII. From Errol to Stratford.

VIII. From Atkinson and Gilmanton Academy grant to Stewartstown.
The last two were traversed by Mr. Huntington on foot, as they lie

chiefly in the unbroken forest. Two sets of specimens have been col-
lected along these routes.

HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 25

EXAMINATION OF Coos COUNTY.

One of the most laborious parts of our work accomplished this year
has been the exploration of about six hundred and seventy square miles
of territory, in the north part of Coos county, by Mr. Huntington. The
country is mostly unsettled, and consequently travelling is restricted to
the most primitive methods, and all supplies are carried on one's back.
The same is true of all specimens collected, which were at least a thousand
in number, from the forest region. But the information acquired has been
most important. As will be seen by the map, the line has been clearly
drawn between the White Mountain series of granitic or gneissic rocks,
and the dark slates and schists of newer formations. The latter are
sub-divided into eight different bands, and a county map has been col-
ored to show them. Two matters of economical interest have been
developed, — the first, the existence of alluvial gold along Indian and Perry
streams ; and the second, the existence of large beds of serpentine north
of Carlisle's grant, a few miles south-west from the crown monument, at
the angle between -New Hampshire, Maine, and the province of Quebec.
The latter is, of course, too remote to be available for the arts at present,
though the time is coming when it will be used. The gold is not unlike
that of Lyman, judging from the character of the underlying rocks, but
more closely resembles that mined a short distance over the line, where
J. H. Pope, member of parliament, of Cookshire, province of Quebec, has
been profitably extracting gold by sluices for several years. Mr. Hunt-
ington's specimens are quite large pieces of shot gold, of the same
purity with that obtained by milling in Lisbon. It is not improbable
that the gold can be profitably extracted both from the soil and the
rock near the extreme northern boundary; and the proprietors of the
large tracts of land there would do well to expend a few hundred dollars
in testing the value of these auriferous deposits.

MISCELLANEOUS.

There are further remarks upon the agricultural character of lands
along Connecticut river; operations of the gold mining company in
Lyman and Lisbon ; notice of Mr. Vose's report ; the Carroll county lead
VOL. i. 4

26 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

mine; other mining properties, particularly beds of pyrites in Croydon,
Unity, Lebanon, etc. ; G. A. Wheelock's researches about Keene ; various
brief excursions ; and the map of Dalton.

It was stated in the first report that very material aid might be fur-
nished us in our explorations if the proprietors of large tracts of land
would aid us in tracing out the formations upon lands in which they feel
an interest. This appeal was immediately answered by J. B. Sumner,
Esq., of Dalton, who furnished the means for a careful survey of the
township of Dalton. The work was performed by Mr. Huntington, who
prepared a map of the township, on the scale of one hundred and six rods
to the inch, showing the several formations, as well as the courses of the
metallic veins and the location of mineral deposits. A copy of this was
sent to Mr. Sumner, with an explanation of the significance of the
several colors. The facts ascertained are all embodied in our general
geological map.

THE NEW MAP OF THE SECOND YEAR.

The map of the state spoken of above showed several geological fea-
tures, under the following headings: I. White Mountain, or gneissic
series. 2. Sienite group of Exeter and Dover. 3. Porphyritic gran-
ite. 4. Common granite. 5. Merrimack group. 6. Quebec group.
7. Coos group. 8. Calciferous mica schist. 9. Clay slates. The re-
marks made about them are here reproduced, in substance:

I. White Mountain or Gneissic Series . In our report of last year this term was used
to indicate the general mass of gneissic and granitic rocks of the state, including desig-
nations three and four of the present map. It occupies four fifths of the area of the
state ; and it will be a leading object of our survey to discover the relations of the sev-
eral members of the group to one another. It may not be amiss to state that the clue
to the structure of the whole has probably been discovered, and that, by diligence and
discrimination, it can be completely followed out. The practical advantages of this
knowledge can hardly be overrated, since information will at once be afforded restrict-
ing the occurrence of valuable minerals to narrow areas, where the proper research will
develop them. I refer to such minerals as the soapstone of Francestown, the pyrites
of Sullivan county, the mica of Grafton, granites, limestone, feldspar, tin, lead, etc.

I am satisfied that the following are some of the subdivisions of this group, which
further explorations will enable us to define with precision: I, normal gneiss ; 2, fer-
ruginous gneiss; 3, granitic gneiss; 4, feldspathic mica schist; 5, andalusite gneiss;

HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 2/

6, chiastolite slates; 7, granite; 8, sienite ; 9, porphyritic granite; 10, quartzites; n,
limestones ; 12, soapstones. Little doubt remains as to the Eozoic or pre-Silurian age
of this entire series.

2. Sienite of Exeter and Dover. There appear to be sienitic rocks of probable Lau-
rentian age, equivalent to the Ouincy sienitic group of Massachusetts, prominently
exposed along the Boston & Maine Railroad, between Massachusetts and Maine,
especially in the towns of Exeter and Dover. They form, apparently, an anticlinal
mass, overlaid by the Merrimack slates.

3. Porphyritic Granite. Common granite full of large crystals of feldspar, generally
from one half of one to two inches long, which give a checked appearance to the ledges.
Some portions of it have evidently been injected ; while the arrangement of the feld-
spathic crystals, in parallel lines, leads to the suspicion of stratification in other cases.
The area is probably very irregular.

4. Common Granite. The granite of New Hampshire seems to have originated at
five different periods. First are the (a) indigenous and (£) eruptive granites of the
White Mountain series ; second, the (c) indigenous granites of the Merrimack group,
in which none of the eruptive class have yet been seen ; third, the (d) indigenous and
(e) eruptive granites of the Cob's and calciferous mica schist groups.

5. Merrimack Group. This name was informally applied by my father to the mica
schists, slates, and quartzites contained in the valley of the Merrimack river, in Massa-
chusetts. They skirt the Exeter sienites in New Hampshire, lying in troughs, on the
flanks of an anticlinal. They probably belong to the earliest Silurian series.

6. Quebec Group. Lower Silurian, according to Sir William E. Logan, and largely
developed in northern Cob's county, the Ammonoosuc gold field, and along the Connec-
ticut river, chiefly in Vermont, to Bellows Falls.

7. Cobs Group. Under this appellation, for want of a better name, are included the
argillaceous schists, whetstone mica schists, grits, etc., of northern Coos county, as
explored by Mr. Huntington, the similar and associated rocks in Barford, Hereford,
Auckland, etc., province of Quebec, and Essex county, Vermont, the quartzites, stau-
rolite rocks, micaceous schists, hornblende schists, perhaps gneiss, protogine, and other
rocks west of the White Mountain series and east of the Connecticut river, along the
whole of western New Hampshire, but excluding the calciferous mica schist (8). The
unity of the series, its age, thickness, and relations to the Quebec group, (8)
remain to be defined. It appears clearly to overlie the White Mountain series uncon-
formably. The calciferous mica schist and the clay slate groups seem to be limited
outliers.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

The assistants of the second year were J. H. Huntington of Hanover, G. L. Vose of
Paris, Me., Prof. E. T. Quimby of Hanover, Prof. E. P. Barrows of Middletown, Conn.,
T. M. Blossom of New York city, A. C. Page of Center Harbor, E. R. H. Hodgman
of Mason, A. A. Woolson of Lisbon, and Prof. C. A. Seely of New York. The friends

28

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

who are specially mentioned as having aided the work were Hon. Samuel N. Bell of
Manchester, H. H. Harriman of Warner, Hon. Moses A. Hodgdon of Weare, John
J. Bell of Exeter, Prof. C. A. Young of Hanover, Dr. E. E. Phelps of Windsor, Vt.,
Geo. E. Jenks of Concord, Chase & Howe of the Winslow house, Wilmot, Daniel
Pecker of Raymond, William Little and John A. Riddle of Manchester, George
A. Wheelock of Keene, J. H. Pope, M. P., of Cookshire, P. Q., F. C. Jacobs of Con-
necticut lake, C. P. Richardson of Mason Village, Prof. S. C. Chandler of East Mid-
dlebury, Vt., Trustees of Dartmouth college, American Geographical Society of New
York, Gyles Merrill of St. Albans, Vt., A. H. Perry of Lyndonville, Vt., George A.
Merrill of Rutland, Vt., O. T. Ruggles of Fitchburg, Mass., R. Stewart of Keene, J.
A. Dodge of Plymouth, G. E. Todd and H. E. Chamberlain of Concord, and George
Stark of Nashua.

The report closes with a notice of the progress made in erecting a
building at Hanover for the reception of one of the geological collections,
and a request that a place might be fitted up for the reception of the
other at Concord.

CASTELLATED RIDGE OF MT. JEFFERSON.

CHAPTER III.

HISTORY OF THE SURVEY COIltimied.

E now reach an epoch in the history of our explorations when it
may be more profitable to treat of the subjects of research each
by itself, than to speak of the yearly progress in each. The time had
arrived when we began to understand the structure of the White Moun-
tains, which knowledge proved to be the key to that of the rest of the
state. The field had been assigned to Mr. Vose originally ; but his resig-
nation left the place vacant, and it became the duty of the state geologist
to explore the territory in person. The special plan pursued in 1870
may be thus described.

This laborious field of research includes particularly the region about
thirty miles long and twelve or fifteen wide, bounded by Israel's, Moose,
Peabody, Ellis, and Saco rivers. This area is nearly an unbroken forest,
traversed only by the bridle-paths and roads required for the ascent of
Mt. Washington by summer visitors. The plan pursued was, to visit sys-
tematically every one of the numerous peaks and valleys composing this
area with the hammer and barometer. As the first result of our labors
in the district specified, a physical model of the mountainous region was
constructed, about five feet in length, on the scale of one hundred and
forty rods to the inch horizontally, and one thousand feet to three fourths
of -an inch vertically. Contour lines were drawn for each five hundred
feet, and were made the basis for fashioning the mountains. With our

3O PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

limited resources, much reliance was placed upon estimates of the loca-
tion of the contour lines, without actual measurement. Hence this model
is only an approximation to a correct representation, but is sufficiently
accurate to enable all interested in the study of the mountains to compre-
hend the relative altitudes and courses of the ranges, especially as they
stand related to the distribution of the formations.

After the exhibition of this model in public, information was furnished
that a model of the White Mountains had been fashioned in plaster, sev-
eral years since, by Rev. Dr. Thomas Hill, lately president of Harvard
college. This was upon a much smaller scale, about eighteen inches
square, and was built up upon the basis of Bond's Map of the White
Mountains, published in 1853. It includes the Franconia region, and all
the mountains as far south as Waterville and Conway. An inspection
of this representation shows great familiarity with the structure of the
mountains, and it is a matter of regret that its existence has been known
to so few persons. A copy of it has been presented to us by the author,
and is placed in the state museum at Hanover.

So numerous were the localities requiring visitation, that six of the
members of the class of 1871 of Dartmouth college, C. S. D., were in-
vited to assist in the work of exploration. These were B. W. Andrews,
W. B. Douglass, C. J. Johnson, J. F. Pratt, E. Thompson, and Frank
Woodbridge. Aid was also furnished by J. H. Huntington, Dr. Nathan
Barrows, and E. Hitchcock, Jr. We procured the necessary provisions
and other supplies, and lived among the mountains, in extempore camps,
till the various points had been explored and the required observations
made. Without so many assistants, the early completion of the model
would have been impossible ; and all who take pleasure in contemplating
the results are under obligations to these gentlemen for their very
arduous labors.

That it is very difficult to climb high mountains is a statement which
no one will deny. Most persons who visit our New Hampshire mountains
are well satisfied with their labors when a single peak has been ascended
on foot. They are willing to accept almost any theory that may be pro-
posed to explain their geological structure, because immense labor would
be required to disprove it. The task before us was the dissipation of
all false notions, and the discovery of the real stratigraphical structure

HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 3 1

of the rocky masses, by careful induction. The whole party were ani-
mated with the desire to accomplish this object, and therefore visited
the almost inaccessible peaks and ravines, one after another, till all had
been explored. The actual exertion often put forth for procuring a single
specimen was greater than to pass over Mt. Washington on foot, by the
paths. Its location may have been three or four thousand feet above the
camp, and the country to be travelled was the original forest, never before
traversed except by hunters, full of underbrush, fallen trees, and at the
higher elevations consisting of the stiff dwarf spruces, through which trav-
elling is almost impossible. After overcoming the difficulties of threading
the forest and ascending the precipices, the rarified air of the upper re-
gions has made even slight exertions burdensome. We take great pleas-
ure, therefore, in pointing to the results of our labors, as they have been
acquired only through infinite toil ; and we feel sure that if our generali-
zations are not accepted, it will be a long time before any other party will
labor so hard as we have done to disprove our theories.

A sketch of the various opinions that have been entertained respecting
the age and structure of the White Mountains was presented at some
length in the report for 1870; also, further definitions respecting the Coos
group, and the manner in which the valley of the White Mountain notch
had been excavated. The conclusions expressed concerning the strati-
graphical structure have not been modified by subsequent explorations.
The following opinion is expressed as to the age of the series :

In fine, the White Mountain rocks are believed to belong to two great
systems, the Gneissic and the Coos group. The first are, for convenience,
called the White Mountain series ; and in the area of the model are vari-
ous imperfect gneisses, verging into mica schists, a few beds of genuine
gneiss, granitic gneiss, andalusite gneiss and granite, both bedded and in
veins. These rocks appear to underlie the Coos group, and are therefore
older. The presumption is that they are entirely Eozoic, though it is not
clear whether they are to be considered as the equivalent of the Lauren-
tian of Canada, or more nearly the age of the Cambrian of Great Britain,
as restricted by the government survey.

This White Mountain series has a great development in the middle and
southern parts of the state, perhaps embracing everything not included in
the Exeter, Merrimack, and Coos groups. Its satisfactory reference to

32 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

the Eozoic series will enable us to clear up the obscurities of New Hamp-
shire geology, and make the study of our strata as interesting as that of
the well-established fossiliferous groups in other parts of the country.

WHITE MOUNTAIN EXPLORATIONS IN 1871.

The most valuable of all our reports is that which details the operations
for 1871. The conclusions stated had been foreshadowed by the results
of the previous years' explorations, but were rendered much more satis-
factory by our labors in the area lying between the Saco and Pemige-
wasset rivers, and north of Sandwich.

On the seventeenth of June, with the assistance of eleven gentlemen
from the graduating class at Dartmouth college, the exploration of the
Pemigewasset country was commenced, and continued uninterruptedly
for a month. These gentlemen kindly proffered their services without
charge, and deserve the thanks of the community for their exertions in
our behalf. Some have imagined the party as enjoying the luxuries of
the season in the cushioned seats of the well appointed hotels about the
mountains, with every want eagerly anticipated by dutiful attendants. On
the contrary, our houses were hastily extemporized sheds ; our beds, a few
boughs or ferns placed upon boards ; our food consisted of stale crackers
and preserved meats, save a rare taste of trout and berries gathered in
climbing mountains, and the luxury of an occasional basket of provisions
sent by kind friends at the Profile house ; and we were our own servants.
The party consisted of A. A. Abbott, M. O. Adams, A. M. Bacheler, R.
M. Carleton, C. H. Conant, G. E. Davis, H. C. Harrison, C. W. Hoitt,
Jonathan Smith, W. Upham, A. W. Waters. All these gentlemen con-
tributed something towards the accumulation of facts bearing upon the
important questions discussed in the first part of the report. Messrs.
Conant and Smith were so fortunate as to discover a new lake on the
north-west side of Haystack mountain, which we christened Haystack
lake. It is parallelogramic in shape, fifteen rods long and half as wide,
with rather shallow water, forming the head waters of Gale river, three
thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven feet above tide-water, as deter-
mined by the aneroid barometer. Messrs. Abbott and Bacheler suc-
ceeded in discovering a second lake, still larger, upon the east side of
Mt. Kinsman, named, as the other, after the mountain. Others of the

HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 33

party measured the length of the profile of the "Old Man of the Moun-
tains," finding it to be thirty-six feet from chin to top of the head, — the
face itself being twelve hundred feet above the lake beneath. Soon after
the disbanding of the first, a new party was formed, consisting of A. A.
Abbott, W. Flint, and W. Upham, with the aid of E. C. Atwood for a
short period. This second party remained, some of them, two months
longer, exploring the country as far south as Sandwich.

DESCRIPTION OF THE MAP.

With the report there appeared a geological map embodying the results of all our ex-
plorations. The colors upon the map indicated the geographical relations of ten groups.
In the absence of precise knowledge, spaces were left uncolored in certain districts.
The topographical basis is the map of C. H. V. Cavis, prepared for Eastman's White
Mountain Guide, upon the scale of five miles to the inch, it being the most convenient
one accessible to us. On account of the difficulties in the way of exploring among the
mountains, which have already been described, this delineation can only be regarded
as a reconnoissance, especially as the true position of the rocks did not suggest itself
till late in the spring of 1872, when the field notes were being compared with specimens.
The areas will be briefly mentioned, and the most important conclusions dwelt upon
at length.

1. Porphyritic Gneiss. This is an ordinary gneiss, carrying numerous crystals of
orthoclase or potash-feldspar, from a quarter of one to two inches long. The longer
axes may be parallel to the strike, or arranged helter-skelter. It passes into granite
with the same porphyritic peculiarity of structure. Its most northern area lies along
the Ammonoosuc river in Bethlehem, Littleton, and Whitefield. Next, commencing
west of Haystack mountain, at some unknown point, is another range, which passes
southerly on the west flank of Profile mountain, and makes up the great mass of Kins-
man or Blue mountain; thence passes southerly to Woodstock and Campton. -It
crops out on the west side of Moosilauke — how extensively has never been determined.
A spur from this appears at the Lake of the Clouds on Mt. Lafayette, and passes
southerly towards the Basin. It may occupy part of the uncolored area west of the
Lafayette range. Upon the other side of the Pemigewasset country, this formation
shows itself in the valley of Sawyer's river, on the south side of Mt. Carrigain. It is
there covered by compact feldspar. It reappears in Waterville, on Cascade brook,
Snow's mountain, Bald Knob, and upon other high mountains in Sandwich, whence it
passes out of the limits of the map. We suppose this to be the oldest formation
among the mountains. Geologists speak of a rock of this character as common in the
Laurentian, in various parts of North America and Europe.

2. Bethlehem Gneiss. The whole of Bethlehem is underlaid by a gneiss abounding
in a talcoid mineral, perhaps pinite. The orthoclase is abundant, usually pink or flesh

VOL. I. 5

34 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

colored, and mica is sparsely disseminated through the rock. It is usually granitic, so
much so that it has always been called granite heretofore. Its most remarkable feature
consists in the common east and west strike between Littleton and Cherry mountain.
In Whitefield, Mr. Huntington finds the rock tending more north-easterly. Lying be-
tween outcrops of porphyritic gneiss, the natural inference is that it is a synclinal, and
therefore newer, while the strike indicates a very great antiquity, judging from the same
phenomenon elsewhere. The dip is monoclinal, averaging 75° northerly, across Beth-
lehem, but anticlinal in Whitefield. If the anticlinal structure is persistent, evidence
may be afforded that this peculiar gneiss is older than No. I . There is a limited out-
lier of this rock west of Haystack mountain, another north-west of Mt. Pemigewasset,
a third about Big Coolidge mountain in Franconia, and perhaps another south of the
east branch of the Pemigewasset. These limited outliers give the idea of a rock
newer than No. I. The boulders scattered to the north of Lafayette, in Franconia
and Bethlehem, which Professor Agassiz regards as moraines of a local glacier push-
ing northerly, are composed of this rock.

3. Gneiss. The gneiss west of No. i, in Franconia and Landaff, and also to a limited
extent east of the Labrador felsite on Tripyramid, is a common variety, and has not
yet been referred to any of the sub-divisions recognized elsewhere.

4. White Mountain or Andalusite Gneiss. This is the variety described in previous
reports as containing andalusite or staurolite. It occupies the great part of the White
Mountain area east of the Saco, making up the bulk of the highest peaks. It reap-
pears on equally extended a scale south of Mts. Pequawket, Chocorua, and Whiteface.
About Dr. Bemis's residence, or the "Mt. Crawford house" of the map, this rock
seems to be isolated, being surrounded by granite. A little of it lies to the north of
the Labrador in Albany, and is not represented upon the map. Farther north it crops
out in Whitefield, and there is a range apparently from the west flank of Profile moun-
tain to Moosilauke. More is found in Thornton, and there is an extensive area of it
to the south-west, which is not designated upon the map. The presumption is that the
beryl-bearing gneiss east of the Pemigewasset, on the edge of Woodstock and Thorn-
ton, is the same rock which extends into Campton. The amount of andalusite in this
area is very small. The relative position of the andalusite gneiss remains to be
determined. It seems to be newer than Nos. i and 2, but its relations to the
granites and felsites are yet to be made out.

5. Common Granite. The type of this rock appears at the Basin, Pool, and Flume
in Franconia, and at Goodrich's falls in Jackson. The constituents are rather coarse,
never more than an inch, and usually one fourth of an inch long. The orthoclase is
commonly flesh-colored, and is the most abundant ingredient. The quartz is smoky,
translucent, and ofte.n roughly crystallized. The mica is the least abundant of the
three constituents, and is black. The joints passing through this rock are both hori-
zontal and vertical. This rock seems to form the basis of the whole Pemigewasset
country, and the areas left blank will most likely be found to consist of this same ma-
terial. The first area is that in Franconia, embracing the Profile and Cannon moun-

HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 35

tains, besides the parts already specified. The mountains show a finer grained rock
than the valleys. Some of it seems to extend into the uncolored area between No. I
and the Lafayette range. This probably connects under Flume mountain with the
granites on the East Branch in Lincoln and Thornton. More appears near the forks
of the East Branch, Hancock mountain, and the ridge north, including the falls in
the valley of Mad river in Waterville, abundantly in the Swift River valley in Albany,
and about Conway, passing under Pequawket, and extending into the Green Hills. The
small area of Bald Face and Mt. Eastman in Chatham has a fine grain, and possibly
is of a different age.

The largest area of this rock upon the map extends from Jackson to Carroll. The
Saco valley above Rocky Branch is mostly excavated out of it. The excavation of the
White Mountain notch out of this granite was alluded to last year. The high range north
from Mt. Lowell to Mt. Willard is probably of this rock. East of the Saco the andalu-
site gneiss seems to have been cut by it, Mts. Crawford and Resolution being composed
of granite. Mt. Deception, and the country east of the old Fabyan house, are made up
of a different sort of a granite, whitish or grayish in color, with the feldspar in narrow
crystals, porphyritic in appearance. But the range from the north end of Mt. Tom to
the lower falls on the Ammonoosuc, and the three " Sugar Loaves" farther west, are
entirely of the typical variety of coarse granite.

6. Tr achy tic Granite. Above No. 5, with the same horizontal appearance, is a
granite of trachytic or semi-porphyritic aspect. The feldspar is orthoclase, as shown
by analysis, and most of the rock is made of it, being essentially rounded crystals
imbedded in a granitic paste, with scarcely any quartz, and rarely a peppering of dark
mica. It often contains a small per cent, of manganese. The first great expanse of this
rock lies between the saw-mill of Rounsevel & Coburn, in Carroll, on the Ammonoosuc,
and Waterville. The Twin Mountains, Haystack, a portion of the Lafayette range
beneath the cap, Mts. Liberty, Osceola, and other high peaks, are mainly composed of
this trachytic granite. It will be observed that this area is wholly in the forest region,
untraversed by roads ; hence it is not strange that its peculiar characters should not
have been recognized earlier. There is some of this rock north of Mt. Carrigain, and
the Sawyer's Rock range appears to belong here. Other localities are high up Rocky
Branch in Bartlett, Iron mountain, the valley of the Saco in Bartlett, underlying the
great mass of Pequawket, but above the common granite. The rock referred to this
division, along the Swift river and the Ossipee mountains, is made of finer materials,
with more of the paste, and that of a darker color than the ledges farther west. It
also disintegrates less readily.

7. Brecciated Granite. This designation applies to the rocks forming Eagle cliff
in Franconia, and several nameless peaks between Profile and Kinsman. The frag-
ments most easily recognized are those of porphyritic gneiss, dark gneiss, and horn-
blende, imbedded in a very compact feldspathic paste. Along Eagle cliff there are
appearances of stratification, and at Echo lake the brecciated granite appears to
underlie the porphyritic gneiss. The rock is irregular in arrangement, as if thrust

36 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

up from below. As it contains no fragment of the common or trachytic granite,
we have concluded it to be more ancient than either of these granites, but newer
than the porphyritic gneiss. The two areas are also probably connected beneath the
Pemigewasset valley, under the common coarse granite, which either flowed in above
the breccia, or was deposited upon it quietly in some other way.

8. Norian. This includes several areas of labradorite rock, including compact
felsites, breccias, and sienites. They are the Lafayette range, Twin Mountain area, near
Loon pond, Trypyramid region, Carrigain district, north of Mt. Tom, valley of Dry
river, valley of Rocky Branch, Sable mountain in Jackson, Mt. Pequawket or Kiarsarge,
Deer River valley in Albany, near Mt. Chocorua, and Red Hill, Moultonboro'. There
are other areas to be referred to the same group outside of the White Mountain area.

9. Clay slate and Quartzites. The first of these areas is a limited one on the
south slope of Pequawket ; the second south-west of Mt. Willard, passing into andalu-
site slates and quartzites on Mts. Willey, Field, and Tom.

10. Coos Group. This embraces the andalusite slates on the east flank of the Mt.
Washington range, repeated on the north-east side of Pine mountain, near Gorham,
and the staurolite rocks from Littleton southwards, curving around the underlying
Bethlehem gneiss. Only the eastern border of the latter is indicated upon the map.

WHITE MOUNTAIN EXPLORATIONS IN 1872 AND 1873.

A still larger party was organized for work in 1872. Under the direc-
tion of J. A. Leach, of Nashua, a plane-table survey was made of the
south-west portion of the mountain area, with the design of perfecting
the map. The rest of the party examined the rocks along the Saco val-
ley and in Albany for a period of three weeks, under the guidance of Mr.
Huntington. The explorations served to confirm the theory of the pre-
vious year concerning the arrangement of the formations. The parties
consisted of the following members of the class of 1872, Dartmouth col-
lege: E. J. Bartlett, W. H. Cotton, L. G. Farmer, G. H. Fletcher, A. M.
French, G. M. French, W. H. Galbraith, W. A. Holman, E. D. Mason, C.
H. Sawyer, H. M. Silver, G. F. Williams, and T. W. D. Worthen; N. W.
Ladd and A. O. Lawrence of the class of 1873.

In 1873 a few points about the mountains were visited by Mr. Hunt-
ington and myself for the sake of completing our knowledge of them.
The exploration, so far as it seemed advisable to proceed with our present
instructions from the state authorities, had been essentially completed
in 1872.

HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL. SURVEY. 37

THE LABRADOR SYSTEM.

The group of rocks referred by us to the Labrador system are first
described in the 1871 report, and certain passages in the history of its
exploration may be of considerable importance. The names of "Norian
system" and "Norite rocks" were applied to this group in the report after
a suggestion by Dr. Hunt. Upon reflection it seems more proper to use
the first name suggested for the system, rather than the lithological
appellation for a characteristic member.

The first locality described is in Waterville. Its discovery was due to
the uncovering of the ledges by the remarkable rain-storm ending Oct. 4,
1 869. The ravages of the freshet were described by Prof. G. H. Perkins,
PH. D., of Burlington, Vt, who speaks of the ledge as a " black hornblendic
rock." In May, 1870, Mr. Huntington went up the same stream and
brought back specimens of the dark rock, which he thought might be
labradorite. He carried a fragment of it to Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, of
Montreal, for examination, March 21, 1871. Dr. Hunt wrote as follows
concerning this rock to Mr. Huntington :

"The blue granular crystalline rock from Waterville, N. H., consists chiefly of a
feldspar allied to labradorite. I have not separated the grains to get them quite pure,
but the mass is seen under a glass to consist of the bluish-grey cleavable feldspar, with
some mica, probably biotite, and a little magnetic iron ore. From a pulverized sample
the magnet takes up about 5 per cent, of magnetic grains ; these contain a little titan-
ium. The analysis of the material thus freed from the magnetic portion gave me, —
silica, 50.30; alumina, 25.10; protoxide of iron, 4.23; lime, 14.07; magnesia, 2.95;
volatile, 0.70 : loss (alkalies), 2.65—100.00. I have found the feldspar of the so-called
labradorite or norite rocks very variable in composition, being sometimes more and
other times less basic than typical labradorite." "The analysis agrees closely with
what might be expected from an admixture of labradorite with biotite. It (the rock)
may hold a little hornblende, but I did not discern any. Thus the rock agrees chemi-
cally and mineralogically with much of the norite of the labradorite series of rocks, in
which titaniferous iron ore and biotite not unfrequently occur."

About the same time the following passage was written by Dr. Hunt in
a letter to the state geologist. By oversight, the second passage was
printed in a communication to the American Journal of Science, January,
1872, instead of the first. The error was corrected in the report for 1871.

38 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

" The specimen brought by Mr. Huntington is a labradorite or norite rock, which
resembles in composition and aspect that of the Labradorian, with this difference, how-
ever, that it is much more tender and friable, — and, in this respect, resembles the gran-
itic gneiss of the White Mountains, as compared with similar rocks in the Adirondacks."

I first visited the locality August 18 and 19, 1871, and subsequently on
September 20, in company with Prof. J. D. Dana, LL. D., of New Haven,
Conn. The conclusions derived from these two visits appeared in a short
article by myself in the journal above cited, followed by descriptive
analyses of some of the rocks by Mr. E. S. Dana, of New Haven, Conn.
The description of the rocks agrees with that which appeared subse-
quently in the 1871 report, save in one or two particulars, which I will
mention.

In ascending from " Beckytown," the first rock seen was called gneiss,
with nodular orthoclase, with its supposed strata dipping by compass 80°
S. 70° W. This rock is evidently the same with the "trachytic granite"
of Mt. Osceola and elsewhere. After noticing its distribution in mass
throughout so large a portion of the mountains, and its nearly horizontal
position between the coarse granite below and the felsites above, the pre-
sumption arises that these so-called strata may be bands of mica whose
planes do not correspond with those of accumulation, but have been
superinduced during the metamorphism of the rock. The jointed planes,
dipping about 25° westerly, would be those of stratification, if the rock is
stratified. These were pointed out by J. P. Lesley.*

A few rods up Norway brook appears the first ledge of the ossipyte,
Its junction with the gneiss is concealed by drift. For about a mile
similar ledges occur, some exposures being sixty or seventy feet long.
Considered as an isolated case, it is difficult to determine the planes of
stratification, since two prominent sets of jointed planes exist, either of
which might be taken for strata. One set dip about 20° northerly, and
are the most numerous; the other dip about 75° W. 10° S. As the lat-
ter correspond better in position with the supposed strata of nodular
gneiss, it was thought they indicated the proper lines of deposition. The
former, however, are what appear at the first glance to be the strata ; and,
as by this interpretation the position of the rocks at Waterville will

Proc. Amer. Acad. Sci., Philadelphia, 1860, p. 363.

HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 39

correspond with that in Franconia about the Lafayette range, our former
ideas must be modified. We should have, therefore, an underlying gran-
ite, as seen in Mad river two miles below Greely's hotel ; then the trachytic
granite of Osceola, extending to the cascades and including the "nodular
gneiss" on Norway brook, dipping gently westerly; and finally above
both, the ossipyte schists, with a small inclination.

Mr. E. S. Dana has carefully analyzed specimens of the Waterville
rocks, and described the assemblage as a new rock, with the name of
Ossipyte, after one of the aboriginal tribes of Indians formerly dwelling
in the neighborhood.

The following are his results with the ossipyte, it being composed of
the two minerals, labradorite and chrysolite :

LABRADORITE.

•

I.

n.

Si02

51.04

51.02

AI203 (Ti02)

26.34

26.07

Fe203
CaO

4-79
14.09

5-13
14.23

NaO

KO

III. Mean.

51.03

.... 26.2O

4.96

14.16

3-44 3.44

.58 .58

100.37

The large percentage of iron (determined volumetrically) had not been expected,
as the eye had failed to detect any impurities in the fragments selected for analysis.
Some very thin pieces were afterwards examined under the microscope ; and by this
means it was found that even the clearest pieces contained very minute grains of an
iron ore, from -^th to ^-^th of an inch in diameter, which were strongly attractable by
the magnet. Microscopic dark specks less than YTOFO^ °f an inc^ m size were also
observed, and at first referred to the same cause ; but, on magnifying them 800 diame-
ters, it was concluded that they were air-cavities in the structure of the feldspar, and
not any foreign matter. The peculiar dark smoky color of the rock is doubtless to be
explained by the presence of these particles of iron ore.

This magnetic iron ore, a sufficient amount for the test having been picked out
by the magnet, gave a decided reaction for titanic acid.

2. CHRYSOLITE.

I. II. Mean.

SiO2 38.82 38.88 38.85

A12O8 tr. tr. tr.

FeO 28.00 28.15 28.07

MnO 1. 12 1.36 1.24

MgO 30.88 30.36 30.62

CaO 1.26 i. 60 1.43

100.08 100.35 100.21

4O PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

The oxygen ratio of the bases and silica afforded is nearly i :i, and of the iron
and magnesia about i :2 ; whence the formula (JFe-|-iMg)2S. This is then a chryso-
lite, containing an unusually large per centage of iron (here a constituent of the min-
eral, and not owing to the presence of impurities) . The amount of iron is not strange,
considering the fact that the rock contains, diffused throughout it, so much free iron ore.

This chrysolite has the same ratio deduced for hyalosiderite, but still differs widely
in fusibility and other characters. It is, in fact, a true chrysolite in all respects, while
hyalosiderite is a doubtful compound, probably owing its fusibility in part to the potash
present. B. B. the chrysolite is nearly infusible.

The following is Mr. Dana's analysis of another specimen of labradorite :

This feldspar has a grayish-white color, is destitute of iridescence, and only care-
ful searching reveals any striations. Two analyses afforded, —

I. II. III. Mean.

SiO2 52.15 52.36 52.25

A12O8 27.63 27.39 27.51

Fe2O8 1.09 1.07 i. 08

MgO .92 i .06 .... .99

CaO 13-10 13-45 13-22

NaO 3.68 3.68

KO .... 2.18 2.18

100.91

Both analyses show that the labradorite of this region is remarkable for the large
proportion of lime present.

The next point in the history of these rocks in New Hampshire relates
to a discussion respecting the discovery of the mineral aggregate named
"ossipyte." In a letter of May i, 1872 (which, with Prof. Dana's, is pub-
lished in full in the report for 1871), Dr. Hunt speaks thus concerning
Mr. E. S. Dana's paper: "He remarks that a rock consisting of labra-
dor with chrysolite (olivine) has not been previously described. It was,
however, long since noticed by Macculloch in Skye, and by G. Rose at
Elfdalen. \Senft die Felsarten ; also, Geology of Canada, p. 650.]"

The substance of this note having been communicated to Mr. Dana,
the following letter came from his father :

PROF. C. H. HITCHCOCK.

My Dear Sir — In the absence of my son, Mr. Edward S. Dana, now on his way to
Europe, I write a brief reply to your letter of the 2gth inst. You stated that Prof. T.
Sterry Hunt, in a recent note, objects to Mr. Dana's remark that a rock of the compo-
sition of the ossipyte of Waterville had not before been described, and that he refers
to Macculloch as having observed the same in Skye, and G. Rose another example of
it at Elfdalen in Sweden. Mr. Hunt is evidently unaware of the facts. Macculloch

HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 4!

found chrysolite in Skye, according to his two articles in Vols. Ill and IV of the Trans-
actions of the Geological Society of London, only in trap or "amygdaloid;" and he
repeats the same essentially in his work on rocks, the chrysolite being spoken of as
occurring in an eruptive or overlying rock. Greg and Lettsom, in their work on British
Mineralogy (1858), confirm this by speaking of the chrysolite of Skye as being found
in trap. Moreover, the chrysolite is one of three constituents, — the other two being
hornblende or augite, and a feldspar ; and the rock is not Laurentian or Norian.

The rock of Elfdalen is undoubtedly related to that of Waterville, and yet is widely
different. I have not seen Rose's description of it. But Senft, to whom Mr. Hunt
refers, speaks of it as a hypersthene rock, that is, a granular compound of labradorite
and hypersthene, with grains of chrysolite as an accessory ingredient. The ossipyte,
on the contrary, consists almost solely of labradorite and chrysolite, there being "only
a very little of a black mineral, probably hornblende." I examined the specimens of
ossipyte with Mr. Dana, — the same that I collected when in Waterville with you, — and
through much of it could detect no hornblende whatever. Mr. Dana was right, there-
fore, in saying that this Waterville rock, consisting essentially of labradorite and
chrysolite, is one not previously described. The principal constituent, besides the two
mentioned, was the titaniferous iron ore, which he found distributed in microscopic
grains through the labradorite.

The light colored rock, from a point higher up the stream, determined to be a
labradorite rock by Mr. Dana, is, as he observes, wholly different from the ossipyte, it
containing much hornblende and no chrysolite ; and the titaniferous iron ore in visible
grains, instead of invisible particles disseminated through the labradorite.

After the publication of these letters, Dr. Hunt writes to the effect that
he had personally examined Macculloch's specimens in Europe, and felt
confident that the rock of Skye was the same with that from Waterville.
Per contra, Prof. Dana communicates a message from Prof. Geikie, direc-
tor of the geological survey of Scotland, in which it is stated that the
rock of Skye is an eruptive rock related to trap. Whatever may be the
truth as to the Scottish rock, it is clear that no one had proposed any
technical name for this mineral aggregate before Mr. Dana; and there-
fore, by the canons of lithological nomenclature, the designation of
"ossipyte" is entitled to recognition and acceptance.

The 1871 report contains a full description of this locality at Water-
ville, and an enumeration of the other localities of the same formation.
These are Sabba Day and Down's brooks, Waterville ; Loon pond, Wood-
stock; Lafayette range; Mt. Tom; Mt. Washington river; and Sable
mountain, in Jackson. These are the only ones in which the mineral
labradorite had been found in the area of the map.
VOL. i. 6

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

DISCOVERY OF THE SUCCESSION OF MEMBERS OF THE LABRADOR SYSTEM.

The same report contains the announcement of the discovery of the
relations to one another of the several members of the Labrador group,
and also to the underlying porphyritic gneiss, White Mountain series, and
brecciated granite.

From a peak north of Mt. Lafayette in Franconia to Flume mountain,
there seems to be a nearly continuous band of dark, compact feldspar,
about five miles long, and never more than two hundred to three hundred
feet thick. It closely resembles some of the compact labradorites. The
layers are horizontal, or nearly so, resting upon trachytic granite through-
out. It has not actually been traversed from the south end of the
Lafayette ridge to Flume mountain, but the topographical features of the
country are such as to render probable its continuance by a curve to
connect with that which has been observed upon the latter summit.
The annexed wood-cut will show the relative position and thickness of
the rocks between Mt. Liberty (C) and Mt. Flume (A), two thousand
two hundred and fifty feet above the bottom of the valley. There is the
common coarse granite at the base, the celebrated Flume of Lincoln
(Franconia), lying at the bottom of the valley (F in the figure), eighteen
hundred and forty-nine feet above the ocean. Above the Pemigewasset
river there may be six hundred feet thickness of this rock, considering it
to lie horizontally, before reaching the trachytic variety. This in turn
may be one thousand feet thick, as shown at band C. This rock caps
Mt. Liberty, but the compact feldspar has been spared by the denuding
agencies upon Mt. Flume. As seen by the general map, the edges
of this dark rock everywhere rest upon the trachytic granite.

Figf. 2.

Felsite.
Trachytic Granite.

Common Granite.

SECTION ACROSS THE FLUME.

HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 43

MT. PEQUAWKET.

The same granite which appears at the Flume, is found in the Green
Hills, and all along through Conway, at Kiarsarge village, and in the lower
part of the mountain itself. Above this the trachytic granite occurs upon
all sides most distinctly (the fourth had not then been explored). It is not
abundant on the south and east, but very characteristic. On the south,
it crops out on the hillside below the slate. About five hundred feet
above the south base of Pequawket, and in the old foot-path (that of 1840),
occurs a ledge of clay slate, directly above the granite. This formation
does not seem to extend far, as it is not found in either of the new paths
up the mountain, and a very short distance from its lower boundary we
pass beyond it and come upon the rock of which the upper two thousand
feet of Pequawket appears to consist, viz., an igneous felsite, full of peb-
bles. The greater portion of the included fragments are angular, slaty,
lying at all angles, and range in size from an inch to a foot in diameter ;
but the pebbles, many of them rounded, also occur very frequently, and
were all taken from the rock in place. The slate above referred to
runs N. 70° E., S. 70° W., and dips 50° to 80° N. W., being much
twisted on a small scale. It does not appear either in the old or new
roads, but in the path of 1840. Five hundred feet north and south and
one thousand feet east and west seem to include the whole exposure,
though further examination may detect it elsewhere. The upper part of
Pequawket shows two well marked systems of joints, which seem to
affect nearly the whole mountains. At the top, one set runs S. 60° W.,
and dips about 80° N. W. ; the other set runs N. 55° W., and dips about
80° S. W. It will be observed that the first set agree almost exactly
with the strike and dip of the slate in the lower part of the mountain.
In many places on the upper part of the mountain the rock has a thin
bedded sort of structure parallel to the jointed planes ; but whether these
divisions indicate a real highly inclined bedding remains to be seen.

The slate lying above the trachytic granite is, in this respect, like the
felsites of Pemigewasset, but, unlike them, has been much twisted, and
reposes on the top of the terrace, inclined at a high angle. No doubt
would be entertained respecting its very much later origin than the upper
two thousand feet of the mountain, except that the latter is partly com-

44 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

posed of fragments of slate, evidently derived from this formation. The
lower portions adjacent to the slate are chiefly composed of it, and even
at the summit small dark pieces, apparently of the same material, abound.
A similar rock with dark fragments is found on Twin mountain. The
composition of the cement shows it to be allied in character to the felsites
elsewhere found overlying the trachytic granite.

A somewhat similar slate occurs between Mt. Willard and Mt. Field.
Specimens from the two localities are not distinguishable from each other,
and the mass of Mt. Willard is a trachytic granite. These slaty rocks
pass into quartzites, if not into felsites, and cover a considerable area,
including the country from Mt. Willey to beyond Mt. Tom, over three miles.
Well marked crystals of andalusite are found in a similar slate on the
north-east spur of Mt. Tom, which seems to ally the series with the
andalusite slates of the Coos group along the head waters of Ellis river,
at the east side of Mt. Washington. I observed that jointed planes
existed in the trachytic granite parallel with the slaty strata above
them on Mt. Willard, like those described upon Pequawket. Passing
to the first peak of Mt. Field, the line of union of the granite and slate
was traversed, having a compass course of N. 25° W. In the saddle of
Mt. Field the slates dipped 50° S. 20° W. But on the mountains south
nothing is found to correspond with the feldspathic and brecciated cap of
Pequawket. The relations of this slate to the granite and felsites demand
further examination.

RELATIVE POSITION.

A few considerations will serve to indicate the probable relative posi-
tions of the rocks that have been described. The sections given of the
common granite, trachytic granite, and the felsites, seem to determine
their relative positions, the last being at the top. The brecciated granites
of Franconia appear to be older than any of these, and to underlie them,
as already stated; and hence there may not be any correspondence
between them and the breccias made up of felsites and labradorite. If
these points are assumed, the porphyritic gneiss can be shown to be at
the bottom of the series, for it lies outside of the lowest of them. Two
principal ranges of this rock enter the limits of our map. The eastern

HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 45

is cut off abruptly by the Labrador system at Waterville, crossing at an
angle of at least seventy degrees, and as much as fifty degrees in the dip.
Another exposure of the same band of gneiss appears at the base of Mt.
Carrigain, standing nearly vertically. Passing from this across to the
western range, we travel fifteen miles. An anticlinal is hardly supposa-
ble over so great a distance. The dips have not been observed system-
atically ; but the western range, from the Pemigewasset to Moosilauke,
has an anticlinal form, and comes up again west of Moosilauke so as to
underlie a synclinal mass of andalusite schist or gneiss. This structure
agrees with its position, as deduced from other facts. The andalusite
rock is repeated east of the Pemigewasset in an anticlinal way, so as to
correspond, as shown by its distribution on the map.

The porphyritic gneiss west of Echo lake dips north-westerly. At
the Lake of the Clouds the dip was not measured. On the ridge running
south it dips 50° easterly. Below Walker's falls it stands nearly vertical.
Our notes represent a feldspatho-hornblendic rock in horizontal plates
immediately contiguous on the east, most likely lying upon the edges of
this gneiss. If this proves correct, then the rest of the intermediate
space to the crest of the range will be found occupied by the trachytic
granite, the horizontal plates showing its beginning. If the horizontal
position of the granites and felsites is to be regarded as produced by
original deposition, then the elevation of the gneiss took place first ; and
this mass of mountains has been only slightly disturbed by elevating
forces since that time.

The porphyritic area along the Ammonoosuc is probably a repetition of
that near Echo lake, making a synclinal axis, just as in Benton, under
Moosilauke. With this premise we can infer that the gneiss of Bethlehem
was formed subsequently, and lies in a basin, with an east and west axis.

We cannot as yet locate the andalusite gneiss, save that it is newer than
the porphyritic bands, as shown at Moosilauke.

There is one further suggestion in respect to relative ages. The Coos
group of Littleton and Lisbon passes around the west end of the Bethle-
hem gneiss, showing that the latter existed before either the deposition
or elevation of the former. This indicates that the whole of the White
Mountain rocks are more ancient than the Coos and Quebec groups of
the Connecticut valley.

46 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

MAP SURVEYS AND LEVELLING.

Some of the new material obtained for perfecting the map in 1870 was
the following :

First, a new map of Connecticut river, from Massachusetts to Connec-
ticut lake. Part of this was surveyed in 1825, with the expectation that
a canal would be built along the river, as high as Mclndoe's falls, in Bath.
This very valuable map was presented to the survey by Dr. E. E. Phelps,
of Windsor, Vt. It is superior to the county maps or the state map of
Vermont, and is therefore the best one in existence. It represents things
as they were in 1825; but there has been little change since that time
except in the construction of new turnpikes and railroads.

Second, Messrs. Walling and Gray were employed late in the season to
prepare a map of the river between Bath and Connecticut lake, from new
surveys. This has been done carefully, and constitutes a very important
addition to our materials for the final map. These same engineers also
made careful odometer surveys of the Mt. Washington carriage road and
the Fabyan turnpike, which are in our possession.

We commenced this year the preparation of a raised map of the state,
for the museum, upon the scale of one mile to the inch. The table to
serve as its foundation was placed in position, and nearly all the outside
boundaries of the state drawn upon it. In 1871 Mr. Huntington drew
contour lines for all of Coos county north of Shelburne and Lancaster,
from which the north portion of the model has been constructed. At the
same time I constructed a plan of the Franconia and Bethlehem moun-
tains upon a much larger scale. This was designed to illustrate the
theory of Prof. Agassiz respecting the northward transportation of boul-
ders by a local glacier from the Franconia Mountains.

Additional work upon the model of the whole state was performed in
1873. It will not be best to complete this until the last item of facts con-
cerning the topography of the state has been garnered in. The general
facts upon which this is based will appear in the chapter upon topography.

The surveying necessary for the mapping of a part of the Ammo-
noosuc gold field, referred to heretofore, was completed in 1870. The
last part of the work, setting the stakes for more than two square miles,

HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 47

was performed under the direction of Prof. Quimby. The map shows
the courses of all the valuable mineral veins existing upon the tract, as
well as the remarkable windings and dislocations of the formations which
are there exhibited. Not less than five hundred specimens were collected
to illustrate this map.

A TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY.

By an act passed in 1871, congress authorized the coast survey to
expend a considerable sum of money in extending their triangulations
into the interior, but only for those states where a geological survey is in
progress. New Hampshire is the only one of the New England states
which has so far received any benefit from this act, and the annual appro-
priation for this purpose has not been less than $2,000. The work has
been placed in the hands of Professor E. T. Quimby, of Dartmouth
college. He first occupied the stations established in 1869 for the benefit
of the geological survey, so as to verify their accuracy. The work has
been successfully carried on now for three seasons, and the latitudes and
longitudes thus obtained are given in the chapter on topography.

LEVELLING ALONG CONNECTICUT RIVER.

For the sake of a proper understanding of the surface geology of
Connecticut river, it has been thought best to level from the Massachu-
setts line to Connecticut lake. The work was commenced in 1870 by
Gyles Merrill, Jr., and S. Q. Robinson, of the class of 1872, C. S. D.,
Dartmouth college. They have levelled between the line and Walpole.
Mr. Merrill was assisted also by his brother. The line from Bellows
Falls to Windsor was levelled by Warren Upham in 1874. The work
above Hanover was performed in 1871, under the direction of A. F. Reed,
of Groton, Mass., assisted between Hanover and Lancaster by Dr. Nathan
Barrows, of Meriden, and between Lancaster and Connecticut lake by
Messrs. C. F. and F. A. Bradley, of the class of 1873, Dartmouth college.
The connection between this survey and that of the P. & O. Railroad, at
Dalton, was made by J. T. Woodbury in 1874.

In the report for 1871 there appears a long list of altitudes, including
all that had been obtained by special surveys at that time. These are
to be given more fully in a following chapter, with many additions and
improvements.

48 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

MICROSCOPICAL RESEARCHES.

In view of the importance of microscopical researches, not only in
gaining knowledge of the mineral structure of rocks, but also of the
" polishing powder" and other valuable minerals abundant in the state,
we organized a new department of the survey in 1870, and obtained the
assistance of Professor A. M. Edwards, of Newark, N. J., and Professor
T. Egleston, of the School of Mines, Columbia college, New York.
Professor Edwards has prepared an extensive report upon the organisms
producing the lacustrine sedimentary deposits ; and Professor Egleston
has had charge of the cutting and description of rock sections.

FOSSILS ix NEW HAMPSHIRE.

In October, 1870, while examining the limestones of Littleton, fossil
corals were discovered. They were quite numerous, though obscure. In-
telligence of the discovery was immediately telegraphed to the Dartmouth
Scientific Association, who happened to be holding a meeting the same
evening. It was announced to them that New Hampshire could no
longer be called an Azoic state, since she had within her borders a coral
reef of Silurian age.

Specimens were sent to E. Billings, F. G. S., paleontologist of the
geological survey of Canada, who recognized the genera Zaphrentis and
Favosites, and perceived the probable equivalency of these limestones
with the Helderberg series of Memphremagog. The band of rock was
at first supposed to be the same with the limestones of Dalton and
Lancaster, and perhaps farther north. The fossils have been discov-
ered in two localities, nearly two miles apart, upon what is thought to be
the two sides of a synclinal axis. The limestone is underlaid by a
quartzite and covered by a clay slate, the latter containing impressions of
worm tracks. Though previously announced, this is believed to be the
first authentic discovery of fossils in the solid rocks of New Hampshire.

No time could be devoted to this interesting department till 1873, when
our labors were rewarded by the discovery of fossils characteristic of the
Lower Helderberg. Mr. Huntington was so fortunate as to find, on
Fitch hill, Littleton, specimens of brachiopods, a gasteropod, and large

HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 49

crinoidal stems. Mr. Billings reports that the brachiopod is allied to the
Pentamerus KnigJitii of the Lower Helderberg ; and that the gasteropod
is also like one in the same formation. The crinoidal fragments place
this deposit in correlation with the noted bed at Bernardston, Mass., first
described by my father in 1833. Geologists had supposed the latter bed
to. be of Devonian age, because the large crinoids seemed like those from
the Corniferous beds in New York ; but our discoveries serve to modify
this conclusion. Considerable attention was devoted to the Helderberg
deposits by us in 1873, and we have been enabled to derive most impor-
tant generalizations respecting the structure of the state, second in
importance only (though most would value them more highly) to the
results of the White Mountain exploration. A lengthy sketch of the
New Hampshire Helderberg rocks has been published in the American
Journal of Science for April, 1874. Our next volume will treat the sub-
ject with all the detail required.

QUARTZITES IN THE GNEISS.

Hon. S. N. Bell, of Manchester, pointed out to me, before commenc-
ing the New Hampshire survey, the occurrence of interesting bands of
quartzite in the southern part of the state. As soon as occasion offered,
an examination of them was commenced. Mr. Bell often accompanied us
on our expeditions, and for his own pleasure traced out thirty or forty
miles of their extent. In 1871, in company with Mr. L. Holbrook, the
limits of these bands were studied in Hillsborough, Merrimack, and
Strafford counties. The results of our examination indicated that these
two bands of quartzite traverse a tract of country, often in a serpentine
course parallel to each other, eight or ten miles apart, from Temple to the
north part of Strafford on one line, and from New Ipswich to the south
part of Strafford on the other. Beyond this point the formations seem
to be covered by the andalusite schists.

After passing a wide band of gneiss to the west of the Temple-Straf-
ford range, we came to a belt of porphyritic gneiss, which seems to be
the oldest formation in the state. In accordance with this view of the
relative ages of the formations, we find similar rocks west from this cen-
tral porphyritic gneiss. The studies commenced by G. A. Wheelock, of
Keene, have brought to light two beds of the same quartzites in Keene
VOL. i. 7

5O PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

and Surry, separated by a wide band of gneiss from the central group.
As the same rock appears in Grafton and Newport, fifty or sixty miles
farther north, it is likely the same arrangement continues past the centre
of the state ; while the descriptions of my father, in the final report on
the geology of Massachusetts, speak of a white quartzite having the same
relations, midway through that commonwealth. Neither this, nor the
band of porphyritic gneiss mentioned as passing nearly north and south
from New Hampshire to Connecticut, on the meridian of Ware, was
represented upon his map, as their importance was not appreciated.

In the report for 1872, a map of the southern part of New Hampshire
was presented for the purpose of showing the course of these quartzite
bands. The following statements were made respecting them :

Our map shows two nearly parallel ranges of quartzites, — the one extending from
Allenstown to Mason, and the other from the same town to Temple. Diligent search
has failed to reveal any traces of these bands beyond Allenstown, which surely belong
to them. Inasmuch as the accompanying gneisses also terminate, — both those included
between the ranges, and the crumpled granitic gneiss to the south-east, — and the mica
schists beyond seem to have taken a northerly course, we conclude that the continua-
tion of all those strata is concealed by the overlying blanket of mica schist. The
map shows how completely these bands are interrupted by the newer schists. Nothing
has yet been suggested to account for the termination of the quartzite bands in Temple
and Mason. Further search may reveal them on the same line in Massachusetts.

The map shows these quartzites in Richmond, Keene, Surry, and Grafton, on the
west side of the porphyritic range. We have not yet been able to trace them out in
that part of the state. These ranges have been seen in Massachusetts, especially in
New Salem. Their occurrence in two bands on both sides of the main anticlinal will
furnish us the general clue to the stratigraphical structure of the gneiss, besides making
plain the line of the granites and soapstone, — for there is a range of the latter mineral
accompanying the Keene quartzites. It will be observed that the latter curve around
the older porphyritic rocks of Swanzey.

It is almost exciting to follow the hills of this rock through the towns. They can be
seen miles away, being as white as snow. The following are the most notable hills
along its course : In East Concord, Oak hill ; West Concord, Pine hill ; on the Temple
range, the foundations of the upper railroad bridge, and the Pinnacle in Hooksett ;
the hill of quartz quarried for the manufacture of glass in Lyndeborough, and a long
ridge in Temple extending north-easterly from the village ; on the Mason range, a
high hill north-east from East Wilton ; the north-east corner of Amherst ; and Campbell
hill in Hooksett. The ranges are 6.20 miles apart in New Boston and Bedford,
narrowing to 3.12 in Hooksett, and 5 miles in Wilton. The most remote localities in

HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 51

Temple and Mason are 6^ miles distant from each other. The Mason range does not
curve to the west, as erroneously shown upon the map.

There are also ranges of quartzite in the mica schist group. The most extensive is
in Raymond and Nottingham. Other outcrops are in Londonderry, Stafford, and
Pittsfield. Those in Stafford were formerly regarded as the extension of the Temple
and Mason ranges.

MUSEUM.

Work has steadily progressed, during the continuance of the survey
upon the museum. Culver hall contains the specimens designed for the
New Hampshire College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts ; but the
Concord collection still remains packed in boxes. Briefly, the special
features of the museum are the following : A room about forty feet square
is set apart for the illustration of the geology, mineralogy, paleontology,
botany, and zoology of New Hampshire and Vermont. It is designed that
every department shall be represented complete and entire. Only the col-
lections of the survey have been presented by the state ; but earnest efforts
are put forth to secure the remainder by aid from friends of Dartmouth col-
lege. This institution being nearly the geographical centre of two states,
it seems an appropriate place for this gathering of representations of
their natural products and resources. The room now contains, first, and
the most prominent feature, fourteen shelves, holding specimens collected
along fourteen east and west lines across New Hampshire. Several of
the section lines have been carried across to Lake Champlain. Behind
each shelf is a colored profile of the route taken, drawn to an exact
scale for heights and distances, each formation being distinguished from
every other, the names of the groups and localities printed in large
letters, numbers placed on the section to show the exact locality of every
specimen, and the rocks appear in the immediate proximity of the figures
on the wall. Lithological specimens, obtained between the section lines,
are placed on the shelf in their proper relations, but not so as to be
confounded with the others. There is also a series of large maps of the
northern townships (and eventually there will be of all the rest), showing
the topographical position of every lithological specimen in the collection.
If possible, these will be reproduced for the report. Second, the room
contains several sets of specimens, properly catalogued, to illustrate more

52 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

fully important areas. They are the White Mountain area, the Ammo-
noosuc gold field (including the Lyman map district), and the towns
adjacent to Hanover. Third, a special collection of minerals ; fourth, of
fossils ; fifth, of all economic materials, particularly the granites of New
Hampshire, and the marbles and slates of Vermont ; sixth, a special set to
illustrate the distribution of boulders; seventh, numerous topographical
models.

The college collections embrace, first, most of our birds, collected and
presented by Prof. Henry Fairbanks, of St. Johnsbury, Vt; second, one
thousand species of New Hampshire insects, collected by C. P. Whitney,
of Milford, and presented by Mr. Fairbanks ; third, a few mammals, by
the same ; fourth, miscellaneous New Hampshire fish and reptiles ; fifth,
the plants of the White Mountains, collected by the survey, and the local
flora of Hanover, — the latter gathered and presented to Dartmouth college
by Miss Mary Hitchcock, of Hanover.

The state house collection ought to be equally comprehensive; but at
present there are no rooms suitable for its accommodation.

THE MT. WASHINGTON EXPEDITION.

The chief part of the report for 1870 is occupied by a sketch of the
Mt. Washington expedition. The meteorological tables are given in full ;
and, side by side with them, observations from several other localities,
taken at the same hours, for purposes of comparison. Mr. S. A. Nelson
furnishes an admirable sketch of the meteorology of Mt. Washington,
following the tables. His great skill in generalizing from facts will cause
great regret that he was unable to prepare for this volume a sketch of the
meteorology of the state.

MR. HUNTINGTON'S LABORS.

We have been greatly favored, through most of our labors, by the per-
severance of Mr. J. H. Huntington, principal assistant. He has entered
thoroughly into the spirit of the work, and has fully identified himself
with our explorations. Though having a special field of his own, he has
always been ready to labor elsewhere whenever assistance was required.
The following is a general outline of his work since the last mention of

HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 53

him: In the early part of 1870, he traversed, on foot, the various moun-
tain notches between the Saco, Pemigewasset, and Connecticut rivers, for
the purpose of ascertaining their altitudes. Next he renewed the exami-
nation of the rocks of Coos county. Afterwards he joined our party in
the White Mountain explorations. Later in the season he continued the
exploration in Coos county and Bean's purchase. Later in the fall he
devoted himself to the interests of the Mt. Washington meteorological
expedition, attending to the completion of the arrangements for occupy-
ing the railroad depot as an observatory. The six months from the middle
of November to the middle of May were spent by him mostly upon the
summit, where he was the leader of the heroic party who risked their
lives in behalf of science. When this task was completed, he resumed
his work upon the geology of Coos county in 1871, being occupied until
late in July with the compilation of his report upon the geology of Coos
county. He then took the field and labored in the northern part of the
state, also in Essex county, Vt, — the latter without cost to the survey,
though we receive the benefits of the exploration. In September he
examined the formations near Jackson, Bartlett, Conway, Albany, etc.,
partly to carry on the search for labradorite rocks.

Essentially the same field was traversed by him in the summer of 1872.
His researches in Albany will be found of special importance. In 1873,
after the completion of the exploration in the northern part of the state,
he commenced working in the gneissic district lying between the main
range of porphyritic gneiss on the east, and the Connecticut valley Co*6s
group. The sketch of the geology of this tract will be written by him as
soon as possible. In the first volume, the chapter on meteorology has been
prepared by him ; also, topographical and scenographical contributions.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Very much remains to be told of the history of our scientific ex-
plorations ; but \ve fancy it will be more satisfactory to read the com-
pleted results than to learn how they have been effected. In the reports
there has been a fine series of rock analyses by Profs. Seely and Blan-
pied; outline sketches of the subject-matter of this series of volumes;
the progress of the microscopical department ; additional meteorological

54 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

tables from Mt. Washington and Hanover; and a sketch of the geology
of southern New Hampshire. The map illustrating it shows the follow-
ing formations between the Exeter sienites and the Coos group, along
Connecticut river, given in the supposed order of their age:

1. Porphyritic gneiss and granite.

2. Granitic gneiss.

3. White Mountain series, including andalusite gneiss, ordinary and
imperfect gneiss, the so-called granite of Concord and Fitzwilliam, beds
of soapstone and limestone.

4. Bands of quartzite.

5. Mica schist.

6. Andalusite slates or outliers of the Coos group. Of these the map
distinguishes the porphyritic group, the quartzite bands, the mica schist,
and the Coos outlier. The other gneiss, being yet known imperfectly, I
will not attempt to divide.

The following remarks concerning the second group may be quoted,
as this had not been distinguished from the adjacent groups before.

There is decided evidence of a range of very ancient gneiss from Mason to Deerfield.
It abounds in feldspar ; the strata are very highly inclined and remarkably plicated.
It is very granitic, so much so that but a slight additional metamorphic action would
be needed to obliterate all the planes of stratification. This formation is probably
repeated west of the quartzite ranges, and also in Cheshire and Sullivan counties.
The character of the strata, and the superabundance of feldspar, readily distinguishes
it from everything else.

Also, a few words about the "Concord granite," and the "mica schist"
of Rockingham county.

The "Concord granite" has been traced irregularly from Concord to Fitzwilliam.
It will require more detailed examinations to enable us to say positively where this
valuable band may be found. It seems to lie near the quartzite, say from a quarter to
half a mile above it. Hence, if it exists as a range, it should be adjacent to all the
quartzite bands, and its distribution can be determined readily in the manner suggested
above. A section across these ranges near Manchester shows a similar granite inside
both of them, while a protracted examination has failed to show the quartzite beyond
the west part of Concord. This rock is not a proper granite. There is an arrangement
of the particles of mica along parallel planes, which allows the rock to split readily.
These we regard as strata. They are seen plainly in the inferior qualities of the stone,
and farther south the celebrated "granite" of Pelham and Monson, Mass., shows the

HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 55

strata perfectly. The latter appear to be identical with the Concord stone. Micro-
scopic sections, when available for study, will add much to our knowledge of this
variety of rock.

By scrutinizing the course of a band of rock closely packed with andalusite, it
appears probable that the valuable soapstone of Francestown is continuous into Weare,
as well as extending farther south-west. Outcrops have been found in four localities.
The soapstone of Richmond resembles it also, and seems to be on the same course.
Hon. M. A. Hodgdon, of Weare, has made an extensive excavation in this bed on Mt.
Misery, which throws considerable light on its character.

Mica Schist. This formation covers a great area in Rockingham and Strafford
counties. In general it is a simple compound of mica and quartz, resembling an
argillaceous rock at times, and often showing the mica in irregular blotches. It every-
where contains beds of a very coarse granite. In the south part of Rockingham, in
Barrington, Strafford, and elsewhere, the granite remains in ridges, while the schist has
decomposed, thus making one believe granite to be the prevailing rock of the country,
without careful search for the schist in the valleys.

The sienites of Exeter bound this group on the east. The Merrimack group seems
to be distinct from it, though the two have been confounded together heretofore.
This rock forms mountain masses in many towns. Such are the ridges between Hill's
Corner and Shaker Village in Canterbury, the Pinnacle and Bean hill in Northfield,
Catamount Mount in Pittsfield, Brush hill, McKays, Fort, and Nottingham mountains
in Epsom, Saddleback Mount in Northwood, Devil's Den in Auburn, ridges in Farm-
ington, etc. Narrow patches of mica schist occur resting in synclinal form on the
gneiss west of the Merrimack river, but it is of no use to attempt to represent them
at present.

GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF WINNIPISEOGEE LAKE.

The results of a tour in the vicinity of Winnipiseogee lake, in 1873, are
given in a lengthy paper read before the American Association for the
Advancement of Science, at Portland, in August. The greatest detail of
the sketch relates to the supposed appearance of the lake country in the
glacial and terrace periods, which need not be reproduced here. But I
desire to state the phase of opinion expressed in this communication
respecting the older groups. A large manuscript map illustrated to the
geologists at the meeting the distribution of the formations deposited in
the several periods enumerated. There are some new groups in this list.
We can trace no less than ten periods in the history of this lake basin :
i. Period of the deposition of the PorpJiyritic Gneiss or Granite. This
is the oldest formation in the state. A range of it starts southerly from

56 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Waterville, and proceeds south-westerly to Mt. Prospect, in Holderness.
Thence it courses more southerly, proceeding to New Hampton centre
village. In this vicinity it is developed more perfectly than in any other
part of the state. At the village it makes a sharp turn eastward to Mer-
edith Village ; thence north-easterly nearly to Squam lake, in the extreme
north-east part of Center Harbor. It then makes another sharp turn
down both sides of Meredith, or North-west Cove, and appears also on the
islands off Wiers and the north part of Gilford. It now rapidly dimin-
ishes in width, and finally disappears, coming up again in West Alton, and
is last seen in the south part of Alton.

2. Winnipiseogee Lake Gneiss formation. This is a granitic gneiss
filled with segregated veins, and has not yet been observed away from
the vicinity of the lake. It does not appear upon any mountains, nor in
bluffs, and has everywhere been greatly denuded, so that its ledges are
inconspicuous. It joins the first named rock everywhere on the east,
and covers it in Alton. The strata are highly inclined, and sometimes
inverted.

3. White Mountain Series, This rock is often characterized by the
presence of andalusite. It crops out in Gilford and Alton, and bounds
the lake gneiss on the east, where the junction is not obscured by over-
lying formations.

4. The next great period may represent the time of the elevation, and
perhaps metamorpJiosis, of the three groups already enumerated. We
possess no decided evidence to show that these three groups are uncon-
formable with one another. The presumption is that these groups belong
to the Laurentian system ; — they are certainly Eozoic.

5. Eruption of tJie Granites of tJie Ossipee Mountains. In a paper
presented last year, a description was given of the rocks among the White
Mountains, where it was stated that the upturned edges of the White
Mountain series were covered first by a layer of coarse granite, and then
by a "trachytic" or spotted granite. Both these varieties are found in
the Ossipee mountains, and in a similar stratigraphical position.

6. Deposition of Felsites or Compact Feldspars. Enormous thicknesses
of variously colored felsites cover the spotted granite of Ossipee, and
form the summits of the pile of mountains. None of the ossipyte, a
compound of labradorite and chrysolite, has yet been seen. These

HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 57

granites and felsites together constitute a great series of formations,
which, I suppose, are the equivalents of the Labrador system of Logan.
He has not given the limits of his system ; but I retain the name sug-
gested by him for the group of granites and compact feldspars developed
so finely in New Hampshire. There is an extensive mass of granite in
Wolfeborough and New Durham, which may be connected with the
Labrador system, but its relations have not yet been made out with
certainty.

7. Eruption of Sienite. The Belknap Mountains, certain peaks in
Alton, Diamond island, and probably Rattlesnake island in Winnipiseogee
lake, and Red hill in Moultonborough and Sandwich, are composed of
sienite of various textures, which seems to have been erupted after the
deposition of the felsites. Its age is shown by the fact that it cuts the
ossipyte in Waterville.

8. Deposition of Mica Schists. This formation is enormously devel-
oped in Strafford and Rockingham counties, touching the lake only at
Alton Bay. It evidently covers all the formations thus far specified.

This is the last of the solid rocks in this area. There succeeds an
enormous interval of time, of which we have no record in New Hamp-
shire. The country must have been elevated, so that no deposits could
be formed. The interval embraces the principal portion of the fossil-
iferous rocks.

9. Glacier Period. The phenomena of this age about the lake are
striae, embossed ledges, pot-holes, beds of clay, boulder drift, etc. The
courses of the striae usually agree with that of the valley, or from
S. 25°-30°E.

10. The Terrace Period. The presence of the ocean after the glacial
period over the lake may possibly be indicated by the existence of the
smelts in its waters, which are marine animals, possibly left behind when
the salt water disappeared. The terraces seem to indicate that the water
has stood successively at the heights of 100, 80, 55, 30, 23, 15, and 12
feet, but never any higher. There may have been egress for the waters
in the direction of Squam lake, Gilford, and Alton.

Lengthy considerations are presented to show, by contrast to these
small lake terraces, the fluviatile origin of the large banks of sand and
gravel along the Merrimack river valley. The conclusions are of consid-
VOL. r. 8

58 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

arable importance, and will be fully developed in that part of our report
relating to surface geology.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

Thanks for favors received during the latter part of our work are
tendered to E. A. Phelps of Sharon, Vt., Sylvester Marsh and Capt. J.
W. Dodge of the Mt. Washington Railway, E. S. Coe of Bangor, Me.,
American Geographical and Statistical Society of New York, Dr. T.
Sterry Hunt of Boston, Prof. L. Agassiz of Cambridge, Mass., A. H. Perry
of Lyndonville, Vt., Gyles Merrill, St. Albans, Vt, George A. Merrill,
Rutland, Vt., O. T. Ruggles of Fitchburg, Mass., J. A. Dodge, Plymouth,
George Stark, Nashua, G. E. Todd, Concord, R. Stewart, Keene, Hon.
Onslow Stearns, Concord, Hon. J. A. Weston, Hon. S. N. Bell, Man-
chester, J. J. Bell of Exeter, the trustees of the New Hampshire College
of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts, John F. Anderson, Portland, Me.,
T. Willis Pratt, Engineer of the Eastern railroad, Prof. H. F. Walling,
Boston, S. Aug. Nelson, Georgetown, Mass., Prentiss Dow, Claremont,
Wm. C. Fox, Wolfeborough, Messrs. Taft, Greenleaf, and Andrews of the
Profile house, Franconia, F. G. Sanborn, Boston, C. P. Whitney of Mil-
ford, Emmons Raymond, Boston, H. G. Chamberlain, Concord, C. J.
Brydges, Montreal, P. Q., Henry Bailey and T. H. Cooper of the G. T.
R., A. K. Cole, Berlin Falls, L. P. Adley, Milan, E. Hicky, Stark, J. B.
Melcher, Groveton, Dr. G. O. Rogers, C. C. Brooks, and F. Richardson,
Lancaster, Geo. N. Merrill, Jackson, Geo. W. M. Pitman, Bartlett, Joshua
Chapman, Thornton, L. W. Palmer, Lyndonville, Vt., J. Prescott, Boston,
Hon. M. A. Hodgdon, Weare, Seneca A. Ladd, Meredith Village, G. F.
Morse, Portland, Me., Prof. J. D. Dana, LL. D., New Haven, Conn., and
others.

Fig. 6. — ICE FORMED ON MT. WASHINGTON WITH SOUTH WIND.

CHAPTER IV.

HISTORY OF EXPLORATIONS AMONG THE WHITE MOUNTAINS.

COMPILED BY WARREN UPHAM.

FIRST VISITS TO MT. WASHINGTON.

IHE early history of the White Mountains may well be of interest to
all who feel a pride in the beautiful scenery or in the material pros-
perity of this portion of our state. It is only a meagre record, however,
that we are able to present. Even the name of the first adventurer who
ascended these mountains was for some time uncertain. It was stated by
Dr. Belknap, in the early editions of his history of New Hampshire, that
Walter and Robert Neal were the first to climb the highest summit of the
White Mountains, in 1631. This appears to be incorrect; and the error
was noticed by the author in the edition of 1812. It is now considered
settled that this credit is to be assigned to Darby Field, of Pascataquack
(Portsmouth), who made the ascent, accompanied by two Indians, in June,
1642. An account of this has been preserved by Winthrop, from which
it appears that "within 12 miles of the top was neither tree nor grass,
but low savins, which they went upon the top of sometimes, but a con-
tinual ascent upon rocks, on a ridge between two valleys filled with snow,
out of which came two branches of Saco river, which met at the foot of
the hill, where was an Indian town of some 200 people. * * * By the
way, among the rocks, there were two ponds, — one a blackish water, the
other a reddish. The top of all was plain, about 60 feet square. On

6O PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

the north side was such a precipice as they could scarce discern to
the bottom. They had neither cloud nor wind on the top, and moderate
heat. * * * About a month after he went again, with five or six in
his company."* The appearance of the mountains is thus seen to have
been the same two hundred years ago as now ; but besides this descrip-
tion, Field brought back a glowing account of precious stones, &c., and
even of sheets of " Muscovy glass," or mica, forty feet long ! The enumer-
ation of these wonders was probably employed to collect the party for his
second expedition.

This inducement, also, says the historian, " caused divers others to
travel thither, but they found nothing worth their pains." Of these are
particularly mentioned Thomas Gorges and Mr. Vines, two magistrates
of the province of Sir Ferdinando Gorges, who went about the end of
August of the same year. " They went up Saco River in birch canoes,
and that way they found it 90 miles to Pegwaggett, an Indian town ;
but by land it is but 60. Upon Saco River they found many thousand
acres of rich meadow; but there are 10 falls, which hinder boats, Sec.
From the Indian town they went up hill (for the most part) about 30
miles in woody lands. They then went about 7 or 8 miles upon shattered
rocks, without tree or grass, very steep all the way. At the top is a
plain about 3 or 4 miles over, all shattered stones ; and upon that is
another rock or spire, about a mile in height, and about an acre of ground
at the top. At the top of the plain arise four great rivers ; each of them
so much water at the first issue as would drive a mill : Connecticut
River from two heads at the N. W. and S. W., which join in one about
60 miles off ; Saco River on the S. E. ; Amascoggin, which runs into
Casco Bay, at the N. E. ; and Kennebeck at the N. by E. The moun-
tain runs E. and W. thirty miles, but the peak is above all the rest.
They went and returned in 1 5 days." f

The route taken by Field, and probably 'by the other explorers also,
lay from the Saco up Ellis river nearly to its source, and thence up the
great ridge south-east of Mt. Washington, known as Boott's Spur.
Tuckerman's ravine and Oakes's gulf, on either hand, are recognized as
the "two valleys filled with snow." The summit of this spur brought

* Winthrop, N. E., by Savage, ii., p. 67. f Winthrop, ii. p. 89.

EXPLORATIONS AMONG THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. 6 1

them to the broadest portion of the comparatively level tract at the
southern base of Mt. Washington, the south-eastern part of which is
the grassy expanse of some forty acres, known as Bigelow's Lawn.
Between this and the summit they encountered the Lake of the Clouds,
and smaller ponds, which no doubt furnished Gorges with a part of the
sources of his rivers ; and no one who has looked into the abyss some-
what absurdly denominated the " Gulf of Mexico," will wonder at its
notice in the brief account of the first explorer. E. Tuckerman, in 1843,
endeavored to trace the path of these earliest ascents, and was surprised
with a view of Mt. Washington as a somewhat regular pyramid rising
from an apparent plain, which is the way it was described by Gorges, and
afterwards by Josselyn. Davis's bridle-path, opened in 1845, traversed the
bold part of this ridge, and afforded the same view while it was in use.

The first mention of the White Mountains in print occurs in John
Josselyn's "New England's Rarities Discovered," which was published in
1672, containing the earliest notice of the botany of the country. The
materials for this and a subsequent work were collected by the author
during two visits to New England, coming first in 1638 and remaining
fifteen months, and again in 1663, remaining eight years. In his account
of the mountains, he describes a pond upon the highest summit, — either
from a defect of memory, or because he was satisfied with seeing them
at a distance, without making the ascent, and mistook its position, as
described by explorers. "Four-score miles," says Josselyn, "to the North-
west of Scarborow, a Ridge of Mountains runs North-west and North-east
an hundred leagues, known by the name of the White Mountains, upon
which lieth snow all the year, and is a Landmark twenty miles off at Sea.
It is rising ground from the seashore to these Hills, and they are inacces-
sible except by the Gullies which the dissolved Snow hath made. In these
Gullies grow Saven bushes, which, being taken hold of, are a good help
to the climbing discoverer. Upon the top of the highest of these Moun-
tains is a large Level or Plain, of a day's journey over, whereon nothing
grows but Moss. At the farther end of this Plain is another Hill called
the Sugarkaf) to outward appearance a rude heap of massie stones piled
one upon another ; and you may, as you ascend, step from one stone to
another as if you were going up a pair of stairs, but winding still about
the Hill till you come to the top, which will require half a day's time, —

62 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

and yet it is not above a Mile, — where there is also a Level of about
an Acre of ground, with a pond of clear water in the midst of it, which
you may hear run down, but how it ascends is a mystery. From this
rocky Hill you may see the whole country round about. It is far above
the lower clouds ; and from hence we beheld a Vapour (like a great Pillar)
drawn up by the Sun Beams out of a great Lake or Pond into the air,
where it was formed into a Cloud. The Country beyond these Hills
Northward is daunting terrible, being full of rocky Hills as thick as Mole-
hills in a Meadow, and cloathed with infinite thick Woods."* In his
"Voyages," published a year or two later, Josselyn corrects what he says
of the snow's lying the whole year upon the mountains, by excepting the
month of August, f

The "Voyages" contain an account of the Indian traditions which
clustered about our highest mountains. "Ask them," says Josselyn,
"whither they go when they dye, they will tell you, pointing with their
finger to Heaven, beyond the White Mountains ; and do hint at Noah's
Floud, as may be conceived by a story they have received from Father to
Son, time out of mind, that a great while agon their Countrey was
drowned, and all the People and other Creatures in it, only one Powaw
and his Webb, foreseeing the Floud, fled to the White Mountains, carrying
a hare along with them, and so escaped. After a while, the Powaw sent
the Hare away, who not returning, emboldened thereby, they descended,
and lived many years after and had many children, from whom the Coun-
trie was again filled with Indians." \ None of the traditions of the
native tribes appear to have been so widespread as that of a flood ; and
many notices might be cited similar to this of the White Mountains.
Catlin describes a ceremony referring to this which he witnessed among
the Mandans, on the upper Missouri river, where the only survivor was
represented as white.

The next mention of explorations among the White Mountains is on
April 29, 1725, when "a ranging company ascended the highest mountain
on the N. W. part," — probably the first ascent from this side. As was to
be expected, they found the snow deep and the Alpine ponds frozen. ||
Another ranging party being " in the neighborhood of the White

* N. E. Rarities Disc., p. 3. f Josselyn's Voyages, p. 55. J Ibid, p. 135. || Belknap, N. H., Hi., p. 35.

EXPLORATIONS AMONG THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. 63

Mountains, on a warm day in the Month of March, in 1 746, were alarmed
with a repeated noise, which they supposed to be the firing of guns. On
further search, they found it to be caused by rocks falling from the south
side of a steep mountain."* This is the first notice that we find of the
mighty force that has left its furrows and scars all through the mountains,
and which caused to be written the saddest page in their history.

DISCOVERY OF THE WHITE MOUNTAIN NOTCH.

It is supposed that the Indians were aware of the central pass through
the White Mountains, and took their captives through it to Canada ; but
its existence was unknown to the English at the time of the first settle-
ments of the Coos country. The value of these lands was thus very
much diminished on account of the wide circuit which must be made
either to east or west to communicate with the seaboard, so that it
became a matter of inquiry to the authorities of the state how a way
should be opened through this almost impassable chain. Its discovery
was made in 1771 by one Timothy Nash, a pioneer hunter who had
established himself in this solitary region. Climbing a tree on Cherry
mountain in search of a moose, he discovered, as he thought, the wished-
for pass. Steering for the opening, he soon struck the Saco river, a mere
brook, and, following down, stopped at what is now known as the gate
of the notch. Here the sharp rocks came so near together as to prevent
his following the stream ; but, seeing that by a reasonable expenditure
a road could be opened at the point, he scaled the cliffs and continued
on to Portsmouth. Here he made known his discovery to Governor
Wentworth. The wary governor, to test the practicability of the pass,
informed Nash that if he would bring him a horse down through the
gorge from Lancaster, he would grant him the tract of land now known
as Nash and Sawyer's location. To accomplish this, Nash admitted
a fellow hunter, Benjamin Sawyer, to a share in his trade. By means
of ropes they succeeded in getting the horse over the projecting cliff
and down the rugged pathway of the mountain torrent, and brought
him to the governor. When they saw the horse safely lowered on the
south side of the last projection, it is said that Sawyer, draining the last

*Belknap, N. H., Hi, p. 27.

64 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

drop of rum from his junk bottle, and breaking it on the rock, called it
Sawyer's rock, by which name it has ever since been known. A road
was soon opened by the proprietors of lands in the upper Coos, and
settlers began to make their way into the immediate vicinity of the
mountains. Jefferson, Whitefield, Littleton, and Franconia were first
settled within two or three years after this date. A road was also com-
menced through the eastern, or Pinkham notch, in 1774, and Shelburne,
which included Gorham, received its first inhabitants in the following year.
The earliest articles of commerce taken through the notch have not
escaped mention. They appear to have been a barrel of tobacco, raised
at Lancaster, which was carried to Portsmouth, and a barrel of rum
which a company in Portland offered to any one who should succeed in
taking it through the pass. This was done by Captain Rosebrook, with
some assistance, though it was nearly empty, we are informed, "through
the politeness of those who helped to manage the affair." The difficulty
of communication was often the occasion of more serious want, and it
was no rare thing to suffer from scarcity of provisions. In 1800, the
inhabitants of Bethlehem were obliged to leave their occupations, go
into the woods, and cut and burn timber enough for a load of potash, with
which to procure provisions after a journey of one hundred and seventy
miles. The tenth turnpike of New Hampshire was incorporated in 1 803,
to extend from the west line of Bartlett, through the White Mountain
notch, a distance of twenty miles. The original cost of the road was
forty thousand dollars, and the expense of repairs was large ; but it proved
a profitable investment. Strings of teams of half a mile in length were
sometimes seen winding through Conway on their route to Portland, the
great market at that time for all northern New Hampshire.

VISITS OF SCIENTIFIC PABTIES.

Mt. Washington was ascended in July, 1784, "with a view to make
particular observations on the several phenomena which might occur,"
the party consisting of the Rev. Manasseh Cutler, of Ipswich, Mass., a
zealous member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the
Rev. Daniel Little, of Kennebunk, Me., also a member of the Academy,
and Col. John Whipple, of Jefferson (then Dartmouth), together with
others to the number of seven in all. They are said to have been "the

EXPLORATIONS AMONG THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. 6$

subject of much speculation" as they passed through Eaton and Conway.
Dr. Belknap, the early historian of the state, and Dr. Fisher, of Beverly,
Mass., were of this party, but neither of them succeeded in reaching the
summit. Dr. Fisher remained at the notch "to collect birds, and other
animal and vegetable productions." The objects of the expedition were
but partially attained. It happened unfortunately that thick clouds
covered the mountains nearly the whole time, so that the instruments,
which they had carried up with much labor, were rendered useless. They
made some unsatisfactory barometrical observations, but were unable to
test them in an attempted geometrical measurement from the base.
The barometer had suffered so much agitation that an allowance was
necessary, and the altitude was computed in round numbers at 5,500 feet
above the meadow in the valley below, and nearly 10,000 feet above the
level of the sea. This was no greater altitude than appears to have been
generally assigned to these mountains. Dr. Belknap, in 1792, gave his
opinion that these figures were too small, predicting "that whenever the
mountain can be measured with the requisite precision, it will be found
to exceed ten thousand feet, of perpendicular altitude, above the level of
the ocean."*

The plants of the upper region were now described for the first time,
but only in a general way. The following extract from a manuscript of
Dr. Cutler, which is quoted by Belknap, points out the more prominent
botanical features, as seen by the first scientific party : " There is evi-
dently the appearance of three zones, — I, the woods; 2, the bald, mossy
part; 3, the part above vegetation. The same appearance has been
observed on the Alps and all other high mountains. I recollect no grass
on the plain. The spaces between the rocks in the second zone and on
the plain are filled with spruce and fir, which perhaps have been growing
ever since the creation, and yet many of them have not attained a greater
height than three or four inches ; but their spreading tops are so thick and
strong as to support the weight of a man without yielding in the smallest
degree ; — the snows and winds keeping the surface even with the general
surface of the rocks. In many places on the sides we could get glades of
this growth some rods in extent, when we could, by sitting down on our

* Belknap, N. H. iii, p. 38.
VOL. I. 9

66 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

feet, slide the whole length. The tops of the growth of wood were so
thick and firm as to bear us currently a considerable distance before we
arrived at the utmost boundaries, which were almost as well defined as
the water on the shore of a pond. The tops of the wood had the appear-
ance of having been shorn off, exhibiting a smooth surface from their
upper limits for a great distance down the mountain." " On the upper-
most rock" the letters "N. H." were engraved ; and a plate of lead bearing
the names of the party was deposited under a stone.

The route by which Cutler and his party reached the mountain is prob-
ably indicated by the stream which bears his name in Bigelow's narrative.
"In less than half a mile southward from this fountain," — that is, of Ellis
river, at the height of land between the Saco and the Androscoggin, in
Pinkham woods, — "a large stream, which runs down the highest of the
White Mountains, falls into Ellis river; and, in about the same distance
from this, another falls from the same mountain. The former of these
streams is Cutler's river, the latter New river." This name is said to
have been applied to the stream at Dr. Cutler's express wish.

A " Second Scientific Visit " was made in 1 804 by Dr. Cutler, who was
accompanied by W. D. Peck, afterwards professor of natural history at
Cambridge, Mass. Barometrical observations made on this occasion, and
computed by Mr. Bowditch, gave to Mt. Washington an elevation of 7,05 5
feet above the sea. A collection of the Alpine plants was made by Dr.
Peck, and was afterwards seen by Mr. Pursh, in whose " Flora of North
America," printed in 1814, many of the most interesting species were
described. Naturalists soon began to give special attention to the
peculiar Arctic flora and fauna of these mountains. A quite complete
enumeration and description of the phaenogamous plants, together with a
statement of much concerning their mineralogy and zoology appeared in
Dr. Bigelow's "Account of the White Mountains of New Hampshire,"
published in 1816, from explorations made during the same season. Dr.
Francis Boott, Mr. Francis C. Gray, and the venerable Chief Justice Shaw
were members of this party. The barometrical observations which they
obtained gave 6,225 feet above the sea. This visit was made in June; and
Dr. Boott made a second visit the succeeding month, adding a considera-
ble number of species to the botanical collections. The ascent was from
the eastern pass, following Cutler's river. In 1819, Abel Crawford opened

EXPLORATIONS AMONG THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. 6/

a footway to Mt. Washington, following the south-western ridge. This,
and the new road made two years later by Ethan Allen Crawford along
the Ammonoosnc, subsequently became the more common ways of
ascending the mountains. Botanists were gainers by this change,
especially those whose work was carried on without camping out, as
these routes enabled them to examine the finest localities for Alpine
plants while on their way to the summit. An account of the expedition
of 1816 appeared in the New England Journal of Medicine and Surgery
for November of the same year.

MAPS, SURVEYS, AND NAMES.

The first and only map of New Hampshire issued under the direction
of the state authorities, was that of Philip Carrigain, published in 1816.
The author's name is still preserved at the White Mountains, as that of
the noblest of the peaks upon the east branch of the Pemigewasset, — too
distant, however, from settlements to be often visited by tourists. This
map notices that recent barometrical calculations give 7,162 feet above the
sea as the height of the White Mountains ; and states that, being below
the line of perpetual congelation, which must be 7,200 feet lower than in
Europe on the same parallel, they cannot exceed 7,800 feet. The author
then somewhat incorrectly adds, — "After every abridgment of the here-
tofore exaggerated estimates of their altitude, it will be found doubly to
exceed that of any mountain in the United States other than those of
New Hampshire." The Franconia and Mt. Washington ranges, with
intervening ranges and peaks, are laid down on this map ; but no names
are applied to individual summits throughout this central area of the
White Mountains, with the exception of Lafayette, which is called
"Great Haystack." The prominent mountains which stand on guard
just outside this area, however, were already distinguished by the same
names as now. We find " Pigwacket Mt, formerly Kiarsarge ; " " Corway
Peak Mt." (Chocorua); also, "Corway" pond and river; and, on the west,
Kinsman's Mt. and "Moosehillock" Mt. The latter is in the town of
"Coventry," changed to Benton in 1840. Albany, Woodstock, Carroll,
Randolph, and Jackson are designated by the names Burton, Peeling,
Breton Woods, Durand, and Adams. The name of "Merrimack River, or
Pemigewasset Br.," is applied to that stream above Franklin ; while the

68

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

East Branch is marked "Merrimack R." The names Hancock Br. and
"Moosehillock" Br., and the old form Ammariscoggin, are also found on
this map. In his short notice of the productions and natural features
of the state, the author remarks, referring to its lake and mountain
scenery, "It may be called the Switzerland of America," — a term which
has been generally adopted in descriptions of New Hampshire.

The first carefully prepared map of the White Mountains was published
by Prof. G. P. Bond, of Cambridge, Mass., in 1853, from original triangu-
lation. The history of the efforts of the geological survey to secure
more perfect maps of this region, with the result of these labors, is given
in another part of this work.

Fig. 7. — LANCASTER AND THE WHITE MOUNTAINS.

Considerable interest appears to have been awakened as to the altitude
of these mountains, on account of the conflicting results of barometrical
measurements; and we find that in July, 1820, a party of engineers and
others from Lancaster visited the whole range between the notch and
Mt. Madison, and, on a second visit, measured the altitudes with a spirit

EXPLORATIONS AMONG THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. 69

level. The first party consisted of Adino N. Brackett, John W. Weeks,
Gen. John Wilson, Charles J. Stuart, Noyes S. Dennison, and Samuel A.
Pearson, of Lancaster, with Philip Carrigain and E. A. Crawford, the
latter acting as pilot and baggage-carrier. This party gave names to Mts.
Pleasant, Franklin, Monroe, Jefferson, Adams, and Madison. They called
the Lake of the Clouds "Blue pond;" and the locality since named after
Bigelow was by them called " Carrigain's lawn." The dead, gnarled trees,
which are especially conspicuous on Moosilauke and common on all the
mountains, received special notice. They were called by some members
of the party buck's horns, and by others bleached bones. The cause of the
death of these trees they supposed to have been the cold seasons which
prevailed from 1812 to 1816, saying, — "It can hardly be doubted that
during the whole of the year 1816 these trees continued frozen." This
was the year long remembered as the "year without a summer." About
a month after this visit, Weeks, Stuart, and Brackett, accompanied by
Richard Eastman, spent seven days in levelling to the tops of all these
mountains from Lancaster, encamping on them four nights; — that of
August 3ist on the summit of Mt. Washington. They must have been
the first party who ever spent the night upon the summit. They made
Mt. Washington 6,428 feet above the sea, or 5,850 feet above the river at
Lancaster. An interesting account of these visits is found in the "New
Hampshire Historical Collections" for 1823. During the year following
these visits, Capt. Partridge again computed the height of Mt. Washing-
ton from barometrical observations, giving 6,234 feet. The observations
of Dr. C. T. Jackson, in 1840, were quite accurate for the difference in
height between Mt. Washington and the notch. Correcting the error for
the height of the notch, his figures would stand 6,303, instead of 6,228,
only ten feet in excess of the correct height. Prof. Arnold Guyot, in
1851, from barometrical observations, gives the figures of 6,291 feet. In
his memoir of the "Appalachian Mountain System," published in 1861, he
has altered these figures to 6,288. In 1853, Capt. T. J. Cram levelled to
the summit of Mt. Washington, under the direction of the United States
Coast Survey, and reported its height to be 6,293 feet, which may be
assumed to be the true altitude.

The Indians are said to have been restrained by awe and fear from
climbing to the summits of these mountains. Their traditions repre-

7O PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

sented that here was the residence of the Great Spirit, who, with a
motion of the hand, could raise a storm and destroy the daring adven-
turer who presumed to approach his abode. They never felt, amid the
sublimity and awfulness of the mountains, that sense of ownership and
appropriation which was inspired by rivers and lakes, with their calmer
beauty and life-sustaining productiveness. Thus, while solitary mountains
throughout the state, like nearly all the rivers, still preserve the names of
their ancient baptism, always the last memorial of a departed race, the
central portion of the White Mountains is wholly English in name and
associations. We do not know that the Indians distinguished them by
any other than a collective name. This, according to Dr. Belknap, was
AgiococJiook in one dialect, and in another Waumbckket-MetJma, signify-
ing Mountains with snowy foreheads. The English name White Moun-
tains we meet in the earliest account of them that was published. It is
not improbable that this name was applied to them while as yet they
were only known to adventurous mariners in their exploring voyages
along the coast.

It is impossible to ascertain with certainty who first proposed to call
the highest of these summits Mt. Washington. Dr. Belknap, in 1792,
says of it, — "it has lately been distinguished by the name of Mount
Washington." He quotes from the manuscript of Dr. Cutler, in another
place, the account of the zones of vegetation, where mention is made of
" Mount Washington" as if it were well known. As his visit was made
in 1784, it is not unlikely that the name was proposed soon after the
close of the revolutionary war, probably by Dr. Cutler's party. Of other
prominent peaks, besides those named by the party of 1820, Mt. Clinton
received its name from some undiscoverable source, certainly before 1837.
Mts. Clay and Jackson were named by Mr. Oakes. This gentleman was
with Prof. Tuckerman, and sent up his guide, Amasa Allen, to build a
fire on the top of the south spur of Clinton ; and thus, with a fiery bap-
tism, the mountain was christened Jackson. Mt. Willard was named
from Mr. Sidney Willard, of Boston ; and it is probable that the name of
Mt. Webster was proposed by Mr. Willard for the peak known to earlier
visitors as Notch mountain. Lower down the Saco, Mts. Crawford and
Resolution, as well as the Giant's stairs, received names from Dr. S. A.
Bemis. The names of Tuckerman's ravine, Oakes's gulf, and Bigelow's

EXPLORATIONS AMONG THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. /I

lawn were given, in honor of three eminent botanists who had particu-
larly distinguished themselves in the study of the White Mountain flora,
to three fine localities of plants as well as marked topographical features.
It is difficult to ascertain the origin of many of the names of natural
objects about the mountains. Dr. Bemis has perhaps applied more
appellations than any other person to these features. Other names
have been given by chance visitors, and preserved by usage among
guides.

No Indian legends remain about the mountains, and but few localities
have a particular history. There is one cascade, however, about a quarter
of a mile from the former residence of old Abel Crawford, which is more
distinguished by the sad story associated with it, than by the picturesque-
ness of the crags through which it hurries for the last mile of its descent.
It is called "Nancy's brook." Here, late in the autumn of 1788, a young
woman, who had lived with a family in Jefferson, was found frozen to death.
She was engaged to be married to a man who was employed in the same
family where she served, and had entrusted to him all her earnings, with
the understanding that in a few days they should leave for Portsmouth
to be married there. During her temporary absence at Lancaster, nine
miles distant, the man started with his employer for Portsmouth, leaving
no explanation or message for her. She learned the fact of her deser-
tion on the same day, and at once walked back to Jefferson, tied up a
small bundle of clothing, and, in spite of all warnings and entreaties,
set out on foot to overtake them. The distance to the notch was thirty
miles, with no settlement on the way, the only road being a hunter's path
marked by spotted trees. It had been snowing, but she pressed on over
this road through the night, in the hope of overtaking her lover at the
camp in the notch before the party should start in the morning. She
reached it soon after they had left, and it appeared to those who, alarmed
for her safety, had followed on from Jefferson to overtake her, that she
had tried in vain to rekindle the fire in the lonely camp. Failing in this,
she had hurried on, climbing the wild pass of the notch, and following
the track of the Saco towards Conway. Several miles of the roughest
part of the way she travelled thus, often fording the river. But her
strength was spent by two or three hours of such toil ; and she was
found by the party in pursuit of her, chilled and stiff in the snow, at the

72 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

foot of an aged tree near " Nancy's bridge," not many hours after she
had ceased to breathe.

EARLY SETTLEMENTS.

President Dwight, of Yale college, visited the notch in 1797, and
again in 1803, and has left in his "Travels" an appreciative description of
the White Mountain scenery, besides some account of the early settlers
of this region. The two prominent names are those of Eleazer Rose-
brook and Abel Crawford. Mr. Rosebrook was a pioneer from Grafton,
Mass., whence he removed to Lancaster about 1772 ; he finally settled at
Monadnock, now Colebrook. Here he was fully thirty miles from any
inhabitant, with no path to his cabin excepting blazed trees. During the
revolutionary war he removed to Guildhall, Vt, in order to place his
family in the neighborhood of settlements, being absent from them most
of the time in the military service of the frontier. In 1792, he sold his
fine farm on the Connecticut, and once more sought the wilderness, —
removing, in the depth of winter, to Nash & Sawyer's location. Here he
soon built a large two-story house, at the base of what was known as the
Giant's grave, occupying nearly the same site as the present Fabyan
house. He also built a saw-mill and grist-mill, and large barns, stables,

Fig. 8. — GIANT'S GRAVE.

EXPLORATIONS AMONG THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. 73

and sheds. He had hardly become comfortably situated, however, when
a cancer broke out on his lip, and after a few years of intense suffering,
which was patiently borne, he died September 2/th, 1817. "In all
respects Mr. Rosebrook was a remarkable man. He loved the rugged
scenes of pioneer life, and was never more in his element than while
scaling the mountain, or trapping the wolf or bear. There are men
enough who prefer the city, and cling fondly around their native village ;
but he could never endure the restraints connected with our larger settle-
ments,— the restraints of artificial life ; but freely, his arms and broad
chest all bare, he must breathe the strong, pure air, as it came rushing
along through these mountain gorges."

Abel Crawford, who married Capt. Rosebrook's daughter, and who is
remembered as the "patriarch of the mountains," also came from Guild-
hall a few years later, locating himself twelve miles farther south, near
the site of the present Mt. Crawford house. In 1840, at the age of
seventy-five, he made the first horseback ascent to the top of Mt. Wash-
ington. Dr. C. T. Jackson, state geologist, was a member of the same
party. Mr. Crawford died at the advanced age of eighty-five. For sixty
years he had been acquainted with this region, and had seen the gradual
process of civilization applied to the wilderness from upper Bartlett to
Bethlehem. So long had he been accustomed to travellers during the
summer months, that he felt he could not die without seeing them arrive
once more. " He used to sit, in the warm spring days, supported by his
daughter, his snow-white hair falling to his shoulders, waiting for the first
ripple of that large tide which he had seen increasing in volume for
twenty years. Not long after the stages began to carry their summer
freight by his door, he passed away."

His son, Ethan Allen Crawford, succeeded to the estate of Capt. Rose-
brook ; but the ample buildings which the latter had reared were soon after
burned to the ground. For many years the Crawfords were the only ones
to entertain strangers at the mountains. All the bridle-paths on the west
side were cut by them, the first of which, made for a foot-path in 1821,
extended from the Rosebrook place, nearly seven miles, to the foot of Mt.
Washington, following the Ammonoosuc river. It was afterwards known
as "Fabyan's road." It was in this year that ladies first climbed to the
summit. They were three in number, — sisters, — the Misses Austin, of
VOL. i. 10

74 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Portsmouth. With a firm determination to obtain a fine prospect, they
remained four days near the top in a small stone cabin, until the weather
became propitious. With the beginning of the present century, visitors
to the White Mountains increased in number. In 1819, the number
averaged ten or twelve annually ; and the pioneer settlers began to pro-
vide means for their accommodation. Abel Crawford and his sons were
the efficient guides of the early visitors ; and many traditions are still
current of their skill and strength, both as guides and hunters. They
were all of the largest stature; and Ethan Allen, known as the "giant of
the mountains," was nearly seven feet in height. With additional facili-
ties, the number of visitors gradually increased, so that in 1858 it was
estimated that five thousand annually ascended the various bridle-paths.
In 1870, the number was estimated at seven thousand, of whom five
thousand registered their names at the Tip-top house.

Of all the adventurous lives which have been passed among the
shadows of these mountains, perhaps none exceeds, in thrilling interest
and remarkable contrasts, that of Ethan Allen Crawford, whom we have
already had occasion several times to mention. A considerable " History
of the White Mountains," with his experiences and reminiscences, has
been left us by his own hand. Many of the wisest and most distin-
guished of the country were entertained under his rude roof, who grate-
fully remembered his hospitality and his faithful service in guiding them
to the great ridge. He would come home from a bear-fight to find in his
house, perhaps, "a member of congress, Daniel Webster," who desired his
assistance on foot to the summit of Mt. Washington. Ethan says that
they went up "without meeting anything worthy of note, more than was
common for me to find; but to him tilings appeared interesting. And
when we arrived there he addressed himself in this way, saying, — 'Mt.
Washington, I have come a long distance, and have toiled hard to arrive
at your summit, and now you give me a cold reception. I am extremely
sorry that I shall not have time enough to view this grand prospect which
lies before me ; and nothing prevents but the uncomfortable atmosphere
in which you reside.' " The snow from a sudden squall froze upon them
as they descended. The statesman had evidently become interested in
his guide, for Ethan adds that "the next morning, after paying his bill, he
made me a handsome present of twenty dollars."

EXPLORATIONS AMONG THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. 75

The fire which destroyed his buildings left him heavily oppressed by
debts, a burden which he was never able to throw off. His crops were
swept away, and his meadows filled with sand by freshets. Other forms
of adversity, too, beset him. Before middle life, his own powerful frame
was so shaken by disease and pain that a flash of lightning, he would
sometimes say, seemed to run from his spine to the ends of his hair. But
the example of his wife taught him how to meet calamity and distress
without despair and repining. He was put in jail at last, in Lancaster,
for debt. She wrote a pleading letter to his chief creditor to release him,
but without effect. "This," says Ethan, "forced me, in the jail, to reflect
on human nature, and it overcame me so that I was obliged to call for the
advice of physicians and a nurse." Broken in health, oppressed by
pecuniary burdens, and with shattered spirits, he left the plateau at the
base of Mt. Washington for a more pleasant home in Vermont. But
he experienced hard fortune there, too, and returned to die within sight
of the range, an old man, before he had reached the age of fifty-six years.

" Since the breaking up of his home at the Giant's grave," says T. Stan-
King, "the mountains have heard no music which they have echoed so
heartily as the windings of his horn, and the roar of the cannon which he
used to load to the muzzle, that his guests might hear a park of artillery
reply. Few men that have ever visited the mountains have done more
faithful work, or borne so much adversity and suffering. The cutting of
his heel-cord with an axe, when he was chopping out the first path up Mt.
Washington, was a type of the result to himself of his years of toil in
the wilderness; and his own quaint reflection on that wound, which
inflicted lameness upon him for months, is the most appropriate inscrip-
tion,— after the simple words, ' an honest man/ — that could be reared over
his grave : — ' So it is that men suffer various ways in advancing civiliza-
tion ; and, through God, mankind are indebted to the labors of men in
many different spheres of life.'"

At about the same time with the settlement of the Crawfords, a
tract of land three miles below the mouth of the notch was first
improved by a Mr. Davies ; this was the farm afterwards occupied by
Mr. Willey. In describing his second visit to this place, President
Dwight has preserved a record of one of the great fires which have
devastated the mountains of the notch. "When we entered upon this

76 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

farm in 1803, a fire, which not long before had been kindled in its skirts,
had spread over an extensive region of the mountains on the north-east,
and consumed all the vegetation, and most of the soil, which was chiefly
vegetable mould, in its progress. The whole tract, from the base to the
summit, was alternately white and dappled ; while the melancholy remains
of half-burnt trees, which hung here and there on the immense steeps,
finished the picture of barrenness and death." Old Mr. Crawford is said
to have been accustomed, about the year 1845, to refer to the great fire
which reduced Mt. Crawford to its present condition, as occurring some
thirty years before. A similar fire, occurring seventy or eighty years
ago and burning for several weeks, is said to have produced the barren
aspect of Mt. Monadnock, in the south-west part of the state. The
time may arrive when the record of these irreparable mischiefs, destroy-
ing the vitality of the mountains and leaving only naked and desolate
rocks, shall possess a mournful value.

Several years after this visit by Dwight, the house was built upon the
Davies farm by a Mr. Henry Hill, which is yet standing, being familiarly
known as the "Willey house," and interesting as a monument of the
fearful tragedy which occurred here August 28th, 1826. In the autumn
of 1825, Mr. Samuel Willey with his family moved into this house. In
the June following, a slide occurred near them upon the mountain, since
called " Mt. Willey," which rose at a threatening angle some two thousand
feet, with its base close behind the house. This, which was the warning
of the impending disaster, at first greatly alarmed the family, and they
resolved to remove from the notch. But Mr. Willey, on reflection, felt
confident that such an event was not likely to occur again, and was satis-
fied with building a place of shelter to which the family might fly, if
another slide seemed to threaten their home. Later in the summer there
was a long hot drought, by which the earth had been dried to an unusual
depth, thus preparing the surface to be operated on more powerfully by a
sudden and copious rain. This began to fall on Sunday, the 2/th of
August ; and on the next day the storm was very severe, especially in the
vicinity of the mountains. On the morning of Tuesday the sun rose in
a cloudless sky, and the air was remarkably transparent. During the
preceding night the Saco had risen twenty-four feet, and swept the whole
interval between the notch and Conway. The storm had wrought with

EXPLORATIONS AMONG THE WHITE MOUNTAINS.

77

a terrible effect upon the sides of the Mt. Washington range. The
whole line was devastated by land-slides. A party ascending the Ammo-
noosuc soon after, counted thirty along their path, some of which ravaged
more than a hundred acres of the wilderness. On the declivities towards
North Conway, it was thought that this one storm dismantled more of
the great range than all the rains of a hundred years before. As soon
as the fate of the Willey family became known, relatives at Conway, and
many neighbors, hurried to the notch. An immense slide had come
down the mountain directly towards the house, but had been divided by
a huge boulder thirty feet high, in the rear of the buildings, uniting again
in front. A portion of the stable had been swept away. The doors of
the house were all open, and beds and clothing showed that the family
had hurriedly left. They had probably fled from the only place of safety
at just the moment to be overwhelmed in the terrible pathway of the

A

Fig. 9. — THE WILLEY SLIDE AND MONUMENT.

slide. The whole family, — Mr. Willey, his wife, and five children, together
with two hired men, — had perished. Search for the bodies was at once
commenced. The first found was that of one of the hired men, David
Allen, a man of powerful frame and remarkable strength. He was found

78 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

near the top of a pile of earth and shattered timbers, with "hands
clenched, and full of broken sticks and small limbs of trees." The bodies
of Mrs. Willey and her husband were also discovered, but so crushed as
to be hardly recognized. Rude coffins were prepared, and the next day,
Friday, about sunset, they were buried in a single wide grave, and the
simple burial service was offered, amid the solemnity and desolation of
the mountains. The bodies of two of the children and the other hired
man, David Nickerson, were found a day or two after, and also buried,
but the remaining three children were never discovered.

HOTELS, AND MODES OF ASCENT.

Soon after the completion of the rude bridle-path in 1821, by Ethan
Crawford, it was perceived that a house of some sort was needed upon
the summit, where visitors could spend the night. Hence Mr. Crawford
constructed a stone cabin near the top of Mt. Washington, by the side of
a spring. In this was spread an abundance of soft moss for beds ; and
thus travellers were enabled to view the setting and rising of the sun.
After a while a small stove was brought up, with an iron chest and a
long roll of sheet lead. The chest was the receptacle for the camping
blankets, and the lead was the register for visitors. Every winter this
house was seriously damaged. The roof would be blown away, and the
stones fall down from the walls,— the chest and stove remaining, sadly
rusted. Finally, at the great storm of August 28, 1826, when the Willey
family were destroyed, this cabin, with the iron chest and the blankets,
was swept down the steep slope and lost. A party had taken possession
for the night, but were terrified by the violence of the storm, and had
hastened down the mountain just in time to save their lives.

In 1852, J. S. Hall and L. M. Rosebrook built the Summit house on
the very top of the mountain. It is twenty-four by sixty-four feet, quite
low, with very thick walls of stone firmly cemented together, and bolted
down to the solid rock. Over the roof are four strong cables. This
house has now stood for more than twenty years.

A year later the Tip-top house was built by Samuel F. Spalding & Co.
It is twenty-eight by eighty-four feet, and was built in the same substan-
tial manner as the other. These two houses were originally under
different management, but after 1859 they were both leased by the

EXPLORATIONS AMONG THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. 79

proprietor of the Alpine house, in Gorham ; and many thousand people
remember their stay here as one of the novel experiences of the mountain
tour. Within two years the Mt. Washington house, — a new and very
commodious hotel building, provided with all the modern improvements,
and quite in contrast with the former accommodations, — has been erected
on the summit. It was first opened to the public in the summer oi 1873,
averaging about one hundred guests daily. J. E. Lyon and Walter Aiken
are understood to be the proprietors; and the manager is Capt. J. W.
Dodge.

There has been a controversy concerning the ownership of the land
upon the summit of Mt. Washington. In the early legislation of New
Hampshire respecting the unoccupied lands of the state, little attention
was paid to exact boundaries; consequently, each of the two parties
claiming the summit had reason to believe it to be included within their
limits. Mr. Bellows, of Exeter, owns the land upon the east side, and
was the party in possession till about fifteen years ago, when his tenants
were ejected by the sheriff acting for Coe & Pingree, of Bangor, Me., and
Salem, Mass. Probably more than twenty-five thousand dollars was
spent in contesting the matter of ownership before the courts, which has
since been settled through purchase, by Coe & Pingree, of all the rights
and claims of the former occupant.

The first good public house for summer visitors was built near
the Giant's grave, about seven miles west from the base of Mt. Wash-
ington, and came into the hands of Mr. Fabyan. This was destroyed
by fire about twenty years since. The Fabyan house, a large and ele-
gant hotel, has been recently built at this place, the Giant's grave being
levelled down for its reception. It was first opened to guests in 1873.
The well known White Mountain house, about a mile west from
this place, was built by Mr. Rosebrook, a descendant of the pioneer of
that name, about thirty years since. About four miles farther west, fol-
lowing the Ammonoosuc river, we come to the Twin Mountain house, one
of the finest and most complete of the mountain hotels. The Notch
house, kept by T. J. Crawford, is no longer in existence ; but its place has
been more than made good by the large and well kept hotel, a quarter of
a mile farther north, known as the Crawford house. At the foot of the Mt.
Washington Railway is the Marshfield house, a smaller but comfortable

8O PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

hotel, with accommodations for fifty guests. Upon the east side is the
Glen house, at the lower end of the carriage-road. This, and the Fabyan
house, are the largest hotels near Mt. Washington, either being capa-
ble of accommodating five hundred guests at one time. The Profile and
Flume houses, among the Franconia Mountains, and the large and well
appointed hotels of Plymouth, Littleton, Bethlehem, Lancaster, Jefferson,
North Conway, and other places, too numerous for particular mention
here, show the popularity of this portion of our state as a summer
resort.

There are now three ways of ascending Mt. Washington from below, —
two from the west and one from the east ; or, a railway, a carriage-road,
and a bridle-path. In 1 840, the bridle-path to the summit was cut from
the notch over Mts. Clinton, Pleasant, Franklin, and Monroe, to Washing-
ton, being nine miles in length. It affords a magnificent panorama of
mountain scenery, passing along over the treeless, wind-swept summits
of the range ; but, on account of its tiresomeness, few now ascend by this
route. A still longer bridle-path was soon afterwards opened by Mr.
Davis over Mt. Crawford, and thence along the east side of Dry, or Mt.
Washington river, but it is now wholly disused. Still later, the bridle-
path first opened by Ethan Crawford from the Giant's grave to " Cold
spring," or the base of Washington, was enlarged and became a carriage-
road. This was in use, though kept in poor repair, till it was superseded
by the " Fabyan turnpike," in 1 866. It terminated about a quarter of a
mile higher up the mountain than the lower depot of the railway, known
as "Ammonoosuc," formerly "Marshfield."

In June, 1853, a company was chartered to build a carriage-road from
the Glen to the Tip-top house, with a capital stock of fifty thousand
dollars. The length of this road is a little less than eight miles. By the
original design it was to be sixteen feet wide, macadamized, and to have
a protection wall three feet high in dangerous places. Its average grade
is twelve feet in one hundred, and the steepest is about sixteen feet in
one hundred, two and a half miles from the Glen. The work of its con-
struction was commenced in 1855, under the superintendence of C. H.
V. Cavis, engineer. It was carried as far as the " ledge," or half way, in
1856, and in 1861 it was completed to the summit. There is a small
house on this road half way up the mountain, at the point where the

EXPLORATIONS AMONG THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. 8 1

trees terminate and the arctic zone commences. This is occupied in
summer by a force of laborers, by whom the roadway is kept in a first-
rate condition. But the greatest triumph of engineering skill is on the
west side of the mountain, and was first projected while the carriage-
road was in process of construction, but was not realized till several
years later.

The first effort, in the direction of ascending Mt. Washington by steam-
power, was made by Mr. Sylvester Marsh, now residing at Littleton, N.
H., and the president of the Mt Washington Railway Company. He
invented the special contrivances needed to adapt motive machines to a
highly inclined plane. It was found very difficult at the outset to con-
vince mechanicians and capitalists of the feasibility of this ascending
railway. Mr. Marsh commenced the work, relying chiefly upon his own
private resources, and little encouragement was afforded by capitalists
till an engine was actually running over a portion of the route. In 1858
the application was made to the legislature of New Hampshire to grant
a charter for a steam railway from their bases to the summits of Mts.
Washington and Lafayette. A model of the invention was exhibited,
and it was stated that the petitioner and his friends would assume the
expense of the enterprise. After considerable ridicule, this charter was
charitably granted, with the usual formula of railroad laws in the state.
The actual work of construction was delayed for a number of years. As
a preliminary operation it was found desirable to build the new turnpike,
already noticed, from the stage road to the point where the ascent by
rail should commence, upon which work was begun in April, 1866. Some
five miles from the starting-point this road passes through a clearing of
perhaps a hundred acres, called " Twin River Farm." This spot is about
five hundred feet above the White Mountain house, and is spoken of as
possibly the site of the future junction of the Mt. Washington Railway
with the extension of the Boston, Concord & Montreal Railroad branch
from near Littleton, now nearly completed to the Fabyan house.

The Mt. Washington railroad was commenced in May, 1866. It starts
from a point 2,668 feet above the level of the sea, and 3,625 below the
summit. The distance traversed is two miles and thirteen sixteenths.
The average grade is 1,300 feet to the mile, the maximum being 1,980
feet to the mile, or thirteen and a half inches to the yard. There are

VOL. I. II

82 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

nine curves on the line, varying from 497 to 945 feet radius. The first
year the road was built a distance of about a quarter of a mile. In
1867 the track was extended to "Waumbek Junction," where it crosses
Fabyan's foot-path, a distance of one mile and eight rods. Work was
resumed May 7, 1 868, and in eighty-four working days it had advanced
more than a mile, or to the top of "Jacob's Ladder." The work was
continued till cold weather set in, and the last few rods of the track was
laid in July, 1869. The road was built under the superintendence of J. J.
Sanborn, of Franklin, N. H., at a total cost, including depots, turn-outs,
and rolling stock, of about $150,000. The indispensable peculiarity of
this railway is its central cog-rail, which consists of two pieces of wrought
angle iron, three inches wide and three eighths of an inch thick, placed
upon their edges, parallel to each other, and connected by strong iron
pins an inch and a half in diameter, and four inches apart from centre to
centre. The teeth of the driving wheel of the engine play into the
spaces between the bolts, and, as it revolves, the whole engine is made to
move, resting upon the outer rails. These cog-rails cost about two dol-
lars per foot, delivered at the base of the mountain. The appliances for
stopping trains are of the most perfect kind. Both friction and atmos-
pheric brakes are employed, and their complete reliability has been
proved by the severest tests. The speed of descent is entirely regulated
by their means without the use of steam. The engines employed have
been built by Walter Aiken, of Franklin, N. H., each weighing six and a
half tons, and rated at about fifty horse-power ; but on account of their
gearing they are practically two hundred horse-power. When moving,
the engine always takes the down-hill end of the train. While this rail-
way was in process of construction it was visited by a Swiss engineer,
who took away drawings, etc., of the machinery and track, from which a
similar road has been since built upon Mt. Rhigi in Switzerland : and
thus we have set an example worthy of imitation to an older country.
This road has a double track, and its length and grades are about the
same as upon Mt. Washington.

CASUALTIES UPON MT. WASHINGTON.

Before the construction of these improved and even luxurious methods
of ascent, several persons had lost their lives in attempting to climb this

EXPLORATIONS AMONG THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. 83

mountain, generally in consequence of neglecting the advice of guides.
The first was an English baronet, named Strickland. He went up from
the notch late in October, 1851. Disregarding the advice of his guide,
he pushed on to the summit, proposing to descend by Fabyan's path.
He seems to have become bewildered, and, after falling down precipitous
places several times, to have perished from cold and exhaustion, probably
in less than twelve hours after he started.

On the 24th of September, 1855, Miss Lizzie Bourne, of Kennebunk,
Me., perished within thirty rods of the summit. With an uncle and cousin
she climbed the mountain on foot ; but after reaching the Half-way house
the clear sky disappeared ; they became enveloped in a thick cloud, and
strong winds met them in front. Not knowing their nearness to the
summit, they were compelled to shelter themselves behind a few rough
stones ; and Miss Bourne was not strong enough to survive the shock.
A pyramid of stones close to the railroad marks the spot.

August /th, 1856, Benjamin Chandler, of Wilmington, Del., started
from the Glen house for the summit late in the afternoon. It was rainy,
windy, and very cold. He was about seventy-five years of age. He
seems to have wandered from the path, but no one knows how long he
survived. His remains were not found for more than a year, when they
were accidentally discovered about half a mile east of the summit.

The most terrible exposure which any person has survived upon Mt.
Washington was that of Dr. B. L. Ball, of Boston, late in October, 1855.
This gentleman walked from the Glen house to the Half-way house,
while workmen were engaged in building the carriage-road. The moun-
tain was covered with clouds, and, after climbing some distance above
the "ledge," he returned to the camp and spent the night with the
laborers. The next morning the clouds seemed about breaking, and he
started with the intention of reaching the summit if possible. The rain
was changed to sleet and snow, and the temperature fell very much.
Though very uncomfortable, Dr. Ball believed himself to be near the
summit, and struggled on, understanding that he could find provisions
and shelter in one of the houses there. He describes the storm as fol-
lows : " I could not have believed that the storm could be more violent
than it had been. Yet here it was more furious than ever. It now had
the full sweep of the mountain top, the highest point of the whole group,

84 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

of the loftiest mountain for hundreds of miles around. If ten hurricanes
had been in deadly strife with each other it could have been no worse.
The winds, as if locked in mortal embrace, tore along, whirling- and twist-
ing, and mingling their roaring with the flinty rattling of the snow grains
in one confused din." Dr. Ball did not, however, actually reach the sum-
mit, and, after many hours spent in the endeavor, buffeting the storm, he
was obliged to abandon his purpose, and set out to descend. But his
footprints had been obliterated by the storm, and, losing his way, he
found himself unable to judge from what direction he had come. He
pursued his way downward, however, till he reached the stunted and
tangled growth of spruce at the upper limit of trees. Here night came
on, and, building himself a sort of shelter from the wind and snow with
the aid of an umbrella, he lay down, knowing that to yield to sleep would
be fatal. The night was bitterly cold, water being frozen thick at the
camp below in a room adjoining one which had a fire. But even in this
situation, he remarks, — " It was not without some satisfaction that I looked
around me, and beheld the results of my labors. Notwithstanding the
open front, a bed of snow, a frosty rock on one side, a congealed mass
of snow and brush on the other, I was happy in the reflection that my
lot here was infinitely better than it could have been outside. Drawing
myself up into as small a compass as possible under my covering, I pre-
pared to pass a long, long night, — the longest of my life." He says that
he was enabled to keep awake by the multiplicity of thoughts which
crowded through his mind, and by taking constrained and almost con-
stantly varied positions. " When the first rays of light appeared in the
morning, so much sooner had the night passed than I had expected, that
I presumed the moon was shining. My body was stiff and rigid with
cold, and pressing upon the ground with such a senseless weight, that it
seemed to me I had become a part of the mountain itself." The second
day the view was still obscured by clouds, and was spent by him wan-
dering about in the snow. Unable to obtain a sight of the Glen house
below, and not daring to descend into the mazes of the forests, he returned
to spend a second night in the same place as before. During this night,
he says, "the thought occurred, What if I am obliged to stay out a night
after this, without food, drink, or sleep ? After a short consideration,
taking into account my present state, — that which had passed, and the

EXPLORATIONS AMONG THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. 85

chances to come, — I concluded that, terrible as it might be, I should be
able to survive it ; but whether I could then walk or not, I was unable to
decide." The next day was clear ; but not being able to make out the Glen
house, as soon as he was able to walk, which he says was after about two
hours, he started out to make a circuit for its discovery, higher up the
mountain. On this day he says that he no longer felt the gnawings of
hunger, but was oppressed by a burning thirst. " I thought I should not
wish to eat, even were food at hand. But I could not remain ignorant of
the fact that I was becoming weaker. This I perceived by the effort I was
obliged to make to hold my body erect, it inclining to stoop forward like
a man bowed down with old age. Often I raised myself upright, but was
very soon in the same bent posture." He was found in the afternoon of
this the third day of his exposure, still in good spirits, after having en-
dured for sixty hours the severe cold of the mountain, without food or
sleep. The party by whom Dr. Ball was rescued, consisting of Francis
Smith, J. S. Hall, and others, had been also engaged the preceding day
in the search, but had given up all expectation of meeting with him alive.

On February 22, 1872, private William Stevens, of the Signal Service,
U. S. A., died, after a sudden attack of paralysis. It does not appear
that this malady was induced by the special perils of the service, as he
had spent a winter in Alaska, and another at Fort Russell, though an
unnecessary yielding to sedentary habits may induce disease in the most
vigorous constitution. The body of Mr. Stevens was brought down the
mountain by a party of six persons, and buried at Littleton.

During the summer of 1873, one of the section hands on the railway
met with a fatal accident. He was sliding down the middle rail on a
board, and collided with an engine which was coming up the mountain.
His velocity of descent (a mile per minute) prevented him from stopping,
and his head was split entirely open. The site of the accident was at
Jacob's Ladder.

WINTER VISITS TO THE SUMMIT.

The thrilling and melancholy recital of such events as these has not
failed to invest the mountains with something of tragic interest. Their
changeableness in atmosphere and temperature, the impenetrability of
their fogs, and the suddenness and merciless fury of their storms, often

86 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

demand precaution and judgment in summer visits to their summits.
Previous to the expedition of 1870, few had been found so hardy as to
attempt the ascent in winter. In the month of November, 1855, a month
after Dr. Ball's experience, another party succeeded in reaching the top
in safety, and in enjoying a good view. One of the most hardy men, in
the party that rescued Dr. Ball, said that with a friend he attempted to
make the ascent in February ; but when they arrived within a mile of the
summit, they were obliged to turn back almost frozen. Before 1870, only
two instances are recorded of visits to the summit during the winter
months. The first was made December 7th, 1858, by Mr. Osgood, of
Lancaster, who went up, accompanied by one or two friends, to serve a
legal process upon property there. They found frost formed upon the
windows a foot and a half in thickness. It also covered the furniture
and the walls, giving them the appearance of a "snow cavern." On their
return, they were overtaken by one of the frost clouds peculiar to the
mountains in winter. "When first seen it was small in magnitude, but it
increased in size with alarming velocity, soon spreading over the entire
south. They had just entered the woods at the base of the ledge, when
it came upon them. So icy and penetrating was its breath, that to have
encountered its blinding, freezing power on the unprotected height, would
have been to have perished with it as a pall to cover them. The party
reached the Glen in safety, and were heartily welcomed by their friends,
who, well knowing the danger attending this never before accomplished
feat, awaited them with much anxiety."

The other ascent was made by a party of three, — J. H. Spalding,- F.
White, and C. C. Brooks, all from Lancaster, — on February n, 1862. A
stereograph, obtained at this visit, exhibited the interior of the Summit
house, with snow-drifts which had been sifted in through cracks in the
building. This party remained on the top two days and nights, experi-
encing a driving snow-storm of thirty-six hours' duration, and were repaid
by "one of the most magnificent sunrise scenes that imagination can
picture." The most extreme cold during their stay was five degrees
below zero. One of the objects of this visit was evidently to obtain some
acquaintance with the storms of the mountain. Their account concludes :
"We were remarkably well satisfied with the weather, and were very
lucky about climbing over the ice-clad rocks. Should others attempt to

EXPLORATIONS AMONG THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. 8/

go up among the clouds, for their own sake they should go prepared for
the worst. An iron-pointed staff, with an axe, and plenty of food and
clothing, are indispensable."

In the winter of 1870-71, the possibility of climbing the mountain in
the winter was thoroughly established. Thirty-eight persons went up
and down, — some of them several times, — the total number of ascents
being seventy. A register of the trips was given in the report for 1870.
The expedition was undertaken in opposition to the judgment, experience,
and advice of those most familiar with the mountain.

Mrs. O. E. Freeman, of Lancaster, made the ascent of Mt. Washington, Tuesday,
January 24, 1874, on foot. She is a daughter of "Old Ethan Crawford,"' of White
Mountain fame, and is doubtless the first woman who ever attempted to accomplish
his feat in winter. She was accompanied by her sister Mrs. Durgin, her brother
William H. Crawford, and nephew Ethan Crawford, Jr. They did not anticipate going
to the top at the starting, but thought they would walk up a short distance to see the
railroad, etc. They finally concluded to go to the top if possible, and made the
distance in three hours, walking upon the railroad sleepers most of the way, — which
required not a little self-possession and endurance, as they are in many places ten and
fifteen feet above the rocks below, and covered with ice and snow, so that a single
misstep might prove fatal to one walking upon them. Having been born under the
very shadows of these grand old hills, these ladies have become inured to cold, frost,
and snow, and enjoy rather than shrink from a little exposure. Mrs. Freeman describes
the trip as " glorious fun," and expresses the hope that all her lady friends may have
the pleasure of making it in winter.

ESTABLISHMENT OF AN OBSERVATORY.

The increasing interest during the past few years in the subject of
meteorology, the remarkable character of the phenomena which would be
observed during a winter residence on any of these mountain summits,
and, within the last few years, the obvious bearing which these must have
upon the great problem of meteorology, the prediction of the weather,
together with the expensive outfit which it was seen must be necessary to
render such an enterprise possible, seem to have given rise to many
stories of large rewards which had been offered to any one who should
accomplish this object. As long ago as 1858 a report was current, among
guides and others, that the Smithsonian Institution had offered a thousand
dollars to any one who would spend a winter on the highest summit, for

88 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

the purpose of taking meteorological observations. Others said that a
firm in Boston had offered five thousand dollars for the same object, with
the avowed purpose of publishing the journal of the observers' experience,
expecting to be reimbursed for the large expenditure by the sale of the
books. In the efforts during the fall of 1870 to raise funds for the me-
teorological expedition then undertaken, every such report was carefully
scrutinized, but none could be traced to any reliable source. Even
to the present time, people at the mountains still insist that somebody
had offered a very large sum for the purpose accomplished by the Mt.
Washington expedition.

Perhaps the first attempt to establish a scientific observatory upon the
summit of Mt. Washington was made in 1853, by D. O. Macomber,
president of the Mt. Washington Road Company. I have seen no one
who recalls the extent of the effort made at this time, but can reproduce
a circular setting forth the importance of the enterprise, and a petition
to congress for assistance.

"UNITED STATES OBSERVATORY ON MT. WASHINGTON.

"The arguments in favor of establishing a permanent building on the top

of Mt. Washington, for scientific purposes, are numerous and weighty.

Among them are,—

" i. Mt. Washington is the highest accessible point of land in the United States, east
of the Rocky Mountains, being 6,285 feet above the level of the sea, according to
actual measurements made by William A. Goodwin, Esq., civil engineer, in 1852, who
was employed for that purpose by the Atlantic & St. Lawrence Railroad Company.

"2. The construction of a Macadamized carriage-road, chartered by the state of New
Hampshire, in July, 1853, and which will be completed in 1854, will render the ascent
of the mountain easy for such portions of the year as it is desirable to continue scien-
tific observations.

" 3. A line of telegraph is to be constructed to the summit of Mt. Washington, con-
necting with the line now in operation from Portland to Montreal, and which line
connects at Portland with lines to Boston, New York, Washington, Cincinnati, &c., &c.

" 4. A large hotel is to be erected on the top of the mountain by the Mt. Washington
Road Company, which hotel, together with the necessary out-buildings, will occupy all
the available space on the summit which is suitable for such purposes, and which is
already laid out and commenced, and will be completed during the year 1854. The
company who erected the first building of any kind on the summit, form a portion of
the present incorporation, and merge all their interests in the new building.

EXPLORATIONS AMONG THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. 89

"5. It has been satisfactorily ascertained that no private individuals have any title to
the surface of the summit of Mt. Washington, but the same is held by the state of
New Hampshire, from whom and by the legislature of which the charter of the Mt.
Washington Road Company was granted.

"6. When the building, with an observatory attached, shall be completed, and fur-
nished with the necessary instruments, scientific observations may be kept up through-
out the entire year, giving, over the telegraph wires to Washington, New York, Cincin-
nati, &c., three times each day (viz., sunrise, meridian, and sunset), the record of
the thermometer, barometer, and wind, and also the duration and power of storms.

"7. Mt. Washington has been for years past, and will be for years to come, the cul-
minating point of many of the most important and interesting observations connected
with the coast surveys under charge of Prof. Bache, and which are now becoming of
so much acknowledged practical utility to the great commercial interests of the United
States, and of the world.

"8. It is evident that if an observatory, for the use of the government and the benefit
of the public, is ever to be erected on the summit of Mt. Washington, it should be
built in connection with the house now about to be commenced, and both constructed
in the most durable and permanent manner, not only to resist the force of the elements,
but also for the safety and comfort of those whom it may be necessary to station there
during the winter season for scientific observations, and who will be wholly inaccessible
to those below for at least five consecutive months.

"9. The proposition to the United States government will embrace all the advan-
tages of furnishing an excellent road for its use, and keeping the same in repair,
erecting a tower for scientific observations, with movable dome, and with a centre
isolated pillar on which to place instruments, with sufficient rooms for observations, and
also for the use of any scientific corps it may be necessary to place there, with appur-
tenances for heating the same during the winter months. These rooms, together with
the observatory, to be entirely under the control of the government, and, if desirable,
built under the inspection of scientific gentlemen to be named by the president."

" To the Honorable Senate and House of Representatives of the United
States in Congress assembled:

"The president and directors of the Mt. Washington Road Company propose
to the United States government to build, for the use of the government
and for scientific purposes, an observatory on the top of Mt. Washington,
in the state of New Hampshire, in the manner following, to wit :

"i. The observatory to be 25 feet square, with walls 4 feet in thickness, and to be
not less than 40 feet high above the top of Mt. Washington.

"2. The rooms inside to be 17 feet square, or of an octagon form, and a stone pillar
to be erected in the centre from the foundation to the top, entirely disconnected with
VOL. I. 12

9O PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

the walls, with stone beams projecting from it in the several stories, for the reception
of transit instrument, transit clock, artificial horizon, £c., &c.

"3. The walls of the observatory to be built of stone, in the most substantial and
durable manner, with a traversing dome, fitted according to the most approved scien-
tific buildings of this character.

"4. The observatory to be erected as a tower to, and in connection with, a large
substantial stone building, no feet long by 50 deep, with an ell 90 by 40. The whole
to be three stories high, with flat roof, and calculated to accommodate one hundred
and fifty visitors during the summer months.

"5. The Mt. Washington Road Company, under their charter of incorporation, a
copy of which is herewith submitted, will build a substantial carriage-road from the
base to the top of Mt. Washington, with a grade not exceeding one foot in eight, and
eight miles long, to be completed before July, 1855.

"6. The company will place this road at the service of the U. S. government, and
will transport all instruments, furniture, and persons belonging to or connected with
the government observatory, over the same, free of charges of any kind, at all times
when the said road shall not be rendered impassable by the elements.

"7. The Mt. Washington Road Company will erect, or cause to be erected, a sub-
stantial line of telegraph wires from the top of Mt. Washington, to connect with the
line already in operation along the line of the Atlantic & St. Lawrence Railroad,
which is distant only eight miles from the base of the mountain, and which telegraph
line connects at Portland, Me., with the lines extending to New York, Philadelphia,
Boston, Washington, Cincinnati, and other portions of the United States.

"8. To facilitate the continuation of scientific observations during the entire year on
the top of Mt. Washington, the Mt. Washington Road Company will place at the
disposal of the U. S. government such portion of the building as shall be necessary
for the accommodation of those who may be in the employment of the government, or
of any scientific society approved of by government, without charge, and will transport
at their own cost over their road, all fuel, provisions, &c., for the support and conven-
ience of such persons.

"9. To enable the Mt. Washington Road Company to build this national observa-
tory in the manner stated above, and in accordance with plans of the same herewith
submitted, and for the furnishing a carriage-road, telegraph communication, and all the
facilities above stated for the use of the United States government and the cause of
science throughout the world, they ask, in consideration, an appropriation of $50,000,
to be expended under a joint commission of two persons, the one to be named by the
government, and the other to be the president of the Mt. Washington Road Company.
" D. O. MACOMBER, President Mt. Washington Road Company.

"December ist, 1853."

In 1859, Jonathan Marshall, a recent graduate of Dartmouth college,
conceived the idea of spending a winter upon the summit of Mt. Wash-

EXPLORATIONS AMONG THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. QI

ington for meteorological purposes. He received encouragement from
Prof. Joseph Henry, of the Smithsonian Institution, and was allowed to
occupy one of the houses. An unexpected snow storm delayed some of
his preparations, and meanwhile other considerations prevented him from
carrying out the enterprise.

The history of the successful establishment of the observatory, in
connection with the geological survey, will presently be given in full.

Fig. 10. — SUMMIT OF MT. WASHINGTON FROM THE NORTH.
Depot and Summit House in 1870.

Signal Service Occupation. Mt. Washington has been occupied as one
of the stations of the signal service since its abandonment by the geolog-
ical survey, in May, 1871. Sergeant T. Smith was relieved by Sergeant
M. L. Hearne, in June, 1871. Sergeant Hearne was assisted by private
William Stevens, till his death, Feb. 22, 1872, — his place being taken by
Robert J. Bell. They arranged a box like a chimney, extending above
the ridge-pole, so that they could climb up and expose the anemometer
without going out of doors themselves. The head is protruded a single
instant, in order to place the instrument properly; and the sensation
experienced, when the wind is blowing at the rate of ninety miles to the

92 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

hour, is said "to be the same as if a bucket of water were thrown sud-
denly into the face, and immediately frozen thereon."

November 14, 15, and 16, 1871, are reported by Sergeant Hearne as very
"stirring times," his instrument recording the most rapid movements of
air ever described. At 9 A. M., Nov. 14, the wind blew at the rate of 40
miles to the hour. At 4 p. M., it reached 60 ; at midnight, 78, and still
increasing, with snow and sleet, — the barometer sinking four tenths of
an inch during the night. At 6 A. M., the I5th, the wind tore off five or
six planks from a corner of the building. At 7, the rate of velocity was
102; at 9, 120; at 3 p. M., 136 miles. The building cracked, shook, and
groaned to its very foundation. At 4 p. M., it blew at a steady rate of 140
miles, and three more planks gave way. At 5 P. M., two trials gave 1 50
and 1 5 1 miles per hour. This was the culmination of the storm, and the
wind gradually died away during the i6th inst. Meteorology does not yet
furnish the record of a more fearful storm than this experienced by
civilized beings.

Sergeant A. R. Hornett succeeded Hearne, and has already spent two
winters on the summit, assisted by Sergeant Wm. Line, Fred. DeRoshers,
and others. The party now consists of three persons. In 1873, a build-
ing was erected for the occupation of the government party. It is
situated a few rods south of the hotel, in a very exposed situation. It is
thirty-six feet long, and twenty-four wide, containing an office, dining-,
store-, and two bedrooms, besides an attic. It is built of wood, and is
situated so that the grandest views can be seen without leaving a com-
fortably warmed apartment.

THE OCCUPATION OF MOOSILAUKE — WINTER OF 1869-70.

With the commencement of work on the geological survey of the state
in 1869, this subject of an elevated winter observatory was early dis-
cussed, Mr. Huntington being prepared to occupy the position of
observer. But it was found that the lessee of the houses on the summit
of Mt. Washington was unwilling that they should be occupied for this
purpose during the winter. While this unexpected refusal deferred the
occupation of Mt. Washington, it led to a successful attempt in a dif-
ferent direction. Had the observatory been established in 1869, it might
have been a failure, from the want of an experience of the peculiarities

EXPLORATIONS AMONG THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. 93

of mountain atmospheric phenomena. The defeat of our plans coming to
the knowledge of Mr. William Little, of Manchester, the owner of the
house on the top of Moosilauke, he generously offered its free use for
the occupation of Mr. Huntington's party that winter. The proposal
being made to Mr. Huntington, he adopted it without hesitation,
although, in consequence of bad chirography, "Moosilauke" was mis-
taken for " Monadnock." Moosilauke, situated in Benton, is some twelve
or fifteen miles distant from the Franconia range, and in a fully exposed
position, being nearly five thousand feet high, and within the Arctic zone
of climate.

It was late autumn before any preparations were made. Wood and
provisions had to be hauled up a mountain bridle-path more than a mile ;
and it was necessary to fit up a comfortable room. On the 23d of
November, an ascent, to make these preparations, was attempted. The
day was unfavorable ; and, upon reaching the bald portion of the moun-
tain, nearly a mile from the house on the summit, the party were met by
such a furious storm of wind and driving snow that they were obliged to
retreat. The following day, however, the attempt was successful; and
three days were spent in arranging for winter quarters. On the last day
of December, Mr. Huntington finally ascended the mountain, to remain
for two months, accompanied by Mr. A. F. Clough, photographer, of
Warren, whose enthusiasm, backed by resolution and great powers of
physical endurance, proved of the greatest value, both in this and the Mt.
Washington expedition. The limited supply of provisions which had
been taken up necessitated a short stay ; and the descent from the moun-
tain was made on the last day of February. It may be proper to add
that the whole expense of this expedition was borne by those who par-
ticipated in it, chiefly by Mr. Huntington.

By the two months spent on this summit, the possibility of living on a
mountain top during the winter was fully demonstrated. The observa-
tions made were published in the newspapers ; and the public were, to
some extent, prepared for the expedition of the ensuing winter, for which
ways and means began to be early devised.

The following extract will be read with the greater interest, since the
author — though the strongest, on both mountains — has been the first to
yield to the attacks of disease. He died of gangrene on the lungs, in 1872.

94 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

EXTRACTS FROM THE DIARY OF A. F. CLOUGH, KEPT UPON THE SUM-
MIT OF MOOSILAUKE IN 1870.

January 27. Mounted my snow-shoes, took an axe and an old iron tea-kettle, and
started for Jobildunk ravine. Splendid view there, — ice columns a hundred feet high.
What a time I had getting down to the foot ! First, I sent the axe down on a voyage
of discovery, and to bush out a path. How it leaped and slid and plunged, as it went
down to the woods a thousand feet below! Next went the snow-shoes ; but the kettle
would be smashed, and I kept it along with me. Then I slid a little way ; clinging by
the bushes and holding to a birch, got down a perpendicular descent some ten feet.
From this I could not get back at all, or down, except by jumping. Then I sent the
tea-kettle ahead. It went leaping and whirling twenty feet at a bound, smashed in
pieces, and was lost in the firs. I never saw it again. I looked over the precipice.
There was a shelf of the rock twenty feet below, and a snow-bank on it. It was the
only way. I jumped, and settled to my knees in it. The rest of the way was easier ;
and, sliding and jumping, I was at the foot in almost no time. It was a wild, grand
scene, ice precipices rising one above the other a thousand feet, till the tops are lost in
the clouds. Spotted my views ; and was two hours climbing home through the woods.
The ravine is one of the wildest places in New Hampshire, especially in winter. The
Asquamchumauke comes down through it.

February 18. Storms. Well, I like a storm ; it arouses peculiar feelings, excitement,
when it goes in strong, and it does that to-day, sure. One incessant roar all day, driv-
ing sleet and rain. The house shakes and trembles, though one side is buried in a snow-
drift to the top of the roof, nearly, with five inches of snow and ice on the roof and
walls.

10 A. M. Went out with the anemometer. We had a barrel set for the purpose ; but
the snow and ice had filled it up, so I held the machine for ten minutes. Sat down,
back to the wind, astride of the barrel. It was no boy's play. Machine won't weigh
five pounds, but it tired me terribly. The wind would ease a trifle, then come with a
rush and a roar louder than thunder, that made me cling, legs and arms, to the barrel.
The roar was deafening ; — I could not hear. Huntington gave signal with his hand,
and I made for the house ; was thrown flat down by the wind, then crept in. How
queer I felt. I reeled and staggered like a drunken man. My head was giddy, my
eyes on fire, a thrill like electricity shot through my whole body, making me wild and
reckless. How it would have operated had I stopped longer, I cannot say. I should
be careless of my life to try it again. The wind is blowing a hundred miles an hour ;
the sleet cuts like a knife ; and my skin smarts wherever it was struck.

Blows like great guns this afternoon. Rain comes down a perfect shower ; runs in
streams about our window. We have got pails, buckets, kettles, &c., to catch it, and
keep from being drowned out. This is worse than the storm of January 2 ; but we are
better prepared to meet it.

EXPLORATIONS AMONG THE WHITE MOUNTAINS.

95

8 P. M. No abatement in the storm yet. Blow, blow! I like it ; it is like a roar of
thunder all the time.

Fig. II. — MEASURING THE WIND.

Velocity 88 miles per hour.

10:30 P. M. Still continues. Wind howls now like ten thousand fiends let loose
from the infernal regions.

February 19. Well, the storm has spent its fury at last. The wild, deafening roar
has died away, but occasional gusts sweep along, sighing with a low moan, the last
dying throes of the wild, terrifying hurricane. It began to abate last midnight. Would
like to have the clouds lift a few minutes, to see how it served people down on earth.
Huntington has gone down, and when he comes back he will report.

It takes a blow from the south-east to get up a storm and to keep it going. It also
takes a blow from the north-west, up in this altitude, a mile above the ocean, to clear it
off. It is cold to-day.

This afternoon we got frost clouds, — "clouds made up of minute particles of ice,
said to bring death to any one caught in them." That story is a myth. [See page
86.] We found them as harmless as a summer vapor.

February 20. Thermometer 14° below ; clear and pleasant. Looked away to the
south-east, and saw the ocean. Walked down to the ravine ; got a fall, and slid down
a hundred feet ; brought up in a snow-bank ; was frightened, but not hurt a bit. Hack-
matacks are buried in snow. Wind has changed to south-east again ; another storm is
on the stocks.

2. P. M. It is blowing again, — it roars again, — it howls again. I thought the wind

96 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

had blown as hard as it could, but it is now worse than ever before. I shall not wet
myself to the skin again to hold up that anemometer. I know it blows at the rate of
more than a hundred miles an hour. How it roars! But "roar" doesn't express the
noise ; bellow is too tame by half. In a thunder-storm the lightning flashes, blinding
the sight ; then comes a sharp report, which immediately gives way to deep, reverbera-
tory rumbling that shakes and makes everything vibrate with its power, then rolls away
and is lost. Now just imagine, if you can, a continual roll of the first reverberations,
after the sharp report is over, and you will have some faint idea of what we have this
day, — a continual thunder, making everything shake for hours together. Have storms
like this swept over these mountains for thousands, perhaps millions, of years? or, is
this a special storm for the benefit of us two poor mortals who have invaded this bleak
and lofty region? Can't tell.

February 21. Snows; and there is a drift fifteen feet high on the south side of our
house. Had to shovel out our window to let in daylight.

I p. M. I am writing by lamplight ; — the house is completely snowed up.

February 22. Thermometer 17° below. House still snowed up ; — time drags.

THE MT. WASHINGTON EXPEDITION — WINTER OF 1870-71.

This expedition, like that upon Moosilauke, was undertaken for the
purpose of contributing something to the solution of the great question
whether science can forecast the weather for hours and days beforehand.
It was deemed especially important to investigate the meteorology of Mt.
Washington, — the highest point of land in the eastern United States, —
as, from its exposed position, it might be expected to give the first indica-
tions of approaching storms. The observations upon Moosilauke had
afforded valuable experience for this more extended expedition, and had
already given some indication of the phenomena peculiar to the higher
New England summits in winter. As nothing of this kind was contem-
plated in the original act establishing the geological survey of the state,
it was not possible, nor desired, to use any of the funds appropriated to
geological exploration for meteorological purposes. With the approval of
the state authorities, the geological survey adopted the expedition as a
part of its work, and obtained the requisite funds entirely by subscription.
The total amount expended, including the value of materials and other
substantial aid furnished, reached as high as $3,500.

In the preparations for this expedition a house was, of course, the first
essential. Application was again made for the Tip-top house : this was
met by a courteous but firm refusal. At one time the question of build-

EXPLORATIONS AMONG THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. 9/

ing a small house was discussed. From his elevated observatory on
Moosilauke, Mr. Huntington, by letter of February iSth, 1870, had pro-
posed that negotiations be commenced with the Mt. Washington Railway
Company for the use of the engine-house or depot they were intending
to build on the summit. After the adverse decision in regard to the Tip-
top house, a letter was addressed to Mr. Sylvester Marsh, the president
of this company, inquiring whether their building might not be used in
the winter by the meteorological party. In reply, it was stated that the
completion of the house before winter was uncertain ; but a desire was
expressed that the project might be successful. Interviews were had
with Mr. Marsh, and he spoke even more favorably than had been
expected from his letter ; but he added, that he had not the authority to
speak for the company. Having no reason to suppose the directors
would not favor us, late in July the state geologist issued a circular,
stating the importance of establishing a meteorological observatory upon
Mt. Washington in the winter, and asked the friends of science to con-
tribute the sum of two thousand dollars to maintain the expedition, and
furnish the means of telegraphic communication between the observers
and the public. It was stated that with this sum the expedition could be
made successful, and the public would receive daily reports describing
the character of the arctic phenomena peculiar to the summit, thus giving
abundant opportunity for comparison with any observatory in the country.
This circular was sent to friends, and small sums were received, but not
to any promising extent. It was also posted at the principal hotels among
the mountains, in full view of the guests, but failed to excite any special
interest. The remainder of the summer was so occupied with necessary
geological field-work as to leave no time to beg for money.

By the first of September not a hundred dollars had been promised.
The next effort was in the direction of the press. A prominent journal
in New York was willing to give five hundred dollars for daily telegrams
and occasional letters sent to them exclusively during the winter.
Although a telegraph line, capable of use in the winter months, was
beyond the expected means, faith in ultimate success was strengthened
by this proposal. About this time attention was called to the recent
establishment of the " Bureau of Telegrams and Reports for the Benefit
of Commerce," in connection with the War department at Washington.
VOL. i. 13

98 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Application was made to Gen. A. J. Myer, the chief signal officer, for
funds to aid in carrying out this enterprise, allowing the weather office
to share its benefits. The answer, dated September I4th, stated that the
chief signal officer could "hardly appropriate money for the object named ;
but it may be in the power of this office, with the approval of the secre-
tary of war, to detail an observer for the position you propose to occupy."
In further correspondence, he stated his willingness to provide an insu-
lated telegraph wire, to extend from the summit of Mt. Washington to
the railroad station at its base ; adding, however, that he could not sanc-
tion any special arrangement to furnish any one paper exclusively with
the weather reports. He proposed himself to furnish weather reports
from all the stations throughout the country to the principal newspapers,
as well as to the chambers of commerce. He also offered to provide the
meteorological instruments required for the station. Thus the means
were provided for sending daily telegrams, but it necessitated a change
from the proposal to send the weather reports exclusively to the New
York Tribune, and left the enterprise as poor as ever.

In a letter of October /th, the chief signal officer announced that he
had sent to the state geologist three miles of insulated Kerite telegraph
wire, two telegraph instruments, two sections, and four conductors, to
the value of $1,032 ; and that an instructed observer would probably be
detailed to join the expedition. These telegraph supplies were duly
received, and immediately transported to the mountain.

From another quarter, however, there came the required pecuniary
assistance. In the month of July, the state geologist learned that Mr.
S. A. Nelson, of Georgetown, Mass., was veiy much interested in the
meteorology of Mt. Washington, and would like to join the expedition.
He soon after received a letter from Mr. Nelson, presenting this request,
and asking also for further information. His tone of writing evinced a
rare enthusiasm for the undertaking, and from further correspondence it
appeared that he was ready to devote himself to raising funds for the
expedition, in case he could be one of the party. A formal invitation was
soon extended to Mr. Nelson, which he accepted, and immediately set
himself to the task of soliciting subscriptions in eastern Massachusetts,
pledging himself to procure at least $500. His promise was more than
realized, for his efforts brought in more than $800. His labors com-

EXPLORATIONS AMONG THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. 99

menced early in September, and he did not go upon the mountain till
late in December, remaining behind after the occupation of the summit
to complete what he conceived to be his part of the work below.

It became evident that the public were slowly gaining confidence in
the success of our enterprise, and therefore we began to purchase our
supplies. Mr. Huntington made out the list, that the needed articles
might be at the lower mountain depot early in October, understanding
that the trains could not transport freight for the expedition before that
time. On the igth of September, however, information accidentally came
to the state geologist, at Bethlehem, that the mountain trains would stop
running on the following day, as the track was to be taken up immediately
for repairs; and that no orders had been given by the officers of the
company to afford the expedition any facilities, either of transportation
or the use of the summit depot. To add to these difficulties, the supplies
had not all been purchased. It was uncertain whether sufficient funds
could be obtained ; and no arrangement had then been made for the use of
a telegraph cable. Under these unpromising circumstances, the party at
Bethlehem, with the exception of the state geologist, came unanimously
to the conclusion that the difficulties in the way were insurmountable, and
that the expedition must be abandoned for the next winter. But he said
that the supplies should all go up the mountain, even if he turned team-
ster himself, and, with a single horse, transported them up the carriage-
road, — Mr. Huntington having expressed a willingness to remain upon the
summit all winter, even without telegraphic communication with the
world below. The next day, therefore, one of the party went to the
railroad station to say that orders were coming from head-quarters to
grant the needed facilities, as they must have been delayed by some mis-
understanding. Another went to Littleton to borrow a few tons of coal,
that the most essential article to comfort might be sure to reach the
railroad in season for transportation to the summit. Prof. Hitchcock, at
the same time, went to Boston, and obtained from the officers of the
company the necessary permission to use their summit depot during the
winter, and immediately transmitted it to the employes. The railway
company generously gave the use of the depot, and transported the sup-
plies over their line to the summit without charge, regretting that they
could not have known earlier of our purpose, so that the house might

IOO

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

have been completed. The necessary supplies were immediately pur-
chased, and transported without charge from Boston to the Wing road,
by the B. L. & N., Concord, and B. C. & M. railroads. After all our
efforts, however, the telegraphic apparatus sent from Washington, and
some other necessary articles, arrived too late for the last train ; and these
were taken around the mountain, — partly by Prof. Hitchcock and partly
by Mr. Huntington, — and thence to the summit, on the carriage-road.
The distance traversed was nearly eighty miles, over a very muddy and
hilly route — a tedious journey, whose difficulties can never be appreciated
by the public. Several days were spent upon the summit in preparing
the building for occupation, — partitioning off a room, laying double floors,
setting up the stoves, etc. Mr. Huntington remained upon the mountain
till the rooms were completed for occupation, the Kerite wire laid, and

Fig. 12. — LAYING THE CABLE ON JACOB'S LADDER.

everything in readiness for the incoming of the party. He came down
October 22.

A new circular, adapted to the changed circumstances, was now pre-
pared and widely distributed. In this it was briefly stated that the
arrangements for the occupation of the mountain had been completed ;
the observers, photographers, and telegrapher, selected; the needful

EXPLORATIONS AMONG THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. IOI

supplies purchased and transported to the summit; a Kerite telegraph
wire had been laid over that portion of the route where a common wire
could not withstand the wintry blasts and accumulations of ice ; that the
building had been secured and comfortably furnished ; and, furthermore,
that the party intended to establish themselves in their snug eyrie about
the 1 2th of November. Reference was made to the approval of the
expedition by the War department, and to a special letter of recommenda-
tion signed by Professors B. Pierce, Joseph Winlock, Joseph Levering,
Asa Gray, Alpheus Hyatt, President Runkle, N. B. Shurtleff, and William
Claflin. It was thought that commerce would be greatly benefited by
the daily reports. As the farmer studies the cloud-caps upon mountains
to forecast the weather, so telegraphic reports of the condition of the
atmosphere upon the highest summit in eastern America would enable
ship-owners to judge of the approach of storms, and escape risk of loss
to their vessels by keeping them in a harbor until the danger was past ;
so, too, with fair weather reported from the mountain, vessels could get
a day's start of any bad spell of weather, and thus escape great peril.
It was announced that the preparations for the expedition had been made
with the expectation that friends would contribute funds sufficient to
meet the expenses. Should the public fail to appreciate the enterprise,
the burden would fall upon the state geologist, who had already paid out
$700 more than the amount of the subscriptions. This appeal proved to
be efficacious, as, in consequence of this and other applications, enough
funds were at length secured to meet all the expenses of the expedition.

On the 3d of October, a letter was received from Mr. H. A. Kimball,
photographer, of Concord, N. H., asking to be permitted to join the
party and take views. According to the original plan, the artist of the
expedition was Mr. A. F. Clough, who had been associated with Mr.
Huntington in the occupation of Moosilauke ; hence this application was
referred to him, with the result that the two gentlemen concluded to
combine their efforts, and go upon the mountain in company. Mr. Kim-
ball aided, also, in the work of raising funds, adding more than a hundred
dollars to the list. Both the photographers made personal pecuniary
sacrifices to render their branch of the expedition successful ; and their
published stereographs have proved a valuable addition to its records.

On the third of November, the chief signal officer informed Prof.

IO2 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Hitchcock that he would send an instructed operator and observer, with
a complete set of meteorological instruments, to Mt. Washington, and
requested that one weather report might be forwarded to him daily by
telegraph. This report would be bulletined along with those from other
stations, and a copy of it furnished to the principal daily journals in the
country. After some delay, Sergeant Theodore Smith, U. S. A., started
from Washington, and reached the mountain early in December.

The complete organization of the expedition was as follows :

C. H. HITCHCOCK, state geologist, with office in Hanover connected by
telegraph with the summit of Mt. Washington.

J. H. HUNTINGTON, assistant state geologist, in charge of the observ-
atory upon the mountain.

S. A. NELSON, observer.

A. F. CLOUGH and H. A. KIMBALL, photographers.

THEODORE SMITH, observer and telegrapher for the signal service.

The mountain was occupied for scientific observation during a period
of six months, from Nov. 12, 1870, to May 12, 1871. From that time to
the present, the observations have been continued by the United States
signal service, this being adopted as one of their regular stations.

NARRATIVE OF THE EXPEDITION.

The meteorological records of the expedition have been made the sub-
ject of a separate portion of this work. It has been thought, also, that,
in addition to these, some account of the doings and experiences of the
party while on the summit would be sought for in these pages. Extracts
from the journal of the expedition, kept by Mr. Huntington, from Nov.
12 to Dec. 20, and subsequently by Mr. Nelson, together with its history
from the beginning, and a statement of its results, were in due time
arranged and published.* All who were connected with the expedition
contributed to this work, which was "addressed, as their official report, to
those friends who furnished the means of establishing this Arctic observ-
atory." Portions have been selected from this work for presentation
here, so far as to show some of the most noteworthy experiences of a
life in winter upon Mt. Washington.

* Mt. Washington in Winter. Boston : Chick & Andrews, 1871.

EXPLORATIONS AMONG THE WHITE MOUNTAINS.

103

Mr. L. L. Holden, correspondent of the Boston Journal, visited the
mountain February 8, and again April 29. He describes the quarters
occupied by the party as follows:

The depot was built last summer, and occupies a site of the same elevation as the
Tip-top and Summit houses, north-easterly of those structures, upon the verge of the
little plateau forming the summit of the mountain. The building, unlike the two
diminutive public houses, whose sides are of stone, is constructed wholly of wood. It
is sixty feet long by twenty-two feet wide, and stands nearly north and south. It has
eleven feet posts, and the elevation of the ridge-pole is twenty-five feet, the roof being
of the same form as the roofs of ordinary buildings. The apartment inhabited by the
party is situated in the south-east corner of this edifice. It is a room about twenty feet

Fig. 13. — THE HOME OF THE EXPEDITION.

long, eleven feet wide, and eight feet high. The larger portion of the depot forms a
sort of vestibule to this room, and is wholly enclosed, except at the easterly end of the
northern face, where the outer door is situated. The little room was formed in the
following manner : i , there was the thick plank floor of the depot itself, which con-
stituted a good foundation to build upon ; 2, a course of sheathing paper was laid over
the original floor ; 3, an additional floor of close-fitting boards was then laid down ;
4, two thicknesses of sheathing paper were placed on the top of the second floor; 5, a
layer of carpet lining was added ; and 6, a thick woollen carpet was made the upper-
most layer of all. The inside of the outer walls was covered first with tarred paper,

IO4 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

then with boards ; a layer of sheathing paper was added, and wall paper spread
upon this. The ceiling is formed of two thicknesses of boards with sheathing paper
between, and the inner walls consist of single thicknesses of boards, sheathing paper,
and wall paper. There are two double windows, or rather half-windows, on the westerly
side of the room, and these are protected by strips of board without. The door of
the room is of ordinary size, but the outer door is nothing but a little opening two feet
square, some two feet from the floor.

We have thus far described none of the precautions taken to prevent the building
from being torn to pieces by the terrible winter tempests, or from being blown away
altogether. The frame-work is of the strongest possible kind, and is fitted together in
the best manner. The sills extend beyond the walls eight or ten feet, and every means
are taken to fasten the structure down to its rocky base. Within, bolts, iron rods, and
wooden braces add strength to the walls, and three strong iron chains, securely fastened
to the rocks, pass over the roof. Notwithstanding all these provisions, the building
rocks and bends before a furious wind-storm in a manner well calculated to create
consternation and dismay. An ordinary house would stand no longer before such terrific
blasts than would a house of cards before an ordinary wind. The great gale in Decem-
ber awakened the fears of the party for the safety of the depot, but, as the structure
stood that frightful assault, it was thought no further danger on that score need be
apprehended. It was nevertheless thought best to strengthen the walls with addi-
tional braces and supports.

The work of the expedition was begun by Mr. Huntington, who
ascended November 1 2, and was for nearly three weeks alone upon the
mountain. We copy from his journal :

November 12. Started from Marshfield at 7 A. M. ; arrived at the summit of Mt.
Washington at 9 : 30. It rained until I got within three fourths of a mile of the sum-
mit ; then there was a frozen mist. The snow was six inches deep at Ammonoosuc ; at
Waumbek Junction, a foot. At the second tank the snow was drifted ; none on the
ties above. On the summit it was drifted so that neither at the Summit nor the Tip-top
house could the doors be seen ; there was very little about the depot. I am here alone,
but should have come if I had known that I had to stay alone all winter.

November 15. Have been above the clouds all day long. Some of the time not a
single mountain top could be seen. Occasionally Mts. Adams and Jefferson would
appear, but most of the day in every direction was this illimitable sea of clouds.

November 24. The barometer lower this morning than it has been before. Wind
blowing fiercely from the north-west, not steadily, but in gusts. The house creaks in
every joint. It is something fearful to sit here alone and hear the wind howl, while
showers of ice are blown against the side of the building and along the roof.

November 30. Clear until 2 p. M., when light clouds began to pass over the moun-

EXPLORATIONS AMONG THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. IO5

tain, but became dense toward night. Was surprised by the arrival of Clough, Kimball,
Cheney, and Bracy. I am not likely to be alone again this winter.

December 4. Sergeant Smith arrived to-day.

December 12. Clough and Smith went down to the base of the mountain, and as
they returned found that the wire would work to the second tank, but could get no
current on the summit.

December 13. The telegraph worked to-day for the first time. Now we are in the
world again.

The ascent of the photographers, Messrs. Clough and Kimball, accom-
panied by two friends, — Charles B. Cheney, of Orford, and C. F. Bracy,
of Warren, — upon Nov. 30, was accomplished under circumstances of
great difficulty. The party had been delayed in reaching Ammo-
noostic by being unexpectedly obliged to chop a passage-way through
trees which the wind had thrown across their road ; and it was past the
middle of the afternoon before they could start on the ascent. But, as
the weather appeared propitious, they decided to advance, having been
already delayed several days beyond their original plans. The following
description of their experience was prepared by Mr. Kimball, whose
strength proved unequal to the severe task when suddenly overtaken by
one of the fierce mountain storms.

The end of the first mile, carrying us up to within one half mile of the limit of wood-
growth, found us in tolerable condition, when a halt, for breath and observation,
discovered to us an approaching storm lying on the Green Mountains of Vermont. It
would undoubtedly strike us, but we still hoped that we might press on and reach the
summit first. The thought of being overtaken by a furious storm, on the wintry, shel-
terless cliffs of Mt. Washington, with the night about to enshroud us, was fearfully
impressive, and prompted us to our best endeavors. With all the effort we could
well muster, we had only advanced a half mile more, carrying us fairly above the
wooded region to the foot of "Jacob's Ladder," when the storm struck us. There were
suddenly wrapped around us dense clouds of frozen vapor, driven so furiously into our
faces by the raging winds as to threaten suffocation. The cheering repose of the ele-
ments but a moment before, had now given place to what might well be felt as the
power and hoarse rage of a thousand furies ; and the shroud of darkness that was in a
moment thrown over us, was nearly equal to that of the moonless night. Compelled
to redoubled efforts to keep our feet and make proper advance, we struggled with the
tempest, though with such odds against us that we were repeatedly slipping and getting
painful bruises. Mr. Kimball finding himself too much exhausted to continue this
struggle on the track, we all halted in brief consultation. It was suggested that we
VOL. I. 14

IO6 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

return to Waumbek station, an old building a half mile below us, and there try to keep
ourselves from freezing by brisk exercise. Mr. Clough emphatically vetoed this as a
most dangerous and impracticable proposition, saying that our only hope consisted in
pushing upward with all our might.

Here we became separated : three of the party left the track, and Mr. Kimball will-
ingly left behind his luggage in order to continue the ascent. By thus leaving the
track we escaped liability to falls and bruises, but found ourselves often getting buried
to our waists in snow, and forced to exert our utmost strength to drag ourselves out and
advance. We repeatedly called to Mr. Bracy, who had kept on the track as we sup-
posed, but could get no answer. The roar of the tempest overcame our utmost vocal
efforts ; and the cloud of frozen vapor, that lashed us so furiously as it hugged us in its
chilling embrace, was so dense that no object could be seen at a distance of ten paces.
Against such remorseless blasts, no human being could keep integrity of muscle and
remain erect. We could only go on together a little way, and then throw ourselves down
for a few moments to recover breath and strength. We had many times repeated this,
when Mr. Kimball became so utterly exhausted as to make it impossible for him to take
another step. He called to the others to leave him, and save themselves, if possible.
The noble and emphatic "Never I" uttered by the manly Clough, whose sturdy muscle
was found able to back his will, aroused him to another effort. The two stronger
gentlemen, whose habits of life and superior physical powers gave hope of deliverance
for themselves, were both immovable in the determination that our fate should be one,
let that be what it must.

The situation was one of momentous peril, especially as to Mr. Kimball, whose
exhaustion was now so extreme that he was wholly indifferent to the fate that seemed
to impend, only begging that he might be left to that sleep from whose embrace there
was left no power of resistance. Still there was forced a listless drag onward, mostly
in the interests of his companions, and in obedience to their potent wills. After this
sort we struggled on a few rods at a time, falling together, between each effort, to rest
and gain new strength. With the wind at 70 miles per hour, and the thermometer
down to 7°, — as was found after arriving at the observatory, — we came at length to
"Lizzie Bourne's monument," only thirty rods from the observatory. It took more
than a half hour's time to make this last thirty rods. Even the stronger ones had
become wearied by their unusual exertions, and had not this been the case their prog-
ress would have been slow, for it was found absolutely impossible to force on the one
who had now become unable to regard his own peril, more than a few feet at a time.
He would then sink down into a deep sleep, while the others would employ the time in
chafing his hands and feet, and, after a few moments, manage to arouse him and make
another struggle onward.

Mr. Bracy, too, had a narrow escape. Losing his foothold on the track, he at one
time fell through into a gorge beneath the trestle-work. Exhausted, bruised, and dis-
couraged, he crawled beneath the ruins of the old "Gulf house," which were found to
be at hand, thinking he would try to weather the storm there ; but finding himself, in

EXPLORATIONS AMONG THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. IO/

spite of every effort, getting numb and dozy, he rallied to a new struggle, and thus
saved himself.

Mr. Huntington, aroused by the arrival of Mr. Bracy, sallied out with a lantern in
search of us, but found his best exertions of little avail, the storm being so fierce and
thick that he could neither make himself seen nor heard beyond a few paces ; and they
were regarding us as probably lost, though preparing for another effort in our behalf,
when we arrived.

This was perhaps the most perilous ascent of the winter, owing to the
storm and darkness, especially as Mr. Kimball had been wholly unaccus-
tomed to severe physical exertion. The ascent, under the greatest diffi-
culties, was that of April 5, by Messrs. Clough and Cheney. The wind
blew over eighty miles an hour, while the temperature was nearly at
zero. They succeeded in reaching the summit on account of their supe-
rior powers of endurance. Most persons would have perished. An
ascent has since been made, however, by Mr. Huntington, late in Novem-
ber, 1873, under circumstances still more perilous. The temperature was
17° below zero, and the velocity of the wind 72 miles per hour. It should
be remembered that, at the same time with such severity of exposure
upon the mountain, the weather at the base may seem favorable for the
ascent.

The expedition had an early experience of the furious storms peculiar
to mountain summits. Mr. Huntington writes : "There was a storm of
some severity the 24th of November, when I was alone on the mountain.
But the most severe storm, of all that we had, occurred on the I5th of
December, and, as it was the first terrific storm since the house had been
built which we occupied, we did not feel that security that we should in
one that had stood the force of the storms in winters past. The other
houses are of stone; ours of wood, — and, besides, presented a much
greater surface to the wind than any building ever before erected on the
summit. Two of the party had never been on a mountain during
a winter storm, so they would be likely to describe it more vividly than
a person who had witnessed many," — as appears in the following, by
H. A. Kimball :

We have had probably as severe a tornado as will visit us during the winter. The
velocity of the wind was recorded at 7 p. M., and it was 92 miles per hour. After that
time it was not safe to venture out with the anemometer, unless we wanted to take an

IOS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

air-line passage to Tuckerman's ravine, for the wind kept increasing until towards
morning, when it blew a terrific hurricane. Mr. Huntington and Mr. Clough, both
having had considerable of this kind of experience, say it must have blown, at the
highest point, no to 120 miles per hour. We expected at any moment to have the
building come down about our heads, and were prepared to make an effort for our lives,
having put hard-tack in our pockets, and armed with axe and saw, ready, in case we
found it necessary, to cut our way out, getting also some of our thickest blankets ready
for use, and preparing with considerable excitement for any emergency. The wind
roared terribly, as if inspired with the power and spite of all the furies, and the wild
rage was so deafening that we were obliged to shout to our utmost in order to be heard.
Huntington and Clough were both very cool, although I believe they thought the
chances were more than even that we should have quarters elsewhere before morning.
We watched all night, waiting anxiously the effect or result of the hurricane ; and,
after a long night of such fearful tumult, morning brought us a little relief, by reducing
the velocity of the wind to 84 miles per hour. We were duly thankful for this slight
change, and at breakfast we congratulated each other on our narrow escape ; for, if the
building had been crushed, our chance for wishing any one a " Merry Christmas" and
" Happy New Year" would have been very small ; for the mercury was 15° below zero,
and the barometer, the lowest recorded so far, 22.796. This remarkable fall will not
happen often, but when it does we shall keep housed. The immediate danger is
passed, however, and our good cover has been severely tested, and has not been
found wanting in point of strength. We have more confidence in it than we had
before the storm.

We continue this narrative with extracts from the journal, written by
S. A. Nelson :

December 21. Forefathers1 Day was celebrated by the arrival of Prof. Hitchcock,
L. B. Newell, E. Thompson, F. Woodbridge, and the writer. We ascended in a rough
south-west snow storm, with the velocity of the wind at 59 miles per hour. It is pleas-
ant to be located at last, and settled down for the coming six months. It is quite a
change, in one short week from busy Boston, to this out-of-the-world-up-in-the-clouds
observatory. . . . There are no signs of animal life outside. Mice are plenty in the
house, and it is thought that a sable has taken up winter quarters under the building.

December 23. Kimball was up first this morning, and had the first sight of as beau-
tiful a sunrise as one could wish. It was a cold morning, the thermometer indicating o ;
but we don't feel the cold as sensibly as in the lower regions. Clough and Kimball
took some fine views to-day, — among them, one of the observatory, with Clough, Smith,
and Nelson standing by the door. Later in the day, they took one from the roof of
the hotel. They have been successful against odds, having had but three days so far
suitable for work during a month's residence.

December 24. Yesterday afternoon, and late at night, a "snow-bank" lay along the
south ; this forenoon, snow was falling, with a temperature of — 13°. At times, during

EXPLORATIONS AMONG THE WHITE MOUNTAINS.

the day, the wind was as high as seventy miles an hour : consequently we were con-
fined to the house. Mr. Smith has much to do, many messages being sent to and from
the "lower regions." He sends his first regular report to Washington to-night. We
have sent a press despatch of "A merry Christmas to all the world below."

December 25. There were no clouds above or around the summit. Below, and but
a little lower than this peak, the clouds were dense, and covered an extensive tract of
country. Through the less dense portion of the lighter clouds, the sun's rays gave a
peculiar rose tint, extremely beautiful in effect. This was my first cloud view, and it
was a treat beyond expectation. . . . Mr. Smith takes our four-footed friends, the
sable and mice, under his especial care, and sees that they get all the waste food.
They are our companions, though we see them but seldom.

January 10. The snow is nearly all off the houses and the rocks — a great change in
three days' time. At i p. M. it was 37°. Like April it seemed ; — but who knows what
it will be to-morrow?

Jatiuary 16. Still raining. At II this forenoon, Mr. Smith started out on a voyage
of discovery ; but it rained so hard, and the walking was so difficult, that he soon came
back. Did n't stop long, however ; he is too energetic a man to give up easily. So,
putting on an overcoat, and otherwise prepared, he once more went out, determined to
find the break in the wire, if he had to go to Littleton. Wished him good luck, not
expecting to see him again for three or four days, — and he was off*. But we soon heard
the click, click, click of the instrument, and knew that he had found the break. In
half an hour he returned : the break was at the Gulf tank. Mr. Huntington
went down to the spring to-day, and brought up a pail of water. A week ago
this was an Arctic region ; now it is more like April in the valleys of New Hamp-
shire.

January 17. Perfectly clear at sunset. Had one of the best views of the shadow
of Mt. Washington yet obtained. The mountains, far and near, look gray now since
the rains.

Jamiary 18. I have seen to-day a sea of clouds. At 10 A. M., westward from a line
due north and south, as far the eye could see, the clouds presented the appearance of
a frozen ocean, — the surface level and motionless, apparently, but really moving east-
ward, and only a little below the summit. In no direction west of a line north and
south was there a glimpse of mountain or valley. Turning to the east the contrast was
striking, for in this direction there was scarcely a single cloud, and the atmosphere
was remarkably clear. Saco valley was never more distinct, — while the range, com-
prising Clay, Jefferson, and Adams, was completely hidden ; but the Carter range
loomed up as on a clear morning when not a single cloud can be seen, and far away
the ocean was plainly visible.

January 22. Having a gale to-day, and not only a high wind, but a temperature
below anything I have ever experienced before, now at 9 P. M., — 34° inside the door.
The wind is 80 miles, blowing steadily. At 2 p. M., wind 72, Mr. Huntington meas-
ured the velocity. He had to sit with a line around him, myself at the other end,

HO PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

in-doors, as an anchor : even then it was almost impossible for him to keep his position.
Temperature, — 31°.

January 23. The wind raged all night. The house rocked fearfully; but as we
had no fear of a wreck, it did not disturb us much. Sometimes it would seem as if
things were going by the board, but an inspection showed everything all right. It is
a sublime affair, such a gale, — only we do not care to have it repeated too often.
Nobody was hurt or scared, though there was not much sleep for our party, with such
an uproar of the elements. Evidently the spirits of the mountain are angry at this
invasion of their domain. Toward morning the wind ceased, and all day it has been
nearly calm. The temperature outside, — 43°. Mr. Huntington and myself sat up
all night to keep fires going.

January 31. The most glorious sunrise this winter. To the east was a sea of
clouds, somewhat broken, and much lower than usual. The protruding peaks resem-
bled islands more than ever before. Over northern New Hampshire and Maine, and
along the coast, the clouds were very dense, but their upper surface, as the sun shone
across them, was of dazzling brightness, while singular forms of cirrus clouds overcast
the sky. Low in the west it was intensely black, and detached masses of clouds
floated along the northern horizon. For an hour after sunrise all these cloud forms
were constantly changing in color, — purple and crimson, leaden hues and rose tints,
almost black and dazzling white.

February 2, 10 p. M. All day the wind has been light, and it was nearly calm this
evening till half an hour since, when, without any warning, the gale began, not with
a rising wind, but a sudden blast that shook the house to its foundations. I said that
we had no warning of its approach : we had notice of it in the falling of the barometer.
A moment before the first blast, some one called attention to the quiet night, remarking
that the storm would not probably reach us before morning, when the conversation
was suddenly interrupted by the uproar of the elements.

February 3. We get to-day the most severe snow storm of the winter so far. The wind
is north-west, the point from which our storms and hurricanes come. At no time has
the temperature been higher than 5° ; it was — 25° this morning at 7 o'clock. Smith
and myself are yet on the sick list, so all the hard work falls to Mr. Huntington. To
add to the discomfort of our situation, the line failed last night, just after Smith got off
the press despatch. Cold as it is, and has been all day, Mr. Huntington made six trips
down the railway repairing line. His method was to find and repair a break, then run
for the house, get thoroughly warmed and rested, and then out for another attempt.
The last time he went to the Gulf: below there he did not dare go. So, as there is at
least one more splice to make, far as any good for to-night telegraphing goes, his
labors were of no avail.

February 4 — 9 p. M. The wind, rising toward morning, has held its own all day, — at
no time being below seventy-five, and, since 8 130, acts as though it were ambitious to
attain the ninety-mile standard. This has been so cold a day that we found Dr. Kane's
voyages most suitable reading. At 7 A. M., — 33°, and it has gradually worked down to

EXPLORATIONS AMONG THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. Ill

— 40°. We have the stoves at a red heat. Ten feet from the stove, at the floor to-day,
the temperature was only 12°, and at the same time was 65° in other parts of the
room. . . . Find that I froze my fingers while sawing off a piece of pork for our
" Sunday baked-beans ; " was out only five minutes. It was like cutting into a block of
gypsum, to saw off that piece of pork.

Midnight. Really, there is quite a breeze just now. Some of the gusts, from what
we know of the measured force, must be fully up to one hundred miles per hour. In
fact, it is a first-class hurricane. The wind is north-west, and, as the house is fully
broadside to it, the full force is felt. At times, it seems as though everything was going
to wreck. We go to the door and look out: it is the most we can do. To step
beyond, with nothing for a holdfast, one would take passage on the wings of the wind
in the direction of Tuckerman's ravine. We shout across the room to be heard. Now
the wind suddenly lulls, and, moaning and sighing, it dies away. Then, quickly gath-
ering strength, it blows as if it would hurl the house from the summit. The timbers
creak and groan, and the windows rattle. The walls bend inward, and, as the wind
lets go its hold, rebound with a jerk that starts the joints again. The noise is like
rifle-firing in fifty different directions at the same moment in the room — a moment
ago, close by me as I sat here leaning against the wall, now in the outer room, or up
aloft, and outside as well. Then there is the trembling and groaning of the whole
building, which is constant. Everything movable is on the move. Books drop from
the shelves. We pick them up and replace them, only to do it again and again. We
have just looked at the thermometer ; find the temperature lower than at last observa-
tion,— now minus 40°. Huntington and Smith are taking hourly observations. When
we hear an unusually loud report in the outer room, one goes to inspect. Nothing has
given away yet.

February 5. From i to 2 A. M., the wind was higher than during the early part of the
night. Some of the gusts must have been above 100 — possibly no. The tempest
roared and thundered. It had precisely the sound of the ocean waves breaking on a
rocky shore. And the building, too, had the motion of a ship scudding before a gale.
At 3 A. M. the temperature had fallen to — 59°,* and the barometer stood at 22.810;
attached barometer, 62°. Barometer was lowest yesterday at 8 A. M., when it was
22.508, and attached thermometer, 32°.

9 A. M. Talked over the events of the past night at the breakfast table, recalling
many laughable incidents, and agreeing that we rather enjoyed the night's experience
than otherwise ; that it was a sublime affair (having full confidence that the house
would stand, the storm had no terror for us) ; but all things considered, were unani-
mous in the opinion that once in a fortnight was quite often enough for such grand
displays of the storm-king's power. Of all the nights since this party came here, the
last exceeds every one.

* The Signal Service did not provide us with a spirit thermometer; consequently it is impossible to say how
cold it was at this time, the instrument in use not being reliable below — 38°. C. H. H.

112 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

February 6. They have put the line in order to-day, and Mr. Huntington sent an
interesting press despatch. Wonder if our situation excites any comment, especially
as we have held no communication with the lower world for three days.

Tuesday, February 7. A glorious sunrise, and a quiet, warm day. Temperature at
2 P.M., 62° in the sun. Change of temperature since Sunday of 121° ! .... I
have given some time this afternoon to the study of cloud formations. Days like this
are so rare that we improve every opportunity for investigation. Gales, storms, hurri-
canes, all clear off with a north wind, — a wind gentle and soft as the south wind of the
lower regions. How can this be explained? It is S. S. W. to-night, and two miles per
hour, — a marked contrast to Sunday morning. Mr. Holden telegraphs from Littleton
that we may expect him to-morrow.

February 8. Smith and I laid in a supply of ice, enough for three days1 consumption.
Are obliged to look sharp in fair weather and lay in an ample stock of ice, for it some-
times happens that we cannot replenish for several days. ... At noon the party
arrived, consisting of Messrs. Holden, Cogswell, and Clough. They received from us
a right hearty welcome. They brought a large mail, and a contribution of magazines
and papers. Some of the dailies are more than a fortnight old, yet we read them with
as much eagerness as we do the evening paper at home. The evening has passed
pleasantly. We had something to tell our friends of mountain life ; and they, in return,
had much to relate of events occurring since we left the region below the clouds.

February 9, 9 P. M. Cloudy all day, wind moderate ; temperature high as 26°. The
cloud on the mountain so dense that it was impossible to see ten rods in any direction.
It is a pleasure to have company in this out-of-the-world place ; and I sincerely hope
that we may be able to treat our friends to some one or more of the Mt. Washington
novelties, — a gorgeous sunrise or brilliant sunset, a superior show of frost-work, or,
failing in these, something in the line of hurricanes. It is a pity that they should be
at the trouble of making the ascent at this inclement season, and not take back some-
thing of the experience that falls to our lot daily — something to endure, or enjoy, as the
case may be. The line has been down to-day between Littleton and Concord : this
time it is not the Mt. Washington cable. The papers say that fears were entertained
for our safety during the time the line was down. Knowing better than the good
people below all about the matter, we had not the least anxiety.

February 10. The wind high all day, 88 at 2 P. M., — Holden having the honor of
measuring its velocity, Huntington timing him. He acknowledges perfect satisfaction
as regards Mt. Washington winter winds. Now, 7 P. M., the wind is rapidly rising.
Been cloudy all day ; a dense cloud on the mountain, charged with frost.

Midnight. About 8 o'clock the- wind had worked up to the 90 mile rate, and then
commenced a furious bombardment of ice from the summit and frost-work from off
the house. The house shook and trembled as the fiercer blasts beat against it. Pieces
of ice were driven between the bars protecting the windows, and at last, by one heavy
discharge, three panes were broken. As good luck would have it, the broken lights
were in the room above. The roar of the wind as it rushed through the opening was

irv »••••. * :.^

-f ' r •'• • .'.,'•

, ^ ,:/>/^

:/» i&

Tip-Top House.

?

^L *» -.- *-

.-*~V.,,

Winnipiseogee from Washington.

Anemometer.

EXPLORATIONS AMONG THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. 113

enough to wake a Rip Van Winkle. Huntington, Clough, Smith, and myself, were
out in a moment, and after having the "hurricane" lantern twice extinguished (it is
warranted to burn the brighter the higher the wind), we succeeded in nailing boards
over the aperture. Still the bombardment was going on for an hour, but no more glass
was broken. The supply of ammunition was exhausted by 10 o'clock, and then, though

the wind was terrific, we did not mind the gale The line failed just after

Holden's Journal despatch went. One thing more : our friends have had the enjoy-
ment of a very respectable if not a first-class gale. It does not seem now as if it would
rise to the rank of that of December, January, or the one of last week. The temper-
ature at 9 P. M. was — 20°. Hourly observations to-day.

February 13. The party left at n : 20. Smith and I watched them going down as
long as we could see them, and then returned to the house, perhaps a little envious :
more silent we certainly were than usual, though this is not the first time we have lived
by ourselves. Really, these few days have passed most agreeably. . . . The clouds
in the morning did not present any remarkable features for this locality, but from 3 to
4:30 P. M. there was an extensive "sea of clouds." It extended from a point 60 miles
north, far as the ocean east, bounded only by the horizon. This summit was alone
above the cloud. It was to the eye a frozen polar ocean, here and there a lofty moun-
tain of ice rising from the apparentdead level surface. The setting sun, throwing a
silvery light along the cloud, dispelled the illusion. Perfectly clear overhead all day ;
our sunny day contrasts strongly with the cold, gloomy, cloudy one below. If we have
much cloud here, it is not always sunshine there.

February 22. The only perfectly clear day this month; cool, the mean temperature
being but 2°. These clear days, and, if nearly calm, so much the better, are the chief
attractions, or rather -among them, for cloud-views count in the list. On such days
even the most distant mountain peaks are clearly outlined. Katahdin is to-day plainly
seen, as are some mountains in Canada as distant. The view is not often good in a
southerly direction ; it is not to-day. The mountains belonging to this group show
grandly in the bright sunlight. . . . Smith has been working on the line, and I
have spent the day in writing. In such weather this is a pleasant winter residence.

Anniversary of Washington's birthday, and we had not thought of it until now ! We
might have raised our little flag in honor of the day, — it would have been "quite the thing."

February 26. A morning perfect as a morning of winter can well be. Clouds in the
valleys, — the ocean visible for a long distance up and down the coast, and far out at
sea. About 9 A. M. a heavy cloud commenced to move inland, one portion of it mov-
ing up the Saco valley. Its progress was so slow that it did not shut the Glen house in
till 7 P. M.

February 28. This is one of those days which make us contented with our home. It
cleared off early in the morning. Wind from 50 to 70 miles per hour. The mean
temperature for to-day is o°. The frost-work is again fine ; and the house, if not a
marble palace, looks like a building fashioned from purest marble, — no part of the
chains, wooden braces, or finish to be seen.
VOL. I. 15

114 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

March n. The morning was so fine that we felt invited out. The snow is nearly all
gone. The rocks look charming in their Alpine dress of beautiful, pale green moss
lichen. We were so fortunate as to discover a fine bunch of Greenland sand wort — one
in bloom. I took up some of each for house-plants, that our parlor may boast its
winter garden.

March 23. This morning there was a thick stratum of clouds eastward, at a moderate
elevation above the summit. By 8 A. M. it was quite dense ; at 9 A. M., snow-squalls to
the north-east, and the clouds gradually settling in the valleys ; 1 1 o'clock, thick on
the Carter range; by 12, clouds all about, except on the summit. By 2 P.M. the
mountain was in clouds. The formation, — for I can call it nothing else, — and progress
of the storm were very interesting. The clouds were at a higher elevation than has
generally been the case, — cirro-stratus, color gray, uniform in density over nearly the
entire field of view ; thick along the south-east, east, and north-east, long before it
shut down elsewhere. Evidently the lower current of the wind was from the east,
while the wind on the summit was west-north-west. It was two hours from the time
the Carter range shut in before the summit was enveloped. The clouds poured over
Mt. Adams, and, later, over the dividing ridge between Mts. Washington and Clay.
They seemed to curve, as they passed over these mountain-tops, as though the upper
currents of air conformed to the irregularities of.surface. When there are two strata
of clouds, they unite before the snow or rain falls, as a rule, though to-day snow fell an
hour previous to the clouds settling on the mountain.

April 4. All the forenoon, till I P.M., the summit was in a dense cloud. Suddenly
it lifted, or passed off, and then we had the most gorgeous display of cloud-scenes we
have yet witnessed. Eastward, masses of cttmuli rested over the valleys and the moun-
tains. Why not call them mountains of cloud? Certainly. They rise far above our
level, six thousand, or perhaps eight thousand, feet higher than this peak! They con-
form to the heights over which they lie, and seem to envelop other mountains
nearly as lofty as their upper limits. The illusion was perfect; and Mt. Washington,
in comparison, was a diminutive spur or outlying peak of this great mountain range.
Without ever having seen the Alps, I understood them better for having seen these
cloud mountains. The sun runs high, but we know nothing of spring. It is more like
winter than some of the time in March. Then there was no snow ; — now everywhere
there is snow and ice.

April 5. All day there has been a furious storm of snow, — at one time wind 86, and
temperature low as 2°. 9 p. M., wind 60, and clear. This afternoon we were surprised
by the arrival of Messrs. Clough and Cheney. They were somewhat frost-bitten, ears,
fingers, and feet, and it was doubtful, for a half hour, how badly. But now they are
all right, though their hands and ears are considerably swollen. It is the toughest
storm in which any party has made the ascent this winter.

April 28. At 4 P. M., started down the railroad, expecting to meet Mr. Huntington
and Mr. Holden. To show the changes of temperature here, in a few feet of altitude,
I note my trip down to-day, and up as well. Left the house at 4: 30 p. M., wind 30

EXPLORATIONS AMONG THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. 11$

miles ; at the Lizzie Bourne monument, 40 ; at the Gulf house ruins and below, fully
60, thus reversing the order of things in regard to wind. Thermometer on the sum-
mit, 28° ; frost-work forming some distance below the monument. At the Gulf tank,

Fig. 14. — CORONA SEEN BY HITCHCOCK AND NELSON, APRIL 28.

The dark cone is shadow of observer with glory about the head. Above the foreground is the shadow of the
mountain, while the large circle is the colored prism or corona resting on clouds, and partially obscuring the two
shadows.

when the sun came out, as it did several times, the ice on my cap would thaw com-
pletely ; then, while the cloud was passing, icicles two inches in length would form on
the visor. It was difficult to walk or even stand against the wind below the Gulf house
ruins. Returning, the wind was not so violent ; rain as far as the plateau, where they
collect water for the engine in summer ; mist on the summit, with thermometer
28° at 6: 50.

April 30. We have had the past month more clouds than sunshine, more snow than
rain ; light winds and few gales, the clouds often dense on the summit when clear
below. Now only on the higher peaks, in the deep ravines, and a few places on wooded
slopes is there snow.

May 2. Taking advantage of the day, Mr. Holden and myself set out for Tucker-
man's ravine. Found more snow than on the gth ult. Sunlight bright and warm
there, but over Washington a dense cloud most of the afternoon. The air spring-like,
as were the surroundings ; little snow except at the head of the ravine, where the arch
will be looked for in vain next summer, unless May makes up for the short-comings of

Il6 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

winter. Hermit lake really breaking up, and the stream open above. We could see
the pretty cascade some distance above the lake, and hear the rushing waters, now
loudly as the wind arose, now softly murmuring as it fell. Half way down the northern
side, under a sheltering rock, we lunched on hard tack and sugar, drinking the pure
water of a little rill which ran down among the rocks. Then for an hour we climbed
the crags, getting views from many different points.

Came away at 3 P. M., too early to go home, so decided on a trip to the north-eastern
spur of Washington. Passed a deep spring of excellent water, which in my jaunts I
had never seen, then visited the ravine beyond. In some respects this is even more
interesting than Tuckerman's, for what is wanting in extent is made up in boldness of
outline, its steep, sloping northern side, and sheer precipice of two hundred feet or
more on the south. Seven seconds was the time taken, by repeated trials, for a stone
to reach the bottom. We propose that Huntingtoii's Ravine shall be its future
designation. [See frontispiece.]

May 3. Snowing all night, and cloudy all day. Mr. Smith sick, — seems no better;
a rough place to be sick in ; — safe from the doctors, he has that comfort !

May 4. Another tough snow-storm. ... A pair of birds have made the house
their home of late. To-day, especially, they have hardly been out. This afternoon
they have sung several songs for our benefit. To-night they sit on the beam over this
room, close by the flue, and we can occasionally hear them twitter, softly calling to
each other.

On May 6, Messrs. Holden and Nelson visited Mt. Adams. A description of a
phenomenon seen on their return is given as follows : "In ascending the cone of Mt.
Washington we again got above the cloud level, and enjoyed a rare sunset scene. We
also witnessed a veritable battle of the clouds. The wind, which had been very light
throughout the day, had appeared to come from different directions at different points, —
now from the east, in another place from the north or north-west, and again from the
west or south-west. We had ascended a little distance above the Gulf tank, when we
turned and observed two ghostly armies approaching each other, one from the direction
of Mt. Monroe, and the other from out the depths of the Great Gulf. Noiselessly
they marched onward, and the conflict came near the gap between Mts. Washington
and Clay. The battle was short and decisive. Little fragments of cloud, like wreaths
of smoke, were flung high in air, and there seemed a momentary indecision, but the
fleecy forms from the south-west were soon fleeing before the fast gathering hosts of
the east, until all were commingled in one shadowy mass."

May 7. The barometer fell 5o-iooths from last night at 9 o'clock to this morning at
7 o'clock. Wind rising at 3 A. M., reaching the highest velocity at 2 P. M., which was
67, — highest recorded for some time, forcibly reminding us of the winter months.
Snowing all day ; the whirling, driving clouds of snow made it far from pleasant to
stay out for three minutes, the time occupied in taking the force of the wind. At
5 P. M. the cloud passed off, and we could see that not the mountains alone, but the
lower country as well, were "snow bound."

EXPLORATIONS AMONG THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. I I'J

May 1 1. A wintry sky and winter scenery this morning : the sky a pale blue, and the
sunshine that of December. The clouds presented an infinite variety of shades — gray,
brown, and dingy black. Distant mountains showed clear cut outlines ; snowy peaks
of the higher mountains glisten in the morning light. Looking beyond them we see a
change. The Androscoggin is broader, and its waters sparkle in the play of sunlight;
the valleys are bare and brown. Last winter, the river was a silver thread ; the low-
lands white as are these summits now. Only these differences between a pleasant
morning last December and this. Twenty degrees at 7 A. M.

Mr. Huntington expects to leave us soon. How quickly the winter has passed, spite
of storms, hurricanes, and clouds, — of discomfort, and rather hard fare, and the many
deprivations. Smith is still far from well. To endure, without suffering in some
respect the sudden changes of weather, one needs an iron constitution ; and any one
that stays here should have a will equally as strong. It is hard on an invalid. I can
bear testimony to that.

May 12. The last press telegram goes to-night. Nor shall we any longer have pleas-
ant evening chats by telegraph with Prof. Hitchcock at Hanover. Smith is at the depot
to-night ; and the telegraph has no word for us.

May 14. The wind was high as 80, if not higher, during the night. All day, as
usual, it has been cloudy, and frost-work forming. Temperature at 7A.M. was 11°,
and highest for the day, at 9 P. M., 21°. At no time was the wind lower than 46. Mr.
Huntington left at 9 A. M., in the face of a 48-mile gale, and the temperature only 14°.
I am anxious for his safety, and shall be till Smith returns. To-night, for the first time,
I am keeping "watch and ward" on the mountain-top alone.

The winter's work is done. We trust that it has not been time and labor lost.
Storms of unparalleled severity, when, for days in succession, the summit was enveloped
in clouds, and the hurricanes lasted longer, and were more violent than any yet recorded
in the United States, together with very low temperatures, have been a part of our
experience.

Though interesting, these grand atmospheric disturbances are not the most enjoyable
features of mountain life. There were mornings when the atmosphere was so trans-
parent, and the sky so pure a blue, with not a fleck of cloud, the snowy mountain-
peaks so dazzlingly white, their forms so clearly outlined and standing up in such bold
relief, that they seemed the creation of yesterday ; and mornings when earth and sky,
forests, lakes, and rivers, and the clouds above, wore a radiance and richness of color
never seen in other than mountain regions and from the loftiest elevations. There
were days when the shifting views of each hour furnished new wonders and new beau-
ties,— in the play of sunlight and changing cloud-forms, — every hour a picture in itself,
and perfect in details. Sunsets, too, when an ocean of clouds surrounded this island-
like summit, the only one of all the many high peaks visible above the cloud billows,
all else of earth hidden from sight. There were times when this aerial sea was bur-
nished silver, smooth and calm ; and times when its tossing waves were tipped with
crimson and golden fire.

Il8 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Although our situation has been very much an isolated one, and the area of our little
world limited, our daily life has not been without incident or void of interest, — to us, at
least. But now, our work being done, we go down to the busy world once more. And
though we look forward to the change with anticipations of pleasure, we half-regretfully
turn our backs upon this majestic old mountain, whose cloud-enveloped summit has so
long been our home.

NOTE. It is proper to add, in respect to these disconnected notes of the expedition, that this journal was kept
for private reference by Mr. Nelson, with no intention or expectation of its being published. But when an
extended publication of the history of the expedition was decided on, it was found desirable to use parts of the
journal to convey an idea of winter life upon the mountain, and of the experiences and impressions of the party.
A more connected and particular description of the meteorological phenomena, with the deductions obtained
from their comparison, is separately presented, exhibiting the practical results of the expedition.

Fig. 15. — ANEMOMETER.

CHAPTER V.

CLIMATOLOGY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE.

BY J. H. HUNTINGTON.

IHE great south-west current, that bears northward the moisture
from the gulf, and renders fertile not only the great valley of the
Mississippi but also the Atlantic states, the physical contour of the
country and its proximity to the ocean, determine chiefly the climate of
New Hampshire. Yet there is still another cause, though more remote,
that may have a greater influence than we might at first suppose. The
great current from the Pacific, at first moisture laden, comes in contact
with the mountain ranges extending north and south. The cold summits
condense the moisture, and when the current reaches the third great
range it is deprived almost altogether of its moisture ; yet this great cur-
rent affects the climate eastward, for it is in the immediate vicinity of
this mountain range that by far the greater proportion of the atmos-
pheric disturbances are generated, the influence of which extends to the
Atlantic coast, and gives us the precipitation of moisture that renders
fertile our valleys, hill-sides, and mountain slopes.

After passing the third mountain range, the air, deprived of its mois-
ture, allows the rays of the sun to pass through it, and very little heat is
absorbed until they come near the surface of the earth. The thin
stratum of air that contains moisture becomes heated, and at intervals it

CLIMATOLOGY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 121

rises, thus creating an area of low pressure, which is the nucleus of the
storm area that is carried eastward across the continent. The other
great storm-centre is within the tropics. The great current of the south-
east trade-wind infringes on the north-east trade-wind, and produces the
cyclones that are so destructive in the West Indies and on the coast of
Florida. The cyclone thus generated moves along our coast, generally
with greatly diminished force, and thus we have our north-east storms.
The character of these storms was first pointed out by Franklin, and
the theory as to their origin has been discussed by Espy, Redfield,
Maury, and others, while Prof. Joseph Henry was the first to explain the
origin of the storms that move eastward across the continent. In sum-
mer, the disturbances seem to originate chiefly in the vicinity of the
Rocky Mountains, while in spring, autumn, and winter, frequently, they
have their origin within the tropics.

From the observations of the Signal Service, we find that there are
from seven to thirteen areas of low barometer developed per month
within, or pass along the border of, the United States. Of these, from
one to three pass directly across or along the border of New Hampshire.

WEATHER MAP.

The weather map on the opposite page shows graphically the tracks
of the storm-centres for January, 1874. It will be seen that two of the
storm-centres passed directly across New Hampshire ; and it will also be
seen that the storms, as a whole, are chiefly of the type that have their
origin in the vicinity of the Rocky Mountains. The dotted line from the
Pacific coast indicates only the probability that the storm-centre passed
over that section of the country. The storms from the south usually pass
along or nearer the coast than the one represented on this map. By trac-
ing each storm-centre, a person can get some idea as to the probability of
the Signal Service being able to give accurate forecasts of the weather.
On account of our high latitude, sea border, our lofty mountains and nar-
row valleys, for our limited area the climate is exceedingly varied. On
the coast, the cold of winter and the heat of summer are moderated by the
breezes of the ocean. Inland, for a very few days in summer, we have
more than the heat of the tropics ; while on our highest mountain sum-
mits in winter, we have the climate of Greenland, — if anything, more
VOL. i. 1 6

122 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

intense, on account of the fierce winds. In the southern portion of the
state we have the trees and the birds, and we raise the grain and the
fruits common in the Northern states, while on the slopes of the moun-
tains and on the highlands in the vicinity of Connecticut lake, we
have the trees and the birds, and raise only the grain and the fruits of
the far north.

Notwithstanding our extremes of temperature, we have a climate far
more healthful than that of most of the states east of the Rocky Moun-
tains. The extreme heat of summer is of so short a duration that it does
not produce the enervating effect of long continued heat, though of a
considerably lower temperature. The bracing air of winter, and the
charm of our autumn months, largely compensate for the few extremes
of summer and of winter. The lassitude produced by months of heat in
southern latitudes, and the extremes of cold, accompanied by fierce winds
that descend with such fell swoop in the west, are both unknown; for
with us winds of great velocity, accompanied by intense cold, except on
the summits of our mountains, are extremely rare.

MOISTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE.

The climate of a country, as affecting vegetation, does not depend
altogether upon the absolute amount of rain-fall during the year ; but in
New Hampshire, particularly, the rain must, be distributed through the
months when vegetation is growing, so that drouth will not check its
growth. Even when vegetation is growing, there must be other condi-
tions of moisture than rain-fall. The most important is the relative
humidity of the atmosphere. This is the relative amount of moisture in
the atmosphere, compared with that which it is capable of sustaining at
a given temperature. Saturation is assumed as 100, and perfectly dry air
as o. The following is the absolute amount of moisture at the given
temperatures.

Degrees — F. Weight in grains — Troy.
30 2.04

50 4.08

70 7-99

80 10.94

Suppose the temperature is 30°, and the absolute amount of moisture
in the atmosphere is 2 grains, then there is half the amount present that

CLIMATOLOGY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 123

the atmosphere can sustain : hence the relative humidity is 50 per cent.
Now, if the temperature rises just above 70°, and the amount of moisture
is not increased, there is only one fourth the amount of moisture that the
atmosphere can sustain at that temperature ; hence the relative humidity
is 25 per cent. If, on the other hand, the temperature falls to 30°, there
is more moisture than the atmosphere can sustain, and it is precipitated.
The air feels moist or dry, not from the absolute amount of moisture
present, but from its relative humidity. If the per-centage is small, the
moisture evaporates rapidly from the earth and from vegetation, as well
as from everything containing moisture. The opposite effect is seen on
the approach of rain. After a drouth, water is seen where there had been
none for weeks ; and the partially withered leaves assume their natural
shape, — so much so that we should scarcely know that they had been
affected by a drouth : and all this before a drop of rain has fallen. Why ?
Because the air is approaching saturation, and moisture is no longer
evaporated from the earth and vegetation.

The vapor of water diffused through the air is an obstruction to the
free passage of the heat of the sun, and also prevents the sudden radia-
tion of the heat that has been absorbed by the earth. "This," says
Buchan, "is undoubtedly one of the most important and conservative
functions of the invisible moisture of the atmosphere. For if the mois-
ture was drained out of it, and its diathermacy thereby rendered
complete, the sun's rays would burn up everything by their intolerable
fierceness ; " and during the night the escape of heat by radiation would
be so rapid that, ere the sun appeared again, everything would perish that
a freezing temperature could kill. We .see the effect of the want of
moisture frequently in New Hampshire, in the extremely hot days and
cold nights that invariably accompany a long drouth.

EFFECT OF FORESTS.

How far the removal or renewal of forests affects our climate, is some-
thing in which every one is interested. From the data that we have,
it may be impossible to generalize to any great extent ; yet there are some
things that we can learn from the observations that have been made.
While it is stoutly contended that there has been no decrease in the
annual amount of rain-fall in the eastern part of the United States, there

124 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

are facts that show that forests have a great influence on the climate, — if
not on the annual rain-fall, yet on its distribution during the months of
the year and the hours of the day.

In the central and southern portion of New Hampshire, the hay crop
is frequently cut short by drouth, while in the northern portion of the
state, often the same year, the hay crop is above the average; yet the
annual rain-fall is less in the northern than either in the central or
southern part of the state. But in the north there are abundant forests;
and the rain is distributed through the months when it is needed for the
crops to grow and mature. The effect of the diminution and increase of
vegetation is shown in the well known facts in regard to Lake Tacarigua,
Venezuela. During the last thirty years of the past century, it was found
to be gradually drying up ; but when the valley of Aragua was devastated
by war, the country, by the rapid growth of vegetation, was soon covered
with forests ; and it was observed by Boussingault that the water of the
lake had risen so that it covered much of the country that was formerly
cultivated.

The gradual rise in the height of the water of the Great Salt lake, in
Utah, at the rate nearly of a foot per year, and the gradual increase in
rain-fall more than three inches per year since the country has been cul-
tivated,— and there has been a great increase of vegetation on account of
irrigation, — is an important example, as showing the effect of the increase
of vegetation.*

The preservation of the vegetation on our mountains is of great
importance, not only in modifying the distribution of rain, but also in
moderating the extremes of cold in winter.

Our mountains, especially the higher summits, except where it has been
destroyed by fire, are covered to a considerable depth by peat formed
chiefly from moss and lichens. Now it has been found by experiment
"that peat moss can absorb more than twice its own weight of water, dry
clay nearly its own weight, dry earth, or garden mould, more than half its
own weight, and dry sand a little more than a third of its own weight.
With equal times of drying, under the same circumstances, peat moss lost
two thirds of all the water -it contained, clay and earth more than three

* Monthly Reports of the Department of Agriculture.

CLIMATOLOGY

Chart 1.

Lines of Equal Annual Temperature
BY ,T. H. HTXTI^r.TOX

CLIMATOLOGY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 12$

fourths, and sand more than nine tenths." Farmers can determine the
capacity that different soils have for retaining moisture, by taking two
boxes, filling each with a different kind of soil, and pouring an equal
quantity of water on each, and then suspending each of the boxes at the
end of a balance, so adjusted that the bar shall be horizontal. Then, if
the soils are unequal in their capacity for retaining moisture, one box will
soon rise above the level of the other. This experiment was first per-
formed by D. Milne Home. When a mountain has been denuded of its
forests and vegetable mould, the rain that falls upon it flows immediately
into the streams, and is carried to the ocean; then, before another rain,
the streams are dried up, the rivers are greatly contracted, and the next
rain causes a freshet; — so we have a succession of drouths and floods.
On the other hand, vegetable mould retains the moisture, and it is grad-
ually evaporated, a high relative humidity is maintained, springs gush
forth from the slopes of the mountains, the streams are full, but not to
overflowing, and a slight change in the temperature causes rain to fall in
gentle showers.

There is one marked feature in regard to the mountains in New Hamp-
shire that have been burned, namely, the fact that the fire has, in
general, spread only over their eastern slopes, and when it has reached
the summits it has extended but a short distance down the western
slopes, showing that the moisture-bearing currents of wind come from
the west or south-west. Although it is of great importance that the
mountains should be covered with vegetation, yet it is of no less impor-
tance that there should be a certain amount of forest over the entire
country, and this amount should be at least thirty per cent, of the whole
area. In some parts of the state the area covered by forests is much less.
The general effect of forests on temperature is to make the nights
warmer and the days cooler, and to moderate the extreme heat of sum-
mer, making it less intense, and the cold of winter less severe. In New
Hampshire, during the winter, in calm, clear weather, the cold is more
intense, or, at least, the thermometer goes lower in the valleys than on
moderate elevations, or even on the summit of Mt. Washington. As the
stratum of air in contact with the earth often becomes colder by contact,
and as the cold air is heavier than the warmer currents, the cold air flows
down the valleys like currents of water. Hence in the Connecticut and

126 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Merrimack valleys, where these currents converge and become united,
the cold is the most intense. Where the mountain slopes and valleys are
wooded, the flow of these cold currents is greatly impeded. In windy
and stormy weather there is, however, a gradual decrease of temperature
according to the height. This decrease, comparing the observations at
Hanover with those on the summit of Mt. Washington, is one degree
for every three hundred and fifty-four feet ; but observations continued
for a series of years might greatly modify this ; or, if we make the com-
parison at different seasons of the year, we find that the decrease, taking
the monthly mean, is one degree for every five hundred feet in January,
while it is the same in May for only two hundred and eighty-four feet.

CHARTS AND DIAGRAMS.

In order to present clearly the leading features of the climate of New
Hampshire, we have prepared several charts and diagrams. These are
chiefly the results of observations taken under the direction of the
Smithsonian Institution.

On Chart 7, we have traced the yearly isothermal lines. In the vicinity
of Manchester there is a small area where the yearly mean, 48°, is greater
than in any other part of the state. The observations extend over a
period of fourteen years ; hence, they ought to give at least an approxi-
mate average. An extended curve of 47°, of which Manchester is the
centre, lies some five miles beyond the first, and forms an entirely isolated
area. In contrast with this comparatively warm area, we find directly
west an island of cold with the isotherm of 42°, occupying Dublin, Nel-
son, Stoddard, and parts of the adjoining towns. The isotherm of 46°
begins at the state line in New Ipswich, runs northward, then turns
south of east, crosses the Merrimack at Thornton's Ferry, and strikes the
coast at Portsmouth ; thence it is deflected northward in a great curve that
passes above Lake Winnipiseogee, and returns to the coast at the mouth of
the Piscataqua river. The isotherm of 45° passes through Dover, runs
northward near the state line, and crosses into Maine from Eflingham ;
the other end of it begins at South Charlestown, is deflected southward
through Francestown, then runs northward nearly parallel with the
Merrimack, passes around Newfound lake above Squam, thence through
Tamworth, Madison, and Eaton, connecting with the other part of it in

CLIMATOLOGY" |||* Sl/>

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CLIMATOLOGY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. I2/

Maine. The isotherm of 44° on the west, is a sharpe curve beginning
at North Charlestown, and it has its further limit in Danbury. On the
eastern border of the state there is a short curve on the Saco in Conway.
The isotherm of 43° is similar in shape to that of 44°, but is some ten
miles northward.

The isotherm of 42° begins on the Connecticut in Plainfield, and
extends eastward, but is soon deflected northward, passes above the White
Mountains, through Randolph, Gorham, and Shelburne. The isotherm
of 41° is just below Hanover. Westward in Vermont it is deflected
southward ; but in New Hampshire it is nearly parallel with 42°, except
that from Lisbon a branch goes almost directly north to Lunenburg, Vt.
The isotherm of 40°, the lowest mean average in the settled portions of
the state, begins near North Stratford, and probably extends eastward to
Umbagog lake. As we ascend the mountains the mean annual tempera-
ture decreases rapidly, so that on the summit of Mt. Washington we have
an isotherm of 25°.

CJiart II. Referring to chart II, we have isotherals, or lines of equal
summer temperature ; and isochimenals, or lines of equal winter tem-
perature. For the isotherals, we have a small area about Manchester,
included within the line of 70°; there is also an isotheral of 70°, extend-
ing along the northern border of Lake Winnipiseogee, thence through
Ossipee to the line of Maine. The isotheral of 69° is below Rochester,
and there is a more extended area of the same through Tamworth, Madi-
son, and Eaton. The isotheral of 68° corresponds with the isotherm of
47°. The curve of 67° is the most variable of all the isotheral lines.

It begins at the Connecticut, near Claremont, is deflected southward
to Francestown, then northward to Barnstead, then southward again as
far as Exeter, when it turns north and passes between Dover and Great
Falls. The curve of 66° begins on the coast near Portsmouth, and
passes up the Piscataquis to Dover, where it is deflected eastward.

The isotheral of 65° passes up the river from Hanover, thence up the
Ammonoosuc, — makes a sharp curve to the Connecticut, at Lancaster,
then runs through Randolph, Gorham, and Shelburne ; that of 64° runs
through Stoddard, Nelson, Dublin, and Peterborough; that of 63° begins
in North Littleton, goes northward through Lunenburg, Vt., and then is
deflected eastward and across New Hampshire, near the Grand Trunk

CLIMATOLOGY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. I2Q

the changes of temperature, to this may be due the increase inland from
the ocean.

The following record shows the time of the closing and opening of
some of our lakes. That of Winnipiseogee is as follows :

Closed with Ice. Clear of Ice.

1867 — December 19. 1868 — April 10.

1869 — January 19. 1869 — April 28.

1870 — January 23. 1870 — April 21.

1871 — January 14. 1871 — April 10.
1872— January 3. 1872 — May 4.
1873 — December 17. 1873 — May 4-

Umbagog lake generally closes about November 1 5 ; — was entirely
clear of ice, April 28, 1871; May 10, 1872; May n, 1873.

Connecticut lake closes earlier and opens later, though the figures
given to me, but not reproduced, are not exact.

THE PHENOMENA OBSERVED ON Mxs. MOOSILAUKE AND WASHINGTON.

In the summer of 1869, I proposed to Prof. Hitchcock to occupy the
summit of Mt. Washington the following winter, for the purpose of taking
meteorological observations. He heartily approved of the undertaking,
and made an effort to secure a building on the summit of that mountain.
In this, however, he failed ; but he did obtain permission for me to occupy
a building on the summit of Moosilauke. In late autumn, preparations
were made, and on the last day of the year of 1869, with Mr. A. F.
Clough as photographer, I ascended this mountain, and remained there
during the January and February following. The expedition was carried
out chiefly at my own expense. We found out many things that were
novel and interesting, and some that were new to science. The beautiful
frost-work of our mountain summits was here for the first time photo-
graphed and described ; and we experienced winds of greater velocity
than had ever before been measured.

Our observations here made us still more desirous of spending a winter
on Mt. Washington. This we were able to do the following winter,
through the cooperation of Prof. Hitchcock, Mr. S. A. Nelson, the U. S.
Signal Service, and the seventy-five individuals and firms, besides railroad
corporations, that furnished material aid. The mountain has since been
occupied by the Signal Service, and last summer a building was erected
for the use of the observers.
VOL. i. 17

I3O PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

FROST-WORK.

The frost-work is the most remarkable phenomenon of our mountain
summits. It is difficult to convey, in words, any idea of its wonderful
form and beauty. It was not easy, at first, to understand how it could be
formed ; but we are able now to give a plausible theory to account for
this the most extraordinary of all the handiwork of Nature. It is very
rarely formed except when the wind is at some point between north and
west, and only when there are clouds on the mountains. It begins with
mere points on everything the wind reaches, — on the rocks, on the rail-
way, and on every part of the buildings, even on the glass. On the south
side of the buildings and the high rocks it is veiy slight, as the wind
reaches there only in eddying gusts. When the surface is rough, the
points, as they begin, are an inch or more apart ; when smooth, it almost
entirely covers the surface at the very beginning ; but soon only a few
points elongate, so that on whatever surface it begins to form, it has soon
everywhere the same general appearance, presenting the same beautiful,
feathery-like forms.

"Thus Nature works, as if defying art ;
And in defiance of her rival powers,
Performing such inimitable feats,
As she, with all her rules, can never reach."

In going up Mt. Washington, we do not see the frost-work until we get
above the present limit of the trees. It is nearly a mile above before it
is seen in its characteristic forms, and it is only immediately about the
summit that it presents its most attractive features. On all our moun-
tains north of latitude 43° 50', that are more than thirty-five hundred
feet in height, it can be seen extending down to a certain line, and this
line extends along the whole mountain range. Everywhere it appears to
be at the same elevation. We notice that it always forms towards the
wind, never from it ; and the rapidity with which it forms, and the great
length of the horizontal masses, are truly wonderful. On the piles of
stones south of the house, the horizontal masses are sometimes five and
six feet in length. On the southern exposures, instead of the frost-work,
especially on the telegraph poles by the railway, there are only masses of

CLIMATOLOGY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 13!

pure ice, which have always a peculiar hue of greenish blue ; and there is
a striking contrast between this and the pure white of the frost-work on
the side opposite. When the thermometer ranges from 25° to 30°, and
the wind is southward, ice often forms to the thickness of a foot or more
on the telegraph poles near the summit. These icy masses are formed
evidently by the condensation of the vapor of the atmosphere. The frost-
work is also formed by the condensation of vapor, but, besides the vapor,
the air must be filled with very minute spiculae of ice. As the vapor
condenses, these are caught, and thus the horizontal, feathery masses are
formed. This accounts for the facts that we have observed, namely, that
it forms when the wind is northward, and always towards the wind.

Fig. 1 6 will give a general idea of the appearance of the Tip-top house
when the frost-work has formed to a thickness of two or three feet on
the building: and the rocks.

Fig. 1 6. — TIP-TOP HOUSE IN WINTER.

The beginning of the frost-work is shown in the accompanying helio-
type entitled Frost Feathers. Here they are formed on the surface of a
rock. The longest points are ten inches in length, and each presents

132

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

serrated and feathery edges. This view was almost the very first ever
taken of this peculiar form of snow-ice; and had it not been for the
self-denial of my late friend Mr. A. F. Clough, and his intense love of
the grand and beautiful in nature, it is probable that many years would
have elapsed before another artist would have had the inclination, much
less the courage, to encounter the difficulties and dangers that presented
themselves to a person who contemplated spending a winter on the
summit of one of our highest mountains.

In the illustration entitled Snow-ice, the frost feathers are elongated,
and form immense feathery masses two or three feet in length. On
account of the boards being loose, it has fallen off from the side of the
building ; but this is an advantage, since the corner of the building can be
seen, and one can get a better idea of its form and length. The view was
taken on the summit of Mt. Washington by Mr. B. W. Kilburn, in 1872,
who, by his perseverance and skill, has made our Alpine scenery known
to tens of thousands who have never visited the mountains.

THE WEATHER AT HIGH ALTITUDES.

As to the extraordinary weather on our mountains in winter, the follow-
ing description is a typical illustration of two days on Moosilauke :

On the first day of January the sun rose clear. We were above the clouds, and a
grander spectacle one does not often behold. The clouds seemed to roll and surge like
the billows of the ocean. They were of every dark and of every brilliant hue : here
they were resplendent with golden light, and there they were of silvery brightness ;
here of rosy tints, there of sombre gray ; here of snowy whiteness, there of murky
darkness ; here gorgeous with the play of colors, and there the livid light flashes deep
down into the gulfs formed by the eddying mist, while

" Far overhead

The sky, without a vapor or a stain,
Intensely blue, even deepened into purple
When nearer the horizon it received
A tincture from the mist that there dissolved
Into the viewless air. . . . The sky bent round
The awful dome of a most mighty temple,
Built by Omnipotent hand for nothing less
Than infinite worship. So beautiful,
So bright, so glorious ! . . . Such a majesty
In yon pure vault ! So many dazzling tints
In yonder waste of waves."

CLIMATOLOGY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 133

But above all these clouds, these flashes of light, this darkness, rises in stately grandeur
the summit of Mt. Washington, "sublime in its canopy of snow;" and Lafayette, with
a few peaks of lesser altitude, glitters in the bright sunlight. As the sun rises higher,
the picture fades away, and the whole country is flooded with light. Did this grandeur,
this magnificence, this grand display of lights, of shadows, and shades, — these clouds,
so resplendent, so beautiful, — portend a storm ? In the evening the wind changed to
the south-east, and increased in velocity.

At daylight, on the second, it was snowing. This soon changed to sleet, and then to
rain ; and, at 8 A. M., the velocity of the wind was 70 miles per hour. At 12, there was
a perfect tempest. Although the wind was so fearful, yet Mr. Clough was determined
to know the exact rate at which it was blowing. By clinging to the rocks he succeeded
in reaching a place where he could expose the anemometer, and not be blown away him-
self. He found the velocity to be 97^ miles per hour, — the greatest velocity, until that
time, ever recorded. When he reached the house he was thoroughly saturated, the
wind having driven the rain through every garment, although they were of the heaviest
material, as though they were made of the lightest fabric. During the afternoon, the
rain and gale continued with unabated violence. The rain was driven through every
crack and crevice of the house, and the floor of our room was flooded. So fierce was
the draught of the stove, that the wind literally took away every spark of fire, leaving
only the half-charred wood in the stove ; and it was with the greatest difficulty that we
succeeded in rekindling it. During the evening, the wind seemed to increase in fury ;
and although the window was somewhat protected, yet nearly every glass that was
exposed was broken by the pressure of the gale. As the lights were broken, the fire
was again extinguished ; and even my hurricane lantern was blown out as quickly as if
the flame had been unprotected. Darkness, if not terror, reigned ; but calmness, with
energy, are requisites for such an occasion, and, fortunately, they were not wanting
now. Our necessities quickly showed us what to do. By nailing boards across the
windows, and by the use of blankets, we stopped the openings the wind had made.
After 9 p. M. there were occasional lulls in the storm, and by 12 it had considerably
abated, at least enough to bring on that depression that naturally succeeds a period of
intense excitement ; — so we willingly yielded ourselves to sleep, to dream of gentle
zephyrs and sunny skies.

Although as a rule rains in winter are not common on the summits of
our high mountains, yet observations thus far show that every third
winter they may be quite frequent.

As already indicated, the clouds are often spread out in a thin stratum
over a large area, and we look forth upon an illimitable sea of mist glit-
tering in the sunlight, while every peak, except that on which we stand,
is concealed by clouds. So it is not uncommon for it to be a dark day in
the valleys, while on the summit of the mountain we are in the bright

134 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

sunlight Sometimes the clouds are two thousand feet below the summit
of Mt. Washington ; — in that case, innumerable mountain peaks protrude,
and seem like islands in an ocean bounded only by the sky. The forma-
tion and the dissolving of clouds is an interesting feature. It often
happens that the whole country westward is covered with clouds, but
when they have passed the ridge running directly south from Mt. Wash-
ington, they are instantly dissolved, never passing a certain point,
although moving at the rate of fifty or sixty miles per hour, when that
point is reached. In spring and summer, instead of these horizontal
layers, the clouds assume cumulose forms, and from the mountain they
can be seen rising vertically thousands of feet in an incredibly short
space of time. During the steady cold weather of winter, the upper
clouds were never seen to move except in the same direction as the wind
on the summit of the mountain.

WIND AND RAIN.

Of all phenomena, the wind is the most terrific. Usually during
periods of storm, the wind increases steadily in velocity until it reaches
its culmination : then there are lulls, at first only for an instant, and these
continually lengthen until the storm ceases. The greatest velocity that
has been measured is 140 miles per hour; and during one night the mean
of four observations was 128 miles. The most remarkable fact in relation
to the wind is the great velocity on the summit when there is a calm at
the base. One observation shows that there was a wind of 96 miles per
hour on the summit, when, at the depot of the Mt. Washington Railway,
2,677 fe£t below, there was not wind enough to move the anemometer.
The observations were taken, under the direction of the War depart-
ment, during the month of May, 1872, at 7 A. M., 9 A. M., 12 M., 4 p. M., and
9 P. M.

In general, winds of very great velocity are usually limited to winter,
and to the time when there are clouds on the mountain. The prevailing
winds for the entire year are west and north-west. It is a noticeable fact
that, while the northerly and westerly winds have a much greater velocity
on the summit than below, the southerly winds have frequently a greater
velocity five hundred or a thousand feet below than on the summit. In
Fig. 17, the curve represents the velocity of the wind. Fig. 18 shows

CLIMATOLOGY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE.

135

the rise and fall of the barometer. The correspondence between the two
is very striking, especially during periods of great disturbance.

-^. oj to M o vo oo-^a o\

AQUEOUS PRECIPITATION.

The observations for one year give the amount of aqueous precipitation
as 5 5 inches, and it is confined mainly to summer and autumn, — the entire
precipitation for winter and spring being given as only about eight inches,
leaving 47 inches for summer and autumn. There is no means of deter-
mining the actual amount of frost-work and snow, but we know that the

136 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

snow-fall is very slight during autumn and winter, the snow-cloud being
below the summit ; but in spring, when showers become frequent in the
valleys, there are invariably heavy falls of snow on the mountain. During
a thunder-storm in April, when the thunder could be heard and the light-
ning seen, we were having one of the thickest snow-storms of the season.
Nearly all the optical phenomena seen elsewhere on mountain summits
have been observed on Mt. Washington. Rainbows, with three supernu-
merary bows, have been seen for hours on the clouds ; coronas, of large
and small dimensions ; anthelia or glories of light, the prismatic circles
surrounding the shadow cast far out on the clouds ; halos, and parhelia.
The spectre of the Brocken, though rare, was seen by Mr. S. A. Nelson.

DIAGRAMS.

Diagram I shows the fluctuations in the annual rain-fall in the Atlantic
states, — Maine to Maryland, — from 1805 to 1867. From the fluctuations
as shown in this diagram, there are groups of years of unusual amount
of rain, followed by groups of years of drouth ; and, on the whole, it indi-
cates an increase of rain. The figures on the left are the per-centage
of the mean amount.

Diagram II shows the fluctuations in the annual rain-fall in the upper
Connecticut valley, from observations taken at Lunenburg, Vt. This
shows similar groups of years. An unusual amount of rain-fall does not
necessarily imply that it was distributed throughout the year, so that
there was no drouth in summer; for, while the amount of rain in 1871
was above the average, yet the summer of that year was regarded as very
dry.

Diagram III shows the fluctuations in the annual snow-fall at the same
locality, and by the same observer, as in Diagram II. The fluctuation,
however, is greater than in the rain-fall; for the greatest amount, 167.5
inches, is more than twice as much as the mean, 83.1 inches, and the
least amount, 41 inches, is less than half the mean; yet there are similar
groups of years, though at no time does it show more than three consec-
utive years, when the amount was greater than the mean.

Diagram IV shows the annual fluctuations in rain-fall at Lake Village
from 1857 to 1873. The observations were taken under direction of the
Lake Company.

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T/ucluntion.s in Jlnnual J^«.in.f'a.ll nrithe
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VOL. I. 1 8

138 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Diagram Fis a comparison of the extreme maximum and minimum
temperatures of the 7 A. M., 2 p. M., and 9 P. M. observations at Claremont
and Stratford for 1 867 and 1 868. These places were selected for compari-
son, since Claremont is the most southern point in the Connecticut valley
where observations have been taken, and Stratford the most northern.
It is noticeable that, while the minimum of Stratford is less than at Clare-
mont, the maximum is greater at Stratford than at Claremont. This is
the general rule, though there are exceptions to both.

Diagram VI is a comparison of the monthly mean temperatures of
Exeter, Claremont, and Stratford for 1864. It will be observed that, in
the extreme maximum and minimum, the difference is greatest in winter
and least in summer; but in the monthly mean, that the difference
between Claremont and Stratford is greatest in summer and least in
winter.

Diagram VII is a comparison of the monthly mean temperatures of
Mt. Washington and Lunenburg, Vt.

Diagram VIII is a comparison of the maximum and minimum tem-
peratures at Exeter, Manchester, Claremont, North Bridgeton, Me., and
St. Johnsbury, Vt., during the cold period of January, 1861.

Diagram IX is a comparison of maximum and minimum mean temper-
atures for the cold period of January, 1871, of Mt. Washington, Tamworth,
Contoocookville, Stratford, and Whitefield.

Diagram X shows graphically the difference in the velocity of the wind
at the station on the summit of Mt. Washington, and a station at the
depot of the Mt. Washington Railway, 2,677 ^eet below the summit. The
figures on the left and right are miles per hour.

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VOL. I. 19

142

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

TABLES OF MONTHLY SNOW AND RAIN FALL, MONTHLY MEAN, MAXIMUM, AND MINIMUM TEMPERATURES,

Compiled from the Smithsonian and other Observations, by J. H. HUNTINGTON.

| 1869.

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LSQOOM -'A 'OHnaN3N.m

CLIMATOLOGY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE.

143

TABLES OF MONTHLY SNOW AND RAIN FALL, MONTHLY MEAN, MAXIMUM, AND

MINIMUM TEMPERATURES.

Compiled from the Smithsonian and other Observations, by J. H. HUNTINGTON.

187O.

t

1

a

•3

A
E

T.

•

1

1

J

•I

t-J

g

9

a
a

to

rt

&

•

8

1—,

"3
I— >

C/J

O

o

5

Snow, — inches, .

22.50

28.25

17.6!

14.85

11.40

d

Rain, or melted snow, .

2.25

5-i5

4.41

1.86

1.74

4.56

2.47

3.63

•44

2.69

4-85

1.14

H

Date,

i?

18

31

28

29

24

24

IQ

2

16

2

i

E ,

Thermometer, maximum,

52

46

55

78

92

92

89

82

7I*5

58.5

45

?

Date .... . .

14, 16

4

12

i

21

i

27

12

27

22

3°

£

Thermometer, minimum,

12

12

— 17-5

20

31

51.2

5°

37-5

36.75

16

12.5

-18.7

P

22.5O

16.35

24.18

43.65

53.23

68.28

69.98

64.35

56.75

45.73

33*38

22.20

Snow, — inches, . . . .

35.30

42.50

II.

2.5

"•5

p

Rain, or melted snow,

4-15

5-19

3-54

2.22

2.48

1.63

2.47

3.86

1-45

4-47

4-33

1.70

c

Date,

17

18

31

27

30
86

24

24

7

2

86

2, 16

2

cp

2

b'

Date

42

44

54

72

92

98

89

7°

5°

44

H

Thermometer, minimum,

12

4

12

— 18

25

33

48

52

40

35

20

12

12

21.30

15.43

23.60

42.83

52.14

68.25

70.05

63.88

56 08

44.80

32.l8

20.83

j

Snow, — inches, . . . .

25.39

36.50

24.50

3-50

jv*y

4-

2.

26.75

^

Rain, or melted snow,

6. 20

5-12

2.60

3-2?

1.81

5-35

1.82

1.03

4-93

3.80

1.87

2.51

u

Date,

23

12, 18

3°

28

16

25

24

9

I, 2

16

9

23

c _

Thermometer, maximum,

52

45

57

78

83.5

90

85

70

61

51.5

Date,

14

5

4

I

6

23

2

27

27

16

21

c

Thermometer, minimum,

—5

—14

—8

18

29-5

49

43

/

34

3-.-S

mi

IS

27

o

*f>

23.60

16.07

23.66

42.O4

54.0^

68.04

70. 10

65.61

C7 OT

AC 7T

34 • T.7

16.40

'Snow, — inches, .

23.05

40.

17.25

TO' / •

•50

9-

8.

^

Rain, or melted snow, .

4-55

4.10

4-52

2.5O

4.00

3-5

6.42

3-

3-95

5-25

1.30

^

Date,

17

18

31

27

29

9

4

12

Q

2

£ ,

Thermometer, maximum,

42

44

52

68

82

94

80

79

56

40

2

Date,

14

2

12

4

7

22

26

12

27

22

25

!-

2

Thermometer, minimum,

12

— J3

—15

25

35

50

48

38

17

18

— 18

g

Mean,

21.88

16.23

23. 73

42.70

68.68

67 2S

46.20

•3-3 CC

21 -55

Snow, — inches

27-97

40.70

24.40

2.IO

*r/'ma

4.81

JO'JD

6.41

13-50

g

Rain, or melted snow,

8.58

7.50

2.48

5-99

1.03

2.63

1.62

2.45

1.15

5.58

4.05

i*95

P4

Date,

23

15

3°

28

3°

25

24

9

i

16, 25

5

i

o .

Thermometer, maximum,

So

52

50

79

83

95

97

96

85

?i

56

49

H

Date,
Thermometer, minimum,

14

—9

5

4
—4

i
25

7
37

29
53

i
93

27
48

27, 29

34

27

10

17
15

20, 24
— «3

Mean,

23 08

18.05

26.80

TQ

ETC Co

60 oo

71 32

68.2O

•r-

It? .-».»

_ £^

j-y^

'

j j- jw

uy .-jy

L .$£,

57*99

40.77

35.27

144

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

TEMPERATURE

PREPARED FOR THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF

Name
of Station.

_M 3
K &

February.

"o

b

a

0

Q,

1

o
c

3

"3

1

September.

October.

0)

o

December.

bi

'C

ft,

CO

; ° Summer.

Autumn.

Winter.

Charlestown, . .

O

o

O
41-97

O

o

69.96

o
68.11

o

o
45-67

o

o
26.51

0

o

°

Claremont, . . .

575 18.35

22.47

30-79

43-51

54-96

65.27

69.21

66.56

58.48

46.53

37-n

23.68

43-09

67.01

47-37

21.50

Concord, . . .

Contoocookville, .
Dover,
Dublin, . . . .
Dunbarton, .
Epping, . . . .
Exeter, ....
Farmington,
Farmouth, b . .
Ft. Constitution, .

292

38i
150
1869
750

20.84

22.73

3J-49

43-21

56.17

65.86

69.91

66.80

59- 1 5

48.82

37-96
•ra 83

24-87
28 88

43.62

67.52

48.64

22.81

24.
18.52
27.74

23.60
21.58
24.78

31.80
27.70
30.08

42.70

36.99
42.60

53-70
49.14
54-54

63.90
63.18

66.44

70.40
67.15
72.84

64.70
64.18
70.25

58.80
57-37
61.20

46.40
45-44
48.89

35-50
33-67
36.65

25.20
21.14
26.38

42.73
37-94
42.41

66.33
64.84
69.84

46.90

45-49
48.91

24.27
20.41
26.30

58 19-89
300 22.20
490 23.98
40 24.89

21.20

3i.4i

40.85

54-47

63.81

69.89

67.82

59-

49-22

38.06

25-33

42.34

67.17

48.76

22.14

22.15
26.26

26.41
34-37

43-!9
43-26

55-50
53-50

69.09
62.34

71.32
67.06

68.20
65.06

57-99
59. ss

45.38
49.64

33.13
38.89

24.

28.74

41.70
43-71

69-54
64.82

45-50
49.19

23-38
26.63

Francestown, . .

18.58

24.29

30.08

42.

53-50

64.09

69.32

8.15

59-45

47.09

38.19

29.46

41.89

67.19

48.24

24.11

Great Falls, c . .

250 21.32

20.25

31.96

41-73

56.83

64.78

75.50

68.90

60.98

51.01

38.16

22.13

43-15

69-73

50.05

21.23

Hanover (D.C.), .

604 16.24

15-47

26.15

37-66

52.53

61.69

65.68

63-34

55-55

44-30

32-31

17.08

38.78

63-57

44-05

16.26

Hanover, d .
Keene, ....
Littleton, e . . .
Londonderry, . .
Loudon Ridge,
Manchester, . .

604

17.62

18.89

.79.10

4O.IO

53-40

62.70

67.15

65.60

56.33

44.18
44.80

33-76

20.99

40.87

65-15

44.76

19.17

300
475
300

17-57
22.64
23.70
23.84

24]38

30.77
26.38

24-44
31.89
38.45

34.06

38.62

49.18
45-oi

52.84
56.21
52.23
64-34

58.91
66.36
67.20
67-54

66.60
71.69
74.08
72.94

65.81
68.41
72.85
69.67

55.58
61.09
70.25
62.11

46.60
50.61

51-09

33-9°
38.87
42.28
40.22

15-09
26.91
33-03
27.48

43.86
46.65
47.80

63-77
68.82
71.38
70.02

45-36
50-19

17.02

24-37
29.17

25.90

Mason, ....

29.10

3L70

30.15

43.60

66.10

68.80

67.90

26.20

67.60

29.

Mt. Washington, .
N. Barnstead, g .

6293

6.4
21.65

6.9
24-74

9-7
31-03

22.6
43-27

33-3
54-49

44-5
64.04

47-9
69.

50.7
68.12

39-3
60.86

29.8
48.29

16.5
38.77

5-4
25.44

21.8

42-93

47-7
67.05

28.5
49-31

6.2

23-94

Portsmouth, . .

12

25-45

27-75

30-85

47-15

57-10

65.80

69.65

68.15

60.35

48.80

34.80

26.20

45-03

67.87

47.98

26.47

Portsmouth, . .
Salisbury, . . .
Shelburne, . . .

12

'728

21.62
18.83
16.32

27.48
20.32
19.26

36.
31-42
27-44

43-07
42.15
39.80

53-
52-07

63-96
62.91

69-37

67.64
64.'i8

59-64
6i.55
55-46

47-63
47-43
43-78

36.36
36.27
33-35

26.35
27.30

20. 21

44-02

39-77

66.99
65.'48

47.84
48.42

44.20

25-15
22.15
18.60

Stratford, . . .

IOOC

13.27

17.17

24.92

37-37

50.84

61.36

65.21

62.27

54.46

42.21

31-37

16.07

37-71

62.95

42.68

16.07

Wakefield, . . .
West Enfield, . .
Whiteneld, . . .

£i

28.

20. 10
22.50

28.80
20. ii
16.35

39-25
27.25
24.18

49.80
39-07
43-65

61.20
5i-77
53-23

73-40
63.86
64.48

79.40
68.73
67.61

77.20
65.48
62.42

67.60
58.26
57-68

52.80
45-58
43-43

44.20
31.86
31.36

31.80
19-53

21-73

50.08
39-36
40.35

76.67
66.02
64.84

54-86
45-23
44.16

29-53
19.92
20.19

CLIMATOLOGY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE.

145

TABLES,

NEW HAMPSHIRE BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.

a
i

Series.

Extent.

Observing
hours.

Observer.

References.

Begins.

Ends.

Yr. Mo.

o

1843

1844

5

Manuscript.

44-74

±UTJ

Sept., '57

Nov., '68

9 7

7m, 23, ga, bis

/ F. A. Freeman, A. Chase, S. O.
1 Mead.

P. O. , S.I. , Vol. I, S.O.

( J. Farmer, Dr. Prescott, H. E.

fP.O.,S. I.jVol. I, S.O. Am.

45.66

Jan., '28

May, '70

22 2

7m, 2a, ga

J. Sawyer, J. T. Wheeler, J. C.

t Aim., '37 and foil. ,S. Coll.

( Knox.

1870

1870

2

7m, 2a, ga, bis

E. D. Couch.

S.O.

45.08

Jan., '33

J«iy, '43

10 7

Qr, la, loa

A. A. Tufts.

Am. Aim., 1836, 1837, and foil-

42.17

Jan., 49

Aug., '53

4 8

Qr, gm, 33, ga

Leonard.

S. Coll.

46.87

Mar., '68

Dec., '70

2 IO

7m, 2a, ga, bis

A. Colby.

S.O.

i83->

1834

Plummer.

Am Aim

44.76
45.10

Au Jo

1849

May, '63

6 ii

7m, 2a, ga, bis

Rev. L. W. Leonard, E. Nason.

S.O.,8. Coll.

1861

1861

L. Bell.

S O

45-03

Feb., '67

Dec., '70

i 4

•jm, 2a, ga, bis

A. Brewster.

S.O.

46.09

Jan., '22

Sept./53

25 2

7m, 23., ga

Ass't Surgeon.

A. M. R., 1855.

45.36

Mar., '53

May, '58

2 3

7m, 2a, ga

/A. H. Bixby, Dr. M. N. Root,
1 Sawyer.

P. O. , S.I. , Vol.1, S. Coll.

46.13

1853

Jan., '57

I 2

ym, 2a, ga

G. B. & H. E. Sawyer, Titcomb.

P. O. , S.I. , Vol.1, S. Coll.

40.67

Nov. ,'34

Dec., '54

4

Or,iK*,9^a

Prof. I. Young, A. A. Young.

fP.O.,S. I, Vol. I, Am. Aim.,
"1 1837 and foil.

42.49

1835

1854

20

Or, i^a.g^a

Young.

Manuscript.

1843

1843

7

Qr, gm, sa.ga

Whalock.

Manuscript.

41.20

Mar., '63

July, '64

i 5

7m, 2a, ga, bis

R. C. Whiting, R. Smith.

S.O.

46.88

Mar., '49

Feb. ,'57

5 10

7m, 2a, ga

R. C. Mack,

P. O., S. I., Vol. I, manuscript.

Jan., '62

Feb., '63

i

7m, 2a, ga, vis

Dr. I. S. French.

S.O.

48.72

Jan., '45

Mar., '60

14 i

Qr, 2a, Qs

S. N. Bell.

P. O., S.I. , Vol.1, S. Coll., S.O.

Jan., '06

June, '07

IO

f

f Med. & Aqr. Reg., Boston,
t Vol. I, 1806, 1807.

2.8

1853

i8sg

3

7m, 2a,ga

J. S. Hall, Noyes.

P. O.,S. I., Vol. I, printed reg.

45.8i

Feb., '60

Dec. ,'68

7m, 2a ga, bis

C. H. Pitman.

S.O.

46.84

Feb., '06

Sept., '07

i 5

f

C. Pierce.

/Med. & Aqr. Reg., Boston,
1 Vol. I, 1806, 1807.

45.42

Jan., '39

Nov.,'6i

July, '68
Oct., '70

.9 "

Qr, gm, 3a,pa
7m, 2a. oa.bis

J. Hatch, Surg. Delaney, Chase.
E. D. Couch.

MS. inS. Coll.,S. O.,S. Coll.
S.O.

42.01

Dec., '56

May, '6g

6 9

h

F. Odell.

P.O.,S.I.,Vol. I, S.O.

Aug., '55

Dec. ,'70

J3 4

7m, 2a, ga, bis

f W. B G , B. G. & B. Brown, A

P. O., S.I. , Vol. I, S.O.

1 Wiggin.

52.78

1846

1850

5

N

Dow.

Manuscript.

42.38

Sept. ,'56

Dec. ,'58

2 3

•jm, 23., ga

N. Purmort.

P. O., S.I. , Vol. I.

42.39

June, '6g

Dec. ,'70

1 7

7m, 2a, ga, bis

L. D. Kidder.

S.O.

146 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

NOTES AND ABBREVIATIONS USED IN TABLES.

b. Also called Tamworth.

c. This series is composed of observations at Great Falls, by H. E. Sawyer, and at
Salmon Falls, about two miles south-east of Great Falls, by G. B. Sawyer.

d. Observations from January, 1835, to December, 1837, probably included in pre-
ceding series.

e. This series is composed of observations at Littleton, by R. C. Whiting, and at
North Littleton, about one mile north of Littleton, by R. Smith.

f. The observing hours were Or., 2a. The observations were corrected for daily
variation by means of the general table.

g. Also called Barnstead.

h. Observations corrected for daily variation by means of the general table.

9 bis. indicates that the 9 o'clock observation is used twice.

The abbreviations, used in the last column headed "References," are principally
the following :

Am. Aim. denotes the American Almanac, Boston.

P. O., S. I., Vol. I denotes the results of the meteorological observations made
under the direction of the Patent Office and the Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
1861.

S. O. denotes the manuscripts by the observers of the Smithsonian Institution.

S. Coll. denotes manuscripts collected at different times by the Institution.

Fig. 19. — MX. MORIAH IN GORHAM.

CHAPTER VI,

THE USE OF THE MAGNETIC NEEDLE IN SURVEYING.

BY E. T. QUIMBY, A.M.,

PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS AND CIVIL ENGINEERING. DARTMOUTH COLLEGE.

[HE object of this paper is to explain the facts of terrestrial mag-
netism, so far as they relate to the use of the magnetic needle by
the surveyor, with particular reference to the state of New Hampshire.
It will not therefore be necessary to describe the construction and use of
the instruments by means of which these facts have been observed, nor
to discuss the formulae for the reduction of the observations. Those
who wish to make a thorough examination of this subject are referred to
the works of Airy, Walker, and others, and to the reports of the United
States Coast Survey, under whose auspices extensive magnetic observa-
tions have been and are still being made in various parts of our country.
It may seem of little importance to reproduce what has been so long
known, when nothing specially new can be added ; but an examination of
the records of surveys made within the last fifty years will show that
there is need either of more general knowledge on this subject, or of a
better use of what is known. It is quite unusual to find in any of these
records the slightest reference to magnetic declination ; and there is
reason to believe that surveyors sometimes rely too implicitly upon the
needle in retracing old lines by their former magnetic bearings. It will
appear by the behavior of the needle that, while it is a valuable aid, it can

148 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

never be depended on for such purposes, and should, in all cases, be used
with caution, and only when extreme accuracy is not required.

It is well known that a bar (not magnetic) suspended from its centre of
gravity will remain in any position in which it may be placed, unless dis-
turbed by some extraneous force ; but if the bar be made of steel, and
magnetized, it will assume a definite direction, and, when disturbed, will
invariably return to the same direction when the disturbing force ceases.
This directive property of the magnet was known to the Chinese, and
probably in Europe, as early as the twelfth century; and the magnetic
needle has from that time been used to guide ships upon the seas, and
for exploring and other purposes upon the land. This needle consists of
a slender magnetized steel bar, balanced upon a pivot at a point consider-
ably above its centre of gravity, that it may retain its horizontal position ;
and, when left free to turn upon its pivot, it comes to rest, by the action
of the earth's magnetism, approximately in the plane of a meridian : hence
one end is called the north pole, and the other the south pole of the
magnet, and a vertical plane through the needle is termed the magnetic
meridian. It is not certain at what time the deviation of the magnetic
from the true meridian (called the declination of the needle) first became
known, but it is evident that it could not have been long after the
directive property itself was discovered. There is, however, no reliable
record of any experiments to determine the amount of this declination
prior to the discovery of America, although it is probable such experiments
were made. It seems likely, also, that this declination was previously
supposed to be constant, or nearly so, for all times and places, — as Colum-
bus and his sailors were not a little surprised, and some of them alarmed,
on the 1 3th of September, 1492, to find that the needle, which at the
commencement of their voyage pointed east of north, had changed to
west of north. Since that time the interest in terrestrial magnetism,
among scientific men, has been increasing ; and observations, at first with
instruments rudely constructed, but more recently with those of extreme
delicacy, have revealed facts, a knowledge of which is important to every
one using the magnetic needle.

To make the statement of these facts plain, let us recur to our magnet-
ized bar which we supposed to be suspended from its centre of gravity.
This magnet, if left free to turn about the point of suspension in all

THE USE OF THE MAGNETIC NEEDLE IN SURVEYING. 149

directions, will take a position in the magnetic meridian which (if the
observation be taken at Hanover) will deviate from the true meridian
about 11°, the north end of the magnet turning to the west of north.
Moreover, also, it will incline to the horizon, the north pole dipping down-
ward at an angle of about 75° 30'. This is called the inclination or dip
of the needle. It becomes necessary, therefore, in studying the phenom-
ena of terrestrial magnetism, to make use of two instruments, — one for
observations upon the declination, and the other upon the dip of the
needle. In the former, the needle hangs horizontally in a stirrup sus-
pended by a fibre of untwisted silk, which leaves it free to turn in a
horizontal plane with the least possible resistance ; while the latter, called
the dipping needle, is balanced upon a horizontal axis, and is free to turn
only in a vertical plane, and when in use must have its axis perpendicular
to the plane of the magnetic meridian. Besides the declination and dip,
we may also consider the intensity of terrestrial magnetism, by which is
meant the amount of that force which restores the needle, when dis-
turbed, to its normal direction. This element is of so little practical
importance in the ordinary use of the needle, that it may be passed
briefly.

Intensity of Terrestrial Magnetism. If a magnetic needle, — suspended,
as mentioned above, by a fibre of silk, — be drawn out of the magnetic
meridian by bringing near it another magnet, and then allowed to return
by removing the second magnet to a distance, it will oscillate for a time
before the resistance of the air and of the suspending fibre will bring it
to rest. If the weight and dimensions of the needle are accurately known,
and the number of oscillations it makes in a given time be observed, it is
easy to compute the intensity of the force "which actuates it, the more
rapid oscillation indicating the greater force. This, however, will not
represent the total force of the earth's magnetism, but only that part of it
which tends to bring the needle into the plane of the magnetic meridian,
and which is called the horizontal intensity, or the horizontal component
of the magnetic force. The vertical component tends to draw the north
end of the needle downward (in the Northern hemisphere), causing the dip.
The actual direction of the force of terrestrial magnetism at any place is
the same as that of a magnetic needle suspended from its centre of
gravity, and free to move in all directions, or of the dipping-needle when
VOL. i. 20

THE USE OF THE MAGNETIC NEEDLE IN SURVEYING. !$!

placed in the plane of the magnetic meridian. As we go towards the
south, the vertical component of this force diminishes, and the horizontal
component increases, as will be seen by the United States Coast Survey
chart (p. 6) showing lines of equal horizontal intensity, and, also, of
equal dip. Neither does the magnetic intensity remain the same for the
same place. Observations made at Washington, D. C., by the United
States Coast Survey, show that the total force at that place has heretofore
been slightly increasing, while at the present time it is nearly stationary,
or, perhaps, beginning to decrease. Like the other magnetic elements,
the intensity has its secular period of change, but the data are not at
present sufficient to determine that period ; and even if it were known, it
would be of no practical importance to the surveyor.

Magnetic Dip. When the dipping-needle is placed in the plane of the
magnetic meridian, — that is, with its axis at right angles to this plane, —
the north end is drawn downwards, making, at Hanover, an angle with
the horizon of about 75° 30'. If, now, we carry this needle to the south,
we find the dip diminishing, until, near the equator, we reach a place where
it is zero. We may then trace a line, approximately east and west, upon
which there is no dip. North of this line the north end of the needle
will dip, and south of it, the south end. On each side of the line of no
dip, we may trace lines of equal dip called isoclinic lines. These lines
are shown, so far as they have been determined for the United States,
on the chart previously referred to (p. 6). Going northward, the dip
increases, till, at a magnetic pole, the needle takes a vertical position.

The magnetic dip, like the intensity, is slowly changing, as continued
observations upon the dipping-needle show. Previous to 1854, it was
increasing in the United States, and since that date it has diminished
about 30'.

The use of the magnetic needle in surveying does not require special
attention to the dip. It is only necessary to place upon one end of the
needle a suitable counterpoise to keep it in a horizontal position, since,
when balanced before being magnetized, it will always require such a
counterpoise after it is magnetized, unless used upon the line of no dip ;
and, when balanced for one latitude, it will need readjusting if taken to a
different latitude. When the needle is once properly balanced for any
place, the surveyor need give no further attention to the dip.

152

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

THE USE OF THE MAGNETIC NEEDLE IN SURVEYING. 153

Magnetic Declination. As an instrument for the determination of the
true bearings of lines, it is evident that the magnetic needle can be of
little value except as we are able to determine accurately its declination,
or the angle it makes with the true meridian. It is true that, when only
a comparison of directions is required, as in the survey of a field to deter-
mine its figure and area, it is of no consequence what the declination is,
provided it remains the same during the progress of the survey and for
all points where the needle is used ; but even then, to make the survey
useful in retracing the same lines at a future time, the declination should
be known and recorded.

By observations upon the needle of a well constructed magnetometer,
the following facts relating to the declination will appear, some of which
will be indicated even by the ordinary compass needle.

1. The declination is not the same in all places.

2. For a given place it is subject to a secular change of unknown
period, but requiring at least several hundred years for its completion.

3. It has a diurnal change, with a maximum and minimum for each
day.

4. It has also an annual maximum and minimum, changing with the
seasons of the year.

5. It is subject to irregular disturbances, being more or less affected by
every meteorological change.

Discussing these in their order, we consider,

i. The declination in different places. This is well shown by the chart
of the world (p. 8) upon which lines of equal declination, called isogonic
lines, are drawn. By reference to this chart it will be seen that, on this
continent, a line of no declination passes in a north-westerly and south-
easterly direction near Cleveland, O., and Raleigh, N. C. At all places
east of this line, the declination is westerly, — that is, the north end of the
needle points to the west of north ; and west of the line the declination
is easterly. The map of New Hampshire and Vermont, herewith given,
shows the isogonic lines for these states, as delineated by the United
States Coast Survey. By observing the situation of a place with
reference to these lines, the declination for that place may be approxi-
mately determined ; but while they may be considered mainly correct for
this date (January, 1874), no surveyor should rely upon them for the
VOL. i. 21

154 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

declination of a place, when it is possible to determine that declination
by a direct observation upon the true meridian.

By the general direction of these lines in New England, it appears
that, by moving north-westerly or south-easterly, but little change will
be noted in the declination; but in going north or north-east it will
increase, and diminish in going south or south-west. The following
declinations were observed by Dr. T. C. Hilgard, for the United States
Coast Survey, in 1 873 :

Station. Date. Declination.

Gorham, Sept. 8-u, 12° 42'

Littleton, Sept. 22-25, 13° 47r

Hanover, Oct. 2-6, 10° 47'*

Hanover, Oct. 8-u, 10° 50'*

Burlington, Vt., Oct. 12-15, u°22/

Rutland, Vt., Oct. 17,18, 10° 40'

By observations made by Rev. C. A. Downs, of Lebanon, the decima-
tion at that place is 1 1 ° 30'.

The following declinations are copied from previous observations by
the United States Coast Survey:

Station. Date. Declination.

Burlington, Vt., 1855 — Aug. 28, 9° 57'. r

Mt. Agamenticus, Me., 1847 — Sept. 23~Oct. 2, 10° 09'. 8

Mt. Patuccawa, 1849 — Aug. 15-19, 10° 42'. 8

Mt. Uncanoonuc, 1848 — Oct. 6-8, 9°o4'.i

Isle of Shoals, 1847 — Aug. 12-19, Io° °3'-5

Plum Island, Mass., 1850 — Sept. 18-20, 10° 05'. 6

2. Secular Variation of the Declination. The line of no declination
and the other isogonic lines are not fixed in position, but are slowly mov-
ing. This motion, in the United States, is at the present time for the
most part toward the south-west. In 1801 the line of no declination
passed nearly through Annapolis, Md., crossing Lake Erie about forty
miles from Buffalo. In 1850 it had gone to the west upon our coast as far
as Beaufort, N. C., and, passing west of Pittsburgh, Penn., crossed Lake
Erie near its centre. In 1870 it passed very nearly through the cities of
Raleigh, N. C., and Cleveland, O. At the present time, the declination is
more than 3° upon the line where, in 1801, it was o°. The influence
which causes this change in declination is passing over this continent
from north-east to south-west, as will be seen by the following extract
from a report on secular changes in declination, &c., by C. A. Schott,

* Probably too small on account of local attraction.

" VI* i, •e-JTT' o ' J 1\ I 1 fc V\ /Coi.w»i

'(r/Jrx'N K LIN i " VCTA. ^1_ vJi ""^"X
o) \ /OWM™ >^u< TV"^\;/XX-, ^^V"

:fej^t^rJSs^?t^

I
I

*!.!« I

I

"\ w 1 1

^^iwrfieJl

r^Tv .^-W^3j

e \ I _ V ...
JUfkm

-SKor.riaj

\V°"^

0Bt«AT..1i
r\ A

MwOU /» " o - ^Um^T

\X • lUndolfK
B.,««^ «.»..y^ x • , «ttS^

- r'^r ^^^v---/-1 •
ri ^afj^r' ^7X Cj

WT^4 '; - • /""o^'^l J^-H " !

. " tt oB«nt«,"-- y — 'J.-'V- . ^^^YLS^. J.

Crof,

,

Suaff8"

-.--n. . « I.L

11^

>W>tCf«fll< > /Conxoy •

.i — « - •

Tar

^>

w... Tfe

VwoJren lp— 1 \

sJL^, t^x^^ikp7iMni

'NfcjKljipc:v^rM

Moakw.i1
|
S'

?**2?(PK

* v \ y v S (\N«i?.s'llt<"> ^

^ Ay^»..d^j.i»

I Canurbu* N

\ o r

.!^

si '

f\ y^^/K*'''-

DLkMiM\ °Y' ^"'°Jk

THE USE OF THE MAGNETIC NEEDLE IN SURVEYING. 155

assistant in charge of the computing division, United States Coast Survey
office, Washington, D. C.:

The influence which produced the increase of magnetic west declination on our
Atlantic coast was first recognized in the north-east, extending itself in time toward
the south-west. The minimum west declination occurred at Portland, Me., about 1765 ;
at Cambridge, Mass., about 1783 ; at New York, about 1795 ; at Savannah, Ga., about
1817 ; at New Orleans, La., about 1831 ; and at the city of Mexico about 1838, appear-
ing at the last three places as a maximum east declination. The same influence will
possibly soon reach our Pacific coast, where at present the east declination is still
slowly on the increase. Sub-periods or subordinate waves in the secular change have
been recognized in the observed declinations at Cambridge, Mass., at Hatboro', Penn.
(near Philadelphia) , and at other places ; and they are also noted in the observed dips
at Washington, and Toronto, Canada.

Taking this view of the subject, the phenomenon of the secular change is a complex
one ; and the numerical formulae designed for expressing it must, for the present,
retain their tentative and hence provisional character ; and they should not be used
(either way) much beyond the time for which they are supported by observations.

The declination at Hanover in 1840 was 9° 20' west, and the annual
increase at that time 5 ' .2. But the whole change since then is only 2°,
being an average of 3 '.5 per annum ; and recent observations show that
the annual increase during the last decade has been less than 3'. The
present rate of change will not be accurately known until the observa-
tions made in September, 1873, shall be repeated. It is probably not
more than 2' or 2'. 5 per annum, which indicates a probability that the
westerly declination will reach a maximum here about the close of the
present century. If this estimate should prove correct, and the period
of decrease should be as long as that of increase, the time required for
the declination to pass from a minimum to a maximum and to return to
the minimum, will be about two hundred and forty or two hundred and
fifty years. We have not, however, at present, sufficient data to deter-
mine this period with accuracy, nor are the causes which produce the
change well known.

The amount of the secular variation is very different in different parts
of the earth. At the Cape of Good Hope, in two hundred and forty-six
years, ending 1850, the declination had changed from 30' east to 29° i8'.8
west, and was at that date slightly increasing. This shows a longer
period and much greater change than in the United States. In New

156 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

England the whole change is probably between 6° and 8°. The following
declinations, copied from the United States Coast Survey Report for
1855, were observed at Cambridge, Mass., and show the change at that
place since 1708:

1708 — 9° oo' west. 1782 — 6° 45' west. 1840 — 9° 18' west.

1742 — 8° oo' west. 1783 — 6° 52' west. 1842 — 9° 34'. 9 west.

1757 — 7° 20' west. 1788 — 6° 38' west. 1844 — 9° 39' west.

1761 — 7° 14' west. 1810 — 7° 30' west. 1852 — 10° 08' west.

1763 — 7° oo' west. 1835 — 8° 51' west. 1854 — 10° 39' west.

1780 — 7° 02' west. • 1837 — 9° 09' west. 1855 — 10° 54' west.

From these facts will appear the importance of recording, with the
minutes of every survey, the declination of the needle at the time and
place. To do this the surveyor must know the declination, which he
cannot do without some trouble and labor. He must frequently try his
compass by some well established meridian, which, if he cannot find
already determined, he must locate for himself. Neither should he lose
any opportunity to take the bearing of any old line whose former bearing
he may find in the record of some previous, perhaps the original, survey.
By continuing such observations, he will learn not only the amount of
the declination at the time of the former survey, but, also, its rate of
change, and the whole change that has occurred since the running of the
old lines with which he has compared his needle ; and he will thus gain
information which will render his services invaluable in disputes relating
to division lines.

3. Diurnal change in the Declination. If hourly observations be made
upon the delicately suspended needle of a magnetometer, or, still better,
if we use a self-registering instrument by which a continuous record is
made of the changes in the direction of the needle, we shall notice a
diurnal variation of the declination, in northern latitudes, substantially
as follows : During the night the needle will be comparatively quiet ; but
at dawn of day the north end will move toward the east, and will
continue this decrease of declination till about 8 o'clock A. M., when it
will commence a westerly motion, and will come to its maximum west
declination at about 2 o'clock p. M. It will then return toward the east
until some hours after sunset, when it will again remain quiet till the next
dawn. But while this is in general true, it must be taken with much
allowance. In the first place, it must not be understood that the needle
is stationary even at night, for it seldom, if ever, fails to show more or

THE USE OF THE MAGNETIC NEEDLE IN SURVEYING.

less change every hour of the twenty-four ; but, ordinarily, the change is
much less during the night than in the day-time. The extent of this
variation is not the same in all places, nor on different days in the same
place. It is greater in summer than in winter, and on clear days than in
cloudy weather. At Hanover it is about 15' in winter, and perhaps 20'
in summer. The morning deviation eastward from the direction during
the night is usually about one third of the whole variation, or one half of
the westward deviation from the same direction at 2 o'clock p. M. We
give herewith a few curves showing the diurnal variation at Hanover, in
January, 1872, from which a better idea can be obtained than from any
verbal explanation. Of these curves we shall see that no two are pre-
cisely alike; and, if we should examine the curves for each day of the
year, we should find the same variety that is observed in the weather of
different days. In these diagrams, each curve has upon it the date at
which it was observed. The vertical divisions indicate minutes of arc,
and are numbered for Jan. i on the left hand, for Jan. 2 on the right, and
so on, alternating for each day. Thus, while the zero line of each curve
represents the same direction of the needle, a different line in- each case
is used for zero, to prevent confusion by the curves intersecting and
blending together. A tendency of the curve upward indicates motion of
the north end of the needle eastward, or decrease of declination, and
downward indicates increase of declination. To determine, therefore,
the relative pointings of the needle at the same time on any two of these
days, compare each with its own zero. For example, at 2 o'clock p. M., on
Jan. i, the pointing was — 6'. 5 ; Jan. 2, it was — 6'; Jan. 3, — 2'; Jan. 5,
—2 '.4 ; Jan. 6, — 2 '.5, &c. January 9, it will be observed, was a day of con-
siderable disturbance, and, at 2 p. M., the pointing was -y-?'^, being from
10' to 14' farther east than on previous days; and the average pointing
on that day and for several succeeding days was about 10' or 12' east-
ward of the usual direction of the needle. Of this we shall say more in
speaking of magnetic storms.

4. The annual variation of the Declination. Besides the changes in
declination already mentioned, there is an annual variation produced by
the changing seasons of the year. This is perhaps so small as to be of
little practical importance in the ordinary use of the needle, but it should
not be omitted in a full discussion of the subject. Observations have

If AMOVE R, N. f6*iFANtEAKr, 18T*.

jhfean Tim* flours.

THE USE OF THE MAGNETIC NEEDLE IN SURVEYING. 159

not been sufficiently multiplied to enable us to state with certainty the
extent and manner of this variation for New England. Cassini began
daily observations in Paris, in 1783, by which, in 1786, he was able to
announce the discovery of this annual variation. By his observations it
appeared that the westerly declination increased from June 20 to March
20, and from March 20 to June 20, decreased by about one third of the
increase from June to March. Subsequent observations in other places
do not fully confirm the results obtained by Cassini. It is more probable
that there are two periods of retrogression, one between the vernal
equinox and summer solstice, and the other between the autumnal equi-
nox and winter solstice. This seems to be indicated by the observations
of Gilpin, about the beginning of the present century, in England. But
it is not necessary for our present purpose to pursue this part of the
subject further, as this variation in New England is too small to require
notice in the use of the needle, being probably less than one minute.

5. Magnetic Storms. Those irregular and occasional disturbances in
terrestrial magnetism called magnetic storms, are generally attended by
an aurora, and no doubt are one effect of the same cause which produces
the aurora. They occur by day as well as by night, and therefore are
not always accompanied by a visible aurora. Their duration and the
amount of disturbance they produce are as varied as the features of our
rain-storms. During a magnetic storm the needle is observed to be
unsteady and tremulous, changing its direction, now this way and now
that, to an extent dependent on the magnitude of the storm. Slight
disturbances of this kind, affecting the direction of the needle by a few
minutes, are not uncommon. The diurnal curve for January 9, 1872,
shows such a disturbance. This disturbance continued through the
night, beyond the limits of this diagram ; and, as before stated, for
several days after, the average pointing of the needle was some 10'
farther east than usual. There were also many other days of unusual
disturbance during this month ; and on the 4th of the following month a
most remarkable storm was observed by the writer and his assistants at
the Dartmouth College observatory. The day was cold and windy, the
weather clearing after a heavy fall of snow. In the evening appeared
that most remarkable aurora, covering the whole heavens south as well
as north, which many will remember, and which was seen in Europe as

^

< — ,

"*S

*

.

s

X

^~f

.

^

*z-f

J

\

MM

t

h

4JJj

^

THE USE OF THE MAGNETIC NEEDLE IN SURVEYING. l6l

well as on this continent. The assistant in charge of the magnetometer
noticed early in the forenoon of this day an unusual disturbance of the
needle, and was thoughtful enough to make his observations every few
minutes, and sometimes, at the height of the storm, every half minute,
instead of the usual hourly observations. The annexed diagram shows
this storm between nh 53™ A. M., and I2U 53™ p. M. The vertical lines
denote minutes of mean solar time, and the horizontal spaces are each 5'
of arc. To compare the disturbance during this hour with the usual
diurnal variation, as represented on page 14, it must be noted that if the
former were represented on the same scale as the latter, it would appear
to be nearly twenty-five times greater than here shown. The figures
at the right and left margin are reckoned from a zero below the limits of
this diagram, and which was the normal pointing when the needle was
undisturbed. It will be noticed that, at nh 53m A. M., the north end of
the needle had moved eastward of its normal position 2° 05'. This
movement commenced about 10 o'clock, and went on with some irregu-
larity up to the time when our diagram commences. From this time the
eastward movement was more rapid, particularly after 1 2 M., — from 1 2h to
1 2h oim, increasing i° 25'. At i2hO7mthe greatest eastward deviation
was reached, which was 5° 25' east of the normal pointing. After this
the westward motion was quite rapid, with considerable disturbance, how-
ever, and with two very marked and sudden fluctuations to the east, in
which it reached, within 30', its maximum deviation. The most violent
•disturbances of this storm occurred within the hour here represented.
After I2h 53m p. M., the needle became gradually more quiet, and by 3
p. M. had returned nearly or quite to its usual position. In the evening,
during the remarkable display of aurora, though somewhat disturbed,
the fluctuations were by no means so great as during the day. We can-
not, of course, positively affirm that this aurora was not present during
the day, but it seems more than probable that the needle is more affected
by the approach than by the presence of an aurora, particularly of one
like this, extending over the whole heavens. It would of course be
impossible to use the needle in surveying at such a time, as by the sudden
changes in the direction of the magnetic force it would be kept constantly
oscillating. It must not be understood that during this hour the nee-
dle moved steadily back and forth as shown in the diagram, but it was
VOL. i. 23

1 62 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

swinging sometimes 4° or 5°, and the pointings here indicated are the
means of the two extremes of oscillation.

TJic Construction and Use of the Magnetic Needle. From the foregoing
it will be easy to deduce the value of the magnetic needle in determining
directions, and the precautions necessary in the use of it. In the first
place, the greatest care must be exercised in the construction of the
needle and its accompaniments. The most important points of construc-
tion are these :

1. The magnetic axis of the needle should coincide with a line joining
its extreme points, — otherwise it will fail to indicate the true magnetic
meridian. This would be of little consequence in using a single needle,
but, in comparing the work of different needles, as must frequently be
done, it becomes important. The magnetic axis of a needle may be
determined by suspending it in a stirrup by an untwisted fibre of silk —
first one side up and then the other — and observing the pointings in each
position. This test should be applied by the maker of the needle, and
the magnetic axis be made to coincide with the axis of the needle.

2. TJie sttspension of the needle should be such as to reduce friction to a
minimum. Since that component of the magnetic force, which tends to
bring the needle to the magnetic meridian, diminishes as the sine of the
angle the needle makes with that meridian, it will require but little friction
to cause it to stop so far out of the meridian as to introduce an apprecia-
ble error into the results. The best compass needles are poised upon a
fine needle point, in an agate or other jewelled socket ; but with such a
needle no less care is requisite to keep it than to make it right. The
more delicate the point, the more liable it is to injury, and it can be kept
in proper condition only by raising the needle from it when the compass is
moved, and letting it down carefully when to be used. The arrangement
for raising the needle should be a screw and not a cam, as the latter is liable
to work loose in transportation, and allow the needle to fall upon the point.

3. The compass-box and tripod should be free from everything magnetic.
Not only should no iron be used in their construction, but the brass for
the compass-box and tripod-head should be tested to determine whether
it has any power of attracting the needle. In two instances known to
the writer, the brass of a compass-box has become so magnetic as to
destroy the value of the instrument. It is easy to determine whether such

THE USE OF THE MAGNETIC NEEDLE IN SURVEYING. 163

Is the case, by directing the sights to various objects in different direc-
tions, reversing on each, and noting whether the needle gives a different
reading by any of the reversals. If the reading is not changed by re-
versing in any of the positions, the box may be considered free from
magnetic power.

4. The pivot should be exactly in the centre of the graduated circle, that
the two ends of the needle may give the same reading. It is true this
error may be eliminated by reading both ends, and taking the mean ; but
it is better to have no error to eliminate. If, however, the two ends do
not read alike, the mean reading should be used.

5. In using the compass, proximity to all magnetic substances, both
natural and artificial, must be avoided. Masses of iron, like gas- or
water-pipes, water-conductors, and lightning-rods, are a source of disturb-
ance not easily avoided in cities ; and the water-conductors and lightning-
rods being placed vertically are more disturbing than larger masses lying
horizontally. The reason of this is that, having their longer axis more
nearly in the direction of the force of terrestrial magnetism, they become
magnetic by induction, and act not merely as so much iron, but as mag-
nets. They must therefore be given a wide berth by the surveyor with
the magnetic needle. In making observations with the magnetometer, it
is thought necessary to remove from such objects to a distance at least
equal to twice their height ; but it is probable that no perceptible influ-
ence upon an ordinary needle would be observed at half that distance.

Besides these larger masses of iron, the surveyor sometimes carries upon
his person the cause of much error. Ordinary knives, if not brought
nearer to the needle than two or three feet, will have no appreciable
effect, but magnetized knives should be kept at a greater distance; and
the chain-men should not be allowed to bring the chain within less than
twenty feet of the instrument. There is another source of disturbance,
carried by the surveyor himself, which frequently he does not suspect. It
is the common buttons, with an iron body, used upon coats. In reading
the bearing, these are likely to be brought near to the needle, and to pro-
duce considerable deviation. Such buttons ought not to be worn in
working with a compass.

Still more difficult is it to avoid local attraction by magnetic rocks,
which are more common than is generally supposed. Indeed, so common

164 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

is this source of error, that in every case the bearing of a line should be
taken at two places at least, and these should be as far apart as possible.
If the two bearings agree, it may be safely concluded that they are cor-
rect, and not affected by local attraction. Yet it must not be forgotten
that it is possible, though highly improbable, that two bearings thus taken
should be equally affected. If the line is very short, or if no two points
on it can be found at which the bearings agree, a point may be taken out
of the line in any direction, and at a suitable distance ; and, if the direct
and reverse bearings from it to any point of the line be found to agree,
those points may be considered free from local attraction. In some
places, as in the vicinity of iron mines, it will be found impracticable to
use the needle at all for the determination of bearings ; but even in this
case, the figure and area of a field may be found by so placing the com-
pass at each angle as to take the bearings of the two adjacent sides from
the same point This will give the angle between these sides without
error from local attraction.

The most difficult problem ever presented to the surveyor is that which
asks him to retrace a lost line, with but one point known, and the bearing
from some old deed. To add to his perplexity, the parties in interest are
usually too much excited by the apprehension of being robbed of a square
rod of rocky pasture, or of swamp rich in mud and brakes, to be able to
give correctly such facts as might be serviceable in the solution of the
problem. In such case, if the parties cannot be induced to agree upon a
second bound and thus determine the line, there is no way but to "run
by tJie needle" after making due allowance for change in declination since
the previous survey. Running in this way may lead to the discovery of
some old landmark, nearly obliterated, and thus settle the dispute ; but if
not, though the error in the bearing is likely to be 15' to 30', it is better
than a lawsuit ; and if, in such case, the parties in their ignorance believe
that to be "true as the needle to the pole" is to be true enough it is
certainly an occasion where "'tis folly to be wise."

Determination of a true meridian. That the surveyor may be able to
test his compass by some well established meridian, it would be an
economical measure if the state should locate and permanently mark a
true meridian in one or more of the principal towns of each county,
and then require by law all surveyors to record the declination with the

THE USE OF THE MAGNETIC NEEDLE IN SURVEYING. 165

plan or report of every survey, stating at what time and by which of
these meridians the declination was taken.

In the absence of such meridians located at the public expense, the
surveyor may, with little trouble, determine one for himself. The remain-
der of this paper will be devoted to an explanation of some of the
methods by which the astronomical meridian of a place may be found.

i. By observations upon the pole star (Polaris). This star has now
(Jan. i, 1874) a polar distance of i° 21' 4$", with an annual diminution
of 19", and it may be observed either at its culmination or elongation, or
at any other known time. The time selected for the observation must
depend on the circumstances of the observer. If he has not the means
of determining his local time within fifteen seconds, he must take the star
at its elongation ; but if he can know the time, he may observe whenever
it is most convenient to himself. The culminations offer the advantage
of giving the meridian at once, without computation or correction for
azimuth ; but neither at the culmination nor at the elongation can double
observations be taken to eliminate any error in the adjustment of instru-
ments, and if the single observation be missed at the moment, it cannot
be repeated till the next night. It may therefore be more convenient to ob-
serve without reference to these ; but in that case the local time must be
known, the azimuth of the star computed, and the proper correction applied.

These observations may be made with a theodolite or transit, or, for
want of these, we may use simply a plumb-line, with a compass-sight, or
anything with a small hole in it to look through. Any heavy body sus-
pended by a string will serve for a plumb, and it may be suspended in
water to give it greater stability. It should not, however, even then be
used in any considerable wind, as this will cause it to deviate from a
vertical. South of the plumb-line, and at a convenient distance, fix a
board firmly in a horizontal position, upon which a small piece of board,
with a compass-sight affixed, may be moved east and west." Bring this in
line with the star and plumb-line, and follow the star until the time of
culmination, then fasten the compass-sight, and the meridian is secured.
Or, if the time of an elongation be selected for the observation, bring the
compass-sight into line a little before the time, and follow the star till it
begins its return. This line, with the proper correction for azimuth, will
be the true meridian. So, also, if the observation be made at any time

1 66 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

(the time being noted), and the proper correction applied, the true
meridian will be determined.

If a transit or theodolite is used, it must be carefully adjusted, or the
results will be less reliable than by the simple plumb-line, as above. The
adjustments liable to affect the work are the collimation, and the height
of Y's or horizontality of the axis of the telescope. By making two
observations, — one with the telescope reversed, and using the mean
result, — any error which would otherwise occur by defect in these adjust-
ments is eliminated ; but in this case both observations cannot be taken at
the moment of culmination : hence, for one, at least, the azimuth must be
computed. If neither is taken at the culmination, separate azimuths must
be computed for each.

Unless an instrument with a perforated axis for illumination of spider
lines is used, some easily managed means must be contrived for this
illumination. If a steady light cannot be thrown upon the lines in such
way that it may be increased or diminished at pleasure, it is not easy to
see both the star and lines with that distinctness necessary to a good
observation. With the perforated axis there is little difficulty in securing
the right amount of light ; but without this, the light must be thrown
into the object end of the telescope. This can be done successfully by
using a stand to carry a bull's-eye lantern, and a vertical piece of board
covered with white paper to serve as a reflector, the diffused, reflected
light being much better than the direct rays of the lantern ; or, a ring of
thin white paper, of suitable size to cover the outer edge of the object glass,
leaving the centre open, may be made to adhere to the glass by simple
wetting, which will serve to reflect and diffuse the light thrown upon it.

To mark the meridian after the observation, a piece of board with a
small hole, behind which a light is placed, will serve as a temporary
arrangement. This need not be placed precisely in line of the meridian,
but being fastened, before observing, at some point near this line, the
angle between it and the star may be taken, and the work of fixing and
permanently marking the meridian be deferred to any convenient time.
When the final marking is done, it should be such that neither frost nor
any other natural causes will disturb it.

2. A meridian may be established by observations upon the sun ; but,
while they offer the advantage of the day-time for doing the work, they

THE USE OF THE MAGNETIC NEEDLE IN SURVEYING. l6/

are not, on the whole, so convenient as the use of the pole star. One
objection to them is, that, as the centre ot so large a body cannot be
accurately observed, it is necessary to observe the limb or edge ; and thus
a computation is necessary to reduce to the centre, or a second observa-
tion must be made on the opposite limb to eliminate the error. Hence,
in no way can a meridian be directly found by solar observations without
computation and correction for azimuth, except by the rough and unreli-
able method of guessing at the sun's centre when on the meridian. These
observations require, also, the use of a telescope with a darkened glass,
which is not always at hand. The most convenient way of locating a
meridian by the sun is to take its altitude in the morning or evening,
when the altitude is rapidly changing, and measuring the angle between
it and some fixed mark. The azimuth of the sun may be computed by
data found in the nautical almanac, whence the azimuth of the mark
becomes known, and the meridian is determined. By this method,
double observations must be made to eliminate the error of taking the
limb instead of the centre, and, also, by reversing the telescope, to
eliminate error in collimation and height of Y's, and in the position of
the zero of the vertical circle. In one observation, bring the sun into one
angle of the spider lines and tangent to each ; then read the horizontal
and vertical circles; point to the mark, and read the horizontal circle;
reverse the telescope, and take the sun in the same manner as before,
but in the opposite angle, — that is, upon the opposite side of both lines ;
read the circles again, and observe the mark as before. It would make
the work still more sure to take a second set in the other angles of the
lines, but this is not essential. The mean azimuth of the mark, as obtained
by the different observations, will be its true angle with the meridian.

If the local time is known and noted with each observation, the azimuth
of the sun may be computed without observing its altitude; but it is
easier to observe the altitude than to find the time. To take the sun,
when on the meridian, will also require the time with a correction for the
difference between apparent and mean time. Much better than these
solar methods, will be found the following:

3. By observations upon any one of the stars. Select some bright star,
as Sirius or the planet Jupiter, that, if possible, the spider lines may be
seen without artificial illumination. If this can be done, it will save the

1 68 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

trouble of adjusting a light for this purpose. With a theodolite having
a vertical circle, which has been previously adjusted with care and firmly
set (as in all these observations the instrument should be), take the star
at least three hours before its culmination, recording its altitude and the
angle it makes with the mark ; reverse the telescope, and observe in the
same way again. Note, also, the time of each observation with sufficient
accuracy to be ready for the star at the same altitude after culmination.
Before the star descends to this altitude, set the vertical circle to that
altitude, with the telescope in the same position (direct or reverse) as
when the observation at the same altitude was made before culmination,
and, as soon as it can be done, bring the star into the field by turning
only the horizontal circle ; put the vertical line upon the star, and follow
it till it comes to the intersection ; read both circles, and observe the
mark; reverse the telescope, set to the other altitude, and observe the
star, and mark again in the same manner. Find the mean angle between
the star and mark by the first set of observations taken before culmina-
tion, and, also, by those taken after ; and the half difference of these two
angles will be the angle between the mark and meridian. By this method
of equal altitudes, all trouble of finding the exact local time, and of
computations, is avoided.

It remains only to give the formulae for computing the azimuth of the
pole star, — I. When taken at its elongation ; and, 2. When taken at any
other time.

I. Let p = the polar distance of the star.

/ = the latitude of the observer.

z = the required azimuth.
Then we have

— ~
sin/

when taken at the elongation.

2. Using the same notation as above, with the addition of / = the
time since the last culmination reduced to degrees, &c., of arc, we have

cos (/ -|- k} cot t

cots = - — T - >
sin k

in which

tan k = tan t cos/,
when the observation is not at the elongation.

NOTE. Inasmuch as this chapter explains satisfactorily the proper way of using the magnetic needle, I take
occasion here to say that all the courses mentioned subsequently in this report may be understood as referring
to the true meridian. They were taken with pocket compasses originally, and have been corrected according
to the principles stated so lucidly by Prof. Quimby. C. H. H.

CHAPTER VII.

TOPOGRAPHY.

IHE general shape of the territory of New Hampshire is that of a
scalene, almost a right-angled triangle, — having the perpendicular
one hundred and eighty, and the base seventy-five miles long. From the
crown monument, at the extreme north point, to the south-east corner of
Pelham, at the most southern extension, the distance is one hundred and
eighty miles, — the length of the perpendicular. The longest distance
that can be measured in the state is from the crown monument to the
south-west corner, a distance of one hundred and ninety miles, and this
line would be the hypothenuse of the triangle. The greatest width of
the state is from Chesterfield to the outer island of the Isles of Shoals, a
distance of one hundred miles. To the outermost projection of Rye
from Chesterfield, the distance is seven miles less. At Colebrook, the
width of the state is only twenty miles.

New Hampshire is bounded north by the province of Quebec, east by
the state of Maine, south-east by the Atlantic ocean and Essex county,
Mass., south by the state of Massachusetts, west and north-west chiefly
by the state of Vermont, and partially by Quebec. It lies between
70° 37' and 72° 37' longitude west from Greenwich, and between 42° 40'
and 45° 18' 23" north latitude.

The books usually give the area of the state as 9,280 square miles.
Mr. Warren Upham carefully measured the area of the state upon J. R.
VOL. i. 24

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Dodge's map, published in 1854, and finds it to be very nearly 8,8 1 8
square miles, although the explanations in the margin state the figure to
be 9,280. The scale given on this map is evidently incorrect, perhaps on
account of the usual want of correspondence between an original draft and
the printed sheet. Hence I have had the area carefully measured upon
the original draft of our new map, or the one which appears in the
accompanying atlas, and find it to be 9,336 square miles.*

Our territory possesses a mountainous character, much more so than
the average among the states along the Atlantic slope of the continent.
It is situated about a third of the way from the north-eastern end of the
Atlantic system to the south-western extremity of the chain. Viewed
as a whole, there are two culminating points in this system. The land
rises gradually from the ocean level in the Gulf St. Lawrence till the
apex of the White Mountains is reached. Then it falls to the Hudson
river, reaching the ocean level along that valley. From this line it
ascends to the mountains in western North Carolina, whence the land
descends to the Gulf of Mexico.

More particularly, there is a mountainous ridge following the eastern
rim of the Connecticut river basin entirely through the state. On the
east the country is low, scarcely rising above five hundred feet for three
fourths of the area outside of the foot hills of the White Mountains.
These mountains occupy nearly all the space east of the western ridge to
the Maine line, for a distance north and south of about thirty-three miles.
This district is mostly wooded, very mountainous, and scarcely inhabited.
Deep transverse valleys divide the White Mountains proper from a simi-
lar triangular area between the Androscoggin and Connecticut rivers.
There is a third mountainous district half way through Coos county, and
the fourth and last along the extreme northern boundary. On the other

* The calculations were made by Mr. T. B. Mann, of Boston. There are two or three points in connection with
the calculation that need to he mentioned. The proper west line of New Hampshire is the west side of Con-
necticut river. At the mouth of the Passumpsic, where the Connecticut has three channels, the calculation has
omitted the narrow channel, and a large island next to the Vermont side. In Portsmouth harbor, no islands
outside of Newcastle are included. The centre of Salmon Falls river and the ponds between Wakefield and
Portsmouth harbor was regarded as the east line of the state. At Seabrook and Rye, the measurement includes
the bays at the mouths of rivers, running from headland to headland. The Isles of Shoals are not included,
which do not seem to cover more than one square mile. If to this figure we add a square mile for the neglected
channel in Monroe, and 54 miles for the belt of three miles of ocean over which our authorities exercise jurisdic-
tion, the total area may be stated at 9,392 square miles.

NATURAL

NEW HAMPSHIRE.

EXPLANATION.

I Connecticut Valley.

Coos and Essex.
CD White Mountains.
[Zl Lake District.

Merrimack Valley.
CD Coast Slope.

ITnd

TOPOGRAPHY. I?I

side of the Connecticut there is a similar elevated country, constituting
the sparsely settled district of Essex county, Vt. In mineral features
this is like the White Mountains, and should properly belong to New
Hampshire, if the boundary line between us and Vermont were at all sym-
metrical. As it is topographically connected with our state, I shall take
occasion to refer to it often, and to describe it, so far as may be practica-
ble, considering its extra-limital position, and the scantiness of our
information concerning it. Our survey has done something towards its
exploration, though by no means so fully as is desirable.

The area of our field of exploration may be divided into six districts,
each of which will be described in detail. They are the topographical
divisions that suggest themselves most naturally.

1. HydrogmpJdc basin of tJie Connecticut river, leaving the main valley
at Barnet, and continuing up the Passumpsic to its source.

2. Hilly district of the principal portions of Coos cotmty, N. H., and
Essex county, Vt.

3. White Mountain area.

4. Winnipiscogee Lake basin.

5. Merrimack River basin, wedging into the White Mountain area,

6. The Atlantic slope in Straff ord and RockingJiam counties.

These districts present themselves forcibly to the eye upon the accom-
panying map.

Before describing these topographical areas, it will be well to under-
stand what are the artificial boundaries of New Hampshire.

THE NORTHERN BOUNDARY.

The northern boundary of the state has been more carefully measured
than any other, having been surveyed under orders from the United
States government, for the purpose of marking the line of division
between New Hampshire and Canada, in accordance with the treaty of
Washington bearing date of August 9, 1842. It is needless here to
state the particulars of the controversy which led the commissioners to
fix upon the present as the proper boundary line. The two countries
were much excited previous to the decision, so much so as to talk of
settling the dispute by fighting. An elegant series of maps, upon the
scale of one mile to two inches, of the country from the head of the

1/2 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

St. Croix river in Maine to St. Regis on the St. Lawrence river, may be
found in the state library at Concord, which was prepared from very
elaborate surveys after instructions from Major J. D. Graham, of the
United States topographical engineers, principal astronomer, who acted
under the direction of congress. Two stations along the New Hamp-
shire boundary were determined astronomically by Major Graham. One
of these is situated at the extreme east point of Vermont, on the west
side of Hall's stream, having1 the latitude of 45° o' 17" .58, and the
longitude west from Greenwich of 71° 30' 34" .5. The other is about
half a mile N. 10° W. from Lake Sophy, or Third Connecticut lake,
having the latitude of 45° 14' 58" .06, and the longitude west of
Greenwich of 71° 12' 57". Distances and bearings were measured care-
fully by chaining and triangulation. The trigonometrical work seems to
have been performed under the guidance of different engineers, — all east
of Mt. Prospect, an azimuth station about half a mile north-west from
the small Fourth lake, having been under the direction of Lieuts.
Emory and Raynolds, of the U. S. topographical engineers, while that
on the west was surveyed by A. W. and S. Longfellow, civil engineers.
In brief, the line may be described as following the water-shed between
the St. Francis and Connecticut rivers, from a point at the junction of
Maine, New Hampshire, and Quebec province, to the head of the main
Hall's stream ; thence down Hall's stream to the first named astronomi-
cal station of Major Graham. It is hence often styled the "highland
boundary."

More particularly, the boundary may be thus described : The point to
which the three territories converge is known as " Crown monument," or
No. 474, from the first at the head of the St. Croix river, and appears to
be in latitude 45° 18' 23" .33 ; longitude 71° 5' 40" .5. This is on high
land, and the country descends to the next post, or No. 475. Monuments
are located at most of the prominent elevations and depressions, as the
line is traced westward. Monuments 474 to 477 lie along the head waters
of the Magalloway (Margalloway, as spelled by the commissioners and
Carrigain's map). No. 478 seems to be situated upon rising ground not
specially connected with either stream ; but from No. 478 to No. 484, we
travel along the little streams discharging into the valley of Lake Sophy.
The whole of the Perry stream basin lies between Nos. 484 and 485,

TOPOGRAPHY. 1/3

which is not a great distance. Nos. 483 and 484 lie close together, and are
exactly north of the astronomical station near Lake Sophy. The country
sloping towards Indian stream extends from monument No. 485 to No.
500. No. 489 is near the point of a curious northerly projection into
Quebec. Nos. 501 to 506 are on the slope of Hall's stream. No. 506 is
exactly on the head of the main Hall's stream, and is flanked closely by
Nos. 505 and 507. Nos. 508 to 517 lie at intervals along Hall's stream
to the east end of the north line of Vermont. The total length of the
north boundary line is no miles, but a direct course between the
extreme points is 32.7 miles. The monuments are of iron, having on
them the names of the U. S. and H. B. M. commissioners. The line
itself was carefully bushed out by the surveyors as wide as an ordinary
highway, and the trees have not yet grown up again, — so that the course
of the boundary is still conspicuously marked.

The topographical features are carefully laid down along the whole line.
That west of Hall's stream, in Vermont, appears to have been projected
by new surveys in 1851, by Lieut. Thorn, U. S. Engineers. Monument
No. 522 lies just west of Leach Branch, in Canaan, Vt. Farther west,
Barnston Pinnacle, a very conspicuous granitic ledge, is said to rise about
600 feet above the lake at its base. The earlier surveys seem to have
been made in 1845. The line is copied as accurately as possible upon
our largest map. Mr. Huntington has written something concerning the
altitudes of this highland boundary, in his sketch of the topography of
Coos county.

DESCRIPTION OF THE EASTERN BOUNDARY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE.

By J. H. HUNTINGTON, Commissioner on the part of New Hampshire to mark anew
the boundary between New Hampshire and Maine.

The eastern boundary of New Hampshire was for many years a matter
of fierce controversy. One reason of this, no doubt, was owing to the
fact that the geography of the country was little known; besides, the
same territory was granted to several different parties, both by the king
of England and the council of Plymouth. It was finally determined by
commissioners appointed by the king. Their report was as follows : "As
to the northern boundaries between said provinces, the court resolve and

1/4 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

determine that the dividing line shall pass up through the mouth of
Piscataqua harbor, and up the river Newichwannock, part of which is
now called Salmon Falls, and through the middle of the same up to the
fartherest head thereof, and from thence north two degrees westerly, until
1 20 miles be finished from the mouth of Piscataqua harbor aforesaid, or
until it meets his majesties other governments ; and that the dividing
line shall part the Isles of Sholes, and run through the middle of the
harbor between the islands to the sea on the southerly side, and that the
south-westerly part of said islands shall lye in and be accounted part of
the province of New Hampshire." To the order of Governor Belcher,
appointing Walter Bryent to survey the line, was affixed the following
memorandum: "The true north 2° west is by the needle north 8° east,
which is your course." Bryent went only to the Saco, and it is supposed
that the line was extended to the north-east corner of Shelburne, in 1763,
under the direction of Isaac Rindge. From this point the survey was
continued, under the direction of a committee of the legislature, to the
birch tree that formerly marked the northern terminus of the line, — the
work having been done by Jeremiah Eames and Joseph Cram.

After the lapse of many years, when Maine had been erected into a
separate state, provision was made by the states of New Hampshire and
Maine to have the line resurveyed, and designated by suitable monu-
ments. Hon. Ichabod Bartlett, of Portsmouth, and Hon. J. W. Weeks,
of Lancaster, were appointed commissioners on the part of New
Hampshire.

In 1858 the line was again surveyed. Col. Henry O. Kent was ap-
pointed on the part of New Hampshire.*

The northern terminus of the eastern boundary of the state is on the
water-shed between the streams flowing northward into the St. Lawrence,
and the streams that flow southward and form the Magalloway. The
iron post that marks the north-east corner of the state is also on the
boundary between the states and the provinces, and the point is said to
be 2,569 feet above the level of the sea.

The line between New Hampshire and Maine runs south 2° east

* Since penning the above, Mr. Huntington has attended to his official duty of remarking this boundary line,
in the month of April, 1874. C. H. H.

TOPOGRAPHY. 1/5

For the first fifteen miles there is an unbroken primeval forest ; then for
seven miles it is still a wilderness, but in New Hampshire all the large
timber has been taken off by lumbermen ; thence southward, clearings
alternate with the forest until we reach Chatham, whence southward the
country is settled. At first the descent is quite rapid, but, on reaching
the branches of the Magalloway, for several miles the country is com-
paratively level. But it soon rises, and we pass over Mt. Abbott, and
here we touch the water-shed between the Connecticut and the Magallo-
way ; and this is the only point where it reaches the line of Maine.
Leaving Mt. Abbott, the line descends somewhat, but in a mile and a
quarter it reaches the summit of Mt. Carmel, which is the highest point
on our eastern boundary. South from Mt. Carmel the line crosses sev-
eral branches of the Magalloway, passes over Prospect hill, and the next
stream of any considerable size is the Little Magalloway. From this
stream the line passes over a ridge of Bosebuck mountain, and on
on the southern border of the Academy grant it crosses Abbott brook.
Along the border of the Academy and Dartmouth College grants the
contour of the line is very irregular, but Half Moon mountain is the only
noticeable height. South of this mountain the line crosses an open bog,
and near the mouth of the Swift Diamond it twice crosses the Magallo-
way river, and it crosses it a third time near the north border of Went-
worth's Location. In Errol it crosses Umbagog lake, touching two points
of land on the eastern shore. On the border of Cambridge, the first
town south of Umbagog lake, the line crosses the Hampshire hills, and
several branches of the Androscoggin. In Success it crosses the
Chickwolnepy, then runs along the western slope of Goose Eye mountain,
passes over Mt. Ingalls, and then on the border of Shelburne it descends
to the Androscoggin. Southward it crosses a ridge of land, and two
miles and four tenths from the Androscoggin it strikes Wild river ; then
with varying undulations it rises until it reaches the summit of Mt.
Royce, whence the descent is very precipitous to the open country on
Cold river, in Chatham and Stow. The boundary follows the valley of
this stream below Chatham centre, and on the south line of Chatham it
crosses Kimball pond, and leaves only a small part of it in New Hamp-
shire. In Conway it crosses the Saco, thence passes over a gently undu-
lating country, except that there is quite a hill just before it crosses the

176 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Ossipee river on the border of Freedom. Southward, except its lakes, the
country has no striking characteristics. The line touches Province pond,
that lies principally in Effingham and Wakefield, and in the south part of
the latter it strikes East pond, which is the source of Salmon Falls river,
and this is the boundary to the ocean. From the mouth of the river the
line runs along the main channel, and divides the Isles of Shoals into
unequal parts. The largest area, including Appledore and Smutty-nose
islands, belongs to Maine ; but Star island, which has the chief popula-
tion of the islands, belongs to New Hampshire. The boundary line
passes between Smutty-nose and Cedar, which are practically one, and
Star island. J. H. HUNTINGTON.

WESTERN AND SOUTHERN BOUNDARIES.

There has been no end of dispute respecting the southern boundary
line. The south-eastern portion is made to average the distance of three
miles northerly from the Merrimack river for about thirty miles. From
a fixed point, a "pine tree" between Pelham, N. H., and Dracut, Mass.,
five and one fourth miles east of the Merrimack, there commences a line
running directly to Connecticut river, with the course N. 86° 59' 37" .5 W.
The distance is about fifty-eight miles. According to a plan in the state
library, the distance between the south-east corner of Hinsdale and a
due east and west line starting from the pine tree and ending on the
west bank of Connecticut river, is 942 rods. The difference between
the true and magnetic meridian is given as 6° 20' 30". The plan was
drawn by E. Hunt, from a survey made August, 1825.

The western boundary of the state has been fixed at low water on the
west bank of Connecticut river as far as the north-east corner of Ver-
mont. Above that point the small Hall's stream separates the state from
the province of Quebec.

ELEVATIONS ALONG THE BOUNDARIES OF NEW HAMPSHIRE.

Height of tide at Portsmouth is 8.6 feet; the mean or half tide is, in all cases, the
datum to which our altitudes refer. Head of tide in branches of the Piscataqua is
at Exeter, Dover, and South Berwick.

Height
in feet.

Great Falls, top of dam, 166

Three Ponds, Milton, 409

TOPOGRAPHY.

Horn pond, Acton, Me., (Wells) 479

North-east ponds, " 499

Highway crossing by Saco river, 45 l

Grand Trunk Railway, 7X3

Umbagog lake, 1256

Mt. Carmel, 37* *

Crown Monument, 2568

Near Magalloway pond, . . . . . . . - • - 2812

North-west head of Magalloway river, 2917

Gap near Lake Sophy, ........... 2146

Mt. Prospect, 2629

Hall's Stream bridge, Vermont line, 1098

Bridge, West Stewartstown, 1054

Railroad bridge, North Stratford, 915

Top of Fifteen-miles falls, at crossing of P. & O. Railroad, Dalton, low to

high water, 832-836

Connecticut river, just below Lower Waterford bridge, high water, . . 643

" at foot of Mclndoe's falls, 432

" " at Wells River, low water, 407

" at Hanover 375

" " at White River Junction, low to high water, . . . 330-352

" " at Windsor Railroad bridge, 304

" " at Beaver Meadow, Charlestown, 289

" at foot of Bellows Falls, 234

" " at head of Stebbins island, Hinsdale, 206

Descent from Connecticut lake to this point, ....... 1412

State Line station, Cheshire Railroad, 898

Merrimack river at state line, 91

TOPOGRAPHICAL DISTRICTS.

I. The Connecticut Valley. The limits assigned to this district differ
from the exact area drained by the waters of the hydrographic system of
the Connecticut. Owing to the presence of a prominent mountain ridge
six or seven miles back from the river, the proper valley lies in the
western part of the east side of the basin. This boundary corresponds,
also, with that of the distinctive agricultural and geological character of
the district. In general, it follows on the east line of the ridge of slaty
or quartzose hills from Winchester to Benton, and thence the eastern
line of the Connecticut basin to Carroll ; thence it continues down the
VOL. i. 25

1/8 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

John's river valley to the Connecticut in Dalton, crosses over the Con-
cord, Vt, ridge to the eastern line of the Passumpsic river basin, which
it follows around to Newark, Sheffield, and Cabot. From here the line
coincides with the west border of the Connecticut basin to Washington,
Vt.; thence it proceeds west of south directly to Proctorsville, Vt. Here
it turns back sharply to the south-west corner of Hartford, whence it
proceeds again nearly in a right line west of south to the Massachusetts
line in Halifax, Vt. This area comprises about 3,200 square miles, and
it is the best agricultural district east of the Green Mountains.

Hinsdale and Vernon combined — the southern border towns of this
district — make a natural basin about seven miles in diameter. Hinsdale
is not over half a mile wide at its southern extremity. On the east bank
of the Connecticut, Foxden mountain bounds the district as far as the vil-
lage of Hinsdale. Here the Ashuelot has cut a deep, narrow chasm into
the range. The high land continues to the north, culminating along the
north town line, in Wantastiquit or Mine mountain, more than 1,000
feet above the Connecticut. The more eastern part of this mountainous
pile is called Daniel's, and East mountain, and Bear hill. A spur runs
down opposite Brattleborough village, about a mile and a half, close to the
river's bank. As seen from Brattleborough, Wantastiquit mountain is
rough and precipitous, barely giving a foothold for trees.

On the Vernon side the range commences directly at the South Vernon
Railroad junction, and follows the state line westerly to its culmination
in the south-west corner of the town, perhaps 700 feet above the river.
Then it sweeps around, and pursues a northerly course into Brattle-
borough.

Although one might fancy this basin an extinct volcanic crater, it was
not this resemblance which led a few persons, near the close of the
eighteenth century, to imagine Wantastiquit mountain an active volcano.
The supposed volcanic phenomena were described fully in the Transac-
tions of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Boston. Dr.
Timothy Dwight also visited the locality in 1798, and seems to have
regarded the phenomena as "in a very humble degree volcanic." The
site of the supposed eruption is about one hundred and fifty feet below
the summit. A loud noise had been heard, and on this spot a black iron
ore, much like scoria, seemed to have been thrown about. From an

TOPOGRAPHY. 179

excavation, iron ochre and the "vitrified ore" were obtained in considera-
ble amount. The noise probably came from the decomposition of pyrites,
while the ores are such as slightly resemble artificial slag, though formed
by concretion or segregation from moist clay.

The high land continues through Chesterfield, Westmoreland, and Wai-
pole, — cut down to 830 feet in Westmoreland for the passage of the
Cheshire Railroad, and to the level of the Connecticut just below Bellows
Falls. On the Vermont side the slate range of Guilford has been cut
through by West river in Brattleborough and Dummerston. Just to the
north there is the conical granitic peak of Black mountain, which is the
culmination of the hilly ridge from Bellows Falls. Both the Vermont
and New Hampshire ridges close in at Bellows Falls, making Kilburn
peak in Walpole. This is about 1 200 feet high, and is more ragged and
precipitous than Wantastiquit. It is an outlier of an older formation,
upon which the slates were originally deposited, and then elevated so as
to stand nearly upon their edges. Three streams have cut around this
mountain; the Connecticut and Saxton's rivers on the west, and Cold
river along its south-eastern slope. My father supposed the Bellows
Falls gorge was worn out subsequently to the formation of the pot-holes
in Orange, along the track of the Northern Railroad. The occurrence of
the pot-holes, however, can be explained more simply otherwise.

The third of the basins is not quite so regular. On the east side
there commences a series of mountains of quartz, in Charlestown,
Acworth, Unity, Claremont, Croydon, Grantham, Plainfield, East Leba-
non, Hanover, Lyme, Orford, and Piermont, into Benton. The basin
may terminate in Cornish, opposite Mt. Ascutney. In Charlestown we
have Page, Sam's, and Prospect hills. Perry's mountain makes a range
between Unity and Charlestown, cut through by Little Sugar river. The
land then rises into Fifield hill, Unity, and Bible hill, Claremont. At
this point Sugar river valley intervenes, and carries the proper Connecti-
cut slope farther east than the district under consideration. On the
north the mountains increase their strength, and the long and elevated
Croydon and Grantham range pushes on to the Mascomy lake in East
Lebanon. Green and Bald mountains in Claremont are the foot hills of
this range. Barber's mountain occupies a bend in the river in West
Claremont. In Cornish, Parsonage, Smith's, Kenyon, and Dingleton

I SO PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

hills make a series of elevations crossing over towards Ascutney, the
highest peak in the Connecticut district, and crowding the river.

On the Vermont side the range of hills is not high below Ascutney,
and notches have been excavated for the passage of William's and Black
rivers. Mt. Ascutney is a conical mountain, mostly of eruptive granite,
protruded through the calcareous range, and rises to about 3,168 feet
above the sea. It is as much isolated in position as it is elevated above
the ridge of which it is the culmination.

Perhaps a fourth basin may be said to commence with Ascutney, and
terminate in the narrows above Fairlee and Orford.

There is a gap at East Lebanon for the passage of Mascomy river,
above which the Mascomy lake basin expands as extensively as the Sun-
apee lake country at the head of Sugar river. The quartzite range of
Moose mountain is broken at the south line of Lyme, and then rises
gradually to form Mt. Cuba in Orford, 2,273 feet above the sea. On the
west slope of Cuba, Lime and Bass hills, with Sunday and Soapstone
mountains, constitute a ridge extending close on to the Connecticut.

On the Vermont side there are no prominent hills adjacent to the river.
The valley of White river is the deepest and most extensive yet traversed,
as it is the main valley threading north-westerly towards Montpelier and
Burlington, and, consequently, the route of the Central Vermont Rail-
road. Our limits are here much broadened to take in the hilly calcareous
country of all the eastern townships of upper Windsor and Orange coun-
ties. The proper ridge would extend from Beaver hill in Norwich, and
Copperas hill in Strafford, towards Washington, Orange, and the elevated
gores of land west of Peacham, into Cabot. Thetford hill is on the sub-
range next to the river, which is cut entirely through farther north for
the outlet of Fairlee pond, and crowds the Connecticut in Sawyer's
mountain next the Soapstone hill. Opposite Orford village this makes a
precipitous ledge. A view of the closing in of Sawyer's and Soapstone
mountains is given in Fig. 20, in which the steep escarpment of the
former and the more undulating outline of the latter mountain on the
right hand side may be distinctly discerned. In the foreground are
alluvial terraces, the view being that seen from Bissell's hill, a little north
of Orford village.

The Haverhill section of the valley next commands attention. The

TOPOGRAPHY.

181

valley widens so as to give a great breadth of alluvial meadow between
the villages of Haverhill and Newbury, more so than at any other point in
the valley, the nearest approach
to it below being in Walpole and
Westminster. These meadows
are two miles in width, and the
river is very crooked, flowing
nearly twice as far as the linear
distance from Howard's island
to the south line of Haverhill.
From the village of Newbury,
which is located upon a beauti-
ful terrace, one can see the hills
rise higher and higher back of
Haverhill, to the lofty ridge of
Moosilauke, the south-west ex-
tension of the White Moun-
tains. There are five peaks in
a line below the highest ridge,
which are distinguished by
their baldness, and known as
Owl's Head, Blueberry, Hog's
Back, Sugar Loaf, and Black
mountains.

On the Vermont side the
hills are scattered, abundant,
and are in no way remarkable
directly opposite the Haverhill
section ; but the range from Knox mountain in Orange to Cow hill in
Peacham is the counterpart of the Moosilauke group, a little farther north.

The Ammonoosuc section may embrace all that lies east of the Con-
necticut as far north as Dalton above Haverhill. The calcareous rocks
mostly disappear to make way for the older and harder green schist,
which gives a different shape to the hills. This is where the Connecticut
bends north-east and east, and in the angle of the bend is the Gardner
mountain range, reaching nearly 2,000 feet. Landaff, Lisbon, and Little-

1 82 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

ton give slaty eminences in Pond, Pine, Sugar, Eustis, and portions of
Mann's hills. The gneissic eminences are Bronson and Ore hills, Green
mountain, Iron Ore hill, and Moody ledge in Landaff, and numerous
unnamed summits in the western part of Bethlehem.

The Connecticut has excavated a passage through the Gardner moun-
tain range, in what is known as Fifteen-miles falls, from Barnet to South
Lancaster, where the water descends nearly four hundred feet. The
valley is narrow, rocky, and mostly devoid of superficial deposits above
the drift. In contrast with this is the valley of the Ammonoosuc, between
Woodsville and Bethlehem, which is full of deposits of modified drift.
These differences have given rise to the inquiry whether the Connecticut
may not have flowed formerly through the Ammonoosuc valley, passing
over the water-shed at Whitefield.

The Passumpsic section is located in a fertile calcareous region, and
abounds in deposits of sand, gravel, and clay. It lies entirely in Vermont.
On the east are the slate hills of Kirby and Waterford, which are pro-
longed into the schist eminences of Lunenburg, Victory, and Granby;
and there are gneissic and granitic mountains, in the same connection,
following around by Willoughby lake to Barton. The notch between Mts.
Horr and Pisgah, in Westmore, is the most conspicuous feature in the
landscape of all northern Vermont ; and the closer it is approached the
more irregular it appears. These two hills rise precipitously 1,800 feet
above Willoughby lake, having only the water between them, and are
less than a mile apart near the upper end of the lake.

The country rises from Crystal lake, in Barton, to Sheffield ; and the
water-shed between the Passumpsic and Lamoille rivers, through Shef-
field, Wheelock, and Walden, coincides with the western border of the
Connecticut district. It is nearly all susceptible of cultivation, though
abounding in forests; and the rocks are nearly all calcareous.

II. Cods and Essex District. This lies at the extreme north of the area
of our explorations. It is all mountainous, sparsely settled, largely cov-
ered with forests, yet containing many tracts of great fertility. It is the
most diversified of all the topographical districts. The main water-shed
of New Hampshire passes through the middle portion from Randolph to
Mt. Carmel ; and, in Essex county, there is a similar ridge from Lunen-
burg to the state line. The Grand Trunk Railway passes through the

TOPOGRAPHY.

183

lowest line of depression that can be found in this area. Commencing at
the boundary of Quebec and Vermont, with 1,232 feet elevation above
the sea, it rises to 1,357 ^eet at Norton, and thence descends to Connec-
ticut river at North Stratford, which is 915 feet. Following the river
down to Groveton, there may be a fall of twenty feet. The road pro-
ceeds up the Upper Ammonoosuc, attaining 1,080 feet at Milan water-
station. Thence it descends to the Androscoggin valley, passing into
Maine with an altitude of 713 feet.

Fig. 21. — MT. LYON, FROM GUILDHALL FALLS.

At the entrance to the Upper Ammonoosuc valley there stands a bold
ridge, known formerly as Cape Horn, in Northumberland. Mr. Hunting-
ton has proposed to designate it as Mt. Lyon, in honor of J. E. Lyon,
president of the Boston, Concord & Montreal Railroad. The ridge is too
precipitous to be cultivated. A sketch of it is given in Fig. 21.

There are two prominent lines of depression, running in a north-east-
erly direction, in the Coos region. The first follows the Androscoggin,
from Shelburne to Umbagog lake, 713 to 1,256 feet; the second follows
the Connecticut river, from 830 feet at Dalton to 1,619 feet at Connec-
ticut lake, and thence to 2,146 feet at the gap above the source of the
Connecticut. All the rest of this district is more elevated than these
three lines of depression.

Both the elevation and the high latitude of this district render the
climate of this district, including the White Mountains, the most rigorous
of any in the state. Plants that suffer from protracted winters cannot
therefore be successfully cultivated here. Nothing is done with the vine,

184 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

and scarcely anything with fruit trees. The staple crops are grain, oats,
and potatoes, no county in the United States yielding better results for
the latter article than this. On this account there are many manufacto-
ries of potato starch here.

As the topography of this district is of special geological interest, a
whole chapter will be devoted to it, prepared by Mr. Huntington.

III. White Mountain Area. The White Mountains of New Hamp-
shire cover an area of 1,270 square miles, bounded by the state line on
the east, the Androscoggin river and the Grand Trunk Railway on the
north-east and north, the Connecticut river valley, or an irregular line
from Northumberland to Warren, on the west, the less elevated region of
Baker's river on the south-west, the Pemigewasset river and the lake
district on the south. The Pemigewasset valley makes a prominent
notch in it in Thornton and Woodstock. The Saco river cuts the White
Mountains into nearly equal parts ; — and it may be convenient sometimes
to speak of what lies on the east and the west sides of this stream.

The mountains may be grouped in ten sub-divisions, i. Mt. Starr
King group. 2. Mt. Carter group. 3. Mt. Washington range, with a
Jackson branch. 4. Cherry Mountain district. 5. Mt. Willey range.
6. Mts. Carrigain and Osceola group. 7. Mt. Passaconnaway range.
8. Mts. Twin and Lafayette group. 9. Mts. Moosilauke and Profile
division. 10. Mt. Pequawket area. Divisions 2 and 3 may be termed
"Waumbek" for convenience, and divisions 5, 6, and 8 may receive the
name of "Pemigewasset."

Considered as a whole, the main range would commence with Pine
mountain in Gorham, follow the Mt. Washington ridge, cross the Saco
below Mt. Webster, and continue south-westerly by Nancy mountain, Mt.
Carrigain, Mt. Osceola, and terminate in Welch mountain in Waterville.
Another considerable range may be said to commence with the Sugar
Loaves in Carroll and Bethlehem, and continue westerly by the Twin
mountains, Lafayette, Profile, Kinsman, and Moosilauke. A third of some
consequence might embrace the Carter range, with Iron mountain in
Bartlett. These mountain groups differ much in geological character,
age, and marked topographical features.

i. Mt. Starr King Group. This has not been explored very exten-
sively, and it is not so much frequented by visitors as most of the other

TOPOGRAPHY. 185

districts. It is embraced in the remote portions of the towns of Gorham,
Randolph, Jefferson, Lancaster, Stark, Milan, Berlin, and the whole of
Kilkenny. It may be bounded by the Upper Ammonoosuc and Andros-
coggin rivers on the north and east, by Moose and Israel's rivers on the
south, and the Connecticut slope on the west. From the extreme out-
lying foot hill on the west line of Stark to Gorham, the longest diameter
of this group, the distance is sixteen miles. The greatest width is thir-
teen miles, or from Jefferson hill to Milan water-station. The shape of
the area, as mapped, is oval-elliptical, being more pointed at the north
than the south. The area may comprise 150 square miles.

The Upper Ammonoosuc river flows in a broad valley in Randolph
and Berlin, and thereby divides the group into two parts. The source,
called the Pond of Safety, is nearly 900 feet above Milan water-station,
and there is a depression in the ridge in the south towards Jefferson.
For geological reasons, we understand that the northern portion of the
Starr King region was once an immense plateau, and the numerous
valleys in it now are the result of atmospheric erosion. Not less than
seven streams have notched in the edge of this plateau, — the three most
prominent erosions being from Berlin, Stark (Mill brook), and Lancaster.
There is a central ridge through Kilkenny, the Pilot mountain range,
connected by a valley with Mt. Starr King in Jefferson. A branch
diverges from this range to Pilot mountain in Stark, formerly ascended
by a foot-path from Lost Nation. Green's ledge and Black mountain
are spurs to the east from the Pilot range.

From Mt. Starr King to Berlin Falls there runs an irregularly curved
range. It is composed of Pliny, Randolph, and Crescent mountains, and
Mt. Forest. Section X passes through the centre of this district from
Berlin Falls to Lancaster, from which the reader may learn the irregulari-
ties of the surface-profile. Mts. Starr King, Pilot, and Randolph are the
culminating points, being 3,800, 3,640, and 3,043 feet respectively. The
region is entirely covered by a forest.

2. Mt. Carter Group. This lies in Shelburne, Bean's Purchase, Chat-
ham, and Jackson, and is the least known of all the mountain districts.
I do not find any explorer of it anxious to continue his investigations
therein. The mountains, however, are like all other elevated tracts of
land far away from habitations. There seems to be a heavy range from
VOL. i. 26

1 86

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Gorham to Jackson, quite near the Peabody and Ellis valleys, while on
the east the slope towards the Androscoggin is quite gradual. Mt. Moriah
is one of the more northern peaks of this chain. Fig. 19, p. 146, will
show its features. The view is from a point in the Androscoggin valley
in Shelburne. The distance is so great that the stern, rugged features of
the mountain are much softened. Wild river occupies a broad valley
in Bean's Purchase, trending north-easterly. The highest part of the
Carter range lies next the Peabody river ; and the western slope is much
steeper than the eastern. A view of Mt. Carter, from a point south of
the village of Gorham, is quite impressive, as exhibited in the sketch.

Fig. 22. — MT. CARTER, FROM GORHAM.

Imp mountain lies between Moriah and Carter. There is a very deep
notch between Height's and Carter's mountains, in the edge of Jackson.
The east branch of Ellis river flows from it south-easterly ; and the range
courses easterly so as to form the entire westerly and southerly rim of
the Wild river basin. Several tributaries flow to Wild river on the north ;
and others to the Saco on the south of this easterly range. It curves
more northerly near the Maine line, terminating, so far as New Hamp-
shire is concerned, in Mt. Royce, directly on the border.

TOPOGRAPHY. 1 8/

The Carter mountain group sends five spurs into Jackson and Chatham.
The first is the continuation of Height's mountain, adjoining the Pinkham
road, to Spruce and Eagle mountains, near Jackson village. The second
comes down from Carter mountain, to include Black and Tin mountains.
The third spur takes in Doublehead mountain, and is bordered easterly
by the east branch of the Saco and the Wildcat branch. Near the line
of Bean's Purchase and Chatham lies Baldface mountain, 3,600 feet high,
from which run the fourth and fifth spurs. The fourth comprises Sable
mountain, in Jackson, and its foot hills. The fifth is composed of
Mts. Eastman and Slope, in Chatham, which run into the Pequawket
area.

3. Mt. Washington Range. The main range of Mt. Washington
extends from Gorham to Bartlett, about twenty-two miles. The culmi-
nating point is central, with a deep gulf towards Gorham, a slope on the
north, formed partially by the westerly Mt. Deception range, which also
produces the broad Ammonoosuc valley on the west, in connection with
the axial line of summits. On the south there are two principal valleys,
the more westerly occupying the depression of Dry or Mt. Washington
river, and the easterly passing down the slope of Rocky branch, which
travels easterly near its termination, so as to be parallel with the Saco in
Bartlett. Starting with the Androscoggin valley, the range commences
in the low Pine mountain. In the south-east corner of Gorham this is
intersected by the pass of the Pinkham road between Randolph and the
Glen house. Next, the land rises rapidly to the top of Mt. Madison, 5,400
feet. The range now curves westerly, passing over the summits of
Adams, Jefferson, and Clay. The gap between Clay and Washington is
the best place to behold the deep abyss in which the west branch of
Peabody river takes its rise. From Washington, one can easily discern
the east rim of the Great Gulf, for upon it is located the carriage-road
to the Glen house. From the Lake of the Clouds, and the eminence
south of Tuckerman's ravine to Madison, it is easy to imagine the area
an elevated plateau, — of which Bigelow's lawn is a portion, — out of which
Washington may rise 800 feet. On the east of Washington, two deep
ravines have been excavated, — Tuckerman's and Huntington's. The first
runs easterly, and holds the head waters of Ellis river ; the second com-
mences at the southernmost angle of the carriage-road, at the fifth mile

1 88

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

post, and runs towards the
first. The frontispiece will
show the character of these
two valleys, and their rela-
tions to the adjoining moun-
tains.

The shape of Jefferson
and the foot of Adams, as
seen from the Half-way
house, are indicated in Fig.
23. The sketch is designed
to show the shape of the
Great Gulf. Instead of re-
Fig. 23. — MX. JEFFERSON AND GREAT GULF. garding the eminences as
From Half-way house. gravel banks, the reader

must realize that they represent 2,000 feet of altitude above the station
of the observer.

Fig. 24 sketches the east side of Mt. Washington, from Thompson's
falls, in the Carter range, south of the Glen house.

Fig. 24. — RAVINES ON MT. WASHINGTON, FROM THOMPSON'S FALLS.

The deep valley on the left is Tuckerman's ravine. Huntington's ra-
vine, the head of Peabody river, lies back of a low, woody ridge terminating

TOPOGRAPHY. 189

just behind the prominent spruce tree in the centre of the foreground.
The tops of the ridge back of Huntington's ravine, and the one to the
extreme left, mark the edge of the 5,000 feet plateau about Mt. Washing-
ton. Mt. Washington itself rises above the plateau a little to the right
of the centre of the sketch. The projection between the two ravines is
known as Davis's Spur.

These and other topographical features of the Mt. Washington range
are well represented upon a map designed to illustrate the Alpine and
sub-Alpine districts of Waumbek, which will appear in the chapter upon
the distribution of insects in New Hampshire.

Past Mt. Washington the main range descends to the pass of the Lake
of the Clouds, — the source of the Ammonoosuc river, — 5,000 feet high.
The first mountain is Monroe — a double, ragged peak scarcely ever visited,
the road passing around it. Next follow in order Mts. Franklin, Pleasant,
Clinton, Jackson, and Webster. The gaps between all these are small.
Mt. Pleasant may be recognized by its dome shape. Fig. 25 will give a
good idea of the ranges as seen from near the White Mountain house in
Carroll. The last peak on the right is a fragment of Jackson. It lies a
little back from the line ; and the road to Crawford's lies in front of it.

Fig. 25. — MT. WASHINGTON, FROM NEAR FABYAN'S.

The valley in front is the broad basin of the Ammonoosuc ; and the
lower slopes of the Deception range on the left. Mt. Webster is a long

1 90

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

mountain with precipitous flank on the side towards the Saco. It is
directly opposite the Willey house. It is one of the main features of the
notch.

The east flank of the mountains, from Monroe to Webster, is washed
by the powerful Mt. Washington river, which forms the central line of
Cutts's grant, heading in Oakes's gulf. It is the proper continuation of
the Saco valley, its source being several miles farther away than the small
pond near Crawford's. In dry seasons the water may be low, which fact,
in connection with a broad, gravelly expanse of decomposed granite near
the lower end of the valley, gave rise to the early appellation of " Dry
river." Dr. Bemis proposed that it receive the name of Mt. Washington
river.

From the east side of Oakes's gulf, or the continuation of Bigelow's
lawn, two ranges course southerly. The western follows the Saco to just
opposite Sawyer's rock, having, in the lower part of its course, Giant's
stairs, Mt. Resolution, Mt. Crawford, Mt. Hope, and "Hart's ledge," of

Fig. 26. — MT. CRAWFORD, FROM THE NORTH-WEST.

Boardman's map. Two heliotypes show the shape of Crawford. When
seen from the north-west, a little below the Willey house, the summit

TOPOGRAPHY. IQI

projects northwardly, like the head of a wild beast, overhanging the
granitic slope. From near Dr. Bemis's residence, one gets the idea of a
broad, conical peak, furrowed by a temporary stream. There have been
avalanches down the west side, where very large rocks have bounded into
the middle of the Saco flood plain, 175 feet at a single leap. The over-
hanging character of Mt. Crawford may be somewhat exaggerated in the
figure; but any one's pencil is tempted to distort somewhat the char-
acteristic features of summits, in order to give strangers the proper
impression of their effect in the landscape.

The more easterly range is elevated but is not conspicuous, and con-
sequently is not named. It is flanked by Rocky Branch on the west and
by Ellis river on the east. Near Jackson village it curves easterly, and
terminates in the granitic Iron mountain. Between Sawyer's rock and
the mouth of Rocky Branch there is a range running easterly, with a
spur towards Mt. Crawford, separated by Razor brook from the Mt. Hope
ridge. It lies between the southern termini of the two divergent ranges
pointing southerly from Bigelow's lawn. Its precipitous character is
shown in the sketch placed at the end of Chapter I.

4. Cherry Mountain District. The Mt. Deception range consists of
four peaks, — Mt. Mitten, Mt. Dartmouth, Mt. Deception, and Cherry
mountain, formerly called Pondicherry. It is separated by a considerable
valley from Mt. Jefferson, and its gentler slope lies on the northern flank

Fig. 27. — CHERRY MOUNTAIN, FROM TWIN MOUNTAIN HOUSE*

towards Israel's river. The road from Fabyan's to Jefferson passes
between Cherry and Deception. The range runs nearly at right angles

1 92 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

to the main mountain axis. Cherry mountain has a northerly spur of
large dimensions, called Owl's Head. A view of Cherry mountain, as
seen from a point half a mile west of the Twin Mountain house, is pre-
sented in Fig. 27. The northern part of the range seems to be the
highest.

5. Mt. Willey Range. This starts from near the White Mountain
house in Carroll, and terminates in Mt. Willey. Its northern terminus
is low, and the highest peak is at the southern end of the range. Six
granitic summits may be counted before reaching the high summit of
Mt. Tom, just behind the Crawford house. This peak is high and impos-
ing, as seen from the vicinity of the Crawford house. The stream form-
ing Beecher's cascade passes between Tom and the next summit south.

This latter peak has been named Mt. Lincoln, in honor of the late
President Abraham Lincoln, by some unknown person. This title has
been applied to stereoscopic views of it : but if we apply to the naming
of mountains the canons of nomenclature required for scientific terms,
it will be impossible to retain the name of Lincoln, because it has been
preoccupied at Franconia. It is doubtful whether Mr. Fifield proposed
to call the nameless peak Lincoln in advance of photographic usage at
Crawford's ; but the fact of its prior publication in a map is sufficient
reason for adopting the name in Franconia, and hence to reject the appel-
lation in the other case. I propose, therefore, the name of Mt. Field for
the eminence near the Crawford house, in honor of the worthy gentleman
(Darby Field) who first ascended Mt. Washington in 1642, and will use
it upon the map and in the descriptions of this report. See p. 44.

From Mt. Field to Mt. Willey the high land is continuous, reaching an
elevation of 4,300 feet. It then drops off abruptly, and terminates, while
the water-shed continues into the Carrigain district. Ethan's pond is
situated a little to the south-west of the base of the precipice. This is
the extreme head of the waters flowing into Merrimack river. The Field-
Willey range is directly opposite to Mt. Webster; and the intervening
valley is the most striking part of the White Mountain notch. The head
of the notch is formed by Mt. Willard, only about 550 feet above the
Crawford plain. It is covered by trees on the north side ; and the south
is precipitous, looking down the valley of the Saco. One of our helio-
types shows this view, which is one of great beauty.

TOPOGRAPHY.

193

6. Carrigain and Osceola Group, Across from Mt. Webster the Mt
Washington range is continued in the mountains culminating in Carri-
gain, 4,678 feet high. This is a lofty, conical summit, occupying the most
conspicuous position in the horizon when seen from Mts. Washington,
Crawford, Pequawket, Moosilauke, and Lafayette. Two summits in this
line, north of Carrigain, have names, viz., Mts. Nancy and Lowell, — the
latter after Abner Lowell, of Portland, and known heretofore as Brick-
house mountain. There is an interesting gap between Lowell and Carri-
gain, represented in the chapter on Scenery. The original of this sketch
was prepared by George F. Morse, of Portland, who visited Mt. Carrigain,
in company with G. L. Vose, in 1869. The depth and impressiveness of
the notch remind one of the great gap between Willey and Webster. It
would be a good route for a carriage-road from Bartlett over to the east
branch of the Pernigewasset. Nearly west from Carrigain is Mt. Hancock
(Pemigewasset of Guyot). It is nearly as high as Carrigain (4420 feet),
and falls off gradually to the forks of the East Branch oh the east line of
Lincoln. The space between Carrigain and Osceola abounds in granite
mountains, often with precipitous sides. Tripyramid may represent a
spur (if not an isolated group) from them, running towards Whiteface.
Between Tripyramid and Osceola there is a deep gap, in which the Greeley
ponds are situated. Osceola, or " Mad River peak" of Guyot, is a double
mountain with a deep excavation on the south side for one of the tribu-
tary streams of Mad river. The range is continuous into Tecumseh,
Fisher's, and Welch mountains in Waterville. Sketches of Osceola and
Tecumseh are presented herewith.

Osceola is the highest
mountain on the left, in
Fig. 28, and the most
distant peak on the right
is its eastern spur. Mad
river comes from a valley
to the right of all the
hills represented in the
sketch. There is a deep valley to the south-west of Osceola. Then a
mountain appears much like Osceola reversed. It is shown in Fig. 29,
VOL. i. 27

Fig. 28. — MT. OSCEOLA.

From S. M. near Greeley's hotel, Waterville.

194

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

with the name of ML
Tecumseh, proposed,
as I understand, by
E. J. Young, photog-
rapher, of Campton
village, who has pub-
lished at least two
stereoscopic views of
Fig. 29. — MT. TECUMSEH. it, with this name

From S. M. near Greeley's hold. appended;

Cone mountain succeeds Welch, but this is not so conspicuous an emi-
nence as appears upon some of the maps. North-westerly from Osceola
the high granitic range continues as far as the East Branch, the last sum-
mits being Black and Loon Pond mountains. This very interesting
region is unknown to most tourists. The only mountain accessible by a
path is Osceola, from which most of the others can be seen to advantage.
7. Passaconnaway Range. This has an easterly course, and bounds
the White Mountain area upon the south. The most massive of the
series is Black mountain, or "Sandwich Dome" of Guyot, on the line

between Sandwich and
Waterville, over 4,000
feet high. The annexed
sketch shows this moun-
tain behind Noon Peak,
or the one terminating
abruptly in the centre of
the view. The peak to

the right is Denison's.
The observer is supposed

Fig. 30. — BLACK MOUNTAIN AND NOON PEAK.
Greeley's hotel in the foreground.

to be stationed near Greeley's hotel. A path leads to this summit, where
one can see advantageously the Waterville basin as flanked by Tripyra-
mid and the Osceola range. A high plateau extends from Black to
Tripyramid and Whiteface. The latter is double, and the southern part
has been recently occupied by the U. S. Coast Survey as a signal station.
From here Passaconnaway looms up majestically. It is a sharp dome,
covered by trees to the very summit, and rises far above the surrounding

TOPOGRAPHY.

peaks. Our most recent calculations place this summit in the east edge
of Waterville. Passaconnaway lies a little north of the main ridge. The
space between this and Chocorua is occupied by low, ragged mountains.

Chocorua is the sharpest of all the New Hampshire summits, and can
be the most easily recognized and located on this account. One of the
heliotypes gives a distant view, and the annexed figure illustrates the
appearance of the peak near at hand. The cone is composed of an

Fig. 31. — SUMMIT OF CHOCORUA.

uncommon variety of granite. To the eastward the mountains gradually
fall off till the plains of Conway are reached. The country south of this
mountain range is low and undulating.

196 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Albany Mottntains. Swift river divides the Albany mountains into two
parts, rising on the long easterly slopes of the Carrigain-Osceola range and
Green's cliff. Those just described form the southern rim of this basin.
Those upon the north side are the Mote mountains, adjacent to Conway,
and mostly unnamed peaks along the south bank of the Saco in Bartlett,
joining on to Tremont in a wild tract of forest. The Mote mountains
have been burnt over, so that they appear unusually barren when seen
from a distance. They are the newest of the White Mountains, while
the foundations of the Passaconnaway range are the oldest. With a
different arrangement of description, the Albany basin may be said to
have very gentle slopes upon the inside, but on the Saco valley range
and the Chocorua group the hills dip abruptly in opposite directions.
This basin may also be termed a projection eastwardly from the Carri-
gain range.

8. Mts. Lafayette and Twin. This area is bounded on the north by
the Ammonoosuc, on the east by New Zealand river and the east branch
of the Pemigewasset, — which curves so as to make it the south line,
also, — on the west by the north branch of the Pemigewasset. It contains
two prominent ranges, — first, the western one, from Haystack to the junc-
tion of the two branch streams ; and the other, from the Twin mountains
to the mouth of the Franconia branch. The Haystack, a conical peak, is
separated by a series of small gaps from Lafayette. The Lafayette
mountains are peculiar in form. The range is quite elevated, extremely
narrow, and consisting of seven summits. Lafayette, 5,290 feet, is the
second from the north. Then follow Mt. Lincoln of Fifield, 5,101 feet,
two nameless peaks, Mts. Liberty and Flume, each 4,500 feet, the latter
to the south-east of the usual course of the ridge. This elevated ridge
is composed of dark felsite. The peaks south of Mt. Flume are coarsely
granitic, being Big and Little Coolidge, Potash mountain, and others.

The Twin mountain range occupies the middle line between the Saco
and Pemigewasset rivers. The two most prominent peaks are a mile
apart, eight miles south of the Twin Mountain house, and are 5,000 feet
high. Scarcely any mountains are more difficult to reach than these, on
account of the stunted growth near their tops. The ridge is broad, and
keeps at almost the same level for two or three miles south of the summit.
On the west of this range there is an isolated ridge of no great dimen-

TOPOGRAPHY. 197

sions ; and, on the north-east, a mass of mountains has been separated
from the main summits by the erosive action of Little river. The highest
of these separated peaks is sometimes confounded with the Twin moun-
tains, because only one of the Twins is seen from the hotel named after
them. The double character is seen from either Washington or Lafayette,
and not from the Twin Mountain house. That the early distinctions may
not be forgotten, and for the sake of fixing the position of a noble moun-
tain, I venture to name the highest of the unnamed peaks north-east of
Little river Mt. Hale, after Rev. E. E. Hale, of Boston, editor of Old and
New, who assisted Dr. Jackson in exploring the White Mountains, and
has done much to make them famous by his writings.

To the north of Mt. Hale are three granitic lumps, which, for conven-
ience, I have called the Three Sugar Loaves. On the north-east side of
Twin mountain is a curious nubble or small conical summit 150 feet high,
which is observable from several places along the Ammonoosuc valley.
It is probably an enormous vein of very coarse granite. Fig. 32 is a
rough pen sketch of the outlines of the mountains between Haystack
and the first Sugar Loaf, as seen from near the Twin Mountain house.
Their names are very plainly indicated, and those interested will readily
recognize the place of the newly named peak. A sketch of the outlines
of the mountains to the south, as seen from the north Twin mountain,
is given in Fig. 33. This is a view very rarely seen; but the proprietors
of the Twin Mountain house would add much to the attractiveness of
their establishment if they would construct a bridle-path to the top of
the mountain.

A view of the Twin mountains and Haystack, from the east part of
Bethlehem hill, Fig. 34, will show better than words the several ridges
and valleys composing the range. They show well, also, from the Wing
Road station, and from Sugar Hill, Lisbon, as represented in Fig. 35.

There is a deep and broad valley between the Mt. Tom and the Twin
ranges. The divide between the New Zealand waters flowing to the
north, and of the East Branch rivulets descending southerly, is quite
low. It has all been excavated by atmospheric agencies ; — since, from
geological reasons, it is clear that Mts. Twin and Tom were once con-
tinuous.

9. Moosilauke and Profile. A narrow gap, 2,000 feet above the ocean,

.W> rn

§ -

w _c

4

V. C=i

O

TOPOGRAPHY. 199

separates the Lafayette from the Profile range at the site of the famed

" Old Man of the Mountains." On the north is Eagle cliff, too precip-

2OO

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

itous to be scaled ; while the Profile or Cannon mountain on the south-
west is nearly as steep, and it is absolutely perpendicular a mile southerly.
One of our heliotypes represents this valley, closed, apparently, by Eagle
cliff.

The north end of the range consists of a pile of granite hummocks,
attaining the height of 3,850 feet. A terribly rough valley separates it
from the long range of Mt. Kinsman, which extends to the extreme
south-east corner of Landaff. It is ascended from the village of Landaff,
and the trip is easily made. The relations between the Profile and
Lafayette range may be seen in a view of them from Thornton. Lafay-

Fig. 36. — FRANCONIA MOUNTAINS, FROM THORNTON.

ette is the highest peak on the right, and Mt. Flume appears a little lower
down. The deep valley of the Pemigewasset lies in the centre, and Pro-
file on the left. The precipitous character of Profile does not show
advantageously. Only the lower summit of this mountain is generally
visited, the apex being still covered by trees.

Moosilauke is the most south-westerly spur of the White Mountains.
The summit is in the eastern part of Benton ; but Woodstock and Warren

TOPOGRAPHY.

2O I

own parts of its expanse. The
water-shed continues from it into
Carr's mountain in Warren and
Wentworth; but the saddle be-
tween them is a low one over
which a road to the Pemigewasset
valley has been contemplated. J3
Two ranges of foot hills border w

•^4

Moosilauke on the west, — first, 'j

of
five

"Black g

peaks, t
respectively, — proceeding

is said to signify a bald
This is one of the finest w

the familiar name

mountain ; " second,

called

northerly from the railroad, — «

Owl's Head, Blueberry, Hog's

Back, Sugar Loaf, and Black

mountains.* The map shows a

long range, called Blue ridge, on

the east flank of Moosilauke in

Woodstock. The name of Moos-

ilauke

place.

of the White Mountains to visit

for scenery, and it is easily ascend-

ed over the recently constructed

turnpike road.

10. Pequawket. This is the
smallest of all the areas described.
The predominant mountain is con-
ical in shape, 3,300 feet above the
sea. A house upon the summit
can be seen from every point of
the compass. On the north this peak passes into the north-easterly spur
coming down from the Carter district. On the south a connection is
made with the Green hills, which are elevated granitic piles in the east
part of Conway.

* This makes two Black mountains in the same town.
VOL. I. 28

2O2

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Maps and Profiles. In the atlas accompanying this report will be
found a large representation of all these White Mountain districts. The
shapes of the several ranges and peaks are given as truthfully as is pos-
sible upon the model which served as the basis of the photograph. For

Fig. 38. — MOOSILAUKE, FROM WACHIPAUCHA POND.

more minute information concerning the topography of this region, the
reader is referred to this sketch. Many of the features will be referred
to in the descriptions of the formations building up the eminences.

The atlas will also show a large number of mountain profiles taken
from several points of view. The following have been kindly furnished
by Geo. F. Morse, of Portland, Me.: I. Panorama from Mt. Pequawket.
2. White Mountains, from the "Bill Merrill" hill in Maine. 3. Panorama
from Trafton mountain, Cornish, Me. 4. View of the Carter and Bald-
face mountains in Chatham, Bean's purchase, and vicinity. 5. Profiles, as
seen from Mt. Caribou, Me. 6. Same, from Pleasant mountain. 7. Part
of a panorama from Mt. Carrigain. We hope to add other panoramic
profile views from Mt. Washington, and, possibly, from other prominent
peaks. A greater amount of exact topographical information cannot be
given, except after elaborate surveys, — such as have never been contem-
plated by the act authorizing the present explorations.

TOPOGRAPHY. 2O3

IV. Lake District. This consists largely of the hydrographic basin of
Winnipiseogee lake, with sandy plains carrying tributaries of the Saco.
It is normally a plain with four isolated mountain masses imposed upon
it. These are the Gunstock and Belknap mountains, Red hill, Ossipee
mountains east of the lake, and the Green mountain in Effingham. All
these mountains are composed of igneous material, which seems to have
been poured out over an uneven floor of rocks deposited in the Mont-
alban period.

The Belknap range lies in the towns of Gilford, Gilmanton, and Alton,
on the south-west side of Lake Winnipiseogee, covering an area ten by
four miles, measured along the greatest diameters. From the point oppo-
site Thompson's island in Gilford the ridge gradually rises to the peak
known as Belknap. This is directly connected by a low saddle with the
Mt. Gunstock of the Coast Survey, 1,914 feet high. From Mt. Belknap
a ridge turns south-easterly, and in the extreme north-east corner of Gil-
manton makes a curve, so as to run a few degrees north of east towards
the lake. This so-called spur is really the main range, and it continues
on to Alton, as an essential prolongation of the south-easterly range from
Mt. Belknap. In Alton, Mts. Straight-back, Major, Pine, and Avery hill
are developments of this group. To the south of these there is a gap
low enough for a road from Gilmanton Iron Works to Alton Bay. South-
ward the mountainous area terminates in the easterly running hills known
as Rocky mountain. The principal part of the region is heavily wooded,
save the highest summits, which are practically above trees ; and there
is uncultivated land enough to make a township as large as Brookline.

Red hill received from Dr. Timothy Dwight the name of Mt. Went-
worth, at the beginning of the present century. The mountain area is of
elliptical shape, with two summits, the northern* 2,043, and the southern
1,769 feet in height. The length is three miles ; the breadth about half as
much. It lies chiefly in Moultonborough, and partly in Sandwich. Owing
to its proximity to Center Harbor, Red hill is much visited by tourists.

The Ossipee mountains occupy the largest of all these mountainous
areas, of oval form, measuring about six by ten miles, and are situated in
the adjacent corners of Moultonborough, Ossipee, Tamworth, and Tufton-

* Called western by Guyot,

2O4 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

borough. The broadest portion of the area is in Tamworth and Ossipee.
The Bearcamp river washes the northern base of the mountains. Two
of its tributaries have excavated north and south valleys out of the north
slope, leaving an east and west ridge six miles long. This juts out from
near the middle of the main range of about eight miles length, turning
somewhat easterly in Moultonborough and Tuftonborough. The two
most elevated points, called for convenience North and South Ossipee,
lie in the north-south range. Two east flowing streams have excavated
very large valleys out of the eastern flank of these granitic piles, the
first and largest, known as LovelTs river, discharging into Ossipee pond,
and the second, a tributary of Pine river, coming out of Dan Hole pond.
At the upper end of Dan Hole pond is a hamlet known as Canaan.
There is no road to this place from Moulton mills, up the valley of the
outlet, as one would naturally expect, but over the elevated south rim of
the valley from Tuftonborough. The height of the loftiest Ossipee
mountain is estimated at about 2,000 feet. There are no important
streams on the west side of these mountains. The seven brooks which
course down the abrupt slope often produce cascades, but have not made
notable excavations in the edge of the feldspathic mass.

Green mountain in Efnngham is four miles long, shaped much like
Red hill, save that the two parts are less deeply notched, and the course
is nearly east-west. It is about one fourth larger in every way, vertically
as well as horizontally.

Except two ranges, the rest of the Lake district is nearly level. The
first lies in Eaton and Madison, including the easterly part of Free-
dom ; the second is a continuation of the Ossipee water-shed through
Wolfeborough into Brookfield and Middleton. Also, about Center Harbor
and Laconia there are isolated hilly knobs.

The sandy plains of Madison, Freedom, and Ossipee are elevated from
400 to 525 feet, extending to North Conway and Bartlett, in the moun-
tain district. The average is nearly that of Lake Winnipiseogee. The
soil is very sandy, much of it being left for the growth of small pines.
Between the Ossipee and the Passaconnaway range the average eleva-
tion of the land may be from 550 to 600 feet, largely in the towns of
Tamworth and Sandwich. In Tamworth, Chatman's, Great, and McDan-
iel's hills are the highest points. The soil is better, and in favorable

TOPOGRAPHY. 2O5

locations, say along the extensive meadows of the Bearcamp river, there
are many large and profitable farming establishments. An excellent idea

Fig. 39. — LAKE WINNIPISEOGEE, FROM CENTER HARBOR.

of the country about Lake Winnipiseogee may be derived from a view of
it given in Fig. 40. The observer looks from the east flank of Sunset
hill, back from Center Harbor landing. The highest peak on the extreme
right is Mt. Gunstock ; the highest on the extreme left is the southern
edge of Ossipee ; those in the distance on the left bound this district
in Alton, New Durham, and Middleton. The borders of the lake are
usually of hard pan, sloping gradually to the water's edge. The general
course of the basin is S. 25° to 30° E., the islands and points showing
essentially the same trend. This direction is determined by the corre-
sponding courses, parallel to each other, of the Gunstock and Ossipee
ranges.

V. The Merrimack Valley District. This includes more than the
hydrographic basin on the west, and less on the north. It is bounded by

2O6 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

the White Mountains on the north, extending as far as Woodstock in the
valley ; on the north-east by the Lake district, which extends close to the
Pemigewasset in Ashland ; on the east by the coast slope ; slightly on the
south-east and entirely on the south by Massachusetts ; on the west by
the Connecticut valley district, or, more exactly, the eastern boundary of
the Coos quartzite. It may well represent the average physical appear-
ance of New Hampshire, consisting of numerous hills and mountains,
mostly cultivable, interspersed with sandy plains, alluvial flats, and entirely
underlaid by gneissic or granitic rocks. It is much the largest of the
topographical districts. There are only two marked topographical divi-
sions of this tract, — the double mountainous range along the western
borders, and the Merrimack valley.

The more western of the two ranges along the western border has been
referred to in the description of the first district. More particularly, it
may be said to follow the line of division between the two districts. It
commences in the east part of Piermont as Iron and Piermont mountains.
It is the Cuba mountain range in Orford, Smart's mountain in Lyme,
Moose mountain in Hanover, Grantham and Croydon mountains between
Plainfield and Newport, Perry's mountain between Charlestown and Unity.
It is wanting in much of Charlestown, Langdon, and the neighborhood
of Bellows Falls. Between Walpole and Hinsdale there is a series of
hills, mostly unnamed, which mark the line, though some of them are
covered by slate.

From Warren to Plymouth, Baker's river has cut through the range
transversely. Webster Slide and Mist mountains are continuous with
Iron mountain. The valley between the two ranges commences east of
Piermont mountain, bordered easterly by Ore hill, Warren, the water
flowing northerly. In the same depression Pond brook rises, flowing to
the south-east to join Baker's river. Other tributaries flow in the same
direction in Wentworth. The depression is again markedly manifest in
Dorchester, having Smart's mountain range on the west, and the Groton
hills on the east. It is more pronounced still in Canaan, Enfield, and the
east part of Hanover. The quartz range is broken first in Lyme, and
more markedly by the outlet of Mascomy lake in East Lebanon. The
lowland water-shed between the Mascomy and Sugar rivers lies in the
swampy district near the south line of Enfield. The Croydon range

TOPOGRAPHY. 2O/

borders the valley to Claremont, where the erosion is more observable
than at East Lebanon, allowing Sugar river to pass into Claremont. This
river is further remarkable, since it cuts the main range, also draining a
large area east of Sunapee, which would more naturally flow into the
Merrimack.

From Newport the valley between the parallel ranges passes more
easterly into Goshen and Lempster, rising in the swamps near Dodge
pond, the source of the tributaries of Cold river, which courses southerly
through Acworth, Langdon, and the corners of Alstead and Walpole.
North Unity and North Acworth possess water-sheds parallel to each
other and running easterly, having Little Sugar river between them.
There are no notable hills on either side, though the land is high. This
irregularity is induced by the rising up of older earth-masses in Kilburn
Peak, near Bellows Falls.

The valley is next continuous in the Ashuelot basin. The north rim
lies between Paper Mill Village and Alstead Centre. The ridge in Mar-
low, where the old and new Forest roads unite, is 1,328 feet high, along
the line of a railroad survey. Just north of the Ashuelot valley, near
Alstead village, the ridge is lower, estimated to be about 900 feet. In
Surry the valley is narrow and deep. In Keene it spreads out widely,
the level at the railroad being 482 feet. It narrows in passing into
Swanzey, but is constantly deepening. At Winchester the river turns
into Hinsdale, across a very ancient ridge ; but the valley continues into
Massachusetts in a direct southerly course.

Principal Range. The main water-shed of the state is the eastern
part of this double range. Leaving the White Mountain district in
Moosilauke, it starts up again in the high Kinneo and Carr's mountains,
running down through Wentworth and Rumney, ending in Rattlesnake
mountain, till cut across by Baker's river.

Warren occupies an elevated position between the two great ranges.
The general shape of the land is that of a basin, with notched edges.
Just to the north the immense mass of Moosilauke makes a third side to
the depression, while the narrowness of the Owl's Head pass nearly
closes up the valley on the north-west. The map of Warren annexed, —
kindly loaned by William Little, of Manchester, an early friend of the
survey, and author of a history of Warren, — shows better than words the

208

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

topographical features of the town, with its ancient and modern artificial
limits.

Fig. 40. — MAP OF WARREN.

Our main range rapidly recovers itself in the highlands of Groton, and
Mt. Cardigan in Orange. The next low point is at the summit of the
Northern Railroad. Next, we find, in Grafton, Isinglass mountain and
Prescott hill. In Springfield the range is continuous in Aaron's ledges,
Shad, Stevens's, Col. Sanborn, Hoyt, Sanborn, and Hog hills, besides
others not mentioned on the map. The continuity is interrupted by the
basin of Sunapee lake. Directly to the south are the Sunapee moun-
tains, along the line between Newbury and Goshen. These connect
directly with Kittredge, Jones, Taylor, and Ames hills, and Mt. Lovell in
Washington. At the village the range is cut through by streams flowing
south-easterly; but the ridge is continuous from Oak hill to Stoddard,
the west part of Nelson, and so on to Mt. Monadnock.

TOPOGRAPHY. 2OQ

Mt. Monadnock is usually described as an isolated peak rising out of a
plateau, having the altitude of 3,186 feet; while the plain will average
from 1,000 to 1,200 feet, including the towns of Jaffrey, Sharon, Fitzwil-
liam, New Ipswich, and others. While this is generally correct, it should
be modified so that it be understood to be part of the principal backbone
of the state, and the culminating peak of the southern part of the range.
There are geological reasons for explaining its isolated position, which
will be mentioned hereafter. The Pack Monadnock range is really a part
of the Monadnock group. The Contoocook river, with its Harrisville
branch, has excavated a deep channel through the Monadnock plateau,
sinking northerly. Consequently there are left high hills to the west, as
in Nelson and Hancock, Bald, Willard, and Robb mountains in Antrim,
etc. On the east is the more important range of hills in the west part
of Deering, Crotchet mountain in Francestown, Pinnacle mountain in
Lyndeborough, Pack Monadnock in Peterborough and Temple, Temple,
Kidder, and Barrett's mountains in Temple and New Ipswich. This is
now the main range, having come from a direction east of north to join
the Monadnock water-shed. It continues southerly into Massachusetts,
viz., Watatic mountain in Ashburnham, Wachusett, 2,018 feet, in Prince-
ton ; and so on southerly through the central part of the state. The
White Mountain range, therefore, when correctly followed, does not
pass into the Connecticut valley Trap mountains, as maintained by some
authors.

Heights along the Principal Water-shed of New Hampshire. The
main water-shed of New Hampshire runs nearly parallel to Connecticut
river, and in fact forms the eastern rim of that hydrographic basin.
It is of special importance to one studying the topography of the state,
and for that reason is given here as fully as possible.

From near the north corner of the state to Mt. Washington, this line
skirts the Androscoggin basin. It borders the Saco waters only from
Mt. Washington to Mt. Field. From here to Massachusetts the line
agrees with the west border of the Merrimack system. The line may be
divided into three sections : First, averaging 2,000 feet elevation to the
base of Mt. Madison. Second, the White Mountain division from Madi-
son to Moosilauke, averaging nearly 4,000 feet. Third, the portion from
Warren to Massachusetts, averaging about 1,500 feet. The lowest point
VOL. i. 29

2IO

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

in the northern section is at the Milan summit on the Grand Trunk Rail-
way, 1,087 feet. The lowest point in the White Mountain line is at the
notch, 1,914 feet. The Franconia notch is nearly the same, being 2,014
feet. The lowest point in the entire line is at the Orange summit of the
Northern Railroad, 990 feet. The next lowest point is at Warren, 1,063
feet. It is followed by the railroad cut at Milan, 1,087, and at Newbury,
1,161 feet, for the natural surface of the ground. Two projected railway
lines cross the southern section, with the height of 1,560 feet in Stod-
dard, and of 1,265 at Harrisville.

Feet.

Ridge between Lake Magalloway

and Third lake, . . . 2917
Mt. Abbott (Kent), estimated, 2800
Mt. Carmel, . . . . 3711
Two miles south of Second lake, 2030
Magalloway mountain (est.), . 2600
Ridge (est.), .... 2500
Mt. Pisgah, .... 2897
Near Diamond ponds, Stewarts-
town, 1723

Dixville notch 1858

Table rock, .... 2454

•Peak in Erving's Location, . . 3156
Divide between Nash and Sims

streams 1715

Milan summit, G. T. R., . . 1087

Pond of Safety, Randolph, . 1973

Randolph mountain, Randolph, 3043
Divide between Moose and Israel's

rivers, Randolph, . . . 1446
Mt. Madison, .... 5365
Gap between Madison and Adams, 4912
Mt. Adams, .... 5794
Gap between Adams and Jeffer-
son, 4939

Mt. Jefferson, . . . . 5714

Gap between Jefferson and Clay, 4979

Mt. Clay, 5553

Gap between Clay and Washing-
ton, 5417

Mt. Washington, . . . 6293

Feet.

Gap between Washington and

Monroe, 5100

Lake of the Clouds, . . . 5009
Mt. Monroe, .... 5384
Little Monroe, W.S.W. of Monroe, 5204
Mt. Franklin, .... 4904
Gap between Franklin and Pleas-
ant, 4400

Mt. Pleasant, .... 4764

Gap between Pleasant and Clinton, 4050

Mt. Clinton, .... 4320

Mt. Jackson, .... 4100

Mt. Webster, .... 4000

White Mountain notch, . . 1914

Mt. Willard (est.), . . . 2570

Mt. Field, 4°7°

Divide between East Branch and

New Zealand river, . . . 2123

Twin mountain, .... 4920

Gap (est.), .... 3000

Haystack, ..... 4500

Mt. Lafayette, .... 5259

Franconia notch, . . . 2014

Profile mountain, . . . 3850

Valley (est.), .... 2850

Mt. Kinsman, .... 4200

Mt. Blue, 4370

Woodstock notch (est.), . . 1655

Moosilauke, . . . . 4811

Oliverian notch, B. C. & M. R. R., 1063

Webster Slide mountain, Warren, 22 10

TOPOGRAPHY.

211

Feet.

Road over Ore hill, Warren, . 1542

Piermont mount., Piermont (est.), 2500
Water-shed south-east of Indian

pond, Orford, .... noo

Mt. Cuba, Orford, . . . 2927
Gap between Rocky pond, Went-

worth, and Quinttown, Orford

(est.), 1438

Smart's mountain, Dorchester

(est.), 2500

Dorchester valley, lowest point

(est.), 1250

Ridge east of Dorchester, Canaan

valley, . . . . . 2137
Divide in road from Orange to

Groton (est.), . . . 1600

Hoyt hill, Orange (est.), . . 1700

Orange summit, N. R. R., . . 990

Ford Hill, Grafton, . . . 1800

Prescott hill, Grafton (est.), . 1700

Aaron's ledge, Springfield (est.), 1800
Divide in road from Springfield

to Grafton (est.), . . . 1600

High land to the south-east (est.) , 1750

Feet.

Divide in road near Mud pond,

Springfield, . . . . 1383
Col. Sanborn hill (est.), . . 1600
Divide between Little Sunapee
and Pleasant pond, New Lon-
don (est.), .... 1300
New London, .... 1355
Between New London and Suna-
pee lake, lowest point, . . 1200
N. W. corner of Sutton (est.), 1700
Chalkpond divide, Newbury(est-), 1260
Railroad cut, Newbury summit, . 1130
Ground above railroad cut, . . 1181
Lowest natural ground 400 feet

south of summit, . . . 1161

Sunapee mountain, . . . 2683

Ridge west of Washington vill., 1463

Summit on Forest road survey, . 1560

Stoddard, Coast Survey station, 2170

Harrisville, railroad summit level, 1265

Mt. Monadnock, . . . 3189

Kidder mountain, . . . 1492

Barrett's mountain, . . . 1847

Ashburnham summit, . . 1084

Other Elevated Areas. There are several important hilly areas in the
Merrimack basin, immediately adjoining the range just described. The
first is a hilly area in New Hampton and Sanbornton, consisting of
Burleigh, Hersey, and Sanbornton mountains on the east side of the
Pemigewasset. Next are the Ragged mountains of Andover and Hill.
Separated from these by the Blackwater river are the Kearsarge moun-
tains in Warner, Wilmot, and Salisbury, the most important of all the
groups. Kearsarge resembles Monadnock in form, general features, and
geological structure. Smaller areas worthy of notice are the dying out
of the Ragged mountain range, with a southerly instead of easterly trend,
in Franklin and Boscawen ; the Sutton hills, perhaps a continuation of
Kearsarge ; an unnamed area in Bradford and Hillsborough, Mink hills in
Warner, Craney hill in Henniker, with eminences in North Weare ; the
Dunbarton heights, the Uncanoonucs of Goffstown, Joe English hill in

212 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

New Boston, Lyndeborough mountains, the hilly area of south-west
Lyndeborough and Mt. Wilton, and the Rattlesnake hill granitic range of
Concord. Perhaps the hilly character of Mt. Vernon, Amherst, Mason,
and other localities may be worthy of notice.

On the east side of the Merrimack are several hilly groups, as Bean
hill, Northfield, spreading into Canterbury on the south and into Gilman-
ton on the east; the somewhat isolated peaks of Grant, Bradford, and
Cogswell hills, in the east part of Gilmanton ; scattered summits in south-
west Gilmanton and eastern Loudon, Catamount mountains in Pittsfield,
Brush hill, McKoy's Fort, and Nottingham mountains in Epsom, with
high land in the west part of Deerfield. Farther south the elevations
are of less consequence. There is high land in Allenstown, extending in
a range to Hooksett, and terminating in Campbell's hill near the Merri-
mack. There are minor ridges following the course of the two bands of
quartzite, referred to on p. 50. The Manchester ridge runs a little east
of north into the west part of Auburn and Candia, connecting with the
abandoned railroad summit at Rowe's Corner, and the Allenstown range
beyond. We can also trace an important ridge from Candia through
Auburn, Chester, Derry East, and Windham, lying between Corbett's
and Policy ponds just before entering Massachusetts.

The Lowland Country. There are no swamps nor low meadows of any
consequence anywhere along the Merrimack river. The clay banks,
when present, are usually high up, covered by sand. The high sandy
plains commence in New Hampton. Here they are undulating and nar-
row. At Bristol they are cut off, and there is no correctness in Dr.
Jackson's map, representing the great bend opposite Bristol as composed
of drift. They skirt both sides of the river in Sanbornton, Tilton, Hill,
and Franklin. In Northfield, Canterbury, Boscawen, and Concord we
find the most extensive development of the elevated sandy plains. In
the east part of Concord the plain is about one hundred and twenty-five
feet above the river, and two miles wide. The plains are contracted to a
line at Hooksett, widening in the south part of the town. The Piscata-
quog river develops this sandy plain several miles back into Bedford and
Goffstown, from Manchester. Litchfield is chiefly a sandy plain. Merri-
mack, Amherst, Nashua, and Hudson possess large areas of the same,
but the land so far down the river is everywhere low, and is mostly

TOPOGRAPHY. 213

covered by hard pan, which has somewhat of a sandy character, and ought
not to be confounded with the elevated plain above, for geological reasons.
Every large tributary below Manchester, as the Souhegan and Nashua
rivers, enlarges the bounds of the lowland, causing it to wind back among
the border hills for many miles.

The valley of the Merrimack below Nashua in Massachusetts, in gen-
eral terms, may be said to agree exactly with its physical features in New
Hampshire below Manchester.

VI. Coast Slope. This greatly resembles the lower Merrimack country.
It starts from the mountainous ridge bordering the Lake district on the
south, and is bounded westerly by the Merrimack river basin. The
northerly boundary consists of the following eminences, running in an
easterly direction: Mt. Bet, Mt Holly, Cropple Crown mountain, and
Birch hill, with the Rattlesnake mountains for foot hills in New Durham ;
the Great Moose, Bald, Hall, and Parker's mountains in Middleton. The
range is cut through by Fellows's branch of the Salmon Falls river in
Wakefield (Union Village); and the hills to the east, in Milton, are 4ow.

In general, it may be stated that the entire northerly and westerly bor-
ders of this district, as represented upon the map, are the lines of highest
elevation, or the rim-edge of a basin, which slopes gently towards the
ocean, having miscellaneous ridges and isolated peaks scattered at ran-
dom over its surface. The first subdivision of this basin is a triangular
area, widest at the north, with a very prolonged and swelling apex. It is
situated between the Cochecho and Salmon Falls rivers, comprising New
Durham, Middleton, Milton, parts of Wakefield, Farmington, Rochester,
Dover, and the whole of the small towns of Somersworth and Rollins-
ford. Milton seems to have a culmination in Teneriffe mountain, near
its topographical centre. Middleton and New Durham slope uniformly
towards the two rivers, with lateral north-south ridges between tributary
streams. The Rochester portion is a perfectly flat, sandy, swampy plain,
226 feet above the sea. In the laterally expanded apex of the triangle,
there is a long elevation midway between the rivers, ending with Garrison
hill in Dover.

A second subdivision may embrace the easterly flowing waters of the
Cochecho. This includes the south-easterly, bearing " New Durham ridge"
in the south corner of the town; the more extensive north east-south

214

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

west range of the Blue Job mountain in Farmington, and the Blue hills
of Strafford ; a north west-south east ridge, at right angles to the last,
from Chesley mountain, in Farmington, to the west part of Rochester;
and the extensive basin of Isinglass river, fed by Round, Long, Nippo,
Stonehouse, and Ayer's ponds, in Barrington.

A third subdivision may be represented by the Lamprey river basin,
including most of Northwood, Nottingham, Deerfield, and the vicinity of
the Concord & Portsmouth Railroad. The first three towns mentioned
show mountainous areas, as the Saddleback in the south part of North-
wood, and the double group of Pawtuccawa in the west part of Notting-
ham, edging into Deerfield. In the east part of Nottingham there is a
large marshy country tributary to Pawtuccawa pond. There is nothing
of much importance in the rest of the Lamprey valley.

The fourth subdivision may be termed the Exeter river basin. This
crooked stream rises in Chester, and flows through parts of Raymond
and Fremont, where it is joined by another branch through Sandown, start-
ing in Chester, thence through Brentwood and Exeter, joining Great bay
between Newmarket and Stratham. After viewing the hills of Farming-
ton and Middleton, there is nothing in this subdivision worthy of note.

The balance of this coast district may be called the Hampton division,
embracing, perhaps, the most square miles of territory possessed by any
of the five areas. It embraces three fourths of the land eastward from
the Boston & Maine Railroad. The land is low, but not marshy, except
along the shore line in Scab rook, Hampton Falls, and Hampton. The
northern portion is a promontory between the Great bay and the Atlantic
ocean. There is an extensive sea beach on it in Rye, with ledges on the
coast at Little Boar's Head, Frost's Point, and Newcastle.

There is a peculiar class of drift hills observed in this area that do not
occur far back from the ocean. They may be from eighty to two hundred
feet above the adjoining lowland. They may be termed bowl-shaped or
elongated ridges, according to circumstances. I have searched in vain
for ledges about them, and have therefore concluded that they are entirely
composed of drift brought from the north. I have reason to believe
many of them exist in Rockingham county, a field that yet remains to be
fully explored. Signal examples are in Stratham, in the north middle dis-
trict, prominent on the map by reason of the absence of roads over it,

TOPOGRAPHY.

215

and in South Hampton abundantly. Great Boar's Head, in Hampton,
is another example. Others occur in Massachusetts, as Prospect hill,
Andover.

The Isles of Shoals belong to the coast slope, being remnants of land
that may formerly have been connected with the main land. As they are
little elevated above the tide, most of the loose materials have been
washed away by the severe north-east storms occurring off our coast. I
found on Star island boulders that had been derived from the main land
thirty or forty miles distant.

Fig 41. — GEORGIANNA FALLS, LINCOLN.

CHAPTER VIII.

TOPOGRAPHY OF COOS COUNTY.

BY J. H. HUNTINGTON.

IHE extreme northern part of New Hampshire is covered by a con-
tinuous primeval forest ; and the surface of the country is broken
by undulating ridges, which here and there rise to mountain heights. In
these forests, almost on the boundary of Quebec province, is the source
of the Connecticut river; and in the extreme north-east corner of the
state is a small lake, which is the principal source of the Magalloway
river. Scarcely anything more is known to the dwellers on the banks of
the Connecticut as to its source, than they know of the source of the
Nile. Hence we shall give a somewhat minute description of this
section.

The difficulties encountered in traversing an unbroken forest are many
and varied. At times the experience is most pleasurable, and, again,
obstacles are encountered that are almost insurmountable. To-day we
cross a beautiful lake. The clear, sparkling waters reflect the bright sun-
light, while along its borders are mirrored the trees that stand in stately
grandeur on its shores. To-morrow its waters roll in tumultuous
wave, and the clouds rest almost on the bosom of the lake. To-day we
traverse its shores, and walk upon the soft green moss that lies spread
under the trees of evergreen like a carpet, so soft and elastic to the

TOPOGRAPHY OF COOS COUNTY. 2 1/

tread, while the rays of the sun, shining through the thick foliage, give
a genial light, and the fresh green moss covers even the fallen trunks of
the trees, as if to conceal every sign of decay ; — and here, where a stream
trickles over its mossy bed, one is carried away in elysian dreams, and
forgets all else save that some enchantment binds him here. But to-mor-
row we become entangled in the undergrowth and shrubs, in what seems
to be an illimitable morass ; while the gently descending rain adheres to
every spray of the foliage, and every touch brings down an additional
shower to add to our discomfiture, until every thread of our apparel is
saturated. As we struggle on through the underbrush and tangled
ferns, we become bewildered as to our course, and our compass shows us
that we are travelling in a direction exactly opposite to that we wished to
go ; and we conclude that this is certainly studying geology under difficul-
ties. To-day we traverse a section where not a single rock is to be seen
in place : to-morrow ledges that excite the liveliest interest crop out on
every hillside. To-day the vision is circumscribed within the narrowest
limits: to-morrow we ascend some lofty mountain, where the view is
unobstructed, and where the undulations of the forests, as they stretch
out in the far distance, seem like vast waves of the ocean ; and nothing
is more pleasing than to watch the shadows of the fleeting clouds as they
pass over these miles of forests. To-day we see only the straight shafts
of the spruce and fir: to-morrow the trees are varied, and along our
pathway are plants of rare beauty, — orchids, — that would attract the
attention of the most careless observer. To-day we see no sign of
animal life, and the songs of birds, even, break not the stillness of these
deep solitudes : to-morrow we may be carried away in ecstacies of delight
as the song of the hermit thrush greets the ear, or we wonder at the
extraordinary volume of song that the little winter wren pours forth ; and,
as we see its diminutive size, we mark the force of the comparison of
the Indian who said that, if he had strength in proportion as this bird has
power of song, he could move the world ; — and it would not be strange if,
in our travels through the woods, we should meet a deer or see a moose.
To-day the cool breezes drive every insect from the air: to-morrow, in
the dense forests, the mosquitoes are in perfect swarms, and their attacks
drive one almost frantic. In the openings, where the mosquitoes cannot
endure the sun, the black flies are sure not to be wanting. The very air
VOL. i. 30

2l8 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

seems filled with them, and their attacks are, if possible, more persistent
than those of the mosquitoes ; and we are bled at every pore, so that the
face becomes one mass of gore. To-night, after a delightful day, we
camp beneath the clear blue sky, while the shimmering light of the moon
through the trees gives a dreamy aspect to the scene ; and, reclining on
our elastic bed of boughs of fir, we need no somnific portion to bring sleep
and repose. But again, another night, thoroughly saturated, we seek
a camping-place, while the rain still pours in torrents. Stretching our
shelter-tent, we kindle a fire with the bark of the birch trees, and, in the
drenching rain, cut wood for our camp-fire. Then, retiring within our
shelter, we steam until we are dry. So, day by day, the experience is
ever new ; but at no time is it an easy task to travel through the unbroken
forests.

WATER-SHEDS.

Along the water-shed that separates the head waters of the Connecti-
cut and Magalloway from those of the St. Lawrence, runs the boundary
line between New Hampshire and Quebec province. Although its gen-
eral direction from Crown monument to the head of Hall's stream is a
little south of west, yet so crooked is it that in its course it runs towards
nearly every point of compass, making the distance nearly twice as great
as it is in a direct line between these points.

At Crown monument the height of the water-shed is 2,568 feet. It
descends gently for a short distance as we go west, but soon rises again,
until, near Lake Magalloway, it has an elevation of 2,812 feet. The sum-
mit of the ridge here is 587 feet above the lake just mentioned. Then
north-west of the lake there is quite a gap, but it soon rises again into a
mountain ridge. But two miles west of the lake is another depression:
in this rises the most north-westerly branch of the Magalloway. West of
this the ridge rises again, and forms a mountain range which extends
west two miles to the gap near Third lake. Extending south from this
height of land is the water-shed between the Connecticut and Magallo-
way. The gap at Third lake has a height of 2,146 feet. Then there is
a slight rise, and again a depression of about the same height as the last.
Then the water-shed rises again to the summit of Mt. Prospect, to an
elevation of 2,629 feet. It then descends, but continues with varying

TOPOGRAPHY OF COOS COUNTY. 219

undulations, until, near the head of Hall's stream, it spreads out into an
immense plateau.

The water-shed that separates the waters of the Connecticut from the
Magalloway, Androscoggin, and Saco rivers, runs as follows : Starting
from the boundary of Quebec province, five miles south-west of Crown
monument, and not far from three miles east of Third lake, the line
runs nearly south four miles ; then it turns almost directly east, and
extends to Mt. Kent, on the boundary between New Hampshire and
Maine ; thence it follows the boundary to Mt. Carmel ; thence it runs
a little south of west, to a point two miles south of Second lake;
thence south to Magalloway mountain; thence it follows a ridge west
nearly a mile; thence it runs south-west to Mt. Pisgah; then it bends
still to the west, and reaches its western limit near the Diamond ponds
in the eastern part of Stewartstown ; thence it runs south-east to
Dixville notch ; thence a little east of south, through the western part
of Millsfield ; thence south through Milan, Berlin, and Randolph ; thence
over the White Mountains to the notch. Along this water-shed is
some of the highest land in New Hampshire ; but there are occasional
gaps where roads are or can be constructed. Some of these passes
are well known. Going north from the notch, the first is in Ran-
dolph ; the next is where the Grand Trunk Railway passes ; then there
is the road through Dixville notch ; but north of this no carriage-road
has ever been constructed, — and there are only three winter roads,
and these for lumbering purposes. The first of these roads crosses the
Connecticut three and a half miles south of Connecticut lake, and runs
south-east. After passing the height of land, it strikes one of the branches
of the Swift Diamond, and, following this, it extends down to the Magal-
loway. The second road begins at the last settlement in Pittsburg,
crosses the Connecticut one mile north of Connecticut lake, and strikes
the Magalloway four miles south of Parmachena lake. It is several years
since either of these roads was used, but through the evergreen forests
they are as distinct as when first made, — yet through the deciduous trees
the underbrush has so obstructed the way that it is almost impossible to
pass, even on foot. Along either of these routes there is nothing
to hinder the construction of a carriage-road, and, probably along the
most northern, one will never be called for ; but it may be opened again

22O PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

as a "tote" road when lumbering is carried on along the Upper Magallo-
way. The third, a new tote road, recently opened to the Magalloway
by the way of Second lake, will probably be the one that will be most
used, since it strikes farther up the river. The water-shed itself, and
the country east, is broken up into irregular groups of mountains and
hills, but no two groups have exactly the same kind of rocks. The axis
of all the higher groups is either gneiss or schist.

The northern portion of the area of Vermont, that is represented on
the topographical map, is covered for the most part with forests. In
general, the features of the country are very irregular, and in the more
rugged portions the land rises to mountain heights. On the east, Mt.
Monadnock, in Lemington, is not far from 3,000 feet above the valley of
the Connecticut, while in the towns immediately south of the Grand
Trunk Railway there are half a score of mountain peaks. From this
last area streams flow in every direction, — north into the Nulhegan, east
into the Connecticut, and south and east into the Passumpsic.

The water-shed between the Connecticut and the St. Lawrence runs
south-west from the head of Hall's stream through the township of
Auckland, and when it strikes Hereford it runs nearly west almost to the
limit of the township ; thence it runs directly south about four miles,
when it turns westerly into Barford ; and thence it runs southward, and
enters Vermont in the extreme west part of Canaan. It then runs south
between Great Averill and Little Leach ponds. Between these the
height of land is probably not more than fifty feet. From Great Averill
pond it runs south perhaps a mile and a half below Little Averill, thence
westward, bending northward around the head of the north branch of the
Nulhegan, and strikes the Grand Trunk Railway in Warren Gore, when
it turns abruptly southward and eastward, and strikes the Grand Trunk
Railway again two miles south-east of Island Pond village. Southward
the road from Island Pond to Burke crosses the water-shed near the
southern line of Brighton ; from thence it has generally a westerly trend,
and the Passumpsic railroad crosses it in the north-west part of Sutton,
when it passes out of the limit of our map. The great irregularity of
surface in this north-east section of Vermont is due principally to the
great difference in the character of the rocks. There are few areas of
equal extent where so great a variety of crystalline rocks are found.

TOPOGRAPHY OF COOS COUNTY. 221

THE WATER BASINS.

The northern portion of the water basin of the Connecticut!., he Magal-
loway, the Androscoggin, and the Saco, is embraced in this section.
North of latitude 45° it embraces nearly the whole of that of the Con-
necticut. West of the Connecticut river, and north of latitude 45°, there
are three nearly parallel ridges. The first, going west, is somewhat irreg-
ular, and is cut off where Perry's stream turns east and flows into the
Connecticut. But two, — one between Perry's and Indian streams, and
the other between Indian and Hall's streams, — are more uniform, and
they have a mean height of about six hundred feet above the streams.
South of latitude 45°, and east of the Connecticut, the ridges are every-
where very irregular. North hill, in Clarksville, rises 1,971 feet where
the road crosses. South hill, in Stewartstown, is 2,000 feet, ascending to
Jackson. In Colebrook and below, the high ridges branching from the
water-shed have generally a westerly trend. South of Sims stream the
ridge extends nearly to the Connecticut, as, also, the one in Stratford,
south of Lyman brook. Below North Stratford the ridges run more to
the south. In Northumberland, south of the Upper Ammonoosuc, they
again run more nearly west, and continue thus until we reach Dalton,
where the principal ridge runs north and south.

Seven miles south of Crown monument the water-shed touches the
boundary line of Maine. The portion of the water basin of the Magallo-
way north of this is a level tract of country, penetrated by spurs from
the boundary line towards Quebec province. South of the point men-
tioned above, the water basin of the Magalloway occupies a large tract of
country in New Hampshire. It is everywhere broken into irregular
mountain ridges, but these have generally a southern trend until we reach
the Swift Diamond in Dartmouth College grant. South of this stream
there is a high, continuous ridge from Dixville notch to the Magollaway :
then there is a high ridge that runs south, parallel with the stream last
mentioned. The triangular area, embraced by the Swift Diamond, Clear
stream, and the Magalloway and Androscoggin, is a succession of hills
and mountain ridges. The high point north of Dixville notch forms the
apex of the triangle ; and Mt. Dustan is in the north-east angle. South

222 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

of Clear stream the hills are, if possible, more irregular in their contour
than those northward.

THE STREAMS.

The principal streams are the Connecticut, the Magalloway, and the
Androscoggin. Almost on the very northern boundary of New Hamp-
shire, and nearly on the very summit of the dividing ridge that separates
the waters of the St. Lawrence from those that flow southward, there is
a small lake containing only a few square acres ; and this is the source of
the Connecticut river. It has an elevation of 2,551 feet, and is only
seventy-eight feet below the summit of Mt. Prospect; and so remote
is it from the habitations of men that it is rarely seen. A place more
solitary I know not in northern New Hampshire. Surrounded as it is by
dense forests of evergreen, you can see only these and the waters of the
lake. Almost the only sound that relieves the monotony of the place is
the croaking of the frogs, and this must be their paradise. A few steps
to the summit of Mt. Prospect, and we can overlook thousands and
thousands of square miles of forests in Quebec province, while in the
extreme distance to the north-west can be seen the habitations of men.
Southward the view is not extensive. The outlet of the lake just men-
tioned is a mere rill ; this flows into Third lake. This lake is half a mile
directly south of the boundary, and has an area of three fourths of a
square mile, and its height is 2,038 feet. It is trapezoidal in shape, and
has its greatest width on the south, while its northern shore is not more
than a quarter of a mile in length. Its outlet is at the south-east corner,
and its width is eight feet, and its depth six or eight inches. Besides the
spruce and firs and cedars of immense size, it has a sub-alpine vegetation.
Labrador tea, the ledum palustre, is found in abundance along its shores.
In early summer, before the swarms of insects come, it is charming to
stand upon its border, when not a ripple disturbs its placid waters, and the
trees are mirrored along its shores. On every side except the south, the
hills, which rise to mountain heights, approach almost to its very shores.
The Connecticut, which is its outlet, is nowhere remarkably rapid.
About five miles from the lake it receives a tributary from the east, the
principal branch of which rises near the boundary. This stream is nearly
as large as that into which it flows. A mile and a half from where it

TOPOGRAPHY OF COOS COUNTY. 22$

receives this tributary, it flows into Second lake. This lake is two miles
and three fourths in length, and in the widest part it is little more than a
mile, and the height above the sea is 1882 feet. Its area is about one
and three fourths square miles. It is one of the most beautiful of
our northern lakes. The graceful contour of its shores, the symmetry of
its projecting points, the stately growth of its primeval forests, the carpet
of green that is spread along its border and extends through the long
vista of the woods, the receding hills and the distant mountains, present
a combination of the wild, the grand, and the beautiful that is rarely seen.
Near its northern border, besides the Connecticut, it receives two tributa-
ries, one from the north-east and one from the north-west. Its outlet is
on the west side, near its southern limit ; it is forty feet in width, and has
a depth of eighteen inches. Twenty rods from the lake it has a fall of
eighteen feet or more ; then its descent is quite gradual, but forms here
and there deep eddies. A mile from the lake it becomes more rapid, and
rushes down between precipitous walls of rock in a series of wild cas-
cades, which continue for half a mile. It receives two tributaries from
the west before it flows into Connecticut lake. Here we find a sheet of
water exceedingly irregular in its outline. Its length is four miles, and
its greatest width two and three fourths, and it contains not far from three
square miles. Its general direction is east and west, but near its outlet
it turns towards the south. None of these lakes contain islands to any
extent. Second lake has only one, and this has two, but they are very
near the south-east shore. On the west shore of this lake the country
is settled, and the grassy pastures extend down to its border ; but for
the most part it is still surrounded by a primeval forest As many of
the neighboring hills are crowned with deciduous trees, particularly the
maple, in autumn, when the frost comes and these have put on their
crown of beauty, of crimson and scarlet, of yellow and gold, and mingled
as they often are with the dark foliage of the spruce and fir, we have a
scene which, in brilliancy and beauty, is rarely if ever excelled. There is
another element characteristic of this high elevation, for the lake is 1,619
feet above the sea. It often happens, when the forest has put on this robe
of beauty, that all the neighboring heights are of immaculate whiteness
from the frozen mist that clings to every spray of the evergreen foliage.
Embraced in the picture are the blue waters of the lake, the belt of

224 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

deciduous forests, with their brilliant, gorgeous colors, the dark bands of
the evergreens, and the snow-white summits. The water at the outlet
flows over a rocky barrier, the stream falling abruptly nearly thirty-seven
feet. The fall is quite rapid for two miles and a half: then the flow is
more gentle for about four miles : then it becomes more rapid again, and
continues thus until after it passes West Stewartstown. It is then
nowhere a sluggish stream, and has rapids in many places until it gets
below the falls of Northumberland : then it is the most placid of streams
until it reaches the Fifteen-mile falls, which begin in Dalton. The fall
from Connecticut lake to Lancaster is 785 feet. In New Hampshire,
below Connecticut lake, the Connecticut river receives three large tribu-
taries,— Perry's stream, which rises near Third lake, and has a rapid
descent, including two falls three and five miles from its confluence, a
mile and a half from the lake ; Indian stream, which rises on the bound-
ary, has a very rapid descent for five or six miles, when it is a very quiet
stream until it flows into the Connecticut about eleven miles from the
lake; Hall's stream, which rises also on the boundary, and is the dividing
line between New Hampshire and Quebec province. Besides these there
are several smaller streams. The principal streams from the east are
Cedar stream in Pittsburg, Labrador brook and Dead Water stream in
Clarksville, the Mohawk in Colebrook, Sims stream and Lyman brook in
Columbia, Bog brook in Stratford, the Upper Ammonoosuc in Northum-
berland, Israel's river in Lancaster, and John's river in Dalton.

The Magalloway has its principal source in Lake Magalloway, about a
mile and a half south-west of Crown monument. This lake is one of the
most romantic in New Hampshire. It has an elevation of 2,225 fee^
above the sea. Its area is not far from from 320 square acres, and is
surrounded by hills that rise to mountain heights, the elevation on the
north-east being 587 feet above the lake, and from its summit we look
immediately down upon it. The stream which is its outlet forms, a
few steps from the lake, a beautiful cascade some twenty feet in height.
Of all the men who have hunted in these forests, I have found only one
who has ever seen this lake. If it were within the reach of travel, it
would no doubt attract many persons, for in wildness and grandeur it is
not surpassed. Its outlet is soon augmented by streams both from New
Hampshire and Maine.

TOPOGRAPHY OF COOS COUNTY. 225

The Magalloway, soon after it enters the state of Maine, forms one of
the peculiar streams in this northern country. It flows for a time with

Fig. 42. — VIEW ON THE UPPER MAGALLOWAY.

a rapid current, and then for a long distance it is the most sluggish
of streams, often deeper than it is wide, while on either side there are
numerous ponds or bogs. Parmachena lake, into which it flows, is about
the size of Connecticut lake. For four miles below Parmachena the
stream is very rapid, and then, for almost the entire distance to Escahos
falls, the descent is slight. Upper Magalloway settlement lies above the
falls. The Magalloway enters New Hampshire in Dartmouth College
grant. It flows about a mile, and then goes into Maine, but enters New
Hampshire again in the north-east corner of Wentworth's Location, and
flows into the Androscoggin a mile and a quarter from Umbagog lake.
Although the river is very crooked, yet the water is of sufficient depth
so that a steamer runs up nearly to the Maine line. The steamer runs
down the Androscoggin to Errol dam : below this the Androscoggin is
for the most part quite rapid, and, in the sixty-six miles of this river in
New Hampshire, the fall is 464 feet. The tributaries of the Magalloway
and Androscoggin from New Hampshire are the Little Magalloway, four
and a half miles south of Parmachena lake, and the Swift Diamond, which
has its source in the Diamond ponds in Stewartstown, and has a tribu-
tary, the Dead Diamond, which rises two and a half miles south-east of
Second lake, and flows into the Swift Diamond a mile and a half from its
confluence with the Magalloway in Dartmouth College grant. Clear
stream flows into the Androscoggin in Errol. In Gorham the tributaries
are Moose and Peabody rivers, the latter of which rises in the Great Gulf
VOL. i. 31

226

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

between Mt. Washington and Mt. Adams. A considerable tributary,
Wild river, rises in Bean's purchase, but flows into the Androscoggin in
Maine. Besides these from the west, the Androscoggin has three tribu-
taries in New Hampshire from the east,— the Molichewock in Errol, and
the Chickwolnepy and Stearns brooks in Milan.

Fig- 43- — RIPLEY'S FALLS.

CHAPTER IX.

TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS OF THE STATE.

of the first essentials to a knowledge of the natural resources
of a state is an acquaintance with its topographical features in
relation to population. The position of villages, mountains, roads,
streams, lakes, etc., must be known before any kind of important com-
mercial transactions can be effected. Our predecessors understood the
importance of maps, since they commenced a century since to order their
construction, — long before many other states seemed to appreciate their
importance. But a new one is needed now. We have endeavored to
construct one that is reliable, drawing upon our own private resources for
want of public patronage. It is employed as the base chart for repre-
senting the geology in this report.

In view of the importance of maps to the progress of civilization, I
have thought it best to sketch the history of the official charts of New
Hampshire, describing those in particular which have been published
under legislative sanction, and stating the most important improvements
in the one constructed under our direction.

The first known map of the state was edited by Joseph Blanchard and
Samuel Langdon, and published at Portsmouth in 1761. I have not been
able to find a copy of it anywhere, and therefore will not attempt to
describe it. The next was Holland's. Dr. William Prescott, of Concord,
possesses a copy of this, which has preserved much of its original fresh

228 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

appearance ; and he kindly loaned it to us for examination and copy, by
the heliotype process, for this report.

HOLLAND'S MAP.

In 1773 and 1774, Capt. Samuel Holland made a survey of the prov-
ince at the public expense. Owing to the disturbances, which commenced
immediately afterwards, the map was not engraved till 1784, in London,
and by the direction and at the expense of Paul Wentworth, Esq.
Belknap says of it, in the third volume of his history, bearing date of
1792, in the preface: "Those parts which were actually furnished by
Holland, or his assistants, are laid down with great accuracy. The
eastern boundary line and the parts connected with it were not surveyed,
but taken from such materials and information as could at that time be
collected." Belknap has compiled a smaller map from Holland's for his
work, upon which he placed a few improvements, including the straight
line finally agreed upon by the assembly to take the place of the con-
spicuous "Masonian curve," appearing both upon Holland's and Carri-
gain's map. I quote Belknap's account of the final settlement of the
matter.*

It was observed, in the course of the preceding work, that the Masonian proprietors
claimed a curve line as their western boundary, and that under the royal government
no person had controverted that claim. When the war with Great Britain was termi-
nated by the peace of 1783, the grantees of some crown lands, with which this line
interfered, petitioned the assembly to ascertain the limits of Mason's patent. The
Masonians at the same time presented a petition showing the pretension which they
had to a curve line, and praying that a survey of it, which had been made in 1768 by
Robert Fletcher, might be established. About the same time the heirs of Allen,
whose claim had long lain dormant for want of ability to prosecute it, having consulted
council and admitted some persons of property into partnership with them, entered
and took possession of the unoccupied lands within the limits of the patent, and, in
imitation of the Masonians, gave general deeds of quit-claim to all bonafide purchasers,
previously to the first of May, 1785, — which deeds were recorded in each county, and
published in the newspapers. They also petitioned the assembly to establish a head
line for their patent.

After a solemn hearing of these claims, the assembly ordered a survey to be made of
sixty miles from the sea, on the southern and eastern lines of the state, and a straight
line to be run from the end of one line of sixty miles to the end of the other. They

* Hist. N. H., vol. 3, p. 13. 1812.

TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS OF THE STATE. 229

also passed an act to quiet all bona fide purchasers of lands between the straight and
curve lines, so far as that the state should not disturb them. This survey was made in
1787 by Joseph Blanchard and Charles Clapham. The line begins on the southern
boundary, at lot No. 18 in the town of Rindge. Its course is N. 39° E. Its extent is
93^ miles. It ends at a point in the eastern boundary, which is seven miles and two
hundred and six rods northward of Great Ossapy river. This line being established
as the head line or western boundary of Mason's patent, the Masonians, for the sum
of forty thousand dollars in public securities and eight hundred dollars in specie, pur-
chased of the state all its right and title to the unoccupied lands between the straight
line and the curve. The heirs of Allen were then confined in their claim to those
waste lands only, which were within the straight line. They have since compromised
their dispute with the proprietors of eleven of the fifteen Masonian shares, by deeds of
mutual quit-claim and release. This was done in January, 1790.

The following is the title of the map upon its face :

A Topographical Map of the State of New Hampshire : Surveyed under the Direc-
tion of Samuel Holland, Esqr, Surveyor General for the Northern District of North
America ; by the following Gentlemen, his Deputies : Mr. Thomas Wright, Mr. George
Sproule, Mr. James Grant, Mr. Thomas Wheeler and Mr. Charles Blaskowitz.
London : Printed for William Faden, Geographer to the King. Charing Crofs,
March first, 1784.

ADVERTISEMENT.

The respective parts of this Plan were arranged by the several Gentlemen concerned
with all pofsible accuracy, and afterwards rectified by Samuel Holland Esq. from the
Astronomical Observations made by him at Portsmouth, Wentworth House, Newbury
Port and Cape Anne and those made by Mr. Wright at Hensdale and the Pine Tree
at Dracutt.

By these Surveys thus adjusted the Form of the Province is exactly determined
except as to its Eastern Boundary Line, which is laid down with the several Parts
dependent thereon from such materials as were given in : Whatever relates therefore to
that line, must depend on their authenticity and goodnefs.

The Bounds of the several Townships and Patents were delineated from Descrip-
tions in the Public Offices, or Surveys made for the use of the State and the Parties
concerned : It is pofsible some Tracts which were granted or patented at the execution
of this Plan are omitted, should there be any such it must be attributed to the necefsary
materials for describing them not having been sent in : Which is also the reason that
some Townships appear more compleatly laid down than others that are perhaps as
well settled.

Some of the special features of this map will be stated next.
Townships retaining the same names as at present, and the same, or
not very different, boundaries :

230 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Durham, New Market, Stratham, Exeter, Kensington, Lee, Epping,
Raymond, Candia Parish, Windham, Pelham, Hollis, Mason, New Ipswich,
Rindge, Fitzwilliam, Richmond, Winchester, Hensdale, Chesterfield, West-
moreland, Keene, Swanzey, Jaff rey, Dublin, Peterborough, Temple, Wilton,
Lindborough, Amherst, Merrimack, Litchfield, Bedford, Goffstown, New
Boston, Gillsom, Surrey, Walpole, Alstead, Marlow, Hilsborough, Henne-
ker, Hopkintown, Wear, Concord, Bow, Dunbarton, Pembroke, Allen,
Deerfield, Epsom, Northwood, Nottingham, Madbury, Dover, Chichester,
Barnstead, Loudon, New Durham, Middletown, Wolfsborough, Tufton-
borough, Moultonborough, Sandbourntown, Salisbury, Boscawen, Lemp-
ster, Atworth, Charlestown, Unity, Claremont, Newport, Cornish, Croyden,
Plainfield, Grantham, Grafton, Alexandria, Plymouth, Holderness, Canaan,
Hanover, Lime, Dorchester, Orford, Wentworth, Romney, Campton, Sand-
wich, Tamworth, Conway, Thornton, Piermont, Warren, Haverhill, Bath,
Landaff, Whitefield, Lancaster, Northumberland, Colebrooke, Stuarttown,
Shelburne, Dummer, Cambridge, Millsfield, Errol.

The following towns appeared without intervening boundaries, which
probably were essentially their present ones: Newington, Portsmouth,
Greenland, Rye, Hampton and Hampton Falls ; Kingston, Newtown,
Plaistow, Hampstead, New Salem (Salem and Atkinson), and Pelham ;
Brentwood and Fremont (Polin).

The following towns had about the same boundaries as at present,
but different names: Hudson (Nottingham West), Manchester (Derry-
field), Nashua (Dunstable), Brookline (Raby), Sharon (Peterborough Slip),
Troy and Marlborough (Oxford), Nelson (Packersfield), Stoddard (Lim-
erick), Washington (Camden), Newbury (Fishersfield), Sutton (Perry),
Goshen and Sunapee (Saville), Springfield (Protectworth), New London
(Alexandria Addition), Warner (Almsbury), Wilmot (Alexandria Overplus),
Andover (New Britain), Wakefield (East-town), Effingham (Levits-town),
Meredith and Laconia (New Salem, formerly Meredith), New Hampton
and Center Harbor (Moultonborough Addition), Bridgewater and Bristol
(New Chester), Orange (Cardigan), Groton (Cockermouth), Ellsworth
(Trecothick), Woodstock (essentially Fairfield, but Benton included,
partly), Lincoln and Franconia (Morristown, formerly Franconia and Lin-
coln), Enfield (Relhan), Lisbon (Gunthwait), Bethlehem (Lloyd Hill), Lit-
tleton and Dalton (Apthorp, formerly Cheswick), Carrol (Bretton Woods),

TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS OF THE STATE. 23 1

Jefferson (Dartmouth), Stark (Percy), Stratford (New Stratford), Columbia
(Cockborne), Randolph (Durand), Gorham (Shelburne Addition), Berlin
(Mainsburgh), Milan (Paulsburgh).

The following are marked off without names : Somersworth, the lower
part of Ossipee, and Lebanon.

In addition to the territories embraced under their present appellations,
the following towns included additional area : Rochester added Farming-
ton and Milton ; Barrington added Strafford ; Chester added Auburn and
Hooksett; Chichester included Pittsfield; Londonderry included Derry;
"Society Lands" included Deering, Francestown, Antrim, Hancock, and
Greenfield; Canterbury included Northfield; Gilmanton added Belmont
and Gilford ; Eaton embraced much of Ossipee, Madison, and Freedom.
Kilkenny and Percy (Stark) seem to have been magnified to three or
four times their proper width, and the straight east boundary is made to
run due north and south. The White Mountain and Upper Coos regions
were scarcely infringed upon by boundaries.

The importance of this map has induced us to reproduce it in the atlas
as a fac-simile of one fourth the size of the original. For that reason,
those interested in the changes of boundaries and names that have taken
place since New Hampshire ceased to be a province of King George the
Third, may glean further items of interest by actual inspection. For the
same reason, it is not desirable to state, in detail, the position of the
numerous gores and grants that have been absorbed into adjacent town-
ships. I cannot forbear, however, to refer to the origin of the name
Kearsarge. Holland says, — "Kyar Sarga mountain: by the Indians,
Cowissewaschook." The name seems to have been derived from that of
a Mr. Hezekiah Sargent, — corrupted by usage into Kearsarge. It is not,
therefore, of Indian origin, as supposed by many. Furthermore, Kear-
sarge, in Warner, seems to have been the only mountain of that name in
1784. Hence, when the early settlers of Bartlett carried with them the
name of their favorite mountain, and applied it to a new peak in Chatham,
it cannot be expected that, in these days of rapid transit, we should
employ the same name, or even the corruption of ^"zarsarge, for the latter.
It is best to retain the original name of Pigwacket or Pequawket, as I
have endeavored to do uniformly in this report and on the new map.

A similar transfer of names is seen at Colebrook. A fine mountain,

232 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

directly opposite the village, is named Monadnock, for the same reason as
in the other instance. This peak is in another state, and is not visited at
all by tourists. Hence it is not worth while to attempt any change in its
designation at present, though it may be desirable hereafter.

The north boundary of the state is placed at 45° north latitude. This
may have been occasioned by the change of the relations of the province,
in 1784, to the mother country.

CARRIGAIN'S MAP.

The legislatures of 1803 and 1805 directed that a map of the state
should be compiled under the direction of the secretary of state, Philip
Carrigain, from town surveys returned to the secretary's office. The
map was made by joining together numerous separate surveys of town-
ships made by different engineers, and consequently of variable value.
It was not published till 1816.

Were care taken to discover all the steps of the process of the manu-
facture of this projection, the space of several chapters would be occupied
by their rehearsal. The fact that eleven years passed while the work was
preparing, indicates that much tribulation must have been endured by the
author in his attempts to average the errors. His results, with which
alone we need now be concerned, were exceedingly creditable, both to the
author and to the state. I do not recall the existence of any state map
in the country so good as this, which was published at so early a period.
What are now seen to have been defects in the plan of its construction
were unavoidable at that time, without the experience of subsequent
years of labor by engineers.

The atlas contains a half-size fac-similc of Carrigain's map, which may
be consulted in connection with the description, or for more minute study
of localities. It was copied from uncolored sheets, kindly furnished by
Hon. S. N. Bell. The following is the title of it, which is not reproduced
in the heliotype.

NEW HAMPSHIRE By recent survey made under the Supreme Authority and
published according to law by Philip Carrigain Councillor at Law and late secretary of
state. To His Excellency John Taylor Gilman Esq, and to the Honorable the Legisla-
ture of the State of New Hampshire, this map commenced under their auspices and
matured by their patronage is most respectfully inscribed by their obliged servant,
Philip Carrigain. Concord, 1816.

TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS OF THE STATE. 233

Connected with this title is a large colored vignette, six by ten inches
in dimensions. The title is inscribed upon the side of a shield-like cliff,
with evergreens upon its summit, and an eagle feeding her young.
Behind are several very high mountain peaks. On the left is a large
cataract adjacent to the Willey house, and a hunter shooting at a moose
on the border of a lake, — perhaps Winnipiseogee. On the right seems
to be the ocean leading out of Portsmouth harbor, with a tower on an
island, large ships, and a long arched bridge leading to Portsmouth.
Nearer to the front is an extensive canal lock, and people engaged in
agricultural operations, — ploughing and fishing. Directly in front of the
title shield are miscellaneous objects, as cannon, the state insignia, rolls,
baskets, etc. The name of the state is written in very large letters over
the vignette, and the dedication is placed beneath. Three side sketches
are the gap of the White Mountains, view of the Great Boar's Head with
Hampton beach, and the White Mountains from Shelburne. Some of
these will be reproduced with the map. Their vertical scale is so much
exaggerated that they are objects of curiosity. There are two side maps,
not reproduced : the first, of New England and the Dominion of Canada ;
the second, the United States as far as the Mississippi river. The early
period of the issue of the map is appreciated, when it appears that Illinois,
Indiana, and Michigan are represented here as territories. The following
text on the side of the map, relating to the state, may be of historic
interest.

NEW HAMPSHIRE is bounded on the E. by Maine, and the Atlantic; S. by
Massachusetts; W. by the west bank of the river Connecticut as far as Lat. 45, and
then by Lower Canada to Maine.

The line which divides New Hampshire from Maine, commencing at East Pond, and
extending to the north-east boundary of the state, was taken from three surveys, made
in 1741, 1768 and 1789 ; and is properly three lines.

The first surveyor allowed too much for the westerly variation ; and the others,
successively adhering, at the periods of their respective surveys to the same allowance,
notwithstanding the continual retrogression of the needle, thereby increased the error,
and actually made three distinct courses.

The royal order of 1740, by which this line should have progressed N. 2° W., has
therefore never been carried into effect.

The southern boundary from the Pine, at the south-east corner of Pelham, to the
river Connecticut, was measured in 1741, and was intended to have been a due west
VOL. I. 32

234 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

line ; but a similar allowance for the magnetic change having been adopted, gave it an
inclination injurious to N. H. Yet how far the erroneous mode, then in practice, of
running parallels by perpendiculars counteracted the mistake in the allowance for
variation, remains to be determined by proper observations, yet to be made at the
extremities of this line.

But under present circumstances the calculations of Mr. Wright, made in 1773, have
been deemed from necessity the safest basis for this projection.

With regard to the face of the country, its features are striking and picturesque.
The natural scenery of mountains of greater elevation than any others in the UNITED
STATES ; of lakes, of cataracts, of vallies, furnishes a profusion of the sublime and
beautiful. It may be called the Switzerland of AMERICA. The extreme coldness of
the winter is alleviated by the convivial hospitality of that season ; and [is] more than
compensated by the salubrity of the air and other delights of the summer. Industry
morality and piety characterize the public manners, and this state richly participates in
those advancements in science and that high grade of refinement, so general in NEW
ENGLAND. Although the soil, for the most part, is better adapted to pasturage,
than agriculture ; yet a great portion of it is fertile, and produces maize and other
grains abundantly. Elections are annual ; the Townships are distinct corporations,
and slavery is unknown. N. H. was discovered in 1614, and its settlement commenced
in 1623. Its population had advanced in 1770 to 63,761, in 1780 to 102,131, in 1798
to 142,018, in 1800 to 183,663, and in 1810 to 214,460. The State is restricted
to one harbor, which is at PORTSMOUTH, and is second to none in AMERICA.
CONCORD is the present seat of Government.

The variation of the magnetic needle is given thus : Latitude 45, 1807,
7° 33'. Dartmouth college, 1808, 7° 21'. Concord, 1810, 7° if.

The scale is stated to be three miles to the inch, or rather that seems
to have been the intention. Careful measurements upon our copy indi-
cate it to be 3.4 miles to the inch. The variation is undoubtedly due to
the contraction of the paper by drying after the impression had been
printed upon it. Every map thus prepared is liable to modification for
the same reason, and measurements should always be made from the
scale engraved on the face of the map, rather than from a foot-rule.

The general appearance of the map is a great improvement over Hol-
land's, having been engraved upon copper. The mountains, rivers, and
various boundary lines are given with much greater precision. The
northern boundary is given very nearly as it was finally settled by the
commissioners. The wedge of Percy and Kilkenny, between the east
and west townships in Coos county, has been reduced to respectable
limits. Most of the grants and gores have been merged into townships ;

TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS OF THE STATE. 235

and county lines are given for Rockingham, Hillsborough, Cheshire,
Strafford, Grafton, and Coos.

Taking the town improvements over Holland's map by counties, it may
be said of Rockingham that Canterbury and Chichester have been
divided; Sandovvn, East Kingston, and Hawke (Danville) have been
taken out of Kingston ; Atkinson and Windham are eliminated ; and the
shore towns have their boundaries inserted. In Hillsborough, Mont
Vernon and Milford came essentially from Amherst ; Raby has become
Brookline; Derryfield, Manchester; Peterborough Slip, Sharon. Only a
half township of the "Society Land" is left unassigned. Warner, New
London, Wilmot, Andover, and Sutton have received their present names.
In Cheshire, Marlborough, Roxbury, Sullivan, Langdon, Washington,
Goshen, and Springfield make their appearance for the first time. The
present town of Sunapee is called Wendell.

In Strafford, Somersworth has a name ; Rochester is divided as now.
East Town becomes Wakefield ; Ossipee, Center Harbor, Alton, Brook-
field, New Hampton, and Burton (Albany) have an existence, because
incorporated since 1784. In Grafton, Lebanon receives a name; Relhan
becomes Enfield; Cardigan, Orange; Cockermouth, Groton; Trecothick
and Fairfield are merged into Ellsworth, Peeling (Woodstock), and Coven-
try (Benton); Franconia and Lincoln are properly divided; Lisbon has
the name of Concord ; and Lyman, remains as before, including the
present town of Monroe. In Coos, Chatham, Adams (Jackson), Bartlett,
Success, and Dixville are new townships. Shelburne is not divided as on
Holland's; Dalton has been separated from Littleton (Apthorp); and
there are six grants not previously mentioned. The names of Jefferson,
Stratford, and Columbia are also new.

Both maps show the supposed course of the "ancient Masonian curve
line." This will not be reproduced on the new map, as it has ceased to
be of any practical importance, though it has apparently determined the
west town lines of Fitzwilliam, Stoddard, and Washington.

Carrigain's map shows the population in figures engraved upon the face
of each town. Kearsarge is applied where it belongs ; and, in Chatham,
Pigwacket mountain is said to have been formerly called Kiarsarge. There
is an improvement over existing usage in regard to the Merrimack river.
It is made to rise at the foot of Mt. Willey, and the name Merrimack is

236 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

applied to the east branch of the Pemigewasset But the name of Pemi-
gewasset is preserved as a synonym, as it should be. The stream coming
down from Franconia is called the Middle Branch.

The roads are laid down well in accordance with the old method of
presenting the general course, without reference to their minor irregu-
larities.

PROF. WOODMAN'S REPORT.

In 1853 the governor was directed to "appoint a commissioner to
obtain the necessary information, and make estimates of the expense of
constructing ,a new and accurate map of the state." In his report the
following year, Prof. John S. Woodman, the commissioner, answers four
questions, viz., — What data, information, or facts are already within reach
for the construction of a new map ? What are necessary yet to be obtained
for a new and accurate map by actual operations in the field ? What is the
time and expense necessary for obtaining all that is required, and con-
structing a map ? What is the expense of engraving, printing, and manu-
facturing? The answer he gives to the second question expresses well
the character of work required for the construction of a good map, and
the deficiency of Carrigain's map in this respect.

An accurate map of a state is now understood to imply a map constructed upon data
obtained by a series of geodetic and astronomical observations, carefully conducted
with suitable instruments of the kind now in use for such work. Both instruments
and methods have been greatly improved within fifty years, so that a degree of preci-
sion is now easily attained which was formerly impossible. The general method is
briefly this : A base line of four to ten miles in length is accurately measured, and
from this a series of large triangles is supposed to cover the state like a net. The
sides of these triangles should be from twenty to forty miles long. The vertices of
these triangles are accurately determined in position and elevation by the observations.
Then a series of smaller triangles are taken so as to fix one or two points in or near
such town. Then the town maps are accurately made and put in their true position by
reference to the points determined by the triangulation. All the Coast Survey work in
New Hampshire is so much work done, with the requisite care, and the distance
between any two of these points can be used for a base, and the work readily continued
over the state from the points in this state and on the adjacent borders of Maine and
Massachusetts already established. The measuring of a base line with the required
accuracy is always expensive, and would be particularly so in New Hampshire. The
work of the Coast Survey that could be used without expense would probably diminish

TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS OF THE STATE. 237

the cost of the triangulation about one half. The exact determination of the principal
points over the state, in this way, lies at the foundation of a correct map. The town
maps and all the details can be prepared with more or less fulness and correctness, as
may be convenient, and the state map improved from time to time till it is perfect, if
the expense cannot be incurred at once. Slight errors in the position of the details
would not greatly injure the map if the main points were all correct. But a map
compiled from the best town surveys could not be relied upon as accurate. There
would be likely to occur errors of some miles. In the copy of Carrigain's map now
before me, by comparing the position of several points with their actual position as
determined by the U. S. Coast Survey, they appear to be from ten to fifteen statute miles
out of the way in longitude, and from one third of a mile to a mile in latitude. The
large error in longitude has been partially corrected on later maps. The relative error
is also considerable, though not more than what might exist in any map made in the
same way. For instance, if Fort Constitution be assumed as correct in position,
Uncanoonuc is more than a mile too far north and half a mile too far east, while Mt.
Washington is two thirds of a mile too far south, and one third of a mile too far west.
What remains to be done, then, to obtain the required data for an accurate map, is to
complete the triangulation of the state, and make a correct plan of all the towns and
places that have not yet been accurately surveyed.

IMPROVEMENTS INCORPORATED INTO THE NEW MAP.

Survey of the northern boundary by the United States government, in
accordance with the treaty of 1842. Noticed upon pages 21, 171.

Operations of the United States Coast Survey south-east of a line from
Mt. Washington to Mt. Monadnock.

Triangulation of several points under the direction of the geological
survey in 1869. See full report further on.

Triangulation of the geodetic connection survey under the direction of
the United States Coast Survey, E. T. Quimby, acting assistant. See
page 47.

County maps. From 1855 to 1860 careful odometer surveys were
made of every county in the state, and the results published by subscrip-
tion. The scale was usually about an inch to the mile ; and the most
valuable portions of them relate to the delineation of the highways.
Existing surveys of lakes, water-courses, boundary lines, railroads, and
other topographical features were made use of wherever practicable. A
map constructed simply from these odometer maps would produce a new
draft much superior to Carrigain's, for the number of surveyors is greatly
reduced, and there is consequently less opportunity for discrepancies

238

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

where different plans are matched together. These surveys cost over
twenty thousand dollars, and their most valuable features are retained in
the new draft.

Maps of the White Mountains by Bond, Boardman, and Guyot.

Two maps of Connecticut river, referred to on page 46.

Observations of detail by all who have been connected with the survey
from the very first. Some of this has been referred to previously. Efforts
have been made constantly to discover and correct every possible error,
no matter how minute.

Maps of several tracts of forest land, particularly of Success, Cam-
bridge, Errol, College grant, Carlisle, Pittsburg, Bean's purchase, Waum-
bek, Hart's Location, etc., furnished by the proprietors.

For the delineation of mountain ranges, use has been made of the facts
given in the chapter upon Altitudes.

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONS DETERMINED BY THE COAST SURVEY.

NAME OF STATION.

LATITUDE.

LONGITUDE.

From the Report for 1851.

o

/

n

o

/

n

Mt. Wachusett, Mass.,

42

29

18.32

71

52

53-34

Holt's hill, Andover, Mass., ....

42

38

26.13

71

06

03.86

Thompson's hill, Mass., ....

42

36

40.03

70

43

27.99

Uncanoonuc, Goffstown,* ....

42

58

58.34

71

35

18.83

Mt. Agamenticus, Me.,

43

13

22.90

70

4i

11.75

Mt. Patuccawa, Nottingham,*

43

07

12.206

71

ii

50.60

Mt. Gunstock, Gilford,*

43

31

03.00

71

22

10.697

Ossipee, Me., ......

43

3?

17.23

7O

44

06.54

From the Report for 1853.

TJ

J j

/ •** j

/

«-t-<-f

'^ JT-

Isles of Shoals, ......

42

59

13.06

70

36

29.07

Stratham hill, ......

43

02

20.75

70

53

05.18

Hampton Falls, ......

42

54

42. 54

7O

c-z

3O.8O

Great Boar's Head,

T^
42

j^

55

*T^ J)T*
03.61

/
70

DO

47

JV.V

24.80

Hampton, .......

42

56

32.14

70

49

16.82

Little Boar's Head,

42

57

27.07

70

46

12.69

Hampton academy,

42

56

OO.23

70

49

46.52

Hampton, Orthodox church spire, .

42

56

12.76

70

49

41.32

Hampton, Baptist church spire,

42

56

15.00

70

49

52.15

Hampton, wind-mill, .....

42

56

16.03

70

49

23.48

Hampton Falls, academy, ....

42

54

57-87

70

51

34-54

Hampton Falls, church tower,

42

54

59-03

70

5i

33-96

Seabrook, Orthodox church spire, .

42

54

10.22

70

51

45.41

White Island light,

42

eg

OO.AO

7O

37

04.63

Smutty Nose island,

T"

42

D

58

T^
56.87

/

70

o/
35

w*f • V-.J

51.87

Star island, .......

42

58

29.05

70

36

26.49

*The geographical positions as given in the earlier reports do not agree exactly with the latest determina-
tions, especially of the longitudes. The ocean telegraph has furnished the means of ascertaining more accurately
than before the difference in time between Greenwich and Washington. The average correction to be added to
the longitudes is 20". 15, and o".28 to the latitudes. In the cases above, that are marked with an asterisk, I have
given the latest figures of the Coast Survey, but have not corrected any of the others.

TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS OF THE STATE.

239

NAME OF STATION.

LATITUDE.

LONGITUDE.

From the Report for 1853.
Star Island church, .....
Jennis ledge, ......
Locke's point,
Foss, ........

o / //

42 58 33.60
42 58 26.41

42 59 29.05

43 OO 44.. 02

0 / //

70 36 30.89

70 45 36.11
70 44 45.51
70 A A on. i A

Breakfast hill, Rye,
Rye, Orthodox church spire, ....
Rye, Baptist church spire, ....
Pulpit rock,
Newcastle, .......

43 oo 23.72
43 oo 38.53
43 oo 42.72
43 oi 56.75
43 03 3C. 32

70 48 11.22
70 46 03.44
70 46 02.39
70 42 47.15
7O 4.2 5Q.33

Newcastle light,
Fort Constitution, flag-staff, ....
Whale's-back light, .....

43 °4 14-33
43 04 16.26
43 03 20. QI

70 42 11.76
70 42 13.52
7O 4.1 27. So

East end of base of survey by U. S. Top. Eng'rs,
Seward,
Newmarket, .......
Frost's hill,
Wentworth, .......
Great hill,

43 02 33.71
43 04 09.41
43 03 22.32

43 09 43-25
43 08 22.94
43 OC 21.87

70 42 25.95
70 40 23.73
70 56 00.94

70 47 02.81
70 51 38.32

7O 4C OO.67

Newington,

43 °5 50-57

43 OC C2.OQ

70 49 50.60

7O 4Q 3Q.4I

Stratham, Orthodox church spire, .
Stratham, Baptist church tower,
Woodman's point, .....
Durham, .......
Durham spire, ......
Greenland, Orthodox church spire,
Greenland academy,

43 oi 03.72
43 oi 38.57
43 04 22.71
43 05 17.69
43 07 57.14
43 02 10.70
43 02 oo.or

70 54 44.83
70 54 19.07
70 51 14.17
70 53 17.76
70 55 01.83
70 49 40.87

7O 4Q 4I.?2

Brooks,
Bartlett,
Poverty Heights, . .

43 06 38.86
43 05 23.96
43 04 55.14

70 46 58.25
70 46 28.86
70 46 30.04

In the report for 1868, the cupola of Mt. Pequawket is given as lati-
tude 44° 6' I9".6o; longitude 71° 5' 20". 22. I learn the following to
be the position of Mt. Washington: Latitude 44° 16' 25"; longitude
71° 1 6' 26". Mt. Monadnock, in accordance with the latest determina-
tions, has latitude 42° 51' 39//.6i; longitude 72° 6' S°'f-49-

PROF. QUIMBY'S REPORT.

To PROF. C. H. HITCHCOCK : I beg leave to submit the following
report of the geodetic work done by your order the past year. I occu-
pied, during the month of October, 1869, the following stations, and,
although the weather was very unfavorable, succeeded in obtaining satis-
factory observations on each : The observatory at Dartmouth college ;
Moose mountain, Hanover ; Kearsarge, Warner ; Uncanoonuc, Goff stown ;
Monadnock, Jaffrey; and Ascutney, Windsor, Vt. The station upon
Kearsarge was at an angle of the line between the towns of Warner and
Wilmot.

240

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

The subjoined table and plan will give you the results of this survey,
without adjustment by the method of least squares, which may be applied
if the work should be carried further,
obtained from the U. S. Coast Survey.

The values marked * were

STATION.

ANGLES.

SPH. EX.

DISTANCES IN
METRES.

DISTANCES
IN MILES.

TO STATION.

Monadnock,
Uncanoonuc,
Kearsarge,

52° 49' 49" -535
81° 23' 28".635
45° 46' 47" -4i

5".58

44548.677*
49553.216
61461.211

27.68
. 30.78
38.19

Uncanoonuc.
Kearsarge.
Monadnock.

Monadnock,
Kearsarge,
Ascutney,

42° 28' 2i//.oo
79° oo' 05". 5
58° 31' 41". oo

7"-5

61461.211
48658.460
70738.541

38.19

30.24

43-96

Kearsarge.
Ascutney.
Monadnock.

Ascutney,
Kearsarge,
Moose,

60° 05' i 8". 46
51° 10' 40". 96
68° 44' 04". 97

4"-39

48658.460

45258.533
40680.346

30.24
28.12
25.28

Kearsarge.
Moose.
Ascutney.

Ascutney,
Moose,
Observatory,

13° oo' 25". 347
36° ii' 58".547
130° 47' 36".847

o".74i

40680.346
12093.886
3I73S-233

25.28

7-5i
19.72

Moose.
Observatory.
Ascutney.

LATITUDES, LONGITUDES, AND AZIMUTHS.

STATION.

LATITUDE.

LONGITUDE.

AZIMUTH.

TO STATION.

Monadnock,

42° 51' 39".6ii*

72° 06' 30". 489*

252° 07' 58".403*

Uncanoonuc.

199° 18' o8".868

Kearsarge.

156° 49' 47".868

Ascutney.

Uncanoonuc,

42° 58' 58". 338*

71° 35' i8".825*

72° 29' 13". 015*

Monadnock.

153° 52' 41". 650

Kearsarge.

Kearsarge,

43° 22' 58<-'.S3

71° 51' 27". 81

19° 28' 2S".954

Monadnock.

98° 28' 3I".454

Ascutney.

149° 39' 1 2". 414

Moose.

333° 4i' 38"-544

Uncanoonuc.

Ascutney,

43° 2& 45"-39

72° 27' o8".42

204° 58' 1 6". 36 1

Observatory.

217° 58' 41". 708

Moose.

278° 04' oo".2

Kearsarge.

336° 35' 4i".i68

Monadnock.

Moose,

43° 44' 2". 972

72° 08' 29". 70

38° 11' 33". 205

Ascutney.

74° 23' 31". 752

Observatory.

329° 27' 28". 232

Kearsarge.

Observatory,

43° 42' 1 7". 22

72° 17' 9".99

25° 05' 17". 289

Ascutney.

254° 17' 4o"-342

Moose.

It is proper to say that the latitude of the Shattuck observatory, Dart-
mouth college, as obtained by this survey, differs only 2" from the latitude
as determined astronomically by Prof. Young, and the longitude differs
only i ".2 5 from the astronomical longitude as far as has been yet deter-
mined ; — and even this discrepancy is no doubt due to the station error

TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS OF THE STATE. 24!

of the observatory. The instrument used in the survey was a ten-inch
theodolite belonging to the Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth
college. The signals used were heliotropes, which were kindly loaned for
this purpose by the United States Coast Survey.

Respectfully submitted, E. T. QUIMBY.

GEODETIC CONNECTION SURVEY.

DARTMOUTH COLLEGE, April i, 1874.

DEAR SIR: I am instructed by the superintendent of the United States
Coast Survey to furnish you any information you may desire from the
results of the triangulation of New Hampshire. It is desired that you
state, in publishing these results, that they are obtained by the first rough
computations, and will doubtless be somewhat modified by the final
adjustments. I have occupied, for observations, twelve stations in the
three seasons which have been given to the work, and observations have
been made upon several hundred stations. By an appropriation made
by the state the work has been greatly facilitated and extended, in the
establishment of tertiary stations. The number of geographical posi-
tions already determined is fifty, the altitudes of which have also been
found by trigonometrical levelling. Besides these, many others have been
observed from one direction, and will only require observing from another
point to give their latitudes and longitudes.

The accompanying chart shows the scheme of this triangulation and
the progress thus far, and the former Coast Survey stations with which it
is directly connected. The stations here shown are only those occupied
as points of observation, the tertiary points being too numerous to be
shown on a chart of this size. The base from which this triangula-
tion proceeds 'is the line Monadnock-Uncanoonuc. Although these
results, as above mentioned, are not to be considered final, it may be
remarked that the latitude and longitude of Gunstock, as computed
from the base Monadnock-Uncanoonuc, through this triangulation, differ
from the former results of the Coast Survey only oo".O3. From this it
would seem that the correction made by the final adjustment will not be
large. Respectfully yours, E. T. QUIMBY,

Acting Assistant U. S. C. S.

PROF. C. H. HITCHCOCK, State Geologist.
VOL. i. 33

242

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

LATITUDES, LONGITUDES, AND ALTITUDES, IL S C. S.

STATION.

Latitude.

Longitude.

i

Height
in
Feet.

OBJECT WHOSE HEIGHT
IS GIVEN.

Barrett hill, Greenville,

42 45 08.21

71 48 45.54

1271

Ground at signal.

Nelson pinnacle, Nelson,

42 59 49.8

7205 52.1

Tuttle hill, Antrim,

43 03 49- *

72 OO 22. 0

Bald mountain, Antrim,

43 01 18.2

72 oi 52.8

2039

Ground at signal.

Pack Monadnock, Peterboro1,

42 51 43-7

71 52 45.0

2289

" «'

Mont Vernon church spire,

42 53 32.6

71 40 27.7

Bald Mink, Warner,

43 IS 23-i

7i So 34-4

1528

Ground at signal.

Peterborough town-house,

42 52 37.8

71 57 03.6

Greenfield church spire,

42 57 02.4

71 52 20.1

Dublin church spire,

42 54 20.8

72 03 38.6

Deering pinnacle, Deering,

43 04 22.6

71 52 12.8

Craney hill, Henniker,

43 0901.2

71 47 54.6

1420

Ground at signal.

Barrett mt., New Ipswich,

42 45 42.8

71 5456-1

1847

" "

Duncan hill, Hancock,

42 58 06. i

72 02 II-7

2003

« tt

Antrim south church,

43 oi 52-9

71 56 19.4

766

Middle of belfry window,

Antrim brick church,

43 02 53.2

7i 55 34-i

7I8

Ridge-pole of church.

Sunapee mt., Newbury,

43 17 56-3

72 03 50.8

2683

Ground at signal.

North Putney hill, Hopkinton,

43 13 02.9

71 41 24.9

827

" "

Shaker barn, Canterbury,

43 2I 32-0

71 29 22.3

697

Ridge-pole of big barn.

Corser hill church, Webster,

43 19 46.6

71 42 58.4

786

Top of steeple dome roof.

State house, Concord,

43 12 23.8

71 32 18.1

434

Gold ball above dome.

Fort mountain, Epsom,

43 ii 02.8

71 19 11. i

1428

Ground at signal.

Cong, church spire, Pembroke,

43 08 54.8

71 27 34.6

446

$ Base of spire where it
I joins the roof.

LovelPs mt., Washington,

43 12 11. 2

72 03 42.5

2487

Ground at signal.

Crotched mt., Francestown,

42 59 52.58

71 52 26.71

2066

< «

Pitcher mt., Stoddard,

43 °5 37-3

72 08 07.4

2170

t a

Catamount mt., Pittsfield,

43 1 6 30.2

71 1745-0

I34i

( n

Rattlesnake hill, Concord,

43 1341-04

71 34 19.92

733

' "

Stewart's peak, Warner,

43 15 04-30

71 52 04.07

1808

< tt

Gilmanton peak, Gilmanton,

43 25 27.3

7i 23 55.5

H79

' "

Sanbornton Square town-house,

43 2937-1

71 35 01.9

930

Ridge-pole of town-house.

Ragged mountain, Andover,

43 28 01.7

71 50 04.2

2256

Ground at signal.

Croydon mt., Croydon,

43 28 53.7

72 13 11.4

2789

" "

Kearsarge mountain,Warner,

43 22 58.44

71 51 27.69

2943-5

" "

Bean hill, Northfield,

43 23 47-97

71 32 48.90

1515

" "

Prospect mt.,Holderness,

434641.39

71 3656-57

2072

" "

Cardigan mountain, Orange,

43 38 57-31

7i 54 52-52

3156

" "

Bristol peak, Bristol,

43 37 56-3

71 42 05.0

1785

' "

Melvin hill, Springfield,

43 3i 33-o

71 59 18.8

2134

c tt

Ford hill, Grafton,

4334 ii-o

72 oi 00.6

1800

' "

Red hill, Moultonborough,

43 45 20.0

71 27 28.9

2038

i tt

Black mountain, Sandwich,

43 54 00.5

71 29 54.4

3999

I It

Tallest church spire, Laconia,

43 3i 45-5

71 28 16.7

568

^idge-pole.

Stinson mt., Rumney,

43 50 07.5

71 47 09.9

2707

Ground at signal.

Cong, church spire, Thetford,

Vt.,

43 49 08.6

72 13 47.6

1024

Top church spire dome.

Mt. Cuba, Orford,

43 53 07-6

72 oi 26.4

2927

Ground at signal.

Whiteface mt., Waterville,

43 5600.1

71 24 21.4

4007

" "

Lafayette mt., Franconia,

44 09 37.8

71 38 41.0

5259

it n

Moosilauke mt., Benton,

44 oi 23.07

71 49 54.92

4811

tt tt

Church spire, Deering,

43 03 58-5

71 51 21.5

nes ', indicat
Jicu/e not 2>e«tt
tvtucti ?>luf*f

'*" r'

ir.s. COAST .yKzjm
•T.quiM.
\87l-i

244 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

For the sake of facilitating further determinations, I present also the
directions for the selection of tertiary stations. Persons who desire to
obtain the exact positions of conspicuous landmarks in the vicinity of
Prof. Quimby's work, only need to follow these directions, and in due
time they will receive the results of the calculations.

Directions for the Selection of Tertiary Stations and the Erection of Signals for the
United States Coast Survey, and the operations connected therewith.

1 . Tertiary stations should be upon those hills which command the best view of the
surrounding country, particularly within a radius of six to ten miles. It is not so
important to secure a distant view as that the signal should be visible from the valleys
in the more immediate vicinity. It must also be visible from at least three secondary
stations.

2. Having chosen the hill upon which a signal is to be erected, select that spot for
the station where the signal can best be seen from all directions, taking care that the
ground be as level as possible for a few feet around the station, for the convenience of
placing an instrument over it.

3. The method of marking permanently the station will depend on the nature of the
ground. If the ledge is within three feet of the surface, remove the earth and drill a
five-eighths inch hole four inches deep, in which set with lead or sulphur an iron bolt
projecting three inches above the ledge. If the ledge is near the surface, cut a small
equilateral triangle in the rock around the bolt (say each side nine inches), one of the
sides being north and south, and the opposite vertex pointing to the east.

If there is no ledge within three or four feet of the surface, dig to that depth and set
a stone jar or some piece of pottery which will accurately mark the station, and be
readily recognized when found. Pack the earth carefully around and above this to the
depth of twelve inches, upon which place a piece of plank with a half-inch bolt firmly
set in it and projecting upwards three inches exactly over the station, as marked by the
jar.

4. Select for the signal a straight pole (from which it is better to remove the bark)
six or eight inches in diameter at the butt, and twelve or fifteen feet long. Bore a hole
in the centre of the butt to receive the bolt set in the ledge or plank, and fasten to the
top of the pole a nail keg, ten to fifteen inches in diameter, so that the centre of keg
and pole shall coincide. This may most readily be done by inverting the keg (one head
being out) upon the pole and nailing through the other head, at the same time bracing
firmly the lower end of the keg. Cover this keg with black cambric, and the pole
below the keg with alternate bands of white and black. Set the pole thus prepared
over the bolt, and support it in a vertical position by filling around with earth, or if on
a ledge by a pile of stones, and also by braces or wire guys, as the circumstances per-
mit or require. Too great care cannot be taken to place the pole exactly vertical, and
to secure it from being moved by winds, cattle, or any other cause. To secure

TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS OF THE STATE. 245

verticality, use a plummet from two directions at right angles, and avoid any deviation
of the plummet by the wind.

5. To aid in finding the station if the signal pole should be removed, a full descrip-
tion must be made, embracing the following points :

The township and county in which it is situated ; the most direct and easy route for
reaching it;, the name by which the hill is commonly known; the name of the person
owning the land where the station is ; the name and post-office address of the person
having the signal in charge (who is expected to restore it to its proper position, if dis-
turbed) ; the particular part of the hill where it is located ; its exact distance and
magnetic direction from any prominent objects around ; the height of the top of the
keg above the ground ; the manner in which the station is marked, whether by bolt or
jar ; and any other statements which may facilitate the identification of the spot when-
ever the signal may be destroyed.

In this description there should also be noted the direction, by the compass, to other
hills and mountains visible, particularly to those upon which signals have been or are
to be set, also, to church spires and other prominent buildings. This description

should be carefully written out and sent to

PROF. E. T. QUIMBY,

Acting Assistant U. S. C. S., Hanover, N. H.

MISCELLANEOUS.

It is perhaps hardly important enough to mention reasons for choosing
particular names of localities when there is opportunity to exercise judg-
ment. For example, in opposition to a common usage, I employ Mt.
Cuba instead of Mt. Cube, in Orford. According to Dr. Dwight,* the
original name was derived from the circumstance that a dog called Cuba
lost his life on this eminence in a fight with a bear. There is no signifi-
cance in the word Cube, save as a corruption of Cuba. I retain the
improvement proposed by Carrigain in applying the appellation of
Merrimack river to the longest branch of the Pemigewasset. A pond at
the north-west head of the Magalloway river we propose to call Magallo-
way pond or lake. Small bodies of water discovered in the White
Mountains are termed Haystack and Kinsman ponds. Mts. Hale, Field,
and Lyon are new names suggested for peaks in Pemigewasset and
Northumberland. Any other changes of consequence will be noticed in
connection with descriptions of their geological or physical features.

The proper triangulation of the White Mountain district is likely to

* Travels in New England, vol. ii, p. 119.

246 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

alter the dimensions of many tracts of land. The case of Kilkenny has
been referred to. Another is the position of Mt. Passaconnaway. The
western line of Albany, as perambulated, according to James Shackford,
lies west of this mountain ; but the triangulation will bring it and White-
face into the town of Waterville. This discrepancy has not been
observed before. There may be others of a similar character. While
we exercise our judgment in locating every point according to our
information, we rejoice that our map is not the legal tribunal for the
settlement of discrepancies.

There are irregularities in the mutual boundaries of Carroll, Grafton,
and Coos counties, which will probably need rectification from the legis-
lature. The limits are given thus in the General Statutes, p. 67 :

Carroll. "Thence by the northerly line of Sandwich to the westerly
line of Albany ; thence by the westerly line of Albany to the north-west
corner thereof ; thence by the north line of Albany to the west line of
Bartlett ; thence by the west lines of Bartlett and Hart's Location to the
north line of said Location; thence by the northerly and easterly lines of
said Location to the west line of Bartlett; thence by the westerly lines
of Bartlett and Jackson to the northerly line of Jackson," etc.

Grafton. "Thence on the westerly and southerly lines of Dal ton,
Whitefield, Carroll, and NasJi & Sawyers Location, to the sontJi-easterly
corner thereof; thence southerly on a straight line across tJie unlocated
lands to the line of the coimty of Carroll at the north-westerly corner of
Albany" etc.

Cob's county "contains all the lands and waters within the limits of this
state which lie northerly of the counties of Grafton and Carroll."

The boundaries as defined above leave a triangular area, about half a
township in size, outside all county lines. It lies between the straight
easterly boundary of Grafton and Hart's Location. This straight line
also cuts off a part of Hart's Location, making a small area of land to
lie in two counties. The Carroll county map places the neglected area
and the south projection of Coos county between Hart's Location and
Bartlett with Jackson, within its own limits. Perhaps this is the best
disposition to be made of these unsettled areas, though we can find no
authority for such a reference. Any other arrangement lacks symmetry
of outline.

TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS OF THE STATE. 247

There is a question in relation to the proper boundary line between the Atkinson and
Gilmanton Academy and Carlisle grants. The act denning the former fixes the north-
erly boundary on the line of forty-five degrees north latitude.

Carlisle's grant is defined thus : Commencing at east bank of Connecticut river at
point of intersection with the north line of the College grant (Clarksville) ; "thence
extending up said river, on the east side thereof as it winds and turns, to the distance
of twelve miles in a straight line from the place of beginning ; thence in a line as
nearly as possible at right angles with the main course of the aforesaid line on said
river to the line of the state of Maine ; thence southerly by the line of the state of
Maine to a point distant twelve miles in a right angular line from the line last aforesaid ;
thence in a line as nearly as possible at right angles with the main course of Connecticut
river aforesaid, and parallel with the second line above described, to the Connecticut
river at the place of beginning."

If these acts are to be interpreted strictly, there is an irregular piece of land between
the two grants which has never been assigned to either party. I have given the line as
it is usually understood by the lumbermen.

Carlisle's grant is divided into the three townships of Carlisle, Webster, and Hub-
bard, by the proprietors. As these names appear upon the tax-list of Pittsburg, they
are placed upon the map, though they have never been sanctioned by the legislature.

Our experience in matching together the townships in the northern part of the state
makes it clear that all the tracts of land there are larger than the bounds assigned to
them upon paper. After conference with engineers and map-makers, I find it to be a
general rule that land is always larger than the original surveys allow it to be. As-
tronomers allow a "personal equation" in their calculations from original observations ;
and, for the same reason, terrestrial boundaries require adjustment after their primal
measurements.

I might mention other cases where names and boundaries have been adjusted differ-
ently from the previous maps, but do not think them of enough consequence to be
presented here. They all show how desirable it would be to have a new map prepared
having all its minutias settled by competent authority.

CHAPTER X.

ALTITUDES.

one would fashion a correct model of New Hampshire, he must
first ascertain the exact elevation of numerous points above the
ocean. As this has been our constant purpose from the very first, alti-
tudes have been collected by a study of canal and railroad surveys;
measurements have been made with mercurial and aneroid barometers ;
and numerous profiles have been obtained by careful levelling. A multi-
tude of observations have been collected, and it is the object of this
chapter to explain how they have been obtained, and to classify them
under various headings, such as may be convenient for future reference.
If any of our estimates are incorrect, the means of discovering the error
will here be afforded.

The delineation of the geological sections across the state has been
based upon barometrical measurement, which could be obtained with little
additional trouble, at the same time with the examination of strata and
the collection of specimens of rocks. This method is, however, subject
to inaccuracies, owing to sudden fluctuations in barometrical pressure,
and other causes. The most reliable manner of obtaining extended series
of altitudes over a large area, so as to arrive with accuracy at the contour
or relative height and configuration of its whole extent, is to combine this
inexpensive barometrical work, carried in numerous sections across the
state, with transverse series of altitudes carefully obtained with an

ALTITUDES. 249

engineer's level. These being employed as starting-points for compara-
tively short series of barometrical levels, the latter will be perfectly
reliable, so far as regards the accurate construction of profiles across the
state, or the delineation of contour lines on a map. For these transverse
series, railroad profiles have been employed whenever attainable, together
with surveys for canals, water-works, &c., gaps in series being filled up,
and a large amount of necessary extensions made. As part of this work,
it will be seen that a continuous series of actual levelling has been per-
formed under the direction of the geological survey along our entire
western boundary from Massachusetts to Connecticut lake.

Exact information upon this subject, now for the first time obtained
throughout the entire extent of New Hampshire, as here given in tabular
form, and as presented to the eye in the profiles of geological sections in
the state museum, and which it is intended to put in a still more practical
shape in a raised map of New Hampshire, may be said to be in many
respects of not less importance than a correct outline of the boundaries
of the state, with its division into counties and townships. It will be
readily seen that knowledge of this kind is almost indispensable to the
geologist. Beyond this, when considered in connection with geological
structure and proximity to the sea, the relative elevation of any area is
the determining feature upon which depend the character of its climate,
its agricultural products, its forest trees, the amount and location of its
water-power, the facilities for communication, and the consequent distri-
bution of population and wealth.

The different series of altitudes measured by actual levelling are first
given, nearly all of which are put in heavy type to indicate their superior
reliability, having been proved correct by the agreement of results
obtained along different routes. In the lists of altitudes which fol-
low these, the same heavy type designates such points as belong to
these series, or have otherwise been exactly determined. Altitudes given
in ordinary type have been obtained either from levelling, — where some
discrepancy when connected with more carefully determined series pre-
vents a confidence in their entire correctness, — or, as in the sections across
the state, from barometrical measurement ; — all of these are to be regarded
as closely approximate.

This method of printing, and the particular description of the way in
VOL. i. 34

250 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

which these altitudes have been determined, with our reasons for decision
in cases of disagreement, will enable those who have occasion to use our
figures to do so understandingly.

In accordance with the example of eminent physicists, the standard to
which all our altitudes are referred is the level of the sea at mean tide.
Heights along railroads, unless otherwise specified, are taken on top of
the rail in front of passenger stations.

REFERENCE LINE FROM PORTSMOUTH, THROUGH CONCORD AND WHITE
RIVER JUNCTION, TO CONNECTICUT LAKE.

Several prominent lines of reference have been determined, which have
served as a basis for aneroid measurements and estimates. The first
commenced with mean tide water at Great bay, below the railroad bridge
between Newmarket Junction and Stratham, May 2, 1870. Messrs.
Frank and H. D. Woodbridge, then members of Dartmouth college,
levelled from here to Manchester depot, over the Concord & Portsmouth
Railroad. They found the mean tide water to be 1O.7 feet below the
bottom of the rail. The centre of Manchester depot they found to be
18O.832 feet above this mean tide water.

The difference between Manchester and Concord depots was derived
from a comparison of several measurements, as follows :

Between Manchester depot and Hooksett bridge, 24.565

Hooksett bridge to Carter's bridge, Concord (J. A. Weston), . . 4O.
Carter's bridge to Concord depot (railroad survey) , . . . . 7.

71.565

This places the height of track at Concord depot 252.397 feet above
mean tide, — 16 feet higher than previously supposed. The correctness of
this change will appear by the comparison of levels from this base over
the Northern and Concord & Claremont railroads, with lines of levels
from the sea by way of the Fitchburg and Cheshire railroads, and the
recent surveys for the Portland & Ogdensburg Railroad. A strong con-
firmation of this is further supplied by the Concord & Rochester Rail-
road survey, by Chas. C. Lund, hereafter given, the profiles of which
agree exactly with the corrected height of Concord.

ALTITUDES. 251

Next, the very accurate surveys of the Northern Railroad between
Concord and White River Junction, made by A. M. Shaw, were accepted
as correct, the difference between the extremes of the road being 1 16.84O
feet The height of track at White River Junction is thus placed at
369.237. The accuracy of these levels between Concord and White
River Junction is confirmed by the levels of R. S. Howe, engineer of
the Concord & Claremont Railroad, which differ from those over the
Northern Railroad by only a small fraction of a foot.

To obtain the remainder of this base line, recourse was had to a special
survey under A. F. Reed, in 1871, assisted by Dr. N. Barrows of Mer-
iden, and Messrs. C. F. and F. A. Bradley of Dartmouth college. This
series extends over the Connecticut & Passumpsic Railroad to Barnet,
Vt, at which point it leaves the railroad, and follows the carriage-road to
Connecticut lake.

A line of levels from the sea, connecting with this series at Dalton, is
furnished by the very reliable surveys for the Portland & Ogdensburg
Railroad, crossing New Hampshire through the heart of the White
Mountains. The connection between these series was made for the geo-
logical survey by James T. Woodbury, in February, 1874, the levels of
the Portland & Ogdensburg Railroad survey being found 5 feet higher
than those of our series along the Connecticut river. This disagreement
has been in part reconciled by adding one half the difference, viz., 2<|
feet, to our former figures beyond Dalton to Connecticut lake.

Another series of levels, coincident with the Connecticut river line
from Groveton to North Stratford, is supplied from the surveys for the
Grand Trunk Railway. These heights were given as referred to tide at
Three Rivers, P. Q. To make them agree with our series when changed
as just mentioned, it is necessary to call tide at Three Rivers 30 feet
above mean sea level, — which is quite near the truth, — tide being stated
by Prof. Elias Loomis to be 9 feet at the mouth of the St. Lawrence, and
20 feet at Quebec, while it is probably considerably higher at Three
Rivers. Heights along this railroad have been accordingly referred to
mean sea level by connecting them with our first series.

With the modification mentioned, Mr. Reed's levels gave the difference
between the Junction and Connecticut lake 1,249.626 feet, — the height
of the lake being 1,618.863 feet above mean tide.

252 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Summarized, the altitudes are these:

Difference. Ahittidc.

Newmarket Junction, 51.916

Manchester, -[-138.916 180.832

Concord, +71.565 252.397

White River Junction, -f-116.84O 369.237

Connecticut lake, -j-1249.626 1618.863

FROM SOUTH ASHBURNHAM, MASS., THROUGH BELLOWS FALLS, TO
WHITE RIVER JUNCTION.

A second reference line, connecting with the one already described at
White River Junction, was obtained from Boston by way of Fitchburg
and South Ashburnham, Mass. The height of the railroad at the latter
place, as determined by the Fitchburg and Cheshire Railroad surveys, was
obtained from the records of the Cheshire Railroad ; and the profile of
that road was used to Bellows Falls, through the kindness of R. Stewart,
superintendent. From this place the remaining distance to White River
Junction was levelled over for the geological survey by Warren Upham,
assisted by Benj. P. Kelley^ in February, 1 874. The height of White
River Junction thus obtained was 3^ feet above that from the former
series. In the list of altitudes upon this series, all heights, from White
River Junction to Troy inclusive, are given to agree with the previously
determined height of White River Junction, while those south of this
point agree with the assumed height of South Ashburnham, — this
arrangement being adopted because of a slight discrepancy, amounting
to nearly this correction, found to exist at that point in the Cheshire Rail-
road profile. With the change which would be justified by a more favor-
able interpretation of the profile at this place, the series from South
Ashburnham gives White River Junction i£ feet higher than by the
series from Concord. Another survey over part of this route, in March,
1874, by R. S. Howe, to connect his levels from Concord, over the Con-
cord & Claremont Railroad, with those from the same place over the
Northern Railroad, proves by almost exact agreement the entire correct-
ness of this work north from Claremont Junction.

Levels had been already obtained, under the direction of the geological
survey, from South Vernon to Bellows Falls, by Gyles Merrill, Jr., in Feb-
ruary, 1873, and the completion of this work to White River Junction

Difference.

Altitude.

•nham Junction, .....

1O14.0O

—535.42

478.58

— 1 74.OO

3O4.58

\. Junction, ......

261.36

h —32.95

228.41

+76.17

3O4.58

+70.88

375.46

action, +98.O5

473.51

• . —142.31

331. 2O

[unction, +38.03

369.23

ALTITUDES. 253

gave an unbroken series, wholly from levelling specially for this survey
along the entire course of the Connecticut river in New Hampshire.
Summary of the work connected with this series is as follows :

Keene,
Bellows Falls
South Vernor
Brattleborough,
Bellows Falls
Charlestown,
Claremont Ju:
Windsor,
White River ;

The altitudes comprised in these two reference lines are arranged in
full under Nos: i, 2, and 3 in the tables of this chapter. The last of these
contains the heights determined along Connecticut river, the reliability of
which is attested by the close agreement of four series directly from the
sea, viz., through South Ashburnham, through Concord, and by way of
the Portland & Ogdensburg Railroad and the Grand Trunk Railway.

FROM BOSTON, BY WAY OF BOSTON & MAINE, PORTSMOUTH, GREAT FALLS
& CONWAY, AND PORTLAND & OGDENSBURG RAILROADS, TO DALTON.

A third reference line, extending along the eastern portion of the state,
and connecting with the Connecticut river series at Dalton, has been
obtained entirely from railroad surveys. These altitudes from Boston to
Great Falls were taken from the original profile of the Boston & Maine
Railroad, through the kindness of Pres. White, at his office in Boston.
On this profile, reference was to marsh level (high tide), and 5 feet have
been added to the figures there given for height above mean tide.
These figures show an exact agreement at Newmarket Junction with the
series measured by the Messrs. Woodbridge, and again at Great Falls
with the altitudes furnished by T. Willis Pratt, engineer of the Ports-
mouth, Great Falls & Conway Railroad, from mean tide at Portsmouth.
By this latter series the line is continued to North Conway. The levels
for the Wolfeborough Branch, including the altitude of Lake Winnipiseo-
gee, were furnished by George L. Whitehouse, Esq., of Farmington, and

254 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

by J. W. Lovering, assistant engineer. At North Conway, this series
connects with that of the Portland & Ogdensburg Railroad, with which
it closely agrees ; and the remainder of this line, which here turns north-
westerly, has been supplied by John F. Anderson, chief engineer, from
the surveys of that railroad, now being built through the White Moun-
tain notch. The whole line of this road is given from Portland, and, as the
reference of these surveys was to mean low water in Casco bay, as estab-
lished by engineers of the U. S. C. S., 4 feet have been subtracted from
the heights of their profile given in our annual report for the year 1871,
to reduce to mean tide. The connection between this series at Dalton
and the line along Connecticut river has been already mentioned. It
will thus be seen that the accuracy of this reference line is confirmed by
a close agreement of altitudes, obtained by five different courses of
direct levelling from the sea.

A summary of prominent points along this line is as follows :

Difference. Altitude.

South Lawrence, Mass., depot, 49

Exeter, . -\-Q 58

Dover, +14 72

Great Falls +106 178

Rochester +48 226

Lake Winnipiseogee, low to high water, 496-502

North Conway, P., Gt. F. & C. Railroad depot, .... 516

White Mountain notch, railroad summit, 1893; surface, . . 1914
Connecticut river, one fourth mile below mouth of John's river, at

head of Fifteen-mile falls,— low to high water, .... 827.6-832

ADDITIONAL RAILROAD SURVEYS.

Many other extended series of altitudes have been determined by the
various railroad surveys throughout the state, and wherever these have
been preserved and are still attainable, they have been secured, and are
presented in the tables following those of the special reference lines along
our east and west borders already described. In some instances, how-
ever, these records, from various causes, have been unfortunately lost.
On this account it was found necessary, in establishing our western
reference line, to level along our whole western boundary, although rail-
road lines extend over three fourths of this distance, and were adopted

ALTITUDES. 255

for our work as affording the easiest route. For the same reason it will
be seen that we have failed to present complete lists of heights along
some other railroads, while in a few cases no records whatever could be
obtained.

Among the railroad lines which we are able to present are, — a survey
between Exeter and Salisbury, Mass.; the recent surveys for the Nashua
& Rochester Railroad, with points on a survey from Windham, the junc-
tion of this road with the Manchester & Lawrence Railroad, to Lowell ;
various points along the Boston, Lowell & Nashua, Wilton, and Peter-
borough railroads, with additional surveys extended from the present
terminus at Greenfield to the Connecticut river near Charlestown, and a
few points on a survey for this road from Claremont village to White
River Junction; a series of heights determined by surveys between
Rochester and Concord; the Suncook Valley Railroad; points on the
Manchester & North Weare Railroad, and others determined by surveys
extended westward to Keene ; the very accurate surveys of the Concord
& Claremont Railroad, with the Hillsborough Branch ; and the Boston,
Concord & Montreal Railroad. These various surveys have been tabu-
larly arranged in the above order, exhibiting several accurately measured
transverse sections of the state, while, by the last, a longitudinal series is
furnished from Lake Winnipiseogee to Lancaster. Other altitudes have
been gathered from railroad surveys not here mentioned. In all cases
the name of the surveyor, or the source from which information has been
obtained, is given, with any explanation which could add to its practical
value.

MISCELLANEOUS ALTITUDES.

Other accurately determined altitudes have been collected from
different sources. A considerable number of these, in the vicinity of
our cities, are from the surveys for water-works. Others are from sur-
veys for canals, or for manufacturing companies, by which heights along
the rivers have been obtained, with the amount and extent of many of
the most important falls. Where such information has not been attain-
able, the height of our largest rivers has been stated approximately.
These altitudes are not presented here in full, as they would to a large
extent require repetition in another chapter, treating of our water-power.

256 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

They will be found there, arranged in the description of river systems,
together with heights of the principal lakes and ponds of the state, and
others along lines of water-sheds, many of which, taken from baromet-
rical measurement, are not to be regarded as exact

The altitudes of principal points along the main water-shed of New
Hampshire, separating the waters of the Connecticut from those of the
Androscoggin, Saco, and Merrimack, being of the first importance as
illustrating the topography of the state, have been already given in a pre-
ceding chapter. Also, in the same chapter, are to be found heights along
the boundaries of New Hampshire.

The lists of altitudes of villages, of some of the largest lakes and
ponds, of the largest rivers at a few places, and of other points of inter-
est throughout the state, have been derived from various sources, the
degree of probable accuracy being indicated by the difference in type.

The table of heights of the mountains and principal hills of the state,
with miscellaneous points in the mountain region, comes, to a large extent,
from barometrical measurement. Others, both in this list and in that of
villages, &c., have been copied from different publications, in which case
the original authority is usually given, exact measurements being distin-
guished by heavy type. A very valuable list of altitudes, principally of
mountains and hills, has been obtained, in connection with the triangula-
tion of the state under the U. S. Coast Survey, by Prof. E. T. Quimby ;
these, so far as the survey has been already extended, are given on p. 242.

GEOLOGICAL SECTIONS.

Fourteen general sections have been measured, extending across the
state in parallel lines, nearly east and west. Their geological character
will be given subsequently ; but it is the proper place here to state what
figures have been used in drawing their profiles, as exhibited in connec-
tion with the rock specimens in the state museum at Hanover. Exact
determination by levelling has been secured for the starting-point
wherever practicable, and the aneroid barometer has been employed for
determining heights beyond. The details cannot very well be presented
with each determination, as they are too voluminous, and not of great
consequence.

The names of residents, streams, hills, and mountains are taken from

ALTITUDES.

the several county maps. Exceptions to this rule may occur. Our inten-
tion is to have the names conform to those adopted upon our geological
map. The most important deviations from the usage of the county
maps have been explained in Chapter IX.

The results of the numerous railroad and special surveys here ex-
hibited, together make up a complete network of interlocking series of
accurately determined altitudes throughout the entire state. With this
as a basis of reference, it is believed that the barometrical measurements
of the altitudes of villages and of general sections will be found of the
highest value, in an inquiry into the geology, climate, and physical char-
acter of New Hampshire.

TABLES OF ALTITUDES.
i. PORTSMOUTH TO WHITE RIVER JUNCTION.

Heights along the Concord & Portsmouth Railroad. Levelled by
Frank and H. D. Woodbridge, in 1870, for the geological survey. Alti-
tudes are given above mean tide in Great bay ; distances are given from
Portsmouth.

Distances Heights in

in miles. feet.

Newmarket Junction,
LittlefielcTs Crossing,

..... 10

51.916
126.O53

18

154 147

Raymond, .....

23

197.881
445 19O

Manchester, centre of depot, .
Top of dam at Manchester, .
Amoskeag base line,

4i

180.832
178.98O
108.980

Surveys used in the Construction of the Road. From original profiles.

Piscasset river (water level), S. Newmarket, 72 ; track, . 77.

Lamprey river (water level), . •. -. -. -. . •. 141.

Same at Raymond, . . . . - . • . • . . . 173.

Outlet of Jones pond (water level) , . • . . . . 258.

Road at Patten's shingle mill, Candia, . • . • . • . . 373.

Level of ground " " " . • . • . . . 354.

Brook east of Candia depot (water level), . . . . 41O.

Cass's Crossing, Candia, 485.

Summit at Kinnecum's swamp, abandoned route, . . . 528.

Turnpike at Rowe's Corner, " " . . . 453.
VOL. I. 35

258 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Distances Heights in

in miles. feet.

Summit in Candia on railroad after construction to Manchester, 465.

Auburn depot, 33 289.

Massabesic pond, 36 256.

Summit between Massabesic and Merrimack river at J. P. Eaton's, 344.

By another Route.

Bean's island, Candia, . . 275.

Lamprey river, Candia Village, 30 1 .

Highway in Candia Village, 31O.

Summit towards Allenstown, 550.

A Survey through Deerfield.

Quincy pond, Nottingham 288.

Summit between Quincy pond and Lamprey river, .... 4O6.

Summit 576.

Suncook river, Buck street, 259.

Suncook Village, 281.

Beyond Manchester the results of different surveys have been con-
nected to obtain the height of Concord, as follows :

Heights in feet.

Martin's Ferry, 198.92

Hooksett bridge,* , 2O5.397

Carter's bridge, Concord (J. A. Weston) 245.397

Concord, centre of depot, 59 miles from Portsmouth (Railroad survey), 252.397

Heights along Northern Railroad. From original surveys, by A. M.
Shaw, engineer.

Distances from Heights in

Concord. feet.

Concord, 75 miles from Boston,

252.39

Fisherville bridge, .

7 miles.

267.89

Boscawen, ....

10 "

273.89

North Boscawen,

H "

290.O1

Webster Place,

17 "

295.26

Franklin, .

19 "

363.26

East Andover, ....

25 "

661.

Andover, .....

2Q "

628.

Potter Place, ....

31 "

653.

West Andover,

32 "

677.

* Derived from Hobbs's levelling from Amoskeag base line to foundation of north abutment, 180.197 feet. Rail
is twenty-five feet higher by tape-line measurement.

ALTITUDES. 259

Distances from Heights in
Concord. feet.

South Danbury, . 35 miles. 732.

Danbury, 38" 826.

Grafton, 43 " 848.

Grafton Centre, 44 " 871.65

Tewksbury pond, 904.

Orange summit, ......... 990-

Railroad at Mud pond, 957.

Canaan 5* " 956.

West Canaan, 55 " 813.

Enfield, 5^ " 768.34

East Lebanon, 60 « 765.63

Lebanon, 64 " 51O.31

West Lebanon, 69 " 376.13

Bridge over Connecticut river, 376.13

Connecticut river, high water, 352.84

Connecticut river, low water 33O.O7

White River Junction, 69 " 369.23

2. HEIGHTS ALONG THE CHESHIRE RAILROAD.

Copied from original profile, through kindness of R. Stewart, superin-
tendent.

S^'SSSSSn. Heights in feet.

South Ashburnham Junction, 61 miles from Boston ; al-
titude obtained via Fitchburg and Cheshire Railroad

surveys, ........ 1014.

Ashburnham summit, ....... 1.5 miles. 1O84.

North Ashburnham, 3.3 " 1066.

Railroad bridge over Miller's river, near line between

Ashburnham and Winchendon, .... 4. " 1037.

Miller's river— track, 99O ; water, . . . . 6. " 973.

Winchendon, 7.8 " 992.

Winchendon summit, 8.5 " 1018.

State line station, 10.9 " 898.

Lowest point (level) , II.-II.5 " 893.

Mill-pond, water, 13.2 " 956.

Collins pond — track, 1O67 ; water 15.9 " 1O62.

Fitzwilliam, 16.2 " 1O63.

Fitzwilliam summit, 18.4 " 1151.

Rockwood pond, water, 19.1 " 1112.

Troy 21.5 " 1002.

26O PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Distances from Tr . , ...
Soutl? Ashburnham. HeiShts ln fcc£-

Gulf bridge, track, .......

23-9

miles. 871.

Marlborough, .

25-3

789.

South Keene,

29-3

560.

Arch bridge over Branch river — track, 551 ; water, .

29.4

507.

Keene (ih miles' level),

3r-3

479.

Ashuelot river, water,

31.9

469.

Ash Swamp brook — track, 530 ; water,

33-2

487.

38.3

" 83O.

East Westmoreland,

«J 3

40.4

7O9.

Westmoreland,

43-7

512.

Walpole,

49-8

277.

Lowest point of railroad between South Ashburnham

and Bellows Falls, level,

50.3-5I-

255.

Cold river, water, .......

C2.3

232.

Cold River station, . . . .

52-6

259.

Connecticut River railroad bridge, ....

r-> 6

" 3O4.

Bellows Falls,

53-7

304.58

3. WESTERN LINE OF REFERENCE.
ALTITUDES ALONG CONNECTICUT RIVER, FROM LEVELLING FOR THE GEOLOGICAL

SURVEY.

South Vernon to Bellows Falls. Levelled by Gyles Merrill, Jr., in
February, 1873, following Vermont & Massachusetts and Vermont Val-
ley railroads.

Distances TT . , . r .

from Bellows Falls. He'ghts in feet'

South Vernon,

..... 33.9 miles.

261.360

Brattleborough,

23.7 "

228.411

Road to village, at crossing,

... . 23.4 «

231.456

West River railroad bridge, . . .

... . 22.3 "

244.151

Railroad bridge over highway,

19-7 "

271.O16

Dummerston, . . . . .

. . . 18.2 "

262.535

Salmon Brook railroad bridge,

....... 17.0 "

238.635

Bridge at "Hollow," . . . .

... 16.2 "

239.935

Putney, . . . . -

14.7 "

257.317

Sackett's Brook bridge, . . .

14.3 "

262.252

East Putney, . . ...

11.7 "

295.542

Barney's Brook bridge, . . . •

..... 7.1 "

253.O53

Grout's crossing, . . ...

..... 5.4 "

258.633

Westminster, . . ...

• • 3-7 "

264.285

ALTITUDES.

26l

Governor's Brook bridge, . . . . .

Saxton's River bridge, .......

Bellows Falls depot, . . . . .

Top of stone abutment at south end of Sullivan Rail-
road bridge,

>m BelfowsfFalls. Heights in feet.

3.1 miles. 257.284

.9 " 272.358

3O4.58O

3O4.O1O

Bellows Falls to White River Junction, Levelled by Warren Upham,
in February, 1874, following Sullivan and Central Vermont railroads.

Heights in feet.

304.58
234.01
283.34

33O.16
340.69
31O.61
302. 3O
302.70
SO 1.38
335. 3O
336.9O

35O.46
375.46
372.19
374. 4O
313.79
402.75
416. 08
426.14

445.82

468.98
473.51
478. 16
463.26
428.98
405.78
404.28

Bellows Falls Junction, 115 miles from Boston, . . 54 miles.
Connecticut river below the falls, ....

Connecticut river above the falls, .....
"Dutchman's crossing," about i mile north of Bellows

Falls, ........ .

Summit about £ mile farther north, . . . .

Hooper's crossing, | mile south of South Charlestown,

South Charlestown station, ...... 58 miles.

Kendall's crossing, f mile north So. Charlestown stat'n,
Lowest point on railroad near this place, . . .
Evans's south crossing, . .....

Evans's north crossing, . . . . .

Railroad bridge over road south of Charlestown, known

as " Dry bridge," .......

Charlestown station, . . . . . . . 62 miles.

Crossing, about i mile north of Charlestown station, .

Summit at Springfield (Vt.) station, .... 65 miles.

Lowest point of railroad in Beaver meadow, . .
Gowing's crossing, £ mile south of North Charlestown,
North Charlestown station, ...... 68 miles.

First crossing north of North Charlestown station, .
Merrill's crossing, second north of North Charlestown

station, .........

Summit near Mr. Long's, about il miles south of Clare-

mont Junction, .......

Claremont Junction, . ...... 72 miles.

Summit about \ mile north of Claremont Junction, .
Railroad under Ellis's bridge, .....

Jarvis's bridge (railroad over highway) , . . .
High bridge over Sugar river (centre), . . . .

West Claremont station, ...... 74 miles.

262 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Distances from TI • i . . r .
South Ashburnham. Heights m feet"

"Punkshire" Road crossing, | mile north-east from

Ascutneyville, Vt., 366.65

Balloch's crossing, in south edge of Cornish, . . 368.37

Connecticut river, about i mile south of Chase's island, 302.12
Railroad in front of Mr. Chadborn's, — birthplace of

Chief Justice Chase, 366.01

Windsor Railroad bridge (centre) , .... 351.81

Bridge over Mill brook, 34O.7O

Windsor station 80 miles. 331.2O

Bridge over Lull's brook, 398.98

Hartland station, 84 miles. 421.01

Summit, about i h miles north of Hartland, . . . 464.58

Railroad under highway bridge, £ mile north, . . 444.84

Crossing about if miles south of North Hartland, . 421.75

North Hartland station, 88 miles. 387. 9O

Bridge over Quechee river (centre), .... 37O.39

Connecticut river here (above Sumner's falls), . . 323. 04

Crossing about i| miles south of White River Junction, 377.81

White River Junction, 94 miles. 369.23

White River Junction to Connecticut Lake. Levelled by A. F. Reed
in 1871, following the Connecticut & Passumpsic and Grand Trunk
railroads, and the highway.

Wh^kTvefjunaion. Heights in feet.

White River Junction, 144 miles from Boston, 69 miles

from Concord 369.237

Norwich depot, 4 miles. 406.300

South end of bridge over Pompanoosuc river, . . 10.5 " 409.027

Crossing near Mr. Blood's, Norwich, minimum grade, . 395.064

Crossing i \ miles south of East Thetford, . . . 41O.145

East Thetford depot, 14 413.325

North Thetford depot, 16 " 40 1.741

Crossing li miles north 42O.233

Crossing 2^ miles north, 435.741

Crossing i£ miles south of Fairlee, 432.781

Fairlee station, 21.5 " 437.952

Water house, railroad, Sawyer's mountain, . . . 449.439

Piermont station, 27 " 439.627

Bradford station, 28 " 410.007

Crossing 2 miles south of Haverhill 408.912

Chamberlin's crossing, 409.071

ALTITUDES.

263

hTja^ Heights in feet.

Hall's brook, 41O.027

Haverhill depot, 32 miles. 412.142

Crossing to Nevvbury bridge over Connecticut river, . 413.857

Newbury depot • 35 " 426.OO2

Wells River depot, 40.2 " 442.898

Crossing 3 miles north, 437.642

Ryegate depot, platform, 44 " 471.71O

Crossing i mile south of Mclndoe's, .... 494.895

Mclndoe's depot, 48.2 " 487.913

Barnet depot, last point measured on the railroad, . . 50.7 " 467.1 14

Hay scales, Upper Waterford 61 752.368

Bridge, Upper Waterford, 15 feet above water, . . 689. 046

Piazza, Sumner house, Dalton, . ' . . . • 73 " 898.153

Top of stone hitching post, south end of Dalton post-office, 912.6O8

Door of County house, Lancaster, 80 " 867.444

Hay scales, Northumberland, 85 " 865.352

Bridge over Upper Ammonoosuc river, Groveton, . . 882. 67O

Groveton depot (Grand Trunk Railway), . . . 89 " 90O.91O

Railroad bridge 2 miles above Groveton, . . . 905.633

Stratford Hollow depot, 93.5 " 877.388

Stratford, flag station, 88O.242

North Stratford station, • 101 " 915.184

Columbia bridge, 109 " 1O1 1.268

Colebrook bridge, 113 " 1O25.674

Middle of window on school-house 5 m. north of Colebrook, 1O78.784

East end of Canaan bridge over Connecticut river, . . 120 " 1053.699

Bridge over HalPs stream, 121.5 " 1097.963

Foundation of red school-house at the "Hollow," 6 miles

from Connecticut lake, 1494.97O

Connecticut lake, 134 " 1618. 6O6

4. EASTERN LINE OF REFERENCE.

Heights along Boston & Maine Railroad. Copied from original pro-
file, through kindness of N. G. White, president, and reduced to mean
tide.

^Boston. Heights in feet.

Station at Boston,
Melrose, Mass.,
Wilmington Junction, Mass.,
South Lawrence, Mass., .

7. miles.
18.1 "
26.

13.5
62.
88.
49.

264 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

fi2XSn. Heights in feet.

Haverhill, Mass., . ....... 33.2 miles. 33.

Atkinson, . . . .... . . . 36.7 " 57.

Plaistow, brickyard, 37.6 " 86.

Plaistow, 38.5 " 92.

Newton, 41. " 125.5

Newton, railroad summit, . 42.2 " 142.

East Kingston, . . 45.8 " 130.

Bridge over Exeter river, 49. " 41.5

Exeter 50.4 " 58.

South Newmarket, . . . 54.7 " 38.

Newmarket Junction, . 55.7 " 52.

Newmarket, . . . 57.5 " 40.

Bridge over Lamprey river (track), 59.3 " 48.

Bridge over Durham river (track) , 61.4 " 74.

Durham . 61.9 " 7O.

Railroad summit near Madbury, . ... . 63.8 " 118.

Madbury, . . . . 64.3 " 1O8.

Bridge over Cochecho river (track) , . . . . 67.3 " 67.

Dover, . . . .... . . . 67.6 " 72.

Rollinsford, . . ....'.. . 70.3 " 115.

Railroad summit near Rollinsford, .. ... 71. " 127.

Salmon Falls, . . . .'.'.'.'.. 71.6 " 1O7.

Great Falls (branch of B. & M. R.), ... .73. " 178.

Summit between Alton and Farmington (branch of B. & M. R. R.), 571.

Heights along Portsmouth, Great Falls & Conway Railroad. Fur-
nished by T. Willis Pratt, engineer.

Distances from Heights
Portsmouth. in feet.

Kittery, Me., . . i mile. 17

Elliot, Me., . . . . 7 miles. 21

Great Falls (Conway) Junction, n " 9O

Great Falls station, about 12 feet higher than dam, . . . 16.5 " 178

Rochester station, on level plain, 23 " 226

Milton station, about 6 feet higher than Three Ponds, . 31 " 415
Wakefield station (railroad summit), about 10 feet lower than

the village street, 42.5 " 690

East Wakefield (railroad summit) , 46.2 " 678

Ossipee, \ mile from village, 54-3 " 642

Summit, \ mile farther on, 54-5 " 654

West Ossipee, on flat land in vicinity of Ossipee lake, and near

the hotel, perhaps 20 feet higher than lake 3 miles off, . 64.7 " 428

ALTITUDES. 265

Distances from Heights
Portsmouth. in feet.

Madison, north-west end of Six-mile pond (Silver lake) , . . 69.5 " 476

Summit 2 miles beyond, 7r-3 " 516

Conway Corner (Chateaugay) , west end of village, . . . 76.6" 466

Crossing Saco river, summer level, 80 " 446

North Conway station, 82 " 516

Jackson, on the road between the two bridges, . . . 90 " 759

Wolfeborough Branch. Furnished by J. W. Lovering, assistant engineer.

Heights in feet.

Wolfeborough Junction, 49.5 miles from Portsmouth, .... 574

Railroad summit east of Cottonborough station, ..... 664

Lake Winnipiseogee, surface of water, October, 1871, .... 5OO.5

" " March 26, 1872, . . . 498.26

Heights along the Portland & Ogdensburgh Railroad. Furnished by
John F. Anderson, engineer, and reduced to mean tide. Initial point of
distances at the west end of P. & K. Railroad Company's freight house,
in Portland, Me.

Localities in Maine.

Distance;
in miles,

; Heights
in feet.

Surface of Presumscot river, on ice
Surface of Presumscot river, on ice, .....

5.64

39
ISO

Surface of Sebago lake, on ice, . . . .

. I7

263

Steep Falls of the Saco river (village), ....

. 24.5

305

Surface of the Saco river, at mouth of the Ossipee,

• 32

266

Surface of Ingalls pond, near head of Great Falls, Saco river,

• 35-4

35O

Fryeburg station, natural surface of plain, ....

• 49-7

420

Highway at state line, Maine and New Hampshire,

• 5*

451

Localities in New Hampshire.

Saco river at railroad crossing, Conway Centre,

. 55.25

412

Surface of North Conway village, terrace plain,

. 60

521

Saco river at junction of the Ellis river, ....

. 64.5

511

Saco river at junction of the Rocky Branch,

. 66

560

Surface of plain of Upper Bartlett village, ....

. 70.5

66O

Saco river at line between Bartlett and Hart's Location,

. 72.5

745

Surface of Sawyer's river at highway bridge,

. 74.2

863

Surface of Nancy's brook at highway bridge,
Highway at Willey house, ....

76.2

82 2

1003

1 000

South end of gate of notch, .

84 1

X t_9^l t_)

1 ftl Q

Crawford house,

8c

X O J. C7

1 ftQQ

Highest grade near Crawford house,

°3

A OC7C/

1 ftQ^

VOL. I. 36

J. O£7O

266 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Distances Heights in
in miles. feet.

Surface of ground at the lowest point of water-shed between the

Saco and Ammonoosuc, 1914.

Head waters of Saco river, a small pond, 1300 feet south-east

from Crawford house, ........ 1 8 SO

Fabyan house, 89 1571

Ammonoosuc river, 250 feet east of Fabyan house, . . . 1559

Same, 1200 feet east of White Mountain house, .... 1545

White Mountain house, 90 1556

The slope of the interval here is about 12 feet in a mile.
High water in Ammonoosuc river above Leavitt & Nason's mill,

" Lower falls," . ' . . • 90.5 1543

Pool below " Lower falls," 1503

Twin Mountain station, 93.8 1446

Twin Mountain house, 1429

Whitefield station, 103.5 948

Crossing of B., C. & M. Railroad 106.5 882

Connecticut river, Dalton, high water,* 832. 06

Connecticut river, at head of Fifteen-mile falls, low water, . . 827.68

5. RAILROAD SURVEYS IN SOUTHERN NEW HAMPSHIRE.

Heights between Epping and Salisbury, Mass. From surveys for the
Exeter & Salisbury Railroad, furnished by J. J. Bell, Esq., of Exeter.

Heights in feet.

Epping depot, 154

Junction with C. & P. R., 5,000 feet east of depot, .... 144

Piscasset river, at crossing, 119

Crossing road to Marshall's corner 122

Little or Deerhill river, at highest crossing, 62

Little or Deerhill river, at second crossing, 31

B. & M. R., at Exeter depot, ........ 58

Exeter dams, 18.97

Rockingham factory dam, 34.29

Little river, at lowest crossing, and Exeter river, 22

High water in Exeter river, 27.5

Grassy meadow, 25

Old road to Newburyport, near Kensington line, 42

Old road north of Brown's, 68

North road, Kensington, near J. Fellows's, 56

North road, at Tuck's tannery, . . 75

Poor's mill-pond, high water, 114

* Incorrectly stated on page 177.

ALTITUDES. 26/

Heights in feet,

Kingston road, a little above D. Merrill's, 51

Hampton Falls river, below Weare's mill, 41

Hampton Falls river, above Weare's mill, 63

Evans's mill-pond, 5O

Eastern Railroad, a little below Salisbury depot, 28

Heights along Nashua & RocJiester Railroad. Furnished by C. O.
Davis, engineer, from profile of the road, which shows agreement with

previously determined altitudes at Nashua, Epping, and Rochester.
Rivers and ponds are given at their actual height at the time of survey.
Distances are from the junction with the Worcester & Nashua Railroad
at Nashua.

Distances in Heights in feet.

Merrimack river, low to high water, .6 91-115

Bridge over Merrimack river, 126

Crossing near Dr. Smith's, Hudson Centre, .... 2.6 2O3

Hudson summit, near Mr. Clement's, 3.8 262

Beaver brook (water), line between Hudson and Windham, 5.3 172

Windham summit, 9.8 345

Windham station, crossing M. & L. R., .... 10.3 324

Hampstead station, -16.5 258

Exeter river, outlet of Phillips pond, Sandown, . . . 18.4 215

Exeter river, second crossing, Sandown, .... 20.6 176

Exeter river, third crossing, Danville, 21.6 175

Exeter river, fourth crossing, below Scribner's mills, Fremont, 23.4 1 35

Spruce swamp, 25 161

Epping crossing, C. & P. R., 28.2 154

Pawtuckaway river, ........ 28.6 1O3

North river, Epping, ........ 32 95

Little river, Lee, 34.9 118

Wheelwright's pond, Lee, 36.4 131

Crossing, Concord & Portsmouth turnpike, .... 37.4 153

Newton plain, Lee, 38 198

Bellamy river, 39.7 148

Winkley's pond, Barrington, 40.4 167

Malagar river, 41.1 154

Summit, at Barrington station 41.9 2O7

Isinglass river, - . 44.9 158

Gonic summit, ......... 46.6 2O1

Cochecho river, 46.9 173

Rochester, 48.3 226

268

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Heights in feet.

324

Heights between Windham and Lowell. From a preliminary railroad
survey, by Charles C. Lund, of Concord.

Windham, junction of M. & L. and N. & R. railroads, ...

Windham Centre, ........... 244

Neal's mill-pond, Windham, ......... 176

Pelham village, ........... 134

Beaver brook at this place, ......... 1 26

High terrace of the Merrimack at mouth of Beaver brook, . . . 118

Water in river here,

57

Heights along Boston, Lowell & Nashua, and Nashtia, Wilton &
Peterborough railroads, and proposed extensions. Furnished by M. W.
Oliver, engineer, and reduced to mean tide.

Passenger station, Boston, ......

Winchester, Mass., .......

East Woburn, Mass., .......

Lowell, Mass., ........

North Chelmsford, Mass., .......

Switch to Concord Railroad, . . .

Nashua, ..... .....

East Wilton, .........

Near hotel in Greenfield, ......

Contoocook river, on Forest road between Greenfield and

Hancock, ........

Hancock street, between church and academy,

Water in Hancock pond, ......

Rye pond, south-west corner of Antrim,

Bridge on the Keene and Concord road, east of "Box

tavern," Stoddard, .......

Upper or principal Island pond, Stoddard,

Summit north of Wilson's, ......

Junction of Forest and Keene roads, near Marlow,
Pond at Marlow, ........

Junction of Old and New Forest roads, ....

Gustin pond, .........

Forest Road bridge over Cold river, ....

Sills of Universalist meeting-house, Paper Mill Village,
Spofford's gap, between Temple and Kidder mountains

in Temple, ........

Hedgehog gap, probably between Temple and Pack Mo-

nadnoc mountains in Temple, .....

8
10
26
29

39
39-
55
65

miles.

Heights in feet.
11

27.10
33. 3O
99.11

106

122.41

134.51

328

835

640

826

792

1235

1223
1248
156O
1188
1123
1333
1250

619

475

1465
1457

ALTITUDES. 269

Heights in feet.

Arlington, Mass., 41

Lexington common, Mass., ...... 222

Bedford, Mass., 175

Railroad at Greenville, 803

Hay-scales at New Ipswich, 944

Claremont to White River Junction.

Furnished from surveys for Boston, Lowell & Nashua Railroad, by G.

B. Pearson, of Nashua.

from'Smon, Heights in feet.

Sill of Lyman Barnes's house, Claremont, . . . 528.93

Edminster school-house, 5.1 miles. 908.36

Cornish Flat (proposed station), .... 9.3 " 854.9O

Sill of Bryant's barn, 9-5 " 842.49

Bridge at Moore's mill, Plainfield 13.8" 837.27

Wood's mill, Lebanon, 18.3 " 462.53

West Lebanon station, N. R. R 21.9 " 376.13

6. RAILROAD SURVEYS IN CENTRAL NEW HAMPSHIRE.

Heights betiveen Concord and Rochester. Furnished from surveys for

C. & R. Railroad, by Chas. C. Lund, engineer.

Heights
in feet.

Railroad at East Concord, 246

Dark plains, on east side river opposite Concord, 356

Soucook river, 4^ miles from E. Concord 3O7

Lynxfield pond, Chichester, 432

Summit in survey, | mile east of Lynxfield pond, 451

Suncook river, £ mile above Chichester pine ground, 338

Railroad at Epsom, 342

Suncook river, below Lord's mills, ........ 497

Suncook pond, Northwood, 512

Swamp on water-shed, • 612

Bow pond, Strafford, 515

Isinglass river, f mile below Bow pond, 482

Nippo river, at crossing 3i mile from Bow pond, 281

Isinglass river, 5 miles from Bow pond, 233

Railroad at Pittsfield, 493

Blue Hill gap, Strafford, 686

Railroad at Rochester, 226

2/O PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Heights in Gilmanton and Belmont. Furnished from preliminary
railroad surveys, by R. S. Howe, engineer.

Heights
in feet.

Hatch's store, Gilmanton Iron Works, 604

Barnstead road, £ mile south of this place, ....... 582

First reservoir above this village (Lougee pond), 622

Second reservoir above this village, 615

South gap, Gilmanton, 11O2

North gap, Gilmanton 1O88

Factory pond reservoir, 1O11

Garmon's mill-pond, 665

Reservoir pond above Belmont village, 6O2

Sargent's mill-pond, Factory Village, 556

Heights along Suncook Valley Railroad and proposed extension. Fur-
nished by Hon. S. N. Bell, president, from surveys under the direction
of Hon. J. A. Weston.

Distances from Heights

Hooksett. in feet.

Hooksett bridge, 66 miles from Boston, 2O5

Bridge over Suncook river, 2.4 miles. 243

Highway crossing near Suncook house, 302

Highway crossing near Tennant's saw-mill, .... 3O6

Highway crossing, Buck street, Allenstown, . . . . 7 " 342

Bear brook (water level) , 8 " 294

Highway crossing at Jenness Corner, 338

Mouth of Little Suncook river, 12.5 " 336

Epsom depot, 362

Chichester pine ground, depot, 15 " 373

Highway crossing near Webster's mills, 17 " 409

Pittsfield depot, 19.5 " 493

Suncook river, above dam, Pittsfield, . . . . . . 471

Barnstead Parade, 512

Barnstead Centre, 527

Suncook river, below Gilmanton Iron Works 582

Suncook river above Gilmanton Iron Works 6O3

Gilmanton Iron Works village, . . . . . . . 647

Summit between this place and Alton, 852

Water-shed between lake and Cochecho river, .... 571

Terrace, approx., 550

Hotel, Alton Bay, 530

Winnipiseogee, 5OO

ALTITUDES. 2/1

Heights on Manchester & North Weare Railroad and proposed exten-
sions. Furnished by Hon. J. A. Weston, engineer, and reduced to mean
tide.

Heights in feet.

Goffstown station, 3O4.O9

Parker's station, 318.69

Piscataquog river at Parker's station, Goffstown, 298.69

Piscataquog river below bridge at New Boston village, . . . 421.83

North Weare, 489

Summit, ............ 537

Town line, Weare and Henniker, . . . . . . . 524

Contoocook river, water, 389

Street-crossing, old New Hampshire Central Railroad, Henniker, . 455

Former station, New Hampshire Central Railroad, Henniker, . . 469

Manchester &* Keene Railroad, in part.

Piscataquog river below bridge at New Boston village, . . . 421.83

Piscataquog river at west line of New Boston, 514.63

Francestown turnpike, near north-east corner of Lyndeborough, . . 613.53

Forest road south of Greenfield Centre (summit in railroad survey), . 915.69

Meadows between Greenfield and Peterborough, and near Greenfield, . 816

Contoocook river, above stone bridge and dam at Peterborough Centre, 734

Meadow on Goose brook, above West Peterborough, . . . . 927

Long meadow, on Goose brook in Hillsborough and Dublin, . . 96O

North pond in Harrisville, 1218

Harrisville, 1334

Summit on railroad survey in Harrisville, 1265

Mud pond in Harrisville, ......... 1256

Reservoir at head of " Gulf" in Marlborough, 1137

Monadnock & Peterborough Railroad. From preliminary surveys under
the direction of Hon. J. A. Weston.

Heights in
feet.

Peterborough village, 744

Contoocook river above Peterborough, 748

River below Cragin's mill, 809

Town line between Peterborough and Jaffrey, 90 1

Bacon's mills, Jaffrey, 922

River at Cheshire factory, 977

Eastjaffrey, 1032

River above Squantum, 1O99

Town line between Jaffrey and Rindge, 1127

Three ponds in north part of Rindge, each, 1114

2/2

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

East Rindge,

State line, between Rindge and Winchendon,
Winchendon village (Cheshire Railroad intersection) ,

By another Route from East Jaffrey.

Cemetery, East Jaffrey,

Contoocook river, 3000 feet south from north line of Rindge,
Towne's mill, Rindge,

Heights
in feet.

1003

106O

992

1O45
1044
1031

Heights along the Concord & Claremont Railroad and Hillsborough
Branch. Furnished by R. S. Howe, engineer.

Distances
from Concord.

Heights in feet.

Concord — 75 miles from Boston ; 59 miles from Ports-
mouth,

West Co

Summit,

Mast Yard,

Summit,

Contoocook,

Dimond's

Pleasant p

Tom pond

Warner,

Sill of Si

Bradford,

Todd pon

Newbury

Newbury

Lowest point between the Connecticut and Merrimack
rivers, about 400 feet south of railroad, .

Sunapee lake — low water, 109O; high water,

Spectacle pond, Sunapee, ......

Mt. Sunapee station

Sunapee,

Newport, .

New court-house, Newport, sill at front door, .

North ville, bridge over Sugar river, ....

Mineral spring above Kelleyville, near railroad,

Claremont, .........

Foot of shaft, soldiers' monument, Claremont,

Claremont Junction,

252.39

ord,

3 miles.

353.69

.

5.6 "

378.42

8

374.57

........

10. 1 "

395. 3O

k

12 "

373.38

lorner,

14.5 "

424.98

)nd, on the south, at this place,

428.1O

on the north, at this place, ....

398.32

18.5 miles.

421.82

onds High-school building, Warner,

498.24

27.5 miles.

678.79

, near this station,

677.41

ummit (rock-cut) , over rail, ....

1181.07

ummit, on rail,

1130

40

43

miles.

46 miles.
54.5 miles.
56.5 miles.

1161.24

11O3.22

1122.73

1128

955.72

8O2.32

822.05

783

707.04

543.1O

567.47

473.25

ALTITUDES. 273

HiUsborough Branch Contoocook Valley Railroad.

DiSa,nCceoSl°m Heights in feet.'

Contoocook, . 12 miles. 373.38

West Hopkinton, 15 " 391.79

Crossing of old N. H. Central Railroad, Henniker, . . 426.29

Henniker, 20 " 439.32

Paper-mill pond, water, ....... 432. 02

Foot of Long fall, Contoocook river 433.82

Head of Long fall, 10,000 feet distant, .... 546.91

HiUsborough Bridge station, 27 " 574.O3

HeigJtts in Boscawen and Salisbury. Furnished from surveys for
Blackwater River Railroad, by R. S. Howe, engineer.

Heights in feet.

Dingett's Corners, 479. 9O

Blackwater river at crossing, \ mile above this place, .... 442.96

Clark's island, 5O8.80

Blackwater river, \ mile above Clark's island, . . . . . . 526.67

Webster village, 555..0O

Salisbury, south line of township, 568.72

South Salisbury, road, 563.2

Salisbury Centre, road, 592. 5O

North Salisbury, island in river, 6O2.2O

The " Bay" at this place, 598. 9O

Fourth N. H. Turnpike, near J. G. White's, Andover, .... 632. OO

South-west corner of the town of Salisbury, . . . ... . 899.23

Heights on Kearsarge Mountain. Furnished from carriage-road sur-
vey, Warner, by R. S. Howe.

Heights in
feet.

U. S. Signal post, Kearsarge mountain, 2942.79

Kearsarge mt., " Garden," 2622. 5O

Plumbago point, southerly end of Mission ridge, .... 17O5.OO

Lowest point between Kearsarge and Black mountain, . . . 2426.67

Lowest point between Mission ridge and Black mountain, . . . 2252.55

7. RAILROAD SURVEYS IN NORTHERN NEW HAMPSHIRE.

Heights along Boston, Concord & Montreal Railroad, and Mt. Wash-
ington Branch.

The records of this road having been lost by fire, the altitudes published in Guyot's
Memoir on the "Appalachian Mountain System, "which were derived from the original

VOL. i. 37

2/4

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

records, are here given, with others from a published plan and profile of a survey for
this road between Woodsville and Lancaster, by J. L. Gregg, engineer, in 1849.
These altitudes are known to be approximately in agreement with other series fore-
going, by comparison at Lake Winnipiseogee, at Wells River, and at the junction of
the Mt. Washington Branch with the P. & O. Railroad. Several heights in the
vicinity of Bethlehem, and others from the recent surveys north from Littleton and
for the Mt. W. Branch, have been furnished by engineers H. W. Goodrich and R. S.
Howe.

Distances Heights in
from Concord. feet.

Meredith Village,

37 miles.

542

Plymouth,

51 "

473

Rumney,

59 "

520

Warren, .........

71 "

736

Railroad summit, Warren

75 "

1O63

East Haverhill,

79 "

773

Woodsville,

93 "

448

Connecticut river, low water,

.

4O7

Bath

97 "

521

Near dam in Landaff,

101 "

56O

Lisbon

. 103 "

577

Upper village in Lisbon,

104 "

592

North Lisbon,

1 08 "

667

Littleton,

113 "

817

Scythe factory,

. 114 "

862

Stevens mills, Bethlehem,

118 "

987

Wing Road junction,

120 "

1019

Whitefield

123 "

931

Dalton, • . .

128 "

866

South Lancaster

. 131 "

867

Lancaster,

• 134 "

87O

Groveton Junction,

• H3 "

901

Bethlehem,

122 "

1187

Twin Mountain station,

129 "

1375

Junction of Mt. Washington Branch with P. & O. R., .

. 131 "

1483

Island below Richardson's mill, Bethlehem hollow,

122 "

1104

Pierce's mill-pond,

. 124 "

1218

Lower Ammonoosuc, at mouth of Little river,

1329

Lower Ammonoosuc, J mile above Carroll bridge, .

.

1348

Burbank's mill-pond, near Twin Mountain house, .

129 "

1365

Rounsevel & Colburn's mill-pond,

. I3I "

1430

White Mountain house,

• 133 "

1556

Fabyan house,

• 134 "

1571

ALTITUDES.

Ammonoos-uc station, base of Mt. Washington,
Summit of Mt. Washington, ....

Distances
from Concord.

140 miles.
143 "

Heights in
feet.

2668
6293

Heights along the Grand Trunk Railway.

Copied from tracing of profile furnished by C. J. Brydges, Manager, and reduced to
mean tide by connection with the special survey along Connecticut river, as previously
noticed (p. 251). This profile thus referred to sea level indicates for Gorham a
height 10 feet greater than that given for this railroad station by Guyot, from which
base his determinations of altitudes among the White Mountains were probably
computed. (See note beyond.)

Line between Maine and New Hampshire, .

Shelburne, 85

Gorham, 91

Berlin Falls, 97

Milan summit, 102

Milan water-station, 103

West Milan, 109

Stark water-station, 114

Stark, 116

Bridge over Upper Ammo noosuc river, 117

Groveton, 122

Stratford Hollow 126

North Stratford, 134

Nulhegan, Vt., 139

Wenlock, Vt 141

Island Pond, Vt 149

Summit, highest between Portland and Montreal, . . .156

Norton, Vt., 160

Boundary Line station, P. Q., 132 miles from Montreal, . . 165

Distances from
Portland.

82 miles.

Heights
in feet.

713

723

812

1035

1087

108O

1015

990

972

961

901

877

915

1125

1162

1197

1385

1357

1232

8. HEIGHTS OF VILLAGES.

Abbreviations. L., Spirit Level; P. L., Pocket Level; T., Trigonometrical; B.,
Mercurial Barometer; A., Aneroid Barometer. After names of mountains, G. signifies
measurements made by Prof. Arnold Guyot, LL. D., of Princeton, N. J. ; J. those
taken by Dr. Charles T. Jackson, as published in his final report on the geology of
New Hampshire. Many of them have been calculated for the present chapter from the
observations printed in that volume. The trigonometrical measurements were made by
the United States Coast Survey, mostly under the direction of Prof. E. T. Quimby.

2/6 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

ROCKIXGHAM COUNTY.

Heights Heights

in feet. in feet.

B. Portsmouth, J., 43 B. Deerfield, J., . . . . 494

B. Newington, J., . . . 150 L. Raymond, .... 198

B. Kingston, J . 75 L. Exeter, 62

B. Hampstead, J., 313 A. Seabrook, .... 62

B. Durham, J., . . . . 125 A. Newton, 156

A. South Newmarket, . . . 134 A. Plaistow, .... 96

A. West Epping, . . . 163 A. Derry, east, .... 358

A. Northwood 590 A. Greenland, . . . . 51

B. Nottingham Square, J., . . 450

HILLSBOROUGH COUNTY.

L. Pelham 134 A. East Weare, .... 388

A. Hollis, 300 L. North Weare, .... 489

A. Brookline 400 A. Weare, 620

L. Greenville, .... 8O3 A. Deering, 972

L. New Ipswich, hay-scales, lower L. Hancock, .... 826

part, 944 B. Amherst, court-house, J., . 427

A. Thornton's Ferry village, . 148 B. Francestown, J., . . 733

L. East Wilton, .... 33O B. Mont Vernon, J., ... 770

T. Antrim, middle of belfry wi&- B. Lyndeborough, J., . . . 774

dow in South church, . . 766 B. Temple, J., . . . . 720

T. Antrim, ridge-pole of brick ch., 718 L. Hudson, 203

L. Greenfield, near hotel, . . 835 L. Goffstown (Parker's), . . 319

L. Peterborough, . . . 744 L. Hillsborough, .... 674

Nashua. Levelling for water-works.

Datum for city levels (low water in Merrimack river), . . . . 93.1O

Main street, at city hall and at Worcester depot, 152

Dam at Mine falls, 152

Dam below Main Street bridge, 116

Reservoir of water-works, 247

Pumping-station of water- works, 115

Pratt's hill, ii miles south of city, 252

Manchester. Levelling for water- works.

Cistern of barometer, corrected from statement on page 144, . . . 235

City hall door-step, 217

Amoskeag base line (datum for city levels) , 108.98

Amoskeag Co/s reservoir, 324

Lake Massabesic, 256

ALTITUDES.

2/7

Heights
in feet.

Stevens pond, ....

Dorr's pond,

Mudsill at Maple Falls dam, Candia,
Sawyer pond, Hooksett, .
Moody pond, Hooksett, .

B. Chesterfield, J.,
A. Fitzwilliam,

A. Richmond,

B. Hinsdale, J., (?) .
A. Jaffrey, .

L. East Jafirey, .
L. Troy (railroad),

L. Rochester,
L. Barnstead Parade, .
L. Barnstead Centre, .
L. Salmon Falls, .
L. Great Falls, railroad,
L. Dover, railroad,
Farmington (est.), .

CHESHIRE COUNTY.

869 A. Stoddard,

1150 A. Gilsum,

1 1 80 A. Walpole,

397 L. Harrisville,

1057 L. East Rindge, .

. 1O32 B. Alstead, J., .

. 1OO2 L. Paper Mill Village, .

STRATFORD COUNTY.

. 226 B. Strafford (WingateY) , J.,

. 512 A. Milton Three Ponds,

527 L. Barrington, railroad station,

• 1O7 A. Middleton, .

178 A. New Durham Corner,

72 L. Madbury (railroad),
300

Heights
in feet.

322
290
4O7
429
439

1412
926

365
1334

1003

535
475

748

409

207

709

54i
108

BELKNAP COUNTY.

L. Gilmanton Iron Works, . . 647 A. Belmont 538

B. Gilmanton Corner, J., . . 918 A. Tilton, 478

T. Sanbornton Square town-house T. Tallest church spire, Laconia, 568

(ridge-pole), . . . 930 L. Meredith Village, . . . 542

A. Farrarsville, .... 635 A. Center Harbor, . . . 553

L. Pittsfield depot,

B. Epsom, J.,

B. Dunbarton, J.,

L. Hooksett, railroad,

B. Franklin, upper village, .

L. Andover, railroad, .

L. Potter Place, railroad,

Boscawen (est.),
T. Shaker barn ridge-pole,
terbury,

MERRIMACK COUNTY.

. 493 A. Wilmot, 846

444 T. Webster (Corser hill church), 786

799 L. Pittsfield, Baptist church, . 52O

. 2O6 L. Henniker, . . . .455

343 L. Contoocook, . . . .373

. 628 L. West Concord, . . . 354

653 L. Dimond's Corner, . . . 425

300 L. High school-house sill, Warner, 498

Can- L. Bradford, . . . .679

. 815 L. Webster, . . . 555

278

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

L. North Salisbury, .

B. Salisbury Centre, on hill, J., .

Heights
in feet.

602 T. Pembroke, Cong, church, base
1007 of spire, ....

Heights
in feet.

446

Concord. Levelling for water-works.
Datum for city levels (low water in Merrimack river) ,

Summit of hill on School street,

Former height of Long pond (Penacook lake),

Top of city water-works dam,

State house,

A. Washington,

B. Acworth, J.,
L. Charlestown,
B. Meriden, J.,
A. East Lempster,
L. Cornish Flat,

225.29
367
404.5
412

L. East Lebanon,

L. Enfield, .

L. East Canaan, .

L. Plymouth,

L. Rumney, i

L. Warren, .

L. East Haverhill,

A. Bath,
Lisbon,

B. Bethlehem, G.,
B. Franconia, G.,
B. Profile house,
B. Thornton, G.,

A. Drakesville, Effiingham,

L. Wakefield,

L. Conway Corner,

3

2

SULLIVAN

COUNTY.

>n.

Heights
in feet.

I2Q8

'**> •

., . . .

7"
• 1397

L. Newport court-house,

•n, .

375

012

A. East Croydon,

ister,

y
1090

A. Springfield, .

at,

. 855

:own hall,

GRAFTON

. 524

COUNTY.

non,
ion, .

386
. 766

L. Grafton Centre,

. 768

L. Mill Village, Hanover, .

in, .

. 956

B. Lyme, J., .

railroad,

. 473

A. Hebron,

ailroad, .

. 520

Orford,

.

. 736

B. Piermont, J., .

-hill,

. 773

A. Wentworth, .

.

530

A. South Groton,

.

• 567

B. Haverhill, J., .

, G., . .

. 1450

L. Littleton, railroad, .

G.,

921

L. Woodsville, .

se, G., .

. 1974

A. Campton, .

G., . .

. 1223

A. Ashland, .

CARROLL COUNTY.

381 L. North Conway,
. 70O L. Jackson, .
. 466 L. Upper Bartlett,

Heights
in feet.

567
822

884

924

1239

826
872
545
757

484

633
438
460
616
640
710
817
448
594
475

521
759
660

ALTITUDES.

2/9

Heights
in feet.

L. "Jericho village," near Mead's
house, on Rocky Branch, I
mile above junction with the
Saco,

L. Nute's house, on ridge between

Jericho and Goodrich falls, .

L. Jackson road, at Goodrich falls,

L. Whitefield, .

L. Sumner house, Dalton,

L. Groveton,

L. Lancaster,

A. Stratford Hollow, .

L. North Stratford,

West Stewartstown,
A. Jefferson mills,
L. Gorham,

784

905
708

A. Freedom,

A. South Tamworth, .

A. Sandwich,

A. Ossipee, Water Village,

A. Tuftonborough,

A. Moultonborough Centre,

Heights
in feet.

396
630
648

745

cob's COUNTY.

957 L. Shelburne,

898 L. Berlin Falls, .

901 L. West Milan, .

87O L. Stark, .

897 L. Colebrook,

915 L. Crawford house,

1055 L. Fabyan house,

1180 L. White Mountain house,
812

723
1035
1015

972
1O3O
1899
1571
1556

HEIGHTS OF MOUNTAINS.

ROCKINGHAM COUNTY.

Heights
in feet.

Heights
in feet.

B. Mt. Pawtuccaway, Not'gh'm, J.,
" " lower summit, .

"• " middle summit,
" " upper summit, .

B. Harvey hill, J., . . . 519

780 B. Saddleback mt., Northwood, J., 1032

892 B. Boar's Head, Rye, J., . . 60-70
827

HILLSBOROUGH AND CHESHIRE COUNTIES.

T. Barrett hill, Greenville, . . 1271 A. Kidder mountain, New Ipswich, 1492

T. Bald mountain, Antrim, . . 2O39 B. Temple mt., Temple, J., . . 1755

T. Pack Monadnock, Peterboro', 22&9 T. Monadnock, Jaffrey, . 3186

T. Barrett mountain, New Ipswich, 1847 T. Mt. Pitcher, Stoddard, . 217O

T. Uncanoonuc, east peak, Goffst'n, 1333 A. Bald hill, Gilsum, . . .1164

T. Crotched mt., Francestown, 2O66 T. Duncan hill, Hancock, . 2O03
B. Symmes hill, Hancock, J., . 1317

STR AFFORD AND BELKNAP COUNTIES.

T. Gunstock, C. S. station, . . 2394 A. Wadleigh's hill, Meredith, . 860

B. Mt. Belknap, J., . . 2062 A. Sunset hill, Center Harbor, . 885

T. Gilmanton peak, . . . 1479 B. Blue mountain, Milton, J., . 1415
B. Blue mountain, Strafford, J., . 1151

2 SO

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

MERRIMACK AND SULLIVAN COUNTIES.

T. Bald Mink hill, Warner, .

T. Craney hill, Henniker, .

T. Catamount mt., Pittsfield,

T. Rattlesnake hill, Concord,

T. Stewart's peak, Warner,

T. Croydon mountain, Croydon,

T. Melvin hill, Springfield, .

T. Sunapee mountain, Newbury,

1528 T. North Putney hill, Hopkinton, 856

142O T. Fort mountain, Epsom, . . 1428

1341 B. McKoy's mountain, Epsom, J., 1590

783 T. Ragged mountain, Andover, 2256

1808 L. Mt. Kearsarge, Warner, . . 2943

2789 T. Bean hill, Northfield, . .1515

2134 T. Lovell's mountain, Washington, 2487
2683

P. L. Mt. Crawford, G.,

Mt. Resolution, . . . 3400
Giant's Stairs, .... 3500

CARROLL COUNTY.

3134 T. Red hill, north peak,

P. L. Trimountain, G.,

Silver Spring mount, (est.),
P. L. Green's Cliff, G.,
P. L. Table mountain, 3 miles S.
S.E. from Hart's Ledge, G.,

Mt. Israel, Sandwich,
B. Gt. Moose mt., Brookfield, J.,
Cropple Crown, Br'kfield, Fogg,
P. L. Mt. Chocorua, G.,
T. Mt. Pequawket,* C. S., .
B. Red hill, south peak, G.,

3393
3000
2958

B. Ossipee mountain, J.,

A. Green hills, Conway,

Tin mountain, Jackson, . .
Mt. Baldface, Jackson,

B. Double Head, Jackson, J.,
Duck Pond mountain, near

Hart's Location (est.),
Iron mountain, Bartlett (est.) ,
Mote mountain, Albany,
Mote mountain, south peak, .

T. Moose mountain, Hanover,
T. Mt. Cuba, Orford, . . . 2927
T. Prospect mount., Holderness, 2072
T. Mt. Cardigan, Orange, . .3156
T. Bristol Peak, Bristol, . .1785
T. Ford hill, Grafton, . . .1 8OO
T. Stinson mountain, Rumney, . 27O7
Mountains in Waterville.

A. Welch mountain, . . . 3500
T. Mt. Whiteface, . . . 4007

B. Tripyramid, Bond's four peaks,

from south to north, 4100,
4100, 4200, 4000
A. South Tripyramid, . . . 4040

33°S
2880
1404

2IOO
• 3540

. 3251

1769

GRAFTON COUNTY.

2326 P. L. Tripyramid, G., .

Mt. Passaconnaway, .
P. L. Mt. Osceola, G., "Mad Riv-
er peak," ....

A. Mt. Osceola

B. Mt. Osceola, Bond,
B. Black mountain,

Dome,"G., .
A. Black mountain,

Dome,"
T. Black mountain,

Dome,"

Mountains in Pemigeivasset.
P. L. Mt. Hancock, "Pemigewas-

set peak" of Guyot,

2038

2361
2390
1650
3600
3120

20OO
2OOO
32OO
2700

T. Mt. Pleasant (Me.), C. S., . 2021

4086
4200

4397
4400
4400

Sandwich

Sandwich

Sandwich

3969

4050

3999

4420

* Erroneously stated to be 3300 feet on page 201.

ALTITUDES.

28l

Heights
in feet.

B. Mt. Carrigain, G., . . . 4678
B. Mt. Carrigain, east spur, G., . 4419
Mt, Nancy, Bond, . . . 38°°
P. L. Mt. Lowell, G., "Brick-
house mountain," . . 3850
Peak between Mts. Nancy

and Lowell, Bond, . . 4000

P. L. Mt. Willey, G., . . . 4300

P. L. Highest p'k of Willey chain, 4330

P. L. Mt. Field (G.?), . . 4070

P. L. " Echo mountain,1' Guyot, . 3170

P. L. Twin mountain, G., . . 4920

" " Bond, . 5000

Two peaks south of Twin,

Bond, . . . 4900, 4800

Mt. Flume, Bond, . . 4500

Mt. Liberty, Bond, . . 4500

So. end of Lafayette range, 4500

B. Mt. Lincoln, G 5101

T. Mt. Lafayette, Franconia, . 5259

P. L. Mt. Kinsman, G., about . 4200
P. L. Blue mountain, highest of

the Kinsman range, G., . 4370

B. Mt.Cannon(Profile),G.,approx., 3850

Heights
in feet.

B. Bear mountain, , . . 3400

Mountains in Warren.

P. L. Mt. Black, . . . . 3571

P. L. Mt. Kineo, .... 3427

P. L. Mt. Cushman, . . . 3326

P. L. Mt. Waternomee, . . 3022

P. L. Mt. Mist, .... 2243

P. L. Webster Slide mountain, G., 2210

Mt. Sentinel, . . . 2032

P. L. Mt. Carr, G 3522

P. L. Owl's Head, Benton, G., . 2992
T. Moosilauke mount., Benton, . 4811

B. Sugar Loaf, Benton, J., . . 2565

A. Peaked hill, Bethlehem, . . 2042

B. Gilmanton hill, summit between

Franconia and Littleton, G., 1329

B. Campton mountain, Campton, 2879

B. Baldtop mount., WentworthJ., 2050

B. Squam mountain, Holderness, 2162

B. Piermont mountain, Piermont, 2167

T. Mt. Ascutney, Windsor, Vt., . 3186

cobs COUNTY.

B. Mt. Dustan, College grant,

B. Half-moon mt., " "

B. Mt. Ingalls, Shelburne,

B. Hampshire hills, Cambridge,

B. South spur of do., .

B. Randolph mt., Randolph,

A. South peak, Kilkenny, .

2575 B. Percy north peak, Stratford,

2526 B. Percy south peak, Stratford,

2520 A. Mt. Forest, Berlin,

1882 A. Chickwalnipy, Success, .

3336

3149
1950

1460

2141 Sugar loaf, Stratford, estimated, 3470

3043 B. South hill, Stewartstown, J., about 2000
3827 B. Mt. Carmel, J., . . .3711

A. Long mountain, Odell and Stark, 3777 L. Mt. Washington (see p. 59), . 6293

A. Green's ledge, Kilkenny,
A. Jewell hill, Whitefield, .
A. Mt. Pisgah, Clarksville, .

Pilot mountain,

Mt. Starr King,
A. Peak in Erving's Location,
A. Mt. Lyon, Northumberland,
VOL. I. 38

2708 B. Mt. Adams, G.,

1467 B. Mt. Jefferson, G., .

oooo B. Mt. Clay, G., .

3640 B. Mt. Monroe, G.,

3800 B. Little Monroe, G., .

2786 B. Mt. Madison, G., .

2735 B. Mt. Franklin, G., .

5794
S7U
5553
5384
5204

5365
4904

282

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

B. Mt. Pleasant, G., .
B. Mt. Clinton, .

Mt. Jackson, Bond,

Mt. Webster, Bond,
P. L. Cherry mt., approximately,
B. Mt. Deception, G., .

Heights Heights

in feet. in feet.

4764 P. L. Wildcat mountain, G., . 4350

4320 P. L. Mt. Carter, south peak, G., 4830

4100 P. L. Mt. Carter, north peak, G., 4702

4000 P. L. Mt. Moriah, G., . . 4653

, 3670 Mt. Royce, Bean's purchase, 2600
2449

MISCELLANEOUS.

B. Molybdenum mine, Westmore- P. L. Eagle cliff, facing Profile

999

land, J., ....
B. McCrillis's house, Sandwich, .
B. Copper mine, Warren, J.,
B. Ashuelot river, Winchester, J.,
B. Neal's house, Unity, J., .
B. S. Johnson's, Cornish, J.,
B. Madison lead mine, J., .
B. Limestone quarry, Orford,
B. Spoiford's pond, Chesterfield, J.,
B. Pleasant pond,
B. Round pond, ....
B. Echo lake, Franconia, G.,

house, G.,

1083 B. Eagle head, near the pond,

1450 B. Eagle pond, foot of last peak,

377 B. Pierce's bridge (Bethlehem
787 station), G.,

1093 B. Peabody river, path over near
509 Glen house, G., .

1751 L. Glen house, .

738 B. Cascade, J mile east of notch
594 between Sawyer's river and

324 Hancock Branch waters,

1926 A. Greeley's hotel, Waterville, .
B. Cabin, foot of Mt. Lafayette, G., 1780 A. Table rock, Dixville notch, .
B. Flume house, road in front, G., 1431 B. Francestown, soapstone quarry.

3446
4216

4170

1221
1543

1632

2076

1553

2454

J., 666

NOTCHES ABOUT THE WHITE MOUNTAINS.

L. White Mountain notch, . .1914

B. Cherry mt., road summit, G., . 2192

B. Between Moose and Israel riv-
ers, G., .... 1446

B. Pinkham Notch summit, south

of Glen house, . . . 2018

A. Pinkham Notch summit, north

of Glen house, . . . 1790

A. Between Woodstock and Lan-

daff, 1655

A. Between Franconia and Bethle-
hem, 1820

Between Bethlehem station and

Gale river (est.), . . . 1420
Between Twin Mountain house
and Whitefield (est.) , . . 1525

L. Between Littleton and White-
field, 1057

L. Milan summit, . . . 1O87

A. Between Nash and Sims str'ms, 1715

B. Dixville notch, . . . 1831
A. Robert's notch, Odell, . . 2263

A. Between Sandwich and Camp-

ton 1417

B. Franconia notch, G., . . 2014
B. Between New Zealand river and

east branch of Pemigewasset, 2123
B. Willey notch, between Ethan's

pond and Saco river, . . 2799
B. Between Mts. Nancy and Low-
ell, near a pond, . . . 3224
B. Carrigain notch (north), . 2465

ALTITUDES.

283

B. Between Sawyer's river and
tributary of Hancock branch,

B. Between Swift river and east
branch of the Pemigewasset,

Heights
in feet.

B. Mad River notch, near Greeley
3126 ponds, .....

2618

Heights
in feet.

1815

NOTE. The gaps between the principal White Mountains have been given at the close of the preceding chapter.

For further heights on the Merrimack, Connecticut, and other rivers, see altitudes
along the boundaries of New Hampshire in the chapter on topography, and tables
given in description of river systems in a following chapter.

10. HEIGHTS ALONG GEOLOGICAL SECTIONS.
SECTION I. From Lawrence, Mass., to South Vernon, Vt., along the Massachusetts line.

Lawrence, Mass., top of Essex Co.'s

dam, ..... 39

Lawrence, Essex street, . . 65

State line, 138

Beaver creek, Pelham, . 1 26

Pelham village, .... 134

J. Gage's house, . . . . 156

East line of Hudson, . . . 215
D. Davis's house, Hudson, .

Railroad bridge over Merrimack river, 1 26
Merrimack river, ....

Railroad junction,

Nashua, city hall,

West line of Nashua, .

Hollis village, ....

Brook, ......

Proctor hill, ....

Plain,

Brookline village, ....
P. Sanders's house,
Mrs. Putnam's house, .
Railroad, east part of Mason,

Brook,

Ridge,

Ellis house, .....

Greenville, railroad,

Greenville, Souhegan river (beyond

railroad), ....
Hay scales, New Ipswich, .
Summit of Kidder mountain,
Brook, ......

425

370
400

55°
760
700
733
93°
1070
803

792
944

Top of gravel moraine terraces, .

Brook,

G. Stratton's, New Ipswich,

Hill east of S. F. Hale's, Rindge,

Railroad in Rindge,

i mile west of Rindge village,

Peasley pond, ....

Fitzwilliam hotel,

218 Fitzwilliam depot,

Hill, cross-roads,

93 Brook Tully,
1 34 Ridge at sharp fork in road,
152 Rice brook

1 80 Richmond village,

300 Summit west of pail factory,

1364
1255
1301

1364
1064
1254
1026
1150
1063
1168
1077
1150
1030
1180
700

250 Town line, Richmond and Winchester, 415

1492
1245

East side of Muddy brook, . . 350

Muddy brook, .... 320

Plain, O. Barrett estate, . . 350

East of L. Warner's house, . . 400

E. Hammond's house, . . . 650

Asahel Lyman's house, . . 495

Perchog river, .... 295

West of Elijah Smith's house, . 285

S. H. No. 16, Hinsdale, . . 288

Sand moraine terraces, . . 305

Fourth terrace, Connecticut river, 262

Railroad bridge over Conn, river, 236

Second terrace, .... 224

Connecticut river, water, . . 200
South Vernon station, Vt., . .261

284

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

SECTION II. From ocean at Seabrook, to Brattleborough, Vt.

Meadow in Seabrook, .
School-house, ....
Washington house, Seabrook,
Top of drift moraine, .
Hampton Falls river (tributary) , .
E. Flanders's house,
Powwow river, ....
Newton village, ....

Plaistow village

Railroad (B. & M.), •
D. Noyes's house,
Hampstead church,
Nashua & Rochester Railroad cross-
ing,

Derry east village,
Derry depot (M. & L. R.) .
Pinkerton cemetery,
Merrimack river, Litchfield, .
Thornton's ferry, village,
Bridge over Souhegan river,
Railroad, near Danforth's Corner,

SECTION III.

Portsmouth, Brewster's, C. T. J.,
Portsmouth, Franklin house,
Hill of gravel, ....
Greenland church,
Greenland (railroad), .
N. Adams's, fork in road,
Swampscott river,
South Newmarket,
Newmarket Junction, .
Sienite at cross-roads, .
Brook in Newmarket, .
Epping depot, ....

West Epping

Ordway's,

Raymond depot, ....
Lamprey river, west of village,
Jones pond,

Heights
in feet.

10 Main street, East Wilton,

22 Bridge west of village,

62 F. Billings's house,

94 Church in Wilton,

43 J. Kendall's, ....

140 J. Killam, cross-road, .

34 S. W. Billings's

156 Peterborough, .

96 M. Fairbanks's house, .
86 Jaffrey Centre, ....
230 Summit of Monadnock,
313 Lower limit of slates on Monad-
nock,

Railroad, Troy, .

Heights

in feet.

330

364
606

1028

900

IIOO

744

IOIO

1057

3186

2135
1002

1072

1022
738
864
214

228

258

362 Bridge beyond L. Dickinson's,

238 Swanzey, ....

440 West Swanzey bridge, .

104 Outlet of Spofford lake,

156 Chesterfield village,

242 Connecticut river,

256 Railroad, Brattleborough, Vt.,

From Portsmouth to Walpole.

43 Near town line, Raymond, . . 445

27 Near H. M. Eaton's, Candia, . 529

59 Railroad, Candia depot, . . 445

51 Hill, west, 659

59 Old railroad summit, Kinnecum

139 swamp, . 528

oo Rowe's Corner, .... 453

134 Sawyer's pond, .... 429

52 Campbell's hill, .... 300

88 Merrimack river, . . . . 180

76 H. & J. Austin's, Hooksett, . . 600

1 54 L. & R. Woodbury's, Bow, . . 760

163 Last house in Bow, . . . 720

234 High land, 632

198 School-house, .... 560

1 74 Kimball's pond, .... 488

258 A. Prescott's house, . . . 672

ALTITUDES.

Dunbarton Centre,
H. Jameson's house,
East Weare,
Railroad, East Weare, .
R. Peaslee's house,
Mt. William, Weare, .
Brook, west,
Weare Centre,
L. & W. B. Gove,
Hill, ....
Clinton Grove,
West of J. B. T. P., .
M. A. Hodgdon's house,
J. Downing's,
Deering village, .
Near S. Carr's house, .
I. McKean's house,
N. C. Ferry's house,

Heights
in feet.

799 Contoocook river,

600 D. Cooledge's house, .

388 South end North Branch Village,

395 Ridge, west part of Antrim, .

452 Island pond, Stoddard,

960 Stoddard village

540 E. Locke's house,

620 F. Pitcher's house,

848 Gilsum village, .

946 Bald hill,

896 School-house No. I, Surry, .

976 Ashuelot river, .

664 D. Marsh's estate,

808 Fisher brook

972 Old church, Walpole, .

948 Walpole village, .

995 Cheshire Railroad,

775 Connecticut river, . . . .

Heights
in feet.

SECTION IV. From Great Falls to Charlestown.

Salmon Falls river,
Railroad at Great Falls,
Hotel, Great Falls,

Academy,

Summit at Home's,

Rochester,

Bridge, Isinglass river, near G.

McDaniel's, ....
S. H. north of Judge Hale farm,

Barrington, ....

166 High terrace, .... 35O

178 Meadow, 245

200 Merrimack river, . . . .227

237 Railroad, West Concord, . . 354

365 Hill, J. P. Nelson, Concord, . 629

226 Contoocook, .... 373

4 ms. W. of Cont'cook, in Henniker, 600

150 Town line, Henniker and Warner, 795

Day pond, 635

1 60 Bradford pond, .... 670

House, G. & C. Caverly, Barrington, 575 Hill, Bradford, east Rev. H.Holmes's, 914

Bow lake, .
Hill, J. W. Knowley, .
Northwood centre,
Northwood summit,
Summit, J. Emerson, .

Epsom,

Suncook river, mouth of Little

Suncook, .

Meadow, W. edge of Epsom,
Hill, J. Masowe, Chichester,

525 E. Washington, guide-board, . 851

700 Brook, R. Spaulding, . . . 1060

590 Foot of Lovell's mt., J. Severance, 1325

640 Lovell's mountain, top, . . 2492

496 Washington village, . . . 1298

444 i mile west, 1523

Pollard's saw-mill, Ashuelot river, 1273

338 Summit, Lempster mountain, . 1440

364 Base, do., turn in road, . . 1240

690 Dodge pond, .... 1075

286

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

East Lempster, .
Summit near H. Fuller's,
Keyes's hollow, ....
Hill (P. W. Pettengill),
Moose brook, ....

Lynn

Valley, west, ....
Acworth village, ....

SECTION V.

Milton Three Ponds, .
Salmon river, ....
S. Remick's house,
S. H., branch of Salmon river,
Union Village, railroad,
L. H. Cook's, Middleton, .
Brook, ......

Middleton,

B. F. Savage's, ....
New Durham Corner, .

J. Randall's

Merry-meeting lake,

Beyond school-house (Varney's),

Winnipiseogee lake,

Hotel, Alton bay,

Summit in road, west, . . <.

Place pond,

J. D. Nelson's, ....

Valley,

M. Price's,

Summit, west of Hill's,
Town line between Gilmanton and
Belmont, ....
S. C. Edward's, .
Farrarville, ......

Belmont,

Brook in Northfield,
Tilton (railroad),

SECTION VI

Maine line,

Drakesville

Heights
in feet.

1090 Summit near J. P. Davis's, .

1250 Valley,

990 Prospect hill, ....

1260 Terrace, Hackett's brook, .

1130 Hill,

1350 Village and depot, Charlestown, .

1280 Connecticut river,

1397

Milton Mills to Windsor, Vt.

409 West town line, .

437 Winnipiseogee river, first crossing,
441 " " second " .

412 Pemigewasset river,

500 Webster house, Franklin,

604 Railroad, Franklin,
485 Chance pond, .
709 East Andover, .

605 Andover, .

541 Potter Place, .
661 Wilmot Centre, .

589 S. B. Brown's

925 Summit, S. J. Silver's,
5OO O. C. Howard's, .
530 Station pond, .
943 West Springfield,
799 Grantham, .
807 East Croydon, .

635 Smith's

738 Cross-roads, .

1103 Croydon mountain (road) , .

Cornish Flat, . . . .

H. H. Day's, .

Milliard's,

Methodist church,

Connecticut river,

Windsor, Vt. (depot), .

943
663

635

538

49°
478

Heights
in feet.

1410
1150
1200

610

610

375

290

473
382

346
328

345
363

446
661
628
653

846

1 102

1383
1207

1303

1239

924

884

1132

1068

1700

855

1295

Effingham to Norwich, Vt,
390 Pine River, .
381 Duncan lake,

580

3°4
331

437
569

ALTITUDES.

287

Heights
in feet.

Summit, railroad, . . . 654

Brook, 700

Wm. Goldsmith's, . . . 1040

Ossipee, Water village, . . 745
W. Palmer's, . . . .1021

Tuftonborough Corner, . . 889

Moultonborough Corner, . . 689

Moultonborough Centre, . . 581

T. S. Adams's, .... 553

Long pond, 505

Winnipiseogee lake, . . . 50O

Senter house, .... 553

Sunset hill, 885

Summit, S. P. Merrill's, . . 713

White Oak pond, . . . 629

Ashland depot, .... 450

Ashland, 475

Railroad crossing, . . . 500
Half mile east of Hebron line, . 1027
Line between Plymouth and He-
bron 1074

Hill north of road, . . . 1900

Summit of road, .... 1401

Newfound lake, .... 597

Meadow, ....
Hebron village, .
Groton post-office,
Mountain range, estimated, .
N. & N. Woods, Jr., Canaan,
H. K. Farnham's house, "
Goose pond, "

Hill porphyritic gneiss, "

Heights
in feet.

6O2

633
640

2137
II2I

1037

7OO

1030

Committee Meadow brook, Hanover, 925
R. Goss's, " 1128
Moose mountain range, " 1800
Valley, " 1300
Hill east of Mill village, . 1 2 SO
Mill village, Hanover, . . 756.8
Corey hill (not highest point) 671.1
Agricultural College farm-house, 50O
C. H. Hitchcock's house, floor, 519.4
Cistern of barometer, Shattuck ob-
servatory, . . . 603.7
Hanover plain, . . . 545

Conn, river at Ledyard free bridge, 375.2
Railroad station, Norwich, . . 406
Norwich village, . . . '55°
Hill west, 830

SECTION VII. From Freedom, through Orford, to Vershire (Vt.) copper mine.

State line, 450

Hill east of Freedom village, . 720

Freedom village, .... 396

Danforth bridge, water, . . 409

Eastern Railroad, West Ossipee, . 428

South Tamworth, . . . 630

Sandwich village, .... 648

Top Israel's mountain, Sandwich, 2880
Summit of road from Sandwich to

Camp ton, .... 1417

Campton village, .... 594

Pemigewasset river, . . . 500

Hill in Ellsworth, . . . 1080

Stinson pond, .... 990

Mt. Carr, 3522

Wentworth, ..... 63*6
Cuba Mountain ridge, . . . 1620
Valley of Jacob's brook, . . 810
Bass hill, ..... 1000
Ridge east of Connecticut river, . 864
Connecticut river, . . . 410
Passumpsic Railroad, Orford sta-
tion, 438

Vershire copper mine, . . . 702

288

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

SECTION VIII. From Mt. Pequaivket to Piermont.

Heights
in feet.

State line, 5°°

J. Stile's house, . . . 750

Top Shingle Pond Knob, . . 1000
Top Mt. Pequawket, . . .3251

Valley, 2158

Mountain, west 2358

Pendexter's house, . . . 678

Terrace on Saco river, . . . 530

Saco river, 500

Hill, west, 1200

Upper Bartlett plain, . . . 664
Saco river, at line of Bartlett and

Hart's Location, . . . 749

Sawyer's river, at highway bridge, 867

Mouth of Carrigain brook, . . 1200
Summit between Sawyer's and Pem-

igewasset rivers, . . . 2500

Mouth of Hancock branch, . . 2025

Pollard's house, Woodstock,

Pemigewasset river,

Moose bridge,

Blue ridge, .

Valley, west,

Moosilauke, .

Oliverian brook, .

Owl's Head (not the top), .

River,

Railroad, B. C. &M., .
Mountain west,
Base of mountain,
Saw-mill near Cross mine, .
Piermont village, .
Connecticut river,
Piermont railroad station (C.
R. R.), -

Heights
in feet.

. 1490

• 1350

• 1364
2000
1800

. 4811

1240
. 1450

IOOO

. 1063

1800
1300

IIOO

460
420

&p.

SECTION IX. Beads Purchase to East Montpelier, Vt.

Mt. Royce, 2600

Wild river, first crossing, . . 1580
Wild river, second crossing, . 1950

Mt. Carter, 4702

Glen house 1632

Peabody river, .... 1543
Half-way house, .... 384O
Summit Mt. Washington, . .6293
Upper water tank, Mt. W. R. R., 58OO
Second tank (Jacob's ladder), . 5468
"Waumbek Junction," . . 39 1O
Ammonoosuc station, . . . 2668
Fabyan house, .... 1571
White Mountain house, . . 1556
Pool below lower falls of Ammo'c, 1503

Twin Mountain House station,

Bethlehem station,

Bethlehem village,

Peaked hill,

Saddle, ....

West Peaked hill,

Railroad, Littleton,

Littleton village, .

Parker river,

Hill west, ....

Milliken's saw-mill,

Gardner's mountain, north end,

Connecticut river,

Barnet, railroad station,

State line,
First valley,
Hill,

SECTION X. Success to Lancaster.

1925 Second valley, ...
1500 Second hill, east part of Berlin,
1600 Androscoggin river, . .

440

1375
1187
145O

2042

1820

1905

817

835

760

667

1280

450

467

1360
1480
1012

ALTITUDES.

289

Berlin Falls station, G. T. R., .
Mt. Forest, Berlin,

Dead river,

Mountain west, Berlin,

East spur of Starr King mountain,

Starr King mountain, .

Heights
in feet.

1O35 Jefferson Mills village,

1950 Mt. Prospect,

1545 Valley,

2030 Mt. Pleasant,

3555 Connecticut river,
3800

Heights
in feet.

1180
1260

SECTION XI. From north line of Success to Groveton.

1680 Stark water-station,

1280

1460

noo

1460

State line,

Burnside pond, ....
Chickwalnipy mountain,
Androscoggin river, Milan Corner,
Milan hills, . . .
G. T. R., West Milan, .1015

Stark, .
Devil's slide,
Groveton,
Connecticut river,

1225

800

990
972

1200

901

860

Umbagog lake,
Hill, west,
Bragg's bay,
Hill, west,
Millsfield pond,
Height, west,
Branch of Pli
Hill, west, ,
Phillips Broo
First ridge, .
Second ridge
Third ridge,
Height of lar
Lyman brook
Hill,

Maine line,
Ridge, west,
Branch of D
Ridge, west,
Little Dead ]
Height, west,

VOL. I. 39

SECTION XII. Umbagog Lake to Island Pond, Vt.

ce, . . . . 1256

Between Connecticut river and

1485

Mill brook, ....

1390

. 1195

Mill brook, .....

1080

1615

Between Mill and East Branch, .

1296

ad, . . . . 1270

East Branch, ....

1020

:,.... 1788

Between East and Black branches,

1400

liillips brook, . . 1545

Black Branch, ....

1025

1762

Between Black and Yellow br'ches,

1200

>k pond, . . . 1525

Yellow Branch, ....

I06O

1820

Between Yellow and North br'ches,

1170

:,.... 1889

North Branch, ....

I06?

. 1956

Between North Branch and McCon-

J

nd, west, . . . 2167

nell's, .....

1260

C, I O72

McConnell's house, . .

1062

•
1086

McConnell's pond,

1123

tnecticut river, . . 1025

Island Pond, ....

1197

river, . . . 947

SECTION XIII. From Academy Grant to Holland, Vt.

1705

Cedar stream

1977

2212

Ridge, west, ....

2160

ead Diamond, . . 1767

Dead water,

1844

2IOO

A. J. Barrett's, ....

2069

Diamond, . . . 1902

Young's house, ....

1692

, . . . . 2338

Top of hill, near school-house,

1609

290

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Bridge over Hall's stream,

Canaan bridge,

Last house, Canaan, Vt.,

Little Leach pond,

Height, west,

Great Averill pond,

Heights Heights

in feet. in feet.

1O98 Height, west 1270

1054 G. T. R., boundary station, . . 1232

1320 Height, west, .... 1423

1175 Farm south of Barnstead pinnacle, 1440

1210 Bog south of Barnstead mountain, 1418

1180 Barnstead road, in Holland, Vt., . 1242

SECTION XIV. From Maine line throitgh Second Connecticut Lake to HaWs stream
above Colebrook Academy Grant,

Maine line, near Prospect hill,
Hill nearest to Second lake,
Second lake, ....
First hill west of Second lake,
Bog Brook valley,
Height of land between Bog brook

and Perry stream, .
Perry stream, ....

2182 Height of land between Perry and

2030
1903
1980
1850

2060
1900

Indian streams,

Indian stream, ....
Height of land between Indian and

Hall's streams,
Hall's stream above Colebrook

Academy grant,

Section from Tin Mountain, Jackson, to Hancock Mountain.

Tin mountain, Jackson,
Jackson village, .
South part of Cobb's hill, .
Valley of Rocky Branch,
South part of Bald mountain,

Brook,

Mountain south of Crawford mt. ,
Saco valley, ....

1650 Duck Pond mountain, .

759 Duck Pond brook,

1000 Mountain, .....

761 Carrigain brook, base of Mt. Car-
1200 rigain, .....

775 East spur of Carrigain,

2000 Head of Sawyer's river,

1000 Hancock mountain,

Baker's brook,
N. Merrill's,
Gleason's saw-mill,
Saw-mill near E. Noyes's,
E. Noyes's, .

Section through Warren.

1480 S. Whitman's,

1 68 1 J. Whitcher's,

1 1 68 B. C. & M. Railroad, .

916 Kelley's summit, .

966 Between ponds, Piermont,

CONTOUR LINES.

2200
1780

2325
1740

2OOO
1400
I9OO

I5OO
4419
3126
4420

997
1127

914
1542
1282

We are now prepared to make a practical application of the long list
of heights given with so much particularity. By noting their relations
to the rise and fall of land, one can designate certain points where the
land must be of a given height. Furthermore, after fastening upon a

ALTITUDES. 29 1

multitude of points which seem to be exactly 500 feet above mean tide,
we may connect them together by lines, and thus indicate the level of
500 feet wherever it may extend throughout the state. If it were possi-
ble to lay down a red cord from town to town, wherever this contour line
extended, the means would be afforded for determining the exact height
of much territory. The next best thing is to draw the course of the line
upon a map. By drawing a series of them and coloring the areas between,
one can get at a glance the relative elevations of all parts of the state.
If skilfully prepared, such a map is invaluable.

We have endeavored to prepare such a chart, and present it in the
atlas. The final sketch is not drawn at the moment of penning this
description, but a general idea of its appearance will lead those interested
to examine it in detail for themselves. We desire, also, to incorporate
other facts which may still be within our reach before the final comple-
tion of our work. Such a sketch may be elaborated indefinitely. Our
aim is to make use of a well engraved map of the state on copper, on
the scale of eight miles to the inch, and draw upon it the contour lines
for every successive five hundred feet of altitude. Twelve of them,
therefore, can be represented within the state limits.

The $oofeet Line. This commences at Lake Newichwannock, between
Wakefield, and Newfield and Acton, Me., the sources of Salmon river,
and the south end of the straight east boundary. The line runs south-
westerly into Milton, curving around parallel to the Portsmouth, Great
Falls & Conway Railroad to Union Village, on the east side of the Fel-
lows Branch river valley. It then follows the west border of the same
valley into Farmington, returning northerly along the Dover & Win-
nipiseogee Railroad into New Durham. The line apparently follows
back the other side of the Cochecho valley into Rochester, and turns up
the Isinglass river and its branches, to within half a mile of Bow lake
in Strafford. The line next passes more westerly from Barrington into
Nottingham, Deerfield, and Candia, almost connecting with its course up
the Suncook valley through Deerfield. From the west part of Candia it
passes along the ridge east of Manchester, within two miles of Massa-
besic lake. Thence it doubles back in sight of the city of Manchester,
and passes up the valley of Suncook river to Pittsfield, extending nearly
to Suncook pond, or the tributary from Northwood. Thus nearly all of

292 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Rockingham county lies below the level of 500 feet. There must be
several islands, or insulated areas of land, above 500 feet to the south of
the line as described.

From Pittsfield the line extends to the lower part of Chichester, and
curves back north-easterly along the Soucook valley to the north part of
Loudon. It then passes directly to Winnipiseogee lake, after curving
nearly to the town of Concord, through Canterbury, Northfield, Belmont,
and Gilford. The shore of Lake Winnipiseogee affords the most accu-
rate notion of the course of our line in Belknap and Carroll counties,
since the average height of the lake is just 500 feet. Returning down
the valley, there is a great curve northwardly into Meredith, for the Win-
nisquam lake, thence the course is through Tilton and Sanbornton,
crowding the Merrimack river opposite Bristol, and bordering the river
into Campton and Rumney, the area between the lines varying some-
what in width.

On the west side of the Merrimack the return line cannot pass the
barrier till we reach the edge of Concord. It then passes up the Black-
water valley into Salisbury. The line passes up to Warner on Warner
river, and to Hillsborough on the Contoocook river. Rattlesnake hill, in
Concord, becomes an island. From opposite the Mast Yard, in Concord,
the line crosses to the Bow hills, turning in Hooksett and Goffstown to
pass up to North Weare along the Piscataquog, with a branch to New
Boston. The line returns through Bedford, and extends up the Quoh-
quinapassakessananagnog creek into Amherst. On the Souhegan river
the line may extend into the edge of Lyndeborough. The banks on this
river through Wilton are high, and not far apart, so that the area below
the level of 500 feet is long and narrow. The line seems to leave the
state in the south-west corner of Brookline.

The line next enters the state in Winchester along the Connecticut
valley, and extends to the Fifteen-miles falls in Monroe, curving north-
easterly along the valleys of the tributaries. On the Ashuelot, the line
extends a little ways above Keene. As the water-shed between the
Ashuelot and Connecticut rivers continues to the village of Hinsdale as
a prominent ridge, the area below five hundred feet is very marked on the
map in the former valley. On Cold river, the line runs up to the edge of
Acworth ; on Sugar river, nearly to Claremont village ; on Mascomy river,

ALTITUDES. 293

to Lebanon village ; and only a short distance up the other tributaries.
It passes up the Passumpsic river five or six miles.

The 5oo-feet line passes a few miles into New Hampshire along the
Ossipee and Saco valleys. The two contours almost connect on the Mad-
ison summit of the Portsmouth, Great Falls & Conway Railroad, and, on
the Saco, the line passes to Lower Bartlett.

The looo-fcet line. On the Androscoggin this line extends to the top
of Berlin falls, and to the west line of Gorham on Moose river. On the
Saco it reaches to the mouth of Nancy's brook, near the residence of Dr.
S. A. Bemis, also two or three miles up Sawyer's river, and above Jackson
on the Ellis river. On Swift river it extends to the west part of Albany.
It then follows the foot hills of the White Mountains to the junction of
the main branches of the Pemigewasset river at North Woodstock, having
run two or three miles into Waterville along Mad river. The line from
the Pemigewasset passes into the valley of Baker's river to the north part
of Warren, returning on the west side to Bridgewater, thence curves
around Newfound lake, and can be traced to the valley of Smith river,
whence it passes to the highest summit on the Northern Railroad in
Orange. The railroad has been excavated beneath the thousand-feet level
at this divide ; but there are a few rods' width of the natural surface of
the ground which rise above that level. The line next passes in a south-
erly direction to Massachusetts, curving very much easterly to pass
around Mt. Kearsarge, returning to the railroad summit in Newbury, and
reaching the towns of Jaffrey and Sharon on the Contoocook river before
coming back to Deering and Weare on the east side of the same valley.
The line leaves the state in New Ipswich.

The most prominent islands to the south-east of the line just described
are the Eaton-Madison heights, Ossipee Mountain group, Green moun-
tains in Effingham, the mountains between Strafford and Carroll counties,
the Gunstock and Belknap range, Red hill, New Hampton and Sanborn-
ton heights, Ragged mountains in Hill and Andover, and the Uncanoonucs
in Goffstown.

On the west side of the Merrimack-Connecticut water-shed we find the
area between the mill-pond and Troy, on the Cheshire Railroad, to be
above one thousand feet, the line curving westerly from the south part of
Fitzwilliam around Richmond to Troy. Thence it proceeds nearly to

294 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Harrisville, thence into Marlow, around most of Alsteacl, and up the
valley of Cold river into Lempster. The line returns so as to pass south
of Acworth village, thence northerly, and north-easterly irregularly, nearly
to Sunapee lake. The line now runs back among the hills on the north
branches of Sugar river, even into Springfield, but meanders back to
Claremont, and then passes northerly on the flanks of Croydon and
Grantham mountains to East Lebanon, thence southerly to the Orange
railroad summit, thence to the north line of Canaan, and westerly nearly
to the gap between Moose and Smart's mountains, thence southerly to
the south end of Moose mountain, and thence northerly to the Swift
Water valley in Haverhill. Thence the line passes south-easterly towards
the Woodstock notch, and thence irregularly to Franconia iron works, to
North Lisbon, and up the Ammonoosuc river nearly to the Wing Road
station. The Whitefield summit (Boston, Concord & Montreal Railroad)
lies above one thousand feet ; and, therefore, this contour returns to Little-
ton, passes around Palmer hill, and thence into Whitefield through Dalton.
From the very bank of the Connecticut in South Lancaster the line runs
into Lancaster, Northumberland, around Mt. Lyon, and up the Grand
Trunk Railway into Stark and Milan. Returning, the line extends up the
Connecticut to Columbia, and up Nulhegan river in Vermont two or three
miles. Gardner's Mountain range in Lyman is the principal island west
of this looo-feet level on the Connecticut slope.

The i$oo-feet line. In the south part of the state this line appears
chiefly along the Merrimack-Connecticut water-shed, as a series of
islands. First there are the Barrett, Pack Monadnock, and Monadnock
series. Next, the heights in Nelson, Stoddard, Springfield, 'and the
Sunapee range. On the east Mt. Kearsarge, and on the west Croydon,
Grantham, Moose, Smart, Cuba, and Piermont mountains, reach above
this line. Other areas are connected with the Cardigan range, Groton
and Plymouth heights, Gunstock, Ossipee, and Green mountains.
Another prominent expanse above 1500 feet lies east of Baker's river,
in Wentworth, Warren, and Rumney.

The entire White Mountain area is encircled by this contour line, with
very narrow strips of a lower level, marking off Pequawket and the Starr
King group. There are two areas to the north above this line, one east
of the Androscoggin valley, and the other north of the Grand Trunk

ALTITUDES. 2Q5

Railway. This line is reached on the Connecticut, near the "hollow,"
six miles below the lake.

Contours from 2,000 to 6,000 feet Jiigh. These are confined to com-
paratively small areas, and need not be described fully in the text. Only
two mountains, Monadnock and Cardigan, south of the Boston, Concord
& Montreal Railroad, exceed 3,000 feet, while Kearsarge and Cuba are
nearly as high. In the same district the following exceed 2,000 feet :
Bald, Pack Monadnock, Crotched, Pitcher, Croydon, Melvin, Sunapee,
Ragged, Lovell's, Moose, Smart's, Piermont, Webster slide, and Mist.
Near Winnipiseogee lake, Gunstock, Belknap, Ossipee, Green, Cropple
Crown, Red Hill, Prospect, Israel, and Squam exceed the same figure.
Nearly all the White Mountain elevations are more than 2,000 feet high.

North of the Grand Trunk Railway the following peaks exceed 2,000
feet : Ingalls, Half-moon, Dustan, Hampshire hills, Pisgah, Lyon, Percy
peaks, Stratford mountains, Dixville range, peaks in Millsfield, Stewarts-
town, Atkinson and Gilmanton Academy grant, Webster, Mt. Carmel,
and the highland boundary.

The special arrangement of the elevated contours about the White
Mountains can be best understood by reference to the maps in the atlas.
Washington is the only peak exceeding 6,000 feet. Eight are more than
5,000 feet high, viz., Adams, Jefferson, Clay, two Monroes, Madison, La-
fayette, and Lincoln. Fourteen equal or exceed 4,500 feet, viz., Franklin,
Pleasant, two Carters, Moriah, Carrigain, Moosilauke, Flume, Liberty,
south peak of Lafayette range, four of Twin Mountain range, and perhaps
others. Twenty equal or exceed 4,000 feet, viz., two Whitefaces, Passa-
connaway, four of the Tripyramid, Osceola, — Sandwich Dome lacks only
one foot of it, — Hancock, Willey, Field, one between Nancy and Lowell,
highest peak of Willey chain, Kinsman, Blue, Wild-cat, Webster, Jackson,
Clinton, and perhaps others. Twenty-eight equal or exceed 3,000 feet,
viz., Crawford, Resolution, Giant's stairs, Tri-mountain, Silver spring,
Table, Chocorua, Pequawket, Baldface, Doublehead, Mote, Welch, Echo,
Profile, Black (Warren), Kineo, Cushman, Waternomee, Carr, Bear,
Lowell, Nancy, Randolph, South, Long, Starr King, Pilot, Cherry, and
others unnamed. Those above 2,000 feet are still more numerous.

Conclusions. From the presentation of the above facts, we may per-
ceive that the land rises in passing north-westerly from the coast till the

296 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

main ridge or backbone of the state, described on page 210, is reached,
averaging about twenty miles distant from Connecticut river. On the
west of this ridge there is a gradual rise along the western boundary from
two hundred to three thousand feet, or so that the head of the valley
reaches the level of the summit ridge on the north border. The culmi-
nating point in the ridge is about one third of the way from the north
boundary.

The following may show the general arrangement of the several areas :
The south-east corner, — making, with the narrow Connecticut strip, about
one sixth of the whole area of the state, — lies altogether below 500 feet.
The 1000 to I5oo-feet area, occupying about a fifth part of our territory,
is situated mainly along the Connecticut-Merrimack ridge, skirting the
White Mountains on the east, and then passing up the Androscoggin
valley to Umbagog lake. The 500 to looo-feet line embraces certainly
two fifths of our area, and lies chiefly between the south-east 5oo-feet line
and the Connecticut-Merrimack ridge, — the balance occupying the western
slope of the state. About one sixth of our area reaches above 2000 feet ;
and the balance would be occupied by the i5oo-2OOO-feet surface. This
would place the average elevation of the state above the sea at about
fourteen hundred feet.

With the exception of about one twelfth part of our territory, every-
thing is susceptible of cultivation. There is good grass land in Stoddard
2 1 70 feet above the sea, and perhaps higher, north of Colebrook. Forest
trees grow to advantage to the height of 3000 feet among the White
Mountains, and will flourish a thousand feet higher if protected from the
stronger winds. At 4000 feet the animals and plants common in Green-
land and Labrador begin to show themselves, and they extend universally
above that level. In subsequent chapters the geographical distribution
of animals and plants will be taken up in considerable detail.

NOTE. For the sake of perfecting the tables of heights, I have sent proof-sheets of this chapter to several
gentlemen, and can report from their examinations a few corrections on what has preceded.

Prof. Quimby reports, upon reexamining his note books, that 118 feet should be added to the height of the
Shaker barn, Canterbury (see pp. 242, 277) ; and that 28 feet should be added to the height of North Putney hill,
Hopkinton (see pp. 242, 280). The heights of Mts. Moose and Cuba, when calculated from Observatory hill,
Hanover, " come out within ten or fifteen feet" of what they are given on page 242. All these altitudes on page
242 have been reduced from the original figures given to us, to agree with the known heights of Kearsarge
and the state house, by subtracting 55 feet. This has not been done in the case of Mts. Pequawket and Pleasant
(p. 280), the figures being given as stated in the published Coast Survey reports.

ALTITUDES.

297

Many persons may desire that these altitudes should have been much more numerous. Others might have
been given, but I did not think it desirable further to encroach upon the text, especially as the contour map will
give a general idea of the altitude of every foot of land in the state.

I should have been glad to reproduce Prof. Guyot's figures, as obtained by the mercurial barometer, for
comparison with those of the Geodetic Connection survey. It has been done only in a few cases on page 280.
His barometrical figures are usually nearly as reliable as those obtained by the measurement of vertical angles.
I have altered his figures of the heights of mountains in Warren, page 281, measured on the slope of Moosilauke
with a pocket level, and communicated privately to William Little, by the difference between the barometrical
and trigonometrical heights of Moosilauke. I have been disappointed in not receiving from Prof. Guyot answers
to several questions about his measurements, sent with the proofs of this chapter. Hence the reference to " note
beyond," on page 275, has no significance.

R. S. Howe, engineer of the Northern Railroad, suggests the addition of the following statement to the end
of the second paragraph on page 249 : " and an efficient means of noticing the orographical and other physical
peculiarities of the state, and placing within reach of the medical profession a record that may enable and induce
professional men in different localities to observe, record, and contrast the Influence of elevation, if it has any, on
health and disease. Hitherto, latitude and longitude have been the chief and almost the only conditions modify-
ing climate that have been taken into account in considering the influences on health ; but the observations of
physicians and travellers present facts suggesting that altitude, to some extent, controls the t}'pe of diseases."

Fig. 44. — WHITE MOUNTAINS, FROM BRIDGE IN BERLIN, NEAR MILAN.

VOL. I.

40

CHAPTER XI.

RIVER SYSTEMS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE.

BY WARREN UPHAM.

the entire area of New Hampshire it is estimated that one sixth
part is covered with water. Fifteen hundred streams are delineated
on the various county and other maps ; and numerous lakes and ponds
are scattered over the entire state. The object of this chapter will be to
present a description of our different hydrographic divisions ; and to con-
sider the influence of the position, physical features, and climate of our
state upon the distribution and character of its rivers and lakes.

New Hampshire is divided into five hydrographic districts, which are
drained by the Connecticut, Merrimack, Androscoggin, Saco, and Piscat-
aqua rivers. None of these river systems is wholly comprised within the
limits of the state. The description of these districts should embrace
both the principal river, with tributaries and lakes, and also the area
drained, or river basin. Of the rivers, the features which require notice
are the direction and extent of their course, their volume, and their slope
or rapidity of descent. Of the drainage basins, the particulars to be
noted are position, area, elevation, and proportion of surface covered by
forest. The relations of rain-fall and temperature, being nearly uniform
in the different portions of the state, are left to be considered with the
other general conditions on which the hydrographic character of the
state depends.

RIVER SYSTEMS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 299

BOUNDARIES OF HYDROGRAPHIC BASINS.

Connecticut River. The main water-shed of the state, separating the
waters of the Connecticut from those of the Androscoggin, Saco, and
Merrimack, commences at the Canadian boundary five miles south-west
of Crown monument, and three miles east of Third 'lake.* Its course is
first south-east to Mts. Abbott and Carmel, thence south-west nearly to
the southern border of Second lake, thence south to Magalloway moun-
tain, and then south-west to Mt. Pisgah. It next bends more to the west,
and reaches its farthest limit just west of the Diamond ponds in the
eastern part of Stewartstown ; thence it runs south-east to Dixville notch,
thence a little east of south, through Millsfield, Dummer, and Milan, to a
point about three miles north-west of Berlin falls. Here it bends to the
south-west, passing along the mountain ridges in Randolph, then south-
east to Mts. Jefferson and Washington, then south-west along this range
to Mt. Clinton and the Notch. Thence it extends nearly west over the
Twin mountains and Lafayette to Cannon mountain in Franconia ; thence
it turns south-west, passing over Mt. Kinsman, through the west part of
Lincoln and near the boundary between Woodstock and Benton, to
Moosilauke, from which it descends to the Oliverian notch in the north
part of Warren. It then passes to the mountains in the north-west corner
of this township, and thence south-westerly over Ore hill and through the
south-east corner of Piermont to Mt. Cuba in the east part of Orford.
From this it extends south-east to Cardigan mountain in Orange, dividing
Dorchester by a diagonal line. It next turns south-west to Orange sum-
mit, on the Northern Railroad ; thence it extends nearly south through
the west part of Grafton and the north-east part of Springfield, passing
into New London between Little Sunapee lake and Pleasant pond, thence
bending south-west to within a half mile of Sunapee lake at its north-
east extremity. This line next passes over the high ridge in the north-
west corner of Sutton, thence south-west into Newbury, again coming
within about a half mile of Sunapee lake at its southern end, and thence
west to Sunapee mountain. From this the water-shed line follows the
highlands, which extend south, nearly through the centres of Washington,
Stoddard, Nelson, and Dublin, to Monadnock mountain. Thence it passes

* See, also, p. 218.

^OO PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

*J

a little east of south through Jaffrey, and partly through Rindge ; it then
turns north-east to Kidder mountain in the south-west corner of Temple,
from which it extends south-west across the west part of New Ipswich to
the Massachusetts line.

Altitudes along this principal water-shed of the state have been already
given on pp. 209-211. From the course of this line it will be seen that
the drainage area of the Connecticut river in New Hampshire is of com-
paratively uniform width, the water-shed averaging about sixteen miles
distant from the river. The point of least width is in the north part of
Orford, where it is contracted to five miles. The farthest part drained
by this river system from New Hampshire is in New Ipswich, thirty
miles from the Connecticut at its nearest point. The length of this basin
in New Hampshire, in a direct line, is 185 miles.

Merrimack River, Eastern Water-shed. The line dividing the Merri-
mack basin from those of the Saco and Piscataqua begins about three
miles south-west from the White Mountain notch, and runs nearly south
over Willey, Carrigain, Tripyramid, Black, and Sandwich mountains,
passing through Elkins's grant, the east part of Waterville, and the
west part of Sandwich, to a point about a mile and a half north of Squam
lake. Here it turns to the east, passing between Red Hill and Bear
Camp ponds, thence south-east to Ossipee mountain in the east part of
Moultonborough, thence through the east part of Tuftonborough to a
point one half mile south of Upper Beech pond, around which it passes,
running north-east to a point about one mile east of Water Village.

The place where this water-shed line approaches nearest to Lake Win-
nipiseogee is west of Upper Beech pond, one of its bays being here three
miles distant. The farthest point that is drained into Winnipiseogee is
that last named, being on the north side of Batson pond, seven miles
from the lake.

Thence it follows nearly the north-east and south-east boundaries of
Wolfeborough to Mt. Delight, passing within one mile of Smith's pond.
Thence it extends south through the west part of Brookfield, over Crop-
pie Crown mountain, thence south-west through New Durham, nearly
to Downing's mills, passing one mile south-east from Merry-meeting lake.
Here the course again turns south to the west corner of Farmington,
then south-east three miles to the Blue Hills range, which it follows

RIVER SYSTEMS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 3<DI

across Strafford. Thence it extends south through Northwood to Saddle-
back mountain, thence a little south of west through Deerfield to Aliens-
town line, near Shingle ponds. Thence it passes on a curve through the
west and south portions of Candia to Patten's hill. From this point it
follows nearly the west and south boundary lines of Chester, next passing
through the north part of Hampstead, between Island porid and Phillips
pond, Sandown, thence north-east to near the Town hall in Danville,
thence east through Kingston village, — the large ponds of Kingston
being tributary to Powwow river on the south. Thence its course is
south-east, passing through East Kingston village, and the south-west
corner of Kensington; to the Massachusetts line, near the boundary
between South Hampton and Seabrook.

The width of the Merrimack basin at its source, measured from Mt.
Willey to Cannon or Profile mountain, is about fifteen miles. This
increases to the section from Brookfield across Winnipiseogee lake to
Orange, which is forty-three miles. Thence southward to Manchester it
remains very nearly the same. From near Manchester this area widens
on the east, bending in the direction of the river's mouth at Newbury-
port. Its greatest width in New Hampshire, from the west line of Sea-
brook to Monadnock mountain, is sixty miles. Its length, from Profile
lake south to the Massachusetts line, is ninety-eight miles.

Androscoggin River. The water-shed between the Androscoggin and
Saco extends from the summit of Mt. Washington to Pinkham notch,
passing between Huntington's and Tuckerman's ravines, and thence
nearly east, through Bean's purchase to the Maine line. Its course is
across high mountain ranges, which extend north and south, and are
covered with unbroken forest.

By reference to our hydrographic map, it will be seen that Coos county,
north from Mt. Washington, is nearly equally divided between the Con-
necticut and Androscoggin basins. The latter, as far as included in New
Hampshire, averages about eleven miles in width, being sixteen miles
wide at its southern end, and fifteen at the sources of the Swift Diamond
river, while it is narrowed to almost nothing at Mt. Carmel. The length
of this hydrographic district, measured on the eastern boundary of the
state, is seventy-one miles.

Saco River. The water-shed between the Saco and Piscataqua starts

3<D2 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

from the east line of the Merrimack basin in Wolfeborough, and passes
east through the north corner of Brookfield and near the centre of Wake-
field to the Maine line, which it crosses between Balch and East ponds.

Nearly the whole of Carroll county is comprised within the Saco basin,
which has in New Hampshire an average width of about eighteen miles,
and a length, measured on our eastern boundary, of forty-six miles.

Piscataqua River. The south-east boundary of this district starts from
the Merrimack river water-shed at East Kingston, and passes east through
Kensington village, thence north-east through the east corner of Exeter,
thence east and north-east through North Hampton to Breakfast hill
between Greenland and Rye, from which it passes north-east through
Rye to Odiorne's point at the south side of the mouth of the Piscataqua.

This basin includes in New Hampshire nearly all of Strafford and half
of Rockingham counties, averaging about eighteen miles in width, and
forty-five miles in length, measured from Wakefield to East Kingston.
From the sources of the Pawtuccaway river to the mouth of the Piscat-
aqua is thirty miles, from which point the width of this district diminishes
northward, being ten miles at Farmington.

Hampton Falls River, &c. The portion of New Hampshire south of
the last described water-shed and east from East Kingston and South
Hampton, forming our sea-coast slope, is drained directly into the ocean
by Hampton Falls and Taylor's rivers and numerous smaller streams, not
being included in either of the principal hydrographic districts adjacent.

The most distant point of this area from the ocean is in the south-east
corner of Exeter, six miles from the coast. Its length from Odiorne's
point to the Massachusetts line is thirteen miles.

The accompanying map shows the dimensions and relative areas of
these hydrographic basins, and the course of water-shed lines.

CONNECTICUT RIVER SYSTEM.

The basin of the Connecticut comprises about 3,060 square miles in
New Hampshire, or three tenths of the area of the state. The line of
low water on the west side of this river forms the boundary between this
state and Vermont ; and Hall's stream, the third considerable tributary
from the right below its source, continues this boundary between our
state and the province of Quebec. In addition to this area drained from

RIVER SYSTEMS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 303

New Hampshire, the Connecticut basin embraces about 3,750 square
miles in Vermont, or four tenths of that state, making a total of more
than 6,800 square miles in both states, nearly all of which contributes to
the water-power of this river along our western border.

The general course of the head stream of the Connecticut river,
passing through Second and Connecticut lakes to the mouth of Hall's
stream, is S. 60° W.,* being a distance of twenty-five miles from its
farthest sources in a direct line, and of twenty-eight miles from Third
lake, following the course of the river. The descent along this distance
is comparatively rapid, with few and narrow intervals. The surface of
the country is moderately hilly but not rugged, and more than nine-tenths
is still covered with the original forest.

From the mouth of Hall's stream to the head of Fifteen-miles falls in
Dalton, the general course is S. 13° W., a distance of forty-two miles in
a direct line, or forty-six miles, if we follow the principal bends in the
river. Along this whole distance are the fertile intervals of the upper
Connecticut valley, varying from one half mile to a mile in width. The
surface back from the immediate river valley rises in bold hills or moun-
tains, and fully four fifths of its area is covered by forest.

From the head of Fifteen-miles falls, near the mouth of John's river, to
the mouth of the Passumpsic, the course of the Connecticut is S. 70° W.,
being a distance of eighteen miles in a direct line, or about twenty,
following the stream. Opposite to this portion of the river, on the east
and south-east, is the elevated mountain region of the state. Here the
descent is rapid, and the surface more broken than in any other part of
the course of this river. Its direction is also bent to the west along this
distance, beyond which the general course of the upper is again followed in
the lower valley, with but slight deviation, almost to the Massachusetts line.

This course from the mouth of the Passumpsic to Brattleborough is
S. 1 6° W., a distance of 103 miles in a straight line, or 107 by the course
of the river. Along this distance the river intervals and terraces of the
valley usually extend from one half to a mile and a half in width on
each side of the river, but are occasionally interrupted on one or both
sides by encroaching ranges of hills. The water-shed which separates
this portion of the Connecticut basin from that of the Merrimack, every-

* All courses here given are referred to the true meridian.

304 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

where reaches a considerable elevation, and frequently is marked by
mountains. The slope on the west from opposite Haverhill extends to
the Green Mountain range of Vermont, its greatest width being at the
sources of White river, which are thirty-eight miles from the nearest
point of the Connecticut, and forty-two miles from the mouth of White
river. In the northern half of Vermont, a large area east of this moun-
tain range is drained into Lake Champlain and the St. Lawrence.

South from Brattleborough the Connecticut, for the remaining ten miles
in New Hampshire, has a general direction S. 25° E., again resuming nearly
its former course after crossing the Massachusetts line. Of this basin, from
the mouth of the Passumpsic, probably two thirds are covered with forest.

The entire length of the Connecticut from Third lake, following its
principal bends along our western border to the Massachusetts line, is
211 miles.

Altitudes at various points, with distances from Third lake, are given
in the following

TABLE OF HEIGHTS OF CONNECTICUT RIVER.

Distance from Height

Third lake. above sea.

Third lake, | square mile in area 2058 feet.

Second lake, i| square miles in area, .... 5 miles. 1852 "

Connecticut lake, 3 square miles in area, . . . . 10 " 1618 "

At West Stewartstown, 30 " 1035 "

North Stratford, 49 " 885 "

Lancaster, 67 " 832 "

Head of Fifteen-miles falls, 74 " 830 "

Upper Waterford, 84 " 674 "

Lower Waterford, 86 " 643 "

Foot of Mclndoe's falls, 98 " 432 "

Wells River, 105 " 407 "

Orford, 123 " 380 "

Ledyard bridge, Hanover, ...... 137 " 375 "

White River Junction, 141 " 339 "

Mouth of Quechee river, 146 " 323 "

Windsor, 155 " 304 "

Beaver meadow, Charlestown, 169 " 289 "

Head of Bellows falls, 181 " 283 "

Foot of Bellows falls, i8ii " 234 "

Westmoreland, ........ 191 " 219 "

Mouth of Ashuelot river, . . . 208 " 206 "

RIVER SYSTEMS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE.

305

The principal branches of this river system in New Hampshire are
arranged in the following table in their order, beginning at its source, —
their lengths, and the areas and altitudes of lakes and ponds connected,
being stated approximately.

TRIBUTARIES OF CONNECTICUT RIVER.

8

g

$ .

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o<

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LAKES AND PONDS.

C .

V ai

aj

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ON WEST SIDE.

[NOTE. See Connecticut and

upper lakes in Table of Heights

Perry stream, Pittsburg

S. S. W.

12

preceding.]

Indian stream, Pittsburg,

s. s. w.

IS

Hall's stream, Pittsburg,

s. s. w.

16

ON EAST SIDE.

Deadwater stream, Clarksville, . . .

N. N. W.

7

Bishop's brook, Stewartstown,

N.W.

7

Mohawk river, Colebrook

W.

10

Sims stream, Columbia,

N.W.

8

Bog brook, Stratford, ......

S. W.

8

C Trio ponds, Odell,

0.4

2490

Upper Ammonoosuc, Northumberland,

N.&W.

28

Pond of Safety, Randolph, . .
* Head pond, Berlin, ....

O.I

0.4

1973
1075

Percy pond, Stark, ....

o-5

1040

[ Potter's pond, Stark, ....

0.5

1025

Israel's river, Lancaster,

N.W.

IS

John's river, Dalton,

N.W.

12

f Cherry pond, Jefferson, . . .
~\ Island pond w^hitefield

0-3
0.25

1 200
1050

Lower Ammonoosuc, Bath, ....

W. &S.W.

36

(Long pond, Whitefield, .
Echo lake, Franconia, ....

0.25

950
1926

Oliverian brook, Haverhill, ....

N.W.

8

Eastman's brook, Piermont, ....

W.

7

Great pond, Piermont, ....

0.6

1150

( Norris pond, Dorchester,

0.6

Mascomy river, Lebanon,

s.&w.

23

I Hart's pond, Canaan, . . .
1 Crystal lake, Enfield

0.75
0.6

975
1050

( Mascomy lake, Enfield, .

i.S

750

( Little Sunapee lake, New London.

0.66

Sugar river, Claremont, . . . • .

w.

17

< Sunapee lake,

II. 2

1090-1103

Little Sugar river, N. Charlestown,

w.

8

(Spectacle pond, Sunapee, . .

1123

Cold river, Walpole,

s. w.

17

("Cold pond, Acworth, ....

0.4
0.5

1300
55°

( Warren pond, Alstead,

Partridge brook, Westmoreland, . .

N.W.

6

Spofford lake, Chesterfield, . .

I.O

738

( Breed pond, Nelson, ....

0.7

1250

Ashuelot river, Hinsdale,

S. W.

40

-c Woodward pond, Roxbury,

1150

(Swanzey pond, Swanzey, . .

O.2

The principal tributaries which the Connecticut receives from Vermont
are Nulhegan river at Brunswick, Passumpsic river at Barnet, Wells
river at Newbury, Wait's river at Bradford, Pompanoosuc at Norwich,
White river at White River Junction, Quechee river at Hartland, Black
river at Springfield, Williams river at Rockingham, and West river at Brat-
tleborough. A portion of this basin in Vermont is drained by the Deer-
field river, passing into Massachusetts, while in New Hampshire the head
waters of Miller's river include portions of Richmond, Fitzwilliam, and
Rindge.

VOL. i. 41

306 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

MERRIMACK RIVER SYSTEM.

The Merrimack river receives this name south from Franklin, where
the Pemigewasset and Winnipiseogee rivers unite. Its area of drainage
in New Hampshire is about 3,825 square miles, or four tenths of the
state. This river system comprises the central portion of New Hamp-
shire, including our principal lake region, and has its source in the centre
of the White Mountains. Our largest cities have grown up along the
Merrimack, and its name has become associated, like those of Winnipiseo-
gee lake and Mt. Washington, with all descriptions of the Granite State.

From its source in Franconia to the Massachusetts line, its general direc-
tion is S. 8° E., being 100 miles in a direct course, or 105 miles following
the principal bends in the river. The first thirty-eight miles of this dis-
tance is nearly S. 5° E. ; it then bends nearly west four miles to Bristol
village, and this is the only considerable deviation from its general course.
From this point to the mouth of the Suncook river, a distance of thirty-
three miles, it runs nearly S. 20° E., thence a distance of thirty miles its
course is about S. 2° E. to the Massachusetts line. After passing beyond
the limits of the state, the Merrimack bends to the north-east, the
boundary line south of Rockingham county being parallel with its course
and three miles distant. Its total length is about 144 miles.

The upper part of the Pemigewasset valley is narrow, and closely
bordered on both sides by mountain ranges. The intervals begin in
Thornton and Campton. The high sandy plains, which are characteristic
of this valley southward, commence at New Hampton. The alluvial
area along this river is much wider than on the Connecticut, and the
hills rise less abruptly upon either side. The proportion of this basin
covered by forest is probably nine tenths north of Plymouth, and two
thirds southward.

Winnipiseogee Lake. The hydrographic basin of Winnipiseogee lake
comprises about 350 square miles. Its waters flow into the Merrimack,
though the general level of the country would seem to ally it with the
waters of the Saco or Cochecho valley. The height of the divide
separating it from the latter is only seventy-two feet at the lowest place.

The lake is quite irregular in form. Its general course is S. 25° E.,
with several long bays or arms. On the south is Alton bay, eight or ten

RIVER SYSTEMS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 3O/

miles long, which resembles a fiord more than any of the other arms.
On the south-east is Wolfeborough bay, in close connection with Smith's
pond. On the north-east are two branches into Moultonborough. On
the north-west is the expanse known as Meredith bay. The western
shore is comparatively straight from Meredith Village to Alton Bay vil-
lage. The hills about the lake are steeper than the average in other
parts of the state.

The length of the lake proper is 19 miles. The breadth at the
widest part is 8i miles. Its area is 69.8 square miles. If Long bay,
which is properly an expansion of the outlet, be added, the area becomes
71.8 square miles.

The lake abounds in islands. Their number, large and small together,
is two hundred and seventy-four. The water is remarkably pure, but
shallow. No soundings have been made, but no part is likely to be over
two hundred feet deep. By the dam at the outlet of this lake a depth of
six feet is made available for the use of manufacturing companies in the
dry season. The top of this dam is 502 feet above mean tide.

Areas about Lake Winnipiseogee, as given on the Lake Company's map.

Area of Lake Winnipiseogee, including islands, . . 2,176,362,817 square feet.
Area of the islands, 227,313,357 "

Water in Lake Winnipiseogee, 1,949,049,466 "

or, 69 square miles, 531 acres, and 3.03 square rods.

Area of Long bay, including islands, .... 55,041,789 "

Area of the islands, 362,131 "

Water in Long bay, 54,679,658 "

or, i square mile, 615 acres, 43.56 square rods.
Total area of water 2,003,729,124 "

or, 71 square miles, 559 acres, and 46. 39 square rods.

Distance around Lake Winnipiseogee, . . . 895,730 feet.
Distance around Long bay, 69,905 feet.

Total, 965,635 feet, or 182.89 miles.

Islands.

Number of islands in Lake Winnipiseogee, of greater area than 1000 acres, i

" " of greater area than 500 and less than 1000 acres, 2

100 " 500 " 7

308

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Number of islands in Lake Winnipiseogee, brought forward, .

No. islands in L. Winnipiseogee, of greater area than 50 and less than

44 44 44 <4 44 JQ 44

" " " of less area than 10 acres,

Number of islands in Lake Winnipiseogee,

" " Long bay,

Total number of islands,

10

100 acres, 6
50 "

TABLE OF HEIGHTS OF MERRIMACK RIVER.

Profile lake, Franconia, ....

Pemigewasset river, at mouth of East Branch,

Pemigewasset river at Plymouth,

Winnipiseogee lake, 71.8 square miles, .

Merrimack river at Franklin,*

Merrimack river at Concord,

Amoskeag dam, Manchester,

At foot of Amoskeag falls, ....

At mouth of Nashua river, ....

Dam at Pawtucket falls, Lowell, f

Essex Company's dam, Lawrence,!

Distance from
Profile lake.

Height
above sea.

1950 feet.

9 miles.

135°

44

27 "

455

44

496-502

«

52 "

275

44

69 "

225

««

85 "

179

44

85* "

121

44

101 "

93

4<

112 "

87

44

122 "

39

44

TRIBUTARIES OF MERRIMACK RIVER.

S

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LAKES AND PONDS.

•S «

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U

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£B

11

5

ON WEST SIDE.

Baker's river, Plymouth,

S.E.

23

( Upper Baker pond, Orford, .
•< Lower Baker pond, Wentworth

o-3
0.3

(Stinson pond, Rumney, . .

0.6

99°

Newfound river, Bristol,

s

2

Newfound lake .....

8.0

CQ7

Smith's river, Bristol,

E.

IS

3y 1

Webster Lake brook, Franklin, . . .

S.E.

5

f Highland lake, Andover,
1 Webster lake, Franklin,
| Great pond, Boscawen,

0.33
0.6

°-33

446

Long pond, Boscawen,

0.4

Pleasant pond, New London,

I.O

Kezar pond, Sutton,

0.25

Long pond, Sutton,

°-3

Todd pond, Newbury,

0.3

677

Bradford pond, Bradford,

0.8

663

Clement pond, Hopkinton, .

0.2

Contoocook river, Fisherville, . . .

N. E.

45

- Contention pond, Hillsborough

o-3

Loon pond, Hillsborough, .

Q-33

Island pond, Washington, .

0.6

1248

Stacy pond, Stoddard, . .

0.7

Spoonwood pond, Nelson,

0.25

Long pond, Nelson and Hancock,

1.2

1338

North pond, Harrisville,

0.2

1218

Harrisville pond, ....

1334

Pollard pond, Greenfield,

0-3

* Corrected from statement on page 286. f Furnished by J. B. Francis, of Lowell.

RIVER SYSTEMS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE.

309

Tributaries of Merrimack River — Continued.

.

S

-

—

1
3

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6

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LAKES AND PONDS.

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( Mt. William pond, Weare, . .

O.2

Piscataquog river, Manchester, . . .

E.

20

< Gregg's pond, Deering, .
I Haunted pond, Francestown, .

0.4

Souhegan river, Merrimack, ....

N. E. &E.

25

Baboosic pond, Amherst,

o'.6

Nashua river, Nashua,

E. &N. E.

35

ON EAST SIDE.

East Branch Woodstock,

W.

14

S.W.

15

Greeley pond, Elkins grant, . .

O.2S

1813

Beebe river, Campton,

W.

10

s.w-

f Squam lake,

IS.6

510

q

3

\ Little Squam lake,
Winnipiseogee lake, ....

0-95
71.8

510

502

Merrymeeting lake, New Durham,

3-7

589

Smith's pond, Wolfeborough, .

4-5

540

Dishwater pond, Tuftonborough,

0.6

Winnipiseogee river, Franklin, . . .

s.w.

12

Red Hill pond, Sandwich,
' Long pond, Center Harbor,

o.S
0.6

505

Wukawan lake, Meredith, . .

I.O

542

Wickwas pond, Meredith, .

0.45

Round bay, Laconia, ....

0.5

Great and Sanbornton bays, .

6.8

Soucook river, Pembroke,

s.

15

Rocky Pond, Gilmanton, . . .

o-3S

Place's pond, Alton, ....

0.25

799

Young's pond, Gilmanton, . .

0.4

Lougee pond, Gilmanton, . .

0.6

622

Suncook river, Allenstown, ....

s.w

20

Halfmoon pond, Barnstead, .
Suncook pond, Barnstead, . .

0.4

1.2

Wild Goose pond, Pittsfield,

o.S

Little Suncook pond, Northwood

0.75

512

Pleasant pond, Northwood, . .

0.75

Brown's brook, Hooksett,

N.W

6

Sawyer pond, Hooksett, . . .
Lakin's pond, Hooksett, .

0.3

0.4

429
3°7

Cohas brook, Manchester,

S.W

4

Massabesic lake, Auburn & Man-
chester,

4.0

256

Beaver brook, Dracut, Mass., . . .

s

18

Beaver pond, Derry, ....
Cobbett's pond, Windham, . .

o-3
0.6

Spiggot river, Lawrence, Mass., . . .

s

13

SWash pond, Hampstead,
Island pond, Hampstead,

0.25
0-75

Policy pond, Salem, ....

0.7

Powwow river, Amesbury, Mass., . .

S.E

IS

f Country pond, Kingston, . .
\ Great pond, Kingston, . . .

0-75
0-33

The Contoocook river of this system is the largest tributary river in
New Hampshire. Its area of drainage on the south-east is narrow.
From the north-west side it receives Blackwater and Warner rivers in
Hopkinton, North Branch, near the north line of Antrim, and Nubanusit
river at Peterborough.

ANDROSCOGGIN RIVER SYSTEM.

The Androscoggin river is entitled to this name southward from the
confluence of the waters of the Magalloway and those of the range of
lakes at a point about one mile from Umbagog lake, and three miles
north-east from Errol dam. The area drained by this river in New

3io

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Hampshire is about 775 square miles, or one twelfth of the state. About
900 square miles from Maine are also drained by this river through
New Hampshire.

The course of the Androscoggin from Umbagog lake is first a little
south of west about five miles to the mouth of Clear stream, from which
its general course is S. 5° W. to the mouth of Moose river at Gorham,
a distance of thirty-three miles, following the bends of the river. Along
this portion of its course the Androscoggin flows almost directly towards
the highest and most massive range of the White Mountains, approach-
ing within ten miles of the summit of Mt. Washington. At Gorham,
this barrier turns the river sharply to the east, a distance of nine miles,
carrying it into the state of Maine.

The length of the Magalloway, from its source in Pittsburg, near the
most northern point of New Hampshire, to its mouth, is thirty-three miles
in a direct line, or thirty-nine miles, following the principal bends in the
stream. A large portion of this river is nearly level and very meander-
ing, although its general course is nearly straight. The total length of
river from Magalloway lake, the source of this stream, to the point where
the Androscoggin enters Maine, is eighty-six miles.

The most distant point in Maine drained by the range of lakes is about
forty miles in a direct line from the junction of these waters with the
Magalloway. We copy, from Wells's Water Power of Maine, the follow-
ing statement of the area, altitude, and amount of storage as reservoirs,
of the

RANGE OF LAKES IN MAINE.

Approx. area in
square miles.

Height in feet
above sea.

Present storage
in feet.

Umbagog,

18

1256

14

Welokenebacook, .

ii

1456

12

M olechunkemunk,

10

1456

12

Mooseluckmaguntic,

21

77

I486

14

Cupsuptic,

3

I486

14

Rangeley,

14

I5II

4

Our eastern boundary runs across Umbagog lake, dividing it in nearly
equal portions to the two states. The length of this lake is about eleven
miles, the north portion being bent east into Maine. By the dam in
Errol, four miles below its mouth, the outlet is made navigable for a

RIVER SYSTEMS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE.

steamboat to that point, and the waters of the Magalloway are made to
contribute to the reservoir storage of the lake.

Almost the entire area drained by the range of lakes and the Magallo-
way is unbroken forest, which also covers nine tenths of this basin south-
ward in New Hampshire.

TABLE OF HEIGHTS OF ANDROSCOGGIN RIVER.

Magalloway lake,

Parmachena lake, 3 square miles,

Umbagog lake, ....

At head of Berlin falls,

At Maine line, ....

Distance from
Magalloway lake.

13 miles.

39 "
72 "
86 "

Height
above sea.

2225 feet.
1600 "
1256 "
1048 "
690 "

TRIBUTARIES OF ANDROSCOGGIN RIVER.

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ON WEST SIDE.

Swift Diamond river, College grant,

E.

IS

Diamond pond, Stewartstown,

0.4

(Mosquito pond, Millsfield, . .

0.45

1270

Clear stream, Errol,

S. E.

10

Wentworth pond,Wentworth's Lo-
cation,

0.4

0.5

Moose river, Gorham,

E.

8

Peabody river, Gorham,

N. E.

9

ON EAST SIDE.

Chickwalnipy river, Milan, ....

W.

8

Burnside pond, Success, . . .

I.O

SACO RIVER SYSTEM.

The area drained by this system in New Hampshire is about 850
square miles, or one eleventh of the state.

The distance in a straight line from the head of the Saco beyond the
White Mountain notch to its point of crossing the Maine line is about
twenty-five miles, the direction being nearly south-east. Following the
course of the river, this distance is about thirty-four miles. The first
eleven miles it runs a little east of south, with high mountains bending
in steep and gracefully curved slopes to form its valley. The next nine
miles extend nearly east, through the level intervals of Bartlett to the

312

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

mouths of Ellis river and East Branch. The river then turns nearly
south eight miles to the mouth of Swift river in Conway, from which
point it flows east six miles to Maine line.

The southern portion of this basin in New Hampshire is drained by the
Ossipee river, which passes into Maine. A large part of this area about
Ossipee lake is comparatively level, consisting of sandy plains. The
proportion of forest in the whole basin is probably about three fourths.

TABLE OF HEIGHTS OF SACO RIVER.

Pond at source, near gate of White Mountain notch,
At Willey house,

Mt. Crawford house,

Line between Hart's location and Bartlett, .

Mouth of Rocky Branch

Mouth of Ellis river,

Portsmouth, Great Falls & Conway Railroad crossing,

Portland & Ogdensburg R. R. crossing, Conway Centre, 30
Ossipee lake, 7 square miles,

TRIBUTARIES OF SACO RIVER.

Distance
from source.

Height
above sea.

1880 feet,

2.6 miles.

1300 "

8.5 "

975 "

12.5 "

745 "

18 "

560 "

20 "

511 "

25 "

446 "

30

412 "

408 "

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LAKES AND PONDS.

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ON EAST SIDE.

Mt. Washington river, Hart's Location,

s.s.w.

7

Ellis river, Bartlett

S. S. E.

12

East Branch, Bartlett,

S.S.W.

12

Mountain pond, Chatham, . . .

0.25

ON WEST SIDE.

E.

15

Walker pond, Conway, ....

1.8

Ossipee lake,

7.0

408

Six-mile pond, Madison, . .

2-5

4S<

Chocorua lake, Tamworth, .

0.4

Ossipee river, Cornish, Me., ....

E.

IS

• Bear Camp pond, Sandwich,
Dan Hole pond, Tuftonborough

0.4
0.65

Pine River pond, Wakefield,

0.7

Province pond, Effingham, .

1.8

The length of Ossipee river is given from Iron Works falls at the
mouth of Ossipee lake. The Bear Camp and Pine rivers, outlets of
ponds bearing the same names, are the principal tributaries to this lake.
From Iron Works falls to the source of Bear Camp river is twenty miles.

RIVER SYSTEMS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 313

PISCATAQUA RIVER SYSTEM.

The Piscataqua river is formed by the union of the Cochecho and
Salmon Falls rivers at Dover. The second, in its whole length, with the
Piscataqua, constitutes a part of our eastern state boundary. The area
of this basin in New Hampshire, — those towns on the coast which drain
directly into the ocean being also included in this measurement, — is about
825 square miles, or nearly one eleventh of the state.

From East pond, the source of Salmon Falls river, to the mouth of
the Piscataqua, is nearly thirty-eight miles in a straight line, the course
being S. 20° E. By the course of the river this distance is thirty-nine
miles, the length of Salmon Falls river being twenty-eight miles, and of
the Piscataqua, from the junction of this river with the Cochecho, eleven
miles. The course of Salmon Falls river in the first twelve miles is
nearly south. The next thirteen miles to Salmon Falls is nearly south-
east ; thence the course is south seven miles to the mouth of Great bay,
thence south-east about seven miles to the ocean, three miles below
Portsmouth.

This river is affected by tide to Dover and South Berwick. Between
the township of Durham and those of Greenland and Newington is a
wide tidal basin, which receives the waters of several rivers. Upon
Exeter or Squamscot river, the largest of these, tide extends to the
village of Exeter. The area of this estuary, south-west from Dover
point, including Little and Great bays, is about nine square miles. From
Dover point to Portsmouth the Piscataqua is about half a mile wide.
Below this city it contains numerous islands, the largest of which consti-
tutes the township of Newcastle.

The section of New Hampshire drained by this river system is, for
the most part, level. Probably about one third is covered with forest.

TABLE OF HEIGHTS OF PISCATAQUA RIVER.

Distance from Height above

East pond. sea.

East pond, Wakefield, 2.9 square miles (Wells) 499 feet.

Horn pond, " 0.4 " " " i mile, .... 479 "

Three ponds, Milton, 1.4 " " . . 9 miles, .... 400 "

Great Falls, top of dam, .... 22 " .... 166 "

Bow lake, Strafford, 1.7 " " 515 "

VOL. I. 42

314

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

TRIBUTARIES OF PISCATAQUA RIVER.

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LAKES AND PONDS.

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TO SALMON FALLS RIVER.

Branch river, Milton,

S. E.

12

("Cook's pond, Brookfield, . .

0.4

1 LovelPs pond, Wakefield, . .

I.O

| Reservoir, Middleton, . . .

0.9

BY ISINGLASS RIVER.

Cochecho river, Dover,

S. E.

25

' Bow lake, Strafford, ....

1.7

515

Ayer's pond, Barrington, . .

0.6 '

Long pond, Barrington, . . .

O.2

[Nippo pond, Barrington, . .

0.2

TO GREAT BAY.

Bellamy river, Dover,
Oyster river, Durham,

E.S. E.
E.

16

10

f Dodge's pond, Barrington, . .
1 Swain's pond, Barrington, . .
Wheelwright's pond, Lee, . . .

O.2
0.25
0.4

131

Lamprey river, Newmarket, ....

E.

20

( Pawtuccaway pond, Nottingham,
j Mendam's pond, Barrington, .

4-5
0.4

Exeter river, South Newmarket, . .

E. N. E.

22

( Jones pond, Raymond, . . .
Phillips pond, Sandown,

0.25
0.25

258
215

The altitudes of numerous other ponds not here mentioned, heights of
rivers on lines of railroad surveys and where crossed by geological sec-
tions, and the elevation of prominent points on water-sheds, given in the
preceding chapter, need not be repeated here. For the purpose of com-
parison we annex a few heights of lakes in other states.

Height above sea.

Moosehead lake, Maine, 1023 feet.

Sebago lake, " 251 "

Willoughby lake, Vermont, 1161 "

Memphremagog lake, " 634 "

Lake Champlain, " 93 "

Lake Superior, 630 "

Itasca lake, Minnesota, 1575 "

EFFECT OF GEOGRAPHIC AND CONTINENTAL POSITION.

If we inquire into the causes which influence the hydrographic char-
acter of New Hampshire, we find that the situation of our state gives
us favorable conditions of climate, producing well-watered fields for the
farmer, and abundant water-power for manufacturing industry.

New Hampshire is situated between 42° 40' and 45° 18' 23" north
latitude, and between 70° 37' and 72° 37' longitude west from Green-

RIVER SYSTEMS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 315

wich. In consequence of this geographic position, almost equidistant
between the equator and the pole, the amount of evaporation in New
Hampshire is only that due to a moderate temperature ; the moisture of
the soil is not burned away by long continued and excessive heat, nor
are the sources of water supply wholly cut off by long and uninterrupted
cold. For the same reason the winds are variable, not constant as
within the tropics, but coming throughout the year from every quarter of
the compass, rarely for more than two or three days from the same point,
bringing heat and cold, moisture and dryness, in succession. It follows
also from this geographic position, that the precipitation of moisture is
non-periodic. It occurs in the form of either rain or snow at all seasons,
tending to make the volume of streams constant throughout the year.
Its fall is usually gentle, often occupying several days for the deposition
of a single inch of water. On this account sudden and great inunda-
tions are of rare occurrence. It is generally attended, also, with a pro-
tracted continuance of cloud, fog, or mist, which lessens evaporation,
and, in consequence, increases the volume to be removed by drainage.

The continental position of New Hampshire has the further effect to
produce a larger rainfall and a smaller amount of evaporation than the
average for this latitude. It is situated on the coast, and is constantly
visited, therefore, by currents of air directly from the ocean, tending to
produce a more equable temperature, increased rainfall, and a humid
atmosphere. It lies directly in the current of the south-west winds from
the Gulf of Mexico. This great inland sea is noted for its remarkably
high temperature, to which it presents an evaporating surface of 800,000
square miles in area. The prevailing course of our storms being from
the west and south-west, it is to a very large extent from this source that
their vapor is derived. This is precipitated upon us in our so-called
north-easterly storms, the moisture being brought in large measure by an
upper current whose course is opposite to that experienced below.

This deposition, also, is relatively more abundant here than farther
south, because of the colder currents of air which these storms encoun-
ter here, after uniting with which their combined capacity for retaining
moisture becomes greatly diminished, the excess necessarily falling in the
form of rain. The whole circulation of the Arctic ocean, including all
the waters which are brought in by the currents through Behring's strait,

316 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

and from the north coast of Europe, after being reduced to a very low
temperature and loaded with vast masses of ice, is poured in a constant
stream by the east coast of Greenland, by Baffin's bay, and the straits
north of Hudson's bay directly upon the shores of Labrador and New-
foundland, and is afterwards carried as a cold inshore drift along our
coast. Our north-east and east winds are, in consequence, of low tem-
perature, producing an excessive rainfall by their meeting with the
warmer south-west currents of our prevailing storms. By another
remarkable oceanic current, known as the Gulf stream, enormous vol-
umes of water, of almost tropical temperature, are brought into sudden
contact with this polar current off the coast of Newfoundland. The
warm atmosphere overhanging the Gulf stream is saturated with mois-
ture, and on meeting the cold atmosphere of the polar current this is
condensed, covering the Grand Banks, the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and
the adjacent ocean and land with thick and comparatively constant fogs.
These vapors are brought over our state by east and north-east winds,
sometimes remaining for days, or, with some intervals, for weeks together,
especially in the latter part of summer. The cool fogs of the dog days
throughout New England, which are in marked contrast with the sultry
heat of that season in the interior, are derived from this source, or in
part from a similar condensation of the moisture of southerly winds
blowing from the Gulf stream across the cold ocean current along our
shores. The obvious effect of these fogs, occurring most notably in the
midst of the protracted heat of summer, when streams tend to run
lowest, is greatly to diminish the evaporating power of the sun and
reserve a large proportion of the rainfall for removal by drainage.

The conditions of our climate, resulting from geographic and conti-
nental position, are thus such as to give increased volume and unusual
constancy to our streams.

PHYSICAL CHARACTER OF NEW HAMPSHIRE AS RELATED TO WATER-
POWER.

The consideration of the hydrographic features of the state is of espe-
cial interest, as exhibiting the extent and value of its water-power. Our
river systems are hardly more important as a part of the physical geog-
raphy than they have already become in their relation to the industries

RIVER SYSTEMS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE.

and wealth of the state. A general view of the nature of these resources
will cause us to see utility as well as beauty in our river and lake scenery.

Among the physical characteristics of the state which affect the amount
and availability of its water-power, we should first consider its geological
structure. Here the most noticeable feature in this relation is the ability
of the ledges to resist decomposition. This is the prevailing character of
very ancient rock formations. They resist the wearing action of water,
breaking the course of streams with numerous falls and abrupt rapids,
and maintaining the uneven condition of river beds, which renders water-
power capable of use. The importance of this feature will be rightly
estimated by a comparison with the prevailing form of river channel in
the south-western portion of the United States, where the rivers find
their way by an almost subterranean passage through canons many miles
in length and hundreds of feet deep, while the parched and sterile country
is rendered impassable by their yawning chasms. This character of our
rocks also reduces the amount of water, which is absorbed through crev-
ices and fissures in strata, and which, in a season of drouth, is lifted to
the surface, and burned away by evaporation. It is also of peculiar
importance in relation to the water-retaining capacity of our lakes and
ponds, these being in the majority of cases underlaid and walled in with
impervious rock. The same consideration insures the reliability of
artificial reservoirs wherever natural slopes of land admit of their con-
struction.

It is also to be noticed that the disintegrated material, which almost
everywhere overlies the solid rock, is comparatively shallow. The sides
and bed of nearly all our streams, at points where falls or rapids exist,
are rock-set and rock-bound, though apparently covered with earth.
Ravages of river beds and diversions of river courses, which in alluvial
districts are productive of much inconvenience, or even of serious losses,
are on this account very rare. Canals and race-ways can be constructed
in permanent material, and when once completed need no repairs. Mills
and accompanying structures can be planted on ledge bottom, and thus
defy the treacherous undermining of deep currents. A permanent dam
can be built at almost any point where the slope of a stream is sufficient
to produce a rapid ; so that, dam succeeding dam, the whole descent of
the stream may be utilized, the damage from flowage or from wear upon

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

the banks being as a general statement very small. To this comparative
shallowness of earth, ancTconsequent prominence of the underlying rock,
we also owe the large amount of water-power which occurs on our rivers
in the lower portion of their course. Were the geological character of
our sea-coast the same as that of the Southern states, our rivers near the
sea would be worthless for water-power, having deepened their valleys
through the loose strata so as to be affected far inland by the rise of the
tide, while their size is such that they would be of little value for pur-
poses of navigation in comparison with the power which they now furnish
for our manufactures.

The character of the surface of New Hampshire should also be con-
sidered in its effect upon the water-power. Under this head the most
important inquiry is in regard to the contour or general elevation of the
state in different sections, including the arrangement and character of its
slopes, and the distinguishing features of its mountains, drainage basins,
and river valleys.

From the tables of altitudes already given in this chapter, it is seen
that Connecticut lake, the principal source of our largest river, exceeds
1600 feet above the level of the sea. The descent of this river from this
point to the north line of Massachusetts is more than 1400 feet. This
total descent is distributed over the entire distance of its course, furnish-
ing a succession of valuable water-powers often equal to those which
have caused the rapid building up of such cities as Manchester, Lowell,
and Lawrence. Although no considerable distance along this river is
destitute of sufficient descent to produce upon improvement a valuable
water-power, it is not intended to convey the idea that the rate of fall is
nearly uniform along its entire course. By recurrence to the list of alti-
tudes, it will be seen that its descent in the first 1 7 miles, to the bridge
between West Stewartstown and Canaan, Vt, is about 600 feet ; in the
next 44 miles, to the mouth of John's river in Dalton, the descent is about
200 feet ; in the next 24 miles its descent is again rapid, amounting to
about 400 feet, the course of the river being transferred, with a westerly
offset by the rapids of Fifteen-miles falls, from the Upper to the Lower
Connecticut valley. From the northern continuation of the latter valley
it receives the waters of the Passumpsic. In the remaining 113 miles of
its course along our western border, its descent is about 230 feet, which

RIVER SYSTEMS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 319

is divided into successive falls and rapids, separated by only a few miles
from each other, along this entire distance. This river leaves the state
at a height of 200 feet above sea.

The water-power of this river at one of its principal falls, about two
miles north of White River Junction, is illustrated by the annexed plate,
prepared by Mr. J. T. Woodbury, of the Thayer Department of Civil
Engineering, Dartmouth college. He states that the amount of flow of
the Connecticut at Ledyard bridge on May 4, 1874, was 3,498,636 gallons
per minute, and estimates that in the driest season the flow might be
reduced to one eighth of this amount. A dam 10.8 feet above present
surface at the head of the falls, one fourth mile above the paper mill,
flows back to this bridge, and gives a fall of 312 feet at a distance of half
a mile. A canal now exists on the New Hampshire side, formerly used
for the river navigation, in which a depth of ten feet is secured by this
dam. This canal passes through 450 feet of hornblende schist, and
would require enlargement. On the Vermont side a canal can be con-
structed of any desired length, passing through the common terrace
formation of the river.

East and south-east from the point where the Connecticut river enters
its lower valley is the extended mountain region of New Hampshire.
From the wide interval on the Lower Ammonoosuc river, seven miles
south-west from Mt. Washington, to the place where that river empties
into the Connecticut, is a descent of about 1150 feet. The lowest point
of the water-shed, dividing the waters of the Lower Ammonoosuc from
those of the Saco, has an elevation of over 1900 feet above the sea.
Here is an area of 1300 square miles, or one seventh of the area of the
whole state, thickly set with mountains which vary in height from 3000
to 6000 feet above the level of the sea, the bottoms of its valleys varying
from 1000 to 2000 feet in altitude. These mountains constitute a group
in the general form of an oblique parallelogram, having its corners in
Bethlehem, Shelburne, Conway, and Warren. Of course any such rigid
boundaries must be imperfect; the south line should be bent farther
south at the middle to include the high mountains of Sandwich; the
mountains of Orford, and those on the opposite side of the river in Ver-
mont, seem to be the south-western extension of this central group,
while in a north-eastern direction it is continued into the state of Maine.

32O PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

The most elevated portion of that state, extending north-easterly across
it a little north of its centre, covered with numerous lakes and isolated
mountains, is the virtual extension of the more elevated area of our
White Mountain region. This area is not, however, continuous to Con-
necticut lake, from which it is separated by the drainage basin of the
Upper Ammonoosuc and the deep valley of the Androscoggin. The
general direction of mountain chains of the Appalachian system is thus
seen, although the arrangement of our mountains departs from the
general type of the great Alleghanian ranges, as seen in Vermont and
Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and North Carolina. Instead of
occurring as one continuous chain, our mountains form a group, made up
of several parallel ridges or short chains, extending north and south, the
highest summits of these successive ridges, in order from south-west to
north-east, being Moosilauke, Kinsman, Lafayette, Twin mountain, Mt.
Washington, and Mt. Carter. East and west ridges and scattered peaks
also occur, especially near the south and south-east limits of the group.

The relation which this great mountain region holds to the water-
power of the state is three-fold. It places one seventh of our state at a
greater elevation above the sea than any other section of New England,
giving a correspondingly increased amount of water-power in the descent
of its streams. From this elevated mountain area a gradual slope
extends, varied by transverse ranges of hills and outcropping ledges in
the channels of rivers, producing falls or rapids to within a few miles of
the ocean. This increased amount and convenient distribution of water-
power cannot be too highly estimated. The available power of the
Merrimack river alone has been stated by good authority to be double
that of all France.

The influence of mountains in producing an increased rainfall is well
known. Observations in the mountain districts of northern England
show a rainfall frequently three or four times that of the lowland around.
The average rainfall at Edinburgh, 200 feet above the sea, in three suc-
cessive years, was 30 inches ; in the Pentland hills, a few miles south, at
700 feet above sea, it was 37.4 inches; at 900 feet above sea, 49.2 inches.
Sufficient observations have never been taken to determine the rainfall
of our mountain region, and special circumstances may very much
reduce this proportion of increase, but it cannot be doubted that a much

RIVER SYSTEMS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 321

larger amount of rain and snow is collected here than upon the same
area in any other part of New Hampshire.* This is effected by the
refrigeration of currents of air, coming in contact with the relatively cool
mountain ridges, their moisture being thereby condensed and precipitated
as rain. The clustered arrangement of our mountains and their disposi-
tion in numerous short ranges, transverse to the direction of our pre-
vailing storms, would tend to increase their influence in this respect.

The third consideration to be noticed is, that this whole area is heavily
wooded, with the small exception of such alpine summits as have an
elevation more than 4000 feet above the sea. This condition prevents
the very rapid drainage which would otherwise produce overwhelming
freshets, sweeping all before them, after which the streams would dwindle
to mere rills, worthless for water-power. By this clothing of forest,
however, the large rainfall of this area is stored up, as in a sponge, and
gradually given forth, producing in our mountain-fed streams one of the
principal resources of our water-power when most needed in the drouth
of summer. This effect of forests is due to several causes. A great
amount of decaying vegetable materials and mosses, which become
saturated with rain, everywhere covers the ground in our forests, and the
earth is loosened through which tree roots have forced their passage,
giving water a chance to penetrate it, — from both which conditions its
volume, when in surplus, is husbanded against too sudden removal. Thus
the forest acts as a capacious reservoir for retaining the water as it falls.
A further office is the protection of the ground from the parching heat
of the sun, and from the similar effect of drying winds, producing a
permanence and constancy in the springs on which the summer volume
of our streams mainly depends. Forests also check the waste of winter
snow as well as of summer rain. Patches of ice and snow may be found,
as late as early June, lying here and there in the defiles and ravines of
our northern woods, and even late in summer in secluded mountain
glens, saturating the ground as they melt, and sending off streamlets to
the nearest brook or river. It will be seen that our forests are, to an
important extent, so situated as to exercise their characteristic influence

*The rainfall at the summit of Mt. Washington during the first year of observation was 55 inches, against an
average annual rainfall varying from 35 to 46 inches in other portions of the state (p. 135).

VOL. i. 43

322 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

upon the constancy of water-power to the best advantage, namely, upon
the mountain region of the state. Thus located, it is certain that they
will remain for a long time substantially as they now are, deprived indeed
of their heavier timber, but still dense woods ; so that this effect, which
is unquestionably of great importance in a consideration of our water-
power, will be at the same time permanent. (See p. 123.)

The source of the main stream of the Merrimack river, — better known
north from its confluence with the Winnipiseogee under the name Pemi-
gewasset, — is Profile lake, situated in the midst of the Franconia ranges,
at the very foot of the mountain wall from whose top hang the jutting
rocks that make up the profile of the Old Man of the Mountains. This
little mountain lake is about 1950 feet above the sea. The first consider-
able tributary which the Pemigewasset receives is the East Branch, which
drains a wholly uninhabited basin 150 square miles in area, bounded, and
in the middle almost crossed, by ranges of high mountains. The descent
of this river, to the mouth of the East Branch, in a distance of nine miles,
is about 600 feet. From this point to Plymouth, a distance of 18 miles, it
descends about 900 feet ; in the next 25 miles to Franklin, where it receives
the Winnipiseogee, it descends about 175 feet, the descent from Lake
Winnipiseogee, 500 feet above the sea, being 225 feet. From this place
to the southern boundary of the state, a distance of 53 miles, its descent
is about 185 feet, the height of the Merrimack at the average stage of
water at this point being 90 feet above the sea. The water-power of this
distance is located, as on the Connecticut, at numerous falls, separated
from each other by intervals of a few miles each, affording unimproved
sites for manufacturing cities as favorable as any already occupied. The
tributaries of this river are also specially important for their water-power.

North-east of the White Mountains a large amount of water-power is
furnished by the Androscoggin river, which has its sources and the lower
portion of its course in the state of Maine. Being connected with a
chain of lakes which can be employed as immense reservoirs, — for which
they are already used to obtain a sufficient supply of water at the last
part of the log-driving season, — this river can be made perfectly reliable
for water-power in the driest summer. The sources of this river, in both
its upper drainage areas of the range of lakes and Magalloway river, are
from the high water-shed ridge which forms the north-west boundary of

RIVER SYSTEMS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 323

Maine, having an altitude of nearly 3000 feet above the sea. The upper
portion of the range of lakes is 1500 feet in altitude; Umbagog lake,
about 1250 feet. At the east line of New Hampshire the Androscoggin
is about 700 feet above the sea. The great value of this very reliable
water-power, for the manufacture of lumber, — of which there is an almost
inexhaustible supply on the lakes and streams above, — cannot fail to be
appreciated and more fully employed.

Although the south-eastern portion of the state along the coast is
comparatively level and of small altitude, the descent of its rivers is
gradual, in consequence of the projecting strata of solid rock, being
broken by falls to within a short distance of the sea, and affording very
valuable facilities for manufacturing. The water-shed between the lower
part of the Merrimack in New Hampshire, and the section drained north-
easterly toward the Piscataqua, is very low. By reference to our tables
of altitudes, it will be seen that the highest point on the Nashua & Roch-
ester Railroad is only 345 feet above the sea. Phillips pond, the head of
Exeter river, has an altitude of 215 feet. The sources of Cochecho and
Salmon Falls rivers are among the hills at the south-east end of Lake
Winnipiseogee, — East pond, at the head of Salmon Falls river, having
the same altitude with this lake, namely, 500 feet above the sea.

The drainage areas on either side of our river valleys are specially
favorable for the provision of a large and comparatively constant water
supply. With the exception of our mountains, already noticed in their
relation to our water-power, the narrow intervals and alluvial plains in the
valleys of our largest rivers, and the level portions of eastern Rocking-
ham county, our whole state is covered with irregularly scattered ridges
of hills. The rainfall is gathered into .our streams and lakes without the
large waste from evaporation and infiltration which takes place upon
comparatively level water-sheds, such as those of a large portion of the
West. At the same time, the surface being only moderately broken, con-
sisting of wide swells of hilly country to a large extent covered with
forest, the drainage from rains is not too sudden, so as to turn our rivers
into torrents which cannot be used in passing, and leave nothing behind.
This variety of local elevations and depressions is of still further impor-
tance, since it affords room for the natural formation of invaluable storage
basins of reserved water-power.

324 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

No feature in the physical geography of a country is of greater impor-
tance in a consideration of its water-power than the number, size, and
distribution of its lakes and ponds, and the adaptation of its surface for
the construction of artificial reservoirs, and for increasing the capacity
of those which have been naturally formed. The importance of this
appears when it is remembered that water-power is suitable for extensive
manufacturing, where large amounts of capital are invested, only in pro-
portion as it is constant and reliable at all seasons of the year. It may be
employed for local convenience and by small establishments, even though
it be variable at different seasons, and its use wholly suspended during
the driest portion of the year ; but it is only when a constant supply of
water-power can be depended upon, that it is capable of being advan-
tageously employed by large manufacturing corporations, — the greater
cheapness of water-power, as compared with steam-power, being more
than counter-balanced if business must be interrupted and capital lie
idle because of the failure of streams. By lakes, ponds, and artificial
reservoirs, the surplus of heavy rains and of snow melting is stored up
in the season of excess against the season of dearth. Our natural reser-
voirs are of a capacity, too, which man would not presume to imitate by
artificial constructions, being also provided almost free of cost, and capa-
ble of being put to actual use with insignificant outlay.

In our climate the need of a reserved water supply is likely to be
experienced at two seasons of drouth, — in midsummer, and, to a less
degree, in midwinter. Although the amount of rainfall for the different
quarters of the year is nearly equal, the increased heat of summer and
consequent evaporation, together with the fact that our summer rainfall
is to a considerable extent from showers, and subject to greater variable-
ness than that of any other season, usually cause our streams to reach
their lowest point at some time during the last part of summer, — the period
of drouth being in some years protracted, in others scarcely noticeable or
wholly wanting. In winter, on the other hand, precipitation takes place
largely in the form of snow. The ground itself, in all its upper stratum,
is also frozen solid, and yields but small contributions to the streams.
The value of reservoirs to provide a supply against the contingency of
want at these seasons can scarcely be over-estimated. By these the
regulation of the water supply is under the control of the consumer, and

RIVER SYSTEMS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 325

not dependent upon the caprices of a variable climate, which, by proving
unfavorable, would bring great inconvenience and loss.

Lakes and reservoirs are also of great value in lessening the frequency
and violence of freshets. By their storage of water, in floods and snow-
meltings, they reduce the volume of streams at these times, causing a
comparatively moderate rise of surface. Manufacturing establishments,
built upon rivers subject to heavy floods, have to be constructed of great
strength and with much care to withstand the water, and, if so placed as
to be secure against the overflow of freshets, are often too high for
advantageous use at the ordinary stage of water. The equability of
volume in our rivers is not less important as insuring the security of
property invested, than it is in making the investment certain of a profit-
able return.

A further consideration of importance is, that the water of lakes and
ponds is so warm in winter, that mills near them and fed by them expe-
rience no trouble from the formation of ice about their gate-ways and
wheels, even during the severest cold. Only their upper strata sink
below 39° in midwinter, the deeper portion being so protected by the
non-conducting mantle of ice, that during the longest winter the general
temperature remains far above the freezing point.

The altitude of our lakes and ponds above the sea should also be
noticed. The supply which they are capable of furnishing in a drouth is
of equal benefit to all the water-powers situated below them on their path-
way to the sea. This enables a large number of interested companies to
enter into combination for the improvement of these natural storage
basins, most of which are so situated that the lowering of their outlets,
or the erection of dams at a comparatively small outlay, would double or
treble their value. The expense of such improvements would be divided
among a large number, each of whom would receive the full advantage of
the increased water supply. A large number of small ponds will also be
improved for the same object by proprietors on their outlets, thereby
increasing at the same time the capacity of the larger powers below.

The average depth of reserve, that with a reasonable outlay could be
retained upon the surface of our lakes and ponds for use during the dry
season in each year, 'would probably not be less than eight feet, while the
natural low run of the streams would be more than doubled. Indeed,

326 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

the proportion of reservoir water used by large manufactories is in many
cases eighty or ninety per cent, of the whole amount during the drier
season of the year. It is easy to see, therefore, how great an advantage
our water-power has in comparison with any which is obliged to rely
upon the natural flow of the streams, or, if supplied with reservoirs at all,
has to depend on artificial constructions of comparatively great cost and
limited capacity.

RAINFALL AND EVAPORATION.

A previous chapter of this report has been devoted to the general con-
sideration of the climate of New Hampshire : reference must be made to
this for statistics and meteorological tables. It is proposed to consider
briefly in this place the rainfall and temperature of the state, as related
to the volume and constancy of our rivers.

The rainfall of New Hampshire, as we have already noticed, is consid-
erably in excess of the normal amount. From a comparison of the
records of the Smithsonian Institution, it appears that the average rain-
fall for the same latitude westward to the Missouri river is not more than
three fourths of the average amount which we receive. A like compari-
son with places south of us along the Atlantic slope shows that their
annual rainfall also is less than that of New Hampshire. The difference,
however, is small ; but the comparison is remarkable, since these places
are entitled upon general principles to a considerably larger rainfall than
our state. This deviation from the general law of distribution becomes
intelligible when the local conditions are taken into account, namely, the
cold ocean currents north-east of us and along our shores, the consequent
low temperature, and its influence upon the storms which sweep over us.
The precipitation of moistyre throughout the year is also remarkably
uniform, the total amount being almost equally divided between the four
seasons. The practical consequence of this distribution of rainfall is,
that our state enjoys comparative security from the two great obstacles
to the successful employment of water-power, freshet and drouth.

These favorable conditions are still further promoted by our tempera-
ture. In no other part of the Northern Hemisphere, except north-eastern
China, does the isothermal line, which represents the mean temperature
of our state, sink so near to the equator, — that is, our average temper-

RIVER SYSTEMS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE.

ature is unusually low for the latitude. The line of the same average
temperature for the year crosses Europe several hundred miles farther
north, corresponding to the mouth of the St. Lawrence and the southern
coast of Labrador. Thus while New Hampshire cannot be declared to
be cold in respect to comfortable habitableness and capacity of vegetable
production, it is so in a relative sense, and as compared with other coun-
tries no further removed towards the poles.

This is mainly caused by the cold oceanic current already referred to,
which the Arctic sea pours forth upon the north-eastern shores of our
continent. This effect is exerted on so grand a scale that the whole
north-east portion of North America is constituted a geographic region
of relatively low temperature. The focus of this district is at the north-
east corner of Hudson's bay, its relative deficiency of heat being 13°.
The temperature of all adjacent regions is lower than that due to the
latitude in proportion to their proximity to this point. Thus, at Quebec
the deficiency is stated by Wells as nearly 7°, and at New York, 4°;
throughout New Hampshire it is therefore about 5°. 5, — that is, our mean
temperature is what might be expected were our geographic position five
degrees farther north. The temperature of Europe, on the other hand,
is much warmer than would be expected for the latitude, owing to the
warm current of the Gulf Stream, which is constantly pouring upon its
shores.

This comparatively low temperature of our state largely increases the
volume of its streams. This is effected, first, by the condensation of a
large amount of moisture from the warm south and south-west winds,
inducing a more abundant rainfall than could be looked for in our lati-
tude and upon the lee side of the continent ; and, secondly, by diminish-
ing the waste of water from evaporation, preserving consequently a larger
proportion for removal by rivers. Having already noticed the conditions
which are concerned in the first of these results, it remains to speak here
of the relation of evaporation to water-power, and the modification of
this influence from our comparatively low temperature.

Of the total rainfall of the state, probably sixty per cent, is removed
by evaporation from our surface before it reaches the sea. In the case
of various reservoirs, where an exact measurement of this proportion
could be taken, the evaporation from the drainage area has been found

328 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

to vary from fifty to sixty per cent, of the total rainfall. From England
and Ireland the amount of evaporation is estimated as two thirds ; from
the Ohio and upper Mississippi river basins, three fourths ; from the basins
of the Missouri, Arkansas, and Red rivers, five sixths of the whole rain-
fall.* The larger proportion west of the Mississippi is due to the preva-
lence of winds already reduced to dryness by passage over mountain
ranges, and still more inclined by the increased temperature of this
region to absorb rather than impart moisture. In the Ohio and upper
Mississippi basins the mean temperature is higher than with us, and the
air more drying throughout the year ; the surface, also, is far less favora-
ble for drainage than in our own state. In a comparison with the British
Isles, it is to be noted that our mean annual temperature is several
degrees lower than theirs, our winters sealed by frost against evaporation
while theirs are open, and our surfaces to a much larger extent forest
clad, producing probably with us a considerably lower proportion of
evaporation.

The tendency to evaporation is of course less in proportion as the
winds which reach our area are charged with moisture. Our position on
the coast is favorable in this regard. It is not, however, the actual
amount of moisture which air contains that renders it moist, but the rela-
tion between that amount and the amount which is capable of being
held in suspension. Although the south-west storms which sweep over
us, laden with the evaporation of the Mexican gulf, have become de-
prived of much of their moisture before reaching us, they are still as
thoroughly saturated as at their start, having become cooled, and conse-
quently capable of holding less moisture in the same proportion as they
have given it up. As we have seen, this cooling process becomes more
rapid as these winds reach us, on account of our unusually low tempera-
ture, giving them great relative humidity, with the results of increased
rainfall and lessened evaporation. Thus the effect of our temperature is
to give us relatively moist instead of drying winds, making the loss by
evaporation from the surface a comparatively low proportion.

The average summer temperature of New Hampshire is several degrees
lower than that of places of the same latitude farther west, while a still
greater difference is exhibited in a comparison with the middle and

* Wells's Water Power of Maim, 1869, p. 52.

RIVER SYSTEMS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 329

southern states. Our chances of water dearth occasioned by summer
heat are thus greatly diminished as compared with other sections of the
country.

Our winter temperature is more nearly like that of the same latitude
westward, being indeed less severe, the neighborhood of the sea having
the effect to lessen the extremes of our temperature, which is lower in
summer, and on an average for the year, but nearly the same in winter.
Our mean winter temperature, however, falls considerably below the
freezing point of water. The ground, therefore, with its contained water,
tends to freeze solid to a considerable depth, thereby lessening the supply
of streams. Much of the surface water upon the drainage sheds through-
out this season is changed to ice. The precipitation also is mainly in the
form of snow. But these circumstances, which seem to threaten water
dearth, never act to their full extent in combination to reduce river
supply. When a large depth of snow falls the ground does not freeze
deeply, and continues therefore to give forth the reserved abundance of
the autumn rains. Nor does the severity of the temperature often last
many weeks without such intervals as admit of rains and the thawing of
part of the accumulated snow, with sufficient time for drainage, by which
the water supply is reinforced and the lakes and reservoirs filled. Thus,
while our streams tend to run low in winter, they are still almost always
prevented from reaching so low a point as in the heat of summer.*

The frequent thaws of winter also prevent the accumulation of snow
from being wholly reserved for the melting of spring. The disappearance
of the snow remaining at that season, however, sometimes attended with
heavy rains, usually produces the highest stage of water for the year. A
few of the conditions which modify this result deserve to be considered.
During the winter the snow generally becomes solidified, especially in its
lower portions, almost to ice, and in this form it disappears but slowly
before the advancing heat of the year. The ground, even if frozen before
snowfall, is usually thawed out beneath the snow of winter, and becomes
a reservoir for a large amount of water, thus retarding the discharge into
the rivers. For these reasons, the accumulations of winter go off with

* Reference to charts illustrating isothermal lines and rainfall will show that the Merrimack valley is the
warmest area in the state, and, also, that it receives the most rain. Combining with these the constancy of flow
caused by the large lake reservoirs, and it is clear that the Merrimack river is superior to the Connecticut, if not
to any stream in the country, for its capabilities for driving machinery. C. H. H.

VOL. i. 44

330

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

less swelling of the streams than is experienced farther south and in the
interior, where the depth of snow is less, but where the spring heat comes
on more suddenly, and without the moderating influence of cold sea
winds.

The effect of summer temperature, also, although sufficient to produce
the lowest run in our streams for the year, is yet far different from that
experienced in many portions of our country. No such thing is known
in New Hampshire as the drying up of streams, draining hundreds of
square miles of territory, into chains of half-stagnant pools, their beds
turned into wastes of fissured, sun-baked mud, strewn with the stumps
and driftwood of freshets, leaving long bridges stretching across dry
land, where, at the spring flood, a torrent twenty feet deep fills the entire
channel.

In conclusion, it appears that the temperature of the state, on the
whole, influences very favorably both the volume and constancy of our
rivers. The mean for the year is comparatively low, and the loss from
evaporation is therefore of necessity comparatively small. Our relative
advantage in this respect is also greatest in the abatement of the drouth
of summer, which everywhere fixes the limit of the capacity of water-
power.

Fig. 45. — OLD MAN OF THE MOUNTAINS.

CHAPTER XII.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE.

BY SAMUEL H. SCUDDER.

I. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.

>ROBABLY no state in the Union presents so striking a variety in
its animal life as New Hampshire. Its northern and southern
portions belong to distinct continental faunas ; above the forest growth
of its colder region rise some of the highest elevations east of the Rocky
Mountains, and these bleak altitudes support a vegetation and an assem-
blage of animals intimately resembling those of Labrador and Greenland,
while sixty miles to the south flourish animals characteristic of sub-
tropical climes.

In the northern hemisphere, rivers flowing south always exert an
influence upon the character of the inhabitants upon its banks ; and the
Connecticut, although navigable but fifty miles, is no exception to the
rule. At its southern extremity it reaches a warm coast and a latitude
where numerous insects occur, whose true metropolis is found in the
Carolinas and Floridas. Many of these, following the- course of the river,
with its warm, moist banks, penetrate into the heart of the country;
some are found in central Massachusetts, a few in southern Vermont
and New Hampshire, and one or two are found even in the latitude of the
White Mountains. It is therefore especially interesting to consider the
distribution of a few groups of insects in New Hampshire.

332 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

In 1854, Prof. L. Agassiz made the first attempt* to divide North
America into several zoological areas ; and, on a rude map accompanying
his sketch, he draws a line in an east-westerly direction, which passes
through New Hampshire. The two great regions thus separated he
names the Canadian and Alleghanian faunas.

In 1859, Dr. J. L. LeConte divided the United States into a number of
"entomological provinces;"! and the "northern" and "middle" provinces
of his "Atlantic district" were separated by a line which passed through
the southern half of New Hampshire.

In 1863, Prof. A. E. Verrill also pointed out that the dividing line of the
Canadian and Alleghanian faunas cut New Hampshire in two, J and three
years later he defined the limits more exactly as "coincident with a line
which shall indicate a mean temperature of 50° Fahrenheit during the
months of April, May, and June;" and, in describing its course, says, —
" It passes south of Moosehead and Umbagog lakes, but rises somewhat
northward along the Androscoggin valley, thence it passes southward of
the White Mountains, through the vicinity of Conway, N. H. It bends
northward again up the Connecticut valley as far as Craftsbury, Vt, where
the mean temperature is 50° 91." ||

Mr. J. A. Allen has recently discussed the areas of the faunas of east-
ern North America ; and, in his description of the northern boundary of
the Alleghanian fauna, says the line "follows the northern boundaries of
the lowlands through southern Maine and southern New Hampshire. In
the Connecticut valley it rises farther to the northward, and, in its south-
ern descent, skirts the eastern base of the Green Mountains." §

Both of these latter writers base their conclusions upon the study of
birds during breeding season, as first suggested by Prof. Verrill, in 1 866, in
the paper from which we have quoted, and where he further writes, — "From
this remarkable coincidence between this system of lines of temperature
of the months of spring and early summer, with what had been already
observed in the actual distribution of birds, we must necessarily infer

* Nott and Gibbon: Types of Mankind, p. Ixxviii, and map.

t The Coleoptera of Kansas and Eastern New Mexico. Smiths. Contr. 410, 1859.

% " The Adirondack region of New York, the northern parts of Vermont and New Hampshire, including most of
the higher parts of the Green Mountains and all of the White Mountains, and even the summits of the higher
Alleghanies, will be included in the Canadian fauna." Proc. Ess. hist., iii, 138.

fl Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., x, 260.

I Bull. Mas. Comp. Zool., ii, 395 (1871).

THE DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE. 333

that they are chiefly influenced, so far as latitude is concerned, by the
temperature of the breeding season . . . ; whether a similar law con-
trols the distribution of mammalia, reptiles, insects, etc., can only be
determined by further investigation."

Since insects are not regularly migratory animals ; as several genera-
tions frequently succeed each other during a single season ; and, as the
winter is passed in very various conditions, we can hardly expect their
distribution to follow exactly that of birds. Various causes may modify
unequally the distribution of insects belonging to a certain group: too
intense cold in our arctic winters ; the lack of snow during a less severe
season ; too excessive heat or too long a drouth in midsummer ; or, too
sudden changes of temperature at critical periods. Taking our butter-
flies only, they may be found at every season of the year, even in mid-
winter, of one species or another, in every stage of existence, from the
egg, through all the larval periods and the chrysalis, to the imago. The
distribution of butterflies is therefore much more complicated than that
of birds, whose early stages are always passed in comparatively warm
weather, under the guardianship of the mother; and, if more than one
brood appears during a season, the second is only the produce of the
same pair that raised the first.

It is nevertheless true that the distribution of insects over continental
areas coincides in a remarkable way with that of birds. The northern
limits of the Alleghanian fauna, as laid down by Verrill, agree very
fairly with the northern boundary of the belt colored blue on Plate B ;
and this probably indicates pretty accurately the southern limit of Cyclo-
pides Mandan and the northern limit of Megisto Eiirytus, Grapta comma,
Argynnis Cybele, A. Aphrodite, and Euphyes Metacomet. It may be ques-
tioned, however, whether, as far as butterflies are concerned, this can really
be considered the northern limit of the Alleghanian fauna. If we trace
upon a map of the state the northern limits of the several Alleghanian
butterflies and the southern limits of the Canadian, they will be found to
mingle in a broad belt of country, which includes all the colored portions
of Plate B^ The northernmost Alleghanian and southernmost Canadian
species gradually decrease in numbers away from their metropolis, and
become confined to increasingly lower or higher altitudes in this belt,
according as they are Alleghanian or Canadian forms.

334 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Mr. Allen's location of the dividing line between the Alleghanian and
Canadian faunas, though rather vaguely stated, seems to correspond
better with the distribution of butterflies, though it is perhaps still too
far north ; and I have colored a narrow band red on Plate B, which will
indicate more exactly the limitation which seems to accord best with the
facts at my command. This band, striking the Maine boundary opposite
the lower extremity of Lake Winnipiseogee, runs in a south-westerly
direction nearly parallel with the coast line of Maine, until it reaches the
vicinity of the Monadnock mountain (Hillsborough county), and then
turns sharply upward and strikes the Connecticut river at the highlands
about Claremont. In the neighborhood of this band (sometimes closely
confined to it) are the southern limits of such Canadian butterflies as
Minois Alope, and the northern limits of such Alleghanian butterflies as
Basilarchia Astyanax, Grapta interrogationis, Vanessa Hunt era, Speyeria
Idalia, Pterourus Troilus, Erynnis Juvenalis, Anthomaster Leonardus,
and Limockores Manataaqua; other species, including northern types like
Grapta Fatmas and Argynnis Atlantis, and southern types, such as Epar-
gyreus Tityrus and Pamphila Sassacus, find their southern or northern
limits, as the case may be, within other portions of the broad blue belt ;
while, again, some Alleghanian species, such as Achalarus Lycidas, Pho-
lisora Catullus, Amblyscirtes vialis, Ocytes Metea, and Poanes Massasoit,
find their northern limit at the southern boundary of this belt ; and some
Canadian species, such as Argus Eurydice and Aglais Milberti, find at
this same point their southern limit.

It is plain that somewhere within this blue belt the dividing line between
the Canadian and Alleghanian faunas must be drawn ; and it will proba-
bly prove difficult to discover any more exact boundary than this, for we
should certainly expect an interdigitation of forms peculiar to the two
faunas over some common area; and it is only by direct study of the
comparative abundance or rarity of very many species of animals within
this broad belt that any more exact limitation can be obtained. The
local zoologists of New Hampshire can render science an important ser-
vice by a careful record of such facts in as many distinct localities as
possible ; only it is essential that such observations be continued through
several successive seasons (best, for a decade), for the comparative abun-
dance of any one species, in any one locality, depends upon a variable

I3STSEOTS

NE

BY 8. H. SCTTDDEB. PIRATE B.

EXPLANATION.

Canadian Fauna, including the
Sub- Alpine and Alpine.

GJ Alleghanian Fauna.

! Common meeting ground of Can- ••v.ast-
' adian and Alleghanian spe-'ies.

Boundary between Canadian and
Alleghanian Faun*.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE. 33$

climate, the antagonism of other insects, and many other causes still
unknown.

It may be well to enter with more detail upon the probable limits of
the belt colored blue on Plate B. At the north, it enters New Hampshire
from Maine near the range of hills lying east of Pinkham's notch,
and comes from the direction of Bethel or Norway, Me. That the latter
town lies near the boundary between the Alleghanian and Canadian
faunas is evident from the extensive collections of Messrs. Verrill and
Smith. From this point it runs between Bartlett and Conway toward
Plymouth, passing just north of the latter town, following up Baker's
river toward the Connecticut, and only crossing the latter stream at some
distance above Wells river. At the north, on either side of the White
Mountains, the Alleghanian fauna extends along the river bottoms of the
Androscoggin, the Connecticut, and even the Ammonoosuc, but too nar-
rowly to be traced upon our map. Less is known about the southern
boundary of the band at its eastern extremity, but it must enter the state
between Dover and the sea, and it continues in a nearly straight line
through Milford to Warwick, Mass. Here it turns upward and toward
the Connecticut, crossing the river certainly above Brattleborough, Vt,
and perhaps as high as Walpole, N. H., where Mr. S. I. Smith has even
taken a specimen of Laertias Philenor.

Thus far our examples have been wholly drawn from among the butter-
flies, as the best known group of insects; but our knowledge of the
Orthoptera is sufficiently advanced to show that the facts of their distri-
bution do not militate against the conclusions drawn from the study of
the butterflies. Among the Orthoptera of the Alleghanian fauna, Gryl-
lotalpa borealis, (Ecanthus niveus, Phylloptera oblongifolia, Thyreonotns
dorsalis, Chrysockraon viridis, and DiapJieromera femorata appear to
reach only the southern limits of our blue belt ; while Tragocephala sor-
dida, CEdipoda Carolina, Hippiscus phcenicoptenis, H. rugosa, the different
Tettigideans (perhaps with the exception of BatracJiidea cristata) and
Labia minuta probably extend to its northern boundaries. On the other
hand, among the insects of the Canadian fauna, Chloealtis conspersa,
Arcyptera lineata, A. gracilis, Trimerotropis verruculata, and Cammula
pellucida find their southern limit at or near the southern extremity of
the blue belt ; the latter species also occurs on high ground farther south.

336 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Pezotettix borealis and P. manca do not extend below the uppermost
boundaries of the blue belt ; while, among Alleghanian species, Trimcro-
tropis (zqualis, Arphia xantJioptera, and A. sulphured are limited on the
north by the red band, the first perhaps extending somewhat farther.

But the principal interest attaching to the distribution of insects in
New Hampshire is through their relation to the White Mountains. These
mountains are situated next the southern boundary of the Canadian
fauna, and their valleys, as well as the lower wooded portions of their
slopes, are peopled with representatives of this region ; but their peaks
rise from above the limit of forest growth, and maintain a fauna and flora
very distinct from those below.

It has long been known that in ascending lofty mountains within the
warm or temperate regions, one passes successively over areas exhibiting
in their vegetation distinct features, with an ever increasing resemblance
to more northern floras. The European Alps have furnished a field for
extensive investigations ; and their sides have been mapped into distinct
zones, called, on an ascending scale, the mountain, the sub-alpine, and the
alpine regions. These regions have been recognized and applied to
similar phenomena elsewhere, and are in general use. It has also been
noticed that the distribution of animals upon mountain summits corre-
sponds with that of plants.

So far as plants are concerned, no distinctive alpine and sub-alpine
regions have yet been recognized in the White Mountains. Dr. Asa
Gray, it is true, in his statistics of the flora of the northern United
States,* gives separate and extended lists of alpine and sub-alpine plants ;
but the only distinction made between the two is, that the former are
found only in "our small alpine region" (in which he includes all the
treeless summits of the White Mountains), and the latter "occur mainly in
our alpine region, but are also found decidedly out of it ; " so that the lists
do not separate plants of distinct alpine and sub-alpine zones. Prof. E.
Tuckerman, in a very interesting article upon the vegetation of the White
Mountains,! says, — "Botanists designate the highest bald district, with

* Amer. Journ. Arts and Sc. [2], xxii, 231; xxiii, 62,63.
t The White Hills, by T. S. King, p. 232.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE.

the heads of ravines descending from it, as the alpine region, and have
sometimes spoken of a small tract intermediate between the two, but
still imperfectly characterized, as the sub-alpine region;" and this is the
most definite mention of a sub-alpine as distinct from an alpine zone yet
made by botanists.

More than ten years ago, however, I pointed out * that two distinct
zones of life existed above the limits of forest growth in the White
Mountains, each of which was characterized by the presence of distinct
animals. So little has been added to these observations, that I have
incorporated them into the present essay.

One feature of the White Mountain vegetation strikes the most casual
observer, viz., the abrupt limit of the forest growth upon these mountain
slopes, marking a very natural division into a wooded and a woodless dis-
trict. An observant eye will detect in the latter a further subdivision
into two regions, — a lower, where the dwarfed spruce, struggling upward,
conceals the gray rocks by a covering of uniform green, broken only by
the land-slips which have scarred the declivities with their lengthened
furrows, or, by the steeper faces of precipices, where trees obtain no foot-
hold ; and an upper, much more restricted area, where the huge blocks
of lichen-covered stone lie piled in inextricable confusion, one upon
another, or have their interstices filled with sedges, which, on the more
level spots, occasionally form small fields like pasture-land, but full of pit-
falls and irregularities.

These three zones (the forest district, the district of the dwarfed spruce,
and the rocky district) exhibit in a general way the limits of the moun-
tain, the sub-alpine, and the alpine regions ; and also correspond, in the
characteristics of their inhabitants, to the Canadian, the Hudsonian, and
the sub-arctic or Labradorian faunas. They do not, however, correspond
to the divisions indicated by Tuckerman, for the "heads of ravines" and
all the surrounding districts belong to the sub-alpine region, while the
alpine is confined to the topmost areas of only the very highest peaks.

The separation of the mountain from the sub-alpine region is well
marked by the limit of the forest growth, and this is so abrupt that a
narrow belt of a few rods is usually all that intervenes between the spruce

* Best. Journ. Nat. Hist., vii, 612-621 (1863).

VOL. i. 45

338 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

of one, two, or three feet high and trees available for the market. The
limit of the trees is not wholly dependent upon the elevation of the slope,
but is partly influenced by the ravines, and, to a much greater extent, by
the exposure of the mountain side, which causes a variation of from one
to two hundred feet in altitude. Upon Mt. Madison and the north-western
slope of Mt. Washington, the forest line, according to the measurements
of Prof. Guyot, reaches the height of 4150 feet above the sea, and, upon
the face of Mt. Clinton, which has a westerly exposure, it attains an eleva-
tion of 4250 feet; while, again, at the ledge (the most northerly extremity
of the sub-alpine region on Mt. Washington), its limit is reached at about
3900 feet. The alpine region occupies the summits of only the three
highest mountains, being limited to from one to two hundred feet of the
cones of Mts. Adams and Jefferson, and some seven or eight hundred
feet of Mt. Washington.

On Plate C I have attempted to show by the red color the general area
of the alpine, and by the blue the limits of the sub-alpine region. Stand-
ing upon the summit of Mt. Washington, the main peak, and looking at
the mountains which lie to the north, it will be seen that, while the sub-
alpine region follows the main chain, it extends, also, a short distance
along the ridge running eastwardly from the peak of Mt. Madison, and
to a much greater distance north-eastwardly from Mt. Washington, in the
general direction of the carriage-road, terminating, at a lower level than
usual, at the ledge, around which the road abruptly turns just before it
enters the forest. South of Mt. Washington there are two ridges : the
more prominent and longer range, whose peaks bear the names of Amer-
ican statesmen, trends toward the south-west ; the other continues in the
direction of the main chain lying to the north of Mt. Washington, and its
northernmost peaks have received the names of Davis's and Boott's spurs.
A slight abutment to Mt. Washington divides the angle between these
two, but is nearer the latter. By the union of these ridges, at their
junction with Mt. Washington, there is formed a broad plateau, called
Bigelow's lawn, sloping gradually away to the south, where the sub-alpine
region finds its widest boundaries, and whose southern limits I have not
traced as carefully as upon the opposite side of Mt. Washington, but which
must have, approximately, the extent shown upon the map. Within this
sub-alpine region, which includes also the heads of all the deeper ravines,

PLATE, C.

LIMITS

OF THE

wore MOUNTAINS

BY S.HJ,SCVODER<.,

THE DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE. 33Q

there are several ponds or tarns of small extent, — one in the deep gap
between Adams and Madison, at the head of King's ravine, at the height
of 4912 feet; several small ones upon the slopes of Adams and Jefferson;
two deeper ones, known as the Lakes of the Clouds, the highest sources
of the Ammonoosuc, lying at the base of Mt. Monroe on the Mt. Wash-
ington side ; and other small ones on the south side of Mt. Monroe.

The alpine zone of Adams and Jefferson merely encircles their sum-
mits ; that of Mt. Washington stretches north-eastwardly along the ridge
which extends in that direction, occupying one or two successively lower
plateaus ; it also expands upon the opposite side of the mountain, over
the upper portions of the widely extended plateau known as Bigelow's
lawn, but it scarcely attains the Lakes of the Clouds upon the one side,
or the edge of Tuckerman's ravine upon the other.

Within the limits of the sub-alpine region, and generally preferring its
lower to its upper levels, we find a butterfly (Brenthis Montinus) and a
grasshopper (Pezotettix glacialis), which, so far as yet known, are wholly
or almost wholly peculiar to this region. The butterfly has been taken
in scanty numbers but at various localities, such as the summit of Mt
Madison, the plateaus just above the ledge, the gaps between Clay,
Jefferson, and Adams, the head of Tuckerman's ravine, the adjoining
portions of Bigelow's lawn, and the further extremity of the sub-alpine
belt upon the summits of Mts. Clinton and Pleasant; it has also been
"seen" on the top of Black mountain in Thornton, but some other species
of Brenthis might easily have been mistaken for this ; yet it will probably
be found upon the summits of moderately high and barren mountains in
the neighborhood of the White Hills. The grasshopper is abundant
upon all the woodless parts of Mt. Madison, especially near the forest
line ; also, at and above the ledge, near the snow-bank in Tuckerman's
ravine, and on the warm hillsides above the latter. It has also been
taken on barren hill-tops near Norway, Me., and will doubtless be found
in any similar situation in the vicinity of the White Mountain range,
especially to the north.

The butterfly belongs to a genus which consists of several groups,
some of which are found in the northern temperate regions of Europe
and America, extending also into the colder regions. Others inhabit sub-
arctic regions and high altitudes; while one group extends from the

34O PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

sub-arctic into the arctic zone, and contains one representative, which is
the most northern butterfly known, B. polaris* Our White Mountain
butterfly belongs to the second category, having its representatives on
this continent in the Hudsonian fauna. It is very closely allied to two
Hudsonian species (B. Boisduvalii and B. CJiariclea), and at first sight
might be taken for them, especially for the former ; but repeated exami-
nations of many individuals have confirmed my first impression that
they were distinct. The genus Pezotettix, to which the grasshopper
belongs, is not so strictly northern as Brenthis, but has several represent-
atives at least in the Hudsonian fauna, and, like Brenthis, is also found in
the alpine elevations of Europe.

But even the narrow limit of the alpine zone of the White Mountains
claims for its own a single butterfly, which probably has a more restricted
range than any other in the world. One may search the season through
over the comparatively vast and almost equally barren elevations within
the sub-alpine district of the White Mountains, and fail to discover more
than here and there a solitary individual whirled by fierce blasts down
the mountain slopes, while, a few hundred feet above, the butterflies swarm
in great numbers. Every passage of the sun from behind a cloud brings
them out in scores, and they may often be captured as fast as they can be
properly secured. The contrast between the occasional and unwilling
visitor in the sub-alpine region, and the swarms which flutter about the
upper plateaus, is most significant. Yet the Carices, the food-plant of the
caterpillar, are quite as abundant in the lower regions as in the upper,
even to the species C. rigida, upon which I found the larva feeding. Now
this butterfly, CEneis semidea, belongs to a genus which is peculiar to
alpine and arctic regions ; in fact, it is the only genus of butterflies which
is exclusively confined to them. It has numerous members, both in this
country and in the old world. One is confined to the Alps of Europe ;
most of the European species, however, are found only in the extreme
north. The genus extends across the whole continent of America, and
several of its species occur on the highest elevations of the Rocky Moun-
tains. Several species are common to Europe and America; and it is to
one of these that CE. semidea is most closely allied. A few species
descend into the Hudsonian fauna; but, as a whole, the genus has its

* This was taken by the Polaris expedition at Polaris bay, their extreme northern station, lat. 82° 16' N.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE. 34!

metropolis farther north. So that in ascending Mt. Washington, we pass,
as it were, from New Hampshire to northern Labrador; on leaving the
forests, we come first upon animals recalling those of the northern shores
of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the coast of Labrador opposite New-
foundland ; and when we have attained the summit, we find insects which
represent the fauna of Atlantic Labrador and the southern extremity of
Greenland.*

We have hitherto spoken only of the barren elevations ; below these
we find the mountain or wooded region corresponding altogether with
the Canadian fauna. The boundary line between this and the Allegha-
nian fauna crosses the country at about this latitude, and therefore this
region forms a promontory of the Canadian fauna stretching southwardly
into the Alleghanian fauna, just as occurs to a greater extent along the
chain of the Green Mountains, while the Alleghanian fauna, in its turn,
extends northward into the Canadian fauna, along the warmer banks of
those rivers which find a southern outlet. We need only wander eight
miles north of Mt. Washington itself to find, in the valley of the Andro-
scoggin, the entomological fauna of the central portions of the New
England states, while between the two, in the mountain region and in
that portion of the Canadian fauna lying in the valley of the Peabody,
we have such phenomena as the replacement of Polygonia comma of the
Alleghanian fauna by P. Faunus of the Canadian, and of Argynnis
Aphrodite by A. Atlantis.

We have, then, three distinct faunas upon the slopes of the White
Mountains,! each with its characteristic forms. However much we may
expect some difference between the animals of the barren summits and
those of the sheltered valleys, we are struck at finding such distinct
regions, each sheltering its own peculiar forms, which live, as it were,
within a stone's throw of each other, and would seem to be capable of

* Dr. A. S. Packard, writing of the region about Hopedale, Labrador, says that he found the species of
CEneis in great abundance on the outer barren exposed islands, while those of Brenthis were confined to the
valleys of the main land or the southerly slopes of the more protected islands, near the low stunted spruces and
the more luxuriant vegetation of that desolate coast.

f It must not be supposed that all the insects which characterize the faunas of the barren regions have
been mentioned. I have only chosen a few from many which might be given. Nearly every year fresh instances
are recorded and partial lists have been made. It is unfortunate, however, that we seldom find any specification
of the exact locality or height at which an insect has been taken, or of its comparative abundance ; so that the
notes at hand are worthless for any purposes of distinction between an alpine and a sub-alpine fauna ; they serve
only to show how strikingly the general fauna agrees with that of tkeu/Ao/e of Labrador.

342 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

interchanging their stations, and yet which never pass their impercepti-
ble barriers. Many butterflies from the valley occasionally struggle to
the extremest summits, and one or two, such as Polygonia Faunus and
Aglais Milberti, are frequently found within the sub-alpine region. In
all, the capabilities of flight are unlimited, yet I have but two or three
times taken (Eneis semidea more than a mile and a quarter from the
summit ; and the appearance of the valley butterflies upon the heights
may easily be accounted for, from the fact that all insects with reasonable
powers of flight seem to delight in seeking the most elevated situations.
Their scanty numbers in these parts is in marked contrast with their often
astonishing profusion in their proper haunts below.

The results we have reached, by our study of the faunas of these
mountain slopes, are what might be expected from a comparison of the
elevation of these mountains with that of the European Alps, at the same
time taking into consideration the difference in climate between the two
countries. In the Alps the lower limit of the sub-alpine zone is placed
by different writers at from 4000 to 4500 feet above the sea, and that of
the alpine zone at from 6000 to 6500 feet. Now, although Mt. Blanc lies
in a latitude (45° 45') north of Mt. Washington (44° 15') by a degree and
a half, yet a comparison of the isothermal and isochimenal lines, which
pass respectively through these two points, would show that a mountain
elevation in Europe, which should have climatic conditions similar to
those of the White Mountains, ought to be placed north of the Alps, and
would be found between the mountains of Switzerland and Norway at
just such a proportionate distance from them as the heights of the alpine
and sub-alpine zones of the White Mountains were found to be related
respectively to those of the Alps and Scandinavian mountains. By the
same comparison we may also judge, that if the summit of Mt. Wash-
ington were somewhat less than two thousand feet higher, it would
reach the upper limits of the alpine district, or the region of perpetual
snow.

An attempt to institute a rigid comparison between the alpine and
sub-alpine regions of our White Mountains and those of the Alps is not
so easy as would be imagined. If we examine their physical features
alone, we shall discover important differences. In New Hampshire these
regions are confined solely to the summits of the very highest moun-

THE DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE. 343

tains, all comprised within a few square miles, exposed almost continu-
ously to the very fiercest gales ; they are covered by interminable broken
rock-masses, concealed in part by a scanty layer of mould, supporting
either sedges, or stunted juniper-like spruces, whose gnarled and spreading
branches creep along the ground. In Switzerland and the Tyrol these
regions extend over an area of thousands of square miles, more or less
continuous; the highest mountains rise above them into the region of
perpetual snow, and form barriers to the wind, rendering the alpine slopes
scarcely more breezy than the plains. About the Belalp, above Brieg,
where I have paid most attention to the insects of the high Alps, the
trees seem to reach a general level of about 6000 feet ;* above them the
ground is sward, richly beautified by flowers, and a pasturing ground
for goats and cattle ; on the slopes most exposed to the morning and
midday sun, immense patches of low, dark green shrubbery, seldom
rising more than a foot above the ground, dispute the soil with the grass.
These patches consist mainly of heather (Calluna) with Rhododendron and
several species of Vaccinium, and seem to represent the dwarfed spruces
of our alpine heights, which, near the forests, are also accompanied by
Vaccinium. The sward extends up to the snow and cliffs, and while
sedges are no doubt present, its mass is composed of Gramineae.
During the few days early in July spent in this region, I noticed that
insects, especially butterflies, were most numerous between 5500 and
8000 feet above the sea. The most abundant species of the very highest
region were Pieris Callidice and Erebia Manto ; and many caterpillars of
Melitcea Cynthia were found, crawling about the rocks. Between 6500
and 7500 feet, the more common species were Syrichtus malvtz, (Eneis
Aello (not rare), Brenthis Pales (common), two or three species of
Erebia, including E. Manto, Colias Palczno (common), and Pieris Calli-
dice (common) ; Vanessa Atalanta and Aglais urticce were also seen, the
latter frequently ; the species of CEneis and Brenthis seemed to occupy
an identical zone. Lower down, the Blues appeared in abundance, with
different species of Erebia ; Parnassius Apollo occurred in considerable
numbers, Syrichtus malvce was extremely abundant, Aglais urtic& was
very common, and eggs and young caterpillars could be found anywhere ;

* Though the mountain slopes are often covered with large tracts of pasture land far below this, — a phenom-
enon unknown in the White Mountains.

344 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

even (Ends Acllo was not infrequent, but Picris Callidice was not
seen.

CEneis Aello was very wary, and possessed of a very vigorous, energetic
flight ; (E. semidea, on the other hand, has a very weak flight, and suffers
itself to be blown about at random by the wind. This difference seems
all the more striking when we remember that (E, semidea inhabits a
region of tempestuous winds, where existence would seem impossible to
a butterfly, unless unusually gifted. Both species, when at rest, sit with
wings back to back, the front pair concealed as much as possible between
the hind pair; but (E. Aello always sits erect, or only slightly inclined,
while (E. semidea is rarely erect, and often, when it has alighted upon the
horizontal surface of a rock or by the muddy brim of a pool, fairly lies
upon its side, as if dead.

In the following pages we give a list of the butterflies and Orthoptera
of New Hampshire, as far as they are known. The list of Orthoptera is
given almost entirely from memoranda collected by myself. For notes
on the butterflies, I am indebted to many persons, but especially to Mr.
C. P. Whitney, of Milford, N. H. In this list I have incorporated as full
an account as possible of the two butterflies peculiar to the barren sum-
mits of the White Mountains.

II. LIST OF THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW HAMPSHIRE, WITH NOTES ON
THEIR GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

The names used in the accompanying list are those of my Systematic
Revision of some of the American Butterflies.

NYMPHALES.

I. CEneis semidea Butl.

[Plate A, Figs. 2, 4, 6, 9, n, 13, 14; 2, imago; 4, chrysalis, dorsal view; 6, ib.,
side view ; 9, larva, dorsal view of hinder extremity ; n, ib., head ; 13, ib., side view ;
14, ib., dorsal view.]

As stated in the first part of this memoir, this insect probably occupies
a more restricted geographical area than any other butterfly in the world,
the narrow area of the alpine fauna of the White Mountains. Dr. Har-
ris's assertion that "it has also been seen on the Monadnock mountain,
and will probably be discovered on the tops of the high mountains in our

THE DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE. 345

own state" (Massachusetts), is wholly erroneous. I have ascended Grey-
lock, the highest mountain in Massachusetts, more than twenty times,
and at all seasons of the year, and certainly could not have failed to see
this butterfly did it occur there. Since Monadnock is a naked peak, it
would certainly be a more propable habitat for the insect ; but the limita-
tion of its distribution in the White Mountains wholly forbids the possi-
bility of its presence on a much lower and isolated mountain to the
south.

The butterfly is found most abundantly from about one quarter to three
quarters of a mile from the summit of Mt. Washington, or at an elevation
of from 5600 to 6200 feet above the sea. It often alights on the flowers
of Silene acaulis Linn., and also upon some of the Ericaceae, particularly
on a species of Vaccinium ; but the best collecting places are the sedgy
plateaus of the north-eastern and southern sides of the mountain, where
the collector will also obtain a good footing, a matter of no small
importance on such a collecting ground. I have never found the butterfly
at the head of any of the deep ravines.

Dr. Meyer-Dur states of OE. Aello, the species occurring in the Euro-
pean Alps, that it inhabits the calcareous and central mountains, — not the
highest chains, as has been generally supposed, but rather the middle
regions, from 4000 to 6000 feet above the sea.* He also makes the
remarkable assertion that the butterfly appears, at least in Switzerland, f
only on alternate years, namely, those with even numbers. Prof. Frey
thinks this to be true only for each special locality, but that every
year it may be found in some of them.

All the species of this family of butterflies, so far as they are known,
feed in the caterpillar state on grasses ; \ but as the true grasses are rare
in the inhospitable region where this insect is found, being replaced almost
altogether by sedges, the caterpillar feeds upon the latter. Mr. Sanborn
has seen them eating it by day, and, by the aid of a lantern, I discovered

* See our previous remarks on this species, p. 343.

f Meyer-Dur says further, that the records of its capture out of Switzerland are also in even years ; but, since
writing the above, I notice that Speyer, in his work on the geographical distribution of the Lepidoptera of Ger-
many and Switzerland (II, 271), says that, according to Trapp, it appears every year, but in some years more
abundantly than in others.

\ This is not strictly true, as I thought when writing it. Boisduval, Rambur, and Graslin, in their work on the
caterpillars of Europe, state that Ccenonympha Corinna feeds both on Triticum and Carex; and Wilde, accord-
ing to Kaltenbach (Pflanzenfeinde, 728), gives Lolium and Carex as the food of Pararge Achine.

VOL. I. 46

346 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

them feeding on the same plant, Carcx rigida, by night. This shows
that I was mistaken in a belief formerly expressed, that they fed upon
lichens.

(Eneis semidea was first discovered about half a century ago, and
described by Say from specimens sent him by Dr. Pickering and Prof.
Nuttall, of Boston. Very few specimens seem to have been taken since
that time, until 1859, when I made my first considerable collections in the
White Mountains. I ascended the highest peak on July 8, for the express
purpose of finding the butterfly, and secured my first specimen at about
a mile from the summit, near the foot-path from the Glen. On ascending,
the butterfly became more abundant ; and, although our party hastened
over the ground, more than forty good specimens were taken, and a friend
even captured seven without a net. Less than a week afterwards, in a
little more than an hour's collecting, fifty-nine were taken, for, in its
season, this butterfly is exceedingly abundant.

Dr. Harris gives "June and July" as the season of the flight of the
imago, the former date on the authority of Oakes, who found the insect
abundant in June, 1826. Undoubtedly this was toward the close of the
month. It usually begins to appear very early (the first week) in July, be-
comes exceedingly abundant before the middle of the month, and continues
until about the second week in August. Mr. Sanborn gives July 4th as
its earliest appearance in 1869, and only one more specimen was seen
before the 9th, although the weather was favorable. This may serve, I
think, as an average date, and the butterflies will best be taken in the
second and third weeks in July. They lay their eggs until about the 22d
of July, and probably a little later. These are apparently dropped loosely
among the sedges, for I could obtain no eggs on the sedge itself from
gravid females confined in open kegs, and finally, searching among the
roots as a last resort, I discovered a single egg, which, however, never
hatched. Caterpillars have been found by Mr. Sanborn, the late Mr.
Shurtleff, and myself, nearly full grown, on the 2d of August, and others
certainly full grown on August 19. More recently Mr. Whitney has
found them " apparently fully grown, under stones." They were unques-
tionably seeking a good place to undergo their transformations. They
probably transform to chrysalids at once, and hibernate in that state,
although it is possible that they winter as Mr. Whitney found them. In

THE DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE.

347

the early part of July, 1 869, Mr. Sanborn searched very carefully for the
chrysalids of this species, spending ten or twelve hours in raising mova-
ble surface stones, and in four or five places clearing away to the depth
of several feet the smaller blocks of stone lying in the " rock rivulets,"
as he appropriately terms the slight gulleys wholly devoid of vegetation,
which are scattered everywhere over the plateaus, and which mark the
course of the surface waters after rain. He succeeded in securing only
two living specimens. Nine others were either infested by ichneumons
( ' Eulopkus semidea Pack., and Encyrtus Montinus Pack., described
below*), or were the empty shells of the previous year. They were all
found imbedded between the sides of the rock and the long, dense, crisp
moss surrounding it, between half an inch and an inch and a half below

* "Eulophus semideiz nov. sp. [Fig. 46]. Belongs apparently to the same section of the genus as E. amemp-
simus Walk.

"o (two specimens). Antennae filiform, not increasing in width toward the tip, rather long, much longer than
in E, amempsimus , and very hairy, dark brown. Head deep blue, shining, punctured as
usual, under a not powerful lens ; mandibles, and other mouth parts, pale piceous ; thorax,
as well as the whole body, deep blue ; fore wings broader at end, clear ; spur distinct,
dilated at tip ; coxae concolorous with body ; trochanters and femora brown, tips of latter
pale testaceous ; tibiae brown, pale at tip, or almost wholly pale ; tarsi dark on terminal
joint, the last joints of hinder pair dark ; abdomen as long as the thorax, narrow lanceolate
oval, subacutely pointed, more so than in E. amempsimus, concolorous with rest of body,
but with steel blue reflections at base. Length, .06 inch." Fig. 46.

" $ (ten specimens). Eyes rather larger, and a little nearer together than in the $ ; antennae longer in pro-
portion than in E. amempsimus, the club being much longer. The whole body is shorter and broader than in
E. amempsimus and E. eneiigamus Walk., the abdomen especially being much broader, and the apex less atten-
uate; of the same color as the $ , with the base of the abdomen more distinctly steel blue. Body smooth and
shining, not perceptibly punctate under a strong lens. Legs': trochanters whitish at tip ; femora dark brown,
whitish at each end; tibiae and tarsi white, the terminal joint of tarsi dusky. Length .08 inch."

"Encyrtus Montinus nov. sp. [Fig. 47]. Closely allied to E. Swederi of Europe (Walker's type).

' !f (one specimen). Ocelli placed in a narrow triangle; eyes large and near together; head and body
beneath testaceous; a row of minute pits along the orbits in tront,
rather remote from the eyes; mouth parts concolorous with the head;
antennae : joint two flattened, clavate ; joints one to three darker than
the head, four to seven brown, eight and nine yellowish, ten and eleven !
(club) blackish ; the eight terminal joints hairy ; prothorax concolo-
rous with the head ; the rest of the thorax and the propodeum bluish
green (not very dark) with metallic reflections ; surface smooth and
shining, with small, not dense punctures ; sides of thorax below the
insertion of wings, and legs dark testaceous ; tegulas dull testaceous ;
wings smoky, paler toward the outer edge, with a broad, curved,
conspicuous white band, extending from the pterostigma, where it is
dilated, across to the inner edge of the wing ; pterostigma with a slight
spur toward the centre of the wing, enclosing a narrow V-shaped space ; abdomen regularly triangular, the tip
acute, a little longer than broad, being being pretty short, dark brown, shining, sending off dull metallic hues ;
under side of a paler bronze color. Length .09 inch."

" Differs from E. Swederi in not having any twin tuft of hairs on the mesoscutum, and in the broadly dilated
second antennal joint; the middle pair of legs has a large tibial spur, larger than in E. S-wederi, and the middle
tarsi are larger; otherwise, except in the remarkable differences in coloration, it apparently belongs to the same
section of the genus as E. Swederi."

" ' Found alive in an old chrysalis case of (E. semidea,' Mt. Washington. F. G. Sanborn." — Communication
of Dr. A. S. Packard.

Fig. 47.

348 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

the general surface, where the caterpillars had entered. They were not
attached to the rock or the moss, but lay in horizontal oval cells, evidently
formed by the movements of the caterpillar before pupation. The most
particular examination revealed no trace of any web or silken thread,
even as a lining of the cell. Mr. Sanborn's impressions, drawn mainly
from a comparison between the slender number of specimens he obtained
and the abundance of the butterfly, are, that the healthier caterpillars
penetrate even deeper into the ground ; but as I have also found them
under or beside surface stones, and Mr. Whitney has discovered, larvae
ready for their change in similar localities, I am more disposed to believe
that the place to seek them is beneath and beside the uppermost stones,
and especially at the edges of the "rock rivulets," where the vegetation
is usually the freshest. To one familiar with the locality, — a surface
almost completely strewn with angular rock fragments, — Mr. Sanborn's
exploration will seem to have been a very successful one. Most of his
specimens were found at more than a mile from the summit ; doubtless
better success would attend efforts in localities not more than half or
three quarters of a mile from the top.

One would suppose that insects, whose home is almost always swept by
the fiercest blasts, would be provided with powerful wings fitting them
for strong and sustained flight ; but the contrary is true. They can offer
no resistance to the winds, and whenever they ascend more than their
accustomed two or three feet above the surface of the ground, or pass
the shelter of some projecting ledge of rocks, they are whirled headlong
to immense distances, until they can again hug the earth. Their flight is
sluggish and heavy, and has less of the dancing movement than one is
accustomed to see in the Oreades.* They are easily captured.

The European Aello appears, says Meyer-Dur, among the earliest but-
terflies of the Alps. It is seen soon after the snow melts, — first, on the
lower grounds at the end of May ; last, on the higher levels (correspond-
ing more nearly to those to which our species is restricted) at about the
beginning of July ; it disappears in the same way from the end of June
to the end of the first week in August.

2. Enodia Portlandia Scudd. Within the limits of New England this
is a very rare insect. It may be found occasionally upon the banks of

* See p. 346.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE. 349

the southern Connecticut, since Mr. Emery reports that it is "not uncom-
mon" in certain stations about Holyoke and Mt. Tom in Massachusetts.
I have also taken two battered specimens at Jefferson, in the White
Mountains. Gosse took it at Compton, Lower Canada, and D'Urban on
the River Rouge, north of the Ottawa; three or four specimens have
also been captured at Suncook, N. H. (Thaxter).

3. Minois Alope Scudd. This insect is tolerably abundant, sometimes
very common, in the southern half of New England, occurring through-
out Massachusetts and the two states lying south of it, and in the
southern extremities of Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont. The
most northern localities from which I have seen specimens, or received
notes of its capture, are Norway, Me. (Smith), Thornton and Shelburne,
N. H. (Faxon), and Sudbury, Vt. Mr. Jones states that it is also found
in Nova Scotia. It occurs in open woods and orchards, as well as along
roadsides and stone walls, especially such as are overgrown with brambles
or skirted by shrubbery.

4. Minois Nephele Scudd. This insect is found over the whole northern
half of New England in great abundance. The only locality in which I
have met with it in Massachusetts is the elevated region about Williams-
town, but it undoubtedly approaches closely to the northern limits of the
state.

5. Argus Eurydice Scudd. In New England this is not a very rare
insect, especially in the northern and elevated parts. There is no notice
of its capture south of Massachusetts, nor in the Connecticut valley
south of New Hampshire. In the latitude of the White Mountains, and
as far south as Campton, it will be found extremely abundant by those
who look for it in its proper haunts, elevated moist meadows.

6. Megisto Euryttis Scudd. The northern limit of this butterfly prob-
ably follows the isotherm of 45°, for this seems to be its boundary in New
England, since it is found in some abundance in Walpole (Smith) and
Milford, N. H. (Whitney). There is no record of it farther north, except-
ing at Norway, Me., where Mr. Smith found it in abundance ; at Plymouth,
where it is not very common (Scudder); and at Brunswick, Me. (Packard),
toward which place, being on the sea-coast, the isotherm probably turns.
It does not occur among the White Mountains, but probably will be found
close to their southern boundaries, and quite as far north in Vermont.

350 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

7. Danaus Plexippus Latr. This butterfly ranges over the whole North
American continent from Atlantic to Pacific (excluding perhaps the Rocky
Mountain district), as far north as the annual isotherm of 40°, and over
that portion of South America lying east of the Andes and north of Rio
de Janeiro, including, also, many and perhaps all of the West India
islands. It occurs throughout New England, but it is much more rare in
the northern than in the southern part, though even here it can hardly
be called abundant, for, usually, specimens must be captured singly. Yet,
now and again, it swarms, as in the autumn of 1871. In some localities
it is especially numerous, — such places, for instance, as islands off the
coast, or broad sandy sea-beaches, where no Asclepias grows. Is it that
an innate propensity for geographical extension leads it to the last possi-
ble limit ? Mr. L. L. Thaxter states that it is found in great numbers on
Appledore, the largest of the Isles of Shoals, which has a surface of about
500 acres ; yet there is no trace of milk-weed upon any of these islands,
which he has thoroughly explored. It has not been recorded from the
White Mountains.

8. Basilarchia Disippe Scudd. Within New England, Disippe occurs
abundantly in the south, sparingly in the north, although found in the
very heart of the White Mountains. Gosse does not record it from
Compton, Canada; and the northernmost points from which specimens
have been reported are Mt. Desert (Scudder), Waterville (Hamlin), and
Norway, Me. (Smith), the Glen, White Mountains, and Sudbury, Vt.
(Scudder).

9. Basilarchia Astyanax Scudd. The general range of this butterfly
is similar to that of the preceding, though less extensive. It is tolerably
abundant in the southern parts of New England, and occurs about as far
north as the annual isotherm of 45°, the northernmost points recorded
being Dublin (Faxon) and Milford, common (Whitney).

10. Basilarchia Arthemis Scudd. This species of Basilarchia has a very
different range from the two preceding, its southern limits nearly co-
inciding with the northern boundaries of B. astyanax. In New England
it has not been taken south of Massachusetts, and but rarely in that state.
It is already common at Brattleborough, Vt., Walpole (Smith), Weare
(Emery), and Dublin, N. H. (Faxon and Leonard) ; but it is said to be
scarce in Milford (Whitney), and in the immediate neighborhood of

THE DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE. 351

Dublin. In the White Mountain region, and in northern New England
generally, it is exceedingly abundant, far more so than the other species
of the genus in their most favorable localities. Indeed, the matrons of
farm-houses, in the valley of Peabody river, complain of the insects
entering the kitchens in such numbers as to be a very nuisance. One of
them, Mrs. Dolly Copp, of "Imp cottage" (well known to many frequenters
of "the Glen"), relates how she has taken more than fifty on the inside
of her windows in a single morning.

11. Polygonia intcrrogationis Scudd. In New England this butterfly
is nowhere very abundant, and in the northern portions very rare. The
northernmost localities from which it is reported are Brunswick (Packard)
and Norway, Me. (Smith), and Walpole (Smith) and Milford, N. H., one
specimen only (Whitney).

12. Polygonia comma Scudd. is found throughout New England, except-
ing in the White Mountain region, and perhaps other elevated portions of
the northern counties. It has, however, been taken on Camel's Hump,
Vt. (Sprague), and given as a probable inhabitant of Norway, Me. (Smith).

13. Polygonia Faunus Scudd. This butterfly is as peculiar to the
Canadian fauna as P. comma is to the Alleghanian. In New England it
is found only in the north, the southernmost localities from which it has
been recorded being Williamstown, Mass. (Scudder), Dover and Camel's
Hump, Vt. (Sprague), Dublin (Faxon) and Milford, N. H., two specimens
(Whitney), and Norway, Me. (Smith). In the valleys of the White Moun-
tains it is exceedingly abundant, and is the butterfly oftenest seen in deep
ravines and on mountain slopes below the sub-alpine region. More than
any other species belonging to the mountain region, it mounts to the very
summit of the highest peaks, far above any plant upon which its larva
would be likely to feed. Edwards reports a single specimen from West
Virginia, and Abbott records it from the mountains of Georgia! I con-
sider P. gracilis a dimorphic form of this species.

14. Polygonia Progne Hiibn. [Plate A., Fig. 12.] The range of this
butterfly corresponds very closely with that of P. comma. In New Eng-
land it is more generally distributed and universally common than any
other species of Polygonia. It is somewhat more abundant in the south-
ern than in the northern parts. I have this spring taken a single specimen
in the White Mountain region. It is common in some seasons at

352 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Norway, Me. (Smith), and has been found at Thornton and Shelburne, N.
H. (Faxon). It will probably prove to be rare in the elevated regions of
northern New Hampshire and Maine.

15. Nymphalis J. album Scudd. occurs throughout New England,
although very rare in the northernmost portions. In the White Moun-
tain district and its vicinity it is abundant, as it doubtless is through all
that portion of New England lying north of the isotherm of 40°, for the
spring months. Mr. Roland Thaxter mentions it as exceedingly common
at Suncook, but it is much less so at Milford (Whitney).

1 6. Papilio Antiopa Linn. This butterfly is apparently distributed
over the entire breadth of the Northern Hemisphere below the arctic
circle, as far as the thirtieth parallel of latitude in America, and the
fortieth in the old world. It is found in nearly equal abundance through
all parts of New England, so numerous, indeed, as to become positively
injurious on account of the damage done by the caterpillar to some of our
choicest ornamental trees.

17. Aglais Milberti Scudd. This insect is found throughout New
England, but is extremely rare in the southern portions. Probably the
isotherm of 23° for the winter months would mark the limit of its abun-
dance. It is rather common in Walpole, Dublin, Milford, and the Isles of
Shoals. Still farther north it is very abundant, often the commonest
species in its season, and is plentiful even in the White Mountain region
itself.

1 8. Vanessa Atalanta Fabr. This butterfly enjoys a very extensive
geographical range, extending over nearly the whole of the North Amer-
ican and European continents. I believe it is found plentifully, and in
nearly equal numbers, through every part of New England, although there
is no record of its capture in the heart of the White Mountain region.
As the abundance of this species is more than ordinarily affected by the
action of parasites, the records of a single year for any locality are com-
paratively valueless.

19. Vanessa Huntera Hiibn. It is far more common in the southern
than in the northern portions of New England, and is wholly wanting in
the White Mountain district, although occurring as far north as Quebec.
The northernmost localities from which it has been reported are Water-
ville, very few (Hamlin), and Norway, Me. (Smith), and Milford, N. H.,
scarce (Whitney).

THE DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE. 353

20. Vanessa cardui Ochs. This insect, says Speyer,* "is the most
widely distributed of all butterflies, and perhaps of all Lepidoptera. It
inhabits the whole of Europe as far north as Lapland, the whole of Asia
(with perhaps the exception of the polar regions), the whole of Africa,
America from Hudson's bay to Brazil, and Australia ; that is to say, all
parts of the world, every zone, the northern as well as the southern
hemisphere, its area of dispersion embracing little less than the whole
globe. Moreover, in the warm regions it is by no means restricted to
the higher altitudes, but inhabits the plains under the equator as well as
in Lapland. It has therefore nowhere on the earth an inferior limit to
its distribution, through excess of temperature or insufficiency of mois-
ture. As to its upper limits, it is restricted only by the eternal snows of
the loftiest mountains. It is, however, not yet determined whether it is
found in the treeless regions of the arctic zone, as it is in the sub-glacial
districts of the Alps." There is no spot in New England where it may
not be found at certain seasons in abundance.

21. Junonia Ccenia Hiibn. In New England this is an exceedingly
rare insect. Mr. Smith has seen several specimens from the vicinity of
New Haven ; Mr. McCurdy found it somewhat plentiful one autumn in
the vicinity of Norwich, Conn. ; Col. Higginson reports several from
Newport, R. I.; and Mr. Bennett captured a single specimen at Springfield.
Mr. Sanborn and myself have both taken specimens on Cape Cod. Dr.
Harris took one specimen at Milton, Mass.; and I have captured a single
individual at Hampton, N. H., the northernmost locality from which it has
been reported in New England, or, indeed, in America.

22. Speyeria Idalia Scudd. Generally speaking this is not a common
insect in New England, and is seldom seen above the annual isotherm of
45°. The most northerly stations from which it is recorded are Bruns-
wick, Me. (Packard), Isles of Shoals, a few specimens, and Suncook, not
common (Thaxter), Milford, common (Whitney), Dublin (Faxon), and
Walpole, N. H. (Smith).

23. Argynnis Cybele God. In New England this insect is scarcely
larger than A. Aphrodite, and the two species have frequently been con-
founded, but it is found throughout the whole area, excepting the White

* Geogr. Verbr. Schmett., I, 182.

VOL. i. 47

354 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Mountain region, and probably most of the country farther north. In the
northern half of the district it is uncommon, but in the extreme south
exceedingly abundant. The most northern known localities are Bruns-
wick, Waterville, and Norway, Me.; and in New Hampshire, Isles of
Shoals (not common), Suncook (not common), Milford (very abundant),
Walpole, and Plymouth.

24. Argynnis Aphrodite God. In New England this is one of our
commonest butterflies, but it is wholly absent from the White Mountain
region, where it is replaced by the next species.

25. Argynnis Atlantis Edw. Abundant through all the cooler parts of
Canada, and very closely limited southwardly by the annual isotherm of
45°, only surpassing it in elevated regions and along mountain chains.
In New England it is probably common everywhere north of the isotherm
of 45 ° maximum temperature for the spring months, but is really abun-
dant only in the White Mountain district, where it wholly replaces A.
Aphrodite. Other New Hampshire localities are Thornton, Shelburne
(Faxon, Minot), Littleton (Sanborn), Jefferson (Scudder), and even Sun-
cook (Thaxter), Dublin (Faxon), and Milford, very rare (Whitney).

26. Brenthis Myrina Herr.-Schaff. This butterfly is found in nearly
equal abundance throughout New England, in the valleys of the White
Mountains, or by the sea-coast.

27. Brenthis Montinus Scudd. [Plate A., Fig. i]. The geographical
range of this insect has been sufficiently indicated in the first part of this
paper, in the discussion of the sub-alpine zone. Very little can be added
to what has already been published concerning the seasons of this insect.
It has been found from July 2 1 to August 1 8. Specimens captured August
2 had well developed eggs; others taken August n were "in good con-
dition." It is therefore probable, from analogy with the other species of
the genus inhabiting New England, that the butterflies first appear in the
middle or latter part of June, and lay their eggs about the middle of
August; that these hatch at once, and that the embryonic caterpillars
hibernate, reviving sufficiently in the spring to undergo their changes
and appear on the wing in June. Perhaps, however, some of these cater-
pillars become lethargic and transform later, so as to appear on the
wing in August (while the June butterflies are laying their eggs), for
fresh individuals have been captured on August n. Should observers

THE DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE. 35$

find females at this date with undeveloped eggs, this theory would seem
more plausible, and might throw some light on the origin of the vernal
series in the other species. It should be added that, in Europe, only one
brood has been observed among the mountain species of this genus.

Probably no collector has seen more than eight or ten of these butter-
flies in a day's scramble among the mountains, but if sought early in July
they might be found in greater abundance. They fly close to the ground
among the scanty foliage growing in the rocky crevices of the steep
mountain slopes. Messrs. Sanborn and Whitney have often seen them
on the mountain willow, Salix herbacea Linn., which grows but a few
inches above the ground. So frequent and prolonged were their visita-
tions to this plant, that these observers sought carefully but in vain for
eggs. It is more probable that the caterpillar feeds upon some of the
Violacese.

28. Brenthis Bellona Herr. - Schaff. In New England this butterfly
appears to be as well distributed and as common as B. Myrina, although
elsewhere it is considered somewhat less abundant.

29. Phyciodes Tharos Kirb. In New England this species is almost
everywhere exceedingly abundant. It is not uncommon even in the
White Mountain district; but Mr. Smith, who has collected largely in
Norway, Me., writes that he has never seen a dozen specimens there.

30. Charidryas Nycteis Scudd. In New England this is a very rare
insect. Mr. Sanborn has found a single specimen in the Glen, at the
base of the White Mountains, and Mr. Smith one at Walpole. The gen-
eral distribution of this insect leads us to anticipate its occurrence any-
where in the southern half of New Hampshire.

31. Limnacia Harrisii Scudd. Specimens of the imago have been
taken among the White Mountains, and the sides of the Glen road
swarm with the caterpillars at the proper season. It has also been found
at Pittsfield (Treat), Dublin (Faxon), and Milford, rare and local (Whit-
ney). It seems to be more common in the elevated and northern dis-
tricts than elsewhere, and has seldom been found outside of the state.

32. EnpJiydryas Phaeton Scudd. This butterfly is so eminently local
in its habits that it has not yet been found over the extent of country
which it probably occupies. In New England it is found abundantly
everywhere, from the heart of the White Mountains to the lower portion

356 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

of the Connecticut river valley, but, owing to its local habits, it is ordi-
narily esteemed rare. It occurs only in moist, or moist and shady, mead-
ows of small extent. When young, it feeds on Chelone glabra; after
hibernating, on Lonicera ciliata.

33. Libythea Bachmanii Kirtl. Two specimens of this butterfly have
been taken at Littleton by Dr. F. F. Hodgman. With a single excep-
tion, this is the only known instance of its occurrence in New England.

RURALES.

34. Thecla Liparops LeC. This butterfly appears to be found through-
out New England, although everywhere considered a rare species. In
New Hampshire it has only been reported from Mt. Moriah, Thornton
(Faxon), and Milford (Whitney).

35. Thecla Edwards ii Saund. Has been taken only in the extreme
southern parts of the state, Milford (Whitney) and Nashua (Harris).

36. Thecla Calanus Doubl. This butterfly seems to occur throughout
New England. In New Hampshire, it is very common at Walpole
(Smith), but is probably absent from the northern and perhaps the cen-
tral parts of the state, although it occurs at Norway, Me.

37. Thecla acadica Edw. This butterfly is rather widely distributed
in New England. In New Hampshire it has been taken only at Milford,
"very rare" (Whitney), and at Nashua (Harris).

38. Callipareus Melinus Scudd. A widely spread species that will
probably be found in every part of the United States. In New England
it is more abundant in the south than in the north, although it has been
taken as far north as Norway, Me., and Plymouth, N. H. Other locali-
ties in New Hampshire are Dublin (Faxon), Suncook (Thaxter), and
Milford (Whitney).

39. Incisalia Augustus Min. The distribution of this insect seems to
be somewhat peculiar. Apparently reaching its maximum of development
in New England, it occurs also in the Canadian fauna, even as far as the
Cumberland house on the Saskatchawan, nearly in the centre of the con-
tinent, and has been described from California as a distinct species.
Yet notwithstanding its occurrence in California, it has not otherwise
been reported in the United States west of Albany. In New England
it is widely distributed, and will probably be found in abundance all over

THE DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE. 357

the wilder portion. It has not been reported from the White Mountains,
and its northernmost known station is Norway, Me., very common
(Smith). In Milford, N. H., it is rather uncommon (Whitney).

40. Incisalia NipJwn Min. In New England this butterfly has been
found in widely separated localities, more abundantly at the south than
at the north. It has been taken in Norway, Me. (Smith), the White
Mountains (Sanborn), and Milford, N. H., common (Whitney).

41. Incisalia Irus Scudd. The only known locality for this butterfly
in New Hampshire is Milford, where it is scarce (Whitney).

42. Strymon Titus Butl. In New England it is considered a rare
insect, but has occasionally been found in considerable numbers, and is
well distributed at least over the southern portions. The only northern
locality in which it has been found is Norway, Me., where it occurs in
abundance (Smith). In New Hampshire it has been taken only at Mil-
ford, not common (Whitney).

43. Cyaniris neglecta Scudd. This butterfly is found across the con-
tinent. We may therefore naturally presume that it is found throughout
New England. It is common in the southern half, but it is not often
reported from the northern portions ; perhaps, however, this is rather due
to the lack of observers. Our northernmost recorded localities are Nor-
way, Me. (Smith), and Dublin, N. H., "quite plenty" (Faxon).

44. Cyaniris violacea Scudd. This is by no means an uncommon
insect in New England, but has generally been mistaken for one of the
other species (coming, as it does, midway between neglecta and Lucia),
on account of the absence in New England of the dark form of the
female. Probably it will prove comparatively rare in the northern half.
It has been taken at Walpole and Milford.

45. Cyaniris Lucia Scudd. This is an abundant insect throughout the
northern half of New England, and cannot be called very uncommon
even in Massachusetts.

46. Everes Comyntas Scudd. is found throughout New England, even
in the White Mountain district, and is everywhere a common insect,
especially in the southern half.

47. CJirysoplianus Hyllus Hiibn. In New England it has never been
taken east of the Connecticut valley; and in New Hampshire only at
Walpole, a single specimen (Smith).

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

48. Chrysophanus epixanthe Westw. In New England this butterfly
has only been found east of the Connecticut valley. In New Hampshire
it has been taken at Milford, very plentiful in a few localities (Whitney),
Suncook, not common (Thaxter), and Hampton, abundant (Scudder).

49. Lycana americana Harr. It is found throughout New England,
almost as abundantly in the White Mountain district as elsewhere, and is
one of our commonest species.

50. Feniseca Tarquinins Grote. The latitudinal distribution of this
butterfly is greater than that of any other of the American coppers, since
it is found from beyond the limits of the Alleghanian fauna on the north
to the shores of the Gulf of Mexico. In New Hampshire it has been
taken at Berlin Falls, Thornton, "very abundant below the cascade on
Mill brook" (Faxon), Waterville, Manchester, and Milford.

PAPILIONID^E.

51. Colias Philodice God. In New England this butterfly is every-
where the commonest species, except in certain years, when it seems to
be affected by some unfavorable circumstances. It is found alike in the
White Mountain region and on the shores of the Sound, but is more
abundant in the southern than in the northern districts.

52. Eurema Lisa Kirb. This butterfly is a member of the Carolinian
fauna, where it is very abundant. A single specimen has been taken by
Mr. Thaxter at the Isles of Shoals.

53. Ganoris rapes Dalm. This butterfly is our most recent and least
desirable importation from the old world, and before many years it will
doubtless spread over the whole northern hemisphere. It was introduced
at Quebec, and has rapidly spread southward and westward. The first
specimens taken near New Hampshire were captured by Mr. Merrill, at
Waterbury, Vt, in August, 1867; yet it was only in May of the same
year that they appeared at Montreal. In August, 1868, they were not
uncommon at Island Pond, on the Grand Trunk Railway, and the suc-
ceeding year were taken in July by Mr. Sanborn, at Littleton, and by Mr.
Whorf, at Shelburne, and, in August, as far south as Campton, by the
latter gentleman. It was not until September of the same year that they
were discovered at Norway, Me., a few miles from Shelburne; and yet
they were taken at Waterville, in the same state, in May of that year,

THE DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE. 359

and still farther south, at Lewiston, even in the previous year! In 1870,
the vanguard of the army crossed the state, reaching Milford in May, but
they had even then penetrated as far as Springfield, in their march down
the Connecticut, and were abundant at Walpole. They swarm now in
every part of the state, not even excepting the Isles of Shoals, where Mr.
Thaxter found them in 1870, and the alpine zone of the White Mountains,
where I took fresh specimens in 1873.

54. Ganoris oleracea Scudd. [Plate A, Fig. 8.] It is found through-
out New England, although seldom abundant south of the annual
isotherm of 48°. Northward and eastward it is everywhere abundant,
and continues to be so as far south as Williamstown, Mass., Dublin,
N. H., and Portland, Me. It rarely occurs south of the northern bound-
ary of Connecticut.

55. Laertias Philenor Hiibn. [Plate A, Fig. 15, chrysalis, side view.
Fig. 17, ib., dorsal view.] In New England this butterfly is very rare.
In no locality has more than a single specimen been taken during a sea-
son, excepting near New Haven ; one was taken and another seen by
Mr. Smith, at Walpole, N. H., in 1870.

56. Pterourus Troilus Scudd. In New England this insect is not
uncommon in the three southern states, and has been found north of
Massachusetts, at Milford, not as common as Polyxenes (Whitney),
Dublin (Faxon), and Walpole, N. H. (Smith), and at Sudbury, Vt,
scarce (Scudder).

57. Euph&ades Glaucus Hiibn. [Plate A, Fig. 16.] This butterfly is
more widely distributed than any other of our swallow-tails, for it is
found in nearly every part of North America, from the Atlantic to the
Pacific, from Newfoundland to northern Florida, and from central Alaska
to California. Its northern limit in the eastern half of the continent
closely follows the dividing line between the Canadian and Huronian
faunas, as laid down by Allen. In New England it is everywhere com-
mon, from the summit of Mt. Washington to Long Island sound, but is
more abundant in the northern than in the southern districts. In the
White Mountain region it is exceedingly abundant, and individuals are
often dusky and small, like those from Alaska.

58. Amaryssus Polyxenes Scudd. This insect is rather uniformly
common throughout New England, although not mentioned by Gosse

360 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

among the butterflies of Compton, Lower Canada, which is rather strange,
since it is found in the valleys of the White Mountains.

URBICOL.E.

59. Epargyreus Tityrus Scudd. This is a tolerably common, some-
times abundant species in the three southern New England states, occur-
ring even in the elevated portions. North of this it becomes rare, having
been taken in New Hampshire only at Milford, "plenty" (Whitney), Dover
(Faxon), Walpole (Smith), and Plymouth (Scudder).

60. Achalarus Lycidas Scudd. This is a rare insect in New England.
It has occasionally occurred in abundance in New Haven and vicinity,
and a few specimens are reported at rare intervals in various parts of
Massachusetts. Mr. Whitney has taken three or four specimens at Mil-
ford, the northernmost known locality for this insect

61. Thorybes Py lades Scudd. It is found in abundance in every part
of New England.

62. Erynnis Persius Scudd. In New England it is everywhere com-
mon, from the valleys of the White Mountains and Norway, Me., to Cape
Cod, Norwich, and New Haven.

63. Erynnis Lucilius Scudd. This insect has not been recorded from
New Hampshire ; but I have found empty nests of the larva among the
leaves of Aquilegia in Plymouth, which must have been made by this
species.

64. Erynnis Icelits Scudd. It is widely spread over New England,
having been taken at nearly every place where there are resident col-
lectors. In the north it has been found in the wilds of Maine, at Norway
in the same state, in the valleys, and even in the sub-alpine zone of the
White Mountains, at Plymouth, and farther south at Milford.

65. Erynnis Brizo Scudd. This, too, is widely spread in New England,
but has not yet been found in the White Mountain valleys, although it has
been taken at Waterville, Me., and Thornton, N. H. It has also been
reported from Dublin and Milford, in the southern part of New Hamp-
shire.

66. Erynnis Juvenalis Scudd. This butterfly is confined in New
England to the three southern states, having been taken north of them
in but a single locality (Milford, N. H.), where it is reported rare.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE. 361

67. Pkolisora Catullus Scudd. In New England this is not an uncom-
mon insect in some southern localities, notably along the Connecticut
river. Its northernmost recorded locality is Milford, N. H., very rare
(Whitney).

68. Ancyloxypha Numitor Feld. In New England this smallest of our
butterflies is abundant south of the latitude of 42° 30', but has been
recorded from only a single locality north of it, Milford, N. H. As it is
said to be common there, it will probably be found somewhat farther
north.

69. Amblyscirtes vialis Scudd. In New England this butterfly is
strictly limited to the southern half, having been found but once north of
Massachusetts, at Milford, N. H. (Whitney).

70. Amblyscirtes Samoset Scudd. In New England it is found in such
northern and elevated localities as Norway, Me., and the valleys of the
White Mountains. It has also been taken at Milford, and once only in
Massachusetts.

71. Cyclopides Mandan Scudd. In New England this butterfly has
been taken but twice, — once in Norway, Me. (Smith), and once in the
Glen, White Mountains (Sanborn).

72. Ocytes Metea Scudd. This is another of the many southern but-
terflies, whose northernmost known limit is Milford, N. H.

73. Poanes Massasoit Scudd. Excepting in New England this butter-
fly has not been taken north of Albany; in New England, although
otherwise confined to the more southern portions, and especially to the
lower levels, it has been taken at Milford, N. H.

74. Atrytone Zabulon Scudd. This common butterfly is taken through-
out New England, in the southern parts of which it is exceedingly abun-
dant. It is, even common in such northern and elevated localities as
William stown, Mass., Norway, Me., and Thornton and Plymouth, N. H.;
it extends to Quebec and Nova Scotia.

75. Pamphila Sassacus Kirb. This butterfly occurs everywhere in the
southern half of New England, but, excepting at Norway, Me., has not
been taken in the northern half. Mr. Whitney has found it at Milford.

76. Anthomaster Leonardus Scudd. This butterfly also is confined in
New England to the southern half, the northernmost localities from which
it is recorded being Dublin (Faxon) and Milford, N. H. (Whitney).

VOL. i. 48

362 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

77. Polites Peckius Scudd. In New England it is everywhere the
commonest of the Astyci, and is found throughout every portion of the
district, from the White Mountains to the sea-coast.

78. Hedone ^Etna Scudd. It is found in the southern half of New
England; once, however, a specimen was taken in Norway, Me. With
that exception, its northernmost range is indicated by its capture in Wai-
pole and Milford, N. H.

79. Limochores Mystic Scudd. It is found everywhere in New Eng-
land, from the White Mountains to Cape Cod and New Haven. There
is hardly a local collection of any size that does not contain it.

80. Limochores bimacula Scudd. It has seldom been taken in New
England, and never north of Massachusetts, except at Milford, N. H.,
where it is rare.

8 1. Limochores Manataaqua Scudd. In New England it has been
found only in widely separated localities. Among these, and one of the
most northern, is Walpole, N. H., where Mr. Smith found it somewhat
common.

82. Limochores Taumas Scudd. This butterfly is found over perhaps
a larger extent of territory than any other species of its tribe. In New
England it is everywhere common, from the White Mountains, and even
from its highest altitudes, to the southern and eastern sea-coast.

83. Euphyes Metacomet Scudd. This insect is widely spread in New
England, although it has been taken but rarely in its northern half; it
has been taken at Norway, Me., and Thornton, N. H., and is not uncom-
mon at Plymouth, Walpole, and Milford. South of these latter points
it is everywhere rather common and sometimes abundant.

84. Euphyes verna Scudd. In New England it is confined to the
Alleghanian region, and is everywhere exceedingly rare. A single speci-
men has been taken at Milford by Mr. Whitney.

85. Lerema Hianna Scudd. This member of the Alleghanian fauna
has thus far been detected in New England in only a few localities. It is
confined to its southern portions, but has been found to be somewhat
common at Milford by Mr. Whitney.

III. LIST OF THE ORTHOPTERA OF NEW HAMPSHIRE, WITH NOTES ON
THEIR GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND STRIDULATION.

In the following pages I have given a list of all the species known to

THE DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE. 363

me to inhabit the state, adding notes upon their geographical distribution
both within and without the state. Such information is given concern-
ing the mode and character of their stridulation as could be obtained.
Unfortunately most of the material for the list has been collected about
the White Mountains only in excursions made by my friends and myself.
This accounts for its poverty.

GRYLLIDES.

1. Gryllotalpa borealis Burm. [Plate A, Fig. 7.] The northern mole-
cricket inhabits nearly the whole of the United States east of the great
plains, from Louisiana to Massachusetts. It has not yet been discovered
in New Hampshire, but it will doubtless be found in the southern portions
of the state, as it is not at all uncommon in the region about Boston and
Springfield, Mass., and has been taken by Prof. Verrill, at Anticosti. The
figure has been introduced upon the plate, to call the attention of those
interested, and because it is one of the most peculiar forms among
Orthoptera. It is a burrowing insect, as the character of the forelegs
readily indicates. At Winter pond, Winchester, Mass., the whole surface
of the ground beneath the sod and stones for a rod from the water's edge
is completely honeycombed with their burrows. They seldom penetrate
to a depth of more than six or eight inches, rarely to a foot beneath the
surface. The burrows are usually about a third of an inch in diameter,
entirely irregular in direction, and often terminate abruptly. Where the
ground is hard the burrows are brought so near the surface as to raise
long ridges of mould, which, when dry, frequently fall in and expose
the burrows. The note of this insect is most frequently heard at dusk,
and resembles the distant sound of frogs, but is somewhat feebler.

2. Gryllus luctuosus Serv. This insect is readily distinguished from all
other species of the genus found in this part of the country by the great
length of the wings, which extend far beyond the body and the elytra. It
has been taken in New Hampshire by Mrs. F. W. Putnam, and is not
infrequent even so far north as the valleys of the White Mountains. The
individuals from this locality are much smaller than farther south.

Other species of this genus doubtless occur in New Hampshire, but I
do not happen to possess specimens for determination. At Jefferson, in
1867, no chirp of a Gryllus was heard until August 12, although they
often commence their song in Massachusetts in June.

364

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

3. Nemobius vittatus Harr. is found all over the state, even in the White
Mountain region, and extends west as far as Nebraska, and south at least
to Maryland. It appears a little earlier than the species of Gryllus, but
in the White Mountains not until August. Its chirp is very similar to
that of Gryllus, and can best be expressed by ru or rruuy pronounced as

Fig. 48.

ru ru ru ru

ru ru ru ru

tr

-crrr-

ru ru ru

rm m *

* -**""
r» *! a

tr

~f-

* f '
ru ru ru

f * * r r r r

ti ru ru ru ru ru

-f~

tr

r. ...»

< .. tn

tr

~

f

^^

' p ' P

? f f

Note of Nemobius vittatus.

though it were a French word. The note is trilled forcibly, and lasts a
variable length of time, sometimes for several seconds; at others it is
reduced to a short, sharp click.*

I once observed one of these insects singing to its mate. At first the
song was mild, and frequently broken; afterward it grew impetuous,
forcible, and more prolonged ; then it decreased in volume and extent till
it became quite soft and feeble. At this time the male began to approach
the female, uttering a series of twittering chirps ; the female ran away,
and the male, after a short chase, returned to his old haunt, singing
with the same vigor as before, but with more frequent pauses ; at last,
finding all persuasion unavailing, he brought his serenade to a close.
The pauses of his song were almost instantly followed by a peculiar jerk
of the body ; it consisted of an impulsive movement backward, and then
as suddenly forward, and was accompanied by a corresponding movement
of the antennae together, and then apart. The female was near enough
to be touched by the antennae of the male during the first movement, and
usually started in a nearly similar way as soon as touched.

The elytra of the male are held at an angle of about twenty degrees
from the body during stridulation, and, perhaps, at a slightly greater
angle from each other. Even when most violent, the sound is produced

* It is necessary for me to describe the peculiar system of musical notation which I have adopted. Each bar
represents a second of time, and is occupied by the equivalent of a semibreve; consequently a quarter note (0\
or a quarter rest (^) represents a quarter of a second ; a sixteenth note /f\ or a sixteenth rest / JJ\

'

of a second, etc. For convenience' sake, I have introduced a new form of rest
silence through the remainder of a measure.

a sixteenth
, which indicates

THE DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE. 365

by the friction of the inner edges of the elytra only, not by the whole
surface.

4. Ntmobius fasciatus Scudd. This cricket may prove to be only a
long-winged form of the preceding, as it scarcely differs from it in anything
but the length of these organs. It is also found throughout New Hamp-
shire, even in the White Mountain region. It occurs as far south as
South Carolina, Louisiana, and Texas, and west at least to Missouri. I
have not noticed any difference between the chirp of this species and of
the preceding.

5. CEcanthus nivens Serv. is probably found in the southern portions
of the state, although no record of its occurrence has fallen under my
notice. It is certainly found in the neighboring parts of Massachusetts.
This insect does great damage to young shoots of raspberry, blackberry,
and even of the grape-vine, by depositing its eggs within the stem ; these
are laid in a nearly perpendicular row, often a foot long, at short distances
apart, a single egg being introduced through each hole into the very
heart of the stem, weakening it to such a degree that it is apt to break
in a strong wind. A European species, thought by some to be identical
with this, has a slightly different habit, and is far less, if at all, injurious.
It makes its punctures much farther apart, and introduces two or three
eggs into each opening.

The day-song of this insect is exceedingly shrill, and may be repre-
sented by the following figure, though the notes vary in rapidity. When

Fig. 49.

thrrr ------------------------ - - -

-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0 [

wwwwwv

Note of CEcaiithus niveus by day.

slowest they are about sixteen a second. The song is of varied length,
sometimes lasting but two or three seconds, sometimes continuing a
minute or two uninterruptedly ; it is a nearly uniform, equally sustained
trill, but the insect often commences its note at a different pitch from the
normal one, as if it required a little practice to attain it. When singing,

366 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

the tegmina are raised at fully a right angle to the body. The night-song
consists of thrrr repeated incessantly, three parts of song and one of
rest in every three seconds.

Fig. 50.

tlirrr ---------------____, _______

*r~

b b

Note of CEcantluis niveus by night.
LOCUSTARLE.

6. Ceuthophilus maculattis Scudd. is found throughout New England
and as far south as Maryland. I once took a specimen half way up Mt.
Washington. All the Vermont specimens I have seen are unusually
dark.

7. Phylloptera oblongifolia Burm. has not been found in the state, but
as it occurs somewhat abundantly in Massachusetts, and is found as far
west as Iowa, it doubtless inhabits at least the southern part of New
Hampshire. I have not studied its note attentively, but if I recollect
aright, it gives three rapid notes in succession like the katydid.

8. Phaneroptera ciirvicauda Serv. This insect is found all over the
state, even inhabiting the sub-alpine zones of the White Mountains. It
is found also as far south as the Carolinas, and west to the Red river set-
tlements of British America, to Michigan, and Illinois. It is more noisy
by night than by day; and the songs differ considerably at these two
times. The day-song is given only during sunshine, the other by night
and in cloudy weather. I first noticed this while watching one of these
little creatures close beside me ; as a cloud passed over the sun, he sud-
denly changed his note to one with which I was already familiar, but
without knowing to what insect it belonged. At the same time, all the
individuals around me whose similar day-song I had heard, began to
respond with the night cry : the cloud passed away, and the original note
was resumed on all sides. Judging that they preferred the night-song to
that of the day, from their increased stridulation during the former period,

THE DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE. 367

I imitated the night-song during sunshine, and obtained an immediate
response in the same language. The experiment proved that the insects
could hear as well as sing.

This species is exceedingly shy, and the observer must be patient who
would hold converse with it. One insect which I had disturbed, and
beside which I was standing, could not at first decide to resume his song ;
he was afraid of the intruder, but, enticed by a neighboring songster, gave

Fig. 51.

bznvl bzrwi bzrwi

Note of Phaneroptera curvicauda by day.

utterance several times to a barely discernible, short click or tl; after five
or six of these efforts his desires overcame his fears. The note by day is
bzrwi, and lasts for one third of a second.

The night-song consists of a repetition, ordinarily eight times, of a
note which sounds like tchw. It is repeated at the rate of five times in

Fig. 52.

tchw tchw tchw tchw tchw tchw tchw tchw

•» 0 01-0 01—0 01—0 0^—0 01-0 01-*

0 — 0 — 0' «, .

C C 6

Note of Phaneroptera curvicauda by night.

three quarters of a second, making each note half the length of the day
note.

9. Conocephalus ensiger Harr. Found throughout New England, even
into the sub-alpine zone of the White Mountains ; it extends south as far
as the middle states and southern Illinois, and west to Nebraska, Minne-
sota, and the Red river of the north. Mr. Smith found a female of this
insect "with the ovipositor forced down between the root-leaves and the
stalk of the Andropogon, where the eggs are probably deposited."

There is a species of Conocephalus (C. robustus Scudd.), found on the
southern sea-beaches of New England, which is exceedingly noisy, and
sings equally, and, I believe, similarly, by day and night. The song
resembles that of the harvest fly, Cicada canicularis. It often lasts for
many minutes, and seems, at a distance, to be quite uniform ; on a nearer
approach, one can hear it swelling and decreasing in volume, while there

368 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

»

is a corresponding muscular movement from the front of the abdomen
backward, two and a half times a second. This is accompanied by a
buzzing sound, quite audible near at hand ; it resembles the humming of
a bee, or the droning of a bagpipe.

C. ensiger also seems to have a single song, but it stridulates only by
night or during cloudy weather ; it commences its song as soon as the
sky is obscured or the sun is near the horizon ; it begins with a note like
brw, then pauses an instant and immediately emits a rapid succession of
sounds like chwl at the rate of about five per second, and continues them
for an unlimited time. Either the rapidity of the notes is variable,
becoming sometimes as frequent as twenty-three in three seconds, or
else there is some deceptive character in its song. In a number of

Fig- S3-

brw chwl chwl chwi chwl chwi chwi chwl chwl chwl chwl

chwi chwi chwi chwl chwl chwl chwl chwi chwi chwi chwi
9' - 0- - 0- - 0-

0-t—

Note of Conocephalus ensiger.

instances I have counted the notes as rapid as the highest rate given
above, but on a nearer approach to verify them the rate was invariably
reduced to five per second ; it is doubtful whether this was due to alarm
at my approach, for this is the least shy of all our Locustarians.

10. Xiphidium fasciatum Serv. It is found from the valleys of the
White Mountain region southward, as far as Maryland and southern
Illinois. Its note resembles that of Orchelimum, but is exceedingly faint.

11. Xiphidium brevipenne Scudd. This species has much the same
distribution as the preceding, but is not recorded from points so far south,
although it reaches Pennsylvania and Michigan. One year its first
appearance was recorded about Boston, July i6th; another year in the
neighborhood of Jefferson, White Mountains, August 8th.

12. Orchelimum vulgare Harr. This insect is found through all the
White Mountain region, even to the alpine zone, and also over the rest of
the state. It is everywhere very abundant, as its name indicates. It is
also found southward at least as far as Maryland and southern Illinois,
probably also to the Carolinas. There is not so great disparity in the time

THE DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE.

369

of its appearance in the White Mountain region and in southern New
England, as in some other species. One year it appeared in Jefferson,
July 28, and the following year about Boston, July 15.

Fig. 54-

^-f-^

-P jip Jip Jip Jip Jip jip

"-p

jip ts

Note of Orchelimum vulgare.

Its song is more complicated than that of our other Locustarians.
Commencing with is, it changes almost instantly into a trill of zr; at first
VOL. i. 49

3/O PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

there is a crescendo movement, which reaches its volume in half a second ;
the trill is then sustained for a period varying from one to twenty seconds
(generally from six to eight seconds), and closes abruptly with p. This
strain is followed by a series of very short staccato notes sounding like
jip! repeated at half-second intervals; the staccato notes and the trill
alternate ad libitum^ The staccato notes may be continued almost indefi-
nitely, but are very rarely heard more than ten times in succession ; it
ordinarily occurs three or four times before the repetition of the phrase,
but not more than two or three times when the phrase is not repeated.
I have known it to be entirely omitted, even before the repetition of a
phrase. The interval between the last jip! and the recommencement of
the phrase never exceeds one quarter of a second. The night-song differs
from that of the day in the rarer occurrence of the immediate notes and
the less rapid trill of the phrase ; the pitch of both is at B flat.

13. Thyreonotus dorsalis Scudd. I have taken a single specimen of
this insect as far north as Sudbury, Vt; and since it also occurs in
eastern Massachusetts, it will no doubt be found within the limits of New
Hampshire in the Connecticut valley.

ACRYDII.

14. Chloealtis conspersa Harr. This is a northern insect, extending from
Maine to Lake Winnipeg, and is found all over New Hampshire, even in
the valleys of the White Mountains. South of the state it occurs on

Fig. 55-

Note of Chloealtis conspersa in the sun.

high lands. The male differs so much in appearance from the female
that I formerly described it under a distinct generic name. Its song is

_ Fig. 56.

trtrtrft tfrfrtn rtnr-

Note of Chloealtis conspersa in the shade.

of varied rapidity, according to the amount of sunshine ; in the sun it
makes from nine to twelve notes, at the rate of fifty-three in fifteen
seconds ; the usual number of notes is ten.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE. 371

In the shade the rate falls to forty-three in fifteen seconds, the num-
ber of notes remaining the same.

The femur is evidently scraped gently upon the elytron to produce the
sound, for frequently, at the commencement, two or three noiseless move-
ments are made, the leg failing to touch the wing-cover. I once found
three males singing to a single female, who was busily engaged laying
eggs in a stick of wood, her abdomen plunged into a hole she had bored
to the depth of half an inch ; two of the males were near enough each
other to cross antennae.

Mr. S. I. Smith gives an interesting account of the habits of this
species in the Proceedings of the Portland (Me.) Society of Natural
History.

The eggs are deposited in old logs, in the under sides of boards, or in any soft
wood lying among the grass which these insects inhabit. By means of the anal
appendages, the female excavates in the wood a smooth, round hole, about an eighth of
an inch in diameter. This hole is almost perpendicular at first, but is turned rapidly
off in the direction of the grain of the wood, and runs nearly parallel with, and about
three eighths of an inch from, the surface, — the whole length of the hole being an
inch or an inch and a fourth. A single hole noticed in the end of a log was straight.
The eggs, which are about a fourth of an inch in length, quite slender, and light
brownish yellow, are placed in two rows, one on each side, and inclined so that,
beginning at the end of the hole, each egg overlies the next in the same row by about
half its length. The aperture is closed by a little disk of a hard, gummy substance.
I have seen many of the females engaged in excavating the holes, and they always
stood with the body in the direction of the grain of the wood, and apparently did not
change their position during the operation. When one was just beginning a hole, it
was very easy to see the upper appendages rise and open, and each time scrape away a
little of the wood. During this operation a frothy fluid is emitted from some part of
the abdomen, but whether it serves to soften the wood, or to lubricate the appendages
and the sides of the hole, I did not determine. There were always great numbers of
half finished holes, or those just begun, and comparatively very few that were com-
pleted ; and I have often found upon the under side of boards great numbers of the
holes just begun, none of them being more than an eighth of an inch in depth. Per-
haps the reason for so few holes being finished is, that the wood proves too hard, and
the insect tries for a softer place, or, many of them may be disturbed during the oper-
ation. When they had opened the hole only to a slight depth, they leaped away if
disturbed ; but when the abdomen was quite a distance into the nearly completed hole,
they seldom attempted to withdraw it even after the hand was upon them.

I have also noticed that this insect is not easily suited in choosing the

3/2 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

best place to bore her nest ; the wood must be firm enough to retain the
eggs well in place, and soft enough to absorb much moisture in the spring.
Upright pieces of timber are never chosen, but rather short sticks of
decaying, charred, or pithy wood, which cannot easily be broken or blown
against the rocks. Holes are frequently made three quarters of an inch
deep, and abandoned because the spot proves unsuitable. In a stick
about a foot and a half long and two or three inches wide, I counted
seventy-five borings, only three or four of which had been used as nests.
The number of imperfect to perfect holes must be as twenty-five to one,
or, perhaps, as fifty to one. When a good piece of wood is discovered,
the nests are crowded thickly together ; and a stick less than two inches
in diameter and five inches in length contained thirteen completed nests.
The holes are pierced at a slight angle to the perpendicular, away from
the insect; they are straight for about a quarter of an inch, then turn
abruptly and run horizontally along the grain for about an inch. The
eggs (from ten to fourteen in number) are almost always laid in the hori-
zontal portion of the nest ; they are cylindrical, tapering toward the ends,
but not at all pointed, and measure from five to five and a half milli-
metres in length, by one and one eighth in breadth ; the ends are equally
and regularly rounded. They vary in tint, some being almost colorless,
and others of a faint yellow. After the eggs have been carefully packed
away in the sawdust made by the abrasion of the sides of the hole, they
are covered above with a whitish froth, and the hole is sealed up just
below the surface of the wood with a black glutinous secretion, exces-
sively hard, smooth, and shiny, and the upper surface slightly concave.
In the spring the moisture doubtless softens these coverings so that the
young grasshoppers can easily escape. Many old nests may be found
uncovered and filled with the shells of the eggs, but none in which the
cover is still retained.

15. Chrysochraon viridis Thorn. This grasshopper has been taken in
southern New Hampshire ; it has an extensive range, having been taken,
according to Thomas, as far west as southern Illinois and Nebraska.

16. Stenobothrus curtipennis Scudd. A very common species all over
the state and in the valleys of the White Mountains; it extends from
Maine to the Red river settlements in British America, and thence south-
ward to Pennsylvania, southern Illinois, Colorado, and Wyoming. It

THE DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE. 373

inhabits uplands rather than moist grounds. When about to stridulate,
these insects place themselves in a nearly horizontal position, with the
head a little elevated ; they then raise both hind legs at once, and grate
the thighs against the outer surface of the elytra. The first one or two
movements are frequently noiseless or faint. In sunny weather the notes

Note of Stenobothrus curtipennis.

are produced at the rate of about six a second, and are continued from
one and a half to two and a half seconds. When the sky is overcast, the
movements are less rapid.

17. Stenobothrus maculipennis Scudd. The range of this insect is
similar to that of the preceding. It is found in the White Mountain
valleys and all over the state. Also, westward as far as Minnesota,
Wyoming, and Nebraska.

1 8. Stenobothrus cequalis Scudd. This insect is believed by Smith to
be identical with the preceding, and may prove to be. It also occurs in
the White Mountain valleys and in other parts of New Hampshire, and
has been taken in Maine, Massachusetts, New York, the middle states,
and Minnesota.

19. Tragoccphala infuscata Harr. A wide -spread insect, not only
found in every part of the state, including the valleys of the White
Mountain region, and up at least to the sub-alpine zone, but reaching
southward to North Carolina and Louisiana, and westward to Nebraska
and Colorado.

20. Tragocephala sordida Stal. This grasshopper is found in the
southern half of the state, and extends from Maine, in the latitude of
the White Mountains, to Maryland and Tennessee in the south, and
Nebraska, Iowa, and Minnesota in the west. It has also been taken at
London, Ontario, Canada.

21. Arcyptera lineata Scudd. This grasshopper has not been taken in
the state, but, having been found at Norway, Me., Williamstown and
Andover, Mass., it doubtless occurs here. It has also been taken in the
valley of the Red river of the north.

22. Arcyptera gracilis Scudd. This insect is abundant at Jefferson

374 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

and other parts of the White Mountains, and is common on the summit
of Graylock in Massachusetts; it has also been taken at Norway and
other parts of Maine, and in Minnesota, and is abundant in the Red river
settlements of British America. It is a very shy insect, but stridulates
more loudly than other Acridians ; its note can be heard at a distance of
fifty feet. It usually makes four notes, but the number is sometimes
greater. The first, a quarter of a second in length, is duller than the

Fig. 58.

Note of Arcyptera gracilis.

others, and is followed by a pause of a quarter second ; the other notes
are of the same length, but sharply sounded and follow each other rapidly.

23. Pezotettix borealis Scudd. This northern insect, originally de-
scribed from Minnesota, the Saskatchawan river, Lake Winnipeg, and
the Island of Anticosti, has since been mentioned from Speckled moun-
tain in Stoneham, Me., and occurs also among the White Mountains.
It is thought by some to be identical with P. frigida of northern Europe.

24. Pezotettix mama Smith. Described from a single specimen taken
on Speckled mountain, Stoneham, Me.; doubtless, therefore, it will be
found in the hilly parts of New Hampshire.

25. Pezotettix glacialis Scudd. [Plate A, Figs. 5, 10.] I have found
this wingless Acridian most plentifully on Mt. Madison, the neighbor-
hood of the snow-bank in Tuckerman's ravine, and at the ledge, all
within the sub-alpine zone. In the latter place it frequents the branches
of the small birch trees. I am not aware that any other of our Acridians
are found habitually upon trees. I have found this species on Graylock
(Berkshire county), Mass. Mr. Sanborn has taken it about the Umbagog
lakes in northern Maine, and Mr. Smith on Speckled mountain, Stone-
ham, Me. Of this latter locality Mr. Smith says, — "It is in the south-
western part of Oxford county, and probably belongs to the White Moun-
tain group. I am not aware that its height has ever been determined, but
it is probably not much above two thousand feet. Upon the upper and
treeless part of the mountain, where all the species of Pezotettix occurred
[see the two preceding species], the following plants were abundant:

THE DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE. 3/5

Alsine grcznlandica Fenzl., Potentilla tridentata Ait., Vaccinium Vitis-
Id<za Linn., V. nliginosum Linn., Empetrum nigrum Linn."

26. Melanoplus femur-rubrum Stal. This species is wide-spread and
destructive; it is found over all the portions of the United States lying
east of the Rocky Mountains, excepting perhaps those bordering the
Gulf of Mexico. In New Hampshire it ascends to the tops of the high-
est mountains, being common in both the alpine and sub-alpine zones.
It has at times migrated in swarms like its congener, M. spretus, one of
the most devastating of all insects. " The southern and western parts of
New Hampshire," says Dr. Harris, in his treatise on injurious insects,
"have been overrun by swarms of these grasshoppers, and have suffered
more or less from their depredations." Dr. True gives the following
account of their ravages in Pownal (Cumberland county), Me., about half
a century ago :

During the haying season the weather was dry and hot, and these hungry locusts
stripped the leaves from the clover and herds-grass, leaving nothing but the naked
stems. In consequence, the hay crop was seriously diminished in value. So ravenous
had they become that they would attack clover, eating it into shreds. Rake and pitch-
fork handles, made of white ash, and worn to a glossy smoothness by use, would be
found nibbled over by them if left within their reach.

As soon as the hay was cut, and they had eaten every living thing from the ground,
they removed to the adjacent crops of grain, completely stripping the leaves ; climbing
the naked stalks, they would eat off the stems of wheat and rye just below the head,
and leave them to drop to the ground. I well remember assisting in sweeping a large
cord over the heads of wheat after dark, causing the insects to drop to the ground,
where most of them would remain during the night. During harvest time it was my
painful duty, with a younger brother, to pick up the fallen wheat heads for threshing ;
they amounted to several bushels.

Their next attack was upon the Indian corn and potatoes. They stripped the leaves
and ate out the silk from the corn, so that it was rare to harvest a full ear. Among
forty or fifty bushels of corn spread out in the corn-room, not an ear could be found
not mottled with detached kernels.

While these insects were more than usually abundant in the town generally, it was
in the field I have described that they appeared in the greatest intensity. After they
had stripped everything from the field, they began to emigrate in countless numbers.
They crossed the highway and attacked the vegetable garden. I remember the curious
appearance of a large, flourishing bed of red onions, whose tops they first literally ate
up, and, not content with that, devoured the interior of the bulbs, leaving the dry
external covering in place. The provident care of my mother, who covered the bed

376 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

of
with chaff from the stable floor, did not save them, while she was complimented the

next year for so successfully sowing the garden down to grass. The leaves were
stripped from the apple-trees. They entered the house in swarms, reminding one of
the locusts of Egypt, and, as we walked, they would rise in countless numbers and fly
away in clouds.

As the nights grew cooler they collected on the spruce and hemlock stumps and log
fences, completely covering them, eating the moss and decomposed surface of the
wood, and leaving the surface clean and new. They would perch on the west side of
a stump, where they could feel the warmth of the sun, and work around to the east
side in the morning as the sun reappeared. The foot-paths in the fields were literally
covered with their excrements.

During the latter part of August and the first of September, when the air was still
dry, and for several days in succession a high wind prevailed from the north-west, the
locusts frequently rose in the air to an immense height. By looking up at the sky
in the middle of a clear day, as nearly as possible in the direction of the sun, one may
descry a locust at a great height. These insects could thus be seen in swarms, appear-
ing like so many thistle-blows, as they expanded their wings and were borne along
toward the sea before the wind ; myriads of them were drowned in Casco bay, and I
remember hearing that they frequently dropped on the decks of coasting vessels.
Cart-loads of dead bodies remained in the fields, forming in spots a tolerable coating
of manure.

27. Melanoplus punctulatus ( Caloptenus punctnlatus Uhl.). This insect
having been taken in Maine and in central Vermont, must occur in parts
of New Hampshire.

28. Melanoplns bivittatus (Gryllus bivittatus Say). One may find this
insect almost anywhere in New Hampshire, perched on the huge leaves
of Inula Helenium growing by road -sides. It occurs in the White
Mountain valleys, and has a very wide distribution extending along the
Atlantic coast from Maine to Carolina or Georgia, and westward to the
Rocky Mountains, where, Thomas says, it "is found east of the range from
New Mexico to Montana [and farther, for I have taken it on Lake Win-
nipeg, and Kirby took it in latitude 65°, or about Fort Simpson in Arctic
America], and west of it from Salt lake north to the dead waters of Snake
river; and, although it is not mentioned among the collections made in
Washington territory, yet I am of the opinion it will be found there."

29. CEdipoda Carolina Burm. This grasshopper is found through all
the parts of the state included in the Alleghanian fauna, but no farther ;
it is found, for instance, at Shelburne, on the Androscoggin, but not in
the Glen, or the upper valley of the Peabody. It is a wide-spread species,

THE DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE.

reaching Georgia and Mississippi on the south, and extending westward to
New Mexico, Colorado, Nebraska, Utah, Wyoming, and even, according
to Walker, Vancouver's island, on the Pacific coast. It makes a muffled,
rustling sound with its wings during a somewhat sustained flight.

30. Hippiscus phcenicopterus ((Edipoda phcenicoptera Germ.). Ply-
mouth is the only place in New Hampshire in which I have taken this
grasshopper, but it doubtless occurs in all the region south of the White
Mountains, for it is found throughout the southern part of New England,
and as far south as Carolina, and even Florida, and, according to Thomas
and Walker, reaches Colorada, Dakota, and Nebraska.

31. Hippiscus rugosus (CEdipoda rugosa Scudd.). This grasshopper
has not yet been captured in New Hampshire, but it undoubtedly belongs
to the fauna of the state, having been taken in Norway, Me., upon one
side, and Massachusetts on the other, and also, according to Thomas, in
the distant regions of Nebraska, Dakota, and Missouri.

32. Arphia xanthoptcra (CEdipoda xanthoptera Germ.). Extends from
middle New Hampshire to Carolina along the Atlantic coast, and west-
ward to the Mississippi.

33. Arphia sulphurea Stal. Although this insect has never been
recorded from New Hampshire, it doubtless inhabits the state, for it is
found in Norway, Me., and is not at all uncommon in Massachusetts ; it
is, however, a southern insect, extending to Florida, and westward to Col-
orado, Missouri, and Nebraska, according to Thomas, and even, by Mr.
Walker's statement, to Vancouver's island, on the Pacific coast.

34. Trimerotropis (zqualis (Gryllus cequalis Say). This grasshopper
is found at Norway, Me., and, as it occurs also in Vermont and Massa-
chusetts, it must belong to the fauna of New Hampshire. According to
Walker, it extends south to Florida; but I know of it from no point
farther south than Long island. Westward, I have taken it at the Red
river settlements and Minnesota, and it also occurs in Iowa, Dakota, and
northern Illinois.

35. Trimerotropis verruculata (Locusta verruculata Kirb.). A very
abundant species in the valleys of the White Mountains, as well as all
over the state ; it has also been taken on the top of Mts. Tom and Gray-
lock in Massachusetts, in the northern wilds of Maine, on the Saguenay
river in Canada, the region of the Saskatchawan river, and even in south-

VOL. i. 50

3/8 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

ern Illinois, the only southern locality I know ; at least, Mr. Thomas sent
it to me from there : could he have received it from some other quarter ?
This insect, like the preceding, stridulates at will during flight ; the flight
is well sustained, and the insect is capable of changing its course. At
each turn it accompanies the movement with a swoop-like curve, and

Fig- 59-

kla

kla kla

kla

kla

kla

kla

t

•f*

•j 1

— .

-•-

I

, t

/

^ 1

c

C

kla

kla

k

^— •

la

"*-^

kla

*• *•

kla

kla

c

I

c

b

r c

„

C

•f-

IX IX

Note of Trimerotropis verruculata.

emits a crackling sound. In verruculata the sound is like kl or kla, the
former at a distance, the latter nearer by ; it is repeated at the rate of
about five per second. Just before alighting, it crackles more rapidly
and frequently.

36. Trimerotropis maritima Stal. This curious grasshopper is a good
example of mimicry, for it so closely resembles the color of the sand on
a sea-beach that it is difficult to see it when alighted. It is found only
in such localities, and reaches its northern limits about the narrow part
of the state washed by the sea. I have taken it at Hampton. South-
ward it extends at least as far as New Jersey.

/ 37. Cammila pellucida (CEdipoda pellucida Scudd.) This insect is

silent in flight, and is a northern species, swarming in immense numbers
among the White Mountains and on the dry summits of the country
south of it. The top of Mt. Prospect, near Plymouth, was covered with
myriads of them in the autumn of 1873. It is found, however, as far
south as Connecticut and southern Illinois, and west to the latter region
and Lake Superior. It is very closely allied to C. atrox of the Pacific
coast, which is said to be the most destructive grasshopper there, and to
migrate in swarms like Melanoplus spretus.

38. Tettix granulata Scudd. This is a northern insect, occurring
throughout the state, even into the valleys of the White Mountains.
Southward it extends as far as the middle states, but is most common
farther north ; it occurs at Hudson's bay and about Lake Huron, and as
far west as Minnesota. Kirby took it in Arctic America, as far north
as lat. 65°, probably near Fort Simpson.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE. 379

39. Tettix ornata Scudd. This more southern species is still found in
New Hampshire, at least in the southern portion ; other northern locali-
ties are Norway, Me., and Royalton, Vt. It extends southward as far as
the District of Columbia, southern Illinois, and eastern Missouri.

40. Tettix triangularis Scudd. This species, which also occurs in
southern New Hampshire, seems to have a distribution very similar to
that of the preceding, having also been taken in Maine, and extending as
far south as the middle states ; it does not seem to have been noticed far
west, but has been taken at Prescott, Canada West.

41. Tcttigidea lateralis Scudd. Also a southern species, but found in
southern New Hampshire, and in Maine as far north as Norway. South-
ward, it extends to Florida, and westward to southern Illinois and the
vicinity of St. Louis.

42. Tettig idea polymorpha Scudd. The distribution of this species is
apparently identical with that of the preceding. It is found in southern
New Hampshire and in Maine as far as Norway, where it is said to be
common ; southward it is recorded as far as Alabama, and west to Pres-
cott, Canada West, southern Illinois, and the vicinity of St. Louis, Mo.

43. BatracJddea cristata Scudd. This species has apparently a more
limited range. It is recorded from New Hampshire, but from what por-
tion of it is unknown ; in Maine it has been taken in the centre of the
state, and at Norway " on rocky hills." Southward it extends to the mid-
dle states, but is not mentioned from any point farther west.

PHASMIDA.

44. Diaphcromera femorata Scudd. [Plate A, Fig. 3.] The walking-
stick appears to be rare north of Massachusetts ; it has, however, been
taken in New Hampshire, and I have found it as far north as Sudbury,
Vt., and even in the Red river settlements in British America. It has
also been taken in Prescott, Canada West, and extends as far west as
Nebraska, Kansas, and Iowa, and southward to Virginia, and, judging
from poor specimens, from the farther parts of Texas. It lives mostly
upon the lower branches of oaks, or on young trees of less than a man's
height. The eggs are dropped loosely upon the ground, and do not
hatch until the succeeding year, sometimes not until the second year.

BLATTARI^C.

45. Pkyllodromia gennanica Serv. This cosmopolitan pest, well known

380 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

as the "water bug," has been taken in New Hampshire; it undoubtedly
reached this country from Europe.

Doubtless other species of this family occur upon the seaboard, but
none have been recorded.

FORFICULARIjE.

46. Labia minuta Scudd. Smith records the capture of a number of
specimens of this earwig at Norway, Me., and we may therefore conclude
that it inhabits New Hampshire, for it occurs southwardly as far as
Maryland, where Mr. Uhler found it in rotten fungi, and even Virginia.
It has not been found west of the Atlantic states. Dohrn considers it
identical with the European L. minor.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE A.

Fig. i. Brenthis MontinQs.

" 2. OEneis semidea.

" 3. Diapheromera femorata.

" 4. CE. semidea; chrysalis, dorsal view.

" 5. Pezotettix glacialis, side view.

" 6. CE. semidea; chrysalis, side view.

" 7. Gryllotalpa borealis.

" 8. Ganoris oleracea.

" 9. CE. semidea; hinder extremity of caterpillar, from above ; enlarged.

" 10. P. glacialis, dorsal view.

" II. CE. semidea; front view of head of caterpillar; enlarged.

" 12. Polygonia Progne.

" 13. CE. semidea; caterpillar, side view.

" 14. CE. semidea; caterpillar, dorsal view.

" 15. Laertias Philenor ; chrysalis, side view.

" 16. Euphoeades Glaucus.

" 17. Laertias Philenor ; chrysalis, dorsal view.

.PLATS A.

New H anvps h ire Insects.

L

CHAPTER XIII.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE.

BY WILLIAM F. FLINT.

OTANISTS divide the flora of the United States into several nat-
ural districts, while these are again subdivided. The district to
which New Hampshire belongs is the great Middle and Northern ; but
with such marked difference, especially noticeable in our forest trees,
between the northern and southern portions of the state, as to be most
properly considered under two nearly equal divisions. Including also, as
it does, the greater portion of the small alpine areas found within the
eastern part of the United States, and comprising within its short range
of sea-coast and the outlying Isles of Shoals a small part of the Maritime
district, it presents to us a more interesting field for botanical research
than any other area of equal size east of the Mississippi.

Originally the state, almost without exception, was clothed with a dense
forest. This forest presented the same characteristics as at the present
day. Its only change is that it has been greatly restricted in area by the
hand of man. Its leading trees were pines, spruces, oaks, and hickories,
the beech, chestnut, white, red, and sugar maples, the butternut, birches,
elm, white and black ashes, basswood, and poplars. Among shrubs were
the blueberries, the huckleberry, mountain ash, mountain laurel, azalea,
alders, and willows ; and, trailing over rocks and shrubbery, the wild grape,
Virginia creeper, and virgin's bower.

A traveller, passing from one end of the state to the other, cannot fail

382 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

to observe the contrast in the aspect of the vegetation of its northern
and southern portions, caused by the different temperature consequent
upon the difference in altitude. The flora of New England has been
classed in two divisions, based upon this fact, which may be termed the
Alleghanian and the Canadian, because they seem to correspond with
the faunas of the same names described in the previous chapter. Of
course, however, no separating line, or definite and sudden change, is
anywhere noticed. The transition is gradual, some species becoming
scarce and finally disappearing, while others first appear in small num-
bers, but increase as the traveller advances, and at length supply the
place of the former as the prevailing forms of vegetation. Many other
species, probably one half in number of our whole flora (not being so
readily influenced by a difference of temperature), have a range extending
over the entire state. If it were attempted to draw the line between
these divisions, on each side of which would of course be included
species more particularly characteristic of the other, it might be extended,
approximately, from North Conway to Lake Winnipiseogee, and thence
to Hanover or vicinity. The transition area is thus at an elevation of
about five or six hundred feet above the sea, corresponding approxi-
mately to the isothermal line of 45° mean annual temperature, or to 20°
during the winter and 65 ° during the summer months.

Among the species which are characteristic of the Alleghanian divi-
sion, but find their northern limit before reaching this line or soon after
it is crossed, may be mentioned the chestnut, the white oak, spoonwood
or mountain laurel, and the frost grape ( Vitis cordifolia). The range of
our pines and walnuts, of white or river maple, red oak, and hemlock, is
also mainly southern.

The most characteristic trees of the Canadian division are sugar maple,
beech, balsam fir, black and white spruce, and arbor-vitae; among its
shrubs are the mountain and striped maples, and the mountain ash. Of
these the white spruce and arbor-vitas have the most limited range ; the
former is abundant about Connecticut lake, but occurs rarely, if at all,
south of Colebrook; the latter, often incorrectly called "white cedar,"
is also common in this section, extending south to the vicinity of the
White Mountains. It is also occasionally found in highland swamps
farther south.

Tie Distribution of Trees

tJ Upper limit of Chestnut.

White Oak.

Bed Oak.
55 " " Hemlock.
r J Spruce and Fir predominate.
'£i Region above Trees.
— Southern limit of White Spruce.
Arbor Vita.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE. 383

A map has been prepared, illustrating this distribution in the case of
some of our forest trees. The lines there drawn will be seen to agree
nearly with contour lines having the altitudes which are mentioned in
our further notice of these species. Thus the greater altitude of the
highlands in the southern part of the state, between the Merrimack and
Connecticut, excludes chestnut and white oak, and gives to that section
a flora like that of the southern part of the Canadian division.

FOREST TREES.

Among the twenty-seven natural orders which make up the greater
part of the flora of New Hampshire, we find the pine family the most
important, either as a prominent feature of the landscape, or as contrib-
uting to the wealth of the state. First in this family is the white pine,
which has been the most valued of our forest trees ever since the ser-
vants of King George roused the indignation of the pioneers by placing
their "broad arrow" on the best mast trees of the Merrimack valley.
When the country was covered by the primeval forest, this tree filled all
the river valleys with a stately growth, extending along that of the Con-
necticut to the northern boundary. At the present day this growth has
nearly disappeared before the lumberman's axe, but the great abundance
of saplings in the southern part of the state shows that this species is
still the principal conifer of that section. Passing northward into Coos
county, we find the white pine much restricted in area, occurring mostly
at the head waters of the streams, and mainly confined to first growth
specimens, saplings being of rare occurrence, even where the land is
allowed to return to forest after clearing.

The pitch and red pines are much more limited in range than the fore-
going. The pitch pine finds its most congenial soil along the sandy
plains and drift knolls of the river valleys, scarcely growing on hills that
attain much elevation above the sea level. It is found most abundantly
in the south-eastern part of the state, in the Merrimack valley, and
around Lakes Winnipiseogee and Ossipee, extending northward as far as
North Conway. In the valley of the Connecticut it appears less abun-
dantly. The red pine, often wrongly called " Norway pine," is the most
social of the pine genus found with us, occurring in groups of from a few
individuals to groves containing several acres. Although much less

384 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

common, its range is nearly the same as that of the pitch pine, probably
attaining a higher elevation above the sea level. This species is of hand-
some appearance and rapid growth, and is well worthy to be planted for
ornament.

In the White Mountain region, the balsam fir and black spruce, growing
together in about equal numbers, give to the scenery one of its peculiar
features. The stiff, spiked forms of the one are mingled with the blackish
green foliage of the other almost universally along the mountain sides,
and are the last of arborescent vegetation to yield to the increased cold
and fierce winds of the higher summits. North of the mountains these
trees, with arbor-vitae, are the predominant evergreens, mingling with the
white spruce about Connecticut lake. In the southern part of the state
they are mostly confined to the highlands between the Merrimack and
Connecticut, the black spruce appearing most abundantly.

The hemlock, which when young is the most graceful of the spruces,
is common in the southern part of the state, ranging in greatest abun-
dance from around the base of the White Mountains southward along
the highlands, becoming less common near the coast. It has its northern
limit in the vicinity of Colebrook and Umbagog lake, reaching an eleva-
tion of about twelve hundred feet above the sea.

"Our arbor-vitae is," says Prof. Gray, "the physiognomic tree of our
cold swamps at the north and in Canada." This tree, very rarely seen
in southern New Hampshire except when cultivated for a hedge,* enters
as a prominent element into the flora of Coos county, growing most
abundantly along the borders of slow streams and in swamps, and varying
from thirty to fifty feet in height.

Hackmatacks, or tamaracks, do not enter largely into our flora, but are
of very graceful appearance wherever they are seen. This species is
chiefly found in swamps of small extent, and ranges along the highlands
from Massachusetts to north of the White Mountains. The red cedar,
or savin, has the most limited range of all our trees belonging to this
family, occurring mostly near the sea-coast in sterile soil.f Juniper,
of the same family, is sometimes troublesome by overspreading hilly
pastures. The Canadian variety of the yew is often present in cold

* Seen commonly in Sutton, Windsor, Antrim, and probably other towns along the Connecticut-Merrimack
water-shed.— C. H. H.

t Occurs also in Hart's Location. — C. H. H.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE. 385

land swamps as an under shrub, familiarly known by the name of
"ground hemlock."

While the evergreens wear the same sombre aspect throughout the
year, the deciduous trees present every phase of change, from leafless
branches in winter to the delicate green of spring, the full leafage of
summer, and the gorgeous hues of autumn ; so that to them are due
some of the most pleasing features of New Hampshire scenery. This
effect is increased by their greater number of species as compared with
the evergreens, and by their heterogeneous mode of growth, a forest of
deciduous trees generally containing several species, growing in about
equal numbers. In our forests the most important of these are maples,
beech, birches, chestnut, and oaks ; and, less abundantly, elm, butternut,
hickory, ashes, cherries, basswood, and poplars.

The maples are best represented, all the species growing in the north-
ern United States being present. First among these are our white, red,
and sugar maples, all being large trees. The white or river maple is the
most limited in range, being confined to the intervals of the principal
streams, and rarely found away from them. The red maple (often
wrongly called white maple) is the most widely spread species, being
common to all parts of the state, and giving the brilliant scarlet hue of
our woodlands in autumn. The rock or sugar maple is the largest of the
genus, and fills an important part in the economy of the state, furnishing
sugar and valuable timber. It is common on hillsides throughout most
of the state and along many of the streams, but is rare toward the sea-
coast.

The beech and the sugar maple are the most common deciduous trees
of Coos county, making up the greater part of the "hardwood" forests.
Southward, beech is common to the highlands only, often growing with
spruces and hemlocks.

Four species of birch are common. Three of them, — the black, yellow,
and canoe birches, — have the same range as the red maple, for the most
part ; but the canoe or paper birch seems to attain the highest elevation,
being found high up the sides of the mountains, its white bark in striking
contrast with the dark trunks and foliage of the firs and spruces. The
fourth and smallest of these, the white birch, is distinguished for its light

and graceful foliage, which renders it a pleasing feature wherever it is
VOL. i. 51

386 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

found. It is most abundant in the south-eastern part of the state, spring-
ing up along sandy plains and around the edges of woodland. Its growth
is rapid, rising again, when cut down, by shoots from the root. This
species supplies the "gray birch hoop-poles" used in the manufacture of
fish barrels.

Five or six species of oaks are found here. Of these the red oak is
the hardiest, but, although the only species found along the water-shed
between the Merrimack and Connecticut, it does not extend much beyond
the White Mountains, having its upper limit at about one thousand feet
above the sea. The white and yellow oaks usually appear together, grow-
ing on the plains and hillsides along the rivers. The former of these,
especially valuable for the strength and durability of its timber, extends
northward in the Connecticut valley nearly to the mouth of the Pas-
sumpsic, in the Merrimack valley to Plymouth, and, in the eastern part
of the state, to the vicinity of Ossipee lake. Its limit in altitude is about
five hundred feet above the sea, which is also very nearly that of the
frost grape. The barren or scrub oak is abundant on the pine plains of
the lower Merrimack valley, thence extending eastward to the coast, and
to the sandy plains of Madison and Conway. The chestnut oak seems
to be local in this state ; at Amherst and West Ossipee it can be found
abundantly.

The chestnut is found in the same situations as the white oak, but is the
first to reach its limit in altitude, which is at a height of about four hun-
dred feet above the sea. It occurs in a few localities about Lake Winni-
piseogee at a somewhat greater height, the neighborhood of the lake
producing less severity of temperature than in the river valleys at the
same altitude.

The American elm attains probably the largest size of any of our
deciduous trees. This naturally finds its home in the alluvial soil of our
rivers. It has also been the most extensively planted for shade and orna-
ment of all our trees, excepting perhaps the sugar maple. Owing to its
majestic appearance, it is very conspicuous wherever present, but the
number growing together is generally small.

Butternuts also prefer the borders of streams, and, in the valley of the
Pemigewasset, extend northward to the base of the mountains. Hicko-
ries are most common in the lower Merrimack valley, the shellbark

THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE. 387

extending northward to the vicinity of Lake Winnipiseogee. Basswood
is found mostly on highlands, but is not very common. The black cherry
is found throughout the state, usually most common near streams.

Two species of poplar are commonly found. The first is a small tree,
very common in light soil, and often springing in great abundance where
woodland is cleared away. The other may be a large tree, with dark
colored bark on the trunk, whence it is often called "black poplar." In
spring the young leaves are clothed with white down, by which this
species can then be distinguished at a great distance.

SHRUBBY PLANTS.

Next in order are shrubs, which, as an element of our flora, are much
more abundant at the present day than formerly, when the shade of the
dense forest restricted them to the borders of ponds and streams, the
thin soil of rocky hillsides, or the openings made by the path of the
whirlwind. The clearing away of the forest gave the conditions favorable
to the growth of shrubby vegetation. Consequently we find in almost
all uncultivated cleared lands a great variety, the beautiful flowers of
some being much admired, while the fruit of others is eagerly sought.

Belongingto the rose family are several species important in our flora.
In early spring the shadbush, or service-berry, is observed almost every-
where, bearing a profusion of snow-white blossoms. This is followed by
the pigeon cherry, which, like the first, often becomes a small tree. The
mountain ash flourishes along the mountain streams, and grows out of
the crevices of the rocks on the mountain sides. The two spiraeas, or
hardbacks, are very common by roadsides and in pastures. The numer-
ous blackberries and raspberries spring up abundantly in the same
situations, and in newly cleared lands. The former are found mostly in
the Alleghanian division, being less common north of the White Moun-
tains, the red raspberry there replacing them, and being very character-
istic of Coos county. In this genus is the flowering raspberry, popularly
called "mulberry," with broad leaves and handsome rose-like flowers,
often found in the Connecticut valley.

Growing in moist soil and along alluvial banks are the flowering dog-
woods, or cornels, including several species. These bear white flowers
in June, and clusters of red, blue, and white fruit in autumn.

388 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

The viburnums, or arrow-woods, seem as widely distributed as any of
our flowering shrubs, and include the species familiarly known as arrow-
wood, withe-rod, hobble bush, and cranberry bush. In June, the pure
white flowers of the arrow-woods are very conspicuous in the thickets
bordering meadows and along streams, while in the woods we find the
hydrangea-like blossoms of the hobble bush. In the upper Connecticut
valley the cranberry bush is common, and sometimes cultivated, the
bright red fruit, which ripens after frosts, being used as a substitute for
cranberries.

Belonging to the heath family we find, distinguished for beauty and
abundance of bloom, the kalmias, or American laurels, azalea, rhodora,
and clethra, and, barely entering within our limits, the stately Rhododen-
dron maximum, or great rose bay, justly considered one of the finest of
the heaths. The spoonwood or mountain laurel often forms dense thick-
ets in the swampy woods of southern New Hampshire, its pink and white
flowers and glossy leaves making it one of the most ornamental of our
flowering shrubs. The little sheep laurel, much detested by farmers,
because so prone to overrun pastures, generally appears with it, bearing
a profusion of rose-red flowers. Along the edges of the woodlands and
under evergreens, creeping close to the ground, grows the trailing arbu-
tus or Mayflower, its pink and white fragrant flowers appearing among
the first in spring. In cold upland woods throughout the state, over-
growing old logs and stumps, is found the CJiiogenes, or creeping snow-
berry, its snow-white berries half hidden by the leaves. The pink azalea,
common to the swamps of Cheshire county, is associated in the minds of
many with the day when our legislature meets, being popularly called
"election pink." Its almost flame-colored flowers appear about the first
of June. This species readily bears transplanting, and is well worthy a
place among cultivated ornamental shrubs. In moist land the rhodora
is often found, rendered very conspicuous by its purple flowers, which
appear before the leaves in early spring. The Labrador tea, bearing clus-
ters of white flowers in June, is one of the low shrubs of bogs in Coos
county. The clethra, with its racemes of sweet-scented white flowers,
appearing in July and August, is found to some extent in the swamps
along the Merrimack.

In the blueberry genus are included blueberries of several species, the

THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE. 389

huckleberry, cranberry, and cowberry, the last of which is sub-alpine,
and often called "mountain cranberry." Among the blueberries whose
fruit is commonly gathered for market, the dwarf, or Pennsylvania blue-
berry, has the most extended range, being found far up the sides of
mountains, and in the fields and pastures everywhere. The swamp, or
high blueberry, is more limited, being common to the swamps and high-
lands southward, rarely appearing as far north as Conway. North of the
mountains the Canadian blueberry is the representative species. The
huckleberry is common in dry soil from the Merrimack valley eastward
to the sea-coast. The common cranberry has nearly the same range as
the high blueberry, a smaller fruited species appearing in Coos county.

Often met with in our swamps are the Canadian holly and winter-
berry, the latter well known for its crimson berries, persistent long after
the leaves have fallen. In all our highland woods grows the handsome
striped maple, and along rocky streams the scarcely less beautiful moun-
tain maple. Sumacs delight in rocky situations on the southern slopes
of hills, their purple autumn leaves and scarlet spikes of fruit being well
known to all. Everywhere common is the alder, not only along the
banks of sluggish streams, but extending along the marshy hollows of
rough pastures. Seven or eight species of willows are commonly found,
having a place in almost every variety of soil.

HERBACEOUS PLANTS.

The herbaceous plants occupy the largest place in any flora, as regards
number and variety, a fact which is especially true of ours, the configura-
tion of the state giving the conditions favorable to the growth of very
numerous species. Among them are included the greater part of those
which we term "wild flowers," and most of the introduced plants which
have followed the settlement of the country. It is difficult to ascertain
the limits of many of our herbaceous plants, as characteristic of the
Alleghanian or Canadian divisions, for want of data bearing upon the
subject.

The sea-coast, the Merrimack valley, and the vicinity of lakes Win-
nipiseogee and Ossipee, are our least elevated and longest settled por-
tions; consequently, we there find our flora richest in species. The
long belt of alluvial land of the Connecticut river also furnishes a field

39O PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

favorable to the growth of many species of herbaceous plants ; and to the
presence of this river our Canadian division probably owes some species
which would otherwise be wanting. A marked resemblance is seen also
between the herbaceous flora of the water-shed between the Merrimack
and Connecticut, and that at the base of the White Mountains.

It is regretted that the space of this article will permit the mention of
but few of the great variety of herbs with which the hand of the Creator
has made glad our fields and forests ; but the book of Nature is ever open,
and all who will may read. The vernal species, which attract the atten-
tion of the lover of nature, are mostly modest and delicate. Peering
through the brown carpet of fallen leaves in our woodlands, we find in
early spring the yellow violet, the dwarf ginseng, the yellow bellwort,
trilliums, Solomon's seal, the frail blossoms of the bloodroot, and the
hepatica, with its downy young leaves and white or sky-blue flowers.

A little later the shining leaves and yellow bells of the Clintonia show
themselves beneath the shade of the hemlocks ; and in the open glades
nods the little wood anemone or wind-flower. In the crevices of ledges
are found the early saxifrage and the wild columbine, popularly called
"honeysuckle," whose curiously formed flowers swing in every passing
breeze. The bright white flower of the false mitrewort appears in all
marshy places. Violets are found in almost every kind of soil; and
nearly every species of the Northern states finds its home in New Hamp-
shire.

In upland woods we find, modestly trailing around the roots of moss-
grown trees, the fragrant twin flower (Linncea borealis), whose botanical
name was given in honor of Linnaeus, who first discovered it in Lapland,
and with whom it was an especial favorite. Growing in evergreen woods
are four species of pyrola, or wintergreen, the prince's pine, Indian pipe,
and pine sap. On the sandy plains toward the coast the wild lupine,
blazing star, and butterfly-weed are not uncommon. In rich, moist places
we find the jewel-weed, or wild balsam. Water lilies occur in all muddy
streams and ponds, the yellow flowered species having a wide range and
reaching to the alpine ponds of the White Mountains. In the rich
meadows along the rivers grows the beautiful Canada lily, and the well
known red lily is common to all pastures. The cardinal flower rears its
flaming spikes along the brooksides in August. Springing up in great

THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE. 391

profusion in newly cleared lands is the great willow-herb, with very
showy bright purple flowers, whence it is often called " fire-weed." A great
multitude of asters and golden-rods adorn our fields in late summer and
early fall. Fringed gentians are almost the last flowers which appear in
autumn, and are among the most admired of our wild flowers ; they are
not everywhere found, but may be sought for in meadows and along
moist hillsides.

The orchis family attract the attention as the most beautiful and inter-
esting endogenous plants in our flora. Many of them are rare, and most
of them are limited in range. Among those well known to every one are
the fringed orchises, two or three species being common in wet places ;
also, the little pink pogonia, and, in woodlands, the round-leaved orchis,
with its shining leaves spread flat upon the ground. Under pines, we
find the handsome stemless ladies' slipper ; and, half hidden in the grass,
in late summer, the little twisted spikes of the ladies' tresses.

The genus Carex, whose numerous species are commonly known as
sedges, is the most fully represented of the endogens found with us,
more than fifty species having been noted in New Hampshire. Although
favorites with botanists, they are of little value to the farmer, the coarser
species adding more in quantity than in quality to the hay mown from
low, wet meadows.

Only two of the indigenous grasses of our state are of sufficient abun-
dance to be of importance to agriculture. These are generally known as
"white-top" (DantJionia spicata) and "blue-joint grass" ( Calamagrostis
Canadensis), the former being most abundant in southern New Hamp-
shire, while the latter is found throughout the state, and is the principal
native grass of the upper Connecticut valley.

We find in the ferns the most graceful element, perhaps, of our flora,
and these are very well represented, about forty species and varieties
being known. Some of them are quite rare or local, being found only in
obscure situations, and likely to be overlooked except by the keenest
observer; but many of them abound in fields and woods, and are well
known to most people. Among these the coarse fronds of the bracken,
the plume-like Ostrich fern, and the more humble sensitive fern are very
common. The beech fern is found fringing the mossy rocks of moun-
tain brooks ; and in the shade of the forest occur the taller spleenworts

3Q2 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

and shield ferns, where also, clinging to moss-grown boulders, are the
handsome evergreen fronds of the common polypody. The dwarf and
ebony spleenworts and the frail bladder fern delight to find a lodgment
in the crevices or at the base of perpendicular ledges.

Our state may be called the home of the Lycopodiums or club mosses,
popularly known as "trailing evergreen," all excepting two of those
belonging to the Northern states being present. They are found in deep
woods and on cold, bleak hillsides, and are most common on the high-
lands of Cheshire county and around the base of the White Mountains.

THE ALPINE FLORA.

The wind-swept summits of our White Mountains are to the botanist
the most interesting locality east of the Mississippi, for there are found
the lingering remnants of a flora once common probably to all New Eng-
land, but which, since the close of the glacial epoch, has, with few excep-
tions, retreated to Arctic America. On the highest of these mountains,
only, are found the conditions favorable to the growth of these arctic
plants. Of these alpine areas, Mt. Washington and the adjacent peaks
are the largest, being a treeless region at least eight miles long by two
miles wide at its broadest part. These alpine plants are of great hardi-
hood, and sometimes bloom amid ice and snow, as a Greenland sandwort,
found in bloom on the summit of Mt. Washington by Mr. S. A. Nelson,
March n, 1871, well illustrates (p. 114). About fifty species are strictly
alpine, and never found elsewhere with us. These are accompanied by
about as many other species, which are also found at the base of the
mountains, and sometimes throughout the state. These may be called
sub-alpine, being found in the ravines and on the lower portions of the
treeless areas, but not upon the higher summits.

The peculiar flora of these heights, almost wholly consisting of plants
never found at lower elevations south of arctic latitudes, but identical
with those found on Mt. Katahdin in Maine, and the Adirondacks in New
York, has led naturalists to inquire how it is possible to account for this
identity of species found at a few isolated stations in the midst of the
temperate zone, with those of regions more than a thousand miles north.
The conditions of climate which prevail over the intervening territory
render it impossible for these plants to maintain their existence, and

THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE. 393

show that they could never have migrated to these stations under ordi-
nary causes. The science of geology has led to the probable solution of
this problem. It has been found necessary, for the explanation of many
phenomena in the surface geology of the northern temperate zone, to sup-
pose that at a comparatively recent geological period the climatic condi-
tions were wholly different from those of the present time. The ruins of
a burned building do not tell their story more plainly than do the bould-
ers of our hills and the worn and striated sides of our mountains prove
the existence of glaciers and icebergs among them at no very distant
date in geological history. The explanation which this affords of the
origin of an arctic flora upon high mountains in the temperate zone, has
been pointed out by one of the foremost theorists of the present day.
As the low temperature of the frigid zone became gradually extended
over this whole area, the forms of vegetation peculiar to an arctic climate
took the place of those which had previously existed, while these receded
to the south. Again, upon the gradual return of a more genial climate
throughout this area, the arctic flora disappeared, following the retreat of
the causes by which it was brought, and only remaining, with the rees-
tablishment of warmth and fertility, upon those higher mountain summits
whose elevation renders them arctic islands in the middle of the temper-
ate zone. He who ascends to this altitude has a similar opportunity for
botanic study as if he made a journey to the north, passing first from the
noble forests, with which we are familiar, to those of stunted growth, and,
finally leaving them behind altogether, at length arriving at the barren
and bleak regions beneath the Arctic Circle.

In approaching these mountain summits, one is first struck by the
appearance of the firs and spruces, which gradually become more and
more dwarfish, at length rising but a few feet from the ground, the
branches spreading out horizontally many feet, and becoming thickly
interwoven. These present a comparatively even upper surface, which is
often firm enough to walk upon. At length these disappear wholly, and
give place to the Lapland rhododendron, Labrador tea, dwarf birch, and
alpine willows, all of which, after rising a few inches above the ground,
spread out over the surface of the nearest rock, thereby gaining warmth,
which enables them to exist in spite of tempest and cold. These in their

turn give place to the Greenland sandwort, the diapensia, the cassiope,
VOL. i. 52

394 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

and others, with arctic rushes, sedges, and lichens, which flourish on the
very summits.

INTRODUCED PLANTS.

As shown from field-notes, there are more than one thousand species of
plants found in New Hampshire. Of these about one hundred are
"introduced," having been imported, either intentionally or otherwise,
through the agency of man. Some of them are indigenous in other
parts of our own country, but the greater part come from Europe. Many
of them have increased until they are found in all cultivated soils, while
others establish themselves only locally. In the former class are most
of the "weeds of cultivation," and nearly all the grasses mown for hay.
Most of these plants, although so well established under the present con-
ditions, would probably altogether disappear were the country allowed to
return again to its natural state.

Unlike our indigenous species, these plants cannot be referred to any
particular portion of the state, because, having been planted accidentally,
they may be found regardless of altitude, &c., often in places where they
would least be expected. An instance is seen in the garden wormwood
(Artemisia Absinthium), rarely seen outside of gardens in most places,
but found well naturalized in Pittsburg, our most northern town, seem-
ing to find in the soil derived from the slaty rocks of that region the
conditions exactly suited to its growth. Instances of the wide range
which some of our introduced species have attained, may be seen in the
common hemp nettle (Galeopsis Tetrahit) and the herds-grass (Phleum
pratense). The former is common everywhere in the Merrimack valley,
passing into the valley of the Connecticut through Franconia notch, and
reaching northward to the clearings around Connecticut lake. The
latter, cultivated for hay throughout the state, may be seen in the lum-
ber roads throughout Coos county, and may even be traced up the car-
riage-road on Mt. Washington, far above the limit of trees.

The white willow of Europe ( ' Salix alba), which was at some time
introduced for a shade tree, has extended itself along the rivers, evi-
dently often without the aid of man, until now it may be seen as far
north as Stewartstown in the upper Connecticut valley. The Canadian
plum is much cultivated in Coos county, and may often be seen in places

THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE. 395

where it cannot have been intentionally planted. The succory and the
portulaca of the flower gardens seem likely to be added at some future
time to our list of weeds of cultivation, the one as the companion of the
ox-eye daisy, and the other with the common purslane.

CATALOGUE OF THE PLANTS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE.
COMPILED FROM FIELD NOTES.

In making out the following catalogue, my acknowledgments are due to Dr. Nathan
Barrows of Meriden, Rev. Joseph Blake of Gilmanton, Miss Mary Hitchcock of
Hanover, Mrs. D. W. Gilbert of Keene, and Warren Upham of Nashua, for valuable
field notes.

Explanation. A denotes Alleghanian, or southern ; C, Canadian, or northern ;
M, mountain (alpine and sub-alpine) ; and S, sea-coast species. These letters
italicized indicate that the species is strictly limited to the division noted. Species
unmarked are likely to be found in any part of the state, but many of them are of rare
occurrence. Those which are common almost everywhere, or in the division to which
they belong, are marked by a star (*). Lowland species, which have extended upwaid
to the mountain districts, are marked by a dagger (f). In some instances of rare or
local plants, the towns in which they occur are mentioned below the name.

The botanic nomenclature is that of Gray's "Manual of Botany of the Northern
United States," fifth edition, after which the popular names are also given. Italics
denote introduced species.

CROWFOOT FAMILY. R. Pennsylvanicus.

Clematis verticillaris C R. fascicularis.

North Conway. R repens_

C. Virginiana. VirginVbower. . . R bulbosus.

Anemone cylindrica AT?, acris. Buttercups. . . . *

A. Virginiana *A ^^ palustris< < Marsh Marigold. ,c

A. nemorosa. Wind-flower. . . *

Coptis trifolia. Goldthread. . . *
Hepatica triloba. Liver-leaf.
H.acutiloba. Aqui.egia Canadensi,

A. vulgar ts.
Thalictrum anemonoides.
T dioirum tM Delphinium Consolida. Larkspur.

T. Cornuti. Meadow-rue. . . . * Actaea spicata ; var. rubra. . . . *C

Ranunculus aquatilis ; var. trichophyllus. A> alba' Baneben7-

R. multifidus. Cimicifuga racemosa.

R. Flammula; var. reptans. MOONSEED FAMILY.

R. Cymbalaria. . . . . . S Menispermum Canadense.

R. abortivus * ; |M BARBERRY FAMILY.

R. recurvatus. Crowfoot. Berberis vulgaris. Barberry. . . A

396

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Caulophyllum thalictroides. Cohosh.
Podophyllum peltatum. May-apple.

WATER-LILY FAMILY.

Brasenia peltata. Water-shield.
Nymphaea odorata. White water-lily. *

Nuphar advena. Yellow water-lily.* ; f M
*N. Kalmiana.

PITCHER-PLANT FAMILY.

Sarracenia purpurea.

< Side-saddle flower. „, .
I Pitcher-plant.

POPPY FAMILY.

Papaver somniferum. Poppy.
Chelidonium majtis. Celandine.
Sanguinaria Canadensis. Blood-root. A

FUMITORY FAMILY.

Dicentra Cucullaria.
D. Canadensis.

Corydalis glauca A

Fumaria officinalis. Fumitory.

MUSTARD FAMILY.

Nasturtium palustre. Marsh Cress. . *

N. sylvestre.

N. Armor acia. Horse-radish.

Dentaria diphylla. Pepper-root.
D. laciniata.

Cardamine bellidifolia. . . . M
C. hirsuta. Bitter Cress. ... *

Arabis laevigata. Rock Cress.

Bar bar ea vulgar is. Yellow Rocket.
(Native in north-western U. S.)

Sisymbrium officinale. Hedge Mustard. *

Brassica nigra. Black Mustard.

B. campestris. Cale. . . *

Subularia aquatica.

Echo lake, Franconia ; Gilmanton.

Capsella Bursa-pastoris. Shepherd's
Purse. ......*

Lepidium Virginicum. Wild Pepper -
grass ....... *A

(Introduced from southern U. S.)

Cakile Americana. Sea-rocket. . . S

Raphanus Raphanistrum.

VIOLET FAMILY.

Viola rotundifolia ..... C

V. lanceolata.

V. blanda. White violet. ... *

V. palustris ...... M

V. Selkirkii.

V. cucullata. Common blue violet. . *

V. sagittata.

V. canina ; var. sylvestris. . * ; |M

V. Canadensis. * .... C

V. pubescens. Yellow violet. . . *
V. tricolor. Pansy.

V. renifolia, Gray.

Hanover; a new species.

ROCK-ROSE FAMILY.

Helianthemum Canadense. . . A

Hudsonia ericoides ..... S
Conway, Concord.

H. tomentosa ...... 6"

Lechea major ...... A

L. thymifolia ...... S

L. minor. Pinweed ..... *A

SUNDEW FAMILY.

Drosera rotundifolia.
D. longifolia. Sundew.

ST. JOHN'S-WORT FAMILY.

Hypericum pyramidatum.
Charlestown.

H. ellipticum.

H. perforation. Common St. Johrfs-
wort ....... *

H. corymbosum. .... *
H. mutilum. *

* On Tuckerman's authority.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE.

397

M

H. Canadense.

H. Sarothra. Pine-weed. *A

Elodes Virginica. Marsh St. JohnVwort.

WATER-WORT FAMILY.

Elatine Americana. Water-wort.

PINK FAMILY.

Saponaria officinalis.

5 Soapivort. *

\ "Old Maid Pink."

Silene inflata.

S. Armeria.

S. antirrhina. Catchfly. . . .A

S. noctiflora.

S. acaulis. Moss Campion.

Lychnis Githago.

Arenaria Groenlandica.

A. lateriflora. Sandwort. . . . *C

A. peploides S

Stellar ia media *

S. longifolia. Chickweed. Starwort.
S. longipes.

S. uliginosa.

Gilmanton, Concord.

S. borealis. |M

* S. nodosa.

Cerastium viscosum. Mouse-ear Chick-
weed. ......*

Sagina procumbens.

Spergularia rubra ; ? c , e

var. campestris. \ Sand-Spurrey. S

Claremont, Concord, Gilmanton.
S. salina S

Spergula arvensis. Corn Spurrey.
Anchyia dichotoma.

Paronychia argyrocoma.

Willey house.] Whitlow-wort. fM

Scleranthus annnus. KnaweL

Mollugo verticillata. Carpet-weed. . *A
(Introduced from southern U. S.)

PURSLANE FAMILY.

Portulaca oleracea. Purslane. . . *
P. grandiflora.

Claytonia Virginica. Spring Beauty. *A
C. Caroliniana.

MALLOW FAMILY.

Malva rotundifolia. Mallow, . . *
M. sylvestris.
M. crispa.
M. mo s chat a.

** Abutilon Avicennce.
Claremont.

« Hibiscus Moscheutos. Rose Mallow. S

H. Trionum.
Claremont.

LINDEN FAMILY.

Tilia Americana. Basswood.

GERANIUM FAMILY.

Geranium macula turn.

G. Carolinianum. Cranesbill.

G. Robertianum. Herb Robert. . C

Eroditim cicutarium. Storks bill.
Concord.

Impatiens pallida. . . . . C
I. fulva. Jewel-weed, or Touch-me-not. *

Oxalis Acetosella. Shamrock. . . *C
O. stricta. Wood-Sorrel. . . *

RUE FAMILY.

Zanthoxylum Americanum. Prickly Ash.

CASHEW FAMILY.

Rhus typhina.^ *

R. glabra. > Sumachs. . . *

R. copallina. j .

R. venenata. Poison Dogwood. . A
R. Toxicodendron. Poison Ivy. . *A

VINE FAMILY.

Vitis Labrusca. Wild Grape. . . *A

V. zestivalis A

V. cordifolia. Frost Grape. . . *A

* Grays Manual, 1870.

393

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Ampelopsis quinquefolia.

^ Virginia Creeper. *
\ "American Ivy."

BUCKTHORN FAMILY.

Rhamnus catharticus. Buckthorn.

(Apparently indigenous at Richmond.)

R. alnifolius

Ceanothus Americanus. New Jersey
Tea *A

STAFF-TREE FAMILY.

Celastrus scandens. Climbing Bitter-
sweet *A

SOAPBERRY FAMILY.

Staphylea trifolia.

Acer Pennsylvanicum. Striped maple. *C
A. spicatum. Mountain maple. . ,*C
A. saccharinum. Sugar or Rock maple. *C
A. dasycarpum. White or River maple. *A
A. rubrum. Red maple. ... *

MILKWORT FAMILY.

Polygala sanguinea. Milkwort. . . *

P. verticillata A

P. Senega.

P. polygama A

P. paucifolia. Fringed Polygala. . *

PULSE FAMILY.

Lupinus perennis. Wild Lupine. . *A

Trifolium arvense. Rabbit- foot clover *K
T. pratense. Red clover. ... *

T. repens. White clover. . . *

(Indigenous farther north.)

T. agrarium. Yellow clover.

T. procumbens.
Claremont.

Melilotus officinalis.
Claremont.

M. alba. Sweet clover.

Medicago lupulina. (

M. maculata. < Me dick.

M. denticulata. (_

Shore of Sugar river, Claremont, below

Balcom's woollen mill. Introduced in

foreign wool.

Medicago inter text a.

Near stone paper-mill, Claremont.

Robinia Pseudacacia. Locust-tree.

(Introduced from southern U. S.)

Desmodium nudiflorum. . . . *A
D. acuminatum. Tick-Trefoil. . . *A
D. rotundifolium.
D. Dillenii.

D. Canadense *

D. paniculatum.
D. Marilandicum.

Lespedeza violacea. .
L. hirta. Bush-clover.
L. capitata.

Vicia sativa.
V. hirsuta.
V. Cracca.

A

*A

*A

Vetch.
Tare.

Lathyrus maritimus. Beach Pea. . S

L. palustris. Marsh Vetchling.

Apios tuberosa. Ground-nut. . . A

Phaseolus perennis. Wild Bean.
Claremont.

Amphicarpaea monoica. Hog pea-nut. *A
Baptisia tinctoria. Wild Indigo. . A
Cassia Marilandica. Wild Senna. . A

Gleditschia tricanthos. Honey-Locust.
(Introduced from southern U. S.)

ROSE FAMILY.

Prunus Americana. Wild yellow plum.

P. pumila. Dwarf cherry.
Campton.

P. Pennsylvanica. Wild red cherry. . *
P. Virginiana. Choke-cherry. . . *
P. serotina. Wild black cherry. . *

Spiraea opulifolia. Nine-bark.

S. salicifolia. ^ Meadow-Sweet, * ; f M
S. tomentosa. \ or Hardhack. *A

Agrimonia Eupatoria. Agrimony. . *

Geum album.
G. Virginianum.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE.

399

G. macrophyllum ..... C

G. strictum. Avens. ... *

G. rivale. . . . . . . *C

G. triflorum. . . . . C

G. radiatum ; var. Peckii. . . . M

Waldsteinia fragarioides.

Sibbaldia procumbens. . . . M

Potentilla Norvegica. . *

P. frigida ....... M

P. Canadensis. *
do. var. simplex.

Cinque-foil, or Five-finger.

P. argentea ...... *

P. arguta.

P. fruticosa ...... C

P. tridentata ...... fM

P. palustris ...... C

Fragaria Virginiana ..... *

F. vesca. Wild strawberry. . . *

Dalibarda repens ..... *

Rub us odoratus. Purple flowering-
raspberry. .....*

R. Chamasmorus. Cloud-berry. . M

R. triflorus. ..... *

R. strigosus. Red raspberry. . . *

R. occidentalis. Black R. or thimble-

berry ....... A

R. villosus. High blackberry. . . *A

R. Canadensis. Low blackberry. . *A
R. hispidus. Swamp blackberry.

Rosa Carolina ......

R. lucida. Wild roses. . . .

R. blanda.

R. rubiginosa. Sweet-brier.

Cratasgus Oxyacantha.
Claremont.

C. coccinea ......

C. tomentosa ; var. pyrifolia. Thorn.

var. punctata.
C. Crus-Galli.

Pyrus arbutifolia. Choke-berry. .
P. Americana. Mountain-ash. . *C;

A

A

Amelanchier Canadensis ;
var. Botryapium. f
var. oblongifolia. < Shad-bush,
var. oligocarpa. (^or Service-berry.

SAXIFRAGE FAMILY.

Ribes Cynosbati. (

R. hirtellum. •? Wild gooseberry. *

R. lacustre. ( . . . C; fM

R. prostratum. Skunk currant. C; fM

R. floridum. Wild black currant.

R. rubrum. Wild red currant. . . C

Saxifraga rivularis M

S. Virginiensis. Saxifrage. . . C
S. Pennsylvania.

Mitella diphylla. Mitre-wort.

Tiarella cordifolia. False mitre-wort. *

Chrysosplenium Americanum.

ORPINE FAMILY.

Penthorum sedoides. Ditch Stone-crop. *

Sedum Telephium.

Orpine, or Live-forever.

WITCH-HAZEL FAMILY.

Hamamelis Virginica. Witch-Hazel. *

WATER-MILFOIL FAMILY.

Myriophyllum tenellum. Water Milfoil.

EVENING-PRIMROSE FAMILY.

Cirrgpa Lutetiana. Enchanter's Night-
shade. *

C. alpina. ......*

Epilobium angustifolium. . *

E. alpinum, and var. majus. . . M
E. palustre ; var. lineare. Willow-herb.
E. molle.
E. coloratum. . *

CEnothera biennis.

var. cruciata.

Charlestown.
CE. pumila. Evening-Primrose.

Ludwigia palustris. Water Purslane.

MELASTOMA FAMILY.

Rhexia Virginica. Deer-Grass.

400

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

LOOSESTRIFE FAMILY.

Lythrum Salicaria.

Nesaea verticillata. Swamp Loosestrife.

GOURD FAMILY.

Sicyos angulatus. One-seeded Star-
cucumber A

Echinocystis lobata. Wild Balsam-apple.
(Indigenous westward.)

PARSLEY FAMILY.

Hydrocotyle Americana.

Sanicula Marilandica. Black Snakeroot.*
S. Canadensis.

Daucus Carota. Carrot.

Carum Carui. Caraway.

Heracleum lanatum. . . . *C; fM
J Cow Parsnip.
^"Masterwort."

Pastinaca sati-va. Parsnip.

Archangelica atropurpurea. Angelica. C
A. Gmelini. S

Conioselinum Canadense. Hemlock-
Parsley C

Ligusticum Scoticum. Scotch Lovage. 6"
Thaspium aureum. Meadow Parsnip. *

Cicuta maculata. Water-Hemlock, or *
C. bulbifera. Beaver Poison.

Sium lineare. Water Parsnip. . . *
Cryptotaenia Canadensis. Honewort.

Osmorrhiza longistylis.

O. brevistylis. Sweet Cicely.

Conium maculatum. Poison Hemlock.
Claremont.

GINSENG FAMILY.

Aralia racemosa. Spikenard.

A. hispida. Wild Elder. *

A. nudicaulis. Sarsaparilla. . . *

A. quinquefolia.

A. trifolia. Dwarf Ginseng. . . *

DOGWOOD FAMILY.

Cornus Canadensis. Bunch-berry. * ; |M

C. florida. Flowering Dogwood.

C. circinata.

C. sericea.

C. stolonifera. Dogwood, or Cornel.

C. paniculata.

C. alternifolia.

Nyssa multiflora. Sour-Gum Tree.

HONEYSUCKLE FAMILY.

Linnaea borealis. Twin-flower. *C ; fM

Symphoricarpus racemosus. Snowberry.
(Indigenous westward.)

Lonicera grata. Woodbine.
(Indigenous westward.)

L. ciliata.

L. caerulea. Fly-honeysuckle. . C; fM

Diervilla trifida. Bush-honeysuckle. . *

Sambucus Canadensis. Common elder. *
S. pubens. Red-berried elder. . . C

Viburnum Lentago. Sweet viburnum.

V. nudum. Withe-rod.

V. dentatum. Arrow-wood.

V. acerifolium. Dockmackie.

V. pauciflorum C; fM

V. opulus. Cranberry-tree. . . *C
V. lantanoides. Hobblebush. . . *

MADDER FAMILY.

Galium asprellum *

G. trifidum.

G. triflorum.

G. circajzans. Wild liquorice.

G. lanceolatum.

Bedstraw, or
Cleavers.

Cephalanthus occidentalis.
bush. .

Button-

Mitchella repens.

Partridge-berry.
"Fox-berry."

Houstonia Ccerulea. Bluets.

COMPOSITE FAMILY.

Liatris scariosa. Blazing star.

fM

A

Eupatoriumpurpureum. Joe-PyeWeed. *
E. perfoliatum. Thoroughwort. . *

THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE.

4OI

E. ageratoides. White snakeroot. . *C
Nardosmia palmata. Sweet coltsfoot.
Tussilago Farfara. Coltsfoot.

Sericocarpus conyzoides.

White-topped aster. *

Aster corymbosus *

A. macrophyllus. .... *

A. Radula tM

A. patens.

A. laevis and var. cyaneus.

A. laevis ; var. cyaneus. . *

A. undulatus *

A. cordifolius. Aster, or Starwort. . *
A. multiflorus. "Frostweed."
A. dumosus.
A. Tradescanti.

A. miser *

A. simplex.
A. longifolius.

A. puniceus *

A. acuminatus * fM

A. nemoralis. ..... fM

A. flexuosus. . . . . . S

A. linifolius S

Erigeron Canadense. Horse-weed. . *

E. bellidifolium. Robin's Plantain. . *
E. Philadelphicum.

E. annuum. Fleabane. ... *

E. strigosum *

Diplopappus linariifolius. . *

D. umbellatus. Double-bristled aster. *

Solidago squarrosa.

S. bicolor.

S. latifolia.

S. caeisa.

S. puberula.

S. Virga-aurea

var. alpina.
var. humilis.

. C

. S
. M

S. sempervirens S

S. neglecta. Golden-rod.

S. arguta; var. juncea. . . . *A

S. Muhlenbergii.

S. altissima *

S. odora. Sweet golden-rod. . . A

S. nemoralis.

S. Canadensis.

S. serotina.

S. gigantea.

S. lanceolata *

S. tenuifolia S

North Conway.

fnula Helenium. Elecampane.

Ambrosia artemisiaefolia.

Roman wormwood. . . *

Xanthium strumarium.
Heliopsis laevis.
Rudbeckia laciniata.

R. hirta. Cone-flower.

(Introduced from western United States.)

Helianthus annuus.

H. strumosus.

H. divaricatus. Sunflower.

H. decapetalus.

H. tuber osus. Artichoke.

Bidens frondosa. .... *
B. connata.

-D Beggar-ticks.

B. cernua. Bu**Marigold. . .

B. crysanthemoides.
B. Beckii.

Maruta Cotula. May -weed.
Achillea Millefolium.

S. thyrsoidea.

. *C;

Leucanthemum vulgare. \
Tanacetum vulgare. Tansy.

Artemisia Absinthium. Garden Worm-
wood.

A. Canadensis.

VOL. I. 53

4O2

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

* Artemisia caudata.

Gnaphalium decurrens.

G. polycephalum.

G. uliginosum. Cudweed. . . *

G. purpureum 5"

G. supinum. ..... M

Antennaria margaritacea.

Everlasting. * ; f M
A. plantaginifolia *

Erechthites hieracifolia. Fireweed. . *
Senecio aureus. Golden Ragwort.
Arnica mollis M

Cirsium lanceolatum. Thistle.

C. discolor.

C. muticum. . . . . . C

C. pumilum. Pasture Thistle. . . *A
C. arvense. Canada Thistle. . . *

Lappa officinalis. Biirdock.
Cichorium Intybus. Succory.
Krigia Virginica. Dwarf Dandelion.
Leant odon auttimnale. Fall Dandelion . A

Hieracium Canadense. Hawkweed.

H. scabrum *

H. Gronovii.

Claremont.

H. venosum. Rattlesnake-weed. . . *
H. paniculatum.

Nabalus alb us

N. altissimus. Rattlesnake-root.
N. nanus. .....

N. Bootii

Taraxacum Dens-leonis.

Dandelion.

Lactuca Canadensis.
do., var. sanguinea.

; fM

Wild Lettuce. *

Mulgedium leucophaeum. Blue Lettuce.

Sonchus oleraceus.

S. asper. Sow-Thistle.

LOBELIA FAMILY.

Lobelia cardinalis. Cardinal-flower. *A

L. inflata. Indian Tobacco, or Lobelia. *

L. spicata.

L. Kalmii.

L. Dortmanna. Water Lobelia.

CAMPANULA FAMILY.

Campanula rotundifolia.

Harebell. *; fM

C. aparinoides. Marsh Bellflower.
Specularia perfoliata.

HEATH FAMILY.

Gaylussacia resinosa. Huckleberry. *A
G. frondosa.

Vaccinium Oxycoccus. Small cran-
berry. '. C;fM

V. macrocarpon. Common cranberry. *A
V. Vitis-Idaea. Cowberry. . . M
V. uliginosum. Bog Bilberry. . . M
V. caespitosum M

V. Pennsylvanicum.

Low Blueberry. * ; fM

V. Canadense C

V. vacillans A

V. corymbosum. High Blueberry. . *A

Chiogenes hispidula. Creeping Snow-
berry C ; fM

Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi.
A. alpina. Bearberry.
Epigaea repens. Mayflower.

Gaultheriaprocumbens. Checkerberry.

M

M Cassandra calyculata. Leather-leaf.
M

Cassiope hypnoides

Andromeda polifolia.
A. ligustrina

Clethra alnifolia. White alder. .
Phyllodoce taxifolia

Kalmia latifolia.

Spoonwood.
M oun tain-laurel .

M

A

M

*A

* Gray's Manual, 1870.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE.

403

K. angustifolia. Lambkill. . . *A
K. glauca. Pale laurel. . . C ; fM

Azalea nudiflora. "Election Pink." . A

Rhododendron maximum.

Great Rose-bay. A
Richmond, Grantham, Fitzwilliam.

R. Lapponicum. Lapland Rose-bay. M
Rhodora Canadensis ..... *
Ledum latifolium. Labrador tea. C; fM

Loiseleuria procumbens.

Alpine Azalea. M

Pyrola rotundifolia.

P. elliptica.

P. chlorantha. Wintergreen.

P. secunda. ..... *

P. minor ....... C

Moneses uniflora.

Chimaphila umbellata.

Monotropa uniflora.

M. Hypopitys. Pine sap.

HOLLY FAMILY.

Ilex verticillata. Black Alder. . . *A
I. laevigata. Winterberry. . . A

Nemopanthes Canadensis.

Mountain holly. *

PLANTAIN FAMILY.

Plant ago major. Plantain. . . *
P. maritima ; var. juncoides. . . S
P. lanceolata. Ribgrass.

LEADWORT FAMILY.

Statice Limonium ;

var. Caroliniana. Marsh-rosemary. S

PRIMROSE FAMILY.

Trientalis Americana. Star-flower. * ; f M

Lysimachia thyrsiflora. *

L. stricta *

L. quadrifolia. Loosestrife. . . *

r- )

media. >

i- )

L. ciliata.
L. lanceolata.

Glaux maritima. Sea-milkwort.
Anagallis arvensis.

BLADDERWORT FAMILY.

Utricularia inflata.

U. vulgaris. Bladderwort.

U. minor.

U. intermedia.

U. gibba.

' Claremont.

U. cornuta.

BROOM-RAPE FAMILY.

Epiphegus Virginiana. Beech-drops. C

FIGWORT FAMILY.

VerbascumThapsus. Common mullein. *
V. Blattaria. Moth mullein.

Linaria Canadensis. Wild Toad-flax. *
L. vulgaris. Butter-and-eggs.

Chelone glabra. Snake-head. . . *
Mimulus ringens. Monkey-flower. . *

Gratiola aurea. Hedge-hyssop.
Ilysanthes gratioloides. False Pimpernel.

Veronica Anagallis.
V. Americana.

V. scutellata *

V. oflkinalis. Speedwell.

V. alpina M

V. serpyllifolia *

V. arvensis.

Gerardia tenuifolia. Gerardia.
G. quercifolia. Foxglove.
G. pedicularia.

Castilleia pallida. Painted-cup. . M

Schwalbea Americana. . . .A
Walpole plains ! rare.

Euphrasia offkinalis. Eyebright. . M
Rhinanthus Crista-galli. Yellow Rattle. M

Pedicularis Canadensis. . . *

P. lanceolata. Lousewort. . . A

404

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Melampyrum Americanum.

Cow-wheat. * ; fM

VERVAIN FAMILY.

Verbena hastata. Blue vervain. . *A
V. urticifolia. White vervain. . . A

Phryma Leptostachya.
Claremont.

MINT FAMILY.

Teucrium Canadense. Wood Sage.

Trichostema dichotomum. False Pen-
nyroyal. . • . . . A

Mentha viridis. Spearmint.

M. piperita. Peppermint.

M. sati-va.

M. Canadensis. Wild mint. . . *

Lycopus Virginicus. Water Horehound. *

L. Europaeus.

do. var. sinuatus. . . . *

Pycnanthemum incanum.
Claremont.

P. lanceolatum. Mountain Mint.
Origanum vulgare. Wild Marjoram.
Calamintha Clinopodium. Basil.

Hedeoma pulegioides. American Pen-
nyroyal *A

Monardadidyma. j gswego Tea.
M. punctata. Horse-mint.

Lophanthus nepetoides.

L. scrophulariaefolius. Giant Hyssop.

Nepeta Cataria. Catnip.
N. Glechoma. Gill.

Brunella vulgaris. Self-heal. . . *

Scutellaria galericulata.

S. lateriflora. Skullcap. ... *

Marrubium vulgare. Horehound.
Galeopsis Tetrahit. Hemp-Nettle. . *
Stachys palustris ; var. aspera.
Leonurus Cardiaca. Motherwort. *

Lamium amplexicaiile. Dead-nettle.

BORRAGE FAMILY.

Symphytum officinale. Comfrey.
Lithospermum officinale. Cromwell.

Myosotis palustris ; var. laxa.

Forget-me-not.

Echinospermum Lappula.

Cynoglossum officinale. Hounds-tongue.
C. Morisoni.

WATERLEAF FAMILY.

Hydrophyllum Virginicum. Waterleaf.

POLEMONIUM FAMILY.

Diapensia Lapponica. . . . *M

CONVOLVULUS FAMILY.

Calystegia sepium A

C. spithamasa. Bracted Bindweed. . A

Cuscuta Epilinum.

C.Gronovii. Dodder. . . . *

NIGHTSHADE FAMILY.

Solanum Dulcamara. Bittersweet.
S. nigrum. Nightshade.

Physalis viscosa. Ground Cherry.
Nicandra physaloides. Apple of Peru.
Hyoscyamus niger. Henbane.
Datura Stramonium. Thorn-apple.

GENTIAN FAMILY.

Gentiana crinita. Fringed Gentian.
G. Andrewsii. Closed Gentian.
G. Saponaria ; var. linearis.

Menyanthes trifoliata. Buckbean.

Limnanthemum lacunosum.

Floating Heart.

DOGBANE FAMILY.

Apocynum androsasmifolium. Dogbane. *
A. cannabinum. Indian Hemp.

MILKWEED FAMILY.

Asclepias Cornuti. Milkweed. . . *

A. phytolaccoides *

A. purpurascens.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE.

405

A. incarnata.

A. quadrifolia.

A. obtusifolia.

A. tuberosa. Pleurisy-root.

A. verticillata.

OLIVE FAMILY.

Ligustrum vulgare. Privet.

Fraxinus Americana. White Ash. . *

F. pubescens. Red Ash.

F. sambucifolia. Black Ash. . . *

BIRTHWORT FAMILY.

Asarum Canadense. Wild ginger. . C

Aristolochia Serpentaria. . . . A
Virginia Snakeroot.

POKEWEED FAMILY.

Phytolacca decandra. Garget. Poke. A

GOOSEFOOT FAMILY.

Chenopodium album. Pigweed. . *

C. poly sper mum.

C, hybridum.

C. urbicum.

C. Botrys. Jerusalem oak.

C. ambrosioides ; var. anthelminticum.

Roubieva multifida.
Claremont.

Atriplex patula. S

Salicornia herbacea S

S. Virginica. Samphire. . . . S

Suaeda maritima. Sea Elite. . . .S1
Salsola Kali. Saltwort. . . S

AMARANTH FAMILY.

Amarantus retroflexus. Pigweed. . *
do. var. hybridus.

A. albus.

BUCKWHEAT FAMILY.

Polygonumviviparum. Alpine Bistort. M

P. orientale. Prince's Feather.

P. Careyi.

P. Pennsylvanicum.

P. incarnatum.
P. lapathifolium.

P Persicaria \
r. rerstcana.

Lad^S thumb-
Heartweed.

P. Hydropiper. Smartweed. . . *

P. acre.

P. hydropiperoides.

P. amphibium. Water Persicaria.

P. Virginianum.

P. articulatum. Jointweed. . . S
Nashua, Manchester, and Concord.

P. aviculare. Knotgrass. Doorweed. *
do. var. erectum.

P. arifolium. < Tear-thumb.

P. sagittatum. \ *

P. convolvulus. Black Bindweed. . *
P. cilinode.
P. dumetorum ;

var. scandens. { f^ucSea,.

Fagopymm esculentum. Buckwheat.
Oxyria digyna. Mountain sorrel. . M

Rumex orbiculatus. Great Water-dock.
R. verticillatus.

R. altissimus. (Wood.)
Claremont.

R. crispus. Common Dock. . . *

R. obtusifolius.

R. sunguineus. Bloody-vented Dock.

R. Patientia. Patience Dock.

R. Acetosella. Field sorrel. . * ; fM

LAUREL FAMILY.

Sassafras officinale. Sassafras. . *A

Lindera Benzoin. Spice-bush.

MEZEREUM FAMILY.

Dircapalustris. Moosewood. Wicopy. C

SANDALWOOD FAMILY.

Comandra umbellata.

Bastard Toad-flax. A

HORNWORT FAMILY.

Ceratophyllum demersum. Hornwort.

406

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

WATER-STARWORT FAMILY.

Callitriche verna. Water-starwort. *
C. terrestris.

SPURGE FAMILY.

Euphorbia polygonifolia. . . . S

E. maculata.

E. hypericifolia. Spurge.

E, Esula.

E. Cyparissias,

Acalypha Virginica.

Three-seeded Mercury.

CROWBERRY FAMILY.

Empetrum nigrum-. Crowberry. . M

NETTLE FAMILY.

Ulmus fulva. Slippery elm.

U. Americana. White elm. . . *

U. racemosa.

Walpole, Hanover.

Celtis occidentalis. Sugarberry.
Claremont, Walpole.

Morus alba. Mulberry.

Urtica gracilis.
U. dioica. Nettle.
U. urens.

Laportea Canadensis. Wood-nettle.
Pilea pumila. Richweed.
Bcehmeria cylindrica. False Nettle.
Cannabis sativa. Hemp.
Humulus Lupulus. Hop.

PLANE-TREE FAMILY.

Platanus occidentalis. Buttonwood. A

WALNUT FAMILY.

S Butternut.
Juglanscmerea.)oilnut<

Carya alba. Shell-bark Hickory.
C. tomentosa. Pig-nut.

C. porcina. ....

Claremont.

C. amara.

.*A

. *A
A

OAK FAMILY.

Quercus alba. White oak. . . *A
Q. obtusiloba. Post-oak. . . . A

Q. Prinus. Chestnut oak. . . . A
Amherst, West Ossipee.

Q. nigra. . . . . . . A

Q. ilicifolia. Scrub-oak. . . . *A

Q. coccinea ; var. tinctoria. Black oak. A
Q. rubra. Red oak *A

Castanea vesca. Chestnut.
Fagus ferruginea. Beech. .

Corylus Americana. .
C. rostrata. Hazel-nut.

Ostrya Virginica. Lever-wood.

.*A

.*C

*

*

Americana .

SWEET-GALE FAMILY.

Myrica Gale. Sweet Gale. . . *

M. cerifera. Bayberry. . . . S
Milford, New Boston.

Comptonia asplenifolia. Sweet Fern. *A

BIRCH FAMILY.

Betula lenta. Sweet, or Black Birch.
B. lutea. Silver, or Yellow Birch. . *
B. alba ; var. populifolia. White Birch. *A

B. papyracea.

Canoe, or Paper Birch. * ; f M
B. nigra.

Atkinson, Acworth.

B. pumila. Low Birch.

B. glandulosa. Dwarf Birch. . . M

Alnus viridis. Mountain Alder. C ; |M
A. incana. Common Alder. . . *
A. serrulata ...... A

WILLOW FAMILY.

Salix Candida ...... C

S. humilis.

S. discolor. ..... *

S. sericea.

S. -viminalis.
Rollinsford.

A S. cordata. .

THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE.

407

S. livida; var. occidentalis.
S. chlorophylla. Willows.
S. lucida.
S. nigra.
S. fragilis.

S. alba

6". Babylonica,

S. Cutleri

S. argyrocarpa. .
S. herbacea.

*
M

M
M
M

Populus tremuloides. Poplar, or Aspen.*
P. grandidentata ..... *
P. heterophylla.
P. monilifera. Cottonwood.

P. balsamifera ; & var. candicans.

Balm of Gilead.

P. dilatata. Lombardy Poplar.

PINE FAMILY.

Pinus rigida. Pitch Pine. . .
P.resinosa. Pine,

P. Strobus. White Pine. .

Abies nigra. Black Spruce.
A. alba. White Spruce.
A. Canadensis. Hemlock.
A. balsamea. Balsam Fir.

c

. *A

A

. *A

*C; fM
. *C
.*A

*C; fM

Larix Americana.

American Larch.
Hackmatack.

Thuja occidentalis. {2^^
Button, Alstead.

Juniperus communis. Juniper. .

J. Virginian

. A

Taxus baccata ; var. Canadensis.

Ground Hemlock.

ARUM FAMILY.

Arisaema triphyllum. Indian turnip.

A. Dracontium.
Claremont.

,-. ,, , , . ^ Water Arum.
Callapalustns. | wild Calla.lily. •'

Symplocarpus fcetidus. Skunk cabbage.
Acorus Calamus. Sweet flag.

CAT-TAIL FAMILY.

Typha latifolia. Cat-tail flag. .

Sparganium eurycarpum. Bur-reed.

S. simplex; var. fluitans.

var. angustifolium.

PONDWEED FAMILY.

Naias flexilis.

Zannichellia palustris.
Claremont.

Zostera marina. Eel-grass.
Ruppia maritima. Ditch-grass.

Potamogeton natans.

P. Claytonii.

P. Spirillus.

P. hybridus.

P. amplifolius. Pondweed.

P. gramineus.

P. lucens.

P. perfoliatus.

P. pauciflorus.

P. pusillus.

P. Robbinsii.

* P. Tuckermani.
Claremont !

\

S

S

*

WATER-PLANTAIN FAMILY.

Triglochin maritimum. Arrow-grass.
Scheuchzeria palustris.

Alisma Plantago ; var. Americanum.
Water plantain.

Sagittaria variabilis

S. graminea. Arrow-head.

FROG'S-BIT FAMILY.
Vallisneria spiralis.

* Gray's Manual, 1870.

408

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

ORCHIS FAMILY.

Orchis spectabilis.

Habenaria tridentata. . . . C

H. virescens

H. viridis ; var. bracteata. . . C

H. hyperborea C

H. dilatata C; fM

H. obtusata. Orchis. . . . fM

H. Hookeri.

H. orbiculata C

H. ciliaris.
Langdon.

H. blephariglottis.

H. lacera.

H. psycodes. Purple fringed-orchis. *

H. fimbriata.

Goodyera repens. Rattlesnake-plantain.
G. pubescens.

Spiranthes cernua *

S. gracilis. Ladies1 tresses.

Listera cordata. Twayblade. . . fM

Arethusa bulbosa.

Pogonia ophioglossoides. *

Calopogon pulchellus.

Calypso borealis.

Microstylis monophyllos. . . . C
M. ophioglossoides. Adder's-mouth.

Liparis Loeselii. Twayblade.

Corallorhiza innata A

C. multiflora. Coral-root.
C. odontorhiza.

Aplectrum hyemale.

Cypripedium acaule. Lady's slipper. *

C. arietinum.
Walpole.

C. pubescens.

C. spectabile.
Lebanon.

AMARYLLIS FAMILY.

Hypoxys erecta. Star-grass.
Alstead.

IRIS FAMILY.

Iris versicolor. Blue flag. Iris. . *

Sisyrinchium Bermudiana.

Blue-eyed grass. *

SMILAX FAMILY.

Smilax rotundifolia. Greenbrier. . *A

S. herbacea. Carrion flower. . . *
do. var. pulverulenta.

LILY FAMILY.

Trillium erectum. Purple Trillium. . *
T. cernuum. Wake-robin.

T. erythrocarpum. Painted Trillium. *

do. var. Clevelandicum.

Claremont.

Medeola Virginica.

Indian Cucumber-root. *

Veratrum viride. Indian Poke. * ; f M

Uvularia perfoliata.

U. sessilifolia. Bellwort. ... *

U. grandiflora.
Claremont.

Streptopus amplexifolius. . . C ; fM
S. roseus. Twisted-stalk. . . C ; |M
Convallaria majalis.

Clintonia borealis. Clintonia. . * ; fM

C. umbellata.
Claremont.

Smilacina racemosa *

S. stellata.

S. trifolia. False Solomon's Seal.

S. bifolia *

Polygonatum biflorum. . . *

P. giganteum. Solomon's Seal.

Asparagus officinalis. Asparagus.

Lilium Philadelphicum. . . . *
L. Canadense. Lily. . . *

L. superbum.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE.

409

Erythronium Americanum.

Adder's-tongue. *

Allium tricoccum. Wild Leek.

Campton, Colebrook, Hanover.

A. Canadense.

A. Schcenoprasum. Chives.

(Indigenous in north-western U. S.)

Hemerocallis fulva. Day-lily.

RUSH FAMILY.

Luzula pilosa.

L. parviflora ; var. melanocarpa. . fM

L. campestris. Wood-rush.

L. arcuata. . . . . . M

L. spicata M

Juncus effusus *

J. filiformis, fM

J. scirpoides.

J. Balticus. 6"

J. trifidus. ......

J. marginatus.
J. bufonius. .

J. Gerardi.

J. tenuis. Rush. Bog-rush.

J. Greenii.

Concord, Gilmanton.

J. pelocarpus.
J. acuminatus.
J. nodosus.

J. Canadensis ; var. coarctatus.

do. var. longicaudatus.

PICKEREL-WEED FAMILY.

Pontederia cordata. Pickerel-weed. ,

YELLOW-EYED GRASS FAMILY.

Xyris flexuosa. Yellow-eyed Grass,
do. var. pusilla.

PIPEWORT FAMILY.

Eriocaulon septangulare. Pipewort.

SEDGE FAMILY.

Cyperus diandrus

C. dentatus. Sedge.
C. strigosus. .
VOL. I.

M

*

S

*

S

C. inflexus.

C. filiculmis. Nut-grass. . . *

C. phymatodes.

Dulichium spathaceum. . . *

Eleocharis Robbinsii.

E. obtusa *

E. palustris. Spike-rush.

E. tenuis . *

E. acicularis *

Scirpus caespitosus. . . . . M
S. subterminalis.
S. pungens.
S. Torreyi.

S. validus. *

S. debilis. Bulrush. Club-rush.

S. maritimus. . . . . . S

S. sylvaticus *

S. microcarpus.

S. atrovirens.

S. Eriophorum. Wool-grass. . . *

Eriophorum alpinum.

E. vaginatum fM

E. Virginicum. Cotton-grass. . . *
E. polystachyon. .... *

E. gracile.

Fimbristylis autumnalis.

F. capillaris *

Rhynchospora alba *

R. glomerata. Beak-rush.

R. fusca.

Plainfield.

Cladium mariscoides. Twig-rush. . *

Carex scirpoidea. . . . . M

C. capitata. M

C. pauciflora.

C. polytrichoides *

C. Backii.

Gilmanton.

C. vulpinoidea *

C. stipata *

4io

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

C. sparganioides.
C. cephalophora.

C. rosea; .

do. var. radiata.

C. tenella.
C. trisperma.

C. canescens ;

do. var. vitilis.

C. Deweyana.
C. sterilis.

C. stellulata;

do. var. scirpoides.

C. scoparia.

C. lagopodioid'es.

C. cristata ;

do. var. mirabilis.

C. straminea ; .

do. var. typica.
do. var. tenera.
do. var. aperta.
do. var. festucacea.

C. rigida ; var. Bigelovii. .
C. vulgaris.
C. aperta.

C. stricta ; . . .
do. var. strictior.

C. aquatilis.
C. lenticularis.
C. torta.

C. crinita

C. gynandra.

C. limosa

C. irrigua.

C. atrata

C. aurea.
C. granularis.
C. pallescens.
C. conoidea.
C. formosa.
C. gracillima.
C. virescens.
C. plantaginea.
C. platyphylla.
C. digitalis.

fM

M

M

C. laxiflora ; *

do. plantaginea.
do. var. blanda.

C. pedunculata.

C. umbellata *

C. Novas-Angliae.

C. Pennsylvania *

C. varia *

C. pubescens *

C. miliacea.

C. scabrata. *

C. arctata * ; fM

C. debilis *

C. capillaris M

C. flava *

C. filiformis.

C. riparia.

C. comosa.

C. Pseudo-Cyperus.

C. hystricina ; *

do. var. Cooleyi.

C. tentaculata *

C. intumescens *

C. folliculata.

C. lupulina. *

C. subulata.

C. rostrata f M

C. utriculata.

C. monile. . . . . *

C. Tuckermani.

C. bullata.

C. oligosperma.

GRASS FAMILY.

Leersia Virginica.

L. oryzoides. Rice cut-grass. . . *

Zizania aquatica. Water oats. . . C
Androscoggin river.

Alopecurtis pratensis.
A. geniculatus.

Phleum pratense. Herds Grass. * ; fM
P. alpinum. M

THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE.

411

Vilfa vaginaeflora.

Sporobolus serotinus. Drop-seed Grass. *

Agrostis perennans. Thin-grass.

A. scabra. Hair-grass. . * ; f M

A. canina ; f M

do. var. alpina.

A. vulgaris. Red- top. . . . *
A. alba.

Polypogon Monspeliensis. . . . S

Cinna arundinacea ;

do. var. pendula.

Muhlenbergia glomerata.
M. Mexicana.
M. sylvatica.

Brachyelytrum aristatum.

Calamagrostis Canadensis.

Blue-Joint Grass. * T- violaceum.

C. Langsdorffii ,

C. Pickeringii

C. arenaria. Sea Sand-Reed.

P. compressa. Wire-Grass.

P. laxa

P. serotina. False Red-top.

P oratensis \ Common Spear-Grass.

5ls' } June Grass.
P. alsodes.

P. trivialis.
Eragrostis pectinacea.
Briza media.

Festuca tenella.

F. ovina. Fescue Grass.

F. elatior. ......

F. nutans.

Brotnus secalinus. Chess.
B. ciliatus. "Wild Oats."

Triticum repens. "Witch-Grass." .

*
M

M

Elymus Virginicus.

Et Canadensis. Wild Rye.

E. striatus.

E. mollis.

Oryzopsis melanocarpa.

O. asperifolia * Gymnostichum Hystrix.

Danthonia spicata. ' 'White-top Grass .''

O. Canadensis.

Spartina juncea S

S. stricta ; Salt Marsh-Grass. . . .S1
var. glabra.
var. alterniflora.

Eleusine fndica.

Dactylis glomerata. Orchard Grass.

Glyceria Canadensis *

G. elongata.

G. nervata. Manna-Grass. . . *

G. pallida.

G. aquatica *

G. fluitans. *

G. acutiflora.

Avena striata C', fM

Trisetum subspicatum ; var. molle. C ; |M

Aira flexuosa. Hair-Grass. . . fM
A. atropurpurea *M

Hierochloa alpina.

M

Anthoxanthtim odoratum.

Sweet Vernal Grass.

Phalaris Canariensis. Canary Grass.
P. arundinacea. Reed Canary-Grass. C

Paspalum setaceum. ...

A

Panicum glabrum.
G. maritima. Sea Spear-Grass. . S ^Crab-

P. sanguinale.
Brizopyrum spicatum. Spike-Grass. . S

Poa annua. Low Spear-Grass.

n

P. agrostoides.

P. capillare. *

412

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

P. latifolium

P. clandestinum. Panic-Grass.
P. xanthophysum.

P. dichotomum

P. depauperatum.

P. Crus-galli. Barnyard- Grass.

Set aria glauca

S. viridis. Bristly Foxtail-Grass. . *
S. "verticittata.

Cenchrus tribuloides. Bur-Grass. . A

Andropogon furcatus.

A. scoparius. Beard-Grass.

A. Virginicus.

HORSETAIL FAMILY.

Equisetum arvense. Horsetail. . . *

E. sylvaticum

E. limosum.

E. hyemale. Scouring-Rush. . . *

E. variegatum.
Walpole.

FERN FAMILY.

Polypodium vulgare. Polypody.
Adiantum pedatum. Maiden-hair.
Pteris aquilina. Brake. Bracken. . *

Woodwardia Virginica. Chain-Fern.
Concord.

Asplenium Trichomanes.

A. ebeneum.

A. angustifolium.

A. thelypteroides. Spleenwort.

A. Filix-fcemina. .... *
do. var. molle.
Bethlehem.

Camptosorus rhizophyllus. Walking- Leaf.
Lebanon.

Phegopteris polypodioides. . . *C

P. hexagonoptera. Beech-Ferns.

P. Dryopteris *C

Aspidium Thelypteris. . . *

A. Noveboracense. . . *

A. fragrans.

Berlin Falls, Gorham.

A. spinulosum. Shield-Ferns.
var. intermedium,
var. dilatatum.
var. Bootii.

A. cristatum. Wood-Ferns,
do. var. Clintonianum.

A. Goldianum.
A. marginale.

A. acrostichoides ;

do. var. incisum.

A. aculeatum ; var. Braunii.

Cystopteris bulbifera.

C. fragilis. Bladder-Fern.

*

*

C
C

Struthiopteris Germanica. Ostrich Fern. *

Onoclea sensibilis. Sensitive Fern.

do. var obtusilobata.

Bethlehem.

Woodsia obtusa.

W. ilvensis.
Hanover.

W. glabella.

Dicksonia punctilobula. . . *

Lygodium palmatum. Climbing Fern.
Hudson.

Flowering Fern.
" Buck's-horn."

Osmunda regalis.

O. Claytoniana

O. cinnamomea. Cinnamon-Fern.

Botrychium Virginicum.

B. lunarioides ; Moonwort.

var. obliquum,
var. dissectum.

B. matricaraefolium.

Bethlehem, Lebanon.

B. simplex.
Richmond.

B. lanceolatum.
Richmond.

Ophioglossum vulgatum. Adder's-Tongue.
Hanover, Langdon, Lebanon, Gilmanton.

CLUB-MOSS FAMILY.

Lycopodium lucidulum.

L. Selago M

THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE.

413

L. inundatum.

L. annotinum ;

do. var. pungens.

L. dendroideum.
L. clavatum.

Club-Moss.
Trailing Evergreen.

L. complanatum.

do. var. Sabinaefolium.

Selaginella selaginoides.
S. rupestris.

Isoetes lacustris.
Lebanon.

LICHENS OF THE WHITE MOUNTAINS.
Compiled from Genera Lichenum. — 1872.

Ramalina calicaris, Tuckerm.
Parmelia aleurites, Ach.
P. ambigua.
P. dendritica, Nyl.

Sticta linita, Ach.
Peltigera canina.

Pannaria granatina, Sommerf.

P., intermed. between P. Petersii and P.
nigra.

Omphalaria phyllisca.

Leptogium intricatulum, Nyl.
L. muscicola.

Hydro thyria venosa, Russell.
Lecanora discreta, Tuckerm.

Rinodina Ascociscana, Tuckerm.
R. turfacea, Wahl.

Pertusaria glomerata, Ach.
Stereocaulon nanodes, Tuckerm.

Biatora flexuosa, Fr.

B. viridescens, Schrad.

B. atrorufa, Dicks.

B. uliginosa, Schrad.

B. rivulosa, Ach.

B. cyrtella, Ach.

B. globulosa, Floerk.

B. mixta, Fr.

B. hypnophila, Turn.

B. milliaria, Fr.

B. chlorantha, Tuckerm.

B. porphyrites, Tuckerm.
B. pezizoideum, Ach.

Lecidea arctica, Sommerf.
L. Diapensiae, Th. Fr.
L. polycarpa, Floerk.
L. aglaea, Sommerf.
L. tenebrosa, Flot.
L. lugubris, Sommerf.
L. caudata, Nyl.
L. morio, Schaer.

Buellia pulchella, Schrad. (?)
B. coracina, Th.
B. Schaereri, DeNot.
B. alpicola, Nyl.

B. geographica, Schaer.

Xylographa parallela, Fr.

Arthonia cinereo-pruinosa, Schaer.
A. lurida, Ach.
A. patellulata, Nyl.
A. diffusa, Nyl.
A. lurido-alba, Nyl.

Sphasrophorus globiferus, L.
S. fragilis, L.

Calicium curtum, Turn. & Barr.

C. trachelinum, Ach.
C. roscidum, Floerk.
C. disseminatum, Fr.
C. citrinum, Leight.

C. Curtisii, Tuckerm. (?)

Normandina laetevirens, Turn.

414

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Segestria lectissima, Fr.
Staurothele umbrina, Wahl.
Trypethelium virens, Tuckerm.
Sagedia lactea, Koerb.

Verrucaria margacea, Wahl.
Pyrenula leucoplaca, Wallr.
P. lactea, Mass.

ADDITIONAL SPECIES FROM SYNOPSIS OF NORTHERN LICHENS. — 1848.

Evernia jubata, Fr.
E. ochroleuca, Fr.
E. vulpina, Ach.
E. purpuracea, Mann.

Cetraria aculeata, Fr.
C. cucullata, Ach.
C. nivalis, Ach.
C. sepincola, Ach.

Nephroma arcticum, Fr.
N. parile, Ach.

Peltigera malacea, Ach.
Sticta pulmonaria, Ach.

Parmelia Fahlunensis, Ach.

P. stygia, Ach.

P. incurva, Fr.

P. centrifuga, Ach.

P. congruens, Ach.

P. obscura, Fr.

P. sorediata, Tuckerm.

P. rubiginosa, Ach.

P. Hypnorum, Fr.

P. cervina, Sommerf.

P. oculata, Fr.

P. badia, Fr.

P. ventosa, Ach.

P. verrucosa, Ach.

Stereocaulon tomentosum, Fr.

S. corallinum, Fr.

S. paschale, Laur.

S. condensatum, Laur.

S. denudatum, Floerk.

S. nanum, Ach.

S. Fibula, Tuckerm.

Cladonia Papillaria, Hoffm.

C. pyxidata, Fr.

C. gracilis, Fr.

C. fimbriata, Fr.

C. decoticata, Floerk.

C. cenotea, Schaer.

C. Despreauxii, Bory MS.

C. amaurocrasa, Floerk.

C. Boryi, Tuckerm.

C. bellidiflora, Schasr.

Baeomyces roseus, Pers.

Biatora decipiens, Fr.
B. placophylla, Fr.
B. Byssoides, Fr.
B. ichmadophila, Fr.
B. ochrophaea, Tuckerm.

Lecidea vesicularis, Ach.
L. Wahlenbergii, Ach.
L. flavo-virescens, Fr.
L. panaeola, Ach.
L. confluens, Schaer.
L. melancheima, Tuckerm.
L. sabuletorum, Fr.

Umbilicaria pustulata, Hoffm.

U. polyphylla, Hoffm.

U. proboscidea, DC.

U. hirsuta, Ach.

U. hypoborea, Hoffm.

U. erosa, Hoffm.

U. Muhlenbergii, Ach.

Calicium phaeomelanum, Tuckerm.
C. melanophaeum, Ach.

Endocarpon fluviatile, DC.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE. 415

NOTE. There is not an entire agreement respecting the limits of the Canadian and
Alleghanian districts, as deduced from the study of the plants and animals, and set
forth in Chapters XII and XIII. As there are other facts to be presented, derived
from the distribution of the birds, and it may be possible to explore the southern
part of Cheshire county with reference to the extension of the Canadian district
southerly, before the completion of the first volume, I shall defer the sequel to this
subject to a subsequent chapter. — C. H. H.

Fig. 60. — MX. MADISON, FROM LEAD MINE BRIDGE, SHELBURNE.

CHAPTER XIV.

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACE^.

BY A. MEAD EDWARDS, 'M. D.

PREFACE.

It is desirable that the reader of the present brief sketch should, at the outset, under-
stand that it is intended to be of an essentially popular character, and by no means a
scientific treatise on the diatomaceas. It has been prepared in such a manner that it
will, it is hoped, bring to the attention of others besides strictly scientific observers
one of the most beautiful groups of organisms with which the naturalist is acquainted.
To that end the language employed is as untechnical as was judged consistent with
clearness ; and when it has been found necessary to use technical terms, their meaning
has been at the same time made plain. This short preface has been intended more
specially for the scientist into whose hands this volume may come, so that he may
understand its aim and purpose, and, at the same time, not judge it as he would had
it made pretence to a position among thoroughly scientific works. At the same time
it must be understood that it has of course been made scientifically correct, so that
what it teaches concerning the diatomaceae may be as nearly as possible up to date,
and consistent with the latest investigations in this field of research.

INTRODUCTION.

XT is a matter which is well understood at the present day, that if the
geologist desires to carry out, in a systematic and scientific manner,
his investigations into the history of the globe upon which he dwells,
he must earnestly and conscientiously qualify himself for extended and
searching observations in many more branches of knowledge than his
predecessors of but a few years back considered necessary to the accom-

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACE/E. 417

plishment of their labors. To properly comprehend the structure and
modes of formation of strata, be they made up of solid rock or more
loosely aggregated material, he must be a mathematician of no low order.
To understand the how, the why, and the where of the great stone book
laid open to his eye, to read aright the record of the rocks, he must call
in to his assistance at least the learning of the physicist, the chemist, and
the biologist, if he be not — which, in our present and ever growing state
of knowledge is practically impossible — a physicist, a chemist, and a
biologist himself. But as it would be evidently impossible for any one
man to be thoroughly skilled in all these branches and their various
ramifications at one and the same time, the advanced and advancing

O

geologist of to-day carries out the following special plan, when engaged
in the study of any tract of country. He secures the cooperation of a
number of specialists, persons who have devoted their time and attention
more particularly to the study of distinct sections of science, so that
the highest skill shall investigate for him the several parts of the work,
and thus individual bricks will be contributed to the edifice which
the geologist desires to erect. To this end he is aided by at least a
chemist, who analyzes for him his rocks, his metallic ores, his marls,
or his soils; a zoologist, who studies the animals found in the section
of country gone over; and a botanist, who turns his attention to the
plants discovered in the district traversed. If he desires to carry his
investigations still further, or if the particular section of country over
which his labors extend requires that he should do so, he calls in to his
assistance individuals who have turned their attention to particular
branches of chemistry, of zoology, or of botany. Thus, insects may
abound in his field of work, and the farmers will like to know something
about the ravages they commit upon the crops ; or, vegetable diseases
may afflict those crops ; or, the rocks may be of a kind made use of in
building ; or, remarkable kinds of deposits, of great interest to science or
of value in the arts, may occur. In all of these, or any similar cases, it
will be necessary that the subjects should be investigated by competent
observers, and they must be found, and their cooperation secured. Where
the geology alone, as restricted by the boundaries which limited it a few
years back, is considered, but few of these specialists will be required to
assist. But, at the present day, and, more particularly, as is the case
VOL. i. 55

41 8 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

with our state surveys, where the gentleman who accepts the position
of state geologist is expected to make his investigations practically appli-
cable and at an early date, the field of labor is very much more extended,
and the assistants required much larger in number. Hence it has come
to pass that the modern geologist recognizes the necessity of attaching
to his staff of assistants one who is specially skilled in the use of the
microscope, an instrument, the proper employment of which necessitates
a long and severe schooling of the hand and mind, but more particularly
the eye in a peculiar manner and direction. For microscopy has become
a science in itself, so that, though the naturalist, the chemist, or the
physician may possess and look through microscopes, yet it requires one
who has mastered its secrets, and has skilled himself in its most advanta-
geous workings, to apply it so as to obtain the best results. But, even in
microscopy as a branch of science, there are specialists. Thus, we find
one who devotes himself almost exclusively to perfecting the optical por-
tions of the instrument ; another will study its application to chemistry
and toxicology alone ; another, its use in medicine, pathology, and physi-
ology ; another, its employment as an adjunct to geology, and so on, as
can be readily understood; for science and knowledge are growing so
rapidly nowadays that division of labor becomes as necessary therein as
it has been found to be in the mechanic arts.

These few words, by way of an introduction, have been deemed neces-
sary, so that the general reader, into whose hands these volumes may
come, might understand that the geological survey of New Hampshire
has been the first of our state surveys which has possessed a special
microscopist, a person who has turned his attention particularly to the
study of the application of that instrument, aided by other means of
research, to the investigation of geology. It is true that similar investi-
gations have been made to some extent, by others as well as himself, for
other surveys ; but in no case hitherto have special collections been made
systematically, and in such a manner that any very valuable results have
been arrived at, for, in this branch of science as well as in others, a defi-
nite end should be had in view, and the specimens collected and the
examinations made be for that end. It has remained for the state of
New Hampshire to be the first to inaugurate a thorough microscopical
survey of its geology and assistant branches of science, — paleontology,

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACE^E. 419

petrology, and biology; and it is to be hoped that the results will be,
therefore, proportionally valuable and interesting to science at large, and
conducive to the welfare more particularly of the citizens of that state.
It has been considered desirable, and, in fact, necessary to the proper
understanding of the subject, that that portion of the work of the survey
which comes within the province of the microscopist should be treated of
under more than one head. Thus, at the present time, that part of his
investigations which has a particular bearing upon paleontology, or the
study of the remains of organized beings found stored up in the form
of what are known as fossils in the various strata of the earth, will be
treated of, while micro-petrology, or the examination of the minute struc-
ture of rock-masses by means of the microscope, will be considered at
another time and by another hand, as the bearings of the two branches
are so very different. The minor applications of the microscope to the
subjects coming under the consideration of the survey will be gone into
as opportunity offers and desirability requires. As it is to the study of
the remains of the minute forms of extinct beings that micro-paleon-
tology is at the present time particularly devoted, the structure of more
highly organized beings not having been investigated in this connection
to any very great extent, those smaller organisms, their life, history,
habits, and relations to geology and the useful arts, will be herein con-
sidered ; and we shall begin with a group of organisms whose remains
constitute, in some parts of the world, strata of many feet in thickness,
underlying cities, and, at other points, make up the greater part of vast
mountain chains, and which have in former times played a very impor-
tant part in the history of our globe. These are the Diatomaceae.

PART FIRST.
A SKETCH OF THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACEJE.

As a large majority of the persons into whose hands the present vol-
ume will come are ignorant of the characteristics of the group of organ-
isms which it is intended to consider, that is to say, the Diatomaceae,
and as they occupy an important position in the scheme of the geologist,
before going into their bearings on paleontology it has been thought

42O PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

best, at the outset, to devote a few pages to a sketch of their nat-
ural history, presenting familiar and readily understood descriptions of
their forms illustrated by figures, their habits, modes of growth and
reproduction, and manner of occurrence in nature, so that the value of
a knowledge of them may be comprehended, and the reader be able, if
he desire so to do, to follow up their study and learn where they are to
be found, and how they may be collected, prepared, and examined.

It is a remarkable fact that these beautiful and wonderful atomies, the
diatomaceae, are so little known to biologists in general, who, we find,
have neglected in a remarkable manner to make themselves acquainted
with the so-called lower forms of life, confining to a great extent their
investigations to a study of the larger groups. This doubtless has arisen
mainly from the fact that they cannot generally be seen and much less
studied by the unassisted eye, but require, for the full elucidation of their
anatomy and physiology, the most perfect appliances of modern skill, as
epitomized in the achromatic compound microscope. Now, however,
that the microscope is coming into more general use among scientific
observers, it is to be hoped that some obscure points relating to this
group of organisms, more particularly connected with their mode of
reproduction, as well as the subjects of evolution, abiogenesis, and classi-
fication, which, it is considered, may be more thoroughly studied in
these apparently simple forms than in the more complexly organized
forms of existence, will be elucidated, or, at all events, have considerable
light thrown upon them. Unfortunately, perhaps, the forms of the di-
atomaceae are so beautiful and attractive, that, as they have been in the
manner mentioned neglected by accomplished biologists, they have been
collected, observed, figured, and described by totally incompetent per-
sons, who, in very few cases, have possessed the training which would
qualify them for undertaking the investigation of organisms of which so
little is known, and whose position in the plan of being even is not
thoroughly established. Hence, a great deal of that which has been pub-
lished on this subject is totally useless, if it be not in many cases
absolutely harmful, tending to confuse rather than simplify matters,
and render the little that is known concerning their life-history obscure.
The natural consequence has been that students of the diatomaceae
have fallen somewhat into disrepute, and, in some cases, observers have

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACE/E. 42 1

been frightened away from a field of inquiry which was beset with
so many difficulties at the outset. Under these circumstances it is
hoped that the present sketch will recommend itself for perusal to every
one interested in natural history, and at the same time introduce to many
unacquainted with them an extremely attractive group of wonderfully
constituted and beautifully sculptured beings. Those wishing to follow
the subject up more thoroughly will find, in the works of Kutzing, Smith,
Rabenborst, Ralfs, and others, — a list of which will be given hereafter, —
ample opportunities for making themselves acquainted with what is
known concerning the diatomaceae.

The Diatomaceae, or, as they have come to be familiarly termed by
those more or less acquainted with them, the Diatoms, have been so
named from a genus called Diatoma, which received its name at a time
when it was considered to be an animal, and was placed in a group to
which a celebrated German naturalist, named Ehrenberg, gave the dis-
tinctive title of Polygastrica, or, polygastric animalcules, or, minute
animals possessing many stomachs. The name Diatoma had been
bestowed upon the organism in question from two Greek words, dia,
through, and temno, to cut asunder, on account of its appearing as a
number of minute, oblong boxes, attached, corner to corner, in such a
manner as to form a zig-zag chain, and looking as if the chain had been
formed from a ribbon-like band, partially broken across at intervals.
After a while, when it came to be known that the group to which the
name of polygastrica had been given was made up of many totally dis-
tinct groups, — some animals, some plants, and some neither one nor the
other, but merely broken pieces of animals, plants, or minerals, — different
forms were, one after the other, or, in some cases, many together,
removed from this heterogeneous assemblage. Some, it was found, could
be placed in divisions already known, but others had to be made into
classes by themselves, and these newly constituted groups had to have
bestowed upon them, as a natural consequence, appellations by means
of which they might be distinguished and known. The Diatomacea was
one of these apparently natural groups, and as all the forms, it was found,
grew after a manner the same as the organism upon which the name of
Diatoma had been bestowed, that is to say, by a partial or total splitting
across, the distinctive name of Diatomacecs was given to them, and they

422 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

were erected into a family by themselves, and provisionally placed in the
animal kingdom. Very soon, however, it was observed that they pos-
sessed characters inconsistent with animals as then known, but more
nearly allied to plants. For this reason they were soon removed to the
vegetable kingdom, and, after a time, ranked as algae, or water-plants
which do not produce evident flowers. Yet there have been, and in fact
still are, observers who think that these organisms were improperly
removed from amongst the animals, and the consequence has been that,
for a few years, they vacillated between these two kingdoms. By far the
greater number of naturalists, however, have come to consider them as
plants, and so they have rested up to a very late date. It has been within
the last six or eight years that their true position has apparently been
determined by a German naturalist named Haeckel, who considers that
they possess characteristics which qualify them for a position, along with
a few other minute forms of life, in a group separated alike from animals
and vegetables, and to which he has given the name of Protista. With-
out, at the present time (for it would be out of place in a publication of
the character of the present), going into the consideration of the reasons
which have influenced the eminent German naturalist in his conclusions,
suffice it that the author of this sketch coincides with him in his opinion,
and considers the diatomaceae to be neither animals nor plants, but
Protista.

The diatomaceae are inhabitants of both fresh and salt water, as well
as that which is brackish by reason of its being subjected to the periodi-
cal influx of the water of the ocean, or that from springs and streams.
They live in many cases attached to submerged objects, such as plants,
rocks, or wood-work ; but some species appear to be free, and unattached
to anything. It is, however, likely, as has been shown by the present
writer, that all of them spend a portion of their lives attached to sub-
stances below the surface of the water, whilst they have periods of free-
dom when they swim about, and in this way disseminate the species.
Although we find them inhabiting both fresh and salt water, yet it would
seem that there are certain forms which will not thrive in both of
them. Thus, we find certain well marked species which would seem to
be confined to the ocean, whilst others are only to be seen in running
fresh water, and still others exist solely in quiet lakes. However, so little

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACEAE. 423

has been done towards studying the local peculiarities influencing the
distribution of these organisms, that we will dismiss the subject with this
brief mention, merely pointing out that therein lies a field for investiga-
tion which will yield abundant fruit to the patient and conscientious
student.

They are to be found in all permanent collections of water, but have
never been observed in pools formed by the rain and liable to be dried
up, and they may be looked for at all seasons, although, as might have
been supposed, they appear in greatest numbers in spring and during the
autumn. The hottest days of summer, at least in such localities as the
present writer has examined, seem to be unfavorable to their growth
(that is to say, in fresh water), but they have been gathered in midwinter
from beneath the ice in the Hudson river, New York. In the ocean we
find that season affects the diatomaceae, as it does most organisms which,
like them, live near tide levels ; that is, they diminish in numbers as the
cold of winter approaches, only to increase again in spring.

The structure of the diatomaceae is very peculiar ; and althought heir
general outline can, without any very great difficulty, be made out by
using a magnifying glass of moderate power, their ultimate anatomy is
extremely difficult of elucidation, as will be exemplified further on. This
can be readily understood when we know that the largest of them are not
over eight thousandths of an inch in diameter, and that many, and those
by no means the smallest, are only two ten-thousandths of an inch across.
If the diatomaceae possess an outer membrane, integument, or, we might
almost say, skin, it is extremely delicate, so much so that it has not with
certainty been detected as yet, although one or two observers think they
have seen something that looks like such a seemingly necessary limiting
portion of the individual. But we shall see hereafter that there are
organisms very closely related to those we are now considering, which
certainly do not possess limiting membranes, but whose whole substance
is homogeneous, and made up of but one kind of substance of a semi-
gelatinous consistence, and known to naturalists as protoplasm, meaning
the simplest of all living matter. It is likely, then, that the diatomaceae
have for an essential base to their bodies this protoplasm ; and, reasoning
from what we know of allied organisms, it is within and from, in part,
the substance of this protoplasm that the other portions of the individual

424 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

are elaborated, constructed, and built up. What appears to be the ex-
terior membrane of a diatom is siliceous ; that is to say, it is composed
of the substance known commonly as silex, but called by the chemist
silica. This is the same material as that which, crystallized, we find in
rock crystal or quartz, and which, variously colored, constitutes flint,
agate, jasper, amethyst, and various other minerals often used for orna-
mental purposes. Of course, this portion of the diatom is very hard,
and on this account what we may with considerable propriety call the
skeletons of dead individuals are used for the purpose of polishing
metals, and similar substances, under the name of tripoli, — although it
by no means follows that all tripoli is made up of dead diatom skeletons.
The typical form of a mature and perfect individual diatom is con-
structed after the following manner : The outer wall, consisting, as has
just been said, of silica, is formed of two portions so fashioned that when
these are united, as they are during the life of the organism, they form
a little box, within which is enclosed the softer parts which go to make
up what have been called the "cell contents," under the supposition that
the diatomacese were "unicellular" organisms. Now that the old theory
of cell organization has been very materially modified, this appellation
had better be discarded, as it has been used (and in fact was constructed)
for the purpose of describing a condition, of the existence of which
there are considerable doubts. The whole diatomaceaeous individual has
been called the frustnlc, and under this designation we will speak of it
here. Within the siliceous wall some observers have thought that they
have detected a delicate membrane surrounding the rest of the contents,
but it is doubtful if such a limiting membrane really exists ; and, in fact,
it is much more probable that the general mass of the contents is made
up of protoplasmic substance, consisting, like such protoplasm usually,
of a more or less semi-fluid material, without any differentiation of its
parts from the centre to the exterior. Enclosed within the mass of this
clear, colorless protoplasm are seen irregularly formed masses of a sub-
stance of a greater consistence, and of a peculiar light yellowish-brown
tint: this is known as the endochrome. Sometimes the endochrome
occurs in the form of two masses, but often there are many such masses.
In either case, as a common thing, the particles of endochrome are so
disposed as to lie near to the two portions of the siliceous wall which

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACEyE. 425

constitute the top and bottom of the box. Besides this colored matter,
which gives the peculiar tint to the diatoms when seen in mass at certain
times, but apparently not at all periods of their existence, we find the
diatom individuals to have scattered throughout their contents, but
always within the layer of endochrome, one or more clear globules look-
ing like oil. These have been called the "oil globules," and, when the
diatomaceae were ranked in the vegetable kingdom, were supposed to be
the representatives of the starch found in the larger plants. Ehrenberg,
who did (and, in fact, does still) rank the diatomaceae among animals, con-
sidered these clear spaces to be stomachs, and fancied he had been able
to feed these organisms on such colored matter as indigo, and see it enter
these spaces. On account of their frequently being present in numbers,
he constructed for the diatoms the name already spoken of, — Polygastrica,
or many-stomached. There is no doubt that diatomaceae will absorb
indigo, or similar material, along with water, and thus their cell-contents
may become tinted ; but such taking into their interior, of matter, does
not prove their animal nature, as all the Protista absorb solid nutriment,
and, in fact, many undoubted plants, under certain conditions, do the same.
The typical form of a diatomaceous individual, then, consists of a little
siliceous box with its cell-contents more or less colored of an olive-brown
tint. The variation in form of the top and bottom of the box, which are
known as the "valves," is very great, whilst the band uniting the valves,
and called the "connecting membrane," or "cingulum," remains essen-
tially the same, being merely a ring, narrower or wider as the case may
be, and conforming in contour, of course, to the valve to which it is
attached, and whose outline it then typifies. In the same way, the sides
of a trunk form an oblong ring, and those of a pill-box a circular or oval
loop. Thus, in the genus Pinnularia, the connecting membrane is
oblong, with rounded ends; in Coscinodiscus, and the many similar
genera, circular; in Triceratium, triangular; in Ampkitetras, quadrangu-
lar, and so on, as can readily be understood, and will be made more plain
when the various forms come to be seen in their integrity. As has been
said, the outline of the valves varies very greatly, but is, for the most
part, constant in each genus. We occasionally find, however, that the
outline of the valve is the same in two or more distinct genera, which

are then separable by means of some other character. The intimate
VOL. i. 56

426 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

structure of the valve itself is very beautiful and characteristic, but we
shall be able here to consider such structure in general terms only, leav-
ing its more particular description until we note the peculiarities of a few
typical forms, which will be described in detail, and illustrated by figures
showing their outline and sculpture, as revealed by means of the micro-
scope. The minute sculpture of the diatom valve is commonly spoken
of as its "markings," and in all cases they are generally of a similar
character on both valves. This, however, is not always the case, as we
find in some genera which pass most, if not all, of their lives attached
to objects like plants, sticks, stones, and the like, submerged in the water
(fresh, brackish, or salt) which the diatomaceae inhabit. In such cases,
as they are dissimilar, and can be distinguished, it has become customary
to call that valve which is next to the object upon which it grows the
lower valve, and the opposite one the upper, — and if, as must often be the
case when the diatom is fixed to the under side of a plant leaf as it floats
upon the surface of the water, the position of the valves is reversed. In
all cases the valves are convex at the edges, although they may be some-
what flattened near the middle, so that when the edges are in contact
they enclose the cavity already spoken of, and which may be very shallow
in proportion to its width, perfectly spherical, or several times deeper
than wide.

The great point of beauty in the diatomaceae, and what has attracted
to them the attention of so many unscientific possessors of microscopes,
is the symmetry and forms of these same sculpturings or markings found
upon the siliceous envelope ; and these vary in delicacy from comparatively
coarse reticulations to such extremely minute dots that no microscope
has as yet been constructed which will show us what is their true char-
acter, so that, as they lie side by side in rows, the siliceous cell-wall
appears to be marked with extremely faint lines. But this is not all, for
there are diatoms upon which even such faint lines have not been seen ;
but we know that they must be fashioned after the same manner as their
brothers, and must, therefore, possess markings of yet greater fineness,
and which time, it is to be hoped, with the aid of improved means of
research, will reveal to the inquiring eye of the future observer. The
great delicacy of some of the markings found upon diatom cell-walls, and
the consequent difficulty of seeing them, has led to great rivalry in

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACE^E.

makers of lenses for microscopes, and certain species have been selected
and accepted as "test objects," by means of which the power of lenses
to show their structure has been made evident. But as this has become
a special department of microscopy we will pass it by, at the present
time, with this mere allusion. These beautiful markings are, for the
most part, hexagonal, that is to say, six-sided, or, at least, they are of
forms derived from the hexagon, that being the form most economical of
space under the circumstances. And it can be readily understood how
this has come about, if we consider the matter after the following man-
ner : It is well known that matter, by which is meant solid or semi-solid
substance of any kind whatever, if left to itself uninfluenced by any out-
side force, as gravity and the like, will assume the globular form. Thus
we find that the drop of water, of oil, or of metallic quicksilver, is round
or spherical, or nearly so. So we can understand that the silica deposited
as skeleton by the diatom would assume the spherical form. Likewise,
the minute markings or granulations made up by those siliceous particles
would, in a like manner, be at least spheroidal, be they elevations, as it is
assumed by some observers, or depressions, as is thought to be the case
by the majority of students. Now, supposing them to have a circular
outline when they are far apart, if they are made to approach each other
closer and closer until they touch, they, at last, by mutual pressure, will
present a six-sided outline. That such would be the case may be proved,
experimentally, in a very simple and, at the same time, elegant manner.
Let a mass of soap and water be placed in a bowl, and a pipe like a
straw be thrust down into it. Then if air be blown through the tube,
keeping the end opposite to that placed in the mouth in contact with the
bottom of the bowl, after a time the vessel will become filled with soap-
bubbles all of about one size, and which we know, if they had been
formed separately, would each have been perfectly spherical, — as, in fact,
can be seen on the top where those which are outermost present an outer
limiting surface which is part of a sphere. But we see plainly that these
little globes have pressed upon each other to such an extent that they
have lost their spherical outline, and have sides which are more or less
plane. If, now, a plate of glass be pressed down upon the accumulation
of bubbles in the bowl, many of them will be cut in two in such a way
that we may see through the glass that their section is an almost regular

428 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

hexagon. In fact, such a collection of bubbles, thus cut in halves, looks
very much like the transparent siliceous membrane of a diatom. It is
impossible, however, to give any idea in words of the beauty of the
diatomaceae, and, in fact, the best of illustrations affords but a faint notion
of them ; they must be seen and closely observed to be fully appreciated.
Their great interest to all students of nature will perhaps be understood
from a perusal of this brief sketch, wherein their principal points of
structure, habits, modes of occurrence, and uses, are set forth in such a
way, it is hoped, as will be readily understood, and at the same time
prove interesting to others than those intending to be students of these
organisms.

Having now arrived at a pretty clear idea of the typical structure of
diatoms in general, let us make ourselves more thoroughly acquainted
with some of the various forms in which they make their appearance.
If we take, as a representative of the usually free circular or discoid dia-
toms, the genus Aulaco discus, we find the valves perfectly round in out-
line, and usually only slightly convex near the margin, the concavity for
holding the cell-contents being thus somewhat flattened, its sides being
limited as usual by the connecting membrane or zone, which in this
genus is narrow. The structure of the siliceous material which goes to
make up the valve is of the following character: On the exterior is a
plate marked with coarse hexagons, which really are only net-like ; that
is to say, they merely constitute a hexagonal framework of boxes without
tops or bottoms, set side by side, and arranged more or less regularly, so
as to radiate from the centre to the edge of the valve. The radiant
arrangement of these coarse markings varies in regularity in the differ-
ent species of the genus, but in all is apparent. Inside of this coarsely
marked plate is another, so that the large hexagons have the character of
honey-comb ; that is to say, the sides are perpendicular to the flat surface
of the inner plate, which thus constitutes for them a bottom. And this
inner plate is commonly, although not always, constructed after the same
manner as the outer one, being set all over with small hexagons, which
are so small that as yet their character has not been studied, but most
likely it is similar to the larger ones, that is to say, being honey-comb-
like ; but its hexagons probably have not in their turn still smaller mark-
ings within them. At any rate, in most species of Aulacodiscus, both

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACEvE. 429

those with two sets of hexagonal markings and those with only one set
of coarse ones, we find that under, and often filling up the whole bottom
of each hexagon, and therefore on the inside of the inner plate, is a little
plano-convex lens of silica. That such is the case is readily proved by
the images formed of the source of light, as a candle, by the little lenses ;
and in fact it would doubtless be possible to measure their focus by
means of a graduated fine adjustment to the microscope, such as is found
on the larger instruments. Sometimes the sides of the large hexagons
are not quite perpendicular to the inner plate, but approach each other as
they descend, so that the bottom of the cavity becomes concave ; and, as
the convexity still occurs on the inner surface of the inner plate, we have
a meniscus lens of silica formed, — that is to say, a lens which is still
thickest at the centre, and therefore one which converges light like the
plano-convex one more commonly found. The effect on light passing
through such a diatom is very much the same as in the first case men-
tioned, but sufficiently different to be distinguished. Though these
peculiarities of structure can be made out by a careful observer in Aula-
codiscus and a few other genera, on account of their size and coarseness
of structure, yet they can be seen only with difficulty in others, and in
most diatoms cannot be shown at all. And this can be readily under-
stood when we remember that markings of any kind upon many species
can only indistinctly be seen when the best optical appliances for illumi-
nation and the finest microscope objectives and occulars are used. In
fact, it has been for the purpose of exhibiting such markings that objec-
tives have been specially made and apparatus invented, as has been
already said.

The sculpture of the siliceous cell- wall just described is not peculiar
to the Aulacodiscus, but is found in many other genera. This particular
genus, however, is remarkable for possessing what have been called, for
want of a better name, "feet." These consist of tubular masses of silica
projecting outwards from the cell-wall, and usually placed near to the
margin of the valve. In some species the portion from which the feet
project is somewhat raised immediately under each foot, or in the form of
a ridge all around the valve. Within this portion the valve is either
plane, concave, or undulate, although the central portion is usually some-
what raised. The feet project outwards at a greater or less angle, and

43O PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

are either short and stout or long and slender, varying in this respect in
different species. They also vary in number from one upwards, the
number being constant in some species, while in others it varies very
greatly. Usually the outermost end is somewhat swelled into something
like a knob, and within this part the central canal, running through the
foot, also swells into a spherical cavity. When a perfect specimen of an
Aulacodiscus is examined on what is known as its "front view," that is to
say, with the edge of the valve presented towards the eye, the presence
of the feet makes the appearance of this diatom very characteristic. The
description of this genus has been thus full, because the beautiful com-
plexity of the diatomaceae could thus be made evident, and many points
of structure dwelt upon at the outset. So when we come to describe a
few of the other forms as types, their resemblance to or variance from
Aulacodiscus will be noticed.

The genus Coscinodiscus has the same general characters of outline
and sculpture of markings as the genus just described, but is destitute of
"feet," and, therefore, of the raised portion upon which they are placed.
The two membranes are present, but the inner one is smooth. Both
Aulacodiscus and Coscinodiscus are inhabitants of salt water, although
there is a minute form, usually classed as a Coscinodiscus and called
minor, which has been seen in fresh water ; but it is now pretty well
ascertained that it is not a true Coscinodiscus, but belongs to the genus
to be described next.

In Melosira, the frustules have a general resemblance to Coscinodiscus,
and are frequently mistaken for specimens of that genus, especially when
dead and detached one from the other. Usually, however, the valves are
so much more convex when viewed edgewise, that the whole frustule
may approach in form a sphere, as is the case in the species chosen as
an illustration. It however differs widely from Coscinodiscus in having
its frustules united, by means of their valves, into long chains, which are
quite flexible, so that they wave about in the moving water. Some
species have the valves more flat, and then the live plant looks like a
number of pill-boxes attached together. Some species are peculiar to
fresh water, whilst others are found in the sea; but it would seem that a
few of them can become acclimated to and live in either kind of water.

ActinoptycJius, another beautiful genus, contains several species which

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACE^E. 43 1

are extremely graceful in sculpture. In form it is discoid, on what is
known as the "side view," but, unlike any of those we have seen so far,
the surface of the valve is divided into segments which radiate from the
centre, and are arranged alternately elevated and depressed, so that on a
front view the frustule appears undulate. When we look straight down
upon the valve, it has very much the appearance of a wheel. In some
species the markings of the raised segments are different from those on
the sunk portions, while others have the markings of the same character
all over the valve. They are, however, always of the same general char-
acter as those described as occurring in Atilacodiscus. This is likewise
a marine genus, and some of the most beautiful species belonging to it
have been found as yet only in the fossil state.

There are many other discoid forms which we cannot stop to describe,
but must pass on to consider some other genera.

Nearly allied to the true discoid diatoms, and in fact having a few cir-
cular species, are two genera which it will be well to describe here. One
of them is called Biddulphia, and is found only in salt water, although
one species was seen by the late Prof. Bailey in the Hudson river at
West Point, where the water is not all salt ; but, strange to say, the tide
reaching up as far as this, the salt water creeps up under the fresh, so
that at this point salt and fresh water forms of vegetation appear along-
side of each other. Biddulphia grows in chains attached to submerged
objects, more commonly the larger plants. It has valves either orbicular,
elliptic, or more or less pointed in two directions, and approaching in
outline to the boat-shaped genera to be presently described. In fact,
the outline of the valve in Biddulphia varies very greatly, as is seen by
the figures given. At two opposite points on the valve are projections
upwards very much like the feet of Aulacodiscus, and, in fact, they may
be considered their analogues. So when Bid&ulphia is looked at on a
front view, it looks like a number of little wool-sacks ; and the species
which Prof. Bailey found at West Point, and which is not very uncommon
along the Atlantic coast of the United States, has very much that appear-
ance, especially as the frustules grow in the form of a chain, with these
projecting portions united, often alternately, so that the chain becomes
of a zigzag form. Sometimes the surface of the valve also bears upon
it certain spines, varying in number in different species, and usually

432 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

placed near to the centre or at points midway between the centre and
the edge, and half-way between the horn-like projections.

In outline, Biddulphia passes into a genus known as Triceratium,
which, as its name indicates, is provided with three projecting horns or
corners. In fact, what may be called the normal form of its valve is
triangular, having three horn-like projecting portions like the two in
BiddulpJiia. But although the commonest outline is triangular, we find
certain species varying to such an extent as to have examples with four,
five, and even six sides, — in this respect resembling Aulacodiscus, whose
number of projections, or "feet," vary in the manner described. And
there is a genus called Amphitetras, which apparently only differs from
Triceratium in the fact that its normal form is with four corners. In
truth, we find occasionally specimens of Biddulphia with three corners,
Triceratium with four, five, six, and even nine corners, and Amphitetras
with five corners, so it becomes extremely difficult to draw lines of dis-
tinction between these three genera. Besides this, we find that among
themselves the species of Triceratium differ in minor characters ; some
have the sides convex, becoming more and more so, until at last we have a
perfectly circular outline still retaining the three projecting horns. Then
we find them with sides straight, then more and more concave, until the
valve appears to be but three arms united by a very small body. Some
have undulate sides. The front view is as various as the side view. In
some the processes are nearly level with the surface of the valve, while
others have them considerably elevated, and attenuated into spines. So,
again, in this beautiful genus, the sculpturing of the valve is very various.
We have coarse hexagonal reticulations, with or without finer ones within
them, fine hexagonal markings, circular, dot-like, radiant or curved depres-
sions, in some cases of such delicacy that high-power glasses are required
for their elimination. Then, again, we have large, heavy bars of silica
projecting across the valve in different directions, merely cutting off the
corners, or dividing the central portion in various ways. In short, Tricera-
tium is one of the most variable as it is one of the most beautiful genera
of the diatomaceae. It is found living in the ocean, growing in chains
attached to algae and shells, after the manner of Biddulphia and Melosira.
Some of the most beautiful species have been as yet found only in the
fossil condition in certain so-called "infusorial" earths.

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACE^E. 433

As has been said, the species of Biddulphia vary very greatly among
themselves, until we have them approaching the boat-like form in outline,
and in this way they are connected with the next group of diatoms, which
we now come to consider. These are all more or less quadrangular in
outline, or, rather, we might describe them as elongate, with more or less
parallel sides, and having their ends acute or rounded. The genera
belonging to this group are very numerous, but we shall describe only a
few of them. It is a remarkable fact, that, almost with the exception of
some of the Mclosirce and allied cylindrical forms, the discoid, two-, three-,
four-, five-, and six-cornered genera are confined to salt water; but the
boat- and stick-like forms are found in both fresh and salt water, so that
in our streams and ponds we find the " naviculseform " and "bacillar"
genera, as they are called, almost unmixed with circular forms. A few
species of Mclosirtz, and an allied genus called Cyclotella, are found
occasionally intermixed with the boat-like ones, and rarely alone in lakes
and fresh-water streams. So we already see that, by examining the
species of diatoms, we can say with considerable certainty whether a
piece of water be fresh or salt, and, if found in a fossil condition, whether
the earth, of which they make up a part or the whole, was thrown down
from a now extinct ocean, lake, or river. Our knowledge of the habits of
the diatomaceae is hardly complete enough as yet for us to tell exactly the
character of lake, river, or ocean in which the diatoms grow; but already
we have learned that certain forms are found on mountain tops, others in
swift streams, and so on.

Taking Pinnularia as the first type of the naviculseform, or boat-
shaped diatoms, we find it to be, of course, made up of two siliceous
valves and a connecting membrane. The valves are boat-shaped in
outline, sometimes with the sides parallel, and the ends pointed or
rounded off. Frequently the sides are convex or bowed outwards, bent
inwards, or undulate ; but all of the various species, and they are very
numerous, preserve the general characteristic boat-like form. The valves
in this genus are commonly very convex, so that when looked at on a
front view or endwise, the edges are distinctly rounded off. Running
down the middle portion of the valve from one end to the other is a
blank space, which, at each end and at the centre, expands into round

nodules projecting into the cavity of the frustule, as likewise does the
VOL. i. 57

434 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

blank strip itself. In fact, this strip, with its end and middle swellings,
constitutes a thickened part of the valve, and they have by some writers
been called the "median line," and "central" and "terminal nodules."
Considerable confusion has arisen in the nomenclature of what might be
called the osteology of the diatomaceae. This central thickened band is
usually, if not always at some period in the life of the individual, traversed
by a canal which runs the whole length of the clear space, but in the
thicker ends terminates in enlargements, and is divided into two sections
at the centre of the valve, where, likewise, it ends in two round cavities.
The end enlargements of this canal have also been called "terminal
nodules," and the swellings near the centre have been called "central
nodules," as well as the parts just described. Lately it has been proposed
to call the tube the "central canal," and by this name we shall designate
it in this sketch. At one period in the life of the diatom it would seem
that this canal is open outwards down its whole length ; at least, such is
the belief of some observers ; but the writer has never been able to satisfy
himself that such is the case, for in some of the Pinnularia he has
noticed that the central enlargements of this canal open, by means of
trumpet-shaped tubes set at right angles to the course of the canal, into
the general cavity of the frustule, and that the terminal expansions, in a
like manner, have a communication outwards at the ends of the valve.
It is his opinion that this canal has something to do with the motion of
the naviculaeform diatoms, which always sail about in a direction parallel
to their longest axis. The central canal, when the diatom valve is dead
and dry, is filled with air, and then, — on account of the effect produced
upon the light as it is transmitted through the object to the microscope, —
appears black, or nearly so, if the objective employed is a good one, and
more or less colored when an inferior one is used. The markings found
sculpturing the valve of Pinnularia are different from what we have seen
to occur in any of the genera described so far. We find no large hexa-
gons nor finer ones here, but, instead, the valve is marked on each side of
the median blank space with lines which indicate elevations in the form of
bars or corrugations more or less parallel to each other, and set at nearly
right angles to the central canal. These bars, or "pinnulae," as they are
called, reach from the edge of the valve over the convex margin, and up
to the median blank space, where they stop in rounded off extremities.

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACE^E. 435

There is a genus very closely allied to Pinnularia which has the same
general form, except that in many of the species the sides slope off
straight towards the somewhat acute ends, so that the whole valve is
quadrangular in form. On account of the thickened portion at the centre
of the valve being widened out so as to extend almost or quite across the
valve as a band, and thus, with the median blank space, form a cross, it has
received the name of Stauroneis. The markings on the valve, however,
are not those found on Pinnularia, but consist of minute depressions,
or dots set in lines, which run usually somewhat sloping from the middle
portion to the edge. These rows of dots are usually known as "striae,"
and are often extremely fine, so much so that in some species in which
they occur they are very difficult to demonstrate, and hence the diatom
becomes a very good "test-object." In Navicula, the genus which has
by far the largest number of species, inhabiting fresh, salt, and brackish
water, we have Stauroneis without the central cross bar, but merely the
blank longitudinal space found in Pinnularia.

The variation in outline and in other respects, among the several hun-
dred species which have been grouped together under the generic name
of Navicula, is very great, so much so, in fact, that it would seem reason-
able to believe that several genera must have been unconsciously fused
together. And such is the opinion of the present writer, in which he
rather agrees with some of the older writers on the diatomacese.

There is a genus which at one time was included in Navicula, but
which has of late years been separated therefrom, and is known as Pleu-
rosigma. It looks like a Navicula which has been twisted so as to bend
the two opposite sides of the valve in different directions. Hence it has
somewhat the form of an S, as its name indicates. It has a central canal
like the other naviculaeform diatoms ; but the blank space through which
it runs is very narrow. The central expansion is generally present ; but
the terminal swellings are not so evident. On this account, although in
Pinnularia and other genera, in which they are pronounced, the terminal
expansions of the blank, thickened portion have been called "terminal
nodules;" in Pleurosigma, where they are not so apparent, that name
has been applied to the swelled ends of the central canal, — an example of
the unscientific manner in which the diatomaceae have been treated by
many who have written about them.

436 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

The markings on the valves of Plcurosigma are peculiar, and different
from those found upon the other navicubeform diatoms considered. The
genus can be and is usually divided into two groups, distinguished by the
character of the markings. In the first group the valve is covered with
dots set all over the surface in such a way that they are in lines at equal
distances apart, running from the central canal to the edge of the valve.
But the next row starts, as it were, half a dot behind the previous one :
therefore its dots alternate with and come between those of the first line,
and so on, so that the dots are at equal distances apart all over the valve,
but, when traced across the valve, are in straight lines, and, when traced
lengthwise of the valve, are in zigzag lines. As these dots are coarse
and set far apart in a few species, they can then be seen to be circular,
but, when they approach each other closely, they appear to become, by
mutual compression, as would be the case if such were to occur, hexa-
gons. In fact, it has been one of the difficult matters to solve concerning
the diatoms, and one on which observers have differed for a long time, as
to whether the markings on certain species of Pleurosigma are circular
or hexagonal. Hence one species, especially named Plcurosigma angu-
lata, has been selected as a "test object" for lenses of moderate power.
But the second of the two groups into which Pleurosigma is divided has
its markings arranged somewhat differently. In this group the dots are
set in straight lines, if they be traced either across or lengthwise of the
valve ; that is to say, instead of being alternate, they are opposite in con-
tiguous rows. Among themselves the different species of Pleurosigma
vary somewhat: thus in many the sides run in one unbroken line from
end to end, being only swelled out at the centre. In P. augulata, and
still more so in P. quadmta, the bowing out at this point is decidedly
angular. In P. Balticum, a species originally found in the Baltic sea, and
hence the name which was given to it, but which has since been found
pretty much all over the world, the sides are straight and parallel until
near the ends, when they are curved over so that one end of the valve
points to the right, while the other is turned to the left. P. angulata and
P. qnadmta belong to the group in which the dots of the markings are
arranged alternately, while P. Balticum has its dots set regularly and
opposite to each other. P. fasciola differs totally in outline from any of
those described. The main portion of its valve is in shape like a Navic-

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACE.E. 437

nla, being almost oval, but pointed at each end, and with a central canal
running down the middle, just like a Navicnla; in fact, it may be said to
be almost shuttle-shaped ; but from each extremity projects a long, horn-
like portion, into which the central canal is continued, and which is
curved one to the right, the other to the left, thus completing the sigmoid
form necessary to constitute a member of this genus. Some species of
Pleurosigma have markings of such extreme fineness that it becomes
very difficult to see them unless the microscope employed be of the best
quality. A few species are found in fresh water, but for the most part
they are inhabitants of the brackish water of swamps and similar localities.

Some species of diatoms present us with examples of a peculiar struc-
ture not found in all. Thus, when we look at certain species of Stauro-
neis from a front view, we see at the ends and just below the terminal
nodules, as a part of the valve, and just where it joins the connecting
membrane or zone, a stout siliceous structure projecting a short distance
into the cavity of the frustule like a shelf, but more so at the ends than
at the sides, where it becomes so shallow as to be hardly apparent.
When we look down upon the valve, or view the diatom on what is known
as the side, we see that this projecting portion forms a ring all around
the cavity, widest at the ends and narrowest at the centre, where it is
hardly, or in some species not at all, perceptible. This has been called
the "septum." In Triceratium, we find it appearing only as slight project-
ing shelves at the corners. Some genera have it very strongly developed,
and projecting very far into the cavity, so that the two septa divide it
into three distinct portions. Some genera have more than two septa,
and in such cases they are not fused with and form part of the valves,
but are attached to separate rings which lie between the edges of the
valves and the connecting membrane or zone.

Septa are very marked characters in a genus named Grammatophora,
which is found in chains of many frustules, united corner to corner, and
attached to algae in the ocean on almost all sea shores. The valves are
shaped somewhat like a Pinnularia, but have the striae, as the rows of
markings have been called, running straight across, and extending quite
up to the ends. The septa are four in number, and extend almost across
the cavity of the frustule, leaving only a small opening of communica-
tion at the centre. Besides, although some species have them straight,

438 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

in most they are undulate, so that on a front view they look somewhat
like written characters, which has led to the name Grammatophora being
given to the genus.

Nearly related to the genus just mentioned is one known as RJiabdo-
nema. It likewise is found growing in chains attached to algae, and
similar submerged objects in the ocean. In this the septa are not con-
tinuous, but look as if they were punctured with several holes. The two
last mentioned genera are attached to their supports by a small gelati-
nous cushion, but there is a genus named Achnanthes, in which this
cushion is lengthened out into a long stalk, and as it is attached to one
of the corners of the frustule, the whole individual looks very much like
a flag floating out straight from a staff. This stalk is called the "stipes,"
and is remarkably developed in other genera. Thus, GompJionema con-
sists of a number of wedge-shaped frustules attached by their pointed
ends to long and forked stalks, while in Synedra the stipes has again
shrunk down to a cushion. The frustules of Synedra are like little sticks
attached to the cushion by one end, and sticking out on all sides like the
spines of a porcupine.

There are many other forms which the various genera of diatoms
present, but we have had space only to describe and figure a few of them.
The possessor of a microscope will soon, if he searches, come across
others ; and if he is encouraged to ask for more information concerning
the beautiful atomies he sees, as it is to be hoped will be the case, he will
be able, in the works of W. Smith, Rabenhorst, Kiitzing, Ralfs, and others,
to find them more fully described, and better and more thoroughly illus-
trated. So to those works we must refer the reader who desires to learn
more than we have been able to tell him in this little sketch concerning
the diatom aceae.

PART SECOND.
MOVEMENTS OF THE DIATOMACE^E.

It has been said that it is extremely probable that all species of dia-
tomaceae are at some period of their lives free, while for a short period
perhaps for some, but always for some time, they are fixed or attached to
some submerged object, as rocks, plants, woodwork, or similar substances.
This opinion is not held by all observers ; so much so that many, — and

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACE^. 439

W. Smith, the author of the Synopsis of the British Diatomaceae, among
that number, — have classified them in such a way as to constitute two
great groups, namely, those which are free, and those which occur
attached. It would seem most natural that those forms which commonly
present themselves attached should become free at some period of their
existence for the purpose of disseminating the species, for we do not find
that the diatomaceae produce seed which may be wafted about by the
motion of the water, or young which are specially characterized by pos-
sessing organs of motion, so that this phenomenon may be accomplished.
However this may be, it is a fact that many of them possess peculiar
movements, produced by and inherent in themselves, and which have
from the earliest times, when they were first observed, attracted the
attention and aroused the wonder of possessors of microscopes. And
when these seeming sentient movements are watched by means of the
magnifying glass, it is not to be wondered at that many observers have
been disposed to class them among animals possessing complicated organs
of locomotion, digestion, and reproduction, if not reasoning powers to
guide and direct those organs. And this power of active movement is
not confined to those forms alone which are usually seen free, for many
of the fixed forms, if detached from their support, will immediately take
upon themselves motions precisely similar to those of their normally
free brethren.

The extreme liveliness of some of the diatomaceae has been considered
by many as proof of their animal nature ; but when we know that the
seeds of many large and acknowledged plants growing in water, namely,
the algae, are even more active in their motions than our little friends, and,
as in the case of those plants, this motion is evidently for disseminating
the species, so we may naturally believe that some similar provision is
made for the wide spreading of the diatomaceae. If we watch, by means
of a good microscope, an individual belonging to the genus Navicula, in
which the form, when viewed in the direction which is usually presented
to the eye, is that of a double-prowed boat, something like an Indian
canoe, we find that it moves after the manner of a boat, but with either
prow forward, as happens to be most convenient, apparently, for, after
moving in one direction for a few seconds or minutes, it will immediately
return upon its course, now propelling the other forward. And although

44O PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

in a few species, and those seemingly the larger, the motion is a steady
progressive one, yet it is by far commoner to find that it is unsteady and
trembling, as if it were the tottering steps of the infant, or of extreme
old age. Navicula is one of those genera which are usually classed
among the free forms, and in them all, with perhaps one or two excep-
tions, when they have any progressive motion, it is that which we have
described. There is a genus which has very much the form of a horse
saddle with the two flexures, and known as Campylodiscus, in which "the
motion never proceeds farther than a languid roll from one side to the
other."

As has been remarked, the earlier observers of these atomies, being
insufficiently informed on the subject of the economy of the vegetable
kingdom, considered the possession of the power of spontaneous motion
by any being indisputable evidence of its animal nature ; and, on this
foundation, it became easy to rear up a mass of proofs that the diatoma-
ceae were certainly animals. The space within the two-valved shell, like
an oyster or clam, was the animal matter furnished with special organs,
if not with muscles, by means of which the movements were accom-
plished. Of course, the many clear vacuole-like-looking spots of oily
matter were the stomachs, and, with the imperfect microscopes of the
time, observers were (they thought) able to see the protrusion of a "foot"
like that upon which the snail travels, through the central portion, which
looked to them like a round opening, but which we now know to be a
thickened portion of the shell. A late observer has asserted that he has
seen, along the so-called "median line," an appearance indicating the pro-
trusion of an organ or series of organs of some kind ; but as others,
equally competent microscopists, have not been able to satisfy themselves
that there are such organs, this gentleman's assertion can hardly be said
to be proven. There are still a few microscopists who hold to the belief
in the animal nature of the diatomaceae, although by far the majority
rank them as plants. One gentleman in England says that he has
seen (and, what is more, figures) the cilia, or hairs, which move about
like arms, and by means of which these creatures change their place.
Unfortunately, he first takes the animal nature of the diatomaceae for
granted, and then attempts to prove the existence of the cilia as organs
of locomotion.

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACE7E. 441

It will be naturally supposed, from what has been said on the subject,
that the mode in which the motion is caused is not decidedly known ;
but however that may be, it is a remarkable characteristic of these crea-
tures, and, although in most species it is regular and uniform, in some it
takes place as a series of jerks. It would seem that it could hardly be
called a voluntary motion, or, at least, that if it be so, the faculty govern-
ing and directing it within the creature is of a low order, or one which
responds to stimulus in a very sluggish manner ; for if an obstacle of any
kind occur in the path of a moving diatom, like a Navicula, it is not
avoided ; but, on the contrary, if it be small enough, it is thrust aside ;
or, if it be too large, the diatom is arrested in its career for a certain
length of time, or turned aside in its course. If it be stopped, it is a
remarkable fact, noted by English observers, that the diatom waits exactly
the length of time it would have taken for it to perfect its forward pro-
gression to the greatest extent, when it returns on its path again. In
many species, however, the motion is not so regular as this, and the little
creature goes tottering along its way. It has been remarked by one
author that "the movements of the diatomaceae appear rapid and viva-
cious under the microscope; but it must be remembered that the high
powers usually employed in the observation of these minute organisms
magnify their motions as well as their bulk." Using a seconds watch,
and timing several species exactly, it has been found that one of the
most rapid, known as Bacillaria paradoxa, took a whole second to move
over one two-hundreth of an inch ; and that one of the slowest, named
Pinnularia radiosa, in the same space of time only travelled one thirty-
four-hundredth of an inch ; — so that the quickest would take three min-
utes to travel an inch, while its slowest relative would require a full hour
to perform the same feat. But although a few observations of this kind
have been made, we have by no means arrived at a knowledge of the
rate of movement of these atomies, for it varies under different circum-
stances, as apparent condition of health and surroundings. Heat appears
to accelerate as cold retards it ; and yet I have seen Bacillaria paradoxa
very lively when taken from beneath the ice on a cold winter's day. It
is a curious fact, that often, as we watch a diatom sailing across the field
of the microscope, it comes in contact with an obstacle, as a grain of
sand. If it cannot move it, or pass under it, or, by a little shifting, around
VOL. i. 58

442 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

it, it waits exactly the length of time it would have taken for it to perfect
its forward progression, when it returns on its path again. But this takes
place only with such species as have a regular backward and forward mo-
tion ; most of them are extremely erratic in their ways. As an illustration
of the regularity of movement of the diatomaceae, let us consider one of
those species just mentioned, namely, Bacillaria paradoxa. This crea-
ture has a motion of its own, which is so peculiar, and at the same time
so incomprehensible in its mode of accomplishment, that it well deserves
a more particular description. This species is somewhat of the form of
a straight ruler, when we consider the single individual, or, at least, it
looks very much of that form, as commonly seen. But a careful exami-
nation shows it to be made up of two long and narrow boat-shaped valves,
united together so that the keels project outwards opposite to each other,
and enclose within their united bodies the general cavity of the frustule.
When in a living state, the compound individual, or colony, whichever
we may choose to consider it, consists of a number, more or less great,
of these double boat-shaped frustules, united one to the other at their
keeled sides ; but the mode of union is entirely unknown, and, from the
extreme freedom of motion which each frustule of the colony enjoys, it
is hard to imagine what its character is. Thus united, they form a fila-
ment which is generally found floating freely in the water of brackish
ditches within reach of the influence of the sea. But I have seen it in
perfectly fresh water, far up the Hudson river in New York state.

The movement has been well described by an English observer, Mr.
Thwaites, and I cannot do better than quote his words. He says, —

When the filaments have been detached from the plants to which they adhere, a
remarkable motion is seen to commence in them. The first indication of this consists
in a slight movement of a terminal frustule, which begins to slide lengthwise over its
contiguous frustule ; the second acts simultaneously in a similar manner with regard to
the third, and so on, throughout the whole filament ; the same action having been going
on at the same time at both ends of the filament, but in opposite directions. The cen-
tral frustule thus appears to remain stationary, or nearly so, while each of the others
has moved with a rapidity increasing with its distance from the centre, its own rate of
movement having been increased by the addition of that of the independent move-
ment of each frustule between it and the central one. This lateral elongation of the
filament continues until the point of contact between the contiguous frustules is
reduced to a very small portion of their length, when the filament is again contracted

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACE/E. 443

by the frustules sliding back again, as it were, over each other ; and this changed
direction of movement proceeding, the filament is again drawn out until the frustules
are again only slightly in contact. The direction of the movement is again reversed,
and continues to operate in opposite directions, the time occupied in passing from the
elongation in one direction to the opposite being generally about forty-five seconds.
If a filament while in motion be forcibly divided, the uninjured frustules of each por-
tion continue to move as before, proving that the filament is a compound structure,
notwithstanding that its frustules move in unison. When the filament is elongated to
its utmost extent, it is extremely rigid, and requires some comparatively considerable
force to bend it, the whole filament moving out of the way of any obstacle rather than
bending or separating at the joints.

This is not always the case, as I have myself frequently observed, as
the filament often becomes bent by the force of its own motion. And
there is one other fact which seems to have escaped the notice of Mr.
Thwaites, and which adds considerably to the interest of an exhibition
of this plant while in motion. After the extended frustules have returned
to their normal position in the filament, so as to form a ribbon-like com-
bination again, and just at the time when they are about to start on their
way in the opposite direction, there seems as if a considerable amount of
force were necessary to get them started past this point, for this force is
very apt to dislodge the whole filament and swing it entirely round, so
that that end which was, we may say, pointing towards the right hand,
now points to the left. The consequence is, that now, when the frustules
proceed on their path towards the opposite side of the filament from
which they projected previously, they, in reality, extend towards the same
side of the microscope as they returned from. This motion often contin-
ues to be exerted, so that the whole filament is periodically swung around
on its centre as the frustules return to their places, and become again
parallel one to the other. Often and often have I spent hours looking at
this marvel of nature ; the motion without apparent cause or mode, an
invisible joint, which, as a friend of mine (an engineer) once remarked,
would be a fortune to any one who would discover it, for here we have
several sticks forming the bundle, moving over each other without sep-
arating, and yet the use of the highest powers of the microscope has
failed to detect the means of their union into one mass, or composite
group, of individuals. The more often I watch Bacilleria paradoxa, the
more it puzzles me. Not long since I saw one specimen (of course, I

444 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

mean one bundle of individuals) slide out to its utmost limit across the
field of view, and then, becoming entangled with others, which likewise
were made up of many individuals, some eight or ten of its frustules
were twisted around, almost off from the rest, so as to lie at right angles
to them ; and when the group containing the largest number of frustules
receded to their former position, which they soon did, the eight or ten
seeming, by the act of twisting, to lose their power of motion among
themselves for the time being, were dragged along in a helpless condi-
tion, and twisted completely around one revolution, so as thereafter to
fall back again into their places, when all went on again as usual, — that
is to say, the regular motion of all the frustules over each other succeeded.
Now what kind of a joint can it be that permits of such eccentric move-
ment ? The motion of all diatoms is accelerated by a moderate heat, so
that specimens gathered during the winter months, and remaining either
quiescent, or only exhibiting very slight motion when viewed by means
of the magnifying glass of the microscope, may be made to move vigor-
ously by the cautious application of warmth, as by placing them in a
warm room, or by holding the glass slide, upon which they are, upon the
palm of the hand for a short time.

PART THIRD.
MODE OF GROWTH OF THE DIATOMACEAE.

When we speak of the growth of the Diatomaceae, it must not be
confounded with the reproduction of the organisms, although modern
physiologists are coming to understand that growth or increase in vol-
ume, and reproduction or increase in number, are very nearly related, if
they be not but modification, in degree and in direction, of a force acting
within and essential to the existence of living beings.

We have seen what the structure of the outer coat or siliceous skeleton
of the diatomaceae is. Let us now, before asking how they grow or
increase in dimensions, learn what is known with regard to their internal
economy, that is to say, the anatomy of their softer parts. Unfortu-
nately, on this point our knowledge is extremely unsatisfactory, and it
even appears, as has been already hinted, that the result of modern
investigations would be to upset a great deal of what we have up to a
late date considered as settled in connection with this point.

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACE^E. 445

Immediately within the siliceous skeleton of a diatom is supposed by
many to be a membrane or skin which bounds and limits the soft parts of
the organism ; and it is this membrane, say those who believe in its exist-
ence, which secretes or forms the wonderfully sculptured epiderm we
have been considering. Some observers think that there is also an out-
side membrane, and that it is in it that the silica accumulates. But as
many good observers have been able to see neither of these membranes
in the living diatom, and as even the believers in their existence acknowl-
edge that they are extremely difficult of exhibition, most likely the fact is
that the real individual matter of the diatom is a mass of structureless
protoplasm, which deposits near its outer portion the silica it has absorbed
from the surrounding water. Within the protoplasmic mass is the endo-
chrome or colored matter we have already spoken of, and which is most
commonly disposed in two portions contiguous to the two valves. In the
clear central portion there is often to be seen a little sac or vesicle, which
is quite transparent, except at one part, where a minute dot is seen. This
vesicle is considered to be the "nucleus" of the diatom, while the dot is
the "nucleolus," both of these things being required in a cell constituted
under the type established by a German observer named Schwann. But
now that Schwann's typical cell, consisting of a "cell wall" containing
"cell contents," wherein are found a "nucleus" and often one "nucleolus"
or several "nucleoli," is known to exist rarely, we are not surprised if
we do not find all of these parts present in a diatom. And now that
we understand the internal anotomy of the diatom, without taking into
consideration disputed minutiae of structure, we can see how the indi-
vidual grows.

Schwann has shown us what he considers cell growth to be, and it
is what is known as "cell subdivision." That is to say, the cell itself is
stable as to size, but increase of volume occurs by its dividing into two,
and these two into four, and so on, so that if the resulting cells remain
united to each other there will eventuate a true increase in bulk, and
eventually a large organism like a tree or a man may be formed. But
such is not the way that the diatom grows, for it is not a polycellular, but
a unicellular organism. There is a large group of very simple plants,
even more simple in structure than the diatomaceae, for they have no
elaborately sculptured siliceous cell-wall, which are known as ProtopJiytes,

446 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

and in the life history of one of these we shall be able to study the sim-
plest expression of cell growth. Dr. Carpenter, whose valuable treatise
on the microscope is to be recommended to all intending to use that
instrument, has epitomized what is known on this subject so well that I
cannot do better than to give it in his own words. He says, —

The life-history of one of these unicellular plants, in its most simple form, can
scarcely be better exemplified than in the Palmoglcea macrococca (Kiitzing) — one of
those humble kinds of vegetation which spreads itself as a green slime over damp
stones, walls, &c. When this slime is examined with the microscope, it is found to
consist of a multitude of green cells (Fig. A) , each surrounded by a gelatinous envel-
ope ; the cell, which does not seem to have any distinct membranous wall, is filled
with granular particles of a green color; and a nucleus, or more solid aggregation,
which appears to be the centre of the vital activity of the cell, may sometimes be
distinguished through the midst of these. When treated with tincture of iodine,
however, the green contents of the cell are turned to a brownish hue, and a dark
brown nucleus is distinctly shown. Other cells are seen (B), which are considerably
elongated, some of them beginning to present a sort of hour-glass contraction across
the middle ; in these is commencing that curious multiplication by binary subdivison,
which is the ordinary mode of increase throughout the vegetable kingdom ; and when
a cell in this condition is treated with tincture of iodine, the nucleus is seen to be
undergoing the like elongation and constriction. A more advanced state of the pro-
cess of subdivision is seen at C, in which the constriction has proceeded to the extent
of completely cutting off the two halves of the cell, as well as of the nucleus (I) , from
each other, though they still remain in mutual contact ; but in a yet later stage they
are found detached from each other (D) , though still included within the same gelati-
nous envelope. Each new cell then begins to secrete its own gelatinous envelope, so
that, by its intervention, the two are usually soon separated from one another (E).
Sometimes, however, this is not the case, — the process of subdivision being quickly
repeated before there is time for the production of the gelatinous envelope, so that a
series of cells (F) hanging on one to another is produced.

Now the diatom aceae grow in a manner precisely similar to that just
described as taking place in Palmogl&a. This subdivision of the cell, so
that the new individuals are formed from one in the diatomaceae, results
in the production of a series of frustules almost identical in all particulars
with the original individual. In most cases, if not in all, the new indi-
viduals differ from that from which they sprung in two marked respects :
First, they each possess one old and one new valve ; and, secondly, the
new valve is smaller than the old one, so that the two valves of all dia-
toms differ somewhat in dimensions, although alike in other respects.

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACE^E. 447

As the siliceous exterior skeleton of the diatom does not permit of its
expanding in all directions, the consequence is that when it absorbs nutri-
tive material, increases in bulk, and proceeds to subdivide, it must mul-
tiply its bulk in one direction only; and, as the two valves are capable of
being separated one from the other along the line of junction with the
connecting membrane, it is in that way that the splitting up of the cell
into two new ones takes place. The existence of the connecting mem-
brane in the perfect diatomaceous individual, before subdivision starts, is
denied by many. Under those circumstances, the siliceous skeleton con-
sists of only two parts, the valves, to which, as soon as subdivision sets
in the third portion, the connecting membrane is added. In Palmoglcea
we have seen that the perfect cell subdivides by a process which shows
itself by the bending in of the cell wall, if there be one, or by the pe-
riphery of the mass, if there be no limiting membrane. In this way, at
first, two united and similar halves, and thereafter, two separate individ-
uals, are formed exactly alike in all particulars. The nucleus and nucle-
olus, if there be one, of the diatom subdivide at the same time ; and, to
make room for the increasing cell-substance, the enclosing valves sepa-
rate from one another, the space all around between them being closed in
by the new hoop of siliceous substance, the connecting membrane which
now makes its appearance and grows by additions to its two edges, as the
accumulation of pabulum by the growing individual goes on. At the
same time, two new valves have been forming exactly like the two old
ones, except that in consequence of their forming entirely within the con-
necting membrane, which has the same diameter as the old valves, they
are just so much smaller; and, as this mode of subdivision is repeated
again and again, there are always two individual diatoms having one old
and one new valve, which latest formed valve is continually being replaced
by another still newer. That the cell-contents may be at no time exposed
to direct contact with the surrounding water, the connecting membrane
is formed of two pieces, by additions next to the two valves ; and, as one
valve of the diatom individual is always somewhat smaller than the other,
one of these sections of the connecting membrane is smaller than and
slides within the other. In some cases, however, it would seem that the
connecting membrane is made up of but one piece, instead of two, as
described. On account of this gradual diminution in size which must

448 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

take place, we can readily understand how we shall be very likely to find
diatoms growing together which are exactly alike, except that they vary
in size. But instead of the smallest being the oldest, the largest were
formed first, and, by the process of subdivision described, they have grad-
ually diminished in dimension. And it would seem that there was a limit
in each species beyond which the frustule did not diminish, but as soon
as it was reached, then the stage had arrived when reproduction sets in
in the manner to be presently described. Thus we see how one indi-
vidual diatom may in a very short time populate a large lake or river ;
but all of these separate cells, which have now become separate individ-
uals as well, will very closely resemble the first one from which they
sprung. But circumstances may occur, while this rapid growth is going
on, which may modify the characters of the diatom to such an extent that
very marked variation may result. Thus, for example, if the original
frustule existed at the head waters of a small stream, in perfectly fresh,
running water, some of its descendants may be carried down into a lake
where they may lodge along the shore, in still water, and thus become
modified, or, they may pass on into a large river, to be there affected, or
even carried down to its mouth, and there, where the salt and fresh waters
mingle, be changed by that circumstance. So, of course, other circum-
stances, which will readily present themselves to the mind, will serve to
form and perpetuate variation in the diatoms, until two frustules, de-
scended from the same progenitor, by growing under different circum-
stances, will appear so unlike that they may be classed as separate
species, or even as belonging to separate genera.

The time occupied in a single act of self -division in the diatoms has
not been ascertained for all species, although it has been lately noted for
a few; "but supposing it to be completed in twenty -four hours, we should
have, as the progeny of a single frustule, the amazing number of one
thousand millions in a single month, — a circumstance which will, in some
degree, explain the sudden, or, at least, rapid appearance of vast numbers
of these organisms in localities where they were but a short time pre-
viously either unrecognized, or only sparingly diffused."

In all cases, however, the two newly formed frustules do not entirely
separate from each other, for, after subdivision has taken place, they
remain united, so that in time others will be added, and eventually a long

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACE/E. 449

ribbon-like assemblage of individuals result. The genera Fragilaria,
Himantidimn, and Rhabdoncnia, are examples of such a mode of growth
when the valves are oblong, and Melosira when they are circular. Then,
again, the separation may be partial, so that the frustules remaining
united by the alternate corners are attached to each other, and a zigzag
chain is formed. Diatoma and GrammatopJiora are examples of this.
If the frustules are not possessed of quite parallel sides, but if they, on
the contrary, approach each other at one end, and then remain united
after subdivision has taken place, a fan-shaped arrangement will result, as
is seen in LicJimapJiora ; or, if subdivision continues, a spiral will be
formed as in Meridian. Those forms which do not float about freely in
the water in which they live and grow, are attached to submerged objects
by either a small gelatinous cushion, a long single or branching stalk,
pedicle, or "stipes," as it is called. And there are forms, as Schizonema,
which are of a naviculoid form, but which secrete around themselves a
membranous tube within which the process of subdivision goes on, and
up and down the cavity of which the little boats sail with extreme
activity. Thus, from this simple process of subdivision, as described,
various forms may result, and many individuals be formed which shall
have their number still further increased by the process of reproduction
to be next described.

PART FOURTH.
REPRODUCTION OF THE DLATOMACE^E.

We have seen the manner in which the diatomaceae increase in dimen-
sions, or grow, and observed that it is essentially the same process as
that which takes place in larger and apparently more complex organisms,
both animal and vegetable. That is to say, we have found that in the
case of the diatomaceas it becomes very difficult, if not impossible, to
distinguish the results of growth from the results of reproduction. And
although at first sight this may appear a very remarkable fact, yet it
ceases to be so if we remember that really physiology teaches us that
reproduction is merely a form of modified growth, resulting after the
casting off from the parent's body of one or more masses of matter which
possess in themselves the power of assimilation of food, and its appro-
priation for the building up and elaboration of new tissues. Those genera
VOL. i. 59

45O PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

of diatomaceae which occur normally, or, we should say, most com-
monly, attached in some manner, as by a cushion, pedicle, stipes, or the
surface of the valve or connecting membrane, or otherwise, to submerged
objects, would never become very widely distributed through the agency
of self-fission alone, as it has been described, and the consequence would
be that they would be confined to certain localities were there not some
other mode of increase or reproduction. To a certain extent, this distri-
bution is provided for by the curious movements of the individual which
we have just treated of, and which we have seen are quite lively in some
species. But it is still more perfectly insured by the process of repro-
duction in which a new individual is developed from a parent. It is in
the form of spores or seeds that most plants (or, at least, the larger ones
with which we are acquainted) are enabled to endure the severe frosts of
the winter months ; and the same is likely to be the case with the dia-
tomaceae, although it is true that some species are to be found living and
swimming actively about beneath the frozen surface of ponds and streams.
And, although they be caught within the mass of solid ice, yet their
vitality does not seem to be materially compromised, for, on thawing the
ice they again move about in a lively manner in the water formed. Very
little investigation has been carried on in the direction of the reproduc-
tion of the diatomaceae, or, rather, we should say, that little has been
published in this connection, so that we have few authorities to draw
upon to enlighten us on this point in the economy of our little friends.
From what little has been observed and recorded by a few investigators,
it would seem that the diatomaceae reproduce after a manner very similar
to that which has been found to take place in the Protophyta, or simple
unicellular plants ; and this fact has been brought forward as an argu-
ment in favor of the vegetable nature of the organisms of which we
are treating.

The first instance in which the process of reproduction was observed
and published was by Mr. Thwaites, in EpitJievtia, a genus which is
almost always found in the living state, attached to submerged plants, as
mosses and the like. He found it to be essentially the same as the mode
of conjugation, as it had been called, known to take place in several algae
or water plants of simple organization. He describes it in the following
manner: "The process of conjugation consists in the union of the endo-

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACE^E. 45 1

chrome of two approximated fronds [using this term instead of frustule,
to indicate the perfect individual], this mixed endochrome developing
around itself a proper membrane, and thus becoming converted into the
sporangium." The sporangium is what may be called the seed vessel, as,
although it does not contain seeds, in the ordinary acceptation of that
term, yet from it proceed the new individuals who are to perpetuate the
species. "In a very early stage of the process, the conjugated frustules
have their concave surfaces [it must be remembered that we are speaking
of Epithemia, whose outline is somewhat bow-shaped, having convex and
concave surfaces] in nearly close opposition; and, it may be observed,
that from each of these surfaces two protuberances arise, which meet two
similar ones in the opposite frustule; these protuberances indicate the
future channels of communication by which the endochrome of the two
frustules becomes united, as well as the spot where is subsequently devel-
oped the double sporangium, or, rather, the two sporangia. The mixed
endochrome occurs at first as two irregular masses between the connected
(conjugating) frustules ; but these masses shortly become covered with a
smooth cylindrical membrane, the young sporangia, which gradually in-
crease in length, retaining nearly a cylindrical form until they far exceed
in dimensions the parent frustules, and, at length, when mature, become,
like them, transversely striated upon the surface. Around the whole
structure a considerable quantity of mucus has during this time been
developed, by which the empty frustules are held attached to the sporan-
gia." Thus we see that, whether any two particular frustules are drawn
towards each other or not (which we do not know), yet two contiguous
individuals pour out their respective contents, which, melting together,
are thus fused into a mass, around which is formed one or two new sili-
ceous coats exactly alike in structure, but only differing in size, being
larger than those which enclose the parent frustules. Enveloping these
sporangia, or large cases from which the new individuals shall be evolved,
is thrown a protecting, or, perhaps, nutritive globular mass of transparent
mucous material. In different genera, slight variations are met with in
the method of conjugation, as described. Thus, in some species of Gom-
phonema, which grows attached to the end of branching stalks or stipes,
very much after the manner of the leaves on the ends of the twigs of a
tree, the sporangia lie in a direction parallel to the empty parent frustules

452 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

by which they have been generated, instead of across them, as is the case
in EpitJicniia. Although in many cases the frustules, which are about to
conjugate and form sporangia, split into two separate parts, so that their
contents may freely coalesce, we find that there are examples where the
valves only split apart at one end to a slight extent, but enough to serve
for the escape of the endochrome. Instead, also, of the pair of conju-
gated frustules, producing between them two sporangia, they may develop
but a single one. The Melosircz and BiddulpJiice (the former looking like
a string of pill-boxes attached together by their tops and bottoms ; and
the latter being somewhat like a number of wool-sacks united at the cor-
ners into a chain), Mr. Thwaites remarks, "would seem in their develop-
ment of sporangia to offer an exception to most diatomaceas ; for, in those
genera, no evident conjugation has been seen. However, something anal-
ogous to it must take place ; for, excepting the mixture of endochromes
of two cells, the phenomena are of precisely similar character. Thus,
instead of the conjugation of two frustules, a change takes place in the
endochrome of a single frustule ; that is, a disturbance of its previous
arrangement, a moving towards the centre of the frustule, and a rapid
increase in its quantity; subsequently to this it becomes a sporangium.
In a single cell, therefore, a process, physiologically precisely similar to
that occurring between two conjugating cells, takes place; and it is not
difficult to believe, taking into view the secondary character of cell-
membrane, that the two kinds of endochrome may be developed at the
opposite ends of one frustule as easily as in two contiguous frustules,
and give rise to the same phenomena as ordinary conjugation." In such
genera as have their siliceous frustules enclosed within membranous
tubes, as ScJiizonema, conjugation seems to take place both without and
within the tube, but oftenest upon the outside. As has been remarked,
"one reason for the paucity of observations on this process in the dia-
tomaceae is no doubt to be found in the changes which usually take place
in the condition of these organisms at this period of their existence.
During conjugation the process of self-division is arrested, the general
mucus envelope or stratum, produced during self-division, is dissolved,
and the conjugating pair of frustules become detached from the original
mass ; they are thus more readily borne away and dispersed by the sur-
rounding currents, or the movements of worms and insects, and their

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACEjE. 453

detection becomes in consequence more casual and difficult." The
modes of conjugation have been reduced to four classes, thus: ist. We
have two parent frustules and two sporangia, as the result of their con-
jugation. This mode has been seen to take place in the genera Epith-
emia, Cocconema, Gomphonema, Encyonema, and Colletoncma. 2d. From
the conjugation of two parent frustules we have formed a single sporan-
gium. This mode has been only seen to take place in Himantidium, but
most likely will be found hereafter to be natural in allied forms. 3d.
The valves of a single frustule separate, the contents set free, rapidly
increase in bulk, and finally become condensed into a single sporangium.
This has been seen in Cocconcis, Cyclotclla, Melosira, Orthosira, and
Schizoncma. 4th. From a single frustule, as in the last mode, two spo-
rangia are produced in the process of conjugation. This takes place in
AchnantJiidium and RJiabdonema. Thus far has observation gone; but
no one seems to have traced the further history of the sporangium. For
we find no record of the undoubted production of gonidia, as they are
called, or seeds possessed of motion, from the contents of the sporan-
gium. In fact, we have no proof that such contents are developed into
spores, still or motile. It is true that Rabenhorst, a German observer,
has figured and described what he supposes to be the development of
gonidia or motile spores from the contents of a sporangium in a filament
of Melosira varians, an extremely common species found growing in
fresh water in all quarters of the globe. It would seem strange, there-
fore, that others have not seen the same thing ; and later observers have
doubted his record for this reason alone, apparently, that they have not
chanced to see it. However, Smith, one of the best of the English
authorities on this subject, says, — "On the whole, the facts at present
within our knowledge seem fully to warrant the conclusions that the
conjugated state of the diatomaceas is the first step in the reproduction
process of these organisms; and that the sporangia! products of this
condition become the parents of numerous young frustules destined to
renew the cycle of phenomena which accompanies the life and growth of
the species from which the sporangia have thence originated." It is very
likely that the contents of the sporangium are converted into spores or
gonidia, as Rabenhorst has stated, and that after escaping and moving
rapidly about, and thus aiding in distributing the species, these gonidia

454 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

develop around themselves siliceous shells or skeletons, and become dia-
toms of the normal dimensions of the species from and by which the
sporangium was produced. On the other hand, the sporangia may con-
stitute the "resting" state, such as is known to occur in several simple
forms of life, in which the species encounters the severity of the winter
only to reproduce the species in the spring. In this case, examination of
localities, known to produce certain species during the summer, should,
during the winter months, be searched when most likely there would be
found abundance of sporangial forms. I am not aware that any such
investigations have been as yet made; and the difficulties surrounding
the study of these organisms is so great that but few have the patience
requisite for such work. Hence we find that most of the papers relating
to the diatomaceae, which have been published, are by persons who de-
light in the naming of "new species," and have not cared to spend the
time necessary to determine whether they be but transition forms, spo-
rangia, or true species.

Although, then, as has been said, the whole life-history of the diato-
maceous sporangium has not been established, yet we know enough to
convince us, as Prof. Smith says, that "the ordinary diatomaceous frus-
tule seems to owe its production to the protoplasmic contents of the
sporangial frustule formed by the process of conjugation. These spo-
rangia, like the seeds of higher plants, often remain for a long period
dormant, and are borne about by currents, or become imbedded in the
mud of the waters in which they have been produced, until the circum-
stances necessary to their development concur to call them into activity.
At such times, their siliceous epiderms open to permit the escape of
the contained endochrome, which is resolved into a myriad of embryonic
frustules ; these either remain free, or surround themselves with mucus,
forming a pellicle or stratum, and, in a definite but unascertained period,
reach the mature form of the ordinary frustule." Prof. Smith has made
observations which appear to establish this fact of the formation of
motile spores, which he details in the following words : " In the gathering
of Cocconcma Cistula, made in April, 1852, which contained numerous
instances of the conjugating process, I observed the frequent occurrence
of cysts enclosing minute bodies, variable in their number and size, and
many of which had the outline and markings of the surrounding forms,

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACEyE. 455

and were obviously young frustules of the Cocconcma. It would appear
that production of the young frustules is preceded by the separation and
throwing off of the siliceous valves of the sporangium, and the constric-
tion or enlargement of its primordial utricle, according to the number of
young frustules originating in its protoplasmic contents. In this gather-
ing, forms of every size, intermediate between the minutest frustule in
the cyst and the ordinary frustules engaged in the conjugating, were
easily to be detected ; and the conclusion was inevitable that the cysts
and their contents were sporangia of the species with which they were
associated, and indicated the several stages of the reproductive process."
Although this observation seems to confirm the supposition that the con-
tents of the sporangium must divide into a number of small frustules
similar to the parents from which the sporangium sprung, yet further
study is necessary before we can consider this fact established ; and such
study can only be carried out by those who are willing to keep alive for
hours, days, or even weeks, such forms as they may meet with, and
spend hours at a time at the microscope, watching any change that may
take place in them.

Thus do we see the diatomaceous frustule becoming gradually smaller
and smaller, through the carrying on of the process of self-division, and
its return to the normal dimensions through conjugation, or the forma-
tion of gigantic sporangia, whose cell-contents shall return by subdivi-
sion, and the genesis of motile spores to the size of the parent frustules.
A perfect cycle of changes would seem to be thus kept up, such as is by
no means uncommon in the life-history of many simple plants grouped
under the head Protophyta. And we are at the same time reminded,
when witnessing these changes and transformations, of the equally won-
derful metamorphoses, well known to naturalists, to take place in the
jelly-fish and hydroids of our coast, or those of the insect world, and
which we see going on day by day around us. The egg becomes a grub,
the grub a caterpillar, which, in turn, changes into the quiescent chrys-
alis, in which commonly the winter is passed, only to burst forth, as soon
as the revivifying rays of the spring sun warm it into being, as the gor-
geously tinted and active butterfly, the parent of innumerable eggs,
which shall in turn produce another generation of grubs.

456 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

PART FIFTH.
MODES OF OCCURRENCE, AND USES TO MAN OF THE DIATOMACE.E.

And now it will be desirable to say something with regard to the
various modes of occurrence of the diatomaceae, specifying the particu-
lar habitats or kinds of situations or water (salt, fresh, or brackish), for
the use of such as may wish to know more concerning these beautiful
atomies than can be told within the limits of a short sketch like the
present. Thereafter it will be well to say something of the importance
to the geologist of knowing the life-history of the diatomacese, and,
finally, their uses to man in the arts and otherwise, as they occur in
mass in various parts of the world. And in this connection we are
reminded of the words of the poet, who says, —

Naught so vile that on this earth doth live,
But to the earth some special good doth give ;

for we find that the diatomaceae have in past ages played, and, in truth,
still are playing, a most important part in the grand drama of nature ;
and their minute dimensions is no excuse for the neglect to which they
have been subjected by scientific and capable observers.

Diatomaceae are to be looked for in both fresh and salt water, as well
as in that which can be included under neither of these heads, the brack-
ish water of seaside marshes, where the springs of to-day are overflowed
by the rising tide of to-morrow. In general, the piece of water in which
they are looked for must be permanent, for authors tell us that it is use-
less to expect to find them in the transient pools left by the rain. This
is, however, not strictly the case, for, on one occasion, I found diatoms in
a pool formed by the drainings of a stable-yard, and even little collec-
tions of water only two or three days old have occasionally yielded forms
when carefully searched, but in such cases they were only few and mi-
nute. Prof. Gregory found them in moist earth about the roots of plants,
and others have collected them from between the branches of mosses
which clustered upon tree barks or house-tops. Even the dust which
has fallen upon the sails and decks of vessels, far out at sea, have been
found to contain them, by the German microscopist, Ehrenberg, who
therefrom has deduced certain supposed facts with regard to atmospheric

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMAEC^. 457

currents. Upon these foundations Maury has formed theories which,
however true they may be in themselves, are not borne out by later
researches, for the forms which Ehrenberg supposed to be peculiar to
certain quarters of the globe have been found to be almost universally
distributed ; and, therefore, any deductions, which may have been estab-
lished in consequence of their appearance upon a ship, do not prove that
they were brought from the spot where they were first seen. In fact,
the diatomacese would seem to be more widely distributed than any other
group of organisms, animal or vegetable ; and the student of them need
never be at a loss for specimens to examine. The pool by the road-side,
the mud of the river bank, the moss upon the house-top, the earth be-
neath his feet, or the air above his head, may be searched, and will all of
them yield him material for observation, wonder, and delight. In the
living state, and, as often found, floating upon the surface of the water
of a pond or slowly running river, swamp, or ditch, the diatoms present
themselves as a flocculent collection of more or less dark rust-colored
matter, coherent in stringy masses, when such genera as Melosira, Frag-
ilaria, or Himantidium occur, or consisting of particles readily dispersed
and scattered when Navicula, Pinnularia, or other so-called free genera
exist. The color of such a mass may vary from a golden orange to a
dark brown, according to the thickness of the stratum or particular spe-
cies present, or, it may take on a greenish tinge at certain seasons, which
is supposed to indicate a change in the character of the endochrome
having some connection with the process of reproduction. At times, I
have found that bright green masses of floating confervas, — which are
filamentous water-plants found in all waters, both fresh and salt, — will
yield beautiful specimens of diatoms, which are entangled among their
branches, or grow adherent to them. But in most of such cases the
species belong to the group of adherent forms, and for those we are to
look to submerged plants, sticks, metal, and stones, and there they
appear as a brownish or fawn-colored mass, either closely adherent, or
with its free ends floating freely in the water, as delicate threads, borne
hither and thither by the changes of the current. A sprig of some
submerged plant, bearing a cluster of some such genus as Himan-
tidium, Fragilaria, or Tabellaria, presents a beautiful object, as the fine
hair-like filaments spread out on all sides, or bend with the motion of the
VOL. i. 60

458 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

containing water. A very little practice will enable the searcher after
diatoms to distinguish them, or to choose localities likely to yield them.
I have found that, if the adherent mud on the submerged wood-work of
a bridge or pier be scraped off and transferred to a bottle with some
water, and, when brought home, be placed in a saucer or plate, covered
with the water and exposed to the diffused sunlight which comes in at a
south window, many very beautiful forms may be procured in sufficient
quantity for observation ; and, besides, in such saucers the diatoms may
be kept and grown for a length of time, and many points in their econ-
omy studied with facility. Thus they may be watched through the
process of growth by subdivision and conjugation, and the changes
which they then undergo observed without being under the necessity
of making several visits to their native localities to make collections.
The dead skeletons of many rare species are to be found in the muds of
our tidal rivers and harbors, that from some of our southern streams
especially, where the summer season of vigorous growth lasts longer
than with us, having yielded forms not otherwise procurable. All algas,
as the water-plants which do not bear apparent flowers are called, both
marine and fresh water, bear upon their fronds diatoms in greater or less
numbers; and the results of dredgings in deep water will provide the
student with ample material for many an hour's amusement and instruc-
tion. The various methods to be employed, in preparing clean or mixed
gatherings of diatom aceae, can for the most part only be learned from
experience, as the books tell us little on this subject. Some general
directions, however, on this point will be appropriate to this sketch, and
will be given hereafter. As the diatomaceae live, grow, and multiply,
thus floating freely on the surface, along the bottom, or through the
mass of the water, or wave in tiny filaments from other objects, they
must die ; and the most perishable part of their bodies, namely, the cell-
contents, will be dissolved in the water or dissipated in gases, to return
and again build up new individuals at some future time. But their less
perishable portions, their siliceous skeletons, will fall to the bottom of
the pond, lake, ocean, or river, and there collect. Their remains will
also be found in the stomachs of such animals as are vegetable feeders,
as are most of the mollusca, like the oyster, the clam, and the water
snails, as well as the Crustacea, — lobsters, crabs, and the like. So, like-

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACE^E. 459

wise, the alimentary canals of sea urchins and sea cucumbers, as they
are commonly called, but whose correct and scientific, although, perhaps,
at first more incomprehensible names are echinoderms and holothurians,
as well as many fish and countless smaller creatures inhabiting the
waters, both fresh and salt, will be found to contain the skeletons of
diatoms which they take in directly as food, or indirectly when browsing
upon the algae and other examples of aquatic vegetation. So the exami-
nation of the half-digested food, from the stomachs of these creatures,
will often repay the trouble of preparing it for the microscope. And
here is an appropriate opportunity of saying something with regard to
that remarkable and important substance which goes by the name of
guano, and which has proved to be an almost inexhaustible storehouse
for beautiful forms of diatomacese. Very generally this substance is
supposed to be the excrements of birds, which has accumulated in large
quantities during the lapse of many years upon the rocky islands in the
Pacific ocean and elsewhere, in latitudes where little or no rain falls to
wash out the organic matter. This substance has been used by the
inhabitants of the coast of South America from time immemorial as a
manure ; and, since it was introduced into Europe by Humboldt, in 1804,
it has been largely exported to that country and this, to supply the
exhaustion of our fields by the continuous crops necessitated by our
always increasing population.

Some years since, the attention of the writer of this sketch was called
to the subject of guano, when engaged as an analytical chemist in exam-
ining fertilizers of different kinds; and thereafter, when studying the
diatomaceae and the application of a knowledge of them to geology, he
pushed his investigations still further, and at last came to the conclusion
that the popular prevalent notion with regard to the origin of guano was
erroneous. His ideas on the subject he embodied in a communication
made to the Essex Institute of Salem, Mass., on the 4th of January,
1869, an abstract of which will be found in the Bulletin of the Associa-
tion, vol. I, p. ii. Subsequently, with the Hon. E. G. Squier and Dr.
A. Habel, who had visited the celebrated Chincha islands, and there
observed some facts which confirmed the present writer's notions with
regard to it, he again brought the subject prominently before the public
at a meeting of the New York Lyceum of Natural History, held May i,

460 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

1871. (Proceedings Lye. Nat. Hist. N. Y., vol. I, p. 224.) Therein it is
shown that guano is most likely not the excrements of birds or other
similar animals, deposited upon the islands and main land after their
upheaval, but that it is the result of the accumulation of the bodies of
animals and plants, for the most part minute, the diatomaceae making up
a large part of the mass, and subsequently upheaved from the bottom
of the ocean by volcanic agency, which is known to be very active and
pretty constant in that part of the world. In this way guano has
become a storehouse of many otherwise rare and beautiful forms of
diatomaceae, which can be procured from it by employing a proper pro-
cess with chemicals to destroy and remove everything but the siliceous
skeletons, which are then left in all their purity, so that their forms
may be viewed by means of the microscope. The process for cleaning
guano, so as to obtain the microscopic organisms contained in it, will
be described hereafter.

In a semi-fossil condition, the diatomacese are to be found in all parts
of the world, and very extensively within the state of New Hampshire
in the form of what have been called lacustrine sedimentary deposits, —
that is to say, collections of their dead skeletons formed at the bottom
of lakes, and going commonly by the name of "marl," although true marl
contains few, if any, diatoms, and is largely made up of the shells of
mollusca, snails, and the like. The mode of formation of these deposits
will be described hereafter.

Still more ancient, and, what may be with propriety termed truly fossil
deposits of fresh-water diatomacese, are not found on this coast of the
North American continent, but, in fact, appear to be confined to the
Pacific states, where they cover vast tracts of country. Their mode of
formation will be described when we come to treat of the application of
a knowledge of the diatomaceae to geology, in a subsequent part of this
sketch. Thus extensive strata of diatomaceae have accumulated and
become fossilized, and constitute the "infusorial earths" of geologists
and others, many of those on our Pacific coast, as has been said, being
made up of the remains of fresh-water species which have lived, grown,
died, and been laid up in countless millions in the beds of now extinct
lakes ; while, likewise, in California, as well as in Virginia and Maryland,
in Peru, Japan, and Algeria, are found layers which are made up of the

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACE^. 461

skeletons of marine species. The city of Richmond, Va., rests upon
such a stratum, which varies in thickness from twelve to twenty-five feet,
and which extends to Fortress Monroe and over the Potomac river into
Maryland, and all the way down on both sides of the Patuxent river in
that state. The principal localities from which these deposits, fresh-
water and salt-, have been obtained so far, will be mentioned in the
directions for collecting, to be given hereafter.

Besides objects of great beauty and scientific interest, the uses to
which the diatomaceae have been put may be briefly summarized. It
is to be hoped that the unlearned, whose attention has for the first time,
perhaps, been called to them by this sketch, will feel that the elegance
of their forms and the geometrical purity of their sculpture will recom-
mend them sufficiently, without eliciting the question, which unfortu-
nately has been propounded with reference to other scientific subjects,
viz., What good are they? That they serve as food for numerous
aquatic animals is plainly shown by the fact of their being found in
their stomachs; but, if that were their only use, it could hardly be
said that they were of value to man directly. Who would suppose
that these little atomies, so seemingly insignificant, could serve as sus-
tenance for the human race? — and yet such is the fact. In the bleak
and almost barren parts of Lapland, during times of scarcity from failure
of the crops, the infusorial deposits are turned to account, under the
name of "berg-rnehl" or mountain meal, to eke out the scanty supply of
flour with which they are mixed before it is made up into bread and
eaten. In some other parts of the world we find wild nations making a
similar use of such "infusorial deposits;" but we can hardly say they
serve as food, for although some authors have supposed that some of the
organic matter they contain may be absorbed by the stomach or intes-
tines, it is not likely that such is the case. It is much more probable
that the earthy material serves to clog the stomach, and, by the mere act
of distention, arrest for a time the pangs of hunger. Their siliceous
character is opposed to their serving as food in the true acceptation of
that word. In Samarancy and Java, under the name of "tanah," an
earth of this kind, made up of the siliceous remains of diatomaceas, is
eaten. It is described as "generally solid, plastic, and sticky, and is
rolled and dried in the shape of small sticks over a charcoal fire, and is

462 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

eaten as a delicacy." The natives of our western coast, as well as the
inhabitants of some parts of South America, use an "infusorial earth" as
a pigment to decorate their bodies. In guano, doubtless the diatomaceas
play a very important part, when that substance is employed as a fertil-
izer and spread upon our fields, for they then present the silica in an
extremely minute state of division to the moisture of the soil and the air,
which gains admittance thereto, either along with the water or on account
of the porosity of the earth. It has been found that under these circum-
stances the silica is dissolved and absorbed by the plant that requires it,
in whose tissues it is deposited to form a strong support to its frame-
work. The cereals especially require a certain amount of silica, as is
well known, for the strengthening of the stem which serves to elevate
the seed where it gets the benefit of the sun and the air. So we find
that all the grasses, as wheat, oats, sugar-cane, maize, grow best on a
soil from which they can abstract sufficient silica for the purpose indi-
cated. Instances have come to my knowledge where recent wet deposits
of diatomaceas, especially those containing organic matter, and men-
tioned above under the designation of lacustrine sedimentary, have
proved of real value as fertilizers, when mixed with stable manure and
used for cereals, but, of course, they would be objectionable if applied
to root, fruit, or leaf crops.

Many deposits of diatomaceae are called tripoli and polishing pow-
ders; and these names indicate that they are possessed of properties
which peculiarly fit them for polishing hard surfaces, such as metal.
The extremely minute state of division of the silica in the diatom-valves,
and the readiness with which those valves are fractured and broken down
into still smaller angular portions, are remarkable, and could hardly be
imitated by any artificially prepared powder. It has been suggested that
the vast diatomaceous deposits found in some parts of the world, as the
strata occurring in Virginia and California, might be turned to account,
as presenting silica in a fine state of division, so that it can readily be
acted upon by the alkali, and the so-called "soluble glass" made there-
from. One manufacturer has experimented somewhat in this direction,
but with what result is at present unknown.

It is, however, to the scientific student that the diatomaceae are of the
greatest interest and really of use, for they have proved valuable in

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACEvE. 463

assisting him in the investigation of various subjects, as the matter of the
conditions of existence of the simple cell, and, likewise, the former char-
acters of certain strata in which they are found in vast numbers. The
bearings of this latter subject will occupy our attention in Part Sixth.

PART SIXTH.

TlIE DlATOMACE^E AND GEOLOGY.

The manner in which the diatomacese increase, both by true growth
and reproduction, has been described in such detail that it is to be hoped
that it is thoroughly understood. At the same time, it can be readily
comprehended how, as they secrete, from its solution in the water in
which they live, the siliceous material constituting their harder parts,
and, as they die, this flinty matter must after a time form a deposit at
the bottom of the lake or ocean which they inhabit. We are, then, pre-
pared to take into consideration the formation of such deposits, both
fresh and salt, and their connection with the science of geology.

The mode of formation of fresh-water deposits of diatomaceae, as
lacustrine sedimentary strata and as fluviatile fossil layers, has been
fully described in a paper read by the present writer before the New
York Lyceum of Natural History, Nov. 28, 1870, and published in the
proceedings of that association, vol. I, p. 109; and the major part of that
communication will be given here as embodying about all that is known
on that subject, and detailing at the same time the author's ideas with
regard to the enormous deposits of fresh-water diatomaceae found spread
over many parts of the western states of the North American continent.

We have seen how the diatomaceae increase by subdivision, so that by
this means alone they may multiply extremely rapidly, and a single indi-
vidual, by means of its descendants, soon populates a large pond or lake.
But while subdivision or true growth has been thus progressing, increase
by generation or seeding may have taken place at the same time, and,
from each individual in turn, several young may have been brought
forth, which would multiply the rate of increase very materially, of
course. It is true that the mode of seeding of these organisms is not
thoroughly understood ; but we know enough to say that it does occur,
and very frequently, and that the number of new individuals thus formed
is very great. At the same time, numerous individuals are dying, and,

464 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

as they do so, much of the organic matter of which they are composed
is dissipated, but some of it, along with the hard siliceous valves and
connecting membranes which constituted the skeletons of the diatoms,
falls to the bottom of the pond, and forms a layer of greater or less
thickness, according to the time during which it has been accumulating.
If it be exposed now, by draining such a pond, it may appear as a brown
or grey powdery mass, but, if it has rested beneath the the water suffi-
ciently long, almost all of the organic matter will be removed, and the
clean, white siliceous skeletons alone remain. In some localities, — and
this I have found to be the case in the state of New Hampshire, perhaps
from the peculiar topography of the spots where these masses of the
accumulated dead shells of diatoms are found, — these organisms grow in
bogs of no very great superficial extent, but which, from their occurring
in hollows between hills, are often quite deep. Under such circum-
stances, as I should judge from the character of a deposit I examined at
Bowkerville in Cheshire county, the organic matter might for the most
part decay out of a layer of considerable thickness, and nothing be left
but a mass of finely divided siliceous material of a character well fitted
for use as a polishing powder, or for other purposes to which this sub-
stance has been applied.

Such are the results, then, of this rapid growth of the diatomaceae in
ponds, lakes, marshes, and rivers; and, as the first examples of such
deposits which I examined were found beneath layers of peat, I gave to
them the name "sub-peat" deposits, and under that designation they
have been generally known. After a time, however, specimens came
into my hands which were procured from the bottoms of existing ponds,
and these, besides consisting for the most part of little else than silica,
and being of an almost pure white color, had no peat overlying them.
Hence, of course, I saw the inapplicability of the term "sub-peat" to
such deposits, and for them I have coined a new name, viz., lacustrine
sedimentary, which I consider more appropriate, and at the same time
indicating their usual origin, and including all deposits of fresh-water
diatomaceous remains, with the exception of certain peculiar layers to
be hereafter described. Of course the sub-peat then become a variety
of these. Deposits of this character are extremely common in this
country, as well as elsewhere, and it will be at once seen that, although

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACE^E. 465

any one of them might be of great thickness, yet it does not necessarily
follow that it had been forming for any great number of years; and
geologists and others are not warranted, from observance of this one
fact of thickness, in supposing that a great length of time has inter-
vened during its deposition. Thus, some years since, I examined one
of these lacustrine sedimentary deposits, at a spot near the town of East
Stoughton in Massachusetts, which was fully twelve feet thick, but only
covered a few feet of surface, which circumstance was due to the occur-
rence of a dam across the course of a stream, which arrested its progress
and formed a small, deep pond, into which all of the diatomacese, which
grew for some considerable distance up stream, drained, and, dying,
accumulated as a light grey-colored powder. I have received specimens
of similar material from many points in this country, so that about one
hundred have been examined. The state of New Hampshire has sup-
plied quite a number, and they will be hereafter described, and the
forms detected in them illustrated.

The first recorded discovery of a lacustrine sedimentary deposit of
diatomaceas in this country is found in Sillimaris journal, 1839, v°l-
xxv, p. 1 1 8, in an article " On Fossil Infusoria discovered in Peat-earth
at West Point, N. Y., with some notices of American species of Dia-
tomae. By J. W. Bailey." Of this I have a small portion given me by
Prof. Bailey himself, and, on examination, it is found to have the general
characteristics of these deposits; that is to say, it is of a grey color,
light in density and very friable, and is made up of the siliceous skele-
tons of such species of diatomaceae as grow in small fresh-water lakes,
ponds, and marshes. In fact, Prof. Bailey says that this deposit, which
was "eight or ten inches thick, and probably several hundred square
yards in extent," was discovered "about a foot below the surface of a
small peat-bog immediately at the foot of the southern escarpment of
the hill on which the celebrated Fort Putnam stands." He considers
the remains present in this stratum to be "in a fossil state." And here,
perhaps, it is desirable to say something with regard to the use of this
term. Its origin would warrant its being applied to anything dug up out
of the earth ; and, as Mr. Page remarks in his Handbook of Geological
Terms, " hence the earlier geologists spoke of native fossils or minerals,

and extraneous fossils, or the bodies of plants and animals accidentally
VOL. i. 6 1

466 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

buried in the earth." For myself, I am disposed to restrict the term
fossil to the remains, more or less perfect, of organized beings dating
anterior to the present epoch, if we can conscientiously speak of epochs
at all where the progression and rate of change have been so gradual.
Considered thus, then, these remains of diatomaceae cannot be classed
as fossils ; and at once the geologist perceives that they are to be taken
into account in a very different manner from what they have been hith-
erto. So much, then, for lacustrine sedimentary deposits of diatomaceae ;
and I trust that I have made clear as to what they are, and how they are
formed and forming. At the time I made his acquaintance, Prof. Bailey
expressed an opinion that similar strata would be found beneath every
bog and pond in the country. The clear scientific vision of my late
friend is evidenced in the fact that this prediction was proved almost lit-
erally true. I have over one hundred such specimens, and am continually
receiving others. Several I have already described, and others remain to
be examined, and facts with regard to the geographical distribution and
other points will be elucidated by such investigations, — so that I am
always anxious to receive contributions from all sources. It is only
desirable that all facts connected with their mode of occurrence, as to
amount in thickness and extent, over- and underlying material, etc., be
noted at the time of making the gathering.

We now come to consider deposits of an entirely different character
from those just spoken of, but which yet are also made up almost en-
tirely of the siliceous remains of fresh-water diatomacese. These are
the so-called "infusorial" deposits found in such enormous quantity in
our Pacific states. From time to time, during the last thirty years, spec-
imens of these have come into the hands of naturalists, from collectors
and otherwise, and also "in place" they are well known to settlers in the
districts where they occur. As their true character has not been under-
stood, they have received various appellations, as "magnesia," "porcelain
clay," "white clay," "chalk," "siliceous marl," "microphytal earth," "trip-
oli," "rotten-stone," "pipe-clay" or simply "clay," "trachytal tufa," and
"phytolitharian tuff," by Ehrenberg. These specimens are almost always
white in color, or nearly so, although there are records of some strata
occurring of various tints. None of these except the white ones have
come under my observation, so I am not prepared to state that the

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACE^. 467

colored ones are diatomaceous. Besides, this material is of a somewhat
hard, stony character, but porous withal, and light; as a general thing,
also, it is readily broken, but not easily powdered, as are the lacustrine
sedimentary deposits. On account of this hardness there is found to be
considerable difficulty in preparing these specimens for microscopical
examination. After so preparing, by a method I have devised, to be
described hereafter, and viewing with a sufficiently high magnifying lens,
this substance is found to be made up entirely of the siliceous remains
of fresh-water diatomaceae which have been matted together in the re-
markable manner described. The species of diatomaceae present, how-
ever, are found to be very different in character from those to be seen in
the other class of recently formed deposits. Thus, while the genera
most commonly represented in and making up the mass of the lacustrine
sedimentary deposits are Navicula, Pinnularia, Stauroneis, Synedra, and
similar elongated forms, the hard, white material is in general found to
consist of myriads of examples of Orthosira, Cyclotella, and similar dis-
coid forms. Although our knowledge of the forms of these minute
organisms, peculiar to different kinds of collections of water, is rather
imperfect, yet we know that the naviculaeform genera spoken of above
are found in small lakes, while in the larger pieces of water are to be
seen growing more particularly the discoid genera like Cyclotella. From
this fact alone, then, we should be prepared to assume that the waters,
in which the organisms whose remains make up these deposits grew at
one time, covered large tracts of country. And our surmises on this
point are confirmed by the reports of explorers who have passed over,
this section of country, that is to say, on both sides of the Sierra Ne-
vada Mountains, from Puget's sound to the southernmost border of
California, for they tell us that these deposits extend over a consider-
able portion of the Pacific states.

I have examined many specimens from this district, and, on account
of the mode of occurrence of this material, being capped by lava, basalt,
or some volcanically-erupted rock, I have designated them sub-plutonic.
The first specimens of such sub-plutonic deposits of diatomaceae, which
were put into the hands of scientists, were undoubtedly those brought
home by Fremont, from his expeditions to the Rocky Mountains, in
the year 1842, and to Oregon and North California, in the years 1843

468 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

and 1844. The discovery of these, as detailed in his report, gives a
good idea of this portion of the country, and is as follows. It must be
premised that, in that report, what is now known as the Des Chutes
river, and which is one of the tributaries of the Columbia, is called
"Fall river" (Rivtere aux Chutes); so, also, he spells Klamath lake
"Tlamatt." Speaking of the tributaries of the Columbia river, he says
(p. 200),—

These streams are characterized by the narrow and chasm-like valleys in which they
run, generally sunk a thousand feet below the plain. At the verge of this plain they
frequently commence in vertical precipices of basaltic rock, and which leave only
casual places at which they can be entered by horses. The road across the country,
which would otherwise be very good, is rendered impracticable for wagons by these
streams. At such places the gun-carriage was unlimbered, and separately descended
by hand. Continuing a few miles up the left bank of the river, we encamped early in
an open bottom among the pines, a short distance below a lodge of Indians. Here,
along the river bluffs present, escarpments seven or eight hundred feet in height, con-
taining strata of a very fine porcelain clay, overlaid, at the height of about five hundred
feet, by a massive stratum of basalt one hundred feet in thickness, which again is suc-
ceeded above by other strata of volcanic rocks. The clay strata are variously colored,
some of them very nearly as white as chalk, and very fine grained. Specimens
brought from there have been subjected to microscopical examination by Prof. Bailey,
of West Point, and are considered by him to constitute one of the most remarkable
deposits of fluviatile infusoria on record. While they abound in genera and species
which are common in fresh water, but which rarely thrive where the water is brackish,
not one decidedly marine form is to be found among them ; and their fresh-water
origin is therefore beyond a doubt. It is equally certain that they lived and died in
the situation where they were found, as they could scarcely have been transported by
running waters without an admixture of muddy particles, from which, however, they
are remarkably free. Fossil infusoria of a fresh-water origin had been previously de-
tected by Mr. Bailey in specimens brought by Mr. James D. Dana from the tertiary
formation of Oregon. Most of the species in those specimens differed so much from
those now living and known, that he was led to infer that they might belong to extinct
species, and considered them also as affording proof of an alternation, in the forma-
tion from which they were obtained, of fresh- and salt-water deposits, which, common
enough in Europe, had not hitherto been noticed in the United States. Coming evi-
dently from a locality entirely different, our specimens show very few species in com-
mon with those brought by Mr. Dana, but bear a much closer resemblance to those
inhabiting the north-eastern states. It is possible that they are from a more recent
deposit; but the presence of a few remarkable forms, which are common to the two
localities, renders it more probable that there is no great difference in their ages.

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DlATOMACE^. 469

I have given in full all that Fre'mont says regarding this locality, as it
presents us with the first discovery of strata of the remarkable character
of which I am now treating, and is therefore of special interest. Bailey's
report, contained in the same volume, merely mentions and figures the
principal forms he detected.

The only other description of this locality and these remarkable
deposits, fortunately, is a much more complete and scientific one. It is
that of Dr. J. S. Newberry, as geologist of the expedition under Lieuts.
R. S. Williamson and Henry L. Abbot, which explored the route for a
railroad, from the Sacramento valley to the Columbia river, in 1855,
and will be found in vol. vi of the Pacific Railroad Survey Report. Dr.
Newberry gives a description of the geology of the Des Chutes basin,
which is essentially as follows. It must be remembered that the Des
Chutes and Fall river, mentioned above, are one and the same. The
Des Chutes basin consists of a series of plateaus, having varying eleva-
tions from four thousand to twenty-two thousand feet above the level of
the sea, separated by subordinate ranges of volcanic mountains. These
plateaus are usually covered by a floor of trap, which extends in a
smooth sheet from fifty to a hundred and fifty feet in thickness, un-
broken except by and at the canons of the various streams which, as a
general thing, flow from the interior to the ocean at right angles to the
coast line. Beneath this bed of trap is the whitish or light-colored
material, consisting of the siliceous remains of diatomaceae we are con-
sidering, sometimes occurring as a single bed only, sometimes as a series
of beds locally intercalated with thin beds of trap. These infusorial
strata, as they have been called, are cut in many places by the Des
Chutes and its tributaries to the depth of more than a thousand feet,
without exposing the basis on which they rest. They are usually quite
horizontal, from a few lines to twenty feet in thickness, and very accu-
rately stratified.

Psuc-see-que creek, one of the tributaries of the Des Chutes river,
flows through a valley of a remarkable character, as its sides consist of
several alternate strata of diatomaceous material and columnar trap or
concrete. Near the base of this series of layers is a stratum, three feet
in thickness, of brilliant white feldspathic pumice, so soft as to be easily
crumbled in the fingers. Above, and lying upon this, is a line of dark

4/O PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

carbonaceous matter, less than a quarter of an inch in thickness, from
which, up into another layer of pumice, projects the remains of the
branches of some small plant which had apparently been killed by the
overflow of the pumice. Lieut. Williamson gives a striking view of this
locality, and speaks of it in the following terms :

This river canon is very remarkable. Its sides vary from eight hundred to two thou-
sand feet in height. The river has cut down its bed to this immense depth through
successive strata of basalt, with occasionally a deposit of infusorial marl and volcanic
tufa, which has sometimes hardened into a kind of conglomerate sandstone ten or
twenty feet in thickness, and of a white, grey, or reddish color. We followed down
this canon for about five miles, when a rocky spur cut off all further progress, and
compelled us to attempt the ascent. This with great difficulty we accomplished, and
found ourselves on a plain thinly dotted with sage bushes and clumps of grass. We
continued our course, and, after crossing the bed of a torrent of the rainy season,
came to a very small stream, called Psuc-see-que by the Indians. It was sunk in a
canon about five hundred feet deep, cut through successive strata of basalt, infusorial
marl, tufas, and conglomerate sandstone like that found in the Mpto-ly-as canon (pp.
84,85).

Another locality in which these remarkable deposits occur is on the
Pitt river; and Lieut. Williamson's description gives such a good idea
of the mode of their occurrence that I transcribe it, also, below:

The banks of the Pitt river, both above and below the mouth of Canoe creek, are
partially formed by regularly stratified sedimentary deposits, the first seen since leav-
ing the valley of the Sacramento. They appear on both sides of Pitt river at intervals
for several miles, being in many places interrupted or covered by beds of trap. They
are, perhaps, best exposed in the canon formed by the passage of the river through
" Stoneman's ridge," the most conspicuous of the lines of upheaval which form what
is known as the lower canon of Pitt river. They here exhibit a thickness of about
fifty feet, but are considerably tilted up, and are covered by a thick bed of trap which
has been poured out over them. They exhibit narrow and parallel lines of deposition,
but are very homogeneous, and can hardly be said to form more than two distinct
beds. Of these, the upper is white, resembling very pure kaolin, derived from the
decomposition of crystalline feldspar. The lower bed is light brown or dirty white in
color, and has a slightly gritty feel between the fingers. These strata rest upon a
thick bed of rolled and rounded fragments of traps, porphyry, and basalt of all sizes,
from masses of two and even three feet in diameter, to pebbles. They are generally
as large as one's head, and great numbers are each a foot in diameter. The surface
of this bed of boulders is perhaps twenty feet above the present surface of the stream ;
but it bears indubitable evidence of having at one time been covered by it, or, at least,

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOM ACE^E. 4/1

the stones composing it, so large and clear, have been rounded where they lie by a
current or waves of water. The appearance presented by this bed of boulders is dif-
ferent from that of any of the beds of volcanic conglomerate which are so common in
many parts of California and Oregon, or of the stratified conglomerates of the Sacra-
mento valley, and it is undoubtedly of local origin. The trap which formed the
greater part of the bank above is evidently of recent date, more recent than the infu-
sorial marls, and the marls more recent than the conglomerate, and the conglomerate
an accumulation of rolled stones and pebbles, which belongs to the present epoch.
The trap which overlies the infusorial marls composes a large part of the walls of the
cafion at this point, where it has been cut away by the stream, and forms nearly per-
pendicular faces of several hundred feet in height. The soft nature of the underlying
strata has, however, very much assisted in its removal (p. 33).

There are several localities besides those mentioned at which this, —
what I have chosen to designate " sub-plutonic," — material is found, as
at Klamath lake, on the northern border of California, and elsewhere all
through the Pacific states. From these I have received gatherings, and
have thus been enabled to examine, by means of the microscope, spec-
imens from many points in what was once this chain of enormous
fresh-water inland seas, — for such they deserve to be styled. For as the
microscope reveals the fact, the organisms, whose stony remains consti-
tute the mass of these deposits, were inhabitants of collections of fresh
water which existed at some past period as large lakes; and a careful
geographical examination of the country enables us even to indicate, to
a certain extent, the situations once occupied by these now extinct seas,
which at times varied in superficial dimensions, and certainly were in
some cases drained, overflowed by lava, and renewed and replenished
with living organisms as many as seven times.

And now that we understand how it is that lacustrine sedimentary
deposits are formed by the accumulation of the dead shells of diato-
macese, we can comprehend the manner in which these sub-plutonic
strata have been laid down. If we look at the map of the western
coast of the North American continent, we see that there are three
great chains of mountains, about parallel to each other and the coast
line, and thus enclosing between their peaks two long and wide valleys.
The Rocky Mountains are the first of these chains, and they at one
time formed the coast of this continent. Slowly and gradually, however,
there appeared a line of islands at a distance frbm the coast, whose

4/2 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

material was volcanic, and, as these islands rose higher and higher, the
space between them and the coast cliffs also rose until it became dry
land. Soon rain fell and accumulated in this valley so formed, and lakes
and rivers appeared. In these, diatomaceae appeared, thrived, grew,
reproduced, and multiplied ; lacustrine sedimentary deposits were thrown
down. Now came a time when the volcanic cones, which constituted the
peaks of the range of mountains nearest to the coast, burst forth with fire
and lava ; and, probably at the same time, earthquakes took place which
drained many of the lakes and changed the courses of rivers. Into the
lake basins the lava was poured, with its heat evaporating the moisture,
and consolidating the diatomaceous material into a stony mass, from
which all organic matter was burned out A period of rest succeeded.
Diatoms again appeared and accumulated, to be again overlaid by lava ;
and so on the same thing may have again and again taken place. In
this way the enormous deposits of sub-plutonic diatomacese were formed ;
and in the cracks, made in the rock by volcanic agency, the rivers
wended their way, and made the gates we now are in the habit of call-
ing canons.

But in the ocean diatomaceae also occur, and in large quantities.
When they die there, their siliceous remains must accumulate at the
bottom of the water, and occur as deposits. It is in the black mud of
our quiet bays and harbors that we must look for the greatest accumu-
lation of these remains; and rivers are carrying them down to their
mouths, where often they are piled up in such masses as to form bars.
The mud of the river Thames in England yielded to Mr. Roper a large
number of diatomaceous remains. Ehrenberg examined the mud of the
Elbe in Germany, and found these minute shells to make up from one
quarter to one third of the whole mass. He calculated that at Pillau
there are annually deposited from the water from seven thousand two
hundred to fourteen thousand cubic metres of these minute shells,
which in the course of a century would give a deposit of from seven
hundred and twenty thousand to one million four hundred thousand
cubic metres of deposit, which might be hardened into a stony mass.
That such hardening has taken place is evidenced by the occurrence of
the vast strata of marine forms found in Virginia and Maryland, on the
Atlantic side of North America, and in California on the Pacific coast.

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACEjE. 473

This material is often almost white, but more commonly is tinted slightly
yellowish or salmon-colored. It makes up the most part of the material
of the coast range of mountains in California, and has also been found
in Peru, Japan, Algeria, Spain, and the West India islands. In Cali-
fornia, in the almost rainless districts, it is used for building, but gen-
erally is too friable for that purpose. The forms occurring in it are for
the most part discoid, with a few triangular ones, and, when prepared
and examined by means of the microscope, present one of the most
beautiful objects which can be so viewed.

Something has been said with regard to the origin of the substance
known as guano, and which has been so extensively used as a fertilizer ; —
but to the agricultural fraternity anything connected with this material
must prove of interest, so it is thought best to enter more fully into the
consideration of this subject on account of its important bearings, its
value to geologists, and its general attraction, evinced by the manner in
which the publications of the present writer thereon have been copied
and circulated by the periodical press.

On May i, 1871, a discussion took place at the Lyceum of Natural
History, New York, on the subject of guano, when the Hon. E. G.
Squier exhibited a map of the Guanape islands of Peru, where guano
is found, drawings of a wooden idol and other objects discovered in the
guano, and photographs showing that that substance is distinctly strati-
fied, and not thrown down in the shape of a confused mass, as would be
the case if it were, as is usually supposed, merely the excrement of
birds and other animals deposited on rocky islands, in localities where
little or no rain falls to wash out its soluble and valuable constituents.

Dr. A. Habel, who had visited the Chincha islands for the purpose
of studying the mode of occurrence of the guano (or, as he prefers to
write it, in consonance with the mode of its pronunciation, "whuano"),
made an extended communication showing that the outer and uppermost
portion of this substance does consist of the droppings of various spe-
cies of sea-birds and mammals, mixed with the feathers and eggs of birds,
and bones. This layer does not at all show signs of stratification, and is
of a reddish brown color. Below this is the guano proper, which is of a
different structure, and distinctly stratified. He says that "this stratifi-
cation is so marked that even a superficial examination must convince
VOL. i. 62

474 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

every unprejudiced person that it is the product of sedimentary for-
mation. It is made up of alternate white and yellow strata, varying
in shade and thickness. All of these strata exhibit distinctly their
inclination or dip, which varies not only on the separate islands, but in
different parts of the same island. On the middle island, for example,
the inclination or dip of the strata in one part of it does not amount to
more than five degrees, while in another part it is eight degrees, and in
a third, close to the first, fifteen degrees." In one place strata, running
south-west and north-east, and dipping twenty degrees, rested uncon-
formably on others running north and south, and dipping only four
degrees. In all of the strata are imbedded stones of various sizes and
weight up to fifteen pounds, as well as eggs and bones. Another proof
that the guano has been deposited beneath the ocean is seen in the
various strata of sea sand underlying it, and which are also stratified, and
dip in one direction or the other.

The present writer said that he first made his hypothesis public, with
regard to guano having been deposited beneath the water of the ocean,
in 1868, at a meeting of the American Microscopical Society. In Jan-
uary, 1869, he entered more fully into a discussion of the subject before
the Essex Institute, at Salem, Mass. He said, —

I have been for the last fifteen years or more studying the so-called "infusorial
deposits" of marine origin. Among the specimens thus examined are some of the
rocks or shales making up the great mass of the mountains of the coast range, which
extend down the Pacific shore from Washington territory to the borders of Lower
California, and even perhaps down as far as the southernmost extremity of that penin-
sula. These shales are usually of a light cream color, and mainly consist of the
siliceous skeletons of diatomaceae and polycystina, the former being commonly con-
sidered as plants, the latter as animals. These are of extremely minute size, and
often require for their study the use of the highest magnifying powers. Many of them
prove to be indistinguishable from forms living at the present day on the California
coast. Exuding through, and often appearing at the upper portion of these rocks, to
which situation they have evidently been driven by heat, are found the petroleum, bitu-
men, and asphalt of California. Hence the state survey has conferred upon these strata
the name of bituminous shales. Along the Pacific coast, and lying parallel to it, are
islands often bearing upon their summits deposits of guano, of more or less commercial
value. In many cases the quantity has been small and soon removed ; but I am in-
formed that there are deposits of this material in that quarter of the globe still
unworked. At the same time, it must be remembered that the whole Pacific coast, of

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACE^E. 475

both North and South America, is in an almost continual state of motion, and gradual
but constant upheaval, caused, doubtless, by the action of internal chemical changes,
which make themselves markedly evident in the volcanic vents found all along the
mountains constituting the Cascades and Sierra Nevadas of North, and the Andes of
South America. There have been identified at least three former lines of rise of coast,
and still another is seen presenting its peaks in the islands, which will, at some future
day, be united in such a manner as to constitute another coast range of mountains.

If, now, we consider the bearing of these facts on the origin of the substance known
as guano, we find the following points worthy of note. Guano may be divided into
two great groups, the ammoniacal and the phosphatic ; but it is of the first mentioned,
only, that I desire to treat at the present time, and to which I wish to apply my de-
ductions. Guano is usually considered as the excrement of sea-fowl, and which has
accumulated during a long period of time, — so long, that attempts have been made to
calculate its age from its thickness. Thus Humboldt, who first made this substance
known to the Eastern hemisphere in 1804, states, that on the Chincha islands it has a
depth of fifty to sixty feet, and that the accumulation of the preceding three hundred
years has formed only a few lines of this thickness. The facts brought forward by Mr.
Squier show how difficult it is to arrive at any certain knowledge on this point, and, in
fact, show that we have no means of ascertaining the age of the guano deposits, even
if we accept the theory of their origin from the source usually ascribed to them. We
find that guano is not confined to islands only, but occurs in large quantities on the
contiguous headlands ; and many ravines, extending into the interior of the country,
contain guano in smaller and larger quantities. Thus, the ravines of Lolo, Culata,
Sacramento, Animas, Morillo, Guajes, Colorado, Chucumata, and Pica are reported to
contain pure guano deposits, covered by a thick coating of sand. Neither is it found
in rainless districts only, for, as I have said, it is found on the islands off the Califor-
nia coast, which are by no means rainless ; and Mr. W. H. Dall informs me that it
occurs on the Aleutian islands, where the air is almost always saturated with moisture,
and heavy rains fall during a large part of the year. With regard to the upheaval of
such coasts along which guano occurs, it is well known, from Darwin's investigations,
that the whole Pacific coast of South America is in constant motion and upheaval, and
that on the main land near Lima, and on the adjoining island of San Lorenzo, Mr.
Darwin found proofs that the ancient bed of the sea had been raised to the height of
more than eighty feet above the water, within the human epoch, strata having been
discovered at that altitude containing pieces of cotton thread and plaited rush, together
with sea-weed and marine shells (Lyell, Principles, 1853, p. 502).

And Darwin says, — "I have convincing proofs that this part of the continent of
South America has been elevated near the coast at least from three hundred to five
hundred feet, and, in some parts, one thousand to thirteen hundred feet, since the
epoch of existing shells." Other proofs of this fact are not wanting, but these are
sufficient for me to quote at the present time.

When the portions of guano, which are insoluble in water and acids, are examined

4/6 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

by means of the microscope, they are found to be made up of the skeletons of diato-
maceas, polycystina, and sponges, invariably of marine origin, and sometimes identical
with those living in the adjoining ocean, and fossilized in the adjacent infusorial strata.
Also, we find that some of these forms occur in patches exactly as they grow in nature,
and as they would present themselves if they were deposited from water, and not as
they would be if they had to pass first through the alimentary canals of mollusca and
similar small animals, then through the same organs of fish and birds, in turn, as they
would have to do to get into the guano in the manner commonly supposed.

In California we have a deposit of "infusoria," improperly so called, accompanied
by bitumen, which bitumen, the gentlemen of the state survey believe, has been
derived from those "infusoria," and that contiguous thereto we have guano deposits.
Now let us see if we have a similar association of facts anywhere else. At Payta, in
Peru, Dr. C. F. Winslow discovered an "infusorial" deposit almost identical in char-
acter with the California one. Near by are bitumen springs ; and lying off the coast
are the guano islands of Lobos, Chincha, Guanape, and others. At Netanai, Japan,
we have extensive "infusorial" strata and bitumen; it is not recorded whether guano
occurs in that quarter. In the island of Barbadoes we have "infusorial" strata, bitu-
men, and, near by, the guano islands of the Carribean sea ; and, I am informed, guano
is abundant on the small islands and rocks nearly throughout the West Indian archi-
pelago. In the island of Trinidad we have "infusorial" strata and bitumen, and, of
course, adjacent guano. At all of these localities volcanic action is evident ; but we
have some localities of guano without "infusorial" strata or bitumen, as yet recorded ;
while we have the celebrated "infusorial" strata of Virginia, which, by a little stretch
of the imagination, may be supposed to be related in some way to the petroleum of
West Virginia and Pennsylvania. In Algeria we have ' ' infusorial " strata and bitumen ;
but I never heard of guano having been found near by. From all of these facts, and
others that I have collected of no less importance, derived from chemical and micro-
scopical characters, I have come to the conclusion that guano is not the excreta of
birds, deposited upon the islands and main land after their upheaval, but that it is the
result of the accumulation of the bodies of animals and plants, for the most part
minute, and belonging to the group which Haeckel has included in a new kingdom,
separate from the animal as well as the vegetable, under the name of Protista, and
subsequently upheaved from the bottom of the ocean. Subsequent chemical changes
have transformed it into guano, or, heat and pressure have so acted upon it that the
organic matter has been transformed into bitumen, while the mineral constituents are
preserved in the beautiful atomies that make up the mass of the extensive "infusorial"
strata found in various parts of the world.

The Chincha islands have been visited by a competent geologist, Mr. Kinahan, of
Dublin, and he has pointed out that they have been upheaved by volcanic action within
a recent period, geologically considered. I have found a remarkable confirmation of
my theory in a paper, read before the American Institute, New York, some years since,
by Mr. Alanson Nash, detailing the observations of a Mr. F. Nash made during a resi-

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACE/E. 477

dence on the Chincha islands, while engaged in the guano trade, for nearly six months.
Therein we find it stated that Mr. Nash was of opinion that guano was formed in the
way I have described ; that the anchors of vessels in that locality bring up guano from
the bottom of the ocean ; that " the guano is (much of it) not composed of bird dung,
but is composed of the mud of the ocean;" that "the composition taken from the
islands, called guano, is stratified, and lies in the same form it did before it was lifted
up from the ocean ; " that ' ' the bottom of the ocean, on the west coast of Peru, con-
tains vast deposits of guano. An island, during an earthquake, rose up in the bay of
Callao, some years since, from the sea, containing guano four feet deep, the formation
the same as the Chincha islands." In conclusion, he says, "the day will come when
the guano at these islands will be dredged up with boats like mud from our rivers and
harbors." And in this expectation I fully coincide with Mr. Nash.

Sea mud has been found to yield an excellent article of fertilizer, and
is collected for that purpose at different points along our coast. That
from the harbor of Charleston, S. C., yielded to the late Prof. Bailey a
rich harvest of diatomaceous forms; and I have examined the same
material, as well as that used in Salem, Mass., for the same purpose,
and known as "mussel bed/' and have found them both to be full of
microscopic forms.

Some years since Prof. Gregory described a remarkable deposit of sand
from Glenshira, which he considered to be fossil, and called it post-ter-
tiary. It was full of the remains of diatomaceae, both marine and fresh
water, and had been formed evidently by the ingress of the salt water of
the bay into a fresh water pond. Occasionally we find the bottom of
fresh water marshes upheaved and everted by superincumbent pressure
from railroads or other passage ways being built across them. Under
these circumstances there are often developed deposits of the remains of
diatomaceae. I have one such specimen from Detroit, Mich. I have also
seen two examples of the everting, in this way, of the ancient bed of salt
marshes, and in both cases the remains of diatomaceas are plentiful.

The importance of a knowledge of the diatomaceae to the geologist
has been lost sight of up to the present time ; but now that the state of
New Hampshire has taken the lead in this matter, it is to be hoped that
they will be studied, as they occur in the rocks of other localities.

4/8 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

PART SEVENTH.

DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING, PRESERVING, AND TRANSPORTING
SPECIMENS OF DIATOMACE.*.

The diatomacese constitute a group of organisms of so much interest
to the student of natural history, that it is desirable that specimens
should be collected in various parts of the world. That such collections
may be of value, it is necessary that they should be made in a proper
manner ; and for the purpose of facilitating the making of such collections
these directions have been drawn up. The directions given should be
closely followed, as the methods described have been found, after consid-
erable trial, to be those yielding the most satisfactory results. As the
fossil deposits containing the remains of diatomaceae are most readily
recognized, gathered, and forwarded, they will be first described.

Fossil Deposits. Included under this head must be considered the
enormous sub-plutonic strata found on the Pacific coast of North Amer-
ica, so that the fossil deposits of diatomaceae may be said to contain both
fresh-water and marine species, though never in a mixed state. In some
cases the particular species present indicate the character of the piece of
water in which the deposit has accumulated, different forms, or groups
of forms, appearing in bays, ponds, lakes, marshes, springs, and rivers, and
at various points of elevation above the surface of the sea.

The principal fossil deposits of diatomaceae hitherto discovered contain
marine species, and extend over considerable tracts of the earth's surface.
The most important stratum of this character is considered to belong
to the miocene tertiary, and is found on the Atlantic side of North
America, not far from, and, in fact, in some places, reaching down to
the coast. It is known to extend from the Patuxent river, in Maryland,
as far south as the city of Petersburg, in Virginia. How much beyond
these two points it extends has not been ascertained, but is found under-
lying the cities of Petersburg, Richmond, and Fredericksburg, in Virginia,
and at many other points in that state as well as in Maryland. It is
desirable to obtain specimens from different points in this bed, as it varies
in character, and contained organisms with every few miles of surface,
and at different points in its depth.

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE MATOMACEJL 479

Strata of this kind vary greatly in appearance, as well as in micro-
scopic character. Therefore the following general directions will suffice
to guide collectors in searching for and detecting them.

Gather all earths of light color, varying from a pure white, through
different shades of grey, cream, and fawn, to an iron-rust tint. The
texture is often friable, and then looks somewhat like clay, especially
when it is wet; at other times it is of a hard and stony character,
though always more or less porous, and, when soft, of little weight.
A moderate magnifying power shows it to be made up of the shells
of diatomaceae. Collect enough to make up three or four pounds'
weight, or, say, a block six or eight inches square, and, if possible, from
the surface and at various depths, for the reasons already stated. Some
of the localities of this material may be mentioned. In Virginia it has
been procured in and near Petersburg and Richmond, at Shockhoe hill
and Church hill, and at Hollis cliff ; and in Maryland, at Lower Marlboro',
Nottingham, Piscataway, and Rappahannock cliff.

Besides the above mentioned, an extremely interesting stratum of a
similar character, but in general of harder texture, has been found on
the Pacific coast of North America, and extending at least from San
Francisco to the lower border of California, if not farther, in both direc-
tions. This substance makes up the major part of the rocks of the coast
range of mountains, and has been named the bituminous shales. It was
first detected at Monterey, and is known to microscopists in England as
" Monterey stone," but it has since been traced and brought from various
points. Santa Cruz, San Pedro, and San Diego have yielded excellent
specimens containing many beautiful forms of diatomaceae. It is usually
light fawn-colored, and distinctly stratified. Large fossil shells are found
in it ; and associated with and in, if not derived from it, is the bitumen of
California. At Baldjik, near Varna in Bulgaria, on the Black sea, is a
stratum of stony character, having shells and bones dispersed through it.
The diatomaceae found in it are apparently of brackish-water origin, and
this is the only stratum of this kind that is known. But very little of
this material has found its way into the hands of naturalists. On the
island of Jutland, in Denmark, is found a polishing slate which is rich in
diatomaceous forms not found anywhere else. This, also, is rare among
naturalists, and a good supply of it is very desirable. At Oran in

480 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Algeria, Africa, and at JEgina and Caltanisetta in Greece, are deposits
containing the remains of diatomaceae intermixed with polycystina and
foraminifera, and referred to the Cretaceous. In the island of Barba-
does are so-called marls made up of diatomaceae and polycystina, the
latter in great numbers and very beautiful. In the island of Trinidad, at
South Naparima, a similar stratum has lately been discovered which "is
considered as connected with the new red sandstone ; adjoining to which
is the sandstone, probably of the same description, in which the Pitch
lake is situated." At Moron, in Spain, has been found a similar deposit
of marine diatomaceae; and still another was discovered by Dr. C. F.
Winslow at a point about seventy miles south of the town of Payta, in
Peru, and about fifteen miles from the Pacific ocean. Here is a plain
separated from the sea by a range of hills several hundred feet high.
Within the plain is a depression with nearly perpendicular walls two
hundred feet high, the bottom of which depression is at about the level
of the sea — perhaps a little lower. The surface of the soil thereabouts
is covered with salt. For fifteen feet down there is a deposit containing
recent shells, the bones of cetacea, and pebbles ; then, for one or two
feet, is a yellow loam, and, at the bottom, is the stratum, containing the
diatomaceae, which is from two to four feet thick. The amount Dr.
Winslow brought away was very small, and this is all that has got into
the hands of microscopists. Prof. Pumpelley brought from near Netanai,
in Japan, specimens of a like deposit. Very small fragments of the
strata from Jutland, Trinidad, Moron, Payta, and Japan have been se-
cured ; so it is extremely desirable that those localities should be again
visited, the geological relations of the strata ascertained, and a plentiful
supply of the material gathered. The sub-plutonic deposits seem to be
confined to the Pacific coast of the North American continent, and near
by. At Five-mile canon, near Virginia city, Nevada, is an enormously
thick stratum of this character, which is ground and sold considerably
under the name of "electro silicon," as a polishing powder. At Klamath
lake, on the banks of the Columbia and Pitt rivers, and elsewhere, at
many points, these deposits have been found.

The rules already given hold good with regard to gathering specimens
of all of these deposits. Everything that can be ascertained with regard
to their position and relations should be noted. Also, any fossils con-

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACE^. 481

tained in them, or in the strata above or below them, should be gathered,
and their position noted on the labels accompanying them. All specimens
should be kept carefully separate (not even permitting them to come in
contact) by wrapping each one in paper, placing within a label having
written upon it in ink the exact locality, date of collection, and name of
collector. It is also desirable that note should be made of the depth
from the surface at which the specimen was taken, together with any
other information that may be deemed of interest, as supposed extent of
stratum, slope-upwards towards north, south, east, or west, and thickness.

Lacustrine Sedimentary Deposits. These were called by me at one
time sub-peat deposits, from the fact that all I had seen up to that time
had been discovered beneath peat; but as the number of these strata
which have come into my hands has increased, I have seen many which
do not occur under such circumstances; hence the above name has
been applied to them as being more appropriate, and indicating their
most common mode of occurrence. In England they are called fossil;
but in the true acceptation of that term the forms contained in them
are not fossils, but are identical with living species.

They are generally of a pulverulent character, and, when dry, are of
little weight, so much so as to attract attention. When free from organic
matter, as occasionally occurs, they are quite white, looking almost like
powdered starch ; but most commonly they are grey, which looks dark
while the material is wet, but when dried the color is light. A mass of
about six or eight pounds' weight should be secured, and the same pre-
cautions as to keeping separate and labelling specimens adhered to, as
have been already mentioned. As these beds are seldom of any great
extent (they often soon become obliterated or covered up), it will be well
to secure a good supply of the material while it is accessible. If any
shell, wood, or other organic remains should be found dispersed through
the deposit, or overlying or beneath it, they should also be secured, and
their position recorded on the label. Likewise, a sample of any superin-
cumbent peat should be kept for future examination. In Sweden and
Norway, and in Lapland, these deposits have been used to eke out a
scanty supply of flour during bad seasons ; but they can hardly be said
to be food, for they are not nutritious, but most likely only act by their
mass distending the stomach, and thus allaying for a time the pangs of
VOL. r. 63

482 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

hunger. They have likewise very frequently been employed, under the
name of "tripoli," as a polishing material, and are excellent for that pur-
pose. In some parts of this country they go by the name of "marl," but
they are not examples of that substance, which is calcareous, being made
up of the remains of the shells of mollusca. Specimens from every
locality are desirable.

Muds and Deposits from the bottoms of harbors, bays, lakes, ponds,
estuaries, and rivers. As a general thing these are not of very great
value to the microscopist for the remains they contain, and it is only de-
sirable to collect them in localities or under circumstances where other
gathering cannot be made, or when they are known to contain any organ-
isms of great beauty or rarity. The blacker and softer the mud the
better, for, if it contains much sand or gravel, the minute organisms will
be present in just so much less proportion. As much as can be conven-
iently transported, say about a handful, should be collected, and, if possi-
ble, not dried, but placed in a bottle and tightly corked ; or, it may have a
little glycerine added to it, which will prevent its drying, — for it has been
found that muds, and especially those from salt-water, when once dried,
are only with difficulty broken down again so as to be cleaned. The
mud and slime attached to anchors, buoys, and submerged woodwork,
together with the scrapings from the bottoms of vessels containing shells,
plants, zoophytes, etc., may be simply dried in the sun, and then have a
label attached. The mud from beneath fresh water is of little value, as
it rarely contains any organisms of beauty ; but the marine forms found
in mud are occasionally fine, beautiful, and rare.

Guano. This substance often contains species of diatomaceae not
otherwise obtainable. It is the ammoniacal guanos alone, however, which
I have found to yield any great number of diatomaceous forms ; but
there are certain guanos, of which one known as " Bolivian guano" is an
example, partly ammoniacal and partly phosphatic, which contain some
forms not otherwise obtainable. Quantities of a pound or two in weight
should be secured, and the exact locality of the island or other place from
which it was obtained, together with the latitude and longitude, and other
information that may be collected and deemed of interest, should be
marked in ink upon the label.

Shell Cleanings. The sand, mud, algae, zoophytes, and similar matters

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMAECLE. 483

adherent to marine shells, which are commonly removed by students of
conchology, have often been found to yield rich harvests of rare forms of
diatomaceae. Such material can be washed, or, still better, scraped off of
the living or dead shells (the dirtier such shells seem the better, of course),
placed in paper and plainly labelled with the exact locality, and, if possi-
ble, name of the shell and depth of water from which it was taken. Con-
chologists will do well to save all their shell-cleanings for this purpose.

Marine Invertebrate. Specimens of the entire animal, or the contents
of the stomachs of echinoidea (sea urchins) and holothuroidea (sea cu-
cumbers), should be secured, as it has been found that many, if not most
of them, are vegetable feeders, and thus take into their stomachs algae
which have diatomaceae growing upon them. The entire animal should
be preserved in spirits (if alcohol is not procurable, brandy or whiskey
will answer), but if that be not convenient, they, as well as the contents
of the stomachs, may be dried without washing in any way. It has been
found that holothurians, when they are immersed in spirit, often turn
their stomachs inside out, and thus the contents, which are the part most
valuable for the microscopic organisms, will be found at the bottom of
the containing vessel. When the whole animal is preserved in spirit, the
label may be written in ink on stiff paper or parchment, and, when quite
dry, tied to the specimen and immersed with it in the spirit. In this way
several specimens can be preserved in the same vessel, and space econo-
mized. This method will be found to be the best, as labels pasted or
gummed on, or otherwise attached to the vessel, are liable to be obliter-
ated from leakage of the contained fluid, or removed during transporta-
tion. The stomachs of mollusca (shell fish) and crustaceans (lobsters,
crabs) also occasionally yield specimens of diatomaceae, and it will be
well to secure specimens of those creatures in the manner described.
The stomachs of fish occasionally contain diatomaceae, and may be
secured.

Soundings. The material brought up from the ocean bed by the
sounding-line, or the larger masses procured by means of the dredge,
have been found to yield good returns of microscopic treasures when
examined. The calcareous shells of foraminifera, as well as siliceous
polycystina and diatomaceae, are found in them. When kept for this
purpose, note should be made of the latitude and longitude, depth of

484 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

water, along with the name of the vessel and collector, and the date of
collection.

TJie dust wJiich collects at sea upon the sails or decks of vessels. This
kind of material, although not common, has been found to be of interest
when examined microscopically. It can generally be scraped up with a
piece of paper. When the quantity is so small that it cannot be col-
lected in this way, a piece of damp paper may be laid on it once or
twice, in several places, and then folded up before it becomes dry. Lati-
tude and longitude, direction of wind at the time of the falling of the
dust, name of vessel, date, and collector's name, should be noted on the
label.

Recent gatherings of Diatomacece. These are the most valuable, im-
portant, and rich of the gatherings containing diatomaceae on which the
student depends for material for investigation, and they are so various in
character that it becomes difficult to give general directions that will
serve to indicate the modes of procedure to be followed in securing
them. To collect diatomaceae at all thoroughly, a considerable amount
of knowledge of their habits is necessary. In general, it may be said
that gatherings should be made of marine plants, or algae as they are
called, which grow entirely submerged beneath the water, attached to
rocks, piers, iron-, or wood-work. The dirtier such plants appear to the
naked eye, the richer will be the harvest of minute organisms secured,
as the brown coating, seen upon aquatic plants and similar submerged
objects, obscuring them, is but a mass of living diatomaceae. The larger
and coarser algae, — more especially those having a slimy feel, — do not
usually yield many diatomaceae ; but the finer brown, red, or green fila-
mentous kinds are commonly covered with them. Detached fragments
thrown up upon the beach ought not to be kept if living ones can be
found, for they usually have had the diatoms rubbed off from them, and
are, besides, contaminated with sand. The living algae taken from their
attachment should be dried without washing or much compressing, and
may then be placed in layers, each specimen being plainly labelled with
the exact locality, date of collection, and collector's name. Fragments of
algae, which may break off from cabinet specimens, and would be rejected
by students of the algae, may yet be of value to the diatomist. Some of
the finest collections I have ever seen were derived from this source.

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACE^E. 48$

When known, the name of the alga should be stated. If possible, it
is extremely desirable to secure specimens of diatom-encrusted algae in
spirits. In this way the diatoms will be preserved in almost their natu-
ral condition ; and those species, which are filamentous or grow in chains,
will be available in that condition for study.

Fresh-water plants clouded with diatomaceae may be collected and
preserved in the same manner as marine algae. As has been remarked,
the finer filamentous species of water plants yield the best results ; the
marine fucoids, as the "bladder wrack," and similar species, secrete a
mucus which seems to be repugnant to the growth of most diatoms ; yet
upon the stalks of Laminaria, and some other large olive-colored algae, are
found the finer red-tinted species, which are themselves beautiful objects
of study, and are, in turn, the homes of hosts of minute forms of life.
Water plants, marine or fresh-water, should not be cleaned in any way,
but merely raised from the water, and, after draining for a short time, be
either laid upon a piece of clean paper to dry, or hung up where the air
and sun can rapidly evaporate the moisture. Marine plants will usually
not dry thoroughly, as the salts present in the water absorb moisture
from the air ; hence they are liable to mould unless they are packed in
paper. The moss-like carpeting seen upon submerged rocks is often
made up of beautiful specimens of the filamentous species of diatoms
alone, and it will be well to scrape the surface of the stone, and, placing
the mass in a bottle, cover it with alcohol, which will become colored
from dissolving the coloring matter of the diatoms, and preserve them
in the very best manner for future study. Fresh-water forms are very
often found hanging in green-colored festoons from the exit pipe of
drains, sluices, or fountains, and may be preserved in the same way.

The green, brown, or fawn-colored scum which floats upon the surface
of the water of road-side pools, ponds, bogs, marshes, or rivers, consists
usually of little else but diatoms, and may be taken up by means of a
spoon or bottle, and then preserved in alcohol or dried upon paper. The
surface of the sea may be skimmed by means of a net of fine muslin,
having an opening left in the bottom, in which a four- or six-ounce wide-
mouth phial is tied, and towed at the stern of a vessel. If the sea-water
be strained through such a net, either by towing behind a boat or even
poured from a pail, the solid matter contained in it will be washed down

486 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

and gradually collect in the phial, which can then be removed and tightly
corked, and another substituted. Some very beautiful forms have been
procured in this way. The stain occasionally seen on the surface of the
sea in some latitudes, as well as the minute organisms causing the lumi-
nosity of the ocean, yield rich crops of diatoms, and should be secured.
Such gatherings may be put up as obtained, or have alcohol added to
them for better preservation. The collection of aquatic plants from the
mouths of rivers is extremely desirable, — such as have been made in the
delta of the Ganges yielding interesting results. The refuse of dredging
for shells often yields mud, old shells, or algae ; and collectors will do well
to secure such. Experience, however, will teach the best places to look
for recent diatoms ; but the above general directions will prove of service
to those who are new to the pursuit, or who collect for others.

It should always be remembered that a knowledge of the exact locality
is of the greatest importance, — so that upon the label should be written
in ink the locality, date of collection, and name of collector. Other
facts deemed of interest may also be added.

PART EIGHTH.

How TO PREPARE SPECIMENS OF DIATOMACE^E FOR EXAMINATION AND
STUDY BY MEANS OF THE MICROSCOPE.

Having accumulated a number of gatherings of rough material, which,
a cursory examination has shown, contain specimens of diatomaceas, and
which, it is judged, it will answer to clean and otherwise arrange and put
up, or, as it is technically termed, "mount," for future study, the intend-
ing diatomist requires to be informed how he may best set about pre-
paring his specimens in the most advantageous manner. The author of
the present sketch has published, in the seventh volume of the Proceed-
ings of the Boston (Mass.) Society of Natural History, certain directions
for collecting, preparing, and mounting diatomacece for the microscope ;
and, as that paper contains a large part of the information he desires to
impart at the present time, he will draw upon it pretty freely, supple-
menting it to such a degree as later investigations warrant, or as may
seem desirable.

Although most of the published treatises on the use of the microscope
in general profess to give directions for mounting objects in such a

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACEyE. 487

manner as to preserve them for almost any length of time, and at the
same time exhibit their characters to the best advantage, and although
we have in the English language at least three books treating specially
of this subject of the preparation of microscopic objects, yet hardly any
one of these volumes gives any concise, practical, and, at the same time,
reliable descriptions of the best methods of collecting, preparing, and
mounting specimens of diatomaceae. In books, generally, when the
preparation of these organisms is treated of, it is usually the fossil
deposits which are considered, and even such directions as relate to
these are for the most part meagre and unsatisfactory; and, when the
specific and special directions are, as is often the case, copied from one
book into the other without having been tested by the copyist, any
faults they may have possessed, as originally written, are merely repeated
and not eliminated. To prepare and mount specimens of diatomacese,
for the purpose of sale alone, is one thing, and to prepare and mount
them, so as to preserve and exhibit their natural characters and fit them
as objects of scientific study, is another and very different thing. The
latter can only be attained after considerable practice, and to do it prop-
erly a considerable amount of knowledge of their natural history is
plainly necessary.

The diatomacese should always be prepared and put up for a special
purpose, — that of exhibiting characters peculiar to genera and species ;
and to do this those characters must of course be known. Muds,
guanos, dredgings, and gatherings of that description can seldom be
used for the purpose of exhibiting such characters, and when they can,
in exceptional cases, be so employed, it is when the forms they contain
are selected out in the manner to be described hereafter. Gatherings,
likewise, which contain many species in a mixed condition, should, as a
general thing, be rejected unless there be present something of special
importance, such as rare species, or some large and fine or distorted
forms of common species. But even in such cases it will be found best
not to mount the gatherings as collected, but to select out the forms
desired and place them upon slides by themselves, and in such media as
will exhibit their peculiarities to the best advantage. Of course it may
be desirable to study the geographical distribution of the diatomaceae;
and then mixed gatherings become of value as exhibiting the number of

488 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

forms occurring at a particular station. Then, again, the fossil as well
as the semi-fossil deposits and guanos may be cleaned and mounted as
obtained ; but even then it may become desirable, if space can be spared
in the cabinet, to have the various species found in each gathering sepa-
rately mounted, so that they may be at any time studied in comparison
with similar forms from other localities.

General directions for collecting diatomaceae have been already given
in Part Seventh ; but it will be desirable to again allude to a few points
in connection with this portion of our subject. Some years since, an
article entitled " Hunting for Diatoms " was published in a London
journal called The Intellectual Observer. The author's name was not
given, but internal evidence would seem to indicate that it was penned
by a deceased botanist of note, who was a decided authority on this
branch of biology. This paper contains some valuable hints respecting
the places in which to look for diatoms, and some of the suggestions
contained therein I have ventured to transfer to these pages, as they will
be found of value to the intending diatomist. Thus, the exquisite Arach-
noidiscus, Triceratium Wilkesii, and Aulacodiscus Oregonensis, may be
looked for on logs of wood which have been floating in the sea, and
imported from New Zealand, or Vancouver's island. So, on logs from
Mexico and Honduras may be found the curious Terpsince mnsica. The
nets of fishermen, especially from deep water, may yield algae bearing
such forms as RJiabdonema arcuatum or Adriatium, GrammatopJiora
serpentina and marina, various Syncdras, and other fine forms. On
oyster shells may be found algae bearing upon their fronds Biddulphia
regina, B alley ii or aurita. RJiizosolenia styliformis is said to be almost
sure to be there likewise. After a ship is unloaded, and as it floats
higher in the water, its sides may be searched for treasures of the diatom
world, and AchnantJies longipes and brevipes found, or even Diatoma
hyalinum and Hyalosira delicatula. The sea-grass, or Zostera marina,
growing along our coast, often bears upon its waving ribbons fine forms
of diatoms, and that used for stuffing chairs, and lounges or mattresses,
and imported from abroad, will yield foreign species to the collector.
There is a plant known in England as "Dutch rushes," which is imported
into that country from Holland, and which is used for chair bottoms.
These plants grow in the brackish water of the marshes, and hence upon

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACE^E. 489

them are to be found the delicate Coscinodiscus subtilis, Enpodiscus
argns, and Triceratium favus. Both of these two last named forms occur
commonly on our Atlantic coast, and muds from Charleston, S. C., and
Wilmington, Ga., have provided me with them in plenty. Cargoes of
bones, which present green incrustations from having lain in the water
for some time, are said to yield diatoms, some of which may be rare, as
coming from foreign ports. The state of New Hampshire has not yet
been sufficiently gone over for it to be said what the characteristic forms
of diatomaceae growing within its boundaries are, but yet we may safely
predict that the lakes, ponds, streams, and sea-coast of that state will
yield to the searcher ample material of beautiful forms.

If the microscopist wishes to mount a few slides of recent diatoms
just to show what diatoms are, nothing is easier. It is only necessary to
boil a small mass of them in strong nitric acid in a test tube over a spirit
lamp, and, when the acid has ceased to emit red or yellowish fumes,
wash them thoroughly with clean water, allowing them to settle com-
pletely. Then a little of the clean sediment, consisting almost entirely
of the shells of the diatoms, is taken up by means of a "dip-tube," and
placed upon the central portion of a glass slide. Here it is dried, and the
slide warmed over a lamp ; then a drop of Canada balsam is permitted to
fall upon the diatoms. As soon as all bubbles have cleared off from the
balsam, a warm cover of thin glass is carefully laid upon it and permitted
to settle into place. When cool, it is ready for examination by means of
the microscope, any balsam which has exuded around the cover being
washed off with alcohol. In this way rough and tolerably clean speci-
mens may be obtained ; but such would not, or, at all events, should not,
satisfy the student of the diatomaceae. For him more elaborate methods
are necessary, and these we will now proceed to consider.

Apparatus and chemicals necessary. A chemist's retort-stand, which
is a heavy iron plate with an upright rod projecting from one side of it.
Running on this rod, and so arranged that they may be fixed by set-
screws at any height, are a series of rings of various diameters, which
are to be used to hold the vessels in which the specimens are to be
manipulated over the source of heat used. Mr. C. G. Bush, late of Bos-
ton, Mass., who has had considerable experience in cleaning diatomaceae,
tells me that he uses a lamp burning petroleum oil, as cheaper than a
VOL. i. 64

4QO PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

spirit-lamp, and, to support the vessels he employs, has a little metal
arrangement on the top of the chimney, such as is supplied for the pur-
pose of holding a small tea-kettle and the like. The only objection to
the oil-lamp is, that, unless the wick be well turned down, we are liable to
have our vessels blackened. However, the heat given off by burning
petroleum is very great, and I have often used such a lamp with advan-
tage. If desired, of course, the source of heat used may be gas, burned
in a Bunsen's burner, or a spirit-lamp ; and this last, especially if it be
supplied with a metal chimney to cut off draughts, is, all things consid-
ered, the best, as it is very cleanly, not being liable to smoke the bottom
of the glass or porcelain vessels used. If we are going to work with
large quantities of material, we shall require a small sand-bath to heat
the glass vessels upon. In small quantities, the diatoms may be boiled in
test-tubes, when some sort of holder will be required. The metal ones,
sold by dealers in chemists' apparatus, are extremely handy ; but I have
found that we can make very good ones out of old paper collars. One of
the kind called "cloth-lined" may be cut into strips about three quarters
of an inch wide and three inches long. Such a strip is folded around
the test tube, near the top, and the ends, brought together, are held
between the fore-finger and thumb. In this way the tube is firmly
grasped, and can be held over the lamp without much danger of burning
the hand, as the paper collar strip is a bad conductor of heat; or, the
paper strip may be grasped in an "American clothes-peg," which has a
spring to force its parts together. Large quantities of diatoms are best
boiled in porcelain evaporating-dishes, glass flasks, or beaker-glasses.
The last mentioned vessels are also by far the best things for washing
them in. A few, say three or four, glass stirring-rods will be found
useful ; and one or two American clothes-pegs to take hold of hot evap-
orating-dishes with. Then there will be required a few dip-tubes, made
of small glass tube, drawn out over a flame, so that the opening is con-
siderably diminished. The mode of making these cannot be given here,
but will be found in books on chemical manipulation ; and it will be well
for the student to learn to make his own dip-tubes, as a number will be
required first and last, and they are easily broken. Of course there will
be required a number of glass slides, of the usual dimensions of three
inches by one. These should be of as white glass as possible, and it will

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACE^E. 49 1

be found best to procure those with ground edges, as they are the neatest
in appearance. Only such as are free from scratches or other blemishes
in the central square inch should be used ; and, although even such as
have bubbles or scratches near the ends only will not look ornamental in
a cabinet, we should remember that microscopic objects are not generally
mounted to look well in a cabinet, but to be useful out of it ; so that if
the central and useful portion of the slide be perfect it need not be
rejected. Some persons make their own glass slides, but I have never
found it answer to do so, as it is difficult to get the right kind of glass,
not at all easy to cut it or grind the edges, and it is liable to be scratched
while cutting or grinding. Thin glass, such as is made on purpose for
microscopic use, will be required ; and this, also, it will be found best to
buy ready cut rather than attempt to cut it for one's self. The thin glass
used for covers may be of different thicknesses, but the thickest made
will not do for diatoms, and a certain amount of the very thinnest will be
required for small and delicately marked forms, on which very high power
objectives will have to be used. The covers must be perfectly clean,
which may be insured by soaking in caustic potassa solution, and then
washing thoroughly in clean water. The thinner kinds of glass are rather
difficult to clean; but with a little extra caution it may be accomplished,
the last polish being given to it by a piece of an old and well-worn cam-
bric handkerchief. The covers, always round, should be separated into
sizes and thicknesses, so that the exact kind of cover required can be
found without having to search for it by turning over a number, scratch-
ing or breaking them, and losing much valuable time. We shall also
require a pair of forceps for holding the slides over the lamp ; and such
as are sold at house-furnishing stores and by grocers, under the name of
American clothes-pegs, and which have been already mentioned, are by
far the best I have ever seen or heard of. A small pair of brass forceps
which close with a spring will be needed, and they are best set in a
wooden handle so as to protect the fingers from the heat ; and another
pair, which spring open and may be closed by means of the finger and
thumb, will be wanted for taking hold of and adjusting the thin covers.
I do not advocate the use of paper covers for slides, but labels of some
kind will, of course, be required, and I have found the plain circular white
ones to look the best. There are very pretty square labels sold by dealers

492 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

in these things that I have used and liked. For making cells to hold
specimens put up in fluid, a turn-table and brushes and some cement will
be necessary. The cement I use and prefer above all others is good old
gold size, used warm.

The chemicals required are nitric acid, sulphuric acid, hydrochloric
acid, bichromate of potash, caustic potash, alcohol, and, above all, a plen-
tiful supply of clean, filtered water. The water should be such as leaves
hardly any residuum when a quart of it is evaporated to dryness ; and it
must be filtered just before use, to remove any minute organisms, dia-
toms especially, which it may contain. A certain amount of washing
soda will be wanted, if guanos are to be cleaned.

We will now proceed to consider the manipulations necessary to pre-
pare the various kinds of gatherings, always remembering that these
methods will have to be modified to a certain extent for each specimen.

Recent Gatherings. If there be sand in the gathering, it will be well
to remove it before using acid by shaking it in clean water and pouring
off before the diatoms, which are lighter than the sand, settle. The
water holding the diatoms in suspension may be poured into a test-tube
or beaker, the diatoms allowed to settle, and as much of the water
poured off as possible. The diatoms are now covered with nitric acid to
about the height of half an inch, and allowed to stand for a few minutes.
Usually, some chemical action takes place, and it will be well to wait
until it subsides. The test-tube or beaker is then held over the lamp
and carefully heated until the reaction of the acid upon the organic mat-
ter of the diatoms ceases. Thereafter, and while the liquid is still hot, I
have found it often advantageous to drop in one or two fragments of
bichromate of potash. The organic matter is more thoroughly destroyed
in this way than when the acid is used alone. Thereafter it is well to
pour the acid and diatoms into a capacious beaker of clean water, wash-
ing the tube or smaller beaker out with a little water, and adding this to
the other. After the diatoms have all settled, which will often require
hours, the supernatant fluid is carefully poured off, and a fresh supply
added ; and this must be repeated several times until all of the acid and
colored chromium compound has been removed. When this point is
arrived at can only be ascertained from experience. In this way the
valves and connecting membranes of the diatoms are usually separated

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACE^E. 493

and cleaned ready for mounting, which process will be described here-
after.

Muds will have to be treated in a somewhat different manner from
recent gatherings. If the mud is dry, it will have to be broken down by
boiling for a few minutes in a solution of caustic potassa, the strength of
which must be apportioned to the particular specimen under treatment.
After it has been broken down into a soft mud, all of the potash is thor-
oughly washed off by means of clean water, and replaced by nitric acid,
as in the case of recent gatherings. This is boiled, and a little bichromate
of potash added as before, and the whole washed. It very seldom hap-
pens that the diatoms occurring in mud will be sufficiently cleaned by
this process, so that it has to be supplemented by another. The sedi-
ment is therefore washed into one of the evaporating-dishes and allowed
to settle, and as much of the water poured off as possible. Then sul-
phuric acid, in quantity to a little more than cover them, is poured in,
and the vessel gradually and carefully heated. As soon as the liquid
shows signs of boiling, bichromate of potash is added, a very little at a
time, until the green color first formed by its reaction upon the organic
matter begins to assume a yellowish tint, when no more is dropped in ;
but a few drops of hydrochloric acid are permitted to fall in, and the
liquid is allowed to cool. Of course it will be best if the person under-
taking to clean diatoms is somewhat versed in the use of chemicals ; but
at any rate care must be taken not to drop any of the acids upon the
clothes or skin, and great caution must be exercised in not inhaling any
of the vapors given off. Those evolved after the addition of the hydro-
chloric acid are especially irritating and dangerous, and must be avoided.
As soon as the liquid has cooled a little, water should be added cau-
tiously, as great heat will be generated thereby, and there will be danger
of its boiling over. Thereafter it may be poured into a large beaker-
glass of water and thoroughly washed, as in the former case. If it be
found that the precipitate is not quite white, it will be necessary to boil
it again in sulphuric acid, with bichromate of potash and hydrochloric
acid, until it is quite clean. If, on examination by means of the micro-
scope, it is found that there is much flocculent matter present besides
the diatoms and sand, this can be removed by boiling for a few seconds
in a weak solution of caustic potash, and washing quickly and thoroughly

494 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

with plenty of clean water. When we have recent gatherings of fila-
mentous or stipitate forms of diatomaceae, which we desire to preserve in
the natural condition, they should be immersed for about twenty-four
hours in alcohol to dissolve out the endochrome. If this does not
answer, it will be well to soak the mass of diatoms or plants upon which
they are adherent in a solution of hypochlorite of soda, an impure variety
of which is sold in the shops under the name of Labarraque's disin-
fectant, for about the same length of time. This will generally destroy
all color, and leave the specimens transparent. It is best, however, in
many cases not to remove the endochrome, but leave it, and mount the
specimens in such a way as to show them in as natural a condition as
possible. How this may be done will be described hereafter.

Guanos. The preparation of these substances so as to obtain the
microscopic organisms they may contain is rather difficult, tedious, and
dirty, and should only be undertaken by a person somewhat versed in
chemical manipulations, and in a proper room as a laboratory, where
there is no danger of harm resulting from the fumes evolved. As the
ammoniacal guanos are those which contain the most diatoms, and con-
sequently which answer best to clean, we will begin with them, and take
as a type that which comes from the islands on the coast of Peru. As it
comes into commerce this guano is a moist powder of a light iron-rust
color, smelling strongly of ammonia, and having scattered throughout its
mass lumps of ammoniacal salts of a more or less solid consistency.
The guano should be thinly spread out upon a stiff piece of paper and
exposed to the air, and, preferably, to a moderate heat for several days or
even weeks. In this way most of the moisture and much of the ammo-
nia will evaporate, and less acid will be required to clean the guano. It
will now have become much lighter in color, and crumble to a dry powder.
A tin pan is now about half filled with a solution of common washing
soda in clean filtered water, and placed over some source of heat, as on
a stove. The strength of this solution is not a matter of any great
moment, and must vary with the guano manipulated. As soon as it
begins to boil, the guano is dropped gradually in, a little at a time, while
the liquid is stirred with a glass rod or stick of wood. Considerable
effervescence takes place, ammonia being given off, and therefore it must
be kept continually stirred, and care exercised to prevent its boiling over.

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACE/E. 495

After a while it is poured into a plentiful supply of clean water and
washed therewith several times, care being taken to permit all of the
diatoms to settle. As soon as the wash-water is only slightly colored,
the guano is transferred to a good sized evaporating-dish, and covered
with nitric acid, and boiled. While it is boiling, a few crystals of bichro-
mate of potash are dropped in, and the material washed as in the case
of muds. Thereafter the diatoms are boiled in sulphuric acid with
bichromate of potash and hydrochloric acid, as before described.

Phosphatic guanos, as that from Brazil, are somewhat more difficult to
treat. They are generally drier than the ammoniacal kind, and must be
boiled in a large quantity of hydrochloric acid as many as three times,
and the acid must be poured off while still hot. Thereafter nitric acid
and sulphuric acid and bichromate of potash must be employed, as in
the other case.

Lacustrine Sedimentary Deposits. For the most part these are pul-
verulent, and easy to clean. Some, as found in nature, are so pure that
they require no cleaning except washing in clean water. Burning on
a plate of platinum or mica will often serve to clean some specimens,
but it will, in general, be found best to boil in nitric acid with a little
bichromate of potash, and subsequently in sulphuric acid and bichromate
of potash, with the after addition of hydrochloric acid. Occasionally a
certain amount of flocculent matter will be left, which it will be necessary
to remove with very careful heating, not boiling, in a weak solution of
caustic potash, and immediately pouring into a large quantity of clean
water and thoroughly washing.

Marine Fossil and Sub-Plutonic Deposits, being stony and possessed
of very much the same physical characters, are manipulated in the same
manner. A small lump of the deposit is placed in a test-tube, and cov-
ered with a strong solution of caustic potash. It is then boiled for a few
minutes, and usually it immediately begins to break up and fall down in
the shape of a soft mud-like material. At once the liquid, with the sus-
pended fine powder, is poured off into a large quantity of clean hot water,
and if the whole of the lump has not broken down into a powder, what
remains has a little water poured over it in the test-tube, and it is again
boiled. It will be found that a little more will now crumble off. This is
added to the rest in the large vessel, and if the lump has not now broken

496 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

down, it is again boiled in the alkaline solution and in water alternately,
until it has all been disintegrated. It is then all permitted to settle for
at least three hours, when it is thoroughly washed and boiled in hydro-
chloric acid for about half an hour. There is then added an equal
amount of nitric acid, and the boiling continued for a short time. It is
then washed and heated in sulphuric acid, with the addition of bichro-
mate of potash and hydrochloric acid.

All mixed gatherings of diatomacese, and particularly all muds and
deposits, should be separated into densities, so that for the most part the
larger forms are collected together, free from sand, and separate from
the smaller species and broken specimens. This is done by using a
number of beaker glasses, of various sizes, in the following manner:
Into a one-ounce beaker the cleaned diatoms are placed, and the vessel
filled with water. It is then well stirred up by means of a glass rod, and,
after resting about five seconds, poured off carefully into a six-ounce vessel
so as not to disturb the sand which has settled. Again the vessel is filled
up with water, stirred, allowed to settle for the same length of time, and
poured into the same vessel. This is repeated until it has been done at
least six times, when we shall find all of the sand, free from diatoms, in the
small beaker. This can be thrown away, and as soon as the material in
the large beaker has settled it is returned to the small one, and the same
process gone through with, only extending the time of settling now to
about ten seconds. The next density is that which settles in twenty
seconds ; and so on, five or six densities may be obtained, and if carefully
prepared they will be found to contain forms varying very much one from
the other. The large species of Triceratium, Aulacodiscus, and the like,
will be found in the coarsest density, and the broken diatoms in the
lightest.

Preserving and mounting specimens so as to have them in a condition
for study at any future time. Of course, when possible, diatomacese
should be studied in the living condition. But there are many forms
which have not been as yet found living, and these can only be studied
as dead skeletons ; and, in fact, it is in the dead skeletons of the diato-
maceae that many of the most marked characteristics are to be found;
and on such characteristics species have been founded. Besides, the
most beautiful sculpturing of the valves is only to be seen after every-

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACE^E. 4Q7

thing has been removed but the siliceous cell-wall I have termed the
skeleton. Therefore I advocate the cleaning of a portion at least of
every gathering in the manner described, so that nothing will be left but
the clean siliceous cell-wall.

If we desire to keep specimens in a state as near that they present
when living as possible, we have to put them up in some preservative
fluid in which they will not decay, and in which the softer parts will be
preserved. Unfortunately these soft parts do not keep well; but the
fluid which I have found to be the best for the purpose is distilled water,
which has to every fluid ounce two or three drops of wood creosote
added, and thereafter a sufficient number of drops of alcohol, which will
be about double the number of the drops of creosote, to make the creo-
sote soluble in the water, which it is only to a very slight degree under
ordinary conditions. I do not advocate any fluid containing glycerine,
or, in fact, any of the preservative fluids described in the books treating
of the preparation of microscopic objects. The vessel in which the
fresh specimens of diatomaceae are put up are what are known to micros-
copists as "cells," but how these are made cannot be gone into here,
as the description would occupy too much space and time. Suffice it
to say that I prefer cells made of old japan gold-size, which can be
procured of dealers in microscopic materials. Within such a cell, of
sufficient depth and immersed in the preservative fluid, a few of the
diatoms, or a scrap of the plant upon which they are growing, is placed,
and the glass cover fixed over it in the manner described in the books
upon manipulation. The filamentous forms are thus preserved almost in
their natural condition; but, on account of the presence of the endo-
chrome, the sculpturing of the siliceous cell-wall is almost invisible. To
show this character, while the filamentous form is preserved, another
method of mounting is employed. A thin, clean covering glass is
selected, and laid upon a clean piece of paper. A large drop of distilled
water is then allowed to fall upon it, and in this drop the filamentous
diatom is thinly spread out. Then the cover is taken up by means of a
pair of forceps and held over the flame of a spirit-lamp, which has been
turned down so as to be quite small and steady. The cover is held
some distance above the flame, and judiciously manipulated, so that the
heat is evenly distributed over it, and it -does not crack. As soon as all
VOL. i. 65

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

the water has been driven off without the formation of bubbles, the
glass is brought gradually down almost in contact with the flame, and
held at that point for a few minutes. Then the diatoms will be seen to
turn black, on account of the charring of the organic matter contained in
them. After a while this black carbonaceous matter will burn off, and
they will become quite white. If, however, there seems to be any diffi-
culty in burning off the last portions of carbon, the cover is lowered
once or twice to come in contact with the top of the flame, and then
raised again. In this way it will become red hot for a moment; and
everything will be burned off except the siliceous portions of the dia-
toms. Now the cover is removed slowly from over the flame, and held
in the forceps until it is cold, but by no means laid down upon any sur-
face until it is quite cold, — otherwise it will fly into pieces. Then it can
be laid upon an ordinary glass slide, and examined to see if it is worth
preserving, which may be done in one or two ways: first, the glass
cover is warmed, and a drop of good spirits of turpentine let fall upon
it, covering the diatoms. Just before the spirits evaporate, a small drop
of thin Canada balsam is added, and a slide taken, warmed, and a drop
of balsam placed upon the centre part of it. Then the cover is brought
down upon the slide, the two balsam-covered sides together, in such a
way, by tilting the cover slightly, that no air is allowed to come be-
tween them, and the cover permitted to fall gradually into place, driv-
ing a wave of balsam before it. In this way we have the filamentous
diatoms arranged as they grow, but with endochrome removed which
would obscure the markings, and in balsam, which renders them trans-
parent. Some forms, as some of the Fragillaritz, become too transparent
if put up in this way, and therefore another method of mounting must
be adopted with them. They are burned upon the cover, as just de-
scribed, but mounted dry in air; that is to say, a cell of gold-size is
made, the glass cover slightly warmed, and then placed upon the cell,
with the side upon which the diatoms are fixed, downwards. The
warmth slightly softens the gold-size, and the cover becomes fixed.

Other forms besides the filamentous species may be mounted in fluid,
or burned upon the cover and subsequently put up in balsam, or dry.
But the commonest way of treating such forms is to clean them by means
of chemicals, as already described, and then previous to mounting them

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACE^E. 499

divide the clean gathering, consisting of a white sediment of large and
small diatoms along with fine sand, all mixed up together into densi-
ties. Of course, if some of this sediment were to be mounted in this
condition, extremely unsightly slides would be procured ; so it is best to
separate the finer from the coarser diatoms, and these in turn from the
sand. This is accomplished by what is known as elutriation, or, separat-
ing into densities after the manner already described. Then slides may
be mounted from each of the densities in the following manner. A slide
is thoroughly cleaned, and a good sized drop of water placed upon the
centre portion. A little of the diatom sediment is then taken up in a
dip-tube, and the point of the tube brought just into contact with the
drop. As soon as a few diatoms have run out of the dip-tube, it is
removed. Then a small splinter of wood or stiff bristle is used to dis-
seminate the diatoms through the drop of water in such a way that they
will be pretty evenly distributed and not overlie each other. The water
is then driven off by heat, a drop of thin Canada balsam placed upon the
dry diatoms, and a cover placed on them in the usual manner. In many
cases, especially when dealing with the smaller forms, it will be found
desirable to mount them upon the cover in this same way, instead of upon
the slide, as they will then be brought as near as possible to the objective
of the microscope. Single or remarkable specimens of diatoms may be
picked out and mounted by themselves ; but the manner of accomplishing
this would occupy more space than it has been thought desirable to
devote to this portion of our subject, and the reader is referred to
the books on mounting microscopic objects for the particulars of the
process.

The main principles of preparing and mounting diatomaceae for preser-
vation and study have been given, and the intending student will be able
to devise modifications and improvements for himself, so that he will be
able to put up specimens in as finished a manner as any to be procured
from the dealers.

5OO PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.

All of the figures, with the exception of 23 and 24, are magnified five hundred
diameters, or two hundred and fifty thousand times superficial. Fig. 23 is magnified
about three hundred diameters, and Fig. 24 one hundred diameters. All of the
figures, with the exception of the two mentioned, are exact portraits of specimens in
the collection of the author, and are intended to be as perfect delineations of the
diatoms represented as could be obtained, as the drawings have been made with
special care to that end. This fact is mentioned, as most of the plates of diatoms
published do not give correct ideas of these organisms, and are usually drawn or
engraved by persons not possessed of an intimate acquaintance with the objects
intended to be represented. The plates have been obtained by photography direct
from the author's drawings, without the intervention of any engraver, and are, there-
fore, truthful reproductions of them.

PLATE I .

Fig. i. Front view of Triceratium Montereyii. From the marine fossil "infusorial
stratum," of Monterey, Cal. This figure shows the connecting membrane, which
is differently sculptured from the valves.

Fig. 2. Front view of Triceratium punctatum. In this specimen no connecting mem-
brane has been developed. From the harbor of Charleston, S. C.

Fig. 3. Side view showing the valve of Pinnularia nobilis. From Germany.

Fig. 4. Front view of Rhabdonema arcuatum. From the harbor of Salem, Mass.

Fig. 5. Side view of Pleurosigma angulata. From the coast of France.

Fig. 6. Side view of Plettrosigma fasciola. From the harbor of New Haven, Conn.

Fig. 7. Side view of Triceratium punctatum. From Charleston, S. C.

Fig. 8. Side view of Pleurosigma Balticum. From the coast of England.

Fig. 9. Side view of Pleurosigma quadratiim. From the coast of England.

Fig. 10. Side view of Coscinodiscus radiatus. From the marine fossil stratum of Oran,
Algiers. In this specimen, as is very commonly the case, the radiant arrange-
ment of the markings is obscure.

Fig. 1 1 . Side view of Navicula didyma. From the coast of France.

Fig. 12. Side view of Triceratium favus. From the harbor of Charleston, S. C.

PLATE II.

Fig. 13. A specimen showing both front and side views of Gomphonema constrictum,
as well as the arrangement of the stipes or stalk. From Marion, N. J.

Fig. 14. Front view of Achnanthes brevipes, showing the flag-like appearance of the
perfect individual when attached to some submerged substance by means of its
stipes. From the coast of England.

.Survey of New H 3u?n p 5 h i v&.

Diatoma.ce&- PI. I.

ntmtmiinu*

jiuiHimitmttti

A.lbert-typa, E. BIERSTADT N

Ge o I . S u r v ey of N ew H a mp s h i re

. • ;.- om acese. PI. H.

Geol. Survey of

Uiato:ms.cecE. PI. III.

Albert-typo. E. BIBMTADT. K 7

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACE^. 50!

Fig. 15. Front view of a chain of two frustules of Grammatophora marina, from the

harbor of Salem, Mass.
Fig. 1 6. Front view of a filament of Melosira varians, terminated by a sporangium or

seed vessel. From Englewood, N. J.
Fig. 17. Side view of Heliopelta Metii, from the marine fossil stratum of Nottingham,

Md. The species has been lately removed from the genus Heliopelta and placed

in Actinoptychus, and can therefore be considered as a representative of that

genus. It is one of the most beautiful of the diatoms, and has never as yet been

seen except in the fossil condition, and at the locality named.
Fig. 1 8. End and portion of a tube of Schizoneina obtusum, from the harbor of New

York. The little navicula-like frustules of the Schizonema are seen within the

tube.
Fig. 19. A group showing both front and side view of Synedra tabulata, from the

harbor of New York, showing the manner in which the frustules are attached to

submerged objects by means of a cushion or short stipes.

Fig. 20. A chain of Diatoma vulgare, from England, showing the front view only.
Fig. 21. Side view of Biddulphia rhombus. From the harbor of Charleston, S. C.
Fig. 22. Front view of Biddulphia rhombus, showing both valves and connecting

membrane. From the harbor of Charleston, S. C.

PLATE III.

Fig. 23. A, B, C, D, and E, different stages of growth of Palmoglcea,

Fig. 24. Lichmophora flabellata on its stipes or stalk. From the coast of England.

Fig. 25. Side view of Navicula Barklayana. From the coast of England.

Fig. 26. Epithemia turgida, conjugating or reproducing. From England.

Fig. 27. Side view of Pinnnlaria lata. From New Hampshire.

Fig. 28. Side view of Aulacodiscus Oregonensis. From the Sandwich islands.

Fig. 29. Side view of a Navicula prcetexta. From the Gulf of Mexico.

Fig. 30. Side view of Himantidium pectinale.

Fig. 31. Front view of a filament of Himantidium pectinale, from a spring near New

York.
Fig. 32. Side view of Meridian circular e, showing the wedge-shaped frustules united

together so as to form a spiral. From West Point, N. Y.
Fig. 33. Side view of Stauroneis acuta.
Fig. 34. Front view of Stauroneis acuta. From England. In these two figures the

septum, which projects like a shelf into the cavity of the frustule at the ends, can

be seen.

Fig. 35. Side view of Navicula lyra. From Germany.
Fig. 36. Side view of Navicula serians. From New Hampshire.
Fig. 37. Side view of Navicula quadrata. From Germany.

5O2 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

APPENDIX.

NEWARK, N. J., September i, 1874.
Prof. C. H. HITCHCOCK, State Geologist :

Dear Sir — As you request, I send what information I can at the present time con-
cerning the specimens of diatomaceae which I have received from you or others, or
collected myself in the state of New Hampshire. The specimens have been of two
characters. For the most part they have consisted of lacustrine sedimentary deposits,
and these have been collected by yourself, or the other gentlemen connected or not
connected with the survey. A few recent gatherings have likewise been sent to me by
you, or procured by myself and a friend, in and around Hanover and elsewhere. The
lacustrine sedimentary deposits are thirteen in number, and are from the following
localities : Bemis lake, Carroll county ; Bowkerville, Fitzwilliam ; Stamp Act island,
near Wolfeborough ; Littleton ; Laconia ; Bristol ; Chalk pond, Newbury ; Epsom ;
Pike's pond, Stark ; Bow ; Cold pond, 2000 feet above the sea, one eighth mile from
Crawford house ; Umbagog lake, Cob's county ; Concord. Besides these, I have
received prepared slides from Manchester and from Durham.

As it may be of interest to those who study the diatomaceae to know, I will state
when and how these deposits came into my hands.

Bemis Lake. The first specimen of this deposit was sent to me by Mr. Charles
Stodder, of Boston, Mass., in 1859. I examined it and published a list of the species
I found in it at that time in the Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History,
May 2, 1860. This list is as follows :

Cocconema parvum.

Cyclotella Kutzingiana.

Cymbella cuspidata.

Eunotia serra.

Gomphonema acuminatum.

Himantidium gracile.

Navicula affinis; Na-vicrda cuspidata', Navicula Jir ma', Navicula interrupta; Nav-
icula rhyncocephala ; Navicula serians.

Nitzschia /

Pinnularia major-, Pinnularia stauroneiformis ; Pinnularia tabellaria-, Pinnularia
•viridis.

Stauroneis phcenicenteron.

Surirella biseriata ; Surirella linearis.

Tabellaria fenestrata ; Tabellaria flvcculosa.

I have again and more carefully examined this deposit, and find that I have to make
some corrections in the above list, as well as add to it ; but, as my investigation has
not been completed, I shall not at the present time make these corrections and addi-

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMACE/E. 503

tions. Besides the specimen sent me by Mr. Stodder, I received further supplies from
Mr. R. C. Greenleaf, of Boston, in 1866, and from the discoverer and owner of the
deposit, Dr. S. A. Bemis, in 1865 and 1870.

Bowkerville. The first specimens of this deposit which I received were from your-
self, in May, 1871. In the following July I visited the locality with you, and made
further collections.

Stamp Act Island. This deposit I received from you in September, 1871.

Littleton. The first samples of this deposit were procured from the Bailey collection
in the possession of the Boston Society of Natural History, and were sent me by Mr.
Charles Stodder. Subsequently specimens were sent to the survey by Mr. B. W.
Kilburn, and were transmitted by you to me.

Laconia. The first specimens of this I received from Mr. R. C. Greenleaf, in
November, 1865. In May, 1867, he sent me a further supply, and told me that it
occurred on a farm belonging to Col. Crockett.

Bristol. This was sent to me by Mr. C. Stodder, June, 1862, who said that he had
received it from a Mr. Webster.

Chalk Pond, Neivbury. A very small sample of this deposit was sent to me by you,
October, 1871 ; and in June, 1874, you sent me a further supply.

Epsom. This I procured from the collection of the Essex Institute, Salem, Mass.,
in December, 1864.

Pike's Pond. This was discovered, I understand, by Mr. J. H. Huntington, of the
survey, and was given me by you, June, 1871.

Bow. This I also procured from the collection of the Essex Institute, and it was
labelled as having been presented by Dr. Prescott.

Cold Pond, near Crawford House. A very small sample of this was sent me by you,
July, 1872.

Concord. This I procured from the Bailey collection in Boston.

Umbagog Lake. This you sent me in July, 1870.

The slides labelled Manchester, N. //., and Durham, N. H., I received from Mr.
E. Samuels, of Boston, Mass.

The recent gatherings of diatomaceae which I have from New Hampshire, are as
follows :

No. i. Brook emptying into Shaker pond, Enfield.

No. 2. "Muck hole," Hanover.

No. 3. On mosses from Shaker pond, Enfield.

No. 4. Mink brook, Hanover.

No. 5. Trout pond on farm of J. E. Lawrence, Bowkerville.

No. 6. Lake of the Clouds, on Mt. Washington.

No. 7. Haystack lake.

No. 8. Large pond, Bowkerville.

Nos. 9, 10, ii. Hanover.

504 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

All of these, with the exception of Nos. 6 and 7, are my collections. Nos. 6 and 7
you sent me.

Besides these gatherings, I have received fresh-water diatomaceae from the following
localities in New Hampshire, through the kindness of Mr. R. C. Greenleaf, of Bos-
ton, Mass. :

Lake Mouran, on Cannon mountain, 1865.

Saco river, 1865.

Echo lake, 1865.

Profile lake, 1865.

Spring near Tip-top house, Mt. Washington, 1865.

Small pond near Crawford's, 1865.

Spring near Lake Mouran, 1865.

Pond on Mt. Lafayette (Lake Greenleaf) .

Snow arch, Tuckerman's ravine.

Androscoggin river, Gorham.

Gibbs falls, Crawford.

Brook in Bethlehem.

In June, 1862, Mr. Charles Stodder sent me a specimen of a lacustrine sedimentary
deposit, labelled "New Hampshire: locality and history entirely unknown; sent by
some one in Lawrence to Mr. Ordway, of Manchester, N. H."

In Ehrenberg's Mikrogeologie, T. XXXV, A. VI, is represented a deposit of diatom-
aceas said to come from Perth, N. H. [?], and this is mentioned as described in the
Transactions of the Berlin Academy for 1843. In tne same work, T. XXXIII, X, is
represented another similar deposit from New Hampshire, — more particular locality
not being mentioned. This is said to be described in the Transactions of the Berlin
Academy for 1845. This work is not accessible to me at the present time ; therefore I
am unable to give the particulars mentioned by Ehrenberg concerning them.

These, then, constitute all of the material I possess up to the present time represent-
ing the diatomaceae of the state of New Hampshire, and as soon as I shall be able to
work up the forms contained in them I will transmit you a full report thereon. In the
meantime it is extremely desirable that we should receive recent collections from other
parts of the state ; and I would particularly call attention to the fact that we have not,
as yet, received any gatherings from brackish or salt-water. Specimens of marine
algae encrusted with diatomaceae, as they almost always are, would be particularly
acceptable. Respectfully yours,

A. MEAD EDWARDS, M. D.

NEWARK, N. J., September i, 1874.
Prof. C. H. HITCHCOCK, State Geologist :

Dear Sir — I have thought that it might prove of interest to students of the
Desmidiae to know that while making collections of diatomaceae in and around Han-

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE DIATOMAEC/E. 505

over, N. H., in the summer of 1871, I procured the following species belonging to that
family :

Didymoprinm Borreri.

Desmidinm Swartzii.

Microsterias denticulata ; Microsterias crenata.

Cosmariutn Botrytis.

Staurastrum polyinorphiim.

Docidiuin nodulosiitn.

Closteriuin angustatinn.

Pediastrum Boryanum.

As special gatherings for obtaining these organisms were not made, the above list is
very brief; but hereafter I hope to add to it, as the desmidias of the United States
have not been much studied, and a great deal remains to be done in our micro-zoology
and micro-phytology. Respectfully yours,

A. MEAD EDWARDS, M. D.

NEWARK, N. J., September i, 1874.
Prof. C. H. HITCHCOCK, State Geologist:

Dear Sir — During my excursions in and around Hanover, N. H., three years since,
in search of diatomaceae, I collected a few specimens of wild plants infested with
diseases caused by the growth upon them and in their tissues of microscopic parasitic
fungi. These I submitted to my friend, Mr. M. C. Cooke, of London, Eng., the well
known fungologist, and he was so good as to identify them. They were the following :

JEcidium Viola, Schum., on wild violet. Viola.

^Ecidium grossularia, D. C., on wild gooseberry. Ribes hirtelhim.

jEcidium Dracontii, Schw., on Indian turnip. Arum triphyllum.

s£cidium asterum, Schw., on a plant whose name was not ascertained.

The mere announcement of the discovery of these species in New Hampshire will
not perhaps prove of interest to the majority of the readers of the survey report ; and
this will arise from the fact that they will not be sufficiently informed with regard to
the important bearing these minute plants have upon the occupation of the agricul-
turist. There is no doubt that it would be greatly to the advantage of the farmer were
he better informed concerning both the animals and vegetables which prey upon his
crops. If he knew something of their habits and modes of attack, he would be the
better prepared to resist their depredations, or even to attack them in such a way as to
preserve his crops, and thus save for himself much money and labor. At some future
time, and as further specimens come into my hands, I shall take the opportunity of
transmitting to you some remarks on the fungi injurious to the crops of the agricul-
turist. In the mean time, students of these plants may be glad to know that those
I mention have been found in New Hampshire.

Respectfully yours, A. MEAD EDWARDS, M. D.

VOL. I. 66

CHAPTER XV.

PHYSICAL HISTORY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE.

HEN the geological structure of a territory is well understood, it
may be interesting to review the changes that have taken place in
respect to its physical dimensions, — beginning with the reclamation of
the first foot of dry land from beneath the level of the ocean, and con-
tinuing the sketch with a description of the variation in its outlines,
whether an enlargement or contraction. Besides the increase and de-
crease of territory, physical history may embrace a notice of the origin
and arrangement of the mountain ranges intermittently arising to view,
changes in the character of strata brought about during a period of eleva-
tion, the adaptations of the successive land-surfaces to the existence of
life, and other related topics.

The subject is a novel one, as very few laborers have wrought in this
field. Our conclusions have been drawn entirely from the induction of
facts obtained by observation, and not from a comparison of theories
propounded by eminent physicists. Our views did not spring into being
fully developed. At first only a glimmering of the truth appeared ; by
and by the light was like that of the dawn of day; then the skies
became brighter and brighter ; — but I will not presume to say that the
truth is now so manifest that no more information is required to make
the history perfectly known. The maps illustrating the successive shapes
of our territory may require modification, in consequence of a better
knowledge of the distribution of the several formations. There is much

PHYSICAL HISTORY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 5O/

to be discovered yet in the southern part of the state. Some of this
information will be obtained for our final geological map. If the reader
finds discrepancies, he may accept the conclusions last stated as the most
authoritative.

This sketch is really an epitome of the geology of the state. It pre-
supposes the establishment of the entire geological column, the order of
the formations, and their geographical arrangement upon the map. If
correct, it assumes the solution of questions which have agitated geologi-
cal circles for forty years. We can only refer to the next volume for the
establishment of all these fundamental doctrines, and will state the sub-
ject as if they were thoroughly proved.

It is not desirable to go further back in time than to the period of the
deposition of the first rock formation in the state. There are interesting
speculations respecting the history of our planet, for ages anterior to its
solidification. It may have formed part of a nebula comprising first
the entire solar system, and afterwards only the earth-mass. In later
times it is thought to have existed in the condition of igneous fluidity.
A long series of ages may have been occupied in the changes which
effected the formation of a solid crust, the falling of the steam and vapors
in the atmosphere to form a saline ocean, and the separation of elevated
and depressed areas from each other to allow of the erosion of rock and
deposition of material in the lower portions. During much of this time
the special area now known as New Hampshire could not be distin-
guished from the adjoining territory. It will therefore be best to con-
fine our studies to the time when dry land began to appear within our
borders, and then describe the successive eras of growth as truthfully as
possible.

At this point it is important to state the terminology of our science.
Human history is divided into periods, according to the supremacy of
various nations or prominent ideas. Geological history is classified in
accordance with the succession of life, and the predominance of particu-
lar classes. Four groups are recognized, i. Eozoic, or the period of
the introduction or dawn of life. 2. PALEOZOIC, or the time when
ancient types of life predominated. 3. MESOZOIC, or the time when the
middle types of life prevailed. 4. CENOZOIC, the latest period, when all
will recognize the recent character of the organisms.

508 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Of these great eras, New Hampshire furnishes quite fully the forma-
tions accumulated during the first, and somewhat of the second. After
that, there are hints as to her condition derived from general considera-
tions, which will be mentioned in the proper place. The Eozoic era is
divided into the Laurentian, Atlantic, Labrador, and Huronian periods
in New Hampshire.

The following considerations lead us to believe that life existed in
these periods.

i. The presence of ores of iron is an evidence of the existence of
vegetation. Ores of iron are conceived to have been formed similarly
in all ages. At the present day they accumulate in swamps and low
grounds in the form of bog ore, or the hydrated peroxide (ferric). To
effect this deposition the presence of organic matter is requisite. The
iron is present in the soil in small proportion, as the insoluble ferric
oxide. Vegetation, when soaked in water, imparts to it the capacity of
dissolving this ferric oxide. A portion of the oxygen is given off, and
the compound becomes the ferrous oxide, and in this condition is readily
soluble. But this is not a stable compound in the presence of the atmos-
phere. There are new combinations, and the soluble ferrous, or protoxide,
is changed to the insoluble hydrated peroxide, and is precipitated, falling
to the bottom. This process being continued indefinitely, there accumu-
lates a large thickness of the bog ore, oftentimes sufficient to furnish
material for the smelter.

It is supposed that most of the ores of iron in every age have been
formed in this way. As the modern bog is now essential to their pro-
duction, so must there have been vegetation in the most ancient periods
to eliminate the iron.

Furthermore, the Laurentian vegetation must have been extremely
abundant, on account of the enormous deposits of iron ores seen in the
Adirondacks, Ontario, Missouri, etc. There are beds hundreds of feet in
thickness. This proof is afforded by certain beds in New Hampshire, as
in Lisbon (Franconia) and Landaff. The beds in Bartlett and Gilford
are in granite, and may possibly have come from igneous action, and if
so are likely to be limited in quantity.

Chemical changes have taken place in the original bog ore in order to
produce the magnetic ore of Lisbon. This is two-fold. First, the water

PHYSICAL HISTORY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 509

has been expelled, perhaps by the action of heat. This would give rise
to hematite and specular iron, which differ from the original compound
only by the absence of water. Second, a further change, probably the
continued application of heat, expels a part of the oxygen, producing the
magnetic oxide, — a compound intermediate between the ferrous and ferric
oxides in respect to the amount of oxygen present.

The preparation of the quartz of Lyndeborough for the manufacture
of glass illustrates the nature of the chemical changes which I have just
mentioned. The quartz as taken from the ledge is not perfectly pure,
since it contains a small per cent, of ferric oxide, perhaps combined with
water. This colors green the vessels manufactured from it, and therefore
it is best to eliminate the iron as completely as possible, so as to secure a
better quality of glass. The rock is put into a kiln and burnt, just as if
it were limestone being converted into lime. The rock becomes friable,
so that it can be readily crushed and pulverized, and the iron is converted
into the magnetic oxide. After pulverization, the quartz-flour is made to
fall in a stream over magnets set like bristles on the surface of cylinders.
The magnets instantly attract the iron sand, which is thus perfectly
removed from the quartz by several repetitions of the process of falling
over the revolving cylinder. Had not the fire removed the water and a
portion of the oxygen from the iron ore, the magnets could not purify
the quartz. The change is precisely like that which has taken place in
the magnetization of the Laurentian ore-beds, and hence it is reasonable
to suppose that nature has done the same work upon a large scale which
may be often witnessed at the Lyndeborough glass-works.

2. The presence of graphite, plumbago or black-lead in the Eozoic
rocks is evidence of the former existence of vegetation. We do not yet
know how to account for the existence of graphite in the earth, except
through plants. Great changes have been effected in its mass, so as to
have entirely altered its nature. Instead of being combustible, it is one
of the most refractory substances known, and is largely used for the
manufacture of crucibles in which metals are fused. No one has yet
detected any traces of vegetable structure in graphite, so that we have
no evidence from morphology of the nature of the earliest plants. From
general considerations, we may believe them to have been algae, fungi, or
lichens, perhaps, of giant forms and of particular shapes not represented

5IO PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

in living nature. Our rocks afford graphite in abundance, and hence
suggest the presence of plants in New Hampshire in the earlier periods.

3. Some argue the presence of animal life in the older rocks, on
account of the presence in them of limestone. It is said that all lime-
stone found in stratified rocks has been derived from the decay of the
shells of marine animals or other organisms. If this be true, it is certain
that organisms once flourished in our state, as we have an abundance of
Eozoic limestone in Lisbon, Haverhill, Amherst, etc. The argument is
not a strong one, since many thermal waters are constantly depositing
tufa, oftentimes in massive beds.

4. Animal life is thought to have been abundant, because of the pres-
ence of the Eozoon in the Laurentian of New York, Massachusetts,
Ontario, and elsewhere. In 1858, J. McMullen, an explorer attached to
the geological survey of Canada, brought specimens from the Laurentian
limestones of Ontario to Sir W. E. Logan, the director of the survey,
which had an organic appearance. The first examinations did not reveal
anything like organic remains, though Sir William believed they must
be the relics of life. They were exhibited to the geologists at the
Springfield meeting of the American Association for the Advancement
of Science, in 1859. In February, 1865, a series of papers appeared in
the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London, by Sir W.
E. Logan, Dr. J. W. Dawson, Dr. W. B. Carpenter, and T. Sterry Hunt,
wherein arguments were set forth in favor of the foraminiferal character
of the supposed organisms, to which the name of Eozoon Canadense
was given by Dr. Dawson. This proposal called out investigations in
various quarters, — some in favor of the Canadian theory, and others in
opposition to it. Those best acquainted with the recent forms of the
foraminifera usually believe that this Eozoon is of organic origin ; those
who disbelieve the organic theory are mostly better skilled in mineralogy
than biology. The discussion is still warmly pressed; and it is not judi-
cious to quote the existence of this possible organism as satisfactory
proof of the presence of animal life in the Laurentian. The author,
however, is satisfied with the arguments urged in favor of its organic
nature ; — the more readily, since two of the considerations previously
stated afford a substantial basis for the existence of plant-life during
the same early period.

PHYSICAL HISTORY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 51!

The terms Azoic, "without life, and Hypozoic, beneath life, are still applicable to the
stratigraphical systems which flourished antecedently to the Laurentian, but they are
not appropriate designations for any of the crystalline strata which are now referred to
the Eozoic. If it be objected that many will still understand these terms in their
former acceptation, it may be answered, that, when properly informed, such persons
will more easily understand the shifting of the designation than the proposal of a new
name. For the past twenty-five years many groups of strata had been removed from
the Azoic system without giving rise to any misunderstanding. Furthermore, no one
is yet able to point to any locality where these most ancient systems crop out ; hence
the liability to misconception is greatly reduced. The Azoic rocks, as now under-
stood, are limited at their top by the Laurentian system, and at the bottom by the very
beginning of deposition. If we grant the existence of animals in the Laurentian, and
follow out the analogies derived from the development of the higher from the lower
forms of life, — animals succeeding plants, — then there must have been an immensely
long period antecedent to the Laurentian, characterized as the Eophytic, or the dawn
of plant-life. This system, if ever discovered, will be entitled to a place by the side
of the four great divisions specified above.

The name Eozoic seems to have been proposed by Dr. J. W. Dawson, of Mon-
treal, in 1865. He did not fully define the limits of its application at that time ; but it
seems to have been generally understood by geologists to embrace all the obscurely
fossiliferous rocks older than the Cambrian. The considerations just stated, showing
that our crystalline rocks contain obscure evidences of life, make it plain that the
Eozoic system is a natural one, characterized by very scanty traces of organisms. Its
separation, as a system, from those beneath entirely devoid of life, is also natural, and
in accordance with the most approved geological usage.*

THE FIRST DRY LAND IN NEW HAMPSHIRE.

Accepting as a fact the doctrine that the whole globe was entirely
covered over by the ocean before the beginning of the deposition of

* The recent proposal by Prof. J. D. Dana, in the second edition of his Manual of Geology, to call both the
Azoic and Eozoic systems Arcktean, the beginning rocks, seems uncalled for, but would be less objectionable if
the author's own definition was strictly adhered to. The distinctions given between the Azoic and Eozoic are
not incompatible with those stated in the text above ; but the word Archeean is nearly universally used in the sense
of Eozoic throughout the Manual. On page 140, in giving the subdivisions of all geological time, he says, —
" ARCHAEAN TIME, including an Azoic and an Eozoic era, though not yet distinguished in the rocks, i. Azoic
Age. 2. Eozoic Age." On page 148, reference is made to Dawson's suggestion of the word Eozoic in place of
Azoic, with the opinion that its use is objectionable, because the supposed Eozoon may be of mineral nature.
On page 151, the Archizan Era is divided into the two periods, Laurentian and Huronian. The word Archsean,
on page 151, seems to be synonymous with Eozoic, on page 140. I do not suppose the use of the word Eozoic
implies belief in the existence of the animal Eozobn. The adjective to be used in that sense would be Eozoonal.
The distinction between the true Azoic and Eozoic ages is of greater import than between any other two of those
used to mark geological time ; and hence the union of them under one designation is uncalled for. Furthermore,
Dawson's name has the advantage of several years' prior suggestion and general usage among geologists. It is
also undesirable to break up the unity of the terminology of the great ages of the world's history by adopting a
term not having the termination of zoic. For these and other reasons, it does not seem to be for the good of the
science to substitute Archaean for Eozoic in geological literature.

512 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

sediments, we look in vain over the broad expanse of waters for any
landmark to indicate the boundaries of New Hampshire or the neigh-
boring states. Towards the close of this epoch, and probably after the
formation of large islands to the north in Canada, and to the west in
New York (Adirondack region), oceanic currents began to accumulate
sediments in the shallower places. After a while these masses attained
large dimensions; and the operation of igneous forces beneath brought
to the surface an archipelago of islands, perhaps thirty in number.
These constituted the first areas of dry land in New Hampshire. The
position and shapes of these islands, as the rock composing them now
crops out, are shown in the first of our series of illustrations.

These islands were probably composed of clay and sand. The clay
may have come from the decomposition of still earlier feldspathic rocks,
possibly the original crust of the earth. The sand may have been
washed from some of the primeval piles of superfluous silica, which
found no congenial element with which to unite in the world-making
process. As these areas are now examined, they seem to be composed
chiefly of porphyritic granite or gneiss, which, to ordinary eyes, appear
to be very unlike clay and sand. Is it possible that the sediments have
been altered into these crystalline aggregates?

The answer to this question involves propositions the most difficult of
any in our science to be lucidly explained. It is only sufficient now to
state our theory. These primeval deposits of sand and clay, by the
action of steam, heat, and chemical agents, have been changed into
gneiss and granite. The large crystals of feldspar and the scales of
mica are the products of the alteration of clay. The sediments are sup-
posed to have been rendered soft and plastic through heat and steam ;
and chemical affinities have collected together, from a heterogeneous
mass, all the elements required to form the two crystalline minerals.
After their crystallization, the residuum, consisting of amorphous silica,
sought the crevices between the newly formed minerals, became closely
packed because of a considerable pressure crowding the mass, and have
had no opportunity of assuming the geometrical shapes forming when
the quartz is situated in favorable situations. This change is known as
metamorphism.

The resultant rock attracts attention by its spotted appearance. One

QAreas of Porphyritic Gneiss
stitnting islands.

PHYSICAL HISTORY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 513

of the finest exposures of it lies in the towns of New Hampton and
Meredith. At Lake Village it is the most common stone used for under-
pinning. Along the Boston, Concord & Montreal Railroad, from Ashland
to Lake Village, ledges of it are frequent ; also, along the Northern Rail-
road, between West Andover and East Canaan. The rock is grayish,
rarely dark brown, with rectangular spots thickly scattered over it vary-
ing in size from one fourth of one to two or three inches long, and a
fourth part as wide. These crystals of feldspar are sometimes arranged
in lines, their longer axes being parallel one to another, or they may be
thrown together indiscriminately. This difference in arrangement indi-
cates, perhaps, the degree of intensity with which heat has acted upon
the rock. The first are akin to strata of gneiss ; the second is a granite,
resulting from the aqueo-igneous fusion of the first. The fusion must
have been protracted and the material very plastic, in order to permit
the development of such large and abundant crystals.

It is probable that some of these islands were united at this first time
of elevation, though they are now separated by other material of later
origin, formed partly from the degradation of the former, and deposited
upon it. There has been much crowding of the older rocks in subsequent
periods, so as to compress what may have been a large island at first into
an insignificant patch. It would not be surprising if this archipelago
originally covered as much area as the two states of New Hampshire
and Vermont combined. Our representation must therefore fall some-
what below actual truth. The widest stretch of the imagination can
mark out a possible arrangement of these primeval areas, but it would
not satisfy the mind so well as the delineation of their present limits.
With this explanation presented, the reader may conceive the separation
of these areas over a greater range of longitude than is permissible
within the present state limits. There would not be much variation in
the length, as the crowding in later times came from the east or west.

This archipelago must have been considerably isolated from every
other existing territory in this ancient period, since we must go a long
way in any direction to find the same formation. It is entirely unknown
in Vermont, but crops out in the Adirondacks, and north of the St. Law-
rence, in Canada. Very little is known of the rocks in western Maine,
so that it cannot positively be said to be wanting there, though I have
VOL. i. 67

514 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

discovered no traces of this formation west of Prospect and Frankfort,
on the Penobscot river, except near Mt. Bigelow. East of the Penobscot
it is as abundant as in New Hampshire. Southerly the formation prob-
ably extends through Massachusetts into Connecticut, along the western
portion of Worcester county.

It would appear, therefore, that in New Hampshire and Massachusetts,
at the close of the first great period, there was a long sandy ridge, corre-
sponding to the distribution of the porphyritic granite, while, along the
Green Mountains and in western Maine, the ocean concealed everything
from view. It is likely that there is now, beneath the intervening strata,
a continuous sheet of this porphyritic rock connecting the New York,
New Hampshire, and Maine outcrops, which, in the early era, consti-
tuted the bottom of the ocean. Dredging machines would have found
nothing all over this floor different from the porphyritic sediment.

A study of the map will show a few matters of interest in respect to
the distribution of this formation: First, no land existed thus early
north of Whitefield. Second, there are two principal ranges. The
most important commences in Whitefield, runs to Franconia, Moosilauke
(not the summit), Groton, Mt. Cardigan, Grafton, and so on continuously
to Jaffrey, and probably is the same with the Chesterfield and Winches-
ter island. The next starts from the south base of Mt. Carrigain, east
of Lincoln, is strongly developed in Waterville, Sandwich, New Hamp-
ton, Meredith, etc., and follows the south-west border of Lake Winni-
piseogee into New Durham. Third, this lake range is remarkable for
its curvatures. Proceeding southerly, it makes a sharp turn in New
Hampton, runs back northerly to Squam lake, and then folds back on
itself like the barb of a fish-hook, and assumes a south-easterly course
(p. 55). Before discovering the fact of these curvatures, I had erro-
neously represented the Waterville range as continuous to Dublin.
Fourth, the principal range lies along the line of greatest elevation in
the state (pp. 210, 211), or the water-shed between the Connecticut and
Merrimack rivers. The most northern area attains the altitude of about
1600 feet, the lowest part being about 1000 feet. The Franconia-Rum-
ney area shows the rock as high as 4300 feet. The higher points are
Lake of the Clouds, Mt. Lafayette, over 4000 feet ; Mt. Kinsman, 4300 ;
Blue ridge, 2000; hills in Ellsworth and Rumney, probably 1800 feet.

PHYSICAL HISTORY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. $1$

The Groton-Jaffrey range gives us Mt. Cardigan, 3156 feet; hills in Graf-
ton, nearly 2000; line of railroad from West Andover to Grafton, 677
to about 900; Mt. Sunapee, 2683; Mt. Lovell, 2487. The southern end
of the area is more than 1000 feet above the sea. Fifth, there is a
group of islands in Warner, Salisbury, Webster, Hopkinton, and Hen-
niker, connected with the end of a promontory trending north-easterly
from the main range at Hillsborough. Sixth, a conspicuous line of
islands reaches from the north part of Webster, through Hopkinton and
Weare, into New Boston, over twenty miles long, and curved like a bow.
Seventh, possibly the Pelham and Seabrook islands, represented on
north-east range along the Massachusetts border. Eighth, it is notice-
able that the northern ends of the principal ranges sink beneath the
higher White Mountains, and have not yet been discovered to the north
of them in New Hampshire, though appearing east of Mt. Bigelow in
Maine,* ninety miles or more north-easterly from Mt. Carrigain.

ADDITIONS DURING THE ATLANTIC PERIOD.

At the close of the Atlantic Period the area of dry land was very
considerable, occupying fully two thirds of the present state limits. In
general terms, this area may be said to be central, the portions not filled
out being at the extreme north, on the sea coast, and along the Con-
necticut valley. The flanks of the principal porphyritic formation are
covered, and much of the space between the primitive islands is filled up.
The rock is also very commonly a gneiss.

Several important events are indicated by the succession of deposits.
I give them as seems in best agreement with the facts as now understood.
First, and lowest down, are rather local deposits of a somewhat talcose
gneiss, receiving the name of Bethlehem group, from the locality where
its features are best displayed. Second, Winnipiseogee lake (or, for
short, Lake gneiss). I think this includes the Berlin and Manchester
ranges, mentioned in some previous publications. Third, Montalban, or
White Mountain series. Fourth, Franconia breccia group. It is not
needful to distinguish these formations on the map at present, and the
second of our map-illustrations merely shows the whole system as it
stands related to the preceding areas.

* Proc. Amer. Ass. Adv. Sci., vol. xxii, p. 212.

5l6 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Several features of this distribution are interesting. First, the rocks
have a general north-east south-west course. Second, they occupy the
spaces adjacent to and between the first areas of dry land, just as we
should naturally expect if the additions have been made to nuclei. A
more careful study of the arrangement shows that the same succession
of formations is observed in traversing either flank of the porphyritic
group. The same member touches both sides of the porphyritic area,;
the second lies adjacent to the first in each direction ; the third is along-
side the second, connecting laterally, — and so on. Third, there are
several smaller areas of this age in the neighborhood. One occupies
Odell and vicinity. Another ranges through Essex county, Vt, and
probably exists as an underground ridge from Concord, Vt., to Reading,
Vt., where it seems to reappear and extend nearly to Massachusetts along
the same course. Small areas are situated about Bellows Falls and Pel-
ham. Another of great importance is the Green Mountain gneiss of
Vermont. The main range of New Hampshire stops short of the Ken-
nebec river, in a north-easterly direction, but seems to reappear on the
south-east in an extensive area between York and Hancock counties in
Maine. Fourth, this formation occupied several areas at the close of the
Atlantic age, which were .concealed by the deposits of later eras. Such
are the Pemigewasset district at the White Mountains, and considerable
parts of Carroll, Strafford, and Merrimack counties. It is to be pre-
sumed, also, that the most distant areas, as the Green Mountains, and
coast of Maine districts, are connected directly with the New Hamp-
shire deposits by a sheet of sediments which bend down deeply into the
earth, directly overlying the porphyritic gneisses of the first period.
The space between the White and Green Mountains might then be
regarded as a great basin, or synclinal, held up by the porphyritic cup,
and itself sustaining various newer sheets of rock. Fifth, the general
height of the Atlantic rocks corresponds well with the average elevation
of the state above tide-water, except, — Sixth, the Mt. Washington range
from the Saco valley to Mt. Bigelow in Maine. Its greater height is
probably due to additional elevations in later periods, while there is
reason to believe that it was raised to an unusual height at this time.

Considered historically, the following notable events occurred during
the Atlantic period: I. There was a deposition of sediments between

PHYSICAL HISTORY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 517

Berlin and Lebanon, chiefly in the Connecticut valley and in Carroll
county, of sandy grits, which we know in the altered state as the Bethle-
hem group. 2. It is likely that these strata were elevated and metamor-
phosed at the close of this era. 3. The very extensive deposits of the
Lake gneiss formation were next laid down. The largest amount of them
underlie the hydrographic basin of Winnipiseogee lake, and follow the
porphyritic band south-westerly towards Peterborough. The same group
extends from southern Cheshire county, through Sullivan and Grafton
counties, to Milan, and also from Mason to Deerfield, through Man-
chester. 4. Nearly all the rest of the Atlantic area, or the Montalban
group, was next deposited. The rocks are of two or three kinds. There
is a gneiss, largely deficient in feldspar, containing crystals of andalusite
in abundance. This characterizes the principal White Mountain sum-
mits. A second variety is excessively ferruginous upon decomposition.
A third is the well known "granite" of Concord, Plymouth, Farmington,
Milford, Fitzwilliam, Troy, Marlborough, etc. It is really a stratified
rock, whose divisional planes can be detected only with great difficulty.
There must have been variations in the conditions of deposit to insure
the accumulation of sediments that should alter into schists so diverse
from each other as these. 5. Next came the ejection of the granitic
mass, giving rise to the Franconia breccia. This igneous rock is com-
pletely filled with masses of all the formations that have been described
thus far, but carries none of those that succeed. Hence it seems to
have been connected with the great series of disturbances closing the
long period of quiet Atlantic deposition. This rock covers a few square
miles in Franconia, and may be repeated in Granby, Vt, and possibly at
one or two places along the Connecticut valley. The paste of the breccia
is mostly feldspathic in its mineral constitution. 6. Next came probably
the greatest period of disturbance and elevation known in the whole his-
tory of New Hampshire. The White and Green mountains came into
being, and, most likely, the whole system of Atlantic mountains, from Can-
ada to Alabama. They may not have assumed their present elevation at
this time, but became a marked feature in the primeval landscape, and
prominent objects for the action of the atmospheric elements, breaking
down and washing away all jutting out points. In connection with the
elevation, the sedimentary strata became converted into crystalline schists.

518 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

This grand event closed the Atlantic period. Its importance demands
some further notice of the action of the forces producing elevation, and
the process of metamorphism.

THE ELEVATING FORCES.

Many persons think a mountain is elevated by some force or agent
situated directly underneath, and that the thrust is upwards, and the
mass of matter retained in place by an injection of molten matter. It is
difficult to comprehend how any such action can have taken place on a
large scale ; and hence we must avail ourselves of quite a different theory.
Its general application can be perfectly understood by reference to an
action common in the winter throughout the Northern states.

When snow covers the ground, it is easy to push it away from a given
area; but a ridge is built up just on the edge of the cleared walk. Sup-
pose our assistant takes a pole, fastens it into the centre of a piece of
board, one foot high and three feet long. A single effort will enable him
to clear a space three feet wide by pushing the board away from him.
If three hundred men, each armed with a similar snow-pusher, should
act simultaneously along a sidewalk nine hundred feet long, there would
suddenly start into being a ridge of snow nine hundred feet in length.
The force of elevation in this case is a lateral one, and it accomplishes
the same result as if some power had acted upwards from beneath along
the same line. Now our theory supposes the existence of a mighty force
acting laterally along the whole length of the Atlantic formation, from
Canada to Alabama, in the same way that the ridge of snow was ele-
vated. The power displayed is great enough to shove along the thick,
horizontal sheet of sediments; and, where the substratum is firm, to
fold up a mountain range resting upon durable foundations. In case the
floor is yielding alongside of the range, a valley would be formed parallel
with the mountain. If the foundation is unyielding, there will still
naturally be depressions or valleys between the mountain ranges.

The origin of this lateral force is suggested by certain geological
features of our vicinity, and general theoretical considerations, i. Given
the existence of the parallel older ridges of the Penobscot district in
Maine, the primeval archipelago in New Hampshire, and the Adiron-
dack hills in New York, and grant that some energy causes them to

PHYSICAL HISTORY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 519

approach each other, we can see that the Atlantic schists between would
be crowded by lateral forces so as to produce mountains, if the pressure
be sufficiently great. It would not be easy in this case to say that the
force came from the south-east or from the north-west, but practically
from both quarters. If the Profile-Sunapee porphyritic range were
moved north-westerly, it might not be more influential in folding up the
Green Mountains than the Adirondacks, since their power of resist-
ance is practically an energy pushing in the opposite direction. It has
been common among geologists to argue that the pressure inducing
elevation in North America has come mainly from the south-east, or
from the ocean towards the interior; but in the present case there is
certainly reason to believe that the force has come as much from one as
from the other quarter. 2. Accepting the doctrine of the earth's refrig-
eration from the condition of igneous fluidity, it is easy to understand
why parallel ridges should be made to approximate to each other, and
consequently in their motion crumple up the thick rock masses lying
between them. In cooling, a crust forms over an igneous interior. This
crust eventually becomes so large that it cannot fit the nucleus within it,
and hence there must be a bending of the stiff envelope to bring the two
parts together. The crust cannot possibly fit the interior save by sinking
down almost everywhere, and rising along a few lines, so as to make
ridges on the surface. The process of shrinkage and ridging by the
close of the Atlantic period may be supposed to have been carried on so
far that the three parallel lines of land just spoken of correspond to three
elevated lines on the surface of the earth's crust. The process of cool-
ing had been going on for an immense period ; the interior is ready to
fall away from the stiff envelope ; the sinking of several hundred thou-
sand square miles of surface takes place. Consequently the older ridges
are forced nearer together, and as they move towards each other the
intervening horizontal Atlantic rocks are mercilessly crumpled up, folded,
and broken. As the force exerted is irresistible, the two prominent Mt.
Washington and Green Mountain ranges are crowded up so as to become
conspicuous elevations.*

* It is sufficient for our present purpose to refer the origin of the Atlantic mountains to a lateral pres-
sure produced in connection with the shrinkage of the earth's crust. There are a multitude of considera-
tions which ought to be presented in order to elucidate the subject properly. I propose to devote an entire
chapter to the statement of a proper theory of the elevation of mountains, with abundant historical references',

52O PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

THE PROCESS OF METAMORPIIISM.

The alteration of the rocks is intimately connected with the elevation
of mountains and continents. The agents which caused the land to
bulge upwards also induced the conditions favorable to metamorphism.
Crystalline rocks abound in regions of disturbance, and are mostly want-
ing where subterranean influences have not been liberated through
dislocations and crumpling.

The problem awaiting solution is this : How can the original hetero-
geneous mixtures of clay, sand, and gravel become arranged into essen-
tially homogeneous layers of crystalline schists of gneiss, Concord
granite, ferruginous and andalusite rocks? There is no superficial
resemblance between river sand and Concord granite; — what is the
process by which the latter can be evolved from the former?

In reply, we must assume the identity in mineral composition between
the original and derived masses, save in these few cases where evidence
of the withdrawal of one and the substitution of another ingredient can
be rendered probable. Granting this point, we have simply to show that
the sedimentary beds have been subjected to conditions suitable for the
action of elective affinities among the atoms.

If aggregations of minerals are exposed to great heat, so as to be
reduced to the melted state, the conditions would be favorable for the
action of elective affinities, and new compounds would result. When-
ever this experiment is tried, the results agree with our expectations.
Whoever examines the slag of a furnace, or the lava freshly ejected from
a crater, will find many crystals scattered in geodic cavities throughout
the material that has been melted. The elements have been redistrib-
uted into new compounds, because the conditions were favorable to their
transposition and recombination.

But the heat required for the melting of solids is more than sufficient
for the simple metamorphism of strata. It may be that certain eruptive
granites have come from the absolute melting of strata; but the schists
of the Atlantic gneiss have not lost their stratification. If the original

giving credit to those who have made important suggestions towards the true explanation of the process.
This essay must be deferred to the next volume, because the present one is already sufficiently large to be
conveniently handled. Extensive reference to metamorphism is also deferred for the same reason.

PHYSICAL HISTORY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 521

heterogeneous deposits possessed peculiar chemical characters, they still
remain. There has been chemical action in the midst of the particles of
each stratum. The atoms have been perfectly free to move about and
enter into new combinations. And it is easy to understand what condi-
tions may insure these results. If the rocks are charged with hot water
or steam, they will assume a considerable plasticity, and the atoms will
be free to move in all directions, perhaps confined by the walls of particu-
lar strata. Other conditions favor the chemical reactions. Great pres-
sure gives energy to the action, and there is an abundance of time allowed
for the completion of the work. In a furnace the fire is removed, and
the minerals have very little time to crystallize out. But the metamor-
phic action may continue for hundreds or thousands of years without
diminution. It is this long continued constant agency which accom-
plishes in the end as much as a more thorough melting in a short time.

The conditions favorable for the metamorphism of rocks are developed
during periods of elevation, i. The motion of shoving along the strata
is converted into heat. 2. When this force has crushed rocks, an
immense amount of heat has been liberated, enough to melt entirely the
mashed material. 3. Elevating forces are connected with displays of
subterranean heat. When strata are broken, immensely large fissures
are made, which extend down to igneous masses below the crust, not
necessarily a melted interior, but large reservoirs, comparable with oceans
for size. Compression may bring portions of this igneous material to the
surface through the fault, or at least send up strong thermal influences.
All these combined are sufficient to produce metamorphic changes.

The facts of plication and disturbance are everywhere evident in the
Atlantic rocks, so that, whether we fully understand the process or not,
it is clear that the formation has been subjected to influences capable of
rendering them plastic, and thus of allowing chemical changes.

As to the character of the original strata, it is likely that they were all
derived from the older porphyritic strata by the action of currents of
water of different velocities. The ordinary gneisses correspond with the
average composition of the older rock, and may have resulted from their
disintegration, the newer strata being argillaceous sandstones. The
ferruginous rock is fully four fifths silica, and its origin may be ascribed
to those currents which were fitted to transport finely divided silica. As
VOL. i. 68

522 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

the ferruginous appearance results from the decomposition of iron
pyrites, it is perhaps reasonable to look to the waters of the ocean for
the small percentage of sulphur required to combine with the iron of the
mud. This may have been reduced from sulphates in the water through
the agency of organic matter. The andalusite rocks were probably very
clayey, deficient in alkali. This clay might result from the decomposition
of feldspar. As the removal of potash and soda from feldspar is the pre-
requisite for its disintegration, the resulting clays might be deficient in
the alkalies. After metamorphism we should therefore expect the pro-
duction of schists corresponding in mineral composition, or with the
predominance of silicates of alumina without an alkali, like andalusite,
fibrolite, staurolite, and kyanite. These schists do not usually contain a
large proportion of feldspar.

The Concord granite would probably come from argillaceous sand-
stones, the silica being rather meagre in amount. This division has
probably been subjected to peculiar influences, so as to induce the com-
pact, even structure of the rock. The appearances would indicate a long
continued quiet metamorphic action, which has reduced the minerals to a
uniformly fine texture. The rock is evidently the equivalent of the
celebrated Monson, Mass., stone, where the layers of deposition are as
evident as in a freshly excavated hill of sand. It would seem as if the
action in the latter case had been retarded before the conversion of the
material into so homogeneous a mass.

More than one period of metamorphism seems to be indicated by the
facts. The Franconia breccia holds in its embrace fragments of meta-
morphic rocks of all the varieties that are peculiar to the Atlantic sys-
tem in that part of the state. The original formations must therefore
have all been altered prior to the production of the breccia. Possibly
this rock belongs to the following period, but it was as certainly prior
to that, as it clearly followed the Atlantic age. Hence I have regarded
it as marking the transition between these two great eras.

USE OF THE TERMS ATLANTIC AND MONTALBAN.

Those who have read the annual reports will observe that this is the first occasion
in which I have used the term Atlantic. My first report, printed in 1869, proposes the
name of White Mountain series for all the gneissic rocks east of the staurolite rock in
Lisbon (see page 17 of this volume). In 1870, Dr. T. Sterry Hunt wrote a letter to Prof.

PHYSICAL HISTORY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 523

Dana upon the geology of eastern New England, published in the American Journal
of Science, II, vol. L, p. 83, in which he includes the rocks of the White Mountains
with a group in Nova Scotia recently investigated by Mr. Murray, and stated to contain
"soft bluish-grey mica slates and micaceous limestones, belonging to the Potsdam
group ; besides a great mass of whitish granitoid mica slates, whose relation to the
Potsdam is still uncertain. To the whole of these we may perhaps give the provisional
name of the Terranovan series, in allusion to the name Newfoundland." This series
is definitely stated to lie "between the Laurentian and the Quebec group."

Next, Dr. Hunt describes rocks of similar characters on the St. Croix, N. B., and in
Nova Scotia. He says of the latter, — "These include mica schists with chiastolite and
garnet, and appear identical with those already observed by Dr. Dawson in other parts
of Nova Scotia, which I had already recognized as the same with those of the White
Mountains, and those of the St. Croix." He says further of the same, — "which I
believe to belong, like those of the St. Croix and the St. John rivers, to the great
Terranovan series. The micaceous and hornblendic schists, with interstratified fine
grained white gneisses (locally known as granites) which I have seen in Hallowell,
Augusta, Brunswick, and Westbrook, in Maine, appear to belong to the same series,
which will also probably include much of the gneiss and mica schist of eastern New
England." Of another region he says, in the same letter, — "I believe, however, that
much of the calcareous mica slate of eastern Vermont will be found to belong to the
Terranovan series."

From these quotations I think it plain that the author is inclined to believe that the
rocks of the White Mountains, together with the micaceous staurolitic rocks of eastern
Vermont, belong to one system, which is styled the Terranovan. As certainly a part
of this is stated to belong to the Potsdam, I should infer that the author believed the
Terranovan series to have been deposited about the time of the Potsdam or Cambrian
period.

In 1870, my second annual report (page 26 of this volume) amplifies the definition
of the White Mountain series, making it to include everything now referred to the
Atlantic system, and, also, the porphyritic granite. The name of Coos group was
applied in the second report to a set of rocks along Connecticut river, that had been
marked in 1869, upon a published map, as distinct from the White Mountain series.
This report was prepared immediately after the reading of Dr. Hunt's letter, referred
to above, in manuscript ; and the two documents were printed about the same time. I
gave the name under the impression that the group represented by it corresponded
to the Terranovan series of Newfoundland, and was nearly of Cambrian age ; but, as
distinctly shown in the reports for 1869 and 1870, I separated the Cob's from the White
Mountain series, the latter being regarded as pre-Cambrian.

In 1871, Dr. Hunt delivered a very able and carefully prepared address before the
American Association for the Advancement of Science, in which he distinguished
between the gneiss of the Adirondacks, the quartzo-feldspathic rocks of central Ver-
mont (improperly termed the "Green Mountain series," since the rocks of the Green

524 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Mountain axis, both in Vermont and for a considerable distance into Canada, are the
same with the White Mountain series), and the White Mountain series. This address
seems to be the first place where the author uses the term White Mountain series to
apply to a system of rocks, and he evidently intends that it shall take the place of the
name of Terranovan (p. 33). Dr. Hunt, in this address, clearly states that he believes
this series of rocks to be both pre-Silurian and pre-Cambrian in age ; and I owe him
an apology for quoting him, on one occasion, as having called them Cambrian in this
address. My only excuse is the impression derived from his letter of the previous
year, that he considered the White Mountain series the equivalent of the rocks in
Newfoundland carrying Potsdam fossils, and my inability to be present during the
delivery of the Indianapolis address.

It will be observed that the definition of White Mountain series, given in this ad-
dress, corresponds with mine of the previous year, even to including the porphyritic
gneiss, as respects the older strata, but differs by including the equivalents of the Cob's
group with the older series. Subsequently Dr. Hunt suggested the use of the adjective
Montalban instead of White Mountain.

I have presented these statements for two reasons, — first, to correct a misapprehen-
sion of Dr. Hunt, stated in public on two occasions, in reference to the question who
first assigned the White Mountain rocks to their proper place beneath the Cambrian ;
and, second, to justify myself, as the originator of the term White Mountain series, in
restricting its application, and returning to an older name for the large division, first
suggested in 1835.

In the Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, vol.
xxii, p. 116, after expressing the opinion that the White Mountain rocks are pre-Cam-
brian in age, Dr. Hunt says, "this view is, I believe, adopted by Prof. Hitchcock."
A similar expression is made use of in the Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural
History, vol. xv, p. 310. It would appear, however, from the historical statements
given above, that Dr. Hunt, rather than the author, has "adopted" this view. It is
to be presumed that both of us arrived at the same conclusion independently of
each other ; while it is to the credit of the New Hampshire geologist that his official
report contained the first announcement of the use of a term derived from the geog-
raphy of his field of labor. That this new use of the name White Mountains should
be employed by so able an investigator as Dr. Hunt, only two years after its sugges-
tion in the state report, is confirmatory evidence of the appropriateness of the desig-
nation.

In 1812 and 1817, William Maclure published geological maps of the United States,
on which is represented an area of "primitive rocks" extending from Maine to
Alabama, and including the Adirondack region. From the accompanying text it ap-
pears that these rocks are regarded as a formation, and as the oldest known in the
country.

In 1835, G. W. Featherstonhaugh, in a report upon the "Elevated Country between
Missouri and Red Rivers," urged the necessity of giving a general name to the chain

PHYSICAL HISTORY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 525

of mountains, as well as to the formation holding them, occupying the region of the
primitive rocks of Maclure. The mountains specified are the Blue Ridge, Alleghany
mountain, Iron mountain, Unaka, etc., and the name proposed is that of Atlantic
Primary Chain* From further remarks by Mr. Featherstonhaugh, 1836, in his report
of a geological reconnoissance by way of " Green Bay and the Wisconsin Territory to
Coteau de Prairie," it appears that he intended to have the name Atlantic applied to
these primary rocks in the same sense that Cambrian and Silurian were applied to
formations in England by Sedgwick and Murchison. He says, p. 38, — "the terms
primary and primordial are, undoubtedly, always very properly applied to the lower
rocks, to which an igneous origin has been attributed ; but may fairly be extended to
any series of rocks constituting a great geographical boundary, to which they give a
predominating character, especially at a period when the term transition is passing into
disuse, and leaves the term primary freed from theoretical views, to class all the rocks
in below the secondary order." In his "secondary," he expressly includes the Cam-
brian of Sedgwick, so that his application of the term Atlantic is free from ambiguity.
It includes the geographical area of crystalline rocks from Maine to Alabama, which
are supposed to be pre-Cambrian. This proposition was objected to by Prof. W. B.
Rogers, state geologist of Virginia, in his Geological Reconnoissance, published in
1836, on the ground of "superficial and precipitate generalization." It was at this
time that Messrs. H. D. and W. B. Rogers, and other eminent geologists, began to
entertain the notion that the New England portion of the Atlantic crystalline area
consisted of metamorphic paleozoic strata. If this were a theory, confirmed by
explorations, then the adoption of Featherstonhaugh's suggestion would have led
the world astray. Inasmuch as the metamorphic theory blinded the eyes of geol-
ogists for thirty years, the proposed use of the word Atlantic was lost sight of;
and those of us who now find that the older theories best explain the phenomena
discovered by exploration had forgotten Featherstonhaugh's proposal, and had
made use of the term White Mountain series in its place. But now, finding that
the proposal proves to be correct, we cannot do better than accept it, to the
exclusion of the term Montalban, for application to the entire system. Meanwhile,
the necessity for the use of a geographical term for the oldest rocks led Sir
W. E. Logan to apply the terms Laurentian and Huronian to the primitive formations
in Canada, expressly to the exclusion of the Atlantic rocks, as this author believed, in
the Paleozoic age of the New England crystalline schists ; and these terms have been
generally adopted. Featherstonhaugh did not know that the "primary" group was
susceptible of subdivisions ; but the study of the eastern belt of crystalline schists by
Dr. Hunt led him, in his address at Indianapolis, to refer them to the White Mountain

* The original proposition is couched in the following language : " It will be apparent, I think, to every
geologist, that as this primary chain is the true boundary of the sedimentary rocks lying west of it, and forms so
important a feature in the mineral structure of the country, it should receive a clear geological designation ; and
as it looks upon the Atlantic coast in its whole course, I shall propose the name of the ATLANTIC PRIMARY
CHAIN." Featherstonhaugh's Report, 1835, p. 33, second edition,—*!* the one printed with the reports of
congress does not contain this paragraph.

$26 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

series,* a group of rocks intermediate between the Laurentian and Cambrian, and
exclusive of the Huronian. This proposal will relieve a multitude of difficulties, and
enables us to place the Atlantic system midway between the most ancient Laurentian
and the Paleozoic, so that both parties in the metamorphic controversy may be pleased
because their opponents are not altogether in the right. Furthermore, the express
exclusion of the New England rocks from the Laurentian, and the omission of all
reference to the true Laurentian areas by Featherstonhaugh in his definition of Atlantic,
enables us, both by a true regard for historical accuracy and correct geological discrim-
ination, properly to apply the latter term to the eastern belt of crystalline strata, from
New Brunswick, through New England, south-eastern New York, etc., east of the
great valley of Virginia to Alabama.

There is a modification of the term Montalban now requiring specification. The
White Mountains contain of this system only the tender friable gneisses described
by Dr. Hunt, with the layers carrying andalusite and the Concord granite. Our
researches show that the rocks of this geographical area properly constitute a separate
division of the whole gneissic series of New Hampshire, and therefore Montalban may
naturally be restricted to express these and no others. The present chapter indicates
other modifications also. First, the porphyritic gneiss is older than any other of the
gneisses, and may for the present be removed from the Atlantic system, partly because
it may be represented in the true Laurentian, and partly because, in generalizations
respecting the growth of the North American continent, the Atlantic border rocks seem
to have had a later origin. Explorers in the Laurentian fields will do a great service
by ascertaining whether the porphyritic rocks cannot be separated stratigraphically
from the firm massive pyroxenic gneisses, which are so distinct from the tender schists
of the east. The porphyritic gneiss has been included in the Atlantic and Montalban
series by all writers in publications previous to the present. It is said to be a very
conspicuous formation in North Carolina, where it is regarded by Prof. Kerr as the
oldest of the crystalline series. Second, in New Hampshire the Bethlehem, Lake,
and Franconia series seem to be independent formations, separable readily for strati-
graphical reasons from each other, and from the Montalban. The second distinction
was first drawn by us in 1873, at the Portland meeting of the Association for the
Advancement of Science. See vol. xxii, p. 123. I am disposed now to group all
these older strata as follows :

A. PORPHYRITIC GNEISS AND GRANITE, perhaps LAURENTIAN.

B. ATLANTIC SYSTEM.

1. Bethlehem Grotip.

2. Lake Group.

3. Montalban Group.

4. Franconia Group.

* In what I have said concerning the priority of suggestion in respect to the White Mountain series, I desire it
to be distinctly understood that to Dr. Hunt is due the credit of first assigning these rocks to a new system of
different age from any described formation, though he has unfortunately included some later rocks with them. I

PHYSICAL HISTORY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 527

THE LABRADOR PERIOD.

Let us now consider the main topographical features of the area above
water at the commencement of the Labrador Period. From some un-
known spot in Maine, the country rises to the Mt. Washington range in
New Hampshire. These peaks probably did not rise so high as at pres-
ent above the water. The range continued southerly through New
England, spreading out broadly about the Winnipiseogee region. West-
ward the fundamental ridge of the Green Mountains stretches its length
along, passing southerly to form the New York and New Jersey high-
lands. Between the White and Green ranges lies the long, shallow
island from Essex county, Vt, to Massachusetts, on the west side of
the present Connecticut valley. The land on the two sides of the Con-
necticut nearly unites along the north Massachusetts line, while the
ocean broadens and deepens northerly towards Canada.

In consequence of the strain exerted upon the infant continent by
lateral pressure, there may have been a break in the strata along the
upper Saco valley, say above Sawyer's river. The result would be the
upthrow of the White Mountains from Mt. Webster to Mt. Madison, and
the settling down of a considerable tract of land to the west of the
Saco. There would result, therefore, a depression or hydrographic
basin over a part of the White Mountain area, with these limits:
bounded easterly by the Washington range, the Carter mountains and
their foot-hills in Bean's Purchase, Jackson, and almost by the Maine
line ; southerly, by the foundation ridge of the Chocorua range between
Conway and Black mountain in Sandwich ; westerly, by the Moosilauke-
Kinsman range; northerly, by the gneiss in Bethlehem and Cherry
mountain in Carroll. Corresponding depressions, not necessarily pro-
duced by a sinking of the land, appear in Kilkenny, Stark, Columbia,

claimed the merit of having previously recognized the rocks as older than the Silurian, but had not in mind any
definite place for them. I remember my father, in conversation, once expressed to me his conviction that the
New England rocks would prove to belong to a system distinct from anything then known, and of about the age
of the Cambrian; and I also recollect expressing emphatically a similar opinion at the Chicago meeting of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1868; but these surmises were not developed into
reasonable theories by hard study. Neither of us could claim the credit of first describing this system in the
full sense of the term, any more than my father could claim the invention of the telegraph; for, in a. popular
lecture upon galvanism, delivered at Newburyport, Mass., some years before Prof. Morse's discoveries, he
declared his belief that, by means of galvanic electricity, people would ere long be able to communicate with
each other instantaneously at stations many miles apart. These surmises were all creditable, but did not lead
to the actual discoveries.

528 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Essex county, Vt., and elsewhere, as shown upon the third of our map
illustrations. The Pemigewasset basin was the largest of any of them.
Such a terrible earthquake as must have accompanied the sinking of this
land could not very well have passed away without leaving behind a
copious outflow of igneous matter. Immediately subsequent to the cat-
aclysm, we find indubitable evidence of the largest eruption ever known
in New Hampshire. This Pemigewasset area was speedily overspread
by a mass of liquid granite, oozing out from the rent in the gneiss, reach-
ing down to the igneous reservoir. From the Crawford house to Mt.
Lafayette, and from the White Mountain house to Mt. Whiteface, and
from Franconia to Conway, the country was flooded. Were there ships
of steel they might have floated on this liquid lake, for the surface was
as level as the ocean.

Possibly the outlet of the fiery flood lay along the Saco valley in the
line of disturbance. That this flood is not a myth, I would point to its
localities, and claim that its surface is well marked to-day. Remove the
overlying rock, and the top of the granite will appear as flat as a western
prairie. The igneous material I call the granite of Conway, since the most
of this town is underlaid by it. It appears also from the Flume to the
Basin in Franconia, constituting much of Mts. Profile, Osceola, Fisher,
and a host of peaks in the unexplored Pemigewasset area. The Notch
has been excavated out of it, also the valleys of the Saco, Swift, and Mad
rivers and their tributaries. It is not entire, as when formed, since the
tooth of time has gnawed into it, or eaten through in a few instances.
Very soon the uneasy earth vomited out another igneous flood, covering
the same area, and nearly as great a quantity. Modern volcanoes are
apt to throw out lava of slightly different mineral character at succes-
sive epochs of eruption. So it was with these ancient New Hampshire
vents. The second overflow is a granite, spotted with rounded crystals
of feldspar, and scarcely any quartz is present. The first carried a con-
siderable quartz. The second verges into a compact feldspathic mass.
I call it the Albany granite. If you desire to see localities, visit Welch
mountain, Mts. Flume and Liberty in Franconia, the summit of Profile,
the Twin mountains, and certain peaks in Bartlett and Jackson, besides
many elevations in Albany. This material thins out in the east. Be-
neath Pequawket it is not over one hundred feet thick, while it is eight

Basins filled by Igneous Granite
with later Eruptions of Sienite

,"V f

PHYSICAL HISTORY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 529

hundred or one thousand feet elsewhere, as in the Twins, and Mts. Flume
and Liberty. It crops out also near the summit of Lafayette. A third
outburst was more limited, but it gave rise to the sharp peak of Cho-
corua and to small hills west of Mt. Hancock, which I term the CJiocorua
granite. It is likely that corresponding eruptions gave rise to similar
granites in the Starr King group of mountains, Stratford and Columbia,
the granitic country of Essex county, the gores of wild land east of
Montpelier, Little Ascutney, and about Cuttingsville, Vt, besides the
Ossipee mountains east of Winnipiseogee. Possibly the latter may have
accumulated by a branch stream running southerly from the Saco river
outburst. This granite, when finally cooled off, seems to have been
covered by water, since there succeeds a great thickness of fine sedi-
mentary deposits. This proves to be of four kinds, — coarse and fine
labradorites and variously colored potash feldspars above the first We
suppose these must have covered the granites, or nearly so. When this
basin was full, there would be a level country from Lafayette across to
Mt. Tom, just back of the Crawford house.

It seems strange that the topographical aspect of a portion of the
White Mountains more nearly resembles the eroded Carboniferous pla-
teau of West Virginia than any other district. The character of these
mountains may be predicted in advance of examination, since there is so
general a correspondence between altitude and lithological structure. If
a five-thousand-feet mountain shows the Conway granite at its base, fel-
sites may be looked for at its summit. Pemigewasset has in it three
mountain ranges running southerly, — Lafayette on the west, and Mt.
Tom on the east ; both these and the central Twin mountains show the
whole series from the low granite to the upper felsites, while the inter-
vening ranges have been removed by erosion down to the lowest granite,
the formations reposing horizontally. This is like the narrow valleys in
West Virginia, cut through by the Kanawha and Guyandotte rivers and
their tributaries. The map shows a smaller Labrador area resting upon
the Green Mountain range near Cuttingsville on the Rutland & Burling-
ton Railroad, and not a great distance from Rutland. This area is com-
posed apparently of the Chocorua granite, resting upon Montalban gneiss.
It is an interesting locality, because it shows the similarity between the
formation of the White and Green mountains. The succession of the
VOL. i. 69

530

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

granites and felsites in the former is satisfactorily worked out. The
Chocorua rock is essentially a crystalline labradorite. Now this is a
mineral usually regarded as very ancient. Whatever it overlies must
therefore be older. Hence the Montalban rocks are more ancient than
the Chocorua granite in New Hampshire ; and, as we find the same
formations near Rutland, and grouped in the same way, it is fair to infer
that they belong to the same series as those in New Hampshire. There-
fore we have a new argument for the Eozoic age of the Green Mountain
range. I wait only for the results of certain chemical analyses to publish
the details of this discovery, and its bearing upon the age of the Ver-
mont formations.

Fig. 6l. — SQUAM LAKE AND MX. CHOCORUA.

Several of the Labrador areas upon the map represent an important
eruption of sienite after the deposition of all the members which have
now been specified. Such are the elliptical area in Moultonborough
and Sandwich, or Red hill; part of the Waterville patch, consisting of
Mt. Tripyramid ; the long strip from Dover to Salem ; the northern end
of the large expanse of this rock in Massachusetts; Mt. Monadnock,
opposite Colebrook, etc. Up Norway brook in Waterville this rock has

PHYSICAL HISTORY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. $3!

very plainly oozed through crevices in the ossipyte. Evidence of intru-
sion at this period is not yet obtained from any other locality ; but, as the
lithological character of all the previously erupted members is constant,
it is probable that these sienites were all produced simultaneously, most
likely at the close of the Labrador period. Thus this age of the world
in New Hampshire possessed a fiery character. It was ushered into
being by an overflow of igneous material, nourished with ejections of
molten rock, and terminated by upheavals, rending of the strata, and
pouring of fiery sienite into the crevices, which oozed out and formed
mountains.

The Labrador formation was separated formally from the Laurentian
by Sir W. E. Logan, in 1865. It is developed quite differently in Canada
from its usual aspect in the White Mountains. Logan estimates the
thickness of the anorthosite gneisses of this system at thirteen thousand
feet. They are inter-stratified with orthoclase gneiss, quartz, and lime-
stones. I do not find, from the descriptions, that there is any great
difference in the angle of the dip between the Labrador and Laurentian.

But there is a closer resemblance between the New Hampshire and
the Canadian Labrador rocks, on the north shore of the St. Lawrence
beyond the Saguenay river, according to James Richardson. He says
the Laurentian gneiss is nearly vertical, with a north-south strike, and
much broken, while the Labrador rocks dip at comparatively moderate
angles, strike nearly east and west, and are free from contortions and
disturbances.* In the Adirondacks, the descriptions of Prof. Emmons
would indicate that the labradorite rocks occupy the centre and highest
part of the Eozoic area, and, on this account, they bear some resem-
blance to the Pemigewasset exposures.

I think geologists will find my descriptions of the New Hampshire
Labrador rocks different from anything that has ever been published.
I cannot find any author pointing out areas whose molten granites have
been spread out like lava over a considerable tract of country, nor a defi-
nite succession of granitic overflows characterized by different mineral
composition. The brief itinerary of Mr. Richardson affords a hope that
the bleak, northern shores of the lower St. Lawrence will confirm our
views of the structure of the Labrador formation, when they have been

* Geol. Survey of Canada. Report of Progress. 1866-1869, p. 305.

532 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

carefully explored. Meanwhile I would bespeak the attention of my
brethren of the hammer to the brief statement of my theory in this
chapter, to be followed by fuller technical descriptions in the next vol-
ume. If confirmed by further research, these studies will throw much
light upon the origin of granite, and may indicate the existence of the
Labrador system in many localities where nothing of the kind is now
suspected.

THE HURONIAN AGE.

As far back as 1822 my father distinguished this formation in Massa-
chusetts from all the other crystalline schists by the names of talcose
and chlorite slate.* Essentially the same delineation has since appeared
on all the geological maps of Massachusetts. The Vermont geological
map shows its continuation through that state. In 1857, Prof. H. D.
Rogers proposed to distinguish this formation farther south, in Penn-
sylvania and Maryland, by the name of Azoic, separating it from the
underlying Hypozoic gneisses. He regarded the group as older than
his "Primal series." In 1858,! I understood him to express his belief in
the equivalency of the Azoic with the formation called Azoic system by
Foster and Whitney in Michigan (1850), as separated from their "igneous
granite," and with the Huronian system of Logan, described in 1855.
Singularly enough, while Prof. Rogers perceived the true position of the
Pennsylvania rocks, he believed the New England talcose series to be
metamorphic Paleozoic. James Macfarlane seems to have been the first
to express the opinion that the Canadian and New England area was of
Huronian age. In this opinion he was speedily followed by Prof. Her-
mann Credner in 1869, and by Dr. T. Sterry Hunt in 1871. In my first
annual report I accepted Logan's interpretation of these rocks, calling
them altered Quebec, and belonging to the Lower Silurian, but since
1871 have thought it better to refer them to the Huronian.

The Huronian rocks, as seen by the fourth of our maps, have not
played a very important part in our history, judging from the small areas
now occupied by them. But the amount of time occupied in their depo-
sition, alteration, and elevation much exceeded the length of the previous
eon.

* Amer. your. Set., I vol. vi, p. 26. f See Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. xv, p. 306, for further references.

HIM MIPSIIBl"

AT THE CLOSE OF THE

HURONIAN PERIOD

]

I I Dry LaniL

I | Additions during the Huroniar
Period.

PHYSICAL HISTORY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 533

We find peculiarities in the arrangement of land and water in this age
not before exhibited. All the porphyritic and Atlantic rocks have be-
come solid terra firma, possibly covered by a scanty cryptogamous vege-
tation, sufficiently green to redeem the state from sterility. This land is
mostly along a central line in the state, passing transversely through
New Hampshire to Massachusetts, with an ocean upon each side.
That upon the south-east has left no visible traces of its existence in
our state, but deposited much sediment over Casco bay in Maine. The
land probably extended beyond the Isles of Shoals, so that the deposits
of this age are now concealed by water. On the west and north-west
side the ocean extended up the Connecticut valley to Groveton, and
thence, by way of the upper Ammonoosuc branch, to Umbagog lake,
possibly connecting around the north side of the Stratford-Odell Lab-
rador granites with a broad expanse northerly, much wider than below
and practically without limit, towards the Gulf of St. Lawrence. It is
uncertain whether the Connecticut valley ocean connected with the
greater body of water washing the east flank of the Green Mountains.
The Montalban ridge, between Waterford and Reading, Vt, may have
been of sufficient elevation to separate them. If so, the next point of
connection on the south was in Connecticut.

The deposits formed in this period indicate quietness in the waters.
They are not now visible south of Bellows Falls in the eastern arm, and
are not certainly connected between Berlin and Columbia. They are
two or three thousand feet in thickness.

A marked feature in this ocean appears in its metalliferous character,
since pure gold, and the sulphurets of iron, copper, and lead, separated
themselves from it. Gold is soluble slightly in ferric solutions; and
hence we may infer the presence of per-salts of iron in the water, which
leached out from the sandy bottom infinitesimal particles of gold existing
as impurities. It was a process of concentration, and agrees with our
inspection of the rocks now, — for the talcose rocks carry more gold than
the gneissic, — and subsequently it accumulated still more abundantly.
Supposing that ferric sulphates containing gold in solution abound in the
Huronian ocean, it is easy to understand how the metal should be pre-
cipitated in the pure state. Some deoxidizing agent acts upon the ferric
sulphate, and reduces it to the ferrous condition, and at the same time

534 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

the sulphate is reduced to a sulphuret. Gold is not known in nature as a
sulphuret, though commonly diffused through pyrites ; hence it is pre-
sumed that the precious metal was precipitated simultaneously with the
deoxidation of the sulphates, not passing through the intermediate con-
dition of a sulphuret. The deoxidizing agent was probably vegetation.

The accumulation of the large beds of iron and copper pyrites in
Gardner's mountain was brought about at the same time, and under
similar conditions. For the formation of sulphurets we require origi-
nally a sulphate ocean, just as in the case of gold. The deoxidizing
action of vegetation will reduce the sulphates to sulphurets; and thus
deposits of pyrites of enormous extent may be produced, provided there
is a sufficient store of the iron and sulphur. In natural waters, contain-
ing sulphates of lime and magnesia, the process of sulphate reduction
in the presence of decaying plants may be observed at the present day ;
and, if carbonic acid be present, sulphuretted hydrogen gas is also
evolved. The same principle is made use of in analytical laboratories
for the separation of metallic sulphurets. A stream of sulphuretted
hydrogen is passed into metallic solutions, when the element readily
combines with the sulphur, producing an insoluble sulphuret, which is
precipitated. The copper pyrites is so closely connected with the iron
that it has probably been accumulated in the same way. In the Ammo-
noosuc gold region copper is very common as an impurity in the strata
at localities remote from valuable beds of ore; so that the sulphate
ocean must have been highly charged with the mineral solutions. The
formation of the lead sulphuret may be described in similar terms.

By referring to an argument set forth above for the existence of veg-
etation, it will appear that the formation of the iron oxides is akin to that
of the sulphurets. Vegetation is the agent required at the present day
for the production of both ; hence, by looking at the process in another
way, we may derive a different conclusion. The ores of iron and copper
require, at the present day, the presence of vegetable matter for their
formation. These ores accumulated largely in the Huronian age ; hence
it is probable that plants existed at this time. No other evidences of
their existence have yet been discovered.

There are three divisions of this age: — First, the period of the deposi-
tion of the copper and iron beds, with an auriferous tinge. Second, the

PHYSICAL HISTORY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE.

535

formation of a very fine siliceous mud, with dolomite, soapstone, and
serpentine. More gold was deposited in this period than in the first.
Third, the formation of a small bed of conglomerate composed of quartz
pebbles, possibly derived from the rocks of the first and second divisions.
Some gold is present in this conglomerate, which seems to be mechani-
cally mixed with the pebbles. This bed indicates the existence of a
strong current, sufficient to carry along fragments of gold.

The relations of the Huronian to the Labrador series are interesting.
Fig. 6 1 shows a section from Northumberland falls to Pilot mountain.
Between Mts. Lyon and Pilot the middle member
of the Huronian is disposed in synclinal form, and
reappears on the west. The junction between the ^
quartzite and felsite is obscured by drift. Near by °

an exposure has been discovered where the quart-

zite stands vertically, abutting against the felsite. w
On breaking off large masses of the quartzite, the 3
felsite was seen extending downwards, whence it *,

to

appears evident that the felsite was the oldest, un- |

derlying the slate unconformably. It is therefore §

p
probable that the felsite of Mt. Pilot unites with g

the rock of Mt. Lyon underneath the Huronian. |
When the crust of the earth was shrinking, I »

^

suppose that the felsite hills were brought nearer g

together without essentially disturbing their strati- £

fication. The rock is massive and very tough; £

while the slaty Huronian rocks between them were o

pliable and easily doubled up by the lateral shoving p

o
force. This conjecture will explain the seeming

anomaly of horizontal rocks being older than the §
adjacent highly inclined strata.

The Huronian strata are remarkable for dipping ^
at a very high angle, almost constantly. The com-
mencement of their inclination was probably in-
duced at the close of this period, since these strata are much more
highly inclined than those deposited in the following age.

536 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

THE MICA SCHIST PERIODS.

The fifth of our map illustrations represents by one color all the for-
mations that have been deposited in New Hampshire to the close of the
Huronian; the other shows the positions of the areas occupied by
several groups which were evidently deposited subsequently, and may
belong to one great system. They are thus placed, however, provision-
ally. They are the Rockingham mica schist, the Merrimack group,
Cambrian, auriferous clay slates, and the Coos group.

The Rockingham schist occupies the principal portions of Rocking-
ham, Strafford, and Belknap, with a part of Merrimack and Hillsborough
counties. Over this area it is generally an uncouth mica schist. West
of the Merrimack river there are several long, narrow areas of mica
schist supposed to belong to the same group. A broader range, extend-
ing north-easterly from Deering through Henniker and Hopkinton, is
highly ferruginous. A similar band occupies most of Weare and Fran-
cestown. A cleaner mica schist makes up the substance of the moun-
tain range extending from New Ipswich through Sharon, Temple, and
Lyndeborough. All these areas cover Atlantic gneisses unconformably.
They lie upon them like a blanket, and hinder us much in our attempts
to study the older formations. The Merrimack group is a micaceous
quartzite lying adjacent to the Exeter sienite range on the north-west,
and has not yet been separated from the previous group. The occur-
rence in it of large beds of soapstone, as at Groton, Mass., is suggestive
of the Huronian age. It abounds in beds of coarse indigenous granite,
which seem to have been altered in situ from feldspathic conglomerates.
In certain parts of Strafford county these granite beds predominate,
forming numerous hills, while the slate occupies the valleys between.

The schists south-east of the Exeter sienite range may belong to the
same Merrimack era ; but they are traversed by several narrow bands of
clay slate. Possessing a north-west strike, these slates are thought to
be the equivalents of the Paradoxides beds of Massachusetts. It is obvi-
ous that the physical aspect of the country must have been very different
from what it was in the Merrimack period. The Merrimack schists must
have been elevated, then they were cut across by streams flowing south-

[^jDry land formed to the end of the
Huronian Period.

I | Additions during the Rockingham
and Merriniack Periods.

EZI Additions dnring the C!oos Period. \

PHYSICAL HISTORY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE.

easterly. Afterwards the land sank, and these chasms were filled up
with mud, which eventually became converted into Cambrian slates.

Not far from the same epoch long bands of clay slate were deposited
in the Connecticut valley, extending from the Massachusetts line to Coos
county. In some parts of this formation large veins of auriferous quartz
were formed, whose metallic contents were derived from the Huronian
strata, and more effectually concentrated than before. Many of the
veins afford evidence of having been deposited from hot water. The
layers of accretion are easily distinguishable. The gold may have been
reduced from solution by the same process as that recently described.
These auriferous deposits are of sufficient richness to be worked to
advantage.

The Coos ocean occupied very much the same position as the Huro-
nian. Along the Connecticut valley it covered the greater part of
eastern Vermont, in Orleans, Essex, Caledonia, and Orange counties.

The Waterford-Reading ridge did not separate the waters of the
Connecticut valley from those just mentioned farther west. The Ver-
mont part of the deposit is mostly calcareous. A few scanty remains of
crinoidal stems have been taken from this rock in Derby, Vt, showing
that life existed. Bordering Connecticut river in New Hampshire, from
Haverhill to Hinsdale, the Coos rocks are composed chiefly of quartzite,
mica schist, and slates full of crystals of staurolite and garnet. This
deposit therefore consisted originally of clays of various composition.
Overlying the Atlantic gneisses, between Landaff and Keene, is an
extensive deposit of andalusite mica schist, including Mts. Carr and
Moosilauke. Mt. Monadnock is an isolated mass of the same rock, as
is also the Kearsarge-Ragged area. These schists have but recently
been distinguished from the adjacent rocks, and may be the equivalents
of the Coos group. If formed at the same time, the depositing ocean
may have been separated from the Connecticut valley by an Atlantic
ridge. The strata correspond in thickness very well with that of the
staurolite rocks.

The Connecticut Coos period can easily be divided into three parts, —
first, the epoch of the deposition of mountain masses of silica ; second,
of hornblende and mica schists; third, of limestone.

The enormous veins of copper and iron pyrites in Strafford and
VOL. i. 70

538 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Vershire, Vt., and those described in Hanover, Lebanon, etc., prove
that a more concentrated sulphate ocean existed in this than in the
Huronian period.

In the White Mountain region there are several small areas of andalu-
site slate, supposed to be the equivalent of the Coos group. They occur
upon the east side of Mt. Washington, Mts. Willard and Tom, Mt. Pe-
quawket, and farther south in Farmington and Rochester. These facts
seem to indicate that the White Mountains were considerably depressed
during the Coos period, probably more so than the Green Mountains,
since no slaty beds of this age have been found resting upon the Mont-
alban or Huronian areas of Vermont.

The Coos period was terminated by eruptions of sienitic granite. The
conical Mt. Ascutney is the best example of this igneous material.
Others are Black mountain, Dummerston, the Washington and Essex
county mountains, Vt., Iron-ore hill, near Haverhill, and the singular
concretionary granite of Craftsbury, Vt. The Coos quartzite now con-
stitutes a distinct range of mountains.

At some unknown epoch, posterior to the consolidation of the andalu-
site slates, there was a considerable eruption of igneous material, pro-
ducing Mts. Mote and Pequawket. The paste, cementing together the
slaty fragments, bears some resemblance to the Albany granite, except
in the abundance of dark spots commonly present. I think the rock on
the top of Mt. Willard will probably turn out to belong to the Mt. Mote
series.

THE HELDERBERG PERIOD.

For a very long period of time New Hampshire furnishes no indica-
tion of geological changes. Our next formation was deposited at the
very close of the Silurian era. Fossils have been found which identify
the strata with those of the Helderberg mountains in New York.

The ocean must have retired from the Connecticut valley after the
deposition of the Coos rocks, — otherwise there would have been formed
ledges to indicate the fact of continued submergence. The Helderberg
ocean probably covered the same area with the one just described west
of the Atlantic ridge, bordering the quartzite. The Helderberg rocks
occupy isolated areas in Bernardston, Mass., Hanover, Lyman, Lisbon,

IN THE

HELDERBERG AO-E

No. 6.

I ! Area mppoeed to hare been emt>-
mergod.

1 |T>ry Land.

PHYSICAL HISTORY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 539

Littleton, etc. Most of these patches contain crinoidal and coralline
limestones. It is hence inferred that the Connecticut valley was deeply
covered by the ocean, as polyps and crinoids do not flourish in limited
expanses of salt water. In New Hampshire crinoids, gasteropods,
brachiopods, corals, and fucoids are known to have flourished. The
ocean probably supported in addition echinoderms, trilobites, large crus-
tacea, and ganoid fish. The land may have been covered with the higher
cryptogams and coniferae. Numerous hills, covered with vegetation,
gave an unusual variety to the landscape.

It is difficult to note precisely the limits of the Helderberg ocean.
There is reason to believe that northern New England and Canada sank
deeper than at any previous period, or at any time since. Outcrops of
the Helderberg rock abound in Quebec and northern Maine. The
locality at Lake Memphremagog may have been connected with the
New Hampshire ocean north of Essex county, as the highest of these
rocks in our state are elevated nearly one thousand feet above the level
of the sea. I have drawn the south-eastern shore line to correspond
with the second of our contour lines. The map also indicates that no
evidence exists of a submergence in this period in the south-eastern part
of the state.

The age may be divided into three periods, — first, the epoch of the
deposition of sandstone; second, of coralline limestone; third, of great
thicknesses of slate, schist, and conglomerate. The latter rock is com-
posed chiefly of pebbles derived from the Huronian and Atlantic rocks,
with a few of the Coos limestones.

THE GLACIAL PERIOD.

During the whole of the Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian, Mesozoic,
and Tertiary periods, New Hampshire stood above the level of the sea,
and may have included a considerable area beyond the Isles of Shoals.
No record has been left of any event that transpired within our limits
during this immense lapse of time. The land was probably covered
with vegetation, and animals roamed over the hillsides, judging from the
conditions known to have existed in the adjacent territory. In Vermont,
during the early Tertiary, there were certainly forests of hickory, beech,

54O PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

cinnamon, and coniferous trees, with a warm temperate climate. The
same must have abounded in New Hampshire.

At the close of the Tertiary period, ice began to accumulate, and there
was ushered in an immensely long period when the state was covered
with glaciers, and the climate corresponded with the present state of
things in Greenland. I have no time to enter fully into the history of
this period. In general, four periods are represented, — first, when the
state was entirely covered with glacial ice thousands of feet in thickness
and moving in a southerly direction; second, when local glaciers were
prevalent; third, the Champlain or terrace; fourth, the historic period.
Our map is designed to illustrate the movements of the ice during the
first of these periods.

Fig. 63. — WHITE MOUNTAIN RANGE, FROM JEFFERSON HILL.

Four special features of ice-motion are suggested by studying the
scorings upon the ledges : — First, the greatest amount of work seems to
have been accomplished by the south-easterly direction of the sliding.
This course prevails over the whole of Coos county, the White Moun-
tains, and the higher peaks along the Connecticut-Merrimack water-
sheds. The highest markings preserved stand at 5200 feet above the
sea ; but transported pebbles have been picked up 600 feet higher, on the
north slope of Mt. Washington. This summit seems to be the only part
of the state that has not been subjected to glacial action.

PHYSICAL HISTORY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE.

541

The ice in this period pursued a south-easterly course, with a reckless
disregard of all obstacles. Mountains were scaled by the resistless mass,
as is proved by the ice grooves running from base to summit, while the
south-easterly slopes show scarcely any marks of scarification.

Second, nearly all the ice south of the White Mountains and east of
the Connecticut basin pursued a southerly course. Mts. Monadnock,
Kearsarge, and Ragged stood up as islands in this ice sea.

Fig. 64 — MT. WASHINGTON, FROM THE GLEN.

[This illustration should be compared with Fig. 63, which shows the back side of the same mountains, as seen
from Jefferson hill. In the first instance, the more gentle slope on the north side shows the smoothing, rounding
action of the south-easterly moving ice ; while, in the second, precipitous sides illustrate the fact of no erosion by
the great continental glacier. As the force moved south-easterly, the ice would not act upon the south-eastern or
lee sides of the mountains.]

Third, in the Connecticut valley south of Columbia, both in New
Hampshire and Vermont, the ice moved a few degrees west of south,
corresponding with the general course of the valley.

Fourth, a similar current passed down the valley of Baker's river to

542 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Plymouth, thence easterly to Squam lake, thence south 25° east over
the Winnipiseogee basin, thence easterly around the south end of Ossipee
mountain into Maine. Its course through Warren was southerly, and it
curved to the east in Rumney before reaching Plymouth. The variation
in direction corresponds with the course of an extensive valley.

A somewhat similar set of striae follows the Northern Railroad from
Grafton to Andover, passing down the valley of the Blackwater river
between Mts. Kearsarge and Ragged.

A very few local glaciers have been observed about the White Moun-
tains. Somewhat similar action, — pushing gravel away from the bases
of large hills, — may be observed in every part of the state.

The terraces along the Connecticut and Merrimack rivers give us
information of the next marked feature in post-tertiary history. Care-
ful explorations along both these rivers show that the higher terraces on
both sides slope from the sources to the mouths, corresponding very
nearly with the fall of the stream. On the Merrimack the terraces in
Ashland and New Hampton are fully 800 feet above the ocean; at
Franklin, 470; at Concord, 450; at Manchester, 250; and very much
lower in Massachusetts. Similar phenomena, though not so marked
within our limits, may be seen on the Connecticut. We conclude that
at the close of the glacial period, when the ice was melting rapidly, the
rivers filled their valleys even with the tops of the highest terraces.
The terraces are lower and broader nearer the ocean, but would require
the same amount of water to cover them. When the flow of water had
diminished, another set of terraces was formed, lower than and between
the first. In a similar way the terraces still lower were produced.

During the terrace period the land was submerged certainly about two
hundred feet and more, if reliance is placed upon the argument from
maritime plants developed in a following chapter. Evidence of this state
of things is afforded by the discovery of marine shells and whales' ver-
tebrae in the coast region. The boreal character of the shells indicates
a climate like that of the present Gulf of St. Lawrence. During this
period the woolly elephant, wild boar, and primeval horse lived in the
wilderness in company with the aborigines, whose implements of stone
are so often plowed up in our fields. These wild animals have become
entirely extinct, and the savages have migrated.

lOTa

m THE

GLACIAL PERIOD

CD SOUTH-EASTERLY MOVEMENTS.

C3 SOUTHERLY

CD SOUTH-WESTERLY

CZ3 VALLEY

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. . . •

PHYSICAL HISTORY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE. 543

Subsequently to the cold term indicated by the boreal marine shells,
there are two classes of facts serving to indicate since that time, and
probably within the human period, a long era when the climate over
New Hampshire was milder than it is now. The evidences derived from
our limits are the scanty remains of southern plants procured in a very
few localities. They may be well represented by the Rhododendron max-
imum, mentioned in the catalogue of plants as occurring in Richmond,
Fitzwilliam, and Grantham. Since the printing of that chapter, I have
got traces of it in Hopkinton and Hooksett. The proper home of this
shrub is in the Middle states. Its occurrence in insulated swamps sug-
gests a former abundance in intermediate localities, and the presumption
of a climate more like that of Pennsylvania, to enable it to flourish
within our borders.

The other class of facts is represented by the discovery of several
kinds of marine animals that properly flourish south of Cape Cod, on
the coast of Maine, and the British provinces. The nearest locality is at
Quahog bay, about thirty miles beyond Portland. More than twenty
species of marine animals, according to Prof. Verrill, live in this bay, the
most common of which is the quahog or round clam, whose proper hab-
itat lies to the south of Massachusetts bay. Scarcely any of them are
known to occur off the New Hampshire coast. In their stead are the
more northern species, such as are at home in the waters of the Can-
adian district. This assemblage of extra-limital species is called a
"colony," and, in order to understand why they live in such a place, iso-
lated from their kindred, we may use the same theory which has just
been applied to the occurrence of the Rhododendron* The climate for-
merly allowed the Alleghanian animals, as well as plants, to abound
where now the colder Canadian species find the conditions of life con-
genial, and suitable for productiveness.

Another of these southern forms is the oyster. This occurs, living
naturally, in the Sheepscot and Harriseeket rivers in Maine. It is sup-
posed that both these edible mollusks once flourished along the whole
coast. Further evidence is afforded by the discovery of numerous heaps
of their shells in the piles of rubbish left by the aborigines, who used
the animals for food. These heaps occur very commonly along the
whole New England coast; and they seem to indicate that this milder

544 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

climate belonged to the early part of the human period, else the kitchen
rubbish has no significance.

A similar colony is said to exist in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Their
continued existence in the Gulf and Casco bay may be explained in the
same way. Both these bodies of water are comparatively shallow. This
fact prevents the flow into them of the cold arctic current from the
north, and allows the heat of the sun in the summer to moderate the
temperature very considerably. The tides are not very powerful in these
bays, — certainly not like the enormous ebb and flow in the Bay of Fundy,
where the southern animals do not exist. The moderate tide prevents
the thorough mingling of the cold and warm waters, and this is favora-
ble to the continuance of the colonies.

The changes in the temperature of the bays seem therefore to be local
in character, and to be readily accounted for by variations in the relative
level of land and water. The deepening of the bays and the influx of
the arctic current might kill off the more delicate animals, and thus
exterminate the colonies ; or, with the development of other contiguous
shallow areas, the inhabitants may migrate to more salubrious climes.
Could we become better acquainted with the present distribution of live
animals on the land and beneath the water off the coast of New Hamp-
shire, still other chapters might be added to our history.

I have now given a brief outline of the physical history of New Hamp-
shire. Commencing with mere points of dry land, we have seen how the
territory has increased in size from age to age, and have appreciated the
fact that the state is quite ancient, — almost the oldest land in America.
For much of geological time the record has been meagre. Entire races
have peopled its surface, and left behind no evidence of their existence.
No doubt the wonderful birds, which left their footmarks along the Con-
necticut valley in Massachusetts, built their nests among the jungles of
New Hampshire, from whence they often emerged in search of food.
And in the Carboniferous period immense forests must have covered our
hillsides, even more luxuriant than the original growth which furnished
so many magnificent masts for the royal navy of England. The last is
the greatest of all the periods in our history. Man, the crowning mas-
ter-piece of creation, has been introduced. The silence of the forests is
broken with the axe ; the savage beasts and aboriginal men, their com-

PHYSICAL HISTORY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE.

545

rades, melt away before the palefaces; railroads wind among the hills,
climbing even to the top of Mt. Washington ; and the state is inhabited
by the most vigorous of the Anglo-Saxon race. Those who have been
trained in our schools have gone forth to lead in the councils of state,
and to be foremost in maintaining right and justice. The last is the
best of all the periods. May its record grow brighter and more glorious
to the end of time!

Fig. 65. — TRAVELLING ON SNOW-SHOES.

VOL. I. 71

CHAPTER XVI.

THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY TO AGRICULTURE.

XN presenting briefly the relations of geology to agriculture, as espe-
cially applied to New Hampshire, it seems proper first to state a
few fundamental facts, and then present the details that more immedi-
ately concern us.

The first inquiry in agricultural geology is, What is the composition of
good soils ?

The matter in all soils capable of sustaining vegetation exists in two
forms, — inorganic,, and organic. The first contains twelve chemical ele-
ments, viz., oxygen, sulphur, phosphorus, carbon, silicon, and the metals
potassium, sodium, calcium, aluminum, magnesium, iron, and manganese.
In the organic part the elements are four, — oxygen, hydrogen, carbon,
and nitrogen. The inorganic elements are derived from the rocks ; the
organic elements from decaying animal and vegetable matter, — so that it
is of the earthy constituents we must speak. They do not indeed occur
in their simple state, but as water, sulphates, phosphates, carbonic acid,
silicates of potassa, soda, lime, magnesia, alumina, iron, etc. The aver-
age amount of silicates or sand in soil is eighty in one hundred parts.

The second inquiry is, whether these elements of the soil are found
in the rocks. By consulting the details of their analyses, as given in
geological treatises, it will be seen that they are all present except phos-
phorus, which, however, is not unfrequently found in them in the condi-
tion of phosphates. Moreover, the proportion of the ingredients in the

THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY TO AGRICULTURE. 547

rocks does not differ much from that of the soils. Hence the conclusion
is that the latter are only the former comminuted, with the addition of
from three to ten per cent, of organic matter.

Since the rocks differ considerably in composition, we should expect a
corresponding difference in the soils derived from them. And such is
the fact to a considerable extent, where the soil is simply the result of
the disintegration of the rock beneath it. It is enough so in many dis-
tricts to form characteristic soils. Thus, over quartz rocks and some
sandstones we find a very sandy and barren soil, though it is said that
in nearly all soils enough silicates of lime and magnesia are present to
answer the purposes of vegetation ; but the alkalies and phosphates may
be absent. When the rock is limestone, the soil is sometimes quite bar-
ren for the want of other ingredients, and also in consequence of the dif-
ficulty of decomposition. Clay, also, may form a soil too tenacious and
cold. The sandstones that contain marly beds, and some of the tertiary
rocks of analogous character, form excellent soils. So does clay slate,
and especially calciferous mica schist. The amount of potash and soda
in gneiss and granite often makes a rich soil from these rocks, and the
trap rocks form a fertile though scanty soil.

But, in the third place, in most countries, aqueous and glacial agencies
have so mixed the soils together that their original peculiarities are lost,
and new and compound characters are given them. This is particularly
the case in northern countries, where the drift agency has swept over the
surface, and torn off and mixed together the disintegrated portions of the
several formations. Subsequently rains and streams have carried the
finer portions of the drift into the lowest places, and there formed allu-
vial meadows, and, although these are usually the best of soils, they are
often derived from many different rocks. The drift left upon the higher
grounds is generally quite barren, chiefly because of its coarseness.

A fourth service which the geologist renders to agriculture is by the
discovery of fertilizers. Sometimes he can point out deposits of the
phosphates, either in a crystalline state, or as coprolites or guano. He
can also show what rocks contain carbonate of lime, or discover sulphate
of lime, or marl beds, or greensand, or decomposing fossil shells, or de-
posits of carbonaceous matter. He can also find what rocks contain
enough of potash or soda to be of service when pulverized.

548 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

THE SOILS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE.

The soils of New Hampshire are divided into four kinds, upon the
little map herewith presented. They are arranged in the order of their
value. First, we have those derived from calcareous rocks, and exhibited
in the Connecticut river valley near Colebrook and Claremont. Second,
the balance of this hydrographic basin is occupied by more or less slaty
and schistose rocks. These are somewhat calcareous, and decidedly mag-
nesian. Third, the rocks bordering the coast in Rockingham county,
and extending northerly up Piscataqua river, produce a very similar soil.
Fourth, the rest of the state is underlaid by gneiss and granite, produc-
ing several grades of soil, according to particular local character.

In a subsequent chapter I shall show a map indicating what proportion
of the state is now covered by a forest growth. By comparing this with
the agricultural map, it will be easy for the pioneer to know where he
can find the best virgin soil within our limits. The same map, and also
one in Chapter XIII, shows what proportion of the state is situated
above the limit of trees. Both these maps will be useful in studying the
agricultural capacities of our domain. It was not desirable to incorpo-
rate the forest and the barren ground districts with the agricultural map,
else comparisons of the kind of soil with the areas of wood-growth
and arctic vegetation would have been impracticable.

THE CALCAREOUS SOILS.

It is well known that the soils in eastern Vermont are of a supe-
rior character. I refer to those in the eastern part of Orleans county,
most of Caledonia and Orange, and the eastern border of Windsor and
Windham counties. These lands produce more in proportion to their
valuation and inhabitants than the other districts east of the Green
Mountains; and, as the climate and general topographical features are
the same, the reason of their greater fertility must lie in the chemical
character of the soil. Limestone countries are everywhere fertile.

The geological survey has been the first to discover the existence in
New Hampshire of considerable areas of this formation. The ledges
are composed of alternations of bluish siliceous limestone, clay slate,

Calcareo

Slaty Soils (Conn. Blrer
aty Soils (Coos and Roekinghatn)

THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY TO AGRICULTURE. 549

and mica schist, which, by the action of the air, rain, and frost, readily
decompose, and the lime and other fertile ingredients are leached out
and diffused through the soil, where the roots of the growing crops can
readily assimilate them. In consequence of this ready decomposition of
the ledges, every small stream has excavated very much material ; and
this region is full of steep hills, often conical. These steep hillsides
are fertile, as may be instanced in the towns of Cornish and Lyme.

Furthermore, there are considerations tending to show that the adja-
cent granite hills are benefited by the proximity of the limestones. The
study of theoretical geology seems of little practical importance to many
people ; but, by examining scratches upon ledges, and other phenomena
on the surface, we can say positively that immense masses of ice once
travelled over the state in a general southerly direction (but varying
greatly in different portions of the state). This ice, in its onward prog-
ress, broke off fragments of the ledges, and distributed them over the
country. Hence, as the granite region lay in the path of this mighty
stream, blocks of limestone came over its surface, and, by their de-
composition, have tended to improve the soil. These may be found
throughout the western border of the gneissic region from Dixville to
Hinsdale.

Another benefit comes from the presence of the calcareous rocks. By
their decomposition, numerous small molluscous animals are enabled to
obtain the material for their shells. They consequently abound in calca-
reous countries, since they here find one of the essentials to their exist-
ence in great abundance. The aquatic tribes of mollusks exist in such
great numbers that their remains accumulate at the bottom of ponds in
deposits several feet thick. More than thirty of these beds are described
in the geology of Vermont, in the region just spoken of. I have seen as
yet only two in New Hampshire, — one in Columbia, and the other in
Brookline. The lime is nearly pure, and can be burned for quick-lime,
or spread upon the land fresh from the swamp. The pond-way has dis-
appeared by filling up, and remains only as a swamp. The importance
of these marl beds makes it desirable for those living upon the calca-
reous regions to search further. It would give me great pleasure to visit
any deposit of this kind that may be discovered by the farmers within
our state limits. The farmers will understand that lime and plaster are

5 SO PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

not so essential to the growth of crops in the calcareous areas as else-
where. Nevertheless, I have observed that where lime is the most
abundant, the farmers are apt to use a great deal of it, even burning it
for their own use from the ledges on their acres. If chemical analyses
are reliable, we ought to find large returns of potatoes, peas, beans,
clover, and rye from the calcareous area.

Besides the sources of lime mentioned, there are beds of the best
quality of limestone for agricultural purposes in Plainfield, Lyme, Orford,
Haverhill, Lisbon, Lyman, Littleton, and elsewhere. Nothing except a
demand for the manufactured lime is necessary to cause the proprietors
of these beds to produce this valuable mineral in large quantities.

Slaty Soils. Of the two, the slaty soils of the Connecticut valley are
superior to those along the coast. The rock is apt to be a schist con-
taining much alumina, a little lime and magnesia, and ten or twelve per
cent, of soda and potassa ; other members are soft slates, which are rich
in alumina, and sometimes lime. The area south of Claremont is more
apt to contain lime than potassa. When pulverized by the ice of the
drift period, they give rise to beds of clay. The second class of slaty
soils receives many boulders of granite through ice transportation, which
are not so beneficial as the lime brought into the Connecticut valley from
Vermont and Canada.

Granitic Soils. The greater portion of the state is underlaid by gneiss.
This is practically the same as granite; — so that the words granite and
gneiss convey the same meaning, so far as mineral composition is con-
cerned. I think that the gneiss is apt to produce better soils than
granite. The soluble element present is usually potash, from ten to
twelve per cent. This is certainly a very valuable substance to be added
to the soil; and nature is crumbling down the granites continually. It
is done by the action of the atmosphere. The burning of wood and
coal sends out carbonic acid. Whatever of this is not utilized by grow-
ing plants is left in the air to be dissolved in rain-water. The rain soaks
into the rocks, and thus the acid acts upon the feldspars, setting free the
potash, perhaps combining with it to form the carbonate (or saleratus).
Should this mix with earth, the result will be beneficial to the crops. I
doubt not that the pulverization of granite will benefit soils. No one
could expect to accomplish great things in this way, since the decompo-

THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY TO AGRICULTURE. 551

sition is gradual; but it would seem as if the constant destruction of
granites, by hammers and fires, would, in the course of years, tend to
remove unsightly rocks, and to improve the soil.

Several varieties of soil occur in the granitic region. High up many
of the mountains the granites are bare, and allow little place for the
accumulation of organic matter. When the valleys are wide, the better

Fig. 66 — FRANCONIA MOUNTAINS, FROM CAMPTON, PEMIGEWASSET RIVER IN
THE FOREGROUND.

part of the rock and other substances accumulate, as in Fig. 66; so that
after a while many farmers find they can allow their hills to revert to
timber, and cultivate the original bogs and swamps with better success.
Again, the soil is mixed, in consequence of the abundance of diverse
drift material. This is generally an improvement. Another variety is
found in the sandy plains of Carroll county, and the high terraces along
the Merrimack. The current of ancient times was just strong enough
to wash away the coarser particles into deposits by themselves, leaving
the finer particles to form clays. An instance of this segregation is seen
at Hooksett, where this clay is used for bricks, while the sand is accu-
mulated in piles by itself.

552

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

THE EXACT COMPOSITION OF OUR SOILS.

In addition to our general description of the soils of the state, it
may be desirable to present analyses of them from different localities.
Dr. Jackson, in his final report, gave the results of a large number,
which I will reproduce in the form of a table. In analyses made at the
present day, greater attention is paid to the determination of phosphoric
acid, the alkalies, and nitrogenous compounds, than appears to have been
devoted to the subject by Dr. Jackson. The table will show the average
composition of the soils of the state, in respect to insoluble silicates, the
peroxide of iron, alumina, lime and its compounds, magnesia, and the
organic matter. The column stating the percentage of water is not of
any practical importance. In a few cases special determinations were
made of the organic matter, the following being invariably present: "(i)
Crenic acid and crenates of bases; (2) apocrenic acid, combined also
with bases ; (3) humic acid, combined also with bases ; (4) humic, or neu-
tral undecomposed vegetable matter; (5) extract of humus, and (6) a
second extract, not yet named, separated from the above ; (7) phosphoric
acid in minute quantities."

ANALYSES OF SOILS BY DR. JACKSON.

a

NO,

c

a

«

jz

§

4J 4)
O '-"

1*5

u y

u

rt
_o

c
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b

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LOCATION.

cJ=

J3--

2 o

c.S

g

O
u

|

.2

rt

6

£-5

S-a

S o

3

3

rs

c

c

'£

.•

J

'5

W)\co

W> C

bJOT

0

"e

eJ

i/>

Wj

£J

"rt

rt

"rt

n re

b

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S

rt

by

£

£

£

C

fc

3

^

^

^

0

H

Cov. Page' sf arm, Haverhill.

No. i, high interval soil,

•5°

99-50

84.4

3-3

4-8

T 3

i

3-7

98-5

No. 2, meadow soil, annually

flowed,
No. 3, Benton flats, newly

.60

i. 60

97.80

81

5

4-9

1.4

2.2

5

99-5

cultivated,
No. 4, upland, Haverhill cor-

.40

1.40

98.20

13-8

5-J

5

•9

4-3

70.8

99-9

ner,

7.80

13

79.20

81.2

3-3

4-5

1. 1

1.8

7-5

100.4

First terrace, Charlestown,

2

8

9°

81

4-5

4

4

M

4-2

IOO.I

Second terrace, do.
Third terrace, do.

2.5O

3

20.50
8.60

77
88.40

78
79.2

4.6
7-3

4-3

.1

• 3

5-4
5 • '•'•

8.1
5

99-4

IOO.I

Upper interval, Orford,
Upland soil, do.

15-30

6.20

18.40

93.80
66.30

80.7
76.7

3-5
5-3

4-5
4.2

•9
i

.24

-4

3-5
5-7

6.7
9.2

100.04
100.5

Lower interval, do.
Enfield Shakers' farm, Ca-

.40

99.60

82.2

3-9

1.6

-4

Trace soda

5-8

99.8-

naan,
Cultivated soil, E. Bailey,

.40

99.60

86.7

4-9

.6

4-5

2-3

99

Ac worth,
E. Bailey's farm, Acworth,
Mr. Wells's farm, Lancaster,

16.50
15-40
9.70

II

24.30

12.90

72.50
60.30
77.40

76.6
77-6
79-5

4
4-5

5-5

3
3-4
3-6

-3

•9

-3

•44

4-9
5. a

4-4

9.6
8-3
7-3

99
99-74
100.6

THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY TO AGRICULTURE.

553

c

^.

a

C

•3

i/i

c

O N

"•§

%

1

2

»!

r^3 ^

•J

LOCATION.

:« C

— O

<r.£

'3

o

~

g

C "2

c T

= C

V

o

.

—

.3

H

14

3

c

u

|l

e'o

bO ^
1* M

"o

1

J

c

1

y

1

1

i

o

fa

£

c*

~

PH

*

H

•Jr.

*

^

-*

O

H

Dr. Jarvis's farm, Claremont,

exhausted soil.

2.40

9

88.60

84.4

3-6

2.9

i

,i

3

4-9

99-9

Dr. Jarvis's farm, Claremont,

fertile soil,
Putnam's farm, Lyndeboro',

2O

23

9.50
7

70.50
70

81.5

76.8

3.8
6

4

• 4

.8

3-3
4-4

6.5

9.6

99-9

97-6

do. turnip field,

3°

23

47

75.2

6-4

3

5-4

8.8

100.8

Thos. Fisk, grass land, Dub-

— i

/Ph'sp'te,

8.6

99

lin, No. i,

77-6

8

•4

1 -6

3-8

Thos. Fisk, etc., No. 2,

84.4

6.

8

•3

.8

1.8

Traces

5-4

99-50

do. do. 3,

76.2

10.8

.6

5-6

5-4

98.60

do. do. 4,

80.4

9

M

• 3

3-2

7

101.30

Cow island, Winnipiseogee

lake, rich,

2O

27.50

52.50

83.60

4.1

1.40

•7

2.7

P't'sh, .40

7-1

IOO

Long island, do. poor,

30

19-50

50.50

86.75

2.6

3-15

•5

.2

2

4-8

IOO

do. do. good,

9

26

65

80.80

2.2

4

• 4

Trace.

3-9

8.7

IOO

J. Cot, Center Harbor, never

manured,

88

2-5

3-3

• 5

• 25

1.7

3.6

99.85

Shaker farm, Canterbury,

garden,

77.20

3-3

2.8

1.8

i

4-5

9-9

100.5

Shaker farm, do., subsoil, poor

land,

90.20

2.2

3

.2

Trace.

1.6

2.88

100.08

Skaker farm, do., best natura

grass land,

81.60

3

2.3

.1

.12

1

10.05

99.92

J. P. Stickney, upper alluvion
of Merrimack, Concord,

1.50

10

88.50

77.40

3-6

4-5

1.2

.2

I*

3-9

9-3

IOO. I

J. P. Stickney, lower alluvion
Micaceous soil, Levi Bart
lett's farm, Warner,
Soil from do.,

5

5
3-60

95
95-90

79.90

79.20
85-50

3^5

4-4
o""

2-7

3-2

.6

•9

•3

1.2

3-2

3-6
1.3

<P't'sh,2.2
< soda, 2.5

7-5
1.8

99-7

99-3
100.6

Hon. T. Chandler's farm,

Bedford.

Old field,

90.4

i

4-8

•4

4-4

IOI

Exhausted,

90

2.2

3

•7

4-5

100.4

From swamp,

18.5

2.

3

3-5

76

100.3

W. Patten's farm, Bedford

Long cultivated, poor,

2.7

5-8

91.5

91.4

1-4

3

i

4

100.8

Long cultivated,
Sour land, never plowed,

2
1.2

6.6

2.6

91.4
96.2

87.4
87.4

I

.8

2.6

.6

1.4

3

99.8
99-4

Poor,

1.2

4-3

94-5

83.6

1.6

4-6

1.4

9

IOO. 2

Swamp muck,

3-8

.8

.6

i

93

99

Muck,

1.8

.8

i

6

5-8

f Potash
( traces

89.6

96.6

MISCELLANEOUS ANALYSES.

V

s

LOCATION.

i

0

rt

1

it

'«

rt
1
O

3

-6

1

O

1

|

ft

-3

en

1

a

1

E?
O

1

s

H

Dark brown peat, Shaker farm, Canter-

bury,

20.60

, —

— > i-3

• 7

13-7

62.9

99.2

Peat from same farm,

3-9°

i.

I

1.3

93-8

IOO

Peat, Magoon's farm, Lyndeborough,
Peat, do., when applied, and plants do

4-7

2.

3

5-4

21

66.7

IOO. I

poorly,

15

82.6

2-4

IOO

Peat, when applied, and plants thrive,
Peat, Francoma,

18.3

4

3-8

2

15-4

78
73-7

6.6

IOO

IOO

Peat, Meredith,

2.1

I

2

94-9

IOO

Marl, Hanover,

83

10

2.2

4-8

IOO

Clay marl, Brattleboro',

28

4-2

2

56.6

4.6

4-2

99.6

Clay, Piermont,

83.2

8.8

3-4

.6

3

99

Marl, Lyme,

79-5

5.1

4-3

7-3

i.i

2.8

IOO. I

Blue clay, Bath,

81.2

5

6.7

1-7

1.8

3-5

99-9

VOL. I. 72

554

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Dr. Jackson prepared an extensive sketch of the relations of geology
to agriculture, to which the attention of those interested in the subject
is invited, on account of the many valuable suggestions contained in it.

USE OF FERTILIZERS.

Formerly it was thought that the mineral constituents of plants were
of no great consequence in their growth. Experimental research indi-
cates that certain proportions of various mineral elements are essential
to the perfect growth of a plant, and* that if the proper ash-constituents
are not supplied, every part may be vigorously developed except the seed.
These researches have led to the extensive introduction of mineral fertil-
izers.

In order to understand what kind of fertilizers should be applied
to the soil, the farmer should know, first, the exact composition of his
ground; second, of his crops; and third, of the proper fertilizers to be
applied. The statements already given will show in general the compo-
sition of the soils of the state. For more exact information, special
determinations should be made in each case. It will be possible to pre-
sent a few general statements in respect to the composition of the more
common farm products and commercial fertilizers. These analyses will
be a safe guide when one wishes to know what fertilizers must be applied
to the soil in order to restore what has been abstracted from it by the
removal of the several crops. The tables are derived from an essay on

SUBSTANCES.

Total ash.

Nitrogen.

Potassa.

rt
•a

c/3

d

3

.5

1
3

;a
«
o

£

13

"5
a

i

"3

C/3

Silicic acid.

17.7
17-3

21.8

26.4
12.3
24.2
29.6
9-4

d'.l
38
46.6

3'-7

21.6

10.3

67.4

84.8

20.8

17.6
15-2
19.2
16
35-8
40.8

3-2
1.8
1.8
13-1
25
26
22.4
20
94-4
6.4
45-3

21.8

5-5
5-4
4-8
4.2

3-3
9.8

12
5-6

4-3
3
17.1

2
!-7

i-5
1.8
1.9
i-7
2.5
1.6

.6

.6

i

.2

•9

.2
.1

1.2

.8

\l

M

1-4

.2

•3

2ele

i-5

.6

•5
• 5

i

•3

1.2

1-5
.2
•4

.8

&l

20.8

13.2
9.2

2-5

i-5
6.9

43-3

2.2
1.9
1.8

1.8
1.8
i-9

2

•4
• 4

•3
3-3
• 5
.6
• 4
•4
.6

.2

•3
-3

8.2
8.2

7.2

5-5
5-5
8.8
n. 6
1.8
.8
i
4.1
13.8
18.6
12.3
8.8

•3
1.9
"•5
3-2

•4

•4
•5
• 4
.1
.8

i-5

.6

•3
i.i

3-4
.1

•3
•3

5-9
12.3

•3

.2

•4

.2
.2
.2

3-4
.1
.1

.2

•3

Rye grain,

Pease,

Beans,

Common beet-roots,

Hay

Live pig,

Wool (washed).

Milk,

Eggs,

THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY TO AGRICULTURE.

555

commercial fertilizers by Prof. C. A. Goessmann, in the tenth annual
report to the Massachusetts Agricultural College, January, 1873.

The first table shows the amount and kind of plant-food contained
in one thousand pounds of various air-dried substances.

Stable manure is one of the most important fertilizers, — yet its pecu-
liar value depends more on its influence upon the physical condition of
the soil than its chemical composition. The following statement will
show its chemical character in various stages of disintegration. One
thousand pounds contained (Wolff.), —

.0

3 .

f

d

CS

•o

2

•a

o ~

0

0

rt

a

5

£

c c

art

0

J5

rt

o

u

i

X

u

a

6 *"

1

fc

1

o
03

3

1
£

£

"=
w

i«

o

When fresh

When half decomposed, . .

192

58

5

6.3

i. 9

7

1.8

2.6

1.6

16.8

When more decayed, .

79°

145

65

5-8

5

1-3

8.8

1.8

3

-3

'7

1.6

The following analyses by Dr. Goessmann were made from samples
taken from the original packages in which they were placed for sale by
the manufacturers. As the farmer does not propose to pay for anything
but phosphoric acid, nitrogen (or ammonia), and potassa, the results are
given with particular reference to these substances. The valuation of
these articles has been made in conformity with the prices of late recog-
nized by dealers and consumers in our section of the country. These
prices are 16.25 cents for each pound of soluble phosphoric acid, 13.2
cents for every pound of reduced phosphoric acid, 6 cents for every
pound of insoluble phosphoric acid, 30 cents for each pound of nitro-
gen, and 8 cents for each pound of potassa. Reduced phosphoric acid
is that portion which has apparently once been rendered soluble in
water, but has become insoluble again in consequence of peculiar reac-
tions which sometimes occur in the manufactured fertilizer. Its com-
pound with lime is soluble in citrate of ammonia, and in a suitable condi-
tion for speedy absorption under the influence of the carbonic acid of

the soil.

I.

AMMONIATED BONE SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME, MANUFACTURED BY

RUSSELL & Co.

Moisture and volatile matter,

61.54 per cent.

556 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Non-volatile matter, 38.46 per cent.

Soluble phosphoric acid, i°-55 "

Reduced phosphoric acid, 2.14 "

Insoluble phosphoric acid, 2.46 "

Nitrogen (—2.5 ammonia), 2.02 "

Valuation per ton of 2000 pounds.

2 1 1. o pounds of soluble phosphoric acid, $34.24

42.8 pounds of reduced phosphoric acid, 5.60

49.2 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid, 2.95

40.4 pounds of nitrogen (50.0 pounds of ammonia), 12.12

$54.91

W. L. BRADLEY'S XL FERTILIZER.

Moisture and volatile matter, 52.11 percent.

Non-volatile matter, 47.89 "

Soluble phosphoric acid 6.45 "

Reduced phosphoric acid, 2.83 "

Insoluble phosphoric acid, 3.60 "

Nitrogen (3.23 ammonia), 2.43 "

Valuation per ton of 2000 pounds.

129.0 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid, $20.96

56.6 pounds of reduced phosphoric acid, 7.47

72.0 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid, 4.32

48.6 pounds of nitrogen (64.6 ammonia) H-58

$47-33
III.

WILSON'S AMMONIATED SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME.

Moisture and volatile matter, 5°-95 per cent.

Non- volatile matter, 49.05 "

Soluble phosphoric acid, 6.65 "

Reduced phosphoric acid, i.oi "

Insoluble phosphoric acid, 0.93 "

Nitrogen (3.42 ammonia), 2.82 "

Valuation per ton of 2000 pounds.

133.0 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid, $21.51

20.2 pounds of reduced phosphoric acid, . 2.66

1 8. 6 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid, 1.12

56.4 pounds of nitrogen (68.4 ammonia), 16.80

$42.09

THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY TO AGRICULTURE. 557
IV.

QUINNIPIAC SOLUBLE NITROGENOUS PHOSPHATE.

Moisture and volatile matter, 55.51 per cent.

Non -volatile matter, 44-49 •'

Soluble phosphoric acid, 5.50 "

Reduced phosphoric acid, 2.45 "

Insoluble phosphoric acid, 3.47 "

Nitrogen (3.14 ammonia), 2.59 "

Valuation per ton of 2000 pounds.

no.o pounds of soluble phosphoric acid, $19.87

49.0 pounds of reduced phosphoric acid, 6.67

79.4 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid 4.76

51.8 pounds of nitrogen (62.8 ammonia), J5-54

$46.74
FALE'S FERTILIZER.

Moisture and volatile matter, 39-87 per cent.

Non- volatile matter, 60.13 "

Soluble phosphoric acid, 1.50 "

Reduced phosphoric acid, 2.49 "

Insoluble phosphoric acid, 4.06 "

Nitrogen (3.23 ammonia), 2.66 "

Valuation per ton of 2000 pounds.

30.00 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid, $4.88

49.80 pounds of reduced phosphoric acid, 6.57

81.20 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid, ....... 4.87

53.20 pounds of nitrogen (64.6 ammonia) , *5-96

$32-28
VI.

GUANO (GUANAPE ISLANDS).

Moisture and volatile matter, 57-38 54-17 54-98

Non-volatile matter, 42.62 45.83 45.02

Sand, 10.94 12.47 13-10

Total phosphoric acid, IJ-59 12.08 11.25

Nitrogen (11.78 ammonia), 9.70

Potassa, 2.02

Valuation per ton of 2000 pounds.

238.80 pounds of phosphoric acid (at 12.64 cents per pound), • • • $30.18

558

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

194.00 pounds of nitrogen (235.60 ammonia),
40.40 pounds of potassa, .

3-23

$91.61

By studying these tables the farmer can know what fertilizers are most
important for producing required products, and also whether the price
required for these fertilizers is reasonable.

The great amount of matter pressing upon us for presentation makes
it necessary to defer any further notice of the relations of geology to
agriculture.

Fig. 67. — MADISON AND WASHINGTON, FROM SHELBURNE.

CHAPTER XVII.

REMARKS UPON THE DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS.

IHE object of this chapter is to present a few additional facts re-
specting the distribution of animals and plants, and endeavor to
deduce from all that is known the precise boundaries between the Can-
adian and Alleghanian districts; and to call the attention of botanists
to the importance of drawing the lines between the alpine and sub-alpine
floras. The determination of these questions requires the application
of a knowledge of our isothermal lines, — both for summer and winter
temperature, — the contour lines of elevation above the sea, and the
actual limits of the distribution of the principal animals and plants.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS.

From the writings of prominent ornithologists, it is now possible to
ascertain the geographical limits within which the different species of
birds rear their young. On account of their migratory habits, the birds
are reckoned to belong to those regions where they breed. Very many
arctic birds are seen within our limits, especially during the winter, but
these are not to be classed among New Hampshire birds. The lists
herewith appended are not exhaustive ; but I have taken pains to present
only those names which are stated to breed within our limits, by compe-
tent authorities. It will be quite desirable to collect facts respecting the
breeding of birds along the Connecticut-Merrimack water-shed, since
certain Canadian species may be found farther south along this line
than has been heretofore supposed.

560 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Birds not breeding south of the limits of the Canadian Fauna in New

Hampshire.

Accipiter Cooperi Bon. Cooper's Hawk.

Aquila Canadensis Cass. Golden eagle.

Picoides hirsutus Gray. Banded three-toed woodpecker.

Contopus borealis Baird. Olive-sided fly-catcher.

Empidonax Traillii Baird. Traill's fly-catcher.

E. flaviventris Baird. Yellow-bellied fly-catcher.

Turdus Swainsonii Cab. Olive-backed thrush.

Regulus satrapa Licht. Golden-crowned wren.

Geothlypis Philadelphia Baird. Mourning warbler.

Helminth ophaga ruficapilla Baird. Nashville warbler.

H. peregrina Cab. Tennessee warbler.

Dendroica Canadensis Baird. Black-throated blue warbler.

D. coronata Gray. Yellow-rumped warbler.

D. Blackburniae Baird. Mrs. Blackburne's warbler.

D. castanea Baird. Bay-breasted warbler.

D. maculosa Baird. Black and yellow warbler.

Perissoglossa tigrina Baird. Cape May Warbler.

Myiodioctes Canadensis And. Canada Fly-catching warbler.

Troglodytes hyemalis Vieill. Winter wren.

Chrysomitris pinus Bon. Pine finch.

Curvirostra Americana Wils. Cross-bill.

Junco hyemalis Sclater. Blue snow-bird.

Guiraca Ludoviciana Sw. Rose-breasted grosbeak.

Scolecophagus ferrugineus Sw. Rusty grackle.

Perisoreus Canadensis Bonap. Canada Jay. Meat bird.

Tetrao Canadensis Linn. Spruce partridge.

Ryacophilus solitarius Baird. Solitary sandpiper.

Bucephala Americana Baird. Whistler.

Lophodytes cucullatus Reich. Hooded Merganser.

Larus argentatus Brunn. Herring Gull.

Most characteristic of the Birds breeding in the limits of the Alleghanian
Fauna, and chiejly those 'which rarely show themselves beyond their
breeding-grounds towards the north*

Accipiter fuscus. Sharp-shinned hawk.
Buteo borealis Vieill. Hen hawk.
Buteo lineatus Jard. Red-shouldered hawk.
Buteo Pennsylvanicus Bon. Broad-winged hawk.
Circus Hudsonius Vieill. Marsh hawk.

REMARKS UPON THE DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS. 561

Otus Wilsonianus Les. Long-eared owl.

Coccygus Americanus Bon. Yellow-billed cuckoo.

Coccygus erythrophthalmus Bon. Black-billed cuckoo.

Melanerpes erythrocephalus Sw. Red-headed woodpecker.

Trochilus colubris Linn. Humming-bird.

Sayornis fuscus. Baird. Pewee.

Dendroica virens Baird. Black-throated green warbler.

Dendroica Pennsylvanica Baird. Chestnut-sided warbler.

Myiodioctes pusillus Bon. Wilson's black-cap fly-catcher.

Vireo gilvus Bon. Warbling fly-catcher.

Mimus Carolinensis Gray. Cat-bird.

Harporhynchus rufus Cab. Brown thrush.

Troglodytes aedon Vieill. House wren.

Spizella monticola Baird. Tree sparrow.

Spizella pusilla Bon. Field sparrow.

Spizella socialis Bon. Chipping sparrow.

Cyanospiza cyanea Baird. Indigo bird.

Pipilo erythrophthalmus Vieill. Towhee bunting.

Dolichonyx oryzivorus Sw. Bobolink.

Molothrus pecoris Sw. Cow blackbird.

Icterus Baltimore Baud. Baltimore oriole.

Cyanura cristata Sw. Blue jay.

Actiturus Bartramius Bon. Field plover.

Birds breeding within the supposed limits of the Canadian Fauna in
New Hampshire, and also within the Alleghanian area.

Bubo Virginianus Bon. Great-horned owl.
Scops asio Bon. Mottled owl.
Syrnium nebulosum Gray. Barred owl.
Nyctale Acadica Bon. Acadian owl.
Astur atricapillus Bon. Goshawk.
Haliaetus leucocephalus Savig. Bald eagle.
Picus villosus Linn. Hairy woodpecker.
Picus pubescens Linn. Downy woodpecker.
Sphyropicus varius Baird. Yellow-billed woodpecker.
Hylatomus pileatus Baird. Pileated woodpecker.
Colaptes auratus Sw. Golden-winged woodpecker.
Chaetura pelasgia Steph. Chimney swift.
Antrostomus vociferus Boie. Whip-poor-will.
Chordeiles popetue Bd. Night-hawk.
Ceryle alcyon Boie. Belted kingfisher.
Tyrannus Carolinensis Baird. Kingbird.

VOL. i. 73

562 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Contopus virens Cab. Wood pewee.

Empidonax minimus Baird. Least fly-catcher.

Turdus migratorius Linn. Robin.

Turdus fuscescens Steph. Wilson's thrush.

Turdus Pallasii Cab. Hermit thrush.

Sialia sialis Bd. Blue-bird.

Parula Americana Bon. Blue yellow-backed warbler.

Geothlypis trichas Cab. Maryland yellow-throated warbler.

Seiurus aurocapillus Sw. Golden crowned thrush.

Seiurus Noveboracensis Nutt. Water thrush.

Setophaga ruticilla Sw. Redstart.

Hirundo horreorum Bart. Barn Swallow.

Petrochelidon lunifrons Bd. Cliff swallow.

Tachycineta bicolor Cab. White-bellied swallow.

Cotyle riparia Boic. Bank swallow.

Progne rubis Bd. Purple martin.

Ampelis cedrorum Baird. Cedar bird.

Vireo olivaceus Vieill. Red-eyed Vireo.

Vireo solitareus Vieill. Solitary Vireo.

Certhia familiaris Linn. Brown creeper.

Sitta Carolinensis Gm. White-bellied nut-hatch.

S. Canadensis Linn. Red-bellied nut-hatch.

Parus atricapillus Linn. Black-capped Titmouse. Chickadee.

Carpodacus purpureus Gray. Purple finch.

Chryromitris tristis Bon. Gold-finch. Yellow-bird.

Passerculus savanna Bon. Savannah sparrow.

Poaecetes gramineus Baird. Grass finch.

Zonotrichia albicollis Bon. White-throated sparrow.

Melospiza melodia Baird. Song sparrow.

M. palustris Baird. Swamp sparrow.

Agelaeius phoeniceus Vieill. Red-winged blackbird.

Quiscalus versicolor Vieill. Crow blackbird.

Corvus Americanus Aud. Crow.

Ectopistes migratorius Swain. Wild pigeon.

Bonasa umbellus Steph. Partridge.

Ardea herodias Linn. Great Blue heron.

Botaurus lentiginosus Steph. American bittern.

Philohela minor Gray. Woodcock. Rare.

Tringoides macularius Gray. Spotted sandpiper.

Anas obscura Gm. Black duck.

Aix sponsa Boie. Wood duck.

Colymbus torquatus Brunn. Loon.

REMARKS UPON THE DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS. 563

THE DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

At my request, Mr. C. P. Whitney, of Milford, visited the southern
part of Cheshire county, in the early part of August (1874), with the view
of ascertaining whether some of the more northern species of insects
extended farther south than the latitude of Milford. The season proved
to be an unfavorable one for observing characteristic species, partly
because of stormy weather, and partly because the most peculiar forms
usually make their appearance earlier in the summer.

Concerning the fauna of Mt. Monadnock, Mr. Whitney writes, —
"Although about the summit I found flora corresponding to the sub-
alpine of the White Mountains, I met with no insects except such as
are found below, and of those but few."

Concerning the insects south of the mountain he writes, — "To the
south of the mountain in Jaffrey, Rindge, etc., I found Minois A lope
(which I can hardly regard as Canadian) in abundance; also, Basilar-
chia ArtJiemis, Grapta Faunus (Polygonia of Scudder), y. album, A.
bombyx, and Ctenucha Virginica.

"Although owing to the continued rainy weather I met with but little
success, I am satisfied those towns possess a more northern fauna than
Milford and its vicinity, — whether enough so to place them in the Can-
adian region (if, indeed, a division is practicable), I cannot determine.

"I wish to call your attention to a few instances which conflict more
or less with Mr. Scudder's text. The numbers are those of his list.

"4. Nepliele is not found in the southern part of the state.

"11. Mr. Hutchinson has taken a specimen of interrogationis at Han-
over.

"24. I have seen Aphrodite in the sub-alpine region of Mt. Wash-
ington.

"35. Edwardsii has never been taken here [Milford].

"69. Vialis is common in the lowlands of this vicinity; and I have
found it abundant both in the Glen (White Mountains) and at Dixville
notch, in the northern extremity of the state.

"71. Paniscus (Mandan) I have taken at Colebrook; and Mr. Mor-
rison took one specimen in the Glen.

"73. Massasoit has not been seen here.

564 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

"8 1. Manataaqua is found here occasionally.
"84. Verna has never been taken in this vicinity.

"CEcantkus nivetts, Phylloptera oblongifolia, and Arphia sulphured are
common here."

THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS.

I have quite a number of additional facts to present upon the distri-
bution of plants, and will notice, first, certain features of the maritime
species; then of the alpine forms; and afterwards remark upon the
areas covered by forests.

Maritime Plants.

The catalogue of plants gives the names of thirty-seven species fre-
quenting the sea-shore, and six more will probably be discovered within
our limits. Botanists suppose, as these plants are mainly confined to
the neighborhood of the ocean, that the impregnation of the atmosphere,
and perhaps soil, with saline materials determines their habitat. It hap-
pens that many of them occur in connection with salt deposits in western
New York, etc. ; along the St. Lawrence river and the great lakes, and
in saline regions among the Rocky Mountains. A little reflection
upon the facts that will be presented will show that the distribution of
these maritime plants in North America may be a proof of oceanic sub-
mergence in the period intervening between the age of ice and historic
time.

American botanists have frequently recorded the presence of mari-
time phenogamous plants in the interior of the continent, and have
commented upon the singularity of the circumstance. For example,
Prof. J. A. Paine, Jr., in the Regents Report of the New York State
Cabinet for 1865, enumerates Juncus Balticus among the plants of Gen-
esee county, at a locality over three hundred feet above Lake Ontario,
and twenty miles south of it, associated with Zygadenus glaucus and
Solidago Hoiightonii, found only on the north shore of Lake Michigan.
It is a sea-side plant, native in the northern European and American
coasts. "For its introduction to the great lakes it is just as dependent
on the ocean as are Ranunculus Cymbalaria, Atriplex hastata, Salicornia
herbasea, Najas major, Ruppia maritima, Trigoclin maritimum, Juncus

REMARKS UPON THE DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS. $65

bulbosus, Scirpus maritimus, and Spartina stricta, for their existence at
Onondaga lake, and Lathyrus maritimus on the banks of Oneida lake."
He then conjectures that in some past geological period the land was
submerged, and the ocean extended into the interior.

In the Canadian Naturalist for May, 1867, A. T. Drummond, B. A.,
LL.B., sets forth similar facts, and mentions twenty species of maritime
plants that have been found in the interior. He refers the origin of this
distribution to the presence of salt water in the great lakes in the Post-
Pliocene or Champlain period, subsequent to the glacial drift. As the
waters gradually became fresh, some of the species would be extermi-
nated, and others become reconciled to the changed conditions, and
remain as monuments to this ancient oceanic prolongation into the inte-
rior of the continent.

A few years since I made inquiries of botanists for catalogues of
plants along the great lakes, St. Lawrence and Hudson river valleys,
and published in the Proceedings of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science* a brief statement of the facts obtained, with
details respecting the occurrence of the species in the several localities.

There are seventy-nine species in this list. Of these, seven are noted
as doubtful, since they may not be confined in their range to the sea-
shore. The following may be legitimately added to the doubtful list:
Zygadenus glauctis, Solidago Houghtonii, and Corispenmim hyssopifo-
lium. These occur in the interior, and not on the coast. The last, with
Najas major, are not on the American, but flourish on the European
coast. Add, also, Lobelia Kalmii, RJiyncospora capillacea, Scleria verti-
cillata, Scirpus pungens, and Polanisia graveolens, which, upon a careful
examination, may prove to belong to the maritime type ; — certainly, so
far as known, their distribution corresponds with that of the seventy-
nine in the table. These eight, added to the seventy-nine, make a total
of eighty-seven.

Of this list, following Gray's Manual of Botany, twenty-two are found
on the coast north of New York, six south of the same, thirty (including
Juncus Vaseyi, on the authority of Dr. T. C. Porter) occur mostly south
of New England, and twenty-two are found along the whole of our east-
ern shore. Thirty-three of them, or only ten less than the whole number

* Vol. xix, p. 173.

566 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

occurring on the coast north of New York, are found in the interior, dis-
tributed as follows: Lower St. Lawrence waters, five; Lake Ontario,
nine ; salt region of western New York, seventeen ; Lake Erie, seven-
teen; Lake Huron, twelve; Lake Michigan, fourteen; Lake Superior,
fifteen; Minnesota, seven; Hudson river, only one; Lake Champlain,
three; and Hudson's bay, three.

Theory. The proper explanation of the distribution of maritime plants
has been already shadowed forth in the comments of Messrs. Paine and
Drummond. Following the glacial period, geologists believe the land of
northern America has been submerged several hundred feet, as shown
by the remains of marine animals. Along our coast this submergence
exceeded one hundred feet. The proof of this statement will be given
under the head of Surface Geology. The St. Lawrence valley has
yielded marine shells at the height of 470 feet at Montreal, and at
somewhat lower elevations in Ontario. When the St. Lawrence valley
was thus covered by salt water, the maritime plants would naturally
creep along the shore ; and thus may be explained with certainty their
introduction as far as the basin of Lake Ontario. So far, the explana-
tion must be satisfactory, especially since no conclusions are involved
that cannot be legitimately drawn from other sources.

If the theory is valid, it may be used to account for the introduction
of maritime plants along Lakes Erie, Michigan, Huron, and Superior,
and it is difficult otherwise to understand how they could have made
their appearance in Minnesota. But Lake Superior is surrounded by
terraces up to 330 feet, or 968 feet above the ocean. It is agreed that
these terraces indicate former levels of water; and that the period of
submergence was essentially coeval with that of depression along the
sea border indicated by the fossils. The inference therefore seems
legitimate that these high terraces were formed beneath the salt water
which introduced the plants. If so, an argument is afforded of a sub-
mergence of the land about the great lakes of about one thousand feet.
Fossil shells of the Champlain age have been found at the height of
1000 feet, on Cornwallis and Beechey islands in Arctic America; and it
may be that the depression of the land was uniform over all the northern
part of our continent at this time. But at present the arguments from
the distribution of the maritime plants and the supposed requirements

REMARKS UPON THE DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS. 567

of the terraces are all that can be relied upon to suggest so great a
submergence.

From molluscan remains it is proved that the Hudson and Champlain
valleys were covered by salt water in the period now under consideration.
The proof of submergence, from the occurrence of maritime plants, is
very meagre, only four species appearing on the list. It is possible that
future researches may add to the list, though not in large numbers, after
the researches of Oakes, Tuckerman, Torrey, Zadock Thompson, and
Peck. It may likewise be observed that the lower St. Lawrence fur-
nishes fewer species than the borders of the great lakes. These defi-
ciencies were so patent, that Mr. Peck, in his reply to my inquiries,
regarded "the connection between the maritime plants of the region of
the great lakes with the Atlantic ocean, by intermediate stations, as not
well shown." Is it not possible that these breaks in the connection are
proofs of the correctness of our theory ? If the continued existence of
these plants about the lakes is due to the presence of large bodies of
water, even in the absence of salt, then we should not expect to find
them remaining along the narrow Champlain, nor the still narrower
Hudson river, nor, to a large extent, the St. Lawrence. The conditions
are not favorable to their preservation. Furthermore, if the species were
equally distributed from the ocean into the interior, or especially if they
became fewer in number the farther they penetrated the continent, it
might be said that they had migrated, since the Champlain period, even
to Minnesota. Hence what might appeal destructive of our theory is
in reality a strong argument in its favor. These considerations were
forcibly set forth in a private communication from Dr. Ward.

It might be said by some that the plants in the salt regions of western
New York existed there naturally on account of the presence of saline
matters in the soil. This circumstance will not, however, explain their
origin. During the glacial period all life was destroyed by the intense
cold. Hence the salt-loving plants disappeared. With the return of
the warm temperature, the plants could not return by an overland emi-
gration. They could return only by a gradual migration along a shore
line, whether salt or fresh, unless it be supposed plants were created for
this special locality. The latter supposition is untenable, since a special
creation is not required to explain the distribution of the other plants in

568 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

the Northern states ; and we cannot suppose there would be any differ-
ence in the manner of the introduction of the two classes. Once intro-
duced, the salt-loving plants would find a congenial habitat, and would
not disappear, even after the removal of the estuary.

There is hardly a possibility that the seeds of these plants could have
been preserved in the ground during the long ages of glacial cold, and
revivified after the return of warmth. Besides, the glacier, in plowing
out the valleys, would have transported these seeds far to the south, and
fresh debris from the north would have covered up the briny exudations.

Botanists have described many maritime plants from the salt regions
of the Rocky Mountains. These are the descendants of those which
were introduced by oceanic migrations in Cretaceous or Tertiary times ;
and, as the glacier never covered them, they have continued uninter-
ruptedly till now.

The distribution of certain forms of animal life confirms our theory.
A species of marine crustacean has been found recently by Dr. William
Stimpson, by dredging in the waters of Lake Michigan. Girard de-
scribes a fish from these northern lakes, Triglopsis Thompsoni, all whose
affinities are marine. Add to these the oft-quoted instance of marine
insects found on Lake Superior by Dr. Leconte, and a parallel case of
the discovery of two species of Mysis in Norwegian lakes. Also, accord-
ing to F. W. Putnam, director of the Peabody Museum, in Salem, Mass.,
the fishes found in Lakes Champlain and Erie are so much alike, though
widely separated, that an ancient salt-water connection is needed to
explain their present isolation.

Perhaps other evidences of a marine connection may be found in Lake
Winnipiseogee. The fishermen are now familiar with a fresh-water smelt
there, which is said to be the same species with the one so abundant in
the ocean. This fact is certainly suggestive of a former connection
between the lake and ocean.

THE WHITE MOUNTAIN PLANTS.

Concerning these I will present a few statements prepared by Dr. Na-
than Barrows, of Meriden, at my request, and read before the Dartmouth
Scientific Association, September 28, 1870.

The most interesting part of the botany of New Hampshire is that

REMARKS UPON THE DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS. 569

of the White Mountains ; and on our alpine summits, above the limit of
trees, the vegetation is altogether peculiar.

About fifty-four plants are met with on the alpine summits of the
White Mountains, which are found nowhere else in New England except
on similar summits in neighboring states, and, in addition to these, prob-
ably enough species whose habitat is lower down find their way to the
same region to make the number more than one hundred. On my
recent visit to Mt. Washington and its neighbors, I made what obser-
vations on this subject my limited time allowed, noticing fifty-eight
such species. These, added to the fifty-four truly alpine species, make
one hundred and twelve species which I now know to be found above the
limit of trees.

An enumeration of both divisions will be found appended. A thor-
ough investigation of this subject would be of great practical value ; and
perhaps it has been made, though not within my knowledge.

Of these plants, at least thirteen species belong to the Ericaceae, eleven
to the Compositae, seven to the Rosaceae, four to the Caryophyllaceae,
three each to the Scrophulariaceae and Polygonaceae ; while there are two
birches, four willows, five rushes, thirteen sedges, and two club-mosses.

On the very summit of Mt. Washington are found in comparative
abundance Arenaria Grcenlandica, Poa laxa, Juncus trifidus, and, where
there is a little moisture, Carex rigida.

A little lower down, while descending the first steep, rocky sides of
the highest peak, we begin to find in dry places Potentilla trifida, the
two Lycopodia, Diapensia Lapponica; and, wherever there is a little
more warmth and moisture, especially on the slope towards Tuckerman's
ravine, the Solidago, some of the grasses, the dwarf Cornus, chickweed
wintergreen, June us filiformis, and a variety of the Carex cancscens,
which grows abundantly throughout New Hampshire. We then begin
to find the great variety of Alpine shrubs, most of which get along with-
out much moisture, but where there is a moist spot, the Painted cup,
Peck's Geum, the two species of Nabalus, and Spircea salicifolia.

I found both the common sorrel (Rumex acctosella) and herds-grass
(Phleum pratense) far up toward the summit.

Around the Lake of the Clouds may be found the willows and alpine
birch, the alpine violet and bistort and cranberry, Linncea borealis, the
VOL. i. 74

57O PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

common harebell, and many of those species which have already been
mentioned ; while at the head of Tuckerman's and other ravines we see
the Arnica, Epilobinm, Veronica, the grasses, willows, and alder; and, in
certain limited localities, rare and local plants like the GnapJialium, Car-
damine, Eup/trasia, Rkinant/ins, and Oxyria.

I have aimed to give only a general idea of the manner in which plants
are distributed on this one alpine summit, as my knowledge of the sub-
ject is too limited to attempt a thorough statement of localities. The
whole mountain region of New Hampshire ought to be thoroughly
studied with reference to the determination of the limits of species. A
thorough botanical exploration of one such mountain as Washington,
from base to summit, including an examination of every spur and ridge
and ravine, would do more to advance botanical science and determine
those influences which fix the limits of species than the same amount of
time and labor expended in any other way. Moreover, there are portions
of this region, as, for instance, Mt. Carrigain and its vicinity, which seem
to have received as yet almost no attention ; and I feel sure that in these
solitudes many anxious plants still await names from their fortunate
discoverer.

There are certain marked peculiarities of these alpine plants which are
worthy of notice. First, they are all perennials, with the single excep-
tion of Etiphrasia officinalis, and this, according to Tuckerman, is found
only about the head of Oakes's gulf, quite far from the summit of Mt.
Washington. Second, the size of individual flowers is in general remark-
ably large for the genus. We have thirty-nine species of Solidago. The
5. Virga-aurea, — var. alpina, — is the largest of them all ; and the next in
size is vS. tJiyrsoidea, which runs up as far as the Lake of the Clouds.
These are the only ones found upon the summit. Peck's Gcnm has the
largest flower of all the nine species of that genus. The flower of
Nabahis Boottii is the largest in the nine species of that genus. The
Arnica mollis is a large flower; Poa laxa is the largest flowered of our
thirteen Po<z; and the same thing may be remarked of many of the
ericaceous shrubs.

Another thing worthy of notice is the manner of growth of the alpine
shrubs. Most of them, after rising a few inches, spread out abruptly,
adapting themselves to the surface of any rock which may be near, thus

REMARKS UPON THE DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS. 5/1

giving them support and warmth, and power to resist the fierce winds
which frequent these regions. Even the firs at the heads of the ravines
do the same thing, and, sometimes, where they grow thick together, after
rising two or three feet above the rocks, they spread out with a flat sur-
face, following the general slope of the ravine, and become so thickly in-
terwoven that one with care may walk quite a distance on their surface,
as upon a lawn, — yet if he do chance to slip through a treacherous open-
ing into the apartments beneath, if will be some time, — if not longer, as
I have found to my cost, — before he gets out again.

Another point of great interest in the study of our mountain flora is
the large ratio of species common to it and Europe. Confining our
inquiries to the strictly alpine plants, forty-two of fifty-three, or sev-
enty-nine per cent., are common to both countries. This fact lends
countenance to the hypothesis that the two countries were formerly
much more intimately connected by means of a mountain chain than
they are at present. I am not aware what the ratio of species common
to the European and American floras as a whole is, but, remembering
that in the inquiry we must confine ourselves to indigenous plants exclu-
sively, it must be much less than twenty per cent. The disparity is from
any point of view quite remarkable, and its cause worthy close investi-
gation.

List of Plants found in JVeiv Hampshire only on Alpine Summits. Those
found also in Europe are marked Eu; those, marked 'with an asterisk (*)
were regarded by Asa Gray in 1856 as sub-alpine.

Cardamine bellidifolia [Eu.] *Arnica mollis.

Viola palustris [Eu.] Nabalus nanus.

Silene acaulis [Eu.] N. Boottii.

*Arenaria Grcenlandica. *Vaccinium uliginosum [Eu.]

Dryas integrifolia [Eu.] V. casspitosum.

*Geum radiatum ; var. Peckii. Arctostaphylos alpina [Eu.]

Sibbaldia procumbens [Eu.] Cassiope hypnoides [Eu.]

Potentilla frigida [Eu.] Phyllodoce taxifolia [Eu.]

Saxifraga rivularis [Eu.] Rhododendron Lapponicum [Eu.]

Epilobium alpinum ; var. majus [Eu.] Loiseleuria procumbens [Eu.]

*Solidago Virga-aurea ; var. alpina [Eu.] Veronica alpina [Eu.]

Gnaphalium supinum [Eu.] Castilleia pallida [Eu.]

5/2 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

*Euphrasia officinalis [Eu.] C. capitata [Eu.]

Diapensia Lapponica [Eu.] C. rigida ; var. Bigelovii [Eu.]

*Polygonum viviparum [Eu.] C. atrata [Eu.]

Oxyria digyna [Eu.] *c. capillaris [Eu.]

*Empetrum nigrum [Eu.] Phleum alpinum [Eu.]

Betula glandulosar=B. nana probably of Agrostis scabra ; var. alpina.

Salix chlorophylla. [Eu.] Calamagrostis Pickeringil.

S. Cutleri. C. Langsdorffii.

S. argyrocarpa. Poa laxa [Eu.]

S. herbacea [Eu.] Festuca ovina; var. vivipara [Eu.]

Luzula arcuata [Eu.] Triticum violaceum [Eu.]

L. spicata [Eu.] Aira atropurpurea [Eu.]

Juncus trifidus [Eu.] Hierochloa alpina [Eu.]

*Scirpus ccespitosus [Eu.] Lycopodium selago [Eu.]

*Carex scirpoidea [Eu.] L. annotinum; var. pungens [Eu.]

CANADIAN PLANTS NATURALIZED ON MT. WASHINGTON.

The species marked with the letter M in the catalogue are only those
which are indigenous to the alpine and sub-alpine regions. Quite a
number of plants, chiefly those of the Canadian region, have spread
themselves upwards in favorable seasons, and are naturalized there to a
certain extent. We present a list of those that have been gathered upon
Mt. Washington, mostly in the sub-alpine district. They are also marked
with the letter M not italicised upon the catalogue. Future explorations
will add many to the list.

Ranunculus abortivus. Houstonia caerulea.

Thalictrum dioicum. Aster Radula.

Viola canina. A. acuminatus.

Stellaria borealis. A. nemoralis.

Paronychia argyrocoma. Solidago thyrsoidea ; var. alpina.

Rubus Chamaemorus. Taraxacum Dens-leonis.

Potentilla tridentata. Antennaria margaritacea.

Spiraea salicifolia. Campanula rotundifolia.

Ribes prostratum. Vaccinium Oxycoccus.

Heracleum lanatum. V. Vitis-Idaea.

Cornus Canadensis. V. Pennsylvanicum.

Linnaea borealis. Chiogenes hispidula.

Lonicera caerulea. Kalmia glauca.

Viburnum pauciflorum. Ledum latifolium.

REMARKS UPON THE DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS. S73

Trientalis Americana.

Rhinanthus Crista-galli.

Melampyrum Americanum.

Rumex Acetosella.

Betula papyracea ; var. minor.

Alnus viridis.

Abies balsamea ; var. nana.

Veratrum viride.

Clintonia borealis.

Streptopus roseus.

S. amplexifolius.

Listera cordata.

Habenaria dilatata.

H. obtusata.

Luzula parviflora ; var. melanocarpa.

Juncus filiformis.

Eriophorum vaginatum.

Carex canescens ; var. vitilis.

C. rostra ta.

C. arctata.

C. trisperma.

C. limosa.

C. irrigua.

Phleum pratense.

Agrostis scabra.

A. canina.

Aira flexuosa.

Avena striata.

Trisetum subspicata ; var. molle.

Aspidium spinulosum.

REMARKS. A careful comparison of the names of plants assigned to the two alpine
districts in the lists above with those in the catalogue (Chapter XIII), shows that they
do not harmonize perfectly. Different observers, without an opportunity for comparing
notes and specimens, cannot be expected to agree in every minute particular ; and Dr.
Barrows and Mr. Flint have had no opportunity for interchanging their views. Each
one mentions two or three species not given by the other. They do not enter upon
the question of separating the alpine from the sub-alpine species. I commenced an
investigation, hoping to be able to find distinctions in the distribution of these plants
which might correspond with those among the insects mentioned by Mr. Scudder (p.
336), but have been doomed to disappointment. Prof. Gray's opinions, as held in
1856, are indicated, but these do not agree with those proposed by other eminent
botanists with whom I have been in correspondence. These two districts are so near
each other, and so limited in extent, that the climatic conditions are very nearly the
same. Hence the species may have emigrated from their original limits, both upwards
and downwards, so that the boundary line cannot be drawn. Another cause of inter-
mingling may have been the climatic fluctuation intimated by the former occupation
of the Canadian region by the Alleghanian forms up to the base of the mountains

(P- 543).

As the evidence from the plants themselves is obscure, I think we may be warranted,
in the further study of this subject, to assume as correct the insectean bounds given on
Plate C, Chapter XII. Then notes should be taken of the distribution of all the plants
above the line of trees. Should the facts thus gained not arrange themselves satis-
factorily, the only other course is to study the distribution of the same species about
Hudson's bay, Greenland, and other alpine districts, ascertain the denizens of the two
zones in typical localities, and then assign to each group those of the White Mountain
plants that are represented farther north. When we find fifty-eight species of Cana-

574 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

dian plants climbing into the alpine district, it is not strange that the smaller number
of boreal species should in like manner spread themselves even into Alleghanian
townships.

THE BOUNDARY BETWEEN THE ALLEGHANIAN AND CANADIAN DIS-
TRICTS.

In order to show the near correspondence of the dividing line between
the Alleghanian and Canadian districts, according to the several methods
of distinction that have been suggested, I annex a map showing the
course of the following lines, first, — the broad band settled upon by Mr.
Scudder as separating the insects of the two faunae ; second, the upper
line of the white oak ; third, the approximate contour line of six hun-
dred feet elevation ; fourth, the isothermal line of fifty degrees for April,
May, and June. It will be seen, by referring to the map showing the
distribution of forest trees, that the chestnut limit does not fall much
behind that of the white oak, the whole area occupied by it being colored.

The upper limit of the white oak extends above the six-hundred-feet
contour line as far as Plymouth, from the south line of the state ; may
agree with it for a few miles in the lake region, but extends farther north
in the Pemigewasset and Saco valleys. In the lower part of Carroll
county there is an area above six hundred feet. I do not think the facts
are known with sufficient precision to state the presence or absence of
the oak in this area. There are other limited areas of greater height
not indicated, as the Gunstock region, where the oak certainly does not
flourish. Along the Connecticut the limit of the oak reaches as far
as the contour line ; while in the south-west part of Cheshire county the
reverse is true. Were it legitimate to strike an average in this case, it
could truly be said that the two lines correspond very well. There may
be special reasons in every case of variation for the spread of the tree
beyond or within the limits of the contour, derived from the character
of the soil or particular topographical features, which might be discov-
ered upon investigation. Somewhat similar variations appear upon ex-
amining the isothermal line of fifty degrees for the three months of
April, May, and June, proposed by Prof. Verrill as the limit between the
Canadian and Alleghanian birds. This line runs up to Berlin on the
Androscoggin, may touch Jackson and Bartlett on the Saco, curving
round the southern White Mountains to pass up to Thornton and War-

BOUNDARIES

BETWKJ.:. THK

CANADIAN & ALLE6HANIAN

DISTRICTS III NEW HtMPSHIRE

As proposed by different Authors. V /.

X\

EXPLANATION.

J Baud separating Insect faunae.
CD Area occupied by White Oak.

Contour line of 600 feet elevation.

— Isothermal line of 50° for April, Mt
and June.

REMARKS UPON THE DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS. 575

ren, and, probably, to connect with the line passing up from White River
Junction to Northumberland. Returning southerly from the south line
of Stratford, it curves up the Passumpsic south of the Concord (Vt.) hills
an unknown distance. From thence it would naturally follow back the
Connecticut, on the west side, to ascend the White River valley. I
think it must reach Craftsbury, Vt., from the White river, rather than
the Passumpsic valley, this being a point on the line specially men-
toned by Prof. Verrill.

From the facts already presented, one would infer that the six-hun-
dred-feet contour line and the upper limit of the white oak approach
nearer to the limits of the insect faunas, as given by Mr. Scudder, than
the isothermal of fifty degrees. Two considerations, however, are im-
portant in this connection : — First, the distribution of the insects, birds,
and trees may not coincide perfectly with one another. There is no law
of nature providing that these areas should coincide with mathematical
exactness. Second, these different lines have been drawn only approxi-
mately. When the temperature, altitude, and exact limits of all the
birds, insects, and trees shall have been studied with special reference to
the determination of this point, a closer correspondence may be discov-
ered. I have gone as far as possible without making special explorations,
using only what has been picked up incidentally. It would be of much
importance to the agricultural interests of the state if such investiga-
tions could be pursued farther, since the accurate determination of this
line shows the proper limits of the cultivation of the grape, cranberry,
and the choicer fruits. Their cultivation is not now carried so far
north as nature allows.

EXTENT OF FOREST.

It is often important to know how extensive the wood-growth of a
country is; and, in order to illustrate this subject as far as possible, I
have appended a small colored map showing the areas occupied by trees
at the present time in New Hampshire, and a short distance into the
surrounding territory. It is supposed the whole of the state was origi-
nally covered by the forest. The white parts of the map show how
much has been cleared, and in what neighborhoods settlements have
sprung up. The first glance at the map shows where the woodman's

5/6 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

axe has not yet penetrated, save for the purpose of cutting lumber. This
dense forest occupies most of Essex county, Vt, the adjacent townships
of Quebec, and nearly twenty townships at the north-west angle of
Maine. I have tried to represent all the forest in Maine to the north-
west of a line from Conway to the south part of Weld.

Several points deserve mention: — First, I have separated by another
color the tops of the mountains which are above trees. As some may
object to the correctness of this representation, I will explain. The
largest alpine area, or region above trees, is coincident with the summits
of the Mt Washington range. It is given on a larger scale in Chapter
XII, Plate C. Of the other White Mountain areas, Mts. Lafayette,
Profile, Moosilauke, and Twin are certainly devoid of trees upon their
summits. Of the others, Mts. Willey, Crawford, Mote, Pequawket,
Chocorua, Osceola, Black, and Carter, with others not represented, are
bare now, but may have been covered by a stunted growth originally.
Possibly the Pilot and Starr King mountains, with the Stratford peaks,
may belong to the same category. Certainly, Kearsarge, Gunstock,
Sunapee, and Monadnock must be placed among those which once
supported a stunted growth. In the clearing of the country, many of
these summits became involved in the merciless destruction of the trees,
and nature has not been able to rehabilitate them.

Second, oftentimes the trees are retained because they grow upon
mountains or high hills. Such is commonly the case all over the White
Mountains, much of Cob's and Essex (Vt.) counties, the quartzite range
from Piermont to Claremont, Red hill, Ossipee, Green mountain in
Effingham, the Gunstock region, Moose mountain district, between
Carroll and Strafford counties, Saddleback in Northwood, McKoy's
and Fort mountain in Epsom, range from New Ipswich to New Boston,
Uncanoonucs, large areas along the Connecticut-Merrimack ridge, hills
in the south-west part of Cheshire county, etc. Third, for a similar
reason, one can pick out woodland areas upon the county maps from
tracts of land not traversed by roads. Some of the county maps, as
that of Cheshire, take pains to point out where forests are situated, by
appropriate markings. Fourth, the forest trees are disappearing rapidly
in some sections, and gaining in others. The presence of a new railroad
is the sure precursor of the disappearance of the forest. I have noticed

REMARKS UPON THE DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS.

this fact in a marked degree along the Manchester & Portsmouth Rail-
road, in Auburn, Candia, and Raymond. The prospective opening of the
Portland & Ogdensburg Railroad will soon witness the stripping of the
forests between Whitefield and Conway. In the older and higher towns,
between the Connecticut and Merrimack rivers, the trees are gaining.
Hundreds of farms, showing the names of their owners upon the maps
of twelve to fifteen years' issue, exhibit a return to the primitive condi-
tion. The houses are deserted or pulled down, and the grass-land is full
of shrubs. The roads, also, in many localities, have been abandoned, and
more ought to be, since they need repair so badly.

Nature is taking the proper course with much of our territory. She
points out more desirable localities to the tillers of the ground, and, when
they remove, the trees spring up again. It appears, from observations
upon the salutary influences of forests, that a certain part of every country
must be kept in wood-growth, in order to preserve the balance of nature.
It is supposed that forests exert an influence upon the amount of moist-
ure precipitated; and it is certain that the removal of the trees causes
greater freshets after rain-storms, because there is nothing to keep the
water back. With abundant vegetation present, moisture is absorbed,
kept back, and evaporation is retarded. In time, legislation will require
the replanting of much of our woodland, unless the planting of shade-
trees abundantly in the settled districts, and the emigration of much of
the hill population, restore the balance of nature, without the necessity
of intervention. Legislation may judiciously hasten the restoration of
forests by encouraging the planting of shade-trees ; and it should be a
part of the duty of agricultural associations to offer premiums for the
production of artificial forests. Experiments in forcing the growth of
timber trees may also be encouraged.

On the map I have endeavored tot show where the principal patches
occur. We might estimate by percentages, calling the original universal
growth 100, and the average approximation to it in a township by the
estimated part of the natural abundance now existing. But I have
thought it easier to show by colors essentially the position and rela-
tive dimensions of the present wood-growth, premising that the cleared
portions are more likely to fall short of than to exceed the representation.

Some very valuable facts in reference to the extent of our forests are
VOL. i. 75

5/8 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

given in the answers by well informed persons in most of our towns to
questions put by James O. Adams, secretary of the Board of Agricul-
ture. I have condensed these estimates from the original statements in
the third annual report of the secretary, presented in 1873. The ques-
tion was couched in the following language: "What proportion of the
area of the town is covered with forests?" I will give the substance
of the answers, by counties, as briefly as possible.

Rockitigham County. Atkinson, one third the area covered with wood-growth ;
Auburn, sixty-five per cent. ; Brentwood, less wood and pasturage than improved
land; Chester, about half; Danville, about half, mostly young growth; Derry, one
fifth ; East Kingston, one tenth ; Epping, twenty per cent. ; Fremont, forty per cent. ;
Hampton Falls, one fifth ; Kensington, one eighth ; Kingston, one fourth ; Newmar-
ket, one eighth ; Newton, one half; North Hampton, one third ; Rye, considerable area
covered with bushes; Sandown, one half; Seabrook, one fourth; South Hampton, one
twelfth; Stratham, less than half; Windham, more than half.

Strafford County. Barrington, more than half; Durham, one third; Farmington,
"stripped of its forests;" Lee, a small part; Madbury, one fourth; New Durham,
more than half; Rochester, a small part; Rollinsford, one twentieth.

Belknap County. Alton, one third ; Belmont, one twentieth ; Center Harbor, one
fourth to one third ; Gilmanton, one fourth ; Sanbornton, one tenth ; Tilton, less than
one fourth.

Carroll County. Albany, three fourths ; Bartlett, two thirds ; Eaton, one third ;
Effingham, one fourth, Freedom, one third; Madison, one half; Moultonborough, sixty
per cent. ; Ossipee, one third; Sandwich, one half; Tuftonborough, one third; Wake-
field, one half; Wolfeborough, one third.

Merrimack County. Andover, nearly one fourth ; Bow, nearly half; Bradford, one
twentieth ; Dunbarton, one fourth to one third ; Franklin, one eighth ; Henniker,
twelve to thirteen per cent. ; New London, one eighth ; Northfield, little less than one
fourth; Salisbury, more than half; Warner, one fourth; Webster, one fourth; Wil-
mot, one fourth.

Hillsborough County. Antrim, one fourth ; Bedford, one fourth ; Bennington, one
fourth ; Brookline, one half; Deering, one tenth ; Francestown, one third to one half;
Goffstown, about one third ; Greenfield, one fourth ; Hollis, one fourth ; Hudson, fifty
per cent. ; Lyndeborough, one fourth to one third ; Manchester, nearly one third wood
or hoop-poles; Merrimack, one half; Mont Vernon, one fourth; New Boston, one
eighth ; New Ipswich, twenty-five per cent. ; Peterborough, one fifth ; Temple and
Windsor, each one fifth ; Wilton one twentieth.

Cheshire County. Dublin, one twelfth ; Fitzwilliam, one half; Gilsum, one fourth to
one third ; Harrisville, Maryborough, Rindge, Sullivan, and Walpole, each one fourth ;
Nelson, one sixth ;- Richmond, one tenth to one eighth ; Surry, one third ; Swanzey,

Showing the regions princi-
pally occupied by forests, in

^; \ ";l- S^is?m^

UN- V'S; ^ ^- A.;;;- ^i^'yj^-VfV)'^

•^-~^~k *-,.i,,-s./ n .<_/••• T^e'^fwSsnri, \-,,,.i

l^:,i;5^:'-'-&\:"KteM^

S^^f;^SS^W^^

REMARKS UPON THE DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS. 579

one third ; Troy, one sixth ; Westmoreland, one third ; Winchester, two fifths to one
half.

Sullivan County. Acworth, one third ; Charlestown, one third ; Claremont, one
eighth to one fifth ; Cornish, one sixth ; Goshen, one third ; Grantham, one half; Lang-
don, five per cent. ; Lempster, one third ; Sunapee, one sixth ; Unity, one eighth ;
Washington, one third.

Grafton County. Ashland, nearly two thirds ; Benton, three fourths ; Bethlehem,
two thirds (not including the recent additions) ; Bridgewater, one fourth ; Bristol, one
third ; Campton, one half; Enfield, one third to one half; Hanover, one sixth ; Hebron,
one half; Holderness, one third; Lebanon, one eighth to one sixth; Lincoln, nine
tenths; Lisbon, one half; Littleton, one third; Lyman, one third, Monroe, one third;
Orange, one half; Piermont, one third; Plymouth, one third; Warren, one half;
Wentworth, one half.

Coos County. Columbia, two thirds; Dalton, more than half; Jefferson, more than
half; Pittsburg, seven eighths; Randolph, seven eighths; Shelburne, nearly three
fourths ; Whitefield, one half.

SIZE OF FOREST TREES.

The woodmen are so ready to cut down the largest trees in the forest,
that it seems proper to preserve in permanent form a few facts that have
fallen under our notice respecting the size of the larger specimens, of
which there is an authentic record.

David M'Clure and Elijah Parish, in their memoirs of President Eleazer
Wheelock, of Dartmouth college, state that it was common a hundred
years since to see pine trees in Hanover over 200 feet in length. One
of them measured a pine growing within the academic precincts, and
found it to be 270 feet long. Some of the present officers of the col-
lege thought these dimensions rather large; but the late President
Lord came across the ruins of an old pine in one of his rambles, and,
by pacing, proved the length of it to be 230 feet.

Dr. Williams, of Vermont, states the height of the pine to be 247
feet. Zadock Thompson has seen them 170 feet long, and measuring
about 6 feet on the stump. He also says the larch attains the height
of 100 feet, with a diameter of about 2 feet.

The following notices of large trees I have obtained from items in the
Independent Statesman, during the past four years, and presume the
figures are essentially correct.

Granville Felton cut, on the farm of D. W. Trow in Amherst, a chestnut tree which
measured 7 feet in diameter at the butt.

58O PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

William Patterson obtained a chestnut log in South Merrimack, 54 feet long, 17
inches through at the top, 5 feet 8 inches at the butt, containing 174 feet of lumber,
board measure.

Schuyler Aldrich, of Great Falls, cut an elm tree measuring 4 feet 8 inches in diam-
eter at the butt, and 3 feet 8 inches 40 feet higher up. At this point two limbs
branched off, each 2 feet in diameter.

Near the Concord Railroad in Greenland, there stands an elm which measures 27
feet in circumference 6 feet above the ground.

James Thatcher, of Moultonborough, cut a hemlock belonging to George Thatcher,
which measured 90 feet in length. It seemed to have 290 rings of growth.

Andrew Farnum, of West Concord, cut a red oak, being 5 feet in diameter at the
butt, the log weighing over 3 tons.

S. W. Vose, of Peterborough, cut a maple 3 feet in diameter, with 370 rings of
growth.

W. S. Marston, of East Andover, cut 4! cords of wood from a pasture maple.

The Messrs. Mclntire, of Littleton, recently cut a spruce tree on Palmer brook,
measuring 130 feet in height, and 16 inches in diameter 65 feet from the ground.

Amon Lord, locality not stated, cut a pine 5 feet in diameter at the butt; 32 feet
higher it was 4<J feet through. The entire tree furnished over 4000 feet of lumber.

W. K. Quimby has a pine measuring 21 feet in circumference at the base. It is as
straight as a candle, and limbless for 100 feet above the ground. It is estimated to
contain 7000 feet of sound lumber.

Two pines on land of John Batchelder, of Laconia, scaled 3500 and 3000 feet re-
spectively. One was 140 feet long.

W. H. F. Staples, of Errol, hauled in a spruce log 64 feet long, measuring 1130
feet. Mr. Marden cut a pine on the College grant, measuring 54 inches in diameter on
the stump. The butt log, 28 feet long, scaled 5000 feet.

Mayland & Woodman cut a pine on the Atkinson Academy grant, which scaled
12,000 feet. It was 7 feet 4 inches in diameter on the stump, and 3 feet i inch in
diameter 90 feet from the butt.

Charles Gray cut on the Parker lot, North Charlestown, a pine whose stump meas-
ured 5 feet in diameter. The logs amounted to 115 feet in length. It was 2^ feet in
diameter 44 feet from the ground. There were four of about the same size.

There are five enormous elms in front of the residence of Jos. B. Walker, Concord, —
transplanted to their present positions no years since, — measuring, at the height of 3
feet from the ground, in 1871, from 9 feet 4 inches to 16 feet 10 inches in circumfer-
ence. In fifteen years the largest one increased 10 inches in girth. Two others,
during the same time, increased from 16 to 19 inches.

In Dr. Bouton's History of Concord, it is stated that Lieut. John Walker cut a pine
in Northfield measuring 38 inches in diameter 60 feet from the butt.

REMARKS UPON THE DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS. $81

THE DESTRUCTION AND RENOVATION OF THE FORESTS.

BY J. H. HUNTINGTON.

At the time of the advent of the white men, the whole state, except
perhaps some small areas on the rich alluviums where the Indians raised
their corn, was covered with a dense forest from the sea-shore almost to
the summits of the highest mountains. Along the streams especially
the pines assumed gigantic proportions; but now those suitable for
masts are found only in the deep ravines far up among the recesses of
the mountains. In general, the deciduous trees were found on the fertile
uplands, while the swamps, the ravines, and less fertile uplands were
occupied by coniferous trees, — the spruce, the fir, the cedar, and the
larch. Where there was nothing except boulders, a thin bed of vege-
table mould formed from the decay of moss supported only a growth
of fir.

The destruction of the forests by the axe and by fire is becoming a
matter of serious consideration. In clearing land for cultivation, the
trees when cut down are almost invariably burned, and, that this may be
effected as completely as possible, the driest weather is frequently se-
lected, although the fire is much more likely to spread into the surround-
ing woods. It is a common notion, with those that clear land, that if
they get a "deep burn" they will secure better crops. It is very true that
better crops may be obtained for one or two years, but after that, if all
the vegetable matter was burned, the land will be almost worthless un-
less the vegetable matter is restored. Much of the sterility of our soil
is undoubtedly due to this cause. In our forests large quantities of dry
branches and tops of trees are left by lumbermen, and these, when dry,
are exceedingly imflammable. Although the primitive forests, except
near the summits of the mountains, are rarely subject to conflagrations,
yet, whenever an opening is made through which the sunlight is admitted,
the mossy soil, on which the propagation of fires largely depends, readily
takes fire. In fact, the fires are sometimes confined to this alone, and,
during a whole summer, the fire may not extend over more than an acre
of ground. In such cases it burns up entirely the vegetable mould from
which the forest trees spring. Here and there a tree falls ; but, in the

582 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

first gale of autumn, the trees on the whole burnt area are prostrated,
and generally in the greatest confusion, for every tree is torn up by the
roots, and seems just as likely to fall one way as another. There was an
instance of this kind of burning in the summer of 1871, about two miles
north of the Glen house, between the river and the road ; also, the same
season, on the mountain south of West Milan, and the fire was not put
out until after the snow came. On the summits of the mountains,
where there is nothing scarcely except lichens and sedges, if a fire is
kindled in these when they are dry, which is a thing quite uncommon, it
sweeps across the mountains with incredible rapidity; and the roaring of
the flames can be heard for miles, when they reach the stunted growth
of the spruce and the fir. On a mountain of moderate elevation in North
Stratford, it is said that the lightning set the woods on fire ; but such
cases must be extremely rare. When the fire, instead of being confined

Fig. 68. — MX. HAYES.
Illustrating the aspect of mountains that have been burnt over.

to the ground, runs up the white birch, the bark of which is so inflam-
mable, it catches in the branches of the coniferous trees, and streams
far above their summits in columns and streamers of lurid flame; the
wind carries pieces of lighted wood across the widest streams ; and the

REMARKS UPON THE DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS. 583

progress of the flames continues sometimes until hundreds of square
acres are devastated.

When the fire has run through a forest, if it is a hard-wood growth,
there are often some trees that escape its ravages ; but the paper birch
very rarely survives a forest fire. Persons, travelling through our primi-
tive forests, frequently set the bark of the birch on fire to see it burn ;
and fire from these is communicated to other trees, and large areas of
forest are consumed. When the woods consist of dark growth or con-
iferous trees, the fire not only kills the trees, which are left to furnish
fuel for a second conflagration, but it is also communicated to the ground,
and a large part of the vegetable substance of the soil is consumed. The
trees fall with the first wind, and the fire of another year leaves not a
trace of vegetable matter on or in the soil. Mote mountain is a notable
instance of this, for here, over large areas, there is not a vestige of any
thing vegetable.

It would be interesting to trace the way in which the restoration of
our forests is effected, but we can only indicate some of the methods.
In our northern forests, if only those trees are removed that are useful
for lumber, and the land is not burned, the same description of wood is
immediately reproduced. In most of our primitive forests there are
very many young trees, from mere saplings to those almost ready for
the axe of the lumberman. These now having the sunlight, with those
produced from seed, soon take the place of those removed. In the
southern part of the state the stumps of the deciduous trees produce
shoots, and soon, over the whole area where the trees have been re-
moved, there is a vigorous growth from this source alone. In the
northern part of the state this mode of reproduction is exceedingly
rare. In most cases, if the entire growth, including the underbrush,
is removed, a different growth from that which occupied the soil will
succeed; — along the northern boundary we have an illustration of this.
Where the trees are burned, and only a part of the vegetable substance
of the soil is consumed, the first year there is a luxurious growth of
herbs. The Epilobium, known as the fire-weed, will probably be the
first to take possession of the soil; and we shall be likely see species of
the Trillium, the tubers of which, deep in the soil, have escaped the
fire. The bunch-berry, Cornus Canadensis, and wintergreen, Gaultheria

584 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

procumbens, will very soon find places. Of shrubs, the cherry will be
the first; but, in places where there is still some vegetable substance
left, these will soon be succeeded by a growth of poplar and white birch.
In more southern latitudes, the shrubs and trees that spring up in burnt
districts are entirely different

When the entire vegetable substance of the soil has been burned, the
process by which the woods are reproduced is long and complicated.
Lichens and mosses then first cover the ground, and, by slow degrees,
flowering plants appear. Among the first shrubs, especially on moun-
tains and on sandy plains, there will be some species of the blueberries.
On Percy peaks, where years ago everything except the rocks was con-
sumed by fire, the vegetation can now be seen to increase year by year
from the base upward. A few examples will show the contrast which
appears between the primeval forest and that which succeeds it. If we
ascend Mt. Washington by the railway, when we are above the limit of
the trees, if we look westward, we shall see that in the valley of the
Ammonoosuc there is a growth of deciduous trees that extends on
either side far up the side of the mountain ranges that border the val-
ley. Some forty years ago a destructive fire destroyed the primeval
forest of spruce and fir ; and now in all this tract the principal growth
is the paper birch. Besides this, however, there is the yellow birch, and
now and then a poplar; and, as a new growth, we find the original occu-
pants of the soil. In some parts of the town of Success, the only growth
now is poplar; and elsewhere there are places where there have been
so many successive fires, that blueberries, mosses, and lichens are the
only growth.

The bare ridges and mountains west of the Saco show that the veg-
etable matter in the soil even has been consumed, so that it must be
many years, even if there are no fires, before enough will accumulate,
from the decay of lichens and mosses, for any vegetation whatever to
grow, except the very lowest forms. On the line of the boundary be-
tween New Hampshire and Quebec province, where in 1845 *ne trees
were cut, making an opening in the forest four rods wide along the en-
tire northern boundary of the state, in general, where there was a hard-
wood growth, it was soon reproduced, but, in places particularly where
there was a growth of coniferous trees, the cherry at first predominated ;

REMARKS UPON THE DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS. 585

elsewhere the swamp or mountain maple formed such a thick growth as
to crowd out everything else for a time ; but now both these are being
replaced by the fir and the spruce.

It might seem a very small thing at first that the mountain tops should
be bared, the slight growth of vegetation and the peat being consumed
by fire ; but this peaty soil holds great quantities of moisture deposited
from the passing clouds, and of rain that often in summer is poured
down in such floods as to cause terrible havoc along the mountain
streams. It does not require much foresight to see that, if half of this
water is retained on the mountain summits instead of being poured at
once into the ravines, not only the freshets would be moderated, but
that the water retained would be evaporated from the place where it fell,
instead of being carried by the rivers into the sea ; and thus there would
be a more equal distribution of rain in the vicinity of the mountains, and
we should not see in the valleys the dry and parched vegetation which is
not only ruinous to the farming interests, but also destroys the natural
beauty of the scenery.

Fig. 69. — MT. MADISON, AS SEEN OVER ADAMS RAVINE.

VOL. I. 76

Fig. 70. — PEABODY RIVER AND MX. WASHINGTON.

CHAPTER XVIII.

SCENOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY.

i

IHE thousands of people who visit the White Mountains in the
summer are attracted ostensibly by the scenery. They climb Mt.
Washington that they may view the widest-spread landscape visible from
any summit in America east of the Rocky Mountains and north of Mt.
Mitchell. The interest attaching to the crystal cascades and the pictur-
esque Winnipiseogee is produced by a different element, though less
fascinating to most. From North Conway, multitudes watch the gor-
geous colors among the shifting clouds, when the sun is setting. There
are also other features that render the Alps of America attractive to the
summer resident

Considered more particularly, the following are the principal elements
which enter into landscapes : first, mountains, hills, valleys, and all con-
figurations of the surface; second, ledges; third, water, whether quiet or

SCENOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY. 587

in motion; fourth, forests and vegetation in all stages of being, whether
the trees clothed in verdure, or painted brilliantly as the leaf is about to
die, or the diversely colored vegetation of swamps and alpine regions;
fifth, the effect of the sky, whether clear, or variously decked with clouds ;
sixth, the position of the sun and moon, perhaps producing shadows or
showy prisms of color to brighten the scene. To consider all these ele-
ments would be inappropriate for this volume ; and I shall chiefly confine
myself to the first one mentioned, and point out several of the ways by
which the shapes of our mountains and hills have been modified by geo-
logical agencies. I have given a large number of views of landscapes in
the volume, and will describe such as are specially pertinent. At the
end of the chapter is appended a list of the sketches given in this report,
which illustrate the various phases of the subject. Descriptions of the
charms of sunset, cloud effects, light and shade, the myriad tints of veg-
etation, the varied colors of the hills, and the brilliant hues of autumn,
need not be looked for. Fortunately, those who desire to read such
sketches will find in Starr King's White Hills ample treasures of this
kind of word-painting.

The only other important work upon the scenery of the White Mountains was pre-
pared by William Oakes, of Ipswich, Mass., in 1848, with sixteen folio lithographs,
after drawings by Isaac Sprague. Only a few copies were published, and very few
persons have seen the book. Mr. Oakes was an eminent botanist, and enthusiasti-
cally interested in everything pertaining to the White Mountains. Except for the
accident which closed his career, he would have done much more for our scenery.
First, are four pages of text devoted to a general notice of the scenery ; and then
each plate has about a page of explanation inserted before it. Later writers have
drawn freely upon Oakes's material. There are heliotypes in this report correspond-
ing to nearly every one of these drawings of Mr. Sprague. They miss, however, the
unusually careful copying of the trees and plants in which Oakes was so well versed.
Many of our alpine plants were first discovered, and now bear the scientific names
imposed by him.

The following are the subjects of Oakes's volume :

Plate i. The White Mountains, from the Giant's grave, in front of the present
Fabyan house. Essentially this view appears in Fig. 25, and in the heliotype taken
from the Fabyan turnpike. The ravines on Mt. Pleasant and towards Washington are
delineated with great truthfulness.

Plate 2. Mt. Crawford, with the Mt. Crawford house, kept by Abel Crawford, in the
foreground. This is the same with our view having Dr. Bemis's new residence in the
foreground .

588 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Plate 3. Notch of the White Mountains, with the Willcy house, taken from the
famous slide. This is the same with our small heliotype of Mt. Willard.

Plate 4. Silver cascade. This accompanies the previous heliotype.

Plate 5. Gate of the Notch, with the Notch house. This is reproduced in our
view from the Crawford house, save that no vestige of the Notch house is now left. It
was situated at the base of the Elephant's Head.

Plate. 6. Lower falls of the Ammonoosuc. Preserved only as a" small relief-plate
illustration in the next volume.

Plate 7. Two enlarged views of the cliffs at the same locality. The building of a
saw-mill, the construction of a heavy railroad embankment alongside, and the removal
of the forests have taken away all the romance pertaining to these falls in Mr. Oakes's
day.

Plate 8. Franconia notch, taken from the west. We have a small heliotype of the
same cliffs from the south, which seems to us to reproduce the spirit of the mountains
better than this plate.

Plate 9. Profile mountain. Nothing equal to this appears in the report.

Plate 10. The Profile rock. Reproduced in Figs. 74 and 75.

Plate ii. The Basin. Reproduced in a heliotype.

Plate 12. The Flume. We have a view in the next volume of the great boulder
suspended over the Flume. This lithograph represents the whole of the gorge, also.

Plate 13. Nancy's bridge.

Plate 14. Mt. Crawford, from the Notch, and view in the opposite direction from
the top of Mt. Crawford. The reproduction of the first appears correctly in Fig. 26
and in a heliotype. But the artists have exaggerated the shape of the top of this
mountain, as will be seen by comparing Fig. 26 with our heliotype, which was taken
from almost the same spot.

Plate 15. White Mountains, from Bethlehem; Mt. Washington, from the summit
of Mt. Pleasant ; diagram of the whole range of the White Mountains. Only the
second of these is reproduced.

Plate 1 6. Mt. Washington, from over Tuckerman's ravine. This is essentially the
same with our view of Mt. Washington from the south-east, and reveals features in the
structure of the range not so apparent from any other quarter.

I may reasonably take the ground that every interesting feature of
New Hampshire scenery has been produced by geological agencies. In
proof of this proposition I would refer to the fact of the existence of
mountains, hills, and valleys. Not one of these ever came up out of the
depths without the aid of that force called elevation. Next, the present
shape of, every ledge or mound has been fashioned by some excavating
agent, — rill, river, glacier, ocean wave, or atmospheric decomposition.
Lakes exist because permitted by the rock-bound barrier, or looser earth,

SCENOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY. 589

liable to give way, and precipitate calamity upon the valleys beneath.
Rivers plunge down precipices, giving rise to cataracts and cascades.
Vegetation assumes character according to the degree of elevation.
Even the pure skies, the gathering of mists and clouds, depend upon
the presence of the elevated ridges. Hence I think the position well
established that geological agencies have produced all the charms of
landscape; and, were we so disposed, we should be amply justified in
describing minutely the special causes of change that have fashioned
every foot of surface. Those who would thoroughly understand the
features of our scenery are invited to peruse the various geological de-
tails of this report. They will be necessary, and more besides, if one
would describe our mountains with the pains which Ruskin takes to set
forth the causes that have moulded the Alps into their present form.
Many may imagine it to be of little consequence whether Mt. Washing-
ton be an anticlinal or synclinal axis, — whether it be composed of granite
or slates ; but the decision of these scientific questions is essential to the
proper delineation of its scenographical structure. The artist, who repre-
sents a mountain correctly upon canvas, has discovered the fundamental
type of its structure, whether he uses geological phrases or not, — other-
wise his painting will not be recognizable.

It is a well known fact that many surface configurations are due to a
peculiarity of rock formation. Conical hills suggest a volcanic origin;
and if on examination they prove to be composed of scoriae or lava, the
evidence is plain of igneous eruption. A prairie is not merely an ex-
panse of thick loam and deep soil; it is underlaid by horizontal layers
of rock, which give evenness to the surface as truly as to a table-land.
Chalk hills, not common in the eastern half of our continent, assume
rounded and graceful undulations in consequence of the easily-moulded
character of the mass. Similar shapes characterize limestone hills.
Ranges like that of Holyoke in Massachusetts and Connecticut, pre-
cipitous on one side and sloping on the other, assume this form in con-
sequence of the situation of the hard trap-rock of the mountain. It
dips easterly, so as to expose the tough edge of an inclined sheet high
up in the air, and this covering protects the underlying friable material
from denudation. The Table mountains of the Sierra Nevada slopes
are the remnants of horizontal igneous overflows which have never been

5QO PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

tilted up by elevating agencies like the Holyoke mountains. The fall-
ing of Niagara river over a precipice has worn out a narrow gorge seven
miles in length ; and the cataract is receding every year, and will con-
tinue to move backwards till Lake Erie is reached. Elsewhere the softer
rocks may determine the position of the eroding river.

I have mentioned these cases because they are familiar, — but take the
ground that every one of our hills and valleys has been moulded into
the particular shape for which its materials are fitted by the action of
the sculpturing agents.

It is also true that rock-sculpture is largely dependent upon geograph-
ical position. The Egyptian traveller finds the chisel-work of fifty
centuries ago as plain as that made a year since upon a New England
sandstone. A dry climate is adapted to preserve, while one charged
with moisture and cold rapidly disintegrates nearly every known sub-
stance. Hence the same rocks, which are interminably channelled on
the eastern slopes of the Andes, are jagged and precipitous on the rain-
less western sides of the same range in Peru. No agent has been more
effective than ice in subduing the rougher elements of scenery ; and for
this reason the sublime and awe-inspiring elements are largely wanting
in our landscapes. The relentless glaciers have removed the pinnacles,
smoothed the northern slopes, and toned down our valleys, allowing the
picturesque feature to become predominant, and having regard, also, to
the agricultural necessities of the land.

The understanding of the forces which have fashioned our topograph-
ical structure is complicated by the great length of time erosion has
been going on, and the diverse character of the agents. If our territory
constitutes some of the oldest dry land in the country, as is advocated in
a previous chapter, not only the rains and snows of historic time, and
the glaciers of the Drift period, but the rains, snows, and ocean waves of
all geological time have been at work upon our rocks, and accomplished
herculean tasks of excavating, grinding, and transporting. The result
has been naturally the obscuration of shapes which certain summits
would assume under normal circumstances. Furthermore, the precise
amount of action in each period is only partially known. Hence a com-
plete knowledge of the causes fashioning our landscapes is of difficult
attainment, and its full enunciation tedious. We must be excused, there-

SCENOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY. 59 1

fore, for stating the causes and methods of sculpture in general terms
only.

The special forms assumed by our mountains are mostly those peculiar
to the crystalline schists, subsequently modified by glacial action. The
most readily distinguishable are the following: First, conical mountains
having some resemblance to volcanic summits, but composed of the
earlier eruptive rocks, like granite, sienite, and protogene. Second, long
reaches of rounded ranges composed of schistose formations. To this
class most of our ridges belong. Third, isolated more or less conical
masses of the same class of rocks. Fourth, deep, narrow valleys of ero-
sion, akin to gorges and canons. Fifth, broad, sloping valleys. Sixth,
plains formed by transportation of drift. Seventh, terraced valleys.
Eighth, limestone hummocks. Every one of these typical forms has
been modified by the drift agency.

AGENTS OF EROSION.

The agents of erosion should be briefly mentioned. They are mainly
atmospheric disintegration, rain, rivers, glaciers, icebergs, ocean, land-
slides, and the great northern Drift. Each of these agents has left
behind its particular mark, by which the work performed may be easily
identified. Some of them have operated with greater intensity in the
by-gone periods of geological time than at present ; others are supposed
to have been more energetic in their action in the more recent epochs.

Atmospheric disintegration has been the most powerful of these
agents acting throughout all the periods, yet it is of comparatively little
consequence at the present day. I refer especially to the penetration of
the ledges by carbonic acid, introduced partly through rain-water, and
partly acting upon the surface by its envelopment of the ledges. Before
the Carboniferous period, when a large share of the work of disintegra-
tion in New Hampshire had been accomplished, the atmosphere con-
tained a much larger proportion of this reagent than it does now, and,
of course, its action upon the surface must have been more manifest. I
refer to the decomposition of feldspathic rocks more particularly, — a
reaction that has been alluded to previously (p. 550), — resulting in beds
of white kaoline clays and gravelly heaps for the residua, while the sal-
eratus flows off in the streams. Consequently this decomposition is

592 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

remarkably clean. The clay is of a variety used for the manufacture of
porcelain ware ; and the sandy residuum in some cases is pure enough
to be mistaken for loaf-sugar, as in Acworth. Furthermore, everything
about the mountains of this character must be clean. The waters will
be clear and sparkling ; the earth will hardly soil the hands by handling
it; the ledges, when uncovered, will appear blanched; the sand and
gravelly bottoms of rivers and ponds will not be slimy and treacherous.

When the attempt is made to measure the amount of this species of
denudation, the results are startling. Referring elsewhere for the details,
it is sufficient to state that the pre-glacial erosions of our territory, due
mainly to this cause, have removed from the present surface as much
rock as now exists above the level of the sea. The average height of
the land above the ocean in New Hampshire has been estimated at 140x3
feet (p. 296). Our proposition maintains that the amount which has
been removed from above the existing surface is equal to a blanket 1400
feet thick and 9392 square miles in extent.

The markings left behind by this kind of decomposition are less con-
spicuous than the others, and not so easily identified. Its tendency is
to crumble down bluffs, blunt sharp angles, and to act simultaneously
upon all sides. Should a stream of water be diverted upon certain
ledges undergoing atmospheric disintegration, excavation will go on
there more rapidly than elsewhere, since the recently separated grains
of rock will be washed away, and expose fresh surfaces to chemical ac-
tion. Such action would tend in time to produce pinnacles, such as
those made known to the public in the Garden of the Gods, Colorado,
and elsewhere among the Rocky Mountains, by means of photographs.
When these pinnacles stand upon high table-lands, they will bear rela-
tionship to the Needles or Aiguilles of the Alps, referred by Mr. Ruskin
to glacial action for their formation. In this case the ice has continued
the wearing action commenced by the rivulets.

The action of streams of water may next command attention. Here
the fact of geographical position must be taken into account. Two types
of valleys result from this cause. In the rainless districts of the south-
west part of our country, long ravines called canons are abundant.
Plateaus, hundreds of thousands of square miles in extent, are traversed
by narrow chasms cut down perpendicularly by rivers and their tribu-

SCENOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY. 593

taries. These narrow gorges may be continuous for hundreds of miles.
The surface of the country is dry, parched, mostly without vegetation,
both for the want of rain and the settling down of all the water flowing
through the country from the moist regions higher up to the bottoms of
the canons, hundreds and sometimes thousands of feet below the general
level. The edges of the ravines are sharp, as no tributary rills wash
away the projecting angles. This type of river erosion is represented
in the well-watered districts by short gorges, where rivers fall over prec-
ipices, and gradually eat their way up the channels. But the edges of
the gorges below the cataracts are being gradually rounded, and pass
insensibly into the other type of river-sculpture.

The other type is best expressed by the general term of valley. The
constant flowing of small streams down the banks of rivers removes the
angles of the square edges of the plateau, and there result gradual slopes
from the water's edge to the dividing ridge between different hydro-
graphic basins. The valleys are broad or narrow in proportion to the
amount of rain flowing down the banks, not forgetting that the original
direction may have been given to the water by the formation of synclinal
basins.

These two types of river action are very marked ; and the geologist,
by this feature, can at first glance determine whether a newly-visited
country is a dry or rainless one, and, to some extent, whether the rains
are abundant or limited.

On applying these criteria to New Hampshire, we find many examples
of interest. One immediately recalls the flumes at Dixville, Lincoln,
and Nancy's bridge, as similar to the canons. These, however, owe
their perpendicularity to the nature of the rocks. Along the river-beds
are easily decomposing dikes, which are quickly worn away by the water.
Then the granite bordering the dikes is permeated by joints parallel to
the stream. The action of water freezing in the seams has pushed out
the first layer of rock on each side, and thus the flumes are quite wide,
with vertical walls.

Limited gorges are quite numerous. They are to be explained either
by the presence of softer rocks in the beds of the streams, or by the fall-
ing of water over precipices. Many of them will be noticed hereafter.

There is a gradation from the narrow valleys, where water runs more
VOL. i. 77

594 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

swiftly to the broader and gently descending expanses. Cases of the
former kind are in Wilton, Lyndeborough, and Mont Vernon. The
Souhegan and its tributaries have cut channels two or three hundred
feet deep out of a plateau. The most of the farms are upon the high
ground. Every river valley in the state illustrates the type of river
erosion peculiar to the rainy districts, or the broader instances just re-
ferred to, and it is not needful to specify examples. I do not know
that the erosion has been more thorough in those districts said to re-
ceive the greatest annual fall of rain.

The action of glaciers like those in Switzerland has not been of great
importance in shaping our valleys, since so much more important results
have been produced by the "Drift." The local glaciers scoop out valleys ;
they leave behind moraines, either irregular mounds or small ridges
athwart the streams, since cut through. Frequently the sides of the
valleys have been left vertical, with ice-markings upon the walls. These
mural surfaces are never extensive.

Ocean action is peculiar. Rocks exposed to the waves usually present
a precipitous front, since the wearing away takes place only at the base
of the cliff. When the ledge or bank of earth has been undermined, the
top falls off, and thus a precipitous front is always exposed ocean-wards.
In studying the landscape back from the shore, these precipitous cliffs
may be seen where there has been a submergence in recent times, their
bases all occupying the same level. Ancient sea-beaches usually accom-
pany the former shore-line thus indicated.

The most important sculptor has been the ice of the Drift period.
Thousands of facts will describe minutely all the phenomena of this
sort hereafter; but the style of markings left by them may be readily
recognized everywhere. I have for good reasons made a broad distinc-
tion between the Drift and local glaciers, the latter having exerted very
feeble influences as compared with the former. Every mountain and
rocky hill in the state, except the upper five-hundred feet of the Mt.
Washington cone, show the markings of this mighty rock-breaker; and
therefore its influence has been more potent in giving the present shapes
to our scenery than that of all the other agents combined.

The distinguishing mark of ice-action in the Drift period is the round-
ing and smoothing of the ledges. Invariably our rocks have been rounded

SCENOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY. 595

by a force proceeding southerly. Whether you examine the bosses of
rock in the Connecticut valley, the Mt. Washington ridge, or the islands
of Winnipiseogee, every one that has not been shattered by the frost of
more modern winters shows a distinct smoothing and rounding upon the
north side, while upon the south the original roughness is preserved. The
terms stoss, or struck, and lee have been applied to these two varieties
of appearance. Their origin is obvious. The immense ice sheet in
pushing southerly strikes every ledge with prodigious energy; and the
flinty fragments frozen into the congealed mass will break off all rock
projections in the way, and smooth over that which is too solid to be
broken. And this force will be exerted entirely upon the sides that re-
ceive the blows, — consequently the lee surfaces will be rough and jagged.
This action shows why we have no pinnacles of rock, such as abound in
the Alps. The Swiss glaciers have plowed around these pinnacles, and
left them standing ; but the American continental Drift was of such vast
proportions that the needles disappeared as though they were pebbles in
the path of the ordinary river of ice. This statement is intended to
apply only to North America east of the Missouri and north of the Ohio
rivers.

For examples of this action on a small scale, let every New Hampshire
reader search out the nearest freshly uncovered ledge to his residence,
and the markings will show themselves to his view, for they are every-
where. Then observe the shapes of mountains. Look at the profile of
Mt. Kearsarge, as seen from the east or west sides. There is a grand,
smooth, unbroken slope from the valley of the Blackwater to the very
summit, including a small foot-hill; while upon the south you observe
irregular hills, the "Mission ridge," "Plumbago point," and other irregu-
larities, where the ice passed over lightly without scraping off everything
down to the base. Monadnock shows the rounding very prominently
upon the northern slopes, but near inspection is requisite to reveal the
jaggedness on the south. Figs. 63 and 64, on pages 540 and 541, show
the stoss and lee sides, though the smallness of the scale of illustration
impairs the clearness of representation. The backs of Mts. Jefferson
and Adams have been smoothed over, their ledges, when stripped of
moss and trees, revealing the striations and polishing, while in the pict-
ure only a general rounding is apparent. In the other sketch, the

596 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

precipitous southern slopes of the same mountains illustrate their primi-
tive character. Another sketch, showing the abruptness of the lee sides
of mountains, appears on page 12. Fig. 22, of Mt. Carter from Gorham,
may also illustrate the long slope on the north smoothed by the ice-
graver, while the south side is precipitous. The mass simply fell over
it, without making any impression.

The nearest approach to a pinnacle in New Hampshire is Mt. Cho-
corua, shown in Figs. 31 and 61. But the back side of this sharp
summit is marked quite abundantly by the peculiar striations left by
the Drift. Hence, though one needs to stand on the summit to per-
ceive the difference between the stoss and lee sides, it is evident a long
spire was broken off when the ice went over Mt. Chocorua.

A still more common ice-mark than the sculpturing of the ledges is
seen in the formation of the piles of rubbish transported from their
original locations in the solid ledges, and strewn broadcast over the hills
and plains. The local glaciers often transport blocks of stone upon their
backs; and in like manner our Drift has carried boulders scores and
hundreds of miles. But there is reason to believe that the principal
portion of the earth-mass known as Jiardpan, and the majority of the
accumulations seen in our walks, have been pushed along under the ice.
Consequently the arrangement of the rubbish is less orderly than in the
moraines of the smaller glaciers. The earth and stones have been
dumped over precipices, filled up holes, levelled over irregular surfaces
into plains, etc. This action has been very beneficial in preparing the
country to support forests and most agricultural products. But besides
the deposition of the hardpan, the materials have also been left in innu-
merable localities in the form of conical and ridged hills, straight, tortu-
ous, and irregular. Large boulders abound in many districts, often so
numerously as to render the smoothing of extensive fields by their re-
moval practically impossible. From a scenographic point of view, these
boulders are often attractive, as, for examples, the boulders in Bartlett
and Conway, shown by heliotypes in the next volume, Vessel rock in
Gilsum, Ordination rock in Tamworth, and others. A good example of
a number of blocks is the stereograph entitled "New Hampshire Cow-
Pasture," in Stratford.

The surfaces smoothed by ice are readily distinguished from those

SCENOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY. 597

polished by water-action. The former usually exhibit striations parallel
with one another, and which also show the direction taken by the cur-
rent. The ledge covered by them may feel rough to the hand, but to
the eye appears rounded in a general way. The latter are smooth to the
touch, unless the rock is very coarse in texture; but there is not the
general rounding of the mass, as seen in the other type of sculpture.
The surface may be covered by a multitude of minor irregularities.
This type of smoothness is best seen on boulders and ledges along the
beds of mountain torrents.

The action of frost greatly assists in the work of disintegrating ledges.
In the colder months water penetrates the crevices of ledges, and then
freezes. As water expands in freezing, the effect is seen in the breaking
off of larger or smaller fragments of rock from the ledge. Certain situ-
ations are especially favorable for this type of action. One is upon the
summits of the higher mountains. The finest known example is upon
the summit of Mt. Washington, and, to illustrate it, a heliotype has been
taken. By referring to it, the reader will observe large, angular masses
of rock scattered about promiscuously, just as they fell off from still
larger masses. Some of these are permeated by cracks, which will by
and by enlarge, and again fracture the rock in the same way that has
been described. The process of freezing and crumbling will go on so
long as the particles are capable of division. The seams are originally
the jointed structure of the ledges, and ultimately the natural cleavage
planes of the constituent minerals. The visitor may search in vain over
Mt. Washington for any evidence of transported rock, save what may
have been brought by human agency ; and a few minutes' walk over the
fragments will prove what a difference there is in the distribution of
blocks of stone, by the action of frost and gravity combined, as compared
with the arrangement of water-worn stones in a river, or the scattered
boulders of drift origin. The house in the view is known as the Tip-top,
built of fragments similar to those by which it is surrounded. The view
was taken before so much of the summit had been covered by edifices
as is now apparent to the visitor.

Fig. 10 will give a general idea of these blocks of stone, when viewed
from some distance below the summit. Though taken in the winter,
when the interspaces were filled with snow and ice, the effect is the

598

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

same to the eye as in the heliotype. On walking over the mountain, one
can observe every stage of the process of decomposition. At first there
may be a ledge, with pieces slightly removed from it. Next, one will be
troubled to decide whether a series of fragments occupies the original
space of the ledge, so that the position of the strata can be accurately
determined, or whether the blocks have been removed out of place. In
other piles there will be no question that every trace of the original
stratigraphical structure has vanished. From these heaps there is an
unbroken series to the piles of angular gravel and sand, which have
resulted from continued decomposition. The extreme is where the sand

Fig. 71. — VIEW ACROSS THE RAVINE SOUTH OF MT. ADAMS.

Mt. Washington rises back of the debris.

has allowed vegetation to grow, and to accumulate a mould fitted for the
development of the few hardy flowers and miniature trees of the alpine
district.

The more common case of disintegration through frost may be seen
along the sides and at the bases of precipices. Several of our figures

SCENOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY. 599

illustrate the process. Consult figures on pp. 12 and 28, and Figs. 31,
36, 63, 71, 72, 79, and 82 to 86.

An intermediate step in the process is illustrated in Fig. 71, the type
of a very common state of things among our high mountains. The
loose blocks accumulate so abundantly that most of the precipice has
disappeared, and the fragments assume their natural angle of thirty-five
degrees with the horizon, so as to render walking up the slope a matter
of considerable difficulty. The one who goes first disturbs the equilib-
rium of some loose block, and it rolls down the hill, greatly to the dis-
comfort of those who follow. These fragments are slaty. When granitic
in character, and the disintegration has proceeded further, slides often
result. After the rapid, thorough saturation of the gravelly mass with
water, it becomes semi-fluid in its properties, and great portions of it
slide to the bottom of the valley, often devastating fertile fields and
destroying lives in consequence of the suddenness of the slipping.
Another interesting view of the accumulation of fragments by frost
disintegration appears in the copy of Mr. Morse's drawing of Carrigain
notch.

SCULPTURING OF GRANITIC ROCKS.

The first of the rocks, whose peculiar mineral composition gives rise to
characteristic scenic forms, are the Granitic. The simplest case is that
of a mountain like Chocorua (Figs. 31 and 61) or Pequawket (heliotype,
Vol. II). It is a conical mountain, with a sharp summit, and not trun-
cated like the volcano. Other examples are Mts. Monadnock, Ascutney,
and Black, near the Connecticut in Vermont. The more complicated
cases are where several conical peaks are grouped together. The two
Percy peaks in Stratford afford a very fine example, as shown in a helio-
type illustrating Chapter XIX. Others are the Stratford and Columbia
peaks, numerous eminences in Essex county, the Orange mountains
east of Montpelier, Vt., Profile, Tremont, and Haystack in the Saco val-
ley, Crawford, Resolution, Iron, and others north of the Saco, Tripyramid,
several others in Pemigewasset, Gunstock and Belknap, Red hill, Green
mountains in Effingham, Moose mountain near Wolfeborough, Iron-ore
hill near Haverhill, range of mountains in the west part of Benton, Mote
mountains in Albany, and others.

6oo

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

The origin of the conical form may be due to three causes: — First, to
the original shape of the materials. Our granite mountains have been
erupted from below, and, when the entire mass is limited in amount, it
would naturally be conical, the pasty substance tending to flow centrif-
ugally from the vent. Secondly, the tendency of denudation is to wear
away the summits of mountains. The forces act powerfully upon the
exposed ledges at the tops, and the fragments will seek the bases of the
hills, thus tending to the cone in form. Thirdly, the more energetic
action of denudation in granite mountains is caused by a sort of con-
centric structure in cliffs. A good example occurs in Benton, near the
summit of the Boston, Concord & Montreal Railroad, as one looks north-
erly upon the steep side of Owl's Head. Another may be seen in the

Fig. 72. — WELCH MOUNTAIN, FROM CAMPTON.

heliotype of Eagle cliff in Volume II, where the vertical wall of Profile
mountain, on the left-hand side, shows the concentric, nearly vertical,
slabs of granite peeling off and falling to the base of the cliff. The
steep sides of Carrigain notch (see sketch) have been produced in the
same way. The right-hand slope in Fig. 9 shows the base of a cliff
opposite the Willey house, where similar action has taken place. A
heliotype shows the same thing upon both sides of the Notch, in the

SCENOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY. 6OI

view down the valley from Mt. Willard. Fig. 72 also illustrates this ten-
dency to split, less perfectly than some others ; but the steep sides show
where great masses of granite have been excavated, and the fragments
washed down the tributaries of the Pemigewasset. The contrast in the
kind of rock may be seen by the presence or the scantiness of vege-
tation, as well as by the position of the granitic piles in the background.
The bare rocks exhibit many harmonies of color, offsetting the grays
with neutral hues of blue and white, which, at sunrise and sunset, are
intensified.

This tendency to split does not extend very deeply into the rock. It
seems to be induced largely by the action of the weather, and has been
observed about the Quincy (Mass.) quarries by Shaler, and also by Hunt.
Perhaps a similar action is that made of practical service in removing
boulders from a field. The farmer builds a hot fire over the granite
blocks he wishes to remove. Then, by throwing water upon them while
heated, large flakes scale off, and thus rocks too large to be transported
bodily can be removed in a very little while. The flaking off always
conforms to the surface of the stone, very much like the clearing of the
larger masses from cliffs. I understand the arrangement of the Con-
cord and other
granites, in flat
sheets, as seen
in the quarries,
to be quite a dif-
ferent phenome-
non.

In Fig. 73 the J
granitic slopes
observable from
the Flume house,
upon the western
side of Mts. La-
fayette Lincoln, FiS- 73-— LAFAYETTE RANGE, FROM THE FLUME HOUSE.

and Liberty, are represented. The very apex of these mountains is
composed of compact feldspar, which disintegrates the same as granite,
and therefore has not varied the typical form of the decomposition.
VOL. i. 78

6O2 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

From the Flume house one can look squarely across to the depression
between Mts. Liberty and Flume and perceive the same granitic round-
ness, as well as in the Coolidge mountains farther south. The view in
the sketch is a very faint approach to the view of the Aiguilles of Mt.
Blanc from the vale of Chamouni, for the great extent of the base of
the Lafayette mountains conceals the proper proportions of the summits
from this point of view. If one climbs the small Mt. Pemigewasset,
back of the Flume house, he will see this range in all its grandeur.
There is a carriage-road to its summit from the hotel.

At this point it may be well to call attention to a peculiarity of certain
granitic mountains exhibited upon our heliotype of the White horse ledge
in Conway. It is traversed by lines streaming down from the summit
towards the water of Echo lake. Similar lines appear in photographs of
the South Dome of the Yosemite valley in California, and other similar
bluffs. At first I thought them due to a peculiar structure of the rock, —
perhaps vertical joints ; but a nearer inspection shows them to be the
result of rain-water flowing down the cliff, and renovating certain parts
of the vegetation, and in others changing the shade of color. This cliff
also shows a little tendency to cleave off concentrically. The nearness
of this cliff to North Conway, and the beautiful reflection of it in the
waters of Echo lake, render it a place very attractive, and much fre-
quented by visitors. The resemblance of the lighter markings, on the
right-hand side of the view, to the head and front part of the body of a
horse, is really too indefinite to render the name an appropriate one.
The ledge must be about 700 feet high. The one to the north is 960
feet above the Saco meadows.

Profiles. Among the accidental shapes, left by the granite on the
cliffs back of Profile lake in Franconia, is the outline of a human face
known as the Old Man of the Mountains (Fig. 45), and one of the most
attractive features in the landscape in this part of the country. Most of
the facial features are present, — the forehead, eyebrows, nose, mouth, and
chin, — and well proportioned to one another. (Fig. 74 is roughly copied
from the lithograph of Oakes, after a drawing by Sprague.) It has been
placed by nature in a very convenient place for exhibition, standing in
relief against the sky, and in picturesque harmony with its surroundings.
It can be seen to advantage only in one line, from the lake up Eagle cliff

SCENOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY.

603

in a northerly direction. If you go a short distance either to the right
or the left of this line, the shape of the face is distorted, and disappears.

Fig. 74. — THE PROFILE ROCK.

604

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

. The profile is made of
."& three jutting masses of
jS rock, in different verti-
3 cal lines. One piece
% makes the forehead,

CM

§ the second the nose

^

» and upper lip, and the
third the chin. The
rock is about 1 200 feet
above the lake, and 40
feet in length. Mr.
Oakes puts the length,
from the top of the

,T; forehead to the lowest

E point of the chin, at

£ twice this figure. Its

x length was measured

§ by the young men

g from Dartmouth col-
es
% lege, in our exploring

V party of 1871, and
£ found to be from 36
to 40 feet.

The rock is an or-
dinary granite, quite
friable from decompo-
sition. Judging from
the specimens, I should
say that portions of the
pieces composing the
profile are liable to fall
at any time. The dis-
integration has gone
on so far that the rock
crumbles under the
pressure of one's fin-

m

SCENOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY. 605

gers. The ledge is extensive, however, and may stand for scores of
years ; but I would advise any persons who are anxious to see the Profile
for themselves, to hasten to the spot, for fear of disappointment. I
should also question the presumption entertained by many that the Pro-
file was probably known to the aborigines, who are supposed to have
gazed upon it with superstitious awe. They have given us no legends
concerning it ; and its easily decomposing character would suggest that
it may not have existed in its present shape for many centuries back.
The first notice I can find of it is contained in a description and figure,
by Gen. Martin Field, published in 1828 in the American Journal of
Science, I vol. xiv, p. 64.* It was discovered not long previously in laying
out the road through the Notch. The proper place to see the Profile is
on the carriage-road, about a quarter of a mile east of the Profile house,
and close by the lake. The figure varies from different points of view.
Seen from the road, the expression is somewhat severe and melancholy.
Views taken from nearer the object, up the pile of fragments, show him
to be much better natured. Oakes remarks that the "face of the 'Old
Man of the Mountains' is set, and his countenance fixed and firm. He
neither blinks at the near flashes of lightning beneath his nose, nor
flinches from the driving snow and sleet of the Franconia winter, which
makes the very mercury of the thermometer shrink into the bulb and
congeal."

In passing to the left, the chin sharpens ; then the teeth, as it were,
have fallen out, and there is a cap over the forehead. In continuing to
the left, the lower part of the face begins to fall away, and is entirely out
of sight, while the cap and nose remain essentially entire. The nose
and face become flattened in passing to the right, and soon only the
forehead remains. The original of the vignette was copied from a pho-
tograph.

This face has been celebrated in Hawthorne's tale of "The Great
Stone Face," and in "Christus Judex."

Upon Mt. Jefferson there is another arrangement of rocks bearing
some resemblance to a human countenance, with a cap on the head. It
is known as the " Sentinel," and is rarely visited. It is formed by schis-

* This figure is such a curious exaggeration of the rocks, that I have procured */ac-*imil*. The reader will
please to compare it with the vignette on the title-page.

606 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

tose rocks. In the gate of the Notch, near the Crawford house, several
inferior profiles have been pointed out, as the "Old maid," "Young man,"

Fig. 76. — THE SENTINEL.

"The baby," etc., but the resemblances are not striking. Perhaps the
best rocky face in the state, next to the Profile, is the "Old Man of Dix-
ville."

FEATURES OF LONG RANGES OF SCHIST.

The more common variety of our scenery is based upon modifications
of long reaches of micaceous schists. The scenery is less pronounced
than that characteristic of a granitic foundation, since the rock decom-
poses with difficulty. The shapes of the mountains of this rock depend
chiefly upon their original position, as determined by elevation. Where
the forces have acted normally, there results a long range with rounded
surface, like a mid-ocean wave of corresponding length. In the case
of dislocations, the mountains will stop short at the line of fracture.
When more than one series of elevations has affected the mass, the
composite character of the resulting eminences may be observed.

Such features of elevation and disturbance as have been noticed about
the Mt. Washington range are of considerable consequence, since the
district is better known than most others, and presents the grandest
elements in our scenery.

There are two ways of looking at this range, — from the side, or from
the ends, somewhat tangentially. Of the former, the views from Beth-
lehem, Littleton, Whitefield, and the vicinity of the Fabyan house are

SCENOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY. 6O7

the best from the west, unless you choose to climb various peaks and
mountains. The near easterly view from the Glen house on the east is
quite imposing. As the country is entirely unsettled on the east, in the
immediate neighborhood of the mountains, it is not so easy to get a
satisfactory view from this quarter ; but one nearly as good may be
obtained from the hills back of Jackson, of which I had hoped to present
a heliotype for the frontispiece, but have been unsuccessful, because of
the difficulty of obtaining a clear negative at such a great distance.
From this point Washington is seen to stand much higher than his
brother peaks, and the deep ravines on his south-eastern side are clearly
defined.

Our heliotype from near the Fabyan house, about a mile and a half
east, gives us a good view of the mountains, as a range, from Jefferson
to Clinton. Washington is notably the highest of the peaks, showing a
slight depression in the middle of what is properly the summit. The
west side is cut by two rough valleys. On its north-east ridge may be
seen the winding course of the railway. On the left, Mt. Clay seems
quite insignificant. Of the peaks on the right of Washington, — Monroe,
Franklin, and Pleasant, — the latter is the most conspicuous, because higher
than those immediately adjacent, and the curious hollowing out of the
front side by streams. Fig. 25 presents a part of this heliotype, as
sketched by hand. The artist plainly exaggerates the relative heights
of the several summits and ravines, as may be seen by carefully compar-
ing the sketch with the photograph ; but it is almost impossible to avoid
exaggerating any magnificent view with the pencil. The mind compels
the hand to reproduce the effect received by an inspection of the scene,
and it cannot be done well in any other way.

In Fig. 77 we have a view of the Mt. Washington range from Milan,
a direction slightly east of north. The central peak, seemingly the
highest, and with an immense piece hollowed out, is Mt. Adams, with
a double summit. Beyond, to the right, is Mt. Jefferson. The most
prominent peak on the left is Mt. Madison. Back of the deep cleft,
called King's ravine, between Adams and Madison, faintly rises Wash-
ington. In the foreground the Androscoggin valley shows itself, first
running towards Madison, then turning south-westerly towards Adams,
before curving around the farthest of the smaller hills to flow out of the

6o8

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

scene to Gorham. The hamlet directly in front is Milan. This was one
of the favorite points of view with Starr King, who regretted that so
few persons among the great travelling public ever attain to it. It is
of easy access, either by a carriage-drive of a dozen miles from Gorham,

or a walk of a mile or two from the Milan station on the Grand Trunk
Railway. There is a country inn at Milan, where travellers are always
welcome.

These views give the idea of a long range with minor undulations.

SCENOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY. 609

The suggestion has been made of the existence of a fault in ancient
times, which lifted this range abruptly above the Saco valley, on the
side of Mt. Webster. The change from the Androscoggin valley is
less abrupt to Madison, there being a gradual descent through the inter-
vening Pine hill, not shown in the last figure. The action of the Andros-
coggin river has deepened the gap naturally existing between Pine hill
and Mt. Hayes ; but we have here no evidence of an upthrow or down-
throw on either side.

There have been not less than three attempts of the forces of nature
to throw up this range. The first evidently produced a wave-like ridge,
much like its present form, but not so elevated. One of the others acted
in the same direction, and therefore cannot be distinguished from the
first in its effects. But the third force pushed from a direction at right
angles nearly to the others. Its effects can be conceived by imagining
an ocean wave to become fixed, while it is allowed to have a plastic con-
stitution. Supposing, now, that some force pushes this plastic material
in the direction of its length, it is clear that there will be a ridging up
which will tend to elevate disproportionately certain parts of the wave.
Such action has taken place in this range, as its indications are manifest
in the contortions of the strata, and its effects must have been perma-
nently impressed upon the figure of the mountain.

I am disposed to think that Washington, Jefferson, Adams, and Madi-
son owe their conical shapes to the crushing action of the last mentioned
of the three forces of elevation. If you examine carefully the positions
of the strata upon these summits, you will perceive great irregularity and
constant variation, just as if the plastic material had been crowded into
heaps. But all the notches have been intensified by erosion, as well as
the valley of the west branch of the Peabody river, shown conspicuously
in Figs. 63 and 70, and less so in Figs. 79 and 85.

Another marked feature of the higher regions is its plateau character.
It is best seen in the heliotype view of Mt. Washington from the south-
east. On descending to the Lake of the Clouds, the explorer will find a
very flat region, running out easterly into Boott's Spur, and northerly
along the east side of Washington. The Great Gulf, between Washing-
ton and the three contiguous peaks of Jefferson, Adams, and Madison, is
only a gorge cut out of the plateau, as we can easily imagine on looking
VOL. i. 79

6io

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

northerly from the Tip-top house, or at Figs. 79 and 85. But the view
from the south-east shows the plateau best, and if it had been taken from
a point a little farther east, the feature would show itself more promi-
nently, as in the last of Oakes's lithographs. The abyss in front is
Tuckerman's ravine, with tributary scallopings on the north-west sides.
The erosion has been vertical, just as in a gorge worn out of a level
plain. It is impossible to descend with safety down the sides of this
ravine in most places. And the accessible portions have been rendered
less precipitous by the accumulation of loose material, through slides and
atmospheric disintegration. Oakes's gulf and Huntington's ravine are
other deep gorges excavated out of this plateau. This table-land is less
than ten miles in length, and somewhat over 5000 feet in elevation.

We think, therefore, the proper structure of the Washington group of
summits is best expressed by the supposition of a plateau, out of which

Fig. 78. — MTS. ADAMS AND MADISON.

From near Randolph hill.

four great ravines have been excavated, and upon which lateral forces
have piled up comparatively inferior heaps of contorted rock, constitut-
ing the presidential summits. With these suggestions in mind, the
tourist will easily see the reasons for the special fashioning of every
elevation and depression in the Montalban area.

The modifications induced by stratigraphical structure are perhaps

SCENOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY. 6 1 I

les? important than what have been described. The shape of the range
is like that assumed by hills with a monoclinal dip, while the structure is
that of an inverted anticlinal axis. There would also seem to be a syn-
clinal basin on the east, separating the range from the Carter mountains
in Bean's Purchase. The structure of the latter line of elevations is not
well understood. It is often the case on Washington that the inversion
does not appear at the bottoms of the great ravines. In the Peabody
River (west branch) gulf the dip is easterly, while high up on the moun-
tain's flank the reversed north-westerly inclination is apparent.

The great water-shed of the state, south of Franconia, is maintained
in its present position, for stratigraphical reasons. The axis of the ridge
is a very hard, unyielding granite, which has sternly resisted all efforts at
thorough disintegration from the earliest times. It is an interesting fact
that this range should be essentially parallel to the anticlinal ridge of the
Green Mountains, both being of nearly the same age.

A few other interesting views of the great range of mountains may be
noticed here. On page 3 Mt. Madison is seen to loom up majestically,
as it is viewed from Shelburne. Fig. 60 is a similar sketch, from the

Fig. 79. — WASHINGTON, CLAY, AND JEFFERSON, FROM ADAMS.

Lead Mine bridge, one of the favorite localities to be reached from Gor-
ham. Fig. 67 seems to be from a point intermediate between the others.
In all of these, Washington appears quite inferior by the side of the
more conspicuous eminence.

The views from the north of the same mountains give a greater

6l2

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

breadth of base than those from Shelburne, as in Figs. 78 and 44. The
first represents the view of Mts. Madison and Adams from Randolph
hill, about five miles from Gorham in the Moose River valley. In this
neighborhood one can study to advantage various features about the
bases of the mountains, that help make up a perfect sketch, — the ragged
edges of ravines, outlines of the rocky abutments, and the valleys made
by the streams and clefts in the ledges. These forms are such as are
peculiar to schists. In Fig. 44 the base seems broader; and now Mt.
Washington has made its appearance in a small cone between and back

Fig. 80. — WASHINGTON RANGE, FROM CARROLL.

of the others. The summits lie in a semi-circular line, with reference to
each other.

Midway between Bethlehem and the Fabyan house is a view of the
Washington range in Carroll, that is much admired (Fig. 80). It is from
a point below the Twin Mountain house, though not far distant ; and one
has the advantage here of seeing the range behind a level foreground
consisting of the Ammonoosuc meadows. The range is of schist, while
the foreground rests upon granite. The view may be compared with
that in Fig. 25.

SCENOGRAPIIICAL GEOLOGY.

613

THE ROUTE OVER MADISON, ADAMS, AND JEFFERSON.

The rush of travel to Mt. Washington passes up either the railway or
the carriage-road from the Glen. Every one desires to see these thor-
oughfares, and the fine views attainable from them; and perhaps the
fundamental idea of the mountains should be first apprehended from
these directions. The great conveniences of these routes are causing
the charming drives in other directions to be forgotten. Those who
have the leisure should not fail to traverse the road from Gorham to
Jefferson, on the north side of the mountains, as they will then best
catch the spirit of
the hills, especially
if they should leave
all travelled routes
behind, and clamber
over the rocks to
the summits of the
rarely visited peaks.
Any lover of moun-
tain scenery must
yearn to stand upon
the top of Mt. Ad-
ams, as he gazes in
that direction from
the Tip-top house. I have a few sketches setting forth certain peculiar-
ities of schist structure, which will also illustrate a way of reaching
Mt. Washington over Mt. Adams from Randolph, and may be described
appropriately here. Formerly there was a path up Israel's river, passing
over Mt. Jefferson, known as the Lancaster path, but it is now as little
frequented as the Davis bridle-path to the summit over Mt. Crawford.
They are both so overgrown as to be hardly distinguished from the
surroundings. The Lancaster path, however, is only partially the same
with the one under consideration.

In Fig. 8 1 is a near view of an immense cleft on the north side of Mt.
Adams, noticeable also in Fig. 77. This seems almost inaccessible from
below. In ascending to it there is no unusual difficulty, more than the

Fig. 81. — KING'S RAVINE IN MT. ADAMS.

From Randolph hill.

614

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

customary labor of threading the forests in any direction among the
mountains. Adjoining the streams there are always obstacles like fallen
trees and a thick growth of alders ; and, in climbing the steeper ascents,
a thick growth of moss conceals many deep chasms between blocks of
stone; — but attention will prevent any serious calamity. It is no easy
task to pass over the side of the great cleft which looks so smooth.
That beautiful green short growth, which so pleasantly arrests the eye
upon the range, as everywhere else, is a nearly impenetrable thicket of
stubbed spruces and crooked poplars. Fortunate is the person who can
^^^__ „ . _. ^^^^ emerge from it with

whole garments. In
the sketch, tiny
streams are seen to
flow down the upper
part. At the very
head of this cleft is
a wall that bars all
further progress in
that direction, as ex-
hibited in Fig. 82.
This view is seem-
ingly about midway
in the gorge, above
the tall trees. To-
wards Randolph
there is a uniform,
sharp slope to the
road. Above, the
walls tower perhaps
1500 feet immedi-

Fig. 82.-HEAD-WALL OF KING'S RAVINE. ^ ^^ ^ ^

of the mountain, which cannot be seen by the climber. The edges are
more jagged than the graceful curves about Tuckerman's ravine, and the
cleft possesses more elements of grandeur. As this ravine was first
described by Starr King, it seems proper to restore the name, which,
though placed upon the county map, seems to be generally forgotten. It

SCENOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY.

6I5

should be Kings ravine, and it is described in glowing terms by almost
its first explorer in the White Hills. It may have been termed Adams
ravine in a few places in this volume.

The final pull through the ravine may be represented in Fig. 83. The
fragments coming down from Mt. Adams are on the right, and a few

jagged ledges on the
left. Between, there
is a grassy growth
of a few feet, pre-
senting in the view
a resemblance to an
artificial road. Our
route has led us up
the east side of the
ravine to the notch
between Madison
and Adams. Fig. 84 may illustrate a
portion of it near the gateway. The
rocks on the right overhang the trav-
eller with a threatening aspect, while
the slope on the left is more inviting,
with a scanty growth of grass. The
fragments are coated over with gray
lichens, save along a few lines where
rolling stones have plowed a furrow.

Between Adams and Madison there
is a deep valley containing a small

Fig. 83. — GATEWAY OF KING'S RAVINE.

pond of water. On rising up to the

side of Adams from the gateway, one is surprised to see so sharp a cone
as is presented by Mt. Madison. (See Fig. 69.) With a cloud below,
and the mountain standing out by itself, the effect is that of an enor-
mously high, sharp mountain from this point of view. An easier way
of reaching Madison is to ascend either from Martin's Location (H. D.
Copp's), or from the summit of the northern Pinkham Notch road. The
crest of the slope, if followed strictly, will bring one by the shortest road
to the summit, from the last mentioned starting-point, though the spruce

6l6 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

growth is fearful to traverse. Ledges are common at the summit, with
obscure glacial markings. The strata are immensely contorted here, as
well as on the ridge running towards the Half-way house on the Glen
carriage-road, and, in fact, everywhere over these highest peaks.

On coming back to the Notch above Fig. 83 (for we have made a
detour to Madison), a portion of Adams stands up very lawlessly upon

Fig. 84. — CLIFFS IN KING'S RAVINE.

its west side, and exerts a strange fascination over the tourist. The
rock is bleak and bare, as is nearly every portion of these summits,
but gives the impression of softness. This feeling may be due to the
curvatures in the strata. Ruskin, in his Modern Painters, maintains
that one secret of Alpine grandeur consists in the existence in the nee-
dles of infinite curves, or those that never can return into themselves,
like the parabola. The principle may be applicable here, as it certainly
is in many other parts of the range.

Mt. Adams does not, like Madison, present ledges upon its summit.
Frost has broken down the rocks, and fragments are strewn universally
over the cone. You can find one comparatively small block, standing
above every other one, at the very apex. Hence it is impossible to say
whether the great, rounding ice-agency has pushed over the summit of

SCENOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY. 617

Adams. It is at the same level with the highest supposed foreign peb-
bles on Washington, and therefore may have never been covered by
moving ice.

Adams has a double summit, as appears in Fig. 81. We may, for con-
venience, call the lesser one, which is farther to the south, Mt Quincy
Adams. It rises out of a very level space, perhaps a part of our plateau
described above. The view from Adams is very much the same as from
Washington, save that we see the highest of the White Mountains, which
cuts off the south-western view, as would appear from Fig. 71. The
country to the north is also more exactly defined. In a visit to Adams,
made about the first of May, at the time of our occupation of the sum-
mit of Mt. Washington for meteorological purposes, I found the path
more comfortable than in summer, because snow filled up many of the
lacunae between the rough blocks. On a subsequent occasion, tourists
visiting Adams could plainly hear shouting upon Mt. Washington, a dis-
tance of four miles in an air line.

The rest of the route to Washington is less exciting than up King's
ravine, but oftentimes adventurous and everywhere delightful views are
afforded. Upon Mt. Jefferson is the curious castellated ridge, shown on
page 28, and also the Sentinel (Fig. 76). The lowest part of the notch
between Adams and Jefferson has a very narrow summit, the ground
sloping steeply on both sides from a mere line. The uniform gray tint
of the rocks on the north flank of Jefferson is relieved by many pure
white blocks of quartz. The hummocks of Mt. Clay show more reg-
ularity of stratification than any of the other peaks, while the slope
towards the gulf is precipitous and impassable.

THE ASCENT OF MT. WASHINGTON.

The three thoroughfares ascending Mt. Washington, most commonly
used by tourists, are the Crawford bridle-path, the carriage-road from
the Glen, and the railroad from Ammonoosuc station. The latter will
very soon connect with the Boston, Concord & Montreal Railroad, so
that one can ride from Boston to the summit, with only one change of
cars, in ten hours' time. The Davis bridle-path from the Mt. Crawford
house, the foot-path to Mt. Pleasant from the Giant's grave, the Lan-
caster way, and the older roads from the Glen and Fabyan's, are now
VOL. i. 80

6l8 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

obsolete. I have marked some of them upon the general map, for their
historic interest.

Ascent from the Notch. It is rumored that the Crawford path is soon
to be made into a carriage-road, so that one can pass directly from
the Glen to the Notch, over the summit, with the same team. Such
an improvement would greatly enlarge the ability of tourists to explore
the mountains. The present bridle-path starts from the Crawford house,
passes up a valley on the north-west side of Mt. Clinton to its summit,
thence over Mts. Pleasant and Franklin, on the east side of Monroe, past
the Lake of the Clouds, and up the cone of Washington.

This path has some advantages. After travelling a couple of miles in
a forest, one comes out upon an open ridge, and can enjoy magnificent
views the rest of the way, especially of the side ravines and of Mt. Wash-
ington. The absence of much vegetation makes the tops of these moun-
tains a natural pathway. Cloud effects are better on this route; and,
should the highest summits be obscured, one feels repaid for the journey
by the glimpses obtained on the lower peaks. Mt. Pleasant is known by
its rounded summit, and greater elevation than the peaks on either side.
When reached by this path, the surface appears like a smooth field, slop-
ing gently from the centre outwards in all directions. The view north-
easterly is a notable one. First is the long, bare top of Franklin, with
the serpentine thread worn by the horses' feet running its whole length.
Next, the double, ragged peaks of Monroe present a wide contrast. The
natural slope of the strata north-westerly can be detected through all the
rubbish covering them. On the right is another view of the great ele-
vated plateau, — that part known as Bigelow's lawn, — overlooking Oakes's
gulf. Washington towers far above everything else, and displays to
advantage the excavations upon the west side, with the ridge on which
the railway ascends to the summit.

One of the heliotypes represents the larger of the Lakes of the
Clouds, partially filled with ice (Vol. II). These are two small tarns
5000 feet above the sea, the sources of the Ammonoosuc, and in the
saddle between Monroe and Washington. Alpine vegetation borders
them, and they have been chiselled out of the solid rock by the drift.
The ice-markings are plain in their neighborhood to the height of
5200 feet.

SCENOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY. 619

The Railway. The lower station of the Mt. Washington Railway is
known as "Ammonoosuc," and consists of the necessary buildings for
the accommodation of the road. The station-house is on the west
branch of the swift Ammonoosuc stream, which has descended over
2000 feet since leaving the Lakes of the Clouds, about three miles dis-
tant. The stream is crossed by trestle-work about fifteen feet high ; and
the track commences with the grade of 1700 feet to the mile. Place the
end of a ladder thirty feet long upon a fence ten feet high, and an
adequate idea of this inclination will be exhibited to us. It does not
continue, however, beyond 300 feet. At three fourths of a mile is the
first water-station, near the " Cold spring." The grade becomes steeper
again at the "Waumbek junction," one mile and eight rods distance from
and 1242 feet higher than the starting-point. The road is straight thus
far, and forest trees of ordinary dimensions have been cut for its passage.
But now the trees are smaller; the track curves; and soon there is a
small cut through a ledge. With the top of the trees the trestle-work
known as "Jacob's ladder," 2800 feet above Ammonoosuc, is reached. A
view of this portion of the road, with the mountain engine upon it, has
been given opposite page 82.

This trestle-work is at one point thirty feet high ; and the track has an
elevation of more than one in three for 300 feet. The traveller has been
noticing the changes in the shapes of the western mountains in the as-
cent, and has observed the curious outline of the Lafayette range rising
up behind the Twin mountains. On the north he may see the beautiful
south-westerly slope of Jefferson, and on the south the several peaks along
the Crawford road. Westerly, the views of the valleys are charming.
His attention will now be divided largely by the curious angular stones
and the sub-alpine vegetation suddenly brought under his notice. Should
the weather be unpropitious, this is the place where the powerful winds
of the upper current will begin to be felt, and clouds may shut out every
bright prospect. Not far above Jacob's ladder the ridge between Clay
and Washington will be reached ; and the traveller can look down a thou-
sand feet into the black gulf at the head of the west branch of the
Peabody river. The rest of the ascent is comparatively gradual, and
the distant views are beginning to absorb the attention. Something of
the arctic desolation of the mountain itself is expressed in Fig. 10.

62O PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

77ie Summit. The buildings upon the summit are quite numerous.
There are a large hotel, two railroad edifices, the old Tip-top and
Summit houses, and the observatory, besides two barns just under the
crest on the south-east. The views in different directions now need to
be obtained from several stand-points about the platforms and among
the buildings. From favored rooms in the hotel the sunrise can be seen,
without the necessity of leaving a comfortable room. The observatory
is specially favored in its situation, as the finest views can be obtained
from indoors. With the severe arctic climate of this locality, one natu-
rally seeks for physical comfort to the neglect of the esthetic ; but if both
can be secured, the possessor should be doubly happy.

Most people are disappointed in the views from Mt. Washington sum-
mit. They reach the top about noon, and remain one, two, or more hours
in the middle of the day, when there are no shadows. They are bewil-
dered by the vastness of the panorama, perhaps insensibly. It may be
that there is no one to point out particular features of beauty. The
landscapes require considerable study to be properly appreciated. Let
one take a map of New England, and trace out all the mountains west by
name, then in other quarters. Let him realize that in one direction, one
hundred and fifty miles away, the minute spire of Mt. Katahdin pierces
the horizon, while opposite (the same distance) the remotest projection is
Graylock in western Massachusetts. Beyond the Green Mountains are
the clearly defined Adirondacks ; on the north the great valley of the St.
Lawrence. On the south-east, in a clear morning, he may, with a glass,
see the ocean steamers in Casco bay. With this panorama before him,
let the observer carefully note all the smaller peaks and valleys, study
them out from their locations on the map, and he will become greatly
interested. Except by a thorough inspection of what seem small areas,
he cannot appreciate the immense number and variety of objects visible.
He can spend a full month in observing, and discover some new feature
every day.

The atlas contains a plate showing in outline the principal mountains
and valleys, as seen in the sweep from this summit. The foundation
of the sketch is a series of drawings with a camera, so that its accuracy
can be vouched for. The more distant points have been exaggerated a
little, — otherwise they could not be seen. The reader is referred to

SCENOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY. 621

this outline drawing for a description of many of the objects visible
from Mt. Washington. These profiles will very materially aid any one
in studying the topography of the surrounding country.

The most interesting features of one's stay upon this summit are de-
rived from meteorological sources, — the sunrise and sunset, shadows of
the mountain upon clouds and adjacent ranges, wonderful colors, shapes,
and movements of clouds, the perception of the beginning and progress
of storms, hurricanes, frost-work, variation in temperature and humidity,
fluctuations in the barometer, conflict of winds and clouds, etc. Sketches
of some of these phenomena have been occasionally presented in this

Fig. 85. — ADAMS AND MADISON, FROM THE OLD GLEN PATH.

volume, especially what is peculiar to the winter. A heliotype of this
sort faces page 104, illustrating the coating of the summit with snow-ice
in the winter. The first is a copy of a very distinct photograph of the
Carter range on the east, but does not do justice to the subject. The
other shows delicate frost-work upon the Bourne monument and the
low trestle-work of the railway. Opposite page 1 1 2 are four more views,
selected from those taken originally by Clough and Kimball in mid-

622

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

winter. We have here exhibited a picture of the anemometer used by
the party in measuring the velocity of the wind; the Tip-top house
when covered by ice; shrubs frosted in a somewhat different style, but
more delicate; and a look in the direction of Winnipiseogee lake.

Carriage-Road. In starting from the Glen house, up the carriage-road,
one hardly realizes he is climbing a mountain. The road is cut through
the forest for about three miles and a half. At four miles the Half-way
house is reached, and the rest of the way leads over bare rocks above
trees. In Fig. 85 is represented the appearance of Adams and Madison

from the old
Glen path,
perhaps two
miles be-
yond the
Half-way
house. Be-
ing nearer,
these moun-
tains seem
of m am-
moth pro-
portions, while one greatly en-
joys looking back to the more
remote Carter range on the
east into an entirely unexplored
district. The southern angle of
the road gives a glimpse into
the deep ravines pointing south-
erly, passing into Huntington's.
The road winds around, so that
every yard of distance leads up-
wards; but the steepest grade
is only sixteen feet in one hun-
dred, the average being twelve.
Ttickermans Ravine. This is
the most celebrated of all the

Fig. 86.— TUCKERMAN'S RAVINE AND MX.

WASHINGTON.

SCENOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY. 623

ravines about the White Mountains, partly because of the presence of
snow there all through the summer. Its position, in reference to the
main topographical features of the mountains, may appear by referring
to Plate C, page 338, to the representation of the mountains, and the
general geological map in the atlas. It rises directly below the summit of
Mt. Washington, having been excavated out of the plateau much in the
manner of a gorge. The beginnings of the cleft may be seen in the
heliotype of Mt. Washington from the south-east, while the general
aspects of the whole ravine are presented in Fig. 86. The head is
nearly two hundred feet below the summit; and the descent from the
plateau is dangerous along the most feasible route, and impossible most
of the way. The innermost part of the ravine is semi-circular, the outer
cliff rising directly a thousand feet. After receiving the waters flowing
from Huntington's ravine into it from the north, the gorge becomes much
more open, and is hardly to be distinguished from ordinary mountain val-
leys. Two small tarns, — one known as Hermit lake, — rest high up the
valley; and above them innumerable rivulets trickle down the cliffs,
known as Raymond's cataract and the Thousand streams in several pub-
lished stereographs. The cliffs are composed of andalusite slates, dipping
at a moderate angle into the mountain north-westerly.

Tourists are fond of imagining this and the other deep ravines in the
state as the product of some tremendous earthquake throe. They are
more easily explained by the action of frost, gravity, and water-power.
With the elevation of the mountains, there will be naturally a few lines
of depression, which give origin to streams. In the colder seasons, the
water freezing in the seams of the rock will detach slabs and blocks of
stone. These, acted upon by streams, will eventually be changed to
gravel and sand, and be washed down the mountain, leaving fresh sur-
faces for the renewed winter freezing. In this way, little by little, the
work of excavation goes on, the deep, ragged ravines notching the moun-
tains where the formation happens to be slaty and permeated with
numerous joints.

The snow-arch is the feature which visitors delight to examine. The
violent winter winds blow immense quantities of snow from the summit
into this ravine, accumulating, it is said, to the depth of hundreds of feet.
The enormity of the mass enables it to resist the genial influences of the

624

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

sun's heat for a long time ; — hence it may remain in patches, in favorable
seasons, even into September. Usually it is more or less arched, owing

to the more comparatively
rapid melting next the riv-
ulets. Fig. 87 represents
an unusual form, as it ap-
peared August 28, 1 86 1.
The under surface is al-
ways uneven, the irreg-
ularities resembling the
conchoidal fracture of
cannel coal, flint, and oth-
er minerals. In August,
1855, the snow was said
to be 294 feet long, 66
broad, and 15 deep, by
tape-line measurement.

The Thousand streams
unite with the snow-water,
and form the head waters
of Ellis river, a tributary
of the Saco.

White Mountain Notch. The term "notch," as used in the Northern
states, designates mountain passes, corresponding to the "gaps" in the
Southern states, — narrow defiles, where a few soldiers may dispute the
passage of whole armies. Three of these notches are spoken of in New
Hampshire, viz., the White Mountain, — sometimes called the Crawford,
because of its proximity to the hotel of that name, — the Franconia, and
the Dixville. The White Mountain Notch proper is only three miles
long, nearly straight, running somewhat west of north. The northern
end of it is shown in the heliotype opposite page 79, being the view from
the Crawford house. A plain appears in front of the Gate of the Notch,
formed by the transportation of decomposed granite down the sides of
the steep hills. On the left is a bare rock called the " Elephant's Head,"
for obvious reasons. Behind rises the elevated mass of Mt. Webster,
2000 feet above the Gate, and 4000 feet above the sea. Future tourists

Fig. 87. — SNOW-ARCH IN TUCKERMAN'S
RAVINE.

SCENOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY. 625

will see a wider notch than that here represented, since it has been en-
larged for the passage of the Portland & Ogdensburg Railroad. To the
right is situated Mt. Willard, seemingly of little consequence; and still
farther are the eastern slopes of Mts. Field and Tom.

If we rise a few hundred feet to the top of Mt. Willard, we shall get a
glimpse of the entire lower part of the Notch. On referring to the small
heliotype taken from this point, one can see the lower portion of the
inclosing walls, the winding thread of the Saco river, and the granite
mountains back of Frankenstein's cliff, after the turn of the valley to
the south-east. The left-hand slope is on Mt. Webster, and the right
is Mt. Willey. A few bare spots show where loose materials have slid
down into the river ; and we directly overlook the famous Willey slide.
Mt. Willey is 3000 and Mt. Webster 2500 feet above the Willey house.
The other part of this heliotype represents the house occupied by Mr.
Willey in 1826, before the rushing down of the granite debris, in which
he perished with his household. The larger house to the left has been
added since 1826, for the accommodation of travellers. Only a small
portion of Mt. Willey appears behind the house. Fig. 9 shows an out-
line of the slide, as it now appears, with the pile of stones erected in
memory of the destroyed family.

A view of Mt. Willard from this point is of extreme beauty; and our
heliotype, — one of the finest in the series, — is placed in the next volume
for the sake of illustrating geological structure. The south side of Mt.
Willard is precipitous, and it occupies the whole valley, the stream flow-
ing down from the right of it. A cleft hollowed out of this precipice is
known as the Eagle's nest or Devil's den. Marvellous stories have been
told of it, as supernatural agents have been supposed to keep off all
visitors. But our explorers of 1870, with the use of one hundred and
twenty-five feet of rope let down from the summit, discovered nothing
mysterious about this locality, but would not advise visitors to explore it
again without better facilities for going and coming than they enjoyed.

Below the Willey house the valley turns south-easterly ; and the helio-
type opposite page 192, taken from this point, indicates the features of the
mountains better than description. Mt. Willey terminates abruptly on
the south, and the hills succeeding are 1500 feet less in height. Directly
west from the Willey house are the remotest head waters of the Merri-
VOL. i. 8 1

626 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

mack. Still farther to the south, the aspect of the Saco valley appears
in the heliotype which shows Mt. Crawford, over Dr. Bemis's house, at
Bemis station on the railroad. This is the last of the granite elevations
on the east till Wilkes's ledge is reached, represented opposite page 220,
in company with a view of Mt. Pleasant The mountains on the west
side are granitic throughout, the schists below Mt. Crawford consti-
tuting an island.

We are now prepared to understand the origin of the Notch. It has
been excavated almost entirely out of granite. It lies near the eastern
border of the vast sheet of Labrador granites heretofore described, per-
haps on the line of eruption. This deep valley exists for the reason that
the denuding agents have excavated it out of the softest materials occur-
ring in this vicinity. The summits of Mts. Webster and Willey consist
of flinty slates, which resist decomposition much more steadfastly than
the intervening granite. A climb up both these mountains shows that
the granite extends nearly to their summits. In descending, one finds an
abundance of loose, friable rocks, inclined at the greatest angle possible
for such materials. These fragments accumulate gradually through the
action of frost, and, under favorable conditions, when rendered pasty by
abundant rains, make a kind of plastic material which slides to the bot-
tom of the valley, where the river disintegrates it still further, and carries
it towards Conway. The plains below Bartlett are largely composed of
the fragments brought down from this narrow valley. The Saco valley
below Mt. Webster is lower, because the walls are composed entirely of
this softer rock, and have yielded readily to the forces of disintegration.

The excavation of the broad valley of the Ammonoosuc to the west
of the Washington range, bounded northerly by Mt. Deception, and
southerly by Mts. Pleasant, Clinton, and Willard, is to be explained in
the same way, only the materials have gone down towards the Con-
necticut instead of the Saco. The harder ridge remains on the east.

OTHER VARIETIES OF ROCK SCULPTURE.

Of the other shapes fashioned by Nature, the isolated, conical schis-
tose mountains are the most unusual. Such are Monadnock, Kearsarge,
Ragged, and numerous smaller eminences rarely heard of, like Peaked
mountain in Piermont. Their peculiarity consists in the rising up from

SCENOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY.

627

a plateau of older formations of schists entirely isolated from any other
deposits of the same age, yet with highly inclined strata. These are,
unlike the sugar-loaf mountain
structures, composed of nearly
horizontal strata, which have
been rounded by erosion.
These elevations, like the lat-
ter, are relics of a once wide-
spread blanket of rock; but
the fragments have been doub- ^

led up by plicating forces, and c

oo
their former connection seems

difficult to believe. Their pres-
ent separation is not due to
erosion alone. It is also likely
that there have been some
special uplifts of land in con-
nection with each of these
summits. In New Hampshire
these mountains are likely to
be confounded with those of
granitic origin, like the Strat-
ford peaks.

I do not need to speak fur-
ther of our ravines and gorges,
as the most prominent ones
have been described. Fig.
88 may illustrate some of our
broad, sloping valleys, where
level plateaus have been form-
ed by the transportation of
drift material. Our greater
valleys of this sort are too
extensive for representation.
Such are the Conway plains,
the barren expanse in Madison and Ossipee, and many other districts

628 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

in the 'south-east part of the state below the level of the 5oo-feet con-
tour line. Where the work of transportation has been mainly effected
by water, the sand is often left in one district, while the more fertile
ingredients have been segregated from it, and deposited in alluvial
meadows.

The Ascent of Mt. Carrigain. This mountain being practically un-
known to tourists, I will reproduce, from our second annual report, a
brief sketch of its ascent, by Prof. G. L. Vose. The results of another
trip in 1874, by G. F. Morse, are given graphically in the atlas. The
completion of the railroad through the Notch will now bring this moun-
tain into notice.

Mt. Carrigain stands almost exactly in the centre of the vast group of the White
and Franconia mountains, and, rising as it does to a height of nearly 5000 feet, is a
marked feature in the landscape from almost every point of view. Conversely, the
view from Carrigain must embrace the whole mountain mass, and must sweep around
over all the principal summits.

The morning was bright and clear, and promised good weather for the ascent.
Leaving our hotel directly after breakfast, we drove to Lawrence's farm, and, sending
back our team, strapped our packs upon our backs, bid good-by to civilization and our
paper collars, and took to the woods, following up the north bank of Sawyer's river.
A walk of a little more than an hour brought us to Duck Pond stream, a tributary of
the river from the north. Crossing this brook, we continued in a north-westerly direc-
tion for an hour and a half, when we struck Carrigain brook, the second tributary from
the mouth of Sawyer's river. This brook has its rise both upon Mt. Carrigain and in
the deep notch east of it, and thus leads by its west fork directly to the top of the
mountain. Proceeding up the brook for an hour, we stopped at the foot of the ascent,
which was now directly in front of us, to dine ; and, after a short rest, commenced the
climb, following the bed of the stream, which tumbles down the steep eastern slope of
the mountain.

The summit of Carrigain is 4800 feet above the sea ; the base of the mountain is
probably about 1200 feet in height, thus leaving 3600 feet from the summit to the level
of Carrigain brook, at least 3000 of which is in one almost unbroken slope, so steep as
to require the constant use of both arms and legs in its ascent. The west fork of the
brook leaps down for a great height over broad steps of granite ; and this gigantic
flight of stairs affords for a considerable distance the best means of ascent. The bed
of this brook we named for our guide, — who was the first to ascend, — Cobb's Stairs.
We kept the stream for about 1000 feet of vertical ascent, at which point it became so
abrupt that we were forced to abandon it for the wooded slopes, where the foothold
was better, and the trees offered us the assistance we needed for dragging up the con-
stantly increasing weight of our bodies. The surface of the magnificent slope, up which

SCENOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY. 629

we were now toiling, appears to consist entirely of loose angular blocks of granite,
dislodged by the frost, and covered with a deep matting of rich green moss, in which
we sink to the ankles, and through which we not unfrequently break into some crevice
up to the middle. For about two hours we work doggedly up this apparently intermin-
able slope, — keeping the brook always in hearing, in order not to get beyond our supply
of water for the night,— stumbling now into some hidden chamber beneath the moss,
now lifting ourselves up by the friendly branches of spruce and pine, now sinking
exhausted into the soft green bed beneath our feet, now winding around some fallen
tree, still up, up, up we go, panting and straining, with every muscle called into play
and every drop of blood in vigorous motion, till the distant mountains begin to lift
their blue heads above the decreasing trees ; till exhausted nature calls loudly for rest,
and the small rill trickling beneath our feet is all that remains of our brook. * *

Daylight found us ready for the final pull, which should place us on the summit of
Carrigain. Despatching our breakfast, and taking nothing but note-book and compass,
we move slowly up, threading our way sometimes on foot, sometimes on our hands and
knees, among the scrub spruces, and sometimes upon the rough, gray blocks of granite
that strew the mountain side, till a shout from the guide sends new vigor into our
muscles ; and one more lusty pull, and a rough scramble through the bushes and over
the rocks, and we stand upon a narrow ridge, from which the great slopes sweep down
in one unbroken descent to the green carpet of forest spread out like a map beneath.

While we had been engaged in reaching this point, the clouds had not been idle.
Indeed, they were a little ahead of us ; and when we Arrived upon the summit, we
found the mountain mists creeping slowly in upon us, and one by one wiping out the
great ranges that surrounded us. This was not pleasant ; but we had come too far to
give up the view from Mt. Carrigain, and, making a good fire, we sat down and awaited
better times. Fortunately, they were not long coming ; and, when we least expected
it, a rift in the vapors showed the wide ring of the distant horizon, and the surging
swell of the vast landscape around us.

Directly opposite to Mt. Carrigain upon the east rises a noble summit, scarred with
tremendous slides, and forming with Carrigain a notch not inferior in depth or abrupt-
ness to the White Mountain Notch itself. [See view of Carrigain Notch, p. 596.]
This fine summit we named Mt. Lowell, in honor of one of the oldest and most enthu-
siastic among White Mountain explorers, — Abner Lowell, Esq., of Portland. The
slopes of these two mountains in Carrigain Notch are more imposing, both on account
of their exceeding steepness and of their great height, than any others yet described
in the White Mountains. The distant view, too, in every direction, is full of interest.
Ranges and notches, huge mountains and broad valleys, never seen from the points
commonly visited in this region, are spread all around. From its central position a
better idea of the arrangement of the White and Franconia mountains is had than
from any other point, perhaps, in the whole group. To the east we see Washington,
Monroe, Franklin, Pleasant, Clinton, Jackson, Webster, Resolution, Gianfs Stairs,
Crawford, the Carter mountains, Doublehead, Pequawket, and the lower summits of

630

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Jackson, Chatham, and Bartlett ; to the south-east and south, the Mote, Chocorua,
Tremont, Table mountain, Passaconnaway, Whiteface, Squam, and Tripyramid ; while
to the west and north-west lie the Franconia and Twin mountains, and the great
mass of ridges and valleys between the Saco and the Pemigewasset. The view from
Carrigain opens new fields in every direction for mountain exploration ; and it is to be
hoped that the many persons frequenting the mountains, and fond of rough tramps,
will ere long penetrate these interior recesses of the wilderness, and acquaint us with
the topography and geology of this now unknown part of the White Mountain group.

CASCADES.

Cascades and waterfalls occur abundantly in New Hampshire, and

they nearly always display the prevail-
ing ledges of the vicinity, and conse-
quently are sought for in geological
explorations. I will mention only those
which are figured, for their name is le-
gion.

Georgianna falls in Lincoln (Fig. 41,
p. 215) is one of the grandest cascades
to be found among the mountains. It
is more than a mile west of the Pemi-
gewasset valley, upon a tributary com-
ing out of Bog pond. The path leads
through the woods from a farm-house
about two miles below the entrance
to the Flume. For more than a mile
there is a series of smaller cascades till
the main fall is reached.
This consists of two
leaps of eighty feet each,
which give the effect
of a single fall, as seen
through the trees from a
distance. An extensive
cut has been made in the
rocks, which are largely
Fig. 89.— SILVER CASCADE. of coarse granite veins.

SCENOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY.

Ripley's falls (Fig. 43, p. 226) are situated upon a brook near the
Willey slide, and about two miles back from the Saco. The water leaps
first over four stair-like ledges, — each about six feet high, which are not
represented in the figure, — and then slides down a granite flume one
hundred and fifty feet long, at an angle of forty-five degrees, ending in
a large pool. The water is seventy-five feet wide at the base, and fifty
at the summit. Still higher up the stream are two other falls, called the
"Sparkling cascade" and the "Sylvan Glade cataract." There is a yet
finer waterfall upon Bemis brook, about four miles farther down the
Saco, upon the same side of the valley.

In the White Mountain Notch, rather more than a mile from the Craw-
ford house, are the Flume and Silver cascades. The latter is figured best
in the text adjoining, and the
lower portion more particu-
larly in a heliotype in Vol. II.
It can be seen from the road,
as it descends, for over three
hundred feet. The fall is part-
ly precipitous, but mostly at
a comparatively small angle.
The water flashes in the sun-
light like silver: hence the
name. In a very dry season
it almost disappears from view.

In Fig. 90 is an outline of
Cuba falls, on the east side
of Mt. Cuba in Orford. They
were first brought to notice
by the photographs of A. F.
Clough, but are in a remote ,]
region rarely visited by tour-
ists. It is unusual to see sojl
great a fall of water leaving a
clear space behind, as in this
instance.

Opposite page 184 is a heliotype of the Crystal cascade. It is about

Fig. QO. — OUTLINE OF CUBA FALLS,
ORFORD.

632 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

three miles south of the Glen house, near the height of land between
Jackson and Gorham, and upon Ellis river. The water flows from Tuck-
erman's ravine. The view takes in about eighty feet of descent over
slaty rocks crossed by igneous dikes. The view is taken from a high
bank opposite the fall. The water is much spread out in this cascade,
and, as the supply diminishes, is divided into several threads or frills.

The Glen Ellis falls are a mile farther south, and upon the same
stream. These are a little higher than the one just mentioned. One
is best impressed by their grandeur if he rests against a tree overhang-
ing the precipice above the fall. The water is much more confined in
its flow than at the Crystal cascade, and is more constant in its shape
through both wet and dry seasons.

The view of the Jackson falls is placed opposite page 256. The rock
here, and at the Goodrich falls lower down, represented in Vol. II, con-
sists of slightly inclined sheets of granite. They are upon the Ellis
river.

Opposite page 310 is a representation of Berlin falls in the Andros-
coggin river. As this stream is fed from the large lakes in north-western
Maine, the supply is always large and constant. The descent is mostly
a rapid rather than a cascade, amounting to nearly two hundred feet in
the course of a mile. The gorge is nearly twenty feet deep, excavated
through dark schists ; and, by standing upon a bridge thrown across the
river, one can best watch the mad descent of the river, from the smooth
satin aspect to a "foam foliage, white and prismatic, cresting the leaping
waves, and running from fall to fall." Early in the summer, logs are con-
stantly passing through this narrow passage. These falls are close to
the carriage-road, about six miles above Gorham.

Walker's falls, over granite sheets in Franconia, and Beecher's cascade,
a little west of the Crawford house, are placed upon the same heliotype,
opposite page 305. The joints are less easily recognized in the latter
example. The Emerald pool, opposite page 232, is one of the resting-
places for the active water in the midst of so much tumbling. It is just
above Thompson's falls, and near the Glen house. In Diana's Bath,
North Conway, opposite page 272, one sees a basin about ten feet deep,
into which water passes from over a sheet of granite. It is near the
"Cathedral."

SCENOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS OF SCENERY.

The following is a list of the illustrations, selected to set forth the
scenery of New Hampshire, contained in this volume. The first are
mainly printed from electrotypes of wood-cuts taken from Starr King's
sketch of the White Hills. The others are the heliotypes, partly con-
tained in this volume, and partly reserved for the next. The latter are
more especially designed to illustrate geological phenomena.

Mts. Madison and Washington, from Shelburne, p. 3.

Granite ledge in Bartlett, p. 12.

Castellated ridge of Mt. Jefferson, p. 28.

Lancaster and the White Mountains, Fig. 7, p. 68.

Giant's Grave, Fig. 8, p. 72.

Summit of Mt. Washington, from the north (winter of 1870), Fig. 10, p. 91.

Tip-top house in winter, Fig. 16, p. 131.

Mt. Moriah in Gorham, Fig. 19, p. 146.

Gap between Sawyer's mountain and Soapstone hill, from Bissell hill, Orford, Fig. 20,
p. 181.

Mt. Lyon, from Guildhall falls, Fig. 21, p. 183.

Mt. Carter, from Gorham, Fig. 22, p. 186.

Ravines on Mt. Washington, as seen from Thompson's falls, Fig. 24, p. 188.

Mt. Washington, from near Fabyan's, Fig. 25, p. 189.

Mt. Crawford, from the north-west, Fig. 26, p. 190.

Outline of Cherry mountain, as seen from Twin Mountain house, Fig. 27, p. 191.

Outline of Mt. Osceola, Fig. 28, p. 193.

Outlines of Mt. Tecumseh and Black mountain, Figs. 29 and 30, p. 194.

Summit of Mt. Chocorua, Fig. 31, p. 195.

Profiles of mountains between Haystack and the first Sugar Loaf, Fig. 32, p. 198.

Profiles of mountains between South Twin and Haystack, seen from North Twin,
Fig. 33, p. 198.

Mountain range, from Lafayette to Twin, Fig. 34, p. 199.

Franconia Mountains, from Sugar hill, Lisbon, Fig. 35, p. 199.

Franconia Mountains, from Thornton, Fig. 36, p. 200.

Outline of Moosilauke, from Warren, Fig. 37, p. 201.

Outline of Moosilauke, from Wachipaucha pond, Fig. 38, p. 202.

Lake Winnipiseogee, from Center Harbor, Fig. 39, p. 205.

Georgianna falls, Lincoln, Fig. 41, p. 215.

View on the Upper Magalloway, Fig. 42, p. 225.

Ripley's falls, Fig. 43, p. 226.

White Mountains, from bridge in Berlin, near Milan, Fig. 44, p. 297.

Old Man of the Mountains, Fig. 45, p. 330.
VOL. I. 82

634 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Mt. Madison, from Lead Mine bridge, Shelburne, Fig. 60, p. 415.
Squam lake and Mt. Chocorua. Fig. 61, p. 530.
White Mountain range, from Jefferson hill, Fig. 64, p. 541.
White Mountains, from the Glen, Fig. 63, p. 540.

Franconia Mountains, from Campton, Pemigewasset river in the foreground, Fig. 66,
p. 551.

Madison and Washington, from Shelburne, Fig. 67, p. 558.

The burnt district on Mt. Hayes, Gorham, Fig. 68,- p. 582.

Mt. Madison, as seen over King's ravine, Fig. 69, p. 585.

Peabody river and Mt. Washington, Fig. 70, p. 586.

View across the ravine south of Mt. Adams, Fig. 71, p. 598.

Welch mountain, from Campton, Fig. 72, p. 600.

Lafayette range, from the Flume house, Fig. 73, p. 601.

The Profile Rock, Franconia, Fig. 74, p. 603.

The same. Changes as you pass to the right and left, Fig. 75, p. 604.

The Sentinel, Fig. 76, p. 606.

White Mountain range, from Milan, Fig. 77, p. 608.

Mts. Adams and Madison, from near Randolph hill, Fig. 78, p. 610.

Washington, Clay, and Jefferson, from Adams, Fig. 79, p. 611.

Washington range, from Carroll, Fig. 80, p. 612.

Ravine in Mt. Adams, from Randolph hill, Fig. 81, p. 613.

Head-wall of King's ravine, Fig. 82, p. 614.

Gateway of King's ravine, Fig. 83, p. 615.

Cliffs in King's ravine, Fig. 84, p. 616.

Adams and Madison, from the old Glen path, Fig. 85, p. 621.

Tuckerman's ravine and Mt. Washington, Fig. 86, p. 622.

Snow-arch in Tuckerman's ravine in August, Fig. 87, p. 623.

Androscoggin valley, from Peaked hill, Gilead, Me., Fig. 88, p. 627.

Silver cascade in the Notch, Fig. 89, p. 630.

Cuba falls, Orford, Fig. 90, p. 631.

LIST OF HELIOTYPES ILLUSTRATING SCENERY.

Ledges fractured by frost, Mt. Washington summit. Frontispiece.

Diana's Bath, p. 272.

Glen Ellis falls, p. 632.

Crystal cascade, p. 184.

Emerald pool, p. 232.

Jackson falls, p. 256.

Berlin falls, p. 310.

Mt. Washington Railway — "Jacob's Ladder," p. 82.

The Washington range, from the Fabyan turnpike, p. 392.

Mt. Washington, from the south-east, p. 618.

SCENOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY. 635

White-horse ledge, Conway, p. 592.

Dixville Notch, Chap. XIX.

Percy peaks, Stratford, from Stark, Chap. XIX.

White Mountain Notch, from the Crawford house, p. 79.

Carrigain Notch, from pencil sketch by G. F. Morse, p. 596.

White Mountains, from Berlin, from pencil sketch by G. F. Morse, p. 212.

Fac-simile of Gen. Field's sketch of the Franconia profile, p. 606.

Mt. Crawford, from near the Willey house, p. 192.

The following are placed in Vol. II :
Goodrich falls, Bartlett.
The Flume, Lincoln.

Mt. Pequawket, Chatham, from the Saco valley.
The Devil's Slide, Stark.
Mt. Chocorua.
Mt. Lyon, Northumberland.

The following are of smaller size :
Mt. Pleasant, from Twin River farm, p. 220.
Wilkes's ledge, Hart's Location, p. 220.

Mt. Crawford, from near Dr. Bemis's residence, Hart's Location, Vol. II.
Lake of the Clouds, Mt. Washington, Vol. II.
Mt. Willard, from the Willey house, Vol. II.
Silver cascade, Vol. II.
Eagle cliff, from Echo lake, Vol. II.
Eagle cliff, from site of former Lafayette house, Vol. II.
Walker's falls, Lincoln, p. 305.
Beecher's cascade, near the Crawford house, p. 305.
The Basin, Lincoln, Vol. II.
The boulder over the Flume, Lincoln, Vol. II.
Four winter views from Mt. Washington, p. 112.
Winter views of Carter range and Bourne monument, p. 104.

Fig. 91. — FROST FEATHERS.

CHAPTER XIX.

SCENERY OF COOS COUNTY.

BY J. H. HUKTINGTON.

HETHER we stand upon the summit of one of our highest moun-
tains in winter, when there is embraced in the view the whole
country from the ocean to the Adirondacks, or, in summer, we stand by
the side of one of our quiet lakes, which is entirely encircled by lofty
hills, while the blue dome of the sky seems to rest just on the hill-tops,
there is a charm and enchantment in the scene that draws the mind
away from things terrestrial, and bears it away into the realm of thought
and fancy. From the mountain summits, the clouds that lie along the
western horizon in such brilliant relief against a darker background
become a celestial city, with towers and spandrels of gold ; the lake and
its immediate surroundings, shut out from all the world, become a par-
adise. The mountain summit in mid-winter, and the placid lake in
summer, nestling among the hills, are the extremes. The first embraces
all that is grand and sublime. The view is circumscribed only by the
distant horizon; and the storms of mid-ocean pale before the blasts of
the upper currents of the air. The outlook, with its ever-varying scene
of clouds, and the storms sweeping along with such terrific grandeur,
arouse the whole being. Instead of fear and terror, the mind grasps
the whole as a grand and terrific display of the power that has fixed a
limit even to these manifestations.

SCENERY OF COOS COUNTY. 637

On the other hand, when in early summer there is a dreamy stillness
in the air, and the foliage on tree and shrub has the freshness of spring,
the placid lake, of all places else, soothes and brings a calm quiet to the
mind ; and, as a drowsy forgetfulness of things objective comes over us,
and we are wafted away to indulge in such delicious reveries, then, when
again we are conscious that this physical frame languishes unless it is
nourished by something more substantial than dreams, we regret the
condition of our physical existence, and almost wish that life itself were
a dream.

To point out places of interest, where those who have a love for the
grand and the beautiful can feast and be filled, rather than to describe
the scenery, will be our object in the following pages.

If a person delights in primeval forests, he will certainly be charmed
with the northern part of New Hampshire. A journey of a day and a
half from Connecticut lake, through an unbroken forest, will take a per-
son to Crown monument, which is at the extreme north-east corner of
the state. It is on the water-shed between the waters of the St. Law-
rence and the streams running south into the Atlantic, and it is so called
because a monument was placed there by the commissioners who estab-
lished the boundary between the states and the provinces. From a ridge
of land 2568 feet above the level of the sea, where, looking northward,
the land slopes towards the St. Lawrence, and southward, towards the
Atlantic, the view must be extensive. In either direction we look over
only illimitable forests, except that in the dim distance, a little to the east
of north, there is a small settlement, probably at the north end of Me-
gantic lake, — otherwise the view embraces a boundless forest. Immedi-
ately north, the slope is quite gradual, and, as it stretches northward, the
country seems like a plain extending to the horizon. To the north-east
is Saddle mountain, with hills and ridges ; to the north-west, Megantic
mountain rises as from an immense plain. Embraced in the view north-
ward are the head waters of the St. Francis and Chaudiere rivers, while
east and west is the high ridge that forms the water-shed. The view
directly south is limited, for a mountain ridge runs from the Magallo-
way directly west into New Hampshire. To the south-west, the high
ridge that encircles the basin where the many branches of the Magallo-
way have their source, obstructs the view in that direction. To the

638 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

south-east there is nothing, as far as the eye can see, but high ridges
and mountain peaks, which follow each other in rapid succession until
in the far distance they seem to pierce the sky.

If we should follow along the boundary between New Hampshire and
Quebec province, there would be many points where we should wish to
stop and view the grand panorama spread out before us. Two of the
most remarkable outlooks we will notice. Not far from three and a half
miles south-west from Crown monument there is a high point of land.
If it was isolated from the ridge that extends in either direction from its
summit, it would be a mountain of quite respectable proportions. Its
height, — 2812 feet, — would place it among the mountains. The distant
view is not unlike that from Crown monument, but the immediate sur-
roundings are much more grand; and chief among the attractions is a
mountain lake, which lies in a depression to the west eight hundred feet
below the summit, and it is so near that we seem to look directly down
upon it. Another point of interest on the boundary is in the vicinity of
Third lake. The view northward embraces a continuous forest, extend-
ing fifty miles or more ; and in the distance, Megantic mountain stands
massive and alone. One or two houses in Ditton are the only habita-
tions that can be seen.

South, half a mile distant, we look down on Third lake. On a clear,
bright day in early summer, when the stately forests are reflected in its
waters, undisturbed by a single ripple, it presents a scene of quiet beauty
that cannot be surpassed. Generally, the view southward is not exten-
sive, but on some of the higher points we can overlook the nearer hills,
and in the distance some of the peaks of the White Mountains can be

seen.

Mr. CARMEL.

Mt. Carmel rises 3711 feet above the level of the sea. It is on the
line of New Hampshire and Maine, as the state line crosses it just as it
begins to slope towards the west. The mountain consists of a long ridge,
and, from the west, the ascent is quite gradual. On the ridge there are
two points of nearly equal height, half or three quarters of a mile apart ;
from the point east there is a gradual slope for half a mile, and then
the descent is almost perpendicular down to the debris formed from the
fallen rocks. Before we reach this precipitous height, there is a ridge

SCENERY OF COOS COUNTV. 639

that branches off and runs towards the north-east; and everywhere along
the east side of this there are perpendicular walls of rock. As Mt. Car-
mel is somewhat isolated, the view from the summit is extensive.

Immediately northward is the great basin where rise the many streams
that unite to form the Magalloway. Beyond is the ridge that forms the
boundary between the states and the provinces, and through gaps in this
we can see now and then a peak far to the north-east. To the east the
view is very fine, while near at hand you look down into the valley of the
Magalloway. Here you catch glimpses of the stream, and there you see
one of the numerous lakes of this broad valley, for along this river there
is scarcely a mile but that has its lake or bog. Save here and there,
where the water reflects the bright sunlight, the whole valley is a dark
forest of evergreen. Standing on the summit of Mt. Carmel in the
afternoon, when the sun shines brightly, it is a grand scene to watch the
shadows of the clouds as they fly across the valley, — they seem so
etherial, yet so much like a thing of life. For displays of this kind, I
know not any place where the effect is half so grand. Eastward, we can
see far beyond the valley, and such an array of hills, ridges, and mountain
peaks is rarely seen. Here is a mountain, irregular in outline and broken
abruptly off; there are two similar in shape, while beyond and farther
south is a mountain summit that has a graceful contour in its sweep-
ing outline.

"And, glimmering through the sun-haze warm,

Far as the eye could roam,
Dark billows of an earthquake storm

Beflecked with clouds like foam,
Their vales in misty shadows deep,

Their rugged peaks in shine,
I saw the mountain ranges sweep

The horizon's eastern line."

Southward, we look down the Magalloway, and for twenty miles in a
direct line the view is unobstructed ; then, from the east, Mt. Agizcoos,
with its bare summit, extends partly across the valley. Looking still
southward in the far distance, sixty-five miles from the point where we
stand, we see the White Mountains, in dim yet perfect outline. In some
respects the view to the west and south-west is the most interesting. In

640 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

this direction there is a succession of undulating ridges and hills, which,
with their shadows and ever-changing color, give a peculiar charm to the
scene ; — then, in the midst of the forests, those sheets of water that we
can see are the Connecticut lakes. There is probably not another moun-
tain peak in New Hampshire, so high as this, where one feels as though
he was so entirely away from the habitations of men. In every direction,
except a single spot at the outlet of Connecticut lake, which is fifteen or
twenty miles distant by the shortest route, the whole country, embracing
thousands of square miles, is one vast wilderness.

From the summit of Magalloway mountain, three miles east from
Connecticut lake, there is a fine view of mountains, hills, and lakes. It
is especially fine in autumn, after the forests of deciduous trees have put
on their robes of beauty, — crimson, scarlet, and gold. The lakes which
form such a marked feature in the scenery are noticed on page 223.

CASCADES.

Cascades are not very numerous in the northern .part of Coos county,
but there are two or three that deserve to be mentioned. On one of the
western branches of Indian stream, near the north line of the Colebrook
Academy grant, there is a cascade which, on account of its rare beauty,
deserves especial notice. It is in a deep ravine, and on either side there
is a dense forest of evergreens. Here the extreme heat of summer is
unknown, for the cool breath from the water always tempers the atmos-
phere, and produces a delicious coolness that is so grateful in summer.
The cascade has a height of forty feet ; — the first twelve feet the water is
broken by jutting rocks; for the remaining twenty-eight it flows over a
ledge, which has a descent of sixty degrees. At the top the stream is four
feet wide, but it spreads out so that at the base it is twenty feet. As the
water runs across the strata, the effect is very fine. The pure water, the
white spray, the dark, moss-covered rocks, the cool, delicious atmosphere,
the shimmering light through the trees, the mossy banks of the stream,
the perfect stillness save the music of the waters and the songs of birds,
form a combination of attractions rarely found.

East from Connecticut lake, and south-east from the summit of Magal-
loway mountain, the Little Diamond falls in a series of rapid, wild cas-
cades. The rapids extend for half a mile ; and the fall in that distance

SCENERY OF COOS COUNTY. 64!

is one hundred and fifty feet. Besides the general rapids, there are per-
pendicular falls of from three to ten feet. South-west of the same
mountain there is a fall on Huggins's Branch. For half a mile there are
rapids, before we come to the falls ; then there is a slope of fifty degrees
and a fall of fifteen feet; then there is a fall twelve feet perpendicular;
then there is a slope of forty-two degrees and a fall of about forty feet,
confined between nearly perpendicular strata of rock, and water is thrown
in spray against the wall ; and finally it rests in a great basin at the base.
A few rods below, the stream turns to the east, and has another fall of
ten feet. Altogether, it is a beautiful cascade, and well worthy of a visit.

DIXVILLE NOTCH.

Dixville Notch is regarded by many as one of the most remarkable
exhibitions of natural scenery in the state, perhaps even surpassing the
famous Notch of the White Mountains in picturesque grandeur. The
angular and precipitous appearance of the rocks, rising hundreds of feet
almost perpendicular on either side, is strikingly different from the
rounded and water-worn appearance of most of the crystalline rocks
throughout the northern part of the United States, and seems to come
nearer to the scenery of the Alps than anything else in New England.
This Notch is easy of access, being only ten miles from Colebrook vil-
lage ; and although the highest point in the road through the Notch is
830 feet above that village, yet the ascent is so gradual that few would
believe they had reached so great an elevation. Approaching the Notch
from the west, the road passes through a forest which in summer en-
tirely obstructs the view, and the slow progress we are able to make
causes now, for the first time in our journey, a sense of weariness. It is
only for a very brief space, however, for scarcely have we time to com-
plain before we reach an opening in the woods, and the grand view pre-
sented in the heliotype bursts suddenly upon us.

It surpasses most other notches in the vertical height of its walls, one
point being 560 feet above the highest part of the road. Some of the
highest precipitous masses stand out in bold relief from the sides. Table
rock, — shown on the right in the heliotype, — projects 167 feet, while the
ragged serrated edges everywhere form projecting points. One can
easily imagine that he sees here the turrets and spires of some ruined
VOL. i. 83

642 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

cathedral, or the battlements and towers of castles of the medieval age ;
or, as one stands on Table rock, he can imagine that a bridge once
spanned the chasm below, and that these masses of rock standing in
the debris are the ruins of piers on which it might have been built. The
rock here differs in cleavage from that of similar composition elsewhere
in New Hampshire. It splits in huge longitudinal fragments ; and Na-
ture has here quarried posts that equal in just proportion those wrought
by human hands.

On Table rock the view embraces a wide sweep of country. We can
see quite a distance into Maine, we can look over a part of Vermont,
and it is said that, when clear, places in Quebec province can be recog-
nized ; and from Table rock the view down through the Notch is always
grand. After passing the height of the Notch, going east on the right,
we can see a profile, — "The Old Man of Dixville," — which has very fair
proportions. On the left, still farther east, there is an excellent repre-
sentation of the walls and turrets of a ruined castle.

The "Flume" shows itself on the north side of the road, thirty or forty
rods back in the forest. It is a chasm, in granite, about fifteen feet wide
and fifteen rods long; and the stream running through it falls about
thirty feet in cascades. In one place there is a pot-hole seven feet deep,
with a diameter of four feet. The granite is divided by two vertical sets
of seams or joints, so that large columnar blocks could be taken out
without quarrying. The excavated rock seems to have been a trap dyke,
part of which may still be seen. Nearly opposite the Flume, but farther
down the valley, is Cascade brook, a branch of Clear stream. Upon this
may be seen a series of cascades for more than half a mile. They were
named Huntington cascades by the New Hampshire Press Association.
The top of the most interesting cascade is 274 feet above its base. Here
the stream is divided by a trap dyke two feet wide ; and the water falls
on each side a distance of forty feet. The rock here is the same argilla-
ceous schist as in the Notch ; besides, there is an interesting trap dyke,
containing glassy feldspar and basaltic hornblende, which, Dr. Jackson
says, resembles more a volcanic rock than any other found in the state.
Most other notches we can see a long distance before we reach them, but
here we have scarcely any intimation that there is such a vast rent in
the mountain until we are almost in the very gap itself.

SCENERY OF COOS COUNTY. 643

How was this Notch formed? is a question that is naturally asked,
since it is so unlike all others. There is no theory so universally accepted
as that there has been a time when the oscillations of the continent were
considerable ; that it was once submerged, so that at least quite a large
part of New England was beneath the ocean ; then, again, it was uplifted.
That there have been two of these upliftings and depressions is quite
certain.

The rock at Dixville Notch is very fragile, and there are reasons to
believe that a fissure in the rocks here was originally produced by the
uplifting of the whole rocky strata of the country, and that afterwards it
was worn out by water and ice, perhaps a glacier. The principal reason
for supposing a fissure, caused by uplifting, to have been the origin of
the Notch, is, that in the rocks, several rods back from the edge of the
Notch, there is now a fissure of unknown depth running parallel with the
Notch, and consequently across the strike. It is well known that when
great masses of rock are removed, the underlying strata contract and pro-
duce fissures. It is possible that this may have been the case at Dixville,
since the mountain ridge is lower at the Notch than it is for several miles
on either side. If at any point in the lowest part of the Notch we were
able to find the strata standing vertically, as on the sides, we might sup-
pose the Notch was originally produced by other causes. That ice did
something after the fissure was formed, is evident from the fact that in the
Notch and on the east side there are boulders that came from the west ; —
consequently they must have been carried into and through the Notch.

In Errol there is one of the grandest outlooks in New Hampshire, but,
being off from any route of travel, it is scarcely known except to those
who live in the vicinity, and to the fortunate few who have enjoyed the
prospect. Here, we are not obliged to travel a long distance through the
forests, neither have we to climb mountain summits, but on a travelled
road we can sit in our carriage and overlook miles of forests, and in the
distance see the grandest of our mountain summits. On the road from
Errol Dam to Upton, Me., after crossing the Androscoggin, the road
winds along and over the ridge of land between that river and Umbagog
lake. As we ascend the hill, the grandeur of the scenery begins to
unfold itself. On our right, and a little south of west, is the Andros-

644 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

coggin, which pours along over rapids until it rests in a quiet bay, where
the river widens to receive the waters of Clear stream. After leaving
the bay the river becomes rapid again, and pours along between the hills,
and soon is lost to sight. Westward, among the hills, is Aker's pond,
and, following up the valley of Clear stream, the view is limited by the
high ridge running through Dixville. A little farther south we look over
the hills in Errol and Millsfield, and we can see a few peaks in Odell. To
the south-west the forests stretch as far as the eye can reach ; for nearly
thirty miles there is one unbroken wilderness. For a distant view, I
know not where the White Mountains can be seen to such advantage as
just south of the height of land; neither do I know of any distant point
from which they appear so high. You seem to see through the Pinkham
Notch, and in that direction, from most points, the higher peaks seem
to slope off and run into the Carter range. Near Mr. William M.
Thurston's, the White Mountains still in view, we can look down on
Umbagog lake; and then in Maine, not many miles away, are moun-
tains of considerable height.

On the Connecticut there are many places where the scenery is en-
chanting. At almost every turn in the road, from West Stewartstown
to North Stratford, there is something that attracts the attention, — a
mountain of grand proportions, a hill with graceful outline, the trees,
the forests, or the river, as it runs through grassy meadows or along a
wooded hillside. There is some remarkable scenery in the vicinity of
Groveton. Coming from the south towards the village, Percy peaks will
attract the attention of the most indifferent observer, on account both of
their symmetrical form and color. In the heliotype, the peaks are seen
from a point on the Upper Ammonoosuc above Groveton. In the fore-
ground is the river, and to the right is Long mountain, near the line of
Stark and Odell. The village itself is surrounded by mountains. The
summits of those that are farthest away are scarcely more than ten miles
distant, while Mt. Lyon on the south is not more than four. Although
the hills and mountains are so near, yet, on account of the broad interval
of the Connecticut, we do not feel as though the outlook had too narrow
limits, but rather that in the whole view there is a beautiful symmetry.
I know of no place where the moonlight adds such a charm to the
scenery ; and it is especially grand to watch the moon as it rises above

SCENERY OF COOS COUNTY. 645

the Pilot hills, breaks through the passing cloud, and throws its gentle
light across the forests.

If we are not satisfied with the limit of the valley, there are hills on
every side, climbing which we have distant views. From Percy peaks,
northward, we have forests and wooded summits ; south-east, the White
Hills rise in all their grandeur; south, we have the long line of the
Pilot hills ; and, a little west of south, we look down the valley of the
Connecticut, and in the distance Moosilauke rises against the sky.
There are few mountains one feels so well repaid for the effort of climb-
ing; and, besides the distant view, the peaks themselves are of interest
on account of being so similar in outline, and so nearly of the same
height.

The summit of the south peak is easily gained from the south-east, but
the western slope of this, as well as the north peak, is so steep that it
would require an expert in climbing to be able to reach the summit of
either peak from that direction. There are few mountains where the
variety of scenery is greater, for, besides the many mountain peaks, we
have the Upper Ammonoosuc and the Connecticut winding along the
valleys, their waters reflecting the bright sunlight, and ponds, too, sur-
rounded by sombre forests, nestling among the hills. Stark is a town
of mountains and hills, and there are several places where the scenery
is indeed picturesque. Approaching Stark station, either from the east
or west, the points of the mountains from the opposite sides of the valley
project by each other so that there seems to be an impassable barrier
across the valley ; but we know that the stream must pass through the
mountains, and Stark station is in the gap of the mountain through
which it passes. On the north is a perpendicular wall of rock forming
a vast amphitheatre, while on the opposite side of the valley, and a little
east, is Mill mountain. Although in every other direction surrounded by
high mountains, yet, looking a little west of south, we can see in the
distance some of the high peaks of the Pilot range. At West Milan
the peaks of the White Mountains begin to appear, and, besides, there
is quite an array of mountains westward. There are some points where
the effect is very fine. It is, however, in the south-east part of Milan,
near the line of Berlin, and perhaps a mile east of the Androscoggin,
that we have one of the most striking views of the White Mountains.

646 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

In Lancaster the view is always grand. Mt. Lyon to the north, and
thence eastward the broad sweep of the Pilot range, and the group of
mountains of which Starr King is the culminating point, are so situated
that every fine sunset gives to them that deep coloring which is the
charm of our mountain scenery. Most of the peaks of the White Moun-
tains can be seen from the village, but a ride of two miles east on the
road to Jefferson, to a point between three hundred and four hundred
feet above the Connecticut, brings them out in bolder relief, and at the
same time gives a charming view of the village and the Connecticut val-
ley. From Mt. Pleasant, which is easy of access, the view is still more
extended, and embraces the mountains southward. From Jefferson hill,
and thence on the road toward Randolph, we get a nearer view of the
mountains ; and the appreciation of the scenery is shown by the demand
for the numerous hotels in this vicinity. At the Mt. Adams house, the
broad sweep of forests, reaching from Israel's river almost to the summits
of the mountains, gives us one of the grandest of our autumn scenes.
From Dalton mountain we have the sweep of the whole horizon: west-
ward, the mountains in Vermont ; the Connecticut valley northward ; the
mountains of Stratford, Mt. Lyon, the Pilot range, Starr King, all the
White Mountains, the chief of the Franconia Mountains, and Moosilauke
southward.

ALBANY SCENERY. — CARROLL COUNTY.

Albany, except one broad interval in the western part, is a succession
of high ridges and mountain peaks. Here is Chocorua, with its serrated
mountain ridge and granitic summit. Of all our mountains, there is
none the summit of which appears so colossal as this, when seen from
the south-east spur. As its forests have been destroyed, standing on
this spur, it seems to be one massive granitic pile rising almost perpen-
dicular from the ridge. But the mountain itself is grand, look at it from
what direction we may, — from Lake Winnipiseogee, Eaton, or Conway,
from Mt. Washington, or the mountains west. Even if we look down
upon it as we pass over this mountain region in a balloon, — which we
have had an opportunity of doing, — on account of its sharpness it seems
more prominent than many mountains of greater height. But Passacon-
naway is the highest mountain in Albany, and, rising as it does nearly

SCENERY OF COOS COUNTY. 647

3000 feet above the interval of Swift river, and having deep ravines on
the east and west, from the north it seems to stand up massive and alone.
From the interval looking towards the north and north-west, we have a
grand view of the mountains ; but, ascending any of the small elevations
south of the interval, the area of vision is increased ten-fold. Towards
Mt. Carrigain the view is almost unobstructed, and there are many gen-
tle undulations, with here and there a granite cliff standing out in bold
relief, besides magnificent forests sweeping away up to the summits
of the mountains ; for none of the mountains to the west have been
denuded of trees. In full view, Mt. Carrigain stands in all its massive
grandeur, while north and south there are sharp peaks and mountain
ridges. Still to the north, and yet not so far distant but that each peak
and mountain ridge stands in sharp outline, the White Mountains rise in
successive culminations, until Mt. Washington, — monarch of the range, —
seems to touch the sky. While the immediate surroundings and the dis-
tant views are among the most attractive in the whole mountain region,
there are two falls not far from the interval, one of which is of exquisite
beauty. One of the falls is on Sabba Day brook, just in the edge of
Waterville. The rock is a common granite, in which there is a trap
dyke, and it is the disintegration of this, probably, that formed the chasm
below where the steep fall now is. Above, just before we come to the
falls, the stream turns to the west, and the water runs through a channel
worn in the solid rock, and then, in one leap of twenty-five feet, it
clears the perpendicular wall of rock, and falls into the basin below al-
most on the opposite side of the chasm. Great is the commotion pro-
duced by the direct fall of so great a body of water, and out of the basin,
almost at right angles with the fall, it goes in whirls and eddies. The
chasm extends perhaps a hundred feet below where the water first strikes.
Its width is from ten to fifteen feet, and the height of the wall is from
fifty to sixty. The water has worn out the granite on either side of the
trap, so that, as the clear, limpid stream flows through the chasm, the
entire breadth of the dyke is seen. The fall of water, the whirls and
eddies of the basin, the flow of the limpid stream over the dark band of
trap set in the bright, polished granite, the high, overhanging wall of
rock, all combine to form a picture of beauty, which, once fixed in the
mind, is a joy forever. The other falls referred to are known as Champ-

648 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

ney falls. There are two streams and two falls, but they are so near that
they are known only as Cnampney falls. The stream on which they are
found is the second stream that flows into Swift river from the south
below Allen's saw-mill, and they are a mile and three quarters from the
road. Following a logging-road that leaves the wagon-road at the first
bridge below the mill, we cross the stream on which the falls are situated
just above where they begin. A person who goes without a guide, and
follows down the stream, will be at first disappointed, for all that is seen
is a small stream, with a few massive blocks of a granitoid rock. It is
true that even here there are immense caverns, and here the stream runs
between two blocks, and then over another, when it falls on the great
sloping ledge, and goes bounding along until it tumbles over a precipitous
ledge, and is lost to view. We see where the water takes its last leap,
yet nowhere does there seem to be anything very remarkable. But a
person ought to see all there is to be seen before judging. We climb
along the ledges, and, by following a rough path, get to the base of the
falls, — yet there is nothing striking, nothing to see, certainly, that could
tempt a person to travel nearly two miles through the woods alone. We
are about to turn away sadly disappointed, when the eye catches a sun-
beam reflected from the water, that seems to be struggling through the
leafy foliage. Then, just there, not a dozen rods away, but almost hidden
by the trees, we discover one of the most beautiful falls in New Hamp-
shire. We stand just at the foot of the fall, on the stream we followed
down. The sunbeams fall aslant through the trees ; the eye follows the
high perpendicular ledge that runs at right angles to the stream, and
through the leaves of the trees we can see a small stream where it comes
over the ledge, then falls down, striking the rock that projects just enough
to throw the water in spray, and break, for an instant only, the continuity
of the stream. In the entire fall there are three of these projections,
where the water is thrown in spray, and, after the last continuous fall, it
rests in a quiet basin, where it flows out and runs into the stream we had
followed down. The entire fall may be sixty feet ; and opposite, thirty
feet distant, there is a ledge as high as that from which the water falls,

*

so that probably where this gorge now is there was once an immense
trap dyke, that has been disintegrated and carried away, and now we
have the beautiful falls.

APPENDIX.

VOL. I. 84

APPENDIX.

Additions io the List of Plants. Since the publication of the catalogue in Chapter
XIII, several friends have added somewhat to the list. The following are all from
Manchester, unless otherwise specified, and they were recognized there more than
twenty years since, before the original growth had been removed to make way for
manufactories, houses, and streets. One of the most interesting is the Cufressus thy-
otdes, as it is a plant growing usually farther south. It illustrates the theory enunciated
upon page 543, occurring in Manchester in connection with the Rhododendron, Italics
denote naturalized plants, as before.

Papaver Rhceas.
Hanover.

Cerastium vulgatum.

Vitis cordifolia ;
var. riparia.

Collutea arborescens.

Vicia tetrasperma.

Poterium Canadense. Burnet.

Pyrus arbutifolia.

var. melanocarpa.

Lythrum Hyssopifolia.
Hampton.

Mitella nuda.
Hanover.

Zizia integerrima.
Eupatorium pubescens.
E. teucrifolia.
Sericocarpus solidagineus.

Aster carneus.
A. Novae- Angliae.

A. tenuifolius.

Solidago patula.

Bidens bipinnata.

Ambrosia trifida.

Artemisia vulgaris.

Cynthia Virginica.

Anthemis arvensis. Chamomile.

Onopordon acanthiutn. Scotch thistle.

Leucothoe racemosa.

Pterospora Andromedea. Pine drops.
Hanover.

Utricularia resupinata.

Aphyllon uniflorum. Cancer root.

Veronica peregrina.

Gerardia purpurea.

Galeopsis Lodanum.

Bartonia tenella.

652

APPENDIX.

Apocynum cannabinum ;
var. hypericifolium.

Amarantus hypochondriacus .

A, spinosus.

Rumex salicifolius.

Quercus bicolor. Swamp White oak.

Q. Prinus ;

var. humilis. A Chinquapin oak.

Salix tristis.

S. nigra;

var. falcata.

Cupressus thyoides. White cedar.
Manchester and Newton.

Lemna polyrrhiza.
Iris Virginica.
Juncus militaris.

Eleocharis pygmaea.

Rhynchospora capillacea.

Scirpus polyphyllus.

S. lineatus.

Spartina cynosuroides.

Carex siccata.

C. Emmonsii.

C. Kneiskernii.

C. polymorpha.

Bromus Kalmii.

Panicum pauciflorum.

Equisetum variegatum.
Hanover.

E. scirpoides.
Hanover.

As some have thought the list of lichens, on pp. 413 and 414, was intended to com-
prehend everything of that class of plants, I will take occasion to say that it is intended
to embrace only those which are peculiar to the White Mountains, but not those which
grow there, and elsewhere, also. The list was compiled from Prof. Tuckerman's two
valuable books, bearing the dates of 1872 and 1848. It is hoped that, by calling atten-
tion to the plants peculiar to the mountains, botanists may be induced to investigate
further the question of tke limits between the alpine and sub-alpine districts.

River Systems. Mr. Upham desires to correct the opening statement of Chapter
XI, that one sixth part of New Hampshire is covered by water. The estimate was
borrowed without reflection from the report of the New Hampshire Hydrographic Com-
mission in 1870. He thinks the figure should be not more than one eighteenth, instead
of one sixth.

Note to page 247. I understand that the boundary between Carlisle's and the Acad-
emy grants has been run out the present season, in accordance with the original line
of forty-five degrees of north latitude.

Average Elevation. The average elevation of the land above the ocean should have
been stated at twelve instead of fourteen hundred feet, on page 296.

INDEX TO VOLUME I.

A 1 1 J agC-

Acknowledgments, ... 27, 58
Academy grant, .... 247
Acts authorizing geological surveys, 4, 13

Agassiz, L 34, 46, 58

Agents of erosion, . . . .591
Agricultural geology, . . 8, 546

Aiken, W 79, 82

Albany granite, .... 528
" mountains, .... 196
" scenery, .... 646

Alder, 389

Alleghanian fauna, . . . 332-336
382, 560, 574

Alpine and sub-alpine faunas, . . 336
floras, . 392, 571
ALTITUDES :

Reference lines, 250 ; along B., C.
& M. R. R., 273; along B., L. &
N. R. R., 268 ; along extension,
269; along B. & M. R. R., 253,
263 ; along Blackwater River R.R.,
273 ; along Central Vt. R. R., 262 ;
along Cheshire R. R., 252, 259;
along Concord R. R., 250, 258;
along Concord & Portsmouth R.
R., 250, 257 ; along Connecticut &
Passumpsic R. R., 262; along C.
& R. R. R., 269 ; along C. & C. R.
R., 272 ; along Contoocook Valley
R. R., 273 ; along E. & S. R. R.,
266; along G. T. R., 275; along
M. & N. W. R. R., 271 ; along M.
& P. R. R., 271 ; along N. & R. R.
R., 267 ; along N. R. R. of N. H.,
251, 258 ; along P., Gt. F. & C. R.
R., 253, 264 ; along P. & O. R. R.,
254, 265; along Sullivan R. R.,
261 ; along Suncook Valley R. R.,
270; along Vt. & Mass. R. R.,
260 ; along Vt. Valley R. R., 260 ;

Page.

along W. & L. R. R., 268 ; surveys
in Gilmanton and Belmont, 270 ;
along state boundaries, 176, 177;
about Concord, 278; along Con-
necticut river, 177, 251, 260, 304;
along geological section lines, 256,
283 ; along Androscoggin river,
311 ; along Merrimack river, 308;
along Piscataqua river, 313 ; along
Saco river, 312; miscellaneous,
255, 282 ; of mountains, 279 ; of
villages, 275 ; of notches about the
White Mountains, 282 ; about Mt.
Kearsarge, 273; about Manches-
ter, 276 ; about Nashua, 276 ; along
main water-shed, .... 209

Analyses by Dr. Jackson, . . 552
Anderson, J. F. . . . 254, 265

Anemometer, 118

Androscoggin lakes, . . . 310
" river, . . 301, 309

Arbor-vitae, 384

Archaean, 511

Arctic climate in New Hampshire, . 121

Area of New Hampshire, . .169

Argillaceous schists, . . .18

Ascent of Mt. Adams, . . . 613

" " " in May, . 116

Ascent of Mt. Washington, . .617

" " " perilous,

83, 86, 105, 107

Atlantic, definition of ... 522

" period, .... 515

Atmospheric disintegration, . . 591

" moisture, . . .122

Average height of state, . . 296, 652

Auriferous conglomerate, . . 18

" slates, .... 536

Azoic, 511, 532

Azimuth of polar star, . . .168

654

INDEX TO VOLUME I.

Baker, Eben

Uall, 11. L

Barrows, N. . . 47, 251.

" on alpine plants, .

Beech, ......

Bell, J. J

" S. N. . . 28, 49, 58,

Belknap, Dr. . . . 65, 70,

Bemis, S. A

Berlin falls, .....
Bethlehem gneiss, . . 33, 515,
Bigelow's lawn, . .61, 69, 70,

Billings, E»

Birch,

Birds, distribution of ...

Blanpied, B. T

Blueberry, .....

Bond, G. P ' .

Boott, F

Boott's Spur, ....
Boundary of state, eastern

" " northern . 171,

" " western & south-

ern

Boundary survey, ....
" between Canadian and Al-
leghanian districts, . 332-336,
Boundary, northern, scenery along .
Boundaries, elevations along .

" requiring survey, .

Bourne, Miss

" monument, 83, 104, 106,
Bradley, C. F. & F. A. . . 47,
Brecciated granite, ....
Bronson's lime-kiln,
Brydges, C. J. ... 28,

Bryent, W

Building materials, ....
Butternut,

Page.

6

83
395
568

335
266
270
228

70
632
526
338

48

385

558

16

388

68

66

60

173
219

176

21

574
638
176
246

83

621

251
35
19

275

174

8

386

21,

Calciferous mica schist, . 17, 27, 537

Cambrian, 10, 536

Canadian district, . . 332-336, 382

" birds, .... 560

" plants naturalized on Mt.

Washington,

Canons,

Carrigain, P

Carrigain's map,
Carrigain group of mountains,
Carpenter, W. B. .
Carlisle's grant,

Cascades, .... 630, 640

" on Indian stream, . . 640

Casualties upon Mt. Washington, . 82

Cavis, C. H. V 80

Catalogue of plants, . 395, 649, 651
birds, . . . 560

Cedar, 384

Cenozoic, ..... 507
Champney falls, .... 647

572
592
69
232

• 193
. 510

247, 652

Page.
83

6

6, 8
566
105
191
386
579

Chandler, B. .

" J

Channing, W. F. .

Champlain period, submergence in
Cheney, C. B.
Cherry Mountain district,
Chestnut, ....

" large,

Chiogenes, ..... 388
Chocorua granite, .... 529
Chrysolite, analysis of . .39

Clay slate, ... 18, 36, 536
Climatology of New Hampshire, . 119
Climate of New Hampshire, healthy 122
Climates, recent changes in . . 543
Clough, A. F. . . 24, 93, 101, 102

105, 129, 132

" journal of . . -94

Clouds, .... 109, 114, 116

" on Mt. Washington, . . 134

Clethra, 388

Coast Slope district, . . .213
Coast Survey, U. S. 21, 150, 154,237, 296

" " geographical po-

sitions determined by . . . 238

Cobb's Stairs, 628

Coe and Pingree, .... 79
Cold, greatest, on Mt. Washington, no
Colonies, ..... 544

Components of magnetism, . . 149
Composition of soils, . . . 552
Connecticut River basin, . 290, 302

" " altitudes, . 47, 177

251.

260, 304

. 222

" lakes,

" " map, ... 46

" " district, . .177

Concord granite, . . . 54, 522

Contour lines, 290

Contoocook river, .... 309
Conway granite, .... 528

Coos county, 25

" county, streams in . . . 222
" " topography of . .216
" group, 27,31,36,45,54,523,536
" and Essex district, . . .182

Copper belt, 19

" mines, .... 19

Corals, fossil ..... 48

Cornels, 387

Corona on Mt. Washington, . . 115
County maps, . . . . .21
Cram, T. J. . . . .69

Crawford, A 66, 72

E. A. 67, 69, 73, 78, 80, 87
" " history of the White

Mountains, . . 74
" path, . . 80, 618

T-J 79

house, .... 79

Cranberry, ..... 389

Credner, H 532

INDKX TO VOLUME I.

Page.
49
637
63I
568

631

Crinoids,

Crown monument, . . 172, 218
Crystal cascade, ....
Crustacea, marine, in fresh water, .

Cuba falls

Culver hall, 57

Cutler, M 64, 70

Current from south-west, . .119
Cyclones, course of . . . .121

Dana, E. S ..... 38-40
" J. D., 38; letter from, 40;
calls Eozoic rocks Ar-
chaean, . . -Sii
Dartmouth college, .... 20
students as explorers,

Scientific Association,
Davis bridle-path, . . .
Dawson, J. W. . . .
Declination of needle, .

DlATOMACEyE, INDEX TO :

32,

30
36

61, 80

.510

153, 164

Achnanthes brevipes, Fig. 14, . 488

" longipes, . . . 488

Achnanthes, structure of . . 438

Achnanthidium, .... 453

Actinoptychus, structure of . . 430

/Ecidium asterum, .... 505

" Dracontii, . . . 505

" grossulariae, . . . 505

" Viola?, .... 505

Amphitetras, form of ... 425

" structure of . .432

Arachnoidiscus, .... 488

Aulacodiscus Oregonensis, Fig. 28, 488

" structure of . . 428

Bacillaria paradoxa, . . .441

" " in fresh water, . 442
" " mode of move-

ment of . 442

Bemis lake deposit, . . . 502

Berg-mehl, ..... 461

Bidclulphia aurita, .... 488
Baileyii, . . .488

regina, .... 488
rhombus, F. V., Fig. 22.
S.V.,Fig. 21.

structure of . . . 431

Bow deposit, ..... 503

Bowkerville deposit, . . . 503

Bristol deposit, .... 503

Campylodiscus, movement of . . 440

Cell subdivision, .... 445

Central canal of diatomacene, . . 434

Central nodule of diatomaceae, . 434

Closterium angustatum, . . . 505

Cell-contents of diatomaceae, . . 424

Cell, typical, of Schwann,
Cocconeis, ....
Cocconema, ....

cistula, conjugation of .
Connecting membrane of diatoma-
ceas, ....
Coscinodiscus radiatus, Fig. 10.

" structure of

" subtilis,

Colletonema, ....
Concord deposit, ....
Cosmarium Botrytis,
Chalk pond, Newbury deposit,
Cyclotella, .... 433
Cingulum of diatomaceas,
Coscinodiscus, form of .

Dutch rushes, diatomaceae upon
Dust containing diatomaceae, how to

collect,

Diatoma vulgare. Fig. 20.
Diatom, typical form of a . 424,
Diatoma, . . . .421,
" to cut through .
" hyalinum, ....
Diatomaceae,

Natural history of, 416-419 ; mixed
gatherings of, to separate into den-
sities, 496 ; preserving and mount-
ing, 496 ; little known to biologists,
420; origin of name, 421 ; where
found, 422 ; under ice, 423 ; struc-
ture of, 423 ; cell-contents of, 424;
oil globules of, 425 ; feeding, 425 ;
valves of, 425 ; delicacy of mark-
ings of, 426 ; movements of, 438 ;
mode of movement of, not known,
441 ; movements of, accelerated by
heat, 441 ; internal anatomy of,
445 ; how to collect, 482 ; mode of
growth of, 444 ; variation of, 448 ;
rapid multiplication of, 448 ; re-
production of, 449 ; stipes or pedi-
cle of, 449 ; modes of occurrence
of, 456 ; uses to man of, 456 ; in
moist earth, 456; in mosses on
house-tops, 456; in dust, 456; in
mud, 458 ; in stomachs of mollus-
ca, 458 ; in stomachs of sea ur-
chins and sea cucumbers, 459 ; in
guano, 459 ; semi-fossil, 460 ; fos-
sil, fresh-water, 460 ; used as food
by man, 461 ; fertilizing power of,
462 ; on algae, 458 ; lacustrine sed-
imentary deposits of, 460 ; living,
color of, 457 ; used as food, 461 ;
deposits of, use as fertilizers, 462 ;
and geology, 463 ; in mud, 472 ;
directions for collecting, preserv-
ing, and transporting, 478 ; fossil
deposits of, how to collect, 478 ;
recent gatherings of, how to col-

655

Page.
445

453
453
454

425

430
489
453
503
505
503
.453
425
425

484

425
449
421
488

656

INDEX TO VOLUME I.

lect, 484 ; how to prepare for ex-
amination and study, 486; to
clean, 489 ; recent gatherings of,
to clean, 492 ; guano containing, to
clean, 494 ; used for soluble glass,

Desmidiae of New Hampshire,

Desmidium Swartzii,

Docidium nodulosum,

Didymoprium Borreri,

Durham deposit, ....

Endochrome, .....
Epithemia,

" reproduction of

" turgicla, Fig. 26.

Encyonema,

Eupodiscus argus, ....
Epsom deposit, ....

Fungi, parasitic, of New Hampshire,
Fertilizer, sea mud used as a .
Fluviatile fossil deposits, mode of for-
mation of

Fossil, definition of.

Fragilaria,

Frustule, ....

Grammatophora, structure of

449.

serpentina, .
marina, Fig. 15, .
Gomphonema, structure of

reproduction of

constrictum, Fig. 13.
Guano, origin of ... 459,
" how to collect
" cleaning of .

Page.

462
504
505
5°5
5°5
503

424
453

453

489

5°3

5°5
477

463
465

457
424

437
449
488
488
438
45 i
453

473
482

494

Heliopelta Metii, Fig. 17.
Himantidium pectinale, F. V., Fig. 31.
Himantidium pectinale, S. V., Fig. 30.
Himantidium, . . . 449, 453, 457
Hyalosira delicatula, . . . 488

Infusorial earths, .... 460

Laconia deposit, .... 503

Littleton deposit, .... 503

Lacustrine sedimentary deposits, . 460

in New Hampshire, . . . 502

how to collect, . . . .481

mode of formation of . . . 463

to clean, 495

Lichmaphora flabellata, Fig. 24.

449

Marine fossil deposits, to clean . 495

Markings of diatomaceae, . . 426

" shape of . 427

Melosira, structure of ... 430

... 449.453-457

Page.

Melosira varians, gonidia or motile

spores of ... 453
" varians, Fig. 16.

Median line of diatomaceae, . • 434

Meridion, 449

Maury's theories of atmospheric cur-
rents, 457

Marine invertebrata, containing dia-

tomacex, how to collect . . 483
Muds containing diatomaceae, how to

collect 482

Monterey stone, .... 479

Mountain meal, .... 461

Marine fossil deposits, formation of 472

Manchester deposit, . . . 503

Micrasterias denticulata, . . . 505

" crenata, . . . 505
Meridion circulare, Fig. 32.

Navicula lyra, Fig. 35.

serians, Fig. 36.
quadrata, Fig. 37.
didyma, Fig. 11.
Barklayana, Fig. 25.
praetexta, Fig. 29.

457

structure of ... 435

Oil globules of diatomaceae, . . 425

Orthosira, 453

Pediastrum Boryanum, . . . 505

Perth deposit 503

Pike's Pond deposit, . . . 503
Pinnularia nobilis, Fig. 3.

" form of . . . . 425

" lata, Fig. 27.

" structure of . 433

Pleurosigima angulata, Fig. 5, . 436

Balticum, Fig. 8, . 436

fasciola, Fig. 6, . . 436

quadratum, Fig. 9, . 436

structure of . -435

457

Palmogloea, Fig. 23.

" macrococca, life history

of 446

Polishing powder 462

Protophytes, ..... 445

Pinnulae of Pinnularia, . . . 434
Polygastrica, . . . .421, 425

Protista, 422

Protoplasm, 423

Rhabdonema, .... 449, 453

" structure of . . 438

" arcuatum, Fig. 4, . 488

Rhabdonema, Adriaticurn, . . 488

Rhizosolenia styliformis, . . . 488

Schizonema, .
Sub-peat deposits, .

449. 452, 453
. 464

INDEX TO VOLUME I.

657

Sporangium of diatomacea2, forma-
tion of .
Synedra tabulata, Fig. 19.

" structure of-
Schizonema obtusum, Fig. 18.
Stamp Act Island deposit,
Staurastrum polymorphum,
Soundings, how to collect
Soluble glass, use of diatomacece for
Stauroneis, front view of .

" acuta, F. V., Fig. 34.
" S. V., Fig. 33.

" structure of .
Septum of diatomaceae, .
Stipes of diatomaceae,
Sub-plutonic deposits, to clean
Shell cleanings, how to collect

Terminal nodule of diatomaceae,
Triceratium, structure of .

Wilkesii,

Montereyii, Fig. i.

punctatum, F. V., Fig. 2.

" S.V.,Fig.7.

form of ...

favus, Fig. 12,

Test objects for microscopes, .
Terpsince musica, ....
Tripoli, ....
Typical cell of Schwann,
Tabellaria,

Page.
451
438

5°3
5°5
483
462

437

435
437
438
495
482

434
432
488

425
489
427

Umbagog Lake deposit, .
Valves of diatomaceae, .

424, 462

• 445

• 457

• 503

• 425

Zostera marina, diatomaceae upon . 488

Dip, magnetic, lines of equal . 150, 152
" " daily and annual va-

riations of . . 157
Districts, middle and northern, 381 ;
maritime, 381, 564; Alleghanian,
332, 382, 560, 574 ; Canadian, 332,
382, 560, 574; Alpine, 336, 392, 571
Dixville Notch, . . . .641
" " origin of . . 623, 643

Dodge, J. W 79

" mine, 16

Drift hills, 214

Drouth, . . . .123, 324, 330
Dwight, President . 72, 75, 178, 203, 245

Eagle's Nest, 625

Edwards, A. M 48

" on diatomaceae, . 416

Egleston, T 48

Elevations. See altitudes.
Elevation, theory of . . .518

Elm, 386 ; large ones, . . . 580
VOL. I. 85

„ . Page.

Engine, mountain .... 82

Eozoic, 507; divided, 508; life in,

508; signification of name, . .511
Eozoon, . . . . . .510

Erosion, agents of, 591 ; amount of,
592 ; in rainless and rainy coun-
tries, 592

Errol, scenery of . . . 643

Expedition, Mt. Washington, history

of, 96 ; narrative of, 102 ; home of, 103
Explorations in White Mountains,

29, 32, 36
Exeter siemte, . . 27, 55, 57, 530

Fabyan house, .... 79

" Path 73, 80

" turnpike, .... 80
Fairbanks, H. .... 52

Favosites, 43

Featherstonhaugh, G. W. . . 524
Felsites, ...... 56

Fertilizers, 547

" use of . . . . 554
" composition of . -555

Field, Darby 59

Fires in forests, . . 75, 125, 581
First visit to Mt. Washington, . 59
First dry land, . . . .511

Flint, William F., on distribution of

plants, 381

Flora of New Hampshire, . . 382

" alpine .... 392, 568

Flume at Dixville, .... 642

" house 80

Flumes, 593

Forest, extent of .... 575
" removal and restoration of

577, 581

influence of, on rain-fall, 123, 321
Fossils discovered, .... 48
Franconia breccia, . . 515, 522, 526

Frost action 597

" work, ..... 130
" feathers, .... 131

Geodetic connection survey, . . 241
Geographic position affects amount
of rain-fall, 314 ; its relation to sce-
nery, 590 ; positions determined
by C. S., 238; by geological sur-
vey, 239; by geodetic connection

survey, 241

Geological map, by Dr. Jackson, . 9
of first year, . . 17
of second year, . 26
of the White Moun-
tains . 33, 67
of southern N. H., 50
of gold field, 22, 46

658

INDEX TO VOLUME I.

Page.

Geological structure, as related to

water-power, . . . . 317
Georgianna falls, . . . 215, 630
Gilbert, Mrs. D. W. . . . 395

Giant's grave 72, 79

Glacial action in erosion, . . 594
Glacier period, ... 57, 539
Glen Ellis falls, . . . .632

" house, 80

Gneiss 17, 31, 34, 54

Goessman, C. A. . . . 555

Gold field, map of . . . 22, 46
Gold, origin of ... 533, 537

Goodwin, W. A 88

Goodrich, H. W 274

Grafton County boundary, . . 246

Granite, 27, 34, 56

" trachytic . . . 35, 38
" porphyritic 27, 33, 49, 55, 512
" concentric structure in . 600
" sculpturing of ... 599

Gray, A 101, 336, 571

" Manual, . . . 395, 565

Gregg, J. L 274

Guyot, A. ... 69, 275, 297

Hackmatack, 384

Hale, E. E 8, 197

Hall, J. S 78, 85

Hampton Falls River system, . . 302
Harriman, W. . . . 15

Haystack lake, .... 32
Hearne, M. L. . . . -91

Heath family, 388

Helderberg rocks discovered, . . 48

life 539

period 538

Hemlock, 384 ; large ones, . . 580
Henry, J. .... 91, 121
Herbaceous plants, .... 389

Hickory, 386

Hilgard, T. C 154

Hill, T 30

History of exploring White M't'ns, 59
" Jackson's survey, . . 3
" geological survey, . . 13
" Mt. Washington expedi-
tion, .... 96
History, physical, of New Hamp., . 506
Hitchcock, C. H., chapters by 3, 13, ,29
169, 227, 248, 506, 546, 559, 586
Hitchcock, E. . 4, 27, 179, 527, 532
" Mary . . .52, 395
Hobble bush, . • ... 388

Holbrook, L 49

Holden, L. L 103, 114

Holland's map, .... 228
Home of Mt. Washington expedition, 103
Hotels at White Mountains, . . 78
Howe, R. S. . 252, 270, 272-274, 297
Hunt, T. S. . n, 41, 510, 532

Page.

Hunt, T. S., letter from ... 37
" views on Montalban

group, . . . 522
Huntington, J. H. 16, 22-27, 3°> 36, 37
46, 48, 52, 92-94, 97, 99, 102, 107-117
Huntington, J. H., journal of . .104
" on climatology, . 119

' ' on eastern bound-

ary, . .173

on topography of

Coos county, . 216
" on forests, . . 581

" on scenery of Coos

county, . . 636
" on cascades, . 642

Huntington's ravine, . 116, 187, 188
Huronian period, .... 532
" " in relation to Lab-

rador series, . 535
Hydrographic capacity determined
by geographical position, . . 314
by geological structure, . .317
by elevation, . . . .318

by forests, 321

by lakes, 322

by temperature, . . . 325, 327

by rain-fall, 326

Hydrographic basins, . . . 299
Hypozoic, . . . .511, 532

Ice action in erosion, . . . 594

" beneficial to soils, . . 549

Ice currents in Glacial period, . 540

" period, 539

Inclination of magnetic needle, 149, 151
Indian legends, ... 62, 69
Insects, N. H., in Culver hall, . 52
" distribution of, in N. H., . 331
Insects, observations on, by Whit-
ney 563

INSECTS, INDEX TO :

acadica, Thecla .... 356
Achalarus Lycidas, .... 360
aequalis, Stenobothrus . . . 373
" Trimerotropis . . . 377
ALtna, Hedone .... 362
Agassiz. Zoological areas of North

America, 332

Aglais Milberti, .... 352
Alleghanian fauna, limits of . 332-336
Allen. Limits of Canadian and Alle-
ghanian faunas 332

Alope, Minois 349

Alpine and sub-alpine faunas, . . 336
Alpine zone of White Mountains, 338, 339
Alps ; their relation to White Moun-
tains 342, 343

Amaryssus Polyxenes, . . . 359
Amblyscirtes Samoset, . . . 361

]

NDEX TO VOLUME I.

659

Amblyscirtes vialis, .

Page.

. 361 cristata, Batrachidea

Page.

americana, Lycaena
Ancylox)-pha Numitor, .
Anthomaster Leonardus, .

. 358 curtipennis, Stenobothrus
. 361 curvicauda, Phaneroptera
. 361 Cyaniris Lucia,

372
366

Antiopa, Papilio
Aphrodite, Argynnis
Arcyptera gracilis, .

• 352 " neglecta, .
• 354 " violacea, .
• 373 Cybele, Argynnis ....

357
357
353

" lineata, .
Argus Eurydice,

• 373 Cyclopides Mandan,
• 349

*J J+J

361

Argynnis Aphrodite,

• 354 Danaus Plexippus, ....

35°

" Atlantis, .

• 354 Diapheromera femorata, .

379

" Cybele,

. 353 Disippe, Basilarchia

no

Arphia sulphurea, .

• 377 dorsalis, Thyreonotus

jj
37°

" xanthoptera,
Arthemis, Basilarchia
Astyanax, Basilarchia
Atalanta, Vanessa .

' 377 Edwardsii, Thecla ....
35 Encyrtus Montinus,
35 Enodia Portlandia, ....

356
347
348

Atlantis, Argynnis .
atrox, Camnula
Atrytone Zabulon, .
Augustus, Incisalia .

ensiger, Conocephalus
354 Epargyreus Tityrus,
~£ Epixanthe, Chrysophanus
~ , Erynnis Brizo,
Icelus, ....

367
360
358
360
360

Bachmanii, Libythea

. 356 " Juvenalis, ....

360

Basilarchia Arthemis,

. 350 " Lucilius, ....

360

Astyanax, . .

350 " Persius, ....

760

" Disippe,

. 350 Eulophus semideae, ....

347

Batrachidea cristata,

. 37p Euphceades Glaucus,

359

Bellona, Brenthis .

. 355 Euphydryas Phaeton,

355

bimacula, Limochores

. 362 Euphyes Metacomet,

362

bivittatus, Melanoplus

. 376 " verna

362

borealis Gryllotalpa,

. 363 Eurema Lisa,

358

" Pezotettix,

374 Eurydice, Argus ....

349

Brenthis Bellona, .

355 Eurytus, Megisto ....

349

" Montinus, .

. 354 Everes Comyntas, ....

357

" Myrina,
brevipenne, Xiphidium .
Brizo, Erynnis
Butterflies of Alps, .
" New Hampshire,
" White Mountains,

3|g fasciatum, Xiphidium
3, fasciatus, Nemobius
3 Fauna, Alleghanian, limits of . 332,
344-362 " Canadian, limits of . 332,
rTT •? Alpine and sub-alpine,
IAA nA Faunas, Labradorian and Hudsonian,

368
365
336
336
336

their relations to White Mountains,

337

Calanus, Thecla

. 356 Faunus, Polygonia ....

351

Calipareus Melinus,

. 356 femorata, Diapheromera .

379

378 femur-rubrum, Melanoplus . .

" pellucida, '.

. 378 Feniseca Tarquinius,

358

Canadian fauna, limits of

332, 336

cardui, Vanessa

• 353 Ganoris oleracea, ....

359

Carolina, CEdipoda .

. 376 " rapae, . .

358

Catullus, Pholisora .

. 361 germanica, Phyllodromia

379

Ceuthophilus maculatus, .

• 366 glacialis, Pezotettix

374

Charidryas Nycteis,

• 355 Glaucus, Euphreades

359

Chloealtis conspersa,

. 370 gracilis, Arcyptera ....

373

Chrysophanus epixanthe,

. 358 " Polygonia ....

Hyllus, .

• 357 granulata, Tettix ....

378

Chrysochraon viridis,

. 372 Gryllotalpa borealis,

363

Coenia, Junonia

. 353 Gryllus luctuosus, ....

363

Colias Philodice,

• 358

comma, Polygonia .

. 351 Harrisii, Limnaecia ....

355

Comyntas, Everes .

• 357 Hedone ALtna, ....

362

Conocephalus ensiger,

. 367 Hianna, Lerema ....

O"~

362

" robustus, .

. 367 Hippiscus phcenicopterus,

377

conspersa, Chloealtis

. 370 " rugosa, ....

377

66o

INDEX TO VOLUME I.

Page.
Hudsonian fauna : its relation to the

White Mountains, . . . 337

Huntera, Vanessa .... 352
Hyllus, Chrysophanus . . -357

Icelus, Erynnis .... 360
Insects,

Distribution of, in New Hampshire,
331-380 ; in the White Mouritains,
336-342 ; in the Alps and White

Mountains compared, . . . 343

Incisalia Augustus, .... 356

Irus, 357

" Niphon, .... 357

infuscata, Tragocephala . . .. 373

interrogations, Polygonia . . 351

Irus, Incisalia ..... 357

J. Album, Nymphalis . . . 352

Junonia Ccenia, .... 353

Juvenalis, Erynnis .... 360

Labia minuta, 380

Labrador, insects of, compared with

those of White Mountains, . 339, 341
Labradorian fauna : its relation to

the White Mountains, . . . 337

Laertias Philenor, .... 359

lateralis, Tettigidea . . . 379
LeConte. Entomological provinces

of the United States, . . . 332

Leonardus, Anthomaster . . . 361

Lerema Hianna, .... 362

Libythea Bachmanii, . . . 356

Limochores bimacula, . . . 362

" Manataaqua, . . 362

" Mystic, . . . 362

" Taumas . . . 362

Limnascia Harrisii, . . . 355

lineata, Arcyptera . . . 373

Liparops, Thecla . . . 356

Lisa, Eurema . ... 358

luctuosus, Gryllus . . . 363
Lucia, Cyaniris . . -357

Lucilius, Erynnis . . . 360

Lycaena americana, . . . 358

Lycidas, Achalams . . . 360

maculatus, Ceuthophilus . . . 366

maculipennis, Stenobothrus . . 373

Manataaqua, Limochores . . 362

manca, Pezotettix .... 374

Mandan, Cyclopides . . . 361

maritima, Trimerotropis . . . 378

Massasoit, Poanes .... 361

Megisto Eurytus, .... 349

Melanoplus bivittatus, . . . 376

" femur-rubrum, . . 375

" punctulatus, . . . 376

" spretus, . . . 375

Metacomet, Euphyes . . . 362

Metea, Ocytes 361

Page.

Milberti, Aglais .... 352

Minois Alope, ..... 349

" Nephele, .... 349

minuta, Labia 380

Montinus, Encyrtus . . . 347

" Brenthis .... 354

Mountain region of White Mountains, 341

Myrina, Brenthis .... 354

Mystic, Limochores . . . 362

neglecta, Cyaniris .... 357

Nemobius fasciatus, . . . 365

" vittatus, .... 364

Nephele, Minois .... 349
New Hampshire,

Distribution of insects in, 331-380 ;
butterflies of, 344-362 ; Orthoptera

of, 362, 380

Niphon, Incisalia .... 357

niveus, CEcanthus .... 365

Numitor, Ancyloxypha . . . 361

Nycteis, Charidryas . . . 355

Nymphalis J. album, . . . 352

oblongifolia, Phylloptera
Ocytes Metea, .
CEcanthus niveus, .
CEdipoda Carolina, .
CEneis, habits of

366
361
365
376
344

CEneis semidea, .... 344

oleracea, Ganoris .... 359

Orchelimum vulgare, . . . 368

ornata, Tettix .... 379
Orthoptera of White Mountains,

339' 340, 374
Orthoptera of New Hampshire, 362-380

Pamphila Sassacus 361

Papilio Antiopa, .... 352

Parasites of CEneis semidea, . . 347

Peckius, Polites .... 362

pellucida, Camnula .... 378

Persius, Erynnis .... 360

Pezotettix borealis, .... 374

" glacialis, .... 374

" manca, .... 374

Phaeton, Euphydryas . . . 355

Phaneroptera curvicauda, . . 366

Philenor, Laertias .... 359

Philodice, Colias .... 358

phrenicopterus, Hippiscus . . 377

Pholisora Catullus, .... 361

Phyciodes Tharos, .... 355

Phyllodromia germanica, . .' 379

Phylloptera oblongifolia, . . . 360

Plexippus, Danaus .... 350

Poanes Massasoit, .... 361

Polites Peckius, .... 362

Polygonia comma, . . . . 351

" Faunus, . . . . 351

" gracilis 351

" interrogationis, . • 351

INDEX TO VOLUME I.

66 1

Polygonia Progne, .
polymorpha, Tettigidea
Polyxena, Amaryssus
Portlandia, Enodia .
Progne, Polygonia .
Pterourus Troilus, .
punctulatus, Melanoplus
Pylades, Thorybes .

rapae, Ganoris .
robustus, Conocephalus
rugosa, Hippiscus .

Page.
351

379
359
348
35i
359
376
360

358
367
377

Samoset, Amblyscirtes . . . 361
Sassacus, Pamphila . . . .361
Scudder. Distribution of insects in

New Hampshire, . . . 331-380
semidea, CEneis .... 344
semideae, Eulophus . . . 347

Smith. Habits of Chloealtis con-

spersa, . . . . . 371
sordida, Tragocephala . . . 373
Speyeria Idalia, .... 353
spretus, Melanoplus . . . 375
Stenobothrus asqualis, . . . 373
" curtipennis, . . 372
" maculipennis, . . 373
Styrmon Titus, .... 357
Sub-alpine zone of the White Moun-
tains, 338, 339

sulphurea, Arphia .... 377

Tarquinius, Feniseca
Taumas, Limochores
Tettigidea lateralis, ....

polymorpha, .
Tettix granulata, ....

" ornata, .....

" polymorpha, ....
Tharos, Phyciodes ....
Thecla acadica, ....

" Calanus, ....

" Edwardsii, ....

" Liparops, ....
Thorybes Pylades, ....
Thyreonotus dorsalis,
Titus, Strymon ....
Tityrus, E'pargyreus
Tragocephala infuscata, .

" sordida,

Trees, limits of, in the Wh'ite Moun-
tains, 338

triangularis, Tettix ....
Trimerotropis asqualis, .
" maritima, .

" verruculata,

Troilus, Pterourus, ....
True. Ravages of Melanoplus fe-

mur-rubrum, . . • 375. 37$

358
362

379
379
378
379
379
355

356
356
360

37°
357
360

373
373

Vanessa Huntera, .
verna, Euphyes .
Verrill. Limits of Canadian and Al-

leghanian faunas,
verruculata, Trimerotropis
vialis, Amblyscirtes
violacea, Cyaniris .
viridis, Chrysochraon
vittatus, Nemobius
vulgare, Orchelimum

Page.

352
362

332
377
361
357
372
364
368

White Mountains,

Distribution of insects in, 336-342 ;
physical features of, 337, 342, 343 ;
limits of trees on, 338 ; alpine and
sub-alpine zones of, 338, 336 ; rela-
tion of insects to those of Labra-
dor, 339-341 ; butterflies of, 339,
340, 344, 354 ; Orthoptera of, 339,
340, 374 ; mountain region of, 341 ;
comparison with the Alps in phys-
ical features, 342, 343 ; in insects, 343

xanthoptera, Arphia
Xiphidium brevipenne,
" fasciatum,

377
368
368

Zabulon, Atrytone .... 361
Zones of life in the White Moun-
tains, 339-342

Zoological areas in North America, . 332

Introduced plants, .... 394
Intensity of terrestrial magnetism, . 149
Isochimenal lines, . . . .127
Isotheral lines, . . . .127
Isothermal lines, . . . .126
Iron ores, origin of . . . . 508
" suggest existence of plants, 508

Isles of Shoals, 169, 176, 215, 238, 533
Jackson, C. T. 5-12, 69, 73, 275, 552, 642
' ' theory of New Hamp-
shire structure . 9
Jackson falls, ..... 632
Jacob's Ladder, . . 82, 105, 619
Josselyn's rarities, . . . . 61
Juniper, 384

379
377

-??8

Kaolin, origin of
Kimball, H. A.

. 550, 591

101, 102, 105, 107
32

j/°
377
359

King's ravine, .

. 607, 613

Vanessa Atalanta,
" cardui,

352
353

Labradorite, analysis of . . 37» 39' 4°

Labrador system, . . . 37. 531

" in Canada, . . 531

•« in Vermont, . 529

662

INDEX TO VOLUME I.

Page.

Labrador system, discovery of its
members, 42 ; their relative posi-
tion, ...... 44

Labrador period, .... 527

tea 388

Lafayette and Twin Mountain dist., 196
Lake Champlain, .... 8

district 303

gneiss, . . . 56, 515, 526
Tacarigua, . . . .124
Lakes of the Clouds, 61, 69, 187, 189, 618
render flow of outlets constant, 324
time of freezing over, . .129
Lancaster, scenery of ... 646
Larch, size of . . . . . 579
Laurentian, . . . 508-511, 526
Lee sides of ledges, . . . 595

Lesley, J. P 38

Levelling, ..... 46
Lichens of White Mountains, . 413, 652
Life, evidences of, in Eozoic period, 508

Little, W 93, 207

Lime, 550

Limestone, evidence of animal life, 510
Local glaciers, . . 34, 46, 542
Logan, W. E. . . 17, 510, 525

Levering, J. W. . . . 254, 265
Lower schists, . . . .18

Lund, C. C. . . 250, 268, 269

Macadamized road of Mt. Washing-
ton, 88

Macomber, D. 0 88

Macfarlane, J 532

Magnetic dip, lines of, . . 150, 152
" declination, . 148, 153, 234
" " secular varia-

tion of .154

" storms, .... 159

" needle, construction of . 160

" " running lines by . 164

" use of . . . 147

" meridian, .... 148

Map of first year, . . . 17

" second year, ... 26

" White Mountains, . 33, 67

Jackson 9

gold field, ... 22, 46
southern New Hampshire, . 50
Maps of New Hampshire, . . 227
by Blanchard and Langdon, 227
by Carrigain, . . 67, 232
by Holland, . . . 228
by geological survey, . 237
list of. See table of contents.

Map surveys, 46

Maple, 385 ; size of, ... 580
Maritime plants, .... 569
Marine animals in fresh lakes, . . 568

Marl, 549

Marsh, S 81, 97

193,

Page.

Marshall, J 90

Marshfield house, .... 79
Masonian curve, . . . 228, 235
Measuring heights, . . 23, 47, 249
Meridians, magnetic and true, . 148

Merrill, G., Jr., . . 47, 252, 260
Merrimack group, . . .27, 536
" valley district, . . 205
" River system, . 300, 306
" valley, best for water-
power, . . .329

Mesozoic, 507

Metallurgy, 8

Meteorological phenomena observed

on Moosilauke, 129, 132; on Mt.

Washington, ....

Meteorological observers, . 141

Metamorphism, 512 ; process of,

Mica schist period, ....

Microscopic department, .

Miscellaneous topics,

Model of state,

" White Mountains
Moisture in atmosphere, .
Montalban period, .

" definition of .
" how restricted,
Morse, G. F. .
Mountain explorations, .
Mountains, isolated, how sculptured,
Moosilauke — Profile district, .
Mt. Adams, ascent of
Ascutney, . _ .

Carmel, . 7,' 175, 177

Carrigain,

" ascent of .
Carter group, .
Chocorua,
Crawford, .

Cuba, origin of name,
Field, name proposed,
Gardner, .
Gunstock,

Hale, name proposed,
Katahdin,

Lincoln, name proposed, . 192, 196
Lowell, " . 193, 629

Lyon, " . . 183

Moosilauke, . 23, 24, 33, 45, 92
129, 132, 200
Monadnock, . . . 209

" fauna of

Passaconnaway, . . 22
Pequawket, . 22, 34, 43, 201
Washington, . 128, 138, 141
ascent of

carriage-road, 80
expedition, 52, 96, 102
first visit to . . 59
height of 65-67, 69, 88
house, ... 79
plants of . 65, 569

129

US

. 520

• 536
. 48
19, 25
. 46
. 29

. 122

• 515
. 522
. 526

2O2, 628

24, 30
626
. I97

• 613
I 80, 538
182, 638
193, 6OO

. 627
. . ' . 185

8, 22, 34, 36, 596, 646
8, 190

• 245

• 193
19, 181

7. 203

• 197

192,
193,

595
563
194
538
144
80
622

INDEX TO VOLUME I.

Mt. Washington Railway, . 81, 619

winter view of . 91

summit of . . 620

range, . . .187

Whiteface, . . 22, 34, 194

Willard, views from . . . 625

Willey range, . . . .192

Museum, 12 n ci

Myer, A.J. . . ' /' >8

Names applied to mountains, . . 70
Nash and Sawyer, .... 63
Nancy, story of . . . .71
Nelson, S. A. . 52, 102, 129, 136, 392
" journal by . 108-117

Neal, W. and R 59

Needle, declination of . 153, 164

" inclination of . . 149, 151
New Hampshire, area of . . .169
Norian system, ... 36, 37
Northern boundary, . . 171, 218

Notches, 624

" origin of . . . . 623

Notch house, 79

" White Mountain, or Crawford, 624
" Franconia, . . . -197
" Dixville, . . .221, 642

Oak, 386

Oakes, on scenery of White Mounts., 587

Oakes's gulf, ... 60, 70, 190

Observatory on Moosilauke, . . 92

" Mt. Washington, . 87

Observatory, government . . 91

" petition for . . 89

Ocean action on rocks, . . . 594

Office, 15

Old man of Dixville, . . 606, 642

Oliver, M. W 268

Ossipyte, 39

Oyster, proof of recent warm climate, 543

Packard, A. S. Jr., on ichneumons, 347

Paleozoic, 507

Peck, on maritime plants, . . 567
Pemigewasset defined, . . .184

Pentamerus, 49

Pequawket, not Kearsarge, . .231

Perkins, G. H 37

Percy peaks, 644

Phelps, E. E 28, 46

Physical History, .... 506
Pine trees, 383 ; large size, . . 579

Pink, 388

Piscataqua River basin, . . 302, 313
Plants, catalogue of, 395 ; distribu-
tion of, 381

Plateau of Mt. Washington, . 187, 609
Plumbago, 509

663

Page

Pope, J. H 25, 28

Poplar, 387

Porphyritic gneiss, . . 33, 45, 55, s,2

Pratt, T. W 264, 253

President Smith, letter to . . 24
Primary, . . . . . 9, 525

Profile house, 80

Profile, Franconia, • • . 33, 602

Publications of Jackson's survey, . 6

geological survey, . 14

Pyrites, origin of .... 534

Quahog, proof of recent warm cli-
mate, 543

Quartz, of Lyndeborough, utilization

of, 509

Quartzites, ... 27, 49, 537
Quebec group, . . . . 17, 27
Quimby, E. T. . 22, 47, 275, 296
on use of magnetic

needle, . . 147
" directions for signals, 244

" triangulation by 239, 241

Rain-fall, annual . . . .128
" on Mt. Washington, . 135
' ' as affected by geographical

position, . . .314
" as related to water-power, 326
" on Atlantic coast, . . 136
" in Connecticut valley, . 136
" at Lake Village, . .136

Rain tables, 141

Ravines, origin of . . . . 623
Read, A. F. . . . 47, 251, 262
Relative humidity, . . . .122
Rhigi, Mt., railroad on . . .82
Rhododendron, . . . 388, 543
Richardson, J. .... 531
Ripley's falls, .... 226, 631
River systems, .... 298

Robinson, S. Q 47

Rockingham mica schist, 54, 57, 536

Rocks make soil, .... 547
" determine surface configura-
tion, .... 589

Rose family, 387

Rogers, H. D. and W. B. . 525, 532
Rosebrook, E. .... 72

Salt lake, 124

Salt-loving plants, .... 567

Scenery of Coos county, . . . 636

" list of illustrations of . . 633

Scenographical geology, . . . 586

" features determined

by geological ag'ts, 588
Scudder, S. H., on distribution of

insects, 331

664

INDEX TO VOLUME I.

Sculpturing of granite,

" schists,

Sections, general
" wall of
" by Jackson,
" across the Flume,
Seely, C. A. .
Sentinel, ....
Shattuck observatory,
Shaw, A. M. .
Shrubs, ....
Sienite, . . .27, 55
Signal service,

" weather map,

Silver cascade,
Slate, ....
Smithsonian Institution, .
Smith, T. . . 91,
Snow-fall in Connecticut valley,

ice,

shoes, .

arch,
So Is, composition of

derived from rocks,

calcareous

affected by drift, .

granitic .

slaty

classification of

distribution of
South-west current,
Spruce trees, 384 ; large ones,
Stark, scenery in
Stewart, R.
Starr King group,

State geologist, 97, 99, 102, 108, 115,
Staurolite rocks,
Storm centres for January, 1874,
Storms, north-east, origin of

" notable, in New Hampshire,

83, 105, 107, ic
Streams in Coos county, .
Strickland, Baron .
Sumac, ....
Summit house,
Sumner, J. B. .
Sulphurets, origin of
Sulphuret ocean,

Table rock at Dixville,

Temperature, as related to water-
power,

Temperature, change of, in ascend-
ing mountains,

Temperature diagrams, .
" tables,

Terrace period,

Terranovan period, .

Tertiary stations,

Tip-top house,

Topography, .

Page.

Page.

. 599

Topography of Coos county, . .216

. 606

Topographical districts, . . 171, 177

. 24

" maps, . . . 227

. 51

• • 7, 8

TOWNS, INDEX TO :

. 42

. 16

Academy grant, . . . 580, 640

. 605

Acworth, . . n, 179, 207, 230

23, 240

Albany, . 34, 36, 67, 196, 235, 528, 646

. 251, 258

Alexandria, ..... 230

• • 387

Allenstown, . . 50, 212, 230, 301

57, 53°. 538

Alstead, 207, 230

91, 97, 129

Alton, . . .55, 57, 203, 205, 235

. 120

Amherst, . . . 7, 8, 50, 212

• • 63I

230, 235, 386, 510, 579

• 43

Andover, 211, 230, 235, 519, 542, 580

. 87

Antrim, .... 209, 231, 242

32, IO8, 117

Ashland, . . 128, 141, 206, 513, 542

ft ' 13&

Atkinson, .... 230, 235

. 132

Auburn, .... 212, 231, 577

• 545

. . 623

C/lfi

Barnstead, . . 8, 127, 141, 144, 230

54°

C A *7

Barrington, ... 55, 214, 231

• 547

r ,Q

Bath, . . .16, 18, 46, 128, 230

• 546

Bartlett, . 35, 64, 184, 187, 204, 235

. 549

246, 335, 508, 528, 574, 596

• 55°

Bean's Purchase, 185, 226, 238, 527, 611

. 550

r ,S

Bedford, . . . . 50, 212, 230

54°

r.Q

Bellows Falls, . . 22, 47, 177, 207

54°

Belmont, . . . . .231

. 119

cRn

Bernardston, Mass., . . 49, 538

• 3

f~\ A C*

Benton, . . 45, 67, 93, 177, 179, 200

045
28, 58, 259

To.

235, 299, 600
Berlin, 11, 185, 231, 517, 533, 574, 632

• .1 04

08, 115, 129

Bethlehem, 32-34, 46, 64, 184, 319, 606
Boscawen, . . . 211, 212, 230

17

Bow, ..... 230, 503

4, . 120

Bradford, . . . . .211

. 121

Brentwood, .... 214, 230

)shire,
10, 113, 132

Tyy

Brattleboro', Vt., . . 7, 178, 303
Bridgewater, 230

• 4 &A&

R?

Bristol, . II, 141, 212, 230, 306, 503

03
•jSn

Brookfield, . . 204, 230, 235, 301

. 309
•78

Brookline, .... 235, 549

/O
. 26

Burlington, Vt 154

• 534

• 534, 537

Cambridge, . . . 175, 230, 238

Campton, . . 33, 34, 230, 306

Canaan, ... 8, 206, 230, 513

. 642

Candia, . . . 212, 230, 301, 577

water-

Canterbury, . . 9, 55, 212, 231, 235

• 325, 327

Carroll, . 35, 67, 177, 184, 230, 527, 612

scend-

Carlisle, ...... 247

. 126

Carlisle's grant, .... 238

• 137

Center Harbor, . 56, 203, 230, 235

. 141

Charlestown, . . 8, 24, 127, 144, 177

• 57

179, 206, 230, 580

• 523

Chatham, . . 35, 175, 185, 235

• 244

Chester, . . . 212, 214, 231, 301

78, 96, 131

Chesterfield, . 11, 24, 169, 179, 230, 514

. 169

Chichester, .... 230, 235

INDEX TO VOLUME I.

Claremont, 7, 127, 128, 138, 141,

<~i i -11 I?9> 2°7' 23°> 334!
Clarksville,

Colebrook, 72, 128, 169, 221,
r „ 382, 384, 530,

College grant, ....
Columbia, ir, 231, 235, 527, 529,
Concord, 7, 11, 23, 50, 54, 128,

212, 230, 242, 250, 503, 517,
Contoocookville,
Conway, 30, 43, 61, 64, 65, 127,

23o, 312, 319, 332, 382, 386,

,, . . 577, 596,

Cornish, ... 24,

Cornish, Me., .

Croydon, . . .26,

Cuttingsville, Vt., .

Page.
142, 144
548, 576
. 221
230, 231
548, 563
225, 238

533, 549
141, 144

542, 580
138, 144
175, 204
527, 528
627, 632
179, 230

. 141
179, 230

• 529

Danbury, . .
Danville,

Dalton, 8, u, 26, 47, 48,
221, 230, 235,

Deerfield, . 54, 212,
Deering, . . . 209,
Deny,

Dixville, . . 128, 235,
Dorchester,
Dover, 126, 127, 128, 144,

Dracut. Mass.,

Dublin, 7, 126, 127, 144, 230

Dummer,

Dummerston, Vt., ....

Dunbarton, . . . 144, 2n,

Durham, . . . 230, 239, 313, 503

. 127
• 235, 300
177, 178, 181
303, 318, 646
214, 300, 517
231, 242, 536

212, 231

563, 593, 641
206, 230, 299
213, 230, 313

335, 53°
. . 176
242, 299, 514
. 230, 299

179
230

East Kingston,

Eaton, . . 7, 65,

Effingham, 24, 126,

Ellsworth,

Enfield, . 8, 128, 141,

Epping, .

Epsom, . . 8, 55,

Errol, 24, 128, 175, 225,

Exeter, . . 27,

• 235, 302

126, 127, 204, 231
176, 204, 230, 576

• 230, 235, 514

144, 206, 230, 235

. 144, 230

212, 230, 503, 576
230, 238, 580, 643

127, 138, 144, 214
230, 302, 313

Farmouth,

Farmington, 55, 144, 213,

Fitzwilliam, . 54, 209,

Francestown, . 26, 126,

Franconia, 8, 34, 42, 46, 64,
306, 394, 508, 514,
Franklin, u, 128, 211,

Freedom,
Fremont,
Fryeburg, Me.,

. 144

231, 3°°> 5*7
305, 517, 543
127, 144, 209

231, 517, 536
192, 230, 235
527, 602, 632

212, 322, 542

176, 204, 231

. 214, 230

. 141

Goffstown,

Gorham, 36, 61, 64,

Goshen,

Graftcn, 8, 26, 50, 208,

Grantham,

Great Falls, .

Greenfield,

Greenland,

Greenville,

Groton, . . 206,

Grove ton,

Hampton,
Hampton Falls,
Hampstead, .
Hancock,

Hanover, u, 15, 23,

127, 128, 141, 144.

177, 179,

Harrisville,
Hart's Location,
Haverhill, 7, u, 16, 17,

Henniker,
Hill.

Hillsborough, .
Hinsdale, . . J

Holderness,

Hollis, .

Hooksett, 50, 128, 212,

Hopkinton,

Hubbard,

Hudson, .

665

Page.

. 211,230
127, 154, 184, 185
187, 225, 231, 310

207, 208, 230, 235
230, 299, 514, 543

• *79> 230, 543
24, 127, 144, 176

• 231, 242

• 23°, 239, 302

. 242

208, 230, 235, 514

• 533, 644

. 214, 230, 238
214, 230, 238, 302
. 230, 301
. 209, 231
24, 28, 47, 52, 126
J54, 155, 157-162
206, 230, 382, 505
538, 563, 579

' ' ' 2°9
. 246
181, 230, 304, 510

537, 55°

211, 230, 515, 536
211, 212
211, 280, 515
,11, 177, 178, 206

207, 230, 537
n, 56, 230
. 230
231, 250, 543, 551

230, 515, 536, 543
. 247

II, 212, 230

Gilford, .
Gilmanton,
Gilsum, .

VOL. I.

86

56, 57, 203, 231, 508

8, 203, 212, 231
. 230, 596

Jackson, 7, 8, u, 34-36, 41, 67, 185, 191
246, 527, 606, 632

Jaffrey, . . 209, 230, 300, 514, 563
Jefferson, . 64, 185, 231, 235, 646

Keene, 7, 8, 26, 49, 50, 144, 207, 230, 537
Kensington, .... 230, 301
Kilkenny, . 185, 231, 234, 246, 527
Kingston, . . . 230, 235, 301

Laconia, . . 204, 230, 242, 503, 580

Lake Village, .... 136, 141

Lancaster, 8, n, 23, 47, 48, 64, 68, 86

182, 185, 230, 646

Landaff, . . 8, 16, 18, 34, 181, 200
23°, 508, 537

Langdon, . . . 206, 207, 235
Lebanon, .- 17, 26, 179, 206, 231, 235

517, 538

Lee, 230

Lempster, .... 207, 230

Litchfield, . . . n, 212, 230

Lincoln, . . 35, 42, 193, 230, 235, 299

514, 593, 630

666 INDEX TO
Page.

VOLUME I.

Page.

Lisbon, 15-19, 25, 45, 127, 181, 230

Peterborough, 127, 209, 230, 242, 517, 580

235, 51°, 538, 550

Piermont, . 11, 179, 206, 230, 576

Littleton, 8, 16, 17, 34, 36, 45, 48, 64, 85

Pittsburg, . . 219, 238, 310, 641

127, 144, 154, 181, 230, 503, 539

Pittsfield, . . 8, 51, 55, 212, 231

550, 580, 606

Plainfield, 127, 128, 179, 206, 230, 550

Londonderry, . . 51, 141, 144, 231

Plaistow, 230

Loudon, .... 144, 212, 230

Plymouth, . 206, 230, 306, 322, 335

Lunenburg, Vt., . . 127, 136-138

386, 542, 574

141-143, 182

Portsmouth, 7, 8, n, 23, 24, 59, 126, 128

Lyman, . . 16, 18, 25, 235, 538, 550

141, 144, 230

Lyme, . 8, 128, 179, 180, 206, 230, 550

Lyndeborough, . 9, 209, 212, 230, 509

Randolph, . 8, 67, 127, 182, 185, 231

536 594

612, 646

Madbury, 230
Madison, 8, 126, 127, 204, 231, 386, 627
Manchester, 23, 54, 126, 127, 138, 141

Raymond, . . 51, 214, 230, 577
Richmond, . 8, 50, 55, 230, 305, 543
Rindge, . . . 230, 300, 305, 563
Rochester, . 11, 127, 213, 231, 235

144, 212, 230, 235, 250, 503, 517, 542

Rollinsford, 213

Maryborough, . . . 230, 235, 517

Roxbury, . 23?

Marlow, ..... 207, 230
Mason, . . 50, 54, 144, 212, 230, 517

Rmnney, . . . 207, 230, 514, 542
Rutland, Vt., 154

Meredith, . 56, 141, 230, 307, 514
Merrimack, .... 230, 580

Rye, ii, 169, 214, 230, 239, 302

Middleton, . . . 204, 213, 230

Salem, ...... 530

Milan, . . 183, 185, 226, 231, 299

Salisbury, . . 144, 211, 230, 515

517, 606, 645

Sanbornton, . . 211, 212, 230, 242

Milford, . . . 235, 335, 517, 563

Sandown, . . . 214, 235, 301

Millsfield, .... 2"?o, 200

Sandwich, 8, 32, 57, 194, 203, 230, 300

Milton, .... 24, 213, 231

319, 514, 530

Monroe, 16, 235
Mont Vernon, . . . 212, 235, 594
Moultonborough, . 36, 57, 203, 230, 300

Seabrook, . 24, 214, 238, 301, 515
Sharon, . . . 209, 230, 235, 536
Shelburne, 8, 64, 127, 144, 174, 183, 185

3°7» 530. 58o

23°> 235, 319, 612

Nashua 7, 212, 230
Nelson, . . 126, 127, 208, 230, 299
Newbury, .... 208, 230

Somersworth, . . 11, 213, 231, 235
South Hampton 302
South Newmarket Junction, . . 250
Springfield, . . 208, 230, 235, 299
Stark, . . . 185, 231, 527, 645
Stewartstown, 24, 177, 221, 230, 299, 318

Newbury, Vt., . . . .181

Newcastle, . . . 214, 239, 313
Newington, . . . n, 230, 239

Newmarket, . . . 214, 230, 239
Newport, ... 50, 206, 230
Newton . 2 ^o

394, 644
Stoddard, . 126, 127, 208, 230, 299
St. Johnsbury, Vt., . . . .138

New Boston, . . 50, 212, 230, 576
New Durham, 57, 205, 213, 230, 300, 514
New Hampton, u, 211, 235, 514, 542
New Ipswich, 49, 126, 209, 300, 536, 576
New London, .... 230, 235
Northfield, ... 55, 212, 231
Northumberland, . 183, 221, 230, 575
Northwood, . 55, 214, 230, 301, 576
North Bridgeton, Me 138
Nottingham, . . . 51, 214, 230

Strafford, . 8, 49, 51, 55, 214, 301
Stratham, . . 214, 230, 239, 250
Stratford, 24, 127, 128, 138, 141-144, 177
221, 231, 235, 529, 575, 596, 644
Success, .... 175, 235, 238
Sullivan, 235
Sunapee, .... 230, 235
Surry, .... 50, 207, 230

Sutton, .... 230, 235, 299
Swanzey, ... 50, 207, 230

Odell, 516

Tamworth, . 126, 127, 138, 143, 146

Orange, . . . 208, 230, 235, 301

203, 230, 596

Orford, 8, 128, 179, 180, 206, 230, 300

Temple, . . 8, 49, 50, 209, 300, 536

319, 550, 631

Thornton, 34, 35, 230, 306, 339, 574

Ossipee, . . ! 55, 127, 203, 231, 235

Tilton, 212

-}QA r "i f\ AOT

Troy, 230, 517

300, 570, 027

Tuftonborough, . . 203, 230, 300

Pelham, .... 176, 230, 515

Pembroke, . . ir, 230, 242

Unity, . . . . 8, 26, 179, 207

INDEX TO VOLUME I.

667

Vernon, Vt.

Page.

178

Wakefield,

Walpole,

Warner,

Warren,

7, it, 144.

24, 47, 179, 206,

• 9, 211,

. 8, 19, 200,

Washington,

Waterville, 23, 30, 33, 35,
184, 193,

Weare, . . . 211,
Webster,

Wells River, Vt., .
Wentworth, . . 201,
Wentworth's Location,
Westmoreland,
Whitefield, . 138, 143,

White River Junction,
Wilmot, ....
Wilton, ....
Winchester,
Windham,
Windsor, Vt., .
Wolfeborough, 128, 141,
Woodstock, n, 33, 34, 41

Woodstock, Vt.,
Woodsville,

176, 213, 230
235, 302

207, 230, 335
23°, 235, 515
206, 207, 230
319, 542, 574

208, 230, 235

37, 45, 56, 57
300, 514, 530

23°, 515, 536

• 247, 515
. . 177

206, 207, 230
• 235

. 179, 230
144, 182, 230
SH, 577, 606

. 177, 259

211, 230, 235

50, 230, 594

177, 207, 230

212, 230, 235

47, 177
204, 230, 300
, 67, 200, 206
230, 235, 299

• Hi-143

. 17

Trees of Alleghanian district, . . 382

" Canadian district, . . 382

" distribution of . . . 383

Trees, large ones, .... 579

Triangulation of New Hampshire, . 243

Tributaries of Androscoggin river, . 311

" Connecticut river, . 305

" Merrimack river, . 308

" Piscataqua river, . 314

" Saco river, . .312

Tuckerman, E. . . . 61, 70

list of lichens, . 413

Tuckerman's ravine, 60, 70, 115, 187, 622

Twin Mountain house, ... 79

" River farm, 81

Upham, W. 33, 47, 169, 252, 261, 395
" on history of the White

Mountain explorations, 59
" on river systems, . . 298

Valleys, drift, 627

Vegetation absorbs moisture, . 124, 321
Verrill, A. E., on limits of faunas, . 574
Viburnum, ..... 388
Views of scenery. See table of contents.
Visits, scientific, to Mt. Washington, 64

Volcano, supposed, at Hinsdale, . 178

Vose, G. L. . . . 16, 22, 29, 193

on Mt. Carrigain, . 628

Walling, H. F. . . . 2l

Walling and Gray's survey, 46

Walker's falls, . . . .632

Ward, R. H., on maritime plants, . 567
Warren, map of ... 2o8

Water-shed, main, of the state, . 207
height along . . 209
Water-sheds in Coos county, . .218
Water basins, " . .221

Waterville, rocks in • • • 37
Waumbek, signification of name, . 184
junction, . . 82, 104
Weather at great heights, 132 ; map, 121

Webster, D 74

Weston, J. A. . 58, 250, 258, 270. 271

Wheelock, G. A.
White, N. G. .
White Mountain districts,
' house, .

' plants, .

Notch, .

' discovery of

' origin of

" series, 26, 31

26, 28, 49
253, 263
. 184

• 79
. 568
. 624

• 63
. 626

34, 54, 56
5'5> 522

White Mountains, early settlements
among ...... 72

White Mountains, Crawford's history

of 74

Whitney, C. P. . 52, 344, et sey., 563

" J. D 6,7

Willey house, 76

" slide, .... 76, 626

Williams, M. B 6, 7

Willoughby lake, . . . .182

Willow, 389

Wilkes's ledge, .... 626
Wind on Mt. Washington, 134, 138, 140
" velocity of . . 92, 134

" measuring, . . . 91, 94
Winter photographs from Mt. Wash-
ington, . • . . 86, 101
Winter visits to Mt. Washington, . 85
Winnipiseogee lake, area of . . 306
" islands in . 307

" geological his-

tory of -55

Woodbridge, F. and H. D. 23, 250, 257

" F. 30, 108

Woodbury, J. T. . . 47, 251, 319

Woodman, J. S 21

" on map of state, . 236

Zaphrentis 48

ERRA TA.

On page 49, line 15, for "April," read May.

On page 122, second line from the bottom, for "30°," read 50°.

On page 168, line 29, for " sin Jf," read cos L

On page 151, lines 6 and 24, for "p. 6," read/. 150.

On page 92, line 18, for "Hornett," read Thornette.

On page 221, line 14, for "ascending," read according,

On page 273, line 13, for "Boscawen," read Webster.

On page 332, line 7 from the bottom, for "Gibbon," read Gliddon.

On page 379, last line, for "gennanica," read germanica.

On page 412, omit "B. lanceolatum," seventh line from the bottom.

On page 461, fourth line from the bottom, for "Samarancy," read Samarang.

On page 505, fifth line, for "Microsterias," read Micrasterzas.

On page 541, line 9, for "Mt. Washington," read White Mountains.

On page 414, line n from the bottom, erase "P. oculata."

On page 212, line 2, omit "Mt.," before Wilton.

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